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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


i 


I 


A 

RELIGIOUS   ENCYCLOPAEDIA: 


OR 


DICTION^ARY 


OF 


BIBLICAL,  HISTORICAL,  DOCTRINAL,  AND  PRACTICAL  THEOLOGY. 

BASED  ON  THE  REAL-ENGYKLOPADIE  OF  HERZOG,  PUTT   AND  HAUCK. 


EDITED    BT 

PHILIP  SCHAFP,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

Professor  in  the   Union  Theological  Seminary,  iVeu!   York. 

ASSOCIATE   EDITORS  ; 

REV.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON  axd  KEV.  D.  S.  SCHAFP, 

TOGETHER   WITH    AN 

eicycloPtEdia  of  living  divines 

AND 

CHRISTLAN   WORIvERS 

OF  ALL  DENOMINATIONS  IN  EUROPE  AND  AMERICA. 

EDITED   BT 

REV.  PHILIP  SCHAFF,  D.D.,  LL.D., 

AND 

REV.  SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  M.A. 

THIBD  EDITION      REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 
Vol.    II. 


FUNK    &   WAGNALLS    COMPANY, 

Toronto.  '    *  London. 

New  York. 


Copyright,  1883,  by  Fdnk  &  Wagnalls. 


m\ 


RELIGIOUS  ENCYCLOPAEDIA. 


E  TO  L. 


EACHARD. 


680 


EADIE. 


EACHARD,  John,  D.D,,  b.  in  Suffolk,  1636;  d. 
as  Master  of  Catherine  Hall,  in  Cambridge,  July 
7,  1697.  He  is  famous  for  his  essay  on  Tlie 
(/rounds  and  occasions  of  the  contempt  of  the  clergy 
and  religion,  inquired  into  in  a  letter  to  li.  L. 
(1670),  with  its  sequel,  Obserimtions  on  An  Answer 
to  the  Inquiry,  in  a  second  letter  to  the  same  (1671), 
and  for  his  vigorous  attacks  upon  Thomas  Hobbes. 
He  \\as  master  of  a  light,  bantering,  satirical  style, 
which  was  very  effective.  He  attributed  the  fail- 
ure of  the  clergy  to  their  defective  education, 
small  salaries,  and  lack  of  spirituality,  and  illus- 
trated these  points  very  humorously.  His  Works 
were  published,  London,  1705,  best  edition,  1784, 
3  vols.,  with  account  of  his  life  and  writings. 

EADFRID,  Bishop  of  Lindisfarne  6.08-721,  wrote 
and  illuminated  the  celebrated  Erangeliarium, 
known  as  the  Durham  Book,  or  Lindisfarne  Gos- 
pels, to  which  Aldred  added  an  interlinear  gloss 
in  the  Anglo-Xorthumbrian  dialect.  The  )nanu- 
script,  which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in 
Europe,  and  noticed  by  every  writer  on  paleog- 
raphy, is  preserved  among  the  Cottonian  manu- 
scripts of  the  British  Museum,  and  has  been 
edited  by  Stevenson  and  \\'aring  for  the  Surtees 
Society,  and  by  Kemlile,  Ilardwick,  and  Skeat, 
for  the  Syndics  of  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
The  gloss  has  been  printed  by  ICarl  Bouterwek : 
Die  cier  Evangetien  in  altnordhumbrischer  Sprache, 
1857. 

EADIE,  John,  D.D.,  LLD.,  pastor,  professor  of 
theology,  and  commentator  on  some  of  the  Pau- 
line Epistles ;  b.  at  Alva,  Stirlingshire,  Scotland, 
May!),  1810;  d.  at  Glasgow,  Saturday,  June  3, 
1876.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow and  in  the  theological  seminary  of  the  United 
Secession,  now  United  Presbyterian,  Church.  He 
was  ordained,  on  Sept.  21,  1835,  to  the  pastorate 
of  the  Cambridge-street  Church,  (Jlasgow-,  which 
he  retained  until,  in  1863,  lie  removed,  with  a 
portion  of  his  people,  to  form  the  new  Lansdowne 
churcli,  of  whicli  lie  was  minister  until  his  death. 
As  early  as  his  student  days,  he  showed  his  lean- 
ing to  the  department  in  which  lie  acliieved  his 
greatest  success  by  writing  an  able  article  in  the 
Edinburgh  Theological  Magazine  lor  1832,  in  re- 
view of  Mo.ses  Stuart's  commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews;  and  he  liad  so  diligently 
given  liiin.self  to  biblical  study  in  later  years,  that, 
on  the  death  of  Dr.  John  Mitchell,  he  was  electc'd 
by  the  synoil  of  his  church  (May  5,  1843)  to  the 
nrofe.s.sorsliip  of  biblical  literature  in  its  divinity 
hall.  Sucli  an  apiiointnient  at  tiiat  time  did  not 
involve,  ;us  it  now  does,  the  dis.solntion  of  tlu;  pa.s- 
toral  relatioiLsliip;  for  then  the  Heniinary  sat  for 
only  two  months  in  tlio  year,  those  of  August  and 
Sept<Miiber,  and  the  profcs.'iors  were  at  once  ]i!us- 
lors  and  professors.  But  in  the  professorship 
Eadii!  founil  the  great  sphere  of  his  life,  and  now 
began  that  coursir  of  industry  wliich  resulted  in 
the  extensive  aulhorsh ill  which  is  indicated  below. 
He  held  the  officeH  of  nasi  or  and  ]irofessor  for 
thirty-tliree  years:  ami  just  after  the  synod  liad 
decided   to  remodel   iU  tlieological  seminary  by 


lengthening  its  annual  session  from  two  to  five 
months,  shortening  its  curriculum  from  live  to 
three  J'ears,  increasing  its  corps  of  professors,  and 
dissolving  the  relationship  between  them  and 
theii'  congregations,  he  died,  on  the  3d  of  June, 
187G. 

As  a  preacher,  Eadie  was  satisfying  rather  than 
striking.  His  manner  was  not  elegant,  and  his 
utterance  was  often  thick ;  but  he  was  always,  like 
Elihu,  "  full  of  matter,"  and  one  could  not  listen 
to  him  without  learning  much  at  his  lips.  He 
was  especially  excellent  as  an  expiositor,  and  fre- 
quently by  a  few  clear  sentences  cast  a  flood 
of  light  upon  a  difficult  portion  of  the  word  of 
God.  As  a  professor  he  was  affable,  easy,  and 
natiu'al,  "  wearing  his  load  of  learning  lightly  like 
a  flower,"  and  possessing  that  magnetic  influence 
which  quickened  all  his  students  into  enthusiasm. 
His  scholarship  was  extensive  and  accurate,  and 
was  so  generaUy  recognized,  that  he  was  chosen 
as  a  member  of  the  New-Testament  company  tO' 
whom  was  committed  the  preparation  of  the 
Canterbury  revision  of  the  English  Bible.  His 
commentaries  are  distinguished  for  candor  and 
clearness,  and  above  all  tor  an  evangelical  "  unc- 
tion "  not  common  in  works  of  the  kind,  and 
which  may,  perhaps,  be  accounted  for  from  the 
fact,  that,  while  he  was  poring  over  these  epistles 
in  his  study,  he  was  also  discoursing  on  them  from 
his  pulpit.  His  influence  gave  an  immense  im- 
pulse to  biblical  exegesis  in  the  denomination  to 
which  he  belonged,  and  indeed  to  Scotland  gen- 
erally. He  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  from 
the  University  of  Glasgow  in  1844,  and  that  of 
D.D.  from  the  University  of  St.  Andrews  ia 
1850. 

Lit.  —  Besides  contributions  to  the  Eclectic  and 
North  British  Keviews,  and  \\vfvii'»  Journal  of  Sa- 
cred Literature,  Dr.  E.adie  did  an  immense  amount; 
of  litei-ary  work  in  connection  with  McKknz.ik's 
Imperial  Dictionanj  of  Universal  Biographij  (in 
which  he  had  charge  of  the  department  ui  eccle- 
siastical biograi)hy),  with  tlu^  first  and  last  (3d) 
editions  of  Kmo's  Cyclopadia,  antl  with  F.viu- 
daiun's  Imperial  Bible  Dictionary.  He  prepared 
an  excellent  Concordance  to  the  Scriptures  on  the 
Basis  of  Cruden  (1839),  and  conqiiled  the  series 
published  in  ICdinburgh,  and  very  widely  circu- 
lated, The  Bible  Cyclopa-dia  (18l'8,  based  upon 
The  Union  Bible  Dictionary,  Phila.,  in  condensed 
form,  under  the  caption  Dictionary  of  the  Holy 
Bible  for  the  Young;  new  ed.  of  the  t'yclopaMlia, 
entirely  re-writlen,  1809);  An  Analytic  Concord- 
ance to  the  Holy  Scriptures  (1S5())  ;  and  The  Ecclesi- 
astical Cyclopwdia  (1S61).  He  publishctd  two  vol- 
umes of  discourses,  The  Dlrine  Lore  (1855),  and 
Paul  the  Preacher  (18.59).  But  his  fame  rests  oa 
his  comini'ntari<'S  on  the  Greek  text  of  Ejihtsians 
(1854),  Colossidus  (1856),  Phitijipians  {\s:,[)),  Gala- 
tians  (1869),  and,  published  iiostliuinously,  on 
First  'I'htssalonians  (1877).  In  addition  must  be 
mentioneil  his  inleresting  biographies  of  John 
Kitio  (18.")7)  and  William  Wilson,  his  iiosthumous 
treatise  on  Scripture  lUuslrationsfrom  the  Domestic 


EADMER. 


G8] 


EASTER. 


Life  of  the  Jews  and  other  Eastern  Nations  (1877), 
and  finally  The  EngVish  Bible,  an  External  and 
Critical  Histori/  of  the  Various  English  Translations 
of  Scripture,  with  lUiiiarL's  on  the  Need  of  liccislnr/ 
the  English  Netv  Testament,  London,  1870,  2  vols. 
See  James  Buown  :  Life  of  John  Eadie,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  London,  1878.     "  M'ILLI.VM;  M.  TAYLOR. 

EADMER,  monk  in  Canterbui'v ;  was  elected 
Bishop  of  St.  Andrews  in  1120,  but  never  took 
possession  of  the  see,  on  account  of  disagreement 
■with  King  Alexander,  and  died  in  Canterbury, 
1124.  lie  is  one  of  the  most  important  English 
historians  of  the  period,  and  wrote :  I.  Historice 
Novorum,  in  six  books,  giving  the  history  of  tlie 
three  arclibisliops  of  Canterbui'y,  Lanfranc,  An- 
sehn,  and  Kadulf,  edited  by  Selden,  London,  1G23, 
reprinted  in  Gerberon's  edition  of  Anselm's  works, 
Paris,  1070;  II.  Tlie  Life  of  Anselni,  edited  by 
Sui-ius  and  tlie  BoUandists,  April  21 ;  III.  Two 
letters  to  the  monks  of  Glastonbury  about  the 
life  of  St.  Dunstan,  and  to  the  monks  of  Winches- 
ter about  episcopal  election;  IV.  The  Lives  of 
St.  Bregwin,  St.  Oswald,  and  St.  Odo,  edited  in 
Wharton's  Amjlia  Sacra;  Y.  The  Life  of  St.  Wil- 
frid of  York,  edited  by  the  BoUandists,  April  24 ; 
Yl.  Finally,  some  minor  works,  liitherto  wrongly 
ascribed  to  jVnselm.  His  collected  works  are 
found  in  illtixi; :  I'alroL,  CLIX.,  pp.  Sl.O  sqq. 

EADMUND,  or  EDMUND,  king  and  martyr; 
was  b.  in  S4U,  and  ascended  the  throne  of  East 
Anglia  in  855,  \\\\cn  King  Offa  abdicated,  and 
retired  to  Rome  as  a  penitent.  Edmund  ruled  in 
meekness,  was  the  shelter  of  the  weak,  learned 
the  psaltery  by  heart,  and  made  his  whole  life  a 
preparation  for  martyrdom.  In  870  the  heathen 
Danes  landed  in  East  Anglia,  slew  the  clergy, 
outraged  the  nuns,  burnt  and  pillaged  cliurches 
and  houses.  Eduumd  tried  to  stem  the  flood, 
but  was  overwhelmed,  taken  prisoner,  tortured, 
and  finally  beheaded,  Nov.  20,  870.  His  remains 
were  interred  at  Bury  St.  Ednmnds,  and  miracles 
were  wrought  at  his  grave.  In  1020  Canute  the 
Great  built  there  a  magnificent  church  and  abbey 
in  his  honor.  In  1122  the  national  council  of 
Oxford  placed  the  Festival  of  St.  Ednumd  among 
English  holy  days.  The  English  kings  have 
taken  him  for  their  patron.  His  life  was  written 
by  Abbo  of  Canterbiu'y  and  Jolm  Lydgate. 

'EADMUND,  St.,  b.  at  Abingdon  c.  1195;  d. 
at  Soissy  Xov.  10,  1240;  studied  at  Oxford 
and  Paris,  and  became  a  teacher  at  Oxford, 
treasurer  of  Salisbury  Cathedral  (1222),  and 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (1233).  But  Eadmund 
belonged  to  the  national  party,  and  was  conse- 
quently in  opposition  to  the  king ;  and,  when 
the  king  succeeded  in  having  a  papal  legate  sent 
to  England  to  neutralize  the  influence  of  the 
archbishop,  Eadnmnd  found  himself  in  opposition 
also  to  the  Pope.  He  fought  manfully,  but  was 
at  last  compelled  to  yield.  He  left  England  in 
1240.  and  settled,  first  at  Pontigny,  then  at  Soissy, 
where  he  died,  Nov.  IG,  same  year.  He  had 
adopted  and  practised  asceticism  since  a  boy: 
in  1227  he  had  preached  a  crusade.  IMiracles 
were  wrought  at  his  grave,  and  1246  the  Pope 
canonized  him.  His  life  has  been  written  by  his 
brother,  Robert  Rich,  and  by  Bertrand,  prior  of 
Pontignv. 

EADWARD,  or  EDWARD,  III.,  the  Confessor, 
king   of   the   Anglo-Saxons ;    b.    1004 ;   crowned 


King  at  Winchester,  April  3,  1043 ;  d.  at  Shene 
Jan.  5,  1066.  He  dedicated  Westminster  Abbey, 
Dec.  28,  1065.  His  virtues  were  monastic  rather 
than  regal ;  but  such  was  his  reputation  for  sanc- 
tity, that  he  was  canonized  by  Pope  Alexander 
III.  in  1160.  An  interesting  and  sympathetic 
sketch  of  Eadward  is  given  by  Gkekx,  in  his 
Sliort  Ilislori/  of  the  Enijlish  People  (Harper's  ed., 
pp.  91-100)  ;  l)ut  for  full  information  see  Free- 
man's Ihstorij  of  the  Norman  Conquest  (vol.  ii.), 
and  also  Lu.\i:d's  Lices  oj'  Eadward  the  Confessor. 
EAR-RINC.     See  Clotiiino  and  Oknaments 

AMONG    THE    HeBKEWS. 

EAST.  The  Hebrew  mizrach  and  kedem  are 
both  translated  "east."  The  first  means  literally 
rising  (i.e.,  of  the  sun),  and  therefore  indicates 
the  place  of  the  sun's  rising,  answering  to  uvaTo'/Aj 
and  oriens,  and  means  the  cast  in  distinction  from 
the  icest  (Josh.  xi.  3 ;  Ps.  1.  1,  ciii.  12 ;  Zech. 
viii.  7).  Kedem  means  rather  the  east  as  one  of 
the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  (Gen.  xiii.  14 ;  Job 
xxiii.  8,  9  ;  Ezek.  xlvii.  18  sq.).  Each  tenn  has  a 
secondary  or  derivative  meaning.  Kedem  is  the 
proper  name  for  the  countries  on  the  immediate 
east  of  the  Holy  Land ;  while  mizrach  designates 
the/u/-  east  (Isa.  xli.  2,  25,  xliii.  5,  xlvi.  11). 

EAST,  Praying  towards,  a  custom  of  the  early 
church.  It  evoked  the  charge  that  the  Christians 
were  sun-worshippers  (Tertullian,  Apolog.,  16). 
Augustine  {De  Scrm.  in  Monte,  ii.  5)  speaks  of  it 
as  a  general  custom :  cum  ad  oralionem  stamus,  ad 
oricntem  convertimus  ("when  we  rise  for  praj'er, 
we  turn  toward  the  east").  The  reason  usually 
given  was,  that  the  rising  of  the  sun  is  the  tj-pe 
of  the  new  life,  and  Christ  is  called  the  "Day- 
sprnig  from  on  high"  (Clem.  Alex.,  Stromata, 
vii.  7).  Other  reasons  mentioned  were,  that 
thereby  the  soul  utters  its  longing  after  the  lost 
Paradise  (Basil,  De  Sp.  Sancto,  27),  ov  that  Christ 
will  appear  in  the  East  when  he  comes  again  the 
second  time  (Matt.  xxiv.  27).  The  practice  has 
been  revived  by  some  of  the  ritualists  of  the  Epis- 
copal Church.  The  influence  of  the  last  reason 
mentioned  for  praying  towards  the  east  is  felt  in 
the  practice  of  burying  the  dead  with  their  feet 
turned  in  that  direction.  The  Jews  in  exile 
turned  their  faces  toward  Jerusalem  when  they 
prayed  (Dan.  vi.  10);  and  the  Mohammedans 
face  Mecca,  the  holy  city. 

EASTER,  the  festival  of  our  Lord's  resurrection, 
and  with  Christmas  tlie  most  joyous  day  observed 
by  the  Church.  Term.  —  The  term  is  derived 
from  the  Saxon  Ostara,  or  Eosire  (German  Ostern), 
the  goddess  of  spring.  The  French  designation 
pcujues  preserves  a  reference  to  the  Jewish  pascha, 
or  passover.  In  the  early  church,  pascha  designat- 
ed the  festival  of  Christ's  crucifixion.  After  the 
second  centmy  (Neander,  Hilgenfeld,  etc.),  or, 
according  to  others,  after  the  third  or  fourth 
(Steitz),  it  designated  both  the  festival  of  the 
crucifixion  and  the  resurrection  (maxa  a-avpuaifiov 
and  uvaoTuaiiiov) .  Subsequently  the  term  was  lim- 
ited to  the  latter.  Only  in  a  single  instance  is  the 
original  rendered  Easter  (Acts  xii.  4)  in  our  ver- 
sion ;  in  all  other  cases,  passover.  The  Revised 
^'ersion  has  rectified  this  inconsistency  in  trans- 
lation. 

Date.  —  In  the  early  church  there  was  no  uni- 
formity in  the  day  observed  (Epiphan.,  Hcer., 
LXX.).      Bede  at  a  later  date  makes  frequent 


EASTER. 


682 


EBBO. 


reference  to  this  discrepancy,  and  mentions,  that, 
whUe  Queen  Eanfelda  was  keeping  Palm  Sunday, 
King  Oswy  was  obserTing  Easter  (about  6ol). 
The  present  (or  Xicene)  rule  seems  to  have  been 
adopted  in  England  by  Archbishop  Theodore,  in 
669.  A  party  called  the  Quartodecimani,  or 
Fourteeners  (Greek  Tetraililai  and  Telradeka- 
titai)  observed  the  day  (of  crucifixion)  on  the  14th 
of  Nisan,  no  matter  on  what  day  of  the  week  it 
fell.  The  Western  Church  deviated  from  this 
ciistom;  and  Polycarp,  on  a  visit  to  Rome  (loi), 
endeavored  in  vain  to  persuade  Anicetus  to  adopt 
the  quartodeciman  mode.  Victor  of  Rome  (1U7) 
was  only  restrained  by  public  opinion,  and  the 
protests  of  Irenseus,  from  excommunicating  the 
Quartodecimans,  so  grave  an  offence  was  it  con- 
sidered to  observe  the  14th.  The  Council  of 
Niaea  (325)  decreed  that  tliere  should  be  uni- 
formity in  the  date  of  observance.  It  is  not  in 
place  here  to  go  farther  into  the  question  of  the 
ancient  controversy  on  the  date  of  Easter.  See 
art.  Paschal  Controversies.  It  is,  however, 
proper  to  state  the  results  of  the  decree  of  X icaea 
which  determines  our  date  of  Easter.  By  that 
decree  it  is  fixed  on  the  Sunday  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  fourteenth  day  of  the  so-caUed  Paschal 
moon,  which  happens  on  or  first  after  the  vernal 
equinox.  The  vernal  equinox  invariably  falls  on 
March  21.  Easter,  then,  cannot  occur  earlier  than 
March  22,  or  later  than  April  25.  In  the  former 
case  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  moon  would  co- 
incide with  March  21,  the  day  of  the  vernal  equi- 
nox. In  the  latter,  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  moon 
would  happen  on  ^larch  21,  and  a  whole  lunar 
month  would  have  to  intervene  before  the  condi- 
tion, "  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  moon  first  after 
the  vernal  equinox,"  was  fulfilled  ;  and,  as  this 
might  be  Sunday,  Easter  sabbath  would  not  occur 
till  seven  more  days  had  elapsed,  i.e.,  April  25. 

Celebration.  —  The  key  of  the  observance  of 
Easter  is  set  in  the  exultant  strain  of  St.  Paul, 
"  Xow  is  Christ  risen  !  "  (1  Cor.  xv.  20).  The 
ancient  church  celebrated  it  with  solemn  and  joy- 
ous observances.  The  fasting  which  liad  bej^un 
on  Good  Friday  was  discontinued  on  Saturdaj', 
at  midnight  {89lh  Trullan  Canon)  or  at  the  cock- 
crow on  sabbatli  morning  (Apost.  Conslit.,  v.  IS). 
Gregory  Xa/.ianzen  (d.  390)  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa 
(d.  395 ;  Oral.  xlii.  De  Pasc/ia)  speak  of  persons 
of  all  ranks  carrying  lamps  an<l  setting  up  tapers 
on  Ea.ster  Eve.  This  custom  was  significant  of 
the  vigils  which  were  kept  (Laclant.,  l)ii\  Insl., 
vii.  19)  in  the  expectation  that  the  Lord  at  his 
coming  again  would  appear  at  this  time.  Easter 
Eve  was  also  set  apart  as  a  special  season  for  the 
baptism  of  catechumens.  Easter  Day  itself  was 
observed  as  a  feiistof  universal  gladness  and  jubi- 
lation. Gregory  Xiizianzen  (Oc,  xix.)  calls  it  the 
"royal  day  among  days"  {flaaiXiaaa  tuv  ii/iepuv 
tinipa).  The  early  Cliristian  emperors  signalized 
its  return  by  settmg  minor  criminals  at  lil)erty 
(Co'l.  Thrnd.,  ix.  38,  3).  For  fourteen  days  public 
spectacles  were  int<>rmill<-rl,  and  business  largely 
stopped.  I5ut  by  till!  tliinl  Council  of  Orleans, 
Cation  30  (538),  and  tin-  Council  of  Mavoii,  Canon 
14  (581),  .Ii'ws  were  forbidden  to  trcwl  tliu  streets, 
and  iiiiiigle  witli  ChriMtians,  lest  their  joy  shouhl 
be  inl<'rruj)li-il. 

Ill  tlir  KoMian-Catliolic  Chiircli  elaboratly  rites 
•re  Mlill  observed ;  and  at  tlie  cock-crowing  the 


tapers  are  re-lighted  with  the  words  Lumen  Christi! 
("  Light  of  Christ !  ")  to  which  the  priests  respond 
Deo  Gratias  !  (••  Thanks  be  to  God ! ")  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome  is  illuminated,  and  the  Pope  from  the 
balcony  at  mid-day  pronounces  a  blessing  upon 
the  world. 

In  the  Protestant  churches  of  Europe,  Easter  is 
generally  observed,  especially  among  Lutherans 
and  Episcopalians.  It  was  formerly  entirely  dis- 
regarded, with  other  church  festivals,  by  the 
English  dissenters  and  Scotch  Presbyterian's,  but 
is  coming  to  be  pretty  generally  observed  in 
America. 

See  Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet.  Antiq.,  the 
Encyclopedia  Britannica,  and  art.  Paschal  Con- 
troversies. D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

EASTERN  CHURCH  meant  originally  simply 
the  Greek  Cliurch  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Latin  or  Western  Church,  but  means  now  gen- 
erally those  churches  which  in  the  East  sprung 
from  the  Greek  Church,  and  includes  the  ortho- 
dox Russian  Church,  and  in  a  wider  sense  also 
the  Oriental  schismatics,  namely  the  Armenians, 
the  Copts,  the  Xestorians,  and  the  Jacobites.  See 
Greek  Church. 

EATON,  George  W.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Hen- 
derson, Penn.,  July  3,  1S04;  d.  at  Hamilton, 
X.Y.,  Aug.  3,  1872.  He  was  professor  of  ancient 
languages  in  Georgetown  College,  Ky.  (1831-33), 
of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy  (1833-37), 
and  of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  history  (1837-50), 
at  the  Literary  and  Theological  Institution,  Ham- 
ilton, N.Y.  The  institution  was  incorporated  in 
1846  as  Madison  University :  in  it  he  sei'ved  as 
professor  of  sy.stematic  theology  (1850-61),  was 
president  (1856-68),  and  president  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary,  and  professor  of  homiletics 
(1801-71). 

E'BAL  (stone,  stony),  a  mountain  opposite 
Gerizim  ;  rises  3,076  feet  above  the  sea,  and  1,200 
feet  above  the  valley.  The  distance  between  the 
two  peaks  is  at  the  summit  about  a  mile  and  a 
half,  while  their  bases  nearly  meet;  and  experi- 
ments have  .shown  that  the  voice  can  be  distinctly 
heard  from  one  peak  to  the  other,  as  well  as  in 
the  intervening  valley.  Ebal  was  one  of  the  two 
mountains  upon  which  Israel  stood  pronouncing 
blessings  and  cursings  (Dent.  xi.  29;  Josh.  viii. 
30-35);  and  Conder  thinks  that  the  site  of 
Joshua's  altar  may  be  found  at  the  modern 
.\mriil-e(l-I)ln  ("monument  of  the  faith"),  a 
sacred  j^lace  on  the  top  of  Ebal.  The  modern 
XablOs  (the  ancient  Sheclieni)  is  situated  in  the 
valley. 

EBBO,  Archbishop  of  Rheims;  b.  786;  d. 
March  20,  851 ;  was  the  son  of  a  serf,  but  the 
foster-brother  of  Louis  the  Pious,  and  was  given 
freedom  by  Chaileniagne ;  educated  in  a  cloister 
school,  ordained  )>riest,  and  appointed  to  some 
ecclesi.'ustical  position  at  the  imperial  court. 
Louis  tlie  Pious  made  him  Archbishop  of  Rheims 
in  SIO;  and  in  822  he  assumed  the  lead  of  the 
Danish  mission.  Hi'  visited  Denmark  twice; 
and  it  was  no  doubt  due  to  him  that  the  Danish 
king,  Harold  Klak,  when  lieavily  pressed  by 
donii'stic  foes,  .sought  refuge  at  the  Fiankisli 
court,  was  bai>tize(l,  and  returned  with  Ansgar 
in  his  retinue.  Rut  tliere  is  no  (•vidence,  exce])t 
his  own  words  (A/>()lu(/ia  Archiepiscopi  Rtjncn.iis 
cum   ejundem  ud   ijetitea  scjilenlrionaUa   legatione), 


EBBD  JBSU. 


683 


BBEL. 


that  he  did  any  thing  for  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  in  Denmarli,  beyond  cunning  utiliza- 
tion of  confused  political  circumstances.  He 
was  less  successful  in  manipulations  of  the  same 
kind  in  his  native  country.  Though  he  owed 
every  thing  to  Louis  the  Pious,  he  deserted  him 
as  soon  as  it  became  apparent,  that,  in  the  contest 
with  his  three  sous,  the  sons  had  the  ascendency. 
When  the  armies  met  at  Colmar,  Ebbo  did  what 
he  could  in  order  to  allure  peoiile  away,  by  bribes 
and  by  threats,  from  the  camp  of  Louis ;  and 
when  the  battle  was  lost,  and  the  poor  emperor 
was  condemned  to  make  public  penance,  Ebbo 
was  there  to  take  off  his  golden  arms,  and  lay  on 
the  sackcloth  and  ashes,  announcing  to  the  world 
that  he  was  thereby  incapacitated  to  reign.  But 
there  came  a  turn  in  the  affairs.  Louis  the  Pious 
once  more  was  in  power ;  and  Ebbo  hastened  to 
the  diet  of  Diedenhofen  (835)  to  be  reconciled 
to  him.  The  emperor  was  too  angxy,  however. 
He  threw  the  archbishop  into  a  dungeon  at 
Fulda;  and  there  he  lay,  in  spite  of  the  Pope's 
protest,  till  the  death  of  Louis  (8-10).  Lothah- 
re-instated  him  in  the  archiepiscopal  see,  but 
Charles  expelled  him.  Lothair  then  gave  him 
as  a  recompense  the  abbeys  of  Stablo  and  Bob- 
bio;  but  Ebbo  felt  disappointed,  and  tried  Louis 
the  German,  who,  however,  had  only  a  pittance 
left  for  him,  —  the  administration  of  the  diocese 
of  Hildesheim.  Besides  the  above  Apologia, 
Ebbo  has  also  written  an  Indiculum  de  mmistris 
Remens.  Eccl. 

Lit.  — •  Gallia  Christiana,  IX.  ;  Gousset  :  Les 
actes  de  la  province  eccles.  de  Rheims,  1842 ;  Sim- 
son  :  Jahrbucher  d.  frank.  Reichs  unler  Ludwig  d. 
Frommen. 

EBED  JESU  (Syriac,  ■"  Servant  of  God"),  sur- 
named  Bar  Brika  "("  Son  of  the  Blessed  "),  a  Nes- 
torian  theologian  of  comprehensive  scholarship ; 
was  born  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
in  Gozarta,  an  island  in  the  Tigris ;  became  early 
Bishop  of  Sinshar  and  Arabia,  and  was,  between 
1285  and  1287,  made  metropolitan  of  Nisibis,  or 
Zoba,  where  he  died  in  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, 1318.  He  left  twenty  works :  one,  exegetical, 
on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (not  allegori- 
cal, as  often  stated) ;  three,  dogmatical,  on  the 
incarnation  of  the  Logos,  on  the  sacraments,  and 
on  the  verity  of  the  faith  (edited  in  Syriac  and 
Latin  by  A.  Mai,  in  Script.  Vet.,  10,  317-30G)  ; 
several  works  referring  to  canon  law ;  The  Para- 
dise of  Eden,  a  collection  of  fifty  poems  (comp. 
Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.,  3,  1,  p.  .325) ;  twelve  poetical 
tracts  on  the  sciences ;  a  book  on  the  philosophy 
of  the  Greeks ;  a  rhymed  catalogue  of  two  hun- 
dred Syrian  authors  (Assemani,  Bibl.  Or.,  3,  1, 
p.  l-3(j2),  enumerating  also  his  own  works. 

Diffei-ent  from  this  Ebed  Jesu  is  another  Nes- 
torian  patriarch  of  the  same  name,  who  in  1502 
was  converted  to  Romanism.  R.  GOSCHE. 

EBEL,  Johannes  Wilhelm,  Dr.,  b.  March  4, 
178-1,  at  Passenheim;  d.  Aug.  18,  lS01,at  Ilohen- 
3ck-in-Wtirtemberg.  After  his  graduation  at 
Kdnigsberg,  he  became  acquainted  witli  -Johann 
Ileinrich  Schbnherr  one  of  the  most  original 
Ihinkers  of  the  period,  and  espoused  his  views 
of  relative  dualism  (see  Scii()N'iu;i!u).  His  pro- 
nounced evangelical  views,  and  eloijuent  advocacy 
of  practical  Christianity,  were  distasteful  to  the 
rationalistic   and   dead   orthodox   clergy   of    the 


pro^Tiice,  who  tried,  from  the  very  begimiing  of 
his  ministerial  career  at  Ilermsdorf  (1807-1809), 
to  awe  him  into  submission,  and,  upon  his  re- 
moval to  Konigsberg  as  preacher  and  teacher  of 
Frederick  College  (1810),  resented  his  growmg 
popularity  by  charging  him  with  heresy.  The 
matter  being  referred  to  Berlin  by  the  local  con- 
sistory, the  latter,  whose  masked  purpose  was 
duly  penetrated  by  Schleiermacher,  i-eceived  a 
scathing  and  well-merited  rebuke  for  their  ill- 
natured  odium  theolorjicum ;  while  Ebel,  whose 
dignified  bearing  under  this  persecution  increased 
both  his  influence  and  popularity,  was  chosen 
preacher  of  the  Old  Town  Church  at  Konigsberg, 
the  largest  in  the  city,  in  1816,  and  filled  that 
high  position  until  his  deprivation  in  1842. 

This  was  brought  about  as  follows.  In  1826  a 
mhiisterial  rescript,  warning  the  several  consis- 
tories agamst  mysticism,  pietism,  and  separatism, 
was  eagerly  seized  by  Schcin,  the  provincial  gov- 
ernor, a  notorious  enemy  of  Christianity,  and  an 
utterly  unprincipled  man,  and  the  opponents  of 
Ebel  and  Uiestel,  his  brotlier  minister  and  friend, 
as  an  opportunity  for  assailing  him,  on  the  pre- 
tence that  he  had  founded  a  sect  which  held 
secret  meetmgs,  and  advocated  tenets  of  perilous 
and  immoral  tendency.  The  wildest  rumors  were 
circulated  and  believed;  and  after  an  aniiuated 
controversy,  necessitating  the  witlidrawal  of  the 
first  from  Konigsberg,  Ebel  and  Diestel  were 
openly  charged  with  having  founded  a  sect. 
Schbn  appointed  Kiihler,  a  member  of  the  consis- 
tory, known  to  be  personally  hostile  to  and  jealous 
of  Ebel,  to  investigate  the  matter,  wdth  the  result 
that  he  discovered,  or  rather  invented,  him  guOty 
of  the  alleged  charge  of  having  founded  a  sect. 
Ebel  refusing  to  adiiit  the  charge,  and  to  submit 
to  an  interrogatory,  unless  the  specifications  were 
communicated  to  him,  the  consistory  arbitrarily 
and  illegally  decreed  his  suspension  ab  officio,  Oct. 
7,  1835,  and  that  of  Diestel,  Dec.  9,  1835.  The 
action  of  the  consistory  led  to  a  criminal  suit, 
which  lasted  four  years,  with  the  result  that  the 
accused  were  acquitted  of  all  charges  except  that 
of  having  founded  a  sect,  and  sentenced  to  be 
deposed,  and  Ebel  to  be  imprisoned  until  he 
should  have  given  proof  of  amendment.  From 
this  sentence  appeal  was  made ;  and,  after  a  fur- 
ther delay  of  eighteen  months,  the  finding  of  the 
lower  court  was  cancelled,  Ebel  acquitted  of  the 
charge  of  having  founded  a  sect,  but  nevertheless 
deprived,  on  the  ground  of  gross  neglect  of  duty. 
There  is  probably  no  crimmal  case  on  record 
more  flagrantly  unjust ;  for,  in  spite  of  the  ac- 
quittal of  the  offence  with  which  Ebel  and  Diestel 
were  falsely  charged,  they  were  punished  with 
degradation  from  the  ministerial  office,  of  which 
they  were  bright  and  shining  ornaments.  Their 
persecution,  originating  in  theological  hatred,  and 
eventuating  in  then-  sacrifice  to  it,  took  place  at  a 
time  (1842)  when  the  judicial  process  in  Prussia 
was  still  private :  that  explains  the  injustice. 
To-day  it  would  be  impossible  to  bring  such  a 
case  to  the  cognizance  of  a  jury.  After  his 
deprivation,  Ebel  lived  at  Grunenfeld  from  1842 
to  1848,  at  Meran-in-the-Tyi-ol  from  1848  to  1850, 
and  at  Hoheneck-in-^Viirtemberg  from  1850  to 
1861,  ill  which  year  he  entered  into  rest.  The 
memory  of  that  noble  man,  pvnified  from  all  the 
aspersions  of  theological  hatred,  and  the  calum- 


EBER. 


684 


EBIONITBS. 


nies  of  ungodly  men,  has  been  vindicated  in  tlie 
following  and  other  works :  Hahnenfeld  :  Die 
Religiose  Bewegwig,  etc.,  Braunsberg,  1S5S;  von 
DER  Gkobes  :  Die  Liebe  zur  Wahrheit.  Stuttgart, 
1850;  Kaxitz  :  Aufktarung  nach  Acienquellen, 
Basel  and  Ludwigsburg,  1862.  The  last  is  a 
masterpiece ;  and  its  author  has  succeeded,  by 
making  the  otficial  record  disclose  the  truth,  in 
inducing  every  respectable  encyclopiedia  and 
church-history  to  correct  the  slanderous  and  false 
notices  which  twenty  years  ago  disfigured  their 
pages.  —  An  article  on  the  Religious  Suit  may  be 
seen  in  the  Bibliolheca  Sacra,  1869,  vol.  XXVI., 
No.  104,  and  the  full  history  in  my  Life  of  Ebel, 
London  and  Xew  York,  1882.  —  The  most  im- 
portant of  the  works  of  Ebel  are :  Die  Weisheit 
von  Oben,  1823,  2d  ed.,  Basel,  etc.,  enlarged,  1S68; 
Die  Treue,  1835,  2d  ed.,  ibid.,  1863;  Gedeikliche 
Erziehung,  Hamburg,  1825,  in  English,  1825;  Die 
apostolische  Predigl  ist  zeilgemdss,  llambm'g,  1835; 
Verstand  und  Vernunft  (by  Diestel  and  Ebel), 
Leipzig,  1837;  Zeugnixs  der  Wahrheit  (by  the 
same),  ib.,  1838;  Grundziige  der  Erkenntniss  der 
Wahrheit,  ib.,  1852;  Die  I'hilosophie  der  heiligen 
Urkunde  des  Christenthunu:,  Stuttgart,  1854-56; 
Compas  de  route,  containmg  extracts  from  most  of 
these  works,  and  also  from  the  Liebe  zur  Wahrheit. 
See  also  s.v.  SciioxnEun.  J.  I.  mombert. 

EBER,  Paul,  b.  at  Kitzingen,  Francouia,  Nov. 
8,  1511;  (1.  at  Wittenberg,  Dec.  10,  1569;  was 
educated  at  Ansbach  and  Nui'emberg,  and  entered 
ill  1532  the  University  of  Wittenberg,  where  he 
gradually  formed  so  intimate  a  connection  with 
Slelanchthon,  that  lie  was  called  Philippi  Reperto- 
rium.  In  1541  he  was  appointed  professor  in  Latin 
gframmar,  and  began  to  lectm'e  on  the  whole 
range  of  the  artes  tiberales,  publishing  a  handbook 
of  Jewish  history,  a  historical  calendar,  destined 
to  supplant  (lie  calendar  of  Roman  sahits,  etc. 
In  1557  he  was  made  professor  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  in  15.59  superintendent-general  of  the 
whole  electorate.  During  the  last  years  of  his 
life  he  devoted  himself  almost  exclusively  to  the- 
ology, and  took  part  in  the  various  theological 
controversies  and  disputations  of  the  time,  though 
essentially  as  a  mediator.  His  Biblia  Latina,  a 
correction  of  tlie  Latin  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament,  he  him.self  considered  as  his  princi- 
pal work.  See  Sixr:  Paul  Eber,  Freuiid  und 
Amt.igenosse  der  Reformaturen,  1843, and  Paul  Eber, 
ein  Stuck  Wiltenberger  Lebens,  1857;  Puessei.: 
Paul  Eber,  iu  Vdtcr  und  Begriinder  der  lather. 
Kirche,  VIII.,  1862. 

EBERLIN,  Johann,  1).  at  Giinzbiug,  in  .Suabia, 
ill  the  seciiiul  half  of  the  (il'teeiidi  century;  d. 
l.')3ll;  studied  iiliilology  aud  pliilusophy  at  liasel ; 
entered  the  order  of  tlie  Eraiiciscaiis,  and  was  ap- 

Cointed  preacher  in  tlieir  iiiona.stery  at  Tubingen, 
ut  afterwards  removed  to  Uliii  on  account  of  dis- 
agreciiient  with  his  superiors.  In  L'lm  he  became 
acrpiaiiiti'd  with  the  writings  of  Luther,  and  be- 
gan to  pi'eacli  tlie  views  of  the  reformers.  Com- 
pelled to  leave  tlie  city,  he  went  to  Swit/.erhuid, 
where  he  wroti;  his  fir.st  book.  Die  fUnfzehn  Bun- 
de.igeunn.icn,  1521,  dedicated  to  Charles  V.  .\i'ter 
a  .stay  in  Wiltciibi-rg  (1.521-23),  where  he  became 
intiiiintely  ac<|Maiiit4-d  willi  Liith<'r  anil  Melaiich- 
thoii,  he  vi^tileil  the  legioiiMof  llie  Whine,  especially 
BiLvl  and  L'lm,  pri^aching  and  publishing  pam- 
phlets ill  the  spirit  of  the  Ueformuliou.     During 


a  second  visit  to  Wittenberg  he  published  his 
Wie  sick  eyn  Diener  Goites  wortt.f  ynn  all  seynem 
Ihun  halten  soil,  etc.,  1525.  The  last  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  iu  Thiiringia,  steadily  working  witli 
energy  and  success,  though  in  his  own  independ- 
ent and  original  way,  for  the  cause  of  the  Refor- 
mation. See  Bernhard  Riggenb.\ch  :  Johuhu 
Eberlin  von  GUnzburg  und  sein  Refonnprogramm, 
Tubingen,  1874. 

EBIONITES.  This  designation  was  at  first, 
like  '•  Xazarenes,"  a  common  name  for  all  Chris- 
tians, as  Epiphanius  (d.  403)  testifies  (Adv.  Hter., 
xsix.  1).  It  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  p"??^, 
"  poor,"  and  was  not  given,  as  Origen  supposes,  in 
reference  to  then-  low  views  of  Christ,  but  to  their 
own  povertj'.  This  povertj-,  especially  character- 
istic of  the  Christians  of  Jerusalem,  evoked  from 
the  Pagan  and  Jewish  world  the  contemptuous 
appellation  of  "the  poor."  Minutius  Felix  says, 
"  That  we  are  called  the  poor  is  not  our  disgrace, 
but  our  glory"  (Octoy.,  36).  Subsequently  its 
application  was  limited  to  Jewish  Christians. 
"  The  Jews  who  accept  Christ  are  called  Ebion- 
ites,"  writes  Origen  (c.  Cels.,  II.  1).  Then,  when 
a  portion  of  the  Jewish  Church  became  separate 
and  heretical,  the  designation  was  used  exclu- 
sively of  it.  Later  in  the  fourth  century  Epipha- 
nius, Jerome,  and  others  use  it  of  a  separate  party 
within  the  Jewish  Church  distinct  from  the  Naza- 
renes.  This  outline  of  history  proves  that  Tertul- 
lian  was  wrong  when  he  derived  the  term  from  a 
pretended  founder  of  the  sect  called  Ebion. 

The  notices  in  the  early  fathers  are  fragment- 
ary, and  at  times  seem  to  be  contradictory  on 
account  of  the  double  application  of  the  term,  now 
to  Jewish  Christianity  as  a  whole,  now  only  to  a 
party  within  it.  The  New  Testament  knows  of  no 
sects  in  the  Jewish  Church,  but  indicates  the  exist- 
ence of  ditt'ereiit  tendencies.  At  the  Council  of 
Jerusal(!m  a  legalistic  and  Judaizing  spirit  mani- 
fested itself,  which  was  in  antagonism  to  the  spirit 
of  Paul,  and  was  shown  in  the  Judaizing  teach- 
ings which  did  so  much  mischief  in  the  Galatian 
churches.  But  it  was  not  until  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  founding  of  Aelia 
Capitolina  by  Hadrian,  in  131,  that  Jewish  ChrLs- 
tianit)'  became  a  distinct  school,  gradually  becom- 
ing more  and  more  heretical  till  it  separated  into 
the  two  sects  of  Ebionites  proper  and  Nazarenes. 
The  latter  still  held  to  Paul  as  an  apostle,  and, 
while  tiiey  kept  the  law  themselves,  did  not  de- 
mand its  obsoiTance  of  the  Gentile  Christians. 
The  former  held  the  observance  of  the  law  to  be 
obligatory  upon  all  Christians  alike,  and  rejected 
Paul  as  an  apostate.  This  was  the  state  of  affairs 
at  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (Dial.  c.  'J'ri/ph.,i~). 
Ireiuvus,  who  does  not  inention  this  party  division, 
describes  the  Ebionites  as  stubbornly  clinging  to 
the  law,  as  rejecting  the  apostle  Paul  as  an  apos- 
tate, and  all  the  (Jo.spels  except  Matthew.  He 
further  notices  a  christological  heresy.  Denying 
Chri.st's  birth  from  the  Virgin,  they  regarded  him 
as  a  mere  man.  Origen  (c.  Cels.,  V.  61)  distin- 
guishes between  two  branches  of  Ebionites,  — 
those  who  denied  and  those  who  accepted  the 
miraculous  birth.  Here  the  distinction  between 
Nazarenes  and  the  Ebionites  ]iroper  becomes 
apparent.  In  the  later  fathers,  as  Jerome,  Epipha- 
nius, etc.,  the  notices  are  more  fi(^i|uent;  but  noth- 
ing is  added  to  our  knowledge  except  that  the 


BBRARD  OF  BETHUNB. 


685 


ECCLESIASTBS. 


Ebionites  were  chiliasts  (^Jerome  ad.  Esilr.,  35,  1). 
Ill  Epiplianius'  day  (d.  403)  they  dwelt  princi- 
pally ill  the  regions  along  the  Dead  Sea,  but  al.s(5 
in  Rome  and  Cyprus.  The  disintegration  of 
Jewish  Christianity  was  consumniated  by  the 
introduction  of  Gnostic  philosophy,  of  Greek 
culture,  as  also,  perhaps,  of  Oriental  theosophy. 
See  the  art.  Elkesaites. 

Lit.  —  GiESELKK :  Nazarder  u.  Ebionilen,  in 
Archiv  fur  Kirchengesch. ,  yo\.  iv.,  Leipzig,  1820; 
Baur  :  De  Ebion.  orig.  el  doctrina,  Tiibing.,  1831  ; 
ScHLiEMANN,  RiTSCnL,  and  Uhliiokn,  on  the 
Pseudo-Clementine  Homilies;  [Schaff  :  Ch.  Hist., 
vol.  ii.  pp.  211  sqq.;  Shedd  :  //«/.  of  Docl.,  I. 
106  sq. ;  Lightfoot  :  Ep.  to  the  Galatians,  pp. 
306  sqq.].  G.  UHLHORN. 

EBRARD  OF  BETHUNE,  a  place  in  Artois, 
lived  in  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth  and  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  and  acquired 
a  name  as  a  writer  on  grammar  and  theology. 
Of  his  personal  life  nothing  is  known.  His  two 
known  works  are,  Gi-cecismus,  a  poem  of  two  thou- 
sand verses,  on  grammar,  prosody,  rhetoric,  etc., 
used  for  a  long  time  as  a  handbook  in  the  schools 
of  the  middle  ages,  and  Liher  antihwresis,  a  refu- 
tation of  the  heresies  of  the  Cathari,  at  that  time 
very  numerous  in  the  Flanders.  The  latter  work, 
still  important  as  a  source  of  information  con- 
cerning the  doctrines  of  the  Cathari,  was  first 
printed  by  the  Jesuit  Gretser,  under  the  title 
Contra  Waldenses,  in  his  Trias  Scriptorum  contra 
Waldenses,  Ingolstadt,  1614,  then  in  Max.  Bihl. 
Patr.,  Lyons,  vol.  XXIV.,  and  finally  in  Gret- 
ser's  Works,  vol.  XII.  Several  other  works  are 
ascribed  to  Ebrard;  but  the  books  are  unimpor- 
tant and  the  authorship  doubtful.    C.  SCHMIDT. 

ECBAT'ANA  (Greek  'k-^jiinava,  or  'Ex/idrava, 
Babylonian  Aganmlanu  or  Ai/amtanu),  the  capital 
of  I\Iedia,  is  mentioned  (Ez.'vi.  2)  as  NHOnX,  Ach- 
m'lha.  It  was  the  place  where,  in  Darius'  time, 
was  found  the  record  of  Cyrus'  decree  autlioriz- 
ing  the  restoration  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
The  name  occurs  often  in  Greek  (Herodotus, 
.SIschylus,  Ctesias),  and  notably  in  the  apocry- 
phal books  (Tob.  iii.  7,  vii.  1,  xiv.  12,  14;  Jud.  i. 
1,  2,  14;  2  Mace.  ix.  3,  etc.).  It  was,  however, 
applied  to  several  different  places;  and  the  ques- 
tion has  been  discussed  whether  the  Ecbatana, 
whose  magnificent  fortifications  are  described  by 
Herodotus  (i.  98,  99),  and  in  the  Book  of  Judith 
(i.  2-4),  is  the  same  with  the  Ecbatana  which 
was  the  summer  residence  of  the  Persian  kings, 
—  the  modern  Ilainadan,  and,  if  not,  which  of 
the  two  is  the  Hebrew  Achtn'tha.  Sir  H.  Kawlin- 
son  has  sought  to  place  tlie  former  at  7^aklit-i- 
Suleiinan,  to  the  north  of  Ilamadun,  where  there 
are  remarkaljle  ruins,  and  where  topographical 
features  are  thought  to  favor  Herodotus'  descrip- 
tion. There  is,  however,  no  evidence  from  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions  that  the  Aijamlanu,  the 
royal  city  of  Astyages,  which  Cyrus  captured 
{Trans.  Hoc.  Bib.  Arch.,  VII.),  was  not  the  Aga- 
matanu  of  Darius  (Behistun  Iiiscr.  CD);  and  the 
identity  of  this  with  the  old  Median  capital  on 
the  one  hand,  and  witli  Aclim'tlia  on  the  other, 
is  probably  to  be  maintained.  In  the  autumn  of 
B.C.  324,  after  the  battle  of  Arbela,  Alexander 
the  Great  spent  some  months  in  Ecbatana,  and 
celebrated  the  Dioni/sia  (AuRi.\x.,  Exp.  Alex. 
iii.  19) ;   but  after  his  death  it  had  a  checkered 


history,  losing  much  of  its  prestige  and  influence, 
and  subjected  to  the  harsh  treatment  of  succes- 
sive conquerors.  It  was  favored  by  the  Parthian 
rulers,  who  made  it  once  more  the  royal  summer 
residence.  But  this  honor  was  again  taken  away 
under  the  Sassaiiides ;  and  it  was  completely 
overshadowed  by  Bagdad  and  Ispahan,  dropping 
almost  entirely  out  of  notice.  Ilamadun,  its  mod- 
ern representative,  is  an  active  business  town 
of  some  fifty  thousand  inhabitants.  There  an; 
few  traces  of  antiquity  to  be  found  there,  though 
the  tombs  of  Esther  and  Mordecai  are  pointed 
out  with  pride.  See  Kakl  Bitter  :  Erdkundc, 
IX.  98-128  ;  II.  Rawlinson  :  Memoir  on  the  Site 
of  the  Atropatenian  Ecbatana  (Journ.  of  Royal 
Geogr.  Soc. ,  vol.  X.  art  2,  1841);  G.  Kawlin- 
sox  :  Fire  Great  Oriental  Monarchies,  London  and 
New  York,  1881.  FRANCIS  BROWN. 

ECCE  HOMO  ("behold  the  man"),  the  Vulgate 
rendering  of  the  words  of  Pilate  on  presenting 
Jesus  to  the  people  (John  xix.  .5).  The  expres- 
sion is  technically  ap]>lied  to  pictures  of  Jesus  as 
the  suifering  Saviour.    See  CmusT,  Pictures  of. 

ECGHELLENSIS,  Abraham,  b.  at  Eckel,  in  the 
latter  jiart  of  tlie  sixteenth  century;  d.  in  Rome 
1004 ;  was  educated  in  the  Marouite  College  in 
Rome,  and  apjiointed  professor  of  the  Syriac  and 
Arab  languages  at  the  Congregation  of  the  Propa- 
ganda. His  chief  work  was  his  participation  in 
the  edition  of  the  Paris  jiolyglot  under  Le  Jay, 
which  lasted  from  1640  to  about  1653,  though 
with  interruptions.  He  furnished  the  Syriac, 
Arab,  and  Latin  texts  of  the  Book  of  Ruth,  and 
the  Arab  text  of  the  third  Book  of  the  Macca- 
bees. He  also  undertook  a  revision  of  the  labor 
of  his  predecessor,  Gabriel  Sionita;  but  this  re- 
vision brought  upon  him  a  very  severe  criticism 
by  Valerian  de  Flavigny  (Paris,  164G),  to  which, 
however,  he  gave  a  very  sharp  answ'er  (Paris, 
1047).  Comp.  Masch  :  Bibl.  Sac7-a,  1,  357  sqq. 
Among  his  independent  works  are :  a  Syriac 
handbook,  Rome,  1028;  Eulgchius  Patriarcha 
Alexandrinus  vindicams,  Rome,  1061;  a  defence 
of  the  episcopacy,  directed  against  J.  Seldeu  ;  an 
edition  of  the  letters  and  sermons  of  Anthony, 
Paris,  1641  and  1640;  an  edition  of  the  Chronicon 
Orientale  of  Ibu  ar-Rahib,  Paris,  1653 ;  Concor- 
dantice  nationum  Christ.  Orient,  in  fidei  catholicce 
dogmata,  Mayence,  1655  (together  with  Leo  Alla- 
tius),  etc.  Assemani's  verdict  on  him  is  severe 
but  not  undeserved.  R.  GOSCHE. 

ECCLESIA.     See  Church. 

ECCLESIASTES  (n^rlp,  LXX.,  'E/txXTjoMorw). 
1.  Title.  — "The  Book  of  Koheleth,  the  son  of 
David,  King  in  Jerusalem"  (i.  1).  The  word 
7vo/ie/e(/i  is  the  feminine  participle  of  Kahal,  "to 
call  together,"  "to  assemble."  Though  feminine 
in  form,  which  does  not  necessarily  imply  that 
the  writer  wished  to  identify  himself  with  117.5- 
dom  (cf.  Prov.  i.  20),  it  is  masculine  in  meaning, 
fbllowing  the  analogy  of  Sophereth  (Neh.  vii.  .57), 
Pochereth  (Ez.  ii.  57),  Alemcth,  and  Azmarcth 
(1  Chr.  viii.  36).  It  is  interpreted  "preacher" 
(as  if  in  the  IlijJiil,  one  who  addresses  an  assem- 
bly, —  Sejituagint,  the  Vulgate,  and  Modern  Ver- 
sions), "debater"  (one  who  is  a  member  of  an 
assembly),  "  collector "  (i.e.,  of  different  opin- 
ions), "gatherer"  (i.e.,  of  an  assembly). 

2.  Author.  —  (1)  Solomon.  —  This  is  the  tradi- 


ECCLESIASTES. 


686 


ECCLESIASTES. 


tional  view.  It  is  maintained  by  the  rabbins,  the 
fathers,  and  by  the  great  majority  of  commenta- 
tors. In  its  favor  are :  (o)  The  age  of  the  opin- 
ion, which  is  strong  a  priori  evidence  in  its  favor; 
(i)  The  eminent  fitness  of  Solomon  to  write  tiiis 
book,  because  of  his  divine  wisdom  and  wide  ex- 
perience ;  (c)  The  style  and  diction  belong  to  the 
golden  age  of  Hebrew  literature  (so,  e.g.,  argues 
Tayler  Lewis;  but  others  maintain  the  exact  oppo- 
site); ((/)  The  claim  of  the  book  itself,  not  made, 
it  is  true,  in  so  many  words  (i.e.,  Koheleth  does 
not  say  he  was  Solomon),  but  still  made  in  the 
very  title,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  was  king  over  Israel 
in  Jerusalem"  (i.  12),  and  in  many  allusions 
(i.  16,  ii.,  xii.  9,  etc.);  (e)  The  lack  of  agreement 
among  critics  as  to  date  and  authorsliip,  if  the 
Solomonic  view  be  given  up;  (/')  The  natural 
desire  to  find  some  confession  of  repentance  from 
one  who  so  flagranti}'  disobeyed  the  elementary 
truths  of  Judaism;  for,  as  Dante  says,  •'  All  the 
world  craves  tidings  of  his  doom"  (Par.,  x.). 
(2)  An  unknown  per.sonator  of  Solomon.  —  In 
favor  of  this  view  are :  (d)  The  spirit  of  the  book, 
which  is  sceptical,  and  most  unlike  that  of  Prov- 
erbs; for,  whereas  the  latter  book  is  cheerful  and 
inspiriting,  Ecclesiastes  is  sad  and  depressing; 
(/')  The  difference  of  style  between  Ecclesiastes 
and  Proverbs;  for,  whereas  the  latter's  is  correct 
and  elegant,  the  former's  is  so  full  of  irregulari- 
ties, that  "one  might  almost  say  the  writer  was  in 
a  death-struggle  with  the  language ;  "  (c)  Such 
expressions  as  "  I  hai-e  been  king  in  Jerusalem 
(i.  12),  "  all  that  have  been  before  me  over  Jeru- 
salem "  (i.  16);  (d)  The  studied  absence  of 
direct  statement  regarding  the  personality  of  the 
writer;  (e)  The  vocabulary  is  of  an  Aramaic 
cast;  (/)  The  author's  allusions  to  prevalent 
corruptions  (iv.  1,  v.  8,  viii.  9,  x.  5)  are  those  of 
a  stuilent  of  life,  and  not  of  a  king  directly  re- 
sponsible for  such  abuses;  (r/)  The  late  recep- 
tion (in  the  first  century  15. C.)  of  Ecclesiastes 
into  tlie  canon,  and  that  not  without  debate;  for, 
as  Plumptre  says,  "Absolutely  the  first  external 
evidence  which  we  have  of  it.s  existence  is  found 
in  a  Talmudic  report  of  a  discussion  between  the 
two  schools  of  llilh'l  and  Shammai  as  to  its 
admission  into  the  canon  of  the  sacred  books" 
(Cum.,  p.  27)  ;  the  decisive  fact  in  its  favor  was 
that  its  first  and  its  last  words  were  in  harmony 
with  the  law;  (A)  The  existence  of  an  apocry- 
phal book  called  The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  which 
would  scarcely  have  been  written  as  a  rival,  and 
in  places  (cf.  Wisd.  ii.,  iii.  ;  Eccles.  ii.  18-26, 
iii.  1.^-22)  as  a  corrective,  of  Ecclesiastes,  if  the 
latter  were  generally  believed  to  have  been  Solo- 
mon's. 

To  these  arguments  the  defenders  of  the  tradi- 
tional view  reply;  ('()  The  differences  between 
Proverbs  and  Ecclesiastes,  in  .spirit  and  style,  are 
explical>le  on  the  ground  that  Solomon  was  an 
old  and  jaded  man  wlien  lie  wrote  the  former 
book;  and.  besides,  Hebrew  is  unfit  for  philo- 
sophic, while  it  i.s  eminently  fit  for  ]iit,hy.  senten- 
tious I'Xpressioiis;  (h)  The  Aramaic  cast  is  much 
exaggr-rated  ;  the  one  hundred  (so  slyledj  non- 
Hebrew  Honls,  or  forms,  or  meanings  (l)elitz.sch), 
can  lie  ri'iliiced  l.o  eight  (llerzfeld) ;  and  we  know 
too  little  of  the  raniilicalinns  and  comiections 
of  Hebrew  with  cognate  dialects  to  nnike  the 
argument  of  much  weight  either  way;  (c)  The 


author's  use  of  the  past  tense  ("  I  was  king," 
etc. )  is  happily  paralleled  by  Mr.  Bullock's  quo- 
tation (SjiLii/L-er'n  Com.,  iv.  p  623)  of  the  language 
of  Louis  XIV.  in  his  old  age.  —  r/uatnl  J'clois  roi 
("  when  I  was  king  ")  ;  ((/)  The  allusion  to  those 
who  had  been  before  the  writer  (i.  16)  is  quite 
easily  interpreted  of  the  "  long  line  of  Jebusite 
kings:"  (c)  The  corruptions  alluded  to  may 
have  been  outside  of  .ludaism,  nor  was  Solomon 
responsible  for  them  all;  (J)  and  (g)  do  not 
materially  weaken  the  Solomonic  origin  theory. 

The  advocates  of  this  theory  emphasize  the 
point  that  no  other  Hebrew  than  Solomon  an- 
swers the  descriptions  given  of  the  magnificence 
in  which  the  umiamed  author  lived,  nor  is  known 
to  have  possessed  so  rich  an  experience. 

3.  Dale.  —  Among  those  who  deny  the  Solo- 
monic origin  there  is  no  agreement  as  to  time. 
Opinions  among  the  deniers  vary  from  975-588 
B.C. — somewhere  between  Solomon  and  Jere- 
miah (Nachtigall)  —  to  A.D.  8,  the  time  of  Herod 
the  Great  (Griitz.  a  modern  rabbi)  ;  the  reason 
for  this  extraordinary  difference  being  the  differ- 
ent opinions  held  as  to  the  historical  period 
whose  social  condition  could  explain  the  general 
tone  of  the  production  ;  for  all  agree  that  the 
time  must  have  been  very  evil.  To  quote  two 
eminent  modern  commentators  upon  Ecclesiastes, 
—  Zockler,  in  Lange.  and  Dean  E.  II.  Plumptre. 
Zdckler  says,  •■  The  book  may  be  considered  as 
about  contemporary  with  Neheminh  and  Malachi, 
or  between  B.C.  lol)  and  IdO,  and  the  author  to  be 
a  God-fearing  Israelite  of  the  sect  of  the  Cha- 
kamim  "  (p.  15).  Plumptre  thinks  that  Ecclesi- 
astes was  written  somewhere  between  B.C.  240 
(the  deatli  of  Zeno)  and  B.C.  ISl  (that  of  the 
death  of  Ptolemy  Ejiiphanes)  :  his  principal  rea- 
sons for  this  late  date  being  the  traces  in  the 
book  of  "the  influence  of  the  teaching  both  of^ 
Stoic  and  Epicurean  |ihilosopliy,  and  the  thorough 
saturation  of  thi'  book  with  Greek  thought  and 
language.  Such  phrases  as  •  under  the  sun,' 
■seeing  the  sun,'  'birds  in  the  air,'  are  echoes 
in  Hebrew  of  Greek  expressions  and  ideas" 
(Comm.  pp.  30-34). 

4.  Plan.  —  Here,  again,  there  is  no  agreement. 
Some  (like  Zdckler)  maintain  that  it  is  a  formal 
treatise;  others,  that  it  is  a  collection  of  uncon- 
nected thoughts  and  maxims  (Luther),  like  the 
.Medilatidns  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  or  Pascal's 
Tlioui/hl.t ;  or  a  colloquy  between  a  seeker  and  a 
teac'her  (Herder).  One  of  the  most  elaborate 
attempts  to  analyze  the  book  is  Zockler's.  He 
nniintains  that  it  contains  four  di.sccuirses,  of 
about  equal  length,  ujton  the  vanity  of  all  human 
relations,  destinies,  and  efforts:  I  (i.  and  ii.) 
Knowledge  and  enjoyment  alike  fail  of  their 
end;  2  (iii. -v.)  The  highest  good  is  to  enjoy 
this  life  and  to  do  good ;  3  (vi.-viii.  15)  The 
practical  wisdom  of  life  consists  of  p:itience,  con- 
tempt of  the  world,  and  fe:ir  of  (iod;  4  (viii. 
16-xii.  7)  The  only  true  happiness  springs  from 
benevolence,  fidelity  to  duty,  a  contenleil  and 
.serene  enjoyment  of  life,  ami  sincere  fear  of  God 
from  early  youth  to  advanced  age.  To  these 
discourses  is  adiled  an  epilogiu^  (xii.  iS-ll).  which 
contains  iv  coni]ireliensive  view  of  the  whole,  and 
a  reconimeiid:ition  of  the  truths  therein  tnncht. 
with  reference  as  well  to  the  personal  worth  of 
the  author  as  lo  the  serious  and  important  con 


iliUULiiiBlASTBB. 


D»j 


ECK. 


tents  of  his  teachiugs.  Zocklur,  folluwiiiy  otiier 
commentators,  divides  each  of  these  discourses 
into  almost  as  many  subdivisions  as  tliere  are 
verses.  But  instead  of  putting  tlie  book  under 
the  scalpel,  and  laying  bare  its  bones,  it  is  better 
to  consider  it  as  a  living-  body,  and  discover  the 
secret  of  its  life.  Taken  thus  as  a  whole,  it  may 
be  considered  as  a  confession  written  in  prose, 
yet  with  a  rhythmical  flow  (sufficient  to  justify 
Tayler  Lewis  in  making  a  metrical  version  of  it), 
devoid  of  plan,  except  so  far  as  it  is  a  continuous 
unburdening  of  self.  Its  unity  is  in  its  author- 
ship ami  theme,  —  the  vanity  of  life.  Its  con- 
tents are  miscellaneous  illustrations  of  the  theuje, 
derived  from  experience,  and  told  witli  great  sad- 
ness. It  is  because  the  book  is  thus  a  collection 
of  observations,  that  some  interpret  the  title, 
Koheleth  by  "collector." 

5.  Character  and  Tcndenct/.  —  Many  advocates 
of  the  Solomonic  hypothesis  find  in  the  book 
evidence  of  his  change  of  heart.  But,  whether 
Solomon  be  the  author  or  not,  it  will  be  probably 
best  to  consider  it  a  iniique  exhibition  of  Hebrew 
scepticism,  subdued  and  checked  by  the  Hebrew 
fear  of  God,  and  reaping  lessons  of  wisdom  from 
the  follies  of  life.  The  tone  is  sad.  On  every 
side  the  writer  sees  persistent  and  gigantic  evil. 
Nothing  turns  out  as  lie  would  like.  "  O  vanity 
of  vanities,  all  is  vanity."  And  yet  the  convic- 
tion is  fixed  that  it  is  always  right  to  do  right; 
and,  in  view  of  tlie  coming  judgment  (xi.  9),  the 
book  closes  with  tiiis  niemoralile  sentence:  "Fear 
God  and  keep  his  commandments,  for  this  is  all 
of  man."  Such  a  book  is  edifying  ratlier  than 
enlivening  reading.  Its  facts  are  undeniable;  but 
they  are  depressing,  and  represent  only  .the  dark 
side.  There  is  no  glad  recognition  of  the  glorious 
outcome  of  all  the  ills  of  life.  Ecclesiastes  has 
its  place  in  the  canon  of  Holy  Scripture.  It 
puts  more  vividly  than  in  any  other  way  the 
worthlessness  of  all  human  efforts  to  get  happi- 
ness, and  thus  prep)ares  the  heart  to  accept  of 
God's  way  of  happiness,  —  a  blameless,  trustful, 
■pious  life. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  Introductions  by  Bleek, 
Keil,  DeWette,  Hokne,  etc.,  see  Rr.uss  :  Gescfi. 
i.  heil.  Schrift.  d.  A.  T.,  Braunsch.,  1881;  and  the 
Commentaries,  in  Latin,  by  Lutiieh  (Vitemberg., 
1532,  Eng.  trans.,  Lond.,  1573),  MEL.\NcaTHoN, 
Beza  (Genev.,  1558,  Eng.  trans.,  Camb,,  1.594), 
Cartwiught  (Lond.,  1004),  Grotius  (Par., 
1644),  Geiek  (Lips.,  1047).  Cocceius  (Anist , 
1658),  Clericus  (Amst.,  1731),  and  E.  F.  C. 
RosEXMiJLLEU  (in  Scholia,  Leipz.,  1830)  . —  in 
German,  by  Starke  (Ilalle,  1708,  new  ed.,  Ber- 
lin, 1865-68),  J.  D.  MiCHAELis  (Leipz.,  1751), 
J.  C.  DoDERLEiN  (Jena,  1784),  Nachtigall 
(Halle,  1798),  Knobel  (Leipz.,  1836),  H.  Ewald 
(Gbtt.,  1837,  new  ed.,  1867),  Hitzig  (Leipz., 
1847, 2d  ed.,  1883),  Hengstexberg  (Berlin,  1859, 
trans.  Edinb.,  1860),  Kleinert  (Beriin,  1804), 
DiEDRicii  (Neu  Ruppin,  1805),  Zockler  (Biele- 
feld, 1808),  Gratz  (Leipz.,  1871),  Delitzscii 
(Leipz.,  187.5,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinb.,  1877),  Veith 
(Vienna,  1878),  A.  Wuxsche  {Der  Midrasch  Ko- 
liekt,  Leipz.,  1880) — in  English,  by  J.  Cotton 
(Lond.,  1654,  reprinted  in  Xichol's  Com.),  R. 
Waudlaw  (Lond.,  1821,2  vols.,  new  ed.,  1871, 
reprinted  Philadelphia,  1808),  J.  Hamilton 
CLond.,  1851),  Moses  Stuart  (N.Y.,  1851),  J. 


M.  Macdonald  (N.Y.,  1850),  C.  D.  Gixsdurg 
(Lond.,  1857),  K.  Buciiana.n  (Lond.,  1.S59),  C. 
ISniixiEs  (Loud.,  1800),  ]>ovAi.  Y<>UN(i  (I'liila., 
1805),  J.  i\.  Coi.EMAN  (Edinb.,  1867),  S.  Cox 
(Lond.,  1808).  C.  Wordsworth  (Lond.,  1808), 
Ziic'Ki.ER  (ill  Lange,  N.Y.,  1S7(),  see  above),  J. 
Lloyd  (Lond.,  1874),  T.  Tyler  (Lond.,  1875), 
T.  II.  Lealk  (Lond.,  1877),  A.  1!.  Hyde  (in 
Wiiedon's  Com.,  N.Y.,  1881),  PLVMi'TRK(Canili., 
18S1);  MosE.s  Mendelssohn,  trans,  from  the 
rabbinic  Hebrew,  l^oiid.,  1845;  Anon.:  Author- 
ship of  Ecclesiastes,  1880;  Hen  an  (Paris,  1882), 
Wright  (London,  1883),  Bradley  (1885). 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY.  See  Church 
History'. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  POLITY.     See  Polity. 

ECCLESIASTICUS.     See  Apocrypha. 

ECK,  Johann  Maier  von,  b.  at  Fck,  on  the 
Giinz,  Nov.  13.  148(i;  d.  at  Ingolstadt,  Feb.  10, 
1543  ;  was  the  son  of  a  jieasant,  but  was  educated 
by  an  uncle,  JIartin  Jlaier,  who  was  piriest  at 
Rottenburg,  on  the  Necker.  He  studied  at  Hei- 
delberg, Tubingen,  and  Cologne,  and  took  his 
degree,  as  master  of  arts,  at  Tubingen,  1501. 
From  1502  to  1510  lie  lived  in  Freiburg,  in  Breis- 
gaa,  studying  and  teaching  ;  and  here  he  made 
his  debut  as  a  writer  by  his  Lorjices  Exercitamenla. 
He  also  found  opportunity  to  distinguish  himself 
as  an  orator,  more  especially  as  a  disputant ;  and 
in  1510  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology 
in  the  University  of  Ingolstadt,  which  institution 
he  actually  ruled  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He 
was  a  man  of  great  learning,  though  not  a  great 
scholar.  His  learning  was  knowledge  rather 
than  insight,  tlie  result  of  a  remarkable  memory 
rather  than  the  product  of  a  clear  intellect.  He 
was  also  possessed  of  great  talent  as  a  disputant; 
though  he  generally  had  the  misfoi'tnne  to  con- 
firm his  adversaries  in  their  own  opinions,  in- 
stead of  alluring  them  over  to  his,  for  he  lacked 
that  seriousness  of  conviction  which  alone  is 
able  to  create  conviction  in  others.  Though  by 
no  means  a  charlatan,  he  was  one  of  those  vain 
characters  who  believe  the  victory  won  when  they 
feel  their  vanity  gratified.  Characteristically 
enough,  he  won  his  first  laurels  as  a  disputant 
by  defending,  in  October,  1514,  at  the  instance  of 
the  merchants  of  Augsburg,  the  piroposition  that 
"usury,"  as  the  taking  of  five  per  cent  interest 
was  then  called  by  the  Church,  was  legitimate 
business. 

Having  received  the  ninety-five  theses  of  Lu- 
ther, with  whom  he  before  had  had  friendly  rela- 
tions, Eck  circulated,  in  March,  1518,  a  manu- 
script criticism  on  them,  —  Obelisci  (marks  made 
in  books  to  draw  the  attention  to  susjiicious  pas- 
sages). As  Luther  was  away  on  his  Heidelberg 
journey,  Carlstadt  published  some  counter-criti- 
cism (Conclusiones) ;  and,  when  Luther  returned, 
he  answered  with  his  Asterisci.  A  rapid  exchange 
of  theses  and  counter-theses  now  followed ;  and 
the  affair  was  finally  wound  up  by  a  grand  dispu- 
tation, which  was  solemnly  opened  at  Leipzig, 
June  27,  1519.  On  June  27  and  28,  and  on  July 
1  and  3,  Eck  disputed  with  Carlstadt  concerning 
divine  grace  and  good  works,  etc.;  and  from  Julj- 
4  he  disputed  for  ten  successive  days  with  Luther 
concerning  the  absolute  supremacy  of  the  Pope, 
purgatory,  penance,  etc.  The  general  impression 
was   that  Eck  had  won       He  was  flattered  and 


BCKHART. 


68& 


ECKHART. 


feasted  as  the  "Achilles  of  the  Church."  But 
the  real  result  was,  that  Luther  went  away  much 
clearer  and  more  decided  with  respect  to  the 
futility  of  the  Pope's  claims  to  infallibility.  Eck 
himself,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  felt 
quite  sure  about  his  victory.  He  suffered  the 
humiliation  that  the  arbitrators  declined  to  give 
anv  verdict;  and  though  he  continued  to  shower 
a  multitude  of  rabid  theses,  criticisms,  etc..  down 
upon  Luther  and  the  other  reformers,  he  now 
saw  fit  to  appeal  to  force.  With  the  German 
princes  he  failed ;  but  in  January,  1520,  he  went 
to  Rome,  and  the  result  was  the  bull  Exurge 
Dumiiie,  which  he  was  to  make  public  in  Germany 
himself  in  the  quality  of  apostolical  prothonotary 
and  papal  nuncio.  The  task,  however,  proved 
less  enjoyable  than  he  had  expected.  From  Leip- 
zig, from  Erfurt,  etc.,  he  had  to  flee  from  the  riots 
of  the  mob,  covered  with  ridicule  and  scorn;  and 
even  in  his  own  city,  in  Ingolstadt,  he  found  it 
diflScult  to  get  the  bull  published  with  due  solem- 
nity. " 

Twice  more  Eck  visited  Rome  on  diplomatic 
errands ;  and  thougli  he  was  not  received  by 
Adrian  VI.  with  the  same  cordiality  as  by  Leo  X., 
he  nevertheless  achieved  his  purpose.  In  Bava- 
ria, too,  his  influence  was  steadily  increasing,  and 
he  fairly  succeeded  in  transforming  the  country 
into  a  province  of  the  Spanish  Imiuisition.  One 
process  of  heresy  followed  the  other,  and  in  them 
all  Dr.  Eck  played  a  conspicuous  part;  but,  in 
his  ever-raging  contest  with  the  reformers,  his 
successes  were  half  only.  His  linchiridion  loco- 
rum  cnminuiiium  ai/versus  Lulherum  ran  through 
forty-six  editions  between  1.52")  and  L570  It  was 
read  and  adniireil,  but  it  liad  no  permanent 
effect.  Similarl}'  with  his  disputation  with  the 
Swiss  reformers.  It  cost  hini  much  exertion  and 
many  intrigues  to  bring  it  about.  Zwingli  would 
not  leave  Ziirioh,  and  to  Ziirich  Eck  dared  not 
go.  Finally  Baden-in-Argau  was  fixed  upon  ;  and 
from  May  "21  to  June  8,  1520,  the  disi>utation 
took  place.  (Ecolanipadius  and  Eck  were  the 
principal  interlocutors,  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation  the  principal  subject.  But.  though 
Eck  seemed  to  be  in  an  uncommonly  conciliatory 
humor,  the  only  result  of  the  disputation  was. 
that  the  Swi.ss-refornied  doctrine  of  tlie  l^ord's 
Supper  became  still  more  distinctly  developed  in 
its  differencB  from  the  Lutheran.  At  the  diet  of 
Augsburg  (15311)  Eck  had  to  write  the  refutation 
of  the  Proti^stant  t'onfe.ssi<in  ;  and  he  worked  on 
it  day  and  night  from  June  27  to  July  13,  assisted 
by  twenty  otiier  theologians.  But  he  was  com- 
pelled to  re-write  it  twice  before  it  suited  the 
enipi'ror.  In  the  last  years  of  his  life  he  was 
chiefly  occupied  in  counteracting  the  various 
attempts  maile  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation. 
It  was  due  to  him  that  the  Koinan-Catholic  princes 
rejected  the  Rcgensburg  Interim  in  15J1. 

Lit.  —  I.  K.  .Si;ii>i;max.\  ;  Die  /,<:iji:i(/er  Dispu- 
■  liilioti.  1813  ;  Til.  \Vii;i>i:.M.VNX  :  Dr.  .loliann  Eck, 
Uegi'ii.'(l>urL;.  181)5.       liKIl.NIl.\i;i>  lvI(i(;KNi!.\<:n. 

ECKHART  ig.'ncr.illy  called  IVIeister  Eckart), 
Hie  most  rc-niarkable  of  the  German  mystics  of  the 
fourteenth  ceiituiy,  was  proliably  born  at  Strass- 
burg,  12011,  ami  died,  jnobably  (ju  a  journey  to 
Avignon,  132!).  He  belonged  to  the  Oominican 
order,  and  was  |irior  of  Erfurt  towards  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century.     lu  1302  he  taught  in 


the  College  of  St.  Jacques  in  Paris,  and  took  the 
degree  of  licentiatus  theoloiji<e.  In  1303  he  was 
appointed  provincial  of  his  order  for  Saxony, 
and  in  1307  vicar-general  for  Bohemia.  In  1308 
he  again  taught  in  Paris,  and  in  1316  he  settled 
at  Strassburg  as  vicar  for  the  grand-master  of  his 
order.  There  he  became  acquainted  with  the 
Brethren  of  the  Free  Spirit;  and  when,  some 
time  after,  he  was  removed  to  Francfort  as  prioi 
of  the  Dominican  monastery,  the  extraordinary 
character  of  his  pireaching  aronsed  suspicion,  and 
he  was  accused,  before  the  grand-master  Herve 
(at  that  moment  present  at  Metz),  of  entertaining 
connections  with  suspicious  persons.  An  inves- 
tigation was  instituted,  and  Eckart  was  acquitted. 
Archbishop  Henry  of  Cologne,  however,  the  im- 
placable enemy  of  the  Beghards.  had  formed  an 
opinion  of  his  own  about  Eckart;  and  in  1325  very 
heavy  accusations  against  him  were  laid  before 
the  chapter  of  the  order  assembled  in  Venice. 
Nicholas  of  Strassburg.  as  papal  nuntiits  el  minis- 
let:  was  charged  with  the  investigation ;  and,  as 
he  himself  belonged  to  the  mystical  school  of 
theology,  he  found  nothing  to  blame  in  Eckart. 
But  Henry  would  not  suffer  himself  to  be  robbed 
of  his  prey  in  this  way.  He  accused  both  Eckart 
and  his  protector,  Nicholas,  of  heresy;  and  a 
regular  process  was  instituted  before  an  episcopal 
court  of  inquisition.  Both  Eckart  and  Nicholas 
protested  against  the  competency  of  the  court, 
and  appealed  to  the  Pope  ;  but  they  were,  never- 
theless, both  of  them  condemned.  On  Feb.  13, 
1329.  Eckart  read  from  the  pulpit  of  the  cloister- 
chapel  in  Cologne  a  solemn  declaration,  in  which 
he  protested  his  willingness  to  recant  any  error 
into  which  he  might  have  fallen.  Immediately 
after,  lie  set  out  for  Avignon ;  but  when  the 
papal  decision  was  given,  in  the  bull  of  March  27, 
1320,  he  had  died.  The  bull,  howi'ver,  treated 
the  case  with  gieat  leniency.  On  account  of  the 
declaration  he  had  made  at  Cologne,  Eckart  was 
evidently  considered  as  one  who,  before  death, 
had  returned  to  the  bosom  of  the  Church.  The 
bull  condemned  seventeen  propositions  of  his, 
and  jiointi'd  out  eleven  more  as  suspicious.  But, 
ill  spite  of  this  condemnation,  his  pupils  still 
clung  to  him  witli  great  reverence  and  love. 
When  Ileinricli  Suso  wrote  his  autobiography,  in 
13()0,  he  spoke  of  Eckart  as  the  "holy  master;  " 
and  his  sermons  were  frequently  cojiied  in  the 
monasteries  of  Germany,  Switzerland.  Tyrol,  and 
Bohemia.  In  1130  tlu^  jiapal  condemnation  was 
repeated;  but  in  1110  Nicholas  of  Cusa,  never- 
theless, mentions  Eckart's  works  as  one  of  the 
sources  of  his  system.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works  was  given  by  Franz  Pfeiffer,  Leipzig,  1857. 

Wh.at  startles  the  reader  in  Eckart's  writings 
is  his  strongly  pronounced  though  mystic  pan- 
theism, often  expressed  with  singular  power. 
God  is  not  the  highest  being,  he  says,  for  he  is 
the  only  being.  Outside  of  God  there  is  nothing 
but  illusion  and  decejition.  In  its  true  existence 
every  creature  is  not  only  a  revelation  of  God, 
but  a  part  of  him;  and  —  here  enters  the  easy 
transition  from  Eckart's  ))anthei8tic  speculations 
to  his  ascetic  morals  —  the  true  oljjecl  of  human 
life  must  consei|uenlly  be  to  strip  it  of  all  illu- 
sions and  dece]itioii8,  and  return  into  the  one 
great  being,  God. 

Lit.  —  Maktenskn  :  Meister  Eckarl,  Hamburg, 


ECLECTICISM. 


689 


EDEN. 


l842 ;  IIeidkich  :  Das  Ihenlorj.  Si/slem  d.  Af.  E., 
Posen,  1804;  Bach;  M.E.  Vdtenl.  i/eulsclien  Specu- 
lation, Vienna,  1864;  Lasson:  M.  E.,  lierlin,  18(i8; 
Pregek:  M.  E.  u.  (I.  Inijuisilioii,  Munich,  ISUiJ; 
Jundt:  Essni  sur  le  mysticisme  speculalif  df  M.  E., 
Strassburtr,  1871.  C.  ScUMIUT. 

ECLECTICISM,  a  philosophical  method  by 
which  a  [ihilosoplier  extracts  from  various  sys- 
tems of  phihjsophy  that  which  seems  to  him  to 
be  most  striliingly  true,  and  fits  it  together  as 
best  he  l^nows  how.  The  metiiod  is  completely 
unscientific,  and  has  never  produced  results  of 
any  account.  It  generally  becomes  very  fash- 
ionable, however,  in  all  post-philosophical  ages, 
when  the  true  philosophical  productivity  lias 
died  out.  Neoplatonism  was  ut  the  bottom  eclec- 
ticism, and  so  was  Koman  philosophy  in  gener.al. 

ECTHESIS.     See  Momotueuti.s. 

ECUADOR,  The  Repubhc  of,  situ.ated  between 
Brazil,  Peru,  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  Colombia, 
compri.ses  an  area  of  about  three  hundred  thou- 
sand S(piare  miles,  and  contains,  according  to  the 
census  of  1875,  about  nine  hundred  thousand  in- 
habitants, besides  two  hundred  thousand  Indians 
who  are  semi-civilized.  The  bulk  of  the  civilized 
population  consists  of  descendants  of  whites  and 
Indians,  Indians  with  fixed  abodes,  negroes,  and 
descendants  of  negroes  and  whites,  and  negroes 
and  Indians.  They  are  all  Christians ;  while 
the  Indians,  among  whom  there  formerly  was 
carried  on  a  very  active  mission,  have  now  re- 
lapsed completely  into  Paganism.  According  to 
the  constitution,  the  Catholic-Apostolical-Rom.an 
Church  is  the  Church  of  the  State,  and  other  de- 
nominations are  excluded.  Toleration  is  shown, 
however;  but  as  yet  no  independent  congrega- 
tion has  been  established  in  the  country.  The 
relation  to  Rome  is  based  upon  a  concordat  of 
Sept.  20,  1862.  The  capital  (Quito)  is  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop.  There  are  episcopal  seats  at 
Cuenca,  Guayaquil,  Riobamba,  Loga,  and  Ibarra, 
and  an  apostolical  vicarate  at  Napo.  The  num- 
ber of  the  clergy  is  not  given  in  the  latest  statis- 
tics:  in  1858  it  was  insufficient.  By  the  revo- 
lution, the  Church  lost  its  estates  :  it  is  now  poor. 
Nor  is  proper  care  taken  of  popular  education  : 
its  standard  is  very  low.  G.  PLITT. 

EDELMANN,  Johann  Christian,  b.  at  Weissen- 
fels,  July  0,  16!)8;  d.  in  Berlin,  Feb.  1.5,  1707; 
studied  theology  at  Jena  and  Eisenach;  was  tutor 
in  several  Austrian  families;  lived  for  some  time 
with  the  Moravian  Bretlnvn,  and  partook  in  the 
Berleburg  translation  of  the  Bible.  He  trans- 
lated the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy  and  the 
Epistles  to  Titus  and  Philemon.  In  the  mean 
time  he  had  reached  the  stand-point  of  absolute 
rationalism,  considering  all  the  positive  religions 
as  defective  forms,  and  reason  as  the  highest 
authority  also  in  the  field  of  religion;  and  with 
this  conviction  he  proposed  to  retire  into  obscuri- 
ty, and  maintain  himself  as  a  weaver.  But  he 
bad  already  written  his  Unschub/ir/e  Wahrlwilen 
(17.35),  and  his  friends  induced  him  to  go  on 
with  his  authorship.  There  followed  Moses  mil 
aufriedecktem  AnijesichI  (1740),  Die  Cliilllichlceit  iter 
Veruunfl  (1741),  etc..  books  whicli  attracted  some 
attention  by  their  coarse  eloquence,  and  talent 
for  blasphem}',  but  which  made  no  real  impres- 
sion. The  la.st  years  of  his  life  he  spent  in 
Berlin,  under  the  protection  of  Friederich  II., 
4.5—1 


though  on  the  condition  that  he  should  publish 
nothing  more.  His  autobiography  was  pui>li.shed 
by  Klose,  1849.  See  MiiNCKKiiKUG  :  Heiiiiarns 
uiii/  Edelmaini,  Hamburg,  1867;  Gudkn  :  Edel- 
minin,   187(t.  PAUL  TSCHACKEUT. 

E'DEN  (Heb.  JIJ";  LXX.  'Edf»  is  the  land  or 
region  in  which  "the  Lord  God  planted  a  gar- 
den," where  "he  put  the  man  whom  he  had 
formed"  (Gen.  ii.  8).  The  Hebrew  word  (pj'), 
when  used  iu  the  plural,  has  the  meaning  "de- 
lights;" and  hence  Eden  has  been  supposed  to 
mean  "land  of  delight"  (LXX.  Tpv(pri\  Vulg. 
I'oluptas).  The  Hebrews  themselves  may  have  so 
understood  it;  but  the  real  origin  of  the  name  is 
more  probably  to  be  found  in  the  Assyrian  idinu 
(from  Accadian  edin),  "plain." 

Description  of  the  Garden  of  Eden.  —  Eden  and 
the  garden  are  so  closely  related  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  in  Christian  thought,  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  treat  of  them  together.  Although  in 
Gen.  ii.  8,  10  they  are  not  identical,  and  "the 
garden  "  is  repeatedly  mentioned  alone  in  chap- 
ters ii.  iii.,  while  in  iv.  16  Eden  is  so  mentioned, 
with  apparent  reference  to  the  land  or  region, 
yet  the  expression  pj'.'l^  ("garden  [of]  Eden") 
occurs  Gen.  ii.  1.5,  iii.  2.3,  24 ;  Joel  ii.  3 ;  Ezek. 
xxxvi.  35;  and  in  the  following  passages  Eden 
alone  seems  to  be  used  in  the  same  sense:  Ezek. 
xxviii.  13,  xxxi.  9,  16,  18;  Isa.  Ii.  3.  We  find 
also  the  expression  "garden  of  God,"  D'TlbN  JJ 
Ezek.  xxviii.  13,  xxxi.  8  (twice),  9,  and  "gar- 
den of  Jahve,"  nin'-[J  (Gen.  xiii.  10,  Isa.  Ii.  3), 
and,  with  kindred  meaning,  "  mountain  of  God," 
DTISn  in  (Isa.  xi.  9,  Ixv.  25,  Ezek.  xxviii.  14,  16). 
The  LXX.  generally  translate  j"l>'  by  7pt)^r/  (see 
above),  in  Gen.  ii.  8,  10,  iv.  16,  by  'E&'/i,  and  in 
Isa.  Ii.  3  by  -naplidsiaoQ.  This  latter  word  (from 
Pers.  piiiridaeza,  whence  also  Heb.  O'!}"'?)  is  gen- 
erally employed  by  the  LXX.  for  JJ,  "garden" 
(Ezek.  xxxvi.  35,  xi/vrof),  and  the  Vulgate  in  most 
cases  follows  their  example. 

Eden  and  the  garden  were  situated  "toward 
the  east;"  i.e.,  eastward  from  the  writer  (Gen. 
ii.  8).  The  vegetation  was  luxurious  (ii.  9): 
among  other  fruit-trees  was  found  the  fig-tree 
(iii.  7),  and  two  trees  beside,  which  are  repeatedly 
named,  but  not  minutely  described,  —  "the  tree 
of  life,"  and  "the  tree  of  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil."  Irrigation  was  secured  by  a  river  flowing 
into  the  garden  from  Eden :  where  its  sources 
were  we  are  not  distinctly  told.  On  leaving  the 
garden  it  divided  into  four  "heads,"  or  branches: 
and  the  course  of  each  is  indicated,  except  in  the 
case  of  the  fourth,  which  vi'as  too  well  known 
to  need  it.  Besides  its  abundant  fertility,  the 
garden  was  also  the  home  of  all  kinds  of  animals, 
including  cattle,  beasts  of  the  field,  and  birds 
(ii.  19,  20). 

Into  this  garden  man  was  put  "  to  dress  it  and 
to  keep  it"  (ii.  15);  i.e.,  to  cultivate  and  guard 
it.  Here  he  gave  names  to  all  the  animals  (ii.  20); 
here  the  woman  was  fashioned  out  of  his  rib 
(ii.  21,  22)  ;  here  the  two  lived  unclothed  and 
innocent  (ii.  25),  accustomed  to  intercourse  with 
God  (ii.  19,  22,  cf.  iii.  8),  with  only  one  restric- 
tive command  to  observe,  —  the  prohibition  to 
eat  of  the  tree  of  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil  (ii.  17).  Through  the  specious  words  of 
the  serpent  (iii.  1-5)  the  woman  was  led  to  dis 


EDEN. 


690 


EDEN. 


obey  the  command,  and  the  man  followed  her 
example  (iii.  6).  Thus  they  lost  their  innocency; 
and  the  Lord  passed  sentence  upon  them,  and 
cursed  the  serpent.  He  provided  tunics  of  skins 
(iii.  21)  to  take  the  place  of  the  aprons  of  fig- 
leaves  which  the  man  and  his  wife  in  their  shame 
had  made  (iii.  7),  and  then  sent  them  out  of  the 
garden,  that,  with  their  newly-gained  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil,  they  might  not  eat  of  the  tree 
of  life  also,  and  so  live  forever  (iii.  22,  23).  On 
the  east  of  the  garden  the  Lord  placed  "the 
cherubim,  and  the  flaming  sword,  self-brandish- 
ing, to  guard  the  way  to  the  tree  of  life  "  (iii.  2-1:). 
(See  Adam,  Cherubim,  Creation,  Eve,  Sek- 
PEXT,  Sin.) 

The  conception  of  an  early  home  of  man, 
where  innocence  and  happiness  reigned,  and 
there  was  habitual  intercourse  with  divine  beings, 
is  found,  with  some  striking  similarities  to  the 
account  in  Genesis,  in  the  mythologies  of  other 
peoples,  notably  those  of  India  and  Persia.  Ac- 
cording to  the  former,  Meru,  the  "mountain  of 
the  gods,"  situated  in  the  north,  gives  rise  to  the 
spring  Ganga,  which  waters  the  "land  of  joy,"  on 
the  summit,  and  then  forms  four  lakes,  whence 
issue  four  rivers  that  flow  through  four  regions, 
and  empty  into  four  seas.  On  the  northern  side 
of  Meru  was  Uttara-Kuru,  a  kind  of  paradise,  in 
which  Mdiiit  Vaivasata  lived  before  the  flood. 

According  to  the  Persian  myths,  the  sacred 
mountain  llard-Berezaitl,  from  which  flow  twenty 
rivers,  overshadows  the  hapi>y  land,  Airyana- 
Vaedja,  where  Yima  dwelt  in  the  time  of  his 
purity. 

Such  details  as  the  tree,  the  serpent,  and  the 
loss  of  paradise  through  sin,  also  re-appear  in 
these  mythologies.  The  first  two  are  found  also 
in  that  of  Babylonia ;  and  here  the  conception 
of  the  cherubim  appears  under  the  form  of  the 
winged  bull,  called  generallj'  lamasu  and  Hdu, 
and  by  other  names,  but  also  KiriVm  =  :ili3 
(derivation  probably  from  karahu,  "  to  be  mighty, 
majestic  ").  The  exact  belief  of  tlie  Babylonians 
as  to  the  primitive  condition  and  surroundings 
of  man  is  not  yet  known. 

But,  whatever  the  general  or  even  detailed  re- 
semblance between  the  biblical  account  and  those 
in  heathen  mythologies,  tlie  differences  are  still 
more  marked.  The  former  is  unique  in  its  sim- 
I'licity,  dignity,  lofty  conception  of  Ciod  and  of 
man,  and  in  its  distinct  idea  of  sin  as  a  voluntary 
and  responsible  violation  of  God's  command, 
entailing  the  gravest  moral  consequences.  And, 
while  the  Old-Testament  writers  leaked  back  to 
the  garden  of  Eden  as  the  ideal  of  that  whicli 
was  lovely  and  desirable  (Gen.  xiii.  10;  Joel  ii.  .'5; 
Isa.  li.  ;j;  lOzek.  xxviii.  13  sq.,  xxxi.  8,  0,  1(1,  18, 
xxxvi.  35;  cf.  Prov.  iii.  18,  xi.  31),  xiii.  12,  xv.  4), 
it  became  to  the  prophets  a  standard  to  ineasuri' 
the  coming  blessedness  of  tlie  Messianic  age 
(Isa.  li.  3;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  35);  and  tlie  coiiC(']itinn 
of  that  happy  time  was  more  or  less  shaped  by 
the  recollection  of  what  liad  been  (Isa.  xi.  fl-!l, 
Ixv.  25;  Ezek.  xlvii.  1  «q.).  Later  Jewisli  thought 
,'as  seen  e8i>ecially  in  tin,'  Book  of  Enoch)  devel- 
oped the  notion  of  the  future  abode  of  the  chosen, 
and  in  the  Ni'W  Testament  there  ajipeared  the 
clear  b(dief  in  the  Ciiristian  paradise.  (See 
T'akadisk.) 

Location  of  Eden.  —  The   writer  evideutly  de- 


sired and  intended  that  his  readers  should  un- 
derstand where  Eden  lay.  lie  speaks  of  it  as 
"  eastward."  He  points  out,  incidentally,  marked 
features  of  the  land  and  climate.  He  seems  to 
regard  Eden  as  a  definite  region  or  district,  by 
whose  location  another  land  could  be  described, — 
"the  land  of  Nod  on  the  east  of  Eden  "  (Gen.  iv. 
16).  But  most  important  of  all  is  his  statement 
with  regard  to  the  rivers.  First  there  is  a  in:, 
nahar  (sometimes  =  "current,"  and  then  it  may  be 
used  of  the  sea,  as  Jon.  ii.  4;  Ps.  xxiv.  2;  gen- 
erally =  "river,"  never  "river-system"),  flowing 
into  the  garden  :  this  is  not  named.  Then  there 
are  the  four  branches  into  which  this  river  divides 
as  it  leaves  the  garden.  The  first  is  Pison  (pty'?), 
whose  course  is  described  with  reference  to  "  the 
land  of  the  Ilavilah "  (nVinn).  3?E:n  (A.  V., 
"wluch  compasseth ")  can  mean  "which  sur- 
rounds," "flows  quite  around,"  or  "bends  around" 
one  side  (Num.  xxi.  4  ;  Judg.  xi.  18),  or  even 
"goes  about  in,"  i.e.,  goes  circuitously  in;  cf. 
Isa.  xxiii.  16.  (If  this  last  is  the  meaning  here, 
then  we  understand  the  use  of  '?,  "  all  "  before 
the  names  of  the  countries.  Without  this,  the 
idea  of  passing  quite  through  the  countries  would 
be  unexpressed.)  The  land  of  "  the  Ilavilah  "  is 
then  described  as  the  land  "  where  the  gold  is." 
It  is  added,  "  And  the  gold  of  that  land  is  good; 
there  is  the  b'dolach  and  the  .s/io/io»i-stone." 

The  b'doladt  (PT'^)  is  mentioned  in  Num.  xi. 
7,  where  the  manna  is  compared  with  it.  Joseph., 
Ant.,  III.  1,  6,  calls  it  iSdi'AXiov,  a  reddish-brown 
resinous  gum,  transparent  and  fragrant,  and  he 
is  generally  followed.  The  manna  was  white 
(Exod.  xvi.  31):  the  resemblance  was  perhaps 
partly  in  the  consistency,  and  partly  in  the  trans- 
parent character.  The  shoJtam-stone  (DniffH  ]38<  ) 
lias  not  been  satisfactorily  explained.  LXX.  (Job 
xxviii.  16)  render  uvvi,  "onyx;"  Joseph.,  "sar- 
donyx ";  LXX.  (Exod.  xxxv.'O),  ^ii>of  aapdiov,  "  sar- 
dius;"  LXX.  (Exod.  xxviii.  20;  Ezek.  xxviii.  13, 
and  Targg.),  "beryl "  (pV/piAAwi')  ;  LXX.  (Gen.  ii. 
12),  i  Xi'Sof  6  npuaifio;,  "  chrysoprasus ;  "  LXX. 
(Exod.  xxviii.  9,  xxxv.  27),  ii<3og  (ttk)  a/iapiiyiov, 
"  smaragdus."  All  these  interpretations  and 
other  later  ones  (derived  from  Arabic  sdhim, 
"sun-burnt,"  or  Hebrew  DW,  "leek,"  from  the 
green  color)  are  wholly  uncertain.  The  Baby- 
lonians apparently  knew  the  stone  as  (abmi) 
sihntu. 

The  second  river  CnJ,  as  above)  is  Gihon 
(prrj),  "  which  flows  about,"  or  "  winds  through," 
"all  the  land  of  Cush."  The  third  river  is 
Chiddekel  (Tigris):  "this  is  the  one  going  be- 
fore Assyria."  Tlie  fourth  river  is  I'hrat  (Eu- 
phrates). No  oni^  questions  the  identity  of  the 
third  and  fourth  rivers.  The  whole  question 
turns  about  the  iirst  two,  and  the  lands  around  or 
through  wliieli  tliey  flow.  Each  of  tliese  two 
rivers  bears  a  name  admitting  of  explanation 
from  tlie  Hebrew,  Pison  from  iy?D,  and  Gihon 
from  n"J,  both  with  the  same  general  meaning, 
"to  break  forth,"  "  flow  forth."  It  is,  however, 
<juite  coiiceivabli'  tliat  tli(?  original  derivation  was 
(iifferent,  and  that  the  Hebrews  merely  associated 
them  with  tliese  roots. 

But  there  is  the  greatest  difticulty  in  harmoniz- 
ing the  statements  in  regard  to  them  with  modem 


EDEN. 


691 


EDEN. 


geographical  knowledge,  and  wide  disagreement 
still  prevails.  There  are  said  to  have  been  in 
all  some  eighty  hypotheses  as  to  the  position  of 
Eden.  This  number,  however,  includes  the 
eccentric  proposals  to  find  it  in  Prussia,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  (Hasse),  or  in  the  Canary 
Islands  (Credneu),  and  others  of  like  character. 

All  the  views  which  deserve  notice  here  may 
be  grouped  under  three  heads  :  — 

I.  Theokies  which  place  Eden  in  the 
Far  East.  —  This  class  of  views  is  sometimes 
called  "  traditional,"  because  it  can  be  traced 
back  to  Josephus,  and  has  been  thought  to  rest  on 
genuine  tradition.  It  identifies  the  Pison  with 
the  Indus  or  the  Ganges,  and  llavilah  with  India 
or,  vaguely,  with  the  Eastern  region.  Cush  is 
then  commonly  the  country  south  of  Egypt,  or, 
in  general,  the  south  land  of  Asia  and  Africa 
(see  Cush),  and  Gihon  is  the  Nile ;  or  else  Cush 
is  derived  from  the  supposed  Caspian  people, 
Koaaaioi;  and  Gihon  is  the  Oxus,  called  by  Islam- 
ites Gaihunu.  (When  Pison  is  made  identical 
with  Indus,  then  Gihon  has  sometimes  been 
explained  as  Ganges.)  It  is  then  sometimes 
supposed  that  Euphrates  and  Tigris  have  been 
inserted  in  place  of  two  other  Eastern  rivers. 
This  general  theory  has  been  held,  in  some  form 
of  it,  by  Josephus,  most  church  fathers,  and, 
among  modern  writers,  Ewald,  Renan,  Mas- 
pero,  Bertheau,  Dillmann,  Riietschi,  etc.  In  sup- 
port of  this  view  such  grounds  as  the  following 
have  been  adduced,  (a)  The  language  of  Gen.  ii. 
8,  iv.  16,  xi.  2,  as  well  as  modern  research,  point 
to  the  far  East  as  the  early  home  of  man.  (i) 
The  Indian  conception  of  Meru  suggests  that  the 
biblical  account  rests  on  recollections  from  that 
region.  (<•)  Gold  and  gems  are  products  of  India, 
(rf)  llavilah  (being,  perhaps,  originally  an  appel- 
lative from  Sin,  "sand,"  hence  "the  sandy,"  or 
"  sand-land  ")  can  be  applied  to  India  as  a  country 
of  which  the  Hebrews  had  only  dim  knowledge : 
it  denoted  in  their  history  a  land  south  and  south- 
east of  Palestine  ;  to  extend  it  vaguely  eastward 
was  easy,    (e)  Gihon  (=  Nile,  called  Tt^uv;  LXX. 

(Jer.  ii.  18)  for  Hebrew  linty)  may  be  regarded 
as  the  re-appearance  of  an  Asiatic  river,  or  as 
flowing  out  of  the  same  eartli-embracing  Okeanos 
from  which  the  Pison,  Tigris,  and  Euphrates 
came.  Gihon  =  Oxus  is  of  course  relieved  from 
all  such  difficulty.  It  is  replied  to  these  argu- 
ments, (a)  The  language  of  Gen.  xi.  2  only  shows 
that  after  the  flood  men  came  from  the  East;  and 
although  the  legends  of  other  jieoples  identify 
the  original  home  of  man  with  the  resting-jilace 
after  the  flood  (see  Lenormant,  Antral  and  Eden, 
Contemp.  Her.,  September,  ISbl),  there  is  no  evi- 
dence that  the  Hebrews  did  the  same.  Gen.  iv. 
16,  however,  says  nothing  of  the  location  of  Eden, 
but  only  of  the  land  of  Nod;  and  Gen.  ii.  8  need 
not  mean  more  than  that  Eden  was  eastward 
from  the  writer  of  the  account,  or  from  those  for 
whom  he  wrote.  The  scientific  word  as  to  the 
cradle  of  the  hunum  race  is  not  yet  so  definite  as 
to  warrant  the  tlieory.  (i)  The  assumption  that 
the  form  of  an  xVryan  tradition  is  a  sure  key  to 
Shemitic  traditions  is  groundless,  (c)  Gold  and 
gems  are  indeed  found  in  India,  but  not  only 
there.  (</)  Havilah  was  a  land  known  to  the 
Ilpi-iews  (see  Cush)  ;  and,  whether  India  was  so 


or  not,  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  aware  thai 
llavilah  did  not  extend  across  Tigris  and  Eu- 
jihrates,  and  off  into  the  distant  south-east. 
(e)  The  "river"  of  Gen.  ii.  10,  whicli  "  went  forth 
from  Eden,"  can  have  nothing  to  do  with  Okeanos ; 
and  there  is  no  proof  tliat  the  notion  of  a  river 
which  disappeared  in  one  continent,  and  re- 
appeared in  another,  existed  among  the  Hebrews. 
As  to  the  identification  of  Gihon  with  Oxus  : 
the  Arabic  (Jaihun  is  an  ajijiellative,  and  can  be 
applied  to  any  rushing  river  (e.g.,  Araxes,  Gaihim 
er  /?((,■-■)  ;  and  the  Koanoioi  did  not  live  east  of  the 
Caspian  .Sea,  but,  as  is  clear  from  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions,  in  the  mountain-region  south-west 
from  the  Lake  of  Oroomiah,  and  thence  eastward 
toward  the  borders  of  Elam  and  Media. 

II.  Theouies  which  kind  Eden  in  Arme- 
nia.—  These  take  as  the  starting-point  the 
known  sources  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and 
seek  two  other  rivers  rising  in  the  same  region. 
Thus,  Pison^Phasis,  IIavilah  =  Colchis  (or  Pison 
=  Kur,  Cyrus),  Gihon  =  .\raxes,  Cush^Koaooioi. 
Representatives  of  this  class  of  views  are  Reland, 
Calmet,  Leclerc,  Keil,  etc.  But,  if  the  Kooaaioi 
cannot  be  found  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Caspian,  neither  can  they  on  its  western  shore; 
and  although  some  might  be  tempted  to  make 
use  of  the  name  of  the  country  Kxlsu,  or  Kusua, 
which  appears  on  a  Cappadocian  tablet  {Proceed- 
ings Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,  November  and  December, 
1881),  still  it  is  not  easy  to  see  how  this  could 
be  connected  with  an  .'Armenian  river.  The 
other  proposed  identifications  are  still  more  pre- 
carious. Further:  by  no  possibility  could  these 
four  rivers  be  supposed  to  be  branches  of  one 
parent-stream.  When  it  is  claimed  that  nahar 
can  mean  "  river-system,"  tliis  is  not  borne  out 
by  the  usage  of  the  language  (see  above)  ;  and 
the  hypothesis  (Luther  and  others)  that  the  flood 
altered  the  jihysical  features  of  Asia,  so  that 
the  courses  of  streams  are  now  different  from  the 
original  courses,  is  unsupported  by  any  thing  in 
the  biblical  account  of  the  flood,  and  is  so  far 
from  being  hinted  at  by  the  writer  of  Gen.  ii. 
that  he  evidently  expects,  in  his  description,  to 
be  understood  by  his  contemporaries  as  referring 
to  a  region  still  accessible  to  men,  and  recogniza- 
ble by  them. 

HI.  Theories  which  place  Eden  in  Baby- 
lonia. —  Advocates  of  this  location  had  their 
attention  fixed  by  the  fact  that  the  Euphrates 
and  the  Tigris  are  actually  united  for  a  certain 
distance  in  the  Salt  el- Arab,  which  then  empties 
into  the  Persian  Gulf  by  two  or  more  mouths. 
The  Salt  el-Arab  was  therefore  regarded  as  the 
"river"  of  Gen.  ii.  10;  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
were  looked  upon  as  its  branches,  reckoning  up 
the  stream  ;  and  the  Pison  and  Gihon  were  identi 
fied  with  the  two  main  arms  through  which  the 
Salt  el-Arab  empties.  Calvin,  who  held  this 
view,  considered  the  Pison  to  be  the  eastern  arm, 
and  the  Gihon  the  western.  Scaliger  and  others 
followed  him ;  while  Huet,  Bochart,  etc.,  found 
Pison  in  the  western,  Gihon  in  the  eastern  arm. 
A  modification  of  this  view  is  given  by  Pressel 
(Herzog's  Real-EncycL,  ed.  I.,  vol.  XX.,  art. 
Paradies),  to  the  efiect,  that,  instead  of  being 
these  outlets  of  the  Sail  el-Arab,  Pison  and  Gihon 
are  two  tributary  streams  flowing  in  from  the 
east.     This  form  of  the  theory  is  more  consistent 


EDEN. 


692 


EDEN. 


than  the  other,  since  it  seeks  all  four  branches  in 
the  same  general  direction,  —  up  the  stream;  but 
the  words  of  Gen.  ii.  oblige  us  to  seek  them  all 
in  the  opposite  direction,  —  down  the  stream. 
Only  in  the  direction  of  its  current  could  the 
river,  on  leaving  the  garden,  divide  into  four 
branches.  Against  these  theories  it  is  further 
urged  that  we  have  ample  grounds,  from  classi- 
caX  history  and  from  the  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
as  well  as  from  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
present  rate  of  physical  change  in  that  region,  to 
believe  that  the  sea  once  extended  a  hundred 
miles  or  more  beyond  its  present  limits  to  the 
north,  thus  covering  the  supposed  site  of  Eden, 
and  that  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  emptied  into 
it  without  uniting  (Pliny:  Nat.  Hist.,  VI.,  §  31 ; 
RiTTER  :  Erdkunde,  X.  3 ;  Kiepert  :  Alte  Geog., 
p.  138). 

Another  view  has  been  proposed,  and  advocated 
with  great  force  and  skill.  It  finds  Eden  in 
Northern  Babylonia,  immediately  about  the  site 
of  Babylon  (Friedr.  Delitzscii,  Wo  lag  f/(« 
I'aradiesf).  "Where  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
approached  nearest  to  each  other,  the  country 
was  intersected  by  very  numero\is  water-courses, 
whose  current  was  always  from  the  Euphrates 
toward  the  Tigris,  on  account  of  difference  of 
level  (Arriax:  Exp.  Alex.,  VII.  7,  contr.  Xen. 
.inah.,  I.  7,  15).  The  effect  was  that  of  an  ex- 
tremely wide  river  flowing  in  almo.st  countless 
channels.  This  is  claimed  to  satisfy  the  require- 
ments of  Gen.  ii.  10,  and  to  be  precisely  the  way 
in  which  an  Orienlal  would  conceive  of  irriga- 
tion,—  the  express  object  of  the  -'river."  As 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  whicli  have  thus 
formed  in  effect  only  the  outside  limits  of  this 
great  irrigating  stream,  diverge  more  widely 
from  each  other,  they  resumed  their  independent 
course  ;  and  from  the  former  there  proceeded  two 
important  streams,  partly  natural,  perhaps  partly 
artificial,  like  the  water-courses  named  above; 
the  Halt  en-NU  (  =  Gihon)  on  the  east,  and  the 
Pallakopas  (  =  Pison)  on  the  west.  The  Saft  en- 
Nil  was  known  as  an  important  navigable  stream 
as  late  as  when  the  Arabs  overran  liabylonia. 
Delitzsch  identifies  it  with  the  Assyrian  Aralitu, 
or  Gutjun  dli  (Gun.  Inscr.  of  We.^tern  Asia,  II. 
jil.  50,  and  cf.  jlH'J),  mentioned  immediately  after 
the  Tigris  and  Euphrates.  This  stream  flowed 
through  Babylonia,  where  the  Kaiht  from  the 
mountains  (cf.  Koaaaloi,  and  Egyptian  Kas,  Kei, 
for  'C»2)  had  settled.  The  l'allak(ijia.<  (Jla/JjinuTrni:, 
Arkian,  Exp.  Alex.,  VII.  21),  although  the 
nam"  "  Pi.snn  "  (from  Assyrian  /jixaim,  "water- 
holder."  "channel  "'.')  is  not  known  to  have  been 
applied  to  it,  was  of  .snflicient  importance,  and 
flowed  into  the  Persian  Gulf  west  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Euphrates;  and  Gen.  x.  29,  xxv.  18,  1 
Sam.  XV.  7,  jioint  to  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
Persian  (iiilf  as  tlie  location  of  Ilavilah.  Gold, 
li'dolacli  (if,  as  is  probabli-,  this  is  bdellium), 
and  tlie  yet  unexplained  shoham-stone  (Baby- 
lonian fi'imlii)  an-  all  authenticated  products  of 
Babylonia,  to  which,  on  this  hypolhi'sis,  Ilavilah 
is  immediati'ly  adjacent  :  there  is  therefore  no 
difTiculty  in  attritiuting  tln'se  proilucts  to  Ilavilah 
as  well. 

In  general  support  of  this  theory  are  advanced, 
the  rlc[HMidence  of  the  Hebrews  on  the  Baby- 
loiiiaiis  for  their  traditions,  the  extreme  fertility 


of  the  district  surrounding  Babylon,  the  name 
attaching  to  that  district  {Kai'dunius  ="  Garden 
of  the  god  DuniaS"),  the  oldest  name  of  Baby- 
lon and  its  environs  {Tintira,  "Grove  of  Life"), 
the  fact  that  "  Eden "  has  a  satisfactory  ety- 
mology in  Akkadian  idin,  Babylonian-Assyrian 
idiint  ("  plain,"  "  lowland  ").  and  the  fact  that  the 
district  northward  from  the  junction  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris  is  now  called  the  ZOr,  i.e., 
"  depre.ssion "  (Wetzstein,  in  Del.  Jesaia,  3 
Ausg.). 

The  weak  points  in  this  theory  are  the  follow- 
ing :  the  difficulty  of  understanding  why  the  main 
river  is  not  named  in  Gen.  ii.,  if  it  is  thus  really 
the  divided  current  of  the  Euphrates;  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  Tigris  by  naming  its  course  precious 
to  its  reaching  Babylonia;  the  uncertainty  attach- 
ing to  the  identification  Pison  =  Pallakopas,  and 
to  the  location  of  Havilah  (the  statements  in 
Gen.  X.  29,  etc.,  quoted  above,  are,  after  all, 
vague)  ;  the  lack  of  clear  knowledge  about  the 
Ka'ssu  (=  1^13)  in  Babylonia.  While,  therefore, 
it  has  the  great  merit  of  treating  the  biblical 
accoimt  as  intelligent,  and  meant  to  be  intelligi- 
ble, and  has  much  in  its  favor,  we  must  await 
further  light  before  accepting  it  as  fully  estab- 
lished. 

Lit.  —  Ambrose:  De  Paradiso  ad  Sabinum; 
COSMAS  IndiCOPLEUSTES:  XpicTtai'iKTj  ToTToypaijiia ; 
jSIoses  Bar-Cepha  :  Traclatus  de  Paradiso  ;  Lu- 
ther :  Enarraliones  in  Genesin,  1524;  Calvin: 
Commentary  on  Genesi<!,  3d  ed.,  1583;  F.  Junius: 
Comm.  Gen.,  c.  1590;  J.  Hopkinson  :  Descriptio 
Paradisi,  1591;  S.  Boch.\rt:  De  animnlihus  Scrip- 
turce  Sanctce,  1663;  II.  Grotius:  Annotat.  in  Vet. 
Test.,  1664;  J.  II.  IIottixoer:  Ilistorice  Crta- 
tionis  Exumnn,  1695;  II.  Rel.\.\"d:  Disstrt.de  situ 
Paradisi  terrestris,  Dissert.  Misc.,  1700-08;  J. 
II.VRDOUix :  De  AV»  Parad.  terreslr.,  Op.  Sel., 
1709  (see  also  the  treatises  of  Hopkinson,  Vorst, 
Bochart,  IIuet,  Morinus,  etc.,  in  Ugolini, 
Thesaurus  Ant.  Sacr.,  Tom.  vii.,  Venet.,  1747)  j 
J.  G.  Eichhorn  :  Ure/eschiclite,  1790-93  :  IIasse  : 
Preussens  An.vpriiche,  als  Brrnsleinland  das  Parodies 
der  Alten  yewesen  zusein,  Konigsb.,  1799;  P.  Butt- 
mann  :  IXie  illleste  Erdkunile  des  Mori/enlandes, 
Berlin,  1803;  A.  T.  II.\rtmann  :  Aufklurungen 
iiber  Asien,  1806;  R.  Rask:  Aelteste  heh.  Zeil- 
rechnung,  lilgen's  Zeitschr.,  VI.  II.,  1836;  K.  v. 
Raumer:  Der  Pison,  von  Paliistina,  1830;  G.  M. 
Redslob  :  Der  Schijpfungsiipolng.  Hamburg,  1846; 
E.  Berth eau:  Besc/ireHi.  der  Lage  des  Paraditses, 
etc.,  Gbttingen,  1847  and  184is ;  A.  Knohel  : 
Comm.  Gen..  Leijiz..  1852;  E.  Soiiradkr:  Eden, 
in  Riehm's //(/.  11 './}.,  1875;  W.  Pressel  :  Paya- 
dies,  in  Ilerzog's  H.  E.,  Iste  Aufl.,  Bd.  XX., 
Gotha,  1866;  (i.  Smith:  Clialdean  Genesis,  2A  et{. 
by  Sayce,  Lond.  and  X.  Y.,  1880;  RUetschi  : 
/iWen,  Ilerzog's  R.  E.,2U'  Aufl.;  Pp..  Dkmtzsch: 
]Vo  lat/  das  Paradiesf  Leipz.,  1881;  Warren: 
Paradise  Found,  Bost.,  1885.     FRANCIS  BKOWN. 

EDEN  (Heb.  pi')  is  named  (Ezek.  xxvii.  23) 
after  Ilarnn  and  Canneh.  It  denotes  a  people, 
proliably  the  same  with  "the  children  of  Eden," 
pi'-'ja  (2  Kings  xix.  12;  Isa.  xxxvii.  12),  who 
are  said  to  live  "in  TV/rt.wa)"  ("""'X^ri),  and  are 
perhaps  to  be  identified  with  the  Bit-Adini 
("  house  of  Adin ")  in  Western  Me.soiiotamia, 
often  named  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions. 


BDESSA. 


693 


EDOM. 


Whether  the  Beth-Eden  of  Amos  i.  5  (pi'-n'3, 
A. v.,  "  house  of  Eden  ")  is  the  same  people,  is  still 
a  matter  of  question.  This  is  at  any  rate  more 
likely  than  its  identification  with  'Ehden  on  Leba- 
non, Beit  Djenn  at  the  foot  of  Herraon,  or  Djusieh 
el-Kadimeh,  south-east  from  Laodicea,  the  Pnra- 
disus  of  Ptolemy.  The  fact  that  it  is  named  in 
connection  with  Damascus  does  not  necessarily 
disprove  its  identity  with  the  Mesopotamian 
Kden ;  for  the  intention  of  the  prophet  might  be 
to  extend  his  threatening  to  the  Aramaic  tribes 
generally. 

At  all  events,  the  Hebrew  pointing  of  \'}V.,  in 
tliese  passages  shows  a  correct  apprehension  that 
these  Edens  were  distinct  from  the  Eden  (\'}V.) 
of  Gene.sis. 

(See  Fr.  Delitzsch  :  Wo  lag  das  Parodies? 
Leipz.,  1881;  R.  Smend  :  Der  Prophet  Ezecltiel, 
Leipz.,  1880 ;  E.  Schradek  :  Die  Keilinschriften 
und  die  Geschichtsforschunij,  Giessen,  1878.) 

EDESSA,  a  city  of  Northern  Mesopotamia  (the 
Armenian  Edesia,  the  Syrian  Uriioi,  the  Arab 
er-Roha,  the  present  Orfa  or  Urfa),  is  situated 
on  the  Daisun,  a  tributary  to  the  Euphrates, 
fifty-five  miles  west  of  Diabekir,  and  is  estimated 
to  have  a  population  of  from  twenty-five  thou- 
sand to  fifty  thou.sand.  It  seems  to  be  a  very 
old  city.  One  tradition  identifies  it  with  Erech, 
one  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Babylonian 
Empire;  another,  with  the  Ur  of  the  Chaldaeans. 
But  nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  its  his- 
tory until  after  the  Macedonian  conquest  of  Per- 
sia. A  Grseco-Macedonian  colony  was  settled  in 
the  city  and  its  neighborhood;  and  in  136  B.C. 
Urhoi,  or  Osrhoes,  founded  an  independent  king- 
dom there,  Osihoene,  which  lasted  till  217  A.D., 
when  Caracalla  made  the  country  a  Roman  prov- 
ince. In  637  the  city  was  conquered  by  the 
Arabs ;  but  in  1097  Count  Baldwin  of  Flanders 
succeeded  in  establishing  once  more  an  independ- 
ent empire  there,  which  for  fifty  years  formed  a 
bulwark  for  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem.  It  was 
conquered  in  1146  by  Noureddiu,  and  the  city  is 
now  a  Turkish  possession. 

Christianity  was  early  introduced  in  Edessa; 
though  the  legend  about  the  correspondence  be- 
tween Christ  and  King  Abgarus  appears  to  have 
no  historical  foundation.  In  the  third  century 
the  city  became  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  in  the 
fourth  the  wealth  and  splendor  of  its  churches 
and  monasteries  was  such  as  to  tempt  the 
spoliation  of  Julian.  In  'the  fourth  century  it  also 
became  the  principal  seat  of  Syi'ian  learning. 
Ephrera  Syrus  resided  there,  and  was  the  founder 
of  the  Edessene  school  of  theology.  At  the  same 
time  the  Persian  school  flourished  in  the  city. 
After  the  death  of  Ephrem,  however,  his  school 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Arians,  just  as,  later  on, 
the  Persian  school  became  the  stronghold  of 
Nestorianism.  After  the  Mohammedan  conquest, 
all  the  Christian  churches  were  transformed  into 
mosques.  The  city  is  still  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop  and  an  Armenian  bishop. 

Lit.  —  Chronicon  Edessenum,  in  Assemani: 
Biblioth.  Orient.,  I.  p.  387-428;  Tn.  L.  Bayek: 
Hislciria  Osrhoena  et  Edessena,  St.  Petersburg, 
1734;  Olivier;  Voyage  dans  I'empire  Ottoman, 
Paris,  1804,  vol.  11.  pp.  331  sqq.  ;  Ainswokth  : 
Researches  in  Assyria,  Babylonia,  etc.,  London, 
1836,  and  Travels  in  Asia  Minor,  London,  1842. 


EDICT  (1)  is  an  order  issued  by  a  ruler,  either 
of  command  or  prohibition.  It  is  applied  in 
church  history  to  the  orders  of  the  Roman  em- 
perors relating  to  Christianity.  From  Trajan  to 
Constantine  these  edicts  had  instituted  persecu- 
tion. But  Constantine  issued  three  which  for- 
bade meddling  with  Christians  on  the  part  of 
the  authorities.  Several  religious  edicts  of  pre- 
vious Roman  emperors  are  extant;  but,  as  they 
are  altogether  too  favorable  to  Christianity,  grave 
doubt  is  thrown  upon  their  genuineness.  The. 
distinction  between  an  edict  and  a  rescript  is  that 
the  latter  is  issued  in  answer  to  an  inquiry.  See 
Persecutions,  and  Keim,  Rom  und  d.  Christen- 
thum,   Berlin,  1881. 

(2)  Edict  is  the  technical  name  for  a  formal 
invitation  given  by  presbyteries  in  Scotland  to 
all  who  know  any  thing  against  the  character  of 
a  pastor-elect  to  come  forward  and  testify. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.  See  Huguenots, 
Nantes. 

EDICT  OF  WORMS.     See  Luther,  Worms. 

EDIFICATION,  a  New-Testament  designation, 
comparing  the  Church  and  the  Christian  believer 
to  a  house  or  temple  (1  Cor.  iii.  '.);  Eph.  ii.  21). 
Christian  character  is  an  edifice  built  on  Christ 
(Eph.  ii.  20;  Col.  ii.  7),  and  enlarged  by  the  Word 
(Acts  XX.  32),  Christian  intercourse  (1  Thess.  v. 
11),  and  all  the  other  means  of  grace.  The  Holy 
Ghost  himself  dwells  in  the  believer  regarded  as 
a  temple  (1  Cor.  vi.  19);  and  the  constant  in- 
junction is,  that  it  should  be  kept  holy,  and  thus 
be  a  fit  sanctuary  of  God  (1  Cor.  iii.  17). 

EDMUND  (1)  and  (2).     See  Eadmund. 

EDOM,  E'DOMITE,  IDUM/E'A,  IDUM/E'AN. 
[Esau  (10!),  the  twin-brother  of  Jacob,  was  the 
.?on  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah.  and  was  so  called  be- 
cause he  was  "  hairy  "  (Gen.  xxv.  25).  lie  was 
subsequently  named  Edom  (Dl"'*<,  "  red"),  because 
he  said  to  Jacob,  "  Feed  me  with  that  same  red." 
meaning  lentils  (xxv.  30).  The  traits  of  their 
ancestor  re-appear  in  the  Edoinites ;  for,  like 
Esau,  they  were  wild  hunters,  and  of  low  spir- 
itual tone.] 

The  Land  of  the  Edomites  was  called  Seir  ("'"i'!?, 
"rugged").  The  original  inhabitants  were  the 
Horites  ("dwellers  in  caves"),  or  troglodytes. 
The  Edomites,  who  dispossessed  them,  are  some- 
times called  "children  of  Seir"  (2  Chron.  xxv. 
11,  14).  The  country  lay  south  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  west  of  the  Arabah  (Josh.  xv.  1 ;  Judg.  v.  4)  ; 
although  in  a  wider  sense  the  same  name  is 
given  "to  a  stretch  to  the  east  of  the  Arabah 
(Deut.  ii.  1).  Poetically  the  country  was  the 
"Mount  of  Esau"  (Obad.  8,  9,  19,  21).  From 
the  "  Mount  of  Judah  "  it  was  separated  by  the 
wilderness  of  Zin  (Josh.  xv.  1).  Bozrah  (now 
Busairah)  was,  at  all  events,  at  times,  its  capital 
(Isa.  xxxiv.  6).  Among  its  other  cities  were 
Sela  (Petra),  in  a  narrow  wady  off  the  Arabah 
(2  Kings  xiv.  7  ;  Isa.  xvi.  1)  ;  Maon  (now  Ma'an) 
(Judg.  X.  12)  ;  Elath,  or  Eloth,  and  Ezion-geber, 
the  important  harbors  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Red  Sea  (Deut.  ii.  8;  2  Chron.  viii.  17).  The 
borders  of  the  country  varied,  especially  to  the 
west  and  east,  as  their  fortunes  rose  and  fell. 
The  country  is  mountainous  ;  but  the  soil  in  the 
glens  and  on  the  mountain-terraces  bears  a 
luxuriant  growth   of   plant   and   vegetable   life, 


BDOM. 


G04 


EDTJCATION. 


upon  which  in  the  spring-time  the  traveller  feasts 
his  eyes. 

The  People  and  their  Hlftonj.  —  There  were  kings 
in  the  land  of  Edom  "before  there  reigned  any 
king  over  the  children  of  Israel "  (Gen.  xxsvi. 
31).  The  Edoraites  were  brave  warriors,  and  fond 
of  the  chase;  but  they  also  cultivated  the  soil, 
and  carried  on  trade,  especially  from  their  gTeat 
ports  Elath  and  Ezion-geber.  They,  or  at  least 
the  Temanites.  one  of  their  tribes,  were  famous 
for  wisdom  (Jer.  xlix.  7 ;  Obad.  8 ;  cf.  Eliphaz 
the  Temanite,  Job  ii.  11).  In  religion  they 
were  polytheists,  and  probably  Baal-worshippers. 
Their  history  as  given  in  the  Bible  begins  with 
the  victory  of  their  King  Hadad  over  Midian 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  35).  When  the  Israelites,  on  their 
way  to  the  promised  land,  asked  permission  to 
go  through  pjdom,  they  were  refused  (Num.  xx. 
14-17),  and  therefore  they  went  around  (xx.  21). 
The  insult  was  all  the  greater  because  of  Moses' 
recognition  of  brotherhood  in  Edom.  The  ill 
feeling  thus  naturally  produced  increased;  and, 
as  soon  as  the  Israelites  were  iniited  under  a  king 
(Saul),  they  made  war  upon  the  Edomites,  whom 
they  now  called  "enemies,"  and  under  David 
brought  tlieni  into  subjection  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47: 
1  Kings  xi.  1.5  sqq.);  in  which  condition  they 
remained  until  the  reign  of  Jehoram  (2  Kings 
viii.  20-22),  when  they  broke  the  yoke,  and  "made 
a  king  over  tliemselves."  Amaziah  fifty  years 
afterwards  attempted  to  reconquer  them,  but  was 
only  partially  successful  (2  Kings  xiv.  7;  cf.  2 
Chron.  xxviii.  17).  The  later  kings  of  .Tudah 
were  too  much  engrossed  by  troubles  with  Assyria 
to  undertake  expeditions  against  Edom,  and  there- 
fore the  I^domites  enjoyed  independent  govern- 
nient  (Jer.  xxvii.  3).  The  relations  between  the 
two  kingdoms  prol)ably  continued  hostile:  at  all 
events  the  Edomites  joined  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
the  siege  and  pillage  of  Jerusalem,  and  therefore 
are  cursed  by  the  prophets  (Ezek.  xxxv.  1.5;  Amos 
i.  11,  12;  Obad.  lO-Ki).  They  also  improved  the 
opjiortunity  to  le;ive  their  territory,  and  go  as  far 
north  as  Ilebron  (1  Mace.  v.  G:j)  ;  and  therefore 
the  later  name.  Iihnnti'a.  designated  quite  another 
district  than  the  old  Edom.  Into  the  lands  they 
left,  Arab  tribes  came,  and  built  up  a  mighty 
kingdom,  with  Petra  as  its  capital.  The  highly 
interesting  ruins  discovered  at  I'etra  by  Burck- 
liardt,  in  lfS12,  date  from  the  time  of  the  Roman 
rule.  I'etra  gave  at  a  later  period  the  name 
Arahia  I'eUxeii  to  the  whole  land  (see  art.  Naua- 
Tii.EANs).  The  old  hate  of  Edom  for  Israel  came 
out  in  the  later  relations  of  the  two  peoples 
(1  Mace.  v.  3,  G.5;  2  Mace.  x.  10,  xii.  13  sqq.). 
John  Ilyrcanus  (135-105  B.C.)  forced  the  Idu- 
inaians  to  unite  with  the  Jews  and  to  receive 
circumcision  (Joseph.,  AtUir/.,  XIII.  9,  1,  XV.  7, 
!)) ;  but  Antipater,  the  son  of  tlie  governor  of 
Idumiea,  having  gained  Julius  Caesar's  favor, 
W!W  liy  liim  appointed  Procurator  of  Judica  (47 
B.C.).  His  son  was  Ileroii  the  (Jreat,  whom  the 
Roman  senate  appointed  (40  B.('.)  Kingof  Judiea 
(Joseph.,  ySnliij.,  XIV.  14,  4);  and  in  his  family 
the  kingdom  was  held  until  the  death  of  the 
la.stking,  Agrippa  II.  (.\.I).  100). 

Un<ler  the  Romans,  Iihiniiea  formed  one  of  the 
eleven  toparchies  into  which  Judiea  wa.s  divided 
(Josi'ph.,  Il'fir,  III.  3,.')).  During  the  confusion 
of  the  great  Jewish  war  against  Rome,  the  Mu- 


mneaiis  make  their  last  appearance  on  the  stage 
of  history,  and  their  lole  is  tragic.  Twenty  thou- 
sa;id  of  them  came  to  Jerusalem  on  the  invita- 
tion of  John  of  Gischala  and  the  Zealots;  and, 
because  they  were  not  immediately  received,  they 
were  so  enraged  that  they  caused  the  streets 
of  Jerusalem  to  run  with  blood  (Joseph..   War, 

IV.  4  and  5). — Curiously  enough  the  name  of 
"  Edomite  "  is  given  by  the  rabbins  to  the- 
Romans,  because  the  latter  were  also  the  death- 
foe  to  the  Jews. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  commentaries  in  loco,  and 
tlie  articles  Edom,  Esau,  Iduimea,  in  the  Bible 
dictionaries  of  Winer,  Smith,  Schenkel,  and 
RlEiiM,  see  BuRCKHARDT :  Travels  in  Syria  and 
the  Holi/  Land,  London,  1822,  Ger.  ed.  by  Gese- 
nius,    Weimar,    1823,    2   parts    (II.    688-735)  ; 

V.  Racmeh:  Paleslina,  Leipzig,  1835,  4th  ed.. 
1860  (pp.  274-282,  451-455)  ;  Palmer  :  Desert  of 
the  Exodus,  London.  1871 ;  De  Lynes  :  Voyage 
d'exploration  a  la  Mer  Morte,  a  Petra,  etc.,  Paris 
[n.d.],  3  vols.;  Badeker  :  Palestina  ami  Syria, 
Leipzig,  1875,  2d  ed.,  1880.  See  Elath,  Eziox- 
gabek,  Sela.  wolf  b.vudissin. 

ED'REi  (strength,  stronghold)  was  (I.)  the  name 
of  the  second  capital  of  Bashan.  situated  on  the 
road  which  the  Israelites  under  Moses  followed 
to  go  from  Gilead  to  Bashan,  and  the  place 
where  King  Og  attacked  them,  and  lost  his  life 
(Num.  xxi.  33;  Deut.  iii.  1-10).  Its  ruins,  cover- 
ing a  space  of  three  miles  in  circuit,  and  consist- 
ing of  remains  of  temples,  churches,  and  mosques, 
form  the  present  Edhra  or  Der'at,  a  place  inhab- 
ited by  about  five  hundred  souls. 

II.  A  town  of  Naphtali,  identified  by  Porter 
W'ith  Tell  Khuraibeh,  two  miles  south  of  Kedesh 
(Num.  xix.  37). 

EDUCATION  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS,  be- 
fore the  exile,  consisted  mainly  in  the  knowledge 
of  the  distinctive  tenets,  facts,  and  symbolism  of 
their  religion,  and  was  imparted  by  parents  to 
their  children  (Exod.  xii.  26,  27;  Deut.  iv.  9,  vi. 
6,  20).  Some  have  inferred  from  Deut.  vi.  8,  9, 
xxvii.  2-8,  that  a  knowledge  of  reading  and 
writing  was  common  ;  but  this  is  probably  going 
too  far.  The  priests,  of  course,  could  read  and 
write;  an<l  thus  there  was  always  ;i  large  body 
of  educated  men.  Educated  laymen  are  also 
mentioned,  such  as  the  historians  of  the  Judges 
and  Kings,  the  surveyors  of  the  promised  land 
(Josh,  xviii.  8,  ',)),  and  the  diplomats,  who  con- 
ducted the  business  with' foreign  courts  and  peo- 
ples (2  Kings  xviii.  26).  That  the  mass  of  the 
people  were  illiterate  was  nothing  particularly 
unfavorable  to  Judaism  ;  for  what  ancient  peo- 
ple, except  possibly  the  Chinese,  could  show  any 
different  state  of  things?  PojHiIar  education  is, 
in  our  sense  of  the  term,  a  very  modern  and 
Protestant  phenomenon.  It  may  be  claimed  for 
the  ancient  Hebrews  that  their  sacred  books  and 
their  profound  religious  mysteries  and  services- 
gave  them  a  mental  training  far  superior  to  that 
of  any  contemporary  nation. 

Erom  the  mention  of  ".sons  of  the  prophets" 
(1  Kings  XX.  35;  2  Kings  ii.  3,  5),  it  has  lieen 
inferred  that  certain  young  men  were  trained  for 
the  prophetic  office  in  so-called  ".schools  of  the 
projihets,"  at  Naioth  (1  .Sam.  xix.  18  —  for  this 
name  is  interpreted  in  the  Targum  "the  Iiouse  of 
learning"),  Bethel,  Jericho   (2  Kings  ii.   3,  .')), 


EDUCATION. 


695 


EDUCATION. 


and  otlier  jilaces ;  but  such  training  was  given 
to  few,  anj,  besides,  was  technical,  consisting  of 
liomiletics  and  music. 

During  the  captivity  the  synagogue  system  of 
worship  was  developed  ;  and  as  a  consequence,  a 
higher  grade  of  intelligence  in  religious  and  edu- 
cational matters  charactei-ized  the  national  life. 
On  the  return,  the  disuse  of  Hebrew  as  a  vernacu- 
lar rendered  instruction  in  it  imperative,  if  the 
people  at  large  were  to  understand  their  own 
sacred  books.  Contact  with  great  nations  like 
the  Babylonian,  the  Greek,  and  tlie  Koman,  en- 
larged the  Hebrew  mind.  Other  things  than 
religion  claimed  attention.  .Jerusalem  became 
the  seat  of  a  university,  and  in  strange  contrast 
to  former  exclusiveness  there  was  generous  ap- 
preciation of  heathen  culture.  In  the  towns  and 
villages  education  was  not  carried  so  far.  Read- 
ing and  writing,  the  law,  and  the  tenets  of  the 
Jewish  faith,  were  probaldy  the  only  topics 
taught.  "  At  five  years  a  child  should  study  the 
Hible,  at  ten  the  Mislnia,  and  at  fifteen  the 
Talmud."  A  graphic  description  of  the  school 
in  Nazareth  in  our  Lord's  day  is  given  by  an 
anonymous  writer  in  these  words :  [The  school- 
room is]  "the  interior  of  a  squalid  liuilding 
rudely  constructed  of  stone,  with  a  domed  roof, 
and  whitewashed  walls,  a  wooden  desk  or  cup- 
board on  one  side,  and  an  inscription  in  Hebrew 
over  the  door.  From  the  building,  as  we  ap- 
proach, comes  the  hum  of  many  children's  voices, 
repeating  the  verses  of  the  sacred  Torah  [the 
law]  in  unthinking  and  perfunctory  monotone. 
The  aged  teacher  sits  silent  in  the  midst.  As 
we  look  in,  we  see  his  huge  turban,  his  gray 
beard,  and  solemn  features,  appearing  over  the 
ruddy  faces  of  the  dark-eyed  boys  who  sit  on  the 
floor  around  him.  The  long  row  of  tiny  red 
slippers  extends  along  the  wall  near  the  door. 
The  earthen  water-bottle  stands  on  the  mat 
beside  the  Khazzan,  or  synagogue  teacher.  The 
scholars  are  the  children  of  the  richer  members 
of  the  village  community ;  of  the  Betlanim,  or 
'  men  of  leisure,'  who  form  the  representative 
congregation  at  every  synagogue  service;  or  of 
the  '  standing  men,'  who  go  up  yearly  with  the 
village  priest  for  a  week  in  Jerusalem,  to  fulfil 
similar  functions  in  the  temple  ritual  "  (^Rabbi 
Jeshua,  Lond.  and  N.Y.,  1881,  pp.  23,  24). 

Thus,  even  then,  education  was  limited,  and 
there  was  much  ignorance ;  so  that  the  phrase 
"country  people"  was  synonymous  with  the 
"illiterate."  Of  these  the  contemptuous  remark 
was  made  by  the  Sanhedrin,  "This  multitude 
which  knoweth  not  the  law  are  accursed  "  (John 
vii.  49).  Very  probably  this  ignorance  was 
principally  among  the  lowest  class,  the  lineal 
descendants  of  the  primitive  settlers  of  Palestine, 
whose  children  are  the  wretched  fellahin  of  to- 
day. According  to  Philo  {On  the  I'iiiiioiis  being 
also  Free,  Bohn's  trans.,  vol.  iii.  ,509)  .losephus 
(Contra  Apion,  i.  12),  and  the  Talmud,  the  pious 
Jews  took  great  pains  with  their  children's  educa- 
tion. "Jerusalem  was  destroyed  because  the  edu- 
cation of  children  was  neglected."  "  The  world 
is  preserved  by  the  breathof  the  children  in  the 
schools."  So  said  the  rabbins.  The  later  Jews 
were  taught  a  trade  in  their  schools,  and  thus 
could  earn  their  own  living.  That  Saul  of  Tar- 
sus, the  learned  pupil  of  the  great  rabbin  Gama- 


liel, hail  a  trade  (tent-making)  was  quite  in  the 
order  of  things  (Acts  xviii.  ■i).  The  most  cele- 
brated doctors  of  the  law  supported  themselves. 
—  Unmarried  men  or  women  were  forbidden  to 
teach  boys.  T'he  Kssenes  are  honorably  men- 
tioned for  their  care  of  children. 

Female  education  was  of  very  limited  extent 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  among  all  Oriental  peo- 
ples;  but  more  advantages  were  open  to  Hebrew 
mothers  than  to  those  of  other  lands.  They  were 
taught  the  law  (for  they  were  expected  to  join 
their  husbands  in  educating  their  children)  and 
also  woman's  proper  work.  The  Hebrew  ideal 
wife  (Prov.  xxxi.  10-.31)  was  a  woman  of  superior 
training,  destitute  though  she  might  be  of  book- 
learning.  To  be  a  model  wife  and  mother  was 
set  before  the  Hebrew  maiden  as  a  loftier  object 
of  womanly  ambition  than  a  so-called  "higher 
education."    Yet  a  few  women  acquired  learning. 

After  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem  the  Jewish 
rabbins  set  up  high  schools  in  other  places. 
Two  of  these  achieved  great  fame  (Tiberias  and 
Babylon) ;  for  they  furnished  respectively  the 
Jerusalem  and  the  Babylonian  Talmud  (i  e.,  the 
Gemara  portion),  in  which  they  poured  forth  a 
stream  of  varied  learning  unparalleled  in  history. 
"  Tlie  Talmud  is  an  encyclopajdia  of  all  the 
sciences  of  that  time,  and  shows  that  in  many 
departments  of  science  these  .Jewish  teachers 
have  anticipated  modern  discoveries."  See  the 
elaborate  article  on  Schuols,  Hebrew,  by  Dr. 
Ginsburg,  enlarged  by  Rev.  15.  I'ick,  Ph.D.,  in 
McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyclojiodia,  vol.  ix. 
429-435.  Monographs  to  be  mentioned  are : 
M.\KCi-s:  Zur  Scliul-Padagogik;  15erlin,  1866; 
V.-VN  Gelder:  Die  Vol/ci:schu/e  ties  Jiklisclien  Alter- 
Ikums,  Berlin,  1872 ;  Simon  :  L'educalion  des 
eii/anis  cliez  les  anciens  Jui/s,  3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1879. 

EDUCATION,  Ministerial.  —  Orr/ani:(itions  and 
Measuns  for  aiding  in.  —  From  the  earliest  ages  it 
has  been  the  policy  of  the  Christian  Church  to 
aid  in  the  education  of  worthy  but  indigent  stu- 
dents who  had  consecrated  themselves  to  the  gos- 
pel ministry.  Calvin,  in  his  Inslilnle.f,  Book  IV. 
chap.  4,  §  9,  speaking  of  the  pattern  set  for  us  in 
this  particular  by  the  primitive  fathers,  says, 
"  For  to  form  a  seminary  which  shall  provide  the 
church  with  future  ministers,  those  holy  men 
took  under  their  charge,  protection,  and  disci- 
pline such  youths  as,  with  the  consent  and  sanc- 
tion of  their  parents,  enlisted  themselves  in  the 
spiritual  warfare.  And  so  they  educated  them- 
selves from  an  early  age,  that  they  might  not 
enter  on  the  discharge  of  their  office  ignorant 
and  unprepared."  And  this  custom  was  kept  up 
through  the  middle  ages  by  the  monastic  schools, 
which  were  liberally  endowed  for  this  purpose  by 
pious  souls,  and  it  is  still  maintained  everywhere 
by  the  Roman  Church.  Her  priests  are  to  this 
day  all  and  altogether  educated  at  the  church's 
expense.  The  Protestant  churches  have  been  no 
less  wisely  liberal  in  their  provisions  for  the  sup- 
ply of  their  pulpits.  Neither  by  those  of  the; 
Lutheran  or  Reformed  name  was  poverty  allowed 
to  bar  any  worthy  young  man  from  the  privilege 
of  qualifying  himself  for  the  Christian  ministry: 
aid  was  furnished  him,  sometimes  by  scholarships 
.attached  to  the  schools,  and  sometimes  by  con- 
tributions taken  up  directly  for  this  purpose  by 
the  congi-egations,  and  sometimes  by  private  mu- 


EDUCATION. 


696 


EDUCATION. 


nificence.  As  au  example  may  be  cited  the  act 
passed  by  the  first  national  synod  of  the  French 
Reformed  Church  in  1559 :  "  In  order  that  the 
church  may  be  furnished  with  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  pastors  and  other  persons  fit  to  govern 
them,  and  preach  the  word  of  God  unto  them, 
they  shall  be  advised  to  choose  those  scholars 
who  are  already  well  advanced  in  good  learning, 
and  of  most  promising  and  hopeful  parts,  and  to 
maintain  such  in  the  universities,  that  they  may 
be  fitted  and  prepared  for  the  work  of  the  min- 
istry. Kings,  princes,  and  the  nobility  shall  be 
petitioned  and  exhorted  particularly  to  mind  this 
important  affair,  and  to  lay  by  some  part  of  their 
revenues  towards  their  maintenance ;  and  the 
richer  churches  shall  do  the  like.  Colloquies 
(i.e.,  presbyteries)  shall,  as  they  see  meet,  take 
the  best  measures  in  the  premises  that  matters  of 
so  great  necessity  may  be  successful.  If  single 
churches  have  not  means,  their  neighbors  shall 
join  them,  so  that  one  poor  scholar  at  least  may 
be  maintained  in  every  colloquy.  And,  in  order 
that  this  design  shall  not  fail,  every  fifth  penny 
of  all  churches  shall  be  set  apart,  when  it  may 
conveniently  be  done,  to  be  employed  in  this 
service."  A  like  policy  was  general  throughout 
the  Reformed  bodies  of  France. 

In  1641  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Scotch 
Church  recommended  that  every  presbytery  con- 
sisting of  twelve  ministers  should  maintain  one 
bursar,  and,  when  the  number  was  fewer  than 
twelve,  tliey  should  be  joined  to  another  presby- 
tery. Four  years  later,  the  minimum  of  aid 
ordered  to  be  given  was  put  at  a  liundred  pounds 
scots  yearly.  Shortly  after  the  session  of  the 
Westminster  .Assembly,  a  society  for  securing  and 
aiding  candidates  of  the  ministry  was  organized 
by  leading  divines  and  laymen,  seveial  of  whom 
were  members  of  that  assembly;  and  among  these 
were  such  men  as  Baxter,  Bates,  Poole,  .Stilling- 
fleet,  and  Cudworth.  This  movement,  however, 
came  to  an  end  soon  after  the  Restoration.  The 
Church  of  England  attains  the  same  result  by 
scholarship  endowments  at  her  universities. 

In  the  United  States  of  America  the  scarcity 
of  ministers,  and  the  exigencies  of  an  extending 
population,  constrained  the  leading  ecclesiastical 
bodies  and  prominent  members  in  the  church 
early  to  adopt  vigorous  measures  for  meeting  the 
demand  thus  created.  Colleges  were  founded  at 
Cambridge  (1030)  and  New  Haven  (1701))  and 
in  New  Jersey  (1718),  where  education  was  freely 
granted  to  young  men  contemplating  the  minis- 
try wlio  were  unalile  to  defray  their  own  expenses. 
In  1751  the  synod  of  New  York  "recommended 
an  annual  collection  from  all  its  churclies  for  the 
support  of  young  students  whose  circumstances 
render  them  incapable  of  maintaining  themselves 
at  learning."  Funds  al.so  were  obtained  from 
England  and  .Scotlaml  and  Ireland  for  this  same 
cause,  but  with  special  reference  to  the  supply  of 
the  ministry.  In  1770  the  combined  synods  of 
New  York  an<l  I'hilailelphia  approved  and  recom- 
mended a  plan  jiroposed  by  tlie  president  of  New 
Ca.stl';  "  for  the  assistance  of  candiilates  for  the 
mini.stry  by  tLinnssmfiils  in  pro|X)rtion  to  the  num- 
ber of  niinislr^rs  and  on  vacant  congregations,  .as 
well  as  by  voluntary  annual  subscription."  These 
and  other  initiatory  tnensures  cnlniinaled  in  the 
organization  of  u  '•  board  of  education  "  by  the  I 


General  Assembly  in  1S19.  This  ^oard.  witl 
various  modifications  of  rules  and  measures,  nas 
continued  until  this  time.  At  present  (1681)  the 
maximum  appropriation  for  a  student,  when  the 
funds  allow  it,  is  a  hundred  and  fiftv  dollars  for 
students  in  college  and  theological  seminary. 
Besides  the  aid  thus  given,  there  are  scholarships 
attached  to  her  institutions,  of  which  worthy  stu- 
dents may  avail  themselves.  Full  three-fourths 
of  her  ministry  have  thus  been  more  or  less 
helped  into  sacred  orders. 

There  is  also  a  board  of  education  in  Presby- 
terian churches  (South),  conducted  on  the  same 
principles. 

In  the  Episcopal  Church  the  education  work  is 
left  to  the  several  dioceses,  some  of  which  have 
small  societies  collecting  each  a  few  hundred 
dollars  per  year.  It  has,  besides,  two  general 
societies  representing  the  two  prominent  schools 
of  thought  in  the  Church;  viz.,  the  Society  for 
the  Increase  of  the  Ministry  (organized  1857, 
and  having  its  office  in  New  Y'ork,  mainly  High 
Church  in  its  tendencies,  which  has  helped  to 
ordination  five  hundred  and  fifty  young  men), 
and  the  Evangelical  Education  Society  (organized 
1862,  and  having  its  office  in  Philadelphia,  which 
has  contributed  two  hundi'ed  and  fifty  men  to  the 
ministry).  It  acts  upon  a  liberal  policy,  and 
grants  stipends  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
student,  even  to  the  amount  of  three  hundred 
dollars  per  annum. 

In  1815  was  formed  the  American  Education 
Society,  a  voluntary  association,  combining  among 
its  members  at  the  first  both  Presbyterians  and 
Congregationalists,  but  of  late  years  confined 
almost  exclusively  to  tlie  latter  body.  For  a 
long  period  this  society  was  strengthened  by  aux- 
iliary bodies  organized  in  the  several  States  of 
the  North  and  in  parts  of  the  West;  but  these 
auxiliaries  have  now  altogether  expired.  In 
1873  this  society  was  united  under  one  adminis- 
tration with  the  college  society,  and  has  its  office 
in  Boston.  Besides  annual  contributions  from 
the  Church,  it  has  fifty-four  endowed  scholar- 
ships, the  revenues  of  which  go  to  aid  students. 
The  whole  number  of  students  aided  bv  it  up  to 
the  year  1880  is  6,724. 

The  Baptists  have  no  general  education  society; 
but,  instead,  they  have  a  number  of  limited  organi- 
zations scattered  throughout  the  States.  Of  these 
there  are  at  present  nine.  The  anioimt  of  aid 
granted  by  these  varies  according  to  the  need  of 
the  stud(Uits ;  .some  receiving  jier  year  between 
two  hundred  and  fifty  and  three  hundred  dollars. 

The  Board  of  Education  of  the  Methodist- 
Episcopal  Church  was  organized  in  180!),  and  has 
several  auxiliary  .societies  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  I'nion.  Its  scope  is  broader  than 
most  of  the  other  kindre<l  organizations;  :is  it  con- 
templates aiding,  not  only  individual  students, 
but  also  literarv  and  theological  institutions,  both 
at  home  and  abroad.  The  grants  made  to  stu- 
dents are  chiefly  in  the  form  of  loans,  to  be  paid 
back  at  tlie  earliest  op))ortunity. 

The  I{efornu'd  Chnrch  (lately  Dutch),  the 
Lutheran  Church,  tlie  German-Reformed  Church, 
and  indeed  nearly  all  other  Christian  bodies, 
operate  on  the  same  jirinciple  to  secure  a  minis- 
try among  themselves  suited  to  edify  their  congre- 
gations, and  command  public  respect.     And  we 


EDWARDS. 


697 


EDWARDS. 


must  add,  that  it  is  to  the  wise  and  liljeral  policy 
thus  pursued  the  fact  is  largely  due  that  the 
ministry  of  Protestant  Christendom  throughout 
the  world  has  attained  its  present  high  repute, 
not  only  for  sound  moral  and  religious  character, 
but  also  for  broad  intelligence  and  extensive 
learning.  D.  W.  I'OOR. 

EDWARDS,  Bela  Bates,  D.D.,  wash,  in  South- 
ampton, Mass.,  July  4,  1802;  graduated  at  Am- 
herst College  in  1824,  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary  in  1830.  In  the  two  years  1826-28  he 
was  a  tutor  in  Amherst  College,  and  in  the  five 
years  1828-.3::!  he  was  assistant  secretary  of  the 
American  Education  Society.  In  1837  he  was 
ordained  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel,  and  was 
also  appointed  professor  of  the  Ilebrew  language 
in  Andover  Theological  Seminary.  Professor 
Moses  Stuart  having  resigned  his  office  in  1848, 
Professor  Edwards  was  elected  as  his  successor. 
In  this  professorship  he  explained  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek  Scriptures  with  great  accuracy  and 
success.  He  was  an  enthusiast  in  sacred  philolo- 
gy. He  injured  his  constitution  by  his  unremit- 
ting toil.  In  1846,  in  consequence  of  enfeebled 
health,  he  made  an  extended  tour  in  Europe,  visit- 
ing England,  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  In 
1851  he  was  again  compelled  to  absent  himself 
from  Andover,  and  spend  the  winter  in  the  South. 
He  died  at  Athens,  Ga.,  April  20,  1852  when  he 
was  nearly  fifty  years  of  age.  He  was  distin- 
guished not  only  as  a  skilful  instructor,  but  also 
as  a  wise  counsellor.  He  united  soundness  of 
judgment  with  rare  delicacy  of  taste  and  poetic 
sensibility.  Without  grace  of  elocution,  he  was 
an  eloquent  preacher.  The  tenderness  of  his 
sensibilities,  and  the  earnestness  of  his  pietj-, 
were  indicated  in  his  countenance  and  tones  of 
voice,  as  well  as  in  his  pure  and  classical  language. 
He  originated  and  planned  many  philanthropic 
institutions,  among  others,  that  which  has  result- 
ed in  the  Congregational  Library  at  Boston.  He 
published  various  addiesses  and  sermons,  and 
an  indefinite  number  of  newspaper  articles.  In 
1831  he  edited  the  Memoir  of  Henry  Mnrt;/n,  and 
added  to  it  valuable  Notes  and  an  Introductory 
Essay.  His  character  bore  a  striking  resemblance 
to  that  of  Martyn.  In  1832  and  1835  he  edited 
two  high-school  books,  The  Eclectic  Reader  and  The 
Introduction  to  the  Eclectic  Reader.  In  1832  he 
published  The  Biography  of  Self-taur/ht  Men,  also 
The  Missionari/  Gazetteer.  The  former  of  these 
works  has  been  repeatedly  republished.  In  1839 
he  united  with  E.  A.  Park  in  a  volume  of  Selec- 
tions from  German  Literatxirc.  In  1843  he  united 
■with  Dr.  Sears,  afterward  president  of  Brown 
University,  and  Professor  Felton,  afterward  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  in  publishing  a  volume 
entitled  Classical  Studies.  In  1844  he  and  Dr. 
Samuel  H.  Taylor  translated  and  pulilished  the 
larger  Greek  Grammar  of  Dr.  Kiihner.  While 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Education  Society,  he 
became  an  editor  of  The  American  Qiiarterli/  ller/is- 
ler,  and  had  the  chief  care  of  this  periodical  from 
1828  to  1842.  In  1833  he  founded  The  American  ; 
Quarterli/  Observer,  took  the  sole  care  of  it  for  1 
three  3-ears,  .and  then  united  it  with  The  American  ', 
Biblical  Repositori/,  which,  during  the  four  preced-  ; 
ing  years,  had  been  edited  by  Professor  Robinson 
at  Andover.  In  1844,  in  conjunction  with  E.  A. 
Park,  he  established  the  Bibliotheca  Sacra  on  its 


present  p/an.  Of  this  periodical  he  remained 
editor-in-chief  until  1852.  Mainly  through  his 
influence  The  Biblical  Re/iositori/,  then  jiubiished 
in  New  York,  was  united  with  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  in  1851.  For  twenty-three  years  he  was 
employed  in  superintending  periodical  literature, 
and,  w  ith  the  assistance  of  .several  associates,  has 
left  thirty-one  octavo  volumes  as  the  monuments 
of  his  enterprise  and  industry.  As  an  early  and 
active  friend  of  two  imjiortant  academies  and  of 
Amherst  College,  which  he  served  as  a  trustee, 
as  a  director  of  the  American  Education  Society, 
and  a  zealous  member  of  other  philanthropic 
institutions,  he  performed  a  vast  amount  of  labor, 
the  results  of  which  will  long  remain.  Some  of 
his  discourses  and  essays  were  published  in 
Boston  in  1853,  in  two  duodecimo  volumes.  The 
first  volume  contains  a  Memoir  in  370  pages  by 
the  editor.  EDWARDS  A.  park. 

EDWARDS,  John,  D.D.,  b.  at  Hertford,  Feb. 
26,  1637;  d.  at  Cambridge,  April  16,  1716.  He 
was  "  a  zealous  Calvinist,  and  a  most  voluminous 
writer."  His  principal  w-orks  were.  Discourse 
concerning  the  authority,  stile  and  perfection  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  London,  1693, 
3  vols.  ;  A  complete  history,  or  survey,  of  all  the 
ilispensatio7is  and  methods  of  religion  from  the  he- 
ginning  of  the  world  to  the  consunuyiation  of  all 
things,  as  represented  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
London,  1699,  2  vols.  ;  The  preacher,  London, 
1705-1709,  3  vols.  ;  Theologia  reformata,  London, 
1713-26,  3  vols,  folio. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  the  Elder.  The  ance.s- 
tors  of  Jonathan  Edwards  in  this  country  were 
notable  men.  His  great-grandfather,  William, 
and  his  grandfather,  Richard,  were  among  the 
pillars  of  society  in  Hartford,  Conn.  His  father, 
Rev.  Timothy  Edwards,  was  born  at  Il.artford.  in 
'Sla.y,  1660,  graduated  with  distinguished  honor 
at  Harvard  College  in  1691,  ordained  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Chui-ch  in  "  Windsor  Farms," 
now  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  in  1694.  He  remained 
pastor  of  this  church  more  than  sixtj^-three  years, 
and  died  J.an.  27,  1758,  iitthe  age  of  eighty-eight. 
There  was  a  marked  resemblance  between  the 
sermons  of  the  father  .and  those  of  his  .son.  —  The 
mother  of  Jonathan  Edwards  was  Esther  Stod- 
dard, daughter  of  ihe  noted  "  father  in  Isr.ael," 
Solomon  Stoddard,  who  for  more  than  fifty-six 
years  (1672-1729)  was  p.astor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  in  Northampton,  ]\Lass.  She  was  a  woman 
of  queenly  presence  and  admirable  character. 
She  was  born  in  1672,  married  in  1694,  became 
the  mother  of  eleven  children,  and  died  in  1770, 
in  the  ninety-ninth  year  of  her  age.  Ten  of  her 
eleven  children  were  daughters ;  Jonathan  being 
the  only  brother  in  a  nest  of  sisters,  four  of  whom 
were  elder,  and  six  younger,  than  himself.  He 
was  born  in  East  Windsor,  Conn.,  Oct.  5,  1703. 
In  his  early  years  he  was  instructed,  partly  at  the 
public  school,  chiefly  by  his  parents  and  sisters, 
at  home.  His  father  being  an  excellent  cl.assical 
•scholar,  his  mother  being  uncommonlj"  intelligent 
and  refined,  his  elder  sisters  being  well  trained 
in  Latin  and  Greek,  were  the  best  instructors  he 
could  have  had.  He  began  the  study  of  Latin 
when  he  was  only  six  years  old.  Before  he  was 
thirteen,  he  h.ad  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of 
Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew.  In  his  childhood  he 
was  taught  to  think  W'itli  his  pen  in  hand.  —  thus 


EDWARDS. 


698 


EDWARDS. 


to  think  definitely,  in  o--der  tliat  he  miglit  express 
his  thoughts  clearly.  When  he  was  about  nine 
years  old  he  wrote  an  interesting  letter  on  Ma- 
terialism, and  when  he  was  about  twelve  he 
wrote  some  remarkable  papers  on  questions  in 
natural  philosophy.  One  month  before  he  was 
thirteen  years  of  age,  he  entered  Yale  College. 
There  he  spent  four  years,  and  was  graduated, 
with  the  highest  honors  of  his  class,  in  1720. 
At  the  age  of  fourteen,  one  of  his  college  studies 
was /.(;(•^"e  on  the  Human  L'ndcrstanilhu/.  "Tak- 
ing that  book  into  his  hand  upon  some  occasion, 
not  long  before  his  death,  he  said  to  some  of  liis 
select  friends  who  were  then  with  him,  that  he 
was  beyond  expression  entertained  and  pleased 
with  it  when  he  read  it  in  his  youth  at  college ; 
that  he  was  as  much  engaged,  and  had  more 
satisfaction  and  pleasui-e,  in  studying  it,  than 
the  most  greedy  miser  in  gathering  up  handfuls 
of  silver  and  gold  from  some  new-discovered 
treasure." 

As  a  child,  his  sensibilities  were  often  aroused 
by  the  truths  of  religion.  He  united  himself  to 
the  church,  probably  at  East  Windsor,  about  the 
time  of  his  graduation  at  college.  After  his 
graduation  lie  spent  nearly  two  years  as  a  resident 
scholar  in  New  Haven  :  then  and  thei-e  he  pur- 
sued his  theological  studies.  He  was  '•  appro- 
bated "  as  a  preacher  in  June  or  July,  1722,  several 
inontlis  before  he  was  nineteen  years  of  age.  From 
August,  1722,  until  April,  1723,  he  preached  to  a 
small  Presbyterian  Church  in  New- York  city. 
Here  he  penned  the  first  thirty-four  of  his  well- 
known  llt.sululiuns,  and  some  exquisitely  poetical 
descriptions  of  the  spiritual  life.  His  eloquence 
in  the  pulpit  moved  his  hearers  deeply.  They 
desired  him  to  become  their  pastor,  but  he  felt 
impelled  to  labor  elsewhere.  In  September,  1723, 
he  was  appointed  a  tutor  in  Yale  College.  He 
devoted  himself  to  si'voj-e  study  in  the  winter  and 
spring  of  1723-24,  and  entered  on  his  tuforship 
in  June,  1724.  In  this  office  he  remained  about 
two  yeai's. 

On  the  1.5th  of  February,  1727,  when  in  liis 
twenty-fourtl;  year,  he  was  ordained  as  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  Church  at  Northampton.  On 
the  27th  of  the  next  July  he  was  married  to  Sarah 
I'ierrepont,  daughter  of  Rev.  James  I'ierrepont, 
'■an  eminent,  ])ious,  and  useful  minister  at  New- 
Haven, "  one  of  the  fathers  and  trustees  of  Yale 
College.  At  the  time  of  her  marriage  she  was  in 
the  eighteenth  year  of  her  age,  was  distinguislied 
by  her  graceful  and  expressive  features,  her  vig- 
orous mind,  fine  culture,  and  fervent  piety.  The 
description  wliich  Mr.  Kdwards  gave  of  her  in 
her  girlhood  was  regarded  by  Dr.  Chalmers  as  a 
model  of  fine  writing.  During  hor  married  life 
she  relieved  her  husband  of  many  burdens  which 
are  eommoidy  laid  upon  a  iiarish  minister,  and 
tlius  enabled  him  to  pursue  his  studies  with  com- 
paratively few  interruptions. 

During  the  fii-st  two  years  of  liis  pa.ntorato  lie 
was  colleague  with  his  grandfatlier,  tlie  celebrated 
SoloinoTi  Stoddard;  but  in  172U.  after  the  death 
of  his  grandfather,  lie  took  the  entire  charge  of 
the  congregation.  As  a  youthful  jireacher  he  was 
eminent  for  his  weighty  thought  and  f<Mvid  ulter- 
■  ance.  Ills  voice  was  not  coinmanding,  his  ges- 
tures were  few;  li<!  was  apt  to  keep  his  eye  fixed 
upon  one   spot  above   the    front   gallcrv  ui   his 


meeting-house :  but  many  of  his  sermons  were 
overwhelming.  He  w  rote  some  of  them  in  full 
Often  he  spoke  extempore,  oftener  from  brief 
but  suggestive  notes.  The  traditions  relating  to 
their  power  and  influence  appear  well-nigh  fabu- 
lous. 

In  1734-35  there  occurred  in  his  parish  a  "  great 
awakening  "  of  religious  feeling;  in  1740-41  oc- 
curred another,  which  extended  through  a  large 
part  of  New  England.  At  this  time  he  became 
specially  intimate  with  George  Whitefield.  Dur- 
ing these  exciting  scenes,  Mr.  Edwards  manifested 
the  rare  comprehensiveness  of  his  njind.  He  did 
not  favor  the  extravagances  attending  the  new 
measures  of  the  revivalists ;  but  he  felt  compelled 
to  advocate  the  principle  out  of  which  those  ex- 
travagances needlessly  sprang.  He  did  more, 
perhaps,  than  any  other  American  divine  in  pro- 
moting the  doctrinal  purity,  and  at  the  same 
time  quickening  the  zeal,  of  the  churches;  in 
restraining  them  from  fanaticism,  and  at  the 
same  time  stimulating  them  to  a  healthy  enthusi- 
asm. His  writings  were  in  his  own  day,  and  are 
in  our  day,  a  kind  of  classic  authority  for  dis- 
criminating between  the  warmth  of  sound  health 
and  the  heat  of  a  fever.  He  did  not  remain 
stationary,  like  the  centre  of  a  circle:  he  moved 
in  an  orbit  not  eccentric,  but  well-rounded  and 
complete. 

As  early  as  1744  he  preached  witli  great  ve- 
hemence against  certain  demoralizing  practices 
in  which  some  of  his  parishioners  indulged.  He 
offended  several  influential  families  by  his  method 
of  opposing  those  practices.  In  process  of  time 
he  became  convinced  that  his  grandfather,  Mr. 
Stoddard,  was  wrong  in  permitting  unconverted 
persons  to  partake  of  the  Lord's  Siijiper.  He 
feared,  that,  in  resisting  the  authority  of  Mr. 
Stoddard,  he  would  make  a  sacrifice  of  himself. 
He  followed  his  convictions :  he  made  the  sacri- 
fice. After  a  prolonged  and  earnest  controversy, 
he  was  ejected  from  the  pastorate  which  he  had 
adorned  for  more  than  twenty-three  years. 

In  .\ugiist,  17.")1,  about  a  year  after  his  dismi.s- 
sion  from  Northanipton,  Edwards  was  installed 
p.astor  of  the  small  Congregational  Chuivli  in 
.Stockbridge,  Mass.,  and  missionary  of  the  Hou- 
satonnuck  tribe  of  Indians  at  that  place.  Here 
he  was  in  the  wilderness.  He  was  s.adly  afflicted 
with  the  fever  and  ague  and  othi'r  disorders  inci- 
dent to  the  new  settlement.  His  labors  were 
interrupted  by  the  French  and  Indian  War.  He 
persevered,  however,  with  marked  fidelity  in  hii 
mission.  He  preached  to  tlie  Iinliaiis  through 
an  interpreter.  lie  gained  their  admiration  and 
their  love. 

While  living  in  a  kind  of  exile,  among  the  Indi- 
ans .at  Stockbridge,  he  was  invited  to  the  presi- 
dency of  the  college  at  Princeton,  N.J.  lie  was 
elected  to  the  ofllce  on  the  2Gth  of  .Septemlier, 
1757.  He  was  reluctant  to  accept  it;  but  finally 
yielded  to  the  advice  ot  othiM'S,  and  was  dismissed 
from  his  Stockbridge  jiastorate.  Jan.  4,  l'r>S, 
afteV  having  labored  in  it  six  years  and  a  half. 
He  spent  a  part  of  January  and  all  of  February 
at  Princeton,  iierforniing  .some  duties  at  the  col- 
lege, but  was  not  inaugurati'd  until  the  Kith  of 
February,  1758.  One  week  after  his  inaugura- 
tion he  was  inoculated  for  the  sniall-iiox.  After 
the  ordinary  effects  of  the  inoculation  had  nearly 


EDWARDS. 


699 


EDWARDS. 


subsided,  a  secondary  fever  supervened,  and  lie 
died  on  the  22d  of  Slarcli,  1758.  lie  had  tlien 
resided  at  Princeton  about  nine  weeks,  and  had 
lieen  the  inaugurated  president  of  the  college  just 
five  weeks.  His  age  was  fifty-four  years,  five 
months,  and  seventeen  days.  His  aged  father 
died  only  two  months  before  him.  His  son-in- 
law.  President  Burr,  died  in  his  forty-second  year, 
only  six  months  before  him.  His  daughter,  Mrs. 
President  Burr  (the  mother  of  Vice-President 
Burr),  died  in  her  twenty-seventh  year,  only  six- 
teen days  after  him.  His  wife  died  in  her  forty- 
ninth  year,  only  six  months  and  ten  days  after 
him. 

While  the  pastor  at  Northampton,  President 
Edwards  published  the  following  works:  God 
i/lor(fied  ill  Man's  Dependence,  1731 ;  A  Divine  and 
Supernatural  Lir/ht  Imparted  to  the  Soul  hy  the  Spirit 
of  God,  1734  (a  sermon  noted  for  its  spiritual 
philosophy ;  the  hearers  of  it  at  Northampton  re- 
quested it  for  the  press)  ;  Curse  ye  Meroz,  1735 ; 
A  Faithful  Narrative  of  the  Surprising  Work  of  God 
in  the  Conversion  of  many  Hundred  Souls  in  North- 
ampton, etc.,  London,  1736 ;  Five  Discourses  pre- 
fixed to  the  American  Edition  of  this  Narrative, 
1738;  Sinners  in  the  Hands  of  an  Angry  God,  1741 
{one  of  his  most  terrific  sermons;  frequently  re- 
published; severely  criticised  without  regard  to 
the  character  and  condition  of  the  persons  to 
wlioni  it  was  preached)  ;  Sorrows  of  the  Bereaved 
spread  before  Jesus,  17-11 ;  Distinguishing  3Ia)-ks  of 
a  Work  of  the  True  Spirit,  1741 ;  Thoughts  on  the 
Revival  in  New  England,  etc.,  1742;  the  Watch- 
man's Duty  and  Account,  1743  ;  The  True  Excellency 
of  a  Gospel  Minister,  1744;  A  Treatise  concerning 
Religious  Affections,  1746  (one  of  his  most  spirit- 
ual and  analytical  works ;  "  it  will  no  doubt 
always  be  considered  as  one  of  the  most  important 
guai'ds  against  a  spurious  religion  ")  ;  An  Humble 
Attempt  to  promote  E.rplicit  Agreement  and  Visible 
Union  among  God's  People  in  Extraordinary  Prayer, 
1746;  True  Saints  tvhen  Absent  from  the  Body  Pres- 
ent with  the  Lord,  1747;  God's  Aivful  Judgments  in 
breaking  the  Strong  Rods  of  the  Cominunity,  1748; 
Life  and  Diary  of  the  Rev.  David  Brainerd,  1749 
(a  volume  which  exerted  a  decisive  influence  on 
Henry  Martyn,  and  has  affected  the  missionary 
spirit  of  the  English  as  well  as  American  churches : 
Brainerd  was  a  beloved  pupil  of  Edwards,  and 
was  engaged  to  be  married  to  Edwards's  second 
daughter,  Jerusha)  ;  Christ  the  Example  of  Gospel 
Ministers,  1749;  Qualifications  for  Full  Communion 
in  the  Visible  Church,  1749  (a  treatise  of  great 
historical  not  less  than  theological  importance); 
Fareu'ell  Sermon  to  the  People  of  Northampton, 
17511.  After  he  had  left  his  first  pastorate,  his 
more  important  works  were  published;  some  of 
them  not  until  after  liis  death  :  Misrepresenta- 
tions Corrected,  and  Truth  Vindicated,  in  a  Reply  to 
Mr.  Solomon  Williams's  Book  on  Qualifications  for 
Communion,  to  tvhich  is  added  a  Letter  from  Mr. 
Edwards  to  his  Late  Flock  at  Northampton,  1752 ; 
True  Grace  distinguished  from  the  Experience  of 
Devils,  1752;  An  Essay  on  the  Freedom  oj'  the 
Will,  1754  (Dr.  Chalmers  said  that  he  recom- 
mended to  his  pupils  this  Treatise  on  the  Will 
"  more  strenuously  "  than  any  other  "  book  of 
human  composition ; "  and  he  added,  it  was  "  read 
by  me  forty-seven  years  ago,  with  a  conviction 
that  has  never  since  faltered,  and  which  has  helped 


me,  more  than  any  other  unin.spircil  book,  to  find 
my  way  through  all  that  migiit  otherwise  have 
proved  bafllingand  transcendental  and  mysterious 
in  the  peculiarities  of  Calvinism  ")  ;  The  Great 
Christian  Doctrine  of  Original  Sin  defended,  etc., 
1758 ;  Eighteen  Sermons  annexed  to  Dr.  Samuel 
Hopkins's  Memoir  of  Edwards,  1764  ;  History  of 
Redemption,  1772;  Dissertation  concerning  the  End 
for  which  God  created  the  World,  and  Dissertation 
concerning  the  Nature  of  True  Virtue,  1788 ;  Two 
New  Volumes  of  Sermons,  1789  and  1793;  Miscella- 
neous Observations  on  Important  Theological  Subjects, 
1793 ;  Renuirks  on  Important  Theological  Contro- 
versies, 1796;  Types  of  the  Messiah,' \H'2%  ;  Notes 
on  the  Bible,  1829  ;  Charity  and  its  Fruits,  1851 
(edited  by  Rev.  Dr.  Tryon  Edwards,  and  repub- 
lished in  1 872  under  the  title  of  Christian  Love  as 
Manifested  in  the  Heart  and  Life)  ;  Selections  from 
the  unpublished  writings  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  1865 
(edited  by  Rev.  Alexander  D.  Grosart.  See  Bihli- 
otheca  Scicra,  vol.  xxxviii.  pp.  147-187,  333-369). 

The  published  works  of  Edwards  were  collected, 
and  printed  in  eight  volumes,  at  Worcester,  Mass., 
under  the  editorship  of  Dr.  Samuel  Austin,  in 
1809.  A  larger  edition  of  his  writings,  in  ten 
volumes,  including  a  new  Memoir  and  much  new 
material,  was  published  at  New  York,  in  1829, 
under  the  editorial  care  of  Rev.  Dr.  Sereno  Ed- 
wards Dwight.  Some  of  Edwards's  writings 
were  originally  published,  and  many  of  them 
have  been  republished,  in  Great  Britain.  They 
have  been  collected  in  an  English  edition,  and 
published  by  Messrs.  Ogle  &  Murray,  Edinburgh. 
The  edition  more  commonly  used  in  the  United 
States  at  the  present  time  is  entitled  The  Works 
of  President  Edwards,  in  four  volumes  :  a  Reprint 
of  the  Worcester  Edition,  with  Valuable  Additions, 
and  a  Copious  Index,  New  York. 

The  works  of  Edwards  have  received  the  high- 
est encomiums  from  Dr.  John  Erskine,  DugaW 
Stewart,  Sir  Henry  Moncrief,  Dr.  Priestley,  Dr. 
Cieorge  Hill.  Isaac  Taylor,  and  other  British 
scholars.  Robert  Hall  says,  "I  consider  Jonathan 
Edwards  the  greatest  of  the  sons  of  men.  He 
ranks  with  the  brightest  luminaries  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  not  excluding  any  country  or  any 
age,  since  the  apostolic."  Sir  James  Mackintosh 
says  of  Edwards,  "This  remarkable  man,  the 
metaphysician  of  America.  .  .  .  His  power  of 
subtle  argument,  perhaps  untnatched,  certainly  U7t- 
surpassed,  among  men,  was  joined,  as  in  some  of 
the  ancient  mystics,  with  a  character  which  raised 
his  piety  to  fervor."  Robert  Morehead  says,  "Ed- 
wards comes  nearer  Bishop  Butler  as  a  philosophi- 
cal divine  than  any  other  theologian  wifh  whom 
we  are  acquainted.''  EDWARDS  a.  park. 

EDWARDS,  Jonathan,  the  Younger,  was  the 
second  son  and  ninth  child  of  Jonathan  Edwards 
the  Elder,  and  was  b.  at  Northampton.  ISIass., 
May  26,  1745.  In  17S8  he  said  of  himself, 
"  When  I  was  but  six  years  of  age,  my  father  re- 
moved with  his  family  to  Stockbridge,  which  at 
that  time  was  inhabited  b_v  Indians  almost  solely, 
as  there  were  in  the  town  but  twelve  families  of 
whites,  or  Anglo-.\mericans.  and  perhaps  one 
hundred  and  fifty  families  of  Indians.  The  In- 
dians being  the  nearest  neighbors,  I  constantly 
associated  with  them :  their  boys  were  my  daily 
schoolmates  and  playfellows.  Out  of  my  father's 
house  I  seldom  heard  any  language  spoken  but 


EDWARDS. 


700 


EDWARDS. 


the  Indian.  By  these  means  I  acquired  the 
knowledge  of  that  language,  and  a  great  facility 
in  speaking  it.  It  became  more  familiar  to  me 
than  my  mother-tongue.  I  knew  the  names  of 
some  things  in  Indian  that  I  did  not  know  in 
English.  Even  all  my  thoughts  ran  in  Indian; 
and,  though  the  true  pronunciation  of  the  lan- 
guage is  extremely  difficult  to  all  but  themselves, 
they  acknowledged  that  I  had  acquired  it  per- 
fectly, which,  as  they  said,  had  never  been  done 
before  by  any  Anglo-American.  On  account  of 
my  skill  in  their  language  in  general,  I  received 
from  them  many  compliments  applauding  my 
superior  wisdom.  This  skill  in  their  language  I 
have  in  a  good  measure  retained  to  this  day." 

The  elder  Edwards,  being  himself  a  missionary 
to  the  Indians,  intended  that  his  son  should  be 
one  also,  and  therefore  sent  him,  in  October, 
1755,  to  a  settlement  of  the  Oneida  Indians,  on 
the  banks  of  the  Susquehanna,  in  order  that  he 
might  learn  their  language.  At  this  time  the 
boy  was  not  eleven  years  old.  He  was  accom- 
panied by  his  father's  friend,  Rev.  Gideon  Haw- 
ley,  and  resided  about  six  months  in  the  family 
of  Mr.  Hawley,  the  noted  missionary  to  the 
Oneidas.  The  boy  endeared  himself  to  the 
Oneida  tribe ;  and  on  one  occasion,  when  they 
expected  an  attack  from  the  French,  the  Indians 
took  him  upon  their  shoulders,  and  bore  him 
many  miles  through  the  wilderness  to  a  place  of 
safety.  The  settlement  of  the  Oneidas  was  about 
one  hundred  miles  distant  from  any  English  set- 
tlement; but  young  Edwards  exhibited  a  rare 
degree  of  courage,  fortitude,  and  perseverance. 
lie  uttered  no  complaint,  when,  in  the  depth  of 
winter,  he  was  compelled  to  sleep  on  the  ground 
in  the  open  air.  lie  returned  to  Stockbridge  in 
175G,  and  resided  there  until  January,  17oS,  when 
his  father  removed  to  Princeton.  In  less  than 
ten  weeks  after  that  removal  the  father  died, 
and  in  less  than  seven  months  after  the  father's 
death  the  mother  died  ;  and  thus  in  his  fourteenth 
year  young  Edwards  was  left  an  orphan. 

He  entere<l  the  gr;inimar-school  at  Princeton  in 
February,  17*iU;  was  admitted  to  Princeton  Col- 
lege in  September,  17G1,  and  was  graduated  there 
in  September,  17(i.").  He  became  a  member  of 
the  church  in  17G:!,  studied  theology  with  Dr. 
.Joseph  Bellamy  in  1765-0(i,  and  was  "  appro- 
bated "  as  a  preacher,  in  October,  ]7(i<i,  l)y  the 
Litchfield  County  Association  in  Coiniecticut. 
In  liis  early  childhood  he  had  been  afflicted  with 
an  ocular  di.sease,  and  therefore  did  not  learn  to 
read  at  so  early  an  ago  as  liis  instincts  prompted. 
His  father's  ecclesiastical  troubles  deprived  him 
of  certain  facilities  for  his  education;  but  his 
native  power triumjOied  overall  discouragements. 
He  was  indefatigably  diligent  wliile  at  college; 
was  appointed  a  tutor  there  in  1707,  remained 
in  that  oflice  two  years,  and  received  an  appoint- 
ment (which,  liowever,  he  declined)  to  a  profess- 
orship of  languages  and  logic  in  the  college. 
On  the  5th  of  January,  170!),  lie  was  ordained 
as  pastor  of  an  important  ehurcli  in  New  Haven, 
Conn.  Ho  n-maineil  in  tliis  office  more  than 
twenty-.six  years.  .Several  members  of  Ids  church 
were  advocat<?H  of  the  ••  Half-way  Covenant:  "  lie 
opposed  it.  His  pastorate  was  also  disturbed  by 
the  spiritu.al  re-action  which  had  followed  the 
"great  awakening"  in  17'10-42,  and  by  the  de- 


moralizing influences  of  the  Revolutionary  War. 
The  result  was  his  dismission  from  his  pastorate 
on  the  19th  of  May,  1795. 

In  .January,  1796,  he  was  installed  pastor  of 
the  church  in  Colebrook,  Conn.  Here  he  de- 
sired and  intended  to  pass  tlie  residue  of  his  life. 
His  parishioners  were  intelligent,  affectionate, 
and  confiding.  They  gave  him  leisure  to  pursue 
his  theological  and  philosophical  inquiries.  In 
May,  1799,  however,  he  was  elected  president  of 
Union  College,  Schenectady,  N.Y.  As  he  had 
declined  a  professorship  at  Princeton,  so  he  was 
prompted  to  decline  the  presidency  of  Union 
College.  He  applied  to  an  ecclesiastical  council 
for  advice  :  the  advice  was  in  favor  of  his  re- 
moval. He  was  therefore  dismissed  in  June, 
and  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  presidency  in 
July,  1799.  He  discharged  his  duties  with  his 
accustomed  fidelity.  His  reputation  as  a  philoso- 
pher gave  him  an  uncommon  influence  over  his 
pupils,  and  his  skill  as  a  teacher  heightened  his 
reputation  as  a  philosopher.  He  remained  in 
this  office,  however,  but  a  short  time.  About 
the  middle  of  .July,  1801,  he  was  attacked  by  an 
intermittent  fever,  and  on  the  1st  of  August, 
1801,  he  died.  A  sermon  was  preached  at  Sche- 
nectady, on  occasion  of  .his  death,  by  liis  friend 
Rev.  Robert  Smith  of  Savannah ;  another  ser- 
mon was  preached  at  New  Haven  by  President 
Timothy  Uwight. 

The  college  at  Princeton  conferred  on  Mr. 
Edwards  the  degree  of  D.I).  ;  hence  he  is  usually 
styled  ■'  Dr.  "  Edwards,  in  distinction  from  his 
father,  who  is  styled  "  President"  Edwards. 

As  a  theological  teacher  Dr.  Edwards  was 
eminently  successful.  He  was  powerful  in  his 
conversation  with  his  pupils,  a  prince  among 
disputants.  Several  of  his  scholars  in  theology 
rose  to  eminence.  One  of  them  was  his  nephew, 
Timothy  Dwight,  President  of  Yale  College;  an- 
other was  Dr.  Edward  Dorr  Griffin,  President  of 
Williams  College ;  still  another  was  Dr.  Samuel 
Austin,  President  of  Burlington  College.  Each 
of  these  pi'esi<lents  V)ore  hearty  testimony  to  his 
faithfulness  and  skill  as  a  teacher.  Among  his 
otlier  pupils  were  Dr.  Samuel  Nott  and  Dr. 
.ledediah  Morse. 

One  great  work  of  Dr.  Edwards's  life  was  his 
editorship  of  his  father's  writings.  He  Wiis  an 
early  and  confidential  friend  of  Dr.  Joseph 
Bellamy  and  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins.  From  them, 
especially  from  the  latter,  he  obtained  many  nice 
discriminations  in  regard  to  the  President's  theo- 
ries. He  studied  the  President's  writings  with 
great  assiduity.  He  prepared  for  the  press  the 
President's  Ili.itoi-)/  of  Ike  Work  of  Itedeynption, 
also  his  Miscellaneous  Observatiotis  on  Imporkint 
Tkcoloffical  Subjects,  his  Remarks  on  Important 
T heolnijicnl  Controversies,  and  two  volumes  of 
Sermons.  After  careful  study  of  liis  father's 
doctrinal  system,  as  that  system  was  modified  by 
Hopkins,  Bellamy,  Smalley,  and  others,  Dr.  Ed- 
wards w.as  well  fitted  to  write  his  noted  jiaper  on 
the  Jmjirovetnenls  in  Tliinloijil  mailc  lii/  I'resiiliitl 
Kdwnrds  and  those  who  hare  follim-ed  his  Course  of 
Thou(jhl.  It  is  in  his  ]iublishe(l  works  that  the 
influence  of  Dr.  Edwards  has  been  most  con- 
spicuous. While  he  w-as  .at  Colebrook  he  puli- 
lished,  in  1797,  A  Dissertation  concerninrj  Liberti) 
and  Necessity,  in   Reptij  to  the   Rev.   Dr.   Samuel 


EDTVARDS. 


701 


EGBERT. 


Wesl.  Perhaps  this  volume  is  the  fairest  expo- 
nent yet  given  of  President  Edwards's  theory  of 
the  will. 

Dr.  Edwards  published  a  large  number  of  ar- 
ticles in  The  New  York  Tkeolorjical  Mrir/a:ine,  over 
the  signatures  "I"  and  "O."  He  also  published 
many  sermons  :  one  in  1783,  at  the  ordination  of 
Rev.  Timothy  Dwight,  at  Greenfield,  Conn.  ;  one 
in  1791,  on  the  Injustice  and  Impolicy  of  the 
Slave-trade  (Dr.  Edwards,  like  his  friend  Hop- 
kins, was  an  early  opponent  of  the  slave  system)  ; 
one  in  1791,  on  Human  Depravity;  one  in  1792, 
at  the  ordination  of  Rev.  Dan  Bradley,  at  Hamp- 
den ;  one  in  1792,  at  the  ordination  of  Rev. 
William  Brown  at  Glastenbury ;  one  in  1792 
(Concio  ad  Clerum),  preached  in  the  chapel  of 
Yale  College,  on  the  Marriage  of  a  Deceased 
Wife's  Sister;  one  in  1793,  on  the  Death  of  Roger 
Sherman;  an  Election  Sermon,  in  1791;  a  Sermon 
on  the  Future  State  of  Existence,  and  the  Immor- 
tality of  the  Soul,  in  1797 ;  and  a  Farewell  Ser- 
mon to  the  people  of  Colebrook,  in  1799.  The  most 
celebrated  of  his  discourses  are  the  three  On  the 
Necessitij  of  the  Atonement,  and  its  Consistenci/  with 
Free  Grace  in  Forgiveness.  They  were  "  preached 
before  liis  Excellency  the  Governor,  and  a  large 
number  of  both  Houses  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  of  Connecticut,  during  their  sessions  at 
New  Haven,  in  October,  17'S5,  and  published  by 
request."  They  have  been  frequently  repub- 
lished ;  and  they  form  the  basis  of  that  theory  of 
the  atonement  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
"Edwardean  theory,"  and  is  now  commonly 
adopted  by  what  is  termed  the  "  New-England 
school  of  divines."  Closely  connected  with  this 
volume  was  another,  entitled  The  Salcation  of 
all  Men  strictly  examined,  and  the  Endless  Pun- 
ishmetit  of  those  who  die  impenitent,  argued  and 
defended  against  the  Reasoriings  of  Dr.  Chaunceg  in 
his  book  entitled  "  The  Salvation  of  all  Men."  This 
•work  was  originally  published  in  1789,  but  has 
been  frequently  republished.  It  exhiliits  a  singu- 
lar acuteness  of  mind,  a  depth  of  penetration,  a 
rare  precision  of  thought  and  style.  In  1788  he 
published  a  paper  which  established  his  fame 
as  a  philologist,  and  has  elicited  the  enthusiastic 
praises  of  Humboldt.  This  work  is  entitled 
Observations  on  the  Lanriuage  of  the  Muhhehaneew 
Indians,  in  which  the  Extent  of  that  Language  in 
North  America  is  shown,  its  Genius  grammatiralhj 
traced,  and  some  of  its  Peculiarities,  and  some  In- 
stances of  Analogg  between  that  and  the  Hebren;  are 
pointed  out.  These  observations  were  "  communi- 
cated to  the  Connecticut  Society  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  and  published  at  the  request  of  the 
Society."  One  of  the  most  accomplished  of 
American  linguists,  Hon.  John  Pickering,  who, 
edited  one  edition  of  this  paper,  says  of  it,  "  The 
work  has  been  for  some  time  well  known  in 
Europe,  where  it  has  undoubtedly  contributed  to 
the  diffusion  of  more  just  ideas  than  once  pre- 
vailed respecting  tlie  structure  of  the  Indian 
languages,  and  has  served  to  correct  some  of  the 
errors  into  which  learned  men  had  been  led  by 
placing  too  implicit  confidence  in  the  accounts  of 
hasty  travellers  and  blundering  interpreters.  In 
the  Mithridates,  that  immortal  monument  of 
philological  research.  Professor  Vater  refers  to  it 
for  the  information  he  has  given  upon  the  Mohe- 
gan  language,  and  he  has  published  large  extracts 


from  it.  To  a  perfect  familiarity  with  the  Muh- 
hekaneew  dialect.  Dr.  Edwards  united  a  .stock 
of  grammatical  and  other  learning  which  well 
qualified  him  for  the  task  of  reducing  an  un- 
written language  to  the  rules  of  grammar." 

Nearly  all  of  Dr.  Edwards's  published  writings 
were  collected  and  reprinted  in  two  octavo 
volumes,  each  of  above  five  hundred  pages,  in 
1812.  Rev.  Tryon  Edwards,  D.D.,  edited  them, 
and  prefixed  to  them  a  Memoir. 

Dissimilar  as  the  two  Edwardses  were  in  some, 
they  were  similar  to  each  other  in  many,  respects. 
Dr.  Samuel  Miller  of  Princeton  says,  "  The  son 
greatly  resembled  his  venerable  father  in  meta- 
physical acuteness,  in  ardent  piety,  and  in  the 
purest  exemplariness  of  Christian  deportment." 
The  son,  like  the  father,  was  a  tutor  in  the  college 
where  he  had  been  a  student;  was  first  ordained 
over  a  i^rominent  church  in  the  town  where  his 
maternal  grandfather  had  been  the  jiastor;  was 
dismissed  on  account  of  his  doctrinal  opinions; 
was  afterwards  the  minister  of  a  retired  parish; 
was  then  president  of  a  college  ;  and  died  at  ihf- 
age  of  about  fifty-five  years,  soon  after  his  inaugu- 
ration. His  Memoir  states  that  both  father  and 
son  preached,  on  the  first  sabbath  of  the  January 
preceding  their  death,  from  the  text,  "  This  year 
thou  shalt  die."  EDWARDS  A.  PARK. 

EDWARDS,  Justin,  D.D.,  b.  in  Westhampton. 
Mass.,  April  25,  1787;  d.  at  Virginia  Springs^ 
July  23,  1853.  He  was  settled  in  the  ministry  at 
Andover,  Mass.,  1812-28;  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  Tract  Society  at  Boston,  1814;  and  in 
1825,  with  fifteen  others,  founded  the  American 
.Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Temperance,  of 
which  he  was,  from  1829  to  1836,  the  efficient 
secretary.  Fi'om  1837  to  1842  he  was  president 
of  the  seminary  at  Andover.  In  the  latter  year 
he  became  secretary  of  the  American  and  Foreign 
Christian  Union.  He  was  the  author  of  numer- 
ous popular  tracts,  and  a  work  upon  The  Satihath. 
For  several  years  he  was  engaged  upon  a  com- 
pendious Bible  commentary,  of  which  the  New 
Testament  was  finished ;  and  the  first  volume  of 
the  Old  Testament  was  in  the  press  of  the  Ameri- 
can Tract  Society,  Boston,  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  See  William  A.  Hallock  :  Life  and  La- 
Imrs  of  the  Rev.  Justin  Edwards,  D.D.,  N.Y.,  1856. 

EDZARDI,  Ezra,  b.  at  Hamburg,  June  28, 1029; 
d.  there  Jan.  1,  17(l8;  studied  at  Leipzig,  AVit- 
tenberg,  and  Tubingen,  and  more  especially  at 
Basel,  under  Buxtorf.  On  his  return  to  Hamburg 
he  declined  to  accept  any  office,  and  lived  as  a 
private  teacher  of  Hebrew,  and  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Jews.  In  both  respects  he  was  very 
successful.  His  fame  as  a  Hebrew  scholar  drew 
pupils  to  his  school  from  all  Germany.  Most  of 
his  writings  still  remain  in  manuscript.  See 
McELLK-R -.^ Cimbria  lilerata.  III.  p.  221  ;  CJleiss  : 
E.  E.  ein  alter  Jiidenfreunil,  Hamburg,  1871. — 
His  youngest  son,  Sebastian  Edzardi,  b.  at  Ham- 
burg, Aug.  1,  1673,  d.  there  June  10,  1736,  suc- 
ceeded him  as  teacher  and  missionary,  but  became 
more  noticeable  as  a  jiolemist  against  the  Re- 
formed Church.  Several  of  his  books  were 
publicly  burnt  at  Berlin.  See  Mceller  :  Cimbria 
literata^l.  147-151. 

EFFECTUAL  CALLING.     See  Call. 

EGBERT,  St.,  b.  in  Northumbria  [639]:  d. 
at  Ily  [April  24],  729;  was  monk  in  the  monas- 


EGBERT. 


702 


EGEDE. 


tery  of  Rathmelsigi.  and  made,  when  smitten  by 
the"  plague  (6i4),  the  vow,  that,  if  he  recovered, 
he  would  go  to  foreign  countries  to  preach  the 
gospel  to  the  Pagans.  lie  recovered,  and  imme- 
diately set  out  for  Germany,  but  was  by  storm 
compelled  to  return,  and  settled  in  the  monastery 
of  Hy.  Thence  he  sent  out  AVictbert  and  twelve 
others  missionaries  to  Friesland,  and  contributed 
much  to  stimulate  the  missionary  zeal  of  the 
Scoto-Irish  Cliurch.  In  Hy  lie  persuaded  the 
monks  to  adopt  the  Roman  calculation  of  Easter 
and  the  Roman  tonsure.  See  Bed.\  :  Hisl.  Ecct. 
Angl..  III.  27.  V.  10,  11.  23.  HERZOG. 

EGBERT,  or  ECGBERT,  Archbishop  of  York, 
a  pupil  and  friend  of  Bede,  was  first  teacher  in 
the  cathedral  school  of  York,  and  brought  it  into 
a  flourishing  condition  by  his  talent  and  learn- 
ing. Among  his  pupils  were  Alcuin  and  Albert. 
In  731  he  was  made  Bishop  of  York:  and  in 
735  York  was  made  an  archiepiscopal  see,  with 
metropolitan  authority  over  all  bishoprics  north 
of  the  Humber.  He  continued,  however,  his 
activity  as  teacher  in  the  school  till  liis  death, 
767.  Alcuin  he  appointed  librarian  of  the  library 
he  founded,  and  also  his  successor  as  teacher. 
He  left  a  collection  of  canonical  prescriptions : 
De  jure  saccrdotali,  of  which,  however,  only  frag- 
ments are  still  extant;  Dlalofjux  de  ecclesiaxlifa- 
institutionis ;  De  remediis  peccatorum,  \\Toha\y\y  an 
extract  from  the  first-mentioned  work  made  by 
another  hand,  —  all  to  be  found  in  Mansi,  XII. 
The  peniteutials  ascribed  to  him  are  not  by 
liim.  HERZOG. 

EGEDE,  Hans,  the  apostle  of  the  Greenlanders, 
b.  at  Senjen,  in  the  northern  part  of  Norway, 
Jan.  31,  1680;  d.  at  Stubbekjcebing  in  the  Danish 
island  of  Falster,  Nov.  5,  1758 ;  studied  theology 
in  tlie  University  of  Copenhagen,  and  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  AVaagen,  one  of  the  Lofoten 
Islands,  1707.  In  the  same  year  ho  married 
Gertrude  Rask.  From  his  brother-in-law.  a 
whaler  from  Bergen,  he  heard  that  the  south- 
western part  of  (ireenland  was  inhabited  by 
heathen  savages;  and  the  reading  of  old  Nor- 
wegian chronicles  made  him  believe  that  these 
heathen  savages  were  descendants  of  former 
Norwegian  colonists.  Greenland  was,  indeed, 
discovered  by  Pagan  Norsemen  from  Iceland  in 
the  tenth  century ;  and,  the  natives  having  been 
pushed  towards  the  interior,  a  flourishing  colony 
was  founded  on  tlie  .south-western  coast.  Under 
Olaf  the  Saint,  about  1000,  Christianity  was  in- 
troduced in  this  colony.  In  1055  an  itinerant 
bishop  was  establislied  there  by  the  archbishop 
of  Bremen,  and  in  1125  a  fixed  episcopal  .see  was 
founded  by  tlie  Archbishop  of  lyund.  Sixteen 
congregations,  with  their  churciies  and  several 
large  monasteries,  belonged  to  the  diocese.  But 
in  1318  tlie  wliole  of  .Scandinavia  was  scourged 
by  the  "  black  deatli ;  "  and  .so  comjiletcly  was  the 
mother-country  jiaralyzed.  tliat  all  (^omniunica- 
tion  with  the  colony  in  Greenland  immediately 
stopped.  For  lialf  a  century  the  colony  strove? 
along  as  best  it  could;  but  the  natives  took 
advantage  of  its  insulation,  and  attacked  it  time 
lifter  time.  The  last  authentic  re])ort  which 
reached  Norway  from  it  dates  from  MIO.  In  tin; 
sixteenth  and  sevenU-'eritli  century  the  Danish 
kings,  Norway  being  at  that  time  united  with 
Denmark,  tried  to  vindicate  their  riglits  to  the 


country,  and  establish  mercantile  connections: 
but  the  attempts  failed.  The  real  reconqueror 
of  the  country  was  Hans  Egede.  He  had  made 
up  his  mind  that  he  would  go  thither,  and  preach 
the  gospel  to  the  heathen  savages ;  and  he  real- 
ized his  plan  in  spite  of  all  difficulties.  He  first 
addressed  the  bishops  of  Bergen  and  Drontheim, 
the  newly  established  committee  of  missions  in 
Copenhagen,  and  the  king  himself  (Frederik  IV.), 
without  obtaining  any  thing  but  bland  words. 
Understanding  that  he  had  to  take  the  whole 
task  upon  himself,  or  leave  it  undone,  he  resigned 
his  position  in  Waagen,  1717,  and  went,  with  wife 
and  children,  to  Bergen.  By  combining  a  mer- 
cantile enterjirise  with  his  missionary  project  he 
succeeded  in  forming  a  company  willing  to  sup- 
port him:  and  May  3,  1721,  he  left  Bergen  on 
board  the  vessel  "  Hope,"  and  started  for  Green- 
land with  his  family.  In  the  last  moment  he 
received  notice  from  Copenhagen  that  the  king 
would  contribute  three  hundred  dollars  a  year. 

July  3,  1721,  Egede  landed  on  the  south-western 
coast  of  Greenland;  and  he  was  immediately  met 
with  a  disappointment,  as  the  heathen  savages 
turned  out  to  be  Esquimaux,  and  not  at  all  de- 
j  scendants  of  the  old  Norwegian  colonists.  A 
settlement  w-as  made,  however,  at  Godl-Haab 
I  (•■  Good  Hope"),  and  the  work  was  begun.  The 
j  Greenlanders  proved  ignorant  and  stupid,  kind 
!  but  shy,  and  the  tradesmen  scared  them  away. 
Only  through  the  intercourse  between  his  own 
children  and  theirs  was  Egede  able  to  come  into 
relations  with  them,  to  learn  their  language, 
and  to  induce  them  to  listen  to  him.  Neverthe- 
less, already  (in  1723)  a  new  settlement  could  be 
made;  and  Luther's  catechism  was  translated 
into  the  native  tongue.  But  in  1727  the  trading 
company  of  Bergen  dissolved;  in  1730  Frederik 
IV.  died ;  and  in  1731  Egede  received  notice 
that  the  royal  supjiort  would  be  withdrawn,  and 
tliat  all  Europeans  should  return  home  immedi- 
j  ately,  or  remain  lui  their  own  risk.  Egede  hesi- 
tated; but  when  the  Greenlanders  themselves 
implored  him  to  stay,  and  his  wife  consented,  he 
remained.  Tlie  new  king,  liowever(Christian  VI.), 
belonged  to  the  Pietists,  and  when  Count  Zinzen- 
dorf  came  to  Copenhagen  he  easily  induced  the 
king  to  renew  the  support :  only  it  was  for  the 
future  to  be  divided  with  another  mission,  sent 
out  by  the  Moravian  Brethren ;  and  with  this 
mission  Egede  could  not  work  in  harmony.  But 
the  troubles  thus  arising  were  .soon  forgotten  for 
that  horrible  calamity  which  befell  the  country 
in  1735.  A  Greenlander  lad  returning  from 
Co]ienliagen  brought  the  small-pox  with  liiin ; 
and  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  more  than 
three  tiiousand  people  died.  The  misery  was 
unspeakalile.  The  settlements  were  transformed 
to  graveyards.  Egede's  wife  died.  He  himself 
lield  out  heroically  as  long  ;is  the  hardshiiKS  de- 
manded his  exertions;  but  when  all  was  over 
lie  felt  liimself  a  broken  man.  July  21),  1730, 
he  ])reaclied  his  faniwell  sermon,  intrusted  the 
work  to  his  son  Paul,  and  returned  to  Coi)en- 
hageii.  In  Denmark  the  Greenland  ini.ision  had 
in  the  mean  time  awakened  much  interest.  A 
seminary  for  the  education  of  fit  laborers  was 
established,  and  Egede  was  made  its  director. 
In  1717,  however,  he  retired  to  .Stubbekjo'bing ; 
but  he  continued  to  labor  for  iiis  life-work  till 


BGINHARD. 


703 


EGYPT. 


his  death.  His  son,  Paul  Egede,  remained  in 
Greenland  till  1740,  wrote  a  Greenland  grammar 
and  dictionary,  and  translated  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Greenland.  The  Greenland  mission 
was  afterwards  never  abandoned  by  the  Danish 
Government;  and,  though  the  zeal  slackened 
somewhat  during  the  rationalistic  period  (1790- 
ISliO),  the  Christian  Church  in  Greenland  is  at 
present  in  a  flourishing  condition.  There  are  no 
more  heathen  in  the  country. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  archives  of  the  CoUegii 
<le  Cursu  Evancjdii  Propn(/iin<!o,  in  Copenhagen, 
Oronlands  hisloriski;  Mhuli-siiKerker,  Copenhagen, 
1S42— 15.  [One  of  Egede's  diaries  has  been 
translated  into  English :  A  Description  of  Green- 
laml,  1745.]  See  also  Kalkar:  Die  ilunische 
Mission  und  die  Kirche  in  Gronland,  1867;  [II.  M. 
FiiNGER:  Bitrag  til  Hans  Egedes  og  den  Gron- 
landske  Missions  Historie  1721-60  efler  trykte  og 
iilri/kle  Kilder,  Copenhagen,  1879  ;  E.  Beauvois  : 
Origene  et  fondation  du  plus  ancien  e'oeche  du  nou- 
vean  monde,  le  diocese  <le  Gardhs  en  Groenland  986- 
1126.  Paris,  1879,  16  pp.].  A.  MICHELSEN. 

EGINHARD,  or  EINHARD,  b.  in  Franconia 
about  770;  d.  at  Seligenstadt,  March  14,  844; 
was  educated  at  the  court  of  Charlemagne,  a 
pupil  of  Alcuiu ;  acted  first  as  secretary  to  the 
emperor,  and  superintendent  of  public  buildings 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  then  as  tutor  to  the  children 
of  Louis  le  Debonnaire,  and  retired  finally  to  tlie 
monastery  which  he  had  founded  at  Seligenstadt, 
near  Mlililheim,  on  the  Rhine.  lie  wrote  a  life 
of  Charlemagne,  which  is  invaluable  for  the  gen- 
eral history  of  the  age,  and  of  great  interest  also 
to  church  history.  He  left  seventy-one  letters, 
and  a  minor  essay,  De  adoranda  cruce,  which  now 
is  lost.  His  works  have  been  edited  by  Teulet, 
Paris,  1840-43,  and  by  Jaffe,  in  Monumenla  Caro- 
lina, Berlin,  1867. 

EGLINUS,  Raphael  (Latin  Iconius),  b.  at  Riis- 
sickon,  in  the  canton  of  Zurich,  Dec.  28,  1559 ; 
d.  at  Marburg,  Aug.  20,  1622  ;  studied  at  Zi-irich, 
Geneva,  and  Basel ;  settled  as  a  teacher  at  Bon- 
ders, in  the  Veltlin,  in  Lombardy,  but  was  com- 
pelled, like  all  other  Protestants,  to  leave  the  place 
in  1586 ;  was  made  professor  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Ziirich,  1592;  and  was  called  to  Marburg 
in  1606  as  professor  of  theology.  He  was  an 
enthusiastic  student  of  alcliemy ;  and  it  was  his 
reputed  proficiency  in  that  art  which  procured 
for  him  the  call  to  Marburg.  In  other  respects, 
too,  he  was  inclined  to  a  fanciful  mysticism.  He 
wrote,  in  defence  of  the  Kosicrucians,  Assertio 
fraternitatis  R.  C,  1618,  and  also  Meerwunder- 
ische  Prophezeihung,  etc.,  1611,  in  which,  from  the 
peculiar  appearance  of  a  herring  caught  in  Nor- 
way in  1598,  he  believed  himself  able  to  discover 
the  secrets  of  the  future.  He  is  of  interest  in 
church  history,  however,  on  account  of  the  influ- 
ence he  exercised  on  the  Hessian  theologians: 
gradually  bringing  them  over  from  the  stand- 
point of  Melanchthon  to  that  of  Calvin.  His 
two  principal  theological  works  are,  besides  a 
number  of  disputations,  theses,  etc.,  Diexodus 
theolog.  de  magna  illo  insiliones  noslrce  in  Christum 
mysterio,  and  Dis/mt.  theol.  de  foedere  gratice.  A 
list  of  all  his  works  is  found  in  Strieder:  Hess. 
Gelehrten-Geschichle,  III.  pp.  301-318.     HEPPE. 

EG'LON  {calf,  calf-like).  I.  A  king  of  the 
Moabites  who  made  an  alliance  with  the  Ammon- 


ites and  Amalekites,  subjugated  Israel,  and  kept 
them  in  bondage  for  eighteen  years  (Judg.  iii. 
14).  He  resided  at  Jericho,  and  was  assassinated 
there  by  Ehud. 

II.  An  Amorite  town  conquered  by  .Toshua, 
and  allotted  to  .Judah  (Jo.sh.  x.  3-5,  xv.  39). 
Ruins  of  it  were  found  ten  miles  north-east  of 
Gaza,  covering  a  hill,  now  called  Ajlon,  and  situ- 
ated among  cornfields  and  tobacco-plantations. 

EGYPT,  Ancient.  Name.  — The  name  KlyvTrroc 
is  u.sed  by  Homer  both  of  the  country  and  of  the 
river  which  has  formed  the  country,  the  Nile. 
Some  have  derived  it  from  a  Sheniitic  root,  guph  ; 
others,  from  a  San.scrit,  dgupta :  but  as  it  occur.s 
only  among  the  Greeks,  and  peoples  connected 
with  the  Greeks,  its  Greek  origin  seems  certain, 
though  no  root  has  been  found  for  it  in  the  Greek 
language.  The  native  name  was  Keme,  repre- 
sented hieroglyphically  with  the  ideographic  char- 
acter of  the  crocodile-tail.  It  means  "  black." 
both  in  the  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  and  in  the 
Coptic  language.  Egypt  was  thus  called  "  the 
black  country,"  not  on  account  of  the  color  of 
the  skin  of  its  inhabitants,  for  that  was  red  and 
not  black,  but  on  account  of  the  color  of  its 
soil ;  the  floods  of  the  Nile  covering  the  bottom  of 
the  valley  with  a  black  mud,  and  thereby  distin- 
guishing the  fertile  fields  from  the  surrounding 
deserts.  Herodotus  noticed  that  the  soil  of  Egypt 
resembles  neither  that  of  Arabia  nor  tliat  of 
Libya,  but  is  black  from  the  mud  which  the  river 
carries  down  with  it  from  Ethiopia.  The  native 
name  has  often  been  brought  into  connection  with 
the  Hebrew  name  Ham,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
sons  of  Noah,  the  progenitor  of  the  Hamites. 
But  the  Hebrew  root  ham  means  "hot,"  and  not 
"black;"  though  tlie  Hebrew  Ham,  like  tlie  Greek 
.\ithiops,  was  used  as  a  general  designation  of  the 
hot  southern  countries.  The  common  Hebrew  des- 
ignation of  Egypt  was  MnsOr,  or  more  fi'equently 
the  dual  form  Mitsragim,  from  Malsar,  to  enclose 
or  to  watch  over.  Originally  this  name  was  pi-oba- 
bly  used  only  for  the  capital,  that  is,  Meujphis, 
just  as,  in  our  days,  Cairo  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
HI  Masr.  The  dual  form  referred  to  the  division 
into  Lpper  and  Lower  Egyi't,  not  to  the  two  banks 
of  the  Nile.  From  the  hieroglyphics  it  is  evi-  ' 
dent  that  the  Egyptians  always  considered  their 
coxmtry  as  double  or  divided ;  the  division  into 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt  being  not  simply  geo- 
graphical or  political,  but  historical,  manifesting 
itself  in  the  language,  customs,  and  worship  of 
the  two  peoples.  The  cuneiform  inscriptions  show 
that  Masr  was  generally  used  in  .Vsia  as  name 
for  Egypt. 

Country.  —  Eg}'])t,in  the  narrower  sense  of  the 
word,  comprises  only  the  Valley  of  the  Nile  from 
the  first  cataract  to  the  IMediterranean,  between 
24°  6'  and  31°  36'  N.  Lat.  So  far  as  the  river 
runs  along  undivided,  the  average  breadth  of  the 
valley  is  only  about  six  miles,  though  occasionally 
it  widens  to  about  sixteen  miles ;  but  at  30* 
N.  Lat.  both  the  walls  enclosing  the  valley  retreat 
to  the  east  and  to  the  west,  and  the  river  divides 
into  several  arms,  and  forms  the  low  fertile  plain 
of  the  Delta.  Surrounded  on  the  north  by  the 
sea,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  immense  deserts, 
the  long  narrow  strip  of  fertile  and  inhabited 
country  forms  an  oasis,  whose  perfectly  secluded 
position  has  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  the 


EGYPT. 


ro4 


EGYPT, 


development  of  the  Egvptian  people.  The  two 
high  walls  enclosing  the  valley  are  often,  but 
wrongly,  described  as  two  mountain-ranges  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  river.  They  are  simply 
abrupt  cleavages  in  the  elevated  stone  plateau  of 
the  desert,  through  which  the  Nile  has  carved 
a  deep  furrow  for  its  bed.  Only  at  a  distance  of 
several  days'  journey  to  the  east  is  the  level  sur- 
face of  the  desert  broken  by  a  real  mountain- 
range,  which  runs  parallel  with  the  coast  of  the 
Red  Sea,  and  of  which  several  peaks  rise  about 
six  thousand  feet.  This  broad  stretch  of  land 
between  the  Xile  ^■  alley  and  the  Red  Sea  has 
always  been  considered  a  part  of  Kg-j-pt,  as  have 
also  the  oases  in  the  western  desert,  so  far  as 
they  can  be  reached  from  the  Xile  Valley.  To 
the  south  the  first  cataract,  formed  between  the 
Islands  of  Elephantine  and  Philfe  by  a  ledge  of 
granite  stretching  east  to  west  for  many  miles, 
and  absolutely  interrupting  all  navigation,  has 
always  formed  a  national  and  linguistic  boundai-y, 
separating  in  old  times  Egypt  from  Ethiopia,  as 
it  now  separates  Egypt  from  Xubia.  On  the 
western  boundary  of  the  Delta  lived  the  Libyan 
people  ;  and  near  tliis  frontier  lay,  in  the  Delta,  the 
principal  part  of  the  country  in  the  oldest  times, 
as  later  on.  To  the  east,  Egj'pt  communicated 
with  Syria  and  Palestine  by  a  route  along  the 
desert  coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  "  River 
of  Egypt,"  the  present  Wadi-el-Arish,  which  runs 
through  the  northern  part  of  the  Sinaitic  penin- 
sula, formed  the  boundai'y  between  Egypt  and 
Palestine ;  and  at  its  issue  in  the  Jlediterranean 
lay  the  Egj'ptian  frontier  fortress  Pelusium. 

The  climate  is  different  in  different  parts.  The 
Deita  near  the  sea  has  the  common  coast-climate 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  rain  is  not  rare  ;  while 
in  the  Thebaid  not  a  cloud  is  seen  on  the  sky  all 
the  year  round.  The  fertility  of  the  country 
depends  altogether  on  the  floods  of  the  Xile, 
whose  regulation  and  utilization  are  and  always 
have  been  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  wel- 
fare of  the  people.  In  the  southernmost  ]>art  of 
Egypt  the  flood  does  not  now  reach  tlu^  height  of 
the  banks  any  more ;  and  there,  as  in  Xubia,  the 
water  has  to  Ije  raised  l>y  means  of  wat«r-wheels. 
The  annual  rise  of  the  Xile  is  caused  by  long 
protracted  rains  regularly  occurring  in  the  tropi- 
cal highlands  between  1°  and  16°  X.  Lat.  The 
flood  reaches  the  first  cataract  in  the  middle  of 
June,  and  the  Delta  at  the  end  of  June.  The 
water  rises  during  three  months :  at  the  end  of 
the  second  month  the  dams  are  cut  in  Upper 
Egypt,  a  month  later  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  the 
waters  are  let  in  over  the  fields.  At  the  end  of 
September  the  wat<>rs  retreat;  in  the  course  of 
October  the  ground  becomes  dry,  and  is  sown ; 
towards  the  close  of  March  the  harvest  hegitis,  the 
river  decreasing  all  the  whili'  until  June,  when  a 
new  rotation  begins.  Egypt  has  thus  only  three 
seasons,  each  of  four  months,  —  the  water-season, 
June-September;  the  gardening  .season,  October- 
•lanuary;  and  the  harvest-season,  February-May. 

Egypt  was  in  antiquity  famous  for  its  gieat 
fertility.  It  wa,s  the  granary  of  all  the  neighbor- 
ing countries.  Abr.ahaiii  and  the  sons  of  Jacob 
were  attracU.-d  thither  V>y  its  richness  in  grain 
(Gen.  xii.  10,  xlii.  1,  xliii.  2).  But,  besides  corn, 
also  other  kinds  of  food  aboun<icd.  The  ohililrcn 
of  Israel  longed  for  the  fle.sh-pots  of  Egypt  (Exod. 


xvi.  .3),  and  for  its  fish,  cucumbers,  melons,  leeks, 
onions,  and  garlic  (Xum.  xi.  5).  Pictorial  repre- 
sentations on  its  monuments  bear  witness  to  its 
richness  in  cattle,  sheep,  goats,  swine,  game,  wine, 
figs,  fruits,  and  vegetables  of  all  kinds.  In  a 
tomb  near  the  Pyi-amids  of  Memphis  83.5  cows, 
220  calves,  760  asses,  974  sheep,  and  2,23.5  goats 
are  enumerated  as  belonging  to  the  interred  per- 
son. Among  the  plants  growing  in  the  country 
the  papyrus  and  the  lotus  were  especially  noticea- 
ble :  the  former,  however,  is  not  found  any  more 
in  Egypt.  The  date-palm,  on  the  other  hand, 
which  now  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the- 
country,  occurs  very  seldom,  either  in  the  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions,  or  in  the  pictorial  repre- 
sentations on  the  monuments,  and  the  camel  not 
at  all.  The  camel  cannot  have  been  entirely 
unknown  to  the  ancient  Egj-ptians,  as  it  was  much 
used  by  all  neighboring  peoples,  especially  in 
Palestine,  for  mercantile  expeditions  to  Egypt 
(Gen.  xxiv.  10.  sxx.  43,  xxxvii.  25) :  Pharaoh 
even  presented  camels  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  16). 
The  horse  was  also  introduced  from  Asia.  During 
the  old  empire,  before  the  invasion  of  the  Hyksos, 
it  does  not  appear :  it  occurs  for  the  first  time 
during  the  new  empire,  in  the  reign  of  Thotiimes 
III.,  in  the  sixteenth  century  B.C.,  in  a  represen- 
tation of  a  procession  of  foreigners  bringing  as 
presents  various  Asiatic  animals,  among  which 
are  a  couple  of  horses.  Under  the  kings  of  the 
nineteenth  dynasty  great  numbers  of  horses  were 
used,  though  only  to  draw  the  chariots :  the  Old 
Testament,  however,  speaks  also  of  cavalry  (Gen. 
1.  9;  Exod.  xiv.  9,  23).  The  animal  generally 
used  for  riding  was  the  ass,  which  was  kept  in 
great  nunibei"s.  Wild  a.sses  are  still  found  in 
great  herds  in  the  highlands  of  Xubia.  The 
Leviathan  of  Job  xii.  1  is  the  crocodile :  the 
Behemoth  of  Job  xl.  15  is  the  rhinoceros.  The 
country  was  also  rich  in  minerals  and  in  building- 
stones.  Through  the  larger  part  of  the  country 
both  the  walls  of  the  valley  consist  of  limestone 
of  a  fiiu!  and  firm  quality.  Beyond  Thebes,  in 
the  neighborhood  of  El  Call,  the  sandstone  begins, 
of  which  there  are  famous  quarries  at  Silsileh. 
Granite  and  sienite  of  beautiful  coloring  occur 
in  the  cataract.  The  )iale-yellow  alabaster  and 
various  kiiuis  of  ])orphyry  arc  found  in  the  Ara- 
bian moimtains.  (Jold  occurs  at  Syene,  enu^rald 
at  Berenice.  Copper-mines  were  worked  from  the 
oldest  times  in  tlie  Sinaitic  peninsula. 

IIi.sTOKv.  —  The  fertility  of  tiie  .soil,  the  ease  of 
life  inuier  a  sky  always  gay,  and  in  a  warm, 
healthy  climate,  and  especially  the  .seclusion  of 
the  geographical  position  of  the  countrv,  prevent- 
ing all  interference  by  unruly  neighbor.^,  were  the 
natural  advantages  which  made  the  Egyptians 
the  first  peoph;  on  earth  having  a  history.  The 
historical  sense,  once  awakened,  found  in  thft 
country  excellent  and  abundant  nuitcrials  for  its 
gratification  by  erectiiig  monuments;  and  in  tbjs 
respect  the  Egyptians  iiave  preceded  and  sur- 
passed all  other  peoples.  After  fvnther  develop- 
ment, a  want  arose  lor  cornvt  annalistic  reports 
of  events  requiring  an  exact  chronology ;  and 
the  momiments  even  of  the  first  hjs'orical  epoch, 
the  old  en-Dire,  give  am))le  evidence  of  the  knowl- 
edge of  as,  -onomical  pcrioils  based  upon  long 
and  accuratt  observation  of  the  stars.  What 
we  know  chronologically  of   the  first   Egyptiin 


EGYPT. 


705 


EGYPT. 


f^mpire,  before  the  invasion  of  the  Ilylcsos,  we 
owe  to  tlie  work  of  Manetho  (supreme  pontiff  at 
Ileliopolis),  which  he  wrote  in  (ireek  on  the 
conunand  of  Ptolemy  Pliiladelphus,  drawing  his 
materials  from  the  annals  and  chronicles  of  the 
temple  archives.  Extracts  of  this  work  have 
come  down  to  us  through  Josephus,  Africanus, 
and  Eusebius;  and  the  historical  character  of 
the  statement  that  there  ruled  tiiirty  dynasties  in 
Egypt  before  the  Greek  rule  began  is  proved  by 
the  deciphering  of  the  hieroglyphics.  Already 
Chainpollion  reached  back  as  far  as  the  begiu- 
lung  of  the  new  empire  (the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries),  and  now  also  the  first  part 
of  Jlanetho's  dynasties  must  be  considered  au 
indidiitable  historical  fact.  A  great  multitude 
of  monuments,  whose  dates  are  ascertainable, 
present  us  a  nearly  continuous  series  of  kings 
as  far  back  as  the  fourth  dynasty ;  and  we  have 
the  hieroglyphic  names  and  annalistic  reports  as 
far  back  as  Menes  himself,  the  head  of  the  first 
dynasty.  There  were  originally  two  different 
views  with  respect  to  Manetho's  dynasties :  one 
represented  by  Bockh,  2laiiel/ii>  und  die  Ilundsstern- 
periode,  Berlin,  1815;  and  the  other  by  Bunsen, 
Acgi/plens  Stelle  in  der  Wellijeschichle,  Hamburg, 
1815,  and  Lepsius,  Chronolor/ie  der  Aei/yptei;  Ber- 
lin, 1848.  Bockh  holds  tliat  the  thirty  dynasties 
have  succeeded  each  other,  and  places  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  the  first  king  (Menes)  at 
570i.  Bunsen  and  Lepsius  bold  that  several  of 
these  dynasties  have  been  contemporary,  and 
place  the  beginning  of  the  Egyptian  Empire,  the 
former  at  3643,  the  latter  at  3892.  The  latter 
view  is  now  generally  ads  pted  by  Egyptologists. 

The  Egyptians,  like  all  other  peoples,  assumed, 
that,  before  the  human  dynasties  spoken  of  in 
the  annals  began,  there  had  been  a  government 
by  gods,  and  that  in  three  dynasties :  the  first 
consisting  of  Ra,  the  sun-god,  the  family  of  Osiris, 
and  the  local  god  of  the  oldest  royal  residence. 
This,  in  Upper  Egypt ;  the  second  of  twelve  gods, 
with  the  moon-god  Thoth  at  their  head ;  and  the 
third  of  thirty  demigods.  See  Lepsius :  Ueber 
den  ersten  agyptischen  Golterkreis,  Berlin,  1849. 
Between  the  government  by  the  gods  and  the 
first  historical  king  (Menes)  the  Egyptians  further 
placed  a  prehistoric  dynasty  of  so-called  Manes, 
whose  residence  was  at  This,  the  native  city  of 
Jlenes.  Menes  came  from  This,  and  settled  in 
Lower  Egypt,  where  he  founded  Memphis  and 
the  first  historical  dynasty.  During  the  fourth 
dynasty  the  old  empire  I'eached  its  point  of  cul- 
mination. The  two  largest  Pyramids  —  those  of 
Cheops  and  Chephren,  the  khufu  and  kliafra  of 
the  inscriptions  —  were  then  built.  From  tiie 
tombs  arranged  around  the  royal  Pyramids,  partly 
hewn  into  the  cliffs,  and  especially  from  the 
chambers  destined  for  the  worship  of  the  dead, 
with  their  inninuerable  inscriptions  and  pictorial 
representations,  we  derive  a  surprisingly  complete 
idea  of  the  life  which  the  Egyptians  then  led, — 
tlieir  arts  and  trades,  their  riches,  customs,  ottices, 
lionors,  their  worship  of  the  gods  and  the  dead, 
etc.  IMore  than  three  thousand  years  before 
Christ,  while  all  the  rest  of  the  world  is  still 
mute,  human  speech  here  becomes  audible  to  us. 
At  the  same  time  as  the  fifth  dynasty,  the  names 
of  whose  members  we  find  in  the  tombs  of  Mem- 
phis, reigned  in  Lower  Egypt,  the  sixth  dynasty, 

46  —  1 


descending  from  Eleplumtine  on  tlie  Etliiopian 
frontier,  reigned  in  L'p[jer  Egypt ;  and  thus  the 
Ethiopians  appear  for  the  first  time  in  Egyptian 
history.  Under  the  following  dynasties  nj)  to  the 
eleventh  the  prosperity  of  the  country  decreased. 
The  eleventh  was  the  first  Theban  dynasty;  and 
with  it  begin  the  power  and  fame  of  that  city, 
hitherto  unmentioned,  and  of  its  local  god  Am- 
nion. Under  the  twelfth  dynasty  (the  second  in 
Tliebes)  the  country  again  flourished.  The  grand 
character  of  the  whole  epoch  is  [iroved  by  the 
gigantic  undertakings  which  wei'e  accomplished, 
as,  for  instance,  the  construction  of  the  Josepli 
Canal.  It  carried  the  waters  of  the  Nile  into  au 
artificial  lake  (Moeris),  and  thereby  transformed 
Fayum,  by  nature  one  of  the  poorest  jirovinces 
of  the  countrj',  into  one  of  the  most  fertile. 
Amenemha  TIL,  who  reigned  for  forty-two  years, 
extended  the  empire  to  the  present  Semneh  in 
Ethiopia,  beyond  the  second  cataract.  He  ordered 
the  height  of  the  annual  flood  to  be  measured,  and 
denoted  on  the  cliff's  of  the  shore.  The  pyramid 
and  temple  which  he  built  in  Fayum  afterwards 
became  the  centre  of  the  famous  Labyrinth. 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  Amenemha  III, 
(about  2100  B.C.),  the  Hyksos,  a  warlike  people, 
shepherds,  coming  from  the  East,  invaded  the 
country.  ^Vithout  opposition,  they  took  posses- 
sion of  all  Lower  Egypt,  cajitured  Memphis, 
which  they  made  their  capital,  laid  tribute  both 
upon  Lower  and  Upper  Egypt,  and  fortified  the 
north-eastern  entrance  to  the  country,  which  they 
themselves  had  found  open,  but  ^^■hich  they  wanted 
to  close  against  any  other  people  likely  to  follow 
them,  more  especially  against  the  Assyrians,  who 
at  that  time  were  powerful  in  Asia.  For  five 
hundred  and  eleven  years  they  reigned  in  Egypt. 
At  last  the  native  kings,  who  had  kept  independ- 
ent in  Upper  Egjqrt  and  Ethiopia,  succeeded, 
after  long  and  stubborn  resistance,  in  expelling 
them  from  their  principal  stronghold,  Auaris, 
near  the  later  Pelusiuni,  and  drove  them  into 
Syria.  This  first  counter-movement  from  the 
south,  against  the  stream  of  peoples  which  fi-om 
Central  Asia  rushed  onwards  to  the  south  and  to 
the  west,  must  have  produced  an  effect  so  mucli 
the  greater  as  it  was  followed  by  the  brilliant 
victories  and  great  conquests  of  the  Pharaohs  of 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties,  which 
extended  the  boundaries  of  tlie  Egyptian  Empire 
far  into  Asia.  A  people  numbering  hundreds  of 
thousands,  and,  at  least  to  some  degree,  conver- 
sant with  the  arts  and  sciences  of  Egj'pt,  could 
not  be  compelled  to  change  abode  without  causing 
a  corresponding  commotion  among  othei-  peoples  ; 
and,  indeed,  all  the  historical  or  historico-mj-thi- 
cal  remembrances  of  the  nations  of  antiquity, 
especially  so  far  as  they  concern  immigration, 
colonization,  introduction  of  divine  worship,  or 
knowledge  of  mythological  genealogies,  can  be 
traced  back  to  this  epoch  (between  the  sixteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries  B.C.),  and  no  farther. 

Tlie  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos  has  often  and 
very  early  been  put  in  connection  with  the  exodus 
of  the  children  of  Israel.  The  two  events  have 
even  been  declared  identical.  Josephus  held  this 
view.  He  gives  no  other  proof,  however,  than 
tliat  which  he  extracted  from  Manetho ;  and  he 
does  not  notice  that  he  is  in  complete  contradic- 
tion to  his  source.     An  impartial  examination  of 


EGYPT. 


706 


EGYPT. 


the  statements  of  JIanetho  does  no*  leave  it  in 
the  least  doubtful  that  the  Egyptians  themselves 
considered  the  two  events  as  entirely  different. 
According  to  jManetho,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Hyksos  from  Auaris  took  place  under  King 
Thummosis,  or  Tuthmosis(Tnothmes)  III.  ;  while 
the  exodus  of  the  Israelites — which  by  Egyptian 
historians  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the  expulsion 
of  a  rebellious  tribe  under  the  leadership  of  a  He- 
liopolitan  priest,  Osarsiph,  who  afterwards  called 
himself  Moses  —  took  place  under  a  king  who 
was  the  son  of  a  Rameses  and  the  father  of  a 
Sethos,  and  who  consequently  can  be  no  other 
than  the  Jlenophtes,  or  Menephthes  (Africanus 
reads  Amenephthes),  of  the  list  of  Manetho,  who 
was  the  son  of  Rameses  II.,  and  the  father  of 
Sethos  II.  (Josephus  calls  him  sometimes  Ameno- 
phis,  and  sometimes  Menophis).  As  the  two 
kings,  Thothmes  III.,  and  Jlenophtes,  denote  the 
beginning  and  the  close  of  the  epoch  of  the  greatest 
prosperity  of  Egyjit,  they  are  both  perfectly  well 
known  to  us  through  the  monuments.  The  latter 
lived  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  later  than 
the  former,  and  that  period  consequently  separated 
the  two  events  from  each  other. 

With  respect  to  JIanetho's  views  of  the  two 
events  there  can  be  no  difference  of  oinnion.  The 
date  of  the  reign  of  King  Jlenophtes  can  be  ascer- 
tained from  the  fact  that  the  last  Sofhis  period, 
beginning  1322  B.C.,  and  ending  139  A.D.,  was, 
according  to  the  mathematician  Theon  of  Alex- 
andria, called  the  era  of  ilenophtes,  because  it 
opened  during  his  reign.  The  question  now 
arises,  How  do  the  statements  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment correspond  with  those  of  the  Egyptian  his- 
torian? They  are  so  far  from  contradicting  each 
other,  that,  on  the  contrary,  the  Egyptian  tradi- 
tion would  receive  its  most  decided  confirmation 
from  the  Hebrew  documents,  if  we  could  presume 
a  mistake  in  the  latter's  calculation  of  the  period 
between  the  exodus  and  the  building  of  the  tem- 
ple, which,  according  to  1  Kings  vi.  1,  compri.sed 
four  hundred  and  eiglity  yoar.s.  Hut  this  figure 
does  not  harmonize  with  the  figures  in  the  Book 
of  Judges,  or  with  the  reading  of  the  Septuagint, 
or  with  the  view  of  the  author  of  Acts  (xiii.  20),  or 
with  even  the  view  of  Josephus  (Ant.,  VIII.  3,  1 ; 
C.  Ap.,  2,  2).  Most  of  these  deviations  arrive  at 
still  higher  figures;  but  an  impartial  investiga- 
tion and  a  comparison  of  the  genealogical  tables, 
of  which  especially  the  Levitical  can  claim  tlie 
highest  trustworthiness,  bring  out  a  much  lower 
figure,  but  one  which  exactly  corresponds  with  the 
Egyjitian  tradition.  A  piece  of  evidence  of  the 
greatfist  importance  is  derived  from  a  circum- 
stance mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  narrative,  and 
pointing  decisively  to  the  date  indicated.  It  is 
the  building  by  the  Jews  of  the  cities  of  Pithom 
and  Ram.scs,  under  the  predecessor  of  the  I'haraoh 
of  the  exodus;  that  is,  Rameses  11.  From  the 
monuments  we  know  that  this  pow(!rful  I'haraoh 
dug  many  canals,  and  founded  many  cities,  and, 
more  especially,  lliat  he  constructed  the  great 
canal  in  the  province  of  Goshen,  which  afterwards 
was  u.sed  to  complete  the  communication  between 
the  Red  Sea  and  the  Nile,  and  at  wliose  western 
termination  Pithom  (Patumos)  wa.s  situated,  as 
wa.s  Ramses  at  the  ea.steni.  Among  the  ruins  of 
the  latter  city  a  granite  group  wjis  found  of  two 
deities,  and  between  them  the  deified  Rameses  II., 


whose  statue,  as  the  lieros  eponymos  of  the  city, 
stood  in  the  sanctuary  of  the  temple. 

That  the  Israelites  did  not  arrive  in  Egj'pt  until 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos,  is  evident  from 
every  detail  of  the  Hebrew  narrative.  It  is  not 
an  Arab,  but  a  genuinely  Egyptian  court,  at  which 
Jacob  is  received.  The  king  bears  the  Egyptian 
title  of  "king."  Joseph  has  an  Egyptian  name. 
Zaphnathphaneach  ("  the  savior  of  life").  The  offi- 
cers of  the  king  have  also  Egyptian  names,  such 
as  Potipliar  (••  consecrated  to  Phra  ").  Joseph  speaks 
to  his  brothers  through  an  interpreter ;  and  the 
Egj'ptians  refuse  to  eat  bread  with  them,  because 
they  are  shepherds,  etc.  Still  more  decisive  is 
the  circumstance,  that  the  expulsion  of  the  Hyksos, 
the  greatest  historical  event  of  the  age,  is  even 
not  alluded  to  in  the  Bible;  which  would  be  inex- 
plicable if  it  had  taken  place  while  the  Israelites 
w-ere  in  Goshen,  under  the  father  or  grandfather 
of  Moses.  To  all  this  may  be  added,  that  the 
important  political  reforms,  which,  according  to 
the  Old  Testament  (Gen.  xlvii.  20-26).  were 
introduced  into  Egypt  by  Joseph,  are  mentioned 
and  described  with  essential  similarity  both  by 
Herodotus  (II.,  108,  37)  and  Diodoriis  (I.,  oi, 
73,  74),  who  ascribe  them  to  King  Sesostris,  or 
Sesoosis;  that  is,  Sethos  I.,  whose  reign  began  in 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  B.C. 

Of  the  three  kings  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty 
whom  we  know  best,  —  Sethos  I.,  under  whom 
Joseph  arrived  in  Egypt;  Rameses  II.,  at  whose 
court  ]\Ioses  was  educated ;  and  ISIenophtes,  in 
whose  reign  the  exodus  took  place,  —  Rameses  II. 
is  by  far  the  greatest ;  yea,  we  may  say  that 
under  him  the  Egyptian  Empire  reached  the  cul- 
minating point  of  its  power  and  fame.  His 
successor,  Menophtes,  under  whom  Mpses  led  the 
Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  and  founded  the  .Jewish 
theocracy,  is  by  Herodotus  (II.,  Ill)  described  as 
a  weak  but  haughty  man,  smitten  with  blindness 
for  ten  years  as  a  punishment  of  godlessness. 
["  He  impiously  hurled  his  spear  into  the  over- 
flowing waves  of  the  river,  which  a  sudden  wind 
caused  to  rise  to  an  extraordinary  height."] 
Under  the  last  kings  of  the  nineteenth  <lynasty, 
and  imder  the  following  dynasties,  the  empire 
gradually  sank  down  into  luxury  and  indiffer- 
ence. Only  the  first  king  of  the  twentieth  dy- 
nasty, Rame-ses  III.,  isby  tlie  monuments  ]>ointed 
out  as  a  ruler  who  made  several  successful  cam- 
l>aigns  into  Asia.  But  at  that  time  the  Asiatic 
empires  themselves  began  to  rise  in  power  and 
activity. 

Tlie  next  noticeable  contact  between  Egyptian 
and  Israelitic  history  took  place  during  the 
twenty-seconil  dynasty,  about  070  B.C.,  when 
.Shishak  made  war  upon  Rehoboani,  the  first  king 
of  .ludali,  .and  conquered  Jerusalem  (1  Kings  xiv. 
25)  ;  which  event  is  also  couMnemonited  on  the 
monuments,  though  in  a  .somewhat  obscure  man- 
ner, by  the  name  i'lillinmll:  {i.e.,  "  King  of  Jndah"). 
The  royal  family  of  Thebes  was  afterwards  suc- 
ceeded by  other  families  from  Tanis,  Bubastis, 
and  Sais  in  Lower  Egypt ;  and  towards  the  close 
of  the  eighth  century  the  decaying  em)>ire  fell 
into  the  h.ands  of  the  Ethiopian  concpu'ror  Sha- 
bak,  the  Sabakon  of  Herodotus,  the  So  of  the 
Bible.  He  and  his  successors,  Shabatak  and 
Taraka,  the  Tirhakah  of  the  Old  Testament  (2 
Kings  xix.  9  ;  Isa.  xxxvii.  9),  constitute,  according 


EGYPT. 


707 


EGYPT. 


to  Jlanetho,  tlie  twenty-fifth  dynasty.  Tirhakah 
afterwards  retired  to  the  old  Kthiopian  residence 
on  the  mountain  of  Barkal,  the  INIeroe  of  Herodo- 
tus, wliere  he  built  several  temples,  the  names 
upon  whose  ruins  show  that  his  dynasty  still 
flourished  there  for  a  long  time. 

When  the  Ethiopians  had  gone,  there  followed 
a  period  of  dissolution  and  confusion,  described 
by  Herodotus  as  the  dodekarchy,  but  not  men- 
tioned by  JVIanetho,  who  speaks  only  of  the  legiti- 
mate rulers.  Finally,  Psannnetiehus  I.,  one  of  the 
dodekarchs,  and  the  legitimate  heir  of  the  crown, 
succeeded  in  putting  an  end  to  the  anarchy;  and 
under  him  and  his  successors,  forming  the  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty,  the  country  once  more  enjoyed 
a  period  of  great  prosperity.  Psainmetichus  I. 
ascended  the  throne  by  the  aid  of  Ionian  and 
Carian  mercenaries  ;  and  in  reward  he  gave  them 
large  estates  and  great  privileges,  which  no  doubt 
was  the  reason  why,  during  his  reign,  a  large  por- 
tion of  the  national  warriors  emigrated  to  Ethi- 
opia. The  Greek  colony  in  the  country  increased 
rapidly.  Amasis  allowed  them  to  build  the  city 
of  Naukratis,  which  soon  became  an  important 
commercial  port.  The  gates  of  Egypt  were 
opened  to  foreign  commerce,  and  greater  riches 
flowed  into  her  lap  than  in  the  times  of  the  vic- 
tories of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties. 
The  number  of  cities  is  said  to  ha\'e  increased 
under  Amasis  to  twenty  thousand ;  and  private 
people  were  able  to  build  for  themselves  rock 
tombs  larger  and  more  magnificent  than  the 
royal  tombs  of  Bab-el-meluk.  But  the  military 
strength  of  the  country  did  not  increase  in  a 
corresponding  measure,  and  the  empire  finally 
succumbed  before  the  power  of  Persia.  From 
o2.5  to  504  Egypt  was  a  Persian  province;  and, 
though  she  once  more  enjoyed  a  short  period  of 
independence  under  the  twenty-ninth  and  thirti- 
eth dynasties,  she  was  conquered  a  second  time 
by  the  Persians  in  340,  and  fell  in  33"J  to  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  who  founded  Alexandria,  where 
he  was  bm-ied  (323). 

Under  the  Ptolemies,  Egyptian  civilization  may 
be  said  to  have,  fulfilled  its  last  mission  in  the 
history  of  the  world,  after  which  it  vanished. 
During  this  period,  Greek  curiosity,  still  young 
and  sound,  took  possession  of  all  the  accumulated 
wisdonr  and  learning  of  the  dying  country  as  its 
legitimate  inheritance ;  and  Alexandria  became 
the  centre  of  Greek  study.  Immense  libraries 
were  formed  ;  and  every  important  work,  not  only 
of  the  Egyjitian  literature,  but  of  all  Oriental 
literatures,  was  translated  into  Greek.  While  this 
infiltration  of  the  Oriental  into  the  Greek  civili- 
zation was  still  going  on,  Egyjit  finally  lost  its 
independence  under  Cleopatra  VI.  After  the 
battle  of  Actium  (30  B.C.),  the  country  was 
incorporated  with  the  Roman  Empire.  Already 
in  the  first  century  after  Christ,  Christianity  was 
introduced  into  Egypt,  and  spread  rapidly,  though 
hieroglyphical  inscriptions  are  found  in  the  tem- 
ples of  Esneh  dating  from  the  middle  of  the 
third  century ;  and  the  Isis-wor.ship  at  Phihc  did 
not  cease  completely  until  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  under  Justinian.  LEPSIUS. 

Lit. — Ippolito  Rosellini  :  Monumcnil  dell' 
Ef/itta  e  della  Nubia,  Pisa,  1832-46,  9  vols,  text, 
3  vols.  fol.  atlas ;  J.  G.  Wilkinson  :  Manners 
arid  Customs  of  the   Ancietit   Egyptians,    London, 


18.37-41,  6  vols.,  new  edition  by  S.  Birch,  Lon- 
don, 1878,  3  vols.;  Lep.sius:  Toitlenhueh  der 
Ae(jiipter,  Leipzig,  1842;  Ch.  C.  J.  Bunskn: 
Ef/t/pt's  Place  in  Universal  History,  Eng.  trans., 
London,  1848-67,  5  vols.  ;  Lepsius  :  Chronoloyie 
der  Aegypter,  Berlin,  1849,  Dcnkmdler  aus  Aeyypten 
und  Aelhiopien,  Berlin,  1849-58,  13  vols.  ;  .1.  G. 
Wilkinson:  Architecture  of  Ancient  Eyypt,  Imw- 
dou,  1850 ;  H.  Brugscii  :  Grammaire  ilmotirpie, 
Berlin,  1855;  Lepsius:  Ueber die XXI I .  aeyyptische 
Kimiysdynastie,  Berlin,  1856;  Mauiettk:  Monu- 
ments el  dessins,  etc.,  Paris,  1850,  Jlenseiynements 
sur  les  64  Apis,  Paris,  1856;  Lei-sius:  Kimiys- 
hiicli  der  alien  Aeyypter,  Berlin,  1858;  Sharpe: 
History  of  Eyypt,  London,  1859;  Ue  Rouge: 
Etudes  sur  le  rilutl  funeraire  des  anciens  Egyptiens, 
Paris,  1861-64;  F.  J.  Ciiaiias:  Melanges  e'gyp- 
toloyiques,  series  I.,  II.,  HI.,  Paris,  1862-73;  De 
Rouge  :  Les  six  premieres  dynasties  de  Manethon, 
Paris,  1866  ;  Dumichen  :  Historischc  Inschriften 
alldgyptischer  Denkmaler,  Leipzig,  1867  ;  the 
same  :  Die  Flotte  einer  ugyptischen  Konigin,  Leip- 
zig, 1868;  EiiERS :  Aeyypten  u.  d.  Bucher  Moses, 
Leipzig,  vol.  i.,  1868;  Frith:  Egypt  and  Pal- 
estine, London,  1870 ;  Mariette  :  Monuments 
divers,  Paris,  1872-77;  F.  J.  Chaisas:  liecherches 
pour  servir  d  I'histoire  de  la  XIX.  dynastie,  Paris, 
1873 ;  Brugscii  :  L'exode  et  les  monuments  egyp- 
tiens, Leipzig,  1875 ;  Rivieres  :  Questions  egypto- 
hibliques,  Paris,  1876;  ViGOUKOUX  :  La  Bible  et 
les  de'coiivertes  modernes  en  Egypte  et  en  Assyrie, 
Paris,  1877;  J.  Lautii  :  Aeyypt.  Chronologie, 
basirt  auf  die  vollstdndige  Reihe  der  Epochen,  seit 
Bytes-Menes  bis  Hadrian- Antonin,  Strassburg,  1877; 
Pierret:  Etudes  egyptologiqnes,  Paris,  1878;  A. 
LiNCKE  :  Correspondenzen  aus  der  Zeit  der  Rames- 
siden,  Leipzig,  1878;  J^bers  :  Aeyypten  im  Bild  u. 
]Vort,  Leipzig,  1879;  Brugscii:  History  of  Egypt 
under  the  Pharaohs  from  the  Monuments  (orig.  ed., 
Leipzig,  1877),  Eng.  trans,  by  Seymour  and  Smith, 
London,  1879,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1881;  Dumichen: 
Geschichte  Aegyptens,  Berlin,  1879;  P.  Le  Page 
Renouf  :  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt,  London  and 
N.Y. ,  1880;  Wiedemann:  Geschichte  Aeyyptens 
von  Psammetich  I.  bis  auf  Alexander  d.  Grossen, 
Leipzig,  1880;  E.  de  Rouge:  Inscriptions  et 
notices  recueillies  a  Edfou  pendant  la  mission  sci- 
entifique  de  E.  de  Ii.,pub.  par  J.  de  It.,  vol.  i., 
Paris,  1880;  G.  Rawlinson  :  History  (f  Ancient 
Egypt,  London,  1881,  2  vols.,  reprinted  Boston, 
aiid  in  New  York,  1882,  2  vols.;  Jah.  Krall: 
Studien  zur  Geschichte  des  alien  Aeyyptens,  Wien, 
1881;  K.  Piehl:  Petites  etudes  egyptologiques, 
Stockholm,  1881. 

Recent  Discoveries. — In  the  summer  of 
1881  there  were  discovered  in  a  cave  near  Thebes 
thirty-nine  royal  mummies,  besides  papyrus  rolls 
and  other  objects  of  interest  and  value.  Among 
the  mummies  was  that  of  Rameses  II.,  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  oppression.  It  'nas  in  a  perfect  state  of 
preservation,  in  a  mummy-case  of  plain  sycamore- 
wood,  unpainted  and  unvarnished,  carved  to  rep- 
resent Rameses  as  Osiris.  The  arms  are  crossed 
upon  the  breast.  In  his  right  hand  he  holds  the 
royal  whip,  in  the  left  the  royal  hook.  The 
mimmiy  itself  is  wrapped  in  rose-colored  and 
yellow  linen,  figured  with  lotus-flowers,  of  a  tex- 
ture finer  than  the  finest  Indian  mu.slin.  One  of 
the  bands  which  pass  across  the  shrouds  to  keep 
them  in  place  bears  a  hieratic  inscription  statin,; 


EGYPT. 


708 


EGYPT. 


that  this  (the  mummy  of  Rameses  II.)  was  con- 
cealed in  a  pit  at  a  time  when  a  foreign  army 
invaded  Egj-pt-  I'l  JanuaiT,  ISS'2,  G.  Slaspero, 
the  directoi-  of  the  Boolak  Museum,  made  his 
official  report  of  this  remarkable  discovery. 

Another  discovery  in  ISSl  was  that  of  a  ti-i- 
lingual  stela  containing  the  decree  of  the  synod 
of  priests  assembled  at  Canopus,  ordaining  the 
deitication  of  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy 
Euergetes  (q.v.),  and  creating  a  fifth  order  of 
priests,  to  be  called  Euergette.  This  Ptolemy  is 
supposed  to  have  been  prophetically  described 
Dan.  xi.  7,  8.  He  was  one  of  Egypt's  greatest 
rulers.  The  date  of  the  decree  is  B.C.  238,  and 
it  is  therefore  a  century  older  than  the  Rosetta 
Stone.  The  inscription  upon  the  newly  discovered 
tablet  is  the  same  as  that  upon  the  stone  of  San, 
discovered  in  1865,  but  better  preserved. 

The  year  ISSl  witnessed  also  the  opening  of 
the  Pyramid  of  Maydoom,  which  is  a  century 
older  than  the  Great  Pyi-amid  of  Cheops,  and 
probably  is  the  tomb  of  Snefroo  of  the  third 
(h-nasty,  B.C.  4200  or  3766. 

Meanwhile,  our  knowledge  is  being  increased 
through  the  correct  deciplierment  of  the  demotic 
writing,  which  was  a  very  much  abbreviated  form 
of  the  hieratic,  —  the  usual  style  of  penmanship 
employed  by  the  priests.  In  the  demotic  the 
ordinary  business  and  legal  transactions  of  the 
Egyptians  were  recorded.  From  the  numerous 
documents  written  in  it  which  have  been  pre- 
served, an  insight  will  be  given  into  the  laws, 
social  state,  customs  and  manners,  of  the  Egyi> 
tians,  such  as  is  not  afforded  by  those  in  the 
monumental  .styles  of  the  hieroglyphic  and  hieratic. 
But  there  is  a  growing  conviction  among  Eg\'j> 
tologists,  that  the  earliest  Egjqitian  civilization 
we  know  of  is  the  higliest,  and  tliat  all  we  know 
of  il  is  its  decadence. 

Religion  ok  Ancient  Egypt.  —  The  Egyp- 
tians were  among  the  most  religious  of  the  ancient 
nations.  It  is  true  that  the  principal  reason  why 
most  of  the  documents  which  have  come  down 
to  us  are  of  a  religious  character  is  that  all  the 
ancient  monuments  of  Egypt  have  perished,  e.\- 
cept  some  which  were  necessarily  of  a  religious 
nature,  —  the  ti^nples  and  the  tombs.  The  palaces 
of  kings  and  nobles  have  utterly  disappeared. 
Our  knowledge  of  Egyptian  civil  architecture  is 
derived  from  paintings  in  the  tombs.  Many  texts 
of  historical  interest  have  been  preserved ;  but 
the  original  intention  was  not  liistorical,  but 
religious.  Religion  in  some  form  or  other  was 
dominant  in  every  relation  of  life  in  ancient 
Egypt.  The  Egjptian  deities  were  literally  innu- 
merable. Evei-y  town  and  village  had  its  local 
patrons.  Every  month  of  the  year,  every  day  of 
the  month,  every  hour  of  the  day  and  of  the 
night,  had  its  presiding  divinity.  All  tliese  gods 
had  to  lie  jiropitiated ;  and  Egyptian  life  thus 
became  a  constant  round  of  religious  and  semi- 
religious  ceremonies  and  festivals  which  amazed 
the  foreigner.  Wlien  Ilrrodotus  visited  Egypt, 
in  the  miihlle  of  the  fifth  cimtury  B.C..  th(!  first 
remark  he  made  of  the  people  was  that  they  were 
religious  to  excess.  He  said  it  was  easier  to  find 
a  god  in  Eg^'pt  than  a  man. 

in  onh^r  to  reduce  this  bewildering  multitude 
of  deities  into  .something  like  a  mythological 
system,  it  is  oidy  necessary  to  notice  tliat  special 


titles  and  names  were  given  to  divinities  accord- 
ing to  the  place  in  which  they  were  worshipped. 
Thus  Osu-is  was  called  Che  ("  the  child  ")  at  Thebes, 
L>a  (-'the  great  one")  at  Heliopolis,  Oli  ("the 
sovereign '")  at  Jlemphis.  The  goddess  Hathor 
was  identical  with  Isis  at  Denderah,  with  Sechet 
at  ilemphis,  with  Neith  at  Sais,  with  Saosis  at 
Heliopolis,  with  Nehemanit  at  Hermopolis,  with 
Bast  at  Bubastis,  with  Sothis  at  Elephantine,  etc. 
Hence  the  explanation  of  the  singular  fact  that 
Apis  is  called  the  son  of  Ptah,  of  Tum,  of  Osiris, 
and  of  Sokari ;  that  Horns  is  called  the  son  of  Isis 
and  of  Hathor;  that  Osiris  is  called  the  father, 
brother,  husband,  and  son  of  Isis,  and  also  the 
son  of  their  child  Horns ;  that  Ilorus  is  said  to 
have  been  born  in  Tattu,  but  also  in  Cheb,  etc. 
AMiat  at  first  glance  represents  itself  as  different 
deities  is  in  reality  only  different  aspects  of  the 
same  deity.  That  Egypt  vfhich  Menes  first  gath- 
ered together  vmder  one  sceptre  was  a  country 
divided  up  into  nomes.  Each  nome  had  its  own 
capital,  and  each  capital  had  its  own  gods  with 
then-  special  names.  But  it  is  only  the  names 
which  are  different :  the  doctrines  are  evei-j-where 
the  saiue.  It  is  evident  that  Mentu  and  Tum, 
two  of  the  great  gods  of  Thebes,  are  merely  indi- 
vidual or  local  aspects  of  the  sun-god  Ra ;  and  so 
are  Ptah  and  Anion :  indeed,  the  whole  swarm  of 
gods  of  the  first  order  is  easily  reduced  to  two 
groups;  the  first  representing  the  sim-god  Ra  and 
his  family,  and  the  second,  Osiris  and  liis  family. 
Ra  is  not  only  the  name  of  the  sun-god,  but  also 
the  word  commonly  used  to  denote  the  sun  itself. 
In  other  mythologies  the  sun-god  generally  rides 
across  the  sky  in  a  chariot  drawn  by  horses :  in 
Egypt  he  sails  in  a  boat.  The  sky  is  conceived 
as  an  expanse  of  water,  to  which  tlie  Nile  forms 
the  earthly  counterpart.  Tlie  adversary  of  Ra 
is  Apap,  and  the  conflict  between  them  is  that 
between  light  and  darkness.  Osiris  is  the  eldest 
son  of  Sebc'the  earth")  aiul  Xut  ("the  sky"),  but 
more  powerfid  than  his  parents.  He  wedded  his 
sister  Isis  whilst  they  were  yet  in  their  mother's 
womb,  and  their  son  was  Horus.  Osiris'  adver- 
sary is  Set,  who  shall  slay  him ;  but  he  .shall  be 
avenged  by  Horus.  Osiiis  nu'ans  the  same  as 
Ra,  oidy  his  myth  is  more  elaborate  and  wilder 
in  its  features.  Already  in  antiquity  it  was  the 
subject  of  much  subtle  meditation  and  nuiny 
fanciful  interpretations.  Modern  mythologists  do 
not  find  it  difficult  —  either  with  this  particular 
myth,  or  with  the  whole  Egy]itian  mythology  — 
to  go  behind  the  wild,  gaudy,  coarse,  and  often 
ridicidous  polytheism,  which  was  the  religion  of 
the  nudtitvule,  to  the  subtle,  mystical,  often  sub- 
lime monotheism,  which  was  the  Jieart  and  con- 
science of  the  educated  classes. 

ICgyjitian  religion,  consi<lered  not  as  a  mytho- 
logical system,  but  in  its  bearing  upon  morals  and 
practical  life  in  general,  presents  two  very  remarka- 
ble features, — its  worship  of  the  dead,  and  its 
worshi]!  of  sacred  animals.  In  Egyptian  life  the 
tomb  jilayed  a  nuuli  more  jirominent  Jiart  than 
th(.'  temple.     The  temjile  was  exactly  a  place  of 


worshi))  in  our  sense  of  the  word ;  it  was  princi- 
pally and  essentially  an  offering  made  by  tlie 
king  to  some  god:  out  the  tomb  was  the  centre 


of  all  family  worship.  The  greatest  importance 
was  attached  to  the  permaneiu;e  of  the  tomb,  to 
the  continuancu  of  the  religious  ceremonies,  and 


EGYPT. 


709 


EGYPT. 


even  to  the  pi'ayei's  of  passers-by.  We  constantly 
find  men  praised  for  having  made  the  names  of 
tlieir  father  and  mother,  or  of  their  "  fathers," 
live  again.  Ancestor-worship,  however,  even 
teougli  it  may  not  be  the  first  origin  of  all  reli- 
gion, is  a  part  of  human  nature  itself,  coimnands 
respect,  even  when  it  presents  itself  under  very 
curious  forms,  and  will  continue  under  some  re- 
fined form  as  long  as  human  natm-e  keeps  whole 
and  sound.  But  animal  worship  is  always  a 
estrange  phenomenon,  and  it  became  especially  so 
in  Egypt  on  account  of  the  grotesque  forms  under 
which  it  presented  itself.  Some  kinds  of  animals 
were  held  sacred  universally,  others  received  only 
a  local  veneration.  To  the  first  class  belonged 
the  cat,  sacred  to  Bast  or  Sekhet ;  the  ibis  and  the 
•cynocephalous  ape,  sacred  to  Thoth ;  the  hawk 
and  the  beetle,  sacred  to  Ra,  etc.  None  of  these 
animals  were  allowed  to  be  killed  or  injured.  In 
each  locality  where  any  kijid  of  animal  was 
sacred,  some  individuals  of  the  species  were  at- 
tached to  the  principal  temjjle,  where  they  had 
their  special  shrines  or  chambers,  and  their  train 
of  priestly  attendants,  who  carefully  fed  them  and 
-cleaned  them.  When  they  died,  they  were  em- 
balmed according  to  the  most  approved  method, 
and  entombed  with  nnich  pomp  and  ceremony. 
The  origin  of  this  animal-worship  may  have  been 
natural  enougii,  starting  from  the  idea  of  transmi- 
gration ;  but  its  continuance  down  to  the  third 
■century  of  our  era  exposed  the  Egyptians  to  the 
laughter  and  contempt  of  the  rest  of  the  civilized 
world.  The  Greek  comedy-writers  of  the  middle 
and  of  the  last  school,  and  the  Christian  fathers, 
as,  for  instance,  Clemens  Alexandrinus  and  Ori- 
geu,  agree  in  their  feelings  on  this  point.  See  P. 
Le  P.\GE  Rexouf:  Relirjion  of  Ancient  Er/ypl  (the 
Hibbert  Lectures  for  1879),  New  York,  1880,  from 
"which  these  last  paragraphs  have  been  chiefly 
drawn. 

Rel.\tions  of  Egypt  and  the  Bible.  —  With 
Abraham  the  mention  of  Egypt  in  the  Bible 
begins,  and  is,  as  always,  minutely  accurate  (Gen. 
xii.  10-xiii.  3).  The  plenty  in  Egyjjt  in  that  time 
■of  famine  was  the  attraction,  for  the  overflowing 
of  the  Nile  has  always  blessed  that  land.  Sarah 
was  unveiled  (xii.  11),  for  at  that  time  women 
upon  the  monuments  always  appear  so.  No  men- 
tion is  made  of  horses  (xii.  16,  xiii.  2)  in  the  cara- 
van which  accompanied  him  thither,  nor  among 
his  presents  when  he  went  away,  for  none  are  por- 
trayed until  Thothmes  III.,  neither  are  camels; 
but  bones  of  dromedaries  were  dug  up  in  the 
Delta  in  18.52.  His  arrival  was  announced  to  the 
Pharaoh  (xii.  15,  18),  since  strangers  from  Asia 
were  personally  examined  by  tiie  monarch ;  and 
permission  to  remain,  if  given,  was  by  a  duly 
certified  document.  Sarah  was  taken  into  the 
royal  harem,  as  the  tale  of  The  Two  Brothers 
(trans,  in  Records  of  the  Past,  vol.  ii.  137-152) 
shows  was  customary  in  the  case  of  beautiful 
women. 

The  next  mention  of  Egypt  is  in  the  history 
of-  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxix.-l.),  which  is  truthful  and 
accurate  beyond  doubt.  The  Midianites  brought 
"spicery,  bahn,  and  myrrh"  (xxxvii.  25), — 
articles  necessary  to  embalming.  Joseph  was 
sold  (xxxvii.  36)  to  Potiphar  ("consecrated  to 
the  god  Phra,  i.e.,  the  sun  ")  the  captain  of  the 
guard,  which  had  its  headquarters  in  a  famous 


fortress,  known  to  the  Romans  as  the  "  White 
Castle,"  at  Mempliis.  A  papyrus  of  the  period 
states  the  daily  quantum  of  bread  supplied  to  the 
fortress  (xxxix.  5,  6).  The  wives  of  the  Egyp- 
tian nobles  were  not  above  reproach  (xxxix.  7-17; 
cf.  The  Two  Brothers).  The  very  prison  where 
Joseph  was  confined  is  copied  upon  an  existing 
mosaic  found  in  a  Roman  house  at  Preneste  (see 
woodcut  in  Geikie's  Hours  with  the  Bible,  vol.  i. 
p.  461).  The  wine-drinking  habits  of  the  country 
(xl.  1)  are  illustrated  by  the  tombs  of  Beni  Has- 
san, buUt  long  before  Abraham.  The  importance 
of  dreams  was  universally  granted  in  antiquity; 
but  Joseph  dared  a  good  deal  in  invading  priestly 
prerogatives  in  intei-preting  those  of  his  fellow- 
prisoners  (xl.).  His  sudden  call  to  the  presence 
of  the  Pharaoh  (a  Hyksos),  Apepi,  according  to 
Brugsch,  cleanly  dressed  and  closely  shaven  (xii. 
14),  as  custom  demanded,  and  his  sudden  promo- 
tion (xii.  41),  are  thoroughly  Egyptian.  So,  too, 
are  the  insignia  of  his  rank,  the  new  name,  and 
the  mode  of  his  public  reception  (xii.  42,  43). 
JBy  his  marriage  with  Asenath  ("  devoted  to 
Neith  "),  the  daughter  of  a  priest  in  the  great 
university  temple  of  the  Sun  at  On,  near  Mem- 
phis, he  was  incorporated  into  the  priesthood, 
and  therefore  into  the  highest  class  of  the  land. 
The  "  divining  bowl,"  which  comes  up  in  the  sub- 
sequent narrative  (xliv.),  is  a  proof  how  a  man's 
environment  saps  his  faith.  Brugsch  finds  an 
allusion  to  the  seven  years  of  famine  in  an  in- 
scription at  El-kab  from  the  age  of  Joseph :  "  I 
gathered  grain,  a  friend  of  the  god  of  harvest ;  I 
was  watchful  at  the  seed-time,  and,  when  a  fam- 
ine arose  through  many  years,  I  distributed  the 
grain  through  the  town  in  every  famine." 

The  land  of  Goshen,  where  Joseph  settled  hia 
family  (Gen.  xlvii.  4),  was  admirably  adapted  for 
the  purpose.  It  lay  on  the  north-east  of  the 
Delta,  toward  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  was 
isolated  from  the  native  Egyptians  in  the  Valley 
of  the  Nile,  who  held  in  abhorrence  all  shep- 
herds (xlvi.  34).  Goshen  was  famous  for  its 
fertility;  and,  being  especially  fitted  for  tillage, 
the  Israelites  there  were  providentially  led  to 
change  from  a  pastoral  to  an  agricultural  people. 
To  the  south  were  Memphis,  the  ancient  capital, 
and  On,  the  seat  of  a  great  university.  In  direct 
contact  with  Egyptian  pomp,  at  a  period  when 
the  nation  was  at  its  height,  the  Israelites  lived 
unmolested  for  four  hundred  years.  The  Pharaoh 
who  welcomed  them  was  a  Hyksos  king;  but 
after  a  struggle  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  the 
Hyksos  were  driven  out,  and  a  native  dynasty 
once  more  reigned.  Then  began  oppression. 
They  were  set  to  building  and  beautifying  cities 
(Exod.  i.  11).  The  outrages  to  which  the  modern 
fellahin  in  Egypt  are  subjected  give  an  idea  of 
the  sore  trials  of  the  chosen  people.  But  "at 
evening  time  it  shall  be  light,"  and  to  the  weary 
Israelites  day  was  about  to  dawn ;  for  in  one  of 
their  most  pious  families,  to  judge  by  the  names 
of  his  parents,  — Amram  ("kindred  of  the  Lofty 
One  ")  and  Jochebed  ("  my  glory  is  Jehovah  ") 
(vi.  20),  —  Moses,  their  future  savior,  was  born 
(ii.  2).  By  the  instrumentality  of  Thermouthis, 
as  Josephus  calls  the  princess  who  found  him 
(one  of  the  wives  of  Rameses  II.,  as  a  contem- 
porary document  proves),  he  was  taught  all  the 
learning  of  the  Egyptians.     But  his  mother  was 


EGYPT. 


710 


BHRENFEUCHTER, 


his  first  teacliPr,  and  from  her  he  received  his 
religion.  His  killing  of  an  officer  was  the  cause 
of  his  flight,  rendered  all  the  more  imperative 
becanse  he  had  buried  the  body  in  the  sand 
(ii.  12),  and  thus  prevented  its  embalmment, 
without  which,  according  to  Egyptian  belief,  the 
dead  man's  soul  could  not  live. 

When  Moses  returned,  ]\Ienephta,  the  thir- 
teenth son  of  Rameses,  was  on  the  throne.  The 
plagues  (vii.  li-xii.  29)  were  directed  against  the 
idolatry  of  Egypt.  By  them,  in  order,  the  fol- 
lowing gods  were  mocked:  (1)  Osiris,  the  great 
god  of  the  Xile,  the  sacred  river:  (2)  Ileki,  the 
'■driver  away  of  frogs; "  (3)  and  (4)  The  fly  gods; 
(5)  The  sacred  ram  worshipped  at  Thebes,  and 
the  sacred  ox  at  Memphis  and  On  ;  (0)  "  Human 
sacrifices  of  foreigners  were  offered  year]}-,  and 
their  ashes  scattered  in  the  air,  to  avert  evil  from 
the  land;  but  now  ashes  similarly  cast  abroad 
carried  misery  far  and  near;"  (7)  The  multitude 
of  divinities  who  had  charge  of  the  air;  (8)  The 
insect  gods ;  (0)  The  sun,  the  chief  Egyptian 
divinity;  (10)  The  destruction  of  the  first-born 
put  the  whole  religion  to  shame;  for  it  demon- 
strated that  a  greater  than  any  god  in  their 
pantheon  had  the  Egyptians  in  his  power,  and 
favored  unmistakably  the  despised  Iraelites.  For 
a  discussion  of  the  exodus,  see  Exodus  of  the 

ClIILDKEX    OF    ISR.AEL. 

The  references  to  Egypt  after  the  exodus  are 
few  and  incidental,  although  several  Pharaohs 
are  named.  Sheshonk,  or  Shishak,  in  the  ninth 
year  of  Kehoboam  (909  B.C.)  came  up  against 
Jerusalem  with  twelve  hundred  chariots  and  sixty 
thousand  honsemen,  and  took  all  the  walled  towns 
of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xii.).  Upon  the  south  wall 
of  the  Temple  of  Karnak  is  inscribed,  among 
the  conquered  kings,  "  Yuthnialk  : "  probably 
Rehoboam  is  meant.  Osarchon,  or  Zerah,  tlie 
Ethiopian  who  was  expelled  by  Asa  940  B.C. 
(2  Chron.  xiv.  9),  is  in.scribed  on  the  same  temple. 
In  1878  an  inscription  of  Tirhakah  (2  Kings 
xix.  9),  contemporary  of  Ilczekiah  (700  B.C.), 
who  defeated  .Sennacherib,  was  discovei-ed  at 
Tanis  (the  Bible  Zoan).  Pharaoli-IIophra  is 
mentioned  in  Jer.  xliv.  30.  A  recently  deciphered 
cuneiform  inscription  proves  that  Jeremiah's 
prophecy  was  fulfilled  in  the  thirty-seventh  year 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Piiaraoh-Nechoh  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  211)  is  sculptured  at  Thebes.  See  Hengs- 
TENnEKO:  Eijiipt  (lull  the  Books  of  Moses,  Eng. 
trans.,  Edin.,  1847;  EiiEiiS  :  Acyi/plen  u.  d.  Biicher 
Moses,  Leipzig,  vol.  1,  18G8;  Viuuuoux:  Le  BtUe 
et  les  dt'couvertes  modernes  en  Eijifple  el  en  Assijrie, 
Paris,  1877  ;  Sciiaff  :  Through  Bitile  Lands,  N.  Y., 
1879;  S.  C.  Bartlett;  E<i>ipl  to  Palestine,  N.Y., 
1879  ;  C.  Geikie  :  Hours  with  the  Bible,  Lond.  and 
N.Y.,  1.S81  sqq. 

CnKisTiA.NiTY  IN  Egyi'T  dates,  according  to 
tradition,  from  St.  Mark  the  evangelist,  who  is 
said  to  have  founded  the  church  in  Alexandria. 
Tliis  became  afterwards  a  metropolitan  and  even 
a  jiatriarclial  see.  In  tlie  second  century,  Alex- 
andria (see  art.)  wa.s  the  seat  of  a  theological 
Bcliool  where  the  great  Origen  taught.  It  flour- 
ished for  two  centuries,  and  trained  some  of  the 
must  liistinguished  diviiii-sof  the  (irec'k  Churcli. 
Nevertheless.  Clnistianity  seiMns  never  to  have 
permeated  tlie  entire  people,  nor  altered  very 
much  many  of  thoae  who  were  superficially  affect- 


ed by  it :  for  the  great  mass  of  the  pieople  simply- 
exchanged  a  gro.ss  for  a  refined  idolatry.  The 
Arabs  swept  in  triumph  over  Egypt,  and  at  the 
sword-point  forced  Jlohammedanisni  upon  the 
nation  ;  and  in  this  religion  they  have  ever  since 
remained.  Yet  a  considerable  number  of  Chris- 
tian Egyptians  remained  faithful,  and  their  de- 
scendants constitute  the  present  Coptic  Church. 
See  Copts.  They  are  schismatics,  rejecting  the 
orthodox  dogma  of  the  two  natures  of  Christ. 
As  in  ability  and  training  they  are  superior  to 
the  Arabs,  thej^  hold  most  of  the  government 
clerkships.  In  November,  1854,  the  United  Pres- 
byterian Church  of  America  began  in  Alexan- 
dria, and  especially  in  Cairo,  a  work  among  these 
degenerate  Christians.  It  was  not  the  first  at- 
tempt to  preach  among  them  Protestant  Chris- 
tianity ;  for  the  Moravians  in  1769,  and  the 
Church  ^Missionary  Society  of  Loudon  in  1826, 
started  missions  among  them.  But  the  first  was 
abandoned  in  1782,  owing  to  the  unfavorable 
character  of  the  times,  and  the  second  after  a 
quarter-century  of  effort,  when  the  delusion  of 
the  hope  of  a  reform  inside  the  Coptic  Church 
was  demonstrated.  The  United  Presbyterians 
were  more  favored  as  to  time,  and  wisely  adopted 
a  different  method.  Not  to  resuscitate,  but  to 
regenerate,  has  been  their  aim.  For  the  first  ten 
years  they  limited  their  efforts  to  the  two  princi- 
pal cities;  but  since  then  they  have  extended  their 
operations  to  Middle  and  L'pper  Egypt.  From 
Alexandria,  along  the  Nile  to  Nubia,  they  had 
(1S81)  four  central  stations  (Alexandria,  Cairo, 
Sinoris,  and  Osiout),  forty  out-stations,  eight 
ordained  foreign  missionaries,  sixteen  female  foi'- 
eign  assistants,  a  hundied  and  forty-nine  native 
helpers,  and  over  a  thousand  coinniunicauts.  In 
Cairo  and  Osiout  the  mission  has  acquired  valua- 
ble property,  and  in  the  latter  place  has  even  a 
college  and  theological  seminary  for  training  a 
native  clergy. 

Mi.^s  M.  L.  Whately,  a  daughter  of  the  late 
Archbishop  of  Dublin,  has  for  the  past  twenty 
years  conducted  a  school  in  Cairo  for  the  training 
of  .Vrab  youtli.  It  is  unsectarian,  but  strongly 
Christian,  and  spreads  Bible  trntli  into  house- 
holds which  otherwi.se  would  be  wholly  inaccessi- 
ble. There  are  also  a  few  Knglisli  and  (ierman 
churches  in  Alexandria  and  Cairo  for  the  for- 
eign population  there. 

The  Roman-Catholic  Church  has  also  a  hold 
in  Egypt;  and  there  is  a  sect,  called  the  United 
Cojits,  wliicli  aeknowledge  the  pajvil  supremacy. 

EHRENFEUCHTER,  Friedrich  Aug.  Edu.,  an 
evangelical  theologian  (]'<  nniltlunf/sthrolni/e),  b. 
Dec.  1"),  1814,  in  Leo]ioldshafeii ;  d.  March  20, 
1878,  in  Gottingen.  He  studied  theology  at  Hei- 
delberg; in  1845  became  professor  and  univer- 
sity preacher  in  Giittingen,  where  he  remained  in 
spite  of  calls  to  Heidelberg,  Leipzig,  etc.  His 
principal  department  was  practical  theology. 
His  lectures  attracted  large  audiences;  and  his 
sermons,  two  volumes  of  whicli  ajipeared  in  1849 
and  1852,  .are  ]irofound  in  tluiugiit,  and  finished 
in  form.  He  was  a  man  of  irenic  tenii>erament, 
and  bore  patiently  the  attacks  of  tlu'  new  Lutlier- 
an  party  in  Hanover.  His  jirincipal  works  are, 
Kiiiirii-lhtti(isi/esch.  d.  Mensr/ihiit,  Ileidelb.,  1845; 
Die  praklische  Theoloijie,  tibtting.,  1859;  Christenth. 
u.  d.  mudernc  Weltanschauuuij,  Uotting.,  1876. 


BICHHORN. 


711 


EKKEHARD. 


EICHHORN,  Johann  Gottfried,  b.  at  Donen- 

zimmorn,  in  tlie  |iriiicipality  of  Ilohenlolie-Oeh- 
ringeii,  Oct.  Iti,  1752;  d.  at  Gottiiigen,  June  27, 
1827 ;  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  and  literatures  at 
Jena  in  1775,  and  professor  of  theology  at  Giit- 
tingen  in  1788.  To  liis  Jena  residence  belong 
G'e.tch.  d.  oslimliscfien  Ilandel.i  i-or  Mohammeil 
((lotlia,  1775),  Monuiiwnta  ani'tqaisshmi  hislorku 
Amiiuin  ((.iotha,  1775),  De  rei  nummarice  apud 
Aritl/e!'  initiis  (Jena,  177(i),  Dei-  Nalurmeiisc/i,  a 
translation  of  an  Arab  romance  (Berlin,  1783),  a 
great  number  of  historical  and  critical  essays  in 
his  Repertorium  fur  hihiisclie  und  iiiorgoddiidisriie 
Litteratur  (18  vols.,  1777-8U),  which  from  1787 
to  1803  was  followed  by  his  AUijeiiieine  Bdtliotliek 
der  biljlischen  Ldteralw  (10  vols.),  and  finally  his 
Einleiluny  ins  Alle  Teslament  (Leipzig,  1780-83, 
3  vols.),  a  work  written  with  great  boldness 
and  enthusiasm,  and  accepted  by  its  times  as  a 
new  departure  in  theological  science.  To  his 
Giittingen  residence  belong  his  Ehdeitunfj  in  d. 
apokri/phifchen  Biicher  des  A.  T.  (1795:  Kritisrhe 
Schi-ij'len,  I.-IV.),  Einleiluny  in  d.  N.  T.  (1804- 
12:  Krilische  Schrl/len,  V.-VII.),  Die  Prupheten 
(3  vols.,  1816-19),  a  number  of  voluminous  works 
on  history,  We/U/eschiclile  (i)  vols.,  1801-14),  Oesch. 
d.  drei  letzen  Jahrhunderte  (1803,  1804),  (Jescli.  d. 
Litteratur  von  ilirem  Anfange  his  anf  d.  neuesten 
Zeiten  (5  vols.,  1805),  etc.,  besides  a  multitude  of 
minor  essays  and  reviews.  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  during  fifty-two  years  he  lectured 
everyday  three  hours  in  the  university,  his  activi- 
ty is  simply  amazing.  His  historical  writings 
have  now  fallen  into  oblivion;  l>ut  his  works  on 
biblical  criticism,  though  their  rationalistic  ten- 
dency has  been  completely  overthrown,  are  still 
acknowledged  to  contain  many  happy  views  and 
profound  investigations.  See  H.  Ew.vld  :  Jalir- 
biiclier  d.  iibl.  Wissenschafi,  I.,  1849,  Die  ehema/if/en 
Gutting.  Leiirer,  J.  D.  Michaelis,  J.  G.  Eichhurn, 
Th.  Chr.  Ti/c!isen.  E.  BERTIIE.iU. 

EICHHORN,  Karl  Friedrich,  son  of  J.  G.  P^ich- 
horn;  b.  at  Jena,  Nov.  20,  1781;  d.  at  Herlin, 
July  5,  1854 ;  studied  law  at  Gottingen,  Wetzlar, 
and  Vienna;  and  was  appointed  professor  of  law  at 
Francfort-on-the-Oder  in  1805,  at  Berlin  in  1811, 
at  Gottingen  in  1817,  and  again  at  Berlin  in  1832. 
His  Grundsalze  d.  Kirchenrcchts  d.  kuthol.  u.  d. 
evangel.  Religionsparlei  in  Deut.'ichland,  1831-33,  is 
one  of  his  best  works,  and  the  first  attempt  to 
apply  the  principles  of  the  so-called  historical 
school  to  ecclesiastical  law.  See  Hugo  Loersch: 
Briefe  von  K.  F.  Eichhorn,  Bonn,  1881. 

EINHARD.     See  Eginhard. 

EINSIEDELN,  or  MARIA-EINSIEDELN,  a  Bene- 
dictine monastery  in  Switzerland,  and  a  famous 
place  of  pilgrimage.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
ninth  century  Meginrad,  or  Meinrad,  from  Sulich- 
gau,  in  the  Neckar  region,  settled  on  the  top  of 
the  Etzel,  a  cliff  on  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  ZUrich,  whence  he  afterwards  pene- 
trated farther  into  the  wild  Alpine  regions,  until 
in  8(11  he  was  murdered  by  robbers  in  his  cell. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  tenth  century  Benno 
and  Eberhar<l  from  Strassburg  came  to  the  spot 
where  St.  Meinrad  had  been  murdered  ;  and  tliere 
they  founded  a  monastery,  which  was  splendidly 
endowed  liy  Otho  I.  and  Otho  II.,  and  prospered 
much.      It  never  attained,  however,   the  celeb- 


rity of  the  neighboring  St.  Gall  ;  and  when  the 
Reformation  Itegan,  it  became  almost  comiiletely 
deserted.  Abbot  Joachim  Eichhorn  (1.544-69) 
retrieved  its  good  fortune,  and  made  it  a  strong- 
hold for  the  counter-Keformation.  The  French 
invasion  of  1798  it  also  outlived ;  and  when,  in 
1861,  it  celebrated  its  millenary  anniversary,  it 
numbered  about  a  hundred  inmates,  and  was 
visited  by  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
pilgrims.  The  object  of  tlie  jiilgriniage  is  a  visit 
to  the  black  image  of  the  Virgin,  preserved  in  a 
separate  chapel;  and  the  origin  of  a  special  devo- 
tion in  this  chapel  is,  according  to  the  legend, 
the  circumstance  that  on  Sept.  14,  948,  Mary 
herself  and  the  angels  came  down  from  heaven, 
and  consecrated  the  chapel.  Materials  for  the 
history  of  the  institution  are  found  in  Documenia 
Archivii  Einsiedlensis,  published  in  3  vols.  fol.  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  under  Abbot  Placidus 
Reymann  ;  and  a  continuous  history  was  given  in 
1612  by  the  librarian  P.  Chr.  Hartmann,  in  his 
Annates  Hi-reiiii.  MEYER  VON  KNONAU. 

EISENMENGER,  Johann  Andreas,  b.  at  Mann- 
heim, 1654;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  Dec.  20,  1704;  was 
educated  in  the  Collegium  Supientice,  and  studied 
Hebrew  and  Arabic  in  Holland  and  England ; 
was  appointed  registrator  at  the  Palatine  court 
in  1693,  and  profes.sor  of  Oriental  languages  at 
Heidelberg  in  1700.  The  fanatical  hatred  of 
Christianity  which  characterized  the  Jewish  rab- 
bins of  that  period,  more  especially  his  teacher  of 
Hebrew,  the  famous  David  Lida,  engendered  an 
oppasite  fanaticism  in  him  ;  and  he  spent  nineteen 
years  in  writing  his  Entdecktes  Judenthum.  a  curi- 
ous and  learned  but  exceedingly  one-sided  and 
spiteful  rejjresentation  of  Judaism.  When  the 
book  was  printed,  the  Jews  procured  an  inhibition 
against  its  publication  from  the  emperor,  and 
even  offered  to  liuy  the  whole  edition  for  twelve 
thousand  florins  ;  but  Eisenmenger  demanded 
thirty  thousand.  After  the  death  of  the  author, 
the  Prussian  king,  Friedrich  I.,  appealed  to  the 
emperor  on  behalf  of  the  heins,  but  in  vain. 
Finally,  however,  the  book  was  printed  at  Kbiiigs- 
burg  (1711)  at  the  expense  of  the  Prussian 
King.  Eisenmenger's  Lexicon  Orientate  Har- 
monicum  was  never  printed.  His  edition  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  (without  points),  which  he  under- 
took in  connection  with  Leusden,  was  published 
1694.  PRESSEL. 

EKKEHARD  is  the  name  of  several  monks  of 
literary  fame,  of  the  Monastery  of  St.  Gall.  — 
Ekkehard  the  First,  d.  973;  was  educated  there; 
became  director  of  the  cloister-school,  and  dean 
of  the  convent,  and  made  the  place  a  centre  of 
learning  and  study.  He  wrote  hymns,  and  a 
Latin  poem  on  the  life  and  deeds  of  Walter  of 
.\quitania,  last  ed.  by  I!.  Peiper,  Berlin,  1873. — 
Ekkehard  the  Second  (surnamed  Palatinus),  d. 
April  23,  990;  was  a  nephew  of  the  preceding, 
and  educated  by  him ;  taught  for  some  time  in 
the  school  of  St.  Gall,  but  was  by  the  Duchess 
Hedwig  of  Suabia  invited  to  Hohentwiel,  where 
he  taught  the  duchess  Latin  and  Greek.  He  was 
afterwards  drawn  to  the  imperial  court  as  one  of 

I  the  chaplains  of  Otho  II.,  and  was  finally  made 
provost  of  the  Cathedral  of  Mayence. —  Ekkehard 
the  Third  was  a  cousin  of  the  preceding,  and 
accompanied  him  to   Hohentwiel   as   teacher  of 

I  the  young  clerks  at  the  court  of   the  duchess- 


BLAGABALUS. 


712 


BLEUTHEROPOLIS. 


He  afterwards  returned  to  St.  Gall,  and  died,  as 
dean  of  the  convent,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
eleventh  century.  —  Ekkehard  the  Fourth  (i?^^e- 
kardxs  junior),  b.  about  980;  d.  about  lU(Jil;  was 
educated  at  St.  Gall  by  the  celebrated  Xotker 
Labeo,  and  became  early  a  master  in  Latin, 
Greek,  niatliematics,  astronomy,  and  music.  In 
1022  he  was  invited  to  Mayence  by  Archbishop 
Aribo  as  director  of  the  cathedral  school ;  but  in 
102i  he  returned  to  St.  Gall.  He  continued  the 
chronicle  of  St.'  Gall,  Casus  Alonaslerii  Sancti 
Galli{Monum.  Germ.  Hist.  Script.,  II.  pp.  74-163). 
commenced  by  Ratpertus.  He  made  a  collection 
of  hymns  {Liber  Benediction  ion),  wrote  a  poem 
(Z)e  onialu  dictionis),  and  translated  into  Latin 
the  Life  of  St.  Gall,  wiitten  in  German  by  Rat- 
pertus. —  Ekkehard  the  Fifth  (surnamed  Ulinimus) 
lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century, 
and  wrote  a  Vita  Sancti  IVntlceri,  of  no  great  inter- 
est.—  See  Mkyer  VON  Kxonau  :  Die  Ekkeharte 
von  St.  (Jallen.  Basel,  1876.     ALBRECHT  VOGEL. 

ELACABALUS.     See  Heliogabalus. 

E'LAM  {highland),  the  classical  Elymais,  was 
the  name  of  a  country  east  of  Babylonia,  on 
the  other  side  of  the  Tigris,  bounded  north  by 
Assyria  and  Media,  east  by  Jledia  and  Persia, 
and  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  capital  was 
Susa.  According  to  Gen.  x.  22  this  land  was 
inhabited  by  descendants  of  Sheni,  and  called 
after  his  son  Elam.  But  from  the  circumstance 
that  the  Hebrews  called  the  land  Elara,  and  the 
Assyrian  inscriptious  Ham,  or  Ilamti,  it  cannot 
be  inferred  that  the  people  itself  also  used  the 
name :  on  the  contrary,  the  Elamites  named 
themselves  after  their  principal  cities,  —  Kis, 
whence  the  Greek  Cissi;e ;  Uwaya,  whence  the 
Greek  Uxia;,  etc.  When  the  Shemites  settled 
in  Elam,  they  found  there,  as  in  Babylonia,  a 
primitive  non-Shemitic  population;  but  while, 
in  Babylonia,  the  Shemites  gained  the  ascendency 
over,  in  Elam  they  were  absorbed  by,  that  pojju- 
latiou,  as  is  proved  by  the  circumstance  that  the 
language  of  the  inscription  found  in  Elam  does 
not  belong  to  the  Shemitic,  but  to  the  Altai- 
Turanian  stock.  In  the  time  of  Abram  the 
Elamites  were  quite  a  powerful  nation  (Gen.  xiv. 
ii).  By  the  Assyrians,  however,  they  were  con- 
quered; and  they  followed  Sennacherib's  army 
when  he  invaded  Jud;ea  (Isa.  xxii.  6).  After- 
wards tliey  once  more  became  independent;  and 
Jeremiah  mentions  them  among  those  nations 
upon  which  the  wrath  of  God  was  about  to 
descend  (Jer.  xlix.  31-39).  The  doom  came 
with  Nebuchadnezzar.  After  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon they  were  incorporated  with  the  Persian, 
then  with  the  Syro-Macedonian,  and  finally  witii 
the  Parthian  Empire.  A  remarkable  confirma- 
tion of  the  Scripture  is  a  record  of  the  Assyrian 
Assur-banipal  (B.C.  608-626),  recently  deciphered: 
"In  my  iiftli  expedition,  to  Elam  1  directed  the 
march.  ...  I  overwhelmed  Elam  through  its 
extent.  I  cut  off  the  head  of  Teuinni.'in,  their 
wicked  king,  who  devised  evil.  Beyond  number 
I  slew  hi.s  .soldiers;  alive  in  liand  1  ca[itured  his 
fighting  men"  (lln-ords  of  the  Past,  vol.  i.  Ji.  71). 

E  LATH,  or  E'LOTH'  (strone/  trees),  a  sea- 
port at  the  iK)rlhern  extremity  of  the  eastern 
arm  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  Akabali,  be- 
longed to  the  Edomites,  and  owed  its  prosperity 
to  its  trade  with  the  Indies.     Israel  passed  by  il 


on  their  exodus  from  Egypt;  and  David  con- 
quered it  (Deut.  ii.  8;  2  Sam.  viii.  14).  From 
it  and  Ezion-geber  Solomon  sent  his  ships  to 
Ophir  (1  Kings  ix.  26,  28) ;  but  after  his  death 
it  was  retaken  by  the  Edomites  (2  Kings  viii.  20), 
and  w'as  only  for  a  short  time  in  the  possession 
of  Israel,  during  the  reign  of  L'zziah  (2  Kings 
xiv.  22;  2  Chron.  xxvi.  2).  Under  the  Romans 
it  was  still  an  important  mercantile  place,  the 
station  of  a  legion,  and  the  seat  of  a  bishop, 
present  at  various  councils  between  320  and  536. 
Under  the  Mohammedans  it  lost  its  trade.  Vari- 
ous ineffectual  attempts  were  made  by  the  cru- 
saders and  the  kings  of  Jerusalem  to  regain  it. 
About  1300,  at  the  time  of  Abulfeda,  it  had  been 
completely  deserted.  The  present  town  of  Aka- 
bah  consists  only  of  some  scattered  huts,  and  an 
old  fortress  with  towers,  occupied  by  some  Turk- 
ish troops.  It  forms  the  tenth  station  ou  the 
pilgrims'  route  from  Cairo. 

ELCESAITES.     See  Elkesaites. 

ELDER.     See  PitESBYTER. 

ELDERS  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS  were  not 
necessarily  old  men,  but  merely  the  first-born  of 
the  several  chief  families  in  each  tribe,  just  as 
to-day  the  Arab  ,s7(e('A-  claims  authority  by  reason 
of  priority  of  birth.  The  same  phenomenon  was 
true  respecting  the  Midi<vnites  and  other  neigh- 
boring tribes  (Num.  xxii.  4,  7;  Josh.  ix.  11). 
There  must  have  been  hundreds  of  them  in  Israel 
when  jNIoses  chose  the  "  seventy' "  to  be  the  Na- 
tional Council.  It  is  not  stated  that  this  number 
was  composed  of  one  from  each  of  the  fifty-eight 
families  (Num.  xxvi.),  and  one  from  each  tribal 
cliief  family  ;  and  indeed  the  phraseology  is 
against  this  idea  (Deut.  i.  15).  The  elders  were 
sometimes  judges,  but  not  necessarily,  for  David 
put  priests  and  Levites  in  this  office ;  and  in  Deut. 
xxi.  2,  6,  the  elders  are  expressly  distinguished 
from  judges.  After  the  settlement  in  Canaan 
the  elders  constituted  the  governing  body  in 
every  village,  town,  and  city  (Ruth  iv.  2  sqq.), 
and  the  medium  of  business  with  another  place 
(Deut.  xix.  12).  It  was  the  elders  who  demand- 
ed a  king  in  the  people's  name  (1  .Sam.  viii. 
4  sqq.),  and  who  chose  him  (2  Sam.  iii.  17): 
they  were  also  the  natural  companions  and 
advisers  of  the  king  (1  Kings  viii.  1;  2  Kings 
xxiii.  1),  and  the  best  agents  of  tlie  prophets  in  pro- 
moting a  revival  of  religion  (Jer.  xix.  1).  In  the 
exile  the  elders  kept  up  their  authority ;  and  on 
the  return  they  sided  with  tlie  priests,  and  next 
to  the  princes  were  the  rulers  (Ez.  x.  8,  14,  15). 
The  great  synagogue,  according  to  tradition,  was 
composed  of  priestly  and  civil  elders.  In  our 
Lord's  mouth  the  elders  are  the  channels  of  tradi- 
tion (Matt.  XV.  2 ;  Jlark  vii.  3,  5),  which  bound 
like  fellers  the  pious  Jews.        Fl{.  W.  sciiui/rz. 

ELECT,  ELECTION.     See  Puedestination. 

ELEMENTS,  (he  materials  used  in  tlie  sacra- 
ineiils:  water  in  liapd.sm,  bread  and  wine  in  the 
Loril's  Sup]"']-.     Sre  Bai'Tism.  I,cii!I)'s  Si'ri'Eii. 

ELEUTHEROPOLIS,  a  city  ol  Southern  Pales- 
tine, and  the  scat  of  ,a  bislioji,  received  its  name, 
"  Free  City,"  from  Alexander  Severus  (203),  and 
was  a  jilace  of  imjiortance  in  the  days  of  Euse- 
bius  and  Jerome.  In  796  it  was  razeil  to  the 
ground  by  tlu^  Saracens,  and  its  Greek  name  was 
replaced  by  tlie  old  Aramaic  Betligebrim.  In 
the  twelfth  century  the  crusaders  built  a  fortress 


ELEUTHERUS. 


713 


BLIGIUS. 


on  the  spot,  which  was  taken  by  Saladin,  and 
retaki-n  liy  Richard.  At  present  the  site  is  occn 
pied  by  an  insignificant  village  (Beit  Jibrin) 
and  covered  with  ruins.  See  Robinson  :  Biblical 
JU.^earclics,  New  York,  1841. 

ELEUTHERUS,  a  river  of  Syria,  mentioned 
1  Mace.  xi.  7,  xii.  30,  the  modern  Nahr-el-Kebir ; 
rises  at  the  north-eastern  base  of  the  Lebanon, 
and  enters  the  Mediterranean  about  eighteen 
miles  north  of  Tripolis. 

ELEUTHERUS,  Bishop  of  Rome  177-193;  was 
a  Greek  by  birth.  Two  events  are  noticed  during 
his  administration  :  first,  the  churches  of  Lyons 
and  Vienne  sent  Iren:Bus  (then  a  presbyter,  after- 
wards bishop)  to  Rome  to  present  to  Eleutherus 
the  acta  martyruin  from  the  persecutions  which 
the  churches  had  just  suffered  (Eu.sf,bius,  Hist. 
EccL,  V.  4)  ;  next,  the  British  king,  Lucius, 
wrote  to  Eleutherus  (according  to  Beda,  Hist. 
EccL,  in.  25,  and  the  Liber  Puntijicalis)  to  tell 
him  that  he  was  ready  to  accept  Christianity  as 
soon  as  Eleutherus  would  send  him  teachers. 
The  latter  notice  is  a  little  suspicious ;  as,  towards 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century,  Augustine  found 
in  Britain  a  Christianity  quite  diiferent  from  the 
Roman  type,  while  Beda  was  naturally  anxious 
to  catch  any  hint  at  an  early  connection  between 
Britain  and  Rome.  HERZOG. 

ELEVATION  OF  THE  HOST.     See  Mass. 
E'LI  ('?i',  "elevation"),  a  descendant  of  Ithamar, 

and  high  priest.  The  proof  of  the  first  statement 
is  this :  Abiathar  was  a  lineal  descendant  of  Eli 
(cf.  1  Kings  ii.  27  ;  1  Sam.  ii.  31,  35)  ;  but  his  son 
Ahimelech  is  expressly  stated  to  have  been  "  of 
the  sons  of  Ithamar  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  3).  The  sins 
of  his  two  sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  brought 
sorrow  upon  his  head,  and  entailed  the  destruc- 
tion of  his  house.  Samuel  disclosed  to  him  these 
judgments  (1  Sam.  iii.  13,  14).  He  judged  Israel 
forty  years  (1  Sam.  iv.  18).  At  the  news  of  the 
defeat  of  the  Israelitish  army  he  fell  backward 
and  broke  his  neck.  He  had  grown  dim  of  sight, 
and  was  ninety-eight  at  the  time  of  his  death 
(1  Sam.  iv.  1.5). 

ELIAS  LEVITA,  or,  more  properly,  Elihu  ben 
Asher  Hallevi,  acquired  great  reputation  in  the 
first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century,  both  in  Italy 
and  Germany,  as  a  teacher  of  Hebrew.  Reuchlin, 
Pellican,  and  Luther  had  learned  their  Hebrew 
from  Matthew  Adrianus,  a  converted  Jew  from 
Spain,  who  taught  at  Basel,  Heidelberg,  Liege, 
Louvain,  and  Wittenberg.  But  the  next  genera- 
tion of  Hebrew  scholars,  Sebastian  MUnster,  Fr. 
Buxtorf,  etc.,  were  the  pupils  of  Elias  Levita, 
either  directly  or  indirectly  through  his  works. 
He  was  born  1472  (probably  Feb.  8),  at  Keustadt- 
on-the-Aisch,  near  Nuremberg,  but  emigrated 
early  to  Italy,  taught  Hebrew  at  Padua  (1504-09), 
and  wrote  a  commentary  on  the  Hebrew  grammar 
of  Moses  Kimchi,  which  Sebastian  Sliinster  trans- 
lated into  Latin  (Basel,  1531).  When  Padua  was 
captured  and  pillaged  by  the  French  in  1.509,  he 
lost  all  h\s  property,  and  removed  first  to  Venice, 
and  then,  in  1512,  to  Rome,  where  he  was  well 
received  by  Egidio  of  Viterbo,  the  general  of  the 
Augustine  order,  and  afterwards  a  cardinal.  He 
did  not  exactly  teach  the  cardinal  Hebrew:  he 
only  aided  him  in  deciphering  the  enigmas  of  the 
Cabala,  and  was  in  reward  boarded  and  lodged 


(he  and  his  family)  for  thirteen  years  in  the  car- 
dinal's house.  But  Dr.  Eck  was  his  pupil  in  this 
period.  In  Rome  he  wrote  a  Hebrew  grammar 
(1518),  and  a  book  on  composition  explaining 
difficult  forms.  The  fii-st  was  translated  into 
Latin  by  Sebastian  MUnster.  When  Rome  was 
captured  and  pillaged  (1527)  by  the  troops  of 
Charles  V.,  he  lost  for  a  second  time  all  he 
owned.  He  then  removed  to  Venice ;  and  there 
he  remained  till  his  death  (1549),  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  few  years  he  spent  at  Isny  in  Suabia, 
as  assistant  of  Paul  Fagius,  who  had  established 
a  Hebrew  printing-press  there.  In  Venice  he 
wrote  his  principal  work,  an  introduction  to  the 
Massorah  (1538);  and  at  Isny  he  published  a 
Chaldee  dictionary  (1541).  As  a  gi-ammarian  he 
was  neither  deep  nor  original,  but  he  was  a  man 
of  great  erudition  and  just  views.  He  first  popu- 
larized the  idea  that  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment was  formed  by  Ezra  and  the  great  syna- 
gogue ;  and  he  also  held  the  view  that  the  vowels 
of  the  Hebrew  language  were  of  late  origin, 
later  even  than  the  Talmud.  See  J.  C.  Wolf  : 
Bibliotheca  Hebraica,\.  153-161;  IIL  97-102;  IV. 
182;  Rossi:  Dizionario  degli  Autori  Ebrei;  and 
a  biography  written  in  Hebrew  by  Buber,  Leip- 
zig, 1856.  FR.'w.  SCHULTZ. 

ELICIUS,  b.  at  Chatelat,  near  Limoges,  about 
588  ;  d.  at  Noyon,  Nov.  30,  658  or  059  ;  descended 
from  a  Gallo-Roman,  not  Prankish  family,  and 
was  apprenticed  to  the  goldsmith  Abbo,  at  Li- 
moges, the  mint-master  of  the  king  of  Aquitania. 
In  610  he  went  to  Paris,  the  residence  of  the  king 
of  Neustria ;  got  work  in  the  royal  treasury ; 
acquired  the  particular  favor  of  King  Clotaire, 
and  accumulated  a  fortune.  Meanwhile,  the  in- 
fluence of  Columban  reached  the  Neustrian  court 
from  Burgundy  and  Austrasia,  and  obtained  ab- 
solute sway  over  Eligius  and  his  young  friend 
Audoenus,  at  that  time  page  to  the  king.  With- 
out abandoning  his  trade,  Eligius  began  an  ascetic 
life ;  and  he  soon  earned  a  great  reputation,  not 
only  as  an  artist,  but  also  for  his  piety.  In  628 
Clotaire  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Dagobert ;  but  this  change  only  made  the  influence 
of  Eligius  stronger  at  the  Neustrian  court,  though 
he  was  opposed  by  the  Prankish  chieftains  and 
courtiers,  headed  by  the  major  damns.  Young 
Saxons  were  then  brought  to  Paris,  often  in  great 
numbers,  and  sold  there  as  slaves.  He  bought 
them  by  the  hundreds,  and  gave  them  freedom, 
either  sending  them  home  or  making  them  monks. 
Monasteries  and  churches  he  founded,  built, 
adorned,  and  supported  in  the  most  lavish  man- 
ner. The  Monastery  of  Solignac,  near  Limoges, 
was  one  of  his  foundations;  the  great  nunnery  in 
Paris,  another.  Even  on  the  appointment  of 
bishops,  he  is  said  to  have  exercised  a  decisive 
influence.  But  in  638  Dagobert  died,  and  Ilerch- 
envald,  the  major  domus  who  governed  the  realm 
during  the  minority  of  Clodvig  II.,  wished  to  have 
Eligius  removed  from  the  court.  In  640  he  was 
made  Bishop  of  Noyon,  at  the  same  time  as  his 
friend  Audoenus  was  made  Bishop  of  Rouen. 
As  a  bishop  he  was  very  austere  and  active,  re- 
forming not  only  the  chapter  of  his  cathedral  and 
the  monasteries  of  his  dioceses,  but  also  the  courts 
of  the  Frankish  chieftains,  whose  wild  drinking- 
bouts  and  fighting-feasts  were  a  scandal  to  him. 
In   the  synod  of   Chalons  (644)  he  effected  the 


ELIJAH. 


714 


ELIJAH. 


deposition  of  the  metropolitan,  Theodosius  of 
Aries,  on  account  of  his  arbitrary  and  uncanonical 
rule.  In  the  synod  of  Orleans  (650)  he  and  the 
whole  clergy  of  Neustria  declared  in  favor  of 
Martin  of  Rome,  and  persecutions  were  instituted 
against  the  Monothelists.  In  056  both  C'lodvig 
II.  and  Ilerchenoald  died ;  and.  during  the  reign 
of  the  pious  Queen  Bathilde,  Eligius  again  occu- 
pied his  old  position  at  the  court.  After  his 
death,  miracles  were  .said  to  take  place  at  his 
grave,  and  he  was  honored  by  the  people  as  a 
saint.  His  life  (F(Va  5.  Elir/ii)  was  written  by  his 
friend  Audoenus,  and  is  found  in  D'Achery  : 
Spiciler/iiim,  II.  pp.  76-l"J3 ;  but,  in  the  form  in 
which  it  is  found  there,  it  belongs  certainly  to  a 
later  time.  Some  sermons  ascribed  to  him,  and 
printed  in  BM.  2Iax.  Pah:,  Lyons,  1677,  XII. 
pp.  300-322,  belong  evidently  to  the  Carlovingian 
period.  A  letter  from  him  to  Desiderius,  Bishop 
of  Cahors,  is  found  in  Canisii,  Aniiqu.  Led.,  ed. 
Basnage,  I.  p.  CIO.  albrecht  vogel. 

ELl'JAH  Cn^Ss,  or  n;Sx,  "My  God  is  Jeho- 
vah :  "  LXX.  'HZmj- ;  New  Testament  [West,  and 
llort]  'W.dac:'),  the  greatest  of  the  prophets  belong- 
ing to  the  northern  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  one 
of  the  grandest  and  most  romantic  characters  in 
Hebrew  history.  The  events  of  his  life  are  re- 
corded in  four  chapters  of  1  Kings  (xvii.,  sviii., 
xix.,  xxi.),  in  the  first  two  chapters  of  2  Kings, 
and  in  2  C'hron.  xxi.  12-15.  As  in  the  case  of 
Daniel,  and  of  a  majority  of  the  twelve  minor 
prophets,  nothing  is  known  of  his  parentage. 
Six  times  in  the  course  of  the  narrative,  includ- 
ing a  Later  reference  (2  Kings  ix.  36),  he  is  called 
"the  Tishbite,"  which  indicates  his  birthplace. 
This  cannot  have  been  the  Thisbe  of  Upper  Gali- 
lee, from  which  Tobit  was  carried  captive  by  the 
Assyrians  in  the  time  of  Shalmaueser  (Tob.  i. 
2),  since  Elijah  the  Tishbite  is  said  expressly 
to  have  been  "  of  tlie  inhabitants  of  Gilead " 
(1  Kings  xvii.  1).  The  Septuagint  reads,  "from 
Thisbe  [or  Tishbi]  of  Gih'ad  : "  Josephus  (/l/?/., 
VIII.  13,  2)  also  says,  "of  Thesbona,  a  city  of 
Gilead."  Somewhere  in  this  wild  Imt  fertile  and 
beautiful  district  the  great  projihet  was  born ;  and 
the  exact  spot  is  now  probably  detcrminc<l.  In 
the  fourteenth  century  I'archi.the  learned  Jewish 
traveller  in  Palestine,  heard  of  it,  and  considered 
it  the  birthplace  of  Elijah.  In  1870  it  was  found 
and  identified  by  Dr.  Selah  IMerrill,  arclueologist 
of  the  American  Palestine  Exploration  Society. 
The  name  of  the  ]ilaco  is  El-Istib,  which  Dr.  Van 
Dyok  of  Beyrout  pronounces  the  exact  Arabic 
cmiivalont  of  Tishbi.  It  is  in  the  Wady  Mareh, 
■wnicli  opens  northward  into  the  Wady  Yabis, 
which,  in  turn,  opens  westward  into  the  Jordan 
Valley.  El-Istib  (or  Listib)  is  about  twenty-two 
miles  in  an  air  line  south  of  the  Lake  of  Galilee, 
some  tc^n  miles  east  of  th(!  Jordan,  and  some  six 
miles  soutli-east  of  ancient  I'ella.  The  brook 
Cherith  was  probably  in  the  same  immediate 
ncighborliood,  though  no  relic  of  the  name  has 
yet  been  discovered. 

We  have  no  account  of  the  early  life  of  the 
prophet,  nor  is  it  certain  at  what  time  exactly  liis 
translation  occurred.  From  the  narrative  in 
Kings  it  mi'.;hl  be  supposed  to  have  occurred  in 
the  reign  of  Ahaziah,  jiing  of  Israel  (897-800 
B.C.),  the  immediate  auccessor  of  Ahab.     But  if 


the  "  w  riting  "  spoken  of  in  2  Chron.  xxi.  12  was 
a  personal  letter  from  Elijah  to  Jehoram,  king 
of  Judah  (S92-8S5  B.C.),  Elisha  must  have  com- 
menced his  public  ministry  before  his  master's 
translation.  At  all  events,  the  public  ministry  of 
the  Tishbite  in  Israel  ended  with  his  rebuke  of 
Ahaziah  (897-896  B.C.)  ;  the  great  errand  of  his 
life  having  been  to  antagonize  the  idolatry  of 
Ahab  (919-897  B.C.). 

The  dramatic  interest  of  the  narrative  is  sur- 
passed only  by  that  of  the  exodus  from  Egypt. 
Ahab,  seventh  of  the  nineteen  kings  of  Israel,  a 
weak  man,  who  had  married  the  Phoenician  Jeze- 
bel, gave  himself  up  also  to  the  Phoenician  idola- 
trj',  and  the  true  religion  was  in  imminent  danger 
of  being  rooted  out.  Suddenly  the  apostate  king 
is  confronted  by  a  rough-looking  man  from  beyond 
the  Jordan,  described  as  a  hairy  man  wearing  a 
leathern  girdle  and  a  sheepskin  cape  or  mantle. 
It  was  Elijah  the  Tishbite,  who  had  come  as  a 
prophet  of  Jehovah  to  tell  the  king  there  should 
be  neither  dew  nor  rain  but  according  to  his 
word.  And  then  the  prophet  hastens  back  to 
Gilead.  There,  in  the  Wady  Cherith,  the  ravens 
feed  him  till  the  brook  dries  up,  and  he  is  told 
to  betake  himself  to  the  Phoenician  Zarephath, 
where  a  widow-woman  had  been  commanded  to 
care  for  him,  where  he  and  the  widow's  family 
are  fed  miraculously,  and  the  dead  son  of  the 
widow  is  restored  to  life.  Some  three  years  later, 
when  drought  and  famine  had  become  well-nigh 
intolerable,  he  meets  Ahab  again,  calls  down  fire 
from  heaven  upon  his  altar  on  Carmel,  and  slays, 
with  Ahab's  consent,  the  four  hundred  and  fifty 
prophets  of  Baal,  reddening  the  Kishon  with 
their  blood.  Then  he  prayed  for  rain  ;  and  then 
he  ran  before  the  chariot  of  the  apparently  re- 
pentant Ahab,  sixteen  miles  across  the  plain  of 
Esdraelon,  to  the  entrance  of  Jezreel.  But  the 
rage  of  Jezebel  drives  him  to  Beersheha,  and 
into  the  desert  south  of  it,  where  he  sinks  down 
discouraged,  praying  for  death.  Thence  he  goes 
on  to  Sinai,  where  he  has  wonderful  visions  of 
(Jod,  which  revive  his  faith  and  courage.  Some 
six  years  later  he  ajipears  again  to  denounce  both 
Ahab  and  Jczeliel  for  what  they  had  done  to 
Nabuth,  causing  him  to  be  put  to  death  on  a 
false  charge  of  blasphemy,  that  tiu'y  might  seize 
his  vineyard.  His  last  personal  apiiearance  was 
to  Ahaziah,  son  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  some  three 
or  four  years  after  the  Naboth  tragedy.  Elijah's 
life  was  thus  one  of  bold,  sudden  appearances 
and  disappearances  in  a  gallant  struggle  .against 
the  mad  idolatry  that  was  working  the  ruin  of 
the  northern  kingilom.  Where  ho  was,  and  what 
he  was  doing,  during  the  long  intervals  of  his 
l^nblic  ministry,  we  can  only  conj(,'cture.  His 
de]iartiu-e  out  of  life  was  in  kee]iing  with  the 
wholi'  ])revioMS  tenor  of  i(.  His  she<'])skin  nuintle, 
rolled  u|i  into  a  rod.  smoti!  a  path  for  himself  and 
for  IClislia  across  the  Jordan.  A  eluiriot  of  fire, 
and  horses  of  fire,  parted  the  two  pi'opjiets,  and 
the  Tishbite  went  up  in  a  storm  into  the  sky. 
'J'his,  however,  does  not  quite  end  his  biogr.aphy. 
Second  only  to  Moses,  who,  also,  was  strangely 
snatched  away  not  far  from  the  same  locality, 
Moses  and  Elijah  eanie  liack  together  to  meet 
our  Lord  transfigured  on  Ilcrmon.  Tlie  abun- 
dance and  boldness  of  the  miracles  ascribed  to 
lOlijali   bring   no   suspicion   upon  the  narrative. 


ELIM. 


715 


ELIOT. 


when  it  is  considered  that  the  true  religion  was 
in  such  desperate  straits.  Elijah  has  been  can- 
onized in  both  the  Greek  ami  the  Latin  chnrches, 
the  twentieth  day  of  July  being  sacred  to  his 
memory. 

The  literature  of  the  subject  is  abundant.  We 
mention  only  Frischmuth,  in  the  Critici  Sacri ; 
C.^MAUTUS  :  Elian  Thesbiter:,  l'a,ris,  IdSl ;  Ewald  : 
Geschic/ite  des  Volkes  Israel  (III.  b2'i  sqq.,  573 
si[q.);  Stanley;  History  of  the  Jewish  Church 
(II.  3'21  sqq.);  Milman  :  History  of  the  Jeivs, 
i.  389  sqq.;  F.  W.  Krummachek  :  Elias  der 
Thisbiter,  Klberfeld,  1828,  6th  ed..  Coin,  1874, 
translated  and  published  in  several  editions  in 
England  and  America,  e.g;.,  eighth  thousand, 
Cheltenham  (Eng.),  1838,  N.Y.  (American  Tract 
Society),  1838 ;  W.  i\I.  Taylor  :  Elijah  the  Proph- 
et. 1875;  also  art.  "  Elia,"  by  v.  Orelli,  in 
Ilerzoff.  R.  D.  HITCHCOCK. 

E'LIM  (strong  trees),  the  second  station  of  Israel 
after  crossing  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv.  27 ;  Num. 
xxxiii.  9).  As  the  place  had  twelve  springs 
and  seventy  palm-trees,  and  no  alteration  is  likely 
to  have  taken  jilace  in  the  desert  since  that  time, 
Elim  is  with  most  probability  identified  with 
Wady  Ghai'andel ;  though  by  some  it  is  placed  a 
little  more  to  the  south,  at  Wady  Useit,  or  Wady 
Taivibeh.  See  Schaff  :  Throutjh  Bible  Lands, 
pp.  "152,  164. 

ELIOT,  John,  "The  Apostle  to  the  Indians" 
(1004-90),  was  a  native  of  Nasing,  p]ssex  County, 
Eng.  Of  his  childhood  and  youth  but  little 
is  known,  except  that  he  was  blessed  with  emi- 
nently godly  parents,  by  whom,  to  use  his  own 
language,  his  "  first  years  were  seasoned  with 
the  fear  of  God,  the  Word,  and  prayer."  He 
was  educated  at  the  University  of  Cambridge, 
where  his  superior  attainments,  especially  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages, 
marked  hinr  out  already  for  the  great  work  to 
which  in  the  New  World  his  life  was  to  be  conse- 
crated. Upon  leaving  the  university,  he  became 
an  usher  in  the  grammar-school  of  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Hooker,  at  Little  Baddow,  near  Chelms- 
ford in  Essex.  Mr.  Hooker  had  been  silenced 
for  nonconformity.  He  afterwards  emigrated  to 
New  England,  and  is  known  in  history  as  the 
father  of  the  Connecticut  churches.  Eliot's  con- 
nection with  this  admirable  man  formed  a  turn- 
ing-point in  his  spiritual  history.  "  When  I 
came  to  this  blessed  family,"  said  he,  "  I  then 
saw,  and  never  before,  the  power  of  godliness 
in  its  lively  vigor  and  efficacy."  He  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  the  ministry  of  the  gospel ;  and 
as  his  nonconformist  principles  exposed  him  to 
the  tyranny  of  Laud,  he  sought  the  shores  of 
America,  arriving  at  Boston  in  November,  1631. 
In  November,  1632,  he  was  settled  as  teaclier  of 
the  church  of  Christ  in  Roxbury,  and  continued 
in  that  office  until  his  death,  —  a  period  of  nearly 
sixty  years.  He  married  also  in  the  same  year. 
In  1639  he  was  appointed,  with  his  colleague 
Mr.  Welde,  and  Richard  Mather  of  Dorchester,  to 
make  a  new  version  of  the  Psalms.  It  was 
printed  in  the  following  year,  and  was  called  The 
Bai/  Psalm  Book,  but  is  now  best  known  as  The 
New-Enijland  Version  of  the  Psalms.  It  was  the 
first  book  printed  in  North  America. 

Soon  after  his  settlement  at  Roxbury,  Eliot  be- 
came deeply  interested  in   the  Indians,  and  at 


length  resolved  to  preach  the  gospel  to  them. 
There  were  some  twenty  tribes  within  the  limits 
of  the  Colonies,  luit  they  spoke  substantially  the 
same  language.  Having  acquired  a  competent 
knowledge  of  it,  he  met  for  the  first  time  an 
assembly  of  Indians  at  Nonantum,  in  the  present 
town  of  Newton,  Oct.  28,  1646,  and  opened  to 
them  the  way  of  salvation.  He  thus  entered 
upon  that  career  of  missionary  zeal  and  labors 
which  has  rendered  his  name  so  illu.strious 
throughout  Christendom.  He  was  violently  op- 
posed by  the  sachems  and  powwows,  or  juggling 
priests ;  but,  nothing  daunted,  he  prosecuted  his 
mission  with  apostolic  energy,  until  villages  of 
praying  Indians  began  to  appear  in  different 
parts  of  the  Colony.  In  1060,  at  Natick,  the  first 
Indian  church  was  organized.  Eliot  tried  also, 
though  with  only  partial  success,  to  civilize  as 
well  as  convert  the  Indians.  In  process  of  time 
he  came  to  be  regarded  by  them  as  their  best 
friend.  His  influence  over  them  was  extraordi- 
nary; and  he  exerted  it  for  their  good,  in  things 
tenqioral  and  spiritual  alike,  with  rare  wisdom 
and  sagacity.  The  story  of  his  missionary  tours 
among  the  different  tribes  is  full  of  interest.  In 
1661  he  had  the  joy  of  publishing  the  New  Testar 
ment  in  the  Indian  language,  and  three  years 
later  the  whole  Bible.  Richard  Baxter  said  of 
a  copy  of  it  sent  to  Charles  II.,  "  Such  a  vi-ork 
and  fruit  of  a  plantation  was  never  before  pre- 
sented unto  a  king."  Of  this  Bible  Cotton 
Mather  wrote :  "  Behold,  ye  Americans,  the  great- 
est honor  that  ever  ye  were  partakers  of,  —  the 
Bible  printed  here  at  our  Cambridge  ;  and  it  is 
the  only  Bible  that  ever  was  printed  in  all 
America,  from  the  very  foundation  of  the  world." 
Eliot's  Indian  Bible  is  the  grandest  monument 
of  early  American  scholarship  and  evangelism. 
The  longest  word  in  it  is  in  Jlark  i.  40,  Wutap- 
pesittidijussunnoohwehtu7tkquoh  ("  kneeling  down 
to  him").  Eliot  also  translated  into  the  Indian 
tongue  a  catechism,  Baxter's  Call  to  the  Uncon- 
verted, and  various  other  treatises  on  practical 
religion,  besides  preparing  an  Indian  grammar. 
At  the  end  of  the  latter  he  wrote,  "  Prayer  and 
pains,  through  faith  in  Christ  Jesus,  will  do  any 
thing."  In  his  last  years,  when  weighed  down 
by  bodily  infirmities,  and  unable  any  longer  to 
preach,  or  to  visit  the  Indians,  he  induced  several 
fanulies  to  send  their  negro  servants  to  him  once 
a  week,  that  he  might  instruct  them  in  the  truths 
of  the  gospel.  His  old  age  was  adorned  with  the 
simplicity  and  artlessness  of  a  little  child,  with 
wonderful  humility,  and  a  charity  that  never 
failed.  Nor  was  he  wanting  in  fine  touches  of 
humor.  He  pretended  to  fear  tliat  his  old 
friends  and  neighbors.  Cotton  of  Boston,  and 
IMather  of  Dorchester,  who  had  gone  to  heaven 
many  years  before,  would  suspect  him  to  liave 
gone  the  wrong  way,  because  he  staid  so  long 
behind  them.  His  missionary  work  excited  great 
interest  in  England ;  and  the  funds  for  carrying 
it  on  were  chiefly  supplied  by  the  Society  for 
propagating  the  Gospel  in  New  England.  This 
corporation,  instituted  in  1649  by  an  ordinance 
of  the  famous  Long  Parliament,  largely  aided 
him  also  in  defraying  the  expense  of  publishing 
the  first  and  second  editions  of  his  Indian  Bible. 
Mr.  Eliot  died  on  the  20th  of  ISIay,  1690,  in  the 
eighty-sixth  j'ear  of  his  age.     His  wife,  a  woman 


ELIS^US. 


716 


ELIZABETH. 


of  uncomraon  excellence,  and  singularly  adapted 
to  be  his  companion  and  helpmeet,  passed  on  to 
the  better  country  three  years  before  him,  in  the 
eighty-fourth  year  of  her  age.  They  had  six 
children,  —  a  daughter  and  five  sons.  Foiu-  of  tlie 
sons  were  graduated  at  Harvard  College,  and 
three  of  them  became  ministers  of  the  gospel. 
Only  the  daughter  and  one  son  survived  theii- 
father. 

Xo  worthier  or  more  venerable  name  than  that 
of  John  Eliot  is  to  be  found  in  all  the  annals  of 
New  England.  "  There  was  no  man  on  earth 
whom  I  honored  above  him,"  wrote  Richard 
Baxter.  Southey  pronounced  him  "one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  men  of  any  country."  Even 
in  his  own  day  he  was  called  "  The  Apostle  to 
the  Indians ;  "  and,  although  he  earnestly  depre- 
cated such  a  title,  it  has  adhered  to  him  ever 
since  by  common  consent  of  the  Christian  world. 

Lit.  —  In  addition  to  his  Indian  Bible,  gram- 
mar, etc.,  Eliot  published  various  other  works, 
among  them,  The  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  The 
Divine  Management  of  Gospel  Churches  by  the 
Ordinance  of  Councils,  The  Christian  Common- 
wealth, also  several  letters  and  other  writings 
relating  to  the  progress  of  the  gospel  among  the 
Indians.  Tlie  best  accoimt  of  him  and  his  mis- 
sionarj'  labors  is  Life  of  John  Eliot,  the  Apostle  to 
the  Indians,  by  CoNVERS  Francis,  vol.  V.  of 
Sp.\rks's  Library  of  American  Biography  (Boston, 
18-36).  GEORGE  L.   PRENTISS. 

ELIS^US  (.\rmenian  Egishe),  an  eminent 
Armenian  historian  and  theologian  of  the  fifth 
century;  was  educated  by  Sahak  and  Mesrob, 
and  served  as  secretary  to  the  Armenian  prince 
Vartan  during  the  rebellion  against  Yzdegerd  II., 
the  Persian  king,  who  threatened  the  existence 
of  Christianity  in  Armenia.  Elissus  was  after- 
wards made  Bisliopof  Amatunik,  and  was  as  such 
present  at  the  great  national  synod  of  Ardushad, 
449.  He  died  480  at  Ilesclulonni,  on  the  south- 
ern shore  of  Lake  Van.  His  principal  work  is 
a  history  of  tlie  Persian  persecution  of  Christi- 
anity in  Armenia,  which  lie  narrates  as  an  eye- 
witness, and  with  the  employment  of  all  official 
sources.  The  work  was  first  print<'d  in  Constan- 
tinople, 1764  :  the  best  edition  of  it  is  that  of 
Venice,  1852.  It  was  translated  into  English  by 
Neumann,  Lond.,  1830.  He  has  also  written  com- 
mentaries on  various  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
and  other  theological  works,  of  wliich  a  collected 
edition  appeared  at  Venice,  1838.      R.  OOSCHE. 

ELI'SHA  (i'?'''?X,  "  (iod  is  salvation ; "  LXX.  'EAi- 
nnic;  New  Testament  'E/tiooaiof),  Hebrew  prophet, 
and  successor  of  Elijah.  As  he  was  engaged  in 
ploughing,  Elijah  con.secrated  him  to  the  )iropheti- 
cal  office  by  throwing  his  mantle  over  him  (1  Kings 
xix.  19-21).  He  left  his  plough,  and  became  the 
most  faithful  and  eminent  disciple  of  the  great 
master.  His  prophetical  activity  U'W  in  the  reigns 
of  four  kings,  and  lasted  more  llian  half  a  cen- 
tury (c.  890-810).  Iiider  his  )iredecessor  a  reli- 
gious reformation  had  been  effectinl,  so  that  the 
times  of  Elisha  were  favorable  to  a  disjiensation 
of  healing  and  of  grace.  It  was  this  difference 
of  surroundings,  and  also  a  difference  in  tem- 
perament, to  whicli  is  to  be  attributed  the  differ- 
ence in  kind  of  the  activity  of  the  two  pnjjihets. 
Elijah  was  stern  and  severe,  solilary  and  lonely; 
Elisha  Ijeiievolent  and  tender,  a  man  of  the  city 


and  the  home.  He  was  often  seen  in  the  vicinity 
of  Jericho,  and  on  the  Jordan,  at  Gilgal  and  at 
Bethel,  and  owned  a  house  at  Samaria.  He  is 
the  friend  of  the  poor  and  needy,  who  interests 
himself  in  the  smallest  details  of  domestic  life. 
Now  he  heals  the  impure  waters  with  salt  (2  Kings 
ii.  19-22),  now  he  makes  tlie  penurious  fare  of 
the  sons  of  the  prophets  palatable  (iv.  38-41).  He 
helps  the  widow  out  of  debt  (iv.  1-7),  and  re- 
stores to  a  poor  boy  the  axe  which  had  fallen  into 
the  water  (vi.  1-7).  A  few  loaves  through  his 
blessing  suffice  for  a  hundred  (iv.  42-44).  To  his 
hospitable  Shunammite  friend  he  promises  a 
child  (iv.  8-17),  and,  when  it  has  died,  restores  it 
to  life  (viii.  1-6).  His  fame  extended  to  Syria; 
and  Naaman  the  captain,  by  his  counsel,  bathes 
in  the  Jordan,  and  loses  his  leprosy  (v.). 

But  Elisha's  gracious  activity  was  not  confined 
to  cases  in  private  life.  King  Joram  applies  ta 
him  for  counsel  in  his  distress  (iii.  11-20).  His 
prediction  of  the  Syrian  attacks  is  so  accurate, 
that  the  Syrian  commander  attributes  his  defeats 
to  a  traitor  in  the  camp  (vi.  11);  and,  when  he 
seeks  to  take  the  prophet  captive,  Elisha  leads 
him  and  his  army  to  Samaria,  as  though  they  had 
been  stricken  with  blindness  (vi.  13-19).  Elisha 
was  obliged  to  follow  the  divine  direction,  and 
against  his  will,  and  with  tears,  predicted  before 
Hazael  that  he  would  come  to  the  throne,  and 
would  ravage  Israel  (viii.  7-15).  He  had  con- 
stantly before  his  mind  the  well-being  of  his  peo- 
ple, as  is  evidenced  by  the  unceasing  esteem  of 
the  nation,  and  the  testimony  of  a  king  at  his 
death,  who  called  him  his  father,  and  Israel's 
"  chariot  and  horsemen  "  (xiii.  14). 

In  sublime  intellectual  power  Elisha  was  not 
equal  to  his  predecessor ;  but  in  him  the  grace  of 
God  shows  its  tender  and  solicitous  care  for  tb& 
smallest  events.  His  miracles  approach  nearest 
to  those  of  the  Saviour,  in  which  the  fulness  of 
divine  grace  revealed  itself.  He  who  sees  deeds 
of  supernatural  power  in  the  saving  life  of  Christ 
will  not  deny  tliem  to  his  type  in  the  Old  Testar 
ment. 

Lit.  —  See  the  Bible  histories  by  Ewald, 
Hengstenberg,  [and  especially  Stanley,  II. 
pp.  353-304],  and  the  articles  in  the  Bible  dic- 
tionaries [especially  in  Smith].         V.  ORELU. 

ELIZABETH,  QUEEN.   See  England,  Church 

OE. 

ELIZABETH,  ST.,  of  Hungary,  the  daughter 
of  Andreas  II.,  King  of  Hungarv;  b.  in  Press- 
burg,  1207;  d.  at  IMarhurg,  Nov"  19,  1231.  In 
her  fourth  year  slie  was  betrothed  to  Ludwig,  son 
of  Ilerinann.  Landgrave  of  Thuringia,  to  whose 
court  she  was  at  once  sent  in  a  silver  cradle. 
Tlie  Wartburg,  the  residence  of  the  landgrave, 
was  at  that  time  one  of  the  most  brilliant  courts 
in  (iermany.  The  marriage  was  ]K'rfectcd  in 
1221,  Ludwig  liaving  succeeded  iiis  fatlier  in 
1216.  It  jiroved  to  be  a  happy  one.  Both  were 
of  serious  temperament,  and  under  their  admin- 
istration the  tone  of  life  radically  changed  at  the 
Wartburg.  Elizabeth  disjilayed  in  an  ever  in- 
cri'iising  mi^asure  the  virtues  of  humility,  mercy, 
and  charily.  She  was  the  friend  of  the  afllioted, 
in  )icr.s<in  n^lieved  the  sufferings  of  the  sick,  .and 
distributed  larger  sums  among  the  neeily;  and 
in  the  famine  of  1226  her  charily  relieveil  the 
poor  from  far  and  near.     She  founded  a  hospital 


ELIZABETH  ALBBRTINB. 


717 


ELKESAITBS. 


at  Eisenach  for  twenty-four  persons  enfeebled  by 
age,  or  rendered  helpless  by  disease.  The  even 
tenor  of  this  life  of  marital  felicity  and  charita- 
ble effort  was  interrupted  by  the  death  of  Ludwig 
in  1227,  in  Apulia,  on  the  eve  of  departure  on  a 
crusade  with  Frederick  II.  Beautiful  and  bright 
as  her  life  had  heretofore  been,  it  henceforth 
becomes  a  melancholy  record  of  ascetic  mortifi- 
cation, which  the  religious  sentiment  of  the  time 
commended  and  praised  as  the  best  evidence  and 
most  perfect  fruit  of  piety,  but  which  the  more 
evangelical  spirit  of  modern  Christianity  con- 
demns as  unnatural  and  barbarous. 

While  her  husband  was  still  living,  and  with 
his  consent,  Elizabeth  had  made  Conrad  of  Mar- 
burg, the  papal  inquisitor-general  in  Germany, 
her  confessor  and  religious  guide.  Under  his 
influence  she  gave  herself  up  to  an  ascetic  disci- 
pline, undergoing  severe  castigations  at  the  hands 
of  her  attendants.  Conrad  endeavored  to  sepa- 
rate her  from  her  husband,  but  only  succeeded  in 
extracting  a  promise,  that,  in  the  event  of  his 
death,  she  would  not  marry  again.  After  Lud- 
wig's  demise,  she  submitted  herself  slavishly  to 
this  iron-hearted  priest.  She  received  harsh 
treatment  from  Heinrich  Raspe,  her  brother-in- 
law,  who  had  usurped  the  throne,  and  was  driven 
forth  from  the  Wartburg.  After  much  suffering 
she  found  refuge  with  her  uncle  Egbert,  Bishop 
of  Bamberg.  The  knights  who  brought  back 
her  husband's  remains,  sought  and  secured  jus- 
tice for  Elizabeth.  She  was  invited  back  to  the 
Wartburg,  but  at  her  own  request  was  sent  to 
Marburg,  where  she  ended  her  days.  After  occu- 
pying for  a  while  a  dilapidated  cottage,  she 
entered  a  convent,  but  did  not  become  a  nun. 
She  was  wholly  under  the  withering  influence 
of  Conrad,  who  set  himself  to  the  task  of  destroy- 
ing every  natural  affection,  however  pure,  in  the 
hope  of  making  a  saint.  Elizabeth  submitted  to 
the  most  menial  services,  separated  herself  from 
her  three  children,  and  bared  her  back  while 
brother  Gerhard  flagellated  it,  and  Conrad  sang 
the  Miserere  as  an  accompaniment.  From  this 
painful  and  ghastly  spectacle,  which  was,  how- 
ever, in  perfect  accord  with  the  morbid  and  mis- 
taken religious  ideas  of  the  day,  we  turn  away 
with  relief,  and  think  only  of  the  Christian  hu- 
mility and  tender  charity  of  character  which  under- 
lay this  asceticism.  In  Marburg,  as  in  the  bright 
days  on  the  Wartburg,  she  labored  to  relieve  the 
wants  of  tlie  sick  and  poor.  A  hospital  which 
still  stands  attests  her  munificence.  She  was 
canonized  by  Gregory  IX.  in  1235 ;  and  the  same 
year  the  Landgrave  Ludwig  laid  in  Marburg  the 
corner-stone  of  the  stately  Elizabeth  Church, 
which  still  stands,  and,  up  to  the  time  of  the 
Reformation,  contained  the  remains  of  this  most 
honored  of  the  women  of  medieval  Germany. 

Lit.  — MoNT.\LEMBERT  :  L'histoire  de  St.  Eliza- 
beth, Paris,  1836,  14th  ed.,  1876  (an  enthusiastic 
description,  but  the  writer  himself  calls  it  a 
"  legend  ")  ;  Simon  :  Lurlwir/  I  V.  tt.  s.  Gemalin, 
Frankf.,  1851;  Wegele  (Roman  Catholic),  in 
v.  Sybel's  Hist.  Zeitschrifl,  1861  (a  critical  and 
accurate  account).  [Charles  Kingsley  drew  the 
materials  for  his  Saint'.<:  'frafiedt/  from  Elizabeth's 
life.  See  Kahnis  :  Der  Gang  der  Kirche,  Leipzig, 
1881,  pp.  277-300.]  ■  HERZOG. 

ELIZABETH   ALBERTINE,  countess-palatine. 


b.  at  Heidelberg,  Dec.  26,  1618;  d.  at  Ilerford,. 
in  Westphalia,  Feb.  11,  1680;  was  a  daughter 
of  F'riedrich  V.,  elector  of  the  Palatinate,  and 
king  of  Bohemia,  and  Elizabeth  Stuart,  a  (laugh- 
ter of  James  I.  She  was  educated  at  the  Hague, 
where  her  parents  kept  a  quiet  court.  She  learned 
six  languages.  Descartes  was  her  teacluir  in 
mathematics.  Malebranche  and  Leibnitz  were 
among  her  friends  and  correspondents.  She 
early  decided  to  remain  unmarried,  and  devote 
her  life  to  philosophy ;  and  the  decapitation  of 
her  uncle,  Charles  I.  (1648),  and  the  unhappy 
marriage  of  her  brother,  Karl  Ludwig  of  the 
Palatinate,  etc.,  only  confirmed  her  decision.  In 
1667  she  retired  to  Ilerford  in  Westphalia  as 
abbess;  and  there  she  had  opportunity  to  show 
hospitality  to  the  followers  of  Labadie  in  1670, 
and  to  the  Quakers  in  1676;  circumstances  which, 
towards  the  close  of  her  life,  gave  her  mind  a 
more  decidedly  religious  turn.  Biographies  of 
her  have  been  written  by  Guhrauer,  in  Harmier's 
hint.  Taschenhuch  (1851),  and  by  Goebel,  in  his 
Gt'schichte  d.  christ.  Lebens,  etc.,  Coblenz,  1855, 
vol.  II.  M.  GOEBEL. 

ELKESAITES,  a  school  in  the  JewLsh  Chris- 
tian Church,  whose  doctrines  were  tinged  with 
Gnosticism.  Our  principal  sources  of  informa- 
tion are  the  Philosophumena  of  Hippolytus  and 
Epiphanius,  who  also  calls  them  Sampsaioi  (from 
t^OK',  "sun  ").  The  derivation  of  the  name  has 
led  to  many  conjectures.  Delitzsch  derives  it 
from  a  Galilean  village  (Elkesi);  others,  from  a 
Hebrew  word  meaning  apostate  ;  while  the  chui-ch 
fathers  derive  it  from  a  pretended  founder,  Elxai. 
Epiphanius  (Hcer.,  xix.  2)  defines  the  name  ta 
mean  "  hidden  power  "  (<5t'Ta//(f  KenaUv/icvji).  It 
was  probably  merely  the  designation  of  a  book. 
At  any  rate,  the  Elkesaites  had  in  their  possession 
a  book  which  was  widely  used,  and,  according  to- 
Origen,  believed  to  have  fallen  from  heaven,  or, 
according  to  the  more  accurate  Philosophumena, 
was  revealed  by  the  Son  of  God  himself.  Elxai- 
is  reported  to  have  received  it  in  Parthia  in 
Trajan's  reign,  and  to  have  presented  it  to  the- 
Sobiai  (Epiphan.,  xix.  1;  Philos.,  ix.  13).  The 
work  itself  contains  a  large  element  of  natural 
religion  mingled  with  Judaistic  and  Christian 
ideas.  It  authorizes  the  practice  of  astrology 
and  magic.  Besides  those  features  which  Elke- 
saitism  had  in  common  with  Ebionism  may  be 
mentioned  the  doctrine  that  baptism  washes 
away  sins;  and  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  rite 
is  enjoined.  Before  the  Philosophumena  were 
discovered  (1851),  the  Elkesaites  were  identified 
with  the  Ebionites  (Gieseler),  and  the  Pseudo- 
Clementine  Homilies  were  regarded  as  the  main 
authority  on  the  suliject.  But  the  two  works 
differ;  the  Philosophumena  teaching  an  inten- 
sified Ebionism,  and  the  Clementines  a  modified 
type,  giving  up  circumcision.  The  book  of  Elxai 
was  widely  circulated,  but  cannot  be  regarded  as 
the  confession  of  Ebionism.  The  Elkesaites  were 
not  a  distinct  sect,  but  rather  a  school  scattered 
among  all  parties  of  the  Judaeo-Christian  Church. 

[Lit.  —  RiTSCHL  :  Ensleli.  d.  idttatli.  Kirche, 
p.  234  sqq. ;  Schaff  :  Ch.  Hi.sl.,  I.  215  sqq.; 
LiGHTFOOT  :  Cq/o.<sians  (^Excur.<us  on  Essenes), 
p.  137  sqq.,  and  Galalians,  p.  311  sqq.  ;  and  the 
art.  Elkesai  in  S.mith  and  Wace,  Diet.  Christ. 

Biog.l  G.  UHLHORN. 


ELLER. 


718 


ELOHIM. 


ELLER,  Elias,  b.  at  Ronsdorf  in  the  duchy  of 
Berg,  ItSOO ;  d.  there  May  1(3,  1750 ;  married  at 
Elberfeld  a  rich  widow  (Bolckhaus),  and  estab- 
lished himself  at  the  head  of  a  sect  of  apoca- 
lyptic milleuariaus,  called  ''Ellei'ians,"  or  "Kons- 
dorfers."  who  received  their  revelations  through 
a  young  baker-daughter  from  Elberfeld  (Buchel), 
whom  Eller  married  after  the  death  of  his  first 
wife.  The  Bible  the  sect  accepted  as  tlie  word  of 
God:  but  it  needed  various  kinds  of  supplements; 
and  these  were  given  by  Buchel,  in  the  Hirlen- 
tasche  ("shepherd's  bag").  Abraham,  ]Moses,  and 
Elijah  were  only  prototypes  of  Eller,  in  whom 
the  whole  fulness  of  divinity  dwelt.  The  Mes- 
siah was  to  be  born  again  by  Bucliel,  etc.  When 
investigations  were  had  at  Elberfeld  concerning 
the  meetings  of  the  sect,  Eller  moved  (in  1737), 
with  all  his  followers,  to  Ronsdorf,  where  a  churcli 
was  to  be  built,  and  a  minister  was  appointed 
(Schleiermacher).  After  tlie  death  of  his  second 
■wife,  Eller  married  another  rich  widow  (Bossel- 
manu);  and  the  sect,  though  suspected  of  im- 
moralities, began  to  spread,  when  disagreement 
broke  out  between  Eller  and  Schleiermacher. 
Schleiermacher  was  expelled,  and  fled  to  Hol- 
land, formally  accused  by  Eller  of  sorcery.  WUlf- 
fiug  was  appointed  minister  in  his  place.  After 
the  death  of  Eller,  WiiliBng  and  Bolckhaus  (a 
son  of  Eller's  first  wife)  tried  to  propagate  the 
sect;  but  it  soon  after  died  out.  Full  accounts 
of  it  are  found  in  the  writings  of  J.  W.  Knevel, 
(the  defender  of  Schleiermacher),  P.  Wulffing, 
and  J.  Bolckhaus.  See  J.  A.  Engels:  Gc- 
schichie  (ler  rclirjiosen  Schicannerei  im  Herzo(jthum 
Jicri/,  Sehwelni,  1S2G.  G.  H.  KLIPPEL. 

ELLIOTT,  Charles,  D.D.,  b.  at  Glenconwaj', 
County  Donegal,  Ireland,  May  16,  1792;  d.  at 
Mount  Pleasant,  lo.,  Jan.  6,  18(39.  He  was  li- 
censed as  a  local  Methodist  preacher  1813,  and 
in  1815  emigrated  to  .\merica.  He  served  in 
various  capacities,  having  been  superintendent  of 
the  mission  among  the  Wyandotte  Indians  at 
Upper  Sandusky,  a  presiding  elder  of  the  Oliio 
district,  professor  of  languages  in  Madison  Col- 
lege, L'niontown,  Penn.,  and  for  many  years 
editor  of  different  Methodist  religious  papers. 
From  1857  to  18(J0  he  was  profe.ssor  of  biblical 
literature,  and  president  of  the  Iowa  Wesleyan 
University,  and  again  from  18()4  to  1807.  His 
general  rejiutation  rests  upon  his  Ddincution  of 
Itoman  Cal/tulicism,  N.Y.,  1841,  2  vols.,  Eondon, 
1851  (with  full  index)  ;  but  he  also  wrote  Tlie 
(JrenI  Seri'x.iion  (a  history  of  the  division  of  the 
Methodist-Episcopal  Church  in  1844  on  account 
of  slavery),  N.  Y.,  1852  ;  and  Soutli-wcslcrn  Method- 
ixiii,  a  IJIslijri/  i)f  the  M.  E.  Church  in  Missouri 
from  18U  to  1864.  X.Y.,  18G8. 

ELLIS,  William,  missionary,  b.  in  London, 
Aug.  29.  1791;  d.  at  Hoddesdon,  Hertfordshire, 
June  2.'),  1872.  He  was  .sent  by  tlie  London  Mis- 
sionary Society  to  the  South  Sea  Islands  in  l81(i, 
and  labored  there  until  1823,  when  he  reniovcil 
to  Hawaii,  and  rendered  ellieient  .sei-vice  to  the 
American  missionaries  in  reducing  the  Hawaiian 
language  to  a  written  form.  See  SAXDWicir 
l.si.A.si).>i.  Tlie  slate  of  Mrs.  Ellis's  health  com- 
pdled  liis  ri-turn  to  Enirlunil  in  1825.  He  entered 
into  the  home-work  of  tlie  society,  at  first  a.s 
travelling  agent,  but  from  1832  to  1839  as  foreign 
secretary.       In    1830   ho    published    the   Murtyr 


Church  of  Madagascar :  in  1844,  the  first  volume 
of  a  history  of  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
Circumstances  prevented  the  completion  of  the 
work.  In  1853  he  was  sent  out  to  Madagascar 
to  revive  the  mission  there,  which  had  suffered 
so  terribly  from  persecution.  By  his  tact  and 
zeal  he  succeeded  in  putting  Christianity  upon  a 
firm  basis.  Between  1S53  and  1SG3  he  visited 
the  island  four  times ;  and  he  has  publi.shed  his 
experiences  and  information  in  Three  Visits  to 
Madat/ascar  (London,  1S58),  Madagascar  Revisited 
(London,  1867). 

Mr.  Ellis  was  one  of  those  missionaries  who 
ha\e  laid  the  church  and  the  world  under  tribute. 
lie  was  not  only  indefatigable  in  labor,  and  solici- 
tous for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  his  converts  and 
their  brethren,  but  lie  was  also  able  to  improve 
their  temporal  condition  by  his  practical  knowl- 
edge. In  his  boyhood  he  had  worked  enthusias- 
tically at  market-gardening ;  and,  in  the  year 
before  he  sailed  on  his  first  missionary  journey, 
he  learned  not  only  theology,  but  printing  and 
book-binding.  He  was  able,  therefore,  to  accli- 
matize many  species  of  fruits  and  plants  in  the 
South  Sea  Islands,  which  have  been  a  source  of 
revenue  to  the  inhabitants,  and  also  to  set  up  the 
first  printing-press  in  Polynesia.  His  books  are 
not  merely  faithful  and  interesting  records  of 
missionary  labor,  but  contributions  to  science. 

ELLWOOD,  Thomas,  a  Quaker,  the  suggester 
oi  Paradise  liegaiucd,  b.  at  Crowell,  Oxfordshire, 
1039;  d.  at  Hunger  Hill,  near  Amerdean,  Buck- 
inghamshire, March  1, 1713.  lie  was  Latin  reader 
to  Milton  for  some  months.  During  the  Great 
Plague  in  London  (1605)  he  took  a  house  for 
Milton  at  Giles  Chalfont;  and  there  he  read  the 
manuscript  of  Paradise  Lost,  which  he  returned 
with  the  remark,  "  Thou  hast  said  much  liere  of 
Paradise  lost;  but  what  hast  thou  to  say  of  Para- 
dise found?"  To  Ellwood  we  are  indebted  for 
much  information  in  regard  to  Milton  and  the 
persecutions  of  the  Quakers.  Of  his  own  works 
the  most  iniiiortant  are,  Furgrri/  no  Christianity 
(London,  1074),  and  Foundation  of  Tithis  Shaken 
(1082),  and  his  Aulohingrajihy,  with  supplement 
bj'  Joseph  Wyeth  (1714),  rejiriut,  Boston,  1877, 
in  the  Choice  Autobiograjihies  set'ws,  edited  by  W. 
I).  Ilowells. 

ELO'HIIVI  (D'riVs),  the  term  most  frequently 
used  in  the  Old  Testament  for  God.  It  is  the 
plural  form,  tlie  singular,  Eloah  (ni'Sx),  being 
exclusively  used  in  poetry.  Tlie  ancient  Semitic 
name  for  Goil,  El  (  **),  occurs  seldom.  It  defines 
(iod,  beyond  dispute,  as  having  alKsolute  power. 
So  in  A.ssyrian  o/i/u  means  "powerful."  But 
Eloali  cannot  be  proved  to  mean  "  ]iowerful." 
The  verb  means  in  the  Arabic  "  to  be  afraid," 
and  (according  to  Oehler)  is  connected  with  the 
A.ssyrian  alal,  so  that  it  would  mean  ]iower  which 
inspires  fear.  Elohini,  as  the  designation  of  the 
triu!  (iod,  is  not  used  in  any  of  Ihc^  Semitic  lan- 
guages excejit  biblical  Ilcbri'w.  Variiins  exiila- 
nations  have  been  given  of  this  ]ilural  form.  The 
old  theologians,  beginning  with  I'eler  Lombard, 
found  a  reference  to  the  Trinity  ;  and,  by  pointing 
to  the  inexhaustible  fulness  ol  the  Deity,  it  i.s,  to 
say  the  least,  iiiconsistrent  with  an  ahstrnrl  mono- 
theism. A  second  view  sees  in  the  plural  form  a 
relic  of  an  ancient  polytheism  ;  but  the  opinion  is 


BLOTH. 


719 


EMBURY. 


untenable,  that  the  monotheism  of  the  Ohl  Testa- 
ment ihn-eloped  out  of  polytheism.  A  third  view 
finds  the  higher  spirits  who  surround  (jod  referred 
to;  but  the  use  of  the  word  for  angels  cannot  be 
proved,  confessedly  not  [iiuiny  commentators, 
like  Perowne  on  the  Psalms,  dissent]  in  Ps.  viii. 
.5,  xcvii.  7,  cxxxviii.  1,  where  the  Septuagint 
translates  it  "  angels."  And  in  Ps.  Ixxxii.  Elohim 
does  not  mean,  as  Ilupfeld  thinks,  angels,  but 
the  theocratic  officers  of  the  law.  The  correct 
view  was  advanced  by  Dietrich  in  his  Hebrew 
grammar  (1846),  who  regards  it  as  a  plural  of 
quantity,  the  same  which  is  used  for  natural  ob- 
jects, like  the  ocean  and  the  heavens,  which  make 
the  impression  of  power.  Elohim,  therefore, 
designates  the  fulness  of  divine  power,  and  is 
rightly  called  by  Delitzsch  a  plural  of  intensity. 
[See  Tii.  Noi.DECKE :  Uehcr  den  Gottesnamen  El, 
IJerlin.  1880.]  (OEHLER)   DELITZSCH. 

E'LOTH.     See  E'lath. 

ELVIRA,  a  town  of  Spain  which  has  now  dis- 
appeared, but  which  probably  was  situated  near 
Granada.  A  council  {Concilium  Eliberitanum,  or 
IlUberilannm)  was  held  there  in  30.^  or  306,  ac- 
cording to  Hefele  (in  the  spring  of  30G,  according 
to  Dale,  not  32-i,  as  in  some  copies  of  the  acts), 
and  attended  l)y  nineteen  bishops,  among  whom 
w-as  Ilosius  of  Corduba,  and  a  number  of  priests. 
Its  canons  refer  exclusively  to  discipline,  prohib- 
iting unchastity,  clerical  marriages,  pictures  in 
churches,  lights  by  day  in  cemeteries,  etc.  See 
Mansi,  II.  ;  Hefele:  Concilienf/eschichte,  i.  §  13; 
Dale  ;   T/ie  Synod  of  Eloira,  London,  1882. 

ELY,  the  seat  of  an  Engli.sh  bishopric,  is  a 
town  on  the  Isle  of  Ely,  near  the  Ouse,  sixteen 
miles  north-north-east  of  Cambridge.  A  monas- 
tery was  founded  there  by  Etheldreda,  Queen  of 
Northumbria  (673),  of  which  she  died  abbess 
(679)  ;  but,  when  the  town  was  ravaged  by  the 
I)anes  (870),  it  was  burnt.  Ethelwold,  Bishop 
of  Winchester,  rebuilt  it  in  970,  and  placed  in  it 
monks,  instead  of  nuns.  In  1083  the  Abbot 
Simeon  commenced  the  conventual  church,  which 
was  converted  by  Henry  VIH.  into  a  cathedral. 
The  see  of  Ely  was  founded  1107.  The  cathe- 
dral is  of  mixed  architecture,  but  very  imposing. 
It  has  recently  been  restored  at  an  expiense  of 
more  than  seventy  thousand  pounds.  The  bishop 
is  paid  fifty-five  hundred  pounds  yearly.  The 
present  incumbent  (18S2)  is  Dr.  James  Rus.sell 
Woodford.  See  Whitaker's  Almanack  for  1S82, 
p.  199. 

EMANATION  denotes  a  theory  of  the  relation 
between  God  and  the  universe,  according  to 
which  the  world  was  not  created  by  a  divine  Jiat, 
but  developed  through  various  stages,  and  by  an 
involuntary  outflow  of  the  divine  substance, 
gradually  deteriorating,  and  at  last  ending  in 
mere  matter.  In  a  vague  and  confused  form 
this  theory  may  be  found  in  most  Oriental  reli- 
gions ;  but  it  owes  its  elaborate  and  systematic 
form  to  the  Neo-Platonists,  from  whom  it  was 
borrowed  by  the  Gnostics.  Its  scientific  value 
was  absolutely  null ;  but  teacliing  people,  as  it 
did,  to  raise  themselves  above  their  natural  state, 
and  strive  towards  the  divine,  it  has  had  some 
moral  influence. 

EMBALMING,  an  art  peculiar  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, was  not  practised  by  the  Hebrews,  and  is 
mentioned   in   the   Bible   only  in   the  cases   of 


Jacob  and  Joseph  (Gen.  1.  2,  26),  both  of  whom 
died  in  Egypt,  and  were  afterwards  transferred 
to  Canaan ;  the  former  immediately  after  his 
death,  the  latter  not  until  after  the  lapse  of  cen- 
turies (Exod.  xiii.  II);  .losh.  xxiv.  32).  Accord- 
ing to  Herodotus  (II.,  80),  the  Egyptians  knew 
three  different  methods  of  embalming.  After 
the  first,  which  cost  about  one  talent  of  silver, 
the  brain  was  removed  through  the  nostrils,  and 
replaced  with  drugs.  An  ojiening  was  then  cut 
in  the  left  flank,  and  the  intestines  taken  out  by 
the  hand,  placed  in  a  peculiar  vessel,  and  thrown 
into  tlie  river.  The  cavity  was  rinsed  with 
palm-wine,  and  filled  with  aromatic  herbs,  after 
which  the  opening  in  the  flank  was  again  closed 
by  being  sewn  up.  The  corpse  tlius  prepared 
was  then  steeped  for  seventy  days  in  "  natron  " 
(according  to  a  recent  analysis,  sub-carbonate  of 
soda),  and  swathed  in  linen  bandages  smeared 
with  gum.  The  mummy  was  finally  laid  in  a 
coffin  of  sycamore-wood,  which  was  jilaced  verti- 
cally in  the  tomb.  After  the  second  method  the 
intestines  were  not  removed  by  hand,  but  by 
means  of  cedar-oil,  which,  introduced  into  the 
body,  dissolved  them.  The  corpse  was  then 
steeped,  as  usually,  in  natron.  After  the  third 
method,  the  corpse  was  only  rinsed  internally 
by  an  infusion,  and  then  steeped.  The  embalm- 
ing of  Jacob's  corjjse  took  only-  forty  days;  but 
it  appears,  from  the  mummies  jireserved  at  Mem- 
phis, that  a  method  of  embalming  was  employed 
there,  less  complete  and  less  careful  than  that 
employed  at  Thebais.  In  the  Christian  Church 
embalming  seems  to  have  been  used  now  and 
then  with  martyrs  and  saints,  as  intimated  by 
Tertullian  (Apot.,  42);  or  perhaps  this  was  only 
an  adaptation  of  the  Jewish  custom  of  filling  the 
grave  with  myrrh  and  .spices  (2  Cliron.  xvi.  14; 
John  xix.  39).  See  Wilkinson:  Manners  and 
Customs  of  the  Ancient  EyypI,  London,  1837-41, 
re-edited  by  S.  Birch,  London,  1878;  Maspero: 
Me'moire  sur  quelques  papyrus  du  Louvre;  le  ritual 
de  remhaumement.  RUETSCHI. 

EMBER  DAYS  are  the  first  Wednesday,  Fri- 
day, and  Saturday  after  the  first  Sunday  in 
Lent,  after  Whitsunday,  after  the  14th  of  Septem- 
ber, and  after  the  13th  of  December,  which  were 
fixed  by  the  council  of  Placentia,  1095.  Their 
name  is  in  Latin,  Jejunia  Quatuor  Temporum ;  in 
French,  Quntre- Temps ;  in  German,  Quatember; 
in  Danish,  Tampcrday ;  which  seems  to  indicate 
pretty  plainly  the  derivation  of  the  English 
name,  though  another  has  been  attempted,  from 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Ymbreu,  "a  circuit  "  In  the 
ancient  church  they  were  solemnized  with  fast- 
ing, and  prayers  for  God"s  blessing  on  the  seasons 
ushered  in  by  them.  Afterwards  they  were 
fixed  by  the  Roman  and  the  Anglican  Church  as 
fit  periods  for  ecclesiastical  ordination. 

EMBURY,  PhiMp,  the  first  Methodist  minister 
in  America;  b.  in  Ballygaran,  Ireland,  Sept.  21, 
1729;  d.  at  Camden,  Washington  County,  X.Y., 
August,  1775.  He  emigrated  to  America  1760. 
Ile'was  a  carpenter  by  trade,  and  had  been  a 
preacher  in  Ireland.  He  settled  first  in  New- 
York  City,  but  did  not  preach  until  1766,  when  he 
acted  on  the  advice  of  Barbara  Heck.  The  first 
services  were  in  his  own  house ;  hut  in  1767  the 
famous  "  Rigging  Loft "  was  the  place  of  meet- 
ing, and  there  Methodism  in  Xew  York  may  be 


EMERSON. 


20 


EMMONS. 


said  to  have  been  bom.  In  1708  the  first  Jlethod- 
ist  chapel  was  built,  on  the  site  of  the  present 
John-street  Church;  and  upon  it  he  worked  as  a 
carpenter.  In  1769  the  first  missionaries  sent 
out  by  Wesley  came  to  the  city,  which  then  had 
a  population  of  only  twenty  thousand ;  and  Em- 
bury resigned  his  charge,  and  went  to  Camden, 
near  which  place  (at  Ashgrove)  he  organized  a 
society,  and  continued  his  joint  work  of  car- 
penter and  preacher.  Ilis  remains  were  thrice 
interred,  —  in  Camden,  Ashgrove,  and  finally, 
by  order  of  the  Troy  Conference,  in  AVoodland 
Cemetery,  Cambridge,  N.Y. 

EMERSON,  Ralph,  D.D.,  b.  at  Hollis,  N.H., 
Aug.  18, 1787;  d.  at  Rockford,  111.,  May  26, 1863. 
He  was  graduated  at  Yale  College  1811,  and  at 
Andover  Seminary  1814,  and  was  professor  of 
ecclesiastical  history  and  pastoral  theology  in 
that  seminary  from  18:29  to  18.51.  Besides  a  life 
of  his  brother,  Rev.  Joseph  Emerson,  he  trans- 
lated and  annotated  the  first  volume  of  AVigger's 
Auguslinianism  and  Pelagianism  (Andover,  1840), 
and  contributed  to  various  periodicals. 

EM'IVIAUS  (Hebrew  Khammalh,  "hot  spring"), 
the  village,  '■  threescore  furlongs,"  or  sixty  stadia 
(seven  miles  and  a  half),  from  Jerusalem,  where 
Christ  revealed  himself  to  the  two  disciples  on 
the  day  of  his  resurrection  (Luke  xxiv.  13).  Its 
site  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  determined, 
although  many  attempts  have  been  made.  It 
has  been  identified  with  (1)  Arnicas,  the  Em- 
maus-Nicopolis  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  iii.  40,  57, 
ix.  50,  where  Judas  conquered  the  Greeks.  So 
an  old  tradition  supported  by  Eusebius  and 
Jerome.  The  conclusive  arguments  against  this 
view  are  that  Emmaus-Xicopolis  was  not  sixty, 
but  a  hundred  and  sixty,  stadia  from  Jerusalem, 
and  was  not  a  small  village,  but  a  town  of  some 
importance.  (2)  Kuheihet,  seven  miles  north-west 
of  Jerusalem,  the  last  halting-place  before  reach- 
ing that  city,  in  the  beautiful  Wady  Beit  Chanina. 
Supported  by  tradition  dating  back  to  tlie  twelfth 
century,  the  time  of  the  crusades.  So  Robinson. 
See  H.  ZsciioKKE:  Das  ncutestamentliche  Emmaus, 
SchafEhausen,  1865.  (3)  Kliamesa,  now  a  ruin. 
Supported  by  similarity  of  name,  but  opposed 
by  its  distance  from  Jerusalem,  whicli  is  at  least 
eight  miles  and  a  half  in  a  straight  line,  and 
nine  miles  and  a  half  by  road.  (4)  JSeit  Mizzelt, 
a  ruin  a  mile  north  of  Kolonieh  (Colonia) ;  but 
it  is  only  forty  furlongs  from  the  city.  (.5)  Koto- 
nieh.  This  was  and  is  still  a  place  of  resort  by 
the  Jerusalemites,  The  expression  "  went  into 
the  country"  (ti'r  <')P''''.  Mark  xvi.  12)  may  be 
understood  of  making  this  usual  excursion. 
Jcsephus  states  that  Emmaus  was  colonized  l)y 
eight  hundred  of  Titus'  .soldiers,  hence  the  name 
Colonia;  and  the  Talmud  asserts  that  the  wil- 
lows which  adorned  tlic  temple  at  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles  were  brought  from  there.  These 
two  facts  make  out  a  case  for  Kolorueh.  But  tlie 
distance  is  too  short.  See  Qnartcrhj  Slale.mcnt  of 
the  Pat.  ExpLor.  Eunil  for  January  (p.  46),  July 
(pp.  237,  238),  .iiid  Octolier  (p.  274),  ISSl. 

EMMERAM,  ..r  HAIMAREM,  was  made  Bishop 
of  I'liiliers  in  [\\i:  bi'giniiiiig  of  the  eighth  cen- 
tury, but  abdicated  shortly  after  in  order  to  go 
to  I'annoriia  as  a  missionary  tcj  the  I'agan  Avars. 
At  Rad.'Lspona,  tlie  residcuice  of  I)uk(?  Tlicodo  of 
Bavaria,  tie  was  persuaded  to  remain  lor  some 


time,  purifying  and  consolidating  the  Christian 
Church  in  Bavaria.  After  a  stay  of  three  years, 
he  left  for  Rome,  but  was  overtaken,  still  on  this 
side  of  the  mountains,  by  Theodo's  son,  Lautbert, 
who  had  him  tied  to  a  ladder,  and  saw'ed  to 
pieces  joint  by  joint;  the  reason  being  that  Laut- 
bert's  sister  Uta  confessed,  immediately  after  the 
missionary  had  left,  that  she  was  pregnant  by 
him.  Just  before  dying,  however,  Emmeram 
explained  that  he  was  innocent,  that  he  had 
allowed  Uta  to  accuse  him  only  in  order  to  save 
herself,  that  the  guilty  man  was  one  Siegbald, 
etc.  When  Duke  Theodo  heard  this,  he  ordered 
the  bones  of  Emmeram  to  be  gathered,  and  depos- 
ited in  a  chapel  at  Aschheim.  Another  chajiel 
was  afterwards  built  in  his  honor  in  Regensburg, 
and  he  was  made  a  saint,  Sept.  6  being  fixed  by 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  as  his  day  of  cele- 
bration. 

The  life  of  St.  Emmeram  was  written  in  the 
second  half  of  the  eighth  century  by  Aribo,  Bishop 
of  Freising,  aud  again  in  1036  by  Arnold  of 
Vochburg,  and  finally  by  Megiufred  a  short  time 
after.  These  three  biographies  are  found  in 
Acta  Sanctorum,  Sept.  VI.;  Canisus  :  Lectiones 
Antiqu(B  III.;  and  Pertz  :  Monum.,  VI.  It  has 
proved  very  difficult,  however,  to  lay  bare  the  his- 
torical kernel  of  the  Emmeram  legend  on  account 
of  its  chronological  absurdities ;  and  it  must  be 
added  that  such  a  feat,  even  if  it  could  be  done, 
would  probably  hardly  be  worth  doing. 

EMMONS,  Nathanael,  D.D.,  was  b.  April  20 
(O.S.),  1745,  in  the  parish  of  Millington,  in  the 
town  of  East  Haddam,  Conn.  This  town  was  also 
the  birthplace  of  the  missionarj'  brothers,  David 
and  John  Brainerd,  of  President  Edward  Dorr 
Griffin,  and  his  brother  George  D.  Griffin,  Esq., 
of  the  jurist,  Jeremiah  Gates  Brainard,  and  the 
poet,  James  Brainard  Taylor.  In  1763,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen,  he  entered  Yale  College.  Here  he 
was  a  classmate  of  John  Trumbull,  the  author  of 
McFinr/all;  John  Treadwell,  governor  of  Connect- 
icut; and  Dr.  Samuel  Wales,  professor  of  divin- 
ity in  Yale  College.  These  three  and  Emmons 
were  the  first  four  scholars  of  his  class,  which 
contained  other  eminent  men,  among  them  Rev. 
Dr.  Joseph  Lyman  of  Hatfield,  Ma.ss.  A  few 
months  after  his  graduation,  in  1767,  he  began 
his  theological  studies  with  Rev.  Nathan  Strong 
of  Coventry,  Conn.,  and  finished  them  with  Dr. 
John  Sinalley  of  Berlin,  Conn.  Smalley  was  a 
pupil  of  Bellamy,  and  Bellainy  of  the  elder  Ed- 
wards. Through  Smalley,  Emmons  gained  a 
well-nigh  personal  acquaintance  with  the  Beth- 
lem  and  Northampton  divines.  In  1769  be  was 
"  approl)at(?d  "  as  a  preacher,  and  on  the  21st  of 
April,  1773,  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  in  Franklin,  Ma.ss.  He  resigned 
liis  pastorate  on  the  2.Stli  of  May,  1827.  He  had 
remained  in  tlie  office  fifty-four  years.  He  died 
Sept.  23,  1840,  in  the  sixty-eightli  year  of  his 
ministry  and  the  ninety-sixth  year  of  liis  age. 
lie  retained  his  faculties  to  a  surprising  degree 
until  Ills  death.  Few  men  liav(^  ever  left  the 
world  with  a  more  unfaltering  an<l  .solid  faith 
in  Christ.  He  enjoyed  to  the  last  the  reverence 
of  his  parishioners  and  the  highest  esteem  of 
tlie  neigliboring  churches.  He  was  an  intimate 
frii'iid  of  Dr.  Ilopkins  of  Newport,  R.I.,  Dr. 
Hart  of    Preston,   Conn.,   Dr.    West  of    Stock- 


EMMONS. 


721 


EMORY. 


liridge,  Mass.  lie  was  a  brother-in-law  of  Rev. 
Dr.  Spring  of  Newburyport,  llov.  Dr.  Austin, 
President  of  Burlington  College,  Rev.  Leonard 
Worcester,  Rev.  William  Riddel.  These  four 
Hopkinsian  ministers  married  the  daughters  of 
Rev.  Dr.  Hopkins  of  Hadloy,  who  himself  was 
not  a  Hopkinsian. 

Dr.  Ennnons  published  more  than  two  hundred 
Articles  in  various  j^eriodicahs,  such  as  The  Massa- 
chusetts ^Missionary  Magazine,  Tlie  Connecticut  Evan- 
gelical Magazine,  The  Utica  Christiaii  Repository, 
The  Hopkinsian  Magazine,  and  The  Christian  Maga- 
zine. He  also  published  numerous  ordination 
and  funeral  sermons,  which  are  not  found  in  tlie 
collected  editions  of  his  works.  The  following 
are  his  more  important  publications :  A  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Scriptwal  Qaalifications  for  Admission  to 
the  Christian  Sacrame7its,  in  Answer  to  Dr.  Hemmen- 
way  (1793);  Candid  Reply  to  Dr.  Hemmenway's 
Ren^arks  on  [this]  Dissertation  (11 '.)a);  an  Essay  on 
Miracles  (1798) ;  a  volume  of  sei'mons  (1800);  a 
second  volume  (1812);  a  third  volume  (1813);  a 
fourth  volume  (1823);  a  fifth  volume  (1825); 
a  sixth  volume  (1820).  In  1842  many  of  his 
sermons  were  collected,  and  published  in  a  uni- 
form edition  of  six  octavo  volumes.  His  son-in- 
law,  Rev.  Jacob  Ide,  D.D.,  prefixed  to  this  edition 
A  Memoir  of  Dr.  Emmons.  In  1850  a  seventh 
volume  of  his  sermons  was  published.  In  1860 
jmd  1861  a  new  collected  edition  of  his  works 
■was  published  in  Boston  in  six  large  octavo  vol- 
umes ;  and  to  this  edition  was  prefixed  a  Memoir 
containing  468  pages,  by  E.  A.  Park  of  Andover 
Theological  Seminary. 

The  house  of  Dr.  Emmons  was  a  theological 
school.  No  private  instructor  in  our  land  has 
educated  so  many  young  men  as  he  for  the  Chris- 
tian ministry:  the  number  of  them  cannot  be 
exactly  ascertained,  but  was  probably  not  less 
than  a  hundred.  Among  his  pupils  nine  became 
presidents  or  professoi's  of  colleges  or  theological 
seminaries,  fourteen  had  an  important  agency  in 
establishing  literary  and  charitable  institutions, 
forty-six  are  noticed  in  the  biographical  dictiona- 
ries of  eminent  men. 

Few  ministers  in  the  world  have  devoted  them- 
selves so  earnestly,  patiently,  and  methodically  as 
Dr.  Emmons  to  their  professional  work.  He 
preached  nearly  or  quite  six  thousand  times,  and 
spent  ten,  twelve,  or  fourteen  hours  every  day  in 
his  study,  with  his  pen  or  book  in  hand,  for  more 
than  seventy  years.  He  was  temperate,  even 
abstemious,  in  his  diet,  regular  in  his  habits,  and 
was  a  model  of  punctuality,  self-consistency,  per- 
severing industry.  He  combined  a  sprightly  wit 
with  a  profound  reverence  for  the  truth.  His 
style  of  thought  was  precise,  definite,  sharp.  Dr. 
Leonard  Woods  of  Andover  said,  "  Emmons  has 
one  of  the  grandest  understandings  ever  created." 
He  was  an  original  thinker,  and  formed  his  theo- 
logical system  with  rare  independence  of  mind. 
Although  a  man  of  study,  rather  than  a  "  man  of 
affairs,"  he  entered  with  zeal  into  several  public 
enterprises.  He  was  one  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Massachusetts  Missionary  Society,  and  for  the 
first  twelve  years  of  its  existence  was  its  presi- 
dent. He  was  one  of  the  original  editors  of  The 
Massachusetts  Missionary  Magazine.  When  the 
Masonic  fraternity  was  most  popular,  he  was  a 
pronounced  anti-Mason.  When  autislavery  was 
47  —  1 


most  generally  condemned,  he  was  an  active  abo- 
litionist. In  politics  he  was  an  outspoken  Fed- 
eralist. Ilis  Jeroboam  Sermon  is  a  curiosity  in 
politioo-homiletical  literature. 

The  theological  system  of  Dr.  Emmons  is  often 
confounded  with  that  of  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins. 
The  following  statement  of  the  two  systems  was 
given  by  Emmons  himself,  and  will  explain  the 
difference,  as  well  as  the  agreement,  between 
the  two. 

The  distinctive  tenets  of  Hopkinsianism  are : 
1.  All  real  h61iness  consi-sts  in  disinterested  be- 
nevolence ;  2.  AH  sin  consists  in  selfishness ; 
3.  There  are  no  promises  of  regenerating  grace 
made  to  the  doings  of  the  unregenerate ;  4.  The 
impotency  of  sinners  with  respect  to  believing  in 
Christ  is  not  natural,  but  moral ;  5.  A  sinner  is 
required  to  approve  in  his  heart  of  the  divine 
conduct,  even  though  it  should  cast  him  off  for- 
ever ;  6.  God  has  exerted  his  power  in  such  a 
manner  as  he  purposed  would  be  followed  by  the 
existence  of  sin ;  7.  The  introduction  of  moral 
evil  into  the  universe  is  so  overruled  by  God  as  to 
promote  the  general  good ;  8.  Repentance  is  be- 
fore faith  in  Christ;  9.  Though  men  became  sin- 
ners by  Adam,  according  to  a  divine  constitution, 
yet  they  liave  and  are  accountable  for  no  sins 
but  personal ;  10.  Though  believers  are  justified 
through  Christ's  righteousness,  yet  his  righteous- 
ness is  not  transferred  to  them. 

The  distinctive  tenets  of  Emmons's  system  are: 
1.  Holiness  and  sin  consist  in  free,  voluntary 
exercises  ;  2.  Men  act  freely  under  the  divine 
agency ;  3.  The  least  transgression  of  the  divine 
law  deserves  eternal  punishment;  4.  Right  and 
wrong  are  founded  in  the  nature  of  things  : 
5.  God  exercises  mere  grace  in  pardoning  or  justi- 
fying penitent  believers  through  the  atonement 
of  Christ,  and  mere  goodness  in  rewarding  them 
for  their  good  works ;  6.  Notwithstanding  the 
total  depravity  of  siniiers,  God  has  a  right  to 
require  them  to  turn  from  sin  to  holiness  ; 
7.  Preachers  of  the  gospel  ought  to  exhort  sin- 
ners to  love  God,  repent  of  sin.  and  believe  in 
Christ  immediately;  8.  Men  are  active,  not  pas- 
sive, in  regeneration.  Dr.  Eumions  believed  that 
these  eight  statements  are  involved  in  the  system 
of  Dr.  Hopkins  ;  that  they  are  evolved  from  that 
system,  rather  than  added' to  it.  Still  "they  char- 
acterize Emmonism  as  it  is  grafted  upon  Hopkin- 
sianism. EDWARDS  A.  PARK. 

EMORY,  John,  a  Methodist-Episcopal  bishop; 
b.  in  Queen  Anne  County,  Maryland,  April  11, 
1789;  d.  in  Reisterstown,  Md.,Dec.  16,1835.  From 
1824  to  1835  he  was  book-agent  and  editor  for 
the  Methodist  Church  at  New  York,  during  which 
time  he  paid  off  all  the  debts  of  the  book  concern, 
and  put  it  in  a  far  better  position  than  ever  before. 
He  also  founded  the  Methodist  Quarterly  Review  ; 
and  nearly  all  the  original  articles  in  the  first  two 
volumes  are  from  him.  In  1832  he  was  elected  a 
bishop.  He  was  one  of  the  organizers  of  Dickin- 
son College.  He  wrote  Defense  of  our  Fathers, 
N.Y.,  1824;  The  Episcopal  Controversy  Reviewed, 
N.Y.,  1838.  —  Robert,  son  of  preceding;  b.  in 
Philadelphia,  July  29,  1814  ;  d.  in  Baltimore, 
May  18,  1848.  He  was  elected  president  of  Dick- 
inson College  in  1845.  He  wrote  a  life  of  his 
father  (N.Y.,  1841),  a  History  of  the  Discipline  of 
the  Methodist-Episcopal   Church,  N.Y.,  1843  (in  a 


EMSER. 


722 


EMS,  CONGRESS  OF. 


new  edition  brought  down  to  1864,  and  an  un- 
finislied  analysis  of  Butler's  Analogy,  completed 
by  Dr.  Crooks.  X.Y..  185(i. 

EMSER,  Hieronymus,  b.  at  Ulm  in  March, 
1477;  d.  at  Dresden,  >sov.  8,  15"27  ;  studied  at 
Tiibingen  and  Basel,  and  accompanied  Cardinal 
Raymund  of  Petrandi  as  secretary  on  his  tour  of 
visitation  tlirough  Germany.  Rayraund  was  a 
great  collector  of  relics,  and  Emser's  first  work 
was  an  essay  on  crosses  said  to  have  fallen  down 
from  heaven.  After  lecturing  on  Inimaniora  at 
Erfurt,  where  he  had  Luther  among  his  hearers, 
and  editing  the  works  of  Picus  of  Jlirandola,  he 
went  to  Leipzig,  where  he  lectured  on  canon  law, 
anil  published  some  essays  on  the  propriety  of 
toasting  each  otlier  when  drinking  (1.505),  on  the 
improvement  of  wine,  beei-,  and  vinegar  (1507), 
etc..  and  an  apotheosis  of  Bishop  Benno,  which 
has  been  incorporated  with  the  Ada  !ianclorum. 
In  1510  he  was  sent  by  Duke  George  of  Saxony 
to  Rome  to  negotiate  the  canonization  of  Benno; 
and  on  his  return  he  received  several  rich  bene- 
fices, and  settled  at  Dresden,  where  Luther  was 
his  guest  in  1517.  It  was  already  then  apparent, 
however,  that,  if  the  case  of  the  reformer  should 
ever  become  decidedly  serious,  Emser  would  not 
be  found  on  his  side ;  and  immediately  after 
the  conference  of  Leipzig  a  rupture  took  place 
between  them,  and  a  controversy  began,  of  a 
character  by  no  means  edifying,  and  without  any 
profit  to  the  cause.  Luther  called  him  the  he- 
goat  of  Dresden,  with  reference  to  his  escutcheon, 
and  lie  called  Luther  the  bull  of  Wittenberg: 
that  is  about  all  which  needs  be  said  of  the  con- 
troversy. The  only  one  of  Emser's  polemical 
writings  which  has  any  real  worth,  and  has  exer- 
cised any  real  inlluence,  is  his  Amnitationes  uhcr 
Lulhers  naw  le.<la7iienl.  ISIany  of  his  corrections 
were  adopted  by  Luther  himself,  and  others  were 
afterwards  introduced  in  Lutlier's  translation  by 
others.  A  translation  he  himself  made  of  the 
New  Testament  after  the  Vulgate  (1527)  is  com- 
pletely worthless.  See  Waldai'  :  Nac/iriclit  von 
Hieronymus  Emsers  Leben  unil  Schri/len,  Ansjiach, 
1783  ;  Weyf.rmanx  :  Nacliric/ilen  von  Gelelirlen, 
Kiinsllern,  iinil  andern  merkwuriliijen  Personen  aus 
Ulm,  Ulm,  1708.  BEKNIIARD  RIOGENTSACn. 

EMS,  Congress  of  (1786).  In  the  latter  part  of 
the  eighteentli  century  thi're  prevailed  among  the 
German  prelates  a  general  discontent  with  the 
encroachments  of  tiie  Pope  upon  the  episcopal 
authority.  More  than  once  complaints  were 
lodged  with  the  emperor,  and  protection  was 
urgently  demanded  at  every  new  imperial  elec- 
tion. Finally  the  establishment  of  a  new  nuu- 
ci.atnre  at  Munich  brought  the  archbisliops  of 
Cologne,  Mayeiice,  Treves,  and  Salzburg  to  com- 
bine in  action.  Tiie  papal  nuncios  had  always  by 
the  German  prelates  been  considered  a  great  in- 
convenience; and  the  nunciature  was,  indeed,  by 
its  very  nature  a  limitation,  if  not  an  infringe- 
ment, of  the  epi.scopal  power.  That  just  the  above 
four  prelates  should  feel  called  upon  to  take  hold 
of  the  matter  wa.s  oidy  niitural.  They  all  favored 
the  (iallican  princijiles  of  episcopal  independence 
which  recently  liail  l>een  .so  vigorously  expounded 
by  IIonth(!im,  the  suffragan  Bishop  of  Treves,  in 
hia  famous  work,  ,/iislini  h'lhronii  Icli  de  slalii 
ecclenim  cl  liyilima  jinlesliitc  Homnni  pontificii  lihcr 
tingularii  ad  rcuniendos  dissidentcs  in  eccleaia  Chris- 


tianas compositus,  176.3,  and,  in  conformity  with 
these  views,  they  had  begun  to  reform  both  the- 
school  and  the  church  in  their  dioceses ;  but  they 
knew  only  too  well  from  experience  that  such 
reforms  would  meet  with  the  most  decided  oppo- 
sition from  a  papal  nuncio.  They  were,  more- 
over, led  to  believe  that  they  would  receive 
vigorous  aid  from  the  emperor,  Joseph  II.  When, 
in  October,  1785,  they  laid  their  complaints  be- 
fore him,  he  declared  that  he  would  recognize  the 
papal  nuncios  only  as  political  agents,  as  emissa- 
ries concerned  with  the  general  polity  of  the 
church  only ;  that  he  would  tolerate  no  encroach- 
ments upon  the  diocesan  Tights  of  the  bishops- 
and  archbishops,  etc.;  and  he  encouraged  them 
to  openly  resist  any  such  attempt  from  the  side 
of  the  Pope.  The  four  prelates  consequently 
made  inquiries  in  Rome  whether  the  new  nuncio- 
at  Munich  was  sent  simply  as  an  ambassador  to- 
the  Bavarian  court,  or  whether  he  came  intrusted 
with  papal  powers;  and,  when  it  was  answered 
that  the  latter  was  the  case,  they  remonstrated. 

Nevertheless,  the  new  nuncio,  Zoglio,  appeared 
at  Municli  in  Jlay,  1786 ;  and  the  nunciature  of 
Cologne,  falling  vacant  shortly  after,  was  im- 
mediately filled  by  Pacca.  The  prelates  then 
took  an  energetic  step  :  they  sent  representatives 
to  meet  at  Ems,  and  a  minute  investigation  was 
made  of  all  the  precepts  of  canon  law  concerning 
the  relation  between  the  Pope  and  the  bishops. 
As  the  result  of  this  investigation,  an  elaborate 
exposition,  the  so-called  Emser  Punctation,  Was 
signed  by  the  four  prelates  Aug.  '25,  1786,  and 
sent  at  the  same  time  to  the  Pope  and  the  em- 
peror, requesting  that  the  actual  relation  between 
the  Pope  and  the  bishops  should  be  regulated 
according  to  these  prescrijits.  The  general  bear- 
ing of  this  exposition  is,  that  the  Pope  shall 
renounce  all  such  rights  and  privileges  and  reser- 
vations as  did  not  belong  to  t!ie  papal  primacy 
during  the  first  centuries  of  the  Church,  but  were 
derived  from  the  Isidorean  decretals.  As  these 
decretals  have  been  jn-oved  to  be  false,  and  are 
now  generally  recoguized  as  such,  any  power 
based  upon  them  must  be  considered  an  (^mpty 
pretence.  The  whole  relation  between  the  Pope 
and  the  bishops  is  defined  in  harmony  with  tne 
Febronian  principles.  The  Pope  is  and  must 
always  be  the  primate  of  the  Church,  the  centre 
and  the  point  of  unity ;  but  the  bishojis.  as  the 
successors  of  the  ajiostles,  have  from  Christ  re- 
ceived the  power  of  the  keys,  the  right  to  give 
laws  and  to  suspend  them,  etc.  Any  person  liv- 
ing in  a  diocese  is  subordinate  to  the  bishop ;  no 
recourses  can  be  had  to  the  Pope  except  through 
the  bishop;  the  olPice  of  the  nuncio  must  be 
abolished;  exemiitions  cannot  be  granted  by  the 
Pope;  dispensations  can  be  granted  only  by  the 
bishop ;  monastic  orders  in  the  diocese  cannot  be 
governed  by  a  general  outside  the  diocese,  etc. 
In  short,  a  theory  of  the  Papacy  is  lu-ojiounded 
which  involves  the  very  cessation  of  the  Papacy, 
and  which  only  existed  in  reality  before  the  Pa- 
ji.acy  it.sidf  became  a  reality.    Since  the  (ecumeni- 

!  cal  councils  of  the  fifteenth  century,  such  an 
attack  was  never  made  upon  the  Papacy  by  digni- 
taries of  the  Church. 

i  In  the  controversy  which  now  ensued,  the  Pope 
took  care  not  to  touch  the  lu'incipal  question,  — 

I  whether  the  conception  of  the  Papacy  set  forth  by 


ENCRATITES. 


723 


ENCYCLOPEDIA. 


the  Piiiictation  was  right  or  wrong.  His  first 
step  was  ti)  order  the  nuncios  to  continue  tlieir 
worli  in  accordance  witli  tlie  instructions  given. 
This,  liowi'ver,  it  was  impossilile  for  them  to  do, 
as  tlie  arcliliishops  opposed  them  at  every  point ; 
and  it  liegan  to  look  doulit  I'ul  whether  the  Pope 
would  not  finally  be  compelled  to  yield.  Then 
aid  came  from  various  sides.  'J'he  emperor,  on 
receiving  the  Punctation,  advised  the  arch hishojis 
to  try  to  come  to  a  complete  understanding  with 
their  suffragan  bishops  and  the  secular  powers  of 
their  dioceses.  But  this  the  archbishops  neglected 
to  do,  and  the  exclusiveness  of  their  proceedings 
gave  umbrage  to  the  bishops.  Many  bishops 
believed,  and  perhaps  not  altogether  without 
reason,  that  the  real  purpose  of  the  Punctation 
was  to  transfer  the  power  which  had  hitherto 
been  exercised  by  the  Pope  to  the  metropolitans; 
and  they  preferred  the  Pope  far  away  in  Rome, 
to  the  metropolitans  close  at  their  doors.  Thus  it 
came  to  pa.ss  that  several  German  bishops,  headed 
by  the  Bishop  of  Spires,  declared  against  the 
Punctation.  A  still  more  effective  aid  the  Pope 
obtained  from  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  Charles 
Theodore.  Bavaria  did  not  form  a  compact  dio- 
cese, but  was  in  ecclesiastical  respects  cut  up  in  a 
number  of  sections,  each  section  belonging  to  some 
foreign  diocese.  Discojitented  with  this  state  of 
affairs,  Charles  Theodore  had  worked  hard  for 
the  establisliment  of  a  nunciature  in  Miinich, 
and  he  now  supported  the  nuncio  with  all  his 
might  in  the  contest  with  the  archbishops.  The 
arclibishops  were  defeated.  Finally  the  union 
between  the  archbishops  became  loosened  by  the 
ambiguous  behavior  of  the  Archbishop  of  May- 
enct'.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Fiirstenhimd 
(Union  of  Princes)  which  Friedrich  H.  had 
formed  in  1785  against  .Austria;  and,  as  he  was 
an  old  man,  Friedrich  was  very  anxious  to  have 
Baron  von  Dahlberg,  who  was  decidedly  in  favor 
of  the  Filrntenhund,  appointed  his  coadjutor.  But 
this  could  not  be  done  without  the  consent  of 
the  Pope  ;  and  it  was  not  probable  that  the  Pope 
would  give  his  consent  without  certain  stipula- 
tions with  respect  to  the  Punctation.  Secret 
negotiations  were  carried  on  with  the  papal  court 
through  Prussia  ;  and,  though  no  definite  results 
ensued,  the  union  of  the  archbishops  was  inca- 
pacitated for  action.  When  the  case  was  laid 
before  the  diet  of  llatisbon  (17SS),  the  diet  advised 
the  arclibishops  to  seek  reconciliation  with  the 
Pope,  each  for  himself.  The  brooding  thunder- 
storm in  France,  whose  first  low  murmur  just 
now  became  audible,  also  acted  as  a  persuasion 
to  drop  the  question ;  and  the  Pope's  ansvi-er  to 
the  Punctation  (November,  1789)  was  conse- 
quently received  with  a  kind  of  passive  and 
silent  acquiescence,  though  it  openly  took  its 
stand  upon  the  Isidorean  decretals,  and  flatly 
denied  the  justness  of  any  of  the  remarks  of  the 
Punctation.  SeeCiiR.  F.  Weidenfeld:  Geschick- 
te  detf  Nunliaturstreilcs,  1788 ;  Munch  :  Geschichte 
des  Emfir  Coni/rexaes,  1840.  H.  SCHUID. 

ENCRATITES  (nh.t/inent.i)  is  not  the  name 
of  any  distinct  sect,  but  denotes  generally  the 
adherents  of  a  certain  false  view  of  asceticism. 
According  to  Irenteus,  there  were  Encratites 
both  among  the  followers  of  Saturninus,  and 
among  those  of  Marcion.  This  view,  enjoining 
abstinence  from  flesh-meat,  wine,  the  marriage- 


bed,  etc.,  did  not  originate  within  the  pale  of 
Christianity.  It  was  foun<l  a  long  time  before 
our  era,  in  India,  among  tin;  .lews  (the  Essenes), 
and  among  the  Greeks  (the  Pythagoreans). 
When  entering  the  Christian  world,  it  became 
very  popular  among  the  (Jnostics;  though  not 
all  Encratites  were  (inostics,  or  held  the  Gnostic 
doctrine  of  matter  as  evil  and  a  creation  of  the 
evil  principle.  The  most  prominent  leaders 
among  the  Encratites  were  T.atian,  Saturninus, 
Marcion,  Julius  Cassianus,  and  Severus.  They 
used  the  gospel  according  to  the  Egyptian.?,  the 
Acts  of  Andrew,  .lohu,  and  Thomas,  and  other 
apocrv]ihal  writings. 

ENCYCLICAL  LETTERS  are  circular  letters, 
which  in  the  ancient  church  were  generally 
sent  by  one  church  to  the  churches  of  a  certain 
circuit,  but  which  in  our  times  are  sent  exclu- 
sively by  the  Pope  to  the  bishops  of  the  Koman- 
Catholic  Church. 

ENCYCLOP/EDIA  OF  THEOLOGY  means,  in 
one  sense  of  the  words,  simply  a  dictionary  of 
theological  knowledge:  in  another,  it  denotes  a 
distinct  branch  of  the  theological  science  itself; 
that  branch,  namely,  which  represents  and  ex- 
plains the  inner  organization  of  this  science,  its 
divisions,  and  the  relation  of  these  divisions,  both 
to  each  other  reciprocally,  and  to  the  system  as  a 
whole.  In  this  latter  sense  the  name  occurs  for 
the  first  time  in  S.  Muusinna's  Prima'  linen:  En- 
ctidopccdia:  theoloyica:  (Magdeburg,  1764),  adopted 
from  the  Greek  eyKvn'/uof;  iraidcia  (orbis  doctrina), 
which  meant,  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  that 
course  of  general  instruction  which  every  free 
boy  had  to  go  through  before  he  adopted  a  spe- 
cial trade  or  profession.  The  real  development, 
however,  of  theological  encyclopedia  as  a  science, 
is  much  later,  and  was  due  to  Schleiermacher. 

As  soon  as  the  church  began  to  develop  a  the- 
ology, there  arose,  of  course,  certain  ideas  about 
what  was  necessary  for  a  teacher  in  the  church 
to  know  in  order  to  fulfil  his  duty;  and  hints 
were  thrown  out  with  respect  to  the  proper  way 
in  which  to  attain  this  knowledge.  Thus 
CnuYSOSTOJi's  Dc  officii^  ininiflmnnn,  Ambro- 
sius'  De  doclrina  Christiana,  etc.,  may  be  consid- 
ered encyclopaedias  of  theology  ;  only  it  must  be 
noticed  that  these  works  have  a  practical  rather 
than  a  theoretical  character.  They  teach  how  to 
study  theology,  rather  than  explain  what  the- 
ology is.  They  correspond  to  what  we  now  call 
methodology;  and  this  character  all  works  of 
the  kind  retain,  more  or  less,  up  to  the  days  of 
Schleiermacher.  Noticeable  during  the  middle 
ages  are  the  Didascalion  of  Hugo  of  St.  Victor 
(d.  1141),  in  which  the  differentiation  begins 
(the  first  three  books  being  of  purely  propjedeu- 
tic,  the  last  three  of  marked  methodological 
character),  and  the  De  fludio  tlieologico  of  Nicho- 
las OF  Ci.EMANGis  (b.  1300).  From  the  Refor- 
mation the  theological  encyclopedia,  like  every 
other  branch  of  theological  science,  received  a 
new  impulse.  The  Lutheran  Church  produced, 
among  many  other  works,  the  Methodus  attidii 
l/ieol(></iri.  by  Johaxn  CiERHAHD,  Jena.  1617,  and, 
more  in  harmony  with  the  humanistic  tendencies 
of  the  age,  the  A/>paralus  Ihenlogicus,  by  Georg 
Calixtus,  Helmstiidt,  1628.  The  Reformed 
Church  produced  the  T/teologus  seu  de  rnlinne. 
sludii  theologici,  by  Andreas  Gerhard  (Hyperi- 


ENCYCLOPEDIAS. 


724 


ENERGUMENS. 


us),  Marburg,  1572,  in  which  the  quadripartite 
division  of  tlieology  into  exegetical,  dogmatical, 
historical,  and  practical  theology  occurs  for  the 
first  time :  and  the  Academy  of  Saumur,  corre- 
sponding in  the  Reformed  Church  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Ilelmstadt  in  the  Lutheran,  the  essays 
of  Stkphan  Gaussen,  De  studii  theolnyici  ratione. 
De  natiira  tlieolo(/tce,  etc.  The  Roman-Catholic 
Church  also  showed  signs  of  life.  Possevinus' 
Bib/iiillieca  selecta  de  ratione  studlorum  (Cologne, 
1607)  is  merely  an  instance  of  modern  scholasti- 
•cism  ;  but  the  Methode  pour  etudter  la  tlia'olof/ie,  by 
L.  Ellies  du  Pix  (1716),  is  a  meritorious  work, 
and  was  translated  into  several  foreign  languages. 

A  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  the  theological 
encyclopaedia,  by  which  this  branch  of  theologi- 
cal science  reall}'  became  a  science  itself,  was 
ushered  in  by  Schleier.macher's  Darstellung 
des  theologischen  Studiums  zum  Behufe  einleilender 
Vorlesuru/en,  Berlin,  1811.  An  exposition  of  the 
internal  organization  of  the  theological  system  is 
here  attempted  and  achieved  for  the  first  time. 
A  tripartite  division  into  philosophical,  histori- 
cal and  practical  theology,  is  employed.  But 
the  philosophical  theology  comprises  only  apolo- 
getics and  polemics;  while  dogmatics  and  ethics, 
as  well  as  exegesis,  belong  to  historical  theology. 
That  part  of  the  book,  however,  which  most 
strikingly  .shows  the  author's  powerful  grasp  of 
his  subject,  is  the  section  on  practical  theologj', 
considered  under  the  double  view  of  church-gov- 
ernment and  church-service.  At  its  first  appear- 
ance this  book  seemed  not  to  have  attracted  any 
particular  attention  ;  but,  after  the  appearance  of 
its  second  edition  in  1830,  the  strong  influence 
which  it  had  exercised  soon  became  evident.  In 
1881  appeared  the  Enci/L'lopddie  der  theologischen 
Wii'sensclidflen,  by  K.  Rosen  KRANZ,  completely 
under  the  influence  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy ; 
in  1833,  tlie  Kncyklopiidie  iind  ^lethniiologie  der 
theologischen  Wi.-'senschaften,  by  K.  R.  IlAOEXiiACU 
[11th  ed.,  edited  by  Kautzsch,  1884];  in  1837.  the 
Etirijklopiidie  und  Methodologie,  by  G.  C.  .\.  Har- 
LESS,  etc.  The  influence  of  Schleiermacher's 
work  was  felt  also  in  the  Reformed  Church  — 
J.  G.  Kiexlen  :  Enojcloptdie  des  sciences  de  la  the'- 
o/«^(e  c/ire?i'enne,  Strassburg,  1842  ;  Hofstede  de 
Groot  :  Encyclopedia  theologi  christian!,  Groenin- 
gen,  1801 — and  even  in  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church,  F.  A.  Staudexmaier:  Encyclopaedie  der 
theologischen  Wissenschaf ten, '^la.yence,  1831;  [John 
M'Clintock:  Theological  Encyclopedia  and  Meth- 
odology, Ciucinna.i\,\fi7ii;  DoEDK.s :  Encyclopaedie 
/Jer  christelijke  theologie,  Utrecht,  1876;  J.  R. 
Laxge  :  Grundriss  d.  Theolog.  Encyk.,  Heidel- 
berg, 1877;  J.  Cii.  K.  v.  IIofmann  :  Encyk.,  ed. 
Bestmaim,  Nordlingen,  1879;  J.  F.  R.Xhiger: 
Kiig,  trans.,  Edinb.,  1884  sq. ;  R.  Rothe,  Wit- 
tenberg, 1880;  Crook  and  Hurst,  N.Y.,  1885; 
AVEinxER,  Phila.,  188.5].  HAGKNBAcn. 

ENCYCLOPXEDIAS,   Theological.     See    Dic- 

TIONAIMKS. 

ENCYCLOPEDISTS  is  the  name  generally 
given  to  the  editors  of  and  contributors  to  the 
Encyclopedie  ou  iJiclionnaire  raisonnc  des  Sciences, 
fles  Arts  et  des  Metiers,  which  appeared  in  Paris, 
]7.'51-64,  in  21  vols.  fol.  This  work,  so  famous 
on  account  of  the  extraordinary  influence  which 
it  exercised  on  its  age,  was  edited  by  Diderot, 
and,  for  its  mathematical  and  physical  articles,  by 


D'Alenibert.  Among  its  contributors  were  Rous- 
seau, Voltaire,  Euler.  Buft'on,  Haller,  Jlarmontel, 
Montesquieu,  D'Anville.  Holbach,  Sulzer,  Turgot, 
etc.  Its  religions,  theological,  and  ecclesiastical 
articles  were  mostly  written  by  Abb^  Mallet, 
professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of  Paris, 
and  the  abb^s  Yvon,  Pastre,  and  De  Prades. 

It  is  generally  believed  that  this  book  is  full 
of  open  and  bold  attacks  on  religion.  Christianity, 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  etc.  But  this  is  a 
mistake.  Though  the  article  on  the  Jesuits  is 
written  with  great  gusto  for  scandals,  and  though 
the  article  on  the  Pope  vindicates  the  Galilean 
views  of  the  episcopacy,  the  work  as  a  whole  is 
confessedly  Roman  Catholic,  and  the  Reforma- 
tion, with  all  that  belongs  to  it,  is  treated  in  a 
supercilious  manner  as  a  vicious  innovation;  to 
which  must  be  added  that  there  is  hardly  any 
Christian  dogma  which  is  not  accepited  and  de- 
fended,—  such  as  those  of  the  trinity,  of  inspira- 
tion, of  the  atonement,  etc.  But  (and  this  is 
characteristic  of  the  book)  the  reasons  for  the 
acceptance  of  the  Christian  dogmas  are  generally 
of  such  a  quality  that  a  flat  rejection,  for  no  rea- 
son whatever,  could  not  have  made  the  matter 
worse.  Theism  is  preferred  to  atheism,  because 
it  is  better  for  the  development  of  human  happi- 
ness to  accept  than  to  reject  the  idea  of  the 
existence  of  God.  Christ  is  the  first  and  fore- 
most of  all  religious  founders,  because  he  re- 
vealed the  best  and  highest  morality,  etc. 

By  this  perfidious  acquiescence  in  something 
which  it  felt  itself  too  weak  to  overpower,  the 
book  presented  itself  to  the  eyes  of  a  godless  and 
religiously  indifferent  age  as  the  soimdest  and 
wisest  compromise  with  an  existing  superstition, 
and  obtained  freedom  to  preach  its  sensualistic 
philosophy,  which  sooner  or  later  would  surely  ex- 
tinguish said  superstition.  The  philosophical  pro- 
gramme of  the  book  —  that  is,  its  intellectual  and 
moral  stand-point  —  is  set  forth  in  the  preface, 
written  liy  D'.Vlembert ;  and  there  is  really  no  con- 
tradiction between  the  sensualism  and  eudiemon- 
ism  of  the  preface,  and  the  choice  reasons  on  which 
religion,  Christianity,  and  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  are  accojited  and  defended  in  the  book. 

ENDOR,  Witch  of.     See  Saui.. 

ENEROUMENS  (ivepyoii/itroi,  "possessed  by  an 
evil  spirit;"  cf.  Kph.  ii.  2,  ipepyovvTo^)  were  those 
in  the  ('arly  chnivli  who  were,  according  to  popu- 
lar belief,  plagued  by  demons,  but  who  in  our 
day  would  be  simjily  called  "in.sane."  They  were 
not  permitted  to  enter  the  church  if  they  were 
violent,  but  commanded  to  .stand  in  the  porch,  so 
that  they  covild  hear  the  singing  and  jirayers; 
and  with  thcni  might  be  found  lepers,  and  per- 
sons of  offensive  lives  (see  Hefele,  Concilienge- 
schichte,  vol.  i.  §  16,  see  Can.  17).  After  the 
prayers  they  came  in  to  receive  the  blessing  of 
the  bishop  (see  Constt.  Apost.,  viii.  6,  7,  32) ;  liut, 
if  they  were  quiet,  they  were  allowed  in  the 
church,  yet  separated  from  the  cateclunnens,  and 
listened  to  the  sermon.  They  were  also  called 
Xfi/ia^oiievoi,  because  they  were  "  tossed  to  and  fro 
by  the  storms  and  billows  of  nncontrollable  iiU' 
pulse,"  and  not  becau.se  they  were  "exposed  to 
the  inelcinoncy  of  cold  or  rain,"  as  many  have 
cxplaincil  it.  The  exorcists  daily  brought  them 
food,  laid  their  hands  upon  them,  and  prayed  for 
them.     After  their  recovery  they  kept  a  twenty 


ENGBDI. 


725 


ENGLAND. 


to  forty  days'  fast,  then  partook  of  the  sacrament ; 
a  particular  prayer  ^vas  made  for  them  by  the 
priest,  and  their  names  were  entered  ujion  the 
clnirch-records,  with  esjiecial  mention  of  their 
recovery.  See  the  excellent  art.,  'Evepyotiitvoi,  in 
KuAUs :  Real-Enci/klupddie. 

ENGEDI  (Me  fountain  nf  the  kid),  the  present 
Ain  didy,  a  small  town  about  one  mile  from  the 
■western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  at  the  foot  of  the 
mountains  of  Judaea,  between  three  hundred  and 
thirty  and  five  hundred  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Dead  Sea,  and  about  twelve  hundred  feet 
below  the  summit  of  the  cliffs ;  received  its  name 
from  the  neighboring  thermal  springs,  and  is 
known  to  history  as  David's  hiding-place  from 
Saul  (1  Sam.  xxiii.  liO,  xxiv.  1-4). 

ENGELBRECHT,  Hans,  b.  at  Brunswick,  1590; 
d.  there  1014 ;  was  the  son  of  a  tailor,  and  a 
weaver  by  trade,  but  suffered  from  infancy  so 
much  from  bodily  illness,  that  he  became  very 
melancholy,  and  at  times  was  oscillating  between 
suicide  and  lunacy.  In  his  twenty-second  year 
he  began  to  be  haunted  by  religious  visions,  in- 
spirations, and  revelations,  which  he  expounded 
before  admiring  crowds,  generally  to  the  great 
disgust  of  the  clergy.  Expelled  from  Brunswick, 
he  roved  about  in  Northern  Germany,  and  was 
for  some  time  imprisoned  in  Hamburg;  but  he 
finally  returned  to  liis  native  city,  and  died  there 
in  loneliness  and  seclusion.  He  wrote  several 
pamphlets  about  his  revelations ;  collected  edition 
in  a  Dutch  translation  in  1697  [Eng.  trans.,  North- 
ampton, 1780].  See  Rehtmeter:  Brannschw. 
Kirchengesch. ,   IV.  p.  417.  iierzog. 

ENGELHARDT,  Jonann  Georg  Veit,  b.  at 
Neustadt^on-the-Aich,  Nov.  12,  1791 ;  d.  at  Erlan- 
gen,  Sept.  13,  1855;  studied  at  Erlangen,  and 
was  appointed  professor  at  the  gymnasium  there 
(1817),  and  professor  of  theology  in  the  univer- 
sity (1821).  Besides  a  number  of  dissertations 
on  the  church  fathers  and  the  mystics,  he  wrote  a 
Handbuch  tier  Kirchengeschiclile  in  4  vols.,  Erlan- 
gen, 1833-;54,  and  a  Dogmengeschichte  in  2  vols., 
Neustadt-on-the-Aich,  1839. 

ENGLAND,  Church  of,  is  the  established  Na- 
tional Church  of  England,  and  adopts  as  its 
creed  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  together  with  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer.  In  its  autonomous 
organization  it  is,  like  the  other  churches  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation,  the  product  of  eman- 
cipation from  the  Church  of  Rome ;  and  its  his- 
tory begins  with  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  when, 
breaking  with  the  Pope,  he  was  declared  head  of 
the  Church  in  his  dominions.  In  theology  it  has 
preserved  the  general  features  of  the  Protestant 
churches  of  the  Continent;  but,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  government,  it  has  retained 
in  unbroken  succession  the  three  orders  of  the 
larger  pale  from  which  it  came.  It  is  proper  here 
to  state  that  many  Anglo-Catholic  writers  regard 
the  Reformation  merely  as  an  incident  in  the 
history  of  the  Church  of  England,  which  did  not 
interrupt  its  historic  continuity,  dating  from 
Augustine,  or  even  from  the  old  Keltic  Church. 

I.  Introductory. — The  history  of  Christianity 
in  England  before  the  Reformation  has  three 
well-defined  periods,  —  the  British,  Saxon,  and 
Norman. 

The  annals  of  the  British  period  are  sparse  and 
unsatisfactory.     The  traditional  accounts  of  the 


founding  of  the  Christian  Church  among  the 
Britons  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  St.  I'aul,  or 
other  of  the  apostles,  as  well  as  tlic  history  of  tlie 
conversion  of  King  Lucius,  adopted  by  Ussher, 
must  be  given  up  as  untrustworthy.  Our  first 
reliable  information  conies  from  Tertullian,  who 
writes  early  in  the  third  century  that  Christianity 
had  penetrated  into  regions  of  Britain  inacces.si- 
ble  to  the  Romans.  The  history  of  the  British 
Church  was  thenceforth  that  of  early  Christianity 
everywhere.  It  furnished  victims  to  per.secution, 
one  of  whom,  Alban  (303),  was  early  canonized. 
It  sent  its  representatives  to  councils,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, that  of  Aries  (314),  which  three  of  its 
bishops  attended,  —  Eborius,  Restitutus,  and 
Adeltius.  And  it  had  its  heresies.  Pelagius  was 
a  Briton ;  and,  although  he  went  to  the  East 
with  Celestius  of  Ireland,  he  left  the  seed  of  his 
errors  behind  him. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  period  dates  from  the  arrival, 
in  597,  of  the  monk  Augustine,  who  had  been 
despatched  by  Gregory  I.  The  Anglo-Saxons 
were  still  heathen  when  he  landed  on  the  Isle  of 
Thanet.  Augustine  proceeded  immediately  to 
the  court  of  Ethelberht  of  Kent,  whose  queen, 
Bercta,  was  the  Christian  daughter  of  the  Prank- 
ish King  Charibert.  He  was  made  bishop  of  the 
English,  and  afterwards  metropolitan.  Augustine 
came  in  conflict  with  the  bishops  of  the  old  British 
Church ;  but  the  Roman  type  of  Christianity  pre- 
vailed over  the  Keltic  (see  Keltic  Church),  and 
crowded  it  out.  Christianity  spread  rapidly  in 
Southern  England,  and  was  introduced  into 
Northumbria  by  Pauliuus,  and  made  the  perma- 
nent religion  by  the  labors  of  St.  Aidan  of  Ireland. 
Under  Theodore  of  Tarsus  (consecrated  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  668)  the  English  episcopate 
was  fully  organized,  and  the  dioceses  grouped 
around  Canterbury  as  the  central  and  superior  see. 
During  this  period  monasteries  were  founded;  and 
here  and  there  a  solitary  form  —  like  Cjedmon, 
the  Monk  of  Whitby;  or  Bede,  "the  father  of 
English  learning ;  "  or  Alcuin  the  scholar,  called 
to  the  court  of  Charlemagne  —  stands  out  promi- 
nently on  the  dark  background.  The  Danish 
invaders  of  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  inter- 
rupted the  services,  and  devastated  the  property 
of  churches  and  monastic  orders.  But  the  judi- 
cious wisdom  and  enlightened  zeal  of  Dunstan 
(959-988),  the  first  of  many  English  ecclesiastical 
statesmen,  repaired  their  ravages,  and  effected  a 
severer  discipline  and  a  more  compact  organiza- 
tion of  the  clergy. 

The  Normaii  period  dates  from  the  battle  of 
Hastings  in  1066.  It  is  distinguished  by  the 
complete  vassalage  into  which  the  Church  went 
to  the  papal  see,  the  humiliating  subjection  of  the 
State  to  ecclesiastical  domination,  and  the  grow- 
ing corruption  of  the  clergy.  But  the  State,  in 
turn,  struggled  to  emancipate  itself  from  ecclesi- 
astical fetters  by  legislation,  and  the  people  to 
rid  themselves  of  clerical  incompetency  and  scan- 
dal by  a  reform  in  the  life  and  doctrines  of  the 
Church. — AVilliam  the  Conqueror  dealt  harshly 
with  the  Saxon  bishops  and  abbots,  many  of 
whom  were  oliliged  to  give  way  to  foreign  prel- 
ates, and  he  practically  chose  all  ecclesiastical  dig- 
nitaries himself.  But  under  his  successors,  able 
ecclesiastics  asserted  and  won  the  independence 
of  the  Church.     Lanfrauc,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 


ENGLAND. 


726 


ENGLAND. 


buiT  (1U70-89),  seciu-ed  the  institution  of  special 
ecclesiastical  courts,  in  which  all  ecclesiastical 
cases  were  tried.  His  successor,  the  learned 
Ansehn  (1093-1109),  obliged  the  crown  to  relm- 
quish  its  ancient  custom  of  investmg  the  new 
bishops  witli  ring  and  crosier,  and  vindicated  the 
dangerous  precedeut,  that  appeals  should  be  made 
to  Rome.  Another  great  archbishop,  Thomas  h 
Becket  (1162-70),  contended  with  Henry  II., 
who  sought  to  reform  the  abuses  growing  out  of 
clerical  exemption  from  civil  jurisdiction.  The 
churchman  was  murdered,  but  victory  did  not 
rest  with  the  king.  It  still  remained  for  the 
State  as  a  national  body  to  come  into  subjection 
to  the  ecclesiastical  power  of  Rome.  This  was 
accomplished  under  the  most  depraved,  but,  ac- 
cording to  Green,  tlie  ablest,  of  the  Angevin  kings, 
Jolin,  For  daring  to  resist  the  wishes  of  the  papal 
see,  his  realm  was  placed  under  interdict  by 
Innocent  III.  (1208).  John  finally  submitted  (a 
submission  which  was  no  more  ignominious  than 
it  was  politic),  and  accepted  Stephen  Laugton 
(1207-28),  the  papal  appointee,  as  primate. 

The  Church  passed  into  a  state  of  lethargy, 
and  the  clergy  into  official  carelessness  and  per- 
sonal corruption.  The  earnest  and  plain  preach- 
ing of  the  Dominican  (1221)  and  Franciscan 
(122-1)  friars  aroused  the  laity  for  a  time;  but, 
becoming  fat  with  lands,  they  lost  their  hold  on 
the  popular  mind.  Here  and  there  a  great  bishop, 
like  Grosseteste  of  Lincobi,  123.5-53  (see  Grosse- 
teste),  lifts  up  his  voice  boldly  against  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  clergy,  dares  to  resist  the  Pope's 
assumption  to  force  appointments  within  his  dio- 
cese, and  insL'its  upon  tlie  authority  and  preaching 
of  the  Scriptures.  The  State  is  not  completely 
paralyzed,  and  seeks  to  meet  the  ecclesiastical 
abuses  w'ith  remedial  legislation.  Two  gi'eat  acts 
stand  out  as  protests  against  them.  The  statute 
of  morlmnin  (1279)  forbade  the  alienation  of  lands 
to  religious  corporations  in  such  wise  as  to  be 
exempt  from  taxation.  The  statute  oi  prcemunire 
(Richard  II.)  made  a  royal  license  necessary  to 
tlie  validity  witliin  the  realm  of  papal  appoint- 
ments and  bulls.  Xeither  of  these  acts  accom- 
plished much  at  the  time,  but  the  latter  was  used 
effectively  by  Henry  VIII.  Finally  prote.sts  from 
the  people  and  clergv  themselves  were  beginning 
to  be  spoken.  John  Wiclif  (1328-84),  the"  morn- 
ing star  of  the  Reformation,"  translated  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  assorted  the  rights  of  conscience. 
William  Longland,  without  Krasmus'  scholar.ship, 
but  in  a  more  popular  and  earnest  vein  than  he, 
sang  rhymes  ridiculing  the  friars.  The  Lollards 
were  so  numerous,  that,  according  to  the  chronicler 
Knighton,  every  other  person  on  the  road  was 
one.  The  indistinct  mutterings  of  tlie  Reforma- 
tion were  lieard;  and  although  Wiclif's  ashes 
were  disinterred,  and  scattered  in  tlie  Swift,  and 
the  Church  sUimliered  on  for  more  than  a  century 
longer,  the  great,  movement  finally  came,  out  of 
wliich  Christianity  in  Kiigland,  crystallized  in  tlie 
Church  of  Kiigland,  started  forward  on  a  new 
career  of  life  and  acliievenient. 

II.  1/i.ilon/  .since  the  Reformntion.  —  The  C'liurch 
of  Knglaud  dates  its  existence  as  a  national  body, 
independ(!nt  of  tlic  papal  see,  from  the  passage 
of  the  Act  of  .Sui)remacy  (1.531),  and  received  its 
distinctive  doctrinal  chara<it<;r  at  tlie  acJnption  of 
the  Forty-two  Articles  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. 


(subsequently  reduced  to  thirty-nine  under  Eliza- 
beth), and  the  approval  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  The  same  general  principle  of  revolt 
against  ecclesiastical  corruption  was  involved  in. 
the  Reformation  movement  in  England  that  in- 
spired the  Reformation  on  the  Continent.  How- 
ever, the  movement  in  England  had  its  owni 
salient  and  distinguishing  features.  It  preserved 
in  mibroken  continuity  the  ecclesiastical  orders 
and  succession  of  the  Catholic  Church,  many  of 
the  bishops  identifying  themselves  with  it.  But 
it  did  not  in  the  first  instance  owe  its  origin  to  a 
pure  motive  to  remedy  ecclesiastical  abuses,  and 
correct  doctrinal  errors.  The  inglorious  character 
of  some  of  its  early  history,  as  Canon  Perry  says, 
cannot  be  denied.  Yet  some  of  the  reformers  of 
England,  like  Ridley  and  Latimer,  were  men  of 
most  fervent  piety  and  lofty  devotion ;  and  its  first 
annals  describe  the  heroic  constancy  of  a  noble 
galaxy  of  martyrs  who  sacrificed  their  lives  for 
their  faith. 

Circumstances  had  been  preparing  the  way  for 
the  Reformation  in  England.  The  signs  of  the- 
times  in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  centm-y 
indicated  a  mighty  movement  of  men's  minds 
in  England  as  well  as  on  the  Continent.  The 
revival  of  classical  learning  with  sucli  names  as 
Erasmus,  Colet,  and  Thomas  More,  the  bold  satire 
upon  clerical  abuses,  the  independence  of  thought 
(e.g.,  Erasmus'  appeal  to  the  Greek  Xew  Testa- 
ment in  the  preface  of  his  edition,  Basel,  1516,. 
and  More's  dreams  of  improvements  in  Church 
and  State  in  his  Ulopid),  the  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  by  Tyndale  (1526),  and  its  circu- 
lation in  spite  of  public  burnings  and  private 
espionage,  were  amongst  the  signs.  Luther's 
mighty  words  from  across  the  sea,  arraigning  the 
papal  dominion  as  the  Babylonisli  captivity  of  tlie 
Church  (1.520),  found  an  eager  audience  in  Eng- 
land, wliicli  the  public  conflagration  of  his  tracts 
by  Wolsey  (1521)  could  not  quiet.  But  these  were 
only  the  signs  and  forerunners  of  flie  Reforma- 
tion :  they  did  not  accomplish  it.  The  rupture 
from  Rome  in  England  was  not,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, the  product  of  the  protest  of  religious  prin- 
ciple against  ecclesiastical  abuse,  however  widely 
prevalent  Reformation  sentiments  were  among 
all  classes :  it  was  a  ]>()litical  necessity  to  which 
Henry  VIII.  resorted  in  order  to  accompli.sli  and 
to  justify  his  divorce  from  Catherine,  and  mar- 
riage wit"li  Anne  Boleyn.  In  1531  Henry  arraigned 
the  clergy  of  a  violation  of  prnmunire  foi'  being 
accomplices  with  Cardinal  AVolsey,  who  had  exer- 
cised legatine  functions  without  tlie  royal  con.sent. 
The  two  convocations  compounded  by  the  pay- 
ment of  a  hundred  and  eighteen  thousand  pounds. 
But  the  king,  not  satisfieil  with  this  evidence  of 
a  submissive  temper,  demanded  that  he  should  Vie 
recognized  as"cliief  protector,  the  only  supreme 
lord  and  head  of  the  Church  and  clergy  in  Eng- 
land." The  Convocation  of  Canterbury  accepted 
the  title,  only  adding  the  limiting  clause.  "So 
far  as  tlie  law  of  Christ  will  allow."  In  1533  a 
parliamentary  statute  forb.'ule  all  ecclesiastical 
appeals  beyond  tln^  kingdom.  The  year  follow- 
ing, actuated  thereto  liy  the  Pojie's  command  to 
take  back  Catherine,  I^enrv  .secured  the  pa.ssage 
of  the  Act  of  Supremacy,  by  which  the  English 
sovereign  became,  without  limitation,  "the  only 
supreme  Iiead  in  earth  of  the  Churcli  of  England, 


ENGLAND. 


727 


ENGLAND. 


called  tlie  '  .Vnglicaiia  Ecclesia.'"  This  statute 
made  all  papal  appointments  ■within  the  realm 
illegal,  ancl  vested  in  the  crown  unlimited  aiithor- 
ity  to  veforni  and  redress  ecclesiastical  abuses. 
The  Church  in  England  was  thus  severed  from 
the  papal  comunniion,  and  constituted  an  inde- 
pendent body.  It  was  not  long  before  the  king- 
made  a  bold  use  of  his  new  autliority  by  abolish- 
ing the  monastic  establishments,  and  confiscating 
their  wealth,  amounting  to  thirty-eight  nnllion 
pounds  (15:3(J-39). 

But  a  thorough  doctrinal  reformation  was  not 
among  the  purposes  of  Henry.  With  the  Conti- 
nental Refornuxtion  he  had  little  or  no  sympa- 
thy. The  ten  articles  adopted  by  convocation  in 
1536  retained  the  doctrine  of  the  i-eal  presence, 
the  use  of  images,  prayer  to  saints,  purgatory, 
and  auricular  confession,  and  only  divested  these 
practices  of  some  of  the  grosser  superstitions. 
The  king  seemed  to  take  higher  ground  when  he 
gave  his  sanction  to  the  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures known  as  the  Great  Bible  (1539).  But  all 
hopes  of  a  thorough  doctrinal  reformation  were 
doomed  to  disappointment.  The  six  so-called 
"  Bloody  Articles  "  of  1539  denounced  all  denial  of 
transubstantiation  as  heresy,  and  declared  strongly 
in  favor  of  auricular  confession,  the  celibacy  of 
the  clergy,  and  the  sacrifice  of  private  masses. 
Henry  had  done  his  work.  He  was  no  reformer 
from  principle  ;  but  Providence  had  used  him  to 
assert  the  independence  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  to  break  the  spell  of  tradition. 

Under  Edward  VT.  the  doctrinal  reformation 
was  accomplished.  The  six  articles  were  repealed, 
and  the  sympathy  w'ith  the  Continental  reformers 
shown  in  the  call  of  Bucer  and  Fagius  to  Cam- 
bridge, and  Peter  Martyr  and  Ochino  to  Oxford. 
A  Prayer-Book  was  issued  in  1549,  and  a  second 
three  years  afterwards.  The  Forty-two  Articles 
were  drawn  up  in  1552.  They  state,  in  general, 
that  "  the  Church  of  Rome  hath  erred  not  only 
in  its  living  and  manner  of  ceremonies,  but  also 
in  matters  of  faith"  (xix.).  They  expressly  de- 
nied transubstantiation,  admitted  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy,  discontinued  auricular  confession, 
approved  of  the  communion  in  both  kinds.  With 
their  adoption  the  formative  period  of  the  Church 
of  England  closes.  The  reign  of  Mary  (1553- 
58)  checked  the  Reformation  for  the  moment, 
but  did  not  crush  it.  Hooper,  Latimer,  Ridley, 
Cranmer,  were  brought  to  the  stake,  and  many 
refugees  fled  to  Basel  and  Geneva ;  but  these 
persecutions,  which  were  attributed  largely  to 
Spanish  influence,  only  awakened  horror  and 
dogged  resistance. 

With  Elizabeth,  Protestantism  was  restored,  and 
—  in  spite  of  occasional  resistance  from  within, 
the  Spanish  Armada  and  papal  deposition  from 
without  (1570)  — became  the  permanent  religion 
of  the  large  majority  in  the  land.  Two  periods 
stand  out  in  the  history  of  the  Church  under 
Elizabeth.  In  the  early  part  of  the  reign  the 
divorce  of  the  National  Church  from  the  Roman- 
Catholic  see  was  consummated ;  in  the  latter  part 
its  position  was  clearly  stated  in  regard  to  Puritan- 
ism, which  demanded  recognition,  it  not  supremacy, 
within  its  jiale.  The  queen  was  no  zealous  re- 
former, but  directed  the  affair's  of  the  Church  with 
the  keen  sagacity  of  a  statesmanship  which  placed 
national  unity  and  the  i>eace  of  the  realm  above 


every  other  consideration.  In  the  first  year  of 
her  reign  the  Acts  of  Supremacy  aiid  Uniformity 
were  passed.  By  the  former,  all  allegiance  to 
foreign  prince  or  prelate  was  forbidden ;  Ijy  llie 
latter,  the  use  of  the  liturgy  enforced.  'i"hc  royal 
title  of  "  Defender  of  the  Faith  and  Supreme 
Head  of  the  Church "  was  retained,  with  the 
sliglit  alteration  of  "  Head"  to  "  Governor."  But 
the  passage  was  struck  out  of  the  lyitany  wdiich 
read,  "  From  the  tyranny  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
and  aU  his  detestable  enormities,  good  Lord  de- 
liver us."  The  queen  retained,  against  the  protest 
of  bishops,  an  altar,  crucifix,  and  lighted  candles 
in  her  own  chapel,  disapjjroved  of  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy,  interrupted  the  preacher  w  ho  spoke 
disparagingly  of  the  sign  of  the  cross,  and  imperi- 
ously forced  her  wishes  upon  unwilling  prelates. 
But,  in  spite  of  seeming  to  cater  to  the  Cliurch  of 
Rome  in  points  of  ritual,  Elizabeth  did  not  inter- 
fere by  any  public  measures  with  the  results  of 
the  Reformation  of  Edward  VI.  The  reduction 
of  the  Forty-two  Articles  to  thirty-nine  (1503), 
the  form  which  they  have  ever  since  retained, 
did  not  impair  their  Protestant  character. 

The  independence  of  the  National  Church  be- 
ing thus  permanently  settled,  it  only  remained 
to  .settle  disputes  within  her  own  pale.  The 
great  question  was,  whether  Puritanism  should 
be  tolerated.  This  was  a  question  not  of  doc- 
trine, divine  sovereignty,  and  predestination ;  for 
the  prevailing  doctrinal  views  were  Calvinistic, 
and  all  of  Elizabeth's  bishops,  almost  without  an 
exception,  were  Calvinists.  It  was  a  question  of 
ecclesiastical  polity  and  ritual.  ]Many  of  tlu; 
refugees  who  had  fled  to  the  Continent  in  jMaiy's 
reign  returned  strongly  prejudiced  against  an 
elaborate  ritual,  and  in  favor  of  the  Genevan  form 
of  government.  Cartwright,  Margaret  Professor 
of  Divinity  at  Cambridge,  was  the  ablest  expo- 
nent of  these  views  (1570).  There  was  no  uni- 
formity practised  in  the  conduct  of  public  services 
and  the  dress  of  the  clerg-y.  Hooper,  Bishop  of 
Gloucester,  who  died  at  the  stake  (1555),  for  a 
long  time  refused  to  be  consecrated,  from  con- 
scientious scruples  against  the  usual  episcopal 
habits  ;  and  Bishop  Jewel  pronounced  the  clerical 
garb  a  stage  dress,  and  a  relic  of  the  Aniorites. 
It  is  noticeable  that  two  of  Elizabeth's  archbishops 
—  Parker  (1559-75)  and  Grindal  (1575-83)  — 
W'ere  averse  to  enforcing  uniformity  in  these 
matters.  The  latter,  with  Bishops  Parkhurst  and 
Ponet,  not  only  would  have  allowed  a  co-ordinate 
authority  to  the  presbyterian  system  of  Geneva, 
but  would  have  gone  even  farther  (Macaulay, 
Hi.'ft.  En<j.,  vol.  I.  p.  39,  Boston  ed.).  Gruidal 
was  so  lukewarm  in  obeying  the  queen's  command 
for  the  suppression  oi'  the  Pmitan  "Prophesy- 
ings,"  as  to  incm-  suspension  from  his  ofiice.  By 
a  royal  proclamation  these  were  suppressed,  as 
before  a  royal  proclamation  liad  required  the  use 
of  clerical  "vestments.  It  thus  was  decided  tliat 
no  liberty  in  matters  of  ritual  and  the  conduct  of 
public  worship  was  to  be  tolerated.  These  acts 
forced  many  Puritan  clergymen  to  resign  their 
benefices.  In  Grindal's  successor.  Archbishop 
AVhitgift  (1583-lGOl),  Elizabeth  had  a  prelate 
more  "to  her  hand.  The  breach  between  the  two 
parties  became  wider  ;  and  if  the  Church,  on  her 
part,  was  intolerant  of  aU  dissidence,  the  Puritans 
on  theirs  became  coarse,  as  in  the  so-called  Mai'- 


ENGLAND. 


728 


ENGLAND. 


prelate  controversy  (loSS),  when  they  issued 
scurrilous  libels  against  the  queen  and  bishops. 
The  controversy  was  closed  in  1593  by  an  act  of 
Pai'lianieut  making  Puritanism  an  offence  against 
the  statute  law. 

The  liistory  of  the  seventeenth  century  is 
marked  by  the  consolidation  of  the  Church  in 
spite  of  a  temporary  triumph  of  Puritanism,  the 
growth  of  the  doctrine  of  the  essential  necessity 
of  episcopacy,  the  first  indications  of  which  show 
themselves  in  the  Puritan  controversy  of  the 
Elizabethan  period,  and  a  consequent  intolerance 
towards  all  dissent  from  its  forms  and  doctrines, 
cvdminating  in  the  harsh  legislation  of  Charles  II. 
Under  James  I.  (1603-25),  who  came  to  England 
with  a  cordial  hatred  of  Presbyterianism,  the  Puri- 
tan party  was  completely  humiliated.  AU  their 
hopes,  expressed  in  the  famous  Mildmay  Petition, 
signed  by  eight  hundred  clergymen,  and  asking 
for  the  removal  of  superstitious  usages  from  the 
Prayer-Book,  etc.,  were  doomed  to  disappoint- 
ment. James  maintained  relations  with  the 
churches  of  the  Continent,  and  sent  five  commis- 
sioners to  represent  the  Church  of  England  at 
the  synod  of  Dort  with  instructions  to  "  favour 
no  innovations  in  doctrine,  and  to  conform  to 
the  confessions  of  the  neighboring  Reformed 
churclies."  But  full  sympathy  with  the  Conti- 
nental churches  was  hereafter  rendered  impracti- 
cable, and  recognition  of  theii'  orders  (as  was  the 
case  mider  Elizabeth,  see  Professor  Fisher,  in  the 
New-Englander,  January,  187-1,  pp.  r.?l-172)  im- 
possible by  the  high  views  of  episcopacy  which 
were  spreading,  and  whieli,  under  .\rchbishop 
Laud  (1033-45),  assumed  an  extreme  form.  This 
prelate  taught  that  episcopacy  was  not  only  neces- 
sary to  the  well-being,  but  essential  to  the  very 
being,  of  the  Church.  His  administration  revived 
the  ritual  of  Rome,  and  displayed,  or  seemed  to 
display,  so  much  symiiatliy  with  it,  that  lie  was 
olfered  a  cardinal's  hat.  Since  his  day  a  large 
liberty  of  opinion  lias  been  allowed  and  j>ractised 
in  tlie  Churcli  of  England  on  the  question  of  ritual 
and  episcopacy;  the  Iligh-t'hurch  views  of  Laud, 
and  the  moderate  views  of  Parker  and  Grindal, 
both  having  their  representatives. 

During  tiie  commonwealth  period  the  Estab- 
lislied  Ciiurch  was  in  fact  a  reliijio  illicita,  an  act 
of  Parliament  having  abolished  episcopacy,  and 
discontimied  tlie  use  of  the  Liturgy  (Sept.  10, 
1042).  Puritanism  triumphed  for  a  time;  but  its 
attempt  to  establish  an  ecclesiastical  government 
was,  in  spite  of  towering  tlieological  intellects, 
and  the  ma.ssive  and  stern  genius  of  Cromwell,  a 
failure.  (See  the  masterly  account  of  Green, 
vol.  iii.  321  sqq.)  Tlie  accession  of  Charles  II. 
in  1000  restored  the  Episcopal  Church  to  the 
national  position  which  it  has  ever  since  held. 
Ilarsli  measures  against  tlic  Puritans  soon  fol- 
lowed. By  the  Act  of  Uniformity  of  1002  the  use 
of  the  Prayer-Book  was  rigidly  (Miforcc^d  ;  and  two 
tiiousand  English  clergymen,  amongst  them  .some 
of  the  most  scholarly  and  pious  divinc'S  of  the 
time  (Baxter  and  Howe),  were  driven  from  their 
benefices.  Th(^se  hardships  were  inerea,sed  by 
the  Five-Mile  ,\ct  (1005),  which  forbade  them  to 
approach  withiji  five  miles  of  any  (jarliameiitaiy 
town  or  other  place  wliere  they  ha<l  preached. 
The  Test  Act  of  1073,  by  excluding  all  Puritans 
from    oHice,  completed    their   discomfiture,    and 


marked  the  cuhninating  device  of  legislation 
disabling  dissenters.  Charles  IT.  died  a  Roman 
Catholic.  His  brother  James  II.  lived  one.  His 
efforts,  however,  to  restore  confidence  and  tolera- 
tion for  the  Roman  Church  failed. 

The  accession  of  William  and  Mary  ushered  in 
a  new  epoch.  To  put  it  in  a  strong  way,  the 
principle  that  the  National  Church  had  an  exclu- 
sive right  to  existence  and  protection  was  abro- 
gated. The  movement  in  favor  not  only  of 
toleration,  but  of  absolute  freedom  of  worship, 
and  political  equality  without  reference  to  ecclesi- 
astical connection,  started  with  this  reign.  Put 
into  more  and  more  extensive  practice,  this  prin- 
ciple has  effected  the  abolition  of  most,  if  not  all, 
political  disabilities  on  account  of  religious  differ- 
ences. The  first  legislation  in  this  direction  was 
the  Act  of  Toleration  (1089),  establishing  freedom 
of  worship.  The  present  century  has  witnessed 
the  repeal  of  the  Test  Act  (1828),  the  removal  of 
the  disabilities  of  the  Roman  Catholics  (1829) 
and  Jews  (1S58),  and  the  disestablishment  of  the 
Irish  Church  (1868). 

The  eighteenth  century  was  characterized  by 
a  wide-spread  religious  apathy  and  worldliness 
among  the  clergy,  until,  in  its  final  decades,  the 
Churcli  was  aroused  by  the  great  popular  revival, 
and  in  numbers  weakened  by  the  defection,  of 
the  Methodists.  Tlie  intellectual  classes  were 
affected  by  the  deistic  controversy,  which,  begin- 
ning with  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (1581-1648), 
identified  the  Christian  revelation  with  natural 
religion,  and  excluded  from  Christianity,  as  un- 
genuine  and  false,  all  that  was  not  contained  in 
the  latter.  It  became  as  fashionable  for  states- 
men to  scoff"  at  the  Christian  religion  in  their 
writings  as  it  was  common  for  them  in  their 
practice  to  treat  its  precepts  with  contempt.  But 
while  deism  was  being  resolved  into  scepticism  by 
Hume,  its  influence  was  more  than  counteracted 
by  the  evangelical  siiirit  and  earnest  preaching 
of  Whitefield  and  the  \\'esleys  (graduates  of  Ox- 
ford), which  worked  with  irresistible  power  upon 
the  masses,  and  aroused  the  clergy  of  the  realm 
out  of  their  inditt'erence  to  a  new  sense  of  their 
sjiiritual  obligations.  Fresh  life  sprang  up  in  the 
Church  of  England  as  a  result  of  this  impulse. 
The  so-called  Evangelicals,  including  .some  of  the 
most  faithful  pastors,  fervent  preachers,  devout 
poets,  and  genial  philanthropists,  —  men  like 
Venn  and  Newton  and  Covvper  and  ^^'ilberforce, 
—  brought  a  warm  consecration  to  their  work, 
and  vied  with  the  more  eloquent  but  no  more 
devoted  leaders  of  the  Methodist  movement  to 
spread  the  truths  and  blessings  of  the  gospel. 
And  so  the  century  went  out  with  an  intense 
sympathy  for  the  heathen  abroad  and  the  de- 
praved classes  at  home,  in  practical  efforts  to 
plant  missions,  and  found  charitable  institutions. 

The  ]iresent  century  has  witnessed  the  realiza- 
tion of  these  plans  in  ))art  or  in  whole.  No  pre- 
ceding ])eriod  has  been  distinguished  for  piety  at 
once  more  practical  .and  more  liberal  than  the 
nineteenth  century.  This  is  eminently  true  of 
the  Church  of  England.  It  has  also  given  evi- 
dence of  vigor,  as  well  as  been  distract(^d,  by 
iliscussions  of  ecclesiastical  ordi'rand  discipline. 
The  so-called  Tractarian  movement  has  agitated 
the  Church  to  its  dejiths.  While  Parliament 
was  legislating  in  the  interest  (jf  equal  political 


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729 


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rights,  a  movement  in  the  interest  of  deeper  piety, 
more  aggressive  effort,  churchly  zeal,  and  church 
authority,  was  spreading  at  Oxford  (ISoS).  Dr. 
Pusey  was  tlie  moral,  Ur.  Newman  the  intellect- 
ual leader,  and  the  saintly  Keble  the  poet,  of  this 
movement.  It  led  to  a  new  investigation  of  the 
claims  of  the  Catholic  Church ;  and,  before  a 
decade  had  passed,  the  Church  received  a  blow, 
from  which,  Lord  Beaconsfield  said  a  few  years 
ago,  it  "still  continues  to  reel."  John  Henry 
Newman,  Edward  Manning,  Frederick  W.  Faber, 
and  others  of  her  ablest  men  of  the  clergy  and 
nobility,  went  over  to  the  Roman-Catholic  com- 
munion. 

The  present  state  of  opinion  in  the  Church  is 
classified  under  three  heads.  The  High-Church 
party  lays  empliasis  upon  the  exclusive  right  of 
episcopacy  and  apostolical  succession,  and  prac- 
tises an  advanced  ritual.  The  extreme  wing, 
known  as  the  Ritualists,  has  introduced  pi'actices 
which  the  Reformers  regarded  as  papistical,  — 
such  as  the  elevation  of  the  host,  auricular  con- 
fession, the  burning  of  candles,  etc.  Some  of 
their  number  go  even  so  far  as  to  declare  the 
Reformation  to  have  been  a  mistake  and  a  mis- 
fortune. They  display  great  zeal  and  devotion 
in  benevolent  church-work.  Occupying  opposite 
ground  is  the  Low-Church  party,  which  holds 
strictly  to  the  natural  interpretation  of  the  Thii-ty- 
nine  Articles,  denies  episcopacy  to  be  of  the 
essence  of  the  Church,  and  renounces  so-called 
ritualistic  practices.  Between  these  two  schools 
a  third  has  grown  up  within  the  last  fifty  years. 
Its  combination  of  tolerant  sympathies  with  loy- 
alty to  the  Church  has  secured  for  it  the  name  of 
the  Broad-Church,  party.  Among  its  more  promi- 
nent representatives  have  been  Arnold,  Julius 
Hare,  Maurice,  Kingsley,  and  Stanley.  During 
the  century  the  vigorous  life  of  the  Church  has 
been  further  shown  by  the  restoration  of  cathe- 
drals, and  construction  of  churches,  in  the  crea- 
tion of  new  episcopal  sees  at  home,  —  Truro,  St. 
Albans  (1877),  and  Liverpool  (1880),  — and  the 
rapid  extension  of  the  Church  and  Episcopate  in 
the  Colonies.  At  no  time  in  its  history  has  it 
been  stronger  and  more  vigorous  than  now,  more 
alive  with  theological  discussion  and  achievement, 
more  competent  to  cope  with  infidelity,  more 
solicitous  to  relieve  the  poor  and  fallen,  more 
munificent  in  its  gifts  for  the  conversion  of  the 
heathen,  or  more  adapted  to  secure  the  esteem, 
and  win  the  respect,  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  people 
on  the  island  of  Latimer  and  Ridley,  as  well  as 
far  beyond  the  seas,  in  the  United  States  and 
Australia  and  India. 

III.  Theolocfy  and  Worship.  —  The  doctrinal 
standards  of  the  Anglican  Church  are  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
To  these  may  be  added  the  Catechism  and  the 
two  Books  of  Homilies  issued  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  VI.,  and  sanctioned  by  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles.  Within  the  pale  of  the  Church  the  most 
divergent  views  have  prevailed  concerning  its 
doctrinal  status.  On  the  one  hand  it  has  been 
represented  as  strongly  Calvinistic,  both  in  respect 
to  the  sacraments  and  to  the  decrees :  on  the 
other,  theologians, — such  as  Dr.  Newman  (before 
his  transition  to  Rome),  the  late  Dr.  Forbes,  Bishop 
of  Brechin,  Dr.  Pusey  (Eirenicon),  and  others, — 
minimizing   the  Protestantism  of    its  standards. 


hold  that  nothing  is  taught  in  the  Thirty-nine 
Articles  which  cannot  be  hannonized  with  the 
Tridentine  decrees.  An  unprejudiced  study  of 
the  plain  and  natural  meaning  of  the  language, 
without  any  inferences  from  what  is  left  unsaid, 
will  force  upon  us  the  conclusion  that  the  Angli- 
can standards  teach  a  moderate  Calvinism,  and 
are,  in  the  main,  in  sympathy  with  the  Protestant 
Reformation  of  the  Continent.  The  sole  and 
supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures  is  emphasized, 
as  also  justification  by  faith  ;  Art.  xi.  i-eading, 
"Wherefore  that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only 
is  a  most  wholesome  doctrine,"  etc.  Original  or 
birth  sin  is  the  corruption  of  nature  of  evei-y  de- 
scendant of  Adam ;  and  predestination  is  God's 
everlasting  purpose  to  redeem  "  those  whom  he 
hath  chosen  in  Christ  out  of  mankind  "  (.\rt.  xvii.). 
The  erroneous  doctrines  of  purgatory,  the  mass, 
celibacy,  etc.,  are  specifically  denounced.  The 
teaching  concerning  the  Loi'd's  Supper  is  plainly 
against  transubstantiation,  which  in  .\rt.  xxviii. 
is  declared  to  be  "  repngiiant  to  the  plain  words 
of  Scripture,"  the  "  body  of  Christ  being  given, 
taken,  and  eaten  only  after  an  heavenly  and  spirit- 
ual manner."  Art.  xxvii.  can  hardly  be  pressed 
to  favor  the  theory  of  baptismal  regeneration. 
But  the  case  is  different  in  the  service  of  baptism 
in  the  Prayer-Book.  After  the  child  has  been 
baptized,  the  minister  says,  "  Seeing  now  .  .  . 
that  this  child  is  regenerate,  and  grafted  into  the 
body  of  Christ,"  etc.  And  again,  after  repeating 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  he  gives  thanks  to  the  heavenly 
Father  for  regenerating  the  infant,  etc.  These 
words  interpreted  naturally  teach  bajstisnial  re- 
generation ;  but  they  are  frequently  explained 
as  being  used  only  in  a  hypothetical  sense.  For 
a  fuller  statement  under  this  head,  see  Articles 
Thirty-nine. 

The  worship  of  tlie  Church  of  England  is 
liturgical,  and  regulated  by  the  Book  of  Connnon 
Prayer,  one  of  the  most  precious  legacies  of  the 
Protestant  Reformation.  Its  beautiful  fonns  of 
service,  and  its  solemn  and  venerable  prayers,  are 
not  only  among  the  choicest  specimens  of  English, 
but  exert  an  influence  on  the  ear  and  heart  of 
those  who  use  them  which  nothing  else  can  re- 
place. The  rubrics  (so  called  from  having  been 
printed  in  red  ink)  give  directions  for  the  small- 
est details  of  the  service.  The  sabbath  services 
consist  of  prayers,  lessons  from  the  Scriptures, 
responsive  reading  of  the  Psalms,  chants,  h)-mns, 
the  offertory,  and  the  sermon.  The  form  and 
matter  of  the  service  of  baptism,  communion, 
marriage,  and  other  services,  are  all  prescribed. 
The  inconveniences  of  this  method  are  not  to  be 
overlooked,  by  which  all  departure  from  the  fixed 
form  is  forbidden.  An  illustration  is  found  in 
the  service  of  burial.  In  all  cases,  over  the  most 
notorious  sinner,  as  well  as  the  pious  churchman, 
the  same  consolatory  passages  (1  Cor.  xv.,  etc.) 
are  read,  and  the  same  prayers  offered.  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  are  manifest  advantages 
which  it  woidd  be  hard  to  deny.  See,  on  this 
subject,  art.  Liturgy. 

IV.  Tlie  Clergy  and  Clerical  Patronage.  —  The 
clergy  consists  of  three  orders,  —  deacons,  priests 
(presbyters),  and  bishops.  The  canonical  age  is 
respectively  twenty-three,  twenty-four,  and  thirtj'. 
The  duties  of  the  deacon  are  to  render  assistance 
to  the  priest  in  the  services  of  the  sanctuary  and 


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730 


ENGLAND. 


in  pastoral  work.  lie  may  preach,  read  the 
prayer-s  ami  Scripture-lessons,  assist  in  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  elements  at  communion,  and 
administer  baptism.  In  Iris  ordination  he  assents 
to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  and  the  constitution 
of  the  Episcopal  Church  as  agreeable  with  the 
word  of  God.  The  priest  serves  at  the  altar,  and 
consecrates  the  elements  in  the  Lord's  Supper. 
At  his  ordination  the  bishop  pronounces  upon  him 
the  words,  "  Receive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the  office 
and  work  of  a  priest  in  the  Church  of  God,"  etc. 
This  is  interpreted  to  be  a  petition  for  the  anoint- 
ing of  the  Holy  Spirit,  or  to  mark  the  transmission 
of  a  heavenly  grace  through  the  bishop,  accordmg 
to  the  different  stand-point  of  the  interpreter. 
Tlie  bishop  has  the  exclusive  right  of  orduiation, 
confirmation,  or  admitting  members  to  the  Lord's 
table,  and  the  consecration  of  churches.  Bishops 
are  appointed  by  the  crown.  A  conge  d'e'lire  is 
sent  to  the  chapter  when  a  bishopric  is  vacant ; 
but  it  is  only  a  formality,  as  tlie  name  of  the  new 
incumbent  is  sent  with  it.  A  class  of  the  priest- 
hood known  as  the  dignijied  clergy  are  the  deans 
and  archdeacons.  Deans  have  charge  of  cathedral 
churches,  ard  are  assisted  by  canons,  the  number 
of  which  may  not  exceed  six  for  any  cathedral. 
The  archdeacon  assists  the  bishop  in  his  official 
duties  as  superintendent  of  the  diocese.  He  holds 
synods,  delivers  charges,  and  visits  parishes.  He 
is  himself  sometimes  aided  by  rural  deans.  Both 
these  classes  are  members  of  convocation  by  virtue 
of  their  office.  No  bishop  is  allowed  to  transgress 
the  limits  of  his  diocese  in  the  performance  of 
episcopal  functions,  unless  requested  so  to  do. 
The  bishops  frequently  associate  with  themselves 
sulfragan  l)i.shops. 

ICngland  is  divided  into  the  two  archbishoprics 
of  Canterbury  and  York.  Within  the  limits  of 
the  foniKU'  tliere  are  twenty-three  sees,  including 
the  two  new  ones  (Truro  and  St.  Albans)  created 
1877;  williiii  the  latter,  seven,  —  Durham,  Ripon, 
Chester,  Carlisle,  Manchester,  Liverpool  (organ- 
ized 1880),  and  Sodor  and  Man.  In  the  order 
of  dignity  they  rank,  Canterbury,  York,  London, 
Durham,  Winchester,  etc.  In  addition  to  the 
Irish  (twelve)  and  Scotch  (.seven)  bisliops,  tliere 
are  at  present,  in  connection  with  the  Cliurch  of 
England,  sixty-three  colonial  and  ten  missionary 
bishops.  The  fir.st  colonial  see  was  Nova  Scotia 
(1787).  Tlie  see  of  Calcutta  was  organized  1813. 
Nineteen  colonial  or  mi.ssionary  bishops  have 
resigned  their  sees,  and  are  now  living  in  Eng- 
land. There  are  tliirty  deans  presiding  over  as 
many  cathedrals.  Tlie  Deans  of  Westminster  and 
Wiiid.sor  are  independent  of  episcopal  control,  and 
directly  subject  to  the  crown.  All  the  sees  liave 
ileans,  exce|>t  Liverpool,  St.  Albans,  Truro,  and 
Sodor  and  Man.  There  are  eighty-two  archdea- 
cons, and  six  hundred  and  thirteen  rural  deans. 
The  lower  clergy  of  the  Church  in  England  and 
Walfi.s  (who  number  about  2;!,()0(l)  are  called 
"rector."  "vicar,"  "curate,"  etc.  'J'lie  benefices. 
or  livings,  number  nearly  13,1300.  Their  patron- 
age is  ilivided  between  the  crown  (l,lol)  livings), 
tlie  bishops  (1,8.33),  universities  (770),  private 
patrons  ('i,'-00),  etc.  The  consent  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese  i.s  necessary  to  the  induction  of  an 
iiicuinbent ;  aii<l,  in  the  event  of  a  disagreement 
between  patron  and  bislio)),  the  case  is  decided 
by  the  Court  o£  Arches.     Tlie  people  have  no 


voice  in  the  choice  of  their  rector;  but  the  rector, 
once  inducted,  has  absolute  control  of  his  church, 
so  that  not  even  the  bishop  may  enter  it  without 
his  consent.  Many  of  the  parishes  have  endow- 
ments in  lands :  others  are  supported,  in  whole 
or  in  part,  from  public  funds,  such  as  Queen 
Anne's  Bounty.  The  system  of  patronage  has 
led  to  very  great  abuses,  some  of  which  still 
remain.  Benefices  are  sometimes  held  up  for 
public  sale,  and,  being  subject  to  the  choice  of 
private  patrons,  may  be  filled  with  men  of  little 
ability  or  small  interest  in  the  spiritual  welfare 
of  the  people.  The  Plurality  system,  by  which 
a  clergyman  might  hold  any  number  of"  livings 
at  the  same  time,  and  which  was  so  much  abused 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  last  centuiy,  has  been 
modified  by  parliamentary  legislation.  Under 
the  present  law  no  one  can  hold  two  cathedral 
positions  at  the  same  time.  The  holder  of  a 
cathedral  position  may  hold  besides  only  one 
parish.  A  clergyman  may  have  two  parishes ; 
but,  if  the  one  numbers  three  thousand  souls,  the 
other  may  not  include  more  than  five  hundred. 
The  evils  of  non-residence  have  likewise  been 
restrained  by  law.  The  yearly  income  of  the 
Church  of  England  amounts  to  at  least  eight 
million  pounds.  The  income  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  is  fifteen  thousand  pounds ;  of 
Y'ork,  ten  thousand  pounds;  of  London,  ten  thou- 
sand pounds ;  of  Durham,  eight  thousand  pounds. 
The  lowest  income  is  that  of  the  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man,  which  amounts  to  two  thousand  pounds. 
The  average  income  of  a  dean  is  one  thousand 
pounds.  'The  incomes  of  the  clergy  are  from  one 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  upward.  A  fund  man- 
aged by  the  so-called  "Ecclesiastical  Commis- 
sion," and  supplied  by  the  revenues  of  suppressed 
canonries,  sinecures,  and  the  surplus  revenues  of 
bishoprics  over  and  above  the  episcopal  salary, 
is  used  for  the  augmentation  of  bishoprics,  the 
increase  of  the  smaller  salaries,  the  endowment 
of  new  ministers,  etc.  This  commission  was  con- 
stituted in  1835. 

V.  Church  Polilg.  —  The  Church  or  spuituality 
of  England  is  one  of  the  estates  of  the  realm 
Its  relation  to  the  State  is  one  of  de]iendence,  the 
Sovereign  lieing  its  supi'eme  governor,  and  Parlia- 
ment its  highest  legislature.  The  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury  is  the  first  peer  in  the  realm,  and 
crowns  the  king.  The  bishops  have  their  "pal- 
aces," and  seats  in  the  House  of  Lord.s,  except 
the  liishops  of  Sodor  and  Man,  Liverjiool,  Truro, 
and  St.  iVlbans.  The  Church  does  not  legislate 
for  itself  independently  or  directly :  it  is  subject 
to  Parliament. 

The  Convocations  of  Canterbury  and  Y'ork  are 
the  two  highest  official  church  bodies.  Consti- 
tuted by  ICiIward  I.,  they  enjoyed  independent 
rights  of  ecclesiastical  legislation  until  1.531;,  when, 
by  the  Submission  of  the  Clergy,  they  became 
.subject  to  the  king.  In  1717  the  Convocation  of 
Canterbury  was  dissolv<'d  by  George  I.,  for  the 
siqijiosed  hostility  of  the  lower  house  to  the 
House  of  Hanover,  was  not  revived  till  18.02,  and 
did  not  receive  the  royal  license  to  proceed  to 
business  till  1801.  The.se  convocations  consist 
of  two  hou.ses.  Over  the  u]iper,  consisting  of  the 
bishops,  the  archbishoji  presides.  The  lower 
hou.ie,  whose  presi<ling  nlllcer  is  called  prolocutor, 
is  made  up  of  the  arclideacons,  deans,  and  rc^jire- 


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ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


sentatives  of  the  lower  clergy.  The  laity  have 
no  representation.  In  the  Convocation  of  York 
the  distinction  between  the  two  houses  is  only 
made  on  occasions  of  actual  transaction  of  busi- 
ness. The  archbishops  have  the  right  of  veto 
upon  all  measures.  Convocation  is  assembled  by 
the  king's  writ,  and  cannot  proceed  to  make  new 
canons  without  his  license,  nor  have  its  decisions 
validity  till  confirmed  by  his  sanction. 

The  judicial  business  is  transacted  in  three 
courts.  The  lowest  is  the  Diocesan  Consistory 
Court,  presided  over  by  the  bishop's  chancellor. 
Appealed  cases  go  up  to  the  Court  of  Arches,  the 
official  head  of  whicli  is  styled  Dean  of  the 
Arches.  The  last  tribunal  of  appeal  is  the  king 
in  council.  There  are  three  church  censures,  — 
suspension  (for  the  neglect  of  parish  duties), 
deprivation,  and  degradation.  The  two  latter  fol- 
low upon  the  disuse  of  the  Prayer-Book,  teachings 
»  subversive  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  simony,  or 
conviction  in  a  civil  court.  The  Court  of  Arches 
alone  exercises  the  right  of  deprivation. 

Lit.  —  Bede:  Works,  ed.  Giles,  Oxf.,  184.3- 
4.5,  12  vols.  ;  Ussiier  :  Eccles.  Brit.  Antuj.,  in 
Works,  ed.  Elringlon,  Dublin,  1847-62,  16  vols. ; 
Stillingfleet:  Orhj'ui.  Britan.,  ed.  Pantin,  Oxf., 
1842,  2  vols.  ;  Thomas  Fuller  :  Church  Hist,  of 
Britain,  1655,  best  ed.  by  Nichols,  Lond.,  1868, 
3  vols. ;  Inett  :  Orii/ines  Atir/licunce  (in  continua- 
tion of  Stillingfieetj,  1704-10,  2  vols,  fob,  ed.  J. 
Griffiths,  Oxf.,  185."),  3  vols. ;  Jeremy  Collier: 
Eccles.  Hist.  ofG.  Britain  (through  Charles  II. 's 
reign),  1708,  best  ed.,  Lond.,  1840,  9  vols. ;  John- 
son Grant:  Hist.  En(j.  Ch.  and  of  the  Sects  .  .  . 
with  Answers  to  Each  Dissenting  Bodi/  (through 
George  lll.'s  reign),  Lond.,  1811-25,  4  vols. ; 
Cardwell  :  Documentary  .-Innals  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Em/lund  (1546-1716),  Oxf.,  1839-42, 
new  ed.,  1844,  2  vols.  ;  Weber:  Gesch.  d.  akath. 
Kirchen  u.  Secten  von  G.  Brilan.,  Leip.,  184.5-.53, 
2  vols. ;  W.  Stubbs  :  Registrum  Sacrum  Angli- 
canum,  An  Attempt  to  exiiibil  tlie  Course  of  Episco- 
pal Snccessio?i  in  England,  Oxf.,  1858;  G.  G. 
Perry:  Hist.  Ch.  Eng.,  Lond.,  1864,  3  vols., 
new  ed.,  1881,  and  Student's  Manual  of  Eng.  Ch. 
Hist.,  1878,  Anier.  ed.,  N.Y.,  1879.  ;  J.  Stough- 
TON  :  Eccles.  Hist.  Enq.,  Lond.,  1867-78,  7  vols., 
new  ed.  (Hist.  Relig.  'in  Eng.,  1640-1800),  1881, 
6  vols. ;  Haddan  and  Stubbs  :  Councils  and 
Eccles.  Documents  relating  to  G.  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, 1869-78,  3  vols. ;  E.  Hubner  :  Inscript. 
Britan.  Christ.,  Berlm,  1876;  R.  Barclay:  Inner 
Life  of  the  Religious  Societies  of  the  Commonwealth, 
Lond.,  1870,  2  vols.  ;  A.  Martineau  :  Ch.  Hist, 
in  Eng.  from  Earliest  Times  to  the  Reformation, 
Lond.,  1878;  R.  W.  Dixon  :  Hist.  Ch.  Eng.  from 
the  Abolition  of  the  Roman  Jurisdiction,  Lond., 
1878  sqq.  ;  E.  Churton:  Early  Eng.  Ch.,  Lond., 
new  ed.,  1878;  W.  Bright:  Chapters  of  Earlg 
Eng.  Ch.  Hist.,  Oxf.,  1878;  C.  J.  Abbey'  and 
J.  il.  Overton:  The  Enq.  Ch.  in  the  18th  Cent., 
Lond.,  1878,  2  vols.;  F."  G.  Lee:  The  Church 
under  Queen  Elizabeth,  Lond.,  1880,  2  vols. ;  T.  E. 
Bkidgett  :  The  Hist.  Holy  Eucharist  in  G.  Bri- 
tain, Lond.,  1881,  2  vols.  ;  A.  H.  Hore:  Eighteen 
Centuries  of  the  Ch.  of  Eng.,  Oxf.,  1881  ;  A.  C. 
Jennings  :  Ecclesia  Anglicana,  Lond.,  1882. 

Special  AVorks  on  the  English  Reformation. — 
FoxE :  Actes  and  Monuments  (in  Latin),  Basel, 
1554,  1st  comp.  Eng.  ed.,  Lond.,  1563,  best  ed.. 


Lond.,  184.3-49,  8  vols. ;  Stryi-e  :  Hist,  and 
Biogr.  Works,  Oxf.,  1822-28,  27  vols.  ;  and  Hist. 
Reform.,  by  Burnet  (best  ed.,  Lond.,  18.50,  2 
vols.),  SoAMES  (Lond.,  1820,  4  vols.),  Massing- 
BERD  (Lond.,  1842),  and  Blunt  (Lond.,  4th  ed., 
1881).  See  also  Neal  :  Hist.  Puritans,  heai  ed., 
N.Y.,  1843,  2  vols.;  Calamy:  Abridgment  of 
Mr.  Baxter's  History  of  his  Life  and  Times,  new 
ed.,  Lond.,  1849,  and  the  General  Histories  of  the 
Refonnation,  by  Merle  d'Altbigne,  IIardwick 
(ed.  Stubbs),  Fisher,  etc.  Also  James  Ander- 
son :  Hisl.  Ch.  Eng.  in  the  Colonies,  Lond.,  1856, 
3  vols. 

On  Church  Law.  —  Blunt  and  Piiillimore  : 
Law  of  the  Church  of  England,  Lond.,  2  vols.  ; 
Cardwell  :  Synodalia,  a  Collection  of  Articles  of 
Religious  Canons,  and  Proceedings  of  Convocation 
in  the  Province  of  Canterbury,  2  vols.,  1842.  For 
statistics,  see  Whitaker's  Almanack,  Lond.  See 
Episcoi'.\l  Church,  Liturgies,    d.  B.  schaff. 

ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS.  1.  Anglo-Saxon. 
—  The  earliest  monument  is  that  of  Ca;dmon,  a 
monk  of  Whitby  (d.  080),  On  the  Origin  of  Things, 
consisting  of  poetical  paraphrases  of  parts  of  the 
Bible,  some  of  which  were  published  by  Junius 
at  Amsterdam,  1655,  and  most  of  them  by  Thorpe 
(Cadinon's  Metrical  Paraphrase  of  Parts  of  the 
Holy  Scripture,  with  an  English  translation,  notes, 
etc.),  London,  1832.  In  tlie  beginning  of  the 
eigiith  century  Aldhelm  and  Guthlac  produced  an 
interlinear  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Psalter  on 
the  basis  of  the  Roman  text.  The  inauuscripit  is 
among  the  Cotton  Manuscripts  marked  Vespasian 
A.,  I.  In  730  (circa)  Eadfrith,  Bishop  of  Lindis- 
farne,  translated  parts  of  the  Gospels  (Durliam 
Book,^  Cotton  Manuscripts,  Nero  D.,  W .);  and  the 
Venerable  Bede  died  (735)  while  engaged  on  the 
translation  of  John,  in  which  he  only  proceeded 
to  the  beginning  of  chapter  six.  Parts  of  the 
Book  of  Exodus  and  the  Psalter  were  translated 
by  King  Alfred  (d.  901).  The  Rushworth  Gloss 
(in  the  Bodleian  Library),  an  interlinear  evan- 
gelistary, made  by  Farmen  and  Owen  about  the 
same  time,  is  peculiarly  interesting  from  the 
agreement  of  its  Latin  text  with  the  Codex  Bezse 
wliere  it  differs  from  the  Textus  Recejitus.  Prov- 
erbs, in  part,  in  an  interlinear  version,  belongs  to 
the  tenth  century  (Cotton  Manuscripts,  Vespasian 
D.,  VI.).  Towards  the  close  of  that  centurj- 
Aelfric,  peculiarly  odious  to  the  monks  of  the 
period,  produced  in  popular  form  paraphrases  of 
the  Pentateuch,  Joshua,  and  Judges,  parts  of 
the  historical  books  (Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chroni- 
cles), Esther,  Job  (perhaps),  Judith,  and  the 
JNIaccabees.  Of  these,  the  Pentateuch,  Joshua, 
Judges,  Job,  and  part  of  Judith,  were  printed  in 
the  "Heptateuchus,  edited  by  Tliwaites,  Oxoni?e, 
1099,  8vo.  An  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Gos- 
pels, of  somewhat  later  date,  by  an  unknown 
translator,  based  on  an  ante-IIieronymian  Latin 
text,  with  a  preface  by  John  Foxe  the  martyrolo- 
gist,  was  printed  in  London  by  John  Daye,  1571, 
4to.  There  exist.  likewise,  in  manuscript,  several 
copies  of  the  Psalter,  written  shortly  before  the 
Conquest,  and  three  Anglo-Norman  manuscripts 
of  the  Gospels,  of  which  the  first  is  assigned  to 
the  time  of  William  III.,  and  the  two  others  to 


'  The  Diirhara   Book,  however,  is  ascribed  to  tbe  priest 
Aldred,  eighth  or  ninth  century. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS.      732       ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


that  of  Henry  TI.  Besides  the  printed  works 
already  named,  tliere  appeared  in  1640  the  inter- 
lineated  Psalter  by  Jolin  Spehnan,  London,  1658  ; 
an  edition  of  the  Gospels  by  William  L'Isle,  ito ; 
and  another  by  Thomas  ^larshall,  Dordrecht, 
1665  (Amsterdam,  16Si),  -Ito,  with  the  Mceso- 
(Jothic  version.  Benjamin  Thorpe  J3ublished 
Lihri  Psahnorum  Versio  Antiijua  Latina  cum  Para- 
phrasi  Anglo-Saxonica,  London,  1835;  The  Anylo- 
Saxon  Version  of  the  IIolij  Gospels,  lb.,  1842,  re- 
printed in  Xew  York,  1846 ;  The  Gothic  and 
Anfjlo-Saxon  Gospels  in  Parallel  Columns,  with  the 
Versions  of  Wiclif  anil  Tijndale,  by  Joseph  Bos- 
worth,  with  preface  and  notes,  Loudon,  1865 ;  The 
Gothic  and  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels,  by  Bosworth  and 
AVaring,  London,  1865,  2d  ed.,  "l874  ;  W.  W. 
Skeat:  Gosp.  accord.  St.  John  in  Anglo-Saxon 
and  Northumbrian  Versions,  synoptically  arranged, 
Cambridge,  1878;  A  Translation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Version  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  with  preface 
and  notes,  by  H.  C.  Leonard,  London,  1881. 

2.  Wiclifte.  —  Prior  to  AV'iclif  we  have  the 
Ormulum,  so  called  from  its  author,  Orm  or  Or- 
niLu,  an  English  monk  who  lived  in  or  about  the 
twelfth  century,  and  says  in  the  preface,  Thiss  hoc 
is  nemmedd  Orrmulum,  Fortlii  thatt  Orrm  itt  icrolihte. 
It  is  a  metrical  paraphrase  on  the  Gospels  and 
Acts,  neither  alliterative  nor  in  rhyme,  but  in 
imitation  of  a  certain  species  of  Latin  mediieval 
poems,  and  is  remarkable  for  its  smooth,  flu- 
ent, and  regular  versification.  It  was  published 
by  Dr.  White,  Oxford,  1852.  —  The  Sowlehele,  a 
very  large  volume  (Bodleian  JIanuscripts,  779), 
assigned  to  the  thirteenth  century,  author  un- 
known, contains,  among  other  writings,  a  metrical 
paraphrase  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  —  A 
paraphrase,  in  the  Northern  dialect,  of  Genesis  and 
Exdihis,  author  and  date  unknown  (?  before  1300), 
and  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  the  first 
known  translation  into  English,  from  the  text  of 
the  (lallican  (.Jerome's)  Latin  Psalter,  are  among 
the  manuscripts  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cam- 
bridge. —  The  first  prose  translation  of  the  P.salter 
into  English  is  that  of  Richard  Holle,  hermit  of 
Ilampole  (a.ssigned  to  the  first  half  of  the  four- 
teentli  century).  It  is  excellent  in  its  way;  e.g., 
(Ps.  xxiii.  4)  "  For  wiyi  yif  I  hadde  goo  in  myddil 
of  the  shadewe  of  death :  I  shal  not  dreede  yeles, 
for  thou  art  with  me."  There  are  quite  a  number 
of  other  manuscripts,  notably  one  in  Benet  Col- 
lege, mentioned  by  Lewis,  of  which  this  is  a  speci- 
men :  (Mark  vi.  22)  "  When  the  doughtyr  of  that 
Ilcrodias  was  in  comyn  and  had  tomhijlde  and 
plesid  to  Ilarowde,  and  als.i  to  the  sittande  at  mete 
the  king  says  to  the  wench." — John  de  Trevisa, 
Vicar  of  Berkeley,  .said  to  have  tran.slated  the 
whole  Bible  into  Englisli  before  1387,  appears  to 
have  Englished  only  a  few  isolated  passages:  the 
assertion  cannot  l)e  verified.  The  literature  is 
given  below. — .Toini  Wiclif,  b.  1324  at  Wiclif, 
near  l?iclimond,  in  Yorkshire;  studied  at  Oxford; 
wa,s  warden  of  I'.aliol  Hall,  rector  of  Fylingliam, 
and  warden  of  Canterbury  Hall  (1361-1!')),  royal 
chaplain,  and  commissioner  to  Bruges  (1374);  on 
Ills  return  to  England  he  was  presented  by  the 
crown  with  the  prebend  of  Aust  anrl  the  rectory 
of  Lutterworth  in  Leicestershire,  whi(th  he  Iic4d 
until  his  death  (13S4).  The  generally  rec(,'ivcd 
statement,  that  it  w-as  only  during  the  last  ten 
years  of  his  life  that  he  was  engaged  upon  the 


translation  of  the  Scriptures,  lack.s  proof ;  and  it 
is  safer  to  hold,  with  Baber,  that  he  bestowed  upon 
that  great  work  a  much  longer  period.  His  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  is  the  first  published  transla- 
tion, which  imports  that  he  must  have  been 
unremitting  in  his  zeal  to  diffuse  it  among  the 
people ;  and  the  proof  is  furnished  in  the  fact, 
that,  in  spite  of  the  prohibition  of  1408,  numerous 
copies  of  it  have  come  down  to  us.  His  version 
was  made  from  the  Vulgate ;  i.e.,  from  Jerome's 
version,  or  such  copies  as  passed  for  it.  The  por- 
tion from  Genesis  to  Baruch  iii.  20  was  made  by 
Nicholas  de  Hereford,  an  English  ecclesiastic: 
the  balance  of  the  Old  Testament  and  of  the 
Apocrypha,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament,  are  ascribed  to  Wiclif.  The  original 
text  of  the  version  was  completed  about  1380: 
the  revision  of  it  by  Richard  Purvey  was  finished 
about  1388.  It  may  be  considered  certain  that 
Hereford  did  not  translate  from  the  Latin  alone, 
but  used  the  French  translation,  from  which  the 
new  idiom  introduced  is  clearly  taken.  The  New 
Testament  of  AViclif  was  made  from  the  Latin 
and  Anglo-Saxon,  and  is  rather  literal :  the  revis- 
ion by  Purvey,  and  other  unpublished  versions 
in  manuscript,  seek  to  give  the  sense.  Purvey's 
authorities  were  Augustine,  Jerome,  the  Glossa 
Ordinaria,  and  Lyra.  Wiclif's  Version  is,  as  to 
style,  robust,  terse,  and  homely;  Purvey's,  and 
that  of  the  others  referred  to,  more  polished, 
though  quaint.  The  peculiar  strength  of  the  Au- 
thorized Version  is  of  Wiclifite  origin.  In  the 
absence  of  illustrations,  for  which  no  space  can 
be  found,  a  few  examples  of  curious  renderings 
may  be  given  (Matt.  v.  22,  "  fy  "  or  "  fogh  "  for 
"raca;"  Luke  xvi.  13,  "bishop"  for  "high 
priest"),  as  well  as  of  explanatory  glos.ses,  now- 
more  obscure  than  the  word  to  be  explained;  e.g., 
yvel  fame,  schendeschepe :  incorruptible,  Maf  may 
not  dye  ne  ben  peyred ;  iustified,  founilen  trew ; 
accepcion  of  persons,  that  is  put  oon  hifore  an 
other  that  is  wilhouten  deserte.  Of  obsolete  words 
employed,  the  following  are  samples  :  lendilh, 
kindleth ;  atientis,  with;  unbileful,  unbelieving; 
leende,  loins;  herbore,  lodging;  mawmetis,  idols; 
haburioun,  breastplate;  arettid,  imputed;  thilke, 
the  same  ;  s/i'e,  ascend  ;  .seniip^,  nmstard  ;  culueris, 
doves  ;  chepyngc,  market ;  euene,  fellow. 

3.  Tyndule's.  —  William  Tyndale  b.  in  Glouces- 
terehire,  1471 ;  went  to  Oxford  about  1500  ;  t^ok 
his  degrees  at  Magdalen  Hall  ;  began  the  trans- 
lation of  the  New  TestamcMit  from  the  Greek  as 
early  as  1502;  but  upon  his  removal  to  London 
in  1.522  met  with  so  little  encouragement  tliere 
for  the  accomplishment  of  his  purjiosc,  and  on 
account  of  his  evangelical  sentiments  became  .so 
obnoxious  to  the  clergy,  that  he  left  for  the  Conti- 
nent, where  he  trauskated  the  New  Testament 
(1524-25)  from  the  (jieek,  strongly  but  legiti- 
mately influenced  by  Luther's  Version.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  Cologne,  and  was  carrying  his  <iuarto 
edition  through  tlie  press,  when,  in  consequence 
of  the  op]iosition  of  the  local  authorities,  insti- 
gated by  Coehlauis,  he  had  to  leave  the  city  with 
the  unfiTiished  sheets,  and  couqileted  the  printing 
of  the  first  edition  (4to)  and  the  second  edition 
(8vo),  at  Worms,  1525.  The  place  or  places 
where  he  was  in  hilling  under  an  assumi'd  name, 
and  where  ho  translated  tin;  Penl.iteuch,  and  had 
it  as  well  as  other  works  jirinted,  are  not   yet 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS.       T33       ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


fixed  :  the  strongest  probability  points  to  Witten- 
berg. But  tlie  writer  of  tliis  article  feels  war- 
ranted to  announce  the  established  facts,  that  the 
Pentateuch  was  not  printed  at  INlarburg,  that 
Hans  Luft  never  had  a  printing-press  in  that 
place,  and  that  neither  Tyndale  nor  Fryth  ever 
were  at  Marburg.  These  conclusions,  published 
by  the  author  Dec.  10,  1881,  have  since  been 
fully  confirmed  by  Professor  Dr.  Julius  C»sar, 
the  "librarian  of  tlie  University  of  Marburg,  and 
are  stated  at  length  in  his  forthcoming  volume 
on  the  English  versions.  —  The  numerous  surrep- 
titious editions  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament 
cannot  be  noticed  here.  The  Pentateuch  was 
published  in  1530,  the  Book  of  Jonah  in  1.531. 
There  is  evidence  that  Tyndale  translated,  though 
he  did  not  live  to  publish,  other  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  most  probably 
to  the  end  of  Second  Chronicles,  and  several  of 
the  prophetical  books.  The  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  his  occupation  in  the  gloomy 
prison  of  Vilvorde,  where  he  was  confined  from 
May,  1535,  till  Oct.  6,  1536,  on  which  day  he  suf- 
fered martyrdom,  having  been  first  strangled,  and 
then  burned.  —  Tyndale's  translation  is  the  first 
English  version  made  from  the  oricjinal  tongues. 
His  helps  were  very  meagre ;  and  although  he  used 
the  Vulgate,  Wiclif,  and  Luther,  he  is  thoroughly 
independent.  His  English  is  noble,  and  his  phrase 
racy  Saxon,  his  idiom  singularly  pure;  and  much 
of  his  version  remains  unchanged  in  the  Author- 
ized Version,  of  which  it  is  really  the  original 
basis.  Samples  of  his  felicitous  renderings  are  : 
(Matt.  xiv.  11)  "  his  heart  did  melt  upon  them ;  " 
(xv.  27)  "  the  whelps  eat  of  the  cnunbs  ;  "  (xxiv. 
11)  "  iniquity  shall  have  the  upper  hand  ;  "  (Mark 
viii.  29)  "thou  art  very  Christ;  (Luke  xxii.  1) 
"  the  feast  of  sweet  bi'ead  drew  nigh,  which  is 
called  Easter;"  (John  ii.  7)  "filled  them  up  to 
the  hard  brim;  "  (Acts  xii.  18)  "there  was  not  a 
little  ado  among  the  soldiers ;  "  (1  Cor.  ii.  10) 
"searcheth  the  bottom  of  God's  secrets;"  (Phil, 
i.  8)  "  I  long  after  you  all  from  the  very  heart 
root  in  Jesus  Christ;"  (1  Tim.  vi.  4)  "but 
wasteth  his  brains  about  questions;"  (Ileb.  viii. 
1)  "this  is  the  pith;"  (Jas.  i.  1)  "which  are 
scattered  here  and  there."  Samples  of  homely 
phrase :  (Matt.  xxvi.  30)  "  and  when  they  had 
said  grace;  "  (Rev.  i.  10)  "I  was  in  the  Spirit  on 
a  Smiday ; "  (Acts  xiv.  13)  "brought  oxen  and 
garlands  unto  the  church  porch." — The  numerous 
editions  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament  cannot  be 
noticed  here  beyond  saying  that  that  of  1525 
(1526)  is  the  first;  and  that  of  1531-35,  with  the 
monogram  G.  H.  on  the  second  title,  the  last. 
(See  Fry's  Collation  of  Three  New  Testaments  of 
William  Tyndale,  etc.,  and  Biographical  Descrip- 
tion of  Tyndale's  New  Testaments,  and  of  two  edi- 
tions of  the  Bishops'  Version,  London,  1879.) 

4.  Coverdale's.  —  Miles  Coverdale,  b.  about 
1488  at  Coverdale,  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  priested 
by  John,  Bishop  of  Chalcedon,  at  Norwich,  in 
1514.  He  fled  to  the  Continent ;  but  his  meeting 
with  Tyndale  is  purely  conjectiu'al,  and  his  hav- 
ing assisted  him  in  the  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures not  only  improbable,  but  absurd  ;  for  he 
was  not  an  independent  scholar,  and  his  moderate 
proficiency  in  the  tongues  the  accretion  of  a  later 
period.     Where  he  was  from  1528  to  1535  is  not 


positively  known.  At  tlie  instance  of  Crumwell 
he  took  in  hand  the  translation  of  tlic  Bible;  and, 
as  he  was  unquestionably  an  excellent  German 
.scholar,  his  proficiency  in  German  explain.s,  as 
the  nature  of  its  execution  sustains,  the  honest 
titlepage  of  his  first  edition  of  tlie  Bible  (printed 
most  probably  by  Froschover  at  Ziirich,  1535); 
viz.,  Bililia  —  the  Bible:  that  is,  tlie  Holy  Scrip- 
ture of  the  Okie  and  Newe  Testnmcnl,  faithfully 
and  truly  translated  out  of  Douche  and  Lutyti  in  to 
EnrjUshe,  MDXXX  V.  The  "  Douche  "  undoubt- 
edly signifies  "  German,"  and  the  German  versions 
he  used  were  Luther's  and  the  Zurich,  pei'haps 
also  the  AVorms  editions.  The  Latin  versions  he 
used  were  the  Vulgate  and  that  of  Pagninus ;  and 
the  published  portions  of  Tyndale  were  the  basis 
of  his  English.  The  Old  Testament  from  Second 
Chronicles  onward  is  Coverdale's  own  work ;  that 
is,  it  is  a  translation  of  Luther's  and  the  Ziirich 
versions,  and  a  very  servile  one.  His  Diglott  New 
Testament  (exhibiting  the  English  and  the  Vul- 
gate in  parallel  columns)  appeared  in  three  edi- 
tions (1538)  ;  his  Bible  was  pulilished  in  London 
by  Andrewe  Hester  in  1550,  and  by  R.  Jugge  in 
1553.  The  part  Coverdale  had  in  the  production 
of  the  Great  Bible  is  noticed  below.  Coverdale's 
Version,  though  a  second-hand  production,  has 
the  merit  of  a  pure  and  strong  idiom :  it  is  the 
basis  of  the  version  of  the  Psalter  in  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer.  His  language  and  his  render- 
ings are  very  musical;  e.g.,  (Ps.  xc.  10)  "The 
days  of  our  age  are  threescore  years  and  ten ; " 
(Isa.  xlviii.  19)  "  Thy  seed  shall  be  like  as  the 
sand  in  the  sea,  and  the  fruit  of  thy  body  like  the 
gravel-stones  thereof ;  thy  name  shall  not  be 
rooted  out,  nor  destroyed  before  me."  He  is  also 
very  quaint ;  e.g.,  (Job  xix.  18)  "  Yea,  the  very 
desert  fools  despise  me ; "  (Prov.  xvi.  28)  "  he 
that  is  a  blabbe  of  his  tongue  maketh  division  ;  " 
(Jer.  xvii.  1)  "graven  upon  the  edge  of  your 
altars  with  a  pen  of  iron  and  with  an  adamant 
claw;"  (Col.  ii.  10)  "Let  no  man  make  you 
shoot  at  a  wrong  mark,  which  after  his  own 
choosing  walketh  in  humbleness  and  spirituality 
of  angels,  things  which  he  never  saw." 

5.  ilatthew's.  —  The  name  of  Thomas  IMatthew 
is  an  alias  of  John  Rogers,  h.  about  1500,  at 
Deritend  (in  Birmingham) ;  educated  at  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge  (B.A.,  1.525)  ;  transferred 
to  Cardinal  College,  Oxford,  where  he  took  orders 
the  same  year.  He  was  next  rector  of  Holy 
Trinity,  London  (1532),  and  accepted  the  chap- 
laincy at  Antwerp,  probably  in  1534;  there  he 
became  acquainted  with  Tyndale,  and  subse- 
quently his  literary  executor.  He  published 
{where  is  not  known,  but  most  probably  at  Wit- 
tenberg) a  folio  edition  of  the  Bible,  entitled 
The  Bible,  tvhich  is  all  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  irhich 
are  contayned  the  Okie  and  Newe  Testaments,  truely 
and  purely  translated  into  Enylish.  by  Thomas 
Matthew.  Esaye  I,  Hearcken  to,  ye  heavens,  and 
thou  earth,  yeare  eare :  for  tlie  Lorde  speaketh. 
HIDXXXVII.  This  folio  is  a  composite  volume, 
and  its  critical  analysis  .shows  that  the  Penta- 
teuch, and  the  portion  from  .Toshua  to  Second 
Chronicles,  as  well  as  the  whole  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, are  Tyndale's  translation  :  the  remainder 
is  Coverdale's.  Rogers,  liowever,  did  not  merely 
put  together  these  materials,  but  very  skilfully 
edited  and  revised  them.     He  added  very  valua- 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS.       734       ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


l)le  prefatory  matter,  especially  the  "  Suiiune  and 
-content  of  all  the  Holy  Scripture,  both  of  the 
Olde  and  the  Xewe  Testament,"  and  "A  Table 
of  the  pr;)Ticypal  matters  contejmed  in  the  Byble, 
in  which  the  readers  may  fynde  and  practyse 
many  connnune  places,"  filling  twenty-six  folio 
pages,  and  constituting  a  sort  of  concordance  and 
dictionary.  It  is  chiefly  taken  from  the  French 
Bible  of  Olivetan.  He  likewise  added  several 
alternate  renderings  in  his  notes,  introduced  by 
the  formula,  "  Some  reade."  He  placed  the  con- 
tents or  summaries  before  each  chapter,  and  the 
notes  at  the  end.  His  notes  are  diversified  (tex- 
tual, doctrinal,  polemical,  and  practical),  and  form 
almost  a  running  conmientary.  They  are  of 
various  origin :  many  are  taken  from  Pellicanus, 
and  quite  a  number  are  original.  His  anti-papal 
notes  are  very  striking :  that  on  Matt.  xvi.  ("I 
say  unto  thee  that  thou  art  Peter,  and  upon  this 
rock,"  etc.)  reads,  "  That  is,  as  saith  St.  Austui, 
upon  the  confession  which  thou  hast  made,  knowl- 
edging  me  to  be  Christ,  the  Son  of  the  living  God, 
1  will  build  my  congregation  or  Church  ; "  that 
on  XXV.  ("  And  the  wise  answered.  Not  so,  lest 
there  be  not  enough,"  etc.),  "Note  here  that 
their  own  good  works  sufficed  not  for  themselves, 
and  therefore  remained  none  to  be  distributed 
unto  their  fellows."  The  title  of  the  Apocrypha 
I'eads,  The  volume  of  the  bokes  called  Apocrypha 
conteijned  in  the  comen  translation  in  Lali/ne,  which 
xire  not  found  in  the  Hebrue,  nor  in  the  Chalde.  He 
supplies  the  prayer  of  Manasses,  omitted  by 
Coverdale,  from  the  French  version  of  Olivetan  ; 
and  he  protests,  in  the  language  of  the  same 
writer,  against  their  reception  as  an  inspired 
collection.  Tlie  peculiarities  of  the  version,  as 
distinguished  from  Tyndale's  and  Coverdale's, 
cannot  be  illustrated  here;  but  an  idea  of  it  may 
be  conveyed  by  two  or  three  of  its  characteristic 
notes.  "  Selah.  This  word,  after  Rabbi  Kimchi, 
was  a  sign  or  token  of  lifting  up  the  voice,  and 
also  a  monition  and  advertisement  to  enforce  the 
thought  and  mind  earne.stly  to  give  heed  to  the 
meaning  of  the  verse  unto  which  it  is  added. 
.Some  will  that  it  .signifies  perpetually  or  verily." 
'•  Messiah.  It  signifieth  anointed.  Jesus  Christ 
then  is  the  earnest  and  pledge  of  God's  promise, 
by  whom  the  grace  and  favour  of  God  is  promised 
to  us  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  illumineth, 
lightetli,  reneweth  our  hearts  to  fulfil  tlie  law." 
.Nlatth(;\v's  IMlile  is  practically  the  basis  of  the 
text  of  the  Avitliorized  Version.  It  remains  to 
say  that  John  Rogers,  in  1.5:!7,  married,  and  moved 
to  Wittenberg.  He  is  supposed  to  h.ave  remained 
there  until  1.")I7.  Distinguished  by  many  favors 
under  JCdward  \'I.,  he  was  the  first  martyr  in  the 
Marian  persecution,  and  was  burned  alive  in 
.Smithfield  in  February,  1.555. 

0.  Taverner's.  —  Richard  Taverner,  b.  at  Rris- 
le.y,  Norfolk,  about  l.'')()5;  studied  at  Cambridge 
and  Oxford  (R.A.,  1.529);  was  a  fine  Greek 
.scliolar,  and,  though  a  laic,  was  asked  liy  Crnm- 
well  to  revise  the  Rible,  wliich  work  he  completed 
in  1.5-59.  It  is  more  tlian  an  examination  (recoi/- 
niti'i),  and  less  tiian  a  new  translation,  occa- 
sionally pedantic,  and  very  unequal.  Hi.s  recog- 
nition is  frequently  in  servile  imitation  of  the 
Vulgate,  on  wliich  lie  seems  to  have  wholly  relied 
in  the  Old  Testament;  e.g.,  (Gen.  i.  2)  "tlie 
Spirit    of    God   was    borne   upon "   (ferebatur) ; 


(i.  7)  "and  .so  it  was  doon"  (^factum  est);  "bereth 
seed"  {ajferentem).  In  the  New  Testament,  on 
the  other  hand,  both  the  nmnber  and  quality  of 
his  renderings  proclaim  the  finished  Grecian  ;  and 
a  large  proportion  of  them  are  retained  in  the 
Authorized  "N'ersion.  Matt.  i.  25  (Matthew's 
"  Till  she  had  brought  forth  her  fyrst  Sonne  ") 
he  renders  "  tyll  at  last  she  had  brought  forth  her 
fyrst  borne  Sonne;"  xxii.  12  ("he  was  even 
speechless  ")  is  changed  into  "  had  never  a  word 
to  say ;  "  and  xxii.  34  ("  put  the  Sadducees  to 
silence")  into  "stopped  the  Sadducees'  mouth." 
In  his  studious  endeavor  to  find  Saxon  terms,  he 
gave  us  (1  John  ii.  1)  "spokesman  "  for  "advo- 
cate," and  (at  ii.  2)  coined  "  mercystock  "  as  the 
equivalent  of  i?jia/id;,  and  in  place  of  Tyndale's 
and  Coverdale's  "  he  it  is  that  obtaineth  grace  for 
us."  To  his  regard  for  the  Greek  article  are  due 
the  renderings  (John  i.  9),  "  that  was  the  true 
light  which  .  .  .  coming,"  (i.  23)  "  I  am  a  voice 
of  one  crying,"  (i.  25)  "Art  thou  the  prophet?" 
Among  the  many  phrases  introduced  by  him,  and 
retained  in  the  Authorized  ^'ersion,  are,  (ISIatt. 
xiii.  58)  "  because  of  their  unbelief,"  (xviii.  12) 
"  ninety  and  nine,"  (xxv.  35)  "  a  stranger," 
(xxvii.  65)  "Ye  have  a  watch,"  (Gal.  iv.  20)  "I 
stand  in  doubt  of  you,"  (vi.  16)  "  tlie  Israel  of 
God."  In  1551  his  Old  Testament  appeared  in 
the  folio  Bible,  revised  by  Becke,  and  jirinted  by 
Jhon  Day.  After  that  period  it  fell  into  neglect. 
The  Epistles  in  this  edition,  as  well  as  JNIatthew's 
Bible,  follow  the  order  of  the  Authorized  Version 
as  far  as  Philemon,  after  which  come  the  Epistles 
of  John,  Hebrews,  First  and  Second  Peter,  James, 
aud  Jude. 

7.  The  Great  Bible.  —  Tyndale's  aud  Matthew's 
Bibles  were  for  ecclesiastical  reasons,  Coverdale's, 
on  account  of  its  inaccuracy,  not  acceptable  to 
Cruniwell.  at  whose  instance  and  charge  the  lat- 
ter was  directed  to  ]iroduce  a  new  edition  on 
more  critical  iiriuciples.  Coverdale,  accompanied 
by  Grafton,  repaired  for  that  purpose  to  Paris 
(1538),  where  better  paper  and  more  skilful 
printing  were  to  be  had  ;  and  the  w'ork  jM-ogressed 
satisfactorily  at  the  press  of  Kegnault,  until,  by 
the  interference  of  the  iiuiuisitor-general,  it  was 
stojiped,  and  had  to  be  conqili'ted  (in  April,  1539) 
in  London.  This  handsome  folio,  on  account  of 
its  size,  is  the  CJreat  Bil)le,  not  Cr.anmer'.s,  as  it  is 
sometimes  loosely  called.  Its  title  runs:  The 
Bifblc  in  Engli/she,  that  is  to  sai/e,  the  content  of  all 
the  Holy  Scripture,  bothe  of  the  Olde  and  Newe 
testament,  truly  translated  after  the  venjte  of  the 
Hebrue  and  Greke  textes,  by  the  dylypent  studye  of 
dyuerse  excellent  learned  men,  expert  in  the  forsayde 
tonyes.  Prynted  by  Hychard  Grafton  iV  Edward 
Whitchurch.  Cum  privilegio  ad  imprimendum 
solum.     1539. 

These  "  dyuer.se  excellent  learned  men  "  appear 
to  have  been  (he  works  of  IMiinster  and  iM'asmus. 
The  elaborate  frontispiece  of  this  ISible  is  said  to 
have  been  designed  by  Holbein.  It  is  tlie  text 
of  Matthew,  revised,  or  C4)verdal(^'s  revision  of 
Tyndale  and  of  his  own  Bible;  and  he  was  .so 
little  attached  to  that,  (liat  (e.g.,  in  Isa,  liii.) 
he  corrected  it  in  about  forty  places.  Almost 
every  change  in  tlie  Old  Testament  may  be  traced 
to  Miinster  and  Pagiihius,  and  in  the  New,  to 
Erasmus.  Two  exanqiU's  will  sliow  this:  (1)  Ps. 
xxiii.  5  (CovKHDALE,  1535),  "Tiiou  preparest  a 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS.      735       ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


table  before  ine  agaynsi  mine  enemies:"^  tliou 
anoyntest  my  head  with  oyle,  ixiu\  fyllest  my  cuppc 
fall;"'''^  (Grkat  Bible, "1539)  "Thou  shall  pre- 
pare "-  a  table  before  lae  agayust  them  that  trouble 
me,''-  thou  hast''-  aiioynted  my  head  with  oyle, 
iV  my  cuppe  shalhe  full ;  " '' -  (2)  Gal.  iii.  7  (Tyn- 
dale),  "  Understand  therefore  that,"  (Great 
BiiiLE,  1539),  "ye  know  therefore"  (seitis  igitur)  ; 
iii.  29  (Tyndale),  "by  promise,"  (Gkeat  Bible) 
"according  to  the  promise"  ( juxta promissioiiem). 
This  Bible  was  very  popular.  A  new  edition 
appeared  in  the  next  year,  again  revised  (and 
unsparingly,  though  often  for  the  worse)  by  Cov- 
erdale.  It  had  a  preface  by  Crannier;  and  the 
editions  of  April,  July,  and  November,  1540,  and 
May,  November,  and  December,  1541,  are  really 
the  Cranmer  Bibles.  This  Bible  (the  Great  and 
Cranraer's)  remained  the  authorized  version  for 
twenty-eight  years.'  The  greater  part  of  the 
portions  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Prayer-Books  of 
1549  and  1552  were  taken  from  it.  It  contains 
numerous  paraphrastic  and  supplementary  clauses 
from  the  Vulgate,  and  is  decidedly  inferior  to 
Matthew's. 

S.  The  Genevan.  —  Three  among  the  English 
exiles  at  Geneva  (namely,  William  Whittingham, 
Thomas  Sampson,  and  Anthony  Gilby)  are  con- 
spicuous among  the  translators  of  this  version ; 
and  among  these  three  tlie  most  laborious  was 
William  Whittingham,  b.  at  Lanchester,  near 
Durham,  in  1524;  an  Oxford  man;  married  the 
sister  of  Jolm  Calvin's  wife  (Catherine  Jaque- 
maine  of  Orleans) ;  and  was  minister  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  at  Geneva.  They  produced  from 
the  original  Greek  the  New  Testament,  first  in 
1557,  and  a  distinct  version  of  it,  with  the  whole 
Bible,  in  1560.  The  first  seems  to  have  been  the 
sole  work  of  Whittingham,  and  was  printed  be- 
fore the  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  was  taken 
in  hand.  The  Testament  of  1557  was  a  small 
octavo,  entitled  The  Newe  Tistament  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  conferred  dilir/e?illi/  with  the  Greke  and 
iest  approued  translations.  With  the  arguments  as 
well  before  the  Chapters,  as  for  euery  Boke  and 
Epistle,  also  diuersities  of  readings,  and  most  prof- 
ftable  annotations  of  all  harde  places:  wherunto  is 
added  a  copious  Table.  At  Geneva,  printed  by 
Conrad  Badius,  MDLVII.  This  Testament  is 
really  Tyndale's,  revised,  collated  vrith  the  Great 
Bible ;  which  in  the  New  Testament  is  likewise 
based  on  that  version,  and  a  strong  leaning  on 
Beza,  with  the  result  of  a  substantial  agreement 
with  Tyndale,  a  less  frequent  difference  from 
him  and  agTeement  with  tlie  Great  Bible,  and  an 
occasional  agreement  with  Beza  and  difference 
from  the  two  former.  Among  its  peculiar  read- 
ings note:  (Matt.  ix.  16)  "  No  man  peceth  an  olde 
garment  with  a  pece  of  new  clothe  and  vndressed. 
For  that  same  piece  taketh  away  something  from 
the  garment,  and  the  cutte  is  made  w-orse;"  (Luke 
xviii.  34)  "  do  me  iustice  against  myne  adver- 
sarie;"  (John  vi.  9)  "there  is  a  little  boy  here;" 
(Acts  xxvii.  9)  "because  also  the  tyrae  of  the 
Fast  was  passid ;  "  (xxvii.  13)  "  lowsed  nearer  " 
(of.  Asson,  in  Wiclif,  Tyndale,  and  Great  Bible), 


^  «  Contra,  Paffninus;  fi/iittest,  Zurich. 

2  a P/fBparff/'/'^,  MiiiifiUT  and  Pagiiinus;  badversus  eos, 
Miineter;  '-  Miins^ttT  iuid  Paarninus;  '/  Satttrus,  the  same. 

3  Strictly  speakins,',  the  onl;/  avithorizetl  version  ;  for  neither 
the  Bishops'  nor  Kiiiy;  .Taraes'e  Version  ever  had  the  J'onnal 
canction  of  royal  authority.  —  Kadie,  1.  p.  383. 


—  all  exhibiting  independent  and  superior  schol- 
arship, which  likewise  distinguish  the  notes  for 
which  the  (ienevan  Testament  is  famous,  and 
most  of  which  were  put  into  the  edition  of  1500. 
These  notes  are  mostly  original,  or  selected  from 
Calvin  and  Beza,  and  treat  of  theology,  history, 
geography,  etc. ;  some  ai'e  also  inferential.  Tliis 
Testament  is  the  first  English  Testament  with 
verse  division.  The  whole  Bible  of  1560  is  a 
noble,  scholarly  production.  Sampson  was  a  fine 
Hebraist ;  and  the  translators  were  indebted  in 
the  Old  Testament  to  Pagiiinus,  Miinster,  and 
Leo  JudiB.  In  the  New  Testament  the  force  of 
the  Greek  particles  yup,  A',  etc.,  is  uniformly  at- 
tended to.  It  was  finished  and  published  April, 
1560,  and  printed  by  Rowland  Hall.  It  is  known 
also  as  the  Breeches  Bible,  from  the  rendering  of 
Gen.  iii.  7,  —  "They  sewed  fig-leaves  together, 
and  made  themselves  breeches."     It  was  printed 

—  at  the  expense  of  the  English  congi-egation  at 
Geneva,  of  which  John  Bodley  (father  of  Sir 
Thomas,  the  founder  of  the  Bodleian  Library  at 
Oxford)  was  a  generous  member  —  in  quarto, 
and  became  very  popular,  more  than  one  hundred 
and  thirty  editions  having  been  published,  the 
last  in  1644,  and  the  Authorized  Version,  with 
the  Genevan  notes,  in  1715.  Peculiar  and  novel 
features  were,  the  attempted  restoration  of  the 
original  form  of  Hebrew  names,  the  omission  of 
.S';.  Paul  from  the  title  of  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, the  use  of  Italic  letters  for  supplemental 
words,  the  substitution  of  biblical  events  and  the 
names  of  reformers  for  the  names  of  saints  in 
the  Calendar,  and  the  entire  omission  of  the 
Apocrypha.  The  Anglo-Genevan  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  of  1570,  by  Lawrence  Tomson, 
one  of  the  best  linguists  of  the  day,  introduced 
many  changes,  especially  in  the  rendering  of  the 
article  by  that  (e.g.,  John  i.  1,  4,  5,  9,  14,  etc.), 
and  the  notes,  which,  though  more  numerous,  are 
less  pithy  than  the  old  ones.  The  first  Bible 
printed  in  Scotland  (1579)  is  an  exact  reprint  of 
the  Genevan  of  1561. 

9.  The  Bishops'.  —  The  superior  merits  of  the 
Genevan  Bible,  its  gi-eat  popularity,  and  the 
general  dissatisfaction  with  the  Great  Bible,  in- 
duced Archbishop  Parker  to  make  preparations 
for  a  new  edition  under  church  authority,  looking 
to  a  revision  of  that  Bible  by  the  originals  with 
the  aid  of  Pagninus  and  IMiinster,  etc.,  temperate 
annotations,  the  niarking  of  unedifying  portions, 
and  the  use,  where  required,  of  nobler  forms  of 
expression.  Some  of  his  episcopal  coadjutors 
held  extraordinary  views  (e.g..  Bishops  Guest, 
Cox,  and  Sandys),  and  tiie  archbishop  exercised 
accordingly  a  wise  discretion  in  the  assigning  of 
the  .several  books.  The  revision  —  on  which  not 
less  than  eight  bishoi>s  were  engaged  (hence  its 
name),  as  well  as  several  deans  and  professors  — 
was  completed,  and  the  Bible  published  in  a  hand- 
some folio,  on  good  paper,  and  superblv  printed, 
in  1508,  1569,  1570,  1571  (New  Testament),  and 
1572.  It  contains  a  vast  amount  of  excellent 
prefatory  and  introductory  matter,  among  it  the 
preface  by  the  archbishop,  and  Cranmer's  pro- 
logue, and  is  highly  ornamented,  some  of  the 
ornaments  of  very  dubious  taste.  As  a  transla- 
tion it  is  of  unequal  merit ;  the  diffei-ent  books  in 
the  edition  of  156S  being  qualitatively  unequal, 
and  the  whole  edition  of  1572  greatly  superior  to 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


r36 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


the  former.  That  of  1572  is  the  basis  of  the 
Authorized  Version.  The  critical  lielps  available 
to  the  Genevan  translators  were  used  by  the 
translators  of  the  Bishops'  Bible  ;  and,  while  the 
influence  of  the  Genevan  Version  on  this  is  very 
pronounced,  the  original  was  diligently  consulted. 
The  critical  examination  of  Isa.  liii.  by  Professor 
Westcott  yields  the  result,  that,  of  twenty-one 
corrections,  five  are  due  to  the  Genevan,  five 
agree  with  Pagninus,'  three  with  Leo  Judse,  three 
with  Castalio,  one  with  Mliuster,  one  is  linguistic, 
and  three  are  apparently  original.  These  last 
are  the  omission  (liii.  3)  of  "  Yea,  he  was  .  .  . 
regarded  him  not,"  and  (liii.  4)  of  "and  pun- 
ished," and  the  correction  (liii.  4)  of  "  infirmities  " 
into  "infirmity."  In  Job  xix.  25  the  Bishops'  of 
1568  brings  the  new  rendering,  "he  shall  raise 
up  at  the  latter  day  them  that  lie  in  the  dust." 
Twenty-nine  passages  in  the  New  Testament  of 
1568,  faulted  by  Lawrence  as  incorrect,  were,  for 
the  most  part,  as  corrected  by  him,  received  in 
the  edition  of  1572,  and  into  the  present  text 
of  the  Authorized  Version.  The  examination  of 
Eph.  iv.  7-16  (by  Westcott)  in  the  Great  Bible 
of  1550,  and  the  Bishops',  shows,  tliat,  among 
twenty-six  changes,  seventeen  are  new,  nine  being 
due  to  the  Genevan,  and  the  remainder  the  result 
of  close  and  thoughtful  reference  to  the  Greek. 
The  independence  of  the  revision  is  evident  in 
that  only  four  of  the  new  changes  agi-ee  with 
Beza,  while  nine  go  against  him.  But,  in  sjiite 
of  many  excellences,  the  Bishops'  Bible  was  the 
least  successful  of  all  the  English  versions.  As 
peculiar  to  this  Bible  appear  the  attempted  clas- 
sification of  the  books  of  tlie  Bible  into  legal, 
historical,  sapiential,  and  prophetic  (with  the  curi- 
ous result  that  the  Gospels,  the  Catliolic  Epistles, 
and  tliose  to  Titus,  Philemon,  and  the  Hebrews, 
are  dt^scribed  as  legal,  the  other  Pauline  Epistles 
as  sapiential,  the  Acts  alone  as  historical,  and 
Revelation  as  prophetical),  the  indication  of  ostra- 
cized portions,  and,  in  one  edition,  two  versions 
of  the  Psalter  (Matthew's  and  the  new). 

10.  The  lihehm  rind  Doudi/.  —  William  Allen, 
Gregory  Martin,  and  Richard  Bristow  were  the 
chief  i>romoters  of  this  extraordinary  version, 
which  claims  for  the  Vulgate,  from  which  it  is 
made,  not  only  equal  authority  with  the  original 
Scriptures,  but  superior,  reasoning  thus:  As  a 
rule,  the  Latin  agrees  with  the  Greek ;  when  it 
differs  from  the  common  (ireek  text,  it  agrees  with 
some  copy,  "as  may  be  seen  in  .Ste])hens's  mai'- 
gin,"  and  the  adversaries  frequently  concecle  the 
superiority  of  the  marginal  readings;  when  the 
Greek  goes  against  the  Latin,  quotations  from 
the  (ireek  fathers  are  sure  to  sustain  it,  and, 
where  the.se  fail,  conjecture  may  come  in  to  adapt 
the  Greek  to  tlu;  Latin;  and,  where  conjeetuio 
and  the  Greek  fatliers  fail,  tlie  Latin  fathers  are 
almost  sure  to  sustain  the  Vulgate,  and,  if  their 
readings  should  differ,  tlie  cause  is  to  be  souglit 
in  "the  great  diuersitie  and  multitude"  of  the 
Latin  copies.  ,\dmit  these  principles,  and  tlie 
superiority  of  the  text  of  tlie  Vulgate  to  the  Greek 
text  is  establislied. 

I  am  undecided  whether  the  actual  translation 
of  tlie  Kheniish  Xew  Testament  agrees  or  conflicts 
with  tJie  expressed  purpose  of  its  authors ;  for 
their  text,  es[)eciaily  in  the  correct  u.se  of  the 
article,  often  agrees  with  the  Greek,  and  in  spite 


of  their  deification  of  the  Vulgate,  even  as  author- 
ized by  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  their  ceaseless 
fulminations  (in  the  notes)  against  heretics,  they 
are  greatly  indebted  to  the  Genevan  mouse  (Beza), 
the  Genevan  Version,  the  Bishops'  Bible,  and  to 
Wiclif.  The  New  Testament  appeared  in  1582, 
at  Rheinis,  and  the  Old  Testament  in  1609,  at 
Douaj'.  The  production  is  very  scholarly,  in 
fact,  equal  to  that  of  any  version  extant  at  the 
time,  and  on  that  very  account  utterly  useless  as 
a  translation.  It  is  designedly  literal,  and  its 
English  so  utterly  unenglish,  that  it  might  pass 
for  Latui ;  e.g.,  (Matt.  i.  17)  "transmigration  of 
Babylon,"  (vi.  11)  "  supersubstantial  bread,"  (xvi. 
26)  "what  permutation,"  (Mark  v.  35)  "arch- 
synagogue,"  (XV.  46)  "  wrapped  him  in  the  suidon," 
(Luke  xxii.  7)  "the  day  of  the  Azjmies  .  .  .  tlie 
pasche,"  (John  vii.  5)  "  Scenopegia  was  at  hand," 
(Rom.  i.  30)  "odible  to  God,"  (1  Cor.  x.  11)  "writ- 
ten to  our  correption,"  (xi.  4)  "  dishonesteth  his 
head,"  (Phil.  ii.  7)  "exinanited  himself,"  (Philem. 
6)  "  evident  in  the  agnition,"  (Heb.  vi.  7)  "  gra.«i.se 
commodious,"  (ix.  23)  "examplers  of  the  coeles- 
tials,"  (xiii.  16)  "  God  is  promerited,"  (Jas.  iii.  4) 
"  w'ith  a  litle  sterne  whither  the  violence  of  the 
director  wil,"  (iii.  6)  "  the  wheels  of  our  natiuity," 
(1  John  iv.  3)  "every  spirit  that  dissolueth  Jesus," 
(Rev.  xxii.  14)  "  blessed  are  they  that  wash  their 
stoles."  This  new  beatitude  may  have  been  neces- 
sary in  certain  monasteries,  but  cannot  be  accepted 
by  the  Latin  Church  ;  for  many  copies  of  the  Vul- 
gate add,  "in  sanguine  Agni."  The  version  is 
nevertheless  meritorious  in  other  respects,  notably 
in  the  uniformity  of  its  renderings  (e.g.,  of  Amen, 
Rabbi,  charity,  multitude,  work);  but  not  a  word  of 
commendation  can  be  said  of  the  notes,  which  are 
truly  savage.  Lord  Bacon  liked  this  version.  It 
is  proper  to  add  that  the  modern  editions  are  less 
unenglish  and  less  furious.  See  VnUjate  New 
Testament  with  the  Douaij  Version  of  1582,  London, 
1881.     See  also  below  in  Miscellaneous. 

11.  The  A  ulhorizcd  ^^ersioH.  —  At  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  (1604)  the  demand  of  Reinolds 
for  a  new  translation  was  really  the  starting-point 
which  eventuated,  mainly  through  the  king's  dis- 
like (pretended  or  real)  of  the  Genevan,  in  the 
Authorized  Version, — the  work  (in  all)  of  fifty-four 
scholars  (forty-seven  on  tlie  list),  divided  into  six 
companies,  of  which  two  met  at  Westminster,  two 
at  Oxford,  and  two  at  Camliridge,  for  the  space  of 
three  years;  after  which  six  men,  two  from  each 
place,  met  in  London  to  siqierintend  tlie  publica- 
tion. Bilsoii,  Bishop  of  Wincliesfer,  who  wrote 
the  arguments  of  the  several  books,  and  Dr.  Miles 
Smith,  who  wrote  the  noble  preface,  were  the  final 
correctors.  The  ]ireface  states,  among  many  other 
matters,  that  their  object  was  to  make  of  many 
good  translations  a  jiriiioi)Xil  good  one,  to  avoid 
extremes,  and  produce  uniformity  of  ri'iidcring. 
"  Never  was  a-  great  entei'iu'ise  like  the  ]ir(Mluctioii 
of  our  Authorized  \'i>rsioii,  carried  out  with  le.ss 
knowledge  handed  down  to  jiosterity  of  tlie  labour- 
ers, their  method,  and  order  of  working"  (Scrive- 
ner, Introil.  to  ('(nnbridi/e  Parai/raph  Jiihir).  It  was 
publi.shed  in  1611 ;  and  a  number  of  years  elapsed 
before  its  intrinsic  suiieriority  and  merits  drove 
all  otlier  Knglish  trauslalions  out  of  tlie  field. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  it  is  the  best  and  most  truly 
English  version.  Couched  in  noble  language,  it 
abounds  in  felicities.     It  is  musical,  dramatic,  and 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


731 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


even  tragical.  It  is,  in  turn,  pathetic  and  sublime, 
aud  has,  withal,  a  directness  and  force  which 
commend  it  to  all  classes  and  conditions  of  men. 
But  it  is  far  from  perfect ;  and  wherein,  in  the 
opinion  of  many  of  its  most  ardent  admirers,  it 
should  be  made  to  conform  more  thoroughly  and 
consistently  with  the  original  Scriptures  remains 
to  be  bi'iefly  indica.ted  under  the  following  heads, 
preparatory  to  the  Anglo-American  revision  :  — 

(1)  The  critical  apparatus  at  the  command  of 
the  translators  of  King  James's  Version  was  that 
already  noticed  in  the  earlier  portions  of  this  arti- 
cle, to  which  must  be  added,  for  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Latin  translations  of  the  Hebrew  by 
Arius  Montanus  (1572)  and  Tremellius  (extended 
to  the  Apocrypha  by  his  son-in-law,  Francis  Junius, 
1570).  They  had  likewise  the  translation  of  the 
Syriac  Xew  Testament  by  Tremellius,  and  of  the 
Greek  by  Theodore  Beza  (London,  1593,  1597). 
For  tlie  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament  they 
had  Beza's  edition  of  1589,  and  the  third  edition 
of  Stephens,  with  this  result  (following  from  the 
critical  value,  or  rather  want  of  value,  of  those 
Testaments),  that  many  readings  of  the  Author- 
ized \'ersion  are  unsupported  by  any  known  Greek 
manuscript,  and  that  the  Greek  text  they  used, 
in  moie  than  a  thousand  cases,  requires  to  be 
corrected  by  what  is  now  kiiown  to  be  the  true 
text  (Professor  Abbot's  Paper  in  A ni/lo- American 
Bible  Revision,  New  York,  1879).  Of  then  exist- 
ing critical  versions  (i.e.,  those  made  directly 
from  the  original)  they  had  Luther,  the  Genevan- 
French  (1587-88),  the  Italian  by  Diodati  (1607), 
and  the  Spanish  by  C.  Reynal  (1569),  and  Valera's 
(1002). 

(2)  The  improvements  made  upon  former  Eng- 
lish versions,  and  their  sources.  — -A  critical  exam- 
ination of  Isa.  liii.  shows,  that,  of  forty-nine 
changes,  about  seven-eighths  are  due  to  the  Gene- 
van Version,  two  to  Tremellius,  two  to  Pagninus, 
that  the  Genevan  is  abandoned  three  times,  and 
one  rendering  is  independent  (^Vestcott) ;  to 
which  I  would  add,  that,  in  three  instances,  the 
Authorized  Version  returns  to  older  English  ver- 
sions, that  two  renderings  (comeliness,  ver.  2,  and 
griefs,  ver.  4)  are  original,  and  in  thirteen  places 
the  influence  of  Luther  appears  to  me  undeniable. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  same  scholar  notes, 
that,  in  Romans,  seventeen  phrases  are  connnon 
to  the  Authorized  Version  and  the  Rhemish ;  in 
Ileb.  xiii.  1-16,  of  the  twenty-three  changes  made, 
seven  are  due  to  Beza,  or  the  Genevan,  about  seven 
to  the  Rhennsh,  two  apparently  suggested  by  the 
Syriac  (Tremellius),  and  seven  original  or  linguis- 
tic. Of  thii'ty-seven  alternative  readings  in  Mark 
he  found  one-half  to  agree  with  the  Genevan,  or 
Beza,  six  with  the  Rhemish,  three  with  the  French, 
six  with  earlier  English  versions,  and  one  each 
with  Castalio  and  the  Vulgate. 

(3)  Alleged  blemishes  requii-ing  correction.  — 
These  are  very  numerous  and  diversified,  and 
touch  geography,  proper  names,  mistakes  of  the 
meaning,  grammar,  archaisms,  etc.  For  full  and 
long  lists  and  illustrations,  impossible  to  supply 
here,  see  Literature  below. 

The  felicities  of  the  Authorized  Version  are  con- 
fessedly remarkable;  e.g.,  (Gen.  ii.  16)  "Thou 
mayest  freely  eat,"  (xv.  2)  "  Seeing  I  go  chOd- 
less,"  (1  Chron.  xi.  9)  "David  waxed  greater  and 
greater,"  and  the  now  naturalized  Hebraisms, 
48-1 


"God  of  peace,"  "Sun  of  righteousness,"  "Man 
of  sin,"  "Man  of  sorrows,"  "Son  of  man," 
"  Rock  of  ages,"  etc.  The  Saxon-English  of  the 
version  is  also  striking.  In  the  Lord's  I'rayer 
(Matthew)  the  sixty-five  words  exclusive  of  Amen 
consist  of  fifty-nine  Saxon  and  six  Latin  ones. 
The  first  thirty-five  are  all  Saxon  in  succession. 
Of  the  modern  editions  of  the  Authorized  Version, 
those  of  Mant,  and,  as  a  rule,  those  published  by 
the  S.  P.  C.  K.,  contain  only  authorized  matter, 
which  consists,  besides  the  text,  of  0,637  marginal 
notes  in  the  Old  Testament,  1,010  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha, and  765  in  the  New  Testament;  of  the 
summaries  of  the  contents  of  each  chapter ;  and 
of  nine  thousand  marginal  references ;  viz.,  6,588 
in  the  Old  Testament,  885  in  the  Apocrypha,  and 
1,527  in  the  New  Testament.  The  chronological 
dates  in  the  margin,  and  the  chronological  index 
at  the  end,  were  added  by  Dr.  William  Lloyd 
(d.  1717). 

12.  The  Anglo-American  Revision.  —  The  action 
taken  by  the  Convocation  of  Canterbury  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1870,  and  eventuating  in  the  formation  of 
a  committee  (consisting  of  two  companies,  one 
for  the  Old,  the  other  for  the  New  Testament) 
for  the  revision  of  the  Bible  in  England,  begin- 
ning then-  work  June  22,  1870,  and  of  a  similar 
committee  (with  two  companies)  in  America,  be- 
ginning woi'k  Oct.  4,  1872,  has  culminated  thus 
far  in  the  publication,  on  May  17,  1881,  of  the 
first  fruits  of  their  joint  labors;  viz..  The  New 
Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
Translated  out  of  the  Greek.  Being  the  Version  set 
forth  A.D.  1611  Compared  with  the  most  ancient 
authorities,  and  Revised  A.D.  1881.  The  whole 
number  of  the  English  revisers  in  1880  amounted 
to  fifty-two,  —  twenty-seven  in  the  Old-Testament 
company  (Dr.  Browne,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
chairman),  and  twenty-five  in  the  New-Testament 
company  (Dr.  Ellicott,  Bishop  of  Gloucester  and 
Bristol,  chairman).  The  whole  number  of  the 
American  revisers  amounted  in  1880  to  tw'enty- 
seven,  —  fourteen  in  the  Old-Testament  company 
(Professor  Dr.  Green,  chairman),  and  thirteen  in 
the  New-Testament  company  (ex-President  Dr. 
Woolsey,  chairman,  and  Professor  Dr.  Schaff,  Presi- 
dent, of  the  American  Revision  Committee).  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  English  revisers  belong  to 
the  Church  of  England:  the  remainder  are  repre- 
sentatives of  other  churches.  The  American  re- 
visers represent  the  different  Protestant  churches. 
And  all  the  revisers,  both  in  England  and  America, 
are  eminent  biblical  scholars.  The  general  princi- 
ples on  which  the  revision  is  made  are:  1.  The 
least  possible  changes  in  the  text  of  the  Author- 
ized Version  consistent  with  fidelity;  2.  To  be 
expressed,  if  possible,  in  the  language  of  the  Au- 
thorized and  earlier  English  versions ;  3.  To  be 
twice  revised  ;  4.  The  text  to  be  adopted  to  be 
that  sustained  by  preponderating  evidence,  and 
the  changes  to  be  noted  in  the  margin;  5.  Textual 
changes  to  be  made  by  simple  majorities  on  the 
first  revision,  by  two-thirds  majorities  on  the  sec- 
ond; 6.  The  voting  on  changes  causing  discus- 
sion to  be  deferred  to  the  next  meeting,  if  required 
by  one-third  of  the  revisers  present ;  7.  Headings 
of  chapters,  pages,  paragi'aplis.  Italics,  and  punc- 
tuation to  be  ^e^^sed ;  8.  Reference,  when  de- 
sirable, to  other  experts,  at  home  or  abroad,  for 
tieir    opinion.      The   principles   reg;ulating   the 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


ENGLISH  BIBLE  VERSIONS. 


American  co-operation  are  substantially  as  fol- 
lows :  ■•  The  English  reWsers  to  send  theh'  revis- 
ion to  the  American  revisers,  to  consider  the 
American  suggestions,  to  furnish  them  with 
copies  of  the  revision  in  its  final  form  before 
publication,  and  to  allow  them  to  present  in  an 
appendix  remaining  differences  of  reading  and 
rendering  of  importance  not  adopted  by  the  Eng- 
lish revisei'S."  The  result,  thus  far,  of  this  har- 
monious union  and  co-operation,  is  the  Jieriscd 
yew  Testament,  which  is  unquestionably  a  most 
faithful  and  noble  English  version,  and  equal  to 
any  vei'sion  of  the  sacred  original,  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons: — 

(1)  Its  text,  i.e.,  the  Greek,  is  the  purest  ex- 
tant, based  on  the  authority  of  documentarj'  evi- 
dence without  deference  to  any  jirinted  text  of 
modern  times ;  which  imports  that  only  the  most 
ancient  and  authentic  manuscripts,  versions,  and 
patristic  quotations  were  received,  and  diligently 
compared  by  competent  experts,  and  their  united 
testimony  requii'ed  for  the  adoption  of  any,  even 
the  minutest,  integral  portion  of  the  sacred  vol- 
ume. The  readers  of  the  new  revision  have  the 
undoubted  <i.ssurance  that  the  Greek  text  from 
which  it  has  been  translated  has  been  verified,  as 
far  as  human  learning  and  fidelity  could  verify  it, 
as  the  word  of  God.  What  the  revisers  rejected 
from  the  text  had  been  added  by  careless  or  de- 
signing transcribers,  what  they  received  into  it 
had  been  omitted  by  them.  Xo  version  rests  on 
a  purer  text. 

(2)  Its  translation  is  a  marvel  for  fidelity,  accu- 
racy, elegance,  purity  of  idiom,  and  harmony  of 
expression.  Some  of  its  noblest  features  depend 
for  their  full  appreciation  on  the  publication  of 
the  Old  Testament.  The  changes  introduced  are 
fivefold :  1.  Those  required  by  change  of  read- 
ing in  the  Greek  text;  e.g.,  (1  Pet.  ii.  21)  "Clmst 
also  suffered  for  you,  leaving  you  an  example." 
2.  Where  the  Authorized  Version  appeared  to  be 
incorrect;  e.g.,  (1  Cor.  xi.  34)  "that  your  coming 
together  be  not  unto  judgment."  3.  The  removal  of 
ambiguous  or  obscure  renderings;  e.g.,  (Matt.  xvi. 
23)  "thou  art  a  stumbling  block  unto  me.  4.  the 
removal  of  inconsistent  renderings;  e.g.,  (1  Cor. 
XV.  27,  28)  "  For  He  put  all  things  in  subjection 
under  his  feet.  But  when  he  saith,  .\11  things  are 
put  in  subjection,  it  is  evident  that  lie  is  excepted 
who  did  subject  all  things  unto  him.  And  when  all 
things  have  been  subjected  unto  him,  then  shall  the 
Son  also  himself  be  subjected  to  him  that  did  subject 
all  things  unto  him,  that  God  may  be  all  in  all." 
5.  Changes  made  necessarj'  by  consequence  (see 
Preface).  The  grammatical  inaccuracies  of  the 
.\uthorized  Version  have  been  removed;  e.g., (Matt. 
ii.  4)  "  The  Christ;  "  (1  Tim.  iv.  10)  "  a  root  of  all 
evil ; "  (-\cts  xix.  2)  "  did  ye  receive  .  .  .  zchen 
ye  believed  V  "  (v.  30)  "  whom  ye  slew,  hanging 
him  on  a  tree;"  (Matt,  xxviii.  19)  "liaptizing 
them  into  the  name ; "  (Rom.  viii.  7)  "  the  mind 
of  the  flesh  .  .  .  the  mind  of  the  Spirit ; "  (Matt. 
xxvii.  44)  "cast  upon  him  the  same  reproach." 
Such  archaisms  as  "  anon,"  "  offend,"  "  scrip," 
"an  eight  days,"  "highest  room,"  "  lewd,"  " car- 
riage.s,"  "  profited,"  "  proper,"  etc.,  used  in  senses 
now  unintelligilile,  have  been  corrected  by  proper 
words.  Consist<mcy  has  been  introducecl  m  the 
rendering  of  proper  names  by  the  uniform  preser- 
vation of  one  word  for  the  same  person  or  place. 


Technical  expressions,  such  as  "  deputy."  "  chief 
of  Asia,"  "executioner,"  and  "chamberlain,"  have 
been  corrected  by  more  appropriate  terms.  Some 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  rendering 
of  terms  denoting  coins.  The  adoption  of  "  Hades  " 
(e.g..  Acts  ii.  27)  in  place  of  "hell"  is  a  great 
gain.  The  marginal  notes  are  very  valuable,  and 
embody  a  vast  amount  of  learning,  and  frequently 
shed  light  on  the  changes  recommended  by  the 
American  revisers  (many  of  which  are  uncom- 
monly well  taken),  but  not  adopted  in  England. 
Italics  are  used  sparingly,  and  the  combination 
of  the  paragraph  system  with  that  of  the  famil- 
iar division  of  chapters  and  verses  is  a  decided 
improvement ;  but  the  preface  does  not  explain 
the  entire  disappearance  of  the  headings  of  chap- 
ters and  pages,  which,  under  their  principles,  the 
revisers  were  required  to  revise,  not  to  discard. 
The  same  remark  applies  to  the  parallel  references. 
The  metrical  arrangement  of  quotations  from  the 
poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  etc.,  is  a 
great  aid  to  the  right  imderstanding  of  the  saci"ed 
text,  which  is  likewise  facilitated  by  the  system 
of  judicious  and  consistent  punctuation  which 
marks  this  revision.  Taken  as  a  whole  the  un- 
prejudiced reader  of  this  English  version  enjoys 
the  unspeakable  privilege  of  reading  the  pure  and 
tiiie  word  of  God  in  his  mother-tongue,  so  faith- 
fully rendered  that  he  is  virtually  placed  in  the 
same  position  which  was  enjoyed  by  those  to 
whom  the  New  Testament  came  originaUy  in 
Greek.  It  is  a  noble  translation,  destined  to  win 
its  w-ay  into  the  heai-ts  of  all  lovers  of  the  word 
of  God,  who  are  under  the  greatest  possible  obli- 
gations to  the  noble  company  of  learned  and 
devoted  men  w'ho  have  spent  so  many  years  on  its 
production. 

13.  Miscellaneous.  —  During  the  .short  reign  of 
Edward  VI.  there  were  published,  in  1.547,  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  English  and 
Latin  Of  Mayster  Erasmus'  Translacion  icilli  the 
Pyslles  taken  out  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  alto- 
gether thirty-five  editions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  thirteen  of  the  whole  Bible,  distributed 
as  follows :  three  of  Coverdale  (two  in  I.'j.jO,  one 
in  1553),  seven  of  Cranmer's  Bible,  and  eight 
of  the  New  Testament,  five  of  Matthew's,  two  of 
Taverner  (1.549-51),  twenty-four  editions  of  Tpi- 
dale's  or  Slatthew's  New  Testament;  further,  the 
Worcester  edition  of  the  New  Testament  sold  by 
royal  order  at  twenty-two  pence,  and,  besides  the 
Latin-English  New  'J'estament  of  1.547,  two  others 
with  the  paraphrase  of  Erasmus,  translated  by 
Nicholas  Udall,  1548-40;  that  of  1.548  ends  with 
Hebrews,  and  (lie  translator  states,  in  the  fuLsome 
speech  of  the  pei'iod,  that  the  Princess  !Mary  (of 
bloody  memory)  did  part  of  John's  Gospel;  that 
of  1549  added  Kevelation  in  a  Iranslation  of 
Leo  Judre's  paraphrase  of  that  book.  The  frag- 
ment of  Sir  John  Ch/lr's  translation  from  the 
Greek  (pviblished  by  James  Goodwin,  B.D.,  Lon- 
don, 1843)  belongs  to  this  period  (15.50).  It  con- 
sists of  l\Iatthew  (omitting  the  last  ten  verses), 
and  twent)'-onc  ver.sesdl'  Mark  i.,  and  is  the  most 
intensely  Saxon  version  extant,  made  by  a  fine 
Grecian  ;  e.g.,  he  uses  these  words,  tcizards  (wise- 
men),  frosent  (apostle),  freshmin  (jiroselj'tes), 
devild  (possessed),  crossed  (crucified),  mnnned 
(lunatic),  and  toller  (publican).  The  New 
Testament    translated    by  Mace    (1720)    is  an 


ENNODIUS. 


739 


ENOCH. 


utterly  undi^'uiticd,  it'  not  vulgar  and  profane,  pro- 
duction. The  edition  of  the  Authorized  Version, 
containing  for  the  first  time  the  chronological 
dates  (see  Authorized  Version)  is  known  as  Arch- 
bishop Tenison's  of  17Ul.  The  Cambridge  edition 
of  the  Bible  by  Dr.  Paris  (1702)  and  the  Oxford 
edition  by  Dr.  Blayney  (17(59)  are  important :  the 
latter,  on  account  of  its  great  accuracy,  is  regarded 
as  the  standard  in  England.  Dr.  Scrivener's  Cam- 
bridge Paragraph  Bible  (1873)  is  said  to  be  the 
most  accurately  edited  in  the  language.  The 
Rheims  New  Testament  was  printed  in  a  second 
edition,  1600,  in  a  third  at  Douay,  in  1621,  and  in 
a  fourth,  probably  at  Kouen,  in  1(533.  The  Old 
Testament  appeared  in  a  second  edition  in  1635. 
Among  the  later  Roman-Catholic  versions  are 
prominent:  (1)  Narij's  Neiv  Tcstavient,  1719  (Dub- 
lin?), a  vast  improvement  on  the  Rheims  and 
Douay  in  tone  and  English ;  (2)  Wetliam's  New 
Testament,  1730-33  (Douay?);  (3)  Troy's  Bible,  Dub- 
lin, 1816,  with  very  savage  notes  ;  (4)  The  Hobj 
Bible,  Dublin  and  London,  1825,  in  better  Eng- 
lish, but  a  very  corrupt  text;  (5)  A  New  Ver- 
sion of  the  Four  Gospels  by  a  Catholic  (Dr.  Lin- 
gard),  1836,  by  far  the  best  of  all,  and  on  that 
account  disparaged  by  Roman-Catholic  writers, 
notably  by  Cardinal  AVisemau. 

14.  Lit. — The  enumeration  of  all  the  works 
would  reqiure  many  pages.  Of  those  consulted, 
and  containing  the  fullest  information,  the  most 
important  are,  Lewis  :  History  of  the  Translations 
of  the  Holy  Bible,  etc.,  into  English,  etc.,  Lond.,  1818 ; 
Bagster's  Hexapla,  tvilh  an  account  of  the  Princi- 
pal Eng.  Translations,  London,  no  date  ;  Ander- 
son :  A  nnals  of  the  English  Bible,  Lond.,  1845, 2  vols., 
rev.  ed.,  1862,  Am.  ed.,  1  vol.,  abridged  and  con- 
tinued by  Dr.  Prime,  N.Y.,  1849;  Conant,  Mrs. : 
Pop.  Hist,  of  the  Translation  of  the  Holt/  Scriptures, 
N.Y.,  1856,  revised  ed.  by  Dr.'  Conant,'N.Y.,  1881 ; 
Westcott  :  A  General  Vieiv  of  the  History  of  the 
English  Bible,  London,  2d  ed.  ;  Eadie  :  The  Eng- 
lish Bible,  London,  1876,  2  vols.  ;  Moulton  : 
History  of  the  English  Bible,  London,  1878  ; 
Stoughton:  Our  English  Bible,  London,  no  date  ; 
MoMBERT :  Handbook  of  the  English  Versions  of 
the  Bible,  N.Y.,  n.d.  [1883].  On  the  revision,  see 
especially  the  works  of  Bishop  Lightfoot,  Arch- 
bishop Trench,  and  Bishop  Ellicott,  Am.  ed. 
in  1  vol.  with  introduction  by  Dr.  Sch.\ff,  N.Y., 
1873  ;  also  Anglo-American  Bible  Recision,  by 
members  of  the  American  Revision  Committee, 
Phila.  and  New  York,  1879 ;  B.  H.  Kennedy  : 
The  Ely  Lectures  on  the  Revised  Version  of  the 
New  Testament,  Lond.,  1882  ;  Bishop  Alfred 
Lee  :  Co-operative  Revision  of  the  New  Testament, 
New  York,  1882.  J.  I.  mombert. 

ENNODIUS,  Magnus  Felix,  b.  at  Ailes  about 
473 ;  d.  at  Pavia,  July  17,  521 ;  belonged  to  a  dis- 
tinguished but  poor  Gallic  family ;  lost  his  parents 
very  early,  and  was  educated  at  Milan  by  an  aunt, 
who  died  489,  and  left  him  nearly  destitute. 
Havmg  made  a  rich  match,  he  lived,  as  it  seems, 
only  to  enjoy  himself,  when  a  severe  sickness 
awakened  him  to  serious  reflections.  His  wife 
entered  a  nunnery,  and  he  was  ordained  a  deacon  : 
as  such,  he  accompanied  Bishop  Epiphanius  of 
Pavia  on  his  mission  to  the  Burgundian  King 
Gundebaud  (494),  and,  two  years  later  on,  he 
distinguished  liimself  in  Rome  by  an  apology  for 
Pope  Symmachus  and  a  panegyric  of  Theodoric. 


By  Pope  Ilorniisdas  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Pavia, 
and  as  such  he  was  twice  sent  as  ambassador  to 
Constantinople  (515  and  517).  His  works  (con- 
sisting of  some  poems,  a  number  of  letters,  the 
jianegyric  of  Theodoric,  the  defence  of  Symma- 
chus, a  life  of  Bishop  Epiphanius,  etc.)  were  first 
printed  at  Basel,  1569,  Paris,  1611,  in  Mign'e,  I'a- 
trol.  Lot.,  vol.  63  ;  best  editions  by  Hartel,  Vienna, 
1882,  and  Vogel,  Berlin,  1885.  They  have  no 
sesthetical  merits,  and  only  small  historical  inter- 
est :  they  show  that  in  theology  he  was  a  semi- 
pelagian,  and  with  respect  to  church-polity  an 
ardent  champion  of  the  Papal  supremacy.  He 
was  the  first  who  addressed  the  Bishop  of  Rome 
as  papa. 

E'NOCH  {initiator,  or  initiated).  There  are  sev- 
eral of  this  name  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (Gen.  iv.  17,  and,  in  the  Hebrew  text,  xxv. 
4,  xlvi.  9  ;  and  Exod.  vi.  14)  ;  but  the  only  one  of 
any  interest  is  the  son  of  Jared  and  the  father  of 
Methusaleh  (Gen.  v.  18,  21-24).  He  "  walked 
with  God,"  a  phrase  expressive  of  constant  com- 
panionship, an  undisturbed,  intimate  intercourse 
with  God;  and  so,  at  the  age  of  three  hundred  and 
sixty-five  years  (very  young  for  an  antediluvian), 
suddenly  he  was  not,  for  God  took  him.  His 
disappearance  was,  in  the  antediluvian  age,  the 
sti-iking  evidence  of  immortality,  just  as  Elijah's 
was  to  his  age,  and  Christ's  resurrection  is  to  us. 
]\len  may  have  looked  for  him,  as  they  did  subse- 
quently for  Elijah  (2  Kings  ii.  KJ),  but  as  vainly. 
He  had  gone,  not  to  return.  He  had  been  trans- 
lated. In  the  absence  of  biblical  information, 
speculation  has  been  active.  According  to  thr 
majority  of  the  rabbins  and  the  fathers  he  was 
taken  to  paradise,  although  some  put  him  in 
heaven,  and  others  in  the  seventli  heaven.  A 
parallel  to  Enoch's  translation  will  be  that  of 
the  saints  who  are  alive  at  the  second  coming  of 
Christ  (1  Thess.  iv.  17;  1  Cor.  xv.  51).  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  Enoch's  walk  with  God  is 
regarded  as  a  triumph  of  faith  (Ileb.  xi.  5). 

"Tradition  has  made  of  Enoch  not  only  a 
preacher  of  repentance,  and  prophet  of  judgment, 
which  indeed  is  very  likely,  but  also  (as  "  Enoch  " 
may  mean  the  initiated)  a  sage  acquainted  with 
divine  secrets  by  reason  of  his  walk  with  God, 
the  transmitter  of  the  true  yvCiai^  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  knowledge  w-hich  demons  had  brought 
into  the  world,  and  the  inventor  of  wj-iting  and 
the  sciences,  particularly  astronomy.  Finally,  in 
the  century  before  Christ,  a  book  was  attributed 
to  him,  in  which  all  the  knowledge  then  attained 
about  Ciod,  nature,  and  history,  was  liy  a  fiction 
transferred  to  him.  A  quotation  is  made  from  it 
in  Jude  14.  See  Enoch,  Book  of  in  art.  Pseude- 
pigraphs  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  A.  Dillmaxn, 
Das  Buch  Henoch,  Leipzig,  1853.  Among  the 
Arabs,  Enoch  or  Idris  (the  learned),  as  he  is  mors 
commonly  called,  plays  the  role  of  a  mediiun  of 
the  higher  knowledge  and  science. 

The  heathen  myths  of  the  assumption  of  Her- 
cules, Romidus,  and  others,  are  not  in  point ;  be- 
cause the  ground  for  the  translation  of  Enocb 
was  his  relations  with  God,  while  the  legends 
rest  upon  a  naturalistic  conception  of  divinity, 
which  merges  the  gods  with  the  highest  human 
development.  Much  nearer  to  the  biblical  ac- 
count is  the  Babylonian  Xisuthrus  in  the  history 
of  Berosus,  who  indeed  corresponds  to  Noah,  but 


ENTHUSIASM. 


740 


EON. 


who  was  after  the  flood  translated,  and  was  sought 
for  until  his  voice  was  heard  announcing,  that, 
on  accoiuit  of  his  piety,  lie  had  been  removed  to 
dwell  among  the  gods.  In  the  cuneiform  inscrij> 
tions  he  is  called  Ardrakhasis,  and  was  with  his 
■wife  taken  away  to  live  as  the  gods  in  a  remote 
place  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers.  [See  George 
Smith  :  Tlie  Chaldean  Account  of  Genesis,  ed. 
Sayce,  pp.  288,  309.]  Another  supposed  parallel 
to  the  Bible  Enoch  is  King  Annakos,  or  Namia- 
kos,  who  is  said  to  have  lived  three  hundred  years 
before  the  Deukalion  tiood,  and  to  have  prophe- 
sied with  tears  the  overthrow  of  the  race  after 
his  death.  But  this  story  comes  through  Zeno- 
bius  (200  A.D.),  who  borrowed  freely  from  Didy- 
mus  of  Alexandria  (:30  A.D.)  ;  and  it  is  therefore 
extremely  probable,  as  the  similarity  of  names 
would  itself  indicate,  that  the  story  is  really 
derived  from  Jewish  sources. 

An  endeavor  has  been  made  to  identify  Enoch 
with  the  Latin  Janus,  the  god  of  the  new  year, 
because  the  year  has  365  days,  and  he  had  365 
years;  but  it  remains  only  an  endeavor.  See  the 
commentaries  and  Bible  histories  and  Bible  dic- 
tionaries upon  Enoch ;  [Baring-Gould  :  Legends 
of  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets,  American  reprint, 
N.Y.,  pp.  S5-91].  VON  ORELLI. 

ENTHUSIASM  (from  eM?cof,  filed  or  inspired 
by  God)  is  an  intense  moral  impulse  or  all- 
engrossing  temper  of  mind.  There  is  an  enthu- 
siasm for  popular  freedom  and  for  art,  for  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  and  for  conquest.  The 
term  as  applied  to  religion  designates  both  a 
noble  temper  of  mind  and  moral  fervor  (expressed 
by  the  apostle  as  a  "  being  zealously  affected  in 
a  good  caii.se  "),  and  also  a  misdirected  and  even 
destructive  intensity  of  feeling. 

The  distinction  between  genuine  and  morbid 
enthusiasm  will  often  depend  upon  the  nice  dis- 
criminat'on  of  a  keen  judgment,  or  the  moral 
stand-point  of  the  critic,  as  in  the  case  of  that 
ridicide  wliicli  is  by  some  applied  to  all  religious 
•workers  or  philanthropists  who  have  undergone 
hardstiip,  or  even  death,  in  the  service  and  for  the 
benefit  of  others ;  as  in  the  case  of  monasticism, 
and  of  the  apostles  on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  who 
were  said  by  some  to  be  drunken  (.\cts  ii.  13). 

Enthusiasm  is  the  quality  without  which  the 
best  in  any  department  cannot  be  reached,  nor 
the  largest  amount  of  results  achieved.  It  is  also 
a  quality,  which,  controlled  by  ignorance,  or  mis- 
applied, although  conscientiously  it  may  be,  may 
work  great  harm. 

In  the  l)etter  sense  of  the  term,  our  Lord  was 
the  highest  illustration  of  enthusiasm.  His  soul 
was  possessed  with  overwhelming  atTection  for 
men,  and  an  intense  impulse  to  help  them.  The 
apostles  were  enthusiasts  in  a  good  sense ;  being 
constrained  by  an  overwhelming  desire  to  preach 
the  gospel,  and  ready  to  show  it  by  suffering  and 
death.  The  early  monks,  St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
Dominic,  IIus,  the  Keformer.s,  the  early  Method- 
ists, and  the  present  missionaries  in  foreign  lands, 
are  also  e.xamples  of  religious  enthusiasm.  Hea- 
then religions  have  had  their  enthusiasts,  as  well 
as  the  Christian. 

Christian  enthusiasm  in  the  good  sense  is  de- 
rived fro?M  two  motives,  —  love  for  men  (brought 
out  in  a  strong  wav  by  the  author  of  Ecce 
Homo)  and  love  lor  Clirist.     The  New  Testament 


combines  both  these  motives  in  the  labors  and 
heroism  of  the  apostles,  the  greatest  of  whom, 
however  (St.  Paul),  attributes  his  enthusiasm 
prevailingly  to  the  love  for  Christ  (Phil.  i.  21, 
"  To  me  to  live  is  Christ ;  2  Cor.  v.  14,  "  The  love 
of  Christ  constraineth  us"). 

In  tlie  bad  sense,  enthusiasm  is  almost  synon- 
ymous with  fanaticism,  and  enthusiasts  with 
zealots.  It  is  fervor  of  soul  drawn  from  wrong 
principles,  founded  on  wrong  judgments,  and  ap- 
plied to  wrong  ends.  Neither  selfish  nor  impure 
motives  necessarily  prevail  in  such  a  temper  of 
mind,  and  zeal  of  activity.  Such  enthusiasm  may 
proceed  from  a  sincere  desire  to  glorify  God.  It 
substitutes  fancies  for  the  truth,  and  in  its  last 
stages  the  disorder  of  the  mind  becomes  mental 
insanity.  "Warburton  defines  enthusiasm  in  this 
second  sense  as  that  "temper  of  mind  in  which 
the  imagination  has  got  the  better  of  the  judg- 
ment" {Die.  Leg.,  \ .,  Appendix). 

The  term  "enthusiasts  "  has  also  had  a  technical 
sense,  as  in  the  Elizabethan  period.  Jewel,  Rogers 
(Thirlg-nine  Articles,  p.  158,  Parker  Soc.  ed.), 
and  others  speak  of  Enthusiasts  as  they  do  of 
Anabaptists.  During  the  Commonwealth  period, 
and  afterwards,  the  term  was  frequently  applied 
to  the  Puritans  in  a  tone  of  depreciation,  as 
notably  by  Kobert  South,  who  preached  a  special 
sermon  on  the  subject,  "  Enthusiasts  not  led  by 
the  Spirit  of  God,"  meaning  by  enthusiasts  the 
Puritans.  See  Isa.\c  Taylor:  Natural  Hist,  of 
Enthusiasm,  9th  ed.,  Lond.,  1843. 

ENZINAS,  Francisco  de  {Dryander,  Duchesne, 
Van  Eyck.  Eiclininn,  translations  of  the  Spanish 
name  "oakman"),  b.  at  Burgos,  1520;  d.  at 
Geneva,  1570 ;  studied  in  Italy,  afterwards  at 
Louvain  and  Wittenberg;  embraced  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  was  arrested  at  Brussels  (1513),  escaped  to 
England  (1545),  and  lived  afterwards  on  the  Con- 
tinent,—  at  Strassburg,  Basel,  and  (ieneva.  He 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  Spanish,  and 
dedicated  it  to  Charles  V.  —  His  brother,  Jaques 
de  Enzinas,  also  embraced  Protestantism,  and  was 
burnt  at  the  stuke  in  Italy,  1516. 

EON,  or  EUDO  DE  StELLA,  an  enthusiast  in 
the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  probably 
connected  with  the  Cathari ;  was  b.  in  Bretagne, 
and  was,  by  the  words  which  he  once  heard  in  the 
church  ("per  eum  qui  venturus  est  judicare  vivos 
et  mortuos"),  led  to  believe  that  he  ("Eon")  was 
meant  by  that  eum.  Preaching,  ]>rophesying,  and 
working"  miracles,  he  roved  abimt  in  IJretagne, 
and  much  people  gathered  around  him,  and  were 
seduced  by  him.  In  1145  the  papal  legate.  Cardi- 
nal Albericus  of  Ostia,  preached  against  him  at 
Nantes;  then  .\rrhbishop  Hugo  of  Kouen  wrote 
a  book  against  him,  Dngnialnm  rhrisliana:  fdei 
Liliri  Tres  (found  in  Bihl.  I'nir.  Max.,  Lyons,  T. 
XXII.);  and  finally  troops  were  sent  against  him. 
Several  of  his  adherents  were  bm-nt  in  the  diocese 
of  Alet,  while  he  himself  retreated  into  Guyenne. 
In  1148  he  appeared  in  Champagne,  but  was 
caught,  together  with  a  nnndier  of  his  disciples. 
When  placed  before  (he  synod  of  Kheims,  and 
asked  by  I'ope  Eugenius  II L  who  he  was,  he  an- 
swered, "  Is  qui  venturus  est  judicare  vivos  et 
mortuos."  The  synod  declare<i  him  crazy,  and 
ordered  him  shut  up  in  a  dungeon:  his  followers 
were  burnt,  and  very  .soon  all  trace  of  his  sect  dis- 
appeared. C.  SCHMIDT. 


EON. 


741 


EPHESUS. 


EON.     Sc-e  EisA,  Gnosticism. 

EPAON,  The  Council  of,  was  held  in  .517  in  a 

town  of  Burgundy  whose  site  cannot  be  identi- 
fied any  more.  It  was  called  by  Avitus,  Bishop 
■of  Vienne,  and  Viventiolus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  and 
.attended  by  twenty-four  bishops.  On  Sept.  14, 
517,  they  subscribed  forty  canons,  mostly  of  a 
'disciplinary  character,  regulating  the  relations  of 
bishops,  priests,  and  monks.  Canon  i  forbids 
bishops,  priests,  and  deacons  to  keep  hawks  or 
dogs  for  hunting ;  canon  9  forbids  an  abbot  to 
preside  over  two  monasteries;  canons  15,  16,  29, 
and  33  concern  heretics,  and  forbid  Catholic 
■clergymen  to  eat  at  the  same  talile  with  a  heretic, 
■etc. ;  canon  2fi  forbids  any  altar  not  of  stone  to 
be  consecrated  with  chrism,  etc.  See  Labbe  :  Dis- 
sertalio  philosophica  de  Concilia  Epaunensi ;  Mansi: 
Con.  Coll..  Vin.  319-342,  347-372,  555-574. 

EPARCHY  [inapxia)  denoted  originally  a  merely 
political  division,  being  the  official  administrative 
name  of  a  province.  It  consisted  of  counties,  and 
formed  part  of  a  diocese.  This  scheme  of  secular 
administration  was  afterwards  followed  by  the 
■organization  of  the  church ;  so  that  the  head  of 
a  comity  community  became  a  bishop,  the  head 
■of  an  eparchy  a  metropolitan,  and  the  head  of  a 
diocese  a  patriarch.  At  the  time  of  the  Council 
■of  Nicpea  (325)  this  organization  and  its  termi- 
nology were  fully  developed. 

EPHESIANS,  Epistle  to  the.     See  Paul. 

EPHESUS,  renowned  as  a  seat  of  heathen  rites, 
and  conspicuous  in  the  history  of  early  Chris- 
tianity, was  an  opulent  city  on  the  western  coast 
■of  Asia  Minor.  It  was  advantageously  situated 
■on  the  fei'tile  banks  of  the  Cayster,  and  built 
partly  on  tlie  plain,  and  partly  on  the  hills,  of 
w'hich  Prion  and  Coressus  were  the  two  principal 
•ones.  It  was  on  the  direct  road  to  Sardis.  To 
■the  south  of  it,  on  the  Mseander,  lay  Miletus ;  at 
■an  equal  distance  to  the  north,  Smyrna,  on  the 
Hernius.  The  city  was  colonized  as  early  as 
the  eleventh  century,  by  Androclus,  the  son  of 
the  Athenian  king,  Codrus.  It  soon  became 
famous  as  a  mart  and  hostlery,  the  harbor  afford- 
ing ample  shelter  for  ships.  Asiatic  elements 
mixed  on  its  streets  with  Greek  influences,  and 
colored  the  social  life.  The  city  came  succes- 
.sively  under  subjection  to  Croesus,  the  Persians, 
the  Macedonians,  and  the  Romans.  In  262  A.D. 
it  was  destroyed  by  the  Goths.  Although  rebuilt, 
it  never  regained  its  former  glory.  The  ravages 
•of  time  and  the  ruthlessness  of  man  have  secured 
its  total  desolation.  A  squalid  village,  contain- 
ing only  twenty  regular  inhabitants  (Wood's 
Ephesus,  p.  14),  occupies,  in  mockery  of  human 
magnificence,  the  ancient  site,  but  in  its  name 
Ayasaluk  (a  corruption  of  ayw^  -deblnyo^,  "  holy 
theologian  ")  retains  a  reminiscence  of  the  Evan- 
gelist John,  and  the  early  Christian  congregations. 

Temple  of  Diana.  —  That  which  made  Ephesus 
most  famous  was  the  celebrated  Temple  of  Diana. 
It  was  reputed  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  and  was  visited  from  all  parts  of 
Creece.  The  divinity  was  primarily  an  Asiatic 
goddess,  and  seems  to  have  had  little  in  common 
with  the  fair  huntress.  She  was  represented 
swathed  like  a  mummy,  her  bosom  covered  with 
breasts,  —  a  symbol  of  fertility,  or  a  type  of  the 
many  fountains  which  bubbled  up  on  the  Ephes- 
ian  plain  (Guul).     Her  statue  was  believed  to 


have  fallen  from  heaven  (Acts  xix.  35).  In  356, 
on  the  night  of  Alexander's  birth,  the  temple 
was  burned  down.  The  Ephesians  immediately 
set  to  work  with  great  enthusiasm  to  rebuilc!, 
the  women  of  the  city  contributing  their  orna- 
ments. The  structure  was  erected  on  a  magnifi- 
cent scale,  and  when  completed  was  regarded  as 
the  most  perfect  work  of  Ionic  architecture.  The 
priestesses  that  ministered  at  the  fane  were  vir- 
gins, and  the  priests  celibates.  When  the  Goths 
ravaged  the  city  (262  A.D.),  they  spared  not  the 
temple.  Some  of  its  graceful  colunms  are  said 
to  be  incorporated  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia. 
But  the  very  site  of  the  magnificent  structure 
was  completely  obliterated  by  the  detritus  of  the 
river,  and  remained  a  mystery  until  the  impor- 
tant discoveries  of  Mr.  J.  T.  Wood  (186.3-74). 
Its  dimensions  were  four  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  by  two  hundred  and  twenty  feet.  The  roof 
was  sustained  by  a  hundred  and  twenty-seven 
columns  sixty  feet  high. 

Ephesus  and  the  Christian  Church.  —  The  city 
early  became  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  scenes 
of  apostolic  labors.  The  Church  was  distinguished 
by  having  St.  Paul  for  its  founder,  St.  John  for 
its  counsellor,  and  Timothy  for  its  bishop.  To 
it  St.  Paul  addressed  one  of  his  Epistles,  which 
abounds  in  references  to  the  temple  and  theatre 
of  the  city.  The  congregation  was  fully  organ- 
ized at  an  early  date,  as  is  evident  from  the 
presbyters  who  bade  Paul  farewell  at  Miletus 
(Acts  XX.  24  sqq.),  and  its  mention  as  the  first 
among  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor  (Rev.  ii.  1). 
Here  St.  John  spent  his  last  years  (Eusebius), 
and  was  probably  stirred  up  to  write  his  Gospel 
by  the  indications  of  heretical  sentiments  here 
manifesting  themselves.  Here  ApoUos  first 
preached  (Acts  xviii.  24-28)  ;  and  here  the  third 
oecumenical  council  met,  which  defined  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  over  against  Nestorius. 
Before  passing  away  from  the  histoi-y  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Ephesus,  it  is  proper  to  make  a  more 
specific  mention  of  the  labors  of  St.  Paul  in  the 
city.  His  first  visit  was  on  his  return  from  the 
second  missionary  tour.  He  was  then  accom- 
panied by  Priscilla  and  Aquila.  On  his  second 
visit  he  made  a  sojourn  of  two  or  three  j-ears 
(Acts  XX.  31).  After  preaching  in  the  sjma- 
gogue,  he  went  to  the  school  of  Tyrannus.  His 
preaching  was  so  effective,  that  many  brought 
their  books  of  magic,  to  which  the  city  was  ad- 
dicted (Acts  xLs.  12),  and  made  a  bonfire  of 
them ;  and  it  interfered  so  materially  with  the 
superstitious  traffic  in  silver  shrines  (xix.  26),  as 
to  arouse  the  enmity  of  Demetrius  and  the  crafts- 
men. A  riotous  popular  tumult  was  excited,  and 
the  watchword  rang  through  the  city,  "  Great  is 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians ; "  but  Paul  himself 
escaped. 

Lit.  —  The  city  is  described  at  length  in  the 
Travels  of  Pococke,  Ch-^ndler,  Schubert, 
Fellows,  Hamilton,  etc.  Guhl  :  Ephesiaca, 
Berlin,  1843 ;  F.\lkener  :  Ephesus  and  the  Tem- 
ple of  Diana.  Lond.,  1862;  Wood:  Discoveries  in 
Ephesus,  London  and  Boston,  1877  (an  interesting 
andiclegant  volume)  ;  Conybeare  and  Howson  : 
Life  of  St.  Paul,  ii.  80  sqq.,  Am.  ed. ;  Fabrar: 
St.  Paul,  II.  pp.  1-14.  D.  .S.  SCHAFF. 

EPHESUS,  Councils  of.  The  third  oecumeni- 
cal council  was  held  in  St.  Mary's  Church,  Ephe- 


EPHESUS. 


.42 


EPHRAEM. 


Ru?,  A.D.  431  (June  2ii-A>ig.  ol).  It  coudeniiied 
the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  that  Christ  had  two  per- 
sons as  well  as  t%\o  natures.  It  was  convened  by 
letters  of  Theodosius  II.  and  Valentinian  II. 
Cyril  of  Alexandria  presided,  and  opened  the 
meetings  with  a  liundred  and  sixty  bishops.  The 
number  was  afterwards  increased  to  a  hundred 
and  ninety-eight.  Xestorius  was  cited,  but  re- 
fused to  appear  until  all  the  bishops  had  ai-rived, 
some  of  whom,  like  John  of  Antioch,  were  de- 
layed. In  tlie  mean  time,  his  heresy  was  de- 
nounced, and  himself  excluded  from  the  episcopal 
office,  and  from  all  sacerdotal  fellowship. 

The  so-called  Robber  Council  was  convened  by 
Theodosius  in  440.  It  was  first  so  denominated 
by  Leo,  Bishop  of  Rome  (Episl.  95),  on  account 
of  the  partisan  and  overbearing  demeanor  of  the 
presiding  officer,  and  the  use  of  violence  in  the 
introduction  of  soldiery.  Dioscuros  of  Alexan- 
dria, a  man  of  hierarchical  temper  and  inordinate 
ambition,  presided.  A  hundred  and  thirty-five 
bishops  were  present.  The  council  restored 
Eutyches,  who  had  been  deposed  by  the  synod  of 
Constantinople  (448).  Flavian,  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, was  deposed  from  his  office  for  the 
hand  he  had  taken  in  the  deposition  of  Eutyches. 
All  efforts  to  express  dissent  were  brutally 
checked.  Hilary,  Deacon  of  Rome  and  papal 
delegate,  one  of  the  dissidents,  only  narrow!}' 
escaped  with  his  life ;  while  Eusebius,  Bishop  of 
Dorylieura,  the  accuser  of  Eutyches,  lost  his 
through  the  violence  of  the  soldiery.  The  decis- 
ions of  this  scandalously  conducted  council  were 
reversed  by  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451). 

Lit.  —  M.\xsi  (vols.  iv.  and  vi.)  and  Hefele 
(vol.  ii.):  Hist,  of  the  Councils;  the  Church  His- 
loriex  of  Neander  (vol.  iv.)  and  Sch.^ff  (vol.  ii.), 
and  Mii.MAx's  Lalin  Chrialianili/  (vol.  i.) ;  Mar- 
tin: Actes  ilu  Brigandaije  il'Ephese  (trans,  from 
the  Syriac),  Amiens,  1874;  the  same:  Le  Pseuilo- 
Synode  connn  dans  Vhisloire  sous  le  nom  de  Bri- 
gande  d'Eph'ese,  I'tudii  d'npr'es  ses  actes  ri'trourcs  en 
Syriaijue,  Paris,  1875 ;  Syiiodum  Secundum  Ephc- 
sinum  e  codicibus  Syriacis  MSS.  primus  edidil, 
S.  G.  F.  Perry,  Oxford,  1870;  by  the  same 
(Eng.  trans.):  Acts  of  the  Second  Synod  of  Ephesus, 
with  notes,  Dartford,  Eng.,  1877. 

EPHESUS,  The  Seven  Sleepers  of.  This  legend 
gained  currency  very  early,  ami  was  adopted  in 
the  Koian.  Seven  Ephesiun  youths  of  noble  ex- 
traetion,  in  the  persecutions  of  Decius  (■J4!t-2.")7), 
concealed  themselves  in  a  cave  which  was  ordered 
V)y  the  authorities  to  be  .scaled  up.  They  fell  into 
a  slumber  which  lasted  for  a  hundred  and  eighty- 
seven  years.  Some  of  the  stones  being  removed 
from  the  entrance,  a  ray  of  liglit  w'as  admitted. 
Awaking,  as  from  a  night's  sleep,  they  .sent  one 
of  their  number  (Jamblichus)  into  tlie  city  to 
buy  bread.  The  obsoleteness  of  his  dress,  and 
the  antiquity  of  the  coin  which  he  offered  to  the 
baker,  no  more  startled  the  inhabitants  than  the 
change  in  the  aspect  of  the  city  confonmled  him- 
self. The  facts  becoming  known,  the  bishop  aiul 
magistrates  of  the  city  visite<l  tlu-  cavern.  After 
ronferring  tlieir  bli-.ssing,  the  .Seven  Sleepers 
iinmediatfdy  expired.  See  the  story  well  tjild, 
(Jiiiiiiis's  liitnif,  .\mi.  ed.,  iii.  38;!  .sq. 

EPHRAIM.     S...-   I'liiiiKS. 

EPHREM  SYRUS  (or  Ephraem)  is  the  most 
prominent  of   the  fatliers  of  the  Syrian  Church 


in  the  fourth  century,  and  the  greatest  orator 
i  and  hynm-writer  produced  by  that  church. 
!  Life.  —  Besides  the  so-called  confession  of  Eph- 
raem (existing  both  in  Greek  and  in  Armenian.) 
and  his  testament  (existing  both  in  Syrian  and 
Greek),  we  have  a  panegj'ric  of  him  by  Gregory 
of  Xyssa  (written  shortly  after  his  death,  and 
found  both  among  Gregory's  works  and  in  the 
first  volume  of  the  Roman  edition  of  Ephraem's 
Greek  works),  and  an  elaborate  life  of  him  {Ada 
Ephraami),  written  in  Syriac,  and  foinid  in  the 
third  volume  of  the  Roman  edition  of  his  Syrian 
works.  All  these  materials  are  very  unreliable, 
however.  They  contradict  each  other,  and  are 
full  of  legendary  matter.  In  modern  times  his 
life  has  been  written  by  Zingerle,  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  translation,  and  by  Alsleben, 
Berlin,  18."}3. 

Ephraem  was  boiTi  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fourth  century,  according  to  a  notice  in  his  com- 
mentary on  the  Genesis  (Op.  Syr.,  I.  23),  in  Meso- 
potamia; according  to  Sozomen  (Hi.it.  Eccl. ,  IIJ. 
16)  and  the  Syrian  biography,  at  Nisibis.  He 
was  educated  by  Bishop  Jacob  of  Nisibis,  and 
seems  to  have  accompanied  him  to  the  Council 
of  NicKa  (325).  When,  in  363,  the  Emperor 
Jovinian  surrendered  Nisibis  to  the  Persians, 
Ephraem  moved  first  to  Amid,  the  native  place 
of  his  mother,  and  then  to  Edessa,  at  that  time 
the  centre  of  Syrian  learning.  He  settled  among 
the  anchorites  in  a  cave  outside  the  city,  adopted 
a  life  of  severe  asceticism,  and  devoted  himself 
wholly  to  theological  study  and  authorshiji.  Now 
and  then  he  appeared  among  the  people;  and  his 
hymns  and  polemical  speeches,  directed  against 
the  Chalda>an  astrologers,  against  Barde.sanes  and 
llarmonius,  the  Arians  and  Sabellians,  ApoUi- 
naris,  Marcion,  etc.,  made  a  deep  inqiression, 
and  obtained  a  lasting  influence.  Later  writers 
(Assemani,  Bibl.  Orient.,  IV.  924)  tell  us  that  he 
founded  a  school  in  Ede-ssa  ;  and  it  is,  at  all  events, 
certain  that  he  had  pupils,  and  among  tlieni  some 
of  great  celebrity.  A  tradition  re|iorts  that  he 
visited  Egypt,  and  staid  there  eight  years;  an- 
other, that  he  visited  Basil  the  (ireat  at  Cssarea. 
He  died  during  the  reign  of  ^'alens,  either  373,^ 
or  375,  or  378. 

Works.  —  Ephraem  was  a  very  prolific  author; 
but  of  his  numerous  writings  only  a  jiart  exists 
in  the  original  Syrian  text,  and  the  rest  in  (ireek, 
Latin,  Armenian,  and  Slavic  translations.  A 
coni{)lete  list  of  his  writings  is  given  by  J.  S. 
Assemani,  in  Jiibl.  Orient.,  I.  59-i()l,  and  in  the 
preface  to  the  Roman  edition  of  his  Greek  works. 
See  also  Whkjiit:  Cataloijuc  of  Syriac  Manuscripts 
in  the  British  Museum,  3,  1271.  The  Slavic  trans- 
lations from  his  works  were  edited  by  J.  P.  Kohl, 
Moscow,  1701 ;  the  Armenian,  by  the  Mekhita- 
rists,  Venice,  1830.  The  prineijial  e(lition  of  the 
Syrian  and  (Jrcek  texts  is  that  wliich  ajipeared  in 
Rome  in  0  vol.s.  fol.,  1732- t(i,  under  pajial  author- 
ity,—  3  vols.  Greek  text,  with  Latin  translation, 
edited  by  J.  S.  Assemani,  and  3  vols.  Syrian 
text,  also  with  Latin  translation,  edited  by  I'etrus 
Benedictiis  and  .S.  K.  .\sseniani. 

It  is  doubtful  whi'tlier  or  not  Ephraem  himself 
understood  Greek;  b\it  it  is  quite  certain  that 
those  of  his  works  which  have  come  down  to  us 
only  in  a  (ireek  version  are  translations.  Sozo- 
men says  that  the  works  of  Ephraem  were  very 


EPICTETUS. 


743 


BPIPHANIUto. 


eaa-ly  translated  into  Greek,  even  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  author ;  and  this  statement  is  corroborated 
by  the  fact  that  Chrysostoui  an<l  Jerome  were 
acquainted  with  them.  They  consist  of  sermons, 
homilies,  and  tracts,  exegetical,  dogmatic,  and 
ascetic.  Photius  mentions  {Bill.  Cod.,  liKJ)  that 
he  knew  fifty-two  such  productions  by  Ephraem, 
and  had  heard  tliat  there  existed  more  than  a 
thousand.  In  many  churches  in  the  East  they 
were  read  aloud  during-  service,  after  the  Bible  re- 
citals ;  and  they  seem  to  have  attained  the  same 
honor  in  the  Western  Church.  Translations 
into  Latin  were  early  made.  Small  collections 
of  Ephraein's  discourses  translated  into  Latin 
circulated  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  first 
larger  collection  (in  3  vols,  fol.)  was  given  by 
Gerhard  Vossius,  Rome,  1589,  and  reprinted  in 
1593  and  1598.  It  contains  171  pieces,  of  which 
only  one  was  translated  directly  from  the  Syrian. 
Augmented  editions  of  this  collection  appeared 
at  Cologne  (1603)  and  at  Antwerp  (1019).  The 
first  collected  edition  of  Ephi'aem's  Greek  works 
was  given  by  Ed.  Thwaites,  Oxford,  1709.  The 
best  edition  is  Rome,  1732-46,  6  vols,  folio,  ed. 
by  the  Assemanis. 

The  existing  Syrian  works  of  Ephraem  consist 
of  commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch  and  most  of 
the  historical  and  prophetical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  According  to  Ebed  Jesu  (Assemani, 
Bihl.  Orient.,  III.  1,  p.  02),  he  also  wrote  a  com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms.  Of  his  commentaries 
on  the  books  of  the  Xew  Testament,  only  an 
Armenian  translation  of  that  on  the  Pauline 
Epistles,  and  on  Tatian's  Diatessaron  [for  the 
latter  see  Zaun:  Forsc/ntur/en  cur  Gexch.  d.  N.'J'. 
A'a?!OH.s-,  Th.  I.,  Erlangen,  1881,  pp.  H  sqq.,  and 
Lit.  below]  have  come  down  to  us.  The  rest  of 
his  Syrian  w  orks,  contained  in  the  tliird  voliune  of 
the  Roman  edition,  consist  of  sermons,  tracts,  and 
hjTuns,  all  written  in  verse ;  that  is,  in  lines  of 
an  equal  number  of  .syllables,  grouped  together  in 
strophes,  and  adorned  with  rhymes  and  allitei'a- 
tions.  The  poetical  form  was,  no  doubt,  adopted 
as  the  one  best  suited  to  impress  the  popular  nnnd. 
At  times  it  becomes  prolix  and  dry ;  at  others  it 
exhibits  truly  poetical  beauties.  Several  Syrian 
works  ascribed  to  Ephraem  still  remain  in  manu- 
script; as,  for  instance,  a  world's  chronicle  from 
the  creation  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  of  which  one 
manuscript  is  found  in  tlie  library  of  the  Vatican, 
another  in  the  British  Museum. 

Of  modern  translations  we  mention  one  in 
Latin,  by  C.\ill.\u  (Paris,  1832-35,  8  vols.),  form- 
ing part  of  the  Palres  S elect i ,  Pius  Zingkrle: 
Die  lieilige  Muse  der  S(/rer(Insbruck,  1830-38),  and 
Ausf/eicd/ilte  Schriflen  des  /leilif/en  Ep/ircem  (Kemp- 
ten,  1870-76)  ;  Ancelo  Pagci  and  Fausto  La- 
siNio :  Inni  funehri  di  S.  Efrem  Siro  (Florence, 
1851) ;  J.  B.  Morris  :  thirteen  pieces  on  the 
Nativity  (Oxford,  1847);  II.  Burgess:  Select 
Hipnns  and  Homilies  of  Ephraem  Si/rus  (London, 
1853)  ;  lEvangelii  concordantis  expositlo  facta  a 
sancto  Epiiraemo  doctore  Syro,  in  Latinuni  tranalata 
a  R.  P.  .Joanne  Baptista  Auclier,  ed.  G.  Aloesinger, 
Venice,  1879].  C.  EODIGER. 

EPICTETUS,  one  of  the  most  imposing  repre- 
sentatives of  the  stoic  philosophy,  was  b.  at  Ilie- 
ropolis,  in  Phrygia;  lived  afterwards  in  Rome, 
first  as  a  slave  in  the  house  of  Epaphroditns.  then 
as  a  freedman,  and    teacher  of   philosophy,  liut 


was  in  90  A.D.,  together  with  all  the  other  .stoical 
philosophers,  expelled  from  Rome,  and  settled  at 
Nicopolis,  in  E])irus,  where  he  conliiiiii'd  leaching, 
and  finally  died.  He  wrote  notliing  him.self ;  but 
numy  of  his  teachings  were  taken  down  by  his 
pupil.  Flavins  Arrianus,  and  are  still  preserved. 
They  have  a  peculiar  interest  to  the  church-his- 
torian on  account  of  the  influence  the}'  exercised 
on  Marcus  Aurelius.  The  best  edition  of  the 
works  of  Epictetus  is  that  by  Schweighauser, 
Leipzig,  1799-1800,  (i  vols.  There  are  at  least 
two  English  translations,. —  one  by  Elizabeth  Car- 
ter (London,  1758,  4to,  new  revised  ed.  by  Thoma.s 
W.  Higginson,  Boston,  1805),  and  one  by  George 
Long  (London,  1870).  The  Enchiridion  was 
translated  by  T.  Talbot,  and  also  bv  T.  W.  IL 
Rolleston,  both  London,  1881.  See  F.  W.  Far- 
R,A.R  :  See/cers  after  Cod :  Lives  of  Seneca,  Epictetus, 
and  Marcus  Aurelius.  London,  1808. 

EPICUREANISM  is  the  common  name  of  a  .sys- 
tem of  morality  which  represents  happiness  as 
the  only  true  aim  of  human  actions,  and  pleasure 
as  the  only  true  happiness  of  human  life  {eudce- 
monism).  The  metaphysics  on  which  this  system 
is  based  is  necessarily  materialistic,  and  often 
atheistic.  Such,  however,  as  it  was  expounded 
by  its  founder,  Epicurus  (342-270  B.C.),  in  his 
garden  in  Athens,  the  system  seemed  not  only 
decent,  but  even  attractive.  It  meant  to  lead  its 
pupils  to  a  cjuiet  and  frugal,  but  elegant  and  re- 
fined enjoyment  of  life;  but  when  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  emperors,  and  again  in  the  time  of 
the  English  deists  and  the  French  encyclopedists, 
the  metaphysical  premises  of  the  system  were 
carried  out  to  their  last  practical  consequences, 
the  system  was  found  to  lead  its  pupils  into 
shameless  deliauchery  and  abject  stupidity.  See 
art.  Moral  Philosophy,  also  P.  v.  Gizycki  :  Uther 
das  Lehen  u.  die  ilor(djihilnsophie  d.  Epikur,  Ber- 
lin, 1879,  64  pp.;  AV.  Wallace:  Epicureanism, 
London,  1880 ;  E.  Pfleiderek  :  Eudimwnismus 
u.  Eqoismus,  Leipzig,  1880. 

EPIPHANIUS,  Bishop  of  Constantia  (the  old 
Salamis  of  Cyprus),  was  b.  in  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century,  at  Besandirke,  a  village  of  Pal- 
estine, in  the  vicinity  of  Eleutheropolis,  and  edu- 
cated among  monks.  He  afterwards  lived  for 
some  time  in  Egypt,  also  among  monks,  and 
founded,  after  his  return  to  Palestine,  a  monastery 
in  his  native  town,  of  wliich  he  became  abbot. 
His  fame  for  holiness  brought  him  to  the  metro- 
politan chair  of  Constantia  (307),  and  from  that 
time  he  took  an  active  jiart  in  the  theological 
controversies  of  his  age.  He  was  present  at  a 
.synod  in  Antioch  (370),  and  at  another  in  Rome 
(382),  where  the  tiinitarian  questions  were  de- 
bated. He  went  to  Palestine  in  394  to  cru.sh  the 
influence  of  the  famous  Origen,  and  to  Constan- 
tinople in  403  for  the  same  purpose.  He  died 
on  board  the  ship  on  which  he  was  returning 
from  Con.stantinople  to  Constantia  (spring  403). 

The  life  of  Epiphanius  fell  in  a  period  when 
monasticism  —  sprung  from  the  martyr-inspiration 
of  the  primitive  Church,  and  hailed  by  the  age  as 
a  higher  standard  of  virtue  —  spread  rapidly  in  the 
East,  but  at  the  same  time  assumed  a  character 
of  narrow  Iiostility  to  all  free  theological  investi- 
gation, always  preferring  a  system  of  stiff  dog- 
niatical  definitions  to  the  life  of  a  vigorous 
personal   conviction.     But   the   man's   character 


EPIPHANIUS. 


744 


EPISCOPACY. 


■was  well  suited  to  the  demands  of  the  time ;  and 
he',  as  well  as  his  friends,  considered  it  a  great 
merit  to  spend  a  whole  life  in  bitter  opposition  to 
the  greatest  genius  the  Eastern  Church  ever  pro- 
duced, without  understanding  him.  He  seems, 
however,  to  have  discovered  during  his  stay  in 
Constantinople,  —  whither  he  went  at  the  instance 
of  Theophiliis  of  Alexandria,  and  for  the  purpose 
of  opposing  Chrysostom,  and  through  him  Origen, 
—  that  he  had  in  most  cases  been  a  tool  only  in 
other  men's  hands.  He  left  the  city  abruptly  and 
in  a  rage. 

His  principal  works  are,  Ylnvapiov  ("the  drug- 
chest  "),  a  description  and  refutation  of  eighty 
different  heresies,  confused  and  trivial,  but  of 
historical  value,  and  'AjKvpurdc  ("  the  anchor  of 
faith"),  a  dogmatical  work,  much  read  in  its  time. 
A  life  of  him  by  a  friend  was  edited,  togetlier  with 
his  works,  by  I'etau.  Paris.  182:2.  2  vols.  fol.  The 
best  edition  of  his  works  is  Diendorf's,  Leipzig, 
1859,  o  vols. :  and  of  the  Panuriu  by  Oehler.  Berlin, 
18.59-,61,  y  vols.  (4  i>arts).  .See  Gkkvais:  L'Hisloire 
et  la  Fit'  lie  .s'.  Epipkane,  Paris,  1738;  Ebekhaud: 
Die  Betheiligunf/  dex  Epij>haniux  an  dem  Streite  Uber 
Origenes,  Treves,  lSo9;  Lipsius:  Zur  Quellenkritik 
lies  Epip/iaiiiii.'.:  \'i('nna.  ISG.'j.  SEMISCH. 

EPIPHANIUS,  Bishop  of  Pavia,  was  b.  in  that 
city  (439)  of  noble  descent,  and  educated  for  the 
Church.  Wheu  he  was  eighteen  years  old  he  was 
ordained  a  sub-deacon,  and  in  4C0  he  was  unani- 
mously elected  bishop  by  the  clergy  and  the  peo- 
ple. After  his  accession  to  the  episcopal  dignity, 
he  increased  the  severity  of  his  asceticism :  he 
took  only  one  meal  a  day ;  he  abstained  altogether 
from  flesh,  from  wine,  from  baths,  etc.  The  same 
energy  he  also  evinced  in  taking  care  of  his  dio- 
cese and  the  Church  in  general.  He  was  one  of 
those  admirable  Italian  bishops,  who,  while  the 
dissolution  of  the  ^Vestern  Empire  was  going  on, 
rapidly  and  inevitably,  stood  like  rocks  in  the 
midst  of  the  confusion,  breaking  the  surges.  In 
the  wars  between  Anthemius  and  Kicimer,  Glyce- 
rins and  Euric,  Odoacer  and  Theodoric,  he  often 
succeeded  in  making  peace  between  the  combat- 
ants ;  and,  when  peace  could  not  be  made,  he  was 
always  able  at  least  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  the 
combat,  lie  died  in  494.  His  life  has  been  writ- 
ten by  his  successor,  Ennodius,  among  whose 
worksit  is  found.  IIERZOG. 

EPIPHANIUS  SCHOLASTIGUS  translated,  at 
the  instance  of  his  friend  Cassioilorus,  the  works 
on  church  history  by  .Socrates,  Sozomen,  and 
Theodoret,  from  Creek  into  Latin ;  which  trans- 
lations, corrected,  condensed,  and  connected  with 
eacli  other  by  Ca,ssiodorus,  formed  tlie  Ilistoria 
Tripartita  so  famous  in  the  middle  ages.  Epipha- 
iiius  also  translated  the  so-called  Codex  Encycli- 
cus,  a  collection  of  .synodal  letters  to  the  Emperor 
Leo  I.  in  defence  of  the  synod  of  Chalcedon, 
the  commentary  by  Epipliatiius,  Bi.shopof  Cyprus, 
on  the  .Song  of  .Songs,  tlie  connnentary  of  Didy- 
mus  on  thi^  Catliolic  Epistles,  etc. 

EPIPHANY  (incfivn.  Til.  ii.  11,  iii.  4),  one  of 
the  oldest  Christian  festivals,  originated  in  the 
Ea.stern  Church,  and  opened  tlic  annual  cycle  of 
festivals,  though  it  lefcjrred  to  the  l)aptism  of 
Christ  rather  tlian  to  hi.s  birth.  It  was  generally 
held,  however,  by  the  Eastern  Cliurch,  that  the 
manifestation  of  Christ  to  man  took  jjlacc  at  liis 
baptism,  and  not  at  his  birth ;  and  cousei)Uontly 


his  nativity  was  celebrated  only  as  an  introduction 
to  his  epiphany,  which  fell  on  Jan.  6.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  two  festivals  did  not  take  place 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  centm-y,  accord- 
ing to  a  homily  preached  by  Chrysostom  in  Anti- 
och,  Deo.  25,  380.  It  was  also  generally  held  in 
the  Eastern  Church,  that,  by  his  baptism,  Christ  im- 
parted certain  qualities  to  the  waters,  which  made 
them  a  fit  bath  of  regeneration  :  and  consequently 
the  Epiphany  became  a  favorite  term  for  baptism. 

From  the  East  the  festival  was  introduced  to 
the  West.  The  first  trace  of  it  ui  the  Western 
Church  is  the  report,  by  Amnnanus  Marcellinus 
(XXI.  2),  that  Julian  celebrated  it  at  Vienna  in 
360.  But  its  doctrnial  basis  was  changed.  It 
was  referred,  not  to  the  manifestation  of  Christ  to 
man  in  general,  but  to  his  manifestation  to  the 
heathens,  to  the  Three  Wise  ]\Ieu  of  the  East,  to 
the  Three  Holy  Kings.  It  also  lost  favor  as  a 
term  for  baptism.  Pope  Leo  I.  opposed  this  cus- 
tom as  an  "irrational  novelty."  On  the  whole, 
in  the  Western  Cliurch  it  never  became  more  than 
an  appendix  to  the  Xativity :  hence  its  familiar 
English  name  "  Twelfth-Dav." 

EPISCOPACY.  Under  Bishop  wiU  be  found 
a  discussion  of  the  origin,  functions,  and  relative 
position  of  the  episcopal  office.  The  design  of 
this  article  is  to  give  a  concise  statement  of  the 
views  held  on  the  subject  by  different  Christian 
communions. 

I.  Tlie  Roman-CatlioUc  Church  holds  to  the 
divine  origin  and  authoritj'  of  Episcopacy.  Its 
position  was  distinctly  defined  by  the  Council  of 
Trent  at  its  twenty-tliird  .session:  "If  anyone 
saith  that  in  the  Catholic  Cliurch  there  is  not  a 
hierarchy  instituted  by  divine  ordinance,  consist- 
ing of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons,  let  him  be 
anathema"  (Canon  vi.).  Episcopacy  is  as  essen- 
tial to  the  Church  as  the  sacraments.  The  Church 
cannot  exist  without  it.  The  words  of  Cyprian 
(iv.  Ep.,  9),  Ecclc-sia  est  in  Episcopo  ("  The 
Church  is  in  the  Bishop"),  concisely  represent 
this  view.  The  bishops  are  the  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  the  ajiostles  (^Ajwstiilis  i-icnria  ordina- 
tione  succednni,  Cyprian,  Ep.  69  ad  Flor.),  and 
superior  to  the  priests  and  deacons,  not  m(;rely  in 
extent  of  jurisdiction,  but  in  the  kind  of  grace 
and  function.  Ordination  is  a  sacrament,  and 
confers  a  special  grace,  which  is  permanent.  The 
Pope,  or  Bishop,  of  Rome  is  at  the  head  of  the 
hierarchy  of  bishops,  and  is  tlie  immediate  suc- 
cessor oi  St.  Peter,  upon  whom  Christ  promised 
to  rear  his  Church  (Matt.  xvi.  18,  19),  and  who 
was  the  first  Bisho))  of  Rome.  All  bisliops  are 
subject  to  him  as  tlie  vicar  of  Christ,  but  their 
ajiostolical  power  is  derived  through  consecration. 
The  Vatican  Decrees  (Session  iv.)  assigned  to' 
the  Roman  jiontiff  authority  over  the  "  Universal 
Chiu'ch,"  and  aliove  (ecumenical  councils.  This 
limits  the  prerogative  of  tlie  l>ishop  materially, 
and  is  opposed  to  the  view  ably  advocated  by 
D'Ailly  and  Gerson  in  the  fifteenth  century 
and  by  Gallicanism,  and  adopted  by  the  Old 
Catholics. 

II.  The  Eastern  Church  holds  likewise  to  tlie 
divine  origin  of  Epi.scopacy,  to  the  transmi.ssion 
of  apostolic  grace,  and  to  apostolic  succession ; 
but  it  di.ssents  from  the  Latin  Church  in  refusing 
to  recognize  the  Pope,  wliom  it  regards  as  an 
usurper,  and  to   acknowledge   any   pontiff   with 


EPISCOPACY. 


745 


EPISCOPACY. 


supreme  authority  in   tlie  Cliurch   and  over  the 
bishops. 

III.  The  Jansenht  Church  of  HollanJ,  and  the 
Old  Cdlholics,  both  agree  with  tlie  Iloi nan-Catho- 
lic Churcli  on  the  (juestion  of  Episcopacy,  but 
differ  from  it  in  their  allegiance  to  the  Pope. 
The  episcopate  in  Holland  was  received  (in  1724) 
from  Dominique  Marie  Varlet,  "Bishop  of  Baby- 
lon, then  living  in  Amsterdam.  Other  Catholic 
bishops,  on  being  applied  to,  refused  the  rite  of 
consecration.  Each  new  consecration  ever  since 
has  been  noticed  by  a  special  excommunication 
from  Rome.  The  Old  Catholics  secured  their 
orders  from  the  Jansenists  of  Holland,  the  Bishop 
of  Deventer  consecrating  Bishop  Reinkens  (Aug. 
11,  1873),  wlio  subsequently  consecrated  Dr. 
Herzog,  Bishop  for  Switzerland  (Sept.  18,  187G) ; 
so  that  they  preserve  the  apostolic  succession. 

IV.  The  Church  of  England  and  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States  tolerate  two  classes 
of  opinion,  —  the  Anglo-Catholic  or  High  Church 
view,  and  the  Low  or  Broad  Church  view.  1. 
The  Anglo-Catholic  view  of  the  episcopate  is  in 
essential  particulars  that  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church.  It  does  not  recognize  the  superior  au- 
thority of  the  Pope,  as  the  vicar  of  Christ  and 
the  infallible  successor  of  St.  Peter,  nor  even 
place  ordination  among  the  sacraments.  But  it 
regards  Episcopacy  as  indispensable  to  the  very 
being  of  the  Church,  holds  to  the  transmission  of 
grace  by  the  imposition  of  hands,  and  accepts 
apostolic  succession.  Bishops,  as  "being  the 
successors  of  the  apostles,  are  possessed  of  the 
same  power  of  jm'isdiction  "  (Blunt).  They  are, 
and  have  been  from  the  time  of  the  apostles,  an 
order  distinct  from  the  priesthood  and  diaconate, 
and  higher  than  both.  Archbishop  Laud  (10;3:J- 
45)  was  the  most  extreme  representative  of  the 
jure  divino  right  of  Episcopacy.  2.  The  Low  and 
Broad  Church  view  regards  the  episcopate  as 
desirable  and  necessary  for  the  well  being  of  the 
Churcli,  but  in  no  wise  indispensable  to  its  exist- 
ence. The  episcopal  is  not  the  only  form  of 
government  with  scriptural  authority  (if,  indeed, 
it  or  any  other  be  recommended  by  Scripture)  ; 
but  it  is  the  one  best  adapted  to  forward  the 
interests  of  Christ's  kingdom  among  men.  The 
best  writers  on  this  side  agree  that  the  episcopate 
developed  out  of  the  presbyterate,  and  that  there 
are  only  two  orders  of  the  ministry  in  the  New 
Testament,  —  presbyters  and  deacons.  Dr.  Light- 
foot,  Bishop  of  Durham,  in  his  very  scholarly 
and  exhaustive  discussion  of  the  subject  in  his 
Christian  Ministry  (Com.  on  Philippians,  pp.  180- 
267),  says,  "  It  is  clear,  that,  at  the  close  of  the 
apostolic  age,  the  two  lower  orders  of  the  three- 
fold ministry  were  firmly  and  widely  established ; 
but  traces  of  the  episcopate,  properly  so  called, 
are  few  and  indistinct."  ..."  The  episcopate 
was  formed  out  of  the  presbyteral  order  by  eleva- 
tion ;  and  the  title,  which  originally  was  common 
to  all,  came  at  length  to  be  appropriated  to  the 
chief  of  them."  And  again  he  says,  "The  epis- 
copate was  formed  out  of  the  presbytery."  The 
late  Dean  Stanley,  in  the  chapter  on  the  Clergy 
in  his  Christian  Institutions,  representing  the  same 
view,  says  (p.  210),  "  According  to  the  strict  rules 
of  the  Church  derived  from  those  early  times, 
there  are  but  two  orders,  —  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons." 


This  view,  which  is  also  held  by  such  men  as 
Arnold,  AU'ord,  Jacob,  and  Hatch,  was  the  view 
of  the  divines  of  the  English  Reformation. 
Cranmer,  .Jewel,  (irindal,  and  afterwards  Field 
("  The  ajiostles  left  none  to  .succeed  them,"  Of 
the  Church,  vol.  iv.  p.  vii.),  defended  Episcopacy  as 
the  most  ancient  and  general  form  of  government, 
but  always  acknowledged  the  validity  of  Presby- 
terian orders.  (See  this  subject  ably  discussed 
by  Professor  Fisher,  in  the  New-Englander,  1874, 
pp.  121-172.)  Bishop  Parkhur,st  looked  upon 
the  Church  of  Zurich  as  the  absolute  pattern  of 
a  Christian  community;  and  BLshop  Ponet would 
have  abandoned  even  tlie  term  "  bi.shop  "  to  the 
Catholics  (Macaulay,  Ilisl.  of  Eng.,  vol.  I.  p.  39, 
Bost.  ed.).  Ecclesiastics  held  positions  in  the 
Church  of  England  who  had  only  received  Presby- 
terian ordination.  Such  were  Wittingham,  Dean 
of  Durham,  and  Cartwright,  Professor  of  Divinity 
at  Cambridge.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  prel- 
ate of  the  English  Church  in  Elizabeth's  reign 
held  the  jure  divino  theory  of  Episcopacy.  Two 
of  the  most  elaborate  defenders  of  the  Low- 
Church  view  in  the  seventeenth  century  were 
Stillingfleet  and  Ussher,  the  latter  representing 
the  episcopate  as  only  a  presidency  of  the  pres- 
byters over  his  peers ;  yet  the  Episcopal  Cluirch 
re-ordaius  all  ministers  who  liave  not  been  epis- 
copally  consecrated,  but  accepts  priests  of  the 
Greek'  and  Roman-Catholic  Cliurches  without  re- 
ordination. 

V.  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  holds  to  an 
Episcopacy  of  expediency.  "  It  adheres  to  Epis- 
copacy, not  as  of  divine  right,  but  as  a  very 
ancient  and  desirable  form  of  church  polity " 
(Declar.  of  Principles,  passed  Dec.  2,  1873).  Its 
founder  and  first  bishop  was  Dr.  Cummins,  who 
had  been  assistant  bishop  of  the  Episcopal  Church  . 
in  Kentucky. 

VI.  The  Moravian  Church  deserves  separate 
and  special  mention,  for  three  reasons.  Its  epis- 
copate was  active  before  the  Reformation  on  the 
Continent  and  in  England  began  ;  it  is  in  the 
apostolic  succession ;  and  its  bishopric  in  America 
antedates  those  of  the  Episcopal  (1784)  and 
Methodist  (1784)  denominations  by  forty  years. 
The  first  Aloravian  bishop  was  conseci-ated  in 
1467,  by  the  regularly  ordained  Waldensian 
Bishop  Stephens.  "(See  Wetzer  and  Welte,  Encij- 
clop.,  ii.  p.  65,  and  De  Schweinitz,  Moravian 
Episcopate,  Lond.,  1877.)  The  British  Parlia- 
ment, in  1749,  recognized  the  validity  of  IMoravian 
ordination.  But  the  recent  course  of  Bishop 
Stevens  of  Pennsylvania,  in  re-ordaining  a  Mora- 
vian presbyter,  disparages  the  episcopate  of  this 
venerable  body.  This  occurred  in  Philadelphia 
(Sept.  30,  1881),  and  was  designed  to  give  the 
applicant,  to  use  Bishop  Stevens's  own  language, 
"a  more  ample  ordination."  The  Jloravians,  or, 
as  they  prefer  to  be  called,  the  Brethren,  recog- 
nize the  ordination  of  other  Christian  bodies  as 
valid,  admitting  presliyters  at  once  into  their 
ministry  (Law  Boot  of  the  Church,  ix.  63). 

VII.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  for  the  most 
part  aliandoned  Episcopacy.  The  bishops  on  the 
Continent,  unlike  the  bishops  in  England,  held 
aloof  from  the  Reformation.  In  Germany  one 
order  of  the  ministry  only  is  recognized.  An 
officer  with  jurisdiction  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  bishop  is  called  superintendent.     The  office  is 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


r4G 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


only  one  of  expediency.  Tlie  Lutheran  Cliurch 
in  Sweden  has  bishops,  the  validity  of  whose 
orders  a  committee  was  appointed  in  1874,  by 
the  convention  of  the  Episcopal  Churcli  in  the 
United  States,  to  investigate.  The  convention 
has  taken  no  further  action.  There  is  much 
doubt  concerning  the  integrity  of  the  succession. 
Ijawi'ence  Peterson  was  consecrated  by  Paul 
Justin,  Bishop  of  Abo,  in  1575  .Vrchbishop  of 
I'psala.  The  evidence  for  tlie  validity  of  Justin's 
consecration  is  defective.  But  tlie  confessions 
of  the  Swedish  Chui'ch  recognize  the  equality 
of  tlie  ministry.  The  bishops  of  the  Church  of 
Denmark  have  no  claim  whatever  to  apostolic 
succession,  although  the  English  bishops  of 
India  have  recognized  Danisli  ordination.  Chris- 
tian 111.  in  1536  imprisoned  the  old  bishops; 
and  the  new  ones  wliom  he  appointed  were  at 
first  called  superintendents,  and  ordained  by 
Bugenhagen. 

VIII.  The  Refhrmed  Churches  recognize  two 
orders  of  the  ministry.  —  presbyters  and  deacons. 
The  bishops  of  the  New  Testament  are  regarded 
as  identical  with  presbyters.  They  do  not  deny 
that  Episcopacy  as  a  matter  of  expediency  is  jus- 
tifiable ;  but  they  do  not  concede  either  its  divine 
origin,  or  the  transmission  of  grace  by  the  im- 
position of  hands,  or  apostolic  succession,  in  the 
Anglo-Catholic  sense.  (See  Form  of  Governmtnl 
of  Presbi/lerian  Church,  chaps,  iii.  v.,  etc.) 

IX.  The  American  Mullioilisl  church  has  an 
Episcopacy.  It  is  neither  diocesan  nor  hierar- 
chic, but  itinerant  and  presbyteral.  The  bishops 
const  itnte  an  "  itinerant  general  superintendency," 
and  are  •'  amenable  to  the  body  of  ministers  ant^ 
preachers,"  who  may  divest  them  of  their  office 
They  are  not  a  distinct  order  of  the  clergy,  but 
only  presbyters.  The  Methodist  Church  cannot 
lay  claim  to  apostolical  succession,  if  it  w'onld. 
John  Wesley,  after  having  previously  applied  in 
vain  to  the  Bishop  of  London  to  ordain  preacliers 
for  America,  himself  ordained  the  first  bishop, 
Thomas  Coke,  in  1781.  The  Eraugelical  Associa- 
tion and  the  Church  of  the  United  Brethren  also 
have  episcopates.  Their  bishops  ,are  only  elected 
for  a  stated  period,  and  not  for  life.  For  further 
information  see  the  articles  under  these  special 
heads.  For  literature,  see  arts.  Bi.siioi-.  Polity, 
and  the  Fortns  of  Government  and  Confessions  of 
the  several  cdiniiiiiiiiDiis.  I),  .s.  sril.VKF. 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  The  Protestant,  in  the 
United  States  of  America.  I/islori/.^'r\u:  first 
known  clerical  rei)resent.ative  of  the  Chureli  of 
England  in  America  was  jVlbert  dc  I'rato,  a 
learned  mathematician,  aiul  a  canon  of  .St.  Paul's, 
London,  who  visited  St.  John's,  Newfoundland, 
in  August.  }t)27.  The  next  clergyman  a]>]ieared 
after  the  Reformation,  in  connection  willi  Fro- 
bi.sher's  expedition  of  1578.  Thi.s  was  Woolfall, 
who  l.^n<led  in  the  Countess  of  Warwick's  .Sound, 
and  celebrated  the  first  English  communion  re- 
corded in  connection  with  the  New  ^Vorld.  In 
InH'i  .Sir  Humphrey  (Jilbert  proclaimed  the  order 
of  the  English  Cluirch  and  State  in  Newfound- 
land. In  1581.  Sir  WaUcn'  Italeigli  commenced 
his  unsuccessful  attem|it  to  colonize  Virginia, 
where,  in  1587.  the  clergyman  attacdied  U>  the 
Colony  baptized  iVIanteo,  an  Indian  chief.  Abont 
the  same  time  he  also  baptized  A'irginia  Dare,  the 
first  white  Christian  born  in  Virginia.     In  1005 


the  expedition  of  'Waymonth  reached  the  coast 
of  Maine,  and  explored  the  Kennebec,  having 
on  board  a  person  who  regularly  performed  the 
service  of  the  Church  of  England.  In  1607  the 
work  of  colonization  was  commenced,  both  in 
Virginia  and  New  England.  On  the  coast  of 
Maine  the  passengers  and  crews  of  two  ships, 
sent  out  under  Popham  and  Gilbert,  landed  at 
Mouhegan,  Aug.  9,  1607  (O.  S.).  A  sermon  was 
preached,  and  the  first  New-England  Thanks- 
giving was  observed.  A  colony  was  commenced 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  where,  until  the 
spring  of  1608,  the  chaplain  (the  Rev.  Richard 
Seymour)  regularly  celebrated  the  service  of  the 
Church  of  England,  which  was  familiar  to  the 
savage  ear  on  that  coast  nearly  twenty  years 
before  the  arrival  of  ''The  Mayflower"  at  Plym- 
outh. This  colony  attempted  on  the  peninsula 
of  Sabino  was  not  successful,  though  scattered 
emigrants  continued  to  pursue  the  fisheries  on 
the  adjacent  coasts.  In  Virginia,  however,  the 
work  of  colonization,  under  Church -of-England 
leaders,  went  on  without  interrujition.  the  minis- 
ter being  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hunt.  When  the  Leyden 
adventurers  reached  New  England  (in  162(1),  the 
Virginia  Colony  was  an  .accomplished  fact.  On 
Christmas  Day,  16"21,  the  "most  part"  of  the 
people  at  Plymouth  desired  to  keep  the  festival, 
showing  their  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. Soon,  however,  they  were  outnumbered 
by  fresh  arrivals ;  and  the  majority  of  the  peo- 
ple who  landed  elsewhere  set  up  their  standard 
against  the  church,  which  it  was  expected  they 
would  favor  on  reaching  their  new  homes.  Soon 
the  scattered  adherents  of  the  Church  of  England 
found  that  they  were  not  to  be  tolerated  in  Mass- 
achusetts; and  New  Hampshire,  under  Mason, 
became  the  chief  resort  of  the  persecuted  who 
sought  religious  liberty,  though  the  Rev.  William 
Blackstone  went  to  Rhode  Island.  In  KiMl  the 
church  services  were  celebrated  in  New  Hamp- 
shire by  the  Rev.  Richard  (iib,son;  and  in  1640, 
at  Portsmouth  (the  ancient  "Strawberry  Hank"), 
an  Episcopal  Church  (the  jireseut  .St.  .John's)  was 
duly  organized,  being  the  first  Episcopal  parish 
known  on  this  continent.  In  16()'i  the  royal  proc- 
lamation secured  to  churchmen  in  Massachusetts 
the  nominal  liberty  to  observe  their  own  forms 
of  worshiii,  and  in  1682  King's  Chapel  was  organ- 
ized at  Boston.  After  tliis  period,  Church-of- 
England  clergymen  labored  in  various  parts  of 
New  England;  and,  though  bitterly  opposed,  they 
met  willi  .siuue  success,  especially  in  Connecticut, 
where,  in  1722,  Cutler  (president  of  Vale  College) 
and  six  others  declared  for  epi.scop.aey.  During 
the  colonial  (jcriod  the  strength  of  the  church 
advanced  in  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Penn.sylvania, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  (ieorgia.  and  the 
Carolin.as.  Trinity  Church,  New-York  City,  was 
in  existence  as  early  as  KiO;!.  The  Rev.  William 
A'easey,  formerly  a  Presbyterian  minister,  became 
the  first  rector;  and  the  churchmen  of  New  York 
a]>pear  to  have  acted  on  the  belief  that  the  Min- 
istry Act  of  16!);(  was  designed  for  their  exclu- 
sive benefit.  In  due  time  the  church  becanu'  an 
acknowledgetl  power.  In  New  .lersey  also,  under 
Lord  Coridiury.  the  church  )U'aetically  enjoyed 
benclits  that  attenil  establishmi'iit.  In  .Maryland. 
Virginia,  and  (ieorgia  tin;  church  was  formally 
established  by  law;  and  at  one  period  the  Vir- 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


747 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


siiiians  were  almost  exclusively  Episcopalians. 
The  church  continued  to  gi'ow,  especially  under 
tlie  impetus  given  by  the  missionaries  of  the 
Venerable  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
<lospel,  organized  in  1701 ;  but  at  the  Revolution, 
a  large  portion  of  the  clergy  being  royalists,  the 
•congregations,  to  a  great  extent,  wei-e  broken  up, 
and  their  property  dissipated.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  the  church  was  a  melancholy  wreck. 
Nevertheless,  the  clergy  who  remained  commenced 
tlie  work  of  restoration,  aiming  especially  to 
secure  the  episcopate,  which  many  had  desired 
to  obtain  during  the  colonial  period.  Before  the 
evacuation  of  New  York  by  the  British,  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Seabury  had  been  recommended  for  the 
office,  and  was  consecrated  by  the  non-juring 
bishops  at  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  Nov.  14,  1784. 
The  first  meeting  for  organization  was  held  at 
New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  in  May,  17S4.  In  Septem- 
ber, 1785,  anothi-r  convention  was  lield  in  I'hila- 
delpliia,  when  the  so-called  "  Proposed  Book  "  was 
drawn  up,  and  when  the  convention  also  framed 
and  adopted  a  constitution  for  the  church  known 
as  •'  The  Protestant-Episcopal  Church."  At  the 
convention  held  in  Philadelphia  the  following 
June,  the  members  not  being  satisfied  with  the 
consecration  of  Dr.  Seabury,  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Provoo.st,  D.D.,  the  Rev.  William  White,  D.L)., 
and  the  Rev.  David  Griffith,  D.D.,  were  chosen, 
and  instructed  to  proceed  to  England,  and  obtain 
■consecration.  Feb.  4,  1787,  Drs.  White  and  Pro- 
voost  were  consecrated  in  Lambeth  Cliapel  by 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Dr.  Jolin  Moore, 
Dr.  Griffith  failing  to  appear.  Subsequently  the 
Rev.  James  Madison,  D.D.,  was  consecrated,  the 
succession  being  made  threefold.  At  the  triennial 
convention  of  1789  the  consecration  of  Bishop 
Seabury  was  recognized,  thus  securing  the  adhes- 
ion of  New  England.  The  convention  adjourned 
to  September,  when  the  present  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  was  adopted,  and  the  church  entered  fully 
upon  her  indejiendent  career,  under  the  leader- 
ship of  the  sagacious  Bishop  White,  who  stood 
the  acknowledged  head  for  a  period  of  forty 
years. 

Organization.  —  This  church  is  organized  on  the 
primitive  episcopal  plan,  embracing  a  system 
of  dioceses ;  the  ministry  being  composed  of  the 
threefold  order  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons. 
The  first  order  comprehends  both  the  diocesan 
bishops  and  the  missionary  bishops,  home  and 
foreign.  Each  diocesan  has  charge  of  a  particu- 
lar diocese,  while  the  missionary  bishop  presides 
over  a  jurisdiction  formed  of  one  or  more  States 
or  Territories,  or  parts  thereof.  A  missionary 
bishop  may  be  elected  bishop  of  a  diocese,  but 
the  diocesan  cannot;  though,  in  case  his  diocese 
is  divided,  he  may  decide  which  part  he  will 
retain.  Man}'  States  form  a  single  diocese,  while 
others  are  divided  into  several.  The  Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  has  no  legal  connec- 
tion with  tlie  Church  of  England,  being  governed 
in  accordance  with  a  constitution,  and  a  body  of 
canons  drawn  up  and  approved  by  conventions 
of  the  bishops,  clergy,  and  laity.  The  legislative 
body  known  as  the  General  Convention  is  com- 
posed of  the  House  of  Bishops  and  the  House 
of  Clerical  and  Lay  Deputies.  The  approval  of 
both  houses  is  necessary  to  render  any  act  effec- 
tive.    The  House  of  Bishops  (which  is  the  upper 


house,  corresponding  to  the  Senate  of  the  United 
States)  is  composed  of  both  the  diocesan  and 
missionary  bishops;  and  the  House  of  Clerical 
and  Lay  Deputies  consists  of  an  eijuul  number  of 
clergy  and  laity,  elected  by  regularly  organized 
diocesan  conventions.  This  lower  house  admits 
delegates  from  missionary  jurisdictions  to  a  seat; 
and  tliey  also  have  a  voice  on  mat.ters  in  which 
they  are  specially  interested,  but  have  no  vote. 
The  upper  house  is  presided  over  by  the  bishop 
senior  in  consecration,  who  also  has  charge  of 
various  interests  affecting  the  general  adminis- 
tration of  the  church.  The  presiding  officer  of 
the  lower  house  is  chosen  by  ballot.  The  General 
Convention  meets  triennially.  The  Diocesan 
meets  annually ;  being  composed  of  three  lay 
delegates  from  each  parish  in  union  with  the 
convention,  in  addition  to  the,  duly  qualified 
parochial  clergy.  Recently  the  attempt  has  been 
made,  with  some  degree  of  success,  to  introduce 
the  provincial  system,  in  accordance  with  which 
two  or  more  dioceses  may  enter  into  a  confedera- 
tion for  the  purpose  of  promoting  such  particular 
objects  as  may  not  come  within  the  range  of 
either  Diocesan  or  General  Conventions.  Such 
confederated  dioceses  may  have  a  special  council 
and  an  appellate  court.  Many  dioceses  are  di- 
vided into  convocations,  whose  chief  work  is  to 
advance  missions  within  their  own  boundaries. 
Lay  representation  forms  a  special  feature  of  this 
church,  in  which  respect  it  is  unlike  the  Church 
of  England. 

Discipline.  —  The  discipline  of  the  church  is 
administered  in  accordance  with  the  canons  ex- 
pressly provided  ;  and  all  classes  of  the  bisliops, 
clergy,  and  laity,  must  be  presented  and  tried  by 
their  peers.  The  church  at  large  has  no  appellate 
court;  but  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to  the  General 
Convention. 

Doctrine.  —  The  doctrine  of  the  church,  as 
drawn  from  Holy  Scripture,  is  incorporated  in 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  and  is  expressed 
chiefly  by  means  of  the  Apostles'  and  the  Nicene 
Creed,  together  with  thirty-eight  of  the  Articles  of 
the  Church  of  England,  modified  to  meet  the  con- 
dition of  things  in  this  country.  In  framing  the 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  the  American  Church, 
while  affirming  a  general  agreement  with  the 
Church  of  England,  made  certain  departures. 
The  Athanasian  Creed  is  omitted.  In  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  the  clause  "  He  descended  into  hell  " 
is  made  optional,  as  well  as  the  use  of  the  sign 
of  tlie  cross  in  baptism ;  while  the  Absolution  is 
made  declarative,  instead  of  po.sitive,  and  is  left 
out  of  the  office  for  the  visitation  of  the  sick. 
In  various  other  respects  the  American  Prayer- 
Book  conforms  better  to  the  wants  of  the  average 
mind.  The  office  for  the  Holy  Communion  is 
generally  regarded  as  more  especially  tlie  work  of 
Bishop  Seabury,  showing  as  it  does,  quite  strongly, 
the  influence  of  the  Scotch  Communiou  office. 
Yet,  while  decided  in  its  teaching  as  respects  the 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  sacrament,  its  language 
is  irrevocably  opposed  to  the  tlieorv  of  an  objec- 
tive presence,  as  it  is  to  consubstantiat  ion  ;  the 
worshipper  being  taught  that  Christ  is  truly  pres- 
ent, but  in  a  spiritual  sense,  and  in  a  manner  that 
has  baffled  all  attempts  at  statement  upon  the 
part  of  the  doctors  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The 
baptismal  office  has  been  cited  in  support  of  that 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


748 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


extreme  view  of  "  the  -washing  of  regeneration  " 
■which  has  been  pushed  to  the  border  of  tlie  opus 
operatum;  yet  tlie  bishops  of  the  church,  in  1S70, 
put  forth  what  is  known  as  the  •'  Declaration," 
afiu-ming  that  the  word  "  regenerate  "  is  not  used 
in  the  baptismal  oiBce  so  "  as  to  determine  that  a 
moral  change  in  the  subject  of  baptism  is  wrought 
in  the  sacrament."  The  Articles,  to  which  Bishop 
Seabury  was  strenuously  opposed,  as  the  Scotch 
Church  had  none,  do  not  meet  with  universal 
approval.  In  substance  they  are  orthodox,  and 
in  spirit  thoroughly  Protestant;  still  they  are 
intended  to  be  comprehensive.  On  Predestina- 
tion and  Free  Will  they  seem  to  serve  the  purpose 
of  both  Calvinist  and  Arminian.  Indeed,  the 
entire  doctrinal  system  of  the  Protestant-Episco- 
pal Church  is  tolerant.  The  church  has  con- 
tinued in  the  lines  of  reformation  adopted  by  the 
Chm-ch  of  England,  in  opposition  to  the  policy 
of  many  Protestants  on  the  Continent;  the  in- 
tention being  to  embrace  all  of  the  laity  who 
accept  the  Christian  faith  as  contained  in  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  no  one  being  debarred  from 
communion  on  account  of  any  opinion  enter- 
tained in  connection  with  the  test  questions  of 
certain  denominations.  Accordingly  the  Episco- 
pal Church  embraces  various  schools  of  thought, 
ranging  from  the  so-called  Evangelical  to  the 
Sacramentarian,  or  from  the  Genevan  to  the  ad- 
vanced Oxford  tyjje.  Yet  the  schools  in  the 
American  Church  are  not  always  to  be  considered 
as  identical  with  those  passing  under  the  same 
name  in  England.  .\11  phases  of  theological 
opinion  undergo  essential  modification  in  passing 
from  the  English  to  the  American  Church.  This 
is  especially  the  case  with  respect  to  the  Broad- 
Chureh  type  of  thought,  which,  in  the  Protestautr 
Episcopal  Church,  often  comprehends  the  liberal 
Evangelical  and  the  high  advocate  of  church 
order;  being  a  feeling  as  well  as  a  conciclion, 
though  it  also  includes  the  rationalist  and  the 
legendarian. 

Jnsliluiiona.  —  The  institutions  of  the  church 
are  quite  numerous,  and  the  principal  ones  only 
can  lie  mentioned.  The  foremost  is  the  Domes- 
tic and  I'"oreign  Jlissionary  Society,  founded  in 
1820,  and  incorporated  in  184(5.  Its  work  ex- 
tends throughout  the  United  States,  to  ^lexico, 
Africa,  China,  and  Japan.  The  General  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  situated  in  New-York  City, 
was  founded  at  about  the  same  period  as  the 
Missionary  Society.  Its  trustees  are  selected 
from  all  the  dioceses.  The  American  Clmrch 
Missionary  Society,  the  Evangelical  Education 
Society,  and  tlie  Evangelical  Knowledge  Society 
are  of  more  recent  origin,  being  devoted  to  the 
promotion  of  so-called  evangelical  interests.  The 
Society  for  the  Increase  of  the  Ministry  has  a 
wider  scope.  Mention  should  also  be  niaile  of 
the  Free  Church  Association  (devoted  to  tlie  w'ork 
of  increasing  the  number  of  free  sittings),  the 
Church  Congress,  the  Church  Temperance  So- 
ciety, and  the  .\merican  Church  Building-Fund 
Commission,  with  the  Western  Church  Building 
Society.  The  colleges  and  theological  .semina- 
ries number  about  twenty-five;  Columbia  and 
Trinity  College  holding  the  foremost  rank.  A 
Quurlirli/  Revitir  is  published,  together  with  twelve 
or  more  newspapers,  several  of  which  arc  influen- 
tial and  widely  circulated. 


Statistics.  —  At  the  present  time  (1886)  the 
clmrch  numbers  69  bishops,  3.729  priests  and 
deacons,  4,565  parishes  and  missions,  321  candi- 
dates for  orders,  397,192  communicants,  36,001 
Sundaj'-school  teachers,  326,203  Sunday-school 
scholars.  Aggregate  of  contributions  and  offer- 
ings for  the  year  amounts  to  §9,017,155.  There 
are  48  dioceses,  17  missionary  jurisdictions,  in- 
cluding 4  missions;  viz.,  among  the  Indians,  and 
in  Japan,  China,  and  West  Africa. 

Lit.  —  Anderson  :  History  of  the  Church  of 
England  in  the  Colonies  and  Foreign  Dependencies 
of  hie  British  Empire,  London,  1845,  1848,  1856,- 
3  vols.  8vo;  WiLBERrORCE:  History  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church  in  ylmenVa,  New  York,  1849, 
12rao;  Bishop  Perry:  Journais  of  General  Con- 
ventions of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  Clare- 
mont,  1874,  3  vols.  8vo;  Papers  Relating  to  the 
History  of  the  Church  in  Virginia,  A.D.  1650- 
1776,  privately  printed  1870,  4to,  pp.  585;  also 
the  corresponding  volumes  on  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  Massachusetts,  etc. ;  Hand-Book-  of 
General  Coni-entions  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church,  giving  its  History  and  Constitution,  1785- 
1S80,  New  York,  Thomas  Whittaker,  1881, 12mo; 
White  :  Memoirs  of  the  Protestant-Episcopal 
Church  in  the  United  States  of  America,  2d  ed., 
1836,  third  ed.  by  the  Rev.  B.  F.  DeCosta,  D.D., 
New  York,  1880 ;  DeCosta  :  yl  Voyage  unto  Saga- 
dehoc,  Boston,  the  Massachusetts  Historical  So- 
ciety, 1880  ;  The  Protestant-Episcopal  Almanac 
and  Parochial  List  for  1882,  T.  ■\\'hittaker,  New 
York.  B.  F.  DE  COSTA 

(Rector  St.  John  the  EvangeliBt,  N.Y.). 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  Reformed.  The  Eng- 
lish, unlike  the  Continental  Reformation,  was 
political  in  its  origin.  Henrj' YIII.,  casting  off 
the  yoke  of  the  Pope  of  Rome,  became  himself 
the  Pope  of  England.  Thus  released  from  eccle- 
siastical bondage,  the  English  Church,  under 
Edward  VI.,  who  was  largely  guided  by  Arch- 
bishop Cranmer,  attained  a  much  more  intelli- 
gent conception  of  spiritual  truth. 

The  Edwardian  reformers  compiled  the  First 
Book  of  Edward,  but  died  before  they  had  com- 
pleted the  Second.  During  ISlary's  reign  the 
Church  of  England  fell  back  into  the  supersti- 
tion from  which  it  seemed  to  have  escaped  ;  and 
the  teachings  of  the  Reformation,  to  use  the  lan- 
guage of  Fronde,  "passed  away  like  a  dream." 
It  was  Elizabeth's  policy  to  frame  such  a  Liturgy 
as  would  satisfy  and  conciliate  both  her  Roman- 
Catholic  and  Protestant  subjects,  and  unite  them 
in  peaceable  submission  to  the  church  and  the 
throne.  Such  a  Liturgy  was  ]iubli,shed  early  in 
her  reign,  at  a  time  when  there  was  some  hope  of 
effecting  a  reconcili.ation  with  Rome,  and,  as 
might  be  expected,  was  so  constructed  as  to  foster 
this  hope.  Later  on,  Elizabeth  became  greatly 
offended  with  the  Pope;  and  tlie  Articles  of  Reli- 
gion, which  were  issued  in  1.571,  were,  as  aeon- 
sequence,  uncompromisingly  J'rotestant  in  their 
tone.  The  royal  commissioners  of  1(189  failed  in 
their  effort  to  bring  the  Formul.ary  back  to  the 
sjiirit  of  the  .Second  Book  of  Edward. 

The  English  Prayi.'r-Book.  being  thus  the  oif- 
spring  of  compromise,  contains  within  itself  an- 
tagonistic elements;  its  ritual  (which  constitutes 
its  eilucating  power)  looking  towards  Rome;  its 
articles  of  faith,  towards  Geneva.     As  a  con.se- 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


749 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


quence  of  this  the  Church  of  England  has  always 
contained  within  itself  two  manner  of  peoples, 
two  schools  or  parties,  —  one  asserting  its  I'rot- 
estantisni,  the  other  claiming  its  affinity  with 
Rome. 

When  the  Church  of  England  in  the  Colonies 
became  the  Protestant-Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States,  these  influences,  which  had  been 
transmitted  and  perpetuated  liere,  secured  the 
retention  of  the  same  Formularies  and  Articles ; 
and  so  the  American  Book  of  Common  Prayer 
wears  all  the  marks  of  the  old  compromise. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  second  quarter  of  the 
present  century  the  Tractarian  movement  began 
at  Oxford.  It  was  an  attempt  to  revive  those 
Anglo-Catholic  sentiments  which  had  been  largely 
developed  by  Archbishop  Laud,  and,  after  his 
time  by  the  non-juring  clergy.  It  counted  among 
its  chief  promoters  John  Ilenry  Newman,  John 
Keble,  and  Dr.  Pusey.  They  and  their  associ- 
ates issued  a  number  of  publications  known  as 
Tradsfor  the  Times,  by  means  of  which  they  suc- 
ceeded in  largely  leavening  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land with  Anglo-Catholic  ideas.  These  ideas 
engendered  the  ritualistic  views  and  practices 
now  prevalent  in  the  Cliurch  of  England  and 
the  Protestant-Episcopal  Church  in  this  country. 
Newman  and  a  number  of  others  of  the  more 
advanced  medi;evalists  subsequently  united  with 
the  Church  of  Rome.  It  is  estimated  that  by 
1852  two  hundred  clergymen,  and  as  many  more 
laymen  thus  influenced,  had  abjured  Protestant- 
ism. 

This  Romeward  drift  became  shortly  afterwards 
apparent  in  the  Protestant-Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States ;  conspicuously  so  at  the  time 
of  the  ordination  of  the  Rev.  Arthur  Carey  in 
New  York,  July,  1843.  This  young  man  deemed 
the  difference  between  the  Protestant-Episcopal 
Church  and  the  Church  of  Rome  such  as  em- 
braced no  points  of  faith,  doubted  whether  the 
Church  of  Rome  or  the  Anglican  Church  were 
the  more  pure,  considered  the  Reformation  from 
Rome  unjustifiable,  and  declared  that  he  received 
the  Articles  of  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV.  so  far  as 
they  were  repetitions  of  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Trent.  On  the  ground  of  these  views  the 
Rev.  Drs.  Hugh  Smith  and  Henry  Anthon  pro- 
tested against  his  ordination,  but  in  vain.  This 
event  created  a  profound  sensation  in  the  Prot- 
estant-Episcopal Church,  and  rallied  the  Low- 
Church  or  Evangelical  party  to  the  defence  of 
their  now  clearly  endangered  principles. 

Thenceforth  tlie  antagonism  between  the  two 
parties  —  tlie  Low  Church  on  the  one  side,  and 
the  High,  with  which  the  Ritualistic  party  affili- 
ated, on  the  other  —  became  increasingly  distinct 
and  pronounced ;  the  latter  grasping  the  organ- 
ized machinery  of  the  church  in  its  domestic 
missionary  work  ;  and  the  former,  in  self-defence, 
organizing  three  societies,  —  one  for  puljlication,  a 
second  for  missionary  labor,  and  a  third  for  min- 
isterial education.  The  Low-Church  party  sought 
in  this  way  to  defend,  conserve,  and  disseminate 
its  principles. 

These  measures  widened  the  chasm.  Evangeli- 
cal men  became  more  and  more  restive  as  the 
purpose  of  the  dominant  party  to  mould  and  con- 
trol the  church  in  the  interest  of  medievalism 
became  increasingly  apparent.     Discussions  were 


had,  conferences  held.  Particular  attention  be- 
gan to  be  paid  to  the  writings  of  the  English 
reformers;  and  finally  the  conclusion  was  reached 
by  many,  that  the  root  of  the  diliiculties  which 
beset  the  church  was  to  be  found  in  the  Roman- 
ism latent  in  the  Book  of  Connnon  Prayer  as  a 
result  of  the  Elizabethan  compronnse.  Urged  by 
this  conviction,  a  movement  was  quietly  set  on 
foot  looking  toward  the  ri'vision  of  the  Prayer- 
Book  ;  and  at  a  conference  held  in  Philadelphia, 
1807,  a  committee  was  appointed  to  consider  and 
report  upon  the  subject.  iMeanwliile  the  flames- 
of  discontent  were  fanned  by  events  which  indi- 
cated a  determination  on  the  part  of  the  High- 
Church  party  to  deal  oppressively  and  repressively 
with  their  opponents. 

These  events  were  keenly  watched  by  the  Chris- 
tian public  generally,  and  undoubtedly  exerted  a 
great  influence  on  the  struggle. 

They  were :  — 

I.  The  trial  (February,  1807)  and  admonition 
of  the  Rev.  S.  H.  Tyng,  jun.,  for  preaching  in 
a  Methodist  Church  in  New  Brunswick,  N.J., 
within  the  claimed  parochial  limits  of  a  parish 
of  the  Protestant-Episcopal  Cliurch. 

II.  The  trial  (1868)  of  Rev.  J.  P.  Hubbard  of 
Rhode  Island,  for  exchanging  pulpits  with  a  Bap- 
tist clergyman. 

III.  Tiie  sentence  of  suspension,  subsequently 
of  degradation,  passed  by  an  ecclesiastical  court, 
in  the  diocese  of  Illinois,  ujion  Rev.  (now  Bishoja) 
Charles  E.  Cheney,  for  the  omission  of  the  word 
"regenerate"  in  the  baptismal  office. 

Meanwhile  the  General  Convention  of  the 
Protestant-Episcopal  Church,  which  meets  trien- 
nially,  was  besieged  with  remonstrances,  sugges- 
tions, and  petitions  for  redress  and  relief.  These 
pleadings  brought  no  result.  The  applications 
were  either  dishonored,  or  referred  to  commit- 
tees, for  quiet  burial,  to  be  heard  of  no  more. 

The  fate  of  these  measures  convinced  many  of 
the  Low-Church  party  that  the  dominant  majority 
were  resolved  to  yield  nothing,  that  no  reforitt 
could  be  hoped  for  within  the  Protestant-Episco- 
pal Church,  and  they  must  either  crush  their 
consciences,  or  seek  relief  elsewhere. 

They  were  anxiously  waiting  the  indications  of 
Providence  when  the  Sixth  General  Conference 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  met  in  the  city  of' 
New  York  (October,  1873).  While  this  distin- 
guished body  was  in  session,  a  union  communion 
service  was  held  in  one  of  the  churches  of  the 
city,  at  which,  in  company  with  the  representa- 
tives of  other  denominations.  Bishop  George  D. 
Cunmiins,  D.D.,  assistant  bishop  of  the  Protest- 
ant-Episcopal Church  in  the  diocese  of  Kentucky, 
by  invitation  officiated.  For  this  act  of  Christian 
courtesy  and  fellowship  he  was  at  once  bitterly 
assailed  through  the  pre.ss  by  representatives  of 
the  High-Church  party.  Pained  by  tliis  mani- 
festation of  exclusiveness,  and  convinced,  by  pre- 
vious experience  in  the  diocese  of  Kentucky,  that 
his  official  position  obliged  him  to  countenance,, 
in  some  degree,  the  growing  evils  of  ritualism, 
Bishop  Cummins  reached  the  conclusion  that 
he  could  not,  without  sin,  longer  give  his  life,, 
ministry,  and  influence  to  the  advancement  of  a 
church,  the  theory  and  practice  of  which,  as 
interpreted  by  the  great  m.ajority  of  its  adherents, 
denied  the  brotherhood  of   believers   in   Christ 


EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


750 


EPISCOPUS  IN  PARTIBUS. 


Accordingly,  iu  a  letter  addressed  to  the  Right 
Rev.  Bishop  Sruith,  D.D.,  the  presiding  bishop, 
he,  on  the  11th  of  Xoveniber,  1873,  withdrew 
from  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant-Episcopal 
Church. 

After  consultation  had  with  brethren  like- 
minded,  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  was 
organized,  Dec.  2,  1873,  iu  the  parlors  of  the 
Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  New- York 
City,  eight  clergymen  and  twenty  laymen  giving 
in  their  adhesion  to  the  movement.  At  the  same 
time  and  place  Bishop  Cummins  was  chosen  the 
presiding  officer  of  the  church ;  Rev.  C.  E.  Cheney, 
D.D.,  rector  of  Christ  Church,  Chicago,  was 
elected  bishop  (consecrated  by  Bishop  Cummins 
in  Chicago,  Deo.  14,  1873);  and  a  Declaration  of 
Principles  (of  which  subsecjueut  statements  of 
doctrine,  polity,  worship,  and  discipline  are  little 
more  thau  an  expansion)  was  set  forth,  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

I.  —  The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church,  holding 
"  the  faith  once  delivered  unto  the  saints,"  declares 
its  belief  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  as  the  Word  of  God,  and  the  sole  Rule 
of  Faith  and  Practice;  in  the  Creed  "commonly 
called  the  Apostles' Creed;"  in  the  Divine  institu- 
tion of  the  Sacraments  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper;  and  iu  the  doctrines  of  grace  sulistautially 
as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of 
Religion. 

II!  —  This  Church  recognizes  and  adheres  to  Epis- 
copacy, not  as  of  divine  right,  but  as  a  very  ancient 
and  desirable  form  of  church  polity. 

III. — This  Church,  retaining  a  Liturgy  which 
shall  not  be  imperative  or  repressive  of  freedom  in 
prayer,  ar-cejits  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  as  it 
was  revised,  proposed,  and  recommended  for  use  by 
the  General  Convention  of  the  Protestant-Episcopal 
Chnrch,  A.D.  ITS.'),  reserving  full  liberty  to  alter, 
abridge,  enlarge,  and  amend  the  same,  as  may  seem 
most  roriducive  to  the  editieation  of  the  people,  "  pro- 
vided that  the  substance  of  the  faith  be  kept  entire." 

IV.  —  This  Church  condemns  and  rejects  the  fol- 
lowing erroneous  and  strange  doctrines  as  contrary 
to  God's  Word:  — 

First,  That  the  Church  of  Christ  exists  only  iu  one 
order  or  form  of  ecclesiastical  polity: 

ttecond.  That  Cliristian  ministers  are  "  priests"  in 
another  sense  than  that  iu  which  all  believers  are  "  a 
royal  priesthood:  " 

Tliird,  That  the  Lord's  Table  is  an  altar  on  which 
the  oblation  of  the  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ  is  olTered 
anew  to  tlie  Father; 

Fiinrtli,  That  the  Pres(Mice  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  a  presence  iu  tlie  elements  of  Brea<l  and 
Wine: 

Fifth,  That  Regeneration  is  inseparably  connected 
with  Baptism. 

The  Reformed  Episcopal  Church  has  upon  its 
roll  ninety-two  clergymen,  including  seven  bisli- 
ops.  It  has  parishes  in  the  clii(d  cities  of  the 
United  States,  in  England,  Canada,  and  the  Ber- 
muda I.slands. 

Accoriling  to  last  official  report,  on  .June  1, 
1885,  it  had 

Coniniuiiiiants T.sTT 

Sunilay-sehciol  siholars         ....  11, JUT 
.Sunday-.seliool  ti;achers         ....  '.Nil* 
Cliurefi    propertv    (exclusive    of    encum- 
brances) valued  at $1,00".I,W;! 

.  At  the  late  (ieneral  Council  (May,  ISSo)  the 
additions  to  the  nieinbership  by  confirmation  aiul 
letter  were  HSi). 

The  conlributions  for  parochial,  benevolent, 
and  rai.ssionarv  objects,  were,  at  the  .sarae  tinu?, 
reported  as  «1:32,L'00. 


This  church  recognizes  but  t%vo  orders  in  the 
ministry,  —  the  presbyterate  and  the  diaconate. 
The  episcopate  is  not  an  order,  but  an  office;  the 
bishop  being  simply  the  first  ]iresbyter.  The 
bishops  preside  over  synods  or  jurisdictions,  do 
not,  as  in  the  Protestaut-Episcopal  Church,  con- 
stitute a  sejiarate  house,  but  in  council  vote  with 
and  as  their  brother-presbyters,  and  are  subject 
to  confirmation  or  apj>ointment  by  the  (ieneral 
Council.  See  Journals  Ten  General  Councils 
R.  E.  V.  ;  Memoir  Bishojt  Cummins,  N.Y.,  187S; 
B.  AvciiKiG  :  Memoirs  R.  E.  C,  N.Y.,  1875, 
new  ed.,  1S82.  w    t.  s.vbine 

(r.lslov  First  Rif.  Epi».  CIiuilIi,  Xt-w  Y<.rk). 

EPISCOPIUS,  Simon,  b.  in  Amsterdam,  1.583; 
d.  there  1643;  studied,  at  Leyden,  philosophy 
and  theology,  under  Jacob  Arminius  and  Francis 
Gomarus ;  but,  when  the  great  controversy  be- 
tween the  Arminians  and  the  Gomarists  broke 
out,  he  declared  for  the  former,  and  suffered 
(espiecially  after  the  death  of  Arminius,  1609)  so 
much  from  the  intolerance  of  the  latter,  that  he 
left  Leyden  altogether,  and  settled  at  Franeker. 
Iu  1010  he  accepted  the  position  as  minister  of 
Bleyswick,  a  village  in  the  neighborhood  of  Rot- 
terdam; and  when,  in  1611,  Gomarus  retired 
from  his  chair  in  Leyden,  Episcopius  was  ap- 
pointed his  successor.  In  the  beginning  he  expe- 
rienced no  trouldes.  He  wrote  his  commentaries 
upon  the  Revelation  and  the  First  Epistle  of 
John,  his  paraphrase  of  the  twenty -four  first 
chapters  of  Matthew,  etc. ;  but  by  degrees,  as  his 
fame  grew  and  the  importance  of  the  Arnunian 
party  increased,  the  anuoyances  from  the  side 
of  the  Gomarists  began.  At  the  synod  of  Dort 
(1G18)  he  was  the  principal  spokesman  of  the 
Arminians,  but  produced  very  little  effect.  He 
and  twelve  other  Arminian  theologians  were  con- 
demned by  the  synod,  and  banished  from  the 
country.  Episcojiius  went  to  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands, and  settled  in  Brussels,  where  he  wrote 
his  Con/cssio  (1622).  iu  the  name  of  all  Arminian 
theologians,  and  his  Resjionaio  (ul  tluas  I'ttri  Wad- 
im/i  Jesuila:  epistolas,  etc.  On  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  between  France  and  Si)ain  he  removed  to 
France,  where  he  lived,  partly  in  Paris  and  partly 
in  Rouen,  and  wrote  a  great  number  of  his  niinor 
treatises.  In  1626  lie  was  allowed  to  return  to 
his  native  country,  and  was  appointed  preacher 
at  the  Hemonstrant  Church  in  Amsterdam,  and 
in  1631  professor  of  theology  in  the  Arminian 
college  ill  that  city.  To  this  last  jieriod  of  his 
life  belong,  besides  his  Apoloejia  pro  Con/essione 
and  Vents  Tlieoloijus  Remonslrans.  his  two  princi- 
pal works,  Inslilulioncs  Tlieoloijica  and  Rts/ionsio 
a<I  Quasliones  T/icoliriicas,  wliidi  became  the  stand- 
ard works  of  .\rniinian  tlieoUigy.  A  collected 
edition  of  his  works  apjieari'd  in  two  volumes 
folio,  the  first  volume  e<liled  by  Carcella'ns,  1650, 
tlii^  second  by  I'oK'nlirngh,  1665.  His  life  was 
written  by  i'liii.U'  LimhoHCIi  in  Dutch,  and 
afterwards  translated  into  Latin,  1701.  [See 
Cai.DER  :  Memoirs  of  Simon  Episcopius,  New 
York,  1S37.]  '  llEri'E. 

EPISCOPUS  IN  PARTIBUS,  episcopustituia- 
ris,  episcopus  suffraga:ieus.  W'lien  the  Arabs 
coM(piered  the  .southern  part  of  .Spain,  the  Chris- 
tian bislio]is  were  expelled,  and  fled  to  Oviedo. 
There  they  remained  for  centuries,  waiting  for  a 
return  to  their  ilioceses;  and  when  one  of  thetii 


EPISTLES. 


751 


EPISTOLiE. 


<]i<'(i,  a  successor  was  itninediately  appoiiitod  to 
him.  Something  similar  took  place  when  the 
Eastern  C'hnrchwas  broken  up  by  tlie  Mohamme- 
dans. Dioceses  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
infidels  (in  pnrlibits  infiddiuiii)  had  bishops,  who 
lived  in  Rome,  or  elsewhere,  as  it  became  cus- 
tomary to  employ  these  bishops  without  dioceses 
as  help  to  such  bishops  as  were  unable  to  man- 
age the  whole  business  of  their  diocese.  Many 
misuses  and  corruptions  grew  up  from  this  cus- 
tom ;  and  the  councils,  from  that  of  Ravenna 
(l:jll)  to  that  of  Trent  (154.5),  tried  hard  to  regu- 
late, without  destroying  altogether,  the  useful 
practice. 

EPISTLES,  The,  as  the  letters  of  the  apostles 
contained  in  the  New  Testament  are  called,  may 
be  divided  into  coiif/rer/alional,  those  addressed 
to  a  particular  church,  and  dealing  with  doc- 
trinal or  practical  questions;  prh-ale,  those  ad- 
dressed to  individuals,  yet  containing  matter  of 
wider  interest ;  and  r/eneral,  those  of  an  encycli- 
cal character,  not  meant  for  any  one  church  or 
person.  Paul's  J^pistles  belong  to  the  first  two 
classes,  or  even  to  all  three,  if  the  woi'ds,  "to 
Ephesus,"  be  left  out  of  Eph.  i.  1,  as  there  is 
weighty  authority  for  doing;  in  whicli  case  this 
Epistle"  would  be  general.  John's  Epistles  be- 
long to  the  last  two  classes ;  James's,  Peter's,  and 
Jude's  to  the  last.  There  are  thirteen  Epistles  of 
Paul,  three  of  John,  two  of  Peter,  and  one  each 
of  James  and  Jude.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
is  of  uncertain  authorship. 

The  Epistles  in  their  outward  form  are  similar 
to  those  of  their  day.  With  the  exception  of 
Hebrews  and  1  John,  they  begin,  according  to 
the  custom,  with  the  author's  name,  and  that  of 
the  person  or  congregation  primarily  addressed. 
Then  follows  the  salutation  (omitted  in  3  John). 
This  is  usucilly  "  grace  "  aud  "  peace ;  "  but  in 
1  and  2  Timothy,  2  John,  and  -fude,  "  mercy  "  is 
added;  while  James  employs  the  classic  Greek 
expression,  "greeting."  "Grace"  was  Greek, 
and  "peace"  Hebrew;  but  they  were  not  used 
by  these  writers  in  their  original  sense,  which 
referred  rather  to  physical  health  and  temporal 
comfort,  but  transformed  into  a  prayer  for  the 
saving  grace  of  God  and  the  peace  in  Christ. 
In  the  body  of  the  Epistle  the  first  personal  pro- 
nouns, singular  and  plural,  are  used  indiscrimi- 
nately, just  as  they  are  in  Cicero's  letters.  The 
terminations  of  the  Epistles  vary.  James  closes 
abruptly,  and  so  does  1  John ;  2  and  3  John 
close  with  salutations ;  Romans  and  Jude,  with  a 
doxology;  the  remaining  Epistles,  with  a  brief 
benediction. 

The  earlier  Epistles  antedate  the  Gospels. 
There  was  need  of  direction  prior  to  written 
accounts  of  the  life  of  Jesus.  Our  collection  l>y 
no  means  includes  all  the  letters  of  the  apostles, 
but  only  such  as  were  inspired  for  the  reading 
and  guidance  of  the  Church  in  all  ages. 

Paul  employed  an  amanuensis  (Rom.  xvi.  22), 
and  only  added  a  few  words  at  the  close  in  his 
ewn  hand,  by  w<iy  of  authentication ;  for  it 
would  seem  that  his  letters  had  been  forged  or 
plagiarized  (1  Cor.  xvi.  21;  Gal.  vi.  11;  Col.  iv. 
18;  2  Thess.  iii.  17,  cf.  ii.  2).  This  fact  ex- 
plains many  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  style  of 
the  great  apostle ;  for  iiis  sentences  often  read 
like  the  utterances  of  an  impassioned  speaker. 


His  letters  were  the  answers  of  his  heart  and 
head  to  questions  submitted  to  him.  He  [lut  all 
liis  learning,  his  dialectical  skill,  his  tact  and 
judgment,  and  also  all  his  affection,  at  the  ser- 
vice of  his  converts  and  friends.  His  fi'llow- 
writers  did  the  same,  according  to  their  ability. 

In  the  Epistles  are  many  doctrinal  statements, 
upon  which  different  theologies  are  founded, 
besides  rich  practical  instruction.  The  chiet" 
facts  of  the  gospel  are  alluded  to;  and  so,  if  the 
Gospels  were  destroyed,  the  Churcli  vvoulil  yet 
possess  an  inspired  though  fragmentary  history 
of  her  Lord.  One  of  the  most  important  services 
of  the  Epistles  is  their  stimulus  and  support  to 
the  piety  of  the  Church.  Manj'  jiassages  in 
Paul's  writings,  1  and  2  Peler,  and  1  John  entire, 
have  ever  been  of  incalculable  value  in  centring 
the  thought  of  the  Church  upon  Christ.  The 
common  sense  of  James  makes  it  the. "  business 
man's  epistle; "  but  even  this  is  full  of  the  spirit 
of  the  Master.  No  other  religion  can  boast  of 
such  letters  as  the  twenty-one  Epistles  of  the  New 
Testament.  Tlieir  existence  is  an  unanswerable 
argument  for  the  divine  origin  of  Christianity. 
See  Letters,  Paul,  Whiting;  also  art.  Epiftle 
in  the  Biljle  Dictionaries. 

SAMUEL  M.  .JACKSON. 

TABLE    OF    THE    EPISTLE.S. 


James 

Thessalonians  I.    ) 
Tliessalonians  II.  5 
O.^latians  . 
Corinthians  I.. 
Coriiitliiaiis  II. 
Romans    . 
Colossians 
Knliesians 
Philemon 
PhilippiansJ 
Hebrews  . 

Peter  I .    . 

Timothy  I. ) 
Titus  .       .  (     ■ 
Timothy  II.     . 
Peter  II.    . 
Jmle  . 
Johnl.,  II.,  III. 


Jerusalem 

Corinth   . 

Ephesus  . 
Ephesus      I 
Macedonia  J 
Corinth    . 

Rome 


Babylon  or  \ 
Rome       j 

JIacedonia 

Rome 
Rome 
Unknown 
Ephesus  . 


Date 
(approximate). 


before  50 

.53 

56  or  57 

57 

58 

61-63 

64(V) 
64(7) 

bet.  64  and   66(?) 
65   or     67  ( ?  ) 
65    or     67 
bet.  7U  and   911 
bet.  811  and  100 


EPISTOL/EOBSCURORUM  VIRORUM.    The 

first  edition  of  this  famous  book  appeared  in 
151.5,  containing  forty-one  letters.  A  second 
edition,  unchanged,  soon  followed,  and  a  year 
later  a  third,  augmented  with  seven  letters.  In 
1517  a  new  series  appeared,  numbering  sixty-two 
letters,  which  in  the  second  edition  were  aug- 
menteci  with  eight.  Full  information  with  re- 
spect to  the  history  of  the  work  may  be  found  in 
Eduard  Booking:  Ulrichi  Hnllcni  opermn  stip- 
plemetttiim,  Leipzig,  1804-70,  2  vols.,  containing 
also  the  various  answers  to  the  book. 

The  immediate  occasion  for  the  production  of 
the  EpistolfE  obsciirnrum  virnrum  was  the  publica- 
tion in  1514,  at  Tiibingen,  of  the  Ephlohe  c/nmrtwi 
rlronim.  The  latter  intended  to  place  the  mental 
wealth  of  the  humanists  in  a  proper  light ;  and, 
as  a  supplement,  the  former  undertook  to  give  a 
picture  of  the  mental  poverty  and  moral  obscu- 
rantism of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  its  monk.s, 
and  its  scholasticism.  In  its  details  the  book  is 
often  coarse,  and  somewhat  offensive  to  modern 
taste ;  but,  considered  as  a  whole,  it  is  neverthe- 
less a  brilliant  performance.     The  caricature  of 


EQUITIUS. 


lo-l 


ERA. 


the  style  and  language  then  used  in  the  monas- 
teries is  extremely  ludicrous;  and  the  naivetL  w'lih 
which  the  viri  obsciiri  lay  bare  their  own  ignorance 
and  stupidity  is  very  enjoyable. 

With  respect  to  the  authorship,  the  plan  of  this 
"  mimical  satyre  "  was  due  to  Crotus  Rubianus ; 
and  Ulrich  von  Hutten,  a  learned  and  fearless 
knight  (see  art.),  was  liis  principal  collaborator. 
The  effect  was  tremendous.  ,  In  some  places  the 
monks  mistook  the  book,  and  believed  it  to  be  a 
serious  performance  in  their  favor ;  but  the  mis- 
take was  of  course  soon  discovered,  and  the 
delight  turned  into  rage.  Ortwiu  Gratius,  to 
whom  the  letters  are  addressed,  a  comical  person, 
a  scholastic  in  humanist  robe,  the  poctisla  asinus, 
as  Luther  called  him,  did  his  utmost  to  suppress 
it  b)'  means  of  a  papal  brief,  and  to  disturb  its 
influence  by  writing  against  it.  [German  trans., 
by  Dr.  Wilhelm  Binder,  Brkfe  i-on  Dunkebnannern, 
Stuttgart,  1S7G.]  BERNHAKD  RIGGEXBACH. 

EQUITIUS,  abbot  of  several  monasteries  in  the 
province  of  Valeria  (a  district  in  Abruzzo  Ulteri- 
ore,  thus  called  because  it  was  traversed  by  the 
Via  Valeria),  flourished  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
preached  often  in  the  neighboring  towns  and 
villages,  tliough  he  was  not  ordained.  This 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  ordained  priests,  and 
he  was  summoned  to  Rome  by  the  Pope ;  but, 
after  an  interview,  tlie  Pope  dropped  the  case. 
According  to  Alanus,  the  Waldenses  afterwards 
used  his  example  against  the  hierarchy,  when 
forbidden  to  preach  because  they  were  laymen. 
An  account  of  him.  much  mixed  up  with  legen- 
dary matters,  is  found  in  Gregoky  I.  :  Dial., 
I.  4.  HERZOG. 

ERA  (Latin  (era,  or  era)  occurs  for  the  first 
time  in  Isidorns'  EJi/m.  (V.  36),  and  is  there  ap- 
plied to  a  chronological  arrangement  by  Augustus, 
beginning  with  the  year  71(j  A.U.C.  Afterwards 
it  became  the  common  name  for  any  chronologi- 
cal arrangement  starting  from  a  fixed  point. 
Its  etymology  is  uncertain.  Ideler  derives  it 
from  the  Gothic  jcra  ("year"),  and  asserts  that 
it  was  first  used  for  the  chronology  which  the 
Visigoths  found  established  in  Spain  and  South- 
ern France.  Others  derive  it  (and  with  more 
right)  from  the  Latin  ws,  like  opera  from  opui<, 
and  ora  from  os.  Tlie  term  <Kra  (singular  femi- 
nine) is  used  already  by  Cicero  to  denote  tlie 
unit  of  certain  measurements. 

In  the  books  of  the  Old  and  Kew  Testaments, 
traces  of  an  era,  properly  speaking,  occur  only  in 
a  few  passages ;  a  circumstance  not  to  be  won- 
dered at,  on  account  of  the  great  age  and  devo- 
tional character  of  these  books.  The  nations  of 
anticpiity  u.sed  no  era,  either  in  their  private  or 
in  tlieir  public  life :  contrivances  of  that  kind 
were  left  solely  to  the  liistorians  and  the  chro- 
nologista  by  profession.  Even  the  Romans, 
though  they  had  a  fixed  era,  beginning  witli  the 
year  of  the  building  of  Home,  dated  all  public 
and  private  documents,  in  social  and  political 
life,  simply  by  the  name  of  the  consul  in  oflice, 
to  wliich  afterwards  was  added  tlie  year  of  the 
reign  of  the  emperor.  In  the  historical  and 
proplietical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  dates 
of  some  kind  or  other  are  of  frei|uent  occurrence; 
but  continuous  computation  of  time  from  a  fixed 
point  is  very  rare.  In  the  Pentateuch,  and  down 
to  the  time  of  Jacob,  all  chronology  is  bound  up 


with  genealogy.  When  the  Israelites  had  kings 
of  their  own,  they  dated  the  year  after  the  reign 
of  the  king,  as  is  done  in  Kings,  Chronicles,  and 
Jeremiah.  When  tliey  were  subjugated  by  for- 
eign peoples,  they  dated  after  the  reign  of  the 
foreign  ruler :  as,  for  instance,  after  the  Babylo- 
nian kings  (Jer.  xxv.  1,  lii.  12,  28;  Dan.  ii.  1, 
vii.  1),  or  the  Persian  kings  (Ez.  iv.  24,  vi.  15, 
vii.  7;  Nell.  ii.  1,  v.  14,  xiii.  6;  Hag.  i.  1,  ii. 
11;  Zech.  vii.  1;  Dan.  x.  1).  Dates  of  this 
kind  also  occur  in  the  New  Testament  (Luke  iii. 
1 ;  Matt.  ii.  1 ;  Luke  i.  5).  Sometimes,  though 
not  often,  great  national  events  are  used  as 
chronological  starting-points ;  as,  for  instance, 
the  exodus  (Exod.  xix.  1;  Num.  xxxiii.  38.; 
1  Kings  vi.  1),  or  the  beginning  of  the  Baby- 
lonian exile  (Ezek.  xxxiii.  21,  xl.  1).  When 
the  Jews  became  Syrian  subjects,  they  adopted 
the  Seleucidian  era,  beginning  with  the  year  312 
B.C.  It  is  uniformly  used  in  the  first  two  books 
of  the  Maccabees ;  though  else  it  appears  that 
the  authors  of  the  books  of  the  Maccabees  do  not 
date  from  exactly  the  same  starting-point. 

The  establishment  of  the  Christian  Church 
was  not  immediately  followed  by  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Christian  era.  For  centuries  the 
Christians  continued  to  date,  each  in  the  way  to 
which  he  was  accustomed.  Thus  the  Christians 
of  the  East  continued  to  use  the  Seleucidian  era; 
and,  indeed,  the  Syrian  Christians  still  use  it  in 
all  ecclesiastical  affairs  besides  the  Christian  era, 
only  that  a  dift'erence  with  respiect  to  the  com- 
putation of  New  Year  has  crept  in  among  them ; 
the  Nestorians  and  Jacobites  reckoning  from 
Oct.  1,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  from  Sept.  1. 
In  Alexandria  the  era  of  Diocletian  was  adopted 
for  the  computation  of  Easter.  It  begins  witli 
the  reign  of  Diocletian  (Aug.  2!t,  284)  ;  and,  as 
this  reign  was  ushered  in  with  horrible  persecu- 
tions, the  era  received  the  name  of  yEra  Mar- 
li/rum.  It  was  commonly  used  in  Egypt,  in  all 
civil  aft'airs,  down  to  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs; 
and  it  is  still  used  by  the  Egyptian  and  Ethio- 
[lian  Christians,  thougli  the  latter  also  employ  a 
world-era,  beginning  from  the  creation.  The 
Christian  Armenians  date  from  the  year  551 
A.D.,  when  their  chronology  was  reformed  and 
finally  fixed  by  the  patriarch  Moses. 

The  Christian  era,  thus  called  because  it  dates 
from  the  person  of  Christ,  is  now  universally 
used  by  the  nations  of  Europe  and  America;  but 
five  centuries  elapsed  bi^fore  it  was  invented,  and 
five  more  before  it  was  generally  adopted.  In 
537  tlie  Emperor  Justinian  ordered  that  all  pub- 
lic docuniiMits  should  be  dated  by  the  year  of  the 
emperor,  the  name  of  tlie  consul,  the  indiction 
(tax-period),  the  month,  and  the  day  (Aovetta, 
XLVII.)  ;  but  ill  511  the  last  consul  was  elected, 
and  the  need  of  a  new  starting-point  for  the 
computation  of  time,  fixed  once  for  all,  and  gen- 
erally adopted,  became  more  and  more  urgent. 
Meanwhile,  in  .525,  the  Roman  abbot,  Dioiiysius, 
had  begun  in  his  Easter-tables  to  count  tlie  years 
ah  incariuitiime  Domini,  and  not  after  the  era  of 
Diocletian;  which,  though  adopted  by  the  Alex- 
andrians, never  became  jiojiular  among  tlie  Chris- 
tians. The  first  year  of  this  Dioiiysian  era  runs 
i  from  Jan.  1  to  Dec.  31,  751  A.U.C. ;  and  the  birth 
I  of  Jesus  falls  towards  the  close  of  (he  year,  —  Dec. 
i  25,  as,  according  to   common  patristical  usage. 


ERASMUS. 


rss 


ERASMUS, 


incarnatio  means  conception  and  not  natlvitas. 
This  method  of  computing  time  found  great 
favor ;  and  Bede  and  Cliarlemagne  contributed 
much  to  introduce  it.  Jn  the  tenth  century  it 
was  widely  adopted.  In  Spain,  howevei-,  it  did 
not  supersede  the  so-called  Spanish  era,  begin- 
ning with  the  year  71G  B.C.,  until  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  In  Russia  it  was 
introduced  in  1700  by  Peter  the  Great.  Great 
inconveniences  arose  at  first,  from  the  circum- 
stance, that,  in  different  places,  the  year  was  begun 
at  different  dates, —  Dec.  25,  Jan.  1,  March  2.5, 
or  Easter  Day.  Thus  there  was  a  difference  of  a 
whole  year  between  the  chronology  of  Pisa  and 
that  of  Florence  i  and  uniformity  was  not  estab- 
lished until  1710.  The  German  emperor  began 
the  year  at  Dec.  25,  until  the  latter  part  of  the 
sixteenth  century;  France,  at  Easter  Day,  until 
1567.  Jan.  1  was  not  fixed  upon  as  New- Year's 
Day  in  Scotland  until  1.590,  and  in  England  1752. 

A  world's  era,  dating  from  the  creation,  and 
■constructed  out  of  the  Old  Testament,  was  in  use 
among  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  Christ.  The  Jew- 
ish historian,  Josephus,  employs  it  in  his  work 
on  archEeology.  Such  an  era  seems  to  recom- 
mend itself  in  several  respects  ;  but  its  construc- 
tion presents  difficulties  which  can  hardly  ever 
be  overcome.  Every  scholar  who  tries  comes  to 
a  diilerent  result.  L'art  de  verifier  les  dales  gives 
no  less  than  a  hundred  and  eight  different  views; 
and  the  two  extremes  differ  no  less  than  two 
thousand  years  from  each  other.  .lulius  Africa- 
nus  counts,  from  the  creation  to  Christ,  5, .500 
years ;  Eusebius,  Bede,  and  the  Roman  mar- 
tyrologiura,  5,199;  Scaliger  and  Calvisius,  3,950; 
Kepler  and  Petavius,  3,984;  Ussher,  4,004,  etc. 
Uniformity  is  not  to  be  hoped  for  under  such 
circumstances ;  and  without  uniformity  no  prac- 
tical good  can  be  accomplished.  The  so-called 
Byzantine  or  Constantinopolitan  era  also  begins 
from  creation,  and  counts  5,509  years  down  to 
Christ.  It  first  occurs  in  the  Chronicon  Paschale, 
from  the  seventh  century ;  but  it  was  afterwards 
generally  adopted  by  the  Byzantine  historians, 
the  East-Roman  emperors,  and  the  patriarchs  of 
the  Eastern  Church,  and  it  is  still  used  through- 
out the  Greek  Church,  with  the  exception  of 
Russia. 

Lit.  —  Ideler  :  Handbuch  der  mathematischen 
mnd  technischen  Chronotogie,  2  vols,  1825-20  ;  Lehr- 
buch  der  Ckronologie,  1831 ;  [B.  Neteler  :  Zu- 
sammenhang  d.  A.T.  Zeitrechnung  mil  d.  Profan- 
gesckichie,  MUnster,  1879  ;  A.  Schaf'er  :  Die  bibl. 
Chronol.  vom  A  uszuge  aus  Aegypten  bis  zutn  Bet/mne 
d.  babylon.  Exils,  MUnster,  1879;  Bruno  Krusch  : 
Sludien  zur  christlick-mittelalterlichen  Chronologie. 
Der  8Jf  julirige  Osterctjclus  u.  seine  Quellen,  Leip., 
1880;  Victor  Floigl  :  Die  Chronol.  der  Bihel,  des 
Manetho  u.  Beros,  Leip.,  1880].     K.  "WIESELER. 

ERASMUS,  St.,  was  bishop  somewhere  in  the 
patriarchate  of  Antioch,  suffered  much  under 
Diocletian  in  Antioch  and  Sirmium,  and  d.  at 
Formiae  in  Campania,  whither  he  had  retired. 
Already  Gregory  the  Great  calls  him  a  martyr 
{^Ep.  I.  8),  and  his  acts  are  found  in  Act.  Sanct., 
June  2.  In  the  ninth  century,  when  Formiae  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  his  bones  were  brought 
to  Gaeta ;  nevertheless,  several  other  Italian 
cities  boast  of  possessing  them.  As  he  is  often 
lepresented  with  the  intestines  laid  bare,  he  has 
49—1 


become  the  popular  jiatron  of  stomach-ache  and 
all  kinds  of  complaints  of  the  bowels.  In  Italy 
and  Portugal  he  is  worshipped  under  the  name 
of  St.  Elmo.  IIEEZOQ. 

ERASMUS,  Desiderius,  the  mo.st  brilliant  rep- 
resentative of  humanistic  culture  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  the  head  of 
a  movement  in  the  interest  of  a  reformation  of 
ecclesiastical  abuses  which  prepared  the  way  for 
the  Protestant  Reformation.  His  life  divides 
itself  naturally  into  three  periods  ;  the  first,  last- 
ing till  1507,  was  the  period  of  gradual  emancipa- 
tion from  the  fetters  of  his  age  ;  the  second  lasted 
till  1519,  and  marked  his  greatest  reputation  and 
most  efficient  reformatory  activity;  the  last  is  the 
period  of  conflict,  isolation,  and  final  abandon- 
ment of  the  Reformation  movement. 

Erasmus  was  b.  in  Rotterdam,  and  d.  in  Basel 
July  12,  1530.  The  date  of  birth  is  variously 
put  in  1466,  1467,  and  1469.  Oct.  28,  1465,  is 
probably  the  right  one,  and  is  favored  by  the 
statement  of  Rhenanus,  that  Erasmus  died  in  his 
seventieth  year,  as  by  his  own  .statement  {Ep. 
207,  Feb.  26,  1516),  •'  I  have  entered  my  fifty-first 
year."  He  seems  to  have  been  born  out  of  wed- 
lock. His  father,  Gerhard  Roger,  according  to 
some  accounts,  was  a  priest  at  the  time;  but 
according  to  others  he  did  not  enter  a  convent 
till  after  the  event.  Erasmus  was  sent  to  the 
famous  school  of  Hegius  at  Deventer,  attended 
at  that  time  by  two  tliousand  scholars.  His 
parents  died  in  his  thirteenth  year,  and,  being- 
cheated  by  a  guardian  out  of  his  inheritance,  he 
entered  the  convent  school  of  Herzogenbusch, 
and  subsequently  took  vows  in  the  convent  of 
Emaus,  at  Steyn.  At  a  later  period  (1514)  he 
calls  this  step  the  direst  misfortune  of  his  life. 
In  1491  he  went  into  the  service  of  the  Bishop  of 
Cambray,  who  sent  him  to  Paris  to  conclude  his 
studies.  While  attending  the  College  of  Mon- 
taigu  he  contracted  a  disease,  which  forced  him 
to  seek  relief  in  Holland.  Returning  to  Paris,  he 
acted  as  tutor  to  several  English  youths,  one  of 
whom,  Lord  Mountjoy,  induced  him  to  visit  Eng- 
land in  1498.  Erasmus  resided  for  a  while  at 
Oxford,  and  formed  a  close  friendship  with  More 
and  Colet.  In  the  face  of  Henry  VII. 's  offer  of 
a  house,  and  a  pension  amounting  to  a  thousand 
pounds  in  present  money,  he  returned  to  the 
Continent.  In  1500  his  Adagia  (a  collection  of 
proverbs  and  witty  sayings  derived  from  ancient 
writers)  appeared,  and  in  1502  the  Enchiridion 
Militis  Christiani,  which,  he  says,  was  "designed 
to  counteract  the  error  of  those  who  place  piety  in 
ceremonies  and  external  observances,  but  neglect 
its  very  essence  "  (Ep.  102).  In  1505  he  edited 
Valla's  Annotations  to  the  New  Testament  with 
a  preface,  which  calls  for  a  return  to  the  Greek 
text,  and  its  grammatical  exposition  as  the  funda- 
mental conditions  of  a  right  understanding  of 
the  Scriptures.  In  1506  he  visited  Italy,  taking 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  at  Turin,  and 
receiving  from  the  highest  dignitaries  marks  of 
distinction.  In  1509  he  returned  to  England, 
forming  on  the  way  the  plan  of  his  Encomium 
Morite  ("  The  Praise  of  Folly  "),  which  subse- 
quently appeared  with  a  dedication  to  More  in 
1511.     Here  the  second  period  of  his  career  be- 


gins 


Erasmus  was  now  in  the  zenith  of  his  fame,  a 


ERASMUS. 


754 


ERASMUS. 


fame  which  has  never  been  surpassed  in  the 
annals  of  I7ien  of  letters.  He  remained  in  Eng- 
land about  five  years,  a  part  of  the  time  lecturing 
at  Cambridge.  Returning  to  Brabant,  he  was 
elected  by  the  archduke  one  of  his  counsellors. 
and  subsequently  to  a  similar  position  by  Charles 
V.  From  151.5  to  1521  he  resided  in  Brussels. 
Antwerp,  and  Louvain  (Ep.  354).  A  jiapal  brief 
gave  him  a  much  desired  relief  from  the  duties 
and  dress  of  his  monastic  vow.  From  1514  all 
his  writings  were  published  by  Froben  at  Basel. 
This  necessitated  frequent  journeyings  to  .Swit- 
zerland through  Germany.  The.se  journeys  were 
triumphant  processions;  scholars,  councils,  and 
bishops  doing  him  honmge.  His  correspondence 
at  this  period  was  enormous,  and  included  princes, 
the  highest  prelates,  and  the  Pope  himself.  In 
Germany  a  party  grew  up  called  the  "  Eras- 
mians,"  which  regarded  him  as  a  leader  of  a  new 
movement  in  the  church  as  well  as  in  the  de- 
partment of  letters.  Among  the  writings  of  this 
period  are  a  school-book,  de  DupHci  Copia  Ver- 
borum  ac  Reruin,  1512,  and  the  Colloquia  Familia- 
rla,  1518,  1.522,  much  enlarged  in  1526.  The 
latter  is  the  most  read  of  all  Erasmus'  writings. 
It  contains  the  keenest  sarcasm,  and  wittiest  sal- 
lies against  conventual  life,  fasting,  pilgrimages, 
and  the  worship  of  saints.  He  edited  numerous 
editions  and  translations  of  classic  authors  and 
the  fathers,  the  most  valuable  of  which  is  that 
of  Jerome.  The  most  important  of  all  Erasmus' 
works  appeared  in  1516.  It  had  a  decided  influ- 
ence upon  the  Reformation.  It  was  an  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament  under  the  title  of  Novum 
Instrumentum  omne,  diligenter  ab  Erafmo  Botero- 
dmno  recognitum  el  emeiviatum,  etc.  Besides  the 
text,  it  contained  a  Latin  translation,  which  de- 
parts quite  largely  from  the  Vulgate ;  and  anno- 
tations justifying  these  departures,  explaining  dif- 
ferent piassages,  and  condemning  frequently,  by 
comparison  with  apo.stolic  teaching,  the  excesses 
and  ignorance  of  the  monks.  The  work  was  pref- 
aced with  a  dedication  to  Leo  X.  to  stamp  it  with 
the  sanction  of  the  Church.  An  Introduction,  com- 
posed of  three  parts,  exhorts  to  the  study  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  text  was  faidty,  aiul  inferior  to  tliat 
of  the  Complutensian  Polyglot,  which,  although 
completed  two  years  previously,  di<l  not  appear 
till  1520.  The  printer's  errors  were  corrected  in 
subsequent  editions,  but  the  editorial  faults  re- 
mained. This  text  had  a  very  large  circulation. 
Within  a  few  decades,  thirty  unauthorized  re- 
prints were  made.  Erasmus  himself  sent  out 
four  more  editions.  Luther's  translation  was 
based  upon  the  second  edition  (1510)  ;  and  in  the 
third  (1522)  thi'  editor  ri'sl<^)red  to  the  text  1  John 
V.  7,  "  ne  cui  foret  ansa  calumniandi."  (See 
BiitLK  Text.)  In  1517  he  began  to  publish  the 
I'araphni.ie.K  of  the  Epi.stles  and  Gospels,  which 
also  exerted  an  extensive  influence  ujion  the 
Reformation. 

In  these  writings  Erasmus  is  in  many  points 
the  precursor  of  the  Reformation.  His  satire 
again.st  the  ecclesiastical  abuses  and  corruption 
of  the  day  is  keen  and  bold.  He  also  made  the 
Scriptures  the  standard  of  doctrine  and  life  in 
the  Church.  They  had  disabused  his  own  mind 
of  prejudices  in  favor  of  the  specific  holiness  of 
cloistral  and  celibate  life.  With  the  Reformers 
he  thua  far  agreed.     He  differed  in   particulars 


equally  important.  They  found  the  essence  of 
Christianity  in  the  reconciliation  of  the  sinner 
to  God  and  his  sense  of  the  forgiveness  of  sin. 
Erasmus  regarded  Christ  from  another  stand- 
point, as  the  exemplar  of  all  virtue,  and  the 
restorer  of  moral  order  to  the  world.  The  Re- 
formers were  Augustinian  in  their  theology,  he 
Pelagian.  Erasmus  treated  with  somewhat  of 
indifference  the  doctrinal  part  of  Christianity, 
and  at  times  estimated  the  morality  of  Greece 
and  Rome  so  high  as  to  obliterate  the  line  be- 
tween it  and  that  of  Christianity  (Enchir.,  ii., 
etc.). 

There  were  certain  defects  of  character,  and 
certain  qualities  of  disposition,  which  explain  the 
failure  of  Erasmus  to  understand  and  advocate 
the  Reformation.  His  opposition  to  the  state  of 
the  Church  had  proceeded  from  aesthetic  feeling, 
rather  than  from  moral  indignation.  He  lacked 
the  enthusiasm  of  a  moral  cause.  He  says  he 
would  rather  sacrifice  a  part  of  the  truth  than  de- 
stroy peace  {Ep.  643,  Dec.  25,  1522).  After  long 
vacillation,  in  which  the  fear  of  man  comes  out 
only  too  conspicuously,  he  cut  loose  from  the 
Reformation. 

The  third  period  of  Erasmus'  life  is  marked 
by  a  complete  rupture  with  the  Reformers.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  attributed  their  emanci- 
pation from  the  dominion  of  the  Church  to  his 
writings.  He  was  popularly  classed  with  them. 
But  Luther  saw  deeper,  and  wrote  to  Lange 
(Letters  22,  29),  "  I  fear  that  Erasmus  does  not 
sufficiently  exalt  Christ  and  the  divine  grace." 
But  down  to  his  letter  of  March  28,  151!i,  to 
Erasmus,  he  had  the  highest  esteem  for  him, 
calling  him  "our  pride  an<l  hope."  In  his  rejOy 
{Ep.  325).  Erasmus,  while  applauding  Luther's 
attitude  towards  the  friars,  counsels  him  tn  be 
moderate  and  careful.  After  preserving,  as  long 
as  it  was  possible,  an  attitude  of  neutrality,  he 
gradually  drew  off  from  the  German  reformer, 
and  studiously  avoided  his  writings,  lest  he  should 
be  called  upon  to  give  an  opinion  upon  them. 
[Mr.  Froude  keenly  discriniin.ates  between  these 
two  men  in  his  e.ssay :  "In  Luther,  belief  in  God 
was  the  first  principle  of  life  :  in  Erasmus  it  was 
an  inference  which  might  be  taken  away,  and 
yet  leave  the  world  a  very  tolerable  and  habita- 
l)le  place,"  etc.]  In  spite  of  this,  his  enemies 
(Ep.  562)  said  Lutli£r  liad  sucked  poison  at  his 
breast,  or  that  he  "laid  the  egg  which  l^uther 
hatched  out."  Erasmus  was,  however,  still  op- 
posed to  persecution,  and  did  not  conceal  his 
disgust  at  the  papal  bull  of  excommunication. 
But  in  a  letter  to  Leo  X.,  dated  Sept.  13.  1.520, 
he  hastens  to  clear  himsi'lf  of  all  connection  with 
the  excommunicated  reformer,  and  to  declare  that 
only  his  incapacity,  and  fear  of  stiiring  up  strife, 
keep  him  from  answering  Luther  {Ep.  .529). 
Neither  deatli  nor  life  wouhl  induce  him  to  leave 
the  comnnniion  of  the  Church  (Ep.  621,645). 

In  1.521,  no  longer  feeling  himself  safe  in  the 
Netherlands,  Erasmus  went  to  Ba.sel  to  reside 
permanently.  'I"he  opiui  breach  with  L\ithcr  was 
now  to  occur.  In  Se]>tember,  1524,  he  wrote,  in 
answer  to  the  reformer,  his  Diatribe  de  Libera 
Arbiirio.  The  work  shows  him  to  be  unequal  to 
the  jiroblem,  and  inferior  to  Luther,  who  rei>lied 
in  the  De  Servo  Arbiirio.  Er.asmus  wrote,  in  1526, 
a  feeble   retort,  —  Uyperaspistes.     Luther  hence- 


ERASTIANISM. 


755 


ERNESTI. 


forth  regarded  Erasmus  as  a  "sceptic  and  epicu- 
rean, an  enemy  of  all  true  religion."  In  lij'i.'i 
Erasmus  broke  off  correspondence  with  Zwingli, 
and  henceforth  he  regarded  the  lieforination  as  a 
calamity  and  a  crime  (Ep.  9(t(J).  In  contrast  to 
his  former  utterances,  he  now  ridiculed  the  mar- 
riage of  the  clergy,  and  proclaimed  for  the  author- 
ity of  the  Church  to  punish  heretics  with  death. 
The  Reformation  extended  to  Basel ;  and  he 
removed  to  Freiburg,  in  Breisgau,  where  he  heard 
with  satisfaction  the  news  of  Zwingli's  and  tEco- 
lampadius'  death  (Ep.  1206). 

In  the  last  decade  of  his  life  the  most  of  his 
editions  of  the  fathers  appeared,  —  Hilary  (1523). 
IreniEus  (1526),  Ambrose  (1.527),  Augustine  (1528), 
Epiphanius  (1.529),  Chrysostom  (1530),  Origen 
(1531).  His  Modus  Confilendi  (1525)  vindicated 
the  confessional,  and  his  Ecclesiaxlex  (1535)  is  in 
many  respects  a  valuable  homiletic  commentary. 
While  bowing  submissively  to  the  Church,  he 
still  continued  to  ridicule  ecclesiastical  abuses. 
The  Sorbonne,  in  1527,  condenmed  thirty-two 
articles  extracted  from  his  works,  after  having 
previously  forbidden  the  circulation  of  the  Col- 
Uxjiiies  in  France.  But  the  Pope's  friendship 
suffered  no  abatement.  Paul  III.  offered  to  make 
him  cardinal,  but  he  declined  on  account  of  age. 
Erasmus  returned  to  Basel  in  1535,  where  he 
died  of  an  attack  of  his  old  trouble,  the  stone, 
combined  with  dysentery.  He  died  without  the 
priest,  but  invoking  the  mercy  of  Christ.  His 
body  lies  interred  in  the  cathedral  of  Basel.  A 
lifelike  portrait  by  Hans  Holbein  hangs  in  the 
museum  of  the  same  city. 

Lit.  —  A  collected  edition  of  Erasmus'  works, 
■with  biographical  sketch,  appeared,  under  the 
editorship  of  his  friend  Beatus  Rhenanus,  at 
Basel,  1540,  9  vols,  folio;  more  complete,  but  less 
accurate,  edition,  by  Le  Clerc,  10  folio  vols., 
Leyden,  1703-06.  The  most  valuable  lives  are : 
Bayle,  in  his  Dictionary;  Knight,  Camb.,  1726; 
JORTIN,  Lond.,  1748,  2  vols.;  Hess:  Erasmus  v. 
Rotterd.,  Zurich,  1789,  2  vols. ;  Muller,  Hamb., 
1828;  Seebohm  :  Oxford  Reformers,  Lond.,  2d  ed., 
1869;  Durand  de  Laur  :  Erasme,  Pre'curseur  et 
initiateur  de  I'esprit  moderne,  Paris,  1872,  2  vols. ; 
Drummond  :  Erasmus,  his  Life  and  Character, 
Lond.,  1873,  2  vols. ;  [Froude  :  Times  of  Eras- 
mus and  Luther,  3  lectures  in  Short  Studies  on 
Great  Subjects,  1st  series.  Am.  ed.,  1873;  Pen- 
nington: Life  of  Erasmus,  *Lond.,  1875;  A. 
Horawitz  :  Erasmiana,  Wien,  1878  sqq.,  IV., 
1885;  E.  Walter;  Erasmus  u.  Melanchthon. 
Bernburg,  1879,  26  pp.  ;  A.  G[lly  :  Erasme  de 
Rotterdam,  sa  situation  en  face  de  Ce't/lise  et  de  la  lihre 
/Jensf'e,  Arras.  1879:  trans,  of  Erasmus's  Prai/ers, 
London,  1872;  Pdf/rimaf/es,  1875;  Praise  of'  Folhi, 
1878;  Colloquies,  1.S7S,  2  vols.]     Rl'D.  8TA1IKI,IX.  " 

ERASTIANISM.     See  Erastu.-?. 

ERASTUS,  Thomas,  b.  Sept.  7,  1.524,  at  Baden, 
in  Switzerland,  or,  according  to  another  account, 
at  Auggen,  in  the  margraviate  of  Baden;  d.  at 
Basel,  Jan.  1,  1583;  studied  theology  at  Basel, 
and  philosophy  and  medicine  at  Bologna  and 
Padua,  and  was  in  1558  appointed  body-physi- 
cian to  the  elector-palatine,  and  professor  of 
medicine  at  Heidelberg,  wlience,  in  1580,  he 
moved,  as  professor  of  medicine,  to  Basel.  As  a 
practical  physician  he  enjoyed  a  great  reputation, 
and  a.'q  a,  student  of  nature  he  strenuously  opposed 


the  astrology,  alchemy,  and  magic  of  Paracelsus 
and  his  school ;  but  it  is  chiefly  as  a  theologian 
that  his  name  lias  became  known  to  the  after- 
world.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Zwingli;  took  active 
I)art  in  the  conferciiccH  at  Heidelberg  (1560)  and 
Maulbronn  (15()4);  and  defended,  in  the  contro- 
versy concerning  tin?  Lord's  Supjier,  the  Swiss 
view  against  Dr.  Johann  Marbach.  a  Lutheran 
minister  at  Strassbnrg.  Some  years  later  he  had 
occasion  to  defend  his  master's  ideas  against  the 
Calvinists  in  a  question  of  church-polity.  There 
was  in  Heidelberg  a  Calvinist  party,  headed  by 
Caspar  Olevianus,  which  wanted  to  introduce  in 
the  country  a  purely  presbyterian  church-consti- 
tution with  a  corresponding  church-discipline. 
Erastus  strongly  opposed  the  movement,  but  in 
vain.  He  was  himself  the  very  first  victim  of 
the  established  church-discipline,  being  excom- 
municated on  a  charge  of  latent  L'nitarianism. 
He  was  restored  after  five  years;  but,  six  years 
after  his  death  (1589),  Castelvetro,  who  had  mar- 
ried his  widow,  published  a  work  of  his,  Expli- 
catio  grarissimcE  i/uecstionis,  utrum  excommunicatio 
mandato  nitatur  dii'ino,  an  excof/itata  sit  ah  homini- 
hus,  written  in  1568,  and  found  among  his  post- 
humous papers.  The  book,  written,  according 
to  the  fashion  of  the  time,  in  form  of  theses, 
and  denying  that  excommunication  is  a  divine 
ordinance,  that  the  Church  has  any  power  to  make 
laws  or  decrees,  and  to  inflict  pains  and  penalties 
of  any  kind,  that  the  sins  of  professing  Chris- 
tians are  to  be  punished  by  pastors  and  elders, 
instead  of  the  civil  magistrate,  etc.,  attracted 
much  attention,  and  was  attacked  liy  Beza.  It 
was  translated  into  English  in  1659,  and  again, 
in  1844,  by  R.  Lee  ;  and  its  views  were  adopted  by 
a  distinct  party  in  the  Westminster  Assembly, 
headed  by  Selden,  Lightfoot,  Coleman,  and  White- 
locke.  Since  that  time  the  doctrine  of  the  State 
supremacy  in  ecclesiastical  causes  generally  goes 
under  the  name  of  Erastianism  :  though  in  its 
broad  sense,  and  wide  application,  this  doctrine  is 
by  no  means  due  to  Erastus.       G.  V.  LECHLER. 

EREMITE.     See  Anchorite.s. 

ERNESTI,  Johann  August,  b.  Aug.  4,  1707,  at 
Tennstiidt,  in  Thuringia;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Sept.  11, 
1781 ;  studied  at  Wittenberg  and  Leipzig,  and 
was  ajipointed  professor,  in  the  latter  place,  of 
classical  literature  (1742),  of  rhetoric  (1756), 
and  of  theology  (1758).  As  a  philologist  he  en- 
joyed a  great  fame.  His  editions  of  Cicero, 
Homer,  Xenophon,  Tacitus,  etc.,  were  celebrated  ; 
and  his  Opuscula  Oratorio  (1762),  Opuscula  philo- 
lor/ico-crilica  (1764),  and  Initia  Doctrince  Solidioris 
(1736)  were  much  read.  His  principal  theologi- 
cal work  is  his  Instilutio  Inlerpretis  N.  T.  (1761), 
[translated  into  English  by  Terrot,  and  published 
in  the  Biblical  Calnnet,  Edinburgh,  1834,]  which 
opened  a  new  epoch  in  the  history  of  hermeneu- 
tics,  and  founded  the  grammatico-historical 
school.  Its  principle  is,  that,  in  the  divinely 
inspired  book,  the  sense  shall  not  be  sought  for, 
nor  can  it  be  found  out.  by  any  other  method  than 
that  applied  to  an  ordinary  human  book  ;  and 
by  this  principle  the  chains  of  the  old  dogmati- 
cal method  of  interpretation  were  burst.  He 
also  edited  the  Theolor/ische  Bibliothek.  first  series, 
1760-69,  second,  1773-79.  See  Teller  :  Emeslis 
Verdienste  um  Theologie  und  Religion,  Leipzig, 
1783;  Semler:  Zusatze  :u   Teller,    Halle,    1783; 


ERPBNIUS. 


756 


ERSKINB. 


S.  VAN  Vorst:  Oratio  de  Ernestio,  Lugd.   Bat., 
1804.  HAGENBACn. 

ERPENIUS,  Thomas  (van  Erpe),  b.  at  Goikum, 
in  South  Holland,  Sept.  7,  158-i;  d.  at  Leyden, 
Nov.  13,  10:24:;  studied  at  Middleburg  and  l^ey- 
-den ;  travelled  in  England,  France,  Italy,  and 
Germany;  and  was  in  1013  appointed  professor 
•of  Oriental  languages  at  the  University  of  Ley- 
den, acting  at  the  same  time  as  interpreter  to  the 
government.  He  was  the  first  to  draw  attention 
to  the  great  advantages  which  the  student  of  the 
Bible  may  derive  from  a  knowledge  of  the  Arab 
language  and  literature.  His  Grammatica  Arahica 
(1613)  and  Ptudimenla  Linguce  Arahicm  (1620) 
were  universally  used  by  Arab  students  for  two 
■centuries,  until  they  were  superseded  by  the 
works  of  De  Sacy.  His  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  Arabic  appeared  1616;  that  of  the 
Pentateuch,  1622.  See  P.  Scriverius  :  Manes 
Erpemanl.  Leiden,  1625.  R.  GOSCIIE. 

ERSKINE,  Ebenezer,  M.A.,  founder  of  the 
Scottish  Secession  Church;  b.  June  22,  1080;  d. 
-June  2,  1754.  His  father,  Henry  Erskine,  an 
English  Nonconformist  minister  (ejected  by  the 
Act  of  Conformity,  1662,  and  a  sufferer  otherwise 
from  the  persecutions  of  the  reign  of  Charles  II.), 
belonged  to  the  family  of  the  Earls  of  Mar.  His 
■mother,  Margaret  Halcro,  was  descended,  on  one 
side,  from  Halcro,  Prince  of  Denmark,  and  on  the 
-other  from  the  Duke  of  Albany,  son  of  James  V. 
•of  Scotland.  Both  parents  were  even  more  dis- 
tinguished by  their  piety  and  holy  living  than 
by  birth.  The  son  inherited  their  more  valuable 
•qualities,  but  also  somewhat  of  the  high  spirit 
not  unbecoming  the  noble  blood  which  flowed  in 
his  veins.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  having  been  licensed  as  a  pro- 
bationer in  February,  1703,  he  was  ordained  min- 
ister of  the  parish  of  Portmoak  before  the  end  of 
the  same  year.  In  1731  he  was  translated  to  the 
.more  important  charge  of  Stirling,  which  he  occu- 
pied till  his  deposition  from  the  ministry  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  in  1740. 

As  a  minister  of  the  National  Church,  no  less 
than  after  his  secession,  his  labors  wei-e  most 
abundant,  and  eminently  successful.  Few  min- 
isters of  that  day  enjoyed  greater  popularity  as  a 
preacher.  People  came  from  distances  of  sixty 
•or  seventy  miles  to  benefit  by  his  ministrations; 
and  at  the  dispensation  of  the  communion  it  was 
sometimes  found  necessary,  even  in  the  small 
parish  of  Portmoak,  to  make  provision  for  no 
fewer  than  two  thousand  participants.  His  dis- 
courses were  plain,  even  homely  in  style,  but 
were  delivered  with  a  certain  elevation  and  dig- 
nity of  manner  vvhich  was  always  characteristic 
of  him.  A  contemporary,  Mr.  llutton,  minister 
of  Dalkeith,  writes,  "  I  never  saw  so  much  of  the 
majesty  of  God  in  any  mortal  man  as  in  Ebenezer 
Erskine." 

But  it  is  chiefly  as  a  leader  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  at  a  critical  i)Criod  of  the  history  of  the 
Church  of  Scotlaml,  tliat  Mr.  Erskine  wa.s  known 
in  his  own  day,  or  will  be  remembered  in  after- 
times.  Tlie  history  of  the  secession  of  1733  (a 
movement  small  in  its  beginnings,  but  destined 
to  influence  mat»?rially  the  ecclesiastical  and  reli- 
gioua  life  of  Scotland)  cannot  be  told  liere.  (See 
Secession  Ciiuncii.)  Of  this  first  considerable 
•division  in  the  Scottish  Church,  Mr.  Erskine  is 


admitted  both  by  friends  and  foes  to  have  been 
the  prime  mover.  The  immediate  occasion  of 
the  rupture  was  an  act  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  1732,  in  connection  with  the  <y»e.v(/o  vexala  of 
Patronage.  It  may  be  noticed,  however,  that  the 
relations  of  Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  the  "  ruling  part}'  in  the  Church  "  had 
been  already  strained  long  before  this :  first,  in 
the  controversy  as  to  T/ie  Mitrroic  of  Modern 
Divinili/,  —  a  book  condemned  by  the  Assembly, 
but  which  Erskine  and  others  as  warmly  approved ; 
and  again,  in  a  celebrated  case  of  alleged  heresy, 
—  the  case  of  Mr.  John  Simson,  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  In  fact,  in 
announcing  their  secession  in  the  formal  Protest 
of  Nov.  16,  1733,  the  four  original  members  of 
the  Associate  Synod,  as  the  new  body  was  at  first 
called,  expressly  ascribed  the  step  which  they  felt 
it  their  duty  to  take,  not  to  any  one  act  of  the 
Church,  but  to  "  a  course  of  defection  from  our 
Reformed  and  covenanting  principles." 

Among  the  incidents  of  his  later  years  must 
not  be  omitted  the  part  he  took  at  the  time  of 
the  rebellion  of  1745,  when  he  even  offered  his 
services  as  a  volunteer  soldier  on  behalf  of  the 
government,  and  for  his  patriotic  conduct  re- 
ceived the  public  thanks  of  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland. It  is  also  to  his  credit,  that  when  the 
Associate  Synod  was  in  1747  rent  asunder  by  dis- 
putes as  to  the  religious  clauses  in  some  burgher 
oaths,  he  took  the  side  of  toleration,  refusing  to 
make  non-subscription  a  term  of  communion. 

Mr.  Erskine  was  twice  married,  and  left  a  nu- 
merous family.  His  only  published  works  were 
occasional  sermons,  collected  after  his  death  in 
four  volumes  12mo. 

Lit. — Donald  Eraser:  Life  and  Diary  of 
Ebenezer  Erskine,  Edinburgh,  1831  ;  John  Mc- 
Kerrow  :  Hislori)  of  Ihe  Secession  Church,  Glas- 
gow, 1841 ;  Andrew  Thomson  :  Historical  Skelc/i 
of  the  Origin  of  the  Secessioti  Church,  Edinburgh, 
1848.  "  '  WILLIAM  LEE. 

ERSKINE,  John,  D.D.,  a  distinguished  minis- 
ter of  the  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at  Edinburgh 
in  (or  about)  1721 ;  d.  there  Jan.  19,  1803.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  John  Erskine,  Esq.,  of 
Carnock,  a  member  of  the  Scottish  bar,  and  the 
author  of  The  Institutes  of  the  Law  of'  Scotland. 
His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  the  Hon.  James 
Melville  of  Bagarvie,  and  grand-daughter  of  the 
fourth  Lord  Melville.  It  iiad  been  intended  by 
his  parents  that  he  should  follow  his  father's 
profession ;  and  for  a  year  or  two,  out  of  defer- 
ence to  their  wishes,  he  api>lied  himself  to  the 
study  of  the  law.  But  a  strong  predilection  for 
the  service  of  the  Church  had  been  early  formed, 
and  showed  itself,  even  while  he  was  still  a  law- 
student,  in  the  publication  of  a  theological  work 
which  gained  him  the  friendship  and  correspond- 
ence of  Bishop  Warburlon.  He  became  a  licen- 
tiate of  the  Church  in  1743;  and  in  1714  he  was 
ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of  Kirkintilloch, 
near  Glasgow.  In  this  laborious  country-charge 
Dr.  Erskine,  from  the  first,  devoted  himself  ear- 
nestly and  faithfully  to  his  professional  duties, — 
duties  which  throughout  his  life  he  always  re- 
garded as  having  jiaramonnt  claims  on  his  atten- 
tion. And  he  here,  also,  formed  tliose  liabits  of 
careful  preparation  fpr  the  pulpit  which  ni^ver 
failed  to  render  his  sermons,  which  are  vigorous 


ERSKINE. 


757 


ERSKINE. 


expositions  of  Calvinism,  if  not  eloquent,  inter- 
esting and  useful. 

It  was  at  this  period  of  his  life,  too,  that  he 
began  a  practice  which  illustrates  an  important 
phase  of  his  character;  namely,  that  of  main- 
taining friendly  intercourse  on  religious  ques- 
tions with  the  representatives  of  foreign  churches. 
]n  an  age  of  bigotry  and  intolerance  —  at  least 
among  the  members  of  the  party  to  which  he 
himself  belonged  —  Dr.  Erskine  was,  if  no  Broad- 
Churchman  in  the  modern  acceptation  of  the 
term,  a  man  of  wide  sympathies  and  enlightened 
Christian  liberality.  In  the  list  of  his  earliest 
correspondents  were  several  distinguished  minis- 
ters of  America,  amongst  them  being  found  the 
honored  name  of  Jonathan  Edwards.  A  frequent 
interchange  of  letters  between  Dr.  Erskine  and 
leading  American  ministers  was  indeed  continued 
down  to  his  death.  Reference  has  already  been 
made  to  his  friendly  relations  with  Bishop  War- 
burton,  many  of  whose  letters  will  be  found  in 
Moncreiff's  Life.  He  had  no  less  loyal  intercourse 
witii  some  of  the  English  Dissenters,  especially 
with  Mr.  George  VVhitefield  and  the  Wesleys. 
His  correspondence  with  members  of  the  Conti- 
nental churches  was  carried  on  for  a  long  time 
under  circumstances  of  peculiar  difficulty,  from 
his  ignorance  of  any  foreign  language  except 
French ;  and  it  is  a  singlar  proof  at  once  of  his 
energy,  and  of  the  importance  he  attached  to  fel- 
lowship with  Christian  brethren  outside  his  own 
church,  that,  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  it  out 
more  extensively.  Dr.  Erskine  undertook,  as  late 
as  in  his  sixtieth  year,  the  acquisition  of  the 
Dutch  and  German  languages,  and,  in  the  absence 
of  any  teacher  of  these  languages  within  his  reach, 
gained  a  competent  knowledge  of  them  without 
assistance  except  from  books. 

It  is  greatly  to  Dr.  Erskine's  honor  that  he  was 
one  of  the  first  advocates  of  missions  to  the 
heathen  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  having  ac- 
tively supported  and  strenuously  defended  them 
at  a  time  when,  as  a  rule,  churchmen  and  dissent- 
ers were,  in  Scotland  at  least,  equally  indifferent 
to  what  is  now  recognized  as  one  of  the  chief 
obligations  of  the  Christian  Church. 

He  was  married  in  the  year  1746 ;  his  wife 
being  Christian  Mackay,  a  daughter  of  George, 
Lord  Reay.  In  1753  he  was  translated  from 
Kirkintilloch  to  the  parish  of  Culross,  and  thence 
he  removed,  in  1758,  to  New  Greyfriar's  Church, 
Edinburgh;  which  charge  he  held  for  nine  years, 
afterwards  exchanging  itforthe  Collegiate  Church 
of  Old  Greyfriars  in  the  same  city.  Here  he  had 
Principal  Robertson,  the  historian  of  Charles  V., 
as  his  colleague,  and,  in  spite  of  their  differences 
in  ecclesiastical  politics,  as  one  of  his  best  friends. 
In  Edinburgh  he  found  his  work  as  a  minister 
somewhat  different  in  character  fi'om  that  of 
either  of  his  country  parishes,  but  not  less  labori- 
ous; and  he  was  equally  conscientious  in  giving 
his  first  attention  to  it,  while  always  finding  time 
for  literary  study,  and  for  social  intercourse  with 
his  friends.  As  an  Edinburgh  minister,  he  was 
also  called  to  take  a  more  prominent  place  in 
public  business  than  before.  As  a  leader  in  the 
church  courts,  lie  represented  for  many  years  the 
evangelical  or  popular  party  in  the  Church.  In 
this  position,  as  in  every  other,  he  was  far  from 
adopting  extreme  views ;  and  it  may  be  added 


that  he  enjoyed  the  respect  and  esteem  of  all 
parties  throughout  the  whole  of  his  long  and  use- 
ful life. 

Lit.  —  A  striking  description  of  Dr.  Erskine's 
appearance  and  manner  in  the  pulpit,  and  his 
character  as  a  preacher,  evidently  derived  from 
personal  observation,  is  given  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  in  Guij  Mannerinii  (see  chap.  XXXV'II.). 
Two  graphic  pen-and-ink  sketches  of  liim,  with 
biogi'aphical  notices,  will  be  found  in  Kay's 
Series  of  Original  Portraits,  Edinburgh,  1837,  vol. 
I.  pp.  171-176.  See,  however,  especially,  the 
Account  of  the  Life  and  Wrilinr/s  of  John  Erskine, 
D  D.,  by  Sir  Henry  Moncueiff  Wei.lwood, 
D.D.,  Edinburgh,  1818.  WILLIAM  LEE. 

ERSKINE,  Ralph,  M.A.,  minister  of  Dunferm- 
line, N.B. ;  b.  at  Monilaws,  on  the  English  bor- 
der, March  15,  1685;  d.  at  Dunfermline,  Nov.  6, 
1752.  He  was  a  brother  of  Ebenezer  Erskine 
(see  above),  with  whose  ecclesiastical  views  he 
sympathized,  and  whose  secession  from  the 
Church  he  eventually  joined.  His  diary  shows 
him  to  have  been  a  man  of  fervent  piety.  He 
was  hardly  less  popular  as  a  preacher  than  his 
brother;  and  his  Gospel  Sonnets  and  other  Scrip- 
ture Songs  were  received  with  favor  in  his  own 
day.  His  works  were  published  after  his  death, 
in  two  vols,  folio,  Glasgow,  1764.  See  Donald 
Eraser  :  Life  and  Diary  of  llalph  Erskine,  Edin- 
burgh, 1834.  "  WILLIAM   LEE. 

ERSKINE,  Thomas,  of  Linlathen,  b.  in  Edin- 
burgh, Oct.  13,  1788;  d.  there  March  20,  1870. 
He  was  educated  a  lawyer,  and  practised  from 
1810  to  1816  ;  but  then,  succeeding  to  the  family 
estate  at  Linlathen,  near  Dundee,  he  retired  from 
the  bar,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  in  the  care 
of  his  property,  and  in  literary  labor  in  behalf  of 
his  views.  He  never  married.  While  still  a 
young  man,  he  rebelled  at  the  current  Scotch 
theology,  and  at  length  found  what  he  conceived 
was  a  better  way  in  which  to  represent  the  divine 
revelation.  His  views  may  be  thus  expressed :  the 
only  proper  criterion  of  the  truth  of  Christiainty 
is  "  its  conformity  or  nonconformity  with  man's 
spiritual  nature,  and  its  adaptability  ornonadapt- 
ability  to  man's  universal  and  deepest  spiritual 
needs."  The  incarnation  of  Christ  W'as  "the  ne- 
cessary manifestation  to  man  of  an  eternal  son- 
ship  in  the  divine  nature,  apart  from  which  those 
filial  qualities  which  God  demands  from  luan 
could  have  no  sanction."  Faith  as  used  in  the 
Bible  is  a  "certain  moral  or  spiritual  condition 
which  virtually  implied  salvation,  because  it  im- 
plied the  existence  of  a  principle  of  spiritual  life 
possessed  of  an  immortal  power.  This  faith  could 
be  properly  awakened  only  by  the  manifestation, 
through  Christ,  of  love  as  the  law  of  life,  and  as 
identical  with  an  eternal  righteousness  which  it 
was  God's  purpose  to  bestow  on  every  individual 
soul  "  (Encyc.  Brit.,  9th  ed.,  vol.  viii.  pp.  530,  531). 
Such  vieW'S  were  not  "orthodox,"  and  at  first 
subjected  Mr.  Erskine  to  considerable  adverse 
criticism.  But  they  gained  favor;  and  he  num- 
bered among  his  intimate  friends  some  of  the 
finest  minds  of  the  century,  —  Thomas  Carlyle, 
Edward  Irving,  Frederick  Denison  Maurice,  John 
McLeod  Campbell,  Bishop  Ewing,  and  Dean 
Stanley.  Jlaurice  and  Campbell  were  indebted 
to  him  for  those  conceptions  of  the  atonement 
which   have   had   so   great  an  effect  upon  later 


ESARHADDON. 


758 


ESCHATOLOGY. 


English  and  American  popular  religious  thought; 
and  it  was  Campbell's  public  ad-rocacy  of  them 
which  led  to  his  expulsion  from  the  Kirk.  Mr. 
Erskine's  theology  was  part  of  his  life,  it  perme- 
ated his  being;  and  it  was  his  unfailing  delight 
to  impress  his  views  upon  all  he  met.  His  sin- 
cerity, his  earnestness,  his  pure  and  lofty  charac- 
ter, gave  him  a  great  influence. 

Besides  minor  and  fugitive  pieces,  he  wrote 
(all  except  one  published  in  Edinburgh):  Remarks 
on  Ike  Internal  Eridence  for  the  Trnih  of  Revealed 
Reli(/ion,  1820,  .3d  ed.,  1821,  reprinted  Andover, 
1853,  new  ed.,  1871;  An  Essay  on  Faith,  1822, 
3d  ed.,  1823;  The  Unconditional  Freeness  of  the 
Gospel,  1828,  new  ed. ,  1873  ;  The  Brazen  Serpent, 
or  Life  comin<j  from  Death,  1831 ;  The  Doctrine  of 
Election,  London,  1837.  There  also  appeared, 
posthumously,  Spiritual  Order  and  Other  Papers, 
1871,  2d  ed.,  187G,  and  in  1877  two  volumes  of 
his  letters,  edited  by  Dr.  William  Hanna,  with 
reminiscences  by  Dean  Stanley  and  Principal 
Shairp. 

E'SARHAD'DON  (Ileb.  pn-IDX,  LXX.  'koop&av 
and  'Acapaiiiv,  Assyr.  As'sur-ah-iddina,  "  Assur  gave 
a  brother"),  son  and  successor  of  Sennacherib, 
was  king  of  Assyria  B.C.  681-668.  He  is  named 
in  the  Bible,  2  Kings  xix.  37  (=  Isa.  xxxvii.  38), 
and  Ez.  iv.  2 ;  see  also  Tob.  i.  21,  where  he  is 
called  "Zaxep&ovoQ.  It  is  disputed  whether  the 
"  King  of  Assyria"  who  carried  Manasseh  captive 
to  Babylon  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11)  was  Esarhaddon, 
or  his  son  Asurbanipal,  with  the  probabilities  in 
favor  of  the  latter.  The  passages  in  2  Kings  and 
Isaiah  relate  Esarhaddon's  accession  after  the 
murder  of  Sennacherib  by  two  other  sons,  Adram- 
melech  and  Sharezer.  Erom  the  latter  we  learn 
that  the  "  adversaries  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  " 
(Ez.  iv.  1)  had  been  brought  into  Palestine  by  him. 
The  numerous  cuneiform  inscriptions  dating  from 
his  reign  give  no  additional  information  in  regard 
to  the  circumstances  of  his  ascending  the  throne, 
if  we  except  the  account  of  a  battle  in  the  coun- 
try Hanie/almit  or  Hanirahbat  (perhaps  Eastern 
Cappadocia)  against  enemies  who  are  believed 
to  have  been  his  parricidal  brothers.  (Comp. 
Abydenus,  in  Eu.seb.,  Chron.  T.  9.  Abydenus 
calls  him  Axerdis:  Alexander  Polyhistor,  in 
Euseb.,  Chron.  I.  5,  calls  him  Asordanes.)  The 
statement  of  Ez.  iv.  2  receives  incidental  con- 
firmation from  an  inscription  which  speaks  of 
his  transplanting  "  inhabitants  of  the  mountains 
and  the  sea  of  the  rising  sun  "  (i.e.,  the  Persian 
Gulf)  to  the  conquered  city  of  Sidon  {Cun.  Insc. 
of  West.  Asia,  I.  45,  1.  31-33).  His  records,  and 
those  of  his  son  Asurbanijial,  represent  him, 
further,  as  a  mighty  and  sagacious  king.  One 
of  the  earliest  acts  of  his  reign  was  to  subjugate 
Babylon  (B.C.  080).  Thenceforth  he  repeatedly 
designates  himself  "Ruler  of  Babylon,  King  of 
Sumir  ami  .Accad  "  (Southern  and  Northern  liaby- 
Ionia).  Ptolemy's  canon,  or  list  of  Baliylonian 
kings,  names  him  as  'Aaapidivov,  and,  in  agree- 
ment with  the  inscriptions,  assigns  him  a  reign 
of  thirteen  years.  But,  besides  this,  he  waged 
successful  wars  against  districts  of  Media,  and  sub- 
dued all  Western  A.sia  a.s  far  as  ('yprus,  includ- 
ing Jiiilah,  Phoenicia,  and  Philistia.  Cylinders 
from  his  reign  and  that  of  his  son  give  the  names 
of  "twelve  kings  of  llie  seacoast"  and  ten  kings 
of  Cyprus  who  paid  tribute  to  him.     The  list 


begins  "  Baal,  king  of  the  land  of  Tyre ;  Manas- 
seh, king  of  the  land  (var.  'city')  of  Judah; 
Kausgabri,  king  of  the  land  (var.  '  city  ')  of  Edom; 
Musuri,  king  of  the  land  (var.  '  city '  of  Moab; 
.Sil-Bel,  king  of  the  land  (var.  'city')  of  Gaza," 
etc.  Among  the  tribiitaries  from  Cyprus  are  the 
kings  of  Idalium,  Salamis.  Paphos.  Soli,  and 
Curium.  In  the  latter  part  of  Esarhaddon's  reign 
(subsequent  to  B.C.  673)  he  extended  his  author- 
ity over  Egypt.  He  vanquished  the  powerful 
Cushite  king,  Tirhakah,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
Cushite  dominion  in  Egypt,  where  he  established 
his  own  governors.  In  his  later  inscriptions  he 
takes  the  title  "  King  of  Egypt  and  Cush,"  or 
"  King  of  the  Kings  of  Egypt  and  Cush." 

Besides  these  conquests,  in  which  he  often 
showed  a  wise  clemency  as  well  as  great  military 
vigor,  his  reign  was  niai-ked  by  splendor  at  home. 
He  built  or  rebuilt  great  palaces,  fortresses,  and 
temples,  particularly  in  Nineveh,  Calah  (Nim- 
roud),  and  Babylon.  The  last  and  greatest  of 
these  buildings,  the  "  South-west  Palace "  at 
Calah,  was  unfinished  at  his  death.  It  shows 
the  influence  of  Egyptian  art  in  the  appearance, 
for  the  first  time,  of  sphinxes  by  the  side  of  the 
usual  colossal  bulls  and  lions.  Esarhaddon  wa8 
succeeded  by  his  son  Asurbanipal,  probably  the 
"great  and  noble  Asnapper"  of  Ez.  iv.  10. 

Lit.  —  E.  Sciirader;  Die  Kcilinschriften  u.  das 
alte  Testainent,  Giessen,  1872,  2te  Anfl.  in  press 
1882;  Keilinschriften  u.  Geschichtsforschung,  Gies- 
sen, 1878 ;  Zur  Kritilc  der  Inschriften  Tiglalh- 
Pileser  II.,  des  Asarhaddon,  u.  des  Asurbanipal, 
Berlin,  1880;  E.  A.  Budge:  Hist,  of  Esarhaddon, 
Lond.,  1880,  Bost.,  1881.  FRANCIS  BROWN. 

E'SAU.     See  E'dom,  Ja'cob. 

ESCHATOLOGY,  or  "the  doctrine  of  the  last 
things,"  is  that  branch  of  theology  which  concerns 
itself  with  the  termination  of  our  earthly  life, 
and  those  things  which  may  lie  bej'ond  death. 
The  term  may  have  been  derived,  like  the  old 
designation,  De  Norissimis,  from  Jesus  Sirach 
(vii.  36).  The  expression  rii  Inxara,  or  "the  last 
things,"  is  of  biblical  origin  (comp.  Isa.  ii.  2; 
Mic.  iv.  1).  This  sketch  cannot  go  into  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  particular  subjects  of  eschatology. 
They  will  be  found  treated  under  their  special 
lieads, — Ai'oK.\TASTAsi8,  Death,  Hades,  Pun- 
ishment, PUUGATOKV,  etc. 

The  meaning  of  death,  and  the  question  of  a 
future  life,  liave  engaged  thought  at  all  times; 
aiul  hardly  a  people  has  been  found  destitute  of 
all  lielief  in  a  future  existence. 

The  position  of  the  Old  Testament  on  this  ques- 
tion has  been  a  matter  of  dispute.  Expositors, 
from  the  older  Jews  and  the  church  fathers 
down  to  the  present  day,  have  differed  as  to 
whether  it  teaches  innnortality  or  not.  Israel, 
in  the  first  instance,  turned  its  hopes  not  to  the 
destiny  of  the  individual,  but  to  the  coming  of 
the  Messiah,  and  the  gemn'ation  living  at  the 
time  of  that  coming  (llos.  vi.  2;  Isa.  xxv.  8; 
Ezek.  xxxvii.).  Only  as  a  secondary  matter  is 
the  ]iresentimi"nt  introduced  of  the  restoration  of 
the  righteous  dead,  who  should  ]iarticipate  in  the 
glory  of  Israel  (Isa.  xxvi.  li);  Dan.  xii.  2,13). 
God  is  recognized  as  having  power  over  death 
and  its  king(lom  (Dent,  xxxii.  39;  1  Sam.  ii.  6); 
and  his  power  over  lif(!  is  the  pledge  of  the  im- 
mortality of  his  people  (Isa.  xl.  28  sqq. ;  Ps.  cii. 


ESCHATOLOGY. 


759 


BSCORIAL. 


27  sqq.).  Out  of  this  relation  grew  the  belief 
in  the  existence  of  the  individual  after  death. 
Such  passages,  however,  as  Ps.  xvi.  10  sq.,  xlix. 
15,  Ixxiii.  23  sqq..  Job  xix.  25-27,  do  not  contain 
a  clear  and  positive  statement  of  the  resurrection, 
but  rather  the  kernel  of  hope  and  presentiment 
(Oehler  and  Schultz).  The  essential  points  of 
Old-Testament  eschatology  are  the  Messiah  and 
his  world-wide  kingdom  of  peace  and  righteous- 
ness, and  the  sifting  judgment  upon  God's  peo- 
ple and  against  the  world  that  is  at  enmity  witli 
it.  In  the  Apocrypha  the  national  hope  of  the 
Messianic  coming  is  intense,  and  pictured  in  rich 
colors ;  and  at  the  side  of  this  the  belief  in  per- 
sonal immortality  is  brought  out,  which  was 
afterwards  so  strong  among  the  Pharisees  at  the 
time  of  Christ. 

From  an  eschatological  point  of  view,  as  in 
other  respects,  our  Lord  did  not  destroy,  but  ful- 
filled. Adopting  the  expression  "kingdom  of 
God,"  and  associating  it  with  his  own  person,  he 
gives  prominence  to  the  expectation  of  that  king- 
dom, which  was  so  universal  among  the  Jews. 
He  also  predicted  his  second  coming,  which  im- 
plies his  resurrection.  We  must  notice  the  con- 
struction he  gives  to  the  views  he  takes  up.  In 
the  parables  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  he  con- 
firms the  expectation  of  a  Messianic  judgment, 
but  gives  to  it  a  purely  moral  (as  opposed  to  a 
national)  significance  (Matt.  viii.  11  sqq.,  xxi.  43, 
xxii.  1  sqq.).  All  will  be  rewarded  in  the  final 
adjudication,  according  to  their  relation  to  Christ, 
with  full  communion  with  God  on  the  one  hand, 
or  unending  death  (not  annihilation)  on  the 
other  (Matt.  vii.  21  sqq.,  xxv.  31  sqq.).  Of 
individual  immortality  our  Lord  speaks  expressly 
only  on  special  occasions,  but  then  bases  it  upon 
our  union  with  God  (Matt.  xxii.  23  sq.).  Of 
this  certainty  the  Gospel  of  John  testifies  most 
positively  (iv.  14,  v.  24,  vi.  39  sq.,  50  sq.,  x.  28, 
xi.  25  sqq.). 

In  the  writings  of  the  apostles  three  things  are 
to  be  noticed:  (1)  Their  first  preaching  of  the 
gospel  gives  prominence  to  eschatological  sub- 
jects (Acts  ii.  17  sqq.,  iii.  19,  x.  42,  xvii.  30,  31)  ; 
(2)  The  hope  of  eternal  life  is  associated  imme- 
diately with  the  person  of  a  risen  Christ,  who 
will  return  again  (1  Cor.  xv. ;  Eph.  i.  18  sq. ; 
Col.  iii.  3,  4;  Heb.  ix.  28;  Jas.  v.  7 ;  1  Pet. 
i.  7  sqq. ;  1  John  iii.  2,  etc.)  ;  (3)  This  hope 
reaches  out  with  confidence  beyond  this  earthly 
development,  and  the  moral  distinction  between 
heaven  and  earth  shall  be  blotted  out  (1  Cor.  xv. 
44  sqq. ;  2  Pet.  iii.  10  sqq.  ;  Rev.  xxi.  22). 

The  Church,  in  its  first  period,  opposed  to 
heathenism  and  it.s  pessimistic  tendency  a  renun- 
eiation  sf  the  world,  and  a  confident  assurance  of 
the  victory  with  which  it  awaits  the  Lord  and 
prosecutes  the  evangelization  of  the  world.  The 
second  coming  of  Christ  may  be  called  the  oldest 
church  dogma  (T)orner,  Person  of  Chrkt).  This 
early  Chiliasm  looked  for  an  earthly  Messianic 
kingdom.  But,  while  the  persecutions  were  still 
raging,  the  Alexandrian  school,  opposing  itself 
to  these  worldly  conceptions,  claimed  the  future 
for  the  moral  development  of  the  individual,  and 
affirmed  degrees  of  bliss,  the  termination  of  pun- 
ishment, and  universal  restoration.  After  the 
Church  ascended  the  Roman  throne,  eschatologi- 
cal questions  were  made  to  give  way  to  the  burn- 


ing questions  concerning  the  present.  But  the 
Greeic  Church  still  held  firmly  to  that  notion  of 
the  incarnation  which  makes  it  the  implanting 
of  the  germ  of  eternal  life  in  our  natun^  (I)orner). 
The  Church  of  the  middle  ages  presumed  to  liave 
a  jurisdiction  beyond  the  grave,  and  developed 
the  ideas  of  purgatorial  fire.  It  was  tliis  eschat- 
ological excrescence  of  a  Pelagianizing  hierarcliy 
which  gave  the  external  occasion  for  the  Refor- 
mation. Four  points  were  taken  up  in  the  es- 
chatology of  the  Protestant  confessions,  —  death, 
the  resurrection,  the  judgment,  and  the  consum- 
mation,—  and  stress  laid  upon  the  intimate 
connection  of  the  seed  of  eternal  life  implanted 
here,  and  its  perfect  development  hereafter. 
Rationalism  knew  only  of  a  certainty  of  immor- 
tality which  was  based  upon  philosophical  rea- 
soning, and  the  prevalence  of  the  belief  among 
different  peoples  (Wegscheider).  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  pantheistic  renunciation  of  individ- 
ual immortality.  Finally  came  the  triumphant 
sneer  against  the  future  life,  as  the  last  enemy  of 
"  speculative  criticism  "  (Strauss,  Ghmhemttehre, 
§  1(J6  sq.).  M.  KAHLEK. 

Lit.  —  Works  on  the  theology  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, by  Oehler  and  Schdltz  ;  on  the  New 
Testament,  by  Weiss  ;  Luthakdt  :  Die  Lehre  v. 
d.  letzten  Dingen,  Leipzig,  1861 ;  H.  W.  Rinck  : 
Vom   Zustande    nach    dem    Tode,    Ludwigsburg, 

1861,  3d  ed.,  Basel,  1878;  Alger;  The  Doclrlne 
of  a  Fulure  Life,  with  complete  bibliography  by 
Dr.  Ezra  Abbot,  Phila.,  1864,  10th  ed.,  with  six 
new  chapters,  Boston,  1878;  H.  Gerlach:  Die 
letzten  Dinge,  Berlin,  1869 ;  Oxeniiam  :  Catholic 
Eschatology  and  Universalism,  London,  1876; 
Edm.  Spiess  :  Enlwicklungsgesch.  d.  Vorstellungen 
V.  Zustande  n.  d.  Tode,  Jena,  1877 ;  F.  Splitt- 
geber  :    Tod,    Fortleben,   u.  A  uferslehung,  Halle, 

1862,  3d  ed.,  1879;  A.  Ebrard  :  Der  Zustandd. 
Christen  nach  dem  Tode,  Erlangen,  1870,  32  pp.  ; 
C.  M.  Mead  :  The  Soul,  here  and  hereafter.  Bos' 
ton,  1879 ;  S.  Davidson  :  Last  Thinqs,  London, 
1882;  Cremer:  Beyond  the  Grace,  N.'Y.,  1885. 

ESCOBAR  Y  MENDOZA,  Antonio, b.  at  Valla- 
dolid,  1589  ;  d.  July  4,  1669 ;  entered  the  Society 
of  Jesus  in  1604,  and  acquired  a  great  name  both 
as  a  preacher  and  as  a  writer.  His  collected  works, 
mostly  on  morals,  comprise  forty  volumes  in  folio. 
The  principal  are  Summida  Casuum  Conscientice, 
Universce  Theoloqia  Moralis  Prohlemata,  and  Liher 
TheolorjicE  Moralis,  the  last  of  which  appeared  in 
Lyons,  1646,  ran  through  forty  editions  in  the 
author's  lifetime,  and  has  been  translated  into  sev- 
eral foreign  languages.  His  works  give  the  most 
complete  "and  also  the  most  authoritative  repre- 
sentation of  the  moral  system  which  the  Jesuits 
inculcated ;  and  they  far  outdo  any  other  attempt 
of  the  kind,  even  the  writings  of  Busenbaum,  in 
the  audacious  frivolity  of  their  probabilism  and 
the  ludicrous  subtlety  of  their  casuistry.  After 
passing  through  the  hands  of  Pascal,  Molifere,  and 
Boileau,  they  became  an  object  of  scorn,  even  to 
devout  Roman  Catholics ;  and  in  French  speech 
the  author's  name,  Escobarderie,  is  now  synony- 
mous with  egotism,  levity,  and  licentiousness 
adroitly  covered  up  with  hypocrisy. 

ESCORIAL,  or  ESCURIAL,  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable buildings  in  Europe,  — at  once  a  palace, 
a  church,  a  lonvent,  a  mausoleum,  and  a  museum, 
—  is  situated  twenty-seven  miles  north-west  of 


ESDRAS. 


760 


E8SBNES. 


Madrid,  at  an  elevation  of  thirty-five  hundred 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  in  a  barren  and 
inhospitable  waste.  It  was  built  by  Philip  II. 
(1.503-93),  in  honor  of  St.  Lawrence,  on  whose 
day  (Aug;.  10)  the  battle  of  St.  Quentin  was  won 
(1557).  With  an  allusion  to  the  martyrdom  of 
the  saint,  the  ground-plan  of  the  whole  ensemble 
of  buildings  shows  the  form  of  a  gridiron  ;  and, 
in  spite  of  its  splendor  and  real  magnificence,  it 
makes  a  most  gloomy  and  dismal  impression. 
The  church,  one  of  the  noblest  in  Europe,  is  three 
hundred  and  forty  feet  long,  two  hundred  feet 
broad,  and  three  hundred  and  twenty  feet  high 
under  the  dome.  The  convent  houses  two  hun- 
dred monks  of  the  order  of  the  Hieronymites. 
The  picture-gallery  contains  the  masterpieces  of 
Velasquez  and  Murillo. 

ESDRAS.     See  .\pocrypha.  Old  Testament. 

ESDRAE'LON.     See  Jez'reel. 

ESNIK,  b.  at  Kolp,  near  Mount  Ararat,  397 ;  d., 
as  Bishop  of  Bagrewand,  478 ;  was  a  pupil  of 
Sahak  and  Mesrob ;  travelled  in  Mesopotamia, 
Syria,  and  Greece,  whose  language  he  learnt; 
took  an  active  part  in  the  conflict  between  the 
Christian  Church  in  Armenia,  and  Parseeism,  and 
wrote  a  book,  whicli  is  still  extant,  against  various 
forms  of  Pagan  infidelity  and  (inostic  heresy. 
The  book  was  first  printed  at  Smyrna,  1702,  and 
then  by  the  Mekhitarists,  Venice,  1826.  It  was 
translated  into  French  by  Le  Vaillant  de  Flori- 
val  :  Refutation  </e.s'  dijfi'rentex  Seetex,  Paris,  1853. 

ESPEN,  Zeger  Bernhard  van,  b.  at  Louvain, 
July  9,  1U46;  d.  at  Amersfort,  in  the  diocese  of 
Utrecht,  Oct.  2,  1728;  studied  theology  and  canon 
law  at  the  university  of  his  native  city,  and  was 
appointed  professor  there  of  canon  law,  1G75. 
As  he  sided  with  the  Jansenists,  his  Jus  Ecclesius- 
ticum,  which  appeared  at  Louvain,  1700,  was  put 
on  tlie  Index ;  and  he  escaped  from  further  perse- 
cution only  by  living  in  a  very  quiet  and  retired 
manner.  ^Nevertheless,  when,  in  1723,  the  chap- 
ter of  Utrecht  elected  an  archbishop  in  opposition 
to  the  Roman  curia,  he  stepped  forward,  and 
defended  the  election  as  valid.  Hut  he  was  then 
compelled  to  flee  from  Louvain,  and  all  his  works 
were  put  on  the  Index;  which  condemnation, 
however,  does  not  seem  to  have  detracted  any 
thing  from  their  authority.  See  Du  Pac  de 
Uei.i.kgarde  :  Vie  de  Van  Espen,  Louvain,  1707  ; 
L.\ikknt:    Van  Espen,  Brussels,  1800. 

ESS,  van,  is  tlie  name  of  two  Uoman-Catholic 
priests  in  (Germany,  wlio  in  modern  times  have 
acquired  a  name  as  translators  of  the  Bible.  — 
Karl  van  Ess,  b.  Sept.  25,  1770,  at  Warburg,  on  the 
IJiemel,  in  the  diocese  of  Paderborn ;  d.  Oct.  22, 
1824,  at  lluysburg,  near  Ilalberstadt;  entered  the 
Benedictine  abbey  of  lluysburg  in  1788;  was 
ordained  priest  in  1794;  became  prior  in  1H((1. 
and  was,  after  the  secularization  of  his  monastery 
in  1804,  made  first  pastor  of  the  congregation  of 
Huysburg,  and  since  1811  al.so  ei)iscop:i.l  conmii.s- 
sary  for  the  dioceses  of  Magdeburg,  Ilalberstadt, 
and  Ilelmstiidt.  By  tlie  entiiusiasm  of  his  cousin 
Leander  he  was  induced  to  take  part  in  the 
translation  of  the  New  TestannMit;  but  when 
that  movement  of  nationality  and  indepen<lence, 
wliieli  in  the  first  decade  of  the;  ])resiuit  century 
affec'ti'd  also  the  relation  between  the  Uoman- 
Catholic  Church  in  (Jermany  and  the  Pojie,  sub- 
sided, and  was  followed  by  a  strong  ultramontane 


re-action,  he  left  the  enterprise,  and  seemed  to 
change  views.  —  Leander  (properly  Johann  Hein- 
rich :  the  other  is  his  monkish  name),  b.  at  War- 
burg, Feb.  15,  1772;  d.  at  Afl'olderbach,  in  the 
Odenwald,  Oct.  13,  1847;  entered  the  Benedic- 
tine abbey  of  Marienuuinster,  in  the  diocese  of 
Paderborn,  in  1790;  was  ordained  priest  in  1796; 
was  appointed  pastor  of  Schwalenberg  in  1799, 
and  professor  of  theology  in  the  University  of 
Marburg  in  1812,  but  resigned  his  position  in 
1822,  and  lived  thenceforward  as  a  private  gentle- 
man. The  translation  of  the  Kew  Testament, 
which  he  made  in  connection  with  his  cousin 
Karl,  appeared  in  1807  at  Brunswick,  and  ran 
through  many  editions.  The  first  part  of  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  did  not  appear 
until  1822  ;  the  second  followed,  1830 ;  and  the 
first  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was  published, 
1840,  at  Sulzbach.  He  also  gave  out  editions  of 
the  Vulgate  (1822),  the  Septuagint  (1824),  and 
the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament  (1827). 
Persecuted  in  every  way  by  the  Romanists  for 
his  zeal  in  spreading  the  Bible  among  laymen,  he 
wrote  a  number  of  pamphlets  in  defence  of  his 
views,  some  of  which  have  a  scientific  interest,  as, 
for  instance,  his  Gescliic/ite  der  Vul;/ata,  Tiibingen, 
1824.  His  library  is  now  in  the  Union  Theologi- 
cal Seminary,  New-York  City,  and  is  extremely 
valuable,  containing  as  it  does  that  of  the  abbey 
of  Marienmiinster.  It  consists  of  over  13,000  vol- 
umes, including  430  incunabula,  1,240  numbers 
of  reformation  literature  in  original  editions,  37 
manuscripts,  about  200  editions  of  the  Vulgate 
and  of  German  Bibles  (the  earliest  being  1470). 
It  was  bought  in  April,  1838,  at  the  suggestion  of 
Dr.  E.  Robinson,  one  of  the  professors  of  the 
seminary. 

ESSENCE  (Latin  essentia,  from  esse,  "to  be") 
denotes  that  which  makes  a  thing  to  be  what  it 
is.  The  schoolmen  made  a  distinction  between 
essence  and  substance,  referring  the  former  to 
the  logical  combination  of  (pialities  expres.sed  in 
the  definition,  the  latter  to  the  abstract  notion  of 
matter  underlying  all  e.xistence.  Ancient  iihiloso- 
jiliy,  however,  did  not  know  this  distinction,  the 
(ireek  oiinia  denoting  at  once  essence  and  sub- 
stance; and  .so  again  in  modern  ]ihiloso]ihy. 

ESSENES,  The.  At  the  time  when  Christ  ap- 
Iiearf(l  on  earth,  Judaism  was  divided  into  three 
religious  parties, — the  Pharisees,  Sadducees,  and 
Essenes.  U'ith  the  first  two  we  are  somewhat 
familiar  from  the  New  Testament,  but  not  with 
the  last,  who  were  the  object  of  admiration  to 
.lews,  heathens,  and  ('hristians,  although  theii' 
admirers  are  uncertain  to  this  day  whether  they 
were  Jews,  or  a  school  of  Jewish  proselytes,  or,  as 
Eusebius  thinks.  Christians. 

Sources.  —  The  sources  from  whicli  our  infor- 
mation is  derived  concerning  tin;  Essenes  are, 
chiefly,  Josephus  (,/eiris/i  War,  11.  8,  2-13;  An- 
tiauitics,  XIIl.  ,5,  9,  XV.  10,  4,  5,  XVIII.  1,  2-6), 
Piiilo  (Eferi/  virtuous  man  is  free,  §§  12,  13  [Man- 
gey's  ed.  ii.  457-4.59]  and  Apohnji)  for  the  Jews 
[preserved  by  Eusebius,  Pnvp.  Eb-an//.,  VIII.  11, 
al.so  found  in  Mangey's  ed.  ii.  032-034]),  and 
Pliny  (Mat.  Ilisl.,  .5,  17).  'These  .sources  were 
again  made  use  of  by  Solinus,  Porphyry,  ICuse- 
biuH,  Ilip|iolytus,  and  lOpiphanius,  all  of  whom 
copy  either  the  one  or  the  other. 

jVoBic.  —  As  to  the  name,  wiiich  is  variously 


BSSENBS. 


761 


ESSBNES. 


written  in  the  Greek,  it  has  provoked  countless 
interpretations.  The  best  is  proi):ibly  that  given 
by  EwaUl,  according  to  whom  it  means  "  tlie 
pious;"  wliilst  Lightfoot  prefers  "the  silent 
ones." 

Orifjin.  —  As  difficult  as  the  explanation  of  the 
name  is  the  fixing  of  the  precise  date  of  their 
origin.  The  probable  date  may  be  derived  from 
Josephus,  who  assigns  their  rise  to  the  time  when 
the  Pharisees  and  Sodducees  had  their  origin  ; 
\hat  is,  in  the  middle  of  the  second  century  before 
Christ.  But  it  is  r^uestionable  whether  they  were 
the  outgrowth  of  Judaism,  or  whether  they  stand 
between  Judaism  and  Hellenism.  They  were 
allied  to  the  Pharisees,  and  yet  witli  very  dis- 
tinctive differences :  they  were  zealous  for  the 
law,  and  yet  transgressed  it;  they  were  righteous 
in  the  spirit  of  the  prophets,  and  yet  more  pain- 
fully intent  than  the  Pharisees  on  outward  purifi- 
cation. They  were  Jews,  and  yet  shut  themselves 
out  from  the  nation ;  servants  of  Jehovah,  and 
yet  praying,  like  the  heathen,  to  the  sun.  "  They 
were,"  as  Keim  remarks,  "  like  a  mosaic  picture, 
with  no  inward  unity,  —  a  phenomenon  of  reli- 
gious despair." 

Organization  and  Tenets.  —  According  to  Philo 
and  josephus,  the  number  of  the  Esseiies  amount- 
ed at  their  time  to  more  than  four  tliousand,  and 
they  lived  exclusively  in  the  Holy  Land  and  in 
the  adjoining  parts  of  Syria.  But  Pliny  found 
the  Essenes  also  on  the  western  side  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  near  the  city  of  Engeddi ;  and,  if  we  ma3f 
believe  Josephus,  they  were  found  everywhere. 
They  lived  in  a  separate  community,  having 
every  thing  in  common.  There  existed  no  dis- 
tinction among  them.  They  lived  peaceably  with 
all  men,  reprobated  slavery  and  war,  and  would 
not  even  manufacture  any  martial  instruments 
whatever.  They  were  governed  by  a  president, 
who  was  elected  by  the  whole  body,  and  who  also 
acted  as  judge  of  the  community.  All  matters 
of  the  society  were  governed  by  a  jury  of  at  least 
a  hundred  members.  A  brother  guilty  of  a  gross 
offence  was  excommunicated,  but  received  again 
after  due  repentance.  Celibacy  being  the  rule 
of  the  order,  the  ranks  of  the  brotherhood  had 
to  be  filled  up  by  recruits  from  the  Jewish  com- 
munity at  large.  They  preferred  taking  children, 
whom  they  educated  most  carefully,  and  taught 
the  practices  of  the  order.  Every  grown-up  can- 
didate, upon  entering  the  order,  had  to  cast  all 
his  possessions  into  the  cormnon  treasury.  He 
then  received  a  copy  of  the  regulations  of  the 
brotherhood,  a  spade  to  bury  the  excrement,  an 
apron  to  be  used  at  lustrations,  and  a  white  robe 
to  put  on  at  meals.  He  was  not  at  once  admitted, 
but  had  to  pass  through  a  novitiate  of  twelve 
months,  when  he  was  admitted  to  the  lustrations. 
Then  followed  another  novitiate  of  two  years; 
and  at  the  end  of  this  period  he  was  admitted  to 
the  common  meals,  after  having  bound  himself 
by  a  most  solemn  oath  not  to  divulge  any  thing 
to  outsiders,  and  to  be  open  with  the  members  of 
the  order. 

In  order  not  to  come  in  contact  with  such  as 
did  not  practise  the  laws  of  Levitical  purity,  the 
Essenes  raised  the  supplies  of  all  their  wants 
among  themselves.  Each  one  of  the  community 
took  his  share  of  work  in  the  department  in 
which  he  most  excelled.     Some  were   tillers  of 


the  ground;  others  tended  flocks,  and  reared  bees; 
some  prejiared  the  food ;  .some  made  articles  of 
dress;  some  attended  to  the  sick,  and  some  in- 
structed the  young;  whilst  all  of  them  devoted 
certain  hours  to  studying  the  mysteries  of  nature 
and  revelation,  and  of  the  cele,stial  hierarchy. 
They  always  got  up  before  the  sun  ro.se,  and 
never  talked  about  any  worldly  matters  till  they 
had  all  assembled  together,  and,  with  their  faces 
turned  towards  the  sun,  offered  up  their  prayer. 
This  done,  every  one  betook  himself  to  his  al- 
lotted work.  They  remained  at  their  work  till 
about  eleven  o'clock  a.m.,  when  they  assembled 
together  tor  a  common  bath.  Having  put  on  their 
white  robes,  they  entered,  with  great  .solemnity, 
the  refectory,  to  partake  of  the  common  meal, 
which  was  very  simple,  consisting  chiefly  of  vege- 
tables. The  blessing  having  been  invoked  by  the 
priest,  the  repast  commenced.  The  deepest  silence 
reigned  throughout,  to  be  interrupted  only  by 
the  priest,  who  concluded  the  meal  by  offering 
thanks;  which  was  the  sign  of  dismissal.  There- 
upon  all  withdrew,  dressed  themselves  in  their 
working-dress,  resumed  their  several  employ- 
ments till  the  evening,  when  they  assembled 
again  in  the  aforesaid  manner  to  partake  of  a 
common  meal.  Whilst  every  thing  was  done 
according  to  the  directions  of  the  overseers,  yet 
they  were  at  liberty  to  act  as  they  pleased  in 
relieving  the  distressed  with  as  much  money  as 
they  thought  proper,  and  to  manifest  their  com- 
passion for  those  who  were  not  of  the  brotherhood 
as  much  as  they  liked  and  whenever  tliey  likpd. 
Such  was  their  mode  of  living  during  the  week. 
The  Sabbath  was  observed  very  strictly.  'J'hey 
prepared  the  food  on  the  previous  day  in  order 
that  no  fire  need  be  lighted  on  the  Sabbath,  and 
did  not  dare  to  remove  a  vessel  from  its  place  on 
that  day.  They  even  restrained  the  necessities 
of  the  body.  The  whole  day  w'as  given  up  to 
religious  exercises  and  to  exposition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. In  the  synagogue,  as  at  meals,  each  one 
took  his  seat  according  to  age,  in  becoming  attire. 
One  read  aloud  out  of  the  law  of  their  land,  and 
the  most  experienced  among  them  expounded, 
clothing  tlie  mystery  in  symbols.  The  others 
remained  quiet,  only  giving  a  sign  of  assent  or 
doubt  with  the  head,  the  eye,  or  hand.  In  their 
abstention  they  went  even  so  far  as  to  abstain 
from  anointing  the  body,  which  in  hot  climates 
is  almost  a  necessity  of  life. 

T/ieolor/i/  of  the  Essenes.  —  They  had  a  tendency 
to  sun-worship.  This  tendency  is  rather  a  foreign 
element  in  Judaism.  As  has  already  been  indi- 
cated above,  at  daybreak  they  addressed  certain 
prayers  to  the  sun,"  as  if  entreating  him  to  rise." 
They  were  careful,  also,  to  conceal  and  bury  all 
polluting  substances,  so  as  not  "  to  insult  the  rays 
of  the  god."  They  denied  the  resurrection  of 
the  body,  but  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  Whilst  they  refused  to  offer  sacrifices  at 
Jerusalem,  they  sent  gifts  to  the  temple.  They 
believed  in  angels;  and  to  conceal  the  names  of 
the  angels  was  included  in  the  oath  taken  by  the 
candidate.  They  studied  sacred  books,  which, 
however,  are  not  described.  They  also  learnt 
the  qualities  of  roots  and  the  properties  of  stones. 
By  means  of  these  and  similar  studies  connected 
with  their  lustrations,  the  Essenes  believed  to  be 
enabled   to   foretel'    the   future:    and   Josephus 


BSSENBS. 


762 


ESTHER. 


affirms,  that,  in  their  prophecies,  they  seldom 
erred,  giving  some  examples  of  fulfilled  prophe- 
cies. 

The  question  has  been  raised,  and  has  been 
agitated  by  Continental  scholars,  whence  Essen- 
ism  derived  its  foreign  influences,  'which  distin- 
guished it  from  Pharisaic  Judaism:  for,  although 
most  of  the  peculiarities  which  distinguisli  Es- 
senism  could  be  traced  back  to  Judaism,  yet 
there  is  an  alien  admixture  of  foreign  elements 
which  could  hardly  be  reconciled  with  Judaism. 
Some  have  regarded  tlie  distinctive  characteris- 
tics of  the  sect  as  an  offshoot  of  the  Neo-Pytha- 
gorean  school  grafted  on  the  stem  of  Judaism. 
This  solution  is  suggested  by  the  statement  of 
Josephus,  that  "they  practise  the  mode  of  life 
which  among  the  Greeks  was  introduced  by 
Pythagoras."  This  theory  has  found  its  ablest 
and  most  persistent  advocate  in  Zeller,  who  draws 
out  the  parallels  with  great  force  and  precision 
(^Gescliichte  der  Philosopkie  der  Griechen,  III.  2, 
p,  281).  This  theory  of  Zeller  was  objected  to 
by  Lightfoot  from  a  chronological  and  geographi- 
cal stand-point,  showing,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
priority  of  Essenism  to  Neo-Pythagoreanism,  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  that  Essenism  (having  its 
home  on  the  eastern  borders  of  Palestine,  the 
shores  of  the  Dead  Sea)  was  least  of  all  exposed 
to  the  influences  of  Greek  philosophy.  Lightfoot 
is  rather  inclined  to  trace  the  tenets  of  Essenism 
back  to  the  influence  of  Parseeism,  and  makes 
his  assertion  good  by  drawing  out  the  parallels 
between  both.  Which  of  tlie  two  theories  is 
the  correct  one  is  hard  to  decide.  This  much  is 
certain,  that  the  theories  of  Jewish  and  Christian 
writers  who  would  explain  Essenism  from  a 
Talmmlie  stand-point  have  no  foundation  at  all. 
Of  greater  importance,  however,  is  the  question 
as  to  the  relationship  between  — 

Essenism  and  Christianiti/.  —  It  has  become  a 
common  practice  with  a  certain  class  of  Jewish 
and  Christian  writers  to  call  Essenism  to  their 
aid  in  accounting  for  any  distinctive  features  of 
Christianity.  We  cannot  enter  into  a  refutation 
of  the  points  of  resemblance  between  Essenism 
and  Christianity  adduced  by  such  writers  as 
Graetz  and  Ginsburg.  This  llieory  has  been  ably 
treated  and  refuted  by  Liglitfoot.  Suffice  it  to 
say  that  Essenism.  notwithstanding  all  its  favor- 
able effect  upon  individuals,  had  no  influence 
upon  the  Jewish  people  in  particular,  or  upon  the 
world  in  general.  "E.ssenism,"  as  Keini  says, 
"was,  in  fact,  only  an  admission  of  lielple.ssne.ss 
against  the  actual  state  of  things,  renouncing 
the  attempt  to  restore  all  Israel,  to  which  it  was 
opposed  as  heterodox  and  impure.  ...  In  short, 
the  salvation  of  individuals  in  the  general  ship- 
wreck is  frankly  the  watchword  of  the  party. 
We  hear  nothing  from  tlieni  of  a  cry  for  the 
kingdom  of  God,  nor  for  the  Messiah,  since  these 
were  enclosed  within  their  own  limits.  .  .  .  We 
may  learn  from  its  weakness,  that  the  healing 
jiower  wliicli  arose  upon  the  nation,  and,  indeed, 
upon  the  world,  with  fresh  creative  fruitful iiess, 
cannot  be  counted  among  the  impulses  and  forces 
of  Essenism." 

Lit.  —  The  literature  on  the  Essenes  is  very 
rich.  IJesides  wliat  has  been  enumerated  by 
Scni'ltKit  (Lilirhiicli  iter Neulcslamcndic/iin  Zcilije- 
ichiclUe,  Leipz,,  1874,  pp.  599  sq.),  see  Keim  :   The 


History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara,  Lond.,  1873,  vol.  I.  pp. 
358  sq.;  Clemens:  De  Essenorum  Morihus  et  Insti- 
tutis,  Kdnigsberg,  n.d. ;  the  same :  Das  5.  Evan- 
fjelium,  Oder  d.  Urevangelium  d.  Essder,  Berl.,  1879  ; 
P.  E.  Lucius:  Der  Essenismus,  Strassb.,  1881; 
SiEFFERT  :  Chrislus  uud  die  Essder,  in  Beweis  des 
Glaubens  (November,  1873)  ;  Demmler  :  Essenis- 
mus  iind  Christus,  in  Theolofj.  Studie7i  aus  IViirl- 
temberg,  1880,  I.,  II.  pp.  122-149;  Ginsburg  :  The 
Essenes,  their  History  and  Doctrines,  London,  1864 
(reproduced  in  Alexander's  edition  of  Kitto's 
Cyclop.).  A  general  survey  of  the  English  litera- 
ture has  been  given  by  B.  Pick,  in  Zeitschrift  fiir 
die  gesammte  luth.  Theologie  und  Kii-cke,  ed.  by 
Guericke  and  Delitzsch  (Leipzig.  1878,  pp.  397  sq.); 
but  the  most  thorough  and  important  treatise  on 
this  subject  is  by  Lightfoot,  St.  Paul's  Epistles 
to  the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon,  London,  1875, 
pp.  82-179.  G.  UHLHORN 

(Greatly  enlarged,  and  with  literature  added  by  B.  Pick). 

ESTHER  {star,  from  the  Persian  sitareli),  the 
Persian  name  of  the  Jewish  Iladassah  (ii.  7), 
and  the  adopted  daughter  of  iMordecai,  her  cousin. 
After  the  deposition  of  Vashti,  her  charms  won 
the  admiration  of  Ahasuerus,  who  chose  her 
above  many  competitors  for  his  queen.  Through 
her  mediation  the  extermination  of  the  Jews  in 
the  Persian  Empire  was  averted,  and  their  bitter 
enemy,  Haman,  executed.  Esther's  patriotism 
and  heroism  have  won  for  her  a  place  beside 
Deborah  and  Judith  in  the  gratitude  of  her 
nation. 

Book  of.  The  Book  of  Esther  describes  the 
elevation  of  Esther  to  the  Persian  throne,  the 
overthrow  of  Hanian's  scheme  for  the  destruction 
of  the  Jews,  and  Haman 's  own  ignominious 
death.  The  scene  is  laid  in  Susa,  at  the  court 
of  Ahasuerus  (Xerxes).  The  book  opens  with 
the  description  of  a  great  fe.ast  for  the  princes  of 
the  empire  (488  B.C.),  the  deposition  of  Queen 
Vashti  for  refusal  to  comply  with  the  king's 
request  (i.  12),  and  the  elevation  of  Esther  to 
the  throne.  The  narrative  then  dwells  upon  the 
power  of  the  prime  minister  Hainan,  his  wounded 
pride  at  the  refusal  of  Mordecai  to  liend  before 
liim,  an<l  his  plot  to  exterminate  all  the  Jews  in 
the  emjiire,  out  of  revenge  (iii.  0).  He  secured 
a  decree  to  this  end;  and  the  Pur,  or  lot  for  its 
execution,  fell  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  Adar  (iii. 
7).  Tiie  wariness  of  Mordecai,  and  Esther's  in- 
fluence over  the  emperor,  were  used  to  secure 
counter-legislation,  whereby  the  evil  effects  of 
the  irreversible  decree  were  averted  (v.  (i).  The 
Oriental  mon.arch  now  changes  his  mind  towards 
Hainan  himself,  and  orders  him  to  be  hung  on 
the  gallows  he  liad  erected  for  Mordecai  (vii.  9). 
At  tliis  point,  with  the  humiliation  of  Haman'g 
haughty  pride  and  the  deliverance  of  the  people 
by  the  counter  decree,  the  story  culminates.  The 
book  clo.scs  with  the  appointment  of  a  national 
festival  to  commemorate  the  deliverance,  and  a 
notice  of  the  advancement  of  Mordecai  to  Ha- 
nian's place  of  jiower.  The  whole  narrative  is 
told  with  coiisnnini.ate  dramatic  skill.  It  gives 
a  .striking  illustration  of  patriotism,  a  terrible 
warning  against  jirideand  contempt  for  inferiors, 
and  sliows  how  the  self-s;icrificing  devotion  of 
the  heroine  fits  in  with  the  workings  of  Divine 
Providence  to  defeat  the  jilot  of  the  enemy. 

The  authorship  has  been  attributed  to  Morde- 


ESTHER. 


763 


ETHERIDGE. 


cai  (Clement  of  Alexandria),  Ezra  (Augustine), 
and  Joiakim,  the  high  priest.  These  names  are 
nothing  more  than  conjectures.  But  the  refer- 
ences to  Ahasuerus  and  Mordecai  (conip.  i.  1  sqq., 
X.  1  sqq.)  make  it  necessary  that  the  work  should 
have  been  written  after  their  death.  As  to  the 
time  of  composition,  we  can  only  speak  with 
probability.  Eichhorn,  Keil,  and  others  put  it  in 
the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  I.  (464-425  B.C.)  ;  but 
the  style  rather  points  to  the  Greek  period  (about 
325  B.C.).  [Rawlinson  fixes  upon  444-434  B.C. 
as  the  date.  That  the  author  wrote  in  Persia  is 
made  very  probable  by  the  accuracy  of  the  ref- 
erences to  Persian  customs,  and  the  absence  of 
all  allusion  to  Palestine.] 

The  authenticity  has  been  questioned,  but 
without  good  reason.  The  allusions  to  Persian 
manners  are  minute  and  accurate.  The  luxuri- 
ous habits  and  capricious  temper  of  Xerxes  are 
in  exact  accord  with  the  portraiture  of  secular 
history.  The  great  assembly  of  his  princes,  re- 
corded in  chap,  i.,  agrees  with  the  statement  of 
Herodotus,  that  the  king  began  to  make  prepara- 
tions for  his  Grecian  campaign  in  the  third  year 
of  his  reign.  That  Herodotus  does  not  mention 
Esther  (for  Aniestris  cannot  be  identified  with 
her)  offers  no  difficulty  when  we  remember  that 
Persian  monarchs  did  not  limit  themselves  to 
one  wife.  But  an  irrefutable  argument  for  the 
truth  of  the  narrative  is  the  Feast  of  Purim, 
which  commemorates  tlie  facts,  and  is  inexplica- 
ble on  any  other  hyiJothesis  than  that  they 
occurred. 

The  religious  character  of  the  work  has  from 
the  earliest  times  been  the  subject  of  unfavorable 
criticism.  It  makes  not  a  single  mention  of 
God  by  name,  and  yet  mentions  the  Persian 
monarch  a  hundred  and  eighty-seven  times. 
Luther  speaks  of  its  marked  Judaistic  features, 
and  its  heathen  frivolity,  and  thought  it  unworthy 
of  a  place  in  the  cauon.  Others  have  spoken  of 
the  spiirit  of  national  revenge  and  pride  which 
pervades  it  (De  Wette).  But,  in  spite  of  these 
criticisms,  the  book  is  not  irreligious  in  tone. 
The  fast  which  Esther  orders,  and  the  heroic 
words  of  Mordecai,  indicate  the  very  opposite 
(iv.  14-16).  The  latter's  refusal  to  bow  down 
before  Haman  was  based  upon  his  regard  for 
the  Jewish  law.  And,  if  the  religious  allusions 
are  few,  this  is  due  to  the  fear  of  profaning  the 
sacred  in  a  book  which  was  to  be  read  at  joyous 
feasts.  The  canonicity  of  Esther  was  at  one  time 
questioned  in  tlie  Jewish  Church,  as  we  infer 
from  the  conduct  of  tlie  eighty-five  elders  in 
opposing  the  observance  of  the  Feast  of  Purim. 
In  the  early  Greek  Clmrch  it  was  placed  by  some 
(e.g.,  Athanasius)  amongst  the  Apocrypha;  but 
the  Latin  Church  always  held  it  to  be  canonical. 

In  the  Septuagint  Esther  appears  with  apocry- 
phal additions,  which  were  no  doubt  made  by 
some  Hellenistic  Jew.  They  bear  on  their  face 
the  marks  of  being  spurious,  inaccurate  as  their 
references  to  Persian  customs  are,  and  designed 
as  their  frequent  mention  of  the  name  of  God  is, 
to  give  to  the  original  work  a  specifically  reli- 
gious character.  v.  ORELLI. 

Lit. — Besides  the  various  Introductions  to  the 
O.T.,  by  Bleek,  Keil,  etc.,  see  G.  Rawlinson, 
in  the  Speaker's  Commentary  (London  and  N.Y., 
1873);  F.  W.    Sciiultz,  in   Lange    (Bielefeld, 


1875,  Eng.  trans.,  N.Y.,  1877);  B.  Neteler 
(Minister,  1S77)  ;  P.  Cassel  (1.  Abth.,  Berlin, 
1H78) ;  A.  Raleigh  (Lond.,  1880) ;  see,  also, 
Lectures  on  Esther,  by  T110MA.S  McCiUE  (Edinb., 
1838)  and  A.  Davidson  (Edinb.,  1850);  L. 
Munk's  Ger.  trans,  of  the  Targum  Sclieni  to 
Esther  (Berlin,  1876);  A.  WI'Nsche's  Ger.  trans, 
of  the  Midrash  to  Esther  (Leipzig,  1881) ;  and 
art.  Esther,  in  S.mitii'.s  Diet,  of  the  Bible,  and  by 
Professor  Ciievne,  in  Enci/c.  Brit. 

ESTIUS,  Gulielmus  {William  van  Est),  h.  at 
Gorkum,  1542;  d.  at  Douai,  Sept.  20, 1613;  studied 
at  Utrecht  and  Leyden,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Louvain,  1570,  and  at  Douai, 
1580.  His  Commentarii  in  Epistolas  Apostolicas 
(Douai,  1614-16,  last  edition  by  Franz  Sausen, 
Mayence,  1841-45,  7  vols.)  acquired  great  reputa- 
tion for  its  acuteness  both  among  Roman-Catholic 
and  Protestant  students.  He  also  wrote  commen- 
taries on  Petrus  Lombardus. 

ETERNAL   LIFE.     See  Immortality. 

ETERNAL  PUNISHMENT.  See  Punishment, 
Future. 

ETHELBERT,  or  >CTHELBERHT,  d.  Feb.  24, 
616;  king  of  Kent  560-616,  and,  since  593,  bret- 
walda  among  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings ;  married 
Bertha,  a  daughter  of  Charibert,  king  of  Paris, 
and  allowed  her  to  practise  her  own  Christian 
religion  at  the  old  Roman-British  Church  of  St. 
Martin,  in  Canterbury,  under  the  guardianship 
of  lier  bishop,  Liudhard,  but  seems  to  have  taken 
no  further  interest  in  the  peculiar  faith  of  his 
wife.  When  Augustine,  however,  landed  at  the 
Isle  of  Thanet  in  597,  he  was  well  received  by 
Ethelbert,  who  was  converted  and  baptized  in  the 
very  same  year;  and  it  seems  that  Ethelbert 
henceforward  used  all  his  influence  as  king  and 
bretwalda  for  the  promotion  of  Christianity. 
He  removed  the  royal  residence  to  Reculver 
(Reijuthium),  and  left  Canterbury  to  Augustine; 
he  aided  in  the  rebuilding  of  the  old  Roman 
church,  and  himself  built  a  large  monastery  (St. 
Augustine)  outside  the  walls  of  Canterbury  ;  and, 
among  the  ninety  dooms  and  decrees  of  his  which 
are  extant  (Thorpe  :  Ancient  Laics  and  Institutes 
of  Enf/land),  one  makes  provision  for  the  security 
of  the  [iroperty  of  the  church  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical officials.  He  issued  (600)  the  earliest  code 
of  Anglo-.Saxon  laws  now  extant.  He  founded 
the  see  of  Canterbury  (602)  and  that  of  Rochester 
(604). 

ETHELDREDA,  St.,  a  daughter  of  the  East 
Anglian  king,  Anna,  made  a  vow  that  she  would 
remain  a  virgin,  and  kept  her  word,  though  she 
was  twice  married,  first  to  Tondbert,  an  East- 
Anglian  prince,  who  died  shortly  after  the  mar- 
riage, and  then  to  Egfrid,  King  of  Korthumbria, 
from  whom  she  was  divorced.  After  the  divorce 
had  taken  place  (671),  she  retired  to  the  Isle  of 
Ely,  where  she  led  a  life  of  severe  asceticism, 
and  died  from  the  plague,  Juue  23,  679.  See 
Butler  :  Lives  of  Saints,  June  23. 

ETHERIDGE,  John  Wesley,  a  Methodist  Ori- 
entalist; b.  at  Grangewood,  near  Kewport,  Isle  of 
Wight,  Feb.  24,  1804  ;  d.  at  Camborne,  May  24, 
1866.  Although  not  a  university  man,  he  made 
himself  master  of  Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  .Syriac, 
French,  and  German.  He  was  nearly  all  his  life 
a  circuit  preacher,  yet  found  time  to  prejiare 
valuable   books  showing  biblical  and  linguistic 


ETHICS. 


r64 


ETHICS. 


learning.  In  1848  he  received  the  degrees  of 
M.A.  and  Ph.D.  from  the  University  of  Heidel-  j 
berg.  His  chief  works  are  Horce  Aramaicce,  com-  \ 
prising  Concise  Notices  of  the  Araiuean  Dialects  in  ' 
General,  and  of  the  Versions  of  Holy  Scripture 
Extant  in  them,  with  Translations  of  Si.  Matlhe.ic 
and  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  from  the  Ancient  Pe- 
schito  Version,  London,  1843;  The  Syrian  Churches, 
Ikeir  Early  History,  Liturgies,  and  Literature.  Lon- 
don, 1846  (contains  a  translation  of  the  four  Gos- 
pels from  the  Peshitto)  ;  The  Apostolical  Acls  and 
Epistles,  from  the  Peschito,  or  Ancient  Si/rioc,  to 
which  are  added  the  Remairiing  Epistles  and  the 
Book  of  liecelalion,  after  a  Later  Syriac  Text,  trans- 
lated with  Prolegomena  and  Indices,  London,  1849  ; 
Jerusalem  and  Tiberias :  Sora  and  Cordova,  a  Sur- 
vey of  the  Religious  and  Scholastic  Learning  of  the 
Jews,  designed  as  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Hebrew  Literature,  London,  1856  ;  The  Targums  of 
Onkelos  and  Jonathan  Ben  IJzziel  on  the  Pentateuch, 
with  the  Fragments  of  the  Jerusalem  Targnm.from 
the  Chaldee,  London,  1862-6.5,  2  vols.  He  wrote 
also  Lives  of  Adam  Clarke  (London,  1858,  N.Y., 
1860)  and  Thomas  Coke  (London,  186(1).  See 
Thornley  Smith:  Memoir  of  Rev.  John  Wesley 
Elheriilgp.  London,  1871. 

ETHJCS,  from  the  Greek  %i9of,  which,  besides 
the  objective  element  (customs,  habits,  the  Latin 
mores,  whence  disciplina  moralis^,  also  includes  a 
subjective  element,  a  conscious  feeling  at  home 
in  the  customs,  an  approval  by  conscience  of  the 
habits,  whicl\  transforms  the  merely  mechanical 
routine  into  responsible  action,  and  elevates  the 
merely  instinctive  disposition  to  character. 

Ethics  is  the  science  of  conduct ;  Christian 
ethics,  tlie  scientific  representation  of  the  truths 
of  Christianity  in  their  practical  apjilication  to 
individual  life  as  duties  an<l  ideals.  (Philosophi- 
cal etliics.  sec  Mokai.  Philosophy.)  In  the  sci- 
ence of  divinity  considered  as  an  organic  whole 
ethics  occupies  a  position  of  its  own  as  one  part 
of  systematic  th(>ology.  Fi'om  e.vegesis  and 
church  history  it  is  distinguished  by  its  very 
object;  for  it  is  neither  a  demonstration  of  what, 
according  to  the  authentic  documents  of  the  di- 
vine revelation,  is  true  Christianity,  nor  a  record 
of  what,  in  the  course  of  history,  has  vindicated 
itself  as  such,  but  an  exposition,  with  respect  to 
a  peculiar  sphere,  —  the  sphere  of  conduct,  —  of 
Christianity  as  the  highest  truth.  Less  distinct 
is  its  relation  to  dogmatics,  which  forms  the  other 
part  of  systematical  theology.  At  one  time  it 
was  treated  as  a  mere  appendix  to  dogmatics;  at 
another  it  was  fairly  in  the  way  to  entirely  super- 
sede it.  Jn  general,  however,  the  relation  be- 
tween dogmatics  and  ethics  may  be  dclined  as 
that  between  the  theoretical  and  practical  aspects 
of  the  same  thing;  not  that  ethics  lias  no  theo- 
retical interest,  and  dogmatics  no  ]iractical  bear- 
ing:  on  the  contrary,  the  connection  between 
them  is  a  deep,  reciprocal  interdependence. 

Rich  materials  for  a  Chiistian  ethics  are  found 
in  the  writing.s  of  the  apostolical  fathers,  Clem- 
ens Komanus,  Ignatius,  Polycarp,  Paniabas,  Hir- 
mas.  Tliey  refer  mostly  to  indivi<bial  life,  often 
also  to  married  litV'  and  the  family,  and  some- 
times to  the  church  (Ignatius,  Ilermas,  (Ileinens 
Komanus).  Still  more  deeply  Tertullian  pene- 
trated into  the  subject  in  his  numorous  ethical 
writings,  —  De  spectacuUt,  De  velandis  virginibus, 


De  monogamia,  De poenitentia,  etc., — everywhere  ei- 
pounding  his  peculiar  conception  of  Christianity 
as  a  spiritual  power  which  shall  keep  aloof  from 
the  Pagan  world,  organize  its  children  into  a 
compact  army,  attack  Paganism  in  closed  ranks, 
conquer  it,  judge  it.  Starling  from  quite  a  dif- 
ferent conception  of  Christianity,  and  not  at  all 
afraid  of  adopting  elements  of  Greek  philosophy, 
Clemens  Alexandrinns  develops  a  number  of 
striking  ethical  ideas  in  his  Pwdagogus,  Siromnia, 
Exhortation  to  the  Pagans,  etc.  To  him  Chris- 
tianity is  a  spiritual  power,  which  certainly  raises 
the  soul  far  above  any  epicurean  eudsemonism,  or 
stoical  apathy,  or  merely  negative  asceticism,  but 
whose  proper  task  it  is  to  get  itself  naturalized 
in  the  world,  to  penetrate  its  every  fibre,  to  re- 
generate it.  AV'ith  Cyprian  (De  ecclesi(E  unllate, 
De  ohservntione  disciplines,  etc".)  the  church  comes 
into  prominence  in  the  sphere  of  ethics,  not 
simply  as  governing  Christian  life,  legislating  for 
it,  influencing  it  in  many  various  ways,  but  as 
the  vei-y  centre  of  the  whole  field  of  ethics:  to 
every  Christian  individual  his  relation  to  the 
church  now  becomes  the  principal  ethical  rela- 
tion of  his  life.  The  full  realization  of  this  idea 
was  the  result  of  a  long  development;  but  in  this 
development  Cyprian  occupies  a  central  position. 
His  views  were  the  natural  outcome  of  the  Mon- 
tanist  and  the  Xovatian  movements;  and  they 
reached  their  perfection  by  Augustine's  victory 
over  the  Donatists.  Wliile  the  Montanists  ac- 
cepted the  sudden  outbursts  of  individual  enthu- 
siasm as  the  true  medium  through  which  the 
Holy  Spirit  communicates  with  the  congregation, 
and  consequently  demanded  absolute  obedience 
to  the  dictates  of  this  ecstatic  prophecy  as  a  con- 
dition of  communion  between  tlie  spirit  and  the 
individual,  the  Novatian.s  found  the  true  vehicle 
of  spiritual  communion  in  the  church  itself  con- 
sidered as  a  totality,  as  an  organization  of  the 
universal  priesthood  under  presbyterial  forms; 
and  they  were  consequently  very  rigorous  with 
respect  to  admission  to  memlier.ship.  Cyprian 
opjiosed  both  parties,  and  did  so  in  fa^or  of  the 
hierarchical  development  of  the  idea  of  the 
church.  Though  he  asserted  the  possibility  of  a 
second  penance,  and  rejected  the  jiossibility  of 
a  church  of  saints,  he  agreed  with  the  Novatians 
in  the  holiness  of  the  church  as  a  totality;  but 
this  totality  he  found  represented  by  the  episco- 
pacy, which,  in  its  nature  and  essence,  is  one  and 
undivided,  though  in  reality  it  is  distributed  over 
a  i>luralily  of  individuals.  With  this  idea  of  the 
episcopacy  as  the  true  expression  of  the  unity  of 
the  church,  he  turned  upon  the  Montanists,  and 
opposed  to  their  abrupt,  sporadic,  and  inciden- 
tal ecstasies  the  sacrament  of  ordination  as  the 
true  medium  of  comniuuion  between  the  spirit 
and  the  cluu-eli.  He  did  not  go  the  full  length, 
however,  of  his  own  argument.  He  never  dared 
assert  that  infallibility  and  personal  holiness  fol- 
lowed as  necessary  effects  of  the  sacrament.  He 
ili'inanded  blind  obedience  to  the  l)islioi>,  but  he 
granted  that  the  congregation  might  expel  an 
unholy  and  unworthy  bishop.  He  stopped  in  a 
self-contradiction.  The  Council  of  Nicaja  led 
the  way  out  of  this  contrailiction  by  basing  the 
infallibility  of  the  church,  its  inspiration,  not 
u|ion  the  individual  bisliop,  but  upon  the  collec- 
tive  episcopacy,   the   o'cumenical    council  ;    mid 


ETHICS. 


765 


ETHICS. 


when  the  Doiiatists,  nevertheless,  vehemently 
urged  the  holiness  of  the  bishop  as  an  absolute 
condition  of  tlie  holiness  of  tlie  church,  Augus- 
tine was  naturally  led  to  object,  that,  in  that  case, 
the  whole  idea  was  reduced  to  something  merely 
subjective,  and  quite  impalpable.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, he  said,  that  the  sacrament  of  ordination 
shall  confer  personal  infallibility  and  personal 
holiness  on  the  ordained  :  it  is  sufficient,  when  it 
gives  authority  in  teaching,  efficacy  in  the  admin- 
istration of  the  sacraments,  and  power  to  govern 
the  congregation  ;  for  the  church  is  holy,  not  on 
account  of  the  holiness  of  its  members,  but  be- 
cause it  is  a  divine  institution  :  its  holiness  is 
impersonal.  Thereby  tlie  foundation  was  laid 
for  the  hierarchical  fabric  soon  to  be  reared,  and 
thereby  the  ethical  relation  between  the  church 
and  the  individual  was  fixed  in  a  manner  soon 
to  become  strikingly  apparent;  for  the  more 
vigorously  the  church  developed  as  a  divine  insti- 
tution, a  holy  state,  the  more  closely  its  ethics 
assumed  the  aspect  of  a  criminal  code.  A  new, 
so-called  higher  virtue,  with  the  character  of  a 
pre-eminently  negative  asceticism,  and  blooming 
forth  in  monasticism,  virginity,  poverty,  etc., 
became  the  real  focus  of  Christian  life,  and  found 
in  the  penitential  its  true  literary  expression. 
Ethical  studies,  in  the  broader  and  sounder  sense 
of  the  word,  were  few  and  far  between  ;  nor  do 
they  generally  evince  any  marked  originality. 
Ambrose,  De  officiis  (comp.  J.  Daescke,  Cicero- 
tits  el  Amhrosii  de  ojfiriis  Libri  III.,  etc.,  Augs- 
burg, 1875)  ;  Gregoi-y  the  Great,  Magna  Moral/a ; 
Martin  of  Bracara,  Formula  honestce  vitm  ;  Alcuin, 
De  virtutibus  et  vitiis;  Paschasius  Radbertus,  De 
fide,  spe,  et  carilate  —  that  is  about  all  produced 
down  to  the  time  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  so-called  Libri  Pcenlientiales 
(that  is,  collections  of  disciplinary  precepts  ex- 
tracted from  the  apostolical  constitutions,  the 
fathers,  and  the  canons  of  the  councils)  were 
innumerable  :  some  of  the  most  prominent  are 
those  made  by  Johannes  Jejunator,  Fulgentius 
Ferrandus,  Cresconius,  Theodorus  Cilix,  Bede, 
arid  Rhabanus  Maurus. 

The  ethics  of  the  medifeval  mystics  is  also 
ascetic,  but  the  asceticism  is  there  of  another 
and  higher  type.  By  John  Scotus  Erigena  the 
Greek  mysticism  —  represented  by  Makarius  the 
Egyptian,  Dionysius  Areopagita,  and  Maximus 
Confessor  —  was  introduced  into  the  Latin  world, 
and  became  the  starting-point  of  the  mysticism 
of  the  Western  Church,  both  in  its  Romanic  form 
(Hugo  and  Richard  of  St.  Victor,  Bernard  of 
Clairvaux,  Bonaventura,  Gerson,  Molino)  and  in 
its  Germanic  form  (Suso,  Ruysbroeck,  Tauler, 
Eckart).  So  far  as  this  mysticism  developed  an 
ethics,  the  principle  of  the  false  asceticism  was 
retained.  The  contradiction  between  finite  and 
infinite,  matter  and  spirit,  w'orld  and  God,  was 
left  standing.  To  escape  from  the  finite,  to  die 
away  from  the  world,  to  crush  the  flesh,  was  still 
considered  the  only  true  ethical  process.  Rut  to 
this  mere  negation  was  added  a  positive  object, 
—  to  be  absorbed  by  the  infinite,  to  arrive  at 
spiritual  freedom,  to  live  in  God ;  and  thereliy 
the  mainspring  of  Christian  ethics  was  actual- 
ly toiiched.  When,  nevertheless,  the  mediaeval 
mystics  failed  to  produce  a  true  ethics,  the  reason 
was  that  they  lacked  that  conception  of  the  human 


personality  which  achieves  a  perfect  union  of 
finite  and  infinite  by  means  of  the  created  soul's 
capability  to  receive  the  divine,  —  an  idea  which 
first  obtained  full  scope  in  Luther's  doctrine  of 
faith  and  justification  by  faith.  Alongside  with 
the  mystics  —  who,  in  spite  of  all  shortcoming.?, 
form  the  real  sap-carrying  vesicles  both  of  ethics 
and  dogmatics  during  the  middle  ages  —  the 
scholastics  went  their  own  way,  in  some  respects 
continuators,  they  too,  of  asceticism,  though 
generally  more  deeply  engaged  in  other  direc- 
tions. After  the  example  of  Petrus  Lombardus, 
they  used  to  incorporate  a  certain  amount  of 
ethical  materials  with  their  dogmatical  senlenticc 
and  suvmue.  To  the  four  philosopliical  virtues 
— Juslitia,  forliludo,  moderalio.  and  sa/iir/ilin  —  the 
three  theological  virtues  were  added, —  faith,  hope, 
and  charity;  thus  making  the  sacred  seven  full. 
The  internal  relation,  however,  between  these 
two  groups  of  virtues  alw'ays  remained  somewhat 
vague.  The  best  treatment  which  the  subject 
found  among  the  schoolmen  was  that  by  Thomas 
Aquinas,  in  his  Prima  et  secunda  serundri;,  which 
became  the  model  for  all  later  Roman-Catholic 
ethics.  But,  besides  these  products  of  the  theo- 
retical interest  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  the 
practical  wants  of  the  confessional  called  forth 
a  luxuriant  ethical  literature  of  quite  another 
type,  the  so-called  casuistry.     (See  article.) 

When  the  Reformation  took  its  final  stand 
upon  Scripture,  it  not  only  escaped  the  great 
errors  of  the  middle  ages,  but  it  also  succeeded 
in  establishing  the  true  principles  of  CIn-istian 
ethics.  By  the  new  doctrines  of  faith,  and  justi- 
fication by  faith,  the  fundamental  ethical  ideas 
of  duty,  virtue,  and  highest  good,  were,  so  to 
speak,  melted  down  and  recast.  A  new  ethics 
appeared,  bearing  the  characteristic  marks  of  the 
double  development  of  the  Protestant  or  evan- 
gelical principle,  —  the  Lutheran  Chureh.with  its 
talent  for  plastic  representation,  art,  hymnology, 
science;  and  the  Reformed  Church,  with  its  talent 
for  practical  action,  discipline,  missions,  states- 
manship. Though  neither  Luther  nor  Calvin 
has  written  on  ethics,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the 
word,  both  have  occasionally  treated  of  various 
ethical  subjects,  such  as  prayer,  oath,  marriage, 
civil  authority,  etc.,  especially  in  the  form  of 
expositions  of  the  Decalogue  in  the  Catechism. 
The  Catechism  is,  indeed,  the  primitive  form  of 
evangelical  ethics.  Just  as  evangelical  dogmatics 
arose  from  the  rerjida  fidei  and  the  apostolical 
symbolum,  so  evangelical  ethics  grew  out  of  the 
Decalogue.  The  religious  relations  of  ethics  were 
treated  under  the  first  three  Commandments, — 
more  especially  the  doctrines  of  worship,  prayer, 
and  devotion,  under  the  third,  —  family,  educa- 
tion, school,  state,  and  civil  authority,  under  the 
fourth ;  the  duties  towards  our  neiglibors.  tem- 
perance, care  of  the  body,  also  the  question  of 
capital  punishment,  under  the  fifth ;  marriage 
and  chastity,  under  the  sixth ;  property  and 
honor,  under  the  seventh  and  eighth.  Even  the 
scientific  writers  retained  for  a  long  time  this 
form  ;  as.  for  instance,  David  Chytrwus  ( Virlutum 
descriptioiie.t,  1555),  Paul  von  Eitzen  {Ethicce  doc- 
trirue  libri  IV.,  1571),  Lambert  DauKus  {Elhices 
Christinnce,  Geneva,  1577).  Nevertheless,  it  can- 
not be  denied  that  the  evangelical  churches, 
especially  the  Lutheran  Church,  in  the  beginning, 


ETHICS. 


766 


ETHICS. 


showed  a  lack  of  fertility  in  the  field  of  ethical 
science ;  and  the  reason  seems  to  have  been  a 
certain  awkwardness  in  the  establishment  of  the 
true  relation  between  philosophical  and  thelogi- 
cal  ethics.  The  new  principle  was  obtained  in 
the  doctrines  of  faith,  and  justification  by  faith. 
jSIaterials  were  plentifully  at  hand  in  the  works 
of  the  ancient  philosophical  ethics;  but  the  evan- 
gelical theologians  felt  a  certain  shyness  when 
applying  the  new  principle  to  the  old  materials, 
and  for  some  time  this,  the  most  fertile  of  all 
ethical  principles,  was  left  in  a  state  of  lonesome 
grandeur,  like  a  king  without  subjects.  Melanch- 
thon,  in  his  Philosophia  moralis  (1539)  and  Enaratio 
aliquot  Ubrorum  Arislotelis  (1545),  derived  his 
whole  system  from  general  human  consciousness 
and  philosophical  knowledge,  without  attempting 
to  give  to  Christian  ethics  an  entirely  new  shape 
by  the  application  of  the  principle  of  faith.  In 
his  S)/stema  elfiica:  (Geneva,  1614),  Keckermann 
places  the  philosophical  ethics  after  the  theologi- 
cal, as  the  practical  part.  The  theological  ethics 
deals  only  with  vita  interior,  the  honum  gratia,  the 
vir  pius  et  religiosus  ,  the  philosophical,  only  with 
the  bonum  civile,  the  felicitas  civilis,  the  vir  prolus 
et  honestus.  Less  mechanical  was  Calixtus,  in  his 
Epitome  theologicE  mo>-alis,  Helmstiidt,  1G34.  He 
distinguishes  between  philosophical  and  theologi- 
cal ethics  by  distinguishing  between  a  natural 
and  a  supernatural  law;  but  he  defines  both 
laws  as  eternal,  and  ascribes  to  human  nature 
an  ineffaceable  right  within  Christianity,  and  to 
Christianity  an  internal  affinity  to  human  reason. 
What  was  needed  as  a  preparation  for  a  com- 
pletely liarmonious  union  of  the  philosophical 
and  theological  principles  in  ethics  was  an  inde- 
pendent development  of  each  of  them :  and  a 
development  in  that  direction  — in  the  direction 
of  the  emancipation  of  the  philosophical  princi- 
ple—  began  with  Hugo  Grotius,  Puffiendorf,  and 
Thomasius.  In  his  J)e  Jure  pads  el  belli  (Paris, 
1025),  Grotius  defines  the  highest  good,  and  the 
duty  therein  involved,  as  the  weal  of  the  cora- 
lunnity.  His  antagonist,  Schomer,  proposed  as 
the  fundamental  ethical  maxim.  Follow  Reason 
and  her  innate  ideas.  Lorenz  von  Mosheim  finally 
introduced  tlie  principle  of  hapiiine.ss  in  ethics, 
and  thereby  opened  tlie  long  series  of  endiemo- 
iiistic  attempts.  On  the  other  hand,  Buddeus 
{Jnstitutiones  Iheulogice  moralis,  1711),  J.  F.  Ileuss 
(Elcmcnta  thcologice  moralis,  1707),  and  C.  A. 
Crusius  (Moraltlieologie,  Leipz.,  1772),  developed 
tlie  princii)le  of  faitli  as  the  true  prin(-iple  of 
Christian  ethics,  defining  the  highest  good  as  the 
kingdom  of  heaven,  though  placing  tlie  kingdom 
of  lieaven  beyond  the  earth. 

A  philosophical  ethics,  truly  deserving  the 
name,  was  first  founded,  however,  by  Kant 
(^Kritik  <l.  pralc.  Vermmft ,  Metaphi/sik  iter  Sitten, 
etc.).  Ethics  then  became  severed  from  religion 
by  the  autonomy  of  the  individual;  but  an  end 
was  i)ut  forever  to  the  flat  euda-monism  of  the 
ethics  of  the  Wolffian  school.  The  subjectivism 
of  Kant  having  reached  its  last  consefpiences  in 
Ficlite,  philosophy  turned  with  Sclielling  once 
more  toward.s  ol)jectivisni ;  and  on  this  basis  of 
identity  of  subject  and  object  Schleiermaciier 
became  the  founder  of  modern  tlieological  etliics. 
Ho  ri;tnrned  to  the  old  idea  of  the  kingdom  of 
heaven   as   the   highest  good,  —  an    idea   which 


had  entirely  disappeared  from  the  ethics  of  the 
Wolffian  and  Kantian  schools,  —  but  without 
adopting  either  the  definition  of  Buddeus,  as  an 
indefinite  realm  beyond  the  grave,  or  the  defini- 
tion of  the  Roman-Catholic  moralists,  as  a  ready- 
made  institution  on  earth,  —  the  Church.  The 
kingdom  of  heaven  he  found  produced  and  re- 
produced in  every  sphere  of  human  life  —  church, 
state,  science,  art,  family,  marriage,  etc.  —  by 
the  virtuous  action  of  the  individual.  In  his 
MoiH)loi/e/i  (1800)  he  set  forth  a  multitude  of 
new  ethical  ideas ;  and  in  his  Grundlinien  einer 
Kritik  der  bisherigen  Sittcnsysteme  (1803)  he  ap- 
proached the  centre  of  the  subject.  In  1819  he 
wrote  for  the  Berlin  Academy  several  spirited 
essays  {Ueber  den  Tiigendbegriff,  Pjlichtbe griff, 
etc.)  ;  but  his  complete  system  did  not  appear 
until  after  his  death,  edited  by  Twesten  and  A. 
Schweizer  (1835).  Ilarless  (Clirislliche  Ethik, 
1842  [translated  by  Morrison,  Edinburgh,  18GS]) 
is  not  strictly  scientific  in  method,  and  returns 
to  a  pre-Kantian  stand-point.  After  Schleier- 
maciier, the  greatest  production  of  evangelical 
theology  in  the  field  of  ethics  is,  no  doubt,  Richard 
Rothe's  Theologischc  Ethik  (Wittenbei-g,  1845-48, 
3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1807).  Rothe  was  at  once  a  pupil 
of  .Schleiermacher  and  Hegel.  In  his  Rechts- 
jijiilosopliie  Hegel  had  established  the  State  as 
the  highest  good,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Roman-Catholic  ethics ;  and  this 
idea  Rothe  retained,  making  it  the  object  of  the 
Church,  so  to  speak,  to  resolve  itself  into  the 
State.  Beside  Rothe  must  be  mentioned  Schmid 
(Christlidie  Sitlenlelirc,  ed.  by  A.  Heller,  Stuttgart, 
1861,  noticeable  especially  for  its  development 
of  the  idea  of  the  law).  Strongly  ]iolemical,  Vioth 
against  Schleiermacher  and  Rothe,  is  Wuttke 
{Handbuch  der  christlichen  Sittenlelire,  3d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1874,  2  vols,  [translated  by  Lacroix, 
N.Y.,  1873,  2  vols.],  giving  in  the  first  part  of 
first  volume  an  interesting  survey  of  the  history 
of  ethics).  Noticealile  are  also  the  works  of 
A.  von  Oettingen  (Die  Morahtatistik  u.  die  christ- 
lidie Siltcnlehre,  Erlangen,  1872  sqq.,  2  vols.); 
J.  Chr.  von  Hofraann  (T/ieohgische  Ethik,  iiord- 
lingen,  1878)  and  H.  Martensen  (l)cn  christelige 
Ethik,  Copenhagen,  1871-78,  3  vols.,  Eng.  trans., 
Edinburgh,  1873-82,  3  vols.);  though  both  are 
of  a  somewhat  moi'e  popular  character. 

The  ethics  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
continued,  from  the  middle  ages  down  to  the 
eighteenth  century,  to  run  along  in  the  two 
above  described  jiarallel  lines,  —  scholasticism 
and  mysticism.  The  i>eciiliar  legali.sm  of  the 
former  is  often  aiii>arent  from  the  very  title  of 
their  works,  —  De  jure  et  Juxlili<i  (Joh.  de  l^igo; 
Dominicns  a  Soto).  Among  the  priiici|)al  represen- 
tatives of  the  latter  are  iielhiriiiin,  St.  Theresa, 
Francis  of  Sales,  Molinos,  Pascal,  Arnault,  Nicole 
Perrault.  But,  when  tlie  quietism  of  Molinos 
was  condemned,  the  whole  mystical  branch  of 
Roman-C'atholic  etliics  withered,  and  the  Jesuits 
were  left  alone  in  the  field.  They  lost,  however, 
all  hold  on  public  confidence  by  their  doctrine  of 
))rol)abilisni,  by  their  attack  on  Port  Royal,  and 
by  the  merely  inecliaiiical  nietliod  of  their  ethics. 
Hut  from  th(!  philosujiliy  the  Roman-Catholic, 
like  the  evangelical  moralists,  received  powerful 
and  fertile  imiiulses  during  the  eighteenth  and 
nineteenth  centuries :  from  the  Wollfiau  school, 


ETHIOPIA. 


767 


EUDBS. 


Luby,  Schwazhiiber,  Schanza,  Stadler;  froni  the 
Kantian  school,  Wanker,  Mutschelle,  Hermes, 
Elvenioh,  Vogelsang;  from  Fichte,  Geishiittner; 
from  Schelling,  C.  Weiller.  More  independent 
are  Michael  Sailer  {Haixlbuch  <ler  cJiri.il.  Moral, 
183-1),  Werner  (System  der  christ.  Elliik,  Katisbon, 
1S50-52,  3  vols.),  Palasthy  {Tlwoloiiia  Morum 
Calholica,  Buda,  1861,  4  vols.),  and  Simar  {Lehr- 
huch  d.  kalh.  Moralllieolor/ic,  Bonn,  1807,  giving  a 
survey  of  the  history  of  Koman-Catholic  ethics). 

Lit. — Besides  the  above-mentioned  works  of 
WuTTKE  and  Simar,  see,  for  the  history  of  Chris- 
tian ethics,  Feuerleix  :  Die  Silterdehre  des  Chris- 
ienthums  in  ihren  gescliicldlichen  Hauptformen,  Tii- 
hingen,  18.55 ;  Neandek  :  Vorlcaungen  U.  d. 
Gesch.  d.  chr.  Etliik,  Berlin,  1804 ;  Eunesti  :  Die 
Etliik  d.  Apostels  Paulus,  Braunschweig,  1808,  3d 
ed.,  1880;  Luthardt  :  Die  Ethik  Linkers,  Leip- 
zig, 1867 ;  LoBSTEiN :  Die  Ethik  Caluins,  Strass- 
burg,  1877 ;  [H.  Bavinck  :  De  Ethiek  van  Ulrich 
Zwintjli,  Kempen,  1880 ;  Harless  :  Chrisdiche 
Ethik,  Giitersloh,  7th  ed.,  1875  (Eng.  trans..  Chris- 
tian Ethics,  Edin.,  1868)  ;  J.  P.  Lange  :  Grund- 
riss  d.  chr.  EtJiik,  Heidelberg,  1878;  A.  Thoma  : 
Gesch.  d.  chr.  Sittenlehre  in  d.  Zeit  d.  N.  T., 
Haarlem,  1879 ;  F.  Nielsen  :  TerluUi.nns  Ethik, 
Copenhagen,  1879  ;  W.  Hollenberg  :  Die  sociale 
Gcsctzgehung  u.  d.  chr.  Ethik,  Haarlem,  1880; 
II.  J,  Bestmann  :  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Sitle,  Nordlin- 
gen,  1880  sq. ;  W.  Gass  :  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Ethik, 
Berlin,  1881  sq. ;  J.  T.  Beck:  Chr.  Ethik,G\iter- 
.sloh,  1882  sq. ;  I.  A.  Dorner  :  Chr.  Sittenlehre, 
Berlin,  18S5].  ISxVAC  AUGUST  DOKNEK. 

ETHIO'PIA.     See  Abyssinian  Church. 

ETHIOPIC  VERSION.  See  Bible  Versions, 
VII. 

ETHNARCH  (fiSwi/j.vw,  "ruler  of  a  nation") 
was  tlie  title  of  a  ruler  or  prince,  who,  though 
not  fully  independent,  or  possessed  of  royal 
power,  nevertheless  governed  his  jieople  accord- 
ing to  their  national  laws.  It  was  specially 
applicable  to  the  Jews,  after  their  relations  with 
the  Komans  had  begun,  and  several  of  their 
rulers  bore  it;  as,  for  instance,  Simon  (1  Mace, 
xiv.  47),  his  son  Hyrcanus  (Josephus,  Arch.,  14, 
8,  5),  and  Archelaus,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Herod.  It  was,  however,  also  applied  among 
other  nations.  Thus  King  Aretas  had  settled 
an  ethnarch  at  Damascus  (2  Cor.  xi.  32). 

ETSHMIADZIN,  or  ECHMIEDZIN,  a  famous 
Armenian  monastery,  situated  fifteen  miles  west 
of  the  city  of  Erivan,  in  Asiatic  Russia.  It  was 
founded  in  524,  contains  a  valuable  library,  is 
tlie  seat  of  the  Catholicos,  or  patriarch  of  the 
whole  Armenian  Church. 

ETTWEIN,  John,  a  Moravian  bishop;  b.  at 
Freudenstadt,  Wiirttemberg,  .lune  29,  1721 ;  d. 
Jan.  2,  1802.  In  1754  he  emigrated  to  America, 
and  labored  efficiently  as  evangelist  and  bishop. 
In  1772  he  led  the  Ciiristian  Indians  from  Susque- 
hanna County  in  Pennsylvania  to  the  Tuscara- 
was in  Ohio.  He  enjoyed  friendly  intercourse 
with  Washington,  and  devoted  himself  to  the  care 
of  the  sick  soldiers  in  the  general  army  hospital 
at  Bethlehem,  Penn.  In  1784  he  was  appointed 
a  bishop.  In  1787  he  founded  the  Society  of 
the  United  Brethren  for  Propagating  the  Gospel 
among  the  Heathen,  to  which  Congress  granted 
several  townsliip.s  on  the  Tuscarawas,  in  trust, 
for  the  Christian  Indian*. 


EUCHARIUS  was,  together  with  Valerius  and 
Maternus,  sent  by  the  apostle  Peter  across  the 
Alps  to  preach  the  gosi)el  in  the  Valley  of  the 
llhine,  and  occupied  the  episcopal  cliair  of  Treves 
for  twenty-five  years.  According  to  the  criticism 
of  the  Bollandists  he  belongs  to  the  second  lialf 
of  the  third  century ;  and  the  legends  of  his  mis- 
sions and  miracles  are  mere  fables. 

EUCHELAION,  in  the  Greek  Church,  is  the 
"  prayer  oil,"  consecrated  by  seven  priests,  and 
used  for  the  unction  of  the  sick.  It  is  counted  one 
of  the  seven  sacraments  of  the  church,  and  corre- 
sponds to  the  extreme  unction  of  tlie  Roman 
Church,  but  is  not  limited  to  cases  of  mortal  ill- 
ness.    See  Extreme  Unction. 

EUCHERIUS,  St.,  d.  about  450;  was  b.  at 
Lyons,  of  a  distinguished  family,  and  was  a  sena- 
tor, and  married ;  when,  in  422,  he  entered  the 
monastery  of  Lerinum,  and  became  a  monk. 
He  afterwards  retired  to  the  Island  of  Lero  (St. 
Marguerite),  where  he  lived  as  a  hermit  till 
434,  when  he  was  elected  Bishop  of  Lyons.  He 
has  left  several  works,  among  which  are  Epislola 
de  contemlu  mundi  et  scecularis  j'hilosopliice  (edited 
by  Rosweid,  Antwerp,  1621),  Epistola  de  laude 
eremi  (edited  by  Rhenanus,  Basel,  1516,  and  by 
Erasmus,  Basel,  1520),  Liher  furnmlarum  spiritu- 
alinm  (ed.  Pauly,  Graz,  1884),  etc.  There  are 
collected  editions  by  Brassicanus  (Basel,  1.531), 
also  in  Dibliolh.  Patr.  Max.  (Lyon,  Tom.  VI.),  and 
in  MiGNE,  Patrol.  Lat.,  vol.  50,  containing,  how- 
ever, many  sjiurious  writings.  See  A.  JIellier  : 
De  vita  et  scriptis  sancti  Eucherii,  Lyon,  1878  ;  A. 
GouiLLARD  :  Saint  Eucher,  Lerins  et  I'dglise  de 
Lyon  an  T''"  slecle,  Lyon,  1881. 

EUCHITES.     See  Messalians. 

EUCHOLOGION  (evxoUyiov,  "  collection  of 
prayers  ")  is  in  the  later  Greek  Church  the  common 
name  for  books  on  liturgy,  and  rituals.  It  occurs 
for  the  first  time  in  the  writings  of  Anastasius 
Sinaita  {Qua;st.  141)  in  the  sixth  century,  but  is 
afterwards  very  frequent  in  the  liturgical  works 
of  the  Byzantines.  Numerous  manuscripts  of 
books  of  this  kind,  in  which  the  Greek  Church 
was  much  richer  than  the  Latin,  are  found  in 
the  libraries  of  Vienna,  Rome  (Bibliotheca  Barhe- 
rina),  Paris,  Venice,  and  the  monasteries  of  Mount 
Athos.  A  series  of  piinted  editions  have  ap- 
peared at  Venice  since  152G  (1544,  155.3,  1570, 
etc.)  ;  but  the  best  and  most  complete  edition  is 
that  by  Jacobus  Goar,  Paris,  1045. 

EUD>EMONISM.     See  Ericuueanism. 

EUDES,  Jean,  founder  of  the  Eudists;  b.  at 
Mezerai,  in  Normandy,  Nov.  14,  1601 ;  d.  at 
Caen,  Aug.  19,  1680 ;  "was  educated  by  the  Jes- 
uits at  Caen ;  entered  the  Congregation  of  the 
Oratory  in  Paris,  1623 ;  was  ordained  priest  in 
1625 ;  labored  amoug  the  plague-stricken  people 
of  Normandy  and  as  a  missionary  amoug  the 
clergy ;  was  in  1639  made  superior  of  the  House 
of  the  Oratorians  at  Caen,  but  was  shortly  after 
called  to  Paris  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  for  the 
purpose  of  founding  an  ecclesiastical  seminary. 
This  plan  was  foiled  by  the  death  of  the  cardinal; 
but,  on  the  advice  of  several  bishops,  Eudes, 
nevertheless,  left  his  order,  and  foimded  an  inde- 
pendent congregation  —  the  Eudists,  or  the  Con- 
gregation of  Jesus  and  Mary  —  for  the  education  of 
priests  and  for  missions  among  the  clergy.  The 
congregation,  however,  never  attained  any  great 


EUDOCIA. 


768 


EUHEMERUS. 


importance.  During  the  storms  of  the  Revolu- 
tion it  was  dissolved.  In  1826  it  was  re-estab- 
lished.    It  has  a  college  in  Indiana.     HERZOG. 

EUDOCIA,  Empress,  wife  of  Theodosius  II.; 
■was  b.  at  Athens;  the  daughter  of  a  sophist; 
came  while  very  young  to  Constantinople,  where 
she  captivated  not  only  Pulcheria,  but  alsu  her 
brother,  with  her  accomplishments  ;  was  baptized, 
and  married  to  the  emperor,  413  or  421.  The 
latter  part  of  her  married  life  was  clouded,  how- 
ever, by  some  misunderstanding  between  her  and 
her  husband  ;  and  she  lived,  separated  or  divorced, 
in  Palestine.  Photius  mentions  several  works  by 
her,  —  a  paraphrase  in  verse  of  the  Pentateuch, 
Joshua,  etc. ;  a  poem  on  the  martyrdom  of  St. 
Cyprian,  etc.,  —  and  he  praises  them  much  ;  but 
they  have  not  come  down  to  us.  She  is  also  said 
to  have  finished  the  Cenlones  Homerici  of  Patri- 
cius,  —  a  life  of  Christ  composed  of  verses,  or 
fragments  of  verses,  of  Homer,  printed  at  Franc- 
fort,  1.341,  Paris,  1578,  and  Leipzig,  1703. 

EUDOXIA,  Empress,  wife  of  Arcadius ;  de- 
scended from  a  Prankish  family;  was  married  to 
the  emperor,  April  27,  395,  and  d.  Nov.  6,  404. 
The  origin  of  the  enmity  between  her  and  Chrys- 
ostom  is  not  clear,  but  she  caused  his  banish- 
ment in  403.  The  horror  which  seized  the 
inhabitants  of  Constantinople  on  account  of  an 
earthcjuake  compelled  her  to  recall  him  ;  but  his 
denunciations  of  the  Pagan  chants  and  dances 
■which  accompanied  the  inauguration  of  her  silver 
statue,  raised  in  front  of  the  Church  of  St.  .Sophia, 
exasperated  lier  to  such  a  degree,  that  she  caused 
him  to  be  banished  a  second  time.     See  Chrys- 

OSTOM. 

EUOOXIUS  was  made  Bishop  of  Germanicia, 
on  the  confines  of  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Cappadocia, 
in  331,  Bishop  of  Antioch  in  347,  and  finally 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  360.  He  died  in 
370.  He  was  a  full-blooded  Ariau,  a  disciple  of 
Aetiu.s,  a  friend  of  Eunomius,  and  the  leader  of 
the  Anoran-an  party.  Baronius  calls  him  the 
■worst  of  all  the  Arians. 

EUCENIUS  is  the  name  of  four  popes.  —  Euge- 
nius  I.  (Aug.  10,  G54-.Iuue  1,  0.")7)  was  a  weak 
character,  who  for  the  sake  of  jieace,  and  in 
order  to  escape  the  fate;  of  his  predecessor,  Ahir- 
tin  I.,  who  had  been  sent  in  banisliment  by  the 
emperor  to  the  Thracian  Chersonesus,  made  an 
agreement  with  Pynhus,  Patriarch  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  leader  of  the  Monothelites,  on  the 
basis  that  Christ  had  neither  one  nor  two  wills, 
but  three  (imam  super  tluas),  —  :i  compromise 
worthy  of  a  farce.  See  Jaffic:  liegcxl.  Pout. 
Rom.:  BoWKit :  Ilislori/  nf  the  Pope.'!,  III.  70. — 
Eugenius  II.  (June,  824-August,  827)  submitted 
with  good  grace  to  the  imperial  sway  which 
Louis  the  Pious  still  exercised  over  the  Church, 
in  imitation  of  his  fatlier.  Louis  sent  liis  son 
Lothair  to  Koine  with  an  army,  to  establish 
order  and  )>eace  in  the  city;  and  the  decrees  of  a 
council  which  he  convened  at  Paris  (November, 
825),  and  which  decided  the  question  of  iinage- 
worshi|i  in  the  same  sjiirit  as  the  synod  of  Franc- 
fort,  were  accepted  and  confirmed  by  Eugenius, 
though  without  exercising  any  influence  on  the 
practice  of  the  Roman  Church.  See  JaffI:: 
Reiif.ll.  Pont.  Horn.  —  Eugenius  III.  (Feb.  18, 
Il'i.j-July  8,  11.5-3)  was  a  monk  from  Citeaux, 
and  a  jiupil  of  St.  Bernard  of  Clairv.aux.     Imme- 


diately after  his  election,  the  Roman  people  rose, 
and  demanded  that  he  sliould  content  himself 
with  the  spiritual  authoi'ity,  and  renounce  all 
secular  power.  He  fled  to  Viterbo,  laid  interdict 
upon  the  rebellious  city,  and  succeeded  in  return- 
ing in  1146.  But  in  the  mean  time  Arnold  of 
Brescia  had  begun  his  stirring  agitations;  and 
Eugenius  was  compelled  to  flee  a  second  time. 
Over  Siena  and  Brescia  he  went  to  Treves,  and  ■ 
thence  to  Paris,  accompanied  by  St.  Bernard, 
holding  synods  and  conferences,  and  enjoying  a 
good  reception  everywhere.  By  the  aid  of  Roger 
of  Sicily  he  was  enabled  to  return  to  Rome  in 
1149;  but  in  the  beginning  of  11.50  he  left  the 
city  again,  driven  away  by  the  Republicans.  He 
afterwards  lived  mostly  at  Segni.  The  principal 
event  of  his  reign  was  the  second  crusade.  His 
letters  are  found  in  Jaffe:  Jieff.  Pout.  Ront.; 
the  sources  of  his  life,  in  Watterich  :  Pont. 
Rom.  Vita;  II. —  Eugenius  IV.  (March  3,1431- 
Feb.  23,  1447)  began  his  reign  by  stirring  up  the 
hatred  of  the  family  of  Colonna  against  him. 
The  Colonnas  fled ;  and  in  the  war  which  he 
waged,  in  connection  with  Florence  and  Venice, 
against  Milan  and  Naples,  they  took  the  side  of 
his  enemies.  One  province  of  the  Papal  States 
W'as  conquered  after  the  other.  In  Rome  rebel- 
lion broke  out,  and  (June  4,  1433)  Eugenius  fled 
in  disguise  to  Florence,  But  the  greatest  danger 
to  hnu  was  the  Council  of  Basel,  opened  Aug. 
27,  1431.  It  first  assumed  the  character  of  an 
episcopal  aristocracy,  and  then  changed  into  an 
ecclesiastical  democracy ;  but  nndei-  both  forms 
it  was  in  decided  opposition  to  the  Pope.  Euge- 
nius tried  to  dissolve  it  (1437),  but  failed.  The 
council  deposed  him,  and  set  up  an  antipope, 
Felix  v.  Meanwhile,  Eugenius  succeeded  in 
convening  a  more  tractable  council  at  Ferrara 
(1438),  which  the  following  year  was  transferred 
to  Florence  ;  and  the  refractory  council  of  Basel, 
and  its  antipope,  gradually  sank  into  insignifi- 
cance. In  his  warfare  he  also  experienced  a 
change  of  fortune,  especially  after  he  abandoned 
his  old  allies,  the  republics,  and  luiited  himself 
with  his  old  enemies,  the  monarchies.  In  1443 
he  was  enabled  to  return  to  Rome.  See  Bower, 
flisl.  of  the  Pope!!,  VII.  238,  and  the  sources  to  the 
history  of  the  Council  of  Basel.  G.  VOIOT. 

EUGIPPIUS,  or  EUGYPPIUS,  a  monk  of  Italian 
descent;  lived  for  some  time  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Severinus,  near  Fabiaiue,  in  Noricum ; 
returned  after  the  death  of  the  saint,  and  carry- 
ing his  remains  with  him,  to  Castrum  Luculla- 
num,  near  Naples,  and  wrote  (in  511)  a  Vita  St. 
Seccriui,  often  printed,  best  by  Friedrich,  at  the 
end  of  the  first  volume  of  his  KirrlKuijescli. 
Deulnclilaiiil.':.  Besides  this  work,  which  is  in- 
valnalile  for  the  first  period  of  th<'  church  history 
of  Germany,  he  also  compiled  a  'I'hexriuru.^  ex  D. 
Aiiqnstini  Opfrilius,  Basel,  1542;  wrote  monastic 
rules,  etc.     See  Opera,  ed.  Knoell,  \\'ien,  1885. 

EUHEMERUS,  a  Creek  ].hilosopher  who  flour- 
ished about  300  B.C.  ;  was  the  originator  of  that 
principle  of  interpreting  the  Pagan  mythology 
according  to  whicli  each  myth  is  supposed  to 
have  developed  from  some  simple  historical 
event  as  it.s  kernel.  Tiiis  jirinciple  of  interpreta- 
tion, Euhemerism,  was  afterwards  much  in  favor 
witli  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Lac- 
tantius,  Chrysostom,  and  others   of   the   church 


EULALIUS. 


■769 


EUNUCH. 


fathers.  Of  the  works  of  Euhemerus,  nothing 
has  come  down  to  us  but  a  fragment  of  a  Latin 
translutiim  l>y  Ennius. 

EULALIUS  was  put  up  as  antipope  against 
Boniface  I.  (in  418),  after  tlie  death  of  Zosimus, 
by  a  niiiiority  of  the  clergy  of  Rome,  and  the 
city  prefect,  Symmachus.  Tlie  emperor  con- 
vened a  council  to  decide  the  question,  and 
ordered  the  two  contenders  meanwhile  to  leave 
the  city.  Boniface  obeyed;  but  Eulalius  did 
not,  and  was  consequently  banished  from  the 
city  by  the  emperor.  He  was  afterwards  made 
Bisliop  of  Nepe,  and  kept  quiet  during  the  reign 
of  Boniface  I.  After  the  death  of  the  latter  the 
friends  of  Eulalius  wished  him  to  step  forward 
and  try  to  enforce  his  claims;  but  he  declined. 

EULOCIA  (fuAojm),  properly  fine,  .sonorous 
.speech,  then  praise,  benediction,  consecration. 
Thus  the  formulas  witli  which  the  liturgical 
materials  were  consecrated,  or  the  benediction 
of  the  congregation  spoken  by  the  bishops  and 
presbyters,  were  called  "eulogiie."  From  many 
passages  in  the  works  of  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  etc.,  it  appears,  tliat,  up  to  the  fifth 
century,  eulogia  was  used  synonymously  with 
eucharistia,  probably  referring  to  Paul's  words 
(1  Cor.  X.  16);  but  after  that  time  it  was  con- 
fined to  the  consecrated  bread  which  the  partici- 
pants of  the  Lord's  Supper  brouglit  home  with 
tlieni  to  sick  persons  or  ab.sent  friends. 

EULOGIUS  OF  CORDOVA  was  elected  Arch- 
bishop of  I'oledo  in  858,  but  by  the  Moors  pre- 
vented from  entering  upon  the  duties  of  his 
office.  He  was  a  zealous  champion  of  Chris- 
tianity in  its  contest  with  Mohammedanism,  and 
was  beheaded  March  11,  850,  because  he  had 
been  instrumental  in  the  conversion  of  a  young 
Moorish  girl.  His  writings,  among  which  his 
Memoriale  Sanctorum  slve  Libri  HI.  i/e  Marlijrlbus 
Cordubensibus  occupies  the  chief  place,  were  first 
printed  by  Peter  Pontius  Leo  at  Complutum, 
1574.  They  are  found,  together  with  the  com- 
mentaries of  Ambrosius  de  Morales,  in  Andreas 
Schott's  Hispania  Illustrata,  IV.,  and,  together 
with  his  life  by  his  friend  Alvarus  of  Cordova, 
in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  CXV.  See  Baudissin  : 
Euloqin.i  mul  Alvarus,  Leipz.,  1872.      KLtiPFEL. 

EUNOMIUS  and  the  EUNOMIANS.  Eunomius, 
b.  at  Dacora,  in  Cappadocia,  near  Altisiris,  on 
the  Galatian  frontier;  d.  there  about  392;  came 
in  356  to  Alexandria  to  study  under  Aetius,  whose 
pupil  and  amanuensis  he  became.  He  was  an 
honest  and  robust  but  dry  and  mechanical  nature; 
and  in  the  most  extreme  Arianism  —  that  of 
Aetius  and  the  Anomceans  —  he  found  exactly 
what  he  sought.  In  358  lie  accompanied  Aetius 
to  the  Arian  Council  convened  at  Antioch  by 
Eudoxius.  The  Semi-Arians were  in  power;  and 
through  various  intrigues  they  succeeded  in  get- 
ting Aetius  banished  to  Pepuza,  and  Eunomius  to 
Migde;  while  Eudoxius,  retiring  before  the  storm, 
retreated  iuto  liis  native  Armenia.  Eudoxius, 
however,  understood  how  to  ingratiate  himself 
with  Constantius  ;  and  in  359  he'was  made  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople.  Aetius  he  could  not  or 
would  not  re-instate  ;  but  Eunomius  was  recalled, 
and  made  Bishop  of  Cyzicus,  300.  He  remained 
there  four  years.  In  the  beginning  he  refrained, 
at  the  instance  of  Eudoxius,  from  openly  pro- 
claiming his  extreme  Arian  views ;  but  hypocrisy 
60  —  1 


was  not  his  vice,  and  the  contempt  he  felt  for 
people  who  were  not  of  liis  opinion  soon  made  him 
forget  all  prudence.  The  inhabitants  of  C'yzieus 
repeatedly  and  bitterly  complained  of  him  and  his 
heresies  ;  and  finally  Eudoxius  was  compelled,  l)y 
a  direct  order  from  the  emperor,  to  summon  Iiim 
to  Constantinople,  and  institute  an  investigation, 
the  result  of  wliicli  was  that  he  was  depo.sed  and 
banished.  He  then  placed  liim.self  at  the  head 
of  the  Anomteans  (who  from  this  time  generally 
bore  the  name  of  the  Eunomians),  and  wrote  and 
spoke  in  their  interest ;  but  lu;  never  again  held 
an  official  position  in  the  church.  He  moved 
about  from  place  to  place,  always  in  banishment. 

In  his  treatment  of  the  great  question  of  his 
day,  —  the  divinity  of  Christ,  —  he  started  from 
the  conception  of  an  absolute  unlikeness  in  sub- 
stance between  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  was 
tliereby  led  to  represent  the  Son  as  a  creature 
among  other  creatures,  as  a  mere  man.  These 
views  produced  such  an  indignation,  that  succes- 
sive imperial  edicts  ordered  liis  books  to  be  burnt. 
Of  his  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
and  of  his  Letters  (more  than  forty,  according  to 
Photius),  nothing  has  come  down  to  us.  The 
Confession  QEKdiaicTJ/c  marfuc),  wliich  he  presented 
to  Theodosius  in  383,  but  which  was  not  accepted, 
was  first  printed  by  Valerius,  in  his  Notes  to 
Socrates,  then  by  Baluze,  in  his  Concill.  Nov. 
Collect.,  I.  89.  Of  his  two  Apologies,  the  first 
was  written  directly  against  the  Nicene  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity,  the  second  as  a  defence  against 
the  attacks  of  Basil.  From  several  manuscripts 
of  the  latter's  work  (Advcrsus  Eunomium)  it  has 
been  possible  to  restore  the  whole  first  Apologeti- 
cus  of  Eunomius.  The  attempt  was  first  made 
by  Cave  {Hist.  Lit.,  I.  220),  and  then  more  com- 
pletely by  Fabricius  {Blbl.  Gra:ca,  V.  23).  There 
is  also  an  English  translation  of  the  book  by 
WmsTON,  Eunomianismus  Reilivivus,  Lond.,  1711. 
About  the  second  Apology,  Philostorgius,  an 
admirer  of  Eunomius,  tells  us  that  Basil  died  of 
despair  after  reading  it;  while  Photius,  an  adver- 
sary, states  that  Eunomius  dared  not  publish  it 
until  after  the  death  of  Basil.  The  writings  of 
Eunomius  were,  indeed,  as  much  extolled  h\  his 
adhei-ents  as  they  were  disparaged  by  bis  enemies. 
After  his  death,  his  party  separated  from  the 
church,  and  branched  off  in  a  number  of  minor 
divisions  named  after  various  leaders,  such  as 
Eutyches,  Theophronius,  etc.,  until  it  was  dis- 
solved by  internal  dis.sensions.  SeeK'oSE:  Gesch. 
u.  Lchri'  d.  Eunomius,  Kiel,  1833.  GASS. 

EUNUCH  (lit.  bed-keeper,  chamberlain).  This 
class  of  persons  is  a  natural  consequence  of 
polygamy,  and  is  numerous  to-day  throughout 
the  East.  Frequent  mention  is  made  of  them 
upon  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  monuments,  and 
they  were  common  in  the  degenerate  days  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  The  men  who  sing  soprano 
in  the  Sistine  Chapel  at  Rome  are  eunuchs. 
Eunuchs  alw-ays  display  the  same  character:  they 
are  cowardly,  jealous,  intriguing,  licentious,  and 
shameless.  They  incline  to  melancholia,  and 
frequently  commit  suicide.  Yet  they  rose  to  the 
highest  eminence,  and  were  intrusted  with  tlie 
life  of  the  sovereign. 

According  to  Deut.  xxiii.  1,  eunuchs  could  not 
enter  into  the  congregation  of  the  Lord.  In  the 
Christian  Church  eunuchs  could  not  be  ordained. 


EUPHRATES. 


770 


EUSEBIUS. 


History  records  a  few  instances  of  self-mutilation 
(of  which  the  most  famous  is  Origan)  out  of  a 
fanatical  or  ascetic  obedience  to  our  Lord's  words 
(Matt.  xix.  12)  :  "  There  are  eunuchs  who  made 
themselves  eunuchs  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven's 
sake."  If,  however,  a  man  was  a  born  eunuch, 
or  was  made  one  by  his  persecutors,  the  prohibi- 
tion against  ordination  did  not  apply  to  him. 
Abelard  was  mutilated,  but,  notwithstanding,  rose 
to  be  an  abbot.  In  the  famous  saying  of  Christ's 
already  referred  to,  the  word  "  eunuch  "  is  used 
in  three  senses :  (1)  Of  those  who  were  born  so, 
(2)  Of  those  who  were  made  so,  (3)  Of  those  who 
abstain  from  marriage  in  order  that  they  may 
give  their  attention  more  exclusively  to  the  inter- 
ests of  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

EUPHRATES  (Hebrew  nnS;  LXX.  Ei^pdm; 
Assyi".  Purat,  Puratu,  "the  river")  occurs  (Gen.  ii. 
14,  XV.  IS ;  Deut.  i.  7,  xi.  24 ;  Josh.  i.  4 ;  2  Sam. 
viii.  3  ;  2  Kings  xxiii.  29,  xxiv.  7 ;  1  Chron.  v.  9, 
xviii.  3;  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20;  Jer.  xiii.  4,  5,  6,  7, 
xlvi.  2,  6, 10,  li.  63)  as  the  name  of  the  well-known 
river,  called  also  "  the  great  river  "  (^'•"'■jn  "'I^-T', 
Gen.  XV.  18;  Deut.  i.  7,  etc.),  "the  river"  CHOT, 
Gen.  xxxi.  21;  Exod.  xxiii.  31;  A.V.  "flood," 
Josh.  xxiv.  14,  15),  and  even  "  river  "(inj,  Jsa. 
vii.  20;  Jer.  ii.  18;  Mic.  vii.  12). 

It  takes  its  rise  in  the  mountains  of  Armenia, 
its  volume  being  due  to  the  union  of  two  streams, 
—  the  Murad  Su  or  Eastern  Euphrates,  and  the 
Frat  or  Northern  Euphrates,  —  which  unite  about 
lat.  39°  and  long.  39°.  The  sources  of  the 
Euphrates  are  expressly  mentioned  by  Salmanas- 
sar  II.  (B.C.  8G0-825),  who  relates  how  he  marched 
from  the  sources  of  the  Tigris  to  those  of  the 
Euphrates  (probably  meaning  the  sources  of  the 
Murad  Su,  north-east  of  Lake  Van ;  the  Frat 
begins  near  Erzroum),  and  there  sacrificed  to 
the  gods,  dipped  "  the  weapons  of  Assur  "  in  the 
water,  and  set  up  his  royal  likeness. 

The  river  breaks  through  the  Taurus  range 
toward  the  west,  then  turns  southward  in  a  wind- 
ing course,  making  a  second  great  bend  toward 
the  south-east,  in  about  lat.  30°,  and  following 
this  general  direction  till  it  joins  the  Tigri^  in 
Lower  Babylonia,  and  empties  through  the  Satt 
el-Aral)  into  the  Persian  Gulf.  Its  total  length 
is  from  sixteen  hundred  to  eighteen  hundred 
miles,  and  it  is  navigable  for  small  craft  twelve 
hundred  miles  from  its  mouth.  After  the  junc- 
tion of  the  two  branches,  it  lias  few  tributaries. 
The  only  considerable  ones  are  llie  Sajur  (Assyr. 
Simijurn,  or  Sagura),  entering  from  the  west  in 
lat.  30°  40';  the  Belik  (Assyr.  Zix/iV/H),  entering 
from  tlie  north  (below  tiie  groat  soulh-e;usterly 
bend),  in  long.  39°  9';  and  tlie  Khabflr  (Assyi-. 
HCihur),  entering  from  the  north-east  in  lat.  35° 
f,  long.  40°  30'.  From  the  KhabOr  to  the  sea, 
a  distance  of  eight  hundred  miles,  there  is  no 
tributary,  Init,  on  the  other  hand,  a  tendency 
toward  the  mouth  to  divide  into  smaller  streams. 
The  melting  of  the  mountain  snows  causes  a 
yearly  flood,  lieginning  in  March,  and  increasing 
gradually  till  May;  when,  after  .some  weeks,  the 
waters  sink  l)y  degrees,  until,  in  September  or 
October,  the  river  is  at  Wv  lowest. 

Forming  the  western  boundary  of  Mesopotamia 
proper,  it  wa-s,  of  course,  in  ancient  times,  the 
limit  of  the  various  districts  of  that  region  in- 
habited   largely   by    Aramaean    peoples,     which 


gradually  came  under  the  control  of  Assyria ;  so 
that  the  expression  "  I  crossed  the  Euphrates  " 
denoted  for  an  Assyi'ian  king  the  beginning  of  a 
foreign  campaign.  It  divided  Mesopotamia  from 
the  "  Land  Hatti,"  a  name,  which,  from  the  time 
of  Sargon  (B.C.  722-705),  was  applied  to  the 
whole  territory  between  the  Euphrates  and  the 
Mediterranean.  (See  Hittites.)  The  most  im- 
portant ancient  cities  on  or  near  the  Euj)hrates 
were  Charchemish  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20),  later  Ilie- 
rapolis,  now  Jerahlus,  not  far  from  one  of  the  main 
crossings  of  the  river,  and,  lower  down,  Sippara, 
Agade,  Babylon,  Borsippa,  Erech  (  Warka),  Larsa 
and  L^r  (Mugheir). 

For  the  ancient  Babylonians  the  river  was  indis- 
pensable, not  only  nor  mainly  as  giving  them 
water-communication  with  the  sea,  but  as  offer- 
ing them  means  of  irrigation  by  opening  canals 
through  the  land  :  the  result  was  a  fertility 
abundantly  evidenced  in  classic  writers  (e.g. ,  He- 
rodotus, i.  193;  Xen.,  Anab.  ii.  3,  §§  14-16;. 
Strabo,  xvi.  1,  §  14),  which,  by  proper  engineering, 
might  be  restored. 

^  'The  union  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  in  the 
Satt  el-Arab  is  of  comparatively  modern  date. 
The  encroachment  of  the  land  on  the  water  of 
the  Persian  Gulf  is  said  by  Lord  Loftus  (C/ialdcea 
and  Susiana,  p.  282)  to  have  been  going  on  at  the 
rate  of  a  mile  in  seventy  years  since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Christian  era.  It  is  believed  that 
the  rate  was  once  larger,  so  that  in  the  earliest 
historic  times  the  sea  may  have  extended  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  or  two  hundred  miles  farther  to  the 
north-west  than  at  present.  This  great  physical 
change  is  confirmed  by  the  statement  of  Pliny 
(A^a/.  Hist.,  VI.  §  31)  and  by  the  cuneiform 
mscriptions.  These  (Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of 
Western  Asia,  III.  12  s.)  represent  Sennacherib 
(B.C.  705-681)  as  sailing  down  the  Euphrates  to- 
its  mouth,  and  then,  after  solemn  sacrifices,  as  be- 
fore a  dangerous  voyage,  embarking  his  army  in 
Phcenieian  ships,  and  crossing  the  sea  to  the  mouth 
of  the  EiilaMis,  the  River  of  Elam :  this  is  now  the 
Karim,  and  empties  into  one  of  the  arms  of  the 
Satt  el-Arab.  An  inscription  of  Sargon  (Cun. 
Inscr.  West.  Asia,  III.  11,  23-25)  speaks  also  of 
the  city  i)(Vm»?(,  situated  "thirty  Kashu"  (about  a 
hundred  and  twenty  miles,  which  may  be  an  ex- 
aggeration) in  the  sea.  The  island  or  peninsula 
where  thi.s  city  stood  has  now  become  a  part  of 
the  mainland. 

Lit.  —  C.  RiTTEU  :  Erilkimde,  X.  2te  Aufl., 
Berlin,  1843;  F.  Chesnky  :  Expedition  for  the 
Survey  of  the  Rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  4  vols, 
vol.  i.,  Lond.,  1850;  11.  Kiepeut  :  Lehrhuch  der 
alien  Geographie,  Berlin,  1877-78 ;  E.  Sciiuader  : 
Keilinschriften  u.  die  Geschichtsforschung,  Giessen, 
1878;  Fr.  Delitzsch  :  Wo  lag  das  J'nradiesT 
Leipzig,  1881.  FRANCIS  hkown. 

EUSEBIUS,  a  Greek  by  birth,  the  son  of  a  phy- 
sician, succceiled  Marcellus  as  Bishop  of  Koine  m 
310.  There  raged  at  that  mnnicnt  a  bitter  con- 
troversy in  Koine  concerning  the  treatment  of  the 
lapsi.  Eusebius  insisted  on  penance,  but  caused 
thereby  great  tumults,  which  caused  Maxentius 
to  banish  the  leaders  of  both  parties.  Eusebius 
died  in  Sicily,  after  a  reign  of  four,  or,  according 
to  otiier  authorities,  of  seven  montlis.  He  is  lion- 
ored  in  the  Konian  calendar  as  a  saint  Sept.  28 
is  his  day. 


EUSEBIUS. 


771 


EUSEBIUS. 


EUSEBIUS  OF  ALEXANDRIA  is  the  author  of 
a  number  of  homilies  (twenty-one)  whicli  enjoyed 
great  reputation  in  the  Eastern  Chnrcii  during 
the  sixth  and  seventli  centuries.  Nothing  is 
known  with  certainty  of  his  life.  In  the  manu- 
scripts of  his  works  he  is  described  as  a  monk 
and  high  dignitary  of  the  church,  —  bishop,  arch- 
bishop, patriarch,  pa]ia :  in  an  old  biography  of 
him,  printed  by  Cardinal  Mai,  in  Spicileg.  Rom., 
IX.  p.  703,  he  is  designated  as  Bishop  of  Alexan- 
dria after  Cyril.  But  we  have  the  list  of  Alex- 
andrian bishops ;  and  there  is  nowhere  room  for 
an  Eusebius,  least  of  all  immediately  after  Cyril. 
Some  of  the  homilies,  which,  however,  are  of  no 
great  interest,  are  found  in  Gallandi,  Bibt.  Pa- 
Irum,  VIII.  p.  252.  See  TniLO,  Ueher  <l.  Schrif- 
ten  (I.  E.  ('.  A.,  Halle,  1832.  SEMISCII. 

EUSEBIUS,  surnamed  Bruno,  Bishop  of  Angers 
from  10-17  to  his  death  (1081),  was,  at  least  for 
some  time,  an  adherent  and  defender  of  Beren- 
garius  of  Tours.  In  a  letter  dating  from  1049 
he  bitterly  complains  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Pope  treated  Berengarius.  Berengarius  himself 
reckoned  him  one  of  his  patrons  (Ccen.  Sacr.,  ed. 
Vischer,  p.  52)  :  so  did  others.  Bishop  Theotvvin 
of  Liege  expressly  charges  him  witli  having 
renewed  the  old  heresy  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper,  that  it  contained  only  a  semblance  or 
shadow  of  Christ's  body  (Gallandi,  Bihl.  Pair., 
XIV.  p.  244).  Nevertheless,  after  the  death  of 
Count  Gaufried  of  Anjou  (1060),  the  valiant 
champion  of  the  cause  of  Berengarius,  he  seems 
to  have  lost  his  courage.  At  the  conference  of 
Angers  (1062)  he  assumed  a  very  cool  attitude 
towards  Berengarius ;  and  in  the  same  mood  is  the 
famous  letter  written  (somewhere  between  1063 
and  1066),  in  which  he  declines  to  act  as  arbiter 
in  a  disputation  between  Berengarius  and  Gau- 
fried Martini.  Lessing  has  called  this  letter  one 
of  the  most  excellent  theological  productions  of 
the  eleventh  century;  but  this  is  simply  a  mis- 
take. The  letter  is  nothing  but  a  cunningly  de- 
vised cover  for  a  cowardly  retreat.  The  letters 
of  Eusebius  are  found  in  an  authentic  text  in 
Menardus  :  Aiigustini  c.  Julian,  operis  imperf.  1. 
2  priores,  p.  499.  The  texts  given  by  Du  Roye 
and  Du  Bouley  are  mutilated.  Two  new  letters 
were  given  by  Sudendorf,  Bereng.  Turouensis, 
1850.  SEMlscn. 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  (surnamed 
PamphiU,  "  the  friend  of  Pamphilus  "),  was  b.  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  third  century,  between  260 
and  270,  probably  in  Palestine ;  d.  at  Ca^sarea, 
340.  One  of  his  earliest  teachers  was  Bishop 
Meletius  of  Pontus,  who,  during  the  persecution 
of  Diocletian,  sought  refuge  in  Palestine.  After- 
wards he  studied  at  Antioch,  under  the  presbyter 
Dorotheus.  But  the  two  great  decisive  influences 
in  his  education  were  the  writings  of  Origen, 
and  the  intimate  intercourse,  at  Csesarea,  with 
Pamphilus,  under  whose  guidance  he  made  his 
first  literary  attempt  as  an  exegete  (305).  In  309 
he  was  compelled  to  leave  Caesarea  on  account  of 
the  persecution,  during  which  Pamphilus  suffered 
martyrdom.  He  fled  to  Tyre,  and  thence  to 
Egypt.  After  his  return  he  was  made  Bishop  of 
C»sarea  (313).  The  principal  problem  which 
presented  itself  for  solution  during  his  episco- 
pate was  the  Arian  controversy,  opened  in  318. 
His  own  stand-point  was  one  intermediate  be- 


tween Arius  and  Athanasius,  based  on  Origen ; 

but  he  had  neither  dialectical  power  to  justify, 
nor  force  of  character  to  maintain  it.  At  the 
Council  of  Niciva  (325)  he  tried  to  effect  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  two  contending  parties, 
but  failed.  After  fighting  against  the  idea  of 
hoinoousion  to  the  last,  he  finally  yieldeil.  and 
signed  the  orthodox  confession.  But  he  retained 
in  his  heart  a  feeling  of  rancor  against  Athana- 
sius, and  he  was  ever  afterwards  one  of  the 
leaders  of  the  Arians.  He  presided  at  the  synod 
of  Tyre  (335),  convened  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
posing Athanasius.  But  the  attempt  at  recon- 
ciliation he  made  at  Nica'a  procured  him  the 
friendship  of  the  emperor.  He  enjoyed  the  con- 
fidence of  Constantine  in  a  particular  degree; 
though  it  may  be,  tliat,  in  many  cases,  this  confi- 
dence was  addressed  to  the  author,  rather  than 
to  the  person.  In  his  relation  to  Constantine, 
however,  he  showed  the  same  weakness  of  char- 
acter as  in  his  relation  to  Athanasius.  As  he 
was  unable  to  see  the  truth  when  it  concerned 
Athanasius,  he  was  unable  to  speak  the  truth  when 
it  concerned  Constantine. 

It  is  as  an  author,  however,  rather  than  as  a 
bishop,  that  Eusebius  attained  his  great  fame. 
His  writings  are  historical,  apologetic,  theologi- 
cal, and  exegetical.  The  most  important  of 
them  are  those  on  history;  and  his  iKK'MiaianTiufi 
iaropia,  in  ten  books,  giving  the  history  of  the 
Christian  Church  from  its  origin  to  324,  has 
naturally  procured  for  him  the  title  of  the 
"  Father  of  Church  History;"  not  because  he 
was  a  master  of  the  historiographer's  art,  —  for 
he  has  neither  method  with  respect  to  the  whole, 
nor  criticism  with  respect  to  details ;  neither 
style  nor  absolute  veracity,  —  but  because  he  was 
the  first  in  the  field ;  because  he  was  possessed 
of  materials  which  would  soon  have  been  lost 
if  he  had  not  utilized  them ;  and  because  he 
availed  himself  of  these  advantages  with  inde- 
fatigable industry  and  energy.  As  a  repertory 
of  facts  and  documents,  his  work  is  invaluable. 
The  principal  editions  are  by  Valesius  (Du  Va- 
lois),  with  Latin  translation,  Paris,  1659,  re-edited 
by  Reading,  Canterbury,  1720;  by  Heiniclien, 
Leipzig,  1827,  2d  ed.,  1868,  3  vols.;  Burton,  Ox- 
ford, 1838;  Schwegler  (pocket  edition).  Tubing., 
1852;  Dindorf,  Leipzig,  1871.  [Into  English  the- 
book  has  been  translated  by  Hanmer,  1584,  and, 
better,  by  C.  F.  Cruse,  N.Y.,  1865.]  .Special  in- 
vestigations into  the  trustworthiness  of  the  book 
have  been  made  by  Moller,  Copenhagen,  1813 ; 
Danz,  Jena,  1815;  Kestner,  Gottingen,  1816  ;  Reu- 
terdahl,  Lund,  1820;  Rienstra,  Treves,  1833. 
Before  he  wrote  his  Ecclesiastical  Ilislorij,  and 
as  a  preparation  for  it,  Eusebius  compiled  his 
Chronicle,  of  which  the  first  part  gives  an  outline 
of  the  history  of  the  world  to  325,  and  the  second 
an  extract  of  this  outline,  arranged  in  tabular 
form.  Of  the  original  Greek  text,  only  frag- 
ments have  come  down  to  us.  Of  the  second 
part,  Jerome  gave  a  free  translation  into  Latin. 
Collections  of  all  fragments  (Greek,  Latin,  and 
Armenian)  of  the  Chronicle  have  been  made  by 
Mai  (Script.  Vet.  Nov.  Coll.,  1833,  VHL),  and 
best  by  A.  Schone,  Berlin,  1866,  1875,  2  parts. 
Among  the  other  historical  works  of  Euseliius 
are :  a  Life  of  Constantine,  written  after  337. 
edited  by  Heinichen,  Leipzig,  1830,  2d  ed.,  1869, 


EUSEBIUS. 


772 


EUSEBIUS. 


a  somewhat  fulsome  panegyric  of  Constantine, 
■written  on  the  occasion  of  the  tliirtieth  anniver- 
sary of  his  reign ;  a  book  on  the  j\Iar!i/rs  of  Pal- 
estine, during  the  persecution  of  Diocletian ;  a 
letter  on  i>ictures  of  Christ,  to  the  sister  of  Con- 
stantine, etc. 

Next  in  importance  to  his  historical  writings 
are  his  apologetic  works,  especially  the  two  most 
elaborate  ones,  —  the  Preparation  \_for  the  demon- 
flration']  of  the  Gospel  (7!po~upacKevr/  cvayyclmij)  and 
the  Demonstration  of  the  Gospel  (amiJtjjif).  The 
former  (edited  by  Vigerus,  Paris,  1US8,  and  Heini- 
chen,  Leipzig.  1842)  shows  the  insufficiency  and 
inner  unreasonableness  of  Paganism  :  tlie  latter 
(edited  Paris.  1028,  Cologne,  IGSS,  and  by  Gais- 
ford,  Oxford,  1852)  proves  the  truth  of  Christian- 
ity from  its  internal  character  and  its  external 
efiects.  The  gist  of  both  these  works  was  com- 
pressed into  the  Theophania  ;  but  that  book  exists 
now  only  in  a  .Syrian  translation,  first  discovered 
in  a  Nitriau  monastery  by  Tattani,  edited  by  Lee, 
London,  1842,  and  translated  into  English  in 
1843.  His  Prophetical  Extracts  (7rpoip?iniial  eKTioyai") 
was  edited  by  Gaisford,  Oxford,  1842.  Of  his 
Defence  of  Origen,  written  in  company  with  Pani- 
philus,  only  the  first  book  is  extant,  and  that 
only  in  an  unreliable  translation  by  Rufinus. 

Of  much  less  consequence  are  Eusebius'  dog^ 
niatical  and  exegetical  writings.  The  former 
comprise  two  works  against  Marcellus,  generally 
printed  as  an  appendix  to  the  u-d(i«fif,  independ- 
ently edited  by  Gaisford,  Oxford,  1852.  The  lat- 
ter contain  commentaries  on  the  Psalms,  Isaiah, 
Daniel,  the  Song  of  Songs,  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  etc.  ;  but  they  are  extant  only  in  frag- 
ments. A  work  of  special  interest  is  his  Onomas- 
ticon,  of  which  the  first  part  contains  a  topograjjhy 
of  Palestine,  and  specially  of  Jerusalem  ;  the  sec- 
ond, an  alphabetically  arranged  list  of  names  of 
biblical  places,  with  descriptions.  The  work  was 
edited  ((ireek  and  Latin,  the  Latin  text  being  a 
free  translation  by  Jerome  of  the  second  part) 
by  Bonfrere,  Paris,  1031;  Clericus,  Amsterdam, 
1707  ;  Lansov  and  Parthey,  Kerlin,  1802  ;  Lagarde, 
(jcittingen,  1870.  A  collected  edition  of  all  the 
works  of  Eusebius  is  found  in  Migne,  Patrol. 
Grwca,  XIX.-XXIV. 

Lit.  —  Besides  tiie  literature  given  in  the  arti- 
cle it*ielf,  see  the  biographies  by  Martin  Hanke, 
Leipzig,  1677;  Valesius;  Stkotii,  in  his  Ger- 
man translation  of  the  Ecclesiast.  History;  Stein: 
Eusebius  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Schriflen,  Wiirzburg, 
18.59  ;  [V.  Hely  :  Eusebe  de  Ce'sare'e,  premier  his- 
lorien  de  l'e'//lise,  Paris,  1877;  cf.  the  elaborate 
and  exhaustive  article  on  Eusebius  of  Ca:sarea,  by 
Bishop  LiGHTEooT,  in  Smith  and  Wack;  Diet. 
Christ.  Bior/.,  vol.  ii.  308-348].  8EMISCII. 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Dorylaeum,  lived  as  a 
rhetorician  in  Ccmstanlinojilc,  and  held  some 
minor  government  office  (ai/ens  in  rebus),  when 
one  day,  in  430,  he  arose  in  full  church,  and  inter- 
rupted Nestorius  in  the  midst  of  his  sermon,  with 
a  protest  against  his  views  as  heretical;  and 
shortly  after  lie  posted  in  the  princi|ial  church  of 
Constanlinople  an  elaborate  denunciation  of  tlie 
Nestorian  heresies,  comi)aring  tliein  to  those  of 
I'aul  of  Sanioaata.  As  he  thus  opened  tlie  Nes- 
toriaii  controversy,  he  also  opened  the  Eutycliian 
by  his  complaint  of  Eutyclies  at  the  synod  of 
Constantinople  (448).     He  had  in  the  mean  time 


been  appointed  Bishop  of  Doryla?um  in  Phrygia ; 
and  by  his  persistency  he  succeeded  in  getting 
Eutyches  condemned  and  deposed.  By  the  synod 
of  Ephesus,  however  (449),  he  was  himself  de- 
posed, and  fled  to  Rome ;  but  by  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451)  he  was  re-instated,  and  died  in 
his  see.  Some  minor  polemical  writings  of  his 
—  Libellus  adc.  Eutijchem,  Lihellus  adr.  Dioscurum, 
etc. — have  come  down  to  us,  and  are  found  in 
L.\BBE,  Co7ic.  Coll.,  IV. 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Emesa,  d.  about  300; 
was  b.  of  a  distinguished  family  in  Edessa,  Weso- 
potaniia;  studied  under  Eusebius  of  Csesarea, 
and  Patrophilus  of  Scythopolis,  also  in  Antioch 
after  330  (with  the  method  and  spii-it  of  whose 
school  he  became  thoroughly  imbued),  and  finally 
in  Alexandria.  His  fame  as  an  exegete  and 
preacher  was  so  great,  that  in  341  the  synod  of 
Antioch  designated  him  as  a  fit  successor  to  the 
deposed  Athanasius;  but  he  knew  too  well  liow 
ardently  the  Alexandrian  congregation  adhei'ed 
to  its  bishop,  and  he  declined.  He  was  then 
appointed  Bisliop  of  Emesa,  in  Phrenicia ;  but 
there,  too,  he  encountered  great  opposition.  The 
inhabitants  feared  his  astronomical  knowledge, 
and  rose  against  him  as  a  magician.  He  fled 
to  Laodicea,  and  settled  afterwards  in  Antioch, 
where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life.  Of  his  numer- 
ous writings  (Jerome  mentions  polemical  works 
against  the  Jews,  Pagans,  and  Novatians,  ten 
books  of  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  and  homilies  on  the  Go.sjiels ;  Theodoret 
mentions  polemics  against  the  Jlarcioiiites  and 
Mauicha-ans ;  Ebed  Jesu,  a  work  on  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, etc.),  nothing  but  fragments  have  come 
down  to  us.  The  liomilies  edited  liy  Gagnee, 
(1547)  and  by  Fromy  (1575)  are  s]iurious;  but 
the  two  first  homilies  ag.ainst  Marcellus,  ascribed 
to  Eusebius  of  Ca^sarea,  and  found  among  his 
works  {Opuscula  14,  ed.  Sirniondi,  104(1),  belong 
probably  to  Eusebius  of  Emesa.  His  l^ife,  written 
by  Bishop  (ieorge  of  Laodicea,  is  also  lost.  See 
.VuciUSTi:  EtiS.  Ernes.  Opuscula,  Elberfeld,  1829; 
TiiiLo:  Eus'.  of  Alex,  and  Eus.  ron  Ernes.,  Halle, 
18:!2.  SEMISCU. 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  in  Syria,  d. 
20U;  was  b.  in  Alexandria,  and  gave,  while  deacon 
of  the  church  in  his  native  city,  the  most  striking 
proofs  of  Christian  love,  and  fearless  constancy 
of  faith,  both  during  the  jier.secution  of  Valei'i- 
an  (2.57)  and  during  (he  plague  (203).  As  the 
representative  of  the  .'Vlexandrian  bishop,  he  was 
present  at  the  .synod  of  Antioch  which  condenuied 
Paul  of  Saniosata;  and  the  impression  he  made 
was  so  favorable,  that  he  shortly  after  was  elected 
Bishop  of  Laodicea.  See  Eusebius,  Ilist.  EccL, 
7,  11,  21,  23,  32.  SEMiscn. 

EUSEBIUS  OF  NICOMEDIA  was  fir.st  Bishop 
of  lieiydis,  in  I'lni'incia,  then  of  Nicomedia, 
where  i\w  imperial  court  resided,  and  finally  of 
Constantinople,  when;  he  died  342.  Distantly 
related  to  the  imperial  house,  he  not  only  owed 
his  removal  from  an  insignificant  to  the  most 
s])lendid  e])iscopal  see  to  his  influence  at  court, 
liut  the  great  power  he  wielded  in  Hie  elmrcli 
was  also  derived  from  tluat  source.  With  the 
exception  of  a  short  ]ierii>d  of  eclipse,  he  enjoyed 
the  complete  confidence  both  of  Conslaiiline  and 
Constantius  ;  and  it  w  a.s  he  who  b.aptized  the  dying 
emperor.  May,  337.     Like  Arius,  he  was  a  pupil 


EUSBBIUS. 


773 


EUSTOCHIUM. 


of  Luciaii  of  Antioch,  and  it  is  probable  that 
he  held  the  same  views  as  Arius  from  the  very 
beginning.  He  afterwards  modified  his  ideas 
somewhat,  or  perhaps  he  only  yielded  to  the 
pressure  of  circumstances  ;  but  he  was,  if  not  the 
teacher,  at  all  events  the  leader  and  organizer,  of 
the  Arian  party.  At  tlie  Council  of  Nicaea  (325) 
he  signed  the  Confession,  but  only  after  a  long 
and  desperate  opposition.  His  defence  of  Arius 
excited  the  wrath  of  the  emperor,  and  a  few 
months  after  the  council  he  was  sent  into  exile. 
After  the  lapse  of  three  years,  he  succeeded  in 
regaining  the  imperial  favor ;  and  after  his  return 
(in  329)  he  brought  the  whole  machinery  of  the 
state  government  into  action  in  order  to  impose 
his  views  upon  the  church.  In  331  a  synod 
of  Antioch  condemned  and  deposed  Eustathius, 
one  of  the  pillars  of  the  orthodox  party.  In  336 
Athanasius  was  banished  to  Treves,  and  in  337 
Arius  was  invited  to  Constantinople  to  be  solemn- 
ly received  again  into  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic 
Church.  The  Arian  party  was  victorious,  and 
ready  to  take  possession  of  the  church ;  and  the 
victory  was  due  chiefly  to  Eusebius.  See,  for 
further  information,  litei'ature,  etc.,  the  article 
on  Arianism. 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Samosata,  on  the  Euphra- 
tes, since  301,  d.  about  379  ;  was  one  of  the  chief 
pillars  of  the  orthodox  church  during  its  contest 
with  Arianism  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
century.  During  the  reign  of  Valens  he  travelled 
through  the  dioceses  of  Syria,  Phcenicia,  and 
Palestine,  in  the  disguise  of  a  soldier,  exhorting 
the  faithful,  and  consecrating  orthodox  priests ; 
and  the  election  of  Basil  to  the  see  of  Csesarea,  in 
Cappadocia,  was  chiefly  due  to  his  exertions  (370). 
In  373  he  was  banished  to  Thrace,  and  lived  in 
exile  to  the  death  of  Valens,  378.  Shortly  after 
his  return,  while  engaged  in  the  re-organization 
of  the  Syi'ian  Church,  he  was  killed  at  Dolica 
(a  small  town  in  the  district  of  Comagene)  by  a 
stone  thrown  at  him  by  an  Arian  woman.  See, 
besides  Theodoret  (Hist.  EccL,  2,  28;  4,  12,  etc.), 
the  Letters  of  Basil  (£>.  5-9,  253-265;  0pp.,  ed. 
Paris,  1638,  III.)  and  Giregorv  Nazianzen  (Ep.  28- 
30,204;   0/)/;.,  ed.  Paris,  1690,  I.)         SEMISCII. 

EUSEBIUS,  Archbishop  of  Thessalonica,  flour- 
ished about  600 ;  wrote  ten  books  against  the 
Aphthartodocetffi  (a  branch  of  the  Monophysites), 
which  have  been  lost,  but  of  which  Photius  gives 
the  list  of  contents  {Bill.  Cod.,  102)  ;  and  was  by 
Gregory  the  Great  encouraged  to  employ  still 
more  vigorous  measures  against  heretics  {Ep.  10, 
42;  11.74). 

EUSEBIUS,  Bishop  of  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont, 
d.  about  371;  was  b.  in  the  island  of  Sardinia,  and 
educated  in  Rome  by  Pope  Eusebius.  Elected 
Bishop  of  Vercelli  by  an  unanimous  vote  of  the 
people  and  the  clergy,  he  became  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal champions  of  the  orthodox  church  in  its 
contest  with  Arianism  during  the  reign  of  Con- 
stantius.  The  synod  of  jNlilan  was  convened  in 
355.  The  orthodox  party  hoped  to  procure  a 
vindication  and  restitution  of  Athanasius.  The 
Arians  tried  to  get  the  condemnation  of  Aries 
repeated  and  confirmed.  The  emperor  finally 
employed  force,  and  the  Arians  gained  the  as- 
cendency ;  but  Eusebius  did  not  yield.  He  was 
banished,  first  to  Scythopolis,  afterwards  to  Cap- 
padocia, and  finally  to  the  Thebaid;  and  in  tlie 


latter  places  lie  was  kept  in  close  confinement. 
iU'ter  the  death  of  Constantius  he  regained  his 
liberty;  but  the  conte.st  with  Arianism  still  con- 
tinued, and  he  was  finally  stoned  to  death,  accord- 
ing to  the  legend,  by  his  adversaries.  His  Letters 
are  found  in  Gallandi,  Bibl.  Parlr.,  V.  p.  78, 
etc.  For  his  life,  see  Jeuomk,  Fnv^.s-  lUuslres.  c. 
xcvi.  Migne's  ed.,  T.  23,  p.  697;  Acl.  Sand.,  Aug., 
I.  p.  340;  and  Ughelli,  in  Italia  Sacra,  IV.  p. 
747.  SEMISCII. 

EUSTACHIUS,  or,  as  the  Greeks  call  him,  EU- 
STATHIUS, is  one  of  the  most  celebrated  saints 
of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  though  his  life 
lies  wholly  in  the  field  of  romance.  According  to 
his  acts,  written  in  Greek,  and  dating  from  the 
eighth  century,  he  was  an  officer  of  some  repute 
in  the  army  of  Trajan.  His  name  was  Placidus. 
By  a  miraculous  apparition  of  Christ  he  was  con- 
verted ;  and,  after  many  wonderful  vicissitudes, 
he  was  roasted  to  death  in  Rome,  together  with 
his  whole  family.  His  remains  came  afterwards 
to  France,  and  rest  now  in  the  Church  of  St.  Eu- 
stache  in  Paris.  In  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
he  has  been  celebrated  since  the  sixth  century  as 
a  saint  and  martyr.  His  day  is  Sept.  20.  His 
acts,  Greek  and  Latin,  were  edited  by  Cambefis, 
Illuslrium  Christi  Marlyrum  Lecti  Triumphi,  Paris, 
1660. 

EUSTATHIUS  OF  ANTIOCH,  b.  at  Side,  Pam- 
phylia ;  d.  at  Pliilippi  337 ;  was  fii'st  Bishop  of 
Berrhrea  (Syria),  and  then  of  Antioch.  In  the 
Council  of  Nicsea  he  vehemently  opposed  the 
Arians ;  but  they  took  revenge  when  they  got  into 
power,  and  deposed  him  in  331.  The  inhabitants, 
however,  of  Antioch,  arose  in  defence  of  their 
bishop,  though  in  vain :  they  only  succeeded  in 
provoking  the  emperor,  and  Eustathius  was  ban- 
ished to  Thrace.  Of  his  numerous  writings,  only 
a  work  against  Origen  is  still  extant :  Bibl.  Max. 
Pair.,  XVII. 

EUSTATHIUS,  Bishop  of  Sebaste  (Armenia) 
from  350;  anative  of  Cappadocia;  d.  380;  changed 
several  times  from  orthodoxy  to  Arianism,  and 
from  Arianism  to  Semi-Arianism,  and  back  again, 
and  joined  finally  the  Eunomians,  but  w-as  con- 
demned by  several  synods,  and  lost  at  last  the 
confidence  of  all  parties.  He  built  a  hospital  for 
sick  people  and  travellers  in  Sebaste,  and  intro- 
duced monasticism  in  Armenia,  Pontus,  and 
Paphlagonia,  which  gave  rise  to  the  formation  of 
an  enthusiastic  ascetic  part;,,  the  Eustathians. 
They  were  condemned  by  the  synod  of  Gangra, 
and  disappeared  speedily.  See  Socrates  :  H.  E., 
IT.  43;  SozoMEx:  //.  E.,  III.  14.         nERZOG. 

EUSTATHIUS  OF  THESSALONICA, b.  in  Con- 
stantinople in  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century; 
metropolitan  of  Thessalonica  since  1175;  d.  there 
in  1194;  has  long  been  famous  for  his  commen- 
taries on  the  Greek  classics,  especially  Homer. 
But  the  publication  of  his  theological  works  by 
Tafel  (Opuscula,  Francfort,  1832,  and  De  Thessa- 
lonica, Berlin,  1839)  shows,  furthermore,  that  he 
was  a  man  of  true  Christian  spirit,  with  a  sharp 
eye  for  the  moral  and  religious  depravation  of  his 
time,  and  with  something  of  the  talent  and  char- 
acter of  a  reformer.  His  Thoughts  on  the  Mo- 
nastic Life  (cTriaKnlnc  jiiov  fwvaxuioii)  was  translated 
into  German,  Bet7-achtiingen  iiber  d.  Miinchsstaytd, 
by  Tafel,  Berlin.  1847.  GASS. 

EUSTOCHIUM,  a  daugliterof  Paula;  was  b.  in 


EUTHALIUS. 


774 


EUTYCHES. 


Itome  about  370 ;  made  -svliile  young  a  vow  of 
perpetual  virginity,  which  caused  Jerome  to  write 
his  De  Virgi7>itate,  and  devoted  herself  to  an 
ascetic  life.  Together  with  her  mother,  she  accom- 
panied Jerome  to  Palestine  (3S5)  ;  and,  after  the 
death  of  Paula,  she  became  superior  of  the  con- 
vent in  Bethlehem,  where  she  died  418.  In  the 
Roman  Church  she  is  considered  a  saint.  Her  day 
of  celebration  is  Sept.  28. 

EUTHALIUS,  a  "deacon  of  the  Alexandi'ian 
Church,  and  afterwards  Bishop  of  Sulca;  flour- 
ished in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  centiu'y,  and  intro- 
duced in  the  Acts,  tlie  Epistles  of  Paul,  and  the 
Catholic  Epistles,  the  same  division  into  chapters 
and  verses  which  had  already  been  introduced  in 
the  Gospels  by  Ammonius  of  Alexandria  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  centurv.  See  Bible  Text. 
p.  2G9. 

EUTHYMIUS  ZIGADENUS,  or  ZIGABENUS, 
one  of  the  most  prominent  Byzantine  theologians 
of  the  twelfth  century,  and  a  characteristic  repre- 
sentative of  the  whole  school.  Of  his  life  very 
little  is  known.  He  was  monk  in  a  monastery 
near  Constantinople,  enjoyed  the  favor  of  the 
Emperor  Alexius  Comnenus,  is  spoken  of  with 
praise  by  Amia  Comnena,  and  died  after  1118. 
Of  his  exegetical  works  his  connnentai-y  on  the 
Psalms  was  published  in  a  Latin  version  by  Philip 
Saul.  Verona.  1530,  and  afterwards  often.  The 
Greek  text  of  the  preface  and  introduction  was 
printed  by  Le  Moyne,  Varia  Sacra,  Lyons,  1685, 
I.  pp.  150-l!10.  The  whole  work,  Greek  and  Latin, 
is  found  in  Opera  Omnia  TheophyUicti,  Venice, 
1754-03,  T.  IV.  Another  and  still  more  impor- 
tant work,  a  commentary  to  the  four  Gospels,  was 
likewise  first  printed  in  a  Latin  version  by  J.  Hen- 
tenius,  Louvain,  1544:  the  Greek  text  was  not 
published  until  1792,  by  C.  F.  ^Matthiii,  at  Leip- 
zig. His  great  dogmatical  work,  YlavoTtXia  inyixariKr), 
a  refutation  of  twenty-four  different  heresies,  was 
written  at  the  instance  of  the  Emperor  Alexius. 
In  the  Latin  version  by  P.  F.  Zini  (Venice,  1555) 
the  twelfth  and  tliirteenth  chaiiters  against  the 
Pope  and  the  Italians  are  left  out.  In  the  only 
Greek  edition  (Tergovist,  Wallacliia,  1771),  the 
twenty-fourth  cluipter  against  the  Jlohannnedans 
is  lacking.  Single  parts  of  the  work  have  been 
.specially  edited;  for  instance,  the  chapter  against 
the  BogomUes  in  WaM  :  Ilisl.  Buf/omilorum,  Vitel)., 
1712  (edited  by  Gieseli-r,  Gottingen,  1842) ;  the 
chapter  against  the  Massalians  in  Tollius :  Insig- 
nia Itiiterur.  Ilai.,  Treves,  1096,  etc.  See  Ull- 
MANN  :  Nihol.  von  Met/tone,  Eulh.  Zig.  unci  Nic. 
C/iniiialix.  GASS. 

EUTYCHES  and  EUTYCHIANISM.  Eutychi- 
anisiii  di'noles  that  form  of  tin- older  christology 
in  wliicli  the  Alexandrian  doctrine  of  one  nature 
in  till'  incarnation  was  pushed  to  a  doeetic  absorp- 
tion of  the  human  by  the  divine  in  the  person  of 
Christ.  It  originated  as  a  re-action  against  Ncs- 
lorianisni.  The  reconciliation  wliicli  (in  433) 
was  effected  between  the  Syrian  and  ]vgyj>tian- 
churches,  and  between  the  schools  of  Antioch 
and  Alexanilria,  was  nothing  but  <a  compromise ; 
and  the  vague  formulas  of  the  instrument  covild 
not  fail  increasing  the  confusion.  Both  parties 
claimed  the  victor.-.  The  Antiochians  pointed 
to  the  strong  eMi]>liiisis  which  Wii,s  laid  upon  the 
two  natures:  and  the  .Vlexandrians  exulted  over 
the   actual  condemnation  of   Nesbsrius.     In   the 


dogmatical  stand-points  of  the  two  adversaries 
nothing  was  changed.  The  Antiochians  con- 
tinued accusing  the  Alexandrians  of  Apollinari- 
anism  and  Docetism ;  and  the  Alexandrians 
answered  by  accusing  the  Antiochians  of  Nes- 
torianism  and  Photinianism.  The  Alexandrians 
were  sujiported  by  the  court  and  the  monks,  and 
labored  secretly  but  successfully  to  spread  suspi- 
cion throughout  the  church  with  respect  to  the 
ortliodoxy  of  Diodorus  and  Theodore  of  Mop- 
suestia.  The  Antiochians  employed  chiefly  the 
weapons  of  science ;  and  they  were  in  this  respect 
far  superior  to  their  antagonists,  especially  since 
the  death  of  Cyi'il.  In  447  Theodoret  published 
his  Eranisles,  which  is  simply  a  challenge  to  all 
the  adherents  of  the  Anatliematismata  of  Cyril. 
In  the  Eastern  Church  the  whole  atmosphere  was 
overloaded.     A  storm  was  inevitable. 

Eutyches  finally  caused  it  to  burst  forth.  He 
was  at  that  time  about  seventy  years  old,  and 
had  lived  for  more  than  thirty  years  as  superior 
of  a  monastery  in  the  neighborliood  of  Constanti- 
nople. A  severe  ascetic,  he  seldom  left  the  mon- 
astery; but  in  his  cell  he  used  to  converse  with 
his  visitors  in  an  astounding  manner  about  the 
mystery  of  the  god-man.  He  was  honest,  but 
uneducated ;  unpractised  in  reasoning,  and  yet 
delighting  in  debate.  He  hated  the  Antiochian 
theology ;  and  all  his  life  through  he  was  zealous 
in  hunting  down  heretics.  At  the  synod  of  Ephe- 
sus  (431)  he  was  one  of  Cyril's  most  devoted 
partisans ;  and  he  no  doubt  was  one  of  the  leaders 
of  that  procession  of  psalniodizing  monks  which 
penetrated  into  the  imperial  palace,  and  com- 
pelled Theodosius  II.  to  confirm  the  party-ma- 
noeuvres of  the  sjniod  as  oscumenical  decisions. 
At  present  he  was  in  great  favor  at  the  covirt, 
especially  with  the  imperial  minister  of  state, 
Chrysaphius;  and,  playing  with  equal  force  the 
saint  in  the  halls  of  the  palace  and  the  oracle  in 
the  cell  of  the  monastery,  he  was  deeply  engaged 
in  counteracting  the  Antiochians.  In  the  spring 
of  448  he  wrote  to  Pope  Leo  I.  {Leo.  Ej>.,  20,  in 
Mansi,  V.  p.  1323),  to  inform  him  that  the  Nes- 
torian  heresy  was  still  living  in  the  Eastern 
Church.  Indeed,  when  at  this  time  Domnus, 
Patriarch  of  Antioch,  appeared  before  the  em- 
peror, and  accused  Eutyches  of  heresy,  it  was 
sim])ly  an  act  of  self-defence  from  the  Antiocliian 
side. 

Tlie  move  of  Domnus  had  no  effect;  but  in 
the  fall  of  the  same  year  (448)  Bishop  Eusebius 
of  Doryhoum  laid  before  tlie  synod  of  Constanti- 
no)ile  a  formal  aeousation  of  Entyche.s,  as  holding 
and  teaching  blasphemous  views  of  tli<'  person  of 
Christ.  Flavian,  wlio  was  a  moderate  .\ntiochi- 
an,  and  who  knew  that  lie  had  a  bitter  enemy 
in  Dioscuros,  Cyril's  successor  in  Alexandria, 
wanted  to  have  tlie  whole  matter  sinoothed  down 
by  means  of  a  personal  conference  between  Euty- 
ches and  Eu.sebius;  but  the  latter  jiushed  his 
case  witli  so  much  vigor,  that  Eutyches  was  actu- 
ally summoned  before  the  synod.  After  many 
delays  he  appeared,  accompanie<l  by  a  division  of 
the  imperial  guard,  and  swarms  of  excited  monks. 
He  was  examined,  and  he  answered  half  defiantly, 
half  evasively.  Nevertheless,  he  acknowledged 
that  he  considered  the  body  of  Christ  to  have 
been  of  quite  anotlier  substance  than  other  iiuinan 
bodies,  and  tliat  was  of  course  enough  to  prove 


BUTYCHBS. 


775 


EVAGRIUS  PONTICUS. 


liis  Apollinarianisin,  Valentinianisiii,  Docetism, 
etc.  Under  tears  and  sobs,  as  tlie  official  style 
lias  it,  he  was  deposed  from  his  office  as  a  priest 
and  archimandrite,  and  expelled  from  the  com- 
munity of  the  faithful. 

Eutyches,  however,  Dioscuros,  Chrysophius, 
and  the  whole  party  whose  interests  were  at 
stake,  did  not  feel  willing  to  acquiesce  in  the 
decision.  Their  first  move  was  to  demand  a 
revision  of  the  acts  of  the  synod.  It  was  granted, 
but  no  irregularity  was  discovered.  They  then 
began  to  clamor  for  a  new  oecmnenical  council. 
Flavian  and  I^eo  I.  tried  to  prevent  such  a  lueas- 
ure;  but  when  Leo  I.  dated  his  famous  letter 
{Leo.  Ep.,  28,  in  Mansi,  V.  p.  1.3G6),  by  which 
he  hoped  to  place  himself  as  arbiter  between  the 
two  contending  parties  (June  13,  449),  the  invita- 
tion to  the  new  council  had  already  been  sent 
out  (March  20,  449).  It  opened  "at  Ephesus 
(Aug.  8,  449),  under  the  presidency  of  Dioscuros, 
a  shameless  and  violent  character;  it  proceeded 
amid  the  bowlings  and  tumult  of  drunken  soldiers 
and  fanatical  monks ;  and  it  bears  in  history,  for 
good  reasons,  the  name  of  the  "  Robber  Synod." 
Eutyches  was  re-instated,  and  Eusebius  was  even 
not  allowed  to  speak.  Flavian  was  condemned ; 
and  when  some  bishops  attempted  to  embrace 
the  feet  of  the  president,  and  move  him  to  pity, 
he  cried  out  for  the  soldiers ;  and  in  broke  the 
rabble  witlj  unspeakable  confusion.  Flavian  was 
trampled  upon,  and  beaten  almost  to  death. 
Eusebius  fled ;  also  the  papal  legate  escaped. 
Uomnus  of  Antioch,  Theodoret,  and  other  promi- 
nent members  of  the  Antiochian  school,  were  de- 
posed; and  by  means  of  falsified  acts  the  sanction 
of  the  emperor  was  obtained.  The  triumjih  of 
the  Alexandrian  party  was  complete ;  but  it  did 
not  prove  lasting. 

The  sudden  death  of  Theodosius  II.  (450)  jiro- 
duced  a  change  in  the  affairs.  The  new  rulers, 
Pulcheria  and  her  husband  Jlarcian,  were  ortho- 
dox. The  bishops  who  had  been  banished  by 
the  instrumentality  of  Dioscuros  were  recalled ; 
the  remains  of  Flavian  were  brought  to  Constan- 
tinople, and  entombed  in  the  Church  of  the  Apos- 
tles ;  Eutyches  was  once  nioi'e  excomnnmicated, 
and  banished  from  the  metroiiolis.  It  was  the 
wish  of  the  new  government  to  give  the  country 
peace ;  and  nothing  seemed  better  suited  to  stop 
all  controversies,  and  appease  the  reigning  feeling 
of  excitement,  than  a  fourth  oecumenical  synod. 
It  was  convened  at  Chalcedon,  and  opened  Oct. 
8,  451.  Dioscuros  was  unanimously  condemned; 
not  on  account  of  heresy,  however,  but  on  accomit 
of  the  frightful  accusations  of  fraud,  violence, 
and  crimes  of  almost  every  description,  which 
were  raised  against  him  by  his  own  congregation. 
^lore  difficulty  was  experienced  in  elaliorating  a 
set  of  christological  fornnilas,  which  should  ex- 
clude all  heresies,  and  gather  the  wliole  church 
together.  The  problem  was  solved,  however,  by 
taking  the  above-mentioned  letter  of  Leo  I.  for  "a 
basis  ;  and  an  imperial  edict  of  Feb.  7,  452,  made 
this  confession  obligatory.  The  measures  which 
were  employed  against  the  Eutychians  were 
rather  harsh.  Nevertheless,  renniants  of  the 
party,  having  monasteries  of  their  own,  and 
celebrating  service  in  a  somewhat  peculiar  man- 
ner, lived  on  for  a  long  time.  See  the  article 
Christology. 


Lit.  —  Siinodiron  adc.  trar/ccd kan  Iren.,  in  Man- 
si,  V.  p.  731;  the  Acts  of  the  Synods  of  Con- 
stantinople, Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon,  in  Ma.\si, 
VI.  p.  .529  sqq. ;  the  Letters  of  Leo  I.,  in  Man- 
si,  V.  p.  1323,  VI.  p.  7;  Breoicul.  Ilisl.  Eulychian., 
in  Mansi,  IX.  p.  G74;  Martin:  Lc  'Psewlo- 
Si/node  d'Ephese,  Paris,  1875 ;  the  Syrian  Acts 
of  the  Robber  Synod,  edited  and  translated  into 
English  Ijv  Perrv,  Oxford,  1877.  SEMISCII. 

EUTYCHIANUS,  Bishop  of  Rome  (from  Janu- 
ary, 275,  to  December,  283),  is  honored  in  tlie 
Roman-Catholic  Church  as  a  saint  and  martyr. 
His  day  falls  on  Dec.  1.  There  is,  liowever,  no 
proof  of  liis  martyrdom  but  a  report  found  in 
some  later  recensions  of  the  Liber  Ponlijicalis. 
The  earlier  recensions,  as  well  as  all  other  sources, 
are  silent  on  the  subject.  Some  decretals  as- 
cribed to  him,  but  spurious,  are  found  in  JIigne, 
Pair.  Lat.,  V. 

EUTYCHIUS,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  b,  876, 
at  Fostat,  the  present  Cairo;  d.  .Alay  12,  940; 
w-as  originally  a  physician ;  studied  afterwards 
history  and  theology ;  entered  the  church,  and 
was  made  patriarch  in  933.  As  such  he  sustained 
very  severe  attacks  from  the  Jacobite  Copts,  he 
himself  being  the  leader  of  the  orthodox  or  j\lel- 
chite  party.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  and  wrote 
in  Arabic  ;  but  most  of  his  writings  have  perished. 
His  principal  work,  however  (a  world's  histoi-y 
from  the  creation  to  937,  and  of  no  small  interest 
for  the  history  of  the  Eastern  Church),  is  still 
extant,  and  was  edited  in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin 
translation  bv  E.  Pococke,  Oxford,  l(J5y,  1059. 

EUTYCHIUS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  b. 
about  510  ;  d.  582  ;  was  a  monk  and  catholicos  in 
the  city  of  Ama,sia,  in  Pontus ;  came  in  552  as 
delegate  from  his  Idshop,  and  gained  the  favor  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian  by  proving  from  Scripture 
that  it  was  right  to  lay  the  ban  of  the  cliurch 
upon  men,  even  though  they  had  died  long  ago; 
was  in  the  same  year  made  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  played  a  jironunent  part  in  the  "  Three 
Chapters  "  controversy,  and  presided  at  the  oecu- 
menical sjTiod  of  553,  but  lost  the  favor  of  the 
emperor  by  refusing  to  acknowledge  the  doctrine 
of  the  monophysite  Aphthartodocetes  as  ortho- 
dox ;  was  deposed,  and  banished  to  Amasia  565. 
After  tw'elve  years  of  banishment  he  was  re- 
instated in  his  see  by  Justin  II. ;  and  by  tlie 
church  he  was  honored  with  the  dignity  of  a 
saint  on  account  of  his  sufferings  for  the  cause  of 
orthodoxy.  His  Life,  written  by  an  intimate  ser- 
vant of  his,  is  found  in  Act.  Sancl.,  April,  I. 
p.  550.  Of  his  writings  three  fragments  on  the 
Lord's  Supper  have  been  published  by  ]\Iai ;  Class. 
Auct.,X.  493,  and  Script.  Vet.  lYoi^  Coll.,  IX. 
623.  A  letter  from  him  to  Pope  Vigilius,  dated 
553,  is  found  in  !Mansi.  X.  186. 

EVAGRIUS  PONTICUS  was  b.  at  Iberis,  on 
the  Black  Sea;  studied  under  Basilius.  Gregory 
ofXyssa,  and  Gregory  Xazianzen,  who  brought 
him  to  Constantinople  in  379,  and  with  whom  he 
went  to  Jerusalem  in  385.  He  afterwards  retired 
into  the  Xitrian  Desert,  and  lived  a  hermit  among 
the  hermits.  The  year  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
From  contemporary  documents  it  is  evident  that 
he  enjoyed  a  considerable  reputation ;  and  the 
reason  why  the  after-time  treated  him  so  coolly 
is  simply,  that,  in  the  Origenistic  controversy,  he 
took  the  side  of  Origen.     What  has  come  down 


EVAGRIUS  SCHOLASTICUS. 


776 


EVANGELISTARY. 


to  lis  of  his  works  is  found  in  Gallandius,  Bibl. 
Pair.,  VII.  pp.  551-581.  GASS. 

EVAGRIUS  SCHOLASTICUS,  b.  about  536,  at 
Epiphania,  in  Ca?lesjTia;  enjoyed  a  careful  in- 
struction in  the  schools  of  the  rhetoricians  and 
grammarians,  and  settled  in  Antioch,  wliere  he 
practised  as  a  lawyer.  He  lived  in  intimate  con- 
nection with  Bishop  Gregory,  and  wrote,  as  a 
continuation  of  Eusebius  and  the  older  church 
historians,  an  ecclesiastical  liistorj'  from  the  synod 
of  Ephesus  (431)  to  the  twelfth  year  of  the  reign 
of  Mauritius  (594).  He  is  superstitious,  but  or- 
thodox :  credulous,  but  impartial ;  and  his  work 
is  invaluable  for  the  understanding  of  the  Xesto- 
rian  and  Eutychian  controversies.  It  was  first 
edited  by  R. "  Stephanus  (Paris,  1544,  Geneva, 
1612),  then  by  Valesius  (Paris,  1673,  Francfort, 
1679,  etc.),  and  finally  by  Reading  (Cantei'bury-, 
1720).  [There  is  an  English  translation  of  it  by 
M.  Hanmer,  in  Bagster's  Ecdes.  Hislorians,  and 
in  BoHx's  Ecdes.  Library.^  GASS. 

EVANGELICAL  ALLIANCE.  See  Axliance, 
Evangelical. 

EVANGELICAL  ASSOCIATION,  an  ecclesi- 
astical body  which  in  all  essential  particulars 
follows  the  doctrine  and  polity  of  the  Methodists 
Episcopal  Church.  Its  founder,  Jacob  Albright, 
■was  a  man  of  limited  education,  but  earnest  piety. 
Originally  a  Lutheran,  he  connected  himself  with 
the  Methodist  Church,  and  began  to  preach  in 
1796.  A  meeting  of  his  followers  in  1803  ordained 
him  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel  in  accordance 
with  Acts  xiii.  1-3.  Albright  labored  amongst 
the  German-speaking  classes;  and,  as  the  Method- 
ist-Episcopal Church  did  not  make  any  effort 
among  the  Germans,  the  congregations  gathered 
by  his  labors  banded  themselves  together  in  a 
separate  denomination.  In  1807  a  conference 
was  held,  and  Albright  elected  bishop,  and  in- 
structed to  draw  up  articles  of  faith  and  disci- 
pline. Several  years  after  his  death  (1808)  his 
followers,  who  had  been  known  as  "  Albright  Peo- 
ple," adopted  for  their  organization  the  name  of 
Die  evanr/elische  Gemehtfcluift  ion  Nord  Amerika, 
"Evangelical  Association  of  Xorth  America."  The 
organization  of  the  church  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church.  Bishops  and 
presiding  elders  are  elected  by  the  general  and 
annual  conferences,  and  hold  otlice  for  fom-  years. 
The  itinerant  .systetn  is  practised.  In  doctrine 
they  are  Arminian,  but  are  very  decidedly  bibli- 
cal. The  progress  of  the  l)ody  in  its  early  history 
has  in  recent  years  been  rajiid.  The  first  general 
conference  was  held  in  1816  in  Union  County, 
Pennsylvania.  The  labors  of  the  association  were 
at  fir.st  exclusively  among  the  Germans,  whence 
the  name  "Gorman-Methodist  Church."  !More 
recently  English  congregalion.s  have  been  organ- 
ized. It  has  also  a  conference  in  Germany  num- 
bering 8,000  adlierents,  and  carries  on  a  mission 
in  Japan.  The  strength  of  the  denomination  in 
1885  was  24  conferences,  1,611  ministers,  and 
128,034  church-members.  It  has  three  bishops, 
and  conducts  a  liiblical  institute  at  Xaperville, 
m.,  in  connection  with  the  North-western  Col- 
lege. Its  book  concern  at  Cleveland  is  in  a  pros- 
perous condition,  and  publishes  several  papers  in 
German  and  English,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Der  chrisltiche  Bolsdiajter  and  The  Evangelical 
Messenger. 


EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  CONFERENCE. 
See  Kirchextag. 

EVANGELICAL  COUNSELS.  See  Consilia 
Evangelic.^. 

EVANGELICAL  SOCIETY  OF  GENEVA.    See 

SOCIETE    Ev.\NGELIyUE    I)E    GeNEVE. 

EVANGELICAL     UNION.       In    1841    James 

Morison,  minister  of  the  United  Secession  Church 
at  Kihnarnock,  Scotland,  was  deposed  for  holding 
anti-Calvinistic  tows  upon  faith,  the  work  of  the 
Spirit  in  salvation,  and  upon  the  extent  of  the 
atonement.  Faith  was  declared  to  be  one's  belief 
that  Christ  died  for  him ;  the  Spirit  is  "  poured 
out  upon  all  flesh,"  and  strives  with  all  the  unre- 
generate,  and  dwells  in  all  believers ;  while  the 
atonement  was  universal.  Mr.  Morison's  father, 
who  was  a  minister,  and  two  other  ministers 
who  held  these  views,  met  at  Kilmarnock,  and 
formed  the  Evangelical  Union.  The  movement 
spread,  and  now  the  luiion  embraces  about  ninety 
chm'ches.  These  are  independent  in  governmentj 
and  also  in  doctrines  resemble  in  general  the  Con- 
gregational chm-ches  of  Scotland  and  the  Ciun- 
berland  Presbyterian  Church  of  the  United 
States.  Mr.  I^lorison  is  the  author  of  very  valu- 
able commentaries  upon  the  Third  Chapter  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  (Lond.  1866),  Mat- 
thew (1870),  and  Mark  (1873,  3d  ed.,  1881). 
See  Evangelical  Union  Annual,  and  F.  Fergu- 
son, History  of  the  Evangelical  Union,  Glasgow, 
1876. 

EVANGELIST  {evayycTumvc,  "a  herald  of  glad 
tidings ")  is  from  the  same  root  as  the  words 
translated  "  gospel "  (evayyi?aoi'')  and  to  "  preach 
the  word "  {eiiayyeXiSfijiai) .  In  Eph.  iv.  11  the 
evangelists  are  enmnerated  side  by  side  with 
apostles,  prophets,  pastors,  and  teachers,  and  fol- 
low prophets.  This  special  mention  leads  us  to 
attribute  to  them  a  distinct  form  of  activity.  It 
did  not  consist  in  the  execution  of  apostolic  func- 
tions, the  exercise  of  prophetic  gifts,  the  oversight 
of  churches,  or  diaconal  service,  but  in  preaching, 
and  testifying  to  the  facts  of  Christ's  life.  But 
the  evangelists  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinct 
order  of  church  officials.  Deacons,  presbyters, 
and  apostles  (Acts  viii.  25;  1  Cor.  i.  17,  etc.),  all 
might  exercise  evangelistic  functions.  Timothy, 
the  bisliop-presbji,er,  was  exhorted  to  "do  the 
work  of  an  evangelist"  (2  Tim.  iv.  5);  and 
Philil),  one  of  the  seven  deacons  at  Jerusalem,  is 
called  an  evangelist  (Acts  viii.  5,  xxi.  8).  The 
evangelists  are  to  be  regarded  as  itinerants,  trav- 
elling from  place  to  place.  This  was  the  case 
with  Philip,  who  preached  in  Samaria,  expounded 
the  word  to  the  eunuch  on  his  way  to  Gaza,  and 
then  labored  in  Ca\sarea  and  tiie  cities  round 
about  (Acts  viii.  40).  They  acted  independently 
(Acts  viii.  4),  but  largely  as  "  fellow-laborers  "  and 
assistants  of  the  apostles,  accom|ianying  tliem  on 
their  journeys,  and  laboring  under  their  direction. 
Thcodoi-et  was  the  first  to  restrict  the  term  to 
itinerant  preachers  {-rvipuovitc  hi/pvTTov);  and  (Kcu- 
nienius  applied  it  for  the  first  time  strictly  to  the 
authors  of  the  Gosjiels.  The  term  is  used  at  the 
present  time  in  botli  these  senses. 

Lit.  —  Neander  and  Sciiaff  :  Histories  of  the 
Apost.  (,'hurch;  Smith's  Diet,  of  Bible,  article  by 
Dr.  I'lutniitre. 

EVANGELISTARY  (Emngelislariuml  the  name 
of  the  cliurcli-book  which  contains  the  portions 


BVANGBLIUM  STERNUM. 


777 


EVE. 


of  the  Gospels  to  be  read  in  the  Liturgy.  If  the 
book  contained  all  the  four  Gospels,  it  was  called 
Evamielifliirium  plenariurn. 

EVANGELIUM  /ETERNUM  was  a  supposed 
book,  rather  than  a  real  book,  based  upon  the 
writings  of  Joacliiin  of  Floris,  and  referring  to 
certain  ideas  entertained  by  one  party  of  the 
Franciscans  concerning  the  reforming  and  re- 
organizing mission  of  their  order.  Gerhardus,  a 
Franciscan  monk  belonging  to  the  above  party, 
compiled  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century, 
from  the  writings  of  Joachim  of  Floris  (d.  IJiOli), 
a  book,  which  he  called  IntroiJuclorium  in  Evan- 
gelium  ^terjium,  and  in  which  he  applied  to  his 
order  Joachim's  vague  prophecies  of  a  third  stage 
in  the  history  of  mankind,  —  the  era  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  From  the  title  of  this  book  arose  the 
rumor  of  a  new  gospel,  the  Eoerlusting  Gospel, 
in  the  possession  of  the  Franciscans.  The  book 
itself  has  perished;  but  it  is  partially  known  to 
us  from  a  fragment  of  a  work  by  Hugo  of  Caro 
(d.  \2Q2),  Processus  in  Evanyelium  ^Eternum,com.- 
municated  by  Quetif  and  Echard,  in  Script.  Pre- 
dict., I.  202-213.     See  Joachim  of  P'loris. 

EVANS,  Christmas,  an  eloquent  Baptist 
preacher  of  Wales ;  b.  at  Esgaiswen  on  Christmas 
Day,  1766 ;  d.  July  14,  1838.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  shoemaker,  and  after  his  father's  death  was 
forced  to  work  at  servile  employments  for  a  living. 
At  the  age  of  seventeen  he  was  converted,  and 
for  the  first  time  learned  to  read.  At  this  period 
he  lost  an  eye  in  an  act  of  self-defence.  He  was 
ordained  1700,  and,  after  a  pastorate  of  two  years 
at  Lleyn,  went  to  the  Isle  of  Anglesea,  where  his 
salary  for  many  years  was  only  seventeen  pounds. 
In  1826  he  removed  to  Tonyvelin,  and  in  1833  to 
Caernarvon.  Evans  was  a  man  of  ardent  pietv, 
and  great  power  as  a  preacher.  The  fragments 
that  remain  of  his  sermons  show  him  a  master  in 
parabolic  comparison  and  dramatic  representa- 
tion. These  characteristics  have  won  for  him 
the  title  of  the  "Welsh  Bunyan."  When  Robert 
Hall  was  reminded  that  Evans  had  only  one  eye, 
he  replied,  "Yes,  sir;  but  that  eye  could  lead  an 
army  through  a  wilderness  at  midnight."  In  re- 
cent times  Evans's  career  has  acted  as  a  powerful 
stimulus  upon  Mr.  ^Sloody. 

Lit.  —  KiiYS  Stephen  :  Life  of  Christmas  Evans, 
Lond.,  1847;  James  Cross:  Sermons  of  C.  Evans, 
with  Memoir,  Phila.,  18.54;  E.  Paxton  Hood: 
Christmas  Evans,  Lond.,  1881. 

EVANS,  John,  D.D,,  a  nonconformi.st  divine; 
b.  at  Wrexham.  Deiibiglishire,  1680;  d.  in  London, 
Jlay  16,  1730.  lie  succeeded  Dr.  Daniel  Williams 
in  London.  He  completed  ilatthew  Henry's  com- 
mentary on  Romans,  and  gathered  much  of  the 
material  subsequently  used  by  Mr.  Xeal  in  his 
history  of  the  Puritans.  His  best-known  work  is 
his  Discourses  concerning  the  Christian  Temper; 
heing  Tliirty-eighl  Sermons  upon  the  Principal  Beads 
of  Practical  Religion,  Lond.,  4th  ed.,  1737,  2  vols., 
edited,  with  a  Life,  by  Dr.  John  Er.skine,  Lond., 
182.5. 

EVANS,  John,  LL.D.,  a  BaptLst  minister;  b.  at 
Usk,  Monmouth.shire,  1767 ;  d.  in  London,  1827; 
wrote  .4  Sketch  of  the  Denominations  of  the  Christian 
World,  with  a  Persuasive  to  Religious  Moderation, 
London,  1794;  l.jth  ed.,  revised  liy  the  author, 
1827;  ISth  ed.,  1841,  trans,  into  Welsh  and  Con- 
tinental languages,  reprinted  in  several  editions 


iu  United  States.  Upwards  of  a  hundred  thou- 
sand copies  were  sold  during  the  author's  life- 
time ;  but  for  the  copyright  he  received  only  ten 
pounds. 

EVANSON,  Edward,  a  minister  of  the  Church 
of  England ;  b.  at  AVurrington,  Lancashire,  April 
21,  1731 ;  d.  at  Colford,  Gloucestershire,  Sept.  25, 
1805.  He  took  his  M.A.  at  Cambridge,  1753. 
In  1773  he  was  tried  in  the  Consistorial  Court  ot 
Gloucester  for  publicly  altering  or  omitting  such 
phrases  in  the  church-service  as  seemed  to  him  to 
be  untrue,  correcting  the  authorized  version  of 
the  Scriptures,  and  for  conversing  against  the 
Creeds  and  the  divinity  of  Christ.  The  case  was 
carried  on  appeal  to  the  Court  of  Arches,  and 
finally  quashed,  on  technical  grounds,  in  1777.  He 
gave  the  widest  currency  he  could  to  his  heretical 
views  ill  his  Dissonance  of  the  Four  generally 
received  Evangelists,  and  the  Evidence  of  their 
Respective  Authenticity  examined,  with  that  of  otiier 
Scriptures  deemed  Canonical  (Gloucester,  1792),  in 
which  he  rejected  the  greater  part  of  the  Xew 
Testament  as  a  forgery,  and  accepted  the  Gospel 
of  Luke  alone  of  the  four.  To  this  book  Thomas 
Falconer  replied  in  the  Bampton  Lecture  for  1810, 
—  Certain  Principles  in  Evanson's  Dissonance  of 
the  Four  generally  received  Evangelists,  etc.,  exam- 
ined. Evanson's  views  upon  the  sabbath  brought 
him  into  controversy  with  Dr.  Priestley. 

EVE  (njn,  "life:"  so  LXX.,  in  Gen.  iii., 
translates  by  Zu^  "  life ;  "  elsewhere,  however, 
t'.va),  "the  mother  of  all  living."  According  to 
Gen.  ii.  20,  God  would  give  man  a  "help  meet 
for  him ;  "  literally,  a  help  as  before  him ;  i.e., 
corresponding  to  him,  his  fellow  in  body  and 
spirit.  The  simple,  straight-forward  Bibfe  nar- 
rative of  Eve's  creation  and  reception  is  given 
in  Gen.  ii.  21-25.  Different  interpretations  have 
found  defenders  and  expositors. 

1.  The  Literal.  —  While  Adam  slept,  God  took 
one  of  his  ribs,  and  fashioned  out  of  it  a  woman. 
Adam  recognized  the  identity  of  substance  and 
unity  of  life,  and  called  the  new  creation  nux 
(L':hsha,  "  female  man  "),  because  she  was  taken 
out  of  'i^'N  (Ish,  "man").  The  name  njn  was 
not  given  until  after  the  fall,  and  was  not  an 
appellative,  but  her  proper  name,  liaving  not 
only  a  natural,  b\it  an  historical  significance, 
connected  with  the  history  of  redemption  ;  for  it 
indicated  Adam's  faith  that  new  life  and  salva- 
tion would  issue  from  the  womb  of  Eve.  How 
long  the  first  pair  lived  in  Eden  is  unknown. 
By  eating  the  forbidden  fruit,  under  the  tempta- 
tion of  Satan,  they  fell.  Outside  of  the  garden, 
Eve  bore  her  first-born,  and  called  him  Cain 
("possession"),  apparently  under  the  impression 
that  she  had  borne  the  promised  deliverer.  Her 
second  son  she  named  Abel  ("vanity"),  indicat- 
ing her  disappointment :  the  third  son  she  caUed 
Seth  ("compensation"),  because  God  had  ap- 
pointed her  a  seed,  instead  of  dead  Abel.  With 
this  remark  the  history  of  Eve  closes. 

2.  The  Allegorical.  —The  allegorists  find  their 
Coryphaeus  in  Philo,  who,  having  declared  (in  the 
second  book  of  his  Allegories  of  the  Sacred  Laws, 
after  the  Work  of  the  Six  Days  of  Creation,  II.  § 
vii.)  the  literal  statement  (that  Eve  was  made 
from  Adam's  rib)  to  be  fabulous,  proceeds  to  ex- 
plain that  by  the  stoi-y  is  meant  the  creation  of 
the  external  sense  immediately  after  the  creation 


EVE. 


778 


EVILMERODACH. 


of  the  miiid.  This  took  place  when  the  mind  was 
asleep.  By  "  rib  "  he  understands  "  one  of  the 
many  powers  of  the  mind ;  namely,  that  power 
which  dwells  in  the  outward  senses."  This  mode 
of  interpretation  was  followed  by  the  Alexandrian 
school  among  the  fathers,  who,  however,  grauted 
the  historicity  of  the  story.  To  them  Eve  repre- 
sented the  sensuous  or  perceptive  part  of  man, 
and  Adam  the  rational. ^  The  Latin  fathers  did 
not  go  quite  this  length,  although  willing  to 
allow  that  a  spiritual  sense  underlay  the  literal, 
and  to  find  in  the  formation  of  Eve  from  the  side 
of  Adam  a  type  of  the  formation  of  the  Church 
from  the  Saviour's  side.  Later  on,  among  the 
schoohnen,  Thomas  Aquinas  speaks  of  Eve  as  a 
type  of  the  Church,  and  her  formation  from  the 
side  of  Adam  as  a  t>-pe  of  the  sacraments  —  blood 
(i.e.,  the  wine  of  the  Lord's  Supper)  and  water 
(i.e.,  baptism)  —  which  flowed  from  the  side  of 
Christ.'^  lu  the  same  paragi'aph  is  the  appai'ent 
genesis  of  the  famous  remark  of  JIatthew  Henry : 
"  The  woman  was  made  of  a  rib  out  of  the  side 
of  Adam  ;  not  made  out  of  his  head,  to  top  hun  ; 
not  out  of  his  feet,  to  be  trampled  upon  by  him ; 
but  out  of  his  side,  to  be  equal  with  him ;  from 
under  his  arm,  to  be  protected ;  and  from  near 
his  heart,  to  be  beloved ; '"  for  he  says,  respond- 
ing to  arguments  against  the  formation  of  woman 
from  the  rib  of  man,  ••  Prinio  quideni  ad  sigiiifi- 
candum  quod  inter  virum  et  mulierem  debet  esse 
specialis  conjunctio;  neque  enini  mulier  debet 
dominari  in  virum  ;  et  ideo  non  est  formata  de 
capite ;  neque  debet  a  viro  despici,  tanquara 
serviliter  subjecta;  et  ideo  non  est  formata  de 
pedibus." 

3.  The  Mythical.  —  Adam,  Eve,  the  whole 
story  of  the  early  life  of  the  race,  in  short,  is  a 
mist  spread  over  the  face  of  creation.  There 
were  no  beings  coi'responding  to  the  biblical 
pair:  the  story  is  mere  dranuitic  personation  of 
ideas,  —  sexual  contrast,  sexual  love,  the  begin- 
ning of  existence. 

4.  The  Poetical.  —  The  advocates  of  this  inter- 
pretation believe  in  all  tlu^  results  stated  in  Gene- 
sis, but  not  in  the  processes.  The  creation  of 
woman  after  that  of  man  they  allow ;  but  as  for 
the  story  —  it  is  a  cliarming  idyl.  The  Hible 
opens  with  a  poem.  Adam  and  Eve  doubtless 
existed,  but  one  cannot  vouch  for  tlie  actions 
attributed  to  tliem. 

It  remains  to  glance  at  the  legends  which  are 
actually  told  about  Adam  and  Eve.  A  very 
widely   circulated     opinion     is,    that    man    and 


*  Clement  of  AlexfindriapayB  woman  n  hamlsume  compli- 
ment, in  quftlnt  lanKua^e,  wfien  lie  ways  wliutevcr  t^moothnc-HH 
and  riofLncKis  was  in  luaii  God  abbtracled  from  liiu  itide  wlien 
hi*  formed  tlie  womjm  Eve,  adapted  to  tile  reception  of  eeed, 
hit(  lielp  In  generation  and  lioUMeliold  management;  while  he 
(lor  he  had  parted  with  ail  HmoothncHit}  remained  a  (nan,  and 
shown  hlinxeir  a  man.  —  r.KDAOouus  (The  /nntrurtor) ,  bk. 
111.  3  {AnU-yirrnr  l.ihrnry,  vol.  iv.  p.  28fi). 

'  Humma*  Tiieologicaj  parH  prima,  tintPB.  xcli.,  art.  ill., 
Migne'K  ed.,  lorn.  1.,  col.  12.31.  .V  mociern  innlance  of  lliiH 
allet;oricai  iiiterpreUttion  i»  in  Itiwhop  WorcUworth'M  C/ittrclt 
IliMloni  111  Ihc  CnuiHlt  of  Xir.aa  (f-ond.  anil  N.V.,  1K«1)  : 
"  Almii<lily  Ood  In  I'aradinc  formed  Kve,  the  Bride  of  Adam, 
from  the  i*i,Ie  of  .\dam  an  he  niept,  and  she  became  '  /A^ 
mother  of  iitl  tivinf/.*  Bo  the  Hoirltnai  ICve,  the  Church,  tlie 
Bride  of  the  .S*Tond  Adam,  •  Wlio  Ih  the  I.onl  from  heaven,* 
and  the  .\nlhor  <»("  Ihe  new,  ri*i;enerati!  race,  wan  formed  from 
(>hrlnt.  Ihe  Heenn.i  Adam,  Hi.-e|iliiir  in  deatli  on  llie  ero(*H.  and 
Bhe  owe*  her  life  \o  Ihe  H-icramrntal  HlreaniH  nf  Hiood  .ind 
Water  which  then  iKHMcrl  frmn  Mi»  Hide;  anil  by  her  union 
wltti  Iliiii,  and  by  the  miniKlry  nf  the  Word  and  SacramenlM 
Inmiliilid  by  Him,  hIw  imparlM  the  life  to  all  which  Bile  re. 
ceJven  frum  her  ix>rd  "  (pp.  11,  4). 


woman  were  originally  joined  in  one  body,  and 
that  God  separated  them,  the  rabbins  say  by  a 
hatchet.  They  say  further,  that,  "  When  Eve 
had  to  be  drawn  out  of  tlie  side  of  Adam,  she 
was  not  extracted  by  the  head,  lest  she  should 
be  vain;  nor  by  the  ej'es,  lest  she  should  be 
wanton ;  nor  by  the  mouth,  lest  she  should  be 
given  to  gossii^ing;  nor  by  the  ears,  lest  she 
should  be  an  eavesdropper ;  nor  by  the  hands, 
lest  she  should  be  meddlesome ;  nor  by  the 
feet,  lest  she  shoidd  be  a  gadabout ;  nor  by  the 
heart,  lest  she  should  be  jealous ;  but  she  was 
drawn  forth  by  the  side :  yet,  notwithstanding 
all  these  precautions,  she  has  every  fault  specially 
guarded  against."  It  was  a  rabbinical  fancy 
that  Eve  was  Adam's  second  wife,  the  first  being 
Lilith.  In  this  way  the  double  account  of 
woman's  creation  (Gen.  i.  27  and  ii.  Is)  was 
accounted  for.  Lilith  was  formed  of  clay  at  the 
same  time  with  Adam,  but  expelled  for  pride 
and  had  conduct.  She  subsequently  married  the 
Devil,  and  was  the  ancestress  of  the  Jins,  —  crea- 
tiu'es  endowed  with  human  and  devilish  qualities. 
According  to  the  Targum  of  Jonathan,  Eve  was 
made  from  Adam's  thirteenth  rib. 

Much  curious  information  is  found  in  Fabri- 
Cius  :  Codex  Pseudep.  V.T.;  Bartolocci  :  Bib- 
liotheca  Rabbinica ;  Eisexmexger  :  Entdecktes 
Judenlhum ;  Wagexseil  :  Sola;  and  recently 
W.  Meyer  :  Vita  Adte  et  Ecce,  Miinchen,  1879, 
a  scholarly  edition  of  a  composition  which  Meyer 
attributes  to  a  pre-Christian  Jewish  source ;  but 
the  most  accessible  volume  is  S.  Baring-Gould  : 
Leyendf  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Prophets,  N.Y., 
1872 ;  cf.  W.  Robertson  Smith's  art.  Eoe,  in 
Eiici/cl.  Brit..  9th  ed.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

EVELYN,  John,  b.  at  Wotton,  Surrey,  Oct.  31, 
IGl'O;  d.  tlii-re  Feb.  '27, 1700.  He  is  best'known  by 
his  iii/lra,  London,  16(54,  an  elaborate  work  upon 
arboriculture  (the  first  book  published  by  the 
Royal  Society),  and  by  his  Diari/  from  16^1  to 
1706  (l)pst  edition  by  '\\'illiam  liriiy,  with  Life 
by  Henry  B.  'Wheatley,  London,  1879,  4  vols.),  a 
treasury  of  information  in  regard  to  the  private 
life  of  his  century.  He  is  mentionetl  here  be- 
cause of  his  Historij  of  lieligion,  a  Uational  Ac- 
count of  the  True  lieliyion  (first  published  from 
his  manuscript  by  Rev.  R.  M.  Evanson,  London, 
1850,  2  vols.),  a  valuable  epitome  of  arguments 
against  the  infidelity  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries.  Evelyn  preserved  an  un- 
tarnished reputation  at  a  time  when  men  of  his 
higli  social  ])osition  were  commonly  lax  in  morals. 

EVERLASTING  GOSPEL.  See  Evangelium 
.*ETi;i!\r:M. 

EVES.     Sri.  Vigils. 

EVIDENCES,  Christian.    See  Apologetics. 

EVILMERODACH  (Heb.  ■^iio  VlN;  LXX. 
Ei''(a/(//(j^i(jil((i,  i-WAmimiVixajy,  and  variants ;  Babyl. 
Avit-Mariiuk  ;  late  proimiiciation  of  Amil-Mar- 
duk;  "man  of  tlie  god  Merodach  ")  was  the  son 
and  succe.s.sor  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Baby- 
lon, and  reigned,  according  to  I'tolemy's  canon 
(list  of  Babylonian  kings),  B.C.  501-.')'GO.  The 
only  scri|>tur;d  nii'iitii)n  of  him  is  in  2  Kings  xxv. 
27-30  (=:.Ier.  lii.  31-31),  where  it  is  related,  that, 
in  the  year  of  his  accession,  he  released  from 
jirison,  after  a  captivity  of  tliirty-seven  yt^ars, 
.lelioiachin,  king  of  .Iiidah.  tliat  lie  changci!  liis 
prLson-garmenLs,  .set  his  seat  above  the  Heat  of  the 


EVOLUTION. 


779 


EVOLUTION. 


Babylonian  vassal-kings  or  princes,  gave  him  a 
daily  allowance,  and  made  him  his  constant  table 
companion.  Notwithstanding  this,  Josephus  (c. 
Ap.,  I.  20)  represents  him,  on  Berosus'  authority, 
as  a  lawless  and  dissolute  ruler.  On  the  same 
authority  he  was  murdered,  after  a  two-years' 
reign,  by  his  brother-in-law  Neriglissar,  whom 
Ptolemy's  canon  also  names  as  his  successor.  The 
statement  of  Josephus  (Ant.,  X.  11,  2),  that  he 
reigned  eighteen  years,  is  as  little  worthy  of  cre- 
dence as  the  twelve  years  assigned  to  him  by 
Alexander  Polyhistor  (Euseb.,  Chron.,  1.  0),  or  his 
regency  of  seven  years,  of  which  .Jerome  speaks 
(on  Isa.  xiv.  19).  Contemporary  records  exist  in 
the  form  of  eleven  contract  tablets,  inscribed  in 
the  cuneiform  character,  and  dated  in  his  reign, 
three  from  the  year  of  his  accession  (B.C.  562), 
four  from  his  first  year,  and  four  from  his  second 
year  (W.  St.  C.  Boscawen,  in   ly-ans.  Soc.  Bib. 

Arch.,  VI.  p.  52).  FR.\NCIS  BROWN-. 

EVOLUTION  and  DEVELOPMENT.  These 
phrases,  so  much  used  in  the  present  day,  have 
much  the  same  meaning.  Both  point  to  one  pro- 
cess viewed  under  two  different  aspects.  Both 
indicate  that  one  thing  conies  out  of  another. 
But  development  denotes  the  process  going  on ; 
"whereas  evolution  refers  more  to  the  process  as 
■we  look  back  upon  it.  We  talk  of  the  seed  being 
developed  into  the  plant,  and  of  the  jilant  being 
evolved  from  the  seed.  Development  or  evolution 
is  a  method  of  procedure  adopted  by  God,  both  in 
the  kingdom  of  nature  and  the  kingdom  of  grace. 

I.  There  is  undoubtedly  development  in  nature. 
It  is  wrong  in  i-eligious  people  to  deny  it.  Every- 
body acts  upon  it.  We  all  regard  events  as  coming 
out  of  antecedent  circumstances,  commonly  out 
of  a  concurrence,  or  train  of  occurrences.  The 
process  is  seen  more  particularly  in  organic  nature, 
in  which  there  is  a  double  development,  —  the  seed 
from  the  plant,  and  the  plant  from  the  seed  ;  the 
child  from  the  parent,  and,  it  may  be,  growing 
into  the  parent.  Generally,  in  God's  works,  the 
present  is  the  fruit  of  the  past  and  the  seed  of 
the  future.  This  was  noticed  from  the  beginning 
of  observation.  But  of  late  years  it  has  been 
scientifically  examined,  and  the  process  is  shown 
to  be  extensively  employed,  in  a  sense  to  be  uni- 
versal. What  science  and  philosophy  combined 
require  to  do  in  the  present  day  is  to  determine 
the  precise  nature  of  development  and  the  limits 
to  it. 

For  several  ages  it  has  been  acknowledged  that 
there  is  universal  causation  ;  not  merely  the  grand 
first  and  abiding  Cause,  but  second  causes.  It  is 
■  God  who  produces  the  spring ;  but  he  does  so  by 
agents,  like  the  sun,  the  seed,  and  the  soil.  Pious 
people  have  come  to  acknowledge  this,  and  liave 
found  it  not  inconsistent  with  their  belief  in  God, 
to  whose  existence  these  works  bear  witness. 

There  is  not  only  individual  causation,  that  is, 
one  cause  producing  its  effect :  there  is  combined 
and  co-operative  causation.  I  believe  that  J.  S. 
Mill  has  shown  that  there  is  more  than  one  agent 
in  all  physical  causation.  We  speak  of  the  cause 
of  the  killing  of  that  plant  to  be  the  frost ;  but 
the  full  and  true  cause  consists  of  the  cold,  and 
the  state  of  the  plant,  without  both  of  which  the 
effect  would  not  have  occurred.  I  have  shown 
that  there  is  a  like  duality,  or  plurality,  in  the 
effect;  each   agent  producing  other  effects.     In 


almost  all  natural  action  there  is  a  consideiubls 
number  of  agencies  in  the  operation.  What  a 
variety  of  combined  powers  in  the  growth  of 
every  plant  and  in  the  production  of  spring ! 

Now,  development  consists  essentially  in  a 
combination,  or  rather  I  would  call  it  an  organiza- 
tion, of  causes,  or,  better  still,  a  corporation  of 
agencies  for  mutual  action.  Such  are  the  united 
powers  that  produce  the  spring,  that  jiroduce  the 
plant,  that  produce  the  aniniaL  Such  are  the 
activities  which  unite  to  produce  the  great  events 
of  history,  —  the  rise  and  fall  of  literature  in 
Greece,  and  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Protestant 
Reformation,  the  English,  French,  and  American 
Revolutions. 

In  manj'  of  these  organizations  I  discovei'  evi- 
dent design.  Such  is  the  union  of  elements  and 
powers  producing  vision,  —  the  coats  and  humors, 
the  rods,  cones,  and  nerves,  so  arranged  as  to 
enable  us  to  .see.  Such  are  the  vibrations,  the 
canals,  convolutions,  hammer  and  stirrup,  and 
fibres,  which  work  together  to  give  the  power  of 
hearing.  Men  are  led  spontaneously,  and  I  hold 
reasonably,  to  believe  that  there  is  design  in  these 
collocations,  and  adaptations  of  one  thing  to  an- 
other, to  jiroduce  a  good  end. 

In  some  cases  there  is  only  one  set  of  agencies 
in  the  development.  A  number  of  agencies  are 
thrown,  as  it  were,  into  a  closed  ball  (this  was  a 
Pythagorean  idea)  ;  and  these  as  they  work  pro- 
duce certain  results,  which  are  the  same  from  year 
to  year,  and  from  age  to  age.  In  other  cases, 
powers  come  in  from  without  to  act  upon  and 
with  the  more  central  and  abidhig  agents,  and 
so  far  modify  and  vary  their  actions  :  hence  the 
varieties  in  the  same  species  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals, and  the  differences  between  events  so  far 
alike,  such  as  the  English,  French,  and  American 
Revolutions.  In  evolution  thus  considered  there 
is  nothing  irreligious,  provided  we  see  therein  the 
wise  God  carrying  out  his  designs,  and  connect- 
ing the  past,  the  present,  and  the  future  in  one 
grand  system. 

The  great  and  utterly  inexcusable  error  of  cer- 
tain physicists  is,  that  they  make  development 
do  every  thing,  and  supersede  all  other  natural 
powers,  and  even  God  himself.  This  has  made 
many  good  men  turn  away  from  the  name  and 
thing  vvith  aversion.  But  it  is  surely  possible  to 
maintain  that  evolution  (that  is,  organized  causa- 
tion) reigns  widely,  even  univer.sally  (that  is,  oyer 
all  nature),  and  yet  believe,  that,  like  all  creative 
action,  it  is  limited,  and  is  not  the  only  process  in 
operation,  and  that  it  is  one,  and  only  one,  exer- 
cise of  the  mighty  power  of  God.  Let  us  notice 
its  limitations. 

1.  It  cannot  give  us  the  original  matter,  which 
must  be  there  before  it  begins  to  develop.  Its  very 
name  and  nature  indicate  that  there  was  some- 
thing prior,  from  which  it  is  derived.  Whence 
did  this  come  ?  A\'e  have  clear  proof  that  there  is 
intelligence  needed  to  organize  nature  (iiaKuatiav, 
as  Anaxagoras  expresses  it),  and  it  is  most  rea- 
sonable to  believe  that  He  who  arranged  it  also 
made  it.  At  all  events,  evolution  cannot  give  us 
the  original  matter,  and  we  have  to  call  in  a 
power  which  I  believe  is  still  working. 

2.  Development  cannot  account  for  the  benefi- 
cent order  and  special  arrangements  of  the  uni- 
verse.   Being  itself  blind,  it  might  as  readily  work 


EVOLUTION. 


780 


EVOLUTION. 


evil  as  good.  A  railway  train,  without  a  head 
and  hand  to  set  it  on  the  track,  might  go  on  to 
destruction.  We  liave  to  call  in  a  power  above 
itself  to  account  for  the  beneficence  of  evolution. 

3.  There  i.s  evidence  that  new  potencies  have 
been  added  from  time  to  time.  Geology  shows 
us  new  powers  coming  in.  It  is  not  possible  to 
account  for  the  actual  phenomena  of  the  world  by 
a  mass  of  molecules  actmg  according  to  mechani- 
cal laws.  There  is  no  proof  that  there  was  life  in 
the  original  atom,  or  molecule  formed  of  atoms. 
How,  then,  did  life  come  in  when  the  first  plant 
appeared?  Was  there  sensation  in  the  original 
molecule  ?  If  not,  what  brought  it  in  when  the 
first  animal  had  a  feeling  of  pleasure  and  painV 
Was  there  mind  in  the  first  molecule,  say  a  power 
of  perceiving  objects  out  of  itself  ?  'Was  there 
consciousness  in  the  first  monad,  say  a  conscious- 
ness of  self?  Was  there  a  power  of  discerning 
things,  of  comparing  and  judging,  of  noting  re- 
semblances and  dift'erences?  Had  they  the  power 
of  reasoning,  of  inferring  the  unseen  from  the 
seen,  of  the  future  from  the  past?  Were  there 
emotions  in  these  primitive  existences,  say  a  hope 
of  continued  existence,  or  a  fear  of  approaching 
dissolution?  All  sober  thinkers  acknowledge 
that  there  is  no  evidence  whatever  in  experience 
or  reason  to  show  that  matter  can  produce  mind, 
that  mechanical  action  can  gender  thought,  that 
chemical  action  can  manufacture  consciousness, 
that  electricity  can  reason,  or  organic  structure 
give  us  the  idea  of  the  good  and  holy.  According, 
then,  to  the  principles  of  thinking  and  right 
observation,  we  have  to  call  in  powers  above  the 
original  physical  forces  to  produce  such  phe- 
nomena. In  particular  there  must  have  been  a 
special  act  when  man  appeared  with  intelligence 
and  moral  discernment,  with  free  will  and  love. 

4.  When  the.se  new  and  higher  potencies  come 
in,  they  act  upon  and  act  with  tlio  previously 
existing  powers.  In  our  bodily  frame,  mind  acts 
harmoniou.sly  witli  matter,  and  the  two  produce 
joint  results.  The  memory  proceeds  upon  the 
information  given  by  the  sen.ses,  and  the  under- 
standing and  the  conscience  presuppose  both  the 
senses  and  the  memory.  Man  is  made  of  the 
dust  of  the  ground ;  but  tliere  is  breathed  into 
him  the  breath  of  life,  and  he  becomes  a  living 
soul. 

5.  As  the  result  of  the  whole  —  of  the  action  of 
the  old  forces  and  the  introduction  of  the  new  — 
the  work  goes  on  in  eras  or  epochs,  in  which  we 
have,  first,  lifeless  creation  with  all  things  mixed, 
then  the  separations  of  air  from  water,  and  of 
land  from  sea,  the  distinct  appearance  of  the 
heavenly  bodies,  tiie  forthcoming  of  plants,  and 
animals  rising  higher  and  higher  till  they  cul- 
minate in  man. 

C.  This  work  combined  —  the  evolution  of  the 
old  and  the  superaddition  of  the  new — is  ]irogi-es- 
sive,  advancing  from  tlie  inferior  to  the  higher. 
This  progression  is  still  going  on ;  and  frf>m  causes 
now  ojierating,  especially  from  tlie  inU'lligence 
and  industry  of  man,  there  will  be  an  increased 
fertility  and  weallli  ;  and  the  eartli  and  ils  jirinci- 
pal  inlial)il!int  will  bo  brought  to  a  higher  and 
higher  condition. 

In  regard  to  development,  see,  on  the  one  side, 
Dahwin's  Oriijin  nf  Sp/^riei  awd  Descuxl  nf  Man, 
and   Hkhukkt    Si-k.ncek's   works,   and,   on   the 


other  side,  Dawson's  works,  —  Fossil  Men  and  their 
Modern  Represeniatices,  The  Chain  of  Life  in  Geo- 
logical Time,  Life's  Dawn,  Nature  and  the  Bible, 
The  Beginning  of  the  World  according  to  Revela- 
tion and  Science,  —  and  Mivart,  On  the  Genesis 
of  Species,  and  Man  and  Apes. 

II.  Analogous  to  this  there  is  evolution  in  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  Many  interesting  corre- 
spondences may  be  traced  between  the  two  king- 
doms. In  both  there  are  old  powers  and  new, 
leading  to  higher  and  higher  products.  The  king- 
dom ot  heaven  is  like  to  leaven,  which  a  woman 
took  and  hid  in  three  measures  of  meal,  and  which 
ferments  there.  It  is  a  seed  becoming  a  tree. 
There  is  first  the  blade,  then  the  ear,  and  then 
the  full  corn  in  the  ear. 

It  is  our  privilege  to  live  under  the  dispensation 
of  the  Spirit.  There  were  anticipations  of  the 
operation  of  this  blessed  agent  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, who  converted  and  sanctified  individuals. 
But  these  manifestations  were  only  partial.  "For 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  yet  given,  because  that 
Jesus  was  not  yet  glorified."  But  Jesus  spake  of 
"the  Spirit  wliich  they  that  believe  on  him  should 
receive."  Wlien  Jesus  was  taken  up  into  heaven 
and  glorified,  the  disciples  waited  for  the  prom- 
ised blessing,  which  was  fulfilled  when  the  day 
of  Pentecost  was  fully  come,  and  the  Spirit  was 
poured  out  from  on  high. 

When  the  spiritual  begins  to  act,  we  have  now 
two  powers  tending  towards  development  and 
progression.  First  there  are  the  mental  powers, 
which  have  been  acting  previously,  and  which  we 
may  call  the  old  or  natural  powers.  Then  there 
is  the  higher  or  spiritual  power  superinduced. 

When  a  new  power  comes  in,  it  does  not  set 
aside  tlie  old  ones :  on  the  contrary,  it  acts  with 
them.  We  liave  this  in  the  geological  ages ;  for 
instance,  in  the  introduction  of  intelligence  in  the 
midst  of  animalism.  The  senses  continued  to 
work,  and  to  supply  information,  which  is  received, 
shaped,  and  guided  by  the  intellect.  When,  at  a 
further  stage,  the  moral  power  canu'  in,  it.  did  not 
supersede  the  intellect,  which  .still  operates,  and 
tells  us  what  things  are;  and  upon  this  representa- 
tion the  conscience  proceeds.  If  is  the  same  when 
the  still  higher  power,  the  spiritual  power,  acts. 
It  does  not  pvtsh  aside  the  sen.ses,  tlie  conscience, 
the  intelligence;  but  it  purifiers  and  guides  them,, 
and  devotes  them  to  higher  ends. 

There  is  the  fullest  accordance  between  the  old 
powers  and  the  superadded  ones.  They  work  in 
concert,  as  the  soul  does  with  the  boc!y,  as  the 
higher  reason  does  with  the  .senses  and  the  ani- 
mal impulses.  The  inspiration  of  Mose.s,  of  the 
prophets  and  apostles,  dul  not  di'slroy  their  natu- 
ral character:  it  only  sanctified  and  elevated  them. 
'I'hc  s])irits  of  the  projihets  were  .subject  uuta 
tiiem.  Religion  does  uot  eradicate  the  natural 
powers:  it  moulils  and  directs  tlieni. 

The  development  goes  on  in  eras  or  epochs,  like 
the  ages  of  geology,  like  the  days  of  Genesis. 
The  ]intriarehal  dispensation  grows  out  of  the 
antediluvian,  the  Jewi.sh  out  of  tlie  patriarchal, 
the  Christian  out  of  the  Jewish.  We  may  dis- 
cover marked  epochs,  even  in  the  Christian  Church, 
—  the  time  ot  the  fathers  (a  time  of  establishing), 
the  niedi.a'val  church,  the  reformation  churches, 
the  denominational  churches,  the  missionary 
churchas,  to  expand  into  the  millennial  church. 


EWALD. 


781 


EWALD. 


The  issue  of  this  joint  action  of  the  old  powers 
and  the  new  is  progression.  AVo  have  an  exam- 
ple in  the  opening  of  Genesis,  where  new  niani- 
lestations  appear  in  successive  days  or  epochs, 
the  whole  culminating  in  man,  in  the  image  of 
God.  In  the  church  there  was  first  the  shadow, 
and  then  the  substance.  There  are  first  tyi^es,  and 
then  the  archetype.  There  are  promises  and  then 
pei-formances,  predictions  and  then  fulfilments. 
"  Howbeit,  that  was  not  first  which  is  spiritual 
{nvcvjiarMuv),  but  that  which  is  natural  (Vf,l«">')  ; 
and  afterward  that  which  is  spiritual."  "  And 
so  it  is  written  The  first  man  was  made  a  living 
soul ;  the  second  Adam  was  made  a  quickening 
spirit "  (1  Cor.  xv.  44-40)  ;  where  we  may  mark 
the  advancement  from  the  merely  living  soul 
{^vxiiv  fwoav)  to  the  quickening  spirit  (nvcii/ia  fuo- 
noioiw') . 

There  is  undoubtedly  progression,  develop- 
ment if  we  properly  understand  it,  in  the  revela- 
tion which  God  has  been  pleased  to  make  of  his 
will.  In  the  antediluvian  times  there  was  light 
like  that  of  the  dawn.  There  were  prefigurations 
under  the  Levitical  dispensation  more  minute  and 
.specific  tiian  in  tlie  patriarchal  dispensations. 
There  is  liigher  ethical  teaching  in  the  propheti- 
cal books  than  in  the  older  .Scriptvn-es.  There  is 
more  spiritual  teaching  in  the  New  Testament 
than  in  the  Old.  Jesus,  in  the  fulness  of  time, 
becomes  the  light  of  the  world.  There  is  the 
fidlest  revelation  of  specific  truth  in  the  Epistles 
of  Paul  and  John.  This  progi'essive  work  goes 
on  under  the  two  sets  of  powers,  —  the  old  and 
the  new.  This  does  not  entitle  us  to  argue,  with 
some  rational  divines,  that  the  new  supersedes  or 
sets  aside  the  old. 

Earnest  minds  have  never  been  satisfied  with 
such  distant  views  of  God  as  we  have  in  causa- 
tion and  development.  Tliey  have  longed  for  and 
aspired  after  immediate  communion  with  God. 
They  have  such  in  the  dispensation  of  the  Spirit. 
Here  there  is  provision  made  for  God  dealing 
with  each  individual  soul.  There  is  room  for 
convictions  and  conversions,  for  getting  grace 
and  more  grace,  for  seasons  of  revival  and  refresh- 
ing.    See  Man.  .james  Mccosh. 

EWALD,  Georg  Heinrich  August,  one  of  the 
most  leaiued  Orii.'uhd  scholars  of  the  century;  b. 
Nov.  16,  1S0;3,  ill  Gottingen  ;  d.  there  of  heart-dis- 
ease. May  4,  1875.  His  father  was  a  linen-weaver. 
In  1820  he  entered  the  University  of  Gottingen, 
where  Eichhorn  was  then  teaching  ;  but  E\^  aid 
denied  having  been  nuich  iullueuced  by  him. 
After  teaching  in  the  gynuiasium  at  Wolfenbut- 
tel  for  two  years,  he  began  in  1824  to  teach  as 
Repetent  at  Gottingen,  and  was  made  professor 
in  1827.  In  1837  he  was  expelled  from  his  posi- 
tion for  having  signed,  wdth  six  other  Gottingen 
professors,  a  protest  against  the  revocation  of  the 
liberal  constitution  of  1830;  which  Ernst  August, 
king  of  Hanover,  effected.  This  action  made 
him  famous.  In  1829  and  183(i  he  had  visited 
France  and  Italy,  and  now  (in  1838)  visited  Eng- 
land. The  same  year  he  received  a  call  to  Tubin- 
gen. He  was  never  contented  during  his  stay 
there,  and  came  into  bitter  feud  with  Baur  and 
the  Tiibingen  school.  After  laboring  ten  years  in 
Tiibingen,  he  was  recalled  in  1848  to  Gottingen, 
where  he  continued  until  1866,  when  his  bitter 
attacks  upon  the  Prussian  government,  and  his 


refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  king 
of  Prussia,  were  puni.shed  with  his  exclusion  from 
the  faculty  of  philosophy;  but  he  was  still  allowed 
his  salary  and  the  ]irivilege  of  lecturing.  This 
latter  privilege  was  withdrawn  in  I8(i8  on  account 
of  utterances  in  his  Praise  of  the  Kinij  and  lite 
People  (4th  ed.,  Stuttgart,  186!)).  He  continued 
the  uncompromising  foe  of  the  Prussian  mon- 
archy, and  in  1869,  and  twice  afterwards,  was 
sent  as  the  delegate  of  Hanover  to  the  Prussian 
Parliament.  [In  1874  he  was  imprisoned  for 
three  weeks  for  libel  against  Bismarck,  whom  he 
accused  of  ruining  religion  and  morality  in  the 
war  against  Austria,  and  of  jiicking  out  the  best 
time  for  plunder  and  robbery  in  tlie  war  against 
France.] 

Ewald  was  a  solitary  man.  He  was  married 
twice ;  but  from  his  childhood  up  he  stood  aloof 
from  his  fellows,  had  no  intimate  friends,  and 
was,  in  an  ever-increasing  measiu'e,  intolerant  of 
all  opinions  which  contradicted  liis  own.  lie  felt 
himself  called  upon  to  go  beyond  the  mere  duties 
of  the  student  and  professor.  He  liecame  a  violent 
political  pamphleteer,  first  against  Ernst  Georg 
of  Hanover,  and  then  against  Prussia.  In  over- 
weening but  naive  confidence,  he  dared  to  advise 
courts  and  church  consistories,  and  addressed  the 
Pope  and  the  prelates  in  Germany  on  Komaii 
errors.  Their  silence  he  construed  into  a  con- 
fession that  they  were  in  the  wrong.  [Being 
asked  why  the  Pope  never  answered  his  letter  in 
which  he  called  upon  him  to  resign,  Ewald  re- 
plied, "  He  dare  not !  "] 

But  the  intemperate  vehemence  of  Ewald  the 
citizen  is  only  an  accident  to  the  patient  labori- 
ousness  of  Ewald  the  student,  and  his  eminent 
contributions  to  philology  and  history.  In  the 
departments  of  Oriental  language  and  criticism  he 
has  not  had  a  superior.  [His  genius  is  even  more 
remarkable  than  his  learning,  and  in  absolute  de- 
fiant independence  he  stands  alone.]  His  Hebrew  . 
grammar  inaugurated  a  new  era  in  Hebrew  learn- 
ing ;  and  Ilitzig,  in  his  Preface  to  Isaiah,  calls  the 
author  the  second  founder  of  the  science  of  the 
Hebrew  language.  His  Hixtory  of  Ixraet,  in  spite  of 
errors  of  judgment  and  unreasonable  dogmatism, 
must  long  remain  the  standard  work  in  its  line,  and 
always  a  storehouse  of  the  most  patient  research. 
He  was  indefatigable  as  lecturer,  and  equally  so 
as  author.  At  the  University  of  Tiibingen  he 
gave  instruction  not  only  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic, 
but  also  in  the  Persian,  Turkish,  .Vrmenian,  Cop- 
tic, and  Sanscrit  languages.  AMiatever  depart- 
ment he  devoted  himself  to,  he  threw  an  almost 
vehement  enthusiasm  into  it.  His  literary  activ- 
ity began  in  1823  with  a  work  on  the  comjiosition 
of  Genesis  (Df'e  Comp.d.  Genesis  Irilisc/i  iinleisuchi, 
Braunschweig),  and  only  closed  with  an  autobi- 
ography written  during  the  last  months  of  his 
life,  wliich  has  not  been  published.  The  follow- 
ing list  comprises  his  more  important  works : 
Jh'  j]Ii_lris  Canninum  Arabicorum,  Brunsv.,  1825; 
D.  Hohelied  Salomo's  iibersetzl  u.  erkliirt,  1826, 
3d  ed.,  180G ;  Krit.  Grammatik  d.  heir.  Sprache, 
1827,  subsequently  enlarged,  and  AusfUhrl.  Lelir- 
bucli  d.  htbr.  Sprache  d.  A.  T..  1844,  8th  ed..  1870 
[Eng.  trans,  by  XichoLson,  Loiul.,  1836,  of  the 
Syntax  alone,  from  8th  ed.  by  Kemiedy,  Edinb. , 
1879],  also  Hi^br.  Spracldelire  f.  Ayifanr/rr.  1842 
[Eng.  trans,  from  3d  ed.  by  J.  Y.  Smith,  Lond., 


EWING. 


782 


EXCOMMUNICATION. 


1870];  Com.  in  Apocalypsiii  Johaiinls,lS'2S;  Graiii- 
malica  Critica   Lint/.   Arab,  2  vols.,  ly;il-3;3;  D. 

ftoetischen  Biicher  il.  A.  B.,  1835-39,  3d  ed.,  1808 
Eng.  trans.,  Loud.,  18bOsqq.];  Propheten  d.  A.  B., 
1840,  18il,  2d  ed.,  1867,  1868,  3  vols.  [Eng.  trans., 
Lond.,  1876-81,  5  vols.];  Gesch.  d.  Volkes  Israel, 
7  vols.,  1843-59,  3d  ed.,  1868  [Eug.  trans.,  corre- 
sponding to  vol.  i.-iv..  History  of  Israel,  Loud., 
1867-71,  5  vols.]  ;  D.  AherthUmer  d.  Volkes  Israel, 
1848  [Eng.  trans,  by  Solly,  Antiquities  of  Israel, 
Lond.,  1876];  D.  ilrei  ersten  Eranijelien  iihers.  u. 
erklart,  18.50;  D.  dthiop.  Buck  Ileiwkh,  1854;  D. 
vierte  Buck  Ezra,  1860;  D.  Johaini.  Schrifien,  1801, 
1862;  D.  Biicher  d.  N.  T.  1870,  1871;  D.  Theol. 
d.  A.  u.  N.  Bundes,  1870-75,  4  vols. 

[An  incident  in  Ewald's  life,  related  by  Dean 
Stanley  in  the  Preface  to  the  third  volume  of  his 
Hist,  uf  the  Jetcish  Church,  deserves  mention  here. 
While  an  Oxford  student,  Stanley  visited  Ewald 
at  an  inn  in  Dresden.  During  conversation  the 
great  scholar,  grasping  a  small  copy  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  said,  "  In  this  little  book  is  contained 
all  the  wisdom  of  the  world."]  BERTHEAU. 

EWING,  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Argyll  and  the 
Isles,  Scotland:  b.  in  Aberdeen,  March  25,  1814; 
d.  May  22,  1873.  He  was  elected  bishop  1846, 
and  represented  the  Broad-Church  school  on  the 
episcopal  bench.  The  characteristics  of  his 
theology  have  been  thus  presented :  "  He  dwelt 
specially  upon  the  illumiuating  power  of  Chris- 
tianity as  revealing  the  Fatherhood  of  God,  and 
thus  '  rolling  back  the  clouds  of  human  sin  and 
sorrow,'  so  as  even  ultimately  to  'exhaust  hell  of 
its  darkness.'  To  him  each  attribute  of  God  was 
equally  light,  and  therefore  lie  did  not  believe  that 
any  compromise  had  ever  been  effected  between 
them.  Christ  was  the  supreme  manifestation  of 
that  light,  and  tiie  ]5ible  was  but  the  medium  of  its 
revelation,  the  means  for  enabling  it  to  stream  in 
upon  the  soul  from  sources  beyond  the  mere  letter 
of  the  truths  which  the  written  word  contained. 
One  of  the  chief  of  these  external  sources  of 
light,  specially  welcomed  by  Ewing,  was  science, 
to  the  discoveries  of  wiiich  he  looked  forward  as 
destined  to  lead  to  the  manifestation  of  other  and 
higher  aspects  of  Christianity  than  were  yet  fully 
realized."  These  views  will  be  found  in  his  vol- 
ume of  discourses.  Revelation  considered  as  Liylil, 
London  and  N.Y.,  1873.  See  also  Memoir  of 
Alexander  Eiciny,  D.C.L.,  by  A.  J.  Koss,  B.l)., 
London,  1877. 

EWINC,  Finis,  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Cumbiihiud  I'resbvterian  Church  ;  b.  in  Bedford 
County,  \'irginia,  July  10,  1773;  d.  at  Lexington, 
Mo.,  July  4,  1841.  From  Virginia  he  early  re- 
moved to  Tenne.s.see,  and  sulise(iuently  to  Ken- 
tucky. His  education  was  limited;  but,  under 
the  influence  of  the  revivalist  preachers,  he 
offered  himself  as  a  candidate  for  the  ministry, 
and  was  licensed  in  1802  by  the  presbvtery  of 
Cumberland.  In  1810  he  formed,  with  two 
olliers,  llie  inesljytery  out  of  which  grew  the 
Cumlierlanil  I'n^sTiyteriaii  Cliurch.  Hi;  is  the 
author  of  Lectures  on  Import.  Subjects  in  Divinity, 
Xa.sliville,  1824. 

Lit.  —  Co.ssrr  :  Life  and  Times  of  Finis  Ewing, 
Na.shville,  1853;  Hi',Aiti>:  Bioyr.  Sketches  of  Some 
of  the  Enrh/  Ministers  of  the  Cumberland  Prcsb. 
i'hunh.  X:i'-hvil|.-.  1m;7.' 

EXACTIONS,  EXACTIONES,  TALLI/E,  in  ec- 


clesiastical law,  are  taxes  levied  by  the  church  on 
the  congTegatiou,  either  entii'ely  new,  or  of  an 
increased  scale.  They  were  forbidden  ah'eady 
by  the  Council  of  Toledo,  589,  and  often  after- 
wards. 

EXARCH  denoted  a  hierarchical  title  inter- 
mediate between  patriarch  and  metropolitan. 
When  the  church  adopted  Constantine's  civil 
division  of  the  realm  into  dioceses  and  provinces, 
the  prelate  of  a  province  became  a  inetroijolitan, 
and  of  a  diocese  an  exarch  ;  and  it  was  declared 
legal  to  appeal  from  the  metropolitan  to  the 
exarch.  From  the  exarch,  however,  there  could 
be  no  appeal  to  the  patriarch  ;  though  the  higher 
rank  of  the  latter  was  generally  conceded,  and 
also  indicated  by  the  fact,  that,  for  instance,  the 
patriarchate  of  Constantinople  was  formed  by  the 
absorption  of  three  dioceses,  —  Pontus,  Asia,  and 
Thrace.  In  the  tifth  century  the  title  of  exarch 
seems  to  have  disappeared.  At  present  it  is 
applied  only  in  the  Greek  Church,  and  to  the 
deputy  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constanthiople  when 
visiting  and  inspecting  the  provinces. 

EXCLUSIVA,  in  ecclesiastical  law,  means  the 
right,  claimetl  by  Austria,  France,  and  Spain,  to 
exclude  each  one  candidate  at  a  papal  election. 
The  right  has  never  been  formally  acknowledged 
by  the  curia ;  but  the  claim  has  always,  since  tlie 
fifteenth  century,  been  complied  with  by  the  con- 
clave. 

EXCOMMUNICATION.  I.  Among  the  He- 
brews.—  Any  jierson  or  thing  —  man,  animal, 
weapon,  tool,  or  piece  of  gToiuid  —  which  to  pious 
eyes  seemed  abominable,  or  dangerous,  or  incorri- 
gible, the  Hebrews  used  to  set  apart  from  common 
life,  transforming  it  into  a  kind  of  ban-offering, 
and  sacrificing  it  to  God,  for  him  to  do  with  it 
what  he  pleased,  —  destroying  it,  or  simply  ren- 
dering it  harmless,  or  perhaps  forgiving  it.  This 
usage,  of  which  traces  are  found  both  among  the 
Gauls  (Ca!sar,  De  Bella  Gallico,  6,  17)  and  the  tier- 
mans  (Tacitus,  Attn.,  13,  57),  was  very  old  among 
the  Hebrews,  and  showed  itself  conspicuously  in 
their  relation  to  foreigners,  to  heathenism,  and 
to  any  thing  opposed  to  their  own  system  of  reli- 
gion. Not  only  objects  of  heathen  worship,  such 
as  altars,  idols,  temples,  etc.,  but  even  the  larger 
part  of  the  booty  made  in  war,  such  as  cliariots, 
weapons,  horses,  etc.,  were  destroyed.  Whole 
cities,  with  all  their  inhabitants,  every  tiling 
breathing  within  their  walls,  yea,  whole  nations, 
such  as,  for  instance,  the  Caiiaanites,  were  anni- 
hilated ;  and  that  not  for  political  reasons,  but  on 
account  of  a  religious  princiiile. 

Its  most  awful  ap]ilicati<>ii,  however,  this  princi- 
ple obtained  within  tin;  nation  itself,  as  a  weapon 
against  any  thing  attacking  the  sacred  institu- 
tions of  the  theocracy.  It  then  became,  not  the 
fulfilment  of  a  vow,  buf  the  execution  of  a  pun- 
ishment, and  a.ssumed  the  form  of  an  excomniu- 
nication.  Thus  a  single  per.son,  or  even  a  whole 
city,  wiiich  broke  the  covenant  with  (iod,  and 
fell  into  idolatry,  was  put  under  the  ban,  and 
with  a  curse  aliaiidoned  to  destruction.  If  a 
single  per.son,  he  was  killed  (Lev.  xxvii.  29)  :  if 
a  whole  city,  all  that  breathed  within  its  precinct 
were  killed,  and  the  rest  were  burnt  (Dent.  xiii. 
16).  That  which  could  not  be  thus  destroyed, 
sucli  as  uietal  utensils,  the  soil,  etc.,  became  the 
property  of   the  .sanctuary  (Lev.  xxvii.  21-28). 


EXCOMMUNICATION. 


rxa 


EXEGESIS. 


As  instances,  may  be  mentioned  the  punishment 
of  the  people  of  Succoth  and  Penuel  (Judg.  viii. 
4-17),  of  Jabesh  (Judg.  xxi.  10),  of  Benjamin 
(Judg.  XX.  48),  etc. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  rigor  of  tlie  law 
abated,  and  the  punishment  assumed  the  charac- 
ter of  a  simple  ecclesiastical  penalty;  as  in  the 
time  of  Ezra,  when  those  Israelites  who  would 
not  send  away  their  foreign  wives  were  excluded 
from  the  synagogue,  and  their  property  confis- 
cated. In  the  period  of  the  New  Testament 
there  seems  to  have  been  two  different  kinds  of 
excommunication,  —  one  milder  (the  tK^opiQiLv  of 
Luke  vi.  22),  and  another  more  .severe  (the 
uTToavvdyuyov  yivtaSai  or  noitlv  of  John  ix.  22,  xii. 
42,  and  xvi.  2).  The  Tahnud  and  the  Rabbins 
also  distinguish  between  two  kinds  of  excommu- 
nication,—  the  "IIJ,  which  was  linuted  to  thirty 
days,  and  to  the  most  intimate  relations,  and 
which  did  not  exclude  from  the  .service,  though 
the  excommunicated  was  compelled  to  enter  the 
synagogue  through  a  peculiar  door;  and  the  cn, 
which  should  be  pronounced  by  at  least  ten  mem- 
bers of  the  congregation,  and  meant  not  only 
exclusion  from  the  temple  and  the  synagogue, 
but  also  from  intercourse  with  co-religionists. 
See  BuxTORF  :  Lex.  Talm. ;  Lightfoot  :  Horw 
Heb.  ad  Joh.,  9,  22.  uCbtschi. 

II.  In  the  Christian  Church. — On  scrip- 
tural authority  (Matt.  xvi.  19,  xviii.  18 ;  John 
XX.  2:i ;  1  Thess.  v.  14 ;  James  v.  16 ;  1  John  i. 
8,  v.  16 ;  2  Cor.  v.  18)  grave  sins  were  punished 
in  the  ancient  church  with  excommunication ; 
and  by  the  councils  of  Ancyra,  314  (c.  4,  6,  8,  9, 
16),  and  Nicwa,  325  (c.  11,  12),  the  proceedings 
were  completely  systematized  ;  only  after  a  severe 
course  of  penitence  the  excommunicated  was 
re-admitted  into  the  bosom  of  the  church.  In 
the  Western  Church,  however,  this  practice  of 
doing  public  penance  never  obtained  firjn  foot- 
hold, and  soon  disappeared  altogether.  But  a 
double  kind  of  excommunication  developed,  —  an 
excommunicatio  minor,  excluding  the  culprit  from 
the  sacraments  only;  and  an  excnmminiicalio 
major,  which  also  excluded  him  from  the  ma.ss, 
from  burial  in  consecrated  ground,  from  ecclesi- 
astical jurisdiction,  and  from  all  intercourse  with 
other  Christians,  excepting  a  few  cases.  —  utile, 
lex,  liumile,  res  ignorata,  necesse.  This  last  part, 
however,  of  the  punishment,  the  Church  could 
not  enforce  by  her  own  power :  she  had  to  ask 
for  the  aid  of  the  State,  and  she  obtained  it. 
The  State  declared  the  exconnuunicated  infa- 
mous (c.  17,  C.  16,  iju.  1),  all  obligations  to  him, 
as,  for  instance,  the  feudal  obedience,  null  and 
void  (c.  4,  5,  C.  15,  qu.  6),  etc.  How  completely 
the  medijEval  State  submitted  to  the  Church 
may  be  seen  from  the  demands  whicli  the  Pope 
made  (1213  and  1210)  to  the  Emperor  Frederic 
II.,  and  (1230)  to  his  son  King  Henry  VI.,  and 
to  which  these  princes  consented  (Pertz,  Mon.,  4, 
224,  231,  267).  The  canon  law  reigned  su- 
premely in  most  relations,  and  aspired  to  do  so 
in  them  all. 

With  the  Reformation  a  great  change  took 
place.  In  all  Protestant  countries  where  the 
State  took  the  supremacy  over  the  Cliurch,  the 
excnmmunicalio  major  w"as  abolished  as  a  secular 
punishment;  but  the  excommunicatio  minor  was 
stiU  retained  as  a  point  of  church  discipline,  as  a 


pcenn  medlcinalis.  Luther  held,  as  did  most  of 
the  Reformers,  that,  by  admitting  an  impenitent 
to  the  Jyord's  Supper,  the  minister  shared  in  the 
sin  thereby  committed.  But  he  also  held  thai 
this  exconnnunication  from  the  Lord's  .Supper 
should  never  be  administered  unless  with  the 
concurrence  of  the  whole  congregation.  This 
last  idea,  however,  was  not  carried  out ;  and  the 
excommunication  itself  gradually  fell  into  disuse 
in  the  Reformed  churches.  The  Roman-Catholic 
Church,  wliioh  -still  pretends  to  maintain  her 
social  independence,  and  her  supremacy  over  tlie 
State,  continued  to  treat  the  prescripts  of  canon 
law  as  valid  theoretically.  Practically  she  has 
found  out  long  ago  that  modifications  are  -neces- 
sary, since  an  excomnmnication  pronounced  by 
the  Pope,  but  not  enforced  by  the  State,  would 
have  no  civil  effect  whatever;  and  an  enforce- 
ment by  the  State  is  not  likely  to  take  place  any 
more.  The  present  theoretical  arrangement  of 
the  whole  question  is  set  forth  in  the  constitution 
of  Oct.  12,  1S69,  Aposlolicm  seiJis.  See  Kober  : 
Der  Kirclienban,  Tulungen,  1857;  Goeschen  : 
Doctrina  de  disciplina  eccleaiastica  ex  ordinalionibus, 
Halle,  185(1.  me.ier. 

EXEGESIS,  EXEGETICAL  THEOLOGY.  I. 
Definition.  —  One  of  the  four  leading  departs 
ments  of  theological  science,  and  lying  at  the  base 
of  the  others,  —  historical,  systematic,  practical. 
It  has  to  do  with  the  interpretation  of  the  scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  which  iu 
tiie  Protestant  churches  are  regarded  as  the  only 
infallible  rule  of  the  Christian  faith  and  life,  and 
the  ultimate  tribunal  in  aU  controversies.  The 
term  kiijyjiaic  (from  iiiiyeo/iat,  "to  lead  out,"  "to 
expound ")  is  borrowed  from  classical  usage : 
the  expounders  of  the  oracles  of  Delphi,  and  the 
sacred  rites  in  Athens,  were  called  "  exegetes " 
(e^7/y?iTai').  In  the  New-  Testament  the  verb  occurs 
once,  in  .lohn  i.  18,  where  it  is  said  of  Christ  that 
he  declared  or  revealed  (Hrjy'icaro)  the  hidden 
being  of  God.  Exegesis  originated  among  the 
Jewish  scribes,  passed  into  the  Christian  Church, 
and  is  now  most  extensively  cultivated  in  Protes- 
tant Germany,  Holland,  England,  and  the  United 
States.  Every  theological  school  must,  first  of 
all,  have  a  chair  of  exegesis  or  biblical  literature : 
most  of  them  have  two  or  more,  for  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testaments. 

II.  Branches.  —  Exegetical  theology,  in  the 
widest  sense,  embraces,  beside  exegesis  proper,  the 
following  auxiliary  and  supplementary  branches 
of  theological  learning:  1.  Biblical  philology 
(Greek  for  the  New  Testament,  Hebrew  and  Chal- 
dee  for  the  Old  Testament) ;  2.  Biblical  geogra- 
phy (Egypt,  Mount  Sinai,  Palestine)  ;  3.  Biblical 
archpeology  or  antiquities ;  4.  Biblical  history 
(from  the  creation  to  the  close  of  the  apostolic 
age)  ;  5.  Textual  criticism  (tlie  restoration  of  the 
original  text  of  the  sacred  writers);  G.  A  literary 
history  of  the  Bible,  usually  called  Ilistorico- 
Critical  Introduction  (including  an  account  of  the 
several  books,  their  genuineness,  integrity,  author- 
ship, time  and  place  of  composition)  ;  7.  History 
of  the  canon;  8.  Biblical  hermeneutics (the  science 
of  the  laws  of  interpretation) ;  9.  Biblical  theolo- 
gy (the  suniming-up  of  the  results  of  exegesi.s  in 
systematic  form).     See  those  titles. 

III.  Kinds  of  Exegesis.  —  1.  Translation; 
2.  Periphrase ;  3.  Commentary.      Of  commenta^ 


EXEGESIS. 


784 


EXEGESIS. 


ries  proiHjr  we  may  distinguish  again  three  kinds. 

1.  Philological  or  grammaticoliistorical  exegesis 
brings  out  simply  the  meaning  of  the  writer 
according  to  the  laws  of  language  and  the  usus 
loqueruli  at  the  time  of  composition,  and  according 
to  the  historical  situation  of  the  writer,  irrespec- 
tive of  any  doctrinal  or  sectarian  bias.  It  implies 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Hebrew, 
and    familiarity    with    contemjiorary    literature. 

2.  Theological  exegesis  develops  the  doctrinal  and 
ethical  ideas  of  the  writer  in  organic  connection 
with  the  whole  teaching  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
according  to  the  analogy  of  faith.  3.  Homiletical 
or  practical  exegesis  is  the  application  of  the  well- 
ascertained  results  of  grammatical  and  theological 
interpretation  to  the  wants  of  the  Christian  con- 
gi-egation,  and  belongs  properly  to  the  pulpit. 

IV.  History  of  Exegesis.  —  1.  Jewish  Exe- 
gesis, confined  to  the  Old  Testament.  It  began 
soon  after  the  age  of  Ezra,  but  was  first  carried 
on  by  oral  tradition  of  the  scribes  or  Jewish 
scholars.  It  was  especially  devoted  to  the  law 
(the  Thorah),  i.e.,  the  Pentateuch,  and  derived 
from  it  minute  rules  for  the  individual,  social, 
and  ecclesiastical  relations.  The  body  of  these 
interpretations  is  called  "Midrash."  The  pre- 
vailing method  of  exegesis  was  the  rabbinical  or 
literal.  It  excluded  all  foreign  ideas,  and  was 
subsendent  to  the  strict  legalism  of  the  Pharisees. 
But  among  the  Hellenist  (Greek-speaking)  Jews, 
especially  in  Alexandria,  the  allegorizing  method 
obtained  favor,  especially  through  Philo  (d.  about 
40  A.D.),  who  endeavored  to  combine  the  Mosaic 
religion  with  Platonic  philosophy,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  the  allegorizing  exegesis  of  Clement, 
and  Origen  of  Alexandria.  The  Jewish  rabbins 
of  the  middle  ages  cultivated  gTammatical  exege- 
sis at  a  time  when  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew  had 
died  out  in  the  Christian  Church.  The  most 
distinguished  among  them  are  Ibn  Ezra  (d.  11(J7), 
R.  Sal.  Isaak  or  Kaschi  (d.  1105),  David  Kimchi 
(d.  1190),  Moses  Maimonides  (d.  1204).  Their 
commentaries  are  printed  separately,  and  also  in 
the  so-called  Rabbinical  Bibles  (e.g.,  of  Buxtorf, 
Basel,  1018,  3  vols,  folio). 

2.  Patristic  Exegesis. — The  first  use  made  of 
the  liible  in  the  Christian  Church  was  practical 
and  honnletical.  It  was  to  the  early  Christians 
what  it  is  still  to  the  great  mass  of  believers,  and 
will  be  to  tlie  end  of  time,  —  a  book  of  life,  of 
spiritual  instruction  and  edification,  of  hope  and 
comfort.  Scientific  or  learned  exegesis  began 
when  the  Bible  was  perverted  by  heretics,  an<l 
made  to  serve  all  sorts  of  errors.  The  Greek 
Church  took  the  lead.  Origen  (180-2.51),  the 
greatest  scholar  of  his  age,  a  man  of  genius  and 
iron  industry,  is  the  father  of  critical  exegesis. 
Hi!  is  full  of  suggestive  ideas  and  allegorical 
fancies.  He  distinguishes  three  .senses  in  the 
Bible  corresponding  to  the  three  parts  of  ni.an : 
(u)  A  literal  or  liodily  .sen.se,  (h)  A  moral  orp.sychic 
8en.se,  (c)  An  allegorical  or  mystic,  .spiritual  .sense. 
Where  the  literal  sense  is  offensive,  he  escaped 
the  difficulty  by  adopting  a  purely  .sjiiritual  sense. 
The  greatest  commentators  of  the  Greek  Cliurch 
are  Chry-sostoin  (d.  1(I7),  who  in  his  Homilies 
exjilained  the  principal  liooksof  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  Tlieodore  of  Mopsiu-slia  (d.  120), 
Tlieoiloret  of  Cyrus  (d.  'Id").  Among  the  Latin 
fathers,   Augustine  (d.   430)   is  the   iirofoundest 


and  most  spiritual,  Jerome  (d.  419)  the  most 
learned,  expounder.  The  latter  achieved  the 
highest  merit  by  his  improved  Latin  version  of 
the  Bible  (the  Vulgate),  which  remains  to  this 
day  the  standard  version  of  the  Roman  Church. 
The  Council  of  Trent  forbade  the  interpretation 
of  Scriptures,  except  according  to  "  the  unanimous 
consent  of  the  fathers."  But  this  rule  would  pre- 
vent all  progress  in  theology;  and,  besides,  such  a 
"  unanimous  consent "  does  not  exist,  except  in 
the  fundamental  doctrines. 

3.  Medi(eval  Exegesis  was  purely  traditional, 
and  consisted  of  brief  glosses  (glossaria),  or  ex- 
tracts from  the  fathers  (called  Catena:  Patrum). 
The  original  languages  of  the  Bible  were  un- 
knowai  in  the  AVest ;  and  even  the  first  among 
the  scholastics  had  to  depend  upon  Jerome's 
version  for  their  knowledge  of  God's  w'ord.  The 
prevailing  method  distinguished  four  senses  of 
the  Scriptures :  (a)  The  literal,  or  historical ; 
(i)  The  spiritual,  or  mystic,  corresponding  to 
faith,  teaching  what  to  believe  {credenda)  ;  (c) 
The  moral,  or  tropological,  which  corresponds  to 
love  or  charity,  and  teaches  what  to  do  {agenda) ; 
(d)  The  anagogical,  which  refers  to  hope  {spe- 
randa).  These  senses  are  expressed  in  the  mne- 
monic verse : — 

"  Littera  gesta  docet; 
Quid  credas,  allegoria; 
Moralis,  quid  agas; 
Quo  tendas,  anagogia." 

The  principal  patristic  compilations  are :  (n)  In 
the  Greek  Churcli,  those  of  CEcumenius  (d.  999), 
Theophylactns  (d.  10(J7),  Euthymius  Zigabenus 
(d.  1118),  and  Nicephorus  (fourteenth  century); 
(i)  In  the  Latin  Church,  Wallafried  Strabo  (d. 
849),  Thomas  Aquinas  (d.  1274).  The  Catena 
aurea  in  Evangelia  of  Thomas  Aquinas  has  been 
reproduced  in  an  English  translation  by  Pusey, 
Keble,  and  Newnum. 

Among  the  more  independent  biblical  Fcholavs 
of  the  nnddle  ages  who  prepared  the  way  for 
the  Reformation  must  be  mentioned  Xicolaus 
a  Lyra  (d.  1340 ;  "  Si  Lyra  non  lyrasset,  Lutherus 
non  saltasset  "),  and  Laurentius  Valla  (d.  14G-5). 

4.  The  exegesis  of  the  Pr-oteslant  Reformers  of 
the  sixteenth  century  marks  a  new  epoch.  It  is 
full  of  enthusiasm  for  the  word  of  God,  and  free 
from  the  slavery  of  ecclesiastical  tradition.  It 
went  directly  to  the  original  Greek  and  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  furni.slied  the  best  translations 
for  the  benefit  of  the  people ;  while  Romanism 
I'l'gards  the  Bible  as  a  book  for  the  priesthood, 
and  discourages  or  prohibits  efforts  fin'  its  general 
circulation  without  note  or  comments.  All  the 
leading  Reformers  wrote  connnentaries,  more  or 
less  extensive,  on  various  books  of  the  Bible, — 
Luther  (d.  l.>16),  Melaiichtlmn  (d.  liMKi),  Zwingli 
(d.  :.')31),  a':colauip.adins  (d.  1.531);  the  ablest  of 
them  are  by  Calvin  (d.  1501)  and  his  pnpil  and 
successor,  Ik'za  (d.  1003).  Calvin  combmes  al- 
most all  the  qualifications  of  an  expounder,  in 
rare  harmony;  and  his  commentaries  on  Genesis, 
the  Psalms,  the  Prophets,  and  all  tlie  books  of 
the  Xi'W  Testament  fexeept  Kevelation,  on  which 
he  did  not  write),  arc  valualile  to  this  day.  Beza, 
by  his  Greek  Testament,  his  Latin  version  and 
notes  on  the  Xew  Testament,  had  great  influence 
on  the  English  version  of  King  James. 

5.  Protestant  eonwiii'iitaries  of    the  seeenlcenth 


EXEGESIS. 


785 


EXEGESIS. 


and  eighleenlh  centuries,  by  Hugo  Grotius  (d. 
1645 ;     Arminian) ;    Vitringa    (d.    172'2 ;    Dutch 

Calviuist)  ;  llanunonJ  (d.  IIJIJO;  Church  of  Kiig- 
land);  Matthew  Poole  (Presliytfrian;  d.  1670; 
Annotations  upon  the  Whole  Bible,  an  English 
synopsis  from  his  Latin  synopsis) ;  Matthew 
Henry  (Independent;  <1.  1714;  the  best  hoiiiileti- 
cal  commentator  of  England ;  many  editions,  from 
3  to  9  vols.,  Lend,  and  N.Y.)  ;  Patrick,  Lowth, 
Arnald,  and  Whitby  (Lond.,  1094  sqq.,  new  ed., 
Lond.,  1822,  in  6  vols.,  Phila.  and  N.Y.,  in  4 
vols.)  ;  Calovius  (Lutheran ;  d.  1686 ;  Bihlia 
Illuslrata,  versus  Grotius)  ;  A.  Clarke  (Methodist, 
Lond.,  1810-23,  in  8  vols.,  best  ed.,  London,  1844, 
in  6  vols.);  John  Gill  (Baptist;  d.  1771;  London, 
1763,  9  vols.);  Philip  Doddridge  (Independent; 
d.  1751 ;  author  of  Familij  Expositor) ;  J.  A.  Bengel 
(Lutheran  ;  d.  1752  ;  author  of  the  Latin  Gnomon 
of  the  New  Testament,  twice  translated  into  English, 
and  largely  used  by  John  '\^'esley  in  his  Notes,  an 
admirable  specimen  of  mullnm  in  parvo)  ;  Thomas 
Scott  (Family  Bible,  London,  1796,  4  vols.,  11th 
ed.,  1825,  6  vols.).  Collective  works:  Critici 
Sacri  (Lond.,  1660, 9  tom.,  Amsterdam,  1698-1732, 
in  13  vols.),  compiled  from  the  principal  com- 
mentators, as  an  appendix  to  Walton's  Pol/jt/lot, 
under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Pearson  and  others ; 
Poole's  Synopsis  Criticorum  aiwrumque  S.  Scrip- 
turcE  interpretum  (London,  1669-76,  4  vols,  in  5, 
fob),  a  very  useful  abridgment  from  the  Critici 
Sacri  and  other  commentators. 

6.  Exegesis  in  the  nineteenth  century.  It  is 
exceedingly  prolific,  chiefly  German,  English,  and 
American.  The  Bible  is  now  more  studied  than 
ever  before,  and  with  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
languages,  antiquities,  geography,  and  history. 
We  can  only  mention  a  small  number  of  works. 

(a)  Commentaries  on  the  K'/(o/e  Bible  :  Lange's 
Bibelwerk  (Bielefeld  and  Leipzig,  1857-77,  in  16 
parts;  English  translation,  with  large  additions, 
by  Philip  Schaff,  aided  by  more  than  forty  Ameri- 
can contributors.  New  York  and  Edinburgh, 
1864-80,  in  25  vols,  royal  8vo,  including  a  sepa- 
rate volume  on  the  Apocrypha  and  a  comjilete 
index),  a  threefold  commentary,  critical,  doctrinal, 
and  homiletical,  for  the  use  of  ministers  and 
theological  students ;  Chr.  Wordsworth  (Bishop 
of  Lincoln),  The  Hohj  Bible  icitli  Notes  and  Intro- 
ductions (London,  1869  s(iq.,  6  vols.,  several  edi- 
tions), High  Church,  devout,  patristic,  uncritical ; 
a  Commentarij  in  French,  by  Professor  Reuss,  in 
Strassburg  (Paris,  1875-81,  in  13  parts,  with  an 
index),  is  independent  and  critical ;  Jamieson, 
Fausset,  and  Brown,  A  Commentary,  Critical, 
Experimental,  and  Practical  (Edinb.,  repub.  in 
Phila.,  1875,  in  6  vols.,  and  at  Hartford,  Conn., 
in  1  vol.);  Henry  Cowles  (d.  1881)  commenta- 
ries, N.Y.,  1S61-8'1,  16  vols.  ;  The  Speaker's  Com- 
mentary, suggested  by  the  speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  ed.  by  Canon  F.  C.  Cook  aided  by 
a  number  of  bishops  and  presbyters  of  the  Church 
of  England  (London  and  New  York.  1871-82,  in 
10  vols.,  6  for  the  Old.  4  for  the  New  Testament), 
less  learned,  but  more  popular,  than  Lange,  .and, 
like  the  Church  of  England,  eminently  respectable 
and  conservative;  The  Pulpit  (^'onimenlnry.  ed.  l)y 
Canon  Spence  and  Kev.  Joseph  .S.  Excell  aided 
by  a  Large  number  of  English  divines  (London, 
1880  sqq.),  to  embrace  many  volumes;  sinular  in 
plan  to  Lange's  Commentary. 
51  —  1 


(i)  On  the  Old  Testament :  Keil  and  Dclitzsch, 
Eng.  trans.,  pub.  by  Clark,  Edinhurgh,  ISfiO.sqq. ; 
Kurzfjefasstes  exeijetisches  Hondburh  zuni  Alien  Test., 
by  Knobel,  Bertheau,  Dillmann,  and  others  (new 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1880,  etc.). 

(f)  On  the  New  Testament :  Olshausen  (1837- 
56),  trans.;  De  '\^■ette  (d.  1849),  revised  by  Briick- 
ner  and  others;  Meyer  (d.  1874),  revised  in  every 
new  edition  by  Weiss  and  others,  Eng.  trans, 
pub.  by  Clark,  Edinb. ;  Alford,  The  Greek  Testa- 
ment, etc.  (in  4  vols.,  6th  ed.,  London,  1868  sqq.); 
J.  B.  IMcClellan  (Lond.,  1st  vol.,  187.5).  All  the^e 
are  for  critical  students  of  the  Greek  text.  Popu- 
lar connnentaries  on  the  New  Testament :  Alliert 
Barnes  (d.  1870)  was  one  of  the  first,  and  had  by 
far  the  widest  circulation  of  any  in  America  and 
England.  ISIore  recent  works :  A  Neu-  Test. 
Com.  for  Enr/lish  Readers,  ed.  by  Bishop  Ellicott 
(Lond.,  1879,  in  3  vols.);  Illustrated  Pojmlar  Com., 
ed.  by  Schaff,  with  English  and  American  con- 
tributors (N.  Y.  and  Edinb.,  1879-83,  in  4  vols., 
also  issued  since  1882  in  small  volumes,  revised, 
under  the  title  International  Revision  Com.,  based 
upon  the  Revised  Version  of  1881).  Besides,  there 
are  many  shorter  and  denominational  comnienta/- 
ries.  The  Revision  of  1881,  and  the  International 
Lesson  system,  have  greatly  stimulated  exegetica) 
activity;  and  the  market  is  now  flooded  with  all 
sorts  of  helps  for  the  study  of  the  Bible. 

(d)  The  present  century  has  also  produced  a 
large  number  of  exegetical  works  of  the  fii-st 
order  on  separate  books  of  the  Bible,  which  it 
would  be  impossible  here  to  enumerate.  Among 
recent  commentators  on  one  or  more  books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  Ge-senius  (Isaiah),  Ewald 
(the  poetical  and  jprophetical  books),  Hupfeld  (the 
Psalms),  Hitzig  (Psalms,  minor  prophets),  Heng- 
stenberg  (Psabns,  etc.),  Delitzsch  (Psalms,  Isaiah), 
Keil  (historical  books),  Schlottmann  (Job),  Stuart 
(Daniel,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes),  Joseph  A.  Alex- 
ander (Psalms  and  Isaiah)  occiqiy  the  first  I'ank. 

Of  New-Testament  commentators  on  special 
books  must  be  mentioned  Winer  (on  (ialatians), 
Fritzsche  (Matthew,  JNIark,  Romans;  all  in  Latin), 
Tholuck  (Romans,  Hebrews,  .Sermon  on  the 
Moiuit),  Liicke,  Bleek,  Harless,  Stier,  von  Hof- 
mann,  Godet,  Stuart,  Hodge,  Alexander,  Stanley, 
Jowett,  Ellicott,  and  Lightfoot.  Among  these, 
again,  the  following  commentaries  may  be  recom- 
mended as  being  very  useful  for  a  critical  study 
of  the  Greek  Testament :  Tholuck  on  the  Sermon 
on  the  IMount ;  Liicke  on  the  writings  of  John ; 
Luthardt  on  the  Gospel  of  John  ;  Keil  on  the  four 
Gospels ;  Morison  on  Matthew  and  JNIark ;  Tho- 
luck, Forbes,  Philippi,  Hodge,  Beet,  and  Shedd  on 
Romans ;  Stanley  on  Corinthians ;  ^Meseler  on 
Cialatians ;  Harless  on  F^ihesians ;  Bleek  on  the 
Hebrews  (especially  the  large  work  in  3  vols.); 
Beck  on  the  Pastoral  Epistles;  Elliott  on  the 
Apocalypse ;  Ellicott  on  Cialatians,  Ephesians, 
Thessaionians,  and  Pastoral  Epistles  (republished 
in  Andover)  ;  Lightfoot  on  Galatians,  Philippi- 
ans,  and  Colossians;  Ciodet  on  Luke,  John,  and 
Romans  (in  French,  and  trans.,  in  Clark's  For. 
Theol.  Libr.). 

Lit.  —  Introductions  to  the  Bible,  the  sections 
on  the  history  of  exegesis  (in  Reuss  on  the  New 
Testament,  vol.  II.  246  sqq.)  ;  Schaff  :  art. 
Exegesis  m  tlohrison's  Cylopcedia;  Dikstel:  Die 
Geschichte   des    A.T.    iji    der    chrisllichen   Kirclie, 


EXEMPTION. 


rsG 


EXODUS. 


Jena,  1869;  C.  II.  Spurgeox:  Coinmeiiliiu/  and 
Com7nentark'S,  loyether  willi  a  Catalogue  of  Bibli- 
cal Commentaries  and  Expositions,  Londou,  187(J: 
Samuel  Bekger:  De  Glossariis  el  competidiis 
exegeticis  quibusdam  medii  cevi,  Paris,  1879;  L. 
WoGUE :  Histoire  de  la  Bible  et  de  I'exeghse  biblique 
jusqu'a  nos  Jours,  Paris,  1881  (Jewish  exegesis ; 
also  art.  Heu.mexeuiics,  and  the  literature  there 
quoted).  raiLiP  schaff. 

EXEMPTION,  iu  ecclesiastical  law,  means  the 
transl'ereuce  of  persons  or  iustitutions  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  their  nearest  regular  superior  to 
that  of  some  special  or  higher  superior.  The 
most  noticeable  instance  of  exemption  in  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church  is  found  iu  the  history 
of  monasticism.  The  monks  were  originally  sub- 
ject to  the  jui-isdiction  of  the  bishop.  See  the 
Council  of  Chalcedon,  451,  can.  4  (f.  12,  Can. 
XVI.  qu.  I. ;  c.  10,  Can.  XVHI.  qu.  III.).  But  in 
course  of  time,  first  single  monasteries,  and  then 
whole  orders,  succeeded  in  liberating  themselves 
from  the  episcopal  rules,  and  placing  themselves 
immediately  under  the  Pope.  The  change,  how- 
ever, did  not  take  place  without  contest ;  and  the 
acts  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Trent 
show  the  bitterness  which  prevailed  on  both 
sides.  In  the  lleformed  Churches  there  was  no 
use  for  exemptions,  except  in  cases  in  which  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Calvinistic  or  one  of  the  Re- 
formed and  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  met  each 
other  in  the  same  parish.  The  first  instance  of 
exemption  in  the  Reformed  Churclies  was  that 
of  the  prince,  wiio  placed  himself  outside  of  the 
regular  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction;  then  follov\ed, 
in  some  countries,  that  of  the  royal  officers,  in 
others,  that  of  the  army,  and  in  others,  that  of 
the  whole  ni)l>ility,  etc. 

EXERCISES,  iSpirltual  (exercitia  spirilualia),  a 
term  applied,  in  tlie  lioman-Catholic  asceticism, 
to  certain  exerci.ses  in  meditation  and  mortifica- 
tion practices,  both  by  ecclesiastics  and  laymen, 
generally  under  the  guidance  of  the  confessor,  and 
partly  as  general  penance,  partly  as  a  preparation 
for  the  Lord's  Supper,  ordination,  etc.  It  was 
Ignatius  Loyola  ^ho  developed  this  institution  of 
spiritual  exercises  to  its  highest  and  most  ehib- 
orate  form;  and  Pope  Alexander  VTl.  granted 
full  absolution  to  any  one,  ecclesiastical  or  lay- 
man, who  for  eight  days  should  practise  these 
exercises  in  a  house  of  tiie  Jesuits,  and  according 
to  tlie  method  of  Loyola.  See  TJie  S/iirilual  Ex- 
ercises of  .St.  Ignatius  of  f.ni/ola,  trans,  from  the 
Latin  by  Charles  Seager,  Baltimore,  1819. 

EXETER,  chief  town  of  Devonshire,  Eng.  ; 
popiiliilinn,  ;H.65(I ;  on  the  Exe,  ten  miles  from 
its  mouth,  in  the  English  Channel;  is  on  tlie  site 
of  tlie  British  stronghold  Caer  Isc,  and  the  Honum 
town,  Isca  Dannioniorum.  It  was  afterwards 
occupied  by  Britons  and  Saxons,  and  called  Ex- 
ancea.ster,  whence  comes  the  modern  name.  In 
1050  the  ejMscopal  see  of  Devonshire,  foinided  at 
Crediton,  010,  was  removed  to  Exeter.  Us  cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  twelfth  century,  and,  although 
not  a,s  large  as  some  others,  is  inferior  to  none  in 
architectural  beauty.  It  was  restored  1877.  The 
income  of  the  .we  of  Exeter  i.s  .E4,'J()(»:  and  the 
present  bishop  is  Dr.  Frederick  Temple,  who  was 
consecrati'd  18()!(. 

EXILE.      Sie  C/M'TIVITY. 

EXODUS,  Book  of.     .See  Pkntateuch. 


EXODUS  OF  THE  CHILDREN  OF  ISRAEL. 

The  I'/iiirauh  of  the  exodus  is  Menephthali  1.,  the 
sou  of  Kameses  tlie  Great,  the  Pharaoh  of  the 
oppression.  This  is  now  so  generally  acknowl- 
edged, that  it  may  be  accepted  as  a  settled  fact. 
The  other  view — that  Amosis  I.  was  the  Pharaoh 
of  the  oppression,  and  Thothmes  II.  that  of  the 
exodus  —  has  been  given  up  by  R.  S.  Poole,  for- 
merly its  chief  advocate,  in  his  article  upon  Egypt, 
in  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Brilannica.  The  date 
of  the  exodus  may  be  set  down  as  April  15,  1317 
B.C.  Tlie  other  view  mentioned  would  put  it  in 
1485  B.C.  A  striking  though  strangely  unnoticed 
passage  in  Herodotus  seems  to  add  confirmation 
to  the  accepted  date.  (See  Schaff,  Through  Bible 
Laniis,  p.  10:2.)  He  says  that  the  son  of  Rameses, 
whom  the  Greeks  called  " .Sesostris,"  "undertook 
no  warlike  expeditions,  being  struck  with  blind- 
ness, owing  to  the  following  circmnstance.  The 
river  had  swollen  to  the  unusual  height  of  eigh- 
teen cubits,  and  had  overflowed  all  the  fields, 
when,  a  sudden  wind  arising,  the  water  rose  in 
great  waves.  Then  the  king,  in  a  spirit  of  im- 
pious violence,  seized  his  spear,  and  hurled  it  into 
the  strong  eddies  of  the  stream.  Instantly  he 
was  smitten  with  disease  of  the  eyes,  from  which, 
after  a  little  while,  he  became  blind,  continuing 
without  tlie  power  of  vision  for  ten  years"  (II.  c. 
111).  This  reads  like  a  confused  reminiscence 
of  Menephthah's  overtlu-ow  in  the  Red  Sea.  It 
is  no  objection  that  the  king  is  said  to  have  lived 
ten  years  thereafter;  for  the  Bible-account  does 
not  compel  us  to  believe  that  the  Pliaraoh  perished 
then.  The  monuments,  as  was  to  be  expected, 
contain  no  account  of  the  disaster. 

The  route  of  the  exodus  is  thus  described  in 
Scripture  language :  "  The  cliildren  of  Israel 
journeyed  from  Ramesis  to  .Succoth  "  (Exod.  xii. 
o7) ;  from  Succoth  they  went  to  Etham,  in  the 
edge  of  the  wilderness  (xiii.  20) ;  there  they 
turned,  and  encamped  "before  I'i-hahiioth,  be- 
tween Migdol  and  the  .sea,  over  against  Baal- 
Zeplion  "  (xiv.  2).  In  Numbers  (xxxiii.  2-10) 
there  is  another  account,  whidi  presents  the  same 
facts  ill  a  more  condensed  form.  Tlie  identifica- 
tion of  the  localities  mentioned  is  not  yet  settled; 
l)ut  that  given  by  ICbers  seems  most  probable. 
This  is  :  Rnmcses  w-as  el  Maskhuta,  at  the  head  of 
the  Wady  Tuiiiilat;  Succoth,  Sechet  (Taubastum 
of  tlie  Romans),  north-east  of  Lake  Timsah ; 
Etham  (fortress),  a  frontier  fortress  city ;  I'i-hahi- 
roth,  Ajrud,  a  fortress  a  few  miles  nortli-east  of 
Suez  ("Pi"  is  merely  the  Egyptian  article);  Mig- 
ilol,  liir  Suweis,  about  two  miles  from  Suez; 
Ii(i(d-Z('i)hon  is  Mount  .Makali. 

The  collection  of  the  great  multitude  —  six 
hundred  thousand  men  capable  of  bearing  .arras 
(i.e.,  between  twenty  and  si.xty  years  old),  besides 
women  and  children,  or  in  all  between  two  mil- 
lions and  three  millions — was  the  work  of  three 
or  four  days.  The  rallying-i>lace  was  Rameses  (el 
M.'islnita).  To  this  iioint  tlie  Israelites  .streatned 
from  different  parts,  as  they  liad  been  directed  to 
do.  The  existence  of  tribal  orgaiiizalidii  exjilains 
the  fact  that  (liey  marched  in  some  sort  of  order. 
Yet  they  had  so  recently  lieen  emancip.ated,  and 
were  so  entirely  unarmed,  that  it  was,  humanly 
speaking,  impossible  for  lliem  to  stand  an  attack 
from  the  disci])lined  Egyjitiaii  army.  According- 
ly, when   Moses  liad   led  them  as  far  as  Etham 


EXODUS. 


787 


EXODUS. 


upon  the  liigliway  to  Palestine,  the  seat  of  a 
garrison,  he  abruptly  turned  to  the  south,  and 
went  south  for  fifty  miles  until  they  reached  Pi- 
hahiroth,  over  against  Baal-Zephon,  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  the  present  Suez.  But  their  sudden 
disappearance  from  Etham  naturally  led  the 
garrison  there  to  believe  that  they  had  become 
entangled  in  the  wilderness;  and  word  to  that 
effect  was  sent  to  Pharaoh  (Exod.  xiv.  3).  The 
explanation  of  the  delay  in  their  pursuit  is,  that 
the  universal  bereavement  had  centred  the  atten- 
tion of  the  Egyptians  upon  their  funeral-rites, 
which  required  some  ten  weeks  (Gen.  1.  -i).  and 
which  were  paramount  in  imjjortance.  Notliing 
could  be  done  until  they  were  over.  At  the  end 
of  the  seventy  days,  active  measures  were  taken 
to  bring  back  the  fugitive  slaves ;  and  to  the 
Israelites  came  the  dismaying  intelligence  that 
the  host  of  Pliaraoh  was  upon  their  track.  Before 
them  was  the  Red  Sea,  behind  them  the  angry 
host.  No  wonder  they  murmured,  and  said  to 
Moses  in  bitter  irony,  "  Because  there  are  no 
graves  in  Egypt  [that  land  of  graves]  hast  thou 
taken  us  away  to  die  in  the  wilderness?  "  (Exod. 
xiv.  11.)  But  man'.s  extremity  is  God's  oppor- 
tunity. "Moses  stretched  out  his  hand  over  the 
sea;  and  the  Lord  caused  the  sea  to  go  back  by 
a  strong  [north]  east  wind  all  the  night,  and 
made  the  sea  dry  land,  and  the  waters  were 
divided.  And  the  children  of  Israel  went  into 
the  midst  of  the  sea  upon  tlie  dry  groiuid ;  and 
tlie  waters  were  a  wall  unto  them  on  their  right 
hand  and  on  their  left"  (Exod.  xiv.  21,  22). 

There  are  three  chief  explanations  of  these 
verses.  1.  The  Arab  tradition  locates  the  cross- 
ing a  few  miles  south  of  Suez,  where  the  sea  is 
about  ten  miles  broad,  and  supposes  the  host  to 
have  made  the  distance  thither  in  the  night.  This 
view  meets  best  a  literal  interpretation  of  the 
narrative ;  for  then  the  waters  would  have  been 
a  veritable  wall  upon  either  hand,  and  is  main- 
tained by  von  Haumer  (Zur/  der  /.-.-.  rnix  Ae<j.  nach 
Canaan,  Leipzig,  l.s:!7).  But  it  would  have  re- 
quired an  accumulation  of  miracles  to  have  brought 
them  to  the  place  in  so  short  a  time,  especially 
as  there  is  but  a  narrow  footpath  between  the 
Atakah  range  and  the  sea.  Besides,  the  mention 
of  the  wind  suggests  that  God  employed  natural 
means.  Hence  this  view  may  be  dismissed  for 
the  second. 

2.  The  crossing  took  place  at  the  head  of  the 
gulf,  near  or  nortli  of  Suez.  The  gulf  is  here 
horn-shaped,  and  is  a  mere  channel  about  four 
miles  long  by  less  than  a  mile  wide.  At  low 
water,  small  islands  and  sand-banks  are  visible  in 
it,  and  it  is  fordable  by  those  acquainted  with  it. 
The  strong  wind  laid  this  stretch  bare,  and  over 
it  the  Israelites  crossed.  The  waters  had  been 
driven  into  the  south-west  bay;  and  there  they 
were  a  wall  on  the  one  hand,  while  those  of  the 
open  sea  were  a  wall  on  the  other.  The  miracle 
vyas,  as  Dr.  Robinson  says,  a  '■  miraculous  adapta- 
tion of  the  laws  of  nature  to  produce  a  required 
result." 

3.  The  theory  now  associated  with  Brugsch 
(L'exode  et  Ics  )n(inunienlx  c</i//>l!ens,  Lei]izig,  ISTo, 
for  trans,  see  below  in  Lit.),  although  it  is  older, 
having  been  advocated  as  early  as  1726  by  Her-  | 
mann  van  der  Hardt,  and  recently  by  M.  J. 
Schleiden  (Die  Landenye  von  Suez,  Leipzig,  1858).  I 


Sayce  adopted  it  in  1881.  According  to  this,  the 
Israelites  assend)lod  at  San  (Zoan) ;  and  the 
"cro.ssing"  was  not  over  the  Red  Sea  at  all,  but 
over  tlie  Serbonian  liog.  To  tliis  view  there  are 
so  many  objections,  that,  as  Dr.  Bartlett  says,  it 
"derives  its  chief  importance  from  the  eminence 
and  ability  of  its  latest  advocate  (Brug.sch)."  It 
requires  a  renaming  and  rejjlacing  of  every  locali- 
ty,—  in  itself,  be  it  granted,  no  iusuperable  ob- 
jection. Yam  Suph  is  the  Serbonian  bog;  Mara 
IS  the  Bitter  Lakes;  Elim  is  Thent-remu;  Etitam 
is  just  lief  ore  one  crosses  the  lowest  part  of  Lake 
Menzaleh  ;  Pi-lialiiroth  is  at  the  hither  side  of  the 
Serbonian  bog;  Baal-Zeplion  is  Jlount  C'asius, 
npion  the  ilediterranean  Sea.  There  the  Israel- 
ites crossed,  and  came  south-west  and  south  to 
Ain  Musa.  The  theory  turns  upon  the  meaning 
of  !/am  suph.  The  words  mean  literally  t/ie  weedy 
or  reedy  sea.  Surely  they  fit  better  the  .shallow", 
reedy  lakes  of  North-eastern  Egypt  than  the  Red 
Sea ;  but  the  stubborn  fact  is,  tliat  they  are  uni- 
formly applied  to  the  latter  by  the  Seventy,  who 
had  the  best  means  of  knowing  what  the  Hebrew 
meant ;  and  thus  the  argument  upon  which  the 
theory  rests  is  wortliless,  and  all  Brugsch 's  learn- 
ing and  enthusiasm  cannot  give  it  value.  He 
derives  his  proofs  mainly  from  the  following 
letter,  written,  Geikie  thinks,  to  recall  the  gen- 
darmerie who  liad  watched  the  wall  at  Takhu,  a 
fortress  on  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Delta, 
when  the  Hebrews,  prior  to  the  exodus,  were 
advancing  toward  it.  It  reads  thus  :  "  Notice  I 
when  my  letter  reaches  you,  bring  the  Madjai  at 
once,  wlio  were  over  the  foreign  Safkhi  who  have 
esca]3ed.  Do  not  bring  all  the  men  I  have  named 
in  my  list.  Give  attention  to  this.  Bring  them 
to  me  to  Takhu,  and  I  will  admit  them  and  you  " 
(Hours  with  the  Bible,  vol.  ii.  p.  182). 

That  the  Seventy  were  correct  in  interpreting 
nam  suph  by  7f/v  ipvtipuv  diiXaacav  ("  the  Red  Sea  ") 
is  very  plain  when  another  passage  in  Exodus  is 
compared.  Thus  (Exod.  x.  19)  the  locusts  were 
cast  by  a  wesi  wind  "  into  the  Red  Sea "  ("V  'V" 
eiikaoaav  tt/v  cpvdpdv^ ;  but  it  would  have  required 
a  south  wind  to  have  blown  them  into  the  Ser- 
bonian bog. 

There  are  other  objections  to  the  Schleiden- 
Brugsch  theory.  Ebers  contests  the  Egyptologi- 
cal proof.  Dr.  Bartlett  (p.  171)  urges  that  the 
identification  of  Rameses  and  Zoan  "seems  in- 
compatible w-ifli  the  use  of  both  names  in  the 
Scriptures  and  in  the  same  book  (e.g..  Numbers), 
without  a  hint  of  their  identity."  Dr.  J.  P. 
Thompson,  in  the  Bitillotheca  Sacra  for  January, 
187"!,  adds:  (1)  "This  theory,  locating  Rameses 
at  Zoan,  would  retpiire  the  Israelites  first  to 
march  a  long  distance  aw'ay  from  their  destina- 
tion to  the  place  of  rendezvous,  to  cross  the 
Pelnsiac  arm  of  the  Nile,  and  to  recross  it  next 
day.  —  a  process  sufficiently  improbable  ;  (2)  That 
the  supposed  route  would  take  them  on  tlie  most 
direct  way  towards  the  Philistines,  contrary  to 
the  express  statement  of  Exod.  iii.  17  :  (3)  That 
the  leading  of  an  army  into  the  treacherous  Ser- 
bonian bog,  when  there  was  a  military  road  and 
a  great  thoroughfare  south  of  it,  is  a  strategetical 
blunder  not  supposable  in  IMoses,  much  less  in 
Egyptian  generals  who  were  accustomed  to  the 
whole  region,  having  frequently  led  their  armies 
to  the  east." 


EXORCISM. 


188 


EXSUPBRIUS. 


It  is  important  to  remember  that  the  night  of 
the  crossing  was  a  terrible  one.  In  the  language 
of  the  Psalmist,  "  The  clouds  poured  out  water ; 
the  skies  sent  out  a  sound ;  thine  arrows  [the 
lightnings]  lightened  the  world ;  the  earth  trem- 
bled and  shook"  (Ps.  Ixxvii.  17,  18).  The  pillar 
of  fire  was  between  the  Israelites  and  the  Egyp- 
tians :  so  where  the  latter,  accustomed  to  see  the 
flaming  torches  at  the  head  of  the  host,  supposed 
the  van  of  the  Israelites  to  be,  there  was  reall}' 
their  rear.  Misled,  therefore,  they  forced  their 
jaded  horses  onward,  thinking  they  had  already 
got  into  the  very  midst  of  the  flying  slaves. 
Under  divine  guidance,  and  perhaps  miraculously 
hastened,  the  Israelites  made  the  crossing  in 
safety;  but  the  Egyptians  labored  under  unex- 
pected difficulties.  "  At  the  morning  watch  the 
Lord  looked  unto  the  host  of  the  Egyptians," 
and  "  troubled  "  (i.e.,  threw  them  into  confusion), 
and  "  took  off  their  chariot-wheels,  so  that  they 
drave  them  heavily."  The  morning  dawned. 
The  Egyptians  saw  their  slaves  upon  the  bank, 
but  saw  also  that  the  sea  had  broken  its  barrier, 
and  was  pouring  in  upon  them.  Amid  groans 
and  curses  the  pride  of  Egypt's  army  sank  be- 
neath the  waves ;  while  the  Israelites  sang  their 
new  song :  "  \Mio  is  like  unto  Thee,  O  Lord, 
among  the  gods  ?  who  is  like  unto  Thee,  glorious 
in  holiness,  fearful  in  praises,  doing  wonders  ?  " 
"  Thus  the  Lord  saved  Israel  that  day  out  of  the 
hand  of  the  Egyptians,  and  Israel  saw  the  Egyp- 
tians dead  upon  the  seashore." 

For  the  after-route  of  Israel,  see  Wilderness 
OF  THE  Wandering. 

Lit.  —  Georg  Ebers  :  Durch  Gosen  zum  Sinai, 
Leipzig,  1S7-2,  2d  revised  ed.,  ISSl,  pp.  01-112  (a 
beautiful  colored  map  and  a  sketch-map  enable  the 
reader  to  understand  Ebers's  and  Brugsch's  theo- 
ries of  the  exodus);  Philip  Sciiakk:  Throuf/h 
Bible  Lands,  X.Y.,  1878,  pp.  152-l(j2  (with  sketch- 
map);  S.  C.  Bartlett  :  From  Er/i/pl  lo  Palestine, 
N.Y.,  1879,  pp.  155-181  (with  sketch-maps  illus- 
trating the  various  tlieories)  ;  The  Hetirew  Mi(p-a- 
tion  from  Er/ypl,  Lond.,  laid  \  Brugscii:  History 
of  Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,  from  the  Monuments, 
with  appendix  containing  translation  of  Brugsch's 
paper  on  The  Exodus  and  the  E</>/ptian  monuments, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  357-400,  cf.  additional  notes,  pp. 
■121-432,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1879,  2d  ed.,  1881, 
2  vols. ;  A.  Dillm.\nn  :  Die  BUchcr  Exodus  u. 
Levillcu.1,  Leipzig,  1880,  pp.  Kil-liJS;  Cunning- 
ham Gkikie:  Hours  with  the  Bihle,  X.Y.,  1881,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  ll)t!-18:i.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

EXORCISM  {i^opKiajidi,  "  adjuration  "),  a  solemn 
adjuration  with  the  intent  of  expelling  evil  spirits. 
Our  Lord  cured  many  cases  of  demonic  posses- 
sion, and  conferred  the  power  to  do  the  same 
upon  his  disciples  (Matt.  x.  8).  Thcv  were,  liow- 
ever,  not  always  succe-ssful  (Matt.  xvii.  19).  The 
Jews  likewise  professed  to  have  the  power  of  cast- 
ing out  evil  spirits ;  and  Joscphus  mentions  that 
it  was  done  iu  his  day  with  the  aid  of  roots  and 
a  ring,  l)y  which  the  demon  was  extracted  througli 
the  nose. 

In  the  early  church,  exorcism  was  regarded  as 
a  charism  wliidi  belongeil  to  all  Christians.  Ter- 
tuUian  (Apol.  23)  lays  it  down  as  an  indisputable 
fact  that  the  simple  command  of  a  Clnislian  was 
sufficient  to  expel  evil  .spirits.  Origen  (Conl. 
Celsum,  VII.)  testifies  to  the  same   thing,  and 


notices  that  no  artificial  incantations  were  used. 
At  a  later  period  the  exorcist  was  one  of  the  four 
inferior  orders  of  the  clergy,  and  received  ordina- 
tion {Apost.  Const.,  VIII.  26).  Bishop  Cornelius 
of  Rome  (251)  makes  mention  of  this.  The 
Roman-Catholic  priesthood  are  still  ordained  ex- 
orcists before  being  ordained  priests. 

It  was  the  practice  to  exorcise  catechimiens, 
on  the  principle  that  all  who  did  not  believe  in 
Christ  belonged  to  the  Devil.  In  the  case  of 
children  at  baptism,  the  priest  breathed  upon  the 
child.  The  name  of  Christ,  or  a  simple  passage  of 
Scripture,  was  considered  efficacious  in  exorcism. 

The  Greek  and  Latin  Churches  still  use  not 
only  formulas  of  exorcism  at  baptism,  but  also 
practise  it  over  those  actually  possessed.  In  the 
latter  case  the  patient  is  first  sprinkled  with  holy 
water,  after  which  the  priest  says,  '•  I  exorcise 
thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ : 
tremble,  O  Satan,  thou  enemy  of  mankind,"  etc. 
The  Calvinistic  Churches,  at  the  Reformation, 
renounced  exorcism.  But  Luther  and  Jlelanch- 
thon  favored  its  retention,  and  the  other  Lutheran 
theologians  followed  them.  Hesshusius,  in  1583, 
was  the  first  to  propose  its  omission,  but  was 
answered  by  IMenius,  in  a  tract  {De  Exorcismo), 
1590.  At  present  exorcism  is  gi\en  up;  and  the 
catechumen  in  the  Lutheran  Church  says,  "  I 
renounce  the  devil  and  his  works,"  etc.  [Tlie 
English  Church  retained  exorcism  in  the  Prayer- 
Book  of  Edward  VI.,  the  priest  saying,  "I  com- 
mand thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  that  thou  come  out 
and  depart  from  this  infant,"  etc.  It  was,  how- 
ever, omitted  in  the  revised  Prayer-Book ;  and  the 
seventy-second  canon  of  the  Church  of  England 
expressly  forbids  any  priest  attempting  to  expel 
demons.  See  Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet. 
Antii/.l  ALT. 

EXPECTANCY  (exspeclantia,  exspectiva,  gratia 
exspeclira),  in  canon  law,  means  a  prospective 
claim  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice,  granted  before 
the  benefice  has  actually  fallen  vacant.  This 
curious  custom,  of  giving  a  man  a  successor  before 
he  has  died  himself,  developed  vei-y  early  in  the 
media'val  church,  and  not  altogether  without 
some  good  reasons.  It  jiroved  an  eft'ective  means 
of  preventing  a  benefice  from  being  kept  vacant, 
during  which  vacancy  its  revenues  fell  into  the 
hands  of  strangers ;  and  it  might  also  be  success- 
fully ajiplied  as  a  check  to  too  narrow  provincial 
interest  in  the  aj^pointment  of  ecclesi;i,stical  olii- 
cers,  whoreliy  the  general  interest  of  the  church 
was  made  to  suffer.  But  it  soon  developed  into 
a  hideous  cancer,  —  an  opiiortunity  for  the  mean- 
est speculation,  for  greed,  fraud,  and  violence. 
Already  the  l^atiuan  Council  of  1179  forbade 
this  custom,  but  in  vain.  It  was  restricted  by 
the  Council  of  Constance,  again  forbidden  by  the 
Council  of  Basel,  and  finally  abolished  by  the 
Council  of  Trent.  Only  in  one  ca.se  the  Council 
of  Trent  still  acknowledged  it  (Sess.  SB  de  reform, 
c.  7),  —  in  the  case  of  the  appointment  of  a  coad- 
jutor to  a  bishop  with  expectancy  of  succession. 

EXPIATION.     .See  Atonement. 

EXPIATION,  Feast  of.    See  Atonement,  Day 

OK. 

EXSUPERIUS,  Bishop  of  Toulouse  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  I'nurtli  and  the  beginning  of  the  fifth 
century,  distinguished  himself  by  the  noble  cliarity 


EXTREME  UNCTION. 


789 


BYLBRT. 


Ihe  showed  during  the  frightful  depredations  of 
the  Alani,  Vandals,  and  Svievi,  neglecting  his  own 
sufferings  in  order  to  administer  to  the  sufferings 
•of  others.  Jerome  dedicated  his  conimentary  on 
the  Prophet  Zechariah  to  hhii.  See  Act.  Sanct., 
Sept.  28. 

EXTREME  UNCTION  (the  rite  of  anointing 
the  (lying  with  oil)  is  tlie  fifth  of  the  seven  sacra- 
ments of  the  Koman-Catholic  Church.  It  is 
based  upon  Mark  vi.  13  and  .Tas.  v.  14,  15.  In 
Loth  these  cases  the  rite  is  applied  for  the  purpose 
of  healing  the  sick,  not  in  order  to  prepare  them 
for  death ;  which  is  the  principal  meaning  of  the 
sacrament  in  the  Catholic  Church.  As  for  the 
fatliers  of  the  Greek  Church,  it  will  suffice  to  say 
tliat  John  of  Damascus  treats  only  of  baptism 
xind  the  Lord's  Supper  under  the  mysteries  of  the 
Church.  Among  the  writers  of  the  Western 
-Cliurch,  IreuKus  lias  been  appealed  to  as  the  first 
witness  to  the  existence  of  the  institution;  but 
Irenseus  (I.  21,  5)  simply  says  that  the  Ilerakleo- 
nites,  a  Gnostic  sect,  anointed  the  dying  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  water  to  protect  them  from 
hostile  spirits  in  the  other  world.  This  practice 
by  no  means  implies,  as  Bellarmine  and  otiier 
Catholic  theologians  affirm,  a  church  sacrament 
■of  which  it  was  a  perversion.  Tertullian  and 
■Cyprian,  who  describe  at  length  the  customs  of 
the  Western  Church,  do  not  mention  extreme 
unction,  while  they  discuss  the  Lord's  Supper  and 
baptism  at  length. 

The  use  of  oil,  however,  for  producing  miracu- 
lous cures,  is  noticed  by  many  of  the  Fathers. 
Tertullian  {Ad  Scap.  4)  mentions  that  Proculus 
liealed  the  Pagan  Severus,  the  father  of  Antoninus, 
with  oil.  Popular  superstition  took  hold  of  these 
■cures,  and  went  so  far,  that,  as  early  as  the  fourth 
■century,  we  find  the  people  stealing  the  lamps 
from  the  churches  in  order  to  preserve  the  oil  for 
miraculous  cures  (Chrysos.,  Ho7n.  32,  in  Malth. 
■vi.).  They  did  the  same  with  the  baptismal 
■water.  This  superstition  was  the  germ  of  the 
.subsequent  sacramental  idea  of  the  churcli.  The 
transition  is  apparent  in  a  letter  of  Innocent  I. 
(416)  to  BLshop  Decentius  of  Eugubium,  which 
-expressly  calls  anointing  with  oil  a  kind  of  sacra- 
ment (genus  sacramenti) .  But  the  application  of 
the  oil  was  not  confined  to  the  priesthood :  it  was 
the  prerogative  of  all  Christians.  From  the  close 
-of  the  eighth  century  the  rite  is  mentioned  very 
frequently  in  the  acts  of  councils.  Theodulf  of 
•Orleans  (798)  and  the  first  Council  of  Mayence 
(847)  associate  repentance  and  the  Eucharist  with 
it.  The  synod  of  Chalons  (813)  attributes  spiritu- 
al as  well  as  physical  efficacy  to  the  oil ;  and  the 
synod  of  Regiaticinum  (850)  calls  the  rite  a 
healthful  sacrament  (salutare  sacramenlu7n),  of 
which  one  must  partake  by  faith  in  order  thereby 
to  secure  forgiveness  of  sins,  and  restoration  of 
health.  The  question  consequently  arose  in  the 
twelfth  century,  whether  the  anointing  could  be 
repeated.  Gottfried,  Abbot  of  Vendonie  (1100), 
and  Ivo,  Bishop  of  Chartres,  answered  in  the 
negative.  The  popular  idea  was,  that  those  who 
recovered  after  receiving  the  rite  ought  never  to 
touch  the  earth  with  bare  feet,  to  eat  meat,  etc. 
Councils  spoke  out  against  this  superstition ;  but 
it  contributed  not  a  little  to  give  to  the  act  the 
solemn  significance  subsequently  attached  to  it. 
For  the  first  time  in  the  twelfth  century  do  the 


expressions  "  extreme  unction  "  and  "  sacrament 
of  the  dying  "  occur. 

Hugo  de  St.  Victor  (d.  1141)  was  the  first  to 
introduce  its  treatment  into  a  theological  system; 
and  Peter  Lombard  gave  it  the  fifth  place  among 
the  seven  sacraments  {Sentent.,  iv.  23).  Thomas 
of  Aquinas  developed  at  length  the  doctrinal 
definition  and  significance  of  the  rite.  Eugenius 
IV.,  at  the  Council  of  Florence  (1439)  and  the 
Decrees  of  Trent  (Sess.  xiv.),  gave  the  final  defi- 
nition of  the  Church.  The  latter  declare  extreme 
unction  to  be  a  real  sacrament  instituted  by  our 
Lord,  and  revealed  by  James. 

The  purpose  of  the  sacrament  has  been  vari- 
ously stated.  The  first  idea  was,  that  it  healed 
the  body.  Peter  Lombard  says  that  it  serves  for 
the  "  remission  of  sins  and  tlie  alleviation  of 
bodily  infirmity."  Albertus  Magnus  (in  Lib.  iv. 
23,  14)  held  that  it  removed  the  remainders  of 
sin  uuexpiated  by  penance,  or  unwashed  away  by 
baptism ;  and  Aquinas  defined  these  remainders 
as  spiritual  weakness.  He  says  that  the  physical 
restoration  is  only  a  secondary  end.  The  Council 
of  Trent  states  tliat  the  purpose  of  the  sacrament 
is  "  to  confer  grace,  and  heal  the  sick." 

The  oil  of  anointing  is  consecrated  by  the 
bishop,  and  the  act  of  anointing  is  alone  per- 
formed by  the  priest.  The  Council  of  Mayence 
(847)  limited  its  application  to  those  in  peril  of 
death.  The  Roman  Catechism  confines  it  to  the 
very  sick,  but  denies  it  to  children,  and  criminals 
condemned  to  death.  Thomas  of  Aquinas  held 
that  the  eyes,  ears,  nose,  mouth,  hands,  reins,  and 
feet  should  be  anointed. 

The  Greek  Church  calls  the  sacrament  euclielaion 
("prayer"  and  "oil"),  and  gives  it  the  seventh 
place  among  the  sacraments.  The  consecration 
of  the  oil  is  the  prerogative  of  the  priest;  and  the 
rite,  which  may  be  repeatedly  administered,  is 
only  in  extreme  cases  applied  in  private  dwell- 
ings. In  all  other  points  its  practice  and  defini- 
tion agree  with  those  of  the  Latin  Church.  [The 
late  Bishop  Forbes  of  Brechin  (d.  1875),  in  his 
exposition  of  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  calls  "  the 
unction  of  the  sick  the  lost  pleiad  of  the  Anglican 
firmament."] 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  writings  of  the  scholastic 
theologians  mentioned  above,  see  Dall.eus  :  De 
duobits  Latinorum  ex  Unctione  Sacramentis,  etc., 
(ienes.,  1659 ;  Launov:  De  Sacramento  Unctionii 
ayrolorum,  Paris,  1673.  STEITZ. 

EYLERT,  Ruhlemann  Friedrich,  b.  April  5, 
1770,  at  Ilamm,  in  Westphalia,  where  his  father 
was  preaclier  of  the  Reformed  congregation,  and 
professor  of  theology  ;  d.  at  his  estate,  near  Ham- 
burg, Feb.  8,  1852 ;  studied  theology  at  Halle, 
where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Niemeyer;  and  became 
preacher  at  Hamm  in  1794,  court-preacher  at  Pots- 
dam, 1806.  superintendent,  1817,  and  afterwards 
member  of  the  Council.  He  was  a  prolific  writer ; 
but  his  greatest  influence  he  exercised  as  the  con- 
fidential adviser  and  intimate  friend  of  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  III.  His  best-known  and  most  widely 
read  work  is  his  Characterziige  und  histoi-ische 
Fragmente  aiis  dem  Leben  Friedrich  Witlielm,  1846, 
3  vols.  He  also  published  collections  of  sermons, 
and  devotional  books  of  a  general  description, 
and  wrote  in  support  of  the  attempted  union  of 
the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  Churches  within  the 
Prussian  domiuiou.  TnoLUCK. 


BZBKIEL. 


790 


EZEKIBL. 


EZEKIEL  {God  will  strengthen,  or  the  strength 
of  God),  one  of  the  prophets  of  the  exile.  He 
was  the  son  of  Buzi,  and  a  priest  (Ezek.  i.  3).  He 
lived  in  his  own  house  (iii.  24,  viii.  1),  on  the 
River  Chebar,  near  Tel  Abib,  among  the  captives 
whom  Nebuchadnezzar  had  deported  with  King 
Joiachim.  He  was  married,  as  we  learn  inciden- 
tally (xxiv.  IS).  He  prophesied  from  the  fifth 
to  at  least  the  twenty-fifth  year  of  the  captivity 
(■594-.572  B.C.).  The  statement  of  Josephus 
(Ant.  X.,  6,  3),  that  he  was  only  a  boy  when  car- 
ried to  Babylon,  is  rendered  improbable  by  the 
date  of  the  close  of  his  prophetic  activity,  which 
we  assume  to  have  been  the  probable  date  of  his 
death.  This  would  have  made  him  quite  young 
at  the  time  of  his  death.  Although  tlie  exUes  at 
times  took  offence  at  his  prophecies  (ii.  6),  he  was 
held  in  high  esteem  by  them  (viii.  1,  xiv.  1  sqq., 
XX.  1,  etc.).  This  is  the  extent  of  our  reliable 
information  concerning  Ezekiel's  life.  Untrust- 
worthy traditions  speak  of  a  meeting  between 
him  and  Pythagoras,  of  various  miracles,  and  a 
death  of  martyrdom.  His  pretended  tomb  was 
shown  near  Bagdad,  where  an  autogi-aphic  copy 
of  the  proplieeies  was  said  to  be  preserved. 

EZEKIEL,  Book  of,  without  doubt  the  work  of 
Ezekiel,  is  divided  into  two  main  divisions;  chaps. 
i.-xxiv.  closing  witli  the  incepition  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar's siege  of  Jerusalem  (589  B.C.),  and  chaps, 
xxxiii.-xlviii.  beginning  after  the  destruction  of 
the  city  (587  B.C.).  The  intervening  chapters 
contain  denunciations  against  nations  hostile  to 
Israel.  Both  of  the  principal  divisions  are  pre- 
faced with  a  reference  to  the  importance  and 
responsibility  of  Ezekiel's  prophetic  office  (iii. 
10  sqq.,  and  x.xxiii.  6  sqq.).  The  first  part  is 
eharacterized  by  the  announcement  of  judgment 
against  Jerusalem;  the  second,  by  the  promise  of 
its  re-edification.  The  first  portrays  God's  wrath ; 
the  second,  God's  mercy. 

The  fir.st  main  division  is  introduced  by  a  vision 
of  God  in  all  his  glory  entlironed  upon  the  cheru- 
bim, in  which  tlie  prophet  receives  the  prophetic 
mission  to  speak  against  Israel.  He  inaugurates 
his  activity  by  a  series  of  vehement  predictions 
of  the  siege  and  consequent  desolations  of  Jeru- 
salem (iv.-vii.).  In  chap.  viii.  he  has  a  vision  of 
the  idolatrous  abominations  in  the  temple.  All, 
except  those  who  mourned  at  this  desecration, 
were  to  be  destroyed  (ix.)  ;  and  fire  from  lieaven 
was  to  fall  upon  the  mi.serable  city  (x.).  The 
people's  trust  in  false  prophets  (xi.),  and  tlie  cap- 
tivity of  Zedekiah  (xii.),  come  under  notice.  The 
rejection  of  Jerusalem  is  pictured  under  the  im- 
agery of  a  barren  vine  fit  only  for  the  fire  (xv.)  ; 
and  her  immoralities,  vinder  the  picture  of  a  foster- 
child  given  over  to  whoredom  (xvi.).  In  chap. 
xvii.  David's  royal  hou.se  is  pres(Mitcd  >inder  the 
allegorj'  of  a  cedar,  the  top  of  whicli  tlie  Chal- 
da?an  eagle  plucks  away;  but  God  will  plant 
again  a  twig  therefrom.  He  justifies  God's  pun- 
ishinents  (xviii.),  and  laments  over  the  fall  of 
Israel,  which  is  compared  to  a  robbed  lion's  lair 
and  a  burned  vine.  The  rebellious  people  will 
be  gathered  together  again  (xx.) ;  but  the  down- 
fall of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar  is  at  hand 
(xxi.).  Tlie  division  closes  with  a  scathing  rehear- 
sal of  its  iniquities  (xxii.-xxiv.).  The  chapters 
that  follow  (xxiv.-xxxii.)  contain  denunciations 
of  the  enemies  of  Israel,  —  Amnion,  Moab,  and 


Philistia  (xxv.),  Tyre  (xxvi.-xxviii.  19),  Sidon 
(xxviii.  20  sqq.),  and  especially  Egj'pt  (xxis.- 
xxxii.).  These  utterances  are  not  arranged  in 
chronological  order,  as  those  of  the  rest  of  the  book 
are.  The  second  main  division  (xxxiii.-xlvii.)  is 
full  of  hope  and  promise.  The  prophet's  mouth 
is  again  opened  at  the  anuoimcement  of  Jei-u- 
salem's  fall  (xxxiii.  21  sq.).  After  denouncing 
the  mercenary  shepherds  of  Israel,  he  passes  over 
to  a  prophecy  of  the  coming  of  the  Lord,  who 
will  himself  feed  his  flock  (xxxiv.).  Mount  Seir 
(Edom)  shall  be  punished  (xxsv.),  but  new  pros- 
perity shall  come  to  the  mountain  of  Israel 
(xxxvi.).  In  the  vision  of  the  dry  bones  gath- 
ered together  and  revived,  the  proiihet  sees  the 
new  spiritual  creation  which  the  Lord  will  ac- 
complish upon  his  people  (xxxvii.).  The  final 
peril  of  Israel  in  the  campaign  of  Gog  is  depicted 
(xxxviii.,  xxxix.).  Tlie  last  eight  chapters  give 
an  account  of  the  reconstruction  of  the  temple, 
its  holiness,  and  its  priests,  and  conclude  with  a 
description  of  the  stream  of  living  waters  flowing 
out  from  the  temple,  and  the  new  parcelling  out 
of  the  land  among  the  tribes. 

The  peculiarities  of  Ezekiel  are  to  be  traced  to 
the  peculiar  position  of  the  author  in  Chaldaea. 
Separated  as  he  was  from  Jerusalem  and  the 
excitement  of  passing  events,  his  prophecies  differ 
from  those  of  the  older  prophets  (Jeremiah,  for 
example),  in  that  they  are  not  adapted  to  arouse 
to  immediate  action,  display  more  care  in  prepa- 
ration, and  give  evidence  of  retirement  and  re- 
flection. The  .short  stirring  appeal  is  not  often 
heard ;  but  in  its  stead  there  is  a  calm  treatment 
of  the  subject  in  hand.  Compare,  for  example, 
the  extended  description  of  the  vision  in  chap.  i. 
with  the  brief  outline  of  the  analogous  vision  of 
Isaiah  (vi.).  Ezekiel  delights  to  give  perfect 
pictures.  His  symbolism  and  imagery  are  rich, 
but  here  and  there  so  enigmatical  as  to  have  fre- 
quently discouraged  both  Jewish  and  Christian 
expositors,  and  to  have  led  the  Jews  to  forbid 
their  people  from  reading  it  before  they  had 
reached  their  thirtieth  year.  But  the  projihet  is 
a  master  in  the  description  of  the  gi'and  and  sub- 
lime ;  and  many  passages  are  examjiles  of  the 
finest  lyric  and  elegiac  poetry;  as,  for  example, 
the  lamentation  for  the  princes  of  Israel  (xix. 
1  sqq.),  the  description  of  the  fall  of  Tyre  (xxvi. 
15-xxvii.),  the  dirge  over  Pharaoh,  represented 
under  the  iinag(!  of  the  crocodile  (xxxii.),  etc. 
Although  he  excels  as  an  author,  he  is  not  to  be 
regarded  as  never  having  spoken  his  pro)ihecies. 
His  popular  eloquence  is  expressly  attested  in 
chap,  xxxiii.  30  sqq.  And,  in  the  absence  of 
immediate  activity,  there  are  many  references  to 
symbolical  acts  with  which  he  used  to  emphasize 
his  prophetic  utterances, — eating  and  drinking 
(iv.  9  sq.),  sliearing  his  hair  (v.  1  S(ii].),  stanqiing 
with  his  foot  (vi.  11),  etc.  His  own  perscui  was 
a  type  (xxxiv.  24,  27),  and  the  circumstances  of 
his  life  t\iiical  of  his  nation's  destiny  (xxiv.  15 
s(ii].).  The  prophecies  are  usually  introduced 
with  such  formulas  as  "Thus  saitli  the  Lord," 
and  "  The  word  of  the  Lord  came."  The  pro]ihet 
is  addressed  by  (iod  and  angels  by  the  title  "Sou 
of  man."  These  and  like  peculiarities  attest 
the  originality  and  unity  of  the  composition.  In 
common  with  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  draws  upon  the 
earlier  prophets,  and,  in  a  larger  incasui-e  tlian 


EZBKIEL. 


791 


EZRA. 


Jeremiah,  he  shows  the  influence  of  the  Mosaic 
legislation  (comp.  chaps,  xliii.-xlvi.),  and  the 
history  of  Israel  (conip.  Gen.  ii.  8  with  Ezek. 
xxviii.  13,  xxxi.  8  sq.,  xxxvi.  35,  and  Gen.  i.  28 
with  Ezek.  xxxvi.  11). 

The  spiritual  and  Iheoloyical  teachings  of  the 
book.  The  characteristic  of  Ezekiel  is,  that 
though  an  exile  in  a  foreign  land,  and  living  in  a 
period  of  disintegration,  he  points  to  a  better  time 
in  the  future  for  the  theocratic  kingdom.  With 
Jeremiah,  he  predicts  the  fall  of  the  Jewish  State 
as  unavoidable,  and  pronounces  the  hopes  of  the 
patriots,  based  upon  treaties  with  Egy^it,  as  alto- 
gether illusory.  The  minuteness  and  detail  of 
these  prophetic  references  must  impress  us  all 
the  more  when  we  bear  in  mind  the  prophet's 
separation  from  Jerusalem  (see  xii.  12  sq.,  xxi. 
23  sqq.,  xlii.  2,  etc.).  But  Ezekiel  restored 
again  in  the  picture  of  his  visions  the  old  insti- 
tutions of  the  temple,  and  in  a  pure  form.  In 
these  descriptions  his  priestly  training  shows 
itself;  but  he  did  not,  in  his  concern  for  the  out- 
ward form,  overlook  the  ethical  and  spiritual.  In 
chap,  xviii.  he  urges  the  double  duty  of  honoring 
God,  and  loving  our  neighbor,  and  reminds  his 
hearers  of  their  individual  and  personal  responsi- 
bility. He  insists  upon  tlie  necessity  of  a  new 
heart  (xi.  19  sq.,  xxxvi.  25  sqq.).  God's  glory 
is  the  ultimate  end  of  the  restoration  of  Jerusa- 
lem (xxxvi.  22),  and  his  aim  not  to  destroy,  but 
revive,  his  sinful  people  (xxxiii.  11).  It  is  the 
prophet's  peculiarity  that  his  eye  is  du'ected  not 
so  much  to  the  personal  representatives  as  to  the 
kingdom  itself,  where  the  glory  of  God  should 
dwell  in  the  midst  of  a  holy  nation  of  priests, 
serving  him  (xlii.  7).  The  description  is  given 
in  the  last  eight  chapters,  and  stands  alone  in  the 
Old  Testament.  The  vision  here  recorded  of 
the  temple  is  not  of  a  mere  building,  although 
the  architectural  proportions  given  are  exact. 
He  passes  beyond  the  material  edifice  to  an  ideal 
temple  with  its  waters  of  life  (xlvii.).  In  the 
furniture  and  services  of  this  temple  he  presup- 
poses the  Mosaic  legislation  (xliv.  7  sq.).  But  it 
was  not  his  purpose  to  revise  it,  or  he  would  have 
made  some  reference  to  the  ark  of  the  covenant, 
the  highpriesthood,  the  day  of  atonement,  etc. 
As  of  special  significance  for  the  times,  he  men- 
tions the  Sabbath  (xx.  12  sqq.),  refers  to  a  more 
joyful  celebration  oi  the  feasts  ni  the  future  (xlv. 
9  sqq.),  insists  upon  the  purification  of  the  tem- 
ple (xliii.  7,  xliv.  9),  and  bases  the  new  division 
of  the  land  on  the  equal  rights  of  the  tribes,  all  of 
which  were  to  receive  portions  west  of  the  Jordan. 

The  book  has  given  difficulty  to  the  Jews,  be- 
cause its  statements  do  not  always  agree  with  the 
ritual  of  Moses ;  and  this  gave  rise  to  some  dis- 
pute regarding  its  canonical  dignity.  But  this 
very  fact  is  a  pledge  that  not  the  letter  of  the 
law,  but  God's  will,  which  was  therein  only  ex- 
pressed in  a  way  adapted  to  the  time,  is  eternal. 
The  Christian  Church  has  also  found  difficulty 
in  distinguishing  between  that  which  was  merely 
Jewish  in  the  prophecies,  and  that  which  is 
Messianic.  Less  clearly  than  in  tlie  other  proph- 
ets can  the  distinction  be  made  out  between  the 
spiritual  contents  and  the  temporary  form ;  but 
the  book  is,  nevertheless,  a  prophecy  of  the  new- 
covenant  of  grace  in  the  language  of  the  old 
ooTenant  of  the  law.     The  complete  consumma- 


tion of  the  kingdom  of  God  on  earth,  however, 
alone  can  reveal  how  far  the  form  in  which  Eza- 
kiel  clothes  it  was  mere  shadow,  how  far  an  ade- 
quate picture  of  that  perfect  manifestation.  (For 
the  influence  of  Ezekiel  on  the  Apocalypse,  see 
Kevelation.)  v.  okelli. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  Iniroducliims  to  the  0.  T., 
by  EiCHHORN,  I)e  Wette,  Bleek,  Keil,  David- 
son, Reuss,  see  the  CommeiUaries  by  IIavehnick 
(Erlang.,  1843)  ;  HiTziG  (Leipzig,  1847)  ;  Klie- 
EOTH  (Weimar,  1864,  186.5,  2  parts);  IIexgsten- 
berg  (Berlin,  1868,  2  parts,  Eng.  trans.,  Edinb., 
1869)  ;  Keil  (Leipzig,  1868,  2d  ed.,  1882,  Eng. 
trans.,  Edinb.,  1876,  2  vols.);  Zockler,  in  Lange 
(Bielefeld,  1873,  Eng.  trans..  New  York,  1876)  ; 
Smend  (Leipzig,  1880);  (Engli.sh)  by  Patrick 
Fairbairn  (Edinb.,  1851,  3d  ed.,  1863);  Hen- 
derson (London,  1855,  reprinted  Andover,  1870); 
CowLES  (N.Y.,  1867) ;  C'urrie,  in  the  Sjieak- 
er's  Cimim.  (London  and  N.Y.,  1870).  —  Leiiir  : 
Les  trois  grands  prophetes,  Paris,  1877.  Special 
Works.  —  Solomon  Bennett  :  Temple  of  Ezekiel, 
London,  1824 ;  W.  Neumann  ;  D.  Wasser  d. 
Lebens  (exposition  of  Ezek.  xlvii.  1-12),  Berlin, 
1849;  Balmer-Rinck  :  D.  Prophet  Ezekiel' s  Ge- 
siclit  V.  Tempel,  Ludwigsb.,  1858.  For  homileti- 
cal  treatment,  see  Guthrie's  Gospel  in  Ezekiel. 

E'ZION-GA'BER,  or  GE'BER  (giant's  hackhone), 
a  city  in  the  neighborhood  of  Elath,  mentioned 
as  the  last  station  of  Israel  before  entering  the 
Wilderness  of  Zin  (Num.  xxxiii.  35;  Dent.  ii. 
8),  and  as  the  navy  station  of  Solomon  (1  Kings 
ix.  26;  2  Chron.  viii.  17)  and  Jehoshaphat  (1 
Kings  xxii.  48)  ;  but  its  precise  site  has  not  been 
identified. 

EZ'RA  (help),  priest,  scribe  (N«h.  viii.  1, 2),  and 
reformer  of  the  period  succeeding  the  Babylonish 
captivity.  The  book  which  bears  his  nan'ie,  and 
the  latter  part  of  Nehemiah,  are  the  only  relia- 
ble sources  of  his  life.  He  was  of  high  priestly 
descent  (Ez.  vii.  1).  With  Artaxerxes'  consent 
he  led  an  expedition  to  Jerusalem  (458  B.C.).  He 
nuist  have  been  held  in  esteem  at  court ;  for  the 
king  intrusted  him  with  authority  to  appoint 
magistrates  and  judges,  and  with  the  power  of 
life  and  death  in  Jerusalem  (vii.  12-20).  At  the 
River  Ahava  (viii,  15)  he  gathered  the  members 
of  the  expedition  together,  and  ordered  a  fast 
and  prayer  for  divine  protection.  Arriving  in 
Jerusalem,  he  delivered  up  the  gifts  tiie  king 
had  sent  to  the  temple  and  his  commissions  to 
the  Persian  oflicials  (viii.  30).  He  was  grieved  to 
find  that  his  countrymen  had  intermarried  with 
women  of  other  nationalities,  and  succeeded  in 
inducing  them  to  put  away  their  "  strange  wives." 
The  narrative  is  here  suddenly  broken  off,  and 
Ezra  does  not  re-appear  again  for  thirteen  years 
(Neh.  viii.).  The  conjecture  has  been  made,  that 
he  returned  to  Persia  during  the  interval ;  but 
nothing  certain  is  known.  He  performed  priestlv 
functions  after  his  retm'n.  The  time  of  his  deatL 
is  not  noticed.  Ezra  marks  an  epoch  in  the  study 
of  the  IMosaic  law.  He  made  tiiat  study  the 
employment  of  his  own  life  (vii.  10),  and  was 
thus  led  to  become  a  scribe  of  the  law  (vii.  11). 
He  had  about  him  a  corps  of  helpers  (Neh.  viii.), 
with  who.se  aid  he  read  the  law  in  public,  and 
expounded  it.  The  pulpit  first  made  its  appear- 
ance in  connection  with  him  (Neh.  viii.  4),  and 
became  the  original  of   those  synagogical  desks 


EZRA. 


792 


EZRA. 


from  which  Jewish  rabbins  in  succeeding  centu- 
ries read  and  interpreted  the  histor}'  and  sacred 
■writings  of  Israel.  He  was  afterwards  looked 
up  to  with  reverence  by  the  scribes  as  the  founder 
of  their  order.  According  to  Kuenen  and  others, 
Ezra  was  the  author  of  a  large  share  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch, —  the  so-called  priestlj-  Thorah.  Accord- 
ing to  the  somewhat  modified  view  of  Professor 
W.  R.  Smith  {The  0.  T.  in  the  Jewish  Church, 
chap,  ix),  he  at  least  "gave  the  last  touches  to 
the  ritual "  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  he  calls  the 
"Canon  of  Ezra"  (See  Pentatkdch.)  Tra- 
dition, which  is  rich  in  details  of  Ezra's  life,  once 
says  that  he  restored  the  entire  Pentateuch  (which 
had  been  lost),  either  from  memory,  or  by  special 
inspiration.  lu  another  place  it  describes  him 
as  the  president  of  the  great  synagogue,  and  the 
collector  and  editor  of  the  canon.  The  latter  is 
made  very  probable  when  we  remember  the  in- 
tense interest  he  had  aroused  in  the  law.  In  this 
interest  a  desire  to  have  the  writings  of  the  his- 
torians and  prophets  would  certainly  be  begotten. 
According  to  Josephus  (AiU.,  XI.  5,  .5),  he  died 
and  was  buried  in  .Jerusalem.  According  to  other 
writers,  he  died  on  a  journey  to  the  king  of  Per- 
sia, in  the  hundred  and  twentieth  year  of  his  age; 
and  Benjamin  of  Tudela  mentions  that  his  tomb 
was  shown  on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris. 

EZRA,  Book  of  (a  chronicle  of  events  occurring 
between  o'iG  and  456  B.C.),  consists  of  parts,  the 
first  of  which  extends  through  chap.  vi.  Between 
these  two  sections  lies  an  interval  of  fifty-eight 
years.  The  first  section  (i.-vi.)  gives  an  account 
of  a  decree  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  temple, 
and  its  achievement  by  Zerubbabel.  Chap.  i. 
gives  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  and  relates  the  return 
to  Jerusalem.  Chap.  ii.  enumerates  those  who 
returned.  Chap.  iii.  describes  the  arrangements 
for  work  upon  the  temple,  and  the  laying  of  the 
corner-stone,  amidst  the  mingled  weeping  and 
rejoicing  of  the  spectators.  Chaps,  iv.  and  v.  give 
an  account  of  the  efforts,  on  the  part  of  adversaries 
who  had  been  refused  the  privilege  of  participat- 
ing in  the  work,  to  check  its  progress,  and  their 
subsequent  success  in  securing  a  royal  decree  to 
that  effect.  But  work  is  again  resumed  by  order 
of  Darius,  and  the  temple  completed  (vi.).  The 
second  section  (vii.-x.)  has  Ezra  for  its  chief 
actor.  Artaxerxes  grants  him  permission  to  lead 
a  company  of  the  exiles  to  Jerusalem,  and  con- 
fers upon  him  consideraljle  authority  (vii.).  The 
members  of  the  expedition  are  mentioned,  and 
their  halt  at  the  River  Ahava,  and  arrival  in  .Jeru- 
salem, described  (viii.).  Ezra  laments  the  domes- 
tic condition  of  his  people  (ix.),  and  rids  Jewish 
homes  of  their  "strange  wivei"  (x.). 


The  authenticity  of  the  history  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Ezra  is  generally  conceded.  The  facts 
are  such  as  might  be  expected,  and  there  is  no 
reference  to  the  miraculous  to  arouse  suspicion. 
The  main  questions  are  tlie  authorship,  and  the 
relation  of  the  Book  to  Nehemiah.  The  Jewish 
Church,  and  the  church  fathers,  regarded  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah  as  a  single  work.  They  are 
followed  in  this  view  by  many  modern  scholars 
(Ewald,  Bertheau,  Dillniann,  Davidson,  etc.),  who 
hold,  that,  with  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles,  they 
formed  parts  of  one  great  work.  But  the  LXX. 
and  the  Vulgate  separate  them  into  two  books. 
This  division  (defended  by  Keil,  Schultz  in 
Lange's  Commentary,  Rawlinson  in  the  Speaker's 
Commentary,  etc.)  has  in  its  favor  the  opening 
words  of  Nehemiah :  "  The  words  of  Nehemiah," 
etc.  Their  union  in  the  Hebrew  canon  may  be 
explained  by  the  fact  that  they  are  chronicles 
of  one  and  the  same  general  period  of  restora- 
tion. 

The  Authorship.  —  It  is  not  disputed  that  Ezra 
wrote  chaps,  vii.  27-ix.  He  here  speaks  in  the 
first  person.  The  preceding  portion  of  the  book 
and  chap.  x.  have  been  attributed  to  other  authors. 
The  reasons  urged  are  the  laudatory  reference  to 
Ezra  in  chap.  vii.  G,  and  the  use  of  the  third  per- 
son instead  of  the  first  (vii.  6,  11,  x.  1).  But 
examples  of  such  transitions  are  found  both  in 
other  portions  of  Scripture  (comp.  Isa.  vii.  1-16 
with  viii.  1,  etc.,  also  Dan.  vi.  4  with  vii.  2)  and 
in  profane  writers  (e.g.,  Thucidydes,  comp.  Hist., 
I.  1  with  I.  20-22,  etc.)  ;  and  tlie  notice  of  vii.  6 
is  not  so  laudatory  but  that  a  modest  man  might 
have  written  it.  The  second  objection  would  be 
equally  valid  were  Ezra  only  the  general  editor, 
which  it  is  generally  acknowledged  he  was.  The 
reasons  are  not  sufficient  to  overthi'ow  the  tradi- 
tional view,  which  is  defended  by  Keil  (Einleilung), 
Lange,  Rawlinson  (Speaker's  Commentary),  —  that 
Ezra  was  the  author  of  the  wliole  work.  The 
text  of  Ezra  is  in  a  bad  condition,  and  many 
variant  readings  exist.  Portions  of  the  work 
are  in  Chaldee  (iv.  8-vi.  18,  and  the  decree  of 
Artaxerxes,  vii.  12-26).  The  language  bears  a 
close  resemblance  to  that  of  the  Chronicles  and 
Daniel. 

Lit.  —  See  Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament 
by  Bleek,  Kkii.,  Reuss,  etc.,  and  Commentaries  by 
Bertheau  (Leipzig,  1862),  Keil  (Leipzig,  1870, 
Eng.  trans.,  Edinb.,  1873),  Canon  Rawlinson  in 
the  Speaker's  Commentary  (\m\\A.  and  N.Y.,  1873), 
Schultz  in  Lange  (Bielefeld,  1876,  Eng.  trans., 
N.Y.,  187i)),  RosENZWEiG  (Berl.,  1876),  B.  Nete- 
LEU  (Miinster,  1877),  also  art.  Ezra,  by  Bi.sliop 
Ilervey,  in  Smith's  Bible  Diet.       V>.  S.  SCHAjy. 


FABER. 


793 


FABER. 


F. 


FABER,  Basilius,  b.  at  Sorau,  in  Nether-Lusa- 
tia,  1520 ;  d.  at  Erfurt,  1575  or  1576 ;  studied  at 
Wittenberg ;  was  a  teacher  in  Nordhausen,  Tenn- 
stadt,  and  Magdeburg,  and  became  rector  of  the 
school  of  Quedlinburg  in  15G0;  but,  being  a  strict 
Lutheran  of  the  Flaciau  wing,  he  refused  to  sign 
the  Corpus  Duclrina:  Philippicum  as  a  crypto-Cal- 
vinistic  innovation,  and  was  discharged  in  1570. 
Next  year,  however,  he  was  made  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  of  Erfurt,  where  he  remained  till  his 
death.  Besides  some  writings  of  pedagogical 
interest,  —  Thesaurus  erudiiionis  scholusticce  (1571) 
and  Lihcllus  de  disciplina  scholaslica  (1572),  —  he 
translated  Luther's  commentary  on  Genesis  into 
German  (1557),  was  a  contributor  to  the  Magde- 
burg Centuries  (1557-60),  and  published  some 
eschatological  tracts.  wagenmann. 

FABER,  or  FABRI,  Felix,  b.  at  Zurich,  1441 
or  1442;  d.  at  Ulm,  March  14  or  May  15,  1502; 
studied  theology  at  Basel ;  entered  the  Dominican 
order  in  1472,  and  was  made  lector  and  preacher 
at  the  cloister  of  Uhn  in  1478.  Twice  he  visited 
the  Holy  Land  (1480  and  1483-84) ;  and  his  princi- 
pal work  is  Evagalormm  in  Terrce  Sanctce,  Arabia 
el  JEgypti  peregrinalionem,  edited  by  Ilassler, 
Stuttgart,  1843-49,  3  vols.  He  also  wrote  a  Histo- 
ria  Suevorum,  edited  by  Goldast,  Francfort,  1605, 
Ulm,  1727.  He  was  bright,  and  a  good  observer, 
but  very  credulous,  and  too  fond  of  curiosities. 
His  Latin  is  of  an  exceptionally  "  canine  "  de- 
scription. WAGENMANN. 

FABER,  Frederick  William,  a  Catholic  theolo- 
gian, and  distinguished  hymn-writer,  of  Hugue- 
not ancestry ;  b.  June  28,  1814,  at  the  vicarage  of 
Calverley,  Eng.,  of  which  his  grandfather,  Thomas 
Faber,  was  the  incumbent;  d.  Sept.  26, 1863.  He 
studied  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford,  and  became 
while  there  an  ardent  admirer  of  John  Henry 
Newman.  He  was  made  fellow  of  LTniversity 
College  in  1837,  and  ordained  priest  1839.  Much 
of  the  next  four  years  he  spent  in  travelling 
with  a  pupil  on  the  Continent,  during  which  a 
great  change  took  place  in  his  feelings  toward  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church  ;  so  that,  after  being  for 
two  years  rector  of  Elton,  he  passed  over  (Nov. 
17,  1845)  to  that  church.  After  a  visit  to  Rome, 
he  founded  a  religious  society  at  Bh-mingham. 
In  1849  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  Oratory 
of  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  London,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death.  Father  Faber's  title  to  permanent 
fame  will  rest  upon  his  hymns,  several  of  which 
have  already  taken  their  place  among  our  classics. 
They  ai-e  marked  by  fervor  of  piety,  and  grace  of 
language.  The  most  beautiful,  perhaps,  are,  "  O 
gift  of  gifts,  O  gTace  of  faith,"  taken  from  a  larger 
poem,  "  Conversion,"  and  "  Workman  of  God,  O 
lose  not  heart,"  from  the  poem,  "  The  Right  must 
win,"  and  "Paradise,  O  Paradise."  He  w'as  a 
prolific  author  of  religious  works :  among  theui 
are  Essay  on  Bealijication  and  Canonization  (1848), 
The  Spirit  and  Genius  of  St.  Philip  Neri  (1850), 
The  Blessed  Sacrament  (1856),  etc.  In  1848  he 
published  a  small  collection  of  hymns.  It  was 
enlarged  in  1849  and  1852.     The  final  edition  of 


the  author  appeared  in  1861,  containing  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  hymns. 

Lit.  —  Father  J.  ¥,.  Bowden  :  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  F.W.  F.,hoiid.,lSii<J  ;  A  Brief  Sketch  of  the 
Early  Life  of  F.  W.  Faber,  D.D.,  by  a  surviving 
brother  [n.d".]  ;  Faber's  Hymns,  N.Y.,  1877. 

FABER,  George  Stanley,  D.D.,  an  English 
divine,  and  uncle  of  the  former ;  b.  Oct.  25, 
1773;  d.  Jan.  27,  1854.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  became  fellow  and  tutor  of  Lincoln 
College.  In  1801  he  delivered  the  Bampton  Lec- 
tures, which  appeared  under  the  title  of  Horce 
Mosaicce.  In  1803  he  left  the  university,  and  was 
vicar  at  various  places,  till  he  was  made  preben- 
dary of  Salisbury  Cathedral  (1831),  and  master 
of  Sherburn  Hospital  (1832).  He  was  a  man  of 
varied  erudition,  and  a  voluminous  author  of 
theological  works ;  among  these  the  principal  are, 
The  Origin  of  Pagan  Idolatri/,  3  vols.  (1816),  Dif- 
ficullies  of  Romanism  (1826),  Sacred  Calendar  of 
Prophecy,  3  vols.  (1828),  and  Papal  Infallibility 
(1851). 

FABER,  Johannes,  is  the  name  of  several  Ro- 
man-Catholic theologians  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
whose  persons  and  writings  are  often  confounded. 
—  I.  Johannes  Faber  of  Leutkirch  (called  Mal- 
leus Hareticoruni,  from  the  Ixjok  named  below), 
b.  at  Leutkirch,  in  Suabia,  1478  ;  d.  in  Vienna, 
May  21,  1541;  studied  theology  and  canon  law 
at  Tiibingen  and  Freiburg-im-Breisgau ;  and  was 
nuuister,  first  of  Lindau,  then  of  l^eutkirch; 
vicai'-general  of  the  dioce-se  of  Constance  (1518); 
chaplain  and  confessor  to  King  Ferdinand  (1524)  ; 
and  Bishop  of  Vienna  (1531).  He  belonged  origi- 
nally to  the  humanistic  and  liberal  party,  and 
maintained  friendly  relations  to  Erasmus,  CEco- 
lampadius,  Zwingii,  and  !Melanchthon.  In  1520 
he  corresponded  with  Zwingii  in  a  cordial  and 
familiar  manner ;  in  1521  he  openly  disajiproved 
of  Eck  and  his  manoeuvres ;  but  in  the  same  year 
he  made  a  journey  to  Rome  in  order  to  straighten 
some  difficult  money  matters,  and  he  returned  as 
one  of  the  busiest  and  most  violent  adversaries  of 
the  Reformation  and  the  Reformers.  He  wrote 
against  Luther  Opus  adrersus  noca  qucidam  dog- 
mata Lutheri  (^Malleus  in  hceresin  Lutheranam), 
and,  in  defence  of  celibacy  and  the  papal  au- 
thority. Pro  ccelibatu  and  De  potestate  papce  contra 
Lutherum.  He  fought  on  the  Roman  side  in 
the  conferences  and  disputations ;  and  he  was 
active  in  burning  people  in  Austria  and  Hungary 
(Kaspar  Tauber  and  Balthasar  Ilubmeier).  Of 
his  works  there  is  a  collected  edition  in  3  vols, 
fob,  Cologne,  1537-41,  and  a  minor  collection 
containing  only  his  polemical  writings,  Leipzig, 
1537.  See  C.E.  Kettner:  De  J.  Fabri  vita 
scriptiscjiie,  Leipzig,  1737.  —  II.  Johannes  Faber 
Augustanus,  d.  about  1530;  was  b.  at  Freiburg, 
iu  the  latter  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  ;  entered 
the  Dominican  order,  and  was  made  prior  of  the 
monastery  of  Augsburg  in  1515,  professor  of 
theology  at  Bologna  in  1516,  confessor  to  the 
Emperor  IMaximilian  I.,  and  afterwards  court- 
preacher  to  Charles  V.     He  was  a  friend  of  Eras- 


FABER. 


794 


FABRICIUS. 


mus.  and  in  favor  of  lenient  proceedings  against 
Luther ;  but  lie  afterwards  changed  his  mind,  and 
became  a  harsh  adversary  of  the  Reformation. 
His  funeral-oration  over  JIaximilian  I.  (Jan.  IG, 
1519)  is  the  only  work  he  has  left.  —  III.  Johan- 
nes Faber  of  Heilbronn  was  b.  at  Heilbroun,  on 
the  Xeckar,  15()-1 ;  studied  theology  and  philoso- 
phy at  Cologne ;  entered  the  Dominican  order, 
and  was  made  preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Augs- 
burg, 1536.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
He  was  a  bitter  adversary  of  the  Reformation, 
and  wrote  Quod  Jides  esse  jiossil  sine  caritate  (1548), 
Enchiridion  bihliorum  (1549),  Fructus  quihus  dig- 
noscuntur  hcerelici  (1551),  etc.        WAGENMANN. 

FABER,  or  FAVRE,  Pierre  Fran9ois,  b.  at  St. 
Barthelemi,  in  the  canton  of  Vaud ;  was  minister 
of  Laudun,  in  Lower  Langnedoc ;  accompanied 
Francis  de  la  Baume,  Bishop  of  Halicarnassus,  on 
his  tour  of  visitation  to  Cochin-China,  as  his 
secretary  and  confessor;  and  published  in  1746 
his  Lettres  e'dijiantes  et  curieuses  sur  la  visite  apos- 
tolique  de  M.  de  la  Baume  a  la  Cochinchine  en 
1740,  which  gives  a  report  of  the  abominable 
manner  in  which  the  Jesuits  pushed  the  mission 
in  those  I'egions,  and  the  infamous  intrigues  with 
which  they  tried  to  cover  up  their  misdemeanors. 
The  book  was  condemned  by  the  Bishop  of  Lau- 
sanne, and  publicly  burnt  at  Freiburg ;  and  the 
Jesuits  bought  up  every  copy  they  could  reach. 
Large  extracts  of  the  work  are  found  in  Simler, 
Urkunden  zur  Beleuchtung  der  Kirchengeschichte, 
L,  pp.  1.59-256.  STEITZ. 

FABER  STAPULENSIS,  Jacobus  (Jacques  Le- 
fevre  d' Elaples),  b.  at  Ktaples,  a  village  in  Picardy, 
1450 ;  d.  at  Xerac,  1530 ;  studied  in  Paris ;  visited 
Florence,  Rome,  and  Venice ;  and  began,  after 
his  return  to  Paris,  to  lecture  on  Aristotle,  and 
to  publish  Latin  translations,  and  paraphrases  of 
the  Aristotelian  writings.  From  1507  to  1520  he 
lived  in  the  Benedictine  abbey  of  St.  Germain 
des  Pres,  near  Paris,  where  his  friend  Bri^onnet 
■was  abbot;  and  while  here  he  began  to  study 
the  Bible.  The  first  result  of  this  study  was  his 
Psallerium  quintuplex,  1508 ;  then  followed,  in 
1512,  his  commentary  on  the  Paulino  Epistles,  in 
1522,  on  the  Gospels,  and  in  152.5,  on  the  Catholic 
Epistles.  A  critical  essay  (De  Maria  J\Ia;/d(dena) 
which  he  published  in  1517  gave  the  authorities 
occasion  for  an  accusation  of  heresy:  and  Noel 
Bedier,  syndic  of  the  theological  faculty  of  Paris, 
had  the  book  formally  condenmed  by  a  decree  of 
Parliament,  Nov.  '.),  1521.  Bddier,  who  suspected 
a  secret  Lutheran  in  Faber,  wanted  to  institute 
further  proceedings  against  him,  but  was  pre- 
vented by  the  interference  of  Francis  I.  and 
Marguerite  of  Navarre  in  his  behalf.  In  1523 
Bric.onnet,  who  in  the  mean  time  had  become 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  made  him  his  vicar-general : 
and  in  the  same  year  he  published  his  Froncli 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  which  spread 
rapidly,  not  only  in  his  own  dioce.se,  but  all  over 
France,  and  produced  a  deep  impression.  But 
after  the  battle  of  Pavia  (Fob.  2.5,  1.525),  and  the 
impri.sonment  of  Francis  I.  in  Madrid,  tlie  Parlia- 
ment and  the  Sorlionne  felt  free  to  employ  more 
vigorous  measures  against  the  reformatory  move- 
ment. Several  of  tlie  clergymen  ajipointed  by 
Briconnet  were  accu.sed  of  heresy  :  some  of  them 
recanted.  Pauvant  was  burnt:  Faber  fled  to  Stras.s- 
burg      After  tlie  release  of  Francis  I.,  he  was 


recalled,  and  made  librarian  in  the  royal  castle  of 
Blois  :  but  even  there  he  was  not  safe  :  and,  after 
publishing  his  translation  of  the  Old  Testament, 
he  retired  to  Nerac,  the  residence  of  Marguerite 
of  Navarre,  where  he  died.  He  had,  indeed, 
espoused  all  the  chief  principles  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  he  applied  them  with  vigor  in  his  writ- 
ings; but  he  remained  in  the  Roman  Church, 
hoping  that  a  reformation  could  take  place  with- 
out any  violent  concussion.  For  open  fight  with 
hostile  powers  he  was  completely  unfit.  He  was 
not  unlike  Melanchthon,  but  he  had  no  Luther 
by  his  side. 

Lit.  —  Graf:  Essai  sur  la  i-ie  et  les  ecrits  de 
Lefevrc  d'Etaples,  Strassburg,  1842,  and  an  elabo- 
rate biogi-aphy  in  Zeilschri/t  fiir  histor.  Theologie, 
1852,  1  and  2."  c.  SCHMIDT. 

FABER   TANAQUIL.      See   Lefebvre    Tan- 

NEOtY. 

FABIAN,  the  nineteenth  bishop  of  Rome  (236- 
250),  was,  according  to  Eusebius  {Hist.  EccL, 
VI.  29),  incidentally  present  at  the  election  after 
the  death  of  Anteros,  and  was  unanimously  chosen, 
because  a  dove  came  down  from  heaven  and  rested 
on  his  head.  Of  his  reign  nothing  is  known  with 
certainty.  In  Cjrprian's  Letters  to  his  successor, 
Cornelius,  he  is  often  mentioned  with  respect. 

FABRICA  ECCLESI/E,  a  technical  term  refer- 
ring to  the  provision  made  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  fabric  of  the  church.  —  its  buildings,  furni- 
ture, utensils,  etc.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 
century,  Simplicius,  and  after  him  Gelasius,  or- 
dered that  one-fourth  of  the  whole  revenue  of  a 
church  should  be  put  aside  for  this  purpose,  and 
afterwards  the  matter  became  the  subject  of  a 
very  varied  and  intricate,  but  wholly  local,  legis- 
lation. Thus,  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  it  is 
the  rule  that  the  nave  and  roof  are  kept  in  repair 
by  the  treasury  of  the  church,  the  choir  by  the 
minister,  the  walls  and  outer  buildings  by  him 
wh(J  enjoys  the  tenths,  and  the  tower  by  the 
pavisli. 

FABRICIUS,  Johann,  b.  at  Altorf,  Feb.  11, 
1644;  d.  at  llelnistiidt,  Jan.  29,  1729;  studied  at 
Altorf  and  Ilelmstiidt ;  travelled  in  (ierniany  and 
Italy,  1670-77  ;  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Altorf,  1677,  and  at  Helmstiidt,  1697. 
His  principal  work,  besides  his  Amanitates  The- 
ological (1699)  and  Hislnria  Bibliolhecft  Fabriciance 
(4  vols.  4to,  1717-24),  is  his  Consideratio  variorum 
cord7-oversiarum  (1704),  in  which  he  pursued  the 
irenical  principles  of  Calixtiis,  but  carried  them 
unto  weakness.  In  the  same  year  a  (Intochtcn  was 
published,  in  which  he  most  decidedly  recom- 
mended the  Princess  Elizabeth  Christine  of 
Brunswick  to  embrace  Romanism  in  order  to 
get  married  to  Charles  of  Spain,  afterwards  the 
Emperor  Charles  VI. ;  but  this  6'i//o(7i^t'»  cau.sed 
such  a  scandal,  especially  in  England,  that  he 
was  discharged  from  the  university.  See  W. 
IliicK,  Anion  Ulrich  und  Elisabeth  Christine, 
Wolfenbiittel.  1845. 

FABRICIUS,  Johannes  Albert,  b.  at  Leijizig, 
N(i\ .  11,  ir.ns;  ,1.  nl  llaniliurg,  Ajiril  3,  1736; 
studii'd  theology  at  (^nedllTdiurg,  and  was  made 
]>rofessor  of  rhetoric  and  moral  philosophy  at 
Hamburg  in  li!98.  He  was  a  very  prolitir  writer, 
especially  on  literary  history  ,and  liibliogra]>hy, 
in  whicli  branches  his  ]irinci]>al  works  are ;  Jiibli- 
otheca  Graca  (14  vols.  4to,  Hamburg,  1705-28,  re- 


FACULTY. 


795 


FAITH. 


■edited  by  Harless,  1790-1811);  Bihlintheca  Lalina 
(3  vols,  1697),  new  edition,  1721,  1722,  continued 
by  the  Bibliotheca  Latina,  media:  et  infimm  wtatis 
■(5  vols.,  Hamburg,  173-4-30);  and  tlie  Bibliot/ieca 
Ecclesiastica  (1718).  More  special  theological 
interest  have  his  Co/lex  Apocryphus  N.  T.  (l7()3, 
2  vols.)  and  Codex  Pseudej>i(jra/ihus  V.T.  (1713), 
which  have  not  been  made  entirely  superfluous 
by  the  labors  of  Thilo,  Tischendorf,  Volkniar,  and 
llilgenfeld.  He  also  wrote  a  Hydrolheolorjie  (1730) 
4Uid  a  Pyrotheologie  (1732),  which  now  strike  the 
leader  as  very  curious,  but  suited  the  taste  of  his 
time,  and  were  translated  into  other  languages. 

FACULTY  usually  means  some  power,  inborn 
or  cultivated,  and,  in  the  special  sense,  a  body 
of  men  to  whom  is  given  the  right  to  teach  a 
particular  science  (thus  we  have  the  faculties  of 
theology,  law,  medicine,  and  philosophy)  ;  but  it 
is  also  a  technical  term  of  canon  law  denoting 
the  transference  of  a  certain  power  of  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction  from  the  original  holder  to  a 
subordinate  officer  for  the  purpose  of  speedier  exe- 
-cution.  The  earliest  cases  in  which  such  facul- 
ties were  granted  occurred  in  tlie  middle  ages, 
when  the  Pope  transferred  a  certain  measure  of  his 
power  to  the  missionary  on  account  of  his  neces- 
sary independence  of  papal  oversight  through  his 
distance  from  Rome.  Later  on,  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  similar  faculties  were  granted  to  the 
papal  nuncios  as  a  means  of  insuring  a  prompter 
enforcement  of  the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  of  giving  strength  and  energy  to  the  Roman- 
Catholic  mission  in  Protestant  Germany.  As, 
under  these  circumstances,  conflicts  would  now 
and  then  arise  between  the  papal  nuncios  and  the 
bishops,  the  latter  generally  received  the  same 
faculties,  though  only  for  a  certain  length  of  time ; 
as,  for  instance,  five  years  (facullales  quinquen- 
nales).  Bishops  may  also  grant  faculties,  trans- 
ferring to  their  vicars-general,  oflicials,  deacons, 
■or  priests,  some  measure  either  of  their  own 
authority  {auctoritas  ordinarla  or  propria),  or  of 
that  granted  to  them  by  the  Pope  (ciucloritas  apos- 
tolica).    See  Papal  Nux'cios.  mejeb. 

The  word  is  used  in  England  in  the  sense  of  a 
special  dispensation  to  do  what  by  law  could  not 
be  done.  Under  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
there  is  a  special  court,  called  the  "  Court  of 
Faculties,"  presided  over  by  the  "Master  of  Facul- 
ties," which  has  the  power  to  grant  these  dispen- 
sations ;  usually  for  such  purposes  as  marriages 
without  previous  asking  of  the  banns,  ordinations 
of  deacons  under  age,  the  succession  to  a  benefice 
on  the  part  of  the  clergyman's  son,  etc.  In  this 
court  are  also  registered  the  certificates  of  bishops 
imd  noblemen  granted  to  their  chaplains  to  qualify 
them  for  pluralities  and  non-residence. 

FACUNDUS,  Bishop  of  Hermiane,  in  the  North- 
African  province  of  Byzacena,  was  one  of  the 
bishops  whom  Justinian,  in  5-14.  summoned  to 
Constantinople  in  order  to  get  the  Three  Chapters 
condemned,  and  an  agi-eement  established  with 
the  Western  Church.  The  emperor  failed  in 
his  purpose.  Facundus  wrote  his  twelve  books 
{Pro  defensione  trium  capihdorum);  and,  when  the 
African  bishop  broke  off  communion  with  the 
Roman  bishop  Vigilius,  he  wrote  Contra  Mntia- 
num  scholaxticum  in  defence  of  their  action.  Of 
his  later  life  nothing  is  known.  His  work,  which 
-was  first  edited  by  Sirmond,  then  in   Gallandi 


{BiU.  Max.,  XII.  1-124)  and  Migne  {Putrol.  Lai., 
LXVII.  7()2),  has  more  interest  from  an  ecclesi- 
astico-political  than  from  a  dogmatic  point  of 
view.  He  wrote  not  so  much  in  order  to  justify 
Theodore  and  Theodoret,  as  in  order  to  restrain 
the  emperor  from  interfering  in  the  affairs  of  the 

Church.  C.   HAUENBACH. 

FAGIUS,  Paul  (Buchlin),  b.  at  Rheinzabern,  in 
the  Palatinate,  1504 ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Nov.  13, 
1549;  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Strassburg,  espe- 
cially Hebrew,  under  W.  Capito,  and  afterwards 
under  the  celebrated  Elias  Levita ;  and  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  school  at  Isny  in  1537.  and 
professor  of  theology,  and  preacher  in  Strassburg, 

1543.  But,  when  the  Interim  was  introduced  in 
Strassburg,  he  emigrated  to  England,  where  he 
was  well  received,  and  made  professor  in  Hebrew 
at  Cambridge  in  1549.  Most  of  his  writings  (.SVn- 
tentice  sapientium  Hebrceorum,  1541;  Aniiotalione:i 
in   Targum,  1546;  Isaijoge  in  linguam  Hebrcsicain, 

1544,  etc.)  refer  to  his  Hebrew  studies;  and  as 
a  teacher  of  Hebrew  he  exercised  considerable 
influence  in  that  direction  of  mediation  which 
characterized  the  school  of  Strassburg.  Under  the 
reign  of  Mary  his  bones  were  dug  up  and  burnt. 
His  Life,  in  Latin,  is  found  in  Pantaleon, 
Prosoqraphia,  Basel,  1505.  W.VGENMANN. 

FAGNANI,  Prosper,  b.  1.598;  d.  in  Rome,  1678; 
practised  as  an  advocate  with  great  success  in 
Rome ;  was  for  fifteen  years  secretary  to  the 
Conyregatio  Cone.  Trid.  Interpret.,  and  afterwards 
professor  in  canon  law  at  the  academy  of  Rome. 
On  the  instance  of  Alexander  VII.  he  wrote  a 
commentary  on  the  decretals,  1001,  which  has 
been  often  republished,  and  is  frequently  ap- 
pealed to  by  the  canonists.  He  was  blind  from 
his  forty-fourth  year. 

FAIRBAIRN,  Patrick,  b.  at  Greenlaw,  Berwick- 
shire, Scotland,  January,  1805;  d.  at  Glasgow, 
Aug.  0, 1874.  He  was  graduated  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  after  many  years'  pastoral 
experience  was  professor  at  Aberdeen,  and,  from 
1856  to  his  death,  principal,  and  professor  of  sys- 
tematic theology  and  New-Testament  exegesis,  in 
the  Free  Church  Theological  College  at  Glasgow. 
Principal  Fairbairn  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Free  Church.  His  scholarship  was  respectable, 
and  his  books,  especially  the  Typology,  are  useful. 
In  person  he  was  of  commanding  figure.  His 
principal  works,  which  are  published  in  Edin- 
burgh, are.  The  Typology  of  Scripture,  1847,  2  vols., 
6th  ed.,  1880;  Ezekiel  and  his  Book  of  Prophecy, 
1851,  4th  ed.,  1876  ;  Prophecy  viewed  in  its  Distinc- 
tive Nature,  its  Special  Functions,  and  its  Proper 
Interpretation,  1856,  2d  ed.,  1866;  Hermeneutical 
Manual,  1858 ;  Revelation  of  Law  in  Scripture, 
1868;  The  Pastoral  Epistles,' IS" i;  Pastoral  The- 
ology, icith  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  the  A  ulhor,  1875. 
He  also  edited  The  Imperial  Bible  Dictionary,  Lon- 
don, 1867,  2  vols,  royal  8vo,  and  translated,  in 
part,  Schroder's  Commentary  upon  Ezekiel,  in 
the  American  edition  by  Lange,  N.Y.,  1870. 

FAITH  (m'ffTif).  All  personal  relations  in  human 
life  rest  on  faith.  1  can  respect  no  one,  unless  I 
believe  him  possessed  of  some  excellences  of 
nature  and  character:  I  can  love  no  one,  unless 
I  believe  him  possessed  of  some  affinity  to  me,  — 
naturally  in  the  blood,  or  spiritually  in  the  mind. 
In  human  life,  faith  is  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween man  and  m«n.     Thereby  it  becomes  the 


FAITH. 


796 


FALASHAS. 


latent  source  from  which  all  individual  develop- 
ment springs,  mental  and  spiritual.  Man  was 
made  for  faith,  and  it  is  faith  that  makes  the 
man.  He  who  has  lost  his  power  of  faith,  his 
faculty  of  belief,  is  dead.  But  in  no  relation  is 
this  more  true  than  in  man's  relation  to  God. 

With  respect  to  its  form,  faith  is  not  a  simple 
opinion  formed  by  the  intellect,  and  differing 
from  cognition  only  by  the  subjective  character 
of  its  evidences.  The  Church  distinguishes  be- 
tween a  fiiles  liislorica  ("historic  faith")  and  a 
Jifles  salrifica  ("saving  faith").  The  latter  is  a 
movement  of  the  heart,  of  all  the  fundamental 
powers  of  the  soul,  of  the  very  roots  of  the  per- 
sonality; and  hence  it  is  propagated  to  all  the 
branches:  it  involves  knowledge,  it  stirs  up  the 
feelings,  it  acts  upon  the  will.  Knowledge,  assent, 
and  trust  are  all  demanded  in  faith  according  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  None  of 
them  can  be  entirely  missing :  but  their  measure 
may  be  very  different,  according  to  the  different 
stand-point  of  the  individual. 

The  object  of  faith  cannot  be  seen  by  the  eyes, 
nor  can  it  be  grasped  by  the  understanding :  it 
belongs  to  the  realm  of  the  invisible,  the  spirit- 
ual, the  divine  (Heb.  xi.  1.  6  ;  1  Pet.  i.  8 ;  2  Cor. 
V.  16;  John  xx.  29).  But  this  invisible,  spiritual, 
divine,  is  not  something  unknowable :  it  proves 
itself  to  the  inner  man.  The  absolute  object 
of  faith  is  the  revelation  of  God  to  mankind, 
originating  in  his  love,  and  making  his  holiness 
manifest:  and  the  centre  of  this  revelation,  the 
true  fulfilment  in  relation  to  which  all  preceding 
preparations  are  only  accommodations  to  the  sus- 
ceptibility of  the  race  (I>uke  xxiv.  25,  26;  Heb.  i.), 
is  the  incarnation  of  God  in  Christ.  Faith,  in 
the  absolute  sense  of  the  word,  is  therefore  a 
personal  and  spiritual  union  with  Christ,  through 
which  we  become  one  with  him,  as  he  is  one  with 
the  Father. 

This  union  with  Christ  man  cannot  accomplish 
by  his  own  efforts:  (iod  himself  must  awaken 
the  new  life  in  his  .soul  (John  vi.  29;  1  Cor.  ii.  5). 
It  is  the  Holy  Spirit  who  works  the  faith  in  the 
heart;  and  the  means  by  which  he  does  this  is 
the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God,  tlie  preaching 
of  the  grace  of  Christ  (Rom.  x.  17 ;  1  Cor.  i.  21). 
But  the  soul  can  prejiare  itself  for  the  coming 
of  the  new  life  by  abandoning  all  confidence  in 
itself  and  in  the  world,  and  by  lireaking  all  the 
selfish  instincts  under  which  it  labors;  and  when, 
by  repentance,  it  has  made  itself  a  fit  receptacle 
for  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  that  movement 
of  the  licart  will  follow  which  is  tlie  faith,  —  the 
faith  by  wliicli  sins  are  forgiven  (Acts  xxvi.  liS), 
and  man  is  made  just  before  God  (Rom.  iii.  20; 
V.  1;  (lal.  iii.  21). 

The  Roman-Catholic  Church,  proceeding  from 
James,  teaches  that  justification  is  by  faith  and 
works.  But  though  it  defines  faith  as  meaning 
belief,  not  simply  as  an  opinion,  but  as  a  convic- 
tion that  "  those  things  are  true  which  (iod  has 
revealed  and  promised,  anil  this  especially,  that 
God  justifies  the  impious  by  his  grace  through 
the  redemption  that  is  in  Christ  Jesus"  (Com-. 
Trill.,  sens.  VI.  c.  li),  it  nevertheless  confines  faith 
to  the  sphere  of  the  intellect,  and  only  expects 
an  influence  from  thfnce  upon  the  feelings  and 
the  will.  In  its  further  development  in  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church,  this  doctrine  led  to  a 


direct  deterioration  of  the  idea  of  faith.  From  a 
living  agency  in  the  human  soul,  faith  became 
a  merely  passive  obedience  to  the  authority  of 
the  Church;  and  such  an  emphasis  was  laid  upon 
the  merits  of  works,  that  morality  itself  was 
corrupted.  This  aberration  has  been  happily 
corrected  by  the  Reformed  churches.  Proceed- 
ing from  Paul,  they  teach  that  justification  is 
by  faith  alone ;  but  faith  they  define,  not  as  a 
merely  intellectual  process  of  acceptation,  but  as 
the  true,  vitalizing  point  of  the  whole  life  of  the 
soul.  SCHOBERLEEN. 

FAITH,  Rule  of.     See  Regula  Fidei. 

FAKIR  (Arabic  poor  man),  a  class  of  Hindoo 
religious  mendicants,  numbering  now  perhaps 
two  millions,  and  found  in  India  from  very  early 
times.  They  are  noted  for  their  self-inflicted 
tortures,  by  which  they  excite  pity,  and  obtain 
the  reputation  of  "saints;"  so  that,  although  the 
people  have  little  respect  for  them,  they  dread 
their  curses,  and  the  very  rai/aJi  will  rise  up  on 
his  elephant  to  salute  them.  The  British  Ciovern- 
ment  has  greatly  curtailed  their  liberty  to  injure 
themselves,  and  forbidden  their  going  around 
perfectly  nude.  It  is  questioned  whether  there 
is  any  religious  sentiment  in  their  performances. 
According  to  the  oft-quoted  summary  of  Hassan 
al-Bassri,  a  fakir  is  like  a  dog  in  ten  things : 
(1)  he  is  always  hungry;  (2)  he  has  no  sure 
abiding-place;  (3)  he  watches  by  night;  (4)  he 
never  abandons  his  master,  even  when  maltreated; 
(5)  he  is  satisfied  with  the  lowest  place;  (6)  he 
yields  his  place  to  whoever  wishes  it;  (7)  he 
loves  whoever  beats  him;  (S)  keeps  quiet  while 
others  eat;  (9)  accompanies  his  master  without 
ever  thinking  of  returning  to  the  place  he  has 
left;  (10)  and  leaves  no  heritage  after  death. 
Fakirs  go  either  singly  or  in  companies.  They 
were  formerly  a  dangerous  element  in  Hindoo 
life,  fpr  their  fanaticism  nerved  them  for  deeds 
of  great  cruelty. 

FALASHAS  (eriVc.s),  a  people  in  Abyssinia,  who 
are  either  Jews,  or,  more  probablj',  descendants  of 
proselytes  to  Judaism,  and  wliose  belief  and 
practice  is  a  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Paganism. 
There  is  no  authentic  information  when  they 
came  into  the  country.  They  pretend  to  belong 
to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  but  their  ajipearance  is  not 
Jewish.  Tliat  they  were  early  converted  to 
Judaism  is  manifest  from  their  ignorance  of  both 
the  Babylonian  and  Jerusalem  Talmud,  of  the 
fringed  praying-scarf  (tukl/i),  of  plii/laclcrics.  and 
of  the  Feasts  of  Purim  and  Dedication.  They 
are  also  entirely  ignorant  of  Hebrew;  yet  they 
possess  in  Geez  the  canonical  and  apocryphal 
books  of  the  Old  Testament;  a  volume  of  ex- 
tracts from  the  Pentateuch,  with  comments  given 
to  Moses  by  the  Lord,  upon  iMoiuit  Sinai;  The 
f.dir.'!  of  the  Snbhalh  :  the  Anii/,  a  liook  of  secrets 
revealed  to  twelve  saints,  which  is  used  as  a 
charm  against  di-sease  ;  lives  of  .\br,aham,  Moses, 
etc.  ;  ami  a  translation  of  .losepluis,  called  Sana 
Aihml.  'i'hny  practise  ciremncision ;  fast  every 
Monday  andTliursday.  every  new  moon,  and  on 
the  Passover;  keep  the  .Sabbath  with  such  strict- 
ness th.it  they  w-ili  not  even  i>iit  on  thi'ir  clothes 
upon  it  :  and  observe  the  Feasts  of  the  I'assover, 
the  Ingathering,  Tabernacles  (although  they  do 
not  build  booths),  the  Day  of  Assembly,  and 
Abraham's  Day.      But  joined  to  these  Jewish 


PALK  LAWS. 


797 


FAMILISTS, 


rites  are  Pagan  ones,  such  as  the  shedding  of 
the  blood  of  a  sheep  or  a  fowl  in  a  n('w  house  in 
order  to  render  it  inhabitable,  the  use  of  fire 
in  purification  of  unchastity,  and  the  worship  of 
the  goddess  Sanbat,  really  the  Sabbath  personi- 
fied. jMonasticism  exists  among  tliein :  but  the 
priests  are  free  to  marry  once  ;  if  their  wives  die, 
they  are  prohibited,  like  the  Greek  priest,  from 
a  second  union.  Education,  which  is  imparted 
only  to  boys,  is  in  the  priests'  hands.  No  one 
can  be  a  priest,  who  himself,  or  whose  father  or 
grandfather,  has  eaten  bread  with  a  Christian. 
The  Falashas  are  superstitious,  and  believers  in 
magic.  They  offer  sacrifices  for  the  dead  on  the 
third  day,  up  to  which  time  they  believe  these 
souls  dwell  in  a  place  of  darkness ;  but  every 
morning  for  seven  days  they  formally  lament 
them.  Prayers  for  the  dead  are  offered  in  the 
synagogues. 

The  Falashas  are  industrious  and  peaceable, 
dwell  in  villages  of  their  own,  for  the  most  part, 
which  it  is  said  can  be  easily  recognized  by  the 
red  clay  pots  on  the  tops  of  their  synagogues. 
Their  exact  number  is  unknown,  —  perhaps  about 
a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand.  See  Flad  :  Fa- 
lashas of  Abyssinia  (trans,  from  the  German), 
London,  186!t;  J.  IIalevy:  Tracels  in  Abyssinia 
(trans,  from  the  French),  London,  1878. 

FALK  LAWS,  The  (also  called  the  "May 
Laws"),  is  the  name  generally  applied  to  a  series 
of  laws  carried  through  the  Prussian  diet,  in  the 
period  between  1872  and  1875,  by  Dr.  Falk,  at 
that  time  Minister  of  Cultus  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion and  Sanitary  Affairs  in  Prussia.  In  March, 
1872,  the  first  of  these  laws  was  passed,  transfer- 
ring the  superintendence  of  the  primary  schools 
from  the  Church  to  the  State,  by  ordering  that 
the  school-inspector  should  be  a  layman.  In 
.June  followed  a  ministerial  order,  prohibiting 
the  members  of  religious  orders  to  teach  in  the 
schools,  and  thereby  still  further  limiting  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Roman-Catholic  clergy  on  the 
school.  Next,  the  laws  of  November,  1872,  and 
March,  1873,  materially  narrowed  the  bishop's 
power  over  the  inferior  clergy,  and  the  clergy's 
power  over  the  laity,  whereby  the  whole  ecclesi- 
astical law  of  the  country  was  radically  changed ; 
and  at  the  same  time  a  royal  ecclesiastical  court 
was  established,  enabling  the  government  to 
deal  in  an  effective  manner  with  refractory 
bishops.  A  law  of  March,  1874,  made  civil 
marriage  obligatory  ;  and  another,  of  April,  187.5  ; 
required  the  bishop  and  clergy  to  sign  a  declara- 
tion of  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  State,  before 
entering  upon  office.  At  the  same  time  laws 
were  passed  forbidding  the  religious  orders  liv- 
ing within  the  borders  of  the  Prussian  dominion 
to  receive  new  members,  and  transferring  the 
control  of  the  church  property  of  a  parish  to  a 
board  of  trustees  of  laymen. 

In  the  so-called  Kulturkampf  those  laws  played 
a  most  prominent  part;  that  is,  in  the  contest 
between  the  feeling  of  national  independence  so 
deeply  roused  in  Germany  by  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian war,  and  the  ambitious  aspirations  of  the 
Roman  curia,  so  strongly  pronounced  by  the 
council  of  the  Vatican  and  the  promulgation  of 
the  dogma  of  papal  infallibility.  They  origi- 
nated, as  simple  acts  of  self-defence,  from  "the  side 
of  the   State ;   and   it  was  repeatedly   declared, 


both  by  Dr.  Falk  and  Prince  Bismarck,  that, 
within  the  State,  every  confession  (church)  should 
have  freedom  to  move  and  develop,  but  none  the 
opportunity  of  crippling  the  actions  of  the  State, 
or  using  the  secular  power  for  particular  denomi- 
national purposes,  or  of  eluding  its  civil  duties, 
under  pretence  of  some  religious  prescript.  "  We 
will  never  go  to  Canassa"  (Nach  Canossa  r/e/ien 
wir  nicht)  said  the  chancellor,  May  14,  1872. 
The  Ultramontane  party,  however,  among  the 
Roman-Catholic  clergy  in  Germany,  was  very  far 
from  viewing  the  Falk  Laws  as  merely  defensive 
measures.  On  the  contrary,  it  considered  them 
as  evidences  and  means  of  an  intolerable  tyranny,- 
and  encouraged  by  the  Pope,  whose  encyclical  of 
1874  declared  the  laws  null  and  void,  the  party 
adopted  a  policy  of  bitter  and  unflinching  opposi- 
tion. Several  bishops  were  banished  from  their 
sees ;  and  other  sees,  which  became  vacant  by 
death,  remained  vacant.  A  turn,  however,  took 
place  in  the  course  of  affairs  when  Pius  IX.  died, 
in  1878.  Prince  Bismarck  had  observed  more 
than  once  during  the  contest,  that,  as  the  so-called 
May  Laws  were  merely  defensive  measures,  it 
would  be  possible  to  abandon  them,  or  at  least  to 
modify  them,  when  once  again  there  reigned  a 
'•peaceable  pope"  in  Rome;  and,  indeed,  imme- 
diately after  the  accession  of  Leo  XIII.,  negotia- 
tions concerning  a  modus  vii'enrli  between  Ger- 
many and  the  Pope  were  begun,  and  seem,  on 
account  of  reciprocal  concessions,  likely  to  suc- 
ceed. See  LuDWiG  H.\hn  :  Geschichle  des  Kul- 
turkampfs,  Berlin,  1881  ;  and  the  addresses  by 
Leopold  Witte  and  August  Dorner,  in  Evan- 
gelical Alliance  Conference,  1873,  New  York,  1874. 

FALL  OF  MAN.     See  Sin. 

FAMILIAR  SPIRITS  (from  the  Latin /nmiVm- 
ris,  "  a  household  servant ")  were  the  spirits  sup- 
posed to  be  at  the  service  of  the  necromancers,  by 
which  they  divined,  and  wrought  their  spells  (Lev. 
XX.  27 ;  Deut.  xviii.  11 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii.  7,  8,  and 
many  other  jilaces). 

FAMILIARES  is  the  name  of  certain  lay  mem- 
bers of  monasteries,  such  as  servants,  mechanics, 
etc.,  generally  admitted  as  members  of  the  com- 
munity through  certain  religious  rites.  As  in  the 
middle  ages  they  often  proved  tlie  very  chamiels 
through  which  worldly  tendencies  were  introduced 
into  the  monasteries,  several  popes  insisted  upon 
their  complete  separation  from  the  monks  and  the 
monastic  comnumity. 

FAMILIARS  OF  THE  INQUISITION,  the  offi- 
cers who  ari'ested  suspected  pei'st)ns.  Their  name 
came  from  the  circumstance  that  they  formed  part 
of  the  inquisitor's  family.  Tliey  were  often  men 
of  rank  ;  and  peculiar  spiritual  privileges,  such  as 
indulgences,  were  attached  to  the  position. 

FAMILISTS,  Familia  Charitatis,  Huisde  Liefde, 
a  sect  founded  by  a  certain  Henry  Nicholas,  a 
native  of  Mtinster,  who,  after  living  for  some  time 
in  Holland,  came  to  England  under  the  reign  of 
Edw-ard  Vl.  His  efforts  to  make  proselj-tes  seem 
at  first  to  have  succeeded  quite  well :  even  theolo- 
gians were  found  willing  to  listen  to  his  ideas. 
But  in  loSlI  Elizabeth  ordered  an  investigation, 
and  after  that  time  very  severe  measures  were 
taken  against  the  sect,  which  disappeared  during 
the  reign  of  .Tames  I.  The  ideas  of  Henry  Nicho- 
las are  often  identified  with  tliose  of  David  Joris, 
with  whom  he  lived  in  close  personal  connection. 


FANATICISM. 


798 


FARMER. 


as  his  followers  were  often  confounded  with  the 
Anabaptists,  though  they  acknowledged  the  bap- 
tism of  infants,  and  showed  no  antagonism  to  the 
rituals  of  the  churches.  The  predominant  trait 
of  the  sect  was  its  mysticism,  which  gave  rise  to 
very  peculiar  doctrines  of  Jloses  as  the  prophet 
of  hope,  Christ  as  the  prophet  of  faith,  and  Henry 
Nicholas  as  the  prophet  of  love,  etc.  In  1575 
they  published  a  confession  of  faith,  in  which  they 
endeavored  to  prove  themselves  in  harmony  with 
the  Reformed  Churches.  See  John  Rogers  : 
The  Displaying  of  a  horrible  Sect  naming  them- 
selves the  Family  of  Love,  London,  1579  ;  and 
Kxewstub:  Confutation  of  the  heresies  of  Henry 
Nicholas,  London,  1579.  J.  KOSTLIN. 

FANATICISM  (from  Latin  fanum,  "temple"). 
The  term  "  fanatici "  was  originally  applied  to  all 
priests  wlio  pretended  to  receive  divine  revela- 
tions, and  announced  oracles,  but  more  especiaUy 
to  the  priests  of  Cybele  and  Bellana,  who  were 
noted  for  their  wild  enthusiasm.  In  the  writings 
of  the  satirists,  Horace,  Juvenal,  etc.,  the  word 
graduallj-  changed  its  sense,  and  came  to  imply 
something  of  a  fraudulent  inspiration,  consisting 
of  hollow  excitement  and  empty  visions.  In  this 
sense  it  was  still  used  in  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries,  when  applied,  for  instance, 
to  Cromwell,  Mohammed,  the  prophets  of  the 
Church  of  the  Desert,  etc.  At  present  the  term 
"fanaticism"  denotes  a  state  of  the  mind  in  which 
enthusiasm  for  an  idea  has  been  transformed  into 
mere  hatred  of  its  opposite. 

FAREL,  Guillaume,  b.  at  Gap,  in  Dauphiny, 
1489 ;  d.  at  X.-ufchatel,  Sept.  13,  1565 ;  studied 
in  Paris,  and  was  appointed  professor  in  tlie  col- 
lege of  Cardinal  le  Moine  on  tlie  recommendation 
of  Lefevre  d'Etaples  (Faber  Stapulensis).  His 
reformatory  activity  he  began  in  the  diocese  of 
Meaux,  under  the  auspices  of  Guillaume  Bricjon- 
net ;  but  in  1523  he  was  compelled  to  fly  by  the 
beginning  persecutions.  He  went  to  Basel,  where 
he  was  cordially  received  by  (Eoolampadius ;  but 
his  disputations,  lectm-es,  and  preachings  in  that 
city,  came  to  a  sudden  end  in  1524 :  he  was  ex- 
pelled, probably,  on  the  instance  of  Erasmus. 
After  a  short  stay  in  Strassburg  and  Mompel- 
gardt,  he  returned  to  Switzerland  in  1525,  and 
began  to  preacli  the  Reformation  in  various  places 
belonging  under  the  authority  of  Berne,  —  Aigle, 
Morat,  Grandson,  Biel,  etc.,  —  often  witli  danger 
o^life,  but  generally,  also,  with  eminent  success. 
After  a  visit  to  the  Waldenses,  lie  came  in  15:32 
to  (ieneva;  and  the  first  establishment  of  the 
Reformation  in  that  city  is  his  work.  In  spite  of. 
a  bitter  and  protracted  opposition,  the  religious 
edict  of  Aug.  27,  153.5,  was  issued  ;  and  it  was  fol- 
low'ed  by  the  confession  of  Geneva  (written  by 
Calvin)  and  the  settlement  of  Calvin  in  the  city. 
By  the  victory  of  a  short-lived  re-a('tion,  both 
Farel  and  Calvin  were  expelled  in  1538.  Farel 
went  to  Neufchatel,  and  thence  to  Metz ;  and  in 
the  latter  city,  as  well  as  in  the  neighlioring 
Gorze,  he  labored  with  gieat  success  for  the  es- 
tal>lishnient  of  the  Reformation.  But  at  (Jor/.e 
the  Evangelicals  were  surrounded  in  1.543  by  the 
troojw  of  tlie  Cardinal  of  l^orraine;  and  a  great 
number  of  them  were  massacred.  Farel  fled  in 
<liHguise,  visited  Abimpclgardt  and  liis  native  town, 
Gap,  and  continued  to  labor  for  the  Reformation, 
preaching  and   writing  to  the  very  day  of  ih.s 


deatli.  As  a  theologian  he  does  not  occupy  a 
place  in  the  foremost  rank  ;  but  practically  he  was 
one  of  the  boldest,  as  he  w'as  one  of  the  first,  of 
the  French  reformers.  Among  his  most  noticea- 
ble works  are  :  Sommaire,  1534,  new  ed.  by  Baum, 
(ieneva,  1867;  Des  Actes  de  la  dispute  de  Rive, 
1535  (first  ed.,  Dufour,  Geneva,  1885)  :  Du  vrai 
usage  de  la  croixde  Jesus  Christ,  1540,  new  edition, 
Paris,  1865;  Traitc  de  purgaloire,  1543;  La  glaire 
de  la  parole  veritable,  15.50;  Traitc  de  la  Cine,  1555, 
etc.     There  is  no  collected  edition  of  his  works. 

Lit.  —  His  biographj-  was  first  written  anony- 
mously (probably  by  Olivier  Perrot;  compare 
l-lALhER,Biblioth.d.  Schiceitzergesch.,  III.  Xo.  781), 
then  by  Ancillox,  Amsterdam,  1691  (French); 
KiRCHHOFER,  Zurich,  2  vols.,  1831-33  (German); 
Schmidt,  Elberfeld,  1860  (German) ;  Junod, 
Paris,  1885  (French)  ;  and  Goguel,  Neufchatel, 
1873  (French).  hagenbach. 

FAR  FA,  one  of  the  most  famous  monasteries  of 
Italy  in  the  middle  ages ;  situated  on  the  Farfa, 
in  Central  Italy ;  was  twice  destroyed,  —  in  the 
seventh  century  by  the  Lombards,  and  in  the 
tenth  by  the  Saracens,  —  but  both  times  rebuilt. 
Shortly'  after  its  second  rebuilding  it  became 
very  notorious  on  account  of  the  licentiousness 
and  dissipation  of  its  monks.  In  the  eleventh 
century,  however,  order  was  thoroughly  re-estab- 
lished, and  to  that  time  belongs  the  celebrated 
Chronicon  Farfense,  by  the  Abbot  Gregory  (A. 
1 100),  edited  by  Mm-atori :  Script.  Rer.  ItaL,  T. 
II.  p.  ii. 

FARINDON,  Anthony,  b.  at  Sunning,  Berk- 
shire, 1596 ;  d.  in  London,  September,  1658.  He 
was  educated  at  Oxford ;  suft'ered  much  as  a 
royalist  during  the  civil  war,  until  he  came  under 
the  patronage  of  Sir  John  Robinson,  an  alderman 
of  London,  who  secured  for  him  the  pastorship  of 
St.  Mary  Magdalen's,  London,  in  which  position 
he  died.  Competent  judges  have  pronounced  him 
the  best  preacher  in  the  Church  of  England  of 
that  age.  He  was  the  recognized  preacher  for 
preachers,  and  gave  solid  and  edifying  discourses. 
His  Sermons  appeared  in  4  folio  volumes,  1657- 
73;  new  ed.,  with  Life,  by  F.  Jackson,  London, 
1849,  4  vols. 

FARMER,  Hugh,  a  learned  and  able  Dissent- 
ing minister;  b.  near  Shrewsbury,  Eng.,  1714; 
d.  at  Walthamstow,  in  Essex,  Feb.  6,  1787.  He 
was  jxistor  of  A\'althamslow  for  forty  years.  In 
1761  he  removed  to  J>ondon,  to  become  afternoon 
preacher  at  Salter's  Hall,  and  one  of  the  Tues- 
day lecturers.  His  ])rincipal  publications,  which 
evince  his  indepeiulencc  and  scholarship,  and  are 
still  read,  are:  An  Im/uii-y  into  the  Nature  and 
Design  of  Christ's  Temptation  in  the  Wilderness, 
Lonil.,  1761,  3d  ed.,  1776,  new  ed.,  1822  (in  which 
ho  contended  tliat  our  Lord's  temptation  was 
subjective,  a  divine  vision,  and  not  real  and 
objective);  A  Dissertation  on  Miracles,  designed  to 
show  that  they  arc  Arguments  of  a  Divine  Interposi- 
tion, and  Absolute  Proifs  of  the  Mission  and  Doc- 
trine of  a  Prophet,  1771,  new  ed.,  1810;  An  Essay 
on  the  Demoniacs  of  the  New  Testament,  1775,  3d 
ed.,  1818  (these  were,  he  maintained,  merely  per- 
sons .strongly  affected  by  certain  iliseases.  This 
work  is  a  classic  with  those  who  hold  (his  view)  ; 
The  (General  I'revalence  of  the  Worshiii  of  Human 
Spirits  in  the  Ancient  and  Heathen  Nations  asserted 
and  proved,  1783.     See  DonsoN,  Memoirs  of  the 


FARNOVIUS. 


799 


FASTING. 


Life  and  Writings  of  the  Rev.  Hugli  Farmer,  Lond., 
1805. 

FARNOVIUS  (Stanislaus  FarnowskI),  one  of 
tlie principal  leaders  of  tlie  Poli.sli  anti-trinitarians 
ill  the  sixteenth  century ;  studied  in  Heidelberg ; 
became  a  disciple  of  Petrus  Gonesius,  and  formed 
a  Unitarian  party,  the  Farnovians,  which,  how- 
•ever,  amalgamated  with  the  Socinians  immedi- 
ately after  his  death.  See  Bock:  Hist.  Antitrini- 
I'lrinrum,  Konigsberg,  1774-84,  2  vols. 

FARTHING.     See  Money. 

FASTIDIUS,  a  Christian  writer  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, and  one  of  the  few  literary  representatives 
•of  the  ancient  Briton  Church.  What  we  know 
■of  his  life  we  owe  to  a  few  critically  uncertain 
notices  in  Gennadius  {Catal.  vir.  ill.,  56),  which 
have  given  rise  to  many  untenable  and  self-con- 
tradictory speculations.  The  only  certain  facts 
■are,  that  he  was  a  Briton  by  birth,  and  lived 
about  420.  His  book  De  vitu  C/irixtiana  was 
originally  printed  anonymously  among  the  works 
of  Augustine,  until  Holstenius  discovered  the 
true  author,  and  published  the  work  separately, 
Eome,  1603.  It  shows  a  strong  Pelagian  ten- 
■dency. 

FASTING,  among  the  Hebrews.  Properly 
speaking,  there  was  only  one  divinely-ordained 
public  fast,  —  that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement  (cf . 
Lev.  xvi.  29  sq.,  xxiii.  27  sq. ;  Num.  xxix.  7). 
But  it  was  quite  in  accordance  with  tlie  will  of 
Ood,  and  the  spirit  of  the  Old-Testament  dispen- 
sation, that  when  great  national  calamities  had 
overtaken  Israel,  or  great  national  wants  arose, 
or  great  national  sins  were  to  be  confessed,  a  day 
•of  public  fasting  and  humiliation  should  be  pro- 
■claimed  (cf.  Judg.  xx.  26 ;  1  Sam.  vii.  6 ;  1  Kings 
xxi.  27 ;  2  Chron.  xx.  3).  During  the  Babylon- 
ish captivity  the  Jews  observed  four  other  fasts, 
—  the  fasts  of  the  fourtli,  the  fifth,  the  seventh, 
and  the  tenth  months  (Zech.  vii.  1-7,  viii.  19). 
"  The  fast  of  the  fourth  month "  took  place  on 
the  17th  of  Thammuz  (about  June  or  .July),  in 
memory  of  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebu- 
-chadnezzar,  and  the  interruption  of  the  daily 
sacrifice.  According  to  tradition  it  was  also  the 
anniversary  of  making  the  golden  calf,  and  of 
JMoses  breaking  the  tables  of  the  law.  "The 
fast  of  the  fifth  month,"  on  the  9th  of  Ab,  was 
kept  in  memory  of  the  destruction  of  the  first 
(and  afterwards  of  tlie  second)  temple.  "  The 
fast  of  the  seventh  month,"  on  the  2d  of  Tishri, 
■commemorates  the  death  of  Gedaliah  and  his 
associates  at  Mizpah  (Jer.  xli.  2).  "The  fast 
of  the  tenth  month  "  was  on  the  10th  of  Tebeth, 
when  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
commenced. 

To  these  fasts  has  been  added  that  of  Esther, 
kept  on  the  13th  of  Adar  (Esth.  iv.  16).  Besides 
these  six  fasts,  the  Jewish  calendar  at  present 
contains  other  twenty-two  fast-days.  But  that  is 
not  all.  It  was  customary  to  fast  twice  a  week 
(Luke  sviii.  12);  viz.,  on  Jfonday  and  Thui-sda.y, 
because,  according  to  tradition,' Moses  went  lip 
^Mount  Sinai  the  second  time  to  receive  the  tallies 
•of  the  law  on  a  Thursday,  and  came  down  again 
on  a  INIonday.  Very  minute  directions  concern- 
ing fasting  are  contained  in  the  Talmudical  trea- 
tise Taa7iith.  The  Essenes  regularly  fasted  as  a 
means  of  subduing  the  flesh,  often  eating  nothing 
■for  three  days  in  succession.     The  present  .Jews 


fast  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  wearing  a  wliite 
.shroud  and  cap :  hence  the  fast  is  called  "  the 
white  fast."  (Jn  other  days,  mourning  is  worn : 
hence  they  are  called  "black  fasts."  Comp.  the 
art.  Fasten,  in  Kiehm's  Handivijrlerhuch  des  hiU. 
Altertkums,  Hambiihger's  Real-Ennjclopudie  fUr 
Bihel  u.  Talmud,  Wimeh's  Bihl.  Realiriirterbtich, 
ScilE^KEh'ti  Bibel-Lexik-on.     I'UESSEL  (B.  PICK). 

FASTING,  In  the  Christian  Church.  Fasting 
appears  as  an  established  practice  already  in  the 
primitive  church  (Acts  xiii.  2,  xiv.  23,  xxvii.  9 ; 
2  Cor.  vi.  5,  etc.),  derived  partly  from  the  disci- 
pline of  the  synagogue,  partly  from  spontaneous 
inspiration.  By  the  Montauists  it  was  considera- 
bly  furthered  (Tertullian,  De  jejunio),  and  still 
more  so  by  monasticism ;  but  it  developed  differ- 
ently in  the  different  churches. 

I.  The  Chureh  ftf  Rome.  —  The  principal  fast 
of  the  Roman  Church  is  the  so-called  Quadrages- 
imal Fast  before  Easter,  which  a  later  time  has 
designated  as  an  apostolic  tradition  relating  to 
the  precedence  of  Moses  (Exod.  xxxiv.  28),  and 
to  the  circumstance  of  our  Lord  lying  forty  hours 
in  the  grave.  Originally  this  fast  lasted  only  forty 
hours,  but  it  was  gradually  extended.  In  the 
fourth  century  it  lasted  three  weeks  in  Rome,  but 
six  ill  Illyi'ia,  Achaia,  Alexandria,  etc. ;  and  this 
latter  term  was  finally  adopted  also  by  Rome. 
As,  however,  there  was  no  fasting  on  Sundays, 
the  six-weeks'  fast  comprised  only  thirty-six  fast- 
days;  and,  in  order  to  reach  the  symbolical  num- 
ber of  forty,  it  became  customary  to  begin  the 
fast  on  the  Wednesday  (Ash- Wednesday)  of  the 
preceding  week.  An  attempt  was  also  made  to 
introduce  a  quadragesimal  fast  before  Christmas 
and  the  day  of  .John  the  Baptist ;  but  the  practice 
never  became  firmly  established.  See  II.  Liemke, 
Die  Qiiadragesimalfasten  der  Kirche,  Munich,  1853. 

Fasting  on  certain  days  of  the  week  is  also  an 
old  custom  of  the  Roman  Church.  The  Pharisees 
fasted  twice  a  week,  —  on  Thursday  and  IMonday, 
—  in  commemoration  of  Moses  ascending  Mount 
Sinai,  and  again  descending  from  it.  The  Chris- 
tians adopted  this  practice,  only  the  days  and 
their  signification  were  changed.  Wednesday  and 
Friday  (feria  quaria  el  sexia)  were  selected  as  the 
days  on  which  our  Lord  was  betrayed  and  cruci- 
fied. These  days  were  called  dies  stalioninn,  the 
life  of  a  Christian  being  compared  to  that  of  a 
soldier  (Tertullian,  De  Oralione,  XIV.).  Wednes- 
day, however,  was  afterwards  dropped  as  a  ^ast- 
day.  The  custom,  prevalent  among  the  Jews 
after  the  exile,  of  keeping  a  fast-day  respectively 
in  the  fourth,  fifth,  seventh,  and  tenth  months,  in 
commemoration  of  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem, 
the  destruction  of  the  temple,  the  murder  of 
Gedaliah,  and  the  beginning  of  the  siege  of  Jeru- 
salem, was  also  adopted  by  the  Christians ;  but, 
in  this  case  too,  both  the  days  and  their  designa- 
tion were  changed.  The  days  were  put  down  as 
days  of  general  fasting  and  prayers,  and  arranged 
so"  that  the  year  thereby  became  divided  into 
four  seasons  (quatuor  tempora)  :  hence  the  name 
of  Cjuatember-fast.  (See  Ember-Days.)  In 
former  times  these  quarter-days  were  also  days 
for  the  collection  of  taxes,  and  hence  called 
ang'or/ff' ("servitude  ").  The  I'if/ilia  (which  see) 
are  also  fast-days ;  and,  besides  these  the  ordinary 
fast-days,  the  Roman  Church  also  appoints  ex- 
traordinary fast-days  on  special  occasions. 


FATALISM. 


800 


FAUSTINUS. 


II.  The  Grttk  Church  has  ou  this  field  devel- 
oped different  practices  in  its  different  sections ; 
but  one  characteristic  mark  is  common  to  them 
all,  —  strictness  in  keeping  the  rules.  The  prin- 
cipal fasts  are:  1.  A  quadragesimal  fast  before 
Easter,  based  on  Matt.  iv.  2 ;  2.  A  quadragesimal 
fast  before  Christmas  (from  Nov.  15  to  Uec.  2-1), 
based  on  Exod.  xxxiv.  28 ;  3.  The  Fast  of  Mary 
(from  Aug.  1  to  Aug.  15)  ;  4.  The  Fast  of  the 
Apostles  (from  the  day  after  Whitsuntide  to  June 
29).  The  old  (/<e.s-  stalionum  (both  ^\'ednesday  and 
Friday)  are  still  retained,  except  between  C'hi-ist- 
raas  and  the  Epiphany,  during  the  third  week 
after  the  Epiphany  (in  opposition  to  the  Arme- 
nians), and  in  the  weeks  following  Easter  and 
Whitsuntide. 

III.  The  Reformed  Churches.  —  The  reformers 
were  by  no  means  averse  to  fasts  ;  but  they  re- 
turned to  the  original  conception  of  them,  as  a 
means  of  self-discipline  and  a  preparation  for 
prayer.  They  rejected  all  compulsory  regula- 
tions of  the  practice,  and  wholly  discarded  the 
idea  of  direct  moral  meritoriousness.  To  this 
purport  Luther  expresses  himself  in  his  commen- 
tary to  Matt.  vi.  16 ;  and  so  does  Calvin  in  his 
Institutiones,  IV.  12,  li,  15 :  '•  Therefore  let  us  say 
something  of  fasting,  Ijecause  many,  for  want  of 
knowing  its  usefulness,  undervalue  its  necessity, 
and  some  reject  it  as  almost  superfluous ;  while, 
on  the  other  hand,  where  the  use  of  it  is  not  well 
understood,  it  easily  degenerates  into  supersti- 
tion. Holy  and  legitimate  fasting  is  directed  to 
three  ends;  for  we  practise  it  either  as  a  restraint 
on  the  flesh,  to  preserve  it  from  licentiousness,  or 
as  a  preparation  for  praj'ers  and  pious  medita- 
tions, or  as  a  testimony  of  our  hmniliation  in  the 
presence  of  God  when  we  are  desirous  of  confess- 
ing our  guilt  before  him."  Accordingly  we  find 
ideas  of  this  or  a  very  similar  character  incor- 
porated with  all  the  confessional  books  of  the 
Reformed  Churches  (Confessio  A uyu.itana,  XXVI. ; 
Conf.  Helvetica  Secnml.,  XXIV.;  Conf.  Bohem., 
XV'III.  ;  Cot,/.  Gall.,  XXIV.;  IVesh/iin.tler  Con- 
fession, XXI.  5),  and  carried  out  practically  in 
Switzerland,  England,  the  United  States,  etc. 
[During  the  civil  war  (ISGl-fio),  the  President 
appointed  days  of  national  fasting,  which  were 
generally  obser\-ed  irrespective  of  denominations.] 

Lit.  —  BoEn.MER  :  ])e  Jure  circa  jejnnanles,  ab- 
slinentes  et  jejunos,  Ilalle,  1722;  Linsen.mayer  : 
Enticicklunij  il.  kircldichcn  FastendiscipUn  his  zum 
KonzU  von'Nirma,  1S77.  n.  F.  JACOBSOX. 

FATALISM  (Latin  faltim)  denotes  the  doctrine 
of  an  irresistible  necessity,  differing,  however, 
from  the  idea  of  nemesis  ^ly  being  the  effect  of 
an  external,  arliitrary  power,  ratlier  than  the 
result  of  an  inherent,  inevitable  law.  In  its 
sterner  form,  presenting  itself  as  an  irrevocable 
decree,  it  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  Christian 
idea  of  predestination,  but  has  found  its  only  full 
'■xpre.s.sion  in  the  fanaticism  of  Mohammedanism. 
In  its  more  frivolous  form,  looking  like  a  mere 
haphazard,  it  crept  stealthily  about  in  the  Greek 
philosophy,  and  shows  itself  sometimes,  too,  in 
modern  )iaiilhi'isMi  and  materialism. 

FATHERS  OF  THE  CHURCH.  The  term  is 
applied  to  several  classes  of  piTsons,  —  to  the  patri- 
archs, to  the  rabbins,  to  the  founders  of  churches 
or  denominations,  to  venerable  men  in  churches  or 
denominations,  but  chiefly  to  certain  orthodox 


teachers  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian 
Church.  AVhile  Protestants  refuse  to  accept  the 
authority  of  any  writer  out  of  the  sacred  canon 
as  conclusive  and  final  in  matters  of  doctrine  and 
discipline,  the  other  branches  of  the  Chiuxh 
catholic  appeal  to  many  authors  who  lived  prior 
to  the  eighth  century.  For  the  Latin  Church  the 
line  of  the  fathers  closes  with  Gregory  I.  (d.  60i)j 
for  the  Greek  Chm-ch,  with  John  of  Damasctis 
(d.  754).  The  High-Church  party  of  the  Cliurch 
of  England  place  particular  stress  upon  the  ortho- 
dox writers  prior  to  and  of  the  Xicene  period,  and 
consider  them  especially  worthy  of  attention  as- 
expositors  of  Scripture.  The  study  of  these  early 
writers  is  called  P.\tristics  ;  w  hich  see. 

FAUCHET,  Claude  (commonly  known  as  Abbe' 
Fauchet),  b.  at  Domes,  in  the  department  of 
Xievre,  Sept.  22,  1744 ;  guillotined  in  Paris,  Oct. 
31,  1793;  entered  the  service  of  the  church,  and 
was  rapidly  promoted.  He  was  grand  vicar  of 
tlie  Archbishop  of  Bourges,  preacher  to  the  king, 
and  Abbot  of  Montfort-Lacarre,  in  Brittany ;  but 
his  Discours  sur  les  moeurs  rurales,  delivered  at  the 
festival  of  La  Kosiere,  at  Surenes,  in  1788,  gave 
such  offence  on  account  of  its  opien  sympathy 
with  the  revolutionary  ideas  of  the  time,  that  he 
w-as  deprived  of  his  office  as  preacher  to  the  king. 
When,  shortly  after,  the  revolution  actually  broke 
out,  he  took  his  place  in  the  foremost  rank  of  its 
champions.  He  was  one  of  the  leaders  of  the 
people  in  the  attack  on  the  Bastille  (July  14, 
1789),  and  in  the  next  year  he  delivered  in  the 
rotunda  of  the  corn-market  an  Eloye  cirii/tie  on 
Franklin,  which  appealed  in  the  strongest  manner 
to  the  revolutionary  passions.  Having  contrib- 
uted to  the  re-organization  of  the  church  by  his 
Discours  sur  la  religion  nalionale,  he  was  made 
constitutional  Bishop  of  Calvados  in  1791,  and 
by  his  diocese  sent  to  the  legislative  assembly 
and  the  convention.  In  the  beginning  he  fol- 
lowed the  Jacobins  unhesitatingly ;  but  the  trial 
of  the  king  alarmed  him.  He  spoke  against  the 
proposal  to  put  the  king  to  death,  voted  for  the 
appeal  to  the  people,  etc.,  and,  after  the  execu- 
tion, he  joined  the  (iirondins,  with  whom  he  fell, 
accused,  among  other  things,  of  having  been  privy 
to  the  assassination  of  Marat. 

FAUCHEUR,  Michel  Le,  b.  at  Geneva,  1585; 
d.  at  Charenton,  11)57 ;  was  successively  minister 
of  the  Protestant  congregations  of  Dijon,  Jlont- 
pellier,  and  Charenton,  and  enjoyed  a  great  repu- 
tation as  a  preacher.  Besides  a  number  of 
sermons,  he  published  Truite  de  la  Cine,  Geneva, 
1635,  Train'  de  Paction  de  t'orateur,  Paris,  1G37, 
etc.  His  The  Wor/es  of  Sin  and  the  Reicard  of 
Grace  is  translated  in  Coiihin's  French  Preacher. 

FAUSTINUS,  a  presbyter  of  Rome;  lived  in  the 
second  half  of  tlie  fourth  century,  and  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Athanasian  controversy. 
As  an  adherent  of  Bishop  Lucifer  of  Cagliari, 
he  wrote  against  the  Arians ;  but  his  works  (De 
Irinitatc  and  Fides),  first  jiublished  in  Home  (1575), 
circulated  for  a  time  uncler  the  name  of  (iregorius 
Haeticus,  the  Luciferian  liisho))  of  Elibcri,  or 
Granada,  in  Spain,  until  'I'illeniont  discovered  the 
true  author.  In  the  contest  between  Daniasus 
and  IJrsiiius,  Faiistiniis  sided  witli  the  latter,  and 
)\yh\:i  Libelhix  prtcum  moved 'J'heodosius  to  inter- 
fere. His  collected  works  are  given  in  Mignk, 
Bibt.  Pair.  Alagn.,  XIII.  38. 


FAUSTUS  RBJENSIS. 


801 


FELGENHAUER. 


FAUSTUS  REJENSIS,  or  REGIENSIS,  also 
called  Faustus  the  Breton,  or  of  Uic/,,  an  eccle- 
siastical writer  of  the  fifth  century,  and  one  of 
the  most  important  literary  representatives  of  the 
so-called  Semi-Pelagianism ;  was  b.  in  Britain, 
or  Brittany,  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth,  or 
in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth,  century ;  entered 
the  monastery  of  Lerins  as  a  monk ;  became  its 
abbot  in  434,  and  succeeded  Maximus  in  462  as 
Bishop  of  Reji  or  Regium,  the  present  Riez,  in 
Provence.  In  481  he  was  expelled  from  his  see 
by  Eurich,  king  of  the  West  Goths;  but  he  re- 
turned in  484,  and  staid  at  Reji  till  his  death,  in 
491.  He  wrote  letters  and  tracts  against  the 
Arians  and  IMacedonians  (^Rexponsio  ad  objecta 
iqiueilam  de  ralione  Jfdei  calholices),  against  the 
Nestovians  and  Monophysites  (^Ad  Gratum),  on 
"various  dogmatical  and  ethical  questions,  espe- 
cially on  the  nature  of  the  soul,  whose  corporeality 
Jie  asserted.  He  also  wrote  homilies  and  sermons, 
of  which  especially  the  Six  Sermoncs  ad  Monachos 
are  celebrated ;  but  his  principal  work  is  the  De 
r/ralia  Dei  et  humance  mentis  libera  arbitrio  tihri  II. 
In  474  the  Gallic  presbyter  Lucidus  gave  a  rather 
coarse-grained  exposition  of  Augustine's  ideas  of 
grace  and  predestination.  Faustus  answered, 
first  in  a  Epistola  ad  Lucidum,  and  then  in  the 
above-mentioned  work.  In  this  book  he  refutes 
Pelagius,  whom  he  calls  pestiferus ;  but  he  also 
rejects  Augustine,  though  he  calls  him  quidam 
sanctorum.  He  attempts  to  take  up  an  intei"me- 
•diate  position,  and  he  does  it  with  great  adroit- 
ness and  no  small  acumen.  The  book  proved  a 
great  success  in  Gallia;  but  in  Constantinople  and 
A'orth  Africa  it  met  with  bitter  opposition,  and 
llormisdas  afterwards  declared  that  its  author 
does  not  belong  among  those  whom  the  church 
calls  its  fathers.  A  collected  edition  of  Faustus' 
works  does  not  exist ;  but  most  of  them  may  be 
found  in  BiU.  Patr.  Magna,  T.  V.  Pars  III.  500; 
Hibl.  Lugd.,  VIII.;  Migne  :  Patrol.  Lat.,  LVIII., 
•etc.  WAGENMANN. 

FAUSTUS  THE  MANICH/EAN  was  an  African 
by  birth,  a  native  of  Milevis ;  settled  in  383  in 
"Carthage,  but  was  in  386  banished  by  Messianus. 
He  was  the  chief  of  the  Manichasans  of  Africa, 
and  wrote  a  work  against  Christianity ;  but  he,  as 
"well  as  his  book,  is  known  to  us  only  through 
Augustine,  who  at  one  time  wanted  his  instruc- 
tion (Confessiones,  V.  3,  6,  7,  etc.),  and  afterwards 
wrote  against  him.  Contra  Fauslum. 

FAWKES,  Guy.     See  Gunpowder  Plot. 

FEAST  OF  ASSES.     See  Asses,  Feast  of. 

FEAST  OF  FOOLS.  The  celebration  of  the 
Pagan  Saturnalia  on  Jan.  1  was  continued  in  the 
Christian  Church,  and  almost  without  restraint, 
although  the  church  tried  to  give  the  festival  a 
Christian  character  by  celebrating  it  in  honor  of 
the  circumcision  of  Christ.  From  Italy  the  festi- 
val was  introduced  into  the  whole  Western 
Church ;  and  in  the  twelfth  century  it  was  every- 
where celebrated  in  Spain,  France,  Germany,  and 
England,  and  generally  in  a  most  wanton  way. 
A  boy-bishop  was  elected,  and  surrounded  by  boy- 
abbots,  boy-deacons,  etc.  He  conducted  service 
in  the  church,  generally  on  some  day  between 
Christmas  and  New  Year,  interspersing  the  litur- 
gical acts  with  travesties  and  parodies  of  the 
coarsest  description,  but  all  to  the  greatest  amuse- 
ment of  the  congregation.  In  the  thirteenth 
52-1 


century  the  church  tried  seriously  to  stop  this 
disturbance  :  council  after  council,  pojie  after 
pope,  forbade  it,  but  in  vain.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
Reformation  and  the  secular  authorities  which 
finally  put  a  stop  to  the  scandal.  In  Ducange, 
Glossarium,  is  found  a  complete  ceremonial  for  the 
whole  feast,  written  out  in  130i»,  at  Viviers,  in 
Southern  France.  See  Du  Tillikh,  Memoires 
pour  servir  a  ihistoire  de  la  fete  des  J'ous,  Lau- 
sanne, 1741. 

FEASTS.     See  Festivals. 

FEATHERS'  TAVERN  ASSOCIATION,  a  .so- 
ciety of  three  hundred  English  clergymen,  and 
some  laymen,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  "eighteenth 
century,  demanding  a  revision  of  the  Liturgy  of 
the  Church  of  England.  Amongst  other  changes 
they  sought  the  excision  of  the  danniatory  clauses 
from  the  Athanasian  Creed.  The  organization 
had  a  short  existence,  and  accomplished  nothing. 
The  name  was  taken  from  Feathers'  Tavern,  the 
place  where  they  met.  See  Baxter,  Church 
History  of  Enqland  (Loud.,  1849),  p.  668. 

FEATLY,  Daniel,  D.D.,  the  author  of  The 
Dijypers  Dipt ;  vs'as  b.  at  Charlton,  Oxfordshire, 
March  1.5,  1.582;  d.  at  Chelsea,  April  17,  164.5. 
After  graduating  at  Corpus  Christi  College,  Ox- 
ford, he  went  as  chaplain  with  the  linglisli  am- 
bassador to  the  court  of  France.  Returning  to 
England,  he  became  rector  of  Lambeth,  and  Ln 
1627  of  Acton.  In  1643  he  became  member  of 
the  As.sembly  of  Divines,  and  was  the  last  of  tlie 
Episcopal  members  to  remain,  but  was  expelled 
and  imprisoned  for  revealing  its  proceedings. 
He  is  now  remembered  by  his  work  entitled  The 
Dippers  dipt,  or  the  Anabaptists  duckt  and  pluni/ed 
over  head  If  ears  at  a  disputation  iri  Southwark  (5th 
ed.,  1648).  This  work  against  the  Baptists  origi- 
nated in  a  disputation  he  held  with  four  Baptists 
at  South wark,  in  1641.  In  the  dedication  to  the 
reader,  he  says,  "  I  could  hardly  dip  my  pen  in 
any  thing  but  gall."  Other  works  by  Featly  are  : 
Mystica  Claris,  a  key  opening  divers  difficult  ij'  Jni/s- 
terious  texts  of  Scripture  in  70  sermons,  etc.,  Loud., 
1636;  Ancilla  pietati^,  or  the  handmaid  to  private 
devotion,  etc.,  8th  ed.,  1676. 

FEDERAL  THEOLOGY.     See  Cocceius. 

FEHM  COURT.     See  Vehm  Court. 

FELGENHAUER,  Paul,  b.  at  Putschwitz,  in 
Bohemia,  towards  tlie  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury ;  d.  at  some  unknown  place,  after  1660 ; 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  and  appeared, 
after  his  return  to  his  native  country  in  1620,  as 
a  theosophic  and  mystical  writer.  In  his  Chro- 
nologie  lie  demonstrated  that  the  world  would 
come  to  an  end  before  1705;  in  his  Zeitspiegel  he 
made  a  vehement  attack  on  the  corruption  of  the 
Reformed  Church  and  the  Lutheran  clergy.  Com- 
pelled to  flee  from  Bohemia  in  1623,  on  account 
of  persecutions  directed  against  all  Protestants, 
he  settled  in  Amsterdam,  but  continued  his  liter- 
ary activity,  which  attracted  mucli  attention  in 
Northern  Germany,  especially  in  the  lower  classes. 
The  clergy  began  to  be  alarmed.  They  wrote 
against  him.  When  he  removed  to  Bederkesa, 
near  Bremen,  in  1636,  they  had  him  expelled.  In 
1657  he  was  imprisoned  some  time  at  C'elle,  but 
shortly  after  dropped  out  of  notice.  A  complete 
list  of  his  works  is  given  in  Adelung:  Geschichte 
d.  menschl.  Narrheit.  IV.  400  .sqq. ;  Stark  :  Liibeck- 
ische  Kirchengeschichte,  p.  790.        HAGKNBACH. 


FELICISSIMUS. 


802 


FELIX. 


FELICISSIMUS  was  appointed  deacon  in  the 
Church  of  Carthage  by  tlie  presbj-ter  Xovatus, 
■without  the  assent  of  Cyprian,  and  belonged  to 
that  party  which  represented  the  aristocratical 
and  presbyterian  system  of  government  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  monarcliical  and  episcopal  system,  rep- 
resented by  Cyprian.  Cj-prian  protested  against 
the  appointment,  but  did  not  depose  Felicissimus ; 
and  when,  shortly  after,  the  Decian  persecution 
broke  out,  he  fled  from  the  city,  and  left  his  see. 
During  his  absence  the  presbyters  undertook  to 
re-admit  the  lapsi  into  the  church  by  Nirtue  of 
the  libellos  pads,  which  they  procured  from  the 
martyrs.  This,  too,  Cyprian  considered  as  an 
encroachment  upon  his  authoritj^;  and  he  sent 
au  episcopal  committee  to  the  city.  Felicissimus, 
however,  supported  by  five  presbj'ters,  declared 
that  he  would  admit  none  into  the  community  of 
his  church  who  appeared  before  the  episcopal 
committee ;  and,  when  Cyprian  returned  (Easter, 
251),  he  was  formally  excommunicated  by  the 
party  of  Felicissimus,  which  chose  a  certain 
Fortunatus  for  its  bishop.  Felicissimus  himself 
repaired  to  Rome,  to  gain  over  to  his  side  the 
Roinan  Bishop  Cornelius ;  but,  the  Novatian 
controversy  having  at  this  time  broken  out  both 
in  Rome  and  Carthage,  Cornelius  and  Cyprian 
were  naturally  allies,  and  Felicissimus'  mission 
failed ;  after  which  nothing  more  is  heard  of  him 
and  his  party.  kl.^iber. 

FELICITAS  is  the  name  of  two  saints  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church :  one,  a  distinguished 
Roman  lady,  a  widow,  who,  together  with  her 
seven  sons,  was  martyred  in  Rome  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  and  is  commemorated  on  July  10 ;  and 
another,  a  servant^girl,  who  was  martyred  under 
Septimius  Severus,  in  Carthage,  together  with 
Perpetua,  and  is  commemorated  on  March  7. 
See  Acl.  Sand,  on  the  respective  dates. 

FE'LIX  and  FES'TUS,  the  two  governors  of 
Judaea  (}irocurat()r<:.'iprvvinci<e),a\i\>ea.Th\g  in  the 
life  of  tlie  apostle  Paul,  as  told  in  the  Acts,  chap. 
21-26.  Other  sources  of  information  are :  for 
Felrx,  JosF.pnus  (Ant.,  XX.  7  :  1-8  :  8,  and  Bell. 
Jnd.,  II.  12:  8-1:5:  7),  Tacitus  {Ann.,  XII.  54, 
and  Hkt.,  V.  9),  .Sueto.vius  (Claud.,  28);  for 
Festus,  JosEPiius  (AtU.,  XX.  8:  9-9:  1,  and 
Bell.,U.  14:  1). 

The  facts  which  the  Acts  give  —  that  Felix  at 
the  time  of  Paul's  imprisonment  (58  or  59)  had 
been  "of  many  years  a  judge  unto  this  nation" 
(xxiv.  10)  ;  that  he  had  married  a  Jewess,  Dru- 
silla  (xxiv.  24)  ;  and  that,  after  the  lapse  of  two 
years,  he  was  succeeded  by  Porcius  Festus  (xxiv. 
27)  —  are  confirmed  by  the  other  sources,  without 
being  affected  by  their  differences.  Thus  when 
Josephus  calls  Drusilla  a  sister  of  Agrippa  II., 
while  Tacitus  calls  her  a  grand-daughter  of  An- 
tliony  and  Cleopatra ;  or  when  Josephus  tells  us 
that  Felix  was  not  sent  to  Judwa  as  procurator 
until  after  the  deposition  of  V'entidius  Cumanus 
(52  or  5.'))  by  Claudius,  and  at  the  instance  of 
the  high  priest  .Jonathan,  at  that  time  present  in 
Rome,  while  Tacitus  says  that  he  wa-s  for  many 
years  procurator  of  a  part  of  the  province  Sama- 
ria, until  by  the  clcposition  of  Cumanus  he  was 
appointed  procurator  of  the  whole  province  by 
the  Syrian  prefect,  (^uadratus,  —  these  differences 
h»ve  no  effect  on  the  report  of  the  Acts.  Among 
the  additional   facts    derived    from    extraneous 


sources  may  be  mentioned :  that  Felix  was  a 
brother  of  Pallas,  the  imperial  favorite,  and,  like 
him  a  freedman ;  that  Festus  died  in  Judffia, 
holding  office  only  a  very  short  time,  etc.  The- 
picture  which  the  Acts  give  of  the  two  men  —  of 
Felix  as  a  vulgar  ruffian,  and  of  Festus  as  a 
frivolous  cynic  —  also  corresponds  well  with  that 
which  Josephus  and  Tacitus  give. 

Lit.  —  H.  Gerlach:  Die  rijm.  Smtthalter  in 
S'j/n'oj  t(H(/ /urf.,  Berlin,  1865;  SciiI'ker:  Xeutes- 
tamentUchc  Zcitc/esch.,  Leip.,  1874.     K.  SCHIMDT. 

FELIX  THE'MANICH/EAN,  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  sect  in  Africa,  came  to  Hippo,  and  held  a 
disputation  with  Augustine  in  the  Christian 
Church,  and  in  presence  of  the  congregation. 
The  disputation  lasted  in  two  days,  and  ended 
with  the  conversion  of  Felix.  The  acts,  prepared 
by  notaries,  and  signed  both  by  Felix  and  Augus- 
tine, are  still  extant,  and  are  found  both  in  the 
Paris  and  the  Benedictine  edition  of  Augustine's 
works. 

FELIX  THE  MARTYR,  and  his  fellow-sufferer 
Regula,  were,  according  to  tradition,  the  first  to- 
bring  Christianity  to  the  city  of  Zurich,  and  are 
still  venerated  as  its  patrons.  They  were  exe- 
cuted under  Maxuniau,  and  gave  rise  to  a  veiy 
luxuriant  legend.  See  Mittheilungen  d.  ant.  Ge- 
selhchaft  zu  Zurich,  1841,  vols.  I.  and  II. 

FELIX  OF  NOLA  became  a  confessor  during 
the  persecution  of  Uecius.  Legend  tells  us  how 
lie  concealed  himself  in  a  fissure  of  an  old  build- 
ing, and  was  saved  by  a  spider  drawing  her  web 
across  the  fissure,  and  tliereby  hiding  him  from 
the  messengers.  His  fate  was  celebrated  by 
Paulinns,  Bishop  of  Xola,  in  a  long  poem  of  four- 
teen songs. 

FELIX  OF  URGEL.     See  Adoptionism. 

FELIX  is  the  name  of  five  popes.  —  Felix  I. 
(269-274),  a  Roman  by  birth,  is  said  to  have 
buried  with  his  own  hands  three  hundred  and 
forty-two  martyrs,  and  was  probably  martyred 
himself  during  the  persecution  of  Aurelian.  His 
day  falls  on  the  30th  of  May.  The  fragment  of 
a  letter  from  him  to  Bishop  JIaximus  of  Alexan- 
dria, which  Cyrillus  gives  in  his  Apolor/eticutt,  is 
of  doubtful  authenticity  ;  but  tlie  letters  ascribed 
to  him  by  the  pseudo-lsidorean  collections  are 
certainly  spui'ious.  See  Act.  Sanrt.,  April,  pars  I.; 
Jaffe:  Jie<;.  Pontif.  ./Jom.  —  Felix  II.  (355-358)- 
was  elevated  to  the  Roman  see  liy  the  Ariau 
court  party,  without  tlu>  concurrence  of  the  clergy 
and  the  people,  when  Liberius  refused  to  sign  the 
condemnation  of  Athanasius,  and  consequently 
was  driven  into  exile.  After  I  lie  lapse,  however, 
of  three  j'ears,  Liberius,  tired  of  his  exile,  sub- 
mitted to  the  imperial  will,  returned  to  liis  .see, 
and  drove  away  Felix.  Of  the  later  fate  of  the 
latter  nothing  is  known  with  certainty.  Accord- 
ing to  Jerome,  he  tried  to  regain  the  see  by  force; 
according  to  Socrates,  he  was  formally  banislicd 
by  the  emperor;  according  to  others,  he  lived  in 
seclusion  at  Porto,  and  died  in  obscurity.  Singu- 
larly enough,  though  his  title  is  very  dubious, 
he  is  a  saint  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church. 
His  saintship  w.as  confirmed  by  Gregory  XIII. 
in  1582.  His  d.ay  falls  on  July  29.  See  Haroki- 
i;s:  Ann.  reel,  lul  an.S.'i?:  .IaffI". :  Her/.  Pont.  Pom. 
—  Felix  III.  (March,  ■I.s3-Feb.  2."),  492)  was  elected 
by  the  inlluence  of  Odoacer,  and  became  noted 
for  the  vigor  and  decision  with  which  he  inter- 


FELL. 


803 


PBNELON. 


fered  in  the  affairs  of  the  Eastern  Cliurch.  The 
Emperor  Zeno  issued  the  Henoticon  on  the  in- 
stance of  his  patriarch,  Acacius,  and  for  tlie  pur- 
pose of  reconciling  the  Monophysites.  But  Felix 
placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  opposition 
against  this  measure,  and  deposed  and  excom- 
municated Acacius  at  a  synod  of  seventy-seven 
bishops,  thereby  occasioning  the  first  schism  be- 
tween the  Eastern  and  Western  churches.  See 
Act.  Sanct.,  Fehruar.,  III.,  and  Jaffe:  Reg.  Ponlif. 
Rom.  —  VeWii  IV.  (July  12,  526-September,  530) 
was  elected  by  the  influence  of  Theodoric  the 
Great,  an  Arian.  —  Felix  V.  (Jan.  5,  1440-49), 
Duke  Amadeus  of  Savoy,  was  b.  1383,  and  d.  Jan. 
7,  1451.  In  1434  he  abdicated,  left  the  govern- 
ment of  Savoy  to  his  son,  and  retired  to  Ripaille, 
on  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  as  head  of  the  knightly 
hermit  order  of  St.  Mauritius.  The  proce.ss  whioli 
the  Council  of  Basel  instituted  against  Eugeuius 
IV.  roused  his  ambition  ;  and  when,  through  vari- 
ous intrigues,  he  was  actually  elected  Pope  by  the 
council,  he  eagerly  accepted,  assumed  the  name 
of  Felix  v.,  and  immediately  formed  a  curia, 
mostly  consisting  of  Frenchmen.  But  residing 
at  Geneva,  without  any  revenue,  not  in  possession 
of  the  States  of  the  Church,  not  acknowledged 
by  any  of  the  great  powers,  ho  presented  a  piteous 
spectacle.  Even  the  cardinals  he  made  declined 
the  honor.  When  Germany  and  France  recog- 
nized Nicholas  V.,  Felix  abdicated,  and  retired 
to  Ripaille.  His  reign  forms  simply  an  interlude 
in  the  history  of  the  Council  of  Basel,  and  is 
described  in  its  acts.  G.  VOIGT. 

FELL,  John,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Oxford,  was  b.  in 
Berkshire,  June  23,  1625;  d.  July  10,  1686.  He 
was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  of  which 
his  father  was  the  dean.  He  was  a  royalist,  and 
after  the  restoration  of  the  Stuarts  was  made 
dean  of  Chri.st  Church,  and  in  1676  Bishop  of 
Oxford.  He  was  distinguislied  for  learning,  and 
munificent  benefactions  to  the  university.  The 
following  famous  lines  were  written  by  a  student 
to  whom  Dr.  Fell  had  given  the  thirty-third 
epigram  of  Martial  for  translation  :  — 

"  I  do  not  like  thee.  Dr.  Fell, 
The  reason  why,  I  cannot  tell ; 
But  this  I  know,  and  know  full  well, 
I  do  not  like  thee,  Dr.  Fell." 

Among  his  works  the  more  important  were  an 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  Lond.,  1675  (which 
was  the  standard  edition  until  Mill),  and  Para- 
phrase and  Annotations  upon  the  Epp.  of  St.  Paul, 
Lond.,  1675,  3d  ed.,  1703.  See  H'ook,  Ecd. 
Bioijr. 

FELLER,  Fran9ois  Xavier  de,  b.  at  Brussels, 
Aug.  18,  1735 ;  d.  at  Regensburg,  Jlay  23,  1802 ; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  in  1754 ;  went  to 
Hungary  after  the  expulsion  of  the  order  from 
France ;  returned  to  the  Netherlands  in  1770, 
and  lived  since  1796  at  the  court  of  the  Bishop 
of  Freysing,  in  Bavaria.  He  was  an  exceedingly 
prolific  writer,  publishing  about  a  hundred  and 
twenty  volumes  during  his  lifetime,  among  which 
are  the  Journal  of  Luxemburr/,  1774-94  (a  peri- 
odical, 70  vols.,  but  chiefly  written  by  him),  Dic- 
tionnaire  historique  et  literaire  (Liege,  1781,  8  vols.), 
etc.  One  of  his  most  interesting  productions  is 
his  Coup  iVceil  sur  le  congres  d'Ems,  2  vols.,  Dus- 
seldorf,  1789. 

FELTHAM,  Owen,  an  author  highly  esteemed 


in  his  day,  was  b.  in  Suffolk  about  1609.  At 
the  age  of  eigliteen  he  published  Resolres,  divine, 
moral,  political,  giving  pointed  moral  and  religious 
maxims.  The  work  was  subsequently  augmented, 
and  passed  through  many  editions.  The  edition 
of  1806  contains  the  little  that  is  known  about 
his  life,  written  by  James  Camming. 

FELTON,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  learned  English  divine; 
b.  in  London,  1079;  studied  at  Oxford;  made 
rector  of  Whitewell,  1711 ;  principal  of  Edmund 
Hall,  Oxford,  1722;  and  d.  1740.  Among  his 
works  are:  The  Christ.  Faith  asserted  against  Deists, 
Arians,  §■  Socinians,  in  8  Sernwns  (with  a  long 
preface  on  the  necessity  of  a  revelation),  Oxf., 
1732 ;  The  Resurrection  of  the  same  Numerical  Body, 
in  which  Mr.  Locke's  notions  of  personality  §•  iden- 
tity are  confuted.  3d  ed.,  Lond.,  1733;  Sermons  on 
the  Creation,  Fall,  and  Redemption  of  Man,  Lond., 
1748. 

FENCED  CITIES.    See  Fortifications. 

FENCING  THE  TABLES,  a  Scotch-Presbyterian 
term  foi-  the  address  made  liefore  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper,  because  in  it  the  char- 
acter of  those  who  should  partake  was  described. 

FENELON,  Fran9ols  de  Salignac  de  la  Nlothe, 
Archbishop  of  Cambray,  and  one  of  the  most 
brilliant  and  devout  of  French  divines  ;  was  b. 
Aug.  6,  1651,  at  the  castle  of  Fenelon,  in  Peri- 
gord;  d.  Jan.  7,  1715,  in  Cambray.  Brought  up 
by  pious  parents,  he  was  early  set  apart  for  the 
priesthood.  In  his  twelfth .  year  he  was  sent  to 
the  then  flourishing  university  of  Cahors,  and 
passed  from  there  to  his  uncle's  in  Paris,  the 
Marquis  de  Fenelon,  an  able  statesman.  At  his 
request,  Fenelon,  who  was  now  eighteen,  preached 
several  times,  and  with  great  acceptance.  He 
entered  the  college  of  St.  Sulpice,  where  he  re- 
mained for  five  years,  applying  himself  assiduously 
to  study  and  to  spiritual  exercises.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  M.  de  Harley,  recognizing  his  tal- 
ents, appointed  him  the  superior  of  the  Nouvelles 
Catholiques,  —  an  association  of  Catholic  ladies 
of  noble  birth,  for  the  instruction  of  Protestant 
girls.  The  experiences  which  he  had  at  this  post 
during  ten  years  of  service  were  embodied  in  his 
book  De  I' education  des files  ("The  Education  of 
Girls").  Intended  in  the  first  instance  for  the 
Duchess  de  Beauvilliers,  the  pious  mother  of  a 
large  family,  it  unfolded  the  principles  of  educa- 
tion and  iieart^training  as  they  are  found  in 
Scripture  and  suggested  by  a  careful  observation 
of  child-nature,  with  a  practical  wisdom  that  can 
hardly  be  suipassed. 

Fenelon's  success  as  Superior  of  this  association 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  king,  and  brought 
him  into  contact  with  Bossuet,  the  eloquent 
Bishop  of  Meaux,  with  whom  he  entered  into  a 
close  friendship.  Louis  XIV.  determined  to  use 
his  gifts  for  furthering  a  plan  of  bringing  over 
the  whole  of  France  to  one  faith,  and  assigned 
him  a  mission  in  Poitou  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Protestants.  Fenelon  accepted  the  duties,  but 
declined  the  military  escort  which  it  was  custom- 
ary to  send  on  such  occasions,  preferring,  like  the 
apostles,  to  use  only  the  weapons  of  the  Spirit. 
He  secured,  at  least,  the  respect  of  the  Protes- 
tants, if  he  did  not  succeed  in  bringing  them  over 
to  the  Roman  Church.  Returning  to  his  old  posi- 
tion, he  was  accused  of  holding  Protestant  princi- 
ples, —  an  accusation  which  he  sufl5ciently  refuted 


FENELON. 


804 


FENELON. 


in  his  Sur  le  mini.ifere  des  pasteurs  ("  The  Minis- 
try"). This  tract  denies  the  divine  authority  of 
the  Protestant  clergy,  on  the  ground  tliat  such 
authority  depended  upon  regular  episcopal  ordina- 
tion handed  down  from  the  apostles. 

The  year  1689  was  an  important  epoch  in  Fene- 
lon's  life.  The  king  appointed  him  tutor  for 
his  grandsons,  —  the  Dukes  of  Burgniudy,  Anjou 
(afterwards  king  of  Spain),  and  Berri.  For  tlie 
duties  of  this  office  he  was  eminently  adapted  by 
the  untarnished  nobility  of  his  own  cliaracter, 
high  sense  of  honor,  magnetic  power,  patience, 
and  gentleness  of  temper.  The  Duke  of  Bur- 
gundy was  of  a  violent  temper  ["so  passionate 
that  he  would  break  the  clocks  which  summoned 
hirn  to  some  unwelcome  duty,  and  fly  into  the 
wildest  rage  with  the  rain  which  hindered  some 
pleasure,"  as  St.  Simon  says].  But  the  teacher 
succeeded  not  only  in  mollifying  his  disposition, 
and  enriching  his  mind,  but  in  securing  the 
prince's  respect  and  gratitude.  The  king  pre- 
sented him  with  the  abbey  of  St.  Valerie,  and  in 
1695  with  the  see  of  Cambray;  Fenelon,  much 
to  the  former's  surprise,  resigning  the  abbey  at 
his  elevation. 

With  his  promotion  to  the  archbishopric  began  a 
.succession  of  hard  conflicts  and  humiliations.  In 
1687  he  had  formed  the  acquaintance  of  Madame 
Guyon  (see  art.),  which  ripened  into  intimate 
friendship.  It  was  a  severe  trial  for  him,  when 
a  theological  examination  of  her  devotional  works 
was  instituted,  tliat  he  should  have  been  placed 
on  the  commission.  Bossuet,  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners, sought  to  secure  his  signature  to  the  In- 
slniclion  sur  les  e'tals  d'oralson  ("  Instruction  about 
the  .States  of  Prayer  "),  wliich  he  had  written  in 
refutation  of  Madame  Guyon 's  views.  Fenelon's 
conscientious  scrujiles  forbade  his  assent;  and 
Bossuet  not  only  began  to  grow  cold  towards  him, 
but  to  antagonize  him.  Fenelon  never  fully  ap- 
proved of  Madame  Guyon's  tenets  and  language, 
but  always  defended  her  intentions  as  above 
suspicion.  In  KiOT  he  made  public  his  views  on 
the  subject,  in  Maxlmes  ties-  Sainl.i  aur  /<i  vie  inlc- 
rieure  (•'  Maxims  of  the  Saints  on  the  Life  of  the 
Soul").  The  work  was  a  defence  of  Madame 
Guyon's  fundamental  principles,  and  elaborated 
the  two  propositions,  —  that  the  love  towards  (Jod 
is  a  disinterested  love  of  him  for  his  own  sake,  and 
independent  of  the  reward;  and  that,  in  the  most 
perfect  C'ln-istians,  lovt;  is  the  predominant  grace. 
Others  professed  to  find  the  jirinciple  laid  down 
in  it,  that  jierfect  sanctification,  and  ab.solute  rest 
in  God,  were  possible  on  earth,  and  that  a  state  of 
contemplative  (piietism,  rather  than  of  watching 
and  conflict,  was  reconmiended. 

Paris  was  split  up  into  two  parties  over  this 
work.  Bossuet  opposed  it  with  passionate  bitter- 
ness. Fenelon  obsen'ed  an  exemplary  modera- 
tion and  patience.  The  king  decided  for  Bossuet, 
and  Fenelon  was  ordered  to  leave  the  court,  and 
proceed  to  his  dioce.se.  He  was  recciveil  witli  joy, 
and  at  once  devoted  liimself,  with  a  consecration 
seldom  equalled,  to  tlu;  duties  of  his  see.  lie  was 
untiring  in  his  visitation,  iireaehed  in  all  the 
churches  he  visited,  cared  for  Ui<;  poor,  removed 
clerical  abuses,  and  became  the  father  and  fri('nd 
to  poor  and  ricli.  His  sermons  were  not  studied 
works  of  art,  l)ut  flowed  with  evangelical  simpli- 
city from  the  fnlness  of  his  lieart. 


In  the  mean  time  the  controversy  with  Bossuet 
went  on.  Fenelon  had  submitted  his  case  to  the 
Pope,  and  sought  his  judgment  upon  the  Mcixi7iis 
of  the  Saints,  which  Bossuet  insisted  he  should 
renounce.  The  latter  drew  the  most  severe  logi- 
cal consequences  from  Fenelon's  work,  and  em- 
bodied them  in  an  answer  to  his  Explication  des 
Maximes  des  Saints  ("  Explanation  of  the  Maxims 
of  tlie  Saints  "),  which  he  likewise  sent  to  Rome. 
Fenelon  answered  every  criticism  with  ability. 
In  1698  Bossuet  WTote  his  Relation  rlu  (juie'tisme, 
a  history  of  the  controversy,  to  which  Fenelon 
replied  in  his  Reponse,  which  aroused  a  very  favor- 
able feeling  towards  him.  But  the  Sorbonne  had 
already  condenmed  twelve  articles  of  the  Explica- 
tion :  and  in  1099  a  papal  brief  declared  the  Max- 
ims of  the  Saints,  and  twenty-three  articles  drawn 
from  it  erroneous  (not  heretical).  The  general 
interest  as  to  the  archbishop's  course  was  speedily 
put  at  rest.  Fenelon  submitted  unconditionally, 
finding  the  papal  sentence  severe,  but  recognizing 
in  it  the  '•  echo  of  the  divine  will ; "  and  he  be- 
lieved only  one  course  to  be  open  to  a  true  son  of 
the  church.  He  revoked  the  twenty-three  arti- 
cles, and  forbade  the  circulation  of  the  book  in 
his  diocese.  Although,  from  the  stand-point  of  the 
gospel,  we  cannot  approve  of  Fdnelon's  course, 
we  cannot  help  but  admire  the  spirit  of  modera- 
tion and  humility  which  guided  him  during  the 
whole  jirogress  of  the  controversy.  Bossuet,  on 
the  one  hand,  eulogized  his  submission :  the  peo- 
ple, on  the  other,  throughout  France,  had  learned 
to  esteem  him. 

The  leisure  he  could  find  in  the  administration 
of  his  diocese,  Fenelon  employed  in  furthering 
the  education  of  the  Duke  of  Burginidy.  This 
he  did  by  correspondence.  In  order  to  instil  in 
him  the  principles  of  justice  and  goodness,  he 
gathered  together  the  fragments  of  the  7\lcnia(/iie, 
and  revised  the  whole.  He  gave  the  manuscript 
to  a  copyist  in  order  to  secure  a  neatly-written 
copy  for  his  ward.  The  copyist  made  a  second 
copy,  without  the  knowledge  of  Fenelon ;  and  it 
was  printed  at  Paris  under  the  title  Accntnres  de 
Tc'/e'maijue  ("Adventures  of  Telemachus "),  but, 
being  suppressed  by  royal  order,  was  rejirinted 
in  HoUaiul,  June,  l(i99.  'I'he  book  was  translated 
into  every  language  of  Euroiie,  and  had  one  of 
the  largest  circulations  of  any  book  after  the 
Bible.  The  king  thought  he  discovered  in  the 
work  a  satire  against  his  administration,  but 
without  just  ground. 

In  17i'J  Fenelon  wrote  two  other  works  for 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  —  Dialogues  des  morts 
("Dialogues  of  the  Dead"),  and  Directions  pour  la 
conscience  d'un  Rot  ("Rules  for  a  King's  Con- 
science"). I'he  latter  was  first  printed  in  Hol- 
land, 1731.  It  is  full  of  sapient  advice,  and 
searching  questions,  such  as  only  an  experienced 
confe.s.sor  could  present.  In  1713  appeared  his 
Demonstration  de  t'existenre  dc  Dieu  ("  Proof  of 
God's  Kxistence  "),  and  in  1718  a  most  excellent 
ti-eatis(!  on  eloquence,  —  Dialixjms  sur  I'eloquence. 
'I'he  latter  is  com]io.sed  in  the  jiurest  and  most 
classic  French,  and  full  of  liealtliy  and  ins]>iring 
tliiiughts.  He  lays  down  the  tlireefold  condition 
of  an  or.ation,  —  that  it  must  ]>rove,  illustrate,  and 
move.  H<'  holds  ui>  the  Scriptures  as  the  most 
perfect  illustration  of  true  ehxiuence,  which  the 
preaclier  cannot  study  too  diligently. 


FBRGUSSON. 


805 


FERGUSSON. 


The  nobility  of  Ffoelon's  character  was  shown 
most  conspicuously  during  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
Succession  (1701-13),  when  his  diocese  was  for  a 
while  the  seat  of  war.  In  a  general  way  he  sought 
to  mitigate  the  horrors  and  ravages  of  the  war  by 
wise  counsels  to  the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  who  was 
commander-in-chief.  When,  in  1709,  Flanders, 
in  which  Canibray  was  located,  was  desolated, 
he  opened  the  chambers  of  his  palace  to  the 
wounded  and  the  sick;  and  when  a  ilearth  of 
grain  was  felt  he  oifered  his  whole  income  to 
the  state.  The  French  admired  their  archbishop 
for  his  self-denying  interest  in  the  suffering  and 
wounded,  and  bowed  before  his  piety.  No  less 
did  the  enemies  of  France  esteem  liis  virtues ; 
and  Prince  Eugene  and  Marlborough  not  only 
treated  him  politely,  but  sent  troops  to  guard  his 
property. 

He  died  of  a  fever.  His  last  days  were  peace- 
ful. The  latter  part  of  tlie  fourth  chapter  of 
Second  Corinthians  and  the  fifth  chapter  were 
read  and  re-read  to  him,  affording  great  comfort. 
After  listening  to  the  high-priestly  prayer  in 
Gethsemane  (John  xvii.),  he  blessed  his  attendants, 
and  went  to  sleep,  aged  sixty-four.  Fenelon's 
death  was  regarded  as  a  loss,  not  only  to  the 
diocese  of  Cambray,  but  to  all  France.  His  vh'- 
tues  and  talents  were  known  througiiout  Europe, 
and  recognized  by  all  church  communions.  He 
was  a  strict  son  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church ; 
but,  above  all,  he  was  a  genuine,  believing,  active 
Christian,  liberal  and  charitable  enough  to  sym- 
patliize  with  Protestants,  who,  in  turn,  revere  his 
memor}'. 

[The  description  of  St.  Simon,  in  his  Memoirs 
(XXII. ),  deserves  to  be  quoted.  "  He  was  a  tall, 
thin  man,  well  made,  pale,  with  a  large  nose,  eyes 
whence  fire  and  talent  streamed  like  a  torrent, 
and  a  physiognomy  the  like  of  which  I  have  never 
seen  in  any  other  man,  and  which,  once  seen, 
could  never  be  forgot.  ...  It  united  seriousness 
and  gayety,  gravity  and  courtesy ;  the  prevailing 
characteristics,  as  in  every  thing  about  him,  being 
refinement,  intellect,  gracefulness,  modesty,  and, 
above  all,  noblesse,"  etc.] 

Lit.  —  No  complete  edition  of  Fenelon's  works 
has  appeared.  Editions  more  or  less  complete 
appeared  in  Paris,  1787-92  (9  vols.);  Paris,  ISIO 
(10  vols.);  Toulouse,  1809-11  (19  vols.);  and  Paris, 
1835  (38  small  vols.).  Lives  oi  Fenelon. — Ram- 
say: Vie  de  Fenelon,  1725,  2d  ed.,  1729;  Abbe 
QuERBEUF,  in  the  ed.  of  1787 ;  Bausset  :  Ilisl. 
de  Fenelon,  Paris,  1808  (3d  ed.,  1817),  -1  vols. 
[MuDFORD :  Life  of  Fenelon  (trans,  of  Bausset), 
Lond.,  1810;  Mrs.  Follen:  Selections  from  the 
Writings  of  Fenelon,  with  a  Memoir,  new  edition, 
Boston,  1859;  de  Brogue:  Fenelon  a  Camhrai, 
Paris.  1884.  G.  v.  LECULER. 

FERGUSSON,  David,  one  of  the  fathers  of 
the  Sonttisli  Reformation,  was  b.  not  later,  and 
probalilv  some  vears  earlier,  than  the  year  1525 
(see  Wodrow  M'SS.,  vol.  xvii.  No.  16).  He  d.  in 
1598,  "the  auldest  minister  that  t>Tne  in  Scot- 
land "  (James  Melvill's  Dianj.  Edin.,  1842,  p.  437). 
He  seems  to  have  been  a  native  of  Dundee,  and 
by  original  occupation  a  glover  (Fergusson's 
Tracts,  ut  infra,  Introd.,  p.  xiv).  Though  not  a 
graduate  of  any  university  (Row,  Hist.,  p.  418), 
he  sliows  in  his  writings,  and  in  the  many  wise 
and  witty  sayings  which   have   been,   doubtless 


truly  enough,  attributed  to  him,  a  familiarity  with 
the  classical  languages  and  classical  literature. 
In  July,  1560,  he  was  selected  Ijy  the  Parliament 
to  be  minister  of  Dunfermline,  an  important 
charge,  as  containing  a  royal  palace,  which  after- 
wards became  the  favorite  residence  of  James  VI. 
But  he  had  been  one  of  six  men,  as  he  tells  us 
himself,  who  began  to  preach  the  Reformed  faith 
in  Scotland  some  years  before  the  Reformation; 
at  a  time  "  when  "  (to  use  his  own  words)  "  tliere 
was  no  stipend  heard  tell  of ;  when  the  authority, 
both  ecclesiastic  and  civil,  opposed  them.selves; 
and  when  scarcely  a  man  of  name  and  estimation 
[was  found]  to  take  their  cause  in  hand  "  (James 
Melvill's  Diary,  p.  357).  As  to  the  matter  of 
stipend,  indeed  it  must  be  here  added,  that,  even 
after  the  establishment  of  the  Reformation,  there 
was  for  some  years  little  change  for  the  better  in 
this  respect.  In  one  of  the  Tracts  already  referred 
to,  and  afterwards  more  particularly  noticed,  a 
tract  published  in  the  year  15G3,  Fergusson,  speak- 
ing of  himself  and  his  brethren  generally,  says, 
"The  greatest  number  of  us  have  lived  in  great 
penury,  without  all  stipend ;  some  twelve  months, 
some  eight,  and  some  half  a  year,  having  nothing 
to  sustain  ourselves  and  our  families,  but  that 
which  we  have  borrowed  of  charitable  persons, 
until  God  send  it  to  us  to  repay  them"  (Answer 
to  Renan  Benedict,  p.  11).  He  proved  an  excellent 
minister,  "preaching,"  says  Row  {Hist.  p.  418), 
"with  great  boldness,  wisdom,  and  hoUness,"  and 
"  bringing  the  people  [of  his  charge]  to  very  good 
order,  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  obedience  to 
the  discipline  of  the  Kirk."  As  a  church-leader, 
he  was  characterized  by  firnmess,  sagacity,  sound 
judgment,  and  also  what  Wodrow  (Analecta,  Glas- 
gow, 1842,  vol.  I.,  p.  120)  calls  "pleasant  and 
facetious  conversation,  by  which,"  Wodrow  adds, 
"  he  often  pleased  and  pacified  the  king  when  he 
was  in  a  fury."  He  was,  accordingly,  very  fre- 
quently employed  by  the  Church  as  a  medium  of 
communication  with  the  king. 

Fergusson  published  two  tracts  in  his  o^ti  life- 
time. The  first  is  a  controversial  work,  entitled 
An  Answer  to  Ane  Epistle  icritten  by  Renal  Bene- 
dict, the  French  doctor,  to  John  Knox,  and  the  rest 
of  the  bretheren."  This  treatise  was  printed  at 
Edinburgh,  in  the  year  1563,  and  was  repi-inted  for 
the  Bannatyne  Club  in  1860,  from  a  unique  copy 
in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 
It  contains  an  able  discussion  of  tlie  chief  points 
at  issue  between  the  Romanists  and  Protestants 
at  the  period  of  the  Reformation.  His  .second 
publication  appeared  nine  years  afterwards,  being 
a  sermon  preached  before  the  regent  and  nobility 
at  Leith  (Jan.  13,  1.571-72),  during  the  meetings 
of  the  General  Assembly.  It  relates  chiefly  to 
the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  provision  for  the 
Reformed  ministers,  the  schools,  and  the  poor; 
and  it  condenms  in  no  measured  terms  the  neglect 
by  the  king  and  Parliament  of  objects  regarded 
by  the  Church  from  the  first  as  having  paramount 
claims  on  their  attention.  The  sermon  was  print- 
ed at  the  request  of  the  General  Assembly  held 
at  Perth  in  the  year  1572,  with  tlie  special  appro- 
bation of  five  of  the  most  eminent  ministers  of 
that  day,  to  whom  it  had  been  submitted  for  re- 
vision ;  .John  Knox,  then  on  his  death-bed.  giving 
his  imprimatur  in  these  words:  "John  Knox,  with 
his  dead  hand,  but  glad  heart,  praising  God,  that, 


FERMENTaRIANS. 


806 


FERRARA-FLORENCE. 


of  his  mercy,  he  leaves  such  light  to  his  kirk  in 
this  desolation."  Fergusson  is  also  the  author  of 
a  posthumous  work,  entitled  Scottish  Proverbs  : 
Gathered  together  by  David  Fergusson  .  .  .  and  put 
ordine  alphabetico  when  he  departed  this  bjfe  (Ediu., 
1641). 

Among  his  descendants  many  well-known  names 
occur,  including  Adam  Fergusson,  minister  of 
Logierait,  who  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  con- 
troversies connected  with  the  Scottisli  secession 
of  1733,  and  his  much  more  distinguished  son, 
Dr.  Adam  Ferguson,  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  author 
of  a  history  of  the  Roman  Republic  (Lond.,  1783), 
and  other  standard  works.  Principal  Robertson, 
the  historian  of  America  and  of  Charles  V.,  and 
Henry,  Lord  Brougliam,  also  alike  claimed  lineal 
descent  from  the  first  minister  of  Dunfermline. 

Lit.  —  The  few  facts  now  known  as  to  the  life 
of  this  eminent  Reformer  will  be  found  in  the 
books  and  documents  quoted  above,  and  especially 
in  Row's  Historic  of  the  Kirk  of  Scotland  from  the 
year  1558  to  Augitst,  1637  (Edin.,  1842),  and  in 
the  introductory  notice  to  the  Bannatjnie  Club's 
reprint  of  Fergusson 's  Tracts  (Edin.,  1869),  also 
already  mentioned.  Many  of  the  "  Sayings  "  of 
D.  Fergusson  will  be  found  in  the  Wodrow  Manu- 
script Collections  preserved  in  the  library  of  the 
University  of  Glasgow.  See,  also.  Encyclopedia 
Britannica  (supplement),  ed.  1824,  s.  v.,  Dr.  Adam 
Ferguson,  and  Edinburgh  Review  for  January,  1867 
(vol.  12a.  pp.  48  sqq.).  WILLI^Ui  LEK. 

FERMENTARIANS.     See  Azymites. 

FERRAR,  Nicholas,  an  English  clergyman  of 
ascetic  tastes;  li.  in  London,  Feb.  22,  1592;  d. 
Dec.  2,  1637.  He  studied  at  Clare  Hall,  Cam- 
bridge; in  1624  was  elected  to  Parliament;  and 
in  1()26  was  ordained  deacon  by  the  Bishop  of 
St.  David's  (Laud).  He  consecrated  himself  to 
a  life  of  retirement  and  devotion,  and  refused 
flattering  offers  to  benefices.  He  turned  his 
manor,  Little  Gidding,  into  a  sort  of  conventual 
establishment,  at  which  vigils  and  other  formal 
religious  exerci.scs  were  scrupulously  observed. 
Ferrar  himself  slept  on  the  lloor,  and  rose  at  one 
in  the  morning  for  religious  meditation.  He  also 
did  much  good  l)y  providing  a  free  scliool  for  the 
children  of  the  neigliborhood,  and  him.self  cate- 
chised them.  See  Lives  of  Ferrar  by  Dr.  Peck- 
ARD  (Canib.,  1790),  MAcnoNoicii  (2d  ed.,  Lond., 
1837),  and  by  his  Bkotiieu  and  Dr.  Jebi!  (1  vol., 
Camb.,  1S5.")). 

FERRAR,  Robert,  Bishop  of  St.  David's,  and 
nuirtvr  ;  li.  at  ilalifiix,  Yorkshire  ;  d.  at  the  .stake, 
in  Cairmaithen,  Wales,  March  3(1,  looo.  He 
studied  at  Cambridg(!  and  O.xford,  and  was  ele- 
vated to  the  see  of  St.  David's,  under  Edward  VI., 
in  lol8.  Bisho).  Burnet  {Hist,  of  R.f,  \.  p.  lol) 
describes  liim  as  "a  rash  and  i)uli.scri;et  man," 
and  as  having  been  arbitrary  in  his  treatment  of 
the  canons  of  his  cathedral.  At  the  accession 
of  Mary  he  was  deprived  of  his  .see,  and  tried  and 
condemned  for  heresy.  To  a  young  man  who 
deplored  his  death-sentence  he  is  reported  to  havi; 
said,  "  If  von  .see  mo  once  .stir  while  I  suifer  the 
pains  of  ^mrning,  then  give  no  creclit  to  those 
doctrines  for  which  I  die."  He  made  good  his 
a-Hsertion,  and  was  felled  to  the  ground  by  a  blow 
on  the  iiead.  Sei^  FoxE  :  Actes  and  Monumcntts : 
Hook  ;  Ecctes.  Biogr.,  vol.  v. 


FERRARA-FLORENCE,      Council      of.       The 

course  of  opposition  to  the  Pope  and  the  curia, 
which  the  Council  of  Basel  pursued,  was  even 
more  pronounced  than  had  been  anticipated.  A 
breach  became  unavoidalile  ;  and  the  project  of  a 
union  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,, 
started  for  political  reasons  by  the  Byzantine 
emperor,  and  eagerly  caught  at  by  the  Pope, 
gave  the  occasion.  For  many  reasons,  Eugenius 
IV.  wished  that  these  negotiations  should  be 
carried  on  in  Italy ;  and  he  proposed  to  transfer 
the  Council  of  Ba.sel  to  some  Italian  city.  But 
the  council  refused ;  and  after  the  stormy  meet- 
ings on  ^larch  0  and  7,  1437,  the  papal  minority 
left  Basel,  and  placed  itself  at  the  disposition  of 
the  Pope.  Jan.  8,  1438,  the  council  was  solemnly 
opened  at  Ferrara ;  and  in  IMarch,  same  year,  the 
Eastern  delegates  arrived,  numbering  about  seven 
hundred  persons,  and  including,  besides  the  em- 
peror, Johannes  VI.  (Palseologiis),  all  the  highest 
dignitaries  of  the  Greek  Church.  —  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  Joseph  II. ;  the  archbishop  of 
Nicnea,  Bessarion ;  the  archbishop  of  Ephesus, 
^larcus  Eugenicus;  the  metropolitan  of  Kiew, 
Isidore,  etc.  April  9,  1438,  the  debate  of  the 
union  question  began. 

The  principal  points  of  the  debate  were,  thfr 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  {Filioque),  the  inter- 
mediate state  of  the  soul  between  death  and  judg- 
ment (purgatory),  the  use  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  Eucharist,  the  primacy  of  the  Pope,  etc.  The 
debates  were  very  copious;  but  though  the  union 
had  several  warm  friends  among  the  Greeks,  as, 
for  instance,  Bessarion,  and  though  the  emperor, 
pressed  as  he  was  on  all  sides  by  the  Turks,  and 
well  knowing  that  the  union  was  the  condition  of 
help  from  Western  Europe,  did  his  utmost  to 
dampen  the  ardor  of  his  theologians,  nothing 
seemed  likely  to  come  out  of  the  attempt.  Trou- 
bles of  another  kind,  were  added.  The  Greeks 
were  the  guests  of  tlie  Pope,  but  the  Pope  had 
no  money.  In  this  emergency  he  addressed  him- 
self to  the  rich  Florentine  bankers;  but  the 
Florentines  demanded  that  llie  council  should  be 
transferred  from  Ferrara  to  Florence,  and  this 
transference  frightened  the  Greeks.  Nevertheless, 
Feb.  26,  1439,  the  council  was  opened  at  Flor- 
ence ;  and,  after  .some  months  of  more  discussion,, 
an  agreement  was  actually  ari'ived  at.  An  act 
of  union  was  signed  by  thirty-three  Greek  and 
a  hundred  .and  fifteen  L.atin  church-dignitaries; 
and  July  6,  1439,  the  Pojie  celebrated  a  com- 
memorative service  of  unity  in  the  Cathedral  of 
Florence.  Unfortunately,  this  union,  so  pom- 
pously announced  to  the  world,  was  in  reality 
a  mere  ilhisinn.  AVith  respect  to  the  princi- 
]ial  dogmatical  question, —  tlie  jirocession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  —  the  Latin  addition  (Fitii)ijue)  was. 
recognized  by  the  (Jreeks,  but  not  adojited  in 
tlieir  creed  :  with  respect  to  the  princijial  practi- 
cal qiiestion,  —  the  papal  primacv,  —  the  claims 
of  the  Pope  were  i-ecognized  by  tlie  (ireeks;  but 
.■it  the  same  time  tlie  rights  and  privileges  of  the 
patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alexandria.  Anti- 
och,  and  Jerusalem,  were  renewed  and  confirmed. 
In  the  West  this  union  produced  no  enthusiasm 
for  the  suffering  Greeks;  and  in  the  East  it 
intensified  the  hatred  to  the  Latins.  Several  of 
the  Greek  ecclesiastics  who  had  signed  th<'  act  of 
union  weru   made   to  sulTor  for  it.     Isidoie  was 


FBRRARA. 


807 


PESCH. 


thrown  into  prison :  Bessarion  had  to  flee  to 
Kome,  etc.  In  1472  the  Greeks  solemnly  re- 
nounced the  union. 

Lit.  —  The  authentic  acts  of  the  council  are 
lost ;  but  a  documentary  history  of  it,  probably 
written  by  Archbishop  Dorotheus  of  Mitylene, 
is  found  in  vol.  9  of  Harduin,  and  vol.  31  of 
Mansi.  It  is  in  favor  of  the  union.  From  the 
opposite  stand-point  wrote  Sylvester  Syropulos,  a 
Greek  priest,  whose  work  was  edited  by  Creygh- 
ton,  London,  16G0.  See  also  Cecco.ni  :  Stuili 
storici  sul  concilia  di  Firenze,  Florence,  1869; 
Fromm,\nn  :  Kritische  Beitrage  z.  Geschichle  d. 
flor.  Kirckeneinigung,  Halle,  1872 ;  [A.  War- 
SCHAUER :  IJeber  die  Quellen  zum  Jlorentiner 
Concil,  Breslau,  1881].  PAUL  TSCHACKERT. 

FERRARA,  Renata  (Renee),  celebrated  for  her 
relations  to  the  Reformers,  was  the  daughter  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France,  and  wife  of  Hercules  of 
Este,  Uuke  of  Ferrara,  whom  she  married  in  1.527 ; 
was  b.  at  the  castle  of  St.  Blois,  Oct.  25,  1510 ; 
and  d.  at  Montargis,  June  12,  1.575.  Brought  up 
in  the  court  of  Francis  I.,  she  came  into  intimate 
relations  with  Margaret  of  Navarre,  whose  evan- 
gelical sentiments  she  imbibed.  Her  mind  de- 
lighted in  the  pursuits  of  literature  and  art ;  and 
her  court  at  Ferrara  attracted  the  learned  men  of 
Italy.  She  remained  true  to  evangelical  senti- 
ments, in  spite  of  opposition  and  the  forced  sepa- 
ration of  her  children,  and  welcomed  to  her  palace 
Ochiuo,  Peter  ^lartyr,  Calvin,  and  other  evan- 
gelical divines.  Calvin,  during  his  stay  (in  15.36) 
of  several  months,  instructed  her  carefully  in  the 
Reformed  doctrines,  and  afterwards  maintained 
a  correspondence  with  her.  On  the  death  of  her 
husband  (in  1559)  she  returned  to  France,  and 
made  profession  of  the  Reformed  faith,  in  which 
she  died.  See  P.  Bayle  (^Dictionary),  jMeri.e 
D'AuniGxfi  (iv.  42.5-427.  v.  420-423.  .\ni.  ed.), 
Weitzel  (Hence  of  France,  JJew  York,  188.3). 

FERRER,  Vincentius,  b.  at  Valencia,  Jan.  23, 
13.57;  d.  at  Vannes,  in  Bretagne,  .\pril  5,  1419; 
entered  the  Dominican  order  in  1374 ;  studied  at 
Barcelona  and  Lerida;  wrote  Tractatus  de  modernn 
Ecclesice  schisrnale ,  visited  Paris ;  was  appointed 
confessor  to  Queen  Yolanda  of  Aragon ;  wrote 
Tracla/us  de  vita  npirituuli,  and  other  works,  and 
was  in  1395  called  to  Avignon  by  Benedict  XIII., 
as  Mar/isler  Sacri  Palalii.  But  two  years  later  on 
he  gave  up  this  position,  and  determined,  in  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  Pope,  to  devote  liis  life 
to  mi.ssionary  labors.  Travelling  on  foot  through 
France,  Italy,  Spain,  and  England,  he  preached, 
often  twice  a  day,  in  the  streets  or  on  the  road, 
to  great  crowds.  Soon  he  was  not  alone  any 
more.  A  wandering  congregation  formed  around 
him,  accompanying  him  everywhere,  practising 
the  severest  asceticism,  and  filling  the  towns  and 
the  fields  with  their  .sombre  songs.  He  was 
canonized  by  Calixtus  III.,  June  2d,  1455.  See 
LUDWIG  Heller  :  Vincentius  Ferrer,  Berlin,  1830: 
Hohentiial:  De  Vmcentio  Ferrerio,  Leipzig, 
1830.  L.   HELLER 

FERRIER,  Jsremie,  b.  at  Xlnies  in  1565;  d.  in 
Paris,  .Sept.  26,  1626;  was  appointed  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  Congregation  of  XInies  in  1601, 
and  considered  one  of  the  most  talented  and 
courageous  champions  of  the  Reformation  in 
France.  He  publicly  defended  the  thesis  that 
the  Pope  was  Antichrist.    He  preached  with  such 


a  violence  against  the  Jesuits  as  to  cause  riots, 
etc.  Nevertheless,  some  suspicion  of  his  sincerity 
arose  in  1611  ;  and  in  1613  he  was  forbidden  to 
preach,  because  it  was  evident  that  he  had  sold 
himself  to  the  Court  and  the  Romanists.  He 
went  to  Paris  and  abjured  Protestantism  in  1614. 
In  the  same  year  he  wrote  De  l' Antcchrixt  el  de  ses 
marques,  centre  les  caloninies  des  enneniis  de  I'Eglise 
catholique.  See  Bokrel,  Hist,  de  I'Ei/l.  ref.  de 
Nimcs,  1856. 

FERRIS,  Isaac,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  in  New  York, 
Oct.  3,  1799;  d.  at  Roselle,  N.J.,  June  16,  1873. 
He  was  graduated  from  Columbia  College,  1816  ; 
a  pastor  in  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  over  dif- 
ferent charges  (New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  1821-24; 
Albany,  1824-36;  New  York,  Market  Street,  1836- 
54) ;  and  chancellor  of  the  New  York  University, 
1852-70,  emeritus,  1870-73.  His  service  to  the 
university  was  long  and  faithful.  By  his  efforts 
a  crushing  debt  of  a  hundred  thousand  dollars 
was  extinguished,  four  professorships  endowed, 
and  several  new  departments  added  to  the  course 
of  instruction.  He  possessed  great  sagacity, 
common  sense,  and  administrative  ability.  As 
preacher,  pastor,  and  professor,  he  was  beloved. 
His  presence  was  majestic.  He  delivered  the 
address  at  the  Jubilee  of  the  American  Bible 
Society,  New  York,  1866,  subsequently  published, 
—  Jubilee  Memorial  of  the  American  Bible  Society ; 
being  a  Review  of  its  First  Fifty  Years  of  Wurk; 
N.Y.,  1867. 

FERRY,  Paul,  b.  at  Metz,  Feb.  24,  1591;  d. 
there  July  28,  1669;  was  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Congregation  thei'e  for  about  sixty  years.  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer;  but  most  of  his  works 
still  remain  in  manuscript,  and  those  which  have 
been  printed  are  mediocre.  He  is  noticeable, 
however,  for  his  participation  in  the  project  of 
uniting  the  Protestants  and  Romani.sts  of  France. 
His  correspondence  with  Bossuet  on  that  occasion 
is  found  in  vol.  xxiv.  of  the  works  of  the  latter. 
His  Lettre  aux  ministres  de  Geneve,  in  defence  of  a 
poor  lunatic  who  was  burnt  at  Geneva  for  blas- 
phemies against  the  Trinity,  is  found  in  vol.  ii. 
of  Biblioth'eque  Anglaise. 

FERRY  LAW,  The,  is  the  name  generally  ap- 
plied to  a  law  concerning  public  instruction,  espe- 
cially in  the  higher  schools,  which  was  laid  before 
the  Legislative  Chamber  of  France,  IVLarch  15, 
1879,  by  Jules  Ferry,  at  that  time  minister  of 
public  instruction,  and  passed  by  the  Senate,  July 
19,  same  year.  The  tendency  of  this  law  is  to 
exclude  the  influence  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  from  the  school.  Article  VH.  of  the  law, 
the  centre  of  the  debate,  and  the  object  of  a  very 
hitter  contest,  prohibits  the  member  of  a  not 
recognized  religious  association  to  be  the  director 
of,  or  to  teach  in,  a  public  school.  In  consequence 
of  this  article,  twenty-seven  .Jesuit  colleges  were 
closed,  and  eight  hundi-ed  and  forty-eight  Jesuit 
teachers  were  forbidden  to  work.  But,  besides 
the  Jesuits,  twenty-six  other  religious  communi- 
ties which  could  not  obtain,  or  would  not  seek, 
the  confirmation  of  the  government,  were  affected 
by  the  law.  See  Fr.\xce,  Ecclesiastical  Sta- 
tistics OF. 

FESCH,  Joseph,  b.  at  Ajaccio,  Jan.  3,  1763; 
d.  in  Rome,  May  13,  1839 ;  was  a  younger  step- 
brother to  LaBtitia.  the  mother  of  Napoleon  I., 
and  was  educated  for  the  church  in  the  seminary 


FESTIVALS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


808 


FEUILLANTS. 


of  Aix.  After  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution, 
he  entered  the  military  service,  and  accompanied 
his  nephew  on  his  first  Italian  campaign  as  an 
army  commissary.  He  took  part  in  the  negotia- 
tion of  the  concordat,  returned  to  the  church, 
and  was  made  Archbishop  of  Lyons  in  180'_',  and 
Cardinal  in  1803.  As  ambassador  to  Rome,  he 
succeeded  in  inducing  the  Pope  to  go  to  Paris  to 
crown  Xapoleon ;  and  the  day  before  the  crown- 
ing he  gave  the  civil  marriage  of  Xapoleon  and 
Josephine  the  consecration  of  the  church.  He 
was,  however,  not  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands  of  his 
nephew.  He  afterwards  absolutely  refused  to 
annul  the  marriage  which  he  had  consecrated ; 
and  as  president  of  the  National  Council  assem- 
bled in  Paris,  1810,  he  resisted  the  policy  of  Napo- 
leon so  persistently,  that  he  entirely  lost  his  favor. 
After  the  fall  of  the  emperor,  Cardinal  Fesch 
sought  refuge  in  Roiue,  and  was  very  kindly  re- 
ceived by  the  Pope.  He  joined  Napoleon  during 
the  Himdred  Days,  but  returned  then  to  Rome, 
■where  he  spent  the  rest  of  liis  life.  His  corre- 
spondence with  Napoleon  was  published  by  Du 
Casse,  in  3  vols.,  Paris,  185.5.  See  Lyonn^t  : 
Le  Cardinal  Fesch,  Lyons,  1841,  2  vols. ;  and  La 
verite  sur  te  Cardinal  Fesch,  Lyons,  1842. 

FESTIVALS  OF  THE  JEWS.  The  festivals  of 
the  Jews  may  be  divided  into  pre-exilian  and 
post-exilian.  They  will  be  found  described  under 
their  respiective  titles. 

L  The  Pre-Exilian  Festivals.  —  There  are  (a) 
The  Seventh  Day,  or  the  Sabliath  ;  (6)  The  Feast  of 
Trumpets,  or  Netc  Year;  (c)  The  Day  of  Atonement : 
((/)  The  Feast  of  Tahernacles ,  and  (e)  The  Feast 
of  Pentecost.  Besides,  each  seventh  year  was 
observed  as  a  sabbatical,  and,  after  seven  times 
seven  years,  the  Feast  of  Jubilee  was  observed. 
On  the  holy  seasons  in  general  comp.  Exod.  xxiii. 
10-17;  Lev.  xxiii.,  xxv. ;  Num.  xxviii.,  xxix.; 
Dent.  xvi.  As  these  festivals  are  treated  sepa- 
rately, we  need  not  enter  upon  the  mode  of  their 
observation. 

H.  The  Post-Exilian  Festivals.  —  After  the  exile, 
other  holy  seasons  were  added  to  those  already 
enacted  by  Moses  :  thus  the  four  fasts  mentioned 
in  Zechariah  (for  which  comp.  the  art.  Fa.its),  the 
Feast  of  Esther,  or  Puriin,  that  of  tlie  Dedication 
of  the  Temple  on  its  restoration  by  Judas  the 
Maccabee,  and  that  of  Wood  Offering,  on  which 
offerings  of  wood  were  brougiit  for  the  use  of  the 
temple,  and  on  which  .see  the  Mishna  Taanith 
iv.  5,  and  Joseplius,  Jewish  Wars,  II.  17,  C.  Comp. 
Delitzsch,  in  Herzog's  Real  Encyclop.  (2d  ed.), 
s.  V.  Fesle. 

FES'TUS.     .See  Fki.ix  ani>  Fkstus. 

FETICHISM,  or  FETISHISM  (from  the  Portu- 
guese _/ei(i(.o,  /t^/.s-.s-o,  a  "charm),"  denotes  one  of 
the  lowest  forms  of  religion,  —  the  worshipping  of 
fetiches.  The  fetich  is  not  itself  considered  a  deity 
by  the  viforshipper,  oreven  a  symbol  of  a  deity  :  it 
is  simply  su]i]iosed  to  lie  a  vehicle  through  which 
a  .supi'riiatiiral  power  makes  itself  felt  in  the 
world  ;  and,  as  no  logical  connection  is  demanded 
between  the  power  and  the  vehicle  through  which 
It  act.s,  any  object  whatever,  natural  or  artificial, 
animate  or  inanimate,  may  become  a  fetidi.  En- 
tirely incidentally  —  by  a  dream,  by  some  kind  of 
delusion,  by  a  mere  whim  —  some  one  is  induced 
to  believe  that  a  supernatural  power  exercises 
influence  on  his  destiny  through  thi.<i  pebble  or 


that  feather ;  and  immediately  he  falls  down  and 
worships  the  pebble  or  the  feather,  and  makes  it 
his  fetich.  But  just  as  incidentally  the  object  may 
lose  this  dignity  of  being  a  fetich.  If  the  wor- 
shipper discovers,  or  thinks  he  has  discovered,  that 
the  influence  is  not  so  real  as  he  supposed,  he  wiU 
withdraw  his  allegiance,  and  perhaps  take  ven- 
geance. If  the  fetich  is  an  animate  object,  it  will 
be  punished  :  if  it  is  an  inanimate  object,  it  may 
be  destroyed.  The  idea,  however,  of  iufluencmg, 
perhaps  coercing,  the  supernatural  power  through 
the  vehicle,  is  not  altogether  foreign  to  the  fetich 
worshipper;  for  the  fetich  has,  at  least  to  some 
extent,  the  character  of  being  a  means  of  witch- 
craft. 

This  form  of  religion  was  observed  and  de- 
scribed for  the  first  tune,  when,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  Portuguese  boarded  the  coasts  of 
Guinea.  Afterwards  numerous  traces  of  it  were 
found  among  the  savages  in  America,  Australia, 
and  Siberia ;  and  De  Brosses,  in  his  Du  Culte  des 
Dieux  Fetiches  (Dijon,  176U)',  brings  it  in  connec- 
tion with  the  religion  of  the  ancient  Egyptians. 
General  attention  was  drawn  to  it  by  A.  Comte, 
who,  in  his  Philosophle  positive  (Paris,  1830-42), 
places  it  as  the  first  stage  in  the  logical  evolution 
of  religion,  and  defines  it  as  a  conception  of 
nature,  according  to  which  all  bodies  are  animat- 
ed, in  the  same  manner  as  the  human  body,  and, 
like  that,  governed  by  a  will.  This  definition 
depends  upon  a  mistake  ;  for  fetichism  is  not  pan- 
theism, but  just  the  reverse  of  pantheism,  a  very 
coarse  dualism,  as  has  been  very  ably  shown  by 
Sir  John  Lubbock,  in  his  Origin  of  Civilization, 
1870,  and  by  Herbert  Spencer,  in  his  Sociolo- 
gy, 1879.  See  Fritz  Schultze,  Der  Fetischismus, 
Leipzig,  1871.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN. 

FEUERBACH,  Ludwig  Andreas,  b.  at  Land- 
shut,  Bavaria,  July  28,  1804;  d.  at  Bruckberg, 
near  Ansbach,  Sept.  13,  1872 ;  studied  at  Heidel- 
berg and  Berlin,  and  began  to  lecture  on  philoso- 
phy at  Eiiangen,  but  spent  most  of  his  life  in 
literary  retirement  at  Bruckberg.  In  1848,  1849, 
he  once  more  began  to  lecture  publicly  at  Hei- 
delberg ;  but,  when  the  revolutionary  movement 
completely  failed,  he  again  retired  to  private 
life.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life  he  was  rescued 
from  actual  want  only  by  a  public  subscription. 
He  was  originally  a  pupil  of  Hegel,  but  left  the 
master  in  1839  with  a  very  bitter  criticism,  and 
attempted  an  independent  development  hi  the 
direction  of  naturalism,  or  rather  materialism. 
In  his  principal  work  (Das  Wesen  des  Christen- 
thums,  1841)  he  defines  God  as  a  mere  projection 
into  empty  space  of  the  liunian  ego,  as  an  image 
of  man,  and  religion  as  a  simple  psychological 
[irocess,  as  an  illusion.  The  book  was  translated 
into  English  with  consummate  art  by  George 
JOliot  (Airs.  Cross),  Essence  of  Christianity,  Lon- 
don, 1853,  new  ed.,  1881.  See  Sciiai.ler  :  Dar- 
slellung  und  Kritik  d.  Philosophic  L.  P.,  1847;  R. 
Hacjk.v  :    Feiierbiirh  und  die  Philosophic,  1847. 

FEUILLANTS,  The,  received  their  name  from 
the  abbey  of  Feuillaiis,  about  eighteen  miles  from 
Toulouse,  and  were  originally  a  branch  of  the 
Cistercian  order,  subject  to  tiie  authority  of  Ci- 
teaux,  but  became  an  independent  congregation 
by  the  reforms  of  Jean  de  la  Barrifere  (b.  1544, 
d.  ICOO).  He  became  abbot  of  Feuillans  in  1574, 
and  in  spite  of  much  opposition,  and  many  diffi- 


PEW. 


809 


FICHTE. 


culties,  he  succeeded  in  re-establishing  the  old 
discipline  and  order  among  his  monks.  As  a 
consequence  of  the  reform,  the  reputation  of  the 
monastery  increased  so  rapidly,  that  the  envy 
even  of  the  mother-institution  at  Citeaux  was 
excited,  and  Barriere  was  compelled  to  ask  sup- 
port from  the  Pope.  In  15SG  the  Pope  not  only 
confirmed  the  reforms,  but  also  forbade  the  Cis- 
tercians to  meddle  with  the  affairs  of  Feuillans. 
Monks  from  Feuillans  were  invited  to  Home  ;  and 
monasteries  on  the  reformed  plan  were  founded 
in  Rome,  in  Paris,  and  in  Bordeaux.  In  1595  the 
Pope  entirely  exempted  the  Feuillants  from  the 
authority  of  Citeaux,  and  confirmed  their  consti- 
tution as  an  independent  congregation.  Under 
Henry  IV.  they  obtained  the  right  of  electing 
their  own  general ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  they  numbered  about  thirty 
monasteries  in  France  and  Italy.  Nunneries  were 
also  founded ;  the  first  by  Barriere,  in  1588,  at 
Montesquion,  in  the  diocese  of  Kieux,  for  fifteen 
inmates ;  a  second,  in  1599,  at  Toulouse ;  a,  third 
at  Poitiers,  in  1617,  etc.  See  Joseph  iMorotius  : 
Cistercii  rejiorescentis  .  .  .  histor.,  Turin,  1690,  fol.; 
Dom  J.  de  la  Barriere,  Paris,  1699.        ZOCKLER. 

FEW,  Ignatius  A.,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  in  Augusta, 
Ga.,  April  11,  1789;  d.  in  Athens,  Ga.,  Nov.  28, 
1845.  After  practising  law  for  a  few  years,  he 
was  converted,  and  entered  the  ministry  of  the 
Methodist-Episcopal  Church,  1828,  and  attained 
to  great  eminence.  He  was  the  founder  and  first 
president  of  Emory  College.  Oxford,  Ga.,  and  one 
of  the  leaders  of  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church, 
South.  His  attainments,  intellectual  and  spii'itual, 
made  him  beloved  and  trusted. 

FIACRE  (Irish-Gaelic,  raren  or  worth),  d.  670; 
a  saint  of  Gaul,  and  patron  of  the  gardeners,  who 
celebrate  his  festival  on  Aug.  .30.  lie  was  most 
probably  of  Irish  parentage,  and  went  to  Meaux, 
in  France,  where  he  erected  an  oratory  to  the 
Virgin  Mary,  which  became  a  famous  resort  for 
pilgrims.  Of  his  life  little  is  known.  Miracles 
are  attributed  to  him,  and  his  relics  were  believed 
to  have  retained  the  same  power.  Women  were 
excluded  from  his  chapel ;  and,  according  to  Boece 
(^Hist.  Scotland,  ix.  19),  "All  wemen  that  gangis 
in  his  chapell  wil  be  other  blind  or  mod  [mad]." 
His  name  has  been  given  to  a  carriage.  In  1640 
a  merchant  rented  a  building  in  Paris  for  his  car- 
riages, which  he  hired  out.  Over  the  building 
was  an  image  of  the  saint,  and  the  building  itself 
was  called  "Hotel  de  St.  Fiacre."  The  name 
passed  to  the  vehicles  themselves.  See  BoL- 
LANDIST :  Acta  .SS.,  Aug.  30,  vol.  vi.  p.  604  sqq. ; 
A.J.  Ansaut:  Hist,  de  St.  Fiacre,  Paris,  1782; 
Smith  :  I>i<t.  Chriat.  Bio;/.,  art.  Fiacrius. 

FICHTE,  Johann  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Rammenan, 
in  Upper  Pyusatia,  May  19,  1762 ;  d.  in  Berlin, 
Jan.  27,  1814;  was  educated  at  Sehulpforta,  and 
studied  theology  at  Jena.  The  son  of  a  poor 
ribbon-weaver,  he  was  enabled  to  follow  his 
intellectual  ambition  only  by  the  aid  of  Baron 
von  Miltiz ;  and,  when  this  his  benefactor  died, 
he  led  for  several  years  a  very  precarious  life  as 
a  tutor  in  Ziirich  and  AVarsaw,  and  as  a  student 
in  Leipzig  and  Konigsberg.  He  came  out,  how- 
ever, from  those  years  of  poverty  and  embarrass- 
ments of  all  kinds,  acliaracter  of  steel.  His  first 
strong  intellectual  impression  he  received  from 
the   writings    of    Lessing.      Afterwards,   in   the 


course  of  his  mental  development,  he  successively 
moved  from  the  freethinking  of  Lessing  to  the 
determinism  of  Spinoza,  and  again  from  the  de- 
terminism of  Spinoza  to  the  criticism  of  Kant. 
In  Kant's  limitation  of  causality  to  the  world  of 
phenomena  he  found  the  starting-point  for  his 
own  philosophy,  —  that  audacious  deduction  of 
both  nature  and  God  from  the  human  ego,  as  to 
whose  true  character  (atheism,  or  not)  people 
still  disagree.  In  1794  he  was  appointed  profess- 
or of  philosophy  at  Jena;  and  the  following  year 
he  published  his  chief  work.  Die  Wissenschafts- 
lehre  (translated  into  Englisli  by  A.  E.  Kroeger, 
Science  of  Knowledge,  Philadelphia,  1868),  and 
the  beautiful  essay,  Ueher  die  Bestimmung  des 
Gekhrten  (translated  by  W.  Smith,  The  I'oration 
of  the  Scholar,  in  his  Popular  Writings  of  J.  G. 
Fichte,  2  vols.,  London,  1847-49,  new  "edition, 
1871).  Both  his  writings  and  his  lectures  made  a 
deep  impression.  But  a  suspicion  of  atheism  was 
already  abroad ;  and  when,  in  1799,  in  a  little 
essay,  On  the  Grounds  of  our  Faith  in  the  Divine 
Government  of  the  World,  he  declared  that  the 
moi'al  order  of  the  world  is  God,  and  that  there 
is  no  other  God,  he  was  formally  rebuked  by  the 
government,  and  discharged.  The  rest  of  his 
life  he  spent  in  Berlin,  where  he  lectured  to  great 
audiences,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  founda- 
tion of  the  university.  The  effect  of  his  lectures 
(as,  for  instance,  his  lieden  an  die  deutsche  A'ation), 
was  felt  through  all  Germany,  and  can  still  be 
felt  at  this  very  day.  In  these  his  later  writings, 
as,  for  instance,  in  The  Destination  of  Man,  1800 
(translated  by  Mrs.  Sinnett,  London,  1846),  The 
Nature  of  the  Scholar,  The  Characteristics  of  the 
Present  Age,  The  Way  towaj'ds  the  Blessed  Life,  etc., 
1805-07  (all  translated  by  W.  Smith  in  the  book 
mentioiied  above),  lie  took  great  piains  to  clear  up 
his  relation  to  religion,  e.specially  to  Christianity. 
In  some  points  he  succeeded.  It  is  evident  that 
he  was  very  far  from  considering  Christianity  a 
mere  code  of  morality :  he  recognized  it  as  an 
agency  of  much  deeper  significance  in  the  history 
of  the  human  race.  But  the  incarnation,  for  in- 
stance, .seems  to  have  been  to  him  nothing  more 
than  a  typical  representation  of  what  takes  place 
in  every  man  when  he  is  converted.  Of  the  his- 
torical facts  on  which  Christianity  rests,  he  seems 
to  have  grasped  the  typical  signification  only. 
His  collected  works  were  edited  (Bonn,  1834- 
46,  11  vols.),  and  his  life  was  written,  by  his 
son,  I.  H.  Fichte,  Sulzbach,  1830,  2  vols.,  2d  ed., 
Leipzig,  1862. 

Lit.  —  BussE  ;  Fichte  u.  s.  Beziehung  zur  Gegen- 
wart  des  deutschen  Vvlhes,  Halle,  1848,  1849; 
LijWE:  Die  Philosophic  Fichte  s,  Stuttgart,  1862; 
Lasson  :  J.  G.  Fichte  im  Verhdltniss  zu  Kirche 
und  Staat,  Berlin,  1863;  O.  Pfleiderer  :  Johann 
Gottlieb  Fichte,  Stuttgart,  1877 ;  F.  Zimmerx  : 
,/.  G.  Fichte's  Religions-jihilosophie,  Berlin,  1878; 
R.  Adamson  :  Fichte,  Edinb.  and  Lond.,  1881; 
and  the  articles  and  translations  in  the  Journal  of 
Speculative  Philosophy,  St.  Louis,  L^.S.A. 

FICHTE,  Immanuel  Hermann,  the  son  of  the 
former;  b.  at  Jena,  July  18.  1797  ;  d.  at  Stuttgart, 
Aug.  13,  1879;  was  professor  of  pliilosophv  at 
Bonn  (1836-42),  and  at  Tiibingen  (1842-75).  '  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer  on  all  branches  of  phi- 
losophy, and  exercised  considerable  influence  as  a 
champion  of  Christian  theism.     In  this  respect 


FICINUS. 


810 


FIJI  ISLANDS. 


his  Die  speculalice  Tlieologie,  Heidelberg,  1846,  and 
System  der  Elhil;  Leipzig,  1850-53,  are  of  special 
interest.  He  founded  the  Zeitsckrifl  fur  Pkiloso- 
pliie. 

FICINUS,  Marsilius,  b.  at  Florence,  Oct.  19, 
1433;  d.  in  his  villa,  at  Careggi,  Oct.  1,  1499; 
was  a  son  of  the  body-physician  of  Cosmo  di 
Jledici,  and  grew  up  in  the  palace,  enjoying  the 
instruction  of  Gemistus  Pletho,  and  tlie  inter- 
course of  all  the  leaders  of  the  Renaissance.  In 
time  he  became  one  of  the  leaders  himself;  and 
he,  more  than  any  one  else,  was  instrumental  in 
familiarizing  the  age  with  the  ideas  of  Plato  and 
the  Xeo-Platouists.  It  was  an  enthusiastic  con- 
viction of  his,  that  the  depraved  theology  of  his 
time  could  be  regenerated  only  by  au  infusion  of 
Platouism.  In  that  spirit  he  preached,  having 
been  consecrated  priest  in  1477 ;  and  in  that 
spirit  he  wrote  and  lectured  as  president  of  tlie 
Platonic  Academy.  He  gave  a  complete  Latin 
translation  of  Plato  and  Plotinus,  and  published 
a  number  of  original  works, —  TheoUigia  Plalonica, 
De  Religione  Clirn'tiana,  De  Immorlalitate  Animo- 
rum,  etc.  Collected  editions  of  his  works  appeared 
at  Venice,  151G ;  Ba.sel,  1561 ;  Paris,  1641.  Among 
his  pupils  were  Pico  di  ^lirandola,  Reuchliu, 
Sixtus  IV.,  etc.  See  Sievekixg,  Gesdiichle  d. 
philoniscJi.  Akadrmie  :n  Florenz.  Gottingen,  1812. 

FIDDES,  Richard,  D.D.,  a  fertile  theological 
author;  b.  at  1 1  umanley,  Yorkshire,  in  1671;  and 
d.  at  Putney  in  1725.  He  was  educated  at  Ox- 
ford :  became  rector  of  Ilalsham  about  1694,  but, 
losing  his  voice,  resigned,  and  devoted  himself 
with  much  industry  to  authorship.  Among  his 
works  are:  ^4  Body  of  Divinily,  Lond.,  1718-20, 
in  2  vols,  (the  first  discussing  the  doctrines  of 
natural  and  revealed  religion, —  Theol.  specula- 
tiva,  the  second,  the  duties,  —  Theol.  praclica); 
a  Life  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Lond.,  1724  (in  which 
the  writer  disparages  the  Reformation)  ;  and  3 
vols,  of  Discourses,  Lond.,  1713-15,  vol.  i.  passing 
through  Ihrce  editions. 

FIDELIS,  St.,  jiroperly  Marcus  Roy,  was  b.  at 
Sigmaringen,  1577 ;  studied  law,  and  began  to 
practise  a.s  a  lawyer  in  Knsislieim,  but  suddenly 
clianged  career,  entered  the  order  of   the   Capu- 


chins, and  was  consecrated  priest,  and  appointed 
preacher  at  Feldkirch,  in  the  Vorarllierg,  1621. 
His  great  aim  was  to  re-establish  the  l^onum- 
Catholic  Churcli  in  these  regions  ;  and  at  the  liead 
of  an  Au.strian  regiment  of  dragoons  he  set  out 
on  a  missionary  trip.  Hut  the  peasants  rose  in 
defence  of  tlieir  religio\is  liberty,  defeated  the 
dragoons,  and  put  1-idelis  to  death,  April  24, 
1622;  for  which  Benedict  XIV.  declared  him  a 
saint.  o.  plitt. 

FIELD,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
Anglican  Clnirch;  b.  Oct.  15,  1561,  in  Heni])- 
stead.  llerlfonlshire;  d.  Xov.  21,  11116.  He 
Stuilird  at  Oxford;  wa.s  made  rector  of  Purgli- 
clere  in  l.')98,  chaphiin  in  oniinary  to  Klizaheth, 
and  in  1610  raised  to  the  ch-anery  of  Gloucester. 
He  wa.s  an  intimate  friend  of  Hooker,  recog- 
nized iui  a  good  preaciier  an<l  jirofound  theologian, 
and  esteenieil  by  .lames  I.,  who,  after  liearing 
him  for  the  tirst  time,  exjircssed  his  .sentiments 
in  the  pun,  "  'I'hi.s  is  a  Field  for  fiod  to  dwell  in." 
Fuller,  in  his  /loly  War,  calls  him  "  that  learned 
divine,  whoso  memory  smelleth  like  a  Jucld  the 
Lord  liatli  l>le.s.scd."     Field's  fame  reals  upon  his 


work  entitled  Of  the  Church,  Five  Bookes,  by  Bich- 
ard  Field,  D.D.,  and  sometime  Deane  of  Glouces- 
ter, 1606-10.  It  treats  of  the  nature,  members, 
and  goverument  of  the  true  church,  and  was  occa- 
sioned, as  he  says  in  the  dedication  to  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  by  the  "  unhappy  divisions 
of  the  Christian  world,  and  the  infinite  distrac- 
tions of  men's  minds."  It  seeks  to  "discover  the 
vanity  of  the  insolent  boastings  of  the  Papists, 
that  all  men  may  know  that  we  have  not  departed 
from  the  ancient  faitli,  or  foi'saken  the  fellowship 
of  the  Church  Catholic  "  In  the  fifth  book, 
which  discusses  the  ministry,  he  takes  the  mod- 
erate view  of  episcopacy.  "  When  the  Apostles 
had  finished  their  course,  they  left  none  to  suc- 
ceed them  .  .  .  yet  they  authorized  presbyters 
and  deacons,"  etc.  (Epistle  to  the  Header).  Field's 
work  has  been  republished  by  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  Society,  4  vols.,  Cambridge,  1847.  For 
his  life,  see  Some  Short  Memorials  concerning  his 
Life,  bv  his  son,  Nathaniel  Field,  London, 
1716,  1717. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY  MEN,  republican  and  mil- 
lenarian  enthusiasts  of  the  Commonwealth  period, 
who  attempted  to  set  up  "  the  kingdom  of  Jesus," 
or  the  fifth  monarchy  of  Daniel.  Powell  and 
Feake  were  the  first  leaders,  and  called  Cromwell 
"the  dissemblingest  perjured  villain  in  the  world." 
They  formed  a  plot  in  16.")7  to  murder  Cromwell; 
but  it  was  discovered  by  Secretary  Thurloe,  and 
some  of  the  chief  conspirators  imprisoned.  On 
Sunday,  Jan.  6,  1661,  a  band  numbering  about 
fifty,  and  headed  by  \'enner,  a  wine-cooper,  rose 
again  in  insurrection.  They  carried  a  banner 
with  the  design  of  a  lion  couchant  (the  lion  of 
the  tribe  of  ,Judah).  They  were  quicklv  dis- 
persed, and  ^'enner  taken  prisoner,  and  hung. 
The  Independents  and  Quakers  were  unjustly 
accused  of  being  in  .sympathy  with  the  Fifth- 
Monarchy  Men.  See  Neai.  :  Hist,  of  the  Puritans, 
ii.  176,  '220  (Harper's  ed.);  Caulvle:  Life  of 
Ci-omwell ;  SrorGiiTON  :  Bel.  in  England,  new 
ed..  Lond.,  l.ssL  vol.  ii.  pp.  57-69. 

FIJI  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  two  hundred  and 
fifty  islands  in  the  .Southern  Pacific,  and  compris- 
ing an  area  of  nearly  eight  thousand  sijuare  miles. 
The  two  largest  are  Vanua  Levu  (Great  Land), 
which  is  a  hundred  miles  long,  and  ha.s  an  aver- 
age breadth  of  twenty-five  miles,  and  'V'iti  Levu 
(Great  Viti,  or  Fiji),  which  is  ninety  by  fifty  miles. 
Eighty  of  these  islands  are  inhabited.  They  are 
tlie  result  of  coral  and  volcanic  formation.  The 
climate  is  delightfid.  the  thermometer  seldom 
rising  above  90°.  Tlie  islands  were  disco\t>red 
by  Tasinan  in  1643,  and  visited  by  Pligh  in  1789, 
and  by  Wil.son  in  1797.  The  ethnological  rela- 
tions of  the  Fijians  have  given  much  dilliculty. 
They  comliine  characteristics  of  the  Melanesian 
and  Polynesian  tyjies.  Physically  llicy  are  an 
athletic,  well-formed  race,  and  mentally  they  are 
far  above  the  Papuans.  The  poi>uhition  was 
divided  up  into  tribes,  and  ruled  by  kings,  until 
1874,  when  the  islands  were  annexed  to  Great 
Prilain.  The  more  jwwerfnl  chiefs  voluntarily 
proposed  the  cessation,  and  signed  articles  to  that 
effect  in  October  of  1874.  Sir  Arthur  Gordon 
was  a]i]iointed  the  first  governor.  The  advan- 
tages accruing  to  the  islands  from  the  annexation 
have  been  signal.  A  code  of  laws  has  been 
adopted,   and    justice    is    now   administered    in 


FIJI  ISLANDS. 


811 


FILIOQUE  CONTROVERSY. 


courts.  When  the  English  governor  arrived  at 
the  islands  in  1875,  they  were  in  a  state  of  almost 
hopeless  poverty.  A  terrible  pestilence  had  car- 
ried off,  the  year  previous,  one-third  of  the  popu- 
lation. From  that  time  the  yearly  revenue  has 
rapidly  increased  from  £1U,000  in  1875  to  £75,150 
in  1879.  The  chief  productions  are  yams,  sugar- 
cane, maize,  coppra  (cocoanut),  and  bananas.  The 
population  in  1880  was  110,000  natives,  1,!J02 
Europeans,  and  3,200  Polynesians,  imported  to 
work  on  the  plantations. 

In  no  part  of  the  world  have  modern  missions 
had  a  more  glorious  triumph  than  in  Fiji.  The 
first  missionaries  were  Messrs.  Cross  and  Cargill, 
who  went  in  1835  to  Fiji  from  the  Friendly 
Islands,  where  Mr.  Cross  had  been  laboring  for 
eight,  and  Mr.  Cargill  for  two  years.  The  reli- 
gion of  the  islands  was  a  degrading  superstition, 
and  witchcraft  was  widely  practised.  The  tribes 
were  in  a  constant  state  of  war  with  eacli  other. 
The  people  wore  no  covering,  except  a  kilt,  four 
inches  wide,  around  the  waist.  Their  ornaments 
were  limited  to  whale-teeth  :  but  they  took  great 
pride  in  the  dressing  of  their  hair,  which  was  so 
trained  as  to  form  a  large  bushy  covering  for  the 
head ;  and  so  careful  were  they  to  protect  it,  that, 
in  the  place  of  pillows,  they  substituted  a  narrow 
yoke,  one  or  two  inches  wide  at  the  top,  on  which 
they  rested  their  necks.  Polygamy  was  practised, 
and  the  condition  of  woman  was  a  very  inferior  one. 
The  wife  or  wives  w-ere  strangled  at  the  death  of 
the  husband.  Life  was  cheap,  the  kings  sacrifi- 
cing men  at  the  launching  of  a  new  canoe,  or  the 
inception  of  a  campaign,  or  the  erection  of  a  house. 
Cannibalism  was  also  practised  on  a  large  scale, 
although  there  were  some  whom  the  missionaries 
found  averse  to  eating  human  flesh.  The  victims 
of  war,  and  shipwrecked  mariners,  were  invaria- 
bly served  up  on  the  table.  The  treatment  of 
women  has  undergone  a  complete  revolution  ;  and 
the  practice  of  cannibalism  has  been  entirely 
given  up  (except  among  a  few  mountain  tribes), 
under  the  influence  of  the  missionaries. 

The  English  AVesleyans  were  left  in  undis- 
puted control  of  the  islands  until  recently  by 
the  other  Protestant  churches.  Messrs.  Cross  and 
Cargill  were  re-enforced  by  ^lessr.s.  Lythe  and 
Hunt  in  1839,  and  by  Mr.  Williams  and  others 
in  1840.  The  work  was  carried  on  amidst  great 
discouragements  and  perils  during  the  first  years, 
but  was  richly  rewarded  with  extensive  revivals, 
and  the  gradual  conversion  of  nearly  the  whole 
population.  Thokombau,  the  chief  king,  after 
resisting  the  missionaries  for  a  number  of  years, 
was  baptized  January,  1857,  after  having  given 
up  all  his  wives  but  one.  The  language  was 
reduced  to  writing ;  and  the  Bible,  Bunyaii's  Pil- 
qrim's  Pror/ress,  a  Fijian-English  dictionary  (by 
Rev.  David  Hazlewood),  and  other  books,  have 
been  printed  in  the  native  language.  There  are 
at  present  fourteen  hundred  schools  and  nine 
hundred  churches.  Xot  only  are  the  church 
services  crowded  by  devout  congregations,  but  the 
people  seem  to  be  thoroughly  in  earnest.  They 
have  given  up  polygamy;  and  most  of  those  who 
had  many  wives  have  put  away  all  but  one,  and 
been  legally  married  by  the  missionaries.  The 
Sabbath  is  strictly  observed,  and  family-worship 
scrupulously  held.  Miss  Gumming  (governess 
in  Sir  Arthur  Gordon's  family)  says,  "  The  first 


sound  that  greets  youi-  ears  in  the  moi'ning,  and 
the  last  at  night,  is  the  .sound  of  family  worship 
in  the  village  "  (p.  80).  The  same  writer,  refer- 
ring to  the  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the 
habits  of  the  population,  says,  "  1  often  wish  that 
some  of  the  cavillers  who  are  forever  sneering  at 
Christian  missions  could  see  something  of  their 
results  in  these  isles"  (p.  66).  See  Williams, 
Fiji  anil  the  Fijians,  and  Calvekt,  Missionary  La- 
liors  amonji  tlie  Cannibals,  in  1  vol.,  3d  ed.,  Lond., 
1870  (an  interesting  and  exhaustive  work) ;  Lit- 
ton FoKBF.s:  Two  Years  in  Fiji,  Lond.,  1875; 
Miss  CuMMiN'G  :  At  Home  in  Fiji,  Lond.,  1881  (2 
vols.),  and  N.Y.,  1882  (1  vol.).     D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

FILIOQUE  CONTROVERSY.  One  of  the 
principal  ditt'erences  between  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Church  is  the  addition  by  the  latter  of 
the  word  Filioque  to  its  creed.  The  Apostles' 
Creed  has  simply,  "  And  in  the  Holy  Ghost,"  to 
which  the  Xiceiie  Creed  added,  ''  Who  proceedeth 
from  the  Father."  But  there  the  Greek  Church 
stopped;  while  the  Latin  Church,  without  the 
sanction  of  an  oecumenical  council,  or  even  con- 
sultation with  the  Greek  Church,  still  further 
added,  "and  the  Son"  {Filioque).  The  Greek 
Church  protested  as  soon  as  it  discovered  the 
addition ;  and  every  attempt  which  afterwai'ds 
was  made  to  re-establish  union  between  the  two 
churches,  has  been  wrecked  on  this  word. 

The  addition  is  met  with  for  the  first  time  in 
the  acts  of  the  third  council  of  Toledo  (589),  in 
opposition  to  Arianism.  From  Spain  it  spread 
into  France,  where  it  seems  to  have  been  gener- 
ally adopted  at  the  time  of  Charlemagne.  The 
councils  of  Constantinople  (G81)  and  of  Nicasa 
(787)  did  not  notice  it.  But  in  809  two  monks 
from  the  court  of  Charlemagne  made  a  pilgrim- 
age to  the  Holy  Land,  and  were  accused  of  heresy 
by  the  hermits  of  Mount  Olivet  for  their  u.se  of 
Filioque.  Charlemagne  felt  provoked ;  and  the 
council  which  he  convoked  at  Aix-la-Chapelle 
(809)  sanctioned  the  use  of  the  addition. 

But  Pope  Leo  III.,  whose  confirmation  of  the 
decision  of  the  council  was  asked  for  by  Charle- 
magne, refused  to  formall}'  incorporate  the  Filioque 
with  the  Creed,  though  he  admitted  the  justness 
and  soundness  of  its  doctrinal  bearing  ;  and  this 
attitude  of  cautious  reserve  the  Pope  endeavored 
to  maintain  so  far  as  he  could  under  the  pressure 
of  the  steadily-growing  impatience  of  the  East 
and  the  all  but  universal  practice  of  the  West. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  century,  however,  this 
attitude  became  impo-ssible.  Photius,  in  his  ency- 
clical letter,  emphasizes  the  Filioi/ue  as  one  of  the 
gravest  errors  of  the  Pope ;  and  the  Council  of 
Constantinople  anathematized  it.  Political  cir- 
cumstances compelled  the  Pope  to  take  up  the 
challenge.  Nevertheless,  the  first  time  a  pope 
actually  used  the  addition  to  the  Creed  was  in 
1014,  by  Benedict  VIIL,  at  the  crowning  of 
Henry  II.  But  from  that  moment  the  Pope  him- 
self appears  as  the  defender  of  the  practice  of  the 
Western  Church,  and  at  the  Council  of  Ferrara- 
Florence  he  seemed  to  have  entirely  forgotten, 
that,  at  least  historically,  there  was  a  flaw  in  his 
argument. 

The  doctrine  in  whose  statement  the  word  Filio- 
que was  destined  to  play  so  prominent  a  part  is 
called  the  "  Procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost."  The 
term  comes  from  John  xv.  26,  in  which  Christ 


FILLAN. 


812 


FINLAND. 


speaks  of  the  Spirit  of  truth  who  "proceedeth 
from  the  Father  "  (irapa  roi  varpb;  hTropeiirai).  Inas- 
much as  nothing  is  said  in  this  passage  or  in  any 
other  of  the  "double  procession,"  i.e.,  from  both 
the  Father  and  the  Son,  the  Greek  Church  holds 
to  the  single  procession,  and  defends  its  position, 
not  only  by  an  appeal  to  the  text  of  Scripture  and 
to  the  original  form  of  the  Xicene  Creed,  but  also 
to  the  "  monarchy "  {/lovapxia)  of  the  Father  as 
the  sole  foiuitain,  root,  and  cause  of  the  deity.  It 
distinguishes  sharply  between  the  eternal  meta- 
physical procession  of  the  Spirit  from  the  Father 
alone,  and  the  temporal  iitission  of  the  Spirit  by  the 
Father  and  the  Son  (John  xiv.  26,  xvi.  7).  The 
former  belongs  to  the  trinity  of  essence,  the  latter 
to  the  trinity  of  revelation,  and  begins  with  the 
Day  of  Pentecost.  The  Latin  Cluirch  defends  the 
double  procession  on  the  grounds  of  the  double 
mission  of  the  Spirit  and  the  essential  unity  of 
the  Son  with  the  Father;  so  that,  if  the  Spirit 
proceed  from  the  essence  of  the  Father,  he  must 
also  proceed  from  the  essence  of  the  Son,  because 
they  have  the  same  essence.  The  Greek  patri- 
archs declined  to  attend  the  Vatican  Council  of 
1870,  on  the  ground  of  the  heresy  of  the  Latin 
Church  upon  this  point. 

A  compromise  was  suggested  from  the  writings 
of  John  of  Damascus,  to  say  that  the  Spirit  pro- 
ceeds from  the  Father,  llirough  the  Son.  This  was 
accepted  by  the  conference  held  in  Bonn  (August, 
1875)  between  the  Old  Catholics,  Orientals,  and 
Anglo-Catholics,  in  which  the  Filioque  was  sur- 
rendered as  an  unauthorized  addition  to  the 
Creed. 

Lit.  —  On  the  Greek  side,  Photius'  encyclical 
letter  in  0pp.  II.,  279-:3t»l.  On  the  Latin  side, 
Leo  Allatius,  De  eccleske  Occidentalis  atque  Ori- 
cntalis  perpetua  consensione,  Cologne,  1648.  See 
also  J.  0.  Walch  (Luth.);  Hist.  Control-.  Gr<Eco- 
Lal.  lie  Process.  Sp. .!).,  Jena,  17.")1 ;  Kaiu,  AVkknkr 
(R.C.):  Ge.tch.  </.  apol.  Lit.,  Schallliausen,  1864,  III., 
3  sqq. ;  E.  S.  Ffoui.kes:  .1  Historical  Account 
^  tlie  Addition  of  the  Word  FiliiKjue  to  the  Creed, 
Lond.,  1867;  Joseph  La.ngkx  (O.C.)  :  Die  trini- 
tar.  Lehrdifferenz  zw.  d.  ahendl.  u.  d.  morgent. 
Kirche,  Bonn,  1876 ;  Proceedings  of  the  Second 
Bonn  Union  Conference,  ed.  by  Canon  Liddon, 
Lond.,  1876,  and  iu  SchafE's  Creeds,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
54.5-.5r)4. 

FILLAN  (the  Scotch  form  of  the  Irish  Faelan) 
is  tlie  name  of  two  Iro-Scotch  saints.  The  one 
who.se  festival  falls  on  June  20  had  his  chief 
churclies  at  Ballyheyland,  Queen's  County,  Ire- 
land, and  at  the  eastern  end  of  Loch  Karn,'Perth- 
shiri-,  Scotland.  The  other,  whose  festival  falls 
on  Jan.  !>,  had  his  chief  churches  at  Cluain  M:\- 
cscna,  Westineath  County,  Ireland,  and  at  Strath- 
fillan,  Perthshire,  Scotland.  The  legend  of  the 
latter  is  found  in  Act.  Snnct.,  Jan.  i),  Tom.  I. 
p.  'ill],  Mini  ill  KoitiiKs,  Kid.  Scot.  Saints,  342. 

FINLAND,  The  Christianlzation  of,  is  the  com- 
mon .story  of  the  Koman-Catliolic  iirissions  in  the 
middle  ages,  — the  conquest  of  the  country,  the 
forced  hapti.sm  of  the  peojilc,  the  building  of 
fortre.s.se.s,  and  the  establishment  of  bishoprics. 
The  Finns,  a  branch  of  the  Uralo-Altaic  family, 
and  allied  i.,  tlii'  Magyars,  lived  in  .scattered  sr't- 
tlfinents  throiighrmt  Nortlicrn  Europe  at  the  time 
when  the  migration  of  the  nations  began.  Pushed 
farther  towards  the  Xorth  by  the  Germanic  peo- 1 


pies  and  the  Russians,  they  seemed  in  many  jilaces 
to  melt  away ;  and  Finland,  the  large  peninsula 
between  the  Bothnian  Gulf  and  Gulf  of  Finland, 
is  the  only  part  of  Europe  in  which  a  Finnish 
tribe  succeeded  in  maintaining  itself  as  a  nation 
up  to  our  time.  The  country  comprises  an  area 
of  144,221  square  miles,  with  1,912,647  inliabit- 
ants,  according  to  the  census  of  1875. 

On  account  of  their  sombre  and  savage  reli- 
gious rites,  the  ancient  Finns  had  the  reputation, 
among  then-  neighbors,  of  being  a  nation  of 
sorcerers  and  magicians;  and  their  passion  for 
piracy  and  plunder  was,  of  course,  not  suited  to 
mend  the  reputation.  Sweden  was  especially 
exposed  to  their  attacks;  and  in  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  the  Swedish  king,  Eric  the 
Saint,  determined  to  put  a  stop  to  their  disturb- 
ances. As  the  war  was  waged  against  heathens, 
the  campaign  became  a  crusade ;  and  Archbishop 
Henry  of  Upsala,  an  Englishman  by  birth,  accom- 
panied the  liing.  After  landing  in  Finland  (1157), 
Eric  completely  defeated  the  Finnish  army,  bap- 
tized those  of  the  soldiers  he  did  not  slay,  built 
the  fortress  of  Abo,  and  established  a  bishopric 
at  Rendamecki.  Christianity,  however,  did  not 
make  great  progiess  in  the  country.  Some  Finns 
came  and  paid  their  tithes,  in  ermine,  at  Renda- 
mecki ;  but  the  great  majority  of  them  remained 
heathen,  and  Henry  was  killed.  Even  the  politi- 
cal ascendency  of  Sweden  waned  away;  and  small 
support  for  it  was  derived  from  the  elevation  of 
the  slain  Henry  to  a  saint,  and  the  patron  of  the 
country.  But  in  1248  Birger  Jarl  made  a  new 
campaign,  and  built  the  fortress  Tavaste ;  and  in 
1293,  under  the  reign  of  the  young  King  Birger, 
the  Swedish  chancello),  Torkil  Knutson,  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  the  whole  country,  buUt 
the  fortress  of  Wiborg.jnoved  the  episcopal  see 
from  Rendamecki  to  Abo,  and  made  Finland  a 
Christian  province.  It  was  found,  however,  when 
in  the  sixteenth  century  the  Reformation  was 
introduced  in  the  country  from  Sweden,  that 
most  of  the  inhabitants,  even  such  as  regularly 
paid  their  ermine  tithe,  lived  in  Utter  ignorance 
of  Christianity,  and  in  open  enjoyment  of  their 
heathen  license.  In  Finland  the  Lutheran  min- 
ister was  a  missionary  rather  than  a  reformer. 

In  1809  the  country  came  under  Russia,  but 
a  considerable  measure  of  national  independence 
was  granted  to  it.  The  Czar  of  Russia  bears  the 
title  of  Grand  Duke  of  Finland;  yet  the  govern- 
ment of  all  the  interior,  especially  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs  of  the  country,  is  eonipletely  .separated 
from  that  of  Russia.  Of  tlie  jiojiulation,  ninety- 
eight  ]ier  cent  belong  to  the  Lutheran  Cluirch,  and 
only  two  per  cent  to  the  (^neco-Ru.ssian  Church 
or  other  denominations;  but  there  is  comi>lete 
freedom  for  other  religious  bodies.  The  Lutheran 
Church  is  represented  by  the  Archbishoji  of  Abo, 
the  Bislio]is  of  Borgil  and  Kuopio,  and  an  eccle- 
siastical assembly,  consisting  of  thirty-four  cleri- 
cal an<l  fifty  lay  members,  and  convened  every 
ten  years.  The  country  h.is  four  hundred  and 
forty-eight  primary  schools,  besides  a  number  of 
itinerant  teachers  in  the  more  sparingly  settled 
regions,  three  seminaries,  and  a  university  with 
a  flourishing  theological  faculty-  The  official 
language  is  Finnish.  .Swedish  is  spoken  only  in 
a  few  jiarishes.  See  RuEii  :  Finnliind  und  seine 
Bewuhner,  Leipzig,  1808 ;    and  Bishop  Reuteh- 


FINLEY. 


813 


FINNEY. 


BAHL :  Svenska  kirkans  historie,  3  vols.,  Lund, 
1838-63.  CLEMENS   PETERSEN. 

FINLEY,  James  Bradley,  a  distiiifiuishiMl  iiioneer 
of  Methodism  in  Ohio;  b,  in  North  Carolina,  .July 
1,  1781;  d.  at  Cincinnati,  Sept.  G,  lt>50.  Joining 
the  Ohio  Conference  in  180!),  he  was  made  pre- 
siding elder  1816.  In  1821  he  was  sent  to  the 
■\Vyandotte  Indians,  where  his  labors  were  at- 
tended with  much  success.  From  1845  to  1849 
he  was  chaplain  of  the  Ohio  Penitentiary.  He 
was  a  man  of  rugged  eloquence  and  large  influ- 
ence. His  chief  works  ai"e  Wyandotte  Jilission, 
Sketches  of  Western  Methodism  (Cincinnati,  1857), 
Life  among  the  Indians  (Cincinnati,  1857),  Memo- 
rials of  Prison  Life  (Cincinnati,  1860). 

Lit. — Autobiog.  of  J.  B.  Finley,  Cincinnati, 
1854;  Stevens:  Hist,  of  the  Methodist- Episcopal 
Church,  vol.  iv. 

FINLEY,  Robert,  D.D.,  a  Pre.sbyterian  divine; 
b.  in  Princeton,  1772;  d.  at  Athens,  Ga.,  1817. 
He  graduated  from  Princeton  College  in  his  six- 
teenth year.  After  studying  theology  under  Dr. 
AVitherspoon,  he  became  pastor  at  Basking  Ridge, 
N.,I.,  1795.  In  1803  a  powerful  revival  was  felt 
in  his  church,  a  hundred  and  twenty  persons  being 
admitted  at  one  communion.  lie  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  organization  of  the  Colo- 
nization Society  (1816).  In  1817  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  University  of  Georgia  (Franklin 
College),  located  at  Athens,  where  he  died  a  few 
months  after.  Several  of  his  sermons  were  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime. 

Lit.  —  Rev.  Isaac  V.  Brown  :  Memoirs  of 
Robert  Finley,  D.D.,  New  Brunswick  1819; 
Sprague:  Annals,  iv.  126;  Gillett  :  Hist,  of 
fresh.  Ch.,  I.  570  sciq. 

FINLEY,  Samuel,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian  divine, 
and  president  of  Princeton  College;  b.  in  Ireland, 
1715;  d.  July  17,  1766.  He  came  to  America  in 
1734,  and  studied,  .so  it  is  snppo.sed,  under  Mr. 
Tennent  in  Log  College.  Licensed  in  1740  by 
the  presbytery  of  New  Brunswick,  he  co-operated 
vigorously  with  the  friends  of  revival  preaching. 
In  1743  he  was  called  to  Milford,  Conn.,  but  was 
before  many  months  expelled  from  the  colony  for 
preaching,  in  violation  of  the  statute,  in  another 
pulpit  than  hi.s  own.  In  1744  he  was  called  to 
Nottingham,  JMd.,  where  he  established  an  acade- 
my which  educated  some  prominent  men.  In 
1761  he  was  chosen  the  successor  of  President 
Davies  at  Princeton  College.  Died  and  was  buried 
in  Philadelphia.  Several  of  Dr.  Fiiiley's  .sermons 
were  published  during  his  lifetime,  the  principal 
of  which  were  one  on  Matt.  xii.  28,  Christ  trimnph- 
ini/,  and  Satan  raging  (1741),  and  The  Curse  of 
Meroz  (17i57). 

Lit.  —  Sprague:  ^n?2a/s,  iii- 96  sqq.;  Gillett: 
LLisi.  Pr.sh.  Ch.,  vol.  i. 

FINNAN,  a  native  of  Ireland,  and  monk  nt 
lona;  was  made  Bishop  of  Lindi.sfarne  6.52,  with 
charge  of  the  whole  of  Northumljria,  and  d.  there 
Aug.  31.  661.  He  was  a  very  active  and  energetic 
man,  and  successful  as  a  missionary  also  beyond 
the  boundaries  of  Northumbria.  He  consecrated 
C'ajdmon,  and  baptized  Peada,  king  of  jMercia, 
and  Siegbert,  king  of  the  East  Saxons.  But  he 
belonged  to  the  Culdee  Church,  and  was  strongly 
opposed  to  Rome,  especially  to  the  Roman  man- 
ner of  observing  Easter.  See  Bede  :  Hist.  Eccl., 
III.  21-25. 


FINNEY,  Charles  C,  a  powerful  revivalist 
preaclier,  and  president  of  Oberlin  College  ;  was 
b.  at  \\'arr(^u,  Litchtield  Countv,  Coim.,  Aug.  29, 
1792;  d.  at  (Jberlin,  O.,  Aug.  lii,  1875.  When  he 
was  only  two  years  old,  his  jiarents  removed  to 
Western  New  York.  This  placed  him  beyond  the 
reach  of  any  thing  more  than  a  common-school 
education.  At  seventeen  he  began  to  teach,  and 
in  1818  to  study  law  at  Adams,  in  AVestern  New 
York.  Neither  of  his  parents  was  a  church-mem- 
ber, nor  did  he  up  to  his  twentieth  year  enjoy  any 
but  the  most  meagre  opportunities  of  hearing  the 
gospel.  His  conversion  in  1821  was  remarkable 
for  its  suddenness,  thoroughness,  and  the  defi- 
nitely marked  stages  of  his  experience.  Feeling 
an  immediate  call  to  preach,  he  forsook  the  law, 
held  prayer-meetings,  was  received  under  care  of 
presbytery  (1822),  and  liceu.sed  to  preach  1824. 
He  at  once  tm-ned  his  attention  to  revival  labors, 
which  were  continued,  with  few  interruptions, 
until  1860,  when  he  was  forced  to  give  up  the 
work  of  an  itinerant  evangelist  on  account  of 
age.  These  labors,  beginning  in  AVestern  and 
Central  New  York,  were  extended  to  Boston,  New 
A'ork,  Philadelphia,  and  other  cities  of  the  East, 
and  reached  to  England,  which  Mr.  Finney  vi.sit- 
ed  in  1849  and  1858,  preaching  with  much  power. 
In  1832  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  pastorate  of  the 
Second  Free  Church  of  New-York  City,  and, 
two  years  later,  another  to  the  recently  organized 
Congregational  Church  known  as  the  Broadway 
Tabernacle.  In  1835  he  went  to  Olierlin  as  pro- 
fessor, where  he  continued  to  labor  till  the  time 
of  his  death  as  instructor  of  theology,  pastor,  and 
college  president  (1852).  During  his  residence 
at  Oberlin  he  still  continued,  as  before,  to  hold 
revival  meetings  in  Ea.stern  cities  until  1860. 

Mr.  Finney's  career  naturally  falls  under  the 
two  heads  of  revivalist  preacher  and  theological 
teacher.  His  power  as  a  preacher  was  very  great ; 
and  his  labors  produced,  in  many  places,  wonder- 
ful effects.  AYherever  he  went,  extensive  re\'ivals 
prevailed.  His  manner  was  vigorous,  direct,  and 
personal.  He  used  simple  language  and  illustra- 
tions. His  presentation  was  clear,  and  strictly 
logical.  He  directed  his  appeals  to  the  conscience, 
rather  than  the  affections,  and  made  it  tremble 
and  quake  by  the  most  searching  analysis  of  the 
motives  of  the  heart.  On  one  occasion  he  says, 
"  Everybody  was  out  at  meeting,  and  the  Lord 
let  me  loose  upon  them  in  a  wonderful  manner" 
(Autobiog.,  p.  100).  He  chose  for  themes  those 
passages  which  delineate  the  sinner's  condition 
as  one  of  conscious  alienation  from  God,  and  sin- 
ning against  him.  He  dwelt  upon  the  enmity  of 
the  carnal  mind,  the  want  of  holiness,  and  the 
certain  destruction  of  the  impenitent.  He  called 
upon  his  hearers  to  come  to  an  immediate  decis- 
ion, and  submit  to  God.  "Instead  of  telling  sin- 
ners," he  says,  "to  use  the  means  of  grace,  and 
jiray  for  a  new  heart,  I  called  on  them  to  make 
theinselves  a  new  heart  and  spirit,  and  pressed 
the  duty  of  immediate  .surrender  to  God"(^»/o- 
biog.,  p.'l89).  These  meetings  were  often  accom- 
panied by  violent  bodily  manifestations ;  and  Mr. 
Finney  practised  the  methods  of  calling  upon  the 
audiences  to  go  forward  to  the  anxious-bench,  or 
to  rise  in  attestation  of  new  resolutions.  These 
attendant  circumstances,  and  ]Mr.  Finney's  meth- 
ods of  preaching,  early  evoked  criticism  and  strong 


FINTAN. 


814 


FIRST-FRUITS. 


opposition.  Mr.  Nettleton  and  Dr.  Beecherwere 
among  the  opponents  of  the  "  new  measures ; " 
and  a  convention  was  held  in  July,  1S27,  at  Xew 
Lebanon,  of  prominent  ministers  (such  as  Dr. 
Hawes  of  Hartford,  Edwards  of  Andover.  Beecher 
of  Boston,  Beman  of  Troy,  etc.),  to  take  the  whole 
matter  into  consideration.  However,  with  better 
information,  the  opposition  decreased.  Mr.  Fin- 
ney's preaching  reached  all  classes ;  lawyers  and 
educated  men  being  particularly  convinced  by  it, 
as  notably  at  Rochester. 

As  a  teacher  at  Oberlin,  Mr.  Finney's  influence 
was  also  great.  He  was  an  original  thinker,  and 
very  positive  in  his  convictions.  His  lectiues  on 
theology  define  his  position  as  a  theologian.  It  is 
here  not  necessary  to  do  more  than  merely  state 
some  of  the  main  and  distinguishing  views.  He 
held  to  the  plenary  ability  of  the  sinner  to  repent, 
regarded  happiness  as  the  chief  aim,  and  explained 
regeneration  (which  he  did  not  clearly  distinguish 
from  conversion)  to  consist  of  an  act  of  the  will, 
rather  than  an  act  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  He  exerted 
a  shaping  influence  over  the  minds  of  his  stu- 
dents; and  his  theology,  in  a  modified  form,  had 
a  wide  acceptance  in  his  own  denomination  in 
the  West. 

Lit.  —  Mr.  Finney's  works  are  :  Lectures  on 
Revivals,  Boston,  1S35,  passed  through  many  edi- 
tions (new  and  enlarged  edition,  Oberlin,  1S68); 
Lectures  to  Professimj  Christians,  Oberlin,  1836  ; 
Sermons  on  Important  6'!/i/'ec(.?,  New  York,  1839 ; 
Lectures  on  Theohijij,  Oberlin,  1816,  new  ed., 
1878,  republished  in  London.  See,  for  a  criticism 
upon  Mr.  Finney's  theology,  Dr.  Hodge,  in 
Princeton  Review,  April,  1817 ;  for  his  life,  Me- 
moirs of  Charles  G.  Finney,  being  an  A  ulobivr/raphy. 
New  York,  1876.  D.  s.  scii.VFF. 

FINTAN,  a  native  of  Leinster,  Ireland;  was 
carried  olf  by  a  swarm  of  marauding  Northmen, 
but  escaped,  and  spent  two  years  on  the  coast  of 
Caithness  with  a  bishop;  went  thence  to  Rome, 
and  from  Rome  to  Switzerland,  where  he  entered 
the  monastery  of  Rheingaw,  or  Rheinau,  in  the 
canton  of  Ziirich,  as  a  monk.  In  800  he  retired 
from  the  monastery,  and  lived  to  his  death  (in 
827)  as  a  hermit  in  the  neighborhood,  practising 
the  most  austere  asceticism.  He  was  venerated  as 
a  saint,  even  during  his  lifetime  ;  and  after  his 
death  he  was  adopted  as  the  patron  of  Rheinau. 
See  M.Mtii-i.oN,  Act.  Sanct.  0.  S.  B.,  V. 

FIRE,  Pillar  of.  See  Pillau  of  Cloud  and 
Fiim;. 

FIRE,  Baptism  of.     See  AFartyks. 

FIRE  WORSHIP.     Se(^  I'AitsioiasM. 

FIRKOWITSCH,  Abraham,  a  Jewish  archaeolo- 
gist; b.  at  Lutzk,  in  tlie  ('riiri(>a,  1786 ;  d.  1871; 
desen-es  mention  for  his  lifelong  labors  in  col- 
lecting Hebrew  manuscri]its,  bililical  and  othi^r, 
fifteen  tliousand  of  which  he  <leposited  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  a 
Caraitc,  and  it  wa,s  liis  interest  in  the  authors  of 
his  sect  whicli  determined  him  to  devote  his  life 
to  finding  a.s  nmcli  as  he  coidd  about  them.  Many 
of  hi.s  manuscripts  have  probably  considerable 
critical  value  in  determining  the  Hebrew  text  of 
till'  C)ld  TchI anient. 

FIRMILIAN,  Bishop  of  Csesarea  in  Cappadocia; 
d.  at  Tarsus  in  260;  was  a  friend  of  Origen,  and 
one  f)f  the  li-aders  of  the  Cliiirch  of  Asia  Minor. 
According  to  Kusebius,  he  took  a  prominent  part 


in  the  close  of  the  Montanist  controversy,  in  the 
opening  of  the  Trinitarian  controversies,  and  in 
the  discussion  of  the  validity  of  baptism  by  a 
heretic.  The  only  literary  monument  of  him 
which  has  come  down  to  us  relates  to  the  last^ 
mentioned  poiut,  —  an  elaborate  letter  to  Cyprian, , 
of  which  a  Latin  translation  is  found  among 
Cj'prian's  letters  (No.  75).  As  Firmilian  in  thisi 
letter  shows  himself  very  decidedly  opposed  to 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  Roman  church-historians 
have  tried  first  to  suppress  the  letter,  afterwards 
to  make  its  genuineness  suspected ;  but  in  both 
they  have  failed.  klaiber. 

FIRST-BORN  (1'03,  ■Kpurirom).  The  firsts 
born  males  of  human  beings  and  animals  were, 
according  to  the  IMosaic  law,  to  be  sacred  unto 
the  Lord.  The  first-born  of  human  beings  was 
not  to  be  killed,  but  was  to  be  dedicated  to  the 
service  of  the  sanctuary.  Tliis  original  institu- 
tion was  afterwards  altered,  since,  in  place  of  all 
the  first-born,  the  wliole  tribe  of  Levi  was  ai> 
pointed  to  assist  Aaron  and  his  sons  in  public 
worship  (Num.  iii.  12);  whilst  the  male  first-born 
among  the  other  tribes  were  to  be  presented  in 
the  temple  when  one  month  old,  and  were  to  be 
redeemed  according  to  the  estimation  of  the 
priests  (Exod.  xiii.  13  ;  Num.  xviii.  16  sq.).  The 
orthodox  Jews  still  observe  this  law  of  redemp- 
tion, with  this  difference,  that  the  rabbi  takes  the 
place  of  the  priest,  who,  having  received  the 
price  of  redemption,  swings  it  round  the  head  of 
the  infant,  in  token  of  his  vicarious  authority, 
saying,  "  This  is  for  the  first-born,  this  is  in  lieu 
of  it,  this  redeems  it ;  and  let  this  son  be  spared 
for  life,  for  the  law  of  God,  and  for  the  fear  of 
Heaven.  May  it  please  thee,  that,  as  he  was 
spared  for  redemption,  so  he  may  be  spared  for 
the  law,  for  matrimony,  and  for  good  works. 
Amen."  The  rabbi  lays  his  hand  upon  the 
child's  head,  and  blesses  it,  as  follows :  "  The 
Lord  make  thee  as  Ephraim  and  Manasseh." 
When  the  first-born  son  is  Ihirteen  years  of  age, 
he  fasts  the  day  before  the  Feast  of  Passover. 
The  redemption  of  the  first-born  of  animals  seems 
to  have  wholly  disap]ieared  after  the  destruction 
of  the  temple.  The  fir.st-born  of  unclean  animals, 
since  it  could  not  be  offered,  was  either  to  be 
redeemed  accordmg  to  the  valuation  of  the  priest, 
with  the  addition  of  one-fifth  of  the  value,  and 
then  remain  with  the  owner,  or  be  sold,  and  the 
price  given  to  the  jiriost  (Lev.  xxvii.  11-13,  27). 
The  first-born  of  an  ass  had  to  be  i-edeemed  with 
a  lamb,  or,  if  not  redeemed,  put  to  death  (Kxod. 
xiii.  13;  Num.  xviii.  I.')).  The  first-born  of 
every  clean  animal,  from  eight  diiys  to  twelve 
months,  proviiled  it  had  no  blemish,  had  to  be 
taken  to  .lerusalcm,  and  delivered  to  the  priest, 
who  offered  it  as  a  sacrifice  to  .lehovah,  sprinkled 
its  blood  u]ion  the  .altar,  burned  the  fat,  and  ate 
llie  flesh  (Num.  xviii.  l.')-17)  ;  but,  if  it  had  any 
blemish,  it  was  not  to  be  sacrificed,  but  eaten  up 
at  honic%  whilst  the  blood  was  to  be  poured  upon 
the  ground  (I)eut.  xv.  19-23).  As  among  most 
nations,  the  male  first-born  among  the  Israelites 
enjoyed  special  prerogatives  over  the  younger 
bretjiren,  as  is  indicati^d  in  many  passages  of  tiie 
Old  Testament  (comp.  (ien.  xlix.  3;  2  Chron. 
xxi.  3).  W.   I'UESSKI,  (n.   PICK). 

FIRST-FRUITS.  From  the  very  first  pages  of 
the  Sacred   Writings  ((ien.   iv.  3  sq.)  we    learn 


FIRST-FRUITS. 


815 


FISHER. 


that  a  feeling  of  gratitude  toward  tlie  Giver  of 
all  good  was  shown  by  the  first  men  in  offering 
the  first-fruits,  or  the  first  and  licst  which  they 
had.  What  seems  to  have  been  at  first  a  natural 
feeling  was  afterwards  regulated  among  the 
Hebrews  by  the  Mosaic  law,  wliicli  ordained  the 
following  first-fruit  offerings.  («)  On  the  mor- 
row after  the  Passover  sabbath  (i.e.,  on  the  16th 
of  Nisan)  a  sheaf  of  new  corn  was  to  be  brought 
to  the  priest,  and  waved  before  the  altar.  This 
offering  was  accompanied  by  a  lamb  as  sacrifice, 
two  tenth-deals  of  flour,  and  a  drink  ottering  of  a 
fourth  part  of  a  hin  of  wine  (Exod.  xxix.  39  sq.  ; 
Lev.  xxiii.  9  sq.).  (b)  Seven  weeks  from  this 
time  (i.e.,  at  the  Feast  of  Pentecost),  an  oblation 
was  to  be  made  of  two  loaves  made  of  two  tenth- 
deals  of  flour.  They  were  accompanied  by  a 
burnt  offering  of  seven  lambs,  one  young  bullock, 
and  two  rams,  a  meat  and  drink  offering,  a  sin 
offering  of  one  kid  of  the  goats,  and  two  lambs 
for  a  peace  offering,  which  were  waved  with  the 
loaves,  but  afterwards  belonged  to  the  priests 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17  sq.).  (c)  The  Feast  of  Ingather- 
ing (i.e.,  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles),  in  the  seventh 
month,  was  itself  an  acknowledgment  of  the 
fruits  of  the  harvest  (Exod.  xxxiv.  22 ;  Lev. 
xxiii.  39). 

Besides  these  stated  occasions,  every  Israelite 
was  to  consecrate  to  the  Lord  a  part  of  the  first- 
fruit  of  the  land;  as  of  oil,  honey,  dough,  wool, — 
in  fact,  of  every  thing.  The  fruits  of  every 
newly-planted  tree  were  not  to  be  eaten  or  sold, 
or  used  in  any  way  for  the  first  three  years,  but 
considered  "  uncircumcised,"  or  unclean.  In  the 
fourth  year,  however,  the  first-fruits  were  to  be 
consecrated  to  the  Lord,  and  in  the  fifth  year 
became  availalile  to  the  owner  (Lev.  xix.  23  sq.). 
As  the  quantity  of  these  ott'erings  was  not  fixed 
by  the  law,  but  was  left  to  the  good  will  of  the 
individual  (Deut.  xvi.  10),  tradition  has  laid 
down  rules  and  regulations,  with  such  minuteness 
as  only  rabbinism  is  capable  of ;  an<l  the  Tal- 
mudic  treatises  Dicciirim  and  Tliermnolh  (cf.  art. 
Talmud)  are  especially  full  on  this  matter.  For 
a  description  of  a.Biccurim  procession,  see  De- 
LlTZSCH  :  Jewish  Artisan  Life,  at  the  Time  of  Jesus, 
Eng.  trans.,  Lond.,  1877,  p.  94  sqq.  (Gar.  orig.,  p. 
66  sqq.).  RtlETSCHI   (B.   PICK). 

FIRST-FRUITS,    Ecclesiastical.      See   Taxes, 

ECCLESI.\STIC,\L. 

FISCH,  George,  D.D,,  b.  at  Nyon,  Canton  de 
Vaud,  Switzerland,  July  6,  ISU;  "d.  at  ^'allorbes, 
Switzerland,  Sunday,  July  o,  1881.  He  studied 
theology  at  Lausanne,  and  was  for  five  years  pas- 
tor of  a  small  Gerjnan  church  at  Vevey;  but  in 
1846  lie  was  called  to  Lyons,  France,  to  be  assists 
ant  preacher  to  Adolphe  Jlonod,  of  the  Free 
Church,  whom  he  subsequently  succeeded.  In 
1855  he  was  called  to  Paris  as  the  colleagiie  of 
Pressensd.  He  was  warmly  attached  to  the  cause 
of  the  Free  churches,  and  took  part  in  the  Consti- 
tutional Synod  of  1849,  which  formed  the  union 
of  the  Evangelical  churches  of  France.  From 
1863  till  his  death  he  was  president  of  the  S^aio- 
dal  Commission,  and  thus  directed  the  work  of 
the  Free  churches.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Evangelical  Alliance,  and  "  the  very  soul 
of  the  branch  of  this  society  iu  France,"  an  active 
member  of  different  home  and  foreign  missionary 
societies,  particularly  mterested  in  South- African 


missions  and  in   Mr.  McAll's  mis.sion  in   Paris. 

But  in  every  way  he  labored  to  advance  the  gospel. 
He  was  remarkably  gifted,  and  used  his  powers  to 
the  utmost.  Twice  lie  visited  tlie  United  States 
(ill  1.S61  and  in  1873),  coming  the  last  time  as  a 
delegate  to  the  Kvangelica)  Alliance  Conference 
held  in  New  York,  Oct.  2-12.  He  was  also  a 
delegate  to  the  First  Council  of  the  Presbyterian 
Alliance  in  Kdinlmi-gh,  July  3-10,  1877. 

FISH,  Henry  Clay,  b.  at'Halifax,  Vt.,  Jan.  27, 
1820;  d.  in  Newark,  N..I.,  Oct.  2,  1877.  He  was 
graduated  from  Union  Seminary,  New  York,  in 
1845;  entered  the  Baptist  ministry,  and  after  a 
five-years'  pastorate  at  .Somerville,  N'.J.,  came  to 
the  First  Baptist  Church  of  Newark,  1850,  and 
was  its  pastor  when  lie  died.  He  was  very  suc- 
cessful, attracting  large  audiences,  and  making  a 
profound  impression.  His  preaching  was  essen- 
tially revivalistic.  He  ws ,  an  ardent  and  eflicient 
worker  in  extending  the  Baptist  Church.  Not- 
withstanding his  devoted  pastoral  labors,  he  found 
time  to  prepare  several  merit. <rious  works:  Primi- 
tive Pieti/  liecived,  Boston,  1855  (20,000  copies 
sohl  in  two  years) ;  Ilistonj  and  Jieposituri/  of 
Pulpit  Eloi/uence,  N.Y.,  1856,  2  vols.,  new  ed.  in 
1  vol.,  1877 ;  Pulpit  Eloquence  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century,  N.Y.,  1857,  new  ed.,  1875;  Select  Dis- 
courses from  the  German  and  French,  N.Y.,  18.j8; 
Hearcn  in  Song,  N.Y.,  1874  (a  poetical  compila- 
tion) ;  Handbook  of  Recicals,  Boston,  1874 ;  Bible 
Lands,  Hartford,  1876  (based  upon  his  visit  in 
1874). 

FISH  (emblem).     See  Ichthus. 

FISHER'S  RING.    See  Annulus  Piscatorius. 

FISHER,  John,  Bishop  of  Rochester;  was  b.  at 
Beverley,  Yorkshire,  in  1459,  and  beheaded  at 
Tower  Hill,  June  22,  1.535.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  where  he  subsequently  became 
master  of  Michael  House.  Taking  orders,  he  was 
appointed  chaplain  and  confessor  to  Margaret, 
the  mother  of  Henry  VII.  ;  in  1.501  was  elected 
Cliancellor  of  Cambridge,  and  1504  consecrated 
Bishop  of  Rochester.  He  took  a  deep  interest 
in  the  revival  of  learning,  and  began  himself  the 
study  of  Greek  in  his  sixtieth  year.  Among  his 
friends  were  Reuchlin  and  Erasmus.  He  was  by 
no  means  blind  to  the  clerical  abuses  of  the  time, 
but  had  no  sympathy  with  the  Reformation  ideas 
which  began  to  prevail  in  the  latter  years  of  his 
life.  Following  the  king's  example,  he  published 
an  able  rejoinder  to  Luther's  tract,  De  Babyl.  Cap- 
ticilate.  He  was  one  of  the  chief  advisers  of 
Henry  VIII.  until  the  divorce  with  Catharine 
began  to  be  agitated.  In  1531  he  signed  the 
formula  constituting  the  sovereign  the  supreme 
head  of  the  Church,  with  the  limiting  statement, 
'•so  far  as  the  law  of  Christ  permits,"  but  re- 
sisted all  further  attempts  to  divorce  the  Church 
in  England  from  the  I'ope.  In  the  debate  upon 
the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  he  showed 
hiniseH  the  spirited  champion  of  the  clergy.  He 
opposed  the  divorce  of  the  king  strenuously,  and 
wrote  a  pamphlet  against  it.  In  1533  Parliament 
found  him  guilty  of  treason  for  concealing  pro- 
phetic utterances  of  the  Maid  of  Kent,  who,  it 
was  assumed,  with  accomplices,  had  entertained 
a  plot  against  the  king's  life.  Fisher  was  re- 
leased from  prison  on  payment  of  a  fine  of  three 
hundred  pounds.  In  1534  he  refused  assent  to 
the  Supremacy  Act,  and  with  Sir  Thomas  More 


FISK. 


816 


FLACIUS. 


■was  sent  to  the  Tower.  The  Pope  sent  him  a 
cardinal's  hat  to  protect  him;  but  this  served 
onlj-  to  exasperate  the  kmg,  by  whose  orders  he 
was  executed. 

Lit. — Fisher's  Writings,  1  vol.,  Wiirzburg, 
1595  ;  Th.  Bayley  :  The  Life  and  Death  of  John 
Fisher,  etc.,  London,  1655;  Rev.  John  Lewis: 
A  Life  of  John  Fisher,  '2  vols.,  1855. 

FISK,  Pliny,  a  devoted  American  missionary  in 
Syria ;  b.  in  Shelburne,  Mass.,  June  24,  1792 ; 
d"  at  Beyrout,  Oct.  23,  1825.  He  graduated  at 
Middlebury  College  (1814)  and  Andover  Semi- 
nary. On  Sept.  23,  1818,  the  prudential  commit- 
tee of  the  American  Board  of  Alissions  determined 
to  establish  a  mission  in  Palestine,  and  the  same 
day  appointed  Levi  Parsons  and  Fisk  missiona- 
ries. The  latter  was  ordained  at  Salem,  Xov.  5. 
1818 ;  and  after  spending  a  year  in  Georgia  and 
South  Carolina,  collecting  money  for  the  Board, 
he  embarked  with  Parsons  for  the  East.  The  first 
years  after  tlieir  arrival  were  .spent  at  Smyrna  and 
the  Island  of  Scio,  seventy  miles  off.  Li  January, 
1822,  lie  went  to  Alexandria,  where  Parsons  soon 
after  died.  He  finally  settled  down  between  Jeru- 
salem and  BejTOut,  distributing  tracts  and  Bibles, 
and  pi-eaching.  lie  died  at  tlie  age  of  thirty-three, 
in  Bevrout,  a  few  days  after  separating  from 
Dr.  King,  but  tenderly  cared  for  by  Dr.  Goodell. 
Fisk  was  a  man  of  iiiuch  missionary  enthusi- 
asm ;  and,  as  one  of  the  founders  of  the  thriving 
missionary  station  at  Beyrout,  his  work  lives  on. 
See  Alvax  Bond  :  Memoir  i;/'  /'.  Fisk,  Boston, 
1828;  AxDEKSOx:  On'e;i/a/ il7(S.s'io;i6',  Boston,  1872, 
i.  1-3:!. 

FISK,  Wilbur,  D.D.,  first  president  of  Wesleyan 
I'niversitv;  b.  in  Brattleborough,  Vt.,  Aug.  31, 
1792;  d.  "at  Middletown,  Conn.,  Feb.  22,  1839. 
After  graduating  at  Brown  University,  he  gave 
himself  up  to  the  study  of  law,  but  soon  changed 
his  nund,  and  became  an  itinerant  preacher  in 
the  Metliodist  Church.  In  1821)  lie  was  made 
principal  of  the  AVilbraham  .\cademy,  and  in 
183(J  of  tlie  new  university  at  Middletown,  Conn. 
While  travelling  in  Europe  in  1^3.)  he  was  elected 
bishop,  but  declined  the  odite.  Dr.  Fisk  was  a 
.saintly  man  and  an  enthusiastic  educator.  Among 
his  works  are  The  Cahnnistic  Controversy  (K.Y., 
1837),  Travels  in  Europe  (N.Y.,  1838),  Sermons 
and  Lectures  on  Universalism.  See  lIoLDicii,  Life 
of  W.  Fisk,  X.Y.,  1842. 

FIVE-MILE  ACT  (called  also  Oxford  Act,  the 
8e.s»ion  of  I'arl lament  wliich  passed  it  liaving 
met  at  Oxford),  entitled  "  An  Act  to  restrain 
Nonconformists  from  inhabiting  Corporations," 
was  promoted  by  Clarendon,  .Vrrhbisliop  Slieldon, 
and  others,  and  passed  by  I'.uliament  in  1005. 
It  enjoiiKul  upon  all  nonconformists  an  oath  not 
to  take  up  arms  against  the  kinn,  or  attempt  any 
"alteration  of  government  eitlier  in  Church  or 
State."  It  forbade  their  approach  within  five 
miles  of  any  corporation  represented  in  Parlia- 
ment, or  any  place  where  tliey  had  preachers,  on 
penalty  of  a  fine  of  forty  pounds  for  each  offence. 
A  penalty  of  forty  pounds  was  also  enacted  against 
tlioMj  who,  refusing  to  take  the  oath,  taught  school 
or  kept  lioarders.  Any  offence  against  the  act 
might  be  j)uni»lie(l  with  six  mouths'  imprison- 
ment. Tins  legislation  caused  intense  suffering 
among  the  nonconformists,  only  very  few  of 
whom  took  the  oath.     See  Xical:  Hist,  of  Puri- 


tans, W.  p.  255  sqq.  (Harper's  ed.);  Green:  Hist, 
of  Enql.  People,  iii.  375  sq.  (Harper's  ed.). 

FIVE  POINTS  OF  CALVINISM,  a  theological 
term  indicating  the  five  characteristic  tenets  of 
Calvinism  as  opposed  to  Arminianism.  Thev  were 
defended  by  the  synod  of  Dort  (1018,  1619)  in 
answer  to  the  Five  Articles  of  the  Arminians  or 
Remonstrants,  put  forth  in  1610.  They  are  par- 
ticular predestination,  limited  atonement,  natural 
inability,  irresistible  grace,  and  the  perseverance 
of  saints.  The  best  special  discussions  of  tlie 
Five  Points  are  by  Whitby  (Loud.,  1710)  on  the 
Arminian  side,  and  Gill  (Cause  of  God  and  Truth, 
4  vols.,  London.  1735-38)  and  Jonathan  Dick- 
inson (Philadelphia,  1741)  on  the  Calvinistie. 
See  Arminianism  and  Calvinism. 

FLACIUS  (VLACICH).  Matthias,  b.  March  3, 
1520,  at  Albona  in  Istria  (hence  tlie  .surname  IllyrI" 
cus);  d.  at  Francfort,  March  11,  1575;  was  very 
early  sent  to  Venice  to  study  ancient  languages, 
and  %\as  about  to  enter  a  monastery  and  become  a 
monk,  when  a  relative  of  his,  Baldus  Lupetinus, 
provincial  of  the  Minorites,  advised  him  to  go  to 
Germany,  and  study  theology  there.  He  visited 
first  Basel  (1539),  tlien  Augsburg,  and  came  in 
1541  to  AMttenberg,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  Luther  and  jMelanchthon  ;  and  in  1544 
was  appointed  professor  in  Hebrew.  He  also 
lectured  on  the  Epistles  of  Paul  and  on  Aristotle; 
but  his  activity  was  suddenly  interrupted  by  the 
outbreak  of  the  Smalcaldian  war.  He  fled  to 
Brunswick,  where  he  lived  by  teaching  school; 
but,  though  he  \\  as  recalled  by  the  elector  Jlau- 
rice,  the  establishment  of  the  Leipzig  Interim 
drove  him  away  agahi,  and  he  settled  at  Mag- 
deburg (1549),  where  printing  and  publication 
were  still  free.  The  literary  activity  he  there  de- 
veloped against  the  Interim,  in  the  adiaphoristic 
controversy  and  in  the  Osiander,  SchwenktVld, 
and  Major  controversies,  \\;is  very  comprehen- 
sive, and  of  great  influence :  but  it  phici-il  him  in 
direct  opposition  to  Melanchthon.  And  when,  in 
1557,  lie  was  appointed  [irofessor  at  Jena,  together 
with  Mus;cusand  Wigand,  Jena  became  the  liead- 
quarters  of  the  strict  Lutlieran  party,  as  'Witten- 
berg was  that  of  the  Philippi.sts.  In  t"lie  beginning 
he  exercised  great  influence  on  the  development 
of  affairs  in  Saxony,  but,  having  lost  the  confi- 
dence of  the  duke,  he  was  discharged  in  1.561. 
and  went  to  Regensburg.  There  he  endeavored 
to  found  an  academy,  but  his  plans  were  frus- 
trated by  his  enemies.  In  1566  the  magistrates 
of  the  city  even  withdrew  their  protection,  and 
he  was  glad  to  accept  an  invitation  to  Antwerp. 
The  progress,  however,  of  the  Spani.sli  army,  .•<oon 
compelled  him  to  leave  that  city ;  and  he  betook 
himself  to  Francfort.  Meanwhile  a  somewhat 
lia.sty  utterance  of  his  raised  the  .storm  of  persecu- 
tion "into  a  very  wliirlwind.  In  an  essay  accoin- 
jianying  his  Clavis,  he  declared  (1567)  hereditary 
sin  to  be  tlie  very  substance  of  human  nature 
since  the  fall ;  and  this  untenable  projiosition  was 
immediately  made  the  basis  for  an  .accusation  of 
Maiiicha'ism.  Even  liis  old  friends  from  .leiia, 
ultra-Lutherans  like  liiinself,  attacked  him  in  the 
harshest  manner;  and  every  thing  he  did  in  order 
to  come  to  an  luiderstanding  with  them  was  in 
vain.  Expelled  from  Francfort,  lie  went  to  Strass- 
burg;  ex|ii'lleil  from  .Strassburg,  too,  \w  retiirnc(l 
to  Francfort,  but  was  hardly  allowed  to  die  there. 


FLAGELLANTS. 


817 


FLAGELLANTS. 


That  there  was  something  narrow  and  exclusive 
in  his  stand-point,  something  obstinate  and  bitter 
in  his  polemics,  cannot  lie  denied.  The  sad  fate 
which  overtook  him  maj'  not  have  been  altogether 
undeserved.  But  the  great  ability  of  the  man, 
and  the  fundamental  integrity  of  his  character, 
are  proven  by  his  brilliant  scientific  perform- 
ances, —  the  Catalogus  tesilum  vcrilalix,  answering 
the  Romanist's  objection  to  the  Reformation  as  a 
mere  innovation;  the  Maf/deburej  Centuries,  of 
which  he  was  the  originator  and  leading  spirit 
(see  Centuries,  Magdebuhg);  and  the  Clavis 
scriptura  sacrce,  the  basis  of  biblical  hermeneutics. 
The  antipathy  which  for  centuries  has  clung  to 
his  name  is  unjust.  W.  Preger  lias  recently  vindi- 
cated his  memory  by  his  excellent  work,  Matlli'ms 
Flaccius  Illi/ricus  und  seine  Zeit,  Erlangen,  1859- 
61.  [See  also  J.  W.  Sciiulte,  Beitriige  zur  Ent- 
stehtiiif/sr/r'sc/iichte  d.  Magdeburger  Centurien,  Niesse, 
1877.]    '  G.  PLITT. 

FLAGELLANTS  {Flagellantes),  Brothers  of  the 
Cross  (crucifrates),  Crossbearers  (cruciferi).  Broth- 
ers in  White  (so  called  because  of  their  dress),  and 
Independents  {acephali,  because  they  had  broken 
with  the  hierarchy),  are  the  names  of  morbid 
fanatics  from  the  thirteenth  to  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  prelude  to  the  Flagellant  pilgrim- 
age's was  the  fraternity  brought  into  life  by  the 
preaching  of  Anthony  of  Padua  [about  1210]. 
The  men  composing  it  went  about  in  large  bodies, 
singing,  and  scourging  themselves.  In  1260-61 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Guelph  city  of 
Perugia  began  suddenly,  as  if  vehemently  moved 
by  a  mighty  spirit  of  repentance,  to  flagellate 
themselves  with  leather  thongs.  High  and  low, 
old  and  young,  went  together  in  procession  two 
and  two,  with  bodies  bared  above  the  waist, 
through  the  streets.  Their  numbers  increased 
like  an  avalanche.  Some  marched  tlirough  Lom- 
bardy  to  Provence ;  others  went  to  Rome.  The 
Pope  did  not  molest  them,  as  they  did  not  resist 
the  ecclesiastical  authorities ;  and  a  perceptible 
improvement  in  morals,  the  reconciliation  of  ene- 
mies, and  generous  gifts  of  alms,  attested  tlie 
sincerity  of  their  penance. 

In  Italy  the  enthusiasm  soon  cooled;  but  be- 
yond the  Alps  it  broke  out  afresh,  and  in  1261 
large  bodies  of  Flagellants  marched  through  Bava- 
ria, Saxony,  the  Upper  Rhine  country,  Austria, 
Bohemia,  and  Poland.  They  marched  two  or 
three  abreast,  with  body  liared  above  the  waist, 
and  face  veiled.  They  were  preceded  by  flags 
or  crosses,  and  flagellated  themselves  twice  a  day 
for  thirty-three  days,  in  memory  of  the  thirty- 
three  years  of  our  Lord's  life.  They  accompa- 
nied the  strokes  of  the  scourge  with  the  music  of 
hymns  (among  which  was  the  Stahat  ]\Inler  of 
Jacopone  da  Todi).  At  first  priests  were  found 
in  the  ranks.  But  the  Flagellants  soon  came  to 
be  accused  of  opposing  the  hierarchy ;  and  the 
clergy  not  only  separated  themselves  from  their 
company,  but  preached  against  them,  and  perse- 
cuted them,  so  that  by  the  end  of  the  year  hardly 
a  vestige  was  left  in  Germany  of  their  existence. 

The  movement  was  at  its  height  in  the  four- 
teenth century.  They  made  their  fii'st  apjiearance 
again  in  Italy.  A  mighty  impetus  was  given  by 
the  terrible  plague  which  in  1317-49  ran  through 
Europe,  carrying  off  tiD.dOO  peojile  in  Florence, 
100,000  in  Venice,  1,200,000  hi  Germany,  not  to 
53  —  1 


mention  other  cities  and  lands.  ^V'hile  many  gave 
full  sway  to  their  passions,  and  some  sat  down  in 
despair,  others  gave  themselves  up  to  self-inflicted 
flagellations,  in  the  hope  of  appeasing  the  divine 
anger,  and  with  the  purjjose  of  [ireparing  for  the 
end  of  the  world,  which  they  regarded  as  being 
near  at  hand.  On  the  17th  of  April,  1319,  the 
first  Flagellant  fraternity  appeared  in  JNIagdeburg. 
This  was  quickly  followed  by  others  in  Wiirz- 
burg,  Speier,  and  Strassburg.  They  were  regard- 
ed with  awe  on  all  sides;  and  the  movement  spread 
throughout  all  Germany,  and  extended  to  Den- 
mark and  England.  Women  were  also  found  in 
the  ranks.  There  was  a  regular  organization, 
and  conditions  of  memliei-ship.  The  candidate 
had  to  have  the  permission  of  his  wife,  promise 
obedience,  have  at  least  four  .shillings  and  four- 
pence  to  defray  expenses,  as  begging  was  prohili- 
ited,  etc.  When  they  came  to  towns,  the  bands 
mai'ched  in  regular  military  order,  and  singing 
hymns.  At  the  time  of  flagellation  they  .selected 
a  square,  or  churchyard,  or  field.  Taking  off 
their  shoes  and  stockings,  and  forming  a  circle, 
they  girded  themselves  with  aprons,  and  laid 
down  flat  on  the  ground.  The  particular  posi- 
tion or  gesture  of  each  signified  his  chief  sin. 
["  They  fell  on  their  back,  side,  or  belly,  according 
to  the  nature  of  their  sin"  (Ckron.  TItur'mg.)']. 
The  leader,  then  stepping  over  each  one,  touched 
them  with  the  whip,  and  bade  them  rise.  As  each 
was  touched,  they  followed  after  the  leader,  and 
imitated  him.  Once  all  on  their  feet,  the  flagel- 
lation began.  The  brethren  went  two  by  two 
around  the  whole  circle,  striking  theu'  backs  till 
the  blood  trickled  down  from  the  wounds.  The 
whip  consisted  of  three  thongs,  each  with  four 
iron  teeth.  During  the  flagellation  a  hymn  was 
sung.  After  all  had  gone  around  the  circle,  the 
whole  body  again  fell  on  the  ground,  beating  upon 
their  breasts.  On  arising  they  flagellated  them- 
selves a  second  time.  Wiiile  the  brethren  were 
putting  on  their  clothes,  a  collection  was  taken 
up  among  the  audience.  The  scene  was  con- 
cluded by  the  reading  of  a  letter  from  Christ 
which  an'angel  had  brought  to  earth,  and  which 
commended  the  pilgrimages  of  the  Flagellants. 
The  fraternities  never  tarried  longer  than  a  single 
day  in  a  town.  They  gained  great  popularity, 
and  it  was  considered  an  honor  to  entertain  them. 

The  feeling,  however,  underwent  a  complete 
change.  The  Flagellants  began  to  be  a  burden 
to  th(  people.  Xine  thou.sand  pas.sed  through 
Strassburg  alone  in  three  months.  The  clergy 
inveighed" against  their  assumption.  The  arrival 
of  a  band  at  Avignon  was  finally  the  occasion  for 
Clement  VI.  to  issue  a  bull  (Oct.  20,  1349)  for- 
bidding their  pilgrimages,  and  commanding  the 
authorities  in  Church  and  State  to  suppress  them. 
This  was  efticacious ;  and  only  now  and  then 
did  the  enthusiasm  break  out  again.  The  trial 
of  a  Flagellant  in  Anhalt,  1481,  is  the  last  vestige 
of  the  movement  in  Germany. 

The  fraternities  which  appeared  at  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  in  Italy,  France,  and 
Spain,  were  of  a  different  character,  but  likewise 
pleaded  a  divine  command.  Christ  and  Mai-y 
appeared  to  a  peasant,  and  revealed  that  the 
destruction  of  the  world  could  only  be  averted  on 
condition  of  a  Flagellant  pilgrimage.  In  1398 
large  bands  appeared  in  Genoa,  clad  in  long  whit° 


PLAVEL. 


818 


FLESH. 


garments  which  covered  the  head,  and  had  only 
two  holes  for  the  eyes.  Priests  and  bishops 
joined  them.  But  in  1399  Bonilace  IX.  had  one 
of  their  number  executed,  and  tlie  fanaticism 
disappeared.  The  Council  of  Constance  took 
the  matter  under  discussion  [and  Gerson  wrote  a 
tract  against  them,  Contra  Seclum  Flat/ellantiuin']. 
Flagellating  fraternities  existed  in  France  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  were  used  by  Henry  III.,  and 
suppressed  by  Henry  IV.  [So  late  as  1820  a 
procession  of  Flagellants  passed  through  the 
streets  of  Lisbon.] 

Lit.  —  F<')RSTEM.\xx  :  D.  Christ!.  Geisdergesell- 
schaflen,  Halle,  1828 ;  Zacher,  in  Ersch  n.  Grnber 
(a  thorough  treatment);  Reuter:  Gesck.  d. 
Aufklarnrifi  im  Mittelaller  (vol.  H.);  [Boileau  : 
Hist.  Fla//cllantium,  Paris,  1700  (Eng.  trans.) ; 
Cooper  :  Flagellation  and  the  Flagellants,  London, 
1877].  HERZOG. 

FLAVEL,  John,  an  eminent  English  Noncon- 
formist divine,  the  son  of  a  minister;  b.  in 
Worcestershire  about  1(327  ;  d.  in  Exeter,  June 
26,  Kini.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  be- 
came curate  of  Deptford.  From  there  he  went 
to  Dartmouth  in  1056.  By  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
he  was  <l('prived  of  his  living,  witli  two  thousand 
others,  and  retired  to  Hudscott  Hall,  in  Devon- 
shire, w^here  he  was  liberally  supjiorted  by  the 
lord  of  the  domain.  He  preached  privately  in 
the  woods  and  remote  places,  until,  at  the  expul- 
sion of  the  .Stuarts,  he  returned  to  Dartmoutli, 
and  laborc<l  as  pastor  of  the  Nonconformist 
Church.  F'lavel  was  a  prolific  writer  on  pi-actical 
religion ;  and  .some  of  his  works  are  eminently 
adapted  to  .stimulate  piety.  His  principal  works 
are:  Hnsbandrt/  .S/iiritualized  :  The  Fountain  of  LiJ'k 
Opened  up  (in  forty-two  sermons)  ;  The  Soul  of 
Man ;  Exposition  of  the  .-l.s-s(?;«/)///'.<  Shoi'ter  Cate- 
chism :  .Seaiitun's  Companion  (in  six  sermons),  etc. 
Complete  editions  of  his  works,  London,  1701,  2 
vols.,  and  T^ondon.  1820,  in  6  vols.  The  American 
Tract  .Society  publishes  in  cheap  form  his  Foun- 
tain of  IJfe,  Method  of  Grace,  On  Keeping  the 
Heart,  etc. 

FLAVIANUS,  Patriarch  of  Antioch  (381-404), 
sprung  from  a  rich  and  distinguislicd  family,  but 
devoted  him.self  from  early  youth  to  a  life  of 
severe  asceticism.  While  still  a  la\maii,  he  and 
his  friend  Diodorus,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Tarsus, 
formed  the  centre  of  the  opposition  to  the  Arian 
tendencies  of  Bishop  Leontius.  By  Meletins  he 
wa.s  made  a  presbyter :  and  in  381  he  accompa- 
nied tlie  bishop  to  the  Council  of  Constantinople. 
During  the  council,  Meletins  died  ;  and  Klavianus 
w.i-s  cliosiMi  liis  succe.ssor,  against  the  advice  of 
Gr(!gorv  \a/.ianzen,  who  \mderstood  that  thereViy 
the  .Meletian  .schism  would  be  continued,  and  the 
ditficullies  of  a  reconciliation  with  Rome  aggra- 
vated. Flavianus  encountered,  indi'ed,  much 
opposition  as  a  bishop,  but  showed  great  energy 
and  decision,  and  was  finally  recognized  by  Rome. 
Chryso.stom  was  a  pupil  of  his.  The  Messalians 
he  treated  with  great  hardness.  In  387,  when 
the  Antiochians,  during  a  riot,  had  imlled  down 
the  .statue  of  the  emperor,  Flavian  made  a  voy- 
age to  CoMStantino|ile,  and  succee<led  in  apjicas- 
ing  the  wrath  of  Theodosius.  .See  Socrates  : 
Hifl.  ErcL,  V  ;  .Sr.zoMEN:  Hist.  EccL,  VHI. ; 
Till  ci|.mi:k  I  :    Hist.  Errl.,  H. 

FLAVIANUS   succeeded   Proclus  as  Bishop  of 


Constantinople,  in  -447,  and  played  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Eutychiaii  controversy.  Deposed  by 
the  synod  of  Ephesus  (449^,  he  died,  on  his  way 
into  exile,  at  Epipa  in  Lydia.  But  on  the  acces- 
sion of  I^Larcian  and  Pulcheria  a  re-action  set 
in.  His  remains  were  brought  to  Constantinople, 
and  interred  in  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  with 
great  solemnity ;  and  his  name  was  inscribed 
among  those  of  the  martyrs.  See  Act.  Sanct.  III., 
Feb.,  and  the  article  Eutyches. 

FL^CHIER,  Esprit,  b.  at  Femes,  in  the  county 
of  Avignon,  June  10,  1632;  d.  at  ^lontpellier, 
Feb.  16,  1710 ;  was  educated  liy  the  Jesuits,  and 
studied  theology  in  Paris,  but  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  poetry,  and  attracted  some  attention  by 
a  Latin  poem  on  a  grand  tournament  held  by 
liouis  XIV.  Compelled  to  leave  Paris  on  account 
of  poverty,  he  lived  for  some  time  in  the  country, 
as  a  tutor  and  school-teacher,  but  returned  again 
to  Paris,  and  gained  soon  a  high  reputation  as  a 
preacher.  Especially  his  funeral  orations  became 
very  celebrated ;  and  in  1673  he  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Academy,  together  with  Racine.  In 
168.1  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Lavaur,  and  in  1687 
of  Nimes.  As  a  bishop  he  was  greatly  beloved, 
even  by  the  Protestants,  who  hid  in  his  diocese 
on  account  of  his  mildness  and  great  benevolence. 
A  collected  edition  of  his  works  appeared,  in  10 
vols.,  at  Nimes,  1782.  His  life  was  written  by 
A.  Delacroix,  Paris,  186.5.  2  vols. 

FLEETWOOD,  John,  the  name,  ]irobably  as- 
sumed, under  which  a  Life  of  Christ,  Lives  of  the 
Apostles,  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  Virgin  JIary, 
usually  foiuitl  togetlier,  were  issued.  These  have 
very  fretpiently  been  printed.  Before  the  modern 
elaborate  Lives  of  Christ,  which  are  far  superior 
in  point  of  scholarship,  appeared,  Fleetwood's 
was  almost  the  only  one  found  in  Christian  fami- 
lies. Two  other  volumes.  The  Chrislia?i  Prayer- 
Hook,  Loud.,  1772,  and  Tlie  Christian's  Dictionary, 
1773,  are  altribnted  to  him. 

FLEETWOOD,  William,  a  learned  English  prel- 
ate ;  b.  in  London,  Jan.  21,  1650;  d.  at  Totten- 
ham, Middlesex.  Aug.  4,  1723.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge ;  became  Canon  of  A\'indsor  1702, 
Bishop  of  St.  Asaph  1700,  and  of  Ely  1714.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  eloijuent  preachers  of  his 
day.  A  complete  collection  of  his  Sermons, 
7Va(7,<.  etc.,  appeared  a(  London,  1737  ;  Complete 
Works.  3  vols.,  Oxfc.rd,  IS.",!. 

FLESH  {mpi)  Biblical  Meaning  of.  The  Bible 
has  different  representations  of  man's  material 
nature.  The  term  "flesh  "is  always  used  with 
reference  to  man's  body;  .so  th.at  Chrysostom's 
comment  on  Gal.  v.  16  is  any  thing  but  preci.se, 
—  "The  flesh  (au/ii)  is  not  the  liody,  nor  the 
es.sence  of  the  body,  but  the  evil  disjiosition,  the 
eartldy,  lustful,  and  lawless  reason."  The  same 
is  truit  of  Julius  Midler's  definition,  —  "The  flesh 
is  the  tendency  or  inclination  of  human  life  turned 
away  from  (iod,  the  lite  and  movement  of  man  in 
the  midst  of  the  things  of  this  visible  world." 
Tlie  flesh  is  regarded  as  being  endinrrd  with 
mind,  fpimi/m  (Rom.  viii.  6),  desire,  or  lust,  imUv/tia 
(Gal.  V.  10,  1  John  ii.  16).  will,  ^i'Avfia  (Fph. 
ii.  3),  etc.  It  cannot,  therefore,  stand  for  a  dis- 
position of  the  will.  But  as  wn/w^  ("  world  ") 
designates,  not  a  tendency  of  tlie  world  liostile 
to  God,  but  the  world  with  that  tendency,  so 
aiipi    ("  flesh ")    designates,    not    a    tendency  or 


FLESH. 


819 


FLETCHER. 


disposition  of  the  flesh,  but  the  flesh  itself  with 
that  disposition. 

Flesh  is  the  substance  of  the  body.  It  is  some- 
times used  with  the  bones,  as  con.stituting  tlie  body 
(Luke  xxiv.  39),  or  with  blood  (1  Cor.  xv.  50). 
By  synecdoche  it  is  used  for  the  body  (I's.  xvi.  9 ; 
2  Cor.  x.  '4).  This  use  of  the  term  is  a  Hebrew 
idiom,  and  is  really  foreign  to  the  Greek ;  so  that 
the  LXX.  often  translate  the  Hebrew  word  "'K'a 
("  flesh  ")  by  aCi/ia  ("body").  The  expressiou  "  all 
flesh  "  is  sometimes  used  for  the  race  in  its  totality 
(Gen.  vi.  17),  but  usually  for  the  race  as  human 
(Gen.  vi.  12;  Luke  iii.  6,  etc.). 

We  are  thus  led  to  the  peculiarity  of  the  bibli- 
cal use  of  the  word.  It  designates  man,  because 
man  appears  through  it,  and  manifests  his  nature 
by  it.  Thus,  as  flesh,  he  is  weak  and  frail,  "  a 
wind  that  passeth  away"  (Ps.  Ixxviii.  39).  Flesh 
is  not  spirit,  nor  vital  power  (Isa.  xxxi.  3),  but 
stands  in  living  and  moral  contrast  to  spirit,  the 
spirit  of  God  (Ueut.  v.  2G). 

Flesh  also  indicates  the  peculiarity  of  man's 
visible  or  tangible  nature.  Thus  it  is  opposed  to 
nvcv/ia,  or  spirit  (Col.  ii.  1,  5) ;  and  a  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  tlie  earthly  life  is  that  it  is  a 
"life  in  the  fle.sh  "  (Phil.  i.  22).  To  boast  of  the 
flesh  means  to  build  on  man's  visible  nature. 
The  expression  "The  Word  was  made  flesh  "  (John 
i.  14)  gets  its  force  from  the  contrast  witli  (ver.  1) 
"The  Word  was  God."  The  same  contrast  is 
brought  out  in  Ps.  Ivi.  .5,  2  Chron.  xxxii.  8,  2  Cor. 
xiii.  4.  The  flesh  then  designates  hunum  nature 
as  weak  (Matt.  xxvi.  41)  and  sinful  in  contrast  to 
God. 

The  sinfvdness  of  the  flesh  is  specially  brought 
out  by  Paul  (Kom.  viii.  3).  In  this  sense  he  calls 
the  body  "  a  body  of  the  flesh,"  au/ia  ti/c  aapKu^ 
(Col.  ii.  11),  and  life  a  "walking  in  the  flesh" 
(2  Cor.  x.  3).  But  sinful  flesh  is  not  a  disposi- 
tion (Chrysostoni  and  MuUer),  as  above  quoted, 
nor  is  it  suflicient,  with  Neander,  to  define  it  as 
"  human  nature  in  its  alienation  from  God,"  nor, 
with  Ilolsten,  to  describe  it  as  essentially  finite 
and  evil,  so  that  in  the  Pauline  theology  sin  was 
a  necessity.  The  flesh  is  only  the  substance  of 
the  liody,  the  seat  of  sin,  but  not  originally  evil: 
it  is  man's  human  or  bodily  nature,  as  Hofmann 
says  {Schriflheweis,  I.  559),  in  the  state  in  which 
it  was  left  after  the  fall. 

The  flesh  contains  the  germ  of  physical  life 
(John  i.  13,  iii.  6)  ;  it  is  the  esaence :  the  body  is 
the  form.  Sin  now  inheres  in  the  flesh,  and 
tlierefore  all  who  are  sons  of  Adam  are  sinners, 
because  he  was  a  sinner ;  and  he  who  overcomes 
tiie  flesh  overcomes  it  by  a  conflict  between  tlie 
voi^  ("  mind  ")  and  tlie  flesh,  and  thereby  over- 
comes sin.  Christ  entered  into  the  flesh  with  all 
the  consequences  of  sin  or  the  fall  (Col.  i.  22 ; 
Heb.  ii.  14) ;  but  his  own  spiritual  nature  over- 
came, so  to  speak,  at  the  very  beginning,  its  dis- 
position to  sin. 

Lit.  —  Tholuck  :  Siipf  als  Quelle  d.  Silnde  in 
Stud.  u.  Krhik,  1855;  Holsten  :  D.  Bedeuluny  d. 
Wortes  aupi  ini  Lehrbefiriffd.  Paulun,  Rostock,  1855; 
Wendt  :  D.  Begriffe  Fleisch  u.  Gei.tt,  etc.,  Gotha, 
187S;  Mi'LLEU:  Dnclrltie  of  Sin,  3d  ed.,  1849; 
Delitzsch  ;  Bibl.  Pxijcholofj'y,  Edinb.,  1807.  [See 
also  the  Tlieolo</ies  of  the  N.T.,  by  Schmid, 
Reuss,  van  Oosterzee,  Weiss,  and  the  commen- 
taries on  Rom.  vii.  and  viii.,  etc.]  CRKMER. 


FLETCHER,  Giles,  preacher  and  religious  poet; 
b.  in  Cranlirook,  Kent,  aliout  1584;  d.  at  Alder- 
ton,  1023.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  where 
he  remained  till  1017,  preaching  with  much  accept- 
ance from  the  pulpit  of  St.  Mary's.  He  then 
became  rector  of  Alderton,  Sufl'olk.  Fletcher  is 
principally  known  liy  a  poem  published  in  1010, 
— Christ's  Victory  and  Triumph  in  Heaven,  in  Earth, 
over  and  after  Death.  It  is  one  of  the  "  mo.st  re- 
markable religious  poems  in  the  language,"  and 
furnished  not  a  little  material  to  tlii'  author  of 
Paradise  liegained.  In  1623  he  published  The 
Iteivard  of  the  Faithful,  a  theological  treatise  in 
prose.  The  latter  has  not  been  republished.  See 
Gros.\rt's  edition  of  the  Victory  and  Triumph, 
Lond..  INOII. 

FLETCHER,  John  William,  Vicar  of  Madeley, 
associate  of  John  Wesley,  and  one  of  the  most 
pious  and  useful  men  of  his  generation ;  was 
b.  at  Nyon,  Switzerland,  Sept.  12,  1729 ;  d.  at 
Madeley,  Eng.,  Aug.  14, 1785.  His  original  name 
was  De  la  Flc'chiere.  He  was  a  fine  scholar  in  his 
youth,  studying  German,  Hebrew,  etc.,  and  taking 
off  all  the  prizes  at  the  school  in  Geneva  which 
he  attended.  He  was  designed  by  his  parents  for 
the  ministry,  but  preferred  the  army.  Against 
their  wishes  he  w-ent  to  Lisbon  and  enlisted,  but 
was  providentially  prevented  from  going  to  Brazil, 
a  servant  spilling,  the  very  morning  of  the  intend- 
ed embarkation,  a  kettle  of  boiling  water  on  his 
limbs,  which  confined  him  for  some  time  in  bed. 
The  vessel  was  lost  at  sea.  Fletcher  returned  to 
Switzerland,  but,  not  disheartened,  went  to  Flan- 
ders at  the  invitation  of  his  uncle,  who  promised 
to  secure  o  commission  in  the  army  for  him.  But 
the  sudden  death  of  his  relative,  and  the  termina- 
tion of  the  w'ar,  again  providentially  interfered 
with  his  plans.  He  now  went  to  England,  and, 
after  acquiring  a  good  knowledge  of  the  language, 
became  tutor  in  the  family  of  T.  Hill,  Esq.,  of 
Shropshire,  in  1752. 

A  new  period  soon  began  in  Fletcher's  history. 
His  curiosity  being  aroused  by  a  casual  conver- 
sation, he  went  to  hear  the  Jlethodists.  Their 
language  about  faith  was  a  new  revelation  to  him, 
but  it  was  not  till  two  years  had  elajised  that 
he  gained  peace  in  lielieving.  In  17.57  he  was 
ordained  priest  by  the  Bishop  of  Bangor.  During 
the  next  few  years  he  preached  occasionally  for 
John  Wesley  and  others,  and  became  known  as 
a  public  supporter  of  the  great  religious  revi- 
val. In  1700  he  accepted  the  living  of  Madeley, 
after  having  refused  the  living  of  Dunham  with 
much  easier  work  and  a  much  larger  salary.  He 
accepted  this  position  against  the  advice  of  Jlr. 
Wesley,  with  whom,  however,  he  preserved  a  life- 
long friendship,  so  that  he  is  called  by  Tyerman 
(Life  of  Wesley,  iii.  463)  "  Wesley's  most  valuable 
friend," 

For  twenty-five  years,  with  the  exception  of  the 
inters'al  between  1776  and  1781,  when  the  feeble 
state  of  his  health  forced  him  to  take  a  respite 
from  work,  Fletcher  labored  at  Madeley  witli 
singular  devotion  and  zeal.  The  parish  was  verv 
much  run  down,  and  the  people  knew  little  or 
nothing  of  vital  religion,  when  he  became  vicar. 
He  preached  with  great  fervor  the  plain  trutlis  of 
the  gospel,  and  labored  incessantly  during  the 
week  to  awaken  sinners,  Xow  he  rose  at  five 
o'clock  Sabbath  morning,  and  went  through  the 


FLETCHER. 


820 


PLIEDNER. 


neighborhood  ringing  a  bell,  that  no  one  might 
be  able  to  give  as  an  excuse  for  non-attendance 
at  church  that  he  did  not  awake  early  enough. 
Now  he  appeared  suddenly  at  vulgar  entertain- 
ments, and  with  Knox-like  fearlessness  preached 
to  the  astounded  revellers  upon  the  folly  of  for- 
bidden pleasures.  "  Those  sinners,"  says  John 
Wesley,  "that  tried  to  hide  themselves  from  him, 
he  pursued  to  every  corner  of  his  parish  by  all 
sorts  of  means,  public  and  private,  early  and 
late,"  etc.  Great  and  blessed  results  necessarily 
followed  from  sucli  fidelity.  In  1768  he  was 
called  to  preside  over  Lady  Huntingdon's  College 
at  Trevecca,  Wales.  He  accepted  the  position, 
but  did  not  leave  his  parisli.  Disagreements  with 
the  authorities  on  points  of  doctrine  led  him  to 
resign  in  1771,  but  no  unpleasantness  was  con- 
nected witli  the  resignation. 

As  a  preacher,  Fletcher  directed  his  appeals  to 
the  conscience.  He  was  well  trained,  and  had  a 
fine  voice.  J.  Wesley  said,  that,  if  he  had  had 
physical  strength,  he  would  have  been  the  most 
eloquent  preacher  in  England.  As  a  man,  he 
was  characterized  by  saintly  piety,  rare  devotion 
to  God,  and  blamelessness  of  life,  which  Wesley 
said  he  had  not  found  equalled  in  Europe  or 
America.  In  the  judgment  of  Southey,  "  no  age 
ever  produced  a  man  of  more  fervent  piety,  or 
more  perfect  charitj",  and  no  church  ever  pos- 
sessed a  more  apostolic  minister; "  and,  according 
to  Bishop  Kyle,  "  Ids  devotion  has  been  equalled 
by  few,  and  probably  surpassed  by  none." 

In  tlieology,  Fletcher  was  an  Armiuian  of 
Arminians.  Most  of  his  writings  are  directed 
against  Calvinism,  were  wi-itteri  to  defend  Mr. 
Wesley,  and  grew  out  of  controversies  with  Top- 
lady  anil  Mr.  Rowland  Hill.  .Some  of  these  works 
are  still  extensively  circulated,  and  are  authori- 
ties in  the  Methodist  churches.  However,  con- 
trovei'sial  as  his  WTitings  are,  Fletcher  was  not  a 
poU'mic,  but  always  treated  his  opponents  with 
fairness  and  courtesy,  and  in  this  presented  a 
marked  contrast  to  Toplady.  lie  was  also  a 
millenarian  (see  his  letter  to  John  Wesley,  Nov. 
29,  1755). 

Lit.  —  His  principal  works  against  Calvinism 
are:  Five  Checks  to  Anlinotnianism ;  Script.  Scales 
to  weigh  the  Gold  of  Gospel  Truth,  being  an  Equal 
Check  to  Pharisaism  and  A/itinoinianism,  and  the 
Portrait  of  St.  Paul  (posthumous,  has  been  much 
admired).  The  first  compktte  edition  of  his  works, 
London,  ISO:!,  8  vols.  ;  the  best,  'I'hc  Works  of 
Rev.  John  Fletcher,  in  4  vols.,  by  Methodist  Book 
Concern,  X.V.  J.,ives  liv  J.  Wksi.ky,  London, 
1786;  L.  Tyehman,  1882;  F.  W.  Macdonald, 
1885.  See  also  Moore:  Life  of  Mrs.  Fletcher  of 
Madeley,  N.Y.,  1818;  Stevens:  Hist,  of  Metho- 
dism ;  Bishop  Kyle  :  Christ.  Leaders  of  the  Last  Cen- 
tury, I,oii(l.,  18G9  (pp.  384-42.3).     D.  h.  sciiakf. 

FLETCHER,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  Independent 
miMi.-,t.-r;  h.  .-it  Chester,  1781;  studied  at  Glas- 
gow University;  pastor  at  Blackburn  1807,  and 
at  Stepney  182:! ;  d.  184:!.  His  works  were  edited 
by  JoSKiMi  Fr.ETCiiEK  of  Ilanley,  in  :!  vols.,  Lon- 
don, 1840.  Vol  i.  contains  a  Memoir,  vol.  ii., 
Lectures  on  Puseyism  and  Romanism  (the  latter 
being  much  a<]mirefl,  and,  in  separate  form,  run- 
ning tlirough  a  number  of  editions);  vol.  iii., 
Sermons.  Some  other  discourses  were  published 
separately. 


FLEURY,  a  town  with  a  celebrated  abbej 
(Floriacum),  situated  in  the  diocese  of  Orleans, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  and  founded  by 
Leodebad,  Abbot  of  St.  Aniane,  in  the  first  years 
of  the  reign  of  Chloderig  II.,  638-657.  When 
the  Lombards  destroyed  Monte  Casmo,  Abbot 
Mmnniolus  sent  the  monk  Aigulf  to  Italy  in 
order  to  bring  the  remains  of  St.  Benedict  to 
Fleury.  The  expedition  succeeded ;  and  the 
relics  worked  so  many  miracles,  that  the  report 
of  them  filled  four  big  volumes  (Floriacencis  vetus 
hihliotheca  Benedictina,  etc..  Opera  Joannis  a  Bosco., 
Lutjduni,  1605)  ;  and  Fleury  became,  as  Leo  VII. 
expressed  it,  caput  ac  primas  omnium  canohiorum. 
The  Danes  visited  the  place  thrice.  The  first 
time  the  monks  fled,  and  the  vikings  plundered 
the  abbey ;  the  second  tune  the  marauders  were 
defeated  and  repulsed  by  the  monks  ;  and  the 
third  time  St.  Benedict  himself  appeared  in  per- 
son, and  the  heathen  barbarians  were  converted 
to  Christianity.  Reformed  by  St.  Odo,  towards 
the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  the  abbey  rose  to 
still  gTeater  distinction.  Its  library  was  one  of 
the  richest  in  the  realm,  and  its  school  had  at  one 
time  five  thousand  pupils ;  but  it  never  produced 
any  gTeat  scholars.  During  the  Huguenot  wars 
it  suffered  so  much,  that  it  lost  its  independence, 
and  joined  the  Congregation  of  .St.  Maur. 

FLEURY,  Claude,  b.  in  Paris,  Dec.  6,  1640;  d. 
there  July  14,  1723;  was  educated  by  the  .lesuits 
at  Clermont ;  studied  law  in  Paris,  and  practised 
as  an  advocate  for  lune  years,  but  changed 
his  career,  was  ordained  pi-iest  in  1672,  and  lived 
from  that  time  till  his  death  at  the  court,  as 
tutor,  first  to  the  Prince  of  Conti,  then  to  the 
Count  of  Verrnandois,  and  finally  to  the  Dukes  of 
Burgundy,  Anjou,  and  Berry,  and  as  confessor 
to  Louis  XV.  (1716-22).  He  was  an  ardent  stu- 
dent and  a  prolific  writer.  He  was  made  Abb6 
of  Loc-Dieu  (1684),  member  of  the  Academy 
(1096),  prior  of  Argenteuil  (1700),  when  he  re- 
signed his  abbacy,  and  was  tliroughout  a  friend 
of  Fenelon.  The  results  of  his  juridical  studies 
came  out  in  his  Histoire  ilu  droit  franfais  (Paris, 
1674,  last  ed.,  1822)  and  histitution  au  droit  ecck'si- 
asti(jue  (1602,  often  republi.shed).  For  his  pupils 
he  wrote  Les  moiurs  iles  Israelites  (1081,  Eng. 
trans.,  Lond.,  1756,  2d  ed.,  enlarged,  by  Adam 
Clarke,  Manchester,  1805,  and  New  York,  1836), 
Les  mwurs  des  Chretiens  (1682,  last  ed.,  1810, 
trans.  Newcastle,  1786),  and  several  other  his- 
torical ski'tches  of  a  pedagogical  tendency.  But 
his  principal  work  is  his  Histoire  ecchsiastique 
(Paris,  1691  sim.  20  vols.,  extending  to  1414,  but 
c-iintinued  to  l.")84  by  Claude  Fabre,  in  16  vols., 
1722-:!6,  with  4  vols,  of  indexes,  40  vols,  in  all), 
a  work  of  consitlerable  mei-it,  designed  for  the 
educated  public  in  general,  and  still  read  with 
salisfaclioii  (Eng.  trans,  down  to  870,  Lond., 
1727-:32,  5  vols.  ;  and  by  Cardiuiil  Newman,  with 
notes,  from  the  Second  (Ecumenioal  Council  (381) 
to  456,  Oxford,  1842-44,  :!  vols.).  Of  his  nunor 
works,  ICmery  g;ive  a  collected  edition.  Opuscules 
der.ihl>r  Fleun/.  Paris,  1S07. 

FLIEDNER,  theodor,  D.D.,  the  founder  of  the 
institution  of  Protestant  deacone.s.ses,  b.  Jan.  21, 
1800,  the  .son  of  a  clergyman,  at  Epstein,  near 
Wii'sliailcn,  and  d.  at  Kais('rsw(!rth,  tlie  scene  of 
his  labors,  Oct.  4,  1861.  He  was  a  ]ilain,  unpre- 
tending German  pastor,  of  great  working  power, 


PLIEDNER. 


821 


FLORUS. 


indefatigable  zeal,  fervent  piety,  and  rare  talent 
of  organization.  Left  an  orphan  at  the  age  of 
thirteen,  he  studied  at  Giessen,  Gottingen,  and 
Herborn ;  was  for  one  year  tutor  in  a  family  at 
Cologne,  and  began  to  doubt  his  fitness  for  the 
ministry,  when  he  received  and  accepted,  in  No- 
vember, 1821,  what  he  considered  a  providential 
•call,  with  the  promise  of  a  salary  oC  a  hundred 
and  eighty  Prussian  dollars,  from  a  small  Protes- 
tant colony  at  Kaiserswerth,  a  Roman-Catholic 
town  of  eighteen  hundred  inhabitants,  on  the 
Lower  Rhme,  below  Diisseldorf.  The  failure  of 
a  silk  manufactory,  upon  which  the  town  de- 
pended largely  for  support,  led  him  to  undertake, 
in  the  spring  of  1822,  a  collecting  tour  to  keep 
his  struggling  congregation  alive.  By  the  end  of 
a  week  he  returned  with  twelve  hundred  thalers. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  much  greater  things. 
By  experience  and  perseverance  he  became  one 
of  the  greatest  beggars  in  the  service  of  Clirist. 
In  the  year  1823  he  made  a  tuur  to  Holland  and 
England,  which  not  only  resulted  in  a  permanent 
endowment  of  his  congregation,  but  suggested  to 
him  the  idea  of  his  benevolent  institutions.  "  In 
both  these  Protestant  countries,"  he  tells  us  him- 
self, "I  became  acquainted  with  a  nmltitude  of 
■charitable  institutions  for  the  benefit  lioth  of 
body  and  soul.  I  saw  schools  and  other  educa- 
tional organizations,  alms-houses,  orphanages,  hos- 
pitals, prisons,  and  societies  for  the  reformation 
of  prisoners,  Bible  and  missionary  societies,  etc. ; 
and  at  the  same  time  I  observed  that  it  was  a 
living  faith  in  Christ  which  had  called  ahiiost 
■every  one  of  these  institutions  and  societies  into 
life,  and  still  pi'eserved  them  in  activity.  This 
evidence  of  the  practical  power  and  fertility  of 
such  a  principle  had  a  most  powerful  influence  in 
strengthening  my  own  faith." 

Fliedner  made  two  more  journeys  to  Holland, 
England,  and  Scotland  (in  1832  and  1853),  in  the 
interest  no  more  of  his  congregation,  but  of  his 
institutions.  He  also  visited  the  United  States 
ir.  1849.  Twice  he  travelled  to  the  East,  —  in  1851 
to  aid  Bishop  Gobat  in  founding  a  house  of  dea- 
conesses in  Jerusalem,  and  again  in  1857,  when 
he  was,  however,  too  feeble  to  proceed  farther 
than  Jaffa.  King  Frederick  William  IV.  of  Prus- 
sia and  his  Queen  Elizabeth  took  the  most  cordial 
interest  in  his  labors  for  the  sick  and  poor,  grant- 
ed him  several  audiences,  furnished  him  liberally 
with  means,  and  founded  a  Christian  hospital, 
with  deaconesses  at  Berlin  (Bethany)  after  the 
model  of  Kaiserswerth.  In  the  parsonage  garden 
at  Kaisersworth  there  stUl  stands  the  little  sum- 
mer-house, with  one  room  of  ten  feet  square,  and 
an  attic  over  it,  which  was  the  first  asylum  for 
released  female  prisoners,  and  the  humble  cradle 
of  all  Fliedner's  institutions,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  the  institution  of  Evangelical  Deacon- 
esses, founded  in  1836  on  the  basis  of  the  apostolic 
precedent,  and  with  some  resemblance  to  the 
catholic  sisterhoods  of  charity,  but  without  bind- 
ing vows.  At  his  death  the  number  of  deaconesses 
in  connection  with  Kaiserswerth  and  its  branch 
establishments  exceeded  fom-  hundred.  In  1873 
there  were  thirty-four  houses,  with  over  seventeen 
hundred  nursing  and  teaching  sisters ;  in  1878 
the  number  of  institutions  in  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, France,  Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  Austria, 
rose  to  fifty-two,  and  the  number  of  sisters  to 


nearly  four  thousand,  who  labored  on  eleven  hun- 
dred stations. 

Lit.  —  Fliedner  :  Collectenreise  nach  Holland, 
Essen,  1831,  2  vols. ;  Buck  dcr  Mdrlyrer  der  evanr/cl. 
Kirche,  1852,  3  vols. ;  Kurze  Gcuchichle  der  Enisle- 
liung  der  erslen  evan/;.  Liebesanslallcn  zu  Kaisers- 
wcrlh,  185G ;  Jul.  Disseliioff  (Fliedner's  suc- 
cessor) :  Nachricht  iiber  das  Diakonissenwerk  in  der 
christllchen  Kirche  .  .  .  und  iiber  die  Diakonisse.n- 
Anstall  zu  Kaiserswerth,  5th  ed.,  1807  ;  Catherine 
WiNKWORTH  ;  Life  of  Pastor  Fliedner  of  Kaisers- 
werth, translated  from  the  German,  London,  18G7  ; 
Miss  Florence  Nightingale  :  Account  of  the 
Institution  for  Deaconesses,  London,  1851;  W.  F. 
Stevenson  :  Praying  and  Working,  18(12  (repub- 
lished in  New  York);  ScnAFK  :  Fliedner,  in  John- 
son's large  Cgclopccdia ,  G.  Fliednei;,  in  tlie 
2d  ed.  of  Ilerzog,  IV.,  581-581 ;  also  the  annual 
reports  and  other  periodical  publications  of  Kai- 
sersweith.  PniLIP  SCIIAFF. 

FLODOARD,  or  FRODOARD.or  FLAVALDUS, 
b.  at  Epernay  in  894 ;  d.  March  28,  9GG ;  was 
canon  at  the  cathedral  of  Rheims,  and  wrote  a 
poem  in  hexameter,  and  in  three  parts,  on  the  life 
of  Christ,  the  exploits  of  the  first  martyrs,  and 
the  history  of  the  popes;  a  chronicle  (Annales)  of 
his  own  time,  from  919  to  9G6,  best  edition  in 
Pertz,  M.  G.  Script.,  III. ;  and  a  Historia  Eccle- 
sim  Remensis,  first  published  by  Sirmond,  Paris, 
IGll.  There  is  a  collected  edition  of  his  works 
by  Le  Jeune,  Rheims,  1854,  also  in  Migne, 
Patrol.  Lat.,  vol.  CXXXV. 

FLOOD.     See  Noah. 

FLORE,  The  Order  of  (Floriacenses,  or  Flo- 
renses,  to  be  distinguished  from  Floriacum,  the 
Latin  name  of  the  abbey  of  Fleury),  was  founded 
by  Joachim,  Abbot  of  Flore  (Fiore),  in  Calabria 
(1111-30);  which  article  see.  The  constitution  of 
the  order  was  confirmed  by  Coelestine  III.  (1196), 
and  its  houses  were  richly  endowed  by  Henry 
VI.  and  his  wife  Constantia.  It  spread  rapidly, 
and  numbered  many  monasteries,  not  only  in 
Calabria,  but  throughout  Italy.  Originally  it 
rose  as  a  branch  of  the  Cistercian  order ;  but  its 
rules  were  more  severe,  and  this  circumstance 
gave  Gregory  IX.  occasion  to  forbid  the  Cister- 
cians to  receive  any  Floriacensian  into  their  order. 
The  Cistercians  became  infuriated  at  this  slight, 
and  did  their  utmost  to  ruin  the  privileged  rival : 
tiiey  finally  succeeded.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  the  order  of  Flore  disappeai-ed. 
Most  of  the  members  joined  the  Cistercians; 
others,  the  Carthusians  or  the  Dominicans.  See 
IIelyot,  Hisloire  des  ordres  monastiques,  Paris, 
1714-19,  8  vols. 

FLORENCE,  Council  of.  See  Ferrara-Flob- 
ENCE,  Council  of. 

FLORIAN,  a  martyr,  and  a  saint  in  the  Roman- 
Cathelic  Church,  whose  day  falls  on  ISIarch  4.  He 
was  a  soldier  in  the  army  of  Diocletian  (284-305), 
and  was  dro^\Tied  in  the  Enns,  because  he  openly 
confessed  the  Christian  faith.  On  the  spot  where 
his  corpse  drifted  ashore,  a  magnificent  monastery 
was  afterwards  built.  But  his  remains  were 
brought  to  Rome,  where  they  rested  until  1183, 
when  Pope  Lucius  III.  presented  them  to  King 
Casunir  of  Poland.  Thus  St.  Florian  became 
the  patron  saint  of  Poland. 

FLORUS  (not  Drepanius,  surnained  Magister,  on 
account  of  his  great  learning;  or  Diaconus,  from 


FLORUS. 


822 


FONTEVRAUD. 


his  ecclesiastical  position),  lived  at  Lyons  in  the 
ninth  centiuT,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
dogmatical  controversies  of  his  time.  A  decided 
adversary  of  Paschasius  Kadbertus's  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  he  taught  that  there  is  no 
other  participation  in  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  than  that  through  faith,  and  calls  the  bread 
the  mystical  body  of  the  Lord.  See  his  Exposilio 
in  Canon.  Missce,  written  before  83i,  and  first 
printed  in  Paris,  1.548,  though  without  his  name. 
In  the  controversy  concerning  predestination  he 
WTote  his  Liber  adversus  Joh.  Scoti  erroneas  dejini- 
tiones  (852)  and  Sermo  de  predeslinatinne,  though 
without  fully  adopting  the  ideas  of  Gottschalk. 
He  was  present  at  the  first  synod  convened  in  the 
case  by  Hincmar,  at  Chiersy,  849.  In  the  contro- 
versy between  Agobard  and  Anialarius  he  wrote  a 
number  of  passionate  letters,  which  made  much 
noise  in  their  time.  They  are  found  in  Bibl.  Pair. 
Max.,  XV.,  and,  together  with  his  other  essays, 
in  JIiGNE,  Patrol.  Latin.,  119.  Ilis  most  compre- 
hensive work,  a  commentary  on  the  Epistles  of 
Paul,  is  a  mere  compilation  from  Augustine.  It 
was  formerly  ascribed  to  Bede,  and  is  found  in 
the  Basel  and  Cologne  editions  of  his  works ;  but 
Flonis's  authorship  has  been  conclusively  proved 
by  Mabillon.  [F.  Ma.-vssex:  Ein  Commentar  des 
Florus  ron  Li/on  :u  einirjen  d.  soqenannten  Sirmond- 
schen  Conslit'utionen,  Wien,  1879.]  G.  PLITT. 

FLORUS,  Gessius,  succeeded  Albinus  in  64 
.\.]).  as  Koman  governor  of  Judioa,  and  caused 
by  his  rapine  and  tjTanny  that  insurrection  which 
led  to  the  destruction  of  the  the  temple  in  Jeru- 
salem, and  the  annihilation  of  the  national  inde- 
pendence of  the  Jews.  \\'hat  finally  became  of 
Florus  himself  is  not  known ;  but  vivid  descrip- 
tions of  his  nefarious  rule  in  Judsea  are  found  in 
JosKPiirs  (.intiq.,  XX.  9,  and  De  Bella  Jud.,  II. 
24,    L'5)  an<l  in  T.vcixrs  (///.</.,  V.  10). 

FLUE,  Niklaus  von,  generally  known  under  the 
name  of  Bruder  Klaus,  was  b.  at  Fliieli,  in  the 
canton  of  Unterwalden,  Switzerland,  March  21, 
1417;  and  d.  in  his  hermit's  cell  at  Ranft,  close 
by  his  native  place,  March  21,  1487.  He  grew  up 
without  receiving  any  other  education  than  that 
which  naturally  resulted  from  active  participation 
in  the  business  of  the  home.  Nevertheless,  he 
served  his  country  well,  both  in  the  army  and  as 
a  judge.  In  1450  lie  married.  He  had  ten  chil- 
dren in  seventeen  years ;  and  he  was  known  as 
an  energetic,  prudent,  and  tender  house-fatlier. 
Nevertheless  the  whole  bent  of  his  natui-e  was 
towards  a  life  of  seclusion  and  devout  contempla- 
tion. From  early  youtli  he  practised  a  severe 
a-sceticism ;  and  Oct.  10,  1467,  lie  actually  retired 
from  his  home  and  family,  and  settled  in  a  lonely 
place  up  among  the  .\l]>s,  where  he  built  a  cell, 
and  spent  tlie  rest  of  his  life.  To  the  great  esteem 
and  reverence  which  all  who  knew  liini  felt  for 
hiiri,  was  soon  adcU'd  a  tinge  of  tlie  miraculous. 
People  told  of  him  that  he  never  ate.  Pilgiim- 
ages  were  ma<l(^  to  his  cell.  Kverybody  wanted 
his  advice ;  and  he  exercised  great  influeiice  in 
the  surrounding  country,  not  only  in  general  by 
}iis  example,  but  in  numerous  special  cases  by  his 
exhortations  or  warnings.  At  the  diet  of  Stanz 
(14S1)  he  actually  saved  the  confederation  from 
civil  war,  and  lirouglit  about  an  agreement  on 
that  constitution  under  which  Switzerland  lived 
until  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  ceutury.     After 


his  death,  his  countrJ^nen  made  the  greatest  exer- 
tions to  have  him  canonized.  But  a  canonization 
is  a  very  expensive  affair;  and  in  spite  of  subscrip- 
tions, heavy  taxes,  etc.,  nothing  more  than  a 
beatification  could  be  obtained  from  Clement 
IX.,  1669. 

Lit.  —  The  literature  concerning  Bruder  Klaus 
is  very  great.  A  complete  list  of  it  may  be  found 
in  E.  L.  Rochholz,  Schweizerlegende  von  B.  K., 
Aarau,  1875,  pp.  255-309.  The  best  biography 
of  him  is  that  by  Joh.  Ming,  3  vols.,  Luzerii, 
1861-71.  JUSTUS  HEER. 

FONSECA,  Pedro  da,  b.  at  Cortizada,  Portu- 
gal, 1.528;  d.  at  Coimbra,  Nov.  4,  1.599;  entered 
the  order  of  Jesuits  in  1548 ;  studied  at  Evora. 
and  became  professor  at  Coimbra.  Among  his 
works  are  a  Latin  commentary  on  the  meta- 
physics of  Aristotle  (4  vols.,  Rome,  1577-89),  and 
Institutiones  dialecticce  (Lisbon,  1564),  etc.  He 
was  the  first  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  a  scientia 
media  Dei  (i.e.,  what  God  might  have  done,  but 
did  not),  which  afterwards  received  its  name, 
its  due  development,  and  its  influence,  under  the 
hands  of  ^Molina. 

FONT,  The  Baptismal,  originally  a  cistern, 
rather  beneath  the  level  of  the  floor  of  the  bap- 
tistery, surrounded  by  a  low  wall,  and  entered 
by  steps ;  afterwards  a  vessel  for  containing  water 
used  at  the  administration  of  baptism.  The  form 
of  the  font,  whether  a  cistern  or  a  vessel,  was  gen- 
erally the  octagon,  with  reference  to  the  eighth 
day,  as  the  day  of  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord ; 
though  other  forms,  the  circle,  the  hexagon,  etc., 
are  also  found.  In  the  Western  Church  the  fonts 
were  generally  made  of  some  fine  marble,  and 
often  highly  ornamented  :  in  the  Eastern  Church 
they  were  made  of  metal  or  wood,  and  generally 
without  any  ornamentation.  See  art.  Font,  in 
Smith  and  Cheetham,  Did.  Chr.  Anliq.,  a,\\L 
art.  Baptism,  in  this  Cyclopedia,  p.  203. 

FONTEVRAUD,  The  Order  of  {Ordo  Fonlis 
Ehraldi),  was  founded  by  Robert  of  Arbrissel 
(the  present  Arbresee),  b.  1047;  d.  1117.  After 
acting  for  some  years  as  administrator  of  the 
bishopric  of  Rennes,  and  teaching  theology  for 
some  other  years  at  .Vngers,  Robert  retired  into 
the  forest  of  Craon,  and  settled  there  as  a  hermit. 
Others  joined  him ;  and  in  1093  he  formed  a 
community  of  regular  canons,  out  of  which  after- 
wards grew  the  abbey  De  la  Roc,  or  De  rota. 
Selected  by  Urban  II.  to  go  through  the  country, 
and  preach  penance,  the  overwhelming  impres- 
sion he  made,  especially  on  women,  led  to  the 
fouiid.ation  of  the  great  monastic  institution  of 
Fontcvraud.  It  comprised,  under  the  title  of 
pauperi:<<  Chrifli,  .a  male  and  a  female  division. 
The  former  was  dedicated  to  St.  John  :  the  latter 
consisted  of  three  subdivision.s,  of  which  the  first 
was  dedicated  to  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  contained 
three  hundred  virgins  and  wi<lows;  the  second  to 
St.  Lazarus,  containing  a  hundred  and  twenty 
lepers;  and  the  third  to  Magdalene,  containing 
a  number  of  female  penitents.  The  whole  insti- 
tution stood  under  a  female  head  :  its  first  abbess 
was  Petronella  of  Cr.aon-Chcmille.  But  the 
separation  between  the  two  sexes  was  complete, 
and  the  rules  for  both  divisions  very  severe, — 
perjietual  silence,  tot.il  abstinence  from  flesh  and 
wine,  etc.  In  1106  I'asclialis  II.  confirmed  the 
constitution  of  the  order  :  in  1109  Calixtus  II,,  in 


FOOT-WASHING-. 


823 


PORMOSUS. 


person,  consecrated  the  cliurch.  x\t  the  death  of 
llobert,  the  monastery  niniiberod  tliree  thousand 
nuns;  and  the  number  rose  still  higher.  Indeed, 
the  institution  was  still  flourishing  when  it  was 
dissolved  by  the  llevolution.  The  buildings  were 
transformed  into  a  jail ;  and  the  last  abbess, 
Charlotte  de  Pardaillan,  died  in  destitution,  in 
Paris,  1799.  See  Regies  et  conslit.  de  iordre  ilc 
Fontevr.,  Paris,  1643;  Niquet:  Hist,  de  I'ordre 
de  Font.,  Paris,  1643;  J.  de  i,a  Mainfekme  : 
Clijpeus  Fontehraldensis,  Paris,  1684  (an  apologetic 

work).  TH.   PKESSEL. 

FOOT-WASHING,  an  ancient  act  of  hospi- 
tality (Gen.  xviii.  4;  Judg.  xix.  21;  1  Sam. 
XXV.  41,  etc.),  made  necessary  in  Palestine  by 
the  dry  climate,  dusty  roads,  and  the  fact  that 
sandals,  covering  only  the  sole  of  the  foot,  were 
worn.  Our  Lord,  the  night  liefore  his  cruci- 
fixion, washed  the  feet  of  his  disciples,  and  wiped 
them  (John  xiii.  1-17),  and  commanded  his  dis- 
ciples to  "wash  one  another's  feet"  (xiii.  14). 
This  is  usually  interpreted  to  mean  that  they 
should  emulate  his  spirit  of  ministration  and 
humility.  It  has,  however,  been  taken  literally. 
Upon  the  basis  of  this  passage  and  of  1  Tim.  v. 
10,  in  which  one  of  the  conditions  of  being  ad- 
mitted to  the  order  of  widows  is  that  she  had 
"  washed  the  saints'  feet,"  the  Roman  and  Greek 
churches  and  the  Tunkers  still  practise  the  rite. 

Augustine  (Ep.  ad  Januarium)  refers  to  the 
ceremony  of  foot-washing  as  taking  place  on 
Maunday-Thursday  (the  Thursday  before  Easter). 
The  synod  of  Toledo,  in  694,  went  so  far  as  to 
exclude  from  the  communion-table  those  who 
refused  to  have  their  feet  washed  on  this  day. 
Bernard  of  Clairvaux  even  sought  to  have  it 
recognized  as  one  of  the  sacraments,  but  without 
success.  The  ceremony  is  still  observed  in  some 
of  the  convents  of  the  Roman  Chiu-ch,  and  very 
generally  in  those  of  the  Greek  Church.  The 
czar  of  Russia,  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  the 
kings  of  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Bavaria,  have  ob- 
served, and  perhaps  do  still  observe,  the  custom 
of  washing  the  feet  of  twelve  beggars  on  Maun- 
day-Thursday. The  Pope  at  Rome,  likewise,  in 
illustration  of  Christian  humility,  sprinkles  a 
few  drops  of  water  on  the  feet  of  thirteen  poor 
men,  attired  in  white  tunics,  and  seated  in  the 
Clementine  Chapel. 

This  ceremony  Luther  denounced  as  hypocriti- 
cal, and  not  at  all  in  the  spirit  of  the  Lord's 
command.  He  thought  the  people  would  "  be 
far  better  served  if  they  were  given  a  common 
bath,  where  they  could  wash  their  entire  body." 
And  Bengel,  in  his  Commenlary,  suggested  that 
the  Pope  would  "  deserve  more  admiration,  if, 
instead  of  washing  the  feet  of  twelve  beggars,  he 
would  in  real  humility  wash  the  feet  of  a  single 
king."  The  Moravians  practised  foot-washing 
till  1818,  when  a  synod  at  Herrnhut  abolished 
the  practice.  The  Tunkers  and  Winebrennarians 
are  strenuous  advocates  of  it.     See  Tunkers. 

FORBES,  Alexander  Penrose,  D.C.L.,  Bishop 
of  Brechin;  was  b.  at  Edinburgh,  June  6,  1817; 
d.  at  Dundee,  Oct.  8,  187.5.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  was  powerfully  influenced  by  the 
Tractarian  movement.  He  was  made  bishop  in 
1847.  He  had  decided  Romanizing  leanings,  and 
was  tried  for  heresy  in  18.57,  and  censured.  His 
principal  works  are,  A  Short  Explanation  of  the 


Nicene  Creed  (Oxford,  1852)  and  an  Explanation 
of  Ihe  Thirhi-Nine  /I rt/cte  (Oxford,  1867). 

FORBES,  John,  aScotti.sh  divine,  .son  of  Patrick 
Forbes;  was  b.  May  2,  1.5tl3;  d.  Aj.ril  20,  1648. 
He  was  profes.sor  of  divinity  at  Aberdeen  1619-40. 
He  leaned  to  Episcopacy,  and,  refusing  to  sign 
the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant,  w'as  ejected 
from  his  position.  He  was  a  man  of  much  learn- 
ing; and  his  work,  Tnslructiones  Hislorico-Tlieo- 
logiece,  etc.  (Amst.,  1645),  had  a  considerable 
reputation,  and  is  referred  to  by  Baur  as  one  of 
the  two  most  important  on  the  history  of  doctrine 
of  the  seventeenth  century.  See  Chambers, 
Biofj.  Did.  of  Eminent  Scotsmen. 

FORBES,  Patrick,  a  Scottish  divine;  was  b. 
in  Aberdeenshire,  1564 ;  d.  March  28,  1635.  He 
was  made  Bishop  of  Aberdeen  1618.  His  princi- 
pal work  was,  An  Exquisite  Commentary  on  the 
Revelation,  Lond.,  1613.  See  the  Biographical 
Memoir  prefixed  to  The  Funeral  Sermons,  Orations, 
etc.,  on  t/ie  Death  of  the  Right  Rev.  Patrick  Forbes, 
D.D.  (1635),  edited  by  C.  F.  Siiand,  Edinb., 
1845. 

FORBES,  William,  a  learned  Scottish  divine; 
was  b.  at  Aberdeen,  1585;  d.  April  1,  1634. 
Charles  I.,  on  a  visit  to  Edinburgh  (1633),  was 
much  pleased  with  his  preaching,  and  made  him 
First  Bishop  of  Edinburgh,  January,  1634.  His 
work,  Considerationes  Modestce  de  Justifcalione, 
etc.,  first  published  in  Lond.,  1658,  was  reprinted 
in  the  Library  of  Anqlo-Catholic  Theology,  Oxford, 
18.50-56,  2  vils. 

FOREIRO,  Francisco,  b.  at  Lisbon,  1523;  d.  at 
Almada,  Jan.  10,  1587  ;  entered  the  Dominican 
order ;  studied  theology  in  Paris ;  and  was,  after 
his  return  in  1.540,  appointed  court-preacher  in 
Lisbon.  He  distinguished  himself  as  one  of  the 
Portuguese  delegates  to  the  Council  of  Trent 
(1.561),  and  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
committee  charged  with  the  compilation  of  a 
Roman-Catholic  Catechism,  with  the  revision  of 
the  Missal,  and  with  the  compilation  of  the  Index. 
Most  of  his  writings  — commentaries  on  the  Books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  a  Hebrew  dictionary,  etc. 
—  still  remain  in  manuscript. 

FORMOSUS,  Pope  (Sept.  21,  891-ApriI  4,  896), 
a  native  of  Rome ;  was  made  Cardinal-Bishop  of 
Porto  in  864  by  Nicholas  I.,  and,  both  by  him 
and  by  Adrian  "iL,  employed  in  many  important 
missions,  but  was  by  John  VIII.  deprived  of  his 
ecclesiastical  position,  and  even  excommunicated, 
April  19,  876,  on  account,  as  it  was  said,  of  par- 
ticipation in  a  conspiracy  against  Charles  the 
Bald  and  the  holy  father  himself.  By  Marinus 
he  was  restored,  however,  to  his  former  dignity ; 
and  at  the  death  of  Stephen  VI.  he  succeeded  to 
the  papal  chair,  the  first  instance  in  the  Western 
Church  of  the  transfer  of  a  bishop  from  one  see 
to  another.  On  account  of  the  almost  complete 
dissolution  of  the  Prankish  Empire,  the  Pope 
found  it  necessary  at  this  period  to  lean  upon 
some  of  the  native  Italian  princes;  and  AVido. 
Duke  of  Spoleto,  was  crowned  emperor,  together 
with  his  son  Lambert.  But  it  soon  became  ap- 
parent that  dependence  upon  a  neighbor  was  too 
dangerous;  and  Formosus.  therefore,  called  the 
German  king,  Arnulf,  into  Italy,  and  crowned 
him  emperor.  Immediately  after  Arnulfs  return 
to  Germany,  Formosus  died ;  and  Lambert  now 
entered  Rome,  and  took  his  revenge  by  the  aid  of 


FORSTBR. 


824 


FOSTER. 


Formosus"3  successor,  Stephen  VII.  The  corpse 
of  the  late  pope  was  dug  up  from  the  grave,  and 
seated  in  the  papal  chair;  and  then  a  synod  was 
held,  accusing  him  of  having  intruded  himself  in 
St.  Peter's  see,  etc.  He  was  declared  guilty  ;  and 
his  remains  were  atrociously  mutilated  and  defiled, 
while  all  his  ordinations  and  consecrations  were 
cancelled.  The  confusion  which  arose  herefrom 
was  still  further  increased  by  the  circumstances 
that  some  popes  (Sergius  III.  and  John  X.)  recog- 
nized the  proceedings  of  the  synod,  while  others 
(Theodore  II.,  John  IX.,  and  Benedict  IV.)  de- 
clared them  null  and  void ;  a  circumstance  which 
presents  an  embarrassing  argument  in  the  ques- 
tion of  papal  infallibility.  See  the  writings  of 
Auxilius  and  Vulgarius,  in  JI.\billon  (^Analecla 
Vetera,  Paris,  1723)  and  in  Dummler  (Auxilius 
und  Vulgarius,  Leipzig,  1866).  R.  ZOPFFEL. 

FORSTER,  Johann,  b.  at  Augsburg,  July  10, 
1490:  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Dec.  8,  1.556;  studied 
Greek  and  Hebrew  at  Ingolstadt,  under  Reuchlin, 
and  theology  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg ;  became 
one  of  Luther's  favorite  pupils,  aided  him  in 
translating  the  Old  Testament,  and  was,  on  his 
recommendation,  made  preacher  in  Augsburg, 
1535.  But  in  Augsburg,  as  afterwards  in  Tiibin- 
gen  and  in  other  places,  his  strict  and  exclusive 
Lutheranism  brought  him  in  conflict  with  his 
colleagues.  In  1548  he  was  made  professor  in 
Hebrew  at  Wittenberg.  His  great  work  is  his 
Dictionarium  Hebraicum  Novu7i>,  published  at  Basel, 
after  his  deatli,  1557. 

FORTIFICATIONS  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
In  general  each  place  was  surrounded  by  a  wall ; 
but  municipal  places  had  fortifications  containing 
gan-isons,  especially  in  times  of  war  (2  C'iiron. 
xvii.  2).  Thus  Jerusalem  was  fortified  by  David 
(2  Sam.  V.  7,  9),  and  the  work  of  its  fortification 
continued  in  later  times  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  5). 
Solomon  also  built  forts  throughout  the  land 
(1  Kings  ix.  15,  17  sq.;  2  Chron.  viii.  5);  and 
their  number  was  increased  as  necessity  required 
it,  especially  after  the  exile  and  during  the  Jewish 
war.     Among  them  were  Masada  and  Mach.nerus. 

Such  fortified  places  were  surrounded  by  one, 
sometimes  by  double  or  triple,  walls  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  5),  with  bulwarks  (xxvi.  15)  and  wall-towers. 
Over  the  gateways,  which  were  closed  by  ponder- 
ous doors,  and  secured  by  wooden  or  metallic  bars, 
were  watch-towers,  and  around  the  walls  was  a 
ditch.  Besides  these  large  fortresses,  there  wore 
also  castles  or  citadels,  as  well  as  forts.  In  the 
forests  and  in  the  open  fields  watch-towers  were 
also  found. 

During  the  war,  in  case  a  city  thus  fortified 
would  not  .surrender  voluntarily,  a  sieM  was  laiil 
against  it,  and  operations  began,  whereby  the  wall 
could  be  approached  (2  Sam.  xx.  15;  2  Kings 
xix.  32;  Ji'r.  vi.  6,  xxxii.  24;  Ezek.  xxvi.  8  stp). 
After  this  the  battering-rams  were  set  against  it. 
That  the  besieged  did  not  remain  idle,  but  endea- 
vored to  prevent  the  approacli  of  the  enemy,  w-e 
see  from  i)a.ssage8  like  Isa.  xxii.  10,  .Jer.  xxxiii.  4, 
2  Sam.  xi.  21,24,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  15;  and  thus 
it  happened  that  strongly  fortified  places  were 
not  so  easily  taken.  Thus  Ashdod  was  besieged 
twenty-nine  years,  Samaria  three  years  (2  Kings 
xvii.  .5),  Jerusalem  a  year  and  a  half  (xxv.  1,  2). 
But  cities  taken  were  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
their  inhabitants  killed,  or  sold  as  alavea.   if  they 


capitulated,  they  were  more  leniently  dealt  with 
(Deut.  XX.  11  sq.  ;  1  Mace.  xiii.  15  sq.).  The 
Chaldeans  were  the  most  famous  besiegers  of 
antiquity.  ruetschi. 

FORT UNATUS,  Venantius  Honorius  Clemen, 
tianus,  b.  about  530  at  Treviso;  d.  at  Poitiers 
about  609 ;  studied  grammar  and  rhetoric  at 
Ravenna;  lived  for  some  time  at  the  court  of 
Sigibert,  king  of  Austrasia,  whose  favor  he  won 
by  his  poetry ;  repaired  thence  to  Tours,  and 
afterwards  to  Poitiers,  where  he  settled  in  a  mon- 
astery founded  by  the  divorced  wife  of  Clothaire  I., 
the  learned  Radegunde ;  entered  finally  the  ser- 
vice of  the  church,  and  became  Bishop  of  Poitiers 
about  599.  His  fame,  however,  he  acquired  as  a 
poet ;  and  he  is,  indeed,  the  last  great  poet  of  the 
period  before  Charlemagne.  He  wrote  epics 
(among  which  is  the  life  of  St.  Martin,  in  hexame- 
ters, based  on  the  works  of  Sulpicius  Severus), 
IjTics  (especially  hymns),  epistles,  epigrams,  didac- 
tic and  descriptive  poems,  etc.  Tlie  two  most 
celebrated  of  his  hymns  are  Vexilla  regis  prodeunl 
and  Pange,  lingua,  gloriosi ;  of  w  Inch  Neale's  trans- 
lations are  found  in  Sch.\»t's  ClirisI  in  Song,  Kew 
York,  1869.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is 
that  by  Lucid,  Rome,  17S6,  in  2  vols.  4to,  incor- 
porated with  iliGNE,  Patrol.  Latin.,  vol.  Ixxviii., 
cols.  595  .sqq.  See  Ehert:  Geschichte  d.  latein. 
cfiri.''t.  Literatur  6('.<  cum  Zeitalter  Karls  d.  Grossen, 
vol.  i.,  Leipzig,  1874,  pp.  494-516. 

FOSCARARI  OEgidius  Foscherarius),  b.  at 
Bologna,  Jan.  27,  1512;  d.  in  Rome,  Dec.  23,  15G4; 
entered  early  the  Dominican  order;  preached,  and 
taught  theology,  in  various  cities  of  Italy;  and 
was  appointed  Magister  sacri  palatii  by  Paul  III. 
in  1546,  and  Bishop  of  Modena  in  1550  by  Julius 
III.  In  1551  he  was  sent  to  the  Council  of  Trent, 
and  wlien  (April  28,  1552)  its  meetings  were  sus- 
pended lie  returned  to  his  episcopal  see.  Under 
Paul  IV.  (in  1558)  he  was  accused  of  heresy,  and 
imprisoned  in  the  Castle  St.  Angelo.  Though 
the  Inquisition  could  prove  no  heresy  against  him, 
he  was  not  released  until  after  Paul's  death.  By 
Pius  IV.  he  was  once  more  sent  to  the  Council  of 
Trent,  and  made  a  member  of  the  Committee  on 
the  Catechism  and  the  Revision  of  the  Missal. 

FOSTER,  James,  D.D.,  an  Englisli  dis.senting 
niinistiT;  b.  in  Exeter,  Sept.  16,  1667;  d.  Nov. 
5,  1753.  He  became  pastor  in  London  in  1724. 
He  was  an  elocpient  iireachcr,  and  won  the  eulo- 
gies of  Pope  and  others.  Many  of  his  sermons 
were  published.  Amongst  liis  other  writings  the 
most  important  is  The  i'!se/ulness,  Truth,  and 
Excellency  of  the  Christian  lierelation,  etc.,  1734, 
a  defence  against  Tinilal  the  deist. 

FOSTER,  John,  a  Hai'tist  clergyman  and  emi- 
nent essayist;  li.  in  Halifax,  Yorksiiire,  Sept.  17, 
177(1;  d.  at  Stapleton,  near  Bristol,  Oct.  15,  1843. 
He  engaged  in  weaving  wool  till  lie  was  seventeen. 
How  he  secured  his  primary  education  is  unknown. 
Becoming  a  member  of  tlie  Baptist  Churcli  at  this 
time,  lie  determined  to  study  for  tlie  niinistry;  en- 
tered Brearly  Hall,  and  sub.'<e(inently  passed  into 
the  B.aptist  College,  Bristol.  In  1792  he  preached 
for  three  montlis  at  N(^wcastl(>-oii-Tyne  ;  jiassed 
from  there  to  Dublin,  .•ind  in  1797  was  invited  to 
liecomo  pastor  of  the  IJaptist  CJlmrcli,  Cliiciiester, 
where  he  remained  till  lsf)(),  when  he  was  called 
to  Downend.  l'"rom  here,  in  1S()4,  \w.  removed  to 
Erome.     A  throat  trouble  obliged  him  to  resign 


FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS. 


825 


FOX. 


in  1806.  The  year  before,  he  published  his  essays, 
and  becaine  contributor  to  The  KIcctic  Mat/azine. 
In  1817  he  determined  to  take  up  pastoral  work 
again,  and  went  back  to  Downend,  but  remained 
only  six  months.  He  was  frequently  called  upon 
to  lecture,  and  preached  at  intervals,  until  his 
death  in  1843.  Foster  was  a  man  of  very  deli- 
cate sensibilities,  reserved  disposition,  and  humili- 
ty of  Christian  character.  He  was  not  successful 
as  a  preacher;  but  as  an  essayist  he  excels  in  viv- 
idness of  imagination,  penetration  of  thought, 
and  earnest  .sincerity.  Writing  was,  however,  a 
laborious  task  to  him,  and  he  is  said  to  have  spent 
several  days  in  the  elaboration  of  a  single  para- 
graph. His  friend  Robert  Hall  said  of  him,  "His 
conceptions  are  most  extraordinary  and  origi- 
nal." Foster's  principal  work  is  Essai/s  on  Decis- 
ion of  Character,  which  has  passed  through  many 
editions.  Other  works  are,  Evils  of  Popular  Igno- 
rance (1818),  Introductory  Essay  to  Doddridge's 
Rise  anil  Progress  (182.5),  Lectures  delivered  at 
Broadmead  Chapel  (2  series,  1844-47),  a  hundred 
and  eighty-five  contributions  to  The  Electic  Re- 
I'feff,  and  Observations  on  t/ie  Character  of  Mr.  Hall 
as  a  Preacher.  See  Ryland  :  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence of  J.  Foster,  1846,  republished  in  Bos- 
ton, 1851 ;  W.  W.  Everts  :  Life  and  Thoughts  of 
J.  Foster,  New  York,  1849. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITALS.  See  Infanti- 
cide. 

FOX,  Ceorge.  This  great  reformer,  a  man  of  ori- 
ginal genius  and  deep  spiritual  discernment,  was  b. 
in  July,  1624,  at  Drayton-in-the-Clay,  now  called 
Fenny  Drayton,  in  Leicestershire.  His  father, 
Christopher  Fox,  was  a  weaver,  called  "righteous 
Christer"  by  his  neighbors:  his  mother,  Mary 
Lago,  was,  as  he  tells  us,  "of  the  stock  of  the 
martyrs."  From  childhood.  Fox  was  of  a  serious, 
religious  disposition.  "  When  I  came  to  eleven 
years  of  age,"  he  says  (Journal,  p.  2),  "  I  knew 
pureness  and  righteousness ;  for,  while  I  was  a 
child,  I  was  taught  how  to  walk  to  be  kept  pure. 
The  Lord  taught  me  to  be  faithful  in  all  things, 
and  to  act  faithfully  two  ways;  viz.,  inwardly  to 
God,  and  outwardly  to  man ;  .  .  .  and  that  my 
words  should  be  few  and  savory,  seasoned  with 
grace ;  and  that  I  might  not  eat  and  drink  to 
make  myself  wanton,  but  for  health,  using  the 
creatures  in  their  service,  as  servants  in  their 
places,  to  the  glory  of  Him  that  hath  created 
them."  As  he  grew  up,  his  relations  "thought 
to  have  made  him  a  priest;  "  but  he  was  put  as 
an  apprentice  to  a  man  who  was  a  shoemaker  and 
grazier.  In  his  nineteenth  year  he  was  grieved 
at  the  healths-drinking  of  two  companions  who 
were  professors  of  religion,  and  heard  an  inward 
voice  from  the  Lord,  "  Thou  seest  how  young  peo- 
ple go  together  into  vanity,  and  old  people  into 
the  earth  ;  and  thou  must  forsake  all,  both  young 
and  old,  and  keep  out  of  all,  and  be  as  a  stranger 
unto  all."  Then  began  a  life  of  solitary  wander- 
ing in  mental  temptations  and  troubles,  in  which 
he  "  went  to  many  a  priest  to  look  for  comfort, 
but  found  no  comfort  from  them."  Some  of  his 
friends  advised  him  to  marry,  some  to  enter  the 
army :  "  an  ancient  priest  in  Warwickshire  "  bade 
him  "take  tobacco,  and  sing  psalms."  At  one 
time,  as  he  was  walking  in  a  field,  "the  Lord 
opened  unto  "  him  "that  being  bred  at  Oxford 
or  Cambridge  was  not  enough  to  fit  and  qualify 


men  to  be  ministers  of  Christ,'"  but  that  a  spiritu- 
al qualification  was  necessary.  Not  seeing  this 
requisite  in  the  priest  of  his  parish,  he  "would 
get  into  the  orchards  and  fields"  with  his  liil)le 
by  himself.  Regarding  the  priests  less,  lie  looked 
more  after  the  dissenters,  among  whom  he  found 
"some  tenderness,"  but  no  one  that  could  speak 
to  his  need.  "And  when  all  my  hopes  in  them," 
he  says,  "  and  in  all  men,  were  gone,  so  that  I  had 
nothing  outwardly  to  help  me,  nor  could  tell  what 
to  do,  then,  oh !  then,  I  heard  a  voice  which  said, 
'  There  is  one,  even  Christ  Jesus,  that  can  speak 
to  thy  condition.'  And  when  I  heard  it,  my  heart 
did  leap  for  joy.  .  .  .  Christ  it  was  (who  had 
enlightened  me)  that  gave  me  his  light  to  believe 
in,  and  gave  me  hope,  which  is  himself,  revealed 
himself  in  me,  and  gave  me  his  spirit,  and  gave 
me  his  grace,  which  I  found  sufiicient  in  the  deeps 
and  in  weakness."  Afterwards  the  hearts  and 
natures  of  wicked  men  were  revealed  to  him, 
that  he  might  have  a  sense  of  all  conditions,  and 
thus  be  able  to  speak  to  all  conditions ;  and  he 
"  saw  that  there  was  an  ocean  of  darkness  and 
death,  but  an  infinite  ocean  of  light  and  love 
which  flowed  over  the  ocean  of  darkness,"  and 
in  that  he  saw  "the  infinite  love  of  God."  In 
1648  he  began  to  exercise  his  ministry  publicly  in 
market-places,  in  the  fields,  in  appointed  meet- 
ings of  various  kinds,  sometimes  in  the  "steeple- 
houses,"  after  the  priests  had  got  through.  His 
preaching  was  powerful;  and  many  people  joined 
him  in  professing  the  same  faith  in  the  spiritu- 
ality of  true  religion.  In  a  few  years  the  Society 
of  Friends  had  formed  itself  spontaneously  under 
the  preaching  of  Fox  and  his  companions.  Fox 
afterwards  showed  great  powers,  as  a  religious 
legislator,  in  the  admirable  organization  which  he 
gave  to  the  new  society.  He  seems,  however, 
to  have  had  no  desire  to  found  a  sect,  but  only 
to  proclaim  the  pure  and  genuine  principles  of 
Christianity  in  their  original  simplicity.  In  1650 
the  name  "  Quakers "  was  first  applied  to  the 
Friends  in  derision,  by  "one  Justice  Bennet," 
because  Fox  had  bidden  the  justices  to  "tremble 
at  the  word  of  the  Lord."  Fox  was  often  arrested 
and  imprisoned  for  violating  the  laws  forbidding 
unauthorized  worship).  He  was  imprisoned  at 
Darby  in  1650,  Carlisle  in  1653,  London  in  1654, 
Lanoeston  in  1656,  Lancaster  in  1660  and  1663, 
Scarborough  in  1666,  and  Worcester  in  1674, 
in  noisome  dungeons,  and  with  much  attendant 
cruelty.  In  prison  his  pen  was  active,  and  hardly 
less  potent  than  his  voice.  In  1669  Fox  married 
Margaret  Fell  of  Swarthmore  Hall,  a  lady  of 
high  social  position,  and  one  of  his  early  con- 
verts. In  1671  he  went  to  Barbadoes  and  the 
English  settlements  in  America,  where  he  re- 
mained two  years.  In  1672  he  attended  the  Yearly 
Meeting  at  Newport.  R.I.,  which  lasted  for  six 
days.  At  the  end  of  this  meeting  he  says,  "  It 
was  somewhat  hard  for  Friends  to  part ;  for  the 
glorious  power  of  the  Lord,  which  was  over  all, 
and  his  blessed  truth  and  life  flowing  amongst 
them,  had  so  knit  and  united  them  together,  that 
they  spent  two  days  in  taking  leave  one  of  another, 
and  of  the  Friends  of  the  island."  In  1677  and 
1684  he  visited  the  Friends  in  Holland,  and  or- 
ganized their  meetings  for  discipline.  He  died 
in  London,  Nov.  13,  1690,  having  preached  with 
great  power  two  days  before,  and  w  as  buried  on 


FOX. 


826 


FRANCE. 


the  16th,  in  the  Friends'  Ground,  near  Bimhill 
Fields. 

Fox  is  described  by  Thomas  Ellwood,  the  friend 
of  ililton,  as  "  graceful  in  countenance,  manly  in 
personage,  grave  in  gesture,  courteous  in  conver- 
sation." Penn  says  he  was  "civil  beyond  all 
forms  of  breeding."  We  are  told  that  he  was 
"  plain  and  powerful  in  preaching,  fervent  in 
prayer,"  "  a  discernerof  other  men's  spirits,"  and 
very  much  master  of  his  own."  skilful  to  "speak 
a  word  in  due  season  to  the  conditions  and  capaci- 
ties of  most,  especially  to  them  that  were  weary, 
and  wanted  soul's  rest;"  "valiant  in  asserting 
the  truth,  bold  in  defending  it,  patient  in  suifer- 
ing  for  it,  immovable  as  a  rock." 

Lit.  —  Fox's  Journal,  London,  1694  ;  Fox's 
Epistles,  Letters,  and  Testimonies,  London,  1698 ; 
Gospel  Truth  Demonstrated  in  a  Collection  of  Doc- 
trinal Boohs  given  forth  hy  George  Fox,  London, 
1706 ;  JosiAH  Marsh  ;  Life  of  Fox,  London, 
1847;  Samuel  M.  Jaxney:  Life  of  Fox,  Phila- 
delphia, 1852 ;  John  Selby  AVatson  :  Life  of 
Fox.  London,  1860  ;  JIaria  Webb  :  The  Fells  of 
Swarthmoor  Hall  and  their  Friends,  London,  1865; 
KuTH  S.  Murray  :  Valiant  for  the  Truth,  Cam- 
bridge (U.S.,)  1880;  [BiCKLEY  :  Fox  and  the  Earl;/ 
QuaL-ers,  London,  1884].  THOMAS  CHASE.  " 

(President  of  Haverford  College). 

FOX  (or  FOXE),  John,  author  of  the  Book  of 
Martyrs:  was  b.  in  Boston,  Lincolnshire,  1517; 
d.  April  1.5,  1587.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
and  became  fellow  of  Magdalen  College,  where 
he  applied  himself  to  the  diligent  study  of  church 
history.  He  espoused  Protestant  sentiments, 
and  for  this  was  expelled  from  his  college.  He 
became  tutor  in  Sir  Thomas  Lucy's  family,  and 
then  to  the  children  of  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  but 
was  oliliged  to  seek  refuge  from  persecution  on 
the  Continent.  He  went  to  Basel,  where  he  laid 
the  plan  of  the  work  which  has  given  him  fame. 
At  the  elevation  of  Elizabeth  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land, but  never  received  higher  position  than  that 
of  prebend  of  Salisbury  Catliedral.  Called  by 
Archbishop  Parker  to  subscribe  to  tlie  canons,  he 
refused,  and,  holding  up  a  (!reek  Testament,  said, 
"To  tliis  will  I  subscribe."  He  was  fearle.ss 
in  the  avowal  of  liis  convictions,  and  petitioned 
the  queen  earnestly  but  unsuccessfully  to  spare 
the  lives  of  two  IJutoh  Anabaptists.  Fox's  title 
to  fame  rests  upon  the  Jlmth  if  Martyrs,  in  the 
compilation  of  which  he  had  the  assistance  of 
Cranmer  and  others.  It  required  eleven  years 
of  prejjaration,  and  appeared  in  its  first  form  at 
Basel,  15.54  ;  the  first  complete  Eng.  ed.,  in  156:!, 
4th  ed.,  1583,  etc.  The  original  title  was  /Ictes 
and  Monumeutes  of  these  latter  perillous  days  touch- 
ing nxdlcrs  of  the  churches  .  .  .  from  the  year  of 
onre  Lorde  a  Ihousande  to  the  lime  now  present,  etc. 
By  order  of  Elizabeth  this  work  was  ])laced  in 
the  common  halls  of  archbisliops,  bishops,  deans, 
etc.,  and  in  all  the  colleges  and  chapels  through- 
out the  kingdom.  It  exercised  a  great  infinence 
upon  the  masses  of  the  people  long  after  its 
author  was  dead.  The  Roman  Catholics  early 
attacked  it,  and  pointed  out  its  blunders.  Fox 
wrote  other  works;  for  these  see  a  volume  in 
British  Hiformers,  published  at  London.  The 
Book  (f  Martyrs  has  appeared  in  numerous  edi- 
tions, the  best  of  which  are  those  of  Rov.  AL  \l. 
Skymour  (New  York,  1838)  and  of  Rev.  (Jkoroe 


TowNSEND,  M.A.  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
with  a  Life  of  the  Author,  and  Vindication  of 
the  Work,  London,  1843.  D.  s.  schaff. 

FOX,  Richard,  English  prelate  and  statesman; 
b.  at  close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. ;  d.  Sept. 
14,  152S.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He  was 
a  great  favorite  of  Henry  VII.,  and  filled  the 
offices  of  privy  counsellor,  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal,  and  secretary  of  state.  In  turn  he  was  Bish- 
op of  Exeter,  Bath  and  Wells  (1491),  Durham 
(1494),  and  Winchester  (1500),  and  master  of 
Pembroke  College,  Cambridge  (1507-19).  Wol- 
sey  was  his  protege' ;  and  he  was  much  mortified 
at  that  favorite's  insults  and  superior  influence. 
He  fomided  Corpus  Christi,  Oxford  (1516),  and 
the  free  schools  of  Taunton  and  Grentham. 

FRAGMENTS,  Wolfenbuttel.  See  Wolfen- 
bI'ttel  Fkagme.nts. 

FRANCE,  Ecclesiastical  Statistics  of.  France 
comprises  an  area  of  528,577  square  kilometers, 
with  36,905,788  inhabitants  (according  to  the 
census  of  1876),  of  whom  35,387,703  belong  to 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  467,531  to  the  Re- 
formed, 80,117  to  the  Lutheran,  and  33,109  to 
other  Protestant  denominations ;  49,499  are  Jews, 
and  the  rest  belong  to  no  confession.  Thus  the 
overwhelming  majority  of  the  French  people  are 
Roman  Catholic,  and  there  is  no  prospect  of  any 
change  in  the  proportion  at  present ;  but  liberty 
of  conscience,  and  freedom  of  worship,  are  con- 
stitutionally guaranteed  in  the  country,  and  a  re- 
markable religious  movement  (headed  by  McAll) 
has  been  going  on  among  the  laboring  and  lower 
Roman-Catholic  classes  in  Paris  and  other  cities. 

I.  TJie  lioman-Catholic  Church.  —  In  order  to 
give  a  just  representation  of  the  state  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church  in  France  at  this  mo- 
ment, it  is  necessary  to  consider  («)  its  organiza- 
tion and  official  relation  to  the  State  and  the 
I 'ope,  (/y)  the  support  it  receives  from  the  congre- 
gations and  the  religious  associations,  and  (c)  the 
influence  it  exercises  on  the  school,  and  education 
in  general. 

(o)  The  French  Church  consists  of  18  arch- 
bishoprics and  08  bishoprics ;  that  is,  of  86  dio- 
ceses:  but  it  has  no  primate  of  its  own.  The 
primacy  of  .Vcjuitania,  or  even  that  of  the  whole 
(iaul,  is,  like  the  pallium,  which  pertains  to  cer- 
tain sees  (for  instance,  to  that  of  Autun),  a  dis- 
tinction of  rank  only,  not  of  dignity,  still  less  of 
power.  Though  five  of  the  arclibishops  are  car- 
dinals (Bordeaux,  Cambray,  I'aris,  Rennes,  and 
Rouen),  they  have  as  such  no  special  authority 
in  the  coinitry.  E.ach  bishop  is  the  sole  and 
proper  chief  of  his  diocese,  and  maintains  direct 
cominunioation  with  the  State  and  with  the  Pope. 
.Vpostolical  equality  between  tln'  bishops  is  the 
first  maxim  of  the  French  Church.  The  bishop 
governs  his  diocese  independently,  restrained 
only  by  the  genei-al  ecclesiastical  laws  and  the 
will  of  the  Pope.  He  arranges  the  whole  course 
of  theological  education,  lays  out  the  programme 
of  study,  selects  the  handbooks,  chooses  the  pro- 
fessors:  he  ordains,  appoints,  and  discharges  the 
priests,  founds  or  confirms  all  religious  associa- 
tions, calls  or  installs  the  ecclesiastics  who  teach 
in  the  State  schools,  excommunicates  and  rc-ad- 
mils,  etc. 

Ill  the  administration  of  his  diocese  the  bishop 
is  aided  by  vicar-generals,  secretaries,  a  court. 


FRANCE. 


827 


FRANCE. 


and  a  chapter.  The  number  of  vicar-generals 
varies  with  the  size  of  the  diocese.  The  govern- 
ment pays  two,  or  sometimes  three.  Their  title 
is  iHcaires  generaux  titiilalres,  and  their  number 
187.  Others  are  appointed  by  the  bishop  him- 
self, but  only  for  the  internal  affairs  of  the 
church.  Their  title  is  vicaires  generaux  honorairts, 
and  their  number  may  be  larger.  Of  secretaries, 
the  government  pays  13.3.  The  episcopal  court, 
whose  competency,  by  Co(h  Napoleon,  is  confined 
to  matrimonial  affairs  and  church-discipline,  is 
composed  of  an  official,  a  Tice-official,  one  or 
more  assessors,  a  promoteur,  and  a  greffier ;  but 
all  the  members  hold  other  offices  at  the  same 
time.  The  chapter  has  also  lost  its  former  im- 
portance. It  is  divided  into  three  classes,  — 
chanoines  d'honneur,  tilulaires,  and  honoraires ;  but 
only  the  second  class  is  paid  by  the  State,  and 
has  any  practical  signification.  It  takes  care  of 
the  service,  and  numbers  763. 

The  lower  clergy  consists  of  cure's,  rle/mervants, 
and  I'icaires.  The  cure's  are  priests  of  the  cures, 
or  principal  parishes,  and  are  appointed  by  the 
bisliop;  though  their  appointment  must  be  con- 
firmed by  the  government.  In  1876  they  num- 
bered 3,440.  The  elesservanis  are  priests  of  the 
succursedes,  or  subordinate  parishes,  and  are  ap- 
pointed and  dismissed  by  the  bishop  alone  (enl 
nuturii  amooihiles).  Though  they  are  only  a  kind 
of  help  to  the  cures,  the  latter  have  no  authority 
over  them,  only  a  right  of  superintendence  with 
report  to  the  bishop.  The  number  of  ilcsservants 
is  31,191.  The  vicaires,  finally,  who  act  only  as 
assistants  to  the  cure's  and  elesservanis,  number 
11,679.  As  in  the  large  cities  the  service  of  the 
mass  requires  a  greater  number  of  officials,  the 
State  pays  4,423  prelres  liahituels  for  this  purpose. 
Adding  furthermore  the  almoners  of  the  lyceums, 
colleges,  normal  schools,  hospitals,  and  a.sylums 
(who  are  appointed  by  the  respective  adminis- 
trations, but  stand  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishop),  the  clergy  of  the  army,  the  navy,  and 
the  colonies,  the  teachers  and  pupils  in  the  theo- 
logical seminaries,  etc.,  the  total  number  of  the 
clergv  recognized  and  paid  liy  the  State  amounts 
to  6S'750.  The  budget  of  1877  allowed  .51.526,- 
445  francs  for  the  expenses  of  the  Roman-Catho- 
lic Church,  of  which  1,640,(100  francs  were  for 
the  cardinals,  archbishops,  and  bishops. 

(b)  The  religious  associations  consist  of  two 
groups, — the  religious  orders,  properly  speaking, 
whose  members  separate  from  the  world,  and 
bind  themselves  by  a  vow ;  and  the  religious 
societies,  whose  members  remain  in  the  world, 
and  undertake  certain  works  of  charity,  without 
binding  themselves  by  a  vow. 

By  the  laws  of  Feb.  13,  1790,  and  Aug.  18, 
1793,  the  religious  orders  were  abolished  in 
France.  Napoleon,  however,  by  a  decree  of 
Feb.  18,  1809,  allowed  the  re-establishment  of 
communities  of  female  nurses  ;  though  reserving 
to  himself  the  right  of  examining  their  statutes, 
fixing  the  number  of  members,  etc.  He  also  gave 
his  consent  to  the  re-establishment  of  female  com- 
munities with  educational  purposes;  and  from 
that  time  the  religious  orders  gradually  crept 
into  the  country,  half  permitted,  half  tolerated. 
Though  a  decree  of  March  18,  1836,  formally 
declared  that  the  government  would  never  allow 
the   establishment  of   a  community  whose  aim 


was  a  merely  contemplative  life,  the  congrega- 
tions, nevertheless,  contrived  to  set  apart  for  this 
purpose  a  portion  of  their  members.  It  is  very 
difficult,  however,  to  obtain  complete  and  reliable 
statistics  on  this  field.  There  is  a  general  report 
from  1861,  —  Slatistique  ele  Fremcc,  Strassburg, 
1864,  the  result  of  the  general  census  of  1861 ; 
and  there  is  a  more  special  report,  —  Etal  eles 
congregations,  communautes  el  associalions  religieuscs 
aulorise'es  ou  non  aulorise'es,  laid  before  the  legisla- 
tive assembly  in  1878.  Both  are  valuable  docu- 
ments, but  neither  is  complete.  A  comparison 
between  these  two  reports  reveals  the  interesting 
fact,  that  while,  in  1861,  the  number  of  all  the 
members,  male  and  female,  of  the  religious 
orders  in  France  was  only  108,119,  it  had  in  1878 
risen  to  158,040.  This  last  figure,  however,  is 
not  correct  any  longer,  since  the  law  of  1S79  made 
the  confirmation  by  the  State  necessary  to  the 
legal  existence  of  any  association  whatever;  and 
disobedience  to  this  law  caused  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits,  Benedictines,  Dominicans,  etc. 

The  female  associations  which  have  been  con- 
firmed by  the  State  comprise  224  Congre'gations  a 
snperieure  gcnerale  propremeni  diies,  organized  for 
the  whole  country,  namely,  11  for  nursing,  .58 
for  education,  and  155  both  for  nursing  and 
education,  with  2,4.50  houses  and  93,215  sisters; 
35  Congre'galions  diocc'saines  a  superieure  ge'nerale, 
organized  only  for  some  special  diocese,  namely, 
6  for  nursing,  6  for  education,  and  23  both  for 
nursing  and  education,  with  102  houses  and  3,794 
sisters ;  and  644  Communautes  a  supe'rieure  locale 
independeintes,  namely,  312  for  education,  159  for 
nursing,  157  both  for  education  and  nursing,  and 
16  for  a  contemplative  life,  with  16,741  sisters. 
The  total  number  of  members  of  the.se  associa- 
tions is  113,750,  to  which  must  be  added,  accord- 
ing to  the  report  of  1878,  14,003  sisters  belonging 
to  religious  orders  not  recognized  by  the  State. 
The  names  of  the  principal  orders  of  the  first  kind 
are,  Filles  de  la  Chariteele  S.  Vincent  de  Peiul.  num- 
bering 9,130  members,  with  89  stations ;  Petites 
Seeurs  des  Pemvres,  founded  at  St.  Servan,  in 
Bretagne,  in  1840,  by  Abbe  le  Poilleur,  and  num- 
bering 2,685  members,  with  184  stations ;  Filles 
de  Sagesse,  numbering  2,588  members,  with  105 
stations;  Seeurs  de  S.  Joseph,  numbering  2,520 
members,  with  155  stations,  etc.  See  Calmette, 
Treiili'de  I'aelministration  des  associations  religieuses, 
1877. 

Only  32  male  associations  have  obtained  the 
confirmation  of  the  State;  the  reason  being,  that 
according  to  the  law  of  Jan.  2,  1817,  the  chief  of 
the  State  can  confirm  a  female  association  by  a 
simple  decree,  while  a  male  association  must  be 
recognized  by  the  legislative  assembly.  Among 
the  legalized  associations  two  are  devoted  to 
work  in  the  seminaries,  —  Congre'gation  de  S. 
Lazare  (numbering  1,195  members)  and  Compagnie 
des  prelres  de  S.  Sulpice  (numbering  200  mem- 
bers); and  three  are  devoted  to  missionary  work, 
—  Congre'gation.  des  Missiotis  e'trangeres  (with  480 
members),  Congre'gation  de  S.  Esprit  (with  515 
members),  and  Congre'gation  de  S.  Francois  de 
Sales  (with  28  members).  The  total  number  of 
members  belonging  to  these  32  associations  is 
22,843.  In  certain  respects,  however,  the  asso- 
ciations which  never  sought  and  never  obtained 
the  sanction  of   the   civil   government  were   of 


PRANCE. 


FRANCE. 


much  more  importance,  —  the  Jesuits,  Benedic- 
tines, Dominicans,  Carthusians,  Franciscans,  etc. 
The  Jesuits  returned  to  France  with  tlie  Bour- 
bons in  1814,  and  from  tliat  time  their  influence 
has  been  steadily  increasing  up  to  1879,  in  which 
year  they  possessed  58  houses,  with  1,471  inmates. 
The  Benedictines  numbered  239  members,  in  13 
houses;  tlie  Dominicans  303,  in  21  houses;  the 
Trappists  1,158,  in  17  houses,  etc.  But,  as  all 
these  associations  refused  to  seek  the  State's 
legalization  of  their  existence,  the  houses  were 
broken  up  in  1880,  and  the  inmates  expelled. 

Among  the  lay  associations,  especially  two  have 
acquired  great  celebrity;  namely,  Socie'le  de  St. 
Vincent  de  Paul  and  Socie'te'  de  St.  Franfois  Regis. 
The  former  devoted  itself,  besides,  to  other  kinds 
of  charity,  —  to  guarding  the  youth  from  temp- 
tation and  seduction ;  and  in  1852  no  less  than 
131,000  young  persons  stood  under  its  protection. 
The  latter  devoted  itself  to  the  regulation  of 
unhappy  matrimonial  affairs ;  and  from  182G  to 
1865  it  treated  no  less  than  43,236  cases.  In 
1870  these  two  associations  were  united  in  one, 
which  holds  its  annual  convention  in  May  or 
April,  in  Paris.  The  clergy  exercises,  of  course, 
a  great  influence  in  the  working  of  this  great 
society ;  but  the  president's  chair  is  always  occu- 
pied by  a  layman.  Another  lay  association  of 
great  importance  is  Socie'te  de  Foi,  in  Lyons, 
devoted  to  missionary  work.  It  has  about  six 
millions  of  francs  a  year  at  its  disposal,  and 
publishes  Annales  ile  la  propagation  de  la  Foi  and 
Les  Missiotis  catholiipjes,v,hich  appear  at  Lyons, the 
former  in  eight,  the  latter  in  four  languages. 
See  Manuel  ile.i  oewres  el  institutions  religieuses  et 
charitahles,  Paris,  1877. 

(c)  From  of  old  the  Christian  clergy  has  con- 
sidered the  education  of  the  children  of  the 
Christian  congregation  their  duly  and  their  privi- 
lege :  and  the  French  clergy  has,  in  the  face  of 
a  strong  opposition,  steadily  en<leavored  to  bring 
this  whole  field  under  their  authority.  Tliey 
were  already  near  their  goal,  when  the  so-called 
Ferry  Laws  of  187!)  entirely  reversed  the  state 
of  affairs.  The  effect  of  those  laws  cannot  yet 
be  exactly  stated  ;  but  a  fair  estimate  may  be 
formed  by  considering  the  contents  of  the  laws, 
and  the  state  of  affairs  before  their  issue. 

With  respect  to  the  primary  scliools  (in  which 
free  instruction  is  given),  the  latest  statistics  are 
found  in  A.  Lkgoyt,  La  France  et  l' Eiranyer, 
e'liules  de  statiititptc  comparc'e,  Paris,  1870.  Of 
primary  schools  maintained  by  the  State,  35,348 
schools  for  boys,  or  for  boys  and  girls,  with 
1,9.'56,441  pupils,  had  lay  teachers;  while  2,038 
schools  with  412,8.52  pupils  had  teachers  from 
the  congregations.  Connected  with  these  schools 
were  4,848  supplementary  schools  lor  ai)prentices, 
Sunday  classes,  etc.,  of  which  4,471  with  84,427 
pupils  were  under  lay,  and  377  with  36,068  pujiils 
under  clerical  leadership.  Of  14,059  schools  for 
girls,  5,998  with  317,312  p\ipils  had  lay  teachers; 
while  8,061  with  697,195  pupils  had  teachers  from 
the  Congregations.  Of  1,192  boarding-schools  for 
girl.s,  184  with  1,662  inmates  were  under  lay,  ami 
1,008  witli  15,065  inmates  under  clerical  leader- 
ship. Of  primary  schools  maintained  by  i)rivatc 
support,  2,.')72  .schools  for  boys  with  125,779  pujiils 
had  lay,  and  543  with  82,803  ])upil8,  t(;acliers 
from  the  Congregations ,   7,637   schools  for  girls 


with  290,206  pupils  had  lay,  and  5,571  with  417,- 
825  pupils,  teachers  from  the  Congregations.  Of 
3,474  boarding-schools,  2,090  were  under  clerical 
direction. 

In  the  middle  and  higher  schools  the  clergy 
also  had  gained  considerable  ground.  Especially 
in  the  middle  schools  the  Jesuits  exercised  so 
great  an  influence,  that  the  political  leaders  and 
state  authorities  became  alarmed;  and  March 
15,  1879,  the  then  minister  of  public  instruction, 
Jules  Ferry,  laid  before  the  Chambers  a  law 
almost  eliminating  the  influence  of  the  clergy. 
As  the  law  prohibits  any  member  of  a  non-recog- 
nized association  to  be  director  of  or  teach  in  a 
school,  the  27  Jesuit  colleges  which  at  that 
moment  flourished  in  France  were  closed,  and 
848  teachers  put  out  of  activity.  Twenty-six 
other  communities,  having  61  establishments  and 
1,089  teachers,  fared  no  better.  The  teachers 
belonging  to  the  recognized  associations,  and 
numbering  22,769,  were  as  yet  not  interfered 
with ;  but  they  will  in  the  future  be  subjected  to 
the  same  examinations  as  lay  teachers,  instead 
of  simply  obtaining  an  episcopal  certificate. 

II.  Tlie  Protestant  Cliurches.  The  constitutions 
of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches  rest  on 
the  law  of  April  7,  1802,  completed  and  some- 
what modified  by  the  law  of  March  26,  1852. 
Each  congregation  has  its  presbytery,  whose  lay 
members  are  elected  by  universal  suffrage.  Above 
the  presbytery  stands  the  consistory,  one  for  each 
six  thousand  souls,  and  consisting  of  the  minis- 
ters and  representatives  of  the  presbyteries.  The 
consistory  chooses  its  own  president;  but  he  must 
be  a  clergyman,  and  obtain  the  confirnuition  of 
the  government.  Five  consistories  were  destined 
to  form  a  provincial  .synod  in  the  Reformed,  and 
an  inspection  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  The  pro- 
vincial synods,  however,  were  never  formed,  nor 
was  the  Reformed  Church  allowed  to  convene  its 
general  synod  until  1872.  The  Lutheran  Church 
was  in  this  respect  more  fortunate.  It  formed 
its  inspections,  and  obtained  in  its  directory  a 
centre  of  organization,  to  which  the  power  of 
appointing  the  ministers  w.as  confided,  without 
any  restrictions  from  the  side  of  the  consistories 
or  the  congregations.  The  Reformed  Church 
comprises  100  consistories  (one  for  each  4,675 
.souls),  and  the  Lutheran  6  (one  for  each  13,373 
souls).  The  State  pays  616  Reformed  ministers 
(one  for  e.ach  759  souls),  and  64  Lutheran  (one 
for  each  4,675  soul.s).  The  budget  of  1.S77  allowed 
l,430,.50O  francs  for  the  expenses  of  the  Protes- 
tant churches ;  but  this  sum  was  overrun  by 
20.000  francs. 

For  the  historical  development  of  the  French 
churches  see  the  arts.  Fuanks,  Gallicanism, 
Gaui.,  Huguenots,  etc. 

'i'he  above  article  is  a  condensation  of  the  arti- 
cles by  Alb.  Matter  and  C.  Pfender  in  Ilerzog, 
in  soni(!  cases  supiilemented  with  more  recent 
statistics. 

FRANCE,  Protestantism  in,  since  the  Revo- 
lution. At  the  outbrealc  of  tlii'  Revolution  the 
number  of  Proti'staiits  in  France,  including  the 
Lutherans  of  Alsace,  amounted  to  about  eight 
hundred  thousand ;  but  their  religion  was  not 
recognized  by  the  State.  They  were  excluded 
from  all  civil  offices:  as  they  mostly  lived  in 
small  groups,  dispersed  all  over  the  country,  they 


FRANCE. 


829 


FRANCE. 


were  prevented  from  exercising  any  appreciable 
social  influence,  and  had  to  submit  to  numberless 
petty  chicaneries  from  the  surrounding  Roman- 
Catholic    population;  aud,  though  the  churches 
of  the  Desert  were  generally  connived  at,  actual 
persecutions   occurred   now   and   then.     In   this 
state  of  affairs  the  edict  of  toleration  brought  a 
change  in  1787;  and,  as  the  Protestants  could  not 
fail  recognizing  a  movement  towards  liberation 
in  the  dawning  Revolution,  they  joined  it  with 
eagerness :  thei-e  sat  nine  Protestant  pastors  in 
the  Constituent  Assembly.     A  decree  of  Dec.  24, 
1789,  made  the  Protestants  eligible  to  all  civil 
offices,  and  another,  of  Dec.  25,  1790,  restored  the 
property  confiscated  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  to  the  descendants  of  the  exiles,  on 
the  condition  that  they  should  return  home,  and 
become  French  citizens.     The  real  work  of  resto- 
ration, however,  did  not   begin   until   after  the 
conclusion  of  the  concordat  (July  15,  1801),  when 
Napoleon   undertook  to   re-organize   the   church 
affairs  of  France.     The  Protestants  were  placed 
on  equal  terms  with  the  Roman  Catholics ;  their 
churches   were   restored  to   them ;   their  pastors 
were  to  be  paid  by  the  State ;  a  Lutheran  senii- 
r.ary  was  founded  at  Strassburg,  a  Reformed  at 
Montauban,  1808,  etc.     All  these  reforms  were, 
of  course,  received  with  gratitude  by  the  Protes- 
tants, though  it  soon  became  evident  that  the 
new  church  constitution  was  very  inferior  to  the 
old.     In  1637  the  Reformed  Church  in   France 
had  had  eight  hundred  and  six  churches,  served 
by  six  hundred  and   forty-one  pastors :  in   1806 
she  had  only  a  hundred  and  seventy-one  churches, 
and   of  these   fifty  had   no   pastors.      This   loss 
might  be  repaired;  but  how  was  the  religious  life 
of  those  times,  the  active  piety,  the  fervent  spirit, 
to  be  revived?    In  its  new  constitution  the  Church 
was  wholly  dependent  on  the  State,  and  curtailed 
both  in  its  freedom  and  in  its  authority.     The 
congregation  exercised  no  influence  on  the  choice 
of  its  pastor,  the  most  essential  element  of  free- 
dom ;  and  Napoleon  refused  to  revive  the  national 
synod,  the  most  essential  element  of  authority. 
Indeed,  the  prospects  were  not  so  very  promising. 
After  Napoleon's  fall,  when  a  violent  current 
of  re-action  set  in,  stimulated  by  the  fiercest  feel- 
ings of  revenge,  the  hatred  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics to  the  Protestants  also  showed  itself.     Riots 
took  place,  especially  in  Southern  France,  and 
grew  into  actual   persecution.     Around  Nismes 
more  than  one  hundred   homesteads  were  dev- 
astated,  the   houses   burnt,   and   the  fields   laid 
waste,  and  more  than  two  hundred  persons  were 
killed.     The  government  seemed  inclined  to  look 
on  with  indifference,  until  it  was  compelled  by 
remonstrances   from  England    to   interfere,  and 
maintain  order.     As  soon,  however,  as  the  Prot- 
estant Church  once  more  felt  herself  protected  in 
her  plain  rights,   she  began  to  develop  a  very 
remarkable   activity  in   the   field   of   education. 
The  consistory  of  Paris  opened  its  first  school 
Dec.   31,   1817,  with  three  pupils.      But  at  the 
same  time  the  first  Sunday  school  in  France  was 
founded  by  a  Protestant  pastor,  and  the  method 
of  mutual  instruction  was  introduced  by  Protes- 
tant teachers.    In  1819  the  first  Bible  Society  was 
founded  in  France,  and  met  with  great  sympathy; 
a  Tract  Society  (1821)  and  a  Society  for  Evangeli- 
cal Mission  (1822)  were  also  successful.     The 


Society  for  the  Development  of  Primary  Instruc- 
tion among  French  Protestants  was  formed  in 
1829,  and  developed  rapidly.  The  first  Protes- 
tant papers.  Archives  du  ChriMianisme  (1817),  and 
Melanges  de  Religion  (1820),  were  established,  and 
proved  successful.  Less  encouraging  was  the 
aspect  which  the  internal  state  of  the  Church 
presented.  The  old  orthodoxy  still  found  its 
firm  defenders ;  but  it  soon  became  apparent, 
even  to  the  stanchest  among  them,  that  it  would 
be  impossible  to  maintain  a  dogmatic  system 
which  was  at  variance  with  all  the  reigning  ideas 
of  the  age,  which,  indeed,  though  none  as  yet 
attacked  it,  most  had  ceased  to  understand. 
Religion  regained  rapidly  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury what  it  had  lost  in  the  eighteenth.  But  a 
crisis  like  the  French  Revolution  cannot  be  gone 
through  without  making  all  the  old  forms  more 
or  less  unfit  for  use.  A  movement  was  neces- 
sary; but  it  was  a  misfortune  that  it  should  come 
from  without,  and  come  at  a  moment  when  the 
Church  was  bereft  of  its  principal  organ  of 
authority,  the  national  synod. 

The  first  who  attempted  the  evangelization  ot 
France  were  disciples  of  Wesley.  In  1790  they 
founded  several  small  missionary  stations  in  Nor- 
mandy and  Bretagne;  but  during  the  reign  of 
Napoleon  their  activity  almost  ceased.  After 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  however,  they  immedi- 
ately resumed  work,  and  a  church  was  built  at 
Cherbourg.  They  labored  with  prudence  and 
moderation ;  but  it  was,  nevertheless,  easy  to  see, 
that,  if  they  succeeded,  the  result  of  their  labor 
would  be  the  establishment  of  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent churches,  and  the  breaking-up  of  the 
Reformed  Church  of  France.  In  1825  Guizot 
characterized  the  situation  as  merely  involving  _a 
difference  between  those  who  looked  at  the  primi- 
tive, and  those  who  looked  at  the  progressive,  in 
the  common  religion.  But  the  characterization 
was  too  mild  :  independent  churches  were  at 
that  moment  formed  or  forming  in  Lyons,  Havre, 
Strassburg,  St.  Etienne,  etc.  In  1834  the  consis- 
tory of  Paris  took  some  steps  in  order  to  organize 
an  authoritative  representation  of  the  Reformed 
Church  of  France,  and  thereby  procure  a  revis- 
ion of  her  organic  law.  In  1839  the  minister  of 
worship  and  public  instruction  made  a  similar 
attempt,  but  both  in  vain;  and  when,  finally,  an 
unofficial  synod  was  assembled  in  1848,  the  actual 
split  took  place.  There  were  at  that  moment 
three  parties  within  the  Church  :  one,  the  Lati- 
tudinarians,  whose  principal  object  was  the  main- 
tenance of  the  national  Church;  another,  the 
Revivalists,  who  considered  a  separation  unavoid- 
able when  the  cause  of  true  religion  should  be 
truly  served;  and  a  third,  which  considered  it 
possible  to  reach  the  object  of  the  Revivalists  by 
the  means  of  the  Latitudinarians.  The  synod 
assembled  Sept.  11,  1848;  but  when  the  assem- 
bly altogether  refused  to  attempt  the  establisli- 
ment  of  a  clear  and  positive  confession  of  faith, 
F.  Monod  and  Count  Gasparin  retired,  and  in- 
vited, a  month  later,  the  Protestant  Church  to 
meet  at  a  new  synod  the  following  year.  At 
this  synod,  which  assembled  Aug.  20,  1849,  thir- 
teen churches  perfectly  constituted,  and  eighteen 
churches  in  process  of  formation,  wei-e  represent- 
ed ;  an  explicit  confession  of  faith  was  adopted, 
and  the  Union  des  Eglises  t'vange  liques  de  France 


FRANCIS. 


830 


FRANCIS. 


was  constituted.  The  imperial  decree  of  March 
26,  1852,  made  considerable  changes  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Reformed  Church  in  France 
(thus  it  gave  back  to  the  parishioners  the  right 
to  elect  their  pastor)  :  but  on  the  development  of 
the  internal  life  of  the  Church  it  had  no  influ- 
ence. The  la«t  hope  of  healing  the  split  was  the 
convocation  of  a  national  synod  such  as  had  not 
met  since  the  synod  of  Loudun,  1659. 

June  6,  1872,  the  thirtieth  national  synod  met 
in  Paris,  but  not  under  the  most  favorable  au- 
spices. All  relations  had  ceased  for  several 
years  between  the  orthodox  and  the  liberal;  and 
the  incessant  polemics  had  caused  many  to  en- 
tirely forget  that  they  were  members  of  the 
same  church.  A  vehement  debate  arose  on  the 
question  of  the  confession  of  faith.  By  a  vote  of 
sixty-one  against  forty-five,  a  short  confession 
was  adopted,  and  its  subscription  made  obligatory 
ou  all  young  pastors.  But  the  result  of  this  vote 
was,  that,  when  the  synod  assembled  in  a  second 
session  (Nov.  20,  1873),  the  seats  of  the  left 
stood  empty,  and  the  liberal  party  was  repre- 
sented only  by  a  protest  laid  on  the  table.  There 
was,  however,  on  both  sides,  among  the  orthodox 
as  well  as  among  the  liberals,  a  strong  feeling 
against  a  schism,  even  though  it  might  be 
effected  witliout  the  separating  party  losing  any 
of  the  advantages  which  accrue  to  the  Church 
from  its  connection  with  the  State.  In  a  circular 
of  Nov.  12,  187-1,  the  liberals  declared  that  the 
difference  between  the  orthodox  and  themselves 
was  not  a  question  of  faith,  but  simply  a  question 
of  autliority  in  matters  of  faitli ;  that  though,  on 
account  of  this  difference,  there  had  arisen  fac- 
tions within  the  Reformed  Church,  these  factions 
were  not  sects,  etc.  Equally  conciliatory  are  the 
orthodox  in  tlieir  expressions ;  but  there  is  never- 
theless very  little  hope  at  present  that  a  new 
national  synod  will  be  able  to  bring  about  a  full 
and  thorough  agreement. 

Lit.  —  Felice:  llixl.  dcs  proteslanls  en  France, 
continued  by  F.  Bonifas,  Toulouse,  1874;  Beu- 

SIK.I!  :    ffl.s!.   (In  ^)/!ln,l,'  (If  lS7ii. 

FRANCIS  OF  ASSISI,  St.,  was  b.  at  Assisi, 
llb2;  d.  there  Oct.  1,  1226.  His  true  name  was 
Giovanni  Francesco  Bernanlone.  Ilis  father 
was  a  rich  merchant.  Handsome,  bright,  and 
adventurous,  with  a  keen  relish  of  beauty  in  all 
its  manifestations,  but  disinclined  to  serious 
work  of  any  description,  he  grew  uj5  without 
learning  any  thing,  became  the  le.ader  of  a  club 
(curii)  of  tlie  gay  youths  of  Assisi,  served  in  a 
campaign  against  I'erugia,  and  was  taken  pris- 
oner, etc.  But  a  heavy  sickness  which  befell 
him  brouglit  a  change  into  his  life.  He  retired 
into  solitude;  and  when  again  he  appeared  in 
the  world  it  was  as  a  nurse  to  the  sick,  selecting 
such  as  suffered  from  contagious  or  disgusting 
<li.si'ases.  He  made  a  ]iilgriniage  to  Home;  and, 
whili'  there,  a  voice  from  above  seemed  to  say  t" 
him  that  he  should  go  and  restore  the  ruineil 
liouse  of  (jod.  He  t<jok  the  words  in  their  literal 
meaning;  and,  with  the  money  which  he  begged 
together,  he  rebuilt  a  small  decayed  churcli  in 
his  native  city  (the  Portiuncula),  which  ever 
after  remained  his  favorite  residence.  A  sermon 
he  lieard  on  Matt.  x.  0,  10,  opened  up  a  new 
channel  to  his  energy.  He  determined  to  become 
a  preacher,  to  restore  the  ruined  house  of  (!od  in 


a  higher  sense  of  the  word;  and  fitted  out  like 
one  of  the  apostles,  without  shoes,  and  with  no 
staff  (for  he  had  already  some  time  ago  disin- 
herited himself),  he  began  to  preach  penitence  in 
the  streets  of  Assisi.  He  made  an  impression. 
Other  young  men  joined  him ;  and  in  1210  he 
lived  with  ten  followers  in  hermitages  near  the 
Portiuncula  Church.  For  these  ten  followers  he 
wrote  a  set  of  rules  containing  the  common 
monastic  vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedi- 
ence, but  emphasizing  the  first  point  with  par- 
ticular stress.  He  then  repaired  to  Rome,  to 
have  his  rules  confirmed,  and  his  society  recog- 
nized, by  the  Pope;  but  he  obtained  only  the 
verbal  assent  of  Innocent  HI.  Shortly  after  his 
return  from  Rome,  however,  he  was  joined  by 
Clara  Sciffi,  the  foundress  of  the  order  of  the 
Clarisses  (which  article  see)  ;  and  this  circum- 
stance threw  great  lustre  both  over  his  person 
and  his  enterprise.  In  1212  he  sent  out  the 
brethren,  two  and  two,  to  reform  the  world  by 
preaching  penitence.  He  went  himself  to  Tus- 
cany. In  Perugia,  Pisa,  and  Florence  he  found 
many  followers ;  in  Cortona  he  was  able  to  found 
the  first  Franciscan  monastery;  from  the  Count 
of  Casentino  he  received  Monte  Alberno  as  a 
present.  But  the  five  brethren  he  had  sent  to 
Morocco  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  Mohamme- 
dans were  martyred ;  and  he  now  determined  to 
go  thither  himself.  In  Spain,  however,  through 
which  he  took  his  way,  he  was  detained  by  sick- 
ness, and  compelled  to  return.  Meanwhile,  the 
order  grew  steadily  and  rapidly  in  Italy.  At  the 
general  assembly  of  the  order,  in  1219,  no  less 
than  five  thousand  membei-s  came  together;  and 
brethren  were  sent  to  Spain,  Egypt,  Africa, 
Greece,  England,  and  Hungary.  Hitherto  every 
attempt  tlie  order  had  made  to  penetrate  into 
Germany  had  failed.  But  in  1221,  Ca'sarius  of 
Spires,  with  twelve  other  brethren  of  German 
descent,  went  to  Germany ;  and  from  that  mo- 
ment the  order  took  root  in  the  counti-y.  In  the 
same  year  Francis  himsi'll'  set  out  for  Egypt,  and 
actually  preached  before  tlie  Sultan,  though  with- 
out any  effect.  The  success  of  the  order  was 
now  fully  .'issured ;  and  the  Pope  was  conse- 
([iiently  willing  to  transform  liis  verbal  assent 
into  official  acknowledgment.  By  a  bull  of  1223 
Honorius  III.  confirmed  the  rules,  .and  sanctioned 
the  order,  and  Fr.ancis  w.as  made  its  first  general. 
In  the  very  next  year,  however,  he  left  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  order  to  Klias  of  Cartona,  and 
retired  to  the  Portiuncula  Church,  where  he  died. 
He  was  canonized  in  1228  by  (Jregory  IX. 

Lit.  —  His  Upnscuki  were  published  by  Wai>- 
DING,  Antwerp,  l(i23,  and  often  afterwards.  His 
life  was  first  written  by  'I'homa.s  or  Cklano, 
only  three  years  after  his  death  :  this,  together 
with  that  by  Bonaventura,  is  found  in  Acta  Sanc- 
lorum,  Oct.,  II.  Modern  lives  are  by  F.  Mokin 
(Paris,  1853),  Hask  (Leip.,  1856),  F.  E.  Chavin 
DK  Mai.an  (Paris,  1861),  [Mrs.  Oi-umiant  (Lon- 
don, 1870),  and  L.  Ciikkanck  (Paris,  187U).  See 
also  Bkunakdin,  L'esprit  dc  saint  Fnnnvis  d'As- 
sisli:  P.aris,  1880,  2  vols.]  KNGKLIIARDT. 

FRANCIS  OF  PAULA,  St.,  b.  at  Paula,  Naples, 
1116;  d.  at  I'lessis-lea-Tours,  France,  April  2, 
l.')(l7  ;  entered,  when  he  was  twelve  years  old,  the 
Franciscan  monasti'ry  of  San  Marco,  in  Calabria, 
and  l)ecame  in  a  short  limo  a  grtuL  virtuoso  in 


FRANCIS. 


831 


FRANCISCANS. 


fasting  and  other  ascetic  practices.  When  he 
was  fourteen  years  old,  he  retired  to  a  cave  on 
the  seashore,  where  he  lived  as  a  hermit;  and 
when  he  was  twenty,  so  great  a  number  of  her- 
mits had  gathered  around  him,  that  he  could 
constitute  tliera  an  order,  and  give  them  a  rule. 
They  were  to  outshine  the  Franciscans  in  austeri- 
ty ;  and  to  the  three  vows  of  poverty,  cha.stity, 
and  obedience  was  added  a  fourth  one,  of  per- 
petual fasting;  that  is,  of  refraining  not  only 
from  all  kinds  of  flesh,  but  also  from  milk,  butter, 
cheese,  eggs,  etc.  The  order  was  confirmed  in 
1474  by  Sixtus  IV.,  under  the  name  of  the  "  Her- 
mits of  St.  Francis,"  which  by  Alexander  VI. 
was  changed  to  that  of  the  "Minims,"  and  Francis 
was  made  its  superior.  His  fame  as  a  miracle- 
worker  v^-as  so  great,  that  Louis  XL,  on  his  death- 
bed, had  him  brought  to  France,  and  implored 
him  to  prolong  his  life;  which,  however,  he  re- 
fused to  try.  Charles  VIII.  also  held  him  in 
great  favor;  and  he  remained  in  France,  where 
he  founded  several  monasteries.  He  was  canon- 
ized by  Leo  X.  in  1519.  See  IIilarion  de 
CosTE :  Le  portrait  de  S.  Francois  de  Paul,  Paris, 
1655;  Fr.  Giry:  Vie  de  S.  Franfois  de  Paul, 
Paris,  1680;  Act.  Satwt.,  A\n-i] ;  [Roi.land:  His- 
toire  de  Saint  Franfois  de  Paule,  2d  ed.,  Paris, 
1870].     See  IMinims.  zockler. 

FRANCIS  OF  SALES,  St.,  b.  at  Sales,  Savoy, 
1567;  d.  at  Lyons,  Dec.  28,  1622;  studied  law 
and  theology  in  Paris  and  Padua;  entered  the 
church  against  the  will  of  his  parents;  was 
ordained  a  priest  in  1591,  and  appointed  a  mem- 
ber of  the  chapter  of  the  Bishop  of  Geneva,  who, 
since  the  victory  of  the  Reformation  in  that  city, 
resided  at  the  neighboring  Annecy.  Very  suc- 
cessful in  re-establishing  the  Roman  Church  in 
the  Chablais  and  the  Pays  de  Gex,  he  acquired 
a  great  fame  as  a  missionary  among  the  Protes- 
tants. He  even  tried  to  convert  Beza;  and  his 
Roman  biographers  assert  tliat  the  number  of 
his  Protestant  converts  amounted  to  seventy-two 
thousand.  He  was,  at  all  events,  one  of  the  most 
energetic  and  influential  representatives  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  re-action  which  set  in  immedi- 
ately after  the  Reformation.  In  1.599  he  was 
made  co-ad jutor  to  the  Bishop  of  Geneva,  and  iu 
1602  he  became  Bishop  of  Geneva  himself.  In 
1004  he  founded,  together  with  Madame  de 
Chantal,  the  order  of  the  Visitants.  With  Sister 
Angelica  of  Port  Royal,  he  also  maintained  very 
intimate  relations.  As  a  writer  he  is  a  precur- 
sor of  Molinos  and  Fenelon,  the  first  representa- 
tives of  the  so-called  Quietism.  His  collected 
works  have  often  been  published;  e.g.,  in  Paris, 
1836  (4  vols.),  again  in  1874  sq.  He  was  canon- 
ized in  1665,  and  made  a  doctor  of  the  church 
in  1877  by  Pius  IX.  His  life  was  written  by 
Marsollier,  [Hamon  (Paris,  1854),  and  Perennes 
(Paris,  1864).  A  selection,  in  English,  of  his 
Spiritual  Letters  appeared,  London,  1871,  and  a 
biography,  London,  1877.]  HERZOG. 

F'RANCIS  XAVIER,  b.  at  Xavier,  in  Navarre, 
April  7,  1506;  d.  in  Canton,  China,  Dec.  2,  1552; 
was  a  teacher  of  Aristotelian  philosophy  in  Paris 
when  he  became  acquainted  with  Loyola;  and 
was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the  Com- 
pagnia  Jesu.  Until  the  order  was  confirmed  by 
the  Pope,  he  labored  in  the  hospitals  of  Northsj-n 
Italy.     He  then  went  as  a  missionary  to  the  East 


Indies.  April  7,  1541,  he  left  Portugal,  and  May 
0,  1542,  he  landed  at  Goa.  Seven  years  he  spent 
in  the  Indies  and  the  Malayan  Archipelago.  In 
1549  he  went  to  Japan,  where  he  spent  two  years; 
and  in  1552  he  went  to  China,  where  he  died. 
The  immediate  result  of  his  missionary  labor 
was,  perliaps,  not  so  very  great,  as  lie  did  not 
understand  the  languages,  but  was  compelled  to 
use  an  interpreter :  at  all  events,  it  seems  a  great 
exaggeration  to  call  him  the  apostle  of  the  Indies, 
and  to  compare  him  with  Paul.  But  indirectly 
he  exercised  a  great  influence  by  organizing  and 
consolidating  the  Portuguese  mission  in  the 
Indies,  and  by  opening  up  .Japan  and  China  to 
the  Christian  missionaries.  The  principal  source 
of  his  life  is  his  Letters,  the  best  edition  of 
which  is  that  of  Bologna  (1795).  His  life  was 
written  by  Tursellini,  1596 ;  Joar  de  Lucena, 
1600;  Bontours,  1682;  Reithmeier,  1840  (Roman- 
Catholic)  ;  and  by  Venn,  1862,  and  W.  Hoff- 
mann, 1869  (Protestant).  G.  PLITT. 

FRANCIS,  Convers,  D.D.,  a  Unitarian  clergy- 
man ;  b.  at  West  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Nov.  9, 
1795 ;  d.  at  Cambridge,  Aprils,  1863.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  in  1815;  was  pastor  of  the  Unita- 
rian Church  in  Watertown  from  1819  to  1842, 
and  professor  of  "  pulpit  eloquence  and  pastoral 
care  "  at  Harvard  from  1842  until  his  death.  He 
published  some  lectures,  and  wrote  the  biogra- 
phies of  Rev.  John  Eliot  and  Sebastian  Rale  for 
SpARKs's  Am.  Biogr. 

FRANCISCANS  (Minorites,  Gray  Friars,  in  Eng- 
land and  Ireland,  sometimes  also  the  Seraphic 
Brethren),  The  Order  of  the,  was  founded  by 
St.  Francis  of  Assisi  in  1210,  and  confirmed  by 
Honorius  III.  in  1223.  In  the  middle  of  the 
thirteenth  century  it  had  eight  thousand  monas- 
teries, with  two  hundred  thousand  monks. 

This  extraordinary  success  was  due  to  various 
causes.  Immediately  after  his  death,  the  founder 
of  the  order  was  transformed  into  a  kind  of 
divinity  in  the  eyes  of  the  time.  The  story  that 
Christ  had  appeared  to  him  on  Monte  Alberno, 
and  imprinted  on  his  hands  and  feet  the  stig- 
mata of  the  crucifixion,  was  universally  be- 
lieved. Pope  Alexander  IV.  and  St.  Clara  had 
seen  the  marks;  Gregory  IX.,  Nicholas  IH., 
Benedict  XII.,  Paul  V.,  vouched  for  the  truth. 
Wiren  Bonaventura  wrote  his  life  of  St.  Francis, 
the  most  incredible  fictions  would  be  easily  be- 
lieved when  told  of  the  "seraphic"  saints;  and 
in  1399  Bartholomew  Albizzi  actually  instituted 
a  comparison  between  Christ  and  St.  Francis,  in 
his  Liber  Conformitatum.  Of  still  greater  effect 
were  the  enormous  privileges  which  the  popes 
granted  to  the  order.  Already  in  1222  Honorius 
IH.  allowed  the  Franciscans  to  celebrate  service, 
though  with  closed  doors,  iu  places  which  were 
under  the  ban.  Soon  after,  they  obtained  the 
right  to  preach  wherever  they  liked  without  first 
procuring  the  consent  of  the  bishop  or  the  parish 
priest.  They  were  permitted  to  hear  confession, 
and  give  absolution ;  and,  in  the  same  year  they 
were  constituted  as  an  order,  they  received  the 
Portiuncula  indulgence ;  that  is,  every  one  who 
visited  the  Portiuncula  Church  on  the  anniversary 
of  its  consecration  (Aug.  2)  received  absolution. 
But,  beyond  these  and  other  favorable  circum- 
stances, the  very  idea  on  which  the  order  was 
based,  the  very  principle  on  which  it  worked. 


FRANCISCANS. 


832 


PRANCKE. 


corresponded  to  the  deepest  wants  of  the  time. 
Everybody  felt  that  reform  was  necessary;  and 
the  humble,  miserable  Franciscan,  clad  in  rags, 
but  filled  with  holy  enthusiasm,  struck  everybody 
as  the  reformer. 

But  success  always  engenders  jealousy;  and 
the  Dominicans  were  the  born  rivals  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans. The  two  orders  fought  for  a  time  cor- 
dially together,  side  by  side,  as  long  as  they  had 
a  common  object;  namely,  to  get  access  to  the 
universities.  But  hardly  were  Bonaventura  the 
Franciscan,  and  Thomas  Aquinas  the  Dominican, 
installed  as  doctores  theologiw  at  the  university  of 
Paris,  before  a  strongly  marked  scientific  differ- 
ence between  the  two  orders  became  apparent, 
and  it  continued  to  separate  them  during  the 
whole  period  of  the  middle  ages.  The  Francis- 
cans were  realists ;  the  Dominicans,  nominalists : 
the  Franciscans  leaned  towards  Semi-Pelagian- 
ism ;  the  Dominicans  were  ardent  disciples  of 
Augustine :  the  Franciscans  were  Scotists ;  the 
Dominicans  were  Thomists :  in  the  debate  on  the 
immaculate  conception  of  Mary,  the  Franciscans 
said  Yes,  and  the  Dominicans,  No.  But  the  dif- 
ference was  by  no  means  confined  to  the  sphere 
of  science :  it  came  to  many  vexatious  and  some- 
times ridiculous  outbursts  of  rivalry  between  the 
two  orders  also  in  practical  life. 

Of  much  greater  importance,  however,  was  the 
difference  which  arose  within  the  order  itself 
almost  immediately  after  its  foundation.  The 
absolute  poverty  which  the  founder  had  ordered 
seemed  to  some  to  be  a  mere  impediment  to  the 
success  of  the  order;  while  by  others  it  was  vindi- 
cated as  the  very  character  of  the  order.  There 
thus  arose  two  parties,  —  a  milder,  headed  by  Elias 
of  Cortona ;  and  a  severer,  headed  by  Caesarius 
of  Spires  (see  H.  Ryhk.\,  Elias  con  Corlona,  Leip- 
zig, 1874);  and  the  contest  between  these  two  par- 
ties not  only  threw  the  order  itself  into  confusion, 
but  at  times  also  involved  the  Pope  and  the  kings 
in  serious  difficulties.  Nicholas  III.  attempted 
a  reconciliation  by  the  bull  Exiit,  1279,  in  which 
he  explained,  that  though  the  Franciscans  were 
not  allowed  to  own  things,  they  were,  of  course, 
allowed  to  use  things;  that  the  real  owner  of  all 
tlie  treasures,  grounds,  buildings,  etc.,  which  the 
order  had  amassed,  was  the  Pope ;  and  that  the 
members  of  the  order  only  had  the  use  of  these 
treasures  by  his  permission,  etc.  This  subtle 
distinction  did  not  satisfy  the  severer  party. 
Under  the  leadership  of  John  of  Oliva  they  raised 
a  violent  opposition  to  the  bull  and  to  the  general 
of  the  order,  Matthias  of  .\quas  Si)artas,  wlio 
headed  the  milder  party.  The  latter  was  victori- 
ous, however ;  and  the  Spiritualists,  as  the  severer 
party  was  called,  were  cruelly  persecuted.  In 
Naples  they  wore  expelled ;  and  in  many  places 
they  were  seized  by  the  Inquisition,  tortured,  .and 
burnt.  Nevertheless,  they  continued  their  re- 
sistance, and  under  John  XXII.  the  strife  broke 
out  witli  renewed  vehemence ;  the  general,  Mi- 
chael of  Cesena,  being  this  time  at  the  head  of 
the  Spiritualists  (see  E.  Gudknatz,  Michael  von 
Ce.iemi,  Breslau,  1870).  The  result  was  a  perma- 
nent split  in  the  order.  The  Observants,  tlie 
severer  party,  were  formally  recognized  by  the 
Council  of  Constance  in  its  nineteenth  sitting 
(Sei)t.  -';J,  141.51;  and  Leo  X.,  after  an  inclTectual 
attempt  U>  gather  the  whole  order  under  one  ob- 


servance, constituted  the  milder  party,  the  Con- 
ventuals, an  independent  congregation,  by  a  bull 
of  1517.  Each  division  obtained  its  own  superior; 
though  that  of  the  Obsenants  (the  viinistei-  genera- 
lis)  took  rank  before  that  of  the  Conventuals  (the 
magistcr  generalis). 

In  another  respect  these  internal  differences 
contributed  much  to  keep  the  order  alive;  and 
the  frequent  formation  of  more  or  less  inde- 
pendent congregations  proved  the  presence  of  an 
active  principle  of  development  and  reform.  By 
the  Reformation  the  order  lost  heavily,  and  a 
great  number  of  its  convents  were  broken  up. 
Nevertheless,  at  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth 
century  it  still  numbered  about  a  hundred  and 
fifteen  thousand  monks ;  and  its  monasteries  are 
still  flourishing,  from  the  interior  of  Russia  to 
the  interior  of  America.  It  has  produced  five 
popes  (Nicholas  IV.,  Alexander  V.,  Sixtus  IV., 
Sixtus  v.,  and  Clement  XIV.),  a  considerable 
number  of  theologians  (Bonaventura,  Alexander 
of  Hales,  Ockham,  etc.),  and  of  poets,  Thomas 
de  Celano,  the  author  of  Dies  ira,  Jacopone  da 
Todi,  the  author  of  Slabat  vialer,  etc.  (See  Oz.\- 
N.\M,  Les  poetes  franciscains  en  Ilalie,  Paris,  1852.) 

Lit.  —  The  history  of  the  order  has  been  writ- 
ten by  an  Irish  Franciscan,  Lucas  "Wadding 
(A7i7udes  minonim  s.  Iritim  ordinum  a.  s.  Francisco 
instilulurum),  17  vols.,  Rome,  1731-41,  reaching  to 
1540,  and  continued  to  1553  by  I.  de  Luca.  See 
also  the  works  of  Helyot  (vol.  vii.)  and  Hen- 
rion-Fehr  and  F.  Morin,  .S/.  Francois  et  les 
Franciscains,  Paris,  1853.  [Gaudentius,  Fi-an- 
ciskaner  Orden  im  Kampfe  gegen  den  Prolestan- 
tismus,  1  Bd.,  Botzen,  1880.]  zOckler. 

FRANCK,  Sebastian,  b.  at  Donauwdrth,  1499; 
d.  at  Basel,  1542  ;  was  appointed  evangelical 
preacher  at  Gustenfeld,  near  Nuremberg,  1525, 
but  resigned  this  position  in  1528,  and  followed 
for  some  time  the  Anabaptists.  Dissatisfied  with 
them,  too,  he  separated  from  them,  and  deter- 
mined to  belong  to  no  party-church,  but  to  devote 
his  life  to  a  literary  representation  of  the  ideal, 
the  truly  spiritual  church.  Sustaining  himself 
and  his  family,  first  by  running  a  soap-factory, 
and  afterwards  by  working  a  printing-press,  he 
published  Chronika,  Zeidiuch  und  Gcscliiclilsbihel, 
Strassburg,  1531,  the  first  German  world's-history ; 
Wellbuck,  Cosmographie,  Tiibingen,  1534,  the  first 
German  geography ;  and  a  great  number  of  mys- 
tico-theological  books,  —  I'aradoxa,  Die  giildene 
Arch,  Das  KriegsbUchlein,  etc.  But  as  these  books 
contained  very  sharp  criticisms,  not  only  of  the 
Roman,  but  also  of  the  Reformed,  churches,  the 
author  was  bitterly  persecuted,  and  driven  from 
place  to  place.  Nevertheless,  his  liooks  became 
popular  ill  the  true  sense  of  the  word,  and  many 
of  them  are  still  living  among  the  peo]>le.  See 
C.  A.  HasI'„  Sebuslian  Frauck;  der  Schicarmgexst, 
Leiiizig,  l.S(i9. 

FRANCKE,  August  Hermann,  1>.  at  Liibeck, 
March  2:!,  1W3;  d.  at  Halle,  June  8,  1727;  stud- 
ied theology  at  Erfurt,  Kiel,  and  Leipzig,  where, 
together  witli  I'aul  Anton,  he  founded  the  famous 
Collegium  I'hilobiblirutn.  The  spiritual  direction 
which  he  ever  afterwards  followed  he  received 
from  Spener,  whom  he  met  in  l(i88;  and  the  suc- 
cess lie  achieved,  ami  tlie  enmity  he  aroused,  at 
the  very  beginning  of  his  career,  were  due  to  hi» 
"Pietism."     In   l(i89  he  began  to  lecture  on  the 


PRANK. 


833 


FRANKS. 


Epistles  of  St.  Paul  in  the  university  of  Leipzig, 
und  his  lectures  attracted  extraordinarily  great 
audiences ;  but  in  1(390  they  were  forbidden  by 
the  faculty.  In  that  year  he  was  called  as  preach- 
er to  Krfurt,  and,  when  he  preached,  the  church 
was  crowded ;  but  he  was  suddenly  ordered  to 
leave  the  city  within  twenty-four  hours.  In  1691, 
however,  he  was  appointed  professor  at  the  newly- 
founded  university  of  Halle,  first  in  Oriental 
languages,  and  afterwards  in  theology;  and  there, 
the  homestead  of  Pietism,  he  was  allowed  to  de- 
velop all  his  energy  undisturbed  and  in  peace. 
[Of  liis  works  several  have  been  translated  into 
English,  such  as  Manuductio  ad  Lecdonem  Scrip- 
lura  ■'>iici(E,  Halle,  1693,  by  Jacques,  London, 
1813;  JVicodeums,  a  Treatise  agaitifl  the  Fear  of 
Man,  London,  1709 ;  and  Footstepa  of  Divine  Provi- 
ilence,  London,  1797.]  But  it  was  less  as  a  writer 
than  as  a  teacher  and  practical  philanthropist 
that  Francke  exercised  his  great  influence.  On 
Nov.  5,  1695,  he  received  an  orphan  into  his 
house ;  but,  before  the  month  ran  out,  he  had 
nine,  and  twelve  before  New  Year.  The  uumber 
steadily  increasing,  a  neighboring  house  was 
bought,  and,  as  this  also  soon  proved  too  small, 
the  foundation  was  laid,  on  July  24,  1698,  of  the 
Orphan  Asylum,  —  the  first  and  one  of  the  great- 
est establishments  of  the  kind.  In  1695  he  also 
opened  a  small  children's  school  in  his  house.  In 
1698  the  school  numbered  five  hundred  pupils, 
eleven  hundred  in  1709,  over  two  thousand  at  the 
death  of  the  master.  In  the  same  manner  de- 
veloped the  printing-press  and  publishing  estab- 
lishment, which  he  connected  with  the  Orphan 
Asylum  :  it  is  now  one  of  the  greatest  publishing 
establishments  of  Germany.  For  the  various 
foundations  of  Francke,  see  Die  Stiflungen  A.  H. 
Franckes,  Halle,  1863.  An  important  source  for 
his  life  and  character  is  Kramer:  Bei/rdge  zur 
Gexchichte  A.  H.  Franckes,  Halle,  1861,  containing 
his  correspondence  with  Spener  ;  Neue  Beitrdye, 
1875  [and  a  Life  of  Francke,  Halle,  1880  sq.]. 
A  good  biography  of  him  is  that  by  Guericke, 
Halle,  1827  [Eng.  trans.,  London,  1837].  There 
are  numerous  minor  sketches.  KBAsrsR. 

FRANK,  Jacob  Joseph,  a  Hebrew  sectary;  b. 
in  Poland,  1712;  d.  in  Offenbach,  Austria,  Dec. 
10,  1791.  He  acquired  fame  as  an  expounder  of 
the  Cabala,  but  accepted  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  and  founded  a  sect  whose  tenets  are  a 
mixture  of  Judaism  and  Christianity.  He  was 
compelled  to  declare  himself  a  Christian,  and 
was  accordingly  baptized  into  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  at  Warsaw,  Dec.  25,  1759.  A  charge  of 
heresy  led  to  his  imprisonment;  and  he  was  not 
released  until  1773,  when  the  Russians  invaded 
Poland.  He  emigrated  to  Austria,  was  wonder- 
fully successful  in  attracting  followers,  and  by 
them  was  enabled  to  live  in  princely  splendor. 
He  pretended  to  be  tlie  Messiah,  and  his  follow- 
ers believed  him  to  be  immortal.  See  Gratz  : 
Frank  und  die  Frankisten,  Breslau,  1868. 

FRANKENBERG,  Johann  Heinrich,  was  b.  at 
Grossglogau,  in  Silesia,  Sept.  18,  1726  ;  d.  at 
Breda,  in  Holland,  June  11,  1804;  studied  the- 
ology in  his  native  city  and  in  Rome,  and  was 
made  co-ad jutor  to  the  archbishop  of  Goertz  1749, 
archbishop  of  IMalines  1759,  and  cardinal  1778. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  decided  opponents  against 
the  church  policy  of  Joseph  11.  The  question 
54  —  1 


was  about  the  abolition  of  the  episcopal  semi. 
naries,  and  the  establishment  of  a  general  semi- 
nary, under  royal  superintendence,  at  Louvain. 
Frankeuberg  protested,  and  continued  to  protest, 
until  the  whole  country  was  brought  almost  into 
open  revolt.  He  also  opposed  the  Revolution, 
and  was  by  the  Convent  sentenced  to  deporta- 
tion, but  escaped  by  flight.  See  Augustin 
Theineb,  Der  Kardinal  Frankenberg,  Freiburg, 
1850.  KLUPFEL. 

FRANKFURT    CONCORDAT.     See   Concor- 

DAT. 

FRANKFURT,  The  Council  of,  was  convened 
by  Charlemagne,  in  794,  at  Frankfurt-on-the- 
Main,  and  was  attended,  according  to  later 
writers,  by  three  hundred  bishops,  from  Ger- 
many, Gaul,  England,  Spain,  and  Italy,  and  two 
delegates  of  the  Pope.  Fifty-six  canons  are 
ascribed  to  it,  the  most  important  of  wbich  are, — 
the  first,  condemning  Felix  and  Elipandus,  the 
leaders  of  the  Adoptionists ;  and  the  second, 
condemning  the  decisions  of  the  second  Council 
of  Nicaea  (787)  concerning  image-worship,  wliich 
had  been  accepted  by  the  Pope.  See  Mansi, 
Concil.,  XIII. 

FRANKINCENSE  (Hebrew,  lehona),  the  odor- 
ous resin  of  trees  of  the  genus  Buswellia,  which 
grew  in  India  and  Arabia  (Isa.  Ix.  6 ;  Jer.  vi. 
20),  and  perhaps  also  in  Palestine  (Song  of  Songs 
iv.  14);  was  not  only  used  as  perfume  (Song  of 
Solomon  iii.  6),  but  also  for  fumigation  in  sacri- 
fices (Lev.  ii.  2,  16,  v.  11;  Isa.  xliii.  23,  Ixvi.  3), 
and  was  one  of  the  ingredients  in  the  perfume 
which  was  to  be  prepared  for  the  sanctuary 
(Exod.  XXX.  34).  It  was  offered  both  morning 
and  evening  (Exod.  xxx.  7  sq.),  and  used  as  an 
accompaniment  of  the  meat  offering  (Lev.  ii.  1, 
16,  vi.  15,  xxiv.  7;  Num.  v.  15).  Being  one  of 
the  daily  necessities,  frankincense  was  often 
given  as  a  freewill  offering  (1  Chron.  ix.  29 ; 
Neh.  xiii.  5,  9 ;  Jer.  xvii.  26,  xli.  5).  From  its 
fragrant  odor  when  burnt,  the  incense  came  to 
be  an  emblem  of  prayer  (Ps.  cxli.  2;  Luke  i.  10; 
Rev.  V.  8,  viii.  3).  From  notices  of  ancient 
writings  we  see  that  frankincense  was  also  used 
in  the  religious  services  of  the  heathen.  On  the 
plant,  comp.  Boidwood,  The  Genus  Boswellia, 
London,  1870.  It  is  called  frank,  because  of  the 
freeness  with  which  it  burns,  and  gives  forth  its 
odors. 

FRANKS,  The,  was  the  name  of  a  wild,  war- 
like, and  cruel,  but  highly  gifted  Germanic  race, 
which,  divided  into  several  branches  (the  Salian 
Franks,  the  Ripuarian  Franks,  etc.),  lived,  during 
the  third  century  after  Christ,  on  the  right  shore 
of  the  Rhine,  along  its  middle  and  lower  course. 
When  Carausius  conquered  Brittany,  and  drew 
the  legions  away  from  Belgium,  the  Salian 
Franks  crossed  the  Rhine ;  and  though  Roman 
historians  tell  us  that  they  were  often  defeated 
by  Constantius,  Constantine,  and  Julian,  they 
were  never  thrown  back  beyond  the  Rhine.  In 
406  they  began  to  advance  towards  the  west  and 
the  south ;  and  in  486,  Chlodvig,  the  son  of 
Childeric,  the  sou  of  Merowig,  who  in  481,  when 
only  fifteen  years  old,  had  succeeded  his  father 
as  chief  of  the  Salian  Franks,  defeated  Syagri- 
us,  the  Roman  governor  of  Gaul,  at  Soissons,  and 
extended  the  Prankish  Empire  to  the  Loire.  In 
Gaul  the  Franks  met  with  a  remarkable  after- 


FRATERNITIES. 


834 


FREDERICK. 


bloom  of  the  classical  civilization  ;  aud  though 
for  centuries  they  remained  i mie  and  coarse  and 
cruel  to  the  very  core  of  their  being-,  yet  so  com- 
pletely did  they  yield  to  the  mental  superiority 
of  the  conquered  race,  that,  even  before  490, 
Latin  had  become  their  official  language,  —  the 
language  in  which  their  famous  law,  Lex  Salica, 
was  written  down.  In  (Jaul  the  Franks  also 
met  with  Christianit\';  and  though  Chlodvig 
allowed  his  men  to  burn  and  plunder  the  Chris- 
tian cliurches,  he  nevertheless  stood  in  great  awe 
of  the  Christian  bishops.  In  493  he  married 
Chlothilde,  a  Burgundian  princess,  and  a  Chris- 
tian. Their  children  were  baptized ;  and  Chlod- 
vig, like  many  of  his  men,  was  hesitating  with 
respect  to  this  new  and  strange  religion,  when  an 
incident  decided  his  course.  He  was  compelled 
in  496  to  give  battle  to  the  Alemaimi ;  and  on 
the  issue  of  this  battle  depended  the  very  exi.st- 
ence  of  the  Prankish  Empire  in  Gaul.  l?ut  the 
Franks  wavered ;  aud  in  this  emergency  Chlod- 
vig made  a  vow  to  the  God  of  the  Gauls,  that,  if 
he  gained  the  victory,  he  would  become  a  Chris- 
tian. The  victory  he  gained,  and  he  and  many 
of  his  men  were  baptized.  But  in  this,  as  in  so 
many  other  cases  of  conversion,  the  way  from 
the  baptism  to  a  thorough  Christianization  was 
very  long,  a  distance  of  several  centuries. 

Lit.— Gregorius  Touronensis:  Hist.  Frnn- 
corum,  I.,  2,  28-31;  Lobell:  Gregor  von  Tours 
unci  seine  Zeit,  Leipzig,  1839 ;  Augustin  Thier- 
ry :  Rccits  des  temps  Meroringiens,  Paris,  1842 ; 
JCN'GHANNS  :  Gescliichte  d.  f.  Kiinige  Child,  und 
ChliiiL.  Gottingon,  ISoT.       .VLBRECHT  vogel. 

FRATERNITIES  (Fraternitas,  Sodalitas)  are 
associations  formed  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
for  special  religiou.s  purposes,  such  as  nursing 
the  sick,  supporting  the  poor,  practising  some 
special  devotion,  etc.,  but  of  a  less  rigorous 
description  than  the  monastic  orders.  They  have 
their  own  statutes,  religious  exercises,  privileges, 
etc.  ;  but  they  stand  under  the  authority  of  the 
bishops,  and  are  only  morally  separated  from 
the  world.  Such  a  fraternity,  dedicated  to  Mary 
the  Virgin,  is  mentioned  by  Odo,  Bishop  of  Paris, 
about  1208;  another,  the  so-called  "  (Jonfalo- 
nieri,"  was  confirmed  by  Clement  V.,  126.5-71. 
Among  the  most  prominent  were  those  of  the 
Scapulary,  the  Ro.sary,  Corpus  Christi,  etc.  One, 
the  Fralres  Pontilices,  was  formed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  procuring  good  bri<lg<'S  .across  tlie  water- 
courses. The  fraternities  may  be  divided  into 
four  cla.sses.  1.  Those  wliich  p.articularly  relate 
to  the  vforship  of  Christ,  such  as  the  fraternities 
of  The  Most  Holy  S.acrament  of  the  ,\ltar,  of 
The  Most  Holy  Heart  of  Jesus,  of  The  Most  Holy 
Name  of  Jesus,  The  Holy  Five  Wounds,  etc. 
2.  Those  which  pay  particular  honor  unto  the 
Virgin  Mary.  They  are  very  numerous.  The 
most  famous  one,  and  one  of  tlie  most  celebrated 
in  modern  times,  i.s  The  Fraternity  of  the  Mo.st 
Holy  and  Immaculate  Heart  of  Mary  for  the  Con- 
version of  .Sinners,  founded  in  Paris,  1837,  by 
Abl)d  Dufriehe  I)esg«'nettes.  3.  Those  formed 
for  the  honor  of  part  icMilar  saints  —  very  numer- 
ous.     4.    Those  that  .ir"  rliaritable. 

FRATRICELLI,  FRATICELLI.  Wishing  to  put 
an  end  to  the  s|>lit  in  tin'  l-'ranciscan  order,  which 
had  prevailed  for  the  larger  jiart  of  tlie  thirteenlii 
century,    Ccelestiiie  V.  authorized   the   brothers 


Petrus  de  Macerata  and  Petrus  de  Faro  Sem- 
pronia,  and  some  other  Italian  Spirituals,  to  form 
an  independent  congregation  under  the  name  of 
Pauperes  Eremitce  Domini  Cculestini.  This  congre- 
gation was  heavily  persecuted  by  the  rest  of  the 
Franciscans,  and  finally  dissolved  by  Boniface 
VIII. ;  but,  excited  by  Peter  Olivi's  apocalyptical 
prophecies  and  vehement  invectives  against  the 
I'ope,  the  hermits,  now  generally  called  "  Frati- 
celli,"  determined  to  resist.  They  declared  that 
there  had  been  no  true  pope  since  Cffilestine. 
They  pushed  the  vow  of  poverty  to  the  extreme, 
whence  they  were  often  called  "  Bizochi,"  from 
the  Italian  hizocho,  French  besace,  a  "  beggar's- 
sack."  They  entered  into  communication  with 
the  Beghards,  and  taught  that  they  were  possessed 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  exempt  from  sin ;  that 
they  needed  neither  penitence  nor  sacraments,  etc. 
An  attempt  of  Clement  V.  to  re-unite  the  Spirit- 
uals with  the  Franciscans  failed  in  1312;  and 
meanwhile  the  Fraticelli  grew  more  and  more 
unmanageable.  In  1314  they  expelled  by  force 
the  Franciscans  from  the  monasteries  of  Beziers 
and  Narbonne.  This  caused  John  XXII.  to  adopt 
severer  measures  against  them.  In  1317  the  In- 
quisition was  ordered  to  step  in.  In  Ital}',  Sicily, 
and  Southern  France,  where  they  had  spread 
widely,  a  number  of  Fraticelli  were  seized  by  th& 
Inquisition  between  1318  and  13.52,  condemned, 
and  burnt,  only  a  few  were  willing  to  recant. 
But  after  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century 
they  gradually  disappeared.  By  later  writers 
they,  like  all  heretical  sects,  have  been  accused 
of  various  abominable  vices;  but  there  are  no 
proofs.  C.  scesuDT. 

FRAYSSINOUS,  Denys,  b.  at  Curieres,  in  Gas- 
cony,  May  9,  1765;  d.  at  St.  Genifes,  also  in 
Gascony,  Dec.  12,  1841 ;  studied  theology,  and 
appeared,  after  the  conclusion  of  the  concordat  of 
1801,  as  one  of  the  most  zealous  and  most  success- 
ful agitators  for  the  Iloman-Catholic  Church,  and 
against  the  reigning  atheism  and  materialism. 
In  1809  he  was  forbidden  to  continue  his  confer- 
ences in  the  Church  of  St.  Sulpice,  in  Paris;  but 
he  resumed  his  work  after  the  Restoration,  and 
was  made  grand-almoner  to  Louis  XVIII.,  Bishop 
of  Ilermopolis!"  parlihus  itijirlelimn.pcer  oi  France, 
and  minister  of  public  instruction  from  1824  to 
1828.  He  went  into  exile  with  Charles  X.,  aud 
after  his  return  to  France  he  lived  in  retirement. 
His  principal  works  are,  Lcs  I'rnis  principes  de 
I'e'glise  gallicnnc.  1818  (in  which  he  proves  himself 
a  stanch  defender  of  the  principles  of  Gallican- 
ism),  and  Dffenae  ilr  C/ir!stiniiisme,  1828,  translated 
into  Knglish,  London,  1^36.  2  vols. 

FREDERICK  III.,  THE  WISE,  Elector  of  Sax- 
ony 14.SI)-1.525;  was  b.  at  Torg.au,  Jan.  17,  1463; 
and  d.  at  Lochau,  May  .5,  152.5.  He  was  a  man 
of  common  sense,  probity,  and  firmness,  and  much 
respected,  both  in  the  realm  and  among  foreign 
princes.  One  of  the  most  conseqn<'ntial  of  his 
acts  as  a  ruler  was  the  foundation,  in  1502.  of  tlie 
university  of  Wittenberg,  and  the  a|ipoiutment 
of  Luther  .and  Melanohtlidu  .as  professors.  It  was 
by  no  means  his  intention,  however,  to  m.ake  his 
new  university  a  .school  of  reform  :  on  the  con- 
trary, he  was  ,as  yet  ii  true  .son  of  Rome.  In 
1493  he  had  m.ade  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerus.alem, 
and  brought  back  five  thousand  pieces  of  relics 
for   the   church    of    Wittenberg.      Nevertheless, 


FREDERICK. 


835  FREE  RELIGIOUS  ASSOCIATION. 


when  Luther,  in  1517,  nailed  his  theses  on  the 
church-door  in  Wittenberg,  the  elector  liept  quiet; 
and  when  the  Roman  curia,  in  1518,  demanded 
that  Luther  should  be  sent  to  Rome  to  be  pun- 
ished for  heresy,  the  elector  refused  :  yea,  when 
Dr.  Eck  returned  from  Rome  in  1519  with  tlie 
bull  of  excommunication  against  Luther,  tlie 
elector  declined  to  lend  his  aid  to  its  enforce- 
ment; and,  when  Luther  publicly  and  solemnly 
burnt  this  same  bull,  the  elector  saw  no  reason 
why  he  should  interfere.  The  greatest  service, 
however,  which  Frederick  the  Wise  did  to  the 
cause  of  the  Reformation  was  the  removal  of 
Luther  to  the  Wartburg  after  the  Diet  of  Worms, 
probably  the  only  means  of  protecting  him  against 
the  Pope  and  the  emperor.  There  was  in  this 
policy,  —  so  firm,  so  consistent,  and  yet  so  cautious, 
—  no  doubt,  a  high  political  wisdom;  but  there 
was  also  something  else.  A  spark  of  Luther's 
conviction  had  fallen  into  Frederick's  soul ;  and 
shortly  before  he  died  he  took  the  Lord's  Supper 
under  both  forms.  See  Tutzschmann  :  Friedrich 
der  WeUe,  Grimma,  1848 ;  G.  Spalatin  :  Fried. 
d.  W.,  ed.  by  Neudecker  and  Preller,  Jena,  1851 ; 
[Carl  Beckeu  :  Das  edle  sdchsische  Fiir.sten-Klee- 
6to(,  Berlin,  1861 ;  K.Schmidt;  Witlenbertj  unter 
Kurfiirst  Fried,  dem  Weisen,  Brian.,  1877 ;  Theo- 
DOR  KoLDE :  Fried,  der  Weise  u.  d.  Anfurit/e  d. 
Reformation,  Brian.,  1881].  KLiJPFEL. 

FREDERICK  111.,  THE  PIOUS,  Elector  of  the 
Palatinate,  1559-76 ;  was  educated  by  Bishop 
Eberhard  of  Liege,  and  at  the  court  of  Charles 
v.,  but  was,  nevertheless,  early  impressed  by  the 
ideas  of  the  Reformation.  In  15.37  he  married 
the  Lutheran  Princess  Maria  of  Brandenburg- 
Bayreuth,  and  in  1549  he  openly  embraced 
Lutheranism.  On  his  accession  he  found  the 
Lutheran  Church  almost  fully  established  in  the 
Palatinate ;  but,  shortly  after,  a  violent  contro- 
versy broke  out  between  the  Lutheran  and  the 
Reformed  theologians,  concerning  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Frederick  asked  Melanchthon  to  inter- 
fere ;  but  the  memoir  which  Melanchthon  wrote 
approached  the  ideas  of  Zwingli  or  Calvin  so 
closely,  that  Frederick  himself  became  wavering. 
The  religious  disputation  at  Heidelberg  (156(1) 
completed  his  conversion ;  and,  as  his  people 
also  seemed  inclined  to  Calvinism,  the  festivals 
of  Mary  and  the  saints  were  abolished ;  the 
altars,  organs,  baptismal  fonts,  images,  etc.,  dis- 
appeared from  the  churches ;  Calvinists  were 
appointed  as  teachers  and  preachers ;  the  govern- 
ment of  the  church  was  confided  to  a  council- 
board,  consisting  of  three  ecclesiastical  and  three 
lay  members,  etc.  In  1562  appeared  the  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  written  by  Ursinus  and  Olevia- 
nus,  but  under  the  eyes  of  the  elector  himself; 
and  it  found  so  much  favor,  that  it  immediately 
was  translated  into  French,  English,  Dutch,  and 
Latin,  and  adopted  almost  by  the  wliole  body  of 
the  Reformed  Church.  An  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Lutheran  princes  of  the  empire  to  prevent 
the  establishment  of  Calvinism  in  the  Palatinate ; 
and  they  even  went  so  far  as  to  threaten  the 
elector  with  war  and  deposition.  But  at  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  (1566)  he  met  them  with  such 
courage  and  straightforwardness,  that  the  case 
was  dropped.  To  the  end  of  his  life  he  was  a 
great  support  to  the  Reformed  Church,  both  in 
France  and  in  the  Netherlands.     See  his  life,  by 


Kluckhdii.v  (Nordlingen,  1877-79),  who  has 
also  edited  his  letters  (2  vols.,  Brunswick,  1868- 
72).  KLUI'FEL. 

FREE  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  See  Scot- 
land, Free  Church  of. 

FREE  CONGREGATIONS  (Friends  of  Light, 
Protestant  Friends)  were  formed  in  Prussia  dur- 
ing the  fifth  decade  of  the  present  century,  as 
the  result  of  a  rationalistic  re-action  against  the 
revival  of  positive  Christianity.  Under  the  presi- 
dency of  Uhlich,  pastor  of  Pcimmelte,  near  Mag- 
deburg, a  number  of  pastois  belonging  to  the  old 
rationalistic  school  assembled  in  1841,  first  at 
Gnadau,  and  then  at  Halle ;  agreed  upon  a  plat- 
form of  nine  strongly  pronounced  rationalistic 
propositions;  adopted  the  name  of  Friends  of 
Light,  afterwards  Protestant  Friends ;  and  de- 
cided upon  the  publication  of  a  periodical,  — 
Blatter  fiir  christliche  Erbauung.  At  their  seventh 
meeting  at  Coethen  (1844),  a  hundred  and  thirty 
theologians  and  about  five  hundred  laymen  were 
present.  Uhlich  delivered  a  lecture,  in  which  he 
openly  rejected  the  doctrines  of  hereditary  sin, 
atonement,  the  trinity,  the  divinity  of  Christ, 
and  the  Church.  He  was  followed  by  Wislice- 
nus,  pastor  at  Halle,  and  a  rationalist  of  a 
younger  stamp,  but  of  a  still  deeper  dye.  The 
stand-point  of  Wislicenus  was  a  popularized  form 
of  the  pantheism  of  the  young  Hegelian  school ; 
and  in  his  lecture.  Oh  Schrifl?  Ob  Geist?  he 
broke  with  the  church  of  which  he  was  a  servant, 
and  which  establishes  Scrijiture  as  the  rule  of 
faith.  The  authorities  then  interfered;  and  in 
1845  Wislicenus  separated  from  the  Established 
Church  of  Prussia,  and  formed  a  free  congrega- 
tion at  Halle.  Other  free  congregations  were 
formed  by  Uhlich  at  Magdeburg,  by  Rupp  at 
Kbnigsberg,  and  at  other  places,  often  accompa- 
nied with  rather  tumultuous  expressions  of  en- 
thusiasm. A  combination  was,  however,  brought 
about  with  the  German  Catholics  in  1847  ;  and 
in  1848  the  leaders  of  the  movement  found  them- 
selves in  the  Parliament,  and  generally  in  the 
political  arena  as  the  leaders  of  the  nation.  But 
when  the  revolution  was  over,  and  the  re-action 
set  in,  a  great  change  took  place.  While  L'hlich, 
Wislicenus,  Rupp,  and,  indeed,  most  of  the 
leaders,  gradually  moved  onward  from  one  nega- 
tion to  another,  until  at  last  they  ended  in  com- 
plete nihilism,  without  any  positive  basis  at  all, 
teaching  a  religion  without  any  God,  and  form- 
ing congregations  without  any  faith,  the  govern- 
ment began  to  suspect  the  congregations  as 
political  instruments.  In  Saxony  and  Bavaria 
they  were  completely  suppressed ;  and  in  Prussia 
they  lived  on,  only  under  great  difiiculties,  and 
affiliating  themselves  with  atheists  and  material- 
ists. In  1868,  however,  there  were  a  hundred 
and  twenty-one  free  congregations  in  Germany, 
with  about  twenty-five  thousand  members.  In 
the  LTnited  States  of  America  there  are  also  found 
some  free  German  congregations,  —  in  Philadel- 
phia, St.  Louis,  Hoboken,  —  which  mostly  act  in 
unison,  more  or  less  cordial,  with  the  various  free- 
thinker associations.  KAllJris. 

FREE  RELIGIOUS  ASSOCIATION,  established 
in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  30,  1867,  aims  at  the 
emancipation  of  religion  from  all  sectarian  lim- 
its, the  reconciliation  of  faiths,  and  the  applica- 
tion of  the   scientific   method   to   the   study   of 


FREE  SPIRIT. 


836 


FRELINGHUYSEN. 


theology.  Mr.  O.  B.  Frothingham  was  the  first 
president.  Each  member  holds  and  defends  in 
their  meetings  those  views  upon  the  various  sub- 
jects which  come  before  the  association  which  he 
deems  truest.  The  utmost  liberty  of  opinion  is 
given.  The  elastic  nature  of  the  organization, 
for  "any  person  desiring  to  co-operate  "  is  "con- 
sidered a  member,"  renders  exact  statistics  im- 
possible. Up  to  this  time  (1882)  the  associa- 
tion has  not  attempted  to  organize  local  societies, 
but  contented  itself  with  holding  conventions, 
and  distributing  publications.  From  1867  to 
1880  the  Annual  Report  was  issued  in  pamphlet 
form:  since  then  it  has  been  published  in  the 
Index  of  Boston,  Mass. 

FREE  SPIRIT,  Brethren  of.  See  Brethren 
OF  THE  Free  Spirit. 

FREETHINKERS,  a  general  designation  de- 
noting a  class  of  writers  and  thinkers  who  deny 
the  truth  of  revealed  religion.  The  term  was 
applied  primarily  to  the  deists  of  England.  A 
letter  to  Locke,  in  1697,  refers  to  Toland  as  "  a 
candid  freethinker."  In  1713  Antony  Collins 
published  his  work,  entitled  A  Discourse  of  Free- 
thinking,  occasioned  by  tlie  Rise  and  Groivth  of  a  Sect 
called  Freethinkers.  The  term  "  free  thought "  is 
often  used  in  a  broad  sense  for  all  rationalism 
and  infidelity.  See  A.  S.  Farr.\r,  Hist,  of  Free 
Thought  (Bampton  Lectures),  Loud.,  1863.  See 
Deism. 

FREEWILL  BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of 
American  Christians  who  baptize  by  immersion, 
and  are  .\rminian  in  doctrine. 

History. — The  first  Freewill-Baptist  Church 
was  organized  at  New  Durham,  X.H.,  in  1780,  by 
Benjaniiii  Randall  (1749-1808).  Converted  under 
the  preaching  of  Whitefield,  Randall  joined  the 
Baptist  Church.  In  1779  he  was  called  to  account 
for  holding  to  an  unlimited  atonement  and  the 
freedom  of  the  will,  and  was  disfellowshipped. 
He  was  ordained  in  1781),  and  at  once  began  to 
pi'opagate  his  views.  A  sect  with  similar  tenets 
had  been  organized  in  1751,  in  North  Carolina, 
under  the  preaching  of  Shubael  Stearns,  and 
were  called  "The  Separate  Baptists."  Ran- 
dall's followers  continued  to  claim  to  be  Bap- 
tists; but  the  claim  was  repudiated  by  the 
original  Baptists,  who  called  them  "Freewill- 
ors,"  —  a  designation  which  they  themselves  sub- 
sequently adopted.  In  1827  the  first  General 
Conference  was  held :  and  the  body  has  ex- 
tended to  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  and  Nova 
Scotia. 

Doctrine  and  Polity.  —  The  Freewill  Baptists 
agree  in  all  the  fundamental  Christian  doctrines 
with  other  evangelical  denominations.  With  the 
regular  Baptists  they  practise  baptism  by  im- 
mersion. They  differ  from  the  Baptists  on  the 
fjuestions  of  ])redestination,  the  extent  of  the 
atonement,  and  the  aljility  of  the  sinner  to  repent. 
On  these  points  their  Book  of  Faith  thus  exjiross- 
es  the  views  of  the  denomination:  "Cod  has 
ordained  man  with  power  of  free  choice,  and  gov- 
erns him  by  moral  laws  and  motives;  and  this 
power  of  free  choice  is  the  exact  measure  of  his 
responsibility.  All  ev('nts  are  present  witli  (iod 
from  everla.sting  to  everlasting;  but  his  knowl- 
edge of  them  does  not  i'l  any  sense  cause  Ukmh, 
nor  does  he  decree  all  events  which  he  knows  will 
occur"  (chap.  iii.  2,  3).    "  The  call  of  the  Gaspel 


is  co-extensive  with  the  atonement  to  all  men, 
both  by  word  and  the  strivings  of  the  Spirit :  so 
that  salvation  is  rendered  equally  possible  to  all ; 
and,  if  any  fail  of  eternal  life,  the  fault  is  wholly 
their  own"  (chap.  viii.).  While  they  hold  to 
regeneration,  they  deny  the  doctrine  of  the  perse- 
verance of  saints.  The  Freewill  Baptists  differ 
also  from  the  Baptists  in  practising  open  com- 
munion. 

The  church  has  an  ordained  ministry,  and  here- 
tofore individual  churches  have  ordained  minis- 
ters; but  the  Conference  of  1880  deprecated  this 
practice,  and  called  upon  the  churches  to  proceed 
on  such  occasions  with  the  advice  of  the  Quarterly 
Meetings.  The  church  adopts  a  form  of  govern- 
ment intermediate  between  the  Congregational 
and  the  Presbyterian.  The  individual  churches 
are  independent  organizations,  governed  by  elders 
and  deacons,  and  alone  have  authority  over  their 
members.  There  is  no  court  of  appeal  for  the 
member.  There  are  three  associate  church  bod- 
ies. The  Quarterly  Meeting  is  composed  of  two 
or  more  ministers  voluntarily  bound  together. 
The  Yearly  Meeting  is  composed  of  two  or  more 
Quarterly  Meetings,  and  the  "  General  Confer- 
ence of  the  Freewill-Baptist  Connection  "  is  com- 
posed of  delegates  from  the  Yearly  Meetings,  and 
assembles  every  three  years,  in  the  month  of  Octo- 
ber. Each  of  these  associations  may  "  labor 
with  "  the  next  lower  down  to  the  church  "  as  a 
body;  "  but  neither  has  appellate  jurisdiction. 

Statistics.  —  The  Freewill  Baptist  Register  and 
Year-Book  for  18S6  (Boston,  1886)  gives  the  fol- 
lowing numbers  :  churches  1.490,  ordained  minis- 
ters 1,262,  communicants  77,827.  Almost  one-half 
of  their  strength  (or  -Ui.OOO  members)  is  concen- 
trated in  New  England.  The  denomination  is 
much  stronger  in  iMaine,  where  it  has  273  churches 
and  l.'),420  coninunucants,  than  in  any  other  State. 
The  denomination  maintains  flourishing  institu- 
tions at  Lewiston,  ^le.  (Bates  College),  and  Hills- 
dale, Mich.  ;  also  has  colleges  at  Ridgeville,  Ind., 
and  Rio  Grande,  O. ;  and  maintains  a  mission  in 
India,  with  eight  missionaries  an<l  four  assistants. 
The  Freewill  or  Free  Baptists  numbered  in  1885 
11,604  members  in  New  Brunswick,  and  3,600  in 
Nova  Scotia,  .See  Stewart:  History  of' the  Free- 
will Baptists  (from  178U  to  1830),  Dover,  1862; 
A  Treatise  on  the  Faith  and  Practice  of  the  Free- 
will Baptists,  Dover,  1871  ;  Freewill-Baptist  Register 
and  Year-Biiiik.  1SS6. 

FREEMAN,  James,  D.D.,  pastor  of  the  firet  Uni- 
tarian ('lunch  of  New  England;  b.  in  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  .\pril  22,  1759  ;  d.  at  Newton,  Mass,, 
Nov,  14,  1835.  Graduating  at  Harvard  College 
in  1777,  he  was  called  to  King's  Chajii'l,  tlien  an 
Episco]>al  Church,  Boston,  as  pastor,  in  1782. 
lie  gave  up  the  belief  in  the  Trinity,  and,  being 
refused  ordination  by  the  bishop,  was  ordained 
pastor  by  his  church  (1787),  which  adopted  his 
views.  Thus  the  ohlest  Episcopal  Church  in 
New  England  became  the  first  Unitarian  Church 
of  America.  Dr.  Freeman  was  a  man  of  fine 
social  qualities,  and  much  ]>ow(>r  in  the  pulpit. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Massachusetts 
Historical  Society,  and  in  1832  published  a  vol- 
ume of  Sermons  and  Addresses.  See  Ware:  Uni- 
tarian Biol/.  :  ;ind  Si'U.xgi'k's  .innols,  viii,  162. 

FRELINGHUYSEN,  Hon.  Theodore,  I),  at  Mill- 
stone,  Somerset  County,  N.J,,   March  28,   1787; 


FRENCH  CONFESSION. 


837 


FRIDOLIN. 


d.  at  New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  April  12,  1801.  He 
was  iiiaduated  with  the  highest  honors  at  Nassau 
Hall  1>104;  called  to  the  bar  1808.  From  1817 
to  1829  he  was  attorney-general  of  New  Jersey; 
served  a  term  in  the  United-States  Senate,  dur- 
ing which  he  delivered  many  eloijuent  speeches, 
and  displayed  in  the  highest  stations  his  earnest 
Christian  character.  He  heartily  supported  all 
acts  tending  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
poor  and  oppressed,  or  to  elevate  their  moral  or 
religious  character.  He  advocated  bills  for  the 
improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  Indian 
tribes,  and  the  suppression  of  Sunday  mails. 
Wlien  his  term  was  ended,  he  resumed  his  prac- 
tice. In  1837  and  1838  he  was  mayor  of  Newark, 
N.J.  In  183U  he  became  chancellor  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York,  from  which 
office  he  went  in  1850  to  the  presidency  of  Rut- 
ger's  College,  New  Brunswick,  N.J.,  and  lield  it 
until  death.  In  18II  he  was  an  unsuccessful 
candidate  for  the  Vice-Presidency  of  the  United 
States  on  the  ticket  with  Henry  Clay  for  Presi- 
dent. At  one  time  he  was  president  of  the 
American  Bible  Society,  the  American  Tract 
Society,  and  the  American  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners for  Foreign  Missions.  "  His  eloquent 
to[igue  was  ever  ready  to  plead  for  every  good 
Cliristian  or  humane  cause."  He  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  Christian  laymen  of  his 
day.  See  his  Memoir,  by  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Cham- 
bers, D.D.,  N.Y.,  1863. 

FRENCH  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH.  See  Gal- 

LICAX   CONFKSSION. 

FRENCH  PROPHETS  were  Camisards  (see 
art.),  who  appeared  in  England  in  1706,  and 
prophesied  the  speedy  establishment  of  the  Mes- 
siah's kingdom.  For  a  time  they  produced  a 
great  impression,  and  won  the  allegiance  of  dis- 
tinguished men,  among  whom  was  John  Lacey, 
who,  although  previously  a  member  of  Dr.  C'ala- 
niy's  congregation,  "entered  into  all  their  ab- 
surdities, except  that  of  a  community  of  goods, 
to  which  he  strongly  objected,  having  an  income 
of  two  thousand  pounds  per  annum."  But  these 
prophets  overreached  themselves  by  their  fanati- 
cism, even  going  to  the  length  of  asserting  that 
one  of  their  number,  lately  deceased,  would  rise 
from  the  dead  upon  a  certain  day.  Failure  in 
this  and  other  predictions  weakened  their  hold 
even  on  the  credulous,  and  their  little  day  ended 
in  disgrace.  See  Hughson  :  A  Copious  AccounI 
of  the  French  and  English  Prophets,  Loudon, 
1814. 

FRENCH  PROTESTANTISM.  See  France, 
Pkotkstantism  in. 

FRENCH  VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE.  See 
Bim.E  ^'EKSI()^•s,  p.  288. 

FRESENIUS,  Johann  Philipp,  b.  at  Niederwie- 
sen,  near  Ivreuznach,  Oct.  22,  170.5;  d.  at  Franc- 
fort,  July  4,  1761;  studied  theology  at  Strassburg; 
and  was  appointed  minister  at  Oberwiesen,  1727, 
court-preacher  at  Giessen,  1734,  and  preacher  at 
St.  Peter's  in  Francfort,  1743.  The  influence 
which  he  exercised  as  a  preacher  and  as  a  min- 
ister in  general  was  very  great  and  beneficial. 
Several  collections  of  his  sermons  are  still  living 
in  the  church;  such  SiS  Die  heilsamen  Belrachlungen 
(1750,  new  edition,  1872),  Epislelpredirjten  (1754, 
new  edition,  1858),  etc.  He  followed  the  Spener- 
Francke  direction,  but  was  strongly  opposed  to 


the  Moravian  Brethren,  against  whom  he  wrote 
many  volumes.  His  Aniitceislingerus  against  the 
Jesuits  also  attracted  much  attention  (1731). 
His  life  was  written  (1743)  by  K.  K.  Griesbach, 
the  father  of  the  famous  editor  of  the  Greek 
Testament.  Goethe  describes  him,  in  the  fourth 
book  of  Wahrheit  u.  Dichtuncj,  as  a  "  mild  man, 
of  handsome  and  pleasing  apjiearance,  who  was 
universally  revered  in  Francfort  as  an  exemplary 
minister  and  good  pulpit-orator,  but  not  relished 
by  those  who  sympathized  with  the  Moravians,  be- 
cau.se  of  his  attacks  upon  them."    o.  E.  steitz. 

FRESNE,  DU.     See  Du  Ca.nge. 

FREYLINCHAUSEN,  Johann  Anastasius,  one 
of  the  principal  hymnists  and  leaders  of  the 
Pietistic  movement  in  Germany ;  b.  at  Ganders- 
heim,  near  AVolfenbtittel,  in  Hanover,  Dec.  2, 
1670;  d.  at  Halle,  Feb.  12,  1739.  He  received 
from  his  mother  a  strictly  pious  though  legalis- 
tic education ;  studied  theology  at  Jena,  1689 ; 
became  acquainted  with  Augustus  Hermann 
Francke,  the  founder  of  the  Orphan  House  at 
Halle,  married  his  only  daughter,  Anastasia,  and 
succeeded  him  in  1727.  In  connection  with  him 
and  Spener  he  labored  for  the  revival  of  practical 
piety  in  Germany.  He  combined  the  activity  of 
an  academic  teacher,  pastor,  and  superintendent 
of  the  benevolent  institutions  at  Halle,  and  ex- 
erted a  very  salutary  influence  upon  the  rising 
generation.  His  theological  works,  of  which  the 
Fundamental  Theology  (Grundleijung  der  Tlieologie, 
1703)  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  are  not  distin- 
guished for  any  vigor  or  depth  of  thought,  but 
for  their  piety  and  practical  tendency,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  dry  and  cold  scholasticism  which  then 
prevailed  in  the  German  universities.  His  most 
valuable  productions  are  forty-four  hynnis,  preg- 
nant with  Scripture  trutli,  and  fervent  love  to 
the  Saviour.  Some  of  them  have  passed  into 
common  use,  and  found  a  place  in  every  good 
German  hymn-book;  as,  "Wer  ist  tcohl  wie  du.  Jesu 
siisse  Ruh,"  ^^  Jesus  ist  kommen,  Grund  ariger  Freit- 
den,"  "  Mein  Her:  gieb  dich  zufriedrn."  etc.  [.See 
translations  in  Miss  Catharine  A\'inkworth's  Lyra 
Germanica,  first  and  second  series.]  Freyling- 
hausen  published  also  one  of  the  best  German 
hymn-books,  in  2  vols.,  Halle,  1704  .and  1713. 
The  historical  significance  of  this  collection  con- 
sists in  its  pietistic  spirit,  and  the  introduction 
of  the  element  of  subjective  devotion  as  a  sup- 
plement to  the  older,  more  objective,  and  churchly 
hymns  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

Lit.  —  Freylinghausex's  Ehrengtduchlniss, 
Halle,  1740;  Francke's  Stiftungen,  a  'journal  ed. 
by  Schulze,  Knapp,  and  Riemeyer,  vol.  II.,  1794; 
H.  During:  Die  gelehrten  Thcologen  Deutschland's 
(1831),  I.  439-445;  Wetzel:  Lchcnsbesrhreihung- 
en  der  berilhmtesten  Liederdichter,  IV.  145;  Koch: 
Geschichte  des  Kircheulieds  (3d  ed.),  vol.  IV.  322- 
334,  V.  586  ;  Aug.  Walter  :  Leben  J.  A.  Freyling- 
hausens,  Berlin,  1864.  His  hymns  were  edited 
by  Grote.  Halle,  1S55.         CHR.  von  palmer. 

FRIDOLIN  or  FRIDOLD  (also  Tridolin  or  Tru- 
delin,  often  styled  the  "First  Apostle  of  Alle- 
mania,"  and  still  venerated  as  the  patron  of  the 
Swiss  canton  of  St.  Glarus)  was  a  native  of  Scot- 
land, and  preached  Christianity  to  his  heathen 
countrymen,  but  repaired  afterwards  to  Poitiers, 
where  he  restored  the  church  and  congregation 
of   St.  Hilary  (ruined  and  corrupted  under  the 


FRIENDLY  ISLANDS. 


858 


FRIENDS. 


influence  of  Arianism)  to  their  former  splendor 
and  purity.  !Moved  by  a  vision  of  St.  Hilary,  he 
set  out  for  AUemania,  and  received  from  Chlodvig 
an  island  in  the  Rhine  (Siickingen),  \\here  he 
built  a  church,  and  founded  a  monasterj*,  and 
where  he  died.  All  that  is  known  of  Fridolin 
is  drawn  from  a  Life  of  him  written  by  Balther, 
a  monk  of  Sjlckingen,  and  dedicated  to  Xotker 
Labeo  of  St.  Gallen,  w^ho  died  1022  ;  but  as  this 
Life  is  written  four  centuries  after  the  time  of 
Fridolin.  as  it  presents  several  chronological  diffi- 
culties, and  is  much  embellished  with  legendary 
ornament,  tlie  historical  foundation  it  furnishes 
is  rather  slim.  The  best  edition  of  it  is  found 
in  MoXE :  Quellensammlung  d.  hadischen  Landes- 
geschichte,  Carlsruhe,  1845,  vol.  I.  See  Gelpke: 
Kirchengeschichte  d.  Schweiz,  Bern,  1856;  Hebek: 
Die  vorkaroUng.  chrisdich.  Glauhenshelden,  Gottin- 
gen,  1867;  Ebrard  :  Die  iroschoU.  Missionskirche, 
Gutersloh,  1873.  R.  ZOl'FFEL. 

FRIENDLY  ISLANDS.  This  group,  discovered 
by  Tasman,  1013,  and  named  by  Capt.  Cook,  on 
account  of  their  friendly  demeanor  towards  him, 
lies  in  the  Southern  Pacific,  two  hundred  and 
fifty  miles  south-east  of  the  Fiji  group.  It  con- 
sists of  a  hundred  and  fifty  islands  with  an  area 
of  four  hundred  square  miles.  Tlie  islands  are 
mostly  of  coral  formation,  some  of  them,  how- 
ever, of  volcanic  origin.  Tonga,  tlie  largest,  is 
twenty-one  by  twelve  miles,  and  Vavau,  the  sec- 
ond in  size,  is  forty-two  miles  in  circumference. 
In  1847  the  missionaries  estimated  the  population 
to  be  fifty  thousand.  It  does  not  now  exceed 
twenty  or  twenty-five  thousand.  These  islanders 
were  excellent  seamen,  and  frequently  visited  the 
Fiji  group  to  procure  wood  for  the  manufacture 
of  boats.  They  were  superior  iu  intelligence  to 
the  Fijians,  but,  with  them,  cannibals,  and  far 
sunken  in  iniquity.  The  first  missionaries  went 
to  them  in  171*7,  of  whom  several  were  murdered, 
and  the  rest  retired  in  1800.  In  1825  the  Wes- 
leyan  Missionary  Society  undertook  missionary 
work  amongst  tliem  in  earnest.  In  1834  a  revival 
of  great  power  passed  over  the  islands.  King 
(ieorge  Tubou  was  converted,  and  became  an 
active  Christian  worker,  often  occupying  the  pul- 
jiit  himself.  A  great  change  took  place  in  tlie 
habits  of  the  people.  Slavery  lias  been  utterly 
abolished,  the  language  lias  been  reduced  to 
writing,  schools  are  scattered  through  the  islands, 
and  education  is  compulsory.  The  Christians  of 
the  islands  early  sent  niis.sionaries  to  the  Fiji 
group.  In  1809  the  contributions  of  the  native 
churches  were  £5,089,  £3,000  of  which  were  de- 
voted to  benevolent  and  missionary  purposes. 
One  of  the  last  reports  gave  120  churches,  8,300 
communicants,  and  17,000  attendants  on  cliurcli. 

Lit.  —  Marinf:r  :  Account  of  the  Natires  of  the 
Tonyn  Islands,  2  vols.,  Lond.,  1813;  Rev.  T.  Wkst  : 
Ten  Years  in  South  Central  Polynesia;  Williams 
and  Calvert  :  Fiji  and  the  Fijians,  and  Mission- 
ary Labort  among  the  Cannibals,  etc.,  Lond.,  1870, 
3d  ed. 

FRIENDS,  Society  of.  The  rise  of  this  body 
of  Christians  is  one  of  the  most  notewortliy 
events  in  the  religious  history  of  England  in  the 
seventeenth  century.  In  the  midst  of  th(!  efforts 
then  made  to  rescue  the  Church  from  the  cor- 
ruptions which  had  grown  up  around  it,  there 
were  men  who  felt  that  Luther  and  Cranmer  had 


not  gone  far  enough,  and  that  there  was  still 
much  sacerdotalism  to  be  purged  away,  before 
the  original  simplicity  of  Christianity  could  b& 
restored.  Such  men  found  a  leader  in  George 
Fox.  He  and  his  followers  announced  as  their 
aim  the  revival  of  primitive  Christianity/ ;  and  this 
phrase  remains  as  the  best  definition  of  their 
work.  The  privilege  of  direct  access  to  (jod, 
without  the  intervention  of  human  priest  or  rite, 
was  revealed  to  Fox's  soul.  Having  found  one, 
"  even  Christ  Jesus,  who  could  speak  to  his  cou' 
ditiou,"  he  longed  to  impart  his  discovery  of  the 
spirituality  of  true  religion  to  others,  and  in  1647 
began  his  labors  in  public  ministry,  going  forth 
through  England  on  foot,  and  at  his  own  charges. 
His  message  appears  to  have  been  mainly  to 
direct  the  peoj)le  to  the  great  Shejiherd  and 
Bishop  of  souls,  who  died  for  them,  and  had  sent 
his  spirit  into  their  hearts,  to  instruct  and  guide 
them  in  the  things  pertaining  to  life  and  salva- 
tion. "I  was  sent,"  he  says,  "to  turn  people 
from  darkness  to  the  light,  that  they  might  re- 
ceive Christ  Jesus ;  for,  to  as  many  as  should 
receive  him  in  his  light,  I  saw  that  he  would 
give  power  to  become  the  sons  of  God,  which  I 
had  obtained  by  receiving  Christ.  I  was  to  direct 
people  to  the  Spirit  that  gave  forth  the  Scrip- 
tures, by  which  they  might  be  led  into  all  truth, 
and  so  up  to  Christ  and  God,  as  those  had  been 
who  gave  them  forth."  To  the  illumination  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  heart  he  turned  the  atten- 
tion of  all,  as  that  by  which  sin  was  made  mani- 
fest and  reproved,  duty  unfolded,  and  ability 
given  to  run  with  alacrity  and  joy  in  the  way  of 
God's  commandments.  He  preached  repentance 
towards  God.  and  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
and  showed  that  one  became  a  true  disciple,  not 
by  a  bare  assent  of  the  understanding  to  the 
truths  contained  in  the  Bible,  nor  by  any  outward 
rite,  but  by  a  real  change  of  the  heart  and  affec- 
tions, through  the  power  of  the  Holy  Sjiirit. 
The  soil  was  ready  for  the  seed,  and  the  rapid 
spread  of  Fox's  doctrines  was  surprising.  All 
classes  flocked  to  his  preaching;  and  among  his 
converts  were  persons  of  the  best  families  in  the 
kingdom,  priests  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
ministers  of  other  societies,  and  many  men  of 
wealth  and  learning.  For  four  years  Fox  was- 
the  only  minister  of  the  society :  the  second 
preacher  was  Elizabeth  Hooton.  In  the  fifth 
year  there  were  twenty-five  preacliers;  in  the 
seventh,  upwards  of  sixty.  Within  eight  years, 
ministers  of  Friends  preached  in  vaiions  parts  of 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  in  Africa,  and  IieroicaDy 
endured  persecution  in  Rome,  IMalta,  Austria, 
Ilungaiy,  and  other  places.  Among  the  note- 
wortliy preachers  in  the  earlier  years,  Francis 
Howgill,  John  AudUind,  and  Samuel  Fisher  had 
been  clergymen;  George  Ilislioii,  Richard  Ilub- 
berthorn,  and  William  Ames,  ofllcers  in  the  army; 
Anthony  I'ear.son  and  John  Crook,  justices  of 
peace.  Tiie  courtly  and  cultured  I'enn,  and 
Barclay,  a  member  of  a  noble  family  in  Scot- 
land, a  near  relative  of  the  Stuart  kings,  and  a 
man  of  thorough  classical  and  patristic  scholar- 
ship, joined  the  society  about  twenty  years  after 
its  formation.  In  1080  the  number  of  Friends 
in  (Jreat  Britain  was  not  less  than  sixty-six  thou- 
sand. 

America  was  first  visited  by  Friends  in  1056, 


FRIENDS. 


839 


FRIENDS. 


when  Mary  Fisher  and  Anne  Austin  arrived  in 
Boston  from  Barbadoes,  to  which  island  they  had 
gone  to  preach  the  gospel  the  preceding  year. 
They  were  charged  with  lioldiiig  "  very  danger- 
ous, heretical,  and  blasphemous  opinions,"  and 
were  kept  in  close  confinement,  at  first  on  the 
vessel,  and  afterwards  in  jail.  Their  books  were 
burned  by  the  common  executiouer,  and  even 
their  persons  searched  to  discover  signs  of  witch- 
craft. They  were  then  sent  back  to  Barbadoes. 
In  1600  this  same  Mary  Fisher  held  an  inter- 
view with  Sultan  Mahomet  IV.,  at  Adrianople, 
where  he  was  then  encamped  with  his  army. 
Two  days  after  the  banishment  of  the  first 
Friends  from  Boston,  a  vessel  having  on  board 
eight  other  Friends  arrived  from  London.  They 
were  at  once  imprisoned,  and,  eleven  weeks  after- 
wards, sent  back  to  England.  But,  nothing 
daunted,  others  of  the  same  faith  continued  to 
arrive  in  Xew  England,  to  suffer  scourging, 
imprisonment,  banishment,  and  four  of  their 
number  (William  Robinson  and  Marmaduke 
Stevenson  in  1659,  Mary  Dyer  in  1660,  and  Wil- 
liam Leddra  in  1601),  death  by  the  gallows. 
Monthly  Meetings  had  been  established  in  New 
England  before  1600,  and  in  1661  a  Yearly  Meet- 
ing on  Rhode  Island,  which  has  been  kept  up 
regularly  to  the  present  date.  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  the  Carolinas 
were  visited  very  early;  and,  although  there 
was  much  persecution,  flourishing  communities 
of  Friends  sprung  up.  George  Fox  himself 
made  an  extended  journey  in  America  in  1671- 
73.  But  the  most  important  event  in  the  early 
history  of  the  society  on  this  continent  was  the 
settlement  of  Pennsylvania  by  William  Penn 
and  a  large  number  of  his  brethren  in  faith, 
beginning  in  1682.  In  1690  there  were  about 
ten  thousand  Friends  in  the  American  Colonies. 

While  no  Friends  in  England  suffered  imme- 
diate martyrdom,  the  sum  of  their  persecution 
was  most  severe.  Between  the  years  lOOO  and 
1689  fourteen  thousand  of  them  were  fined  and 
imprisoned;  and  three  hundred  and  sixty-nine, 
including  the  majority  of  the  first  preachers,  died 
in  jail,  "not  to  mention  cruel  mockings,  buffet- 
ings,  scourgings,  and  afflictions  innumerable." 
Never  were  persecutions  borne  in  a  more  heroic 
spirit  of  endurance,  or  in  a  more  Christian  spirit 
of  forgiveness.  Never,  too,  were  the  inaliena- 
ble rights  of  conscience  more  bravely  asserted, 
and  the  privileges  of  Englishmen  more  boldly 
claimed.  "  The  trials  of  the  Friends,  and  espe- 
cially that  of  John  Crook  in  1602,  and  that  of 
William  Penn  and  William  Mead  in  107(1,  at  the 
Old  Bailey,  will  forever  remain  as  noble  monu- 
ments of  their  resistance  to  the  arbitrary  pro- 
ceedings of  the  courts  of  judicature  at  that  time, 
and  the  violent  infringement  of  the  privilege  of 
jury."  Soon  after  the  Revolution  of  1688,  the 
persecution  ceased  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

When  the  martyr  age  had  passed,  the  society 
became  less  aggressive,  and  made  fewer  converts 
to  its  views;  but  it  devoted  itself  to  the  quiet 
practice  of  all  the  Christian  virtues,  and  to  an 
active  philanthropy,  which  have  made  its  praise 
to  be  in  all  the  churches.  An  exaggerated  asceti- 
cism in  some  directions,  and  a  rigid,  though  in 
most  respects  an  admirable,  discipline,  visiting 
with  excommunication  even  the  offence  of  marry- 


ing a  person  not  a  member  of  the  society,  co-op- 
erated to  keep  it  numerically  small.  But  it  has 
always  exerted  a  power,  in  the  church  at  large 
and  in  the  community,  far  beyond  what  was  to 
be  expected  from  its  numbers.  In  the  recognition 
of  the  equal  rights  of  women,  in  the  abolition  of 
slavery  and  the  slave-trade,  in  the  protection  and 
instruction  of  the  Indians  and  the  weaker  races 
of  mankind,  in  the  amelioration  of  penal  laws 
and  prison  discipline,  in  the  adojition  of  enlight- 
ened methods  for  the  care  and  relief  of  the 
insane,  in  testimony  against  war,  intemperance, 
oaths,  corrupting  books  and  amusements,  extrava- 
gance, insincerity,  and  vain  display,  it  has  been 
in  the  fore-front  of  Christian  reformers;  while 
it  has  maintained  the  highest  standard  of  in- 
tegrity and  practical  virtue,  and  in  the  everyday 
charities  of  life  its  bounty  has  been  unstinted. 

About  the  year  1827  the  society  in  America 
was  divided  into  two  bodies,  —  evangelical  or 
"orthodox,"  and  liberal  or  "  Ilicksite,"  each  of 
which  claims  to  be  the  true  representative  of  the 
early  Friends.  The  orthodox  society  is  the  one 
acknowledged  as  genuine  by  the  London  Yearly 
Meeting.  A  tone  of  thought  similar  to  that  pre- 
vailing in  the  evangelical  section  of  the  Church 
of  England  was  fostered  by  the  preaching  and 
writings  of  Joseph  John  Gurney  (1788-1817),  and 
had  great  influence  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 
This  school  of  opinion  found  an  opponent  in  the 
Philadelphia  Yearly  Meeting,  which  claims  to 
maintain  the  truths  taught  by  the  founders, 
against  perversion  on  either  hand ;  Ijut  it  has 
been  very  influential  in  the  society  at  large.  An 
earnest  school  is  now  arising,  holding  the  essen- 
tial doctrines  of  orthodox  faith,  and  animated 
with  an  increased  zeal  for  education  and  for  the 
growth  of  the  church,  while  discarding  formali- 
ties of  dress  and  speech,  and  all  undue  asceti- 
cism. 

Dislinclive  Creed.  —  The  creed  of  the  Society 
of  Friends  may  be  described,  as,  from  the  first, 
one  singularly  free  both  from  heresy  and  from 
exaggeration.  Objecting  to  scholastic  terms  and 
"  man-made  "  symbols,  the  Friends  endeavor  to 
confine  themselves  to  scriptural  words  in  defining 
their  belief.  One  of  the  earliest  authoritative 
statements  of  their  views  is  found  in  a  letter 
addressed  by  Fox  and  others  to  the  Governor  of 
Barbadoes  in  1071.  What  is  most  distinctive  of 
the  society  is  its  belief  in  the  immediate  influ- 
ence of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  its  expectation  of 
the  guidance  of  the  Spirit  in  worship  and  all 
religious  acts.  This  might  degenerate  into  mys- 
ticism, were  it  not  corrected  by  the  society's 
full  recognition  of  the  inspiration  and  authority 
of  the  Scriptures,  by  which  they  admit  it,  in  the 
words  of  Barclay.  "  as  a  positive  certain  maxim, 
That  whatsoever  any  do,  pretending  to  the  Spirit, 
which  is  contrary  to  the  Scriptures,  should  be 
accounted  and  reckoned  a  delusion  of  the  Devil." 
Their  belief  in  the  spirituality  of  Christianity 
has  led  them,  also,  to  the  disuse  of  the  outward 
rites  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  while 
they  fully  believe  in  the  necessity  of  spiritual 
baptism,  and  the  privilege  of  spiritual  com- 
munion with  the  Father  and  the  Son,  through 
the  Holy  Spirit.  They  do  not  find,  in  the  texts 
ordinarily  understood  as  establishing  these  rites, 
any  indication  of  such  intention,  and  regard  the 


FRIENDS. 


840 


FRIENDS. 


rites  themselves  as  inconsistent  witli  the  whole 
spirit  of  Christianity!  in  which  types  have  given 
place  to  the  substance.  Their  views  in  regard 
to  the  ministry  are  also  characteristic.  They 
believe  that  no  one  should  preach  the  Word  with- 
out a  direct  call  from  God,  and  that  this  call 
may  come  to  male  or  female,  old  or  young.  No 
high  human  learning  and  no  course  of  theologi- 
cal study  are  necessary  qualifications  for  a  min- 
ister, who  may  be  as  unlettered  as  were  most  of 
the  apostles,  if  plenteouslj'  endued  with  heavenly 
grace.  But  Friends  do  not  deny  the  self-evident 
proposition,  that  learning  and  intellectual  ability 
conduce  to  the  usefulness  of  a  preacher  of  the 
gospel,  and  that  a  church  needs  men  possessing 
both,  to  assert  and  defend  the  truth.  Any  one 
■who  feels  it  laid  upon  him  is  allowed  to  speak  in 
the  meetings  for  worship,  so  long  as  he  speaks 
things  worthy  of  the  occasion.  If,  after  sufficient 
probation,  he  gives  evidence  of  a  divine  call,  he 
is  formally  acknowledged  as  a  minister,  and  is 
allowed  one  of  the  seats  at  the  head  of  the  meet- 
ing. Besides  ministers,  the  society  appoints 
elders,  whose  especial  duty  is  to  sympathize  with 
and  advise  ministers,  and  watch  that  they  be 
sound  in  the  faith ;  and  overseers,  as  in  the 
primitive  church,  who  have  a  general  care  of  the 
flock.  In  meetings  for  business,  the  society 
recognizes  the  presidency  of  the  great  Head  of 
the  Church,  and  strives  to  do  all  in  his  fear,  and 
with  his  guidance.  Decisions  are  not  made  by 
votes  and  majorities,  but  are  recorded  by  the 
clerk,  in  accordance  with  what  appears  to  be  "  the 
weight"  of  either  side;  or,  if  there  is  not  a  gen- 
eral spirit  of  acquiescence,  action  is  postpioned. 

Wortsliip  and  Minuslry.  —  Believing  that  every 
act  of  divine  service  should  proceed  from  an 
immediate  impression  of  duty,  prompted  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  the  meetings  of  the  society  for  wor- 
slii])  are  held  in  silence,  unless  some  one  feels 
called  upon  to  preach  or  teach,  to  offer  prayer  in 
belialf  of  the  congregation,  or  to  give  praise  to 
tlie  .Most  High.  But  this  silence  is  itself  intend- 
ed to  be  occupied  with  religious  acts.  Highest 
of  tliese  is  the  direct  communion  of  the  soul 
with  its  Maker  and  its  Lord,  in  rapt  devotion,  in 
thanksgiving  ami  j^rayer.  Hut  there  are  services, 
in  these  hours  of  silence,  adapted  to  every  degree 
of  religious  experience  and  every  serious  mood 
of  mind.  One  of  the  most  pmfitable  of  these  is 
self-e.\amination.  As  in  the  sight  of  the  All- 
Seeing  Eye,  the  humble  worshipper  recounts  his 
tlioughts  and  deeds,  confesses  his  sins,  sup))licates 
for  pardon  for  the  [last  and  strength  for  the 
future,  and  prays  that  he  may  be  cleansed  even 
from  secret  faults.  Another  exercise  is  religious 
meditation.  At  worst,  every  attender  can  force 
himself  to  think  on  profitable  themes  by  repeat- 
ing to  himself  texts  of  Scripture,  or  the  verses  of 
some  suggestive  hymn.  "Sometimes  a  light 
surprises"  the  liumbh'  worshipper;  his  thouglits 
are  led  on  and  upw.ard  by  a  higher  Power;  new 
meanings  of  texts  flash  upon  his  mind,  a  new 
illumin,T.tion  is  given  to  the  path  of  dutv,  and  in 
answer  to  the  prayer  breathed  forth  by  Ins  inmost 
soul  he  feels  conscious  of  a  closer  union  with 
God,  and  strengthened  for  his  future  warfare 
with  the  world,  the  flesh,  and  the  devil.  And,  if 
some  brother  or  sister  is  led  to  offer  vocal  service, 
it  often  happens  that  the  word  of  exhortation  or 


reproof  or  comfort,  or  the  earnsst  petition  to  the 
throne  of  grace,  harmonizes  with  the  private 
exercise  of  mind  which  the  hearer  has  passed 
through,  confirming  his  faith,  and  invigorating 
his  resolution. 

The  theory  of  the  exercise  of  the  ministry 
among  Friends  asserts  the  prompting  and  guid- 
ance of  the  Holy  Spirit,  both  what  to  say,  and 
when  to  say  it.  It  does  not,  however,  intelli- 
gently imderstood,  claim  any  infallibility,  or 
plenary  inspiration,  in  the  speaker.  The  treasure 
is  borne  in  earthen  vessels,  and  the  imperfections 
of  the  instrument  may  sometimes  appear.  Yet 
he  that  lives  daily  near  his  Lord,  and  is  careful 
not  to  assert  more  than  he  has  tested  in  his  own 
experience,  or  to  utter  words  beyond  those  in 
which  he  feels  a  full  consciousness  of  divine 
leading,  seldom  outruns  his  Guide,  or  fails  to 
speak  to  the  edification  of  the  church. 

Education. — The  society  provides  that  all  its 
members  shall  receive  a  good  practical  education, 
and  cherishes  also  the  higher  learning.  It  has 
colleges  at  Ilaverford,  Penn.,  Richmond,  Ind., 
Wilmington,  O.,  and  Oskaloosa,  lo.,  and  one  for 
girls  at  Bryn  Mawr,  Penn.  There  are  excellent 
boarding-schools  in  most  of  the  Yearly  Meetings. 

Organization.  — The  congregations  are  grouped 
together  to  constitute  Monthly,  Quarterly,  and 
Yearly  Meetings;  the  Monthly  Jleetings  sending 
representatives  to  the  Quarterly,  and  the  Quar- 
terly to  the  Yearly.  Each  Yearly  Meeting  is  an 
independent  body,  but  united  with  all  the  others 
by  a  common  faith.  There  are  two  Yearly  Meet- 
ings in  Great  Britain,  and  ten  in  America.  The 
number  of  members  is  about  twenty  thousand  in 
Great  Britain,  and  eighty  thousand  on  this  conti- 
nent. Besides  these,  there  is  a  large  number  oif 
regular  attenders  of  Friends'  meetings,  sympa- 
thizing with  their  views. 

Hicksites  (.so  called).  There  are  six  Yearly 
Meetings  of  this  body,  all  in  America,  with  about 
forty  thousand  members.  They  have  a  flourish- 
ing college  for  both  sexes  at  Swarthmore,  near 
Philadelphia.     (See  Hicks,  Ei.i.\s.) 

Lit.  —  (iEORGK  Fox's  Journal,  London,  1694; 
the  same,  Philadelphia,  ISOH;  AVii.i.i.vM  Skwkl's 
llislor//  of  the  J'eojile  called  QuaJcers,  Loudon,  1722, 
New  York,  1814,  Phila.,  1855;  John  Gouoh: 
Uiatonj,  Dublin,  1789-90  ;  Joskpii  Besse  :  Sxtff'er- 
in{/s  of  the  People  called  Quakers,  London,  1738; 
Koheut  Barclay;  Thentnrjiie  cern;  Christianas 
Apologia,  Amstelodami,  1G7U  ;  An  Apiiloi/ij  for  the 
True  Christian  M'r/p///// (translation  of  the  former), 
Aberdeen  (?),  1(J78,  8th  ed.,  printed  by  Basker- 
ville,  17G5,  I'hiladelphia,  185,");  Wm.i.iam  Penn: 
Select  Worka,  London,  1771:  Isaac  Peninhton: 
Works,  London,  1081,  Sherwood,  N.Y.,  1801-63; 
llicilARD  Ci.auidge:  Life  and  Works,  London, 
1720;  'I'iio.mas  Ei.i.wood:  Life,  London,  1714; 
.(oiiN  Wooi.man's  ,/ournid,  London,  1775,  with 
Preface  by  John  G.  Wimttiek,  Boston,  1871; 
Thomas  Evans  :  Exposition  of  the  Faith  of 
Friends,  Phil.adelphia,  1828;  James  Bowden: 
llistiirii  of  Friends  in  America,  I^ondon,  18.50; 
.John  Cunningham,  D.I).  :  The  (junkers,  Edin- 
burgh, 1808;  Nathan  Kite:  liioiiraphicid  Sketch- 
es of  Friends,  Philadelphia,  1871;  Charles 
ICvANS,  M.D.  :  Friends  in  the  Seventeenth  C-'ntury, 
I'hiladeliihia,  1875;  Frances  Anne  Budok: 
Annals  of  the  Early  Friends,  Loudon,  1877. 


FRIENDS  OF  GOD. 


841 


FRITZSCHE. 


Lit.  of  the  Hicksites  (so-called).  —  Elias 
Hicks  :  Exlemporaneoux  Discourses,  Philadelphia, 
182.5;  Journal,  New  York,  1832;  Letters,  New  York, 
1834;  Samuel  M.  Jannev,  Histori/  of  Friends, 
Philadelphia,  1859-67,  4  vols,     thomas  chase 

(Proeident  of  Iliivcrford  College.) 

FRIENDS  OF  GOD,  the  beautiful  name  of  a 
large  brotherhood  of  mystics  which  existed  in 
German-speakinsr  lands  during  the  fourteenth 
century.  They  did  not  constitute  a  sect:  on  the 
contrary,  they  attended  the  church-services  as- 
siduously, but  gave  novel  interpretations  to  the 
ecclesiastical  symbols.  Their  centres  were  at 
Cologne,  Strassburg,  and  Basel:  their  teachers 
were  mostly  Dominicans.  Their  ideas  and  prin- 
ciples were  drawn  from  the  German  mystics. 
They  held  more  or  less  personal  and  epistolary 
communication  with  one  another,  especially  with 
the  members  of  the  same  local  society.  They 
protested  against  the  corruptions  of  the  times, 
and  set  an  example  of  holy  living.  Their  great 
leader,  hero,  and  martyr  was  Nicholas  of 
Basel  :  their  preacher  was  John  Tauler.  (See 
those  articles.)  In  1380  some  of  the  more  earnest 
of  them  assembled  in  the  mountains,  according  to 
an  agreement  made  the  year  before ;  but,  being 
warned  that  the  explosion  of  divine  wrath  would 
not  come  for  three  years,  they  disbanded,  and  no 
later  meeting  is  recorded.  See  Essays  upon  the 
Gntlesfreunde,  by  C.  Schmidt  (1854)  and  Eieger 
(1879). 

FRIENDS  OF  LIGHT,  See  Free  Congrega- 
tions. 

FRISIANS  (Frisii,  Frisones),  The,  inhabited,  at 
the  beginning  of  our  era,  the  coast  of  Holland 
and  Germany  from  the  Scheldt  to  the  AVeser,  the 
Islands  of  the  German  Ocean  (Silt,  Fiihr,  Heligo- 
land, etc.),  and  the  western  coast  of  Sleswick. 
They  were  a  rude  and  warlike  people,  not  aggres- 
sive, but  jealous  for  their  nationality,  and  fanatic 
in  their  religion.  Christianity  entered  the  coun- 
try, together  with  the  Franks,  in  the  seventh  cen- 
tury; and  for  two  centuries  it  rose  and  fell  among 
the  people  together  with  the  Prankish  power.  It 
was  not  Prankish  missionaries,  however^  who 
converted  the  Frisians,  but  Anglo-Saxon.  The 
Franks  and  the  Frisians  did  not  understand  each 
other,  but  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Frisians  did. 
St.  Amandus  (626)  and  Eligius  (641)  met  with 
only  indifferent  success;  but  Wilfred  of  York 
(677)  made  an  impression ;  and  Willibrord,  the 
apostle  of  the  Frisians  (70(1-730),  procured  a  foot- 
ing for  Christianity  in  the  country.  The  conver- 
sion of  the  Frisians  .seems  at  that  time  to  have 
been  what  we  now  would  call  a  fashion  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons.  One  missionary  followed  the 
other.  Winfred,  too,  made  his  first  and  his  last 
attempt  as  a  missionary  in  Friesland.  Willi- 
brord's  successor,  Gregory,  founded  at  Utrecht  a 
Bchool,  which,  like  those  of  Corbie  and  Fulda, 
became  a  fertile  seed-plot  for  Christian  piety  and 
learning.  Among  his  helpers  were  Lebuin  and 
Willehad;  among  his  pupils.  Lindger,  a  native 
Frisian.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century 
Christianity  had  advanced  from  the  Scheldt  to 
the  Yesel,  and  it  approached  the  same  point  from 
the  Weser.  Nevertheless,  when  the  Saxons  arose, 
under  Wittekind,  against  Charlemagne,  the  Fris- 
ians followed  the  example;  and  Christianity  was 
nearly  driven  out  of  the  country  together  with 


the  Franks.  But  Charlemagne  treated  the  Fris- 
ians as  he  treated  the  Saxons.  The  country  was 
made  a  province  of  the  Frankish  Empire;  the  peo- 
ple, a  branch  of  the  Christian  Church.  Bisliops 
with  liturgy,  schools,  jurisdiction,  and  tithi-s  were 
settled  in  the  country ;  and  all  became  quiet, 
though  remnants  of  rank  heathenism  were  still 
glimmering  among  the  dark,  impenetrable  forests 
of  the  country  until  the  twelfth  century.  See 
Wiarda  :  Ostfriesische  Gtxchichte,  Aurich,  1791- 
98,  9  vols. ;  F'riedlaxdeu  :  Oslfricsisches  Urknn- 
(lenbuch,  Elmden,  1874;  and  the 'biograi>hical  arts, 
in  this  Cyclopsedia  on  Amandus,  Boniface, 
Willibrord,  etc.  Clemens  petersex. 

FRITH  (or  FRYTH),  John,  an  English  Reformer 
and  martyr;  b.  at  Sevenoaks,  Kent,  about  1503; 
d.  at  the  stake,  July  4,  1533.  He  studied  at 
Cambridge,  and  was  selected  by  Cardinal  Wol- 
sey  to  be  a  member  of  the  college  (now  Christ 
Church)  at  Oxford,  which  he  had  recently  founded 
from  the  spoils  of  several  monasteries.  In  1525 
he  became  acquainted  with  Tyndale,  and  in  his 
intercourse  with  him  imbibed  those  evangelical 
sentiments  for  which  he  afterwards  died.  At 
Oxford  he  was  imprisoned,  with  several  compan- 
ions, by  the  Romanists,  for  his  attachment  tn  the 
views  of  Luther  and  Zwingli.  In  1.528  he  retired 
to  the  Continent,  having  escaped  from  prison,  into 
which  he  had  been  thrown  with  the  connivance 
of  Wolsey.  He  remained  abroad  for  two  years. 
Returning  to  England,  Frith  was  a  marked  man. 
Sir  Thomas  More  had  replied  to  a  sharp  attack 
against  the  ecclesiastical  establishments  of  Eng- 
land (T/ie  Supplication  of  the  Beggars)  in  a  work 
entitled  The  poor  seehj  (simple)  souls  pewled  out  of 
purgatori/e.  Frith  published,  in  answer  to  More's 
work,  Disputaci/on  of  Purgatori/e,  in  wliich  he  de- 
nies all  efficacy  to  papal  indulgences,  and  main- 
tains that  Christ's  satisfaction  is  sufficient,  and 
precludes  the  necessity  of  purgatorial  cleansing. 
The  author  was  forthwith  confined  in  the  Tower. 
The  authorities  were  disposed,  however,  to  deal 
leniently  with  him.  But  he  not  only  persisted  in 
his  views  on  pui-gatory,  but  wrote  in  prison  a 
treatise  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  he  de- 
nied transubstantiation.  He  w-as  tried,  and  con- 
demned by  Dr.  Stokesly,  Bishop  of  London,  to 
the  stake.  He  was  burned  at  Smithfield.  in 
company  with  Andrew  Hewet,  a  tailor's  appren- 
tice, who  professed  the  same  views  of  the  Lord's 
Su]iper. 

Frith  was  regarded  as  an  able  and  learned  man 
by  his  contemporaries.  He  was  the  first  English 
martyr  for  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, and  the  first  of  the  Reformers  of  England  to 
write  against  transubstantiation.  Besides  the 
treatises  already  mentioned,  he  put  forth  a  tract 
on  Baptism,  and  A  .\[irror  or  Glass  to  know  thij- 
self.  His  writings  are  published  in  vol.  iii.  of  the 
Writings  of  the  Brit.  Fathers,  London  (Rel.  Tract 
Soc).  For  his  life,  see  that  volume,  and  Foxes 
Aclcs  and  Mornnnenli  s. 

FRITZSCHE,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  b.  at 
Steinbach,  near  Borna,  Dec.  16.  1801 ;  d.  at  Gies- 
sen,  Dec.  6,  1846;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig; 
was  appointed  professor  at  Rostock.  1826.  and 
removed  to  Giessen.  1841.  A  pupil  of  Gott.  Her- 
mann, he  applied  the  philological  principles  of 
his  master  to  biblical  exegesis,  and  thereby  pro- 
moted a  more  exact  grammatical  interpretation 


PROMENT. 


842 


FRY. 


of  the  sacred  documents.  His  principal  works 
are  Latin  commentaries  on  Mattliew  (1826),  Mark 
(1830),  and  the  Kpistle  to  tlie  Romans  (1836-43), 
3  vols.,  all  marked  by  great  philological  learning 
and  acumen.  He  always  lectured  in  Latin.  He 
was  by  nature  a  controversialist,  and  gave  sting- 
ing blows. 

FROMENT,  Antoine,  b.  at  Triers,  near  Greno- 
ble, 1509  or  1510;  d.  in  Geneva  at  an  unknown 
date,  but  after  1574;  entered  early  into  relations 
with  Faber  Stapulensis,  ^larguerite  of  Navarre, 
Faiel,  and  the  whole  party  of  Reformers,  and 
exercised  considerable  influence  on  the  reforma- 
tory movement  in  its  beginning.  In  1529  he 
labored  at  Aigh,  in  1530  at  Tavannes,  in  1531 
at  Bienne  and  Grandson.  In  1532  he  arrived  at 
Geneva.  As  it  was  not  possible  to  preach  the 
Reformation  there  openly,  he  established  a  school, 
and  advertised  that  he  would  teach  everybody, 
young  or  old,  man  or  woman,  to  read  and  write 
the  French  language  in  one  month.  People 
crowded  to  the  school,  where  they  were  taught, 
not  only  reading  and  writing,  but  also  the  new 
religion  ;  and  in  1533  Froment  preached  publicly 
in  the  market-place.  But  he  was  immediately 
driven  out  of  the  city  by  the  Roman  priests. 
He  returned,  however,  a  month  later,  but  caused 
a  tremendous  uproar  by  protesting  in  the  very 
church  against  the  invectives  and  slander  of  the 
priests,  and  was  again  compelled  to  flee  from 
the  city.  This  time,  however,  he  returned,  backed 
by  an  embassy  from  the  canton  of  Bern  ;  and  in 
1535  the  council  granted  permission  to  preach 
the  Reformation  in  the  city.  In  tlie  presence  of 
Viret,  Farel,  and  Calvin,  Froment  naturally  re- 
treated into  the  background  ;  and  the  latter  jiart 
of  his  life  was  much  trouliled.  Ilis  wife  proved 
untrue  to  him,  and  he  was  compelled  to  leave  the 
clerical  state.  He  became  a  notary,  and  even  a 
member  of  the  council ;  but  his  domestic  troubles 
seem  to  have  affected  his  moral  character.  His 
life  became  disorderly;  and  in  1562  he  was  dis- 
missed from  the  council,  and  banished  from  the 
city.  After  ten  years  of  exile  and  misery,  the 
old  man  was  allowed  to  return  to  Geneva,  and  in 
1574  he  was  re-instated  as  a  notary.  His  princi- 
pal work  is  Lex  acles  el  i/eslcx  tnvrneiUeux  ile  la  cilc. 
lie.  Geneve  (edited  by  Gustave  Revilliod,  Geneva, 
1854),  a  work  full  of  freshness  and  vivacity, 
but  not  fully  reliable.  There  is  no  independent 
liiography  of  him,  but  numerous  .sketches  of  his 
life  in  Iji  France  I'rolestante,  (;.\nF.RKi.,  Ilislnire 
fie  I'l'i/lise  lie  (ien'eve,  etc.  TriEODOK  SCIIOTT. 

FRONTON  LE  DUO  (Ducau^).  b.  at  Bordeaux, 
155S;  d.  in  Paris,  Se|it.  25,  1624;  entered  th(^ 
Society  of  .lesus  in  1.577;  taught  rlictoric  and 
theology  at  Pont  a.  .Mous.son,  P)Ordeaux,  and  Paris, 
and  was  in  1604  made  librarian  at  the  royal 
library.  Besides  editions  with  notes,  and  Latin 
translation  of  Chrysostom,  John  of  Damascus, 
Irenajus,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  Basil,  etc.,  lie  pub- 
lished a  number  of  ])olemical  and  ajiologetical 
works,  of  whicii  a  list  is  given  by  Backku,  in 
Bihliollu'iiui:  ills  I'rrlrinns  i/e  /ii  f  \iin/iiti/nic  ile  ,/i'sns. 

FROSSARD,  Benjamin  Sigismond,  I),  at  Nyon, 
in  Switzerland,  1754;  d.  at  iMontauban,  1830; 
studied  theology  at  (jeneva;  was  ajipointed  pas- 
tor of  the  Reformed  Church  at  Lyons,  1777,  and 
profe.s.sor  of  morals  in  the  Ecole  Centrale  of  Cler- 
mont-Ferrand, 1792.      Ill   1808  he  was   charged 


with  the  organization  of  a  Protestant  theological 
faculty  in  Montauban,  of  which  he  himself  be- 
came dean,  and  professor  of  morals.  Besides 
translations  of  Hugh  Blair,  Wilberforce,  etc.,  he 
published  La  Cause  des  Esctaves  Nigres  (1788,  2 
vols.),  which  attracted  great  attention  in  France. 
FROUDE,  Richard  Hurrell,  an  ardent  supporter 
of  the  Oxford  movement;  b.  March  25,  1803,  at 
Dartington,  Devonshire ;  d.  there  Feb.  28,  1836. 
He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford;  elected 
fellow  of  Oriel  College,  1826;  and  ordained  priest, 
1829.  During  the  last  four  years  of  his  life  he 
resided  in  Southern  Europe  and  the  West  Indies. 
He  was  a  man  of  fair  talents  and  a  love  of  the 
pure  and  good,  but  of  gloomy  temper  and  ungov- 
ernable will,  as  his  mother's  letters  expressly 
testify.  He  fell  in  heartily  with  the  Tractarian 
movement.  "Really  I  hate  the  Reformation 
more  and  more,"  he  says.  And  again  :  "  I  think 
people  are  injudicious  who  talk  against  the 
Roman  Catholics  for  worshipping  the  saints,  and 
honoring  the  Virgin  and  images."  He  was  very 
bitter  in  his  judgment  of  Milton  and  the  Puri- 
tans. To  a  friend  he  writes,  "  Try  to  un-Protes- 
tantize  and  un-Miltonize  Southey  and  Words- 
worth." His  Rernains,  consisting  of  sermons, 
letters,  journals,  etc.,  appeared  in  2  vols.,  Lond., 
1838,  1839.  He  was  a  brother  of  the  well-known 
historian.     See  Newman's  Apologia,  also  Trac- 

TAUIANISM. 

FRUCTUOSUS,  the  apostle  of  the  Sufeves  and 
Lusitanians,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  in  Galicia, 
since  656 ;  d.  about  670 ;  was  educated  in  the 
episcopal  school  of  Palencia,  and  sold  his  estates 
in  order  to  get  money  for  the  foundation  of  mon- 
asteries, of  which  he  had  built  no  less  than  seven, 
in  Lusitania,  Asturia,  and  Galicia,  up  to  647;  and 
he  continued  building  to  his  death.  There  exist 
two  sets  of  rules  written  down  by  him  for  his 
monks.  The  first  (liegula  Complutcnsh)  is  based 
on  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict,  and  written  for  the 
monks  of  Complutum  (not  the  famous  place  in 
Castile,  the  present  Aloala,  _but  a  place  of  the 
same  name,  probably  in  Asturia  or  Leon).  It 
fixes  the  life  of  the  monks  in  the  minutest  de- 
tails. Not  only  they  should  not  walk  about  or 
speak  without  the  i)erniission  of  tln^  superior, 
but  they  were  even  forbidden  to  turn  their  heads, 
or  rise  from  their  seats,  unless  on  a  given  signal. 
The  other  (Kegula  Communis)  regards  cases  in 
which  a  whole  family  entered  a  monastery.  All 
family  ties  were  immediately  dissolved,  and  all 
till'  projierty  appropriated  by  tiie  monasteries. 
Both  rules  are  given  by  Hoi.stkn-Buockik,  in 
Ciiil.  rei/.  7nimi>stieoruni,  II.  See  Montai.emheut: 
Monks 'ill  llie   ]\'isl,U.  ZOCKl.lili. 

FRUMENTIUS.     See  Abyssinian  Ciiukoh. 

FRY,  Elizabeth,  an  eminent  ]ihilanthropist, 
daughter  of  John  (iurney,  a  Friend;  wash,  near 
Norwich,  Eng.,  RLay  21,  1780;  d.  at  Ranisgate, 
Oct.  13,  1845.  She  was  of  fiuscinating  manners, 
and  manifested  little  interest  in  religious  matters 
until  her  eighteenth  year.  At  twenty  she  mar- 
ried ,Tose]ih  Fry,  a  wealthv  London  merchant. 
At  the  <leath  of  iier  fnHier,  in  1809,  she  spoke  for 
the  first  time  in  public,  and  was  soon  recognized 
;us  a  minister  among  flic  Friends.  Her  attention 
being  drawn  in  lHl:i,  by  a  report  of  Friends,  to 
the  wretched  condition  of  criminals  in  the  jails, 
she  visiteil  the  prison   at   Newgate.     "The  filth, 


FULBERT. 


843 


FULDA. 


the  closeness  of  the  rooms,  the  ferocious  man- 
ners and  expressions  of  the  women  toward  each 
other,  and  the  abandoned  wickedness  which  every 
thing  bespoke,  are  quite  indescribable,"  were  her 
own  words  in  describing  what  she  had  seen. 

Mrs.  Fry  at  once  instituted  measures  for  the 
amelioration  of  prison  morals  and  life,  daily  visit- 
ing the  prison,  reading  to  the  prisoners  tlie  Scrip- 
tures, and  teaching  them  to  sew.  A  committee 
of  ladies  was  soon  organized  to  carry  on  the 
work  on  a  larger  scale.  These  labors  effected  a 
complete  change  in  the  condition  of  the  crimi- 
nals. Riot,  licentiousness,  and  filth  were  ex- 
changed for  order,  sobriety,  and  comparative 
neatness  of  person.  Previously  many  who  had 
entered  the  prison  only  comparatively  abandoned, 
left  completely  debauched.  Now  the  process 
was  reversed,  and  many  profligate  characters  went 
out  of  the  prison  renewed.  The  mayor  and  alder- 
men early  took  notice  of  these  labors,  and  ac- 
knowledged their  beneficence. 

In  1818,  in  company  with  her  brother,  J.  J. 
•Gurney,  Mrs.  Fry  visited  the  prisons  of  Northern 
England  and  Scotland,  and  in  1827  those  of  Ire- 
land. Kindred  societies  for  the  help  of  female 
■criminals  were  organized  in  other  parts  of  Great 
Britain;  and  the  fame  of  her  labors  attracted 
the  interest,  and  stimulated  the  competition,  of 
women  in  foreign  lands.  In  1839,  1840,  and  1841 
she  visited  the  Continent,  extending  her  travels 
as  far  as  Hungary.  She  found  the  condition  of 
the  prisons  lamentable.  In  Hungary  many  of  the 
■criminals  slept  in  stocks,  and  whipping  was  uni- 
versally practised,  even  to  bastinadoing.  Her 
example  and  immediate  efforts  secured  remedial 
legislation,  and  the  organization  of  prison-reform 
societies  in  Holland,  Denmark,  France,  Prussia, 
and  other  Continental  countries.  In  the  mean 
while  her  efforts  secured  the  organization  of  a 
society  (1839)  for  the  care  of  the  criminals  after 
their  discharge  from  prison,  and  for  the  visitation 
of  the  vessels  that  carried  the  convicts  to  the 
colonies. 

Mrs.  Fry  did  not  confine  her  labors  to  prison 
reform.  She  successfully  prosecuted  a  plan  to 
•supply  coast  vessels  and  seamen's  hospitals  with 
libraries.  A  governmental  grant  was  supple- 
mented by  liberal  piivate  donations  which  en- 
abled her  and  the  society  to  distribute  52,464 
volumes  among  620  libraries  (report  for  1836). 
After  several  years  of  growing  feebleness,  she 
died  at  Ramsgate,  full  of  faith,  and  interested, 
to  the  very  hour  of  her  departure,  in  labors  of 
■charity  for  the  seamen.  A  flttiug  memorial  was 
■erected  to  her  in  the  Elizabeth  Fry  Refuge.  Mrs. 
Fry  was  a  woman  of  even  temper,  great  practical 
skill,  tenderness  of  heart,  and  deep  knowledge 
of  Scripture.  Her  maxim  was  "  Charity  to  the 
soul  is  the  soul  of  charity,"  and  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh rightly  characterized  her  as  the  "  female 
Howard."  See  Lives  of  Mrs.  Fry  by  Timpson 
(Lond.,  1847)  and  Corder  (Lond.,  18.53),  also 
Journals  and  Letters,  edited  by  her  daughter,  Lon- 
don, 1847.  D.  S.  SCHAFF. 

FULBERT  OF  CHARTRES,  b.  about  950;  d. 
April  10,  1029  ;  was  educated  by  Bishop  Odo  of 
Chartres,  and  in  Gerbert's  school  at  Rheinis ; 
founded  in  968  a  school  himself  at  Chartres, 
which  soon  rivalled  even  that  of  Rheims,  and  in 
which  Berengarius  of  Tours  was  a  pupil ;  and 


was  elected  Bishop  of  Chartres  in  1007.  He  left, 
besides  some  hymns  and  minor  essays,  a  hundred 
and  thirty-eight  letters,  which  iire  of  great  inter- 
est for  the  history  of  his  time,  and  are  found  in 
Migne:  Patrol.  Lat.,vo\.  141. 

FULCHER  OF  CHARTRES  was  chaplain  to 
Baldwin,  the  second  king  of  .Jerusalem,  and  wrote 
Gesta  peregrinanliuin  Frnncornm,  a  history  of  the 
crusaders  up  to  1127.  The  best  edition  of  it  is 
that  by  Duchesne,  in  Script.  Hint.  Franc,  Tom. 
IV. 

FULCO,  minister  of  Neuilly,  near  Paris,  and 
one  of  the  most  popular  preachers  of  his  time ; 
d.  1202 ;  seems  to  have  led  a  rather  supercilious 
life  of  pleasure  until  a  gi'eat  change  suddenly 
took  place  with  him  in  1192.  He  went  every 
week-day  to  Paris  to  study  under  Peter  Cantor ; 
and  the  sermons  he  delivered  on  Sundays  began 
to  attract  the  greatest  attention.  Soon  he  preached, 
not  only  in  the  church,  but  also  in  the  market- 
place, not  only  in  Neuilly,  but  also  in  Paris  and 
all  the  great  cities  of  France.  In  1198  he  was 
charged  by  Innocent  III.  with  preaching  the 
fourth  crusade  ;  and  at  the  chapter-general  of  the 
Cistercians,  in  1201,  he  asserted  that  more  than 
two  hundred  thousand  had  received  the  cross  from 
his  hands.  Of  most  importance,  however,  was, 
perhaps,  the  influence  he  exercised  on  his  own 
colleagues,  whom  his  words  and  example  led  to  a 
more  conscientious  fulfilment  of  the  duties  of 
their  office.  See  Jacob,  a  Vitriaco  and  Otton 
DE  St.  Blasio,  in  Recueil  ties  Historiens  de  la 
France,  vol.  xviii. ;  Geoffrey  de  Ville-Har- 
DOUIN  :  Chronique  de  la  prise  de  Constantinople, 
and  in  Buchon  :  Coll.  des  chronir/ues  nationales 
fraiifaises,  vol.  iii.  FK.  DIBELI0S. 

FULDA,  The  Monastery  of,  was  founded  in 
744,  by  St.  Boniface,  who  lies  buried  there.  The 
place  was  selected  by  Stui'm,  a  pupil  of  Boniface; 
the  ground  was  given  by  Duke  Karhnann ;  the 
internal  organization  was  adopted  from  Monte 
Casino  and  the  rule  of  St.  Benedict.  In  754  the 
Pope  sanctioned  the  institution,  and  exempted 
the  abbey  from  episcopal  authority,  placing  it 
immediately  under  the  papal  see.  The  first 
abbot  was  Sturm ;  and  before  his  death,  in  771*, 
the  number  of  monks  had  increased  to  four  hun- 
dred. New  donations  were  given  by  Pepin  and 
Charlemagne;  and  under  the  leadership  of  Raba- 
nus  Maurus,  himself  a  pupil  of  Fulda,  the  school 
became  the  centre,  not  only  of  learning,  but  of 
general  progress  and  civilization  in  Germany.  It 
gave  instruction  in  theology,  grammar,  rhetoric, 
dialectics,  mathematics,  physics,  and  astronomy. 
Among  its  pupils  were  ^Valafried  Strabo,  Serva- 
tus  Lupus,  Otfried,  etc.  It  also  cultivated  the 
arts.  Isambert,  Rudolf,  Candidus,  Hatto,  and 
others  of  its  monks,  were  celebrated  artists ;  and 
great  numbers  of  well-trained  artisans,  weavers, 
tanners,  carpenters,  etc.,  spread  from  its  rooms 
over  all  Germany.  After  the  time  of  Rabanus 
Maurus,  the  school  lost  some  of  its  lustre,  though 
it  continued  to  exercise  a  great  and  beneficial 
influence  for  several  centuries.  L'nder  .•^bbot 
Werner  (968-982)  the  monastery  obtained  the 
primacy  among  the  abbej'S  of  Germany  and  Gaul ; 
and  Otho  I.  gave  the  abbot  the  title  and  dignity 
of  arch-chancellor  of  the  realm.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  abbey  successfully  resisted  an 
attack  of  the  burghers  of  the  city  of  Fulda,  and 


FULGENTIUS  FERRANDUS.       844 


FULLER. 


ill  llie  sixteenth  it  fortunately  escaped  the  Refor- 
mation ;  but  its  significance  as  a  social  institution 
is  of  course  lost  long  ago. 

Lit.  —  Brower :  Antlquitntum  Fuldensium  Libri 
IV.,  Antwerp,  1617  ;  Kvnstmanx  :  Hrabanus 
Afaurus,  Mayence,  1841;  K.  Arnd:  Gcsdtichte 
des  Hochsti/ls  Fulda,  Francfort,  1862  ;  Gegex- 
BAUR  :  Das  Kloster  Fulda  im  Karolingerzeitalter, 
Fulda,  1873  ;  Werner  :  Bonifachts,  Leipzig, 
187-").  KLVPFEL. 

FULGENTIUS  FERRANDUS,  a  friend  or  rela- 
tion of  Fulgentius  of  Ruspe,  whom  he  followed 
into  banishment  under  Thrasimund,  king  of  the 
Vandals,  and  with  whom  he  lived  at  Cagliari,  in 
Sardinia,  until  523,  when  he  returned  to  Carthage, 
where  he  became  a  deacon,  and  died  before  517. 
He  left  a  Vita  Fidcientii  Ruspemis,  a  Breviatio 
Canon  urn  (of  great  interest  for  the  history  of 
canon  law),  and  a  number  of  Letters,  of  which 
especially  one  addressed  to  the  Roman  deacons 
Pelagius  and  Anatolius,  concerning  the  Three- 
Chapiters  controversy,  is  of  great  interest.  Ilis 
■works  were  first  edited  by  P.  F.  Chifflet,  Dijon, 
1649,  afterwards  often;  as,  for  instance,  in  Migne: 
Pair.  Lai.,  vol.  67. 

FULGENTIUS  OF  RUSPE,  b.  at  Telepte,  a 
city  of  North  Africa,  468 ;  d.  at  Ruspe,  in  the 
province  of  Byzacena,  Jan.  1,  533;  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  senatorial  family,  and  was  edu- 
cated for  a  brilliant  political  career,  but  felt 
himself  so  strongly  drawn  towards  a  life  of  de- 
votion, seclusion,  and  asceticism,  that  he  eutei-ed 
a  monastery,  very  much  against  the  wishes  of 
liis  family.  After  a  journey  to  Sicily,  Italy,  and 
Rome,  occasioned  by  the  Arian  King  Thrasi- 
mund's  persecutions  of  the  Catholics,  he  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Ruspe  in  508,  but  was  shortly 
after  banished,  together  with  sixty  other  Catholic 
bishops,  from  North  Africa.  He  settled  in  Sar- 
dinia, and  remained  there  till  .523,  when  the  death 
of  Thrasimund  allowed  him  to  return.  A  year 
before  his  death  he  retired  from  office,  and  spent 
his  last  days  in  a  monastery.  As  well  during  hi.s 
exile,  as  before  and  after,  he  developed  a  great 
literary  activity ;  and  his  writings,  among  which 
the  most  prominent  are  Contra  Arianos,  Ad  Mnni- 
mum,  Ad  Pilrum  Diaconiim  de  Incarnatione,  De 
Veritate  Prtcdestinationis,  etc.,  contributed  very 
much  to  stop  the  progress  of  Semi-Pelagianism, 
and  establish  a  modified  Augustinianism.  They 
were  first  published  liy  \\ .  Pirkheiiner  (.N'uremb., 
152(1),  and  most  completely  by  Mangeant  (Paris, 
1684),  also  in  Migne:  Patrol.  Latin.,  vol.  65. 
[See  Mally's  translation  of  his  Life  by  a  pupil. 
Wien,  1885.]  w.\genman.n. 

FULKE,  William,  D.D.,  an  able  Pm-itaii  divine; 
b.  in  London  .some  time  before  l.")38  (as  we  learn 
incidentally  from  his  own  statements);  d.  .\ugust, 
1589.  Kducated  at  Cambrirlge,  lie  became  fellow 
of  St.  Jolni's  College.  He  .studied  law  for  six 
years;  but,  turning  liis  attention  to  the  minis- 
try, he  espoused  the  Puritan  cause  and  became  a 
incst  zealous  chaiiiiiion  of  Puritanism.  A  sermon 
preached  in  1565  against  popish  habits  in  eccle- 
Biastical  establisliments  evoked  the  opposition  of 
the  university  authorities.  Removed  from  his 
office,  he  was  made,  in  succession,  recto  rof  Warhy 
and  Kedington.  After  a  trip  to  the  Continent, 
he  was  chosen  (l.")78)  Master  of  Pembroke  Hall 
and  Margaret  Professor  of  Divinity.    On  a  tablet 


erected  to  his  memory  at  Kedington  are  thee* 
two  lines  amongst  others :  — 

"  His  works  will  show  him  free  from  all  error, 
Rome's  foe,  Truth's  champion,  and  the  Remishes' 
terror." 

They  indicate  the  general  tenor  of  Fulke's  life. 
He  was  a  fearless  opponent  of  Romanism,  at 
different  times  being  engaged  in  public  disputa- 
tions with  Papists.  In  controversy  he  was  one 
of  the  ablest  divines  of  his  day.  His  principal 
works  are.  Confutation  of  a  lihelle,  etc.  (1571),  The 
Discovery  of  the  Dangerous  Rock  of  the  Popish 
Church  (1580),  Defence  of  the  sincere  and  true  transl. 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into  Engl,  against  the  Cavils 
of  Gregory  Martin  (1583,  recently  published  by  the 
Parker  Society,  Cambridge,  1843).  He  was  also 
the  author  of  some  works  against  astrology.  See 
Brook,  Lives  of  the  Puritan.'i,  I.  p.  385  sqq.,  Lond., 
1813,  and  the  Memoir  prefixed  to  the  volume  of 
the  Parker  Society. 

FULLER,  Andrew,  a  distinguished  Baptist  di- 
vine ;  was  b.  at  AVicken.  Cambridgeshire,  Feb.  6, 
1754;  d.  at  Kettering,  May  7, 1815.  He  received 
only  a  common-.school  education.  Joining  the 
church  at  sixteen,  he  exercised  his  gifts  occasion- 
ally at  religious  meetings,  and  was  ordained  (1775) 
pastor  of  the  Baptist  Church  in  Soham.  In  1782 
he  passed  to  the  church  at  Kettering.  He  was 
honored  with  the  degree  of  D.D.  by  Princeton 
and  Yale  Colleges,  but  never  used  the  title,  Mr, 
Fuller's  reputation  rests,  not  upon  his  pulpit 
achievements,  but  upon  his  services  as  a  theologi- 
cal writer,  and  a  jiromoter  of  Baptist  missionary 
efforts.  He  stood  in  intimate  relations  with  Carey, 
and  contributed  to  awaken  in  his  mind  an  inter- 
est in  the  heathen.  He  was  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  Baptist  Missionary  Society  in  a  back-parlor 
at  Kettering,  Oct.  2,  1792,  and  was  made  its  first 
secretai'y.  As  a  theological  writer,  one  of  his 
biographers  (Dr.  Ryland)  pronounces  him  "the 
most  judicious  and  able  theological  writer  that 
ever  l)elonged  to  the  Baptist  denomination."  Ho 
shared  with  Robert  Hall  and  John  Foster  a  first 
])lace  in  the  esteem  of  the  Baptists  of  his  day. 
His  principal  works  are  the  following.  The 
Gospel  Worthy  of  all  Acceptation,  a  work  which 
involved  him  in  a  protracted  controver.sy  of  nearly 
twenty  years.  In  opposition  to  hypei'-Calvinism, 
he  here  elaborates  the  principle  that  all  may  ajiply 
for  the  gospel,  confidently  expecting  to  receive  its 
benefits.  "  No  man  is  an  unbeliever,"  he  says, 
"  but  because  he  will  be  so."  The  Go.'ipel  its  otrn 
Witness,  an  able  criticism  upon  Deism,  and  reply 
to  such  writers  as  Thomas  Paine.  Tlie  Calvinis. 
tic  and  Socinian  Systems  Examined,  pronounced  by 
Robert  Hall  to  be  his  ablest  work.  E.rpository 
Notes  on  Genesis,  2  vols.  Diidogues  and  Litters 
hctveen  Crispus  and  Gains,  containing  discussions 
of  Total  Depravity  and  other  theological  topics. 

Lit.  —  Compteir  Works.  Am.  ed  ,  1833,  2  vols,, 
with  Alemoir  by  his  .son,  .\ndrew  Cunton  Puller; 
Lives  of  FuUeV,  by  his  friend  John  Hyi.aniv, 
D,D.  (Loud.,  1816),  J.  W.  Morri.i  (Lond.,  1830), 
and  Thomas  Kkins  Fuller,  his  grandson  (Lond., 
1863). 

FULLER,  Richard,  D.D.,  an  eloquent  Baj'tist 
preacher;  b.  in  Beaufort,  S.C.,  .Vpril  22.  ISnl; 
d.  in  B.iltimore,  Oct.  20,  1876,  from  a  malign:iiiti 
carbiiiii'le.  .Xfter  graduating  at  Harvard  (1821). 
he  [iractised  law  in  his  native  town,  where  he  sooi 


FULLER. 


845      FUNDAMENTAL  DOCTRINES. 


secured  a  lucrative  practice.  In  the  meeting's  of 
the  great  revivalist  Kev.  Daniel  Baker,  in  1H32, 
he  was  converted,  and  joined  the  Baptist  Church. 
•'  His  case  was  a  very  clear  and  delightful  one," 
is  an  entry  in  Mr.  Baker's  journal,  referring  to 
him.  He  was  ordained  the  same  year,  and  began 
his  ministry  in  Beaufort.  In  1M47  he  became 
pastor  of  the  Seventh  Baptist  Church  in  Balti- 
more, and  in  1871  removed  with  a  part  of  the 
congregation  to  the  fine  new  edifice  on  Eutaw 
Place.  Dr.  Fuller  was  a  man  of  fine  presence  of 
body,  and  endowments  of  mind.  He  was  a  born 
orator,  and  is  said  to  have  carried  off,  on  several 
occasions,  the  honors  with  Webster  and  Clay  on 
the  platform.  As  a  preacher  he  stood  in  the 
front  rank  of  the  most  eloquent  and  scriptural 
of  his  generation.  He  was  for  a  time  co-editor  of 
the  Baltimore  Herald,  and  published  Letters  on 
the  Roman  Chancer)/  (Bait.,  1840),  Baptism  and 
Communion  (Bait.,  1849),  and  a  number  of  ser- 
mons in  pamphlet  form.  See  Cutiidert  :  Life 
of  R.  Fuller,  N.Y.,  1879. 

FULLER,  Thomas,  D.D.,  a  learned  and  witty 
divine  and  church-historian  ;  b.  1GU8,  at  Aid- 
winkle,  Northamptonshire,  where  his  father  was 
rector;  d.  Aug.  16,  1661,  in  London.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  in  1631  was  made 
fellow  of  Sidney  College,  and  prebend  of  Salis- 
bury. This  year  he  issued  his  first  publication, 
David's  Hainous  Sinne,  Heartie  Repentance  and 
Heaoie  Punishment.  In  1634  he  was  made  rector 
of  Broad  Windsor,  and,  1641,  lecturer  of  the 
Savoy  in  London.  The  year  before,  he  published 
at  Cambridge  The  Hist,  of  the  Hobj  War,  an  ac- 
count of  the  Crusades,  and  in  1642  The  Hist,  of 
the  Holy  and  Prophane  Stales,  an  interesting  col- 
lection of  essays  and  biographies.  Fuller  was 
a  Royalist ;  and  in  1643  he  entered  the  Royal  army 
as  chaplain,  but  kept  a  prudent  silence  during 
the  Commonwealth  period.  During  his  service 
in  the  army,  he  began  the  investigations  which 
resulted  in  a  work,  [lublished  after  the  author's 
death  (1602),  entitled  History  of  the  Worthies  of 
England,  Endeat'oured  by  Tho'  Fuller,  D.D.  The 
subject  matter  of  this  work  is  treated  under 
the  several  counties  of  England  and  Wales,  and 
includes  the  most  varied  information  about  their 
products,  animals,  buildings,  battles,  proverbs, 
eminent  men,  etc.  In  1650  appeared  his  Pisgah 
sight  of  Palestine  and  the  Confines  thereof,  with  the 
history  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  acted  thereon. 
Fuller  was  presented  with  the  living  of  Waltham 
Abbey  in  1648,  and  at  the  Restoration,  in  1660, 
was  re-admitted  to  his  lectureship  in  the  Savoy, 
and  made  chaplain  in  extraordinary  to  the  king. 

In  1656  Fuller  published  his  great  work,  Church 
Hist,  of  Britain  from  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ  to 
the  year  1648,  to  which  was  subjoined  a  Hist,  of 
the  University  of  Cambridge.  This,  as  all  of  his 
works,  abounds  in  quaint  humor  and  epigram- 
matic sayings.  He  was  an  inveterate  punster, 
and  delighted  in  striking  alliterations,  but  was 
also  recognized  by  his  contemporaries  as  a  "  per- 
fect walking  library."  His  memory  is  also  re- 
ported to  have  performed  almost  incredible  feats. 
He  was  able  to  repeat  five  hundred  strange  words 
after  hearing  them  twice,  and  on  one  occasion 
undertook  to  repeat  backwards  and  forwards  in 
regular  order  all  the  shop-signs  along  the  street 
from   Temple   Bar  to  Cheapside,   after  passing 


them  once,  and  acconijilished  it.  Coleridge  says 
that  "he  was  incomparably  the  most  sensible, 
the  least  prejudiced,  great  man  of  an  age  that 
boasted  a  galaxy  of  great  men." 

Lit.  —  Amongst  the  works  by  Fuller  not  al- 
ready mentioned  are  his  devotional  manuals,  Good 
Thoughts  in  Bad  Times  (1645),  Good  Thoughts  in 
Worse  Times  (1647),  Mixt  Contemplations  in  Better 
Times  (1660) ;  all  bearing  upon  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  Royalist  cause,  but  containing  thoughts  for 
all  times,  and  whicli  to-day  are  read  with  delight 
and  profit.  Most  of  Fuller's  works  have  been 
republished  in  this  century.  The  best  edition  oi 
his  Church  History  is  that  of  J.  Nichols,  3  vols., 
Lond.,  1868;  Of  the  Worthies  of  England,  by  Ni-r- 
TAi.L,  3  vols.,  Lond.,  1840.  See  tlie  biograjihies 
by  Russell  (Lond.,  1844)  and  of  Bailey  (Lond., 
1874),  tiie  latter  an  exhaustive  work. 

FUNCK,  Johann,  b.  at  Wbhrd,  a  suburb  of 
Nuremberg,  Feb.  7,  1518;  beheaded  at  Kimigs- 
berg,  Oct.  28.  1566 ;  studied  theology  at  Witten- 
berg, and  was  appointed  jireacher  in  his  native 
town  in  1539,  but  was  dismissed  by  the  magis- 
trate of  Nuremberg  in  1547,  on  the  approach  of 
the  emperor.  In  the  same  year  he  entered  the 
service  of  Duke  Albrecht  of  Prussia ;  was  made 
court-preacher  in  1549;  became  one  of  Osiander's 
most  ardent  adherents,  and  after  his  death  the 
leading  representative  of  his  ideas,  and  exercised, 
through  his  intimacy  with  the  duke,  a  decisive 
influence  on  all  affairs  in  I'russia,  political  as 
well  as  ecclesiastical.  Though  he  in  1556  became 
reconciled  with  the  Wittenberg  theologians,  and 
in  1563  actually  retracted  what  he  had  written  in 
defence  of  Osiander,  he  was,  nevertheless,  in 
1566,  put  under  the  accusation  of  heresy,  and  dis- 
turbance of  the  peace,  and  condemned.  Of  liis 
Chronologia  ab  orlte  cond.,  the  first  part  appeared 
in  1545,  the  rest  in  1552.  See  C.  A.  Hase  : 
Herzog  Albrecht  ron  Preussen  u.  sein  Hofprediger 
[Fuiick],  Leipzig,  1879.  W.  MOLLEK. 

FUNDAMENTAL  DOCTRINES  OF  CHRIS- 
TIANITY. The  distinction  between  fundamental 
and  non-fundamental  doctrines  is  a  useful  one, 
as  adapted,  by  bringing  out  in  sharp  outline  the 
great  cardinal  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  to 
unify  the  various  parts  of  the  Christian  Church, 
and  to  develop  a  spirit  of  tolerance  towards  each 
other  with  regard  to  the  articles  of  lesser  impor- 
tance in  which  they  disagree. 

History.  —  The  Roman-Catholic  Church  rejects 
the  distinction  (Wetzer  and  Welte,  art.  Dogma, 
III.  pp.  195  sq.)  on  the  ground  that  it  resolves 
doctrines  into  essential  or  necessary,  and  unessen- 
tial or  incidental.  Although  it  is  not  universally 
made  by  Protestant  theologians,  it  early  came 
into  use.  Ilunnius,  in  1626,  was  the  first  to  use 
the  distinction  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  his 
De  fundamentali  dissensu  doctrince  Luth.  et  Calvin. 
(the  fundamental  difference  in  the  Lutheran  and 
Calvinistic  theologies).  He  was  followed  by 
Quenstiidt  and  others,  and  recently  by  Philippi 
{Glaubenslehre,  i.  73  sqq. ),  who,  starting  from  the 
atonement  as  the  constitutive  principle,  defines 
as  fundamental  all  articles  which  necessarily  fol- 
low from  it. 

The  distinction  was  urged  by  the  younger  Turre- 
tin,  and  in  England  by  Chillingworth,  Stillingfleet, 
Waterland,  and  others  in  the  interest  of  ecclesias- 
tical toleration ;  Lord  Bacon  having  before,  in  hi» 


FUNDAMENTAL  DOCTRINES.  846   FUNDAMENTAL  DOCTRINES. 


.(4rfca7iCf»i<'n(q/'/.e";7i//i(;.  insisted  upon  distinguish- 
ing "  between  points  fundamental  and  points  " 
■which  he  calls  "  points  of  further  perfection." 
The  Parliament  of  16.3.3  voted  indulgence  to  all 
who  professed  the  "Fundamentals,"  and  appoint- 
ed a  commission,  consisting  of  Archbishop  Ussher 
(who  resigned,  his  place  being  filled  by  Baxter), 
Owen,  Goodwin,  and  others,  to  define  what  these 
■were.  Baxter  was  for  holding  to  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  the  Creed,  and  the  Ten  Commandments. 
But  the  commission  drew  up  sixteen  articles, 
which  were  presented  to  Parliament,  and  only 
missed  ratification  hy  its  sudden  dissolution. 
Xeal  (Hist.  Puritans.  II.  pp.  143  sq.,  Harpers'  ed.) 
gives  a  full  account  of  this  movement.  The  vary- 
ing importance  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian 
system  and  the  growing  tolerance  of  this  century 
have  produced  the  conviction  that  it  is  desirable 
to  emphasize  the  more  important  articles.  The 
Evangelical  Alliance,  which  was  organized  1846, 
on  the  assumption  that  agreement  in  fundamen- 
tals is  a  sufficient  foundation  for  Catholic  com- 
munion, adopts  a  constitution  of  nine  articles. 

Definition. — The  distinction  of  fundamentals 
and  non-fundamentals  is  based  upon  the  valid 
assumption  that  some  articles  are  of  greater 
importance  than  others.  It  is  justified  by  the 
example  of  Paul  in  his  teaching  over  against 
the  Judaizing  tendencies  of  his  time.  The  fol- 
lowing distinctions  will  help  us  in  defining  the 
term  :  — 

1.  Fundamental  when  applied  to  articles  does 
not  imply  that  they  are  the  only  articles  which  it 
is  expedient  or  desirable  for  a  church  to  teach, 
and  the  individual  to  believe.  The  apostasy  of 
the  angels,  the  eternal  duration  of  future  pun- 
i.shraent,  the  single  or  double  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  (the  Filioque  clause  being  rejected  by 
the  Greek  Church),  may  all  be  scriptural  doc- 
trines, and  ought  to  be  believed,  but  are  not 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity  (although 
some  would  so  consider  the  endlessness  of  future 
punishment). 

2.  The  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity 
are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  distinctive  tenets 
of  a  denomination.  Denominational  differences 
may  and  often  do  emliody  the  truth;  but  the 
mode  of  baptism,  for  example,  or  the  particular 
theory  of  the  decrees  (however  valuable  a  right 
view  on  this  subject  may  lie  as  a  con.structive 
principle  in  dogmatic  theology),  or  the  special 
form  of  ecclesiastical  polity,  caimot  be  regarded 
as  fundamental.  Christianity  might  not  do  as  well 
with  one  class  of  opinions  on  the.se  subjects  (say, 
baptism  by  sjirinkling,  supralapsarianism,  an<l 
the  congregational  princiiile  of  church  govern- 
ment) as  it  would  with  another ;  but  it  would 
still  remain  radically  imchanged,  and  continue 
to  exert  its  beneficent  influi'nce. 

3.  The  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity 
are  not  synonymous  with  the  doctrines  es.sontial 
to  salvation.  The  latter  depend  upon  the  answer 
of  the  individual  to  two  questions,  —  "  \Vhat 
think  ye  of  Christ?"  and  "What  must  I  do  to 
be  saved?  "  A  lirin;/  faith  in  Christ  .is  the  Sent 
of  God  for  the  salvation  of  the  world  is  essen- 
tial to  salvation,  and  sullicient  for  it  (John  vi. 
47;  Acts  xvi.  31).  The  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Christianity  are  broader  in  their  scope.  They 
<«)ncern  it  as  an  objective  system  of  truth. 


4.  Again  :  the  term  fundamental  is  not  applied 
to  doctrines  which  distinguish  Christianity  from 
natural  religion.  There  is  a  distinction  between 
the  fundamentals  of  religion  and  those  of  Chris- 
tianity. Religion  is  possible  on  the  basis  of  the 
Five  Articles  of  Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury ;  but 
the  superstructure  of  the  Christian  religion  needs 
a  broader  and  deeper  foundation.  But  some  of 
the  tenets  which  Christianity  has  in  common 
with  natural  religion,  as  the  existence  of  God. 
are  fundamental  to  the  former. 

5.  The  Apostles'  Creed,  though  a  most  venera- 
ble and  excellent  summary  of  the  Christian's 
faith,  is  not  a  perfect  statement  of  the  funda- 
mental articles  of  Christianity.  On  the  one 
hand,  it  brings  out  only  by  implication  the  doc- 
trine of  atonement,  passes  over  entirely  the 
Scriptures,  and  on  the  other,  as  Waterland  puts 
it,  is  in  this  connection  "peccant  in  excess." 

The  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
then,  are  those  which  lie  at  the  basis  of  the 
Christian  system,  and  without  which  its  professed 
and  comprehensive  aim  (the  glory  of  God  and  the 
highest  welfare  of  man)  could  not,  by  logical  ne- 
cessity and  with  subjective  certainty,  be  evolved. 
Waterland's  definition  is  as  follows :  "  Funda- 
mental, as  applied  to  Christianity,  means  .some- 
thing so  necessary  to  its  being,  or  at  least  its 
well-being,  that  it  could  not  subsist,  or  maintain 
itself  tolerably,  without  it"  (v.  p.  74).  And 
again :  "  Whatever  verities  are  found  to  be 
plainly  and  directly  essential  to  the  doctrine  of 
the  Gospel  covenant  are  fundamental  "  (p.  103). 
According  to  Sherlock  (  rindicalion,  etc.,  p.  256), 
they  are  doctrines  "  which  are  of  the  essence  of 
Christianity,  and  without  which  the  whole  build- 
ing and  superstructure  must  fall." 

The  most  fundamental  doctrine  of  Christianity 
is  salvation  by  Christ;  and  the  principle  will 
hold  good,  that  whatever  doctrine  stands  in  most 
necessary  connection  therewith  is  the  most  fun- 
damental. The  statement  in  Rom.  i.  1-6  (the 
divine  existence.  Scriptures,  incarnation,  grace, 
faith,  and  resurrection)  approaches  nearest  of  any 
passage  in  Scripture  to  a  comprehensive  enumera- 
tion of  the  fundamental  doctrines.  ^Vaterland 
enumerated  seven  ;  as  follows:  (1)  The  Creator, 
or  Covenanter;  (2)  Covenant;  (3)  Charter  of 
the  Covenant,  or  Sacred  Writ;  (4)  Mediator; 
(5)  Repentance  and  a  holy  life;  (6)  Sacraments; 
(7)  Two  future  states.  The  central  princijile 
from  which  he  started  w<as  the  Christian  cove- 
nant. The  sacraments,  however,  can  hardly  lie 
regarded  as  a  fundamental.  AVe  prefer  the  fol- 
lowing statement :  (1)  The  Fatherhood  of  God; 
(2)  The  Trinity;  (3)  The  incarnation;  (4)  Atone- 
ment; (5)  Faith  or  union  with  Christ,  the  condi- 
tion of  man's  best  being;  (6)  The  immortality 
of  the  soul ;  (7)  The  Scriptures  the  summary  of 
the  divine  jiurposes  concerning  man. 

In  defining  what  is  fundamental  in  Chris- 
tianity, it  is  ecjually  desirable  to  .avoid  a  narrow 
and  a  latitudinarian  tendency.  Certain  com- 
munions insist  upon  regarding  episcopacy  and 
the  authority  of  the  church  as  fundamental. 
Individuals  miglit  insist  upon  particular  views 
of  (jriginal  sin,  the  divine  decrees,  the  inspiration 
of  the  .Scriptures,  or  tlie  duration  and  nature  of 
future  punishment.  But  few  of  these  are  touched 
upon  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  noiu'  delinitclj 


FUNERAL. 


847 


FUTURE    PUNISHMENT. 


■answered.  Divergence  of  view  on  these  points  is 
of  inconsi(lera})le  importance  in  comparison  with 
the  cardinal  doctrines  of  God's  existence,  the 
Messiah's  work,  saving  faith,  tlie  soul's  immortal- 
ity, and  the  sufficiency  of  Scripture  for  human 
illumination  and  guidance,  and  cannot  limit  the 
perpetuity  of  Christianity.  It  is,  however,  not  to 
be  forgotten  that  a  church  may  profess  these  fun- 
damental doctrines,  and  yet  so  combine  funda- 
mental errors  as  to  modify,  if  not  to  completely 
destroy  their  force.  Of  such  errors,  as  held  in 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  Sherlock  saya  (p. 
314)  that  "all  the  wit  of  man  cannot  reconcile 
thera  with  the  Christian  faith."  On  the  other 
hand,  a  religious  communion  (as  the  strict  Unita- 
rians or  Universalists)  may  deny  fundamental 
truths,  and  yet  sincerely  accept  Christianity  as  the 
only  and  perfect  religion,  and  Christ  as  the  Lord 
and  Saviour. 

Lit. — J.  A.  Turretin  :  A  Diswurae  cone,  the 
Fundamental  Articles  in  Religion,  Lond.,  1720  ; 
Chillingworth  :  Melig.  of  Protestants  (I.  4,  5)  ; 
Sherlock:  Vindication  of  Bp.  titillingjieet,  Lond., 
168S  (eh.  V.  pp.  248-316);  Waterla'nd  :  A  Dis- 
course of  Fundamentals,  Lond.,  1735  (Oxf.  ed., 
1843,  vol.  V.  pp.  73-104) ;  Tholuck  :  J).  Luth. 
Lehre  v.  d.  fundamental  Artiheln,  in  Deutsche  Zeit- 
■schr.  f.  christl.  Theol.,  1851  ;  Luthardt  :  Dogma- 
tik,  §15 ;  and  art.  Dogma,  in  WETZBRand  Weltb. 

D.    S.    SCHAFF. 

FUNERAL.     SeeBtJKlAL. 

FURSEUS  (Fursey),  b.  of  noble  parents  in  Ire- 
land, d.  at  Maceries  or  Mazeroelles  (modern  Me- 
ziferes,  in  Ardennes),  120  miles  n.e.  of  Paris,  about 
650.  He  was  educated  in  the  monastery  of  Inchi- 
quin,  an  island  in  Lough  Corrib,  3  miles  north  of 
Galway.  He  gathered  a  school  at  Rathmat  (now, 
probably,  Killursa),  and  there  built  a  church.  At 
some  later  period  he  removed  to  Munster  to  labor 
among  his  relatives,  and  while  with  them,  in  C27, 
he  had  his  first  visions,  which  occurred,  however, 
when  he  was  very  seriously  ill.  The  publication 
of  these  visions  had  a  very  important  effect  in 
developing  and  fixing  the  eschatological  ideas  of 
the  Middle  Age.  Indeed,  his  visions  lay  at  the 
basis  of  Dante's  Dicina  Gommediit.  When  he  re- 
moved to  England  is  uncertain,  but  on  coming  to 
East  Anglia  he  was  kindly  received  by  King  Sige- 
bert,  and  preached  successfully.  He  also,  about 
633,  built  a  monastery  at  Cuobheresburg,  i.e., 
Cnobher's  Town  (now  Burghcastle,  in  Suffolk). 
Bede,  in  his  Eccles.  Bist.,  iii.  19,  mentions  his 
visions  and  gives  particulars  of  one,  in  which  he 
was  in  imagination  lifted  above  the  world  and 
then  told  to  look  down,  when  he  saw  four  fires  in 
the  air.  These  were  explained  to  be  respectively 
falsehood  (when  we  do  not  fulfil  that  which  we 
promised  in  baptism) ;  covetousncss  (when  we  pre- 
fer the  riches  of  the  world  to  the  love  of  heavenly 
things);  discord  (when  we  make  no  difficulty  to 
offend  the  minds  of  our  neighbors  even  in  need- 
less things)  ;  and  iniquity  (when  we  look  upon  it 
as  no  crime  to  rob  and  to  defraud  the  weak). 
These  were  the  fires  appointed  to  consume  the 
world. 

When  Penda,  King  of  the  Mercians,  the  pagan 
scourge,  brought  fire  and  sword  around  Cnobhor- 
■esburg,  Fursey  and  his  brothers  Paelan  and  Utan, 
likewise  monks,  fled  to  France,  and,  being  honor- 
ably entertained  by  Clovis  II.,  King  of  the  Franks, 


built  the  monastery  of  Lagny,  6  miles  north  of 
Paris,  on  the  Manie,  on  land  given  liim  by  Erchin- 
oald,  mayor  under  Clovis.  The  fame  of  Lagny 
reached  Ireland  and  attracted  monks  from  thence. 
Shortly  before  he  died  Fursf^y  had  a  great  desire 
to  revisit  some  of  the  clmrches  he  had  founded  ill 
the  different  countries  of  Iiis  residence  and  labor. 
Accordingly  he  started  and  went  in  a  northeast- 
erly direction.  At  the  modern  Mezrif'res  he  was 
taken  ill  and  died.  His  body  was  brought  to 
Perowne,  about  65  miles  to  the  west  tjy  north,  and 
there  buried.  His  tomlj  became  a  favorite  place 
of  pilgrimage  from  all  parts  of  Gaul  and  Britain. 
Many  miracles  were  said  to  have  been  wrought 
there. 

His  life  was  written  between  670  and  675,  and 
is  still  extant.  See  Surius,  De  proh.  sanct.  vit.,  i. 
259-263.  Cf.  O'Hanlon,  Irish  Saints,  i.  224;  also 
Act.  Sanct.,  Jan.  10,  vol.  3;  Mabillon,  Act.  Sanct. 
0.  8.  B.  ad  a.  650. 

FIJRST,  Julius,  Hebrew  lexicographer ;  b.  at 
Zerkowo,  Posen,  May  12,  1805 ;  d.  in  Leipzig,  Feb. 
9,  1873.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  Posen,  and  Bres- 
lau,  and  in  1864  became  professor  at  Leipzig.  He 
was  of  Jewish  descent,  and  won  fame  by  his  Orien- 
tal researches.  One  of  his  theories  was  that  tri- 
literal  should  be  reduced  to  biliteral  roots.  This 
idea  is  now  generally  discarded.  In  consequence 
of  this  and  other  philological  notions,  his  great 
Hebrdisches  u.  Chalditisches  Ilandwiirterhueh  (Leip- 
zig, 1857-61,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1863,  3d  ed.  by  Vic- 
tor Ryssel,  1876.  Eng.  trans,  by  Samuel  Davidson, 
Leipzig,  1865,  1866,  4th  ed.,  1871)  is  not  gener- 
ally considered  as  equal  to  Gesenius's.  Probably 
his  best  work  was  upon  his  Concordantim  Libr. 
Sacr.  V.  T.  Hth.  et  Chid.  fLeipzig,  1837-40),  in 
which  he  was  aided  by  Franz  Delitzsch,  as  he 
handsomely  acknowledges.  See  Concordance. 
Among  his  other  works  (all  published  in  Leipzig) 
are  :  Bihliotheca  Judaira,  1849-03,  3  vols. ;  Gesch. 
d.  Kariierthums  (said  to  be  very  inaccurate),  1862- 
65,  2  vols. ;  Oesch.  d.  bih.  Lit.  u.  d.  j'ad.-hell. 
Schriftthums,  1867-70,  2  vols.;  and  Kanon  d.  A. 
T.  n'ach  d.  Ueberlief.in  Talmud  v.  Midrasch,  1868. 
Fiirst's  books  evince  great  learning,  but  must  be 
used  with  caution,  for  they  are  not  reliable. 

FUTURE  PUNISHMENT.  Belief  in  the  punish- 
ment after  death  of  siu  committed  in  this  life  is 
well-nigh  universal.  It  accords  with  instinctive 
justice,  and  is  one  of  the  bases  of  the  doctrine  of 
a  future  existence.  But  as  to  the  nature  and  du- 
ration of  that  punishment  there  is  great  diver- 
gency. The  Old  Testament  gives  little  information 
m  its  eschatological  portions,  although  there  was 
a  belief  in  a  future  state  and  in  some  sort  of  pun- 
ishment for  the  wicked.  The  New  Testament  is 
largely  taken  up  with  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom, 
and  pays  only  passing  attention  to  those  who  live 
outside  of  it,  but  the  overwhelming  majority  of 
Christians  have  always  believed,  and  their  creeds 
have  well-nigh  unanimously  maint.ained,  that  the 
New  Testament  plainly  teaches  that  the  pun- 
ishment of  those  outside  the  kingdom  is  endless 
and  conscious.  This  opinion  was  held  by  the 
early  Fathers,  who  had.  however,  gross  views  on 
this  subject.  Conceiving  that  the  life  of  the 
wicked  after  death  was  necessarily  carried  on  in  a 
place,  they  set  forth  that  place  as  full  of  the  cries 
of  woe.  Fire  was  commonly  represented  as  the 
instrument  of  punishment.     But  to  Origen  (185- 


FUTURE    STATE. 


848 


FUTURE    STATE. 


254)  the  punishment  was  remedial  or  disciplinary, 
and  when  its  end  was  accomplished  the  soul  was 
freed  from  it.  He,  moreover,  considered  this  pun- 
ishment as  mental,  such  as  the  sense  of  separation 
from  God,  remorse  of  conscience  over  committed 
sin,  and  the  general  loss  of  all  peace  of  mind 
(Be  Principiis,  ii.  10).  When  we  come  down  to  a 
later  period  we  find  increasing  grossness  in  the 
conception  of  the  pains  of  the  damned,  although 
Lactantius  (4th  cent.)  and  Gregory  Nazianzen 
(330-390)  are  exceptions  ;  and  increasing  outspo- 
kenness or  conviction  of  their  eternity.  Arnobius 
{Adv.  Gentes,  ii.,  36,  61)  maintained  that  these 
pains  would  cease  because  the  sufferer  would  be 
ultimately  annihilated.  Origenian  restorationism 
was  generally  condemned.  The  great  Augustine 
(353—430)  taught  that  there  were  degrees  in  the 
punishment  ;  the  mildest  degree  he  assigned  to 
those  who  had  died  in  infancy  unbaptized.  The 
Schoolmen  mapped  out  the  unseen  universe, 
and  made  hell  to  consist  of  different  departments. 
Its  punishments  were  frightful,  an  endless  repe- 
tition of  the  cruelties  of  the  Inquisition.     Dante 


borrowed  his  descriptions  of  them  in  large  part; 
from  Thomas  Aquinas.  The  modern  Roman 
Catholic  Church  and  the  orthodox  Protestant 
churches  agree  in  maintaining  the  essential  points 
of  the  historic  creed  upon  this  tenet — viz.,  the 
eternity  and  the  severity  of  future  punishment. 

In  opposition  to  this  view  there  are  three.  First, 
the  absolute  denial  of  all  future  punishment. 
This  was  preached  by  the  elder  Ballou  (1771-1852) 
as  true  Universalism  ;  but  it  has  few  advocates- 
to-day.  Second,  punishment  is  disciplinary  and 
remedial,  and  therefore  that  when  the  divine  pur- 
pose is  accomplished,  the  sinner,  purified  by  suf- 
fering, is  restored  to  the  divine  favor.  This  i» 
the  doctrine  of  Restorationism  or  the  Apokalastasis 
(q.v.).  Third,  eternal  life  is  the  gift  of  God  ;  it 
is  not  given  to  those  who  die  in  wilful  rebellion 
against  God  ;  such  never  live  in  any  true  sense, 
but  are  punished  while  they  exist,  and  finally  be- 
come extinct.  This  is  the  theory  of  Annihila- 
tionism  or  Conditional  Immortality.  See  Pun- 
ishment for  literature  and  further  discussion. 

FUTURE  STATE.     See  Eschatology. 


GABBATHA. 


849 


GADARA. 


G. 


GAB'BATHA  (John  xix.  13),  an  Aramaic 
•word  si,i;nifying  "  a  hill,  or  elevated  spot  of 
ground."  The  Greek  name,  h.06aTpuTov,  means 
"pavement;"  and,  as  the  two  words  occur  to- 
jfether,  we  are  probably  to  understand  that 
Pilate's  tribunal  was  erected  in  the  open  air, 
upon  a  rising  ground,  the  top  of  which  was  laid 
with  tessellated  pavement.  Ewald  proposed  to 
give  to  xn3J  the  same  meaning  as  the  Greek 
}.iedcTp(jTov,  by  deriving  it  from  a  root,  j;3J,  with 
the  meaning  of  J?3p  (Aramaic,  to  insert).  But,  as 
Weiss  in  IMeyer  in  loco  says,  "  This  is  too  precari- 
•ou.s  a  derivation." 

CABLER,  Johann  Philipp,  one  of  the  promi- 
nent rationalists  of  his  day;  b.  at  Francfort, 
June  4,  1753 ;  d.  at  Jena,  Feb.  17,  1826 ;  profess- 
or of  theology  at  Altorf  1785,  and  at  Jena  1804. 
His  principal  work  is  his  edition  of  Eichhorn's 
Urf/esc/iickle,  to  which  he  wrote  an  introduction 
and  notes,  Altorf,  1790-9;^,  2  vols.  As  editor  of 
various  theological  periodicals,  he  wrote  a  great 
number  of  minor  essays,  of  which  a  selection 
was  made  by  his  sons,  Ulm,  1831,  in  2  vols. 
A  memoir  was  written  by  W.  ScHRiixER,  Jena, 
1827.  He  was  a  man  of  ceaseless  activity,  stain- 
less life,  and  profound  piety.  His  rationalism 
was  of  a  sober  and  reverential  type,  like  that 
of  Herder's.  HENKE. 

CA'BRIEL  (man  of  God),  the  angel  who  ex- 
plained to  Daniel  the  vision  of  the  ram  and  the 
he-goat,  predicted  concerning  the  Seventy  Weeks 
(Dan.  viii.  IG,  ix.  21),  announced  the  births  of 
John  and  Jesus  (Luke  i.  19,  20),  and  was,  ac- 
cording to  Enoch  (chap,  ix.),  one  of  the  four 
great  archangels  (Gabriel,  INIichael,  Uriel,  and 
Raphael).  He  figures  prominently  in  post>bibli- 
cal  Jewish  literature.  Pseudo-Jonathan  declares 
that  he  was  the  man  who  directed  Joseph  to  his 
brethren  (Gen.  xxxvii.  15),  and  also,  with  Mi- 
chael, Uriel,  Jophiel,  Jephepliiah,  and  the  Metra- 
tron,  buried  Moses.  The  Targum  on  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  21  names  him  as  the  angel  who  smote  the 
host  of  Sennacherib.  In  the  Koran  he  becomes 
the  medium  of  divine  revelation  ;  and  so  Moham- 
medans call  him  the  "  Holy  Spirit,"  and  "  Spirit 
of  Truth."  He  is  upon  the  calendar  of  the 
Greek,  Coptic,  and  Armenian  churches. 

GABRIEL  SIONITA,  b.  at  Edden,  a  village  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  1577;  d.  in  Paris,  1648;  was 
educated  in  the  Maronite  college  in  Rome,  and 
appointed  professor  of  Oriental  language  at  Col- 
lege de  France  in  1614;  furnished  the  Syriac 
and  Arabic  versions  to  Le  Jay's  polyglot  Bible, 
and  wrote  several  works  in  Arabic,  Latin,  and 
Italian  ;  as,  for  instance,  Dottrina  Christiana  ad  nso 
de'  fideli  orientali  (1668),  and  an  Arabic  grammar. 

CAD,  the  name  of  a  divinity  only  once  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  Testament,  in  Isa".  Ixv.  11  [in 
the  A.  v..  Gad  is  translated  "  troop  "] ;  but  it  was 
evidently  adored  in  Canaan,  as  the  name  Baal- 
Gad  (e.g..  Josh.  xi.  17)  testifies,  as  do  also  allu- 
sions in  the  Mishna,  in  Jacob  of  Sarug,  and  Isaac 
Antiochenus.  The  Hebrew  word  gad  meant 
"luck;"  and,  as  it  was  connected  with  the  divini- 


ty, the  latter  must  have  been  considered  a  friend 
to  man,  and  therefore  prayed  to  for  luck.  Per- 
haps a  trace  of  its  general  use,  in  the  sense  of 
"luck,"  is  in  the  exclamation  of  Leah  (Gen. 
XXX.  11)  and  in  the  name  Gaddiel  (Num.  xiii. 
10).  Some  would,  upon  insufficient  grounds, 
identify  Gad  with  the  planet  Jupiter;  cf.  Bau- 
dissin,  Jahve  el  Moloch,  1874,  jip.  3(i  sq.  More 
probal)ly  Gad  was  related  to  the  Syro-Phoeni- 
cian  divinity  'At.  See  P.  Scholz  :  Giitzendiensl 
u.  Zauberwesen  hei  den  alten  Ilehrilern,  Regeus- 
burg,  1877,  pp.  409-411,  and  the  art.  Gad,  in 
Winer's,  in  Schenkel's,  and  in  Rikhm's  Bible 
Dictionaries.  WOLF  BAUDISSIN. 

GAD.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

GAD'ARA,  the  fortified  capital  of  Peraea,  stood 
on  a  hill  south  of  the  river  Hieromax,  or  Yar- 
muk,  the  ])re.sent  Sheri'at  el-Mandhur,  and  south- 
east of  the  southern  end  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
sixty  stadia  from  Tiljerias.  The  great  roads 
from  Tiberias  and  Scythopolis,  to  the  interior 
of  Petr.ta  and  to  Damascus,  passed  through  it. 
After  a  siege  of  ten  months,  it  was  taken  by 
Alexander  Jannfeus,  but  was  restored  by  Ponipey 
(Josephus,  Antiqu.,  XIV.  4,  4,  Bell.  Jud.,  I.  7,  7). 
On  numerous  coins  wliich  have  come  down  to  us 
the  years  are  counted  from  this  restoration.  It 
became  the  seat  of  one  of  the  five  sanhedrins 
established  by  Gabinius,  and  was  by  Augustus 
presented  to  Herod,  after  whose  death  it  was 
incorporated  with  the  Province  of  Syria,  though 
without  losing  entirely  its  autonomy.  It  formed 
part  of  the  so-called  Decapolis  (Matt.  iv.  25; 
Mark  v.  20,  vii.  .31);  and  March  4,  68,  it  was 
captured  by  Vespasian  (Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.,  IV. 
7,  3).  Most  of  its  inhabitants  were  heathens; 
and  the  gods  principally  worshipped  were  Zeus, 
Heracles,  Astarte,  and  Athene.  Afterwards  it 
became  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishopric.  The 
date  and  cause  of  its  destruction  are  unknown. 
Its  site  was  identified  with  the  present  village 
Umm  Keis,  by  Seetzen  and  Burckhardt.  The 
hot  sulphur-springs  in  the  neighborhood,  famous 
in  antiquity  under  the  name  of  Amatha  (Euse- 
bius,  Onomasticun,  Al/^ui)),  are  still  used.  It  may 
have  been  the  scene  of  the  miracle  of  our  Lord 
healing  the  demoniac  (Matt.  viii.  28;  Mark  v.  1; 
Luke  viii.  26);  though  the  text  is  somewhat 
doubtful,  varying  between  x^^pa  rCv  VaiSapriruv  and 
VepaayvCiv  and  Tep)tc7iviliv.  As  each  of  these  read- 
ings has  some  weighty  evidence  in  its  favor,  and 
a  mistake  either  the  one  w^ay  or  the  other  is 
easily  explained,  a  final  decision  can  hardly 
yet  be  pronounced.  [Dr.  William  M.  Thomson 
has  clearly  identified  the  biblical  Gergesa  with 
Chersa,  or  Khersa,  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  opposite  Medjel,  on  the  slope  of 
a  hill  in  Wady  Samakh,  within  forty  feet  of 
the  water's  edge.  The  narrative  of  the  evangel- 
ists corresponds  precisely  with  the  nature  of  the 
locality,  while  Gadara  is  too  far  distant  from 
the  sea.  See  W.  M.  Thomson  :  The  Land  and 
the  Book,  II.  pp.  34-38;  and  Schaff  :  Through 
Bible  Lands,  p.  346.]  KUETriCHI. 


GALATIA. 


SoO 


GALLAND. 


CALATIA,  a  Roman  proviuce  occupyiug  the 
central  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  and  bounded  north 
liy  Bithynia  and  Paphlagonia,  east  by  Pontus, 
south  by  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia,  and  west  by 
Phrygia.  It  was  inhabited  by  Celtic  tribes,  which 
in  "JTO  B.C.  were  brought  as  mercenaries  from 
Macedonia  into  Asia  Minor  by  Xicomedes,  king 
of  Bithynia.  Afterwards  they  made  war  on  their 
own  account,  and  devastated  the  country  in  all 
directions.  The  jjushiug  northwards  of  the  Ro- 
mans had  at  that  time  put  the  Celtic  masses  in 
motion  ;  and  new  swarms  continued  to  pour  into 
Asia  Minor,  until  in  229  B.C.  they  were  utterly 
defeated  by  Attains,  King  of  Pergainus,  and  com- 
pelled to  settle  down  in  peace  in  the  region  which 
then  received  its  name  from  them,  —  Galatia, 
Gaul.  There  they  lived  in  three  distinct  tribes, — 
the  Trocrai  with  the  cajiital  Taviuni,  the  Tectasa- 
ges  with  the  capital  Aucyra,  and  the  Tolistobogii 
with  the  capital  Pessinus,  but  uinted  first  under 
a  kind  of  republican  constitution,  afterwards 
under  a  king.  Augustus  made  the  country  a 
Roman  province  (25  B.C.)  ;  and  its  boundaries 
were  afterwards  several  times  changed.  But  in 
Galatia  proper  the  inhabitants  retained  the  stamp 
of  their  Celtic  origin,  both  in  language  and  cus- 
toms, down  to  the  time  of  Jerome.  Paul  visited 
the  country  twice,  —  on  his  second  and  on  his 
third  missionary  tour  (Acts  xvi.  6,  xviii.  2.3) ;  and 
to  the  congregations  founded  there  he  addressed 
one  of  his  most  important  epistles.  See  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Commentaries  on  Oalatians,  by  Meyer 
(6th  ed.  by  Sieffert,  1880),  Wieseler,  Lightfoot, 
Schaif,  especially  Lightfoot. 

GALATIANS,  Epistle  to  the.     See  P.^ul. 

GALBANUM,  one  of  the  ingredients  of  the 
sacred  perfume  prescribed  in  Exod.  xxx.  34.  It 
is  the  resin  of  a  plant  growing  in  Abyssinia,  Ara- 
bia, and  Syria,  obtained  by  an  incision.  It  is  fat, 
sticky,  of  bitter  strong  smell  and  taste :  at  first 
white,  it  becomes  yellow  with  white  spots.  AVhen 
burnt,  it  gives  out  a  disagreeable  smoke,  by  which 
snakes  and  vermin  are  driven  away.  It  is  uncer- 
tain from  what  plant  it  is  produced.  The  pres- 
ence of  such  an  unpleasant  suljstance  amid  the 
ingredients  of  the  incense  typified  that  sincere 
sorrowful  confession  of  sin  was  a  necessary  part 
of  all  prevailing  prayer.  W.  I'KESSEL. 

GALE,  Theophilus,  a  learned  nonconformist 
divine;  b.  in  1(528,  at  King's  Teignmouth,  Devon- 
shire, where  his  father  was  vicar  ;  d.  at  Newing- 
ton,  in  March,  1078.  lie  was  a  fellow  of  Mag- 
dalen College,  Oxford,  and  became  minister  at 
Winchester,  but  lost  his  place  at  the  Restoration 
for  refusing  to  submit  to  the  Act  of  I'niformity. 
He  went  abroad  as  tutor  to  the  son  of  Lord  Whar- 
ton ;  on  liis  return  was  elected  assistant  to  Mr. 
Rowe,  pastfjr  of  a  dissenting  congregation  in  Ilol- 
born.  He  left  his  theological  library  to  Harvard 
College.  Gale  is  known  bj'  a  curious  and  learned 
work,"  'f/ic  Court  of  the  Genlilea  (Oxford,  l()(;!l-77, 
3  vols.),  wliich  attempted  to  prove  that  Pagan 
philosophy  and  theology  were  a  distorted  repro- 
duction of  biblical  truth,  or,  to  use  his  own  words, 
that  "  Pythagoras'  College,  Plato's  Academy. 
Aristotle's  I'cripatum,  Zeno's  Stoa,  and  Kpicvirus' 
Gardens  were  all  watered  with  rivulets,  wliich, 
though  in  themselves  corrupt,  were  originally 
derived  from  the  sacred  fountain  of  Siloam." 
&mong  his  other  works  were,  The  True  Idea  of 


Jansenism  (1669),  Anatomy  of  Infidelity  (1672), 
Idea  Theoiof/.  (1673).     See  Wood:  Alhen.  Oxon. 

GALE,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  classical 
scholar  and  divine ;  b.  at  Scruton,  Yorkshire. 
1636  ;  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge  : 
regius  professor  of  Greek  (1666)  ;  and  Dean  of 
York  (1697),  where  he  died  April  S,  1702.  His 
principal  works  were  Ojiuscnia.  Mythol.,  elhica  et 
physica,  Gr.  et  Lat.  (Camb.,  1671),  and  Historic^ 
Britann..  Saxon. yAnr/to-Dan.  ScriptoresXV.  (Oxf., 
1691).  containing  Gildas,  Alcuin,  etc. 

GAL  ILEE.     .See  Palesti.nk. 

GALILEE,  Sea  of.     See  Gk.sxesaret. 

GALILEO.     Sr.-  lN,;risrrioN-.  Urb.\x  VIIL 

GALL,  The  Monastery  of  St.,  was  founded  by 
St.  Gall,  an  Irish  monk,  and  pupil  of  St.  Colum- 
ban,  on  the  Steinaeh.  in  Switzerland.  He  built 
his  cell  in  the  thick  forest  there  about  613.  and 
gathered  around  him  a  number  of  hermits,  whcv 
lived  together  according  to  the  rule  of  St.  Colum- 
ban ;  he  died  Oct.  16,  627,  the  date  varies  be- 
tween  625  and  650.  Under  Otmar,  who  is  con- 
sidered the  first  abbot  of  St.  Gall  (720-759),  the 
institution  began  to  grow  very  rapidly.  He  sub- 
stituted the  rule  of  St.  Benedict  for  that  of  St. 
Columban,  erected  a  church  in  honor  of  St.  Gall, 
founded  a  hospital  for  lepers,  and  organized  the 
school,  afterwards  so  famous ;  as  early  as  771  a 
monk  of  the  monastery  wrote  a  life  of  its  patron. 
Under  Gozbert  (816-837)  the  monastery  was- 
exempted  from  the  authority  of  the  Bishop  of 
Constance,  and  made  a  free,  royal  abbey,  with 
right  to  elect  its  own  abbot.  He  rebuilt  the 
church,  and  parts  of  the  monastery,  in  a  magnifi- 
cent style.  Under  Salomon  111.'  (899-919)  the 
prosperity  of  the  institution  reached  its  height. 
Under  Xotker  Labeo  and  the  Ekkehards  the 
school  became  one  of  the  great  centres  of  learn- 
ing and  culture.  The  monks  of  St.  Gall  were- 
especially  famous  as  transcribers.  The  library 
was  one  of  the  greatest  in  the  world.  Many  clas- 
sical works  have  been  preserved  only  through 
copies  made  by  the  monks  of  St.  Gall ;  and  in 
artistic  respects  their  works  were  often  master- 
pieces. They  al.so  excelled  as  musicians,  proba- 
bly started  in  both  these  directions  by  the  Irish 
founders  of  the  abbey.  In  1413  the  city  of  St. 
Gall,  having  acquired  great  industrial  and  com- 
mercial importance,  revolted  against  the  abbot, 
and  obtained  its  freedom.  The  Reformation  the 
abbey  withstood  without  any  great  loss,  but  after 
that  period  its  occupation  was  gone.  In  posses- 
sion of  enormous  revenues,  it  lived  on,  quietly 
decaying,  until  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  when 
in  1798  it  was  secularized :  its  estates  were  con- 
fiscated, and  its  territory  formed  into  a  bishojv 
ric.  Sources  to  the  history  of  St.  Gall  are  found 
in  the  two  first  volumes  of  Monumcitta  Germa- 
niw,  and  in  Watte.nhacii,  Dtntsdi.  Geschichts- 
Qiicllen,  I.  See  Ii.dkkons  von  Aux  :  Geschichle 
d.  Kanlons  i>l.  G(dlen,  1810-13,  3  vols.  ;  FuANZ. 
Wkidmann  :  Geschichle  dir  Stiflslidiliolhek  St.  Gal- 
lens.  1811.  MKVEU  VON  KNOiNAU. 

GALLANDI,  Andrea,  b.  at  Venice,  Dec.  6,  1709 : 
d.  therc^  .Ian.  12,  1779;  was  abbot  of  the  congre- 
gation of  the  Oratorians,  and  published  Ijihlio- 
Ihica  velerum  I'atrum,  anlii/iinrtimnue  Scrljiloru?n 
'crlcslasticorum,  Venice,  1705-81, 14  vols,  fol.,  con- 
taining the  works  of  three  liundred  and  eighty 
authors. 


I 


GALLAUDBT. 


851 


QALLICANISM. 


CALLAUDET,  Thomas  Hopkins,  LL.D.,  the 
beginner  of  ileaf-niute  instruction  in  America; 
b.  at  rhilailelphia,  Dec.  10.  1787;  d.  at  Hartford, 
Sept.  0,  1851.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege 1805,  and  at  Andover  1811;  became  inter- 
ested in  deaf-mute  instruction ;  superintended 
the  organization  of  an  institution  at  Hartford  for 
the  purpose,  having  visited  Europe  in  1815  to 
study  existing  methods.  He  began  his  instruc- 
tions, with  Laurent  le  Clerc  (a  deaf-mute  taught 
by  Abbe  Sicard)  as  his  assistant,  April  15,  1817, 
■with  seven  pupils,  and  labored  assiduously  on 
new  lines,  and  successfully,  receiving  many  honors, 
until  1830,  when  ill  health  compelled  his  retire- 
ment from  the  headship,  although  he  continued 
to  be  one  of  the  directors.  He  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  seeing  similar  institutions  in  different 
parts  of  the  country,  and  the  instruction  greatly 
improved,  owing  to  his  investigations  and  those 
incited  by  him.  From  1838  to  his  death  he  was 
chaplain  of  the  Connecticut  Retreat  for  the  In- 
sane at  Hartford.  Among  his  publications  were 
six  volumes  of  Annals  of  the  Deaf  and  Dnmh, 
Hartford.  See  his  Biography  by  Heman  Hum- 
phrey, N.Y.,  1858.  —  Two  of  his  sons,  Thomas 
and  Edward  Miner,  have  also  won  an  interna- 
tional reputation  by  their  labors  for  deaf-mutes. 

GALLICAN  CONFESSION,  The  (Confessio 
Gallicana,  La  confession  de  foi  des  eglises  re- 
formees  de  France,  also  called  La  confession  de 
la  Rochelle),  was  adopted  by  the  first  national 
synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  France,  con- 
vened in  Paris  1559,  under  the  moderatorship  of 
Chandieu,  and  is  based  on  a  draft  sent  by  Calvin 
to  Fran(;ois  de  Morel.  It  was  printed  in  Geneva, 
and  generally  attached  to  the  French  Bible.  In 
1561,  during  the  Conference  of  Poissy,  it  was 
officially  presented  to  the  king,  Charles  IX.,  by 
delegates  from  all  the  Reformed  congregations  in 
France.  By  the  seventh  national  synod,  convened 
at  La  Rochelle  1571,  under  the  moderatorship  of 
Beza,  and  at  which  were  present  Jeanne  d'AIbret, 
queen  of  Navarre,  her  son  Henry  of  Beam,  the 
Prince  of  Conde,  Admiral  de  Coligny,  and  others, 
it  received  its  final  ratification.  Thi'ee  copies  of 
it  were  inscribed  on  parchment,  and  subscribed 
by  all  present,  —  one  for  Geneva,  one  for  Beam, 
and  one  for  La  Rochelle.  It  was  the  symbolical 
book  of  the  Fj-ench  Reformed  Church;  and,  up 
to  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  every 
minister  before  entering  his  office,  and  every  new 
member  before  entering  the  congregation,  had  to 
subscribe  to  it.  The  National  Synod  of  1872  did 
not  restore  its  authority,  but  gave  its  general 
assent  to  it  in  a  brief  summary  of  the  faith  as 
now  held  by  the  Reformed  Church  of  France. 
See  Sch.\ff:  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  i.  pp. 
490  sqq. 

CALLICANISM  denotes  that  spirit  of  nation- 
ality, which,  within  the  Church  of  France,  devel- 
oped a  peculiar  set  of  customs,  privileges,  maxims, 
and  views,  especially  with  respect  to  her  relations 
to  Rome.  Not  that  there  is  any  thing  like  a 
tendency  towards  heresy  or  schism  in  this  spirit, 
not  even  towards  independence  in  the  sense  of 
separation ;  but  there  is  a  feeling  of  freedom,  a 
consciousness  of  individual  development  from  an 
individual  historical  basis,  which  causes  resist- 
ance to  any  attempt  by  Rome  at  absorption  or 
amalgamation. 


Started  by  IrenKus,  there  arose  in  Gaul,  towards 
tlie  close  of  the  third  century,  a  church  community 
independent  of  Home,  but' by  no  means  indiffer- 
ent to  her  authority,  free,  and  yet  in  the  most 

intimate  co =ction  with   Rome.     A  number  of 

great  men  distinguished  for  piety  carried  this 
development  farther,  in  s]iite  of  the  turbulence 
and  barbarism  of  the  times;  and  the  monasteries 
with  their  flourishing  schools  aided  the  move- 
ment, until  finally  the  Gallo-Frankish  Church 
was  moulded  into  perfect  shape  by  tlie  powerful 
hands  of  Charlemagne ;  and  from  that  moment 
the  independence  of  the  French  Church,  meaning 
simply  her  national  individuality,  has  been  vin- 
dicated with  energy  and  decision  whenever  an 
able  king  or  parliament  or  bishop  appeared  ujion 
the  stage. 

Very  characteristic  in  this  respect  are  the  three 
decrees  of  Louis  IX.  (1226-70),  issued  1229,  1239, 
and  1270.  The  first  gives  in  its  introductory  part  a 
general  survey  of  the  Libertes  el  Jiiimunil('s  de 
I'Eglise  Gallicane ;  the  second  limits  the  bishop's- 
power  of  excommunication,  and  places  the  clergy 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  State  in  all  civil 
affairs;  the  third,  the  jiragmatic  sanction,  guar- 
antees the  independence  of  the  episcopal  authority 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Pope,  secures 
the  privilege  of  electing  the  bishop  to  the  chap- 
ters and  the  diocesan  clergy,  and  vindicates  the 
right  of  the  French  Church  to  convene  a  French 
council.  Still  more  precisely  defined  became  the 
position  of  the  Galilean  Church  by  the  contro- 
versy between  Boniface  VIII.  and  Philippe  IV., 
the  Fair,  1280-1314.  The  questions  at  issue  were 
of  the  greatest  importance,  —  to  the  nation,  as 
Boniface  VIII.,  in  a  public  speech,  declared  France 
to  be  a  dependency  of  the  German  Empire ;  to  the 
state,  as  immense  sums  of  money  yearly  crossed 
the  Alps  under  the  form  of  annats;  to  the  king, 
as  the  Pope  denied  his  right  to  tax  the  clergy  for 
certain  purposes  of  urgent  necessity ;  and  to  the 
church  in  general,  as  the  Pope  attempted  to  intro- 
duce essential  changes  into  the  relation  between 
the  bishops  and  the  curia.  The  moment  for  this 
controversy  was  very  untimely  chosen  by  the 
Pope.  The  king  was  most  cordially  supported, 
not  only  by  his  Parliament,  but  also  by  the  clergy 
and  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  he  came  out  of 
the  contest  victorious.  But  though  both  the  kings 
and  the  parliaments,  the  bishops  and  the  uni- 
versities, unanimously  asserted  that  they  would 
cling  forever  to  the  decrees  of  the  Councils  of 
Pisa,  Constance,  and  Basel  (which,  indeed,  were 
the  dictates  of  Gallicanism),  the  Roman  curia 
never  let  pass  by  imused  an  opportunity  to  preach 
the  opjiosite  doctrines.  Strife  occurred  every  now 
and  then,  though  always  with  the  same  issue,  — 
defeat  to  Rome.  When  in  1455  the  Bishop  of 
Nantes  ventured  an  appeal  from  a  royal  decree 
to  the  Roman  curia,  the  Parliament  of  Paris 
stepped  in,  and  accused  and  condemned  him  for 
offence  against  the  constitutional  laws  and  eccle- 
siastical privileges  of  France. 

There  is,  however,  a  famous  exception  to  this 
rule ;  namely,  the  abolition,  in  1516,  of  the  prag- 
matic sanction  of  Bourges  of  1440  by  the  Lateran 
synod,  in  consequence  of  the  concordat  concluded 
between  Leo  X.  and  Francis  I.,  1515-47.  The 
reasons  of  this  concordat  are  well  known.  The 
king  expected  to   be   invested  with  the  fief   ( t 


QALLICANISM. 


852 


GALLUS. 


^'aples;  and  his  chancellor,  Duprat,  expected  to 
be  adorned  with  a  cardinal's  hat.  But,  however 
great  this  change  was  theoretically  considered, 
practically  it  did  not  amount  to  much.  The 
decrees  of  the  above-mentioned  three  councils 
•continued  to  regulate  the  feeling  of  the  nation, 
the  teaching  of  the  university,  the  proceedings 
of  the  clergy,  the  measures  of  parliament :  and, 
when  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (1515- 
tio)  were  promulgated  (which,  if  accepted  in  lolo, 
would,  indeed,  have  annihilated  Gallicanism), 
■only  such  of  them  were  accepted  in  France  as 
agreed  with  the  privileges  of  the  French  Crown, 
the  maxims  of  the  French  State,  and  the  customs 
and  laws  of  the  French  Church.  If  there  ever 
had  reigned  in  the  French  mind  any  doubt  or 
hesitancy  with  I'espect  to  the  true  relation  be- 
tween the  papal  see  and  the  national  church, 
Pierre  Pithou  caused  it  to  disappear.  Xot  to 
5peak  of  his  Corpus  juris  canonici,  Cwlex  canonum, 
and  Gallica ^EcclesitE  in  schismale  slaltis,  in  his  Li- 
beries cle  I'EytUe  yallicane  (15.9-1)  he  gave  in  eighty- 
three  articles  a  representation  of  the  whole  case, 
so  clear  and  precise,  that  everybody  could  com- 
prehend it. 

From  another  point  of  view,  but  with  equal 
clearness  and  pithiness,  Bossuet  gave  a  represen- 
tation of  the  principles  of  Gallicanism  in  the 
Dc'claralion  du  ClenjiJ,  issued  in  the  name  of  tlie 
Assembtce  du  Cleryc,  1082.  It  declares  that  St. 
Peter,  his  successors,  and  the  whole  Church,  have 
power  only  in  spiritual  things;  that,  however 
great  may  be  tlie  power  of  the  apostolic  see  in 
spiritual  things,  it  cannot  overthrow  the  decrees 
of  the  Council  of  Constance,  which  it  has  itself 
confirmed;  that  consequently  the  laws  and  rules 
and  customs  of  the  Galilean  Church,  recognized 
by  that  council,  must  remain  intact;  and,  finally, 
that  the  decisions  of  the  Pope  are  not  unchangea- 
ble, unless  the  whole  Church  agrees  with  him. 
Alexander  VIII.  declared  this  declaration  null 
and  void,  and  addressed  a  long  memoir  to  the 
French  clergy;  and  at  one  moment,  in  1091, 
when  no  less  than  thirty-five  episcopal  sees  were 
vacant  in  France,  because  the  Pope  refused  to 
confirm  those  appointed  l)y  the  king,  it  seemed 
as  if  Louis  XIV.  was  going  to  yield.  But  the 
haughtiness  with  which,  in  171:i,  he  compelled 
the  Pope  to  confirm  Abbe  de  Saint-Aignan  as 
Bi.shop  of  Beauvais,  showed  his  true  meaning; 
and  in  1718  the  Cunseil  de  Rc'i/ence  simply  de- 
clared that  the  pajial  confirmation  of  a  French 
bishop  was  unnecessary. 

To  a  great  extent,  however,  Gallicanism  lost 
its  hold  on  the  .sympathy  of  the  people  by  the 
events  which  took  place  between  1790  and  18(11): 
they  were  considered,  not  as  a  victory  of  the 
(iallioan  Church  over  Rome,  but  as  a  victory  of 
the  Revolution  over  Christianity.  By  tlie  con- 
cordats of  1801  and  1813  very  little  regard  was 
paid  to  the  princi]>les  of  (iallicanism.  The  for- 
mer made  the  Church  entirely  dependent  upon 
the  .State :  the  latter  made  concessions  only  to 
tlie  Pope.  The  current  of  jiolitical  re-action 
which  set  in  with  tlie  Restoration  was  accom|ia- 
iiied  by  a  similar  current  of  religious  re-action, 
left  by  .Jo.seph  de  Maistre,  Louis  de  Bonald,  Fraii- 
<;ois  ue  Lamennais,  etc.  The  connection  between 
Home  and  the  French  clergy  became  more  and 
more  intimate  ;  the  Jesuits  returned ;  the  Galli- 


can  Liturgy  gave  place  to  the  Roman ;  the  text- 
books of  the  seminaries  were  changed ;  and, 
shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
Ultramontanism  had  completely  superseded  Gal- 
licanism. 

Lit.  —  Hisl.  du  droit  public  frangais  ecclesiastique. 
Loud.,  1737  ;  Dupix  :  Les  Liberies  de  I'Eylixe  Galli- 
cane,  Paris,  1824  ;  Bordas-Demoulin  :  Les  pou- 
coirs conslilutifs  de  t'Eylise,  Paris,  1855;  F.  Huet: 
Le  Gallicanisme,  Paris,  1855.  J.  MATTER. 

CALLIENUS,  Publius  Licinius  (Roman  empe- 
ror 200-208),  b.  218  or  219;  associated  with  his 
father,  25o ;  acknowledged  by  the  senate,  254 ; 
abolished,  immediately  after  his  accession,  the 
decrees  of  his  father  Valerian,  against  the  Chris- 
tians, and  made  Christianity,  if  not  a  reliyio  licila, 
at  least  tolerated.  For  this  reason  he  appears  in 
Eusebius'  Hisl.  Eccl.  (VII.  23),  in  the  words  of 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  as  the  "  restorer  of  the 
empire;"  and  the  prophecy  of  Isa.  xliii.  19  is 
applied  to  him,  the  first  instance  of  a  favorable 
Old-Testament  prophecy  being  applied  to  an 
emperor ;  while  the  profane  historians  describe 
him  as  a  supercilious  and  frivolous  trifler.  The 
edict  itself  is  not  extant,  and  the  causes  of  it 
are  unknown. 

CAL'LIO,  a  brother  of  Seneca  the  philosopher, 
was  proconsul  of  Acliaia  when  Paul  first  visited 
Corinth  (Acts  xviii.  12).  His  true  name  was 
Marcus  AnuiBus  Xovatus  :  the  name  of  Gallio  he 
assumed  after  being  adopted  by  the  rhetorician, 
.Junius  Gallio.  The  date  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  uncertain:  it  is  probable,  though,  that, 
like  his  brother,  he  was  put  to  death  by  Nero. 

GALLITZIN,  Demetrius  Augustine,  b.  at  the 
Hague,  where  his  father  was  minister  plenipo- 
tentiary, Dec.  22,  1770;  d.  at  Loretto,  Cambria 
County.  Penn.,  May  6,  1841.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  Russian  prince,  and  was  sent  to  America  by 
Catharine  II.,  in  1792,  as  an  oHicer  of  the  im- 
perial Russian  guard,  not  only  to  study  American 
institutions,  but  also  to  overcome  a  natural  ti- 
midity of  disposition.  But,  instead  of  pursuing 
his  profession,  he  gave  himself  to  the  Roman- 
Catholic  priesthood,  and  March  18,  1795,  was 
ordained  in  Baltimore.  In  1799  he  was  sent,  at 
his  own  request,  to  Cambria  County,  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  began  the  great  work  of  building  up 
Roman-Catholic  settlements  upon  land  in  that 
county  given  and  purchased.  He  won  fame  by 
charity  and  zeal,  as  "  ^^lther  Smith,"  by  which 
name  he  was  naturalized  (1802).  In  1809  he 
was  allowed  by  a  special  act  of  the  Legislature 
to  take  his  family  name.  His  diliiculties  and 
pecuniary  embarrassments,  arising  from  his  fail- 
ure to  pay  for  the  extensive  tract  he  had  bought 
in  the  expectation  of  receiving  his  Ru.ssian  for- 
tune, were  numerous;  but,  by  unweari(Ml  diligence 
and  unsparing  self-denial,  they  were  largely  over- 
come. He  wrote  several  good  books,  particularly 
Defence  of  Catholic  Principles  (Pittsburg,  l>^l(i), 
and  Letters  to  a  Protestant  Frii  nd  on  the  Scri/itures 
(Pittsburg,  1818).  See  his  Life,  by  Thomas  Hey- 
den  (Baltimore,  1809),  and  by  Sarah  M.  Brown- 
son  (Xi'w  York,  1873). 

GALLUS,  C.  Vibius  Trebonianus  (Roman  em- 
peror •J.'il-2."il ).  )Mit  :in  end  to  the  persecutions  of 
the  Chri.sti:ins  which  Decius  had  institute<l,  but 
was  ;ifti'rwards  led,  probably  by  a  horrible  plague 
which  terrified  the  people  in  Italy  and  Northern 


GAMALIEL. 


853 


GARISSOLES. 


Africa,  to  adopt  harsh  measures.  Cyprian,  in  a 
letter  of  253  (Ep.  59),  speaks  of  an  edict  which 
ordered  all  to  sacrifice  to  the  Pagan  gods.  Cor- 
nelius, the  Bishop  of  Rome,  was  banished,  and  so 
was  his  succe.ssor,  Lucius. 

CAMA'LIEL  (6W  is  a  rewanler),  a  Pharisee  and 
distinguished  rabbi  of  the  first  half  of  the  first 
centurj',  invariably  called  "the  Elder"  in  distinc- 
tion from  his  grandson,  Gamaliel  of  Jabneh.  He 
was  the  grandson  of  Ilillel.  The  Talmudists  are 
loud  in  his  praise,  and  said,  that,  "since  Gamaliel 
the  Elder  is  dead,  there  is  no  glory  of  the  law 
left."  They  state  that  he  was  president  of  the 
Sanhedrin  during  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caligula, 
and  Claudius;  but  this  is  doubtful.  He  appears 
only  as  a  simple  member  of  that  body  in  the 
Acts.  In  the  New  Testament,  Gamaliel  is  known 
as  Paul's  preceptor  (Acts  xxii.  3),  and  tolerant 
above  his  contemporaries  in  his  attitude  towards 
the  Christian  religion  (Acts  v.  34,  39).  He  wisely 
counselled  moderation  on  the  ground,  that,  if  the 
new  doctrine  were  of  God,  man  could  not  over- 
throw it,  or,  if  it  were  of  man,  it  would  perish 
of  itself.  Christian  tradition  represents  that  he 
was  the  cousin  of  Xicodemus,  and,  becoming  a 
convert  to  Christianity,  was  baptized  by  Peter 
and  John  (Clem.,  liecogn.,  I.  65;  Photius,  Cod., 
171).  Tills  must  be  regarded  as  apocryphal, 
being  entirely  out  of  accord  with  the  Talmud. 
See  Gkaunius  :  Hist.  Gamalielis,  Vit.,  1687; 
Palmer;  Paulus  u.  Gamaliel,  Giessen,  1806; 
ScHUREU  :  N.  T.  Zeilgesch.,  p.  458  sq. ;  Smith's 
Bible  Diet. 

GAMALIEL  OF  JABNEH,  or  the  Younger ;  d. 
about  115;  was  famous  as  a  legislator,  and  head 
of  the  supreme  judicial  Jewish  body  which  met 
at  Jabneh.  He  visited  Kome  in  95;  and  the 
Talmud  abounds  in  incidents  of  the  journey. 
See  Derexhouik;  :  Illsl.  <te  Palestine,  chap.  xx. 

GAMES  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  The  games 
enjoyed  by  the  Hebrew  youth  were  music,  song, 
and  dancing  (cf.  Ps.  xxx.  11;  Jer.  xxxi.  13). 
Another  amusement  seems  to  have  been  the  lift- 
ing of  heavy  stones  (Zech.  xii.  3),  and  target- 
shooting  (1  Sam.  XX.  20).  After  the  exile,  Grecian 
games  were  introduced  in  Jerusalem  and  in  other 
cities  of  Palestine.  Thus  Herod  created  a  theatre 
and  amphitheatre  at  Jerusalem  (Joseph.,  Ant., 
XV.  8,  1),  as  well  as  at  Ciiesarea  {Ibid.,  XV. 
9,  6  ;  War,  I.  21,  8) ;  and  even  contests  with  wild 
beasts  were  celebrated.  No  wonder  that  the 
general  body  of  the  Jews  hated  him.  In  the 
Talmudic  period  other  games  were  known ;  but 
in  general  gaming  was  interdicted,  and  a  gam- 
bler's testimony  was  not  admitted. 

GANCRA,  tlie  metropolis  of  Paphlagonia,  was 
the  seat  of  a  council  which  assembled  there,  at 
an  uncertain  date  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  against  the  Eustathians.  This  sect  had 
pushed  their  asceticism  to  an  extreme,  rejecting 
marriage,  not  only  for  priests,  but  also  for  lay- 
men, demanding  complete  abstinence  from  flesh, 
etc.  They  were  condemned  by  the  council ;  but 
as  the  council  recommended  marriage  not  only 
in  general,  but  also  for  priests,  it  has  caused  great 
embarrassment  to  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  in 
her  ]>ropaganda  for  sacerdotal  celibacy. 

GARASSE,  Fran9ois,  b.  at  Angouleme,  1585; 
d.  at  Poitiers,  June  14,  1631 ;  entered  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits  in  1601,  and  made  quite  a  sensation 


as  a  preacher  by  his  smart  allusions  and  the  pe- 
culiar vivacity  of  his  manner.  To  posterity, 
however,  he  is  iM-incijially  known  as  a  iiolemical 
writer.  He  wrote,  against  the  freethinkers  of 
the  age.  La  doctrine  curieuse  des  beaux  espriLs  de  ce 
temps,  1623 ;  against  the  Protestants,  Elixir  Cal- 
innisticum,  161.5,  and  Rabelais  reforme,  1622,  etc. 
But  he  lacks  knowledge  and  dignity,  often  even 
truthfulness  and  simple  decency.  The  Roman 
Catholics  themselves  were  scandalized  at  his  dia- 
tribes. .sunilOKF. 

GARDINER,  James,  Col.,  was  b.  in  Scotland, 
Jan.  10,  1688,  and  killed  at  the  battle  of  Preston- 
pan.s,  Sept.  21,  1745.  The  interest  of  his  life 
centres  in  his  remarkable  conversion.  He  led  a 
career  of  licentiousness  until  July,  1719.  At  a 
midnight  hour,  just  before  the  time  he  had  ap- 
pointed for  an  assignation  with  a  married  woman, 
as  he  was  listlessly  looking  througli  a  book  called 
The  Christian  Soldier,  "an  unusual  lilazeof  light" 
suddenly  illuminated  its  pages.  Looking  up,  he 
saw  a  "  visible  representation  of  the  Christ  upon 
the  cross,  and  heard  a  voice,"  etc.  The  conse- 
quence was  that  he  forsook  his  old  courses,  and 
thereafter  led  an  exemplary  Christian  life,  each 
day  being  inaugurated  with  two  hours  spent  in 
devotion.  These  facts  are  narrated  in  Dod- 
dridge's Life  of  Col.  Gardiner.  The  edition  of 
the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Publication,  Philadel- 
phia, is  convenient  in  size. 

GARDINER,  Stephen,  Bishop  of  Winchester, 
a  conspicuous  actor  in  the  opposition  to  the  Eng- 
lish Reformation  ;  was  b.  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's, 
1483  ;  d.  Nov.  12,  1555.  He  was  the  illegitimate 
son  of  Dr.  AVoodville,  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  and 
brother  of  Elizabeth  "Woodville,  Edward  IV. 's 
queen.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and 
attained  great  proficiency  in  the  departments  of 
canonical  and  civil  law.  After  acting  as  Wolsey's 
private  secretary,  he  came  into  the  service  of  the 
Idng.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  negotia- 
tions for  the  divorce  with  Catherine,  and  was  sent 
on  missions  to  Pope  Clement  VH.  In  1531  his 
services  were  rewarded  with  the  bishopric  of  Win- 
chester. He  defended  the  supremacy  of  the  king 
in  an  able  tract,  De  Vera  Obedientia.  But  he  was 
not  in  sympathy  with  the  reforming  tendencies, 
and,  but  for  the  royal  intervention,  would  have 
fastened  charges  of  heresy  on  Cranmer.  Under 
Edward  VI.  he  was  committed  to  prison  for  his 
opposition  to  the  Reformation,  where  he  remained, 
with  the  exception  of  a  brief  interval,  for  five 
years.  The  favor  of  Mary  released  him  from 
prison,  restored  him  to  his  bishopric,  and  made 
him  lord-chancellor.  He  negotiated  the  marriage- 
treaty  with  Philip,  for  which  he  had,  however,  a 
personal  repugnance.  He  was  at  first  in  sympa- 
thy with  the  persecution  of  the  Protestants,  but 
afterwards  seems  to  have  revolted  from  it,  and  re- 
tired, leaving  the  work  to  the  more  callous  Bon- 
ner. Gardiner  was  an  able  man,  as  his  influence 
in  two  administrations  attests.  He  was  probably 
neither  so  unscrupulous  nor  vindictive  as  some 
historians  have  contended. 

GARISSOLES,  Antoine,  b.  at  Montauban,  1587; 
d.  there  1651 ;  was  first  pastor  of  Puylaurens,  and 
then,  after  1628,  professor  of  theology  in  the 
academy  of  his  native  city.  He  presided  at  the 
national  synod  of  Charenton  (1645),  and  pub- 
lished in  1(548  Decreti  Synodici  Carentotieiisis,  set- 


GARNET. 


8o4 


GATAKER. 


ting  forth  with  impartiality  and  moderation  the 
reasons  why  the  synod  condemned  the  book  by 
Placseus.  Among  his  other  works  are  some  sei-- 
mons  (La  Voye  de  Salut,  1U37),  and  some  Latin 
poems  in  honor  of  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  Queen 
Christina. 

GARNET,  Henry  Highland,  D.D.,  a  prominent 
colored  clergyman  ;  b.  in  New  ^larket,  Kent 
County,  JId.,  April  15,  1815  ;  d.  at  Monrovia, 
Liberia,  Feb.  13,  1882.  His  father  was  a  slave 
in  ^laryland,  and  he  was  born  in  slavery :  but 
his  father's  escape  in  1834  to  New  York  enabled 
him  to  get  an  education.  He  was  graduated 
(1840)  at' the  Oneida  Institute,  Whitetown,  N.Y.. 
a  manual  labor  school ;  was  licensed  by  the  pres- 
bytery of  Troy,  1842,  and  settled  in  Troy  1843. 
He  had  a  distinguished  career,  being  for  many 
years  a  Presbyterian  pastor  in  New  York,  where 
he  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  high  character, 
and  abilities  as  a  preacher  and  pastor  and  as 
a  leader  of  the  colored  population  there.  He 
was  the  first  colored  man  who  on  any  occasion 
spoke  in  the  National  Capitol,  where  he  preached 
on  .Sunday,  Feb.  12, 1865,  in  the  hall  of  the  House 
of  Representatives.  In  June,  1881,  he  was  ap- 
pointed United-States  minister  resident  and  con- 
sul to  Liberia ;  and  President  Garfield's  last 
official  act  (July  1)  was  to  sign  his  commission. 
He  staid,  however,  in  this  country,  out  of  deli- 
cacy, until  November,  when,  being  a  second  time 
nominated  and  confirmed,  he  finally  sailed  Nov. 
12,  and  arrived  at  his  field  of  labor  Dec.  28. 

GARNIER,  Jean,  b.  in  Paris,  1612;  d.  at  Bo- 
logna, Oct.  16,  1681 ;  entered  the  order  of  Jesuits 
in  1628  ;  was  professor  of  theology  at  various 
colleges  of  the  order,  and  produced  a  series  of 
critical  and  historical  works  relating  to  the  history 
of  doctrines,  which  are  still  of  great  value  : 
Juliani  Eclanensis  Z,iie//ws  (1668),  and  Marii  Mer- 
catoris  Opera  (1673),  editions  with  notes  and  intro- 
ductions throwing  new  light  on  the  history  of 
Pelagianism ;  Liheralus  Bretrinrimn  (1675),  a  val- 
uable contriliution  to  the  history  of  the  Nesto- 
rian  and  J^utycliian  controversies:  Liber  diurnus 
Jlomanijrum  punlijicum,  and  a  supplement  to  The- 
odoret,  edited,  after  his  death,  by  Ilardouin. 

GARNIER,  Julien,  b.  at  Connerai  about  1670; 
d.  in  Paris,  June  3,  1725;  entered  the  congrega- 
tion of  .St.  JIaur  in  1683,  an<l  was,  on  account  of 
his  comprehensive  knowledge  of  the  (ireck  lan- 
guage ami  literature,  cliarged  in  1701  by  his  order 
with  the  edition  of  the  works  of  St.  liasil.  Twen- 
ty years  later  the  first  volume  appeared  of  .St-ii 
Patris  nnsiri  lianilii  Opera  omnki,  in  folio,  and  the 
next  year  the  second  ;  but  the  third  and  last  was 
edited  by  Prudent  Maran,  after  the  death  of  Gar- 
nicr. 

GARVE,  Karl  Bernhard,  b.  in  the  neighbor- 
hofid  (if  llancivi-r.  .)an.  t,  1763;  d.  at  Ilerrnhut, 
June  22,  1811  ;  was  educated  by  the  Moravian 
Hretliren,  and  was  successively  preacher  to  the 
congregations  of  Brethren  at  Zeyst,  Amsterdam, 
Kber.sdorf,  Xordi'n,  Hcrlin  (where  he  rendered 
great  services  ilnring  the  period  between  1810 
and  1816),  and  Neusalz  on  the  Oder,  from  which 
he  retired  in  1836  on  account  of  old  age.  Ho 
published  Chrhlliche  (iesmuje,  (Jorlitz,  1825,  con- 
taining 303  hymns,  ami  liriiilenii'mnije,  (inadau, 
1827,  containing  65  hymns,  most  of  which  are 
Driginal,  and  occupying  a  prominent  place  in  the 


I  hymnology  of  the  present  century  on  account  of 
j  their  clearness  and  tenderness.  K.  SVDHOFF. 
I  CASPARIN,  Agenor,  Comte  de,  a  distinguished 
I  layman  of  the  French-Protestant  Church  ;  b.  in 
Orange,  France,  July  12,  1810;  d.  at  Geneva, 
May  S,  1871.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he 
'  took  an  active  interest  in  French  politics,  and  in 
1842  represented  Bastia  in  the  House  of  Depu- 
ties. Religious  subjects,  however,  engrossed  a 
large  share  of  his  attention.  In  1846  he  pub- 
j  lished  2  vols,  on  Cln-ialianisme  et  Parjanisme  ;  and 
in  1848,  at  the  synod  of  the  Reformed  Churches, 
he  joined  Frederic  Monod  in  advocating  the  ne- 
cessity of  a  well-defined  creed.  The  last  twenty- 
j  three  years  of  his  life  were  spent  in  Switzer- 
land, at  Geneva.  His  eloquence  did  good  sei-vice 
in  the  cause  of  evangelical  religion  and  morality. 
He  delivered  lectures  on  many  diiferent  subjects 
in  the  hall  of  the  "  Reformation,"  many  of  which 
were  published.  He  was  a  pronounced  enemy  of 
slavery,  and  wrote,  in  advocacy  of  the  Northern 
cause,  two  volumes,  L'n  grand  peuple  (fui  se  releve, 
1861,  and  rAme'rii/ue  decani  /'Europe,  1862  (Eng. 
trans.,  America  before  Europe,  3d  ed.,  New  York^ 
1862).  A  paper  prepared  by  him  on  The  Care  of 
the  Sick;  for  the  Evangelical  Alliance  Confereucef 
New  Y'ork,  1873,  was  forwarded  by  his  widow, 
and  is  published  in  its  proceedings.  He  wrote- 
also  Scliools  of  Doubt  and  .'Schools  of  Faith,  Edin- 
burgh, 1854.  Madame  Gasparin,  his  wife,  was 
also  a  graceful  author.  Her  Sear  and  Hearenly 
Horizons  (New  York,  1864),  and  Human  Sadness 
(Boston,  1864),  have  been  translated.  See  A. 
Naville  :  Le  Comte  Ae/.  de  Uasparin.  Geneve, 
1871;  and  BoREL :  Le  Comte  Ae/.  de  G.,  Paris, 
187!)  (Eng.  trans..  New  York  [1880]). 

GATAKER,  Thomas,  a  scholarly  divine,  and 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines, 
was  the  son  of  the  chaiilain  to  Robert,  Earl  of 
Leicester;  b.  in  London,  Sept.  4,  1.574;  d.  at 
Hotherhithe,  July  27,  1654.  In  1590  he  went  to- 
St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  and  in  1591)  was 
chosen  fellow  of  the  newly  founded  .Sidney  Col- 
lege. In  1601  he  became  preacher  at  Lincoln's- 
inn,  and  in  1611  removed  to  the  living  of  Rother- 
hithe,  Surrey.  He  outliv<'d  four  wives.  In  1643 
he  was  called  by  Parliament  to  sit  as  a  member 
of  the  Assembly  of  Divines.  He  was  offered  and 
refused  the  mastership  of  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge. (Jataker  was  a  man  of  much  learning, 
and  the  author  of  a  number  of  works.  His  first 
book.  Of  the  jS/ature  anil  I'se  of  Lots  (London, 
1610,  pp.  3(iO),  grew  out  of  sermons  preached  at 
Lincolu's-inn,  and  was  designed  to  vindicate  the 
lawfulness  of  "  lu.sorious  lots  "  (games  of  chance), 
and  to  condemn  "divinatory  or  consullory  lots." 
This  work  led  to  a  controver.sy,  and  drew  forth 
from  him  two  more  books  on  tlie  same  subject  in- 
1623  (pp.  275)  and  1638  (in  Latin,  pp.  61).  A 
Diseuxsio7i  of  the  Popish  Doctrine  of  Trunsub.itantia- 
tion,  and  A  Short  Cri^cA/.vw,  appeared  in  1624,  two- 
volumes  of  Sermons,  16.'17  sq.  ;  and  in  1645  (3d 
ed.,  16.57)  he  published  luii/lish  Annotations  upon 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Lamcnieilions  (a  part  of  the 
Asscndilifs  Annotations).  Gataker  also  sent  forth 
valuable  critic^al  works,  among  which  was  the 
edition  of  Marcus  Antoninus,  whieli  ll.-dlani  says 
"  was  the  earliest  edition  of  any  classical  writer 
published  in  Kngl.'ind  with  iiriKinal  annotations." 
These  last  were  edited  by  the  learned  Witsius 


GAUDBN. 


855 


GAUSSEN. 


in  a  large  volume,  Opera  Critica,  Utrecht,  1698. 
See  Clakke's  Genl.  Maiii/roloyie,  LonJ.,  1()77 
(3d  ed.  pp.  248  sqq.)  ;  Bkooks  :  Lices  of  the  Puri- 
tani<.  III.   |ip.  L'OO-l-'-ja. 

CAUDEN,  John,  b.  atMayfield,  in  Essex,  1G05; 
d.  at  Worcester,  Sept.  20,  1662 ;  educated  at 
Cambridge;  master  of  the  Temple  1650;  bishop 
of  Exeter  1660,  aud  of  Worcester  1662.  He 
claimed  to  have  written  the  Eikoit  Basilke  (EUuv 
BoaiAiK?/^ —  Tlie  Pourlraicture  nf  /li.f  Sacred  Mujestle 
in  his  SoliluiJes  and  Sujferiiii/s)  ;  but  careful  and 
protracted  examination  has  decided  against  him, 
and  in  favor  of  Charles  I.,  who  was  the  king 
meant.  The  book  itself  appeared  in  1648 ;  was 
replied  to  by  Milton  (Eikimoclaalcs,  1649).  It  is 
a  defence  of  the  king's  conduct,  and  an  account 
of  his  misfortunes  from  the  calling  of  the  Long 
Parliament  (1640)  to  his  confinement  in  Caris- 
brooke  Castle  (1648),  written  throughout  in  the 
first  person,  divided  into  short  sections,  each  of 
which  is  followed  by  a  page  or  two  of  medita- 
tions and  prayers ;  and  at  the  end  are  more  ex- 
tended meditations  upon  death,  and  a  proposed 
address  to  Parliament.  The  book  is  well  written, 
and  its  piety  is  genuine.  Gauden  was  a  member 
of  the  Savoy  Conference  (see  Co.nference, 
Savoy)  ;  and  according  to  Baxter,  though  he 
had  a  bitter  pen,  he  was  moderate  in  speech; 
"  and,  if  all  had  been  of  his  mind,  we  had  been 
reconciled." 

GAUDENTIUS,  b.  about  360  ;  succeeded  Philas- 
trius  as  Bishop  of  Brixia  (the  present  Breschia) 
in  387,  and  was  still  living  in  410,  in  which  year 
Rufinus  dedicated  to  him  his  translation  of  the 
Recofpiitiones  of  Clement.  A  number  of  sermons 
by  him,  among  which  are  ten  dedicated  to  a  cer- 
tain Benevolus  who  by  sickness  was  prevented 
from  attending  service  in  the  church,  are  still  ex- 
tant, and  are  found  in  Mignk:  Patrul.  Lai.,  XX. 

CAUL.  Of  the  Christianization  of  Gaul  there 
is  a  double  report  by  the  e'cole  li'yendaire,  or  anli- 
gregorienne,  and  by  the  ecole  hialorique,  or  gn'yori- 
enne.  According  to  the  former,  all  the  principal 
places  of  Gaul  were  Christianized  by  persons 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  or  closely  con- 
nected with  it.  Thus  Lazarus  and  his  two  sis- 
ters and  their  servants  were  pnit  in  a  small  boat 
by  tlie  Jews,  and  abandoned  to  the  winds  and 
the  waves.  The  boat  drifted  ashore  in  Southern 
Gaul;  and  Marseilles,  Aix,  Tarascon,  etc.,  were 
Christianized  by  its  crew.  The  three  disciples 
of  Paul  (Trophinnis,  Crescens,  and  Sergius  Pau- 
lus)  preached  at  Aries,  Vienne,  and  Narboune. 
St.  Aphrodisius,  who  for  seven  years  rendered 
hospitality  to  the  holy  family  in  Egypt,  founded 
Christianity  at  Beziers ;  Dionysius  Areopagita, 
in  Paris  ;  Zacchseus  the  publican,  at  Cahors,  etc. 
The  only  particle  of  historical  foundation  for  all 
these  legends  is  2  Tim.  iv.  10,  where  Paul  says 
that  Crescens  had  gone  to  Gaul ;  but  the  reading 
is  uncertain.  Tischendorf  and  the  revised  Eng- 
lish translation  have  Galatia,  instead  of  Gaul. 

The  ecole  historique  ascribes  the  conversion  of 
Gaul  to  the  energy  of  the  papal  see,  and  founds 
its  view  on  the  authority  of  Gregory  of  Tours, 
who  certainly  had  the  very  best  opportunity  to 
learn  the  truth  about  it.  In  his  Annates  Frart- 
corum  he  says  that  in  250,  under  the  reign  of 
Decius,  the  Pope  consecrated  seven  bishops,  and 
sent  them  to   Gaul ;    namely,   Gatian  to   Tours, 


Trophinnis  to  Aries,  Paul  to  Xarboime,  Saturniu 
or  Sernin  to  Toulouse,  Denis  to  Paris,  Stremo- 
nius  to  Avernes,  and  Martial  to  Limousin.  The 
progress  of  the  undertaking  was  slow.  At  the 
opening  of  the  fourth  century  there  were  very 
few  Christians  in  the  interior  of  the  country ; 
though  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  each 
of  the  hundred  and  twelve  cities  of  Gaul  enu- 
merated in  the  Notitia  provinciarum  et  ciciJalum 
Gallia:  had  its  bishop.  Gregory  corroborates  his 
narrative  by  quoting  the  acts  of  the  martyr  St. 
Sernin ;  and  his  statement  has,  in  its  general 
outline,  been  confirmed  by  later  historical  and 
archaeological  investigations,  though  tlie  story  of 
the  contemporaneous  arrival  of  the  seven  bishops 
presents  some  difficulties,  and  shows  a  somewhat 
legendary  coloring. 

There  is  one  point,  however,  at  which  safe  his- 
torical ground  is  reached  as  early  as  177;  namely, 
Lyons.  In  his  Hist.  Eccl.  (V.  1)  Eusebius  tran- 
scribes a  letter  .sent  by  the  congregations  of 
Vienne  and  Lyons  to  the  congregations  of  Asia 
and  Phrygia,  and  narrating  the  martyrdom  of 
Pothinus,  Bishop  of  Lyons,  and  a  number  of 
other  Christians.  Another  letter,  addressed  by 
the  same  congregations  to  Bishop  Eleutherus  of 
Rome,  and  recommending  to  him  Irenreus,  at  that 
time  presbyter  at  Lyons,  is  found  in  Eusebius 
(Hist.  Eccl'.,  V.  4).  it  is  certain  that  this  church 
of  Lyons  was  founded  by  Greek  missionaries 
from  Asia  Minor.  It  is  probable  that  they,  on 
their  passage  through  Viennois  and  Narbonnais, 
founded  Christian  communities  also  in  those 
places,  but  it  is  doubtful  how  far  Christianity 
spread  ;  though  the  peculiar  development  of  the 
Gallican  Church,  and  more  especially  the  differ- 
ences between  the  Roman  and  the  Gallican  litur- 
gies, indicates  the  existence  in  Gaul  of  a  powerful 
influence  different  from  that  of  Rome.  The  com- 
plete literature  on  this  subject  has  been  given  by 
E.  RuELLE :  Bibliographie  generale  de  la  Gaule, 
1879.  See  the  articles  on  Dionysius  Areopa- 
gita, IREN.EUS,  Gregory  of  Tours,  etc. 

GAUSSEN,  Etienne,  b.  at  Xiraes  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  seventeenth  century;  d.  at  Saumur, 
1675;  was  professor  there,  first  of  philosophy 
(1651),  and  then  of  theology  (1665).  The  school 
of  Saumur  represented  at  that  time  a  more  lib- 
eral conception  of  French  Protestantism  than 
that  represented  by  the  schools  of  Sedan  and 
Montauban;  aud  Gaussen  contributed  much _  to 
propagate  those  views.  His  works  were  fre- 
quently reprinted  both  in  Holland  and  Germany; 
as,  for  instance,  his  De  Utdilate  Philosophic  ad 
Theologiani,  Saumur,  1670,  last  edition,  Halle, 
1727. 

GAUSSEN,  Fran9ois  Samuel  Robert  Louis,  b. 
at  Geneva,  Aug.  25,  17!IU  ;  d.  there  June  IS.  1863; 
was  appointed  pastor  of  Satigny  in  1816,  but 
dismissed  in  1834;  and  from  1836  till  his  death 
taught  dogmatics  in  the  theological  school  of 
Geneva,  founded  by  the  Evangelical  Society  in 
1831.  Under  the  influence  of  Cellerier  (his  pirede- 
cessor  at  Satigny)  and  the  remarkable  Scotch 
layman  Robert  Haldane,  he  became  an  ardent 
champion  of  the  strict  orthodox  Calvinism  ;  aud, 
though  he  was  very  far  from  being  an  agitator, 
he  soon  came  in  decided  opposition  to  the  ration- 
alistic compagnie  des  pasleurs  of  Geneva.  In  1827 
the  compagnie  tried  to  compel  him  to  introduce 


GAUTAMA. 


856 


GEHENNA. 


their  rationalistic  catechism  in  his  church ;  but 
he  absolutely  refused.  A  compromise  was  effect- 
ed, however :  but  when  the  Evangelical  Society, 
one  of  whose  founders  he  was,  established  a  new 
theological  school  in  direct  opposition  to  the  old 
one  taught  by  the  Rationalists,  and  Merle  d'Au- 
bigne  and  Ilavernick  were  invited  to  Geneva,  he 
left  Satigny,  and  became  a  professor  there.  Of 
his  works  several  have  been  translated  into  Eng- 
lish ;  as,  for  instance,  7'//.t'o/)ne((»7(/,  1842;  14th  ed., 
1850  (a  defence  of  verbal  inspiration)  ;  Geneva 
and  JeruMilem,  1844;  Geneva  and  Rome,  1844;  Les- 
sons for  the  Younrj,  18G0;  Canon  of  Holy  Scripture, 
1862.  abridged  by  Rev.  Dr.  Kirk,  Boston,  u.d. 

GAUTAMA.     See  Buddhism. 

GAZA  (strong),  the  present  Guzzeh,  a  city  on 
the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near  the 
boundary-line  between  Egypt  and  Palestine ;  was 
a  flourishing  centre  of  Cauaanite  civilization  in 
the  time  of  Abraham,  and  fell  by  the  division 
of  tlie  country  to  the  lot  of  .Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47). 
It  afterwards  formed  one  of  the  members  of  the 
Philistine  Pentapolis.  and  figures  prominently  in 
the  history  of  Samson,  Solomon,  the  Prophets, 
Alexander  the  Great,  the  Ptolemies,  the  ilacca- 
bees,  Herod  the  (ireat,  and  the  Romans.  Taken 
and  almost  destroyed  in  A.D.  634  by  the  Arabs, 
it  was  restored  by  the  crusaders,  but  was  again 
conquered  by  Saladin  in  1170.  At  present  it  has 
about  sixteen  thousand  inliabitants. 

GEBHARD  II.  (Truchsess  von  Waldburg),  b. 
at  Waldburg,  Nov.  10,  1547;  d.  at  Strassbnrg, 
May  21,  IGOl ;  was  elected  Archbishop  of  Cologne, 
Dec.  5,  1577,  and  confirmed  by  the  Pope,  April 
14,  157S.  But  a  love-affair  with  Agnes  of  Man.s- 
feld  gave  a  sudden  turn  to  his  career  in  the 
service  of  tlie  church.     By  an  edict  of  Dec.  19, 

1582,  he  established  religious  liberty  and  freedom 
of  worship  in  his  dominions;  Jan.  16,  1583,  he 
published  a  declaration  acknowledging  his  own 
conversion  to  the  Lutheran  t'hureli ;  and  Feb.  2. 

1583,  he  married  .\gnes  of  Mansfeld.  But  by 
a  bull  of  April  1,  1583.  (iregory  XIII.  deposed 
him,  and  declared  the  see  of  Cologne  vacant; 
and  May  22,  1583,  Duke  Ernst  of  Bav.aria  was 
elected  aixlibisliop  by  the  chapter.  The  fight 
now  began.  Ernst  held  the  metropolis  of  the 
diocese,  but  (iebhard  was  in  possession  of  the 
strong  fortress  Bonn.  The  latter,  however,  did 
not  receive  the  support  he  expecbxl  from  tlie  other 
Protestant  princes  of  Gernumy.  They  had  no 
sympathy  for  liim.  Toleration  and  religious  lil> 
erty  they  hated  and  despised  as  heartily  as  did 
the  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  suspicion  of  Calvin- 
ism liovered  over  the  unfortunate  Gebhard.  In 
January,  1584,  Bonn  was  taken,  and  thereby  his 
cause  was  lost.  He  sought  aid  in  Holland,  in 
England,  in  Germany,  but  everywhere  in  vain, 
and  retired  finally  to  .Strassburg,  where  he  lived 
and  died  entirely  forgotten. 

Lit.  —  MiciiAicL  Is.ski.t:  Dc  Bello  Coloniensi, 
1.5S4,  answered  by  Stki'IIKN  Is.vac:  Wahrc  und 
einffjllli/i:  Jlislnria,  158(1;  L  H.  Hennks  :  Der 
Kdiui'l  iiiii  ihis  l'^r:stift  Coin,  Cologne,  1878. 

GEDOES,  Alexander,  a  Roman-Catholic  scliolar; 
b.  at  the  farm  of  Arradoul,  in  the  ]iarisli  of  Hath- 
ven,  nanffsliire,  Scotland,  .Sept.  14, 1737;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, Feb.  20,  1802.  After  studying  in  the  Roman- 
Catholic  seminary  at  Scalan,  and  later  in  I'aris, 
he  became  cliai-Iain  to  the  Earl  of  Tracpiaii'  (176.5), 


pastor  at  Auchinhalrig  (1769),  deprived  (1779) 
for  attendance  upon  Protestant  w-orship,  after 
having  been  repeatedly  blamed  by  his  bishop  for 
his  intimacy  with  Protestants,  and  the  next  year 
he  went  with  Lord  Traqnair  to  London.  In 
1792  he  was  able,  througli  the  munificence  of 
Lord  Petre,  to  pidjlisli  the  first  volume  (Genesis 
to  Joshua)  of  a  translation,  with  notes,  of  the 
Bible  from  the  original  text,  and  the  second  in 
1797  (Judges  to  Ruth).  The  work  was  chiefly 
remarkable  as  that  of  a  Roman-Catholic  priest; 
for  it  boldly  accepted  the  deductions  of  the  criti- 
cal school  of  Eichhorn,  and  unhesitatingly  cor- 
rected the  original  text  in  accordance  witli  the 
suggestions  of  Houbigant,  Kennicott,  and  Micha- 
elis.  Neither  Protestants  nor  Roman  Catholics 
could  approve  the  work.  He  was  suspended, 
and  "  the  faithful "  were  warned  against  his 
translation.  Undismayed,  he  issued  in  1800  his 
Critical  Remarks  on  the  Hebretv  Scriptures,  corre- 
sponding with  a  Neic  Translation  of  the  Bible,  con- 
taining the  Pentateuch,  in  which  he  reiterated 
previous  statements.  At  the  time  of  his  death 
he  was  engaged  upon  a  critical-translation  of  the 
Psalms,  and  had  reached  the  eleventli  verse  of 
the  hundred  and  eighteentli.  It  was  published, 
edited  by  Dr.  Disney  and  Charles  Butler,  and 
completed  by  Dr.  Geddes's  corrections  to  Bishop 
WiKson's  Bible,  Loud.,  1807.  See  Memoirs  of  his 
Life  and  Writings,  by  Jonx  Maso.x  Good,  Lond., 
1803. 

CEDDES,  Janet,  or  Jenny,  a  Scottish  heroine. 
When  it  was  jiroposed,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  by 
advice  of  Archbishop  Laud,  to  introduce  the  Eng- 
lish Liturgy  into  Scotland,  it  r.aiscd  a  storm  of  in- 
dignation. The  dean  of  Edinburgh,  however,  made 
the  experiment  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  St. 
Giles,  Sunday,  July  23, 1637,  in  the  presence  of  the 
privy  council  and  the  city  nuigistrates.  Accord- 
ing to  the  usual  story,  an  old  herb-woman  called 
.Janet  Geddes,  hearing  the  archbisliop  direct  the 
dean  in  finding  the  collect  for  the  day  (seventh 
Sunday  after  Trinity),  confounded  "cholic"  and 
"collect,"  and  exclaimed  in  indignation,  "^'illain, 
dost  thou  say  ma.ss  at  my  lug  ?  "  (I'ar),  and  hurled 
the  stool  upon  which  she  had  been  sitting  at  the 
dean'.s  head.  This  was  the  signal  for  a  riot  in 
and  about  tlie  cathedral.  The  people  shouted 
through  the  streets,  "A  pope,  a  pope!  Antichri.st! 
the  sword  of  the  Lord  and  of  Gideon !  "  the  ulti- 
mate result  of  wliich  was,  because  it  was  an  out- 
burst of  popular  feeling  by  no  means  confined 
to  Edinbnrgh,  the  withdrawal  of  the  Liturgy. 
Thus,  as  Stanley  says,  "TIk;  stool  which  was  on 
tliat  occasion  flung  at  the  liead  of  the  dean  of 
Edinbnrgh  extingni.shed  the  English  l^iturgy  en- 
tiri'Iy  in  .Scotland  for  the  seventeenth  century, 
to  a  great  extent  even  till  the  nineteenth,  aiicl 
gave  to  the  civil  war  in  England  an  impulse 
which  only  ended  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Church 
anil  Monarchy."  The  disturbance  was  entirely 
unpremeditated.  Some  historians  give  Barli;ua 
Hamilton  as  the  name  of  the  heroine.  Comp. 
Burton  :  Illslori/  of  Scotland,  vol.  vi. ;  Stani.ic  v  : 
Lectures  on  the  Ilistori/  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
))p.  80  sqq.  ;  SciiAFK  :  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol. 
i.  p.  688. 

GEHEN'NA  is  a  word  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
nu^nt  for  "  lioll."  Comp.  Matt.  v.  29,  30,  x.  28, 
xviii.  9,  xxiii.  15;  Mark  ix.  43,  45;  Luke  xii.  5; 


GEIBEL. 


857 


GELASIUS, 


and  James  iii.  G.  It  is  used  in  distinction  from 
"hades"  wiieii  eitlier  tiie  torments  of  hc^ll  itself,  or 
the  idea  of  a  hellish  torment,  is  to  be  expressed. 
The  passages  of  tlie  New  Testament  sliow  plainly 
that  the  word  "gehenna"  was  a  popular  expres- 
sion for  "hell,"  of  which  Jesus  and  the  apostles 
made  use ;  but  it  would  be  erroneous  to  infer 
that  Jesus  and  his  apostles  merely  accommodated 
themselves  to  the  popular  expression,  without 
believing  in  the  actual  state  of  the  lost.  The 
■word  "gehenna"  is  tlie  Greek  representative  of 
a  Hebrew  word  denoting  the  "Valley  of  Hinnom," 
or  "of  the  son,"  or  "cliildren  of  Hinnom,"  —  a 
deep,  narrow  glen  to  tlie  south  of  Jerusalem, 
where  the  Jews  offered  their  children  to  Moloch 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  10;  Jer.  vii.  31,  xix.  2-6).  In  later 
times  it  served  as  the  receptacle  of  all  sorts  of 
putrefying  matter  and  all  that  defiled  the  holy 
city;  and  thus  it  became  the  image  of  the  place 
of  everlasting  punishment,  especially  on  account 
of  its  ever-liurning  fires ;  and  to  this  fact  the 
words  of  Christ  refer  when  he  says,  "  and  the  fire 
is  not  quenched."  PRESSEL. 

GEIBEL,  Johannes,  b.  at  Hanau.  April  1,  1776; 
d.  at  Liibeck,  July  2;5,  18.53;  studied  at  Marburg, 
and  became  pastor  of  the  Reformed  Congrega- 
tion in  Liibeck  1707 ;  which  position  he  resigned 
in  1847.  He  was  an  eloquent  and  impressive 
preacher,  an  ardent  adversary  of  the  reigning 
rationalism,  and  exercised  considerable  influence 
also  outside  of  the  Reformed  Congregation.  One 
of  his  most  remarkable  writings,  besides  his  ser- 
mons, is  his  Wiilerherslclliwri  iter  erslen  chrislUchen 
Gemeinile,  Liibeck,  1840,  published  under  the 
pseudonyme  of  Philalethes. 

CEIGER,  Abraham,  Hebrew  and  Talmudical 
<cholar;  b.  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  May  24, 
J810;  d.  at  Berlin,  Oct.  2:'.,  1874.  He  was  rabbi 
rtt  Wiesbaden,  Breslau,  Frankfort,  and  Berlin; 
belonged  to  the  Reformed  Jews,  and  in  their 
interest  founded,  with  some  others,  the  Zehaclirifl 
fiir  jiidische  Theologie  (1835).  His  princijial  pub- 
lications were  an  essay  upon  the  Jewish  sources 
of  the  Koran  (  Was  hal  Molinmnied  aus  clem  Juden- 
thum  anfyenominen?  1833),  monographs  (Sluilien) 
upon  Maimonides  (1850)  and  other  Jews  of  the 
middle  age,  Ur.ichrift  u.  Ueberselzmu/en  der  Bibel 
in  direr  Ahliani/i(/L'eit  von  der  innern  Enhinckelunri 
den  Judenthums  (1857),  Die  Sadducaer  u.  Pharisiier 
(1863),  Das  Judenlhum  und  seine  Geschichte  (1864- 
71,  Eng.  trans,  of  vol.  i.,  Lond.,  1866).  And  post- 
humous are  his  Allijemeine  Einleitung  and  Nacli- 
gelassene  Schriflen,  5  vols.,  edited  by  his  son,  1875. 
Of  these  works  that  on  the  Urschrift  wa,s  the  chief, 
as  it  was  the  fruit  of  twenty  years  of  study,  and 
"marked  a  new  departure  in  the  methods  of 
studying  the  records  of  Judaism." 

CEICER,  Franz  Tiburtius,  b.  at  Harting,  near 
Ratisbon,  17.55;  d.  at  Lucerne,  May  8,  1843; 
entered  the  order  of  the  Franciscans  in  1772,  and 
became  professor  of  theology  at  Lucerne  in  1792. 
Lucerne  was  the  seat  of  the  papal  nuncios,  and 
the  centre  of  Roman-Catholic  Switzerland,  and 
from  here  Geiger  exercised  a  considerable  influ- 
ence on  the  revival  and  consolidation  of  ultra- 
montanist  feelings  and  ideas,  both  by  his  lectures 
and  by  a  great  number  of  minor  pamphlets,  col- 
lected in  eight  volumes  by  Raber.  See  \Vidmer  : 
Franz  Geif/er,  Lucerne,  1843. 

CEILER,    Johann,    b.    at    Kaisersberg,    near 


Scluiffhausen,  March  16,  1445 ;  d.  at  Strassburg, 
March  10,  1510  ;  studied  philosophy  and  tlie 
humanities  at  Freiburg,  but  was  by  Gerson's 
writings  drawn  towards  theology ;  went  to  ]5asel 
in  1471,  and  became  doctor  then/ot/ia:  there  in  1475; 
returned  to  Freiburg  as  professor  of  theology, 
but  removed  in  1478  to  Strassburg,  where  he 
spent  the  rest  of  his  life  as  preacher  at  the  cathe- 
dral. Towards  the  end  of  tiie  fifteenth  century 
a  tendency  became  apparent  almost  everywhere 
among  the  preachers  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
scholasticism,  and  to  give  to  the  sermon"  a  freer 
course,  a  greater  life,  a  deeper  impressiveness. 
This  tendency  did  not  originate  among  the 
Humanists.  It  sprung  from  a  feeling  which  the 
rapid  progress  of  the  printing-press,  and  the  effect 
it  had  on  the  people,  awakened  within  the  church 
itself,  that  it  was  necessary  to  establish  a  much 
more  intimate  relation  between  the  pulpit  and 
the  mass  of  the  people,  if  the  former  should  not 
entirely  lose  its  hold  on  the  latter.  One  of  the 
most  remarkable  representatives  of  this  tendency 
is  Geiler  von  Kaisersberg.  He  took  his  texts  not 
from  Scripture  only,  but  also  from  Gerson's 
works,  from  Brant's  Narrenscliiff]  from  a  barber's 
song,  from  everywhere ;  and  the  text  chosen  he 
applied  directly,  without  flinching,  to  the  real 
life  which  presented  itself  before  his  pulpit,  in 
form  which  our  taste  may  now  and  then  find 
somewhat  coarse,  but  which  on  his  time  produced 
the  deepest  impression.  His  sermons  were  often 
taken  down  while  he  delivered  them,  then  trans- 
lated into  Latin  (often  with  omission  of  the  face- 
lice  which  could  not  be  translated),  and  then 
again  into  High  German.  Thus  there  exists  a 
great  number  of  collections  of  his  sermons,  more 
or  less  genuine ;  but  all  of  them,  even  the  tamest 
Latin  renderings,  show  the  same  fundamental 
character.  See  works  upon  Geiler's  life  and 
writings  by  Ammon  (Erlangen,  1826),  August 
Stoeber  (Strassburg,  1834),  [D.\cheux  (Paris, 
1877),  also  by  Dr.  P.  de  Lorenzi,  in  his  edition 
of  Geiler's  Ausgewcihile  Schriften,  vols.  I.,  II., 
Trier,  1881.]  c.  SCHMIDT. 

GELASIUS  is  the  name  of  two  popes.  —  Gela. 
sius  I.  (March  1,  4!)2-Nov.  19,  496)  inherited  the 
controversy  with  the  Constantinopolitan  see  con- 
cerning Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
whom  Pope  Felix  III.  had  excommunicated  be- 
cause he  leaned  towards  Jlonophysitism,  but 
whose  name  was  still  retained  in  the  diptychs  of 
the  Constantinopolitan  Church.  In  495  Gelasius 
repeated  the  excommunication,  and  cursed  all 
who  did  not  accept  it.  The  controversy  became 
so  much  the  more  acrimonious  as  the  real  ques- 
tion at  issue  was  one  of  precedence.  It  was  not 
the  orthodoxy  of  his  predecessor,  but  the  suprema- 
cy of  his  see,  which  Gelasius  fought  for;  and,  in 
the  numerous  letters  he  wrote  during  the  contro- 
versy, he  pushed  his  arrogance  to  an  extreme, 
and  set  forth  claims  hitherto  unheard  of.  He 
demanded  the  right  to  receive  appeals  from  every- 
W'here  in  the  world,  though  he  allowed  no  appeal 
from  Rome  to  any  other  court ;  the  right  to  con- 
firm or  cancel  the  decisions  of  other  bishops, 
though  none  were  allowed  to  question  the  decis- 
ions of  Rome,  etc.  Besides  his  letters,  he  left 
several  minor  writings,  of  which  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  Decretum  de  libris  recipiendis  el 
Hon  recipiendis,  the  first  Index  librorum  prohibitoruin. 


GELASIUS   OF   CYZICUS. 


858 


GENEALOGY. 


Its  genuineness  is  contested ;  hut  though  it  may 
have  bee;  besjun  by  Damasus,  and  finislied  by 
Hormisdas,  the  bulk  of  the  work  seems,  never- 
theless, to  belong  to  Gelasius.  Among  the  books 
forbidden  are  the  works  of  Tertullian,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Arnobius,  Lactantius,  and  Origen. 
His  writings  are  found  in  And.  Thikl;  Epist. 
Rom.  Pontif.,  Brunsberg,  1867:  his  life,  in  Liber. 
Pontif.,  vol.  i.  ;  and  in  JaffE;  Reg.  Ponl.  Rom.. 
p.  .53. —  Gelasius  II.  (ni8-.ran.  19,  1119)  was 
seized,  immediately  after  his  election,  bj'  the  fac- 
tion of  the  Frangipani,  and  liberated  only  by  the 
rising  of  the  people  of  Rome.  But  he  had  hardly 
escaped  the  Frangipani  before  a  still  greater 
danger  began  to  loom  uj  .  As  soon  as  Henry  V. 
heard  that  a  new  pope  had  been  elected  without 
his  consent  being  asked  for,  he  hastened  to  Italy, 
and  Jlarch  2,  1 118,  he  entered  Rome.  Afraid  of 
being  compelled  to  make  a  compromise  similar 
to  that  which  his  predecessor  Paschalis  II.  had 
made,  Gelasius  H.  fled  to  Capua,  and  April  7, 
1118.  he  excommunicated  the  emperor,  and  the 
antipope  whom  the  emperor  had  got  elected  in 
Kome  under  the  name  of  Gregory  VIII.  Shortly 
after,  he  returned  to  Rome,  but  was  once  more 
driven  away  by  the  Frangipani  and  the  imperial 
party.  He  fled  to  France,  and  died  on  the  way 
to  Cluny.  His  life  by,  Pandulfus,  is  found  in 
Wattkkicii  :  Ponl.  Rom.  Vilce.  Tom.  II.;  his  let- 
ters, in  Mig.n'k:  J'dlrol.  Latin.,  vol.  163;  of.  Jaffe: 
Ri'q.   Po'i!.   Iloin..  pp.  .")22  SI).  E.  ZOPFFEL. 

GELASIUS  OF  CYZICUS  lived  about  47.5,  and 
wrote  a  history  of  the  first  Council  of  Nicaea,  which 
was  published  by  Robert  Balfour,  Paris,  1509,  and 
is  found  in  the  collections  of  councils  by  Labbe, 
Harduin,  and  JIausi.  The  work  is  of  very  little 
value,  however,  consisting  mostly  of  fictitious 
speeches,  and  of  debates  between  heathen  philoso- 
phers and  Christian  l)ishops. 

CELLERT,  Christian  Furchtegott,  b.  at  Ilay- 
nichen,  Saxony,  July  4,  1715;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Dec. 
13,  1769 ;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was 
appointed  profe.ssor  extraordinary  there  in  1751. 
He  wrote  comedies,  fables,  e.ssays  on  morals 
and  ?csth»'tics,  and  hymns.  His  Fables  was  one 
of  the  most  popular  books  which  the  German 
literature  produceil  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  it  is  still  read.  His  hynnis  made  almost 
an  equal  impression  :  they  were  translated  into 
Dutch,  Danish,  Bohemian,  Russian,  etc.,  and 
■were  praised  even  by  the  Ron)an  Catholics.  It  is 
true  that  they  have  been  severely  criticised ;  but 
no  disparagement  has  been  able  to  take  CJellert 
out  of  the  liearts  of  the  people,  nor  liis  poems  out 
of  the  church.  [One  of  his  hymns,  "Jesus  lives, 
and  1  with  him,"  is  found  in  many  English 
hymn-books.]  His  collected  works  liave  lieen 
frequently  reprinted,  as  in  10  vols,  at  Leipzig, 
1867.  His  Life  was  written  by  J.  A.  Cramer, 
Leipzig,  1774.  A  Gellertbuc/i  was  published  in 
Dresden,  1854.  IIAGKNBACII. 

GEM.    Si:k  Precious  Stones. 

CEMARA.     .See  Talmud. 

GENEALOGY.'  The  matter  of  pedigree  was 
deemed  of  great  importance  by  the  Ilebrews  and 
ancient  peoples  generally,  as  at  present  ainong 
the  Arabs.     Genealogical  lists  are  interspersed 


'  TIiiM  (irtlclr  l«  rcprlntft),  by  ixTmiHHlon  of  the  Amrrloan 
Silnilny-Snhor.l  Union,  from  Si'lm(r»  Hihl,  Pirtinnar)/  (I'liihi., 
Id  ed.,  Ih81),but80inc'wbut  cnlui-^ed,  und  tbc  Lilcruturu  added. 


all  through  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. They  are  called  "the  book  of  the  genera- 
tion of,"  etc.  They  answer,  also,  a  spiritual  pur- 
pose. They  prove  the  faithfulness  of  God  in 
favoring  the  increase  of  the  race,  in  accordance 
with  his  command,  in  keeping  his  promise  to  Abra- 
ham and  his  seed,  in  raising  up  priests  to  minis- 
ter in  his  sanctuary,  and,  finally,  in  sending,  when 
tlie  set  time  had  come  and  all  things  were  ready, 
his  Son  into  the  world.  As  far  as  the  Bible  is 
concerned,  the  preservation  of  these  genealogical 
lists  -was  for  the  authentication  of  Christ's  de- 
scent. But  the  historical  use  is  by  no  means  to 
be  ignored :  indeed,  in  proportion  as  we  grasp  its 
value  shall  we  attain  conviction  of  the  perfect 
reality  of  the  earthly  descent  of  Christ  from  the 
seed  of  David,  according  to  prophecj-.  "  The 
genealogies  of  .Scripture,"  says  Professor  G.  Raw- 
linson,  -'dry  and  forbidding  as  is  their  first 
aspect,  will  well  repay  a  careful  and  scholarly 
study.  They  are  like  an  arid  range  of  bare  and 
stony  mountains,  which,  when  minutely  exam- 
ined, reveals  to  the  investigator  mines  of  emerald 
or  diamond.  Only  let  the  searcher  bear  in  mind 
that  where  all  is  dark  to  him  it  may  be  reserved 
for  future  inquirers  to  let  in  upon  the  darkness  a 
flood  of  light"  (T/ie  Origin  of  Nations,  p.  160). 

The  first  biblical  genealogy  is  Gen.  iv.  16-24. 
It  gives  the  descendants- of  Cain.  The  following 
chapter  gives  the  family  of  Seth.  The  tenth  and 
eleventh  chapters,  thougli  the  ordinary  reader 
might  pass  them  over  because  tliey  seem  to  con- 
sist of  mere  unimportant  names,  are  regarded  by 
ethnologists  as  invaluable,  since  they  contain  a 
history  of  the  dispersion  of  the  nations  in  prehis- 
toric times.  The  first  eight  chapters  of  1  Chroni- 
cles are  devoted  to  genealogical  accounts,  begin- 
ning with  Adam,  because,  as  it  is  stated,  "  aU 
Israel  were  reckoned  by  genealogies  "  (1  Chron. 
ix.  1).  It  is,  however,  to  be  observed  that  these 
several  lists  are  not  in  all  cases  records  of  direct 
descent ;  thougli  perhaps,  in  the  majority  of  in- 
stances, they  are  unbroken.  Still  they  are  not 
sufficient  to  determine  the  length  of  any  ]ieriod, 
since,  in  many  cases,  the  list  the  writer  has  tran- 
scribed contains  only  prominent  names.  Women 
are  named  occasionally,  when  there  is  something 
remarkable  about  them,  or  when  any  right  or 
property  is  transmiltcd  through  them  (see  Gen. 
xi.  29;  Exod.  vi.  23;  1  Chron.  ii.  4;  Luke  i.  5, 
etc.).  Another  feature  is,  that  the.se  records  es- 
pecially concern  the  line  of  the  cho.sen  seed  and 
the  tribe  and  family  from  which  our  Lord  sprung. 
Seth's  family  is  more  fully  stated  than  Cain's, 
."Vbraham's  tli.an  Lot's,  Isaac's  than  Ishmael's,  etc. 
The  lists  .are  both  ascending  and  descending.  For 
the  former  see  1  Chron.  vi.  33-43,  Ez.  vii.  1-5; 
for  the  descending  see  Ruth  iv.  18-22,  1  Chron.  iii. 
The  descending  scale  is  likely  to  take  in  the  col- 
lateral branches.  There  are  many  clerical  errors 
in  tiie.se  li.sts. 

But,  notwithstanding  these  alterations  and 
abridgments,  it  is  capable  of  ]iroof  that  the 
Bible  presents  us  transcripts  from  certain  official 
records.  They  bear  the  evidence  of  substantial 
truth.  That  such  records  (existed  is  indicated 
rather  than  proved.  Thus  the  assignments  of 
the  temple-service  by  David  were  genealogical. 
In  the  reign  of  Relioboam,  Iddo  wrote  a  book  on 
genealogies  (2  Chron.  xii.  15),     From  2  Chron. 


GENEALOGY. 


859 


GENEALOGY. 


xxxi.  16-19  we  learn  that  in  Hezekiah's  day  there 
existed  genealogies  of  the  jiriests,  at  all  events. 
The  lists  in  Ezra  and  Neheniiah  prove  that  such 
lists  and  others  survived  the  captivity.  It  is  a 
monstrous  assumption  to  say  that  they  were 
forged.  Lord  Hervey  (in  Smith's  DidKiiiari/  i>f 
the  Bible)  points  out  an  incidental  allusion  to 
these  lists  at  the  time  of  Chri.st,  in  pi'oof  that  the; 
census  went  upon  them  as  a  basis ;  since  .Io.seph 
went  to  Betlileheni  because  he  was  of  the  house 
of  David.  Manifestly  Joseph  had,  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  his  family,  good  grounds  for  this  belief. 
Probably  "the  registers  of  the  .Jewish  tribes  and 
families  perished  at  the  destruction  of  .Jerusalem, 
and  not  before ;  although  some  partial  records 
may  have  survived  the  event."  When  the  temple 
fell,  there  was  no  longer  any  special  need  of  these 
lists.  The  Aaronic  priesthood  was  no  more;  the 
nation  was  dispersed  in  captivity ;  the  Messiah 
was  come. 

Lit.  —  .See  Knobel,  Die  Volkertafel,  Giessen, 
18.50,  and  the  commentaries  on  Genesis  (chap,  x.) 
by  Dklitzscii,  AIurphy,  Brown,  Lange  (trans- 
lated by  Tavler  Lewis),  Dill.mann,  and  the 
commentaries  on  Chronicles  by  Keil,  Zockler 
(translated  by  Murphy,  in  the  Lange  .series);  also 
George  Rawlinson  :  T/ie  Ori(/i»  of  Nations,  N.Y., 
1S7S,  pp.  16.5  sqq.  Bochaut  (Geoijraphica  sacra, 
1616)  is  worth  consultation  by  those  who  would 
make  a  thorough  study  of  the  subject. 

Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  (Matt.  i.  1-17; 
Luke  iii.  L':j-u8).  This  is  the  only  genealogy 
given  us  in  the  New  Testament.  "  \Ve  have  two 
lists  of  the  liunian  ancestors  of  Christ.  Matthew, 
writing  for  Jewish  Christians,  begins  with  Abra- 
ham ;  Luke,  writing  for  Gentile  Christians,  goes 
back  to  Adam,  the  father  of  all  men.  According 
to  his  human  nature,  Christ  was  the  descendant 
of  Abraham,  David,  and  Mary :  according  to  his 
divine  nature,  he  was  the  eternal  and  only-begot- 
ten Son  of  God,  begotten  from  the  essence  of  the 
Father.  .John  (i.  1-lS)  begins  his  Gospel  by  set- 
ting forth  his  divine  genealogy.  In  him,  the 
God-man,  all  the  ascending  aspirations  of  human 
nature  toward  God,  and  all  the  descending  revela- 
tions of  God  to  man,  meet  in  perfect  harmony. 
Matthew  begins  at  Abraham  (1)  to  prove  to  .Jew- 
ish Christians  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  was  the 
promised  ]\Iessiah,  (2)  to  show  the  connection 
between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  through  a 
succession  of  living  persons  ending  in  .Jesus 
Christ,  who  is  the  subject  of  the  Gospel,  and  the 
object  of  the  faith  it  requires.  Christ  is  the  ful- 
filment of  all  the  typ>es  and  prophecies  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  heir  of  all  its  blessings  and 
promises,  the  dividing-line  and  connecting-link 
of  ages,  the  end  of  the  old  and  the  beginning  of 
the  new  history  of  mankind.  In  the  long  list  of 
his  human  ancestors  we  have  a  cloud  of  witnesses, 
a  compend  of  the  history  of  preparation  for  the 
coming  of  Christ  down  to  the  Virgin  ISlary,  in 
whom  culminated  the  longing  and  hope  of  Israel 
for  redemption.  It  is  a  history  of  divine  prom- 
ises and  their  fulfilment,  of  human  faith  and 
hope  for  the  desire  of  all  nations.  In  the  list  are 
named  illustriotis  heroes  of  faith,  but  also  obscure 
persons  written  in  the  secret  book  of  God,  as  well 
as  gross  sinners  redeemed  by  grace,  which  reaches 
the  lowest  depths,  as  well  as  the  most  exalted 
heights,  of  society.     Matthew's  table  is  divided 


into  three  parts,  corresponding  to  three  periods  of 
preparation  for  llie  coming  of  Christ."  —  Schaff. 

The  differences  between  Matthew  and  Luke 
have  been  variously  explained.  They  prove  the 
independence  of  the  two  evangelists,  who  drew 
fi'om  flift'erent  but  equally  trustworthy  sources. 
Both  lists  are  incomplete,  and  names  must  be 
supplied  (there  are  only  nine  names  for  a  period 
of  eight  hundred  and  thirty-three  years).  They 
coincide  until  David;  when  Matthew  takes  the 
reigning  line  through  Solomon,  Luke  the  younger 
and  inferior  line  by  David's  .son  Nathan.  A 
more  serious  difficulty  is,  that  names  do  not  ap- 
pear in  the  same  place  in  the  two  lists.  Luke 
gives  twenty-one  names  between  David  and 
Zerubbabel,  Matthew  only  fifteen ;  and  all  the 
names  except  that  of  Shealtiel  (Salalliiel)  are 
different.  Luke  gives  seventeen  names  between 
Zerubbabel  and  Joseph,  ilatthew  only  nine;  and 
all  the  names  are  different.  The  greatest  differ- 
ence is,  that  Matthew  calls  Josepli  the  son  of 
.Jacob,  while  Luke  calls  him  the  son  of  Heli,  or 
Eli.  He  cannot  have  been  nalvrall//  the  son  of 
both;  and  it  is  not  likely  that  the  two  names  are 
meant  for  one  and  the  same  person.  Hence  the 
following  theories :  — 

1.  The  oldest  explanation  as.suines  one,  or  per- 
haps two,  levirate  marriages  in  the  family  of 
Joseph;  i.e.,  a  marriage  of  a  man  to  the  childless 
widow  of  his  elder  brother;  the  children  of  the 
second  marriage  being  reckoned  as  the  legal  de- 
scendants of  the  first  husband.  Heli  and  Jacob 
may  have  been  brotliers,  or  half-brothers  (sous  of 
the  same  mother,  but  of  different  fathers),  suc- 
cessively married  to  the  mother  of  Joseph,  who, 
according  to  law,  was  registered  by  Luke  as  the 
son  of  Ileli,  though  naturally  the  son  of  Jacob, 
as  recorded  by  ^Matthew.  But  this  view  involves 
inaccuracy  in  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  genealo- 
gies. 

2.  Matthew  gives  the  leyal  or  royal  genealogy 
of  Joseph  ;  Luke,  the  private  line  of  Joseph.  The 
one  gives  the  heirship  to  the  throne  of  David  and 
Solomon  (the  jus  successionis) ;  the  other,  the 
actual  descent,  through  Nathan  and  private  per- 
sons, from  a  collateral  line  (the  jus  snnr/ninis). 
This  is  the  prevailing  view  of  English  divines  : 
but  then  Matthew  could  not  have  properly  used 
the  verb  "  begat ;  "  for  the  line  of  Solomon  failed 
in  Jeconiah  (Jer.  xxii.  30). 

3.  Matthew  gives  the  genealogy  of  Joseph ; 
Luke,  the  genealogy  of  JlaiT.  Heli  may  have 
been  the  father  of  Mary  and  the  father-in-law  of 
Joseph,  and  consequently  the  grandfather  of 
Jesus.  Luke,  writing  for' Gentiles,  and  proving 
that  Christ  was  the  seed  of  the  woman,  traces 
the  natural  or  real  pedigree  of  Jesus  through  his 
mother,  JSlary,  in  the  line  of  Nathan,  and  indi- 
cates this  by  the  parenthetical  remark,  "Jesus 
being  (as  was  supposed)  the  son  of  Joseph  [but 
in  reality],  the  son  of  Heli,"  or  his  grandson  by 
the  mother's  side.  JIary  is  always  called  by  the 
Jews  "the  daughter  of  Heli."  Matthew,  writing 
for  Jews,  gives  the  legal  pedigree  of  Jesus  (which 
was  always  reckoned"  in  the  male  line)  through 
Joseph,  his  legal  father,  in  the  line  of  Solomon. 
This  explanation  is  the  easiest,  and  lias  been 
adojited  bv  Luther,  Grotius,  Bengel,  Olshauseu, 
Ebrard,  Wieseler,  Robinson,  Gardiner,  Lange, 
Plumptre,  Weiss,  Godet.     It  is  supported  by  the 


GENESIS. 


860 


GENEVA. 


fact  that  in  ^Matthew's  history  of  the  infancy 
Joseph  is  most  prominent;  in  Luke's  account, 
Mary.  The  Davidic  descent  of  Jesus  is  a  mark 
of  the  Messiali,  and  is  cleai-ly  taught  in  tlie 
prophecy,  and  also  in  Rom.  i.  3;  2  Tim.  ii.  8; 
Heb.  vii.  14;  John  vii.  42;  Acts  xiii.  23.  If  we 
take  this  exjilanation,  Jesus  was  in  a  double  sense 
the  son  of  David,  —  in  law  and  in  fact,  from  his 
reputed  father,  and  from  his  natural  mother. 

See  Bishop  Lord  Hervey  :  Genealogies  of  our 
Saviour,  from  Matthew  and  Mark,  Loud.,  1853; 
WiESELER :  Beitriifje  zur  WUnli</ung  der  Evan- 
gelien,  1869,  pp.  135  sqq. ;  the  art.  Genealogij,  in 
Smith's  Bible  Dictionary;  the  commentaries  of 
Meyer,  Lange,  JIaxsel,  Keii,,  Morison,  and 
SCHAFF,  on  Malt.  i. ;  and  of  Weiss,  Godet,  and 
Farhah.  oil  Luke  Hi. 

GENESIS.     See  Pentateuch. 

GENESIUS,  a  comedian,  who,  while  acting  the 
part  of  a  candidate  for  Christian  baptism,  was 
suddenly  converted,  acknowledged  his  conviction, 
was  put  to  torture,  and  beheaded  (285),  and  then 
inscribed  among  the  saints  of  the  Koman  Church. 
His  festival  falls  on  .^ug.  2.").  See  Act.  Sanct., 
and  BuTLKR,  Lii-es  of  the  Saints,  on  date. 

GENEVA  (French,  Geneve;  German,  Genf),  the 
largest  city  of  .Switzerland,  numbering  68,1  Go 
inhabitants  in  1876,  and  the  capital  of  the  canton 
of  the  same  name ;  was,  before  the  period  of  the 
Reformation,  subject  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese 
of  Genevois,  who,  again,  was  an  immediate  fief- 
holder  of  the  German  emperor.  There  was,  how- 
ever, always  dispute  between  the  bishops  and  the 
counts  of  Genevois,  later  on  between  the  bishops 
and  the  dukes  of  .Savoy,  concerning  the  possession 
of  the  city;  and  there  was  within  the  city  itself, 
as  within  most  mediajval  towns  of  commercial 
and  industrial  consequence,  a  party  which  strove 
for  liberty  and  independence.  Racked  by  Frei- 
burg and  Bern,  with  which  alliances  were  con- 
cluded respectively  in  loU)  and  1526,  the  party  of 
liberty  finally  gained  the  ascendency.  The  city 
constituted  itself  a  republic,  expelled  the  bishop, 
adopted  the  Keforuiatiou,  and  succeeded  in  vindi- 
cating its  independence  against  the  insidious 
attacks  of  the  Duke  of  Savoy  until  1798,  when  it 
was  incorporated  with  France.  In  1814,  however, 
it  regained  its  independence ;  and,  its  territory 
liaving  been  increased  with  some  French  and 
Savoy  communities,  it  joined  the  Swiss  confed- 
eracy as  the  twenty-second  canton.  The  area  of 
the  canton  comprises  only  107  square  miles,  with 
99,352  inhabitants  in  1876. 

The  first  s(!eds  of  the  Reformation  were  sown 
in  (ieneva  by  the  French  translation  of  the  Bible 
by  Le  Fevre  d'Etaples  (Faber  .Stapulensis) ;  and 
already  in  1528  the  bishop,  the  Duke  of  Savoy, 
and  the  Pope  were  busily  engaged  in  punishing 
])eo]>le  who  possessed  or  read  Ic  Hire  maudit  : 
they  v/en:  fined,  or  scourged,  or  beheaded.  In 
September,  1532,  Farel  arrived  at  (ieneva,  pre- 
ceded by  Froment,  followed  by  Viret ;  and  in 
March,  1533,  the  Hefornied  doctrine  was  allowed 
to  be  preached  and  practised  in  the  city.  In  July, 
same  year,  the  bishop,  Pierre  de  la  Baume,  re- 
moved his  residence  from  Geneva  to  Aiinecy.  A 
violent  Komati-C.atholic  re-action  took  place  in 
the  following  year;  but  it  was  of  short  duration. 
In  1535  the  Reformation  was  adopted  as  the  re- 
ligion of  the  State ;  and  in  October,  1530,  Calvin 


arrived.  He  soon  found  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  whole  movement,  political  as  well  as  religious ; 
and  by  his  iron  hand  a  theocracy  of  a  very  stern 
type  was  established.  The  Reformed  doctrine 
became  a  civil  duty,  and  dogmatical  deviations 
were  treated  as  treason.  Ecclesiastical  discipline 
was  carried  even  into  the  routine  of  daily  life, 
and  a  breach  of  its  dictates  was  punished  as  a 
crime.  The  transition  proved  too  sudden,  how- 
ever. A  party  was  formed,  not  with  any  tendency 
towards  Romanism,  but  for  the  purpose  of  sus- 
taining a  greater  measure  of  liberty,  and  in  1538 
Calvin  was  expelled.  But  it  soon  became  appar- 
ent that  his  austere  regimen  was  a  necessity,  if 
Geneva  really  should  fulfil  her  mission  as  a 
frontier  fortress  against  Rome.  The  city  was 
crowded  with  refugees  from  Italy,  Spain,  France, 
and  England.  Each  new-comer  brought  a  new 
system  of  Protestantism  along  with  him ;  and  the 
liberty  very  soon  degenerated  into  a  laxity,  which 
the  Roman  Catholics  were  not  slow  to  avail  them- 
selves of.  Calvin  was  recalled,  and  the  severe 
order  returned  with  the  dictator.  Lender  his  ride, 
and,  indeed,  for  a  long  time  after  his  death,  Gene- 
va stood  as  the  "  Rome  of  Protestantism,"  the 
"moral  capital  of  the  half  of  Christendom,"  form- 
ing the  strongest  and  loftiest  characters,  and  send- 
ing forth  the  noblest  and  most  vigorous  impulses. 
It  was  not  only  a  jilace  of  refuge  to  tho.se  who 
were  persecuted,  but  also  a  centre  of  active  labor. 
The  English  version,  called  the  Geneva  Bible, 
received  its  name  from  its  being  made  in  that 
city  by  English  refugees.  (See  Exglish  Bible 
Versions,  p.  735.) 

L'nder  such  circumstances  it  was  only  natural 
that  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  should  consider 
it  one  of  her  great  objects  to  convert  Geneva;  and 
many  attempts,  insidious,  daring,  foolish  attempts, 
were  made,  as,  for  instance,  that  by  Franc^ois  de 
Sales.  But  none  was  more  cunningly  planned,  and 
more  patiently  carried  out,  than  that  of  which 
our  own  time  has  seen  the  issue.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  territory  added  to  the  city  in  1814  in  order 
to  form  the  canton  of  Geneva  were  exclusively 
Roman  Catholics,  and  the  population  of  the  whole- 
canton  was  thus  nearly  equally  divided  between 
the  two  churches.  Here  was  a  chance  for  Rome, 
and  she  knew  how  to  improve  it.  Disputes 
between  the  priests  and  the  pastors  were  of  fre- 
quent occurrence,  and  sometimes  of  great  danger 
to  the  republic,  as,  after  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  a 
strong  current  of  re-action,  both  political  and  reli- 
gious, had  set  in  everywhere  in  Europe ;  and  it 
pi-oved  easy  for  the  Roman-Catholic  party  to 
bring  the  influence  of  France,  Russia,  and  Aus- 
tria, to  bear  against  their  Protestant  adversaries. 
The  dissolution  of  the  Holy  Alliance,  however, 
and  the  revolution  of  1830,  gave  the  Protestants 
freer  hands ;  but  then  the  .secret  work  of  the 
Kom.anists  in  the  social  foundation  of  the  State 
began  to  show  its  results.  From  the  very  day  of 
the  annexation  of  the  rural  territories,  the  Roman 
clergy  exerted  itself  to  prevent  an  amalgamation 
between  the  two  denominations.  Mixed  marriages^ 
wore  |iroliibitcd;  neighliorly  courtesy  was  discour- 
aged ;  the  two  confessions  seldom  met  each  other, 
except  when  doing  military  service.  At  the  same 
time  a  Koman-Catholic  innnigration  was  highly 
favored.  Laljorers,  mechanics,  retail  dealers,  etc., 
were  imported  in  considerable  numbers,  and  se*- 


GENEVIEVE,  ST. 


861 


GBNNADIUS. 


tied  in  the  city,  a  propaganda  at  Lyons  furnishing 
funds;  and  the  Roman  Church  was  .soon  able  to 
take  up  the  contest  with  the  Protestant  party  in 
the  political  held.  The  fight  actually  began, 
stirred  up  liy  tlie  priests.  But  in  tlie  course  of  a 
generation  the  march  of  affairs  took  an  unex- 
pected turn.  The  young  voters  were  sent  to  the 
polls  by  their  confessors,  and  to  the  political 
meetings.  Discussions  began  between  the  two 
confessions ;  and  confessional  matters  could,  of 
course,  not  be  excluded.  The  result  was  that  sud- 
denly there  appeared  within  the  pale  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  comnnuiity  a  decided  opposition 
to  tlie  ultramontanists.  This  new  party,  the 
Liberal-Catholics,  invited  in  1873  Father  Ilya- 
cinthe  to  preach  at  Geneva ;  and,  as  the  Genevese 
laws  grant  to  every  congregation  the  right  of 
electing  its  pastor  itself,  many  Romau-Catholic 
congregations  chose  Old  Catholic  priests,  who  re- 
jected Uie  dogma  of  papal  infallibility,  and  were 
married. 

The  history,  however,  of  the  Church  of  Geneva, 
is  by  no  means  confined  to  her  duel  with  the 
Roman  Church  :  on  the  contrary,  considerable 
changes  of  organization  and  a  significant  doc- 
trinal development  have  taken  place.  The  organ- 
ization of  the  sixteenth  century  remained  un- 
altered for  a  long  time,  or  underwent  only  minor 
modifications,  until,  in  1846,  a  radical  change 
was  effected,  amounting  almost  to  a  revolution. 
Up  to  1846  the  pastors  were  chosen  by  the  Venera- 
ble Comptujnie  iJes  Pasleurs,  one  of  the  institutions 
of  Calvin,  which  also  had  in  hand  the  adminis- 
tration of  all  religious  affairs  of  the  church,  and 
exercised  great  influence  on  the  academy  and  the 
schools.  But  from  that  year  the  authority  of  the 
compaf/nie  was  confined  to  questions  of  worship 
proper;  while  the  other  branches  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  church  were  placed  under  the 
consistoire,  composed  of  twenty-five  lay-members 
and  six  pastors,  and  elected  by  the  people ;  and 
the  pastors  w'ere  chosen  by  the  congregations. 
At  the  same  time  began  that  doctrinal  difference 
to  develop,  which  finally  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  I'^vangelical  Society,  and  the  foundation  of  a 
new  theological  school ;  for  which  see  the  articles 
on  Gaussex,  Mkrlf,  d'Aubigne,  Societe  £van- 

GELIQUE,  etc. 

Lit. — Memoirs  el  documents  puhlie's  par  la  So- 
cie'te'  d'histoire  el  d'arclie'olorjie^  de  Genhce,  1840  sqq.; 
L  Gaberel  :  Hisloire  de  I'Egltse  de  Geneve,  3  vols. ; 
Ami  Bost  :  Memoirs  pour  semr  a  I'hisloire  dii  reveil 
religieux,  3  vols.;  E.  Guers  :  Le  premier  rereil  et  la 
premiere  etjlise  independante  a  Geneve ;  Roget  :  La 
question  culhoUque  a  Geneve;  Fleury:  Histoire  de 
I'eglise  de  Geneve  depuis  les  temps  les  plus  anciens 
jusqu'en  1802,  Geneva,  1879  sqq. 

GENEVIEVE,  St.,  b.  419  or  425,  at  Nanterre; 
d.  in  Paris,  Jan.  3,  512;  became  the  patroness  of 
Paris  by  averting  the  attack  of  the  Huns,  under 
Attila,  from  that  city  by  her  prayers ;  built  the 
first  church  over  the  tomb  of  St.  Denis  ;  and  lies 
buried  in  the  Church  of  St.  Genevifeve,  in  Paris, 
which,  however,  twice  (in  1792  and  in  1830)  has 
been  for  a  time  transformed  into  a  national  pan- 
theon. The  earliest  life  of  her,  written  shortly 
after  her  death,  was  published  in  Paris,  in  1G87, 
by  Charpentier.  See  Act.  Sanct.,  and  Butler, 
Lives  of  the  Saints,  J.an.  3. 

GENEVlkVE,  Canons  of  St.  (also  called  Canons 


of  the  Congregation  of  France),  a  congregation 
of  regular  canons  founded  in  1614  by  Charles 
Faure,  from  tlie  aVjbey  of  St.  Vincent  de  Seulis, 
who,  by  the  Cardinal  de  la  Rochefoucauld,  was 
called  to  Paris,  and  successfully  carried  through 
a  reform  of  the  abby  of  St.  Genevieve  there.  A 
female  community  of  the  order  (the  Dunq/ilers  of 
St.  Genevieve,  or  the  Miramions)  was  founded  in 
1636  by  Francisca  de  Blosset,  and  in  1660  united 
to  the  congregation  founded  by  Marie  de  Mira- 
mion.  See  Constitutiones  Canonicarnm  reyularium 
Conijreqationis  GaUicante,  Paris,  1676. 

GENNADIUS  MASSILIENSIS  lived,  according 
to  notices  drawn  from  his  own  works,  iu  Gaul 
during  the  time  of  Bishop  Gelasius  of  Rome 
(492-496)  and  the  Bj'zantiue  Kmperor  Anastatius 
(491-518),  and  was  a  presbyter,  not  a  bisliop, 
at  Jlarseilles.  He  understood  Greek,  was  well 
versed  both  in  Eastern  and  '\^'estern  ecclesiastical 
literature,  translated  several  Greek  works  into 
Latin,  and  wrote  original  works  on  all  heresies, — 
against  Nestorius,  against  Pelagius, —  an  Epistota 
de  fide  mea,  and  a  catalogue  of  ecclesiastical 
authors  (De  viris  illustribus),  a  continuation  of 
Jerome's  work  on  the  same  subject.  Only  the 
tw'o  last-mentioned  works  have  come  dow'n  to  us. 
The  former,  if  identical  with  the  Liher  de  ecctesi- 
asticis  dogmatibus,  seems  to  have  undergone  various 
extensions  in  the  course  of  time.  It  was  first 
printed  among  the  works  of  Augustine,  but  sepa^ 
rately  edited  by  Elmenhorst  (Handiurg,  1614) 
and  by  Oehler,  in  Corp.  Hareseol.,  I.  The  De 
viris  illustribus  is  valuable,  both  on  account  of  the 
vast  reading  on  which  it  is  based,  and  on  account 
of  its  impartiality.  It  was  first  printed  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  Jerome,  and  then  edited 
separately  by  Fuchte  (Hehnstiidt,  1612)  and  by 
S.  E.  Cyprian  (Jena,  1703).  Both  works  are 
found  in  iMigne,  Patrol.  Latin.,  vol.  58.  The 
dogmatical  stand-point  of  the  author  is  one  of 
Semi-Pelagianism,  such  as  this  view  prevailed  iu 
Gaul,  and  more  especially  at  Marseilles,  at  his 
time.  WAGEXM.-VNN. 

GENNADIUS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
(1453-59),  was  one  of  the  most  prolific  philosophi- 
cal and  theological  writers  of  his  age,  and  the 
last  representative  of  Byzantine  learning.  Of 
his  personal  life  very  little  is  known.  He  seems 
to  have  been  born  in  Constantinople  about  1400. 
His  true  name  was  Georgios  Scholarios.  Having 
entered  the  court-service,  he  was  made  an  imperial 
councillor,  and  accompanied  in  1438  the  Emperor 
.lohannes  to  the  Council  of  Ferrara-Florence. 
As  a  layman,  he  could  not  take  part  in  the  dis- 
cussions of  the  council;  but  he  presented  to  it 
three  elaborate  speeches  in  favor  of  the  projected 
union  between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches, 
and  addressed  also  his  own  countrymen  in  a 
separate  work  on  the  subject.  After  his  return 
to  Greece,  however,  he  entirely  changed  his  views 
of  the  union,  and  became  one  of  its  most  decided 
adversaries,  speaking  and  writing  against  it  with 
passionate  obstinacy.  This  change  also  disturbed 
his  relations  with  the  emperor;  and  in  1448  he 
retired  to  the  monastery  of  Pantokrator,  and 
became  a  monk,  though  still  continuing  his  lit- 
erary activity.  As  Mohammed  II.,  after  the 
capture  of  Constantinople,  demanded  that  the 
vacant  patriarchal  chair  should  be  filled,  Georgios 
Scholarios,  who  as  a  monk  had  assumed  the  name 


GENNESARBT. 


86i; 


GEORGE,  ST. 


of  Gennadius,  was  unanimously  elected,  and  was 
duly  installed  by  the  Sultan,  as  had  foi-nierly  been 
the  patriarchs  by  the  emperor's.  He  presented 
to  the  Sultan  a  kind  of  confession  or  exposition 
of  the  Christian  faith,  written  with  admirable 
clearness  and  precision,  translated  into  Turkish 
by  Aclimad,  Judge  of  Beroea,  and  first  printed  by 
A.  Brassicanus,  Vienna,  1530;  and  he  later  on 
followed  up  the  subject  by  a  more  elaborate  dis- 
quisition, in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  a 
Turk  and  a  Christian,  first  printed  by  A.  Brassi- 
canus. Vienna,  1539.  He  found,  however,  the 
position  as  patriarch  under  a  Turkish  sultan  so 
irksome,  that  in  1459  lie  abdicated,  and  retired  to 
tlie  monastery  of  John  the  Baj)tist,  near  Serrse, 
in  Macedonia,  where  he  died  at  an  unknown  date. 
The  number  of  his  works  amounts  to  about  a 
hundred ;  but  most  of  them  still  remain  in  manu- 
script, and  for  many  of  them  grave  questions 
have  been  raised  concerning  their  authenticity 
and  integrity.  What  has  been  printed  is  found 
in  JIiGNK. :  Palrolof/ia  Grceca,  vol.  160.  See  Gass: 
Gennadius  und Plctho,\ieT\.,\S\\\  [.Schaff:  Creeds 
of  ChrUleiidom.  I.  46  sqq.].  WAGENMAISTN. 

GENNESARET  is  the  name  of  a  lake  of  Pales- 
tine, also  called  the  ••  Sea  of  Galilee ;  "  of  a  plain 
along  the  north-western  shore  of  the  lake,  gen- 
erally called  the  "  Land  of  Gennesaret;  "  and  of  a 
town  situated  in  the  plain.  The  name  is  Chinne- 
roth,  or  Chinnereth,  in  the  Old  Testament  (Xuni. 
xxxiv.  11;  Josh.  xi.  2;  1  Kings  xv.  20),  and 
Gennesar  in  the  Apocrypha  (1  Mace.  xi.  G7),  but 
Gennesaret  in  the  New  Testament  (Matt.  ix.  1 ; 
Mark  vi.  53;  Luke  v.  1-11).  The  town  was  still  in 
existence  in  tlie  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury.    For  the  lake  and  the  land,  see  Palestine. 

GENOUDE,  Eugene  de,  b.  at  Montelimart, 
17!I2;  il.  in  tin-  IIps  d'llyeres,  1S49;  played  a  part 
in  the  re-action,  political  and  religious,  after  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  in  1814,  bj'  the  .side 
of  Ciiatoaubriand,  De  Maistre,  Bonald,  and  La- 
mennais  ;  edited  various  political  papers ;  was  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1835;  published  a  translation 
of  the  Bible  and  of  Thomas  Ji  Kenqiis"  Imitation 
of  Clu'ist;  and  wrote  La  riiisun  du  c/iri.itianisme 
(Paris,  1834-35,  evidences  drawn  from  all  sources 
to  the  truth  of  Christianity,  a  huge  compilation 
in  12  vols.),  Sermons  (1840),  L'hisloire  d'une  ame, 
a  kind  of  confession,  etc.  A  biography  of  him 
was  pul)lished  at  Paris  by  a  former  colleague  in 
journalism. 

GENTILIS,  Giovanni  Valentino,  b.  at  Cosenza, 
in  CalabiiiL.  alioul  l.')2il;  ln-headed  ;it  Bern,  Sept. 
10,  15t)(j.  He  embraced  llie  Kcformalion,  fled  from 
Italy,  and  settled  at  Geneva.  Remendjering  the 
fate  of  Servetus,  he  signed  the  confession  of  i'aitli 
whieli  the  magistrates  demanded  every  member 
of  tlie  Italian  community  at  Geneva  to  sub.scribe 
to,  but  continued,  nevertheless,  to  propagate  liis 
antitrinitarian  views.  He  was  cited  before  the 
)nagistrales,  and  .sentenced  to  do  public  penance. 
Shorllv  after,  lie  fled  from  (ieneva,  and  went  to 
Poland,  but  returned  once  more  to  Switzerland, 
w!v,s  seized  at  Bern,  imprisoned  for  lieresy,  and 
beheaded.  An  account  of  his  trial  was  published 
by  Benedict  Aretiiis.  .See  TitECri.HKi, :  Die  prnlr.il. 
Aulilrinilurier,  Heidelberg,  1839-44,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
■>1'!  H<Y\. 

GENTILLET,  Innocent,  wa.s  b.  at  Vienne  in 
Daiqihiiic,  but  Wi-A  to  Geneva  on  account  of  the 


persecutions  against  the  Reformed.  In  1576  he 
returned  to  France,  and  was  at  one  time  presi- 
dent of  the  Parliament  of  Grenoble ;  but  in  1585 
he  was  again  conqielled  to  flee,  and  died  at  Gene- 
va at  an  unknown  date.  He  wrote  Ajiolor/ia  pro 
christianis  Gallis  i-eligionis  ei'angelicw{lSi7S),  v:h\c\\ 
is  considered  the  best  apology  for  tlie  Reforma- 
tion ever  WTitten,  and  Le  bureau  du  concile  de 
Trente  (1586),  an  irrefragable  argument  against 
the  Council  of  Trent.  Both  works  have  often 
been  I'eprinted. 

GENTILLY,  Council  of  (767),  was  one  of  those 
mixed  sj'iiods,  composed  of  bishops  and  barons, 
which  were  frequently  held  by  the  Fiankish  kings. 
The  occasion  was  an  embassy  from  the  Byzantine 
emperor,  Constantine  Copronynius,  to  King  Pepin ; 
and  the  subjects  treated  were,  no  doubt,  the  ques- 
tions of  image-worship  and  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  But  the  acts  of  the  council  have 
not  come  down  to  us. 

GENUFLECTENTES.     See  Catechetics. 

GEOFFREY  OF  MONIVIOUTH,  a  famous  Eng- 
lish chronicler;  b.  at  Monmouth  early  in  the 
twelfth  century ;  created  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph, 
1152;  d.  1154.  His  fame  re,sts  upon  a  history 
of  early  Britain,  entitled  Chronicon  sire  Hisloria 
Britonuti).  The  work  has  been  a  mine  from 
which  later  chroniclers  drew,  and  poets  down  to 
Tenny.son.  The  first  printed  edition  appeared 
at  Paris,  1568.  An  English  translation  by  A. 
Thompson,  Lond.,  1718,  has  been  revised  by 
J.  A.  Giles,  Lond.,  1842.  See  Wright:  Essays 
on  Arclicrol.  Sulijccts,'Lo\\(\.,  1801  (vol.  1). 

GEORGE,  St.,  descended  from  a  distinguished 
family  in  Cappadocia ;  entered  the  Roman  army, 
and  rose  rajndly,  but  left  it  with  open  protest 
wlien  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  began ;  and 
was  beheaded  at  Nicomedia,  April  23,  303.  Ac- 
cording to  some  lie  was  the  person  mentioned  in 
Eusebius  {Hist.  Eccl.,  VIII.  5),  who  tore  down 
the  imperial  proclamation,  and  was  punished  by 
being  roastocl  o\'ei'  a  slow  fire.  The  acts  of  his 
martyrdom  are  evidently  spurious.  Baronius 
thinks  that  the  Arians  falsified  tliem.  Many 
features  of  the  legends  about  him,  as,  for  instance, 
the  slaying  of  the  dragon,  show  a  decidedly  mythi- 
cal character,  and  indicate  that  they  originated 
as  .symbols.  For  these  reasons  the  very  existence 
of  St.  George  has  been  impugned,  as,  for  instance, 
by  Calvin  and  by  IVgge  in  tlie  eighteenth  ccntui-y. 
Nevertheless,  the  worsliip  of  liim  is  very  old,  both 
in  the  Eastern  and  in  the  \\'estern  Church.  In 
the  Eastern  Church  he  is  first  mentioned  in  an 
inscription  in  a  church  at  Ezr'a  or  Edhr'a  in 
.Southern  .Syria,  copied  by  Burckhardt  and  Porter, 
and  expl.ained  by  Hogg,  who  fixes  its  date  at  346. 
In  the  Western  Church  lie  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Rome  (194),  which  con- 
demned his  .acts  as  corrupted  by  lieretics,  though 
vindicating  his  honor  as  a  true  martyr  of  the 
church.  The  worship  of  him,  however,  is  not  only 
old,  it  is  also  extensive  ;  and  tlie  legends  grew 
luxuriantly,  absorbing,  as  it  would  .seem,  very  dif- 
ferent elements.  Tlie  story  of  St.  (ieorgc  and  the 
dr.'igon  occurs  for  the  first  lime  in  a  fully-devel- 
oped form  in  the  IJisloriii  l.omhiirdica,  or  "  Golden 
Legend,"  by  Jacob  de  Voragiiie,  Archbishop  of 
Geneva  1280.  At  that  time  his  connection  with 
England  was  already  lirmly  established.  Accord- 
ing to  William  of  Malmesbury  (Gesla  Jlcg.  Anyt., 


GEORGE  III. 


863 


GEORGIUS. 


II.),  he  appeared  in  tlie  battk-  of  Antiocli  (June 
2.S,  1089),  and  aided  tlie  Franks  tu  DVcTthrow  tiie 
Sarac(!n.s.  Tlio  Xornians  undri'  lioluTt,  tlie  son  of 
\Villiaiii  llie  Conqueror,  tlieii  adopled  Ijijii  as  tlieir 
jiatrou.  As  lie  continued  to  ajijiear  in  aid  of  tlie 
Xoriiian  crusaders,  a  Council  of  Oxford  (122li) 
niadiHiis  day  a  festival  tlirougliout  Kngland;  and 
after  the  l>attle  of  Calais  (lyilJ)  he  came  to  be 
considered  the  patron  saint  of  the  country,  and 
the  order  of  the  garter  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  instituted  (l^iSO)  under  his  patronage.  See 
IIeylyn  :  llistorij  of  St.  George  of  Cci/ipadocia, 
Lond.,  1631:  IMilner:  Inijuiry  into  the  Hislori/  of 
St.  George,  1792 ;  J.  Hogg  :  Notes  on  St.  George 
the  M„rli/r.  Lond.,  1862. 

GEORGE  III.,  Prince  of  Auhalt;  b.  at  Dessau, 
Aug.  13,  l.'iOT;  d.  there  Oct.  17,  15.53.  He  studied 
at  Leipzig;  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1524,  and 
appointed  provost  of  Magdeburg  in  1526.  He 
was  at  that  time  a  true  son  of  the  Roman  Church, 
and  considered  the  Keforniation  a  mere  innova- 
tion. But  he  considered  it  necessary  to  make  a 
thorough  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  history  of 
the  Church  in  order  to  meet  successfully  the 
"  Lutheran  sectarians ;  "  and  the  result  of  this 
study  was  his  conversion.  In  1530  he  subscribed 
to  the  Augsburg  Confession ;  and  in  1534  the 
Lutheran  Church  was  established  in  the  princi- 
pality of  Anhalt.  At  the  instance  of  Duke 
Maurice,  Prince  George  assumed  in  1544  the 
administration  of  the  diocese  of  Merseburg ;  and 
in  the  following  year  he  was  consecrated  bishop 
by  Luther.  During  the  Smalcaldian  war  he  de- 
fended himself  in  Merseburg ;  but,  after  the 
establishment  of  the  Leipzig  Interim,  he  retired  to 
Dessau.  See  O.  G.  Schmidt:  Georg  von  Anhalt, 
in  Meurer  :  Leben  der  Altvciler  d.  lutli.  Kirche, 
which  also  gives  information  about  the  writings 
of  George  III.  G.  PLITT. 

GEORGE,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg-Ausbach ; 
b.  at  Onol-.bach,  March  4,  1484;  d.  there  Dec.  17, 
1543;  embraced  early  the  Reformation,  and  main- 
tained very  intimate  relations  with  Luther.  In 
1527  he  became  sole  ruler  of  the  niargraviate, 
and  immediately  introduced  the  new  doctrine  in 
tlie  country ;  and  perhaps  no  other  German  prince 
contributed  more  than  he  to  the  success  of  the 
Reformation,  partly  by  the  boldness  witli  which 
he  spoke  its  cause  in  the  diets,  partly  by  the 
energy  with  which  he  labored  for  it  under  all 
circumstances.  See  Sciiulinus  :  Leben  und  Ge- 
schichte  des  Marg.  G.,  Francfort,  1729,  and  Lu- 
ther's  Briefe  an  Mare/.  G. 

GEORGE  OF  POLENTZ,  b.  in  Saxony,  1478; 
d.  at  Balga,  near  Konigsberg,  April  28,  1550 ; 
studied  canon  law  in  Italy;  was  for  some  time 
secretary  to  Julius  II. ;  entered  the  service  of 
Maximilian  I.,  and  became  acquainted  with  Mar- 
grave Albrecht  of  Brandenburg,  grand  master  of 
the  Teutonic  Order  in  the  imperial  camp  at 
Padua,  1509 ;  was  made  a  member  of  the  order, 
and  was  in  1519  appointed  Bishop  of  Sambia  by 
the  margrave.  He  was  the  first  bishop  who 
openly  embraced  the  Reformation.  In  the  sum- 
mer of  1523  he  allowed  the  evangelical  doctrines 
to  be  preached  in  the  Cathedral  of  Konigsberg; 
in  vSeptember,  same  year,  he  appointed  Johannes 
Briesniann,  a  pupil  of  Luther,  regular  preacher 
at  the  cathedral ;  and  Christmas  Eve  he  publicly 
declared  himself  a  convert.  In  1525  the  territory 
3  — II 


of  the  order  was  transformed  into  a  dukedom ; 
and  Duke  Albrecht  charged  the  Bishop  of  Sam- 
bia with  the  organization  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  his  country.  Shortly  before  his  death  the 
bishop  retired  from  public  life  on  account  of  ill 
health.  His  life  has  been  written  by  Geoug  von 
PoLENZ,  Halle,  1858. 

GEORGE,  l>uke  of  Saxony;  b.  at  Dresden, 
Aug.  24,  1471;  d.  there  April  17,  1539;  was  as  a 
younger  son  destined  for  tlie  church,  and  in  1484 
made  canon  of  Meissen.  His  older  brothers  died, 
however;  and  in  1500  he  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
His  education,  and  a  rivalry  which  sprung  up 
between  him,  the  representative  of  the  Albertine 
line,  and  his  cousins,  the  representatives  of  the 
Ernestine  line,  made  liim  an  adversary  of  the 
Reformation ;  and  after  the  disputation  of  Leip- 
zig (1519)  he  decided  to  do  every  thing  in  liis 
power  to  keep  it  out  of  his  own  country.  But  he 
labored  in  vain.  Luther's  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  the  favorite  reading  of  his  subjects, 
the  clergy  of  his  country  married,  his  own  family 
embraced  the  evangelical  doctrines,  and  he  was 
left  alone  in  utter  lonesomeness.  See  Schulze  : 
Geori/  und  Luther,  1834. 

GEORGE  OF  TREBIZOND,  b.  in  Creta,  1396; 
d.  at  Naples,  148G :  took  liis  surname,  not  fi'om 
his  native  island,  but  from  the  city  of  his  ances- 
tors ;  came  in  1420  to  Venice ;  taught  rhetoric 
and  grammar  in  Rome,  but  lost  the  favor  of 
Nicholas  V.  by  his  ill-natured  polemics  against 
Bessarion,  Pletho,  and  the  Platonic  school,  and 
was  rescued  from  starvation  only  by  a  small  pen- 
sion from  King  Alphonse.  His  two  essays  against 
the  Greek  Church  are  found  in  Leo  Allatius  : 
Grcecia  Orthodoxa,  Rome,  1652.  His  translations 
of  Plato  and  Eusebius  are  inaccurate  and  unrelia- 
ble, ct  l-l  C  »  A 

GEORGE  OF  CArrADOCIA,  likewise  called 
George  the  Fuller,  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Alex- 
andria in  356,  after  the  banishment  of  Athana- 
sius,  and  entered  the  city  at  the  head  of  a  military 
force.  In  361  he  was  most  savagely  massacred 
by  the  Pagans.  He  was  a  rank  Arian,  a  grasping 
and  peremptory  nature,  a  character  by  no  means 
without  blemish ;  but  the  picture  which  the 
orthodox  writers  give  of  him  is  very  exaggerated, 
and  sometimes  even  self-contradictory. 

GEORGE  THE  PISIDIAN  lived  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventh  century,  and  was  a  deacon  at  the 
Church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople.  _  He 
wrote  a  number  of  long  poems  of  historical, 
philosophical,  and  religious  contents;  but,  though 
he  was  much  appreciated  by  the  later  Byzantine 
writers,  most  of  his  productions  remain  in  manu- 
script. The  Hexaeineron  and  De  vanitale  vitce  were 
published,  with  a  Latin  translation,  by  iMorel, 
Paris,  1584,  and  are  found  in  Bibliotheca  Patrum, 
Paris,  1654,  vol.  XIV. 

GEORGIAN  VERSIONS.  See  Bible  Ver- 
sions, p.  2S6. 

GEORGIUS,  Bishop  of  Laodicea  in  Phrygia, 
was  born  at  Alexandria,  and  received  orders 
there.  In  the  controversy  between  Bishop  Alex- 
ander of  Alexandria  and  the  Arians  he  tried  to 
mediate,  but  was  excommunicated  by  Alexander 
for  Arianism.  ISIade  Bishop  of  Laodicea  by  the 
Arians,  he  could  not  agree  with  them,  either,  and 
became,  together  with  Bishop  Basil  of  Ancyra, 
founder  of  the  Semi-Arian  party.     Under  Con- 


GBORGIUS   SYNCELLUS. 


b6i 


GERHARDT. 


stantius  the  doctrine  of  the  Seini-Arians  became 
the  theology  of  the  court;  and  when  the  third 
synod  of  Sirniium  (3.38)  confirmed  this  doctrine 
and  the  anathemas  of  the  synod  of  Ancyra,  the 
breach  between  the  Arians  and  the  Semi-Arians 
became  complete.  Among  the  works  of  Georgius 
are  mentioned  a  life  of  Eusebius  of  Emesa,  and 
an  essay  against  the  ^lanichaeans. 

GEORGIUS  SYNCELLUS  received  his  sur- 
name from  his  position  as  si/nceltus,  or  privj' 
comicillor,  to  Tarasius,  Patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple, in  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century.  He 
wrote  a  Chronographia,  extending  from  Adam  to 
the  time  of  Diocletian,  and  valuable  especially 
on  account  of  the  frequent  extracts  it  gives  from 
other  writers.  It  was  first  edited  by  Gear,  Paris, 
1G.j2,  best  by  nindorf,  1S20,  2  vols. 

GERBER'ON,  Gabriel,  b.  at  St.  Calais,  between 
Angers  and  Chartres,  Aug.  12,  1628 ;  d.  at  St. 
Denis,  March  29,  1711 ;  entered  the  congregation 
of  St.  Maur  in  1049,  and  became  not  only  one  of 
the  most  prolific  writers  of  that  order  (his  works 
numbering  a  hundred  and  eleven),  but  also  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  representatives  of  its 
critical  tendency.  He  taught  philosophy  and 
theology  in  various  schools,  after  1C7.5,  at  Corbie 
near  Amiens.  While  there  he  published  (in  1676, 
at  Brussels)  his  Miroh-  de  la  piele  chrelienne,  wliich 
by  several  archbishops  was  considered  a  revival 
of  the  five  condemned  propositions  of  Jansen. 
On  the  instigation  of  the  J'esuits  an  order  was 
issued  for  his  imprisonment ;  but  he  fled,  first  to 
the  Netherlands,  afterwards  to  Brussels,  where 
he  edited  the  works  of  Bajus,  and  Janseii's  letters 
to  St.  Cyran.  He  was  discovered,  however,  in 
1703,  and  imprisoned  in  the  citadel  of  Amiens 
till  1707,  when  he  was  brought  to  St.  Denis,  after 
having  been  compelled  to  recant,  and  sign  the 
condemnation  of  the  five  propositions  of  Jansen. 
But  he  never  yielded  completely.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  dictated  Le  vain  Iriomphe  des  Jesuits, 
whose  p\d>Iieation  was  prevented,  however,  by 
his  su])i'riois. 

GERBERT,  Martin,  b.  at  Horb,  on  the  Neckar, 
Aug.  13,  1720;  il.  ut  Sanct  Blasien,  in  the  Black 
Forest,  May  3,  1703;  was  educated  in  the  Jesuit 
academy  of  Freiburg ;  entered  the  monastery  of 
Sanct  Blasien  in  1737;  was  ordained  priest  in 
1744,  and  elected  abbot  in  1704.  From  17.")9  to 
1762  he  travelled  in  (iermany,  France,  and  Italy, 
and  published  a  Latin  descrijition  of  his  voyage, 
afterwards  translated  into  German.  He  was  a 
learned  historian,  and  wrote,  among  other  works, 
a  Hislnria  niyrie  sijlcce  0.  .S.  li.,  Cologne,  1783-88. 
But  his  specialty  was  .sacred  music,  its  history 
and  theory:  Dc  cantu  el  musica  sacra  (2  vols.,  1774) ; 
Scriptores  ecctesiaslici  de  musica  sacra  (3  vols.,  1784). 
lie  w;is  a  friiMid  of  Gliiek. 

GERDES,  Daniel,  b.  at  Bremen,  April  19, 1698; 
d.  at  Groningen,  Fel).  11, 176.");  studied  at  Utrecht; 
was  a]>pointed  professor  of  theology  at  Duisburg 
1726,  and  at  (ironingen  173.').  His  priiu:ipal  work 
is  his  history  of  the  Ueformation, —  l/isloria  liifar- 
malioni.i,  4  voks.,  (Ironingen,  1744-ij2.  He  wrote 
also  specially  about  tlie  Reformation  in  Italy,  in 
the  iliorc^e  of  S.nlzburg,  etc. 

GERGESA.     Se..  (;ai)'ara. 

GERHARD,  Johann,  b.  at  Quedlinburg.  Oct. 
17,  ir.82  ;  d.  at  Jena,  Aug.  20,  1637  ;  studied,  first 
medicine  at  Wittenberg,  then  theology  »t  Jena 


and  jMarburg;  was  appointed  superintendent  of 
Heldburg  in  1606,  but  removed  in  1615  to  Jena 
as  professor  of  theology.  He  was  one  of  the 
heroes  of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  unquestionably 
the  most  learned,  and,  among  the  scholars  of  his 
age,  certainly  the  most  amiable.  It  is  especially 
as  a  dogmatist  and  by  his  two  works,  Doctrina 
catholica  et  evangelica  (1634,  3  vols.)  and  Loci  com- 
munes theologici  (Jena,  1610-22,  9  vols.,  modern 
edition,  Leipzig,  1863-76,  10  vols.),  that  he  gained 
his  great  fame.  The  progress  he  made  beyond  his 
predecessors  Chemnitz  and  Hutter  consists  partly 
in  a  more  perfect  systematization,  partly  in  ? 
deeper  and  more  speculative  argumentation  of 
the  dogmas,  but  esjieciall}-  in  tlie  completeness 
and  comprehensiveness  of  the  treatment.  Of  his 
exegetical  works,  which  are  distinguished  by  their 
j)atristic  learning,  his  Comm.  in  Harmonium  hist, 
ev.  de  passione  el  resurreclione  Christi  (1617)  is  the 
most  important.  His  commentaries  on  the  Old 
Testament,  published  after  his  death,  are  not  so 
much  read.  Of  his  devotional  books  his  Medi- 
lationes  Sacra  appeared  in  1006,  and  have  been 
often  reprinted  and  ti-anslated  [3d  ed.  of  German 
trans.,  Leipzig,  1876];  while  his  Schola  Pielalis 
has  fallen  into  oblivion.  His  Enchiridion  Conso- 
latorium  was  re-edited  and  translated  into  German 
by  C.  I.  Bottcher,  1877.  See  E.  II.  Fischer  :  Vila 
J.  Gerhardi.  Gotha,  1723.  A.  THOLUCK. 

GERHARD,  St.,  b.  at  Staves  (Stablecella),  in 
the  diocese  of  Kamur,  890 ;  d.  in  the  monastery 
of  Brogue  (Brunium),  Oct.  3,  959 ;  retired  early 
from  the  gay  service  of  the  Count  of  Kamur,  on 
account  of  a  vision  which  came  to  him  in  a  dream ; 
and,  having  built  a  new  church  and  a  monastery 
at  Brogue  (918),  he  entered  the  monastery  of 
St.  Denis,  and  became  a  monk.  Ordained  a  pres- 
byter in  928,  he  returned  to  Brogue,  and  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life  in  reforming  monasteries.  He 
was  canonized  by  Innocent  II.  See  Act.  Sand., 
Oct.  3,  and  P.  Gi'xi'iiEH,  Das  Leben  d.  h.  Gerhard 
de  ISnxpie,  Ilalle,  1877. 

GERHARDT,  Paul,  b.  at  Griifeidiainichen,  in 
the  electorate  of  Saxony,  March  12,  1607;  d.  at 
Liibben,  .June  7,  1676.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg ; 
was  made  preaclier  at  I\Iittenwalde  in  1651,  and 
at  the  Church  of  St.  Xicolai,  in  Berlin,  in  16.57, 
but  W'as  dismissed  in  1060,  because  he  refu.sed  to 
subsciibe  to  the  edicts  of  June  2,  1062,  and  Sept. 
16, 1004,  considering  them  as  attempts  to  unite  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Keformed  cliurches.  In  1067, 
liowever,  he  was  made  Aichdeacon  of  Liibben.  He 
is  generally  considered  as  the  greatest  liyum-writer 
(ierm.any  has  produced.  In  his  sweet  songs,  Chris- 
tianity does  not  appear  as  .something  opposed  to 
or  in  conflict  with  human  miture,  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, as  the  strongest,  soundest,  purest,  aiul  truest 
form  of  humanity.  His  form  is  often  artistically 
perfect;  and  yet  the  expression  comes  so  natural- 
ly, and  the  rliythm  flows  .so  easily,  that  his  verses 
remain  in  the  nu>mory  after  the  first  hearing. 
'I'he  first  collection  of  liis  hymns  are  those  by 
Criiger  (in  his  I'ra.ris  l^ietalis  Mi  lira,  1048)  and 
J.  (i.  Ebeling  (Berlin,  lO(iO);  the  last  aiul  best 
those  by  Wackernagel  (Stuttgart,  1843,  Last  edi- 
tion, Giiterslohe,  1876)  aiul  C.  F.  Becker  (Leipzig, 
1851).  Tliese  last-menfioiKul  collections  also  con- 
fain  good  liiograjihies  of  him.  [See  also  editions 
by  Karl  Gcideckc  (l^eipzig,  1877)  and  Karl  Gerok 
(Stuttgart,  1878)],  and  Lives  by  Wildknuahn 


GERHOCH. 


865 


GERMAN   CATHOLICS. 


(Basel,  1844,  4th  ed.,  1877,  2  vols.  [Eng.  trans., 
Phila.,  1881]),  and  by  an  anonymous  writer  (Han- 
over, 1870),  and  E.  E.  Koch  :  Gesckic/ite  d.  Kirch- 
enlieds,  Stuttgart,  3d  ed.,  1867,  vol.  iii.  pp.  297- 
327. 

[Many  of  Gerhardt's  hymn.s  have  been  incor- 
porated in  our  collections  of  hymns  or  of  devo- 
tional poetry ;  and  one  of  them,  O  sacred  Head, 
nom  wounded,  is  very  widely  known  and  frequent- 
ly sung.  Other  familiar  ones  begin,  Oh  !  how  shall 
I  receive  thee ;  Commit  thou  all  tliy  griefs,  and  Give 
to  the  winds  thj  fears.  More  than  thirty  of  his 
hundred  and  twenty-three  hymns  are  classical. 
His  English  translators  include  Rev.  John  Wesley, 
Miss  C.  Winkworth,  Rev.  Dr.  James  W.  Alexan- 
der, and  John  KeUy.  The  latter  has  furnished 
a  complete  translation,  Paul  Gerhardt's  Spiritual 
Songs,  London,  1867.]  PALMER. 

GERHOCH,  b.  at  Polling,  in  Bavaria,  towards 
the  end  of  the  eleventh  century ;  d.  at  Reichers- 
berg,  near  Passau,  1169;  frequented  the  schools 
of  his  native  town,  Mosburg,  Freysing,  and  Hil- 
desheim,  and  was  appointed  canon  of  Augsburg, 
and  magister  scholarum,  but  left  this  position,  dis- 
gusted at  the  irregularities  of  the  lives  of  the 
canons.  He  did  not  find  the  state  of  affairs  better 
at  Raitenbuch,  whither  he  moved,  and  went  -to 
Rome,  where  Honorius  II.  officially  charged  him 
(1125)  with  the  reform  of  the  canonry.  He  had 
no  opportunity,  however,  to  try  his  own  strength 
as  a  reformer  as  yet.  In  1126  he  entered  the 
service  of  Bishop  Kuno  of  Regensburg,  and  was 
ordained  priest.  But  in  1132  Archbishop  Conrad 
I.  of  Salzburg  placed  him  at  the  head  of  the  can- 
onry of  Reichersberg,  and  there  he  spent  the  j-est 
of  his  life,  an  active  and  rigorous  Reformer.  As 
a  writer  he  was  strongly  opposed  to  scholasticism, 
and  accused  even  Peter  Lombard  of  heresy.  A 
list  of  his  works  he  gives  himself,  in  his  Com- 
mentary on  the  Psalms ;  which  work  has  been 
printed  by  B.  Pez,  in  Thesaurus  anecdolorum, 
1728.  Others  of  his  writings  have  been  edited 
by  Scheibelberger,  Vienna,  1871  and  1876.  [See 
H.  F.  A.  NoBBE  :  Gerhoch  v.  Reichersberg,  Leipzig, 
1881.]  albbecht'vogel. 

CER'IZIM,  a  mountain  of  Ephraim,  opposite 
Ebal,  with  Shechem  in  the  intervening  valley; 
■was  one  of  the  mountains  on  which  Israel  stood 
pronouncing  blessings  and  curses  (Deut.  xi.  29  ; 
Josh.  viii.  30-3.5).  (See  Ebal.)  It  is  2,895  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  800  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  valley.  It  was  the  scene  of  the 
parable  of  the  trees  and  the  brambles  (Judg.  ix. 
7-21),  and  the  site  of  the  Samaritan  temple  re- 
ferred to  by  the  woman  at  the  well  (John  iv.  20). 
Samaritan  tradition  points  it  out  as  the  place 
where  Abraham  offered  Isaac;  and  the  remnant  of 
the  Samaritan  sect  living  at  Nablus  (Shechem) 
still  performs  the  annual  paschal  sacrifices  on  its 
top  according  to  the  prescriptions  of  Exod.  xii. 

GERLACH,  Otto  von,  b.  in  Berlin,  April  12, 
1801;  d.  there  Oct.  24,  1849.  He  studied,  first 
law  at  Heidelberg  and  Gottingen,  then  theology 
in  his  native  city,  and  was  appointed  preacher  at 
the  Elizabeth  Church  there  in  1834,  and  court 
chaplain  in  1847.  He  and  his  equally  distinguished 
brothers  (Ludwig  von  Gerlach,  a  statesman,  and 
Gen.  von  Gerlach,  an  aide-de-camp  of  King  Fred- 
erick William  IV.)  were  closely  associated  with 
Hengstenberg   in  the  revival  of   orthodoxy  and 


piety  in  Prus.sia.  He  tTa,ns\a.ted  Awake,  thou  tJiat 
sleepest  (liy  Wesley),  the  Reformed  Pastor  (by  Bax- 
ter), and  the  Charity  and  the  Church  (hy  Chalmers), 
and  wrote  a  very  useful  popular  commentary  on 
the  Bible,  of  which  a  collected  edition  appeared 
in  Berlin,  1847-53,  6  vols.  RUD.  KOUEL. 

CERLE,  Christophe  Antoine,  b.  in  Auvergne, 
1740;  entered  the  order  of  the  Carthusians ;  be- 
came prior  of  the  convent  of  Porl-Sainte-Marie ; 
sat  in  the  assembly  of  the  States-generals  (1789); 
became  a  follower  of  Robespierre,  bu*  was  not 
beheaded  after  his  fall.  More  remarkable,  how- 
ever, than  his  political  career,  was  the  part  he 
played  among  the  adherents  of  Catherine  The'ot, 
the  old  woman  who  pretended  that  she  was  about 
to  bear  the  Word,  etc.  He  occupies  a  prominent 
place  in  David's  picture,  Le  Scrment  du  Jeu  de 
Paume.  The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown.  See 
Michelet:  Hist,  de  la  Revolution  fran^-aise,  vol. 
vii. 

GERMAIN  D'AUXERRE,  St.,  b.  at  Auxerre, 
380;  d.  at  Ravenna,  July  31,  448;  was  forced  by 
the  people  of  his  native  city  to  accept  the  nomi- 
nation for  bishop  in  418 ;  adopted  immediately 
after  the  most  rigorous  ascetic  practices ;  visited 
England  in  429  to  aid  the  orthodox  against  the 
Pelagians ;  and  went  in  the  year  of  his  death  to 
Ravenna  to  interfere  in  favor  of  the  Armoricans. 
He  enjoyed  a  great  fame  during  his  lifetime,  and 
is  still  much  revered  in  France.  See  Act.  Sanct., 
July  31.  G.  PUTT. 

GERMAIN  DE  PARIS,  St.,  b.  at  Autun,  496; 
d.  in  Paris,  May  28,  576  ;  was  made  Abbot  of  St. 
Symphorian,  near  Autun,  in  540,  and  Bishop  of 
Paris  in  550.  He  vindicated  his  episcopal  author- 
ity with  great  intrepidity  in  this  the  worst  period 
of  Merovingian  rule,  and  was  greatly  revered  by 
the  people.  His  life  was  written  by  his  contem- 
porary, Fortunatus  Venantius.  See  Act.  Sfrnct., 
Mav  28.  G.  PLITT. 

GERMAN  CATHOLICS  (Deutsch  Katholiken). 
Oct.  15,  1844,  tliere  appeared  in  the  Sdchsische 
Valerlandsbldtter  an  article  in  which  the  Bishop 
of  Treves  was  openly  accused  of  seducing  his 
flock  to  idolatry  by  his  exhibition  of  the  holy 
coat ;  and  an  appeal  was  made  to  the  lower  clergy 
to  leave  a  church  in  which  such  a  thing  could  be 
done.  The  author  of  the  article  was  aTi  entirely 
obscure  person,  one  Johannes  Rouge,  a  Roman- 
Catholic  priest,  formerly  a  chaplain  at  Grottkau, 
in  the  county  of  Neisse,  Saxony,  but  suspended 
on  account  of  a  pre^dous  article  in  the  same  paper, 
and  now  living  at  Lanrahiitte,  near  the  Polish 
frontier,  teaching  a  children's  school  in  a  Protes- 
tant neighborhood.  But  the  eft'ect  of  tlie  article 
was  like  that  of  a  spark  in  a  powder-mine.  Fifty 
thousand  copies  of  the  article  were  immediately 
sold,  and  tokens  of  sympathy  of  every  kind  and 
description  showered  down  upon  the  author. 

Ronge's  appeal  of  separation  had  already  been 
anticipated  and  carried  into  effect  in  another 
place.  At  Schneidemiihl,  a  small  town  on  the 
northern  frontier  of  Posen,  one  Czersky  had 
formed  a  community,  which  on  Oct.  19,  1844, 
broke  off  from  the  Roman  Church,  and  constituted 
itself  as  an  independent  congregation,  under  the 
name  of  Christ  Catholics,  and  with  Czersky  for 
their  pastor.  To  lead  these  two  currents  into  one 
common  stream  was  a  problem  of  the  greatest 
importance,  but  not  without  peculiar  difficulties. 


GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.  86(1   GERMAN  TRANSLATIONS. 


The  Christ  Catholics  rejected  the  celibacy  of  the 
clergy,  the  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  divine 
service,  the  doctrines  of  purgatory,  transuhstan- 
tiation,  etc. ;  hut  they  retained  the  seven  sacra- 
ments, the  Nicene  Creed,  etc.  The  German 
Catholics,  who  had  formed  their  first  independent 
congregation  at  Breslau,  Marcli  !),  1845,  with 
Ronoe  as  their  pastor,  went  much  farther  in  their 
deriation  from  Romanism,  and  had.  for  instance, 
made  considerable  changes  in  the  Xiceiie  Creed. 
A  common  council  was  held  at  Leipzig,  Easter, 
1845,  and  delegates  were  present  from  twenty- 
seven  congregations.  But  at  the  council  it  soon 
became  evident  that  the  watch-cry  of  secession, 
"  Away  from  Rome,"  was  about  the  only  thing 
common  to  all  the  seceders ;  and  it  was  only  by 
the  highest  degree  of  reciprocal  forbearance  that 
a  very  vague  and  very  weak  confession  was  agreed 
upon.  The  divinity  of  Christ  was  passed  by  in 
silence  in  this  confession. 

The  work  of  the  council  was  not  received  with 
enthusiasm  by  the  constituencies.  The  congi-ega- 
tion  in  Berlin  protested  against  the  rejection  of 
the  Apostolical  Creed,  dissolved  its  connection 
with  the  movement,  and  established  itself  as  an 
independent  congregation,  .July  15,  1846,  under 
the  name  of  Protest  Catholics.  The  congregation 
of  Schneideuitihl  was  equally  dissatisfied,  but 
continued  in  outward  communication  with  Ronge, 
on  account  of  the  weakness  and  timidity  of  its 
leader,  Czersky.  In  other  places  the  complaints 
went  in  the  opposite  direction.  Xo  confession 
was  wantr'd  at  all ;  dogma  in  any  form  or  shape 
.should  be  avoided  as  a  mere  clog  on  the  free  move- 
ment of  the  church ;  irreligious  and  anti-Chris- 
tian tendencies  became  apparent.  From  that 
moment,  people  of  distinction  and  ability  began 
to  keep  aloof  from  the  affair,  while  recruits  were 
enlisted  from  the  ranks  of  the  social  and  political 
radicals.  The  state-govei"nments,  having  watched 
the  movement  all  along  with  distrust  and  suspi- 
cion, now  adiipted  energetic  measures  against  it. 
Austria  and  Bavaria  excluded  the  (ierman  Catho- 
lics altogether  from  their  territories  ;  Prussia,  Sax- 
ony, and  Baden,  admitted  them,  but  on  conditions. 
This  state  of  affairs  was,  of  course,  changed  in 
1848,  and  all  interference  from  the  side  of  the 
State  ceased.  But  the  impulse  had  already  spent 
its  force.  In  1848  the;  German  Catholics  numbered 
.about  .sixty  thousand  :  in  1858  there  were  only 
about  one  liundred  congregations  still  alive.  In 
some  districts  they  united  with  the  Protestant 
free  congregations  ;  in  others  they  clubbed  to- 
gether, even  with  the  Reform  Jews. 

Lit.  —  K.  Baueh  :  Geschichte  der  Grilndun/]  der 
deutschkalholischen  Kirche,  Meissen,  1845 ;  W.  A. 
Lami'Adius  :  Die  deulnchkalkotische  Bcwc(/un</, 
Leipzig,  1846;  F.  Kampe:  O'eschiclile  der  rclli/ioxin 
Beii:i'i/unt/  der  neueren  Zeit,  Leipzig,  1852-60, 
4  vols.,  and  Das  Wesen  den  Deutsc/ikalhollcismus, 
Leipzig.   180(1.  n.  SCIIMID. 

GERMAN  REFORMED  CHURCH.  See  Re- 
Foi:Mi.i'   ('iiri:i  n.   (iri,-:M\N. 

GERMAN  TRANSLATIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 
Many  c'lnliiiii'S  elapsed  alter  the  Gutliic  viTsion 
of  Ulfilas,  who  d.  in  ;JH1  (see  Bihi.e  Tua.nsi.a- 
TiONs),  before  the  Bible  was  translated  into 
riigh-Gcrraan.  In  the  eighth  century  the  church 
began  to  put  the  German  to  use.  (See  It.  v.  Bau- 
mer,  D.  Einvoirkung  d.  Chrislenlh.  au/d.  ulthockd. 


Sprache,  Stuttgart,  1845.)  In  the  manuscripts 
of  that  time  there  are  many  glosses  in  German ; 
and  German  translations  of  single  books  of  the 
Bible  were  attempted.  Of  the  latter,  there  are 
preserved  fragments  of  Matthew  (eighth  century, 
ed.  !Massmann,  1841),  a  translation  of  tlie  har- 
mony of  the  Gospels  of  Ammonius  Alex,  (ninth 
century,  ed.  Schmeller,  Yiennse,  1841),  and  a 
version  of  the  Psalms  in  Low-German  (ninth 
centuiT,  ed.  Hagen,  Breslau,  1816).  .\  transla- 
tion of  the  Psahns,  with  commentary,  by  Xotker 
Labeo,  who  d.  1022  (ed.  Ileinzel  u.  Scherer, 
Strassburg,  1876),  and  of  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
by  Willeram,  Atjbot  at  Ebersburg,  Bavaria  (ed. 
Hoffmann,  Breslau,  1827),  have  also  come  down 
to  us.  In  the  centuries  immediately  following, 
the  interest  in  the  vernacular  translation  de- 
creased, and  the  reading  of  the  vernacular  Scrip- 
tures was  forbidden  by  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties. (See  Hegelmaier,  Gesch.  d.  Bihelverhols, 
Ulm,  1783.) 

The  exact  date  of  the  translation  of  the  whole 
Gen. .an  Bible  cannot  be  ascertained ;  but  it  is 
certain  that  one  was  in  existence  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  fifteenth  century.  Among  the  first 
publications  of  the  printing-press  were  copies  of 
it.  Fourteen  editions  appeared  before  1518, — 
at  Mainz  (bv  Fust  and  Schoiffer).  1462(?);  Strass- 
burg, 1466C?),  1485;  Augsburg,  1470(?),  1475(?), 
1477,  1477,  1480,  1487,  1490.  1507,  1518;  and 
Xurnberg,  1470  (or  Basel  V),  1483.  Four  complete 
editions,  but  based  upon  the  former,  appeared  in 
Low-German,  —  two  at  Cologne  about  1480,  one 
at  Liibeck  1494,  and  one  at  Ilalber.stadt  1522. 
In  the  two  first  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  given  in 
Latin  to  avoid  any  scandal  among  the  young. 
This  translation  was  made  exclusively  from  the- 
Vulgate,  which  in  some  instances  was  grossly 
misunderstood.  It  was  quite  literal,  and  made 
use  of  an  older  translation,  of  which  we  know 
nothing.  The  editions  were  small,  and  were  not 
circidated  among  the  people. 

'The  great  translator  of  the  German  Bible  was 
Martin  Luther.  About  the  same  time  that  he 
began  the  work  of  translation,  others  were  en- 
gaged in  the  labor.  Among  them  were  Biischen- 
stain  (seven  Psalms,  and  Ruth),  Lange  of  Erfurt 
(Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke),  Krunipach  of  Quer- 
furt  (John,  Epistles  of  Peter,  and  the  Pastoral 
Epistles),  etc.  Luther,  who  translated  "  not  for 
scholars,  but  for  the  people,"  put  forth  in  1517  a 
version  of  the  seven  Penitential  Psalms,  with 
connnentary,  and  before  1521  the  Lord's  I'rayer, 
the  prayer  of  Manasseh,  the  Ten  Connnandments, 
tlie  Magnificat,  etc.  These  wei-e  rep(>atedly  re- 
printed. It  was  in  the  latter  part  of  1521  that 
he  conceived  the  plan  of  translating  the  whole 
Bible  into  German,  from  the  original  languages. 
The  year  of  his  confinement  at  the  Wart  burg  he 
spent  upon  the  New  Testament,  which  was 
printed,  but  without  the  name  either  of  the 
j)rinter  or  transl.ator.  Nor  was  the  date  given ; 
l)nt  we  know  it  was  the  year  1.522,  for  a  second 
edition,  dated,  appeared  the  same  year.  Luther 
at  onc('  beg.an  work  on  the  Old  Testament,  which 
ap|)eared  in  parts,  — in  1523,  part  I.  (Pentateuch); 
1524,  parts  II.  .and  III.  (historical  books  and 
]Iagiograph.a)  ;  ].'')2(),  .Jonah  .and  llabakkuk;  1.528, 
/Cechariah  and  Isaiah;  15.!().  Daniel;  and  in  1.532 
the  remainder  of  tlie  Prophets.     The  Apocrypha 


GERMAN  TRANSLATIONS.    ^''T   GERMAN  TRANSLATIONS. 


complete,  "that  is,  books  which  are  not  of  equal 
authority  with  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Init  which  it 
is  useful  and  good  to  read,"  were  first  published 
in  1534.  In  subsequent  editions  Lutlier  made 
many  improvements  in  his  version.  The  trans- 
lation of  the  Psalms  was  nuioh  altered;  so  that 
he  himself,  in  comparing  the  edition  of  1531  with 
that  of  1521,  says  the  latter  is  nearer  the  He- 
brew, the  former  the  German.  This  is  true  of 
the  version  as  a  whole. 

Luther  lived  to  see  ten  original  editions  of  his 
Bible,  and,  in  order  to  make  the  work  as  perfect 
as  possible,  formed  a  connnittee  on  translation 
(collei/inm  bihticum),  consisting  of  Melanchtlion, 
Bugenhagen,  Jonas,  Cruciger,  Aurogallus,  and 
Rorarius,  which  met  in  his  rooms  one  evening 
every  week,  for  consultation.  With  the  edition 
of  1514,- 1515,  Luther's  work  of  emending  came 
to  an  end. 

Luther's  Bible  had  a  very  extensive  circulation. 
Between  1522  and  1533  it  is  almost  certain  that 
there  were  sixteen  original  editions  of  the  New 
Testament ;  and  the  reprints  amounted  to  fifty- 
four  (fourteen  in  Augsburg,  thirteen  in  Strass- 
burg,  twelve  in  Basel,  etc.).  Luther  complained 
of  the  reprints;  and  in  the  edition  of  153(1,  oppo- 
site the  titlepage,  is  a  warning  against  them  as 
"careless  and  faulty"  (unrleissif/  und  falsch),  and 
an  appeal  to  others  who  wanted  a  German  Tes- 
tament "to  make  one  of  their  own."  Many 
changes  were  introduced  into  these  reprints. 
The  Old  Testament  was  also  frequently  reprinted, 
—  the  Pentateuch  twenty-tw"o  times  (seven  in 
Wittenberg),  the  historical  books  nineteen  times, 
and  the  prophetical  books  fourteen  times.  Single 
books  were  also  reprinted.  The  Psalter  went 
through  seventeen  editions.  Before  the  comple- 
tion of  Luther's  Bible,  in  1534,  editions  had  ap- 
peared with  all  the  books,  —  four  such  in  Ziirich 
between  1525  and  1531,  one  in  Worms  1530,  two 
in  Strassburg  1530,  and  one  \\i  Frankfurt  1534. 
These  were  made  up  of  Luther's  translation,  so 
far  as  it  went,  and  the  missing  books  supplied  liy 
Haetzer  (on  the  prophets),  Leo  Judpeus  (on  the 
Apocrypha),  and  others.  The  four  last  of  these 
editions  also  contained  the  Epistle  to  the  Laodi- 
ceans  in  the  old  German  translation. 

Luther  translated  directly  from  the  original, 
using  for  the  Old  Testament  the  edition  of  Bres- 
cia, 1494,  and  for  the  New  Testament  the  Eras- 
mus text  of  the  edition  of  1519.  Although  he 
was  not  the  best  philological  scholar  of  his  day, 
he  was  sufficient  of  a  scholar  to  be  independent ; 
and  what  he  lacked  in  philological  penetration 
he  made  up  by  his  accurate  exegetical  intuition, 
and  by  his  spiritual  understanding  of  the  Bible. 
There  are  mistakes,  especially  in  the  harder  pas- 
sages of  Job  and  the  Prophets ;  but  as  a  whole 
his  translations  are  accurate.  In  the  Apocrypha 
he  was  not  so  careful,  and  translated  from  the 
Vulgate.  So  far  as  the  (ierman  itself  is  con- 
cerned, Luther  was  eminently  fitted  for  his  task. 
He  was  a  German  through  and  through,  and 
possessed  to  a  remarkable  degree  the  gift  of 
strong  and  pithy  speech.  He  avoided  being  a 
"literalist"  (Buchstahitist),  and  sought  to  "  give 
the  pure  and  clear  German."  His  danger  was 
to  lie  too  free ;  but  his  reverence  for  the  letter  of 
Scripture  kept  him  from  serious  errors  in  this 
direction.     Yet  he  does  not  at  times  shrink  from 


adding  to  the  text  where  he  thinks  the  truth 
demands  emphasis,  as  in  lloni.  iii.  28,  where  he 
adds  alone,  —  "  .\  man  is  justified  by  faith  alone" 
(allein  durchilen  Glanhen).  The  language  is  clear, 
vivid  and  forcible,  rich  and  melodious,  noble  and 
chaste.  Often  he  sought  diligently  for  the  jM-oper 
word.  "We,"  he  says,  "that  is,  Melanohthon, 
Aurogallus,  and  1,  are  working  on  Job,  but  so 
that  sometimes  we  have  been  luirdly  able  to 
finisii  three  lines  in  four  days." 

\ot  only  did  Luther's  Bible  have  an  immense 
influence  in  extending  the  Reformation.  It  was 
a  national  woi'k,  and  fixed  the  German  language, 
making  lligh-Gennan  the  connnon  dialect.  With-  ' 
in  a  hundred  years,  through  its  influence,  it  had 
come  into  general  use  in  the  churches  and  schools, 
and  Low-tierman  had  degenerated  into  the  palois. 
But  there  were  not  wanting  violent  attacks  upon 
it.  One  of  his  critics,  Emser,  in  his  Anns  was 
grund  uund  wsac/i  Lulher's  dolmatschuny  dein  ae. 
nwinen  man  biltich  verhotlen  icorden  sey,  Leipzig, 
1523  ("  For  what  cause  and  reason  Luther's 
translation  has  been  properly  forbidden  to  the 
common  people "),  pronounced  it  to  be  full  of 
heretical  errors  and  lies.  Wicelius  (Annotniiones, 
Leipzig,  1536)  followed  substantially  in  the  same 
line,  and  the  Roman  Catholics  (Traub  1578, 
Zanger  1605,  etc.)  Luther  and  his  friends  took 
little  notice  of  these  criticisms. 

Luther's  translation  has  never  been  regarded 
by  the  Lutheran  Church  as  unsusceptible  of  im- 
provement. Its  need  of  revision  cannot  be  ques- 
tioned ;  but  any  revision  nuist  be  accomplished 
in  the  spirit  of  Luther.  Private  revisions  have 
been  made  by  J.  F.  v.  Meyer  (3d  ed..  Frankfurt, 
1855,  revised  by  Stier,  Bielef.,  3d  ed.,  1867),  Kraus 
(Tiibingen,  1830),  and  Hopf  (3d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1854).  The  variations  in  the  text  of  Luther 
finally  led  to  a  movement  towards  revision.  It 
started  at  the  meetings  of  the  church  diet  at 
Stuttgart  1857,  and  Hamliurg  1S58;  and  in  1863 
the  meeting  at  Eisenach,  at  the  advice  of  the 
church  council  {Oberkirchcnraih')  of  Berlin,  ap- 
pointed a  revision  commission.  They  performed 
their  labors,  but  did  not  attenqit  a  thorough 
revision.  The  New  Testament  appeared  at  lialie, 
1867,  and  the  whole  Bible,  1883. 

The  Roman  Catholics  could  not  remain  idle 
spectators  of  the  wonderful  success  of  Luthei-'s 
Bible.  Beringer  put  forth  an  edition  of  Luther, 
with  only  a  few  changes  (Speier,  1.526),  but  was 
followed' by  Hieronymus  Emser,  "the  scribbler 
of  Dresden"  (</.  Sudler  in  Dresen),  with  a  more 
extensively  emended  text  (Dresden,  1527).  It 
w^as  often"  reprinted.  Johann  Eck  also  put  forth 
a  Bible  (Ingolstadt,  1537),  but  it  pi'oved  a  fail- 
ure. The  New  Testament  was  taken  from 
Emser,  and  the  Old  Testament  was  a  reprint  of 
the  pre-Lather  version.  Eck's  German  is  beneath 
criticism.  In  1534  appeared  at  Mainz  the  Bible 
of  the  Dominican  Dr.  Dietenberger,  which  is  also 
not  an  original  translation.  It  was  afterwards 
revised  by  Ulenberg  (Cologne,  1630)  and  the 
theologians  of  Mainz  (Cologne,  1662),  and  has 
since,  under  the  title  Calliolic  Bible,  been  used  by 
the  German  Catholics. 

In  the  seventeenth  and  eigliteenth  centuries 
new  translations  or  revisions  were  attempted. 
Of  these  tlie  best  was  the  Berleburg  Bible  (1726- 
42).     One  of  the  best  translations  is  that  of  De 


GERMANY. 


868 


GERSON. 


Wette  (Heidelberg.  1809-14,  4th  ecL,  1858),  who 
for  a  time  had  the  co-operation  of  Augusti.  He 
combined  extraordinary  skill  of  brief  and  pun- 
gent expression  with  esegetical  tact.  Of  the 
translations  of  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
Prophetical  Books  of  Ewald  (Stuttgart,  1840) 
and  Hitzig  (Leipzig,  1854),  and  the  Poetical 
Books  of  Ewald  (Gottiugen,  1835)  and  E.  Meier 
(Stuttgart,  1854),  deserve  special  mention.  Of 
the  Xew  Testament  many  translations  liave  ap- 
peared. Some  of  those  of  the  neological  school 
of  the  last  century  are  curiosities;  for  example, 
that  of  Bahrdt  (Riga,  1773),  who  renders  Matt. 
V.  4,  "  Blessed  are  they  who  prefer  the  sweet  sor- 
rows (rf.  siUsen  Melancholieeii)  of  virtue  to  the 
intoxicating  pleasures  of  vice ;  for  they  shall  be 
abundantly  comforted."  Among  the  best  of  the 
translations  of  this  centui'y  is  that  of  Weizsacker 
(Tiibingen,  1875). 

Lit.  —  In  addition  to  the  Literature  given  in 
the  article  itself,  see  Palm  :  Hisl.  d.  deulsck.  Bihel- 
iibers.  Dr.  M.  Lulheri  v.  1517-34,  herausge.  v. 
Guze,  Halle,  1772 ;  Panzer  :  NachriclU  v.  d. 
AUeralteslen  (/etir.  dexitsck.  Bibeln,  Niirnberg, 
1777,  and  Entwurf  e.  vnllst.  Gesch.  d.  deulsck. 
Biheluhers.  Dr.  M.' Luther'.^  v.  1517-81,  Niirnberg, 
1783,  2d  ed.,  1791;  Keiikeix  :  Zur  Gesch.  d. 
deulsck.  Bibeliiber.t. ,  Stutt.,  ISol  ;  Bindseil:  Vei-- 
zeickniss  d.  Orlijinal-Ausgahen  d.  Lulker.  Uehers., 
Halle,  1841 ;  Monckeberg  :  Tabell.  Uehersickt  d. 
trickligslen  Variunten  d.  bedeutendste7i  ganybaren 
Bibelausgahen  K.  T.,  Halle,  1865,  and  A.  T., 
1870.  On  the  Revision  of  Luther's  Bible, — 
I'komm-A.n.\  :  VorsckUige  zur  Revision  v.  M.  L.'s 
Bibeliibersetzung,  Halle,  1862  ;  I.  A.  Dorner  :  D. 
einkeill.  Texigestallung  bcz.  Vcrbesserung  d.  Lutker. 
Ueberselzung  N.  T.,  Stuttgart,  1868;  Gri.mm  : 
D.  lutker.  Bibel  u.  Hire  Textrevi.^ion,  Berlin,  1874. 
£A  good  edition  of  the  Revised  Luther  Transla- 
tion referred  to  above  is  that  of  Gehii.\rdt  :  D. 
N.  T.  grieckisck  nack  Tischendorf's  letzier  Recen- 
sion u.  deulsck  n.  d.  revidirlen  Lutkertext,  etc., 
Leipzig,  1881.  The  Greek  text  gives  also  the 
readings  of  AVestcott  and'  Hort.  See  for  Swiss 
translations  Mezger  :  Gesch.  d.  deulsck.  Bibel- 
iiberselzungen  in  d.  sckweiz.  reform.  Kircke  von  der 
Reformnlion  bis  zur  Geyenwurl,  Basel,  1876.  For 
the  manuscript  of  the  pre-Luthor  German  Bible, 
see  Der  Codex  Teplensis,  enlhallend  "  Die  Sckrift 
desnewen  Gezeuges."  Aellesle  deulscke  Haiidsrhrift, 
tcclcke  den  im  XV.  Jahrhundcrl  gedrucklen  deul- 
schen  Bibeln  zu  Grund  gelegen,  Augsburg,  1881-84, 
3  parts  sqq.]  O.  F.  KlilTZSCUE. 

GERMANY,  meaning  the  German  Empire  (con- 
stituted in  1871,  after  the  brilliant  victory  over 
France),  comprises  an  area  of  208,000  square 
miles,  with  42,727,360  inhabitants  (according  to 
the  census  of  1875),  of  wliom  26,718,823  are 
Protestants,  15,371,227  Roman  Catholics,  520,575 
Je\v.s,  100,608  Di.s.senters,  and  16,127  of  no  religion 
stated.  Thus  about  two-thirds  (a  little  less)  of 
the  popidation  of  Germany  are  Protestant,  and 
one-third  (a  little  more)  is  Roman  Catholic;  and 
the  relation  between  tlie  two  denominations  was 
nearly  tiie  same  two  centuries  ago,  at  the  end  of 
the  'J'hirty-Years'  War,  in  1648.  Tlie  Protestants 
have  increased  a  little  fa-sUsr  than  the  Roman 
Catholics;  not  on  account  of  conversions,  liow- 
evor,  but  becau.se  the  jiojiulation  increases  at  a 
somewhat  higher  rate  in  the  Protestant  regions. 


Tlie  location  of  the  two  denominations  is  also 
nearly  the  same  now  as  two  centuries  ago.  In 
Southern  Germany  the  Roman  Church  prevails ; 
in  Xortliern,  the  Evangelical.  Bavaria,  Baden, 
and  Alsace-Lorraine  are  predominantly  Roman 
Catholic;  Schleswig-Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  Hano- 
ver, Brandenburg,  and  Saxony  are  almost  wholly 
Protestant. 

In  the  Protestant  Church  attempts  have  been 
made  to  unite  the  Reformed  and  the  Lutheran ; 
and  such  a  union  was  actually  established  in 
Prussia  and  Nassau  1817,  in  the  Palatinate  1818, 
and  in  Baden  1822.  Nevertheless,  when,  in  1866, 
Prussia  annexed  Hanover  and  Schleswig-Holstein, 
whose  inhabitants  are  Lutheran,  and  Hesse,  whose 
inhabitants  are  Reformed,  the  union  was  not 
introduced  in  those  comitries.  The  government 
of  the  Evangelical  State  Church  of  Prussia  is  con- 
sistorial  :  at  the  head  of  the  whole  church  stands 
an  ecclesiastical  council  {Oherlirchcnralh).  of  each 
province  a  superintendent-general  with  a  consis- 
torial  board,  of  each  diocese  a  superintendent,  of 
each  parish  a  minister. 

The  Roman  Church  has  six  archbishoprics,  — 
Breslau,  Gnesen-Posen,  Cologne,  Freiburg.  Miinich- 
Freising,  and  Bamberg;  and  eighteen  bishoprics, 
Ermeland,  Kulm,  Fulda,  Hildesheim,  Osnabriick, 
Paderborn,  Miinster,  Limburg,  Treves,  Metz, 
Strassbvn-g,  Spires,  Wiirzburg,  Ratisbon,  Passau, 
Eichsthdt,  Augsburg,  and  Rottenburg.  An  apos- 
tolic vicar  resides  in  Dresden.  The  Jesuits  were 
expelled  in  1874.  After  the  pronmlgation  of  the 
dogma  of  jiapal  infallibility  in  1871,  the  secession 
of  the  Old  Catholics  (see  art.)  took  place.  In 
1878  they  numbered  about  tit'ty-two  thousand, 
divided  into  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  congre- 
gations. See  Biihler,  Der  Altkalholicismus,  Leiden, 
1880,  p.  49. 

For  further  statistical  details,  and  for  the  his- 
tory of  the  Churcli  in  (Jermany,  .see  the  articles 
on  the  separate  states  (Ba\aria,  etc.),  on  the 
ancient  tribes  (Alemanni,  Saxons,  etc.),  on  the 
special  periods,  places,  and  .sects  (the  Reforma- 
tion, Cologne,  Anabaptists,  etc.)  and,  finally, 
biographies. 

The  German  Emjiire  is,  like  the  government 
of  the  United  States,  a  piu'ely  political  union  of 
the  different  German  states,  and  has,  as  such, 
nothing  to  do  with  religion,  which  is  left  to  the 
.several  states.  But  the  emperor  of  Germany, 
who  is  at  the  same  time  king  of  Prussia,  is  at 
the  head  of  the  Evangelical  Church  of  Prussia. 

GERSON,  Jean  Charlier,  a  distinguished  theo- 
logian, and  one  of  the  founders  of  (!allic:uiism, 
known  as  the  Dorlor  Chrisliduissiiinis  ("i\Iost  Chri,s- 
tian  Doctor") ;  b.  in  the  village  of  Gcrson,  in  the 
dioce.se  of  Rheims,  Dec.  14, 1363;  d.  at  Lyons,  July 
12, 1429.  His  parents  were  peasants;  his  mother, 
according  to  his  own  statement,  a  "  second  Moni- 
ca." In  1377  he  entered  the  College  of  Navarre, 
Paris,  and  began,  live  years  later,  the  study  of  the- 
ology, under  Peter  D'Ailli  and  (iilles  des  Chanqis. 
By  1387  he  had  attained  so  considerable  a  rejiu- 
tatioii  a.s  to  be  cho.sen  by  the  university  one  of  its 
representatives  to  plead  before  I'ope  Clement  VH. 
for  a  sentence  against  the  Dominican,  John  of 
Mont.son,  who  denied  the  immaculate  conception 
of  the  A'irgin.  In  1392  he  succeeded  D'Ailli  as 
chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  then  in 
the  zenith  of  its  fame.     As  a  theologian,  Gcrsou 


GBRSON. 


869 


QERVASIUS. 


revolted  against  scholasticism,  and  in  his  many 
theological  tracts  uttered  his  voice  against  its 
untenable  and  useless  subtleties.  In  his  De  Ref. 
Theol.  ("The  Reformation  of  Theology,"  1400) 
he  urged  the  study  of  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers. 
A  nominalist  in  philosophy,  he  adopted  a  mysti- 
cal type  of  theology.  It  was,  however,  not  the 
German  mysticism  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
which  sought  to  lose  the  identity  of  the  individual 
by  a  bold  flight  of  the  intellect  in  tlie  Deity,  and 
revelled  in  fanciful  religious  emotions.  Follow- 
ing Hugo  and  Richard  de  St.  Victor,  he  turned 
the  gaze  of  the  soul  inward  upon  its  own  states, 
and  sought  in  this  way  to  derive  a  theory  of  its 
laws.  He  constructed  a  system  consisting  of  two 
parts,  —  De  Mijs.  Theol.  Spec.  (''Speculative  Mys- 
ticism ")  and  De  Mi/s.  Theol.  Pracl.  ("Practical 
Mysticism").  The  former  is  devoted  principally 
to  the  discussion  of  questions  in  psychology,  under 
the  heads  of  vis  coynitica  ("  the  intellect ")  and 
affectiva  ("will  and  emotions").  Mystical  the- 
ology is  defined  to  be  a  theology  of  love.  Love 
is  the  experimental  apprehension  of  God  (^Experi- 
ment. Dei  perceptio),  and  through  the  instrumen- 
tality of  love  the  will  becomes  submissive  to 
God's  will,  and  lost  in  it.  Among  his  many  trea- 
tises on  the  mystical  life,  perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  De  Monte  Contemplat.  ("  The  Mount 
of  Contemplation  "). 

But  Gerson's  main  activity  was  his  attempt  to 
bring  order  and  peace  out  of  the  ecclesiastical 
confusion  of  his  day,  and  to  define  the  relation 
■of  the  Church  to  the  Pope.  In  this  latter  regard 
he  is  the  founder  of  Gallicanism,  and  the  forerun- 
ner of  Bossuet.  The  papal  schism  at  one  time 
oppressed  him  to  such  a  degree,  and  attempts  to 
heal  it  seemed  to  be  so  hopeless,  that  he  retired 
from  the  oftice  of  chancellor  and  public  life,  and 
was  only  induced  to  return  to  Paris  after  five 
years  of  seclusion,  about  the  time  of  the  flight 
of  Pope  Benedict  XIII.  (1103).  Gerson  again 
devoted  himself,  by  tracts  and  personal  addresses 
before  Benedict,  to  the  task  of  healing  the  schism, 
and  securing  his  submission  to  the  laws  of  the 
Church.  To  his  other  labors  he  added  those  of 
preacher  in  14u8  as  canon  of  one  of  tiie  churches 
of  Paris.  At  the  Council  of  Pisa  (1109)  he  and 
D'Ailli  exerted  a  preponderant  influence.  Here, 
as  well  as  at  the  Council  of  Constance  (1414- 
18),  he  acted  upon  the  principles  laid  down  in 
some  of  his  tracts,  —  that  oecumenical  councils  are 
independent  of  the  Pope,  of  superior  authority, 
and  may  accuse  and  depose  popes.  He  advised 
that  the  two  rival  popes  should  be  cited  before 
the  body;  but,  as  they  refused  to  appear,  tlie 
council  deposed  them  both.  In  1410  his  work, 
De  Morlis  Uniendi  ac  Ref.  Eccles.  in  Cone.  Gen. 
("  The  Union  and  Reformation  of  the  Church 
by  a  General  Council  "),  appeared,  in  which  are 
artirmed  the  superiority  of  the  Church  over  the 
Pope,  and  the  right,  in  case  of  his  refusal,  of  the 
State  or  the  Bishops  to  convene  gener&l  councils. 
The  Pope  is  indeed  the  vicar  of  Christ,  but  pecca- 
tor  et  peccahilis  ("  a  sinner,  and  liable  to  sin  "),  like 
all  other  Christians.  At  Constance,  Gerson  headed 
the  French  deputation.  In  an  oration  of  great 
power  he  called  upon  the  body  to  exercise  its 
rightful  authority  as  superior  to  the  Pope.  In  his 
De  AuferibiUlate  Papce  ah  Ecclesia,  written  during 
the  sessions,  after  re-asserting  the  authority  of 


councils,  he  claims,  that  in  matters  of  doctrine, 
as  well  as  in  other  matters,  appeal  could  be  made 
to  it,  as  the  Pope  was  not  infullible.  A  stain  r(\sts 
upon  Gerson's  record  in  the  part  he  took  in  the 
condemnation  of  John  IIus  at  this  coimcil.  He 
was  an  active  prosecutor,  and  presented  the  nine- 
teen heretical  propositions  extracted  from  IIus's 
work.  After  the  adjournment,  he  was  precluded 
from  returning  to  France  by  the  liitter  hostility 
of  the  Duke  of  Burgimdy,  and  took  refuge  in 
Bavaria.  He  still  continued  active  in  authorship, 
and  was  called  to  the  newly  founded  university 
in  Vienna,  but  declined  to  go.  At  the  deatli  of 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy  (1419)  he  returned  to  his 
native  land,  and  spent  the  last  ten  years  of  his 
life  in  Lyons.  A  gray-haired  man,  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  instruction  of  children,  and,  as  liis 
end  approached,  gathered  tliem  about  him  once 
again,  that  he  might  pray  with  them. 

Lit.  —  The  best  editions  of  Gerson's  works  are 
those  of  Paris  (1606,  3  vols.)  and  Antwerp  (1700, 
5  vols.).  (For  the  Imitation  of  C/irist,  wrongly 
ascribed  to  Gerson,  see  Thomas  a  Kkmpis.)  Be- 
sides the  Lives  in  the  editions  of  his  works,  by 
Richer  and  Du  Pin,  see  Lecuy:  Essai  sit?-  la  Vie 
de  Gerson,  Paris,  18.35,  2  vols.;  C.  Schmidt:  Essai 
sur  Gerson,  Strassb.,  1839;  especially  Schwab: 
Jok.  Gerson,  Wurzburg,  1858;  [H.  Jadart  :  Jean 
Gerson,  ri'cherches  sur  son  oriyine,  son  villaye  natal 
et  safamilie,  Rheiins,  1882].  See  also  Jouudain: 
Doct.  Gers.  de  Theol.  Myslica,  Paris,  1838;  Baub- 
ret  :  Les  sermons  de  Gerson,  Paris,  1858.  [An  edi- 
tion of  his  Tractatus  de parvulis  ad  Christ.  Irahendis 
appeared  in  Paris,  1878.]  C.  SCHMIDT. 

GERTRUDE  is  the  name  of  several  saintlj' 
women  known  to  medieval  church-history,  of 
which  the  most  noticeable  are,  —  St.  Gertrude, 
also  called  "The  Great  Gertrude ;  "  b.  at  Eisleben, 
Jan.  6, 1256.  She  entered  the  monastery  of  Helfta 
when  she  was  only  five  years  old,  and  studied  the 
liberal  arts  with  great  eagerness.  But  Jan.  21, 
1281,  she  had  a  vision  which  led  her  to  the  study 
of  the  Bible  and  the  Fathers.  She  liad  after- 
wards many  more  visions,  of  which  a  kind  of 
report  has  been  given  in  the  Insinuationes  dieince 
pietatis,  first  printed  in  1536,  and  afterwards  often 
reprinted.  —  St.  Gertrudis,  a  daughter  of  Pippin 
of  Landen  (ma/or  domiis  to  Clothaire  II.)  and 
Itta.  After  the  death  of  Pippin,  in  039,  Itta  built 
a  large  double  monastery  for  male  and  female 
recluses  at  Niviala,  the  present  Nivelle,  and  made 
her  daughter  abbess  of  it.  St.  Gertrudis  died  in 
659  or  6"04,  and  is  still  honored  in  Flanders  as  the 
patroness  of  cats,  travellers,  and  pilgrims.  She 
is  represented  with  rats  and  mice  at  her  feet,  or 
running  up  her  pastoral  staff,  or  on  her  dress. 
See  .•l("^  .^anct.,  March  17. 

CERVAISE,  Fran9ois  Armand,  b.  at  Paris, 
160(1 ;  d.  there  1751  :  entered  the  order  of  the 
Barefooted  Carmelites,  but  left  tiiem,  not  finding 
their  rules  severe  enough,  and  joined  the  Trai>- 
pists  in  1695.  In  tlie  following  year  he  was  made 
Abbot  of  La  Trappe,  but  resigned  in  1098.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer.  Of  his  works  the  most 
noticeable  is  the  Histoire  gene'rale  de  la  riforme  de 
I'orde  de  Citeaux  en  France,  Avignon,  1746,  which 
is  a  sharp  attack  on  the  Benedictines,  and  was 
much  resented  bv  them. 

GERVASIUS  and  PROTASIUS,  two  brethren 
who  were  martyred  at  Ravenna  during  the  reign 


GESENIUS. 


!70 


GFROBRER. 


of  Xero,  and  then  entirely  forgotten  until  a  vis- 
ion revealed  to  St.  Ambrose  the  whereabout  of 
their  remains.  This  vision  and  the  miracles 
which  the  relics  immediately  performed  were 
used  as  proofs  of  orthodoxy  by  St.  Ambrose  in 
his  contest  with  the  Ariaus ;  but  the  latter  had 
good  reason  to  doubt,  and  instituted  a  line  of 
criticism,  which,  in  spite  of  the  emphatic  asser- 
tions of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine,  has 
found  its  followers  down  to  our  times.  See  Mos- 
heini,  Gibbon,  Isaac  Taylor  (Ancient  Christianity), 
and  others.  The  fanciful  legends  of  the  two  mar- 
t}TS  are  found  -It^.  Sanct.,  June  19. 
"  GESENIUS,  Justus,  a  Lutheran  theologian  ;  b. 
July  (i,  1601,  at  Essbach  :  d.  at  Hanover,  Sept.  18, 
1673.  He  was  court-preacher  at  Hanover.  In 
1648  (or  1647)  he  edited  a  hymn-book  with  De- 
nicke,  and  w  as  the  first  to  change  the  text  of  Ger- 
man hyums.  (Sea  IIymnology.)  He  was  the 
author  of  some  hymns,  one  of  which  (  Wenn  meine 
Siind'n  mich  kranlen)  is  popular  in  Germany. 

GESENIUS,  Wilhelm,  a  celebrated  Hebrew 
scholar;  b.  in  Xordhau.sen,  Feb.  3,  178.5;  d.  at 
Halle.  Oct.  23,  184-2.  He  was  educated  at  Helm- 
stiidt  and  Gottingen,  where  he  received  in  Eicli- 
horn's  class-room  the  impulse  to  critical  and  philo- 
logical studies.  His  public  life  began  as  tlocent 
at  Gottingen,  and  in  subsequent  years  he  took 
pleasure  in  relating  that  Xeander  had  been  his 
first  student  in  Hebrew.  In  1810  he  was  called 
to  Halle,  where  he  continued  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  life,  in  spite  of  an  invitation  to  become 
Eichhorn's  successor  at  Gottingen.  His  lectures 
were  very  popular,  more  than  four  hundred  stu- 
dents at  one  period  crowding  to  hear  them.  He 
made  two  visits  to  England  (1820,  1835)  in  the 
intei'est  of  his  Oriental  studies. 

Gesenius'  Hebrew  Lexicon  appeared  in  two  vol- 
umes (1810-12).  His  Hebrew  T/,esaurus  (3  vols.) 
began  to  be  printed  1826,  but  was  not  finished 
till  after  his  death,  under  the  editorship  of  his 
pupil  Rodiger.  This  great  work  is  indeed  a  store- 
house full  of  the  richest  materials  in  the  departs 
ment  of  the  Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament;  but  it 
is  to  be  regretted,  that,  with  his  thorough  Semitic 
erudition,  he  did  not  include  the  forms  of  post- 
biblical  Hebrew.  His  6'rawmar  appeared  in  1813, 
his  Gesch.  it.  Iieb.  Sprache  u.  Sclirij'l,  1815,  and  liis 
Leltri/ebdiiile  d.  Iich  Sprache,  1817.  The.se  gram- 
matical labors  did  not  meet  with  the  same  general 
favor  as  the  lexicographical.  This  was  due  both  to 
the  appearance  of  other  works  in  this  special  line, 
aiul  to  the  fact  that  the  author  did  not  pursue  a 
strict  and  philosophical  method  in  his  treatment. 
In  1821  his  Commentarij  on  Isaiiih  appeared  in 
three  volumes.  This  was  just  at  the  close  of  the 
period  during  which  the  rationalistic  mode  of 
exposition  had  absolute  sway-.  The  work  deserves 
to  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  products  of  tliat 
school,  being  distinguished  for  pliilological  tluu- 
oughness,  lucid  presentation,  and  acquaintance 
with  historical  criticism,  as  well  as  for  freedom 
from  dogmatic  and  apologetic  prepossessions. 
Gesenius  l>clonged  to  tlie  rationalistic  school,  but 
was  no  jiarlisan.  The  philologicid  element  jire- 
ponderates  i)i  his  works.  \Vlii'ii  rationalism  began 
to  wane  at  Halli',  he  was  regarded,  on  account  of 
his  personal  influence  over  the  students  and  tile 
fame  of  his  scliolarshi]),  its  chief  representative. 
He  was  one  of  tlie  principal  persons  aimed  at  in 


the  attack  against  rationalistic  teachers,  which 
started  in  Berlin  in  1830.  But  he  held  his  posi- 
tion, and  the  complaints  ceased.  In  addition  to 
the  works  mentioned  above,  he  published  Versuch 
lib.  (1.  maltesische  Sprache  (1810),  De  Pentateuchi 
Samarit.  Origine,  etc.  (181.5),  De  Samaritan.  Theol. 
(1822),  Carmina  Samaritan.  (1824),  an  Edition  of 
Biirckhardt's  Travels  (1823),  Monumenta  Phcenica 
(1837).  Gesenius  also  made  large  contributions 
to  Ersch  and  Guuber's  Encykloiiiidie  and  to  the 
Hallische  Literaturzeilung.  For  a  well-prepared 
sketch  of  his  life,  see  Gesenius;  Eine  Krinnerung 
fur  seine  Freunde  (by  Haym),  Berlin.  1842. 

[The  8th  ed.  of  Gesenius'  Lexicon  {Heh.  u, 
Chal.  Handwb.)  appeared  Leipzig.  1S78,  ed.  by 
^luhlau  and  Volck;  the  23d  ed.  of  his  Grammar 
ed.  by  Kautzsch,  Leipzig,  1881.  There  are  English 
translations  of  earlier  editions  of  the  Lexicon  by 
Tregelles  (1846-52)  and  Edward  Robixson 
(Boston,  1855).  A  thoroughly  revised  edition  of 
Robinson's  translation,  on  the  basis  of  the  8th  ed. 
of  the  German  original,  is  preparing  by  Professors 
Briggs  and  Brown  of  the  L'nion  Theological 
Seminary,  New-York  City.  There  are  E2nglish 
translations  of  Gesenius'  Hebreiv  Grammar,  by 
Moses  Stuart,  Andover,  1826  (last  ed.,  1846), 
T.  J.  CoNANT,  Boston,  1830  (rev.  ed.,  N.Y.,  1855),- 
and  by  B.  Davies,  London,  1S69  (ed.  by  E.  C. 
Mitchell,  on  the  basis  of  the  22d  of  the  original,. 
Andover,  1881)].  ED.  REUSS. 

GESTA  ROMANORUM  (Deeds  of  the  Romans), 
a  Latin  collection  of  anecdotes  and  tales  intended 
primarily  for  preachers  to  introduce  into  their 
discourses.  It  was  probabh'  of  monkish  origin. 
It  has  gi'eat  literary  interest,  because  it  contains 
the  germs  of  many  famous  tales ;  for  the  theo- 
logian it  has  value  as  a  revelation  of  the  morals 
of  the  times.  The  various  stories  are  excellent 
in  their  tone,  and  the  piety  and  zeal  of  the  auth- 
ors are  noticeable.  The  date  of  the  collection 
may  be  set  down  as  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century  ;  author  and  nativity  are- 
equally  unknown.  Critical  editions  of  the  Latin 
text  have  been  produced  by  A.  Keller  (J^tuttgart, 
1842)  and  Asterley  (Uerlin,  1872).  There  is  an 
English  translation  by  Rev.  C.  Swan,  published 
in  liolin's  Anlii/narian  Librari/.  London.  1877. 

CETHSEM'ANE  (oil-press),  a  place  at  the  foot 
of  Mciunl  Olivet,  noted  as  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
agony  (John  xviii.  1  ;  Mark  xiv.  26;  Luke  xxii. 
39),  is,  by  a  tradition  dating  back  to  the  fourth 
century,  located  about  one  huiulred  yards  east  of 
the  bridge  over  the  Kedron.  It  consists  of  a 
quadrangular  spot  .some  seventy  paces  in  circum- 
ference, and  surrounded  with  a  wall,  and  contains 
a  flower-garden,  with  eight  very  old  and  venera- 
ble olive-trees.  As  the  Latin  Cliurch  has  control 
of  the  place,  the  Greeks  have  .set  u]i  a  Gethsemane 
of  their  own  I'artlicr  uj)  Mount  Olivet. 

GFROERER,  August  Friedrich,  b.  at  Calw.  in 
thr  Uliick  Forest,  .March  5,  |.S()3;  d.  at  Carlsbad, 
July  10,  1801.  He  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  was 
appointed  librarian  at  Stuttgart  in  1830,  and 
]>rofe,ssor  of  history  at  Freiburg  in  1846,  His 
tir.st  works,  Gii.ilac  Adolf  (Stuttgart,  183.5-37, 
2  vols.)  and  Geschichle  d<s  i'rchristenthnms  (Stutt- 
gart, 1838,  3  vols.),  rejiresent  an  independent 
rationalism  and  a  good  deal  of  original  research. 
But  with  his  Allgemeinv  Kircheni/eschichle  (Stutt- 
gart, 1841-40,  4  Vols.)  he  entirely  changed  poeif 


GHIBELLINES. 


871 


GIBSON. 


tion,  and,  though  he  did  not  actually  embrace 
Romanism  until  1853,  he  was  long  before  that 
time  considered  one  of  the  leaders  of  ultramon- 
tanisni  in  Germany.  To  the  latter  period  of  his 
life  belong  his  Geschichte  iter  Karolinger,  Frei- 
burg, 1818,  2  vols.  ;  Papst  Grei/orius  und  sein 
ZeitaltL'i;  SclKiffhausen,  1859-61,  7  vols.,  etc. 

GHIBELLINES.     See  Guelf. 

GIANTS.  Like  all  nations  of  anti(iuity,  the 
Hebrews  had  also  their  stories  about  giants.  The 
word  "giants"  has  different  representations  in 
the  Hebrew.  Thus  (Gen.  vi.  4)  they  are  called 
(1)  Nephilim.  (Gen.  xiv.  5)  we  find  (2)  the  Rephahn. 
Of  his  race  was  Og,  King  of  Bashan,  whose  "bed- 
stead was  nine  cubits  in  length  and  four  cubits 
in  breadth,  according  to  the  culiit  of  a  man  " 
(Dent.  iii.  11).  (3)  The  Anakhn  (Xum.  xiii.  28, 
32,  33;  Dent.  ii.  10).  They  were  destroyed  by 
Jo.shna  (.Josh.  xi.  22;  Judg.  i.  20).  Another  race 
of  giants  (4),  the  Emim,  is  mentioned  in  Deut. 
ii.  10,  who  dwelt  in  the  country  of  the  Moabites. 
Another  race,  known  (.5)  as  the  Zainzummim,  is 
described  Deut.  ii.  20,  21.  In  Job  xvi.  14  the 
autliorized  version  reads,  "  like  a  giant ;  "  but  the 
Hebrew  word  here  used  is  elsewhere  translated 
"a  mighty  man;"  i.e.,  champion  or  hero.  Comp. 
the  art.  liiesen,  in  Herzog's  Real-Encyclop. 

GIBBON,  Edward,  the  author  of  The  History 
of  llie  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Ro)niin  Empire;  b.  at 
Putney,  Surrey,  April  27,  1737;  d.  in  London, 
Jan.  16,  1794.  His  early  education  was  often 
interrupted  by  ill  health.  He  entered  Oxford 
University,  17-52,  but  was  expelled,  after  fourteen 
mouths,  because  of  his  (temporary)  conversion  to 
Roman  Catholicism  (June  8,  1753),  due  to  read- 
ing Bossuet's  Variation!!  of  Proteslanlisin,  when 
his  mind  had  been  unsettled  by  Middleton's  Free 
Eni/uirij.  Gibbon  was  sent  by  his  father  to  live 
with  a  Calvinistic  minister  (M.  Pavilliard)  at 
Lausanne,  Switzerland.  There  he  remained  five 
years  in  diligent  study,  and  became  remarkably 
intimate  with  the  classic  Latin  authors,  and  also 
acquired  such  familiarity  with  French,  that,  when 
he  began  to  write  his  History,  he  seriously  con- 
templated whether  he  sliould  write  it  in  that  lan- 
guage. Two  events  occurred  during  this  period 
which  affected  his  whole  life,  —  his  renunciation 
of  Romanism  (1754)  without  being  reconverted 
to  Protestantism,  and  his  love  for  Mile.  Susanne 
Curchod  ( 1757),  who  afterwards  married  Jacques 
Neoker  (1764),  the  famous  financier.  The  result 
of  his  change  of  religion  seems  to  have  been 
indifference  to  all  religion ;  the  result  of  his  dis- 
appointment in  love,  his  resolution  never  to 
marry.  He  returned  home  in  1758,  obedient  to 
his  father's  summons,  and  for  many  years  led  an 
aimless,  though  scholarly  and  laborious  life.  An 
episode  had  an  important  bearing  upon  liis  career. 
For  two  years  (1760-62)  he  was  a  militia  captain; 
and  this  experience  gave  liim  not  only  robust 
health,  but  a  knowledge  of  military  matters 
which  stood  him  in  good  stead  when  he  came  to 
write  Ills  History.  It  was  in  Rome  (Oct.  15,  1764), 
while  sitting  amidst  the  ruins  of  the  Capitol,  that 
the  idea  of  writing  the  decline  and  fall  of  the 
city  first  started  in  his  mind ;  but  he  did  not 
really  begin  his  immortal  work  until  1772.  In 
February,  1776,  the  first  volume  appeared  ;  on  the 
night  of  June  27,  1787,  he  wrote  in  his  garden  at 
Lausanne,  whither  he  had  removed  iu  1783,  the 


last  words  of  his  History;  and  the  last  volume 
appeared  April  27,  1788.  The  original  edition 
was  in  six  quarto  volumes.  Its  sale  was  remarka- 
ble, indeed  unprecedented.  The  remainder  of  the 
historian's  life  was  brief.  He  had  nothing  to 
live  for,  now  that  his  life-work  was  done.  The 
lo.ss  of  intimate  friends,  and  a  physical  malady, 
saddened  the  close  of  his  days. 

Of  his  History  it  is  superfluous  to  speak.  It 
has  been  put  in  the  first  rank  by  universal  suf- 
frage. The  historians  of  every  land  unite  in  its 
praise.  Later  researches  have  confirmed  its  judg- 
ments, and  corrected  but  few  statements.  It 
probably  never  will  be  antiquated.  Its  period 
extends  from  the  middle  of  the  second  century 
to  1453.  The  only  charge  which  has  been  suc- 
cessfully brought  against  it  is  that  it  betrays  an 
unfriendly  animus  to  Christianity.  He  had  so 
little  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the  Church,  that 
it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  he  would  throw 
the  mantle  of  charity  over  the  foibles  and  fail- 
ings of  churchmen.  In  regard  to  the  famous 
fifteenth  and  sixteenth  chapters,  which  relate  to 
the  rise  and  spread  of  Christianity,  wherein  its 
success  is  explained  by  reference  to  secondary 
causes,  and  the  severity  of  its  early  trials  declared 
to  have  been  over-estimated,  it  may  be  remarked, 
that  Gibbon  himself  admitted  that  his  array  of 
secondary  causes  left  the  question  of  the  divine 
origin  of  Christianity  untouched  ;  and,  now  that 
the  smoke  of  the  battle  against  this  portion  of 
the  History  has  cleared  away,  church  historians 
allow  the  substantial  justness  of  his  main  posi- 
tions. It  was,  of  course,  not  Gibbon's  intention 
to  write  a  church  history  ;  but,  in  spite  of  himself, 
he  has  traversed  the  ground,  and  also,  however 
unwilling  he  might  be.  it  remains  true,  that,  "  in 
tracing  the  gradual  decline  and  fall  of  imperial 
Rome,  he  has  involuntarily  become  a  witness  to 
the  gradual  growth  and  triumph  of  the  religion 
of  the  cross."  See  Schafk  :  Church  History, 
revised  ed.,  vol.  i.  p.  47. 

The  best  edition  of  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  is  that  published  by  Murray  of 
London,  1854  (again  1872),  8  vols,  (reprinted  by 
Harper  and  Brothers,  New  York,  18S0,  6  vols.), 
edited  by  Dr.  William  Sniitli,  who  has  incorpo- 
rated the  notes  of  Guizot,  Wenck,  and  Mihnan. 
His  Miscellaneous  Works,  with  Memoirs  of  his  Life 
and  Writings,  composed  hij  himself,  illustrated  from 
his  Letters,  ivilh  occasional  Notes  ami  Narrative,  ap- 
peared in  new  ed.,  1837.  His  .^utobiograiihy.  one 
of  the  best  ever  written,  is  prefixed  to  the  editions 
of  his  History  and  Miscellanies  mentioned  above, 
and  also  published  separately  in  the  Choice  Auto~ 
bio</ro/)hics,  ed.  by  W.  D.  Howells,  Boston,  1878. 

GIBERTI,  Giovanni  Matteo,  b.  at  Palermo, 
1495;  d.  at  Verona,  1543;  was  made  bishop  of 
the  latter  place  in  1524.  He  was  one  of  those 
Italian  prelates,  who,  before  the  Council  of  Trent, 
showed  a  serious  interest  for  the  reform  of  the 
church,  drawing  his  inspiration  from  Pietro  Ca- 
rafl'a,  and  exercising  considerable  influence  on 
Carlo  Borromeo.  His  works  {Constituliones  Giber- 
tince,  Monitiones  generales,  Edicta  selecta,  etc.)  were 
edited  by  Pietro  Ballerini,  who  also  wrote  his 
life  (Verona,  1733). 

GIBSON,  Edmund,  D.D.,  b.  at  Bampton,  in 
Westmoreland,  1669;  d.  at  Bath,  Sept.  6,  1748; 
was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Lincoln  1715,  and  of 


GICHTEL. 


872 


GIFTS. 


London  1723 ;  ordered  Dr.  Mead's  edition  of 
Sei-vetiis'  Restilutio  Christianhmi  to  be  burnt  1723. 
He  translated  Camden's  Britannia  (1695),  edited 
Sir  Henrj-  Spelman's  posthumous  works  (169S), 
and  compiled  Corpus  juris  ecclesiaslici  Atiglicani, 
or  the  statutes,  constitution,  canons,  rubrics,  anil  arti- 
cles of  the  Church  of  England  (1713,  reprinted  at 
Oxford,  1761,  2  vols,  folio).  He  also  compiled 
A  preservative  against  Poperi/  (1738,  3  vols,  folio), 
consisting  of  ■nritings  on  the  subject  by  emment 
English  divines  during  James  II. 's  reign.  Dr. 
John  Cuuxming  edited  a  revised  edition,  London, 
184S-4!),  18  vols.,  with  supplement,  1849,  8  vols. 

GICHTEL,  Johann  Georg,  b.  at  Regensburg, 
May  11,  1638;  d.  at  Amsterdam,  Jan.  21,  1710; 
studied  law  at  Strassburg ;  settled  at  Spires,  and 
began  a  brilliant  cai-eer  as  an  advocate,  Viut  was 
by  his  acquaintance,  J.  E.  vou  Weltz,  led  astray 
into  a  mist  of  fantastic  mysticism  and  ascetic 
theosophy,  from  which  he  never  escaped.  Ex- 
pelled from  his  native  city  on  account  of  an  open 
letter  to  the  preachers  of  Xiiremberg  and  Regens- 
burg, he  spent  most  of  his  time  at  Zwoll  with 
Friedrich  Breckling,  and  in  Amsterdam  with 
Antoinette  Bourignon  and  the  Labadists.  His 
writings  have  been  collected  in  seven  volumes, 
luider  the  title  of  Theosophia  practica. 

GID'EON  (|U'7^,  hewer),  one  of  the  more  illus- 
trious judges  of  Israel  and  of  the  tribe  of  IManas- 
seh.  His  history  is  recorded  in  the  sixth  to  the 
eighth  chapters  of  Judges.  The  occasion  of  his 
public  appearance  as  judge  was  the  severity  of 
the  Midianitish  oppression,  which  lasted  seven 
years.  He  received  a  divine  call  under  the  tere- 
Dinth  in  Ophrah  (vi.  11),  and  built  an  altar 
there  in  commemoration  of  God's  recoUectiou  of 
his  people.  He  struck  at  idolatry  by  destroying 
the  altar  of  Baal,  for  which  he  received  the  title 
of  Jerubbaal,  "Let  Baal  plead,"  etc.  (vi.  32). 
His  great  achievement  was  the  defeat  of  the  Mid- 
ianites,  who  had  encamped  in  large  numbers  on 
the  plain  of  Jezreel.  The  tribes  of  Manasseh, 
Asher,  Zebulon,  and  Xaphtali  acknowledged  him 
as  leader.  But  (iideuu  first  demanded  a  sign, 
and  received  the  famous  signs  of  the  Heece,  before 
undertaking  the  campaign  (vi.  36-40).  God  was 
determined  to  .show  that  it  was  His  power  which 
delivered  Israel,  and  so  reduced  the  aruiy  from 
thirty-two  thousand  to  three  hundred.  The  com- 
mander was  encouraged  by  overhearing  in  the 
Midiauite  camp  the  story  of  the  dream  of  the 
barley-cake  (vii.  13) ;  and  the  following  night,  by 
the  stratagem  of  the  trumpets  and  lamps,  threw 
the  enemy  into  a  panic,  and  com]iletely  routed 
them.  For  similar  instances  see  2  C'liron.  xx.  23, 
Hag.  ii.  22.  In  his  pursuit  of  the  flying  army, 
the  cities  of  Succoth  and  Fennel  refused  him 
provisions,  for  which,  on  his  return,  he  severely 
punished  tliem  (Judg.  viii.  13-17). 

Of  the  subsequent  forty  vears  (Judg.  viii.  28) 
of  Gideon's  official  activity,  little  is  recorded.  He 
refu.sed  the  title  of  king,  but  instituted  a  special 
worship  at  Ophrah  (viii.  27).  He  was  jierhaps 
led  to  do  this  by  the  fact  tlial  the  national  jilace 
of  worship  was  in  tlie  proud  tribe  of  lC]iluiuin. 
<jideon  nuide  an  ephod,  which  he  probably  wore 
himself  as  priest.  It  proved  a  snare  to  his  tribe 
and  people,  who  were  led  thereby  into  an  idola- 
trous worship  (perhaps  of  the  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim  on  the  ephod).     Gideon's  heroism  was  long 


remembered  after  his  death  (Ps.  Ixxxiii.  9,  11 ; 
Isa.  ix.  4,  X.  26;  Ileb.  xi.  32).  [See  the  Com- 
mentaries on  Judges,  and  Canon  Fakrar's  article 
in  Smith's  Bible  Diet.']  OEHLER. 

GIESELER,  Johann  Karl  Ludwig,  b.  at  Peters- 
hagen,  near  Minden,  March  3,  1793 ;  d.  at  Gbt- 
tiugen,  July  8,  1854.  He  studied  at  Halle,  fought 
in  the  war  of  liberation  1813,  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  gymnasium  of  Cleve  1818,  professor 
of  theology  at  Bonn  1819,  and  at  Gcittingen  1831. 
His  principal  work  is  his  Church-Historj-,  in  its 
kind  one  of  the  most  remarkable  productions  of 
German  learning,  distinguished  by  its  immense 
erudition,  accuracy,  and  careful  selection  of  pas- 
sages from  the  sources  which  constitute  the  body 
of  the  work  in  the  form  of  footnotes,  while  the 
text  is  a  meagre  skeleton  down  to  1648.  First 
volume  appeared  1824 ;  fifth  and  last  (contaming 
his  lectures,  and  treating  the  period  from  1814 
to  the  present  time)  1855,  after  his  death.  No 
less  than  three  English  translations  have  been 
published  of  this  work,  —  one  after  the  earlier 
editions,  by  Cunningham  (Philadelphia,  1836,  3 
vols.);  and  two  after  the  last  edition,  bv  Davidson 
(Edinburgh,  1848-56,  5  vols.),  and  by  H.  B.  Smith 
(New  York,  1857-81,  5  vols.),  completed  by  Miss 
jlary  Robinson.  Among  his  other  works  are, 
Dogmengeschichte  (posthumous,  1855),  Versuch  iiber 
die  Entstehung  der  schri/llichen  Evangelien  (his 
first  book,  1818,  and  a  death-blow  to  the  theory 
of  one  primal  gospel,  Urevangelium) ;  Unruhen  in 
d.  niederland .-ref.  Kirche  (1840);  Ueher  die  Lehn- 
insche  Weissagung  (1840),  etc.  Redepenning  wrote 
a  Life  of  lam  in  the  last  volume  of  the  Church- 
Historv. 

GIFTS,  Spiritual  (Charismata).  The  old  Prot- 
estant theologians  understood  by  tliis  term  the 
endowment  to  perform  miraculous  works,  —  such 
as  the  speaking  with  tongues,  healing  the  sick, 
raising  the  dead,  —  and  limited  it  to  the  primitive 
Church.  This  is  still  tiie  view  of  the  Protestant 
Church,  which  regards  these  gifts  either  as  for- 
feited by  the  Church's  guilt  (Irvingism),  or  extin- 
guished by  God  as  no  longer  necessary.  The 
C'atholic  Church  reg.ards  the  miracli's  of  the  saints 
as  the  result  of  their  continuance.  They  are  special 
endowments  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  not  merely 
the  characteristic  faculties  of  the  individual  as 
they  appear  in  various  forms  of  activity  subse- 
quent to  conversion,  as  liaur  would  have  it. 

Nothing  definite  as  to  tlie  nature  of  the  charis- 
mata is  to  be  drawn  from  the  etymology.  The 
term  outside  of  the  Pauline  Epistles  is  only  used 
twice,  —  once  by  Philo  {De  Alleg.  ii.  75),  and  once 
by  Peter  (1  Pet."  iv.  10).  It  gets  from  cAacis  (grace) 
the  special  meaning  of  a  gracious  gift  in  two 
cases,  the  pardon  of  sin  (Rom.  v.  15),  and  eternal 
life  (Rom.  vi.  23),  or  of  the  manifestations  of 
divine  grace  in  general  (Rom.  xi.  29).  In  all 
other  cases  the  word  signifies  special  gracious 
endowments  of  the  Holy  Spirit  which  exist  in  the 
Ijeliever  as  evidences  and  proofs  of  the  experience 
of  divine  grace  (1  Tim.  iv.  14,  etc.),  and  in  such 
a  way  as  to  fit  him  for  some  special  form  of 
activity  in  which  he  can  .serve  the  I'hurch  (1  Cor. 
xii.  1).  The  cajiacity  which  each  has  to  edify 
the  Church  is  in  c(iu.se(|uence  of  a  charisma  which 
he  must  exerci.so,  and  in  the  exercise  of  which  he 
exercises  divine  grace  (1  Pet.  iv.  10).  These 
gifts  are  derived  from  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  are 


GIFTTHBIL. 


873 


GILES. 


characteristic  of  the  state  of  grace.  Neander  is 
right  when  he  defines  the  charisma  as  a  capacity 
in  which  the  power  and  activity  of  the  indwelling 
Sjiirit  are  revealed,  be  tliis  capacity  immediately 
imparted  by  the  Spirit,  or  merely  a  natural  capa- 
city sanctified  and  enlarged  by  the  principle  of 
the  new  life.  The  comprehensive  definition,  then, 
would  be  as  follows :  charismata  are  capacities 
and  aptitudes  necessary  for  the  edification  of  the 
Church,  and  produced  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  individuals  are  enabled  to  use 
their  natural  endowments  in  the  service  of  the 
Church,  and  are  furnished  with  new  powers  to 
effect  this  end. 

The  charismata  are  the  necessary  preparation 
for  the  administration  of  ofiices  in  the  Church ; 
and  Christians  may  themselves  become  charis- 
mata (1  Cor.  xii.  28).  Church  offices  are  not 
something  distinct  from  them  (1  Cor.  xii.  .5),  as 
Thiersch  and  others  hold,  but  impossible  without 
charismatic  endowment.  The  ([uestion  then  arise.?, 
To  what  extent  are  the  charismata  permanent  in 
the  Church  '.'  Their  number  is  as  various  as  the 
needs  of  the  church  ;  and  neither  the  enumera- 
tion of  1  Cor.  xii.,  nor  of  Eph.  iv.,  nor  Rom.  xii. 
can  be  regarded  as  exliaustive.  But  those  are 
permanent  which  are  necessary  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Church,  and  those  temporary  which 
had  a  miraculous  element,  as  the  miraculous  gifts 
of  the  apostles.  But  among  the  latter  is  not  to 
be  included  the  "  gift  of  proclaiming  the  gospel 
so  as  to  produce  faith"  (Weiss).  The  apostolic 
charismata  bear  the  same  relation  to  those  of  the 
ministry,  that  the  apostolic  office  does  to  the  pas- 
toral office,  and  consist  in  the  power  to  lay  the 
foundations  of  the  Church.  They  are  therefore 
not  repeated,  as  tlie  Irvingites  hold,  for  there  are 
no  circumstances  calling  for  their  repetition.  [The 
fullest  list  of  the  charismata,  or  spiritual  gifts,  is 
given  in  1  Cor.  xii.,  —  speaking  with  tongiies, 
working  miracles,  gifts  of  healing,  knowledge, 
etc.].  See  I^.-vvid  Schultz:  D.  Gehtesyaben  d. 
ersten  C/«-(.sfe/i,  Bresl.,  1836 ;  I'^ngelmann  :  V.  'I. 
Cluirlaincn  iin  Allf/enieiiien,  etc.,  Regensb.,  1848; 
The  Historic.''  of  the  A  p.  Ch.,  by  Trautmann,  Leip., 
1848  [Neaxd'er  and  Sciiakf].  CRKMER. 

GIFTTHEIL,  Ludwig  Friedrich,  son  of  an  abbot 
in  Wurtemberg,  and  noted  for  his  fanatical  decla- 
mations against  the  State  Church.  The  date  of 
his  birth  is  not  known ;  but  his  literary  activity 
belongs  to  the  period  of  the  Thirty- Years'  War ; 
and  he  died  in  Amsterdam,  1G61.  He  stood  in 
connection  with  Breckling  and  other  persons  of 
the  same  description,  published  letters  of  warning 
to  the  king  of  England  (bi43-44)  and  to  Crom- 
well, whom  he  styled  "  field-marshal  of  the  devil, 
street-robber,  thief,  and  murderer,"  and  wrote  in 
1647  Dekiaratioi)  aus  Orient,  etc.  See  Bohme  : 
Acht  Backer  von  tier  Reformation  ilcr  Kirclie  in 
Enf/lanil,  Altona,  1734.  HAGEN'BACH. 

GI'HON.     See  Edex,  JERrsALE:M. 

GILBERT  DE  LA  PORRE'e  (Gilbertus  Porre- 
tanus),  b.  :it  Poitiers,  1070;  d.  tliere  1154  ;  .studied 
philosophy  in  the  school  of  Chartres ;  was  after- 
wards a  teacher  there,  and  became  bishop  of  his 
native  city  in  1142.  He  was  a  virtuoso  in  dialec- 
tics, and  wrote  commentaries  on  Plato,  Aristotle, 
and  Boethius ;  but  to  the  mystics  he  naturally 
appeared  as  the  champion  of  a  dangerous  ration- 
alism.   Walter  of  St.  Victor  called  him  one  of  the 


"four  labyrinths  of  France,"  Abelard,  Pierre  of 
Poitiers,  and  Petrus  Lombardus,  being  the  three 
others ;  and  on  account  of  his  connnentary  on 
Boetiua  de  Trinitate,  printed  in  the  Basel  edition 
of  Boethius"  works  (1.570),  Bernard  of  Clairveaux 
accused  him  of  heresy.  The  case  was  tried  at 
the  councils  of  Paris  and  liheims  (1148),  in  the 
presence  of  Eugenius  III. ;  but,  tliough  the  Pope 
accepted  Bernard's  counter  propositions  against 
Gilbert,  he  did  not  officially  confirm  them,  and 
Gilbert  returned  unmolested  to  his  see.  See 
Lipsius  :  Gilbertus  Porreianus,  in  Ersch  und 
GuuBER,  Ally.  Encyclopaedic;  [Hauk^au  :  Phi- 
losopliie  Sclwlwitique,  i.  296  sciq.].  PRESSKL. 

GILBERT  OF  SEMPRINGHAM.founder  of  the 
order  of  the  Gilbertines,  or  Sempringham  canons 
{Ordo  Gilherlinorum  Canonicorum,  or  Onlo  Sem- 
pringensis)  ;  b.  about  1083,  at  Sempringham,  Lin- 
colnshire, of  a  Norman  noble  family ;  d.  there 
Feb.  4,  1189.  He  was  ordained  a  priest  and 
pastor  of  Sempringham-Tirington,  in  1123;  in 
1135  he  built  a  convent  for  the  shelter  of  seven 
destitute  gii'Is,  and  shortly  after  was  called  upon 
to  establish  others  for  women  and  for  men  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  England.  To  the  nuns  he  gave  the 
Benedictine  rule.  In  1148  he  was  refused  per- 
mission by  Pope  Eugenius  III.  to  merge  all  these 
monasteries  in  the  Cistercian  order,  and  therefore 
they  were  per  force  independent.  At  the  time  of 
his  death  the  order  possessed  eighteen  hundred 
members  (seven  liundred  males,  eleven  hundred 
females),  thirteen  double  monasteries  with  hospi- 
tals, almshouses,  and  oqihanages  attached  :  when 
suppressed  by  Henry  VIIL,  it  possessed  twenty- 
five  monasteries.  In  the  Bollandist  Acta  Sancto- 
rum, Feb.  4,  Gilbert  appears  as  the  author  of  the 
Gilbert inoi-wn  Statute  and  Exhortationes  ad  Fratres. 
He  was  canonized  by  Innocent  III.  1202,  and  is 
commemorated  Feb.  4.  See  Hurter  :  Gesch.  des 
Innocenz  III.  u.  seiner  Zeityenossen,  Gotha,  1834- 
42,  4  vols.  ZOCKLER. 

GIL'BOA  (bubbling  fountain),  a  mountain-range 
east  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel,  the  present  Jebel 
Faku'a,  bleak  and  bare,  1,717  feet  high,  and  for 
the  most  part  very  steep,  running  east  south-east 
for  about  ten  miles ;  was  the  place  where  Saul 
and  his  three  sons  were  slain  in  Ijattle  against  the 
Philistines  the  day  after  his  visit  to  the  witch  of 
Endor  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  4;  1  Chron.  x.  1 ;  2  Sam. 
i.  21). 

GILDAS,  the  oldest  and  the  only  extant  of  the 
historians  of  the  ancient  Britons  ;  wrote  a  Hiatoria 
and  an  Epistola,  in  which  he  gives  a  record  of  the 
British  history  under  the  Romans,  and  from  their 
withdrawal  to  his  own  time.  Though  these  works 
have  been  quoted  by  Bede,  Alcuin,  William  of 
Newbury,  Geoffrey  of  IMonmouth,  and  Giraldus 
Cambreiisis,  no  reliable  biogxaphical  notice  of  the 
author  exists.  The  legends  from  the  later  middle 
ages  are  mere  fiction.  It  seems,  however,  that  he 
was  born  in  516,  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Bangor,  and  died  570.  The  best  edition  of  his 
works  fs  that  by  Stevenson,  London,  1838.  Trans- 
lations have  been  made  by  Habington,  London, 
1638,  and  by  Giles,  London,  1841,  republished, 
with  additions,  in  Bohn's  Six  Old  English  Chroni- 
cles. 

GIL'EAD.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

GILES,  St.  (the  same  as  the  Greek  klyiiio^;  Lat- 
in, jEgidius ;  Italian,  Eyidio .   Spanish,  Gil;  and 


GILFILLAN. 


874 


GILLETT. 


French,  Gilles),  b.  in  Greece,  640;  d.  before  725, 
in  a  monastery  ou  the  Rhone.  He  came  to  the 
coast  of  I'ro\ence  about  665,  and  lived  a  hermit's 
life  till  670,  when  he  went  still  deeper  into  the 
forest,  where  he  was  discovered  by  the  king, 
Waniba  (Flavins),  under  these  circumstances : 
one  day  the  hind  upon  whose  milk  the  saint  was 
nourished,  wounded  by  an  arrow,  sought  refuge 
fi-oui  the  king's  dogs  m  the  cavern  occupied  by  the 
saint.  The  king  on  coming  up  was  much  struck  by 
the  sight  of  the  saint  kneeling,  with  the  wounded 
animal  by  his  side,  and  desired  the  holy  man  to 
attend  upon  him  at  court.  St.  Giles  obeyed,  but 
did  not  stay  long ;  for  in  673  he  was  again  in  the 
forest,  and  founded  a  monastery  which  bore  his 
name.  His  reputation  for  sanctity  was  extraordi- 
nary. Jliracles  were  likewise  attributed  to  him. 
He  once  refused  treatment  for  an  accidental  lame- 
ness, in  order  that  his  pain  and  inconvenience 
might  be  a  trial  to  his  flesh,  and  is  therefore 
honored  as  the  patron  saint  of  cripples.  He  has 
churches  in  all  parts  of  Europe,  many  in  Great 
Britain.  In  art  he  is  portrayed  as  an  old  man, 
with  a  long  white  lieard,  on  whose  lap,  or  at  whose 
feet,  is  a  liind  wounded  by  an  arrow  through  its 
neck.  He  is  commemorated  Sept.  1.  His  relics 
are  in  St.  Serniu's,  Toulouse.  See  Smith  and 
W.\cE :  Did.  Clir.  1jIh</.,  art.  ^Egiilius. 

GILFILLAN,  George,  a  popular  writer  of  the 
United  Presbyterian  Church  of  Scotland;  b.  at 
Comrie,  Perthshire,  Scotland,  Jan.  30,  1813 ;  d. 
Aug.  13,  1878.  After  study  at  Glasgow  Univer- 
sity, he  was  ordained  pastor  of  a  Secession  con- 
gi'egation  at  Dundee,  in  ^Nlarch,  1836.  Beginning 
with  Five  JJiscoui-fe.t  (1839),  he  issued  many  vol- 
umes of  popular  literary  criticism,  which  have 
had  a  large  circulation.  His  best  work  is  Bards 
of  Ike  Bible  (1851,  0th  ed.,  187-1),  which  attempts 
to  be  "  a  poeni  on  the  Bible,"  with,  however,  ques- 
tionable success ;  for  lie  indulges  too  much  in 
rha])Sody,  and  lowers,  while  attempting  to  revivify, 
the  lieroes  of  the  past.  His  life  was  laborious, 
spiritual,  and  useful.  As  a  preacher  and  lecturer 
he  was  successful,  not  alone  in  attracting  num- 
bers, but  in  making  a  profound  impression  by  his 
thrilling  eloquence. 

GILL,  John,  D.D.,  a  learned  Baptist  divine  and 
bililical  f.xiMisitor ;  b.  \ov.  "Jo,  16117,  at  Kettering, 
Northamptonshire,  where  his  father  preached  to 
a  mi.xed  congregation  of  Dissenters ;  d.  Oct.  14, 
1771,  at  Camberwell.  His  school  education  was 
limited;  but  by  private  study  he  acipiired  nuich 
knowledge,  and  is  said  to  have  learned  Hebrew 
without  any  assistance.  After  preaching  for  a 
time  in  Iligham  Ferrers,  he  was  calhnl  in  1720 
to  the  Baptist  church  at  Horslevdown,  near  Lon- 
don. Dr.  (Jill  was  a  profound  theologian  and  a 
voluminous  author.  He  was  one  of  the  lead- 
ing advocates  of  liis  day  of  Hyper-Calvinism,  but 
a  vigorous  opponent  of  infant-baptism  (against 
Jonathan  Dickinson  and  others).  He  publislu'd 
one  of  the  ablest  answer.s  to  Whitby'.s  Five  I'oinls, 
under  the  title  The  Cmise  nf  God  ami  Truth  (4 
vols.,  1735-38).  The  same  views  are  stated  in 
liis  Bo'li/  of  Diriuitij,  2  vols.,  1709  (new  ed.,  I.ond., 
1839),  to  which  ho  addi'd  a  volume  on  I'raciical 
Divinity  (1770).  Like  Dr.  Dwight's  Theoloi/i/,  it 
contained  the  substance  of  sermons  preached 
from  the  pulpit.  Of  his  advocacy  of  Calvinism, 
Toplady  said,  "  Certainly  no  man  has  treated  that 


momentous  subject,  the  system  of  divine  grace, 
in  all  its  branches  more  closely,  judiciously,  and 
successfully."  Dr.  Gill's  great  work  was  his 
Exposition  of  the  Neiv  Testament  (1746-48,  in  3 
vols.)  and  of  the  Old  Testament  (1763-76,  in 
6  vols.).  His  first  effort  in  this  department  was 
an  Exposition  of  Solomon's  Somj,  which  he  preached 
from  the  pulpit  in  1724,  and  published  in  1728.  - 
This  commentary  is  enriched  with  the  stores  of 
rabbinical  learning.  ]Mr.  Spurgeon  calls  it  "  in- 
valuable in  its  own  line  of  things."  It  is  still 
useful  for  homiletic  purposes,  but  pursues  the  alle- 
gorizing method  to  an  extreme.  The  best  edition 
of  Gill's  connnentary  is  in  9  vols.,  Phila.,  1811- 
19,  with  a  full  Memoir.  RippON :  Brief  Memoir 
of  the  Life  and  Wrilin(/s  of  J.  Gill,  Loud.,  1838. 

GILLESPIE,  George,  one  of  the  foui-  Scotch 
commissioners  to  the  Westminster  Assembly  of 
Divines;  was  the  sou  of  a  clergyman;  b.  at  Kir- 
caldy,  Jan.  21,  1613 ;  d.  at  Kirkcaldy,  Dec.  17, 
1648.  He  studied  at  St.  Andrew's,  and  in  1638 
was  ordained  pastor  at  Wemyss,  whence  in  1642 
he  was  translated  to  Edinburgh.  In  1643  hew'as 
chosen  a  member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly. 
He  was  the  youngest  member  of  that  body,  but 
proved  himself  to  be  one  of  its  closest  reasoners, 
and  one  of  its  readiest  and  most  able  debaters. 
He  was  always  listened  to  with  attention,  and 
opposed  at  times,  with  success,  even  the  great 
learning  of  Lightfoot  and  Selden.  The  story  is 
told,  that  when  the  Assembly  came  to  the  ques- 
tion in  the  Shorter  Catechism,  "  What  is  God  ?  " 
all  declined  to  give  a  definition  except  Gillespie, 
who  was  hit  upon  as  being  the  youngest  member. 
He  reluctantly  consented,  but  called  upon  the 
body  to  unite  with  him  in  prayer  before  attempt- 
ing it.  His  very  first  words  of  invocation  were 
tiiken  down,  and  incorporated  as  the  best  possible 
human  answer.  In  1648  he  was  moderator  of 
the  General  Assembly  of  Scotland.  His  brilliant 
and  meteoric  career  was  cut  short  at  the  early 
age  of  tliirty-five.  In  1037  he  ]iut  forth  Th<'  En</- 
li.'ih  Popish  Ceremonies  ohtrudeil  upon  the  Church 
of  Scotland  (a  work  which  attracted  much  atten- 
tion), and  in  1641  Asi^erlion  of  the  Government  of 
the  Churcli  nf  Scotland  (in  which  lie  brings  keen- 
ness of  argument  and  able  learning  to  bear 
against  the  "  Independent  Scheme  ").  His  ablest 
work,  Aaron's  Rod  hlossominr/,  or  the  Divine  Ordi- 
nance of  Church-Government  vindicated  (pp.  590), 
appeared  in  London  1646,  and  was  directed 
against  Erastianism.  The  best  edition  of  these 
and  (iillespiirs  other  works  is  by  Hkthrington, 
2  vols.,  Edinb.,  1844-46,  with  a  Memoir. 

GILLESPIE,  Thomas,  b.  in  tlie  parish  of  Dud- 
dingslon,  Midlothian,  Scotland,  in  1708;  d.  at 
DunlVrndine,  Jan.  19,  1774.  In  connection  with 
Boston  of  Jedburgh,  and  Collier  of  Colinsluirgh, 
he  organized  in  1701  thi^  so-called  "  Presbytery  of 
Relief"  (i.e.,  "from  the  yoke  of  patronage  and 
the  tyranny  of  the  church  courts "),  because, 
having  been  deposed  for  contumacy  in  refusing 
conscientiously  to  attend  presbytery  meetings  ■ 
calle<l  to  ordain  an  unacceiitable  minister,  his 
persistent  efforts  to  be  re-admitted  were  rejected. 
See  Lives  nf  the  Fathers  of  the  United  Presbyterian 
Church,  Edinbm-gh,  1819. 

GILLETT,  Ezra  Hall,  D.D.,  a  distinguished 
Aiiiriii-iui  Prcsliylerian  divine  and  historian;  b. 
at  Colchester,  Conn.,  .Inly  15,  1823;  d.  in   New- 


GILPIN. 


875 


QLANVIL. 


York  City,  Sept.  2,  1875.  After  graduating  at 
Yale  College  (1841)  and  Union  Theological  Semi- 
nary (1844),  he  became  pastor  of  a  I'resbyterian 
church  in  Harlem  (1845),  which  he  left  in  1868 
to  accept  the  chair  of  political  economy,  ethics, 
and  history  in  the  University  of  New  York.  Dr. 
Gillett  was  a  man  of  great  humility,  and  remarka- 
ble for  his  painstaking,  patient  research  as  an 
historian.  His  first  large  work  was  The  Life  and 
Times  of  John  Huss  (Boston,  18G1,  2  vols.,  3d  ed., 
1870).  His  Hist,  of  the  Preshijterian  Ch.  in  the\ 
United  Stales  of  America  (Phiia.,  1864,  2  vols.,' 
rev.  ed.,  1873),  which  he  was  selected  by  the  New 
School  branch  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  to 
prepare,  is  the  most  comprehensive  work  on  the 
subject.  God  in  Human  Tkour/ht  (2  vols.)  and 
the  Moral  Si/stem  (New  York,  1875),  for  the  use 
of  students,  grew  out  of  an  attempt  to  prepare 
a  historical  and  critical  Introduction  to  Butler's 
Analogy,  and  are  especially  valuable  for  their 
treatment  of  English  thought  in  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries.  Dr.  Gillett  was  also  a 
frequent  contributor  to  The  Presbyterian  Quarterly 
Reriew  and  to  The  Xew-York  Evangelist. 

GILPIN,  Bernard  (Apostle  nf  the  North),  b.  at 
Kentniere,  Kng.,  1517;  d.  at  Houghton-le-Spring, 
to  which  he  had  been  appointed  about  15.56, 
March  4,  1583.  He  was  a  fearless  preacher 
against  the  clerical  and  lay  vices  of  the  times, 
and  a  practical  philanthropist.  '•  His  life  was  a 
ceaseless  round  of  benevolent  activity.  Strangers 
and  travellers  found  a  ready  reception  ;  and  even 
their  horses  were  treated  with  so  much  care  that 
it  was  luimorously  said,  that,  if  one  were  turned 
loose  in  any  part  of  the  country,  it  would  imme- 
diately make  its  way  to  the  rector  of  Houghton. 
He  built  and  endowed  a  grammar-school  at  a 
■cost  of  upwards  of  five  hundred  pounds,  educated 
and  maintained  a  large  number  of  poor  children 
at  his  own  charge,  and  provided  the  more  prom- 
ising pupils  with  means  of  studying  at  the  uni- 
versities. Anrong  his  parishioners  he  was  looked 
up  to  as  a  judge,  and  did  great  service  in  prevent- 
ing lawsuits  amongst  them."  See  Willi.-^m  Gil- 
pin :  Life  of  Bernard  Gilpin,  witli  Introduction 
by  Edward  Ii-ving,  Glasgow,  1821. 

GIRALDUS  CAMBRENSIS  (Girald  de  Barri). 
b.  at  Meanor  Pyrr  about  1147;  d.  about  1220; 
studied  theology  and  canon  law  in  Paris,  and 
was,  after  his  return  in  1172,  sent  by  the  .\rch- 
bisliop  of  Canterbury  to  St.  David,  to  reform  the 
Church  of  the  diocese,  and  bring  it  into  harmony 
with  the  Roman  Church,  by  the  introduction  of 
celibacy,  tithes,  etc.  It  was  the  policy  of  the 
English  crown  at  that  moment  to  build  up  a  sup- 
port for  itself  in  Wales  and  Ireland  by  establish- 
ing the  Roman  hierarchy  tliere ;  and  Giraldus' 
attempt  in  St.  David  was  a  brilliant  success. 
Xevertheless,  when  in  1176  he  was  elected  bishop 
of  that  diocese  by  the  chapter,  he  failed  to  obtain 
the  royal  recognition,  and  went  to  Paris,  where 
he  lectured  on  canon  law.  In  1180  he  returned 
to  Wales,  and  was  for  several  years  administrator 
■of  St.  David  during  the  absence  of  the  bishop. 
He  once  more  gained  the  favor  of  the  king,  and 
accompanied  Prince  John  on  his  campaign  in 
Ireland  1185,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
when,  in  1188,  he  went  to  Wales  to  preach  a  cru- 
sade. Nevertheless,  when,  in  1198,  he  a  second 
time  was  elected  Bishop  of  St.  David,  he  again 


missed  the  goal  by  the  opposition  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  rest  of  his  life  he 
spent  in  retirement.  He  was  a  very  prolific 
writer  ;  and  his  works  —  Topni/raphia  Hihernice, 
Itinerarium  Cambria;,  Sf>ecidum  Ecclesice,  Expug- 
natio  Hibernia;  etc.  — have  their  value,  in  spite  of 
his  credulity  and  vanity.  They  were  best  edited 
by  Brewer  and  Dimock,  Lond.,  18()0-77,  in  7  vols. 
[Of  his  Itin.  Camb.  there  is  a  translation,  with  a 
life  of  Giraldus,  and  notes,  by  R.  C.  Hoare,  Lond., 
1800,  in  2  vols.]  C.   SCROLL. 

GIRDLE,  among  the  Hebrews.  One  of  the 
essential  articles  of  dress  in  the  East,  worn  alike 
both  by  nien  and  women,  was  the  girdle.  There 
were  different  kinds  of  girdles,  corresponding  to 
their  equivalents  In  the  Hebrew.  There  was  (1) 
the  ezor,  denoting  something  bound,  which  was 
worn  by  men  of  different  states  (comp.  2  Kings 
i.  8;  Job  xii.  18;  Isa.  v.  27;  Jer.  xiii.  1;  Ezek. 
xxiii.  15);  (2)  the  abnet,  or  the  girdle  of  sacer- 
dotal and  state  officers,  especially  worn  by  the 
priests  about  the  close-fitting  tunic  (P^xod  xxviii. 
39,  xxxix.  29);  (3)  the  kishurim,  mentioned  Isa. 
iii.  20,  which  seems  to  have  been  a  girdle  worn 
by  women.  In  general  the  girdle  was  made  of 
leather  (2  Kings  i.  8;  Matt.  iii.  4).  The  nobles 
wore  girdles  of  linen,  four  fingers  broad,  and 
embossed  or  studded  with  all  kinds  of  precious 
stones,  or  pearls,  or  metals  (Dan.  x.  5).  It  was 
fastened  by  a  clasp  or  buckle  of  gold  or  silver, 
or  tied  in  a  knot.  Men  wore  the  girdle  about 
the  loins ;  whilst  the  women,  having  generally 
their  girdle  looser  than  that  of  the  men,  wore  it 
about  the  hips,  except  when  they  were  actively 
engaged  (Prov.  xxxi.  17).  The  military  girdle 
was  worn  about  the  waist:  the  sword  or  dagger 
was  suspended  from  it  (.Judg.  iii.  16;  2  .Sam.  xx. 
8;  Ps.  xlv.  3).  Here  girding  up  the  loins  de- 
notes preparation  for  battle  (1  Kings  xviii.  46; 
2  Kings  iv.  29)  ;  whilst  to  "  loose  the  girdle  "  was 
to  give  way  to  repose  and  indolence  (Isa.  v.  27). 
It  was  a  token  of  great  confidence  and  afFev.tiou 
to  loose  the  girdle,  and  give  it  to  another  (1  Sam. 
xviii.  4).  Girdles  were  used  as  a  kind  of  purse 
(Matt.  X.  9;  Mark  vi.  8);  and  inkhorns  were  also 
carried  in  them  (Ezek.  ix.  2).  KUETSCHL 

GLANVIL,  Joseph,  a  philo.sophical  divine  of 
the  Church  of  England;  b.  in  Plymouth  1636; 
d.  in  Bath,  Nov.  -i,  1680.  After  graduation  .it 
Oxford  he  took  orders,  and  was  for  a  time  chap- 
lain to  the  king;  in  1066  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society,  of  which  he  was  a  vigorous  defender, 
and  in  1678  appointed  a  prebendary  of  AVorces- 
ter.  He  was  the  le.ader  of  the  philosophical 
sceptics,  who  "attacked  all  ]>hilosophy  by  deny- 
ing the  self-evident  and  autluoritative  character 
of  its  original  categories  and  axioms,  and  resolved 
all  trustworthy  knowledge  into  the  vague  opera- 
tions of  experience,  supplemented  by  the  testi- 
mony of  revelation,  or  into  what  could  be  verified 
bv  physical  experiment."  But  his  motive  in 
favoring  scepticism  in  science  was  to  assure  reli- 
gion against  all  attacks.  His  principal  work  was 
Scepsis  Scientifca,  or  Confest  Ignorance  the  ]\'ay  to 
Science,  an  Essay  of  the  Vanity  of  Dogmatizing  and 
Confident  Opinion  (Lond.,  166.5),  which  was  an 
enlargement  of  his  first  work,  The  Vanity  of  Dog- 
matizing (1661).  He  believed  in  witches,  and 
wrote  Philosophical  Considerations  concerning  the 
Existence  of  Sorcerers   and   Sorcery   (1666),  and 


GLASS. 


876 


GLOSSES. 


Sadducimus  Triumphans,  or  a  Full  and  Plain  Evi- 
dence concerning  Witches  and  Apparitions  (ed.  by 
Dr.  Henrv  More,  wlio  gave  an  account  of  his  life 
and  «Titings,  1681,  2d  ed.,  1682). 

GLAS,  John,  b.  in  Pifeshire,  Sept.  21,  1695; 
d.  at  Dundee,  1773 ;  minister  of  the  kirk  at  Teal- 
ing,  1719 ;  deposed  by  the  General  Assembly  in 
172S,  in  consequence  of  his  publication,  in  the 
previous  year,  of  a  book  in  which  he  maintained 
that  an  Established  Churcli  was  contrary  to  the 
gospel.  He  gathered  a  sect  called  in  Scotland 
Glassites,  but  in  England  and  America  Saxde- 
M.\xi.\NS  (which  see).  His  works  appeared  at 
Edinburgh,  1761,  2d  ed.,  Perth,  1782,  5  vols. 

CLASSiUS,  Salomo,  b.  at  Sondershausen,  1.593; 
d.  at  Goth.i,  July  27,  16.56;  studied  theology, 
especially  the  Shemitic  languages,  at  Jena  and 
Wittenberg,  and  was  made  professor  of  theology 
at  Jena  in  16:57,  and  superintendent-general  of 
Saxe-Gotha  in  1640.  His  principal  work  was  his 
Philologia  Sacra,  a  combination  of  a  critical  and 
historical  introduction  to  the  Bible  and  a  biblical 
hermeneutics.  It  appeared  in  1625,  was  much 
appreciated  at  its  time,  and  often  reprinted.  The 
general  theological  stand-point  of  the  author 
forms  a  transition  from  the  old  orthodoxy  to  the 
pietism  of  Spener.  THOLUCK. 

GLEBE  {church  land),  most  commonly  the 
land  belonging  to  a  parish  church,  besides  the 
tithes.  There  are  several  important  statutes  in 
relation  to  glebes,  dating  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  Originally  every  church  had  a  house  for 
the  minister,  and  a  glebe :  indeed,  there  could  be 
no  consecration  whi'Vf  tliese  were  not. 

GLORIA  IN  EXCELSIS,     See  Do.xology. 

GLORIA  PATRI.     See  Doxology. 

GLORY.     Ske  XiMiius. 

GLOSSES,  Biblical.  The  word  "gloss,"  which 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  r/lossa,  denotes  not 
only  tongue  and  language,  but  was  also  used 
among  grammarians  to  denote  any  note  appended 
to  a  word  or  phra.se  for  the  purpose  of  interpreta- 
tion or  illustration.  Works  containing  such- 
notes  were  called  "glossaries,"  and  comprised 
not  only  tlie  wide  range  of  philology,  but  also 
science,  medicine,  geograpiiy,  etc.,  and  even  tlie 
sacred  literature  of  the  Hible.  Xotes  on  the 
latter  were  called  "  sacred  glosses."  Before,  how- 
ever, such  glosses  were  noted  down,  the  text  of 
the  Bible  had  been  the  subject  of  exegetical 
studies ;  and  the  word  "  glosses,"  which  among 
the  Greeks  denoted  "  the  word  to  be  interpreted," 
was  used  among  the  Latins  for  the  "explanation 
itself."  In  the  latter  sense  it  was  used  among 
the  Christian  writers  of  the  middle  ages,  and  is 
still  used  in  om-  own  days. 

Almost  as  old  as  writing  itself  is  the  habit 
of  placing  ainiotations  in  the  margin,  either  ex- 
planatory or  otherwise,  of  the  text.  This  was 
especially  the  case  with  the  Bil)le  ;  partly  because 
it  was  read  more  than  any  other  l)ook,  ]iartly 
because  it  was  read  by  such  who  needed  an  ex- 
planation, or  believed  themselves  fit  for  making 
explanations.  At  first  very  brief,  often  confined 
to  a  single  word,  these  glosses  gi-ew  finally  into 
more  extended  remarks.  In  the  Hebrew  codices 
these  glosses  were  the  source  of  not  a  few  of  the 
keri  readings ;  and  the  glosses  on  the  margins  of 
the  codices  of  the  Sentuagint  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment have   given   riso   to  many  of   the  various 


readings  which  exist  in  both  of  these,  an  elimina- 
tion of  which  requires  sound  and  cautious  judg- 
ment. The  more  difficult  the  understanding  of 
the  sacred  writings  was  regarded,  the  longer  were 
the  marginal  annotations  {glossce  marginales), 
which  were  especially  made  on  the  text  of  the 
Vulgate,  —  some  grammatical,  some  historical, 
some  theological,  some  allegorical  and  mystical. 
The  most  famous  collection  of  these  glossce  mar- 
ginales is  that  of  Walafrid  Strabo,  made  in  the 
ninth  century,  which  became  the  great  exegetical 
thesaurus  of  the  middle  ages,  and  was  known  as 
the  Glossa  Ordinaria.  Besides  notes  being  writ- 
ten in  the  margin,  there  were  also  such  as  were 
written  between  the  lines  (glossce  interlineares)  ; 
and  a  collection  of  the  latter  was  made  by  An.selm 
of  Laon  in  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century. 
Both  works  were  often  printed  together.  In  the 
last  century  special  attention  was  given  to  these 
glosses :  such  is  the  work  of  Ernesti,  entitled 
Glossa:  Sacrte,  Leipzig,  1785.  REUSS. 

Glosses,  or,  as  the}'  are  usually  denominated, 
marginal  notes,  are  found  in  English  Bibles,  in 
different  versions.  Those  made  by  the  Genevan 
translators  particularly  excited  the  dislike  of 
King  James,  and  made  him  ready  to  second  Dr. 
Reynold's  proposition  for  a  new  translation  of 
the  Bible  on  the  second  d.ay  of  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference  (Monday,  Jan.  16,  16()i).  His 
objection  to  them  was  their  alleged  seditious  and 
traitorous  character,  because  they  struck  at  the  doc- 
trine of  the  divine  right  of  kings.  The  Bishop 
of  London,  therefore,  proposed,  that,  in  the  new 
translation,  there  should  be  no  marginal  notes ; 
to  which  the  King  said,  "That  caveat  is  well  put. 
in."  Nevertheless  the  King  James  Version  nas 
such  notes,  although  of  very  limited  scope,  —  mere 
various  readings,  in  most  cases.  There  was  some 
complaint  at  the  omission  of  the  Geneva  ainiota- 
tions. See  Fuller,  C/iurch  Hist.,  Bk.  X.,  Cent, 
xvii..  Sects.  1,  2,  and  3,  ^  41,  Nichol's  ed.,  vol.  iii., 
pp.  203  sqq.,  276.  The  revised  version  of  1881  has 
also  glosses,  in  which  the  various  readings  of  an- 
cient manuscripts  are  given.  JMany  of  the  marginal 
readings  of  the  British  revLsers  should  be  substi- 
tuted for  tho.se  in  the  text,  in  the  judgment  of 
their  .\nierican  fellow-labnriTs. 

GLOSSES  and  GLOSSATORES.  After  the 
overthrow  of  the  West  Konian  Kni]iire  in  Italy, 
Roman  law  gradually  lo.st  its  authority  in  practi- 
cal life,  and,  as  a  natural  consequence  thereof, 
also  its  theoretical  interest  as  a  study;  until  at 
the  end  of  the  eleventh,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth,  century,  both  were  revived  by  the  foun- 
dation of  the  law-school  at  Bologna  by  one  Irneri- 
us  (Warnerius,  Guarnerius).  The  fame  of  this 
school  soon  gathered  a  great  number  of  pupils 
from  all  parts  of  Europe;  and  thereby  was  not 
only  the  scientific  treatment  of  the  Roman  law 
advanced,  but  its  practical  ajiplication  was  at  the 
same  time  inaugurated.  The  teachers,  however, 
did  not  confine  themselves  to  lecturing:  a  literary 
activity  aLso  developed.  Explanations  of  single 
words' or  phra.ses,  and  illustrations  of  positive 
facts  or  relations,  were  put  down  in  the  form  of 
short  notes,  glos.ses  between  the  lines  (interlinear 
glos.se.s)  or  in  the  margin  (marginal  glosses);  and, 
besides  such  short  notes,  the  glos.satores  also  pro- 
duced summcc  (or  surveys  of  tlie  contents  of  a 
chapter),  casus  (or  fictitlious  cases  illustrative  of 


GLOUCESTER. 


877 


GNOSTICISM. 


certain  principles),  qucestiones,  distincliones,  etc. 
From  the  Roman  law  this  method  was  transferred 
to  canon  law,  and  flourished  among  the  canonists 
of  the  University  of  Paris  no  less  than  aiiionf; 
the  legists  of  Bologna.  Several  of  the  pupils  of 
Gratian  wrote  glosses  on  his  decretuin.  and  in 
1212  Johannes  Teutonicus  undertook  to  gather 
these  glosses  into  a  continuous  commentary  on 
the  decretum,  called  an  apparatus,  or  i/hsaa  orili- 
naria.  Similar  tjlosste  ordlnarice  were  also  made 
to  the  decretals  of  Gregory  IX.,  the  Liber  xixltis, 
the  Clementines,  and  Extravagantes.  and  are  of 
great  value,  not  only  scientific,  but  also  historical. 
See  S.^RTi :  De  Claris  archir/i/mnasii  Bonon.  pro- 
ftssorilm.-:  1709.  \V.\SSERSCHLEBEN. 

GLOUCESTER,  capital  city  of  the  county  of 
the  same  name;  situated  on  the  Severn,  lOli  miles 
north-west  from  London;  population  18,.5:3(J ; 
founded  by  the  Romans  under  the  name  of  .\ulus 
Plautius;  called  by  the  Saxons  Gleauanceastre;  is 
one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  England.  Here 
was  the  favorite  residence  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor and  the  Norman  kings ;  here  Charles  I. 
was  repulsed  by  the  Earl  of  Essex;  and  here  the 
Sunday  school  was  instituted,  the  first  one  being 
held  by  Robert  Raikes,  1781.  Its  cathedral  dates 
from  the  eleventh  century,  and  the  diocese  of 
Gloucester  from  15-11.  Among  its  famous  bish- 
ops may  be  mentioned  Hooper  (l.^o0-55)  and 
Warburton  (175!)-79).  Since  18^6  it  has  been 
consolidated  with  Bristol.  The  pre.sent  episcopal 
income  is  five  thousand  pounds  per  annuni,  and 
the  incumbent  (1882)  is  Dr.  Charles  John  Elli- 
cott,  who  was  consecrated  in  180:5. 

GNAPH/EUS,  Wilhelmus(Fullonius),  b.  at  The 
Hague,  149:5;  d.  at  Xorden,  Sept.  29,  1568;  a 
noticeable  Dutch  humanist;  was  rector  of  the 
gymnasium  of  his  native  city,  but  joined  the 
reformatory  movement;  was  twice  imprisoned  by 
the  Romanists,  and  finally  compelled  to  flee  the 
country.  He  went  to  Prussia,  first  as  rector  of  a 
school  in  Elburg,  then  as  director  of  the  peda- 
gogicum  in  Kbuigsberg.  But  he  found  no  more 
toleration  among  the  Lutherans  of  Prussia  than 
among  the  Romanists  of  his  home.  Though  he 
was  not  a  theologian,  he  was  dragged  from  one 
theological  disputation  into  another,  condemned 
for  heresy,  as  he  belonged  to  the  Reformed  con- 
fession, excommunicated,  and  banished,  1547.  He 
found  a  refuge  in  Eriesland. 

GNOSTICISM,  an  eclectic  jihilosophy  of  the 
first  Christian  centuries,  which  constructed  its 
systems  out  of  Pagan,  Jewish,  and  Christian  ele- 
ments, and  clothed  its  ideas  in  mythological 
drapery.  The  term  is  originally  derived  from 
gnosis,  or  "knowledge,"  which  Paul  uses  for  a  deep 
acquaintance  with  God's  purpose  in  redemption 
(1  Cor.  xiii.  21).  Lipsius  has  shown  that  the  Sjt- 
ian-Ophite  Gnostics  first  bore  the  name  in  a 
pre-eminent  sense.  Irenseus  states,  speaking  of 
the  whole  sect,  that  the  Carpocratians,  one  of  the 
oldest  sects,  called  themselves  "Gnostics."  This 
fact,  and  the  early  development  of  a  Christian 
philosophy  in  Alexandria,  lead  us  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  it  was  used  at  a  very  early  date  in  that 
city.  Gnosis  was  used  in  contrast  not  only  to 
pislis,  or  "  faith,"  but  also  to  the  Pagan  philosophia. 

Gnosticism  stands  on  the  border-line  between 
the  Christian  system  and  Paganism.  It  was  the 
resultant  of  two  processes,  starting  from  different 


directions,  —  the  contact  of  the  Church,  on  the 
one  side,  with  Pagan  thought;  and  the  attempt  of 
philo.sophy,  on  the  other,  to  harmonize  Christian 
revelation  with  its  own  systems.  It  gave  up  the 
monotheism  of  the  Scriptures,  liniitcd  the  canon, 
and  allegorized  away,  in  part  or  in  whole,  the  great 
facts  of  Christ's  woik  and  person.  Gnosticism 
drew  largely  from  the  (ireek  systems  of  Plato  and 
the  Stoics ;  but  that  which  is  characteristic  was 
derived  from  Oriental  religions.  It  incoijiorated 
their  bald  Dualism;  while  (ireek  philosojihy,  for 
the  most  part,  favors  the  Pantheistic  conception 
of  the  universe.  As  a  rule,  it  represented  individual 
life  as  the  result  of  a  process  of  emanation  fiom 
the  original  essence ;  while  Cireek  speculation 
taught  a  process  of  development  by  evolution  in. 
an  ascending  .scale  from  chaos.  Unlike  Greek 
systems,  its  thought  was  not  methodical,  but  poeti- 
cal, and  charged  with  Oriental  imagery  and  free- 
dom. The  Cinostics,  likewise,  showed  their  pref- 
erence for  Oriental  mythologies  in  the  names  of 
the  angels.  Parseeism  with  its  fully-developed 
idea  of  Ciod  as  light,  C'halda?an  astrology  (in  Bar- 
desanes  and  Saturninus),  and  Buddhism  with  its 
ascetic  tendency,  —  all  combined  with  the  Syrian 
and  Phoenician  mythologies  to  give  to  Gnosticism 
its  Oriental  coloring. 

The  principal  task  which  Gnosticism  proposed 
for  itself  was  to  lead  man  by  speculative  knowl- 
edge to  salvation.  The  chief  questions  which 
pressed  upon  it  for  solution  were  how  the  human 
spirit  became  imprisoned  in  matter,  and  how  it 
might  be  emancipated.  The  former  is  almost 
synonymous  with  the  question  concerning  the 
origin  of  evil;  which  Tertullian,  with  other  po- 
lemical writers,  regarded  as  the  main  subject  of 
Cinostic  thought.  In  the  latter,  the  purification 
and  deliverance  of  the  soul,  it  agitated  one  of  the 
profouudest  thoughts  of  Christianity. 

Influenced  by  Hellenic  philo.sophy.  the  Gnostics 
subordinated  the  will  to  knowledge,  and  repre- 
sented experimental  Christianity  as  knowledge 
rather  than  faith,  and  made  knowledge  the  stand- 
ard of  the  moral  condition.  They  would  have 
changed  the  consecution  of  Christ's  words  in 
Matt.  v.  8  to  the  statement,  "  They  that  see  God 
are  pure  in  heart."  They  were  influenced  by  the 
aristocratic  class-feeling  of  the  (ireek  philoso- 
pher, who  regarded  himself  as  lifted  above  the 
religious  creed  and  humiliating  occupations  of 
the  multitude.  It  continued  in  a  lower  stage  of 
knowlege  characterized  by  faith.  Upon  the  be- 
liever who  held  to  the  letter  they  looked  dov,  n 
with  contempt.  Faith  was  in  this  way  made  a 
principle  of  separation  by  (iinosticism :  while 
Christianity  makes  it  the  bond  of  union  and 
brotherhoocl  between  all  men.  The  (inostic  di- 
vided mankind  into  three  classes.  — spiritual  {-rrvsv- 
fioTiKoi).  psychic,  and  carnal  (i-'Aixoi,  capKinnl,  etc.) 
beings.  The  last  class  are  controlled  by  passion 
and  instincts.  Matter  is  the  source  of  chaotic 
movement  and  sinful  desire  :  God  and  the  spirit- 
ual nature  (Trvn-fia)  are  unmoved  by  instinct  and 
passion.  The  spiritual  beings  become  aware  of 
their  kinship  with  Ciod,  and  will  be  completely 
delivered.  This  is  the  source  of  moral  duty,  and 
the  law  of  life  tor  the  .spiritual  class.  They  must 
seek  to  lift  themselves  up  to  the  divine  kingdom, 
and  thus  bring  to  development  the  seed  within 
them. 


GNOSTICISM. 


87S 


GNOSTICISM. 


Different  ■writers  have  endeavored  to  derive 
the  various  phases  of  Gnosticism  from  a  single 
leading  principle.  Baur  finds  it  in  the  idea  of 
the  absolute  religion  of  which  it  treats  when  it 
discusses  the  agreeuients  and  disagTeements  of 
Christianity  on  the  one  hand,  and  Paganism  and 
Judaism  on  the  other.  Lipsius  finds  it  in  the 
distinction  between  knowledge  and  faith.  With- 
out denying  this  antithesis,  Neander  and  llilgen- 
feld  represent  the  person  of  the  World-Creator  as 
the  point  of  de]iarture.  This  mythological  figure 
is  called  by  Valentinus  (following  Plato),  Demi- 
urge ;  by  13asilides,  Aixhon  ;  and  by  Ophitic  sects, 
Jaldabaoth,  or  Son  of  Chaos.  This  is,  at  any  rate, 
the  most  characteristic  figure  in  Gnostic  systems, 
and  concentrates  in  itself  its  most  important 
ideas.  The  introduction  of  this  being  between 
God  and  the  visible  universe  grows  out  of  the 
antithesis  of  God  and  matter.  This  speculative 
Dualism  leads  to  a  religious  Dualism,  which  sets 
the  God  of  tlie  New  Testament  in  sharp  contrast 
to  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  Demi- 
urge is  almost  invariably  represented  as  having 
a  very  subordinate  activity,  compared  with  God 
(and  Justinus  is  the  only  one  who  even  ascribes  to 
him  a  spiritual  or  pneumatic  nature),  and  then  he 
is  devoid  of  the  foreknowledge  of  God.  The 
spirits  which  proceed  from  God  are  high  above 
him.  He  belongs  to  the  world,  and  marks  the 
chasm  between  it  and  God.  1'he  description  of 
his  creative  work  draws  largely  fi'om  the  first 
chapters  of  Genesis.  He  is  the  God  of  the  .Jews. 
But  his  kingdom  is  broken  inio  by  the  kingdom 
of  Satan  and  by  that  of  sjiiritual  or  pneumatic 
life. 

The  classification  of  Gnostic  sects  offers  much 
difficulty.  Since  the  di.scovery  of  Hippolytus,  the 
difficulty  has  become  greater  on  accoimt  of  the 
additional  systems  lie  lirings  to  our  notice.  He 
al.-;o  has  made  it  apparent  that  the  Pantheistic 
conception  also  had  some  currency,  as  well  as  the 
Dualistic,  amojig  the  Gnostics,  (iieseler  groups 
them  into  Alexandrian,  in  which  Platonic  influ- 
ences are  potent,  and  Syrian,  in  whicli  there  is  a 
stronger  Dualism.  But,  by  liis  own  confession, 
the  .system  of  the  Syrian  Marcion  does  not  favor 
this  division.  The  classification,  on  the  liasis  of 
religious  influence,  which  Ilase  nuikes  into  Ori- 
ental, Hellenic,  Christian,  and  .lewisli,  is  inexact. 
I.ipsius,  on  the  doul)le  basis  of  dat(>  of  origin 
and  characteristics,  distinguishes  three  stadia : 
(1)  Karly  Gnosticism,  in  which  elements  of  Syrian 
mythologies  were  blended  with  the  .Juda>o-Chris- 
tiaii  ideas;  (2)  Hellenic  Gnosticism,  beginning 
willi  llie  a.<sumed  transition  of  Hasilidcs  to  Alex- 
andria; (3)  A  stage  in  which  specuhition  wanes, 
and  the  conflict  of  (jnosticism  .against  faith  ceases. 
Here  belongs  Marcion.  'J'he  alleged  transition 
from  a  Syrian  to  Hellenic  Gnosticism  in  Basilides 
is  not  borne  out  by  facts.  The  two  developed 
C'jntem]>oraneously.  In  Alexandria,  (inosticism 
was  strong  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Cerintlius  began  liis  career  tliere;  and, 
if  we  follow  the  account  of  llipjiolytus,  Basilides 
belonged  there.     Baur  arranges  the  systems  thus  : 

(1)  .Such  as  combine  Christianity  with  .hnhiisni 
and  Paganism  (Basilides,  \'alentinus,  the  Ophites); 

(2)  Such  as  oppose  Christianity  to  both  (Marc'inM); 
(■i)  Such  as,  identifying  .Jud.iisMi  and  Christiajiity, 
oppose  them  to  Paganism  (Clementine  Homilies). 


A  better  grouping  than  either  of  these  is  Nean- 
der's,  who  distinguishes  two  main  classes,  —  the 
.ludaizing  and  ,\nti-.Iudaistic.  For  ourselves  we 
prefer  a  classification  based  upon  historic  devel- 
opment, and  distinguish  (1)  The  period  of  spo- 
radic Gnosticism  at  the  close  of  the  first  century, 
(2)  The  period  of  greatest  fertility  of  speculation! 
till  the  middle  of  the  third,  (3)  The  period  ofl 
decay  in  which  there  is  little  of  original  thought) 
(after  the  fifth  centm'y  there  are  no  new  systems), 
(i)  The  revival  of  Gnostic  ideas  about  the  seventh 
century  in  the  sect  of  the  Cathari.  We  shall 
here  concei'n  ourselves  only  with  the  first  two 
classes. 

Gnosticism  exerted  a  powerful  reflex  influence 
upon  the  Church.  'When  the  Church  was  about  to 
sink  into  a  stagnant  literalism,  and  into  formal- 
ism of  life,  the  idealistic  speculation  of  the  Gnos- 
tics gave  her  an  impulse  towards  thought,  and  a 
more  comprehensive  discussion  of  doctrine.  The 
consequence  was,  that  those  points  in  which  Cliris- 
tianity  is  distinguislied  from  Judaism  and  Pagan- 
ism were  investigated  and  emphasized.  The 
Alexandrian  school  of  theologians,  who  more 
than  equalled  the  Gnostics  in  depth  of  speculative 
thought,  was  one  evidence  of  the  new  life.  Not 
altogether  free  from  the  error  of  finding  the  es- 
sence of  Christianity  in  knowledge,  it  was  Chris- 
tian in  tone,  both  of  doctrine  and  morality.  It 
borrowed  from  the  rich  speculations  of  Greek 
philosophy,  but  held  aloof  from  Oriental  theoso- 
phy.  'riie  influence  of  tjnosticism  was  not  only 
good  in  arousing  the  Church  to  a  clearer  definition 
of  her  fundamental  doctrines ;  it  gave  also  the 
stimulus  to  exegetical  labors  by  itself  leading  the 
way.  Basilides  and  Heracleon  were  the  first  to 
comment  upon  whole  Gospels.  The  (iiiostics  also 
preceded  in  the  deiiartment  of  religious  poetry. 
Learning,  as  she  did,  from  Gnosticism,  the  Church, 
on  the  other  hand,  gatliered  more  closely  about 
her  bishops,  and  emj)hasized  more  strongly  her 
distinctive  doctrines,  })eculiar  rites,  and  apostolic 
origin. 

[Gnosticism  was  the  Rationalism  of  the  ancient 
CJiurch.  It  was  an  effort  of  profound  speculative 
thought  to  harmonize  the  Christian  revelation 
with  reason.  It  brought  forward  the  distinguish- 
ing principles  of  Hellenic  philosophy.  Oriental 
theo.sophy,  and  the  .Jewish  religion,  and  compared 
tlie  great  ideas  of  Christianity  with  them.  Chris- 
tianity was  often  clothed  in  fantastic  drapery, 
and  as.sociated  with  grotesque  images ;  but  it  was 
always  declared  superior  to  any  thing  that  had 
preceded  it.  This  movement  of  thought  was 
perhaps  inevitable;  but  the  Gnosticism  of  the 
early  Churcli  is  distinguished  from  the  Uation;il- 
ism  of  our  century  l>y  having  been  confined  to 
the  speculations  of  scliolars.  Modern  Gnosti- 
cism has  gone  among  the  people.  The  contrast 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  that 
the  people  then  saw  more  jilainly  the  effects  of 
non-christian  thought  and  life  upon  the  worlii, 
and  knew  more  clearly  the  superior  merit  and 
power  of  Christianity  over  all  the  systems  tiiat 
li.ad  ]ireceded  it.] 

The  first  period  of  Gnosticism  belongs  to  the 
close  of  the  (irst  century.  The  earliest  ]iroleptic 
signs  of  (inosticism  art!  to  be  looked  for  in  .Simon 
Magus.  He  was  one  of  tjie  numerous  magicians 
of  tiie  East  wiio  pretended  to  have  tlie  power  of 


GNOSTICISM. 


879 


GNOSTICISM. 


working  miracles.  Judaistic  Gnosticism  is  pre- 
figured by  the  false  teachers  against  whom  Paul 
contendsin  his  Epistle  to  the  C'olossians.  With- 
out denying  the  Messianic  office  of  Christ,  they 
seem  to  have  had  a  well-developed  doctrine  of 
angels,  who,  perhaps,  were  regarded  as  having 
participated  in  the  creation.  There  are  also 
traces  of  Gnosticism  in  the  Epistles  to  Timothy. 
The  First  Epistle  of  John  opposes  Docetism.  At 
the  close  of  the  apostolic  age,  Cerinthus  was 
active  in  that  part  of  Asia  Minor  where  .John 
labored.  He  retained  some  doctrines  of  the  Old 
Testament,  but  placed  at  the  side  of  God  a  World- 
Creator,  the  God  of  the  .Jews,  who  is  also  the  head 
of  the  lower  angels.  Jesus  was  the  son  of  Joseph 
and  Mary.  The  Redeemer  descended  upon  him 
at  his  baptism,  and  left  him  just  before  the  pas- 
sion. 

The  golden  period  of  Gnosticism  closed  about 
the  middle  of  the  third  century.  After  the  first 
decades  of  the  second  century,  Gnostic  specula- 
tion was  fruitful  of  systems  to  an  extent  of  which 
there  is  no  parallel  in  the  history  of  philosophy, 
either  ancient  or  modern.  Starting  from  Egypt 
and  Syria,  they  extended  themselves  to  the  re- 
motest part  of  the  Church,  even  as  far  as  Edessa 
and  Lyons.  The  distinctive  Gnostic  features  are 
more  clearly  outlined,  and  the  various  schools 
stand  in  relations  of  antagonism  or  friendship. 
We  pass  now  to  a  description  of  the  Gnostic  sys- 
tems in  detail. 

I.  Judaizing  Gnostics.  Basilides.  —  Two  di- 
vergent accounts  of  the  system  of  Basilides  have 
come  down  to  us.  Iren<eus  and  Epiphanius  de- 
scribe it  as  teaching  a  bold  Dualism,  and  drawing 
very  largely  from  Parseeism.  IJippolytus  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  on  the  other  hand,  repre- 
sent it  as  monistic,  and  largely  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Greek  philosophy,  especially  the  Stoic. 
The  latter  is  evidently  the  true  representation. 
Irenseus  was  poorly  informed,  and  does  not  even 
mention  Isidore,  the  son  and  disciple  of  Basilides. 
Clement  and  Hi|>polytus,  on  the  other  haiul,  seem 
to  have  had  access  ';o  the  wi-itings  of  both. 

The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  Basilideaii 
system.  God  is  the  Unnamable,  and,  in  contrast 
to  all  other  beings,  he  may  be  called  the  Non- 
Existent  One;  for  he  is  so  high  above  us,  that  we 
cannot  affirm  of  him  any  predicates.  He  discards 
the  doctrine  of  emanation  commonly  held  by  the 
Gnostics.  Matter  is  not  eternal,  but  the  product 
of  divine  creation.  Far  beneath  his  throne,  God 
deposits  the  seed,  out  of  which,  as  from  an  egg, 
the  world  bursts  and  develops.  The  expression, 
"seed  of  the  world,"  is  Stoic  ;  and  the  illustration 
of  the  egg,  originally  Oriental,  was  adopted  ex- 
tensively in  the  cosmogonic  poetry  of  the  Gi'eeks. 
This  seed  is  conceived  of  as  a  chaotic  mixture  of 
the  three  elements  in  the  world,  —  the  spiritual 
or  pneumatic,  the  psychic,  and  the  hylic.  The 
spiritual  or  pneumatic  first  detaches  itself ;  and 
the  most  subtle  and  ethereal  portion  of  it  swings 
itself  aloft,  with  the  rapidity  of  thought,  to  God. 
To  it  belong  the  highest  spirits,  —  Mind,  Word, 
Intelligence,  Wisdom,  Power,  Justice,  Peace, — 
which,  with  the  Father,  constitute  the  great  Og- 
(load,  the  type  of  the  lower  spheres.  The  second 
class  of  pneumatic  beings  exist  beneath  these. 
Out  of  the  psychic  element  went  forth  the  architect 
and  ruler  of  the  world,  the  Archon,  who,  without 
4  — II 


being  conscious  of  it,  is  governed  by  the  divine 
laws.  With  the  aid  of  astronomical  forces  he 
forms  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  heavens,  the 
lowest  of  which  stretches  from  the  moon  down- 
wards. A  lower  Archon  presides  over  this 
sphere.  God  uses  both  Archons  for  his  purposes. 
The  lower  Archon  appropriates  to  himself  the 
Jewish  people,  reveals  himself  in  the  Old  'J'esta- 
ment,  and  also  to  the  heathen  world.  Prophecy 
begets  a  longing  for  deliverance  from  the  fetters 
of  matter.  When  the  fulness  of  time  had  come, 
the  Redeemer  was  born  of  the  virgin.  At  the 
baptism  he  was  endowed  with  new  spiritual 
powers,  and,  after  preaching  the  liiglier  knowl- 
edge of  salvation,  was  put  to  death.  Christ  dietl 
on  account  of  the  remainders  of  sin  left  in  him, 
but  also  to  deliver  the  children  of  God  from  the 
fetters  of  matter.  The  process  of  deliverance  is 
now  going  on,  and  will  be  completed  when  all 
pneumatic  beings  are  gathered  to  Ciod.  Basili- 
des and  his  son  Isidore,  who  wrote  a  work  on 
ethics,  taught  a  moderate  asceticism.  The  for- 
mer appeals  to  the  apostle  Mathias,  and  used  the 
Gospel  of  John,  for  which,  and  the  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians,  Ephesians,  and  Romans,  he  is 
the  first  witness.     See  art.  Basilides. 

Valentinus.  —  All  that  we  know  of  the  life 
of  this  teacher  is,  that  he  came  to  Rome  in  the 
days  of  Bishop  Hyginus  (about  138),  was  at  the 
height  of  his  influence  under  Pius  (about  155), 
and  was  teaching  until  the  administration  of 
Anicetus  (about  166).  It  is  certain  that  he 
hailed  from  the  East.  But  TertuUian's  state- 
ment, that  he  broke  with  the  Church,  and  was 
repeatedly  excommunicated,  is  suspicious.  Val- 
entinus was  endowed  with  rich  powers  of  mind. 
His  system  is  the  most  artistic  of  all  the  Gnostic 
systems.  It  is  an  epic  describing  creation,  apos- 
tasy, and  redemption,  in  two  spheres,  —  heaven 
and  earth. 

God  is  unfathomable  profundity,  and  the  most 
sufficient  name  for  him  is  Abyss  (/iuiJof).  For 
endless  ages  he  remains  in  silent,  undisturbed 
contemplation  of  his  own  glorj'.  His  thought, 
denominated  Ennoia  ("conception"),  or  Sige 
("silence"),  is  associated  with  him.  From 
Bythos  and  Sige  emanate  pairs  in  a  downward 
scale,  —  Nous  ("  mind  ")  and  Aletheia  ("  truth  "), 
Logos  ("word")  and  Zoe  ("life"),  Anthropos 
("  man  ")  and  Ecclesia  ("  church  ").  With  eleven 
other  pairs  these  four  constitute  the  divine  Plero- 
ma,  or  fulness.  These  beings  are  called  .S^oxs. 
Tlie  further  they  are  removed  from  the  Bythos, 
or  God,  the  greater  the  defect  of  divine  life,  and 
longing  after  it.  The  furthest  off  is  Sophia 
("  wisdom "),  which  has  a  vehement  desire  to 
comprehend  God.  Her  sinful  passion  disturbs 
the  harmony  in  the  Pleroma,  and.  being  separated 
from  herself,  is  placed  outside  of  the  Pleroma. 
This  marks  the  transition  to  the  world.  Har- 
mony is  restored ;  and  out  of  gratitude  the 
^Eons  construct  out  of  their  best  gifts  the  finest 
iEon  of  all,  —  the  star  in  the  divine  fulness,  the 
upper  Christ,  who  is  surrounded  by  hosts  of 
angels.  Valentinus  seems  not  to  be  clear  about 
matter.  It  is  either  identical  with  the  expelled 
ffudof  ("  passion "),  or  exists,  distinct  from  the 
Pleroma,  as  Kenoma,  or  the  Void.  But  in  Sophia 
matter  is  of  one  kind ;  in  the  world  it  is  evil. 

The  second  part  of  the  system  descends  to  the 


GNOSTICISM. 


880 


GNOSTICISM. 


formation  of  the  visible  world.  The  separated 
part,  or  TiiiJof,  still  has  pneumatic  life.  She  is 
the  product  of  Sophia,  and  called  Achamoth, 
from  the  Hebrew  Chochraah  ("wisdom  ").  From 
her  proceed  the  fundamental  elements  of  the 
world.  She  delegates  the  formation  of  the  world 
and  man  to  the  Demiurge,  who  dwells  in  the 
seventh  heaven.  !Man  lives  at  first  in  paradise, 
the  third  heaven,  but  repeats  the  apostasy,  and 
is  cast  down  to  earth.  The  Demiurge  sends  the 
Messiah,  upon  whom  the  ,Eon  Christ  descends. 
But  only  the  human  Messiah  dies,  tlie  .Eon  leav- 
ing him  before  his  passion.  After  the  resurrec- 
tion, the  ^Messiah  tarried  eighteen  months  among 
the  disciples,  teaching  them  the  mysteries  of  the 
divine  Pleroma.  All  pneumatic  beings  will  be 
completely  delivered.  The  Dennurge,  who  hum- 
bled himself  before  the  .Eon  Christ  as  he  passed 
through  his  kingdom,  will  lift  up  the  righteous 
psychic  beings  to  a  place  where  they  will  hear 
the  jubilant  echoes  of  the  Pleroma.  Then  fire 
will  consume  matter  and  the  psychic  evil-doers. 
The  most  pronnnent  representatives  of  tliis  school 
were  Heracleon  of  Alexandria,  Ptolemy,  and 
JIarcus  of  Palestine.  The  correspondence  of 
ideas  makes  it  almost  certain  that  Valentinus 
used  the  Gospel  of  John. 

CoLOBARSus  is  inaccurately  made  by  Irenpeus 
the  founder  of  a  sect.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Hebrew  kot  arba,  and  designates  tlie  fourfold 
principle  in  which  the  original  essence  at  first 
manifests  itself. 

Baudesaxes,  who  gave  the  impulse  to  the 
Christian  poet,  Ephraem  of  Syria,  enjoyed  for  a 
time  the  esteem  of  the  Syrian  Church,  but  was 
subsequently  forced  to  emigrate.  From  the  frag- 
mentary notices  that  have  come  down  to  us,  we 
gather  that  he  drew  largely  from  X'alentinus  and 
the  Chakhean  astrology.  But  in  his  Docetic 
view  of  Christ  is  implied  a  bold  Duali.sm.  See 
art   Bakdksanes. 

11.  Anti-Judaistic  Gnostics.  Satihxi.vus,  or 
Satuu.xilus,  of  Antiooh  in  Syria,  flourished  in  tlie 
early  part  of  the  second  century.  He  taught  the 
.sharp  antagowsm  of  the  unknown  God  and  mat- 
ter, wliich  is  dr.minated  by  Satan.  .Judaism  and 
Paganism  are  hostile  to  Christianity ;  and  Christ 
was  sent  to  destroy  tin:  God  of  the  .lews,  and  to 
bring  deliverance  to  the  pneumatic  beings. 

M.\i!Cio.N  was  the  .son  of  the  Bishoji  of  Sinope. 
He  was  a  man  of  earnest  temiicrament.  and  re- 
tain<!<I  nnich  moral  Christian  force.  Tcrtnlli.an 
states  tiiat  he  was  e.\comniunicated  several  times. 
The  probable  reason  for  his  leaving  Syria,  and 
going  to  Rome,  was  the  hojie  of  fin<ling  a  purer 
form  of  Christianity.  He  was  acipiainted  with 
Polycarj).  Christianity  he  regarded  as  incom- 
parably superior  U)  .Indaisni  and  Paganism.  But 
the  Churcli  apologetes  ojjposed  liini  with  great 
vehemence;  and  I'olycarp,  at  their  meeting  in 
Rome,  treated  liini  as  the  fir.st-born  of  Satan. 
The  tradition  went,  that  lie  sought  re-admission 
to  the  Church  bel'on-  liis  dc^ath. 

The  fuiidaiiKMital  ideas  in  Marcion's  .system  are 
the  most  high  God.  ulio  is  love;  the  Demiurge, 
whom  he  identifies  with  the  (iod  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  repri'sents  as  iinmerrirnl ;  and  Hyle, 
or  m.atter,  ruleil  by  Satan,  'i'he  Demiurge  at  first 
unites  with  Hyle  to  form  the  world  and  man, 
but,  by  deceiving  her,  appropriat<-s  man  for  him- 


self. In  revenge,  Hyle  fills  the  earth  with  polythe- 
ism and  idolatry.  The  Demiurge  continues  to 
dominate  in  Judaism  ;  hut  the  history  neither  of 
Judaism  nor  of  Paganism  has  any  thing  to  do 
with  the  most  high  God.  Taking  pity  upon  man, 
God  sends  Christ.  The  Demiurge  effects  his  cru- 
cifixion. Christ  descends  to  Hades, -and  preaches 
redemption  to  the  Jews  condemned  by  the  Demi- 
urge and  to  the  heathen  idolaters  of  Hyle.  He 
condemns  the  Demiurge  himself  to  hell,  and 
chooses  Paul  as  his  apostle.  To  him  alone  he 
imparts  the  pure  gospel.  Jlarcion  accepted  into 
his  canon  only  ten  Pauline  Epistles  and  a  muti- 
lated Gospel  of  Luke.  His  most  able  followers 
were  Apelles,  Prepox  an  Assyrian,  and  Luca- 
Nus.  The  Marcionites  were  divided  up  into  many 
sects,  and  in  Epiphanius'  time,  by  his  own  state- 
ment, were  scattered  from  Persia  to  Rome.  For 
the  Doketists,  who  belong  here,  .see  art.  Doketism. 

IH.  Gnosticizing  Paganism.  Cari'Ocr.\ti.\xs. 
—  Carpocrates  was  an  Alexandrian,  and  taught 
in  the  first  decades  of  the  second  century.  His 
system  was  monistic.  All  life,  by  an  ever-expand- 
ing procession,  emanates  from  the  monad.  On 
the  limits  of  the  divine  development  is  matter, 
wherein  the  spirits  who  are  finally  fallen  away 
from  God  have  their  habitation.  Epipiiaxes  his 
sou,  who  wrote  a  work  on  Justice,  followed  closely 
his  father's  system.  The  Antinomianism  of  the 
Carpocratians  gave  occasion  to  the  heathen  world 
for  accusations  against  the  Christians,  with  whom 
it  identified  them. 

Si.Mox  Magus  (Acts  viii.  9,  10)  was,  as  early 
as  the  second  century,  denounced  by  the  Church 
as  tlie  arch-heretic,  and  founder  of  Gnosticism. 
Although  he  professed  to  be  a  believer  (Acts  viii. 
13),  he  gave  himself  out  as  "the  Great  Power  of 
God."  A  sect  in  the  second  century  derived  their 
origin  from  him,  regarding  his  authority  as  co- 
ordinate with  that  of  the  ajiostles.  The  tradi- 
tion ran,  that  he  purchased  a  harlot  at  Tyre.  He 
allowed  her  to  be  wor.sliipi.ed  as  his  first  concep- 
tion (Ennoia),  who  created  the  angels.  These 
form  the  woi-ld ;  but  she  maddens  them  bv  her 
charms,  so  that  they  indulge  in  lust,  to  whicli  the 
Homeric  poems  refer.  Simon  api>ears  to  deliver 
Ennoia ;  and,  like  her,  all  Gnostics  will  be  de- 
livered. 

Clement  of  Alexandria  mentions  a  number  of 
sects  which  belong  here,  and  which  he  describes 
merely  on  the  side  of  their  moral  teachings.  Pan- 
theism Wiis  common  to  them  all.  The  -VxTl- 
TACTES  hojied  to  attain  salvation  by  defiance  of 
tlie  moral  law,  thereby  defeating  the  Demiurge. 
.So,  also,  the  followers  of  1'rouki'S,  who  proudly 
applied  to  tliemselves  the  name  (inostics.  The 
Nicolaitans  appealed  to  the  deacon  Nicolas  (Acts 
vi.  .'))  as  their  authority,  and  likewi.se  taught  the 
freedom  of  the  flesh.  They  have  no  connection 
with  the  sect  of  the  same  name  in  the  Apocalypse. 

IV.  The  Ophites.  —  This  class  of  Gnostics  — 
called  by  lli])polytus  Ophites,  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria  Ophians  —  give  a  prominent  place  in 
llieir  systems  to  tlie  .serpent,  —  a  demon  now  of 
evil,  now  of  good.  In  doing  this  they  were  in  the 
line  of  the  mythologies  of  ancient  Babylon  (in 
which  the  seven-headed  .serjieiit  lights  against  the 
powers  of  light),  of  Persia,  ami  of  Kgypt.  The 
a|icicry]ilial  literature  of  the  .Jews  also  refers  fre- 
ipienlly  (o  the  serpent.    The  Ophit<>s  <h-ew  largely, 


aNOSTICISM. 


881 


GOBAT. 


also,  from  Greek  philosophy.  The  sharp  antithesis 
in  which  they  set  Judaism  and  Cliristianity,  and 
the  preponderance  of  the  Pagan  element,  precludes 
the  theory  that  they  were  of  Jewish  origin. 

JusTiNus,  whose  system  Ilippolytus  has  no- 
ticed, was  more  largely  influenced  liy  Old-Testa- 
ment ideas  than  any  other  of  the  Ophites.  From 
an  original  good  and  male  being  there  proceeded 
a  female  being,  Edeni,  whose  upper  part  was 
human,  lower,  serpent.  The  Demiurge  (called 
Elohim)  emanates  from  God.  He  has  intercourse 
with  Edem,  and  begets  two  kinds  of  beings  cor- 
responding to  her  twofold  nature.  Forsaken  by 
hiin,  I^dera  tills  the  earth  with  evils.  Elohim 
seeks  to  draw  men  upwards,  loves  the  Jews,  and 
reveals  himself  through  Baruch,  one  of  the  angels, 
to  Closes  and  the  prophets.  These  are,  however, 
traduced  by  Edem.  Elohim  then  turns  to  the 
prophets  of  the  heathen  world.  They  share  the 
same  fate.  Baruch  finally  finds  in  Jesus,  the  Sou 
of  Mary  and  Joseph,  a  firm  opponent  of  Edem. 
He  resists  all  temptations  of  the  serpent,  and  his 
crucifixion  is  brought  about  by  it.  This  opens 
tlie  way  for  the  complete  separation  of  the  earthly 
and  the  heavenly ;  Christ's  spirit  having  gone  to 
Elohim,  and  the  body  to  Edein. 

The  Ophites  of  Irenaeus  jilace  Christianity  in 
sharper  antagonism  to  the  Demiurge.  Dualism 
is  distinctlv  avowed.  On  the  one  side  is  Bytlios, 
the  divine  being ;  on  the  other,  matter,  a  desolate 
ocean  made  up  of  water,  darkness,  chaos,  and 
abyss.  From  the  mingling  of  the  light  with  mat- 
ter proceeds  Jaldabaoth,  tfie  Son  of  Chaos.  He 
is  the  World-Creator.  Looking  down  with  grim 
hatred  upon  Ilyle,  his  diabolic  image  is  produced, 
—  Ophiomorphus,  or  the  "crooked  serjjent"  (Isa. 
xxvii.  1).  From  him  go  forth  all  evil,  sorrow, 
and  death.  He  dominates  Cain  and  the  heathen  ; 
Jaldabaoth,  the  Jews,  and  inspires  Moses  and 
other  prophets.  But  he  crucifies  Jesus,  upon  whom 
the  heavenly  Christ  had  descended,  and  does  not 
share  in  the  kingdom  of  light.  But  Clirist  brings 
salvation  to  all  pneumatic  beings. 

The  Sethiaxi  used  a  "  Pai-aphrase  of  Seth," 
whence  their  name.  Matter  is  an  ocean,  tem- 
pestuous, chaotic,  dark.  The  light  excites  the 
serpent-soul  in  matter,  which  tiien  becomes  the 
Demiurge.  The  Logos  descends  from  the  light, 
deceives  the  Demiurge  by  assuming  the  form  of 
a  serpent,  and  lifts  the  soul  up  to  the  realm  of 
light. 

The  Naaseni  (serpent-worshippers)  flourished 
in  Phrygia.  They  taught  that  the  serpent  ema- 
nates from  God,  and  is  the  soul  of  the  world. 
Christ  does  not  redeem  men  by  his  death,  but  by 
his  gnosis  and  teaching. 

The  PeraT/E,  as  their  name  signifies,  looked 
upon  themselves  as  belonging  to  another  world, 
and  as  only  in  a  state  of  transition  in  this.  They 
thrived  about  1.50 ;  for  Clement  of  Alexandria 
mentions  them.  The  .\rchon  of  matter  is  a  hylic 
demon,  and  his  companions  are  the  poisonous 
serpents  of  the  de-ert.  The  serpent,  as  the  apostle 
of  wisdom,  frees  Eve  from  the  bondage  of  the 
Archon.  To  it  belong  Cain,  Nimrod,  and,  none 
the  less,  Moses,  who  lifts  up  the  serpent  in  the 
wilderness.  Like  the  Cainites,  they  regarded 
Judas  as  the  true  apostle.  Thus  the  whole  stor\' 
of  the  Gospels  was  completely  inverted,  the  ser- 
pent being  regarded  as  the  symbol  of  intellect, 


who  first  gave  true  knowledge  to  our  first  parents, 
and  the  very  betrayer  of  Christ  declared  to  be  the 
highest  apostle. 

The  various  Gnostic  sects  described  by  Epipha^ 
nius  —  the  Phihionites,  Stratiotikes,  etc. -- 
were  distinguished  liy  a  moral  rottenness  which 
almost  staggers  belief.  On  the  one  hand,  theology 
and  apologetics  had  shown  the  vast  superiority  of 
Christianity  to  (inosticism;  on  the  other,  (jnostio 
sects,  once  with  noble  aims,  had  so  degenerated, 
that  no  doubt  was  left  that  its  time  was  past. 

[Lit.  —  Sources.  Only  one  Gnostic  work  has 
been  preserved,  the  P/.s7/s  SopJiia  of  Valentinus, 
edited  by  Petermann,  Berlin,  18.")1 ;  Tkenaeus: 
Adv.  Har.,  Libri  v.;  Hippolytus:  'E'Aeyxoi  kotH 
■naaCiv  alpiaeuv;  also  Tertullian  :  Priescrip.  adv. 
Hmr.  and  adi\  Marc:  Clem,  of  Alexandria,  in 
his  ^rpui/iaTsir -^  Origen  :  Com.  on  Gn.yi.  nf  John; 
EusEiiius:  Ch.  Hi.slori/;  Epiphanius:  Panacrion  ; 
and  Theodoret,  in  his  Fahular.  Hcer.  Compen- 
dium.—  On  the  General  Subject.  The  Church 
Histories  of  Neander,  Baur,  and  Sciiaff; 
Xeander  :  Gemet.  Enlw.  d.  Gnost..  Ttib.,  1831 ; 
Burton:  Bampton  Lectures  on  Heresies  of  Ike 
Aposl.  Aye,  Oxf.,  1830;  Mohler  :  Ursprung  d. 
Gnost.,  Tub.,  1831 ;  Baur  :  D.  clirisll.  Gnosis, 
Tiib.,  183.5;  Norton:  Hisl.  of  ike  Gnostics,  Bost., 
1845;  Moller:  Gesch.  d.  Kosmologie,  Halle,  1800; 
Lipsius;  D.  Gnoslicisj7ius,L,e\p.,  1860;  Harnack; 
Zur  Quellenkritik  d.  Gesch.  d.  Gnost.,  Leip.,  1873; 
Mansel:  Gnostic  Heresies,  Lond.,  1875.  —  Special 
AVorks.  Mosheim  :  Gesch.  d.  Schlangenhrilder, 
Helmst.,  1746  ;  Uhlhorn  :  Sy.^t.  d.  Basilidcs,  Got- 
tingen,  1855;  Hofstede  de  Groot:  Basilidcs  als 
erster  Zeuge  f.  neute.'it.  Schriften,  Ger.  trans.,  1868; 
Heinrici  :  D.  Valcnlinianische  Gnosis  u.  d.  heil 
^c/in//,  Berlin,  1871 ;  G.  Koffmane:  Die  Gnosis 
nach  ihrer  Tendenz  u.  Organisation,  Breslau,  1881 
(only  33  pp.,  but  important)].  JACOBI. 

COAR,  St.,  settled,  during  the  reign  of  Chil- 
debert  (511-558),  on  the  Rhine,  at  the  present 
village  of  St.  Goar;  built  a  chapel,  and  spent  his 
life  there,  in  spite  of  the  persecutions  of  a  certain 
Bishop  Rusticus  of  Treves,  in  ascetic  practices, 
exercising  hospitality,  and  working  many  mira- 
cles. Thus  the  legend.  But  there  never  was  a 
bishop  of  Treves  of  the  name  Rusticus,  and  the 
legend  itself  {Act.  Sanct.,  Julii,  Tom.  II.  327-346) 
cannot  well  he  older  than  the  ninth  century.  It 
probably  b.ad  a  basis  in  fact.  G.  PUTT. 

COBAT,  Samuel,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem; 
b.  at  Cremine,  Bern,  Switzerland,  Jan.  26,  1799; 
d.  at  Jerusalem,  May  11,  1879.  He  entered  the 
mission  house  at  Basel  in  1821;  in  1823  proceeded 
to  Paris  and  London,  where  he  learned  Arabic, 
^Ethiopic,  and  Amharic ;  and  in  1826  was  sent 
by  the  (English)  Church  ^Missionary  Society  to 
Abyssinia,  but,  owing  to  the  unsettled  state  of 
th.nt  countrv,  could  not  begin  operations  until 
1830,  and  left  in  1832.  He  returned  in  1834,  but 
sickness  prevented  his  working;  and  so,  in  Sep- 
tember. 1835,  he  came  back  to  Europe.  From 
1839  to  1842  he  was  in  Malta,  superintending  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  into  Arabic,  and  taking 
charge  of  the  printing-press  there.  In  1845  he 
was  appointed  vice-principal  of  the  IMalta  Prot- 
estant College,  and  in  1846  nominated,  greatly  to 
his  surprise,  by  the  king  of  Prussia  (Frederick 
Wilhelm  IV.)  to  the  see  of  Jerusalem.  He  was 
consecrated  at   Lambeth,  Sunday,  July  5,  1846 


GOGH. 


882 


GOD. 


His  work  in  tiie  Holy  City  was  very  successful 
and  vigorous.  Particularly  wortliy  of  mention  is 
the  Diocesan  School  anil  the  Orphanage  on  Blount 
Zion.  In  November,  1847,  he  began  with  nine 
children  in  the  former :  when  he  died,  there  were 
in  Palestine,  under  Ins  care,  37  schools,  with  1,400 
children.  He  also  had  under  him  twelve  native 
churches.  He  had  an  efficient  heljier  in  his  wife. 
He  wrote  A  Journal  of  Three  Yeurf  in  Ahi/xsinin, 
Lond.,  1847,  See  Samuel  Gobat :  Sein  Leben 
unit  M'erl-en,  meist nach  seinen  eiyenen  A nfzeichungen, 
Basel,  1SS4.     English  trans.,  London,  1884. 

GOCH,  Johannes,  or  properly  Johannes  Pup- 
per;  was  b.  at  Goch,  near  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  probably 
educated  in  one  of  the  establishments  of  the  Breth- 
ren of  Common  Life.  Studied  in  Paris,  and  found- 
ed the  priory  of  Thabor,  for  canonesses  of  St. 
Augustine,  in  Mechlin,  which  he  governed  himself 
till  his  death,  March,  1475.  His  life  seems  to 
have  passed  along  quietly  and  unnoticed;  but 
when  his  De  lihertate  Christiana  was  published  in 
1521,  by  Coru-Grapheus,  it  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  its  author  was  recognized  as  one  of  the 
true  predecessors  of  the  Reformation.  See  Ull- 
MAX.v :  Die  Refonnatoren  vor  der  Reformation,  I. 
p.  168. 

COD.  I.  X.\ME  AND  Gkneral  Idea.  —  Al- 
though the  existence  of  God  is  the  most  certain 
of  all  facts  for  Christians  and  religious  people 
generally,  and  although  all  moral  and  religious 
life  depends  upon  him  for  its  motives  and  aims, 
yet  Christian  theologians  of  every  period  have 
agreed  that  it  is  impossible  to  give  an  exhaustive 
definition  of  his  being.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  (jod  neither  stands  in  a  i-elation  such  as 
exists  between  genus  and  species,  nor  can  be 
included  in  a  class  with  other  persons  under  a 
single  genus.  Yet  all  systems  of  religion  have 
had  positive  notions  of  the  Deity.  Common  to 
all  has  been  the  idea  that  he  is  a  being  superior 
to  man  and  nature,  and  controls,  to  some  extent, 
man's  destiny.  His  will,  which  is  regarded  in  the 
lowest  religions  as  despotic  and  arliitrary,  is  de- 
fined in  the  higher  religions  as  almighty,  origi- 
nating and  controlling  all  things.  Speculative 
thought  takes  a  step  liigher  when  it  represents 
this  will,  upon  which  all  depends,  as  uncoiulitioned 
by  any  thing  outside  of  itself,  and  eternal.  But 
it  remains  for  the  Christian  revelation  to  add  the 
most  important  feature;  namely,  that  (Jod  is  a 
moral  being,  ab.solutely  good,  and  guiding  the 
world  to  a  perfect  consummation.  Of  tlie  two 
names  for  God  which  the  Hebrews  h.ad  in  com- 
mon with  other  Shemitic  peoples,  Et  expresses  the 
notion  of  power,  and  Etohiin  represents  him  as  an 
object  of  awe  ami  dread.  But  neither  contains 
any  allusion  to  (jod's  redeeming  love.  Our  God 
is  not  connected  etymologically  with  (jond  (Max 
Miiller,  2d  series,  p.  148),  l)ut  is  ]>robably  derived 
from  the  Sanscrit  y«(  or  dijul,  (lothic,  r/ulhn,  mean- 
ing to  sliinc.  The  .same  word  is  tlie  root  of  the 
Latin  Deivi  and  the  Greek  Zewf. 

n.  Goii  IN  THE  Scitii'TUKES. — Characteris- 
tic of  the  Old-Testament  revelation  of  God  is 
the  moral  relation  he  sustains  to  the  world.  The 
Old  Testament  does  not  give  theoretical  defini- 
tions of  the  Divine  Being,  or  arguments  for  his 
existence,  but  a-ssumes  the  belief  in  him.  The 
religious  reverence  and  fear  which  are  becoming 


in  our  relations  to  him  are  based  upon  his  moral 
elevation,  his  absolute  holiness,  which  cannot 
tolerate  sin.  Jehovah,  the  name  which  indicates 
God's  covenant  relation  to  Israel,  designates  the 
inmiutability  and  absoluteness  of  his  being.  God  is 
a  personal  spirit,  not  a  force  of  nature.  He  is  sepa- 
rate from  the  world  ;  yet  his  spirit  is  the  creating 
and  moving  principle  of  all  life  (Ps.  Civ.  29  sqq., 
etc.).  and  particularly  of  man's  life  (Gen.  ii.  7  ; 
Job  xsxiii.  4,  etc  ).  The  earth  is  a  monument 
revealing  his  glory  (Xum.  siv.  21,  etc.).  The 
plural  form  of  the  divine  name  Elohim  points  to 
his  infinite  fulness  of  life.  Although  the  holiness 
of  Ciod  is  the  predominant  conception  of  the  Old 
Testament,  the  thought  of  divine  love  and  grace 
is  not  wanting.  God  in  mercy  chooses  Israel 
to  be  his  people,  and  desires  to  be  called  Father 
(Exod.  iv.  22  sq.;  Dent,  xxxii.  6:  Isa.  Ixiii.  16: 
Hos.  xi.  1).  He  effaces  guilt,  purifies  the  heart, 
and  imparts  his  spirit  (Ezek.  xxxvi.  22  sqq.,  etc.). 
It  is  this  ethical  and  religious  conception  of  God, 
and  not  the  divine  unity,  or  i\Ionotheism,  which  is 
the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Old-Testament 
revelation. 

The  New  Testament  is  characterized  by  the 
presentation  of  God  as  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  of  those  who  belong  to  his  kingdom.  The 
relation  is  now  strictly  a  personal  one,  the  Old 
Testament  representing  God  as  the  Father  of  a 
people.  We  are  made  God's  children  by  a  new 
birth  (John  i.  12;  1  John  iii.  9).  Thus,  having 
become  partakers  of  the  divine  nature  (2  Pet,  i.  4i. 
we  shall  at  last  be  filled  with  "  all  the  fulness  of 
God  "  (Eph.  iii.  19).  God  himself  lives  and  works 
in  them  (Eph.  iv.  6).  He  is  in  a  peculiar  .sense 
the  Father  of  Christ,  who  was  begotten  before  the 
worlds  (John  i,  1  sqq.),  and  possesses  the  divine 
fulness  (Col,  ii.  9).  In  the  name  Fullier  the  princi- 
pile  of  love  is  contained.  "God  is  love"  (1  John  iv. 
8),  and  this  love  controls  his  use  of  all  the  other 
attributes.  It  leads  God  to  feveal  himself  in  the 
gift  of  his  Son  (1  John  iv.  10.  etc.),  and  to  take 
men  into  coiiununion  with  himself.  (!od  is  also 
light  or  holine.ss  (1  -lohn  i.  5)  and  spirit  (John 
iv.  "24),  and  h.as  eternal  life  (Hev.  i.  4,  8).  Man 
derives  from  God's  works  the  knowledge  of  his 
invisible  being  and  power  (Rom.  i.  20).  As  the 
(jod  of  love  and  light,  he  is  revealed  to  us  through 
Moses  and  tlie  Prophets,  and  perfectly  in  the  per- 
son of  his  own  Son  (John  i.  18,  xiv.  !)).  This 
knowledge  which  tlie  believer  has  of  (iod  depends 
upon  God's  own  special  agency  through  the  Spirit 
(Matt.  xvi.  17;  John  vi.  44,  etc.).  Our  present 
knowledge,  however,  is  imperfect.  "  ^Ve  see 
through  a  glass  darkly"  (1  Cor.  xiii.  12;  2  Cor. 
V.  7,  etc.).  But  in  Christ,  who  is  his  image  (2  Cor. 
iv.  4),  we  see  Gotl's  dearest  purpose  revealed,  and 
from  liini  derive  all  the  knowledge  necessary  for 
salration  and  for  consummate  communion  with 
God. 

III.  Goi>  IN  Chuistian  Theology.  —  Theolo- 
gy cannot  be  entirely  divorced  from  philosophy. 
And,  fixed  as  the  notion  of  (>od  is  which  the 
Scriptures  present,  it  was  proper,  as  well  as  un- 
avoidable, that  it  should  be  subjected  to  the  scru- 
tiny of  reason.  In  its  infiuicy  Christian  theology 
came  in  contact  with  tlii^  products  of  Greek  phi- 
loso[ihy,  and  was  influenced  by  the  definitions  of 
Plato,  the  Neo-1'latonists,  and  of  Philo,  who  him- 
self owed  much,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  Plato. 


GOD. 


883 


GOD. 


The  general  influence  of  these  fx/ca-Christian 
forces  was  in  the  direction  of  a  negative  and 
abstract  conception  of  the  Deity.  In  Gnosticism 
this  abstractly  conceived  God  is  transformed  into 
the  dark  background,  which,  according  to  Valenti- 
iius,  is  the  fir.st  beginning  and  cause  of  all  things, 
and  has  Silence  ("lyr/)  (or  a  consort.  (See  Gnos- 
ticism.) Within  the  Church,  Justin  Martyr  and 
the  apologetical  writers  who  followed  him,  and 
especially  the  Alexandrine  school,  emphasised 
with  Plato  God's  transcendence  above  nature; 
although  the  .Scriptures  always  affirm,  at  the  side 
of  this,  that  he  is  a  personal,  holy,  and  loving 
Spirit.  The  more  the  influence  of  philosopliy 
was  felt,  the  more  prominently  did  Cliristian 
theologians  urge  the  negative  and  abstract  ele- 
ment in  God's  nature.  t)rigen  defined  him  as 
simple  being,  without  predicates,  exalted  above 
mind  and  matter,  yet  nevertheless  as  the  Father, 
who  eternally  begets  the  Logos,  and  reveals  him- 
self through  him.  In  contrast  to  this  tendency 
was  the  anthropomorphic  representation  prevalent 
among  the  mass  of  Christians,  which  found  its 
extreme  expression  in  TertuUian,  who  associated 
a  body  with  God.  In  this  direction  mention 
must  be  made  of  Dionysius  Areopagita,  whose 
theology  was  essentially  Neo-Platonic.  He  taught 
that  God's  nature  is  absolutely  indefinalile,  but 
at  the  same  time  speaks  of  a  uiuon  with  God 
which  is  nothing  more  than  an  ecstatic  rapture, 
by  which  we  become  lost  in  the  mystery  of  the 
Deity.  The  Areopagite's  writings  exerted  an 
extensive  influence  upon  the  mysticism  of  after- 
periods  in  church  l.istory.  Augustine  was  the 
first  in  the  Western  C'hurch  to  concern  himself 
with  the  scientific  investigation  of  the  divine 
nature.  He  laid  stress,  first  of  all,  upon  the  self- 
conscious  personality  of  God;  but  Platonic  influ- 
ence is  evident  in  his  further  prosecution  of  the 
subject,  when  he  defines  God  as  the  unity  of  all 
abstract  perfections,  as  an  -absolutely  simple 
essence,  in  which  knowledge,  volition,  being,  and 
all  attributes,  are  one  and  the  same. 

The  writings  of  Dionysius  were  given  to  the 
Western  C'hurch  in  tlie  translation  of  Scotus 
Erigena.  True  being,  says  the  latter,  belongs 
only  to  God  ;  so  that  whatever  in  finite  things 
truly  exists  is  nought  else  than  God  himself. 
This  is  Pantheism,  from  the  charge  of  whicli  he 
rescues  himself  by  illogically  teaching  the  doc- 
trines of  Creation  and  the  Trinity.  Scholasticism 
was  under  the  immediate  influence  of  Augustine, 
in  its  definition  of  God.  Realism,  if  pressed, 
would  have  forced  it  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
Infinite  only  exists  as  it  is  found  in  the  finite. 
But  from  this  it  held  back.  Thomas  Aquinas 
and  Albertus  Magnus  said  God  was  not  the  es- 
sence of  finite  things,  but  their  final  cause  and 
original  moving  principle.  On  the  other  hand. 
Duns  Scotus  insists  that  from  the  beginning  God 
had  will,  and  exercised  volition ;  but  this  will 
was  essentially  absolute  and  arbitrary.  Occam 
strongly  emphasized  this  point;  whence,  from 
Abelard  on,  those  protracted  ,and  subtle  discus- 
sions whether  any  thing  was  impossible  for  him. 
In  the  fourteenth  century,  Eckhart,  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  my.sticism,  finds  the  aim  of  life  to 
be  to  lose  one's  self  in  God.  His  views  were  ex- 
tensively adopted  in  pious  circles ;  but  panthe- 
istic heretics,  the  so-called  Brothers  of  the  Free 


Spirit,  taught  that  God  was  every  thing,  and 
man  was  God,  and  deduced  an  immoral  Antino- 
mianism  from  the  doctrine.  The  popular  mind, 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  demanded  mediators  and  in- 
tercessors in  its  approach  to  God ;  so  that  Luther 
afterwards  complained  that  he  was  no  longer  re- 
garded as  a  being  full  of  love  and  compassion, 
but  as  a  stern  governor. 

Avoiding  the  metaphysical  subtleties  of  scho- 
lasticism, the  Reformers  emphasized  the  proposi- 
tion that  God  is  the  God  of  redenjption,  who 
threatens  the  sinner  with  the  curse  and  death, 
but  subordinates  every  thing  to  his  purpose  of 
saving  the  lost.  The  dogmatic  divergencies  of 
the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  confessions  point 
back  to  different  conceptions  of  (iod's  nature. 
The  latter  emphasized  more  strongly  God's  .sov- 
ereignty, and  the  eternal  decree  by  which  he 
rejects  a  portion  of  the  race.  Against  this  the 
Lutheran  theology  guards.  However,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  Luther,  in  his  earlier  writings, 
predicates  the  same  decree  of  God,  and  that  he 
never  subsequently,  in  a  systematic  way.  contra- 
dicted this  position.  The'theology  of  the  next 
period  enumerated  the  divine  attributes  under 
the  heads  "  natural  "  and  "  moral."  and  attirmed, 
that,  though  our  knowledge  of  God  cannot  be 
exhaustive,  it  is  real,  and  suflicient  for  salvation. 
Socinianism  presented  God  in  the  aspect  of  a 
Ruler  endowed  with  consummate  power  and  jus- 
tice, whose  knowledge  of  the  future,  however,  is 
conditioned  by  the  free  will  of  man,  which  acts 
independently  of  him. 

At  the  side  of  the  traditional  doctrine  of  the 
Church,  philosophy  now  began  to  work  out  inde- 
pendent metaphysical  systems.  Spinoza's  pan- 
theism was  condemned  by  theologians  as  palpably 
unchristian,  yea,  godless.  But  the  philosophy 
of  Leibnitz  and  Wolff  enjoyed  wide  favor.  It 
treated  at  length  the  arguments  for  God's  exist- 
ence, and  defined  God  as  the  "  most  perfect 
Being."  Kant's  criticism  shook  to  the  very  foun- 
dation the  great  arguments  heretofore  employed 
for  God's  existence,  but  replaced  them  by  the 
moral  argument,  based  upon  the  intuitive  facts 
of  the  conscience  and  the  moral  law.  Fichte 
gets  no  farther  than  a  moral  order  in  the  universe; 
and  the  speculations  of  Schelling  and  Hegel  sub- 
stitute for  God  the  idea  of  the  Ahxoluie,  from 
which  all  the  forms  of  thought  aiui  matter  are 
derived.  The  descent  from  this  proud  Idealism 
to  a  bleak  Materialism  was  startlingiy  rapid. 

A  new  period  begins  with  Schleiermacher,  who 
built  up  his  system  of  theology  upon  the  facts 
of  Christian  experience,  instead  of  metaphysical 
speculation.  The  theologians  who  agreed  with 
him  on  this  point  sought  to  confirm  the  definition 
of  God  from  Scripture,  and  contended  against  the 
pantheistic  conception  and  for  the  divine  personal- 
ity ;  e.g.,  .1.  Muller  and  Rothe.  Philosophers  like 
J.  H.  Fichte,  K.  Ph.  Fischer,  Chalybaeus,  Ulrici, 
and  Lotze.  have  likewise  stood  forth  as  champions 
of  God's  personality.  On  the  other  hand,  Bieder- 
mann  still  insists  that  God  is  an  ab.solute  spirit- 
ual but  an  impersonal  essence  ;  and  Strauss  in 
his  last  period  took  the  final  step  over  to  material- 
ism. In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  theology 
must  always  be  ready  to  confess  the  imperfection 
of  its  definition  of  God.  But  this  can  never 
justify  that  school  of  thought  which  turns  the 


GOD. 


R&4 


GOD. 


living  God  into  an  abstraction,  called  the  Abso- 
lute, which  neither  explains  any  thing,  nor  is 
itself  intelligible. 

[See  the  Histories  of  Christian  Doctrine  of 
Baur,  Hagenbach,  and  Shedd;  Gillett  :  God 
in  Human  Thought,  New  York,  1874,  2  vols.  ; 
also  the  works  on  Systematic  Theology,  by  Hodge 
(vol.  i.),  Van  Oosterzee,  and  Dorner  (§§  15-27), 
and  the  excellent  art.  God,  in  Johnson's  Cyclo- 
paedia, by  Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge.  —  On  the  Cognosci- 
bility  of  God.  Ritter  :  Ueber  d.  Erk-ennliiiss 
Gotlesind.  TlVf,  Hamb.,  1836;  Sengler  :  D.  Idee 
Goltes,  Heidelberg,  1845-52,  2  vols. ;  Mansel  : 
Limits  of  Religious  Thought,  London,  1858;  Cal- 
DERWOOD  :  Philosophy  of  the  Infinite  ;  M'CosH  : 
The  Supernatural  in  relation  to  the  Natural,  New 
York,  1862]..  KOSTLiN. 

GOD.  I.  Arguments  for  the  Existence  of 
God.  —  The  statement  of  .St.  Paul,  that  the  "world 
by  wisdom  knew  not  God  "  (1  Cor.  i.  21),  is  strictly 
true  in  the  light  of  the  history  of  religious  sys- 
tems. No  heathen  religion  ever  embodied  the 
true  conception  of  God  :  some  of  them  had  the 
most  monstrous  conceptions  of  him.  The  high- 
est achievements  of  the  best  human  systems  of 
philosophy,  such  as  Plato'.*,  need  to  be  supple- 
mented by  revelation.  For  Christians,  sufficient 
proofs  of  the  divine  existence  will  always  be  the 
per.son,  words,  and  works  of  Christ.  .So-called 
rational  arguments  have  by  some  been  considered 
impossible,  on  the  ground  that  God  is  incompre- 
hensible to  rational  thought  (Jacobi).  Others, 
from  Arnobius  down  to  Watson,  the  celebrated 
Methodist  theologian  (Theol.  Iiislitutes),  have  re- 
garded them  as  either  improper  or  sujierfluous. 
While  they  are  in  no  wise  essential  to  Christian 
piety,  yet  they  have  their  place  as  attempts  to 
show  the  accord  of  reason  and  revelation,  and  as 
a  demonstration  of  the  inadequacy  of  the  former 
as  compared  with  revelation.  Before  Kant  sent 
forth  his  disparaging  criticism,  philosophy  and 
theology  dwelt  extensively  on  the  arguments : 
since  that  time,  they  have  met  with  a  varying 
fate.  Schleierinacher's  exaMi]ile  in  excluding 
them  from  his  system  of  theology  has  been  fol- 
lowed by  not  a  few  theologians  (Thomasius, 
Philippi,  etc.). 

The  arguments  may  he  grouped  in  two  classes, 
—  those  derived  from  a  contemplation  of  our- 
selves, or  the  ontological  and  moral  arguments ; 
and  those  deprived  from  a  contemplation  of  the 
universe,  or  the  cosmological  and  teleological 
arguments. 

1.  The  Ontological  Argument.  —  This  proof 
argues  from  tlie  pure  intellectual  idea  of  (5od 
up  to  tlie  reality  of  his  existence.  The  first  to 
give  definite  form  to  it  was  .Vnselm.  He  reasons 
a.s  follows:  There  is  .Something  than  which  notli- 
ing  greater  can  be  conceived.  Kven  the  fool  who 
says,  "  There  is  no  God,"  lias  this  iilca;  for  lie 
understands  what  is  meant  when  he  hears  tlie 
proposition.  Hut  this  ".Something,"  etc.,  must 
exi.st  in  reality  {in-re),  as  well  as  in  the  intelh'ct 
(m  conceptu)  ;  for,  if  it  exist  only  in  the  intel- 
lect, then  something  greater  than  it  could  be  con- 
ceived, viz.,  that  "  .Something  "  having  objective 
existence ;  wiiicii  is  contradictory.  Tlierefore 
that  "  Something,"  etc.,  exists  in  reality,  as  well 
as  in  the  intellect.  Clean  as  this  argumentation 
seems  to  be,  it  is  not  free  from  serious   ogical 


error.  It  may  be  fairly  questioned  whether  the 
first  statement  does  not  itself  posit  as  having 
objective  existence  what  it  sets  out  to  prove  to 
exist.  However,  leaving  this  aside,  the  great 
objection  lies  in  comparing  that  which  has  ob- 
jective existence  with  a  conception  considered  as 
having  mere  subjective  existence,  and  declaring 
the  former  to  be  greater  than  the  latter.  A  thing 
in  real  existence  is  exactly  equal  to  its  correspond- 
ent conception  in  the  mind,  neither  less  nor  greater 
than  it.  A  number  written  out  on  the  slate  is 
just  equal  to,  and  not  greater  than,  the  conception 
of  that  number.  Not  a  single  quality  is  added 
to  the  "  .Something,"  etc.,  as  an  objective  reality, 
which  it  does  not  have  as  an  idea.  Kant  was  the 
first  to  apply  this  criticism.  "  Objective  exist- 
ence," he  said,  "is  not  a  real  predicate." 

Descartes  restated  the  argument :  We  have  the 
conception  of  a  most  perfect  Being.  He  must 
be  an  existent  Being,  he  proceeded  to  argue,  or 
we  should  have  a  most  perfect  Being  imperfect. 
Leibnitz  added  a  new  element.  It  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  something  should  exist  whose  ex- 
istence inheres  in  its  very  essence.  God  is  such 
a  being;  and  such  a  being,  if  at  all  possible,  ex- 
ists. Wolff  in  Germany,  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  in 
England,  and  other.s,  have  made  able  and  elabo- 
rate statements  of  the  argument.  Dr.  Clarke's 
argument  starts  with  the  proposition  that  some- 
thing has  existed  from  eternity,  wliicli,  he  says, 
"  is  so  evident  and  undeniable,  tliat  no  atheist  in 
any  age  has  ever  presumed  to  assert  the  con- 
trary." The  ontological  argument  will  always 
have  a  fascination  for  th«  mind.  It  does  not 
prove  God's  existence ;  but,  to  use  the  language  of 
Professor  Flint  (Theism,  p.  285),  it  "has  at  least 
succeeded  in  showing,  that  unless  there  exists  an 
eternal,  infinite,  and  unconditioned  Being,  tlie 
human  mind  is  in  its  ultimate  principles  self- 
contradictory  and  delusive." 

2.  The  Cosmoldgicat  Argument.  —  This  proof 
starts  from  the  secpiences  or  effects  in  the  uni- 
verse. Aristotle  among  the  ancients,  and  Thomas 
.\quinas  and  Leibnitz  among  Christian  philo-so- 
phers,  have  been  its  ablest  exponents.  Dr.  Sam- 
uel Clarke,  Kant,  and  others  have  denied  its 
validity.  Aquinas'  argument  was  threefold.  He 
argued  back  from  motion  to  a  first  jMover,  him- 
self unmoved  ;  from  effects  to  a  suflicient  Cause ; 
and  from  tluit  which  is  only  possible,  and  may 
cease  to  be,  to  a  Being  who  exists  necessarily.  The 
validity  of  this  argument  hinges  upon  the  answer 
to  the  question  whether  an  endless  retrogression 
of  causes  and  effects  is  conceivable  (ri:grcssus  in 
infinitum).  If  the  answer  is,  that  it  is  impossible 
for  the  mind  to  conceive  such  a  retrogression, 
then  it  follows  necessarily  that  tliere  exists  an 
Absolute  Essence,  uncreated  and  eternal.  But  it 
may,  according  to  Kant,  with  ecjual  probability 
be  asserted  (on  the  basis  of  our  experience),  that 
such  a  retrogression  is  conceivable,  and  involves 
notliing  contradictory  to  liuman  experience.  We 
know  that  every  consequence  has  its  antecedent, 
and  every  jihenomenon  its  sufficient  cause,  so  far 
as  a  jihenomenon  involves  the  idea  of  change. 
But  the  world  itself  may  be  regarded  as  an 
eternally  existent  es.sence,  containing  inlierent  in 
itself  the  germinating  an<l  begetting  energ>'  to 
wliich  all  phenomena  are  to  be  traced.  The 
theory  of  evolution  makes  this  no  more  probable 


GOD. 


885 


GOD. 


(as  some  have  ventured  hastily  to  assert),  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  no  less  so.  The  world  itself,  then, 
with  its  germinating  energy,  is  that  absolute  es- 
sence. The  argument,  then,  by  itself  seems  to  be 
inconclusive. 

3.  The  Teleological  Argument.  —  This  proof  is 
the  oldest  of  the  arguments.  In  modern  times 
Paley  and  the  Bridgewater  Treatises  have  ably 
stated  and  illustrated  it.  It  finds  order  and  ar- 
rangement in  the  universe,  and  the  adaptation  of 
means  to  ends.  From  these  facts  it  draws  the 
conclusion  of  a  wise  Intelligence  as  their  only 
explanation.  The  "reign  of  law"  (Duke  of 
Argyle)  has  been  abundantly  illustrated  and 
insisted  upon  ;  the  marvellous  order  which  reigns 
in  the  sidereal  heavens,  the  wonderful  adapta- 
tion of  the  members  of  the  human  body,  as  the 
eye  and  the  hand,  for  the  needs  of  man,  the 
adaptation  of  the  lower  creation  to  supply  his 
wftnts  have  been  dwelt  upon  at  length,  and  used 
to  establish  the  conclusion  that  they  betray  Intel- 
ligent Design.  This  is  known  as  the  "physico- 
teleological,"  in  opposition  to  the  "  historico- 
leleological"  argument,  which  concerns  itself  with 
the  facts  and  development  of  human  history. 
Objections  have  been  urged  against  the  argu- 
ment from  design  on  two  grounds:  (1)  That  what  is 
called  design  may  as  justly  be  called  haphazard 
nature  (the  exact  adjustment,  for  example,  of  the 
parts  of  the  eye  to  vision,  is  indisputable  ;  but  this 
adjustment  is  conceivable  as  the  blind  combina- 
tion of  nature)  ;  (2)  A  broad  class  of  facts  is 
•overlooked  by  the  argument,  and  proves  with 
■equal  force  the  ivant  of  design.  Blights,  famines, 
<iiseases,  prevail,  which  interrupt  the  order  of  the 
universe,  and  interfere  with  the  physical  and 
mental  happiness  of  man,  and  the  life  of  other 
creatures.  The  world  has  malformations  and 
monstrosities.  Men  are  even  born  into  the  world 
crippled,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  reach  physical 
happiness.  This  class  of  objections  has  been 
ably  stated  by  Mr.  Mill,  in  his  Three  Essays  on 
Theism.  These  objections  may  not  be  lightly 
set  aside.  It  may  be  urged,  in  refutation  of  them, 
that  there  is  an  outlying  purpose  which  even  these 
exceptions  must  serve ;  that  these  inconsistencies 
and  discordances  are  apparent,  and  not  real.  But 
this  is  a  mere  assumption,  which  no  one  can  prove 
without  Revelation.  On  the  other  hand,  if  it  be 
granted  that  there  is  &  preponderance  of  design  or 
adaptation  in  the  universe,  this  would  fall  short 
of  proving  that  the  world  is  the  product  of  an 
omnipotent  and  intelligent  Mind.  Kant,  who  re- 
jects the  teleological  argument,  has  well  urged 
that  at  best  it  would  bring  us  to  an  Architect  of 
the  world,  not  to  a  Creator.  Even  if  it  be  agreed 
that  the  teleological  argument  does  not  establish 
the  certainty  of  a  supreme  creative  Intelligence, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  illustrations  of  design 
will  always  be  powerful  aids  to  faith  for  those 
already  religiously  disposed.  The  Scriptures  fre- 
quently use  them.  "  He  that  planted  the  ear,  shall 
he  not  hear?  he  that  formed  the  eye,  shall  he 
not  see?"  (Ps.  xciv.  9,  etc.). 

4.  The  Moral  Argument. — -This  proof  starts 
from  the  facts  of  man's  moral  and  spiritual  nature. 
Kant,  Sir  William  Hamilton,  and  others  who 
reject  the  other  arguments,  grant  the  force  of 
this  one.  It  has  been  stated  in  different  forms. 
(1)  God  is  a   necessary  postulate  of   our  whole 


spiritual  nature.  The  idea  of  God  seems  to  be 
germane  to  the  race.  From  Cicero  down,  stress 
has  been  justly  laid  on  the  prevalency  among  all 
nations  of  a  belief  in  a  superior  being.  Again: 
without  God  our  spiritual  natures  remain  unsatis- 
fied. The  personal  .sense  of  dependence  which 
expresses  itself  in  prayer  is  universal.  Worldli- 
ness  and  education  may  lead  men  to  overcome  or 
ignore  it;  but  the  natural  impulse  comes  out  in 
its  power,  when,  in  times  of  .shipwreck  or  other 
peril,  man  cries  aloud  for  help,  and,  be  it  ob- 
served, not  to  the  forces  of  nature,  but  to  a 
supreme  Will  who  exi.sts  behind  them.  (2)  The 
existence  of  the  moral  law  within  us  can  oidy  be 
explained  on  the  supposition  of  a  Lawgiver. 
The  sense  of  right  and  wrong  is  universal. 
Conscience  declares  them  radically  antagonistic 
and  irreconcilable :  it  .speaks  in  defiance  of  the 
will,  even  when  that  is  set  against  hearing  it, 
and  determined  to  disobey  it ;  and  it  commands 
and  threatens  with  authority.  Its  word  is  ought, 
which  Kant  calls  the  categorical  imperative.  (3) 
Merit  and  happiness  do  not  always  go  together 
in  this  world.  Our  sense  of  right  demands  that 
this  should  be  the  case,  and  forces  us  to  believe 
in  a  just  God,  who  in  another  world  will  rectify 
the  inequalities  of  this. 

The  objections  urged  against  the  moral  argu- 
ment are  two.  The  first  asserts  that  conscience  is 
a  product  of  education.  History  proves  the  very 
opposite,  —  that  the  degeneracy  of  conscience  is 
due  to  an  indurating  process,  which  Paul  com- 
pares to  searing  with  a  hot  iron  (1  Tim.  iv.  2). 
The  second  objection  denies  the  assumption  of  a 
spiritual  nature. 

The  general  conclusions  from  a  discussion  of 
the  arguments  for  God's  existence  are  two.  (1) 
That  the  mind  of  man  is  a  hopeless  enigma,  and 
full  of  intuitive  delusions ;  and  that  the  universe 
is  a  cavernous  mystery,  if  God  do  not  exist.  The 
beliefs  of  the  great  mass  of  mankind,  as  well 
as  the  confident  assertion  of  the  best  philosophies, 
have  alike  been  groundless,  and  the  most  enno- 
bling counsels  and  the  finest  moral  achievements 
been  built  upon  a  falsehood,  unless  he  rule  and 
govern.  The  human  intellect  shrinks  from  these 
awful  inferences,  and  is  forced,  in  spite  of  the 
apparent  contradictions,  to  bow  with  Revelation 
before  an  omnipotent  Governor  of  the  univer.se. 
(2)  The  second  thought  is,  that,  although  none 
of  these  arguments  (except  the  moral  argument) 
is  by  itself  valid  and  convincing,  each  one  con- 
tains elements,  the  combination  of  which  makes 
the  divine  existence  very  probable,  if  not  neces- 
sary for  the  mind.  Professor  Dinian  (Tkeistic 
Argument,  p.  247)  has  put  the  case  well  in  the 
following  language :  "  The  argument  for  the 
divine  existence  is  complex  and  correlative.  Not 
from  one,  but  from  many  sources  is  the  evidence 
derived ;  and  its  force  lies  in  the  whole,  not  in 
any  of  its  parts." 

Lit.  Sources.  —  S.\int  Anselm  {Monologiun 
and  Proslogium),  Thomas  Aquinas,  Descartei 
{Meditationes),  Leibnitz,  Samuel  Clarke  {A 
Discourse  concerning  the  Being  and  Attributes  oj 
God,  London,  1704),  Kant  {Kritik  d.  praktischen 
Vernunft),  etc.  On  the  AVhole  Subject.  —  Ty3ZK.\  : 
Gesch.  d.  Beweise  fUr  d.  Dasein  Gottes  bis  zum 
listen  Jahrhundert,  1875:  Krebs  :  Gesch.  d.  Beweise 
fur  d.  Dasein  Gottes  von  Cartesitis  bis  Kant,  1876 ; 


GOD. 


886 


GODFREY  OP  BOUILLON. 


Ulrici  :  Goll.  u.  d.  Naiur,  3d  ed.,  Leipzig,  1875; 
KbsTLiN :  Stud.  u.  Kritik.,  1875,  1876  (two  ad- 
mirable articles)  :  Flint  :  Theism,  Ediiib.,  1877 
(a  very  fresh  and  stimulating  discussion)  ;  Pro- 
fessor Dim  AX :  The  Theistic  Argutnent,  15oston, 
1881.  On  the  Ontological  Argument.  —  Fischer  ; 
D.  ontol.  Bcweis,  etc.,  1852 ;  Huber  :  Descartes. 
Beii-eise,  etc.,  1854;  G.  Runze  :  Der  ontol.  Gott- 
heireis.  Krit.  Darstellung  s.  Gesch.  seit  Anselm  his 
auf.  d.  Gegemmrt,  Halle,  1876.  On  the  Cosmo- 
logical  and  Teleological  Arguments.  —  B.\rrows: 
Sermons  (vi.-ix.)  on  the  Creed  (enriched  with 
valuable  quotations)  ;  P.\ley  :  Natural  Theology, 
Lend.,  1802  (the  best  work  on  the  subject) ; 
Bridgewater  Treatises  on  the  Power,  Wisdom,  and 
Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested  in  the  Creation,  12 
vols.,  London,  1834,  especially  the  volumes  by 
AViiEWELL  (on  Astronomy)  and  Bell  (on  the 
Hand).  Duke  of  Argyle:  Reign  of  Law,  1st 
ed.,  1866;  J.  S.  Mill:  Three  Essays,  Nature,  the 
Utility  of  Religion,  and  Theism,  London,  1874. 

II.  Attributes.  —  The  attributes  or  proper- 
ties of  God  are  the  modes  in  which  we  conceive 
of  his  nature.  The  distinction  aids  our  finite 
minds  in  their  attempts  to  understand  God.  But 
the  attributes  do  not  exist  apart  and  separate 
from  one  another.  Each  is  in  itself  the  being  of 
God,  and  identical  with  it.  Three  methods, 
mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite,  may  be  pursued  to  rise  to  a  determi- 
nation of  the  attributes;  viz.,  denying  to  God  all 
human  imperfections  {via  negationl-i),  affirming  of 
him  all  proper  human  qualities  in  their  consum- 
mate perfection  {ria  eminentice),  attributing  to 
him  all  properties  logically  belonging  to  a  First 
Cause  {via  causalitalis).  Various  classifications  of 
the  attributes  have  been  made  into  positive  and 
negative,  natural  and  moral,  absolute  and  rela- 
tive, immanent  and  emanant,  etc.  An  excellent 
summary  is  found  in  the  defiintion  of  God  in  the 
Westminster  Shorter  Catechism :  "  God  is  a  Spirit, 
infinite,  eternal,  and  unchangeable  in  his  being, 
wisdom,  power,  holine.ss,  justice,  goodness,  and 
truth."  They  maj'  be  enumerated  here  as  fol- 
lows :  — 

1.  Aseity.  God  has  life  in  himself,  under! ved 
and  inexhaustible  (John  v.  26).  2.  Invisibility. 
God  is  Spirit  (John  iv.  21).  No  man  hath  seen 
God  (John  i.  18).  His  nature  is  immaterial. 
3.  Eternity,  or  God's  infinity  with  regard  to  dura- 
tion. He  always  has  been,  always  will  be  (Ps. 
xc.  2;  1  Tim.  i.  17,  etc.).  4.  ImmulahUily.  He 
changes  not,  in  his  nature  (it  does  not  grow  or 
decrea.se),  or  in  his  purpose  (Mai.  iii.  6 ;  Jas.  i. 
17).  5.  Omnipresence.  God  is  everywhere,  —  in 
heaven  in  a  special  manner,  in  hell,  on  earth,  in 
the  heart  of  the  believer  (Ps.  cxxxix.  7 ;  Isa.  Ivii. 
1.5,  etc.).  6.  Omniscience.  God  is  cognizant  of 
all  things.  This  knowledge  is  accurate  and 
prescient  (Matt.  vi.  32).  7.  IVi.«/om.  (Joil  real- 
izes the  be.st  designs  by  the  >ise  of  the  best  means 
(Rom.  xi.  33).  It  is  maniffst  in  the  kingilonis 
of  nature  and  grace.  8.  Omnipoli  nee.  (iod  luis 
infinite  power,  and  governs  all  tilings  iiciording 
to  his  will.  Ho  cannot  deny  himself  by  acting 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  his  own  being.  But  in 
the  truest  sense  nothing  is  impossible  to  God 
(Ph.  xcv.  3;  Matt.  xix.  26).  9.  Holiness.  God 
is  absolute  and  stainless  mora!  purity.  Not  oidy 
is  sinning  to  him  impcssible,  but  also  the  tolera- 


tion of  sin  (Deut.  xxxii.  4 ;  Hab.  i.  13 ;  1  John 
i.  5).  For  this  reason,  God  is  absolutely  reliable. 
10.  Justice.  God  demands  of  his  creatures  right- 
eous action,  and  deals  righteously  toward  them, 
according  to  the  canons  which  he  has  laid  down 
for  the  race.  It  is  legislative,  as  implanting  a 
moral  nature  and  law,  and  judiciid,  as  punishing 
the  wicked  (Rom.  i.  32),  and  rewarding  the  good 
(Rom.  ii.  7).  11.  Lore  (1  John  iv.  8).  This  is 
God's  chiefest  attribute,  all  the  others  being  exer- 
cised in  accordance  with  its  dictates.  It  mani- 
fests itself  as  goodness  towards  all  creation  (Jas. 
i.  17),  unmerited  grace  toward  the  sinner  (Rom. 
iii.  24),  mercy  toward  the  suffering  (2  Cor.  i.  3), 
and  long-suff'erinq  toward  those  who  resist  the  calls 
of  the  Spirit  (Rom.  ii.  4).  12.  Faithfulness.  God 
is  absolutelv  reliable.  His  words  and  promises 
will  not  fail' (Num.  xxiii.  19;  Tit.  i.  2). 

Lit.  —  Bates:  Harmony  of  the  Divine  Attri- 
butes, Works,  Lond.,  1815,  4  vols. ;  Charnock  : 
Discourses  upon  the  Existence  and  Attributes  of 
God,  best  edition,  Edinburgh,  1864,  5  vols.,  and 
many  times  since;  Samuel  Clarke:  A  Discourse 
concerning  the  Being  and  Attributes  of  God,  Lon- 
don, 1704  ;  the  various  Sy.':tems  of  Theology,  espe- 
cially those  of  Hodge,  Van  Oosterzee,  and 
Dorner.  See  arts.  Grace,  Holiness,  Theism,^ 
Trinity,  etc.  D.  S.  schaff. 

GODEAU,  Antoine,  Bishop  of  Gras.se  (1636), 
and  then  of  Vence ;  b.  at  Dreux,  1605;  d.  at 
Vence,  April  21,  1672.  He  was  a  man  of  literary 
tastes  and  poetical  gifts.  Among  his  works  were, 
l^ersion  expliquc'e  du  N.  Testament  (2  vols.),  Les 
psaumes  de  David,  traduits  en  vers  francais  (some- 
of  which  are  sung  in  French  Protestant  chnrchest. 
and  Histoire  de  V Eglise  depuis  le  commencement  du 
monde  jus<ju'a  la  fin  du  neuvieme  si'ecle  (Varis.,  16.53- 
78).  The  last  work  is  wi-itten  in  a  more  vivacious 
stvle  than  Flenrv's,  but  less  exact. 

GODEHARD.'St.,  b.  at  Ritenbach,  Bavaria. 
961;  d.  at  Hildesheim,  May  5,  1038;  was  educated 
at  the  court  of  the  .Vrchbishop  of  .Salzburg,  but 
entered  the  niona.stery  of  Nieder-Altaich  in  991. 
and  became  its  abbot  in  997.  By  Henry  II.  he 
was  charged  with  reforming  the  monasteries  of 
Hersfeld,  Tegernsee,  etc.,  and,  having  succeeded 
in  this  task,  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Hildesheim 
in  1022.  As  a  bishop  he  developed  a  great  build- 
ing activity.  lie  was  also  credited  with  having 
worked  miracles;  and  in  1131  he  was  canonized 
by  Innocent  III.  His  life  was  written  by  a  con- 
temporary, Wolfhere.  See  Leibnitz  :  Script. 
Rerum  Brunsvic,  I.  482,  and  Act.  Sand.,  Maji. 
Tom.  I. 

GODFREY  OF  BOUILLON  (Duke  of  Lower 
Lorraine,  and  King  of  Jerusalem),  the  beloved 
leader  of  the  first  crusade ;  b.  ,at  Baisy,  in  Bel- 
gium, about  1060;  d.  in  Jerusalem.  Jvdy  15  or  18, 
1100.  He  took  the  cross  109.5,  pawned  his  lord- 
ship of  Bouillon  to  the  church  of  Liege  for  thir- 
teen hundred  marks,  collected  eighty  thousanil 
infantry  and  t<'n  thousand  horsenu'U,  and.  after 
many  adventures,  arrived  with  tlie  crusaders  at 
Jerusalem,  and  took  it,  after  a  five-weeks'  siege. 
July  15,  1090.  "A  Christian  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem was  then  founded,  of  which  (iodfrey  was 
unanimoH.sly  elected  .sovereign;  but  he  refused  to 
wear  a  crown  of  gold  where  his  Lord  had  worn 
a  crown  of  tlionis,  and  accepted,  instead  of  the 
kingly  title,  the  humbler  designation  of  'Defender 


GODWIN. 


887 


GOEZB. 


and  Baron  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.'"  His  reign 
was  very  brief  (only  a  single  year),  but  full  of 
brave  deeds.  He  died  lanienteil  by  both  his  Mo- 
hammedan and  Christian  subjects.  Tasso  has 
immortalized  him  in  his  Jerusalem  Delivered .  and 
history  conftrias  his  description  of  Godfrey  as  a 
pious,  accomplished,  and  prudent  knight.  The 
only  blot  upon  his  record  was  his  massacre  of  the 
Mohammedan  defenders  of  Jerusalem;  but  even 
that  is  not  inexcusable  in  view  of  the  usages  of 
the  tinK'S  and  the  circumstances  of  the  siege. 

GODWIN,  Francis,  Bishop  of  Llandaff,  and 
church  liistorian ;  b.  1561,  at  Havington,  North- 
amptonshire; d.  April,  1633.  lie  was  the  son  of 
Thomas  (d.  1590),  Bi.^op  of  Bath  and  Wells, 
who  fell  into  disgrace  for  marrying  a  .second  time. 
lie  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford.  His  work, 
A  Cdlii/oyiie  of  the  Bishops  of  Enfiland  since  the 
first  ptnnlitig  nf  the  Christian  reliyion  in  this  island 
(published  1601),  secured  for  him  a  bishopric. 
Rerum  A  nglic.  Henrico  VIII.,  Eda-ardo  VI.,  et  Maria 
regnantibiis,  Annales,  appeared  1616,  and  the  post- 
humous work.  The  Man  in  the  Moon,  1638,  in 
whicli  he  advocates  the  Copernican  system. 

CODWIN,  Thomas,  a  learned  antiquarian;  b. 
in  Somersetshire,  1587 ;  educated  at  Oxford ;  d. 
1643.  His  work,  Moses  §■  Aaron;  or  the  ciril  §• 
ecclesicLttical  Rites  used  hij  the  Ancient  Hebrews,  etc., 
Oxford,  1616  (12th  ed.,  1685),  was  a  celebrated 
book  for  a  century. 

GOEPP,  Jean  Jacques,  b.  at  Heiligen.stein, 
Alsace,  April  6,  1771;  d.  in  Paris,  June  21,  18.55; 
studied  at  Strassburg;  made  a  campaign  in  the 
republican  army;  and  was  appointed  pastor  of 
the  French  Protestant  Congregation  in  Strassburg 
in  1802,  and  of  the  Lutheran  Congregation  in 
Paris  in  1809.  In  Paris  he  developed  a  great  and 
beneficial  activity,  gathering  and  organizing  the 
Lutherans  living  in  the  city,  establishing  schools 
for  their  children,  asylums  and  mutual  insurance 
associations  for  their  poor,  a  mission  society,  a 
Bible  society,  etc.  He  published  a  volume  of  ser- 
mons, and  various  pampldets  at  special  occasions. 

GOERRES,  Johann  Joseph,  b.  at  Coblentz,  Jan. 
25,  1776;  d.  at  Munich,  Jan.  27,  1848;  one  of 
the  most  conspicuous  names  in  modern  German 
literature,  and,  if  not  a  man  of  great  influence, 
at  all  events  a  character  of  much  significance. 
He  w-as  an  enthusiast.  His  first  enthusiasm  was 
the  French  Revolution.  Hardly  out  of  school, 
he  established  a  paper  (Das  rolhe  lilatt)  preaching 
liberty,  equality,  republicanism,  and  radicalism 
of  the  deepest  dye.  The  paper  was  soon  inter- 
dicted ;  hut  he  immediately  established  another 
{Riibezahl  im  blauen  Getcande),  which  also  was 
interdicted.  In  1799  he  went  to  Paris  on  a 
political  mission  to  the  Directory ;  but  the  sight 
of  Napoleon,  who  had  just  returned  from  Egypt, 
and  overthrown  the  Eiirectory,  fell  like  a  chill 
on  his  enthusiasm.  He  gave  up  politics,  and  re- 
turned to  his  studies.  His  second  enthusiasm 
was  the  philosophy  of  Schelling,  at  that  time 
rising  in  its  morning  glory;  and,  like  the  master, 
he  wrote  on  every  thing,  —  art,  faith,  and  reason, 
physiology,  mythology,  etc.,  —  and  always  bril- 
liantly. But  it  proved  easier  to  make  a  sensation 
than  to  get  followers :  his  attempts  to  make  a 
university  career  failed.  His  third  enthusiasm 
was  the  liberation  of  the  fatherland.  In  1814 
he  returned  to  politics,  and  published  the  Rhei- 


nischer  Merkur,  —  a  paper  whose  leading  idea  is 
nationality  rather  than  liberty,  and  which  jon- 
tains  the  .sounde.st  thoughts  and  most  powerful 
expositions  he  ever  produced.  Napoleon  called 
it  the  "fifth  grand  power."  But  it  was  inteiclicted 
in  1816  by  a  Pru.ssian  cabinet-order;  and  when, 
in  1820,  his  Deutschland  und  die  Reoolution  was 
followed  by  another  Pru.ssian  cabinet^order,  this 
time  for  his  arre.st,  he  fled  to  Strassburg,  despair- 
ing of  ever  seeing  the  world  saved  by  politics. 
His  fourth  and  last  enthusiasm  was  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church.  He  had  always  been  a  member 
of  the  Romantic  school ;  and  he  now  became  the 
leader  of  the  extreme  left  wing  of  that  school, — 
those  who  were  marching  straightway  to  Rome. 
But  he  wrote  with  the  same  enthusiasm  for  this 
ghost  of  the  past  as  he  had  formerly  written  for 
the  ideals  of  the  future.  In  1827  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  history  in  Munich;  and  there 
he  published,  botli  large  scientific  works  (Geschichte 
der  christlichen  Mi/sliL;  1836-42,  4  vols.),  and  small 
polemical  articles  for  the  occasion,  in  Hislorisch- 
politische  Blatter  (1838).  He  was,  indeed,  the  lite- 
rary champion  of  Ultramontanism  in  Germany ; 
but  as  literature  is  no  fit  weapon  for  Ultramon- 
tanism, as  Ultramontanism  likes  best  to  avoid 
literature,  with  its  arguments  and  its  jiublicity, 
he  could  not  help  feeling  that  he  was  merely 
writing  on  running  water. 

Lit.  —  His  collected  works  were  published  iu 
Munich,  1854-60,  8  vols. ;  his  letters,  1858-74, 
3  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  Morite  BrI'hl 
(Aix-la-Chapelle,  1854)  and  Joseph  Galland 
(Freib.,  1876).  See  also  Aloys  Denk:  Jo.^^eph  r. 
Gbrres  u.  s.  Bedeutung  f.  d.  Altcatholicismm,  Mainz, 
1876 ;  and  Nep.  Sepp  :  Goerres  u.  s.  Zeitgenossen, 
Noerdliiigen,  1877.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN. 

GOESCHEL,  Karl  Friedrich,  b.  at  Laneen.salza, 
Oct.  7,  1784;  d.  at  Naumburg,  Sept.  22,  1861; 
was  educated  at  Gotha;  studied  law  at  Leipzig; 
held  appointments,  first  in  the  superior  court  of 
Naumburg  (1819-34),  then  in  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  in  Berlin  (1834-45),  and  was  in  1845 
made  president  of  the  consistory  of  the  province 
of  Saxony,  with  residence  in  Magdeburg,  from 
w  hich  position  he  was  forced  to  retire  by  the  revo- 
lution (1848).  He  was  a  very  prolific  w-riter.  and 
published  about  thirty  volumes,  besides  about 
three  hundred  articles  in  periodicals.  His  great 
object  was  to  work  out  a  reconciliation  between 
Christianity  and  modern  culture  as  represented 
philosophically  by  Hegel,  and  poetically  by  Goethe, 
and  to  that  end  tend  his  principal  works :  Unter- 
haltungen  zur  Schildernng  Golhescher  DichI-  ruid 
Denk-weise,  Leipzig,  1834-38,  3  vols. ;  Ueber  Nicht- 
xcissen  und  absolutes  Wi.'^sen,  1829  (referring  to 
Hegel  as  the  former  to  Goethe) ;  and  Zerslreute 
Blatter  aus  i!en  Hand-  unil  Hidfs-acten  eines  Juris- 
ten,  1832-42,  4  vols,  (relating  to  modern  jurispru- 
dence). H.  E.  SCHMIEDER. 

COEZE,  Johan  Melchior,  b.  at  Halberstadt, 
Oct.  16,  1717;  d.  at  Hambiu-g,  May  19,  1786; 
studied  at  Halle,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  the 
Church  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  Magdeburg,  1750, 
and  of  the  Church  of  St.  Catharine  in  Hamburg, 
1755.  In  1777  he  attacked  Lessing  on  account  of 
the  publication  of  the  Wolfenbiittel  Fragments, 
and,  of  the  many  challengers  who  rose  against 
him,  Lessing  selected  Goeze  for  the  combat,  proba- 
bly because  he  considered  him  the  most  important 


GOG  AND  MAGOG. 


GOMER. 


and  the  most  dangerous.  Goeze  opened  the  con- 
troversy with  an  essay  in  the  Frei/mlliijen  Beylraye, 
Dec.  17,  1777 ;  then  followed,  in  1778,  Etwas  Vor- 
laufif/es  (jegen  d.  Herrn  Ho/rath  Lesstng,  and  Less- 
ijigs  Sclucdchen,  in  three  parts.  Lessing  published 
in  all  eighteen  pieces  against  Goeze,  which  are 
found  in  the  collected  editions  of  his  works.  See 
RiipE  :  /.  M.  Goeze,  eine  Rettung,  Hamburg,  1860  ; 
and  A.  Boden  :  Lessing  und  Ooeze,  Leipzig, 
1862.  CARL  BERTHEAU. 

GOG  AND  MAGOG.  In  Gen.  x.  2  the  second 
son  of  Japhet  is  called  Magog,  i.e.,  the  name  of  a 
people  living  between  Armenia  and  Media,  some- 
where on  the  shores  of  the  Araxes.  Ezek.  xxxviii. 
and  xxxix.  is  a  prophecy  against  Gog,  who  is  the 
king  of  the  land  of  Magog,  which  evidently  was 
then  much  farther  north,  across  the  Caucasus. 
Ezekiel's  description  of  the  inroad  of  Gog  reminds 
us  of  that  of  the  Scythians  (B.C.  630),  which  had 
the  same  characteristics  (cf.  Herod.,  i.  10.3  sqq.), 
and  probably  the  Scythians  were  in  his  mind  as 
he  wrote  the  prophecy;  but  they  are  not  really 
described.  Rather  by  Gog,  King  of  Magog,  is 
meant  the  leader  of  the  movement  of  the  great 
world-power  against  the  kingdom  of  God,  —  the 
attack  mentioned  by  other  prophets  of  Israel 
(Ezek.  xxxviii.  17),  especially  by  Joel  (iii.  9  sqq.), 
Micah  (iv.  11  sqq.),  Zachariah  (xii.  2  sqq.,  xiv.). 
But  the  sentence  of  condenuiation  is  already 
spoken,  and  the  world-power  is  to  be  overthrown. 
The  interpretation  of  this  prophecy  is  simple. 
The  overthrow-  of  Magog  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldfeans  :  rather  it  means, 
that,  after  judgment  has  fallen  upon  all  those  peo- 
ples brought  into  contact  with  the  Jews,  there 
will  be  left  a  renmant  from  whom  will  come  the 
impulse  iqion  the  world-power  to  incite  it  to  op- 
pose the  kingdom,  and  by  so  doing  to  seal  its 
own  fate.  In  the  Ritvelation  (xx.  7  sqq.)  Gog 
and  Mag(jg  appi^ar  as  two  peoples,  and,  as  in 
Ezekiel,  are  similarly  overthrown.  The  names 
are  also  separated  in  .lewish  theology  (Targum  to 
Num.  xi.  27)  and  among  the  Slohammedans 
(Koran,  IS,  0:i).  v.  orelli. 

The  lcg(Hidary  interest  in  Gog  and  Magog  is 
considerable.  Thus  in  Astrakhan  the  story  is 
told,  that  Alexander  the  (Jreat  overthrew  tlie.se 
two  great  peoples,  and  drove  them  into  the  re- 
ce.s.ses  of  the  Caucasus,  where  tliey  are  now  in 
terror,  because  of  the  noise  of  twelve  trumpets 
blown  by  the  winds.  But  out  of  their  captivity 
they  are  sure  to  come,  and  devastate  the  world. 
In  Guild  Hall,  London,  there  are  two  effigies,  four- 
teen feet  high,  of  Gog  and  Magojj,  who,  according 
to  the  legend,  were  the  solo  survivors  of  the  race 
of  giants  descended  from  Diocletian's  thirty-three 
bad  daughters  which  Brute  destroyi^d.  These 
two  were  brought  by  him  to  London,  and  made 
porters  at  the  royal  palace's  gate ;  and,  when  they 
(lied,  their  effigies  took  their  place.  The  present 
figures  were  made  in  1708;  but  similar  ones  can 
be  proven  to  have  existed  as  early  as  Ml."),  and 
probably  much  before.  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth 
tells  (C'hron.,  i.  IG)  of  a  giant  eighteen  feet  high, 
called  Goemagot  (a  corruption  of  Gog  and  Magog), 
who,  with  his  brother  Corineus,  was  tlie  terror  of 
Cornwall.  .See  art.  frog  and  Mngog,  in  Knri/c. 
finl..  Ot,h  ed.,  and  Hhk.wk.k's  J!i(idir's  Ilandliiiok-. 

GOGERLY,  Daniel  John,  a  Wesleyan  ini.ssion- 
»ry,  b.  Ill  London,  August,  1792;  d.  Sept.  0,  1862. 


In  1818  he  was  sent  to  Ceylon  to  take  charge  of 
the  Wesleyan  mission  press  at  Colombo ;  and  by 
devoting  his  great  talents  to  Pali,  the  sacred  lan- 
guage of  the  Buddhists,  he  achieved  an  acknowl- 
edged mastership.  He  was  the  author,  in  large 
part,  of  the  Cingalese  version  of  the  Scriptures, 
published  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Soci- 
ety, and  in  that  dialect  issued  Chrisliani  Prag- 
nyapli  (Colombo,  1862),  a  treatise  upon  the  evi- 
dences and  doctrines  of  the  Christian  religion. 
Many  of  his  studies  appeared  in  the  Journal  of 
the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  of  the  Ceylon  branch 
of  which  society  he  was  the  vice-president. 

GOLDEN  CALF.     See  Calf. 

GOLDEN  LEGEND  {Leyenda  Aurea),  a  collec- 
tion of  legends  of  saints,  without  historical  value, 
but  very  popular.  It  was  compiled  by  the  Do- 
minican Jacobus  de  Voraigne,  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  first  edition,  with  date,  but  without 
place,  1474,  seventy-one  editions  before  1500,  new 
edition  by  Th.  Graesse,  Dresden,  1846.  The  book 
has  great  value  for  the  student  of  middle-age 
superstition.  See  Jacobus  de  Yoragine,  and 
Legend. 

GOLDEN  NUMBER,  the  place  of  a  given  year 
in  the  lunar  cycle,  which  cycle  is  equal  to  nine- 
teen Julian  years.  The  golden  numbers  were 
introduced  into  the  calendar  about  .530,  but  ar- 
ranged as  if  they  had  been  introduced  in  325  (the 
Council  of  Nicsea).  They  were  usually  marked 
in  red  or  gold.  But  they  are  rejected  from  the 
Gregorian  Calendar,  as  they  fit  only  the  Julian. 

GOLDEN  ROSE  is  made  of  wrought  gold,  an<l 
set  with  gems,  blessed  by  the  Pope  on  the  fourtli 
Sunday  of  Lent,  and  sent  by  him,  as  a  token  of 
his  special  regard,  to  some  person,  church,  or 
community:  if  not  sent,  it  is  preser^-ed  in  the 
Vatican.  The  first  mention  of  the  "rose  "  occurs 
in  the  eleventh  century.  Pope  Urban  V.  decreed 
one  should  be  sent  every  year.  Among  the 
recijiients  of  this  favor  have  been  Joanna  of 
Naples,  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  (ionsalvo  di' 
Cordova.  Napoleon  III.,  Isabella  II.,  Stephanie, 
Crown  Princess  of  Austria  (1882). 

GOLGOTHA.     See   IIoi.y  Ski'UI.ohke. 

GOMARUS,  Francis,  b.  at  Bruges,  Jan.  30, 
1563;  d.  at  Groningen,  Jan.  11,  1641;  studied  at 
Strassburg,  Neustailt,  Cambridge,  Oxford,  ami 
Heidelberg,  and  was  in  1587  appointed  pastor  to 
the  Flemish  congregation  at  Francfort.  In  1!594 
he  was  called  to^Leyden  as  professor  of  divinity, 
but  resigned  this  [Hisition  in  1611,  because  A'or- 
stius  was  made  the  succe.s.sor  of  Arniinius.  In 
1614  he  accepted  an  invitation  to  Saunnir  as  jud- 
fessor  of  theology,  and  in  1618  he  removeil  to 
(ironingi'M.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  severe 
Calvinistic  ]iarty,  and  the  declared  adversary  of 
Arniinianism,  which  he  opjiosed  with  virulence 
and  intoleriince,  and  finally  cau.sed  to  be  con- 
demned at  the  .synod  of  Dort,  1618.  His  collected 
works,  mostly  polemical,  api>eared  in  one  volume 
fob,  in  Amsterdam,  1645.     See  the  art.  Akmim- 

ANISM. 

GO'MER  (ipj  Sept.  ra/tip)  is,  in  Gen.  x.  2  and 
1  Clinin.  i.  .5,  the  name  of  the  first-born  .son  of 
.lapheth.  In  Ezi^k.  xxxviii.  6  it  designates,  to- 
gether with  Togarniah,  a  northern  tribe,  which, 
in  alliance  witli  Magog,  fought  the  last  battla 
against  Israel. 


GOMORRAH. 


889 


QOODELL. 


The  question,  What  nation  or  race  is  meant  by 
this  designation?  has  been  differently  answered 
at  various  times.  .Fosephus  (Antii/.,  I.  6,  1)  de- 
rives the  Galatians  from  Gonier ;  and  a  gloss  on 
Syncellus  reads  I'f/^fp,  H  <>v  KamradoKe^.  In  the 
Targums,  on  the  contrary  (Jonath.  and  .lerushj, 
on  Gen.  x.  2,  in  the  Targum  on  1  Chron.  i.  b, 
as  well  as  in  Breshit  R.,  Gomer  is  explained  by 
N":mj  ("Gennania"),  or  "p-ox  and  xp'lijk 
("Africa").  As  the  ancestor  of  the  Germanic 
race,  the  Targums  specially  designate  the  third 
son  of  Gomer,  Togarniah  ;  though  later  Jews  also 
mention  the  first-born  son,  Ashkenaz.  Africa  — 
for  "p'liJX  can  hardly  be  explained  by  Phrygia,  or 
some  obscure  place  —  they  probably  stumbled 
upon,  because  at  one  time  a  Germanic  tribe,  the 
Vandals,  were  settled  there.  Earlier  Christian 
exegetes,  as,  for  instance,  Jerome,  Nicholas  of 
Lyra,  and  others,  generally  adopted  the  views  of 
Josephus.  Luther,  however,  arguing  from  Ezek. 
xxxviii.  6  and  the  striking  similarity  of  names, 
explained  Gonier  by  Cimmerians ;  and  through 
Arias  Montanus,  J.  A.  Osiander  (who  identifies 
the  Cimmerians  with  the  Cimbrians),  Calmet,  and 
others,  this  view  spread  widely. 

Which  of  these  different  interpretations  is  the 
true  one  is  perhaps  not  so  very  difficult  to  decide. 
In  spite  of  their  various  discrepancies,  they  all 
agree  in  the  one  point,  —  that  Gomer  designates 
a  people  native  of  Europe,  living  in  the  far-off 
north,  and  thence  penetrating  towards  the  south, 
even  into  Asia ;  and,  if  this  the  fundamental 
view  is  correct,  the  interpretation  which  explains 
Gomer  by  Cimmerians  is  the  best.  Nor  is  the 
view  of  Luther  so'completely  at  variance  with  that 
of  Josephus.  The  Gauls,  or  Galatians,  who,  in  the 
third  century  B.C.,  invaded,  first  Thracia  and 
Greece,  and  then  Asia  Minor,  resembled  the  Cim- 
merians so  much  on  account  of  their  European 
origin,  wide-sweeping  campaigns,  and  terrible 
savagery  (Livy,  38,  37;  1  Mace.  viii.  2;  2  Mace. 
viii.  20),  that  it  was  quite  natural  to  consider  the 
one  a  continuation  or  revival  of  the  other :  in- 
deed, the  two  peoples  were  often  identified  with 
each  other  (Diod.  Sic,  5,  32;  Isid.  Hispan., 
Eli/m.,  9,  2,  26;  Zonaras,  Arm..  1,  5).  That  the 
above-mentioned  Targums  preferred  to  explain 
Gomer  by  Germania  was  the  result  of  a  simple 
wish  to  give  a  biblical  origin  and  significance  to 
this  powerful  race  as  soon  as  it  had  fairly  entered 
the  historical  stage.  How  curiously  historical 
events  often  affect  ethnographical  interpretations 
may  be  seen,  for  instance,  from  the  explanation 
of  Magog  in  the  time  of  Jerome,  as  identical  with 
the  Goths.  FR.   W.  SCUULTZ. 

GOMORRAH.     See  Sod'om. 

GONDULF,  b.  near  Rouen,  1023;  d.  at  Roches- 
ter, llOS;  became  a  monk  in  the  monastery  of 
Bee,  1059;  accompanied  Lanfranc  to  Caen,  1063, 
and  to  Canterbury,  1070,  and  became  Bishop  of 
Rochester  1077.  He  played  an  important  part  in 
the  controversy  between  Lanfranc  and  William 
Rufus  and  Henry  1. ;  but  of  his  letters  only  two 
have  been  preserved.  See  his  life  in  Wharton  : 
Av</lin  Sacra. 

GONESIUS,  Petrus,  b.  at  Goniadz,  1525;  be- 
gan his  public  career  in  Krakau  as  a  zealous 
adherent  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  was  by  the 
bishop  and  clergy  of  Samogitia  sent  to  foreign 


countries  for  his  further  education,  but  returned 
from  his  visits  to  Wittenberg  and  Geneva,  and 
from  his  study  of  the  works  of  Servetus  ai:d 
the  Moravian  Anabaptist,  not  only  a  JVotestaiit, 
but  a  champion  of  Antitrinitariaii  and  Analjai>- 
tist  views.  He  was  condemned  liy  the  .svnods 
of  Seceniin  (1.556)  and  Brzesk  (1558),  but  con- 
tinued to  lal)or  for  his  ideas.  Nevertheless,  w  hen 
a  split  actually  took  place  in  the  Reformed 
Church  of  Poland  (1565),  between  a  Trinitarian 
and  Unitarian  party,  Gonesins  was  not  able  to 
come  to  a  thorough  understanding  with  the  latter. 
Of  the  later  part  of  his  life  nothing  is  known. 
See  Sandius:  Bihlinth.  Aniilrin.,  pp.  40  sqq. ; 
LuBiENlECius:  Hist.  Ref.  Pol.,  pp.  Ill  and  144; 
Bock:  Hist.  Antitrin.,  vol.  i.  TKECII.SEL. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  the  anniversary  of  our  Lord's 
passion  and  death.  In  the  early  Church  it  was 
also  known  as  the  "  Festival  of  "the  Crucifixion  " 
TTKCT.vo  OTavpum/jov) ,  the  "Day  of  Salvation,"  etc. 
Its  observance  must  date  back  to  the  earliest 
period  of  tlie  Church.  The  early  Church  kept  it 
as  a  rigorous  fast  and  period  of  mourning;  for, 
although  the  crucifixion  was  the  last  atoning  act 
of  Christ's  life,  yet  it  brought  anguish  to  the 
Saviour,  and  removed  him,  for  a  time,  from  the 
disappointed  disciples.  The  public  services  were 
conducted  with  deep  solenmity  and  with  the  out- 
ward signs  of  sorrow.  Constantine  the  Great 
(Euseb.,  Vita,  I.  4)  forbade  the  holding  of  judicial 
trials,  markets,  etc.,  on  the  day.  In  Spain  they 
went  so  far  as  to  close  the  churches,  a  procedure 
which  the  Council  of  Toledo  (633)  condemned. 
At  the  present  day  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches 
celebrate  Good  Friday  with  as  strict  severity  as 
they  do  Easter  with  glad  jubilation.  The  bells 
on  the  church-towers  are  silent,  the  light  on  the 
altars  is  extinguished,  the  altar  furniture  covered 
with  black,  and  the  usual  communion  omitted, 
the  priest  alone  communicating.     See  Eastek. 

COODELL,  William,  D.D.,  eminent  missionary 
of  the  American  Board:  b.  at  Templeton,  Mass., 
Feb.  14,  1792;  d.  in  Philadelphia,  jMonday,  Feb. 
18,  1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, 1817,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sennnary, 
1820.  Already  in  1818  he  had  determined  to 
become  a  foreign  missionary :  so  after  gradua- 
tion, he  studied  medicine  for  a  while,  and  then 
spent  a  year  in  visiting  the  churches  as  agent  of 
the  American  Board.  He  sailed  for  Beyrout,  Dec. 
9,  1822,  where  he  arrived  Nov.  16,  1823.  having 
stopped  for  several  months  at  JIalta.  He  expected 
to  proceed  thence  to  .Jerusalem  ;  but  tlie  disturbed 
state  of  the  country,  in  consequence  of  the  Greek 
Revolution,  prevented  him.  Finally  (182S)  all 
the  missionaries  in  Beyrout  were  compelled  to 
leave  Syria,  owing  to  the  withdrawal  of  all  con- 
sular protection,  and  went  to  Malta.  In  1831  he 
received  instructions  from  the  Board  to  begin  a 
new  mission  to  the  Armenians  at  Constantinople, 
and  there  arrived  June  9  ;  and  until  1865  he 
labored  with  fidelity,  enthusiasm,  and  success. 
He  was  rarely  gifted,  full  of  genial  humor,  san- 
guine, simple,  courageous,  modest,  above  all, 
holy.  He  won  hearts,  and  moulded  lives.  One  of 
his  most  important  laboi's  was  the  translation  ot 
the  Bible  into  Armeno-Turkish,  which  was  begun 
in  Syria ;  the  New  Testament  finished  Jan.  S, 
1830;  and  the  Old  Testament,  Nov.  6,  1841.  See 
E.  D.  (i.  Prime  :  Forty  Years  in  the   Turii.'ih  Em- 


GOODWIN. 


890 


GORTON. 


vire  ,  or,  Memoirs  of  Rev.  William  Goodell,  D.D., 
Xew  York,  1876,  6th  ed.,  1883 

GOODWIN,  Charles  Wycliffe,  linguist;  b.  at 
King's  Lynn,  in  Xorfolk,  Eng.,  in  1817  ;  educated 
at  Cambridge ;  d.  at  Shanghai,  Jan.  17,  1878. 
Although  his  life  was  that  of  a  lawyer,  yet  his 
tastes  lay  in  the  direction  of  philology.  He 
edited  the  Anglo-Saxon  Life  of  St.  Guthlac,  Anglo- 
Saxon  Legends  of  Si.  A  ndrew  and  St.  Veronica. 
He  wrote,  for  the  Cambridge  Essai/s  of  1858,  an 
exhaustive  essay  upon  Hieratic  Papyri,  and,  for 
Essays  and  Review.-!,  upon  Mosaic  Cosmogony.  He 
contributed  to  Lipsius'  Zeitschrift  fiir  agyptische 
Sprache,  and  prepared  translations  of  the  Egyp- 
tian monuments  for  Records  of  the  Past.  In  the 
judgment  of  competent  critics  he  occupied  a  first 
place  among  Egyptian  decipherers. 

GOODWIN,  John,  an  able  Arminian  divine 
and  controversialist ;  b.  in  Norfolk,  159.3 ;  d. 
1665.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Queen's  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  vicar  of  St.  Stephen's,  London,  16.33 ; 
lost  his  vicarage  (1545)  by  his  literary  efforts 
against  the  Presbyterians,  and  was  restored  by 
Cromwell,  to  whom  he  rendered  services  by  his 
tracts.  Right  ^-  Might  well  met  (1648),  a  justifica- 
tion of  the  proceedings  of  the  army  against  the 
Parliament  in  1648,  and  The  Obstructors  of  Justice 
(1649),  vindicating  the  sentence  of  the  High  Coui-t 
of  Justice  upon  Charles  I.  At  the  Restoration, 
the  latter  tract,  with  several  of  Milton's,  was  pub- 
licly burned,  and  Goodwin  himself  declared  in- 
capable of  holding  any  office,  ecclesiastical  or 
civil.  Dr.  Goodwin  was  an  Arminian  in  theology, 
and  has  been  called  the  AViclif  of  Methodism. 
Mr.  Wesley  held  his  writings  in  high  esteem,  and 
published  in  an  abridged  form  his  Imputatio  Fidei, 
or  a  treatise  of  Justification  (Lond.,  1642);  and 
Watson,  in  his  Theol.  Institutes,  quotes  him  exten- 
sively in  chap,  xiii.,  on  .lustification.  His  Redemp- 
tion Redeemed,  containing  a  thorough  di.-:cussion  of 
the  great  questions  concerning  election,  reprobation, 
Sf  the  persererajice  of  the  saints  (Lond.,  1651),  is 
a  monument  of  litei'ary  ability  and  diligence,  and 
called  forth  replies  from  Dr.  Kendall  (1653),  Rob- 
ert liaillie  (1656),  and  others,  but  especially  Dr. 
Owen,  in  The  Doctrine  of  the  Saint.t'  I'crsernrance 
(Oxf.,  1654).  Dr.  Owen  acknowledges  his  learn- 
ing and  controversial  skill.  In  1658  Goodwin 
replied  to  Ins  critics  in  tlie  Triumriri,  etc.  (pp.  500). 
.See  Christian  Theology  selected  from  Goodicin,  by 
S.  Dunn,  Lond.,  1836;  Preface  to  Owen's  Per- 
severance, etc. ;  and  Life  of  Dr.  Goodwin,  by  T. 
jACK-i'iy.  Lond..  l.S3(». 

GOODWIN,  Thomas  D.D.,  a  "Patriarch  and 
,\tl.is()l  liidi'i«'ndi'ni:v  :  "  b.  at  Rollesby,  Norfolk, 
Eng.,  Oct.  5,  1600;  d'.  in  London,  Feb.  23,  1679. 
He  was  educated  at  tlie  University  of  Cambridge, 
and  was  successively  fellow  and  preaclier  and 
vicar  of  Christ  Church ;  but,  unable  to  stand 
Laud's  interference,  he  resigned  his  preferments 
in  1631,  left  the  university,  and  went  to  London, 
where  he  married.  He  lived  in  Hulland  as  pas- 
tor of  a  small  Englisli  congregation  at  .\rnheini, 
1039-41 ;  but,  when  Laud  wa.s  effectually  silenced, 
he  returned  to  London,  and  was  one  ot  i\u:  emi- 
nent rndej)endent  ministers  there.  From  Janu- 
ary, 16.50,  to  the  Restoration,  lie  was  president  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford  ;  afterwards  he  lived 
in  London,  preaching  statedly,  and  writing  volu- 
minously,    lie  wa.sa  member  of  the  WestminBter 


Assembly  (1643-49),  and  one  of  the  "Dissenting 
Brethren."  Calamy  thus  estimates  him :  "  He  was 
a  considerable  scholar,  and  an  eminent  divine, 
and  had  a  very  happy  faculty  in  descanting  upon 
.Scripture  so  as  to  bring  forth  surprising  remarks, 
which  yet  generally  tended  to  illustration."  He 
is  supposed  to  be  the  Puritan  president  described 
by  Addison  in  No.  494  of  the  Spectator.  His  learn- 
ing was  very  great,  his  spiritual  experience  pro- 
found, his  theology  rigidly  Calvinistic.  During 
his  lifetime  only  sermons  of  his  were  published ; 
but  his  Works  appeared  in  London,  1681-1704,  5 
vols,  fob,  and  were  reprinted  at  Edinburgh, 
1861-66.<  12  vols.  8vo,  with  Memoir  by  Robert 
Hall,  D.D. 

GORHANl  CASE,  a  case  involving  the  tenets 
of  the  Church  of  England  on  the  question  of 
baptismal  regeneration.  In  1847  the  Bishop  of 
Exeter,  Dr.  Henry  Phillpotts,  an  energetic  and 
bold  High-Churchman,  refused  to  institute  Mr. 
Gorham  as  vicar  of  Brampford-Speke,  to  which 
he  had  been  appointed  by  the  lord-chancellor. 
The  ground  was,  that  Jlr.  Gorham  denied  spir- 
itual regeneration  to  be  conferred  by  the  sacra- 
ment of  baptism,  or  that  infants  were  made 
thereby  memljers  of  Christ.  The  case  was  taken 
into  the  courts,  and  decided  against  Mr.  Gorham 
by  the  Com'L_pf  Arches.  (1849),  on  the  ground 
that  baptismal  regeneration  was  the  doctrine  of 
the  Church  of  England.  The  case  being  appealed 
to  the  privy  council,  this  decision  was  reversed ;  it 
being  held  that  a  difference  of  opinion  had  pre- 
vailed amongst  the  English  Reformers,  and  ever 
since  among  prelates.  Mr.  Gorham  was  conse- 
quently admitted  to  the  vicarage.  See  Gorham 
versus  the  Bishop  of  Exeter.  The  Arguments,  with 
the  Judgments  verbatim,  before  the  Committee  of 
Privy  Conticil,  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  etc.  To 
which  is  added  tlie  Bishop  of  Exeter's  Protest,  and 
Mr.  Gorham's  Formal  Institution.  5th  ed.,  Lend., 
1850.  

CORIUN,  an  Armenian  scholar  from  the  fifth 
century;  was  a  pujul  of  Mesrop,  and  by  him  sent 
to  Constantinople  to  study  Greek,  and  gather 
Greek  manuscripts ;  partook  with  Esnik  in  the 
translation  of  the  Bible  and  some  works  of  tlie 
Greek  fatliers ;  was  made  bishop  of  a  Georgian 
diocese,  and  wrote  a  life  of  Mesrop,  which  has 
been  published  by  the  Mekhitarists,  Venice,  1833. 
See  A\'iCLrK  :  Goriun's  Lebensbeschr.  d.  h.  Mesrop, 
TiibingcM.  1S44. 

GORTON,  Samuel,  b.  at  Groton,  Eng..  about 
160U;  <1.  in  \\'arwick,  11. 1.,  November  or  Decem- 
ber, 1677.  Before  coming  to  America,  he  was  in 
the  employ  of  a  linen-ilraper  in  London ;  but, 
desiring  more  religious  libeity,  he  emigrated  to 
Boston,  1636;  removed  to  Plymouth  because  of 
religions  troubles;  was  banished  the  Colony  for 
heresy  (winter  of  1637,  1638)  ;  went  to  Aquid- 
neok,  R.I.,  with  a  few  followers;  was  publicly 
whijijied  for  calling  the  magistrates  "just  a,s.ses;  " 
(led  (1641)  to  Providence,  but  again  got  into 
<lifru'ulties,  and  went  (.September,  1642)  to  Shawo- 
met,  on  the  west  side  of  Narragansett  Bay,  where 
he  purchased  land  from  tlu'  Indians.  In  1643 
(iorlon  and  ten  of  his  sect  were  tried  in  Boston 
for  "damnable  heresy,"  f(>un<l  guilty,  and  sen- 
tenceil  to  imiirisonment  at  hard  labor  in  chains. 
In  M.irch,  1644,  they  were  released,  but  ordered 
to  leave  the   Colony  in  fourteen  days.     Gorton 


GOSHEN, 


891 


GOSPEL. 


■went  to  England,  and  returned  (1648)  with  an 
order  from  the  Earl  of  Warwick  to  the  Massachu- 
setts magistrates,  that  the  Shawomet  Colony 
should  be  free  from  interference  ;  and  so  the  last 
years  of  Gorton's  life  were  peaceful.  He  named 
the  Colony  Warwick,  out  of  gratitude  to  the  earl. 
His  sect,  which  quickly  died  out,  was  called  the 
"  Gortonians."  Their  belief  has  been  thus  given  : 
"  They  contemned  a  clergy  and  all  outward 
forms,  held  that  by  union  with  Christ  believers 
partook  of  the  perfection  of  God,  that  Christ  is 
both  human  and  divine,  and  that  heaven  and  hell 
have  no  existence  save  in  the  mind."  See  Gor- 
ton's Simplicities  Defence  against  seven-headed 
I'oUcij  (1640),  reprinted  in  Rhode  Island  Histori- 
cal Collections  (1836),  and  in  Force's  Tracts 
(1846),  vol.  iv.  no.  6  ;  and  Answer  concerning 
Part  of  "  Neiv  Englands  Memorial!,"  reprinted  in 
Force'.s  Tracts  (1846),  vol.  iv.  no.  7;  also  J.  M. 
Mackie;  Life  of  Samuel  Gorton,  Boston,  1848. 

GOSHEN.     See  Egypt. 

GOSPEL  and  GOSPELS.  I.  Me.\ning  of 
THE  Word.  —  Gospel  (Anglo-Saxon,  "god-spell," 
"good  spell,"  from  spellian,  "to  tell")  is  the 
English  equivalent  for  the  Greek  eiayyeXiov  (from 
f  1',  "  well,"  and  u-yjiXTiu,  "  to  bear  message,"  evay- 
j-fXi'Cu,  "  to  announce  good  news  "),  and  the  Latin 
ecangeiium,  which  has  passed  into  French,  Ger- 
man, Italian,  and  other  modern  languages.  The 
Greek  means  (1)  Reward  for  good  news,  given 
to  the  messenger,  or  to  God,  a  thank-offering  or 
sacrifice  (so  in  Homer,  Xenophon,  Plutarch,  etc., 
but  always  in  the  plural,  liiayyilia) ;  (2)  Good 
news,  or  glad  tidings  of  any  kind ;  (3)  In  the 
Christian  sense,  as  used  in  the  New  Testament, 
good  tidings  of  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ;  (4)  In 
the  ecclesiastical  sense,  the  historical  record  of 
this  salvation,  or  of  the  life,  death,  and  resurrec- 
tion of  Christ,  or  the  gospel  history,  which  we 
have  in  a  fourfold  form. 

II.  Kinds  of  Gospels.  —  (1)  Four  Canonical 
Gospels,  written  by  apostles  and  apostolic  men, 
and  recognized  by  the  Christian  Church  as  au- 
thentic and  reliable.  (2)  A  large  number  of 
Apocri/phal  Gospels,  of  later  and  obscure  origin, 
and  rejected  as  mere  fictions.  They  serve,  how- 
ever, the  good  purpose  of  confirming  the  truth  of 
the  Canonical  Gospels,  and  show,  by  their  infinite 
inferiority  and  silliness,  the  utter  incapacity  of 
the  human  imagination  to  produce  such  a  charac- 
ter as  Jesus  of  Nazareth.  They  are  counterfeits 
and  caricatures  of  the  inimitable  original.  See 
Apocrypha  of  the  New  Testament.  We 
confine  ourselves  here  to  the  Canonical  Gospels. 

III.  General  Char.acter  of  the  Gospels. 
—  They  are  beyond  all  question  the  most  impor- 
tant and  the  most  popular  books  ever  written. 
They  contain  the  only  authentic  record  of  the 
history  of  all  histories,  which  interests  the  whole 
world,  and  can  never  grow  old.  The  very  oppo- 
sition to  them,  and  the  immense  and  ever-grow- 
ing literature  clustering  around  them,  show  their 
power  and  charm.  And  yet  they  were  written 
by  humble  and  unlearned  fishermen  of  Galilee; 
but  they  were  in  the  school  of  Christ,  and  filled 
with  his  Spirit.  This,  and  this  alone,  explains 
the  mystery.  Without  the  miracle  of  Christ's 
person,  the  Gospels  would  be  the  most  incredible 
of  all  miracles.  They  are  properly  only  one  and 
the  same  Gospel  in  its  fourfold  aspect  and  rela- 


tion to  tlie  human  race  ("the  fourfold  Gospel," 
TeTpiifiop<pov  f«a)')'C/*ioi',  according  to  Irenseus):  hence 
they  are  styled  in  ancient  manu.scripts  the  Gospel 
according  to  (not  of)  Mattliew,  Mark,  Luke,  and 
.lohn.  The  first  and  fourth  are  by  apostles;  the 
second  and  third,  by  pupils  of  the  apostles,  and 
thus  indirectly  apostolical.  Mark  is  closely  con- 
nected with  Peter  (as  his  "interpreter"),  Luke 
with  Paul  (as  his  companion  in  missionary  travel 
and  work).  The  first  three  were  written  between 
A.D.  60  and  70,  certainly  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  to  which  they  point  as  a  future 
event,  though  near  at  hand.  "  This  generation 
[then  living]  shall  not  pass  away  till  all  be  ful- 
filled." Had  they  been  written  after  the  terrible 
catastrophe  of  70,  they  would  have  referred  to  it 
in  some  way.  The  attempt  of  the  Tiibingen 
school  to  assign  them  to  a  later  date,  even  the 
second  century,  has  utterly  failed ;  and  .some  of 
the  most  advanced  critics  of  that  school  (as  Hil- 
genfeld  and  Keim)  have  returned  to  the  tradi- 
tional view,  at  least  as  far  as  Matthew  is  con- 
cerned ;  while  Mark  has  been  vindicated  by  other 
unbiassed  critics  (Weisse,  Wilke,  Ewald,  Meyer, 
Weiss)  as  the  primitive  Gospel,  which  faithfully 
records  the  oral  preaching  of  Peter.  The  fourth 
Gospel  was  probably  written  towards  the  close  of 
the  first  century,  at  Ephesus.  Before  the  middle 
of  the  second  century,  all  four  were  generally 
received  and  used  in  the  churches  as  one  collec- 
tion. This  is  confirmed  by  the  independent 
testimonies  of  the  Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (Justin 
Martyr,  Tatian,  Irenjeus,  Tertullian,  Origen,  etc.), 
by  the  Ginostics,  and  other  heretics.  They  are 
not  complete  biographies  of  Jesus,  but  selections 
of  characteristic  features,  as  they  seemed  most 
important  to  each  evangelist  for  his  purpose. 
Justin  Martyr  (140)  properly  called  them  memoirs, 
or  memorabilia  (uno/ivTj/iovd/iaTa  tuv  anoaroXuv). 
The  common  aim  of  the  Gospels  is  to  lead  the 
reader  to  the  faith  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is  the 
promised  Messiah  of  the  Jews,  and  the  Saviour 
of  all  men  (John  xx.  30,  31). 

IV.  Characteristic  Differences.  —  Each 
Gospel  has  a  marked  individuality,  correspond- 
ing to  the  author's  education,  talent,  taste,  and 
mission.  Matthew  wrote  in  Palestine,  and  for 
Jews,  to  show  them  that  Jesus  is  the  fulfiller  of 
prophecy,  and  the  true  King  and  Lawgiver  of 
Israel ;  Mark,  in  Rome,  for  Roman  readers,  to 
exhibit  Jesus  as  the  mighty  wonder-worker  and 
Son  of  God;  Luke,  for  Greeks  and  Gentiles,  to 
set  him  forth  as  the  merciful  Saviour  of  all  men; 
John,  for  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  com- 
bined, and  for  all  futuie  ages  Matthew  (for- 
merly a  tax-gatherer,  and  accustomed  to  keeping 
accounts)  follows  the  topical  and  rubrical  order ; 
Luke  (an  educated  Hellenist  and  a  physician), 
the  chronological  order ;  John  (the  trusted  bosom- 
friend  of  Christ)  combines  both  with  an  internal 
development  of  the  growing  antagoni-im  between 
Christ  and  carnal  Judaism ;  Mark  gives  (as  from 
the  first  impressions  of  his  master,  the  impulsive 
Peter)  fresh,  rapid,  graphic  sketches.  The  first 
three  evangelists  agree  much  in  matter  and  lan- 
"■uage,  and  are  consequently  called  "  Synoptists  ; '' 
their  Gospels,  the  "Synoptic  Gospels."  John 
stands  alone,  as  the  ideal  and  spiritual  evangelist, 
who  introduces  us  into  the  holy  of  holies :  his 
Gospel  is  the  purest,  deepest,  and  sublimest  of 


GOSPEL. 


89i 


GOSSNER. 


all  literary  compositions,  the  Gospel  of  Gospels, 
"the  one,  true,  tender,  main  Gospel,"  "the  heart 
of  Christ."  Yet  the  first  three  are  just  as  neces- 
sary, and  give  the  historical  basis,  the  divine 
humanity  of  Christ;  while  John,  going  back  to 
the  eternal  Logos,  presents  to  us  the  incarnate 
divinity  of  Christ.  The  poetn,'  and  pictorial  art 
of  the  Church  (since  the  time  of  Irensus  and 
.Jerome)  has  represented  the  four  Gospels  under 
the  four  rivers  of  Paradise,  and  the  four  cherubic 
figures  of  Ezekiel  (i.  1.5,  x.  1,  xi.  22),  and  the 
four  living  creatures  (Ziia)  of  the  Apocalypse  (iv. 
4-9,  etc.),  -nhich  reflect  the  Divine  majesty  and 
strength  in  the  animal  creation.  To  Matthew  is 
assigned  the  figure  of  a  man ;  to  Mark,  the  lion ; 
to  Luke,  the  sacrificial  ox ;  to  John,  the  soaring 
eagle.  Adam  of  St.  Victor,  the  greatest  Ijatin 
poet  of  the  middle  ages,  has  devoted  two  of  his 
finest  poems  to  this  subject.  His  description  of 
John  is  very  musical  and  striking :  — 

"  Volat  avis  sine  meta 
Quo  nee  %'ates,  nee  propheta 

Evolavit  altius. 
Tarn  iinplenda  quam  impleta, 
Numquani  vidit  tot.  secreta 

Purus  homo  purius." 

V.  Credibility  of  the  Gospels.  —  They 
make  upon  every  unsophisticated  reader  the  im- 
pression of  absolute  honesty  and  trustworthiness. 
They  cannot  possibly  be  the  mythical  or  legendary 
production  of  a  pious  fancy  (as  Strauss  and  Renan 
would  fain  make  us  believe),  or  of  a  calculating 
adaptation  to  certain  religious  tendencies  (Baur 
and  the  Tiibingen  school).  It  would  take  more 
than  a  Jesus  to  invent  a  Jesus.  Th''  evangelists 
tell  with  the  utmost  frankness  and  simplicity  the 
story  of  Christ,  without  note  or  comment,  with- 
out mentioning  their  name,  without  concealment 
of  the  errors  and  failings  of  the  disciples  (them- 
selves included),  even  the  denial  of  their  leader, 
and  the  treason  of  Judas.  The  discrepancies  in 
details  only  heighten  the  credibility,  and  exclude 
the  suspicion  of  collusion  and  conspiracy.  They 
show  the  independence  of  their  witness  to  the 
essential  facts.  The  genuineness  and  truthful- 
ness of  these  books  rest  on  stronger  evidence 
than  that  of  any  other  historical  records,  ancient 
or  modern.  This  has  been  acknowledged  by 
eminent  writers  who  are  free  from  all  doctrinal 
or  sectarian  bias.  Goethe  says,  "  I  regard  the 
(iospels  as  thoroughly  genuine;  for  we  see  in 
them  the  reflection  of  a  majesty  which  proceeded 
from  the  person  of  Christ,  —  a  majesty  which  is 
as  divine  as  any  thing  that  ever  appeared  on 
earth."  Rousseau  remarks  that  "the  gospel  his- 
tory can  be  no  fiction,  else  the  inventor  would  be 
greater  than  the  hero"  (I'itivenleur  en  seroit  plus 
(ioniiani  rjuc  le  lie'ros).  And  yet  the  Jesus  of  the 
Gospels  is  admitted  bj'  all  comjietent  judges  to 
be  the  purest  character  conceivable.  If  there  is 
no  truth  and  reality  in  him,  it  is  nowhere  to  be 
found.  Take  away  the  hi.storical  Christ,  the 
l^ife  and  Light  of  the  world,  and  history  is  as 
dark  as  midnight;  but  with  him  it  is  a  revela- 
tion of  the  infinite  wisdom  and  love  of  God  in 
the  salvation  of  mankind.  —  For  particulars,  see 
arts.  IIau.mo.nv,  .Sy.voptists,  Matthew,  Mark, 
LuKK,  and  John. 

VI.  Lit.  —  niis  lias  immensely  increased  in 
the  last  thirty  years,  in  connection  with  the  nu- 


merous Lives  of  Jestis,  e.g.,  by  Strauss,  Keim, 
Weiss,  Edersheim ;  see  list  under  art.  Jesus 
Christ.     "We  mention  here:  — 

(1)  the  critical  introductions  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament, by  De  Wette,  Bleek,  Davidson  (2d  ed., 
1882),  Reuss  (5th  ed.,  1874),  Hilgenfeld  (1875). 

(2^  The  general  commentaries  on  the  Gospels, 
by  Olshausen,  De  Wette,  !Meyer,  Lange,  Nast, 
Keil,  Alford,  Wordsworth,  also  the  Speaker's 
(with  an  able  introduction  to  the  Gospels,  by 
Archbishop  Thomson,  1878),  and  those  by  Elli- 
cott,  Schaff  {Internaiional  Recision  Commentary, 
1882). 

(3)  Special  commentaries  on  Matthew  and 
Mark,  by  Morison  and  Alexander;  on  Luke,  by 
Godet;  on  John,  by  Liicke,  Tholuck,  Hengsten- 
berg,  Luthardt,  Westcott  (in  Speaker's),  Milligau 
and  Moulton,  Godet  (3d  ed.,  1881-85,  3  vols.), 
Weiss  (6th  ed.  of  Meyer,  1880). 

(4)  Critical  discussions  on  the  origin,  genuine- 
ness, and  inter-relationship  of  the  Gospels  began 
with  Eichhorn,  Marsh,  and  Schleiermacher.  and 
were  carried  on  chiefly  by  Gieseler,  Baur,  Hilgen- 
feld, Holtzniann,  Ewald,  Renan  {Les  Eroni/ilis, 
1877),  Bleek,  Wieseler,  Ebrard,  Weiss.  Weiz- 
siicker,  the  anonymous  author  of  Supernatural 
Helif/ion,  reviewed  and  refuted  by  Lightfoot  (in 
the  Contemporary  Review,  1875  sqq.). 

(5)  Special  works  on  the  Gospels.  The  most 
useful  and  accessible  are  Tholuck  :  Tlie  Credi- 
bility of  the  Gospel  History  (against  Strauss),  Ham- 
burg, 1838;  Da  Cost.\  :  The  Four  Witnesses  (also 
against  Strauss),  translated  from  the  Dutch, 
London,  1851;  Tisciikxdorf  :  When  were  out- 
Gospels  written?  4th  ed.,  Leipzig,  1866,  translated 
into  several  languages  ;  Xorton  :  The  Evidences 
for  the  Genuineness  of  the  Gospels,  Boston,  1846- 
48,  3  vols.,  abridged  ed.,  Boston,  1875;  Row: 
The  Historical  Character  of  the  Gospels,  London, 
1865-67,  The  Jesus  of  the  Evanyelists,  London, 
1868;  We.stcott  :  introduction  to  the  Gospels, 
London,  1860,  6th  ed.,  1881;  Sanday  :  The  Gos- 
pels in  the  Second  Century,  Loudon,  1876;  D.  S. 
Gregory:  Why  Four  Gospels?  Sew  York,  1877; 
IlriDEKOPEU:  Indirect  Testimony  of  History  to  the 
Gentdneness  of  the  Gospels,  New  York,  2d  ed., 
1879;  John  Kenxki>y:  The  Four  Gospels,  their 
Oriyin  and  Authiirship,  London  and  Piiiladclphia, 
1880  (American  Sunday-School  Union)  ;  Fisher  : 
The  Beyinnings  of  Christianity,  New  York,  1877; 
Ezra  .\iiiiot  :  The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gos- 
pel, Bo.ston,  1880.  Of  older  works,  Lardner'.* 
Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History  (London.  1727-57) 
is  still  very  valuable.  The  best  .synoptically  ar- 
ranged text  is  Rushhrooke's  Synopticon  (Camb.,. 
1880,  1881,  2  parts),  where  the  differences  in  the 
narratives  are  marked  liy  difference  of  type  and 
color,  which  greatly  facilitates  the  comparative 
study  of  the  Gospels.  PHIUI-  SCIIAFF. 

GOSPELLER,  Ihe  woid  was  formally  used  in 
four  .'<enses :  (l)()l'  th(>  followers  of  Wiclif.  be- 
cause they  circulated  the  Scriptures;  (2)  Of  evan- 
gelists ;  (3)  Of  the  reader  of  the  gospel  at  the 
altar  during  the  conununion  service;  (-1 )  Of  those 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
l.and,  who  were  given  to  Bible  reading  and  )ireacli- 
ing.  These  last,  it  would  seem  from  the  remarks 
of  Latimer  and  Cranmer,  were  not  always  .■<(> 
pious  .MS  lliey  pn'ti'n<liMl  to  be. 

GOSSNER,  Johannes  Evangelista,  b.  ut  llau- 


GOTAMA. 


803 


GOTHS. 


sen,  near  Augsburg,  Dec.  14,  1773;  d.  in  Berlin, 
March  120,  1858;  studied  at  Dillingen,  where  he, 
like  Martin  Hoos  and  others,  received  the  tirst 
strong  impulse  towards  evangelical  Christianity. 
Having  been  ordained  priest  in  1797,  he  was  pas- 
tor of  Dirlewang  from  1804  to  1811,  but  changed 
this  charge  for  a  small  benefice  in  Munich  in  order 
to  gain  leisure  for  literary  pursuits.  In  1817  he 
was  dismissed,  however,  as  his  evangelical  ten- 
dencies became  more  and  more  apparent,  and  in 
1826  he  actually  left  the  Roman  Church,  and 
embraced  Protestantism.  From  1829  to  1846  he 
was  minister  at  the  Bethlehem  Church  in  Berlin, 
and  developed  a  great  and  beneficial  activity, 
founding  schools  and  asylums,  and  sending  out 
missionaries  to  heathen  lands.  Ills  institutions 
are  continued.  His  preaching  was  very  plain, 
popular,  effective,  and  thoroughly  evangelical. 
[The  great  church-historian,  Neander,  loved  to 
hear  him  above  all  other  preachers  of  Berlin.] 
His  principal  works,  Schalzkasllein,  Goldkbmer, 
the  Life  of  Boos,  etc.,  were  written  just  before 
his  conversion  was  made  piublic.  His  life  was 
written  by  Bethmann-Hollweg,  Berlin,  1858, 
Prochnow,  Berlin,  1864,  and  H.  Dalton,  Berlin, 
2d  ed..  1878.  W.  HOLLENBERG. 

GOTAMA.     See  Buddhism. 

GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE.  See  Architec- 
ture. 

GOTHIC  VERSIONS.  See  Bible  Versions, 
p.  285. 

GOTHS,  The,  lived  in  the  regions  along  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea,  from  the  Dan- 
ube to  the  Don,  when,  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  it  came  to  a  sharp  conflict  between  them 
and  the  Romans.  They  defeated  and  killed  the 
Emperor  Decius  in  251.  Ten  years  later  on,  they 
secured  a  fleet,  conquered  Trebizond,  destroyed 
the  Temple  of  Diana  in  Ephesus,  and  plundered 
Athens  in  262.  Again  ten  years  passed,  and, 
in  spite  of  the  severe  reverses  they  had  suffered 
in  the  mean  time,  they  compelled  (in  272)  the 
Emperor  Aiirelian  to  cede  to  them  the  jjrovince 
of  Dacia,  situated  between  Moesia  and  Sarmatia, 
and  bounded  by  the  Danube,  the  Theiss,  the  Car- 
pathian ISIountains,  and  the  Black  Sea.  There 
they  quietly  remained  for  about  a  century,  dur- 
ing which  period  a  separation  arose  among  the 
Ostrogoths,  or  East  Goths,  living  to  the  east  of 
the  Pruth,  and  the  Visigoths,  or  West  Goths, 
living  to  the  west  of  the  Pruth.  During  this 
period  they  also  became  acquainted  with  Chris- 
tianity. 

They  brought  back  from  their  campaigns  in 
Moesia,  Thracia,  and  Asia  ^Minor,  Christian  cap- 
tives, and  by  those  captives  the  first  seeds  of 
Christianity  were  sown  among  them.  In  a  letter 
communicating  the  martyrium  of  Sabas  (Act. 
Sanct.,  April  12),  the  Christians  among  the  Gioths 
addressed  the  Cappadocian  congregations  as  their 
mother-church ;  and  what  progress  Christianity 
had  made  through  this  channel  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  there  was  a  Gothic  bishop 
{Theophilus  Golhice  metropolis)  present  at  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicaea,  325.  The  complete  conversion, 
however,  of  the  Goths,  was  the  work  of  Ulfilas 
(318-388)  ;  which  article  see.  He  labored  among 
the  Visigoths,  but  his  influence  reached  also  the 
Ostrogoths.  But  the  Christianity  which  he  estab- 
lished among  the  Goths  was  Arianism ;  and  when. 


in  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  a  great 
portion  of  the  Visigoths,  pushed  beyond  the  Dan- 
ube liy  the  advancing  Huns,  came  to  settli^  within 
the  boundaries  of  tlie  Eastern  Empire,  conflicts 
arose  witli  the  Orthodox  Church.  The  Emperor 
Theodosius  (379-395)  seems  to  liave  treated  the 
matter  with  great  delicacy.  But  his  exertions 
to  bring  the  Goths  over  to  the  Orthodox  Church 
failed,  and  so  did  those  of  Chry.so.stom. 

Immediately  after  the  death  of  Theodosius  the 
Visigoths  arose,  and  began  to  wander.  Under 
the  leadership  of  Alaric  they  invaded  Greece  in 
395,  and  took  and  sacked  iVlhens.  In  402  they 
broke  into  Italy,  and  in  410  they  took  and  sucked 
Rome.  But  it  was  Paganism,  and  not  Christianity, 
which  suffered  under  this  calamity.  The  Pagan 
inhabitants  were  scattered  to  the  winds;  while  the 
Christians  remained,  and  even  enriched  them- 
selves by  appropriating  the  Pagan  temples,  and 
transforming  them  into  Christian  cliurclies.  Ala- 
ric's  son,  Athaulf,  married  Placidia,  sister  to  the 
Emperor  Honorius,  left  Italy,  and  founded  in 
Southern  Gaul  a  (iothic  empire,  with  Toulouse  .as 
his  residence.  Of  the  rulers  of  this  empire  Theod- 
oric  I.  fought  by  the  side  of  the  Roman  governor 
of  Gaul,  Aetius,  on  the  Catalaunian  field  (451), 
against  Attila;  and  Theodoric  II.  invaded  and 
conquered  Spain  (456).  In  the  beginning  the 
Arian  Goths  lived  peaceably  among  the  orthodox 
Romans  and  Romanized  Celts  in  Gaul ;  but  when 
their  king,  Euric  (466-483),  in.-:tituted  persecu- 
tions, partly  from  religious  and  partly  from  politi- 
cal reasons,  the  orthodox  made  an  alliance  witli 
the  Prankish  king,  Clovis,  vvlio  defeated  the  Goths 
at  Vougle,  near  Poitiers  (•507),  and  drove  them 
beyond  the  Pyrenees.  In  Spain  the  Gothic  Empire 
flourished  until  overthrown  by  the  Saracens  after 
the  battle  of  Xeres  de  la  Frontera  (711).  But  in 
Spain  the  Goths  were  converted.  At  the  Council 
of  Toledo  (581),  the  .-Brians  inider  the  king.  Leo- 
vigild,  and  the  Catholics  under  their  metropolitan, 
Leander,  met  together,  and  a  grand  disputation 
was  held,  the  result  of  which  was,  that,  at  the  next 
Council  of  Toledo  (589),  King  Reccared  and  mo.st 
of  his  Gothic  subjects  abjured  Arianism. 

IMeanwhile  the  Ostrogoths  had  first  followed 
.\ttila,  and  fought  with  him  against  Aetius  and 
Theodoric;  then,  after  Attila's  death,  they  sepa- 
rated from  the  Huns,  and  settled  in  Pannonia  ;  and 
finally,  under  their  great  king,  Theodoric  (475- 
526),  they  conquered  Illyria  and  Thessalia  from 
the  Eastern  F^mpire,  defeated  Odoacer  several 
times  in  Northern  Italy,  captured  Rome,  and 
formed  a  great  empire,  bounded  north-we.st  and 
north  by  the  Rhone  and  the  Danube,  and  with 
Ravenna  for  its  capital.  The  Ostrogoths  were 
also  Arians ;  but  Theodoric's  relations  with  the 
Catholic  Church  in  Italy  were  most  friendly.  He 
protected  and  enriched  it,  which,  perhaps,  was  due 
to  the  influence  of  his  councillor,  Cassiodorus. 
Only  when  the  East-Roman  emperor,  Justin, 
issued  edicts  against  the  Arians  among  his  sub- 
jects, and  even  raised  persecutions  against  them, 
Theodoric  was  provoked,  not  to  retaliation,  but 
to  a  kind  of  self-defence.  He  sent  the  Bishop  of 
Rome,  John,  to  Constantinople,  and,  as  this  had 
no  result,  he  felt  suspicious  of  conspiracy:  and 
the  Pope  was  imprisoned,  and  the  senators  Sym- 
machus,  Albinus,  and  Boethius  were  beheaded. 
But   Theodoric   died    the   very   next    year,   and 


GOTTSCHALK. 


894 


GOUGE. 


with  his  death  began  immediately  the  dissolution 
of  the  Ostrogothic  Empire.  During  the  next 
twenty-six  years,  or  until  the  defeat  of  Tejas  by 
Xarses  (552),  the  religious  questions  were  com- 
pletely at  rest;  and,  with  the  death  of  Tejas,  not 
only  the  Ostrogothic  Empire,  but  the  Ostrogoths 
themselves,  disappeared  from  history. 

Lit. — J.  AscHB.vcH  :  Geschichte  d.  Westgothen, 
Francfort,  1827;  K.  KiJPKE:  Das  Konigtkum  bei 
den  Gothen,  Berlin,  1859,  and  especially  Gibbon. 

GOTTSCHALK,  a  monk,  and  the  originator  of 
the  predestination  controversy  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury ;  was,  while  yet  a  child,  brought  to  the  mon- 
astery of  Fulda,  but  protested  afterwards,  when 
he  grew  up,  that  it  had  beeu  done  against  his 
will.  The  synod  of  Mayence  (829)  declared  in 
favor  of  releasing  him  from  his  vow;  but  his 
abbot.  Rabanus,  refused  to  do  so,  and  (lottschalk 
was  sent  to  the  monastery  of  Orbais,  in  the 
diocese  of  Soissons.  where  he  remained  a  monk. 
He  studied  with  passionate  energy,  especially 
Augustine  and  Fulgentius;  and  the  view  he 
adopted  or  developed  he  took  no  pains  to  conceal. 
Already  in  840  Bishop  Noting  of  Verona  told 
Kahanus,  whom  he  met  in  the  emperor's  camp  on 
the  Lahn,  of  the  confusion  Gottschalk  had  caused 
on  a  visit  to  Italy  by  his  views  of  predestination, 
according  to  which  God  was  the  author  of  evil, 
and  forced  the  lost  to  sin.  Afterwards,  when 
Gottsclialk  visited  Italy  a  second  time,  Rabanus, 
now  Archbishop  of  Mayence,  wrote  to  the  Count 
of  Friuli,  and  warned  him  against  the  heresies 
of  the  subtle  monk.  Gottschalk  wandered, 
preaching,  through  Dalmatia  and  Pannonia,  to 
Bavaria,  and  arrived  .at  JIayence  in  the  fall, 
while  the  general  diet  was  sitting.  Before  a 
synod  of  (Jermaii  bishops,  convened  by  Rabanus, 
he  laid  his  confession  of  the  double  predestin.a- 
tion,  and  accused  Rabanus  of  Semi-Pelagianism. 
But  his  doctrines  were  condemned  as  heretical  ; 
and  he  was  sent  to  Hincmar,  Archbishop  of 
Rheims  and  his  metropolitan  superior,  to  be  im- 
jirisoned  and  punished.  In  the  spring  of  849 
Ilincniar  convened  a  synod  of  French  bishops 
at  Quiercy ;  and  not  only  were  the  doctrines 
of  Gottschalk  condemned,  but  his  papers  were 
burnt,  and  he  him.S('If  was  cruelly  whip])e(l,  and 
tlien  shut  up  half  de.ad  in  tlie  dungeon  of  the 
monastery  of  Ilautvilliers,  He  remained,  liow- 
ever,  firm  to  the  last.  On  liis  death-bed  (808) 
the  sacrament  was  offered  him  on  the  condition 
that  he  should  recant;   but  ho  refused. 

Lit,  —  J.  U.SSIIKK  :  Gotleschutri  ct  prwdcul .  con- 
trover,  hinloria,  Dublin,  1031;  Maitgitin:  Vel. 
(iHclor.  de  prmiJest.  el  (jralia,  P.iris,  1050,  2  vols.  4to; 
Cf.i.i.ot:  Ilisioria  Gollescludci,  I'aris,  1055;  ('.  von 
Noohden:  Ilinhmar,  Bonn,  1803;  V,  Bohkascii  : 
Der  MOnch  GuUscIudk,  Thorn,  1808;  and  the  art. 
Pkedestinatiox.  W.  M0I-I,EI{. 

GOTTSCHALK,  ruler  of  the  Wend.s,  and  mar- 
tyr; was  educated  in  the  mon.astery  of  .St.  .Micliael 
at  Luneburg,  but  left  the  monks,  and  abandoned 
Cliristianity  altogether,  as  soon  as  lie  lieard  lliat 
his  father  Uto,  ruler  of  the  Wends,  had  be(>n  killid 
liy  a  .Saxon.  For  the  sake  of  revenge  he  stirred 
uj)  his  countrymen  to  a  frightful  war  again.^t  the 
.Saxons;  and,  ji.s  Christianity  was  one  of  the  most 
conspicuous  institutions  planted  among  the  Wends 
by  the  .Saxons,  the  war  began  with  mass.acring 
the   Cliristians,  and    destroying    their   churches. 


But  Gottschalk  was  finally  defeated  by  Duke  Ber- 
nard of  Saxony,  and  taken  prisoner,  and  in  his 
captivity  he  returned  to  Christianity.  After  a 
stay  of  ten  years  at  the  court  of  Canute  the  Great, 
King  of  Denmark  and  P2ngland,  he  went  back  to 
Wendland,  and  by  the  aid  of  Canute  he  united 
(1047)  Holstein,  Mecklenburg,  Ponierania,  and  tlie 
Brandenburg  marches  into  one  powerful  Wendish 
empire.  He  became  himself  one  of  the  most 
zealous  missionaries  Christianity  ever  had  had  in 
those  regions.  He  translated  the  liturgical  for- 
mulas into  the  Wendish  tongue  ;  he  built  schools, 
churches,  and  monasteries ;  and  he  preached  him- 
self to  his  subjects.  But  there  was  among  the 
Wends  an  actual  hatred  to  Christianity.  It  broke 
out  once  more  ;  and  June  7,  1060,  Gottschalk  was 
murdered  by  his  Pagan  countrymen. 

Lit.  —  The  sources  of  his  life  are  Adam  of 
Bremen:  Gesin  Ponlif.  //nwmoi.,  III.,'and  Hel- 
MOLD:    Clirrin.  Slav.,  I.  20.  WAGENMANN. 

GOUOIMEL,  Claude,  b.  in  Franche-Comtd, 
1510;  killed  in  the  Huguenot  massacre  at  Lyons, 
1572 ;  lived  in  Rome  as  a  music-teacher  in  1540, 
when  Palestrina  studied  there  ;  kept  a  note-print- 
ing establishment  in  Paris,  1555;  entered  the 
Reformed  Church  in  1562,  and  composed  the  tunes 
to  Clement  Marot's  and  Beza's  translations  of  the 
Psalms.  It  is  often  said  that  he  was  the  com- 
poser of  the  Huguenot  hymns,  such  as  they  are 
still  sung  this  very  daj';  but  that  is  a  mistake. 
They  were  composed  by  Louis  Bourgeois  and 
Maltre  Pierre,  and  Goudimel  only  added  the 
accompaniment.  SeeO.  Douen:  Clement  Marot 
et  le  p.'^antier  huijuenot. 

GOUGE,  Thomas,  son  of  William;  h.  at  Bow, 
Middlesex,  .Sept.  1,  1605;  d.  at  London,  Oct.  29, 
1681.  He  was  a  fellow  of  King's  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  obtained  the  living  of  St.  Sepulchre's, 
London  ;  was  ejected  at  the  Restoration  for  non- 
conformity (1002),  .after  which  time  he  devoted 
himself  to  charitable  enterprises.  He  was  par- 
ticularly interested  in  ev.angelization  and  educa- 
tion in  Wales,  and  tr.avelled  annually  tliitlier  to 
jireach,  and  visit  the  schools.  Aided  by  friends, 
lie  had  printed  many  Welsh  Bibles  and  religious 
books  for  distribution  gr.atuitously,  or  at  a  small 
price.  He  spent  his  fortune  in  good  works.  A 
collected  edition  of  his  AVorks,  with  a  short  ac- 
count of  his  life,  was  ]uiblished,  London,  1706. 
His  Surest  and  Safest  Wat/  of  Thririmj  was  re- 
printed, London,  1850,  with  biographical  intro- 
duction liy  Thomas  liinney, 

GOUGE,  William,  D.D.,"b.  in  Stratford  Bow,  in 
Middlesex  County,  Kng.,  Nov.  1,  1.575;  educated 
in  Paul's  School,  London,  by  his  uncle  Ezekiel 
Culverwell,  a  distinguished  Puritan,  and  at  Eton 
School  prepared  for  King's  College,  Cambridge, 
which  he  entered  in  1595,  wher<'  he  became  fellow 
in  three  years,  and  subseijuently  lecturer  of  logic 
and  philosophy.  During  liis  nine  years  at  Cam- 
bridge he  was  never  absent  from  morning  prayers 
in  the  chapel,  aiul  was  so  strict  and  careful  in  all 
his  life  and  studies  as  to  earn  the  title  "an  Areh- 
I'urilan."  Reluctantly  ho  was  withdrawn  from 
his  studies  to  enter  upon  the  .active  work  of  the 
ministry.  He  w,as  ordained  in  .lune,  KidS,  in  the 
parish  of  Bl.ackfriars,  where  he  remained  until 
his  death  (Dec.  12,  1053),  one  of  the  nuist  distin- 
guished preachers  and  pastors  of  the  metropolis, 
accounted  "the  father  of  the  London  diviui'S,  and 


GOULART. 


895 


GRABE. 


the  oracle  of  his  time."  In  his  early  ministry 
he  was  brought  itito  trouble  with  King  James 
and  the  government  by  his  publication  of  Henry 
Finch  on  Tlie  Cnlling  ofihe  ,/ewes  (1()21),  and  was 
thrown  into  prison.  After  nine  weeks  he  was 
released,  having  given  a  statement  of  his  own 
■opinions,  which  were  entirely  orthodox.  lie  took 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  in  IGib.  Several 
volumes  of  his  sermons  were  issued,  The  Whole 
Armour  of  God  (IGIO,  4to,  pp.  523),  Dome.ilic 
DuUes  (1622,  3d  ed.,  lt)34,  4to,  pp.  701),  Guide  to 
gne  to  God  (1626,  4to,  pp.  340),  God's  Three  Arrows 
•(1631,  pp.  176),  The  Saint's  Sacrifice  (1G32.  pp.  290), 
and  others.  He  was  also  distinguished  for  his 
imethod  of  catechising,  which  was  first  published 
without  his  knowledge,  but  afterw-ards  revised  and 
■edited  by  himself  in  many  editions ;  the  eighth 
(1037,  4to)  containing  a  larger  and  lesser  cate- 
chism, with  prayers.  In  1043  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  their  proceedings,  in 
1647,  taking  the  place  of  Herbert  Palmer,  lately 
deceased,  as  one  of  the  assessors.  He  was  on  the 
committee  for  the  ordination  of  ministers,  and  was 
chosen  with  others  to  write  the  Assembly's  Anno- 
tations on  the  Bible,  his  part  being  from  1  Kings 
to  Job.  He  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the 
We.stminstei  Confession  of  Faitli  and  in  the  con- 
flict with  the  separatists  of  the  day.  He  was 
•chosen  prolocutor  of  the  first  Provincial  Assembly 
■of  London,  May  3,  1647,  and  was  a  recognized 
leader  of  tlie  London  ministers,  imiting  with  them 
in  protesting  against  the  murder  of  Charles  I. 
.and  the  usurpations  of  Cromwell.  His  last  work 
was  his  Commeiilarii  on  the  Epistle  to  tlie  Hebretcs, 
which  he  barely  lived  to  finish,  and  which  was 
published  after  his  death,  by  his  son,  in  16.55 
(2  vols  folio),  —  a  very  able  and  useful  work  of 
exposition,  and  of  permanent  value  to  the  Church. 
For  further  information,  see  his  Life  by  his  son, 
in  the  Introduction  to  the  folio  edition  of  the 
Commcnt<iri/  on  Hehreirs :  also  in  Clark's  Lives 
.ofS2  Kngl'ish  DIrines,  3d  ed.,  1677;  Reid's  Mem. 
of  Westminster  Divines,  1811;  Brook:  LIres  of 
Puritans,  vol.  III.  p.  165.  C.   A.  BKIGGS. 

GOULART,  Simon,  b.  at  Senlis,  1543;  d.  at 
Geneva,  1628;  was  pastor,  and,  after  the  death 
■of  Beza,  president  of  the  clergy  of  Geneva.  He 
was  a  learned  man  and  a  jirolific  writer,  though 
most  of  his  works  (of  which  a  list  is  given  in 
Senebier.  HIstcire  litleraire  de  Geneve,  II.  72)  are 
■collections  ;  as .  for  instance,  Memoires  de  la  Lir/ne, 
Geneva,  159U-99,  6  vols.,  re-edited  and  augmented 
by  Goujet,  Amsterdam,  1758;  Recueil  des  choses 
memnrahlcs  sous  Henri  II.,  1598,  etc. 

GOVINDA.     See  Sikh.s. 

GO'ZAN  (Heb.  \m;  Assyr.  Gu-za-na;  LXX. 
Vuiliiv)  is  mentioned  in  the  following  passages  of 
the  Old  Testament:  2  Kings  xvii.  6,  xviii.  11, 
six.  12  (==  Isa.  xxxvii.  12)  ;  1  Chron.  v.  26. 
From  these  we  learn  that  it  w-as  a  place  which 
Assyrian  kings  had  sulijugated,  and  that  by  the 
"river  of  Gozan  "  (=the  Habor;  Assyr.  Hahnr) 
the  conqueror  of  Samaria  (Sargon),  and  Tiglath 
Pileser,  or  Pul,  before  him,  had  made  settlements 
of  Israelitish  captives.  The  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions locate  fiozan  between  the  Tigris  and  the 
Fjuphrates.  Its  proximity  to  the  Habor.  a  large 
■eastern  tributary  of  the  Euphrates,  and  its  men- 
tion (2  Kings  xix.  12;  Isa.  xxxvii.  12)  in  con- 
5-II 


nection  with  the  Mesopotamian  names  Haran, 
llezeph,  and  B'lie  Eden,  are  additional  proofs  of 
this  location.  (Jozan  was  originally  the  name  of 
a  city,  and  always  appears  with  the  prefix  "city" 
in  the  inscriptions:  later  the  name  seems  to  have 
been  applied  to  a  district.  It  is  in  all  likelihood 
the  rnv,7Tif  of  Ptolemy  {Geogr.,  V.  17  (18),  ed. 
Wilberg.),  lying  in  Northern  Mesopotamia. 

Lit.  —  G.  Rawi.inso.n  :  Five  Great  Oriental 
Monarchies,  4th  ed.,  Lond.,  1880,  N.Y.,  1881  ;  E. 
SCHR.\DER :  Kelllnschriften  und  Geschirhts/'ursr/iung, 
Giessen,  1878;  Friedu.  Delitzscii  :  Wo  lag  das 
Paradies?  Leipz.,  1881.  FRANCIS  BROWN. 

GRAAL,  The  Holy  (also  called  ".St.  Grail," 
"Sangreal,"etc.,  and  incorrectly  spelled  "Grail"), 
is  the  name  of  the  bowl  out  of  whicli  our  Lord, 
on  the  night  of  his  betrayal,  ate  the  Paschal  lamb. 
It  was  removed  from  the  upper  room  by  Josejili 
of  Arimathea,  and  used  by  him  to  catch  the  blood 
from  Christ's  wounds  as  the  body  was  taken  down 
from  the  cross.  Joseph  carried  it  with  him  to 
Britain,  whither  he  was  sent  by  Philip  the  Evan- 
gelist. The  Holy  Cinaal  figures  largely  in  the 
Arthurian  legends,  and  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
Tennyson's  idyls.  It  had  miraculous  qualities. 
By  it  Joseph  was  kept  alive,  without  food,  for 
forty-two  years  while  imprisoned  by  the  Jews ; 
and  by  it  he  was  spiritually  enlightened.  One 
of  Joseph's  descendants,  to  whom  the  keeping  of 
the  Holy  Graal  had  come,  proved  unworthy,  and 
the  cup  was  lost.  Arthur's  knights  endeavored 
to  recover  it;  but  all  save  Sir  ("lalahad  failed, 
because  it  could  not  be  found  by  any  one  who 
was  not  a  virgin  in  body.  Several  churches  in 
France  and  Italy  claimed  to  have  it;  and  there 
is  now  in  Genoa  a  cup  brought  by  the  Crusaders 
of  1101,  which  was  at  one  time  considered  the 
Holy  Ciraal.  The  explanation  of  all  this  is.  that 
by  the  Holy  Graal  is  meant  the  holy  wafer  wliich 
has  been  transmuted  into  the  veritable  body  fif 
Christ.  The  legend  is,  therefore,  a  legend  of  the 
Eucharist.  The  "quest  of  the  Holy  Graal"  is 
the  attempt  to  see  the  Saviour  as  he  is  revealed 
in  the  Eucharist. 

"The  word  'graal'  is  a  corruption  of  gradale, 
or  graduale,  the  Latin  name  for  a  liturgical  col- 
lection of  psalms,  and  texts  of  Scripture,  so  called 
because  they  are  sung  as  tlie  priest  is  passing 
from  the  epistle  to  the  gospel  side  of  the  altar. 
The  author  of  the  Graal  conception  meant  by 
graal,  or  gradale,  not  the  sacred  dish  (escuelle), 
but  the  mysterious  book  revealed  to  the  supposed 
hermit  of  717,  in  which  he  finds  the  history  of  the 
escuelle."  The  author  of  the  legend  was  probably 
Walter  Map,  a  canon  of  Salislmry.  in  the  twelfth 
century.  From  England  it  spread  all  over  Europe. 
Besides  the  derivation  already  given,  there  are 
others,  as  from  the  Old  French  grasal  ("the  sac- 
ramental cup  "),  a  corruption  of  sanguinis  realls. 
corrupted  to  snngrn.^al.  sangreal.  See  the  compre- 
hensive article  of  Thomas  Arnold,  in  the  9th 
ed.  Enojcl.  Britann.,  vol.  xi.  pp.  34-36;  also  ViL- 
LEMARQUE:  Les  romans  de  la  table  ronde.  Paris, 
1860;  F.  J.  Furnivall's  edition  of  a  manu- 
script History  of  the  Holy  Grail.  London.  1874; 
Paulin  Paris  :  Romans  de  la  table  ronde,  Paris, 
1876;  E.  HncHER:  Le  St.  Graal.  on  le  Joseph 
d'Arimnlhie.  Le  IMans,  1875-79,  3  vols. 

GRABE,  Johann  Ernst,  b.  at  Kdnigsberg,  July 
10,  1666;  d.  in   London.  Nov.  13,  1711;  went  to 


GRACE. 


896 


GRAHAM. 


England  in  1697,  and  was  made  chaplain  of 
Christ  Church,  Oxford,  1700.  He  is  famous  for 
his  editions  of  the  .Septuatjint  (Oxford,  1707-20, 
4  vols.).  Spicilei/inm  ^S.  Ptilrum  el  hierelicorum 
sac,  i.,  ii.  (1698-99,  Hd  ed.,  1714,  2  vols.),  Juslini 
apologia  prima  (1700),  Irenm  adversus  Hareses 
Libri  V.  (1702). 

GRACE.  The  grace  of  God  is  the  imderlying 
principle  and  essential  characteristic  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  The  doctrine  has  a  place,  and  sheds 
a  peculiar  lu.stre,  in  all  the  five  divisions  of  sys- 
tematic theology.  It  is  to  a  certain  extent  the 
crown  of  the  divine  attributes,  appears  in  anthro- 
pology as  the  decree  of  salvation,  is  the  f\inda- 
mental  idea  of  Christ's  life  and  work,  underlies 
tiie  agency  of  the  Spirit,  and  accomplishes  its 
perfect  work  in  the  consummation  of  redemption 
in  the  life  to  come. 

(iod  shows  himself  gracious  by  hearing  prayer 
(Exod.  xxii.  27),  foregoing  wrath  (xxxii.  12), 
and  making  his  face  to  shine  upon  the  good 
(Xuni.  vi.  2u).  The  Scriptures  represent  grace 
as  the  twin,  now  of  truth  (I's.  xcviii.  'i;  John  i. 
14),  now  of  justice  (Hos.  ii.  19).  John  (i.  16), 
Paul  (Rom.  iii.  24),  and  Peter  (1  I'et.  i.  13) 
agree  in  defining  the  fundamental  principle  of 
Christianity  by  the  one  word  "grace."  Some 
of  the  older  tlieologians  connected  it  with  the 
divine  love ;  others,  with  the  divine  goodness.  A 
distinction  has  been  made  between  grace,  mercy, 
and  long-suffering  in  this  way :  grace  is  God's 
goodness  to  the  sinner,  who  does  not  deserve  it 
(Eph.  ii.  5,  8);  mercy,  his  goodness  to  the  suffer- 
ing (Ps.  xxv.  2);  and  long-suffering,  his  goodness 
in  delaying  the  punishment  of  sin,  and  affording 
the  sinner  further  time  to  repent.  .Some  of  the 
modern  theologians  almost  pass  by  grace  in  the 
discussion  of  the  attributes;  and  Schleiermaoher 
(§  80)  defines  it  as  the  power  of  the  diviue  con- 
sciousness in  the  soul.  Grace  is  the  benevolence 
of  (iod  extended  towards  sinners,  and  overcoming 
their  resistance  by  ethical  means.  It  is  its  very 
nature  to  destroj'  the  guilt  of  sin,  and  redeem  the 
sinner.  It  was,  liowever,  not  for  the  first  time 
called  into  exercise  at  the  fall,  but  was  active  in 
the  eternal  good  pleasure  (tichKiu)  and  foreordi- 
nation  (Tr/joyvucrif)  of, God.  It  is  the  harmonious 
co-working  of  love  and  justice.  The  relation  of 
grace  to  mercy  is  this:  grace  removes  guilt,  mercy 
removes  misery  from  all  creatures  that  suffer. 
Hut  they  not  only  remove,  they  make  evil  to  work 
out  the  good.  Grace  transforms  [imputed]  guilt 
into  a  saving  penalty;  and  mercy  transforms 
death  into  tlie  poison  of  death,  or  the  effectual 
means  of  redemption. 

Hut  the  grace  of  (iod  is  more  than  an  attribute 
of  his  nature,  it  is  the  very  soul  of  revelation. 
God's  etijrnal  decree  of  grace  (Eph.  i.  5)  includes 
the  foreknowledge  and  election  of  the  sinner,  and 
in  its  revelation  founds  the  covenant  of  grace,  and 
after  tlie  fall  establishes  the  kingdom  of  grace. 
This  distinction  between  the  covenant  of  grace 
and  the  covenant  of  works  has  been  most  insist- 

•  d  upon  by  Reformed  theologians,  especially  by 

•  'occejus  (Summa  docl.  dejiedcre  el  testamciitix  JJei, 
I.ugd.  Bat.,  lO'lS).  The  purpose  of  divine  grace 
which  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  O.  T.  dispensa- 
tion ((ien.  iii.  1.5)  is  fully  realized  in  the  life  of 
Christ  (Tit.  ii.  11,  iii.  1).  Christ's  very  nature  is 
grace  (Rom.  iii.  25)  ;  and  lience  his  life  was  a 


continuous  agency  of   grace,  and  its  consumma- 
tion the  atonement  for  the  sin  of  the  world. 

The  doctrine  of  grace  finds  its  full  development 
in  the  work  of  the  Spirit  and  the  application  of 
the  benefits  of  the  atonement.  The  operations 
of  grace  w'hich  are  designed  to  apply  salvation  are 
the  victories  of  the  sin-destroying  and  redeeming 
spirit  of  Christ  over  the  con.sciousness  of  guilt  in 
the  human  heart.  The  IIolj'  Spirit  is  the  medi- 
ator of  grace,  convincing  the  world  of  sin,  etc. 
(John  xvi.  8),  teaching  it(2  Tim.  iii.  Kii,  guiding 
it  into  the  way  of  all  truth  (John  xvi.  13),  and 
helping  it  (Rom.  viii.  26).  and  uses  means  of 
grace,  such  as  the  sacraments,  prayers,  the  word, 
etc.  The  distinction  has  been  made  of  universal 
and  saving  grace.  Saving  grace  has,  in  turn, 
been  distinguished  into  prevenienl,  which  acts 
upon  the  sinner  before  repentance;  convertivg^ 
w  hich  effects  conversion ;  and  co-operant,  or  in- 
dwelling, which  operates  upon  the  believer  as  a^ 
sanctifying  pow  er.  According  to  Calvinism,  grace 
is  irresistible :  but  the  Roman  Catholics,  Armin- 
ians,  and  Socinians  allow  a  co-operation  of  the 
human  will  before  conversion.  The  Lutheran 
Church,  on  the  other  h.and,  attempted  to  take  a 
middle  course  between  .strict  predestinarianism 
(to  which  Luther  assents  in  the  De  servo  (irhilrio} 
and  synergism.  Differences  also  exist  on  the 
question  of  the  possibility  of  falling  from  grace; 
the  Arminian,  and,  less  confidently,  the  Lutheran 
theologians,  affirming,  the  Calvinistic  denying  it. 

The  grace  of  tiod  in  Christ  has  established  a 
kingdom  of  grace  which  lies  intermediate  be- 
tween the  kingdoms  of  power  and  glory.  This 
kingdom  is  the  Christian  Church,  so  far  as  Ch.rist's 
word  and  spirit  rule  in  her.  Connected  herewith 
is  the  idea  of  the  duration  of  the  period  of  grace. 
For  the  world,  it  is  limited  by  the  general  judg- 
ment; for  the  individual,  it  readies  out  through 
purgatory, according  to  the  Roman-Catholic  view: 
according  to  the  Scriptures,  however,  it  is  meas- 
ured by  the  obduracy  of  the  sinner.  But  the 
Church  ]iro]ierly  regards  the  termination  of  the 
lives  of  the  impenitent  as  a  judgment,  so  long  as 
this  is  not  confused  with  the  final  judgment. 
The  design  of  grace,  however,  is  the  perfection 
of  man,  and  his  glorification  in  heaven.  The 
reward  he  will  there  receive  will  be  in  conse- 
quence of  works  of  faith ;  but  he  will  receive  it 
iqion  the  basis  of  grace,  and  from  the  hands  of 
grace.  .1.  P.  LANGE. 

GRADUAL,  a  part  of  a  psalm  chanted  in  the 
mass  between  the  epistle  and  the  gospel;  former- 
ly called  (intiplionnriiim,  or  nsponsorium  ;  received 
the  name  of  "gradual "  from  its  being  sung  from 
the  steps  ((/r(idi(s)  leading  up  to  the  altar. 

GRAHAM,  Isabella,  an  cmiuent  Christian  phi- 
lanthropist;  b.  in  Lanark,  Scotland,  July  29, 
1742;  d.  in  Xew  York,  July  27,  1814.  She 
joined  the  Presbyterian  Church  at  Paisley  under 
Dr.  Witherspoon,  afterwards  president  of  Prince- 
ton College.  In  1765  slu^  married  Dr.  (iraham, 
a  surgeon  in  the  English  army,  with  whom  she 
went  to  Canada,  and  subsequently  to  Antigua, 
where  he  died  (1774).  Returning  in  poverty  to 
Scotland,  she  taught  school  in  I'aisley  ana  in 
Edinburgh.  In  1789,  at  the  advice  of  Dr.  With- 
erspoon, she  embarked  for  New  York,  where  she 
established  a  successful  seminary  for  young 
ladies. 


GRAHAME. 


897 


GRATRY. 


Mrs.  Graham  was  foremost  among  the  women 
of  her  day,  in  New- York  City,  in  all  benevolent 
enterprises.  She  was  a  pioneer  in  "  woman '.s 
work  for  woman  "  in  America.  In  1796  she 
formed  the  New- York  missionary  society  for  the 
Indians,  and  in  1797  helped  to  found  the  society 
for  the  relief  of  poor  widow.s  with  small  children, 
ill  1806  presided  at  a  meeting  for  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  first  asylum  for  orphan  children  in 
the  city,  and  in  1811  of  a  Magdalene  society. 
She  was  also  widely  known  for  lier  activity  in  the 
church  (Dr.  John  Mason's)  with  which  she  was 
■connected,  and  for  distributing  Bibles  among 
the  poor,  long  before  the  Bible  Society  was  es- 
tablished. See  Life  and  Leileiv,  last  edition, 
London,  1838 ;  Mason  (her  pastor) :  Life  of  Isa- 
hella  Graham,  Tract  Society,  New  York ;  Mrs. 
Bktiiune  (mother  of  Dr.  Bethune,  and  her 
<lauL;hter)  :  Letters  and  Correspondence  of  Mrs. 
Oniluim,  1838. 

CRAHAME,  James,  a  religious  poet;  b.  at 
•(ilasgow,  April  22,  1765;  d.  at  Sedgefield,  Dur- 
iiam,  Eng.,  Sept.  14,  1811.  After  practising  law 
for  many  years,  he  took  orders  in  the  Chm-ch  of 
England,  and  became  curate  of  .Shipton  and 
Sedgefield  successively.  He  is  best  known  as 
the  author  of  The  Sahhalh  (18()-4),  a  poem  in 
blank  verse,  descriptive  of  the  sabbath  of  his 
native  land,  and  "  characterized  by  a  fine  vein  of 
tender  and  devotional  feeling,  and  by  a  happy 
•delineation  of  .Scottish  scenery." 

GRANDMONT,  or  GRAMMONT,  Order  of, 
<ine  of  the  many  religious  orders  arising  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eleventh  century;  was  founded 
in  1073  by  Stephanus  of  Tigerno,  whose  life  has 
been  written  by  Gerhard,  the  seventh  prior  of 
Grandmont,  and  is  found  in  Martenk  and  Du- 
KAND  (Amplisx.  CoUeriio,  VI.  p.  1050).  Born  at 
Thiers  (Tigerno),  1016,  he  was  educated  by 
Bishop  ]Milo  of  Benevento,  and  returned  to 
France  in  1073,  having  obtained  permission  of 
Gregory  VII.  to  found  a  religious  order  after  the 
model  of  the  Calabrian  monks.  lie  settled  in 
Auvergne,  at  Muret,  and  found  followers.  After 
his  death,  Feb.  8,  1124,  his  disciples  moved  to 
the  desert  of  Grandmont,  after  which  they  were 
called.  The  third  successor  of  Stephen  (Stephen 
•of  Lisias)  put  down  the  rules  of  the  order  in 
writing,  and  the  eighth  prior  (Ademar  of  Frias) 
gave  a  new  and  still  more,  rigorous  set  of  rules. 
The  oi-der  suffered  very  much  from  internal  dis- 
.seusions,  and  was  finally  dissolved  during  the 
revolution.  See  Mabillon  :  Anna!.  Ord.  S. 
Bened.,  V. ;  and  Helyot  :  Histoire  des  orders 
mnnaMiques,  Paris,  1714-19,  8  vols.  (vii.  pp.  470- 
493).  ZOCKLER. 

GRANT,  Asahel,  MiD.,  an  American  mission- 
;ary;  b.  in  Marshall,  N.Y.,  Aug.  17,  1807;  d.  at 
Mosul,  Persia,  April  24,  1844.  He  was  practising 
medicine  in  Utica,  when  his  interest  was  excited 
in  missions,  and  he  was  commissioned  in  1835 
by  the  American  Board  to  labor  among  the  Nes- 
torians  of  Persia.  The  chief  seat  of  his  labors 
was  Oroomiah.  He  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
Persian  officials,  and,  in  the  terrible  war  of  the 
Khoords  against  the  Nestorians,  succeeded  in 
mitigating  the  sufferings  of  the  latter.  Dr.  Grant 
published  The  Nestorians,  or  the  Lost  Tribes,  Lon- 
don, 1841,  3d  ed.,  1844.  See  Lothrop  :  Memoir 
■of  A.   Grant,  M.D.,  New  York,   1847;  Laurie: 


Grant  and  the  Mountain  Nestorians,  Boston,  3d  ed., 
1856. 

GRATIAN,    b.    at    Sirmium,    359;    killed    at 

rayons,  Aug.  25,  383;  followed  his  father,  Valen- 
tinian  I.,  on  the  throne  of  the  West-Roman 
Empire,  375,  and  his  uncle  Valeiis,  on  that  of 
the  East-Roman  Empire,  378.  In  the  last  year 
he  chose  Theodosius  as  co-regent.  The  policy 
which  he  pursued  with  respiect  to  tlie  Cliurch. 
and  in  which  he  was  pushed  still  farther  onward 
by  Theodosius,  was  of  decisive  consequences. 
Religious  liberty  reigned ;  that  is.  Paganism. 
Arianism,  and  Catholicism  were  allowed  to  fight 
each  other  with  what  means  they  possessed. 
Under  the  influence  of  Ambrosius,  Gratian  made 
Catholicism  not  only  the  ruling,  but  the  only 
tolerated  Church.  In  376  he  forbade  all  heretics 
to  assemble  for  any  religious  purpiose,  confiscated 
the  property  belonging  to  their  churches,  and 
transferred  the  buildings  to  the  Catholics.  In 
377  he  exempted  all  officers  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  down  to  the  osteariiis,  from  all  municipal 
services  and  .all  personal  taxes,  and  in  379  he 
even  made  the  retail  trade  which  the  lower 
clergy  was  used  to  carry  on  in  Illyria,  Italy,  and 
Gaul,  free  of  duty.  In  381  the  Council  of  Con- 
stantinople spoke  the  anatliema  over  all  non- 
Nicsean  denominations.  After  the  accession  of 
Theodosius,  Paganism  was  treated  with  the  same 
severity  as  heretical  Christianity.  In  381  apos- 
tates from  Christianity  to  Paganism  lost  their 
right  to  make  a  will.  In  382  all  sacerdotal 
privileges,  even  those  of  the  vestal  virgins,  and 
all  state-support,  were  withdrawn  from  Paganism, 
and  real  estate  belonging  to  the  Pagan  temples 
was  confiscated.  Edicts  against  sacrifices,  harus- 
pices,  etc.,  followed.  The  altar  of  victory  in 
the  hall  of  the  senate  was  removed;  and  the 
emblems  of  the  office  of  Pontifex  Maximus  Gra- 
tian declined  to  accept,  because  they  were  to  him, 
as  a  Christian,  a  scandal.  Of  course,  for  these 
measures,  the  Pagan  historians  compared  him 
with  Nero ;  while   the  Catholics  almost   deified 

him.  ADOLF  HARNACK. 

GRATIAN,  the  composer  of  the  Decretmn  Gra- 
tiani ;  was  a  monk,  first  in  Closse,  near  Ravenna, 
afterwards  in  St.  Felix,  in  Bologna ;  but  the 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown. 
About  his  work,  which  he  finished  in  1141  or 
1151,  see  the  art.  on  Canon  Law. 

GRATRY,  Father,  b.  at  Lille,  March  30,  1805; 
d.  at  Montreux,  near  Lausanne,  Feb.  7,  1872; 
studied  in  Paris,  but  entered,  after  having  de- 
termined to  devote  his  life  to  the  service  of  God, 
the  convent  of  Buchenberg  in  the  Vosges.  After 
the  revolution  of  1830,  the  convent  was  dissolved, 
and  Father  Gratry  was  appointed  teacher  of  the- 
ology and  philosophy,  first  in  the  seminary  of 
Stra'ssburg  (lS.30-42)',  afterwards  in  the  StanisLas 
College,  in  Paris  (1842-47).  In  1852  he  renewed 
the  order  of  the  Oratorians;  and  from  1868  lie 
lectured  on  theology  and  philosophy  in  the  Sor- 
bonne.  He  followed  a  somewhat  similar  direc- 
tion as  that  of  Lamennais,  Lacordaire,  and 
Montalembert;  but  he  was  of  a  milder  and  more 
poetic  disposition.  During  the  Council  of  the 
V.atican  he  published  four  letters  in  opposition 
to  the  doctrine  of  papial  infallibility ;  but,  when 
the  dogma  was  promulgated,  he  accepted  it. 
Most  of  his  works  are  half  devotional,  and  half 


GRAUL.. 


898 


GREECE. 


scientific,  —  La  Connaissance  de  Dteu,  Lettres  sur 
la  religion  (against  positivism),  La  Morale  et  la 
lot  de  r/ii.iloire  (au  exposition  of  his  social  ideas), 
Meditations,  etc. 

CRAUL,  Karl,  b.  at  Worlitz,  in  Anhalt-Dessau, 
Feb.  P.  1814;  d.  at  Erlangen,  Nov.  10,  1864; 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig;  lived  for  some  time 
in  Italy  as  tutor,  and  teacher  of  French  in  an 
English  family ;  published  in  184.3  a  translation 
of  Dante's  Inferno,  with  theological  explanations; 
and  was  in  1844  appointed  director  of  the  mis- 
sionary society  in  Dresden.  This  institution  he 
gradually  raised  from  a  very  subordinate  to  a 
very  prominent  position,  making  it  the  mission- 
ary organ  of  the  whole  Lutheran  Church,  instead 
of  a  mere  appendix  to  the  missionary  society  of 
Basel.  In  1848  he  had  it  removed  to  Leipzig 
in  order  to  give  the  students  the  benefit  of  the 
university.  The  point  upon  which  he  concen- 
trated the  energy  of  the  institution  was  the 
Tamils,  a  nation  of  about  twelve  millions  of 
souls  in  Southern  India;  and  the  object  was  not 
simply  to  make  converts,  but  to  convert  the 
whole  people.  From  1849  to  1853  he  made  a 
visit  to  the  country  himself,  published  a  descrip- 
tion of  his  journey  (in  five  volumes,  Leipzig, 
1853-55),  wrote  a  Tamil  grammar,  and  brought 
back  some  of  the  principal  monuments  of  Tamil 
literature,  which  he  edited,  partly  with  German, 
and  partly  with  English  translations  (Bibliotheca 
Tamulica,  Leipzig,  1854-56,  3  vols.).  His  views 
of  the  attitude  which  the  missionary  ought  to 
assume  with  respect  to  the  question  of  caste, 
differed  radically  from  those  entertained  by  the 
English  missionaries;  which  occa.sioned  him  to 
publish  an  English  pamphlet  at  Madras  (1852), 
and  a  German  at  Leipzig  (1861),  in  their  defence. 
In  1860  his  failing  health  compelled  him  to 
retire.  Among  his  other  works  are  Unterschei- 
dungslehren  (1815,  0th  ed.  by  Harnack,  1872), 
Indi.tche  Sinnjiflanzcn  (1864),  etc.       LUTHARDT. 

GRAVEN   IMAGES.     See  Idol.\tuy. 

GRAVES,  Richard,  D.D.,  b.  at  Kilfinnan,  Ire- 
land, Oct.  1,  1763;  d.  March  20,  1820;  Dean  of 
Ardagh,  and  Regius  Professor  of  divinity,  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  1813;  autlior  of  the  Donnellan 
Lectures  for  1797-1801,  On  the  Four  Last  Books  of 
the  Pentateuch,  London,  1807,  2  vols.  His  whole 
works  were  collected  (London,  1840,  4  vols.)  with 
a  biography  by  lii.s  .son. 

GREECE,  The  Kingdom  of,  such  as  its  boun- 
daries were  fixed  by  the  great  powers  of  Europe, 
July  21,  1832,  comprises  an  area  of  19,353  square 
miles,  and  has  (according  to  the  census  of  1879) 
1,679,775  inhabitants,  of  whom  an  immense  ma- 
jority belong  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church. 
By  tlie  treaty  of  Berlin,  Thessaly  has  been  added 
U>  the  kingdom.  In  1870  there  were  in  (!reece 
12,585  Roman  Catholics,  2,582  Jews,  and  917 
belonging  to  other  religious  communities.  In 
1879  there  were  16,084  persons  in  the  country 
not  belonging  to  the  .State  Church. 

At  the  begintiing  of  the  Christian  era  those 
territories  which  now  form  the  kingdom  of 
Greece  formed  the  Roman  province  of  Achaia. 
The  proconsul  resided  at  Corintli,  which,  politi- 
cally and  commercially,  was  the  most  important 
city  of  the  country.  As  a  place,  however,  of 
learning  and  art,  Athens  still  held  the  first  rank. 
It  was  almost  indispensable  for  a  Roman  youth 


who  wanted  to  distinguish  himself  in  life  to  gc^ 
to  Athens  and  study.  Her  schools  of  grammar, 
rhetoric,  dialectics,  and  philosophy,  were  crowded  ; 
though  they  had  lost  all  productivity,  and  labored 
only  as  educational  institutions.  Christianity 
was  first  planted  in  these  regions  by  Paul,  on  hfs 
second  voyage  (51).  He  first  visited  Philippi 
(Acts  xvi.  12),  then  Thessalouica.  Beraea.  Athens, 
and  Corinth  (xvii.,  xviii.):  only  th'e  last  two- 
cities  belonged  to  Achaia.  But,  while  the  con- 
gregation of  Corinth  became  one  of  Paul's  most 
brilliant  and  most  important  foundations,  very 
little  is  heard  of  the  congregation  of  Athens. 
Paul's  stay  there  was  very  brief;  but  his  address- 
on  Mars'  Hill  was  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
speeches  in  history,  whether  we  consider  the 
speaker,  the  audience,  or  the  theme  (xvii.  22-31). 
Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  converted  on  this  occa- 
sion, is  said  to  have  been  its  first  bishop.  The 
reason  why  the  first  city  in  the  world,  in  intel- 
lectual respects,  showed  itself  so  singularly  back- 
ward in  its  relation  to  Christianity,  was,  no  doubt,, 
the  presence  of  the  above-mentioned  schools, 
which  made  it  the  very  centre  of  Paganism. 
They  were  closed  by  Justinian,  A.D.  529.  In  the 
interior  of  Peloponnesus,  Pagans  were  found  as 
late  as  the  fourteenth  century.  Leo  the  Isaurian, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  laid 
Achaia  under  the  authority  of  the  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople ;  and  there  it  remained  for  more 
than  a  thousand  years. 

During  the  war  of  independence  (1821-27> 
the  connection  between  the  Church  of  Greece 
and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  gradually 
loosened :  he  received  no  reverence  from  the 
country,  and  the  ecclesiastics  he  appointed  and 
sent  thither  were  not  accepted.  Capodistrias 
favored  the  separation  ;  and  (Julj'  23,  1833)  the 
regency  took  the  decisive  step,  and  declared,  on 
the  instance  of  thirty-six  metropolitans  assembled 
at  Xauplia,  that  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Greece 
was  independent  of  any  foreign  authority.  The 
new  church  organization  was  moulded  after  the- 
model  of  the  Russian  Church;  but  the  union  of 
Church  and  State  is  not  nearly  so  intimate,  be- 
cause the  present  king  is  a  Protestant  (Lutheran), 
from  Denmark,  while  the  Czar  is  actual  licad  of 
the  Church  in  Russia.  At  the  head  of  the  whole 
Church  was  placed  a  permanent  synod,  con.sisting 
of  two  royal  officials  and  five  ecclesiastics,  clioseu 
annually  by  the  king.  This  synod,  in  wliose 
discussions  the  royal  officials  liave  a  right  to  par- 
ticipate, though  without  voting,  has  full  authority 
in  all  purely  spiritual  matters ;  but  in  matters 
also  presenting  a  civil  aspect,  such  as  marriage, 
divorce,  excommunication  of  laymen,  ajipoint- 
ment  of  feasts  and  fasts,  etc.,  it  shares  its  au- 
thority with  the  civil  government.  At  the  same 
time  the  ecclesiastical  division  of  the  country 
was  made  to  correspond  with  the  political,  and 
the  number  of  monasteries  was  reduccil  ;  that  of 
male  monasteries  from  400  to  82,  that  of  female 
to  tliree,  —  probably  with  an  eye  to  tlie  fact  that 
in  (ireece  are  more  men  than  women  (a  majority 
of  82,385  in  1870).  The  country  is  divided  into 
eleven  archbishoprics  and  thirteen  bisho|)rics. 
An  archbishoji's  salary  is  a  hundred  and  eighty 
]iounds;  a  bisliop's,  a  hundred  and  forty-five 
(lounds:  tliey  are  paid  by  tlie  State.  The  lower 
clergy  is  not   paid   at  all,  but  lives  by  fees  for 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


899 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


prayers,  exorcisms,  consecrations,  imrifications, 
and  other  spiritual  services.  The  total  number 
of  ecclesiastics  was  5,102  in  1861.  There  were 
1,600  monks  and  1,500  nuns  in  1879. 

In  Greece  the  Church  forms  the  strongest  band 
around  the  nation,  —  much  stronger  than  either 
blood  or  speech.  During  the  war  of  independ- 
ence the  Moslems  of  Crete  and  the  Latins  of 
Syros  sided  with  the  Turks,  though  they  were  of 
the  purest  Greek  descent,  and  spoke  the  Greek 
language.  Under  such  circumstances  it  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at  that  the  missions  which  have 
been  established  in  the  country  by  the  Protestant 
Church,  by  the  Episcopal  Church,  by  the  Ameri- 
can Board  of  Missions,  and,  lately,  by  the  Danish 
Church,  have  had  very  little  success.  In  1836 
the  Archbishop  of  Attica  excommunicated  all 
the  families  which  allowed  their  children  to  be 
educated  in  the  English  and  American  mission 
schools,  though  the  religious  instruction  was 
given  there  by  a  member  of  the  Orthodox  Cireek 
Church.  It  was  hoped  that  the  university  estab- 
lished at  Athens  iu  1837  would  have  an  influence 
on  this  stubborn  narrowness.  But  of  its  twelve 
hundred  and  forty-four  students  in  1872,  only 
twenty-six  studied  theology.  Besides  the  theo- 
logical faculty  of  the  university,  there  are  four 
theological  seminaries,  one  in  Athens,  and  three 
in  the  provinces;  but  they  had  in  1872  only  a 
hundred  and  fifteen  students  in  all.  The  lower 
clergy  in  Greece  receives  no  education  at  all.  The 
Anglican  Church  maintains  five  chaplains  in 
.\thens,  Syros,  Patras,  Corfu,  and  Zante,  who 
stand  under  the  Bishop  of  Gibraltar. 

Protealdiil  jMisxinii:'  in  Athens. — These  are  not 
extensive.  1.  The  pioneer  missionary  was  the 
Rev.  John  Henry  Hill,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  New  York, 
Sept.  11,  1791 ;  sailed  with  his  wife  for  Athens, 
September,  1830 ;  d.  there  July  1,  1882.  He  was 
careful  to  avoid  collision  with  the  Greek  hierarchy ; 
did  not  attempt  to  organize  a  church,  but  confined 
himself  to  teaching.  His  school  of  six  hundred 
pupils  is  still  kept  up.  The  children  are  taught, 
besides  the  usual  secular  branches,  Bible  history, 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Ten  Commandments,  and 
the  Nicene  Creed  in  its  original  form  (i.e.,  with- 
out the  Filioque  clause).  This  mission  is  supports 
ed  by  the  (American)  Church  INlissionary  Society. 

2.  The  Southern  Presbyterian  Chnrch  has  two 
missionaries  in  Athens,  —  Rev.  Mr.  Sampson  and 
Rev.  Mr.  Kalopathakes,  M.D.  They  have  a  fine 
church  at  the  foot  of  the  Acropolis.  In  connec- 
tion with  this  mission  is  a  union  depot  of  the 
British  and  the  American  Bible  societies. 

3.  Near  the  Presbyterian  Church  is  a  Baptist 
mission  in  a  private  house,  conducted  by  another 
Americanized  Greek,  Rev.  Mr.  Sakellarios. 

The  hero  of  Protestant  missions  in  Greece  is 
Rev.  Dr.  Jonas  King,  who  died  in  1869  (see  art.) 
The  Woman's  Union  Missionary  Society  had  a 
girl's  school  in  Athens;  but  the  government  closed 
it  because  the  teachers  refused  to  teach  the  Greek 
Catechism  and  to  hang  up  a  picture  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  for  adoration. 

Lit.  —  Maurer  :  Das  griechische  Volk\  Heidel- 
berg, 1835,  2  vols.  ;  H.  I.  Schmitt  :  Geschichle 
il.  neugriech.  und  d.  russ.  Kirc?ie,  Mayence,  1840; 
I.  Wanger  :  Geist  d.  griech.  Kirche,  Berlin,  1839. 

GREEK  CHURGH,  The.  I.  Name.  —  The 
proper  name  is  the  Eastern  or  Oriental  Church, 


which  designates  its  origin  and  geographical 
territory;  also  the  Orthodox  Church,  which  ex. 
presses  its  close  adherence  to  the  oecumenical 
system  of  doctrine  and  discipline  as  settled  by 
the  seven  oecumenical  councils  before  the  separa^ 
tion  from  the  Latin  Church.  On  this  title  she 
lays  the  chief  stress,  and  celebrates  it  on  a  special 
day  called  "  Orthodoxy  Sunday,"  in  the  Ijegin- 
ning  of  Lent,  when  a  dramatic  representation  of 
the  old  oecumenical  councils  is  given  in  the 
churches,  and  anathemas  are  pronounced  on  all 
heresies.  The  full  official  title  is  the  Holy  Ortho- 
dox Catholic  Apostolic  Oriental  Church  \v  uyia 
upilodoiog  KodoXmi  unonTokinri  iivaTa'Amij  iKK/.-qaia). 
The  Roman  Church  claims  all  these  titles,  ex- 
cept "  Oriental"  for  which  she  substitutes  lloman, 
and  claims  them  exclusively.  The  popular  desig- 
nation Greek  Church,  though  not  strictly  correct, 
refers  to  the  national  origin  and  to  the  language 
in  which  most  of  its  creeds,  liturgies,  canons, 
theological  and  ascetic  literature,  are  composed, 
and  its  worship  mainly  conducted. 

II.  Extent.  —  The  Eastern  Church  embraces 
the  Greek,  the  Russian,  and  other  Slavonic  na- 
tionalities. It  has  its  seat  in  Western  Asia  and 
Eastern  Europe,  chiefly  in  Turkey,  Serbia,  Rou- 
mania,  Greece,  Russia,  and  some  parts  of  Austria. 
Bulgaria  was  long  a  bone  of  contention  between 
Constantinople  and  Rome,  and  one  of  the  causes 
of  separation,  but  is  now  an  independent  branch 
of  the  "Orthodox"  Church,  ruled  by  an  exarch. 
In  Western  Europe  and  America  there  are  only 
a  few  isolated  congregations  of  Cireek  merchants 
and  colonists,  or  in  connection  with  the  Russian 
embassies  (at  Vienna,  Trieste,  Geneva,  Paris,  Lon- 
don, New  York,  San  Francisco).  The  Eastern 
Church  is  one  of  the  three  great  divisions  of 
Christendom,  and  numbers  (according  to  the  esti- 
mate made  in  1881)  between  eighty  and  ninety 
millions;  while  the  Roman-Catholic  Cliurch  is 
credited  with  a  membership  of  over  two  hun- 
dred millions,  and  the  Protestant  churches  with 
one  hundred  and  thirty  millions.  In  Europe 
the  Greek  Church  numbers  71,405,000;  in  Asia, 
9,402,000  ;  in  Africa,  3,200,000  ;  in  America,  10,- 
000;  total,  84,017,000.  Its  chief  strength  lies 
in  the  vast  empire  of  Russia,  which  was  Chris- 
tianized in  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries  by  mis- 
sionaries from  Constantinople,  and  matrimonial 
connection  with  the  Byzantine  court. 

III.  Division.  —  The  Cireek  Church  is  divided 
into  several  great  branches.  1.  The  Orthodox 
Cliurch  in  Turkey,  under  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, with  the  subordinate  patriarchates 
of  Alexandria.  Jerusalem,  and  .\ntioch.  Constan- 
tinople, the  city  of  the  first  Christian  emperor 
(New  Rome),  though  now  in  the  hands  of  the 
Turk,  is  still  the  natural  centre  of  the  whole 
Greek  Church,  and  may  become  for  the  Eastern 
world  at  some  future  day,  in  Christian  hands, 
what  Gregory  Nazianzen  eloquently  described  it 
to  be  in  the  fourth  century,  "  the  ej'e  of  the  world, 
the  strongest  by  sea  and  land,  the  bond  of  union 
between  East  and  AVest,  to  which  the  most  dis- 
tant extremes  from  all  sides  come  together,  and  to 
which  they  look  up  as  to  a  common  centre  and 
emporium  of  tlie  faith." 

2.  The  Orthodox  Church  in  Ru.ssia,  which  was 
at  first  subject  to  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
then  under  a  special  Patriarch  of  Moscow  (since 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


900 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


1582),  and  now  (since  1721)  under  the  permanent 
holy  synod  of  St.  Petersburg  and  the  Czar, 
whose  dominion  stretches  in  an  unbroken  line 
across  the  two  Continents  of  Europe  and  Asia. 
The  Czar  is  the  personal,  as  Constantinople  is  the 
local,  centre  of  the  whole  Greek  Church ;  and  he 
keeps  a  lustful  eye  upon  the  city  of  the  Bospho- 
rus  as  his  future  capital,  where,  at  no  distant 
day.  there  must  be  a  tremendous  reckoning  with 
Mohammedanism. 

3.  The  National  Church  of  the  kingdom  of 
Greece,  which  since  1833  is  governed  likewise 
by  a  permanent  holj'  synod,  but  less  dependent 
upon  the  State  than  the  Russian  Church.  See 
Greece. 

4.  The  Greek  Church  in  the  formerly  Turkish 
provinces  of  Serbia.  Roumania,  and  Montenegro, 
<ire  now  independent  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, and  ruled  by  their  metropolitans  and 
synods,  more  or  less  under  the  influence  of  Russia. 

5.  Distinct  from  these,  and  belonging  to  the 
Roman  Church,  are  the  united  Greeks,  scattered 
through  Turkey,  Hungary,  Galicia,  Transylvania, 
and  Russia,  but  chiefly  in  Austria  and  Poland, 
and  uumberiug  in  all  about  four  millions  and  a 
half.  They  acknowledge  the  authority  of  the 
Pope,  and  adopt  the  dogma  of  the  double  pro- 
cession of  the  Holy  Spirit,  but  are  otherwise 
allowed  to  hold  to  their  ancient  discipline,  mar- 
riage of  the  lower  clergy,  communion  under  both 
kinds  (^cojnmtmio  sub  ulraijue),  leavened  bread, 
their  liturgy,  and  the  use  of  the  Greek  language. 

6.  The  Greek,  or  rather  Oriental  Schismatics, 
Ne.storians,  Jacobites,  Armenians,  Copts,  and 
Abyssinians,  are  separated  from  tlie  Greek  and 
Latin  Catholic  Church,  mostly  on  the  dogma  of 
Christ's  person,  and  have  independent  organi- 
zations, which  rise  up,  as  the  broken  fragments 
of  ancient  national  chui-ches,  from  surrounding 
Mohammedanism  and  heathenism  in  Western 
Asia  and  Africa.  The  Maronites  on  Mount  Leba- 
non were  formerly  .ijchismatic,  but  were  converted 
to  the  Roman  Church  during  the  middle  ages. 
The  Roman  Church  has  nuide  inroads  also  among 
the  other  Oriental  sects,  especially  the  Armenians. 
The  dissenters  from  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Rus- 
sia are  divided  into  several  si^cts ;  the  chief  of 
them  are  the  Kaskolniki,  or  Old  Believers,  who 
protest  against  all  the  innovations  introduced  by 
Patriarch  Nikon  and  Peter  tlie  (ire.at. 

IV.  Hi.sToiucAL  Survey.  —  The  Greek  Church 
has  no  continuous  history,  like  the  Latin  or  the 
Protestant.  She  has  long  periods  of  monotony 
and  stagnation  ;  .she  is  isolated  from  the  main  cur- 
rent of  progressive  Christendom ;  her  langiuiges 
and  literature  are  little  known  among  Western 
scholars.  Yet  this  Church  is  the  oldest  in  Chris- 
tendom, and  for  several  centuries  she  was  the 
chief  bearer  of  our  religion.  She  still  occupies 
the  sacred  territory  of  primitive  Christianity,  an<l 
claims  most  of  the  apostolic  sees,  as  Jerusalem, 
Antioch,  and  the  churches  founded  by  Paul  and 
Jolm  in  Asia  Minor  and  (ireece.  All  the  apos- 
tles, with  the  exception  of  Peter  and  Paul,  laboretl 
and  died  in  tlu-  Kast.  From  tlie  old  (Jrecks  slie 
inhi-rited  the  language  and  certain  national  traits 
of  character,  while  she  incorporated  into  herself 
also  much  of  .Jewish  and  Oriental  piety.  She 
produced  the  first  Christian  literature,  apologies 
of   the   Christian  faith,   refutations   of   heretics, 


commentaries  of  the  Bible,  sermons,  homilies, 
and  ascetic  treatises.  The  great  majority  of  the 
early  fathers,  like  the  apostles  themselves,  used 
the  Greek  language.  Polycarp,  Ignatius,  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Athanasius, 
Basil,  Gregory  of  Nazianzen,  Gregory  of  Nyssa, 
Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  Cyril  of 
Alexandria,  the  first  Christian  emperors  since 
Constantine  the  Great,  together  with  a  host  of 
martyrs  and  confessors,  belong  to  the  Greek  com- 
munion. She  elaborated  the  (ecumenical  dogmas 
of  the  Trinity  and  Christology.  and  ruled  the  first 
seven  cecumenical  councils,  which  were  all  held 
in  Constantinople  or  its  immediate  neighborhood 
(Nicaea,  Chalcedon,  Ephesus).  Her  palmy  period 
during  the  first  five  centuries  will  ever  claim  the 
grateful  respect  of  the  whole  Christian  world ; 
and  her  great  teachers  still  live  in  their  writings 
far  beyond  the  confines,  nay,  even  more  outside 
of  her  communion,  as  the  books  of  Moses  and 
the  prophets  are  more  studied  and  better  under- 
stood among  Christians  than  among  the  Jews, 
for  whom  they  wrote.  But  she  never  materially 
progressed  beyond  the  stand-point  occupied  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries.  .She  h.as  no  proper 
middle  age,  and  no  Reformation,  like  Western 
Christendom. 

We  may  distinguish  three  periods  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Greek  Church  :  — 

1.  The  classical  or  productive  period,  the  first 
five  or  six  centuries,  which  has  just  been  charac- 
terized. The  last  great  divine  of  the  East  is 
John  of  Damascus  (about  750),  who  summed  up 
the  scattered  results  of  the  labors  of  the  preced- 
ing fathers  into  a  tolerably  complete  system  of 
theology ;  but  he  is  an  i.solated  phenomenon. 
The  process  of  degeneracy  and  st.agnation  l:ad 
already  set  in;  and  the  former  life  and  vigor 
gave  way  to  idle  speculations,  distr.acting  contro- 
versies, dead  formalism,  and  traditionalism. 

2.  The  Bijzantine  period,  corresponding  to  the 
middle  ages  of  the  Latin  Church,  from  the  rise 
of  Mohammedanism  to  the  f.all  of  Constantinople 
(A.I).  (550-1453).  Here  we  have  the  gradual 
separation  from  the  West  and  from  all  progres- 
sive movements;  dependence  on  the  imperial 
court  at  Constantinople;  continuation  of  a  cer- 
tain literary  activity;  philological  and  biblical 
studies  in  slavish  dependence  on  the  fathers ; 
commentaries  of  (Ecumenius  (A.D.  1000),  The- 
ophylact  (d.  1107),  Euthymius  Zigabenus  (d. 
about  1120);  large  literary  collections,  classical 
and  Christian,  of  Photius  (about  890),  Balsamon, 
Zonaras,  Suidas,  and  Simeon  Metaphrastes;  the 
liturgical  works  of  Maximus,  Sophronius,  Simeon 
of  Thes.salonica;  the  Byzantine  historians;  the 
image  controversy  (72G-S42);  inro.ads  and  con- 
quests of  Mohammedanism  (since  030),  in  Syria, 
Persia,  Egypt,  North  Africa;  t<'mporary  s\ispen- 
sion  of  the  patriarchates  of  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
.Jerusalem  ;  finally,  the  conquest  of  Constantino- 
ple liy  the  Turks,  and  the  extinction  of  the  Greek 
Empire  (1153),  which  led  to  the  emigration  of 
(Ireek  .scholars  (Chalcondylas,  Chrysoloras,  Ple- 
tlio,  .Michael  Apostolius,  'I'heodore  Gaza,  George 
of  Trebizond,  etc.)  to  the  West,  the  revival  of 
letters,  tlu^  study  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and, 
aided  thereby,  the  iireparatiou  for  the  Reforma- 
tion. Yet,  during  this  jierioil  of  decline  in  her 
original  home,  the  Greek  Church  made  a  great 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


901 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


conquest  in  the  conversion  of  the  Slavonians 
(namely,  the  Bulgarians  and  Russians,  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries) ;  while  the  Latin 
Church  converted  the  Celtic  and  Teutonic  races. 

3.  The  modern  period  may  be  dated  from  the 
downfall  of  the  Greek  Empire  (1453).  It  pre- 
sents in  Asia  stagnation  and  slavery  under  the 
tyranny  of  the  Turks,  but  with  great  tenacity 
and  independence  as  to  all  internal  affairs;  in 
Europe,  rapid  external  growth  tlirough  the  rising 
power  of  llussia,  with  some  reforms  in  manners, 
customs,  and  the  introduction  of  Western  culture, 
protests  against  Romanizing  and  evangelical 
movements,  the  orthodox  confession  of  Peter 
Mogilas  (104'2),  the  synod  of  Jerusalem  (1072), 
the  Russian  Cliurch,  the  patriarchate  of  Moscow, 
the  reforms  of  Patriarch  Nikon  (d.  1681)  and 
of  the  Czar  Peter  the  Great  (d.  ITS.'J),  the  re- 
action of  the  Old  Believers  (Raskolniki),  the 
holy  synod  of  St.  Petei-sburg  (since  1721),  the 
New  Greek  Church  in  Ilellas  (since  1833),  mod- 
ern influences  from  the  West,  prospects  for  the 
future,  depending  chiefly  on  Russia. 

V.  Relation  to  the  Latin  Church. — No 
two  churches  are  so  much  alike  in  their  creed, 
polity,  and  cullus,  as  the  Greek  and  Roman ;  and 
yet  no  two  are  such  irreconcilable  rivals,  perhaps 
for  the  very  reason  of  their  affinity.  They  agree 
much  more  than  either  agrees  with  any  Prot- 
estant church.  They  were  never  organically 
united.  They  differed  from  the  beginning  in 
nationality,  language,  and  genius,  as  the  ancient 
Greeks  differed  from  the  Romans;  yet  they 
grew  up  together,  and  stood  shoulder  to  shoulder 
in  the  ancient  conflict  with  Paganism  and  heresy. 
They  co-operated  in  the  early  oecumenical  coun- 
cils, and  adopted  their  doctrinal  and  ritual  decis- 
ions. But  the  development  of  the  papal  monar- 
chy, and  the  establishment  of  a  Western  Empire 
in  connection  with  it,  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
schism  which  has  not  been  healed  to  this  day. 
The  controversy  culminated  in  the  rivalry  be- 
tween the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  the 
Pope  of  Rome.  It  first  broke  out  under  Photius 
and  Nicolas  I.,  who  excommunicated  each  other 
(869  and  879).  Photius,  the  greatest  scholar  of 
his  age,  whom  Pope  Nicolas  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge as  patriarch,  charged,  in  a  famous  encycli- 
cal letter,  the  Roman  Church  with  heresy,  for 
the  unauthorized  insertion  of  the  Filioque  into  the 
Nicene  Creed,  and  with  various  corrupting  prac- 
tices. The  controversy  was  renewed  under  the 
Patriarch  Cerularius  (1053),  and  became  irrecon- 
cilable through  the  Venetian  conquest  of  Con- 
stantinople (1204),  and  the  establishment  of  a 
Latin  Empire  (1204-61),  and  Latin  rival  bish- 
oprics in  eastern  sees,  with  the  sanction  of  Pope 
Innocent  III.  Attempts  at  a  re-union  were 
made  from  time  to  time,  especially  in  the  Coun- 
cil of  Lyons  (1274)  and  the  Council  of  Ferrara 
(1439),  but  all  in  vain.  The  compromise  formula 
of  the  latter  council  was  rejected  with  scorn  in 
the  East,  as  treason  to  the  orthodox  faith.  AV'ith 
the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453)  the  political 
motive  for  seeking  a  union  with  the  West  ceased; 
and  the  schism  continues  to  this  day,  even  with 
increased  force,  since  the  Vatican  Council  in 
1870  intensified  the  chief  cause  of  separation  by 
declaring  papal  absolutism  and  papal  infallibility 
an  article  of  faith.     Popery  knows  no  compro- 


mise; and  the  Greek  Church  can  never  submit 
to  its  authority  without  committing  suicide. 

The  points  in  which  the  Greek  Church  differs 
from  the  Roman  are  the  following:  the  single 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (against  the  Filio- 
que) ;  the  equality  of  the  ]iatriarchs,  and  the  re- 
jection of  the  papacy  as  an  anticliristian  innova- 
tion and  usurpation  ;  the  right  of  the  lower  clergy 
(priests  and  deacons)  to  marry  (tiiough  only 
once)  ;  the  communion  under  both  kimls  (against 
the  withdrawal  of  the  cup  from  the  laity);  trine 
immersion  as  the  only  valid  form  of  baptism ; 
the  use  of  the  vernacular  languages  in  worship; 
a  number  of  minor  ceremonies,  as  the  use  of  com- 
mon or  leavened  bread  in  the  Eucharist,  infant 
communion,  the  repetition  of  holy  unction  {ciixi- 
laiov)  in  sickness,  etc. 

On  the  fruitless  negotiations  for  union  between 
the  Lutheran  and  the  Greek  Church,  and  the 
Anglican  and  the  Greek  and  Russian  Church,  see 
Schafl',  Creeds  of  Christendom,  vol.  I.,  pp.  50  sqq. 
and  74  sqq.  The  Reformation  of  the  sixteenth 
century  had  no  effect  upon  the  Oriental  Church. 
The  reform  movement  of  Cyril  Lucar,  who,  as 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  attempted  to  ingraft 
Calvinism  upon  the  old  trunk,  failed  completely  : 
he  was  strangled  to  death,  and  his  body  thrown 
into  the  Bosphorus  (1038) ;  and  his  doctrines 
were  condemned  by  several  synods,  in  1638,  1643, 
and  1672.  (See  Schaff,  Creeds,  I.  54  sqq.)  In 
recent  times,  however,  German  universities  are 
often  frequented  by  Russian  and  Greek  students; 
and  the  works  of  German  divines  have  exerted 
some  modifying  influence.  The  Old  Catholic 
movement  was  followed  with  interest;  and  the 
Old  Catholic  conferences  in  Bonn  (1874  and  1875) 
were  attended  by  several  dignitaries  from  Greece 
and  Russia.  There  has  been  also  considerable 
intercourse  between  Greek  and  Anglican  bishops. 
The  Greek  Church  is  not  so  strongly  committed 
against  Protestantism  as  the  Roman,  and  may 
therefore  learn  something  from  it. 

VI.  Creed.  —  The  Eastern  Church  holds  fast 
to  the  decrees  and  canons  of  the  seven  oecumeni- 
cal councils;  i.e.,  of  Nicsea  (325),  Constantinople 
(381),  Ephesus  (431),  Chalcedon  (451),  the  second 
of  Constantinople  (553),  the  third  of  Constanti- 
nople (680),  the  second  of  Nicsea  (787).  Her 
proper  creed  is  the  Nicene  Creed  as  enlarged  at 
Constantinople  (381),  and  indorsed  at  Chalcedon 
(451),  without  the  Latin  Filioque.  This  creed  is 
the  basis  of  all  Greek  catechisms  and  systems  of 
theology,  and  a  regular  part  of  worship.  The 
Greeks  have  never  acknowledged  in  form  the 
Apostles'  Creed,  which  is  of  Western  origin,  nor 
the  Athanasian  Creed,  which  teaches  the  double 
procession,  and  is  likewise  of  Western  origin.  Be- 
sides this  oecumenical  creed,  the  Eastern  Church 
acknowledges  three  subordinate  confessions,  which 
define  her  position  against  Romanism  and  Prot- 
estantism ;  namely,  (1)  The  Orthodox  Confession 
of  Peter  Mogilas  (metropolitan  of  KiefE),  A.D. 
1643,  —  a  catechetical  exposition  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer  and  Beatitudes,  and  the 
Decalogue ;  (2)  The  Eighteen  A  rticles  or  Decrees 
of  the  Synod  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  1672 ;  (3)  The 
Longer  Russian  Catechism  of  Pkilaret  (metropoli- 
tan of  Moscow),  adopted  by  the  holy  synod  of 
St.  Petersburg  (1839),  and  published  in  all  the 
languages  of  Russia.     (See  these  creeds  and  con- 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


902 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


fessions  in  the  second  volume  of  Sehaff's  Creeds 
of  Christendom.) 

VII.  Theology. — The  Greek  Church  is  in 
doctrine  substantially  agreed  with  the  Roman, 
but,  upon  the  whole,  more  simple  and  less  devel- 
oped, though  in  some  respects  more  subtle  and 
metaphysical.  The  only  serious  doctrinal  difier- 
ence  is  that  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit 
(see  FiLiOQUE  Controversy).  She  holds  to  the 
leading  principles,  but  rejects  many  of  the  conse- 
quences or  results,  of  Roman  Catholicism.  She  ad- 
heres to  the  theology  of  the  Greek  fathers  down  to 
John  of  Damascus,  and  ignores  the  succeeding 
scholastic  theology  of  the  schoolmen,  who  com- 
pleted the  Roman  sj-stem.  The  Eastern  theology 
is  not  properly  systematized :  it  remains  rigidly 
in  the  fragmentary  state  of  the  old  councils.  The 
resistance  to  the  Western  clause,  Filioque,  implied 
a  protest  against  all  further  progress  both  in 
truth  and  in  error,  and  meant  stagnation,  as  well 
as  faithful  adherence  to  the  venerable  Nicene 
symbol.  The  Greek  theology  is  most  full  on  the 
doctrine  of  God  and  of  Christ,  but  very  defective 
on  the  doctrine  of  man  and  the  order  of  salvation. 
The  East  went  into  all  sorts  of  theological  and 
christological  subtleties,  e.specially  during  the 
long  and  tedious  IMonophysite  controversies,  which 
found  little  or  no  response  in  the  West;  but  it 
ignored  the  Pelagian  controversies,  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Augustinian  and  later  evangelical 
theology.  It  took  the  most  intense  interest  in  the 
difference  between  ousia  and  hi/postasis,  the  homo- 
oitsion  and  homoi-ousion,  the  relations  of  the  persons 
in  the  Trinity,  the  agennesia  of  the  Father,  the 
eternal  r/ennesia  of  the  Son,  the  eternal  exporeusis 
or  proressinn  of  the  Spirit,  the  pericltoresis,  the  re- 
lation of  the  two  natures  in  Christ,  the  Xestorian, 
Eutychian,  Mouophysite,  and  Monothelite  here- 
sies, but  was  never  seriously  troubled  with  ques- 
tions about  predestination,  vicarious  atonement, 
justification  and  imputation,  conversion  and  re- 
generation, faith  and  good  works,  merit  and 
demerit,  vital  union  to  Christ,  and  cognate  doc- 
trines, which  absorbed  the  attention  of  Western 
Christendom.  The  cause  for  this  diiTerence  must 
besought  in  the  prevailing  nn'taphysical,  rhetori- 
cal, and  objective  character  of  the  Eastern  Church, 

—  inherited  partly  from  .Vsia,  partly  from  Greece, 

—  as  distinct  from  the  practical,  logical,  and  sub- 
jective tendency  of  the  Western  churches,  which 
IS  derived  from  the  Roman  and  the  Teutonic 
nationalities.  The  difference  is  illustrated  already 
by  the  Nicene  Creed,  with  its  metaiihysical  terms 
about  the  Son,  as  compared  witli  the  more  simple 
and  popular  .Vpostles"  Creed,  which  originated  in 
the  West,  and  is  very  little  used  in  the  East. 

VIII.  GovKKN.ME.VT.  —  The  Greek  Church  is 
a  patriarchal  oligarchy,  in  distinction  from  the 
papal  monarcliy.  The  episcojjal  hierarchy  is  re- 
tained, the  papacy  rejected.  The  Vatican  decrees 
of  1870  have  intensified  the  separation.  Cen- 
tralization is  unknown  in  tlie  East.  Tlie  patri- 
archs of  Constantinople,  Ale,\andria,  Anticich,  and 
.Jerusalem,  are  equal  in  rights,  tliough  thi;  first 
has  a  primacy  of^  lionor.  Tlie  Czar  of  Russia, 
however,  exercises  a  sort  of  general  protectorate, 
and  may  he  regardi'd  :is  a  rival  to  the  Pope  of 
Rome,  but  has  no  authority  in  matters  of  doctrine, 
and  can  make  no  organic  changes.  Tlie  Easti^rn 
hierarchy  resembles  the  Jcwiali  type.    The  Greek 


priest  within  the  veil  of  the  sanctuary  is  concealed 
from  the  eyes  of  the  people;  but  in  social  respects 
he  is  nearer  the  people  than  the  Roman  priest. 
He  is  allowed,  and  even  compelled,  to  marry  once, 
but  forbidden  to  marry  twice.  Celibacy  is  con- 
fined to  bisliops  and  monks.  Absolution  is  given 
only  in  the  form  of  a  prayer,  "  May  the  Lord 
absolve  thee !  "  in.stead  of  tlie  positive  form,  '•  I 
absolve  thee."  The  confessional  exists,  but  in  a 
milder  form,  with  less  influence  and  abuse,  tlian 
in  Romanism.  The  laity  are  more  independent ; 
and  the  Russian  Czar,  like  the  Byzantine  Emperor 
of  old,  is  the  head  of  the  Church 'in  his  dominion. 
The  unction  of  confirmation  is  made  to  symbolize 
the  royal  priesthood  of  every  believer.  The  mo- 
nastic orders,  though  including  many  clergy,  are 
not  clerical  institutions.  The  community  of  Athos 
is  a  lay  corporation  witli  chaplains. 

The  administration  of  the  churches  as  devel- 
oped in  the  Byzantine  Empire  is  most  compli- 
cated, and  involves,  besides  the  regular  clergy, 
an  army  of  higher  and  lower  ecclesiastical  offices, 
from  tlie  first  administrator  of  the  church  prop- 
erty (<J  ficya;  oi\oid/iOf),  the  superintendent  of  the 
sacristy  (o  aKtvo(pv?.ai),  the  chancellor  or  keeper  of 
ecclesiastical  archives  ("  x<'P'°9''^'^i),  down  to  the 
cleaners  of  the  lamps  (oi  Tiafnraiupioi),  and  the  bear- 
er of  the  images  of  saints  (o  /iaorajufiiof).  These 
half-clerical  officers  are  divided  into  two  groups, 
—  one  on  the  right,  the  other  on  the  left:  each  is 
subdivided  into  three  classes,  and  each  class  has 
again  five  piersons.  Leo  Allatius  and  Ileineccius 
enumerate  fifteen  officials  of  the  right  grouji,  and 
even  more  of  the  left.  But  many  of  these  offices 
have  either  ceased  altogether,  or  retain  only  a 
nominal  existence. 

IX.  The  CuLTUs  is  much  like  the  Roman 
Catholic,  with  the  celebration  of  the  sacrifice  of 
the  mass  as  its  centre,  with  an  equal  and  even 
greater  neglect  of  the  sermon,  and  is  addressed 
more  to  the  senses  and  imagination  than  to  the 
intellect  and  the  heart.  It  is  strongly  Oriental, 
unintelligibly  symbolical  and  mystical,  and  ex- 
cessively ritualistic.  The  Greeks  reject  organs, 
musical  instruments,  and  sculjiture,  and  make 
less  u.se  of  the  fine  arts  in  their  churches  than 
the  Roman  Catholics;  but  they  have  even  a  more 
complicated  system  of  cereinonies,  with  gorgeous 
display,  semi-barbaric  pomp,  and  endless  clianges 
of  sacerdotal  dress,  crossings,  gestures,  genuflex- 
ions, prostrations,  w-ashings,  processions,  which 
so  absorb  the  attention  of  the  senses,  that  there 
is  little  room  left  for  intellectual  and  spiritual 
worshi]>.  They  use  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom, 
which  is  an  abridgment  of  that  of  St.  Basil,  yet 
very  lengthy,  and  contains,  with  many  old  and 
venerable  prayers  (one  of  the  finest  is  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Anglican  Liturgy  under  the  name 
of  Chrysostom),  later  additions  from  different 
sources  to  an  excess  of  liturgical  refinement. 
Stanley  (E>isler7i  CInirc/i,  p.  32)  characterizes  the 
(Jreek  worship  as  '•  a  union  of  barbaric  rudeness 
and  elaborate  ceremonialism." 

Tlie  most  characteristic  features  of  Greek  woi'- 
ship,  as  distinct  from  the  Roman,  are  thi^  three- 
fold immersion  in  baptism,  with  the  re]>udiation 
of  any  other  mode  as  essentially  invalid ;  tlie  si- 
multaneous ])erformance  of  the  act  of  confirmation 
and  the  act  of  baptism,  which  in  the  West  liave 
been  separated;  the  anointing  with  oil  in  cases 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


903 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


of  dangerous  illness,  which  Rome  has  changed 
into  extreme  unction  of  the  dying;  infant  com- 
munion, which  the  Latin  Church  has  not  only 
aliandoned,  but  forbidden  ;  the  communion  under 
two  kinds  (Kara  tu  Aiio  c'lihi,  siih  nirnqui')  ;  the  use 
of  li^avened  instead  of  unleavened  liread  in  the 
Eucharist ;  the  standing  and  eastward  posture  in 
prayer;  the  stricter -separation  of  the  sexes;  the 
use  of  the  screen  or  veil  before  the  altar ;  and  the 
withdrawal  of  the  performance  of  the  mysteries 
(sacraments)  from  the  eyes  of  the  people. 

The  worship  of  saints,  relics,  flat  images,  and 
the  cross,  is  carried  as  far  as,  or  even  farther,  than 
in  the  Roman  Church;  but  statues,  b.as-reliefs, 
and  crucifixes  are  forbidden.  The  ruder  the  art, 
the  more  intense  is  the  superstition.  In  Russia 
especially  tlie  veneration  for  pictures  of  the  Vir- 
gin JIary  and  the  saints  is  carried  to  the  utmost 
extent,  and  takes  the  place  of  the  Protestant  ven- 
eration for  the  Bible.  The  holy  picture  with  the 
lamp  burning  before  it  is  found  and  worshipped 
in  the  corner  (the  sacred  place)  of  every  room, 
in  the  street,  over  gateways,  in  offices,  taverns, 
steamers,  railway  and  telegraph  stations,  and 
carried  in  the  knapsack  of  every  soldier,  not  as  a 
work  of  art,  but  as  an  emblem,  a  lesson  of  in- 
struction, an  aid  to  devotion.  The  vernacular 
languages  are  used  in  worship,  —  the  Greek  in 
Turkey  and  Greece,  the  Slavonic  in  Russia;  but 
they  have  to  a  considerable  extent  become  unin- 
telligible to  the  people.  The  old  Slavonic  differs 
from  the  modern  Russ  about  as  much  as  Chau- 
cer's English  from  our  English.  The  Oriental 
sects  hold  to  their  native  dialects, — the  Syriac, 
Armenian,  etc.  The  old  Greek  calendar,  which 
is  eleven  days  behind  the  new  style  introduced 
by  Gregory  XIII.,  is  still  retained  in  distinction 
from  the  Roman  and  Protestant  churches. 

X.  As  to  Christian  Life,  it  has  the  same  gen- 
eral features  as  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church. 
The  mass  of  the  people  are  contented  with  an  ordi- 
nary morality,  while  the  monks  aim  at  .a  higher 
degree  of  ascetic  piety.  The  monastic  system  origi- 
nated in  the  East  (in  Egypt),  and  continues  to  this 
day,  but  has  not  developed  into  great  monastic 
orders,  as  in  the  West.  There  are  three  classes  of 
monks,  —  the  cenobites  {KoivoiitaKoi),  who  live  togeth- 
er in  a  monastery  ruled  by  an  arclnniandrite,  who 
is  often  a  bishop (apx'i^av6p'nri(;,  ijyovjicvu^'^  ;  the  an- 
chorets (uKQ.Yupj/Tai),  who  live  in  a  cell  apart  from 
the  other  monks,  or  among  the  laity  ;  and  the 
ascetes  (dm;?™),  or  hermits.  The  monks  usually 
follow  the  iiile  of  St.  Basil ;  some,  the  rule  of  St. 
Anthony.  The  bishops  are  taken  from  the  monks. 
The  principal  convents  are  at  Jerusalem,  INIount 
Athos,  Mount  Sinai  (where  the  celebrated  Sinaitic 
manuscript  of  the  Bible  was  kept  for  centuries, 
but  not  used  by  the  inmates),  and  St.  Saba,  near 
the  Dead  Sea.  Russia  had  in  1875  about  six 
hundred  convents  and  nunneries.  The  Greek 
monks  are  as  a  rule  more  ignorant  and  supersti- 
tious than  the  Roman-Catholic.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  clergy.  Many  of  them  are  merely 
mechanical  functionaries.  Religious  life  is  sup- 
posed to  originate  in  baptismal  regeneration, 
and  to  be  nourished  chiefly  by  the  sacraments. 
Prayer,  fasting,  and  charitable  deeds  are  the  prin- 
cipal manifestations  of  piety.  The  observance 
of  the  Ten  Commandments  is  strictly  enjoined 
in   all   the  Catechisms.     The  Greeks  and  Rus- 


sians are  very  religious  iu  outward  observances 
and  devotions,  but  know  little  of  what  Protes- 
tants mean  l>y  subjective  experimental  piety,  and 
personal  direct  communion  of  the  soul  with  the 
Saviour.  They  are  liberal  and  deceitful  in  un- 
meaning compliments.  The  (Jreek  Christians  sur- 
pass their  Mohammedan  neighbors  in  chastity, 
but  are  behind  them  in  honesty.  What  .St.  Paul 
says  of  the  Cretans  (Kpi'irtc  ud  ^cvarat,  Tit.  i.  12) 
is  still  characteristic  of  the  race,  of  course  with 
very  honorable  exceptions.  In  Russia  there  is 
the  same  divorce  lietween  religion  and  morality. 
The  towns  are  adorned  with  churches  and  con- 
vents. Every  public  event  is  celebrated  by  the 
building  of  a  church.  Every  house  has  an  altar 
and  sacred  pictures ;  every  child,  his  guardian 
angel  and  baptismal  cross.  A  Ru.ssian  fasts  every 
Wednesday  and  Friday,  prays  early  and  late, 
regularly  attends  mass,  confesses  his  sins,  pays 
devout  respect  to  sacred  places  and  things,  makes 
pilgrimages  to  the  tombs  and  shrines  of  saints, 
and  has  the  phrase  "  Slava  Bor/a!"  ("  Glory  to 
God ! ")  continually  on  his  lips.  And  yet  even  the 
priests  are  grossly  intemperate ;  and  public  offi- 
cials, even  to  the  highest  dignitaries,  are  said  to 
he  open  to  bribery.  The  Nihilistic  troubles,  and 
the  awful  assassination  of  Alexander  II.,  iu  188], 
reveal  an  abyss  of  corruption  and  danger  beneath 
the  glittering  surface  of  Russian  grandeur. 

XI.  The  Greek  Church  and  the  Bible. 
—  Concerning  the  extent  of  the  canon  of  the 
Scriptures  the  Eastern  Church  is  not  quite  con- 
sistent, and  stands  midway  between  the  Roman 
and  the  Protestant  view  concerning  the  Jewish 
Apocrypha.  The  Septuagint  is  used,  which  in- 
cludes the  Apocrypha.  The  Orthodox  Confession 
repeatedly  quotes  the  Apocrypha  as  authority; 
and  the  synod  of  Jerusalem  (1672)  mentions 
several  apocryphal  books  (The  AVisdom  of  Solo- 
mon, Judith,  Tobit,  the  History  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon,  the  History  of  Susanna,  The  Maccabees, 
and  the  Wisdom  of  Sirach)  as  parts  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  On  the  other  hand,  Metropbanes  enu- 
merates only  twenty-two  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (according  to  the  division  of  Josephus,  who 
counts  the  twelve  minor  prophets  as  one,  and  com- 
bines several  historical  books),  and  eleven  books 
of  the  New  Testament  (counting  fourteen  Epis- 
tles of  Paul  as  one  book,  and  so  the  two  Epistles 
of  Peter  and  the  three  of  John),  and  then  speaks 
of  the  Jewish  Apocrypha  as  not  being  received 
by  the  Church  among  the  canonical  and  authentic 
books,  and  hence  not  to  be  used  in  proof  of  dog- 
mas. The  Longer  Catechism  of  Philaret  like- 
wise enumerates  (with  Josephus,  St.  Cyril,  and 
St.  Athanasius)  only  twenty-two  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  and  twenty-seven  books  of  the 
New,  and  says  that  "  the  Wisdom  of  the  Son  of 
Sirach  and  certain  other  books  "  are  ignored  in 
the  list  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  "  be- 
cause they  do  not  exist  in  the  Hebrew."  The 
use  of  the  apocryphal  books  is  found  in  this, 
that  "  they  have  been  appointed  by  the  fathers 
to  be  read  by  proselytes  who  are  preparing  for 
admission  into  the-church." 

As  to  the  circulation  of  the  Scriptures  among 
the  laity,  it  is  not  encouraged ;  and  certain  por- 
tions, especially  of  the  Old  Testament,  are  de- 
clared to  be  unfit  for  general  use.  But  the  Greek 
Church  has  never  expressly  prohibited  the  read- 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


904 


GREEK  CHURCH. 


ing  of  the  Bible  in  the  vulgar  tongue  to  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  the  Orthodox  Church  of  Russia  has 
always  had  a  popular  version  of  the  Bible,  first 
in  the  old  Slavic,  and  now  in  modern  Russ. 
Alexander  I.,  by  a  ukase  of  Jan.  14,  1813, 
allowed  even  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  to  establish  a  branch  in  St.  Petersburg. 
Through  the  labors  of  this  society  nearly  five 
hundred  thousand  copies  of  the  New  Testament 
and  the  Psalms  were  scattered,  in  thirty-two  lan- 
guages, all  over  the  empire,  and  read  with  great 
avidity.  A  recent  traveller  says,  "  Except  in 
New  England  and  in  Scotland,  no  people  in  the 
world,  so  far  as  they  can  j'ead  at  all,  are  greater 
Bible-readers  than  the  Russians"  (Hepworth 
Dixon,  Free  Russia,  p.  290).  A  priest  told  him, 
••  Love  for  the  Bible  and  love  for  Russia  go  with 
us  hand  in  hand.  A  patriotit  government  gives 
lis  the  Bible:  a  monastic  government  (Nicholas) 
takes  it  away."  But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  not  more  than  one  out  of  ten  Russians  can 
read  at  all.  The  Bible  drove  the  Jesuits  from 
Russia,  who  opposed  it  with  all  their  might. 
In  1825  Nicholas,  under  the  influence  of  the 
monks,  or  the  black  clergy,  placed  the  Bible  under 
arrest,  and  replaced  it  by  an  official  Book  of 
Saints.  Alexander  II.,  the  emancipator  of  the 
serfs,  has  also  emancipated  the  Bible,  and  restored, 
in  part  at  least,  the  liberty  of  the  Bible  Society, 
but  restricted  it  to  the  Protestant  population. 
The  printing  and  circulating  of  the  Bible  in  the 
Russian  language  and  within  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church  is  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the  holy 
synod  of  St.  Petersburg.  Agents  of  the  Bible 
Society  were  allowed  to  circulate  the  Scriptures 
in  the  army  during  the  recent  war  with  Turkey 
(1877). 

XII.  Missions. — The  Eastern  Church  spreads, 
through  Russian  influence,  in  Siberia,  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands,  and  wherever  the  civil  and  military 
power  of  the  Czar  prepares  the  way;  but,  apart 
from  the  aid  of  government,  she  has  little  or  no 
missionary  spirit,  and  is  content  to  keep  her  own. 
In  Turkey  she  would  not  be  permitted  to  ap- 
proach the  Moslems  on  the  subject  of  religion. 
Her  greatest  missiou-work  was  the  conversion  of 
Russia;  and  this  was  effected,  not  so  much  by 
preaching  as  by  the  marriage  of  a  Byzantine 
princess  and  the  despotic  order  of  the  ruler.  In 
the  midst  of  the  Mohammedan  East  tlie  (ireek 
populations  remain  like  islands  in  the  barren  sea; 
and  the  Bedouin  tribes  have  wandered  for  twelve 
centuries  round  the  Greek  convent  of  Mount 
Sinai,  probably  without  one  instance  of  conver- 
sion to  the  creed  of  men  whom  tliey  yet  acknowl- 
edge with  almost  religious  veneration  as  beings 
from  a  higher  world  (.Stanley,  p.  34).  If  the 
Turks  are  ever  to  be  converted  to  Christianity,  it 
must  bo  done  by  other  churches.  MohammiMlans 
regard  the  Greek  and  Roman  Christians  as  idola- 
ters, and  cannot  but  despi.se  the  monks  who  dis- 
grace by  their  fights  the  traditional  spot  of  the 
nativity  and  crucifixion,  and  have  to  be  kept  in 
order  by  Turkisli  soldiers. 

The  want  of  missionary  spirit,  however,  ac- 
counts also  for  greater  freedom  from  the  curse  of 
proselytisra  and  persecuting  intolerance.  Tli<' 
history  of  the  Greek  (Church  is  not  disfigured  by 
bloody  tribunals  of  orthodoxy,  like  tlie  Spanish 
Inquisition,  or  systematic  and  long-continued  per- 


secution, like  the  crusades  against  the  Waldenses, 
.\lbigenses.  Huguenots,  with  the  infernal  scenes 
of  St.  Bartholomew's  Massacre.  Yet  the  Greek 
Church  of  old  has  mercilessly  expelled  and  exiled 
Arian,  Nestorian,  Eutychian,  and  other  heretics, 
persecuted  the  Paidicians  (835) ;  and  modern 
Russia  rigidly  prohibits  secession  from  the  ortho- 
dox national  Church.  Nobody  can  be  converted 
in  Russia  from  one  religion  or  sect  to  another, 
except  to  the  national  orthodox  Church  ;  and 
all  the  children  of  mixed  marriages,  where  one 
parent  belongs  to  it,  must  be  baptized  and  edu- 
cated in  it.  The  spirit  of  fanatical  intolerance 
has  manifested  itself  recently  in  the  atrocious 
persecution  of  the  Jews  (ISSl),  which  excited 
the  indignation  of  the  civilized  world ;  but  it 
would  be  unfair  to  hold  the  Eastern  Church 
responsible  for  these  excesses.  A  church  which 
lias  been  wonderfully  preserved  through  so  many 
centuries,  and  allows  the  word  of  God  to  circu- 
late among  her  people,  justifies  a  hopeful  view  of 
its  future  mission  and  prospects. 

Lit.  —  The  chief  sources  are  the  acts  of  the 
first  seven  oecumenical  synods ;  the  writings  of 
the  Greek  fathers,  especially  Athanasius,  Chrys- 
ostom,  John  of  Damascus,  and  Photius;  the  Con- 
fession of  Gennadius,  Patriarch  of  Constantino- 
ple (delivered  to  the  Turkish  Sultan,  Mahomet 
II.,  1453) ;  the  orthodox  Confession  of  Peter  Mogi- 
las,  metropolitan  of  Kief  (1043);  the  eighteen 
decrees  of  the  synod  of  Jerusalem,  or  the  Con- 
fession of  Dositheus  (1672,  mainly  directed  against 
the  Patriarch  Cyril  Lucar,  and  his  attempt  to 
Protestantize  the  Greek  Church)  ;  the  Russian 
catechisms  of  Platon,  and  especially  of  Philaret 
(metropolitan  of  Moscow,  d.  1SG7).  The  Longer 
Catechism  of  Philaret,  issued  by  authority  of  the 
holy  synod  of  St.  Petersburg,  1839,  is  used  in  all 
the  churches  and  schools  of  the  Russian  Empire, 
and  is  by  far  the  best  modern  exposition  of  the 
orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Eastern  Church.  It  con- 
tains, in  questions  and  answers,  a  Commentary  of 
the  Nicene  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Nine 
Beatitudes,  and  the  Ten  Connnandments.  The 
creeds  of  the  (Jreek  Church,  see  in  Kimmel; 
Monumenta  Fiilei  Ecclesice  Orientalis,  .leiiiE,  1843— 
50,2  vols.;  and  inSciiAFF:  Creeds  of  Christen- 
dom, vol.  ii.;  comp.  also  vol.  i.  pp.  43  sqq.  Mod- 
ern Works.  —  Leo  Ai.i.atuis  (a  convert  to  Rome, 
who  endeavored  to  Romanize  tlie  Greek  Church), 
on  the  consent  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches 
(Col.,  1048);  Le  Quien:  Oriens  Christianus,VI\0; 
Jac.  Goak  :  Eucholo(jium,  s.  Riluale  Gra-cum, 
1067 ;  John  King  :  Jiites  and  Ceremonies  of  the 
Greek  Church  in  Russia,  London,  1772 ;  John 
Mason  Neale:  History  ofthe  IIolij  Eastern  Church, 
London,  1850;  Dean  Stanley:  Lectures  on  the 
Eastern  Church,  London  and  New  York,  1861  (3d 
ed.,  1806);  Gass:  Si/inholU:  der  i/riech.  Kirche, 
1872.  On  the  Russo-Greek  Church,  see  also  the 
works  of  Stkahl,  Mouravieff,  I'inkeuton, 
Blackmore  (The  Doctrine  of  the  Russian  Church, 
1865),  Haxthausen,  Philaret  (Geschichlc  Russ- 
tands,  1872),  Basaroff,  Moissard  {L\'(/lise  dn 
Russie,  1807,2  vols.),  Lectures  11  and  12  of  Dean 
Stanley's  work  on  the  Eastern  Church,  and  espe- 
cially Wallace:  Russia,  N.Y.,  1878;  IIarnack: 
.StalislH-  der  </riech.  russ.  Kirche  (in  Bkieger's  Zeit- 
schri/t  fiir  K.G.),  1879;  the  articles  on  the  (Jreek 
Cliurcii  by  Schaff,  in  Johnson's  Cyclopadia,  by 


GREEK  VERSIONS. 


905 


GREGOR  VON   HEIMBURG. 


Gass,  in  Ilerzog  (v.  409-430),  by  T.  M.  Lindsay, 
in  the  Encijclnpmdia  Brhmmica  (vol.  XI.  154— 
159),  and  Et/lise  Grecque,  by  Moshakis,  in  Lich- 
tenbei-ger  (iv.  324-340).  See  the  arts.  Bulgauia, 
Greeck,  Russia,  Turkey.        piiilip  schaff. 

CREEK  VERSIONS.     See  Bible  Versions. 

GREEN,  Ashbel,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  an  ecclesiastical 
leader  in  the  Presbyterian  Chui'ch  of  the  United 
States,  and  president  of  Princeton  College  ;  b. 
at  Hanover,  N.J.,  July  6,  1762;  d.  at  Philadel- 
phia, May  19,  1848.  He  served  as  a  sergeant  in 
the  Revolutionary  war;  graduated  at  Princeton 
1783;  and  was  successively  tutor  and  professor  at 
the  college,  and  pastor  of  the  Second  Presby- 
terian Church  of  Philadelphia  from  1787  to 
1812.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Princeton 
Seminary,  and  president  of  the  college  1812-22. 
He  afterwards  resided  in  Philadelphia,  editing 
the  Ckrhliayi  Advocate  1822-34.  Dr.  Green  ex- 
celled as  a  leader,  and  was  born  to  command. 
"  In  any  sphere  or  calling  he  would  have  held  a 
high  rank.  As  a  statesman,  he  would  have 
shaped  the  policy  of  his  party,  if  not  of  his  coun- 
try," etc.  (Gillett,  Hist.  Presb.  Ch.,  I.  566  sq.). 
He  wielded  great  influence  in  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  by  his  arraignment  of  Albert  Barnes 
(first  when  the  congregation  appeared  before  the 
presbytery  of  Philadelphia,  to  get  permission  to 
present  a  call,  in  1830)  for  holding  fundamental 
errors,  and  by  his  subsequent  course  in  the  inter- 
est of  purity  of  doctrine  within  the  Church,  con- 
tributed very  largely  to  bring  on  the  division  in 
the  Presbyterian  body  in  1837.  He  published  a 
Hist,  of  Presb.  Missions,  Lectures  on  the  Assemblij's 
Catechism  (2  vols.),  and  other  works.  His  Life, 
begun  by  himself,  was  finished  by  J.  H.  Jones, 
and  published  New  York,  1849. 

GREEN,  Joseph  Henry,  F.R.S.,  O.C.L.,  author 
of  The  Spiritual  Philosophy ;  b.  in  London,  Nov. 
1,  1791;  d.  at  the  Mount,  Hadley,  Middlesex, 
Dec.  13,  1863.  He  was  by  profession  a  surgeon, 
and  achieved  the  highest  success ;  but  he  devoted 
much  time  to  philosophical  studies.  In  1817  he 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Coleridge,  and  became 
at  last  his  almost  daily  companion.  Coleridge, 
who  died  July  25,  1834,  made  him  his  literary 
executor;  and  in  1836  Mr.  Green  resigned  his 
professorship  of  surgery  at  King's  College,  Lon- 
don, retired  from  practice,  and  spent  the  rest  of 
his  life  in  studious  seclusion.  Shortly  before 
his  death  he  finished  the  work  by  which  he  will 
be  remembered,  —  The  Spii'itual  Philosophy,  Jmuid- 
ed  on  the  Teaching  of  the  Late  Samuel  Taylor  Cole- 
ridge (Ix)ndon,  1865,  2  vols.).  The  work  was 
carried  through  the  press  by  Mr.  John  Simon, 
who  prefaced  it  with  a  brief  Memoir.  It  is  the 
best  concatenated  exposition  of  Coleridge's  phi- 
losophy. Mr.  Green  was  a  man  of  lovely  char- 
acter. 

GREENFIELD,  William,  a  celebrated  linguist; 
b.  in  London,  April  1,  1799 ;  d.  there  Nov.  5, 
1831.  He  edited,  for  Bagster,  the  Comprehensive 
Bible  (1826),  the  Syriac  New  Testament  (1828, 
1829),  a  Hebrew  New  Testament  (1830),  a  lexi- 
con of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  and  an  abridg- 
ment of  Schmidt's  Greek  Concordance.  He  was 
appointed  in  1830  editor  of  foreign  versions  to 
the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 

GREENHILL,  William,  one  of  the  "dissenting 
brethren"  at  the  Westminster  Assembly  (1643); 


was  b.  in  Oxfordshire ;  entered  Oxford  1604 ; 
became  minister  at  Stepney  before  1043 ;  was 
cast  out  of  his  living  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity ; 
d.  before  1677.  His  Exposition  of  Ezehicl,  in  five 
volumes  (London,  1645-02,  new  edition  by  Sher- 
man, London,  1839)  of  an  average  of  600  pages 
each,  is  one  of  the  best  Puritan  commentaries. 
See  Reid:  Memoirs  of  the  Westminster  Divines,  1811. 

GREENLAND.     See  Kgede,  Hans. 

GREGG,  John,  D.D.,  b.  at  Cappa,  County 
Clare,  Ireland,  Aug.  4,  1798;  d.  at  Cork,  Sunday, 
May  26,  1878.  He  was  educated  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin;  after  service  in  a  country 
parish,  was  rector  in  Dublin,  1836-62;  in  1857 
was  made  Archdeacon  of  Kildare,  and  in  1862 
Bishop  of  Cork,  Cloyne,  and  Ross.  In  each 
capacity  he  did  good  service.  His  ministry  in 
Dublin  was  memorable  by  reason  of  his  spiritu- 
ality, eloquence,  and  fidelity ;  while  as  a  bishop 
he  was  wise  in  counsel,  kind  in  manner,  and  firm 
in  rule.  Sse  his  Life  of  Faith  (sermons  and  lectures), 
Lond.,  1883,  and  his  Life  by  his  son,  Dublin,  1879.- 

GREGOIRE,  Henri,  b.  at  Veho,  a  village  near 
Luneville,  Dec.  4,  1750;  d.  in  Paris,  May  28, 
1831 ;  was  educated  in  tlie  Jesuit  college  at 
Nancy,  and  became  teacher  in  the  Jesuit  school 
of  Pont-a-Mousson,  pastor  of  Emberme'uil,  and 
Bishop  of  Blois  from  1791  to  1801 ;  after  1814 
he  retired  altogether  from  public  life.  Sent  as  a 
delegate  to  the  assembly  of  the  States-General 
in  1789,  he  played  a  prominent  part  during  tlie 
whole  revolution,  advocating  the  most  advanced 
views  with  respect  to  social  reforms,  but  oppos- 
ing, often  with  great  courage,  the  reign  of  terror. 
He  was  the  first  French  priest  who  took  the  oath 
on  the  constitution  (Dec.  27,  1790).  His  episco- 
pal office  he  resigned,  in  consequence  of  the  con- 
cordat of  1801.  During  the  Restoration  he  was 
much  persecuted  by  the  ultramontanists ;  and 
Guillon  had  to  suffer  considerably  because  he 
administered  the  sacrament  to  him  on  his  death- 
bed. He  wrote  Sur  la  regeneration  ties  Juifs  (Metz, 
1789,  translated  into  English,  London,  same  year), 
De  la  littcrature  des  Negres  (Paris,  1808,  translated 
both  into  English  and  German),  Histoire  des  secies 
religieuses  (Paris,  1828,  5  vols.),  Me'moires  de  Gre- 
goire  (Paris,  1837,  2  vols.).  See  his  life,  by  Kru- 
GER,Leip.,  1838;  Maggiolo, Nancy,  1885;  C.Rene 
Gregory  :  Gre'goire,  the  Priest  and  the  Revolution- 
is!,  Leip.,  1876.  Caspar  ken^  gregoky. 

GREGOR  VON  HEIMBURG  was  b.  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  probably  at 
Wurzburg,  and  descended  from  a  noble  family 
in  Franconia.  After  studying  law  at  the  uni- 
versity of  his  native  city,  and  obtaining  the 
degree  of  doctor  utriui^que  (1430),  he  repaired 
immediately  to  Basel,  at  that  time  the  centre  of 
public  attention  as  the  seat  of  the  oecumenical 
council.  He  staid  there  till  1435,  when  he  was 
made  syndic  of  Nuremberg,  and  became  ac- 
quainted, even  intimately,  with  Enca  Silvio  Pic- 
colomini.  In  Nuremberg  he  remained  till  1460; 
and  as  syndic  of  this  free  city  of  the  empire  he 
immediately  entered  upon  that  protracted  and 
bitter  but  never-interrupted  contest  with  the 
curia,  which  filled  his  whole  life.  To  break  the 
influence  of  the  Italian  papacy  on  Germany,  and 
stop  that  drainage  by  Rome  of  the  very  heart- 
blood  of  his  fatherland,  were  the  great  objects  of 
liis  life.     In  1446  Eugen  IV.  deposed  Archbishop 


GREGORIAN  CHANT. 


906 


GREGORY  NAZIANZEN. 


Theodoric  of  Cologne,  and  Archbishop  Jacob  of 
Treves,  on  account  of  the  reformatory  tendencies 
their  government  evinced.  The  electors  of  the 
empire  immediately  assembled  at  Francfort ; 
and,  supported  by  the  Emperor  Frederic  III., 
thej'  sent  au  embassy  to  Rome  to  move  the  Pope 
to  cancel  the  depositions.  Gregor  stood  at  the 
head  of  this  embassy;  and,  when  nothing  came 
out  of  the  negotiations,  he  published  his  Aihnoni- 
tio  (le  injustis  uswpalionibus  paparum,  etc.  (GoL- 
DAST,  Monarchia,  I.  p.  557),  burning  with  indig- 
nation. In  HoS  his  friend  Enea  Silvio  ascended 
the  papal  throne  under  the  name  of  Pius  II. ; 
and  in  the  very  next  year  Gregor  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  plead  before  him,  as  the  representative 
of  Duke  Sigismund  of  Austria,  at  the  congress  of 
Mantua.  But  Gregor  spoke  against  the  Pope's 
plans,  and  the  friendship  turned  into  a  deadly 
hatred.  Shortly  after,  the  duke  was  put  under 
the  ban.  because  he  had  imprisoned  Nicholas  of 
Cusa,  Bishop  of  Brixen ;  and  when  Gregoi',  in 
behalf  of  his  client,  appealed  to  an  cecumeuical 
council,  he,  too,  was  put  under  the  ban.  He 
sought  refuge,  first  with  George  Podiebrad,  king 
of  Bohemia,  afterwards  with  the  Duke  of  Saxony ; 
and  he  continued  to  harass  the  curia  with  his 
scornful  and  defiant  denunciations.  After  the 
accession,  however,  of  Sixtus  IV.,  the  ban  was 
abrogated ;  and  he  died  (li72)  reconciled  with 
the  Church. 

Lit.  —  Besides  those  of  his  writings  which 
are  found  in  (joldast  (Monarchia),  there  is  a 
collection,  Scri/ita  ncrcosa,  etc.,  Francfort,  160S. 
His  life  was  written  by  Ballenst.\dius  (Ilelm- 
stadt,  1737)  and  Ci..  BROCKn.\us  (Leipzig,  ISCJl). 
See  also  VoKiX:  Eitea  SiU-io  Piccolomini,  1S5S- 
63,  4  \ol>.  P.  TSCHACKERT. 

GREGORIAN  CHANT.     See  Music. 

GREGORIUS  AGRIGENTINUS  was  Bishop  of 
Agrigeutum  in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  wrote  (iu  Greek)  a  commentary  on  Eccle- 
siastes,  which,  together  with  a  life  of  him  (also 
in  Greek)  liy  Leontius,  was  edited  by  Morcelli, 
Venice,  1701,  with  Latin  translation  and  notes, 
and  reproduced  in  I'alrolmjia  (Incca,  vol.  98. 
Though  the  sketch  by  Leontius  is  very  full,  the 
clironology  of  Gregorius'  life  is  very  uncertain. 

GREGORIUS  ANTIOCHENSIS,  or  THEOPOL- 
ITANUS,  was  tir.->t  a  monk  in  Constantinople, 
then  abbot  of  tlie  monastery  of  Mount  Sinai, 
and  finally  patriarch  of  Antiocli,  or,  as  the  city 
was  then  called,  Theopolis  (.")0!)-59l).  His  life 
was  very  stormy.  He  was  exceedingly  unpopular 
in  Antioch,  and  was  compelled  twice  to  defend 
himself  against  the  most  infamous  accusations. 
A  homily  by  him  (/»  iiuUiens  uiii/uoill/'cras),  and 
a  sjieech  he  delivered  to  the  rebellious  soldiers 
on  th(;  Persian  frontier,  are  stillextant;  (!ai.i.ani): 
/:ibl.  I'alr.,  \II. 

GREGORIUS  NEO-C/ESARENSIS  THAUMA- 
TURGUS,  the  enthusiastic  dLsciple  of  Oiigen, 
and  tlu'  apostle  of  I'ontus;  was  b.  at  Xeo-Ca'sarea 
in  Pontu.s,  and  destined  for  some  kind  of  civil 
career,  but  happeneil  to  come  to  Ca;sarea  in  Pal- 
estine, where  Origen  had  settled  down  shortly 
before  (in  231),  and  remained  there,  studying 
under  his  tutorship,  for  eight  years.  Befon;  he 
returned  home  he  wrote  his  panegyrics  on  his 
great  teacher  (specially  edited  by  .1.  A.  Bengel, 
1722);  and  shortly  after  his  arrival  home  he  was 


consecrated  bishop  of  his  native  city  by  Phaedi- 
nms  of  Amisus.  He  found  seventeen  Christians 
in  Neo-Ca;sarea  when  he  entered  his  office :  there 
were  only  seventeen  Pagans  left  when  he  died 
(about  270).  Testimonies  of  the  energy  he  de- 
veloped and  the  influence  he  exercised  are  not 
only  the  legends  which  cluster  around  his  name, 
but  also  the  writings  he  left,  —  his  so-called  ca- 
nonical letter  on  discipline,  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting documents  of  ancient  Christianity;  the  con- 
fession he  used  for  the  catechumens  of  his  church; 
his  paraphrase  of  Ecclesiastes.  They  were  edited 
by  G.  Voss,  Mayence,  1604,  in  Paris,  1622 ;  in 
Gallaxd:  Bibl.  Pair.,  III.;  and  Mione:  Patrol. 
Grata,  X.  His  life  was  written  by  Gregory  of 
NyssA  (utterly  unreliable),  Pallavicini  (Rome, 
1014),  J.  L.  BoYE  (Jena,  1703),  and  A  ictok 
Kyssel  (Leipzig,  1880).  W.  MOLLER. 

GREGORY  THE  ILLUMINATOR.  See  Ar- 
menia. 

GREGORY  NAZIANZEN,  one  of  the  three 
celebrated  Cappadocians  of  the  fourth  century 
who  defended  the  Nicene  faith,  and  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  orators  of  the  early  Church.  Com- 
pared with  his  two  other  fellow-countrymen,  he 
was  neither  an  ecclesiastical  leader,  like  Basil, 
nor  a  deep  thinker,  like  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  but 
surpassed  both  iu  rhetorical  skill,  and  possessed 
a  combination  of  talents  such  as  neither  of  them 
had.  A  romantic  interest  attaches  to  his  career, 
which  moved  to  and  fro  between  an  active  par- 
ticipation in  the  enterprises  of  the  church,  and 
the  free  leisure  of  a  Christian  philosopher  and 
monk,  as  monasticism  then  allowed.  Rich  bio- 
graphical notices  are  found  in  Gregory  the  Pres- 
byter, Socrates,  Sozomen,  Theodoret,  Rufinus, 
and  Suidas.  The  most  important  sources  of 
his  life  are,  however,  his  own  writings.  He  was 
b.  330,  at  Nazianzus  in  Cappadocia,  or  in  Ari- 
anzas,  a  village  near  by,  and  d.  389  or  390.  His 
mother,  Nonua,  was  a  woman  of  ardent  piety 
and  devotion.  Brought  into  the  Church  by  her 
persuasions,  his  father  was  made  Bishop  of  Nazi- 
anzus. (iregory  visited,  in  turn,  the  two  C.-esareas, 
Alexandria,  and  Athens;  devoting  himself  in  the 
latter  city  to  the  study  of  grammar,  mathemat- 
ics, rhetoric,  etc.  Among  hi.s  fellow-students  was 
Julian,  afterwards  Roman  emperor.  In  300  he 
returned  to  Cappadocia,  and  w.as  baptized.  At 
the  invitation  of  his  friend  Basil  he  went  to  Pon- 
tus,  and  shareii  with  him  common  studies  and 
diversions.  One  result  of  these  mutual  studies- 
was  tin;  PhUoculia,  a  collection  of  excerpts  from 
Origen.  His  father,  yielding  to  the  pressure  of 
imperial  and  ecclesiastical  infiuence,  had  aflixed 
his  signature  to  a  seini-Arian  document  of  the 
synod  of  Uimini.  Hearing  of  this,  (iregory  hur- 
ried to  Nazianzu.s,  and  prevailed  on  him  to  re- 
tract. On  this  visit  liis  father,  as  was  frequently 
the  case  in  those  days,  suddenly  and  w  ithout  i>re- 
vious  intimation  to  his  .son,  oniuined  him  presby- 
ter. Gregory  shrank  from  the  duties  of  the  olfice, 
and  fled  to  Basil,  but  was  soon  prevailed  upon  to 
return,  and  assist  his  father  in  his  old  age.  When 
Basil  was  con.secrated  Bishop  of  Ca.'sarea  .some 
years  afterward,  he  intrusted  to  his  friend  the 
uisliopric  of  Sasima,  a  S(pialiil  village.  The  office 
was  forced  upon  Gregory  against  his  will ;  and, 
though  he  allowed  himself  to  be  consecrated,  ho 
refused  to  serve,  and  continued  to  cssist  his  father 


GREGORY  OF  NYSSA. 


907 


GREGORY  OF  NYSSA. 


as  coadjutor  till  his  death  (374).  In  370  he  was 
tailed  to  Constantinople  to  lead  the  Nicene  party, 
which  was  so  inconsiderable  that  it  did  not  even 
have  a  church  to  worship  in.  But  Gregory's 
eloquence  and  devotion  soon  attracted  crowds, 
who,  under  the  spell  of  his  words,  forgot  his  sraall- 
ness  of  stature  and  sickly  emaciation  of  face. 
Even  such  scholars  as  Jerome  desired  to  be  his 
pupils;  and  the  little  congregation  soon  passed 
into  a  church,  which,  with  reference  to  the  revival 
of  the  true  faith,  received  the  name  Aiiastasia.  In 
380  Theodosius  consummated  the  defeat  of  the 
Arian  party;  and  Gregory  was  led  in  triumph 
into  the  principal  church  of  the  city.  He  was 
elected  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  and  consecrated 
by  the  order  of  the  second  oecumenical  council 
(381).  But  the  Macedonian  and  Egyptian  bish- 
ops on  their  arrival  pronounced  the  act  a  violation 
of  the  canons  of  Nice,  which  limited  a  bishop  to 
one  diocese.  Gregory  resigned,  too  noble  to  have 
recourse  to  intrigue,  as  was  then  so  frequently 
the  case,  and  yet  not  without  some  regret.  He 
returned  to  Cappadocia,  where  for  a  time  he  de- 
voted himself  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  and  then 
refilled  to  his  paternal  estate  at  Arianzus. 

Gregory's  Wkitings  consist  of  orations,  letters, 
and  poems.  In  these  he  shows  himself  a  skilful 
author:  his  diction  is  rich,  and  glowing  with 
figures,  his  emotion  ardent,  his  rhetorical  gifts 
shedding  a  constant  lustre.  His  letters,  addressed 
to  Basil,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  etc.,  abound  in  beau- 
tiful thoughts.  Ilis  poems  contain  some  fine 
hymns,  but  are  often  wearisome  and  prolix.  Most 
important  are  the  orations,  forty-five  in  number. 
Five  are  devoted  to  the  exposition  and  defence  of 
the  Nicene  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  won  for 
Gregory  the  title  of  the  "  Theologian."  The  others 
are  devoted  to  public  events,  or  to  the  memory  of 
martyrs,  friends,  and  kindred.  No  one  of  them 
is  a  pure  treatment  of  a  biblical  subject.  In 
christology  Gregory  opposed  Arianism  and  Apolli- 
narianism :  in  anthropology  he  teaches  original 
sin,  and  derives  the  mortality  of  man  from 'the 
fall.  But  he  held  to  the  ability  of  the  human 
will  to  choose  the  good,  and  to  the  co-operation 
of  man  with  God  in  salvation.  In  these  particu- 
lars he  shows  the  influence  of  Origeu,  as,  in  his 
views  of  the  Trinity,  the  influence  of  Athanasius. 

Lit.  — The  first  edition  of  his  works  by  Her- 
VAGius,  Basel,  1550.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
the  Benedictinks,  Paris,  1778-18-10  (its  jjrogress 
was  interrupted  by  the  French  Revolution).  This 
edition  contains  the  annotations  of  Nicetas,  Elias, 
and  Psellus,  and  is  introduced  with  a  Life  by 
Clemencet;  [H.  Ilurter,  ed.  Gregory's  Oralio 
apologeiica  de  J'uga  sua,  Innsbruck,  1879]  ;  Ull- 
MANN  :  Greyorlus  v.  Nazianz.  d.  Tlieolog.,  Darm- 
stadt, 1825,  Eng.  trans.,  G.  F.  Coxe,  1857,  an 
excellent  monograph ;  Benoit  :  .S(.  Gregoire  de 
Naz.,  Paris,  1877 ;  [Gibbon  :  Decline  and  Fall  of 
Roman  Empire,  chap.  xvii.  ;  Smith  and  Wace, 
Diet.  Christ.  Biol/.].  GASS. 

GREGORY  OF  NYSSA,  one  of  the  ablest  de- 
fenders of  the  Nicene  faitii  against  Arianism  and 
Apollinarianism,  and  a  younger  brother  of  Basil; 
was  b.  in  Cappadocia  about  332 ;  d.  about  395. 
He  was  indebted  to  his  brother  for  his  literary 
training.  Under  the  influence  of  a  dream  he 
undertook  the  office  of  anagnost,  or  reader ;  but, 
the  duties  not  being  congenial  to  his  tastes,  he 


forsook  it  to  become  a  teacher  of  rhetoric.  Greg- 
ory Nazianzen  remonstrating  with  him  for  seem- 
ing to  prefer  the  fame  of  a  rhetorician  above 
the  calling  of  a  Christian,  he  returned  to  the 
service  of  the  Church,  and  in  371  or  372  was 
made,  by  Basil,  Bishop  of  Nyssa,  an  inconsid- 
erable town  of  Cappadocia.  Gregory  was  married 
to  Theosebia,  who  was  still  living  at  the  time 
of  his  promotion.  The  synod  of  Ancyra  (375), 
convened  by  the  Arian  Demetrius,  governor  of 
Pontus,  pronounced  him,  though  unju.stly,  guilty 
of  misuse  of  church-funds,  and  violation  of  the 
canons  for  the  election  of  bishops.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  another  synod  deposed  him  from  his 
bishopric.  This  was  followed  by  his  banishment 
by  Valens.  Crushed  by  these  events,  Gregory 
retired  into  solitude.  The  death  of  Valens  (378) 
was  the  signal  for  his  return  to  his  diocese,  which 
he  entered  amidst  the  acclamations  of  the  people. 
The  following  year  Basil  died,  and  a  few  months 
later  his  sister  Macrina,  whom  Gregory  saw  in 
her  dying  hours  on  his  return  from  the  synod 
of  Antioch.  In  381  we  find  him  at  the  Council  of 
Constantinople.  At  this  meeting  he  read  his 
work  against  Eunomius  to  Gregory  Nazianzen 
and  Jerome.  Of  the  two  discourses  he  pronounced 
during  his  stay  in  the  city,  —  at  the  consecration 
of  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 
and  at  the  death  of  Miletius  of  Antioch,  —  the 
latter  only  is  preserved.  The  council  appointed 
him,  in  conjunction  with  Helladius,  overseer  or 
patriarch  of  the  churches  of  Pontus ;  but  he  seems 
to  have  been  ignored  by  the  latter.  In  obedience 
to  an  order  of  the  synod  of  Antioch  (or  the  Council 
of  Constantinople),  Gregory  visited  the  church  of 
Arabia  (Babylon)  in  the  interest  of  its  reforma- 
tion, lie  afterwards  went  to  Jerusalem,  where 
he  found  the  church  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
state.  A  result  of  this  tour  was  the  work  De 
Euntibus  Ilierosolijma,  which  warns  against  the 
uselessness  and  evils  of  pilgrimages.  He  was  in 
Constantinople  in  383,  and  again  in  385,  when  he 
delivered  funeral  orations  over  the  young  Princess 
Pulcheria  and  the  Empre,ss  Placilla.  We  hear 
nothing  more  of  him  till  394,  when  he  is  in  at- 
tendance at  a  synod  of  Constantinople,  and  de- 
livered a  sermon  at  the  dedication  of  a  church  at 
Chalcedon. 

Gregory  of  Nyssa  was  of  a  retiring  disposition, 
and  laid  himself  open,  by  his  irresolute  and  pliant 
administration  of  his  diocese,  to  the  charge  of 
weakness  and  incompetency  from  Basil.  He 
lacked  the  practical  gifts  of  a  leader,  which  his 
brother  possessed  in  an  eminent  degree,  and  was 
not  endowed  so  richly  with  oratorical  talents  as 
Gregory  Nazianzen ;  but  he  was  a  profounder 
theologian  than  either.  In  general,  except  on 
the  doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  the  Incarnation, 
he  leaned  upon  Origen.  In  his  vindication  of 
the  Nicene  articles  he  makes  a  clear  distinction 
between  essence  (ovaia)  and  person  (vmaTaaic).  The 
simplicity  of  the  divine  essence  excludes  all  sub- 
ordination of  persons  in  the  Trinity.  The  Son 
is  equal  with  the  Father  by  reason  of  an  eternal 
generation.  Sin  has  interfered  with  the  realiza- 
tion of  man's  design,  which  was  to  participate  in 
the  divine  fulness,  and  has  antagonized  the  world 
to  God.  To  enable  man  to  realize  this  design  is 
the  object  of  the  Incarnation.  Jlan  still  retains 
free  will  and  a  love  for  the  good,  which  is  iude- 


GREGORY  OF  TOURS. 


908 


GREGORY. 


structible.  Sin,  which  is  departure  from  God,  is 
overcome  by  God's  approach  to  man ;  i.e.,  the 
union  of  the  divine  with  the  human  nature. 
Christ  assumed  all  of  human  nature  —  body,  soul, 
and  spirit  —  in  order  to  redeem  all.  As  the 
second  Adam  he  restores  to  man  his  original  love 
and  longing  after  God,  and  enables  him  by  the 
gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  attain  in  an  ever- 
increasing  measure  to  his  likeness.  "Christianity 
is  the  imitation  of  the  divine  nature"  (xpioTimw/io^ 
can  T^c  'deiac  (pvccu;  /li/iyjaif).  All  will  be  ultimately 
restored,  for  all  possess  a  remainder  of  the  divine 
nature ;  and  this  could  not  be  destroyed  without 
destroying  the  very  soul  itself.  This  doctrine  of 
the  apokalastasis,  or  universal  restoration,  which 
he  taught  in  common  with  Origeu,  has  given 
great  trouble  to  the  Eastern  Church,  some  of 
their  scholars  holding  the  passages  teaching  it  to 
be  insertions  by  the  hand  of  heretics. 

Lit. — The  most  important  of  Gregory's  dog- 
matical works  are  his  twelve  Books  against  Euno- 
mius,  Antirrhet.  adv.  Apollinarem  (the  most  valua- 
ble refutation  of  Apollinarianism),  and  Oralio 
Catechet.  Magna.  Of  his  exegetical  works  the 
most  important  are  his  De  Hominis  Opificio,  Apolo- 
get.  de  Hexcemeron,  the  Life  of  Moses,  expositions 
of  Ecclesiastes,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Beati- 
tudes, the  Lord's  Prayer,  etc.  To  these  must  be 
added  his  epistles,  funeral  orations,  and  ascetic 
writings,  such  as  De  Virginilaie,  in  which  lie  re2> 
resents  celibacy  as  the  perfection  of  life,  from 
which,  however,  he  laments  that  he  is  himself 
debarred.  Editions  of  his  works,  Basel,  1562  and 
1571  ;  by  Fiionto  Duc.eus,  Paris,  1615,  2  vols.; 
the  Antirrhet.  adv.  Apo/L,  fourteen  letters  and  two 
orations  for  the  first  time  in  Zacagnii  :  Collec- 
tanea Monum.  vet.  ecct.  Grcec.,  Rome,  1698;  the 
same,  with  seven  additional  letters,  by  Caru.vccio- 
i.us,  Florence,  1731;  Migne  :  Patr.  Gr.,  pp.  44-46  ; 
Fii.  Oehlkb,  Leip.,  1858,  1  vol.  (not  complete) ; 
liuri' :  Gregors  d.  B.  von  Ny.saa  Leben  u.  Meinun- 
gen,  Leip.,  1834;  Hky.vs  :  Dispul.  hist.-theol.  de 
Greg.  Nyss.,  Lugd.,  1835;  Moei.lek  :  Greg.  i\^yss. 
Doctr.  de  hominis  nal.  et  illustr.  et  cum  Origeniana 
Com/)ur.,  Halle,  1854 ;  G.  Herrmann:  Gr.  Nyss. 
Sententia  de  Salute  Adipiscenda,  Halle,  1875 ; 
[Smith  and  WACB,i)(f/.].  w.  mollek. 

GREGORY  OF  TOURS,  b.  at  Arverna,  the  pres- 
ent Clermont,  tlie  capital  of  Auvergne,  540;  d. 
at  Tours,  Nov.  17,  5U4 ;  descended  from  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  Roman  families  in  Gaul. 
His  true  name  was  Georgius  Flon^ntius,  which  he 
changed  in  honor  of  his  maternal  great-grand- 
father. Bishop  Gregory  of  Langres.  Having  been 
educated  for  the  Church,  he  was  cliosen  Bishop 
of  Tours  in  573,  and  governed  his  diocese  with 
great  ability  under  very  difficult  circumstances, 
the  wars  bc^tweeii  Sigebert  and  Cliilperic.  or  rather 
between  Brunehild  and  Fn^iegund.  He  owes  his 
great  celebrity,  however,  principally  to  his  author- 
sliip.  Besides  a  work  on  mirach^s,  which  is  hardly 
read  any  more,  he  wrote  tlie  Annates  Francorum. 
which  is  the  most  important,  if  not  tlie  only,  source 
to  tlie  history  of  Gaul  in  tliat  period.  It  was  first 
printed  in  Paris,  1511,  and  critically  edited  by 
lluinart,  Paris,  1699.  There  is  an  excellent  Ger- 
man translation  by  Gie.sebrecht,  in  Pertz,  Ge- 
schiehtsschreiber  dcr  deulschen  Vorzeil,  Berlin,  1851, 
0th  ed.,  1873.  Best  ed.  of  iiis  Opera,  by  Arndt 
and  Krusch,  Hainiover,  1884  sqq. 


Lit.  —  LuBELL  :  Gregor  von  Tours  und  seine 
Zdt,  Leip.,  1839,  2d  ed.,  1869  ;  G.  Monod  :  Etudes 
critiques  sur  les  sources  de  I'histoire  merovingiennes, 
Paris,  1872.  See  also  A.  Thierry:  Re'cits  des 
temps  mc'rovingiens,  Paris,  1840.  KLUpfEL. 

GREGORY  OF  UTRECHT,  the  sou  of  Alberic. 
who,  through  his  mother,  Wastrade,  was  related 
to  the  royal  family  of  the  Merovingians;  met  in 
722  with  Boniface  in  the  monastery  of  Pfalzel. 
near  Treves,  and  became  from  that  day  his 
friend  and  companion.  After  the  death  of  Boni- 
face he  was  charged  by  the  Pope  with  the  con- 
version of  the  Frisians ;  and  he  labored  with  suc- 
cess for  this  object,  both  as  a  missionary,  and  as 
leader  of  the  school  of  L'trecht.  He  died  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Salvator,  in  Utrecht,  Aug.  25,, 
775.  His  life,  by  his  pupil,  Liudger,  is  found  ia. 
Act.  Sanct.,  August  V.  G.  PLITT 

GREGORY  is  the  name  of  sixteen  popes; 
namely,  Gregory  I.,  the  Great  (Sept.  3,  590- 
March  12,  604),  descended  from  a  distinguished 
senatorial  family,  probably  the  Anicians,  and  was 
b.  in  Rome  between  540  and  550.  Educated  in 
conformity  with  his  social  state,  he  was  instructed 
in  dialectics  and  rhetoric,  studied  law,  entered 
the  civil  service,  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
Emperor  Justin,  and  received  (about  574)  the 
dignity  of  a  prcetor  urbis.  But  he  also  studied 
the  Fathers  of  the  Western  Church,  —  Augustine, 
Ambrose,  and  Jerome.  His  family  was  markedly 
religious :  his  mother,  Sylvia,  and  his  two  pater- 
nal aunts,  have  been  canonized.  The  deepest 
instincts  of  his  own  nature  revolted  against  the 
luxury  and  ambition  of  his  office.  He  determined 
to  flee  from  the  world,  and  become  a  monk.  He 
employed  the  immense  wealth  left  to  him  by  his 
father's  death  to  found  six  Benedictine  monas- 
teries in  Sicily,  and  a  seventh  in  his  own  house 
in  Rome.  In  the  latter  he  became  a  monk  him- 
self ;  and  so  severe  were  the  ascetic  exercises  he 
practised,  that  his  health  became  impaired,  and 
even  his  life  was  in  danger.  At  this  moment 
ths  Pope,  Pelagius  IL,  interfered,  dragged  him 
out  of  the  monastery  by  ordaining  him  a  deacon 
(579),  and  sent  him  to  Constantinople  as  apocri- 
siarius.  The  mission  he  fulfilled  with  great 
ability ;  and  while  in  Constantinople  he  began 
his  celebrated  work  Expo.fitio  in  Job  or  Muralium 
Libri  A'A'A'F.  After  his  return  to  Rome  (585) 
he  continued  to  take  a  leading  part  in  all  the 
busine.ss  of  the  curia ;  and  after  the  death  of 
Pelagius  II.  he  was  unanimously  elected  Pope, 
by  the  clergy,  the  senate,  and  the  people,  and 
compelled  to  accept. 

The  position  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  was  at 
that  time  by  no  means  an  easy  one.  Pressed  on 
one  side  by  the  Arian  and  half-barbarian  Lom- 
bards, he  was  not  free  on  the  other,  but  had  to 
yield  in  many  ways  to  the  autliority  of  the  Byzan- 
tine emperor  and  his  re|)res('ntative  in  Italy,  the 
exarch  of  Kavenna.  Nevertheless,  the  position 
was  not  without  its  opportunities;  and  Gregory 
knew  how  to  utilize  them.  The  Pope  was  the 
greatest  landeii  proprietor  in  Italy.  From  his 
estates,  not  only  in  Campania,  Apulia,  Calabria, 
Sicily,  and  Sardinia,  but  also  in  Gaul,  Dahnatia, 
and  Northern  Africa,  immense  sums  flowed  into 
liis  treasury;  and  (jregory  proved  an  excellent 
administrator,  strict,  and  with  an  eye  for  tho 
minutest  details.     To  this  wealth  was  added  iv 


GREGORY. 


909 


GREGORY. 


certain  prestige  not  ecclesiastical.  On  account 
of  the  weakness  and  inability  of  tlie  exarchs,  the 
Pope  became  the  real  ruler  of  Rome ;  and  this 
rOle  was  quite  natural  to  Gregory,  who  had  been 
prcEtor  urbis  before  he  became  Pope.  Thus  he 
stood  almost  as  an  independent  power,  mediat- 
ing between  the  Lombards  and  the  Byzantines. 
Through  Theodelinde,  a  Bavarian  princess,  be- 
longing to  the  Orthodox  Church,  and  the  wife  of 
King  Agilulf,  he  exercised  some  influence  on  the 
Lombards;  though  at  one  time  (.593),  just  while 
he  was  delivering  his  homilies  on  Enekiel,  he 
had  to  buy  off  Agilulf  from  the  gates  of  Rome 
■with  an  immense  sum  of  gold  and  silver.  In 
Constantinople,  too,  he  could  give  his  voice  some 
weight;  though  his  relations  with  the  Emperor 
Mauritius  became  more  and  more  troubled,  espe- 
cially after  the  controversy  with  John  Jejunator. 

John  IV.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  liked 
to  call  himself  the  "oecumenical  patriarch." 
But  he  was  neither  the  first  to  assume  this  title, 
nor  the  only  one  to  whom  it  had  been  applied : 
his  predecessor,  Menas,  had  borne  it  536 ;  and  it 
had  been  given  to  Leo  I.  by  the  Council  of  Chal- 
cedon  451,  to  Hormisdas  by  the  Syrian  monks 
517,  and  to  Boniface  II.  by  the  metropolitan  of 
Larissa  in  531.  Gregory,  however,  who  called 
himself  servus  servorum  Dei  (not  as  a  rebuke  to 
the  Constantinopolitan  patriarch,  but  simply  in 
imitation  of  Augustine),  took  umbrage  at  this 
title,  complained  of  it  to  Mauritius  (.595),  and 
attacked  John  IV.  with  a  somewhat  extraordinary 
vehemence.  John  died  in  the  same  year;  but 
his  successor,  Cyriacus,  continued  the  title,  and 
Gregory  became  more  and  more  irritated,  espe- 
cially as  Mauritius  declined  to  interfere.  In 
November,  602,  Mauritius  was  overthrown  by 
Phocas;  and  not  only  was  he  himself  beheaded, 
but  also  his  wife,  his  five  sons,  and  his  three 
daughters.  The  new  emperor,  liowever,  the 
usurper,  the  murderer,  was  hailed  by  the  Pope 
with  letters  of  congratulation,  whose  fulsomeness 
and  flattery  and  adulation  can  be  explained  only 
on  the  supposition  that  Gregory,  when  he  wrote 
the  letters,  was  ignorant  of  the  wanton  cruelty 
which  had  accompanied  the  usurpation,  —  a  sup- 
position which,  in  view  of  the  times,  by  no  means 
is  improbable. 

In  a  similar  way  his  relation  to  Brunehild 
must  be  explained.  Brunehild  was  simply  a 
monster.  The  crimes  she  committed  during  the 
reign  of  her  son,  Childebert  II.  (575-596),  and 
her  two  grandsons,  Theudebert  II.  and  Theude- 
ric  II.,  earned  for  her  the  name  of  the  "  Prankish 
Fury,"  the  "  new  Jezebel."  And  to  this  woman 
Gregory  wrote  letters  full  of  praise  and  flattery. 
But  what  did  he  know  of  her?  Probably  nothing 
more  than  what  he  learnt  from  her  own  letters  ; 
and  in  these  she  simply  asked  for  some  relics  for 
a  church,  or  the  pallium  for  St.  Syagrius  of  Autun, 
or  a  privilege  for  some  monastery,  or  a  papal 
legate  to  a  Prankish  synod  ;  while  she  promised 
to  support  the  English  mission,  to  build  churches 
and  monasteries,  to  abolish  simony,  to  introduce 
celibacy,  to  refrain  from  giving  ecclesiastical 
offices  and  benefices  to  laymen,  etc.  To  him 
Brunehild  may  have  looked  as  he  described  her, 
—  a  very  pious  woman. 

The  two  brightest  points,  however,  in  Gregory's 
relations  with  foreign  countries,  are  Spain  and 


England.  Through  the  influence  of  Bishop 
Leander  of  Seville,  an  intimate  friend  of  Gregory 
since  they  first  met  in  Constantinople,  Reccared, 
King  of  the  Visigoths,  was  led  to  abandon  Arian- 
ism,  and  join  the  Catholics.  In  a  letter  dated 
599,  the  king  communicated  his  conversion  to 
the  Pope;  and  at  the  same  time  he  sent  a  goblet 
of  gold  as  a  present  to  St.  Peter.  Gregory 
answered  most  graciously,  and  sent  abbot  Cyria- 
cus to  Spain  with  the  pallium  to  Leander.  The 
synod  of  Barcelona,  held  in  the  same  year  under 
the  presidency  of  the  metropolitan  Asiaticus  of 
Tarragona,  and  treating  the  questions  of  simony 
and  laymen's  investiture  with  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fices, was  probably  connected  with  the  sending 
of  Cyriacus.  England  had  already  attracted  the 
attention  of  Gregory  while  he  was  yet  a  monk. 
The  sight  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  boys  exhibited  in 
the  slave-markets  of  Rome  had  moved  him  to 
pity,  and  he  determined  to  go  to  England  as  a 
missionary.  He  actually  started  on  the  way, 
but  was  recalled  by  the  Pope.  When  he  became 
Pope  himself,  he  sent  (596)  Augustine  and  forty 
other  monks  to  King  Ethelbert  of  Kent;  and 
already  the  next  year  Augustine  could  report  the 
baptism  of  the  king  and  ten  thousand  of  his 
subjects.  How  great  an  interest  Gregory  took 
in  the  English  mission  appears  from  his  letters 
to  Augustine,  which  are  full  of  the  most  detailed 
instructions. 

However  successful  Gregory  was  in  extending 
the  influence  and  authority  of  the  Roman  see 
throughout  the  Western  countries,  that  which  he 
accomplished  for  the  internal  organization  and 
consolidation  of  the  Church  was,  nevertheless, 
of  far  greater  importance.  The  delicate  question 
of  the  dependence  of  the  Western  metropolitan 
sees  on  the  see  of  Rome,  he  handled  with  great 
adroitness.  In  North  Africa,  whose  clergy  were 
extremely  jealous  of  their  independence,  he  acted 
with  great  caution,  and  in  strict  conformity  with 
the  canons  of  the  Council  of  Sardica  (347). 
Gennadius  the  exarch,  and  the  two  most  promi- 
nent bishops  in  the  province,  Dominicus  of  Car- 
thage, and  Columbus  of  Numidia,  were  firm 
friends  of  his;  and  many  appeals  were  made  to 
the  Roman  see.  But  the  parties  were  never 
summoned  to  Rome :  the  cases  were  treated  in 
loco,  and  by  papal  legates.  Quite  otherwise  in 
the  diocese  of  Ravenna.  He  forbade  the  Arch- 
bishop John,  in  a  rather  sharp  manner,  to  wear 
the  pallium,  except  when  celebrating  mass;  and 
when  a  conflict  arose  between  John's  successor, 
Marinianus,  and  a  certain  abbot,  Claudius,  he 
summoned  both  parties  to  Rome  to  plead  their 
cause  before  him  personally.  He  attempted  the 
same  in  Illyria,  on  occasion  of  a  contested  episco- 
pal election  at  Salona  (593) ;  but  in  that  case  the 
Emperor  Mauritius  interfered,  and  to  his  great 
chagrin  and  humiliation  he  was  compelled  to 
make  a  compromise. 

Gregory's  ideas  of  a  papal  supremacy  may 
have  been  somewhat  vague ;  but  his  instincts 
were  strong,  and  pointed  all  towards  the  loftiest 
goal.  Very  characteristic  in  this  respect  were 
his  exertions  to  separate  the  monks  from  tha 
clergy  proper.  He  had  been  a  monk  himself, 
and  he  knew  to  what  temptations  and  illusions 
human  nature  is  exposed  by  monastic  life :  con- 
sequently he  fixed  the  term  of  the  novitiate  at 


GREGORY. 


910 


GREGORY. 


two  years,  and  for  soldiers  at  three.  He  forbade 
youths  under  eighteen  years  to  enter  a  monastery, 
and  married  men,  unless  with  the  consent  of  their 
wives.  He  ordered  all  ecclesiastical  officials  to 
seize  those  monks,  who,  often  in  great  swarms, 
roamed  about  in  the  country,  and  really  were 
neither  more  nor  less  than  tramps  of  the  most 
indolent  and  impertinent  description,  and  to  de- 
liver them  up  to  the  nearest  monastery  for  pun- 
ishment. Thus  he  did  much  for  the  reform  of 
the  monks,  but  he  did  still  more  for  their  eman- 
cipation. One  monastery  after  the  other  was 
exempted  from  the  episcopal  authority ;  and  at 
the  synod  of  Rome  (601)  the  power  of  the  bishop 
over  the  abbeys  was  generally  confined  to  the 
installation  of  the  abbot.  It  was  evidently  his 
idea  to  form  out  of  the  monks  a  powerful  instru- 
ment which  might  be  wielded  by  the  Pope  inde- 
pendently of  the  clergy.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
transferred  some  of  the  most  marked  characteris- 
tics of  monastic  life  to  the  clergy,  as,  for  instance, 
the  celibacy,  for  whose  introduction  he  was  ex- 
ceedingly anxious.  For  the  clergy  he  wrote, 
shortly  after  his  accession  to  the  papal  throne, 
his  famous  book,  Recjuki  Pustoralis,  which  for 
centui'ies  was  regarded  as  the  moral  code  of  the 
clerg3'.  The  Emperor  Mauritius  had  it  translated 
into  Greek  (Alfred  the  Great  translated  it  him- 
self into  Anglo-Saxon),  and  Hincmar  of  Rheims 
states  in  870  that  every  Prankish  bisliop  took  an 
oath  on  it  at  his  consecration.  Preaching  he  con- 
sidered as  the  principal  duty  of  the  priest,  and  he 
gave  in  this  respect  a  brilliant  example  himself. 
IJesides  the  above-mentioned  homilies  on  Ezekiel, 
forty  homilies  on  the  Gospels  have  come  dow'n 
to  us. 

As  a  theologian  Gregory  was  without  originali- 
ty: nevertheless  he  exercised  also  in  this  field  a 
beneficial  influence  by  spreading  the  inten'st  in 
Augustine.  He  is  sometimes  called  the  "in- 
ventor of  purgatory,"  but,  though  his  doctrines 
of  an  intermediate  state  between  death  and  doom 
are  very  explicit,  they  are  hardly  more  than 
modifications  of  the  ideas  of  .Vugustine.  His 
dogmatical  views  he  set  fortli  in  his  Dialor/orum 
de  vita  et  miraculis  patruin  Italicorum  el  tie  (elerni- 
tate  aiiinmrum.  Otherwise,  with  his  influence  on 
the  ceremonial  side  of  Christianity,  it  amounted 
at  some  points  to  a  complete  revolution.  It  is 
<loubtful  how  much  of  the  Sacramcniarium  Grei/o- 
rianum  really  belongs  to  Gregory,  and  how  much 
has  been  borrowed  from  the  SacntmeiiUinum  of 
Gelasius  I.  The  ca.se  is  somewliat  similar  with 
respect  to  his  Lihcr  Anli/>honorrti.i.  Nevertheless, 
it  is  beyond  doubt  that  he  founded  a  singing- 
.school  in  Rome,  the  effect  of  which  was  that  the 
(iregorian  Chant,  the  amlus  planus,  with  its  grave, 
solemn  rliythm,  all  tones  having  equal  length, 
superseded  the  Ambrosian  Chant,  the  canlus  Jigu- 

I'ftlUS. 

Lit. —  The  principal  source  is,  of  course,  found 
in  Gregory's  own  works,  especially  in  his  letters, 
numbering  eight  hundred  and  fifty.  The  best 
editions  are  those  by  I^om  Denis  de  Ste.  Marthe 
(J)li)in/Kiux  Sanimarllianus,  Paris,  170.'),  4  vols,  fol.) 
and  by  Galliciolli  (Venice,  1708-7C,  17  vols.  4to). 
Next  in  imjiortance  are  the  old  vitce,  —  (I.)  in 
the  Lilifr  I'onlificalis  in  Mukatori  :  Scrip.  licr. 
llaL,  HI.;  (H.)  in  Ca.nisius:  'J'lies.,  Antwerp, 
1725,  II.;  (III.)  by  Paulus  Diaconit.s  (eighth 


century) ;  and  (IV.)  by  Johannes  Diaconus 
(ninth  century),  both  in  0pp.  Greg.  Some  notices 
are  also  found  in  Paulus  Diaconus  :  De  gestis 
Longobardorum,  III.  24-2.5,  IV.,  and  V. ;  Gregory 
OF  Tours:  Annales  Francormn,  X.  1-2;  Beda  : 
Hist.  Eccl.  Angl,  I.  2.3-27,  33,  H.  1-3. 

Among  modern  treatments  of  the  subject  we 
mention  those  by  Bianchi-Giovini,  Milan,  1844; 
G.  Lau,  Leipzig,  1845;  G.  Pfahler,  Francfort, 
1852;  Vict.  Luzorciie,  Tours,  1857:  J.  B.^r- 
XAiiY,  London,  1879.  Special  points  have  been 
treated  by  Liliexthal:  De  canone  missce  Gr., 
Lyons,  1740  ;  Gerhert  :  De  canta  et  musica  sacra, 
Bamberg,  1744 ;  F.  Beknardi  :  J.  Longohardi, 
e. .«.  Greg.  M.,  Milan,  1843 ;  Guettee  :  La  papaule' 
moderne  .  .  .  Greg,  le  Grand,  Paris,  1861 ;  [G. 
Maggio:  Prolegomeni  alio  storia  di  Greg,  il  grande 
e  de'  suoi  tempi,  Prato,  1879].  R.  ZOEPFFEL. 

Gregory  M.  (May  If),  715-Feb.  10,  731)  was  a 
Benedictine  monk,  and  rebuilt  Monte  Cassino, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  the  Lombards.  He 
was  the  first  Pope  who  addressed  himself  to  the 
Franks  for  aid  against  the  Lombards,  but  he  did 
not  succeed.  His  letters  are  found  in  Jaffi:: 
Regest.  Pont.  Roman.,  his  life,  in  Vigxoli  :  Lib. 
Po»A,  II. —  Gregory  III.  (Feb.  11,  731-Nov.  28, 
741)  was  a  Syrian  by  birth.  He,  too,  asked  the 
Franks  for  aid  against  tlie  Lombards,  but  with 
as  little  success  as  his  predecessor.  A  work  he 
wrote,  according  to  Anastasius,  on  the  legitimacy 
of  image-worship,  seems  to  have  been  lost.  — 
Gregory  IV.  (827-844)  was,  by  his  ambition  to 
act  as  a  divinely  appointed  arbiter,  led  to  inter- 
fere in  the  dismal  family  troubles  of  the  Frankish 
dynasty,  and  became,  perhapis  unwillingly  and 
unwittingly,  the  tool  with  which  Lothaire  accom- 
plished his  treachery  on  the  fields  of  Colmar. 
His  life  is  found  in  Vigxoli:  Lib.  Pont.,  III. — 
Gregory  V.  (May  3,  n96-Feb.  18,  999),  a  son  of 
Duke  Otho  of  Carinthia,  and  a  near  relative  of 
Otho  III. ;  was  the  first  Gernuui  pope.  He  was 
phiced  on  the  throne  by  Otho  III.;  but  the  em- 
peror had  hardly  left  Italy  b<>fore  the  Roman 
nobility  rose  in  rebellion,  headed  by  Crescentius, 
and  an  antipope  (.John  XVI.)  was  elected.  Rut 
the  emperor  returned,  the  rebellion  was  quelled, 
Crescentius  was  beheaded,  and  John  XVI.  was 
dr.agged  through  the  streets  of  Rome,  mutilated, 
and  imprisoned.  .IafkE:  Reg.  Pont.  Roman. — 
Gregory  VI.  (1044-46)  bought  the  papal  crown 
from  Benedict  IX.,  and  ruled  for  a  year  and  a 
half  with  prudence  and  tolerable  success.  But 
he  did  not  please  the  Roman  nobility,  and  they 
allured  Benedict  IX.  to  return.  The  emperor, 
Henry  III.,  was  called  in  as  arbiter;  and  Gregory 
VI.  met  him  at  Piac(!nza,  and  accompanied  him 
to  Sutri.  There  he  openly  confessed  in  the  coun- 
cil that  he  had  bought  the  papal  dignity  in  order 
to  save  it;  and,  when  all  the  bishops  agreed  in 
condemning  such  a  mi'asure,  he  laid  aside  the 
pap.al  insignia,  and  went  with  the  emperor  to 
Germany,  where  he  di(!d  at  Cologne,  1048. — 
There  was  also  an  antipope  of  Ihe  n;ime,  Gregory 
VI.,  under  Benedict  VHL,  but  only  for  a  snort 
time.  See  Tiiif.tmauu.s  :  Mer.ieburg.  Chron.,  in 
Pkih-z  :  Mon.  Germ.  Script.,  111.        'o.  VOIOT. 

Gregory  VII.  (April  22,  l()73-M.-vy  25,  1085). 
His  true  name  w:is  Ilildebrand;  and  he  was  born 
of  humble  jjarentage,  either  at  Saonaorin  Rome. 
He  was  chaplain   1,0   Gregory  VI.,  accompanied 


GREGORY. 


911 


GREGORY. 


him  on  his  journey  to  Cologne,  and  entered,  after 
his  death,  the  monastery  of  Clugny.  There  Leo 
IX.  became  acquainted  with  him  in  the  time  of 
the  synod  of  Rheims  (1019).  lie  returned  to 
Italy,  was  made  a,  deacon  and  cardinal,  and  soon 
he  became  the  very  soul  of  the  papal  government. 
A  man  of  lofty  spirit  and  inexhaustible  energy, 
he  knew  how  to  avail  himself  of  every  chance  in 
his  favor,  without  ever  deviating  from  his  own 
plans  on  account  of  adverse  circumstances. 
Though  on  many  points  the  results  of  his  labor 
did  not  show  until  years  after  his  death,  the  ideas 
which  in  this  period  remodelled  the  Christian 
world  sprung  from  his  brain,  and  were  set  a-work- 
ing  by  his  hands. 

He  succeeded  in  breaking  the  influence  of  the 
iloraan  nobility  and  the  German  court  on  the 
papal  election.  When  Stephen  X.  died  (1058), 
the  nobility  chose  Benedict  X.;  and  the  cardinals, 
headed  by  Hildebrand,  Nicholas  II.  Aided  by 
the  Empress  Agnes,  Hildebrand  got,  by  bribery 
and  force,  his  candidate  installed  in  Rome ;  and 
one  of  the  first  measures  of  Nicholas  II.  was  a 
decree  by  which  the  papal  election  was  put  en- 
tirely into  the  hands  of  the  cardinals  and  the 
German  emperor,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  Roman 
nobility.  Nicholas  11.  died  in  1061.  One  party 
among  the  cardinals  immediately  sent  the  papal 
insignia  to  the  Empress  Agnes  in  order  that  she 
should  appoint  a  new  pope ;  while  another  party, 
headed  by  Hildebrand,  assembled  in  a  regular 
conclave,  and  chose  Bishop  Anselm  of  Lucca,  who 
assumed  the  name  of  Alexander  II.,  Oct.  1,  1061. 
Tlie  empress  chose  Bishop  Cadalus  of  Parma, 
Oct.  21  ;  and  at  the  head  of  an  imperial  army  he 
entered  Rome.  But  in  May,  1062,  a  revolution 
in  Germany  bereft  the  Empress  Agnes  of  her 
power,  and  placed  Archbishop  Anno  of  Cologne 
at  the  head  of  the  government  during  the  minori- 
ty of  Henry  IV.  By  the  Councils  of  Augsburg 
(October,  1062)  and  Mantua  (May,  1064),  Alex- 
ander II.  was  recognized  as  the  legitimate  Pope. 

Alexiiuder  II.  died  .\pril  22,  1073 ;  and  the 
very  same  day  Hildebrand  was  elected  Pope.  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Gregory  V^II.,  and  was  con- 
secrated June  29,  1073.  But  the  consent  of  the 
Geiman  emperor  was  not  asked  for:  indeed,  the 
relation  between  Gregory  VII.  and  Henry  IV. 
was  from  the  very  beginning  strained,  and  fraught 
with  danger  to  them  both.  The  abbey  of  Reiche- 
nau.  on  the  Lake  of  Constance,  became  vacant  in 
1071;  and  a  monk  (Robert  of  Bamberg)  got 
himself  appointed  abbot  by  bribing  the  council- 
lors of  the  King.  But  the  monks  of  Reichenau 
denounced  the  new  abbot  in  Rome,  and  Alexan- 
der II.  put  him  under  the  ban.  As  now  the  royal 
councillors  would  not  give  up  the  estates  they  had 
received  from  Robert,  they,  too,  were  put  under 
the  ban;  and,  as  the  king  would  not  dismiss  his 
councillors,  even  he  fell  under  the  ban.  Such 
was  the  state  of  affairs  when  Gregory  VII.  as- 
cended the  throne.  By  the  mediation,  however, 
of  the  Empress  Agnes,  a  reconciliation  was  effect- 
ed. Henry  IV.  humiliated  himself,  did  penance, 
and  was  absolved ;  and  peace  reigned  for  some 
time  while  the  contestants  were  gathering  strength. 

Gregory  was  very  zealous  for  the  establishment 
of  celibacy.     He  saw  the  necessity  of  this  meas- 
ure for  the  consolidation  of  the  Church   in  her 
contest  with  the  State ;  and  in  1074  he  issued  a 
6  —  11 


decree  that  no  layman  should  frequent  the  ser- 
vice, or  receive  the  sacraments,  when  administered 
by  a  married  priest:  he  even  encouraged  the 
laity  to  compel  by  force  the  priests  to  send  away 
their  wives.  The  decree  was  obeyed  only  with 
too  much  willingness ;  and  in  many  places,  espe- 
cially in  Southern  Germany,  the  priests  suffered 
unspeakably  from  tlie  violence  and  wantonness 
of  the  knights  and  the  rabble.  But  this  extraor- 
dinary means  of  enforcing  his  authority  over  the 
clergy,  by  the  aid  of  the  laity,  raised  a  great 
hatred  against  Gregory  in  the  ranks  of  the  lower 
clergy;  and  they  addressed  themselves  to  Henry 
IV.  for  aid.  Among  the  king's  most  intimate 
friends  was  one  of  the  Pope's  bitterest  enemies, 
Duke  Gottfried  of  Lower  Lorraine.  In  1074  he 
had  married  Mathilde,  the  daughter  of  margra- 
vine Beatrice  of  Tuscany ;  but  Mathilde  refused 
to  remain  with  him,  and  returned  to  her  mother. 
On  account  of  the  intimate  friendship  which 
existed  between  Gregory  on  the  one  side  and 
Beatrice  and  Mathilde  on  the  other,  and  the  abso- 
lute sway  he  bore  over  the  minds  of  those  two 
women,  Duke  Gottfried  was  not  altogether  wrong 
when  he  laid  the  blame  of  his  disturbed  marriage 
relations  on  the  Pope :  at  all  events,  he  hated  him. 
Another  cause  of  estrangement  between  Gregory 
VII.  and  Henry  IV.  was  the  law  of  investiture, 
which  Gregory  issued  in  1075,  though  it  was  not 
generally  enforced  until  1078.  According  to  this 
law,  no  prince  or  layman  could  make  any  ap- 
pointment to  an  ecclesiastical  office,  nor  could 
any  ecclesiastical  receive  his  office  from  a  layman. 
The  affairs  of  Milan  finally  brought  the  gather- 
ing storm  to  burst  forth  (1075).  In  1071  the 
see  of  !Milau  became  vacant,  and  in  the  same 
year  Henry  IV.  appointed  Gottfried,  a  priest  of 
Milan,  archbishop.  In  1073  Gregory  appointed 
Atto,  another  Milanese  priest.  Neither  the  one 
nor  the  other  had  any  authority  in  the  diocese ; 
and,  in  order  to  put  an  end  to  the  confusion, 
Henry  IV.  appointed  a  third  archbishop,  Tedald. 
But  this  measure  was  met  by  Gregory  VII.  with 
the  most  determined  protest. 

Henry  IV.  seems  entirely  to  have  miscalculated 
the  strength  of  his  adversary.  Jan.  1,  1076,  at 
Gosslar,  he  undertook  to  depose  the  Pope ;  and 
Jan.  24,  a  number  of  German  bishops  and  priests 
signed  at  Worms  a  complaint  that  Gregory  was 
not  legitimately  elected,  since  he  had  not  the  con- 
sent of  the  German  emperor,  which,  according 
to  the  decree  of  Nicholas  II.,  he  should  have. 
Gregory  VII.  answered  simply  by  putting  Henry 
IV.  and  his  adherents  under  the  ban.  A  number 
of  the  German  princes  at  once  withdrew  their 
allegiance,  and  invited  the  Pope  to  be  present  at 
the  diet  of  Augsburg  (Feb.  2,  1077),  to  give  judg- 
ment in  the  case.  Henry,  who  understood  that 
such  a  diet  would  not  only  be  an  humiliation  and 
a  danger  to  him,  but  complete  ruin,  hastened  to 
Italy  in  December,  1076,  found  the  Pope  at  Ca- 
nossa  (one  of  the  castles  of  Mathilde),  presented 
himself,  clad  in  sackcloth,  with  bare  feet,  and 
ashes  on  his  head,  in  the  courtyard,  and  was, 
after  three  days'  waiting,  admitted  to  the  Pope's 
presence,  and  absolved.  The  German  princes, 
fearing  the  revenge  of  Henry  IV.,  chose  an  anti- 
king,  March  15,  1077 ;  and  a  war  began  which 
lasted  till  1080.  During  these  years,  Gregory 
VII.  constantly  urged  the  convocation  of  a  diet, 


GREGORY. 


912 


GREGORY. 


in  which  he  himself  would  adjust  matters ;  and, 
when  he  discovered  that  Henry  never  would  con- 
gent  to  appear  before  such  an  assembly,  he  put 
him  a  second  time  under  the  ban,  in  the  spring 
of  1080.  But  Oct.  15,  in  the  battle  on  the  Elster, 
he  succeeded  in  defeating  the  anti-king,  and  sup- 
pressing the  rebellion  ;  and  in  the  spring  of  1081 
he  stood  in  Italy  at  the  head  of  a  great  array, 
having  in  the  mean  time  made  Clement  III.  anti- 
pope.  He  besieged  Rome  four  years  in  succes- 
sion, occupied  the  Leonine  part  of  the  city,  and 
shut  the  Pope  up  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo;  but 
he  was  finally  driven  away  by  Robert  Guiscard, 
who  rescued  Gregory  VII.,  and  brought  him  to 
Salerno,  where  he  died.  See  Guibert  of 
Parm.\. 

Lit.  —  VoiGT  :  Hildebrand  als  Papsl  Gregor 
VII., '2A  ed.,  1846;  Soltl:  Gregor  der  Siebenie, 
1847 :  Floto  :  Kaiser  Heinrich  der  Vierle  und 
sein  Zeltaller,  ]S.i5-56,  2  vols.;  [O.  Mkltzer  : 
Papsl  Greqor  VII.  u.  d.  Bischofsivahlen,  Dresden, 
1869,  2d  ed.,  1876;  6\  Gregorii  VII.  EpistolcB  el 
diplomula,  ed.  HoROY,  Paris,  1877,  2  vols. ;  Men- 
CACCi,  3d  ed.,  Rome,  1885.]  FLOTO. 

Gregory  VIII.  (Oct.  21-Dec.  17, 1187).  There 
was  al.so  an  antipope  of  that  name,  Mauritius 
Burdinus,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  raised  to  the 
papal  throne  by  Henry  V.,  March  8,  1118,  after- 
wards deserted  by  the  emperor,  deposed  by  Calix- 
tus  II.,  and  dragged  from  one  prison  to  another 
until  his  death,  1125.  See  Vita  Burdini,  in  Ba- 
luze:  Miscellan.,Vl\.;  and  J.^ffe:  ReqeM.  Pon- 
(i/.  — Gregory  IX.  (March  19,  1227-Aug.  22, 
1241)  was  eighty  years  old  when  he  ascended  the 
papal  throne,  but  proved  a  match  for  Frederic  II. 
of  Hohenstaufen,  both  in  courage  and  energy. 
Frederic  had  vowed  a  crusade,  but  seemed  in- 
clined to  make  light  of  his  vow.  Admonished 
by  the  Pope,  he  embarked  at  Brindisi,  but  landed 
a  few  days  afterwards  at  Otranto,  on  account  of 
sickness,  as  he  said.  Sept.  29, 1227,  the  Pope  put 
him  under  the  ban ;  and  tliough  he  succeeded  in 
expelling  fJregory  from  Rome,  first  to  Viterbo, 
then  to  Perugia,  the  ban  was  not  removed.  June 
28,  1228,  he  embarked  a  .second  time,  reached  the 
Holy  Land,  made  a  brilliant  campaign,  and  was 
crowned  king  of  Palestine  in  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre ;  but  the  ban  still  pursued  him. 
After  his  return,  however,  Hermann  of  Salza, 
the  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic  order,  brought 
about  a  reconciliation  (Sept.  1,  1230),  and  the  ban 
was  removed.  But  when,  in  1238,  he  experienced 
some  military  and  political  reverses  in  Upjier 
Italy,  Gregory  IX.  again  placed  himself  at  tlii^ 
head  of  his  enemies,  and  the  ban  was  renewed 
(1239).  Frederic  II.  immediately  advanced  against 
Rome;  and  the  old  I'ope  was  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  capital  when  he  died.  His  decretals  were 
collected  by  Raymundus  de  Pennaforte,  aii<l  pub- 
lished in  five  books  in  1234.  Of  his  letters,  about 
4,550  in  number,  3,200  are  found  in  Pottiiast: 
Rcgcsl.  Pimlif.  Iloman.,  I.  ;  lives  of  him  in  Mi'uA- 
TORi :  Script.  Her.  Ital.,  III.  —  Gregory  X.  (Sept. 
1, 1271-.Iaii.  10,  1270)  was  elected  after  a  vacancy 
of  three  years,  cau.sed  by  the  contention  between 
the  French  ami  Italian  parties  among  the  cardi- 
nals. He  trieil  to  reconcile  the  fiuclphs  and  the 
Ghibellines  for  Ihe  sake  of  a  new  crusade  ;  and  at 
the  second  Council  of  Lyons  (1271)  he  labored  to 
effect  a  union  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 


churches  :  but  in  both  respects  he  failed.  His  life 
is  found  in  Muratori  :  Script.  Her.  Ital.,  III. ; 
his  letters,  in   Potthast  :  Reg.  Ponti.  Rom.,  II. 

—  Gregory  XI,  (Dec.  30,  1370-March  27,  1378) 
removed  the  papal  residence  from  Avignon,  and 
entered  Rome,  Jan.  27,  1377.  Five  lives  of  him 
are  found  in  Baluzh  :    FiVfF  Papar.  Arenion.,J. 

—  Gregory  XII,  (Dec.  2, 1406)  was  deposed  by  the 
Council  of  Pisa,  June  5,  1409,  but  protested ;  re- 
signed before  the  Council  of  Constance,  July  4, 
1415 ;  and  died,  as  cardinal-bishop  of  Porto,  Oct. 
18,  1417. —Gregory  XIII.  (May  13,  1572-April 
10,  1585)  founded  twenty-two  Jesuit  colleges ; 
celebrated  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew  with 
processions  and  medals ;  supported  Henry  HI. 
against  the  Huguenots,  etc.  In  1582  he  finished 
that  improvement  of  the  Julian  Calendar  which 
the  councils  of  Constance,  Basel,  and  Trent,  and 
many  popes,  had  labored  on ;  and  in  the  same 
year  he  issued  a  new  and  improved  edition  in  folio 
of  the  Corpus  juris  canonici.  His  works  are  found 
in  Eggs  :  Pontijic.  doctum.  His  life  was  written 
by  CiAPPi  (1.591),  BoMpiANO  (1655),  Maffi  i 
(1742),  De  Vidaillan  (1840).  —  Gregory  XIV. 
(Dec.  5,  1590-Oct.  15,  1591)  was  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  Spanish  party  and  the  leaguers  of 
France.  His  bulls  are  found  in  Cheuubini: 
Bullar.  Magn.,  II. —Gregory  XV.  (Feb.  9,  1621- 
July  8, 1623)  vcas  an  old  and  sickly  man,  and  left 
the  business  to  his  young  and  energetic  nephew, 
Ludovico,  who  most  heartily  supported  the  Jesuits 
in  their  exertions  to  restore  the  Roman  Church  in 
Bohemia,  Hungary,  Austria,  Bavaria,  France,  .and 
the  Netherlands.  The  congregatio  de  propaganda 
fide  was  founded,  and  some  improvements  were 
introduced  in  the  organization  of  the  conclave. 
His  bulls  are  found  in  Cherubini  :  Bull.  Magnum. 
HI.  G.  VOIGT. 

Gregory  XVI.  (Feb.  2,  1831-June  1,  1840)  was 
an  ol<l  monk  when  he  ascended  the  throne ;  b.  at 
Belluno,  Sept.  18,  1765;  since  1823  general  of  his 
order,  the  Camaldolensians  ;  since  1820  prefect  of 
the  propaganda,  and  known  as  author  of  the  II 
triou/o  detla  .lanta  Sede,  etc.,  1799.  He  was  very 
successful  in  his  government  of  the  church  in 
general.  Thirty  new  apostolic  vicariates,  fifteen 
new  missionary  bishoprics,  and  forty-three  new 
colleges  for  the  education  of  missionaries,  were 
founded.  Though  in  Portugal  he  took  the  side 
of  Don  Miguel,  and  in  Spain  that  of  Don  Carlos, 
he  knew  how  to  change  position  before  the  criti- 
cal moment  came.  In  France,  too,  the  power  of 
the  Roman  Church  and  the  influence  of  the  Jesu- 
its were  steadily  growing.  But  his  government 
of  the  States  of  the  Church  was  fatal.  Rebellion 
broke  out  immediately  after  his  accession,  and 
was  kept  down  only  by  a  permanent  occupation 
of  Bologna  by  Austria,  and  of  Ancona  by  Fr.ance. 
The  public  debt  increased  to  38,000,000  scudi. 
A  loan  from  the  Rothschilds  gave  only  65  on  100. 
The  annual  deficit  was  about  1500,000  scudi.  One 
of  the  items  of  revenue  was  the  lottery,  which 
brought  in  1,120,000,  but  cost  850,000  in  mananre- 
ment.  See  O.  Me.ier:  Die  Propaganda,  Gottin- 
gen,  1853;  Dom.inger:  Kirclie  und  Kirc/ioi,  y>. 
546  ;  Fh.  Nielsen  :  Den  romerske  Kirke  i  dct  19th 
Anrliundrede,  Copenhagen,  1870,  translated  into 
(ierni.an,  vol.  i.  O.  PLITT. 

GREGORY,  Olinthus  Gilbert,  b.  at  Yaxley, 
Huutiiigdonshire,  Eng.,  .Jan.    29,  1774;   became 


GRELLET. 


913 


GRIFFIN. 


professor  of  mathematics  at  tlur  Royal  Military 
Academy,  Woolwich,  1807,  where  he  died,  Feb.  2, 
1S41.  He  is  noted  religiously  for  his  Lives  of 
Rol)ert  Hall  (prefixed  to  a  collected  edition  of 
Hall's  works,  separately  published  ly33)  and  John 
JIason  (jooil  (1828),  and  for  his  Letters  to  a  Friend 
on  the  Evidences,  Doctrines,  and  Duties  of  lite  Chris- 
tian Religion  (1815,  2  vols.,  9th  ed.,  1851,  abridg- 
ment, 1853). 

CRELLET,  Stephen  (^tienne  de),  b.  at  Limo- 
ges, France,  Nov.  2,  1773  ;  d.  at  Burlington,  N.J., 
Nov.  IG,  1855.  Born  in  the  French  nobility,  at 
seventeen  he  was  one  of  the  royal  body-guard. 
After  a  variety  of  adventures,  he  landed  in  New 
York  1705,  in  which  year  he  was  converted,  and 
joined  the  Society  of  Friends.  His  ministrations 
(luring  the  yellow-fever  visitation  in  Pliiladel- 
plii.a,  1798,  revealed  his  rare  qualities.  He  ro.se 
to  great  eminence,  and  acquired  wealtli.  He  felt 
called  upon  to  preach,  and  to  this  end  made  long 
journeys  through  the  United  States,  and  even  to 
Kurope,  which  he  visited  several  times.  On  one 
occasion,  being  presented  to  the  Pope,  he  had 
tlie  courage  to  preach  even  in  such  a  presence ; 
similarly  he  exhorted  the  Czar  of  Russia.  See 
Memoirs  of  Stephen  Grellet,  by  B.  Seebohm, 
Philadelphia,  1860,  2  vols. 

GRESWELL,  Edward,  chronologist ;  b.  at  Den- 
ton, near  Manchester,  Eng.,  1797;  d.  at  Oxford, 
June  29,  1869.  He  was  fellow  of  Corpus  Christi 
College,  Oxford,  1823,  and  at  the  time  of  his 
death  vice-principal.  His  works  are  very  valua- 
ble. Those  on  chronology  are  Fasti  Tern/ioris 
Cutholici  (1852),  Origines  Kalendarim  Italicce  (1854, 

4  vols.),  Origines  Kalendarice  Hetlenicce  (1862,  6 
vols.).  Those  on  the  Bible  are  Dissertations  on 
the  Principles  aiid  Arrangement  of  a  Harmony  of 
the  Gospels  (1830,  2d  ed.,  1837,  4  vols.,  the  4th 
vol.  in  2  parts),  Harmonia  Ei'angelica  (1830,  5th 
ed.,  1856),  Exposition  of  the  Parables  (1834,  1835, 

5  vols.),  Prolegomena  ad  Harmoniam  Ecangelicam 
(1840),  The  Three  Witnesses  and  the  Threefold 
Cord  (1862,  a  reply  to  Bishop  Colenso  on  the 
Pentateuch). 

GRETSER,  Jakob,  b.  at  Markdorf,  near  Con- 
stance, 1560;  d.  at  Ingolstadt,  Jan.  29,  1625; 
entered  the  Society  of  Jesu  in  1577,  and  was 
appointed  professor  at  the  university  of  Ingol- 
stadt, first  in  philosophy,  then  in  morals,  and 
finally  in  dogmatics.  He  was  a  learned  man 
and  a  prolific  writer.  His  works,  of  which  a 
collected  edition  appeared  at  Ratisbon  (1734-39, 
in  17  vols,  fob),  number  over  one  hundred  and 
fifty.  Some  of  them  are  valuable;  as,  for  in- 
stance, De  Sancta  Cruce ;  also  his  Greek  gram- 
mar was  much  used.  But  he  acquired  his  great 
fame  principally  by  his  obstinate  and  somewhat 
rude  opposition  to  Protestantism. 

GRIESBACH,  Johann  Jakob,  a  distinguished 
textual  critic  of  the  New  Testament;  was  b.  at 
Butzbach,  Hesse-Darmstadt,  Jan.  4,  1745;  d.  at 
Jena,  March  24,  1812.  After  studying  in  Tiibin- 
gen,  Halle,  and  Leipzig,  he  travelled  extensively 
on  the  Continent  and  in  England.  In  1771  he 
settled  at  Halle  as  decent,  residing  with  Semler, 
and  two  years  afterwards  was  made  professor. 
In  1775  a  call  attracted  him  to  Jena,  where, 
laden  with  titles  and  honors,  he  labored  during 
the  remainder  of  his  life. 

Griesbach's  labors  in  the  textual  criticism  of 


the  Greek  New  Testament  mark  the  beginning 
of  a  new  period  in  that  department.  Bengel 
before  him  had  introduced  some  changes  into 
the  Elzevir  text  from  the  Complutensian  Poly- 
glot; but  all  others  he  only  placed  in  the  margin. 
Griesbach  was  the  first  in  Germany  to  edit  a 
Greek  Testament  embodying  in  the  text  the 
results  of  critical  study.  Following,  to  .some  ex- 
tent, the  previous  labors  of  Bengel  and  Semler, 
he  grouped  the  manuscripts  in  three  classes, — 
the  Occidental,  characterized  by  glo.sses;  the 
Alexandrian,  by  grammatical  corrections ;  and 
the  Byzantine,  combining  the  readings  of  the 
other  two  (a  division  recently  adopted  in  West- 
cott  and  Hort's  New  Testament,  Ed.).  He  only 
altered  the  Elzevir  text  when  the  arguments 
were  imperative.  His  critical  theory  rested  upon 
a  combination  of  logical  principles  and  historical 
facts;  the  agreement  of  Occidental  and  Alexan- 
drian manuscripts  being  regarded  as  especially 
important,  and  frequently  decisive.  Griesbach's 
bold  effort  called  forth  violent  criticisms  from 
the  advocates  of  the  inviolability  of  the  received 
text,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  a  work  by 
Hartmann,  professor  in  Rostock,  which  appeared 
in  1775.  But  for  once  and  all  time,  in  Germany, 
he  answered  such  objections  in  the  second  edi- 
tion. The  editions  of  Griesbach's  text  appeared 
in  the  following  order :  Libri  N.  T.  Ilistorici, 
Halle,  1774,  1775 ;  principal  edition,  Halle  and 
London,  1796,  1806,  2  vols.,  with  extensive  criti- 
cal apparatus  and  important  prolegomena;  in 
elegant  form,  Leipzig,  1803-07,  4  vols. ;  small 
editions,  Leipzig,  1805  and  1825 ;  a  new  edition, 
by  David  Schulz,  1827,  of  which  only  the  first 
part  appeared.  Other  critical  works  by  Gries- 
bach :  De  Codd.  Evv.  Origenianis,  1771 ;  Curce  in 
Hist.  Textus  Epp.  Paul.,  1777;  Symbolm  Criticce 
ad  Supplendas  et  Corrigendas  Varias  N.  T.  Lec- 
tiones,  1785-93;  Commentarius  critic,  in  Text.  Gr., 
1794  sqq.,  only  includes  Mattliew  and  Mark. 
His  other  writings  were  edited  by  Gabler,  Jena, 
1825,  2  vols.  In  theology  Griesbach  took  a  posi- 
tion midway  between  the  conservative  and  radical 
schools.  See  Augusti  :  Ueber  Griesbach's  Ver- 
dienste,  Breslau,  1812.  ED.  REUSS. 

GRIFFIN,  Edward  Dorr,  a  distinguished  pulpit 
orator,  and  president  of  Williams  College ;  b. 
Jan.  6,  1770,  at  East  Haddani,  Conn. ;  d.  Nov. 
8,  1837,  at  Newark,  N.J.  He  graduated  with 
the  highest  honors,  at  Yale,  1790,  and  studied 
theology  under  Dr.  Edwards,  afterwards  presi- 
dent of  Union  College.  In  1794  he  accepted  a 
call  to  the  Congregational  Church  at  Farmington; 
but  the  council  having  twice  refused  to  ordain 
him,  on  account  of  alleged  erroneous  views  on 
baptism  and  the  doctrines  of  grace,  he  withdrew, 
with  its  consent,  and  in  1795  was  installed  pastor 
of  a  church  in  New  Hartford.  In  1801  he  be- 
came colleague  of  Dr.  McWhorter,  in  the  First 
Presbyterian  Church  in  Newark,  and  pastor  in 
1807.  Here,  as  before  in  New  Hartford,  exten- 
sive revivals  prevailed  under  his  ministry.  In 
1809  he  became  the  first  incumbent  of  the  chair 
of  pulpit  eloquence  at  Andover  Seminary,  which 
he  exchanged  for  the  pastorate  of  Park-street 
Church,  Boston,  in  1811.  In  1815  he  returned 
to  Newark  as  pastor  of  the  Second  Presbyterian 
Church,  and  in  1821  was  elected  president  of 
Williams   College,  holding  the  office  tiU  1836. 


QRINDAL. 


014 


GROSSETESTE. 


The  institution  at  that  time  liad  only  forty-eight 
students,  and  was  in  a  critical  condition.  A 
powerful  revival  occurred  in  1824.  Dr.  Griffin 
succeeded  in  putting  the  college  on  a  firm  basis. 

Dr.  Griffin  was  one  of  the  most  eloquent 
preachers  of  his  day.  To  a  commanding  pres- 
ence (he  was  six  feet  three  inches  tall)  he  added 
a  vivid  imagination  and  fine  reasoning  powers. 
His  sermon.';  are  simple,  fervid,  and  evangelical. 
In  theology  he  opposed  the  "  New  Divinity,"  as 
it  was  called,  of  New  Haven.  He  published 
Lecturex  deVn-ered  in  Park-street  Church,  Boston, 
181-3;  The  Extent  of  the  Atonement,  New  York, 
1819.  His  Sermons,  roith  Memoir  of  his  Life,  were 
edited  by  Dr.  Sprague,  in  2  vols.,  Albany,  1S38. 
See  also  Cooke  :  Recollections  of  E.  D.  Griffin, 
Boston.  18GG. 

GRINDAL,  Edmund,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury; b.  at  St  Bees  about  1519;  d.  at  Croyden, 
July  6,  1583.  He  was  educated  at  Magdalen 
College,  Cambridge,  of  which  Dr.  Ridley  was 
master.  In  1552  he  was  appointed  chaplain  to 
Ridley,  who  had  become  Bishop  of  London,  and 
prebendary  of  Westminster.  The  year  following 
he  took  refuge  on  the  Continent,  spending  his 
exile  at  Strassburg  and  Frankfurt.  Part  of  his 
time  was  occupied  in  labors  tributary  to  Foxe's 
Book  of  Martyrs.  Returning  to  England,  in  1558 
he  became  master  of  Pembroke  Hall,  and,  in 
1560,  Bishop  of  London.  In  1570  he  was,  by 
Archbishop  Parker's  influence,  raised  to  the  see 
of  York,  from  which  he  was  transferred,  in  1575, 
to  that  of  Canterbury.  Grindal  corresponded 
with  the  Reformers  on  the  Continent,  and  was 
in  sympathy  with  Puritanism  (Dean  Hook),  at 
least  so  far  as  to  be  unwilling  to  discourage  it  by 
measures  in  the  interests  of  uniformity  in  ritual. 
His  bold  refusal  to  put  down  "  prophesyings  " 
brought  upon  him  the  wrath  of  Elizabeth,  who 
at  first  determined  to  depose  him  from  his  arch- 
bishopric, but  was  satisfied  with  suspending  him. 
A  few  months  before  his  death  she  opened  nego- 
tiations with  him  to  resign  his  see.  Grindal  was 
a  man  of  courteous  and  conciliatory  spirit.  His 
literary  remains,  which  are  unimportant,  appeared 
in  Cambridge,  1843,  in  the  Parker  Society  Series. 
StuvI'E:  Life  and  Acts  of  Abp.  Grindal,  1710, 
Oxford,  1821;  Neal:  Hist,  of  I'uritans,  vol.  I.; 
A  Brief  and  True  Account  of  Edm.  Grindal,  1710; 
Hook:    l.ires  uf  Ah))]!,  of  ('anli  rhnni,  vol.  V. 

GROEN  VAN  PRINSTERER,  Guillaume,  b.  in 
The  Hague,  Aug.  21,  ISOl;  d.  there  May  19,  1870; 
studied  at  Leyden ;  w-as  appointed  secretary  to 
the  king  in  1827,  and  soon  afterwards  director 
of  the  royal  archives ;  was,  in  the  Dutch  Parlia- 
ment, the  leader  of  the  anti-revolutionary  party, 
and  opposed  with  great  zeal  tlie  separation  of 
State  and  Churcli,  the  emancipation  of  the  school 
from  the  Church,  etc.  He  was  a  (,'hristian  .state.s- 
man,  and  occu])ied  in  Holland  a  jiosition  similar 
to  that  of  Professor  Stahl  in  Prussia.  His  idea 
that  the  Church  ought  to  be  the  foundation  and 
informing-iHjwer  of  the  State  is  very  apparent  in 
his  Ilandhoek  der  Ge.fchiedenis  van  liet  radcrlanit, 
Amstenlam,  1852.  He  also  published  Archives 
lie  la  mai.ion  d' Orange-Nassau,  1840-55,  13  vols. ; 
Maurirr  .1  lUirurvrlt',  L'trecht,  1875. 

GROOT,  Geert.  See  Bkkthuen  ok  the  Com- 
mon  Lll  K. 

GROPPER,    Johann,   b.    at   Soest,    February, 


1502;  d.  in  Rome,  Jlarch,  1559;  studied  theology 
and  canon  law  at  Cologne,  and  was  appointed,  first 
canon,  then  archdeacon  there.  He  was  a  reform 
friend  of  the  Erasmian  type ;  represented  the 
conciliatory  element  at  the  deputations  of  Hage- 
nau.  Worms,  and  Regensburg.  and  encouraged 
the  archbishop  Hermann  von  Wied  in  his  plans 
of  reform,  as  long  as  these  touched  only  points 
of  doctrine.  But  when  Butzer  began  to  preach 
in  Cologne  (1542),  and  the  archbishop  seemed 
inclined  to  undertake  a  re-organization  of  the 
hierarchical  system,  Grojiper  denounced  them  to 
the  Pope  and  the  emperor;  and  when  Hermann 
von  Wied  was  deposed,  and  Adolf  von  Schaum- 
burg  put  in  his  place,  Gropper  became  a  decided 
opponent  to  ecclesiastical  reform  in  any  shape. 
His  principal  work  is  Tnstilutio  calholica,  1550. 

GROSSETESTE,  Robert,  called  also  GREAT- 
HEAD,  Bishop  of  Lincoln,  one  of  the  most  inde- 
pendent and  distinguished  English  prelates  in 
the  nnddle  ages;  b.  about  1175;  d.  at  Buckden, 
Oct.  9,  1253.  He  was  famous  as  a  scholar,  and, 
in  the  administration  of  his  see,  as  a  reformer  of 
ecclesiastical  abuses ;  and  although,  during  the 
greater  part  of  his  career,  a  loyal  and  submissive 
son  of  Rome,  he  broke  away  in  the  last  period, 
and  not  only  spoke  out  boldlj'  against  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  papal  court,  but  refused  to  obey  its 
commands.  He  was  of  humble  birth.  The  first 
we  know  of  him  is  as  a  student  of  Oxford,  from 
which  he  passed  to  the  L'niversity  of  Paris.  Re- 
turning to  England,  he  entered  the  service  of  the 
Bishop  of  Hereford,  at  whose  death,  shortly  after, 
he  went  to  Oxford  as  a  teacher. 

The  first  period  of  his  public  life  dates  from 
this  point.  It  is  the  period  of  scholarly  activity, 
extending  over  a  number  of  years.  He  was  mas- 
ter of  the  schools  (rector  .•<colartim),  or  chancellor, 
and,  to  quote  the  chronicler  Trivet,  was  "a  man 
of  excellent  wisdom,  and  of  must  lucid  power 
of  teaching,"  etc.  His  attainments  included  an 
acquaintance  of  Greek  and  Hebrew.  With  the 
a.ssistance  of  others  he  put  forth  translations  of 
Aristotle,  the  De  Orthodoxa  Fide  of  John  of  Da- 
mascus, and  other  works.  He  also  wrote  original 
works,  such  as  the  De  Cessatione  Lcgalium  (a  book 
designed  for  the  conversion  of  tlie  Jews),  a  col- 
lection of  theological  Dicta,  alul  the  French  poem, 
Le  Chastel  (^ Amour.  He  also  enjoyed,  according 
to  Roger  Bacon,  a  great  reputation  for  .scientific 
attainments.  On  the  arrival  of  the  Franciscan 
friars  in  Oxford  (1224),  Grosseteste  was  chosen 
as  their  instructor  in  divinity  and  honiiletics. 
During  the  Oxford  period  he  held  several  prefer- 
ments,—  two  prebi'uds  in  Lincoln,  the  archdea- 
conries of  Wilts  (1214)  and  Northamiiton  (1221), 
etc.  Ascetic  enthusiasm,  perhajxs  the  result  of 
a  severe  attack  of  fever,  induced  him  to  resign 
them  all,  except  a  prebend  in  I^incmln. 

The  second  jieriod  begins  with  Gro.sseteste's 
elevation  to  the  see  of  Lincoln,  in  1235,  by  the 
vote  of  its  dean  and  chapter.  His  episcopal 
ailministration  was  marked  by  great  zeal  in  ad- 
vancing its  spiritual  interests,  and  not,  seldom  by 
the  use  of  arbitrary  an<l  higli-handed  measures. 
From  the  first  he  attacked  the  corruption,  and 
condemned  the  incom]ietency,  of  the  clergy.  He 
instituted  a  .systematic  visitation  of  his  diocese, 
and  a  careful  scrutiny  of  the  religious  houses. 
With  the  monastic  institutions  he  was  especially 


GROSSETESTE. 


915 


GROSSETESTE. 


severe,  not  only  coudemniiiy  the  unclprical  amuse- 
ments and  immoral  lives  of  the  monks,  but  en- 
deavoring to  do  away  with  the  evils  ot  "farming" 
by  endowing  parishes,  that  they  might  secure 
pastors  who  would  care  for  the  souls  of  the  peo- 
ple. To  this  end  he  used  the  revenues  of  the 
monasteries.  Grosseteste,  however,  was  not  a  foe 
to  religious  orders,  but  only  to  their  abuses.  He 
sought  zealously  to  raise  the  standard,  and  in- 
crease the  efficiency,  of  the  ministry,  by  refusing 
to  appoint  to  livings  those  whose  youth,  world- 
liness,  or  illiteracy  made  them  unfit,  and  by 
removing  corrupt  and  incompetent  incumbents. 
Within  a  short  time  after  his  consecration,  he 
deposed  seven  abbots  and  four  priors.  This 
vigorous  administration  aroused  opposition.  The 
bishop's  life  was  even  attempted  by  poison.  Some 
of  the  monasteries  endeavored  to  evade  his  visita- 
tion; but  he  was  equal  to  such  emergencies,  and, 
as  in  the  case  of  Hertford,  placed  the  whole  town 
under  interdict,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  abbot 
of  Bardney,  deposed  him  in  spite  of  the  sentence 
of  excommunication  ag.ainst  himself,  pronounced 
by  the  Convent  of  Canterbury  (the  see-  being 
vacant),  to  which  the  abbot  had  appealed. 

Grosseteste's  hottest  conflict  of  this  kind  was 
with  the  dean  and  chapter  of  Lincoln,  who  denied 
him  the  right  of  visitation.  He  suspended  the 
dean,  excommunicated  the  proctor,  and  finally 
went  to  Lyons  (124.5)  to  secure  a  papal  decision 
of  the  case.  The  bishop  displayed  an  overbearing 
temper  in  this  affair;  and  the  abbot  of  Leicester 
had  ground  for  blaming  him,  in  a  letter,  for 
having  "a  heart  of  iron,  and  one  lacking  pity." 
He  secured  a  judgment  in  his  favor  from  the 
Pope,  but,  as  it  would  seem,  at  the  expense  of 
his  own  independence;  for  he  appears  as  a  servile 
agent  of  papal  designs  in  the  period  immedi- 
ately following.  He  lent  his  name  to  a  scheme 
for  laying  the  English  dioceses  under  tribute 
(ten  thousand  marks)  to  pay  off  the  debts  of  the 
see  of  Canterbury,  whose  occupant  at  this  time 
was  the  unscrupulous  Boniface  of  Savoy,  and 
also  declared  himself  in  favor  of  levying  a  special 
tax  for  the  Pope,  and,  on  his  return,  instituted 
measures  for  carrying  it  out.  The  former  action 
he  afterwards  bitterly  regretted.  He  returned 
to  England  "  thoroughly  committed  to  the  ex- 
tremest  papal  obedience,"  etc.  (Perry,  p.  183). 
But  his  mind,  in  the  years  that  immediately  fol- 
low, underwent  a  complete  change  in  its  attitude 
towards  the  papal  claims. 

Grosseteste's  relation  to  the  State  was  one  of 
independence.  He  rebuked  ecclesiastics  for  hold- 
ing civil  offices,  and  asserted  that  to  St.  Peter 
belonged  both  swords,  and  that  a  bishop  did  not 
in  any  sense  derive  his  authority  from  the  civil 
power.  He  not  only  dared  to  refuse  to  execute 
the  royal  commands  in  his  diocese,  as  the  one  re- 
garding the  legitimiz.ation  of  children,  but  fear- 
lessly told  the  king  the  plainest  truths,  and  on 
more  than  one  occasion  refused  to  install  his 
appointees  in  office,  threatening  even  to  excom- 
municate the  royal  offender  if  he  did  not  with- 
draw. He  was,  in  fact,  a  formidable  antagonist 
for  the  king  to  grapple  with. 

The  last  period  in  the  bishop's  life  dates  from 
about  1248,  and  is  mai'ked  by  opposition  to  Rome 
as  bold  and  defiant  as  his  former  vassalage  had 
been  loyal  and  unquestioning.     Deeply  resenting 


the  corruption  of  the  papal  tax-agents  and  tho 
abuse  of  clerical  exemptions,  he  started  on  an- 
other visit  to  the  Pope  to  Lyons  in  I'J.'jn.  Here 
his  eyes  were  fully  opened  to  the  corruption  of  the 
papal  court.  With  characteristic  intrepidity  ho 
delivered  a  .sermon  in  which  he  arraigned  "the 
Roman  pontiff  and  his  court  for  being  the  foun- 
tain and  origin  of  all  the  evils  of  the  Church, 
not  only  in  that  it  does  not  jnit  them  away,  but 
th.at  by  its  dispensations,  provisions,  etc.,  appoints 
men  who  are  not  pastors  but  destroyers  of  their 
flocks."  He  urged  that  the  work  of  a  pastor  did 
not  consist  merely  in  "celebrating  the  mass,  but 
in  leaching  the  livin;/  truth."  Returning  to  his 
diocese,  he  assailed  the  Italian  ecclesiastics  that 
were  fleecing  English  parishes.  He  found  by 
comjuitation  that  their  revenues  amounted  to 
seventy  thousand  marks,  —  more  than  three  times 
those  of  the  king.  But  the  pre.sent  temper  of 
(irosseteste  was  signally  shown  in  his  ab.solute 
refusal  to  induct  Frederick  di  Lavagna  into  a 
stall  at  Lincoln,  to  which  the  Pope,  his  uncle,  had 
appointed  him.  In  a  very  plain  letter  the  bishop 
tells  the  pontiff  that  it  is  his  duty  to  make  appoint- 
ments for  the  edification,  and  not  for  the  destruc- 
tion, of  the  Church.  Matthew  Paris  reports  that 
the  Pope  was  in  high  dudgeon  on  receiving  this 
letter,  and  was  only  pacified  by  the  cardinals,  who 
reminded  him  of  the  fearless  courage,  the  power, 
and  popularity  of  the  English  prelate. 

Like  Luther,  previous  to  the  diet  of  Worms,  so 
Grosseteste  had  trusted  in  the  Pope,  and  hoped 
for  relief  from  Rome  against  the  ecclesiastical 
corruption  of  England.  Once  undeceived,  he  was 
drifting  rapidly  away  from  all  veneration  for  the 
pontiff,  when  death  overtook  him.  In  a  conver- 
sation on  his  death-bed  with  the  scholarly  cleric 
and  physician,  John  de  St.  Giles,  he  gave  a  defi- 
nition of  heresy,  and  asked  whether  the  Pope  did 
not  fulfil  it.  To  those  around  him  he  lamented 
the  doleful  condition  of  the  Church.  He  died 
uttering  protests  against  the  avarice,  simony,  lust, 
and  worldliness  of  the  papal  court.  "  He  was  the 
open  rebuker  of  both  the  Pope  and  the  king,  cen- 
sor of  prelates,  corrector  of  monks,  instructor  of 
clerks,  an  unwearied  examiner  of  the  books  of  Scrip- 
ture, a  crusher  and  despiser  of  the  Romans,"  so 
says  the  chronicler  Matthew  Paris.  He  was 
buried  in  great  pomp  at  Lincoln;  the  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury  and  several  bishops  being  present 
at  the  funeral.  This  seems  to  disprove  the  state- 
ment that  the  Pope  had  excommunicated  him. 
Miracles  were  reported  to  be  performed  at  his 
grave  ;  but  in  vain  did  prelates  and  King  Edward 
I.  (1307)  apply  for  Grosseteste's  canonization. 
The  popular  veneration  was  shown  in  the  legend 
that  the  bishop  appeared  to  the  Pope  on  the  night 
of  his  death,  with  the  words,  "  Aryse,  wretch,  and 
come  to  thy  dome." 

Grosseteste  has  been  called  a  "  harbinger  of 
the  Reformation."  He  certainly  was  a  zealous 
reformer  of  ecclesiastical  abuses  in  the  diocese  of 
Lincoln,  and  boldly  protested  against  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  papal  court.  In  his  large  acquaint- 
ance with  and  constant  appeal  to  the  Scriptures 
he  was  in  advance  of  his  age.  He  was  the  first 
link  in  the  chain  of  the  Reformation  in  this  sense, 
that  Wiclif  appealed  to  him,  and  quotes  his  pro- 
test against  Rome,  as,  later.  Luther  quoted  flus, 
and  Hus  learned  from  Wiclif.     In  his  impetuous 


GROTIUS. 


r.i6 


GROVES. 


and  fearless  temper  he  resembles  Luther.  Not 
only  Wiclif,  but  others,  like  Bishop  Hall,  delight- 
ed to  find  in  the  Bishop  of  Lincoln  a  support  for 
their  scriptural  views,  or,  like  Field,  to  use  his 
name  against  the  claims  of  the  Pope  to  authority 
in  the  Church  {Of  the  Church,  vol.  iv.  pp.  384 
sqq.). 

Lit.  —  The  sources  of  Grosseteste's  life  are 
his  own  Letters,  the  Chronicles  of  Dunstable  and 
Lanercost,  the  Histori/  of  Matthew  Paris,  and 
the  Letters  of  Adam  de  Marisco.  A  selection  of 
his  Letters  and  Sermons  was  edited  by  E.  Brown, 
1690;  and  a  complete  edition  of  the  Letters,  with 
biographical  notice,  by  Luard,  Loudon,  1861 ;  the 
Chastel  d'Antour,  with  an  English  version,  has 
been  printed  by  the  Caxton  and  Philological 
Societies.  Lices  of  Grosseteste  by  Peggk,  Lon- 
don, 1793,  Lechler,  Leipzig,  1867,  and  Perry, 
London,  1871.  D.  s.  SCHAFF. 

GROTIUS,  Hugo  (Huig  van  Greet),  a  cele- 
brated Dutch  statesman,  lawyer,  and  theologian  ; 
was  b.  at  Delft,  April  10,  1583;  and  d.  at  Ros- 
tock, Aug.  29,  1645.  His  career  was  intimately 
associated,  and  largely  sympathized,  with  the  for- 
tunes of  the  Arniinians.  His  contributions  to 
exegetical  and  apologetic  literature,  to  systematic 
theology  and  canon  law,  also  give  him  an  impor- 
tant place  in  the  history  of  theological  thought. 
His  family  was  of  noble  extraction  ;  his  father  a 
lawyer,  who  had  occupied  the  positions  of  burgo- 
master and  curator  at  the  LTni versify  of  Leyden. 
Seldom  has  there  been  a  more  striking  exhibition 
of  precocity  than  that  of  Hugo.  At  nine  he  was 
making  Latin  verses;  at  sixteen  he  had  edited 
Marcianus  Capella;  and  at  twenty-three  was 
advocate-general  of  Holland.  Joseph  Scaliger 
was  one  of  his  professors.  John  of  Barneveld 
early  recognized  his  talents,  and  took  him  on  a 
mission  to  France.  Grotius  devoted  himself  spe- 
cially to  the  study  of  the  law,  but  his  tastes  ran 
rather  in  the  direction  of  literature.  His  earliest 
works,  besides  several  editions  of  Latin  authors, 
were  three  dramas  (Christ  Sufferinr/,  the  Story  of 
Joseph,  and  Ailam  Exiled),  and  a  historical  work 
on  the  Batavian  rei)ublic  {De  Antiijuitute  liep., 
BataviC,  1610).  But  he  soon  became  involved  in 
the  theological  controversies  which  agitated  Hol- 
land at  that  time.  He  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
Arniinians.  After  the  victory  of  tin;  Gomarists 
(Calvinists),  at  the  synod  of  Dort,  he  was  con- 
demned (1019)  to  perpetual  imprisonment  at 
Lowestein.  During  this  imprisonment  he  com- 
posed several  of  his  works.  An  ingenious  arti- 
fice of  his  wife  effected  his  escape.  He  concealed 
himself  in  a  chest  which  had  been  frequently 
used  to  carry  books  and  clothing  to  and  from 
his  cell.  He  was  taken  thus  to  the  house  of  a 
friend,  and  escaped  in  the  disguise  of  a  mason  to 
France.  Louis  XIII.  granted  him  a  pension  of 
three  thousand  livres,  and  De  Thon  and  others 
treated  liim  kindly.  'I'lie  dislike  of  llichelieu 
obliged  him  to  quit  France,  but  the  favor  of 
Christina  gave  him  a  distinguislieil  reception  in 
Sweden.  She  sent  him  as  ambas.sador  to  France, 
where  ho  remained  for  ten  years.  He  was  re- 
called at  his  own  request,  intending  to  spend  his 
remaining  years  in  his  native  land.  The  vessel 
that  bore  him  was  driven  out  of  its  course  by  a 
storm.  He  became  sick,  got  aj  far  as  Rostock  on 
his  journey,  and  there  died,  repeating  the  prayer, 


"God  be  merciful  to  me  a  sinner."  His  body 
lies  buried  at  Delft.  —  This  is  not  the  proper 
place  to  speak  of  the  eminent  services  of  Grotius 
as  an  expounder  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  nations. 
He  concerns  us  only  as  a  theologian.  His  great 
exegetical  work  (Annotations  upon  the  Old  and  New 
Testament)  was  for  a  considerable  time  unused, 
except  by  the  Arniinians.  It  became  popular, 
however,  on  account  of  the  author's  manifest  free- 
dom from  dogmatic  prepossessions  and  his  effort 
to  get  at  the  plain  philological  and  historical 
sense.  His  apologetical  work  (De  Veritate  Rel. 
Christiance)  was  projected  in  pirison,  but  first  pub- 
lished 1627.  It  was  designed  for  seamen  who 
came  in  contact  with  Mohammedans  and  heathens. 
It  has  been  very  popmlar  down  to  a  recent  date, 
and  was  translated  into  French,  English  [Pat- 
rick; also  by  Clarke,  reprinted,  London,  1860], 
Chinese,  Malay,  Arabic  (Pococke),  and  many 
other  languages,  as  the  best  thing  in  its  line. 
Grotius  was  an  Arminian,  but  disclaimed  Pela- 
gianism,  and,  in  his  Defense  of  the  Catholic  Faith 
concerning  the  Satisfaction  of  Christ  against  Soci- 
nus  (1617),  denied  any  leanings  toward  Sooiuian- 
ism.  Departing  from  the  strict  Anselmic  theory, 
he  substituted,  in  place  of  a  real  satisfaction  on 
the  part  of  Christ,  a  divine  acquittal  for  Christ's 
sake.  In  Christ's  death,  which  satisfied  God's 
majesty,  and  exhibited  his  detestation  of  sin,  he 
saw  a  terrible  example  of  punishment  designed 
to  deter  men  from  sin. 

Lit.  —  The  theological  works  of  Grotius  {Opera 
theologica)  were  published  at  Amsterdam,  1644- 
46,  iii.  fol.,  reprinted  at  London,  1660.  — Lives: 
Van  Brandt  :  Hislorie  ran  hel  Leven  H.  de  Groot, 
2  vols.,  Dordrecht,  1727;  Luden:  Hugo  Grotius 
nach  s.  Schicksalen  u.  Schriflen  dargesl.,  Berlin, 
1806;  [Butler:  Life  of  Hugo  Grotius,  London, 
1826.  See  a  brief  characterization  of  Grotius, 
and  a  vivid  account  of  his  escape  from  prison,  in 
Motley:  Joh7i  of  Barneveld,  New  York,  1874,  vol. 
ii.  chap.  xxii.].  haqenbach. 

GROVES  and  TREES,  Sacred.  In  the  Hebrew 
Old  Testament  there  is  no  mention  of  sacred 
groves,  for  the  word  so  translated  in  the  author- 
ized version  means  properly  an  image  to  Asherah 
(see  AsiiEK.\ii)  ;  but  sacred  trees  are  repeatedly 
mentioned.  It  will  be  only  necessary  to  refer  to 
the  oak  (A.  V.  "plain")  at  Moreh  (Gen.  xii.  6), 
at  Mamre  (xviii.  1),  at  Shechem,  under  which 
Jacob  hid  the  "strange  gods"  of  his  family 
(xxxv.  4),  at  Bethel,  under  which  Deborah  was 
buried,  and  to  the  tree  at  Beersheba,  which  Abra- 
ham planted  (xxi.  33),  and  where  he  and  Isaac 
(xxvi.  25)  and  Jacob  (xlvi.  1)  worshipped,  in 
order  to  prove  that  from  patriarchal  times  certain 
trees  were  regarded  as  holy,  so  that  it  was  apjiro- 
priate  to  worshi)i  under  them  ;  while  to  be  buried 
beneath  their  spreading  boughs  was  to  lie  in 
consecrated  ground.  Tlie  same  ]ilienonienon  is 
observable  in  the  later  Israelitish  history.  Jo>hua 
set  up  a  memorial-stone  under  I  he  oak  at  Shechem 
(Josh.  xxiv.  26).  'i'he  angel  of  tlii^  Lord  appeared 
to  Gideon  under  the  oak  at  0|ihrah  (Jndg.  vi.  11), 
who  built  an  altar  there.  Saul,  under  an  oak 
(1  Sam.  xiv.  2)  and  a  tamarisk  (xxii.  6),  like 
Deborah  under  a  palm-tree^  (Judg.  iv.  5),  held 
court.  The  inhabitants  of  Jabesh-Ciilead  buried 
the  aslies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  under  the  tamarisk- 
tree  at  Jabesh  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  13).    Worsliip  under 


GRUNDTVia. 


917 


GUALBBRT. 


trees  was  commonly  idolatrous  (Deut.  xii.  2 ; 
1  Kings  xiv.  23 ;  2  Kings  xvi.  4 ;  2  Chron.  xxviii. 
4:  Isa.  Ivii.  4;  Jer.  ii.  20). 

The  Hebrews  shared  their  veneration  for  trees 
■with  other  Shemitic  races.  Among  them,  how- 
ever, trees  were  sacred  to  female  divinities  only, 
because  the  latter  were  the  agents  in  transmitting 
to  the  earth  the  reproductive  power  of  the  male 
divinities;  and  the  moon,  as  the  seat  of  these 
female  divinities,  was  considered  as  a  star  which 
dispensed  dew,  and  was  therefore  the  great  help 
to  the  plant-world.  See  Wolf  Baudissin  :  Slu- 
(lien  zur  semilischen  Religionsgeschichte,  Leipzig, 
1876-79,  3  pts.,  II.,  143  sqq.,  and  his  art.  Maine, 
in  Herzoi;',  2d  ed.,  vol.  5,  pp.  550-552. 

ORUNDTVIG,  Nicolai  Frederik  Severin,  b.  at 
Udby,  a  village  in  the  Island  of  Sealand,  Sept. 
8,  1783;  d.  in  Copenhagen,  Sept.  2,  1872;  studied 
theology  in  the  university  of  Copenhagen,  and 
was  tutor  in  a  private  family  in  the  Island  of 
Langeland  1805-08,  teacher  of  history  in  a  school 
in  Copenhagen  1808-10,  vicar  to  his  father  at 
Udby  1810-13,  and  again  teacher  in  Copenhagen 
1813-21.  He  lived  like  a  monk  during  those 
years  of  his  youth  and  early  manhood.  For 
twenty  years  he  never  slept  in  a  bed,  and  he  slept 
only  two  hours  in  the  night.  He  was  not  monk- 
ish, though  ;  on  the  contrary,  practical  influence 
on  real  life  was  one  of  the  deepest  cravings  of 
his  nature.  His  powers  as  a  poet  and  historian 
were  the  earliest  to  develop.  From  1809  {North- 
ern Mi/tholix/i/,  and  the  grand  drama.  Fall  of  Hea- 
thenism in  the  North')  to  1822  (the  translations  of 
Saxo  Grammaticus,  Snorre  Sturleson,  and  Beo- 
wulf'.s  Drapa)  he  published  a  series  of  poetical 
and  historical  works,  most  of  them  referring  to 
the  heroic  age  of  Scandinavian  history,  and  all 
of  them  pregiuint  with  a  peculiarly  stirring  life. 
Meanwhile  the  other  side  of  his  nature,  his  reli- 
gious genius,  was  not  altogether  without  mani- 
festation. His  occasional  sermons  attracted  great 
attention ;  and  his  View  of  the  World's  Chronicle 
(1812,  in  one  volume,  1817,  in  three)  ran  out  in  a 
vehement  denunciation  of  the  frivolity  with  which 
the  age  had  eliminated  Christianity  from  its  life. 

In  1821  Grundtvig  was  appointed  pastor  in 
Prsestoe  (a  small  town  in  Sealand),  and  in  the  next 
year  he  was  called  to  the  chaplaincy  at  the  Church 
of  our  Saviour  in  Copenhagen.  There  he  soon 
gathered  a  circle  of  friends  and  pupils  around 
his  pulpit;  and  day  by  day  his  position  in  the 
Danish  Cliurch  became  more  and  more  strongly 
marked.  In  1825  H.  N.  Clausen,  professor  in 
the  university,  and  the  noble  and  learned  repre- 
sentative of  the  reigning  rationalism,  published 
his  Catholicism  nnd  Protestantism ,  and  Grundtvig 
answered  with  Kirkens  Gje^imide,  a  violent  pro- 
test, an  outburst  of  glowing  indignation,  a  kind 
of  volcanic  eruption.  Not  the  Scriptures,  he 
declared,  still  less  the  theological  expositions  of 
them,  form  the  foundation  of  Christianity,  but 
the  Church  itself,  such  as  it  was  founded  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  such  as  it  has  lived 
on,  since  that  time,  through  its  martyrs,  confess- 
ors, and  witnesses.  His  peculiar  doctrines  of  bap- 
tism as  the  true  foundation  of  the  Church,  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed  as  the  true  conditions  of  salva- 
tion, of  the  "living  word  "  as  the  true  vehicle  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  he  set  forth  in  the  most  uncom- 
promising opposition  to  what  rationalism  had  to 


say  about  the  axioms  of  reason,  philosophical 
criticism,  and  grammatico-historical  exegesis. 
The  controversy  occasioned  a  civil  suit;  and 
Grundtvig  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine,  and  to 
publish  nothing  without  permission  of  the  royal 
censor.  He  was  finally  suspended ;  but  from 
that  day  there  was  in  the  Danish  Church  a  party 
called  "  Grundtvigians,"  and  a  platform  called 
"  Grundtvigianism." 

From  1826  to  1839  Grundtvig  lived  in  literary 
retirement  in  Copenhagen.  He  visited  England, 
and  gave  by  his  words  and  his  writings  a  power- 
ful impulse  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  study  there ; 
edited  a  theological  monthly,  in  which  his  ideas 
found  their  proper  exposition  and  suitable  appli- 
cation ;  published  True  Christianity,  his  principal 
theological  work,  and  an  ornament  to  modern 
apologetics  ;  the  Sandaij-Book,  a  collection  of  ser- 
mons which  has  found  a  larger  circulation  in 
Scandinavia  than  any  other  book  of  the  kind ; 
the  Hipnn-Book,  a  collection  of  hymns,  partly 
original,  partly  translated,  which  gave  to  song 
in  the  Danish  churches  a  new  and  very  original 
character.  Meanwhile  his  influence  .spread  far 
beyond  the  capital,  throughout  the  whole  king- 
dom, and  even  to  the  neighboring  countries,  espe- 
cially Norway,  everywhere  causing  a  spiritual 
revival,  in  which  religion  and  patriotism,  Chris- 
tianity and  nationality,  are  most  happily  blended 
together.  In  1839  he  was  made  pastor  of  the 
Varton  in  Copenhagen  ;  and  there  he  remained 
till  his  death,  the  head  of  a  strong  and  well- 
organized  party,  which,  especially  in  1848,  made 
itself  felt  iu  the  church,  in  the  school,  and  in 
politics,  always  bringing  life  and  progress  and 
reform  with  it.  See  Den.makk.  In  1853  he  was 
made  a  bishop.  He  was  three  times  married, 
and  over  seventy  years  old  when  he  baptized  his 
youngest  son. 

Lit.  —  Paul  Pry  :  N.  F.  S.  Grundtoig,  Copen- 
hagen, 1871 ;  J.  Kaftan  :  Grundtvig,  der  Prophet 
des  Nordens,  Basel,  1876.   Clemens  Petersen. 

GRYN^US  is  the  name  of  a  Suabian  family 
which  settled  at  Basel,  and  during  two  centuries 
produced  several  celebrated  theologians  there.  — 
Simon  GrynEus,  b.  at  Vehriugen,  1493;  d.  at 
Basel,  Aug.  1,  1.541;  was  educated  in  the  school 
of  Pforzheim  ;  studied  theology,  first  in  Vienna, 
afterwards  at  Wittenberg;  was  professor  of  Greek 
at  Heidelberg  (1524-29),  and  was  called  to  Basel 
when  Erasmus  left  that  city  on  account  of  the 
introduction  there  of  the  Reformation.  In  1531 
he  was  made  professor  of  theology ;  in  1534  he 
established  the  Reformation  in  Wurtemberg ;  in 
1540  he  partook  in  the  disputation  of  Worms. 
His  letters  and  a  list  of  his  works  were  published 
by  W.  Th.  Streuber,  Basel,  1847.  —  Johann  Jacob 
Grynaeus,  b.  at  Bern,  Oct.  1,  1540;  d.  at  Basel, 
Aug.  13,  1617;  studied  at  Basel  and  Tiibingen, 
and  was  appointed  preacher  at  Rcitelen  1565,  pro- 
fessor of  the  Old  Testament  at  Basel  1575,  at 
Heidelberg  1584,  and  professor  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament at  Basel  1586.  Some  of  his  letters  were 
published  by  Scultetus  1612,  others  by  Apinus 
1720.  A  life  of  him,  partly  an  autobiography, 
and  containing  a  list  of  his  numerous  writings, 
appeared  at  Basel  1618. 

GUALBERT,  Giovanni,  founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  eleventh  century  the  Cenobite  order  of 
Vallombrosa  {callis  umbrosa),  in  the  Apennines, 


GUDULE. 


918 


GUIDO   OF  AREZZO. 


near  Florence,  in  the  diocese  of  Fiesole.  He  was 
the  first  to  introduce  lay-brethren  (fratres  conrersi) 
in  the  monasteries,  in  order  that  the  religious 
brethren  (properly  speaking,  the  palrcs)  might 
be  able  to  devote  themselves  entirely  to  contem- 
plation and  prayer.  He  died  1093,  and  was 
canonized  by  Celestine  HI.  1193.  His  life  is 
found  in  Act.  Sand.  0.  B.,  H. 

GUDULE,  St.,  popularly  called  Goule  or  Er- 
goule,  \vas  a  daughter  of  Duke  Thierry  of  Lor- 
raine and  St.  Amalberge;  devoted  her  life  to 
the  severest  ascetic  practices ;  d.  Jan.  8,  712,  and 
was  soon  after  canonized  on  account  of  the  mira- 
cles wrought  at  her  tomb.  She  is  the  patroness 
of  Brussels ;  and  the  cathedral  of  that  city  is 
dedicated  to  her.     See  .4c/.  .Sand..  Jan.  8. 

GUELFand  GHIBELLINE  are  the  Italianized 
forms  of  the  German  Welf  (the  ducal  house  of 
Saxony)  and  Waibtinr/en  (the  native  castle  of  the 
Hohenstaufens).  The  German  names  were  first 
used,  it  is  said,  as  battle-cries  at  "Weinsberg 
(1140),  and  then  became  party  designations,  —  on 
the  one  side,  the  princes  with  their  aspirations 
of  independence  ;  on  the  other,  the  emperor  with 
his  demands  of  authority.  Transferred  to  Italy, 
the  names  were  applied  to  the  adherents  of  the 
emperor  (the  Ghibellines)  and  the  adherents  of 
the  Pope  (the  Guelfs)  :  though  many  other  and 
very  different  elements  might  be  introduced  into 
the  platform ;  as,  for  instance,  wlien  two  city- 
republics.  Pisa  and  Genoa,  Ferrara  and  Mantua, 
etc.,  vied  with  each  other,  and  immediately  be- 
came Guelf  and  Ghibelline ;  or  even  when  the 
rivalry  existed  only  between  two  families,  as  the 
Montecchi  and  C'apuletti  in  Verona,  the  Lam- 
bertaziz  and  Geremci  in  Bologna,  etc. 

GUENEE,  Antoine,  b.  at  Etampes,  Nov.  23, 
1717;  d.  at  Fontaiuebleau,  Nov.  27,  1803;  was 
successively  professor  of  rlietoric,  canon  of  Ami- 
ens, and  tutor  to  the  children  of  the  Count  of 
Artois;  travelled  much  in  Italy.  Germany,  and 
England  ;  translated  several  books  from  Englisli, 
and  wrote,  against  Voltaire's  attack  on  the  Old 
Testament,  Lettres  tie  quetques  Jtiifi,  etc.  (Paris, 
1769,4  vols.;  republished  si.x  times  in  the  life- 
time of  the  editor,  last  edition,  Paris,  1857;  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Lefaun,  Dulilin,  1777),  the 
only  book  of  any  account  wliicli  tlie  lloman- 
Catholic  Church  produced  against  the  encyclo- 
pedists. 

GUERICKE,  Heinrich  Ernst  Ferdinand,  b.  at 
Wettiti,  Feb.  2.1,  1803;  d.  at  Halle,  Feb.  4,  1878; 
studied  theology  at  Halle;  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor tliore  1829,  and  wrote  a  biography  of 
Francke  1827,  a  handbook  of  church  history  1833 
(9th  ed.,  1800;  translated  into  Fngli.sh  by  W.  G. 
T.  Shedd,  New  York,  1857-03,  2  vols.),  an  All,/. 
chrisll.  Si/mliulilL  1839,  etc.  He  was  a  very  strict 
Lutheran,  and  opposed  the  exertions  of  the  Prus- 
sian Government  to  effect  a  union  between  tlie 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  churclies,  and  founded, 
together  with  Iludelbach.  the  Zcil.iclirifl  f.  luth. 
Tlicolof).  un,l  Kirch,' .  1810. 

GUIBERT  OF  NOGENT,  b.  at  Cl.Minont,  10.53; 
d.  at  Xogeiit,  1121;  cnl.'rcd  in  1O04  the  lienedic- 
tinc!  monastery  nf  Flay  or  St.  Gernicr,  wluM'e  In' 
came  under  the  influence  of  .Vnsclm,  at  that  time 
prior  of  Bee,  ami  a  frcKjuent  visitor  in  Flay,  ami 
was  in  1104  made  abbot  of  Nogent-sous-Coucy, 
in  the  diocese  of  Laon.     He  was  a  man  of  great 


learning,  and  exercised  considerable  influence  on 
the  circle  to  which  he  belonged ;  but  he  knew  it 
too  well  himself,  and  the  impression  which  his 
writings  make  is  not  always  so  very  agreeable, 
on  account  of  his  vanity  and  conceit.  His  works 
were  edited  by  D'Achery  (Paris,  1051),  and  re- 
printed in  Migne  {Patrol.  Latin,  156  and  184). 
The  most  intere.sting  of  his  works  are:  1.  De 
piijnoribus  sanctorum,  occasioned  by  the  exhibi- 
tion, in  the  monastery  of  St.  Medard,  near  Sois- 
sons.  of  one  of  Christ's  teeth,  and  criticising  with 
great  frankness  the  worship  of  saints  and  relics 
which  was  the  rage  of  the  time ;  2.  Ilistoria 
Hierosobpnitana.  a  history  of  the  first  crusade, 
written  about  1108,  and  a  rich  source  of  knowd- 
edge ;  3.  De  vita  sua  sice  Monaitioruin  Libri  III., 
of  which  the  first  book  contains  an  autobiography 
in  imitation  of  Augustine's  Confessiones,  the  sec- 
ond the  history  of  the  monastery  of  Nogent, 
and  the  third  the  history  of  the  diocese  of  Laon. 
The  two  last  works  have  been  translated  into 
French,  in  Guizox:  Coll.  de  Memoires,  Paris, 
1825.  WAGENMANN. 

GUIBERT  OF  PARMA  was  by  the  Empress 
Agnes  made  chancellor  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy, 
and  was  thus  by  the  very  nature  of  his  office 
placed  in  opposition  to  Hildebrand.  It  was  due 
to  him  that  Nicholas  II.,  in  his  famous  decree 
concerning  papal  elections,  admitted  the  influence 
of  the  king  of  Germany ;  and  when  Alexander 
II.  was  elected  Pope,  without  the  consent  of 
Henry  IV.  or  his  mother,  the  Empress  Agnes, 
Guibert  caused  Bishop  Cadalus  of  Parma  to  be 
elected  antipope,  under  the  name  of  llonorius 
II.  Tlie  measure  proved  a  complete  failure; 
but,  by  the  exertions  of  Agnes,  Guibert  was 
reconciled  to  Hildebrand,  and  in  1073  he  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Ravenna  His  opposition, 
however,  to  Hildebraud's  policy,  was  not  merely 
the  result  of  his  ollice  as  chancellor.  He  hated 
that  manner  in  which  Gregory  VII.  used  the 
monks,  the  Patarini,  and  the  mass  of  the  people, 
to  enforce  his  authority  over  the  clergy;  and,  as 
Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  lie  resisted  this  policy  in 
every  way  po.ssible.  In  1075  he  was  suspended, 
but  he  did  not  yield.  In  the  contest  between 
Henry  IV.  and  Gregory  VH.  he  sided  with  the 
former;  and  in  1080  he  was  elected  antipope  at 
Brixen  by  thirty  bisliops,  and  assumed  the  name 
of  Clement  III.  In  1084  lie  crowned  Henry 
Emperor  in  Rome.  But,  though  Henry  never 
abandoned  him,  he  w.as  never  able  to  vindicate 
himself  against  the  fur}' of  the  Hildebrand  party. 
Not  only  Gregory  VII.,  but  also  Motor  HI., 
L'rb.an  II.,  and  Paschalis  II.,  cursed  and  excom- 
municated him.  He  died  at  Ravenna,  llOO; 
and,  after  the  death  of  HcMiry  IV.,  Paschalis  H. 
ordered  his  bones  to  be  dug  up,  and  thrown  into 
the  water.  See  Jafku;:  Rcjcsl.  J'ontif.  R,)man., 
pp.    113-117.  AI.nilECHT   VOOKL. 

GUIDO  OF  AREZZO,  monk  in  the  monastery 
of  Pomposa,  in  the  diocese  of  Ferrara ;  distin- 
guislied  himself  as  a  music-teacher,  and  made  a 
number  of  improvements  in  thi'  method  which  he 
saw  introduced,  not  only  in  Italy,  but  also  in 
France  and  (Jcrmany.  His  activity  falls  between 
1(»21  and  1037,  but  the  dates  of  'his  birth  and 
death  are  unknown.  His  inventions  he  has 
described  in  his  Microloi/ns  tie  DiscipUna  Artis 
Mugictc,  and  Aryumeiituin  iioci  Cantus. 


GUIDO   DB  BRBS. 


919 


GUISE. 


CUIDO  DE  BRES,  b.  at  Mons,  1523;  d.  at 
ValencieiiMPS,  ir)07;  was  ediicateJ  in  the  Roman 
Church,  but  converted  by  the  reading  of  tlie 
Scriptures.  Expelled  from  his  native  city,  he 
went  to  London,  where  a  Walloon  congregation 
had  been  formed  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI., 
and  whore  he  prepared  himself  for  the  office  of  a 
preacher.  In  1563  he  returned  to  Flanders, 
labored  there  as  an  itinerant  preacher,  and 
founded  the  first  evangelical  congregation  at 
Lille.  But  in  1566  this  congregation  was  dis- 
persed by  armed  force,  and  Guido  was  again 
compelled  to  flee.  He  repaired  to  Geneva,  be- 
came an  ardent  disciple  of  Calvin,  returned  once 
more  to  Flanders,  formed  congregations  at  Tour- 
nay,  Lille,  and  Valenciennes,  wrote  the  Belgic 
Confession  (which  article  see),  but  was  taken 
prisoner  at  the  capture  of  Valenciennes,  in  1567, 
and  hanged.  His  life  and  some  of  his  letters 
are  found  in  Histoire  des  Mart>/rs,  (ieneva,  1017. 

GUILBERT  OF  SEMPRINGHAM.  See  Gil- 
bert OF  Sempringiiam. 

GUILDS,  voluntary  associations  for  the  pro- 
motion of  religious  and  moral  objects  within  the 
pale  of  the  Church  of  England  and  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States,  are  of  recent  origin. 
The  prototypes  of  the  modern  institution  were 
the  guilds  of  the  middle  ages,  the  last  vestiges 
of  which  in  England  were  swept  away  by  the 
Reformation.  These  were  merchant,  craft,  and 
religious  guilds ;  and  their  object  was  to  advance 
the  temporal  and  eternal  welfare  of  their  mem- 
bers by  mutual  protection,  support,  and  prayer. 
After  a  long  interval,  the  name  was  revived,  and 
given  to  a  new  organization  in  1851,  —  the  Guild 
of  St.  Alban  of  Manchester.  The  ends  this 
league  proposed  to  itself  were  wholly  religious, 
and  the  membership  composed  of  communicants 
in  the  Church  of  England.  Previously,  in  1844, 
the  Brotherhood  of  the  Holy  Trinity  was  organ- 
ized at  Oxford,  which  is  sometimes,  but  wrongly, 
represented  as  the  first  guild.  In  1861  two  other 
guilds  were  organized,  —  the  Society  of  the  Love 
of  Jesus,  Plymouth,  and  the  Sisterhood  of  St. 
Peter,  Kilburn.  Since  that  time,  the  idea  and 
the  name  have  become  very  popular ;  and  the 
number  of  organizations  has  largely  increased, 
not  only  in  J^ngland  and  her  colonies,  but  also  in 
the  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States.  In 
1873  a  union  of  the  guilds  of  Great  Britain  was 
effected  under  the  title  of  the  Church  Guilds' 
Union,  which  holds  an  annual  meeting. 

The  primary  object  of  the  guilds  is  to  carry  on 
more  effectually  parish-work,  by  inducing  each 
communicant  to  exercise  his  own  natural  talents, 
and  by  pointing  out  the  work  proper  for  each  to 
do.  The  special  objects  vary,  and  are  such  as 
the  visitation  of  the  sick,  inducing  per.sons  to  be 
confirmed,  caring  for  the  poor,  providing  healthy 
amusements,  etc.  They  are  essentially  lay  socie- 
ties, and  designed  to  "  impart  dignity  to  the  lay- 
man's work  now  wanting  to  it."  They  assist  the 
parish  priest ;  but  some  of  the  guildsmen  would 
go  so  far  as  to  exclude  the  parish  clergyman  from 
the  offices  of  the  society.  The  guilds  may  direct 
their  energies  to  the  general'  interests  of  the 
parish.  But  they  are  also  organized  for  special 
objects  ;  as  the  medical  Guild  of  St.  Luke,  the 
missionary  Guild  of  St.  Savior,  the  Church  and 
Stage  Guild,  All   Souls'  Guild  for  the  reform  of 


burial,  etc.     For  a  good  account  of  the  history 

and  objects  of  guilds,  see  Guild  Papers,  contribut- 
ed 1)1/  Offirnrx  of  Various  Churc/i  Giulds,  London. 

CUILLON,  Marie  Nicolas  Sylvestre,  b.  in  Paris, 
Jan.  1,  1760;  d.  at  MontlVrmeil,  (.)ct.  16,  1847; 
was  almoner  and  librarian  to  the  J'l-incess  Lam- 
balle,  but  fled  from  Paris,  after  her  execution  in 
1792,  and  lived  for  several  years  in  the  provinces 
under  an  assumed  name  (Pastel),  practising  medi- 
cine. Having  returned  to  Paris  in  17f)8,  he  served 
Napoleon,  the  Bourbons,  and  the  Orleanists  suc- 
cessively, and  with  equal  ease  ;  accompanied  Car- 
dinal Fesch  to  Rome,  and  was  made  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  the  Lycee  Bonaparte  ;  was  almoner  to 
the  Princess  of  Orleans;  and  became  canon  of  St. 
Denis,  Bishop  of  Morocco  {in  parlihus  injidelium). 
Dean  of  the  Sorbonne,  etc.  He  was  a  very  pro- 
lific writer,  and  some  of  his  works  (Collection  des 
hrefs  du  Pope  Pie  17.,  Paris,  1798;  Bibliolhh/ue 
choisie  des  Peres  grecs  el  latins,  Paris,  1822,  26 
vols.  ;  a  translation  of  Cyprian  with  notes,  Paris, 
1837,  2  vols.,  etc.)  are  valuable. 

GUISE,  The  House  of,  formed  a  younger  branch 
of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  and  was  founded  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  by  Claude, 
the  second  son  of  Rene  II.  In  1508  he  received 
all  the  French  possessions  of  the  family,  —  Guise, 
Elbceuf,  Aumale,  Mayenne,  Joinville,  etc.,  —  the 
archbishoprics  of  Rheims,  the  bishopric  of  Metz, 
etc.,  which  were  family  benefices ;  and  in  1527  he 
was  made  Duke  of  Guise,  and  governor  of  Cham- 
pagne and  Bourgoyne.  He  died  in  15.50;  but  in 
the  next  two  generations  his  sons  (Duke  Francis 
of  (juise,  and  Cardinal  Charles  of  Lorraine)  and 
his  grandsons  (Duke  Henry  of  Guise,  and  Cardinal 
Louis  of  Lorraine)  played  the  most  prominent 
part  in  the  history  of  France  as  leaders  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  party,  lieads  of  the  League,  sup- 
porters of  the  Jesuit  movement,  and  cruel  sup- 
pressors of  the  Huguenots. 

Duke  Francis  of  Guise,  b.  Feb.  17,  1519;  d. 
Feb.  24,  1503  ;  was  a  valiant  soldier.  In  1552  he 
stopped  Charles  V.  at  Metz ;  in  1558  he  took 
Calais  from  the  English.  AVhen  Francis  IL, 
who  had  married  his  niece,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
ascended  the  French  throne  in  1559,  the  w^hole 
military  command  of  the  realm  was  intrusted  to 
him,  just  as  the  whole  civil  administration  was 
put  into  the  hands  of  his  brother.  Cardinal 
Charles  of  Lorraine.  —  Charles,  b.  Feb.  17,  1.524  ; 
d.  Dec.  26,  1.574;  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rheims 
w-hen  he  was  fourteen  years  old,  and  cardinal 
when  he  was  twenty-three.  He  held  ten  bishop- 
rics, besides  a  great  number  of  abbeys,  and  had 
an  annual  income  of  three  hundred  thousand 
crowns  at  a  time  when  the  total  revenue  of  France 
was  not  more  than  five  or  six  millions.  He  was 
supercilious  and  depraved,  but  cunning  and  elo- 
quent. He  began  life  as  a  pupil  of  the  Renais- 
sance and  a  friend  of  ecclesiastical  reform ;  but, 
after  his  meeting  with  Cardinal  Granvelle,  he 
became  a  partisan  of  Philip  II. ,  and  a  champion 
of  the  Roman  Church.  A  sudden  turn  took  place 
in  his  fortunes  and  in  those  of  his  family  by  the 
unexpected  death  of  Francis  IL  in  1560.  He 
retired  to  Rheims,  Francis  to  Guise;  and  the  royal 
princes,  the  Bourbons.  Condes,  etc.,  returned  to 
power.  On  the  basis,  however,  of  the  defence  of 
Romanism  against  Protestantism,  Francis  suc- 
ceeded in   forming  an   alliance  at  the  court,  and 


GUIZOT. 


920 


GUNPOWDER  PLOT. 


he  was  on  his  way  to  Paris  when  the  massacre  at 
Tossy  occurred  (1562), — the  slaughter  of  a  whole 
Protestant  congregation,  assembled  at  worship, 
by  his  retinue.  The  Huguenots  arose,  and  the 
civil  war  began.  Francis  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  Roman-Catholic  army,  defeated  the  Hugue- 
nots at  Dreux,  and  besieged  their  stronghold, 
Orleans,  where  he  was  shot  dead  by  Poltrot  de 
Mere.  At  the  re-opening  of  the  Council  of  Trent 
in  1560,  the  cardinal  attempted  to  gatlier  the 
whole  opposition  around  himself,  but  he  utterly 
failed ;  and  he  afterwards  became  very  zealous 
for  the  introduction  in  France  of  the  canons  of 
the  council.  On  his  return,  he  was  very  coldly 
received  by  the  court ;  but  the  particular  friend- 
ship which  Philip  U.  .showed  hiin,  the  brilliant 
military  successes  of  his  nephew,  Duke  Henry  of 
Guise,  and  the  lavish  support  he  gave  to  litera- 
ture and  art,  continued  to  give  him  a  certain  influ- 
ence. He  left  a  considerable  debt  when  he  died. 
'  Duke  Henry  of  Guise,  b.  Dec.  31,  1550;  d. 
Dec.  23,  1588  ;  a  son  of  Duke  Francis  ;  inherited 
his  father's  valor  and  military  ability,  but  exceed- 
ed him  far  in  political  ambition,  and  hatred  to  the 
Huguenots.  If  not  the  founder,  he  was  at  all 
events  the  head,  of  the  League  from  its  very  be- 
ginning in  1.^76.  He  formed  the  closest  alliances 
with  Philip  II.  (who  gave  him  an  annual  pension  of 
two  hundred  thousand  francs)  and  with  the  Pope, 
who,  at  his  instance,  excommunicated  Henry  of 
Navarre.  After  the  death  of  the  Duke  of  Anjou, 
in  15S4,  he  actually  aspired  to  the  throne  of 
France;  and  both  the  Pope  and  Philip  H.  consid- 
ered it  necessary  to  support  him,  if  France  should 
not  become  Calviaistic.  Bui  lie  .seems  to  liave 
lacked  courage.  He  procrastinated ;  and  when 
the  king,  Henry  III.,  thoroughly  understood  the 
drift  of  affairs,  he  had  him  assassinated  at  Blois 
by  his  guardsmen,  him  and  his  brother.  Cardinal 
Louis  of  Lorraine.  —  Louis,  b.  July  0,  1.555;  d. 
Dec.  23,  1588 ;  was  a  wit,  and  played  only  a  sec- 
ondary role. 

Lit.  —  Duke  Francis  left  a  kind  of  diary,  which 
is  found  in  JIiciiAiri)  et  Pon.i.vui.ot  :  Nouvdle 
Collection  (le  Mc'moires,  Paris,  1839.  The  best 
account  of  the  destinies  of  this  famous  family  is 
Ri'nc  lie  Bouillic,  Hisloire  des  Ducsde  Guise,  Paris, 
1853,  1  vols. 

GUIZOT,  Fran9ois  Pierre  Cuillaume,  b.  at 
Nimes,  Oct.  4,  1787;  d.  at  Val-Kicher,  Sept.  12, 
1874;  descended  from  a  family  of  Huguenot  pas- 
tors; was  educated  at  (ii-neva,  and  studied  law, 
history,  and  philosophy  in  Paris.  The  first  period 
of  his  life  (1812-30)  was  principally  literary. 
He  was  during  that  time  alternately  professor  of 
histoiy  at  the  Sorbonne,  secretary-general  in  the 
department  of  the  interior,  journali.st,  etc.,  and 
wrote  liis  brilliant  historical  works,  of  which  the 
Hislori/  i>f  CivUizalion  in  Europe  (1828),  and  Ilis- 
lorij  of  Cicilizalion  in  France  (1830,  5  vols.,  un- 
finished), are  of  great  interest  to  tlie  cliurcli 
historian.  The  second  period  (1830-48)  wa.s  prin- 
cipally iiolitical.  He  was  minister  of  public  in- 
struction 1832-30,  and  primi'-minister  1840-'18. 
As  mini.ster  of  public  instruction  he  thorougldy 
reformed  the  educational  .system  of  France  from 
top  to  bottom  ;  and  many  improvements  were 
introduced,  especially  in  the  primary  schools  an<l 
in  the  higher  gymnasiums.  In  the  third  iieriod, 
from  181*  till   Ids  ilcatli.  religion  came  more  and 


more  to  the  foreground  in  his  works.  In  1852 
he  was  chosen  president  of  the  consistory,  and  in 
his  government  of  the  Reformed  Church  he  ap- 
plied the  same  principle  of  "  resistance "  as  he 
had  formerly  applied  in  the  government  of  the 
State.  He  was  orthodox,  and  clung  tenaciously 
to  the  Calvinistic  system  of  the  sixteenth  century ; 
but  just  thereby  lie  made  the  difference  between 
the  various  branches  of  the  Refoi-med  Church  in 
France  more  apparent  and  decisive.  His  jirinci- 
pal  religious  works  are,  L'liylise  el  la  Socielii  chre- 
tienne  (1861),  and  Mulilalions  sur  I'essence  tie  la 
religion  chrelienne  (1864),  Eng.  trans.,  Xew  York, 
1865 :  of  a  more  popular  character  Les  Vies  de 
(juatre  grands  chrt'iiens  frani;ais.  I.  St.  Louis,  II. 
Calcin  (1868,  all  published),  Eng.  trans.,  St.  Louis 
and  Calrin,  London,  1868.  In  1826  he  founded 
the  Socii'tc  Bil/li(jue,  in  1833  the  Socit'le  tl' in.'itruction 
primaire  ]>rotestante,  and  in  1857  the  Societe  d'his- 
toire  du  prolestuntis/ne  Jraiifais.  See  M.  Guizot  in 
Pricate  Life,  by  his  daughter,  Madame  De  Witt, 
London  and  Boston,  1880. 

GUNDUUPH.  Bishop  Gerhard  of  Cambrai  and 
Arras  discovered  in  1025  a  heretical  sect  in  his 
diocese,  whose  members  professed  to  have  received 
their  peculiar  tenets  from  one  Gundulph,  an  Italian 
by  birth.  As  the  bishop  was  vei\y  zealous  for  the 
purity  of  the  faith,  he  had  the  hei'etics  seized,  and 
placed  before  a  .synod  assendiled  in  the  Church 
of  jMary  at  Arras.  The  doctrines,  however,  which 
the  accused  were  willing  to  recognize  as  theirs, 
turned  out  to  be  perfectly  innocent ;  and  the  whole 
affair  threatened  to  become  a  mere  triviality, 
when  the  bishop)  arose,  and  proved  that  he  knew 
moi'e  about  the  sect  than  the  sect  itself,  ascribing 
to  it  a  multitude  of  hideous  and  dangerous  here- 
sies. jVs  the  excitement  of  the  assembly  reached 
a  very  high  pitch  under  the  bisliop's  speech,  the 
accused  deemed  it  most  advisable  to  submit  to 
every  thing,  recant  every  thing,  and  sub.scribe  to 
every  thing :  so  they  did ;  and  the  acts  of  this 
towering  stupidity  are  still  extant  (D'Achery, 
Spicil.,  I.;  Mansi,  Concil.  XIX.).  But  out.side  of 
those  acts  nothing  is  known  either  of  Gundulph, 
or  his  dcH'trines,  or  his  followers. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT,  a  conspiracy  (1604-05) 
of  .some  Ronuui  Calholics  for  blowing  up  Parlia- 
ment House  with  gunpowder  while  Parliament 
was  in  session,  and  killing  the  king,  and  thus  se- 
curing advantages  for  their  Cliurch.  The  Ronuvn 
Catholics,  who  had  been  held  down  under  Eliza- 
beth, expected  concessions  from  James  I.,  but  were 
disappointed.  Robert  Catesljy  and  Guy  Favvkes 
were  the  leading  conspirators.  A  building  was 
rented  next  to  Parliament  House  in  1604,  and 
work  begun  in  boring  through  the  walls,  which 
were  nine  feet  thick,  when  an  opportunity  was 
afforded  them  of  renting  the  cellar  of  the  Parlia- 
ment House  itself.  The  conspirators  deposited 
thirty-six  kegs  of  powder  tliere,  covering  them 
with  stones  and  fagots.  Tlie  plot  was  to  be 
consummated  the  5th  of  November,  1605,  the 
opening  day  of  Parliament.  Lord  Monteagle,  a 
Ronian-Catliolic  member  of  the  House  of  Lords, 
was  ap])ri.sed  of  the  danger  by  letter,  and  imme- 
diately communicated  the  nuilter  to  the  king. 
Tlie  powder  was  discovered,  and  Fawkes  taken  m 
tJK!  cellar.  Severe  tortures  were  eMi|iloyed  to 
(h'aw  fiiini  him  confessions  implicating  others, 
i  but  without  avail.     With  three  others  he  was  put 


GUNTHBR. 


921 


GUTHLAC. 


to  deatli  Jan.  31,  1606.  The  day  previous  four 
had  suffered  for  the  same  crime. 

The  discovery  of  this  plot  was  very  disastrous 
to  tlie  cause  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  England. 
The  5th  of  November  was  ordered  to  be  kept  as 
a  national  holiday  by  an  act  which  was  not  re- 
pealed for  two  hundred  years.  One  of  the  popu- 
lar festivities  of  the  day  has  been  to  dress  up  a 
figure  in  rags,  parade  the  streets,  singing  rhymes, 
and  at  night  burning  it.  See  the  Histories  of 
England. 

GUNTHER,  Anton,  b.  at  Lindenau,  in  Bohe- 
mia, Nov.  17,  1783;  d.  at  Vienna,  Feb.  24,  1863; 
studied  first  law,  then  theology ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1820,  and  lived  mostly  in  Vienna,  as 
teacher  of  philosophy.  His  works,  of  which  the 
principal  are  Vorschulc  zur  spt'cuialircn  Tlieologie 
(1828),  Sml-  und  Nord-lichler  (1832),  T/iumus  a 
Scrupulis  (1835),  Die  Jusle-Milieus  (1837),  do  not 
present  a  finished  philosophical  system,  hut  are 
only  an  attack  on  the  reigning  monism,  and  an  at- 
tempt at  reconciling  the  Roman-Catholic  dogma 
and  modern  science.  They  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, however,  and  found,  like  those  of  Hermes, 
many  ardent  students;  but  in  1857  they  were  put 
on  the  Index.  See  P.  Knoodt  :  Anton  GilntJier, 
Wieu,  1881,  2  vols.  ;  J.  Flegel  :  A.  Gunthers  Dua- 
lismus  von  Geisl  u.  Natur,  Breslau,  1882,  pp.  42. 

GURNALL,  WilUam,  author  of  a  quaint  and 
popular  book.  The  Christian  in  Complete  Armour; 
b.  at  Lynn,  1616 ;  d.  at  Lavenham,  October,  1679. 
He  graduated  at  Cambridge;  in  1644  became  rec- 
tor of  Lavenham,  and  at  the  Restoration  signed 
the  Act  of  Uniformity.  The  Christian  in  Com- 
plete Armour,  or  a  Treatise  on  the  Saints'  War  tcitJi 
the  Devil,  etc.,  is  a  series  of  sermons  on  Eph.  vi. 
6-20,  abounding  in  epigrammatic  sayings,  and 
displaying  great  skill  in  applying  Scripture.  It 
was  published  in  three  volumes  in  1655,  sixth 
edition,  1679,  and  many  times  since ;  new  edition, 
London,  1865,  in  two  volumes,  with  latroduction 
by  Bishop  Ryle. 

GURNEY,  Joseph  John,  an  eminent  philanthro- 
pist, and  minister  of  the  Society  of  Friends;  b.  at 
Earliiain  Hall,  near  Norwich,  Aug.  2,  1788;  d. 
Jan.  4,  1847.  He  attended  lectures  for  a  while 
at  Oxford,  and  was  recognized  in  1818  as  a  minis- 
ter by  the  Friends.  The  three  years  between 
1837  and  1840  he  spent  in  the  United  States  and 
the  West  Indies,  preachhig.  He  was  a  man  of 
rare  piety  and  simplicity  of  character,  and  always 
foremost  in  enterprises  of  benevolence  and  hu- 
manity, using  his  large  wealth  with  a  liberal 
hand.  He  aided  his  sister,  Mi's.  Fry,  in  her  meas- 
ures for  prison-reform,  and  was  the  associate  with 
Clarkson,  AVilberforce,  and  his  brother-in-law, 
T.  Fowell  Buxton,  in  their  efforts  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  slave-trade.  The  latter  cause  lay 
nearest  to  his  heart.  He  was  also  a  prominent 
advocate  of  total  abstinence,  having  signed  the 
pledge  at  Ipswich,  April  8, 1843.  His  temperance 
tract.  Water  is  Best,  has  been  widely  circulated. 

Mr.  Gurney  issued  quite  a  number  of  tracts 
and  pamphlets,  with  some  larger  works.  Of  these 
the  principal  are.  Essays  on  the  Evidences,  Doc- 
trines, and  Practical  Operations  of  Christianity, 
Lond.,  1827,  trans,  into  Spanish  and  German; 
History,  Authority,  and  Use  of  the  Sabbath,  Lond., 
1831  ;  Puseyism  traced  to  its  Root,  1845.  These 
works  passed  through  a  number  of  editions.     See 


Memoirs  of  J.  J.  Gurney,  by  Braithwaite  (Nor- 
wich and  Phila.,  1854,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1855)  and 
Hodgson  (Phila.,  1856). 

GURY,  Jean  Pierre,  b.  at  Mailleroncourt,  Jan. 
23,  1801  ;  d.  at  .Alercoour,  France,  April  18,  1866; 
became  a  Jesuit,  1824;  taught  moral  theology  in 
Jesuit  Colleges  ;  and  wrote  Compemlium  theolot/ice 
moralis  (1850)  and  Casus  Conscientia;  (1863),  which, 
as  specimens  of  the  morals  taught  by  the  Jesuits, 
procured  for  their  aullior  an  unenvialjle  notoriety. 
See  Linn  :  Das  Handhuch  Gurys  mid  i/le  christliche 
Ethik,  Freiberg,  1869;  and  [7c(auon.),  Paris,  1867. 

GUSTAVUS  ADOLPHUS.  See  Thirty-Years' 
•\V.\R. 

GUSTAVUS-ADOLPHUS-ASSOCIATION.  The 
idea  of  this  association  was  first  conceived  by  Dr. 
Grossmann  of  LeilKig  in  1832,  when  the  second 
centennial  of  the  death  of  the  great  Protestant 
hero  was  celebrated  at  Llitzen,  Nov.  6.  Not  sim- 
ply a  monument  of  brass  or  stone  should  be  raised 
in  his  honor,  but  a  monument  of  living  men,  doing 
the  same  work  as  he  had  done,  —  aiding  and 
supporting  Protestant  families  and  congregations 
whenever  aid  and  support  were  needed.  An  asso- 
ciation was  formed;  and  Oct.  4,  1834,  its  statutes 
were  confirmed  by  the  Saxon  king.  In  the  be- 
ginning the  success  was  very  slender.  Though 
10,000  thalers  were  sent  from  Sweden,  the  total 
capital  of  the  association  in  1841  was  only  12,850 
thalers.  But  in  the  same  year  Legrand,  pastor 
of  Basel,  and  Karl  Zimmermann,  court-preacher 
at  Darmstadt,  made  most  effective  appeals  to  the 
public,  setting  forth  the  religious  privations,  chi- 
caneries, and  dangers  to  which  evangelical  fami- 
lies and  congregations  are  exposed  when  living 
in  the  midst  of  a  Roman-Catholic  population. 
Branch  societies  were  formed  in  various  places  in 
Germany,  as  also  in  foreign  countries,  and  were 
brought  in  connection  with  the  mother  associa- 
tion ;  and  at  the  general  assembly  in  Stuttgart, 
1845,  the  accounts  of  the  association  showed  an 
income  of  42,000  thalers  for  the  last  year.  Aid 
had  been  given  to  62  congregations.  In  several 
countries,  as,  for  instance,  in  Bavaria,  the  asso- 
ciation met  with  strong  opposition  from  the 
Roman-Catholic  government;  and  during  the  rev- 
olutionary years  of  1848  and  1849  the  interest 
slackened,  —  the  revenue  sank  down  to  21,000  tha- 
lers. But  in  1850  matters  began  to  improve,  and 
since  that  time  progress  has  been  nuide  every 
year.  The  association,  comprising  43  minor  asso- 
ciations, with  1,160  branch  societies,  8  students' 
and  371  women's  associations,  owns  now  a  capital 
of  336,401  marks.  Since  its  foundation  it  has 
distributed  14,183,798  marks,  and  has  built  1,068 
churches,  639  schoolhouses,  42  cemeteries,  and 
358  parsonages.  See  K.  Zimmermann:  Geschichte 
des  Gustav  Adolf  Vereins,  Darmstadt,  1877;  W. 
Pressel  :  Bausteine  zur  Geschichte  d.  G.  A.  V^e- 
reins,  1878,2  vols.,  and  Der  G.  A.  Vereins  und  das 
Volk  Israel,  Tiibing.,  1879.        K.  ZIMMEUMA^-N■ 

GUTHLAC,  St.,  presbyter,  and  hermit  of  Crow- 
land  ;  b.  674  ;  d.  714.  'The  child  of  nobles,  he 
early  showed  martial  prowess,  and  attacked,  at 
the  head  of  his  band,  the  hereditary  British  foe ; 
but,  in  his  twenty-fourth  year  suddenly  experien- 
cing a  change  of  heart,  he  gave  up  his  wild  life, 
repaired  to  a  monastery,  and  then,  full  of  enthu- 
siasm for  a  solitary  life,  crossed  over  to  Crowland, 
a  desolate  island  off  the  extreme  south  coast  of 


GUTHRIE. 


922 


GUYON, 


Lincolnshire,  and  there  lived  as  a  hermit.  But 
his  fame  for  piety  attracted  many  admirers,  and 
the  hermit  became  a  teacher  of  righteousness, 
while  '•  men  of  divers  conditions,  nobles,  bishops, 
abbots,  poor,  rich,  from  Mercia,  and  all  Britain," 
made  up  his  congregation.  He  was  ordained  a 
priest  bj-  Iledda,  Bishop  of  Lichfield.  At  first  in 
his  solitude  he  was  plagued  by  carnal  temjitations, 
and  tormented  by  visions  ;  but  he  resisted  vigor- 
ously, and  found  in  the  cultivation  of  the  soil,  and 
in  the  giving  of  spiritual  counsel,  abundant  dis- 
traction. One  day  he  made  this  beautiful  re- 
mark to  a  visitor,  "  Who  hath  led  his  life  after 
God's  will,  the  wild  beasts  and  \\ild  birds  have 
become  more  intimate  with  him,  and  the  man 
who  will  pass  his  life  apart  from  worldly  men,  to 
him  the  angels  approach  nearer."  On  the  site  of 
his  cell  and  oratory  Ethelbald  erected  a  monas- 
tery. See  article  in  Smith  and  Wace,  Did.  Chr. 
Biorj.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  S"Jo-S2ti. 

GUTHRIE,  Thomas,  D.D.,  Scottish  preacher 
and  editor ;  son  of  David  Guthrie ;  b.  at  Brechin, 
July  12, 1803;  d.  at  St.  Leonard's-on-the-Sea,  Feb. 
23, 1873.  He  was  educated  first  at  the  schools  of 
his  native  place,  then  at  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, which  he  attended  from  1815  to  182G  ;  stud- 
ied medicine  in  Paris  in  1827 ;  and  conducted  a 
bank  agency  in  Brechin  from  1828  to  1830.  He 
was  licensed  to  preach  in  1825;  ordained  minister 
of  the  parish  of  Arbirlot  on  May  13,  1830 ;  trans- 
lated to  collegiate  charge  of  old  Greyfriars  Church, 
Edinburgh,  Sept.  1(5,  1837;  and  appointed  minis- 
ter of  the  new  parish  of  St.  John's,  in  the  same 
city,  Nov.  19,  1840.  At  the  disruption  he  joined 
the  Free  Church,  and  became  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Free  St.  John's,  which  charge  he  held 
until  disabled  by  illness  in  1864,  when  he  became 
pastor  emeritus.  After  this  he  became  editor  of 
the  Sundai/  Magazme,  in  the  pages  of  which  most 
of  his  later  works  appeared.  He  obtained  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  the  University  of  Edinburgh 
in  1849 ;  and  was  moderator  of  the  Free  Church 
of  Scotland  in  1802. 

He  was  gi-eatly  distinguished  as  a  preacher, 
though  his  peculiarities  were  not  those  which 
have  usually  been  associated  with  the  Scotti.sh 
pulpit.  Discovering,  through  his  intercour.se  with 
the  members  of  his  Bible-class  at  Arbirlot,  how 
much  an  illustration  did  to  assist  the  understand- 
ings and  memories  of  his  hearers,  he  cultivated 
the  pictorial  and  illustrative  in  his  discourses ; 
and  by  the  charm  of  his  figures,  the  simplicity  of 
his  .style,  and  the  dramatic  power  of  his  manner, 
he  rose  to  the  front  rank  of  puljut  orators.  He 
wrote  his  sermons,  and  connuitted  them  to  memo- 
ry so  fully,  that  Ik;  could  give  with  ease  that  wliich 
he  had  prepared  with  elaboration.  His  delivery 
was  at  first  slow  and  measured;  and,  though  he 
waxed  warmer  as  he  proceeded,  lie  never  lost  his 
self-possession.  He  hail  nothing  of  the  whirl- 
wind of  Chalmer.s,  and  rarely  became  impas- 
sioned; but  he  was  always  dramatic.  Occasion- 
ally tlic  drapery  of  his  illustration  rather  overlaid 
the  truth  which  he  desired  to  illustrate ;  but  gen- 
erally "tlie  story,  like  the  feathers  of  an  arrow, 
made  it  strike,  and,  like  the  barb,  made  it  stick." 

Guthrie  was  eminent  also  as  a  ]ihilanMin>i>ist. 
His  pastorate  of  St.  John's  took  him  down  into 
the  dens  of  the  Edinburgh  Cowgate,  and  stirred 
him  up  to  do  his  utmost  for  the  elevation  of  the 


depraved.  Thus  began  his  labors  for  Ragged 
Schools,  with  which  his  name  will  be  always  asso- 
ciated ;  for,  though  Sheriff  Watson  of  Aberdeen 
was  in  that  field  before  him,  it  was  Guthrie's  plea 
that  first  roused  public  attention  to  the  need  for 
such  institutions.  He  was  also  prominent  in 
the  temperance  cause,  and  for  years  was  one  of 
the  foremost  advocates  of  total  abstinence.  In  the 
same  line  he  took  up  Chalmers's  territorial  sys- 
tem, and  was  instrumental  in  rearing,  on  that 
principle,  several  churches  in  Edinburgh,  which 
are  now  prosperous  and  self-supporting. 

He  was  the  means  of  raising  a  large  sum  of 
money  for  the  erection  of  parsonages  for  the  min- 
isters of  the  Free  Church ;  and  every  cause  which 
had  for  its  object  the  righting  of  wrong,  or  the 
alleviation  of  distress,  or  the  restoration  of  the 
fallen,  found  in  him  a  noble  advocate. 

His  editorial  labors,  while  sustaining  fully,  did 
not  increase,  his  reputation  ;  but  they  furnished 
him  with  an  opportunity  of  showing,  that,  while 
he  was  steadfastly  attached  to  his  own  religious 
belief,  he  could  stretch  a  brother's  hand  to  aU 
classes  of  Christians  ;  and  so,  when  he  died,  there 
was  no  man  more  generally  lamented  by  men  of 
every  denomination. 

Lit. — Autohioyraphy  and  Memoirs  of  Thomas 
Gutlirie,  D.D.,  by  his  sons  David  K.  and  Ch.\rles 
Guthrie,  1873;  Plea  for  Ragyed  Sclioolx,  1847; 
Second  Plea  for  Ragged  Schools,  1849 ;  Seed-time 
and  Harvest  of  Ragged  Schools,  1860;  The  Gospel 
in  Ezekiel  (sermons),  1855 ;  The  Citij,  its  Sins  and 
Sorroics,  1857  ;  Christ  and  the  hiheritance  of  the 
Saitils,  1858;  The  Way  to  Life,  1862;  Speaking  to 
the  Heart,  1862;  Man  and  the  Gospel,  1865;  The 
Angel's  Song,  1865  ;  The  Parables,  1860  ;  Our 
Father's  Business,  1867;  Out  of  Harness,  1867; 
Earl>i  Pieti/,  1808;  Studies  of  Character  from  the 
O.  T,  1868,  1870 ;  Sundays  Abroad,  1871.  Works, 
reprinted  X.Y.,  1873-70,  11  vols.,  and  his  Auto- 
bioqraphi/  ant/  Life  in  2  vols.       WM.  M.  TAYLOll. 

GUT2LAFF,  Karl  Friedrich  August,  b.  at  Stet- 
tin, 1802 ;  d.  at  Victoria,  Aug.  9,  1851 ;  went  in 
1823  to  Singapore  as  a  nussionary  in  the  service 
of  the  Netherland  Missionary  Society,  thence  in 
1828  to  Siam,  and  in  1831  to  China,  where  he  re- 
mained as  secretary  to  the  British  ambassador 
since  1834,  though  occupying  most  of  his  time 
with  missionary  work.  Ho  wrote  Sketch  of  Chi- 
nese History,  London,  1834,  2  vols.,  China  (topog- 
raphy, literature,  religion,  jurisprudence,  etc.), 
I-ondon,  1838,  2  vols.,  besides  several  papers  on 
China  and  East-Lidian  matters  in  the  journal  of 
the  (Ir'ogriipliical  .Sdciety  in  London. 

GUYON,  Jeanne  Marie  Bouvier  de  la  Nlothe, 
a  prominent  reinvscntative  of  French  mysticism; 
b.  of  noble  and  wealtliy  jiarents  at  Montargis, 
France,  April  10,  1048;  'd.  at  Blois,  June  !),  1'717. 
Her  childhood  was  spent  in  the  L'rsuline  convent 
at  Montargis  and  the  Benedictine  <'(invent  close 
by.  She  was  of  delicate  constitution,  and  already 
in  early  childhood  showed  an  inclination  towards 
ascetic  niysticism.  The  works  of  Francis  de 
Sales  and  Madame  de  Chantal  exercised  a  great 
influence  on  her  mind.  When  she  read  that  th» 
latU'r  had  branded  on  her  bosom  thi!  name  of 
Jesus  witli  a  hot  iron,  she  stitchi'd  a  piece  of 
jia])er  bearing  tlie  same  name,  on  the  flesh  of  her 
own  bosom,  with  a  needle,  and  wore  it  there. 
Her  parents  thwarted  her  in  her  desu'e  to  take 


GUYON. 


123 


GUYON. 


the  veil,  and  in  her  sixteenth  year  ^1664)  espoused 
lier  to  M.  Guyon,  who  was  then  thirty-eight  years 
old.  Iler  married  life  was  made  wretched  by 
the  jealousy  and  severity  of  a  mother-in-law. 
She  bore  her  husband  five  children ;  but  he  had 
little  sympathy  with  her  religious  enthusiasm. 
At  this  period  she  observed  painful  and  prolonged 
ascetic  practices,  flagellating  herself  till  the  blood 
ran  from  the  wounds,  wearing  a  girdle  studded 
with  iron  teeth,  tearing  her  skin  with  thorns, 
walking  with  stones  in  her  shoes,  and  depriving 
herself  of  food  and  sleep.  The  fashionable  soci- 
ety in  which  her  husband  mingled  she  completely 
renounced. 

In  1677  Madame  Guyon  was  left  a  widow  with 
three  children,  and,  in  spite  of  offers  of  marriage, 
remained  a  widow.  A  correspondence  with 
Father  La  Combe,  whom  she  had  met  in  Mon- 
targis,  and  other  circumstances,  led  her  to  devote 
herself  to  Christian  activity  in  Gex,  near  Geneva. 
Thither  she  started  secretly,  in  1681,  after  seem- 
ing the  sympathy  of  D'Aranthon,  Bishop  of 
Geneva,  then  in  Paris.  At  Gex  she  entered  the 
institution  for  converts  from  Protestantism,  and 
had  La  Combe  for  confessor.  She,  however,  was 
not  happy ;  and  when  the  bishop  proposed  to  her 
to  become  mother  superior,  and  endow  the  insti- 
tution with  her  wealth,  she  fled  to  the  Ursuliue 
convent  at  Thoune,  where  La  Combe  resided. 
Her  life  there  was  a  series  of  visions,  revelations, 
etc.  When  La  Combe  followed  a  call  of  the 
Bishop  of  Vercelli,  in  Piedmont,  Madame  Guyon 
went  to  Turin  to  visit  the  Marquis  of  Prunai. 
They  took  the  journey  in  company,  —  a  circum- 
stance which  gave  occasion  for  scandal,  as  her 
removal  to  Thoune  had  done  before.  Soon  after. 
La  Combe  ordered  her  to  go  to  Paris,  and  accom- 
panied her  as  far  as  Grenoble.  While  tarrying 
there,  she  began  her  commentary  on  the  Scrip- 
tui'es,  and  wrote  her  Moyen  court  el  iris  facile  de 
/aire  oraison  ("  Short  and  easy  method  of  prayer  "), 
and  Le  Cantique  des  Canliques  ("  The  Song  of 
Solomon  ").  Her  mysticism,  however,  awakened 
opposition  ;  and,  leaving  Grenoble,  she  journeyed 
over  Marseilles  and  Mice,  back  to  Turin.  She 
was  about  to  found  a  charitable  institution  there, 
when  she  was  attacked  by  a  violent  fever. 

In  1686  La  Combe  was  cited  by  the  general  of 
the  order  of  Barnabites  to  appear  at  Paris,  and 
thither  Madame  Guyon  accompanied  him.  The 
following  year,  at  the  instigation  of  her  brother, 
Pfere  de  la  Mothe,  the  former  was  charged  with 
improper  relations  with  Madame  Guyon,  and  for 
being  a  follower  of  Michael  Molinos,  and  thrown 
into  the  Bastille.  Thenceforth,  Madame  Guyon's 
religious  views  were  an  object  of  suspicion,  and 
she  herself  of  harsh  treatment. 

In  1688  she  was  confined  to  the  convent  at 
Faubourg  St.  Antoine,  but  subsequently  released 
through  the  influence  of  Madame  de  Maintenon. 
From  1688  to  1694  she  lived  mostly  at  Paris,  and 
often  went  to  Madame  de  Maiutenon's  training 
institute  at  St.  Cyr,  where  she  propagated  her 
peculiar  views,  and  became  an  object  of  admira- 
tion and  reverence.  There  her  first  meeting  with 
Fenelon  oocun'ed,  which  led  to  a  cordial  friend- 
ship. In  1694  a  meeting  was  arranged  between 
her  and  Bossuet,  the  most  influential  prelate  of 
France  at  that  time.  The  same  year,  in  conse- 
quence of  complaints,  and  at  Madame  Guyon's 


instance,  a  commission  of  three,  consisting  of 
Bossuet,  Bishop  Xoailles,  and  Abbe  Tronson, 
was  appointed  to  examine  her  writings.  Thirty 
articles  were  drawn  from  them,  teaching  errors, 
which  Madame  (Juyon  recanted,  receiving,  in 
return,  a  certificate  from  Bossuet  of  catholic  or- 
thodoxy. She  continued  to  hold  meetings  in 
Paris  for  the  advancement  of  the  inner  life,  and 
was  apprehended  Dec.  28,  1695,  and  placed  in 
confinement  at  Vincennes,  and  later  in  the  Bas- 
tille, from  which,  by  the  intercession  of  Noailles, 
now  Archbishop  of  Paris,  she  was  removed  to 
Vaugirard.  But  a  letter  of  La  Combe's  (who 
died  insane  1G99),  calling  upon  her  to  do  penance 
for  their  mutual  intimacy,  falling  into  the  hands 
of  the  king,  led  him  to  condemn  her  again  to 
the  Bastille.  In  1099  Bossuet  secured  a  complete 
victory  over  Fenelon  by  the  condemnation  of  his 
Maximes  des  Sainles,  in  which  he  had  given  a 
defence  of  the  views  of  Madame  (!uyon.  The 
following  year,  a  clerical  council,  under  his  presi- 
dency at  St.  Germain,  pronounced  the  character 
of  Madame  Guyon  above  reproach.  As  a  result, 
she  was  released  from  imprisonment,  but  directed 
to  live  at  Diziers,  near  Blois,  with  her  son.  Ac- 
cording to  an  eye-witness  (De  Labetterie),  she 
lived  there  an  exemplary  Christian  life  until  her 
death,  fifteen  years  afterwards.  No  bitter  word 
ever  passed  her  lips.  A  constant  sufferer,  she 
heard  mass  daily  from  her  bed,  and  took  the 
communion  every  other  day. 

[Madame  Guyon,  and  the  school  of  Mystics  or 
Quietists  which  she  represented,  laid  great  stress 
upon  the  inner  life,  and  the  union  of  the  soul 
with  God,  and  taught  that  our  wills  may  be  com- 
pletely lost  in  the  divine  will,  that  we  should 
strive  after  a  disinterested  love  for  him,  and  that 
entire  sanctification  is  possible  in  this  world. 
Outward  exercises  of  devotion  and  prayer  are  a 
lower  stage  of  Christian  life ;  and  the  aim  of 
every  believer  should  be  to  rest  entirely  in  God. 
It  was  the  tendency  of  these  views  to  disparage 
the  external  observances  of  religion,  to  substitute 
for  the  authority  of  the  Church  that  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  thus  to  lead  to  Antinomianism,  which 
aroused  the  opposition  of  Bossuet  and  others. 

Bladame  Guyon  was  a  graceful  writer ;  and,  in 
addition  to  the  writings  already  mentioned,  she 
wrote  Les  torrens  spirituels,  Cologne,  1704  ("  Spir- 
itual streams  "),  in  which  she  compares  our  souls 
seeking  after  God  to  streams  of  different  degrees 
of  rapidity,  etc.,  flowing  towards  the  ocean;  Les 
livres  de  I'Ancien  et  de  Nouveau  Test,  traduit,  avec 
des  explications  el  des  reflexions  qui  regardent  la  vie 
interieure,  Cologne,  1713-15  ("  The  books  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  translated  with  ex- 
planations and  reflections  concerning  the  inner 
life").  She  also  published  religious  poems  (Re- 
fueil  de  Poesies  spiriluelles,  Amsterdam,  1689), 
some  of  which  were  translated  by  Cowper,  and 
are  found  in  English  hymn-books;  as,  "  I  would 
love  thee,  God  and  Father,"  and  "  My  Lord,  how 
full  of  sweet  content."  For  her  life,  see  her 
autobiography.  La  vie  de  Mme.  Guyon  e'crite  par 
elle-meme,  Cologne,  1720  (a  work  not  entirely  her 
own);  Uphasi  :  Life,  Religious  Experiences,  and 
Opinions  of  Madame  Guyon,  New  York,  1847,  Lon- 
don, 1862,  2  vols. ;  Heppe  :  Gesch.  d.  quid.  Mys- 
itk,  Berlin,  1875 ;  L.  Guerrier  :  Madame  Guyon, 
d'apres  les  e'crits  orig.  et  des  doc.  inedits,  Orleans, 


GUYSE. 


924 


GYROVAQI. 


1881.  See  also  Baussett's  Lives  of  Bossuet  and 
Fe'nelon.}  HEPPE. 

GUYSE,  John,  D.D.,  a  dissenting  minister ;  b. 
at  Hertford,  Eng.,  16S0;  removed  to  London,  as 
successor  to  Matthew  Clarke,  1732 ;  lost  his  sight 
toward  the  close  of  his  life;  d.  Nov.  22,  1761. 
He  is  the  author  of  The  Practical  Expositor,  or  an 
Exposition  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  Form  of  a 
Paraphrase,  icith  Occasional  Notes,  London,  1739- 
52,  3  vols.,  several  times  reprinted,  formerly  much 
esteemed,  but  now  almost  forgotten. 

GYROVAGI  is  the  name  generally  given  to  a 
kind  of  vagrant  monks  which  was  very  numerous 


when  monasticism  was  first  introduced  in  Western 
Europe.  They  had  no  fixed  domicile,  but  waiw- 
dered  from  cell  to  cell,  from  hermitage  to  hermit- 
age, from  abbey  to  abbey,  living  on  the  hospitality 
of  their  brethren,  but  gi\'iug  both  to  them  and 
to  the  community  at  large  a  very  bad  example. 
Augustine  and  Cassianus  wrote  against  them,  and 
several  synods  in  Gaul  tried  to  suppress  them ;  but 
they  did  not  disappear  until  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne and  Louis  the  Pious,  when  the  rules  of 
Benedict  became  the  rules  of  monasticism  in  gen- 
eral. Cf .  Martene  :  Commentar.  in  Regulam  S.  P. 
Benedicti,  Paris,  1690.  ALBKECHT  VOGEL. 


HAAG    ASSOCIATION. 


925 


HABERKORN. 


H. 


HAAG  (HAGUE)  ASSOCIATION,  for  the  De. 

fence  of  the  Christian  Religion,  The,  or  The 
Apologetical  Society  of  the  Hague,  was  founded 
in  August,  17.S5.  by  a  number  of  distinguished 
Dutch  theologians.  The  occasion  was  the  appear- 
ance, in  17H'2,  of  I'riestley's  History  of  the  Corrup- 
tions of  Chrislidniti/:  and  the  object  of  the  society 
was  to  talce  a  firm  stand  against  the  anti-Christian 
tendencies  of  the  age.  l)uring  the  first  pei-iod  of 
its  life  (1785-1810)  its  stand-point  was  strictly 
orthodox  and  supranaturalistic.  In  its  publica- 
tions the  acconnnodation  theory  of  Semler  was 
ab.solutely  rejected ;  the  doctrines  of  vicarious 
atonement,  the  divinity  of  Christ,  the  per.sonality 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  etc.,  were  strongly  emphasized; 
and  the  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  was  consid- 
ered an  indisputable  fact.  During  the  second 
period  (1810-3.O)  the  exegetical  element  was 
made  more  jn-ominent,  and  the  stand-point  may 
be  characterized  as  biblico-evangelical.  The  bib- 
lical angelology,  the  miracles  of  Elijah  and  Elisha, 
were  vindicated ;  the  dogmatics  and  ethics  of  the 
Gospel  of  John  were  examined;  and  the  biblical 
idea  of  revelation  was  maintained  in  opposition 
to  the  rationalists.  The  character  of  the  third 
period  (18.'}o-60)  was  principally  determined  by 
the  writings  of  D.  F.  Strauss  and  the  Tiibingen 
school.  The  contest  raged  around  the  very  fun- 
damentals of  Christianity;  and  the  principles 
which  the  society  fought  for  were  strongly  con- 
servative, though  it  carried  on  the  fight  in  a  free, 
scientific  spirit.  But,  from  this  critico-historical 
platform,  the  society,  after  1860,  gradually  glided 
into  the  ethico-religious  field ;  and,  in  spite  of 
the  truth  and  beauty  they  contain,  its  publica- 
tions on  slavery,  war,  capital  punishment,  woman's 
emancipation,  and  other  questions  of  a  similar 
import,  lie  far  out  in  the  periphery  of  Christian 
apologetics.  J.  J.  V.Uf  OOSTERZEK. 

HAB'AKKUK  (p'p?r;.  "embracing"),  one  of  the 
Minor  Prophets  of  the  Old  Testament.  From  the 
expression  (iii.  19),  "To  the  chief  singer  on  my 
stringed  instruments,"  the  inference  has  with 
justice  been  drawn,  that  he  was  a  Levite ;  for  only 
Levites  and  priests  could  participate  in  the  ser- 
vices of  the  temple.  Xothing  further  is  known 
of  the  prophet's  life  except  what  has  been  handed 
down  by  unreliable  tradition.  [The  rabbins  said 
he  was  the  son  of  the  Shunammite  whom  Elisiia 
had  restored.  A  "  Habakkuk,  son  of  Joshua,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi,"  is  reported  to  have  been  the 
author  of  Bel  ami  the  Dragon.  He  carried  food 
to  Daniel  in  the  lions'  den,  etc.] 

Book  of.  The  prophecy  of  Habbakuk  contains 
(1)  The  prophet's  complaint  against  the  corrupt 
state  of  society  (i.  2-4)  ;  (2)  The  divine  answer, 
announcing  an  irruption  of  the  Chaldaeans  (i.  5- 
11)  ;  (3)  The  prophet's  complaint  of  the  unscrupu- 
lous greed  and  fierceness  of  the  Chaldaeans  (i.  12- 
17) ;  (4)  The  divine  answer,  promising  their  destruc- 
tion (ii.  4-20)  ;  and  (5)  The  prophet's  response  to 
these  two  divine  ainiouncements  in  a  magnificent 
ode  commemorating  the  majesty  of  God  (iii.). 

The  time  of  composition  is  not  indicated  by 


any  positive  statement  in  the  book  itself.  De 
\Vette,  Ewald,  and  others  refer  it  to  the  reign  of 
.Jehoiakim,  and  regard  the  invasion  of  the  Chal- 
dajans  alluded  to  as  beginning  with  the  liattle  of 
Carchenusli  (605  B.C.).  This  view  is  oppo.sed 
by  ch.  i.  5,  which  represents  that  invasion  as  some- 
thing incredible,  and  by  the  fact  that  Zephaniah 
(i.  7  ;  comp.  Hab.  ii.  20)  and  Jeremiah  (iv.  13, 
V.  6;  comp.  Hab.  i.  8)  draw  from  Habakkuk. 
Others  place  the  prophet's  activity  under  Manas- 
seh.  The  third  chapter,  which  presupjioses  the 
restoration  of  the  old  temple  worship,  makes- 
against  this  view,  and  for  a  date  after  the  twelfth 
year  of  Josiah's  reign  (630  B.C.),  up  to  which  time 
idolatry  lasted.  [This  view  is  ably  presented  by 
Delitzsch  in  his  Commentary.]  The  sentiment* 
of  ch.  i.  2-4  are  in  accord  with  such  a  transition 
period  to  better  things.  The  style  of  Habakkuk 
is  classic.  Expression  and  description  are  artis- 
tically rounded  off,  and  less  dependent  upon  older 
models  than  the  other  Minor  Prophets.  The  au- 
thor deserves  a  place  among  the  greatest  of  the 
prophets;  and  the  lyric  poem  of  ch.  iii.  sur- 
passes every  thing  of  its  kind  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. It  has  with  justice  been  said  by  Umbreit 
that  he  resembles  Jerennah  in  the  combination 
of  softness  with  lofty  manliness,  and  Asaph  in 
his  lyric  sensitiveness  and  warmth. 

[\Vith  reference  to  the  third  chapter  of  Habak- 
kuk, Isaac  Taylor  says  (Hebrew  Poetry,  American 
edition,  p.  255),  "This  anthem,  unequalled  in 
majesty  and  splendor  of  language  and  imagery, 
and  which,  in  its  closing  verses,  gives  expression 
in  terms  the  most  affecting  to  an  intense  feeling, 
on  this  ground  so  fully  embodies  these  religious 
sentiments  as  to  satisfy  Christian  piety,  even  of 
the  loftiest  order."  Of  the  same  chapter  Dean 
Stanley  (/e«'(Vi  Church,  ii.  549)  says,  "The  prophet 
seems  to  be  transformed  into  the  Psalmist;  the 
ancient  poetic  fervor  of  Deborah  is  rekindled 
within  him."  Some  of  the  most  frequently  quoted 
passages  of  Scripture  are  found  in  our  prophet 
(i.  13,  ii.  14,  15,  20,  iii.  2,  18,  etc.);  and  the  great 
truth,  "The  just  shall  live  by  faith  "  (ii.  4),  is 
used  by  Paul  as  the  constructive  doctrine  of  two 
of  his  Epistles  (Rom.  i.  17;  Gal.  iii.  11).  Daniel 
Webster  somewhere  says  that  the  imagery  of 
Habakkuk  is  not  surpassed  in  all  literature.  To 
be  convinced  of  its  grandeur  one  has  only  to 
refer  to  the  description  of  the  invading  Chaldseaus, 
whose  "horses  are  swifter  than  the  leopards,  and 
more  fierce  than  the  evening  wolves  "  (i.  -5-11), 
and  whose  greed  is  as  insatiable  as  death  and 
hell  (ii.  5) ;  or  to  the  magnificent  description  of 
the  power  and  glory  of  God  (iii.  2-15). 

I^ix.  —  For  full  list  of  literature,  see  IMixOR 
Proi'HETS.  Delitzsch  :  D.  Prophet  Hahakuky 
Leip.,  1843,  and  De  Hahac.  Proph.  rita  atque  (etate, 
Leip.,  1844;  GfMPACH :  D.  Prophet  Habakuk, 
Mimchen.  1860:  W.  Alois  Wkight,  in  Smith's 
Bible  Diet.  :  and  Dr.  Alexaxdkr,  in  Encycl. 
Brit.-].  VOLCK. 

HABERKORN,  Peter,  b.  at  Butzbach,  1604; 
d.  at  Giessen,  1676 ;  was  first  professor  at  Mar- 


HABERT. 


926 


HADES. 


burg,  then  court-preacher  at  Darmstadt,  and  final- 
ly professor  at  Giessen.  He  was  one  of  tlie  lights 
of  Protestant  polemics  in  the  seventeentli  centurj-, 
and  wrote  against  Uomanism  and  syncretism : 
Dispulationes  unle  Walenbwf/icas  (1658),  Enodatio 
trrorum  Stjncretisticorum  (1665),  etc. 

HABERT,  Isaac,  d.  at  Pont  de  Salors,  near 
Rodez,  1668;  was  b.  in  Paris;  studied  at  the  Sor- 
bonne ;  was  appointed  canon  at  the  chui-ch  of 
Notre  Dame,  and  became  Bishop  of  Vabres  in 
1645.  He  was  the  first  to  attack  the  Jansenists, 
and  is  said  to  have  done  so  at  the  instigation  of 
Richelieu.  His  principal  writings  are,  De  consen- 
su hierarchke  el  motiarchice  (1640),  De  primatu  Palri 
(1645),  De  yralia  (1646),  etc. 

HACKET,  John,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Lichfield;  b. 
in  London,  .September,  1592  ;  d.  at  Lichfield,  Oct. 
21,1670.  He  w'as  educated  at  Cambridge;  was 
chaplain  to  James  I.,  and  made  bishop  1661. 
His  best  known  work  is  the  life  of  Archbishop 
Williams,  under  the  whimsical  title,  Scrinia  ref- 
erata,  a  memorial  offered  to  the  great  desercings  of 
John  Williams,  D.D.,  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal  of  England,  and  Archbishop  of  York,  contain- 
ing a  series  of  the  most  remarkable  occurrences  and 
transactions  of  his  life  in  relation  both  la  Church 
■and  Stale,  folio,  London,  1693;  abridged  edition, 
1715.  Darling  says  this  life  is  "  one  of  the  most 
curious  pieces  of  biography  in  our  language,  of 
greiit  historical  value,  and  full  of  rare  (luotations 
and  ijuaint  illustrations." 

HACKETT,  Horatio  Balch,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  emi- 
nent Baptist  scholar,  and  one  of  the  best  Ameri- 
can exegetes ;  b.  at  Salisbury,  Mass.,  Dec.  27, 
1808;  d.  in  Rochester,  \.Y.,  Nov.  2,  1875.  He 
was  graduated  at  Amherst  College  (1830)  and 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  (1833)  ;  studied 
in  Germany  ;  was  for  four  years  professor  of  Latin 
in  Brown  University ;  in  1839  became  professor 
of  biblical  literature  in  the  Xewton  Theological 
Institution,  and  in  1870  professor  of  Xew-Testa- 
ment  (ireek  in  Rochester  Theological  Seminary. 
As  a  teacher  he  was  full  of  enthusiasm  and  full 
-of  learning:  he  loved  his  work  even  in  its  dryest 
details.  In  private  life  he  was  simple,  modest, 
and  humble,  warm  in  his  affections,  tender  in  his 
sympathies,  and  uiuitfected  in  his  piety.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  New- Testament  company  of  the 
American  Bible  Revision  Committee,  as  he  had 
previously  been  of  the  American  Bible  Union. 
His  works  are  very  valuable,  and  include  an  edi- 
tion, with  notes,  of  Plutarch's  De  Sera  Numinis 
Vindicia  (1844);  a  translation,  with  improve- 
ments, of  Winer's  Chaldee  Grammar  (1845);  an 
original  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  a  Chrestomathy 
(1847) ;  Commentar/i  on  the  Acts  ( 1851  ;  revised  edi- 
tion, 1858,  and  again  1877);  Illustrations  of  Scrip- 
ture, suggesteil  by  <i  Tour  through  the  Iloli/  Land 
(1855;  revi.sed  edition,  1868;  new  edition,  18S2)  ; 
Phdemon,  new  annotated  translation  (i860) ; 
Christian  Memorials  of  the  War  (1864);  transla- 
tions, with  additions,  of  Van  Ooster/ee's  Com- 
ineutary  on  Philemon  (1868),  and  Braune's  on 
Philippians  in  Lange  (1870),  for  the  American 
edition  of  Lange;  edition  of  Hawlinson's  Histori- 
cal Illustrations  of  the  Uld  Testament  (1873).  In 
connection  with  Professor  K/.ra  .Vbbot  he  edited 
the  American  edition  of  Smith's  liibte  Dictionary, 
New  York,  1868-70,  4  vols.  .See  G.  II.  Wiiirri:- 
.MOKe:  Memorials  of  II.  li.  IIacketl,)i.oc\\csiei;  1876. 


HA'DAD  (lin,  also  ^-\ri),  a  word  of  doubtful 
etymology;  was  the  name  of  a  Syrian  divinity.  It 
was  also  the  name  of  two  Edomite  kings  ((ien. 
sxxv.  35,  xxxvi.  39),  —  a  son  of  Ishinael  (1  Chron. 
i.  30),  and  a  contemporary  of  Solomon  (1  Kings 
xi.  14-22).  The  last-mentioned,  who  was  of 
royal  blood,  fled  as  a  child  to  Egj'pt  at  Joab's 
defeat  of  the  Edomites.  He  married  the  daugh- 
ter of  Pharaoh,  and  at  David's  death  made  an  at- 
tempt to  reconquer  his  native  land.  The  Hebrew 
text  breaks  off  so  suddenly  at  verse  22,  and  verse 
25  is  so  evidently  out  of  place,  that  we  prefer  to 
suppose  that  tlie  conclusion  of  his  history  has,  by 
an  error  of  the  copyist,  been  inserted  in  the  wrong 
place,  and  to  read  at  verse  25,  with  the  LXX., 
"  This  is  the  evil  that  Hadad  did,  and  he  abhorred 
Israel,  and  reigned  over  Syria."  He  is  not  to  be 
confounded  with  the  IIai>.\i>ezer  (or  Hadarezer) 
of  1  Kings  xi.  23.  The  latter  was  king  of  Zoba 
in  the  time  of  David,  and  exercised  considerable 
power,  as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  kings  are 
called  his  servants  (2  Sam.  x.  19).  Seethe  Bible 
dictionaries  of  Winer,  Sciienkel,  Rieum  [and 
S.MITIl].  WOLF  BAuinssiy. 

HA'DAD-RIM  MON,  or  HA'DAR-RIMMON 
(Zecli.  xii.  11),  was  either  a  person  over  whom 
the  "  mourning  "  was  made,  a  locality  at  which 
the  event  bewailed  occurred,  or,  as  Hitzig  and 
others  hold,  the  name  of  a  Syrian  divinity,  in 
which  case  the  mourning  would  be  a  part  of  the 
worship  offered  to  him.  The  best  explanation 
refers  the  name  to  a  locality  which  witnessed  the 
death  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29  sqq.),  whose 
memory  was  honored  by  songs  of  lamentation 
(2  Chron.  xxxv.  25).  Although  the  location  has 
not  been  identified  with  certainty,  it  was  proba- 
bly at  the  site  of  the  modern  Rummane,  in  the 
plain  of  Jezreel,  about  two  miles  south  of  Led- 
schun  (Legio),  which  is  most  probably  the  ancient 
Megiddo.  The  name  of  tlie  town  Iladad-Kinnnon 
was,  no  doubt,  originally  the  name  of  a  deity ; 
Hadad  and  Rimmon  being  both  the  names  of 
gods.  See  the  Commentaries  on  Zechariah,  the 
works  on  Palestine  by  Kki.and  and  Ronixso.v, 
and  the  arts,  in  Winek,  Sciie.nkel,  Rieii.m  [and 
Smith].  wolf  uaui)Is.sin. 

HADDAN,  Arthur  West,  b.  in  England,  1816; 
d.  at  Barton-on-Heath  in  England,  Feb.  8,  1873. 
After  a  distinguished  career  at  the  University  of 
Oxford,  where  he  was  a  fellow  of  Trinity,  he 
retired  (1857)  to  his  quiet  country  parsonage  at 
Barton-on-IIe.ath,  and  passed  the  remainder  of 
his  days  in  pastoral  and  literary  labor.  lie  was 
a  scholar  of  tireless  industry;  and  besides  a  thor- 
ough monograph  upon  Apostolical  Succession  in 
the  Church  of  England  (18611),  and  numerous 
articles  in  Smith's  Dictionaries  of  Christian  Bi- 
ography and  of  Antiquities,  he  edited  for  the 
Anghi-Calhnlic  Liln-(irt/  the  works  of  .\rchbishop 
Piramhall  (Oxford,  1842-45,  5  vols.),  and  also 
those  of  Herbert  Thorndike  (Oxford,  1844-56,  5 
vols.),  and,  in  connection  with  Professor  Stubbs, 
tile  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical  Documents  relating 
to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  (Oxford,  1869-78). 
Sec  his  liemains,  edited  by  Bishop  I'orbes,  Lon- 
don, 1876. 

HA'DES  (Greek,  iudtjc,  or  '.i''w,  or,  in  the  older 
Horiicric  form,  'A(ilj;f,  connnonly  derived  from  a 
privative  and  the  verb  iikiv,  i.e.,  the  unseen  world) 
is  used  by  Homer  as  a  proper  noun  fur  Pluto,  the 


HADES. 


927 


HADES. 


god  of  the  unseen  or  lower  world,  next  brother  to 
Zeus  (hence  iv  or  t/f  'Aidov,  sc,  ohi.i,  or  oikov,  "in" 
or  "  uito  the  abode  of  Hades  ").  In  hiter  writers  it 
signilies  a  place  and  state  ;  viz.,  the  unseen  spirit- 
workl,  or  the  realm  of  the  departed,  the  abode  of 
the  deail.  It  occurs  in  the  following  passages  of 
the  (jrec^k  Testament:  Matt.  xi.  23,  xvi.  18;  Luke 
X.  15,  xvi.  2-i;  Acts  ii.  27,  31;  Rev.  i.  18,  vi.  8, 
XX.  13,  11 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  55  (but  here  the  true  read- 
ing is  tiavaTo<;,  "  death  ").  It  is  always  clcsely  con- 
nected with  death.  The  rider  on  the  pale  horse 
in  the  Apocalypse  (vi.  8)  is  Deatli ;  and  "  Hades 
foUow's  witli  him;"  and  at  the  judgment,  Death 
and  Hades  will  give  up  the  dead  who  are  in  them, 
and  will  be  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  (xx.  13,  14.) 

1.  The  ancient  Grekk  view  of  Hades,  and  the 
KoM.\N  view  of  Orcus  or  Tnferna,  is  that  of  a  place 
for  all  tiie  dead  in  the  depth  of  the  earth,  dark, 
dreary,  cheerless,  and  shut  up,  inaccessible  to 
prayers  and  sacrifices,  ruled  ovei-  by  Pluto.  But 
a  distinction  was  made  between  Elysium  and 
Tartarus  in  this  subterranean  world  of  shadows. 
So  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  Plato,  Plutarch.  See 
Nagelsuach  :  Homerische  TheoLoyie,  pp.  405  sqq.; 
Prellei!  :  Gi-iechische  Mi/lhulo<jie]  2d  ed.,  I.  622  ; 
and  Hiiminche  Mi/tholor/ie,  p.  452. 

2.  The  Hebrew  Sheot  ('7ixiy)  is  the  equivalent 
for  the  Greek  Hades,  and  is  so  translated  in  the 
Septuagint.  It  is  likewise  the  subterranean  abode 
of  all  the  dead,  but  only  the  temporary  abode  till 
the  final  judgment,  and  is  divided  into  two  de- 
partments, called  Paradise  or  Abraham's  Bosom,  for 
the  good,  and  Gehenna  or  Hell,  for  the  bad.  In 
King  James's  Version,  Sheol  is  variously  rendered 
"hell,"  "grave,"  and  "pit."  In  the  rabbinical 
theology,  Sheol  seems  to  be  nearly  identical  with 
Gehinnom,  but  with  two  distinct  ends,  —  as  a  pur- 
gatorial fire  for  the  Hebrews,  and  as  a  consum- 
ing fire  for  the  heathen.  See  F.  Weber  :  Si/slem 
der  altsijnagogalen  palmstinischen  Theologie  (1880), 
p.  327 ;  also  art.  Sheol. 

3.  In  the  New  Testament,  Hades  does  not 
differ  essentially  frcm  the  Hebrew  Sheol;  but 
Christ  has  broken  the  power  of  death,  and  dis- 
pelled the  darkness  of  Hades,  and  revealed  to 
believers  the  idea  of  heaven  as  the  state  and 
abode  of  bliss  in  immediate  prospect  after  a  lioly 
life.  The  English  (as  also  Luther's  German) 
version  translates  Hades  (which  occurs  ten  times 
in  the  New  Testament)  and  Gehenna  (which 
occurs  twelve  times)  by  the  same  word,  "  hell " 
(except  in  1  Cor.  xv.  55,  "grave"),  and  thus  ob- 
literates the  important  distinction  between  the 
realm  of  the  dead  (or  nether-world,  spirit-world) 
and  the  place  of  torment  or  eternal  punishment; 
but  in  the  Revision  of  1881  the  distinction  is  re- 
stored, and  the  term  Hades  introduced.  Hades  is 
a  temporary  jail  or  prison-house  :  heaven  and  hell 
are  permanent  and  final.  But  Christ's  descent 
into  Hades  no  doubt  created  a  revolution  in  that 
dreary  abode.  It  is  very  different  from  what  it 
was  under  the  old  dispensation.  Christ  has  "  the 
keys  of  Death  and  of  Hades  "  (Rev.  i.  IS)  :  they 
have  lost  their  terrors  for  believers,  who  pass 
immediately  into  the  presence  of  their  Lord  and 
Saviour  after  death  (John  xiv.  2,  3 ;  Phil.  i.  23). 

4.  In  Ecclesiastical  Theology  the  idea  of 
Hades  has  undergone  several  modifications,  (a)  In 
the   ancient   church,    Hades   was   the   transitory  I 

7  — II 


abode  of  all  the  departed  between  death  and 
resurrection,  except  the  martyrs,  who  pass  directly 
into  heaven.  So  Tertullian,'lrenicns,  Lactantiu.s, 
Ambrose.  The  Gnostics  taught  a  transplantation 
of  the  highest  order  (tlia  pneumatics)  into  tlie 
world  of  the  pleroma. 

(?i)  In  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  Hades  has 
been,  since  Gregory  I.,  transformed  into  the  purga- 
tory, or  the  abode  of  imperfect  Christians,  till  they 
are  pure  enough  to  enter  heaven.  This  purgatory 
is  between  heaven  and  hell,  ajid  takes  the  jilace  of 
the  limbus  patrum  in  the  old  dispensation,  whicli 
contained  the  Jewish  saints  waiting  for  ('hrist, 
and  was  emptied  when  he  descended  for  their 
deliverance  :  so  purgatory  will  be  finally  emptied 
at  the  day  of  judgment.  Much  pious  superstition 
and  fraud  collected  around  tiiis  mediieval  theory, 
which  explains  the  radical  re-action  at  the  time 
of  the  Reformation.     See  Purgatory. 

(c)  The  Protestant  churches  rejected,  with  pur- 
gatory and  its  abuses,  the  whole  idea  of  a  middle 
state,  and  taught  simply  two  states  and  places, 
—  heaven  for  lielievers,  and  hell  for  unbelievers. 
Hades  was  identified  with  Gehenna,  and  hence 
both  terms  were  translated  alike  in  the  Protestant 
versions.  The  same  confusion  gave  rise  also  to 
misinterjiretations  of  the  article  of  Christ's  de- 
scent in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  which  was  under- 
stood b_y  Calvin  (and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism) 
figuratively,  and  identified  with  the  sufferings  on 
the  cross;  by  the  Westminster  Catechism,  as  mean- 
ing simply  that  he  continued  in  the  state  of 
death  till  he  rose ;  by  Luther,  as  a  triumph  over 
hell. 

((/)  In  more  recent  times  the  idea  of  a  middle 
state  between  death  and  resurrection,  as  distinct 
from  the  final  state  of  heaven  and  liell,  lias  been 
revived  among  Protestants,  especially  in  Germany, 
though  freed  from  the  superstitions  of  the  Roman 
purgatory,  which  has  no  foundation  in  the  New 
Testament.  To  the  believer  (as  to  Lazarus  in 
Abraham's  bosom)  this  middle  state  is  a  state  of 
beatitude  in  union  with  their  Loi-d ;  to  the  unbe- 
liever (as  to  the  rich  man  in  the  parable)  it  is  a 
state  of  pimishment ;  to  both  a  state  of  prepara- 
ration  for  the  final  consummation  at  the  day  of 
judgment.  Some  assume  a  constant  progress  in 
that  state  in  opposite  directions,  the  good  grow- 
ing better,  the  bad  worse,  and  both  ripening  for 
the  final  harvest.  So  Nitzsch,  Lange,  Rothe,  Mar- 
tensen.  Rink.  But  all  speculations  on  the  future 
state  beyond  the  limits  of  revelation  are  docla 
ignorantia. 

Lit.  — Jul.  Fr.  Bottciier  :  De  inferis  rebusque 
post  mortem  futuris  ex  Hebrceortim  et  Grctcorum 
opinionibus  libri  ii.,  Dresden,  1846  ;  Oertel  : 
Hades,  18G3  ;  Cremer  :  Biblisch-theol.  Worterbuch, 
sub  A(5)7f;  Sciienkel:  BibeLlexicon,  vol.  ii.  571 
sqq. ;  Dr.  Craven  :  Excmsus  in  Lange's  Com.  on 
Revelation,  Am.  ed.,  1874,  pp.  364-377  (a  very 
elaborate  discussion  of  all  the  passages  on  the  sub- 
ject, from  which  the  author  draws  the  conclusion 
that  Hades,  or  the  Old  Testament  Sheol  rather, 
indicates  a  place  distinct  from  the  grave,  from 
heaven,  and  from  hell,  and  into  which  the  souls 
of  the  righteous  were  conveyed  antecedent  to  the 
death  of  Jesus,  but  from  which  they  were  deliv- 
ered on  his  descent  thereto,  after  the  completion 
of  his  sacrifice  on  earth) ;  Guder  :  Lehre  von  der 
Erscheinung  Jesu  Christi  unler  den  Todten,  Bern, 


HADRACH. 


92S 


HAGAR. 


1853,  and  his  art.  in  Herzog,  v.  494-499;  II.  "W 
RiXK  :  Zustand  nach  dem  Tode  (biblico-historical), 
3d  ed..  Ba.<el,  1878.  PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

HADRACH  {V?P,  probably  the  Pausal  of  -p^X}) 
is  mentioned  only  in  Zeoh.  ix.  1  :  "Utterance  of 
the  word  of  Jalive  concerning  the  land  of  Hadrach, 
and  Damascns  is  its  [the  word's]  place  of  rest." 
The  connection  seems  to  indicate  that  it  was  the 
country  in  which  Damascus  was  situated,  or  a 
neighboring  locality.  The  following  explanations 
have  been  suggested :  It  is  (1)  the  name  of  a  king 
(comp.  Jlic.  V.  6 ;  Xeh.  ix.  2'2)  ;  (2)  of  a  god 
worshipped  there  (Mitzig,  Ewald,  Reuss) ;  (3)  a 
symbolical  designation  meaning  strung-weak,  and 
refers  to  God  (Jerome,  hence  Huhj  Land)  or  the 
Medo-Persian  kingdom  (Ilengstenberg) ;  (4)  a 
designation  of  Coelesyria,  the  word  being  taken 
as  an  adjective  from  "^tn  (Maurer);  (5)  the  name 
of  a  country,  and  is,  on  the  basis  of  Assyrian  in- 
scriptions, to  be  identified  with  llatarika  (a  city 
named  in  connection  with  Damascus  and  Hamath), 
but  rather,  as  I  think,  with  Chatracharta,  near 
Ptolemaeus,  which  Strabo  mentions  (xvi.  1,  0)  as 
the  residence  of  Darius  Hystaspis ;  and  (6)  a  name 
of  Hauranitis  (v.  Ortenberg,  Olshausen),  the 
word  being  corrected  to  pin  {Ezek.  xlvii.  16,  18). 
See  especially  Aug.  Kohleu  :  D.  Weissagungen 
Sacharjas.  1863,  for  the  various  older  interpreta- 
tions, and  Hadrach,  in  the  Bible  Diets,  of  Wixer, 
RiEIlM  [:llld  .S.MITIl].  WOLF  BAUDISSIN. 

HADRIAN,  P.  /Elius,  Roman  emperor  (117- 
138)  ;  was  Ij.  in  Rome,  Jan.  24,  76 ;  of  Spanish 
descent ;  a  relative  of  Trajan,  who  adopted  him 
on  his  death-bed.  He  was  brilliantly  gifted,  and 
most  carefidly  educated,  a  perfect  soldier,  igno- 
rant of  no  art  or  science,  possessed  of  a  wonderful 
memory  and  a  ready  wit,  liandsome,  and  good- 
natured.  But  the  elements  of  character  were  only 
loosely  cemented  ;  and,  attiacted  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, he  finally  lost  him.sclf  in  self-contradictions. 

He  began  his  reign  with  abandoning  the  con- 
quests of  Trajan,  —  Mesopotamia,  Assyria,  and 
Armenia,  —  a  measure  hitherto  unheard  of  in  the 
annals  of  Rome.  But  his  policy  was  to  consoli- 
date, not  to  extend,  the  empin! ;  and  the  first 
condition  for  the  success  of  such  a  policy  was 
to  procure  strong  natural  boundary-lines.  The 
period  from  121  to  134  he  spent  in  travelling 
about,  looking  after  every  tiling  himself,  restoring 
what  was  decaying,  and  starting  new  undertak- 
ings. The  number  of  buildings  erected  during 
his  reign  was  enormous;  and  his  influence  on 
Roman  legislation,  alfecting  the  state  of  the 
slaves,  military  afl'airs,  the  methods  of  legal  ]3ro- 
cedure,  the  administration,  etc.,  is  very  remarka- 
ble. But  he  returned  to  Rome  stricken  l)y  an 
incurable  disease,  and  haunted  by  melancholy. 
He  died  at  Baia-,  July  10,  138,  a  burden  to  him- 
self and  to  his  fri<'iids,  and  was  entondjed  in  the 
huge  mausoleum,  Males  lladriaiii,  the  present 
castle  of  Angelo,  which  he  had  built  for  himself 
in  Koine. 

With  respect  to  his  relations  to  the  Jews,  see 
Bai'.-Cociiua,  and  Israel,  Post-biblical  History. 
AV'ith  respect  to  his  relation  to  Christianity,  some 
writers  describe  him  as  a  bitter  foe,  and  speak  of 
a  fourth  .so-called  Iladrianic  persecution:  others 
consider  him  a  friend,  and  make  him  out  the 
originator  of  the  first  edict  of  toleration.  Botli 
parties  are  no  doubt  wrong.     The  stories  of  the 


martyrdom  of  Bishop  Dionysius  Areopagita  of 
Athens,  of  Bishop  Alexander,  and  Bishop  Teles- 
phorus  of  Rome,  of  St.  Eustathius,  St.  Sympho- 
rosa,  St.  Cerealis,  etc.,  are  by  no  means  reliable: 
in  several  cases  the  very  existence  of  the  person 
in  question  is  doubtful.  On  the  other  hand,  his 
rescript  forbidding  the  execution  of  Christians 
on  the  mere  demands  of  a  tunudtuous,  frenzied 
Pagan  mob,  is  very  far  from  being  an  edict  of 
toleration :  it  is  simply  the  enforcement  of  the 
edict  of  Trajan,  according  to  which  no  Christian 
could  be  executed  except  after  legally  instituted 
and  conducted  process.  The  truth  seems  to  be, 
that  Hadrian  was  ignorant  of  Christianity,  and 
indifferent  to  it.  In  his  letter  to  Servianus  he 
identifies  the  Christians  with  the  worshippers  of 
Serapis.  The  two  Christian  apologies  presented 
to  him  by  Quadratus  and  Aristides  would,  no 
doubt,  have  thrown  full  light  ou  this  question  if 
j  they  had  come  down  to  us ;  but  they  are  lost ; 
and  the  praise  which  the  apologists  of  the  next 
generation  lavished  on  his  memory  was  probably 
merely  intended  to  impress  his  successor. 

Lit.  —  SpARTiANUS  :  Vila  Iladriani,  ia  Sc7-{pt. 
Hist.  August. ;  Gregorius  :  Gesch.  Kaiser  Hadri- 
ans, Konigsberg,  18.")1 ;  [E.  Renan  :  L'Eglise  chre- 
tienne,  Paris,  1879,  chap.  i.].  WAGENMANN. 

HADRIAN  (Popes).     See  Adrian. 

H/ERETICO  COMBURENDO  was  a  writ  for 
the  burning  of  heretics  liy  the  secular  power,  abol- 
ished by  Charles  II. 

HAETZER  (or  HETZER),  Ludwig.  b.  about 
1500  at  Bischofszell,  near  St.  GaU,  Switzer- 
land ;  studied  at  Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  and 
acquired  good  knowledge  of  Hebrew ;  was  for 
some  time  chaplain  at  AViidenschwyl  on  Lake 
Ziiricli ;  embraced  the  Reformation,  and  enjoyed 
the  confidence  of  Zwingli,  Oecolampadius,  aud 
other  Reformers,  but  was  successively  expelled 
from  Zurich,  Augsburg,  Strassburg,  etc.,  on  ac- 
count of  his  Anabaptist  views,  and  was  finally  be- 
headed for  bigamy  at  t'onstance,  Feb.  3, 1529.  In 
Strassburg  he  became  acquainted  with  Dench,  and 
published  together  with  him  a  translation  of  the 
Propliets  (Worms,  1527),  which  was  often  reprint- 
ed. See  Keim  :  Ludic.  Jletzer,  in  Jahrh.  f.  dcutsche 
Theol.,  1856,  )ip.  215  sciq.  r'u.  keim. 

HAFENREFFER,  Matthias,  a  Lutheran  divine, 
b.  at  i.,orch,  Wurteiidicrg,  June  24,  1561;  d.  at 
Tiibingen,  Oct.  22,  1619;  was  appointed  pas- 
tor at  Ehningeu  1588,  court-preacher  in  Stuttgart 
1590,  professor  of  theology  at  Tubingen  1598. 
His  Loci  Theulogici  (1600)  was  the  generally  used 
text-book  in  Tiibingen  during  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  also  introduc(>d  at  other  universi- 
ties, as,  for  instance,  at  Upsala.  His  Te/n/ilum 
Ezcchiclis  was  still  nior<!  celebrated  in  his  own 
time.  His  correspondence  with  Keiiler  (in  A'. 
0pp.,  VIII.,  ed.  Fri.sch)  is  very  characteristic,  aud 
.shows  him  as  a  quiet,  cautious,  but  kiml  man.  See 
TlioLUCK:  J),  akad.  Lehen,\.  145;  Gass  :  G'esch. 
d.  jinitest.  Doi/ni.,  i.  77  Siicj.  WAGENMANN. 

HAGAR  pjn,  '•flight"),  an  Egyptian,  and 
bondwoman  of  Sarah,  whom  the  hitter,  being 
barren,  and  following  an  ancient  custom,  gave 
to  Abraham  for  a  concubine.  Her  jiregnancy 
arou.sed  the  jealousy  of  her  mistress,  and  became 
llie  occasion  of  such  harsh  treatment,  tJiat  she 
fled  into  the  wilderness  of  Shur.  At  the  well 
Beer-lahai-roi  ((ien.  xvi.  14)  she  was  induced  by 


HAGARITBS. 


929 


HAGGAI. 


a  theophany  to  return  and  submit.  Ilagar  be- 
came the  motlier  of  Ishraael,  but  was  again  cast 
forth  by  Sarah,  who  in  the  mean  time  had  given 
birth  to  Isaac  (Gen.  xxi.  9-11).  She  was  again 
supernaturally  visited  in  her  distre.ss  (Gen.  xxi. 
11-21).  Paul  (Gal.  iv.  21  sqq.),  in  an  allegory, 
makes  the  slave  Hagar  the  representative  of  the 
Law  of  Sinai,  which  "  answereth  to  the  Jerusalem 
that  now  is."  Some,  however,  regard  Hagar 
("  stone ")  in  this  passage  to  be  simply  a  local 
name  for  Sinai,  on  which  see  Lightfoot,  Galaiians, 
pp.  190-195. 

HAGARITES,  or  HAGARENES,  a  people  dwell- 
ing in  Nortliern  Arabia,  with  whom  the  trans- 
Jordanic  tribes  made  war  in  the  reign  of  Saul 
(1  Chron.  v.  10  sqq.).  They  appear  again  in 
Ps.  Ixxxiii.  6  as  an  Arabic  tribe  hostile  to  Israel. 
They  were  probably  descendants  of  Hagar  (per- 
haps by  another  child  than  Ishmael),  although 
they  are  distinguished  from  the  Ishmaelites  (Ps. 
Ixxxiii.  6).  See  arts,  in  Smith's  and  Winer's 
Dictionaries. 

HAGENAU,  Conference  of,  a  politico-religious 
conference  called  by  Charles  V.  to  Spires,  and 
convened  at  Hageiuiu  on  account  of  an  epidemic 
raging  in  the  former  city ;  lasted  from  June  12 
to  July  16,  15-10,  but  effected  nothing  with  respect 
to  the  relation  between  Romanists  and  Protes- 
tants in  Germany.  The  former  were  represented 
by  Eck,  Faber,  and  Cochla3us;  the  latter  by  Osi- 
ander,  Brenz,  Capito,  Cruciger,  and  Myconius. 
Only  some  preliminary  questions  were  discussed, 
and  a  conference,  to  be  held  at  Worms,  was  agi'eed 
upon. 

HAGENBACH,  Karl  Rudolf,  a  distinguished 
theological  professor  and  church  historian ;  b.  in 
Basel,  March  4, 1801 ;  d.  in  the  same  city,  June  7, 
1874.  After  spending  a  year  at  the  university  of 
Basel,  he  went  to  Bonn  and  Berlin,  where  Schleier- 
macher  and  Neauder  exerted  a  large  influence 
upon  him  in  fixing  his  theological  opinions.  Re- 
turning to  Basel  in  1823  through  the  persuasions 
of  De  Wette,  he  taught  as  docent,  and  was  soon 
made  professor.    In  1873  he  celebrated  the  fiftieth 

i'ubilee  of  his  connection  with  the  university. 
)uring  these  years,  besides  his  professorial  du- 
ties, he  exerted  a  wide  influence  as  a  preacher. 
His  sermons  appeared  in  nine  volumes  (Basel, 
1858-75).  He  also  published  two  volumes  of 
poems  (2d  ed.,  Basel,  1863),  in  vfhich  his  mild 
and  childlike  disposition  is  reflected. 

Hagenbach's  special  department  was  church 
history.  He  represented  a  school  in  theology 
(Vermiitlunystheolofjie)  occupying  an  intermediate 
position  between  the  old  supranaturalists  and  the 
rationalists.  He  gradually  departed  from  the 
position  of  Sohleiermacher,  which  he  had  occu- 
pied in  his  early  career,  laid  an  increasing  stress 
upon  the  independent  objective  reality  of  Chris- 
tian facts,  and  emphasized  the  confessions  of  the 
Church.  His  first  important  work  was  the  Ency- 
clopiidie  u.  Methodologie  d.  llieol.  Wissenschaften, 
Leipzig,  1833  [10th  ed.  by  Kautzsch,  1880],  which 
still  holds  its  place  as  the  most  useful  w-ork  of  its 
kind.  The  Lehrhuch  d.  Dogmengeschichle  first 
appeared  in  1840;  5th  ed.,  1867  [English  transla- 
tion by  Buch,  Edinburgh,  revised  and  enlarged  by 
Dr.  H.  B.  Smith,  New  York,  1861,  2  vols. ;  new- 
edition,  with  preface  by  Plumptre,  Edinburgh. 
1880,  3  vols.].      This  is  still  the  most  popular 


work  in  its  department.  His  largest  work  is 
the  Kirchenyesch.  con  d.  Ullesten  Zeit  bis  z.  19len 
Jahrkundert,  Leipzig,  1869-72,  7  vols.  It  was  in 
part  a  reconstruction  of  tlireo  earlier  works,  —  Ge- 
schichte  d.  Reforrnaiion  (1834-43),  Oe.ichichte  d. 
alien  Kirche  (1853),  and  Gtschichlc  d.  Miltelallers 
(1860).  [The  work  has  appeared  in  partial  tran.s- 
lations,  —  Hlstonj  of  the  Heforination,  by  Miss  E. 
Moore,  2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1878,  and  Hislonj  of 
the  Church  in  the  EiyhleenUi,  and  Nincleerdh  Centu- 
ries, by  Dr.  Ilurst,  2  vols..  New  York,  1869.] 
These  historical  labors  are  not  so  much  distin- 
guished for  originality  of  treatment,  or  novelty  of 
discovery,  as  for  their  comprehensive  views,  amia- 
ble spirit,  and  clear  and  attractive  style.  Among 
his  other  writings  are  Oekolampad  u.  Myconius, 
Elberfeld,  1859;  Grundziige  d.  Homiletil:  u.  Litur- 
f/ii;  Leipzig,  1863.  He  also  edited  a  Swiss  Church 
Magazine  from  1845  to  1868.  [He  was  a  promi- 
nent contributor  to  Ilerzog's  Ercyclopa'dia.]  See 
Erinnerung  an  K.  R.  Hayenhach,  Basel,  1874,  which 
contains  a  short  autobiographical  sketch,  with 
other  matter.  An  extensive  A  utoltioyniphy  exists 
only  in  manuscript.  [Eppler  :  Karl  Rudolf  Ha- 
genbach,  Gutersloh,  1875.]  R.  STAHELIN. 

HAGGADAH  (anecdote,  legend)  is  a  Talmudic 
and  rabbinical  term  for  traditional  stories  and 
legends  illustrative  of  Scripture.  Many  of  these 
stories  are  amusing,  many  are  beautiful;  but  their 
critical  value  is  small.     See  Midrash. 

HAG'GAI  ("iVy,  festive),  one  of  the  three  proph- 
ets of  the  post-exile  period.  He  prophesied  at 
Jerusalem  in  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of 
Darius,  or  520  B.C.  (I.  1),  and  aroused  the  peo- 
ple to  complete  the  second  temple  (Ez.  v.  1,  vi. 
14).  Bleek,  Ewald,  Stanley,  and  others  have  sup- 
posed, on  the  ground  of  II.  3,  that  he  had  seen 
Solomon's  temple,  in  which  case  he  lived  to  a 
great  age. 

Book  of.  The  Book  of  Haggai  is  an  exhorta- 
tion to  complete  the  temple,  work  ujion  which 
had  been  begun  in  534  B.C.,  but  discontinued  by 
a  decree  of  Cyrus,  and  a  prophecy  of  the  blessing 
of  tlie  Lord  which  would  foUow  its  completion. 
It  consists  of  four  parts:  the  first  (i.  1-15)  attrib- 
utes the  curse  resting  iqjon  the  people  to  their 
listlessness  in  leaving  the  temple  unfinished  while 
they  dwelt  in  "panelled  houses,"  and  exhorts  them 
to  begin  work ;  the  second  (ii.  1-9)  predicts  for 
the  new  temple  a  glory  greater  than  that  of  Solo- 
mon ;  the  third  prophecy  (ii.  10-19)  urges  them 
to  greater  activity  in  view  of  the  curse  to  be  es- 
caped, and  the  blessing  to  ensue ;  and  the  fourth 
(ii.  20-23)  promises  victory  over  the  heathen, 
and  an  abiding  glory  to  Zerubbabel. 

Haggai,  like  Zecliariah  and  ilalachi,  the  two 
other  prophets  after  the  Captivity,  does  not  equal 
the  earlier  prophets  in  language  and  poetry.  He 
is  not,  however,  deficient  in  enthusiasm  and  origi- 
nality (De  Wette).  A  prophet  is  not  to  be 
measured  by  his  power  of  description,  but  by  the 
inherent  value  of  what  he  utters,  and  by  the  piu-- 
pose  he  is  to  subserve.  The  prophecies  of  these 
three  prophets  are  the  grand  voices  of  watchmen 
in  the  morning  watch  of  the  old  covenant. 

It  was  Haggai's  special  office  to  predict  the  con- 
nection of  redemption  with  the  second  temple, 
and  of  the  Davidic  dominion  with  the  house  of 
Zerubbabel  (ii.  23).  God  did  "  give  peace  in  that 
place  "  (ii.  9),  for  Jesus  walked  and  taught  in  its 


HAGIOGRAPHA. 


930 


HALDANE. 


halls.  Haggai  prophesied  of  the  new  dispensa- 
tion, and  his  words  (ii.  9)  are  not  applicable  to  a 
temple  of  stone.  He  was  not  a  legalist ;  and  the 
two  legal  qnestions  (ii.  11-14)  are  put  to  bring 
out  that  the  temple  of  stone  does  not  exert  any 
saving  influence,  and  that  it  was  the  people  that 
were  sluggish  in  theii-  work  who  corrupted  every 
thing  they  touched.  The  period  of  Ezra  and 
Xehemiah  did  not  produce  the  law,  but  did  in- 
augurate tlie  discussion  of  it,  which  ultimately 
issued  in  the  Talmud.  The  Old-Testament  prepa- 
ration for  Christianity  was  negative,  as  well  as 
positive.  The  legalism  of  the  post-exile  period 
was  gi-adually  transformed  into  Pharisaism,  which 
brought  death  to  Him  whose  advent  the  three 
post-exile  prophets  announced. 

[For  complete  list  of  literature  see  Minor 
Prophets.  Koiilkr  :  D.  Weissag.  Httf/r/ai's,  Er- 
langen,  1860 ;  J.  P.  Laxge  :  Der  Prop/n'l  Jliii/gai, 
Bielefeld,  1876,  and  JlcCurdy,  in  the  American 
edition  of  Lauge,  N.Y.,1871;  commentaries  on  Hag- 
gai and  Zechariah.  by  J.  Van  Eaton,  Pittsburg, 
1883,  andl-iNTOx,  London,  1881.]    DEIJTZSCH. 

HAGIOGRAPHA  (holy  u-ritings),  the  name 
given  to  the  third  division  of  the  Old-Testament 
canon.     .See  Cano.v.  p.  387. 

HAHN,  August,  b.  at  Grossosterhausen,  in 
Prussian  Saxony,  JIarch  27,  1792 ;  d.  at  Breslau, 
Jlay  13,  1863;  studied  theology  and  Oriental 
languages  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg,  and  was 
appointed  professor  at  Konigslierg  1819,  at  Leip- 
zig 1826,  at  Breslau  1833,  and  superintendent- 
general  of  Silesia  1843.  He  was  one  of  the  last 
representatives  of  the  old  supranaturalism,  and 
an  ardent  adversary  of  the  reigning  rationalism  ; 
but  his  works  {Lehrhuch  d.  chrisll.  Ghmbena,  1827, 
etc.)  are  distinguished  more  by  their  warmth 
than  by  their  acuteness.  He  also  wrote  on  tlie 
Gnostics,  De  gnosi  Marcionis  (1820),  Aniillieses 
Marcinnh  (1823),  De  canone.  Marcionis  (1820),  etc. 

HAHN,  Johann  Michael,  was  b.  at  Altdorf,  in 
'WurtciiilxTg,  Feb.  2,  17.")8,  the  son  of  a  peasant. 
From  early  youth  he  received  very  deep  religious 
impressions,  and  was  given  to  meditations.  He 
studied  the  Bible,  also  the  works  of  Jacob  Boehme, 
Oetinger,  and  others :  but  an  (iducation  for  the 
Church  he  declined.  As  in-  attracted  great  audi- 
ences whenever  he  spoke  pulilicly.  he  was  sum- 
moned before  the  consistory,  but  defended  him.self 
ably,  and  lived  afterwards  quietly  and  in  peace 
on  the  estate  of  the  Ducliess  Franzisca  at  Sind- 
lingen,  where  he.died  in  1819.  His  writings  were 
published  at  Tubingen,  12  vols.,  1819  sqq.  Many 
of  his  hynms  have  been  incorporated  witli  the 
hymn-book  of  the  State  Church.  His  followers, 
called  "  Michelians,"  are  numerous  ni  Wurtem- 
berg,  and  lay  great  stress  on  sanctification  against 
an  over-estimate  of  justification.  They  have  never 
separated  from  the  State  Cliurch,  ^)ut  live  in 
scattered  societies,  and  assemble  now  aiul  then, 
mostly  for  f)urpoHes  of  charity.  Tlie  colony  of 
Kornthal,  near  Stuttgart,  was  organized  aft<ir  a 
]ilan  of  Hahn.  [See  I'ai.mkk:  Vorlestmgcn  U.  (I. 
iriirl.   Sihlin,  1H8(I.]  ORONKISEN. 

HAIMO,  <.!•  HAYMO,  or  AIMO,  b.  about  778; 
according  to  'I'rithiMuius,  a  (iennan  liydi^scent; 
was  monk  in  the  mona-stery  of  Fulda,  teacher  in 
its  school,  and,  from  840  to  his  di^ath  in  8.'53, 
administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  HalbiTstadt. 
His  numerous  writings  (^Exjjusitio  in  Pauli  Ej>is- 


tolas,  Enarraiio  in  12  Prophelas  minores,  Hisloria 
sncrce  epitome,  etc.)  were  published  during  the 
Reformation  (1.519-36)  by  the  Romanists,  but 
belong  to  a  freer  and  less  prejudiced  age.  He  de- 
nies that  the  congregation  of  Rome  was  founded 
by  Peter,  rejects  the  doctrine  of  a  universal  epis- 
copacy, and  opposes  the  doctrine  of  transubstan- 
tiation.  at  least  in  the  form  given  to  it  by  Pascha- 
sins.     Works  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  cxvi-cxviii. 

HAIR,  among  the  Hebrews,  was  regarded  as 
an  ornament  of  the  man,  if  not  worn  too  long. 
From  time  to  time  it  was  clipped ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  a  vow  it  was  suffered  to  grow  (Num. 
vi.  5).  To  pluck  off  the  hair  (Ez.  ix.  3)  and  let 
it  go  dishevelled  (Lev.  x.  6  [A.  V.,  "uncover 
j'our  heads  "]),  or  cut  it  off,  was  a  sign  of  sorrow 
(Jer.  vii.  29)  and  of  captivity  (Isa.  vii.  20).  A 
bald  head  was  an  object  of  mockery  (2  Kings  ii. 
23).  The  young  people  curled  their  hair  (Song 
of  Solomon  v.  11  [marg.]),  or  made  it  into  locks 
(Judg.  xvi.  13,  19).  Both  sexes  anointed  the 
liair  profusely  with  ointments  (Ps.  xxiii.  5; 
Matt.  vi.  17).  For  a  woman  to  have  her  head 
shorn  or  shaven  was  regarded  as  a  shame  (1  Cor. 
xi.  6  ;  cf.  ver.  15).  Gray  hair  was  an  ornament 
of  the  aged  (Prov.  xx.  29).  RirETSCm. 

HALACHAH  (norm)  is  the  traditional  oral  law, 
embodied  in  .sententious  form,  contained  in  thf 
Midrash ;  which  see. 

HALDANE,  James  Alexander,  and  Robert, 
brothers,  eminent  for  Christian  zeal.  They  stud- 
ied at  the  High  School  and  LTniversity  of  Edin- 
burgh. —  L  James  was  b.  at  Dundee,  Julv  14, 
1708;  d.  Feb.  8,  1851.  In  1785  he  entered  the 
navy,  but,  becoming  serious  on  the  subject  of 
religion,  returned  to  Edinburgh.  In  1797  and 
1798  he  travelled  through  Scotland  and  the  Ork- 
ney Islands,  preaching  to  large  audiences,  and 
with  good  results,  and  in  1799  was  ordained  pas- 
tor of  a  newly  organized  independent  church  in 
Edinburgh.  In  1801  Robert  built  for  the  congre- 
gation a  tine  edifice,  afterwards  known  as  the 
Tabernacle.  Here  James  labored  for  nearly  fifty 
years  with  excellent  success.  In  1808  he  made 
public  avowal  of  his  conversion  to  Baptist  views. 
He  wrote  several  tracts  and  an  Exposition  o/d'ala- 
tians,  Edinburgh,  1848.  —  II.  Robert  was  b.  in 
London,  Feb.  28,  17(i4;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Dec.  12, 
1812.  He  w.as  in  the  navy  from  1780  to  1783. 
Having  inherited  a  large  property,  he  settled  in 
178(i  on  his  estate  at  Airthrey.  From  the  year 
1793,  wheti  he  became  deeply  interested  on  the 
subject  of  religion,  he  was  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential Christian  jihilanthropists  and  writers  of 
Scotland.  Within  fifteen  years  he  distributed 
three  hundred  and  fifty  tliousand  dollars  for 
charitable  purposes,  and  during  his  life  educat- 
ed three  hundred  ministers  at  an  expense  of  a 
hundred  tho\isand  dollars.  The  years  1816  and 
1817  he  spent  in  (ieneva  and  Montanban.  At 
fieneva  he  opened  his  parlors  in  the  evening  to 
tlie  theological  students  of  the  Vniversity,  and 
expnunde<l  the  Epistle  to  tlie  Romans.  These 
meetings  attracted  large  audiences  of  students; 
and  such  men  as  Merle  ilWiibigne,  Malan,  (iaus- 
sen,  were  led  by  thcMu  to  adojit  evangelical  views. 
Mr.  Haldane  pursued  the  same  course  at  Mon- 
tanban. His  lectures  wc^re  embodied  in  his  Com- 
sur  I' E/iitre  (tnx  lintntiinx,  which  appeared  in  1819. 
After  his  return  to  Scotland,  Mr.  Haldane  con- 


HALE. 


931 


HALL. 


tinued  to  take  a  prominent  part  in  church  move- 
ments. In  ISlGhp.  ynHtWiihed  Et'li/ctn-e  and  Aul/ior- 
ili/  of  Rereldlion,  anil  18"J8,  On  the  Insjiiralion  of 
Scripture..  The  Exposition  of  the  liomnnn  (a,  useful, 
and  at  one  time  very  popular,  practical  commen- 
tary), an  enlargement  of  the  French  Commentary, 
appeared  in  3  vols.,  1835-39;  American  ed.,  N.Y., 
18.53.  See  Memoirs  of  the  Lives  of  Robert  and  J.  A. 
Haldane  by  Alexander  HALr).\NE,  Edinburgh, 
18.52,  N.Y.,  18.54;  and  Tlie  Haldanes  and  their 
Fricn.h.  I'hiladelpliia,  1858. 

HALE,  Matthew,  Sir,  Lord  Chief  Justice  of 
England;  b.  at  Alderley,  Nov.  1,  1609;  d.  there 
Dec.  25,  1676.  Graduated  at  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford,  he  was  intending  to  enter  the  ministry, 
when  lie  suddenly  turned  his  attention  to  the 
study  of  law.  He  signed  the  Solemn  League  and 
Covenant,  and  was  a  member  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines  (1643).  lie  sat  in  Parlia- 
ment several  times;  was  appointed  judge  by 
Cromwell,  and  was  knighted  immediately  after 
the  Kestoration  (in  1660).  lie  vv-as  a  man  of 
prodigious  industry  in  the  study  of  law,  and  an 
upright  judge.  Baxter  says  of  him  that  he  "was 
most  precisely  just,  insomuch  that  I  believe  he 
■would  have  lost  all  he  had  in  the  world  rather 
than  do  an  unjust  act."  His  name  has  a  place 
here  on  account  of  its  bearer's  belief  in  witch- 
craft. In  1665,  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  he  con- 
demned two  prisoners  to  death  on  this  charge. 
He  was  on  intimate  terms  with  Baxter,  Stilling- 
fleet,  and  otlier  celebrated  divines.  His  principal 
religious  works  are,  Conlemptntions,  Moral  and 
Diriiie ;  Of  the  Nature  of  True  Relit/ion,  1684 ; 
Brief  Abstract  of  the  Christian  Religion,  1688.  An 
edition  of  his  Moral  and  Religious  IVorh's,  edited  by 
Thiklw ALL,  appeared  in  London,  1805,2  vols,  (con- 
taining Bishoji  Burnet's  Life).  His  Life  was  first 
written  by  Bishop  Burnet,  and  since  by  J.  B. 
Williams  (Lond.,  1835)  and  Lord  Campbell,  in 
his  Lives  of  the  Chief  Justices. 

HALES,  John,  "the  ever-memorable;"  b.  at 
Bath,  April,  1.584 ;  d.  at  Eton,  May  19,  16.56.  He 
was  Greek  professor  at  Oxford  (1612),  and  canon 
of  Windsor  (1639).  His  works  were  posthumous- 
ly published  under  the  title  Golden  Remains,  Lon- 
don, 1659,  best  ed.,  1673,  modern  ed.,  1765,  3  vols. 
They  consist  of  sermons  and  miscellanies ;  but 
appended  to  the  volume  are  his  Letters  from  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  WIS  (which  he  attended,  and  as 
the  result  of  which  he  became  an  Arminian), 
together  with  the  A  cts  of  the  Synod ;  so  that  the 
Appendix  is  of  great  historical  value. 

HALES,  WilMam,  D.D.,  chronologist ;  d.  as 
rector  of  Killeshanilra,  Ireland,  Jan.  30,  1731. 
His  Neu}  Analysis  of  Chronologij  appeared  London, 
1809-14,  4  vols.,  I'd  ed.,  1830,  of  which  vols.  2 
and  3  were  occupied  with  Scripture  chronology, 
in  which  department  he  is  still  an  authority. 

HALF-COMMUNION,  when  only  the  bread  is 
given,  as  in  the  U.nnan-Catholic  Church. 

HALF-WAY  COVENANT,  an  expedient  adopt- 
ed in  New-England  Congregational  churches,  be- 
tween 1657  and  1662,  of  allowing  baptized  persons 
of  moral  life  and  orthodox  belief  to  belong  to 
the  church  so  far  as  to  receive  baptism  for  their 
children,  and  all  the  privileges  but  tliat  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  for  themselves.  See  Congrega- 
tionalism, p.  538. 

HALL,  Cordon,  a  Congregationalist,  the  first 


American  missionary  to  Bombay ;  b.  at  West 
Granville  (now  Tolland),  Mass.,  April  8,  1784; 
d.  of  cholera,  Bombay,  March  20,  1826.  He  wa.s 
graduated  from  Williams  College  1808,  studied 
theology,  was  ordained  as  a  missionary  to  India, 
and  arrived  at  Bomliay  1813.  For  thirteen  years 
he  prosecuted  his  labor  with  diligence  and  success. 
He  had  just  finished  the  revision  of  the  Mahratta 
version  of  the  New  Testament  when  he  died. 
Besides  a  few  pamphlets,  he  wrote,  in  connection 
with  Samuel  Newell,  The  Conversion  of  the  World, 
or  the  Claims  of  Six  Hundred  Millions,  Andover, 
1818.     See  his  Memoirhy  H.  Bardwell,  And.,  1834. 

HALL,  John  Vine,  b.  at  Diss,  Norlolk,  Eng., 
March  14,  1774 ;  d.  at  Jlaidstone,  Sept.  22,  IbOO. 
He  was  a  prominent  advocate  of  total  abstinence, 
and  the  author  of  The  Sinner's  Friend  (1821). 
He  lived  to  see  290  editions  of  the  tract  printed 
in  23  languages,  and  comprising  1,268,000  copies. 
He  distributed  60,000  copies.  See  his  Autobiog- 
raphy edited  by  his  son.  Rev.  Newanan  Hall  of 
London  (New  York,  1865). 

HALL,  Joseph,  a  learned  divine,  and  eloquent 
preacher  of  the  Church  of  England;  b.  in  .\shby- 
de-la-Zouch,  Leicestershire,  July  1,  1.574  ;  d.  at 
Higham,  near  Norwich,  Sept.  8, 1656.  His  moth- 
er was  a  pious  woman,  and  dedicated  him  early 
to  the  ministry.  Graduating  at  Ennnanuel  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  he  was  for  two  successive  years 
lecturer  on  rhetoric,  and  became  rector  of  Hal- 
sted,  Suffolk,  in  1601,  from  which  he  passed  in 
1612  to  Walthani  Holy  Cross.  In  1616  he  accom- 
panied the  Earl  of  Carlisle  on  his  mission  to 
France,  and  in  1617  James  I.  to  Scotland.  Upon 
this  monarch  he  lavished,  like  many  of  his  con- 
temporaries, the  grossest  adulation.  In  the  ser- 
mon on  the  anniversary  of  the  king's  inaugiu'a- 
tion  (March  24,  1613,  and  printed  under  the 
title  A  Hohj  Panegyric)  he  exhausted  the  English 
language  for  laudatory  epithets.  In  1617  he  was 
made  Dean  of  Worcester,  and  in  1618  was  sent 
by  James,  as  one  of  his  connnissioners,  to  the 
synod  of  Dort.  The  Latin  sermon  is  still  pre- 
served which  he  preached  before  that  body  (Nov. 
29, 1618).  He  was  a  moderate  Calvinist,  and  sought 
for  a  mean  between  Calvinism  and  Arminianism, 
and  published  a  tract  (1622)  on  the  subject  Via 
media,  the  ivay  of  peace.  In  1627  Dr.  Hall  was 
promoted  to  the  see  of  Exeter,  having  previously 
(1624)  declined  that  of  Gloucester,  and  in  1641 
was  transferred  to  Norwich.  Under  Laud  he  was 
accused  of  puritanical  leanings,  and  he  was  so 
stung  by  these  accusations  that  he  tln-eatened  "  to 
cast  up  his  rochet."  He  abundantly  proved  his 
full  attachment  to  the  Church  of  England  in  his 
Episcopacy  by  Divine  Right  Asserted  (1640).  In 
this  work  he'  advocates  episcopacy  as  a  form  of 
government  recommended  by  the  apostles.  Under 
the  Long  Parliament  he  seems  to  have  suffered 
severely,  and  was  one  of  the  eleven  bishops  to  be 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower.  He  was  released  after 
a  confinement  of  six  months  in  1642,  but  the  fol- 
lowing year  suffered  the  sequestration  of  the  reve- 
nues "of  his  see ;  an  allowance,  however,  being 
granted  him  by  Parliament.  He  has  given  an 
account  of  his  trials  during  this  period  in  his  Hard 
Measure  (IGiY).  The  latter  years  of  his  life  he 
spent  in  retirement  at  Higham. 

Bishop  Hall  was  a  man  of  broad  and  tolerant 
sympathies,  much  piety,  and  in  the  pulpit  has 


HALL. 


932 


HALL. 


had  few  equals  for  eloquence  among  English 
preachers  of  the  Established  Church.  Of  liis 
manner  in  the  pulpit  he  says,  "  I  never  durst  to 
climb  into  the  pulpit  to  preach  any  sermon  where- 
of I  iiad  not  before,  in  my  poor  plain  fashion, 
penned  every  \Yord  in  the  same  order  wherein  I 
hoped  to  deliver  it,"  etc.  He  vras  a  prolific  au- 
thor, and  began  liis  literary  career  by  a  volume 
of  Satires  (1597,  1598),  which  are  among  the  first 
in  the  English  language.  He  wrote  several  con- 
troversial works,  among  which,  in  addition  to  the 
one  on  episcopacy  mentioned  above,  was  a  trea- 
tise exposing  the  corruptions  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  under  the  title  The  Old  Reli(/ion  (1628). 
His  most  valuable  works,  however,  are  of  a  devo- 
tional character,  and  have  suggested  to  ilr.  Hal- 
lam  the  propriety  of  a  comparison  between  their 
author  and  Jeremy  Taylor.  The  Contemplations 
upon  the  N.  Test.  (1612-15),  Meditations  and  Voices 
(1024),  and  Explication  of  all  the  Hard  Texts  of 
Jhe  tchole  dicine  Scripture  (1634),  are  his  principal 
practical  writings.  Complete  editions  of  his  works 
bv  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt,  London,  1808,  10  vols.,  and 
liev.  Peter  Hall,  Oxford,  1S39, 12  vols.  See  Rev. 
Jonx  Jones  :  Bishop  Hall,  his  Life  and  Times, 
London,  1826,  which  contains  the  bishop's  own 
Observations  of  some  specialties  of  divine  Providence 
in  his  life. 

HALL,  Robert,  one  of  the  most  eloquent  of 
modern  preachers;  b.  IMay  2,  1764,  at  Arnsby, 
Leicestershire,  where  his  father,  known  as  the 
author  of  a  work  entitled  Zion's  Travellers,  was 
pastor  of  a  Baptist  church ;  d.  at  Bristol,  Feb.  21, 
1831.  He  was  the  youngest  of  fourteen  children ; 
and,  thougli  at  first  of  feeble  frame,  lie  very  early 
showed  his  likings  for  severer  studies  than  those 
common  at  such  an  age ;  for  when  he  was  nine 
years  old  he  had  made  himself  acquainted  with 
Edwards  On  the  Will,  and  Butler's  Analogy.  After 
attending  some  local  schools,  he  w-as  for  eighteen 
months  at  Northampton,  under  the  care  of  Dr. 
Rylaud,  and  went  in  1778  to  the  Baptist  semi- 
nary in  Bristol  to  prepare  liimself  for  the  minis- 
try. While  still  a  student,  he  was  ordained  in 
1780;  and  in  1781  he  went  to  King's  College, 
Aberdeen,  where  he  studied  for  four  years,  and 
where,  in  1765,  he  graduated  as  !M.A.  During 
the  last  two  summer  vacations  of  his  Aberdeen 
course  he  acted  as  assistant  pastor  to  Dr.  Evans 
of  Bristol ;  and  on  leavuig  the  northern  univer- 
sity he  was  appointed  classical  tutor  in  the  Bristol 
.seminary,  an  office  which  he  held,  in  conjunction 
with  his  assistant  pastorship,  for  five  years.  A 
misunderstanding  between  the  two  pastors  de- 
cided him  to  resign  both  his  positions  in  Bristol, 
and  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  Baptist  Cliurch, 
Cambridge,  in  1790.  Here  he  remained  foi'  fif- 
teen years,  increasing  in  influence  and  reputation, 
and  already  recognized  as  one  of  the  foremost 
preachers  of  his  day.  His  first  published  sermon 
appeared  in  1791,  and  was  followed  at  intervals 
by  others,  whicli  proved  him  to  be  not  only  an 
eloquent  orator,  but  also  an  earnest  advocate  of 
liberty  and  education.  But  two  attacks  of  insan- 
ity, with  but  a  brief  interval  lietween  them,  caused 
him  to  leave  Cambridge;  and  in  1806  he  removed 
to  Leicester,  where  he  labored  for  twenty  years, 
when,  at  the  call  of  tlie  Hroadiiiead  Churcli,  he 
returned  to  Bristol  to  finish  his  ministry  where  it 
wail  begun,  for  there  he  di«d. 


Throughout  the  greater  part  of  his  life  Hall 
was  a  martyr  to  the  severest  i:)hysical  sutfering ; 
and  the  spirit  which  he  manifested  under  it, 
together  with  the  work  which  he  forced  himself 
to  do  in  spite  of  it,  entitled  him  to  be  ranked 
among  the  heroes  of  his  age.  In  theological 
opinion  he  was  at  first  unsettled  ;  but  ultimately 
he  became  a  Calvinist,  after  the  tj'pe  of  Andrew 
Fidler,  and  was  one  of  the  ablest  assailants  of 
Socinianism.  On  the  subject  of  communion  he 
he  was  opposed  to  Fuller,  and  his  treatise  on  it 
is  among  the  ablest  of  his  w-orks.  He  was  an 
earnest  supporter  of  the  missionary  enterprise; 
and  through  the  pages  of  the  Eclectic  Revieic.  as 
well  as  by  his  published  sermons  on  Modern  Infi- 
delity, Poptdar  Ignorance,  and  Christianity  Consis- 
tent ivith  a  Love  of  Freedom,  he  did  much  to 
liberalize  the  opinions  of  his  generation.  He  was 
eminent  as  a  conversationalist;  and  some  able 
men  have  left  accounts  of  theii-  intei-views  with 
him,  which  remind  us  a  little  of  the  talk  of  John- 
son as  reported  by  Boswell.  But  though  he  had 
all  the  quickness,  and  some  of  the  roughness,  of 
the  grutf  lexicographer,  he  had  little  of  his  self- 
sufficiency,  and  had  now  and  then  a  pathos  that 
was  all  his  own.  His  special  pre-eminence,  how- 
ever, was  in  the  pulpit.  He  spoke  without  notes, 
but  not  without  preparation  ;  for  he  admitted 
that  most  of  his  great  sermons  were  first  worked 
out  in  thought,  and  then  elaborated  in  the  very 
words  in  which  they  were  delivered.  He  could  re- 
peat them  verbatim  after  the  lapse  of  years ;  and 
though  it  was  affirmed  by  many  that  liis  perora- 
tions were  impromptu,  he  declaretl  that  they  were 
the  most  carefully  studied  parts  of  his  discourses. 
In  his  printed  sermons  his  style  is  characterized 
by  energy  clothed  in  elegance,  and  moving  on 
in  a  certain  rhythmic  stateliness ;  in  his  spoken 
discourse  there  was  a  severer  simplicity :  but  in 
both  there  was  perfect  clearness.  His  manner 
was  that  of  one  who  was  entirely  absorbed  in  his 
subject,  and  was  quite  unconscious  of  his  mode 
of  utterance.  .\t  first  his  voice  was  so  low  as  to 
be  scarcely  audible,  and  there  seemed  to  be  a  little 
hesitation ;  but,  as  he  proceetled,  that  was  over- 
come, and  he  poured  forth  with  wonderful  flu- 
ency, and  unsurpassed  command  of  language,  a 
continuous  stream  of  eloquence.  Now  it  was  de- 
scription, now  it  was  argument,  now  it  was  apos- 
trophe, and  now  it  was  appeal ;  but  it  was  always 
quiet,  always  clear,  and  always  cogent.  He  had 
very  little  action.  Ilis  usual  attitude  was  to  stand 
with  his  chest  leanmg  against  the  cushion,  and 
his  left  arm  resting  on  the  Bible,  while  his  right 
was  slightly  raised.  But  such  was  the  impression 
produced  by  liis  words,  that,  before  he  liad  spolcen 
many  minutes,  all  thought  of  the  man  and  his 
manner  disappeared  from  the  hearer's  mind,  and 
he  fell  himself  face  to  face  with  the  subject  alone. 
His  fame,  great  wliile  he  lived,  has  become  a 
cherished  tradition  among  English-speaking  Chris- 
tians, and  Ilis  works  are  among  the  classics  of  the 
modern  pulpit. 

Lit.  — Works  of  Robert  Hall,  M.A.,  with  a  brief 
Memoir  of  hi.i  Life,  by  Olintiius  OiiiXiOKY, 
LL.I).,  Lond.,  6  vols.,  N.Y.,  4  vols. ;  Reminiscences 
o/'  Robert  Hall,  by  John  CJukknk,  Lond.,  1832; 
Ihographical  Recollections  of  Robert  Hall,  by  J.W. 
MoKKis,  1848  ;  Pifty  Sermons  of  Ruhert  llidt,  from 
notes  taken  by  Rev.  Thomas  Gnnjield,  184t} ;  Remi- 


HALLBL. 


933 


HALSEY. 


niscences  of  College  Life  in  Bristol  durinp  the  Min- 
istry of  Rev.  Robert  Hall,  by  Frederick  Tres- 
TRAiL,  1879 ;  Rolieri  Hall,  by  E.  Paxton  Hood, 
Lond.  and  N.Y.,  1881.     William  m.  taylor. 

HALLEL  (praise).  Psalms  cxiii.-cxviii.  are 
so  named  because  each  of  them  begins  with  Hal- 
lelujah ;  also  called  the  Egyptian  Hallel,  because 
"  it  was  chanted  in  the  temple  during  the  slaugh- 
ter of  the  Passover  Iambs,  according  to  the  enact- 
ment first  made  in  Egypt."  They  were  sung, 
according  to  rabbinical  enactment,  on  the  first  of 
the  month,  and  at  the  feasts  of  Dedication,  Taber- 
nacles, AVeeks,  and  the  Passover.  On  the  last  oc- 
casion, Psalms  cxiii.  and  cxiv.,  according  to  the 
■school  of  Ilillel  (Psalm  cxiii.  only,  according  to 
the  school  of  Shanimai),  were  sung  before  the  feast, 
and  the  others  at  the  close,  after  the  last  cup. 
The  "  hymn  "  which  our  Lord  and  his  disciples 
«ang  after  the  Last  Supper  (Matt.  xxvi.  30)  was 
the  second  part  of  the  Hallel  (Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.). 

HALLELU'JAH  ('Tl'?'?^,  ' kX^hmia,  "  Praise  ye 
Jah  ").  It  stands  at  the  beginning,  or  close,  or 
both,  of  many  psahns  in  the  Hebrew  (e.g.,  civ. 
.35,  cvi.  1,  48,  cxvi.  19),  and  therefore  naturally 
became  a  formula  of  praise,  and  was  chanted  as 
•such  on  solemn  days  of  rejoicing  (cf.  Kev.  xix. 
1,  3,  4,  6).  The  psalms  in  which  it  occurs  are 
all  in  the  last  book  of  the  collection,  and  appar- 
ently were  intended  for  temple  use.  Hallelujah 
passed  over  into  the  Christian  Church  as  a  dox- 
■ology,  the  more  readily  since  it  was  a  word 
adapted  to  singing.  It  was  used  especially  at 
Easter.  In  the  Greek  Church  it  is  used  "  not 
only  on  days  of  gladness,  but  more  constantly  on 
occasions  of  mourning  and  fasting  and  burials." 
In  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  it  is  translated, 
and  uttered  by  the  minister,  "Praise  ye  the 
Lord ;  "  to  which  the  people  reply,  "  The  Lord's 
name  be  praised."     See  Hallel. 

HALLER,  Albrecht  von,  b.  at  Bern,  Oct.  16, 
1708 ;  d.  there  Dec.  17,  1777 ;  was  professor  of 
anatomy  and  botany  at  Gottiugen  from  1736  to 
1753,  and  one  of  the  greatest  physiologists  and 
botanists  of  liis  age.  He  was  also  a  very  pious 
man,  and  his  Briefe  u.  d.  wichtigsten  Wahrheiten 
■d.  Offenbarung  ( 1772)  and  Briefe  z.  Vertheidigung 
d.  Offenbarung  (VJ'lb-Ti)  made  a  deep  impression 
■on  his  contemporaries.  See  GL'DEr:  Albrecht 
von  Haller  als  Christ,  Basel,  1S78  (20  pp.). 

HALLER,  Berthold,  b.  at  Aldingen,  Wiirtem- 
berg,  1492 ;  d.  at  Bern,  Feb.  25,  1536;  studied 
theology  at  Cologne,  and  became  teacher  at  the 
gymnasium  of  Bern  in  1513,  assistant  preacher 
at  the  Church  of  St.  Vincent  in  1515,  and  preach- 
er in  1519,  after  Dr.  Th.  Wyttenbach.  In  1521 
he  became  acquainted  with  Zwingli ;  but  even 
before  that  time  he  had  begun  to  preach  the 
Reformation  in  Bern,  and  continued  so  doing,  m 
spite  of  the  assiduous  resistance  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  party.  In  1525  he  ceased  reading  mass ; 
in  1526  he  partook  in  the  conference  of  Baden, 
not  altogether  without  success ;  and  in  1528  he 
was  the  leading  spirit  in  the  conference  of  Bern, 
which  resulted  in  the  edict  of  Feb.  7,  1528,  es- 
tablishing the  Reformation  in  that  city.  Some  of 
his  letters  are  found  in  Zwingli's  Works,  edited  by 
Schuler  and  Schulkess,  vols.  vii.  and  viii. ;  but 
else  he  left  no  literary  monuments.  See  Kirch- 
hofer  :  B.  Haller,  Zurich,  1828 ;  Pestalozzi  : 
B.  Haller,  Elberfeld,  1861.  F.  TUECUSEL. 


HALLEY,  Robert,  a  distinguished  preacher  and 
.scholar  among  the  Congregationalists  of  Eng- 
land ;  on  his  father's  side  of  Scotcli  descent ;  b. 
at  Blaokheath,  near  London,  Aug.  13,  1796;  d.  at 
Arundel,  Surrey,  Aug.  18,  1876.  He  received  an 
excellent  classical  education  at  Rere  Regis,  aftiT- 
wards  at  Greenwich,  and  concluded  his  theologi- 
cal instruction  at  Hamerton  College,  London. 
He  was  probably  the, last  nonconformist  minister 
who  found  it  necessary,  wlien  preaching  as  a 
student,  to  receive  a  license  from  a  magistrate 
under  the  provisions  of  the  Toleration  Act.  He 
was  ordained  pastor  of  the  church  at  "  The  Old 
Meeting,"  St.  Neots,  Huntingdonshire,  June  11, 
1822.  Here  he  also  taught  a  school.  In  1826 
he  became  classical  tutor  at  Highbury  College, 
London.  While  hei-e  he  took  active  part  in  the 
antislavery  movement  and  in  the  Unitarian  con- 
troversy. His  letter  to  ilr.  Tates,  entitled  The 
Improved  Version  Truly  Designated  a  Creed  (Lon- 
don, 1834),  led  to  his  receiving  the  degree  of  D.D. 
from  Princeton.  In  1839  he  was  invited  to  suc- 
ceed Dr.  McAll  as  pastor  of  the  Mosley-street 
Chapel,  Manchester,  whence,  nine  years  later,  he 
removed  to  the  new  building,  which  became  neces- 
sary for  the  gTOwth  of  the  church,  in  Cavendish 
Street  of  the  same  city.  In  1843  and  1850  he 
delivered  his  two  courses  of  Congregational  Lec- 
tures on  the  Sacraments,  —  a  very  able,  leaiuied, 
and  candid  work.  In  1847  he  published  a  small 
volume  on  Baptism.  In  1857  he  was  invited  to 
the  chair  of  professor  of  theology,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  principal  in  New  College,  London,  which 
he  occupied  for  fifteen  years.  Here  he  published 
his  History  of  Puritanism  and  Nonconformity  in 
Lancashire,  —  one  of  the  most  graphic  and  inter- 
esting pictures  of  Puritan  life.  He  retired  from 
the  college  in  1872.  He  was  one  of  the  ablest 
platform-speakers  of  his  time.  Ardent,  witty, 
exceedingly  fair  to  opponents,  he  produced  most 
wonderful  effects  upon  general  audiences.  His 
eulogium  upon  Abraham  Lincoln  at  a  meeting  of 
the  Congregational  Union  of  England  and  Wales 
was  an  extraordinary  instance  of  oratorical  power 
and  polemical  effect.        llewelyn  d.  bevan. 

HALLOCK,  William  Allen,  b.  in  Plainfield, 
Mass.,  June  2,  1794  ;  d.  in  New- York  City,  Satur- 
day, Oct.  2,  1880.  He  was  graduated  at  Williams 
College  1819,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Semi- 
nary 1822;  entered  the  service  of  the  New-Eng- 
land Tract  Society  at  Boston,  and  in  1825  took  a 
prominent  part  in  organizing  the  American  Tract 
Society,  of  which  he  was  the  first  secretary,  and 
for  forty-iive  years  served  the  society  in  this  ca- 
pacity with  rare  fidelity  and  ability.  Under  his 
fostering  care  its  publications  year  by  year  in- 
creased in  number  and  usefulness.  He  edited  the 
American  Messenger  for  many  years,  and  wrote 
Lives  of  Rev.  Dr.  Justin  Edwards  and  Harlan 
Page,  besides  several  excellent  tracts.  It  has 
been  calculated,  that,  of  his  own  publications, 
nearly  a  million  and  a  half  copies  have  been  cir- 
culated. See  his  Memorial,  by  Mrs.  H.  C.  Knight, 
New  York,  1882. 

HALSEY,  Luther,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  Jan.  1,  1794  ;  d.  at  Norristown,  Penn., 
Friday,  Oct.  29,  1880.  He  was  professor  of  the- 
ology in  the  Presbyterian  Theological  Seminary, 
Allegheny,  Penn.,  1829-37,  and  in  the  latter  year 
weut  to  th«  chair  of  ecclesiastical  history  and 


HALYBURTON. 


lt3-4 


HAMILTON. 


church  polity  in  Auburn  Theological  Seniiuaiy, 
but  resigned  in  1S44.  From  1847  to  ISoO  he 
acted  as  professor  of  chm-ch  history  in  tlie  Union 
Theological  Seminary,  Xew-York  City.  For  sev- 
eral years  before  his  death  he  lived  in  retirement. 

HALYBURTON,  Thonnas,  b.  at  Duplin,  near 
Perth,  Dec.  2.5,  1G74;  professor  of  divinity  at 
St.  Andrew's,  1710;  d.  there  .Sept.  23,  1712.  '  He 
wrote.  The  Great  Concern  of  Salvation  (published 
by  the  Presbyterian  Board,  Philadelphia),  Natu- 
ral Religion  Insufficient,  etc.,  also  an  Autobiog- 
raphy (Edinburgh,  1715),  'which  has  been  several 
times  republished  (e.g.,  London,  1824).  See  the 
edition  of  his  works  by  Rev.  Robert  Burns,  D.D., 
London,  1835. 

HAM.     See  Xoah. 

HA'MAN  THE  AGAGITE.     See  Esther. 

HAMANN,  Johann  Georg,  b.  in  Kiinigsberg, 
Aug.  27,  1730;  d.  at  Munster,  June  20,  1788; 
received  a  somewhat  desultory  education;  studied 
ancient  literature  and  languages,  philology  and 
belles-lettres,  at  the  university  of  his  native  city 
1746-51 ;  went  to  C'ourland  as  tutor  in  a  private 
family;  became  acquainted  with  the  great  mer- 
cantile house  of  Berens  in  Riga,  began  to  study 
national  economy,  and  made,  in  the  service  of 
the  house  and  for  some  mercantile  purpose,  a 
journey  to  England.  In  London  he  fell  in  with 
bad  company,  and  was  cheated  of  his  money. 
In  his  destitution  he  took  to  the  Bible  ;  and  a 
conversion  followed,  deep  and  complete.  After 
a  short  visit  to  Riga,  he  settled  in  Konigsberg 
1759 ;  held  first  a  small  office  in  the  administra- 
tion, afterwards  a  better  one  in  the  custom-house, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His  books 
(^Biblische  Belrachlungen,  Gedanken  ii.  meinen  Leb- 
enslauf,  Golgotha,  und  Scheblimitii,  etc.)  are  mostly 
small  pamphlets ;  but  they  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion, and  procured  for  him  the  name  of  the 
"Magus  of  the  North."  They  are  queer,  dense 
obscurity  and  lightning-like  clearness,  fugitive 
allusions  and  powerful  tnoughts  of  universal  im- 
port, alternating  with  each  other;  but  they  are 
fuU  of  stirring  sugge.stiveness.  His  last  years  he 
spent  in  the  circles  of  Jacobi  and  the  I'rincess 
Galitzin.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works,  in 
eight  volumes,  by  F.  Roth,  appeared  in  Berlin, 
1821-43.  Selections  from  his  works  were  made 
by  A.  AV.  Moller,  Munster,  1820.  See  Gilre- 
meistkr:  Ilamanns  Leben  u.  Schriften,  1857-68, 
5  vols.  ;  J.  DissEi.iioF :  Wegwe.iser  zu  J.  G.  11., 
Kaiserswerth,  1871  ;  Petri  :  Ilamanns  Schriften 
und  Briefe,  Hanover,  1872-74,  4  vols;  Hur.o 
Delff  :  Lichtslrahlen  aus  llamantis  Schriften,  1873; 
[G.  PoEl. :  Johann  Georg  Ilnmann,  Hamburg, 
1871-76,  2  parts].  .1.  v.  I.AXOU. 

HA'MATH  (r^rsr\,  "  fortress,"  'Eiiii^,  now  Hamah) 
lias  from  tlic  oldest  times,  and  down  to  our  days, 
been  one  of  the  mo.st  important  cities  of  Syria. 
Situated  among  the  northern  sjiurs  of  the  Lib.a- 
noii  (Josh.  xiii.  5;  Judg.  iii.  3),  in  the  narrow 
but  well-watered  and  exceedingly  fertile  valley  of 
the  Orontes,  and  liaving  ea.sy  connections  to  the 
south  with  Damascus  (Zech.  ix.  2;  Jer.  xlix.  23), 
and  the  east  with  Zobah  (1  Chron.  xviii.  3,  9; 
2  Chron.  viii.  3),  it  very  early  formed  one  of  the 
principal  stations  on  the  commercial  and  military 
roa<l  Jrom  I'hccnicia  to  the  Euphrates.  It  was 
originally  a  Canaanite  colony  (Gen.  x.  18),  Init 
was   afterwards  taken  by  the  Syrians.     With  a 


small  territory  comprising  the  city  of  Riblah 
(2  Kings  xxtii.  33,  xxv.  21),  it  formed  an  inde- 
pendent state  under  a  king,  and  maintained  at 
various  periods  various  relations  with  tlie  Jewish 
state.  In  the  time  of  Ilezekiah  it  was  taken  by 
the  Assyrians  (2  Kings  xviii.  34,  xix.  13 ;  Isa.  x. 
9,  xxxvi.  9)  ;  and  "  men  from  Ilamath  "  were  car- 
ried to  Samaria,  and  settled  there  in  place  of  the 
Israelites  (2  Kings  xvii.  24,  30).  In  the  middle 
ages  it  was  again  the  capital  of  a  small  independ- 
ent state.  The  celebrated  liistorian  and  geog- 
rapher .\bulfeda  (d.  1331)  lived  there.  At  present 
it  has  about  thirty  thousand  inhabitants.  Not  to 
be  confounded  with  this  Hamath  is  that  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  (Josh.  xix.  35). 
Four  stones  covered  with  as  yet  mideciphered  in- 
scriptions were  found  at  Hamah.  The  writing  is 
probably  Hittite.     See  Hittites.       rUetschi. 

HAMBURG,  with  a  territory  comprising  an 
area  of  138  square  miles,  contained,  according  to 
the  census  of  1877,  a  population  of  400,014,  of 
which  about  89  per  cent  were  Lutherans,  13,796 
were  Jews,  7,771  Roman  Catholics,  and  5,585  be- 
longed to  other  evangelical  denominations.  Wlien 
Hamburg,  in  1529,  adopted  the  Reformation,  the 
church  constitution  excluded  all  who  were  not 
Lutherans  from  the  city  and  its  territory.  In 
1567  members  of  the  Anglican  Church,  in  1605 
members  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church,  and  in 
1648,  by  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  Roman  Catho- 
lics, were  allowed  to  live  in  the  city ;  but  they 
could  not  become  citizens,  nor  could  they  celebrate 
worship  in  public.  By  the  new  civil  constitution 
of  Sept.  28,  1860,  religious  liberty  was  introduced, 
and  all  civil  disqualifications  from  religious  regard 
abolished.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  goveitied  by 
a  synod  consisting  of  fifty-three  members;  namely^ 
thirty-five  laymen,  sixteen  ecclesiastics,  and  twO' 
senators,  and  elected  by  the  congregations.  The 
ecclesiastical  council,  consisting  of  nine  members, 
four  laymen,  three  ecclesiastics,  and  two  senators, 
and  chosen  by  the  synod,  has  the  executive  power, 
and  carries  on  the  whole  administration. 

HAMEL.     .See  BA.irs. 

HAMELMANN,  Hernnann,  b.  at  Osnabruck, 
1525;  d.  in  Oldenburg,  June  26,  1595;  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Roman-Catholic  religion,  and  curate 
of  Camen,  but  embraced  the  Reformation  1552, 
and  labored  with  great  success  for  its  progress  as 
superintendent-general  in  Brunswick  1508-72,  and 
Oldenburg  1.573-95.  Of  Iiis  works  (forty-five  in 
number)  liis  Opera  yenealoijico-hialorica  de  Wcft- 
phalia  ct  .Snxonia  infcriori  (edited  by  Wasserbaoh, 
Lemgo,  1711)  are  of  great  interest.  His  Life  was 
written  by  RArsciiENuuscii,  .Scliwehn,  1830,  and 
Ci.EMKN  :  D.  Einjuhrung  d.  Rcf.  zu  Lemgo,  Lemgo, 
1847. 

HAMILTON,  James,  D.D.,  eminent  Presbyte- 
rian divine;  b.  at  Lonend,  Paisley,  Scotland,  Nov. 
27,  1814;  came  to  London,  1841,  as  pastor  of  th& 
National  Scotcli  Church,  Regent's  Square ;  d. 
there  Nov.  24,  1807.  He  was  an  acknowledged 
master  of  puljiit  oratory,  and  author  of  .some  of 
the  most  widely  circulated  books  of  liis  day.  Of 
his  Life  in  IJarnest  (1844),  sixty-four  thousand  Iiad 
been  sold  before  18.52,  and,  of  Ids  Mount  if  Olices, 
sixty-four  thousand  before  1853.  Besides  tliese,  he 
wrote  The  liogal  Preacher  (1851),  an  excellent 
homiletical  commentary  upon  Ecclesiastes ;  The 
Lamp  and  the  Lantern  (1853),  later  title  The  Light 


HAMILTON. 


935 


HAMILTON. 


upon  the  Path;  The  Proiliyat  Son  (1866).  A  col- 
lected edition  of  his  woiks  was  publislied,  London, 
187;?,  6  vol.s. ;  liis  select  works,  New  York,  1875, 
4  vols.  See  his  Life  by  William  Aunot,  New 
York,  4Ui  ed.,  1871. 

HAMILTON,  Patrick,  the  proto-martyr  of  the 
Scottish  Reformation;  b.  about  1.50;!-O4,  at  Stane- 
house,  Lanark,  or  Kincavel,  Linlithgow ;  burned 
at  St.  Andrew's  on  Feb.  29,  1528.  His  father 
was  a  natural  son  of  the  first  Lord  Hamilton, 
knighted  for  his  bravery,  and  rewarded  with  the 
above  lands  and  barony,  by  his  sovereign,  James 
IV.  His  mother  was  a  daughter  of  Alexander, 
Duke  of  Albany,  second  son  of  James  II.;  so  that 
he  was  closely  connected  with  some  of  the  highest 
families  in  the  land.  His  cousins,  John  and  James 
Hamilton,  before  the  Reformation,  rose  to  episco- 
]>al  rank  in  the  old  church  ;  and  several  others  of 
his  relatives  attained  high  promotion.  Destined 
Inmself  for  such  promotion,  Patrick  was  carefully 
educated,  and,  according  to  the  corrupt  custom 
of  the  times,  was  in  his  fourteenth  year  appointed 
to  the  abbacy  of  Feme  in  Ross-shire,  to  enable 
him  to  maintain  himself  in  comfort  while  studying 
abroad.  Like  many  of  his  aristocratic  country- 
men at  that  period,  he  went  first  to  the  L'niver- 
sity  of  Paris,  and  probably  to  the  College  of 
Montaigu,  where  John  JLajor,  the  great  doctor 
of  his  country,  was  then  teaching  with  so  much 
ccldt,  and  gathering  round  him,  as  he  did  after- 
wards at  St.  Andrew's,  an  ardent  baud  of  youth- 
ful admirers,  who  in  the  end  were  to  advance 
beyond  then-  preceptor,  and  to  lend  tlie  influ- 
ence of  their  learning  and  character  to  the  side 
of  the  Reformers.  Before  the  close  of  1520  Pat- 
rick Hamilton  took  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Paris, 
and  soon  after  left  that  univei-sity  for  Louvain, 
to  avail  himself  of  the  facilities  for  linguistic 
study  provided  there,  or  to  enjoy  personal  inter- 
course with  Erasmus,  the  patron  of  the  new  learn- 
ing. At  this  date  he  w-as  probably  more  of  an 
Erasmian  than  a  Lutheran,  tliough  of  that  more 
earnest  school  who  were  ultimately  to  outgrow 
their  teacher,  and  find  their  home  in  a  new  church. 
We  know  he  made  great  progress  in  the  languages 
and  philosophy,  and  was  specially  drawn  towards 
the  system  of  Plato.  With  "  the  sophists  of  Lou- 
vain "  he  had  no  sympathy.  But  there  were  some 
there,  as  well  as  at  Paris,  whose  hearts  God  had 
touched,  to  whom  he  could  not  fail  to  be  drawn. 
He  may  even  have  met  with  the  young  Augus- 
tinian  monks  of  Antwerp,  whom,  so  soon  after 
his  departure,  these  sophists  denounced,  and  forced 
to  seal  their  testimony  with  their  blood.  In  the 
course  of  1522  he  returned  to  Scotland,  going 
first,  we  can  hardly  doubt,  to  visit  his  widowed 
mother  and  his  relations,  whom  he  loved  so  well, 
but  proceeding  soon  to  prosecute  his  studies  at 
St.  Andrew's.  He  matriculated  there  on  June  9, 
1.523,  the  same  day  that  his  old  preceptor  Major 
was  incorporated  into  the  university  and  ad- 
mitted as  principal  of  the  Pcedayogium,  or,  as  it 
came  afterwards  to  be  called,  St.  Mary's  College. 
Probably  he  heard  there  those  lectures  on  the 
Gospels  which  Major  afterwards  published  in 
Paris.  But  his  sympathies  were  more  with  the 
young  canons  of  the  Augustinian  priory  than 
with  the  old  scholastic ;  and  possibly  it  was  that 
he  might  take  a  place  among  the  teachers  of  their 
college  of  St.  Leonards,  that  on  Oct.  3,  1524,  he 


was  received  as  a  member  of  the  Faculty  of 
Arts.  He  was  a  proficient,  not  only  in  the  lan- 
guages and  jihilosophy,  but  also  in  the  art  of 
sacred  music,  which  the  canons  and  the  (iluiiiiii  of 
their  college  were  bound  to  cultivate.  He  com- 
posed "  what  the  musicians  call  a  mass,  arranged 
in  parts  for  nine  voices,"  and  acted  him.self  as 
precentor  of  the  choir  when  it  was  sung.  He  is 
said  also  to  have  taken  on  him  the  priesthood,  that 
he  "  might  be  admitted  to  preach  the  word  of 
God  ;  "  but  Mr.  David  Laing  questions  if  he  was 
in  holy  orders  at  all,  as  no  mention  is  made  of  his 
degradation  before  his  luartyrdom.  In  1526, 
while  James  Beatoun,  the  primate,  disguised  as  a 
shepherd,  was  tending  a  flock  on  the  hills  of  Fife, 
the  New  Testament  of  Tyndale's  translation  was 
brought  over  from  the  Low  Countries  by  the  Scot- 
tish traders.  A  large  proportion  of  the  copies 
are  said  to  have  been  taken  to  St.  Andrew's,  and 
circulated  there.  Hamilton  seized  the  opportu- 
nity to  commend  the  holy  book  and  its  long- 
forgotten  truths  to  those  over  whom  he  had 
influence.  His  doings  could  not  long  escape  the 
notice  of  the  returned  archbishop.  He  was  not 
naturally  cruel,  or  likely,  after  his  recent  misfor- 
tunes, to  desire  to  embroil  himself  in  a  quarrel 
witli  the  powerful  Hamiltons.  But  he  had  those 
about  him,  particularly  his  nephew  the  future 
cardinal,  who  were  more  relentless,  and  less  care- 
ful of  consequences,  and  so  far  he  yielded  to  their 
wishes.  Still  he  was  anxious  to  perform  the  un- 
grateful task  in  the  least  offensive  way;  and  by  is- 
suing, or  threatening  to  issue,  a  summons  charging 
him  with  iieresy,  he  got  rid  of  the  Reformer,  for 
a  time,  without  imbruing  his  hands  in  his  blood. 
Hamilton,  yielding  to  the  counsels  of  friends  and 
opponents,  made  his  escape  to  the  Continent.  His 
original  intention  had  been  to  vi.sit  Luther  and 
IVIelanchthon  at  Wittemberg,  as  well  as  Frith,  Tyu- 
dale  and  Lambert,  at  Marburg.  But  Dr.  Jlerle 
d'Aubigne  says  that  the  plague  was  then  raging 
at  Wittemberg,  and  that  he  went  straight  to  the 
newly  opened  university  of  Marburg,  over  which 
Lambert  presided,  and  that  he  pubticly  disputed 
there  those  theses  as  to  the  law  and  gospel  which 
fully  set  forth  the  main  doctrines  which  he  taught, 
and  for  which  at  last  he  suffered,  lie  had  much 
profitable  intercourse  with  Tyndale,  as  well  as 
with  Lambert,  and  was  urged  to  remain  in  that 
quiet  refuge.  But  he  yearned  over  his  native 
land,  still  in  darkness  and  the  shadow  of  death ; 
and,  late  in  the  autumn  of  1.527,  he  returned  to  it, 
determined  to  brave  death  itself,  rather  than  prove 
faithless  to  his  Master  where  before  he  had  shrunk 
from  an  ordeal  so  terrible.  Nor  was  it  long  ere 
his  resolution  was  put  to  the  test.  After  he  had 
labored  for  a  very  short  time  in  his  native  dis- 
trict, gained  over  to  the  truth  several  of  his  rela- 
tives, and  won  the  heart  of  a  young  lady  of  noble 
birth,  to  whom  he  united  himself  in  marriage, 
he  was  invited  by  the  archbishop  to  a  conference 
with  the  chiefs  of  the  church  "  on  such  points 
as  might  seem  to  stand  in  need  of  reform."  At 
first  all  displayed  a  conciliatory  spirit,  and  ap- 
peared to  recognize  the  evils  existing  in  the 
church  :  some  even  seemed,  in  some  points,  to 
share  his  sentiments,  and  for  nearly  a  month  all 
possible  freedom  in  making  known  liis  views  was 
allowed  to  him.  At  length  the  mask  was  thrown 
aside.    On  Feb.  '28  he  was  seized,  and  on  the  29th 


HAMILTON. 


93C 


HAMILTON. 


brougnt  out  for  trial  in  the  cathedral.  Among 
the  articles  with  which  he  was  charged  and  the 
truth  of  which  he  maintained,  the  more  impor- 
tant were.  "  that  a  man  is  not  justified  by  works, 
but  by  faith  ;  that  faith,  hope,  and  charity  are  so 
liuked  together,  that  he  who  hath  one  of  them 
hath  all,  and  he  that  lacketh  one  lacketh  all : 
and  that  good  works  make  not  a  good  man,  but  a 
good  man  doeth  good  works."  On  being  chal- 
lenged by  his  accuser,  he  also  affirmed  it  was  not 
lawful  to  worship  images,  nor  to  pray  to  the 
saints :  and  that  it  was  "  lawful  to  all  men  that 
have  souls  to  read  the  word  of  God ;  and  that 
they  are  able  to  understand  the  same,  and  in  par- 
ticular the  latter  will  and  testament  of  Jesus 
Christ."  These  truths,  which  have  been  the 
source  of  life  and  strength  to  many,  were  then  to 
him  the  cause  of  condemnation  and  death ;  and 
the  same  day  the  sentence  was  passed,  it  was 
remorselessly  executed.  But,  through  all  his  ex- 
cruciating sufferings,  the  martyr  held  fast  his 
confidence  in  God  and  in  his  Saviour;  and  the 
faith  of  many  in  the  truths  he  taught  was  only 
the  more  confirmed  by  witnessing  their  mighty 
power  on  him.  Nay,  "  the  reek  of  Patrick  Ham- 
ilton infected  all  on  whom  it  did  blow." 

Lit.  —  The  older  authorities  for  the  facts  of 
Hamilton's  life  are  the  notices  in  the  Commentary 
of  Alesius  on  Ps.  xxxvii.,  and  in  the  Introduc- 
tion to  Lambert's  Commentary  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse, in  the  Actes  and  Monuments  of  FoxE,  in 
the  Histories  of  Kxox,  Calderwood,  Spottis- 
wooDE,  and  in  the  Chronicle  of  Lindsay  of 
Pitscottie.  The  only  formal  biography  of  the 
martyr  is  that  published  in  our  own  day  by  the 
late  principal  Lorimer,  and  intended  to  form 
the  first  of  a  series  on  the  "  Precursors  of  Knox." 
Its  title  is  Patrick  Hamilton,  the  First  Preacher  and 
Martyr  of  the  Scottish  Reformation :  a  Historical 
Biography,  collected  from  original  sources,  etc., 
Edinburgh,  1857.  The  story  of  the  martyr  has 
since  been  told,  in  his  own  dramatic  way,  by  Dr. 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  in  vol.  vi.  of  his  Reformation  in 
Europe  ill  the  Time  of  Calvin.  Still  more  recently 
it  has  been  made  the  subject  of  a  veritable  drama 
by  liev.  T.  P.  Johnston,  Patrick  Hamilton,  a 
Tragedy  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotlaml,  Edin- 
burgh, 1882.  A.  F.  MITCHELL 

(Profc'Rsor  of  the  UnivcrBity  of  Si.  Andrews). 

HAMILTON,  Sir  William  (Baronet),  professor 
of  logic  and  metaphysics,  University  of  Edin- 
burgh, was  b.  March  8,  1788,  at  the  College  of 
Glasgow,  where  his  father  was  professor  of  anat- 
omy and  botany.  He  studied  first  in  Glasgow 
University,  afterwards  in  Edinburgh  University, 
and  finally  in  the  University  of  Oxford.  He  at 
fir.st  devoted  himself  to  medical  .studies;  but 
during  residence  at  Oxford  he  concentrated  upon 
classics  and  philosophy,  at  which  iierind  he  is 
descriVjed  as  a  "  solitary  student  "  (V'eitch's  Life, 
p.  42).  When  passing  his  examination,  he  pro- 
fessed the  whole  works  of  Aristotle,  and  results 
showed  that  his  study  of  the  Stagirite  had  been 
careful  and  minute.  Hamilton  turned  to  the 
legal  profession,  pa.ssing  for  the  Scotch  bar  iu 
18115.  Shortly  after,  he  established  his  claim  to 
the  baronetcy  of  Hamilton  of  Preston,  and  was 
tlienceforth  known  as  Sir  William.  He  twice 
visited  Germany  during  the  years  following,  but 
does  not  seem  by  these  visits  to  have  made  the 


acquaintance  of  any  noted  philosophers.  In  1820 
he  liecame  a  candidate  for  the  chair  of  moral 
philosophy  in  Edinburgh  University,  vacant  by 
the  death  of  Thom.as  Brown.  He  was  supported 
in  his  candidature  by  Dugald  Stewart,  the  senior 
professor,  incapacitated  for  the  active  duties  of 
the  chair.  John  Wilson  ("Christopher  North" 
of  literature)  was,  however,  the  successful  can- 
didate, and  became  professor  of  ethics ;  while 
Hamilton  waited  for  the  more  congenial  sphere 
of  teacher  of  logic  and  metaphysics.  In  1821 
HamOton  w.as  elected  professor  of  history  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh.  From  1826  he  gave 
himself  for  two  or  three  years  to  the  study  of  the 
functions  of  the  brain,  which  resulted  in  pro- 
nomiced  antagonism  to  phrenology.  For  sum- 
mary of  results,  see  Lects.  on  Metaphysics,  vol.  I., 
Apjiendix,  pp.  40-1-444  In  1829  appeared  his 
celebrated  article  on  The  Philosophy  of  the  Uncon- 
ditioned (Edinburgh  Review,  No.  99,  Hamilton's 
Discussions,  p.  1).  This  was  the  first  of  a  series 
of  important  articles  which  extended  over  a 
period  of  sixteen  years.  In  183G  he  was  elected 
to  the  chair  of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  which  chair  he  held  till 
his  death,  in  1856. 

Hamilton  was  the  learned  and  vigorous  ex- 
pounder of  the  Scotch  philosophy  of  common 
.sense,  or  knowledge  of  first  principles  common  to 
all  men,  and  incapable  of  being  either  proved  or 
doubted.  He  was  conspicuous  as  the  defender 
and  expounder  of  Thomas  Reid,  and  was  the  first 
of  the  Scottish  school  who  felt  the  influence  of 
Kant,  whose  theory  of  knowledge  he  critically 
handled.  Hamilton's  contributions  to  philosophy 
may  best  be  grouped  under  these  heads :  1,  His 
analysis  of  consciousness  and  his  treatment  of 
external  perception  in  psychology;  2,  His  philoso- 
phy of  the  unconditioned  in  metaphysics;  and, 
3,  His  analytic  of  logical  forms  in  pure  logic. 
We  must  restrict  here  to  a  brief  account  of  the 
two  first  named. 

His  treatment  of  consciousness  (Lects.  on  Meta- 
physics, XI. -XVI.,  especially  the  first  and  two 
last)  involves  a  contribution  to  philo.sophy  of 
great  value.  It  includes  analysis  of  the  act  of 
con.sciousness,  the  relation  of  consciousness  to  the 
special  faculties,  the  phenomena  of  external  per- 
ception, and  the  ultimate  facts  of  consciou.sness 
essential  to  its  exercise.  Excepting  the  debatable 
question  of  external  perception,  the  whole  dis- 
cussion is  of  the  first  importance,  involving  much 
that  is  now  universally  accepted  in  mental  phi- 
losophy. Under  the  last  division  great  service  is 
done  for  an  intuitional  theory,  while  he  prepares 
nuich  critical  work  for  sensationalists.  Conscious- 
ness, he  says,  is  the  "essential  element"  or  "neces- 
sary condition  "  of  all  experience,  —  "knowledge 
that  I  exist  in  some  determinate  state,"  "the 
recognition  by  the  thinking  subject  of  its  own 
acts  or  alTections."  It  is  an  imniedi.ate  knowledge, 
involving  discrimination,  that  is,  jiulginent  and 
memory,  as  its  conditions.  This  detailed  treat- 
ment of  consciousness  was  ,a  very  marked  advance 
on  the  work  of  Heid  anil  Stewart,  vin<iicating 
the  fundamental  iiosition  of  Descartes,  giving 
greater  breadth  and  clearness  of  exposition  to 
tin-  Scotch  philosiiphy,  gaining  the  assent  of  the 
leaders  of  the  experiential  .school,  —  such  as  J.  .S. 
Mill  (Exam,  of  Hamilton's  Philos.,  chap.  VIII.) 


I 


HAMILTON. 


937 


HAMILTON. 


and  Herbert  Spencer  (First  Principles,  chap.  IV., 
§  24),  —  and  presenting  an  insnperable  difficulty 
to  the  opponents  of  introspection.  In  the  midst  of 
the  conflict  connected  witli  interpretation  of  con- 
sciousness, consciousness  itself  is  certainty,  —  the 
province  within  r.hich  scepticism  is  impossible. 

Hamilton's  theory  of  external  perception,  in 
which  he  maintains  that  the  external  object  is 
within  consciousness,  has  not  gained  niucli  sup- 
port. 

Hamilton's  law  of  the  conditioned,  with  cor- 
relative philosophy  of  the  unconditionetl,  is  that 
which  comes  into  nearest  relation  with  tlieology. 
His  law  of  the  conditioned  is,  "  that  all  that  is 
conceivable  in  thought  lies  between  two  extremes, 
■which,  as  contradictory  of  each  other,  cannot 
both  be  true,  but  of  which,  as  mutually  contra- 
dictory, one  mu.st"  {Melaph.,  II.  368,  Lect.  -38). 
"  The  law  of  the  mind,  that  the  conceivable  is  in 
every  relation  bounded  by  the  inconceivable,  I 
call  the  law  of  the  conditioned"  (p.  373).  This 
involved  his  position  as  to  the  Infinite,  —  that 
the  Infinite  is  "  incognizable  and  inconceivable." 
This  doctrine  on  its  philosophic  side  is  a  protest 
against  Kant's  sceptical  result  affirming  that 
reason  lands  in  hopeless  contradictions :  on  its 
theological  side  it  proclaims  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  the  Absolute  Being.  Only  by  taking- 
first  the  philosophic  aspect  can  we  correctly  inter- 
pret its  theological  relations.  Kant  had  made 
a  priori  elements  only  forms  of  the  mind ;  and 
accordingly  the  ideas  of  self,  the  universe,  and 
God,  became  only  regulative  of  our  intellectual 
procedure,  and  in  no  sense  guaranties  of  truth. 
Accordingly  Kant  has  dwelt  on  "the  self-contra- 
diction of  seemingly  dogmatical  cognitions  {ikesis 
ctcm  antilhesi)  in  none  of  which  we  can  discover 
any  decided  superiority."  These  were  that  the 
world  had  a  beginning,  that  it  had  not;  that 
every  composite  substance  consists  of  simple 
parts,  that  no  composite  thing  does ;  that  causali- 
ty according  to  the  laws  of  nature  is  not  the 
only  causality  operating  to  originate  the  world, 
that  there  is  no  other  causality,  that  there  is  an 
absolutely  necessary  being,  that  there  is  not  any 
such  being.  Hamilton's  object  was  to  maintain 
that  such  contradictions  are  not  the  product  of 
reason,  but  of  an  attempt  to  press  reason  beyond 
its  proper  limits.  If,  then,  we  allow  that  the 
conceivable  is  only  of  the  relative  and  bounded, 
we  recognize  at  once  that  the  so-called  antinomies 
of  reason  are  the  result  of  attempts  to  push  reason 
beyond  its  own  province,  to  make  our  conceptions 
the  measure  of  existence,  attemjjting  to  bring  the 
incomprehensible  within  the  limits  of  compre- 
hension. Thus  far  a  real  service  was  rendered 
by  Hamilton  in  criticising  the  sceptical  side  of 
Kant's  Critique  of  Pure  Reason.  lie  estimated 
this  result  so  highly  as  to  say  of  it,  "  If  I  have 
done  any  thing  meritorious  in  philosophy,  it  is  in 
the  attempt  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  these 
contradictions"  (Append.  Metaph.,  I.  p.  402).  At 
this  point  Hamilton  ranks  Reid  superior  to  Kant; 
the  former  ending  in  certainty,  the  latter  in 
imcertainty.  But  there  remains  for  Hamilton's 
philosophy  the  question.  If  we  escape  contradic- 
tion by  refusing  to  attempt  to  draw  the  inconceiv- 
able within  the  limits  of  conception,  what  is  the 
source  of  certainty  as  to  the  Infinite  ?  how  are 
knowledge  and  thought  related  to  the  existence 


and  attributes  of  the  Infinite  Being?  Here 
Hamilton  is  entangled  in  the  perplexity  of  affiini- 
ing  that  to  be  certain  whicli  is  yet  unknowable. 
That  there  is  an  Alisolute  Being,  source  of  all 
finite  existence,  is,  according  to  him,  a  certainty; 
but  that  we  can  have  any  knowledge  of  the  fact 
is  by  him  denied.  Held  had  maintained  the 
existence  of  the  Supreme  Being  as  a  necessary 
truth  {Iiilell.  Potcers,  Essay  IV.  chap.  3);  and 
Hamilton  affirms  that  the  divine  existence  is  at 
least  a  natural  inference  {Melaph.,  Lect.  3)  ;  but 
he  nevertheless  holds  that  the  IJeity  cannot  by  us 
be  known.  This  is  with  him  an  application  of 
the  law  of  the  conditioned,  —  a  conclusion  inev- 
itable under  admission  that  all  knowledge  implies 
the  relative,  the  antithesis  of  subject  and  object. 
This  doctrine  of  ignorance  was  developed  by 
Mansel  {Limits  of  Relir/ious  Thowjkt),  and  eagerly 
embraced  by  the  experientialists,  J.  S.  Mill  {Exam, 
of  Hamilton's  Philos.,  chap.  IV.)  and  Herbert 
Spencer  {First  Principles,  Pt.  I.;  The  Unlcnoicuble, 
chap.  IV. ;  The  Relativity  of  all  Knowledge).  This 
gave  an  impulse  to  agnosticism,  the  influence  of 
which  must  be  largely  credited  to  Kant,  who  re- 
duced the  a  priori  to  a  form  of  mental  procedure, 
and  to  Hamilton,  who  rejected  Kant's  view,  yet 
regarded  the  absolute  as  incoguizable.  See  .4/7- 
noslicisni.  For  an  understanding  of  Hamilton's 
position  the  following  references  may  suffice : 
"  Mind  rises  to  its  highest  dignity  when  viewed 
as  the  object  through  which,  and  througli  which 
alone,  our  unassisted  reason  can  ascend  to  the 
knowledge  of  God"  {Metaph.,  Lect.  II.).  "The 
notion  of  a  God  is  not  contained  in  the  notion 
of  a  mere  First  Cause,"  uor  is  the  notion  com- 
pleted by  adding  "the  attribute  of  omnipotence." 
"  Not  until  the  two  great  attriliutes  of  intelligence 
and  virtue  are  brought  in  "  have  we  "  the  belief 
in  a  veritable  Divinity ; "  to  which  statement  it 
is  added,  by  way  of  exposition,  "  that  virtue  in- 
volves liberty  "  {(l).).  "  The  assertion  of  theism  " 
is  "  the  assertion  that  the  universe  is  created  by 
intelligence,  and  governed  not  only  by  physical, 
but  by  moral  laws"  {Ih.).  From  these  passages 
it  is  obvious,  that,  when  Hamilton  is  discussing 
the  rational  explanation  of  the  universe,  he  speaks 
unreservedly  of  "  the  knowledge  of  God,"  "  medi- 
ately through  his  works,"  interchanging  "knowl- 
edge "  and  "belief  "  in  his  statements.  But  when 
he  treats  of  the  limits  of  knowledge,  the  law  of 
the  conditioned,  the  inconceivability  of  the  un- 
conditioned, he  denies  the  possibility  of  knowl- 
edge, and  makes  faith  the  only  possible  exercise. 
"  The  infinite  God  cannot  by  us,  in  the  present 
limitation  of  our  faculties,  be  comprehended  or 
conceived "  (.l/c/(;y>/i.,  Lect.  -38).  He  adds,  how- 
ever, "  We  know  God  according  to  the  finitude  of 
our  faculties;"  but  "faith  —  belief  —  is  the  organ 
by  which  we  apprehend  what  is  beyond  our 
knowledge."  In  judging  of  this,  two  things  are 
to  be  noticed :  that  he  reasons  from  conception 
to  knowledge,  not  I'ice  vers-a,  —  "  The  mind  can 
conceive,  and  consequently  can  know,  only  the 
limited"  {Discussions,  Essay  I.),  —  and  that  he 
makes  faith  a  cognitive  power. 

Lit. —  Hamilton's  Works:  Discussions  (18-52), 
Reid's  Works,  icilh  Notes  and  Dissertations  (1840, 
completed,  1863),  Lectures  on  Metaphi/sics  and 
Logic  (1859).  See  also  Memoir  of  Hamilton,  by 
Professor   Veitch  ;    Mansel's    Limits   of  Reli- 


HAMMOND. 


938 


HANDICRAFTS. 


gious  nought,  and  Philosophy  of  the  Comlilioiied , 
McCosh's  Scottish  Philosophy,  Lect.  .57;  Sir  W. 
Hamilton,  by  Professor  Monck,  Dublin ;  Mill's 
Exam,  of  Hamilton's  Philosophy ;  Hamilton,  by 
HiTCiiisox  Stirling.  h.  Calderwood. 

HAMMOND,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  learned  divine  ;  b. 
at  Chertsey  in  Surrey,  Eng.,  Aug.  26,  1605;  d.  at 
A\'estwood,  Worcestershire,  April  25,  1660.  He 
was  a  fellow  of  JIagdalen  College,  Oxford,  1625, 
rector  of  Penshurst  1633,  D.D.  1639,  canon  of 
Christ  Church  1645,  and  chaplain  to  Charles  I. 
1645-47,  sub-dean  of  Christ  Church  1648,  but 
shortly  expelled  for  his  loyalty  to  the  Stuarts,  and 
imprisoned  in  Oxford,  freed,  and  lived  out  his  days 
in  privacy.  He  was  a  man  of  the  very  highest 
character.  Dr.  Fell  expatiates  at  great  length,  but 
very  entertainingly,  upon  his  many  virtues.  He 
never  married,  although,  according  to  Dr.  Fell, 
he  twice  felt  strongly  inclined  that  way.  He  was 
nominated  one  of  the  AVestminster  Assembly  of 
divines,  but  never  sat  among  them ;  and  his  nomi- 
nation was  soon  afterwards  revoked  because  of  his 
loyalty  to  the  king's  cause.  Among  his  works 
the  best  are  A  Practical  Catechism  (1644),  Para- 
phrase ami  Annotations  upon  the  New  Testament 
(1653,  reprinted  Oxford,  1845,  4  vols.),  upon  the  Book' 
of  Psalms  (1659,  reprinted  Oxford,  1850,  2  vols.), 
and  upon  the  Ten  First  Chapters  of  Proverbs.  His 
Catechism  appeared  anonymously  in  a  small  edi- 
tion at  Oxford,  and  did  not  attract  much  notice 
until  the  appearance  of  the  second  edition  (1646), 
when  it  suddenly  leaped  into  such  popularity  that 
fifteen  editions  were  printed  before  1715 :  it  covers 
178  pages  of  the  folio  edition  of  Hammond's 
works.  But  of  more  importance  is  his  Para- 
phrase, in  which  he  reveals  oenuine  exegetical 
tact  and  learning.  That  on  the  Xew  Testament 
was  translated  into  Latin,  and  annotated  by 
LeClerc,  Amsterdam,  1698.  His  Life  was  written 
by  Bishop  John  Fell,  London,  1661.  His  com- 
plete Works  were  published  London,  1674-84, 
4  vols,  folio;  his  Miscellaneous  Theological  Works, 
in  the  Library  of  Anglo-Catholic  Theology,  Ox- 
ford, 1847-50,  3  vols.  8vo.  Both  these  editions 
of  his  Works  contain  Fell's  Life. 

HAMPDEN,  Renn  Dickson,  an  English  prelate ; 
b.  in  the  Barbadoes,  1793;  d.  in  London,  April, 
23,  1868.  He  was  educated  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford ;  became  fellow  there  with  Keble  anil 
Newman ;  filled,  in  succession,  the  curacies  of 
Newton,  Faringdon,  and  Hacknev ;  w:us  tutor  in 
Oriel  1828,  and  principal  of  St.  Mary's  Hall  1833. 
In  1832  he  delivered  tile  Bampton  Lectures,  choos- 
ing for  his  subject  The  Scholastic  Philosophy  con- 
sidered in  its  Relation  to  Christian  Theology  (3d 
ed.,  1848).  These  lectures  expo.sed  him  to  the 
charge  of  Arianisni;  but  in  spite  of  this  he  was 
chosen  Regius  Profe.ssorof  Divinity  in  1836.  In 
1848  he  was  promoted  to  the  see  of  Hereford, 
and  consecrated,  in  spite  of  the  remonstrance  of 
thirteen  bishops.  The  question  of  the  bishoi)'s 
orthodoxy  was  the  subject  of  a  lieated  iiamphlet 
di3CU.s.sion,  for  the  literature  of  wliich  .sen  Alli- 
UOXK.  Among  Hampden's  writings  are  Philosophi- 
cal Evidence  of  Chri.itianity  (1827),  Parochial  Sir- 
mons  (1820),  I'he  Fathers  of  the  Greek  Phitosojihi/ 
(Ivlinl)urgh,  1862). 

HAMON,  Jean,  b.  at  Cherbourg,  1618;  d.  in 
Port-Royal,  Feb.  22,  1687;  studied  medicine  in 
Fari.s.  and  began  to  practise  with  great  success, 


but  sold  in  1651  all  his  property,  distributed  the 
money  among  the  poor,  and  became  a  hermit  in 
Port-Royal,  (^f  his  numerous  ascetic  wn-itings  the 
principal  are,  Traites  de  pie'te.  Pratique  de  la  priere 
continuelle,  an  autobiography  in  imitation  of  Au- 
gustine's Confessiones,  Lettres  el  opuscules,  etc. 
The  best  life  of  him  is  found  in  Besoigxe:  His- 
toire  de  I'ahbe'  de  Port-Royal,  vol.  iv. 

HANDEL,  Georg  Friedrich,  b.  in  Halle,  Prus- 
sia, Feb.  24,  1684 ;  d.  in  London,  April  13,  1759 ; 
received  his  musical  education  in  his  native  city, 
Berlin,  and  Hamburg;  visited  Italy  1706-09,  and 
was  chapel-master  to  the  elector  of  "Hanover  1709- 
12,  hut  settled  in  the  latter  year  in  England,  and 
soon  became  thoroughly  nationalized.  His  Ital- 
ian operas,  of  which  he  produced  about  fifty,  are 
now  forgotten,  with  the  exception  of  some  de- 
tached arias ;  but,  under  the  influence  of  the 
strong  religious  feeling  of  the  English  people,  he 
composed  about  twenty  oratorios,  —  Esther  (1720), 
Lfrael  in  Egypt  (1738),  Messiah  (I7il),  Judas  Mac- 
cabcEus  (1746),  Jephthah  (1751), — and  thereby  ex- 
ercised an  influence  on  English  taste  and  English 
art  which  is  paralleled  only  by  that  of  Snak- 
speare's  dramas. 

HANDICRAFTS  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
That  the  first  craftsman  mentioned  in  Scripture, 
Tubal-Cain  (Gen.  iv.  22),  was  a  worker  in  met- 
als, indicates  that  metal-working  wivs  one  of  the 
earliest  crafts  among  the  Hebrews ;  and  the  cir- 
cumstance becomes  so  much  the  more  significant, 
as  the  general  Hebrew  expression  f(jr  an  artisan 
(ty^ri)  primitively  denotes  a  worker  in  metals,  or, 
at  least,  a  worker  in  some  hard  material.  All 
such  kinds  of  labor  as  required  less  strength  and 
skill,  and  administered  only  to  the  necessities  of 
every-day  life  (baking,  weaving,  tailoring,  house- 
building, etc.),  were  in  the  oldest  time  performed 
by  the  householder,  the  women,  and  the  slaves, 
and  continued  to  be  performed  in  that  way  even 
after  each  kind  had  developed  into  a  specific  trade 
(1  .Sam.  ii.  19  ;  2  Sam.  xiii.  8;  Prov.  xxxi.  22;  Acts 
ix.  39).  Corporations  organized  in  the  form  of 
castes,  or  monopolies  belonging  exclusively  to  cer- 
tain families,  did  not  exist  among  the  Hebrews; 
and  when  we  hear  of  a  certain  place  where  arti- 
sans of  the  tribe  of  Judah  were  working,  or  of  cer- 
tain occupations,  such  as  byssu.s-weaving,  wliidi 
were  inherited  in  certain  families  of  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  these  are  only  insulated  occurrences,  proba- 
bly incidental  remembrances  from  the  time  the 
people  lived  in  Egypt.  Nevertheless,  in  the  cities 
the  members  of  tlie  same  trade  generally  lived 
together  in  tlie  same  neighborliood  :  there  were  in 
.lerusalem  a  bakers'-street  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21),  a 
square  near  the  gate  leading  into  the  valley  of 
Ben-Hinnoni,  where  tlie  potters  had  their  shops 
(Jer.  xix.  2),  a  (piarter  occupied  mainly  by  the 
noisy  iron-industry  and  metal-works  (Jo.seph., 
Bell.  Jud.,  v.  8,  1),  etc.  When  the  Hebrews  left 
Egypt,  they  had  among  tluMn  skilled  workmen  in 
gold,  silver,  brass,  wood,  leather,  textile  fabrics, 
cut  stones,  etc.  But,  when  tlie  geneiation  of 
artists  educated  in  I'>gy)>t  died  out  in  the  desert, 
the  developmenl  of  the  mechanical  arts  seemed 
to  come  to  a  standstill ;  and  during  the  confusion 
of  the  period  of  the  Judges,  and  under  tlie  lieavy 
pressure  of  enemies,  who  often  carried  away  as 
prisoners  of  war  tlie  artisans,  especially  the  metal- 
workers, ill  order  to  weaken  the  coniiuered  people 


HANDS. 


939 


HARDWICK. 


'(Judg.  V.  H;  1  Sam.  xiii.  19),  many  arts  became 
lost  among  the  Hebrews,  or  fell  into  decay.  If  a 
steady  development  had  taken  place  from  the 
exodus  of  Egypt  to  the  period  of  the  kings, 
David  and  Solomon  would  have  needed  no  for- 
eign masters.  As  it  was,  the  Phoenicians  became 
the  teachers  of  the  Hebrews  (2  Sam.  v.  11 ;  1  Ez. 
xiv.  1,  xxii,  15;  1  Kings  v.  1  sqq.,  vii.  1.3  sqq.). 
A  little  later  we  find,  especially  in  the  larger 
cities,  many  kinds  of  work,  which  formerly  were 
left  to  the  domestic  industry,  organized  into  speci- 
fic trades,  such  as  baking,  fulling,  cheese-making, 
liair-cutting,  etc.  (Hos.  vii.  4;  Jer.  xxxvii.  21; 
2  Kings  xviii.  17).  To  pursue  a  trade  was,  at 
least  in  later  times,  not  considered  degrading 
among  the  Jews  :  on  the  contrary,  the  Mishna 
censures  the  exclusive  occupation  with  studies, 
and  puts  it  down  as  a  duty  to  learn  a  trade.  "  It 
is  better  to  make  the  Sabbath  a  working-day  than 
to  be  dependent  on  other  people.  Do  the  meanest 
work,  if  it  can  support  you,  and  do  it  publicly, 
.and  without  saying,  '  I  am  a  priest  and  a  great 
man,  for  whom  such  work  is  unbecoming.'  "  Like 
Paul,  the  most  celebrated  rabbis  earned  their  live- 
lihood by  some  handicraft;  Jochanan  was  a  sandal- 
maker;  Isaac  a  smith;  Abin  a  carpenter;  Hillel 
is  said  to  have  earned  his  bread  by  cutting  up 
■wood.  Some  trades,  however,  such  as  had  to  deal 
with  unclean  things,  or  brought  the  workman 
in  contact  with  women,  were  considered  less 
honorable :  the  weaver,  barber,  tanner,  fuller, 
etc.,  could  not  become  king  or  high  priest.  "With 
respect  to  wages,  the  law  said  that  the  day's  work 
should  be  paid  at  the  day's  end  (Lev.  xix.  13 ; 
Deut.  xxiv.  1.5).  See  Delitzsch  :  Jewish  Artinan 
Life  in  the  Time  of  Christ,  English  translation, 
London,  1877.  LEYRER. 

HANDS,  Laying  on  of.  See  Imposition  of 
Hands. 

HANCINC.  See  Punishments  among  the 
Hebrews. 

HAN'NAH  (sweetness,  a  common  female  name 
among  the  Hebrews  and  Phoenicians,  cf.,  in  Vir- 
gil, Dido's  sister  Anna}  was  one  of  the  wives  of 
Elkanah  of  Ramathaim-Zophim  (1  Sam.  i.  1,  2). 
She  was  barren  for  many  years;  but,  in  answer  to 
her  earnest  prayer,  Jehovah  sent  her  a  son,  whom 
she  called  Samuel  (see  art.).  Her  magnificent 
song  of  praise  at  his  birth  (1  Sam.  ii.  1-10)  is  the 
prototype  of  the  Maynifcat,  the  song  of  Jlary  the 
mother  of  our  Lord  (Luke  i.  46-55). 

HANNOVER.     See  Phussia. 

HANSIZ,  Markus,  b.  at  Vblkermarkt,  in  Carin- 
thia,  .A.pril  23,  1683;  d.  in  Vienna,  Sept.  5,  1766; 
was  educated  in  the  .Jesuit  college  of  Eberndorf ; 
studied  at  the  university  of  Vienna;  and  was  for 
many  years  a  teacher  of  philosophy  in  the  Jesuit 
college  of  Gratz.  His  ambition  was  to  produce 
for  Germany  a  Gallia  Christiana,  Anglica  Sacra, 
or  Italia  Sacra ;  and  in  1727  appeared  the  first 
^•olume  of  his  Germania  Sacra,  devoted  to  the 
ctiurch  of  Lorch  and  the  diocese  of  Passau ;  in 
1729  the  second  (Salzburg);  and  from  1731  to 
1754  the  third  (Ratisbon).  But  the  freedom  with 
which  he  treated  local  legends  (on  St.  Rupert  and 
others)  roused  such  an  opposition  to  him,  that 
he  felt  compelled  to  renounce  literary  work.  The 
work  has  been  continued  by  Ussermann  and 
others,  but  was  never  completed. 

HAPHTARAH,    plural    HAPHTAROTH,    were 


reading-lessons  or  jjaragraphs  taken  from  the 
prophets  for  use  in  the  synagogues  on  the  Sab- 
bath and  feast-days,  in  connection  with  sections 
from  the  law.    Cf.  .\cts  iii.  15 ;  and  Pericope.s. 

HA'RAN  (the  Greek  and  Latin  Kafifiai,  Carra-), 
a  city  and  territory  in  Xorthern  Mesopotamia,  on 
the  road  from  L'r  of  the  Chaldees  to  Canaan.  It 
was  probably  the  fertility  of  the  region  wliich 
caused  Terah  and  Nahor  to  stop  tiierc  while 
Abraham  and  Lot  pushed  forwai'ds  to  Canaan. 
To  the  Assyrians  the  place  was  of  great  impor- 
tance as  a  military  station  when  campaigns  were 
made  in  Cilicia.  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  23)  speaks  of  it 
as  carrying  on  a  considerable  trade  with  Tyre. 
In  Roman  liistory  it  is  famous  as  the  scene  of  the 
defeat  of  C'ra.ssus  and  the  assassination  of  Cara- 
calla.  It  flourished  also  under  the  Arabs,  but 
Abulfeda  mentions  it  as  lying  in  ruins.  —  Haran 
(Greek,  'Alij>av)  is  the  name  of  the  youngest  son 
of  Terah  (Gen.  xi.  26). 

HARBAUGH,  Henry,  D.D.,  a  genial  and  schol- 
arly divine  of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  and 
of  Swiss  descent ;  b.  near  Waynesborough,  Penn., 
Oct.  28,  1817 ;  d.  in  Mercer.sburg,  Penn.,  Dec.  28, 
1867.  He  worked  on  his  father's  farm  till  his 
nineteenth  year,  and  then  engaged  in  other  em- 
ployments until  1840,  when  he  entered  Franklin 
and  Marshall  College,  Mercersburg,  and,  after 
spending  three  years  there,  was  successively  pastor 
of  the  Reformed  Church,  Lewisburg,  Penn.  (1843), 
Lancaster  (18.50),  and  Lebanon  (I860).  In  1863 
he  became  the  successor  of  Dr.  Wolff  in  the  chair 
of  theology  at  Mercersburg.  Dr.  Harbaugh  was 
a  prominent  representative  of  the  Mercersburg 
school  of  theology.  He  possessed  poetical  gifts; 
wrote  poems  in  the  so-called  "  Pennsylvania  Ger- 
man," which  appeared  in  the  Guardian,  and  after 
his  death  in  a  volume  under  the  title  Harhauyh's 
Harfe  (Philadelphia,  1870),  which  enjoyed  a  wide 
popularity.  He  also  wrote  some  hymns,  one  of 
which,  Jesus,  I  live  to  thee,  has  passed  into  hymno- 
logical  collections.  Of  his  larger  works  the  more 
important  are.  Heaven,  or  the  Sainted  Dead,  1848- 
53,  3  vols.  {Heavenly  Home,  Heavenly  Recognition, 
Future  Life)  ;  Life  of  Michael  Schlatter  (German), 
1857;  and  Fathers  of  the  Reformed  Church  in 
Europe  and  America,  Lancaster,  1857,  2  vols.  He 
was  for  seventeen  j'ears  editor  of  the  Guardian, 
and  the  last  year  of  his  life  of  the  Mercersburg 
Review. 

HARDING,  Stephen,  English  Cistercian  monk; 
b.  in  Sherborne,  Devonshire ;  abbot  at  Citeaux 
1109;  received  Bernard  there  1113;  d.  there 
March  28,  11.34.  See  his  life  hy  Mr.  Dalgairns, 
in  the  Lives  of  the  English  Saints ;  also  Cister- 
cians. 

HARDWICK,  Charles,  b.  at  Slingsby,  York- 
shire, Sept.  22,  1821;  d.  Aug.  18,  1859,  while 
ascending  the  Pyrenees,  near  Bagneres  de  Luchon. 
He  w'as  successively  fellow  of  St.  Catharine's  Hall, 
Cambridge,  professor  of  theology  in  (Jueen's  Col- 
lege, Birmingham  (1853),  divinity  lecturer  at 
Cambridge  (1855),  and  archdeacon  of  Ely  (18.59). 
He  is  the  author  of  several  valuable  works  dis- 
playing thorough  scholarship.  These  are,  -4  His- 
tory of  the  Articles  of  Religion,  Camb.,  1851,  re- 
vised edition,  1859  ;  .4  History  of  the  Christian 
Church  (I.  Middle  Age;  II.  Reformation),  Camb., 
1853-56,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1861-65,  3d  ed.,  revised 
by  W.  Stubbs,  Lond.,  1872, 1873;  and  particularly 


HARDOUIN. 


940 


HARE. 


the  unfinished  elaborate  treatise,  Christ  and  other 
blasters,  an  Hislnricnl  Inquiry  into  some  of  the  Chief 
Parallelisms  and  Contrasts  between  Christianittj  and 
(he  Retif/ious  Systems  of  the  Ancient  World,  Lond., 
1855-57,  i  parts,  3d  ed.,  wnth  prefatory  memoir 
by  Rev.  F  Proctor,  1873,  1  vol. 
"HARDOUIN,  Jean,  b.  at  Quimper,  in  Brittanv, 
1646;  d.  in  Paris,  Sept.  3,  1729;  entered  early 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  devoted  himself  to 
literature.  His  editions  of  Themistius  (Greek 
and  Latin,  Paris,  1684)  and  of  Pliny  (1685,  m 
usum  Delphini,  1723,  complete  in  3  vols,  folio) 
are  still  considered  the  best  ever  made  of  those 
authors.  His  Conciliorum  Collectio  (Paris,  1715, 
12  vols.)  also  enjoys  a  great  reputation.  But  his 
own  writings  are  full  of  whims  and  fancies.  He 
held  that  the  .Eneid,  the  odes  of  Horace,  etc., 
were  written  by  some  monks  in  the  thirteenth 
centurj-,  that  Christ  and  the  apostles  spoke  Latin 
etc.,  and  such  paradoxes  he  defended  with  exor- 
bitant arrogance  and  coarseness. 

HARDT,  Hermann  v.  d.  See  Hermann  v.  d 
Hardt. 

HARDY,  Robert  Spence,  English  Wesleyan 
'  missionary  and  ISuddhist  scholar ;  b.  at  Preston, 
Lancashire,  July  1,  1803 ;  d.  at  Headingly,  York- 
shire, April  16,  1868.  For  twenty-three  years  he 
was  a  faithful  missionary  in  Ceylon,  and  subse- 
quently a  preacher  at  home,  but  found  time  to 
become  profoundly  read  in  Pali,  and  to  attain  a 
vei-y  wide  culture.  His  books  are  authoritative. 
He  wrote  The  British  Government  ami  the  Idolatry 
of  Ceylon,  1841  ;  Eastern  Monachism,  an  Account 
of  the  Origin,  Laws,  Discipline,  Sacred  Writings, 
etc.,  of  the  Order  of  Mendicants,  founded  by  Gotama 
Buddha,  1850;  A  Manual  of  Buddhism  in  its  Modern 
Development,  translated  from  SinghcJese  MSS., 
1853,  2d  ed.,  1880 ;  The  Legends  and  Theories  of 
the  Buddhists  compared  with  History  and  Science, 
1867,  2d  ed.,  1881. 

HARE,  Augustus  William,  a  devoted  and  model 
rural  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England ;  b.  in 
Rome,  Xov.  17,  1792;  d.  there  Feb.  19,  1834. 
After  a  distingui.shed  career  at  New  College, 
Oxford,  of  which  he  was  a  fellow,  he  became 
rector  in  1829  of  Alton-Barnes,  a  country  parish, 
where  his  plain  and  fervent  preaching  and  conse- 
crated life  not  only  won  the  hearts  of  the  people, 
but  came  to  be  regarded  as  a  model  for  a  rural 
pastor's  imitation.  In  company  with  his  brother 
Julius  he  edited  Guesses  at  Truth,  and  ])ublished 
Sermons  to  a  Country  Congregation,  6th  ed.,  Lond., 
1845,  2  vols.  See  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life,  by 
A.  J.  C.  Hark. 

HARE,  Julius  Charles,  one  of  the  mo.st  influen- 
tial of  modern  English  theologians;  b.  Sept.  13, 
1795,  at  Herstmonceux,  Sus.sex,  in  the  pale  of  the 
Episcopal  Church;  d.  there  Jan.  23,  1855.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Charter  House  school,  with 
Grote  and  Thirlwall,  the  distinguished  historians 
of  Greece.  A  considerable  poi-tion  of  his  youth 
was  .spent  on  the  Continent.  In  1811  lie  visited 
the  Wartburg,  Luther's  Patmos,  and  there,  as  he 
playfully  remarked,  he  "  .saw  the  m.arks  of  Luther's 
mk  upon  the  wall,  and  there  took  his  first  le.s.son 
in  the  art  of  throwing  inkstands  at  the  devil's 
head."  In  1812  lie  entf-red  'I'rinitv  College,  Cani- 
liridge,  and  di.stinguished  himself  by  thorough 
classical  and  general  culture.  In  1818  he  wius 
iriade  f'dlow  and  tutor  of  Trinity,  and  gathered 


around  him  a  number  of  admiring  students,, 
among  them  John  Sterling,  Archljishop  Trench, 
and  Frederick  Maurice  (subsequently  his  biother- 
in-law). 

Hare's  first  introduction  to  the  public  was  as 
joint  translator,  with  Bishop  Thirlwall,  of  Xie- 
buhr's  Roman  history  (1828).  His  love  for  Ger- 
man scholarship  was  intensified  by  his  intimacy 
with  Thomas  Arnold  of  Rugby,  and  with  Bunsen, 
as  also  by  his  study  of  Coleridge's  works,  whom 
he  profoundly  esteemed  as  a  Christian  philoso- 
pher. In  1832  he  went  to  the  Continent,  and 
spent  several  months  in  Rome.  This  visit  forms 
an  epoch  in  his  life.  Rome,  the  seat  of  archse- 
ology,  history,  and  art,  had  a  powerful  attraction 
for  him  ;  Rome,  the  centre  of  religious  life  and 
ecclesiastical  institutions,  repelled  him,  and  con- 
firmed him  in  his  Protestant  convictions,  notwith- 
standing his  romantic  enthusiasm  for  the  middle 
ages.  In  Rome  he  made  the  personal  acquaint- 
ance of  Dr.  Bunsen,  who  was  then  ambassador  of 
Prussia  to  the  Vatican,  afterwards  to  England. 

On  returning  to  England  in  1834,  he  was  made 
rector  of  Herstmonceux,  and,  later,  archdeacon  of 
Lewis  in  the  diocese  of  Chichester,  and  chaplain 
to  the  Queen.  In  this  village,  not  far  from  the 
southern  coast  of  England,  he  labored  until  his 
death,  surrounded  by  a  large  circle  of  friends, 
and  held  in  iniiversal  esteem  for  his  noble  char- 
acter and  attainments.  His  last  words  were, 
'■  Upwards,  upwards  !  " 

Archdeacon  Hare  combined  thorough  scholar- 
ship, original  thought,  noble  character,  harm- 
less wit,  and  manly  piety.  He  was  as  familiar 
with  Luther,  Schleierniaclier,  Neander,  Olshausen, 
Nitzsch,  Tholuck,  Lucke,  etc,  as  with  Cranmer,  , 
Hooker,  Leigh  ton,  Pearson,  and  Tillotson.  He  , 
collected  one  of  the  most  valuable  private  libra- 
ries, of  twelve  thousand  volumes,  which  com- 
pletely occupied  every  wall  in  the  house.  He  pre- 
sented it  to  Trinity  College  in  Cambridge.  In 
the  department  of  philosophy  he  was  an  inde- 
pendent disciple  of  Coleridge.  In  theology  he 
had  most  .sympathy  with  Dr.  .\rnold,  but  excelled 
him  in  the  extent  of  his  scholarship.  He  was  one 
of  the  founders  of  the  evangelical  broad-church 
school,  which  seeks  to  liberalize  the  Anglican 
communion  by  keeping  it  in  friendly  intercourse 
with  Continental  thought  and  learning.  He  was 
a  sturdv  champion  of  Protestantism  again.st  the 
encroacliments  of  Romanism  and  Tr.aclarianism  : 
but  he  never  exposed  himself  to  the  charge  of 
disloyalty  to  the  Church,  nor  forgot  the  personal 
regard  due  to  his  opponents.  He  was  especially 
pained  at  the  transition  of  ,\rchdeacon,  now  Car- 
dinal, Maiming,  his  former  colleague  and  intimate 
friend,  to  Romanism. 

As  an  author.  Hare  had  some  peculiarities  of 
spelling  {forst  for  forced,  preach!  for  preached, 
etc.),  and  embodied  the  most  valuable  ]iart  of  his 
works  in  notes,  which  occnjiy  a  nnich  larger  space 
than  the  text.  His  stiviigtli  lay  in  his  combina- 
tion of  theological  attainments  with  purity  of 
character,  and  in  his  talent  for  stimulating  others 
to  further  study  and  investigation. 

His  ablest  tlieological  work  is  The  Mission  of 
the  Comforter,  with  Notes,  3d  ed.,  1870  (reinib- 
lished  in  Hoston).  It  contains  five  sermons 
preachecl  at  Cambridge  from  the  words  of  our 
Lord  (John  xvi.  7-11)  on  the  office  of  tlie   Holy 


HARE. 


041     HARMONY   OF  THE  GOSPELS. 


Spirit.  More  than  the  half  of  the  work  consists 
of  learned  notes  and  excursuses.  His  defence 
of  Dr.  Luther,  originallj'  the  tenth  note  of  the 
iibove  work,  afterwards  separately  issued  in  an 
enlarged  form  shortly  before  liis  death,  is  the 
ablest  vindication  of  the  Reformer  against  the 
attacks  of  Bossuet,  llallani,  Sir  William  Hamil- 
ton, and  the  Oxford  Tractarians.  ''Tlie  breadth 
and  energy  of  Luther's  genius,"  says  Stanley,  "  the 
depth  and  warmth  of  his  heart,  and  the  grandeur 
of  his  position  and  character,  amidst  whatever  of 
inconsistencies  or  imperfections  of  expression,  are 
brought  out  with  a  force  and  clearness  which 
must  often  be  as  new  to  liis  admirers  as  to  his 
detractors."  Hare  also  contributed  the  text  for 
the  English  edition  of  Konig's  illustrations  of  tlie 
life  of  Luther.  We  must  next  mention  Tlie  Vic- 
tory of  Failli,  a  series  of  most  instructive  and 
in.spiring  sermons  on  1  John  v.  5,  3d  ed.  by 
Plumptre,  London,  1874.  The  sixth  sermon  con- 
tains the  most  eloquent  description  of  the  conquer- 
ing power  of  faith  in  the  English  language  (pp. 
225  sqq.j.  The  Contest  with  Home  (1842)  is  one 
of  the  most  trenchant  of  the  Anglican  writings 
called  forth  by  the  controversy  with  Romanism 
and  Puseyism.  A  collection  of  his  Chari/es  was 
published  1856,  a  year  after  his  death.  We  con- 
clude with  a  characteristic  passage  from  a  charge 
in  the  spring  of  1850,  where  he  addresses  the  two 
contending  parties  of  his  diocese  as  follows  : 
"  With  both  sides  I  feel  that  I  have  many  bonds 
of  common  faith  and  love  and  duty ;  with  both 
of  them  I  heartily  desire  to  work  together  in  the 
service  of  our  common  Master.  With  each  of  the 
two  parties  on  sundrj'  points  I  differ  in  opinion 
more  or  less  widely.  But  why  should  this  cut 
me  off  from  tliem,  or  why  should  it  cut  them  off 
from  me?  May  we  not  liold  fast  to  that  wliereon 
we  are  agreed,  and  join  hand  to  hand  and  heart 
to  heart  on  that  sure,  unshakable  ground,  which 
cannot  slip  from  under  us,  and  wait  until  God 
shall  reveal  to  us  what  we  now  see  dindy  and 
darkly?  Shall  the  oak  say  to  the  elm,  '  Dejiart 
from  me,  thou  hast  no  place  in  God"s  forest,  thou 
shalt  not  breathe  his  air,  or  drink  in  liis  sunshine '  ? 
Or  shall  the  ash  say  to  the  birch,  '  Avaunt !  thou 
art  not  to  stand  by  my  side :  cast  thyself  down  and 
crawl  away,  and  hide  thyself  in  some  outlandish 
thicket'?  O  my  brethren  !  the  spring  is  just  about 
to  clothe  all  the  trees  of  the  forest  in  their  bright, 
fresh  leaves,  which  will  shine  and  sparkle  rejoi- 
cingly and  thankfully  in  the  sun  and  rain.  Shall 
it  not  also  clothe  our  hearts  anew  in  briglit,  hope- 
ful garments  of  faith  and  love,  diverse  in  form, 
in  hue,  in  texture,  but  blending  together  into  a 
beautiful  harmonious  unity  beneath  tlie  light  of 
the  Sun  of  righteousness?  " 

Lit.  —  Two  funeral  addresses  by  Rev.  H.  V. 
Elliot  and  Rev.  T.  X.  Simpkixson  ;  Dr.  Plump- 
tre's  Memoir,  prefixed  to  the  last  edition  of  tlie 
Guesses  at  Truth:  the  essay  of  Professor  Frkd- 
ERiCK  Denison  Maurice,  in  the  collected  edi- 
tion of  Hare's  Charges  (1856),  and  Dean  Stan- 
ley's article  in  the  London  Quarterly  Review  for 
.July,  1855  (both  reprinted  as  introductory  notices 
in  the  3d  ed.  of  The  Victory  of  Faith,  1874);  and 
especially  the  Memorials  of  a  Quiet  Life  (one  of  the 
most  charming  and  delicate  English  biographies) 
by  A.  J.  C.  Hare  (a  nephew  of  the  archdeacon), 
London,  1872  sqq.  3  vols.  l'.  SCHaff. 


HARLAY,  Fran9ois  de,  b.  in  Pari.s,  Aug.  14, 
1625;  d.  at  C'onflans,  Aug.  6,  1695;  was  made 
Archbishop  of  Rouen  in  1651,  and  of  Paris  in 
1670.  He  was  unprincipled  and  vain,  frivolous 
and  intolerant;  and  his  influence  at  the  court  he 
used  against  the  Huguenots.  He  was  one  of  the 
principal  promoters  of  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Xantes.     He  edited  the  iii/nodicun  I'arisicusc. 

HARMER,  Thomas,  b.  in  Norwich,  Eng.,  171.'); 
pastor  of  the  Independent  Church  at  Wattesiield. 
Suffolk,  1735;  d.  there  Nov.  27,  1788.  The  work 
of  his  lifetime  was  Observations  on  Various  Pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  placing  ihem  in  a  new  light,  and 
ascertaining  the  meaning  of  several  uot  delerminatde 
by  the  methods  commonly  made  use  of  by  the  learned, 
compiled  from  relations  incidentally  mentioned  in 
hooks  of  voyages  and  travels  into  the  East,  Loud., 
1764,  2  vols.,  in  1787  2  additional  vols.,  4th  ed. 
by  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.,  1808,  4  vols.,  with  large 
additions  and  a  life  of  the  author.  Mr.  Harmer 
also  wrote  Outlines  of  a  Xew  Commentary  on  the 
Boole  of  Solomon's  Sonr/,  London,  1768. 

HARMONISTS.     See  Rappists. 

HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS.  We  shall 
consider  in  this  article  the  relation  of  the  Gospels 
to  each  other,  both  in  point  of  form  and  their 
choice  of  matter,  and  whetiier  it  is  possible  to 
construct  a  harmony.  At  the  very  outset  the 
striking  difference  between  the  Gospel  of  John 
and  the  other  three  Gospels  must  be  noticed,  both 
in  respect  to  the  choice  of  matter  (John  alone 
relating  the  visits  of  Jesus  to  the  feasts  in  .Jeru- 
.saleni,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  describing  few  of 
the  events  which  happened  in  (ialilee)  and  in 
respect  to  the  kind  of  matter ;  the  discourses  of 
our  Lord  which  John  gives  having  a  peculiarly 
elevated  character  as  compared  with  those  of  the 
other  three  Gospels.  The  first  tlnee  or  synoptic 
Gospels  likewise  often  differ.  Mark  gives  hardly 
any  of  our  Lord's  discourses,  and  contains  an 
exceedingly  small  amount  of  matter  not  found 
in  Matthew  and  Luke ;  while  these  two  Gospels, 
when 'compared,  are  found  to  have  mucli  which 
is  peculiar  to  each.  Matthew  gives  sixteen  mira- 
cles, Luke  fifteen  (eleven  being  common),  and 
Mark  fifteen,  twelve  of  which  are  found  in  Mat- 
thew, and  ten  in  Luke.  Then,  again,  the  con- 
secution of  the  same  discourses  and  events  is 
different  in  the  three  synoptists;  and  while  the 
descriptions  of  the  same  events  often  present 
remarkable  agreements  in  language,  even  to  strik- 
ing and  unusual  words,  they  also  present  dis- 
agreements, not  only  in  the  language,  but  also  in 
the  matter,  so  as  to  sometimes  even  give  the 
appearance  of  contradictory  statements. 

1.  Choice  and  Arrangement  of  the  Matter  in  the 
Synoptists.  —  Even  if  we  had  no  patristic  accounts 
of  their  origin,  the  study  of  the  Gospels  would 
convince  us  that  their  autliors  had  not  the  least 
intention  of  giving  a  complete  dailv  journal  of 
the  life  of  Christ.  Of  the  first  half  of  'his  public 
activity  they  confined  themselves  to  only  a  few 
fi-agments,  and  by  their  own  confession  they 
passed  over  a  great  deal.  Thus  it  appears  from 
Matt.  xi.  21  sqq.  that  Jesus  performed  many 
miracles  in  Chorazin ;  but  the  synoptists  do  not 
give  a  single  detail  of  his  activity  there.  Even 
tlie  Introduction  to  Luke's  Gospel  does  not  mili- 
tate with  this  .statement;  for  he  might  well  call 
his  work  "systematic  and  complete"  in  con)pari- 


HARMONY  OF  THE   GOSPELS.    942    HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS. 


son  with  the  sporadic  attempts  of  other  Cliris- 
tiaiis,  without  its  being  arranged  like  a  journal, 
but  only  giving  that  which  was  essential  and 
impwrtant  in  systematic  arrangement.  But  each 
synoptist  had  a  plan  of  his  own.  Matthew  wrote 
for  Jews,  and  sought  to  prove  that  Jesus  fulfilled 
the  Messianic  prophecies  concerning  the  seed  of 
Abraham  (Matt.  i.  1).  Luke,  who  belonged  to 
the  Pauline  circle,  relates,  for  the  most  part,  those 
events  in  the  life  of  our  Lord,  and  those  discourses, 
which  go  to  confirm  the  principle  that  all  man- 
kind, .so  far  as  it  thirsts  after  salvation,  shall 
participate  in  the  benefits  of  it.  For  this  reason 
he  presents  Christ  as  the  second  Adam  (comp. 
Luke  iii.  23-28).  Mark,  on  the  other  hand,  as 
John  the  Presbyter  (Euseb.,  iii.  39)  long  ago  said, 
follows  no  particular  plan,  but  wrote  down  from 
memory  what  Peter  related  to  him  from  time  to 
time.  Xone  of  the  synoptists,  then,  follow  a 
chronological  arrangement.  Luke  arranges  his 
Gospel  according  to  the  matter  (x.  25-xiii.,  dis- 
courses; xiv.-xvi.,  parables;  etc.);  and  .so  does 
Matthew  (iii.,  iv.,  the  beginning  of  his  activity; 
v.-vii.,  laws  of  the  kingdom;  viii.,  ix.,  miracles; 
ix.  36-xi ,  the  disciples ;  xiii.,  xiv.,  parables ;  etc.). 
Notwithstanding  this  general  principle,  however, 
they  do  often  relate  events  in  the  order  of  their 
occurrence  (comp.  Matt.  ix.  27,  32,  xiii.  Letc. ; 
Mark  i.  29,  etc.;  Luke  iv.  38,  etc.).  The  inves- 
tigation of  the  extent  of  the  agreements  of  the 
.synoptists  in  these  cases  is  one  of  the  tasks  of 
the  harmonists. 

Such  labors  were  carried  on  from  early  times, 
at  first  with  the  purpose  of  forming  a  complete 
narrative  of  all  the  events  and  discourses  of  our 
Lord.  (See  Diatkss.\rox.)  In  modern  times 
they  liave  been  conducted  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
structing a  chioMology  of  Christ's  life.  Promi- 
nent amongst  the  workers  in  this  department 
[see  below]  are  Gerson  (d.  1429),  Calvin  (d.  1564), 
Andreas  Osiander  (d.  1552),  Chemnitz  (d.  15S6), 
and  Heugel  (d.  1751).  Osiander  {Harmonia 
Evangeliontm,  Hasel,  1537)  is  only  to  be  mentioned 
for  the  curious  circumstance,  that,  starting  from 
the  most  irrational  theory  of  inspiration,  he 
adopted  the  principle  that  the  evangeli.sts,  in 
order  not  to  write  that  which  was  false,  dared  not 
depart  from  the  ciironological  arrangement.  To 
carry  the  principle  out,  he  was  obliged  often  to 
suppo.se  that  the  very  same  event,  occurring  under 
the  very  same  circumstances,  was  repeated  two 
or  three  times.  Peter's  wife's  mother,  for  exam- 
ple, was  healed  three  times  1  Gerson  (CoHcoiv/m 
erangelislarum  sice  moiiolensaron,  Col.  c.  1471)  pro- 
ceeds on  the  theory  that  the  .synoptists  did  not 
intend  to  follow  a  chronological  order;  and  so 
Calvin  (Harmonia  eranr/elisli.i  Irihtis  com/wsiUi, 
Geneva,  15.53),  and  especially  Chemnitz  (lldriiio- 
ni(e  evangciica:,  Frankfurt,  1593  .sqq.),  who  makes 
such  events  and  discourses  to  follow  each  other 
which  are  definitely  placed  in  chronological  onler 
by  the  evangelists.  Jt  is  as  clear  as  sunlight  that 
every  healthy  attempt  in  the  direction  of  a  har- 
mony must  proceed  upon  this  i)rincijile.  Ii(Migel 
(liiclitxjK  Anffiissiniij  iler  Eixirir/f/.,  Tiil)ingen,  173(i) 
marks  no  progress:  but  lie  rightly  recognized 
that  lAike  did  not  mean  to  follow  a  chronologi- 
cal arrangement.  Wieseler,  in  his  C/irniinliii/iral 
'iynopni.i  [Hamburg,  1843],  started  from  the  jirin- 
ciple  that  Luke  follows  a  chronological  order ; 


but  the  writer  of  this  article,  in  his  Krili/c  d. 
eranr/.  Geschichte,  returned  to  the  principles  of 
Chemnitz,  and  believes  he  has  proved  that  the 
sequence  of  single  events  of  one  Gosjiel  never 
contradicts  that  of  another,  and  that  their  .state- 
ments enable  us  to  restore  a  chronological  har- 
mony of  the  larger  part  of  Christ's  public  career. 
The  following  case,  which  we  choose  because  it  is 
the  most  difficult  and  complicated,  will  serve  as 
an  illustration  of  our  method.  In  Matt.  ix.  it  is 
related,  that,  as  Jesus  on  a  certain  day  sat  at 
meat,  the  Pharisees  asked  him  why  he  did  not 
fast.  The  exact  day  is  not  given  ;  but  it  is  defi- 
nitely stated  in  ix.  IS  that  Jairus  came  to  hinr 
"while  he  spake  these  things;"  and  in  ix.  27, 
that,  as  "  Jesus  passed  by  from  thence,"  two  blind 
men  followed  him ;  and  in  ix.  32,  that,  "  as  they 
went  forth,"  a  dumb  man  was  brought  to  him. 
Here  the  sequence  of  four  events  is  given.  The 
preceding  section  definitely  gives  the  sequence  of 
four  other  events  (viii.-ix.  9),  —  the  stilling  of 
the  tempest  (viii.  23),  the  healing  of  the  Gada- 
rene  (viii.  28),  the  cure  of  the  paralytic  (ix.  1), 
and  the  call  of  Matthew  (ix.  9).  Again,  we 
have  the  following  sequence :  the  healing  of  the 
blind  and  dumb  man  (xii.  22),  the  charge  of  col- 
lusion with  Beelzebub  (xii.  38),  the  annoimce- 
ment  of  his  mother  and  brethren  (xii.  46);  and 
on  the  same  day  that  these  things  occurred  he 
spake  many  parables  (xiii.  1).  Mark,  however, 
in  the  most  emphatic  way  says  that  Jesus  spake 
these  parables  at  the  seashore  (iv.  1),  on  the 
same  day  stilled  the  tempest  (iv.  35),  then  healed 
the  Gadarene  (v.  1),  and,  after  his  return  to  the 
western  shore,  met  Jairus  (v.  22).  Thus  the  con- 
clusion is  forced  upon  us  liy  Mark  that  the  three 
groups  of  events  which  Matthew  places  in  sec- 
tions, where  they  properly  belong  in  point  of 
matter,  belong  together  in  point  of  time.  While 
Jesus  was  staying  at  Capei-naum,  the  blind  and 
deaf  7iiau  is  brought,  who.se  cure  affords  tlie  occa- 
sion for  the  charge  of  collusion  with  Beelzebub. 
During  the  convers.ation  the  Pharisees  demand  a 
sign ;  and,  while  Jesus  is  replying,  his  mother 
arrives.  Towards  evening  Jesus  utters  the  para- 
bles on  the  seashore ;  then  follows  the  stilling  of 
the  tempest.  The  following  morning  the  Gada- 
rene was  healed.  After  his  return,  the  question 
concerning  fa.sting  w'as  p\it;  and  at  the  same  hour 
Jairus  came.  .\s  he  left  his  house,  the  dumb  man 
is  brought,  and  (perhaps  a  day  or  two  afterwards) 
the  )iaralytic  is  healed.  Mark  got  the  events 
from  Peter,  an  eye-witness  of  them,  and  had  the 
sequence  impressed  upon  his  memory;  but  Mat- 
thew, who  W'as  called  aft(>r  their  occurrence,  heard 
them  from  .several  of  the  disciples;  and  he  re- 
membered most  distinctly  that  the  healing  of 
Jairus'  daughter  was  a  special  topic  of  conversa- 
tion :  hence  he  put  it  down  innnediately  after  the 
account  of  his  call. 

This  example  is  a  crucial  test  of  the  Cliem- 
nitziau  principles;  but  attempts  to  tind  the  origi- 
nal place  of  every  sententious  utterance  of  our 
Lord  will  f.ail.  A  great  probability  exists  that 
.lesus  rejieated  the  .same  sayings  at  different 
times.  Matthew  has  given  us  an  unmistakable 
illustration  of  this  (vii.  17,  xii.  33).  lie  even 
repeated  a  parable,  but  with  changes  in  detail 
(Luke  xix.  12  sqq.  \  Matt.  xxv.  1 1  sqq.). 
i      2.   Tlie  Lutujuaye.  —  The   synoptists    in  their 


HARMONY  OF  THE  GOSPELS.    !^'4.'i 


HARMS. 


accounts  of  the  same  events  often  fully  agree  in 
the  language,  and  again  differ  widely  in  this 
regard  (comp.  Matt.  ix.  15,  Mark  ii.  20,  Luke 
V.  ;i5).  But  the  points  of  agreement  are  far  more 
numerous  than  the  points  of  disagreement.  Ac- 
cording to  Norton,  one-sixth  of  Matthew's  Gospel 
is  in  verbal  agreement  with  the  other  synoptists, 
and  seven-eighths  of  this  are  from  discourses ; 
one-sixth  of  Slark's  Gospel  agrees  with  the  other 
synoptists,  and  nearly  four-fifths  of  this  are  from 
the  discourses ;  Luke  only  agrees  to  the  extent 
of  one-tenth  with  Matthew  and  Mark,  but  more 
than  nineteen-twentieths  of  it  is  from  the  dis-  j 
■courses.  Various  theories  have  been  suggested 
to  account  for  these  agreements  and  disagree- 
ments in  language,  and  they  are  as  follows.  (1) 
A  primal  or  germ  gospel  {Urevangelhini)  fi'om 
■which  ths  evangelists  drew.  It  has  been  defined 
as  an  Aramaic  Matthew  (Corrodi,  .Schmidt),  a 
"  Hebrew  Gospel "  (Lessing,  Niemeyer.  Weber), 
«)■  a  record  composed  by  a  company  of  apostles 
(Eichhorn,  Marsh);  but  all  these  various  forms 
have  been  outlived.  Holtzmann  has  advocated 
the  hypothesis  of  a  primal  ^lark  and  an  original 
■collection  of  discourses  by  Matthew ;  but  that 
the  '>^oyia  (^discourses),  wliich  Papias  attributes  to 
Matthew,  included  other  matter,  even  Strauss 
granted.  (2)  The  theory  that  one  evangelist 
used  the  other,  there  being  one  original  one.  But 
it  is  comical  to  observe  that  each  of  the  possible 
•combinations  has  its  zealous  defenders.  But  why 
should  men  who  had  the  best  opportunities  of  get- 
ting details  from  the  very  eye-witnesses  of  Christ 
use  each  other's  works'?  The  theory,  on  the  other 
hand,  begets  many  difficulties,  as,  for  example. 
Why  did  the  evangelist  who  used  his  predecessor 
omit  so  much  of  his  matter,  alter  the  language  of 
tlie  Lord's  discourses  (often  quoting  half  a  verse 
word  for  word,  and  then  suddenly  breaking  off),  1 
and  alter  the  chronological  sequences  ?  (3)  The 
evangelists  drew  from  a  common  tradition.  This 
is  the  theory  of  Sitseler  {HislA-rit.  Versuch  it.  d. 
Enlstehung  d.  schrifll-  Erangelieii,  Leipzig,  1818), 
and  the  only  tenable  one.  In  the  repeated  narra- 
tion of  the  events  of  Christ's  life,  certain  points 
were  always  emphasized,  and  these  the  evangelists 
have  in  common  ;  the  very  expressions  being  im- 
pressed upon  the  memories  of  the  hearers.  But 
the  individuality  of  the  writers  also  asserted 
itself. 

3.  John's  Gospel  (see  JoHX.  Gospel  of)  was 
written  (913)  at  a  time  when  the  altered  circum- 
stances of  the  Church,  and  the  first  indications  of 
Gnosticism,  made  a  new  point  of  view  necessary. 
For  this  reason  he  supplemented  the  accounts  of 
the  synoptists  both  in  respect  to  the  outward  de- 
tails of  Christ's  life  and  his  personality  (in  oppo- 
sition to  the  false  (iuosis). 

This  Gospel  dift'ers  largely  from  the  others,  but 
not  to  the  prejudice  of  the  harmony.  The  more 
elevated  style  of  the  Lord's  discourses  which  it 
records  has  furnished  a  difficulty  to  some ;  hut 
as  they  "shine  with  a  more  than  earthly  glow 
and  brilliancy "  (as  De  Wette  himself  acknowl- 
edges), as  it  is  improbable  that  the  disciple  should 
have  surpassed  the  Master,  and  as  the  synoptists 
here  and  there  rise  to  the  same  strain  (RIatt.  xi. 
25-30,  xiii.  16,  17,  etc.  ;  Luke  x.  21-23),  the  diffi- 
culty completely  disappears  for  those  who  have 
an  ear  for  the  light-born  excellency  of  Christ's 
8  — II 


words.  The  only  real  difficulty  which  John'.s 
Gospel  offers  to  the  harmoni.st  is  the  date  of  the 
l^ast  Supper.  The  discussion  over  this  extremely 
complicated  and  prickly  question  is  not  yet  closetl. 
The  apparent  contradictions  in  the  accounts  of 
the  resurrection  are  easily  .solved  ;  John  narrating 
what  JIary  Magdalene  saw,  the  .synoptists  com- 
bining in  one  account  her  experiences  and  those 
of  the  other  women.  ^lark  indicates  a  difference 
between  the  two  (xvi.  8,  9).  ebrard. 

[Continuous  narratives  of  the  life  of  Christ,  com- 
bining details  of  all  the  evaugeli.sts,  are  called  in 
another  and  special  sense  Harmonies.  The  Diotes- 
saron  of  Tatian,  the  upfjouia  of  .\mmonius,  the 
German  Heliand,  and  Otfried's  Hamiony,  are  the 
most  important  examples  of  these.  For  accounts 
of  themsee  Di.ATK.ss.AROX,  .^mmonujs,  Hf.i.iaxd, 
etc.  Harmonies  in  addition  to  those  mentioned 
in  the  body  of  the  article  have  been  published  by 
Stf.phf,ns  (Paris.  15.53),  G.  Cai.ixtus  (Halberst.. 
16-24),  T.  C.ARTWRiGHT  (Amst.,  1627,  1647), 
LiGHTFOOT  (Lond.,  1644,  and  in  English,  Lond., 
16.55),  Clericus  (Amst.,  1699),  M.\ckxight 
(Loud.,  1756,  and  often),  J  Priestley  (in  Eng- 
lish, Lond.,  1777),  Newcome  (Dublin,  1778,  ed. 
by  Dr.  RoBixsox,  Andover,  1814.  1834),  Tow.v- 
SF.XD  (Lond.,  182.5,  Bost.,  1837),  Roiiix.sox  (Bo.st., 
1846,  revised  edition,  1851,  and  often),  Stroud 
(Lond.,  185.3),  .Strong  (X.Y.,  18.54),  Grks- 
WELL(Oxon.,  5th  ed.,  1856),  G.\rdixer  (.Andover. 
1876)  ;  Harmonies  of  the  Synoptists  by  Planck 
(Gdtting.,  1809),  De  Wette  and  Li-cke  (Berol., 
1818, 1842),  RcEDiGER  (Halle,  1829, 1839),  Axger 
(Leip.,  1852).  For  more  complete  list,  see  Ron- 
ixsox's  and  Gardixer's  Harmonies :  and  for 
general  literature  on  the  subjects  treated  in  the 
article,  see  Gospels  ;  also  Schaff's  Cliurch  His- 
lon/,  revised  ed.,  1882,  vol.  1.  pp.  575-597.] 

HARMS,  Claus,  a  powerful  champion  of  the 
religion  of  faith  in  a  rationalistic  age  ;  li.  at 
Fahrstedt,  Schleswig-Holstein.  May  25,  1778;  d. 
in  Kiel,  Feb.  1,  1855^  Prevented,  at  first,  by  lack 
of  means  from  securing  a  higher  education,  he 
labored  in  his  father's  mill  until  he  was  nineteen. 
After  his  father's  death  he  entered  a  classical 
scliool,  and  subsequently  passed  into  the  univer- 
sity of  Kiel.  The  teaching  at  the  university 
was  predominantly  rationalistic  ;  but,  influenced 
thereto  largely  by  the  perusal  of  Schleiermaclier's 
Discourses  on' Religion,  Harms  turned  away  from 
rationalism  as  vanity,  and  gave  himself  up  to 
faith  in  Christ  as  the' only  hope  of  the  sinner,  in 
1806  he  became  assistant  pastor  in  Lunden.  and 
in  1816  was  transferred  to  Kiel,  where  he  remained 
during  the  rest  of  his  life,  in  spite  of  calls,  as 
Schleiermacher's  successor,  to  Trinity  Chm-ch, 
Berlin,  in  1834,  and  to  other  places.  He  was 
obliged  in  1849  to  give  up  his  positions  on  account 
of  blindness.  In  1878  the  hundredth  anniversary 
of  his  birth  was  celebrated  in  Kiel,  and  a  tablet 
placed  on  the  house  which  he  had  occupied. 

Harms  exercised  a  very  decided  influence  upon 
the  religious  faith  of  his  day  by  his  bold  denun- 
ciation "of  rationalism.  As  a  preacher  he  was 
much  sought  after,  the  university  students  flock- 
ing to  hear  him.  After  Twesten's  advent  in  Kiel 
as  profes.sor,  it  was  said,  "  Twesteu  converts  his 
hearers,  and  Harms  baptizes  them."  He  was  a 
man  of  the  people,  and  his  style  was  no  less  popu- 
lar than  it  was  fresh  and  trenchant.     In  1817,  at 


HARMS. 


044 


HARMS. 


the  three  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  Uel'onna- 
tion,  Harms  took  occasion  to  speak  out  his  niiud 
against  rationalism,  and  did  it  by  publishing,  side 
by  side  with  l^uther's  theses,  ninety-five  of  his 
own.  He  utters  bold  words  against  leason,  which 
he  calls  tlie  ■■  pope  of  our  time,"  and  the  religion 
of  reason,  which  has  "run  mad  m  the  Lutheran 
Church,  dismisses  Christ  from  the  altar,  throws 
God's  Word  from  the  pulpit,  creates  God,  whereas 
God  used  to  be  regarded  as  having  created  man," 
etc.  These  theses  went  through  Germany  like  a 
tempest.  Rationalists  railed  against  the  author; 
and,  as  Von  Amnion  lias  said,  they  were  indeed  a 
bitter  medicine  for  the  then  prevailing  weakness 
of  faith.  They  went,  however,  with  his  writings 
in  their  defence,  with  healing  and  converting 
power  to  homes  throughout  the  entire  land. 
Harms  also  wrote  liymiis,  some  of  w'hich  have 
passed  into  German  hymn-books. 

Lit.  —  Among  his  volumes  of  sernious  are  M'hi- 
terposlille,  180S;  SumincriJOil.,  1811,  tith  ed.  of 
both,  Leipzig,  181G  ;  A^eue  Winlerposl.,  1824  ; 
Neue  Soviincrposi.,  1827  ;  D.  he'd.  Passion,  18.37  ; 
D.  Voter  Utiser,  1838;  Bergprediyt,  1841;  D.  Bibel, 
1842;  D.  Offenh.  Johannis,  1844;  Trostprediyten, 
1852.  He  also  wrote  a  Life  of  Henrik  von  Ziit- 
plien  den  Blooltiiyen  for  uusern  Globen  (1817),  in 
Low-German,  and  Pastoraltheoloyie  (Kiel,  1830, 
3d  ed.,  1878),  a  book  wliich  ought  to  be  on  every 
pastor's  table.  See  Autuhiogrnphy,  2d  ed.,  Kiel, 
18.52;  Dr.  M.  Baumgarten  :  Ein  Denkmal  f  C. 
Harms,  Braunschw.,  1855  [and  memorials  by  G. 
Bachmaxn,  Ludkmaxx,  and  Xf.klsf.n,  all  Kiel, 
1878,  and  the  volume  Die  Gedacklnissfeier  fiir 
Claus  Harms  an  seitiem  hundertsten  Geburtstag, 
Kiel,  1878].  carstens. 

HARMS,  Georg  Ludwig  Detlev  Theodor  (com- 
monly known  as  LUDWIG  HARMS),  a  most  origi- 
nal and  successful  (ierman  Lutheran  pastor;  b. 
May  .5,  1808,  in  Walsrode,  Liinelnirg;  d.  at  Her- 
mannsburg,  Xov.  14,  18fi5.  After  studying  at 
the  tiniversity  of  Gottingen,  and  sjiending  several 
years  as  private  tutor,  he  became  in  1844  his 
father's  assistant  as  pastor  of  the  church  at  Her- 
mannsbiirg,  a  town  of  thirty-five  hundred  inhabit- 
ants, near  Hanover.  His  i'atlier  belonged  to  the 
rationalistic  school,  but  was  a  man  of  strong  and 
robust  character.  Ludwig,  on  the  other  hand, 
had  undergone  a  thorough  conversion  at  the  uni- 
versity. He  labored  at  Hermannsburg  as  few 
have  done,  not  only  in  the  pulpit,  the  .services 
filling  up  the  entire  Sabbath,  but  a.s  a  pastoi' 
among  the  peojile.  His  popular  and  winning 
manners,  his  sympathy  witli  the  poor  and  tlie 
.sorrowing,  secured  for  him  the  love  of  all.  On 
Sunday  afternoons  he  held  a  catechetical  class, 
which  lasted  three  hours,  and  was  attended  by  a 
thousand  i)eople.  'I'heso  labors  led  to  a  religious 
awakening  such  as  North  (iermany  had  never 
witnessed  before.  Harms's  chief  source  of  power 
was  his  sermons.  He  umlerslooil  ;is  few,  if  any, 
.since  Luther  have  understood,  liow  to  preach  to 
the  people.  His  manner  was,  before  every  thing 
else,  popular.  His  seriiions  were  simple;  liis 
thouglits  expressed  in  terse  language  and  con- 
cretely. He  followed  out  the  advice  which  he  gave 
to  a  brother  minister  in  the.se  words:  "Call  every 
thing  by  its  right  name,  so  that  others  may  grasp 
with  their  hands  what  you  mean,  and  present 
tnith  as  concretely  as  po.ssible,  so  that  it  may  not 


pass  away  over  people's  heads."  [Professor  Park, 
in  a  very  interesting  article  on  Harms,  in  The 
Conyregalionalist  (Feb.  23,  1866),  says  in  this 
connection,  "  He  preferred  the  concrete  to  the 
abstract,  did  not  speak  of  holiness  so  often  as  of 
God,  nor  of  sin  so  often  as  the  devil.  He  was 
terrific  in  his  denunciations  of  popular  sins,  and 
exhibited  the  tenderest  concern  for  his  people," 
etc.]  Harms  drew  his  sermons  from  everv-day 
life,  and  preached  to  life.  The  interest  of  his 
immediate  hearers,  the  Luneburg  peasants,  was 
to  him  matter  of  supreme  concern.  He  spoke 
their  dialect.  His  themes  were  the  necessity  of 
a  thorough  conversion,  justification  by  faith,  and 
the  evidence  of  faith  in  a  consistent  life.  He 
denounced  sin  unsparingly,  so  that  there  was  no 
back-door  left  for  the  sinner,  and  in  vivid  realuess- 
painted  the  condemnation  of  the  ungodly  and  the 
blessedness  of  the  believer.  He  dealt  not  in 
general  delineations  and  exlioitations,  but  pic- 
tured before  his  hearers  each  specific  step  and 
duty. 

But  in  the  mere  gifts  of  body  Harms  was  sadly 
lacking.  His  voice  was  shrill,  his  manner  in  the 
pulpit  somewhat  stiff;  and  his  bodily  strength, 
which  was  never  great,  in  his  last  years  seemed 
hardly  sufficient  to  carry  him  through  a  sermon. 
But  with  all  these  defects  he  riveted  the  atten- 
tion of  his  hearers,  and  gave  the  impression  of 
absolute  sincerity. 

L'nder  these  labore  the  life  of  the  community 

underwent  a  radical  change.    Sunday  was  strictly 

observed,  and  family  prayer  regularly  maintained. 

Swearing  and  excessive  drinking  were  given  up. 

No   beggar  was   known   in   the   place ;    and    the 

yearly  contributions  of  the  church  to  benevolent 

objects  were  very  large,  amounting   in   1854  to 

j  twenty-four  thousand  marks  for  missions  alone. 

[Profes.sor  Park   relates  the  following  incident: 

"  I  met  a  carpenter  going  to  his  day-labor.    •  How 

I  do  you  do  ?  '  1  asked.     '  I  cannot  hut  be  well,'  he 

;  replied,  '  having  so  many  religious  privileges  as  I 

j  enjoy  here,'  "  etc.] 

j  But  these  were  not  the  extent  of  Harms's  enter- 
!  prises,  .\fter  his  father's  death  (in  1849),  he 
organized  a  seminary  for  the  training  of  mission- 
aries, and  was  led  to  it  by  the  fiequent  applica- 
tions by  young  people  who  wished  to  become 
missionaries.  This  institution  was  very  success- 
ful, and,  besides  sending  out  missionaries  to  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  world,  colonized  the  town  of 
Hermannsburg  in  Africa  [The  funds  for  erect- 
ing the  buildings,  as  well  as  the  funds  for  other 
enterprises,  were  regarded  by  Harms  as  direct 
answers  to  prayer.  In  18.")4  he  established  a 
missionary  journal,  wliich  became  very  popular  in 
(iermany  .\s  characteristic  of  his  independence, 
Profes.sor  Park  relates  the  following  incident: 
"On  one  occasion,  when  Harms  was  in  Hannover, 
the  king  despatched  one  of  his  ollicers  with  the 
state  carriage  to  bring  him  to  the  palace,  '(iive 
my  regards  to  the  king,  said  Harms,  •and  say 
that  1  would  obey  his  order  if  my  duty  allowed; 
lull  I  nnisl  yo  hniiic  iniil  iiltruil  lo  nil/  parish.'  "] 

Harms  published  a  number  of  volumes  of  ser- 
mons, which  are  among  the  most  widely  circulated 
in  (iermany.  .\niong  the.se  are  Kranycliinjirediy- 
lin,  Hermannsburg.  8th  ed.,  1877;  Epislelprediglen, 
2d  ed.,  1872;  Ansliy..  d.  I'salmm,  2d  ed.,  1870. 
See  his  Life  by  his  brother,  Theodoke  Hahms, 


HARP. 


945 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


Hermannsburg,  4th  ed.,  1874  [and  his  liriefe,  edit- 
ed by  the  same,  Ileiiuannsb.,  1.S79].     UHLHORN. 

HARP.     See  Mrsic  among  tiik  Hebrews. 

HARRIS,  Howel,  a  Welsh  revivalist;  b.  at  Tre- 
vecca,  1714;  d.  there  July  21,  1773.  He  was  "the 
first  lay  preacher  in  the  great  Methodist  move- 
ment,"— •  a  year  and  a  half  ahead  of  Whitefield 
4ind  Wesley.  He  had  to  encounter  great  opposi- 
tion, but  persevered.  With  the  Wesleys  he  held 
life-long  intimacy.  He  was  a  layman,  and  all  his 
repeated  efforts  to  obtain  ordination  were  vain. 
His  success  in  preaching  was  wonderful.  See 
Tyerman  's  1  Vfslei/. 

HARRIS,  John,  independent  mini.ster;  b.  at 
Ugborough,  Devonshire,  March  8,  1802;  became 
principal  and  professor  of  theology,  New  College, 
Che.shunt,  1850;  d.  there  Dec.  21,  1858.  He  was 
the  author  of  the  widely  circulated  and  able  prize 
essays.  Mammon  (1836),  of  which  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  copies  have  been  sold,  and  The 
Great  Commiision  {\Si2);  also  of  The  Great  Teacher 
(1835),  The  Pre-A(lamite  Earth  (1847),  Man  Pri- 
mecal  (1S49). 

HARRIS,  Samuel,  the  "Apostle  of  Virginia;" 
b.  in  Hanover  County,  .Jan.  12,  1724 ;  date  of  his 
death  is  uncertain.  For  nianj'  years  he  was  a 
soldier;  but  after  his  conversion  (in  1758)  he  devot- 
ed more  and  more  time  and  strength  to  religious 
duties,  until  in  1769  he  was  ordained,  and  then 
left  all  secular  occupations.  In  1774  the  General 
Asfiociation  of  .Separate  Baptists  chose  him  "apos- 
tle," and  ordained  him  by  the  laying-on  of  the 
liaiids  of  every  minister  in  that  body.  He  was 
much  persecuted. 

HARVARD,  John.   See  Harvard  U.xiversity. 

HARVARD  UNIVERSITY.  1.  Cnnstitution.— 
At  present  Harvard  University  comprehends  the 
following  departments:  Harvard  College,  the 
Divinity  School,  the  Law  School,  the  Sledical 
School,  the  Dental  School,  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology,  the 
Bussey  Institution  (a  school  of  agriculture),  the 
College  Library,  and  the  Astronomical  Observa- 
tory. The  Peabody  Museum  of  American  Archie- 
ology  and  Ethnology  is  a  constituent  part  of  the 
university;  but  its  relations  to  the  university  are 
effected  by  peculiar  provisions.  The  university 
has  grown  out  of  Harvard  College,  which  was 
founded  in  1636  (six  years  after  the  settlement 
of  Boston,  and  sixteen  after  the  landing  of  the 
Pilgrims),  by  a  vote  of  the  General  Court  of 
Massachusetts,  which  appropriated  "towards  a 
school  or  college "  the  sum  of  four  hundred 
pounds,  "  equal  to  a  year's  rate  of  the  whole 
Colony."  The  next  year  the  General  Court  fixed 
the  site  of  the  college  at  Newton  (lying  across 
the  Charles  River  from  Boston),  the  name  of 
which  place  was  changed  to  Cambridge  in  com- 
memoration of  the  English  university,  where 
many  of  the  iii-st  emigrants  received  their  literary 
training;  and  in  1638  the  college  took  its  present 
name  from  John  Harvard  (who  was  born  in  Eng- 
land, graduated  at  Cambridge  University,  and 
died  in  Charlestown,  Mass.,  Sept.  24,  1638),  a 
■clergyman  of  Charlestown,  who  left  it  a  large 
bequest  in  money  (about  eight  hundred  pounds) 
and  books  (about  two  hundred  and  sixty  volumes). 
The  same  year  the  first  class  was  formed  under 
two  instructors.  In  1640  the  proper  career  of  the 
.college  began,  with  the  appointment  of  a  presi- 


dent (Kev.  Henry  Dunster);  and  in  1642  the 
(ieneral  Court  establislied  the  Board  of  Overseers, 
composed  of  the  (iovernor  and  Deputy-Governor 
of  the  Colony,  the  magistrates  of  tlie  jurisdiction, 
and  the  teaching  elders  of  Cambridge  and  the 
adjoining  towns,  with  full  governmental  powers 
over  the  college.  This  body  being  found  to  be 
unwieldy,  the  charter  of  1650  assigned  the  con- 
trol of  the  college  (disposition  of  money  and  other 
property,  election  of  officers,  and  establishment 
of  laws  and  rules)  to  a  self-perpetuating  "corpora- 
tion," consisting  of  the  president,  five  fellows, 
and  a  treasurer,  to  be  re.sponsible  to  the  overseers. 
The  charter  of  1650  was  re-affirmed  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts State  Legislature,  and  made  a  part  of 
the  State  Constitution  in  1780,  and  remains  in 
force  at  the  present  day  (1882) ;  and  the  corpora- 
tion, whose  legal  style  is  "  The  President  and 
Fellows  of  Harvard  College,"  is  the  governing 
power  of  the  whole  university,  and  not  of  the 
college  alone.  The  overseers  (thirty  in  number), 
who  exercise  a  general  supervision  over  the  acts 
of  the  corporation,  are  now  elected,  without  re- 
striction of  place,  profession,  or  creed,  by  those 
persons  who  have  received  from  the  college  a 
degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  or  master  of  arts,  or 
any  honorary  degree.  In  each  <lepartment  of  the 
university  the  internal  affairs  (discipline,  studies, 
degrees)  are  administered  by  the  faculty  of  the 
department  (consisting  of  all  its  instructors,  at 
whose  head  is  a  dean,  or  director).  The  control 
of  general  university  matters,  particularly  of  the 
degrees  of  master  of  arts  and  doctor  of  philoso- 
phy, is  in  the  hands  of  the  Academic  Council, 
composed  of  all  the  professoi'S  and  assistant  pro- 
fessors of  the  university.  The  only  honorary 
degrees  conferred  are  doctor  of  divinity,  and  doc- 
tor of  laws.  The  conferring  power  in  all  cases  is 
the  corporation,  with  the  consent  of  the  overseers. 
Officers  of  instruction  are  of  various  classes, — 
professors,  appointed  l)y  corporation  and  overseers, 
for  life ;  assistant  professors,  instructors,  tutors, 
appointed  for  detinite  periods ;  instructors  and 
lecturers,  appointed  annually;  and  demonstrators 
and  assistants,  appointed  by  the  corporation  for 
various  terms.  During  the  two  first  periods  of  its 
existence  —  the  colonial  (1636-92)  and  the  pro- 
vincial (1692-1780) — the  college  was  under  the 
control  of  the  State,  and  so  remained  to  some 
extent  after  the  Revolution,  up  to  1865,  when  the 
last  bonds  of  union  were  severed;  and  the  univer- 
sity is  now  absolutely  independent  of  the  State, 
."^mong  the  eminent  men  who  have  been  instruct- 
ors in  Harvard  may  be  mentioned  .lohn  Winthrop, 
John  Quincy  Adams,  Henry  AVare,  Andrews 
Norton,  J.  G.  Palfrey,  James  Walker,  E.  T. 
Channing,  Jared  Sparks,  Joseph  Story,  Simon 
Greenleaf,  Theophilus  Parsons,  Edward  Everett. 
George  Ticknor,  H.  W  Longfellow,  James  Russell 
Lowell,  Benjamin  Peirce,  Jacob  Bigelow,  J.  T. 
Cogswell,  Louis  Agassiz,  .Jeffries  AVyman,  Asa 
(iray,  John  C.  Warren,  .James  Jackson.  Benjamm 
Waterhouse,  C.  C.  Felton.  and  W    C.  Bond. 

2.  Instruction.  —  Beginning  as  a  seminary  for 
preachers,  with  a  limited  academical  course. 
Harvard  has  become  a  university,  in  which  all 
branches  of  science  are  represented,  and  the  liher- 
tas  (locemit  exists  in  its  fullest  extent.  During 
its  first  century  the  instruction  was  given  by  the 
president  and  several  tutors.     The  tirst  professor- 


HARVARD  UNIVERSITY. 


046      HARVEST  AMONG  HEBREWS. 


ship  (one  of  divinity)  was  established  by  Thonia.s 
Hollis,  an  English  Baptist  layman,  in  1721,  who 
also  endowed  the  second  chair  (of  mathematics 
and  natural  philosophy)  in  1726 ;  and  in  1764 
was  created  the  first  professorehip  endowed  by 
a  native  New-Englander,  —  that  of  Hebrew  and 
other  Oriental  languages,  by  Thomas  Hancock. 
The  college  now  advanced  rapidly  to  university 
proportions.  The  Medical  .School  was  begun  in 
178;3,  the  Botanic  Garden  in  1805,  the  Divinity 
School  in  1815,  the  Law  School  in  1817,  the 
Astronomical  Observatory  in  1846,  the  Agassiz 
JIuseum  of  Comparative  Zoology  in  1859,  the 
Peabody  Museum  in  1866,  the  Dental  School  in 
1808,  and  the  Bussey  Institution  in  1871  (to  which 
was  added  in  1872  the  .\rnold  Arboretum,  for  the 
open-air  culture  of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants).  During  the  past  thirteen  years  (admin- 
istration of  President  C.  AV.  Eliot)  there  has  been 
a  marked  expansion  in  the  instruction,  both  in 
the  teaching  force  and  in  the  general  apparatus 
(buildings,  etc.).  The  course  for  the  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts  extends  over  four  years,  in  the 
first  of  which  the  studies  are  prescribed ;  in  the 
others,  elective.  In  the  three  upper  classes  (in 
which  about  a  hundred  and  seventy  courses  are 
offered  by  over  fifty  instructors)  the  student 
may  select  for  his  degree  any  studies  in  which 
the  class-instruction  amounts  on  an  average  to 
not  less  than  twelve  hours  a  week.  The  elective 
system,  with  its  specializing  tendencies,  has  grown 
steadily  in  favor;  and  prescribed  studies  seem 
likely  soon  to  disappear  altogether.  Here,  as  in 
the  discipline,  the  theory  of  the  college  is  that  the 
largest  possible  liberty  is  to  be  given  to  the  stu- 
dent, and  the  appeal  made  to  his  sense  of  respon- 
sibility. In  the  professional  schools  the  courses 
for  degrees  are  fixed.  In  all  departments,  except 
the  Medical  School,  special  students  not  candi- 
dates for  degrees  are  aximitted  without  examina- 
tion, may  take  such  studies  as  they  choose,  receive 
certificates  for  what  work  they  do,  and  are  sub- 
ject to  the  same  regulations  as  regular  students. 

3.  Reliyions  Character. — The  university  is  now 
wholly  unsectarian.  Sectarian  control  of  its  gen- 
eral government  had  practically  ceased  by  the 
middle  of  the  hist  century.  In  the  movement 
which  divided  the  Congregationalists  of  Massa- 
chusetts at  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
the  greater  part  of  the  prominent  friends  of  Har- 
vard sided  with  the  Unitarians,  and  the  college 
was  popularly  identified  with  that  body.  But,  if 
any  sectarian  coloring  then  attached  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  academic  in.struction,  it  has  now 
entirely  disappeared.  Ofiicers  of  instruction  and 
government  are  chosen  without  regard  to  their 
religious  creeds.  The  Sunday  services  and  morn- 
ing prayers  in  the  college  chapel  are  this  year 
(1882)  conducted  by  different  clergymen,  belong- 
ing to  various  ecclesiastical  communions.  The 
.students  are  distributed  among  a  number  of 
religious  bodies.  According  to  the  latest  calcu- 
lation the  Episcopalians  come  first  in  point  of 
numbers,  next  the  I'nitarians,  then  the  Congre- 
gationalists, Baptists,  and  several  others.  In  the 
Divinity  School  the  chairs  were,  up  to  a  year  or 
two  ago,  all  filled  by  I'nitarians;  but  since  that 
time,  rnen  belonging  to  other  bodies  have  been 
elected  to  professorships.  A  series  of  lectures  on 
theology  haa  been  delivered  by  a  'i'rinitarian  cler- 


gyman, and  it  is  announced,  that,  so  soon  as  the- 
funds  permit,  a  Trinitarian  professor  of  dogmatic 
theology  is  to  be  appointed.  The  theological  pro- 
fessors sign  no  articles,  and  are  under  no  doctrinal 
restraint  in  respect  to  creed  or  instruction.  The 
college  has  retained  up  to  this  time  the  old  system 
of  official  religious  exercises.  All  students  are 
required  to  attend  morning  prayers,  and  all  but 
members  of  the  senior  class  to  attend  one  service 
Sunday  (the  place  being  selected  by  them).  A 
strong  party  in  the  faculty  favor  the  abrogation 
of  this  enforced  attendance  on  religious  exercises,, 
on  the  ground  that  it  is  not  promotive  of,  but 
unfavorable  to,  the  growth  of  religious  life.  They 
would  have  services  maintained,  if  necessary,  by 
the  college,  but  better  by  voluntary  subscriptions- 
of  persons  interested,  and  attendance  voluntary. 
Among  the  students  several  private  organizations 
devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  piety  are  maintained. 
As  might  be  supposed  in  so  large  a  body  of  men, 
there  exists  a  great  variety  of  philosophical  and 
religious  opinions  among  the  instructors.  The- 
perfect  liberty  of  thought  and  utterance  that 
prevails  secures  a  hearing  for  all  sides,  and  the 
university  cannot  be  put  into  any  one  category 
or  school  of  thought :  it  may  be  said  to  represent 
all  the  philosophical  and  religious  tendencies  of 
the  times.  In  the  department  of  theology  and 
biblical  criticism,  the  publications  of  instructors- 
have  generally  been  marked  by  a  conservative 
tone;  as,  for  example,  the  works  of  Professors 
Norton,  Hedge,  and  Abbot;  and  the  same  thing^ 
may  be  said  of  the  department  of  philosophy 
(publications  of  Professors  Walker,  Bowen,  and 
James). 

4.  Funds  and  Collections.  —  The  invested  funds 
of  the  university  amount  to  about  four  million 
dollars,  and  the  property  in  lands,  houses,  etc., 
not  paying  interest,  to  aliout  two  million.  The- 
number  of  books  in  all  the  libraries  of  the  uni. 
versity  is  over  two  Imndred  and  fifty  thousand^ 
and  there  is  about  an  eciual  number  of  pamphlets. 
The  JIuseum  of  Comparative  Zoology  is  reckoned 
among  the  greatest  natural-history  collections  of 
the  world:  it  is  especially  rich  in  insects.  The 
botanical  collection  ranks  higli  in  some  depart- 
ments, especially  the  composita;.  The  Museum 
of  American  Archa-ologv,  though  young,  has  a 
respectable  collection  of  antiquities,  and  other 
departments  are  similarly  well  represented.  The 
number  of  instructors  in  tlie  university  is  over  a 
hundred  an<l  fifty ;  the  number  of  students,  over 
thirteen  hundred  and  fifty.  C.  H.  TOY 

(Proft-uppr  lit  Harvard). 

HARVEST   AMONG   THE    HEBREWS.      The 

season  of  gathering  grain  or  fruits  generally  com- 
menced about  the  middle  of  April  (.lohn  iv.  35). 
In  some  parts,  as  in  .Jericho,  it  commenced  a  little 
earlier.  On  the  second  day  of  the  I'a.s.sover  feast 
(i.e., on  th(^  sixteenth  day  of  the  first  month,  Abid, 
or  Xisan)  a  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  was  brought 
unto  the  priest  (Lev.  x.\iii.  10);  and  thus  the 
harvest  sea.son  was  inaugurated.  The  beginning 
was  made  with  barley  and  with  the  I'assovei-  fes- 
tival (Lev.  xxiii.  9-1-1";  2  .Sam.  xxi.  i);  Ruth  i.  22), 
anil  with  the  wheat  and  the  Feast  of  Ingathering 
(Exod.  xxiii.  10,  xxxiv.  22)  it  was  concluded. 
The  reapers  were  mostly  hired  men,  over  whom 
a  servant  was  set  (Kuth  ii.  5).  The  maidens 
generally  put  the  slieaves  iu   uuudles ;   but  the 


HASBNKAMP. 


047 


HAUG. 


owner,  togetlier  with  his  children,  assisted  the 
reapers,  especially  in  carrying  away  the  sheaves 
(Gen.  xxxvii.  7).  The  passers-by  saluted  the 
reapers  (Uuth  ii.  4).  Refreshments,  especially 
drink,  were  provided  for  the  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  9). 
The  harvest  was  a  season  of  great  rejoicing,  espe- 
cially when  the  crops  had  been  plentiful  (Isa.  ix. 
3;  Ps.  cxxvi.  0).  The  corners  of  the  field  were 
not  reaped,  but  left  to  the  poor ;  and  so  also  any 
slieaf  that  was  forgotten  in  the  field  belonged  to 
the  poor  and  the  stranger  (Lev.  xix.  9,  xxiii.  22; 
Deut.  xxiv.  19).  RtJETSCHI. 

HASENKAMP  is  the  name  of  three  brothers, 
who,  belonging  to  the  same  circle  as  Lavater,  Jung- 
Stilling,  Tersteegen,  and  Kollenbusch,  spoke  with 
great  energy  and  impressiveness  for  the  idea  of  a 
divine  revelation,  and  against  the  flat  rationalism 
prevailing  in  Germany  during  the  latter  half  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  —  Johann  Gerhard,  b. 
July  12,  1736 ;  d.  June  10,  1777 ;  was  appointed 
rector  at  Duisburg  in  1766,  but  was  several  times, 
both  before  and  after  his  appointment,  forbidden 
to  preach  on  account  of  the  mental  excitement 
under  which  he  suffered.  His  Life,  begun  by  him- 
self and  finished  by  his  son,  is  an  interesting  and 
instructive  book,  and  gives  the  list  of  his  works, 
mostly  of  a  polemical  and  apologetical  descrip- 
tion. —  Friedrich  Arnold,  b.  Jan.  11,  1747  ;  d. 
179.5 ;  succeeded  his  brother  as  rector  of  Duis- 
burg, and  wrote  Ueher  die  verdunkiende  Auf Ida- 
rung,  1789,  Bfiefe  iiber  wic/dige  Wahiiiei/en  der 
RelUjion,  1794,  2  vols.,  etc.  — Johann  Heinrich,  b. 
Sept.  19,  1750;  d.  June  17,  1814;  was  pastor  of 
Dahle,  near  Altona,  from  1779.  His  Chrisd. 
Scliri/tcii,  3  vols.,  were  published  after  his  death 
by  his  nephew. 

HASSE,  Friedrich  Rudolf,  b.  at  Dresden,  June 
29,  1808;  d.  at  Bonn,  Oct.  14,  1862.  He  studied 
at  Leipzig  and  Berlin ;  was  successively  pricat- 
docerd  at  the  latter  university  (1834),  professor 
extraordinary  of  church  history  at  Griefswald 
(1836)  and  then  at  Bonn  (1841),  and  professor 
ordinary  (1843).  His  fame  rests  upon  his  master- 
piece, Anselm  von  Canterbury,  Leipzig,  1843,  1852, 
2  vols.  He  began  his  studies  upon  Anselm  as 
early  as  1832,  when  he  chose  him  as  the  subject 
of  his  dissertation.  Up  to  that  time  the  scholas- 
tic period  of  church  history  had  been  very  little 
studied.  Hasse  developed  extraordinary  gifts  in 
exploring  it.  His  dissertation  was  upon  the 
Ansel  mic  conception  of  the  divine  image,  and 
proved  the  presence  of  a  master  historian.  This 
impression  was  confirmed  by  his  lectures  on 
church  history.  In  Bonn  he  completed  (1843) 
the  first  volume  of  his  monograph  upon  Anselm 
of  Canterbury,  containing  the  life.  This  was  the 
fruit  of  the  mo.st  thorough  work,  and  answers 
every  demand  of  a  monograph ;  for  Anselm  stands 
forth  in  all  his  individuality,  and  at  the  same 
time  in  his  relation  to  the  movements  of  his  age. 
In  1852  Hasse  issued  his  second  volume,  the 
theology  of  Anselm,  presented  in  a  form  at  once 
complete,  objective,  and  clear.  One  is  able  to 
follow  the  development  of  the  theology  step  by 
step  to  its  rounded  whole. 

Hasse  possessed  great  ability  as  a  teacher,  and 
was  held  in  high  esteem  for  his  solidity  of  char- 
acter, his  childlike  piety,  and  his  great  modesty, 
which  led  him  not  only  to  think  little  of  himself, 
but  to  rejoice  in  the  success  of  others.     He  took 


an  intelligent  interest  in  church  matters,  and 
especially  in  foreign  missions.  Besides  his  mas- 
terpiece, Anselm  con  Carderliuri/,  he  is  the  author 
of  two  posthumous  volumes  of  lectures,  Gcscliic/de 
des  alien  Bundes,  Leipzig,  1863,  and  Kirclienr/e- 
schichle,  Leipzig,  1864,  3  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1872.  See 
W.  Khafft  :  Dr.  F.  R.  Hasse,  eine  Lehensskizze, 
Bonn,  1865.  w.  KllAFFT. 

HATTEMISTS,  a  Dutch  sect  founded  by  I'on- 
tianus  van  Hattem,  who  was  pastor  in  Zealand, 
but  was  deposed  in  1683.  He  was  a  disciple  of 
Spinoza;  and  his  doctrines  rest  on  a  mystical  pan- 
theism, in  which  the  moral  distinction  between 
good  and  bad  disappears.  The  sect  was  never  of 
great  consequence,  and  soon  vanished. 

HATTO,  Bishop  of  Basel ;  b.  in  763 ;  was  edu- 
cated in  the  monastery  of  Reichenau ;  became 
director  of  its  school,  and  abbot,  806 ;  was  made 
Bishop  of  Basel  in  807,  by  Charlemagne,  and  in 
811  sent  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor  Xicepho- 
rus ;  resigned  his  position  as  abbot  and  bishop  in 
823,  and  died  as  simple  monk  in  Reichenau  836. 
Two  works  by  him  have  come  down  to  us,  —  Visio 
Wettini,  a  description  of  a  walk  through  heaven, 
hell,  and  purgatory,  which  made  a  deep  impres- 
sion on  his  contemporaries,  and  was  put  into  Latin 
verses  by  Walafried  Strabo;  and  Capilulare  Hat- 
lonis,  twenty-five  statutes  which  he  issued  as 
bishop.    Both  works  are  found  in  JIiGNE  :  Patrol. 

Lai.,  vol.  105.  WAGENMANN. 

HATTO,  Archbishop  of  Mayence ;  b.  in  the 
middle  of  the  ninth  century,  probably  in  Suabia ; 
d.  JMay  15,913;  was  educated  at  Ellwangen,  or 
Fulda;  became  Abbot  of  Reichenau  888,  and  of 
Ellwangen  889,  and  Archbishop  of  JMayence  891. 
Twice  he  accompanied  King  Arnulph  to  Italy  (894 
and  896),  and  received  the  pallium  from  I'ope 
Formosus.  After  the  death  of  Arnulph,  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  the  Child  (900-911).  he  and 
his  friend,  Bishop  Adalbero  of  Augsburg,  the 
tutor  of  the  young  king,  actually  governed  the 
realm  ;  and  his  influence  did  not  essentially  de- 
crease when  Conrad  I.  ascended  the  throne.  As 
in  that  period  the  unity  of  the  German  Emjiire 
mainly  rested  on  the  Christian  episcopacy,  in 
which  the  kings  found  their  best  support  against 
their  vassals'  revolts,  and  attempts  of  independ- 
ence, it  is  quite  natural  that  so  powerful  a  repre- 
sentative of  this  tendency  as  Ilatto  should  be  very 
variously  judged  by  his  contemporaries;  and, 
indeed,  while  some  extolled  him  as  a  prudent  and 
patriotic  statesman,  others  told  how  Satan  him- 
self came  to  fetch  him,  and  threw  him  down 
into  the  crater  of  iEtna.  See  J.  Fr.  Bohmer  : 
Reqesia  archiepiscoporum  JMaquntinensiuni,  edited 
by'C.  Will,  Innsbruck,  1877.  "      WAGEXIIAXN. 

HAUO,  Martin,  famous  Orientalist;  b.  at  Ost- 
dorf  in  Wurtemberg,  Jan.  30,  1827  ;  d.  at  Ragatz, 
Switzerland,  June  3,  1876.  lie  studied  at  Tu- 
bingen, Gottingen,  and  Bonn,  for  three  years 
(1856-59);  assisted  Bunsen  on  his  Biliehverk: 
was  professor  of  Sanscrit  in  Poona  college  (18.')9- 
63) ;  made  a  successful  journey  under  British 
appointment  through  the  province  of  Guzerat. 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  manuscripts  of  Zend 
and  Sanscrit;  returned  to  Germany  in  1866;  and 
from  1808  till  his  death  he  was  professor  of  .San- 
scrit and  comparative  grammar  at  the  university 
of  Munich.  His  large  collection  of  Zend,  Reh- 
levi,  Sanscrit,  and  Persian  manuscripts,  was  pur- 


HAUGE. 


948 


HAVBRNICK. 


chased  by  tlie  Bavarian  Government,  and  is  in  the 
Royal  Library  at  Munich.  His  best  known  worli 
is  Essai/s  on  the  Sacred  Language  of  the  I'arseex, 
Bombay,  1862,  2d  ed.,  revised  and  enlarged, 
London.  1878. 

HAUGE,  Hans  Nielsen,  a  powerful  lay  preacher 
and  revivali.st  in  Norway  ;  was  b.  on  the  Hauge 
farm,  in  the  county  of  Smaalenene,  April  3,  1771 ; 
and  d.  on  the  Bredtvedt  farm,  in  Aker  County, 
March  29,  1824.  He  received  only  the  common 
peasant  education,  but  he  was  from  early  youth  a 
zealous  student  of  the  Bible.  In  1796  he  began 
his  missionary  work,  walking  from  place  to  place, 
and  often  preaching  twice  or  thrice  a  day.  He 
made  a  deep  impression ;  but  as  he  spoke  rather 
slightingly  of  ordination,  creed,  etc.,  he  stirred 
up  the  hatred  of  the  rationalistic  clergy,  and  in 
1804  he  was  arrested.  He  was  kept  in  prison  till 
1811  ;  and  in  1814  he  was  finally  .sentenced  to  two 
years'  hard  labor  for  having  held  conventicles, 
and  spoken  disrespectfully  of  the  Established 
Church.  His  followers,  very  numerous,  spread 
over  the  whole  country,  and  known  under  the 
name  of  "  Haugians,"  or  "  Readers,"  did  not  sepa- 
rate from  the  State  Church  :  they  simply  kept 
aloof  until  finally  the  rationalistic  ice  itself  began 
to  thaw.  See  A.  Chr.  Bang  :  Hans  Nielsen 
Hauge,  Christiania,  1875. 

HAURAN.     .See  Bashax. 

HAUSMANN,  Nicolaus,  one  of  Luther's  dear- 
■est  friends  ;  b.  at  Freiburg,  1479  ;  d.  there  1538. 
He  introduced  the  Reformation  into  Zwickau 
(1521),  and  subsequently  into  the  duchy  of  An- 
halt  (1532).  Luther  heard  of  his  death  on  Nov. 
li,  1.538,  anil  lamented  him  greatly.  He  praised 
him  for  his  exemplary  piety,  which  did  so  much 
to  commend  the  Reformation.  "  What  we  teach, 
he  lives,"  he  said  of  him.  See  O.  G.  Sch.midt  : 
JVicolaus  Hausmrinu,  tier  FreunU  Luthers,  Leipzig, 
18ti0.  G.  KR.VNK. 

HAVELOCK,  Henry,  Sir,  a  distinguished  Eng- 
lish general  and  Christian  layman ;  b.  April  5, 
1705,  at  Bi.shop-\\'earmouth,  Sunderland,  where 
his  father  was  a  rich  .ship-builder ;  d.  Nov.  25, 
18.57,  at  Lucknow,  India.  He  studied  law  under 
Cliitty,  but,  preferring  a  soldier's  life,  entered  the 
army  as  second  lieutenant  (1815),  and  after  eight 
years  of  service  in  Great  Britain  went  to  India  in 
1823.  In  1829  he  married  the  daughter  of  the 
eminent  mi.ssionarj-.  Dr.  Marsliman,  and  soon 
after  united  with  the  Baptist  denomination.  He 
proved  himself  a  brave  commander,  and  gradu- 
ally rose  in  command.  He  served  with  honor  in 
the  Afghan  war  (1840-42),  the  record  of  w-hich 
he  preserved  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Afghan  Cam- 
paign, the  Sikh  Campaign,  etc.,  and  was  made 
adjutant-general  in  18.54.  In  the  Sepoy  rebel- 
lion (18.57)  he  commanded  a  column,  and  won  a 
series  of  brilliant  victories.  He  equally  showed 
his  military  skill  by  moderation  and  prudence, 
(ien.  Outrani,  his  superior  in  command,  arriving 
before  Lucknow  was  taken,  chivalrously  left  to 
Havelock  the  supreme  command.  Lucknow  was 
taken  l)y  a  daring  and  gallant  assault;  but  the 
victor,  known  sul)8equently  as  the  "  hero  of  Luck- 
now," died  three  days  alterwards,  of  dy.sentery 
brought  on  by  the  exce.ssive  exertions  of  the  cam- 
paign. He  was  created  major-general  and  baro- 
net liy  Parliament,  and  a  pension  settled  on  iiim 
of  a  thousand  pounds ;  but  the  news  did  not  reach 


India  till  after  his  death.  Havelock  stands  out 
in  the  annals  of  the  modern  English  army,  as 
Commodore  Cioodenough  does  in  those  of"  the 
navy,  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  a  Chris- 
tian soldier.  He  was  scrupulous  about  his  con- 
duct, and  practised  two  hours  of  devotion  every 
morning,  whether  in  the  camp  or  on  a  campaign. 
His  exemplary  Christian  cliaracter  is  the  best 
illustration  that  Christian  devotion  is  not  incom- 
patible with  warlike  bravery.  See  Marshman 
(his  father-in-law)  :  Memoiis  of  Sir  Henry  Have- 
lock, London,  1868. 

HAVEN,  Erastus  Otis,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Methodist- 
Episcopal  bishop;  b.  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Nov.  1, 
1820;  d.  at  Salem,  Oregon,  Tuesday,  Aug.  2, 
1881.  He  was  graduated  at  the  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity 1842  ;  took  up  the  profession  of  teaching; 
was  ordained  1848,  and,  after  holding  various 
positions,  was  professor  in  the  University  of 
Michigan  1853-56 ;  editor  of  Zion's  Herald, 
Boston,  18.56-63 ;  president  of  the  L'niversity  of 
Michigan  1863-69,  of  the  North-western  L'niver- 
sity,  Evanston,  111.,  1869-72 ;  corresponding  sec- 
retary of  the  board  of  education  of  the  Jlethodist- 
Episcopal  Church  1872-74 ;  chancellor  of  the 
Syracuse  L'niversity  1874 ;  elected  bishop  1880. 
His  best  known  publication  is  Rhetoric  for  Schools, 
Colleges,  and  Private  Stuili/,  New  York,  1869. 

HAVEN,  Gilbert,  D.D.,  Methodist-Episcopal 
bishop ;  b.  near  Boston,  Sept.  19,  1821 ;  d.  at 
Maiden,  JIass.,  Jan.  8,  1880.  After  graduation 
i  at  the  Wesleyan  University  (1846),  lie  taught 
for  several  years.  In  1851  he  joined  the  New- 
England  Conference  of  the  Methodist-Episcopal 
Church.  In  1861  he  was  appointed  chaplain  of 
the  Eighth  Massachusetts  Regiment,  the  first 
commi.ssioned  chaplain  after  the  breaking-out  of 
hostilities ;  but  he  only  was  one  year  in  service. 
He  was  editor  of  Zion's  Herald  1867-72,  when  he 
was  elected  bishop.  He  was  a  vigorous  advocate 
of  the  cause  of  the  colored  people,  and  also  of 
Protestantism.  He  was  quite  an  extensive  travel- 
ler; and  his  journey  to  Mexico  he  recorded  in  an 
interesting  volume.  Our  Aext-Door  Neighlior ;  re- 
cent Sketches  of  Mexico,  N.V.,  1874. 

HAVERGAL,  Frances  Ridley,  a  beloved  and 
gifti'il  religious  writer;  b.  at  Astley,  Worcester- 
shire, Eng.,  Dec.  14,1836;  d.  at  Caswell  Bay, 
Swansea,  South  Wales,  June  3,  187!).  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  was  carefully  educated.  Her  own 
love  of  study  led  her  to  take  up  unusual  lines; 
and  so  she  acquired  .some  acquaintance  with 
(ireek  and  Hebrew,  in  order  that  she  might  read 
the  Bible  in  the  original.  She  was  a  devoted 
Christian  woman,  neglecting  no  opportunity  to 
speak  for  the  Saviour.  She  issued  many  vol- 
umes of  prose  and  poetry,  which  have  been  blessed 
to  many  hearts.  Of  these  jierhaps  the  best  known 
are  the  three  collections  of  her  poetry  under  the 
titles,  Miiiistri/  of  Song,  lender  the  Surface,  and 
IJniler  His  Shadow :  and  in  prose  Morning  Bells 
and  Little  I'illoirs  (devotions  for  children,  pub- 
lished 1874),  My  King  (1877),  Kept  for  the  Mas- 
ters Use  (1879),  and  Swiss  Letters  (1882).  See 
her  interesting  Memorials,  by  her  sister,  London 
and  N.'w  York,  1880. 

HAVERNICK,  Heinrich  Andreas  Christoph,  b. 
at  Kroplin,  Mecklenburg,  (iermany,  1805;  d.  at 
Neu-Strelit/.,    184G  |    a   learned   member  of    the 


HAVILAH. 


949 


HEAVEN. 


school  of  Hengstenberg,  aud  author  of  commenta- 
ries upon  Daniel  (Hamb.,  1832)  and  upon  Ezekiel 
(Erlangen,  1843),  Handhuch  der  historisch-kritixchen 
Einleitung  in  das  Alle  Testament  (Erlangen,  Parts 
I.  u.  II.,  1836-30;  2d  ed.  of  Part  I.  by  Keil,  Frank- 
furt, 1854-56;  Part  III.  edited  by  Keil,  1849,  Eng- 
lish translation),  A  Historico-Critical  Introduction 
to  the  Pentateuch  (Edinburgh,  18.50),  and  A  Gen- 
eral Historico-Critical  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment (1S.')2). 

HAVILAH.     See  Eden. 

HAWAIIAN  ISLANDS.  See  Sandwich  Isl- 
ands. 

HAWES,  Joel,  D.D.,  b.  Medway,  Mass.,  Dec. 
22,  1789  ;  d.  at  Gilead,  Conn.,  June  5,  1867.  He 
was  graduated  from  Brown  University  1813  ; 
studied  at  Andover;  and  from  1818  till  his  death 
was  pastor  of  the  First  CongTegational  Church 
in  Hartford,  Conn.  He  wrote  several  religious 
works,  of  which  the  best  known  is  Lectures  to 
YomKj  Men  on  the  Formation  of  Character,  Hart- 
ford, 1828;  repeatedly  reprinted,  and  widely  cir- 
culated, in  lilie  I'nited  States  and  Great  Britain. 

HAWKER,  Robert,  D.D.,  an  "evangelical;" 
b.  at  Exeter,  Eng.,  17.53;  educated  at  Oxford; 
vicar  of  Charles-the-iMartyr  in  Plymouth  for 
fifty  years;  d.  in  that  town  April  6,  1827.  He 
was  a  popular  divine,  and  author  of  TIte  Poor 
jMan's  Commentarii,  covering  the  entire  Bible 
(London,  1816-22,' 10  vols.),  and  The  Poor  Mans 
Alurninr;  and  Ereniny  Portion,  which  passed 
through  many  editions.  An  edition  of  his  Works, 
mostly  sermons,  exclusive  of  his  Commentary, 
appeared  in  10  vols.,  London,  1831.  Rev.  Dr. 
John  Williams  prefaced  the  edition  by  a  brief 
memoir. 

HAWKER,  Robert  Stephen,  the  grandson  of 
the  preceding  ;  b.  at  Stoke  Damerel,  Eng.,  Dec. 
3.  1804;  d.  at  Plymouth,  Monday,  Aug.  16, 
1875.  After  education  at  Oxford,  in  1834  he 
was  presented  by  the  Bishop  of  Exeter  to  the 
vicarage  of  Morwenstow,  on  the  north-west  coast 
of  Cornwall,  in  "a  wild  district,  which  with  its 
ecclesiastical  remains,  its  traditions,  its  scanty 
untaught  peasantry,  and  its  wreckers,  was  well 
adapted  to  the  independent,  eccentric,  and  mysti- 
cal character  of  Mr.  Hawker."  He  was  passion- 
ately fond  of  animals,  and  numerous  stories  are 
told  of  his  strange  doings  with  them,  —  how  he 
had  a  pet  pig  which  accompanied  him  on  his 
walks ;  how  he  conducted  service  while  his  nine 
cats  careered  about  the  chancel ;  how  he  drove 
his  cows  on  the  cliffs,  etc.  As  a  poet  he  is  likely 
to  have  a  place  in  English  literature.  The  best 
known  of  his  collections  of  poetry  are  Ecclesia 
(1841),  Quest  of  the  Sanijreal  (1864),  Cornish  Bal- 
lads (1869).  He  had  a  stroke  of  paralysis,  Aug. 
9,  1875  ;  and,  while  thus  incapacitated  for  men- 
tal action,  he  was  received,  apparently  without 
any  conscious  personal  co-operation,  into  the 
Church  of  Home.  His  biography  was  written  by 
Rev.  S.  Baring-Gould  (London,  1876,  American 
reprint,  N.Y.,  3d  ed.,  1882).  and  also  by  Kev. 
F.  G.  Lee,  D.C.L.  (London,  1876). 

HAWKS,  Francis  Lister,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at 
Newbern,  N.C.,  June  10,  1798;  d.  in  New- York 
City,  Sept.  26,  1866.  He  was  graduated  at  the 
University  of  North  Carolina  1815;  practised 
law  for  a  w-hile  witli  great  success,  but  in  1827 
entered  the  ministry  of  the  Protestant-Episcopal 


Church ;  served  churches  in  New  Haven,  Phila- 
delphia, New  York  (1831-43,  1849-62,  1865-06), 
and  New  Orleans  (1844-49).  In  1835  he  was 
appointed  historiograjiher  of  his  denomination, 
and  prepared  Contributions  to  the  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory of  the  United  States  (embracing  Virginia  and 
Maryland),  New  York,  1830-39  ;  Documentary 
History  of  the  Protestant-Episcopal  Church  in  Con- 
necticut, New  York,  1863,  1.^04,  2  vols.  He  was  a 
brilliant  and  impressive  pulpit  orator,  and  was 
three  times  elected  to  the  episcopate,  first  as  mis- 
sionary bishop  of  the  South-West  (1835),  then  as 
bishop  of  Mis.sissippi  (1844),  and  finally  as  bishop 
of  Rhode  Island  (1852).  But  he  declined  these 
positions. 

HAWLEY,  Gideon,  missionary  to  the  Indians; 
b.  at  Stratford  (now  Bridgeport),  Conn.,  Nov. 
5,  1727;  d.  in  Mashpee,  Mass.,  Oct.  .3,  1807.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College  (1749),  and  con- 
ducted missions  among  the  Mohawk,  Oneida, 
Tuscarora,  and  Iroquois.  He  had  great  influence 
among  these  tribes. 

HAYDN,  Joseph,  b.  at  Rohran,  on  the  frontier 
between  Austria  and  Hungary,  March  31,  1732; 
d.  in  Vienna,  May  31,  1809;  received  his  nnisical 
education  at  Haimburg  and  \'ienna,  and  was  in 
1760  appointed  chapel-master  to  Prince  Esterhazy. 
He  twice  visited  London  ( 1790-92  and  1794,  1795); 
and  the  result  of  these  visits  to  the  land  of  Han- 
del was  his  grand  oratorio.  The  Creation  (1799). 
In  the  history  of  music,  however,  it  is  his  hundred 
and  eighteen  symphonies  to  which  he  owes  hia 
fame. 

HAYMO.     See  Haimo. 

HAZ'AEL  (Sxrri,  '7Nntn,  "  God  has  seen  ").  king, 
for  at  least  forty-five  years,  of  Damascene  Syria 
in  the  first  half  of  the  ninth  century  B.C.  Sent 
by  King  Benhadad  to  consult  Elisha  concerning 
his  cure  from  sickness,  he  received  the  announce- 
ment from  the  prophet  of  the  king's  death,  and 
his  own  elevation  to  the  throne.  The  day  after 
his  return,  Benhadad  died  a  violent  death  (per- 
haps drowned  in  his  bath),  and,  as  it  would  seem, 
by  Hazael's  hand  (though  Ewald  calls  this  in 
question).  Joram,  king  of  Israel,  and  Ahaziah 
of  Judah,  leagued  themselves  against  him,  but 
were  defeated  (2  Kings  viii.  2.8,  i.x.  15);  and  from 
Jehu,  Jorani's  murderer  aud  successor,  Hazael 
took  all  his  trans-Jordanic  provinces,  and  treated 
the  inhabitants  with  ferocious  cruelty  (.^mos  i. 
3  sqq  )  ;  nor  did  he  spare  .fudah.  and  was  only 
diverted  from  marching  against  Jerusalem  by  a 
handsome  tribute  (2  Kings  xii.  18).  Hazael  is 
mentioned  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  as  having 
been  twice  attacked  by  Shalmaneser  II.  See  the 
Bible  Diets,  of  \\'rxF.R.  Riehm  [and  Smith],  and 
Ewald's ///.s7.  o/7v™p/(iii.).    wolf  BAUDISSIN. 

HEART  OF  JESUS,  Society  ot.  See  Jesus' 
Heaht.  Society  of. 

HEAVE-OFFERINGS.     See  Offerings. 

HEAVEN  IS  (1)  the  upper  part  of  the  created 
world,  which  is  mentioned  before  the  earth,  on 
account  of  its  being  nobler  and  more  capacious 
than  it  (Gen.  i.  1).  The  name  is  of  divine  origin, 
and  designates  the  firmament  which  God  set 
between  the  upper  and  the  lower  waters ;  that  is, 
the  space  which  extends  above  the  earth  (Gen.  i. 
6-8).  It  has  been  supposed  by  Delitzsch  {Com. 
on  Genesis)   that  the  stars  of  the  fourth  day  of 


HEAVEN. 


050 


HEBBR. 


creation  were  developed  out  of  the  upper  waters, 
just  as  the  solid  earth  was  developed  out  of  the 
lower  waters ;  and  the  facts  of  astronomy  seem 
to  favor  this  view,  the  density  of  Jupiter  being 
no  greater  than  that  of  water,  and  the  density 
of  Saturn  being  only  half  as  great.  But  it  is 
opposed  by  other  representations  (Gen.  vii.  11  ; 
Ps.  cxlviii.  4),  according  to  which  the  "waters" 
still  continue  to  exist  above  the  heavens.  We 
are  not,  tlierefore,  surprised  to  be  told,  that,  like 
the  earth,  so  the  created  heavens  will  pass  awav 
(Matt.  xxiv.  29,  35 ;  Mark  siii.  25,  31 ;  2  Pet. 
iii.  10). 

(2)  Heaven  also  designates  the  place  where 
God  specially  manifests  his  glory.  It  is  his  throne 
(Isa.  Ixvi.  1).  "The  heaven  of  heavens  is  the 
Lord's :  the  earth  he  has  given  to  the  children  of 
men"  (Ps.  cxv.  16).  After  the  flood,  sacrifices 
ascended  to  it  (Gen.  viii.  20).  Heaven  is  in  this 
case  supermundane,  as  well  as  superterrene,  dis- 
tinct from  the  earth,  and  high  above  all  created 
objects.  God  has  revealed  himself  from  heaven, 
since  the  time  of  Xoah,  through  a  covenant  of 
grace,  whose  ultimate  aim  is  the  union  of  heaven 
and  earth.  In  time  the  Hebrew  nation  was  chosen 
as  the  representative  of  God's  kingdom  on  the 
earth,  and  the  temple  erected  at  Jerusalem  which 
contained  the  mercy-seat,  where  the  invisible  God 
was  always  present.  But  these  were  only  sliadows 
of  good  things  to  come  (Heb.  x.  1).  When  the 
fulness  of  time  was  come,  God  revealed  himself  in 
Clirist,  wlio  descended  from  lieaven  (John  iii.  13), 
and  announced  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  amongst  men.  He  made  repentance 
the  condition  of  membership  in  it,  and  taught 
men  to  pray  to  the  heavenly  Father  that  this 
kingdom  might  come,  and  so  God's  will  be  done 
on  earth  as  in  heaven. 

(3)  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  gives  us  a 
deeper  insight  into  the  mystery  of  heaven.  The 
"  holy  jilace  "  into  which  Christ  entered  when  he 
ascended  from  the  earth  (Heb.  ix.  11,  12)  is  noth- 
ing else  than  the  holy  of  holies  of  heaven,  the 
place  of  the  glorious  presence  of  (jod.  This  is 
heaven  in  its  fullest,  its  real  sense  (Heb.  ix.  24, 
"heaven  itself").  There  Christ,  as  the  eternal 
high  priest,  is  always  advocating  our  cause,  but 
in  such  a  way  that  he  makes  the  world  the  scene 
of  his  saving  presence  (Eph.  i.  23).  He  himself 
sits  on  the  tlirone,  wlience  such  language  as  that 
"he  was  made  higher  than  tlie  heavens"  (Heb. 
vii.  2U),  and  "  hath  passed  tlirough  the  heavens" 
(Heb.  iv.  14).  "  When  the  departure  of  Jesus 
from  the  workl  was  in  question,  it  was  suflicieiit 
to  say  '  into  heaven  ; '  but  when  tlic  idea  was  to 
be  expressed  that  all  eartlily  limitation  was  re- 
moved, and  every  possible  barrier  lietween  Jesus 
and  God  taken  away,  then  tlie  expression  is  used, 
■far  above  all  the  heavens'  {i'-'imnu  nuvruu  nln 
ovfiavuv),  or  one  like  it"  (Hofniajin,  Schrifiheweis, 
ii.  1,  p.  535).  It  is  this  sup(;rsjiatial  heaven, 
above  the  cloudy  and  the  stellar  lieavens,  botli  of 
which  are  transient,  to  which  I'aul  refers  wIk'U 
he  speaks  of  the  "third  heaven  "  (2  Cor.  xii.  2). 

Those  who  partake  of  the  beneiits  of  Christ's 
death  and  resurrection  have  their  citizenship  in 
heaven  (I'liil.  iii.  20);  and,  on  the  other  liand, 
those  will)  an^  already  in  heaven  eontinui'  to  have 
an  interest  in  the  progress  of  Christ's  kingdom 
ou  the  earth  (Euke  xv.  7,  etc.).     But  the  created 


heavens  (Gen.  i.  1)  and  earth  will  pass  away, 
and  be  replaced  by  new  heavens  and  a  new  earth 
(2  Pet.  iii.  13).  Upon  this  new  earth  the  heavenly 
Jerusalem  will  be  let  down  (Rev.  xxi.),  which 
will  be  distinguished  for  holiness,  and  will  be 
resplendent  with  glory  (Rev.  xxi.  11  sqq.). 

The  doctrine  of  heaven  offers  a  large  field  for 
the  fancy ;  and  a  spiritualistic  tendency  is  to  be 
avoided,  which  resolves  the  heavenly  realities  into 
mere  ideas  and  unreal  ideals,  as  well  as  a  gross 
realism  such  as  is  repre.sented  by  Swedenborg 
and  Oberlin,  and  in  works  like  Uratwgraphie  oder 
Beschreibung  d.  unsicldharcn  Welt  (Uranography, 
oy  a  Description  of  the  Incisible  World,  Ludwigs- 
burg,  1856).  It  must  be  admitted  that  there  is 
something  real  to  correspond  to  the  figures,  and 
the  one  bears  a  relation  to  the  other  similar  to 
that  which  exists  between  the  glorified  and  natu- 
ral body.  [See  Baxter  :  Saints'  Everlasting  Rest, 
London,  1649;  John  Howe:  T/ie  Blessedness  of 
the  Righteous  opened,  London,  1668;  J.  P.  Lange: 
D.  Land  d.  Ilerrlichkeit,  Meurs,  1838;  Harbaugh: 
Heaven,  or  the  Sainted  Dead,  3  vols.,  Philadelphia, 
1848-53,  and  often  since,  etc. ;  the  works  on  The- 
ology, especially  those  of  Hodge,  Van  Ooster- 
ZEE,  and  DoKXER ;  also  Alger  :  Critical  History 
of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  10th  ed.  Boston, 
1878.]  BUCHRUCKER. 

HEBER,  Reginald,  a  distinguished  bishop  and 
hymn-writer ;  b.  at  Malpas,  Chester,  April  21, 
1783 ;  d.  at  Tnchinopoly,  India,  April  3,  1826. 
He  was  delicate  in  constitution,  but  precocious  in 
intellect,  at  an  early  age  writing  poems  {Ishmael, 
etc.)  which  were  retained  side  by  side  with  his 
maturer  compositions.  In  1800  he  went  to  Oxford, 
and  three  years  afterwards  produced  the  prize- 
poem,  Palestine,  whicli  takes  highest  rank  among 
productions  of  its  kind,  and  was  set  to  music  by 
Dr.  Crotch.  In  1804  he  was  fellow  of  All  Souls. 
After  travelling  through  Northern  Europe  lie  be- 
came rector,  in  1807,  of  Ilodnet.  His  kind  and 
charitable  disposition  won  the  affections  of  his 
people.  In  1815  he  delivered  the  Bampton  Lec- 
tures on  the  Personality  and  Ojfice  of  tlie  Christian 
Comforter.  In  1817  lie  was  made  canon  of  St. 
Asaph,  and,  1822,  preacher  at  Lincoln's  Inu.  Soon 
after,  the  see  of  Calcutta  was  offered  to  Ileber. 
After  much  hesitation,  he  accepted  the  position, 
and  was  consecrated  at  Lambeth,  June  16,  1823. 
At  thai  time  Calcutta  was  tlie  only  diocese  in 
India.  Heber  threw  himself  eagerly  into  the 
work  which  had  been  begun  by  his  predecessor, 
Dr.  Middleton.  He  souglit  to  build  up  educa- 
tional institutions,  as  well  a.s  increase  tlie  mission- 
stations.  His  excessive  and  useful  labors  were 
l)rought  to  a  sudden  termination  by  his  death, 
from  apoplexy,  wliile  taking  a  bath. 

I'.ishup  Heber  continues  to  be  known,  not  only 
as  the  laborious  and  devoted  prelate  of  India, 
but  also  as  the  author  of  some  of  our  most  pol- 
ished and  devout  hymns.  Among  these  are 
"  Brightest  and  best  of  the  sons  of  tlie  morning," 
•'Holy,  lioly,  holy  Lord  tiod  Almighty;"  and  of 
all  missionary  liymns  liis  "From  (Sreenland's  icy 
mountains  "  is  the  most  inspiring  and  recumeni- 
cal.  Heber  was  a  Iligli-Churclinian,  and  held 
to  the  doctrine  of  apostolical  succession.  He  car- 
ried out  these  views  in  India  strictly,  and  yet  he 
was  recognized  as  a  man  of  catholiit  and  lilierat 
spirit.     Upon  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  he  put  an 


HEBREW   LANGUAGE. 


951 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE. 


Arniinhin  intprpretiitioii.  He  comliiiiPil  learning, 
and  refinement  of  manners,  with  humility,  and 
consecration  to  his  work. 

Lit.  —  Heber's  worlis  not  already  mentioned 
are,  Works  and  Life  of  Jeremi/  Tni/lor  (1822,  15 
vols.),  Hijmns  for  llie  Weekly  Church  Serrlre  oj"  Ike 
Year  (1827),  A  Journey  thromjh  India  (1828,  2  vols.). 
Sermons  Preached  in  Englaml  (1828),  Sermons 
Preached  in  India  (1829),  Parish  Sermons  (1837, 
3  vols.,  5th  ed.,  1844).  —  Life  of  Reginald  Ileher, 
D.D.,  by  his  widow,  London  and  New  York,  1830, 
2  vols. ;  RoBiNso.v;  Last  Days  of  Reginald  Heher, 
London,  1830 ;  Cn.\MBERS  :  Bishop  Heber  and 
Indian  Missions,  Lonilon,  1846. 

HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  The,  is  the  language  of 
the  Hebrews,  the  de.soendants  of  Eber,  or  Heber, 
the  ancestor  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xi.  14).  In  the 
Old  Testament  they  called  themselves  "  The  Chil- 
dren of  Israel,"  "  Lsrael,"  "  The  House  of  Jacob," 
"Jacob;"  but  by  the  non-Israelites  they  were 
called  "  Hebrews  "  (Gen.  xxxix.  14,  xl.  12  ;  Exod. 
i.  16,  ii.  6;  1  Sam.  iv.  6,  xiii.  19),  and  so  they 
called  themselves  in  contradistinction  to  non- 
Israelites  (Gen.xl.  15,  xliii.  32;  Exod.  i.  1.5,  19). 
Apparent  exceptions  are  1  Sam.  xiii.  3,  7,  xiv.  21; 
but  here  the  text  may  be  corrupt,  for  the  Septua- 
gint  reads,  '■  Let  the  slave.s  revolt,"  "  And  those 
that  crossed,  crossed  the  Jordan,"  m  the  first  two 
cases  respectively.  We  are  therefore  naturally 
led  to  suppose  that  the  designation  "Hebrew" 
for  the  speech  of  the  Israelites  came  from  the 
non-Israelites,  or  from  Greek-speaking  Jews,  since 
the  expression  f/ipatori  occurs  first  in  the  Apoc- 
rypha and  in  the  Prologue  to  Siraoh  (i.e.,  about 
130  B.C.),  to  describe  not  only  the  old  Hebrew 
language,  but  that  of  the  later  popular  Aramaic 
of  the  Jews.  The  same  phrase  occurs  in  the 
New  Testament  (John  v.  2,  xix.  13,  17;  cf.  iSpait: 
ditiACKToc  Acts  xxi.  40,  xxii.  2,  xxvi.  14).  The  Old 
Testament  never  applies  the  terra  "  Hebrew  "  to 
the  language;  on  the  contrary,  in  Isa.  xix.  18  it 
is  called  the  "  language  of  Canaan  "  when  distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  Egyptians,  —  an  expres- 
sion which  indicates  that  it  was  the  speech  not 
-^uly  of  the  Israelites,  but  also  of  the  other  inhab- 
icants  of  Canaan  as  well.  In  2  Kings  xviii.  26, 
28,  Isa.  xxxvi.  11,  13,  Neh.  xiii.  24,  the  speech 
of  the  Judaites  is  called  "Jewish,"  in  distinction 
to  the  Aramaic. 

As  the  Hebrews  belonged  to  a  family  of  na- 
tions, so  their  tongue  was  a  member  of  a  widely 
spread  family  of  languages,  u.sually  denominated, 
since  Eichhorn,  "  Shemitic."  It  is  impossible  to 
describe  exactly  its  boundaries ;  but  suffice  it  to 
say,  its  northern  limit  was  the  table-lands  of 
Armenia,  its  eastern  was  the  Tigris,  its  southern 
the  Persian  Gulf,  and  its  western  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea.  [For  the  relations  of  the  languages 
within  these  limits,  see  Shemitic  Languages.] 

The  Hebrew  occupied  a  middle  position  be- 
tween the  Aramaic  and  the  North  Arabic,  and 
displayed  the  linguistic  peculiarities  of  such  a 
position.  If  it  lacked  the  richness  of  expressions, 
the  variety  of  forms,  the  completer  vocalization, 
and  the  fulness  of  inflections,  of  the  North  Arabic, 
and  displayed  in  many  particulars  the  poverty 
of  the  Aramaic,  it  still  had,  on  the  other  hand,  a 
rich  possession  whicli  the  Aramaic  had  lost  by 
attrition.  At  the  time  when  Hebrew  comes  to 
our  knowledge  iu  literature,  it  was  the  oldest  of 


the  Shemitic  languages,  Aramaic  was  next,  and 
North  Arabic  last.  liut  this  does  not  imply  that 
the  Shemitic  family  passed  through  three  stages 
to  be  so  denominated:  rather,  tliese  three  tongues 
existed  side  by  side.  The  age  of  the  literature 
and  that  of  the  literary  language  is  not  the  same 
as  the  age  of  the  language.  It  docs  not,  tlierefore, 
follow,  from  the  great  age  of  the  Hebrew  litera- 
ture, that  the  language  itself  is  the  provablj-  most 
original  form  of  the  Shemitic;  for  this  conclusion 
could  only  be  reached  when  the  development  of 
the  other  languages  of  this  family  had  proceeded 
under  the  same  conditions  and  influences,  and, 
above  all,  in  the  same  time.  But  so  far  is  this 
from  the  case,  that  it  is  certain  that  Aramaic,  in 
less  time  than  Hebrew,  became  a  more  degenerate 
language ;  that  Hebrew  in  many  respects  resem- 
bles Aramaic,  and  more  and  more  as  we  trace  its 
influence  in  the  successive  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament; that  Arabic  presents  really  the  oldest 
form  of  the  language  in  spite  of  its  late  litera- 
ture ;  and,  finally,  that  IIel)rew  had  already  de- 
clined when  its  earliest  books  were  written. 

AVhen  and  where  Hebrew  arose  is  unknown. 
Two  conjectures  are  admissible,  —  Hebrew  was 
the  language  of  Abraham,  brought  with  him 
from  "  Ur  of  the  Chaldees"  (Gen.  xi.  31),  i.e., 
Mugheir,  south  of  Babylon,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Euphrates;  or  it  was  the  language  of  the 
original  inhabitants  of  Canaan.  In  favor  of  the 
latter  is  the  distinction  between  Hebrew  and 
Aramaic,  which  dates  from  patriarchal  times 
(Gen.  xxxi.  47). 

Since  the  proper  names  of  the  Edomites, 
Moabites,  and  Ammonites,  are  Hebrew,  and  since 
Old-Testament  tradition  declares  these  peoples 
to  be  closely  related  to  the  Israelites,  these  must 
have  spoken  Hebrew,  as  is  strikingly  shown  by 
the  jNloabite  stone,  wliich  dates  from  the  first 
half  of  the  ninth  century  B.C.  (see  art.).  Dif- 
ferences of  pronunciation  and  expression  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Palestine  are  proven  by  the 
Shibboleth  incident  (Judg.  xii.  6)  and  by  Debo- 
rah's ode  (Judg.  v.).  Dialectical  differences  are 
alluded  to  in  Neh.  xiii.  23,  24,  and  Matt.  xxvi. 
73. 

It  stands  to  reason  that  the  Hebrew  language 
must  have  undergone  changes  during  the  more 
than  twelve  centuries  we  are  acquainted  with  it 
by  books,  inscriptions,  and  coins ;  yet  the  proof 
of  this  fact  is  difficult,  and  the  result  of  all  in- 
vestigations to  this  end  most  meagre,  for  the 
following  reasons.  1.  No  one  period  is  fully 
represented ;  only  fragments  of  its  literature 
remain,  as  is  proved  by  allusions  in  the  books 
themselves :  hence  what  is  set  down  as  peculiar 
to  the  age  may  be  only  a  peculiarity  of  a  writer. 
2.  It  follows  that  it  is  impossible  to  decide  cer- 
tainly how  old  any  particular  book  or  other 
writing  is,  and  therefore  there  can  be  no  strict 
chronological  arrangement.  3.  In  one  book  there 
may  be  quotations,  more  or  less  altered,  from 
older  books.  In  proof,  compare  the  parallel  pas- 
sages in  Kings  and  Chronicles.  4.  From  the 
time  of  Moses  to  the  seventh  century  B.C..  so 
secluded,  and  in  the  main  peaceful,  was  the  life 
of  Israel,  that  their  language  would  naturally 
undergo  little  change.  Even  when  under  tribute 
to  Assyria,  the  Hebrews  were  not  as  a  people 
molested.     5.   In  linguistic   changes   the  vowels 


HEBREW   LANGUAGE. 


952 


HEBREW  LANGUAGE. 


suffer  most;  but  the  fact  that  in  Hebrew  writing 
only  consouants  are  employed  renders  it  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  discover  these  vowel  changes. 
The  present  Hebrew  points  are  of  comparatively 
late  origin,  and,  although  preservative  of  an  old 
tradition,  are  uniformly  applied  to  all  portions 
of  the  earlier  and  the  later  Old  Testament  alike. 
Aramaic  exercised  a  decided  influence  upon 
Hebrew  from  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  B.C. 
Its  presence,  therefore,  is  one  note  of  time.  Ac- 
cording!)', in  the  history  of  Hebrew,  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  make  the  exile  the  dividing  line.  The 
first  period  extends  to  the  exile.  Attempts  have 
been  made  to  prove  the  greater  age  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, as  compared,  e.g.,  with  the  other  historical 
books,  principally  by  citing  the  use  in  the  former 
of  the  pronoun  Nin  for  the  feminine  NTl  (which 
also  occurs  in  eleven  places  in  the  Pentateuch), 
the  word  li'^  in  the  sense  of  "  young  one  "  and 

"girl,"  the  word  Ssn  for  ^^^^  (found  only  in 
the  Pentateuch  and  in  Chronicles).  But,  as 
these  cannot  be  proven  to  be  archaisms,  they  do 
not  prove  the  antiquity  of  the  language  of  the 
Pentateuch.  Equally  indecisive  are  the  so-called 
antique  forms  in  these  books ;  because  it  would 
be  easy,  from  any  other  number  of  books  having 
the  same  number  of  words,  to  pick  out  an  equal 
number  of  unusual  forms,  which  with  equal  rea- 
son might  be  called  "antique."  As  to  the  words 
and  word-forms  which  occur  only  in  the  Penta- 
teuch, or,  if  outside,  only  sporadically,  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  Pentateuch  constitutes 
one  quarter  of  the  whole  Old  Testament,  and  of 
each  other  quarter  precisely  the  same  thing  is 
true ,  and,  further,  that  the  Pentateuch  deals 
with  matters  not  treated  of  in  the  remaining 
books.  In  the  words  peculiar  to  the  Pentateuch 
there  is  not  such  a  number  of  grannnatical  pecul- 
iarities as  to  prove  the  words  archaic,  or  from 
which  to  argue  the  age  of  the  writing.  So  much 
depends  upon  the  individuality  of  tiie  writer, 
upon  his  nietliods  of  work,  u])on  his  subject  and 
his  purpose,  that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  a  de- 
velopment of  the  language  in  this  period  from 
age  to  age  by  a  study  of  words.  Thus,  within 
the  books  and  within  sections  of  the  same  book, 
a  mere  increase  in  liveliness  of  tone  leads  to  the 
introduction  of  poetic  words;  e.g.,  in  tlie  Penta- 
teuch are  sections  which  in  this  way  difl'er  from 
other  sections  and  from  other  books,  yet  are  they 
not  on  that  account  proven  to  belong  to  a  differ- 
ent time.  Tlie  .same  is  the  case  in  the  historical 
books.  The  historic,  the  poetic,  and  the  pro- 
phetic books  have  quite  distinct  purposes,  and, 
in  consequence,  different  vocabularies.  The 
poets,  further,  were  compelled,  by  tlieir  mode  of 
wiiting  by  parallels,  to  make  use  of  out-of-the- 
way  expressions,  because  they  needed  a  larger 
stock  of  expressions  than,  say,  the  historians, 
who  found  tlie  ordinary  speech  n-ady  to  their 
hand,  and  ample  lor  their  wants.  The  prophets 
used  longi-r  sentences,  and  tliese  had  a  freer 
swing  than  the  poets' :  otherwisi\  tliey  have  lin- 
guistically niuch  in  common,  iiut,  in  spite  of 
these  ditferi'nc<\s,  the  laws  of  the  language  re- 
muinetl  throughout  Ihe  same. 

The  seconil  jjeriod  extends  from  the  exile  to 
the  present  ilay.  It  is  characterized  by  the  intiD- 
'luction  of  Arainaisms.     In  the  time  of  Uezekiali 


Aramaic  was  a  foreign  tongue  (Isa.  xxxvi.).  In 
720  B.C.  the  Northern  Kingdom  fell  under  the 
Assyrians ;  and,  as  the  result  of  its  troubles, 
Aramaic  corrupted  the  language  there.  The 
Kingdom  of  Judah,  until  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century,  remained  linguistically  Hebrew;  yet 
Aramaic  idioms  were  found,  as  Jeremiah  and 
I--zekiel  testify.  It  was  not,  indeed,  until  the 
end  of  the  exile,  that  Hebrew  lost  its  pristine 
purity  and  vigor.  Then  came  a  great  change. 
The  returned  exiles  naturally  used  Persian 
names  for  their  rulers;  by  marrying  "strange 
women,"  they  further  corrujited  their  speech ; 
and,  exposed  as  they  were  to  inroads  of  strangers, 
it  is  not  wonderful  that  their  language  was  no 
longer  pure  Hebrew.  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  tried 
to  stem  the  tide;  they  ordered  that  the  sacred 
book  of  the  law  should  be  read  in  Hebrew  (Neh. 
viii.  8)  ;  and  Nehemiah  was  particularly  indig- 
nant with  those  Jews  who  spoke  the  speech  of 
Ashdod  (Neh.  xiii.  23  sqq.).  These  two  wrote 
Hebrew,  which  does  not  differ  substantially  from 
that  of  Kings.  But  by  the  downfall  of  the  lan- 
guage is  meant  rather  the  downfall  of  the  litera- 
ture; for  certain  writings  of  this  period,  in  point 
of  purity,  resemble  those  of  the  pre-exilian 
period.  These  proceeded  from  the  strict  Jews, 
who  jealously  guarded  their  diction.  The  mass 
of  the  people  quickly  came  to  spieak  Aramaic. 
But  still  Hebrew  did  not  become  exactly  a  dead 
language,  nor  one  understood  only  by  the  learned. 
On  the  contrary,  the  reading  of  the  original  holy 
writings  in  the  synagogues,  and  their  explana- 
tion, trained  the  Jews  generally  in  Hebrew. 
Hence  it  came,  that,  when  the  learned  had  occa- 
sion to  use  writing  to  instruct  their  fellow- 
believers,  they  wrote  in  Hebrew.  In  the  Mishna 
(about  the  second  century  A.D.)  and  in  other 
Jewish  compositions  of  a  somewhat  l.iter  date, 
we  find  Hebrew  which  is  no  servile  imitation  of 
the  old  speech,  but  a  genuine  development  in 
the  path  struck  in  tlie  later  biblical  books. 

Quite  different  is  the  Hebrew  written  since 
the  eleventh  century,  generally  called  the  rab- 
binic. This  is  pedantic,  imitative,  a  book-lan- 
guage, yet  full  of  words,  technical  expressions, 
and  particles,  which  are  partly  Aranniic,  and 
partly  borrowed  from  the  language  of  the  country 
in  which  the  writer  lived.  "ji.  BEKTIIK.VU. 

HisTonv.  —  The  history  of  the  critical  study 
of  the  Ufbrew  bi'gius  with  the  .Jewish  gramma- 
rians and  scribes,  the  Tahnudists,  and  Masoretes, 
who  carefully  collecle<l  all  that  pertains  to  the 
text  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  The  Christian 
fathers,  with  the  exception  of  Origen,  Epijihanius, 
and  especially  .Jerome  (who  learned  the  language 
from  a  JewLsli  rabbi,  and  utilizcMl  it  for  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Vulgat(^),  were  ignorant  of  tlie  He- 
brew language,  and  derived  their  knowledge  of 
the  Old  Testament  from  the  Greek  Septiiagint 
and  the  Latin  Vulgate.  During  the  middle  ages 
the  Hebrew  was  almost  exclusively  cultivated 
by  learned  Jews,  especially  in  Sjiain  during  the 
Moorish  rule,  such  as  Kben  Ezra  (d.  1170),  David 
Kimclii,  Moses  Mainuniides  (d.  12()4).  Even  the 
greatest  scliolastic  divines  kiu^w  nothing  of 
Hebrew.  After  the  rm'ival  of  letters,  some 
Chiistiaiis  began  to  learn  it  from  .Jewish  rabbis. 
Rciichlin  (d.  1522),  the  uncle  of  Mclaiu-hthun, 
is  the  lather  of  modern  Hebrew  learning  in  the 


HEBREW   LANGUAGE. 


953 


HEBREW   POETRY. 


Christian  Church.  Rewrote  a  Hebrew  grammar 
(1505),  coined  most  of  the  technical  terms  which 
have  since  been  in  use  in  Ilehri'W  grammars 
(s(a/i(s  ahsohilus,  affixum,  verba  tjiiief:ceiitia,  etc.), 
and  introduced  the  pronunciation  that  prevails 
in  Germany.  The  Reformers  cultivated  and 
highly  recommended  the  study  of  Hebrew;  and 
the  Protestant  translations  of  the  Bible  were 
made  directly  from  the  original  languages,  and 
not  from  the  Vulgate.  During  the  seventeenth 
century,  Buxtorf  (father  and  son)  of  Basel,  Louis 
Cappel  of  Saumur,  and  Salomon  Glassius  of 
Jena,  were  the  most  prominent  Hebrew  and  Tal- 
mudic  scholars  In  the  present  century,  Wilhelm 
Gesenius,  professor  in  Halle  (1786-1842),  and 
Heinrich  Ewald,  professor  in  Gbttingen  (1S03- 
73),  created  a  new  epoch  in  the  study  of  Hebrew. 
Rddiger,  Hupfeld,  Hitzig,  Fiirst,  Delitzsch,  and 
others  are  prominent  in  this  department  of 
learning.  In  our  own  country,  Moses  Stuart 
of  Andover  (d.  1852),  Edward  Robin.son  of 
Union  Seminary.  Xew  York  (d.  1863),  James 
Addison  Alexander  of  Princeton  (d.  1859),  Bush, 
Conant,  and  Green  deserve  special  mention  as 
Hebrew  scholars.  (See  Schaff,  in  Jolmson's 
Cyclopccilia.) 

Lit. —  Hebrew  Grammars  by  Gesenius  (Halle, 
1813;  14th  to  21st  eds.  by  Rodiger;  22d  ed.  by 
Kautzsch,  Leipzig,  1878;  24thed.,1885;  Eng.  trans, 
from  previous  editions  by  Moses  Stuart,  Andover, 
1826,  rev.  ed.,  1846 ;  T."  J.  Conant,  Boston,  1830, 
rev.  ed.,  1855;  B.  Davies,  London,  1869,  4th  ed. 
by  E.  C.  Mitchell,  on  the  basis  of  the  22d  ed.  of 
the  original,  Andover.  1881),  Ew.\ld  (Gottingen, 
1827;  8th  ed.,  1870;  Eng.  trans.,  by  Nicholson, 
Loudon,  1836 ;  of  the  Syntax  alone,  from  the  Sth 
ed.,  by  Kennedy,  Edinburgh.  1879),  Lee  (London, 
1830;  new  ed.,  1844),  Bush  (New  York,  1830), 
Nordheimek  (New  York,  1842),  Seeker,  Leip- 
zig, 1845;  6th  ed.,  1878),  Olshausen  (Braun- 
schweig, 1861,  incomplete),  W.  H.  Green  (New 
York,  1861;  rev.  ed.,  1883),  Kalisch  (London, 
1863),  BoTTCHEi!  (Leipzig,  1868],  Deutscu  (New 
York,  1868;  new  ed.,  1872),  La.nd  (Amsterdam, 
1869 ;  Eng.  trans,  by  R.  L.  Poole,  London,  1876), 
BiCKELL  (Leipzig,  1870;  Eng.  trans,  by  S.  I.  Cur- 
tiss,  Leipzig,  1877),  A.  B.  Davidson  (Edinburgh, 
1874;  4th  ed.,  1881),  C.  J.  Ball  (London,  1877: 
new  ed.,  1882),  Mullkr  (Halle,  1878;  Eng.  trans, 
of  the  Syntax,  Glasgow,  1882),  St.\de  (Leipzig, 
I.  Theil,  1879),  Baltzer  (Stuttgart,  1880),  KiiNiG 
(Leipzig,  I.  Hiilfte,  1881),  A.  S.  and  F.  L.  Ballin 
(London,  1881).  Cf.  S.  R.  Driver:  The  Use 
■of  the  Tenses  in  Hebrew.  Oxford,  1874 ;  2d  ed., 
1881.  —  Hebrew  Dictionaries:  Gesenius  (Leipzig, 
1812;  10th  ed.  rev.  by  Muhlau  and  Volck,  1886; 
Eng.  trans,  in  preparation  by  Professors  Briggs 
and  Brown,  New  York. ;  Eng.  trans,  of  previous 
editions  by  Robinson,  20th  ed.,  Boston,  1872,  and 
Tregelles,  London,  1847;  rev.  ed.,  1857),  Furst 
(Leipzig,  1801;  3d  ed.  by  V.  Ryssel,  1876;  Eng. 
trans,  by  S.  Davidson,  Leipzig,  1866;  4th  ed., 
1871),  B.  Davidson  (London,  u.d.),  B.  Davies 
(London,  1872;  3d  ed.  rev.  by  E.  C.  Mitchell, 
Andover,  1879).  —  For  later  Hebrew,  Buxtorf 
(Basel,  1640;  modern  ed.  by  Fischer,  Leipzig, 
1874,2  vols.).  Levy  (Leipzig,  1875  sqq.).  — Hebrew 
Concordances:  Buxtorf  (Basel,  1632,  modern 
ed.  by  Baer,  Stettin,  1861),  FUrst  (Leipzig,  1840, 
in  Latin);  Englishman's  (London,  1843;  3d  ed., 


1866);  B.  Davidson  (London;  rev.  ed.  by  Joseph 
Hughes,  1876). 

Miscellaneous.  — For  the  history  of  the  He- 
brew language,  see  Gesenius:  Gcschichle  derheh. 
Spraclie  unci  Schrifl,  Leipzig,  1S17;  Renan:  His- 
toire  gtne'rale  des  lanr/ues  siinitujues,  Paris,  1856, 
4th  ed.,  1864.  For  Hebrew  .synoiiymes  see  MoiSES 
Tedeschi  :  Thesaurus  si/nuut/morum  linyucc  he- 
hraicw.,  Padova,  1880.  For  the  Hebrew  element 
in  the  New  Testament  see  W.  H.  Glillemaud  : 
Hebraisms  in  the  Greek  New  Testament,  Cambridge, 
1879.  Professor  Franz  Delitzscii  has  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  Hebrew,  Leipzig,  1877. 
Coinp.  arts.  Hebrew,  in  Encyc.  Britann.  (9th  ed.), 
an<l  Hebrew  Learning  amoiu/  the  Fathers,  in  Smith 
and  Wace,  Diet.  Christ.  Biot/. 

HEBREW  POETRY  will'be  considered  in  this 
article  in  three  aspects,  —  the  national,  biblical,  and 
technical.  The  first  two  have  to  do  with  the  con- 
tents, character,  and  history  of  Hebrew  poetry ; 
the  last  with  its  form. 

I.  National.  —  As  with  other  peoples,  so  among 
the  Hebrews,  poetry  precedes  prose.  In  the  Bible 
we  have  record  of  many  events  which  previously 
were  embodied  in  popular  songs.  In  this  way 
the  national  heart  was  fired  by  the  stories  of 
Samson  and  the  Philistines  (Judg.  xv.  16)  and  of 
David  and  Goliath  (1  Sam.  xviii.  7).  But  there 
were  longer  poems  which  described  battles  and 
victories,  such  as  Num.  xxi.  27-30,  and,  above 
all,  Deborah's  ode  (Judg.  v.),  the  crown  of  the 
patriotic  poetry  of  Israel,  and  the  oldest  long  He- 
brew poem  which  has  come  down  to  us.  Domestic 
histories  furnished  descriptive  poems  :  .so  the  sad 
fate  of  Jephthah"s  daughter  was  commemorated 
by  the  virgins  of  Gilead  (Judg.  xi.),  the  rape  by  the 
Benjaminites  of  the  virgins  of  Shiloh  (Judg.  xxi.). 
The  finding  of  a  fountain  was  the  occasion  of  a 
new  song  (Num.  xxi.  17).  Abandoned  women 
used  singing  to  promote  their  ends  (Isa.  xxiii. 
15).  Singing,  and  playing  upon  instruments  of 
music,  formed  prominent  parts  of  public  worship 
(2  Sam.  vi.  15;  Ps.  Ixviii.  2.5).  The  art  of  poetry 
was  taught  in  the  schools,  and  the  orators  and 
prophets  were  poets.  Thus  all  times  and  occa- 
sions—  love  and  beauty  in  peace,  skill  and  daring 
in  war  —  yielded  materials  to  the  poet,  and  natu- 
rally told  their  tale  in  verse.  When  the  history 
of  Hebrew  literature  comes  to  be  written,  the 
many  beautiful  poems  will  be  properly  estimated. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  divide  He- 
brew poetry  into  varieties,  according  to  its  pecul- 
iarities ;  but  all  such  attempts  must  necessarily 
be  uncertain,  because  we  have  but  a  single  species 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  be  a  standard,  and  the 
judgment  can  never  be  general.  Still  less  suc- 
cessful must  ever  be  the  attempt  to  subject  Hebrew 
poetry  to  the  classifications  usual  with  classic 
and  modern  poetry.  The  chief  characteristics  of 
Hebrew  (or,  more  generally,  of  Shemitic)  poetry 
are  these.  1.  Subjectivity.  The  Hebrew  poet 
deals  only  with  what  concerns  him  personally  : 
hence  there  is  no  epic  or  drama,  because  these 
require  objectivity.  2.  Sententiousriess.  There  is 
properly  no  beginning  or  end,  no  progress;  so 
that  the  stanzas  might  be  arranged  differently 
without  affecting  the  meaning  of  the  poem  in 
any  way.  3.  Sensuousness.  In  proof  recall  the 
imagery  from  the  animal  world,  —  the  symbolism, 
the  personifications,  the  very  anthropomorphisms, 


HEBREW   POETRY. 


954 


HEBREW   POETRY. 


■which  we  find  at  times  offensive,  but  which  were 
innate  with  the  Hebrew.  Hebrew  poetry  was  at 
first,  of  course,  composed  and  repeated  without 
recourse  to  writing ;  but  after  a  time  anthologies 
were  compiled.  Two  such  collections  must  have 
been  very  early  made;  for  we  find  in  Num.  xxi.  14 
an  allusion  to  the  "Book  of  the  wars  of  Jehovah," 
and  in  Josh.  x.  13  one  to  the  "Book  of  Jasher." 
Cf.  2  Sam.  i.  18. 

II.  Biblical.  —  It  is  grossly  wrong  to  call  the 
Old  Testament  a  "codex  of  Hebrew  national 
literature ;  "  but  it  is  certainly  a  reading  and 
school  book  of  religion,  compiled  with  this  design 
from  the  extant  literature.  In  the  collection, 
Jewish  scholars  name  three  books  as  poetical,  — 
Job,  Psalms,  and  Proverbs,  and  have  given  these 
a  peculiar  accentuation.  But,  besides  these,  the 
Song  of  Solomon  and  Lamentations  should  be 
so  designated ;  and  in  the  other  books  are  fre- 
quent passages  of  poetry ;  e.g..  Gen.  xlix.  ;  Judg. 
V.  ;  Isa.  xxxviii.  lU  sqq.  [This  fact  is  obscured 
from  the  reader  of  the  Authorized  Version  by 
the  faulty  method  of  printing.  See  the  proper 
method  in  the  Cambridge  Bible  or  the  Revised 
English  Bible,  published  by  Eyre  and  Spottis- 
woode.] 

Hebrew  poetry  is  of  two  kinds,  the  li/ric  and 
the  didactic,  called  by  the  words  "''l^  and  Su/D  re- 
spectively. The  first  is  a  song,  joined  in.separa- 
bly  therefore  with  music  :  but  it  is  impossible  for 
us,  in  our  profound  ignorance  of  Hebrew  music, 
to  tell  how  any  of  the  Bible  lyrics  were  sung;  and 
the  blind  directions  found  in  the  headings  to 
many  of  the  Psalms  do  not  help  us  a  particle. 
These  lyrics  are  written  in  every  key,  and  run  the 
gamut  of  feeling.  Joy  and  sorrow,  defeat  and 
victory,  personal  and  national  emotions,  find  in 
them  expression.  Often,  however,  the  lyrie  shades 
off  into  the  didactic ;  e.g.,  in  Job  and  in  many  of 
the  Psalms.  Other  lyrics,  e.g.,  the  Soni;-  of  Debo- 
rah, appear  to  be  attempts  at  an  epic.  It  lies  in 
the  very  nature  of  a  lyric  to  be  individual,  —  the 
ego  in  song;  and  the  Hebrews,  judging  from  the 
specimens  preserved,  took  the  lead  in  antiquity 
as  respects  tenderness,  depth,  and  nobility:  in 
grace,  however,  they  came  short. 

The  word  't??,  which  we  translate  "didactic 
poetry,"  comes  from  a  root  meaning  "  to  compare." 
Hence  ^B'O  is  primarily  a  comparison  of  any  sort. 
It  designates  in  the  Bible  (1)  a  fable  (Judg.  ix. 
7  sqq.  ;  2  Kings  xiv.  '.)  sq.).  (2)  A  parable 
(2  Sam.  xii.  1  sqq. ;  Isa.  v.  1  sqq.),  and  also  an 
allegory  (Ezek.  xvii.  2  sqq.,  xxiv.  ;5  sqq.).  (■'})  An 
apothegm,  maxim,  and  proverb,  three  species 
which  the  Hebrews  did  not  clearly  distinguish. 
In  the  majority  of  cases,  there  are  in  these  real 
compari.sons  expressed  in  parallel  clauses  ;  for 
this  phenomenon  in  reganl  even  to  proverbs,  see 
1  Sam.  X.  12;  Ezek.  xviii.  2.  (4)  \  riddle  which 
rests  upon  a  cotnpari.son.  (5)  .\  satire  (Isa.  xiv.  1 
[cf.  marg.]  ;  Hab.  ii.  0).  (0)  A  didactic  poem 
proper  (cf.  Ph.  xlix.  4,  Ixxviii.  2).  To  tliis  last 
classification  belong  many  of  the  Psalms  which 
treat  of  personal  and  national  events  in  a  medi- 
tative rather  than  lyrical  fashion,  and  which 
therefore  are  to  be  read  ratlier  than  sung.  So, 
also,  the  first  part  of  Proverbs,  as  well  as  .lob  and 
Ecclesia-stes.  In  regard  to  Job  it  should  be  said, 
that  it  is  in  outline  au  epic,  in  form  a  dialogue 


(not  a  drama).  In  poetic  beauty  it  rivals  the  best 
Hebrew  lyrics;  but  in  intention  it  is  a  didactic 
poem,  wherein  a  private  history  is  related,  whose 
teachings  are  brought  out.  Ecelesiastes  has  far 
less  claim  to  be  called  poetical  on  account  of  its 
proverbial  character. 

III.  Technical.  —  Hebrew  poetry,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  contains  many  words  not  found  in 
prose,  but  is  distinguished  from  the  latter  chiefly, 
of  course,  by  its  structure.  1.  Modern  Jewish 
poetry  proves  the  capacity  of  Hebrew  for  r/ii/me; 
but  there  are  no  rhymes,  properly  speaking,  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures :  what  appear  to  be  such 
(cf.  Gen.  iv.  23  sqq. ;  Ps.  viii.  5;  Isa.  xxxiii.  32) 
are  not  intentionally  so.  It  is,  however,  to  be 
remarked  in  this  connection,  that  assonance  is 
an  occasional  feature  of  Hebrew  poetry  (cf.  Ps. 
cxxiv. ;  Lam.  v.),  but  no  law  of  the  poetry  any 
more  than  alliteration,  which  is  also  found  (cf.  Isa. 
V.  7,  xxi.  2,  xxix.  6;  Hos.  viii.  7;  Nah.  ii.  11). 

2.  The  text  of  the  poetry  is  divided  into  short 
sections  (verses)  and  longer  sections  (strophes). 
The  verses  are  independent  parts  of  speech,  and 
the  chief  characteristics  of  Hebrew  poetry.  They 
are  regularly  two  lines,  occasionally  three.  Sev- 
eral verses  make  up  the  strophe.  Homogeneous- 
ne.ss  in  form  and  number  of  verses  is  essential  to 
a  strophe's  construction.  Externally  it  is  simply 
marked  by  the  refrain,  or  the  repetition  of  the 
concluding  verse  (of.  Ps.  xlii.-xliii.,  Ivii. ;  Isa.  ix. 
7_sqq.  ;  Amos  i.,  ii.);  or  the  alphabetical  begin- 
ning, which  is,  liowever,  not  exactly  technic,  so 
that  either  verse  and  strophe  fall  together  (Ps. 
xxv.,  xxsiv  ,  cxlv. ;  Prov.  sxxi.  0  sqq.  ;  Lam.  i., 
ii.,  iv.),  or  not  (Ps.  ix.-x.,  xxxvii.)  ;  or  inside 
the  strophe  the  alphabetic  order  is  repeated  (Ps. 
cxix.),  or  even  within  the  verse  (Ps.  cxi.,  cxii. ; 
Lam.  iii,).  Internally,  however,  the  strophe  rounds 
itself  off  with  the  thought,  and  by  means  of  the 
mutual  reference  of  the  particular  parts  of  the 
poem  (Exod.  xv. ;  Ps.  ii.,  Ixviii.,  civ.,  cxiv.). 

3.  Parallelism,  or  the  regular  placing  side  by 
side  of  syninietrically  constructed  clauses,  is  not 
so  much  a  feature  of  Hebrew  poetry  as  its  very 
nature.  The  symmetry  is,  however,  ideal  rather 
than  external,  lying  in  the  relation  of  tlie  expres- 
sion to  the  thougiit;  so  that  tlie  last  furnishes 
in  its  various  applications  additional  matter  for 
versification.  The  same  thought  is  repeated  sev- 
eral times  synonymously  in  different  words,  or 
else  antithetically  by  two  opposite  sentences.  So 
each  line  of  verse  forms  either  a  sentence  in  all 
its  members  jnirallel  to  the  one  .set  over  against 
it,  or  the  doubling  relates  only  to  one  or  two  ele- 
ments of  the  sentence,  while  the  remainder  are 
divided  ujion  thc^  two  lines  without  parallel.  The 
parallelism  al.so  extends  to  two  or  three  lines  in 
the  last  cas(^,  eitlier  three  times  synonymously 
(cf.  Ps.  i.  1),  or  only  twice,  and  then  completes 
the  thought  witli  an  introductory  or  concluding 
line.  It  can,  liowever,  include  four  members,  if 
tiie  rejietition  be  simple  and  fourfold,  altliough 
tliis  is  seldom  the  case,  and  by  carrying  it  too 
far  (of.  Ps.  xix.  8  sip)  it  becomes  tedious ;  or  it 
may  found,  as  is  more  frequent,  in  connecting 
the  lines  two  and  two,  ab-cd  (Isa.  xliii.  4),  or, 
more  elegantly,  ac  bd  (cf.  Ps.  xxxiii.  13).  Anti- 
thetic paralhdism  is  .seldom  met  with,  and  gen- 
erally consists  of  two  members,  sometimes  of 
four,  anil  intricate  (couip.   Cantieles,  i.  5).     All 


I 


HEBREWS. 


955 


HEBREWS. 


these  otherwise  infinitely  diversified  forms  are 
interchanged  in  most  poems,  and  are  arbitrarily 
mingled,  and  it  is  just  this  mingling  which  con- 
tributes to  the  poetic  gradation.  In  the  first  tour 
elegies  of  Jeremiah's  Lamentations,  and  in  many 
of  the  later  Psalms,  the  elaborate  structure  is  best 
seen. 

Hebrew  poetry  does  not  admit  of  scanning,  and 
the  assertion  of  Josepluis  that  it  was  written  in 
metre  was  wide  of  the  trutli.  There  was,  how- 
ever, more  to  it  than  parallelisms  and  strophes; 
viz.,  rhythm.  But,  as  we  have  no  knowledge  of 
the  ancient  Hebrew  pronunciation,  we  cannot 
read  Hebrew  poetry  rhythmically. 

[Lit.  —  Robert  Lowth:  De  Sacra  Poiisi  Hchrce- 
orum,  Oxford,  1753,  ed.  with  copious  notes  by 
J.  D.  Michaelis,  Gbttingen,  1770,  rev.  ed.  with 
additional  notes  by  Rosenmiiller,  Leipzig,  1815, 
reprinted  with  the  notes  of  these  editors  and  those 
of  Richter  and  Weiss,  Oxford,  1821,  Eng.  trans, 
by  Gregory,  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebreics  (with 
the  principal  notes  of  Michaelis),  London,  1787, 
3d  ed.,  1835,  American  ed.  by  Calvin  E.  Stowe, 
Andover,  1829;  J.  Gottfried  Herder :  Geist 
(lerhehraischen  Poesie,  Dessau,  1782,  Eng.  trans,  by 
President  James  Marsh,  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry, 
Burlington,  Vt.,  1833,  2  vols.;  Isaac  Taylor: 
The  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  London,  1801 ;  II. 
Steinek:  Ueber  kebr.Poenie,  Basel,  1S7S;  Albert 
Werfer  :  Die  Poesie  der  Bibel,  Tiibingen,  1875; 
H.  GlETJiANN :  De  re  metrica  Hebrmorum,  Freiburg- 
im-Br.,  1879;  B.  Meteler;  Grunil:u(je  d.  hebr. 
Metrik  d.  Psalmen,  Munster,  1879;  W.  Wicke.s  : 
Treatise  on  the  Accentuation  of  the  Three  so-called 
Poetical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  Oxford,  1882; 
G.  BiCKELL  :  Carmina  veteris  t^slamenti  metrice, 
Innsbruck,  1882. — Valuable  articles  upon  Hebrew 
poetry,  by  Professor  C.  A.  Briggs,  D.D.,  are  found 
in  the  Homilelic  Quarterly  for  1881.  See  also  the 
Introduction,  by  H.  Ewald,  to  his  Dichter  des 
Allen  Bundes,  3d  ed.,  1868,  Eng.  trans.,  London, 
1880,  and  the  General  Introduction  to  the  Poetical 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  Philip  Sciiaff 
in  the  volume  on  Job  in  Lange's  Commentary, 
New  York,  1874.]  ED.  REUSS. 

HEBREWS,  Name  and  History.     See  Israel. 

HEBREWS,  Epistle  to  the.  Title. —This 
simple  name,  which  does  not  signify  much,  must 
always  serve  as  the  designation  of  one  of  the 
most  important  doctrinal  writings  of  tlie  New 
Testament.  Neither  the  tradition  of  the  early 
Church,  nor  the  results  of  critical  investigation, 
are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  justify  us  in  ascribing 
it  with  certainty  to  any  definite  author.  Nor 
has  there  come  down  any  notice  of  the  circle  of 
readers  for  whom  it  was  written,  v^hich  is  worthy 
of  much  consideration  beyond  the  superscription 
and  closing  designation  7rp6f '  E/ipoio^^f  ("to  the 
Hebrews").  This  title  dates  back  to  the  time 
of  its  first  circulation  in  connection  with  the 
other  books  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  about 
the  year  2U0  it  was  used  equally  by  churches 
which  held  different  views  about  its  authorship 
and  its  relation  to  the  cauon  ;  as,  for  example,  by 
the  Alexandrine  Church  and  the  African  Church 
(Tertullian,  De  jnidic,  20).  The  assertion  has 
been  made  that  the  Epistle  sometimes  bore  the 
title 'npu;  AaovdanTiaai  ("to  the  Laodiceans  ").  It 
is  based  upon  the  very  insufficient  ground,  that, 
in  the  Codex  Boernerianus,  the  test  breaks  off  at 


the  close  of  Pliilemon  with  the  words,  "  Here  be- 
gins the  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans."  Philaster, 
who  states  that  an  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans  was 
ascribed  to  Paul,  has  been  appealed  to  foi'  this 
view,  but  wrongly ;  for  he  distinctly  says  that 
the  Church  read  thirteen  epistles  by  Paul,  and 
at  times  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  sup- 
position that  in  the  West  the  Epistle  to  tlie 
Hebrews  was  regarded  as  identical  with  the 
Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans,  is  made  all  the  more 
improbable  by  the  fact  that  the  Western  Church 
did  not  regard  tlie  former  as  of  Pauline  origin, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  possessed  an  Epistle  to 
the  Laodiceans,  under  the  name  of  Paul.  It  has 
also  been  regarded  by  some  as  being  identical 
with  the  Episde  to  the  Alexandrians,  mentioned 
in  the  Muratorian  canon ;  but  the  erroneousness 
of  this  view  has  been  fully  exposed  by  Hesse 
{D.  muraloran.  Fragment,  pp.  201-222).  The  title 
Trpdf  'Ei3paiov(  ("  to  the  Hebrews  ")  is  therefore  to 
be  looked  upon  as  having  been  associated  with 
the  Epistle  from  the  very  earliest  times. 

Readers,  and  Date  of  Composition.  —  The  term 
"  Hebrews"  does  not  limit  the  pensons  addressed 
to  Hebrew-speaking  Jews,  in  contrast  to  Hellen- 
ists, or  the  Jews  that  spoke  Greek.  The  fact 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  in  Greek  is  evidence 
against  this  view ;  but  the  persons  addressed 
were  evidently  of  Hebrew  birth.  It  is  probable 
that  it  was  not  directed  to  the  whole  body  of 
Jewish  Christians,  but  to  a  particular  congrega^ 
tion  living  in  a  definite  locality;  and  the  fact 
that  the  title  refers,  not  to  a  place,  but  to  the 
nationality  of  the  readers,  is  to  be  explained  by 
a  distinction  between  the  Hebrew  and  Gentile 
Christians  in  the  locality  where  the  persons 
addressed  lived. 

The  opinion  that  the  Epistle  was  addressed  to 
Jewish  Christians  does  not  rest  upon  such  pas- 
sages as  i.  1  (comp.  1  Cor.  x.  1)  or  ii.  10  (comp. 
Rom.  iv.  11-18),  but  upon  the  circumstance  that 
the  author  regards  his  readers  as  the  successors 
of  pre-Christian  Israel  (iv.  1-9,  vi.  12  sqq.,  viii. 
7  sqq.),  and  that,  while  recognizing  the  universal 
efficacy  of  Christ's  death  (ii.  9,  15),  he  speaks 
only  of  its  atoning  power  for  sins  left  unatoued 
for  under  the  old  covenant  (ix.  15,  xiii.  12). 
This  also  follows  from  the  exhortation  to  the 
Jews  in  xiii.  13,  and,  above  all,  from  the  opinions 
and  tendencies  which  the  whole  Epistle  combats. 
Its  aim  is  not  to  present  the  "  advantages  of 
Christianity  over  Judaism  "  (Reuss,  etc.),  but  to 
serve  as  a  practical  exhortation  (xiii.  22).  This 
design  V)ecomes  apparent  in  the  solemn  warning 
of  ii.  1-4,  which  is  based  upon  the  doctrinal  dis- 
cussion of  chap.  i.  Throughout  the  Epistle  the 
doctrinal  treatment  is  merely  made  the  liasis  of 
practical  exhortations.  The  readers  who  are  in 
danger  of  a  complete  apostasy  from  the  Chris- 
tian faith  are  warned  against  the  destruction 
which  would  follow  upon  a  disregard  of  the 
proclamation  of  salvation  (ii.  1-3,  xii.  25),  and 
exhorted  to  hold  fast  to  the  profession  of  their 
faith  (iii.  1,  iv.  14)  and  to  the  hope  of  the  final 
glory  (iii.  6,  etc.).  Those  Israelites  who  believed 
in  Jesus  gain  incomparably  more  than  they  lose 
by  giving  up  Judaism  ;  for  Christ  does  perfectly, 
by  his  death  and  ascension,  the  work  which  the 
high  priests  of  the  Old  Testament  only  typified 
(iv.  14-x.  18).     The  opinion  which  regards  the 


HEBREWS. 


956 


HEBREWS. 


readers  as  still  taking  part  in  the  ordinances  of 
the  temple,  and  believing  these  were  necessary 
to  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (Bleek,  Liineinann, 
Riehni),  is  at  variance  with  the  assertion  that 
thev  had  proved  their  faith  by  sufferings  and 
works  of  charity  (iii.  U,  vi.  10,  x.  22,  32).  If 
this  were  true,  and  the  author  had  wished  to 
divert  them  from  the  observances  of  the  Mosaic 
ritual,  he  would  not  have  spoken  of  the  oi'iginal 
purity  of  their  faith  (xiii.  7),  but  liave  empha- 
sized the  necessity  of  a  departure  from  the  tem- 
ple ritual,  which  he  does  not  do,  not  even  in  xiii. 
13.  There  is  no  trace  of  evidence  in  the  Epistle 
for  the  view  that  the  readers  were  observing  the 
temple  ritual,  or  were  in  danger  of  falling  back 
again  into  such  observance. 

As  regards  the  locality  in  which  the  readers 
resided,  four  places  have  been  specially  thought 
of, — Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Rome. 
The  following  considerations  tell  against  the 
first  three  suppositions,  and  in  favor  of  the  last. 
The  Epistle  could  not  have  been  written  to  the 
Church  in  Jerusalem,  for  it  had  been  from  the 
beginning  the  teacher  of  others  (Acts  viii.  -1,  xi. 
19;  Rom.  xv.  27);  but  of  these '•  Hebrews"  this 
is  particularly  denied  (v.  12).  Nor  did  the  Chris- 
tians of  Jerusalem  "minister  unto  the  saints" 
by  works  of  charity  (vi.  10),  but,  on  the  contrary, 
were  the  recipients  of  charity.  The  "  Hebrews," 
tlien,  of  the  Epistle,  were  such  as  aided  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem  by  contributions.  The 
hypothesis  of  an  Alexandrine  circle  of  readers 
has  been  vigorously  defended  by  Wieseler,  who 
lias  attempted  to  show  that  the  temple  at  Leon- 
topolis  satisfied  the  descriptions  of  the  temple 
ritual  as  given  in  the  Epistle,  even  in  those 
points  where  they  seem  to  be  inconsistent  with 
the  ritual  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  These 
inconsistencies,  such  as  the  high  priest's  offering 
up  of  daily  sacrifices  (vii.  27),  are  assumed,  but 
cannot  be  made  out.  Rut  the  main  support  of 
the  hypothesis  is  based  upon  the  assumption  that 
Pliilo  gives  an  account  of  the  schismatic  temple 
services  at  Leontopolis.  But  this  is  not  only 
at  variance  with  his  known  reverence  for  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  l)ut  with  the  fact  that  lie 
describes  in  enthusiastic  language  the  ritual  of 
the  temple  prescribed  by  the  law,  as  being  oli- 
served  in  his  day.  On  the  other  hand,  tlie 
Epistle  itself  (viii.  5,  ix.  1-8)  speaks  of  the  ritual 
of  Mo.ses.  but  not  of  a  temple  and  ritual  existing 
and  observed  at  the  time  of  comi>osition.  The 
Antioch  hypothesis  has  been  revived  by  Ilof- 
mann,  and  is  based  upon  historical  coincidences 
(ii.  3,  v.  12,  vi.  10;  cornp.  .\cts  xi.  1!)  sijcj.,  xii. 
25,  xiii.  1).  But  it  cannot  be  shown  that  a 
Hebrew  Christianity  existed  there  within  sixty 
years  after  I'aul's  triumphant  conflicts  with  Jew- 
ish assailants,  and  such  as  is  described  in  our 
Epistle . 

'i'lie  nujst  proliable  theory  was  first  projiosed 
by  Welsti-in,  and  places  the  n^aders  of  the  Epistle 
in  Italy,  or,  more  definitely,  in  Home.  The  ex- 
pression, "they  of  Italy  salute  you"  (xiii.  24), 
18  not  a  proof  of  the  author's  having  written 
from  Italy  (comp.  I'seuili>it/ii.  ail  Ilir.,  8,  in  my 
edition,  p.  '270,  12),  but  is  entirely  consistent 
with  the  other  supposition  that  he  was  not  in 
Italy  when  he  wrote.  It  is  hardly  probable  that 
an   exclusively  Jewish   congregation    existed    in 


Italy ;  but  there  must  have  been  a  large  number 
of  Hebrew  Christians  in  the  Roman  Church 
(comp.  Col.  iv.  11;  Phil.  i.  14  sqq.),  to  whom 
the  title  "  Hebrews  "  might  properly  be  applied. 
The  supposition  that  the  Epistle  was  addressed 
to  this  smaller  circle  explains  the  double  use  of 
the  word  "  all  "  in  xiii.  24.  Rom.  xiv.  is  directed 
against  substantially  the  same  tendencies  as  Heb. 
xiii.  9;  and  in  Rom.  ix.  1-11  views  are  contro- 
verted which  might  easilj'  develop  into  such  as 
are  brought  to  our  notice  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  This  theory  agrees  well  with  the  fact 
that  the  oldest  Christian  authors  of  Rome,  as 
Clement  and  Hennas  (comp.  my  Hirt  cles  Hennas, 
pp.  439  sqq.),  were  largely  influenced  by  the  pe- 
rusal of  our  Epistle.  The  readers  themselves 
are  described  as  having  passed  through  a  "great 
conflict  of  sufferings  "  (x.  32) ;  which  refers  to  the 
persecution  of  Nero  (54-68),  and  not  to  that  of 
Domitian  (98-117).  In  the  latter  case,  the  com- 
position of  the  Epistle  would  fall  far  down  in 
the  second  century  ("former  days,"  x.  32),  —  a 
date  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  use  Clement 
and  Hennas  made  of  it,  and  with  its  theological 
character.  But  if  the  letter  was  written  to  the 
Hebrew  Christians  of  Rome,  and  the  persecutiott 
of  X.  33  is  identical  with  that  of  the  year  (54,  the 
date  cannot,  on  account  of  the  expression  "  for- 
mer days  "  (x.  32),  be  placed  before  70,  but  may 
with  tolerable  accuracy  be  set  down  in  80.  The 
use  of  the  present  tense  in  referring  to  the  tem- 
ple ritual  (v.  1  sqq.,  viii.  4,  ix.  6  sq.,  etc.)  proves 
nothing,  as  it  was  natural  to  use  this  tense  for  a 
theoretical  description  of  the  temple,  based  upon 
the  description  of  the  law,  and  as  it  is  used  in 
the  same  connection  by  Josephus,  Clement  of 
Rome  (ad  Cor.,  40,  41),  and  in  the  Talmud. 
The  consideration  which  has  been  frequently 
urged,  that,  had  the  author  written  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  lie  would  have  used 
that  event  as  an  argument  in  viii.  13,  would  only 
be  of  value  if  it  were  proved  that  the  readers 
were  in  danger  of  reverting  to  Judaism. 

fThose  who  hold  that  the  Epistle  was  written 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  in  the  year 
70,  emphasize,  and  justly,  the  constant  use  of  the 
present  tense  in  referring  to  the  temple  (v.  1, 
viii.  4,  ix.  C,  etc.)  as  still  standing,  and  its  ritual 
as  being  still  observed.  The  past  tense  is  other- 
wise frequently  enqiloyed  when  the  contrast  is 
between  the  law  and  Christ  (vii.  19,  ix.  1.  18, 
etc.).  The  date  is  placed  by  Lardner,  Davidson, 
and  Schaff,  in  63;  Lange  (Ilerzog,  Real-Eucyclo- 
jiiitlie,  1st  ed.),  Stuart,  Tholuck,  and  Wieseler, 
in  64;  Dr.  Kay  (Sjx'akei-'s  Cominenlanj),  in  65;  De 
Wette,  Riehni,  and  Ewald,  in  65-67 ;  Conybeare 
and  Howson,  in  68  or  69.] 

A  ullior.  —  Le.ss  can  be  determined  definitely 
about  the  author  than  alxnit  the  persons  ad- 
dressed. All  that  can  be  dciivcMl  from  the  Epis- 
tle itself  is  that  the  writer  was  a  Hebrew  convert 
to  Christianity,  who  was  indebted  for  his  conver- 
sion to  the  disciples  of  Jesiis  (ii.  3),  was  a.ssoci- 
ated  with  Timothy  (xiii.  23),  and  spoke  with  the 
authority  of  a  teacher  to  a  congregation  among 
whom  he  had  resided  for  a  while  (xiii.  14).  The 
tradition  about  the  anthorshi]i  is  not  uniform. 
According  to  the  Alexandrine  tradition,  reaching 
back  to  th(!  second  century,  I'aul  was  the  writer, 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria  attempts  to  exiUain 


H33REWS. 


957 


HEERBRAND. 


liis  reasons  for  not  introducing  himself  to  his 
readers,  as  was  his  usual  custom.  Origen  like- 
wise assumes  tlie  Pauline  authorshiji ;  but  he 
recognizes  that  only  a  few  churches  liesides  the 
Alexandrine  accepted  this  view.  Irenseus  (Eus., 
V.  2G)  and  his  pupil  llijipolytus  {Phot.  Cod.,  2:52, 
comp.  121),  and  the  wliole  C'liurch  of  the  West, 
until  after  the  lieginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
denied  the  Pauline  authorship.  The  tradition 
of  the  African  Church  (also  reaching  back  to  the 
second  century)  was  that  Barnabas  was  the  author; 
and  this  view  is  expressly  advocated  by  Tertul- 
lian  (Exslat  enim  el  Barnithcc  titulus  ad  Hebrceos, 
etc.;  De  Pudic,  20). 

In  view  of  these  diilerences,  the  opinion  widely 
prevails  that  the  name  of  the  author  was  early 
lost,  and  that  the  names  of  Paul  and  Barnabas 
were  mere  conjectures.  For  this  reason,  Luther, 
Bleek,  Liinemann,  Ililgenfeld,  and  [.\lford]  have 
associated  ApoUos  with  the  Epistle ;  but  the  lat- 
ter is  purely  conjectural,  and  has  far  less  in  its 
favor  than  the  names  of  Barnabas  or  Paul.  Of 
these  two  Barnabas  is  to  be  preferred,  and  for 
the  following  reasons.  (1)  The  hypothesis  that 
Paul  was  the  author  was  as  easy  for  the  Church 
of  Alexandria  as  that  of  Barnabas  was  difficult 
for  the  Church  of  Africa.  As  the  name  of  Paul 
had  been  inserted  before  the  Epistles  from  n-pdf 
Pui/iaiovc  to  irpdf  -it'/iiiuova  ("to  the  Romans,"  "to 
Philemon"),  it  was  natural  to  insert  it  after 
the  next  Epistle,  which  was  irpdr  'F.Spaiov(  ("to 
the  Hebrews").  Clement's  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians  experienced  a  similar  fate.  (2)  Th^ 
Barnabas  tradition  might  have  been  more  easily 
lost  in  the  other  parts  of  the  Church  than  in  the 
African,  especially  in  the  Alexandrine  Church, 
■which  possessed  a  letter  of  similar  import,  which 
wrongly  went  under  the  name  of  Barnabas.  This 
latter  fact  may  easily  be  explained  if  we  assume 
that  there  still  remained  a  dim  recollection  of 
the  tradition  that  Barnabas  was  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (3)  The  style,  the 
statement  in  ii.  3,  4,  where  the  author  speaks  of 
himself  as  having  heard  the  gospel  of  salvation 
from  the  disciples  of  Jesus  (cf.  Gal.  i.  7;  Rom. 
xvi.  25),  and  the  absence  of  the  usual  salutation, 
all  are  against  the  Pauline  hypothesis.  (4)  If 
the  Epistle  itself  was  addressed  to  Rome,  then 
the  Occidental  tradition  is  to  be  preferred,  and  the 
supposition  becomes  proliable  that  the  .\frioan 
Church,  always  deprndent  upon  the  Roman  as 
regards  tradition,  received  the  opinion  that  Bar- 
nabas was  the  author,  from  Rome  itself.  It 
becomes  probable  that  Barnabas  visited  Rome 
(comp.  Heb.  xiii.  l!(),  not  only  from  the  state- 
ment in  the  Clenienline  Ri/rorjnitioits  (i.  7-11),  but 
especially  from  the  fact  that  Paul  found  Mark  in 
Rome  (Col.  iv.  10),  whither  Barnabas  may  have 
accompanied  him  from  Cyprus  (Acts  xv.  39). 

Lit.  —  Bleek  :  D.  Brief  an  d.  Hebriier,  Berlin, 
1828-40,  3  vols,  [and  his  posthumous  lectures,  ed- 
ited by  K.  A.  Windrath,  Elberfeld,  1868J;  Wiese- 
i.ER  :  Unleraiichniuj  ii.  d.  Hebraerhrief,  Kiel,  1861  ; 
Riehm:  Leiirbeijr.  d.  Hebrderbriefi,  1859,  2  vols., 
new  ed.,  1867;  Delitzsch  :  Cnmmentar,  Leipzig, 
18.50  [English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1870]  ; 
J.  H.  R.  BiESENTHAL,  Leipzig,  1878;  Kahler, 
Halle,  1880;  Lunemann:  Commenlar,  4th  ed., 
Gottingen,  1878;  Ewald:  Erhldrung,  etc.,  Gottin- 
gen,  1870.     [See  also  the   Theologies  of  the  New 


Teslameiit  of  Reuss  and  Weiss,  the  Cmnmenlaries 
by  Tholuck   (English    translation,   Kdiidiurgh, 
1.S42),  Ebkaki)  (English  translation,  Edinburgh, 
1853),  Moses  Stuaiit  (.\ndover,   1827;  revised 
by  Professor  Bobbins,  4th  ed.,  1800),  Moi.i.  (in 
Lange,  BielelVld.   1801;  Ijd  ed.,  1877;  translated 
by  Dr.  Kendrick,  New  York,  1868),  Dr.  Kay  (in 
Speaker'.'i  Com.,  London  and  New    York,    1882),  ' 
A.  B.  Davidson  (Edinburgh,  1882),  F.  Rendai.l  ' 
(1883)  ;  Keil  (1885)  ;  and  the  art.   Hebrews,  in 
Smith 's  /)'(/'.  Did.  and  Enci/r.  JJrilann. 
HEBREWS,    Gospel   according  to   the.      See 

APOCUYl'lIA,  p.   106. 

HE'BRON  (friendship),  a  town  of  Palestine. 
situated  about  midway  between  Jerusalem  and 
Beersheba.  at  an  elevation  of  about  three  thou- 
sand feet  above  the  sea,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  the  world,  built  seven  years  before  Tanis  in 
Egypt  (Num.  xiii.  22).  It  is  often  mentioned  in 
Old-Testament  history,  from  the  time  of  Abraham 
to  the  period  of  the  Maccabees.  By  the  Romans 
it  w'as  destroyed,  but  rebuilt  during  the  middle 
ages,  and  the  seat  of  a  Christian  bishop  from 
1167  to  1187,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  Sala- 
din.  At  present  it  numbers  about  ten  thousand 
inhabitants,  and  is  a  hotbed  of  Mohammedan 
fanaticism.  Its  mosque  stands  over  the  cave  of 
Machpelah,  the  burial-place  of  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  .Jacob  ;  but  it  is  closed  against  non-Moham- 
medans. There  is  not  a  Christian  family  in  the 
town,  but  about  five  hundred  .lews. 

HECKEWELDER,  John  Gottlieb  Ernestus, 
Moravian  missionary;  b.  in  Bedford,  Eng.,  March 
12,  1743;  d.  in  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  Jan.  31,  1823. 
He  emigrated  to  America,  1754,  and  labored  for 
many  years  among  the  Indians  in  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  and  Michigan,  in  connection  with  David 
Zeisberger  (see  art.).  From  1788  till  1810  he 
was  agent  of  the  Society  of  the  United  Brethren 
for  propagating  the  Gospel  among  the  Heathen. 
From  1810  till  his  death  he  lived  quietly  in  Beth- 
lehem, preparing  his  two  books.  An  Account  of 
the  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Indian 
Nations  who  once  inhabited  Pennsylvania  and  the 
Neighboring  Stales  (Phila.,  1818),  and  A  Nan-alive 
of  the  United  Brethren  among  the  Delaware  and 
Mohegan  Indians  (1740-1808,  Phila.,  1820).  See 
Ro.ndthaler:  Life  of  Ileckeirelder,  Phila.,  1847. 

MEDIO,  Kasparj  b.  at  Ettlingen,  in  Baden,  1494; 
d.  at  Strassburg,  Oct.  17,  15.53;  studied  at  Frei- 
burg and  Basel,  and  was  appointed  court-preacher 
to  the  elector  of  Mayence  in  1520,  and  in  1.523 
preacher  at  the  Cathedral  of  Strassburg,  where 
he  labored  assiduously  for  the  introduction  of  the 
Reformation.  He  translated  Eusebius  and  parts 
of  Ambrosius,  Augustine,  etc. ;  edited  the  Chroni- 
con  Urspergense,  and  continued  it  from  1230  to 
1537 ;  and  wrote  a  Chronicon  Germanicum  till 
1545.     His  proper  name  was  Held. 

HEDWIG,  St.,  the  wife  of  Duke  Henry  of  Sile- 
sia and  Poland,  to  wdiom  slie  bore  six  children, 
devoted  the  last  forty  years  of  her  life  to  the 
severest  asceticism,  and  entered,  after  the  death 
of  her  husband  (in  1238),  the  convent  of  Treb- 
nitz,  where  she  died  Oct.  15,  1243.  She  was 
canonized  in  1266.  and  her  festival  is  celebrated 
in  the  Roman  Church  on  Oct   17. 

HEERBRAND,  Jakob,  b.  at  Giengen,  in  Suabia, 
Aug.  12,  1521;  d.  .at  Tubingen,  May  22,  1600; 
studied  at  Ulm  and  Wittenberg,  and  was  appoint- 


HBBRMANN. 


9.58 


HEGEL. 


ed  preacher  in  Tiibiugen,  1544,  but  discharged  in 
1548,  as  he  refused  to  accept  the  Interim.  In 
1550  he  was  made  superintemlent  of  Herrenberg, 
and  in  1557  professor  of  tlicoloify  at  Tubingen. 
His  principal  work  is  liis  CoiiipciiditDii  T/uoioyi- 
cum  (Tubingen,  1573),  wliich  was  widely  used  in 
Germany  as  a  text-book,  and  translated  into 
Greek  on  account  of  the  negotiations  then  going 
on  between  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and 
the  University  of  Tubingen. 

HEERMANNiJohann^b.  at  Ranten,  Silesia, Oct. 
11, 1585  ;  d.  at  Koben,  Feb.  17.  1647  ;  a  Protestant 
pastor,  wlio  in  1630  published  a  volume  of  hymns 
(^Decoti  Musica  Cordis),  of  which  many  are  still 
in  use  in  Germany,  and  some  have  been  translated 
into  English  in  Sliss  Winkworth's  Lyra  German- 
ica,  and  Schaff's  C/iriil  in  Song,  Xew  York,  1869. 

HEGEL,  Georg  Wilhelm  Friedrich,  b.  at  Stutt- 
gart, Aug.  27,  1770;  d.  in  Berlin,  Nov.  14,  1831. 
He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen  1788-03 ;  and 
lived  as  a  private  tutor,  first  at  Bern  1793-96, 
then  at  Frankfort  1797-1801.  In  1801  he  settled 
at  Jena  as  lecturer  on  philosophy  in  the  univer- 
sity, and  Schelling's  co-editor  of  the  Krilische 
Journal  der  Pliilosophie.  He  was  at  that  time 
fully  agreed  with  Schelling.  Their  journal,  of 
which  he  wrote  the  larger  part,  was  the  organ 
of  the  system  of  identity,  —  a  philosophy  which 
attempted  to  represent  matter  and  mind,  nature 
and  spirit,  world  and  God,  as  identical.  But  a 
closer  acquaintance  showed  him,  that,  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Schelling.  this  identity  was  a  jilay  of  the 
imagination  rather  than  a  logical  ratiocination, 
"shot  from  a  pistol,"  rather  than  developed  with 
spontaneous  necessity  ;  and  when  Schelling  went 
to  Wurzburg  in  1803,  and  the  charm  of  the  per- 
sonal intercourse  faded  away,  Hegel  left  the 
track  and  chose  his  own  way,  tliough  the  general 
direction  of  his  thought  continued  the  same. 
After  the  battle  of  Jena  (18(l(i),  he  removed  to 
Bamberg,  where  for  some  time  he  edited  the 
Bainben/cr  Zeiluntj.  The  occupation  was  e.xceed- 
ingly  modest,  but  at  the  same,  time  h."  published 
his  Pliditomi'-iioloyie  de.t  Geistcs,  a  book  which  in 
wealth  of  ideas  has  no  equal.  From  1808  to 
1816  he  was  a  schoolmaster,  director  of  tlie  Aegi- 
dien  gymnasium  at  Nuremberg,  and  there  he 
married  in  I8l0,  and  published  liis  J'lii/oso/diisc/ie 
Propaeilcutih  and  Wixsenschaft  ilir  Lm/ii: :  which 
latter  work  forms  tlie  fouml.ilion  of  liis  whole 
system,  and  is  as  deep  and  as  forliiddiug  as  any 
cellar  can  bt'.  In  1816  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  philo.sophy  at  Heidelberg,  ami  in  1818  he  was 
removed  to  Berlin;  but  in  Berlin  he  published 
only  his  I'/il/osu/i/iic  i/e.s  Heclil.s  (liis  weakest  work) 
and  essays  in  the  Julirliiichur  Jiir  irisxensclniflUche 
Krilik.  Alter  his  ileath,  his  works  were  edited, 
in  eighteen  huge  volumes,  by  an  associ:itioii  of 
friends,  after  his  own  notes  and  those  of  his 
hearers,  'i'raiislated  itito  Kiiglish  are  V'/xr  .S'l/A- 
jeclire  Loijii:  (by  Sloman  and  Wallou,  1855), 
Philom/i/ii/  fil'  Ili.ilDrij  (by  Sibree,  1857),  the  Loijic, 
from  the  Encijcliijiuilii;  (1874),  large  .selections 
from  his  works  in  the  Journal  of  S/irculaiirf  Plii- 
lusoiiUtj  (edited  by  VV.  T.  Harris,  I.-V'.,  St.  Louis, 
1867-71).  His  masterpieces  are  Ptuenomenoloiiij 
of  Spirit,  Sc.icnca  of  Loyic,  /Esl/ietirs,  and  Ilislori/  of 
Philosophij.  in  second  line  stand  Nalurut  I'/iiloso- 
phy,  Philomphy  of  Hii/lil,  Philoaojihy  of  History, 
a&d  Philosophy  of  litUyivn. 


The  impression  which  Hegel  made  in  Germany 
was  at  one  time  almost  overpowering.  His  phi- 
losophy swept  away  all  other  philosophies  as  if 
they  were  mere  dust,  aud  before  he  died  it  began 
to  make  itself  felt  as  an  actual  power  both  iu 
State  and  Church.  Nevertheless,  immediately 
after  his  death  a  split  took  place  iu  the  school  he 
had  formed ;  the  two  divisions  (the  right  repre- 
sented by  Gabler,  Erdmann,  Gaus,  Rosenkranz; 
the  left,  by  Feuerbach,  Bruno  Bauer,  Michelet, 
and  Arnold  Ruge)  moving  in  diametrically  oppo- 
site directions  both  in  politics  and  religion.  The 
fact  is  surprising,  but  not  inexiilicable.  There 
was  in  Hegel  personally  a  fund  of  religious,  mor- 
al, and  poetical  sentiment,  as  rich  as  his  power 
of  intellect  was  grand.  In  his  system  of  strongly 
pronounced  pantheism,  both  these  elements  are 
perfectly  fused  together  into  one  mass ;  but  it 
was  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that,  by  further  de- 
velopment, they  should  separate,  each  pursuing 
its  own  course.  The  method  offered  no  resist- 
ance. Formally  Hegel  defined  truth  as  the  medi- 
ation between  two  opposites.  His  thought  alw.ays 
moves  from  thesis,  through  antithesis,  to  sj-nthe- 
sis,  from  the  positive,  througli  the  negative,  to 
the  absolute.  But  this  method  is  as  acceptable 
to  ecstatic  mysticism  as  to  radical  rationalism. 
In  the  dispute  which  was  caused  by  the  split,  the 
style  came  to  play  a  curious  but  siguificaut  part. 
Hegel's  style  is  an  almost  noiseless,  almost  color- 
less stream  of  molten  steel,  dangerous  to  touch. 
Racy  expressions,  pith}'  sayings,  even  bursts  of 
lofty  eloquence,  occur;  but  they  have  no  value  as 
quotations.  The  word  which  stands  for  an  idea, 
aud  Slot  merely  runs  an  errand  in  the  sentence, 
never  means  the  same  iu  Hegel's  w'ritings  as  it 
means  in  other  people's  writings.  Hegel  said 
himself,  "If  you  will  understand  my  ideas,  you 
must  first  understand  my  sj'stem."'  In  the  same 
sense  it  may  be  said,  that  while  in  other  people's 
writings  the  reader  begins  by  uiulerstanding  the 
words,  and  thence  reaches  lo  the  understanding 
of  the  book,  in  Hegel's  writing  you  must  under- 
stand the  book  before  you  can  understand  the 
words.  Hence  the  reason  why  iio  amount  of 
interpretation  and  explanation  has  been  able  to 
decide  any  thing  with  respect  to  what  Hegel 
really  meant.  The  whole  disjiute  between  the 
two  tractions  of  his  school  has  been  a  mere  waste, 
more  liable  to  confound  the  student  than  cajiable 
of  illustrating  the  author. 

Tiie  right  wing  of  the  Hegelian  school  is  in  the- 
ology represented  by  Uaub,  Marlieineke,  tibschel, 
.Martensen  ;  the  left,  by  D.  F.  StraiLss,  F.  C.  Baur, 
Schwegler.  Religion,  Hegel  defines  as  truth,  but 
in  the  lowest  form  in  which  truth  can  be  held  by 
the  human  mind.  In  Christianity  this  form  of 
truth  has  found  its  liigliest,  its  absolute  expres- 
sion, having  p,as.sed  through  the  stagi'S  of  one- 
sideil  objectivity  and  one-sided  subjectivity  in  the 
ante-Ciiristian  religions.  On  the  first  stage  God 
is  considered  an  object,  a  part  of  nature,  a  natu- 
ral being  (Lamaism,  liuddhism.  Biiimiiiisiii ) ;  on 
the  .second  he  is  considered  as  subject,  wholly  dis- 
tinguished from  nature  (.ludaism,  (jreek  aud 
Roman  polytheism) ;  but  only  in  Christianity  he 
beconiis  true  spirit.  The  Hegelian  idea,  liow- 
evi'r,  of  God  as  spirit,  is  somewhat  ambiguous 
(for  instance,  with  re.siiect  to  the  (|iii'stion  oi'  per- 
so;iali;y);  and  the  specifically  Christian  question. 


HEGESIPPUS. 


959 


HEIDELBERG  CATECHISM. 


whether  the  appearance  of  Christ  in  the  history  of 
mankind  is  a  natural  event,  to  be  explained  like 
any  other  event,  or  whether  it  is  a  miracle,  the 
divine  incarnation  by  which  creation  is  saved,  is 
left  unanswered.  Both  views  have  been  developed 
from  Hegelian  premises  ;  and  the  jofreat  boast  of 
Hegel's  earliest  pupils,  that  in  his  philosophy 
faith  and  science  had  become  fully  reconciled, 
proved  empty  as  soon  as  the  actual  application 
began.  It  is  a  very  characteristic  circumstance, 
that  his  Philoso/ihi/  of  Reliyion  has  been  twice 
edited ;  first  by  Marheineke,  and  then  by  Bruno 
Bauer,  that  is,  first  as  evidence  of  the  author's 
conservative  orthodoxy,  and  then  as  proof  of  his 
revolutionary  radicalism. 

Lit. —  Hegel's  Life  was  written  by  Rosen- 
kranz,  1844,  and  Haym,  1857.  See  also  Hutchi- 
son   Stirling  :    The  Secret   of  Hegel,   London, 

381)7.  CLEMENS  I'ETERISEN. 

HEGESIPPUS,  an  ecclesiastical  writer  of  the 
second  century,  of  whose  work,  nivri.  virouvr)jj.aTa, 
friigraents  have  come  down  to  us  in  Eusebius 
(IIIM.  Errkf.,  2,  23;  3.  11.  16.  10;  20,  32;  4.  8, 
22)  and  in  Steplianus  Gobarus  in  I'hotius  {DiliL, 
c.  232)  ;  which  fragments  have  been  collected  in 
Grabe  {Spiciler/ium,  I.),  Routh  (llel.  Sacr.,  I.), 
and  Schulthess  (Si/mbolce  ad  internam  crilicen  lib. 
can.,  I.,  Turin,  1833). 

Eusebius  says  nothing  about  the  country  and 
birthplace  of  Hegesippus;  but  from  the  circum- 
stance that  the  latter  in  his  hook  gives  extracts 
from  the  (iospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  inserts 
Syriac  and  Hebrew  phrases  in  his  text,  and  quotes 
from  an  oral  Jewish  tradition,  he  infers  that  he 
■was  born  a  Jew;  and  he  must  have  resided  in 
the  Orient,  since  he  went  to  Rome  by  sea,  making 
a  visit  by  the  way  to  Corintli.  With  respect  to 
the  time  of  his  life,  ICusebi.is  fixes  three  points, 
—  the  reigns  of  Hadrian,  Antoninus  I'ius,  and 
Marcus  Aurelius;  and  the»3  three  points  fit  well 
together  with  the  notices  by  Jerome  that  he  was 
born  not  long  after  the  apostolic  age,  and,  in  tlie 
Cliron.  Pasch.,  that  he  died  during  the  reign  of 
Conmiodus. 

As  all  the  fragments  which  have  come  down 
to  us  are  of  a  historical  character,  some  have 
inferred  that  the  work  itself  was  a  kind  of  church 
history ;  but  as  thf  death  of  James  is  toKl  in  the 
fifth  and  last  book,  what  can  the  preceding  four 
books  have  contained?  and  where  w'as  the  history 
after  the  death  of  James  to  be  told'.'  Others 
have  supposed  that  tlie  work  gave  ecclesiastical 
statistics;  others,  again,  that  it  was  a  sort  of 
itinerary.  With  respect,  however,  to  the  general 
purpose  of  the  book,  tliere  can  be  no  doubt  it 
was  polemical  against  the  Gnostics;  and  a  closer 
examination  of  the  fragments  themselves,  as  well 
as  the  notices  which  Eusebius  gives  of  the  general 
subjects  of  the  paragraphs  from  which  he  quotes, 
points  to  a  book  of  poleniico-apologetical  descrip- 
tion. 

Still  greater  differences  of  opinion  have  arisen 
with  respect  to  the  true  spiritual  bearing  of  those 
fragments.  Eusebius  thinks  that  Hegesippus  was 
a  converted  Jew',  and  his  opinion  may  be  right; 
but  on  the  basis  of  tliis  assumed  Jewish  descent, 
and  certain  assumed  Judaizing  tendencies  in  the 
narrative  about  Simeon  and  James,  Hegesippus 
has  been  set  forth  as  the  representative  of  a 
Christianity  not  only  Judaizing,  but  Jewish. 
9 -II 


From  a  notice  in  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  4,  22)  it 
has  been  inferred  that  he  considered  the  Jlosaio 
law  as  an  indispensable  jiart  of  Cliristianity. 
From  another  notice  in  Photius  (liihl.,  c.  232) 
it  has  been  inferred  that  lie  did  not  recognize 
the  apostle  Paul  ;  and  from  lliesi-  inferences  still 
further  and  very  far-reaching  inferences  have 
been  drawn  by  Schwegler,  and,  in  a  more  con- 
siderate way,  by  Hilgenfeld,  with  respect  to 
the  Jewish  character  uf  the  primitive  (,'hristian 
Church.  But  these  propositions  are  untenalile. 
The  first  notice  does  not  speak  of  the  Mosaic  hiW 
in  particular,  but  of  the  general  unity  of  tlie  Old 
and  New  Testament  revelation.  Tiie  second 
notice  does  not  speak  of  the  apostle  Paul,  but  of 
a  whole  party;  viz..  the  Gnostics.  To  recognize 
the  congreg.ation  of  Corinth  and  the  I^pistle  of 
Clement  in  the  manner  in  which  Hegesippus  rec- 
ognized them,  and  then  reject  the  apostle  Paul, 
would  be  an  inexphunable  self-contradiction. 

Lit. — Jkromk:  De  vir.  ill.,  22;  ZwrcKER: 
Irenicum  Irenicormn,  K158;  G.  Bull;  I'riiiiiliai 
el  .{postolica  Irudilio,  1703;  Baur,  in  Tiil/ini/en 
Zei/achr.,  1831,  IV.  171  ;  Schwkcler  :  Nach- 
aposlot.  Zeitul/er,!.;  Hilgenfeld,  in  Zeilxeh\  fur 
icissensclidfl.  Thcol.,  1876.  p.  177,  and  1878,  p.  2!:(7; 
NiisGEN ;  Der  kirch.  Slanil/mnctt  //..in  ZeiLschr.fiir 
Kircliengesch.,  II.  2,  p.  297;  H.  Daxnreutiikr  : 
Du  le'iiKHgnage  d' Her/e'.-!ippe,  Nancy,  1878;  [F. 
VoGEL;  JJc  Hegesippo  (jui  dicitur  Joxephi  interprele, 
Erlangen,  18.si].  c.  WEIZS.\CKER. 

HECIRA  (.\rab,  "flight")  is  specially  apjilied 
to  Mohammed's  fliglit  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
which  has  been  fixed  by  the  Mohammedans  on 
July  15,  622,  and  made  the  starting-point  for 
their  computation  of  time.     See  Moh.\mmed. 

HEIDANUS,  Abraham,  b.  at  Frankenthal,  in 
the  Palatinate,  Aug.  10,  1507;  d.  at  Leyden,  Oct. 
15,  1678;  studied  at  Amsterdam  and  Leyden.  and 
was  appointed  pastor  in  the  latter  city  in  1627, 
and  professor  in  1647.  He  was  an  adiierent  of 
Cartesius,  who,  in  spite  of  Ids  great  caution  and 
circumspection,  escaped  the  censure  of  the  Re- 
formed Churcli  as  little  as  the  papal  index.  From 
the  appearance  of  his  Meddutioties  (in  1642)  an 
opposition  began  to  form  against  liim  in  Leyden, 
and  Heidanus  finally  became  its  victim.  He  was 
discharged  in  1675. 

HEIDEGGER,  Johann  Heinrlch,  h.  at  Barent- 
schweil,  ill  the  canton  of  Zurich,  July  1,  1633; 
d.  at  Zurich,  Jan.  18,  160S;  studied  at  Marburg 
and  Heidelberg,  and  was  professor  of  theology, 
first  at  Heidelberg,  then  at  Steinfurt  (1659),  and 
finally  at  Ziirich  (1665).  He  drew  up  the  Formula 
Coiisensua,  which  was  adopted  by  the  city  of 
Zurich,  March  13,  1675;  and  besides  his  Corpus 
Theologiw  C/irisliaiue,  which  was  several  times 
reprinted,  he  published  a  number  of  polemical 
works,  Aiialotiie  Coricilii  Tridenliiii  (1672),  Hi.'tloria 
Papains  (16S4),etc. 

HEIDELBERG.    See  U.viversities,  German*. 

HEIDELBERG  CATECHISM.  The  Reforma- 
tion was  rather  slow  in  penetrating  into  the 
Palatinate.  In  1546  service  was  celebrated  for 
the  first  time  according  to  the  Lutheran  ritual,  in 
the  Church  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit  at  Heidellierg.  But 
in  1522  Otto  Heinrch,  who  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  -Melanchthon,  issued  a  decree  which 
at  once  piut  an  end  to  all  papal  superstitions. 
The  confession  of  Augsburg  was  established  as 


HEIDELBERG  CATECHISM. 


960 


HELENA. 


the  norm  of  faitli ;  but  the  forms  of  worsliip 
■were  regulated  after  the  Reformed  rather  than 
the  Lutheran  type.  Under  his  successor,  Fried- 
rich  in.  (l.»9-76),  one  of  the  noblest  princes  of 
that  period,  a  complete  and  consistent  reform  was 
carried  out;  and,  as  the  basis  of  the  new  organ- 
ization, the  Heidelberg  Catechism  was  adopted. 

Zacharias  Ursinus  and  Caspar  Olevianus  were 
charged  bj'  the  elector  with  drawing  up  the  cate- 
chism. The  former  w.as  professor  of  systematic 
theology  at  the  university,  the  latter  preacher  at 
the  electoral  court  of  Heidelberg:  but  both  had  j 
lived  in  Geneva  and  Zurich,  and  were  strongly 
influenced  by  the  Swiss  reformation.  As  basis; 
for  their  work  they  used  the  catechisms  of  Calvin 
(edition  of  1.^41),  of  Lasky  (1,548),  of  ilonheim 
(1.500,1,  and  of  BuUinger  (1559);  though  of  the  last 
mentioned  only  very  little  is  utilized.  Towards 
the  close  of  156'2  the  draft  was  laid  before  the 
Heidelberg  synod,  or,  more  correctly,  before  the 
convention  of  superintendents  assembled  at  Kais- 
erslautern.  It  was  unanimously  adopted,  and 
immediately  printed,  accompanied  witli  an  intro- 
duction by  Friedrich  III.  himself,  dated  Jan.  19, 
1563.  and  serving  as  an  edict  of  promulgation. 
The  Latin  translation  done  by  Joseph  Lagus  and 
Lambert  Pithopcius,  but  far  inferior  to  the  Ger- 
man original  in  pithiness  and  vigor,  was  pub- 
lished at  the  same  time. 

Outside  of  the  Palatinate,  the  catechism  met 
•with  many  bitter  adversaries.  Maximilian  II. 
iunnediately  remonstrated  against  it  (.Vpril  2.5, 
156;j)  as  an  infringement  of  the  peace  of  -Vugs- 
burg.  On  May  i  followed  a  joint  address  from 
the  count-palatine,  Wolfgang  of  Zweibriicken, 
Duke  Christof  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  Margrave 
Karl  II.  of  Baden,  accompanied  with  a  piece  of 
sharp  criticism  inscribed  Wrzeichtiiss  d.  Mdnyel. 
Meanwhile  tlie  elector  i.ssued  a  second  edition  of 
the  catechism  with  the  addition  of  the  famous 
eightieth  question,  "  What  is  the  difference  be- 
tween the  papal  mass  and  the  Lord's  .Supper  as 
instituted  l)y  Christ  himself?"  And  on  Sept.  11, 
loli:},  followed  his  answer,  probably  written  by 
BuUinger.  to  the  ['rrzrirlnii.s^  il.  .}Idiif/e!.  The 
three  princes  .assemblc'd  Oct.  i  at  Ettlingen,  and 
proposed  to  Friedrich  111.  to  arrange  a  tlieologi- 
cal  conference;  but  lie  declined.  After  the  ap- 
pearance, however,  of  the  attacks  of  Flacius, 
lie.sshusen,  Laur.  Albertu.s,  Fr.  Baldwin.  I5renz, 
Andreii.  and  others,  and  the  answers  by  Ursinus 
(G'ruiiillicher  Herichl  vom  licit.  Ahcnilmal)  against 
Flacius,  and  An/irort  (inj'ctlicher  'J'/iiolui/eii  Censtn') 
against  Brenz  and  Andreii,  and  by  Olevianus  (/Vo 
dujien).  the  elector  clecided  to  accept  thc^  invita- 
tion ;  and  the  conference  took  place  at  Maulbronn, 
April  IU-15,  lofjl.  The  last  attack  on  tlie  cate- 
chism was  directed  against  th<^  elector  ]iersonally 
at  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  15(j(!.  He  was  even 
threatened  willi  deposition  ;  but  lie  defended 
liimself  with  such  a  nobleness,  that  the  matter 
was  dropped. 

Having  gone  through  this  ordinal,  the  success 
of  the  book  began.  It  was  introduced  in  Jiili<'h, 
Cleve,  Berg,  and  the  Mark,  where,  from  1580, 
every  ecclesiastic  was  compelled  to  lake  the  oath 
on  it.  It  was  also  introiluced  in  Hesse,  ,\nhalt, 
Brandenburg,  and  Bremen:  but  its  home  it  found 
in  the  Netherlands,  where  it  was  formal! v  ado|it- 
€d  in  1588.    The  Keformed  Cliurclies  of  iJungary, 


Transylvania,  and  Poland,  also  adopted  it :  and 
in  1019  the  synod  of  Dort  oiBcially  declared  it 
one  of  the  sj'mbolical  books  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  general.  From  Holland,  and  after- 
wards also  from  Germanj-,  it  was  brought  to 
America,  and  so  recently  as  1870  the  Presbyte- 
rian Church  of  the  United  States  authorized  its 
use.  It  has  been  translated  into  all  European  lan- 
guages, also  into  Hebrew,  Arabic,  Malay.  Singa- 
iese,  and  others.  It  is  one  of  the  three  historic 
and  most  widely  used  catechisms  of  Protestant- 
ism (the  other  two  being  the  .Smaller  Catechism 
of  Luther  and  the  shorter  Westminster  Cate- 
chism). A  tercentenary  celebration  was  held  by 
the  German  Reformed  Church  in  the  rnited 
States  at  Philadelphia,  1803,  and  in  several  places 
in  Germany  and  Holland. 

Lit. — The  text  of  the  catechism  is  found  in 
the  collections  of  svmbolical  books  by  Xiemever 
(Leipzig,  1840),  Heppe  (Elberfeld,  1800),  and 
Philip  SchafE  (New  York,  1877).  Special  ad- 
ditions have  been  published  by  Philip  Schaff: 
D.  Heidelberg  Katech.  nacli  d.  ersten  Ausy.  von  156S 
(of  which  only  two  copiies  are  known  to  exist), 
Philadelphia,  1863  (2d  ed.,,  1800),  accompanied 
with  critical  notes  and  an  historical  survey ;  The 
Heidelbercj  Catechism  in  German.  Latin,  ami  Enf/- 
lish,  with  an  Illst.  Intniductinn  (by  J.  W.  Xevin), 
New  York,  1803;  and  .\.  Walters,  Bonn,  1804. 

For  the  history  and  dogmatical  exposition  of 
the  book,  see,  besides  the  works  of  the  two  authors, 
V.\x  Alpen  :  Geschichte  und  Literatur  d.  H.  A'., 
Franckfort,  1800,  3  vols.  ;  J.  W.  Nevin  :  Jiistor;/ 
and  Genius  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  Chambers- 
burg,  Penn.",  1845;  H.  Champendal:  Examen 
critique  des  catech.  de  Luther,  Calcin,  Heidelberg, 
etc.,  Geneva,  1858 ;  G.  W.  Bethune  :  Expository 
Lectures  on  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  New  York, 
1804,  2  vols.;  Tercenlenar;/  Monument,  Chambers- 
burg  and  Philadelphia,  1863.  guder. 

HEIMBURG.     See  Gregor  von  IlEiMniKG. 

HEINECCIUS  (HEINECK),  Johann  Michael, 
b.  at  Kiseiiberg,  Dec.  12,  1074:  d.  ;d-  Halle,  Sept. 
11,  1722;  studied  at  Jena  and  Giesseu,  and  was 
appointed  de.acon  of  (ioslar  1090,  pastor  at  Halle 
1709,  and  consistorial  inspector  of  the  Saale- 
circle  1720.  His  work  on  the  history  of  the 
(;reek  Church,  old  and  new  (Leipzig,  1711),  is 
based  on  the  great  collections  of  materials  made 
by  Petrus  Arendius,  Leo  Allatius,  Richard  Simon, 
and  others,  and  is  still  of  value.  He  also  wrote 
some  learned  essays  on  the  history  of  Goslar,  the 
house  of  I?randenburg,  etc. 

HELDING,  Michaeh     See  Sidonius. 

HELENA,  St.,  thf  wife  of  Constantius  Chlorus, 
and  the  mother  of  Constantine  the  (ireat.  Very 
little  is  known  with  certainty  of  her  life.  Glouces- 
ter in  England,  Xaissus  in  Upjier  .ALosia,  and 
Drepannm  on  the  Gulf  of  Nicomedia,  claim  to 
be  her  birthplace.  A  church  in  Rome,  another 
in  Venice,  and  the  moniistery  of  Ihiutvilliers, 
ui'ar  Rheims,  claim  to  possess  her  remains. 
Some  say  she  was  a  British  princess;  others,  a 
servant-girl  in  a  wiay.sde  inn.  She  was  repudi- 
ated for  iiolilical  reasons  by  her  husband,  but 
held  in  great  honor  by  her  son.  She  was  a  Chris- 
tian ;  and  the  study  iif  the  legends  (see  Cuoss, 
Invkntion  (ir)  which  have  clustered  around  hi-r 
name  forms  an  interesting  piirallel  to  the  history 
of  the  worshiii  of  :\lary.      See  Act.   Sancl.,  May 


HBLIAND. 


961 


HELL. 


21.  A  list,  by  Nestle,  of  the  whole  literature  of 
this  subject,  is  found  in  Thcnhqhche  Lit.  Zeilunr/, 
1876,  No.  2.5;  August,  1877,  No.  4.  See  her  life 
by  LucOT  (from  the  sources,  Paris,  1870),  and 
F.  Grundt  :  Kaiserin  Helena's  Pihjerfalirl  n.  d. 
heil.  Laiide.  Dresden,  1878,  12  pp. 

HELIAND,  .sometimes  known  as  the  "Old  Saxon 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels,"  is  a  poeticil  life  of 
Christ,  composed  in  the  first  lialf  of  tiie  ninth  cen- 
tury, apparently  at  the  request  of  Louis  the  Pious, 
who  desired  to  effect  the  peaceable  conversion  of 
the  Old  Saxons  by  substituting  religious  poems 
for  the  warlike  lays  previously  in  vogue.  It  may 
be  described  as  a  Christian  epic,  containing  nearly 
■six  thousand  lines,  and  based  on  the  Diatessaron, 
or  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  compiled  by  Tatianus, 
and  to  a  less  degree  upon  the  commentaries  of 
Hraban,  Bede,  and  Alcuin.  Though  the  author, 
whose  name  is  unknown,  niu.st  have  been  a  man 
of  learning,  and  in  all  probability  an  ecclesiastic, 
the  composition  is  distinctly  popular  in  tone;  and 
its  rendering  of  the  gospel  history,  while  adher- 
ing closely  to  the  statements  of  the  evangelists, 
is  strongly  colored  by  the  Teutonic  imagination. 
Christ  is  represented  as  a  beneficent  ruler,  to 
whom  his  apostles  stand  in  the  relation  of  thanes, 
or  earls,  to  their  king  :  he  possesses  the  titles,  and 
discharges  the  functions,  of  the  ideal  Germ.anic 
chieftain  ;  and  it  is  through  his  person,  as  the 
central  figure  who  occupies  our  attention  from 
the  beginning  to  the  close,  that  the  .stamp  of 
unity  is  impressed  upon  the  poem.  The  style 
is  vigorous,  at  times  picturesque,  and  always 
abounding  in  the  formulie  and  epithets  of  the 
older  poetry. 

The  Heliand  may  be  but  a  fragment  of  a  larger 
whole,  comprising  extended  portions  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  paraphrastically  rendered 
into  alliterative  verse ;  and  indeed  Professor 
Sieversof  Jena  has  advanced  strong  arguments 
to  prove  that  vers.  2.3.5-851  of  the  Genesis  attrib- 
uted to  Csedmon  are  nothing  but  a  translation 
from  an  old  Saxon  original  by  the  author  of  the 
Heliand. 

However  that  may  be,  the  Heliand  has  much 
in  common  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  religious  poetry. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  missionaries  who  labored  on  the 
Continent  doubtless  disseminated  a  knowledge  of 
Csednion's  ])oems  among  their  converts  and  eccle- 
siastical brethren  ;  and  it  would  be  unavoidable, 
that,  when  one  of  the  latter  undertook  the  compo- 
sition of  a  religious  epic,  he  should  respect  not 
only  the  poetical  traditions  of  his  own  country, 
but  those  current  among  his  teachers  and  spirit- 
ual guides. 

In  this  connection  it  is  significant  that  of  the 
two  manuscripts,  one  of  which  is  preserved  in  the 
British  Museum  and  the  other  in  the  Munich 
Library,  the  former  is  believed  to  have  been 
copied  by  an  Anglo-Saxon  scribe. 

Lit.  —  The  poem  was  first  published  by  J.  A. 
.ScHMELLER,  Munich,  1830;  and  his  edition  is 
still  of  great  value :  other  editions  are  by  KiiNE 
(Minister,  1855),  Heyne  (2d  ed.,  Paderborn,  1873), 
Ri'cKERT  (Leipzig,  1876),  and  Sievers  (Halle, 
1878).  There  ai'e  translations  into  German  by 
SiMROCK  (3d  ed.,  Bei-lin,  1882)  and  Grein,  im- 
proved ed.,  C.assel,  1869.  Among  the  ess.ays  of 
most  interest  maybe  mentioned  the  following: 
H.  MiDDENDORF :   Ueber  die  Zeit  der  Abfassung 


rfe.s- //e/iVj/jrf,  Miinster,  1862;  E.  Beiiringer  :  Zur 
Wiirdiyung  des  Heliand,  Wiirzburg,  1863 ;  A.  F.  C. 
Vii.MAR:  Deutsche  Altcrthiimeri/u  Heliand,  2d  ed., 
Marburg,  1862:  E.  Windisch  :  Der  Heliand  und 
seine  Quellen,  Leipzig,  1868;  C.  W.  M.  Gkein: 
Die  Qaetlen  des  Helianils,  Cassel,  1869;  and  Sie- 
vers: Der  Heliand  und  die  anyelsUrlisische  Genesis, 
Halle,  1875.  albert  8.  COOK. 

HELIODORUS,  minister  of  the  Syrian  king, 
SeleucLi.s  1\'.  Pliilopator,  187-175  B.C.;  wassent 
to  Jerusalem  to  enforce  the  surrender  of  the 
temple-treasure.  In  spite  of  warning  given,  he 
entered  the  temple,  but  was,  according  to  2  Mace, 
iii.  G-10,  thrown  to  the  ground  by  a  fearful  appa- 
rition, and  re.stored  only  on  the  intercession  of 
the  high  priest  Onias.  4  Maeo.  iv.  4,  which  nar- 
rates the  same  event,  mentions  Apollonius,  Syrian 
governor  of  Co?lesyria,  instead  of  Ileliodorus. 

HELIODORUS,  Bishop  of  Tricea  in  Thessaly, 
originated,  according  to  Socrates  (Hist.  Ecct.,  5, 
22),  the  custom,  prevailing  in  Thessaly,  of  depos- 
ing any  ecclesiastic,  who,  after  receiving  consecra- 
tion, did  not  abstain  from  his  wife.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  the  celebrated  Greek  romance 
.t'Etkiopica  (comp.  E.  Rohde :  Der  f/riecliische  Ro- 
man, 1876)  ;  and  Nicephoriis  adds  (in  his  Hist. 
EccL,  12,  34),  that  a  provincial  synod,  taking 
offence  of  this  authorship,  gave  Ileliodorus  the 
choice  between  condemning  his  book,  or  resigning 
his  position  as  a  bishop.  He  preferred  the  last. 
It  is  not  certain  when  he  lived;  probably  before 
the  fifth  century 

HELIOGABALUS,  Roman  emperor  218-222; 
was  probably  b.  in  201  ;  a  son  of  the  senator 
Varius  Marcellus.  His  true  name  was  Varius  Avi- 
tus  Bassianus.  He  was  educated  at  Emesa  in 
Syria;  and  by  his  mother,  Julia  Sojenns,  and 
grandmother,  Julia  IMoesa.  initiated  in  all  the 
religious  fanaticism  of  the  Orient.  Elected  high 
priest  of  the  sun-god  of  Emesa,  he  assumed  his 

name  (Elagabal,  '73J  Sx) ;  and  by  his  beauty,  his 
magnificence,  and  his  supposed  sonship  to  Cara- 
calla,  he  made  a  deep  impression  in  the  Koman 
camp.  By  the  intrigues  of  his  mother  he  was 
proclaimed  emperor  by  the  soldiers,  and  in  219 
he  entered  Rome.  But  such  an  accumul.ation  of 
debauchery,  cruelty,  fanaticism  (every  pas.sion 
having  been  stimulated  into  frenzy),  Rome  had 
never  seen ;  and  in  222  he  and  his  mother  were 
thrown  into  the  Tiber  by  the  Praetorian  guard. 
During  his  reign  the  Christian  Church  had  peace  ; 
for  his  idea  of  establishing  a  one-god  worship,  of 
mingling  ,all  the  deities  of  the  Roman  Empire 
together  in  the  worship  of  the  one  god  El-gabal 
(God  the  Creator). — an  idea  very  characteristic 
of  the  religious  condition  of  the  age,  —  he  had 
not  time  to  carry  out.  The  principal  sources  to 
his  life  are  Dio"  Cassius,  Lampridius,  and  Ilero- 
dian. 

HELL.  1.  /"  the  Old  Testament.  — The  Hebrew 
word  for  "hell"  is  sfieol  (see  art.),  to  which 
"  Hades"  (.see  art.)  in  the  New  Test.ament  corre- 
sponds. Our  modern  word  "  hell  "  is  not  the 
equivalent  ior  sheol ;  for,  while  we  associate  with 
"  hell  "  endless  suffering,  the  Hebrew  associated 
with  .ilieol  merely  ideas  of  terror  and  repulsiveness, 
arising  mainly  from  the  mystery  and  uncertainty 
which"  .-".ttended  the  life  after  death  (cf .  Job  xi.  8; 
Prov.  i.  12;  Isa.  xxxviii.  10). 


HELL. 


96: 


HELL. 


2.  In  the  New  Testament.  —  "Hell"  is  the  trans- 
lation ill  the  authorized  version  of  three  words  in 
Greek,  —  Hades,  Gehenna,  and  Tartarus.  Hades 
has  been  already  considered.  Gehenna  was  prop- 
erly the  "  hell "  of  Hebrew  conception,  and  is 
uniformly  so  rendered  in  the  revised  version.  The 
rebellious  angels,  and  the  finally  impenitent  of 
men,  are  cast  into  it  (Matt.  v.  22;  Luke  xii.  5). 
Once  the  word  "Tartarus"  is  employed  (2  Pet. 
ii.  4),  and  also  rendered  "hell."  It  is  noticeable 
that  neither  Paul  nor  John  uses  either  Hades, 
Gehenna,  or  Tartarus,  and  also,  that,  of  the 
twelve  recurrences  of  Gehenna,  eleven  are  in  our 
Lord's  speeches.  Scripture  mercifully  hides  the 
condition  of  the  lost,  and  by  example  forbids 
prurient  curiosity.  The  way  of  life  is  luminous 
from  earth  to  heaven :  the  way  of  death  is  lost 
in  darkness.  See  Gehenna  ;  Hades  ;  Sheol  ; 
Punishment,  Futuke. 

HELL,  Christ's  Descent  into  (/caTd/3amf  «f  Mod), 
one  of  the  clauses  in  the  Apostles'  Creed,  was 
treated  as  a  doctrine  of  the  Church  in  the  East  as 
early  as  Marcion's  time,  and  is  found  in  the  formu- 
la of  the  fourth  synod  of  Sirmium  (359).  Towards 
the  latter  part  of  the  fourth  century  it  formed, 
according  to  the  testimony  of  Kufinus  (Expos. 
AquileJ.,  18),  a  part  of  the  baptismal  confession  of 
the  Churcli  of  .\quileja.  But,  in  the  great  majority 
of  the  baptismal  formulas  until  the  sixth  centun-, 
it  was  wanting.  By  the  eighth,  however,  it  was 
universally  accejited.  Its  insertion,  therefore,  into 
the  creed,  was  a  matter  of  gradual  development. 
The  Greek  Church  regards  tlie  descent  into  hell 
as  a  voluntary  passage  of  Christ's  human  soul 
into  Hades  in  order  to  offer  through  the  preacli- 
ing  of  the  gospel,  redemption  to  sucli  as  were  held 
under  the  dominion  of  Satan  on  account  of  origi- 
nal sin,  and  to  transfer  believers  to  paradise,  espe- 
cially the  saints  of  tlie  Old  Testament  iCanf.  orth., 
1.  19).  The  Roman-Catholic  Church  holds  that 
the  whole  divine-human  personality  of  Christ 
descended  to  the  f.imhus  jiatnim.  or  the  place 
where  the  saints  of  Israel  were  detained,  in  order 
to  deliver  them  into  the  full  enjoyment  of  bless- 
edness (Cat.  Rom.,  §  100-10.5).  According  to  the 
Lutheran  theology,  Christ  descended  with  body 
and  soul  on  the  early  morning  of  the  resurrec- 
tion, just  before  his  appearance  as  the  ri.sen  one 
on  the  earth.  The  interval  between  the  crucifi.x- 
ion  and  that  time  he  had  s]ient  in  paradise.  He 
went  to  the  realm  of  the  damned,  not  to  preach 
the  gospel,  but  to  proclaim  the  legal  .sentence 
upon  sin  (Form.  Cone,  I.,  1 1.  9).  The  lleformed 
theologians  taught  that  Clirist  spent  tlie  throe 
days  following  the  crucitixion  in  paradise,  and 
regarded  the  descent  into  hell  as  a  figurative 
expression  for  the  unutterable  sufferings  of  his 
human  soul,  which  he  endured  in  tln^  last  mo- 
ments of  his  vicarious  dying  (Calvin,  Inst.,  II. 
16,  8-12).  It  was  therefore  a  part  of  his  humilia- 
tion; while,  according  to  tiie  Lutheran  view,  it 
was  the  first  stage  of  liis  exalted  state  (status  exal- 
tod'onis),  proving  his  victory  over  death  and  the 
devil.  [The  Westminster  Catechism  (<\.  50), 
however,  explains  the  expression,  "He  <l<'scpndi'd 
into  hell,"  as  simply  meaning  his  death,  and  con- 
tinuance in  that  slate  for  three  days.]  At  the 
side  of  these  views  other  views  have  been  held 
concerning  the  meaning  of  the  clause.  It  w;i.s 
only  another  way  of  saying  that  Christ  was  buried 


(Beza,  Drusius,  etc.),  or  denoted  the  state  of 
death  regarded  as  an  ignominious  one  for  the 
Prince  of  lite  (Pisoator,  Arininius,  Limborch,  etc.). 
In  more  recent  times  it  has  been  explained  of 
Christ's  life  on  earth  amongst  the  demons  who 
had  taken  up  their  temporary  abode  here  (Mar- 
heineke.  Ackermann),  of  the  universal  efficacy  of 
redemption  (De  AVette,  Hase),  or  the  doctrine  has 
been  entirely  given  up  as  without  biblical  foun- 
dation (Schleiermacher,  A.  Schweizer).  Long 
before,  AVesley  had  for  the  same  reason  omitted 
it  from  the  articles  of  faith  of  the  Methodist 
Church. 

The  following  may  be  regarded  as  the  teaching 
of  the  Xew  Testament  on  the  subject.  (1)  Christ 
appeared  among  the  departed  in  hades,  while  his 
body  was  lying  in  the  grave.  This  is  presupposed 
by  Paul  in  Rom.  x.  6-8  (Meyer),  and  implied  in 
Christ's  own  words  to  the  thief  on  the  cross  (Luke 
xxiii.  -13).  (2)  Christ  went  as  spirit  (Trveiiid)  to 
the  realm  of  the  dead  (1  Pet.  iii.  18  sq.,  cf.  Acts 
ii.  27),  and  (3)  there  preached  the  gospel  (1  Pet. 
iii.  19)  (4)  to  all  the  dead,  and  with  the  more 
particular  jnirpose  of  awakening  spiritual  life 
(1  Pet.  iv.  6).  It  is  true  that  Christ's  preaching 
to  the  contemporaries  of  Noah  has  been  explained 
to  refer  to  an  activity  before  he  became  flesh 
(Augustine,  Beza,  A.  Schweizer) ;  but  the  repre- 
sentation of  these  persons  as  being  spirits  in  pri- 
son as  well  as  other  considerations,  render  this 
view  improbable.  If  it  be  true  that  man  spends 
the  interval  between  death  and  the  final  resur- 
i-ection  in  the  intermediate  state,  hades,  it  fol- 
lows as  a  necessary  consequence  from  the  real 
humanity  of  Christ,  that  he  also  participated  in 
tliis  lot.  This  descent  into  hades  was,  there- 
fore, a  distinct  stage  in  the  final  process  through 
which  tlie  theanthropic  personality  of  Christ 
passed  to  tlie  glorified  body  (aCijia  tj/^  rfoj'/r). 
Christ  appeared  in  hades  in  his  own  special  char- 
acter of  redeemer,  and  imparted  the  saving  vital 
energy  of  God  to  those  who  were  lifted  into  com- 
munion with  himself  by  faith  :  of  the  results  of 
this  activity,  we  know  nothing  certainly.  But  the 
analogy  of  this  world  leads  us  to  expect  that  he 
was  tliere  the  savor  of  life  unto  life  to  some,  and 
of  death  unto  death  to  others,  as  hades  consists 
of  two  domains,  —  paradi.se,  or  Abraham's  bosom, 
and  the  place  of  torment.  [The  second  part 
of  the  apocryphal  (iospel  of  Nicodenius,  which 
belongs  probably  to  the  fourth  century,  is  known 
also  by  the  title  Descent  of  Christ  to  the  Under- 
world, and  contains  a  most  curious  and  fantastic 
account  of  Christ's  experiences  in  hades.  Hades 
is  represented  as  resisting  the  entrance  of  Christ; 
but  tlie  nmvs  of  Christ's  coming  produces  a  joyful 
commotion  among  the  inhabitants  of  his  realm. 
These  cry  out,  with  David  and  Isaiah  among 
them,  in  the  language  of  Ps.  xxiv.,  to  Hades  to 
lift  u]i  the  gates  of  liis  kingdom.  Tlie  bright 
light  from  the  advancing  Son  of  man  then  strange- 
ly floods  the  realm  of  death.  \h'  calls  his  saints 
to  liim,  and  followed  by  them,  .Vdam  being  in  the 
number,  h(>  a.HCeiids  from  the  underworld.  Arrived 
at  the  gates  of  parailise,  he  gives  them  over  to  the 
hand  of  Michael,  who  introduces  tliem  to  its  glori- 
ous fellowship.]     See  Hades. 

Lit. — John  Peak.son  :  Exposition  o/ the  Creed, 
lfi.59;  Pkteu  Kino:  Ili.tt.  of  the  App.  Creed,  (.•tc, 
London,  1702;  Witsius:  Exercilt.  .i.  in  .■'yri'/.  .I,i. 


HELL. 


963 


HELLENISTIC  IDIOM. 


Arnst.,  1730  [Eng.  trans,  by  Fraser,  Edinb., 
1823,  2  vols.]  ;  Dietelmayr  :  Hht.  dnr/m.  de 
deacerisu,  etc.,  Niirnberg,  1741;  Waage  :  De 
(etate.  art.,  quo  in  symb.  Ap.  tradilur  J.  Chr.  ad 
inferos  commenlatio,  Copenhagen,  1836:  Konig  : 
Lehre  V.  Chr.  IIolleii/hlirl,VTa,nkf.,lS4'2;  Guder: 
I.chre.  V.  d.  Erschcinnnr/  Clir.  unler  d.  Todlen, 
Bern,  1852;  especially  Zezschwitz;  Petri  Ap. 
de  Chr.  ail  inj'crns  descensii  nenteidia,  Leipzig, 
1857  ;  A.  Schweizeu  :  Hinahijafiihren  z.  Hollc  ah 
Mtjihus  ohne  liihl.  Begriindunr/,Z\mch,lli(}8;  [Isaac 
Barrow:  Ser?no7ts  and  Erpoxition  »/'  the  Creed, 
Hodge:  Theology,  11.  pp.  616-621;  Schaff  : 
CreedK  of  Christendom.  1.  14-2:'..]  GiJDER. 

HELL,  Punishments  of.     See  Punishmf.xt. 

HELLENISTIC  IDIOM  is  the  prevailing  desig- 
nation of  that  mode  of  speech  in  use  among 
those  Jews  who  lived  among  the  Greeks,  or  that 
peculiar  form  of  the  Greek  language  which  it 
took  in  the  thought  and  mouth  of  the  Semitic 
Orient  when  the  two  spheres  of  life  began  to 
act  upon  each  other.  The  former  of  these  defi- 
nitions, though  narrow  and  historically  insuf- 
ficient, suits  our  purpose,  since  we  know  of  the 
matter  only  as  rebited  to  the  Jews,  and  this  rela- 
tion is  the  point  of  interest.  The  intei-est  of  the 
subject  is  not  pureh'  philological  nor  psychologi- 
cal. Similar  phenomena  can  be  found  elsewhere 
to  instruct  in  these  directions.  The  influence  of 
religious  ideas  upon  a  language  unprepai'ed  for 
them  may  be  noticed  again  and  again  in  the 
historj'  of  Christianity.  This  particular  combi- 
nation of  Jewish  thought  and  Greek  language 
created  the  form  in  which  the  gospel  has  been 
made  known  to  the  world  at  large.  Thus  it  is 
connected  with  the  highest  and  holiest  treasures 
of  human  knowledge  in  a  manner  which  gives  it 
a  theological  significance,  and  secures  it  greater 
attention  than  is  usually  accorded  to  what  is  in 
itself  so  external. 

In  the  next  article  [Hellenists]  it  will  be 
shown  that  the  acquaintance  of  the  Jews  with 
the  Greek  language  was  not  gained  through 
education  or  literary  study,  as  was  the  case,  e.g., 
among  the  Romans,  but  resulted  from  immediate 
contact  in  practical  life,  especially  in  trade.  The 
main  object  of  those  thus  learning  is  not  to  know 
the  peculiar  spirit  of  the  foreign  tongue,  but 
to  gather  such  a  vocabulary  as  serves  their  prac- 
tical purpose  of  making  tliemselves  intelligible 
in  conversing  about  material  and  social  m.atters. 
They  seek  to  olitain  readiness  in  speech,  and  are 
more  concei-ned  to  express  themselves  definitely 
than  to  use  correctness  of  form.  Xor  should  it 
be  forgotten  that  those  who  have  this  aim  are  not 
likely  to  be  well  educated,  and  hence  are  quite 
content  with  the  imperfect  form  of  their  means 
of  communication.  Two  other  weighty  circum- 
stances must  be  noticed.  Not  only  did  the  Jews 
rapidly  learn  the  new  language,  but  at  the  same 
time  they,  at  least  in  foreign  countries,  as  quickly 
forgot  their  own,  and  ceased  to  use  it  even  in  the 
household.  In  a  few'  generations  at  most,  the 
Greek  language  was  learned,  not  from  the  Greeks, 
but  in  the  Jewish  families,  .as  if  it  had  been  the 
mothei'-tongue.  Thus  the  imperfections,  to  a 
certain  extent,  became  parts  of  this  form  of 
Greek,  taught  by  Jews  to  their  children.  In 
later  times,  learned  Jews,  such  as  Philo  and 
Josephus,  sought  to  adopt  the  classic  forms ;  but 


we  should  not  class  these,  or  some  of  the  Chris- 
tian authors  of  the  first  century,  with  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  Hellenistic  idiom,  properly  so 
called. 

A  point  often  misunderstood  in  this  discussion 
is  the  state  of  the  Greek  language  itself  at  the 
time  when  the  Jews  adopted  it.  It  was,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  conquests  of  Alexander  and  their 
results,  in  process  of  change;  so  much  so,  that 
attention  was  aroused,  and  .studies  fostered,  out 
of  which  the  science  of  philology  arose.  The 
mass  of  foreign  words  intro<luce(l  in  consequence 
of  the  geographical  extension  of  the  language, 
affected  it  very  little.  Such  things  rarely  do. 
But  the  new  political  organizations,  which  threw 
into  the  background  the  limited  forms  of  (ireece, 
had  also  the  effect  of  fusing  the  provincial  dia- 
lects into  one  common  luiiversal  (ireek  language, 
which  alwiiys  occurs  when  national  life  triumphs 
over  narrower  separating  tendencies.  In  Greece 
itself  the  common  people  still  used  their  own 
dialect,  as  in  Germany  to-day ;  but  in  the  newer 
cities,  where  the  population  was  not  of  the  same 
origin,  the  so-called  common  {>/  koivj/)  dialect  pre- 
vailed. The  basis  of  this  was  the  Attic.  But  a 
common  dialect  is  of  necessity  a  mixed  speech, 
retaining  much  that  is  of  local  origin,  and  adding 
much  that  is  new.  The  old  gramnuirians  have 
collected  for  us  all  these  phenomena;  and  the 
results  are  given  in  our  better  lexicons,  espe- 
cially tho.se  of  the  New  Testament.  A  Macedo- 
nian element  is  also  discoverable:  at  least,  we 
find  cert.ain  things  appearing  in  the  language  for 
the  first  time  during  the  Macedonian  supremacy. 

But  the  influence  of  Alexandria  on  this  form 
of  the  Greek  language  was  most  potent.  In  that 
city  were  combined  social  culture,  trade,  art, 
science,  literature,  so  as  to  found  an  intellectual 
supremacy  which  continued  for  centuries.  Hence 
we  may  speak  of  an  Alexandrian  dialect,  which 
belonged  not  only  to  literature,  but  to  social  life 
in  general.  This  is  known  to  us  from  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  New  Testament  prepared  there, 
and  is  held  by  many  of  the  modern  critics  to  be 
the  very  form  of  speech  used  by  the  apostles  in 
composing  their  writings.  From  this  it  would 
follow  tliat  the  printed  Greek  text  of  modern 
times  is  of  more  recent  origin  in  its  forms.  But 
into  this  di.scussion  we  cannot  enter. 

The  chief  matter  to  be  considered  is  what  the 
Greek  language  became  in  the  hands  of  these 
Orientals,  especially  in  its  application  to  religious 
thought.  As  is  well  known,  the  Pentateuch  was 
translated  into  Greek  at  .Alexandria,  during  the 
reign  of  the  second  Ptolemy:  that  is,  at  a  time 
when  a  race  of  Jews  flouri.'ihed  whose  fathers 
had  been  the  first  to  whom  the  use  of  the  Greek 
language  became  a  necessity.  Despite  the  fables 
which  "have  been  attached  to  the  story  of  this 
version,  we  may  be  confident  that  it  originated 
in  an  ecclesiastical  necessity  which  was  already 
felt,  and  not  on  the  literary  whim  of  a  prince,  as 
is  generally  represented.  Grecian  literati  would 
h.ave  been  engaged  upon  it,  if  the  batter  view 
were  correct.  In  fact,  the  fables  alluded  to 
point  to  an  origin  deemed  sacred,  rather  than  to 
one  of  interest  mainly  to  learned  librarians. 
The  king's  name  can  be  regarded  as  that  of  the 
patron  s^xluted  by  the  Jews  and  their  rabbins; 
i  and  a  dedication  copy  was  naturally  placed  in 


HELLENISTIC  IDIOM. 


f)r;4 


HELLENISTIC  IDIOM. 


tlie  royal  library  by  these  faithful  subjects.  Be 
this  as  it  may.  the  first  glance  shows  with  how- 
little  knowledge  of  the  Greek  this  translation 
was  attempted.  Even  the  parts  made  after  an 
inten-al,  the  length  of  which  cannot  be  exactly 
determined,  show  in  general  the  same  character. 
Aside  from  blunders  due  to  faulty  hernieueutics 
or  a  corrupt  text,  we  find  numberless  examples 
of  the  misuse  of  Greek  terms,  of  Hebraistic  con- 
structions, such  as  could  be  fully  understood  only 
by  those  who  thought  in  Hebrew.  It  is  true 
that  adequate  Greek  expressions  were  wanting 
for  many  ideas  of  religion  and  ritual :  for  others, 
these  unread  translators  knew  of  none  among  the 
linguistic  material  collected  in  the  market  and 
the  shop.  They  chose  the  nearest  equivalent, 
without  reference  to  usage,  just  as  beginners  in  a 
foreign  tongue  are  wont  to  do.  AVe  are  familiar 
with  such  Hebraisms :  what  must  a  Greek  have 
thought  when  he  heard  them  for  the  first  time  ? 
Of  course  it  was  intelligible  to  the  Jew.  He 
knew  the  ideas :  the  form  of  sjieech  concerned 
him  little.  The  particles  were  almost  entirelj' 
Hebrew ;  the  oath  took  the  form  of  an  elliptical 
hypothesis ;  the  "  construct  state "  served  its 
common  Hebrew  purposes ;  and  the  entire  com- 
jilex  of  Greek  syntax  was  smoothed  out  into  the 
clear,  simple,  naicc  Old  Testament  structure  of 
clauses.  But,  despite  all  this,  such  a  theory  and 
practice  of  translation  was  for  Judaism  itself  an 
inestimable  benefit  not  yet  sufficiently  recog- 
nized. AVe  affirm  that  the  formation  of  this 
Juilajo-Grecian  Bible  language  was  the  first  and 
nuist  indispensable  prerequisite  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  religion  of  the  people.  The 
Hebrew  spirit  so  completely  dominated  the  Greek 
form,  that  to-day  we  are  often  compelled  to  seek 
the  Hebrew  original  to  understajid  the  Septua- 
gint. 

What  was  done  witiiout  purpose  became  an 
effective  agent  for  important  results.  The  Se].)- 
tuagint  had  its  influence  on  all  Hellenistic  litera- 
ture, which  was  mainly  religious.  It  was,  to  a 
certain  extent,  for  the  Hellenists  what  Lutlier's 
Bible  h?is  been  for  the  Germans.  But  there  were 
variations  in  this  literature,  the  causes  of  which 
wo  must  indicate.  The  chief  cause  is,  that  not 
all  of  the  authors  po.sse.ssed  tlie  same  linguistic 
training.  .Some  were  more  gifted  than  otliers, 
and  the  difference  in  tlie  style  of  the  books  com- 
posing tlie  .so  called  Old-Testament  Apocrypha  is 
very  great,  although  all  of  them  have  the  Hel- 
lenistic coloring.  The  same  difference  exists  in 
the  Xew  Testament  al.so.  C'omiiare  tlie  style  of 
tlie  E])istle  to  the  Hebrews  and  that  of  the  .\poc- 
ryjiha,  which  is  Hebraistic  through  and  through. 

But  another  c.-ui.sH  must  be  nann-ii.  The  frame 
of  a  languag<!  is  the  words  which  form  it.  A 
change  of  vocabulary  wa.s  continually  going  on 
in  Hellenistic  usage.  On  one  side  it  kept  ]iace 
with  the  transformation  of  the  new<'r  Hcdirevv, 
and  on  thi^  other  it  was  enriched  from  purely 
(ireek  sources.  Of  the  latter  fact  w(!  Iiave  abun- 
dant evidence  in  the  New  'I'eslameiit,  in  which 
words  occur  that  were  unknown  to  the  Alexan- 
drian tran.slators,  and  these  iiw  often  used  with 
more  Hellenic  than  Hebraistic  signification.  But 
the  influence  of  the  language  of  Palestine  was 
conRtaiit.  Tliere  the  classical  Hebrew  had  given 
place  to  an  Aramaic  form  of  speech,  which  not 


only  had  its  grammatical  peculiarities,  but  includ- 
ed expressions  and  figures  not  found  in  the  Old 
Testament.  A  large  number  of  these  occur  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  they  nmst  have  been  famil- 
iar to  the  Hellenists.  So,  too,  old  words  received 
new  forms  and  new  senses.  But  the  greatest 
influence  in  producing  this  change  was  that  of 
Christianity  itself.  It  demanded  expressions  for 
its  new  ideas  and  their  manifold  applications,  and 
sought  them  in  the  Greek  vocabulary.  Hundreds 
of  significant  terms  and  phrases  now  naturalized 
in  all  modern  languages  received  the  stamp  of 
the  first  disciples  who  spoke  Greek.  Among  these 
are  some  of  the  most  important  of  our  theologi- 
cal terms.  To  sum  up  :  in  the  Jewish  period  the 
Hellenistic  idiom  slavishly  translated,  in  the 
Christian  it  freely  formed,  a  speech,  without, 
however,  denying  its  cradle. 

It  is  evident  that  the  authors  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament differ  in  their  use  of  the  art  of  speech. 
John,  for  example,  does  not  represent  the  coarser 
Hellenism  in  his  choice  of  words;  but  how  entirely 
Hebraistic  is  his  .syntax  I  The  sentences  follow 
each  other,  the  connection  appearing,  not  from 
grammatical  analysis,  but  from  theological  reflec- 
tion. This  reiteration  of  ■•  and  "  and  '■  then  ''  is 
not  Greek.  On  the  other  hand,  what  rhetorical 
periods  are  found  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
in  the  preface  of  Luke,  in  some  of  the  discourses 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  Book  of  the  .icts !  In 
I  Paul's  language  we  plainly  see  two  partially 
antagonistic  tendencies.  —  that  of  the  Jewish  dia- 
lectics, with  its  incomplete  syllogisms,  its  inter- 
jected quotations,  producing  obscurity  and  harsh- 
ness; and  by  the  side  of  this  that  transporting 
rhetoric  of  the  heart,  the  true  issue  of  a  new 
fountain  of  life,  representing  wealth  of  feeling 
in  a  corresponding  wealth  of  synoiiymes  and 
figures. 

The  discussions  of  the  Hellenistic  idiom  have 
been  confined  too  much  to  lexical  and  grammati- 
cal questions,  and  have  failed  to  recognize  the 
profound  connection  between  it  and  the  mental 
history  of  the  people  who  produced  it.  The  hints 
given  in  this  article  will  enable  the  reader,  with 
thi'  liel)i  of  the  Bible  in  his  own  tongue,  to  under- 
stand the  matter  from  a  psychological  and  histori- 
cal point  of  view. 

The  details  of  grammar  and  lexicography  do 
not  belong  to  an  encyclopa;di,a.  but  we  conclude 
with  .some  critical  and  historical  remarks  on  these 
topics. 

.\t  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  philological 
learning  had  not  reached  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  Hellenistic  idiom  and  its  history.  H. 
Stephanus  and  Beza  took  the  right  view;  but 
their  investigations  were  too  imperfect  to  guide 
public  opinion.  In  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth 
century  there  began  an  interminable  scpiabble 
over  tiu^  Hebraisms  of  the  New  Testament,  the 
point  at  issue  being  a  dogmatic  one;  namely, 
what  kind  of  a  style  might  be  .a.scribed  to  the 
Holy  .Spirit,  whether  it  could  be  deemed  less  pure 
than  the  classic  style  of  jirofane  authors.  The 
discussion  was  mechanical  and  unscientific  on 
both  sides,  but  lasted  for  more  than  a  century. 
(See  tlie  Introduction  to  Win'kk'.s  (iitimmar  n/tlie 
New  'J'cxl(iiiieiil).  Fortunately  during  this  cen- 
tury a  truer  method  has  been  adopted ;  and  the 
lexical    and    gianiinalieal    results   are    not   only 


HELLENISTIC  IDIOM. 


HELLENISTS. 


accessible,  but  have  influenced  all  the  recent 
conimentarips  on  the  New  Testament,  irrespec- 
tiv(^  of  theological  opinion.  But  conipaiativcly 
little  has  been  clone  in  the  study  of  tlie  Hellenis- 
tic literatin-e  which  preceded  Christianity. 

The  complete  literature  on  this  subject  will  be 
found  in  the  author's  Geschiclile  dcs  Neuen  Testa- 
ments, 5th  ed.,  §  -11,  etc.  ED.  HEU8S. 

The  phrase  "Hellenistic  Diction  "  is  frequently 
substituted  by  English  and  American  scholars 
for  "  Hellenistic  Idiom  ;  "  since  the  latter  is  in 
English  applied  to  single  peculiarities  of  speech, 
rather  than  to  a  collection  of  such  peculiarities 
having  an  organic  character.  In  the  main  the 
positions  of  Professor  Reuss  are  now  generally 
accepted.  Too  little  emphasis  is  laid  by  .some 
authors  on  the  providential  aspect  of  the  subject. 
On  the  theory  that  Christ  is  the  centre  of  his- 
tory, a  main  task  of  all  the  nations  about  the 
Eastern  Jlediterranean  was  to  assist  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  this  form  of  Greek,  as  best  adapted  to 
express  the  universal  revelation.  Properly  held, 
this  view  stimulates  the  study  of  the  historical 
and  psychological  causes  which  resulted  in  the 
formation  of  Hellenistic  Greek.  To  recognize 
God  in  history  does  not  hinder  investigation. 

The  lexical  questions  have  in  recent  years  been 
treated  from  a  philological  and  historical  point 
of  view,  and  the  a  priori  dogmatic  method  lost 
ground.  Many  of  the  results  are  contained  in 
the  larger  commentaries,  and  in  special  essays  on 
words.  The  American  edition  of  Lange's  Com- 
mentary is  a  thesaurus  in  this  respect.  (See  the 
Index  in  vol.  X.,  New  Testament.)  The  New- 
Testament  lexicons  of  Wahl,  Bretschneider,  and 
Robinson,  have  all  served  a  useful  purpose.  That 
of  WiLKE  (rewritten  by  C.  L.  W.  Gkimm,  Leipzig, 
1868;  last  ed.,  1877-78)  will  shortly  appear  in 
an  English  translation  by  Professor  J.  H.  Thayer, 
Andover.  A  special  lexicon  on  New-Testament 
theological  terms  is  that  of  H.  Cuemer,  Gotha, 
1866-68,  2d  ed.,  1872,  3d  ed.,  1882;  translated 
into  English,  Edinburgh,  1869,  3d  ed.,  1880.  On 
synonymes  of  the  New  Te.stament  see  Tittmann 
and  Trench  (the  latter  originally  appearing  in 
two  parts;  a  new  edition  in  one  volume,  London, 
1865). 

Of  New- Testament  grammars,  that  of  Winer 
has  long  been  the  standard.  The  first  accurate 
English  translation  was  that  of  Professor  Thayer, 
186!)  (from  the  seventh  German)  ;  also  one  by 
Professor  W.  F.  Moulton  (Edinburgh,  1870),  con- 
taining numerous  additions.  A.  Buttm.\nn's 
(Berlin,  1869)  has  also  been  translated  by  Thayer, 
with  numerous  corrections  and  additions  by  the 
author  (Andover,  1876).  In  England  the  New- 
Testament  grammar  of  T.  S.  Green  (London, 
1862;  1st  ed.,  1842),  and  Syntax  and  Synonymes 
of  the  Greek  Testament,  Willi.-^m  Webster  (Lon- 
don, 1864),  deserve  mention.  The  former  is  very 
convenient  and  suggestive.  The  progress  made 
in  the  knowledge  of  Greek  grammar  in  general 
has  contributed  greatly  to  the  excellence  of  mod- 
ern helps  for  study  in  this  special  field. 

The  most  valuable  list  of  works  bearing  on 
the  Hellenistic  diction  will  be  found  in  the  sup- 
plementary volume  of  Lange's  Commentary  on 
the  Old-Testament  Apocrypha,  by  Professor  K.  C. 
BissEi.i..  The  volume  itself  is  among  the  most 
valuable   American   contributions   in   this  field. 


Much  remains  to  be  done  in  two  directions:  first, 
in  securing  for  the  LXX.  proper  recognition  as 
the  basis  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Hellenistic 
diction ;  secondly,  in  giving  [iroper  place  to  New- 
Testament  styli.stics  and  rlu'loric.  The  latter 
subject  has  been  discussed  and  redi.scus.sed  in 
connection  with  the  q\iestions  of  the  genuinene.ss 
of  the  various  books  of  the  New  Testament;  l)ut 
very  little  has  been  done  from  any  point  of  view 
other  than  the  polemic  one.  The  rhetoric  of  the 
Pauline  Epistles  deserves  more  thorougli  treat- 
ment. 

The  numerous  works  which  have  appeared  in 
recent  years  on  the  life  of  Christ,  on  the  history 
of  the  New-Testament  times,  have  made  great 
use  of  the  material  which  belongs  to  a  thorough 
discussion  of  the  Hellenistic  diction ;  and  the 
same  remark  holds  true  of  the  treatises  on  New- 
Testament  hermeneutics.  For  a  general  discus- 
sion of  the  language  of  the  Greek  'I'estament  and 
the  idiosyncrasies  of  the  evangelists  and  apostolic 
writers,  we  refer  to  the  first  chapter  of  Scuaff's 
Companion  lo  the  Study  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
New  York,  1882.  '  M.  B.  riddle. 

HELLENISTS  was  the  name  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  those  foreigners  who  became  like  them- 
selves in  habits  or  speech.  The  term  had  a  special 
application  to  those  Jews  who  were  brought  under 
Greek  influences,  and  i.s  of  importance  in  connec- 
tion with  the  early  history  of  Christianity.  The 
usual  view  of  the  word  is  not  incorrect,  but  too 
often  superficial. 

In  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Hellenizing  of 
foreign  nations,  which  until  then  had  been  lim- 
ited, began  to  be  extensive.  His  successors,  the 
Seleucidee  and  the  Ptolemies,  advanced  it,  some- 
times by  force.  Even  more  than  the  sword  was 
this  influence  the  defence  of  the  new  dynasties. 

The  tendency  to  emigrate,  and  engage  in  foreign 
trade,  was  not,  however,  confined  to  the  Greeks. 
About  the  time  of  the  spread  of  Hellenic  civili- 
zation in  the  East,  various  political  causes  fos- 
tered among  the  Jews  tlie  same  tendency,  which 
has  now  become,  so  to  speak,  the  ground  tone  of 
their  life  as  a  people.  The  two  streams,  Hellenic 
and  Hebrew,  met  at  first  in  the  young  Macedo- 
nian cities.  Soon  the  Jews  were  found  every- 
where manifesting  the  same  commercial  spirit, 
the  same  fondness  for  portable  salable  property, 
which  is  to-day  the  most  obvious  trait  of  their 
character.  But  the  two  streams  did  not  mix. 
The  Mosaic  law  had  sought  to  fasten  the  Jewish 
people  to  the  soil  of  Palestine.  From  this  exter- 
nal regulation  they  now  broke  away;  but  the 
same  law  had  stamped  upon  them,  not  only  a 
higher  religious  and  ethical  culture,  but  also  a 
personal  abhorrence  of  foreigners.  All  that  per- 
tained to  their  religious  belief  made  between 
them  and  the  Greeks  an  impassable  gulf,  thus 
guarding  their  religion  from  every  danger  and 
temptation,  maintaining  their  peculiar  type  of 
morality,  while  at  the  same  time  all  the  evil  pas- 
sions which  can  divide  races  were  permitted  to 
arise  and  to  operate.  We  are  to  inquire,  How 
far,  under  these  conditions,  did  the  Jewish  ele- 
ment yield  to  or  with.stand  the  foreign  influence 
it  encountered  ?  In  other  words.  AVhat  spheres 
of  public  and  private  life,  what  phases  of  national 
character,  were  affected  or  unaffected  by  thia 
Hellenizing  tendency? 


HELLENISTS. 


96G 


HELVETIC  CONFESSIONS. 


With  household  life  we  need  not  here  concern 
ourselves.  In  art  and  science  the  foreigners 
might  have  furnished  a  welcome  instructor  to  the 
Jews,  so  far  as  these  troubled  themselves  about 
such  things.  The  warlike  spirit  was  gone,  or 
what  little  remained  was  connected  with  religious 
ideas  in  a  way  to  remove  it  from  the  usual  politi- 
cal spheres.  Moreover,  trade  is  essentially  cos- 
mopolitan ;  and  every  advance  in  this  direction 
was  at  bottom  a  removal  from  the  spirit  of  the 
law  and  the  prophets,  all  the  more  so  because 
the  Jews  did  not  recognize  it  as  such.  The  two 
opposing  dynasties  on  either  side  of  Palestine 
sought  at  the  same  time  to  obtain  entrance  into 
the  laud  and  the  heart  of  the  Jewish  people. 
Assuring  them  of  material  advantage,  encoura- 
ging their  love  of  money,  these  rulers  succeeded 
in  dulling  entirely  the  conservative  national  feel- 
ing, though  without  winning  any  aifection  in 
return.  Without  the  mighty  restraint  of  their 
religion,  the  Jewish  people  would  at  once,  and 
more  rapidly  than  any,  have  given  way  to  Hellen- 
ism. The  strongest  proof  of  this,  aside  from 
the  affectation  of  adopting  Greek  names,  is  to 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  sacrificed  what  is 
most  precious  and  peculiar  to  a  people,  —  their 
language,  and  this  with  an  unexampled  readi- 
ness and  rapidity.  This  remarkable  revolution 
in  speech  has  been  discussed  in  the  preceding 
article  [Hellenistic  Idiom]. 

But,  though  the  language  of  their  fathers  was 
forgotten,  their  religious  faith  remained,  as  it 
still  remains.  This  conserved  their  nationality  ; 
and  one  cannot  fail  to  admire  not  only  the  re- 
organization after  the  return  from  Babylon,  with 
its  effect  upon  the  people,  but  also  the  Pharisaism, 
which,  with  its  separatism,  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  maintenance  of  the  undying  national  feel- 
ing. An  edifice  that  has  lasted  for  thousands  of 
years,  that  has  proved  stronger  than  the  Roman 
Empire,  itself  praises  the  builders.  However  far 
removed  from  home,  among  the  .Jews  apostasy 
was  a  rare  exception.  Wherever  they  went,  they 
soon  established  synagogues  (now  Grecian)  as 
foitresses  of  the  national  spirit,  and  targets  of 
foreign  antipathy,  —  in  both  directions  the  up- 
holders of  .Judaism  in  its  peculiar  position. 

Here  is  that  phase  of  our  subject  whidi  is  of 
most  importance  for  the  history  of  Christianity ; 
here  the  providential  ordering  of  the  relations  of 
peoples  is  most  evident.  The  transformation  of 
Hebrew  .Jews  into  Hellenists  is  of  more  than 
statistical  and  pliilological  interest :  its  results 
were  far-reaching.  It  was  more  than  the  accept- 
ance of  the  (jreek  language  and  customs  on  the 
part  of  the  .Jews:  it  brought  the. J('wiah  faith  and 
life  close  to  the  Greek  population,  and  tliat,  too, 
at  the  very  time  when  heathenism  was  moving 
toward  a  remediless  catastrophe.  Its  power  was 
broken  :  in  some  cases  a  tasteless,  unpoetic, 
foreign  superstition  had  taken  its  plac(\  Here 
and  there  were  individual  souls  that  could  not  find 
satisfaction,  either  in  the  intoxication  of  .sense, 
the  ab.stractions  of  philosophy,  or  the  prevalent 
mysteries  and  occult  science.s.  These  often  found 
their  way  to  the  .synagogue,  and  learned  to  know 
the  (Jod  of  Israel,  and  to  join  in  the  worship  of 
him.  E.spocially  was  this  true  of  the  women. 
No  one  w.os  hindered  from  sharing  these  privi- 
leges.     The  relations  of  coniuiercial  and  social 


life  favored  the  custom.  Certain  general  rules 
of  a  religious  and  domestic  character  were  ob- 
served in  the  introduction  of  these  proselytes 
[see  Proselytes]:  otherwise  the  fellowship  was 
without  hindrance  from  either  side. 

But  an  important  counter-influence  was  thus 
exerted  upon  the  Hellenistic  Jews.  It  could  not 
be  otherwise.  The  Greek-speaking  Jews  were 
brought  into  the  closest  contact  with  the  Gireeks, 
and  inevitably  they  learned  to  judge  the  aliens 
less  unfavorably,  to  recognize  what  was  common 
to  humanity,  and,  while  holding  fast  to  their 
monotheism  as  their  most  precious  possession,  to 
cease  to  identify  it  with  all  the  details  of  their 
religious  forms.  Their  worship,  it  should  be 
remembered,  was.  insensibly  to  them,  less  and 
less  associated  in  their  thoughts  with  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem  and  its  sacrificial  rites.  The  Hel- 
lenist, without  wishing  or  knowing  it,  was  more 
and  more  released  from  the  bonds  of  the  Levitico- 
Pharisaical  institutions.  He  had  preachers,  but 
no  prie.st.  This  change  was  not  caused  by  an- 
tagonism or  indifference,  but  was  the  natural  re- 
sult of  circumstances.  All  of  the  (ireek-speaking 
Jews  did  not  become  less  exclusive;  the  Book  of 
the  Acts  furnishes  proof  to  the  contrary :  but  the 
same  history  shows  how  greatly  the  circumstances 
sketched  above  jirepared  the  way  for  the  gospel. 
Those  things  made  prominent  by  the  gospel,  that, 
too,  by  Jesus  himself, — the  distinction  between 
what  was  essential  and  unessential  in  religion, 
the  recognition  of  true  faith  outside  of  Israel, 
and  of  salvation  designed  for  all  nations,  —  these 
things,  to  say  the  least,  were  intelligible  to  the 
Hellenistic  ear,  if  not  at  once  acceptable.  In 
Palestine,  where  the  Jew  wished  to  be  master, 
the  foreigner  was  doubly  unwelcome,  was  called 
sinner,  godless,  unrighteous,  because  he  was  a 
foreigner.  These  national  prejudices  helped  to 
create  antagonism  to  the  gospel.  Hut  elsewhere 
the  Jew  was  the  foreigner.  He  soon  felt  that 
there  was  room  in  the  world  for  many  kinds  of 
people,  and  this  feeling  had  its  influence  within 
the  sphere  of  Christianity.  In  .Jerusalem  many 
would  not  hear  of  a  gospel  that  they  should  have 
in  common  with  the  uncircumcised.  In  .•\ntioch, 
not  only  the  market,  but  the  .synagogue,  to  a 
certain  extent,  had  been  occupied  together  with 
tlie  latter  cla,ss.  The  depth  of  the  gulf  between 
these  two  elements  of  the  .Jewish  people  at  the 
time  of  tiie  establishment  of  tlie  Church  may  be 
learned  from  the  first  mention  of  them  in  the 
Book  of  the  Acts  (chap.  vi.).  The  unfriendly 
colhision  was  occasioned,  it  is  true,  by  a  trivial 
external  matter;  but  the  true  cause  was  the  na- 
tional division.  The  further  application  of  the 
positions  here  taken  belongs  more  properly  to 
exegesis.  KD.   RErS.«  (M.  n.  RkldU-). 

HELVETIC  CONFESSIONS.  I.  First  Helvet- 
ic Confession  (Confessio  Helvetica  Prior,  ;ilso 
called  Second  Confession  of  Basel,  Confessio 
Basiliensis  Posterior).  Tliougli  in  tlie  fourth 
decades  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Ileformed 
churches  of  Switzerland  could  point  to  the  writ- 
ings of  Zwingli  and  the  first  confession  of  Basel 
(15:!1)  as  (expressions  of  their  beliefs,  a  common 
confession,  formally  .adopted,  was  still  lacking. 
For  the  purpose  ot  drawing  up  such  an  instru- 
ment, delegates  from  Zurich,  Bern,  Hasel,  Schaff- 
hausen,  St.  Gall,  Miihlhausen,  and  Biel,  assembled 


HELVETIC  CONFESSIONS. 


967 


HELVETIUS. 


at  Basel,  Jan.  iiO,  15:!fj.  Hiillingei-  and  Leo  Jiula; 
from  Ziirieli  were  present,  Megaiifler  from  Bern, 
Myconius  and  (Jrynanis  from  Basel,  and  otliers. 
Soon  after,  Biitzer  and  ("apito  from  Strasslmrg 
arrived  ;  for  there  were  also  other  motives  at  work. 
The  moment  was  considered  favorable  for  tlie 
effeotinr;-  of  a  union  betwf^en  the  Keformed  and 
the  Luthei'an  churches,  and  such  a  imion  was 
the  great  idea  of  liutzer's  life.  Xor  was  the 
council  called  by  Paul  III.  to  Mantua  left  out  of 
view.  It  was  the  intention  of  the  Swiss  Reformed 
churches  to  lay  their  confession  before  that  coun- 
cil. The  instrument  was  first  drawn  up  in  Latin, 
and  then  translated  bj-  Leo  .luda'  into  Oernmii. 
The  German  version  was  immediately  adopted 
by  all  the  delegates;  hut  the  Latin  encountered 
some  dirticulties  from  the  side  of  the  Zilrich  dele- 
gates, who  found  the  phraseology  approaching 
the  Lutheran  too  closely.  It  was  revised  and 
altered  by  Myconius  and  Grynpeus ;  and  both 
versions,  the  (ierman  and  the  Latin,  were  then 
formally  adopted  on  Feb.  26,  IH'-V). 

II.  The  Second  Helvetic  Confession  (Confes- 
sio  Helvetica  Posterior)  is  the  work  of  BuUinger. 
The  first  sketch  of  it  he  made  in  1.562.  During 
the  plague,  in  1504,  he  revised  and  elaborated 
this  sketch,  and  laid  it  beside  his  will,  to  be  pre- 
sented, in  case  of  his  death,  to  the  magistrates  of 
Ziirich,  as  a  testimony  of  his  faith.  An  incident 
brought  it  before  the  public.  Maximilian  II. 
called  a  diet  to  Augsburg,  Jan.  14,  1566.  As  the 
elector- palatine,  Friedrich  III.,  who  had  seceded 
from  the  Lutheran,  and  joined  the  Reformed 
Church,  was  afraid,  that,  for  this  very  reason,  he 
should  be  put  under  the  ban  of  the  realm,  he 
addressed  himself  to  Bullinger  (after  the  death  of 
Martyr  and  Calvin,  uuquestiouably  the  first  theo- 
logian of  the  Reformed  Church),  and  asked  him 
to  draw  up  a  confession  showing  that  the  Re- 
formed Church  in  no  point  differed  from  the  true 
apostolical  doctrine.  Bullinger  sent  him  the 
above-mentioned  memoir;  and  it  pleased  him  so 
much  that  he  asked  permission  to  liave  it  trans- 
lated into  German,  and  published.  The  interest 
which  Bullinger's  work  thus  awakened  naturally 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  Swiss  to  it  They 
had  for  some  time  felt  the  need  of  such  a  confes- 
sion as  a  bond  of  union.  The  first  Helvetic 
confession  was  too  short,  and  was  suspected  of 
having  yielded  somewhat  to  a  Lutheran  influ- 
ence. Bullinger's,  ou  the  contrary,  seemed  satis- 
factory in  every  respect ;  and  in  the  course  of  1566 
it  was  adopted  by  Ziirieh,  Geneva,  Bern,  Schaff- 
hausen,  Miihlhausen,  Biel,  .St.  Gallen,  the  Gri- 
sons,  Glarus,  Appenzell,  Thni-gau,  and  elsewhere. 
In  the  same  year  it  was  adopted  in  Scotland,  in 
1567  in  Hungary,  in  L571  in  France,  in  1578  in 
Poland.  It  is  also  the  creed  of  the  Reformed 
Church  in  Bohemia.  The  first  edition  of  the 
Latin  text  appeared  at  Ziirich  1566;  at  the  same 
time  appeared  also  a  German  translation  by  Bul- 
linger, and  a  French  by  Beza.  It  is,  next  to  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism,  the  most  generally  recog- 
inzed  confession  of  the  Reformed  Church. 

Lit.  —  L.  Thom.^s  :  La  Confession  Helce'tique, 
(jeueva,  1S.>3;  Beck:  Symbolische  Bilcher  d.  re- 
form. A'.,  vol.  i.  ;  [BoHL :  Conf.  Helv.  Posterior, 
Vienna,  1866 ;  Philip  Sciiaff  :  Creeds  of  Chris- 
tendom, New  York,  vol.  i.  390-420,  and  vol.  iii. 
234^306].  K.  SUDHOFF. 


HELVETIC  CONSENSUS,  Formula  Consen- 
sus Ecclesiarum  Helveticarum.  The  severilv 
with  which  the  synod  <,f  Dort  (1618-1;))  defined 
the  doctrines  of  absolute  election  and  reproba- 
tion gave  ri.se  to  a  re-action  in  France,  where  the 
Protestants  lived  surrounded  by  Roman  Catho- 
lics. Saumur,  the  home  of  Amyraut,  Capjiel, 
and  Placajus,  becam(>  the  centre  of  this  move- 
ment. Amyraut  taught  a  hypothetical  or  con- 
ditioned universalism  ;  Cappel  denied  the  verbal 
inspiration  of  the  Hebrew  te.xt  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment; PlacSBUS  rejected  the  immediate  imputa- 
tion of  Adam's  sin  as  arbitrary  and  unjust. 
These  ideas  found  much  favor,  both  in  France 
and  in  Switzerland;  but  in  the  latter  country 
they  also  met  with  a  very  decided  opposition. 
F.  Spanheim  wrote  against  Amyraut :  the  city 
of  Ziirich  called  her  sons  home  from  Saumur. 
and  sent  them  to  study  at  the  orthodox  Montau- 
ban.  In  1649  A.  Morus,  the  successor  of  Span- 
heim, but  suspected  of  belonging  to  the  liberal 
party,  was  compelled  by  the  magistrates  of  Gene- 
va to  subscribe  to  a  .series  of  articles,  in  the  form 
of  theses  and  antitheses,  the  first  germ  of  the 
Formula  Consensus.  As  the  movement  continued 
to  spread,  the  idea  naturally  occurred  to  stop  the 
further  invasion  of  such  novelties  by  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  formula  obligatory  to  all  teachers 
and  preachers.  After  considerable  discussion 
between  Gernler  of  Basel,  Hummel  of  Bern,  Ott 
of  Schaffhausen,  Heidegger  of  Zin-ich,  and  others, 
the  last-mentioned  was  charged  with  drawing  up 
the  formula.  In  the  beginning  of  1675  it  was 
laid  before  the  ministers  of  Ziirich ;  and  in  the 
course  of  the  year  it  was  adopted,  not  only  by 
Ziirich,  but  also  by  Basel,  St.  Gall,  Glarus,  Ap- 
penzell, Miihlhausen,  Neuenburg,  the  Grisons, 
etc.  It  consists  of  a  preface  and  twenty-six 
canons,  and  gives  a  clear  statement  of  the  differ- 
ence between  strict  Calvinism  and  the  school  of 
Saumur.  Though  a  product  of  the  reigning 
scholasticism,  and  hence  styled  a  ".symbolical 
afterbirth,"  it  is  by  no  means  so  exclusive  as 
might  be  suspected :  it  disapproves  the  ideas  of 
the  school  of  Saunutr,  but  does  not  directly  de- 
clare them  to  be  heretical.  Outside  of  Switzer- 
land it  never  acquired  authority;  and.  even  in 
Switzerland  itself,  it  gradually  dropped  out  of 
use  in  the  course  of  half  a  century.  In  1722 
Prussia  and  England  applied  to  the  respective 
magistracies  of  the  .Swiss  cantons  for  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  formula  for  the  sake  of  the  unity  and 
peace  of  the  Protestant  churches.  The  reply  was 
somewhat  evasive  ;  but,  though  the  formula  was 
never  formally  abolished,  it  gradually  fell  en- 
tirely into  disuse. 

Lit. — The  formula  was  first  printed  as  an 
appendix  to  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession  at 
Zurich  1714,  then  1718, 1722,  etc.,  and  in  Niemey- 
er:  Coll.  Conf,  pp.  729-739.  For  its  history 
see  Barnaud  :  Memoires  pour  servir  a  I'histoiri', 
etc.,  Amst.,  1726;  Sciiweizer  :  Die prol.  Central- 
dogmeu,  Ziirich,  1856  ;  [Schaff  :  Creeds  of  C/iri.i- 
lendom,  X.Y.,  1877,  vol.  i.  477,  where  the  lit.  is 
given  in  full.]  F.  TRECHSEL. 

HELVETIUS,  Claude  Adrien,b.  at  Paris.  Janu- 
ary, 1715;  d.  there  Dec.  26,  1771;  was  the  .son 
of"  a  farmer-general ;  a  farmer-general  himself,  a 
rich  man,  and  an  idler,  solely  occupied  with  the 
idea  of  making  a  sensation.     He  succeeded.     His 


HELVICUS. 


968 


HENDERSON. 


liook.  De  re'sprit  (Paris,  1758),  was  burnt  by  the 
hangman  of  Paris  on  the  instance  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  clergy,  translated  into  all  European  lan- 
guages, and  read  more  than  any  other  book  of 
its  time.  It  has  interest,  however,  only  as  hav- 
ing reached  the  nethermost  bottom  of  atheistic 
materialism,  the  point  where  stupidity  turns  into 
perversity.  The  Pagan  virtues  the  author  de- 
scribes as  conventionalities ;  the  Christian,  as 
vicious  faucies. 

HELVICUS,  Christoph,  b.  at  Sprendlingen, 
Hesse,  Dec.  26,  1581;  d.  at  Giessen,  Sept.  10, 
1617 ;  studied  at  Marburg ;  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Giessen  in  1605,  and  of 
theology  in  1610.  He  held  a  disputation  in 
Hebrew  with  the  rabbis  of  Francfort,  and  wrote 
Chronologice  Systema  Xooum,  1610,  which  was 
translated  into  English. 

HELVIOIUS,  a  layman,  living  in  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Bishop  Damasns,  366-384 ;  published 
about  380  a  book  against  the  spreading  Mariola- 
try  and  the  ascetic  over-estimation  of  the  celibacy. 
Jerome  wrote  against  him  Adoersus  Hehhliuni 
(comp.  his  letters  to  Pammaohius,  to  Eustochi- 
um,  and  Contra  Jurin.,  I.  495),  but  iu  an  excited 
tone,  and  with  forced  sophistical  argumentation. 
Gennadius,  who  recognizes  bis  piety  and  good 
intention,  but  criticises  his  lack  of  erudition, 
states  that  Ilelvidius  was  a  pupil  of  the  Arian 
Auxentius  from  ^lilan,  and  an  imitator  of  the 
Pagan  rhetor  Symmachus.  Of  his  book  nothing 
is  left  but  quotations  in  Jerome. 

H^LYOT,  Pierre,  b.  in  Paris,  1660;  entered 
tlic  third  Franciscan  order  (16^3)  in  the  convent 
of  Picpus,  Paris,  under  the  name  of  Pire  Hippo- 
lijle,  and  d.  there  Jan.  5,  1716.  He  immortalized 
himself  by  writing  a  Histoire  ties  orctres  monas- 
liques,  retiyicux,  el  miUlairea,  et  des  congn'ijations 
s^culieres  de  I'utj  et  de  I'autre  sexe,  Paris,  1714-19, 
8  vols.  The  idea  of  the  work  occurred  to  him 
while  in  Rome  on  business  of  his  order.  In  its 
composition  he  was  assisted  by  such  eminent 
scliolars  as  Hardouin,  Mabillou,  and  Ruinart: 
tlie  last  three  volumes  were  edited  by  ^hiximilien 
Bullot.  This  great  work  has  been  repeatedly 
reprinted,  notably  with  large  additions,  as  part 
of  Migne's  Encyclopt'die  tlic'otoi/ique,  iu  5  vols., 
Paris.  1817. 

HE'NIAN.     See  Psalms. 

HEMMERLIN,  Felix,  b.  at  Ziirich,  1389;  d.  in 
th(!  diniL;eou  of  llie  Franciscan  monastery  at  Lu- 
cerne, 1157;  studied  at  Bologna;  was  present  at 
the  Council  of  Constance;  visited  Rome,  and 
was  appointed  provost  of  St.  Ursus  at  Soleure 
1121,  and  cantor  at  the  cathedral  of  Zurich  1 127. 
He  was  a  bright  and  learned  man;  and  his 
writings,  numbering  thirty-nine,  most  of  wliich, 
however,  are  only  pamphlets,  give  a  very  vivid 
picture  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  in  his  time.  But 
he  was  a  critic  only,  not  a  reformer,  and  his  criti- 
cism made  liim  many  enemies.  By  his  De 
niilidilate  he  became  mixed  up  with  politics,  was 
imprisoned  (1154),  and  never  ]-eleased.  He  is 
not,  liowever,  to  be  cla.ssed  among  the  martyrs  to 
the  cau.se  of  the  Ri^t'ormation.  See  B.  Rkhkr  : 
Felir  Hcmmerlin.  Zurich,  1846.  OliDKK. 

HEMMINCSEN,  Niels  (Nicholaus  Hemmin- 
gius),  l>.  ill  the  Dullish  island  of  l.ojlaiid,  1513; 
n.  at  llelsiiigore,  1600;  studied  at  Wittenberg, 
and  was  appointed  iirofessorof  theology  iu  Copen- 


hagen, but  was  dismissed  in  1579,  on  suspicion 
of  Crypto-Calvinism.  His  works,  Opuseula  (Ge- 
neva, 1583),  have  of  late  attracted  considerable 
attention  both  in  Denmark  and  Germany,  espe- 
cially his  book  against  J.  Andrea:,  on  the  doc- 
trine of  ubiquity,  not  published  until  after  his 
death,  1615. 

HENDERSON,  Alexander,  b.  in  the  parish  of 
Creich,  Fifeshire,  in  1583 ;  d.  in  Edinburgh,  Aug. 
19,  1646.  He  entered  St.  Salvator's  College,  St. 
Andrew's,  iu  December,  1599,  and  took  the  degree 
of  M.A.  in  1603.  He  taught  philosophy  in  St. 
Andrew's  University  till  early  in  1612,  when  he 
was  presented  to  the  church  of  Leuchars.  So 
unpopular  was  his  settlement  there,  that  the  peo- 
ple fastened  the  church-doors  on  the  day  of  his 
ordination,  aud  he  had  literally  to  enter  by  the 
wndow.  A  year  or  two  afterwards  he  went, 
perhaps  out  of  curiosity,  to  hear  Robert  Bruce 
preach  in  the  adjoining  parish  of  Forgan.  In 
order  to  be  hid,  he  sat  in  a  dark  corner  of  the 
church ;  and  there  the  sharp  arrows  of  the  King 
pierced  his  heart  as  Bruce  read  for  his  text, 
"  Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you.  He  that  entereth 
not  by  the  door  into  the  sheepfold,  but  climbeth 
up  some  other  way,  the  same  is  a  thief  and  a 
robber."  Soon  after  this  lie  gave  up  Episcopacy 
for  Presbytery,  and  in  1618  opposed  "  the  five 
articles  "  in  I'erth  Assembly.  JCext  year  he  was 
summoned,  witli  other  two  ministers,  before  the 
High  Commission ;  but  they  answered  for  them- 
selves so  wisely,  that  they  were  dismissed  with 
threatenings.  He  seems  to  have  spent  the  next 
eighteen  years  in  Leuchars  in  comparative  peace, 
storing  his  mind  with  useful  knowledge,  doing 
good  work  among  his  people,  and  educating  young 
men  boarding  with  him.  Many  of  those  in  the 
neighborhood  who  loved  "  the  good  old  way " 
resorted  to  liis  ministry ;  and  the  Presbyterial 
meetings  he  attended  were  precious  and  refresh- 
ing, and  helped  to  unite  the  faithful  ministers. 
He  bought  a  house  and  some  land,  which,  with  a 
thousand  pounds  scots,  he  gave  as  an  educatibnal 
endowment  to  the  parish.  To  the  scliool  of  his 
native  parish  he  bequeathed  two  thousand  nierks. 

Instigated  by  Laud,  Charles  I.  sent  down  to 
Scotland  in  1636  a  book  of  ecclesiastical  canons 
and  a  book  of  ordination,  wliich  were  followed 
by  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  for  the  Church 
of  Scotland.  The  arbitrary  numner  in  which  it 
was  sought  to  impose  the.se  on  the  Scottish  Churcli 
was  peniaps  even  more  offensive  than  their  mat- 
ter. JMost  of  the  bisliops  raised  letters  of  horning, 
charging  the  ministers  in  their  diocese  to  buy  two 
copies  of  the  Book  of  Coiiiiiion  Prayer  for  the 
use  of  their  parishes  within  fifteen  days;  but  the 
ministers  sui>plicated  the  Privy  Council  to  sus- 
pend the  charge.  Hender.son's  petition  was  much 
esteemed  by  the  jicople.  Soon  the  body  of  the 
nation  was  embarked  in  the  cause  ;  and  four  com- 
mittees were  appointed  to  represent  the  noble- 
men, gentlemen,  burges.ses,  and  ministers.  These 
committees,  eacli  of  which  contained  four  mem- 
l>ers,  were  called  "  Tlu;  Tables,"  and  met  in  the 
Parliament  House.  On  their  meetings  being  pro- 
hibited by  royal  proclamation,  they  resolved  to 
rt'iiew  the  National  Covenant.  Hendcr.son  wrote 
the  bond,  a<lapliiig  it  to  the  time;  and  \Narriston 
prejiared  tlie  portion  known  as"tlie  legal  war- 
rant."    On  tlie  2Sth  of   February,  1638,  it  was 


HENDERSON. 


969 


HENDERSON. 


sworn  and  s\ibscribed  by  thousands  in  the  Grey- 
friars  Chvircli  and  Churchyard,  Edinburgh.  This 
was  a  day,  as  Henderson  said,  in  whicli  the  people 
offered  tJieniselves  in  nndtitudes  to  tlie  service  of 
Heaven,  like  the  dewdropsin  the  morning,  wherein 
the  arm  of  the  I^ord  was  revealed,  and  the  princes 
of  the  people  assembled  to  swear  allegiance  to  the 
King  of  kings.  Copies  were  circulated  tlirough 
the  country;  and  almost  everywhere  it  was  sworn 
with  zeal  and  alacrity  by  all  ranks  and  classes. 
All  the  shires  subscribed  by  their  commissioners, 
and  all  the  towns  but  Aberdeen,  St.  Andrew's,  and 
Crail.  Henderson  preached  at  St.  Andrew's,  and 
gained  it,  not  a  burgess  refusing  to  sign,  though 
no  threaten  ings  were  used,  except  of  the  deserved 
judgment  of  God,  nor  force,  except  the  force  of 
reason.  Henderson,  Dickson,  and  Cant  were  sent 
to  the  north,  and  preached  to  great  crowds  in  the 
open  air  at  Aberdeen,  securing  several  hundreds 
of  subscriptions.  But  with  the  doctors  of  divinity 
they  had  only  a  fruitless  controversy.  The  king 
had  to  call  a  General  Assembly  and  Parliament  to 
consider  the  national  grievances.  Henderson  was 
imanimously  chosen  moderator  of  the  former, 
which  met  on  the  21st  of  November,  1638,  in  the 
High  Church  or  Cathedral  of  Glasgow.  Though 
the  royal  commissioner  dissolved  it  in  the  kino's 
name,  it  continued  its  sittings,  condenmed  the 
spurious  assemblies  from  1606  to  1618,  as  well  as 
the  Service  Book,  exconmiunicated  eight  of  the 
bishops,  deposed  the  other  six,  and  prohibited 
episcopacy  and  the  articles  of  Perth.  Despite 
his  arduous  duties  by  day,  Henderson  .spent  tlie 
greater  part  of  the  night  in  prayer  and  conference. 
At  its  close,  on  the  '20th  of  December,  he  said, 
"  We  have  now  cast  down  the  walls  of  Jericho : 
let  him  that  rebuildeth  them  beware  of  the  curse 
of  Hiel  the  Bethelite."  Though  anxious  to  remain 
in  Leuchars,  Henderson  was  translated  by  this 
assembly  to  Edinburgh,  and  was  inducted  into 
the  Greyfriars  Church  on  the  10th  of  January, 
1639. 

The  Remonstrance  of  the  Nobility,  etc.,  which 
Henderson  drafted,  strongly  impressed  the  Eng- 
lish with  the  justice  of  the  covenanted  cause. 
He  accompanied  the  Scotch  army  to  Dtinse  Law, 
and  took  part  in  the  treaty  at  Birks  in  June 
1639.  Next  year  he  was  apjxiinted  rector  of 
Edinburgh  University.  On  the  king  refusing  to 
carry  out  the  stipulations  of  the  pacification,  de- 
nouncing the  Covenanters  as  rebels,  and  preparing 
again  to  invade  the  country,  the  Scotch  army 
entered  England  in  August,  1640,  and  the  king 
was  fain  to  treat  a  second  time.  For  this  treaty 
Henderson  was  appointed  a  commissioner.  While 
in  London,  he  WTote  several  pamphlets,  held  ser- 
vice according  to  the  Scottish  form,  and  preached 
in  St.  Antholine's  Church  to  crowded  audiences, 
and  heartily  concurred  with  William  Castell's 
petition  to  the  English  Parliament  for  propagat- 
ing the  gospel  in  America  as  "  most  pious.  Chris- 
tian, and  charitable."  Toward  the  end  of  July, 
1641,  he  returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  was  chosen 
moderator  of  the  assembly  then  sitting.  The 
king  having  come  to  Scotland  to  preside  in  Par- 
liament, Henderson  was  appointed  royal  chaplain, 
and  dean  of  the  Chapel  Royal.  By  his  exertions 
the  revenues  of  the  bishopric  of  Edinburgh  were 
secured  for  tlie  university  of  that  city,  and  proba- 
bly he  helped  to  secure  for  the  university  of  St. 


Andrew's  a  grant  of  a  thousand  pounds  per  annum 
from  the  revenues  of  the  archbishopric.  In  Jan- 
uary, 1()12,  lie  was  translated  to  the  East  Kirk, 
and  the  same  year  gave  "willingly  and  of  his  own 
accord  a  thousand  pounds  scots  for  pcrfecling  the 
house  appointed  for  thc^  library"  of  St.  Andrew's 
university.  As  he  was  anxious  to  reconcile  the 
king  and  the  English  Parliament,  he  was  sent 
with  the  Scotch  commissioners  to  Oxford.  There 
he  perceived  that  there  was  no  hope  of  accommo- 
dation consistent  with  the  liberties  of  I'^ngland. 
On  his  return  he  had  a  conference  with  Montrose, 
and,  seeing  that  he  was  determined  to  support  the 
king,  cautioned  his  friends  against  him.  He  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  in  1643,  when 
commissioners  were  present  from  the  English 
Parliament ;  and  he  drafted  the  .Solemn  Leagiie 
and  Covenant,  which  was  cordially  adopted  by  the 
Assembly  and  Convention  of  Estates.  The  as- 
.sembly  renewed  the  commission's  appointment  of 
members  to  assist  at  the  AVestminster  Assembly. 
Hender.son  accordingly  sailed  from  Leith  for  Lon- 
don on  the  30th  of  August.  He  addressed  the 
English  House  of  Commons  and  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  when  met  in  St.  ^largaret's  Church  to 
swear  the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  on  the 
25th  of  September.  He  was  of  great  service  in 
Westminster  Assembly,  and  often  took  a  leading 
part  in  its  debates.  Early  in  1645  he  was  ap- 
pointed to  assist  the  commissioners  of  both  Par- 
liaments in  their  treaty  with  the  king  at  Uxbridge. 
On  this  treaty  being  broken  off  without  success, 
he  returned  to  his. duties  at  Westminster,  though 
his  health  was  now  failing  him. 

In  the  spring  of  1646  the  king  threw  himself 
into  the  Scottish  army,  who  retired  with  him  to 
Newcastle.  The  Independents  were  now  supreme 
in  the  English  army,  which  had  crushed  his  forces ; 
and  his  only  hope  lay  in  speedily  coming  to  terms 
with  the  Presbyterians.  He  sent  for  Henderson 
as  the  fittest  man  to  remove  the  difficulties  of  his 
mind.  Though  unfit  for  the  journey,  he  complied, 
and  reached  Newcastle  in  May.  But  he  soon 
found  that  there  was  little  hope  of  Charles  agree- 
ing to  abolish  prelacy  in  England.  It  was  ar- 
ranged that  the  conscientious  scruples  of  Charles 
should  be  discussed  in  a  series  of  papers  between 
him  and  Henderson.  Of  these  there  are  eight, 
five  being  by  the  king.  Henderson  prepared 
four ;  but,  perhaps  to  let  the  king  have  the  last 
word,  only  three  have  been  printed.  The  object 
of  Charles  seems  to  have  been  to  gain  time ;  and, 
as  the  discussion  lasted  fully  six  weeks,  he  was  not 
altogether  unsuccessful.  As  Henderson's  health 
had  grown  much  worse,  he  returned  to  Scotland, 
arriving  in  Edinburgh  on  the  11th  of  August,  sick 
and  exhausted.  To  Sir  James  Stewart,  provost 
of  Edinburgh,  he  said.  "  I  am  near  the  end  of  my 
race:  in  a  few  days  I  am  going  home,  and  I  am 
as  glad  of  it  as  a  schoolboy  when  sent  home  from 
the  .school  to  his  father's  house."  Eight  days  after 
his  arrival  he  entered  into  his  rest.  When  dying, 
he  opened  his  eyes,  and  looked  up  with  a  pleasant 
smile.  The  company  were  amazed,  for  his  eyes 
shone  and  sparkled  like  stars;  and  immediatelj' 
he  expired.  He  was  undoubtedly,  after  Knox, 
the  greatest  of  Scottish  ecclesiastics,  and  has  been 
held  in  universal  honor  for  his  tact,  statesman- 
ship, and  patriotism,  as  well  a-s  for  his  attachment 
to  the  faith  and  polity  of  the  Reformed  Church. 


HENDERSON. 


970 


HENGSTBNBERG. 


Lit.  —  Life,  in  JI'Crie's  Miscellaneous  Wrilin(/s, 
and  Life  and  Times  by  AiTOX,  Edin.,  8vo,  1836. 
Alost  of  the  principal  public  papers  of  the  Pres- 
Viyterians  from  1637  to  1646  were  drafted  or  pol- 
ished by  Henderson.  In  1641  he  published  The 
Order  and  Government  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
4to,  preface  of  5  leaves,  and  68  pp.  The  Platforme 
of  the  Presbyterian  Government,  published  by  author- 
ity in  1644,  is  substantiallj"  the  .same  without  the 
preface.  He  seems  to  have  published  a  pamjililet 
against  Episcopacy  and  another  against  Independ- 
ency. Several  of  his  sermons  have  been  printed 
separately  ;  and  a  volume  of  Sermons,  Prayers,  and 
Pulpit  Addresses,  from  the  notes  of  a  hearer,  was 
issued  in  1867,  Svo,  529  pp.  His  speech  before 
the  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  was  sworn  at 
"\\'estminster  is  in  the  Appendix  to  Reid'S  J/emo/r.s- 
of  the  Westminster  Divines.  The  papers  which 
passed  between  him  and  the  king  are  in  Aiton's 
.\ppendix,  and  are  printed  with  Charles's  Works. 
D.   HAY  FLEMING  (of  St.  Andrew's,  Scotland). 

HENDERSON,  Ebenezer,  D.D.,  b.  Nov.  17, 
17>-4;  d.  May  lii,  lS.'i8:  an  eminent  linguist  and 
biblical  scholar,  and  a  devoted  Christian  niLssion- 
ary,  whose  labors  in  this  capacity  were  carried  on 
cliiefly  in  connection  with  the  British  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society.  He  was  the  son  of  humble 
parents ;  and  his  birth  took  place,  as  his  youth 
was  passed,  in  the  landward  part  of  the  parish 
of  Dunferndme,  in  Fifeshh-e,  Scotland,  where, 
owing  to  distance  from  schools,  he  had  few  edu- 
cational advantages:  most  of  his  scholarship, 
■which,  besides  the  classical  languages,  is  said  to 
have  included  Hebrew,  SjTiac,  Ethiopic,  Russian, 
Arabic,  Tartar,  Persian,  Turkish,  Armenian, 
IManchoo.  ;\IongoIian,  and  Coptic,  having  been 
acquired  in  the  midst  of  the  engrossing  duties  of 
a  singularly  active  professional  life.  He  was 
origiiuilly  intended  for  a  mechanical  trade,  and 
apprenticed  to  a  watchmaker ;  but  more  suitable 
prospects  opened  up  for  him.  Though  his  par- 
ents were  members  of  tlie  Scottisli  Secession 
Church,  which  had  indeed  found  its  birtliplace 
in  tlie  immediate  neighborhood  of  his  luxtive 
IJarish,  it  was  not  in  connection  w  ith  that  dissent- 
ing bodj-.  but  with  the  communion  which  num- 
bered among  its  members  James  and  Robert 
Haldane,  —  names  well  known  in  the  religious 
annals  of  Scotland  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  nine- 
teenth century,  —  that  3'oung  Henderson  received 
tho.se  decided  religious  impressions  which  led  to 
his  choice  of  tlie  ministry  as  a  profession;  and 
it  was  in  the  seminary  in  Edinburgh,  instituted 
and  supported  by  one  of  these  brothers,  that  lie 
received  his  theological  training.  The  cour.se 
extendeil  over  only  two  years,  and  ajipears  to 
liave  been  every  way  iiuidi'(|iiati'.  Before  he  had 
<'i)m])lete(l  his  studies  at  this  theological  .seminary, 
liis  future  work  was  determined;  and  in  Ihe  year 
li06  lie  left  Scotland  in  company  with  the  licv. 
John  I'atterson,  with  wliom  he  continued  to  be 
associated  in  missionary  hibor  and  in  friendsliip 
for  a  great  part  of  liis  life.  His  original  destina- 
tion was  the  East  Indies;  but  ditlicnlties  con- 
nettled  with  the  then  existing  jiolity  of  l\u-  East 
India  Company  leil  Mr.  Henderson,  wlio  witli 
liis  colleague  .Mr.  Patterson  had  gone  to  Den- 
mark witli  the  view  of  a  i>a.ssage  to  India  in  a 
Dani.sh  shi]>,  to  alter  liis  ]ilaiis,  ami  confiiie  his 
future  labors  to  the  nortliein  countries  of  Europe, 


including  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  portions  of  the 
Empire  of  Russia.  Iceland  and  Finland,  where, 
for  various  reasons,  Christianity,  or  at  all  events 
the  Bible,  had  almost  ceased  to  exist,  especially 
engaged  his  attention.  His  linguistic  powers 
were  of  great  use  to  hmi  in  his  work,  both  in 
the  publication  of  new  versions  of  the  Bible,  and 
also  in  preaching  the  gospel  among  men  whose 
languages  were  scarcely  known,  even  by  name, 
outside  their  own  territories. 

Mr.  Henderson  was  led,  chiefly  by  family  rea- 
sons, to  return  to  England  in  the  year  1823,  fi'om 
wliich  time  he  exchanged  directly  missionary 
labor  for  the  not  less  important  duty  of  trainmg 
missionaries  for  the  same  work  in  which  he  had 
himself  so  long  engaged,  and  in  which  be  never 
ceased  to  take  a  lively  interest.  Thirty  years  of 
usefulness  in  academical  labor  at  home  followed 
his  twenty  years  of  foreign  service.  His  first 
home  employment  was  the  theological  tutorship 
in  the  seminary  for  the  training  of  missionaries 
at  Iloxton,  which  he  held  for  five  years  with 
much  acceptance.  In  1830  he  was  appointed  to 
the  theological  lectureship  at  Highbury.  In  1850 
he  practically  retired  from  public  life,  though 
still  discharging  occasional  duties  in  connection 
with  his  profession  as  a  minister  of  the  gospel, 
till  his  powers  failed  him,  and  the  end  came.  Li 
adtlition  to  a  number  of  popular  reprmts  which 
appeared  under  his  editorship,  the  works  of  Mr. 
Henderson  (who  in  1840  had  received  the  degree 
of  D.D.  from  the  University  of  Copenhagen) 
comprise  the  following :  Translation  of  Jioos  on 
the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,  Edin.,  1811  ;  Tivo  Disser- 
tations on  Hans  jMih'kelsen's  (Danish)  Translation 
of  the  Neiv  Testament,  Copenhagen,  1813;  Iceland, 
or  the  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  that  Isle  in  18H, 
1815,  Edin.,  1818;  Biblical  Researches,  and  Travels 
ill  Russia,  Loud.,  1826;  The  Great  Mystery  of 
Godliness,  1813;  An  Appeal  to  the  Members  of  the 
liritish  and  Foreii/n  Bible  Society,  1824 ;  The  Turk- 
ish Neiv  Testament  Incapable  of  Defence,  1825; 
Divine  Inspiration,  1836 ;  Translation  of  Isaiah, 
with  Commentary,  1840;  Translation  of  Kzekiel, 
1855;  Translation  of  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations, 
1851 ;  and  Translations  of  Minor  Prophets,  1858. 
.See  Memoir  of  Rev.  K.  Henderson,  D.D..  by  T.  S. 
Hkndkkson.'LcikI..  185ii.  \vii,i.ia.m  "lek. 

HENGSTENBERG,  Ernst  Willielm,  a  dkstin- 
guished  (iernuin  tlieologian  ;  b.  Oct.  20.  1802,  at 
Frtindenberg,  where  his  father  was  pastor  of  the 
Young  Ladies'  Institute;  tl.  in  Berlin,  May  28, 
186i).  He  was  of  delicate  constitution,  and 
educated  in  his  father's  house  till  ISlit,  when  he 
enteretl  the  University  of  Bonn.  He  there  de- 
votetl  himself  more  jiarticularly  to  the  study  of 
.■\rislotle  under  Brandis,  and  Arabic  under  Frey- 
tag.  Fruits  of  these  studies  were  tin  edition  of 
the  Anibic  Motillakah  of  AmruT  Kais  (.[mrulkesi 
Miiallaiiih  ruin  .schotiis.  etc.),  Bonn,  1823.  which 
won  the  prize  in  philo.sophy,  and  a  (ierman 
translation  of  Aristotle's  Mita/diysivs.  Bonn.  1824. 
Lack  of  means  preventing  him  from  carrying  out 
a  desire  to  sit  under  Neander  and  Tholuck.  he 
went  to  Basel  in  the  capacity  of  tutor  to  J.  J. 
Stiiheliii,  afterwards  professor  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  the  University  of  li.asel.  Tht?  death 
of  his  mother,  and  the  comfort  which  he  received 
from  the  Scripture  in  his  bodily  sufferings  tiud 
mental  gloom,  awoke    in  him  u  strong  taitli  in 


HENGSTENBERG. 


971 


HBNKE. 


the  gospel,  and  <leteniiiiiecl  him  to  study  tlie- 
ology,  an  intention  wliich  lie  once  had  had,  bnt 
subsequently,  at  least  in  part,  lelinquislied.  He 
belonged  to  the  Reformed  Church  ;  but,  finding 
in  the  Augsburg  Confession  the  best  expression 
of  his  own  views,  he  united  with  the  Lutheran 
Church. 

In  1824  he  was  teaching  as  prnml-dncfuf  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  From  the  very  start  he 
advocated  the  truth  of  the  Old  and  I>few  Testa- 
ments, and  entered  a  protest  against  rationalism, 
<!specially  in  its  attitude  toward  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. These  views  brought  hiiu  into  disfavor 
with  the  ministry  of  worship,  which  endeavored, 
but  in  vain,  to  tempt  him  away  from  Hei-lin  with 
offers  of  extraordinari/  professorships  at  Kbnigs- 
berg  (1826)  and  Bonn  (1828).  In  1828  he  be- 
I  came  ordinary  professor  in  Berlin  ;  and  his  influ- 
ence for  nearly  half  a  century  over  his  students, 
I  as  teacher  and  adviser,  was  exceeded  only  by 
I  that  of  Tholuck.  He  was  married  in  1829,  and 
J  his  home  life  was  very  •  pleasant;  but  all  his 
children  and  his  wife  preceded  him  to  the  grave. 
In  1827  Hengstenberg  became  editor  of  the 
EvanoeUsche  Kirchen-Z eitung  ("Evang.  Church 
JournaP'),  through  which  he  perhaps  exerted  even 
a  greater  influence  upon  the  theology  and  reli- 
gious opinion  of  the  age  than  through  his  critical 
and  exegetical  works.  The  plan  of  this  journal 
was  conceived  by  Le  Coq,  who  communicated  it 
to  the  brothers  Von  Gerlach.  They  selected 
Hengstenberg  for  editor;  and  for  forty-two  years 
he  continued  to  edit  the  paper  in  the  interest  of 
evangelical  truth,  with  fearless  daring,  and  un- 
daunted by  the  attacks  of  critics.  Hardly  a  man 
of  the  century  has  been  the  object  of  so  much 
bitter  opposition  and  vituperation  as  he.  He 
was  accused  of  pietism,  dead  orthodoxy,  fanati- 
cisra,  Jesuitism,  on  the  one  hancIT^nd  of  dema- 
gogism  and  servility  to  the  State  on  the  other. 
1  The  main  foe  against  which  the  paper  contended 
/was  rationalism,  "the  born  and  sworn  enemj' of 
I  Christ  and  his  Church."  Without  fear  it  con- 
demned it  as  the  "  theology  of  the  natural  man," 
and  held  np  its  teachings  and  legitimate  conse- 
quences before  the  people.  One  instance  was 
its  sharp  and  unsparing  participation  in  the 
agitation  for  the  removal  of  ^N'egscheider  and 
(iesenius,  professors  in  Halle,  and  rationalists, 
in  1830.  "  God's  Word  and  the  Confession  of 
the  Church"  was  its  motto;  and  evei'y  real  or 
supposed  principle  subversive  thereof  was  con- 
demned. 

No  less  prominently  did  Hengstenberg  stand 
forth  as  the  champion  of  evangelical  Christianity 
and  as  the  opponent  of  rationalism  in  his  critical 
and  exegetical  works.  Of  these  the  first  was 
.0.  C/irisloiogie  d.  A.  T.  (•'  Christologv  of  the  Old 
Testament"),  3  vols.,  1829-35,  2d  ed.,  1854-57 
(English  translation  by  Keith,  1835-39,  and  in 
Clarke's  For.  Theol.  Lib.,  1854-58).  In  this 
work  the  author  proposes  "  to  restore  to  the  Old 
Testament  its  ancient  and  well  established 
rights ; "  and  according  to  Delitzsch  he  is  ac- 
knowledged to  have  been  "the  one  who  again 
for  the  first  time,  and  with  a  truly  heroic  enthu- 
siasm of  faith,  uttered  the  word  of  the  Lord  over 
the  Old  Testament,  which  had  been  cut  up  into 
parts  by  a  despiritualizing  rationalism  and  a 
critical    school    bent   on   destruction,  and  vindi- 


cated for  the  Old  Testament  an  exegesis  fron' 
tlie  Church's  .stand-point,  without  den3'ing  a 
real  ]irogress  under  divine  leadership."  Al- 
though he  did  not  distinguish  sharply  enough 
between  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  and 
often  carried  spiritualizing  too  far,  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  as  Kahnis  has  said,  that  the  work 
contributed  largely  to  revive  the  recognition  of 
the  divine  revelation  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Hengstenberg's  next  most  important  exegetical 
work  was  his  Cummeiilrin/  nn  llie  fxidiiix,  4  vols., 
184-2-47,  2d  ed.,  1840-52  (English  translation, 
Edinburgh,  1844-48).  [n  this  department  he 
also  published  Gexch.  miiams  n.  s.  Weis.iai/iutgcn 
("  History  of  Balaam  and  his  Prophecies,"  Edin- 
burgh, 1848),  Berlin,  1842;  D.  Ilohelied  Salomonit 
("Song  of  Songs"),  Berlin,  1855;  D.  l>redif/er 
Snlomo  ("  Ecolesiastes,"  English  translation, 
Philadelphia,  1860),  Berlin,  1859  ;  Weissaijtmr/cn 
d.  P.  Ezfc/iiel.  ("  Ezekiel  "),  2  parts,  Berlin,  1867, 
1868;  D.  Buck  Hiob  ("Job"),  Berlin  and  Leipzig, 
2  parts,  1870-75;  Offenh.  /oAann/.s  ("  Revelation  ") 
2  vols.,  1849-51,  "2d  ed.,  1862;  Eoang.  Juh. 
("Gospel  of  John"),  3  vols.,  1861-63,  2d  ed., 
1867;  Vnr/e.itingen  ii.  d.  Leidevr/esclt.  ("Lectures 
on  the  Passion  "),  Leipzig,  1875  His  historico- 
critical  works  are  Beilnifje  z.  Einl.  ins  A.  T. 
("  Contributions  to  the  Introduction  of  the  Old 
Testament,"  English  translation,  Edinburgh, 
1847,  1848),  3  vols.,  Berlhi,  1831-39,  in  which  he 
vindicates  the  Messianic  character  of  Daniel's 
and  Zechariah's  prophecies,  and  the  authenticity 
of  the  Pentateuch:  Gesch.  d.  Rciches  Gotles  u.  d. 
A.  B.  ("  Historv  of  the  Kingdom  of  God  under 
the  Old  Covenant"),  Berlin, "1869-7 1 ;  D.  Bilcher 
Moses  II.  Aegiipten  ("  The  Books  of  Moses  and 
Egypt"),  Berlin,  1841,  which  Diestel  calls  his 
most  meritorious  work.  He  also  published  a 
number  of  smaller  treatises  {Freemasonrjj,  1854; 
Duelling,  1856,  etc.),  some  of  which  had  before 
appeared  in  the  Church  Journal.  See  Bach- 
iUANN  :  Henqstetdierg  n.  s.  Leben  u.  Wirksii,  2 
vols..  Giitersioh.  1876-79.  BACHM.\ls^N. 

HENHOFER,  Aloys,  b.  at  Vblkersbach,  Baden, 
July  11,  1789;  d.  at  Spock,  near  Carlsruhe,  Dec. 
5,  1862  ;  was  educated  in  the  school  of  Rashatt; 
studied  in  the  university  of  Freiburg  and  the 
seminary  of  Meer.sburg;  received  the  lower  orders 
by  Dalberg,  the  higher  by  Hohenlohe ;  and  was 
appointed" pastor  at  iliihlhausen  in  1818.  Sus- 
pected of  heresy,  he  was  tried,  convicted,  and  ex- 
communicated from  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
in  1822 :  but  the  larger  part  of  his  congregation 
entered  with  him  the  evangelical  church  ;  and  in 
1823  he  was  appointed  minister  at  Spdck,  where 
he  labored  for  the  rest  of  his  life  with  great 
effect.  Of  his  numerous  works,  polemical  against 
Romanism  and  rationalism,  the  principal  are 
Christliches  Glmtbenbel.-ennlnis.t  and  Der  Kamp/des 
Unqtcuibens  mit  Aherglauben  und  Glauhen.  His 
life' was  written  by  K.'  F.  Ledderhose  (Heidelberg, 
1863)  and  by  E.  Frommel  (Karlsruhe,  1865). 

HENKE,  Heinrich  Philipp  Konrad,b. at  Ilehlen 
in  Brunswick,  July  3,  1752;  d.  at  Helmstadt, 
May  2,  1809 ;  studied  at  Helmstiidt ;  and  was 
appointed  professor  there  in  philosophy  (1777) 
and  in  theology  (1780).  He  wa.s  a  pupil  and 
representative  of  the  rationalism  of  his  time;  and 
even  his  best  work  (^Allgemeine  Geschichte  der 
christlichen  Kirche,  Brunswick,  1799-1808,  6  vols.) 


HENOTIKON. 


972 


HENRY  IV. 


'uis  lo^st  its  interest.  Ilis  life  was  written  by 
BoHraanii  and  Wolff,  Helmstadt,  1816.  —  His  son, 
Ernst  Ludwig  Theodor  Henke,  b.  at  Helmstadt, 
Feb.  •22.  ISOi;  d.  at  Marburg,  Dec.  1,  1872;  stud- 
ied at  Gdttingen  and  Jena;  was  professor  of  the- 
ology at  ^larbm-g  from  1839  to  his  death  :  wrote 
Georg  Calixlus  und  seine  Zeit,  Halle,  1853-60, 
2  vols.,  and  published,  together  with  Linden- 
kohl,  the  first  complete  edition  of  Abelard's  Sic 
el  Non,  Marburg,  1851.  His  Neuere  Kirchcnge- 
schichle  (1874,  1878,  and  1880,  3  vols.)  and  Nach- 
gelasxene  Vorlesungen  iiher  Liturgie  u.  Homilelik 
(1876)  were  published  in  Halle.  See  Mangold  : 
Ernst  Ludirig  Henke,  Marburg,  1879.   MAXGOLD. 

HENOTIKON,  The,  a  "decree  of  union"  or 
"instrument  of  union,"  probably  drawn  up  by 
Acacius,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  issued 
by  the  Emperor  Zeno  (482),  for  the  purpose  of 
reconciling  the  Monophysite  and  Orthodox  divis- 
ions of  the  Church.  Xeither  party  was  satisfied 
■with  it,  however.  The  Mouophysites  demanded 
a  more  explicit  condemnation  of  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon,  while  the  Orthodox  were  scandalized 
at  the  least  shadow  of  disparagement.  In  the 
East,  however,  the  Henotikon  was  made  obliga- 
tory on  all  bishops  and  teachers.  In  the  West  it 
was  anathematized  by  Felix  II.,  and  a  schism  of 
forty  years  followed,  until  the  death  of  Anasta- 
sius  (518) ;  his  successor,  Justin,  belonging  to  the 
Orthodox  side,  and  suffering  the  Henotikon  to 
fall  into  disuse  without  formally  repealing  it. 

HENRY  OF  CLUGNY.  See  Henuy  of  Lau- 
sanne. 

HENRY  OF  GHENT  (Henricus  de  Gandavo), 
b.  at  Muyden,  a  .suburb  of  Ghent,  1217  ;  d.  as 
archdeacon  of  Tournay,  June  29,  1293;  was  a 
pupil  of  Albertus  Magnus;  taught  philosophy 
and  theology  in  Paris;  obtained  the  surname  of 
doctor  solemnis,  but  formed  no  school,  as  he  fol- 
lowed Plato  in  a  time  completely  ruled  by  Aris- 
totle. His  principal  works  are  Siunma  i/unstionum 
ordinariarum  and  Quodlibeta  (heologica,  a  commen- 
tary on  the  mctapliysics  of  Aristotle.  See  K. 
Wkrnkk:  Heinrich  von  Gent  (ds  Reprdsentanl  dcs 
rhris'lichen  Platonismus  im  IS.  .luhrliunderte,  Hcrlin, 
ISTS  (1.  I'l.rr-]'. 

HENRY  OF  GORCUM  (Henricus  Gorcomius), 
b.  at  Gurcum,  Holland,  iu  the  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth  century  ;  was  vice-chancellor  of  Cologne; 
and  wrote  Dc  ceremoniis  ccclesia.tlicis,  Commenta- 
ries on  Aristotle,  Thomas  .■\(iuinas,  etc.,  besides 
several  works  ( Contra  //«.<.v(7(/.v,  etc.)  which  still 
remain  in  manuscript. 

HENRY  OF  HUNTINGDON,  canon  of  Lincoln, 
afterwards  archdeacon  of  Huntingdon,  wrote  in 
the  middle  of  tin'  twelfth  century  a  Ilislorin  Anglo- 
rum,  from  Caesar  to  115),  jirinteil  in  Savile's  Scrip- 
tores  post  Bedam.  London,  159(i,  and  translated 
into  English  by  T.  Forester,  London,  1583.  In 
D'.Vchery,  Spicdt-gium,  is  found  a  Liliellus  de  con- 
tcnitii  irntndi.  Kv  him. 

HENRY  OF    KETTENBACH.      See    Kktten- 

Il.M   II. 

HENRY  OF  LANGENSTEIN  (Henricus  de 
Hassia),  l>.  in  Hesse,  1325;  d.  in  Vienna,  1397: 
studied  in  Paris,  wliere  lie  afterwards  taught 
philosojihy,  tiuHilogy,  astronomy,  and  mathemat- 
ics, and  wa-s  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  opposition 
to  the  prevailing  materialism;  and  went  in  1391) 
to  Vienna  as  rector  of  the  newly  founded  univer- 


sity. His  principal  works  are  Consilium  /ntcls  de 
tmione  ecclesicr,  in  Ilardt's  .1/(i(7«»m  Oicinn.  Const. 
Consil.,  T.  II.,  and  Secreta  saccrdotum,  in  Fabricius : 
Bibliolheca  medice  et  infinite  lutinitatis.  See  H.4RT- 
WIG  :   Heinrich  von  Lanqenslei?i,  ^Marburg,  1S58. 

HENRY  OF  LAUSANNE,  also  called  HENRY 
OF  CLUGNY,  was  born  in  Switzerland  or  Italy 
towards  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  anil 
became  a  monk  in  Clugny,  but  left  the  monas- 
tery, put  off  the  cowl,  and  began,  starting  from 
Lausanne,  to  wander  from  place  to  place,  bare- 
footed, caiTying  a  cross  in  his  hands,  and  preach- 
ing penitence,  with  singular  effect.  In  1116  he 
came  to  Mans,  and  was  received  with  enthusiasm. 
But  his  attacks  on  the  corruption  of  the  Church 
and  the  depravity  of  the  clergy  caused  a  tremen- 
dous popular  excitement;  and  Bishop  Hildebert 
drew  him  away.  For  some  time  he  wandered 
together  with  Peter  of  Bruys,  whose  heretical 
opinions,  however,  he  did  not  share.  But  Peter 
was  burnt  at  the  stake  ;  and  in  1134  Henry  was 
arrested  by  the  Bishop  of  Aries,  and  brought 
before  the  Council  of  Pisa.  The  details  of  his 
trial  are  not  known  ;  but  he  was  soon  set  free, 
and  repaired  to  Southern  France,  where  he  con- 
tinued his  reformatory  labor  with  great  success. 
Whole  congregations  left  their  churches,  and 
joined  him  ;  and  in  1148  Pope  Eugene  III.  sent 
i  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  to  Toulouse,  to  preach 
against  him.  He  was  again  arrested,  and  con- 
demned to  lifelong  imprisonment,  but  seems  to 
have  died  shortly  after.  About  his  doctrines,  only 
very  little  is  found  in  the  Acta_Ej>iscnporum  Ceno- 
viannenesiian  (Mabillon  :  Vetermn  Analectorum,  T. 
III.)  ;  and  wliat  the  letters  of  St.  Bernard  contain 
bears  so  strong  an  imprint  of  passion  that  it  can- 
not be  accepted  without  restrictions.  See  Nean- 
DF.ii :  Der  hi.  Bernhard  und  sein  Zeitaller.  Berlin, 
1813.  UIUELIUS. 

HENRY    OF    NORDLINGEN.      See  John  of 

RuTIiEItG. 

HENRY  OF  2UTPHEN.     See  Moller. 

HENRY  IV.,  king  of  France  (1589-lCU)),  was 
b.  at  Pan,  in  Beam,  Dec.  15,  1.553;  a  son  of 
Antoine  de  Bourbon- Vendome  and  Jeanne  d'AI- 
brct.  Queen  of  Navarre,  and  was  educated  in  the 
Reformed  faith.  From  early  youth  he  stood  as 
the  acknowledged  head  of  the  Huguenot  party  in 
France,  not  only  on  account  of  his  high  rank, 
but  also  on  account  of  liis  brilliant  military  tal- 
ent. On  the  death  of  his  mother  he  ascended 
the  throne  of  Navarre  (1.572),  and  in  the  same 
year  he  married  Marguerite  of  Valois.  But  he 
escaped  from  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew 
only  by  abjuring  his  faith;  and,  during  tlu'  three 
next  years  which  ln'  spent  at  the  court  of  Cathe- 
rine of  Medicis,  he  seemed  to  have  Ix'coiue  entirely 
lost  to  the  Protestant  cau.se.  Suddenly,  however, 
he  left  the  court  (1.57(i),  re-entered  the  Calvinist 
Church,  took  the  lead  of  the  Huguenot  party; 
and  then  followed  a  long  series  of  inextricable 
intrigues,  violent  feuds,  and  regular  cami)aigns, 
until  at  the  death  of  Henry  HI.  (in  1.589),  he 
found  himself,  according  to  the  Salic  law,  the 
legitimat*'  heir  of  the  French  crown.  In  order  to 
gain  the  Roman  Catliolics,  who  formed  the  great 
majcu'ity  of  his  snbje('ts,  he  abjuriMl  a  .second 
lime  tlie  Reformed  faith,  and  solemnly  entered 
the  Roman  Church,  July  23,  1593.  In  order  to 
satisfy  the  Protestants,  his  old  friends  and  com 


HENRY  VIII.   OP  ENGLAND.      973 


HENSCHEN. 


rades,  he  signed  the  Edict  of  Nantes  April  15, 
1598 ;  and  from  that  time  he  reigned  in  peace 
and  with  great  success. 

That  the  conversion  of  Henry  TV.  was  sincere, 
it  is  impossible  to  believe :  he  was  one  of  the 
clearest  heads  of  his  age,  and  he  was  educated  a 
Protestant.  It  was  simply  a  political  measure, 
an  act  of  shrewdness,  a  stage-trick  set  in  scene 
with  all  the  circumstantiality  wliich  the  intended 
effect  demanded.  More  than  once  he  confessed, 
with  his  usual  incurable  oj^en-moutliedness,  that 
he  liad  joined  Rome  only  to  make  sure  of  the 
French  crown.  But,  even  if  his  words  had  been 
silent,  his  acts  would  have  told  tlie  truth.  His 
internal  policy  was  conciliatory,  tolerably  impar- 
tial, though  ratlier  in  favor  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics. But  his  foreign  policy  was  from  the  first  to 
the  last  moment,  in  its  highest  aims  and  in  its 
smallest  details,  so  invariably,  so  steadily,  so 
decidedly,  set  again.st  Rome,  Spain,  the  Catholic 
League  in  Germany,  and  for  England,  the  Neth- 
erlands, the  Protestant  Union  of  Germany,  that 
it  soon  became  evident  to  tlie  opposite  party  that 
there  was  only  one  means  of  preventing  I^rance 
from  placing  herself  at  the  head  of  Protestant 
Europe  against  the  Pope ;  namely,  the  death  of 
the  king.  Consequently  he  was  assassinated  in 
his  carriage  in  the  streets  of  Paris,  INIay  14,  1610, 
by  Francis  Ravaillac,  a  former  Jesuit. 

Lit. — Tlie  letters  of  Henry  IV.,  and  other 
documents  relating  to  his  reign,  have  been  pub- 
lished by  Rabanis,  Galitzin,  Rommel,  Pierre 
d'Estoile,  and  Xivrey.  Contemporary  or  nearly 
contemporary  information  may  be  found  in  the 
works  of  Sufly,  Pal  ma  Cayet,  Du  Plessis-Mornay, 
and  De  Thou.  Monographs  have  been  written 
by  Poirson,  Pliilipijson,  Mercier  de  Lacombe, 
Carn^,  Wolowski,  etc.  See  especially  E.  Stahe- 
LIN  :  Der  Uehertrilt  Kijiiiy  Heinrichs  ties  Vierten  von 
Frankreich  zur  romisch-katholischen  Kirche,  Basel, 
1858,  2d  (title)  ed.,  1862. 

HENRY  VIII.  OF  ENGLAND.  See  England, 
Church  of. 

HENRY,  Matthew,  a  distinguished  noncon- 
formist divine  and  biblical  commentator;  b.  Oct. 
28,  1662,  at  Broad  Oak,  Flintshire;  d.  June  22, 
1714,  at  Nantwich.  He  received  his  education 
under  his  father's  (Rev.  Philip  Henry)  roof,  and 
in  an  academy  at  Islington.  On  account  of  the 
severe  laws  against  the  nonconformists,  he  began 
the  study  of  law  in  London,  1685.  It  was,  how- 
ever, his  strong  desire  to  enter  the  ministry,  and 
he  preached  from  time  to  time,  while  pursuing 
the  study  of  law,  until  1687,  when,  toleration 
being  granted  to  the  nonconformists,  he  was  or- 
dained, and  became  pastor  at  Chester.  In  1712 
he  accepted  a  call  to  Hackney,  near  Lon.don.  The 
first  Sunday  of  his  settlement  he  expounded  in 
the  morning  Gen.  i.,  and  in  tlie  afternoon  Matt, 
i.,  intending  to  take  up  the  whole  Bible,  chapter 
by  chapter.  On  the  return  journey  from  a  visit 
to  Chester,  he  was  seized  \\'ith  apoplexy,  and 
died. 

Mr.  Henry  is  said  to  have  been  a  good  preacher; 
but  his  reputation  rests  upon  his  celebrated  com- 
mentary. The  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. It  was  begun  in  1704,  and  the  Pentateuch 
was  published  1706.  He  lived  to  complete  it  only 
as  far  as  to  the  end  -of  the  Acts.  This  work  is 
justly  celebrated  as  the  best  of  the  English  com- 


mentaries for  devotional  purposes.  Tlie  author 
betrays  a  remarkable  fertility  of  practical  sug- 
gestion ;  and,  although  the  W(jrk  at  first  sight 
seems  difl'iise,  it  will  be  found  on  closer  study  to 
contain  rich  stores  of  tersely  spoken  trutiis,  whii-li 
hold  the  attention  by  their  <iuaint  freshness  and 
aptness,  and  feed  the  spiritual  life  by  their  scrip- 
tural unction.  It  has  no  critical  value;  and  i\Ir. 
Henry  in  the  Preface  expressly  says,  that,  in  this 
department,  he  leaves  the  reader  to  Poole's  Synop- 
sis. Ilis  object  is  thus  stated  in  the  Pre/ace: 
"  Some  complain,  after  the  stone  is  rolled  away 
from  the  well,  that  the  well  is  deep,  and  they  have 
nothing  to  draw  with.  .  .  .  Some  such,  perhaps, 
may  find  a  bucket  here,  or  water  drawn  to  their 
hands ;  and  pleased  enough  shall  I  be  with  this 
office  of  the  Gibeonites  to  draw  water  for  the 
congregation  out  of  those  wells  of  salvation." 
It  is  commendation  enough  for  Henry's  Commen- 
tary, to  remember  tliat  three  of  the  greatest 
preachers  have  used  it  incessantly,  :uid  com- 
mended it  heartily,  —  Robert  Half,  Whitefield, 
and  Mr.  Spurgeon.  AVliitefield  read  it  through 
four  times,  the  last  time  on  his  knees.  Mr.  Spur- 
geon says  {Commentiny  and  Commentaries,  p.  3), 
"  Every  minister  ought  to  read  it  entirely  and 
carefully  through  once  at  least."  The  work  has 
been  republished  many  times  since  its  author's 
death.  The  most  accessible  editions  are  Carter's, 
New  York,  in  five  and  nine  volumes,  with  Prefa- 
tory Remarks  by  Archiuald  Alexander  and 
Rev.  Edward  Bickersteth. 

Mr.  Henry  published  other  works,  such  as  a  Life 
of  Rev.  Philip  Henry  (1696),  Catechism  for  Chil- 
dren, and  Scripture  Catechism  in  the  Methoil  of  the 
As.temhly's  (1702),  etc.  These  are  published  in 
two  volumes,  under  the  title  Miscellaneous  Works 
of  M.  Henry,  New  York,  1855.  His  life  has 
been  written  by  Tong,  London,  1716,  Sir  John 
B.  Williams,  London,  1850.  See  also  Memoir 
in  Carter's  edition. 

HENRY,  Paul  Emile,  b.  at  Potsdam,  March 
22,  1792 ;  was  pastor  of  the  French  Huguenot 
Church  at  Berlin ;  d.  there  Nov.  24,  1853.  He 
wrote  Das  Leben  Johann  Calvin's,  Berlin,  1844, 
3  vols.,  afterwards  abridged  in  1  vol.  (1846).  It 
is  rather  a  valuable  collection  of  materials  for  a 
life  than  a  good  biography. 

HENRY,  Philip,  aPresbyterian  divine  of  much 
holiness  of  life,  and  father  of  Matthew  Henry ; 
b.  at  Whitehall,  London,  Aug.  24,  1631;  d.  at 
Broad  Oak,  June  24,  1696.  He  was  educated  at 
Westminster  school,  under  Dr.  Busby,  graduated 
at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  and  in  1659  was  pre- 
sented with  the  living  of  Worthenbury.  He  re- 
fused to  conform  in  1662,  and  fell  under  the  Five 
Mile  Act  (1665).  He  is  remembered  for  the 
purity  and  exemplariness  of  his  life.  Bishop 
Wordsworth  says  he  "could  nowhere  find  non- 
conformity united  with  more  Christian  graces 
than  in  him."  His  Memoir  was  written  by  his 
son,  Matthew  Henry,  and  is  printed  in  the 
latter's  Miscellaneou.^  Works  (New  York,  1855, 
2  vols.),  and  sepai-ately  by  the  Tract  .Society,  New 
York.  See  also  Diaries  and  Letters  of  Philip 
Henri/,  edited  by  ^latthew  Henry  Lee,  Loudon, 
1882.' 

HENSCHEN,  Gottfried,  the  associate  of  BoUand 
in  the  iireparation  of  the  famous  Acta  Sanctorum; 
b.  at  "V'enrad,  in  Flanders,  Jan.  21,  1600;  d.  at 


HBPPE. 


974 


HERDER. 


Antwerp,  1681.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus 
in  1619  :  in  1635,  BoUand,  whose  pupil  he  had 
been,  siunmoned  him  to  his  aid ;  and  upon  the 
Ada  Henscheii  gladly  spent  the  rest  of  his  life. 
The  present  scope  of  tlie  woi'k  was  his  idea,  for 
Bolland  had  contemplated  one  much  less  elabo- 
late.  See  the  art.  Bollandists ;  also,  in  Wet- 
7,er  u.  Welter  (ed.  I.,  vol.  xii.  554,  555),  art. 
Henschen.  (JoUfricd. 

HEPPE,  Heinrich  Ludwig  JuliuSi  Reformed 
theologian;  h.  in  Cassel,  March  30,  1820;  d.  at 
Marburg,  July  25,  1879.  lie  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Marburg,  1839-43,  in  which,  in  1850, 
he  became  professor  extraordinary,  and  1864 
professor  ordinary,  of  theology.  Altliough  not  a 
man  of  first-class  ability,  he  produced  a  number 
of  useful  works,  which  evince  great  industry  and 
competent  scholarsliip.  His  writings  may  be 
thus  classified  :  Theological.  —  Die  Doymalik  des 
Prolestaiitismus  im  16.  Jahrhunderl,  Gotha,  1857, 
-3  vols. ;  UrspruiKj  it.  Geschichte  d.  Bezeichnungen 
'•  refunnirte  "  u.  "  lutherische  "  Kirche,  Gotha,  1859|; 
Die  Dijgmatik  d.  evanydisch-reformirlen  Kirche, 
Elberfeld,  1860.  Historical.  —  Geschichle  d.  hes- 
sischen  Generalsynoden  von  1568-83,  Cassel,  1847, 
2  vols. ;  Gescliiclite  d.  deutsclien  Proleslantismus  in 
d.  Ja/iren  1555-S5,  Marburg,  1852-59,  4  vols.,  2d 
ed.,  Fraukfurt-a.-il.,  1865,  1866;  Zur  Gesc/iiclde 
4l.  evangclischen  Kirche  Rhcinlands  u.  Westji/ialens, 
I.serlohn,  1867;  Gefchichle  d.  theologischen  Facul- 
tdl  zu  Marburg,  Marburg,  1873;  Geschichte  d. 
(luietislischen  Mijstik  in  d.  kalholischen  Kirche, 
Berlin,  1875;  Kirchengeschichte  beider  Hessen, 
IMarburg,  1876-78,  2  vols.  MisceUaneous.  —  Ge- 
helbuchlein,  Marburg,  1852,  4th  ed.,  1876;  Die 
confessioncllc  Enticicklung  iler  hessischen  Kirche, 
Frankfurt-a.-M.,  1853;  Die  confessionelle  Enl- 
wicklung  d.  all.  jirnteslanlischen  Kirche  Dculsch- 
■lands,  Slarburg,  1854 ;  Die  Bekenntnisschrijlen  d. 
refonnirlen  Kircheii  Dentschtands,  Elberfeld,  1860; 
I'hilijip  Melanchthon.  Marburg,  18G0,  2d  ed.,  1867  ; 
Theodor  Beza,  Elberfeld,  1861  ;  Die  preabgleriale 
Sijnodalverfassung  d.  ecanget.  Kirche  in  Nord- 
deulnchland,  Iserlohn,  1868,  2d  ed.,  1874;  Die 
Verfa.isung  d.  evang.  Kirche  im  ehem.  Kurhessen, 
Marburg,  1869;  Christliche  lilliik  and  Chrisdiche 
Sitlrnhiirc.  both  Elberfeld,  1882. 

HERACLAS,  Bishop  of  Alexandria  (232-247)  ; 
was  a  I'agaii  by  birth  ;  studied  philosophy  under 
Ainmcmius  Saccas;  was  converted  to  Christianity 
by  Origen,  whom  he  succeeded  as  director  of  the 
catechetical  school.  His  stand-point  was  proba- 
bly identical  with  that  of  Origen;  but  he  was 
iidroit  enough  to  avoid  giving  offence,  and  after 
the  death  of  Demetrius  he  was  chosen  bishop. 
!!'■  bfl  iiii  lifi-rarv  monuments. 

HERACLEON."    See  Gnosticism. 

HERBERGER,  Valerius,  b.  at  Fra\i.stadt,  Prus- 
.-ian  I'olaml,  .Ajiiil  21,  1.J62;  d.  there  May  18,  1627; 
was  schodl-tcaclier  in  his  native  city  since  1584, 
and  pastor  of  the  evangelical  church  since  1598, 
and  acquired  a  great  name  a.s  a  preacher.  He 
]iublished  several  collections  of  .sermons,  and  his 
I'lisdllr  is  still  read.  See  S.  F.  Lautkukacii  : 
17'./,  /•■./»/./  .1  Fill, I   r.  //.,  1708. 

HERBELOT,  Barthelemy  d',  Orientali.st ;  b. 
in  I'aris,  Dec.  4,  1625;  d.  there  Dec.  8,  1695.  His 
life  was  Bpent  upon  the  composition  of  his  in- 
valuable (liesauruH  of  Oriental  learning,  —  liiblin. 
Ihkijae  uricnlale,  ou  dictiwiuaire  universal  contenaiU 


gc'nc'ralemenl  lout  ce  i/ui  regardc  la  cuiniaismnce  de 
peuples  de  I'Orient,  edited  by  A.  Galland,  Paris, 
1697.  It  is  mainly  an  abridged  translation  of 
the  immense  biographical  and  bibliographical 
cyclopaedia  of  Ilajji  Khalfa,  but  enlarged  from 
various  sources.  In  spite  of  its  occasional  inac- 
curacies and  inconsistencies,  it  is  '•  the  one  availa- 
ble source  for  much  information  to  others  than 
Oriental  scholars ;  and  as  such  it  retains  its  im- 
portance." It  was  reprinted,  unaltered,  Maes- 
tricht,  1776,  and,  with  additions  by  Galand,  The 
Hague,  1777-79,  4  vols. ;  rejirinted  in  IMaestricht, 
1780;  German  translation,  Halle,  1785-90,  4  vols. 

HERBERT,  Edward.     See  Deism. 

HERBERT,  George,  one  of  the  quaintest  but 
holiest  poets  of  England ;  b.  at  Montgomery, 
Wales,  April  3,  1593;  d.  at  Bemerton,  Eng., 
February,  1633.  He  was  a  fellow  of  Trinity 
College,  Cambridge  (1615),  and  public  orator  of 
the  university  (1619-27),  in  which  capacity  he 
came  in  contact  with  King' James,  and  was  for  a 
time  more  or  less  a  courtier;  but  in  1625  he  took 
holy  orders,  and  was  in  1630  made  rector  of 
Bemerton.  His  life  as  a  minister  was  so  exem- 
plary and  so  devoted,  that  he  was  called  "  Holy 
George  Herbert."  His  fame  rests  upon  his 
poems,  The  Temple,  Sacred  J'oe7ns  and  Private 
Ejaculations,  Cambridge,  1631.  They  abound  in 
oddities  of  expression,  but  breathe  so  pure  and 
holy  a  spu'it  that  they  are  religious  classics,  and 
give  Herbert  claim  to  be,  with  Keble,  the  poet  of 
Anglican  theology.  Herbert's  prose-work.  The 
Priest  to  the  Temple,  or  the  Character  of  a  Country 
Parson,  is  an  excellent  treatise  upon  pastoral 
theology.  It  has  doubtless  lielped  Herbert's 
reputation  that  Izaak  A\'alton  was  his  biographer 
(1670).  There  are  many  editions  of  Herbert. 
Perhaps  the  best  is  that  by  Professor  Kichol, 
London,  1863.  Coleridge  edited  his  complete 
works,  London,  1846. 

HERDER,  Johann  Gottfried,  b.  Aug.  25,  1744, 
at  Mohrnngen.  East  Prussia;  d.  at  Weimar,  Dec. 
18,  1803  ;  studied  theology,  philosophy,  languages, 
and  literature,  at  Konigsberg,  where  he  acquired 
the  friendship  of  Kant  and  llamaim,  and  was  in 
1764  apjK>iiited  teai^her  in  tlu^  cathedral-school 
of  Itiga,  and  in  1767  al'ternoon-preacher  in  one  of 
the  suburban  churches.  In  Kiga  he  first  dis- 
tinguished him.self  as  a  puli)it-orator,  drawing 
larger  and  larger  audiences ;  and  at  the  same 
time  he  also  attracted  the  attention  of  literary 
Germany  by  his  Fragmcnte  iiber  die  deutsche  Lil- 
trratur  and  Krilische  Walder.  In  17C9  he  left 
Kiga,  acconqianied  the  Prince  of  Holstein-Eutiu 
for  .some  time,  made  in  Strassbnrg  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Goethe  and  Jung-Stilling,  and  w;is  in 
1771  ajipointed  court-preacher  and  superintendent 
at  Biickeburg.  To  this  period  of  his  life  belong, 
(if  his  theological  writings,  the  Provinzialblutter, 
Altcste  Urkunde  des  Menschengeschlechts.  Erliiuter- 
iingrn  (/»,<  eincr  neucriiffnetcn  morgenliindischen 
Qni'llc,  and  Ilric/e.  ziceier  Briider  .h-sii,  wliich  made 
a  deep  impression,  and  established  it  as  an 
axiom  in  bililical  exegesi.s,  that  the  Bible  is  not 
simply  a  doctrinal  code,  a  dogmatical  .system,  but 
a  whole  literature,  whicli  must  be  viewed  in  the 
light  of  its  time,  its  i)lace,  and  its  historical 
surroundings,  in  order  to  be  fully  understood. 
In  1776  he  moved  to  Weimar  as  court-))reaclier 
and  superintendent-general,  and  there  i)ublished 


HEREFORD. 


975 


HERESY. 


lije  ripest  and  most  important  of  his  works,  pliilo- 
sophical  as  well  as  theological.  To  the  former 
class  belong  his  Ideeu  zur  I'liih/aojj/iie  dtr  (Je- 
nchiclile,  (loll,  etc.  ;  to  the  latter,  his  Liedcr  der 
Liehe  (1778),  half  a  paraphra.se  of,  half  a  coni- 
meutary  on,  the  Canticles,  Vom  GeisI  hebrdisclier 
Poesie-  (1782),  which  remodelled  the  whole  con- 
ception, popular  and  scientific,  of  Hebrew  poetry, 
and  especially  his  so-called  Christliclu;  Schriflcn, 
which  {;ave  the  first  impulse  to  that  immense 
literature  generally  known  under  tlie  name  of 
The  Life  of  Chrisl.  Not  belonging  to  any  special 
theological  .school.  Herder  formed  no  school  him- 
self; but,  by  his  wide  historical  horizon  and 
vivid  psychological  intuition,  he  exercised  an 
elevating  and  ennobling  influence  on  almost  all 
■departments  of  theological  science  and  Christian 
life.  Of  the  common  edition  of  his  collected 
works,  his  theological  writmgs  occupy  the  first 
twelve  volumes. 

Lit.  —  Caroline  Herder  (his  wife):  Erin- 
neruiir/en  an  H.;  ¥..  Herdkr  (his  .son):  Lehens- 
bild;  DiiRiNG  :  Herders  Leben,  1823;  A.  Werner  : 
Herder  als  T/ieoloy,  1871.  [A  new  edition  of 
Herder's  Sammlliche  Werke  appeared  in  Berlin, 
1877  .sqq.,  32  vols.]  A.  -WERNER. 

HEREFORD,  an  Engli.sh  bishopric,  the  cathe- 
dral of  which  is  situated  in  the  town  of  this 
name.  The  see  was  detached  from  Lichfield  in 
673.  Hereford  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Wye,  has  a  population  of  nineteen  thou.sand. 
The  cathedral  was  founded  825,  rebuilt  1030, 
burnt  by  the  Welsh  1055,  again  rebuilt  1079- 
1115:  the  great  western  tower  fell  1786.  There 
have  been  two  modern  restorations,  — 1842  and 
180.1.  The  cathedral  is  three  hundred  and  forty- 
two  feet  long.  "  But  for  the  fall  of  the  western 
tower,  the  consequent  curtailment  of  the  nave, 
and  other  solecisms,  few  catliedrals  could  offer  so 
complete  a  field  of  progressive  architecture,  from 
Early  Norman  to  latest  Perpendicular."  The 
present  (1882)  incumbent  of  the  see  of  Hereford 
is  John  Atlay,  D.D.,  and  the  income  is  forty-two 
liundred  pounds. 

HERESY  {ai/jcaic,  "a  selection")  designates  in 
the  New  Testament  a  party  or  school;  and  the 
Pharisees  (Acts  xv.  5,  xxvi.  5),  the  Sadducees 
{Acts  V.  1'),  and  even  the  Christians  (Acts  xxiv. 
14,  xxviii.  22),  are  called  "heresies."  The  use  of 
the  term,  however,  in  connection  with  schisms, 
proves  that  it  did  not  exclusively  designate  dis- 
sent in  matters  of  doctrine  (1  Cor.  xi.  19 ;  Gal. 
V.  20).  At  a  later  period  the  term  was  employed 
principally  in  the  sense  cf  doctrinal  departures 
from  revealed  truth,  or  erroneous  views  (Tit.  iii. 
10;  2  Pet.  ii.  1). 

The  apostles  treated  very  seriously  all  depart- 
ures from  tlieir  doctrine.  We  need  only  think 
of  such  expressions  as  "grievous  wolves"  (Acts 
XX.  29),  "dogs"  (Phil.  iii.  2),  and  the  terms  in 
wliich  Paul  speaks  of  the  Judaizing  teachers  in 
the  Galatian  Church,  and  of  the  Gnostic  teachers 
referred  to  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossiaus  and 
the  Pastoral  Letters.  With  no  less  severity  did  the 
fathers  of  the  first  three  centuries  treat  depart- 
ures from  the  catholic  doctrine.  Polycarp  regard- 
ed Slarcion  as  the  first-born  of  the  Devil.  Igna- 
tius sees  in  heretics  poisonous  plants,  or  animals 
in  human  form.  Justin  and  Tertullian  condemn 
their  errors  as  inspirations  of  tlie  Evil  One ; 
10  —  11 


Theophilus  compares  them  to  baiTen  and  rocky 
islands  on  which  ships  are  wrecked  ;  and  Origen 
says,  that  as  pirates  place  lights  on  cliffs  to  allure 
and  destroy  ve.s.sels  in  qut^st  of  refuge,  so  the 
Prince  of  this  world  lights  the  fires  of  false  knowl- 
edge in  order  to  destroy  men.  [Jerome  calls  the 
congregations  of  the  heretics  synagogues  of  Satan 
(Ep.  123),  and  says  their  connnunion  is  to  be 
avoided  like  that  of  vijiers  and  .scorpions  (Ep. 
130)].  They  included  under  heresy  all  dissent 
from  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  salvation,  at- 
tributed it  to  insubordination  to  the  apostolic 
faith,  and  regarded  pride  and  ambition  as  its 
ultimate  causes. 

The  apostles  and  fathers  could  not  have  toler- 
ated all  possible  construction  of  its  doctrine  with- 
out being  guilty  of  treason  toward  the  Cliurch  of 
Christ.  The  same  is  true,  in  a  smaller  measure, 
of  the  Reformation  period.  Luther  could  not 
have  tolerated  the  Zwinglian  view  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  without  doing  violence  to  his  own  convic- 
tions of  the  meaning  of  Scripture  [?].  But,  while 
the  fathers  were  justified  in  insisting  upon  the 
fundamental  truths  of  Christianity,  it  ought  not 
to  be  overlooked  that  they  knew  how  to  distin- 
guish between  doctrines  subversive  of  Christianity 
(such  as  Ebionism,  Gnosticism,  and  Manichajisni) 
and  dissent  m  unessentials  (as  in  the  case  of  the 
jMontanists,  Novatians,  Donatists,  etc.).  The 
baptism  of  Novatians,  Donatists,  Arians,  etc., 
was  recognized  as  valid  (Augustine,  De  Bapt., 
I.  13,  etc.).  Heresy  disturbed  the  unity  of  doc- 
trine and  of  fellowship  in  the  early  Church.  The 
Church  was,  therefore,  forced  to  exclude  heretics 
from  its  communion.  Once  excluded,  they  formed 
societies  of  tlieir  own.  This  was  the  case  with 
the  Novatians,  Gnostics,  Manicha'ans,  Donatists, 
Nestorians,  etc.  But,  relatively  justified  as  the 
Donatists  and  others  were,  all  these  heretical 
orgnizations  lacked  vital  power,  and  soon  suc- 
cumbed to  disintegration,  or  dragged  out  a  linger- 
ing existence.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Church 
was  represented  by  such  figm-es  as  "the  pillar  of 
truth,"  "the  body  of  Christ."  "No  one  can  have 
God  as  a  father,  who  does  not  accept  the  Church 
as  his  mother,"  says  Cyprian ;  or  "  Christ  for 
head,  who  does  not  belong  to  the  Church  as  the 
body,"  says  Augustine.  Notwithstanding  this 
sharp  distinction,  Augustine  and  the  early  CJhurch 
generally  regarded  only  such  false  doctrine  heresy 
which  is  persistent,  and  prompted  by  animosity 
to  the  Church  (pertinaci  animosilale). 

In  the  middle  ages  the  Latin  Chm-ch  pro- 
nounced the  Eastern  Church  schismatic,  and  itself 
the  catholic  or  universal  Church.  The  procession 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  from  the  Father  and  the  Son 
(Filioe/ue),  adopted  as  a  doctrine  at  the  Fourth 
Lateran  Council  (1215),  has  never  been  accepted 
by  the  Eastern  Communion.  But  the  Latin 
Church  has  never  pronounced  the  Greek  doctrine 
heretical.  The  dualistic  errors  of  the  Cathari, 
however,  it  did;  and,  when  the  Reformation  came, 
it  pursued  the  new  sects  with  fire  and  sword. 

If  the  visible  Church  be  the  body  of  those  who 
confess  Christ,  then  the  Latin,  Eastern,  and  Prot- 
estant churches  are  parts  of  the  one  Church.  The 
Latin  Church,  however,  appropriating  to  itself 
the  appellation  "catholic."  caUs  the  Greeks  "schis- 
matics," and  the  Protestants  "heretics."  If  it 
be  Ike  Church,  then  the  congregations  outside  of 


HERESY. 


976 


HERMAN. 


its  pale  do  not  belong  to  the  Church,  or  partici- 
pate in  salvation ;  for  the  Church  is  the  channel 
of  salvation.  Roman-Catholic  theologians  have 
avoided  this  conclusion  by  distinguishing  between 
two  kinds  of  heretics,  —  material  heretics,  or  those 
who  hold  to  error  in  ignorance,  and  are  free  from 
guilt,  and  formal  heretics,  or  those  who  wittingly 
and  resolutely  put  themselves  in  antagonism  to 
the  Church  (Perrone,  Prmlectiones,  §  26")).  The 
Protestant  Church  does  not  pretend  to  be  the 
Church,  but  only  a  part  of  it.  Its  confessions 
never  declared  either  the  Roman  or  the  Eastern 
Church  heretical,  nor  did  the  Lutheran  Church 
call  the  Reformed  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
a  heresy. 

What,  then,  is  the  fundamental  idea  of  heresy? 
Heresy  is  erroneous  doctrine  which  has  gi'own  up 
in  the  Church,  but  denies  its  essential  teachings 
as  they  were  formulated  by  early  Christianity. 
If  that  which  is  peculiar  to  and  essential  in  Chris- 
tianity is  the  confession  in  the  Apostles'  Creed 
of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  —  three  persons 
in  a  unity  of  essence, — then  Tritheism,  Ebion- 
ism,  Monarchism,  and  Arianism  are  heresies.  If 
Christ  is  the  God-Man,  then  Docetists,  Samosa^ 
tians,  Monophysites,  and  Nestorians  are  heretics ; 
and  if  it  be  the  office  of  the  Holy  Spirit  alone 
to  apply  the  benefits  of  redemption,  and  to  regen- 
erate, then  the  Pelagians  belong  in  the  same 
category. 

Among  the  mistakes  of  the  visible  Church, 
which  for  many  centuries  disturbed  the  spiritual 
vision  of  Christians,  and  led  to  horrible  crimes 
in  the  name  of  religion,  must  be  counted  the 
delusion  that  heresy  ought  to  be  punished  by  the 
civil  power.  While  Luther  raised  his  voice  in 
indignation  at  the  blood  of  the  first  heretic, 
Augustine  found  in  the  words  of  oiu'  Lord  (Luke 
xiv.  23),  "compel  them  to  come  in,"  a  justifica- 
tion of  the  interference  of  the  State  to  check  the 
growth  of  heresy.  Could  he  have  read  the  com- 
mentary which  the  persecutions  of  the  Albigenses, 
the  holocausts  of  the  Inquisition,  and  the  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Night,  wrote  to  his  words,  lie  would 
not  have  been  content,  as  he  was,  with  .simply 
saying  that  he  did  not  desire  that  heretics  .shovild 
be  put  to  death.  But  even  Protestants  have  been 
guilty  of  holding  the  doctrine  that  heretics  should 
be  put  to  death.  Not  only  was  .Servetus  burned 
at  Geneva,  but  Calvin  defended  the  right  of  the 
civil  power  to  punisli  heretics  with  death  by  tlie 
gword  in  a  tract  published  1.544  :  Defensio  ortho- 
doxm  Jiilei  .  .  .  nl/i  ostrndiltir  hn'ri'ticns  jure  (jlndii 
coercendos  esse,  etc.  ("  A  <lefence  of  the  orthodox 
faith  .  .  .  wherein  is  shown  that  heretics  slionld 
be  coerced  by  tlie  punishment  of  the  sword,"  etc.). 
IvUther's  words  speak  thetruth:  "To  burn  lieretics 
is  contrary  to  tlie  will  of  the  Holy  tJliost"  ((Irnml 
u.  Ursnrhe  ntlcr  Artikel,  so  ilurrh  <t.  rlim.  liulle  nn- 
rechtlich  verdammt  mirilen,  1.520).  For  a  discussion 
of  the  treatment  of  lieretics  see  Inquisition. 

[Lit.  —  Tlie  principal  heresiologists  of  the  early 
(Church  are  Justin  Mautyr,  lOii-llifi  (J:i'irii)/m 
Karii  ■nnai.iv  luv  yrytvrfiiivuv  aipimt.n':  tlie  work  is 
lost),  IRKN.KUR,  d.  about  200  {"EKcyxiK),  TERTri^ 
I.IAN,  l.')O-220  (l)(:  I'rrcscrip.  adv.  omncs  Uwreses), 
Ci.KMF.NT   ok   Ai.KXANDHIA,  l.'JO-Jl'!  (2rp(.i/irtrn"f), 

lIii'i-oi.YTUs,  l(iO-2:Ui  ('E>.'>T''r),  Kimptianius,  ;iOH- 
400  ('Aj^Kupr.jTof  an<l  nnvupim),  I'liii.ASTitlus,  Bishop 
of  Brescia  :17H-:!H7  (Liber  de  llccrcsiliun),  Auous- 


TiNE,  354-4.30  (De  Hcej-enihus  Liher),  TnEODOUET, 
390-450  (AipcTiK7/c  KOKO/ivdiac  hiTo/i?;').  —  Modern 
Histories.  Gottfried  Arnold  :  Unparteiische 
Kirchen-  nnd  Kelzer-Hisloric.  1700,  best  ed.,  Schaff- 
hausen,  1740;  Lardner  :  Hiftary  nf  the  Heretics 
nf  the  First  Tu-o  Centuries,  London,  1780;  Walch: 
Historie  d.  Ketzereien  his  niifd.  Zeit  d.  Reformatoren 
Leipzig,  1762,  7  vols. ;  Burton,  Oxford,  1S29 ; 
HiLGENFELD,  Leipzig,  1884;  of  the  Middle  Age, 
Hahn,  Ketzer  im  Mittelalter,  Stuttgart,  1S46-50, 
3  vols.  KjVHNIS. 

HERETICAL  BAPTISM.  See  Baptism  by 
Her  F  TICS 

HERIGER,  b.  in  Flanders,  in  the  first  half  of 
the  tenth  century ;  came  in  965  to  Lobbes  or 
Lobach,  a  monastery  situated  on  the  Sambre  in 
Hainaux,  and  at  that  period  the  seat  of  a  famous 
school ;  became  teacher  in  the  school,  and  in  900 
abbot  of  the  monastery,  and  died  there  Oct.  31, 
1007.  Besides  some  historical  works  (Geala  epis- 
cnporum  Tungrensium,  etc.),  and  a  mathematical 
work  (Ref/ula  de  ahaco),  he  wrote  a  work  in  de- 
fence of  Paschasius  Kadbertus,  from  which  it 
appears  that  tlie  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
had  not  yet  become  generally  adopted  by  the 
Church.  See  Mabillon:  Annales  O.  S.  B.,  IV. 
60,  178. 

HERIMANN  CONTRACTUS.     See  Hermann. 

HERLE,  Charles,  b.  at  Prideaux  Herle,  Corn- 
wall, Eng.,  1598;  d.  AVinwick,  Lancashire,  Sep- 
tember, 1659.  He  entered  Exeter  College.  Oxford, 
in  1612,  and  took  his  master's  degree  in  1618.  He 
settled  as  a  minister,  at  first  in  Devonshire,  but 
soon  after  became  rector  of  'Winwick  in  Lan- 
cashire, where  he  remained  until  his  de.ith.  He 
was  appointed  one  of  the  Westminster  Assembly 
of  Divines  in  1643,  and,  after  the  death  of  Dr. 
Twisse,  as  prolocutor  of  the  same ;  in  which  posi- 
tion he  continued  to  the  close.  He  was  a  gener- 
ous-minded Puritan  and  Presbyterian,  with  an 
irenic  spirit,  and  took  an  active  jiart  in  the  organi- 
zation of  the  Provincial  Assembly  of  Lanca.shire, 
and  in  providing  a  learned  and  faithful  ministry 
for  the  churches,  and  excluding  the  scandalou.'v 
and  ignorant,  for  which  he  received  much  ill- 
deserved  reproach.  His  principal  works  are  of  a 
practical  character  :  Contctnplations  nnd  Drvations. 
pp.  546,  London,  1631  ;  Independenci/  on  Scrip- 
tures nf  the  Independenci/  of  the  Churches.  4to,  pp. 
44,  London,  1643  (irenic  towards  the  Independ- 
ents);  Wisdom's  Tripos,  London,  1()55,  in  which 
he  shows  the  excellency  of  Christian  wisdom 
above  that  of  worldly  policy  and  moral  prudence. 
He  also  delivered  several  sermons  before  Parlia- 
ment, of  which  wo  would  mention  .1  J'oir  of  Com- 
passes fnr  Church  and  State,  November,  1642,  and 
David's  Sonff,  June,  1643.  For  furth<'r  informa- 
tion see  Wood:  Athena:  Oionicnsis,  111.  477;  and 
Keid:    Memoirs  of  Westminster  Divines.  Paisley, 

1811.  C.  A.  TiUIOGS. 

HERMAN,  NIcolaus,  one  of  the  earliest  evan- 
gelii-iil  hymn-writers;  was  cantor  at  .loachims- 
thal  in  Bohemia,  and  died  there  May  3.  1561. 
His  hyiiilis,  intended  for  the  school  nnd  the  home, 
r.ather  than  for  the  church,  a]>i)eared  oiiginally 
single  on  fly-le.aves,  and  then  in  two  collections, 
1560  and  1.562.  Some  of  theiii  are  still  in  use. 
His  "  Mine  hour  a])pointed  is  iit  liand."  was  trans- 
lated by  Massie,  and  was  sung  at  the  funeral  of 
I'rince  Albert  in  1861.     His  life  was  written  by 


HERMANN. 


977 


HBRMAS. 


K.  F.  Ledderhose,  HaUe,  1855,  and  by  E.  Pfeifer, 

LerliM.  IS-'S. 

HERMANN    oi     HERIMANN     CONTRACTUS 

(the  li(iiii),  li.,  ul'  iioblu  (l(.'sct,'iit,  July  18,  1013; 
entered,  wlien  he  was  only  .seven  years  old,  the 
monastery  of  Reichenau,  situated  on  an  island  in 
Lake  Constance ;  took  the  vows  when  he  was 
thirty;  and  d.  in  1054.  lie  was  a  man  of  vast 
learning-  and  varied  authorship;  but  liis  principal 
work  is  his  chronicle,  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
till  1054,  and  specially  valuable  for  the  time  of 
Henry  III.  It  was  first  printed  at  Basel,  1529, 
afterwards  often.  See  Peutz  :  Monum.,  V.  ; 
Hans  Jacob  :  Herman  der  Lahme,  Mainz,  1875. 

HERMANN  OF  FRITZLAR,  a  mystic  from 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  was  proba- 
bly a  rich  layman,  who,  after  travelling  in  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany,  retired  from  the  world,  and 
devoted  himself  to  study  and  authorship.  His 
Die  Blume  der  Schauuny  is  lost;  but  his  HeiU<jen- 
lehen.  a  compilation  from  sources  now  mostly 
lost,  is  printed  in  Pfeiffek  :  Deutsche  Mystiker 
<l.  14.  Jdlirhunderts,  I. 

HERMANN  VON  DER  HARDT,  b.  at  Melle, 
Westi.halia,  Nov.  15,  10(30;  d.  at  Hehnstadt,  Feb. 
28,  1746 ;  studied  at  Jena ;  became  in  1086  a 
member  of  the  Collegium  Philubiblicum  in  Leip- 
zig ;  staid  for  some  time  in  Dresden  in  the  house 
of  Spener;  and  was  in  1690  appointed  professor 
of  Oriental  languages  at  Helmstiidt.  There  he 
developed  a  very  comprehensive  literary  activity, 
his  writings  numbering  about  three  hundred ;  but 
he  entirely  abandoned  his  pietistic  tendency,  and 
pursued  a  strongly  pronounced  rationalistic  course 
until  in  1727,  on  account  of  his  ^Enigmaia  Prisci 
Orbis  he  was  dismissed  from  his  office,  and  for- 
bidden to  publish  any  thing  without  special  per- 
mit. His  principal  works  are  Authographa  Lutheri 
(1690),  Magtium  (Ecumenicum  Conslantiense  Con- 
cilium (1097-1700),  Historia  lileraria  Reforma- 
tionis  (1717),  etc.,  — all  more  or  less  unreliable 
on  account  of  the  author's  passion  for  the  para- 
doxical. P.  TSCHxVCKERT. 

HERMANN  VON  WIED,  or  HERMANN  V., 
b.  .Jan.  15,  1477  ;  d.  Aug.  15,  1552  ;  was  elected 
Archbishop  of  Cologne  by  the  chapter  in  1515, 
and  confirmed  by  Leo  X.  In  1536  he  convened 
a  provincial  synod,  and  introduced  a  number  of 
reforms  in  his  diocese,  though  without  causing 
any  conflict  with  Rome.  But  in  1542  he  invited 
Butzer  from  Strassburg  to  preach  the  Reformed 
faith  in  the  cathedral  of  Bonn;  and  at  once  began 
the  attacks  of  the  Roman  curia  and  the  opposi- 
tion of  his  own  chapter.  When  the  contest  be- 
came critical,  the  emperor,  Charles  V.,  stepped  in  ; 
and,  as  the  Protestant  princes  were  unwilling  to 
interfere,  the  archbishop  was  deposed,  and  retired 
to  his  estates  at  Wied.  See  C.  Varrentrapp: 
Hermann  v.  Wied  u.  scin  Reformationsversuch  in 
Kohl,  Leipzig,  1S7S. 

HERMAS  [-'the  Pilgrim's  Progress  of  the 
Church  of  the  second  century,"  Dean  Stanley], 
a  name  under  which  a  book  has  come  down  to 
us,  called  the  Shepherd  (pastor,  rrm/ii/v),  and  held 
in  high  esteem  by  the  early  Church  [quoted  by 
Irenajus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen,  etc.]. 
The  title  Shepherd  evidently  was  derived  from 
the  first  words  of  the  angel  to  the  author,  "  I  am 
the  shepherd"  ('Ejui  ei/il  6  iro(^^i'). 

Text.  —  ^^'e  are  now  in  possession  of  two  Greek 


copies,  —  the  one  in  the  Sinaitic  manuscript,  dis- 
covered 1859  (not  complete)  ;  the  other  in  the  Leip- 
zig manuscript,  togiHlier  willi  throe  pages  found 
on  Mount  Athos.  Kditions  ajipeared  at  Leipzig 
by  RuD.  Anger  (1856),  Tiscukndokf  (1856), 
Dressel  (1863),  HiLGENFELi)  (1866),  [2d  ed. 
1881].  There  are  two  Latin  translations,  —  the 
Vulgala  and  the  Palalina  (in  the  ^'at  ican  Library). 
The  Vidgata  was  first  edited  by  F'aber  .Stapulensis, 
Paris,  1513;  since  then  nuiny  times.  Hilgenfeld's 
edition  (Leipzig,  1873)  is  critical.  D'Abbadie 
issued  an  Ethiopic  translation,  Leipzig,  1860.  Its 
probable  date  is  543.  The  edition  of  Gelihardt 
and  Harnack  (Patres  Apost.,  Leipzig,  1877),  based 
upon  the  Sinaitic  manuscript,  is  the  best. 

Contents.  —  The  book  contains  a  number  of 
visions  accorded  to  Hermas.  Their  intent  is  to 
arouse  Hermas,  and  the  Church  through  him,  to 
repentance.  The  time  of  repentance  is  limited, 
and  will  soon  be  at  an  end.  The  uniformity  of 
style  stamps  the  whole  as  one  composition.  The 
author  divides  the  book  into  two  parts ;  an  aged 
woman  explaining  the  visions  of  the  first  part,  an 
angel  those  of  the  second.  The  visions  contain 
revelations,  commandments  (to  believe  in  the  one 
God,  practise  alms,  avoid  falsehood  and  fornica- 
tion, etc.),  and  similitudes.  Hermas  was  neither 
a  Judaizing  Christian  (Schw"egler,  Lipsius),  nor 
an  intense  Paulinian,  but  a  member  of  the  ortho- 
dox church  of  his  day. 

Authorship.  —The  opinions  maybe  reduced  to 
four:  (1)  Relying  upon  the  testimony  of  the 
Muratorian  canon,  a  real  Hermas,  the  brother  of 
Bishop  Pius  (139-154),  was  author  (Ileyne,  Geb- 
hardt,  Harnack) ;  (2)  Relying  upon  the  state- 
ment in  the  book  itself  (Vis.  II.  4,  3),  that  Her- 
mas delivered  the  book  to  Clement,  assmned  to 
be  Clement  of  Rome,  the  author  is  regarded  as 
having  been  his  contemporary  (Gaab,  Caspari, 
Alzog,  Zahn)  ;  (3)  Hermas  wrote  his  book  under 
Pius,  but  gave  himself  out  for  a  contemporary  of 
Clement,  or  for  the  Hennas  of  liom.  xvi.  14 
(Behm,  Ewald,  Credner,  Ritschl,  Hefele,  Dorner, 
Thiersch)  ;  (4)  an  unknown  author  of  the  second 
century  who  snnulated  the  old  Hernias  (Schweg- 
ler,  Lechler,  Ililgenfeld,  Lange,  Donaldson).  We 
hold  to  the  first  view,  on  the  ground  of  the  explicit 
statement  in  the  JIuratorian  canon.  The  Clem- 
ent referred  to  in  the  book  is  not  necessarily 
Clement  of  Rome.  The  condition  of  the  Chuixli 
represented  is  that  of  the  first  half  of  the  second 
century,  with  its  Gnostic  errors  and  its  hypocrites. 
The  work  was  probably  written  about  130,  for 
we  are  not  shut  up  to  the  period  between  139-154, 
which,  according  to  Lipsius,  was  the  term  of  Pius' 
administration.  Pius  was  not  bi.shop  in  our 
sense,  but  a  prominent  presbyter.  The  book  of 
Hermas  speaks  only  of  presbyters  in  the  Roman 
Church  (comp.  Vis.  11.  2,  0 ;  III.  8,  etc.). 

Lit.  —  Gr.\tz  :  Di.'niuisit.  in  Pastor.  Hermce, 
Bonn,  1820;  Jach.mann:  D.  Hirt  d.  Hermas,  Ko- 
nigsf.,  1839;  Hilgexfeld  :  Apost.  Vdler,  Halle, 
1853;  Ga.\b:  D.  Jlirle  d.  Hennas,  Basel,  1866; 
Zahn:  D.  Hirtd.  Hermas,  Gotha,  1868:  Donald- 
son :  Apostolical  Fathers,  London,  1874  :  Behm  : 
D.  Verf.  d.  Schrift,  w.  d.  Tllel  " Hirt."  fuhrt,  Ros- 
tock, 1876  ;  ScHODDE  :  Henna  Nabi,  The  Ethiop.  V. 
of  Pastor  //.,  Examined,  Leipzig,  1870 ;  [Smith  and 
Wace,  Did.  Biog.,  Trans,  of  Hennas  in  Clarke's 
Lib.  of  Fathers,  vol.  i.,  1807].  UHLHORN. 


HBRMENEUTICS. 


978 


HERMENEUTICS. 


HERMENEUTICS,    Biblical.     I.    Definition'. 

—  The  teriii  "  hermeneutics "  is  derived  from 
ipiiimcvuv  (from  'Ep/iK,  the  messenger  of  the 
gods),  and  allied  with  fipu  ("to  inquire"),  and 
has  the  broader  meaning  of  explaining  the 
thoughts  of  another  (Xen.,  Mem.,  I.  2,  52  ;  Thuc, 
II.  60),  and  the  narrower  meaning  of  translation 
(John  i.  38,  etc.).  Hermeneutics  differs  from 
exegesis  as  the  theory  differs  from  practice,  and 
has  for  its  object  the  definition  of  the  laws  by 
which  the  meaning  of  the  Scriptures  is  to  be 
ascertained  and  communicated.  Augustine  spoke 
long  ago  of  two  qualifications  of  an  interpreter  of 
Scripture,  —  the  capacity  to  find  out  the  author's 
meaning,  and  the  capacity  to  express  it  ("  Modus 
inveniendi  qucE  inteltifjenda  sntit  et  modus  profcrendi, 
qua  Itilellecta  sunt,"  —  De  Doct.  Chr.,1.  1);  and 
Ernesti  speaks  in  the  same  way  ("  Sublilitas  in- 
tellifiendi  et  explicandi"). 

li.  Place.  —  There  was  an  exegesis  of  the 
Bible  before  there  was  a  science  of  exegesis ;  and 
hermeneutics  cannot  make  an  exegete,  any  more 
than  homiletics  can  make  a  preacher,  or  rhetoric 
an  orator.  Notwithstanding  this,  liowever,  her- 
meneutics has  its  own  place,  and  trains  up  the 
natural  talent,  and  lays  down  laws  for  its  exercise. 
"  The  same  considerations,"  as  Landerer  has  said, 
"  which  make  theology,  or  the  science  of  the  true 
religion,  necessary,  make  also  hermeneutics  neces- 
sary as  a  special  theological  discipline."  It  is  a 
branch  of  historical  theology,  or  more  especially 
of  exegetical  theology,  wlilch  investigates  the 
historical  origin  of  Christianity,  and  expounds 
its  records.  It  regards  the  canon  as  fixed,  and 
rests  upon  the  shoulders  of  the  science  of  biblical 
introduction,  as  well  as  upon  those  of  biblical 
criticism,  which  is  concerned  with  the  integrity 
of  the  text.  But  on  the  other  side,  witliout  the 
aid  of  hermeneutics,  the  occasion  of  the  biblical 
writings  and  their  design  cannot  be  fully  known  ; 
and  even  textual  criticism  depends  to  some  extent 
upon  the  exposition  of  the  text.  The  relation  of 
hermeneutics,  therefore,  and  biblical  criticism 
and  introduction,  is  one  of  mutual  dependence. 

III.  Method.  —  The  method  wliich  liermeneu- 
tics  punsues  is  twofold,  —  the  ascertainment  of 
the  meaning  of  Scripture,  and  its  communication. 
The  ascertainment  of  tlie  author's  thoughts  is  con- 
ditioned upon  the  accurate  study  of  the  language 
in  which  he  lias  clothed  them.  The  laws  of 
granmiar  are  to  be  strictly  followed,  and  all  tlie 
results  of  lexicographical  learning  to  be  applied. 
But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  num  him- 
self is  the  style,  and  that  tlie  thouglits  of  the 
author  regulate  the  languagi; ;  so  that  the  letter 
of  the  grammar  is  by  no  means  au  infallible 
guide.  In  the  int(M'pret:ition  of  the  I'salms  ami 
the  Epistle  to  tlie  rhilipjiiaus,  tor  example,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  mood  of  the  writer,  and  his 
peculiar  environments,  should  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. Schleiermacher  well  .says,  "  \o  liibli- 
cal  book  can  be  perfectly  understood,  except  as  it 
is  studied  with  reference  to  the  wholi;  environ- 
ment out  of  which  it  grew,  and  in  connection 
with  the  position  of  autlior  and  readers"  (Kurzc 
JJnrstell,  §  11(1).  'I'heic  is  also  a  subjective  quali- 
fication ;  namely,  that  the  interpreter  is  able  to 
enter  into  th(!  thoughts  of  the  author,  and  is 
willing  to  do  it.  Experience  teaches  tliat  only 
kindred  souls  can   understand  each  other;  or,  as 


Luther  says,  "  He  only  understands  Virgil's  Ec- 
logues who  has  lived  with  the  shepherds ;  and  ha 
who  will  understand  a  poet  must  travel  to  the 
poet's  country."  The  interpreter  must  have  reli- 
gious feeling,  but  under  no  circumstances  ajv 
proach  his  work  with  dogmatic  prepossessions. 
Bengel  says,  "  A  living  faith  is  the  fij-st  qualifica- 
tion of  a  biblical  interpreter ; "  and  Landerer 
says,  "  The  interpreter  must  be  led  by  the  spirit 
of  truth  which  rules  in  the  Bible."  Absolute 
freedom  from  prepossessions  is  as  impossible  aa 
it  is  uncalled  for.  Indifferent  to  the  truth  of  the 
Scripture  he  can  not  and  ought  not  to  be. 

The  communication  of  the  meaning  of  the  bib- 
lical writer  may  be  effected  in  three  ways,  —  by 
simple  translation,  by  paraphrase,  and  by  com- 
mentary. Paraphrases  have  their  justification 
in  the  pregnancy  and  fulness  of  Scrijiture.  As 
for  the  commentator,  he  should  not  merely  give 
grammatical  criticisms,  liut  give  a  clear  insight 
into  the  organism  and  aim  of  the  book  upon 
which  be  is  commenting. 

IV.  PiiiN'ciPLES  OF  Interpretation.  —  De- 
partures from  the  true  method  of  interpretation 
result  from  a  failure  to  appreciate  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  exegete,  and  from  a  purpose,  volun- 
tary or  involuntary,  to  put  into  tlie  author's 
words  a  meaning  which  is  not  there.  The  first 
in  point  of  historical  origin  is  the  allegorical 
method.  The  word  comes  from  aXkrjyopdv,  which 
means  to  say  something  else  than  is  expressed  in 
the  language.  The  allegorist  therefore  seeks  to 
uncover  a  meaning  which  is  not  apparent  on  the 
surface;  the  presumption  being,  that  the  Spirit 
has  concealed  a  sense  behind  the  words,  of  whicli 
the  human  writers  wei'e  not  even  conscious.  Ac- 
cording to  this  principle,  there  is  a  simple  mean- 
ing, but  also  another,  which  the  interpreter  is  to 
detect.  This  method  was  carried  to  ridiculous 
extremes  in  the  ancient  church  and  during  the 
middle  ages;  and  Luther  says,  "When  I  was  a 
monk,  I  allegorized  every  thing ;  but  now  I  have 
given  up  allegorizing,  and  my  first  and  best  art 
is  to  explain  the  Scriptures  according  to  tlie  sim- 
ple sense  {simplici  sensu);  for  it  is  in  the  literal 
sense  that  power,  doctrine,  and  art  reside."  Tlie 
doymnlic  method  led  to  about  the  same  results  as 
the  allegorical.  Tlu;  iiiterjireter  approaches  the 
Bible  with  a  rule  of  faith  which  is  tlie  norm  of 
interpretation.  In  a  special  sense  is  this  true  of 
Komaii-Catholic  interpreters,  who  may  not  depart 
from  the  ecclesiastical  tradition  and  the  decrees 
of  councils.  Lbhnis  well  exjiresses  it,  when  he 
.says  (p.  151),  "  As  a  diplomat  must  exjilain  and 
look  at  every  thing  in  the  spirit,  and  with  an  eye 
to  the  interest,  of  his  prince  ...  so  must  the 
Catholic  expositor  follow  the  instructions,  and 
interpret  in  the  spirit,  of  the  Catholic  Church." 
Interpretation  is  thus  made  in  a  true  sense  of 
the  word  impossible. 

The  so-called  rational  method,  according  to 
which  tlu^  interpreter  is  to  approach  the  Bible 
with  a  mind  absolntelv  devoid  of  prejios.sessions, 
did  the  very  thing  winch  its  advocates  professed 
to  deprecate.  The  last  method  is  the  so-called 
emphatic  method,  by  which  the  meaning  of  every 
sjieeial  woi'd  is  ompliasized,  and,  as  far  as  possi- 
ble, enlarged. 

V.  HisTOKY.  —  Tlie  interiiretation  of  Scrijv 
ture   flourished    long    before    hermeneutics   waA 


HERMENEUTICS. 


979 


HERMENEUTICS. 


reduced  to  a  science,  just  as  preaching  was  prac- 
tised before  there  was  a  science  of  honiiletics. 
Xot  only  the  rabbins,'  but  also  Christ  and  the 
apostles,  interpreted  the  Old  Testament ;  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  latter  nowhere  prove  a 
religious  and  ethical  principle  which  is  false 
(Landerer).  The  rabbins  and  Philo  both  prac- 
tised the  allegorizing  method ;  the  former  using 
it  as  a  bridge  to  the  ceremonial  laws  and  false 
Messianic  hopes  which  we  meet  in  Chrisfs  time ; 
the  latter,  to  Neo-Platonism.  The  apostolic 
fathers  likewise  applied  it  to  extract  from  the 
Old  Testament  that  which  was  specifically  Chris- 
tian. This  was  the  case  with  Clement  of  Rome, 
Barnabas,  and  Justin  Martyr,  who  speaks  of  the 
gift  of  interpretation  as  a  special  grace,  but 
derives  the  capacity  to  allegorize  from  this.  The 
real  home  of  this  method  was  Alexandria.  Clem- 
ent, who  spoke  of  all  Scripture  as  being  uttered, 
as  it  were,  in  a  parable  (Strom.,  V.  .575),  was 
followed  by  Origen,  who  vigorously  pursued  this 
method,  and  found  three  senses  in  Scripture, 
corresponding  to  the  three  divisions  of  man's 
nature,  —  body,  soul,  and  spirit.  Cyril  of  Alex- 
andria (d.  444)  carried  allegorizing  to  a  great 
excess  in  his  commentaries  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

The  Antiochian  school  was  the  birthplace  of  a 
principle  of  interpretation  opposed  to  that  of 
Origen.  It  sought  to  do  justice  to  the  literal 
sense,  and  to  the  historical  environment  of  the 
biblical  authors,  and  found  its  principal  advocate 
in  Theodore,  Bishop  of  Mopsuestia  (d.  4'29). 
His  somewhat  jejune  method  did  not  pass  over 
to  Chrysostom  (d.  407),  who,  however,  practised 
allegorizing  in  moderation,  and  more  moderately 
than  Tiieodoret  (d.  457),  in  his  commentaries  on 
the  Old  Testament. 

The  contemporary  exegetical  productions  of 
the  Western  Church  were  neither  as  extensive 
nor  as  important  as  those  of  the  East.  Jerome 
(d.  420)  deserves  the  first  mention,  on  account 
of  his  philological  attainments.  He  not  only 
advocates  the  triple  sense  of  Origen,  but  even 
speaks  of  a  "forest  of  .senses"  (sitva  sensmtni,  Ep. 
64).  Augustine  (d.  430),  in  his  rules  for  the 
treatment  of  the  Scriptures  (De  Doclr.  Chriat., 
III.),  gives  some  valuable  hints,  and  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  the  literal  sense.  Gregory  the 
Great  (d.  604),  in  his  exposition  of  Job,  does 
almost  every  thing  else  but  explain  the  literal 
meaning  of  the  text.  Isidore  of  Seville  (d.  636) 
only  made  a  collection  from  the  works  of  his 
predecessors.  Walafried  Strabo's  (d.  849)  Glosses 
{Glossa  ordinaria  in  biblUi)  continued  to  be  used 
for  a  long  time,  and  were  cited  by  Petrus  Loni- 
bardus  (d.  1164)  as  the  authority  {auctoritas  ilicil). 
More  valuable  contributions  were  otfered  in  the 
Orient  by  CEcumenius  (tenth  century),  Theophy- 
lact  (d.  1107),  and  Euthymius  Zigabenus  (twelfth 
century.  Nicolaus  of  Lyra  in  Normandy  (d. 
1340)  dealt  more  honestlj'  with  the  text  in  his 
Postillm  Perpetuce,  but  shows  the  influence  of  the 
hiunanism  which  later  affected  Laurentius  Valla 
(d.  14.57),  Faber  Stapulensis  (d.  1536),  and  espe- 
cially Erasmus  (d.  1536),  in  their  Annotaliones. 

The  Reformation  marks  a  new  period  in  the 
history  of  biblical  interpretation.  I>uther  and 
Melanchthou  only  cursorily  give  hints  of  their 
exegetical  principles ;  but  both  wrote  extensive 


commentaries,  and  .avoid  the  allegorical  method 

except  where  it  may  serve  the  purpose  of  illustra- 
tion. Zwingli  also  wrote  commentaries,  and 
made  it  his  main  end  to  get  at  tiie  grammatical 
sense.  But  the  great  connuentator  of  the  Refor- 
mation was  ,Iolin  Calvin,  wliose  principles  of 
interpretation  are  enlarged  upon  in  his  I'refaces 
to  the  Psalms  and  Itonians.  He  was  strongly 
opposed  to  allegorizing,  and  sought  to  reproduce 
the  author's  train  of  thought. 

Hermeneutics  was  first  treated  as  a  special 
science  in  the  Lutheran  Church  by  Flacius,  in 
his  Clavis  Sac.  Script.  (Basel,  1567),  Franz,  in 
his  Tract,  philol.  de  interpr.  Sac.  Script.  (\Vit., 
1619),  and  especially  by  Glassius,  Philol.  Sacra 
(Jena,  1629,  ed.  Budd'seus,  1727).  The  intense  dog- 
matism which  followed  in  the  Lutheran  Cluu'ch 
was  opposed  by  the  historical  method  which  the 
Arminian  Grotius  (d.  1645)  pursued  in  his  Anno- 
tationes  on  the  whole  Bible.  But  of  more  influence 
upon  exegesis  was  the  Pietism  of  the  latter  part 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  which  regarded  it  more 
as  an  exercise  of  worship  than  a  work  of  science. 
Spener  (d.  1705)  interpreted  several  of  the  New- 
Testament  writings  under  the  influence  of  this 
theory;  but  Bengel  (d.  1752)  followed  with  the 
keen  and  suggestive  notes  of  his  Gnomon  (Tiib., 
1742)  ;  and  a  few  years  later  Ernesti  (d.  1781) 
became  the  eloquent  champion  of  a  strictly  philo- 
logical and  granmuitical  exegesis  in  his  Institutio 
interpretis  N.  T.  (Lips.,  1761,  5th  ed.,  1809,  Eng. 
trans,  by  Terrot,  1843).  Without  denying  its 
divine  character,  he  held  that  the  Bible  should  be 
interpreted  by  the  same  rules  as  any  other  book. 
Semler  (d.  1791),  on  the  other  hand,  advocated  the 
so-called  historical  method,  according  to  which 
the  interpreter  places  himself  in  the  environment 
of  the  writers.  Ernesti's  principles  were  followed 
by  Beck  {Monogrammala  herm.  lihr.  N.  T.,  Lips., 
1803)  and  Keil  {Lehrh.  d.  Herm.  d.  N.  T.,  Leip., 
1810) ;  Semler's,  by  Bretschneider  (Hist.-doym. 
Ausleg.  d.  N.  T.,  Leip.,  1806),  and,  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent,  by  the  exegetes  of  the  i-ationalistic 
period,  —  Paulus  (d.  1851),  and  others.  In  this  cen- 
tm-y  criticism  has  seen  itself  forced  by  the  works 
of  Strauss,  and  the  historical  investigations  of 
the  Tiibingen  school,  to  pvn'sue  a  strictly  historical 
method.  But  in  the  mean  time  AA'iner,  by  his 
Grammar  (Leip.,  1822),  had  laid  the  "sure  foun- 
dation of  New- Testament  exegesis."  Thus  the 
exegesis  of  the  last  two  generations  has  been  built 
up  on  a  grammatical-historical  foundation.  See 
Exegesis  and  Introduction. 

Lit.  —  Kaiser  :  Grundriss  eincs  Si/stems  d.  mu- 
test. Hermeneutik,  Erl.,  1817;  Olshausen:  D. 
hibl.  Schriflausler/. ,  Ilamh.,  1825;  DorKE :  Herm. 
d.  neiitest.  Schrijht.,  Leip.,  1829;  Klacsen:  Herm. 
d.  N.  T.,  Leip.,  1841  ;  Wilke  :  D.  Herm.  d.  N.  T., 
2  vols.,  Leip.,  1843-44;  [Celli5rier;  Manuel 
d'Herme'neutique,  1852,  abridged  trans,  by  EUiott 
and  Harsha,  Biblical  Hermeneutics,  N.Y.,  ISSl ; 
Faiub.^irn:  Henneneutical  il/anwa/,  Philadelphia, 
1S59 ;  S.  Davidson:  Sac.  Henneneutics, 'Edm\t., 
1843]  ;  LuTZ  :  Bibl.  Herm.,  2d  ed.,  Pforzh.,  1861 ; 
Kuenen:  Criiices  et  herm.,  etc.,  Lugd.,  1858; 
[DoEDES :  Manual  of  Hermeneutics,  Edinburgh. 
1867];  Lm.mf.r:  Herm.  d.  N.  r.,  Wittenb.,  1873 
[Eng.  trans,  by  Newman,  .\ndover,  1877];  J.  P. 
Lange  :  Grundr.  d.  bibl.  //cn«. ,  Heidelb.,  1878; 
[J.  C.  K.  VON  Hof.mann  :  //t'nHejie»^)i-,  Nordlin- 


HERMES. 


980 


HEROD. 


gen,  1S80].  Roman-Catholic  works  by  LoHXis : 
Grunthiiye  d.  hihl.  Heriii.  u.  Kritik,  Giessen,  1839 ; 
Raxolder  :  Henn.  bibl.  jmncipia,  FunfkLrcli, 
1838 ;  ScHMiTTER :  Grundlinien  d.  bihl.  Herm., 
Regensb.,  lSi4;  Kohlgruber:  Herm.  bibl.  gener., 
Wien,  18.50;  Reithmavr:  Lehrb.  d.  bibl.  Herm., 
Kempt.,  1874.  .See  also  H.\gexbach  :  Obsercat.  c. 
Orir/enis  methodum  interpr.  s.s.,  Basel,  1823;  Her- 
gexi^other:  D.  anlioch.  Schule  u.  ihre  Bedeutnnij 
a.  exeg.  Gebiete,  Wtirzb.,  1806 ;  JIeyer  :  De  Chrys- 
ostom.  lit.  .s.s.  iiiterprele,  Xor.,  1806;  Clausen: 
AiKjiuit.  Hipp.  U.S.  interpres.,  Copenhagen,  1827; 
Tiioluck:  De  Thoma  Ar/u.  et  Abwl.  s.s.  interprcsti- 
bus,  Halle,  1842  ;  Runge  :  De  Luth.  ss.  II.  iiiterprete, 
Vit.,  1770;  Vessox:  Caloin  exey'ete,  Mont.,  1855; 
[M.  S.  Terry:  Biblical  henneneulics.  New  York, 
1883].  WOLDEM.VR  SCIIMIBT. 

HERMES  and  the  HERMESIANS.  Ceorg 
Hermes,  b.  at  Dreyerwakle,  Westphalia,  April  22, 
1775 ;  d.  at  Bonn,  May  26,  1831 ;  studied  theolo- 
gy and  philosophy  in  the  academy  of  Miinster; 
was  ordained  priest  in  1799,  and  in  1819  appoint- 
ed professor  of  theology  at  Bonn.  His  writings 
are  few  (  Ueber  die  innere  Warheit  des  Chrislenthums, 
1805;  Einleitunr/  in  die  christtkatholische  Tlieologie, 
I.  1819,  II.  1829 ;  Chri^tkathoiische  Dogmatik,  ed- 
ited after  his  death  by  his  pupil,  J.  H.  Achterfeld, 
1834) ;  but  the  influence  he  exercised  personally 
and  as  a  teacher  was  both  wide  and  deep.  Not 
only  the  theological  faculty  of  Bonn  —  Achter- 
feld, professor  in  morals  and  practical  theology ; 
Braun,  in  churcli  history  and  exegesis ;  Vogel- 
sang, in  dogmatics;  and  Miiller,  in  exegesis  — 
was  wholly  devoted  to  his  ideas,  but  also  the 
episcopal  seminaries  throughout  the' whole  Rhine 
region ;  and  in  many  places,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  diocese  of  Cologne,  as  long  as  Spiegel  was 
archbishop,  his  pupUs  were  openly  and  avowedly 
preferred.  Nevertlieless,  as  his  power  and  influ- 
ence increased,  his  relation  to  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  was  questioned.  There  was  no  dogma 
which  he  did  not  accept  fully  and  without  quali- 
fication; but  liis  assertion,  that,  even  if  the  dog- 
mas of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  had  no  other 
authority,  reason  would,  wlien  rightly  ap2)lied, 
be  compelled  by  itself  to  accept  them,  indicated 
a  principle  of  speculation  incompatible  with  the 
maxims  of  tlie  Roman-Catliolic  Church;  and 
the  bold  application  of  this  principle  to  the  de- 
velopment of  their  dogmatic  system  naturally 
appeared  very  dangerous  in  the  eyes  of  the  liie- 
i-archy.  In  .September,  1835,  a  papal  brief  sud- 
denly and  unexpectedly  met  tiie  movement  with 
a  detailed  and  unconditional  eondemn.ation.  Tlie 
Hennesians  tried  to  avoid  tlic  blow  by  declaring 
that  the  views  condemned  by  the  papal  brief  were 
indeed  abominable,  but  they  were  not  theirs,  nor 
were  tliey  to  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Hermes; 
and  two  of  the  most  prominent  pupils  of  Hermes 
—  Braun  of  Bonn,  and  Klvenich  of  Breslau  —  re- 
]>aired  to  Rome  to  urge  a  new  investigation.  In 
this  they  failed,  however;  and  at  home  a  strong 
re-action  set  in  again.st  the  Hermesians,  e.sjiecially 
in  the  diocese  of  Cologne,  whore  Droste-Vi.schering 
liad  succeeded  Spiegel.  In  a  sliort  time  the  move- 
ment died  out,  or  was  suppre.ssed. 

Lit.  —  Nied.ner:  P/iiJo.mpliirr  H.  Explicatin, 
Liepzig,  183!l ;  Peuuone:  Zur  Geschirhle  d.  II., 
Rati.sbon,  1839 ;  Ei.VE.vifii :  I'ius  IX.  und  die 
Ilermesianer  Bro.slau,  1848.  II.  HC'IIMIU. 


HERMIAS,  the  author  of  a  satire  on  Greek 
philosophy  (Jimavpjih;  rCiv  tfu  ^i^iorro^ui'),  written 
from  a  Christian  stand-point,  not  without  wit 
and  adroitness,  though  without  scientific  interest, 
and  probably  belonging  to  the  close  of  the  second 
or  the  begiiming  of  tlie  third  century.  Neither 
the  book  nor  the  author  is  mentioned  in  ancient 
literature.  The  book  was  edited  by  .Seller  (Ziirich, 
1553),  Domnierich  (Halle,  1764),  and  Otto  in  Cor- 
pux  Apolog.,  vol.  IX.  (Jena,  1872,  with  ample 
introductories.  w,\gensiann. 

HERMOCENES,  an  African  heretic,  a  painter 
by  profession,  and  probably  a  resident  of  Car- 
thage, against  whom  Tertullian  wrote  his  Adrer- 
sus  Hennogenem.  between  199  and  207  (cf.  Box- 
wetsch:  Die  ScJiriJieii  Terlullians,  Bonn,  1878). 
His  principal  tenet,  the  root  of  all  his  errors,  was 
the  eternity  of  matter.  He  seems  to  have  written 
books,  and  he  had  pupils;  but  he  formed  no  school. 
Theodoret,  Origen,  and  Theophilus  of  Antioch, 
also  wrote  against  him :  but  the  notices  of  liim 
found  outside  of  Tertullian  are  often  difficult  to 
reconcile  with  each  other.  G.  uni.HORN. 

HER'MON  (peak),the  present  Jebel-esh-Sheikh 
(the  chief  inountain),  the  highest  point  of  Anti- 
Lebanon,  situated  forty  miles  north-east  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  and  thirty  miles  south-west  of 
Damascus ;  rises  9,053  feet  above  the  Jlediterra- 
nean,  and  about  11,000  feet  above  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan.  It  consists  of  three  distinct  peaks, 
and  is  covered  with  ice  and  snow  all  the  year 
round,  though  in  summer  time  only  in  the  ravines. 
It  formed  the  north-eastern  boundary  of  Israel 
(Dent.  iii.  8 ;  Josh.  xii.  1),  and  is  often  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  New  Testament 
it  is  not  mentioned,  unless  it  be  the  scene  of  the 
transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii. ;  Mark  ix.).  In  many 
points  it  fits  the  narrative  of  the  Gospels  better 
than  Tabor. 

HER'OD.  —  [1.  The  Herodian  Family,  a  fami- 
ly which  for  a  century  played  a  most  conspicu- 
ous part  in  Jewish  history,  and  witnessed  the 
birth  and  career  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  and  the 
progress  of  the  Apostolic  Church ;  came  in  con- 
flict with,  used,  intermarried  with,  and  finally 
exterminated,  the  once  noble  Asmonean  family 
(see  Maccabees)  ;  catered  at  any  cost  to  the 
Ronum  power,  and  in  more  than  one  instance 
won  the  warmest  friendship  of  its  emperors ; 
ascended  the  throne  of  .Indira,  rebuilt  the  temple, 
and  gave  to  the  kingdom  an  external  glory  and 
importance  which  were  never  excelled,  except  in 
the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  It  gave  birth  to 
men  of  fine  intellects,  strong  wills,  and  umisual 
talent  for  ruling,  —  a  talent,  which,  as  exhibited 
in  Herod  the  Great,  as  has  been  well  .said,  might, 
w'ith  other  environments,  have  won  for  him  a 
name  amongst  the  great  rulers  of  nations.  Hut, 
with  these  natural  endowments  of  intellect,  they 
combined  an  \mscrupulousness  in  securing  the 
ends  of  their  ambition,  and  a  licentiousness, 
which  have  seldom  been  efpialled  in  history. 
Herod  the  (Jreat's  throne  w.as  bathed  in  the  blood 
of  his  relations;  and  tlie  intermarriages  within 
the  family  were  .so  numerous,  that  their  genealogy 
becomes  a  problem  no  less  complicated  than  as- 
tounding. But  in  the  now  violent,  now  loath- 
some deaths  of  some  of  their  number,  one  may 
be  permitted  to  .see  the  nemesis  of  defied  law. 

The   founder   of  the   family  was  Antipas,   an 


HEROD. 


981 


HEROD. 


Idumean  (Joseph.,  Anl/jq.,  XIV.  1,  3),  who  was 
made  governor  (frrparT/yof)  of  Idumea  by  Alexan- 
der JannaiUS  (d.  78).  lie  was  succeeded  in  this 
position  by  his  son  Antipater  (d.  43),  the  father 
of  Herod  the  Great.  He  was  an  ambitious  man, 
and  saw  in  the  weak  will  of  the  Asnionean  prince, 
Hyrcanus  II.,  a  handle  for  liis  plans.  When  the 
latter  was  forced  by  his  brother  Aristobulus  (in 
69)  to  renounce  his  royal  claims  and  high  priestly 
office,  Antipater's  artifice  succeeded  in  inducing 
him  to  escape  from  Jerusalem,  and  assert  his 
rights.  The  close  friendship  between  them  con- 
tinued. They  together  espoused  Pompey's  cause 
(04  B.C.),  and,  after  the  battle  of  Pharsalus,  Cae- 
sar's (48  B.C.).  Caesar  rewarded  both,  confirmed 
Hyrcanus  in  the  high  priesthood,  but  made  the 
wily  Idumean  procurator  of  Juda?a  (47).  The 
■object  of  his  ambition  was  probably  gratified.  It 
remained  for  his  son  to  win  the  name  and  digni- 
ties of  the  royal  office.] 

2.  Herod  the  Great,  king  of  Judsea  from  37 
to  4  B.C. ;  of  Idumean  descent,  and  second  son 
of  Antipater.  lie  was  a  man  of  restless  ambi- 
tion, strong  will,  and  keen  intellect,  but  cruel  and 
unscrupulous.  When,  in  47  B.C.,  Antipater  was 
rewarded  for  his  services  to  Cajsar  with  Roman 
citizenship  and  the  procuratorship  of  Jud?ea, 
Herod,  who  was  then  twenty-five  (the  ttcvti  km  Hkg 
of  Josephus,  Antiq.,  XIV.  9,  2  is  probably  a  mis- 
take of  the  copyist),  was  intrusted  with  the  govern- 
orship of  Galilee,  and  soon  afterwards  with  the 
procuratorship  of  CcelesjTia.  He  soon  displayed 
his  ability  by  ridding  the  territory  of  dangerous 
bands  of  robbers,  and  winning,  by  a  rapid  collec- 
tion of  tribute-money,  the  favor  of  Cassius  (after 
Caesar's  assassination  44  B.C.).  In  order  to  se- 
cure the  confidence  of  his  Jewish  subjects,  he  put 
away  his  wife  Doris,  and  married  Blariamne,  the 
grand-daughter  of  the  high  priest  Hyrcanus.  In 
41  B.C.  he  was  appointed  tetrarch  "by  Anthony, 
whose  favor  he  had  purchased  with  rich  gifts. 
Forced  the  following  year,  by  an  irruption  of  the 
Parthians,  to  abandon  Jerusalem,  he  fled  to  Rome. 
By  a  generous  use  of  money  he  secured  the  favor 
of  Anthony  and  Augustus,  and  through  their  in- 
fluence was  named  king  of  Judfea  by  the  senate. 
This,  however,  did  not  relieve  him  of  the  neces- 
sity of  winning  his  kingdom  by  arms.  Aftei-  de- 
feating Antigonus,  the  Asnionean  king  of  Judaea, 
in  a  pitched  battle  in  Galilee,  he  besieged  Jeru- 
salem, and  took  it  in  37  B.C. 

Herod's  reign  divides  itself  into  three  periods. 
During  the  first  period,  stretching  from  37  to  28 
B.C.,  he  firmly  establishes  his  throne;  the  sec- 
ond, from  28  to  14  B.C.,  is  marked  by  a  brilliant 
patronage  of  architecture,  and  close  intimacy  with 
the  Roman  government ;  the  third,  from  14  to  4 
B.C.,  is  the  period  of  domestic  troubles,  cruelty, 
and  growing  melancholy. 

The  First  Period  (37-28  B.C.).— With  great 
shrewdness  and  boldness  Herod  proceeded  to  re- 
move the  influences  hostile  to  his  power.  Anti- 
gonus was  executed,  and  forty-five  of  his  more 
eminent  supporters.  Hyrcanus,  who  was  living 
at  Babylon,  was  recalled,  that  he  might  be  under 
his  eye.  A  Jewish  priest  of  Babylon  was  ap- 
pointed high  priest  ;  but,  to  appease  his  step- 
niother  Alexandra,  Herod  soon  after  substituted 
in  his  stead  her  son  Aristobulus,  then  seventeen 
years  old.      His  Maccabeau  descent   and   popu- 


larity arou.sed  the  king's  suspicion,  and  paid  the 
forfeit  of  a  violent  death  by  drowning.  Herod 
simulated  sorrow  before  the  Jewish  people,  but, 
being  summoned  to  answer  for  the  crime  before 
Anthony,  was  acquitted.  Before  setting  out  to 
meet  Anthony,  he  provided  that  Mariamne  should 
be  killed,  in  case  of  his  being  found  guilty.  His 
plea  was,  tliat  she  might  not  come  into  the  em- 
braces of  Anthony.  15ut  her  love  for  her  hus- 
band was  from  thenceforth  changed  into  hatred. 
Another  of  Herod's  enemies  was  Cleopatra.  An- 
thony, whom  she  was  then  ruling  by  lier  charms, 
compelled  Herod  to  surrender  the  territory  of  Jeri- 
cho into  her  hands,  and  to  institute  a  campaign 
against  the  Arabian  king  to  compel  him  to  pay 
the  tribute  lie  owed  her.  In  31  B.C.  he  ordered 
the  execution  of  Hyrcanus,  and,  after  Anthony's 
defeat  at  Actium,  went  to  meet  the  victor  Augus- 
tus at  Rhodes,  and  had  his  royal  title  confirmed. 
His  brilliant  hospitality  to  Augustus  at  Ptole- 
mrens  (30  B.C.),  and  his  generous  treatment  of 
his  army  on  its  way  to  Egypt,  were  rewarded  by 
the  addition  of  Gadara,  Gaza,  Samaria,  and  other 
cities,  to  his  kingdom.  In  28  Mariamne  was 
accused  by  ITerod  of  infidelity,  and  executed. 
He  vainly  endeavored  to  drown  his  remorse,  and 
forget  his  passionate  love  in  a  tumult  of  lust. 
He  was  only  aroused  from  his  depression  by  the 
suspicion  of  plots  against  his  throne.  Alexandra 
was  murdered,  and  the  sons  of  Babas,  who  were 
of  Maccabrean  descent. 

The  Second  Period  (28-14  B.C.).  —  Once  firmly 
established  on  liis  throne,  Herod  inaugurated  a 
period  of  architectural  splendor  and  munificence. 
He  erected  a  theatre  in  Jerusalem,  and  an  amphi- 
theatre outside  of  its  walls,  introducing  the 
Greek  games  in  honor  of  Angiistus.  He  built 
fortresses  in  Galilee  and  Perrea,  and  also  in  Jeru- 
salem. The  old  city  of  Samaria  he  reconstructed, 
calling  it  Sebaste,  and  erected  the  new  city  of 
Caesarea  on  the  site  of  Straton's  tower.  Twelve 
years  were  consumed  in  this  last  work  :  a  theatre 
and  an  amphitheatre,  with  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Augustus,  and  overlooking  the  city,  wei'e  among 
its  more  magnificent  buildings.  'The  introduc- 
tion of  heathen  games,  and  the  construction  of 
heathen  temples,  enraged  the  Jews  to  the  highest 
piitch.  They  plotted  the  king's  death;  but  the  plot 
was  betrayed,  and  the  guilty  parties,  executed. 
Herod  endeavored  to  win  their  affection  by  muni- 
ficent charities  and  by  politic  accommodatiou  to 
their  religious  prejudices.  In  the  year  25  B.C. 
his  generous  gifts  alleviated  the  misery  of  a  wide- 
spread famine  ;  and  five  years  afterwards  he 
began  the  reconstruction  of  the  temple.  It  was 
built  with  a  lavish  outlay ;  aud,  in  deference  to 
Jewish  scruples,  a  thousand  priests  were  employed 
as  workmen  upon  the  temple  proper. 

In  the  mean  time  Herod  was  winning  more  and 
more  favor  with  the  Roman  emperor  by  timely 
aid  to  the  army  of  the  proconsul  of  Egypt  in  24 
B.C.,  and  other  evidences  of  loyalty.  He  sent 
his  sons  Alexander  and  Aristobulus  to  Rome  to 
be  educated.  Augustus  invited  them  to  his  pal- 
ace, added  to  the  king's  dominion  Trachonitis, 
Batanea,  and  Auranitis,  and  regarded  Herod  as 
his  best  friend  after  Agrippa. 

The  Third  Period  (14-4  B.C.).  —  The  last 
years  of  Herod's  life  were  darkened  b_y  suspicion, 
and  made  wretched  by  domestic  troubles.     His 


HEROD. 


982 


HEROD. 


activity  in  building  extends  over  into  tliis  period. 
He  built  Antipatris  on  the  site  of  the  Kapharsaba, 
the  fortresses  of  Cypros  and  Phasaelis  near  Jeri- 
cho, and  beyond  the  confines  of  Palestine  he 
adorned  Ascalon,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Damascus,  Tripo- 
li, Ptoleniais.  and  other  cities,  and  even  Athens 
and  Lacedfemon.  The  activity,  however,  which 
made  hirn  famous  outside  of  his  kingdom,  im- 
bittered  his  own  subjects,  the  .Jews,  against  him. 

Herod's  court,  with  his  many  wives  and 
eunuchs  and  h»ter,Te,  was  a  scene  of  jealousy  and 
plots.  The  first  to  be  struck  by  the  tempest  were 
Herod's  two  sons  by  JIariamne,  Alexander  and 
Aristobulus,  whom  he  sentenced  to  he  executed 
7  B.C.  It  was  their  murder  which  drew  from 
Augustus  the  remark  that  he  would  rather  be 
Herod's  hog  than  his  son.  Then  followed  suspi- 
cion against  Antipater,  Herod's  son  by  Doris, 
whom  his  father  recalled  from  Rome,  and  exe- 
cuted. The  restless  discontent  of  the  Jews, 
breaking  out  in  continual  acts  of  violence,  added 
to  the  unhappiness  of  the  monarch.  A  loath- 
some disease  set  in,  his  feet  swelling,  and  his 
bowels  being  afflicted  with  ulcers.  He  went  to 
the  baths  of  Callirrhoe,  at  Jericho,  for  relief;  and 
there  he  died,  suffering  great  pains,  but  not  be- 
fore he  had  ordered  the  elders  of  the  chief  cities 
of  the  land  to  be  confined  in  the  amphitheatre, 
and  to  be  executed  at  his  death,  that  there  might 
be  some  tears  over  his  grave.  This  order  the 
officers  dared  to  disobey. 

Herod  was  a  man  of  fine  physical  powers,  rare 
force  of  intellect  and  will,  keen  insight,  calm 
presence  of  mind  in  the  midst  of  difficulties,  and 
daring  courage.  The  combination  of  these  quali- 
ties fitted  him  to  be  a  general  and  a  ruler.  Nor 
did  he  lack  generosity  and  noble  magnanimity. 
Hut  a  bad  environment  and  a  pa.ssionate  nature 
turned  him  into  a  heartless,  despotic,  and  suspi- 
cious tyrant. 

[It  was  in  Herod's  reign  that  Christ  was  born. 
The  adroit  invitation  to  the  Wise  Alen  from  the 
East  to  return  to  Jerusalem  and  tell  about  the 
whereabouts  of  the  child  Jesus,  under  the  plea 
of  desiring  to  go  and  worship  him,  is  in  exact 
accord  with  Herod's  shrewd  cuuuing,  as  the 
destruction  of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  was  in 
harmony  with  the  otherwise  Suspicious  and  cruel 
policy  of  his  last  years.]  sieffert. 

3.  Herod  Anti'pas,  tetrarch  of  Galileo  and 
Pera;a  (I-uke  iii.  1)  from  4  B.C.  to  .'19  A.D.,  and 
.son  of  Herod  the  (ireat,  by  his  fourth  wife,  Mal- 
thace.  Like  his  father,  he  was  ambitious,  and 
lavished  large  sums  on  public  buildings.  He 
built  Tiberias,  which  he  named  in  liouor  of  the 
emiieror.  His  first  wife  was  the  daughter  of 
King  Aretas;  but  he  put  her  away,  iu  order  to 
marry  Ilerodias,  the  wife  of  llerJxl  Philip,  his 
brother  (not  the  tetrarch  Pliili]!,  who  married 
Salome).  Instigated  by  Ilerodias,  he  went  to 
Konie,  to  secure  the  title  of  king.  Her  ambition 
was  his  ruin.  He  was  charged  with  crimes  by 
the  emissaries  of  Agrippa,  and  banished  by 
Caligula  to  Lyons.  Autipas  is  mentioned  several 
times  in  the  New  Testament.  He  was  openly 
rebuked  by  John  the  Baptist  for  adultery,  and, 
at  the  instigation  of  liis  enraged  wife  Ilerodias, 
put  the  prophet  to  death  (Mark  vi.  10-28).  Jesus 
was  sent  to  Antipas  by  Pilate,  at  his  trial,  on  the 
ground   that   he    belonged    to    his    jurisdiction. 


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HESSE. 


The  king  liad  been  desirous  of  seeing  Jesus 
(Luke  xxiii.  7-12).  The  Gospels  represent  him 
as  superstitious,  cunning,  and  depraved. 

4.  Archelaus,  ethnarch  (4  B.C. -6  A.D.).  See 
Archki.aus. 

5.  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Gaulonitis,  Auranitis, 
etc.  (4  B.C. -34  A.D.),  andsonof  Herod  the  Great, 
by  his  fifth  wife,  Cleopatra.  Unlike  tlie  rest  of 
the  Herodian  family,  he  was  distinguished  for 
moderation  and  justice,  and  seems  to  have  kept 
aloof  from  the  intrigues  of  his  house.  He  mar- 
ried Salome,  the  daughter  of  Herod  Philip.  He 
is  mentioned  Luke  iii.  1. 

6.  Herod  Philip,  son  of  Herod  the  Great  and 
Mariannie,  daugliter  of  Simon.  He  occupied  a 
private  station.  His  wife  was  Herodias,  whom 
.\ntipas  seduced.  In  Mark  vi.  17  he  is  called 
simply  Philip. 

7.  8.  Herod  Agrippa  I.  and  Herod  Agrippa  II. 
See  Agiui'p.4. 

Lit.  —  The  chief  source  of  the  history  of  the 
Herodian  family  is  Josephus,  also  notices  in  the 
New  Testament,  Strabo,  and  Dio  C.^ssius. 
Modern  works. — The  histories  of  Ewald  (iv.), 
Gr.Xtz  (iii.),  and  Milman  (ii.);  Hausrath  : 
N.  Test.  Zeilyesch.  (vol.  i.);  Sciiurer:  N.  Teat. 
Zeitgesch.  (the  best  treatment  of  the  subject)  ; 
Van  DER  Chi.JS  :  Dissert,  chron.  hist,  de  Ilermie 
Mat/no,  Lugd.  Bat,  1855;  De  Saulcy  :  i/w/.  cT 
Ih'rinlr.  Paris,  1867;  Wickers  :  Herod,  Lond.,  1885. 

HERO'DIANS  are  mentioned  in  association 
with  the  Piiarisees  as  enemies  of  Jesus  (Matt. 
xxii.  16;  Mark  iii.  6,  xii.  13),  and  were  probably 
followers  of  Herod  Antipas,  or  the  Herodian 
family  generally.  As  such,  they  favored  the 
Roman  Government,  and  opposed  the  .lews,  who 
were  hostile  to  the  Roman  Government.  Some 
of  the  fathers  represent  tliem  as  a  separate  .Jew- 
ish sect  (the  fourth),  whose  peculiarity  consisted 
in  this,  that  they  regarded  Herod  the  Great  as 
the  Messiah  (Elpiphan.,  Hcer.,  XX. ;  Tertull.,  De 
prcEscriptt.  Append.).  But,  as  neither  Josephus 
nor  Philo  mentions  such  a  sect,  we  are  justified  in 
regarding  this  view  as  based  upon  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  name,  which  confused  a  school 
of  political  opinion  with  a  religious  sect.  See 
Steuch:  Dissert,  de  Herodianis,  Lund.,  1706; 
Leuschner  :  De  secta  Herod.,  Hirschberg,  1751; 
and  [Schurer:  N.  Tliche  Zeitgesch.,  Westcott, 
in  Smith's  lidde  Dict.~\.  sieffekt. 

HERO'DIAS,  the  grand-daughter  of  Herod  the 
Great,  through  his  son  Aristobulus  and  Berenice, 
the  daughter  of  Herod's  sister,  Salome.  Follow- 
ing the  wish  of  her  grandfather,  she  married  his 
son  Herod  (Matt.  xiv.  3 ;  called  Philip  in  Mark 
vi.  17),  who  lived  as  a  private  man.  Herod 
Antipas,  on  a  visit  to  her  husband  and  his  brother 
at  Rome,  was  enamoured  of  her,  and  seduced  her 
to  become  ids  wife,  putting  away  his  former 
wife,  the  daughter  of  King  Aretas.  This  relation 
was  denounced  by  .John  the  Baptist  as  adultery; 
and  the  latter  was  put  to  death  by  the  offended 
jealousy  of  Herodias  (Mark  vi.  25).  Her  ambi- 
tion precipitated  her  husband's  deposition,  but 
she  followed  him  into  exile.  SIEFFERT. 

HERRNHUT,  a  town  of  Saxony,  about  fifty 
miles  from  Dresden,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Hut- 
berg;  was  founded  by  Zinzendorf  in  1722  for  the 
Moravian  Brethren,  who  are  sometimes  called 
Herrnhutters,  after  it. 


HERV/EUS,  b.  in  Maine;  entered,  about  1100, 
the  Benedictine  monastery  of  Bourg-Dieu  in 
Berry,  and  wrote  commentaries,  of  which  those 
on  Isaiah  and  the  Epistles  of  Paul  have  been 
printed  (the  former  in  1721,  the  latter  in  l.')41) 
among  the  works  of  Anselni,  both  in  Micxe, 
Patrol.  Lot.,  vol.  181. 

HERV/EUS,  Natalis  (Herve  de  Nedellec),  b. 
at  Brittany,  whence  surnamed  Britoj  entered 
the  Dominican  order ;  studied  in  Paris,  and  lec- 
tured there  on  theology  1307-09  ;  became  general 
of  his  order  in  1318,  and  died  at  Xarbonne  1323. 
His  Quodliheta  were  printed  in  Venice,  1486;  his 
tractate,  De  potestate  ecdesice  et  papali,  in  Paris, 
1.500;  and  his  commentaries  on  Petrus  Lombar- 
dus,  in  Venice,  1505. 

HERVEY,  James,  popular  religious  writer;  b. 
at  Harding-stone,  near  Northamiiton,  Feb.  26, 
1714 ;  d.  rector  of  Weston-Favell,  Dec.  25,  17.58. 
He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  there  came  under 
the  influence  of  John  A\'esley,  and  was  for  a  time 
inclined  to  follow  him,  but  finally  adopted  a 
strongly  Calvinistic  creed.  He  is  remembered 
for  his  Meditations  among  the  ToinOs,  a  treatise 
nowadays  often  quoted  by  title,  but  seldom  read. 
This,  with  others  of  a  similar  character,  was 
printed  under  the  caption  Meditations  and  Con- 
templations, London,  1746,  1747,  2  vols.  Once 
these  volumes  were  side  by  side  with  Bunyan's 
Pilgrim's  Progress  and  the  Whole  Dtilij  of  Man, 
constituting  the  entii-e  library  of  many  a  cottage 
in  Great  Britain.  An  edition  of  his  works  with 
Memoir  was  published  in  London,  17ft7,  7  vols. 
See  Tyermann:  Oxford  Methodists,  New  York, 
1873. 

HESS,  Johann  Jakob,  b.  at  Zurich,  Oct.  21, 
1741;  d.  there  May  29,  1828;  was  appointed 
preacher  in  his  native  city  1777,  and  antistes  (that 
is,  president  of  the  clergy  of  the  canton)  in  1795. 
He  was  a  very  prolific  writer,  but  his  most  re- 
markable works  are  liis  Geschichte  der  drei  lezten 
Lehensjare  Jesu  (Zurich,  1768-73,  6  vols.),  and 
Jugend geschichte  Jesu  (Ziirich,  1773),  which  he 
afterwards  combined  and  condensed  into  his 
Lehen  Jesu,  Zurich,  1781,  2  vols.  He  also  wrote 
Die  Apostel geschichte  (Ziirich,  1775,  3  vols.),  and 
Die  Geschichte  der  Israelilen  (Ziirich,  1776-88, 
12  vols.),  etc.  He  was  a  man  of  solid  though  not 
brilliant  talents,  a  pillar  of  the  church  of  his 
native  canton  for  thirty-three  years,  universally 
esteemed,  and  a  champion  of  historical  and  scrip- 
tural Christianitv.  His  life  has  been  written  Viv 
Dr.  H.  Escher  (Ziirich,  1837),  Gessner  (1829), 
and  Zimmermann  (1878).  JUSTUS  HEER. 

HESSE.  On  account  of  the  gre.at  and  frequent 
changes  which  have  taken  place,  not  only  in  the 
political  oi-ganization  of  tlie  country,  but  also  in 
its  bound.ary-lines,  e.specially  in  1803,  1805,  181.5, 
and  1866,  the  history  of  the  Hessian  Church  can- 
not lie  told,  unless  a  great  number  of  details  are 
.set  forth  which  have  no  general  interest.  The 
state-church  is  evangelical,  and  according  to  the 
census  of  Dec.  1,  1875,  it  contains  602,850  mem- 
bers, divided  into  418  congregations,  with  445 
ministers.  It  was  organized  by  law  of  April  23, 
1875,  .and  is  an  imitation  of  the  Pru.ssian  Church 
establishment.  The  Roman-Catholic  inhabitants, 
numbering  250,130,  divided  into  146  parishes, 
belong  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of 
Mayence.    The  relation  between  the  Roman  curia 


HESSHUSBN. 


984 


HESYCHIUS. 


and  the  Ilessiau  government  was  established  bj- 
the  bulls  Provida  solersi/ue  (1821)  and  Ad  dominici 
gregis  cuslodiam  (1827),  and  the  edicts  of  Oct.  2, 
1829  and  Jan.  30,  1830,  but  proved  unsatisfactory 
to  both  parties.  A  secret  convention  was  made 
in  18.3-i  with  Bishop  Ketteler  of  ilayence,  but 
repudiated  by  the  curia.  Since  1866  all  ecclesi- 
astical relations  have  been  arranged  by  secular 
legislation,  to  which  the  Roman  curia,  of  course, 
has  opposed  its  Non  possumus.  See  Muxscher  : 
Gtscliichte  d.  hess.  ref.  Kirche,  Cassel,  1850;  ViL- 
MAR :  Gc!<chichte  d.  Confesfions-bestandes  in  Hessen, 
Marburt;.  1860.  [H.  Heppe:  Kirckeng.  beider 
i/e.vw«.  "Marburg,  1.-^76.]  K.  KOEHLER. 

HESSHUSEN",  Tilemann,  b.  at  Wesel,  in  the 
duchy  of  Cleve,  Xov.  3,  1.527 ;  d.  at  Hehnstadt, 
Sept.' 2.5,  1.588 ;  studied  theology  at  Wittenberg; 
travelled  in  England  and  France ;  and  was  in 
1553  appointed  superintendent  and  pastor  prhna- 
rius  at  Goslar.  That  ofSce  he  resigned  in  1556. 
1557  he  was  expelled  from  Rostock,  where  he  had 
become  professor  ui  the  university,  and  pastor  of 
the  Church  of  St.  James.  1559  he  was  discharged 
as  professor  at  Heidelberg,  and  superintendent- 
general  of  the  Palatinate.  1562  lie  was  by  an 
armed  force  driven  out  of  JIagdeburg,  where  he 
had  been  appointed  first  preacher  at  the  Church 
of  St.  John.  1569  lie  resigned  his  position  as 
court-preacher  at  Xeuburg.  1573  he  fled  from 
Jena,  where  he  had  become  professor  of  theology. 
1577  he  was  deposed  as  bishop  of  Saniland.  Fate 
had  overtaken  him.  He  who  triumphantly  had 
represented  Flacius  as  teaching  that  the  Devil 
was  a  creator  as  well  as  God,  was  now  proved  to 
teach  that  there  were  two  divine  beings,  both 
onmijx)tent.  Defending  himself,  the  old  gladia- 
tor retreated  from  the  episcopal  .see  of  Samland 
to  a  jirofessor's  chair  at  Hehnstadt ;  and,  though 
wounded,  he  succeeded  in  raising  new  whirl- 
winds of  strife.  He  could  hold  peace  with  none. 
Censure,  condemnation,  excommunication,  perse- 
cution, were,  if  not  his  heart's  desire,  his  concep- 
tion of  duty ;  and  in  his  will  he  accuses  liimself  of 
having  been  too  lenient  in  denunciation,  too  slow- 
to  attack.  Nevertheless,  Ileppe's  judgment  of  him 
is  too  hard,  calling  him  "  one  of  the  most  odious 
Lutheran  popes  of  the  time,  overbearing  to  one 
side,  and  crouching  to  the  other,  —  a  zealot  and  a 
weatlier-cock."  He  was  a  consistent  representa- 
tive of  that  stan<l-i)oint  which  makes  no  distinc- 
tion between  Christianity  and  th<'ology,  between 
the  purity  of  faitli  and  denoniiiiational  loyality, 
between  church  discipline  and  ])()lice  discipline. 

Lit. — J.  U.  LKfCKi  i;li>:  Ilhiluria  Ilvahusiana, 
Quedlinburg,  1716,  containing  a  list  of  He.s.sliu- 
.sen's  writing  (not  complete,  however)  ;  Helmolt: 
T.  H.  und  seine  7  exilia,  Leipzig,  18.50  :  Wilkex.s  : 
T.  II.,  ein  Sireitlhciilo/p:  der  Lullumkirche,  Leipzig, 
l.SfiO.  '  K.  IlACKENSCII.\fIDT. 

HESYCHASTS,  The,  a  mystic  and  quioti.stic 
.sect  wliicli  originated  in  the  Greek  Cliurcli,  among 
the  monks  of  Mount  Athos,  in  the  lourteentli 
century,  and  caused  the  liist  great  <loctriiial  con- 
troversy, within  the  Byzantine  period,  of  tliat 
church.  At  the  time  wlieii  Mount  .\thos  had 
reached  tlie  very  acme  of  its  fame  and  influence, 
during  the  reign  of  .\ndronicus  tlie  Younger, 
wlien  Symi^on  was  abbot,  the  monks  began  to 
speak  ot  a  divine  light,  uncreated,  and  yet  capable 
of  being  communicated,  —  the  same  us  surrouud- 


ed  the  Lord  on  Mount  Thabor,  but  approachable 
by  a  process  of  complete  seclusion  from  the  world, 
and  persistent  introspection  ;  whence  the  name  of 
the  sect,  ^oD^^aCTTQi,  "  quietists."  Such  ideas  were 
b}-  no  means  strange  among  the  Greek  monks. 
Pseudo-Dionysius  speaks  of  some  extraordinary 
means  of  devotion  by  which  men  are  drawn  near- 
er, intellectually,  to  God.  Similar  hints  may  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  INIaximus.  Most  proba- 
bly the  movement  started  on  Mount  Athos  would 
have  run  its  course  unnoticed,  if  it  had  not  been 
mixed  up  with  the  political  and  politico-ecclesi- 
astical fermentation  of  the  time,  especially  with 
the  question  of  union  with  Rome.  At  the  head 
of  the  Hesychasts  stood  Palanias,  afterwards  arch- 
bishop of  Thessalonica.  Their  great  adversary- 
was  Barlaam,  a  learned  monk,  who,  during  the 
reign  of  Andronicus  the  Elder,  had  come  from 
Calabria  to  Constantinople.  Barlaam  protested 
that  the  divine  light  which  the  Hesychasts  felt 
diffused  through  them  when  they  sat  quietly  in  a 
secluded  corner  and  looked  at  their  navel  (wlience 
their  name.  bfi(pa7uifvxoC)  must  belong  to  the  es- 
sence of  God,  if  it  is  uncreated,  and  cannot  with- 
out blasphemy  be  said  to  be  communicable,  if  it 
belongs  to  the  essence  of  God.  Palanias  ex- 
plained that  a  distinction  must  be  made  between 
the  essence  of  God  (ovaia)  and  the  activity  of  God 
(iptpydv) ;  that  the  activity  of  God  as  a  mere 
movement  of  his  essence  cannot  be  said  to  be 
created,  and  yet  it  is  most  certainly  communi- 
cable. But  Barlaam  rejoined  that  this  was 
simply  to  teach  the  existence  of  two  gods ;  and 
now  the  case  went  before  the  "first"  .synod  of 
Constantinople  (1341),  presided  over  by  the  Em- 
peror Andronicus  himself.  Barlaam,  however, 
got  frightened  when  he  stood  before  the  assem- 
bly. People  suspected  him  of  being  willing  to 
sacrifice  something  of  the  famous  (ireek  ortho- 
doxy for  the  sake  of  his  unionistic  aspirations, 
and  he  felt  that  they  suspected  him.  He  recanted, 
and  returned  to  Italy.  A  friend  of  him,  Grego- 
rius  Acindynu.s,  continued  the  controversy,  but 
was  condemned  by  the  "second"  .synod.  On  the 
"  third  "  synod  tlie  coiu-se  seemed  to  have  turned  : 
the  Barlaanutes  succeeded  in  condemning  and 
deposing  the  Patriarch  John.  But  the  "  fourth  " 
synod,  presided  over  by  the  Emperor  Cautacu- 
z'enus  (1351),  finally  settled  the  matter  in  favor 
of  the  Hesychasts. 

Lit.  —  The  //(.s(.  Bipant.  of  Cantacuzenus sides 
with  the  Hesychasts;  the  Hist.  Byzant.  of  Xicepho- 
rus  Gregoras,  with  the  Barlaamites.  See  Stein  : 
.Slu'iirii  HIhi-  die  Hesijchasten  des  XIV.  Jahrhun- 
derts,  Vi.'iiiia,  1871.  GASS. 

HESYCHIUS  is  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  history  of  ancient  ecclesiastical  literature. 
We  notice  :  (1)  The  editor  or  reviser  of  the  (ireek 
text  of  the  Bible,  that  is  tlie  Sei)lnagiiit  and  the 
New  Testament,  mentioned  by  Eu.sebius  {Hist. 
EccL,  Vm.  13)  as  bishoji  of  Kgypt,and  martyred 
under  Maximinus.  Jeionie  knew  his  work,  but 
rejected  it.  Historically,  liowever,  it  luis  some 
interest  to  notice  that  a  revision  of  tlie  text  of 
the  New  Testament  .should  have  been  deemed 
necessary  already  in  the  tliird  century.  (2)  The 
presbyter  of  .lerusalem  wlui  died  128  or  433,  and 
of  whose  writings  .some  have  been  published  in 
(jreek  or  Latin  version  {ICxplanitlioncs  in  Ltviti- 
cum,  Basel,  1527,  etc.),  wile  others  still  remain 


HET^RI^. 


985 


HBYLYN. 


in  manuscript.  (S)  The  else  unknown  gramma- 
rian of  Alexandria,  who,  probably  in  the  fourth 
century,  wrote  the  famous  Greek  dictionary,  in- 
valuable to  the  philologists,  and  also  of  some  use 
to  theologians,  though  tlie  biblical  (/lossce  are 
mostly  later  interpolations.  Last  and  best  edi- 
tion by  Schmidt,  Jena,  1858-(iS,  fy  vols,  quarto. 
See  Wachsmutu  :  De  fontihus  Suidce,  Leipzig, 
ISC)!.  GA.SS. 

HET/ERI/E  denotes,  in  the  terminology  of  the 
Roman  jurisprudence  from  the  time  of  the  empe- 
rors, any  association  or  assembly  for  purposes  not 
recognized  by  law ;  and  it  was  as  heicerke  that  the 
Christian  assemblies  were  first  interfered  with  by 
the  Roman  authorities.     .See  Plinius  :  Episl.  X. 

HETHERINGTON,  William  M.,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
b.  near  Dumfries,  Scotland,  June  4,  1803 ;  d.  at 
Glasgow,  May  23, 1865.  Educated  at  Edinburgh, 
ordained  in  the  Church  of  Scotland,  he  joined  the 
Free  Church,  and  died  as  professor  of  apologetics 
and  systematic  theology  in  tlie  Free  Church  Col- 
lege, Glasgow.  He  is  favorably  known  by  his 
History  of  Ike  Church  of  Scotland,  Edinburgh,  1841, 
last  ed.,  18.53,  2  vols,  (reprinted  in  1  vol.,  N.Y.), 
and  his  Histori/  of  the  IVeslminster  AssetidAy,  Edin- 
burgh, 1843.  Dr.  Alexander  Duff  edited  a  course 
of  his  Lectures,  and  prefaced  it  with  a  biographi- 
cal sketch.  Apologetics  of  the  CJiristian  Faith,  Edin- 
burgh, 1S(J7. 

NEUMANN,  Christoph  August,  b.  at  Alstadt, 
Thuringia,  Aug.  3,  1081;  d.  at  (iottingen.  May 
1,  1704 ;  studied  at  Jena ;  travelled  in  Germany, 
Holland,  and  France,  and  was  appointed  inspect- 
or of  the  theological  seminary  of  Eisenach  in 
1709,  inspector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Gdttingen 
in  1717,  and  professor  of  theology  at  the  univer- 
sity of  Gbttingen  in  17.54,  from  which  position  he 
retii-ed  in  1758.  He  was  an  extremely  prolific 
writer  on  historical,  theological,  and  philosophi- 
cal topics.  Of  his  theological  writings,  the  prin- 
cipal are  his  translation  of  the  New  Testament 
(Hanover,  1748),  his  commentary  to  tlie  New 
Testament  (Hanover,  1750-63,  12  vols.),  and  his 
Erweiss  ilass  die  Lehre  der  reformirten  Kirche  con 
dem  heil-Abendmale  die  rechte  sei,  publislied  after 
his  death. 

HEUSSER,  Mrs.  Meta,  the  best  female  song- 
writer and  hvmnist  in  the  German  language ;  b. 
April  6,  1797;  d.  Jan.  2,  1876.  She  was  the 
fourth  daughter  of  pastor  Diethelm  Schweizer, 
a  relative  and  friend  of  Lavater,  and  spent  her 
quiet  life  in  Hirzel,  a  beautiful  Swiss  mountain 
village,  in  sight  of  Mount  Righi  and  the  Lake  of 
Luzerne.  She  married  Dr.  Heusser,  an  eminent 
fihysician,  and  became  the  mother  of  a  large 
family.  But  her  liousehold  duties  did  not  prevent 
her  from  singing,  "  as  the  bird  sings  among  the 
branches,"  to  express  her  love  of  Nature  and 
Nature's  God,  and  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  her 
heart.  She  never  dreamed  that  her  lays  would 
be  given  to  the  world ;  but  her  friends,  after 
many  vain  efforts,  obtained  her  consent  to  j>ub- 
lish  anonymously  some  of  them  in  Albert  Knapp's 
Chrisloterpe  (1834).  They  made  a  deep  impres- 
sicTi,  and  passed  into  many  collections  and  Ger- 
man hynui-books  of  Europe  and  America,  espe- 
cially the  Easter  hynm,  Lamm  das  gelitten,  und 
Lowe  der  siegreich  geruiit/cn,  and  the  Jesus  hymn, 
0  Jesus  Christ,  nieiii  Lclien.  In  1857  Albert 
Knapp  edited  a  volume  of  her  poems,  under  the 


title  Lieder  einer  Vcrhorgenen.  It  was  followed 
by  a  second  series  (Leipzig,  1867),  under  her  real 
name,  which  at  last  became  generally  known. 
A  selection  from  both  volumes  was  translated 
into  English  by  Miss  Jane  liorthwick  of  Scotland 
(well  known  as  the  translator  of  Hymns  from  tite 
f^and  if  I^uther),  under  tlie  title  Alpine  Lyrics 
(Edinburgh  and  London,  1875).  Mrs.  Heusser 
was  a  woman  of  rare  genius,  piety,  and  loveliness 
of  character.  Her  nu'ingi-y  was  stored  with  the 
choicest  poetry,  secular  and  religious.  Knapp 
says  that  her  "  tender,  spiritual  lays  far  surpass 
those  of  former  German  poetesses';  "  and  Koch, 
in  his  History  of  German  Hymnology  (3d  ed.), 
calls  her  ••  the  most  eminent  and  noble  among  all 
the  female  poets  of  the  whole  Evangelical  Church. 
Her  poems  flow  freely  from  the  fresh  fountain  of 
a  heart  in  constant,  holy  communion  with  God." 
Mrs.  Heusser  wrote,  at  the  request  of  her  chil- 
dren, a  chronicle  of  her  family,  but  strictly  for- 
bade its  publication.  PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

HEWIT,  Nathaniel,  b.  at  New  London,  Conn., 
Aug.  28,  1788;  d.  at  Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Feb.  3, 
1867.  He  was  graduated  at  Yale  College  1808, 
and  pastor  of  the  Old  School  (Presbyterian) 
Church,  Bridgeport,  1853-67.  He  took  a  leading 
part  in  the  early  temperance  agitation. 

HEYLYN,  Peter,  church  historian;  b.  at  Bur- 
ford,  near  (Oxford,  Nov.  29,  1600;  d.  in  London, 
May  8,  1662,  and  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  graduated  at  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and 
lectured  there  on  geography.  These  lectnies 
were  pidilished  in  1621,  passed  through  eight 
editions,  and  appeared  in  an  enlarged  form,  under 
the  title  Cosmoyraphy,  1662.  He  was  appointed 
chaplain  to  the  king  in  1629,  at  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Laud ;  in  1631  prebend  of  Westminster, 
and  afterwards  subdean  ;  and  was  presented  with 
several  other  livings.  In  1631  appeared  his  His- 
tory (If'  i>t.  George.  He  was  a  high  Anglican,  and 
very  bitter  against  the  Puritans.  At  the  accusa- 
tion of  Prynne,  whose  Histriomastix  he  liad 
analyzed  for  Charles,  he  was  deprived  by  the 
Long  Parliament  of  his  livings,  worth  eight  hun- 
dred pounds.  He  afterwards  was  plundered  of 
his  library,  and  obliged  to  go  about  in  disguise 
to  save  himself  from  further  hardships.  At  the 
restoration  he  preached  a  jubilant  sermon  to  a 
large  audience  in  W'estminster  Abbey.  Heylyn 
was  a  patient  investigator  of  history,  and  his 
learning  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  Charles  I.  ; 
but  his  writings  display  violent  prejudices  and 
controversial  rancor.  The  Presbyterians  were 
the  special  objects  of  his  spleen ;  but  even  the 
witty  churchman,  Thomas  Fuller,  at  the  publica- 
tion of  his  Church  History  of  Britain  (1655),  did 
not  escape  his  attacks.  The  latter,  in  an  elegant 
epistle,  however,  quaintly  asked,  '•  Why  should 
Peter  fall  out  with  Thomas,  both  being  disciples 
of  the  same  Lord  and  Master?"  The  AUrius 
Redivivus,  or  History  of  the  Presbyterians,  contain- 
ing the  Beginnings  and  Successes  of  that  Actire  Sect, 
their  Opposition  to  Monarchical  atul  Episcopal  Goc- 
ernment,  etc.  (from  1536  to  1647),  2d  ed.,  1672,  is 
a  violent  arraignment  of  the  Presbyterians  for 
being  actuated  with  the  spirit  of  the  Devil,  and 
the  promoters  of  sedition,  murder,  and  other 
crimes.  In  1660  appeared  his  Historia  Quinr/uar- 
ticularis,  or  a  Historical  Declaration  of  the  Judg- 
ment of  Western  Churches,  and  more  pariicularly  of 


HEYNLIN  DE  LAPIDE. 


986 


HEZEKIAH. 


the  Church  uf  England,  in  the  Five  Controverted 
Points  reproached  with  the  Name  of  Arminianism, 
reprinted  (16S1)  in  the  work  named  below.  Of 
his  many  other  writings,  the  best  is  Eccles. 
Restaurata,  The  History  of  the  Reformation  of  the 
Church  of  England  (from  Edward  VI.  to  1566), 
1661,  reprinted  iu  2  vols,  by  the  Ecclesiastical 
History  Society,  Cambridge,  1S49.  This  work  is 
■written  in  a  good  style,  and,  in  spite  of  Bishop 
Burnet's  disparaging  criticisms  (Preface  to  Hist, 
of  the  Reformation),  is'^n  the  main  reliable,  al- 
though strongly  biassed  in  the  direction  of  High 
Anglicanism.  In  London,  16S1,  there  appeared 
a  reprint  of  several  of  his  Historical  and  Miscella- 
neous Tracts.  To  this  volume  was  prefixed  his 
Life,  written  by  his  son-in-law,  Dr.  Barnard, 
London,  1681,  reprinted  in  the  Cambridge  edi- 
tion, 1849,  —  a  quaint  and  bombastic  work.  The 
alleged  mistakes  of  this  Life  led  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  another  by  Verxon,  1682.  On  pp.  ccviii 
sqq.  of  the  Cambridge  edition  will  be  found  a 
list  of  Ilevlyn's  writings. 

HEYNLIN  DE  LAPIDE,  Johannes,  one  of  the 
last  eminent  representatives  of  scholasticism  ;  a 
native  of  Germany;  studied  at  Leipzig,  Basel, 
and  Paris,  and  settled  in  1473  at  Basel,  as  teacher 
of  philosophy  and  theology.  He  was  a  decided 
realist,  and  caused,  first  iu  Basel,  afterwards  at 
Tubingen,  whither  he  moved  in  1477,  so  violent 
a  cont<;st  between  realism  and  nominalism,  that 
he  finally  determined  to  retire  altogether  from 
the  world.  From  1487  till  his  death  in  1496  he 
lived  in  a  Carthusian  monastery  in  Basel.  His 
commentary  on  Aristotle  was  written  during  his 
stay  in  Paris,  but  not  published  until  many  years 
later,  by  his  pupU,  Amerbach.  See  his  Life,  by 
F.  FiscVier,  Basel,  ISol. 

HEZEKI'AH    ('n;p|n,    in',p;n-,  or   abbreviated 

ri'pin,  ri'Dtn",  "Jehovah  strengthens"),  son  of 

Ahaz,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty-five  his  successor 
on  the  throne  of  Judah ;  reigned  twenty-nine 
years,  or,  according  to  the  usual  chronology,  from 
725  to  696  B.C.  But  he  seems  to  have  begun  his 
reign  l)efore  725;  for  the  fall  of  Samaria  (in  722) 
happened  in  its  sixth  year  (2  Kings  xviii.  10). 
The  biblical  sources  of  his  life  are  2  Kings  xviii. - 
XX.,  I.sa.  xxxv.-xxxix..  2  Chron.  xsix.-xxxii., 
and  the  contemporary  utterances  of  Isaiah,  and 
the  Book  of  Micah,  w^ich  was  written  in  the  first 
.six  years  of  Ilezekiah's  reign.  He  had  no  .sooner 
ascended  the  throne  than  he  entered  upon  a  two- 
fold jiolicy;  on  the  one  side  seeking  to  elevate 
his  subjects  by  abolishing  idolatry,  and  restoring 
the  theocratic  worship,  and  on  the  other  to  re- 
e.staV)lish  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  l)y 
shaking  off  the  yoke  of  Assyria.  He  began  his 
reformatory  activity  by  cleansing  the  temple, 
destroying  the  high  places,  and  breaking  in  pieces 
the  brazen  .serpent  "that  Moses  had  made" 
(2  Kings  xviii.  4).  Then  followed  the  restora- 
tion of  tlie  worsliip  of  .lehovali.  .\  great  pas.sover 
was  celebrated,  to  which  all  tlie  menil)ers  of  the 
remaining  tribes  living  in  Palestine  were  invited. 
It  was  celebrated  at  an  unusual  but  not  illegal 
time  (Num.  ix.  10-14),  and  liisted  fourteen  days. 
Idolatry  continued  to  be  prevalent  in  .Judah  during 
the  first  year  of  tlie  reign,  and  was  never  wholly 
abolished  by  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  13;  Isa. 
XXX.  22,  xxxi.  7);  but,  l>y  the  irrefutable  testimony 


of  Isaiah  (xxxvi.  7;  comp.  2  Chron.  xxx.  14, 
xxxi.  1),  it  was  he,  and  not  Josiah,  who  central- 
ized the  worship  at  Jerusalem,  and  destroyed  the 
high  places. 

A  gi-eat  injury  to  the  state  was  done  by  the 
aristocratic  party,  which  perpetuated  the  lui- 
healthy  policy  of  Ahaz,  and  instead  of  bearing 
with  resignation  the  Assyrian  yo!:e,  as  Isaiah 
advised  (x.  24,  27,  xxx.  15  sqq.),  clamored  for  an 
Egj-ptian  alliance,  which  would  enable  them  to 
shake  off  the  Assyrian  power.  It  was  formerly 
thought  that  an  alliance  with  Egypt  was  made 
soon  after  the  beginning  of  Sennacherib's  reign  ; 
and  it  would  seem,  from  Isa.  xxxvi.  1,  that  he 
combined  with  his  campaign  against  Egypt  one 
against  Judah  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  Heze- 
kiah's  reign.  But  monumental  records  have 
shown  that  .Sennacherib  did  not  ascend  the  throne 
till  705  B.C. ;  so  that  his  campaign  against  Egypt 
and  Judah  did  not  occur  till  the  last  period  of 
Hezekiah's  reign ;  and  the  false  date  of  Isa. 
xxxvi.  1  is  to  be  attributed  to  a  wrong  arrange- 
ment of  the  four  incidents  in  Isa.  xxxvi. -xxxix. 
Hezekiah  purchased,  as  he  thought,  a  permanent 
peace  by  the  payment  of  an  immense  tribute 
(2  Kings  xviii.  13  sqq.),  but  wrongly;  for  the 
king,  after  receiving  the  money,  broke  his  word, 
and  continued  his  march  against  Jerusalem.  The 
city  seemed  to  be  hopelessly  doomed  (Isa.  xxxvii. 
1-3)  ;  but  Isaiah  predicted  supernatural  succor, 
which  came  in  the  descent  of  "  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  who  smote  the  camp  of  the  Assyrians  "  (Isa. 
xxxvii.  36).  In  the  monumental  records  of  Sen- 
nacherib's campaign  against  Hezekiah,  this  terri- 
ble calamity  is  not  referred  to;  but  a  striking  gap 
occurs  in  the  account.  After  stating,  "  I  shut  him 
up  in  Jerusalem,  the  place  of  his  residence,  like  a 
bii'd  in  a  cage.  I  raised  up  walls  against  him,  and 
closed  up  the  exits  of  his  city  door,"  it  suddenly 
breaks  off,  and  does  not  speak  of  the  city's  having 
been  taken.  Herodotus  (ii.  141)  relates  the  re- 
markable story,  that,  when  Sennacherib  advanced 
upon  Egypt,  armies  of  mice,  in  answer  to  the 
prayer  of  the  Egj-jitian  king,  .Setiion,  invaded 
the  Assyrian  camp  by  night,  and  gnawed  away 
the  quivers,  bows,  and  the  handles  of  the  shields 
of  the  As.syrians,  so  that  they  tied  the  next  njorn- 
ing  in  terror.  He  also  numtions  a  stone  statue 
of  Sethon  holding  a  mouse  in  liis  hand,  which 
was  preserved  in  the  temple  of  Hepha'stos.  Ewald 
refers  these  two  records  to  two  (lifferent  calami- 
ties, and  supposes,  with  Joscphus,  that  the  angel 
of  the  Lord  s|)read  a  virulent  plague  in  the  As.sy- 
rian  army.  However,  the  account  of  Herodotus 
points  to  this  very  thing  (for  mice  %vere  symboli- 
cal of  plagues:  1  Sam.  vi.  4),  and  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  based  upon  a  false  reproduction  of  the 
causes  of  Sennacherib's  disaster  in  Judah.  The 
profound  impression  which  this  calamity  made  is 
.seen  in  Ps.  xlvi.,  Ixxv.,  Ixxvi.,  and  in  the  honor 
in  which  Hezekiah  was  lield  by  surrounding 
nations  (2  Clnon.  xxxii.  23).  The  miraculous 
deliverance  is  also  referred  to  in  1  Alacc.  vii.  41 ; 
2  Mace.  viii.  13;  3  Mace.  vi.  5. 

Hezekiah  was  taken  ill  after  this  event ;  but 
fifteen  years  were  ailded  to  his  life  in  answer  to 
prayer  (Isa.  xxxviii.  5).  The  meaning  of  tlie 
sign  on  the  sun-dial,  which  VDUched  for  Ileze- 
kiah's recovery,  is  clear  (Isa.  xxviii.  8).  The  life 
of  the  king,  which  wa,s  regarded  as  being  at  an 


HICKS,  BLIAS. 


987 


HIERONYMITES. 


■end,  was,  as  it  were,  put  back  fifteen  years.  As 
in  the  case  of  tlie  sun  standing  still  over  Gibeon, 
there  was,  in  this  instance,  no  change  of  the  usual 
relations  of  the  sun  and  the  earth.  As  at  Gibeon 
the  reference  is  only  to  an  extraordinary  continu- 
ance of  the  daylight,  so  here  the  reference  is  to  a 
remarkable  shining  of  the  sun's  rays,  which  stood 
in  a  relation  of  cause  and  effect  to  the  prophet's 
knowledge  and  desire. 

Hezekiah  was  one  of  the  restorers  of  the  'ni'ty 
(that  is,  the  instrumental  and  vocal  music  of  the 
Levites),  and  revived  the  use  of  David's  and 
Asaph's  psalms.  He  also  appointed  a  commission 
to  edit  the  second  collection  of  the  Solomonic 
proverbs.  [See  the  Histories  of  Israel  by  Ewald 
(vol.  iii.)  and  Stanley,  who  devotes  a  whole 
chapter  (xxxviii.)  to  Hezekiah,  and  the  art. 
Hezekiah  in  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary  by  Canon 
FarKAR.]  OEHLER   (DELITZSCH). 

HICKS,  ELIAS,  a  prominent  minister  of  the 
.society  of  Friends;  b.  at  Hempstead,  L.L,  March 
19,  1748 ;  d.  in  Jericho,  L.I.,  Feb.  27,  1830.  He 
■was  a  mechanic  in  the  early  part  of  his  life,  but 
later  devoted  himself  to  agriculture.  When  he 
was  twenty-seven,  to  use  his  own  words,  he  began 
to  have  "  openings  leading  to  the  ministry,"  and 
subsequently  became  a  noted  preacher,  and  trav- 
elled extensively  among  the  Yearly  Meetings  of 
American  Friends,  preaching.  When  the  more 
liberal  element  of  the  society  of  Friends,  in  the 
Yearly  Meeting  of  Philadelphia  in  1827,  broke 
off  from  the  more  conservative  wing,  they  were 
called  Hicksites.  They  became  Unitarians  ;  but, 
although  Mr.  Hicks  used  ambiguous  language 
concerning  the  Trinity,  it  can  hardly  be  made 
out  that  he  promulged  views  suliversive  of  the 
doctrine.  He  published  Observations  on  Slavery, 
(N.Y.,  1811),  Extemporaneous  Discourses  (Phila., 
1825),  Journal  of  Religious  Life  ayid  Labors  (X.Y., 
5th  ed.,  1832).     See  art.  Friends,  etc. 

HICKSITES.    See  Hicks  and  Friends. 

HIDDEKEL.     .See  Tigris. 

HIERAPOLIS  ('lepdnoXig,  "holy  city"),  a  city  of 
Phrygia,  situated  a  few  miles  north  of  Laodicea, 
in  the  basin  of  Blteander,  owed  its  name  to  its 
thermal  springs.  It  received  Christianity  at  the 
same  time  as  Laodicea  and  Colosse,  and  is  men- 
tioned by  Paul  (Col.  iv.  13).  A  council  was  held 
there  in  173,  under  isresidency  of  ApoUinarius,  its 
bishop;  and  the  Cataphryges,  a  Montanist  sect, 
were  condenmed. 

HIERARCHY  (from  iepoc,  "sacred,"  and  upx'^'^, 
"  ruler  ")  denotes  a  form  of  government  in  which 
the  governing  body  claims  to  hold  its  power  by 
divine  injunctibn,  and  to  transmit  it  through  a 
sacramental  act.  The  Roman  Church  probably 
presents  the  most  perfect  instance  of  a  hierarchy 
which  history  ever  saw,  organized  monarchically, 
the  whole  power  centring  in  the  Pope,  and  most 
minutely  graded,  both  with  respect  to  orders,  — 
bishops,  priests,  deacons  (the  ordines  juris  dirini), 
and  subdeacons,  acolytes,  exorcists,  lectors,  door- 
keepers, etc.  (the  ordines  Juris  ecclesiastici),  and 
with  respect  to  jurisdiction,  —  archbishops,  metro- 
politans, exarchs,  patriarchs,  deans,  vicars,  cardi- 
nals, legates,  etc.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  hie- 
rarchical organization  is  oligarchical :  above  the 
several  patriarchs  thei'e  is  no  pope.  In  the  evan- 
gelical churches,  where  the  State  rules  the  Church, 
more  or  less  of  the  hierarchical  ajiparatus  may  be 


retained,  as  niay  be  noticed  by  comparing  the 
Church  of  England  and  the  Prussian  Church; 
while,  when  the  Church  is  established  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  universal  priesthood,  and  the  congrega- 
tion rules  itself,  as  in  the  American  churches  and 
many  free  churches  in  Europe,  all  hierarchy  dis- 
appears. See  Church,  Cleucv,  Juiusdiction. 
HIERACAS,  or  HIERAX,  was  born  about  275 
A.I).  ;  lived  at  Leontopolis  as  a  copyist;  acquired 
a  vast  knowledge  of  Greek  and  Egyptian  lore, 
medicine,  the  exact  sciences,  philosophy,  litera- 
ture, etc.  ;  wrote  commentaries  on  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  in  Greek  and  Egyptian,  and  a 
work  on  the  creation  in  six  days ;  formed  an 
association  of  pupils  or  friends,  which  combined 
study  with  ascetic  exercises,  and  seclusion  from 
the  world,  and  exercised  thereby  a  considerable 
influence  on  the  development  of  monasticism. 
He  is  known,  however,  only  from  Epiphanius  : 

Hwr..  67.  ADOLF  HARNACK. 

HiEROCLES,  governor  of  Bithynia  303,  of 
Alexandria  306,  and  afterwards  of  Syria  and 
Phoenicia;  took  an  active  part  in  Diocletian's  per- 
secution of  the  Christians,  and  wrote  a  work 
against  Christianity,  which  has  become  lost,  but  is 
tolerably  known  to  us  through  Eusebius'  answer. 
Contra  Hieroclem.  According  to  Eusebius,  the 
only  thing  new  and  original  in  the  book  was  a 
parallel  drawn  between  Christ  and  Apollonius  of 
Tyana ;  else  the  work  was  only  an  imitation  of 
Celsus  and  Porphyry.  Not  to  be  confoimded 
with  this  Hierocles  is  the  Neo-Platonist  philoso- 
pher of  the  same  name,  but  of  a  much  later  date. 

HIEROGLYPHICS  (from  the  Greek  (Vf,  "sa- 
cred," and  ylixpav,  "  to  carve  ")  are  pictures  of  ani- 
mate or  inanimate  objects  wfiich  are  intended  to 
convey  ideas  and  words.  They  are  foimd  in  all 
parts  of  the  world,  but  the  term  usually  relates 
to  the  Egj'ptian  variety.  For  many  years  these 
latter  hieroglyphics  were  a  puzzle  to  the  curious, 
but  now  they  are  perfectly  intelligible.  The  key 
to  them  was  the  Kosetta  Stone,  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  One  of  Napoleon's  officers  discovered 
it  in  1798  among  the  ruins  of  Fort  St.  Julien, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile ; 
but  by  the  treaty  of  Alexandria  it  was  given  up 
to  the  English  (1802).  It  has  upon  it  a  decree  in 
honor  of  Ptolemy  V.  (B.C.  195),  written  in  Greek, 
hieroglyphic  and  demotic.  The  first  clew  was 
the  discovery,  that  the  name  Ptolemy  occurred  in 
the  Greek,  and  that,  in  a  coiTesiionding  part  of  the 
hieroglyphics,  there  were  charactei's  enclosed  in 
a  ring,  and  these,  it  was  conjectured,  might  be  the 
hieroglyphics  for  Ptolemy.  De  Sacy  announced 
the  phonetic  character  of  the  name  ;  Young  and 
Champollion  simultaneously  (1817)  announced 
the  union  in  the  characters  of  ideographic  and 
phonetic  elements.  The  Egyptian  hieroglyphics 
are  for  the  most  part  engraved :  in  old  temples 
they  are  found  in  high  relief.  They  are  generally 
written  from  right  to  left,  but  are  read  either 
vertically  or  horizontally.  They  ceased  to  be 
written  about  300  A.D.  See  for  their  decipher- 
ment, etc.,  the  elaborate  article  by  R.  S.  Poole,  in 
the  ninth  edition  of  Encycl.  Brit.,  vol.  xi.  794-809. 
The  great  dictionary  of  Egyptian  hieroglyphics 
is  by  Heinrich  Brugsch  :  Hieroylyi>hiscli-demo- 
titches  Worterhuch,  Leipzig,  1867-82,  7  vols. 

HIERONYMITES,  or  HERMITS  OF  ST.  JE- 
ROME, is  the  name  of  several  independent  orders 


HIERONYMUS. 


988 


HIGH  PLACES. 


which  chose  St.  Jerome  for  their  patron  saint, 
and  flourished  in  Spain,  Portugal  and  Italy.  The 
most  remarkable  of  those  orders  was  that  founded 
in  1370,  in  the  diocese  of  Toledo,  by  Yasco  and 
Ferdinand  Pecha.  chamberlains  to  Peter  the  Cruel 
of  Castile.  It  was  confirmed  by  Gregory  XL,  and 
spread  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  America.  It  had 
its  principal  seats  at  Guadaloupe,  St.  Just,  whither 
Charles  V.  retired,  and  the  Escurial  in  Spain,  and 
at  Belem  in  Brazil.  It  is  now  extinct.  As  a 
branch  of  this  order,  Lupus  Olivetus,  the  third 
general,  or,  according  to  others.  Lupus  d'Almeda 
from  Seville,  founded  the  Congregation  of  St. 
Jerome  of  Lombardy,  which  was  confirmed  by 
^lartin  V.  in  142G,  and  still  has  some  monaste- 
ries in  Lombardy.  See  IIolstex-Brockie  :  Cod. 
reg.  monasl.,  Tom.  VI.  and  Tom.  Ill: ;  Reinkexs: 
Die  Einsiedler  des  lieiligen  Hieronymus,  Schaffhau- 
sen,  ISiU. 

HIERONYMUS.    See  Jerome. 

HIGH  CHURCH  is  the  designation  of  a  school 
in  the  Chureh  of  England  and  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States,  which  lays  stress 
upon  the  apostolic  origin  of  ministerial  orders, 
and  the  sacerdotal  view  of  the  sacraments,  and 
the  propriety  of  an  elaborate  ritual  in  worship. 
These  views  were  not  represented  among  the 
Reformers  of  England,  and  did  not  show  them- 
selves among  the  theologians  of  the  Anglican 
Church  until  after  the  controversy  with  the  Puri- 
tans in  the  mid  part  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Their 
(lighest  representative  was  Archbishop  Laud 
(1633-45).  The  distinction  became  more  sharp 
and  definite  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury. The  tendency  culminated  in  the  so-called 
Tractarian  movement,  wliich  carried  Dr.  New- 
man and  a  number  of  the  best  spirits  of  the 
Anglican  comnumion  over  to  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Keble  and  Dr.  Pusey  _(d.  Sept.  16,  1882)  were 
among  the  leaders  of  this  movement.  A  wing  of 
the  High-Church  party  is  known  as  the  Ritualists. 
While  Iligh-Chiirchmen  dift'er  among  themselves, 
they  hold,  in  general,  to  baptismal  regeneration,  a 
real  sacramental  though  not  necessarily  a  corpo- 
real presence  in  the  Eucharist,  and  to  the  apostolic 
succession  of  the  Ijishops,  and  the  sole  validity 
of  epi.scopal  ordination.  They  practise  an  elabo- 
rate ritual,  and  often  introduce  into  the  service 
articles  (as  candles  and  crucifixes)  and  practices 
(as  the  confessional)  which  the  majority  of  the 
Ueforniers  of  the  Elizabethan  period  condemned. 
The  Iligli-Church  party  in  England  includes  at 
the  present  time  much  piety,  and  has  displayed 
an  extraordinary  amount  ol  zeal  in  introducing 
daily  services,  building  churches  and  charitable  in- 
stitutions. The  late  Dr.  Pusey,  Regius  professor  of 
Hebrew  ,at  Oxford,  was  long  their  leader.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  party  has  grown  rapidly  within  the  last 
twenty  years.  The  late  eloquent  Dr.  De  Koven  of 
Racine  College  was  its  most  advanced  advocate. 
See  Hi.int:  !>irl.  of  Sects,  vtc  ntu]  Low  Cirriicii. 

HIGH  PLACES  is  the  usual  tran.shition  in  the 
Old  Testament  of  the  Hebrew  hamuli  (np3  see 
Ezek.  XX.  20).  I.  Mkaning. — Bamah  w\as  at 
first  a  designation  of  any  eminence,  and  is  used 
of  the  "heights  of  the  clouds"  (Isa.  xiv.  I'l), 
the  "waves  of  the  sea"  (Job  ix.  8,  see  margin), 
but  especially  of  liills  and  mountains  (Dent. 
xx.xii.  13;  2  Sara.  i.  19,  2.^3;  Ps.  xviii.  33;  Isa. 
Iviii.  14,  etc.).    The  tenn  came  to  be  applied  in 


a  technical  and  limited  sense  to  eminences  on 
which  worship  and  sacrifices  were  offered  both  to- 
idols  (Num.  xxii.  41,  etc.)  and  to  Jehovah  (1  Sam. 
ix.  12,  etc.).  There  was  still  another  steji  in  the 
progress  of  the  meaning  of  the  term.  It  became 
the  specific  designation  of  a  sanctuary,  or  any 
place  where  sacrifice  was  offered.  The  idea  of 
elevation  was  perhaps  still  retained,  but  attached 
to  the  altar  rather  than  the  ground.  Altars  of 
sacrifice  in  the  valley,  as  those  of  Baal  in  the 
Valley  of  Hinnom,  were  called  "High  Places" 
(Jer.  vii.  31,  xix.  5,  6,  xxxii.  35,  etc.),  as  also  altars 
in  cities  (2  Kings  xvii.  9;  2  Chron.  xiv.  5,  etc.). 
The  high  places  were  of  the  nature  of  buildings, 
and  are  described  as  having  been  built  (1  Kings 
xi.  7 ;  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  3),  removed  (2  Kings  xviii. 
4),  thrown  down  (2  Chron.  xsxi.  1),  broken  down 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  8),  and  burned  (2  Kings  xxiii.  15). 
These  activities  point  to  elaborate  structures ; 
and  express  mention  is  made  of  the  "  houses,"  on- 
the  high  places  (1  Kings  xii.  31,  xiii.  32 ;  2  Kings 
xxiii.  19).  From  the  isolated  notice  in  Ezek. 
xvi.  16,  it  is  to  be  inferred  tliat  in  some  cases 
they  were  richly  furnished.  Altars  seem  to  have 
been  invariablj'  associated  with  the  high  places 
(2  Chron.  xxxi.  1,  etc.),  and  frequently  groves 
also  (2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3,  etc.).  The  worship  at 
the  high  places  seems  to  have  consisted  mainly  of 
sacrifice  (1  Sam.  ix.  12)  and  the  burning  of  in- 
cense (2  Kings  xiv.  4,  etc.).  They  were  served 
hy  priests,  who  were,  for  the  most  part  at  least, 
not  Levites  (1  Kings  xii.  31;  2  Chron.  xi.  15). 

II.  HiSTouY  or  TiiE  Worship  on  the  High 
Places.  1.  From  Ahraham  to  Solomon. — It  was 
a  natural  and  at  first  an  innocent  impulse  which 
led  men  to  resort  to  the  hills  for  worship.  There 
the  worshippers  were  brought  near  to  the  hea- 
vens, and  the  separation  of  those  retired  emi- 
nences from  the  scenes  of  the  usual  routine  of 
daily  occupation  suggested  the  idea  of  sacredness. 
The  Trajans  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  on  Slount  Ida. 
The  Greeks  placed  the  habitation  of  the  gods  on 
Mount  Olympus,  and  the  Persians  on  Albordsch. 
The  custom  prevailed  to  a  large  extent  among 
the  neighbors  of  Israel,  —  the  IMoabites  (Isa.  xvi. 
12,  etc.)  and  the  Canaanites  (Deut.  xii.  2,  etc.). 
The  Moabites  set  apart  special  hills  or  mountains 
for  the  worship  of  Baal.  To  these  high  places  of 
Baal,  Balak  conducted  Balaam  (Num.  xxii.  41). 
15aal-Peor  was  a  mountain  sacred  to  him  (Num. 
xxiii.  28,  29).  Nebo  was  probably  also  sacred  to 
the  divinity  of  that  name  (Isa.  xlvi.  1). 

The  patriarchs  built  altars  wherever  they 
pitched  their  tents  (tien.  xxvi.  25,  xxviii.  18), 
but  they  seem  also  to  have  frequently  chosen 
eminences.  Abraham  went  to  a  mountain  in  the 
land  of  Mori.ah  to  sacrifice  Is.aac  (Gen.  xxii.  2)^ 
and  Jacob  offered  sacrifice  on  j^Iount  (Jilead  (Geu. 
xxxi.  .54).  At  a  later  period  Mount  Sinai  was 
regarded  as  especially  sacred ;  and  Moses  invested 
Eleazar  witii  the  garments  of  the  high  priestr 
hood  on  i\I(uuit  Ilor  (N\im.  xx.  25).  It  is  alto- 
gether likely  that  the  Hebrews  were  strongly 
influenced  by  the  example  of  the  Moaliites  and 
Canaanites,  and  adopted  some  of  the  sites  of  their 
religious  observances  (coinp.  Judg.  vi.25);  but  they 
were  commanded  to  "  pluck  up  "  the  high  places 
of  tliese  peoples,  as  they  were  seats  of  idolatry 
(Num.  xxxiii.  .52;  Deut.  xii.  2,  xxxiii.  29).  At 
the  entrance  to  the  Holy  Land  an  altar  was  erect- 


HIGH  PLACES. 


989 


HIGH  PLACES. 


ed  on  Mount  Ebal  (Deut.  xxvii.  5 ;  Josh.  viii. 
30).  Of  the  period  prior  to  Samuel,  the  term 
"bamah  "  is  only  used  three  times  of  liigh  places 
where  worship  was  offered,  and  only  six  times  in 
all.  Only  in  one  of  these  cases  is  there  reference 
to  their  use  by  the  Hebrews  (Lev.  xxvi.  30).  The 
words  in  this  verse  "  I  will  destroy  your  high 
places,"  are  proleptic,  and  announce  the  punish- 
ment to  follow  upon  disobedience.  In  the  time 
of  the  judges  the  high  places  are  not  once  men- 
tioned by  name.  In  that  period  of  anarchy,  sacri- 
fices were  not  confined  to  the  tabernacle  (-Judg. 
ii.  5,  vi.  26,  xiii.  19)  :  the  more  iirimitive  cus- 
tom of  the  patriarchs  still  prevailed.  It  was  a 
period  of  transition ;  and,  although  the  taberna- 
cle was  no  doubt  held  in  honor,  tlie  tribes  were 
isolated  from  it  by  the  constant  warfare  of  the 
times.  In  the  time  of  Samuel  one  high  place  is 
made  prominent  as  a  place  of  sacrifice  (1  Sam. 
ix.  12,  19,  25).  It  is  to  be  particularly  noticed 
that  only  a  single  high  place  is  referred  to,  and  also 
that  the  prophets,  as  it  would  seem,  had  their 
dwelling-place  there  (1  Sam.  x.  ri).  Of  the  reign 
of  David,  the  term  is  not  used ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  David  worshipped  on  Mount  (Jlivet  (2  Sam. 
XV.  32),  and  offered  sacrifices  at  local  altars 
(1  Chron.  sxi.  2G).  The  survey  of  the  history  of 
Israel  from  IMoses  to  the  time  of  Solomon  sliows 
that  the  notices  of  high  places  are  remarkably 
few :  in  fact,  there  is  reference  only  to  a  single 
high  place  as  being  used  for  worship,  and  that 
under  the  rule  of  Samuel,  if  we  leave  out  the 
isolated  passage  Lev.  xxvi.  30,  whose  meaning 
is  doubtful. 

2.  From  Solomon  lo  Hezekkik.  —  In  the  reign  of 
Solomon  we  are  suddenly  confronted  by  an  un- 
usual development  of  the  worship  on  high  places. 
It  was  accounted  as  one  of  the  sins  of  this  king, 
that  he  burnt  sacrifices  on  high  places  (1  Kings 
iii.  3).  The  "gi'eat  high  place"  was  at  Gibeon 
(1  Kings  iii.  4),  where,  however,  the  tabernacle 
was  also  deposited  (1  Chron.  xvi.  39;  2  Chron. 
i.  3).  Bethel  was  another  of  the  principal  of 
these  sanctuaries  (1  Kings  xii.  32).  In  order  to 
satisfy  his  foreign  wives,  Solomon  built  high 
places  for  "Ashtoreth,  the  abomination  of  the 
Zidonians,  for  Chemosh,  the  ahonnnation  of  the 
Moabites,  and  for  Milcom,  the  abomination  of 
the  children  of  Amnion  "  (1  Kings  xi.  7 ;  2  Kings 
xxiii.  13).  In  spite  of  the  construction  of  the 
temple,  this  idolatrous  worship  introduced  from 
foreign  nations,  and  the  worship  of  .Tehovah  on 
high  places,  went  on  increasing  under  Rehoboam 
(1  Kings  xiv.  23)  and  .Teroboam  in  the  two  king- 
doms. Elijah  eomjilains  that  the  altars  of  God 
are  thrown  down,  and  himself  burns  incense  on 
the  reconstructed  altar  on  Mount  Carmel  (1  Kings 
xviii.  19  sqq.).  Both  Asa  (1  Kings  xv.  14)  and 
Jehoshaphat  (1  Kings  xxii.  43)  allowed  some  of 
the  high  places  to  remain  (presumably  those  on 
which  sacrifice  was  offered  to  Jehovah),  but 
destroyed  the  idolatrous  shrines  (2  Chron.  xv. 
17,  comp.  xiv.  .5;  xx.  33,  comp.  xviii.  6).  Under 
Jehoash  (2  Kings  xii.  3),  Aniaziah  (2  Kings  xiv. 
4),  Azariah  (2  Kings  xv.  4),  and  Jotham  (2  Kings 
XV.  35)  it  is  also  stated  that  they  were  allowed 
to  remain  untouched ;  but  in  each  of  these  cases 
the  fact  is  stated  as  derogating  from  their  religious 
reputation.  The  number  of  these  shrines  greatly 
increased  in  "every  city"  (2  Kings  xvii.  9-11; 


2  Chron.  xxviii.  25)  ;  and  the  people  very  gener- 
ally participated  in  the  worship.  It  is  verj-  dif- 
ficult to  determine  how  far  this  worship  was 
idolatrous  (1  Kings  xviii.;  2  Kings  xvii.  9-11), 
and  how  far  it  was  rendered  to  .Jehovah.  The 
notices  refer  now  to  the  one,  now  to  the  other, 
but  leave  the  impression  that  the  high  places 
I  were  regarded  (after  the  construction  of  the  tem- 
!  pie)  as  illegitimate  (1  Kings  iii.  2-4),  and  the 
I  result  of  foreign  and  heathenish  inuovation  (2 
Kings  xvii.  11,  xxiii.  13,  etc.). 
j  3.  From  Ihzekiah  to  Ezra. — With  llezekiah  a 
I  new  period  begins  in  the  history  of  the  worshijv 
on  high  places.  This  king,  so  zealous  in  th& 
cause  of  ecclesiastical  reformation,  sought  to. 
centralize  the  sacrifices  of  Israel  at  one  altar. 
He  declared  war  against  the  local  shrines  on 
high  places  (2  Kings  xviii.  4,  22  ;  2  Chron.  xxxii. 
12;  Isa.  xxxvi.  7),  which  had  tended  so  nuich  to 
detract  from  the  honor  of  the  temple,  and  to 
make  popular  idolatrous  rites.  He  was  only  par- 
tially succe.s.sful.  Under  his  successor,  Manasseh, 
his  policy  was  overthrown,  and  the  worship  on 
high  places  was  again  in  full  swing.  But  the- 
fatal  blow  had  been  given.  Hezekiah  had  acted 
out  the  deternuned  voice  of  the  prophets  (Isa.  Ivii. 
7;  .Jer.  vii.  13;  Ezek.  vi.  3;  IIos.  x.  8,  etc.); 
and  it  onlv  remained  for  Josiah,  under  the  pious 
impulse  wliich  the  discovery  of  the  book  of  the 
law  had  inspired  (2  Kings  xxiii.  2),  to  complete 
the  work  his  great  predecessor  had  inaugurated 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  8).  After  the  exile,  the  high 
places  were  not  revived  ;  and  the  need  of  having 
some  places  of  worship  subordinate  to  the  one 
single  altar  of  sacrifice  was  later  supplied  by  the 
synagogues  (Riehm). 

III.  Rel.^tion  of  the  High  Places  to  the 
Temple. — It  has  been  urged  that  there  is  no 
place  in  the  Pentateuch  for  any  other  place  of 
worship  than  the  one  central  altar  of  sacrifice 
(tabernacle  and  temple).  Such  worship,  how- 
ever, was  practised  not  only  on  the  high  places 
(bamolh),  but  at  Bochim  (.Judg.  ii.  5),  upon  a 
rock  by  Manoah  (Judg.  xiii.  19),  at  iliziieh  (1 
Sam.  vii.  10)  and  Bethlehem  (1  Sam.  xvi.  23) 
by  Samuel,  on  the  threshing-floor  of  Oman  by 
David  (1  Chron.  xxi.  26),  by  the  priest  of  Xob 
(1  Sam.  xxi.  2  sqq.),  on  Carmel  (1  Kings  xviii. 
30,  38),  and  at  other  places  of  which  we  have 
distinct  notice.  On  the  basis  of  the  prevalency 
and  apparent  legitimacy  of  such  worship,  and  the 
prior  assumption  that  tlie  Law  permits  only  one 
altar,  the  conclusion  has  been  confidently  drawn, 
that  jiarts  of  the  Pentateuch  ( Deuteronomy  and 
the  so-called  priestly  Thorah)  must  belong  to 
Josiah 's  reign,  or  a  later  date  ('\\'ellhausen,  Pro- 
fessor W.  R.  Smith,  Baudissin,  etc.).  The  discus- 
sion of  the  bearing  of  this  fact  upon  the  date  of 
the  Pentateuch  does  not  belong  here  (the  sup- 
position of  a  late  origin  of  the  Pentateuch  makes 
it  difficult  to  understand  why  the  references  to 
Hebrew  worship  on  high  places  are  confined  to  a 
solitary  passage)  ;  but  it  is  the  place  to  consider 
the  relation  of  these  local  shrines  to  the  penta- 
teuchal  commandments  and  to  the  central  altar 
of  sacrifice.  The  above  survey  indicates  that  the 
state  of  the  case  after  the  construction  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  before  that  event,  when  the  tabernacle 
was  shifted  from  place  to  place,  is  not  the  same,, 
and  the  two  periods  must  be  discussed  separately. 


HIGH   PLACES. 


990 


HIGH  PLACES. 


It  has  been  urged  tliat  the  worsliip  at  the  local 
altars  was  practised  in  ignorance  of  the  command- 
ment in  Dent.  xii.  1-11,  enjoining  one  central 
altar,  or  in  deliberate  disobedience  of  it,  or  out  of 
a  misunderstanding  of  its  meaning.  The  rabbis 
supposed  that  the  rule  was  superseded  by  a  special 
divhie  intimation.  But  none  of  these  considera- 
tions sutlicientlj'  present  the  case  as  it  existed 
before  the  erection  of  the  temple;  and  none  of 
them  are  necessary  for  the  explanation  of  the 
■apparent  anomaly. 

1.  It  is  quite  doubtful  whether  the  Mosaic 
■ordinance  (Deut.  xii.  10,  etc.)  was  meant  to 
absolutely  exclude  all  other  places  of  worship 
(De  Wette,  Riehm,  etc.).  In  Exod.  xx.  24  a 
plurality  of  altars  is  presupposed,  and  the  mode 
of  erecting  them  definitely  defined  by  Moses. 
These  altars,  so  far  as  they  were  erected  to 
Jehovah,  were  not  necessarily  a  breach  of  the 
.Mosaic  law  (Professor  Smith,  chap,  ix.)  before 
the  erection  of  the  temple  (1  Kings  iii.  2). 

12.  The  necessities  of  the  case  demanded  local 
shrines.  The  history  of  the  times,  as  well  as 
special  events,  is  in  favor  of  this  view.  The 
anarchy  of  the  period  of  the  Judges,  the  rivalries 
between  the  tribes,  and  the  constant  instability 
■of  affairs  to  the  time  of  Solomon,  made  it  impos- 
sible for  the  tribes  to  go  up  regularly  to  the 
tabernacle.  An  altar  was  erected  on  Ebal  by 
Joshua  (Josh.  viii.  30),  while  the  tabernacle  was 
close  by  at  Gilgal,  and  it  was  not  felt  to  be  an 
anomaly.  Local  shrines  were  a  necessity  of  the 
case,  and  as  natural  to  the  instincts  of  the  people 
as  they  were  consistent  with  the  Jehovah-worship. 
The  whole  land  was  the  sanctuary  of  Jehovah 
(Itielim). 

3.  The  commandment  centralizing  worship  and 
sacrifice  at  one  altar  was  prospeclice  (Lev.  xvii. 
3-9;  Deut.  xii.  10),  and  not  to  be  enforced  till 
a  later  date  (Farrar,  Kiehm,  etc.).  The  law  was 
proleptic ;  and  the  menace  of  Lev.  xxvi.  30  had 
an  eye  to  the  Moabite  idolatries,  as  is  evident 
from  the  connection.  The  people  were  to  be 
trained  up  to  tliat  idea,  and  principally  by  the 
subsequent  construction  of  the  temple  itself ;  and 
the  ab.sence  of  notices  of  the  principle  of  a  single 
shrine  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  argues  as  little 
against  the  priority  of  the  injunction  in  Deuter- 
onomy and  the  "  Priestly  Thorali,"  as  the  absence 
•of  all  notices  of  the  Sabbath  argues  against  its 
previous  institution,  or  the  almost  complete  igno- 
rance of  the  Bible  among  the  peojile  in  the  dark 
ages  against  its  existence.  Xor  may  it  be  forgot- 
ten that  the  tabernacle  lield  a  cons|iicuous  place 
in  the  eyes  of  the  nation,  and  became  more  con- 
spicuous as  the  affairs  of  Israel  became  settled, 
and  the  troublous  anarchy  of  the  period  of  the 
Judges  was  compo.sed. 

4.  It  is  hard  at  this  time  to  distinguish  liow 
far  the  sacrifices  at  local  altars  were  genuine 
Jeiiovah-wor.ship,  and  how  far  tlie  practices  fol- 
lowed the  fa.s]iions  of  the  surrounding  nations. 
Tlie  pf'Ople  not  oidy  did  not  fully  oliey  the  com- 
mand of  Moses  and  Joshua  to  destroy  the  altars 
of  the  Canaanites  (Judg.  ii.  2,  etc.),  but  adopted 
tlie  idolatries  of  their  neighbors  (Judg.  ii.  11,  12, 
■etc.). 

r>.  The  principle  of  the  local  worship  of  Jeho- 
vah wa-s  presci'ved,  long  after  the  high  places  were 
■flestroye<J,  iu  the  synagogues. 


Of  the  continuance  of  the  high  places  and  their 
altars  of  sacrifice  after  the  construction  of  the 
temple,  the  following  is  to  be  said.  (1)  The  wor- 
ship on  high  places  increased  enormously  under 
Solomon,  and  was  largely  the  result  of  contact 
with  foreign  nations.  Solomon  increased  the 
shrines  in  proportion  to  the  diffusion  of  his  afl'ec- 
tions.  The  people,  always  inclined  to  idolatry, 
were  not  slow  in  following  their  king's  example. 
(2)  L'nder  the  worst  kings  (Rehoboam,  Jeroboam, 
Ahaz)  the  high  places  were  most  numerous. 
Later  and  better  kings  seem  to  have  made  a 
distinction  between  idolatrous  and  Jehovistic 
shrines;  but  it  is  said  of  at  least  five  of  them 
(see  above),  to  their  disparagement,  that  they 
allowed  them  still  to  stand.  (3)  It  is  plain,  that, 
after  the  temple  was  built,  the  worship  at  the 
high  places  w'as  largely  idolatrous.  In  propor- 
tion as  the  temple  was  forgotten,  the  sacrifices  on 
local  altars  increased,  and  the  people  did  "  as  the 
lieathen  did"  (2  Kings  xvii.  11,  xxiii.  13,  etc.). 
(4)  It  is  evident  that  there  must  have  been  some 
development  in  the  minds  of  the  people  in  favor 
of  the  central  temple,  and  against  all  high  places, 
before  Hezekiah's  reign.  (5)  In  general,  the  ritual 
and  worship  at  these  local  altars,  after  Solomon's 
accession,  must  be  regarded  as  having  degenerated 
from  the  old  and  better  standard.  It  has  been 
said  that  the  "  temple  of  Solomon  never  stands 
contrasted  with  the  popular  high  places  as  the 
seat  of  the  Levitical  system  "  (Professor  Smith, 
chap.  ix.).  But  the  very  construction  and  existence 
of  the  temple  were  a  protest  against  the  local  wor- 
ship. The  statement  also  ignores  the  fact  that 
the  priests  at  the  local  shrines  were,  for  the  most 
part  at  least,  not  ]>evites,  and  stood  in  antago- 
nism to  the  priesthood  of  the  temple  (1  Kings 
xii.  31;  2  Kings  xxiii.  9;  2  Chron.  xi.  15). 
They  seem  to  have  been  a  distinct  order.  Slore- 
over,  the  same  books  of  the  Kings  and  Chronicles 
give  the  account  of  the  temple,  its  building  and 
furniture,  which  describe  the  development  and 
flourishing  condition  of  the  worship  on  the  high 
places ;  .so  that  violent  injustice  nm.st  be  done  to 
the  narrative  as  a  whole  in  order  to  evade  the 
conclusion  that  the  tenqile  was  meant  to  be  the 
central  shrine,  and  that  the  sacrificial  worship  at 
the  local  altars  was  thenceforth  illcgitiniate. 

As  in  the  case  of  so  many  other  truths  of  divine 
revelation,  the  people  in  tliis  one  likewise  failed 
for  a  while  to  com|ireiiend  its  spirit,  and  to  obey 
the  letter,  but  afterwards  were  led  to  fall  iu  with 
the  providential  design.  Not  only  was  the  tem- 
ple ignored  by  the  erection  of  many  local  altars, 
but  the  very  temple  it.self  was  ilespoiled  by  kings 
heathen  in  practice,  like  Ahaz  (2  C'lnon.  xxviii. 
24  Sep),  and  made  the  receptacle  for  heathen 
altars  and  heathen  rites. 

Lit.  —  Gksknuis  :  Thfmurus  ;  Of.iii.ku  :  A. 
Vliche  TlieoL,  I.  pp.  393  sq. ;  Speaker's  Commen- 
tary, Leviticus,  Excursus  nii  chiip.  xxvi. ;  the  excel- 
lent art.  Ili'ihendiensl,  by  Rikiim,  in  Rikhm's 
Ilandwiirterhuch ;  arts.  Ilijih  Places,  in  Smitii'.* 
JJilil.  Did.  (Canon  Fahhau)  and  .ScriAFK'.s  Bible 
Did.  I'or  views  opposite  to  tliose  expressed 
aliove,  .see  Wklliiauskn  :  (i<scli.  Israels,  i^p.  17- 
.')3  (/)er  Orl  tl.  GoltcMlicnsts)  ;  W\  R.  Smith  : 
'/'he  0.  T.  in  the  Jeicish  Cliurch  (chap,  ix.) ; 
KuKNKN  :  lieliyion  of  Israel  (London,  1874)  ;  the 
art.  Hbhendienst,  in  IIekzuu,  R.  E.,  2d  ed.  (by 


HIGH  PRIEST. 


991- 


HILARY  THE   DEACON. 


Wolf  Baudissix)  ;  Reuss  :  Gesch.  il.  h.  Schriften 
A.  y.  (§  l-i7);  and  the  Histories  of  Ewald  and 
others.  See  also  the  Commentaries  on  Lev.  xxvi. 
30,  and  1  Kings  iii.  2-4.  U.  s.  scii.vff. 

HIGH  PRIEST.  The  high  priest  was  the  spirit- 
ual head  and  representative  of  the  theocratic  peo- 
ple before  Jehovah.  In  him  was  concentrated 
the  mediatorship  between  God  and  people;  and 
in  him  the  people  could  draw  nigh  to  God.  As 
in  his  person  the  people  was  represented,  his  sin 
offering  and  that  of  the  congregation,  which  was 
to  be  brought  for  certain  sins,  as  prescribed  Lev. 
iv.,  were  the  same.  His  sin  was  the  people's  sin 
(Lev.  iv.  3),  and  God's  good  will  towards  the  high 
priest  also  belonged  to  the  people.  The  high 
priest  was  in  the  midst  of  a  holy  people,  "the 
saint  of  the  Lord"  (Ps.  cvi.  16).  In  him  the 
highest  degree  of  purity  had  to  be  found,  and 
only  in  exceptional  cases  (Lev.  xxi.  1-0)  could  he 
defile  himself .  otlierwise  he  had  to  avoid  every 
thing  whereby  he  could  be  defiled.  He  had  even 
to  keep  away  from  liis  dead  father  or  mother 
(xxi.  10-12).  His  wife  was  to  be  a  virgin  of  his 
own  people  (xxi.  14).  Aaron's  consecration  to 
the  priesthood  was  in  connection  with  that  of  his 
sons  and  the  priests  generally  (Exod.  xxix.;  Lev. 
viii.).  The  ritual  connuenced  by  washing  Aaron 
.and  his  sons  before  the  taljernacle  of  the  congre- 
_gation.  Aaron  was  then  invested  with  the  sacred 
garments,  and  anointed  with  the  holy  oil,  wliich 
was  prepared  according  to  Exod.  xxx.  22-25. 
Aaron's  successor  was  not  anointed,  but  received 
only  the  high  priest's  garments.  Without  the.se 
garments,  the  high  priest  was  only  a  private  per- 
son, who  could  not  represent  the  people,  and  in- 
curred the  penalty  of  death  by  appearing  before 
.Jehovah  without  them  (Exod  xxviii.  3.5)  His 
(h'ess  was  peculiar,  and  passed  to  his  successor  at 
liis  death.  The  articles  of  his  dress  consisted  of 
tlie  following  parts  :  (1)  The  breeches,  or  drawers, 
of  linen,  covering  the  loins  and  thighs;  (2)  The 
coat,  a  tunic  or  long  shirt;  (3)  The  ijlrdle,  also  of 
linen :  these  three  articles  he  had  in  connnon  with 
the  other  priests.  Over  these  parts  he  wore  (4)  the 
robe,  or  the  epliod,  being  all  of  blue.  The  skirt 
of  his  robe  had  a  remarkable  trimming  of  pome- 
granates in  blue,  red,  and  crimson,  with  a  liell  of 
gold  between  each  pomegranate  alternately.  The 
bells  were  to  give  a  sound  when  the  high  priest 
went  in  and  came  out  of  the  holy  place  (Exod. 
xxviii.  35).  Over  the  robe  came  (5)  the  epliod, 
•one  part  of  which  covered  the  back,  and  the  other 
the  front :  upon  it  was  placed  (0)  the  breastplate. 
The  covering  of  the  head  was  (7)  the  mitre,  or 
upper  turban,  which  was  different  from  (S)  the 
bonnet.  The  mitre  had  a  gold  plate,  engraved 
with  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord,"  fastened  to  it  by  a 
ribbon  of  blue.  For  the  functions  to  be  per- 
formed annually  on  the  day  of  atonement,  dresses 
of  white  linen  were  pre.scribed  (Lev.  xvi.  4).  The 
office  of  the  Old-Testament  priesthood  was  two- 
fold, —  that  of  mediatorship  and  that  of  a  teacher 
or  messenger  of  the  Lord  (Mai.  ii.  7).  The  func- 
tions of  the  high  priest  were  the  same  as  those  of 
the  conunon  priests.  He  had  oversight  over  the 
service  of  the  temple  and-  the  temple  treasury 
(2  Kings  xxii.  4  sq.).  The  succession  in  the  high 
priesthood  was  probably  regulated  in  the  manner 
of  the  right  of  succession,  —  that  the  lir.st  son, 
provided   there    were   no    legal    difficulties,    suc- 

n-ir 


ceeded  his  father ;  and,  in  case  he  had  died  al- 
ready, his  oldest  son  followed.  The  number  of 
high  priests  from  Aaron  to  Phannias  was,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus  (Aiilt.,  XX.  10)  eighty-tliree; 
viz.,  from  Aaron  to  Solomon,  thirteen ;  during 
the  temple  of  Solomon,  eighteen  ;  and  fifty-two  in 
the  time  of  the  second  temple.  Aaron  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Eleazar  (Num.  xx.  28),  who  was  fol- 
lowed by  Phinehas  (Judg.  xx.  28).  Wlio  the  suc- 
cessors of  Phinehas  were  till  tlie  time  of  Eli,  we 
do  not  know.  To  enter  into  the  different  theories 
of  who  they  were,  or  were  not,  is  not  (jur  object. 
From  Shallum,  the  father  of  Ililkiah,  the  high 
priest  in  Josiah's  reign,  we  can  again  follow  up 
the  succession  of  high  priests.  According  to 
Josephus,  Ililkiah  was  followed  by  Seraiah,  who 
was  killed  by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Kiblah  (2  Kings 
XXV.  18  sq.).  His  son  was  Jehozadak,  w^io  went 
into  the  captivity  (1  Chron.  v,  41 ;  A.  V.,  vi,  15). 
and  who  was  the  father  of  Jeshua,  who  opens  the 
series  of  high  priests  in  Neh.  xii.,  which  ends 
with  Jaddua,  who  was  high  priest  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great.  Jaddua  was  followed  by 
Onias  I.  his  son,  and  he  again  by  Simon  I.,  the 
Just;  then  followed  Onias  IL,  Simon  IL,  Onias 

III.  The  last  high  priest  was  Phannias,  who  was 
appointed  by  lot  by  the  Zealots  (Josephus,  War, 

IV.  3,  8).  With  him  the  Old-Testament  high 
priesthood  ignominiously  ended.       DELITZSCII. 

HILARION,  St.,  b.  at  Thebathar,  near  (iuza, 
290 ;  d.  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  371 ;  studied  in 
Alexandria;  embraced  Christianity;  visited  St. 
Anthony;  gave  away  all  his  wealth  to  the  poor 
on  his  return  to  his  native  place  in  307 ;  retired 
to  the  desert  near  Magum  to  live  as  a  hermit; 
gathered  a  great  number  of  pupils,  wliom  he  set- 
tled in  various  places,  and  became  thus  the  found- 
er of  nionasticism  in  Palestine.  He  also  visited 
Libya,  Sicily,  and  Dalmatia;  and,  according  to 
legend,  he  everywhere  performed  a  great  number 
of  miracles.  His  life  was  written  by  St.  Jerome. 
He  is  commemorated  by  the  Roman  Church  on 
Oct.  21. 

HILARY  OF  ARLES  (Hilarius  Arelatensis), 
St.,  b.  403  ;  d.  449  ;  entered  very  early  the  monas- 
tery of  Lerinum,  where  his  uncle,  Ilonoratus,  was 
abbot.  Houoratus  afterwards  became  Bishop  of 
Aries;  and  on  his  death  (429)  Hilarius  succeeded 
him  in  the  episcopal  chair.  He  was  very  enthu- 
siastic for  the  ideas  of  nionasticism,  and  lived 
together  with  the  clergy  of  his  church  as  monks 
in  a  monastery.  In  spite,  however,  of  his  per- 
sonal hunulity,  he  was  ratlier  haughty  when  exer- 
cising his  official  authority.  As  Bishop  of  Aries 
he  was  metropolitan  of  the  provinces  of  Viennen- 
sis  and  Narbonnensis ;  and  as  such  he  came  into 
conflict  with  Leo  I.,  who,  however,  compelled  him 
to  yield.  He  wrote  a  Vila  S.  Honorati,  a  poem  on 
the  creation,  etc.,  which  have  been  edited  by  Sali- 
nas, Rome,  1731,  who,  however,  ascribes  several 
works  to  him  which  are  not  by  him,  and  are  found 
in  Max.  Bibl.  Patrum.,  T.  VIII.  See  BXhr  : 
Chrisdicli-riimische  Litteratur  nERZOG. 

HILARY  THE  DEACON  (Hilarius  Diaconus), 
a  deacon  of  the  Church  of  Rome :  lived  about 
380;  partook  in  the  schism  of  Lucifer  of  Cagli- 
ari,  and  wrote,  according  to  Jerome,  a  work  in 
defence  of  his  opinions  on  heretical  baptism. 
The   so-called   Amhrosiaster    and    the    Qua:siiones 

V.  et  N.  Test.,  in  the  works  of  Augustine,  are  also 


HILARY. 


992 


HILARY. 


often  ascribed   to  him.      See  Richakd  Simon  : 
Hi.sloire  critique  des  principaux  commentateurs  du 

K.  r..  p.  •2--yj. 

HILARY  (Hilarius),  Bishop  of  Rome  461-4CS; 
the  successor  of  Leo  I. ;  was  a  native  of  Sardinia ; 
and  was  present  at  the  Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus 
(449)  as  papal  legate.  As  pope  he  showed  him- 
self very  zealous  for  the  maintenance  of  the  met- 
ropolitan system,  for  the  establishment  of  annual 
jirovineial  synods,  etc. 

HILARY,  Bishop  of  Poitiers  (Pictavium),  the 
place  of  his  birth,  was  b.  early  in  the  fourth 
centiu'v  ;  d.  3G6.  lie  shone  like  a  clear  star 
alongside  of  the  gi-eat  champions  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  —  Athanasius,  Basil,  and  the  two  Grego- 
ries.  Among  the  teacliers  of  the  AVest  of  his 
day  he  was  beyond  dispute  the  first,  and  bore  a 
strong  resemblance  to  Tertidlian,  both  in  disposi- 
tion and  scientific  method.  He  employed  an 
elegant  Latin  style.  His  pai-ents  were  Pagans, 
and  of  high  social  standing.  Hilary  enjoyed  tine 
facilities  for  education.  In  the  introduction  to 
his  treatise  on  the  Trinity  he  describes  the  stages 
a  Pagan  passes  through  in  reaching  the  knowl- 
edge of  God,  whicli  heathen  philosophy  reveals 
dimly,  Christianity  clearly.  This  description 
evidently  depicts  his  own  experience.  He  had 
reached  the  years  of  manhood  when  he  professed 
Christianity.  A  statement  of  uncertain  value 
speaks  of  his  wife  and  daughter  as  following  him. 
About  the  year  350  the  popular  voice  called  him 
to  the  bishopric  of  Poitiers. 

The  times  were  times  of  conflict.  The  Em- 
peror Constantius  determined  to  make  Arianism 
the  prevailing  creed  of  the  West,  as  it  liad  be- 
come of  the  East.  This  end  he  endeavored  to 
secure  by  intimidating  the  bishops.  Hilary 
placed  liimself  in  antagonism  to  the  emperor, 
and  devoted  all  his  energies  to  resist  the  spread 
of  -Vrianism.  His  persuasions  induced  a  number 
of  the  Gallic  bishops  to  refuse  comnnmion  with 
the  Arian  bishop  of  Aries,  — ■  Saturniuus  ;  and  in 
a  letter  to  the  emperor  (35.5)  he  calls  upon  him 
to  desist  from  his  policy  of  coercion.  At  the 
Council  of  Beziers  (35()),  presided  over  by  Satur- 
niuus, the  Arians  were  in  the  majority,  and 
silenced  Hilary  by  tlieir  tumult  wlien  he  arose  to 
defend  the  Kicene  faitli.  A  few  months  after- 
ward lie  w'as  banished  to  Phrygia,  where  his 
leisure  was  employed  in  studies  of  tlie  (jreek  lan- 
guage and  literature,  and  in  making  himself 
acquainted  with  the  parties  and  doctrines  of  the 
Eastern  Church.  In  359  he  wrote  his  work  on 
.synods  (De  Si/nodis),  —  an  historical  survey  of  the 
confessions  of  the  Eastern  Cliurch,  with  a  defini- 
tion of  his  own  position.  The  best  product  of 
the  exile  (359  or  3(i0)  was  a  treatise  on  the 
Triinty  (Lib.  XII.  de  Trinilale).  Aroused  by 
the  Arian  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Coii.stantino- 
ple  (360),  he  wrote  a  second  letter  to  Constantius, 
offering  to  defend  his  faith  publicly  before  him 
and  a  synod.  The  court  diil  not  grant  his  ]iro- 
I'osal,  but,  deeming  that  he  was  doing  more 
mischief  in  tlie  East  than  lie  could  do  in  Gaul, 
ordered  him  back  to  Poitiers. 

On  his  return,  Hilary  was  regarded  as  the  cham- 
]iion  of  the  Xicene  faith.  The  Council  of  Paris 
(301),  under  his  leiwl,  excommunicated  Satur- 
iiinus.  He  now  .sought  to  clear  Italy  of  Arian- 
ism, and  appeared  suddenly  at  Milan,  to  prefer 


charges  against  its  bishop,  Auxentius.  The  latter, 
however,  stood  in  high  favor  with  the  emperor; 
and  Hilary  was  driven  out  of  the  city.  He  ex- 
plained his  course  in  this  matter  in  a  work  against 
Auxentius  (305).  According  to  Sulpicius  Severus 
{Chron.  ii.  45),  he  died  the  following  year. 

Hilary  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  and 
original  characters  of  early  Christianity.  His 
distinguishing  cliaracteristics  were  fidelity  to  the 
church  creed,  acuteness  in  argument,  and  resolu- 
tion in  action.  He  knew  no  fear.  He  wielded 
a  keen  sword  when  he  defended  apostolic  truth 
against  heretics,  or  vindicated  the  prerogatives 
of  the  Church  against  the  encroachments  of  the 
civil  power.  Yet,  when  the  differences  concerned 
non-essentials,  he  displayed  a  conciliatory  dispo- 
sition. His  power  lay  essentially  in  his  thorough, 
acquaintance  with  the  Scriptures.  His  earliest 
literary  labor  was  a  Commentary  on  JIatthew, 
and  one  of  the  latest  an  Exposition  of  the  Psalms. 
His  other  exegetical  \\orks  are  lost.  Much  to  be- 
regretted  is  the  loss  of  his  collection  of  hymns- 
which  the  Spanish  churches  used. 

His  work  on  the  Trinity  is  a  scriptural  con- 
firmation of  the  philosophic  doctrine  of  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  and  is  of  permanent  value. 
It  was  not  a  mere  restatement  of  traditional 
orthodoxy,  but  a  fresh  and  living  utterance  of  his- 
own  experience  and  study.  In  the  discussion  of 
the  co-essentiality  of  the  Son,  Hilary  lays  em- 
phasis on  the  Scripture  titles  and  affirmations,^ 
and  especially  on  his  bir(k  from  the  Father,  which 
he  in.sists  involves  identity  of  essence.  In  the 
elaboration  of  the  divine-human  personality  of 
Christ,  he  is  more  original  and  profound.  The 
incarnation  was  a  movement  of  the  Logos  towards 
humanity  in  order  to  lift  humanity  up  to  partici- 
pation in  the  divine  nature.  It  consisted  in  a 
self-emptying  of  himself,  and  the  assumption  of 
human  nature.  In  this  process  lie  lost  none  of 
his  divine  nature ;  and,  even  during  the  humilia- 
tion, he  continued  to  reign  everywhere  in  heaven 
and  on  earth.  Christ  assumed  liody,  soul,  and 
spirit,  and  passed  through  aU  stages  of  human 
growth,  his  body  being  really  subject  to  pain  and 
deatli.  Redemption  is  the  result  of  Clirisfs  vol- 
untary substitution  of  him,self,  out  of  love,  in  our 
stead.  Between  the  (iod-man  and  the  believer 
there  is  a  vital  communion.  As  the  Logos  is  in 
the  Father,  by  reason  of  his  divine  birth,  so  we 
are  in  liim,  and  become  partakers  of  his  nature, 
by  regeneration  and  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper. 

The  christology  of  Hilary  is  full  of  fresh  and 
inspiring  thousjiits,  which  deserve  to  be  better 
known  than  they  are.  He  was  created  a  doctor 
of  the  Catholic  Church  by  Pius  IX.,  at  the  .synod 
of  Bordeaux,  1851. 

Lit.  —  Best  editions  of  Hilary  by  Er.^smus, 
Basel,  1.523,  etc.  ;  the  Benedictine  edition  by  Con- 
stant, I'aris,  1693 ;  the  same,  reprinted  and 
improved  by  Maffei,  Verona,  1730;  Migne: 
I'alrnhy.,  vols.  ix.  x.  (without  critical  value). 
For  his  life.  —  Sulpic.  Sevkrus  :  Chron.  ii.  39- 
45;  HiKUONYMu.s  :  Vir.  III.,  chap.  100-Epist.  6 
(Ad  Florcnt.),  Epist.  7  (Ad  Lntam),  Epist.  13 
(Ad  MfK/niitn),  etc. ;  Co.nstant.  :  Vilii  St.  IliUir., 
Paris,  1093;  Heinkens:  Ilihir.  v.  I'oilicr.s  Sduatt'- 
hausen,  1804;  [Baltzeu:  Die  Tlieoloyie  den  lieiii- 
yen  Ilitariut  von  Poitiers,  Rottweil,  1879  (pp.  61)- 


HILDA. 


993 


HILLEL. 


See  the  Church  Histories  of  Neandek,  Milman, 
SCHAFK,  etc.,  and  Dokneu's  History  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  the  Person  of  Christ^  SEMISCU. 

HILDA,  St.,  a  grand-niece  of  Edwin,  king  of 
Northumbria ;  b.  about  617;  devoted  herself  to 
a  religious  life  from  her  thirteenth  year;  became 
abbess  of  Heorta  (now  Hartlepool)  in  650,  and 
founded  the  celebrated  abbey  of  Whitby,  where 
she  died  680.  See  Butleu  :  Lives  of  Haints,  Nov. 
18  ;  Mrs.  Jameson  :  Legends  of  the  Monastic 
■Oni/Ts,  pp.  58-02. 

HILDEBERT,  b.  at  Lavardin,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Loir-et-Cher,  1055;  d.  at  Tours,  Dec.  18, 
1134;  was,  according  to  some,  a  pupil  of  Beren- 
ger  ;  according  to  other.s,  a  monk  of  Clugny ; 
superintended  the  cathedral-school  of  Le  Mans 
.from  1079  to  1092,  and  was  in  1096  or  1098 
chosen  bishop  of  that  dioce.se.  In  this  position 
iie  encountered  much  trouble  from  his  own  chap- 
ter, from  AMlliam  Rufus  of  England,  from  the 
I'evival  preacher  Henry  of  Lausanne,  and  others. 
At  one  time  he  even  went  to  Rome,  demanding 
to  be  relieved  from  his  duties;  but  Paschalis  II. 
would  not  give  his  consent.  In  1125  he  was 
chosen  Archbishop  of  Tours ;  and  there,  too,  he 
met  with  difficulties,  though  in  the  mean  time 
he  had  raised  himself  to  one  of  the  foremost 
places  among  the  ecclesiastics  of  his  time.  His 
works  were  first  edited  by  A.  Beaugendre  (Paris, 
1708),  and  then  by  J.  .J.  Bourasse,  in  Mkine: 
J'lilr.,  171.  They  consist  of  Epislohe  to  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux,  Anselm,  William  of  Champeaux, 
.and  others,  Diplomata,  Sermones  (a  hundred  and 
forty-three  in  Migne),  Opuscule  (among  which  are 
Libellus  tie  quaiuor  virtntilms.  strongly  influenced  by 
Cicero,  and  Tractnltts  theuloi/icus,  iirt)balil\'  nothing 
but  a  fragment  of  the  smnwa  of  Hugo  of  St.  Vic- 
tor), and  finally  Poemata.  His  life  was  written  by 
Hebert-Duperron  (18.58)  and  Deservillers  (1877). 
Full  information  as  to  tlie  literature  is  found  in 
€iiKVALiKi!  :  Repertoire,  lS7>i.      WAGEXilANN. 

HILDEBRAND.     See  Gregory  VII. 

HILDEGARDE,  St.,  b.  in  the  castle  of  Bockel- 
Iieim,  1098 ;  was  educated  in  the  Benedictine 
nunnery  of  Disibodenberg,  by  Jutta  von  Spon- 
Jieim,  whom  .she  succeeded  as  abbess  in  1136; 
■and  founded  in  1147  the  monastery  of  Ruperts- 
berg,  where  she  died  in  1178.  She  received  pro- 
phetical visions ;  and,  as  these  were  recognized 
by  the  Church,  she  came  gradually  to  occupy  a 
very  exceptional  position,  and  to  exercise  a  very 
■extraordinary  influence,  in  the  German  Church. 
4She  is  connnemorated  on  Sept.  17,  but  she  was 
never  canonized.  Her  writings,  Sciaias  (first 
printed  in  Paris,  1513,  and  Cologne,  1628),  Liber 
Dii-inorum  Operum,  Explanatio  Reytdce  S.  Benedicti, 
Physica  (nine  books).  Letters,  etc.,  are  found  in 
Migne  :  Patrol.,  T.  197.  Her  life  was  written  by 
Stilting,  in  A.  S.  Boll,  ad  17Sept.,  and  by  Dahl, 
Mayence,  1832.  Complete  bibliographical  informa- 
tion  is  found  in  Linde  :  Die  Handsch.  d.  Landesb. 
ill  Wiesbaden,  Wiesb.,  1877.  [See  also  Richaud: 
.Sainte  Hildegarde,  Aix,  1876.]  BENRATH. 

HILL,  Rowland,  an  eccentric  and  popular  Eng- 
lish preacher ;  b.  at  Hawkestone,  Aug.  23,  1744 ; 
d.  in  London,  April  11,  1833.  In  1764  he  entered 
St.  .lohn's  College,  Cambridge  ;  and  during  his 
university  course  he  came  under  the  influence  of 
j\lr.  AN'hitetield  and  the  Methodists.  He  aroused 
opposition  by  preaching  without  a  license,  and  by 


following  the  methods  of  the  Methodists,  and 
only  secured  ordination  after  six  bishops  had  re- 
fused to  perform  the  service.  In  1773  he  obtained 
the  parish  of  Kingston,  Somersetshire,  but  con- 
tinued to  indulge  his  favorite  taste  for  open-air 
preaching.  In  1783  he  built  Surrey  Chapel,  Lon- 
don, having  fallen  heir  to  a  considerabUt  fortune. 
He  continued  to  preach  almost  up  to  the  very 
day  of  his  death,  attracting  immense  audiences 
wherever  he  went.  In  the  sunnner  months  he 
went  off  on  preaching-tours  through  (ireat  Brit- 
ain. He  was  an  eccentric  man,  and  gifted  with 
wit,  and  rare  powers  of  drollery,  which  he  used  in 
the  service  of  religion.  Sheridan  used  to  say,  "I 
go  to  hear  Rowland  Hill,  because  his  ideas  come 
red-hot  from  the  heart."  In  the  Arminian  con- 
troversy he  espoused  the  Calvinistic  side,  and 
wrote  some  bitter  pamplilets  against  John  Wes- 
ley, the  tone  of  which  he  afterwards  regretted. 
His  principal  w-ork  was  the  collection  of  Villaqe 
Dialogues  (1810,  34th  ed.,  1839),  in  which  he 
treats  of  current  religious  abuses,  and  general 
religious  topics,  in  a  homely  and  familiar,  but 
terse  and  often  sarcastic  way.  See  Life,  by  Sid- 
ney, London,  1833  (4th  ed.,  1844);  iMemoirs,hy 
Rev.  W.  Jones,  London,  2d  ed.,  1840 ;  and  Memo- 
rials, by  SnEHM.\N,  London,  1851. 

HILLEL,  the  nio.st  distinguished  rabbi  of  the 
century  just  preceding  the  Christian  era,  was  the 
son  of  a  poor  Jewish  family  living  in  Babylon ; 
d.  in  Jerusalem  late  in  the  reign  of  Herod  the 
Great,  —  according  to  Uelitzsch,  about  4  B.C. 
Our  knowledge  of  his  life  is  drawn  exclusively 
from  the  Talmud,  which  gives  an  admiring  pic- 
ture of  his  acuteness  of  mind,  and  suavity  of  dis- 
position. The  whole  narrative  is  exaggerated, 
but,  according  to  Delitzsch,  is  to  be  accepted  in 
its  general  outline.  In  many  cases  it  is  evidently 
unreliable;  and  such  statements  as  that  Hillel 
reached  the  age  of  Moses  (a  hundred  and  twenty), 
etc.,  will  be  received,  in  spiite  of  the  Jewish 
writer  Geiger,  with  some  grains  of  allowance  by 
a  critical  age. 

At  an  early  age  Hillel  went  to  Jerusalem,  where 
he  worked  as  a  day-laborer,  using  half  of  his 
wages,  a  cictoriatus  (twelve  cents),  for  the  suji- 
port  of  his  family,  and  the  other  half  to  gain 
admission  to  the  Beth-ha-Madrasli,  where  Shem- 
aiah  and  Abtalion  were  teaching.  On  one  occa- 
sion, unable  to  pay  the  adndssion-fee,  he  clam- 
bered up  to  a  window,  where  he  sat  the  night 
through,  listening  to  the  discussions,  and  unmind- 
ful of  the  snow,  which  was  falling,  and  gradually 
covered  him  up.  There  he  was  espied  the  next 
morning  by  the  teachers  within.  This  incident 
opened  to  the  day-laborer  the  way  to  fame ;  and 
he  became  the  founder  of  a  school  which  was 
rather  more  liberal  than  that  of  his  contemporary, 
Shammai.  Hillel's  memory  has  been  only  re- 
cently rescued  from  oblivion.  He  was  no  doubt 
a  pure  moralist;  but  the  little  we  know  of  him  is 
wholly  inconsistent  with  the  claim  which  has 
been  made  for  him  as  the  teacher  and  peer,  and 
even  tlie  superior,  of  Christ.  Geiger  says,  "  Hillel 
presents  us  with  the  picture  of  a  genuine  reformer. 
Jesus  uttered  no  new  thought."  And  Renan,  in 
his  Life  of  Christ,  calls  Hillel  "Christ's  real  teach- 
er, from  whose  example  Christ  had  learned  to 
bear  poverty  with  patience,  and  to  oppose  priests 
and  hypocrites." 


HILLER. 


994 


HINDS. 


It  only  requires,  however,  a  careful  reading  of 
the  stories  handed  down  of  Hillel's  mental  acute- 
ness,  to  become  convinced  that  he  moved  in  the 
circle  of  Pharisaism,  and  never  got  beyond  the 
narrow  prejudices  of  his  class.  He  was  simply  a 
rabbi  (perhaps  the  best  and  purest  of  his  order), 
a  man  of  the  school,  following  precedent ;  but  he 
was  in  no  sense  a  reformer  for  the  race,  nor  do 
any  of  his  sayings  live  as  sources  of  power  and 
influence  in  the  world.  Over  his  tomb  the  words 
were  uttered,  "  Oh  the  gentle,  the  pious,  the 
scholar  of  Ezra !  "  They  were  no  doubt  appropri- 
ate, but  it  would  be  preposterous  to  apply  them 
to  Christ.  He  is  the  author  of  the  saying,  "  What 
is  unpleasant  to  thyself,  do  not  to  thy  neighbor. 
This  is  the  whole  law,  and  all  the  rest  is  commen- 
tary upon  it."  This  has  been  highly  praised,  and 
it  is  no  detraction  of  its  beauty  to  say  that  Jesus 
gave  a  better  summary  of  the  law  when  he  made 
a  statement  of  its  positive  requirements  (Mark 
xii.  30).  The  Talmudic  illustrations  of  Hillers 
intellectual  adroitness  betray,  if  not  a  want  of 
veracity,  at  least  the  spirit  of  rabbinism  and 
hair-splitting  casuistry  which  Jesus  so  fearlessly 
rebuked.  Of  those  incidents  which  place  him  in 
an  unenviable  light,  the  most  striking,  perhaps, 
is  the  one  which  relates  how,  at  the  sacrifice,  he 
passed  oif  an  ox  for  a  cow  by  swinging  the  ani- 
mal's tail  to  and  fro,  and  so  concealing  its  gender. 

The  centuries  have  judged  both  the  Jewish 
rabbi  and  the  world's  Redeemer.  Hillel,  says 
Delitzsch,  "  is  dead,  and  has  his  place  as  the 
representative  of  a  system  of  outlived  ceremonies 
of  the  past ;  Jesus  lives,  and  all  the  progress  of 
civilization  is  the  advancmg  victory  of  the  light 
that  goes  out  from  him." 

Lit.  —  The  Ilislories  of  the  Jews,  of  Ewald 
(v.  14-'28),  Gratz  (iii.  172  sqq.),  Stanley  (iii. 
499-51'2),etc. ;  Geigeu  :  D  Judenlhum  u.  s.  Gesch., 
2d  ed.,  Breslau,.  1866  (i.  99-107);  Keim:  Hist, 
nf  Je.iun  of  Nazara  ;  Farrar:  Life  nf  Chri-xt,  \o\. 
ii.,  excursus  iii;  Schurek:  N-  T'liche  Zeitgesch., 
pp.  455  sqq.  ;  Kisch  :  Lehen  u.  Wirkeii  Hillels  d. 
Ersten,  Wien,  1877 ;  and  especially  the  able  bro- 
chure of  Delitzsch  :  Jesus  u.  Hillel,  Erlangen, 
.3d  ed.,  1879.  D.  8.  sciiaf'f. 

HILLER,  Philipp  Friedrich,  b.  at  Mulilhausen, 
Wiirtemberg,  Jan.  6,  1669  ;  d.  at  Steinheini,  April 
24,  1769  ;  studied  at  Tubingen  1719-24  ;  and  was 
appointed  pastor  of  Neckargroningen  in  17.i2, 
afterwards  of  Miihlhausen,  and  finally  of  Stein- 
heim.  In  1751  he  lost  his  voice;  and,  being  thus 
excluded  from  the  pulpit,  he  devoted  himself  to 
hymn-writing.  He  wrote  more  than  a  thousand 
hymns  and  religious  songs,  of  whicli  many  are 
still  living  in  the  German  Church.  A  complete 
collection,  together  with  a  life  by  C.  Ehmann, 
appeared  at  Keutlingen,  1844.      wagenmann. 

HIMYARITES.     See  Akaiiia. 

HIN.    SiM!  Weiciits  and  Measures. 

HINCKS,  Edward,  D.D.,  b.  in  Cork,  Ireland, 
August,  17112;  d.  :il  Killolcagh,  County  Down, 
Dec.  i,  1»66.  Me  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Dublin,  and  in  1826  became  rector  of  Kille- 
leagh.  His  father  was  T.  1).  Ilincks,  I.I..D., 
professor  of  Oriental  languages  in  the  Helfast 
Acaflemical  Institution,  and  lie  inherited  a  great 
fondness  for  languages.  He  occupies  an  lioiiori'd 
place  among  the  early  scholars  of  Egyptology  and 
Asayriology,  and  to  him  much  of  the  brilliant  prog- 


ress in  these  directions  is  owing.  His  success  is 
the  more  remarkable  as  his  straitened  means  pre- 
cluded the  purchase  of  many  books,  or  residence 
at  the  centres  of  such  studies. 

HINCMAR  OF  LAON  was  made  Bishop  of 
Laon  in  858  by  the  aid  of  his  uncle,  Hincmar  of 
Rheims ;  but  opposing  the  king  in  the  most  wil- 
ful manner,  refusing  obedience  to  his  metropoli- 
tan, and  finally  excommunicating  his  own  chapter,, 
he  governed  his  diocese  with  such  an  arbitrari- 
ness, that  he  was  deposed  by  the  synod  of  Douzi 
(871),  presided  over  by  his  own  uncle.  The  king 
took  him  prisoner,  and  had  him  blinded.  Adrian 
H.  interfered  in  vain,  in  his  behalf.  John  VIII. 
gave  him  permission  in  871  to  read  mass.  He- 
died  in  882.  A  few  of  his  letters  have  come- 
down to  us,  and  are  foimd  in  Sirmond's  edition; 
of  the  works  of  Hincmar  of  Rheims. 

HINCMAR  OF  RHEIMS,  b.  about  806;  d.  at 
Eperna}-,  Dec.  21,  882;  was  educated  in  the  mon- 
asteries of  St.  Denis  and  Corwey;  came  to  the 
court  during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Louis,  and 
formed  the  most  intimate  relation  with  his  son,^ 
King  Charles  the  Bald.  At  the  synod  of  Verneuil 
(844),  the  king  recommended  him  for  the  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  Rheims,  which  had  stood  vacant 
since  the  deposition  of  Ebo  in  835,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  was  regularly  elected  and  con- 
secrated. He  ruled  his  diocese  with  great  firm- 
ness, and  was  generally  successful  in  maintaining 
his  metropolitan  authority  over  his  suffragan  bish- 
ops, even  in  the  face  of  the  Pope;  but,  though  he 
actually  was  the  most  prominent  representative  of 
the  French  Church,  he  failed  in  securing  for  him- 
self the  primacy  of  France ;  this  dignity  being, 
conferred  on  Archbishop  Ansegisus  of  Sens.  Very 
remarkable  is  the  use  which  Hincmar  made  ot 
the  Pseudo-Isidorean  decretals  in  his  administra- 
tion. He  evidently  considered  them  fraudulent, 
and  strongly  opposed  the  introduction  of  this  new 
law  in  the  church,  except  in  cases  in  which  the 
law  .spoke  in  his  favor;  then  he  appealed  to  it 
himself.  In  the  theological  movements  of  his 
time  Hincmar  also  played  a  conspicuous  part, 
though  as  a  theologian  he  was  without  origi- 
nality. In  the  predestination  controversy  with 
(Jottschalk  (which  article  see)  he  stood  alone. 
Rabanus  left  him  in  the  lurcli.  John  Scotus 
Erigena,  Hatranmus,  Prudentius,  Servatus  Lupus, 
and  others,  declared  .against  him.  But  he  never 
gave  in.  In  the  transubstantiation  controversy 
he  sided  with  I'aschasius  Radbertus.  One  of  his 
best  literary  performances  is  his  Annals  of  Rheims 
continued  by  Flodoard.  Shortly  before  his  death 
he  was  driven  away  from  Rheims  by  the  Nor- 
mans. 

Lit.  —  His  works  were  edited  by  Sirmondr 
Paris,  1645;  and  in  Mioxe:  PalniL,  125,  126. 
See  Gess:  Merkwiinlifikeiten  mis  d.  Lcben  u.  Schrif- 
ten  Hinkmars,  (icittingen,  1806;  Prichard:  The 
Life  ami  Times  nf  nincmiir,  Littlemore,  1849- 
Diaz:  De  Vita  el  Iiu/enio  Hinrmur,  .\gendici,  1859 ; 
XooRDEN  :  Hiiikmfir  V.  A'..  Bonn,  18(i3;  VmiEU  : 
Hincmar  <l.  /i.,  Paris,  1K75;  [Sduai.kk  :  llink- 
tiKirs  ran  ith(  iiiis  kaiinnistisches  (iiilavtilen  lilier  il. 
Khescheiilunq  (1.  Kiinii/s  I.nthar  If.,  Freibnrg-i.-Br., 
IHSl ;  SriiRims:  //.,  1884].    ai.hre(;ht  vooel. 

HINDS,  Samuel,  li.  in  the  Islaml  of  Marba<loes, 
1793;  d.  at  .Notting  Hill,  London,  Feb.  7,  1872. 
After  graduation  at  Oxford,  he  went  (1819)  a* 


HINTON. 


995 


HIPPOLYTUS. 


missionary  to  Barbadoes,  but  returned  to  Eng- 
land, and  became  successively  vice-principal  of 
8t.  Albau's  Hall,  Oxford  (1827),  vicar  of  Yard- 
ley,  Hertfordshire  (1834),  chaplain  to  Archbishop 
Whately,  and  rector  and  prebendary  of  Castle- 
knock,  Dublin  Cathedral  (1843),  dean  of  Carlisle 
(1848),  and  bishop  of  Norwich  (1849).  He  re- 
signed his  bishopric  in  1S5S.  His  principal  works 
are  The  History  of  the  Early  Rise  and  Progress  of 
Cfiristianity,  London,  1829,  3d  ed.,  1850;  Ati  In- 
quiry into  t/ie  Proofs,  Nature,  and  Extent  of  Inspi- 
ration, and  into  the  Authority  of  Scripture,  Oxford, 
1831. 

HINNOM,  Valley  of.     Sep  Gkiien-na. 

HINTON,  John  Howard,  b.  at  Oxford,  March 
24,  1791 ;  d.  at  Bristol,  Dec.  17,  1873.  He  was 
educated  at  the  University  of  Edinburgh ;  entered 
the  Baptist  ministrj',  and  was  foi-  many  years  one 
of  the  most  intellectual  preachers  of  London. 
"  He  shared  with  Binney  the  honor  of  the  designa- 
tion 'the  students'  preachers.' "  His  best  known 
work  was  History  and  Topography  of  the  United 
States  (1832,  American  edition,  enlarged,  N.  Y., 
1853).  Among  his  theological  works  may  be 
mentioned  The  Harmony  of  Religious  Truth  and 
Human  Reason  (1832),  Treatise  on  Man's  Responsi- 
bility (1840).  There  is  a  complete  edition  of  his 
works,  in  seven  volumes.  —  James  Hinton,  son  of 
the  preceding;  b.  at  Reading,  1822;  d.  at  St. 
Michael,  Dec.  16,  1875.  He  was  the  foremost 
aural  surgeon  in  London;  at  the  same  time  he 
was  greatly  interested  in  philosophy,  and  wrote 
those  remarkable  works,  Man  and  his  DweUinq- 
place  (1858),  Life  in  Nature  (1871,  2d  ed.,  187.5), 
The  Mystery  of  Pain,  Philosophy  and  Religion 
(1882).  See  his  Life  and  Letters,  London,  1878, 
4th  ed.,  1881. 

HIPPO  (the  present  Bona),  a  Roman  colony 
on  the  northern  coast  of  Africa ;  was  the  seat  of 
two  councils  (393  and  426),  of  which  the  former  is 
interesting,  because  it  gave  the  first  express  defi- 
nition of  the  New-Testament  canon,  in  the  form 
in  whicli  it  has  ever  since  been  retained.  Augus- 
tine was  bishop  there  from  396  to  430.  See 
Petit  :  Voyage  a  Hippone  au  commencement  du  V 
siecle,  6th  ed.,  Paris,  1876. 

HIPPOLYTUS,  a  distinguished  ecclesiastical 
writer ;  b.  in  the  second  half  of  the  .second  cen- 
tury; d.  about  the  year  240.  Greek  was  his 
native  tongue ;  and,  although  this  may  point  to 
an  Oriental  birth,  he  was  in  Rome  at  an  early 
age.  He  heard  Irenseus  lecture  (Photius).  The 
vivid  minuteness  with  which  he  relates  the  for- 
tunes of  Callistus  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  he 
■was  in  Rome  under  Victor  (189-199).  At  the 
beginning  of  the  third  century  he  was  a  presby- 
ter, conspicuous  for  learning,  eloquence,  zeal,  and 
moral  earnestness.  He  dissented,  in  matters  of 
doctrine,  from  Victor's  successors  (Zephyrinus 
and  Callistus),  holding  the  view  that  heretics 
should  not  be  received  back  into  the  Church,  and 
favoring  the  subordination  theory  of  the  Trinity ; 
vrhile  they  were  inclined  to  Patripassianism.  He 
seems  to  refer  to  himself  as  bishop,  and  stood  at 
the  head  of  a  schismatic  body  in  Rome  (so  also 
Prudentius).  Thus  much  is  extracted  from  the 
author's  own  work,  the  Philosophoumena.  The 
other  notices  of  his  life  are  few.  Eusebius  (Hist., 
ri.  20,  26)  calls  him  bishop,  and  puts  his  life  In 
the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus  (222-235) ;  and 


Prudentius  (400)  designates  his  bishopric  as  Por- 
tus,  the  port  of  Rome.  .Jerome  (Cat.  Vir.  Illustr., 
61)  gives  nothing  more  about  him  than  a  few  of 
his  writings.  An  ancient  catalogue  of  Roman 
bishops,  which  Monimsen  puts  in  354,  states  that 
Vppolitus  presbyter,  with  the  Roman  BLshop  Pon- 
tianus,  was  banished  by  Severus  to  the  imhcalthy 
Island  of  Sardinia  (about  235).  It  does  not  say 
that  he  died  there ;  and  so  the  account  of  his 
death  by  Prudentius  can  be  harmonized  with  this 
statement,  but  is  not  corroborated  by  any  other 
testimony.  He  says  Hippolytus  was  regarded  as 
a  martyr  by  the  Roman  Church,  and  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Portus,  being  torn  to  pieces  by 
horses.  The  authenticity  of  this  account  is  justly 
denied  by  Dollinger,  on  the  ground  that  this 
mode  of  punishment  was  not  practised  by  the 
Romans.  In  1551  a  marble  statue  was  exhumed 
at  Portus,  which  represents  Hippolytus  in  a  sit- 
ting posture,  with  beard  and  high  forehead.  On 
the  chair  are  inscribed  the  titles  of  his  works. 

Writings.  —  In  1842  a  learned  Greek,  Minoides 
Minas,  employed  by  the  French  Government, 
found  at  Mount  Athos,  and  brought  to  Paris,  a 
number  of  manuscripts.  Among  these  was  one 
which  E.  Miller  published  at  Oxford  in  1851, 
under  the  title  Origen's  Philosophoumena  ,  or.  Refu- 
tation of  all  Heresies.  The  first  book  of  this  work 
was  known  before,  and  was  generally  ascribed  to 
Origen.  Of  the  original  ten  books,  the  second, 
third,  and  a  part  of  the  fourth,  are  still  wanting. 
It  is  almost  universally  agreed  by  critics  that 
this  work  is  by  the  hand  of  Hippolytus,  and  not 
Origen.  Baur  (Theol.  Jahrb.,  1853)  regarded  the 
presbyter  Cains  as  the  author ;  but  he  has  no  fol- 
lowers in  this  opinion. 

Hippolytus  displays  in  this  work  wise  judg- 
ment, large  information,  a  vi'ide  acquaintance 
with  the  writings  of  philosophers,  and  acuteness 
in  bringing  out  the  relation  of  the  ancient  phi- 
losophies to  the  Christian  heresies.  He  was  as 
harsh  and  uncompromising  a  foe  of  philosophy 
as  Tertullian.  The  Refutation  of  all  Heresies 
(nara  ■naouv  aipiotuv  l?ieyxoc)  is  a  polemical  work 
whose  main  object  is  to  refute  the  doctrines  (and 
especially  the  secret  doctrines)  of  the  Gnostics, 
and  to  abash  heretics  by  showing  that  their  views 
were  taken  from  Pagan  philosophy  and  Oriental 
theosophy.  Book  i.  gives  a  summar}'  of  the 
Greek,  Druid,  and  Indian  philosophies.  Books 
ii.  and  iii.  are  lost.  Book  iv.  begins  in  the  mid- 
dle of  an  account  of  Chalda?an  astrology,  and 
gives  an  account  of  the  magic  practised  at  that 
time,  etc.  Books  v.-x.  contain  the  account  of 
the  heresies.  In  v.  the  Ophites  (Naaseni,  Perati- 
cae,  Sethites,  Justinu.s)  are  treated;  in  vi.,  the 
followers  of  Simon  Magus,  and  Valentinus  and 
his  disciples;  in  vii.,  Basilides  (whose  views 
appear  to  us  in  an  altogether  new  phase)  and 
Marcion  ;  in  viii.,  the  Doketa?,  an  Arabian  Mo- 
noimos,  the  Quartodecimani,  and  the  Monta- 
nists;  in  ix.,  Patripassianism,  the  author  giving  a 
valuable  picture  of  the  congregation  in  Rome  at 
that  time ,  and  in  x.  he  summarizes  the  contents 
of  books  i.  and  iv.-ix.  It  was  from  this  sum- 
mary that  Theodoret  drew.  From  the  fact  that 
Hippolytus  looks  back  upon  the  administration 
of  Callistus  (217-222)  as  belonging  to  the  past, 
the  date  of  composition  may  be  assigned  pretty 
confideutlj  to  the  year  234. 


HIRSCHAU. 


996 


HITTITES. 


Other  writings  of  Hippolytus  ai'e  mentioned 
on  tlie  statue  discovered  at  Poutus,  to  tlie  iiiun- 
ber  of  tliirteen.  Tlie  greater  number  of  these 
iire  entirely  lost,  and  only  fragments  of  others 
remain.  Other  works  ascribed  to  him  (as  the 
fcaru  Bfjpuvoc  kcu 'WuKOf:,  Jpof  'lovSaiov;,  etc.)  are  so 
•different  in  style  from  the  Refutation  as  hardly  to 
be  genuine.  The  same  is  true  in  regard  to  the 
•exegetical  works  which  are  ascribed  to  him  on 
the  basis  of  notices  in  the  fathers,  manuscripts, 
etc.  The  fragments  on  Daniel,  however,  edited 
by  Bardenhewer  {D.  heil.  Hippol.  Comvitnlar  z. 
Buck  Daniel,  Freiburg,  1877),  we  may  confidently 
regard  as  genvnne. 

Lit.  —  [Editions  of  Hippolytus  by  Fabricics, 
Hamburg,  1716-18,  2  vols. ;  Gallaxdi,  in  Bibl. 
Patrum,  Venice,  1760.  Editions  .of  the  Pkilo- 
xojihoumena,  or  Refutation,  by  Miller,  Oxford, 
18.")1 ;  Lagarde,  Gottiugen,  1858 ;  Duxcker 
and  SciiXEiDEWix,  Gottingen,  1859 ;  Cruice, 
Paris,  1860.  His  Commentary  on  Daniel  was 
eilited  by  O.  Bardenhewer,  Freiburg-i.-Breis- 
gau,  1877.  A  translation  of  Hippolytus'  works 
will  be  found  in  Ante-Xicene  Library,  Edinburgh, 
1S6S.  Kijimel  :  De  Hippol.  vita  et  scriptis,  Jena, 
1839;  BcNSEX:  Hippolytus  and  his  Age,  Lon- 
don, 185'2,  4  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1854,  7  vols.;  Works- 
worth  :  S.  Hippolytus  and  the  Church  of  Rome, 
London,  1853,  2d  and  enlarged  ed.,  1880;  Dol- 
LIXGER :  Hippol.  u.  Kallistus,  Regensberg,  1853, 
English  tran.slation,  Edinburgh,  1876;  Ckuice  : 
Etudes  sur  de  nouveaux  documents,  etc.,  Paris, 
1855;  Lii'sius:  Quellen  d.  attest.  Ketzcrgcsch., 
Leipzig.  1875,  pp.  US  sqq.]  JACOBI. 

HIRSCHAU,  or  HIRSAU,  a  Benedictine  mona,s- 
tery,  now  destroyed,  but  once  very  famous,  in  the 
diocese  of  Spires,  was  founded  in  830  by  Count 
Erlafried  of  C'alw,  and  his  son  Bishop  Notting  of 
■N'ercelli.  The  first  monks,  numbering  fifteen, 
and  the  first  abbot,  Lindebert,  came  from  Fulda; 
and  the  traditions  of  that  flourishing  seat  of  learn- 
ing seemed  to  take  root  at  Hirschau.  But  about 
a  thousand  internal  dissensions,  the  avarice  of 
the  counts  of  Calw  and  the  plague,  completely 
ruined  the  institution.  For  half  a  century  the 
monastery  stood  empty,  until  Leo  IX.,  in  1019, 
compelled  the  counts  of  Calw  to  repair  the  build- 
ings, and  revive  the  institution.  Bv  its  new  ab- 
bot, Wilhehn  dor  Selige  (1069-91),  it'was  brought 
into  a  very  flourishing  condition  ;  and  through  his 
Constitutinnes  Hirsaugienses,  a  close  imitation  of 
the  Constitutiones  Cluniacenses,  it  exercised  a  great 
inflncnoe  on  otlier  German  monasteries.  During 
the  Reformation  it  was  transformed  into  a  theo- 
logical seminary,  and  in  1692  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  French.  Its  liistory  has  been  written  by 
Johann  Trittenheini,  abbot  of  Spanheim  (il.  1510), 
whose  Chrnnicon  //.  was  ]irinted,  Basel,  1559,  and 
thi>  Aiinalrx  II.,  at  St.  (iail,  1690. 

HIRSCHER,  Johann  Baptist,  h.  at  Altergarten, 
Wurtemberg,  .Ian.  20,  178S;  d.  at  Freiburg,  Sept. 
4,  1865;  wa.s  ajipointcd  professor  of  morals  and 
practical  theology  at  Tiibingen  1817,  and  at  Frei- 
burg 1837,  but  retired  into  jirivate  life  1863.  In 
.spite  of  a  certain  innate,  aristocratic  conservatism, 
wliich  prevented  liim  from  adojiting  a  truly  liber- 
al platform,  hi;  belonged  to  the  reform  party 
within  the  Homan-Catliolic  Church,  and  took  an 
active  part  in  public  life  liotli  before  and  after 
1848.     Several  of  his  books,  as,  for  instance,  On 


the  ifass  (1821),  Die  kirchlichen  Zustande  der 
Gegenwart  (1849),  etc.,  were  put  on  the  Index, 
and  he  submitted.  C.  weizsacker.  . 

HITCHCOCK,  Edward,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at 
Deerfield,  Mass.,  May  21,  1793;  d.  at  Amheret, 
Feb.  27,  1864.  lie  was  an  eminent  scientist, 
and  from  1825  to  1854  was  professor  in  Amherst 
College,  during  the  last  ten  of  which  years  he  was 
its  president.  By  his  geological  labors  he  won 
great  fame ;  but  his  scientific  attainments  served 
as  proofs  of  Christianity,  and  he  delighted  to  pre- 
sent .science  as  the  handmaid  of  religion.  Besides 
strictly  professional  works,  he  wrote  The  Religion 
of  Geology  and  its  Connected  Sciences  (1851),  and 
Religious  Truths  Illustrated  from  Science  (1857). 

HITTITES,  The.  Sons  of  Heth,  the  second 
son  of  Canaan.  Only  scattered  references  to  the 
Hittites  (DTin)  occur  in  the  Old  Testament,  from 
which  we  could  not  at  all  gather  a  true  idea  of 
them  at  the  time  of  their  power.  Generally,  it 
is  only  scattered  families  that  are  mentioned,  like 
those  of  Eijhron,  Ahimelech,  or  Uriah  ;  or  small 
communities,  such  as  may  have  led  to  their  being 
included  in  the  lists  so  often  repeated  of  the 
Canaanite  tribes.  Of  these  were  the  families  of 
Elon  and  Beeri,  with  whom  Esau  intermarried. 
In  Judg.  i.  26,  however,  the  land  of  the  Hittites 
is  at  a  distance  from  Palestine ;  and  the  same  is 
the  case  in  the  history  from  the  time  of  David. 
His  census  extended  as  far  as  the  Hittites  at 
Kadesh  (if  we  may  so  correct  "  Tahtim-IIod.shi," 
2  .Sam.  xxiv.  6,  as  suggested  by  the  LXX.  Alex.). 
Solomon  married  Hittite  women  (1  Kings  xi.  1)  ; 
and  the  kings  of  the  Hittites  are  mentioned 
(1  Kings  x.  29 ;  2  Chron.  i.  17 ;  2  Kings  vii.  6) 
as  parallel  with  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  of  Syria. 
They  are  the  same  as  the  "  kings  on  this  side 
Euphrates  "  (1  Kings  iv.  24). 

From  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  we  could  only 
gather,  then,  that  the  Hittites  were  of  a  Ilamitic 
race,  and  regarded  as  aliens  ;  that,  from  the  time 
of  Abr.ahani  to  David,  they  had  connnunities  or 
families  in  Palestine;  and  that,  from  the  time  of 
Solomon,  they  had  kings  and  territory  to  the 
north-east  of  Palestine.  Hero  the  Egyjitian  and 
A.ssyrian  monuments,  with  those  of  the  Hittites 
themselves,  discovered  within  the  last  few  years, 
greatly  add  to  our  knowledge. 

The  Egyjitians  called  the  Hittites  "Khita." 
They  .appear  in  the  reign  of  Thothmes  III.,  about 
1.500  B.C.  (Rawlinson),  as  inhabiting  a  "great 
land,"  l)ut  only  as  one  among  other  peoples.  Later 
they  became  predominant,  and  were  the  chief  ene- 
my met  by  Seti  I.  and  Rameses  H. ;  the  former 
of  whom  captured  their  western  cajiital,  Kadesh, 
on  the  Orontes,  and  the  latter  of  whom  gained  a 
victory  over  them  at  the  same  place  (about  1350 
B.C.),  entered  then  into  a  treaty  with  them,  and 
married  the  daughter  of  Khitas.ar,  their  king,  as 
descriljed  in  the  poem  of  Pentaur.  The  allies  of 
the  Hittites  are  mentioned  by  Pentaur ;  and  De 
Rouge  identified  them  with  tribes  .is  dist<ant  as 
the  extreme  west  of  Asia  Minor.  T'l's  is  not  now 
credited;  although  we  do  know  that  their  influ- 
ence and  arms  nmst  have  extended,  at  one  time, 
as  far  as  Smyrna. 

The  Assyrians  knew  the  Hittites  as  "Khatti." 
Like  the  Egyptians,  they  found  them  their  chief 
rivals  and  most  dangerous  enemies.  They  are 
iiieutioued  by  the  Babylonian  Sargon  in  tlio  six- 


HITTITBS. 


997 


HITZIG. 


teenth  century  B.C.,  before  the  A.ssyrian  Empire 
had  risen,  tiglath-pileser  I.  (B.C.  1120)  found 
the  Hittites  inluibiting  the  region  extending  west- 
ward and  southward  from  Carcheniish,  and  exer- 
cising a  wide  suzerainty  north,  almost,  if  not 
quite,  to  the  Euxine  Sea.  His  successors  engaged 
in  constant  wars  with  theni,  until  Sargon  extin- 
guished the  Ilittite  power  by  the  capture  of  Car- 
cheniish (717  B.C.),  and  its  incorporation  into  the 
As.syrian  Empire.  The  Khatti  are  mentioned  by 
Sennacherib  and  Esarhaddon  ;  but  their  name  is 
merely  applied  to  all  the  peoples  of  Syi'ia  and 
Phcenicia. 

The  monuments  of  the  Hittites  themselves  have 
been  identified  since  187C,  chiefly  by  the  labors  of 
Professor  A.  H.  Sayce.  The  first  known  were 
four  hieroglyphic  inscriptions  from  Plamath,  first 
faithfully  copied  in  the  Second  Statement  of  the 
American  Palestine  Exploration  Society  in  1873. 
Since  that  time  Hittite  monuments  with  inscrip- 
tions have  been  found  at  Carchemish  on  the  east, 
.at  Aleppo,  at  Ibreez  in  Lycaonia,  at  Marash,  at 
Boghaz  Keui,  and  Eyuk  in  the  Valley  of  the 
Halys,  and  as  far  east  as  Karabel,  between  Smyr- 
na and  Sardis.  The  inscriptions  have  not  yet 
been  deciphered ;  although  a  hopeful  key  has  been 
found  in  a  silver  boss,  which  contains  the  figure 
of  a  king,  with  his  name  of  "  Tarrik-tinmie,  king 
of  the  land  of  Erme,"  in  cuneiform  characters  of 
the  date  of  Sargon,  and  with  presumably  the  same 
legend  in  Hittite  characters.  As  yet,  however, 
no  well-verified  identification  of  any  character 
with  its  sound  or  meaning  has  been  made,  unless 
it  be  in  the  case  of  one  character  used  as  an  ideo- 
graph for  "a  god."  The  charactei's  are,  with  the 
probable  exception  of  a  few  determinatives,  al- 
most certainly  syllabic,  but  have  not  wholly  lost 
the  hieroglyphic  form.  They  are  written  in  bou- 
slropliedon  manner,  with  the  syllables  of  a  word 
one  above  another,  and  the  characters  raised, 
instead  of  incised.  The  monuments  accompany- 
ing the  inscriptions  show  a  people  generally  beard- 
less, with  the  pointed  hat,  a  loose  tunic,  and 
boots  turned  up  at  the  toes.  They  prove  tliat 
the  Hittites  penetrated  and  conquered  the  whole 
of  Asia  Minor  at  a  period  before  any  history 
known  to  us  of  that  region,  and  that  they  pos- 
sessed a  high  civilization,  such  as  could  construct 
the  famous  statue  of  "  Niobe,"  or  Cybele,  in 
Mount  Sipylus.  It  is  probable  that  from  them, 
quite  as  much  as  from  the  Phoenicians,  the  Greeks 
drew  the  rudiments  of  their  art ;  while  the  Cypri- 
ote and  Lycian  letters,  and  so  the  supplemental 
letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet,  came  very  probably 
from  the  Hittites.  Theirs  was  the  primitive  civil- 
ization, so  far  as  we  know,  of  Syria,  and  of  Asia 
Minor  from  Smyrna  to  Lake  Van. 

Their  language  is  not  yet  certainly  known,  as 
their  writing  is  still  undeciphered.  They  were 
almost  certainly  not  Shemitic,  as  the  hundreds  of 
names  that  have  come  to  us,  except  a  few  in 
the  Bible  which  were  easily  borrowed  from  their 
Phoenician  and  Hebrew  neighbors,  do  not  easily 
yield  a  Shemitic  etymology.  Such  Scripture 
names  as  Ephron,  Zohar,  Joram,  Uriah,  Elon, 
Beeri,  Judith,  and  Basemath,  are  plainly  She- 
mitic, and  may  be  either  adopted  or  translated 
names  ;  but  such  names  as  Khita-sar  and  Khilifv 
sar  (king  of  Khita  and  king  of  Helbon?),  with 
the  word  "sar"  (if  it  means  king;  which  is  a  loan 


word,  and  not  originally  Shemitic)  following  its 
noun,  show  a  non-Shemitic  construction.  It  is, 
besides,  difficult  to  see  how  a  really  inflecting  lan- 
guage could  invent  or  use  syllaliic  characters.  It 
is  probable  that  the  Hittites  had  their  origin  in 
the  mountainous  region  of  Central  and  Eastern 
Asia  Minor,  and  spoke  a  Proto- Armenian  or  Alaro- 
dian  language. 

Of  their  religion  we  know  little.  Ashima  is 
mentioned  (2  Kings  xvii.  30)  as  a  god  of  Ilamath. 
At  Ibreez  we  have  a  figure  of  the  great  Ilittite 
god,  Sandan,  —  a  god  of  agriculture.  At  Boghaz 
Keui  are  found  nearly  twenty  figures  of  male  and 
female  deities.  The  Syrian  god  Adad,  or  Hadad, 
may  have  been  originally  Hittite.  With  the  sof- 
tened aspirate  we  seem  to  have  the  name  in  Hado- 
ram,  son  of  King  Toi  of  Ilamath,  another  form  of 
whose  name  is  given  (2  Sam.  viii.  10)  as  Joram ;  the 
writer  hi  1  Chron.  xviii.  10  choosing  a  fonn  mean- 
ing Adad  is  exalted,  rather  than  one  meaning 
Jehovali  is  exalted.  It  is  remarkable,  however, 
that,  on  the  Assyrian  monuments,  the  element 
Jehovah  enters  into  the  name  of  the  King  Jau- 
bitiid,  who  is  also  called  Ilu-bihid.  This,  however, 
belongs  to  a  late  period,  when  the  Syrians  were  re- 
placing the  Hittites. 

Lit.  —  William  Hayes  AVaed  :  The  Hamath 
Inscriptions,  in  Second  Statement  of  the  Palestine 
Exploration  Societi/,  1873  (this  paper  is  accompa- 
nied by  careful  facsimiles)  ;  F.  Lenormant  : 
Sceaux  a  legenJes  en  ecriture  hamathc'enne,  in  Revue 
Arche'olo(ji([ne,  October,  1873  (an  acute  but  futile 
attempt  to  find  a  clew  to  the  character  on  some 
seals  brought  from  Koyunjik);  A.  H.  Sayce: 
Tlie  Hamathite  Inscriptions,  in  Transactions  of  the 
Soeietij  of  Biblical  Arch(eolor/y,  vol.  v.  pt.  1,  1876; 
the  same  :  The  Mlonmnents  of  the  Hittites,  and  The 
Bilingual  Hittite  and  Cuneiform  Inscription  of  Tar- 
kondhnos,  ib.,  vol.  vii.  pt.  2,  1881;  letters  in  The 
Academy,  Aug.  16  and  Nov.  1,  1879,  Aug.  21, 
1880;  also  The  Decipherment  of  the  Hittite  Inscrip- 
tions, in  Ilie  Independent,  New  York,  Ma;)  18, 
1882.  See  also  E.  Schrader  :  Keilinschrifte  u. 
Geschichtsforschung,  pp.  221-236;  F.  Delitzsc.i  : 
Wo  lag  das  Parodies,  pp.  263-280 ;  T.  K.  Ciieyke  • 
Hittites,  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  vol.  xii.  pp.  2.5-27;  W- 
St.  Chad  Boscawen:  Carchemish  the  Capital  of 
the  Hittites,  in  The  Independent,  New  York,  April 
28  and  May  .5,  1881.      -WILLIAM  hayes  ward. 

HITZIG,  Ferdinand,  a  learned  and  bold  exe- 
gete  and  critic  of  the  Old  Testament ;  the  son  of 
a  rationalistic  preacher ;  was  b.  at  Hauingen  in 
Baden,  June  23,  1807 ;  d.  at  Heidelberg,  Jan.  22, 
1875.  He  piu-sued  the  study  of  theology  at  Hei- 
delberg under  Paulas,  at  Halle  imder  Gesenius, 
and  at  Gdttingen  under  Ewald,  to  whom  he  after- 
wards dedicated  his  Isaiah  as  the  "  founder  of  a 
new  science  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  Old- 
Testament  exegesis."  In  1830  he  became  docent 
at  Heidelberg;  and  in  1832  was  called  to  Zurich, 
where  he  remained  tiU  1861,  when  he  was  chosen 
as  Umbreit's  successor  in  Heidelberg.  At  Zurich 
Hitzig  publicly  announced  himself  in  favor  of 
callmg  Strauss.  He  was  a  man  on  the  one  hand 
without  fear  or  hypocrisy,  and  on  the  other  of 
a  polemic  temperament  and  caustic  wit,  which 
seemed  to  exclude  personal  piety  and  gentleness. 
Notwithstanding  this,  however,  he  was  of  pious 
nature,  and  not  only  loved  the  Old  Testament, 
but  sought  to  serve  the  kingdom  of  God  by  his 


HIVITB. 


998 


HOBART. 


investigations.  He  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  his 
colleagues  and  friends.  We  can  adopt  the  words 
of  Keini,  in  the  dedication  of  his  Histonj  of  Jerius 
(January,  1875,  2d  ed.,  etc.):  "  To  the  memory  of 
F.  Hitzig,  the  honest  man  without  fear,  the  faith- 
ful friend  without  deceit,  the  pride  of  Zurich  and 
Heidelberg,  the  bold,  restless  architect  of  biblical 
science." 

As  an  exegete  and  critic  Hitzig  was  distin- 
guished by  untiring  indu.sti-y,  acute  penetration, 
uncorruptible  love  of  truth,  and  thorough  scholar- 
ship. He  often  succeeded,  as  in  the  department 
of  textual  criticism  ;  but  the  number  of  confident 
but  untenable  assertions  preponderate.  The  Cnm- 
mentari/  nn  Isaiah  is  his  best  work.  We  agree  with 
Hupfeld,  that  the  translation  sliows  the  hand  of 
a  master,  hut  with  him  must  regret  the  author's 
failure  "  to  understand  tlie  religious  spii'it  of  the 
prophet,  and  his  apparent  resolution  to  detect  the 
most  improbable,  and  to  overlook  the  most  natu- 
ral sen.se."  This  is  especially  true  of  the  second 
part  of  The  Psahns  (Heidelberg,  new  and  enlarged 
edition,  1S63-6.5),  wherein  the  author,  in  all  ear- 
nestness, not  only  puts  the  larger  number  of  the 
psalms  in  the  century  just  before  Christ,  but  gives 
the  circumstances  under  which  each  was  written 
as  exactly  as  tliongh  he  could  hear  the  grass  grow- 
ing under  his  feet  (Bleek  :  Einl.  ins  A.  T.,  p.  619). 
In  1869-70  the  History  of  the  People  of  Israel  ap- 
peared (Leipzig).  It  comes  down  to  72  B.C.  ;  but 
it  was  not  the  author's  intention  to  give  a  history 
of  the  religion  of  Israel.  Its  assumptious  are,  as 
might  be  expected,  numerous  and  arbitrary.  The 
sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  for  example,  is  put  down 
at  four  years.  He  hazarded  many  conjectures 
where  none  were  needed.  In  185.5  Kwald  espied 
in  his  old  pupil  a  real  intellectual  brother  of 
Hengstenberg. 

It  was  a  waut  of  what  the  English  call  common 
.<ien.'!(?  which  prevcnt<^d  this  gifted  and  truth-loving 
investigator  to  such  a  remarkable  degree  from 
becoming  an  exemplary  exegete  an<l  a  tru.stvvorthy 
historian.  Ewalil  was  fully  justified  when  he 
complained  that  Hitzig  mad(^  that  whicli  was 
beautiful,  and  tender  in  .Solomon's  Song  dis- 
agreeable and  repidsive  :  that  he.  in  an  almost 
incredible  manner,  declared  the  first  nine  chap- 
ters of  the  Proverbs  to  ha\'e  been  the  last  com- 
posed, etc.  B\it,  in  spite  of  this,  he  will  always 
have  a  place  of  prominence  among  his  contempo- 
raries, and  his  woi'ks  will  for  a  long  time  remain 
a  fountain  of  quickening  to  many. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  works  already  mentioned 
Hitzig  wrote  Bei/rijfil.  Kritil;  tins  A.  T.  pral'tisck 
eriirtert  (Heidelberg,  1831),  Commentaries  on  Jere- 
miah (1811,  2d  ed.,  1866),  Ezekiel  (1817),  Ecclesias- 
tes  (1847),  Daniel  (1S50),  Sonr;  of  Solomon  (18.55), 
Prni'erhs  (Ziirich,  1858),  Minor  Projihets  (:J<1  ed., 
1863),  Job  (Heidelberg,  1874).  ANo  on  the  New 
Testament,  ./"//.  Markus  it.  s.  Srhriften,  Ziirich, 
1843  ;  Zur  Kritik  pnnlinisrher  liriefe,  I.,eipzig, 
1870;  Ostern  u.  Pfini/strn.  Zur  Zeitliestim.  im  A. 
«.  A'.  7'.,  Heidelberg,"  1838;  Grahsrhrif  J.  Darins. 
Ziirich,  1840;  nml  il.  Eschumnezar,  Lei]>zig,  1855; 
Jiihl.  Theoloifie  unit  mcssinn.  Weissai/..  ed.  .1.  rl. 
KNKircKKii,  Karlsrulie,  1880,  etc.  Hitzig  wa.s 
also  a  rontriliutor  to  Schknkhl's  liihel-LeTikon 
and  maiiv  periodicals.  KAMI'IIAUSKN. 

HI'VITE.    S...  Canaan. 

HOADLY,    Beniamin,    a    distinguished    Low- 


Church  divine  and  controversial  writer  of  the 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Wcstcrhani,  Kent.  Nov. 
14,  1676;  d.  atViuchester,  April  17, 1761.  He  was 
a  student  and  fellow  of  Catherine  College,  Cam- 
bridge ;  became  rector  of  St.  Peter-le-Poor,  Lon- 
don, 1704,  and  Streatham,  1710 ;  Bi.sliop  of  Bangor, 
1715;  was  .soon  translated  to  Hereford,  to  Salis- 
bury (1723),  and  to  \Vinche.ster  (1734).  Hoadly 
was  one  of  the  most  able  and  influential  prelates 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  one  of  tb.e  earliest 
representatives  of  the  principle  of  ecclesiastical 
toleration  in  the  Churcli  of  England  after  the 
Kestoiation  (1660).  He  was  a  typical  Broad  or 
Low  Churchman.  His  name  is  more  intimately 
a.s.sociated  than  any  other  with  the  so-called 
"  Bangorian  Controversy,"  which  engaged  the 
pens  of  fifty  writers,  some  of  them,  like  Law  and 
Sherlock,  among  the  ablest  of  their  day,  and  pro- 
duced an  intense  excitement  among  all  classes. 
It  arose  from  a  sermon  preached  by  Hoadly  in 
1717  from  John  xviii.  36  ("  My  kingdom  is  not 
of  this  world  ")  ;  in  which  he  declared  for  political 
toleration  irrespective  of  church  connection,  and 
a.sserted,  as  against  the  crown  and  clergy,  that 
Christ  was  the  only  authoritative  lawgiver,  etc., 
in  the  Church.  He  deprecated  in  the  strongest 
language  "men's  suffering  in  their  temporal  rights 
upon  account  of  any  differences  in  those  points  in 
which  the  reason  of  mankind  permits  them  to 
differ  "  (Preface  to  The  Common  Iti;/hts  if  Stil)- 
jects).  This  .sermon  was  brought  up  for  consid- 
eration in  convocation  (1717);  and  its  discussion 
threatened  to  lead  to  such  disastrous  consequences, 
that  the  body  was  prorogued  by  the  crown,  and 
did  not  sit  again  till  18.52.  Hoadly's  chief  work 
on  this  controversy  was  his  Common  Rii/hts  of 
Subjects  ilefemleil,  and  the  Nature  of  the  Sacramental 
Te<t  consiilereil:  an  Ansn-er  to  Dr.  Sherbn-k's  ]'in- 
ilicalion  of  the  Corporation  and  Test  /li'/.i,  l,ondon, 
1719.  Among  his  other  writings  were  an  Essay 
on  Miracles  (1702),  A  Brief  I'indiration  of  the 
Ancient  Prophets  (1709).  and  Sermims  (2  vols.,, 
17.54-55).  Collected  edition  of  his  works,  with 
a  Ijife,  in  3  vols.,  London.  1773.  See  al.so  SroUGil- 
Tox  :    lielifioti  in  Enifanil,  v.  412  sqq. 

HOBART,  John  Henry,  Protestant-Episcopal 
Bishop  of  New  York;  b.  in  Philadelphia,  Sept. 
14,  1775 ;  d.  at  Auburn,  Sept.  10,  1830.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  1793,  and  was  tutor  there  from 
1796  to  1798.  After  holding  several  parishes,  lie 
became  assistant  minister  of  Trinity,  New  York, 
assistant  Viishop  of  the  diocese  of  New  York  1811, 
and  bisliop  in  1816.  He  took  a  deep  interest  in 
tlie  (Jeneral  Theological  Seminary,  New-York 
City,  and  was  made  professor  of  pastoral  theology 
ami  pulpit  elocpience  in  1821.  In  1823  he  trav- 
elled in  Europe  on  account  of  his  health,  and  was 
one  of  the  first  Protestants  to  preach  in  Home. 
He  was  a  zealous  advocate  of  episco]ial  nrilina- 
tion,  and  engaged  in  a  controvcr.sy  with  Dr.  John 
I\I.  Mason  (Presbyterian)  of  New  Y'ork  on  that 
subject.  Ilobart  College,  (ieneva,  N.  Y.,  ]n'esei'ves 
ill  its  name  the  memory  of  the  bishoji.  Among 
Dr.  Hobart's  writings  were  Companiou  to  the  Altar, 
New  York,  1804,  13th  ed.,  1810;  Apolot/i/for  Apost. 
Order,  New  York,  1807,  new  ed.,  1814;  Sermons 
on  Redemption,  2  vols.,  I^ondon  and  New  Y^ork, 
1824.  .See  Posthumous  Works,  with  a  Memoir  by  Dr. 
Bkkkian  (New  York,  1833,  3  vols.),  and  Memoir nf 
liishop  Ihihart  by  Sciikokdick  (New  York,  1833). 


HOBBBS. 


999 


HODGE. 


HOBBES,  Thomas,  b.  at  Mahneslmry,  in  Wilt- 
shire, April  5,  158.S;  d.  at  Hardvvick  Hall,  in 
Devonshire,  Dec.  4,  1679.  lie  was  educated  at 
]\Iagdalen  Hall,  O.xford,  and  spent  the  first  part 
of  his  life,  up  to  11)37,  as  tutor  in  various  noble 
families,  often  travelling  on  the  Continent  with 
his  pupils,  and  the  last,  after  1037,  in  a  compre- 
hensive and  vigorous  literary  activity,  first  in 
Paris  (1G11-.52),  then  in  London,  or  in  the  coun- 
try with  tlie  Hardwick  family.  His  principal 
works  are  Elementa  Philosophica  de  Cine  (1642), 
Human  Nature  and  De  Corpnre  Politico  (1650), 
Leviathan  (1651,  new  ed.,  O.xford,  1881,  London, 
1882),  Lihertij  and  Necetmiti/  (1654),  etc.  His 
moral  and  political  works  were  first  collected  in 
1750 ;  all  his  works  in  1839-45,  by  Molesworth. 
The  Vita;  Hobhiana;  Auctorium  gives  iuW  informa- 
tion concerning  early  editions,  translations,  etc. 
The  philosophical  stand-point  of  Hobbes  maybe 
described  as  an  application  to  the  study  of  man 
of  the  method  and  principles  of  the  study  of 
nature ;  and  the  results  of  this  process  were  a 
psychology  and  a  morals  utterly  antagonistic,  not 
only  to  Christianity,  but  to  religion  in  general. 
On  account  of  the  merely  preliminary  stage  which 
the  science  of  nature  had  reached  in  the  time  of 
Hobbes,  his  conception  is  premature;  but  he  car- 
ried it  out  witli  great  vigor;  and  it  happens,  not 
unfrequently.  that  the  materialistic  p.sychology 
and  utilitarian  morals  of  to-day  return  to  his  writ- 
ings, and  adopt  some  modification  of  his  para- 
doxes. There  is  no  comprehensive  monograph  on 
Hobbes.  See  the  art.  by  G.  Croom  Koueutson, 
in  Eiii\j/c/fi/Kt(li(t  Brilaitnica. 

HOCHMANN,  Ernst  Christof,  surnamed  Hoch- 
enau,  b.  1670;  d.  1721;  .studied  law  at  Halle, 
but  was  relegated  from  the  university  on  account 
of  his  participation  in  the  extravagances  of  the 
Pietists.  In  1697  he  entered  into  relation  with 
Arnold  and  Dippel,  and  repaired  to  Francfort 
with  the  aim  of  converting  the  Jews.  But  riots 
arose;  and  he  retired  to  the  estates  of  Coimt 
Wittgenstein,  the  refuge  of  all  separatists  and 
my.stics.  From  1700  to  1721  he  wandered  about, 
preaching  in  public,  conducting  worship  in  private, 
denouncing  the  lukewarmness  of  the  clergy,  etc. 
He  was  often  arrested,  —  at  Detmold  1702"llano- 
ver  1703,  Nuremberg  1708-09,  Halle  1711,  etc.; 
but  he  found  also  many  adherents,  especially  at 
Crefeld,  Duisburg,  Muhlheim,  Wesel,  Emmerich, 
and  other  places  in  the  lihine-region.  Full  ac- 
count of  his  views,  influence,  writings,  etc.,  is 
found  in  M.  Gobel  :  Geschichte  des  christlichen 
Lehens  in  der  rhein-iceslfal.  Kirchc,  Coblenz,  1852, 
vol.  ii.  H.\r.ENBACH. 

HOCHSTRATEN.     See  Hoogstraten. 

HODGE,  Charles,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  of  .Scotch-Iri.sh 
ancestry  on  his  father's  side,  and  through  his 
mother  related  to  the  French  Huguenots  ;  b.  Dec. 
18,  1797,  in  Philadelphia,  where  his  grandfather, 
a  Christian  merchant  from  the  north  of  Ireland, 
had  settled  in  1735,  and  where  his  father,  a  godly 
physician,  died  when  the  subject  of  this  .sketcii 
was  only  six  months  old ;  cL  in  Princeton,  X.J., 
June  19,  1878.  He  matriculated  at  the  College 
of  New  Jersey  in  1812,  and  after  graduation  en- 
tered in  1810  the  theological  seminary  in  Prince- 
ton, having  among  his  classmates  his  two  life-long 
friends. — Inhu  Jolins,  afterwards  bi.shop  of  Vir- 
ginia, and  Charles  P.  Mcllvaiiie,  afterwards  bish- 


op of  Ohio.  In  1822  he  was  appointed  by  the 
fieneral  A.s.sembly  profes.sor  of  biblical  anil  Ori- 
ental literature.  In  1822  he  married  !>arah 
Bache,  great-grand-daughter  of  B(Mijamin  Frank- 
lin. Soon  after,  he  went  abroad  (1826-28)  to 
pro.secute  special  studies,  and  in  Paris,  Halle,  and 
Berlin  attended  the  lectm-es  of  De  Sacy,  Tlioluck, 
Heng.stenberg,  and  Neander.  In  1825'he  founded 
the  Biblical  Rep<mtory  anil  Princeton  Pericic,  and 
during  forty  years  was  its  editor,  and  the  princi- 
pal contributor  to  its  pages.  He  received  the 
degree  of  D.D.  from  Rutgers  College  in  1834, 
and  that  of  LL.D.  from  Washington  College, 
Penn.sylvania,  in  1864.  In  1840  Dr.  Hodge  was 
transferred  to  the  chair  of  didactic  theology, 
retaining  still,  however,  the  department  of  Kew 
Testament  exegesis,  the  duties  of  which  he  con- 
tinued to  discharge  until  his  death.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  General  Assembly  in  1846.  Fifty 
years  of  his  pi-ofessoriate  were  completed  in  1872, 
and  the  event  was  most  impressively  celebrated 
on  the  23d  of  April.  A  large  concourse,  includ- 
ing four  hundred  of  his  own  pupils,  assembled  to 
do  him  honor.  Repii'esentatives  from  various 
theological  institutes,  at  home  and  abroad,  min- 
gled their  congratulations  with  those  of  his  col- 
leagues; and  letters  expressing  deepest  sympathy 
with  the  occasion  came  from  distinguished  men 
in  all  quarters  of  the  land  and  from  across  the 
sea.  Dr.  Hodge  enjoyed  what  President  Woolsey, 
at  the  jubilee  just  referred  to,  hoped  he  might 
enjoy,  —  "a  sweet  old  age."  He  lived  in  the 
nudst  of  his  children  and  grandchildren  ;  and, 
when  the  last  moment  came,  tliey  gathered  roiuid 
him.  "  Dearest,"  he  .said  to  a  beloved  daughter, 
"  don't  weep.  To  be  absent  from  the  body  is  to 
be  present  with  the  Lord.  To  he  with  the  Loi-d 
is  to  see  him.  To  see  the  Lord  is  to  be  like  him." 
Of  the  cliildren  who  survive  him,  three  are  min- 
isters of  the  gospel ;  and  two  of  these  succeed  him 
in  the  faculty  of  Princeton  'Theological  Seminary, 
—  Dr.  C.  W.  Hodge,  in  the  department  of  exe- 
getical  theology,  ancl  Dr.  A.  A.  Hodge,  in  that 
of  dogmatics.  The  latter  wrote  his  father's  biog- 
raphy (1880). 

Dr.  Hodge  was  a  voluminous  writer,  and  fron. 
the  beginning  to  the  end  of  his  theological  career 
his  pen  was  never  idle.  In  1835  he  published  his 
Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  his  great- 
est exegetical  work,  and  one  of  tlie  most  masterly 
commentaries  on  this  Epistle  that  has  ever  been 
written.  Other  works  followed  at  intervals  of 
longer  or  shorter  duration,  —  Cotistilutional  History 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  the  United  States, 
1840;  Way  of  Life,  1841,  republished  in  England, 
translated  into  other  languages,  and  circulated  to 
the  extent  of  thirty-five  thousand  copies  in  Amer- 
ica; Commentary  on  Ephesians,  1856;  on  First 
Corinthians,  1857 ;  on  Second  Corinthians,  1859. 
His  maynum  opus  is  the  Systematic  Theoloyy  (1871- 
7-3),  of  3  vols.  8vo,  and  extending  to  2260  pages. 
His  last  book.  What  is  Darwinism?  appeared  in 
1874.  In  addition  to  all  this,  it  nmst  be  remem- 
bered that  he  contributed  upwards  of  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  articles  to  the  Princeton  Review, 
numy  of  which,  besides  exerting  a  powerful  in- 
fluence at  the  time  of  their  publication,  have  since 
been  gathered  into  volumes,  and  as  Princeton 
Essays,  Hodye's  Essays  (1857),  and  Hodge's  Discus- 
sions in  Church  Polity  (ed.  Rev.  William  Durant, 


HODQB. 


1000 


HOFFMANN. 


1878),  have  taken  a  permanent  place  in  our  tlieo- 
logical  literature. 

This  record  of  Dr.  Hodge'.s  literary  life  is 
suggestive  of  the  great  influence  that  he  exerted. 
But,  if  we  would  properly  estimate  that  influence, 
we  must  remember  that  three  thousand  ministers 
of  the  gospel  passed  luider  his  instruction,  and 
tliat  to  him  was  accorded  the  rare  privilege, 
during  the  course  of  a  long  life,  of  achieving  dis- 
tinction as  a  teacher,  exegete,  preacher,  controver- 
sialist, ecclesiastic,  and  systematic  theologian. 
As  a  teacher  he  had  few  equals ;  and,  if  lie  did 
not  display  popular  gifts  in  the  pulpit,  he  revealed 
homiletical  powers  of  a  high  order  in  the  "  con- 
ferences "  on  sabbath  afternoons,  where  he  spoke 
with  his  accustomed  clearness  and  logical  pre- 
cision, but  with  great  spontaneity,  and  amazing 
tenderness  and  unction. 

Dr.  Hodge's  literary  powers  were  seen  at  their 
best  in  his  contributions  to  the  Princeton  Review, 
many  of  which  are  acknowledged  masterpieces 
of  controversial  writing.  They  cover  a  wide 
range  of  topics,  from  the  apologetic  questions 
that  concern  our  common  Christianity,  to  ques- 
tions of  ecclesiastical  administration,  in  which 
only  Presbyterians  have  been  supposed  to  take 
interest.  But  the  questions  in  debate  among 
American  theologians  during  the  period  covered 
by  Dr.  Hodge's  life,  belonged,  for  the  most  part, 
to  the  departments  of  anthropology  and  soteri- 
ology ;  and  it  was  upon  these,  accordingly,  that 
liis  ]iolemio  powers  were  mainly  employed. 

Though  always  honorable  in  debate,  we  should 
nevertheless  not  be  likely  to  have  a  correct  idea 
■of  his  character,  if  we  judged  liim  only  by  the 
polenuc  relations  in  which  his  writings  reveal 
iiim.  Controversy  does  not  emphasize  tlie  anua- 
ible  side  of  a  man's  nature.  Dr.  Hodge  was  a 
man  of  warm  affection,  of  generous  impulses,  and 
of  John-like  piety.  Devotion  to  Cln-ist  was  the 
salient  cliaracteristic  of  his  experience,  and  it 
was  the  test  by  which  he  judged  the  experience 
of  othei-s.  Hence,  though  a  Presbyterian  and  a 
Calvinist,  his  sympathies  went  far  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  sect.  He  refused  to  entertain  the 
narrow  views  of  church  polity  which  some  of  liis 
brethren  advocated.  He  repudiated  the  unhis- 
torical  position  of  those  who  denied  the  validity 
of  Roman-Catholic  baptism.  He  gave  his  sympa- 
thy to  all  good  agencies.  He  was  conservative 
by  nature,  and  his  life  was  sjient  in  defending 
the  Keformed  theologj'  as  set  forth  in  the  W(!St- 
minster  symbols.  He  was  fond  of  saying  that 
Princeton"  had  never  oiiginated  a  new  idea ;  but 
this  meant  no  more  than  that  Princeton  was  the 
advocate  of  historical  Calvinism  in  opposition  to 
the  modified  and  provincial  Calvinism  of  a  later 
day.  And  it  is  true  that  Dr.  Hodge  must  l)c 
classed  among  the  great  defenders  of  the  faith, 
rather  than  among  the  great  constructive  minds 
of  the  Church,  lie  had  no  ambition  to  be  epoch- 
making  by  marking  the  era  of  a  new  departure. 
But  lie  has  earned  a  higlicr  title  to  fame,  hi  that 
he  was  the  champion  of  his  Church's  faith  during 
a  long  and  active  life,  lier  trusted  leader  in  time 
of  trial,  and  for  more  than  luilf  a  century  the 
most  conspicuous  teaclier  of  lier  ministry.  The 
garnered  wi.-jdom  of  his  life  is  given  us  in  his 
Sijsleniiilic  Tlieolnyy,  tlie  greatest  svstem  of  dogma- 
tics in  our  language.  Kll.VNCis  L.  I'ATTON. 


HODY,  Humphrey,  b.  at  Odcombe,  Somerset- 
shire, Jan.  1,  1G59;  d.  at  Oxford,  Jan.  20,  1706. 
In  1684  he  became  fellow  of  Wadham  College, 
Oxford,  in  1698  llegius  Professor  of  Greek,  and 
in  1704  archdeacon  of  Oxford.  In  reward  of  his 
support  of  the  ruling  party  in  their  treatment  of 
the  bishops,  who  hud  been  deprived  for  refusing 
to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  William  and 
^laiy,  he  was  appointed  (10U3)  chaplain  to  Arch- 
bishop Tillotson  and  Tenisou  successively.  But 
he  lives  as  author  of  a  classic  work,  De  bibliorum 
textilius  ori (jinalilius  cersionihus  GrcEcis  et  Latina 
Vidgala,  libri  iv.,  Oxford.  1705. 

HOE  VON  HOHENEGG,  b.  at  Vienna,  1580; 
d.  at  Dresden,  IGl.J;  studied  at  Wittenberg;  and 
was  appointed  third  preacher  to  the  electoral 
court  of  Saxony  1002,  superintendent  of  Plauen 
1603,  and  first  court-preacher  at  Dresden  1612. 
In  this  position  lie  exercised  an  almost  absolute 
influence  on  the  elector's  relations  with  Gustavus 
Adolphus  and  the  emperor.  But  his  hatred  of 
the  Calvinists  made  him  a  friend  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  ;  and  he  lent  a  willing  hand  to  the  mach- 
inations of  the  Jesuits  in  Bohemia,  simply  out  of 
rancor  against  the  Keformed  creed.  Besides  some 
polemical  essays,  ho  wrote  ( 'uinmenfur.  in  Apo'ca- 
lypsin,  1610-40",  2  vols.  THOLUCK. 

HOFACKER,  Ludwig  and  Wilhelm,  two  broth- 
ers of  rare  piety  and  ministerial  usefulness. 
Their  father  was  pastor  and  dcttni  in  Stuttgart. 
Ludwig  was  b.  at  AVildbad,  April  15.  1798;  was 
vicar  in  Stuttgart,  and  d.  Nov.  18,  1828,  as  pas- 
tor in  Ilielingshausen,  Wiirtemberg,  after  a  short 
ministry  of  four  years,  and  with  the  words  "Sav- 
iour, Saviour!"  Wilhelm  was  b.  in  CJiirtringen, 
Feb.  16, 1805  ;  pastor  at  Waiblingen  1833,  and  of 
St.  Leonard's  Church,  Stuttgart,  1835.  where  he 
d.  Aug.  10,  1848,  "  a  prince  of  God,  with  words 
of  eternal  life  on  liis  lips."  Thousands  flockeil 
to  hear  lioth  the  brothers.  The  former  appealed 
directly  to  the  conscience;  destroying  the  sinner's 
confidence  in  the  righteousness  of  works,  an<l 
presenting  the  atonement  by  Christ's  blood  as  the 
only  hope  of  the  soul.  He  said,  "  I  attack  souls  as 
with  the  approach  of  a  storm."  He  was  a  popu- 
lar orator,  who  is  sometimes  startling,  but  always 
rugged,  positive,  and  powerfid.  AVilhelm  like- 
wise preached  only  on  the  fundamental  themes 
of  grace  and  guilt,  but  his  rhetoric  was  more 
artistic  and  finished  than  his  brother's.  The 
former,  those  would  jirefer  who  would  rathei- 
drink  from  a  fresh,  rushing,  forest-brook  ;  the 
latter,  those  who  woidd  rather  kneel  at  the  clear, 
placid,  deep  waters  of  a  lovely  lake.  The  Ho- 
i'ackers  exerted  a  lasting  influence  upon  the 
religious  life  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  thousands 
of  copies  of  their  sermons  have  been  distrib- 
uted. 

Lit.  —  Ludwig  Hofacker  :  Prcdiglen  (Stutt- 
gart), and  Life  by  A.  Knait  (Ileidelb.,  27th  ed., 
l.S6(i);  Wii.iiKi.M  Hoi-ACKKH  :  Prcdifjlen  (Stutt- 
gart, 2(1  ed.,  18.")7),  and  Life  by  his  .son  L.  lIoK- 
ACKK.U  (Stuttgart,  1872).    '  ROBEKT  KilliKL. 

HOFFMANN,  Andreas  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Welbs- 
leben,  near  Magdeburg,  April  13,  1796 ;  d.  at 
Jena,  March  16,  1S(M;  studii'd  theology  at  Halle, 
more  especially  Oriental  langiiages,  under  Gese- 
nius,  and  was  appointed  ])rol'essor  of  theology  at 
.lena  in  1821.  His  iirincipal  works  are  O'ratiimatt- 
ca  Syriaca,  Halle,  1827,  twice  translated  into  Kng- 


HOFFMANN. 


1001 


HOFMANN. 


lish  by  Day  and  Harris  Cowper ;  and  Eniu-nrf  d. 
hehraischeii  Allfrlhiimer,  Weimar,  1832. 

HOFFMANN,  Daniel,  b.  at  Ilalle,  1540;  d.  at 
Wolfcnbiiltel,  Kill  ;  studied  tlieology  at  .lena; 
and  was  appointed  professor  at  Helnistjidt  in 
1576,  but  dismissed  in  1001.  The  occasion  of  his 
dismissal  was  a  controversy  with  liis  colleague, 
Caselius,  which  brought  much  disturbance  into 
the  working  of  the  university.  Hoffmann  was  a 
pupil  of  Ramus,  and  held  that  there  were  two 
kinds  of  truth,  —  the  philosophical  and  the  theo- 
logical; that  the  former  absolutely  contradicted 
the  latter ;  that  philosophy  could  not  be  studied 
without  great  harm  to  the  student,  etc.  Case- 
lius was  a  humanist,  and  protested  that  there 
were  not  two  kinds  of  truth,  but  only  two  means 
of  grasping  it,  —  reason  and  revelation  ;  that  phi- 
losophy and  theology  were  perfectly  agreed  when 
truly  understood ;  that  philosophy  was  an  indis- 
pensable aid  to  the  study  of  theology,  etc.  In 
the  heat  of  the  controversy  Hoffmann  was  led  to 
make  more  than  one  doubtful  assertion  ;  and  the 
theologians  of  the  strict  Lutheran  school,  who 
probably  held  the  same  views  as  he,  left  him  alone 
in  the  field,  provoked  as  they  were  by  his  pre- 
vious attacks  on  the  doctrine  of  ubiquity.  The 
principal  questions  were,  nevertheless,  well  put 
and  well  debated  ;  and  the  controversy  has  some 
interest  for  the  study  of  the  relation  between  phi- 
losophy and  theology.  See  Thomasius  :  De  Con- 
trol. Hoffmanniana,  Erlangen,  1844  ;  Schlek  :  Der 
Sireit  flex  D.  H.,  JNIarb.,  1870.       WAitENMANN. 

HOFFMANN,  Ludwig  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  court- 
preacher  in  Berlin,  and  general-superintendent 
of  Brandenburg ;  b.  Oct.  30,  1806,  in  Leonberg, 
Wiirtemberg,  the  birthplace  of  Schelling  and  Pau- 
lus ;  d.  of  heart-di.sease,  Aug.  28,  1873,  in  Berlin. 
His  father  was  a  thoughtful  pietist,  and  founder 
of  the  religious  colony  of  Kornthal  (1819).  His 
brother  Christoph  was  the  originator  of  a  move- 
ment for  the  colonization  of  Palestine.  After 
passing  through  a  theological  com'se  at  Ttibin- 
gen,  where  he  had  David  Strauss  for  a  fellow- 
student,  he  became  vicar  of  Heumaden,  and  in 
1834  pastor  in  Stuttgart.  In  1839  lie  was  made 
superintendent  of  the  Institution  for  Slissions  in 
Basel.  There  he  remained  for  twelve  years, 
giving  himself  up  with  great  enthusiasm  to  his 
duties  and  the  study  of  the  history  of  missions. 
During  this  period  he  published  a  number  of 
works  on  missions,  as  Minsionsslunden  u.  Vorlrd</e 
("  Missionary  Talks  and  Discourses  "),  Stuttgart, 
1847,  1851,  1853;  D.  Epochen  d.  Kirchengesch. 
Indiens  ("Epochs  in  the  Church  History  of  India"), 
1853,  etc.  From  Basel  he  passed  to  Tiibingen  as 
professor ;  and  from  there,  in  1852,  he  followed 
the  call  of  Frederick  William  IV.  as  court-preacher 
to  Berlin.  He  exerted  a  greater  influence  over  the 
king  of  Prussia  than  any  other  man,  in  favor  of 
ecclesiastical  union.  He  was  strongly  in  favor  of 
a  union  of  the  Reformed  and  Lutheran  churches 
on  the  basis  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  so  that 
there  might  be  "  one  evangelical  Protestant 
Church  with  two  confessional  types."  Hoffmann 
was  an  indefatigable  worker,  and  exerted  a  power- 
ful influence  as  an  evangelical  jireacher  who  sym- 
l^athized  with  the  theology  of  Bengel.  But  more 
attractive  and  imposing  than  his  literary  attain- 
ments was  the  frank  and  magnanimous  person- 
ality of  the  man.     [He  was  chosen  a  delegate  to 


the  conference  of  the  Evangelical  Alliance  in 
New  York  in  1873,  but  died  before  it  met.]  He 
pulilished  a  numl>er  of  volumes  of  .sermons  under 
the  titles  Ruf  znin  Hern,  (Berlin,  1854-58),  D. 
Posaunn  Deulacldanda  (1861-63),  etc.  See  Lehcn 
u.  Wirken  d.  Dr.  llojj'iuann,  by  his  son,  Berlin, 
1878-80,  2  vols.  KL'DOLF  KOOEL. 

HOFFMANN,  Melchior,  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent Anabaptist  leaders,  a  furrier  by  trade  ;  was 
b.  at  Hall  in  Suabia;  worked  in  Livonia  when 
the  Reformation  reached  those  regions ;  threw 
himself  with  the  native  enthusiasm  of  his  char- 
acter into  the  movement;  began  to  preach,  met 
with  great  opposition  ;  repaired  to  Wittenberg 
(1525),  and  returned  with  recommendations  from 
Lutlier ;  caused  great  excitement  in  Dorpat  and 
Reval,  and  was  finally  expelled  from  the  coun- 
try. On  his  return  to  Germany  he  was  very 
coldly  received  by  the  Reformers,  but  obtained, 
nevertheless,  an  appointment  as  preacher  at  Kiel, 
in  Holstein,  1527.  Soon  after,  however,  he  began 
an  attack  on  Luther's  doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per. A  commission  w-as  formed  to  investigate 
matters ;  and  he  was  convicted  of  here.sy,  and 
expelled  from  Holstein  1529.  His  divergence 
from  Luther  made  him  at  first  well  received  at 
Strassburg,  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that  he 
inclined  towards  the  Anabajitists.  He  began  to 
publish  prophecies,  and  soon  placed  himself 
openly  at  the  head  of  the  party.  In  Emden  he 
caused  sore  disturbances  in  1536 ;  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Strassburg  he  was  arrested,  and  kept  in 
prison  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  He  probably  died 
in  1542.  See  lives  by  Herrmann,  Strassb.,  1852 
[zuR  Linden,  Leiden,  18S5].  CUXITZ. 

HSFLING,  Johann  Wilhelm  Friedrich,  b.  at 
Drossenfeld,  near  Bayreuth,  1802;  d.  in  Munich, 
Ajiril  5,  1853;  studied  theology  at  Erlangen, 
1819-23,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  St.  Jobst, 
near  Nuremberg,  1827 ;  professor  of  theology  at 
Erlangen,  1833  ;  aud  member  of  the  consistory 
in  Munich,  1852.  His  principal  works  are  Das 
Sakrarnent  der  Taufe  (1846-48,  2  vols.)  and 
G'rundsdize  evangel isch-l ul!terischer  Kirchenverfas- 
sung  (1850),  occasioned  by  the  movement  of  1848, 
which  also  called  forth  a  debate  of  the  question 
of  church  constitution.  His  Liturgisches  Urkund- 
etibuch  (1854)  w-as  published  after  his  death,  by 
Thomasius  and  Hariiack.  HERZOG. 

HOFMANN,  Johann  Chr.  Karl,  afterwards  hon- 
ored by  Bavaria  with  the  title  von  Hofmann; 
was  b.  Dec.  21,  1810,  in  Niu-nberg,  where,  under 
the  tutelage  of  a  poor  but  pious  mother,  he  was 
trained  up  in  profound  respect  for  religion ;  d. 
Dec.  20,  1877,  in  Erlangen.  In  1827  he  went  to 
the  university  of  Erlangen,  and  in  1829  to  Berlin, 
walking  on  foot.  Hegel,  Schleiermacher,  Xean- 
der,  and  Hengstenberg  were  lecturing  side  by 
side  at  the  time.  But  Hofmann  gave  himself  up 
almost  exclusively  to  historical  studies,  under 
Ranke  and  Von  Raumer.  After  teaching  several 
years  at  the  gymnasium  in  Erlangen,  he  became 
repelent  at  the  university,  and  in  1835  writes : 
"  The  more  I  occupy  myself  with  Scripture  exe- 
gesis, the  more  powerfully  am  I  convinced  of  the 
certainty  that  the  divine  Word  is  one  single 
work,  and  the  more  am  I  stimulated  with  the 
glad  hope  that  our  generation  will  witness  the 
victory  of  the  truth  of  inspiration.  ...  It  is  a 
sheer   impossibility  that   the   prophecies   of  the 


HOFMANN. 


1002     HOHBNLOHE-WALDENBURG. 


prophets  and  apostles  are  false,  while  their  doc- 
trines are  true;  for  here  form  and  contents,  fact 
and  doctrine,  are  one;  and  this  is  the  distinguish- 
ing characteristic  of  revealed  truth.  ...  I  pray 
Ood  to  permit  me  to  see  the  Christ,  now  crucified 
by  his  enemies,  lifted  up  by  Himself,  that  I  may 
place  my  hands  in  the  print  of  the  nails,  and 
may  know  him,  in  the  glory  of  his  victory,  whom 
1  have  heretofore  loved  in  the  humility  of  his 
conflict  and  suffering."  In  1841  he  was  made 
professor  at  Erlangen ;  tlie  year  following,  ac- 
cepted a  call  to  Rostock,  exchanging  a  lecture- 
room  with  one  hundred  hearers,  for  one  with 
only  three ;  and  returned  in  1845  to  Erlangen, 
a  new  period  of  prosperity  for  the  university 
dating  from  that  tiiue.  VMiile  at  Rostock  he 
took  a  deep  interest  in  ecclesiastical  matters, 
laboring  zealously  with  Karsten,  "Wichern,  and 
others,  in  the  interest  of  missions.  He  was  also 
interested  in  political  aft'airs,  and  represented 
Erlangen  and  Furtli  at  several  sessions  of  the 
Bavarian  Parliament. 

Among  Hofmann's  first  publications  were  two 
historical  works,  —  Oesch.  d.  Aufnilir.i  in  d.  Seven- 
nen  (1837)  and  WelU/esch.  /.  tiijmnasien  (1839, 
2d  ed.,  Iy43).  His  first  eijort  in  theology  was 
D.  70  JaJire  d.  Jeremias  u.  d.  70  Jahrwodicn  d. 
Daniel  (1836).  The  70  weeks  of  Daniel  he  counts 
in  the  order  62-(-  l-f-7  (see  D.\nii:l).  The  62  ex- 
tend from  605  to  171  B.C.;  the  single  week,  from 
171  to  164.  The  other  7  mark  the  intervening 
period  before  Christ's  coming.  Weissaf/ung  u. 
Erftiilung  im  A.  u.  N.  Test.  (1841-44)  appeared 
at  a  time  wlien  two  views  of  prophecy  prevailed, 
llengstenberg  petrified  it  into  simple  prediction  ; 
speculative  criticism  dissipated  it  into  presenti- 
ment, and  placed  the  prophecies  after  events. 
Hofmann  brought  prophecy  into  closest  coimec- 
tion  witli  history,  and  treated  it  as  an  organic 
whole.  History  itself  is  prophecy;  and  each 
period  contains  the  germ  of  the  future,  and  pre- 
figures it.  The  entire  scriptural  history  is  a 
prophecy  of  the  final  and  eternal  relation  between 
God  and  man.  The  incarnation  nuirks  the  be- 
ginning of  the  csseiiliat  fulfilment;  for  Christ  is 
the  new  man,  the  antitype  of  the  old :  but  it 
marks  only  the  beginning  of  this  fulfilment;  for 
the  head  is  only  tile  realization  of  the  intended 
perfect  comnmnion  with  Cod,  when  it  is  joined 
with  the  body  of  believers.  Propliecy  in  tlie  OUI 
Testament  becomes  ever  richer  and  richer  in  its 
forms,  but  points  only  to  one.  goal,  —  the  (iod- 
nian.  He  is  then,  in  turn,  the  starling-point  for 
new  prophecy  and  hope  ;  his  appearance  being 
the  prefigurement  of  the  final  glorification  of  the 
church  of  believers.  The  permanent  worth  of 
this  work  consi.sts  in  the  proof  that  the  Old  and 
Xew  Testaments  are  parts  of  a  single  history  of 
salvation;  displaying  the  gradual  realization,  by 
divine  interpositions,  of  redemption  for  the  race. 

Hofmann'.s  second  great  work,  D.  Schrifdicweis 
(1852-56,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  18.57-00),  is  an  attempt 
to  prove  the  authenticity  and  clivine  origin  of 
Christianity  from  its  records.  He  lamented  the 
usual  metliod  of  doing  this  from  single  passages 
of  Scripture;  and  hiin.self  .sought  to  u.se  tlie  bibli- 
cal record  in  its  entirety,  as  one  organic  whole. 
He  started  from  the  idea,  that,  to  understand 
Christianity,  it  was  not  necessary  to  descrilx^  reli- 
gioii.s  experiences,  nor  rehearse  the  doctrines  of 


the  Scriptui-es  and  the  Church,  but  to  develop  the 
simple  fact  that  makes  us  Christians,  or  the  com- 
munion of  God  with  man,  mediated  by  Christ. 
Herein  he  differs  fimdamentally  from  Schleier- 
machei-,  who  starts  out  from  the  sense  of  absolute 
dependence  in  the  Cliristian's  experience.  Hof- 
mann starts  with  the  new  birth.  The  results  at 
which  they  arrive  in  their  systems  are  likewise 
different.  With  Hofmann,  all  is  historical ;  with 
Schleiermacher.  nothing.  This  work  aroused 
opposition.  The  author  had  denied  the  doctrine 
of  vicarious  atonement,  and  the  charge  was  made 
against  him  of  denying  the  atonement  altogether. 
To  this  he  replied  in  Hchutzschriflen  (1856-59). 

Hofmann"s  other  works  were  D.  Iieil.  Sclirifl. 
N.  T.'s  (1862-81,  9  parts),  Theol.  Ethik  (1878), 
Vennischte  Aufsalze  (Erlangen,  1878),  Encyclo- 
}iadie  der  Theoloi/ic  (1879),  and  Bihlische  Her- 
tueiieulik  (1880),  both  published  in  Ndrdlingen. 
[See  Gr.\u  :  Erinnenmyen  an  J.  C.  K.  v.  Hofmann, 
Giitersloh,  1879.]  "  ALBERT  HAUCK. 

HOFMEISTER,  Sebastian,  whose  true  name 
was  Wagner,  hence  his  learned  colleagues  called 
him  sometimes  (Economus  (a  translation  of  the 
first-mentioned  name),  or  Carpe.nlarius  (a  transla- 
tion of  the  last) ;  was  b.  at  Schatthausen,  1476 ; 
studied  in  Paris,  under  Faber  Stapulensis,  and 
was,  after  his  return  to  Switzerland,  appointed 
lector  in  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Ziirich.  Hav- 
ing adopted  the  ideas  of  the  Reformation,  he  was 
soon  removed  from  Ziirich  to  Lucerii;  but,  as  ho 
caused  great  disturbance  there  too,  he  returned 
in  1522  to  his  native  city.  In  Schaffhausen  he 
found  a  better  reception ;  and,  after  the  two  con- 
ferences at  Zurich  (.lanuary  and  December,  1523), 
the  Reformation  was  introduced,  and  he  was 
made  pastor  of  St.  John.  He  was  su.spected, 
however,  of  inclining  towards  Anabaptism,  and 
was  in  1525  sent  by  the  magistrate  to  Basel,  to 
have  his  orthodoxy  examined  and  verified.  As 
the  examination  did  not  result  in  the  certificate 
needed,  Hofmeister  went  to  Ziirich,  where  he 
became  Zwingli's  trusted  collaborator,  and  pastor 
of  the  Frauiniinster,  In  1.528  he  went  for  a  sliort 
time  to  Berne,  as  professor  of  Hebrew,  and  was 
finally  appointed  preacher  lit  Zofingen,  where  he 
died  1.533.  See  M.  KiKCiiiioi-i'.u :  5.  Wagner, 
gi'.nnnni  Hdf'mi'isler,  Ziirich,  1808. 

HOGE,  Moses,  b.  at  Cedar  Creek,  Va.,  Feb. 
15,  17."i2;  d.  in  I'hiladelphia,  July  5,  1820.  He 
was  ordained  in  the  Presbyterian  Church  1782, 
president  of  Hampden-Sidney  College  1807-20, 
and  profe.s.sor  in  the  .seminary  there  1812-20.  He 
was  much  admired  as  a  preacher.  By  his  widely 
ciiculated  C/irislian  Panophi  (1799),  in  reply  to 
I'aine's  Agi'  <if  Ilcdxnn.  lie  exert(Ml  a  great  intlu- 
ence.     .\  Volume  nt  his  .scrniuns  appeared  in  ISlM. 

HOHENLOHE-WALDENBURG-SCHILLINGS- 
FURST,  Alexander  Leopold  Franz  Emerich, 
Prince  of,  b.  at  Kupferzell,  ni'ar  Waldenburg, 
Aug.  17,1794;  d.  at  Viislau,  near  Baden,  Nov. 
17,  1849 ;  received  a  very  desultory  education  at 
Vienna,  Berne,  and  the  .seminaries  of  Tyrnau  and 
Ellwagen  ;  was  ordainc^d  priest  in  1810;  visited 
Rome,  and  then  settled  in  Bavaria,  where  he 
labored  in  Miinich,  Bamberg,  and  AViirzburg, 
jireaching  and  writing.  After  making  the  ac- 
ipiaintaniK"  of  Martin  Miclil,  a  peasant  who  cured 
sick  peojile  by  prayers,  the  pi-ince  also  began  to 
work  miraculous  cures.     The  sensation  he  pro- 


HOLBACH. 


1003 


HOLLAND. 


tiiiced  was  enormous ;  but  the  police  interfered, 
and  tlie  Pope  dared  not  recognize  the  miracles. 
In  1825  he  (jiiietly  retired  to  a  canonry  in  Gross- 
wardein  in  Hungary.  In  1844  he  was  made 
bishop  171  parti  bus.  In  1848  he  was  expelled  from 
Hungary  by  the  revolutionists.  See  his  life  by 
A.  Fkukuhach  and  by  Sciiahold,  treating  at 
length  the  question  of  the  miraculous  cures,  the 
one  /irn,  the  other  conlrn. 

HOLBACH,  Paul  Heinrich  Dietrich,  Baron  d', 
b.  at  Ileidelslii'im,  in  the  Palatinate,  17"J.5;  d.  at 
his  estate  of  (irandval,  Jan.  '21, 17)S9;  lived  mostly 
in  Paris,  and  acquired  a  kind  of  celebrity  by 
gathering  around  his  table  the  "  philosophers " 
of  that  time,  and  by  writing,  or  causing  to  be 
■written,  some  of  the  most  characteristic  books  of 
the  age.  As  those  books  were  printed  in  foreign 
countries,  and  published  anonymously,  the  author- 
ship is  in  many  cases  doubtful.  The  most  re- 
markable of  tliem  is  the  Syslhne  de  la  nature 
(London,  1770),  which  found  nothing,  either  in 
nature  or  in  history,  but  matter  and  motion.  Le 
lion  sens  (1772)  is  a  jiopularization  of  the  Si/sthne 
de  la  nature,  and  did  much  harm  by  penetrating 
into  the  lower  social  classes.  Le  christlanlsme 
<le'coilv',  L'imposttire  sacerdotale,  L'esprit  du  clercje, 
etc.,  are  of  less  importance.  WAGENMANN. 

HOLINESS.     See  Sanctification. 

HOLINESS  OF  COD  is,  as  Qnenstedt  substan- 
tiallj-  defiued  it,  (iod's  perfect  and  essential  purity, 
and  freedom  from  all  defect  and  blemish  {stimma 
oynnisque  lahls  expers  in  Deo  puritas).  The  Hebrew 
word  typ  ("  holy,"  to  "  make  holy  ")  etj'mologi- 
cally  referred,  not  to  the  moral  but  the  material 
nature ;  but  there  are  no  instances  of  its  use  in 
the  latter  sense.  It  was  only  used  in  the  depart- 
ment of  religion  among  the  Hebrews ;  and,  al- 
though the  apiilication  of  the  tei'm  to  the  external 
relations  of  persons  and  things  to  religious  pur- 
poses is  the  oldest,  it  is  undeniable  that  the  word 
derived  its  meaning  alone  from  the  idea  of  God 
which  prevails  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  term 
seems  to  come  from  "ip,  which  suggests  the  notion 
■of  separation,  and  especially  separation  of  that 
which  is  defective  or  diseased.  The  latter  is  the 
meaning  of  the  Assyrian  kadistu.  This  word  is 
found  in  an  Assyrian  oath  (see  Cuneiform  Inscrip- 
tions of  Western  Asia,  II.  p.  17)  at  the  side  of  its 
Sumerian  equivalent  nuf/i(/,  which  is  compounded 
of  nu  (•'not")  and  gig  ("diseased"). 

The  central  idea  of  holiness  is  not  unapproach- 
ableness,  or  exaltation  above  the  earth,  as  Schultz 
thinks  (.4.  T.  Theologie,  p.  -517);  nor  is  it  an 
festhetic  quality,  and  synonymous  with  the  glory 
which  surrounds  Jehovah  in  liis  revelation  to  Israel 
(Dunnn,  Theol.  d.  Propheten,  pp.  169  sqq.).  God 
is  glorious  because  he  is  holy  (Exod.  xv.  11)  ; 
<ind  his  glory  is  only  the  outward  expression,  as 
it  were,  of  his  holiness.  Holiness  is  absolute 
freedom  from  evil  and  all  defect,  alisolute  perfec- 
tion of  life,  especially  of  ethical  life  (Oehler). 
God  is  said  to  be  holy,  not  in  such  a  way  as  to 
•exclude  all  other  beings  from  holiness,  Init  because 
he  is  so  in  a  peculiar  manner  (1  Sam.  ii.  2).  Ab- 
solute holiness  is  an  essential  attribute  of  his 
nature.  It  is  from  this  centre  that  the  ideas  of 
his  unap]iroachableness,  incomparableness,  and 
glory  irradiate. 

Special  objects  and  rites  were  by  the  law  of 


Sinai  invested  with  the  quality  of  holiness.  God 
likewise  desires  men  to  be  holy,  and  is  himself 
ajiproachable  for  all  such  as  he  calls  and  .sanctifies 
(1  Sam.  vi.  20;  Ps.  xxiv.  3,  etc.):  his  holiness 
is  no  barrier  to  them.  His  Spirit  is  called  holy, 
because  its  work  is  to  awaken  and  promote  reli- 
gious life  in  the  soul  (Ps.  cxiiii.  10);  and  tlie 
fallen  and  penitent  man  of  God  beseeches  that  it 
may  not  be  taken  away  from  him  (Ps.  li.  11). 
Human  holiness  in  the  Xew  Testament  is  repre- 
sented as  starting  at  the  centre  of  man's  being,— 
his  heart,  —  and  as  extending  outwards  to  his 
acts  and  words.  The  representation  of  the  Old 
Testament  represents  it  as  starting  at  the  surface 
(Dent.  xiv.  21),  and  penetrating  inwards  to  the 
lieart.  That  of  the  Old  Testament  is  more  cere- 
monial, but  by  no  means  exclusively  so.  The 
law  also  made  the  holiness  of  Israel  conditional 
on  obedience  to  the  divine  will  (Exod.  xix.  n  sq.; 
Lev.  XX.  7  sq.),  that  is,  upon  a  moral  (jualifica- 
tion;  and  the  exhortations  of  the"  Old  Ti-stament 
are  everywhere  based  upon  moral  considerations 
and  a  moral  aim.  See  the  Theologies  of  the  Old 
Testament,  of  Schultz  and  Oeiiler  [and  the 
discussion  of  the  subject  under  Attributes,  in  the 
works  on  systematic  theology].         delitzscii. 

HOLLAND.  The  inhabitants  possess  full  reli- 
gious liberty.  All  tlie  adherents  of  the  different 
creeds  have  equal  civil  and  political  rights  and 
privileges,  and  enjoy  entire  freedom  of  adminis- 
tration in  every  thing  relating  to  their  religion 
and  its  exercise.  The  various  denominations, 
which  were  avowed  by  the  constitution  of  1815, 
are  subsidized  by  the  State.  The  total  thus  ex- 
pended in  1883  was  about  eight  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars.  In  the  north-east  the  Protestants 
preponderate-;  in  the  south,  the  Roman  Catholics ; 
while  in  the  central  provinces  botji  are  fairly 
represented.  In  the  last  fifty  years  there  has 
been  amid  the  entire  population  a  slight  but 
steady  increase  in  the  proportion  of  Protestants 
and  Jews,  and  a  corresponding  decrease  of  Roman 
Catholics. 

The  census  which  follows  is  that  of  the  year 
1879;  but  in  .some  of  the  following  paragraphs, 
figures  of  a  later  date  have  been  obtained,  and 
are  so  stated. 

By  the  authorities  the  population  is  classified 
thus  as  regards  religion :  — 

Poputa-  Congrega- 
tion, tions. 
I.ow.Dutch  Reformed  ....  2,186,869  1,345 

Wullooim 9,730  17 

Ri'inoustvante 9,678  24 

f'hri.<tian  Reformed       ....  139,903  379 

Baptists 80,705  126 

Evangelical  Lutheraii8  ....  61,825  50 

Old  Lutheians 9,990  8 

Moravians 312  2 

En^lisii  Episcopalians  ....  414  2 

Scotch  Church 105  1 

English  Presbyterians  ....  283  4 

Total  Protestants    ....    2,409,814  1,957 

Roman  Catholics 1,430,137  1,000 

Old  Catholics 6,251  16 

Greek  Church 37  2 

Low-Dutch  Jews 78,075  167 

I'urtuguese  Jews 3,618  2 

Unknown 15,761 

Total 4,012,693  3,144 

I.  The  Puotestaxt  Churches.  (a)  The 
Netherlandish  Reformed.  —  In  1617  Carleton,  the 
ICnrdish  ambassador,  stated,  that,  in  Olden  Barne- 


HOLLAND. 


100-4 


HOLLAND. 


veldt's  opinion,  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  United  Provinces,  and  especially  of  the 
Province  of  Holland,  were  Roman  Catholics. 
Yet  in  1648,  when  the  eighty-years'  war  was  con- 
cluded by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  the  Reformed 
Confession  alone  was  acknowledged  as  rightful. 
Its  adherents,  therefore,  became  the  State  Cliurch, 
and  so  continued  to  be  until  the  revolution  of 
1795,  when  all  confessions  were  put  on  an  equali- 
ty. This  relation  to  the  State  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  many  Reformed  churclies,  and  that  even 
in  places  where  the  small  number  of  Protestants 
forbade  the  hope  of  a  permanent  organization. 
To  this  is  due  the  fact,  that  many  of  these 
churches,  especially  in  Xorth  Brabant,  Zeeland, 
and  Guelderland,  ceased  to  exist  when  the  con- 
nection with  the  State  was  broken  off;  and  that 
the  number  of  parishes,  notwithstanding  an  in- 
crease in  certain  places  after  1815,  on  the  whole 
made  small  progress  during  the  last  hundred 
years.  In  the  year  17S4  there  were  about  fifteen 
hundred  congregations.  Through  the  fall  of  the 
State  Church  these  were  reduced,  in  1815,  to  about 
fourteen  hundred  and  fifty;  while  now  thev  have 
recovered,  and  number  sixteen  hundred  and 
eleven.  In  the  places  where  almost  the  whole  pop- 
ulation became  Protestant,  we  observe  a  pretty 
regular  increase,  as,  for  example,  in  Friesland, 
which  in  1001  had  a  hundred  and  eighty  congre- 
gations, in  1784  two  hundred  and  ten,  and  now 
has  two  hundred  and  thirty-six. 

A\'hen  the  Church  liecame  free  from  the  State, 
it  felt  the  lack  of  a  proper  independent  organi- 
zation ;  and  all  effoi'ts  to  remedy  tliis  evil  fell 
through  amidst  the  troubles  of  the  times.  In  the 
year  1816  King  William  1.,  who  went  back  not 
only  to  the  traditions  of  the  earlier  period,  but 
even  beyond  them,  gave  a  constitution  to  the 
Church  just  as  if  it  still,  even  in  its  inner  work- 
ing, was  under  governmental  direction.  In  the 
general  joy  at  the  termination  of  the  long  period 
of  confusion,  this  measure  met  with  no  opposi- 
tion except  in  tlie  classis  of  Amsterdam  ;  and  it 
is  still  today  the  basis  of  the  existing  church 
order,  since  it  gave  shape  to  "  the  general  regula- 
tions of  the  Reformed  Church"  m.ade  in  18.52. 
But,  while  these  gave  to  the  body  greater  inde- 
pendence than  it  had  in  1810  (e.g.,  in  relation  to 
tlie  choice  of  officei's),  they  obtained  the  royal 
sanction,  which  at  that  time  was  indispensable, 
only  under  "eleven  conditions,"  which,  however, 
so  far  as  they  had  not  already  become  invalid, 
■were  withdrawn  by  the  royal  decree  of  July  22, 
1870. 

The  body  now  forms  one  whole ;  and  instead  of 
being  called,  as  of  old,  "  The  Reformed  churches," 
its  legal  name  is  "  The  Reformed  Cliurch."  It 
embraces  all  the  reformed  in  the  Netherlands,  not 
only  tlie  Low-Dutch,  but  also  the  Walloons,  the 
Knglish  Presbyterians,  and  the  Scotch.  The  Wal- 
loon or  Prencli  congregations  are  mainly  coni- 
po.sed  of  the  refugees  driven  by  persecution  from 
France  and  Flanders.  As  the  descendants  of 
these  gradually  blended  with  the  Netherlandeis, 
their  numbers  as  a  distinct  body  decreased.  In 
1784  they  had  more  than  sixty  ministers,  in 
1815  forty-seven  ministers,  with  thirty-five  congre- 
gations, l)iit  now  have  only  seventeen  congrega- 
tions, with  twenty-six  ministers.  The  Preshyte- 
rian-Knglish  churches  were  formed  only  in  those 


places  where  commercial  intercourse,  or  the  pres- 
ence of  an  English  garrison  during  the  eighty- 
years'  war,  gave  occasion  for  them.  At  present 
there  exist  only  the  one  at  .\msterdam,  and  that 
of  the  united  ]\Iiddleburg-Vlissingen.  The  only 
Scotch  Cliurch  now  remaining  is  that  of  Rotter- 
dam, founded  in  1613. 

The  Reformed  Church  (1884)  numbers  1,345 
congregations,  with  1,611  ministers.  Twenty 
years  ago  there  were  about  two  hundred  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  at  command  for  vacant 
charges  ;  while  now  candidates  are  lacking  for 
more  than  280  vacancies.  The  congregations 
are  divided  into  a  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
smaller  circles,  or  "  Ringe,"  and  into  forty-four 
large  circles,  or  "Classes."  These  classes  con- 
stitute ten  provincial  bodies,  to  which  is  added 
an  eleventh,  called  the  "  Walloon  Commission." 
The  organization  culminates  in  the  synod,  ^\hich 
consists  of  nineteen  members,  thirteen  ministers, 
and  six  elders,  who  are  named  by  the  provincial 
authorities,  who,  in  turn,  are  chosen  by  the  classes. 
The  classical  assemblies  are  the  cliaracteristic 
feature  of  the  organism.  They  meet  yearly  for 
the  election  of  officers  and  the  consideration  of 
such  matters  as  are  laid  before  them  by  the  synod ; 
and  while,  in  the  other  assemblies,  the  ministers 
are  twice  as  many  as  the  elders,  the  classes  are 
composed  of  all  the  ministers  in  their  bounds, 
and  an  equal  number  of  elders.  The  local  con- 
gregation is  governed  by  the  consistoiy,  which 
consists  of  an  equal  number  of  elders  and  dea- 
cons. Since  1867,  in  most  cases,  these,  as  well  as 
tlie  minister,  are  chosen  by  a  college  of  represen- 
tatives; these  representatives  being  themselves 
chosen  by  the  whole  body  of  adult  members,  ex- 
cepting such  as  are  supported  by  the  poor-funds 
of  the  church.  This  direct  participation  of  the 
people  in  elections  has  in  most  of  the  churches, 
especially  in  the  large  cities,  placed  the  power  in 
the  hands  of  the  orthodox. 

The  management  of  the  church  property  was 
in  like  manner  directed  by  decrees  of  King  Wil- 
liam I.,  issued  in  1810  and  1823;  but  these  were 
reversed  in  October,  1869 ;  and  since  that  time 
most  of  the  congregations  have  placed  themselves 
under  a  general  "  Committee  of  Control,"  while 
the  rest  are  altogether  autonomous,  and  enjoy  a 
.so-called  free  administration. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation,  the 
ministers  were  trained  at  the  State  universities, 
where  theological  faculties  had  been  formed  for 
this  purpo.se.  Although  almost  all  candidates  for 
the  ministry  took  this  method  of  preparation,  it 
was  not  positively  obligatory.  The  most  recent 
law  concerning  the  universities  (in  1877)  has  re- 
leased the  professors  from  the  duty  of  teaching 
the  theology  of  the  confessions ;  while  in  iiach 
university  two  )irofessors,  named  by  the  synod  of 
the  lleforined  ('hureh,  are  charged  with  tlie  duty 
of  lecturing  on  dogmatic  and  jiractical  theology. 
In  1883  the  three  State  universities  (l>eyden, 
Utrecht,  and  (ironingen),  and  that  of  the  city  of 
Amsterdam,  together  contained  two  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  .students  of  theology. 

Neither  foreign  nor  domestic  missions  are  car- 
ried on  by  the  Church  or  its  officers  as  such. 
,\iid  although  the  work  finds  little  symiiathy 
amid  the  growing  materialisin  of  the  people,  still, 
in  later  years,  it  lias  shown  considerable  activity, 


HOLLAND. 


1005 


HOLLAND. 


notwitlistaiiding  the  divisions  that  prevail ;  which 
divisions,  liowever,  prevent  the  possibility  of  com- 
plete and  accin-ate  statistics.  Besides  the  Mora- 
vian Society,  which  labored  in  the  West  Indies, 
there  was  until  1859  only  the  Netherlandish  Mis- 
sionary Society,  which  was  founded  in  1797.  Now 
there  are  ten  societies  which  send  missionaries  to 
the  heathen  ami  the  Mohammedans,  and  one 
which  confines  itself  to  the  .lews.  In  the  year 
1883  the  receipts  of  these  amounted  to  three 
Inmdred  and  fifty  thousand  gulden;  and  they 
employed  a  hundred  and  fifty-two  missionaries, 
of  whom  sixty-six  belonged  to  the  Moravians, 
and  twenty-five  to  the  Rhenish  union.  The 
church-members  are  about  a  hundred  thousand, 
and  two  hundred  schools  are  attended  by  fourteen 
thousand  scholars. 

The  public  schools  are  "  confessionless  ;  "  but 
there  are  hundreds  of  private  schools,  supported 
Ijy  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants,  which  base 
then-  teaching  on  Christianity.  There  are  two 
considerable  associations  formed  —  one  in  1860, 
the  other  in  1868  —  for  the  purpose  of  supporting 
and  extending  these  schools. 

Evangelistic  work  is  carried  on  by  several  asso- 
ciations of  believers,  who  together  have  forty-five 
evangelists  in  the  field.  Activity  in  this  direc- 
tion, as  well  as  in  work  for  lost  children,  fallen 
women,  the  blind,  etc.,  is  ever  on  the  increase; 
although  confessional  differences  hinder  the  de- 
sired co-operation  among  those  who  are  of  the 
same  faith. 

(//)  The  Christian  Reformed.  —  In  the  third  and 
fourth  decades  of  this  century  there  arose  a  re- 
action against  the  tendency  to  strip  off  from 
Christian  faith  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  old 
confessions.  This  was  supported  by  such  men  as 
DaCosta  and  Groen  van  Prinsterer,  who  never 
forsook  the  old  church.  In  18:W  the  first  depart- 
ure took  place ;  but  it  was  embarrassed  by  the  law 
which  forbade  more  than  twenty  persons  to  as- 
semble for  worship.  In  1836  a  royal  decree,  which 
was  renewed  in  1841,  confirmed  the  law,  but 
pointed  out  a  way  in  which  new  congregations 
could  be  legally  constituted.  The  first  one  thus 
formed  was  at  Utrecht  in  1839.  But  new  decrees 
in  1849,  1852,  and  1868,  abrogated  all  i-estrictions  ; 
and  the  "Separatist  Church  "  stood  before  the  law 
like  all  the  others,  save  that  it  drew  no  support 
from  the  treasury.  In  1869  the  synod  at  Middle- 
burg  united  this  body  with  certain  other  scat- 
tered congregations  of  like  tendency,  who  had 
taken  the  name  of  "  Churches  under  the  Cross ;  " 
and  henceforth  the  whole  was  known  as  the 
"Christian  Reformed  Church."  It  adheres  in  all 
essential  points  to  the  polity  of  the  synod  of 
Dort.  Their  general  synod  meets  biennially. 
The^  ministers  are  trained  at  the  tlieological 
seminary  in  Kampen,  which  has  seven  professors 
and  seventy-nine  students  (1884).  The  number 
of  churches  rose  from  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
six  in  1860  to  three  hundred  and  seventy-one  in 
1884.  The  body  has  exerted  a  very  happy  influ- 
ence upon  the  church  from  which  they  separated, 
by  developing  the  power  of  the  old  faith,  even 
when  deprived  of  all  support  from  the  State. 

(c)  The  Lutheran  Church. — The  Reformation 
entered  the  Netherlands  under  the  form  of  Lu- 
theranism.  But  this  was  soon  supplanted,  at  first 
by  the  Baptists,  and  then  by  the  Reformed ;  so 


that,  from  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
it  has  been  of  sufjordinate  importance.  The  fii-st 
congregation  was  formed  at  Woerden,  and  in  the- 
year  1566  it  adopted  the  Augsburg  Confession; 
but  there  was  no  Vioad  between  it  and  other  like 
assemblies,  until  in  1605  seven  ministers  agreed 
upon  a  system  of  faith  and  worship,  'i'his  ripened 
in  1612  into  the  so-called  "  Brotherhoo<l,"  which 
had  a  .synod  which  met  at  first  at  indefinite  inter- 
vals, and  afterwards  every  five  years.  The  last  one 
under  the  republic  sat  in  1696.  In  1«18  King 
William  I.  gave  a  new  organization  to  the  "  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Church,"  which,  however,  was 
modified  in  1855  and  1859,  so  as  to  render  the 
Church  independent  of  the  State.  Since  1819  the 
synod  meets  yearly,  consisting  of  fifteen  mem- 
bers, of  whom  eight  are  ministers.  The  local 
church  is  governed  by  the  consistory.  During 
the  past  century  the  increase  of  the  body  has  been 
slow.  In  1784  there  were  forty-five  churches  and 
fifty-.seven  ministers;  in  1815  forty-six  churches 
and  sixty  ministers  ;  in  1877  fifty  churches  and 
nine  chapels,  with  sixty-two  ministers.  At  fir.st, 
ministers  were  educated  abroad  ;  but  in  1816  a, 
seminary  was  founded  at  .\msterdam,  which  now 
has  two  professors  and  six  students. 

Like  all  other  Protestant  bodies,  this  one  felt  the 
influence  of  rationalism.  A  re-action  against  this- 
tendency  appeared,  in  Amsterdam  and  elsewhere,- 
in  1791,  and  led  ultimately  to  an  open  break  be- 
tween the  great  majority  and  those  who  insisted 
upon  maintaining  the  Augsburg  Confession,  Lit- 
urgy, etc.  The  latter,  being  excluded  from  the 
"  Brotherhood,"  formed  what  was  called  the  "  Old 
Lutheran  Church,"  which  obtained  legal  sanction- 
in  1835,  and  again  in  1866.  Its  concerns  are  di- 
rected by  a  General  Ecclesiastical  Assembly,, 
which  consists  of  seventeen  persons,  of  whom 
nine  are  clergymen.  Candidates  for  the  minis- 
try were  formerly  educated  at  different  schools 
in  Amsterdam,  but,  since  1877,  in  the  university, 
where  one  of  the  Lutheran  ministers  teaclies 
dogmatics.  The  Old  Lutherans  now  number 
eight  churches  and  eleven  ministers  against  four 
churches  and  .seven  ministers  in  1815. 

In  course  of  time  the  sharp  differences  between 
the  two  bodies  gradually  became  modified ;  and 
in  1874  the  barriers  which  hindered  the  call  of  a 
minister  of  one  church  to  a  vacant  puljiit  in  the 
other  were  done  away. 

(d)  The  Baptia/s.  — "These  are  often  called  "Men^ 
nonites,"  from  the  famous  Menno  Simons,  who 
died  in  1559.  They  were  distinguished  from  other 
Protestants,  not  only  by  the  rejection  of  infant 
baptism,  but  also  by  the  lack  of  any  central 
organization.  Hence  the  stringent  discipline  in- 
troduced by  INIenno  led  to  various  divisions, 
known  as  •'  Waterlanders  "  and  "  Flandrians," 
from  the  districts  in  which  they  lived  ;  but  these 
were  finally  adjusted  in  1650.  Not  long  after- 
wards, doctrinal  differences  produced  a  new  diris- 
ion.  in  which  the  orthodox  took  the  name  of 
"Zouists,"  and  the  liberals  that  of  "Lamists;" 
both  being  derived  from  the  armorial  bearings  of 
their  respective  localities.  In  ISOl  both  bodies 
were  re-united,  and  tlie  old  party  names  passed 
out  of  use.  The  great  peculiarity  of  the  church 
is  its  confessional  freedom.  There  is  no  common 
standard  of  doctrine.  AVhoever  makes  sincere 
confession  of  sin,  and  engages  to  lead  a  holy  life. 


HOLLAND. 


1006 


HOLLAND. 


is  admitted  to  membership,  without  regard  to  his 
views  of  the  person  and  work  of  Christ.  As  a 
rule,  only  educated  persons  were  from  the  begin- 
ning chosen  to  the  ministry ;  but,  in  cases  of 
necessity,  men  without  any  theological  training 
were  allowed  to  serve,  taking  the  name  of  lie/ilt- 
preekers,  or  exhorters.  This  custom  was  gradu- 
ally abandoned  in  later  years,  and  now  the 
instances  of  its  occurrence  are  rare.  In  1811 
they  all  united  in  forming  a  general  society  for 
the  encouragement  of  theological  education  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  ministry  among  the  poorer 
congregations.  At  the  same  time  they  enlarged 
the  support  ai.d  the  curriculum  of  the  theological 
seminary  which  had  been  established  at  Amster- 
dam in  1731  by  the  Lamists.  Their  members  are 
found  chiefly  in  Friesland,  North  Holland,  Grdn- 
ingen,  and  Overyssel.  In  each  province  there 
are  assemblies,  usually  called  "  rings,"  or  circles. 
The  local  church  is  governed  by  the  minister  or 
ministers  with  the  wardens,  the  latter  being  cho- 
sen by  the  male  members,  althougli  in  some  cases 
the  females  have  a  vote.  In  few  congregations 
there  are  also  deacone-sses.  The  seminary  con- 
tains fifteen  students,  and  its  two  active  profess- 
ors belong  to  the  university  of  Amsterdam. 

(e)  The  Remonstrants.  —  This  body  dates  its 
-existence  and  its  name  from  the  early  portion  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  a  number  of  minis- 
ters of  the  Reformed  Church,  in  a  paper  called  a 
Renwnslranec,  demanded  a  revision  of  the  Belgic 
Confession  and  the  Heidelberg  Catechism.  After 
long  preparation,  a  national  synod  was  called  to 
consider  the  matter,  which  met  in  1618,  1619,  and 
w'as  attended  by  delegates  from  various  foreign 
churches.  This  body  decided  the  points  at  issue 
by  issuing  the  well-known  canons  of  Dort,  main- 
taining Calvinistic  views.  All  ministers  who  did 
not  accept  these  articles  were  deprived  of  their 
office,  and,  in  case  they  refused  to  subscribe  a 
promise  of  obedience  to  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties, were  banislied.  But  after  the  death  of  Mau- 
rice, Prince  of  Orange,  in  16"25,  they  began  gradu- 
ally to  return  ;  and  a  few  years  later  a  decree 
authorized  them  to  build  cliurches  and  schools. 
A  .system  of  government  and  iliscipline  .sketched 
by  Uitenbogaard  was  adopted,  and  in  1634  a  theo- 
logical seminary  was  established  at  Amsterdam. 
In  their  church  order  they  stated  that  they  stead- 
fastly adhered  to  the  Holy  Scripture,  and  that 
they  held  fast  to  their  confession  (drawn  up  by 
Kpiscopius  in  1621)  not  as  a  rule  of  faith,  but  as 
an  explanation  of  their  views.  But  in  the  course 
of  time  a  great  alteration  ensued.  In  1861  tlu'y 
described  themselves  as  a  community  in  which 
the  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ,  according  to  tlie  Scrip- 
tures, was  confessed  and  proclaimed  with  all  free- 
dom and  toleration ;  and  in  LSTO  the  revised 
regulations  set  forth  the  aim  of  the  society  to  be, 
to  further  the  Christian  life  on  the  basis  of  the 
gospel,  wliile  at  the  same  time  holding  fa.st  to 
freedom  and  toleriition.  The  control  of  tlie  body 
is  vested  in  the  Great  Assembly,  which  meets 
yearly,  and  is  composed  of  the  professors,  all  the 
miui.sters,  delegates  from  all  the  congregations, 
and  some  othi;r  |)er.sons.  A  permanent  commit- 
tee of  five  mi^mbers  cares  for  the  execution  of  the 
assembly's  ri?8olutions.  and  su))ervises  the  admin- 
istration. The  body  was  declining.  In  180!I  tlii'y 
had  thirty-lour  congregations,  with  forty  [ireach- 


ers;  in  ISSl  only  about  twenty-three  congi-ega- 
tions,  with  twenty-three  preachers,  but  it  has 
grown  since.  The  largest  society  is  in  Rotter- 
dam, and  numbers  about  1,G00  members. 

II.  The  Rom.\x-Cathoi.ic  Church. —  At  the 
commencement  of  the  Reformation  the  greater 
part  of  what  is  now  the  Xetlierlands  was  attached 
to  the  bishopric  of  Utrecht,  which  in  1559  was 
made  an  archbishopric,  lint  the  Roman  curia 
supposing  that  the  spread  of  the  Reformation  had 
put  an  end  to  episcopal  government,  after  the 
death  of  the  last  archbishop  (Fred.  .Schenk  van 
Tontenburg)  in  1580,  administered  ecclesiastical 
affairs  by  apostolic  vicars,  who,  despite  their  epis- 
copal character,  were  never  deemed  literal  bishops 
of  the  pi'ovince  of  Utrecht.  After  1717  papal 
legates  took  the  control.  These  were  called  "vice- 
superiors,"  were  appointed  with  the  co-operation 
of  the  chapter,  and  dwelt  at  Cologne  or  at  Brus- 
sels. Afterwards  other  vicariates  were  constitut- 
ed ;  but  in  1840  these  were  reduced  to  three,  so 
that  from  that  time  the  direction  of  affairs  was 
under  a  papal  internuncius  at  The  Hague,  and 
apostolic  vicars  at  Ilerzogenbush.  Breda,  and 
Limbursch.  The  fall  of  the  State  Church  in  1796 
led  to  new  activity  among  the  Roman  Catholics ; 
and  the  re-establishment  of  the  hierarchy  bj-  Pio 
Nono  in  1853  was  followed  by  a  great  inci"ease 
of  priests.  In  1784  there  were  3.50  parishes  with 
400  priests;  in  1815,  613  parishes  with  979  priests; 
in  1884,  1,0(10  parishes  and  rectorates,  with  2,202 
priests,  including  tliose  occupied  in  schools  and 
in  the  administration. 

In  tlie  reconstituted  liierarchy  the  kingdom 
forms  one  province,  which  contains  five  dioceses; 
viz.,  the  archbishopric  of  Utrecht  with  the  suf- 
fragans of  Haarlem,  Ilerzogenbush,  Breda,  and 
Roermond.  Each  diocese  has  a  chapter,  consist- 
ing of  a  dean  and  eight  canons,  who  are  the  bish- 
op's council,  and  meet  monthly.  In  case  of  a 
vacancy  they  name  three  persons,  from  whom  the 
Pope  selects  the  successor.  Each  diocese  has  a 
seminary  for  priests  under  the  bishop,  who  names 
all  the  professors.  The  dioceses  are  divided  into 
deaneries,  the  presiding  othcers  of  which  are  the 
connecting  link  between  the  bishop  and  the  lower 
clergy.  "The  temporal  affairs  of  eacli  parish  are 
under  the  direction  of  a  board  named  by  the 
bishop.  Notwithstanding  the  relative  decline 
previously  noticed,  it  is  evident,  that,  under  the 
new  arrangement  of  affairs,  there  has  been  a  con- 
siderable increase  in  the  schools  and  charitable 
foundations,  as  well  as  in  the  social  and  political 
inflnenci^  of  the  body. 

The  Old-Calholir  C/nircli.  —  This  body  owes  its 
existence  to  the  conviction  tluit  tlie  canon  law 
forbade  the  suspension  of  the  hierarchv  at  the 
time  of  the  Reformation;  and  therefore  tlie  apos- 
tolic vicars  ajipointed  after  1580  were  legitimate 
archbishops  of  Utrecht,  although  the  state  of  the 
times  did  not  allow  them  to  bear  the  title.  The 
authority  of  these  officers  rests  not  upon  their 
aiipointinent  by  the  I'ope,  but  upon  the  choice  of 
the  chapter.  It  is  well  known  what  a  ferment 
was  iirudnced  in  the  seventeenth  c<Mitury  by 
Jan,s<'nisni  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  (iallican- 
ism  in  ndation  to  the  independence  of  national 
churches.  When  this  agitation  was  at  its  height, 
tlit^  Pope  cited  to  Rome  the  vicar  Petriis  Codde 
(who  vv.as  suspected  of  Jansenism),  and   of  his 


HOLLAND. 


1007 


HOLMES. 


own  motion  appointed  Tliendor  de  Koolv  in  his 
plao<>.  A  ji;ri'at  number  of  tlie  clera;y  I'ose  in 
opposition,  and  as  many  as  tliree  hundred  priests 
ranj;ed  themselves  on  tlie  side  of  Codde.  But  the 
new  vicar  introduced  many  new  jtriests,  and 
the  o]vposinfj  party  bej^an  to  wealien.  At  last 
the  cliapter  chose  another  archbishoii,  Cornelius 
Steenoven,  who  was  consecrated  by  Varlet,  bishop 
of  Babylon  in  parlilnis,  and  thus  preserved  the 
succession.  Exconniiunication  followed;  but  the 
province  maintained  its  position,  and  to  this  day 
has  filled  each  vacancy  made  by  death  with  a 
new  election.  In  174'J  a  suffragan  bishop  for 
Haarlem  was  apppointed,  and  1757  one  for  De- 
venter.  The  f)ld-Catholic,  or,  as  it  is  popularly 
called,  Jansenist  Church,  acknowledges  the  au- 
thority of  the  general  councils  and  of  the  Triden- 
tine  decrees,  but  rejects  the  Vatican  Council, 
with  the  dogmas  of  the  immaculate  conception 
ami  the  papal  infallibility. 

III.  TnK  .Tkws.  —  All  that  is  certainly  known 
of  the  condition  of  these  prior  to  the  sixteenth 
century  is  that  there  were  found  here  and  there 
some  from  .Southern  P^urope  who  had  become 
Christians  to  escape  persecution,  and  others  from 
MidiUe  Europe  who  still  held  their  old  faith. 
But  the  number  largely  increased  wlien  the  close 
of  the  eighty-years'  war  made  the  Netherlands  a 
place  of  refuge  for  all  victims  of  persecution. 
They  were  of  two  classes,  —  one  called  Portu- 
guese, the  other  German,  —  whose  mutual  rela- 
tions were  not  very  friendly.  The  former,  though 
fewer  in  number,  were  richer  and  more  cultivated : 
the  latter  were,  for  the  most  part,  poor  and  igno- 
rant, and  there  was  but  little  intercourse.  But 
this  soon  changed  ;  since  the  Germans  steadily 
grew  iu  property  and  culture,  while  the  others 
stood  still,  if  they  did  not  retrograde.  Some 
differences  in  ceremonial,  and  especially  in  the 
pronunciation  of  the  Hebrew,  have  prevented  a 
complete  fusion  of  tlie  two  ;  although  from  181i 
to  1870  they  were  joined  in  a  common  organiza- 
tion, and  a  rabbinical  vacancj'  in  one  division 
could  be  filled  by  a  person  called  from  the  other. 
The  increase  of  the  numliers  from  32,000  in  1815 
to  82,000  in  1882  shows  the  effect  of  this  re- 
union. 

(a)  German  Jews.  —  These  incorporated  with 
themselves  their  brethren  already  domiciled  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  subse(juently  the  refugees 
from  Poland  and  Lithuania,  and  now  form  the 
"Netherlandish-Israelite  Society."  They  began 
to  enter  the  country  about  the  year  1G15;  although 
they  were  neither  so  much  esteemed,  nor  enjoyed 
so  many  privileges,  as  the  Portuguese.  The  con- 
gregation at  JNlaarsseu  is  considered  the  oldest, 
but  the  date  of  its  origin  is  unknown.  The  one 
organized  at  Amsterdam  in  1636  soon  became 
the  central  point  of  all  the  rest.  Permission  to 
build  a  public  synagogue  was  refused  in  1618 ; 
but  after  an  influx  of  Polish  refugees  in  165-t,  and 
an  immigration  of  three  thousand  Lithuanians  in 
16.56,  there  came  finally  in  1671  the  erection  of 
the  still  existing  Great  Synagogue  in  Amsterdam, 
iu  which  all  parties  gradually  united  to  form  one 
congregation.  Political  equality  was  not  attained 
until  1796.  The  first  decree  respecting  the  con- 
duct of  their  affairs  was  issued  in  1.S08.  This 
estalilished  one  supreme  consistory  for  the  Hol- 
landisli-German  Israelites.  When  the  country 
12  —  11 


became  a  French  province  in  1813.  tlie  Jews  were 
made  subordinate  to  the  central  consistory  in 
Paris;  but  the  next  year  King  William  I.  ap- 
pointed a  "  General  Commission  of  Advice"  for 
all  the  Jews  in  the  kingdom.  From  1862  a  strenu- 
ous endeavor  was  made  to  attain  a  definite  organi- 
zation, which,  liowever.  did  not  succeed  until  1870; 
since  which  time  the  direction  of  the  Netherland- 
ish-Israelite Society,  which  is  no  longer  united 
with  the  Portuguese,  is  in  the  hands  of  a  central 
board,  which  meets  yearly,  while  a  permanent 
committee  of  three,  sitting  in  Amsterdam,  at- 
tends to  the  current  business  of  the  society.  The 
whole  body  consists  of  a  hundred  and  seventy- 
three  congregations,  which  are  divided  into  vari- 
ous circles  and  branches.  Each  local  society  is 
autonomous;  and  its  spiritual  interests  are  con- 
trolled by  rabbis,  instructoi-s,  and  teachers.  These 
are  trained  in  a  seminary  which  was  founded  for 
this  pui'pose  at  Amsterdam  in  1711,  and  was  re- 
organized in  1862. 

(//)  Portuf/uese.  —  In  1492  the  .Jews  were  ban- 
ished from  Spain,  after  they  had  become  wealthy, 
and  refined.  Many  fled  to  Portugal,  where  they 
were  again  persecuted,  especially  after  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Inquisition,  in  1532.  \Mieii  Brielle 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Prince  of  Orange  (1572), 
many  of  the  refugees  from  Portugal  were  attract- 
ed toward  North  Netherland.  and.  becoming  es- 
teemed for  their  activity  and  success  in  trade, 
found  little  difficulty  in  settling  there.  They 
increased  in  number  in  Amsterdam  until  1597, 
when  they  secured  their  first  synagogue,  which 
was  soon  followed  by  man}-  others.  In  The  Hague, 
also,  there  was  early  formed  a  synagogue  of  rich 
and  influential  Israelites.  In  1639  they  estab- 
lished at  Amsterdam  a  school,  from  which  pro- 
ceeded the  rabbinical  seminary  of  to-day.  Since 
1870  affairs  are  managed  by  a  central  board. 
The  society  at  The  Hague  has  one  rabliin.  while 
that  at  Amsterdam  has  a  college  of  tliree  associ- 
ates.     J.  A.  GERTH  VAN  Wr.JK,  T.  W.  COAMGEKS. 

HOLLAZ,  David,  a  Lutheran  theologian ;  b. 
at  Wulkow,  Poinerania.  1618 ;  studied  at  Erfurt 
and  Wittenberg ;  successively  pastor  in  Piitzelin, 
Stargard.  Colberg,  and  Jakol.>shagen,  where  he 
died  1713.  He  is  .specially  known  by  his  work 
on  systematic  theology,  Examen  theolorjicum  acroa- 
malicum  univeisam  theoloyiam  thelicopolemicam  com- 
plectens,  1707  (7th  ed.  by  Teller,  1750).  The 
great  popularity  of  this  work  was  not  due  to  its 
originality  of  thought,  hut  to  the  clearness  and 
terseness  of  its  definitions,  and  especially  to  the 
genial  and  ireiiic  tone  and  the  living  scriptural 
character  of  its  theology.  He  is  the  last  of  the 
strict  Lutheran  theologians,  but  in  that  period  of 
transition  took  an  intermediate  position  between 
Lutheran  orthodoxy  and  pietism;  the  latter,  though 
it  is  not  mentioned  by  name,  exerting  a  subtle 
influence  upon  his  views.  In  his  explanation  of 
the  so-called  "theology  of  the  unregenerate "  he 
shows  its  influence;  in  the  distinction  between 
fundamentals    and    non-fundamentals,    that    of 

Calixtus.  WAGENM.VlsN. 

HOLMES,  Robert,  D.D.,  b.  in  Hampshire,  1749; 
d.  at  Oxford.  1805.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford, 
took  holy  orders ;  became  Dean  of  Winchester 
1804.  His  great  service  to  biblical  literature  was 
I'e/us  TexUimenlnm  Grcecum  cum  Variis  Lectioni- 
ii«,  Oxford,   1798-27,   5  vols.,  edited   after  his 


HOLOPBTRNES. 


1008 


HOLY  SEPULCHRE. 


death  by  Rev.  J.  Parsons,  B.D.  See  the  descrip- 
tion in  the  Bibliographical  Appendix  to  Horxe's 
Inlroiluction. 

HOLOFERNES.     .'^pe  .Iudith. 

HOLSTE,  01-  HOLSTENIUS,  Lucas,  b.  in  Ham- 
burg, l-JOtJ ;  d.  in  Konie,  Feb.  2, 1661 ;  studied  at 
Leyden  ;  visited  England ;  settled  in  Paris,  1624. 
as  librarian  to  President  de  Mesnies ;  was  con- 
verted to  Romanism ;  accompanied  Cardinal  Bar- 
berini,  in  1627,  to  Rome,  where  he  was  made 
librarian  of  the  Vatican,  member  of  the  Congre- 
gation of  tlie  Index,  etc.  IMost  of  his  worljs  were 
left  unfinished ;  but  liis  labors  were,  nevertheless, 
of  great  importance  for  the  Liber  poniificalis,  Liber 
diurnus  ponlif.  Rom.,  the  martyrologies,  etc.  His 
collection  of  monastic  rules  {Codex  Ree/ulariim) 
appeared  first  in  Rome,  1661,  afterwards,  much 
enlarged,  at  Augsburg,  1759,  6  vols,  folio.  His 
letters  were  published  by  J.  F.  Boissonade,  Paris, 
1817. 

HOLY  FIRE,  a  ceremony  symbolizing  the  resur- 
rection of  Clirist,  of  very  old  date,  and  still  ob- 
served in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches  on  Holy 
Saturday.  On  Good  Friday  all  the  lights  and 
lamps  of  the  churcli  are  extinginshed,  and  tlie 
following  day  they  are  re-lit  at  a  new  fire  kindled 
by  sparks  from  a  flint.  In  tlie  Church  of  the 
Holy  .Sepulclire  at  .lerusalem,  where  a  Greek  and 
an  Armenian  bishop  officiate  in  unison  on  that 
day,  the  priests  claim  tliat  the  new  fire  is  brought 
miraculously  from  heaven ;  and  tlie  fraud  gives 
rise  to  much  scandal.  See  Sch.\ff  :  Throuyh 
Bible-Lands,  p.  241.  The  spiritual  significance  of 
the  pretended  miracle  is,  however,  beautiful ;  for 
the  holy  fire,  the  symbol  of  the  Spirit,  proceeds 
from  the  sepulchre  of  Christ,  and  is  carried  by 
disciples  to  the  ends  of  the  earth. 

HOLY  LEAGUE.  I.  An  alliance  concluded 
between  I'liilip  II.  of  Spain,  the  Pope,  the  Guises, 
and  the  Parliamfiit  of  Paris,  in  1576,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  destroying  the  Reformation  in  France. 
II.  The  Holy  League  of  Nuremberg,  concluded 
between  Charles  V.,  the  archbishops  of  Mayenoe 
and  .Salzburg,  and  tlie  dukes  of  Bavaria,  Saxony,' 
and  Brunswick,  in  1538,  for  the  purpose  of  coun- 
teracting the  League  of  Smalcald. 

HOLY  SEPULCHRE,  The.  According  to  .John 
(xix.  41)  there  was  a  garden  close  by  the  spot 
where  our  Lord  was  crucified ;  and  in  the  garden 
was  a  new  .sepulchre,  in  which  he  was  laid,  be- 
cause it  was  nigh  at  hand,  and  it  was  the  .Jew.s' 
preparation-day.  Gthcrwise  the  locality  of  the 
tomb  is  not  indicated  in  the  Gospels;  nor  is  Gol- 
gotha, the  .spot  wliere  the  crucifixion  took  place, 
located  with  any  more  definitiMie.ss.  From  Matt. 
xxvii.  32,  .loliii  xix.  17,  and  Mark  xv.  29,  and 
more  especially  from  Heb.  xiii.  12,  it  is  apparent 
that  it  lay  outside  tlie  city;  and  from  Malt,  xxvii. 
39,  and  Alaik  xv.  29,  it  m,ay  lie  inferred  that  a 
public  road  ran  by  it:  indeed,  the  Romans  used 
to  select  such  localities  for  places  of  execution  in 
order  to  make  the  punishment  more  impressive 
to  the  people.  But  this  is  all.  The  name  gives 
no  certain  clew.  The  Hebrew  Golgotha  li.as  by 
some  —  .Jerome  in  old  times,  Krafft  and  lleng- 
Ktenberg  in  modern  times  —  been  Iraiislatod  tlii' 
"  Hill  of  Death,"  the  n.ame  denoting  ;i  iiiiblic 
place  of  execution;  but  both  linguistic  and  aiclia'- 
ologic.al  reason.s  speak  against  this  derivation. 
The  evangelists  translate  the  "place  of  a  skull" 


(John  xix.  17;  Matt,  xxvii.  33;  Mark  xv.  22), 
or  simply  the  "skull  "  (Luke  xxiii.  33),  probably 
referring  to  some  topographical  feature,  —  a  rock 
protruding  through  the  .soil  in  the  form  of  a  skull, 
or  bare  as  a  skuU.  AVliether  Golgotha  was  a 
slight  elevation,  or  a  hill,  or  a  mountain,  they 
leave  undecided,  and  so  does  Eusebius.  The  pil- 
grim of  Bordeaux,  however,  and  Rufinus,  speak  of 
Monliculus  Golgotha,  or  Golgothana  Rupes,  whence 
the  Mount  Calvary  of  so  frequent  occurrence  in 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church ;  that  is,  a  hill  witli 
a  chapel  on  its  top,  to  which  leads  a  pilgrim's 
path,  with  stations  indicative  of  the  various  events 
of  the  passion. 

In  direct  contradiction,  as  it  would  seem,  to 
the  above  passages  (Matt,  xxvii.  32 ;  John  xix. 
17;  !\Iark  xv.  20;  and  Heb.  xiii.  12),  the  places 
which  tradition  points  out  for  the  crucifixion  and 
sepulchre  of  our  Lord  lie  a  good  distance  within 
the  wall  of  the  present  city.  From  the  tower  of 
David,  at  tlie  .laft'a  gate,  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulclire  is  descried,  situated  to  the  north-north- 
east, and  rising  on  a  hill  between  two  minarets. 
But  as  early  as  in  the  eighth  century,  and  again 
in  the  thirteentli,  doubts  were  felt  about  the 
identitj'  of  the  locality;  and  in  the  middle  of  the 
eighteenth  century  the  tradition  was  formally 
rejected  by  Korte,  Reise  nach  dem  geloblen  Lands, 
Altona,  1741,  w-ith  three  supplements,  Halle, 
1746.  He  was  followed  by  Clarke  {Travels  in 
Palestine,  London,  1811),  Robinson  {Biblical  Re- 
searches, Boston,  1841,  and  Topograpjhy  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  1846),  Tobler  (Golqotha, 
St.  (;all,  1851),  Wilson  {The  Lands  of  the  'Bible, 
London,  1847),  and  Schaff  {Through  Bible  Lands, 
New  York,  1879).  The  tradition  has  been  de- 
fended by  Chateaubriand  (Itineraire  de  Paris  a 
Jerusalem,  Paris,  ISll),  Scholz  {Comm.  de  Golgotha 
situ,  Bonn,  1825),  Williams  {The  IIoli/  City,  Lon- 
don, 1845;  2d  ed.,  1849),  Schultz  {Jerusalem,  Ber- 
lin, 1845),  Kratt't  {Die  Topographie  .ferusalems, 
Bonn,  1846),  Lord  Nugent  (Lands  Classical  and 
Sacred,  London,  1845),  Tischeiidorf  (Reise  in  den 
Orient,  Leipzig,  1846),  George  Fiulay  {On  the  Site 
of  the  Holy  Stjndchre,  London,  1847),  Schaffter 
{Die  echte  Lage  des  hciligen  Grabcs,  Bern,  1849), 
De  Vogue  {Les  Eglises  de  la  Terre-Sainle,  Paris, 
1860),  Sepp  {Jerusalem,  2d  ed.,  1873),  Clermont- 
Ganneau  {L'A  uthenticile'  du  Saint-Sepulcre,  Paris, 
1877). 

It  would  not  be  altogether  impossible,  however, 
to  reconcile  the  Gospels  and  the  tradition,  as  the 
site  of  the  city-wall  was  so  considerably  altered 
by  Hadrian  that  many  places  formerly  outside 
of  it  came  to  lie  inside  of  it,  and  vice  versa.  But 
new  dillicnlties  ari.se  from  the  circumstance  that 
the  tradition  gives  no  perfect  certainty  with  re- 
.spect  to  the  identity  of  the  localities  it  points 
out.  Of  course  the  first  Christians  knew  the 
])laces  where  Christ  was  crucified  and  buried;  but 
they  evidently  did  not  give  much  attention,  or 
ascribe  much  value,  to  such  externalities.  'I'hen, 
when  the  .Jewish  war  broke  out,  towards  the  close 
of  67,  the  Christians  left  Jerusalem  for  Pella; 
and  when  they,  later  on,  returned,  the  cajiture 
and  destruction  of  the  city  must  have  wrought 
such  changes  as  to  make  the  identification  of 
special  localities  of  no  strongly  marked  external 
ilistinction  very  difficult.  Then,  again,  when 
Hadrian  rebuilt  the  city  on  an  entirely  now  plan, 


HOLY  SPIRIT. 


1009 


HOLY  SPIRIT. 


and  with  the  avowed  purpose  of  obliterating  the 
distinctive  character  of  tlie  old  city,  new  changes 
took  place,  which  must  have  made  the  tradition 
less  and  less  reliable.  It  has  been  argued  that 
the  unbroken  list  of  bishops  of  Jerusalem  which 
Eusebius  gives  from  James,  the  brother  of  the 
Lord,  to  Macarius,  is  a  guaranty  of  the  continuity 
of  the  tradition  living  in  the  congregation ;  but 
Eusebius  says  himself  (Hist.  Eccl. ,  4,  5)  that  the 
list  is  not  based  on  documents :  he  had  it  from 
heai'say.  It  has  also  been  argued  that  the  fre- 
quent pilgrimages  to  the  holy  places  of  Jerusa- 
lem, which,  according  to  Cyril  {Calech.,  17,  10), 
were  made  from  the  time  of  the  apostles,  testify 
in  favor  of  the  tradition  ;  but  the  earliest  visitors 
to  Jerusalem  —  Alexander  of  Flavius,  in  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Origen  —  do  not  give  the  impression 
that  at  their  time  the  holy  places  were  specially 
frequented  for  the  sake  of  devotion. 

The  first  who  thought  of  architecturally  adorn- 
ing the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  Constantine  the 
Great.  He  erected  a  rotunda  over  the  grave,  and 
close  by,  on  the  spot  of  the  crucifixion,  a  magni- 
ficent basilica,  consecrated  in  330.  Those  build- 
ings stood  till  014,  when,  during  the  invasion  of 
Chosroes  II.,  they  were  burnt  down.  Two  years 
later  on  (610)  the  abbot  Modestus,  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Theodosius,  began  the  erection  of  new 
buildings.  The  Patriarch  of  Alexandria,  Jo- 
hannes Eleeman,  supported  the  undertaking  by 
sending  a  thousand  workmen  and  a  large  sum  of 
money  to  Jerusalem.  In  620  the  new  buildings, 
consisting  of  three  separate,  churches,  were  fin- 
ished. Modesta's  churches  were  burnt  down  by 
the  Mohammedans  in  936,  and  not  restored  until 
1048,  when  the  cathedral  was  built  into  which 
the  crusaders,  in  1099,  made  their  entrance  on 
bare  feet,  and  singing  hymns  of  praise.  The 
buildings  were  then  partly  rebuilt,  partly  extend- 
ed ;  and  the  structures  thus  reared  stood,  though 
often  partially  disturbed  by  the  jNIohamniedans, 
till  the  great  conflagration  of  1808.  In  1810  the 
erection  of  the  present  buildings  was  begun. 
The  Greeks  and  the  Armenians  gave  the  money ; 
Komnenos  Kalfa,  a  Greek  architect  in  Constanti- 
nople, the  plan.  fr.  W.  schitltz. 

HOLY  SPIRIT,  the  third  person  of  the  Trinity, 
is  also  known  in  Scripture  as  the  Spirit  (Matt. 
iv.  1),  the  Spirit  of  God  (1  Sam.  x.  10),  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  (1  Pet.  i.  11),  the  Spirit  of  grace 
(lleb.  X.  29),  the  Spirit  of  truth  (John  xvi.  13), 
the  Paraclete,  or  Comforter  (John  xv.  26),  etc. 
The  trinitarian  relation  of  the  Spirit  is  discussed 
under  Trinity,  and  the  Procession  of  the  Spirit 
under  Filioque.  Here  we  shall  briefly  consider 
the  personality  and  work  of  the  Spirit. 

1.  PersnnaUty.  —  Although  there  was  some  in- 
distinctness in  the  teachings  of  Justin  MartjT 
and  others  of  the  early  fathers  concerning  the 
Spirit,  his  personality  has  been  generally  ac- 
cepted, except  amongst  the  Sabellians,  Arians, 
and  the  Socinians.  The  Socinians  represent  the 
Spirit  as  an  energy  or  power  of  God.  The  per- 
sonality is  proved  by  the  following  considerations. 
(1)  The  personal  pronoun  he  is  used  of  him,  as  in 
John  xvi.  13 :  "  When  he  (inuvoi;)  the  Spirit  of  truth 
is  come,  he  will  guide,"  etc.  (2)  He  is  expressly 
distinguished  from  God  (the  Father).  He  is 
sent  by  the  Father  (John  xiv.  20),  and  "search- 
«th  the  deep  things  of  God"  (1  Cor.  ii.   10). 


(3)  Acts  of  will  and  intelligence  are  attributed  to 
him,  such  as  belong  only  to  a  personal  agent, 
as  guiding  into  all  truth  (John  xvi.  13),  testify- 
ing (John  XV.  26),  convincing  (John  xvi.  8), 
interceding  (Rom.  viii.  20),  speaking  (Acts  xiii. 
2),  etc.  (4)  He  is  directly  contrasted  with  Satan 
(Acts  V.  3),  and  may  be  the  object  of  blasphemy 
(Matt.  xii.  31),  falsehood  (Acts  v.  3),  and  griev- 
ance (Eph.  iv.  30).  (5)  He  occupies  a  position 
in  the  formula  of  baptism  (Matt,  xxviii.  19)  and 
the  apostolic  benediction  (2  Cor.  xiii.  14),  at  the 
side  of  the  Father  and  the  Son,  and  is  distin- 
^ished  from  them.  He  is  also  distinguished 
from  the  Son  as  the  "  other  (lUPlof)  Comforter " 
(,Iohn  xiv.  16). 

2.  Office  and  Work.  —  The  Apostles'  Creed 
contented  itself  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  with  the  article,  "  I  believe  in  the  Holy 
Ghost;"  but  the  Creed  of  Constantinople  (381) 
contains  the  fuller  statement,  "  And  [we  believe] 
in  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  Lord  and  Giver  of  life, 
who  proceeded!  from  the  Father,  and  with  the 
Father  and  the  Son  is  to  be  adored  and  glorified, 
who  spake  by  the  holy  prophets."  As  of  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  so  of  the  Spirit,  we  cannot 
think  of  a  time  when  he  was  not  active.  He 
appears  as  the  executive  of  God  at  all  times,  but 
is  brought  forward  prominently  in  the  New  Dis- 
pensation as  the  eflicient  agent  in  the  renewal  of 
the  soul  and  its  advancement  in  holiness.  In 
the  Old  Testament  he  seems  to  have  been  active 
from  the  moment  of  creation,  when  the  '•  Spirit 
of  Ciod  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters  "  (Gen. 
i.  2),  and  God  said  that  his  '•  Spirit  should  not 
always  strive  with  man"  (Gen.  vi.  3).  He  is 
said  to  have  fallen  upon  God's  agents  (1  Sam. 
X.  10).  He  was  the  author  of  the  light  which 
the  Old-Testament  prophets  had  of  Christ  (1  Pet. 
i.  11),  and  of  their  inspiration  (2  Pet.  i.  21).  In 
many  of  the  cases  in  the  Old  Testament,  it  is 
doubtful  whether  a  distinct  person  is  meant  by 
the  designation  "  Spirit,"  or  merely  the  power 
of  God.  But  in  the  Xew  Testament  the  uncer- 
tainty vanishes ;  and  not  only  is  his  dLstinct  per- 
sonality made  prominent,  but  a  definite  work 
assigned  to  him.  He  had  a  part  in  the  life  of 
Christ,  was  active  in  his  generation  (Luke  i.  35), 
descended  upon  him  at  the  baptism  (Matt.  iii.  16), 
and  led  him  into  the  desert  of  temptation  (Matt, 
iv.  1). 

In  his  last  discourses  our  Lord  referred  re- 
jieatedly  to  him,  and  made  the  promise  that  he 
should  come  upon  the  disciples  (John  xvi.  7; 
Acts  i.  8,  etc.).  In  these  passages  the  Holy 
.Spirit  is  declared  to  be  the  representative  of 
Christ  after  his  removal  from  the  earth,  and  the 
dispenser  of  the  benefits  of  Christ's  life  to  the 
souls  of  believers.  He  was  the  "other  Com- 
forter" (Paraclete),  who  should  take  the  place 
of  Christ  in  leading  the  disciples  into  the  way  of 
all  truth  (John  xiv.  16,  xv.  26,  xvi.  13).  He  is 
the  permanent  companion  and  guide  of  the 
Church,  in  contrast  to  the  earthly  Christ,  who 
dwelt  only  temporarily  on  the  earth  (John  xiv. 
16).  The  Spirit  is  called  the  Spirit  of  Christ 
(Rom.  viii.  9),  because  he  holds  the  relation  of  a 
dispenser  to  the  benefits  of  Christ's  salvation. 
The  Spirit,  therefore,  has  a  relation  to  Christ 
similar  to  that  which  the  Son  has  to  the  Father. 
As  the  Son  reveals  the  Father  to  the  world  (John 


HOLY   SPIRIT. 


1010 


HOMER. 


i.  IS),  so  the  Spirit  reveals  the  grace  and  meri- 
torious atouenieiit  and  promises  of  Christ  to  the 
heart  of  tlie  believer  (.John  xvi.  15). 

This  special  work  in  the  history  of  redemption 
was  inaugurated  ten  days  after  tlie  Lord's  ascen- 
sion, on  the  Day  of  Pentecost,  ■when  the  disciples 
were  endued  with  power,  and  spoke  in  unknown 
tongues.  As  the  historic  birth-night  of  Christ 
was  celebrated  by  attendant  supernatural  phe- 
nomena, such  as  tlie  anthems  of  the  angels,  and 
the  heavenly  glory,  so  the  historical  bivthdaj'  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  the  Church  was  accompanied 
by  strange  external  manifestations,  —  tongues 
like  as  of  fire,  and  a  sound  from  heaven  as  of  the 
rushing  of  a  mighty  wind  (Acts  ii.  "2,  3).  Since 
that  time  he  has  been  active  in  the  Church,  the 
source  of  all  spiritual  enlightenment,  and  with- 
out whose  agencj'  man  neither  knows  Clirist  as 
his  Saviour,  nor  can  call  him  Lord  (1  Cor.  xii. 
3).  He  is  the  originator  of  convictions  of  sin, 
that  is,  of  the  sinfulness  of  refusing  to  believe 
in  Christ  (John  xvi.  9),  and  the  author  of  regen- 
eration (.John  iii.  b).  lie  promotes  the  sanctifi- 
cation  of  the  soul  (1  Cor.  vi.  11),  and  imparts 
to  the  Church  his  special  gifts  (1  Cor.  xii.  4). 
The  agency  of  the  Spirit  is,  however,  not  com- 
pleted with  this  activity,  but  extends  to  assuring 
the  believer  of  his  union  with  Christ,  and  partici- 
pation in  the  promises  of  eternal  life  (Kom.  viii. 
IG)-  All  spiritual  blessings,  righteou.sness,  peace, 
and  joy,  come  to  the  believer  by  reason  of  his 
reception  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Rom.  xiv.  17;  Eph. 
ii.  18).  For  this  reason  the  unbeliever  is  warned 
against  rejecting  tlie  knowledge  and  convictions 
of  tlie  .Spirit,  wliich  is  called  "grieving"  (Eph.  iv. 
30),  "quencliing"  (1  Thess.  v.  19),  and  "doing 
despite  unto"  the  Spirit  (Ileb.  x.  29).  All  kinds 
and  degi-ees  of  sin  may  be  forgiven,  except  the 
sin  of  blasphemy  against  the  Holy  Spirit  (Matt. 
xii.  31,  32).  This  sin  is  absolutely  unpardonable, 
because  it  is  the  final  rejection  of  liini  without 
whom  a  saving  knowledge  of  Christ  and  regen- 
eration are  impossible. 

Tills  dispen.satioii  has  been  called  the  dispensa- 
tion of  the  Spirit.  The  designation  is  true  so 
far  as  it  brings  out  the  prominency  of  the  Spirit's 
agency,  and  differentiates  his  work,  from  the  Day 
ot  Pentecost  on,  as  of  a  kind  which  he  did  not 
perform  under  the  old  dispensation.  Hut  the 
Spirit's  work  is  in  no  sense  an  atoning  work,  or 
a  substitute  for  that  of  Christ.  It  Is  mediatorial 
between  the  .Saviour  and  the  saved,  and  makes 
concrete  In  tlie  lives  and  e.xpericnces  of  individu- 
als the  salvation  which  was  achieved  through 
Pethleheni,  (iolgotha,  and  the  open  tomb.  The 
manifestation  of  the  Spirit  on  Pcjiitecost  was  a 
manifestation  of  power  (Acts  i.  8),  —  the  power 
of  a  new  life  an<l  a  spiritual  energy,  and  contin- 
ues to  be  .so.  The  eaily  ajiostlgs  and  Christians 
were  full  "of  faith  and  the  Holy  (ihost "  (.Vets 
iv.  8,  vi.  .j),  and  in  th<^  power  of  this  enilownient 
.spake  in  council-liall.s,  wrote  epistles,  and  suffered 
violent  deaths,  in  ho)ie  an(l  amidst  rejoicing. 
There  is  nothing  in  tlie  New  Testament  to  indi- 
cate that  this  manlf(;.station  of  jiower  was  to  be 
confined  to  apostolic  times,  allliough  it  is  not 
unreasonable  to  siiiiiiose  that  the  nirthods  of  his 
manifestation  may  be  different  in  kind  at  ditfer- 
enl  epoclis. 

Lit. — JoiKN  Owk.n:  On  the  Holy  Spirit,  Am. 


ed.,  vols,  iii.,  iv. ;  Pearson:  On  the  Creed,  X.Y. 
ed.,  1851,  pp.  459-499;  IIeber;  Bampton  Lectures 
on  the  Personality  and  Office  of  tlie  Comforter,  bSlG; 
Pye  Smith:  On  the  Holy  Ghost,  Lond.,  1S31; 
IL\ue:  Mission  of  the  Comforter,  184(1,  3d  ed., 
1870;  K.\Hxis  :  Lehre  r.  Geiste  Gottes,  Pt.  I..  Halle, 
1847  (incomplete);  Joseph  P.^rkeu:  Ttie  Para- 
clete, X.Y.,  1876.  On  the  Sin  again.st  the  Holy 
Ghost,  .Schaff:  D.  Siinde  w.  d.  Heil.  Geist., 
Halle,  1841.  See  also  Hagenb.\ch  :  Hist,  of 
Doc'.,  §§  44,  93,  and  the  Theologies  of  Hodge, 
V.-vx  Oosterzee,  etc.  D.  s.  sch.\ff. 

HOLY  WATER,  the  use  of,  i.e.,  water  blessed 
by  a  priest  or  bishop  for  religious  purposes,  is 
an  old  Oriental,  more  especially  Jewish,  custom, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Christian  Church,  and 
is  still  retained  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  Church. 
In  the  Greek  Church  pure  water  is  used ;  in  the 
Roman,  a  little  salt  is  added,  wiiicii  by  the  Greek 
is  considered  a  scandalous  and  dangerous  novelty. 
In  both  churches  the  practice  has  given  rise  to 
mucli  superstition. 

HOLY  WEEK  {Hehdomas  Magna,  or  Sancla.  or 
Xif/i-a),  the  last  week  of  Lent,  commencing  at 
midnight  on  Palm  Sunday,  and  ending  at  cock- 
crow on  Easter  Day,  including,  besides  Palm 
Sunday  and  Holy  Saturday,  Mauudy  Thursday, 
the  anniversary  of  the  institution  of  the  Lord's- 
Supper,  and  Good  Friday,  the  anniversary  of  the 
Crucifixion.  The  earliest  mention  of  the  cele- 
bration of  Holj'  Week,  as  generally  prevailing 
throughout  the  Church,  occurs  in  the  .Vpostulic;il 
constitutions,  and  in  the  writings  of  Dionysius  of 
Alexandria,  from  the  middle  of  the  third  century. 
The  whole  week  was  kept  as  a  strict  fast ;  that 
is,  the  diet  was  restricted  to  bread,  salt,  vegeta- 
bles, and  water,  and  total  abstinence  was  jmac- 
tised  on  Friday  and  Saturday,  or  at  least  on  the 
last  day.  At  the  time  of  Theodosius.  all  private 
and  public  business  was  suspended,  even  the 
courts  were  closed.  Prisoners  for  debt  or  minor 
misdemeanors  were  released,  slaves  were  manu- 
mitted, etc.  All  work  was,  so  far  as  possible, 
laid  aside  ;  and  spechal  opportunities  of  instruc- 
tion in  the  elements  of  faith  were  offered.  The 
history  of  the  Passion  was  recited  on  successive 
days,  beginning  with  the  narrative  of  .St.  Mat- 
thew, on  Palm  .Sunday,  and  ending  with  that  of 
St.  Jolin,  on  (!oo<i  Friday.  In  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  Holy  \\'eek  is  still  celebrated 
by  rigorous  penitence  (fast  and  alm.sglving),  by 
suspension  of  work  In  the  family,  by  increa-sed 
solemnity  of  the  .services  (no  instrumental  music, 
veiling  of  tlie  statues  and  pictures,  etc.),  and  by 
special  services  (the  consecration  of  the  chrism, 
the  blessing  of  the  fire  by  which  the  paschal  light 
Is  lighted,  etc.).  Several  Protestant  churches, 
such  as  the  Church  of  England  aud  the  Lutheran 
churches  in  Scandinavia,  also  commemorate  Holy 
Week.  See  Wiseman  :  Lectures  on  Ike  Doctrines 
and  Practices  of  the  Catholic  Church,  London, 
l.s:;ii,  -J  vols. 

HOLZHAUSER.     See  Baktiiolomites. 

HOMER,  William  Bradford,  b.  in  Boston,  Jan. 
31,  1S17;  ,1.  at  Scmth  Berwick,  Jle.,  ."\Iarch  7, 
IMl.  Ills  father  was  a  merchant,  distinguished 
for  Christian  ]iliil;iiithropy.  Ills  mother  was  a 
lineal  deacendant  of  A\'llliam  Bracll'oni,  a  passen- 
ger In  "  The  Mayflower,"  and  the  second  governor 
of  Plymouth  Colony.     At  the  age  of  five  years. 


HOMILETICS. 


1011 


HOMILETICS. 


younu  ITonier  began  to  attend  school ;  and,  from 
that  time  until  six  months  before  his  death,  he 
was  a  constant  attendant  at  schools  of  different 
};nulations.  In  1827  he  became  a  member  of  the 
Mount  Pleasant  Classical  Institution  at  Amherst, 
Mass.  Here  he  remained  three  years.  Under 
the  instruction  of  Mr.  (iregory  Perdicari  he  ac- 
quired such  familiarity  with  the  modern  Greek 
that  lie  was  able  to  speak  as  well  as  read  it  with 
facility,  lie  passed  the  year  18:51-32  as  a  mem- 
ber of  Phillips  Academy,  Andover,  Mass.  lie 
was  the  youngest  member  of  his  class,  but  was  se- 
lected to  deliver  the  valedictory  addresses  at  his 
graduation.  He  was  also,  perhaps,  tiie  youngest 
member  of  his  class  at  Amherst  College;  and, 
although  his  class  was  noted  for  scliolarship  and 
general  e.vcellence,  yet  at  his  graduation  in  1830 
lie  received  the  valedictory  honors.  At  the  age 
of  nineteen  he  entered  the  Theological  .Seminary 
at  Andover.  Here  he  remained  four  years. 
Leaving  the  institution  in  1840,  he  accepted  a 
call  from  the  Congregational  Church  in  South 
Berwick.  Me.,  to  become  its  pastor.  He  was 
ordained  Nov.  11,  1840.  He  won  the  esteem  and 
affection  of  his  people  to  an  unusual  degree. 
Ilis  love  for  the  ministerial  work  was  a  passion  ; 
still  he  was  intending,  should  Providence  permit, 
to  spend  his  life  as  a  professor  of  the  Greek  lan- 
guage. Before  his  ordination  he  had  written 
many  articles  for  the  pre.ss,  and  collected  mate- 
rials for  three  courses  of  lectures  on  the  Iliad, 
Odyssey,  and  the  Orations  of  Demosthenes. 
From  his  early  childhood  to  the  hour  of  his  death 
he  was  noted  for  the  purity  of  his  character  and 
for  his  enthusiasm  in  study.  About  four  months 
after  his  ordination,  he  died,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
four  years.  An  impressive  sermon  was  preached 
at  his  funeral,  by  Professor  B.  B.  Edwards  of 
Andover  Theological  Seminary.  Fourteen  of 
jMr.  Homer's  sermons,  and  two  of  his  literary  ad- 
dresses, were  published  in  1842,  in  a  duodecimo 
volume  of  four  hundred  and  twenty  pages.  To 
these  sermons  was  prefixed  a  Memoir,  containing 
one  hundred  and  thirty-six  pages,  by  E.  A.  Park, 
who  edited  the  volume.  A  .second  edition  of  it 
was  published  in  1848.        EDW.\RD3  A.  p.vrk. 

HOMILETICS  (from  the  German  Point  of 
view).  I.  N.\ME  AXD  Scope. — -The  definition 
of  homiletics  depends,  to  some  extent,  upon  the 
meaning  of  "homily."  Homily  (biiiXia,  from 
6/ioi,  "together."  and  eiXi],  "company,"  1  Cor. 
XV.  33;  comp.  Luke  xxiv.  14,  15;  Acts  xx.  11; 
etc.)  designated  in  the  early  Church  the  addresses 
at  private  gatherings  for  Christian  worship,  and 
especially  the  exhortation  with  which  tlie  leader 
followed  the  Scripture-reading  (Justin,  Ap.  MaJ., 
Ixvii.).  At  a  later  period,  when  these  addresses 
had  taken  on  a  more  elaborate  form,  it  was  ap- 
plied to  public  discourses  addressed  to  believers, 
in  distinction  from  the  public  proclamation  of 
the  gospel  to  the  unconverted  {Ki/pvy^a).  The 
plain  and  homely  structure  of  the  homily  distin- 
guished it  from  the  finished  rhetorical  produc- 
tions of  classical  antiquity. 

In  the  Western  Church  the  terms  "sermon" 
and  "  homily  "  were  at  first  used  interchangeably; 
but  in  time  each  came  to  designate  a  special  kind 
of  discourse.  The  sermon  was  a  discourse  de- 
veloping a  definite  theme;  as,  for  example,  Augus- 
tine's discourse  on  the  "  Love  of   God  and  the 


Love  of  the  World "  (De  aiiwre  Dei  el  amort 
stecuU).  The  homily  pursued  the  analytical 
method,  and  expounded  a  paragraph  or  verse  of 
Scripture;  as,  for  example,  Augustine's  discourses 
with  the  heading  Dc  co  ipwd  scri/i/mn  est.  Abid- 
ing by  this  radical  idea  of  the  homily,  we  shall 
be  forced  to  define  homiletics  as  the  science  of 
preaching  to  believers.  In  this  narrower  sense 
the  subject  has  been  treated  by  Schleiermacher, 
Schweizer,  Palmer,  Ilarnack,  Oosterzee,  and 
others.  For  this  reason  some  have  treated  evaii- 
gelistics,  or  missionary  preaching,  as  a  .sejiarate 
department;  while  others,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
separate  discussion,  have  discarded  the  term 
"  homiletics  "  altogether,  and  substituted  in  its 
stead,  as  more  comprehensive,  "keryktics"  (from 
Kt/pvaau,  "to  preacli,"  Acts  viii.  5),  or  "  halieutics" 
(from  uXtevu,  "to  fish,"  John  xxi.  3).  Both  of 
the.se  designations  are  objectionable,  because  they 
take  into  consideration  mainly  those  unacquainted 
with  the  gospel. 

The  scope  of  the  science  of  homiletics  is  found 
in  the  New-Testament  idea  of  bearing  witness 
for  Christ  (^iiaprupdv.  Matt.  xxiv.  14;  Acts  i.  8, 
22;  etc.).  This  expression  includes  botli  classes 
as  the  subjects  of  preaching,  —  believers  and 
non-believers.  Homiletics  is,  therefore,  to  be 
regarded  as  having  a  scope  larger  than  the  strict 
etymology  and  historical  use  of  the  term  "  hom- 
ily "  would  warrant.  It  is  the  scientific  treatment 
of  preaching  considered  as  a  witnessing  for  Christ 
ill  public  worship.  This  definition  does  not  in- 
clude missionary  preaching  ;  that  is,  preaoliing  to 
those  who  have  never  heard  the  gospel.  The  use 
of  the  term  "  homiletics  "  dates  from  tlie  latter 
half  of  the  seventeenth  century  (Baiek  .  Comp. 
Theot.  Homil.,  1677 ;  Kku.miiolz:  Comp.  ILimil., 
lG9i)). 

II.  Homiletics  and  Rhetoric.  —  The  first 
Christian  preachers  did  not  trouble  themselves 
about  the  rules  of  classical  rhetoric,  and  cared 
little  for  the  "enticing  words  of  man's  wisdom" 
(1  Cor.  ii.  4,  .5).  But,  as  preaching  became  more 
studied  and  elaborate,  the  pulpit  could  not  ignore 
the  rules  of  Cireek  and  Roman  eloquence.  The 
time  came  when  the  most  prominent  pulpit  ora- 
tors—  like  Basil,  the  two  Gregories,  Chry.sostom, 
and  Augustine  — were  those  who  liad  themselves 
been  teachers  of  rhetoric.  The  result  has  been, 
that  from  that  time  to  this,  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent,  sacred  oratory  has  been  regarded  as  a 
branch  or  species  of  general  rhetoric.  Erasmus, 
Melanchthon,  Herder,  Theremin.Vinet,  are  among 
those  who  represent  this  view.  Others,  however, 
like  the  Pietists  of  the  eighteenth  century  (Spener, 
etc.)  and  Stier  in  this,  demand  the  ab.solute 
divorce  of  the  pulpit  from  the  rules  of  rhetoric, 
opposing  all  union  with  "  the  strange  woman  tliat 
speaks  smooth  words,"  and  all  accommodation  to 
.-esthetic  prejudices.  No  such  divorce  can  be 
admitted;  and  yet  the  higher  sphere  to  which 
the  pulpit  belongs,  and  the  nature  of  the  topics 
discussed,  make  it  necessary  for  homiletics  to 
treat  of  the  preparation  and  delivery  of  the  ser- 
mon as  subjects  peculiar  to  itself.  There  is  much 
tliat  sacred  and  forensic  eloquence  have  in  com- 
mon. A  mind  charged  with  the  subject,  dialectic 
training,  lucid  arrangement,  fluency  of  utterance, 
keen  psychological  perception,  lively  imagination, 
• — such  qualities  as  these  all  constitute  the  spring 


HOMILBTICS. 


1012 


HOMILBTICS. 


fi'om  which  both  kinds  of  eloquence  alike  flow, 
as  is  proved  from  the  lives  of  sacred  orators  from 
Basil  and  Chrysostom  down  to  Krummacher  and 
Spurgeon.  Likewise,  in  the  structure  of  the  dis- 
■course.  the  same  logical  and  aesthetic  rules  of 
grouping,  the  use  of  oratorical  figures,  etc.,  apply 
to  both.  But  the  features  in  which  the}'  differ 
are  more  numerous  than  those  in  which  they 
Agree.  Sacred  eloquence  is  distinguished  by  its 
subject-matter,  its  definite  moral  and  religious 
purpose,  and  the  means  proper  to  be  used  to  secure 
■conviction.  Forensic  rhetoric  seeks  to  secure  ob- 
jects confined  to  this  life,  whether  personal  or 
disinterested.  The  aim  of  preaching  reaches  out 
beyond  the  confines  of  this  world,  and  concerns 
the  soul's  eternal  blessedness  and  God's  glory. 
Again :  the  sacred  orator  may  never  resort  to  arti- 
ficial devices ;  nor  may  he  place  reliance,  in  his 
efforts  to  convince  the  soul,  upon  his  manner,  or 
■diction,  or  argumentation.  He  must  depend  upon 
the  vitalizing  power  of  the  truth  (Isa.  Iv.  11 ; 
■John  vi.  63 ;  Heb.  iv.  12,  etc.)  and  the  direct 
influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for,  as  Luther  says, 
■"the  speaker  convinces  no  man  to  believe  aright: 
it  is  the  word  of  God  itself  that  must  lead  him 
to  accept  the  truth  to  be  the  word  of  God  "  (O/;., 
xiii.).  Rhetoric  has,  therefore,  no  place  in  preach- 
ing as  an  end  in  itself.  It  may  only  be  used  as 
a  means  for  the  effective  presentation  of  the 
gospel  which  is  laid  upon  the  preacher.  And  all 
artistic  structure  of  the  sermon  is  to  be  discarded 
which  prejudices  the  simplicity  and  power  of  the 
Word.  In  this  connection  it  is  well  to  remember 
that  preachers,  as  they  grow  in  experience  of  the 
truth,  discard  the  rhetorical  arts  which  they  prac- 
tised when  they  began  to  preach,  and  use  a  more 
direct  and  plain  mode  of  utterance. 

Ill,  Dksig.v  of  Preaching. — The  most  im- 
portant designations  in  the  New  Testament  for 
preaching  determine  its  character  as  the  joyous 
proclamation  of  .salvation  through  Christ.  In 
Kripicativ  ("to  preach,"  Matt.  iv.  23,  etc.)  the 
emphasis  is  upon  the  novclii/  of  the  message ;  in 
evayycAiico'Sat  ("to  preach  the  gospel,"  Matt.  xi. 
5,  etc.),  upon  its  jmjnus  contents ;  and  in  AidiinKtiv 
("to  teach,"  Matt.  xi.  1,  etc.),  the  reference  is  to 
its  lucid  explanation.  All  these  elements  are  com- 
bined in  liapTvpdv  ("to  bear  witnes.s,"  Acts  i.  8, 
etc.),  where  the  emphasis  is  upon  the  vouching 
for  the  truth  on  the  ground  of  personal  experi- 
ence. The  object  of  preaching,  then,  is  none 
other  than  to  direct  the  world  to  the  way  of  bless- 
edness, to  call  the  unconverted  to  repentance,  and 
to  confirm  believers  in  their  faith.  To  secure 
this  result,  the  most  essential  tiling  is  the  ener- 
gizing power  of  the  word  of  God  itself.  The  next, 
and  not  less  important,  factor  is  the  power  of 
a.  personal  witness  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost. 
The  matter  of  preaching  everywhere  and  at  all 
times  must  be  salvation  through  Christ.  But, 
while  this  is  true,  the  distinction  must  not  be 
overlooked  between  the  preaching  addressed  to 
believing  congregations  on  the  one  hand,  and 
apostolic  and  missionary  preaching  on  the  other. 
The  apostles  limited  themselves  to  the  demonstra- 
tion that  prophecy  had  been  fulfilled  in  Christ. 
Missionary  preaching  is  designed  to  conwnce  and 
convert  alone.  Preaching  aildressed  to  congrega- 
tions of  believers,  however,  analyzes  and  ex[ilains 
{)as8age3  of  Scripture,  and  seeks  iu  tbia  way  to 


eilify  and  enlarge  the  experience  of  divine  things. 
This  is  its  main  object.  However,  in  the  present 
mixed  condition  of  our  congregations,  the  preacher 
must  combine  with  the  edificatory  element  the 
effort  to  reach  unbelievers. 

There  have  been  other  theories  of  preaching. 
The  rhetorical  theory  of  Theremin  and  others 
transforms  the  preacher  into  an  orator.  The 
didactic  theory  (Nitzsch,  etc.)  lays  an  undue 
stress  upon  the  preacher's  relation  as  a  public 
teacher,  who  instructs  the  intellect,  but  has 
little  to  do  with  the  affections  and  wills,  of  his 
hearers.  The  theory  of  mere  awakening  (Stier) 
treats  all  listeners,  even  believers,  as  mere  sinners, 
and  addresses  its  mes.?age  to  the  natural  man 
exclusively.  Then  there  is  the  edification  theory, 
which,  making  a  sharp  distinction  between  evan- 
gelistic preaching  and  preaching  addressed  to 
congregations  in  Christian  communities,  regards 
preaching  as  designed  exclusively  to  edify.  Ac- 
cording to  it,  the  sermon  should  be  a  finished 
production,  presenting  a  delineation  of  Christian 
truth,  but  designed,  in  the  first  instance,  neither 
to  instruct  nor  to  couvert.  AU  these  theories  are 
one-sided:  neither  of  them  presents  more  than 
one  aspect  of  the  ideal  preacher.  The  design  of 
preaching  is  at  once  awakening  and  edificatory, 
and  becomes  so  by  being  didactic,  and  in  some 
cases  rhetorical.  The  most  efficient  preachers 
have  always  aimed  to  arouse  as  well  as  edify, 
and,  never  satisfied  with  merely  presenting  the 
truth,  have  sought  to  enforce  it,  that  it  might 
become  a  living,  energizing  force  in  the  lives  of 
their  hearers.  If  Germany  wishes  to  avert  the 
catastrophe  which  befell  the  Anglican  Church  a 
hundred  years  ago,  in  the  loss  of  so  many  of  its 
members  to  the  Methodists,  it  must  liasten  to 
realize  this  ideal  of  preaching.  [Dr.  Christlieb 
has  here  in  mind  the  evangelistic  efforts  of  the 
Methodists  and  of  other  foreign  denominations  in 
Germany.] 

IV.  History  of  Homiletics.  1.  The  Fa- 
thers. —  A  few  scattered  directions  for  preaching 
are  given  by  Origen,  Cyprian,  l^actantius,  and 
.•Vrnobius.  Chrysostom  and  Augustine  were  the 
first  to  go  elaborately  into  the  subject.  Both 
drew  upon  their  own  personal  experiences  as 
rhetoricians  and  preachers.  In  his  work  the 
Priesthood  (De  Saccrdolio,  books  iv.,  v.),  Chrysos- 
tom defines  as  some  of  the  personal  qualifications 
of  the  preacher,  eloquence,  dialectic  skill  in  the 
use  of  Scripture,  readiness  in  the  defence  of  the 
faith,  diligence  in  preparation,  and  regard  for 
the  praise  of  God  rather  than  man.  For  similar 
rules,  see  also  Basil  (Scrmo  Ascctica  de  Fide)  and 
Gregory  of  Xazianzus  {Carmen  de  Episcupis). 
Augustine,  in  his  Christian  Truth  {De  Doct. 
Christ.,  iv.),  wdiich  might  almost  be  called  a 
treatise  on  homiletics,  makes  a  .sharp  liistinction 
between  the  design  of  preaching  and  the  rlietoric 
of  Komo  and  Greece.  In  the  fourth  book  of 
this  work  he  discusses  the  subject  under  two 
heads,  —  the  matter  oi  preaching,  and  the  manner 
of  its  presentation.  lie  does  not  deny  that  elo- 
uence  may  be  used  to  advantage,   but  insists 


the  preacher  must  derive  his  wis<loni,  and 


quer 

that 

the  very  form  of  his  utterance,  from  tlie  Scri] 

tures.     He  urges  Cicero's  threefold  purjiose   of 

public  speech,  —  to   instruct   ((/were),   to  pleasi; 

{dckctare),  aud  to   persuade   {Jieclere),  laying, 


HOMILETICS. 


1013 


HOMILETICS. 


however,  special  emphasis  upon  the  last.  He 
also  urges  the  necessity  of  an  accortl  between  the 
preacher's  life  and  words,  of  prayer  as  a  prepara- 
tion for  tlie  sermon,  etc. 

2.  Tlie  Middle  A<jes  inagiiified  liturgical  forTns 
and  ordinances  as  constituent  parts  of  woi-ship, 
to  the  prejudice  of  the  sermon,  which  in  time 
was  almost  entirely  neglected.  In  the  first  half 
of  this  period  there  are  three  writers  on  the  gen- 
eral subject.  Rhabanus  Maurus  {De  Clericorum 
Inslitulione)  directs  attention  again  to  Augus- 
tine's rules.  Guibert  of  Nogent  (d.  1124;  Li/ier 
quo  ordine  sennojieri  debeat)  insists  that  no  more 
should  be  put  into  a  sermon  than  can  be  carried 
away  in  the  memory;  that  the  pulpit  should 
practise  the  textual  rather  than  the  allegorical 
method  of  interpretation,  and  seek  to  lift  men 
up  to  better  lives,  rather  than  indulge  in  the 
refinements  of  theological  discussion.  The  third, 
Alanus  of  Ryssel  (twelfth  century),  wrote  a  work 
entitled  Summu  de  Arte  Prcedicnioria.  In  tlie 
second  half  of  this  period  we  meet  first  with 
Bonaventura's  work  Ars  Concionundi.  lie  was 
followed  by  Humbert  de  Romanis  (d.  1277 ; 
Trad,  de  Erudit.  Coiicionaloruni).  But  the  period 
furnishes  nothing  of  importance  till  near  its 
close,  when  Keuchlin  (Liber  Congenturum  de  Arte 
J'ricdicandi,  1504)  seeks  to  revive  pulpit  oratory, 
which  had  fallen  into  almost  total  neglect,  by 
insisting  upon  the  presentation  of  proper  and 
practical  subjects,  and  the  rules  of  rhetoric. 

3.  The  Period  since  the  Reformation.  —  During 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  homi- 
letios  was  built  up  into  a  science,  but  placed  in 
the  closest  relations  to  the  rhetoric  of  antiquity. 
The  revival  of  preaching  by  the  Reformers  led 
naturally  to  a  fresh  and  more  pi'ofound  study  of 
the  nature  and  purpose  of  preaching.  The  sys- 
tematic development  of  the  science  of  homiletics 
followed.  The  Eccle.-iidstes.  sire  Concioiialor  Ernn- 
gelicus  of  Erasmus  forms  the  link  between  the 
older  treatises  and  Protestant  homiletics.  The 
keen  satirist  of  the  vain  and  vague  platitudes  of 
the  preaching  of  his  day  (Lmis  Siidtilice)  here 
exalts  the  calling  of  the  preacher  above  that  of 
the  priest  and  monk.  In  book  i.  he  lays  down 
the  personal  qualifications  of  the  preacher,  — 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  Fathers, 
faith,  fluency  of  speech,  etc.  In  book  ii.  he  ad- 
duces illustrations  from  Pagan  and  Christian 
writers,  bearing  on  pulpit  oratory,  and  passes 
over  in  book  iii.  to  apply  the  rules  of  dialectics 
and  rhetoric  to  the  structure  of  the  sermon,  con- 
cluding in  book  iv.  by  discussing  the  preacher's 
material.  Melanchthon,  in  his  De  lilietoricn 
(lolU)  and  De  Ojficiis  Concionatoris  (153.5),  fol- 
lows Erasmus  very  closely  in  urging  the  rules  of 
classic  rhetoric,  lie  exerted  a  profound  influence 
upon  the  writers  who  followed  him.  The  pulpit 
of  the  succeeding  period,  following  his  precepts 
rather  than  the  example  of  Luther,  pursued  the 
synthetic  method,  preaching  upon  themes,  in 
contrast  to  analyzing  a  text.  The  principal  con- 
tributor, however,  to  the  science  of  homiletics  in 
the  Reformation  period,  was  Hyperius,  professor 
at  Marburg.  Ills  work  De  Fonmuulis  Concioni- 
bus  Sacris  (1553)  distinguishes  him  above  Eras- 
mus, as  the  founder  of  the  science  of  homiletics. 
lie  discusses  more  sharply  and  elaborately  than 
had  ever  been  done  before  the  relation  of  homi- 


letics to  rhetoric,  and  adopts  as  applicable  to  the 
former  only  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  of  the 
five  classic  divisions  (iurenlio,  dis/iosilio,  elocutio, 
memoria,  jirontniriiilin).  lie  distributes  .sermons 
under  the  six  heads  of  doctrine,  instruction,  re- 
proof, correction,  consolation,  and  mixed,  and 
treats  of  their  division  into  exordium,  statement 
of  subject,  proof,  refutation  of  objections,  and 
conclusion.  Important  as  this  work  was,  the 
writers  who  followed,  such  as  ('hytrtcus,  M. 
Chemnitz  {Methodus  Concionandi,  1583),  and 
others,  almost  without  an  exception,  leaned  upon 
Melanchthon's  De  Rhetorica,  and  insisted  upon 
the  rules  of  rhetoric  and  a  formal  structure.  In 
vain  did  Osiander  (Ratio  Concionandi,  1584)  and 
AndreiB  (Method.  Concionandi,  1595)  urge  greater 
fidelity  to  Scripture,  and  more  regard  for  the 
spiritual  needs  of  the  people,  in  the  choice  of 
subjects  and  mode  of  expression.  The  pulpit 
became  in  the  seventeenth  century  an  arena  for 
theological  disputation:  and  homiletics  was  shriv- 
elled up  into  a  mere  discussion  of  tlie  form  and 
structure  of  the  sermon,  while  the  question  of 
the  subject  matter  was  almost  entirely  over- 
looked. 

A  new  period  (1700-1830)  opens  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century,  when,  under  the  influence  of  the 
Pietistic  movement,  homiletics  began  to  be  eman- 
cipated from  rhetoric  and  the  tyranny  of  artificial 
refinements.  This  was,  however,  followed  by  a 
philosophical  re-action.  Spener  introduced  the 
revolt  against  the  artificial  method,  and  insisted 
that  the  pulpit  should  present  the  verities  of  faith, 
and  present  them  in  direct  and  simple  statement. 
Other  writers,  like  Ranibach,  in  his  Pracepta 
Homiletica,  a  work  which  deserves  still  to  be  used, 
follow  Spener's  leadership,  and  iiksist  upon  spirit- 
ual preparation  for  the  sermon,  prayer,  the  unc- 
tion of  the  spirit,  the  simple  delineation  of  the 
truth,  etc.  Contemporary  authors  in  other  lands 
—  Gaussen,  professor  at  Saumur  (De  Ratione  Con- 
cionandi, 1678),  Claude  (Traitc  ile  la  Composition 
d'un  sermon,  1688),  and  Vitringa  (Animadv.  ad 
Method,  homil.  Eccles.,  1712)  —  emphasized  the 
personal  qualifications  of  the  preacher,  the  inde- 
pendence of  sacred  rhetoric,  and  the  analytic  over 
against  the  synthetic  method.  But,  by  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighteenth  century,  philosophy  arose  in 
revolt  against  the  exclusive  treatment  of  such 
themes  as  regeneration  and  repentance,  and  as- 
serted a  place  for  itself  in  the  pulpit.  Mosheim's 
work,  Anweis.,  erbaulich  zu  prediyen  (1763),  marks 
the  transition.  He  shows  the  influence  of  Eng- 
lish and  French  infidelity  by  insisting  upon  the 
use  in  the  pulpit  of  the  historical  evidences  for 
Christianity.  Preaching  was  from  this  on  to  be 
addressed  more  particularly  to  the  understand- 
ing; and  even  the  spiritually  minded  Fenelon,  in 
his  Dialor/ucs  snr  /'fi/wyueHce  (1718),  defines  the 
most  essential  quality  of  a  sermon  to  be  that  it 
should '-give  instruction"  (d'tire  instructif).  The 
new  philosophizing  method  excluded  more  and 
more  biblical  matter  from  sermons.  The  pulpit 
ceased  its  efforts  to  convert :  it  sought  alone  to 
instruct.  It  resorted  no  longer  to  Scripture  for 
proofs:  it  found  them  in  '-rational  ideas."  The 
things  of  eternity  gave  way  to  the  things  of  time. 
Spalding  (Die  Nutzharkeit  d.  Predii/lanits.  1772) 
and  other  writers  excluded  from  preaching  all 
that  did  not  contribute  to  immediate  well  being 


HOMILBTICS. 


1014 


HOMILBTICS. 


in  this  world;  and  MareEoll  (Bcslimmuriff  <!.  Kan- 
zelredners.  1793)  lays  down  the  proposition  that 
the  pulpit  should  discuss,  not  what  Christ  once 
taught,  but  what  he  would  teach  if  he  were  now 
on  earth.  The  protests  of  believing  theologians 
like  Bengel  and  Oetinger  against  this  intellectual 
assumption  found  only  a  small  audience.  At  the 
close  of  the  century  the  Kantian  philosophy  re- 
deemed the  pulpit  from  the  bald  utilitarianism 
into  which  it  was  fast  sinking.  Schulderoff 
(Krilit  d.  Homiletik,  1797)  again  demanded  for 
the  sermon  the  character  of  a  discourse  on  reli- 
gion, but  not  necessarily  on  the  Christian  religion. 
A  new  tendency  appeared  early  in  this  century, 
and  the  old  question  of  the  relation  of  preach- 
ing to  rhetoric  again  came  into  the  foreground. 
Among  the  many  treatises,  those  of  Theremin 
(Z).  Beredlsamkeit,  eine  Tugend,  1814)  and  Schott 
{Theorie  d.  Beredtsaml-ek,  etc.,  1828-32)  are  the 
most  important.  But  all  agreed  in  making 
preaching  a  branch  of  general  rhetoric.  The 
very  term  "homiletics"  was  in  danger  of  being 
discarded  for  "pulpit  eloquence."  With  Schleier- 
macher  and  Claus  Harms  a  new  period  begins, 
which  is  marked  by  the  treatment  of  homiletics 
as  a  department  of  practical  theology.  Mar- 
heinecke's  work  on  homiletics  (1811)  contends 
for  the  introduction  of  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  Christianity  into  the  pulpit,  .and,  with  Schlei- 
ermacher,  insists  upon  edification  as  the  aim  of 
preaching.  Claus  Harms  followed  with  his  essay 
on  Speaking  with  Tongues,  which  fell  like  a  bomb- 
shell under  the  lamps  of  those  students  who  were 
seeking  to  copy  after  strictly  logical  and  rhetori- 
cal models.  With  great  freshness  and  originality 
he  declared  war  against  the  artificial  pulpit  pi'o- 
ductions  of  the  schools.  Stier,  in  liis  Kerijklik 
(1830),  and  to  some  extent  Sickel  {Halieulik,  1829), 
insist  upon  the  lublical  character  of  preaching. 
The  most  important  WDrks  since  then  are  Palii- 
er:  Homiletik.  1842,  5th  ed.,  18G7;  G.  B.\uk: 
GrundzUge  d.  Ilomiletik,  1848;  (i.-iupp:  Ilomilelik, 
1852;  Harn-ack:  Pmkt.  T/uol.,  1878.  All  these 
writers  agree  in  presenting  the  evangelical  view, 
that  the  "sermon  is  God"s  word  to  the  Church." 
See  also  JsESSEI,^fA^'N  :  Uehersichl  iih.  d.  Entwick- 
lungsgescli.  d.  christ.  Pretligl.,  1802 ;  Sciienk  : 
Geschich.  d.  deutsch-prntent.  Kanzelheredtsamkeil, 
1841.  —  French  writers.  (iAi'ssEX,  Claude  (see 
above);  Fenelon:  Dialogues  sui-  /'('/ofjunncf,  1718; 
ViNET :  J{ninil('li<iue,  Paris,  1853  [Eng.  trans,  by 
Skinner,  Xew  York,  18.53]  ;  Mairy  (cardinal) : 
Essai  sur  r iSloqucnce  de  In  chair,  1780;  A.  CocQt'E- 
REL,1860;  Bautain;  Bassekm.vnn:  Hnh.d.geiMl. 
Beredsamkeit,  1885,  and  many  others.  —  English 
works  by  Perkins  (1013),  Uaxtku  (r/x-  Reformed 
Pastor,  1050),  Cotton  Mather  (1710),  Dod- 
dridge (1775),  TiiD.MAs  Coke  (1810),  I'orter 
(1834),  J.  Angell  James  {Ah  Enrnext  Ministri/, 
1848),  Stevens  ^1855),  .\lexandeu  (T/iouglils 
on  Preaching.  1801),  HeciG  (1.S03),  Kidder  {Trea- 
tise on  Ilomilelic.i,  1804),  Siiedd  {//omilelics,  1872, 
loth  ed.),  Hopi'iN  (new  ed.,  18S1),  Spukgeon 
(Lectures  to  mi/  Students,  2  vols.,  1875-77).  Tlie 
Yale  Lectures  on  Preaching  by  H.  W .  Keecher 
("1871-74,  3  vols.),  John  Ham.  (1875),  W.  M. 
Taylor  (1870;  [Piiii.i.ii's  Brooks  (1877),  I!.  W. 
Dale  (1878),  Howard  Crosiiv  (1879),   Bishop 

SlMPSdN   (IKSII)].  CIIKISTLIKH. 

HOMILETICS  from  the  Anglo-American  point 


of  view)  may  be  defined  as  the  application  of  the 
general  principles  of  rhetoric  to  the  specific  de- 
partment of  preaching.  It  is  the  science  which 
treats  of  the  analysis,  classification,  preparation, 
composition,  and  delivery  of  sermons,  viewed  as 
addressed  to  the  popular  mind,  on  subjects  sug- 
gested by  the  word  of  God,  and  designed  for  the 
conversion  of  sinners  and  the  edification  of  be- 
lievers. Hence  it  has  been  sometimes  styled 
"  sacred  rhetoric ; "  and  it  bears  to  rhetoric  in 
general  the  same  relation  which  rhetoric  itself, 
according  to  Wiateley,  bears  to  logic.  One  must 
approach  it,  therefore,  through  both  of  these 
other  sciences,  and  carry  with  him  all  which  they 
have  taught  him;  so  that  he  may  apply  it  all, 
and  utilize  it  all,  in  the  particular  work  of  preach- 
ing. It  gives  directions  for  the  choice  of  sub- 
jects, and  the  relation  of  these  to  texts  of  Scrip- 
ture, as  the  passages  by  which  they  are  suggested, 
or  in  which  they  are  implied.  It  analyzes  the 
sermon  founded  on  such  a  text  into  its  different 
parts,  —  of  introduction,  proposition,  argument, 
division,  and  application  or  conclusion, — and  lays 
down  rules  regarding  each  of  these,  so  that  they 
may  be  natural,  sim]ile,  proportionate,  and  effec- 
tive. In  particular  it  insists  that  the  discourse 
should  be  a  unit,  aiming  at  one  result,  and  rising 
by  climactic  stages  toward  its  attainment.  It 
classifies  sermons  under  different  heads,  as  ex- 
pository, hortatory,  doctrinal,  practical,  and  occa- 
sional ;  though  it  ought  not  to  be  forgotten  that 
the  ideal  discourse  should  be  all  of  these  in  one, 
as  founded  on  biblical  exposition,  illustrative  of 
scriptural  doctrine,  and  devoted  to  the  enforce- 
ment of  some  practical  duty,  which  needs  at  the 
time  to  be  insisted  upon.  It  has  much  to  say 
also  on  the  formation  of  a  pulpit  style  which 
should  be  characterized  by  clearness,  purity,  pre- 
cision, and  energy  ;  and  it  gives  important  coun- 
sels as  to  the  choice  of  arguments  and  the  use  of 
illustrations.  It  has  to  do,  besides,  with  the 
delivery  of  sermons,  and  brings  the  rules  of  elo- 
cution to  bear  upon  the  work  of  tlio  pulpit,  so 
that  the  words  of  the  preacher  may  not  be 
marred,  but  rather  made  more  effective,  by  the 
manner  of  their  utterance.  In  all  these  depart- 
ments it  seeks  to  illustrate  the  vahie  of  its  rules 
from  I  he  history  of  preaching  in  ancient,  media?- 
val,  and  modern  times,  and  to  discuss  tlie  (lues- 
tions  reganling  them  on  which  different  views 
have  been  maintained.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
almost  every  treatise  on  iiomiletics,  one  expects 
to  find  an  examination  of  such  inquiries  as  these, 
—  whetlier  the  division  of  a  subject  should  be 
announced  beforehand ;  whether  the  proposition 
mainly  enforced  should  be  fornmlated  at  the  be- 
ginning, or  at  the  end,  of  (he  discourse;  wliether 
a  sermon  should  be  read  from  inanu.script,  or 
delivered  memoriter,  or  jireaclu'd  extemporane- 
ously, etc.  On  these  and  kindred  questions,  the 
opinions  maintained  depend  on  the  predilections 
or  jiractices  of  the  authors ;  and  the  fact  that 
such  dillVrenocs  exi.st  may  be  taken  as  a  proof 
that  a  definite  course  regarding  them  is  not  essen- 
tial to  hoiniletic  efficiency ;  and  every  pnacher 
may  be  left  to  do  regarding  them  that  which  he 
has  found  he  can  do  most  successfully. 

As  a  science,  there  can  be  no  duulit  whatever 
of  its  helpfulness  to  tho.se  who  are  engaged  in  the 
work  of  the  ministry ;  but,  unless  two  or  three 


HOMILBTICS. 


1015 


HOMILBTICS. 


cautions  are  observed,  it  is  exceedingly  apt  to 
become  a  hindrance,  rather  than  an  assistance. 
1.  It  should  be  so  thoroughly  mastered  before 
entering  upon  the  practical  work  of  the  pulpit, 
that  its  rules  shall  be  unconsciously  observed. 
Whatever  takes  the  attention  of  the  preacher 
away  from  the  main  purpose  of  his  sermon  to 
some  technical  detail  does  thereby  inevitably 
mar  the  sermon  itself.  Hence  all  such  things  as 
style  and  structure  must  be  acquired  so  thor- 
oughly, that  no  attention  is  abstracted  by  them 
from  the  thought.  In  like  manner,  every  thing 
that  in  the  pulpit  draws  the  mind  of  the  preacher 
away  from  that  which  he  is  saying,  and  the  ob- 
ject which  he  has  in  view  in  saying  it,  to  the 
manner  in  which  he  says  it,  takes  just  so  much 
away  from  the  force  of  his  utterance.  It  does 
not  follow,  however,  that  no  attention  should  be 
given  at  any  time  by  him  to  these  things.  On 
the  contrary,  the  correct  inference  is,  that  he 
should  have  so  mastered  them,  that  he  can  use 
them  without  thinking  of  them,  just  as  one  has 
so  mastered  spelling,  that  he  is  not  conscious  of 
any  such  act  when  he  is  writing.  The  moment 
one  hesitates  in  spelling,  and  becomes  conscious 
that  he  has  to  spell,  he  is  very  apt  to  make  a 
mistake ;  and  that  simple  illustration  may  help 
to  show  the  importance  of  the  caution  which  we 
are  now  giving.  Rules  are  valuable;  but  their 
highest  value  is  when  we  have  ceased  to  be  con- 
scious that  they  are  rules,  and  act  upon  them 
spontaneously.  To  do  that,  however,  we  must 
give  early  attention  to  them,  and  master  them 
fully,  before  we  need  to  practise  them  in  public. 
The  place  of  homiletics  in  learning  to  preach  is 
thus  analogous  to  that  of  spelling  in  learning  to 
write.  It  should  come  at  the  very  beginning, 
and  it  should  be  mastered  so  completely,  that  we 
act  upon  its  maxims  without  thinking  of  them. 

2.  The  preacher  must  never  let  himself  be 
tempted  to  make  the  sermon  an  end  in  itself. 
It  must  be  confessed,  that,  after  one  has  studied 
the  rules  of  homiletics,  he  is  strongly  tempted 
to  think  that  his  work  is  to  consist  in  making 
good  sermons  that  shall  stand  the  test  of  the 
strictest  homiletic  scrutiny.  But  the  object  of 
the  preacher  is  to  convert  sinners,  to  edify  be- 
lievers, and  in  general  to  help  his  fellow-men  to 
live  lives  of  faith  and  joy  in  Christ.  The  ser- 
mon ought  to  be  designed  for  that.  By  all 
means  let  it  be  according  to  rule  ;  but  let  the 
observance  of  the  rules  be  made  subservient,  and 
kept  subservient,  to  the  main  purpose.  The  sur- 
geon seeks  to  save  the  patient;  and,  if  he  put 
the  brilliancy  of  the  operation  above  that,  he  is 
no  true  surgeon.  In  like  manner,  the  preacher's 
great  design  ought  to  be  to  help  men  unto  Christ 
and  up  to  Christ;  and,  if  he  degenerate  into  the 
sennon-maker  or  the  pulpiteer,  he  has  lost  the 
true  ideal  of  his  office.  Whenever  the  producing 
of  great  sermons  becomes  an  aim  in  and  of  itself, 
the  production  may  be  what  many  people  will 
congratulate  the  preacher  for  making,  —  a  splen- 
did effort;  but  it  is  not  a  sermon  in  the  right 
use  of  the  word,  inasmuch  as  that  seeks  some- 
thing else  than  the  admiration  of  the  hearers, 
even  their  salvation  and  edification.  Every  stu- 
dent of  homiletics,  therefore,  must  be  on  his 
guard  against  allowing  himself  to  think  of  the 
sermon  as  an  end  in  itself. 


.3.  The  observance  of  rules  will  not  of  itself 
make  an  effective  sermon.  One  man  may  keep 
every  regulation  laid  down  regarding  the  prepa- 
ration and  delivery  of  a  discourse,  and  yet  be 
only  "faultily  faultless,  icily  regular,  .splendidly 
null."  Another  may  break  many  of  the  rules,  and 
yet  be  most  successful  in  converting,  strengthen- 
mg,  and  stimulating  his  hearers.  The  man  is 
greater  than  the  sermon  ;  and  the  touch  of  his 
individuality  thrills  his  hearers,  though  his  divis- 
ion should  be  faulty,  and  his  style  uncouth. 
Even  the  heathen  orator  said  that  one  must  be  a 
good  man  to  be  really  eloquent;  and  so  the  per- 
sonality of  the  preacher  has  more  to  do  with  his 
efficiency  in  the  pulpit  than  the  perfection  of  his 
sermon.  He  must  be  seen  to  be  sincere.  He 
must  have  "the  accent  of  conviction."  He  must 
be  earnest,  —  not  with  the  earnestness  of  rant  or 
roaring,  but  with  that  of  fervid  incandescence. 
He  must  know  the  hearts  of  other  men  through 
his  acquaintance  with  his  own.  He  must  be 
familiar  with  their  "businesses,"  as  well  as  with 
their  "  bosoms,"  and  preach  to  them,  not  because 
the  Sabbath  comes  round,  and  he  must  say  some- 
thing to  them,  but  because  he  has  something 
which  he  muxl  .say  to  them  at  that  particular 
time,  and  which  mightily  concerns  their  welfare. 
It  is  this  "  I  cannot  but"  speak  in  the  preacher 
himself  whicli  is  the  secret,  next  to  the  agency  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  of  pulpit-power;  and  no  homi- 
letic rules,  however  faithfully  observed,  will 
compensate  for  its  absence.  But  if  that  be  in 
him,  and  he  has  mastered  the  rules  of  this  sci- 
ence so  that  he  can  obey  them  automatically,  he 
will  be  the  ideal  preacher,  and  men  will  gladly 
listen  to  his  words. 

Lit.  —  In  recent  years  there  has  been  increased 
attention  given  to  homiletics,  owing  to  the  for- 
mation of  such  lectureships  as  the  "  Lyman- 
Beecher"  course  at  Yale;  and  many  valualile 
works  have  appeared  upon  the  subject.  In  addi- 
tion to  those  named  by  l)r.  Christlieb,  the  follow- 
ing works  are  all  of  value,  and  deserve  mention. 
William  G.  Blaikie  :  For  the  Work  of  the 
Ministry,  London,  1873;  AVilliam  S.  PLUiMER: 
Hinis  and  Helps  in  Pastoral  Theology,  New  York, 
1874:;  Patrick  Fairhairn:  Pastoral  Theoloyy, 
Edinburgh,  1875;  William  Arthur:  The 
Tongue  of  Fire,  New  York,  1880;  Joiix  xV. 
Broadus  :  The  Preparation  and  Delivery  of  Ser- 
mons, last  edition,  Philadelphia,  1880,  Lectures  on 
the  History  of  Preaching,  New  York,  1876;  E. 
Paxton  Hood  :  Lamps,  Pitchers,  and  Trumpets, 
new  edition.  New  York,  1872;  Robert  T.  Dab- 
ney:  Sacred  Rhetoric,  New  York,  1870;  Stephen- 
II.  Tyng,  sen.:  The  Office  ami  Duly  of  a  Chris- 
lian  Pastor,  New  York,  1874;  Samuel  Mc.Vll: 
Delivery,  Lecture-Room  Hints,  London,  1875; 
Storrs  ;  Conditions  of  Success  in  Preaching  icitli- 
out  Notes,  New  York,  1875;  Charles  J.  Brown: 
Preaching,  its  Properties,  Place,  and  Potcer,  1870 ; 
John  C.  Miller  :  Letters  to  a  Young  Clergyman, 
New  York,  1878;  Bishop  Bedell:  The  Pastor, 
Philadelphia,  1880;  Bishop  Ellicott  :  Homiletical 
and  Pastoral  Lectures,  1880 ;  J.  J.  van  Ooster- 
zee  :  Practical  Theology,  New  York,  1880;  Austin 
Phelps:  Theory  of  Preaching,  1881;  Fiske:  Man- 
ital  of  Preaching,  1884.  For  an  exhaustive  list,  see 
the  appendices  in  the  works  of  Blaikie  and  Kid- 
der.   Attention  should  be  given  to  The  Preacher's 


HOMILIARIUM. 


1016 


HONORIUS. 


Lantern  (4  vols.),  and  such  periodicals  as  The 
Homilelic  Quarterly,  The  Preacher's  Monthly,  and 
the  biographies  of  such  preachers  as  Robert  Hall, 
Thomas  Chalmers,  John  Leifchild,  Summerfield, 
the  Alexanders,  etc.,  and  especially  Sprague's 
Annals  of  the  American  Pulpit.  See  also  J.  M. 
Xeale  :  Medicecal  Preachers  and  Medieval 
Preaching.  London,  1873.  WM.  M.  TAYLOR. 

HOMILIARIUM  denoted,  from  the  beginning 
of  the  middle  ages,  collections  of  hojuilite  and 
sennones  for  the  whole  ecclesiastical  year,  from 
the  works  of  the  fathers,  made  by  private  persons 
for  reading  in  the  church  on  Sundays  and  holi- 
days, or  introduced  by  official  authority  among 
the  clergy  as  models  of  the  art  of  preaching. 
Such  collections  existed  before  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne, both  in  the  Galilean  and  in  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Church ;  but  the  most  celebrated  and  the 
most  widely  used  collection  of  the  kind  was  the 
homiliarium  of  Charlemagne.  The  unsuitable- 
ness  of  many  of  the  selections  from  tlie  fathers, 
and,  still  more,  the  frequent  mistakes  and  corrup- 
tions which  occurred  in  the  common  collection, 
caused  Charlemagne  to  charge  Paulus  Diaconus 
with  the  collection  of  a  new  homiliarium,  under 
the  superintendence  of  Alcuin.  Between  776 
and  784  the  work  was  finished.  Manuscript 
copies  of  it  are  found  in  the  libraries  of  Heidel- 
berg, Darmstadt,  Frankfort,  Giessen,  Cassel,  Ful- 
da,  etc.  The  first  printed  edition,  without  title, 
date,  or  place,  was  probably  made  at  Cologne, 
1470.  A  comparison  between  the  various  editions 
shows  that  the  contents  of  the  book  increased 
with  the  increasing  number  of  festivals  and 
saints'  days.  New  sermons  by  later  teachers  — 
Alcuin,  Haimo,  Andbertus,  Hericus,  Bernard,  and 
others  —  were  added.  The  bulk,  however,  of  the 
contents,  as  well  as  the  original  plan  of  the  ar- 
rangement, was  retained.  On  the  development 
of  the  art  of  preaching,  and  on  the  final  estab- 
lishment of  tlie  .system  of  pericopes,  this  collec- 
tion lias  exercised  a  great  influence;  and  it  was, 
no  doubt,  instrumental  in  carrying  the  Roman 
system  of  pericopes  into  the  evangelical  churches. 
The  Book  of  Homilies  of  the  Church  of  P^ngland 
is  the  nearest  approach  in  the  Protestant  Church 
to  the  homiliarium.  CUR18TL1EB. 

HOMILY.     .Sir  IbiMii.ETics. 

HOMOLOGOUMENA  (i/cncralli/  accepted)  and 
ANTILEGOMENA  {disputed)  are'  the  two  terms 
wliicli  ICu-fl.iiis  :ipplios  to  the  authorship  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  placing  the  four 
Gospels,  the  Acts,  the  fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul, 
the  first  Epistl(!  of  Peter,  and  the  first  Epistle  of 
John,  under  the  former,  and  tiie  Epistle  of  James, 
the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the  second  and  third 
Epistles  of  John,  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  uiuUt 
tlie  latter.  Tlie  Apocalypse  he  gives  a  place  by 
itself,  tliough,  according  to  his  own  definition,  it 
belonged  to  tlie  Antilegomena.  See  Canon  of 
1  rii;   Ni:"    Tim  ament. 

HOMOIOUSIAN  («/  similar  substance)  and 
HOMOOUSIAN  (';/"  the  satne  substance)  are  the 
tun  teinis  on  which  the  whole  Arian  controversy 
turned;  the  former  representing  the  semi-Arian 
view  ;  the  latter,  the  ortho<lox.  The  term  of  Arius 
was  heteroousiun  ("of  dilfereiit substance ").     See 

AUIANISM. 

HONE,  William,  b.  at  Bath,  June  3,  1780;  d. 
at  Tottenham,  Nov.  .s,  1842;  was  a  bookseller  and 


miscellaneous  writer  in  London,  and  is  mentioned 
here  for  his  Apocryphal  JVew  Testament  (1820)  and 
Ancient  Mysteries  {\81Z).  These  works  were  sug- 
gested in  the  course  of  his  researches  for  his  own 
successful  defence  against  a  charge  of  libel,  Dec. 
18-20,  1817.  In  tlie  latter  part  of  his  life  he  fre- 
quently preached  iu  Weigh-House  Chapel,  East- 
cheap,  London. 

HONEY.  See  Bee-Culture  among  the  He- 
brews. 

HONORIUS,  Roman  emperor  from  395  to  423; 
was  only  ten  years  old,  when,  under  the  tutorship 
of  Stilicho,  he  succeeded  his  father,  Theodosius  I., 
in  the  AVestern  Empire,  while  his  brother  Arca- 
dius  inherited  the  Eastern.  Honorius  was  a  weak 
character.  He  made  the  laws  of  Theodosius 
against  Paganism  still  harder.  In  399  he  ordered 
all  Pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed  at  once ;  but 
he  was  unable  to  enforce  such  a  law.  In  Xorth 
Africa,  where,  in  many  places,  the  Pagans  out- 
numbered the  Christians,  the  Christians  were 
made  to  suffer  for  the  laws  against  Paganism. 
In  409  the  emperor  suddenly  changed  his  mind, 
and  a  decree  placed  the  Pagans  on  an  equal  foot- 
ing with  the  Christians;  but  in  416  they  were 
again  excluded  from  all  offices  in  the  army  and 
in  the  administration.  Somewhat  more  consist- 
ent he  showed  himself  in  his  relations  with  the 
Donatists,  whom  he  pursued  with  steadily  in- 
creasing severity.  But  he  never  succeeded  in 
suppressing  the  heresy :  he  only  drove  the  heretics 
into  the  wildest  fanaticism.     See  Donatists. 

HONORIUS  is  the  name  of  four  popes  and  an 
antipope.  —  Honorius  I.  (625-638)  sided,  in  the 
monothelitic  controversy,  with  the  emperor  and 
the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople  and  Alexandria, 
that  is,  with  the  Monothelites,  and  set  forth  his 
views  in  two  letters,  still  extant,  to  the  Patriarch 
of  Constantinople.  In  consequence  he  was  anathe- 
nuatized  by  the  sixth  cecumenical  council  (Con- 
stantinople, 680),  together  with  the  other  leaders 
of  the  Monothelites ;  and  the  verdict,  which  was 
given  with  the  assent  of  the  papal  legates,  was 
confirmed  by  his  successor,  Leo  II.  This  grim 
fact,  that  the  papal  infallibility  has  once  been  in 
the  possession  of  a  heretic,  was  in  the  middle 
ages  generally  passed  over  in  silence  by  Roman 
writers;  and  when,  afterwards,  Rome  was  remind- 
ed of  it  by  the  Greek  Church,  the  most  audacious 
shifts  were  attempted  to  deny  it,  or  to  cover  it 
out  of  sight.  Baronius  and  (iretser  declared  that 
the  acts  of  iho  council  were  false;  Hcllarinin  and 
Assenianui.  that  the  verdict  was  a  mi.stake  by  tlie 
council ;  (i.arnier  and  Pagi,  that  the  condeinna- 
tion  touched  only  the  policy  of  the  Pope,  not  the 
doctrine.  When,  in  1870,  the  papal  infallibility 
was  established  as  a  dogma  of  tlie  Clnireh,  the 
literature  on  the  question  swelled  into  a  library. 
See  Hefelk:  Causa  Honorii  Papa:,  Naples,  1870; 
Maugerie-:  Le  jiape  Honor.,  Paris,  1870;  .1.  Pen- 
NACHi :  £)e  Honorii  I.  causa,  Rome,  187U;  RucK- 
oauer  :  Die  Irrlehrc  d.  H.,  Stuttgart,  1871 ;  [E.  F. 
\Vn.MS :  P(i]ic  Honorius  and  the  Aen-  lioman  Jhii/nia, 
London,  1S79]. —  Honorius  II.  (Cadaliis,  antipojie 
l()(il-61)  was  Bishop  of  Parma  when  Nicholas  II. 
died,  and  was  elected  Pope  by  the  Lombard 
bishops  (Basel,  lOdl),  under  tlie  influence  of  the 
Empress  Agnes,  in  opposition  to  Alexander  II. 
The  German  bishops,  however,  sided,  not  with  the 
empreas  and  her  candidate,  but  with  Hildebrand 


HONTER. 


1017 


HOOKER. 


and  Alexander  II. ;  and  May  31,  10G4,  a  council 
was  convened  at  Milan  to  decide  upon  the  doul)le 
election.  Alexander  II.  appeared  before  the 
■council,  but  not  Honorius  II.,  who  wa.s  formally 
deposed.  He  did  not  give  up,  however,  hi.s  claim 
upon  the  papal  crown,  though  it  was  i-ecognized 
only  by  the  Lombard  bishops.  He  died  1073. 
See  Wattkiuch  :  Ponlif.  Rom.  Vilce,  T.  I.  — 
Honorius  II.  (Dec.  16,  li24-Feb.  14,  1130)  con- 
cluded, while  still  Cardinal-Bisliop  Lambert  of 
Ostia,  the  concordat  of  Worms  with  Henry  V., 
and  was  raised  to  the  papal  throne  chiefly  by  the 
influence  of  the  Fraugipani,  on  account  of  his 
peaceable  character.  He  failed  in  his  policy 
towards  Duke  Roger  of  Sicily,  to  whom  he  was 
compelled  to  give  Apulia  as  a  fief.  See  Jaffe  : 
Reg.  Pont.  Rom.,  p.  519  ;  Watterich  :  I'ont.  Rom. 
Vilce,T.  II.  p.  157.  — Honorius  III.  (July  18, 1216- 
March  IS,  1227)  confirmed  the  order  of  the  Do- 
minicans in  1216,  and  that  of  the  Franciscans  in 
1223,  and  crowned  Pierre  de  Courtenay  emperor 
of  Constantinople,  and  Friedrich  II.  emperor  of 
Rome.  In  his  relations  with  the  latter  lie  was 
very  yielding  and  obliging,  while  he  showed 
himself  extraordinarily  hard  against  Count  Ray- 
:uund  of  Toulouse.  His  Opera  omnia  are  found 
in  Horoy:  .Meil.  .Ev.  Bih.  Pair.  (Paris,  1879, 
T.  I.),  and  his  letters  in  Bougnet,  Recueil  ties 
Historien.'i  de  Gautex  et  de  la  France,  XIX.  p.  GIO. 
See  the  works  on  Friedrich  II.  by  Kestner  (Ciiit- 
tingen,  1873)  and  O.  Lore.nz  (Berlin,  1876). — 
Honorius  IV.  (April  2,  1285-April  3, 1287)  showed 
himself,  in  spite  of  his  age  and  bodilj'  debility, 
very  energetic,  both  in  internal  administration 
and  in  foreign  policy.  See  Ml'r.^toui  :  Rec.  lud. 
:icripl.,  HI. 'p.  6115.  li.  ZOPFFEL. 

HONTER,  Johann,  b.  at  Croustadt,  Trausyl- 
vania,  1498 ;  d.  there  Jan.  23,  1549 ;  studied  at 
Vienna ;  was  a  teacher  at  Cracow  and  Basel,  and 
returned  to  his  native  city  in  1533,  bringing  with 
him  tlie  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation.  From 
the  printing-press  which  he  established  in  his 
house,  he  issued  a  number  of  books  of  education, 
and  was  instrumental  in  the  foundation  of  the 
gymnasium  of  Cronstadt.  But  of  still  greater 
importance  were  his  Formula  reformationls  ecctesice 
Coronensis  (1542),  and  his  Apologia  rejhrmationis, 
(1543).  In  1544  he  became  the  minister  of  an 
evangelical  congregation  in  Croustadt.  See  G.  D. 
Teutsch  :  Ucber  Uonterus  und  Krunstadl  zu  seiner 
Zeit,  Hermannstadt,  1876. 

HONTHEIM,  Johann  Nicolaus  von,  b.  at 
Treves,  Jan.  27,  1701  ;  d.  there  Sept.  2,  1790  ; 
studied  history  and  cauon  law  in  his  native  city, 
at  Louvain,  and  Leyden  ;  visited  Rome  1726  ;  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Church,  and  was  appoint- 
ed suffragan  bishop  of  Treves  in  1748.  He  wrote 
Hisloria  Trevirensis  (Augsburg,  17.50,  3  vols,  fol.) 
and  Prodromus  Hi.<loricE  Trerirensi.i  (Augsburg, 
1757,  2  vols,  fob),  —  two  works  of  unquestionable 
merit.  But  his  most  remarkable  literary  perform- 
ance was  his  De  statu  Ecclesiw  et  leyitima  poteMate 
Romani  Pontijicis  (Fraucfort,  1763), —  a  bold  and 
almost  unanswerable  criticism  on  the  Roman 
curia,  and  the  position  which  it  has  usurped  in 
the  Christian  Churcli.  The  book  ran  through 
many  editions,  and  made  a  tremendous  sensation. 
As  it  was  published  under  the  pseudouyme  Jus- 
tinus  Febroniut:,  Febronianism  became  tlie  name  of 
the  views  which  it  sustained.     It  was,  of  course, 


immediately  put  on  the  Index  ;  and,  when  the  real 
author  was  discovered,  persecutions  began  which 
finally  compelled  him  to  recant.  Hontheim's  cor- 
respondence with  the  elector  Clemens  Wenzeslaus 
of  Treves  was  published  at  Fraucfort,  1813.  See 
Miji-ler-Massis  :    Disquisit.  de  J.  N.  II.,  Treves, 

1863.  ME.JEI4. 

HOOGHT,  Eberhard  van  der,  Reformed  min- 
ister in  Nienwendam,  Holland:  d.  1716.;  is  cele- 
brated as  the  editor  of  a  widely  used  edition 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  first  appeared  in 
Amsterdam  and  Utrecht  (1705),  and  has  been 
reprinted  very  frequently;  e.g.,  by  Tauchnifz, 
Leipzig,  since  1835.  He  wrote  several  books  on 
Hebrew  and  Greek  studies. 

HOOGSTRATEN,  Jacob  van,  b.  at  Iloogstra- 
ten,  near  Antwerp,  1454  ;  d.  at  Cologne,  Jan.  21, 
1.527;  studied  at  Louvain  ;  entered  the  Dominican 
order;  was  made  prior  of  the  Dominican  convent 
of  Cologne,  and  inquisitor  of  the  provinces  of 
Mayence,  Treves,  and  Cologne,  and  became  noted 
by  his  attacks  on  Erasmus,  Reuchlin,  and  Luther. 
He  was  a  full-blooded  specimen  of  the  monkish 
obscurantism  and  fanaticism  of  Ids  time.  When 
he  lost  his  case  against  Reuchlin,  the  Pope  him- 
self could  not  compel  him  to  keep  silent.  His 
works  appeared  at  Cologne,  1526.    .See  Rkuchlix. 

HOOK,  Walter  Farquhar,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  b.  in 
Loudon,  March  13,  1798  ;  d.  at  Cliichester, 
Wednesday,  Oct.  20,  1875.  He  was  educated  at 
Oxford ;  took  holy  orders ;  was  vicar  of  Leeds 
from  1837  to  1859,  when  he  was  appointed  dean 
of  Chichester.  He  was  a  sober  Iligh-Churchniau. 
His  long  service  in  Leeds  was  singularly  success- 
ful ;  for  he  was  instrumental  in  erecting  twenty- 
one  churches,  thirty-two  parsonages,  sixty  schools, 
besides  rebuilding  the  parish  church  at  a  cost 
of  twenty-eight  thousand  pounds.  In  the  midst  of 
engrossing  labors  he  found  time  to  prepare  a 
number  of  volumes,  of  which  mav  be  mentioned 
A  Church  Dictionary  (12th  ed.,  1872),  An  Ecclesi- 
astical Biography  (1845-52,  8  vols.),  Liccs  of  the 
Archhishojjs  of  Canterbury  (1860-76,  12  vols.). 

HOOKER,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine  of  the 
Church  of  England,  and  its  most  distinguished 
writer  on  ecclesiastical  polity ;  b.  near  Exeter, 
about  1553  ;  d.  at  Bishopsborne,  Nov.  2,  1600.  He 
was  the  son  of  poor  parents,  was  educated  by  an 
uncle,  and  while  at  Oxford  received  aid  from 
Bishop  Jewel.  An  interesting  incident  in  his 
life  is  his  last  meeting  witli  the  bisliop.  The  lat- 
ter lent  Hooker  his  horse  to  carry  him  to  Exeter, 
and  gave  him  money  for  the  journey.  He  acted 
as  tutor  at  his  university,  in  1579  was  appointed 
to  deliver  the  Hebrew  lectuie,  and  in  1581  took 
orders.  In  his  marriage,  which  occurred  about 
this  time,  he  was  unfortunate.  A\'ith  character- 
istic lack  of  worldly  wisdom,  he  confided  to  a 
Mrs.  Churchman  of  London  tiie  care,  which  she 
had  solicited,  of  selecting  for  him  a  wife.  '•  Fear- 
ing no  guile,"  says  Walton,  "Hooker  did  give 
her  such  a  power  as  Eleazer  was  trusted  with  (you 
may  read  it  in  the  Book  of  Genesis)  when  he  was 
sent  to  choose  a  wife  for  Isaac,"  etc.  We  may 
not  blame  Mrs.  Churchman  for  hitting  upon  her 
daughter  Joan;  but  we  shall  pity  Hooker  none 
the  less  for  that.  He  was  appointed  tu  the  living 
of  Drayton  Beauchamp,  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln, 
1584,  and  the  following  year,  at  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Archbishop  Sandys,  to  whose  son  Hooker 


HOOKER. 


1018 


HOOPER. 


had  acted  as  tutor  at  Oxford,  master  of  the  Tem- 
ple, London.  He  shared  the  pulpit  with  Travers, 
a  Genevan  divine.  Of  the  preaching  of  the  two, 
Fuller  says,  "The  congregation  at  the  Temple 
ebbed  in  the  forenoon  [when  Hooker  preached], 
and  flowed  in  the  afternoon."  He,  however,  sug- 
gests that  Mr.  Hooker  "  was  too  wise  to  take 
exception  at  such  trifles."  In  1591  Hooker  went 
to  Boscombe.  and  was  made  a  minor  prebend  of 
Salisbury,  aud  in  1595  was  transferred  to  Bishops- 
borne,  three  miles  from  Canterbury,  where  he  died. 

Hooker  was  rather  a  tedious  preacher,  having 
an  embarrassed  manner,  and  his  sentences  being 
too  prolix,  and  sometimes  involved,  for  the  pulpit. 
Yet  Fuller  quaintly  says,  "  He  may  be  said  to 
have  made  good  music  with  his  fiddle  and  stick 
alone,  without  any  rosin,  having  neither  pronun- 
ciation nor  gesture  to  grace  his  matter." 

Hooker's  great  reputation  rests  upon  his  Of  the 
Laws  of  Ecclesiaslical  Polily.  It  consists  of  eight 
books,  four  of  which  were  written  in  Boscombe, 
and  published  1594,  and  the  fifth  in  1597.  The 
last  three  books  have  an  interesting  history, 
which  is  given  in  full  by  Keble  (pp.  xii-xxv). 
Hooker's  widow  was  accused  of  having  burned 
the  manuscript;  but,  whether  justly  or  not,  it  was 
irrecoverably  gone  (Keble).  The  rough  draughts, 
however,  were  preserved.  The  sixth  and  eighth 
were  published  in  1648,  and  the  .seventh  in  1662. 
Of  these  the  sixth  is,  according  to  Keble,  proba- 
bly not  genuine.  The  otlier  two  contain  tlie  sub- 
stance of  what  Hooker  wrote.  The  immediate 
occasion  of  the  Ecclesiaslical  Politij  seems  to  have 
been  an  attack  of  Travers  upon  Hooker  for  ex- 
tending salvation  to  Roman  Catholics,  and  his 
lack  of  sympathy  with  Calvinism.  With  Jewel's 
Apoloyy  it  is  the  most  important  original  contri- 
bution to  English  ecclesiastical  literature  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  the  first  great  ecclesiasti- 
cal work  written  in  English.  Its  style  has  been 
highly  praised;  and  Green  {Hixlori/'Eni/li.'.-h  Peo- 
ple, iii.  30)  speaks  of  "its  grandeur  and  stateli- 
ness,  which  raised  its  author  to  the  highest  rauk 
among  English  prose- writers."  Written  in  a 
temperate  spirit,  and  with  vigor  of  thought,  it  is 
free  from  the  multitudinous  and  often  unsifted 
quotations  whicli  deface  the  pages  of  the  theo- 
logical works  of  the  period  ;  e.g.,  .Jewel's  Apologi/. 

The  contents  are  rather  more  philosophical 
than  theological,  and  the  work  more  valuable  for 
its  broad  and  fundamental  principles  than  for 
exactness  of  definition,  or  clearness  of  argument. 
It  is  in  effect  an  answer  to  Puritanism,  which 
had  been  bitterly  attacking  the  episcopal  system 
through  a  generation.  Conceived  in  an  admirable 
temper,  and  free  from  the  heat  ami  vitu)ifration 
which  characterized  the  controversial  writings  of 
the  period,  it  makes  no  attempt  to  discredit  the 
Pre.sbyterian  .system.  Its  object  is  to  assert  the 
right  of  a  broad  liberty  on  the  basis  of  Scripture 
and  reaxon.  He  expressly  denies  that  the  prac- 
tice of  the  apostles  is  a  rule  to  l)e  invariably 
followed,  but  that  a  change  of  circumstances  war- 
rants a  departure  from  the  governmental  policy 
and  discipline  of  tlie  early  cliurcli.  1 1 1;  seeks  to 
prove  tljat  things  not  commanded  in  .Scripture 
may  still  be  lawful,  and  In-  iloes  it  by  appealing 
to  the  [iractice  of  the  Puritans  themselves  (as  in 
the  case  of  the  wafer  w  liicli  tlu^y  use<l  in  common 
with  the   UoMuiii  Catholics,  etc.).     The  iissertion 


of  this  fundamental  prerogative  of  reason  is  one 
of  the  most  valuable  contributions  of  the  work. 
Hooker  has  been  claimed  as  a  champion  of  the 
High-.\nglican  doctrine  of  episcopacy,  and,  hard- 
ly less  confidently,  by  the  other  side  as  the  advo- 
cate of  the  view  that  church  government  is  a 
matter  of  expediencj*.  Isolated  expressions  can 
be  found  in  favor  of  both,  as  even  Keble  quali- 
fiedly  admits  (p.  xxxviii).  But  neither  view  is 
true.  Hooker  holds  a  position  intermediate  be- 
tween the  school  of  the  English  Reformers,  Arch- 
bishop Grindal  (d.  1583)  and  most  of  Elizabeth's 
bishops,  and  the  school  which  grew  up  in  the  con- 
test with  Puritanism,  and  had  its  extreme  repre- 
sentative in  Archbishop  Laud  (1633-45).  Had  he 
been  more  exact  in  his  definitions,  it  might  be 
possible  to  place  him  more  confidently  on  the  one 
side  or  on  the  other.  As  it  is,  he  stands  as  the 
representative  of  toleration  in  the  sphere  of  eccle- 
siastical polity  and  the  advocate  of  the  claims  of 
reason  against  tliat  narrow  scripturalism  which 
a.ssumes  to  tolerate  nothing  which  the  Scriptures 
do  not  exprc-.fdii  command. 

Besides  tlie  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  we  are  in 
possession  of  several  of  Hooker's  Sermons.  The 
first  complete  edition  of  his  Works  was  by  Gau- 
DEX,  London,  1662 ;  the  best  is  by  Keble,  Oxford, 
1836,  4  vols.,  aud  often  since.  It  contains  an 
Introduction  and  valuable  Notes  by  the  editor, 
and  the  genial  Life  of  Hooker  by  Iz.'Vak  Wal- 
ton, which  first  appeared  in  1665  to  correct  the 
errors  in  Gaudex's  Life  (16G2).     D.  s.  sciiaff. 

HOOPER,  John,  bishop  and  martyr,  b.  in 
Somersetshire,  1495 ;  d.  at  the  stake  Feb.  9, 
1555,  in  Gloucester.  He  was  educated  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  and  entered  the  Cistercian  order. 
A  diligent  study  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  works 
of  Zwingli  and  Bullingeron  the  Pauline  Epistles, 
convinced  him  of  the  errors  of  the  Papal  Church, 
and  made  him  an  ardent  advocate  of  tlie  Refor- 
mation. When,  in  1539,  the  VI.  or  (so  called) 
Bloody  Articles  were  enforced,  he  retired  to  the 
Continent,  meeting  at  Strassburg  the  lady  he  sub- 
sequently married.  Returning  to  England  to 
secure  funds  from  his  father,  lie  went  back  again 
in  1547  to  the  Continent,  tarrying  at  Zurich, 
where  he  was  received  by  Bullinger,  and  carried 
on  a  correspondence  with  Bucer,  concerning  the 
sacraments. 

In  1549  Hooper  returned  to  England,  and  im- 
mediately threw  him.self  into  an  arduous  activity, 
preacliiu"'  at  least  once  every  day,  and  witli  great 
power.  Foxe  says  of  him,  "  In  liis  sermons  he 
corrected  sin,  and  sharjily  inveighed  against  the 
iniquity  of  tlie  world  and  the  corrupt  abuses  of 
the  church.  The  jieople  in  great  lloeks  and  coni- 
[lanies  came  daily  to  hear  him,  insomuch  that  the 
chiiroh  would  oftenlinies  be  so  full,  that  none 
could  enter  further  than  the  doors.  In  his  doc- 
trine ho  was  earnest,  in  tongue  eloquent,  in  Scrip- 
ture perfect,  in  pains  indefatigable."  In  15.5(1  lie 
])reaehed  before  tlie  king  once  every  week  during 
Lent,  and  soon  after  was  nominated  to  the  see  of 
Gloucester.  But  unexpected  impediments  inter- 
fered with  his  acceptance.  Hooper  had  fully 
imbibed  the  sjiirit  of  the  Continental  Reforma- 
tion, so  that  Canon  PiM'ry  feels  justified  in  calling 
him  tlie  "first  Puritan  couressor"  (Ilislori/  of  the 
Church  of  EiKjtnuil,  ii.  '205).  He  had  a  strong 
aversion  to  clerical  vestments,  which  lie  described 


HOORNBEEK. 


1019 


HOPKINS. 


as  Aaronical  and  superstitious,  and  absolutely 
refused  to  take  the  oath  of  consecration,  in  which 
the  candidate  had  to  swear  by  the  saints.  The 
king  removed  the  latter  obstacle  by  erasing  with 
his  own  hand  the  obnoxious  clause.  The  former 
gave  more  trouble.  Craniner  and  Ridley  both 
attempted  to  relieve  Hooper's  mind  of  its  scru- 
ples. But  the  controversy  became  so  heated, 
and  Hooper  was  so  denunciatory  from  the  pulpit 
against  those  who  used  vestments,  that  he  was 
sent  to  the  Fleet.  Bucer  and  Peter  Maityr  were 
both  appealed  to  on  the  subject  by  both  parties. 
They  reconmiended  Hooper  to  submit.  Follow- 
ing their  advice,  he  was  consecrated  March  8, 
1551.  It  was  prescribed  that  he  should  wear  the 
vestments  on  public  occasions,  but  at  other  times 
might  use  his  own  discretion. 

In  the  administration  of  his  episcopal  office, 
Hooper  was  so  indefatigable  in  preaching  and 
visitation  as  to  call  forth  the  friendly  council  of 
Bullinger  and  other  friends  to  practise  a  prudent 
moderation.  Foxe  calls  him  "  a  spectacle  (pat- 
tern) to  all  bishops."  In  1552  he  was  appointed 
Bishop  of  Worcester  in  commendam. 

Hooper  and  Rogers  were  the  first  to  be  cited 
under  Mary.  On  Aug.  20,  1553,  the  former  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  received  harsh  treats 
ment,  and  contracted  sciatica.  In  January,  1555, 
he  was  condemned  on  three  charges,  —  for  main- 
taining the  lawfulness  of  clerical  marriage,  for 
defending  divorce,  and  for  denying  transubstan- 
tiatiou.  He  called  the  mass  "the  iniquity  of  the 
Devil."  He  was  sentenced  to  die  at  the  stake  in 
Gloucester,  whither  he  was  conveyed.  He  met  his 
death  firmly  and  cheerfully.  To  a  friend  bewail- 
ing his  lot,  the  martyr  replied  in  the  oft-quoted 
words,  "  Death  is  bitter,  and  life  is  sweet,  but  alas  ! 
consider  that  death  to  come  is  more  bitter,  and 
life  to  come  is  more  sweet."  In  another  conver- 
sation, he  said,  "  I  am  well,  thank  God ;  and  death 
to  me  for  Christ's  sake  is  welcome."  His  martyr- 
dom was  witnessed  by  a  large  throng  of  people. 
The  martyr  was  forbidden  to  address  the  crowd. 
A  real  or  pretended  pardon  being  promised  if  he 
would  recant,  he  spurned  it  away,  saying,  "  If  you 
love  my  soul,  away  with  it."  His  agony  w&s 
greatly  prolonged  and  increased  by  the  slow  prog- 
ress of  the  fire  on  account  of  the  green  fagots, 
which  had  to  be  rekindled  three  times  before 
they  did  their  work. 

Lit.  —  Hooper's  works  have  been  edited  by  the 
Parker  Society  (with  a  biography)  in  two  volumes, 
Cambridge,  1843-52,  and  by  the  Religious  Tract 
Society  in  one  volume.  The  more  important  are 
A  Brief  and  Clear  Confession  oj  the  Christian  Faith: 
A  Declaration  of  Christ  and  his  Office ;  A  Declara- 
tion of  the  Ten  Commandments ,  Seren  Sermons  on 
Jonah  ;  and  An  Answer  to  Bishop  Gardiner,  bein<j  a 
Detection  of  the  Devil's' Sophistry  wherewith  he  rob- 
beth  the  unlearned  people  of  llie  true  belief  in  the 
most  blessed  Sacrament  of  the  Altar.  Foxe,  in  the 
Book  of  Martyrs,  gives  a  minute  and  impressive 
account  of  Hooper's  life,  and  dwells  at  length  upon 
his  martvrdoin.  D.  s.  schaff. 

HOORNBEEK,  Johannes,  b.  at  Harlem,  1617; 
(1.  at  Leyden,  ItUjd;  was  appointed  minister  at 
Utrecht  1644.  and  professor  of  theology  at  Ley- 
den 16.54,  and  wrote  Socianlsmiis  cnnfulatus  {IGoO), 
Examcn  bulUc  pnpalis,  etc.  (1652),  Epistola  de  Inde- 
jieiidenlismo  (1059),  etc. 


HOPITAL  (Hospital),  Michel  de  L',  b.  at  Aigue- 
perse,  in  Auvcrgne,  1505;  d.  on  his  estate  of 
Vignay,  near  Etampes,  ALarch  13,  1573;  studied 
law  at  I'adua,  and  was  successively  auditor  of  the 
Rota,  French  plenipotentiary  at  the  Council  of 
Bologna,  chancellor  to  the  Duchess  of  Berry,  and 
finally  Chancellor  of  France  (1560-70),  in  which 
position  he  exercised  a  great  and  beneficial  influ- 
ence. Although  he  remained  a  member  of  the 
Roman  Church,  his  great  aim  was  to  find  a  modus 
nvendt  at  once  acceptable  to  the  Romanists  and 
the  Reformed;  and  in  the  pursuit  of  this  aim 
he  arranged  the  conferences  of  Poissy  (1561)  and 
St.  Germain  (1562),  drew  up  the  January  edict 
(1.562),  mediated  the  peace  of  Amboise  (1563), 
labored  for  the  rejection  of  the  canons  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  negotiated  the  peace  of  Long- 
juraeau  (1568),  etc.  His  letters  were  published 
at  Liege,  1585 ;  his  Latin  poems,  in  Amsterdam, 
1732;  his  collected  works,  in  Paris,  1824-26, 
5  vols.  See  the  sketch  of  his  life,  by  Ville- 
M.\IN,  in  Etudes  d'Histoire  moderne,  Paris,  1862; 
Geuer:  Die  Kirchcnpolitik  M.  d.  L'H.,  Duisburg, 
1877.  TH.   SCHOTT. 

HOPKINS,  Albert,  b.  in  Stockbridge,  Jlass., 
July  14,  1807;  was  graduated  at  Williams  Col- 
lege 1826;  became  a  tutor  in  the  college  1827, 
professor  of  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy 
1829-38,  and  of  natural  philosophy  and  astronomy 
1838,  till  his  death ;  d.  in  Williamstown,  ^lay  24, 
1872.  The  events  of  his  life  were  of  a  wholly 
ordinary  grade,  and  leave  no  record  behind  them. 
His  character  only  was  extraordinary.  In  1832 
he  established  in  college  a  noon  prayer-meeting  of 
a  half-hour,  held  on  four  days  of  the  week ;  and 
lie  maintained  it  for  forty  years.  Although 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  in  1838,  and  preach- 
ing frequently  since,  it  was  not  until  Dec.  26, 
1869,  that  he  was  formally  ordained.  His  last 
days  w'ere  largely  devoted  to  pastoral  work,  but 
not  to  the  neglect  of  his  college  duties.  Ilis 
monument  is  the  Church  of  Christ  in  the  White 
Oaks  (a  district  in  the  north-east  part  of  AVil- 
liam.stown),  which  was  the  result  of  his  efforts, 
and  which  was  organized  Dec.  '20,  1868;  but  pre- 
viously he  had  led  the  way  to,  and  efficiently  aided 
in,  the  erection  of  a  chapel  there,  which  was  dedi- 
cated Oct.  25, 1866.  Acquaintance  with  Professor 
Hopkins  was  a  means  of  gi'ace.  He  was  pre-emi- 
nently a  man  of  faith,  and  impressed  all  he  met 
by  his  unworldly  life.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
an  excellent  teacher,  and  a  man  of  enterprise  and 
push.  See  his  Life  by  Albert  C.  Sewall,  Xew 
York  [1870]. 

HOPKINS,  John  Henry,  D.D.,  D.C.L.  (Oxford), 
Protestant-Episcopal  Bishop  of  Vermont ;  b.  in 
Dublin,  Jan.  30,  1792  ;  came  to  this  country  when 
he  was  eight  years  old;  d.  at  Rock  Point,  Vt., 
Jan.  9,  1868.  In  1817  he  was  admitted  to  the 
bar,  but  in  1823  entered  the  ministry,  and  be- 
came rector  of  Trinity  Church,  Pittsburg,  the 
year  following.  In  1831  he  went  to  Boston,  and 
in  1832  was  elected  Bishop  of  Vermont,  accept- 
ing at  the  same  time  the  rectorship  of  St.  Paul's, 
Burlington.  Bishop  Hopkins  was  a  zealous  High- 
Chuichuuin,  and  refused  to  sign  a  protest  of  the 
majoritv  of  the  American  bishops  against  Ro- 
manizing tendencies.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
slavery,  and  in  1863  published  Vinilicalion  of 
Slavery.     Among   his   other   many   writings   are 


HOPKINS. 


1020 


HOPKINS. 


Histortj  of  the  Confessionals  (New  York,  1S50), 
and  Refutation  of  Milner's  End  of  Controversy,  in 
a  Series  of'  Letters  to  the  Roman  Archbishop  of 
Baltimore  (Kenrick),  2  vols.,  1854. 

HOPKINS,  Samuel,  D.D.,  b.  in  Waterbury, 
Conn..  Sept.  17,  1721 ;  d.  in  Newport,  R.I.,  Deo. 
20,  I'SOo,  in  the  eighty-third  year  of  his  life,  and 
the  sixty-second  of  his  ministry.  .\s  a  child  he 
was  remarkable  for  his  purity  and  ingenuous- 
ness. He  entered  Yale  College  in  September. 
1737.  Here  he  devoted  himself  specially  to  logic 
and  mathematics.  Here  he  began  his  Christian 
life,  during  the  religious  interest  attending  the 
services  of  Whitefield  and  Gilbert  Tenuent  at 
New  Haven.  In  17-11  he  commenced  his  theo- 
logical studies,  under  the  care  and  in  the  family 
of  President  Edwards,  then  of  Northampton, 
Mass.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  Great  Barrington,  Mass.,  Dec. 
2S,  1743.  When  he  was  ordained,  the  church 
consisted  of  only  five  members :  a  hundred  and 
sixteen  joined  it  during  his  pastorate.  After  a 
ministry  of  twenty-five  years,  he  was  dismissed 
Jan.  IS,  1769.  His  ministry  was  sometimes  in- 
terrupted by  the  French  and  Indian  wars,  which 
compelled  him  to  flee  with  his  family  to  other 
towns  for  safety.  He  preached  often  to  the  Hou- 
satonic  Indians  in  his  neighborhood.  His  hun- 
dred and  sixtieth  written  sermon  to  them  is  still 
preserved  in  mauu.script.  He  was  so  successful 
in  his  ministry  among  them,  that  he  was  invited 
to  become  their  missionary.  With  all  his  fond- 
ness for  study,  he  was  never  happier  than  when 
preaching  to  the  poor.  While  at  Great  Bar- 
rington, he  remained  intimate  with  President 
Edwards  so  long  as  Edwards  was  at  Northamp- 
ton, and  became  still  more  intimate  with  him 
when  Edwards  removed  to  Stockbridge.  At  this 
time  he  was  better  acquainted  than  any  other 
man  with  the  peculiar  views  of  Edwards.  He 
also  held  frequent  and  fraternal  intercourse  with 
Dr.  Bellamy  of  Bethlehem,  Conn.  He  exerted 
a  marked  influence  on  several  men  who  after- 
wards became  eminent;  as  on  Dr.  Joiuithan 
Edwards,  the  son  of  the  president,  and  on  Dr. 
Stephen  West  of  Stockbridge,  Mass.  He  spent 
commonly  fourteen,  and  occasionally  eighteen, 
hours  a  day  at  his  study-table.  So  thorough 
was  his  theological  training  that  he  was  named 
as  a  candidate  for  a  professorship  of  divinity  in 
Princeton  College,  and  afterward  for  the  presi- 
dency of  the  college. 

He  was  installed  pastor  of  the  First  Congrega- 
tional Church  in  New])ort,  R.I.,  A|>ril  11,  1770, 
and  continued  in  this  pastorate  tliirty-tln-ee  years. 
Soon  after  his  installation  he  was  gratified  with 
a  visit  from  his  friend,  (ieorge  Whitefield.  -Vs 
the  French  and  Indian  wars  had  interfered  with 
his  parochial  success  in  Great  BarringUm,  so  the 
Revolutionary  War  interfered  with  it  in  Newport. 
The  town  was  captured  by  tiie  British  in  178U, 
and  remained  in  their  possession  more  than  three 
years.  During  these  years  the  church  of  Dr.  Hop- 
kins was  impoverished,  the  ciiurcli  edifice  was 
nearly  ruined,  and  he  himself  was  compelled  to 
seek  refuge  in  other  towns.  He  spent  the  years  of 
this  banishi  lent  in  su]>]ilying  destitute  cnurches 
in  Connecticut,  and   iji  assisting  his  friend  and 

{iui>il,  Dr.  .Samuel  .Spring  in  Newburyjiort.  Here 
le  gained  a  noticeable  influence  over  Moses  Brown, 


Esq.,  and  Hon.  William  Bartlett,  parishioners  of 
Dr.  Spring.  He  made  frequent  visits  to  his 
brother.  Dr.  Daniel  Hopkins  of  Salem,  Mass.  ; 
and  here  he  gained  a  noticeable  influence  over 
Hon.  John  Norris,  a  parishioner  of  that  brother. 
These  three  laymen  cherished  through  life  a  deep 
reverence  for  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins ;  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  reflect  that  they  became  founders,  as 
Dr.  Spring  became  a  father,  of  the  Andover  The- 
ological Seminary.  (See  Andover  Theologi- 
cal Semin.\ry.)  On  returning  to  Newport  in 
1780,  Dr.  Hopkins  resumed  a  work  which  had 
already  exposed  him  to  severe  persecution.  New- 
port had  been  a  principal  slave-mart  of  North 
America.  As  early  as  1770  Hopkins  began  to 
preach  against  the  slave  system.  He  afterward 
published  numerous  essays  against  it  in  the  news- 
papers of  Newport,  Providence,  Boston,  Hartford. 
From  1780  onward  he  wrote  elaborate  letters  on 
the  subject  to  men  of  wealth  and  influence  in 
this  country,  and  to  John  Er.skine,  Granville 
Sharp,  Zachary  Macaulay.  and  other  abolitionists 
in  Great  Britain.  As  early  as  1773  he  had  united 
with  his  friend  Dr.  Ezra  Stiles  of  Newport,  in 
issuing  a  circular  plea  for  aid  in  educating  two 
colored  men  for  an  African  mission.  In  1776  he 
had  united  with  Dr.  Stiles  in  a  second  circular 
for  the  same  object.  Some  time  after  1780  he 
formed  a  more  comprehensive  plan  for  colonizing 
American  slaves.  His  plan  was  followed  by 
visible  results.  Two  liberated  negroes,  who  in 
their  youth  had  been  affected  by  his  colonizing 
scheme,  retained  for  about  fortj'  years  their  desire 
to  go  as  colonists  and  missionaries  to  their  native 
land ;  and  in  January,  1826,  they  sailed  from 
Boston  to  Liberia  with  sixteen  other  .Ifrican.-*, 
all  formed  into  a  church,  of  which  these  two 
aged  men  were  deacons.  The  merits  of  Dr. 
Hopkins  as  a  pioneer  in  the  cause  of  African 
emancipation  and  colonization  will  be  more  fully 
recognized  hereafter  than  they  are  at  present. 
Dr.  William  E.  Channing,  who  was  in  early  life 
a  friend  and  admirer  of  Hopkins,  has  rendered  a 
fitting  tribute  to  his  philanthropy.  The  poet 
Whittier  and  other  eminent  laymen  have  done 
the  same.  (See  Memoir  of  Hopkins  prefixed  to 
his  works,  vol.  i.  pp.  112-165.) 

Dr.  Hopkins  was  a  very  unattractive  speaker : 
he  was  more  successful  as  a  writer.  By  liis  love 
of  investigation,  his  patient  and  unremitting 
thought,  the  independence,  strength,  and  com- 
prehensiveness of  his  mind,  by  his  honesty, 
humility,  benevolence,  liis  deferential  study  of 
the  Bible,  and  his  habit  of  comnnuiion  with 
(iod,  he  was  eminently  fitted  to  be  a  theologian. 
He  left  his  tlieological  system  with  just  those 
faults  which  might  be  expected  from  an  original 
thinker,  with  just  those  faults  which  might  be 
expected  from  a  positive  thinker.  His  faidts 
were  a  want  of  completeness  and  symmetry,  also 
a  bold  and  positive  style  where  caution  and  re- 
serve were  more  ajwosite.  His  system  was  essen- 
tially Calvinistic,  but  was  distinguished  by  the 
epithet  "  Ilopkinsian."     (See  Hoi'Kinsianism.) 

He  is  said  to  have  spent  six  years  in  studying 
the  writings  of  President  Edwards,  all  of  whose 
manuscripts,  by  the  jiresideufs  request,  were 
comniittc'd  to  the  care  of  Hopkins.  He  superin- 
tended the  publication  of  Edwards's  Treatise  on 
Uriyinal  Sin,   1758.      He   edited   and   published 


HOPKINSIANISM. 


1021 


HOPKINSIANISM. 


seveiilccii  of  Edwards's  Sermons  (1704),  the  two 
dissiTtations  on  The  End  for  which  God  created  the 
World  ami  on  Tlie  Nature  of  True  Virtue  (1705)  ; 
and  he  prei^ared  for  the  press  si'veral  other  of 
the  presiilenfs  works.  The  theological  writings 
of  Hopkins  himself  were  (titles  abbreviated), 
The  Wisilom  of  God  in  the  Permission  of  Sin  (175(1), 
An  Inquirji  concerninr/  the  Promises  of  the  Gospel 
(1705),  The  True  State  and  Character  of  the  Unre- 
generate  (1700),  Animadversions  on  Mr.  Hart's  late 
Dialogue,  which  was  in  opposition  to  Di-.  Hop- 
kins's writings  (1770),  An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature 
of  True  Holiness  (1773),  An  Inquiry  concerning 
the  Future  Slate  of  those  who  die  in  their  Sins  (1783), 
.-1  System  of  Doctrines  contained  in  Divine  Reoela- 
lion  (2  vols.  8vo,  1793),  A  Dialogue  hetween  a 
Calvinist  and  a  Semi-Calrinist  (1805),  published 
after  the  author's  death.  Among  his  printed 
sermons  were  one  on  Tlie  Divinity  of  Christ 
{1708),  two  on  Law  and  Regeneration  (17G8),  a  Vol- 
ume of  Twenty-one  Sermons,  edited  by  Dr.  Daniel 
Hopkins  (1803).  The  biographies  published  by 
Hopkins  were  The  Life  and  Character  of  Presi- 
dent Edwards,  prefixed  to  Edwai'ds's  seventeen 
sermons  (1764),  The  Life  and  Character  of  Miss 
Susanna  Anthony  (1700),  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of 
Mrs.  Sarah  Osbo7-n  (1709).  His  political  writings 
were  chiefly  anonymous.  In  1706  he  published 
his  noted  Dialogue  concerning  the  Slavery  of  the 
Africans,  together  with  his  Address  to  Slavehold- 
ers. It  is  estimated,  that  if  his  essays  and  let- 
ters on  African  emancipation,  and  liis  elaborate 
letters  to  Andrew  Fuller,  John  Ryland,  Drs. 
Davies  and  Bellamy  on  religions  themes,  were 
printed,  they  would  form  a  large  volume.  Many 
of  his  printed  works  were  republished  in  1854  by 
the  Doctrinal  Tract  and  Book  Society  (now  Con- 
gregational Board  of  Publication)  at  Boston,  in 
three  octavo  volumes,  containing  over  two  thou- 
sand pages.  In  1S05  appeared  the  A  utohiography 
of  Dr.  Hopkins  wdth  an  Introduction  by  Dr.  Stcplien 
West .  in  1830.  a  Memoir  of  Dr.  Hopkins  by  Rev. 
John  Ferguson ;  in  1843,  Reminiscences  of  Dr. 
Hopkins  by  Rev.  Dr.  William  Patten ;  in  1854, 
a  Memoir,  containing  266  pages,  8vo,  by  the 
undersigned.  EDWARDS  A.  PARK. 

HOPKINSIANISM.  The  roots  of  this  theo- 
logical .system  lie  embedded  in  the  pul)lished  and 
unpublished  writings  of  the  elder  Jonathan  Ed- 
wards :  hence  it  lias  been  called  the  "  Edwardean 
Divinity."  The  main  principles  of  it  are  either 
taught  or  implied  in  the  writings  of  Dr.  Samuel 
Hopkins  of  Newport,  R.I.,  the  earliest  of  whose 
publications  were  sanctioned  by  the  elder  Ed- 
wards and  Dr.  Bellamy.  Those  pi'inciples  which 
are  merely  implied  in  his  system  have  been  un- 
folded and  somewhat  modified  by  his  three  friends. 
Dr.  Stephen  West,  Dr.  Nathanael  Emmons,  and 
Dr.  Samuel  Spring.  As  logically  connected  with 
each  other,  and  as  undei'stood  by  the  majority  of 
its  advocates,  the  system  contains  the  following- 
principles.  (1)  Every  moral  agent  choosing  right 
has  the  natural  jjower  to  choose  wrong,  and  choos- 
ing wrong  has  the  natural  power  to  choose  right. 

(2)  He  is  under  no  obligation  to  perform  an  act, 
unless  he  has  the  natural  ability  to  jierform  it. 

(3)  .\lthough  in  the  act  of  choosing,  every  nian  is 
as  free  as  any  moral  agent  can  be,  yet  he  is  acted 
upon  while  he  acts  freely,  and  the  divine  provi- 
dence, as  well  as  decree,  extends  to  all  his  wrong 


as  really  as  to  his  right  volitions.  (4)  All  sin  is 
so  overruled  by  (iod  as  to  become  the  occasion  of 
good  to  the  univer.se.  (5)  The  holiness  and  the 
sinfulness  of  every  moral  agent  belong  to  him 
personally  and  exclusively,  and  cannot  be  imput- 
ed in  a  literal  sense  to  any  other  agent.  (6)  As 
the  holiness  and  the  sni  of  man  are  exercises  of 
his  will,  there  is  neither  lioliness  nor  sin  in  his  \ 
nature  viewed  as  distinct  from  the.se  exercises. 
(7)  As  all  his  moral  acts  before  regeneration  are 
certain  to  be  entirely  sinful,  no  promise  of  regen- 
erating grace  is  made  to  any  of  them.  (8)  The 
imjienitent  sinner  is  obligated,  and  should  be 
exhorted,  to  cease  from  all  impenitent  acts,  and 
to  begin  a  holy  life  at  once.  His  moral  inability 
to  obey  this  exhortation  is  not  a  literal  inability, 
but  is  a  mere  certainty,  that,  while  left  to  himself, 
he  will  sin  ;  and  this  certainty  is  no  rea.son  for  his 
not  being  required  and  urged  to  abstain  inuuedi- 
ately  from  all  sin.  (9)  Every  impenitent  sinner 
should  be  willing  to  sui'fei'  the  punishment  which 
God  wills  to  inflict  upion  him.  In  whatever  sense 
he  should  submit  to  the  divine  justice  punishing 
other  sinners,  in  that  sense  he  should  submit  to 
the  divine  justice  punishing  himself.  In  what- 
ever sense  the  punishment  of  the  finally  obdurate 
promotes  the  highest  good  of  the  universe,  in  tha,t 
sense  he  should  be  submissive  to  the  divine  will 
in  punishing  himself,  if  finally  obdurate.  This 
principle  is  founded  mainly  on  the  two  follow- 
ing. (10)  All  holiness  consists  in  the  elective 
preference  of  the  greater  above  the  smaller,  and 
all  sin  consists  in  the  elective  preference  of  the 
smaller  above  the  g:-eater,  good  of  sentient  beings. 

(11)  All  the  moral  attributes  of  God  are  compre- 
hended in  general  benevolence,  which  is  essenti- 
ally the  same  with  general  justice,  and  includes 
simple,  complacential,  and  composite  benevo- 
lence; legislative,  retributive,  and  public  justice. 

(12)  The  atonement  of  Christ  consists  not  in  his 
enduring  the  punishment  threatened  by  the  law, 
nor  in  his  performing  the  duties  required  by  the 
law,  but  in  his  manifesting  and  honoring  by  his 
pains,  and  especially  by  his  death,  all  the  divine 
attributes  which  would  have  been  manifested  in 
the  same  and  no  higher  degree  by  the  punish- 
ment of  the  redeemed.  (13)  The  atonement  was 
made  for  all  men,  the  non-elect  as  really  as  the 
elect. 

The  epithet  "  Hopkinsian "  was  invented  in 
1769  or  1770  by  Rev.  William  Hart  of  Saybrook, 
Conn.,  and  was  applied,  not  to  the  whole  system 
of  Dr.  Hopkins,  but  to  the  principles  marked  7 
and  8  above.  As  a  whole,  Hopkinsiauism  has 
been  distinguished  by  the  prominence  which  it 
ffives  to  the  sterner  class  of  truths  ;  as  the  decrees 
and  sovereignty  of  God,  the  eternity  of  future 
punishment,  etc.  It  has  prepared  the  way  for 
giving  this  prominence  by  introducing  a  differ- 
ent class  of  principles ;  as  the  equity  of  God  in 
adapting  his  law^  to  the  natural  ability  of  men, 
his  infinite  worthiness  in  making  benevolence  the 
sum  of  aU  his  moral  attributes,  the  beauty  of 
holiness  as  consisting  in  the  choice  of  the  greater 
above  the  smaller  good  of  the  universe,  etc.  On 
account  of  the  prominence  which  it  gives  to  the 
former  class  of  principles,  it  has  been  criticised  as 
Hyper-Calvinism  :  on  account  of  its  adopting  the 
latter  class,  it  has  been  criticised  since  1772  as 
Arminiau  and  Pelagian.     By  combining  the  two 


HOR. 


1022 


HORNE. 


classes,  and  developing  their  consistency  with 
each  other  and  with  the  uses  of  the  pulpit,  it  has 
claimed  the  title  of  "Consistent  Calvinism." 
The  substance  of  it  has  been  now  incorporated 
with  what  is  termed  "  Xew-England  Theology " 
(see  art).  EDWARDS  A.  park" 

HOR,  Mount  {the  mountain).  There  are  two 
mountains  of  this  name  in  Scripture.  The  first, 
called  by  the  Arabs  Jebel  Nehij  Harun  ("the 
mountain  of  the  prophet  Aaron "),  is  on  the 
boundary-line  of  Edom  (Niua.  xx.  23),  midway 
between  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Akabah, 
and  is  forty-eight  hundred  feet  high.  It  lias  two 
peaks ;  and  on  one  of  these,  or,  as  some  suppose, 
on  the  level  space  between  tliem,  from  whence  he 
could  be  seen  by  all  the  people,  Aaron  died  (Num. 
XX.  27,  28).  The  tomb  {Kabr  Harim)  now  shown 
to  travellers  as  his  is  a  small  building  twenty- 
eight  by  thirty-three  feet,  surmounted  by  a  white 
dome,  —  the  usual  mark  of  a  saint's  resting-place. 
The  interior  of  the  tomb  consists  of  two  rooms, 
one  above  the  other.  The  upper  one  has  in  it  a 
stone  sarcophagus :  the  ceiling  is  supported  by 
four  pillars.  The  lower  room  is  reached  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  and  is  jierfectly  dark.  At  one  end, 
through  a  grating,  is  shown  what  purports  to  be 
the  real  tomb. 

The  second  INIount  Hor  (Num.  xxxiv.  7,  S)  was 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  "entrance  of 
Ilamath,"  but  has  not  been  further  identified. 

HORBE,  Johann  Heinrich,  b.  at  Colmar,  in 
Alsace,  June  11,  1045;  d.  at  Steinbeck,  near  Ham- 
burg, Jan.  20,  1095;  studied  theology  at  Strass- 
burg,  where,  among  others,  he  also  had  Spener 
for  his  teacher;  visited  afterwards  the  universi- 
ties of  Jena,  Leipzig,  Wittenberg,  llelmstiidt,  and 
Kiel ;  travelled  in  Holland,  England,  and  France, 
and  was  in  1071  appointed  pastor  at  Trarbach  on 
the  Mosel.  Tlie  boldness  with  which  he  expound- 
ed and  carried  out  into  practice  his  pietistic  views 
brought  liim  into  collision  with  his  colleagues, 
and  in  167S  he  was  dismissed.  In  the  following 
year  lie  was  appointed  pastor  ot  Windsheiui  in 
Franconia,  and  in  lOSI  pastor  of  St.  Xicholas  in 
Ilambm'g.  In  the  latter  place  he  found  many 
adherents,  but  also  many  adversaries ;  and  the 
distribution  of  Die  Klur/licit  der  Gerechten,  a  trans- 
lation of  a  pamphlet  by  the  French  mystic  Pierre 
Poiret,  raised  such  a  storm  against  him  that  he 
was  dismissed  November,  1093.  He  retired  to 
Steinbeck,  where  he  died.  A  list  of  his  writings 
is  found  in  J.  Miil.LEu:  Cimhria  iitterulu,  II.  pp. 
355-372.  See  also  J.  Geffcke.n:  .fo/itinn  ]ViHc/c- 
ler  unil  die  Ilaml/ui-f/isc/ie  Kirc/ie,  Hamburg,  1801. 

HORCHE,  Heinrich,  b.  at  Eschwege,  Dec.  12, 
1052;  d.  at  Kirchhaiu.  Aug.  5,  1729;  studied  at 
Marl)urg.  and  was  appointed  court-preacher  at 
Kreuznach  1085,  and  pastor  of  Herborn  109(1, 
from  which  latter  ]ic)sition  he  was  dismissed  in 
1098.  Gradually  his  pietism  developed  into 
separatism,  his  enthusiasm  into  insanity.  'I"he 
last  part  of  liis  life  he  spent  wandi'ring  about, 
]ireaching  in  public,  and  holding  conventicles. 
He  was  several  times  arrested,  and  t wici-  detained 
in  a  lunatic-a.sylum.  Hut  his  relations  with  all 
the  separatists  and  enthusiasts  of  his  time  con- 
tinued to  the  last.  See  H.  Hocimurii;  //.  //. 
u?iil  (lie  pliilwleljiliischcu  (Jemeinileii  in  Ihsse,  Gii- 
tersloh,  1H70. 

HO'REB.     See  Sinai. 


HORMISDAS  (Pope  July  20,  514-Aug.  0,  523) 
demanded,  as  a  condition  of  the  re-establishment 
of  union  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches,  the  formal  acknowledgment  of  the 
anathema  spoken  by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  over 
Anasius.  The  Emperor  Anastasius  refused  the 
demand,  but  his  successor,  Justin  I.,  complied 
with  it;  and  in  519  the  schism,  which  had  lasted 
for  thirty-five  years,  was  healed.  Hormisdas' 
letters  are  found  in  Migxe,  Patrol.  Lai.,  03:  his 
life,  in  J.\ffe,  Rer/.  Pant.  Horn.,  p.  65. 

HORNE,  George,  an  eminent  English  divine 
and  commentator ;  b.  at  Otham,  Kent.  Nov.  1, 
1730;  d.  at  Bath,  Jan.  17,  1792.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  University  College,  Oxford,  and  made 
fellow  of  Magdalen,  1749.  He  rose  to  very  high 
distinction  as  a  scholar,  became  president  of 
Magdalen  in  1768,  vice-chancellor  of  the  univer- 
sity 1776,  dean  of  Canterbury  1781,  and  was 
consecrated  Bishop  of  Norwich  June  7,  1790. 
He  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  esteem  of  Dr. 
Johnson.  Bishop  Home  was  an  evangelical  di- 
vine, a  polished  preacher,  and  a  genial  writer. 
He  early  entered  into  a  controversy  with  Dr. 
Kennicott,  who  proposed  to  make  a  collation  of 
Hebrew  mauuscri[its,  fearing  the  results,  or  at 
least  denying  the  claimsrot  a  sciehtifltr  criticism 
of  the  Bible.  His  dnnmentarji  on  the  Psalms 
(2  vols.,  1776)  has  passed  through  many  editions, 
and  is  his  best  work.  It  is  characterized  by  unc- 
tion and  fertility  of  devotional  counsel.  Editions 
have  appeared  with  an  excellent  Introductory 
Essay  by  Edward  Irving.  Among  his  other 
works  was  a  volume  of  Letters  on  Injiilelitij  (1784).' 
in  which  he  criticises  Hume's  arguments.  See 
The  Works  of  B.  Home,  with  his  Life,  by  Willi.\m 
Jones.  London,  17!)5-99.  6  vols.,  and  1831,  4  vols. 

HORNE,  Thomas  Hartwell,  b.  in  London. 
Oct.  20,  1780;  d.  there  Jan.  27.  1862.  He  wa."* 
educated  at  Christ's  Hospital  (1789-95),  and  then 
was  a  barrister's  clerk;  but  in  1809  he  became 
sub-librai'ian  to  the  Surrey  Institution,  in  1814 
librarian;  was  admitted  to  holy  orders  1M9; 
was  senior  assistant  librarian  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum 1824-00,  nuvde  B.D.  by  Cambridge  1829, 
prebendary  of  St.  Paul's  1831,  and  in  1833  was 
appointed  rector  of  the  united  parishes  of  St. 
Edmund  the  King,  and  St.  Nicolas  Aeons,  in 
London.  He  gave  early  evidence  of  his  literary 
ability  in  his  Brief  View  of  the  Necessilij  and 
Truth  of  the  Christian  Reliyion  (1800,  2d  ed.,  1802), 
and  wrote  very  many  pamphlets  and  volumes; 
but  the  work  by  which  he  is  remembered  is  An 
Introduction  to  the  Critical  Stwli/  anil  Knoicledt/e 
of  the  JIoli/  Scriptures,  London,  ^818^3  vols.,  10th 
ed.,  vol.  2  revised  by  Rev.  Sanuiel  Davidson, 
D.I).,  and  vol.  4  by  Samuel  Prideaux  Tregelles, 
LL.D.,  1856,  4  vols,  in  5.  But  Dr.  Davidson's 
"ratiomdism  "  led  to  the  rej<'ction  of  his  work,  and 
the  substitution  of  the  revision  of  vol.  2  hy  Rev. 
John  Ayre.  The  fourteenth  edition  of  the  work 
appeared  1877:  there  is  also  an  American  reprint 
of  a  former  edition.  Home's  Introduction  is  the 
most  famous  book  of  its  class.  It  covers  the  entire 
field  of  bibli(';il  learning,  —  not  only  genera)  and 
special  introduction  proper,  but  herineneutics, 
apologetics,  biblical  geography,  luitnral  liistory,  I 
etc.  It  has  been  of  incalculalile  valne  in  the  I 
Church,  and  tin'  means  of  turning  many  persons  ; 
unto  profound  Bible  study.     Thf  I'ililiographical  , 


HORNEY. 


1023 


HOSEA. 


)  Appendix  to  the  Introduction  is  the  best  thing  of 
its  kind  as  yet  published  in  English. 

HORNEY,  or  HORNEJUS,  Conrad,  1).  at  Bruns- 

wicli,  Nov.  25,  luDO  ;  d.  at  Ildmstiidt,  Sept.  26, 
1649 ;  studied  philcsophy  and  theology,  first  in 
his  native  place,  afterwards  at  Ilelmstadt,  where 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in 
1619,  and  of  theology  in  1028.  His  Compendium 
dialectics  (1623),  Philosop/iiw  mora/is  (1624),  Theo- 
togicc,  and  Hist.  Eccles.  (the  two  last  published 
after  his  death),  were  much  used  as  text-books, 
not  only  at  Helmstiidt,  but  also  in  other  univer- 
sities. 

HOROLOGIUM  (upoUyiov,  "a  dial"),  an  office- 
book  of  the  Greek  Church,  corresponding  to  the 
Latin  breviary,  and  containing  the  office  for  the 
day  and  night  hours  of  the  Church,  from  matin 
to  compline,  with  the  variable  antiphons  and 
hymns,  and  various  short  offices,  prayers,  and 
canons,  for  occasional  use. 

HORSLEY,  Samuel,  a  learned  and  eloquent 
prelate  of  the  Church  of  England;  b.  in  London, 
1733 ;  d.  at  Brighton,  Oct.  4,  1806.  His  father 
was  a  minister,  and  personally  supervised  his 
education  till  he  entered  Trinity  College,  Cam- 
bridge, where  he  graduated  LL.B.  in  17.58.  His 
first  charge  in  the  ministry  was  Newington  in' 
Surrey.  In  1767  he  was  elected  to  the  Royal 
Society,  and  was  secretary  of  that  body  from 
1773  to  1784,  when  he  resigned  his  membership, 
on  account  of  difficulties  with  the  president.  He 
was  an  able  classical  scholar  and  mathematician, 
published  works  in  both  departments,  and  edited 
the  Works  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  5  vols.,  1779- 
85.  His  ministerial  career  was  a  brilliant  one. 
After  filling  other  positions,  he  was  appointed 
in  1781  archdeacon  of  St.  Alban's.  Whilst  hold- 
ing this  position,  he  entered  (1783)  upon  his 
famous  controversy  with  Dr.  Priestley.  His  Let- 
ters (see  Ilorsley's  Tracts  in  Controversy  icith  Dr. 
Priestley,  «•///(  Notes  by  Re^^  H.  Horsley,  3d  ed., 
Dundee,  1812)  on  this  subject  are  full  of  learning 
and  keen  argument.  In  clear  and  solid  reason- 
ing he  was  more  than  a  niatch  for  his  opponent; 
and  Gibbon  describes  his  achievements  by  saying 
that  "his  spear  pierced  the  Socinian's  shield." 
The  disjnite  was  carried  on  with  great  heat,  and 
not  a  little  acrimony  on  both  sides.  For  his 
services  in  stopping  the  tide  of  Socinianism,  he 
was  rewarded  by  Thurlow  with  a  prebend's  stall 
in  Gloucester,  and  with  the  see  of  St.  David's,  in 
1788.  In  Parliament;  Bishop  Horsley  was  an 
energetic  supporter  of  Mr.  Pitt.  In  1793  he  was 
translated  to  the  see  of  Rochester,  and  rewarded 
with  the  deanery  of  Westminster  for  a  famous 
sermon  preached  there  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
execution  of  Charles  I.,  and  a  few  days  after 
Louis  XVI.  was  guillotined.  In  1802  he  was 
transferred  to  the  see  of  St.  Asaph. 

Bishop  Horsley  was  a  man  of  overbearing 
iemper,  but  a  keen  reasoner,  sound  scholar,  and 
eloquent  orator.  His  sermons  are  among  the 
very  best  specimens  of  English  pulpit  eloquence. 
Among  his  works  not  already  referred  to  may  be 
mentioned  a  Cununeidary  on  Hosea  (1801,  2d  ed., 
1804),  the  posthumous  work  on  the  Psalms  trans- 
lated from  the  Hebrew,  etc.  (1815.  2  vols.,  4th  ed., 
1845),  Biblical  Criticism  of  Fourteen  Historical 
Boohs  of  the  Old  Testament,  etc.  (1820,  4  vols., 
2d  ed.,  1844,  2  vols.),  a  collected  edition  of 
13  —  11 


Horsley's  Theological  Works  (London,  1830,  9 
vols.),  and  his  Sermons,  complete  in  1  vol.  (Lon- 
don, 1839).  See  Stani.kv:  Memorials  of  West- 
minster Abbey;  and  Stoughton  :  Religion  in 
England,  vi.,  179  sqq. 

HOSE'A  (I'.mn,  "help"),  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
was  the  son  of  Beeri.  (3f  his  life  nothing  further 
is  known  than  what  may  lie  inferred  from  iiis 
prophecy.  Tradition  is  singularly  reticent  con- 
cerning "liim.  The  prophet  was  married,  and  had 
three  children.  His  marriage  is  not  to  be  ex- 
plained as  an  allegory  [some  of  the  fathers, 
Horsley,  and  others],  nor  resolved  into  a  vision 
[Hengstenberg,  etc].  He  belonged  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  as  is  evident  from  vii.  5,  where  he 
calls  the  king  of  Israel  "our  king,"  and  from  the 
contents  of  tlie  prophecy,  which  display  a  famil- 
iar acquaintance  with  the  affairs  of  the  Northern 
Kingdom . 

The  Book  of  Hosea  is  divided  into  two  parts, — 
i.-iii.  and  iv.-xiv.  In  chapter  i.  it  is  told  how, 
in  obedience  to  the  divine  connnand,  the  prophet 
married  a  "wife  of  whoredoms"  (Gomer),  who 
bore  him  a  daughter  ("  Not  having  obtained  Mer- 
cy ")  and  two  sons  ("Jezreel"  and  "Not  my 
People").  These  three  names  are  plainly  sym- 
bolical of  God's  displeasure.  Chapter  ii.  prom- 
ises reconciliation  with  the  people,  notwithstand- 
ing their  alienation  from  him.  The  new  and 
pleasanter  names  are  substituted,  —  "  My  People," 
and  "Having  obtained  Mercy."  But  between 
the  displeasure  and  reconciliation  a  period  was  to 
intervene  (iii.)  in  which  Israel  should  be  pun- 
ished for  its  spiritual  adultery,  and  be  led  by 
sorrows  to  seek  again  the  Lord. 

The  second  part  (iv.-xiv.)  contains  a  series  of 
punitive  and  threatening  discourses.  The  first 
of  these  (iv.)  describes  the  deep  moral  fall  of  the 
land,  in  which  the  leaders  and  priests  were  also 
involved.  In  the  second  (v.-vi.  8),  the  propliet 
urges  the  responsibility  of  the  priests  for  the 
spiritual  declension  and  the  divine  punishment, 
in  spite  of  the  help  sought  from  foreign  nations, 
and  closes  with  the  scene  of  the  people's  return- 
ing wounded  to  the  Lord  for  healing.  This  sec- 
tion belongs  to  the  reign  of  Shallum,  which  lasted 
only  one  month  (v.  7).  If  this  be  granted,  then 
the  former  section  belongs  to  the  reign  of  Zacha- 
riah.  The  third  discourse  (vi.  4-vii.  16)  con- 
tains a  reproof  of  Epliraira,  who  is  unstable, 
wanders  off  from  God,  and  seeks  aid  from  Egypt 
and  Assyria.  As  Hitzig  has  rightly  pointed  out, 
vii.  7  enables  us  to  fix  the  time  of  this  discourse 
pretty  accurately  in  the  reign  of  Menahem.  The 
fourth  discourse  (viii.  1-ix.  9)  again  lays  bare 
the  spiritual  adultery  of  Israel,  and  lifts  a  warn- 
ing voice.  It  evidently  belongs  to  the  reign  of 
Jlenahem,  who  leaned  upon  AssjTia  (viii.  4). 
The  fifth  discourse  (ix.  10-xi.  11)  three  times 
shows  how  Israel  had  returned  God's  goodness 
by  turning  to  idols.  If,  as  is  very  probable,  x.  14 
refers  to  Shalmaneser,  then  this  prophecy  was 
spoken  under  King  Hoshea.  The  last  discourse 
(xii.  1-xiv.  9),  which  closes  with  an  earnest  exhor- 
tation to  the  people  to  repent,  and  the  announce- 
ment of  a  divine  promise,  belongs  also  to  the 
reign  of  Iloshea,  and  before  the  fall  of  the  North- 
ern Kingdom. 

To  sum  up,  we  have  here  a  series  of  prophecies 
reacliing  from  the  last  years  of  Jeroboam  U., 


HOSHEA. 


1024 


HOSPINIAN. 


king  of  Israel,  into  tlie  reign  of  Iloshea;  so  tliat 
there  is  no  good  reason  for  denying  the  genuine- 
ness of  tlie  superscription  (i.  1),  as  some  have 
done  [or  from  aliout  784  to  726  B.C.].  That  the 
prophecies  of  Hosea  have  been  handed  down  to 
us  in  tlieir  integrity,  has  with  reason  been  em- 
phasized by  Evvald. 

Hosea  is  closely  related  to  Amos,  his  older  con- 
temporan,-,  as  is  evident  by  a  comparison  of  Hos. 
iv.  3,  and  Amos  viii.  8;  Hos.  iv.  15,  and  Amos 
V.  5 :  Hos.  v.  7,  and  Amos  vii.  4,  etc.  But, 
closely  related  as  the  prophets  are,  the  differences 
in  their  language  and  manner  of  representation 
are  marked.  Hosea's  .style  is  full  of  rare  words 
(ii.  4,  I'i,  viii.  6,  etc.),  verbal  forms  and  expres- 
sions (iv.  4,  ix.  1,  etc.).  In  other  respects,  also, 
they  differ.  Amos  is  more  gentle,  Hosea  more 
robust.  His  mind,  as  Umbreit  says,  "  moves, 
profoundly  agitated,  under  the  burden,  divinely 
imposed,  of  preaching  against  the  sins  of  his 
people,  and  announcing  their  fall.  Hence  the 
abruptness  of  his  discourse,  the  disconnectedness 
of  the  sentences,  and  the  peculiar  character  of 
the  figures,  which  follow  each  other  rapidly,  and 
without  being  rounded  out;  so  that  Jerome  was 
right  when  he  said  Hosea  was  concise,  and  spoke, 
as  it  were,  in  detached,  unconnected  sentences 
(commatiru.'i  est  et  (/nasi  per  se?ilenlias  loquens). 
Xotwithstanding.  liowever,  the  dark  flood  of  ire 
which  the  book  reveals  to  our  gaze,  it  also  unveils 
a  light  of  reconciling  love  of  surpassing  beauty, 
\\hich  ever  and  anon  shines  upon  the  adulterous 
people.  And  in  this  combination  lies  the  pecul- 
iar splendor  of  our  prophet." 

Hosea  is  referred  to  three  times  in  the  New 
Testament,  —  Rom.  ix.  25,  26,  1  Cor.  xv.  55,  and 
Matt.  ii.  15. 

[Lit.  —  For  full  literature  on  the  Minor  Proph- 
ets, see  that  art.  For  a  text,  see  Hosea  et  Joel 
atl  Jiilem  codicis  Baliijhmici  I'etrupolitani,  ed. 
SritACK,  Petropoli,  lb75;  Pocock  :  Cominentary 
on  Hosea,  Oxford,  1085;  Mangek  :  Com.  hi 
//o.seam,  C'anipis,  1782;  Bishop  Hohsley  :  Hosea 
tra7islated  from  the  Hebrew,  with  Notes  Explanatory 
and  Critical,  2d  ed.,  London,  181)4;  Simsun  :  JJ. 
J'ro/i/u'l  Hosea,  Hamburg,  1851  (with  full  history 
of  the  interpretation);  Dkakk:  Notes  on  Hosea, 
Cambridge,  1853;  WL'xschk:  D  I',  f/osea,  lji-ii>- 
zig,  1868;  XoWACK :  Hosea,  Berlin,  ISMO;  K.  A. 
K.  ToETTKioiAXX  (chaps.  i.-vi.  3,  Leipzig,  188(1): 
On  Hosea's  Marriaye .  Kuhtz  :  D.  Ehe  d.  Projili. 
Hosea,  Dorpat,  1859  ;  T.  K.  Chevnk  :  Hosea,  Cam- 
bridge, 1884.  See  Hosea,  in  iS.Mrni's  Bihle  Dial. 
and  Koriirlii/Krdia  Brit.  VOLCK. 

HOSHE'A  (God  is  help),  the  son  of  Elah,  and 
the  last  and  best  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  headed 
a  conspiracy  against  Peknli,  slew  him,  and  seized 
the  throne  (2  Kings  xv.  30).  But  he  was  unable 
to  .stay  the  fall  of  his  kingdom.  At  the  verj' 
beginning  of  his  reign  lie  was  compelled  to  jiay 
tribute  to  Assyria  (2  Kings  xvii.  3);  and  in  his 
ninth  year  he  was  "nvaded  by  the  As.syrian  king, 
because  he  had  atti-niptiHl  an  alliance  with  Egypt. 
Samaria  was  taken,  after  a  three-years'  siege,  and 
a  large  part  of  tlie  people  carried  away  to  Assyria 
(xvii.  6),  and  their  land  wa-s  newly  peopled  (xvii. 
24,  cf.  Hos.  xiii.  10,  >[ic.  i.  0).  It  would  seem 
that  the  king  who  began  the  siege  of  .Samaria 
was  .Shalmanc.ser;  tlie  king  who  took  it  was 
Sargon ;  the  Egyptian  king,  who  is  called  .So,  was 


Sevechus,  the  second  king  of  the  tweuty-fifth 
.Ethiopian  dynasty.  RtJETSCHI. 

HOSIUS,  "generally  called  Osius  by  Latin 
writers  ;  b.  256  ;  d.  359  ;  was  Bishop  of  Corduba 
(Cordova),  in  Spain,  for  over  fifty  years.  He  was 
present  at  the  synod  of  Elvira  (305  or  306),  and 
agreed  in  its  severe  canons  concerning  the  lapsi, 
the  marriage  of  ecclesiastics,  and  other  points  of 
discipline.  Some  j'ears  later  on  he  appears  at 
the  coiut  of  Constantine  the  Great  as  a  man  of 
great  influence.  He  brought  personally  the  em- 
peror's letter  to  Bishop  Alexander  of  Alexandria, 
and  Arius,  exhorting  them  to  refrain  from  dis- 
turbing the  Church  by  their  disputes;  and  he 
was,  no  doubt,  instrumental  in  the  convention  of 
the  first  oecumenical  council  of  Nica;a(325),  where 
he  played  a  prominent  part.  Of  the  details  of 
his  administration  of  his  diocese,  nothing  is 
known :  but  he  remained  the  firm  friend  of 
Athanasius  and  his  cause  in  the  Western  Church ; 
and  when  Constantius,  in  353,  endeavored  to 
establish  peace  in  the  Church  by  openly  favoring 
the  Arians,  Hosius  refused  not  only  to  condenm 
Athanasius,  but  also  to  enter  into  communion 
with  the  Arians.  The  demand  was  made  by  the 
emperor;  and  Hosius  refused  again  in  a  dignified 
letter,  reminding  the  emperor,  that,  though  the 
realm  belonged  to  him,  the  Church  belonged  to 
the  bisliops.  Hosius  was  then  banished  to  Sir- 
mium ;  and,  by  a  synod  held  there  in  357,  he  was 
induced  to  subscribe  the  second  Sirmiau  formula, 
involving  communion  with  the  Arians,  but  not 
tlie  condemnation  of  Athanasius.  After  his  re- 
turn to  t'orduba,  he  retracted,  however.  Of  his 
writings,  only  the  above-mentioned  letter  has 
come  down  to  us.  Ath.^nasius:  Ad  Monach.; 
Dale:   ShiuxI  nt'  I'hira.  1SS2.  w.  Nfor.T.ER. 

HOSIUS,  Stanislaus,  b.  in  Cracow,  May  5, 1504; 
d.  at  Capranica,  near  Rome,  Aug.  5,  1579;  studied 
law  at  i'adua  and  Bologna;  entered  the  service  of 
the  Church,  and  was  made  Bishop  of  Culm  1549, 
Bishop  of  Ermeland,  1551,  and  cardinal  1561. 
He  was  a  most  decided  and  energetic  enemy  of 
the  Keformation,  intimately  connected  with  the 
Jesuits,  rejoicing  over  the  murder  of  Coligny,  and 
anxious  that  Poland  also  should  have  its  IMassa- 
cre  of  St.  Bartholomew.  He  drew  up  the  Con- 
fessio  Jidi'i  Christiana  catholica.  adojited  by  the 
synod  of  Petrikau  1551,  and  founded  in  1565  the 
college  and  seminary  of  Braunsberg,  which  for 
centuries  formed  the  centre  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
mission  among  the  Protestants.  He  was  not  a 
great  theologian.  The  Bible  he  considered  the 
"  projierty  of  the  Roman  Churcii ;  "  and,  that  one 
(juality  left  out  of  view,  it  had,  he  thought,  no 
more  worth  than  the  fables  of  /Esop.  His  writ- 
ings, passionately  polemical,  are  full  of  theological 
blunders.  But  he  was  a  great  administrator  and  a 
great  dijiloniatist,  and  successfully  carrie<l  through 
many  very  difficult  negotiations.  A  collected  edi- 
tion of  his  works  appeared  at  Cologne,  1584.  See 
Kkasixski:  The  li't'/orni.  iii  I'oland,  Loud.,  1838- 
40,  2  vols.  ;  and  his  life  written  by  Rescius  and 
A.  EiciiiTouN,  Mainz,  1855,  2  vols.     SUDHOFF. 

HOSPINIAN,  Rudolph,  b.  at  Altorf,  Nov.  7. 
1517;  studied  at  Minlim-g  and  Heidelberg,  and 
was  a]ii«iiiited,  first  director  of  the  gynm.asium, 
llicu  pastor  at  Zihieh,  where  he  died  March  11, 
1626.  Ho  was  a  v<'ry  prolific  writer,  mostly 
polemical.     The  principal  of  his  works  aie  Dcori- 


HOSPITALITY. 


1025 


HOSSBACH. 


gine  et  progrcssti  rtlnum  (1585),  Dp  lemptii  (1587), 
De  monachU  (15S8),  llistoria  sacramenUirin  (1603), 
Concordia  discors  (1G17),  whicli  was  vehemently 
attacked  by  Hutter,  Historia  Jesuilica  (1619).  A 
collected  edition  of  liis  worlcs  appeared  at  Geneva, 
1G81,  7  vols,  folio,  vvitli  life  by  J.  II.  Heidegger. 

HOSPITALITY  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
This  virtue  was  practised  and  held  in  the  liighest 
esteem  among  Israel  and  throughout  the  East. 
When  a  stranger  appeared,  he  was  invited  into 
the  house  or  tent.  As  soon  as  he  arrived,  he  was 
furnished  with  water  to  wash  his  feet,  received  a 
supply  of  needful  food  for  himself  and  his  beast, 
and  enjoyed  courtesy  and  protection  from  his  host 
(Gen.  xviii.  2  sq.,  xix.  1  sq.,  xxiv.  25,  31  sq. ; 
Exod.  ii.  20;  Judg.  xiii.  15,  xix.  20  sq.,  23).  To 
leave  a  stranger  outside  in  tlie  street  was  a  dis- 
grace to  the  whole  community  (Judg.  xix.  15), 
and  to  refuse  him  admittance  was  considered  dis- 
creditable (Job  xxxi.  32).  The  religious  hatred 
existing  between  Jews  and  Samaritans  destroyed 
the  mutual  relations  of  hospitality  (Luke  ix.  53 ; 
John  iv.  9);  and  only  in  the  gi-eatest  extremity 
would  the  Jew  partake  of  Samaritan  food,  and  if 
possible  he  avoided  passing  through  Samaria  on 
liis  journeys.  Ou  his  departure,  the  traveller  was 
not  allowed  to  go  alone  or  empty  handed  (Gen. 
xviii.  16).  Where  inodern  tourists  have  not 
spoiled  the  East,  this  custom  of  hospitality  is  still 
prevailing.  RUETSCIII. 

HOSPITALLERS,  or  HOSPITAL  BRETHREN, 
is  the  common  name  of  all  those  associations  of 
laymen,  monks,  canons,  and  knights,  which  devot- 
ed themselves  to  nursing  the  sick  and  the  poor  in 
the  hospitals,  while  at  the  same  time  observing 
certain  monastic  practices,  generally  according  to 
the  rule  of  Augustine.  Most  of  those  brother- 
hoods were  connected  witli  some  regular  monastic 
order,  and  stood  under  the  authority  of  the  bish- 
op. AVhen  they  were  large,  they  had  a  general  of 
their  own ;  but  even  the  smaller  ones  had  their 
superior  or  major,  and  a  steward  to  take  care  of 
the  finances.  Some  of  them,  as,  for  instance,  the 
Hospitallers  of  St.  Jean  de  Dieux  in  France,  were 
exempted  from  episcopal  authority,  and  stood  im- 
mediately under  the  Pope.  Only  a  few  of  them 
took  the  regular  monastic  vows. 

The  first  of  this  kind  of  brotherhood  was 
formed  in  Italy  in  the  ninth  century.  During 
the  crusade.s  their  number  increased  immensely, 
and  they  spread  over  all  Europe.  The  religious 
orders  of  knights,  as,  for  instance,  the  Knights 
of  St.  John  and  the  Teutonic  Knights,  originated 
from  the  same  movement.  One  of  the  oldest 
associations  bearing  the  name  of  Hospitallers 
was  that  of  the  Hospital  Brethren  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  founded  in  1190  at  Montpellier,  by  Count 
Guido,  and  confirmed  in  1198  by  Innocent  HI.  : 
it  had  its  mother-house  in  the  Hospitale  S.  Splritus 
in  Saxia  in  Rome.  Then  followed  the  Hospitallers 
of  Burgos  (1212),  the  Fr'eres  de  la  Charilc'  de  la 
bienheureuse  Marie  (founded  at  Boucheraumont 
in  the  diocese  of  Chalons  1280,  and  having  its 
mother-house  in  the  hospital  L(>:  Billets  in  Paris), 
the  Brethren  of  Love,  the  Good  Brethren,  etc. 

There  were  also  hospital  sisters;  and  tlie  female 
associations  originating  in  the  twelfth  centurv 
achieved  a  still  greater  success  than  the  male  ones. 
They  united  to  the  duty  of  nursing  the  sick  and 
tie-'  poor,  also  that  of  educating  young  girls,  espe- 


cially orphans,  and  rescuing  fallen  women.  The 
principal  sisterhoods  were  tho.se  of  St.  Gervasius 
(1171),  St.  Catharine  in  Paris  (1222),  St.  Martha 
of  Pontarlier  (1G87),  etc.  See  Helyot:  Hi.iloire  d. 
orit.  mini,,  Paris,  1714-19,8  vols.  ZOCKLER. 

HOSPITAL,   Michel  de  L'.     See  IWriTAL. 

HOSPITALS.  The  idea  of  honoring  and  .serv- 
ing Christ  in  the  person  of  the  unfortunate  and 
diseased  has  manifestly  deeply  impressed  the 
Church.  From  the  lieginning.  Christians  have 
been  proverbial  for  the  care  they  have  displayed 
for  the  weak.  The  deacons  and  deaconesses  of 
the  early  Church  visited  the  sick  in  their  homes, 
but  not  they  alone ;  and,  even  in  times  of  perse- 
cution and  of  pestilence,  all  Christians  joined  in 
such  pious  duties.  Care  of  the  sick  was  unremit- 
ting. "When  the  ban  of  the  State  was  lifted  from 
the  Church,  then  buildings  for  the  reception  of 
the  sick,  the  needy,  and  tlie  stranger,  began  to  be 
erected  in  all  parts  of  the  empire.  And  these 
came  directly  under  the  care  of  the  bishops,  who, 
of  course,  employed  others  to  manage  the  details. 
Indeed,  the  Code  of  Justinian  made  their  employ- 
ment of  superintendents  obligatory.  Basil  the 
Great  (330-.379)  seems  to  have  built  the  most 
complete  institution  of  the  kind.  In  it  there  were 
accommodations  even  for  lepers.  The  Emperor 
Julian  was  stirred  up  by  the  example  of  the 
Christians  to  provide  on  a  generous  scale  for 
the  sick.  Later  Placilla,  the  wife  of  Theodosius 
the  Great,  is  mentioned  by  Tlieodoret  {Hisl.  EccL, 
v.  19)  as  devoting  much  time  to  hospital  service, 
doing  even  menial  duties.  The  first  person  to 
build  a  ho.spital  in  Rome  was  Fabiola,  one  of 
Jerome's  converts,  who,  out  of  penitence  for  a 
constructive  sin  (a  second  marriage  after  divorce 
on  the  ground  of  her  husband's  adultery,  which 
was  contrary  to  church  law),  gave  all  her  property 
to  charitable  uses.  Jerome  himself  had  previously 
built  a  hospital  m  Betlilehem.  There  is  notice  of 
hospitals  in  Gaul  in  the  fifth  century;  in  Germany 
in  the  eighth  or  ninth  century.  The  Irish  mis- 
sionaries of  the  latter  period  built  them  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Northern  Euiope  in  connection  w ith 
their  monasteries:  hence  they  were  called  ''llospi- 
talia  Scotorum  ;  "  i.e.,  Irish  Ho.spitals. 

It  is  a  striking  fact,  mentioned  by  Martigny, 
that  "  liospitals  were  in  ancient  times  commonly 
dedicated  to  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  was  repre- 
sented under  the  form  of  a  dove,  either  on  the 
facade,  or  on  some  other  conspicuous  jiart  of  the 
building."  The  principal  hospital  in  Rome  bears 
this  designation,  and  has  borne  it  from  a  very 
I'emote  period. 

See  tlie  arts.  HOpilaux,  m  Martigxy's  Diet,  des 
antiq.  ckret.,  and  in  Liciitexbekger's  Eneyclojie- 
die  des  sciences  religieiu-ies,  and  Hospitals,  in  Smith 
and  Cheeth.v.m's  Diet,  of  Christian  Antiquities. 

HOSPITAL  SISTERS.     See  Hospitallers. 

HOSSBACH,  Peter  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Wusterhau- 
sen,  in  the  jirovince  of  Prussia,  Feb.  20,  1784 ; 
studied  theology  at  Halle  and  Francfort-on-the- 
Oder,  and  was  appointed  pastor,  first  of  Planitz, 
near  his  native  town,  then  at  the  military  acade- 
my, and  finally  at  the  Church  of  Jerusalem,  in 
Berlin,  where  he  died  Aj^ril  7,  1846.  Besides 
several  collections  of  sermons  (1822-48),  he  pub- 
lished Das  LebeaJ.  V.  Andreius  (1819)  and  Spener 
und  seine  Zeit  (1828),  both  of  which  hold  a  high 
rank  among  historical  monographs. 


HOST. 


1026 


HOWABD. 


HOST.     See  Mass. 

HOTTENTOTS,  Christian  Missions  among 
■the,  were  begun  by  George  Schmidt,  a  5Iora\nan 
missionary,  who  arrived  at  Cape  Town  in  1737. 
Although  he  spoke  through  an  interpreter,  his 
success  was  great,  and  therefore  tlie  colonial 
government  interfered.  In  1744  he  returned  to 
Europe  in  order  to  have  his  grievances  removed  ; 
but  m  this  he  was  not  only  unsuccessful,  but  the 
Dutch  East  India  Company,  which  governed  the 
colony,  did  not  even  allow  him  to  return.  It  was 
not  until  179i  that  the  mission  was  resumed  by 
three  other  Moravian  missionaries,  and,  until  1795, 
carried  on  amid  formidable  opposition  on  the  part 
of  the  colonist.s.  Since  1806  tlie  colony  has  been 
under  British  government;  and  the  mission  has 
not  been  disturbed,  and  is  now  in  a  flourishing 
condition.  But  the  Jloravians  have  not  been 
alone  upon  the  field.  The  London  Missionai-y 
Society,  in  1798,  sent  thither  two  missionaries, — 
Br.  Vanderkenip  and  Mr.  Edmonds.  The  Wes- 
leyan  Missionary  Society  began  ofierations  ui 
1814;  and  other  societies  iiave  since  come  in. 
The  success  of  their  work  refutes  the  Portuguese 
notion  that  the  Hottentots  were  a  race  of  apes, 
incapable  of  Christianization.  Low  as  they  are 
in  the  scale  of  civilization,  they  are  still  soil  for 
the  gospel-seed,  and  bear  precious  increase.  The 
gospel  of  Christ  makes  of  the  Hottentot  a  hero 
and  a  saint.  For  a  full  account  of  the  language, 
history,  and  geographic  and  ethnogi-aphic  rela- 
tions of  the  Hottentots,  see  art.  in  Enci/rlnpa:dia 
Brilannica,  9th  ed.,  vol.  xii.  309-313.  For  their 
religion,  .see  T.  H.\HN  :  Tsuni  WGoam,  the  Supreme 
Beintj  of  the  Khoi-Khiii,  London,  1882. 

HOTTINGER  is  the  name  of  a  Swiss  family 
which  lias  ]in>ducfil  .several  notable  theologians. 
—  Johann  Heinrich  Hottinger,  li.  in  Zurich,  March 
10,  lli'JU  ;  (1.  there  June  .j,  1007  ;  studied  theology 
and  Oi'iental  languages  in  Geneva,  Gi-6ningen, 
and  Leyden ;  was  apiiointed  pi-ofe.ssor  of  theology 
in  his  native  city  Kill  ;  and  wrote,  among  other 
works,  Exercitalinnes  Atili-Mariniiina-  ile  Peiila- 
teucho  Sumiirilaiw  (1644),  ami  Ilisloria  Eccles.  A'oci 
Test.  (I6.0I-O7,  9  vols).  —  Johann  Jacob  Hottinger, 
son  of  the  preceding;  b.  in  Zurich,  Dec.  1,  10.")'2;  d. 
there  Dec.  IS,  1735;  studied  in  Basel  and  Geneva; 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  m  his  native 
■city  in  169^,  and  wrote  Iletvetische  Kirchent/esch. 
(1698-1729,  4  vols,  quarto). — Johann  Jacob 
Hottinger,  a  relative  of  tlie  preceding;  b.  in 
Zurich,  May  18,  1783;  was  professor  of  history 
tliere,  and  died  there  M.iy  l.s,  1860.  He  contin- 
ued .Johann  von  Miiller's  work  on  tlie  history  of 
Switzerland,  and  gave  a  valuable  represeiitiition 
uf  the  introiluction  of  the  lieforination  in  Swit- 
zerland. 

HOUBIGANT,  Charles  Fran9ols,  b.  in  P.aris, 
1086;  d.  then-  1783;  entered  the  Congrog.ation 
of  the  (.)ratury  in  1704 ;  .served  .as  teaclier  in 
various  colleges,  but  retired  in  1722  on  account 
of  complete  deafness,  and  devoted  hini.self  to 
literary  pursuits.  His  principal  works  are  Jtdcinen 
Ilehraiques  (1732^,  in  mnemonic  verse.s,  and  Bih- 
Ilea  Hebraica,  witn  a  Latin  transl.ation  and  critical 
notes  (175.3,  4  vols.),  published  at  the  expen.se  of 
the  Oratory. 

HOURS,  Canonical.     Sec;  ('a.nonicai,  Houhs. 

HOUSE  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  See  Aii- 
Ciiiii.c:  1 1  1:1  ,  Ili.i;i!i:w. 


HOUSE-COMMUNION,  or  PRIVATE  COM- 
MUNION, particularly  in  the  case  of  the  sick, 
cannot  claim  apostolic  precedent,  but  came  in 
very  early ;  for  the  deacons  were  accustomed  to 
carrj'  the  consecrated  elements  immediately  after 
service  to  the  sick,  to  prisoners,  and  to  strangers. 
Tertullian,  in  the  third  centiu-y,  testifies  to  the 
practice  of  private  communion  on  the  part  of 
well  persons  {Ad  ux.,  2,  5,  de  or.,  19  [Eng.  trans, 
in  Ante-Nicene  Library,  Tert.,  vol.  i.  pp.  193, 298]). 
In  Greek  churches  there  was  private  communion 
under  both  kinds.  In  Tertullian 's  time  it  would 
seem  the  bread  alone  was  used  at  home,  and  eaten 
in  the  family-circle  at  morning-prayer.  Later  on, 
we  find  consecr.ated  bread  carried  upon  jom'neys, 
and  used  as  an  amulet ;  so  much  so,  that  councils 
protested  against  the  practice.  On  the  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiatiou,  the 
cup  was  withdrawn  from  the  laity,  and  the  pres- 
ent form  of  communion  for  the  sick  introduced. 

The  Reformed  and  the  Lutheran  churches 
differ  upon  this  ix)int  of  private  conmumion ;  the 
former  repressing,  and  the  latter  freely  allowing 
it.  The  Protestant  pastor  is  oft-times  confronted 
with  practical  difficulties  when  asked  to  dispense 
communion  to  the  sick,  and  should  therefore  act 
cautiously,  inquiring  carefully  into  the  condition 
of  the  sick  person,  so  as  to  be  assured  that  the 
sen-ice  Ls  intelligently  and  reverently  participated 
in,  and  notsuperstitiously  as  a  preservative  against 
future  woe.  ROBERT  KUBEL. 

HOWARD,  John,  the  eminent  apostle  of  prison- 
reform  ;  b.  at  Hackney,  near  London,  Sept.  2, 
1726;  d.  at  Cherson,  on  the  Black  Sea,  Jan.  20, 
1790.  He  was  apprenticed  to  a  grocer ;  but  fall- 
ing lieir  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  by  his  father's 
death,  to  an  ample  fortune,  he  turned  his  b.ack  on 
commercial  pursuits,  and  started  on  <a  tour  to  the 
Continent.  On  his  return  he  was  married  to  a 
lady  much  older  than  himself,  who,  however,  lived 
only  a  few  yeare  after  the  event.  In  1756  he  took 
passage  to  Lisbon ;  but  the  vessel  was  captured 
by  a  French  i>rivateer,  and  Howard  cast  into  a 
dungeon  at  Brest.  The  accommodations  were 
wreUlied,  and  the  provisions  scant  and  ill-served, 
the  meat  being  thrown  in  amongst  the  prisoners 
for  them  to  tear  it  to  pieces  as  best  they  could. 
He  w.as  transferred  to  Morlaix,  but,  released  on 
parole,  returnetl  to  England.  Tlie  same  year  (1756) 
he  w.as  made  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society  for  some 
communications  on  meteorology.  About  this  time 
he  married  again,  and  sjient  a  quiet  life  at  his 
seat  in  Cardington  (where  lie  instituted  Laudable 
measures  for  tlie  improvement  of  the  condition 
of  his  tenants)  until  liis  wife's  death,  in  1765. 
He  Wiis  a  member  of  the  liaptist  Church  of  Bed- 
ford. In  1769  he  made  an  extensive  tour  through 
Italy  and  other  countries  of  the  Continent,  and, 
returning,  was  elected  sheriff  of  the  county  of 
Bedford  in  1773. 

A  new  period  of  Howard's  life  dates  from  this 
time.  He  now  began  a  .series  of  investigations 
into  the  condition  of  prisons,  which  extended 
over  <a  number  of  years,  led  him  to  travel  through 
every  country  in  Europe,  and  to  piu'sue  with  a 
per.severance  and  con-secratioii  rarely  e(iualled  in 
any  department  of  life  his  inquiries  in  the  prLsons 
of  .almost  every  city  of  considerable  size  on  tlie 
Continent  or  Great  15ritaiii.  These  unseltLsJi 
labors  brought  him  into  the  presence  of  crowned 


HOWARD. 


1027 


HOWE. 


heads  and  parlianients,  and  have  won  for  his 
name  a  place,  with  those  of  Wilberforce  and  Mrs. 
Fry,  among  tlie  noblest  philanthropists  of  his 
country.  The  office  of  sheriff  was  the  occasion 
of  his  visiting  the  jails  of  Bedford  Connty ;  and 
the  state  of  his  mind  in  regard  to  them  is  summed 
up  in  his  own  words :  "  I  beheld  scenes  of  calami- 
ty which  I  grew  daily  more  and  more  anxious  to 
alleviate."  Not  only  were  the  accommodations 
miserable,  but  the  prisoners  exposed  to  the  mercy 
of  unsalaried  jailers,  who  drew  their  support  from 
the  fees  of  their  wards,  and  had  power  to  detain 
them  till  these  were  paid.  In  November,  1773, 
he  began  visiting  the  jails  of  the  adjoining  coun- 
ties in  oi'der  to  find  a  precedent  for  putting  the 
jailers  of  Bedford  upon  salaries,  —  a  measui-e 
which  he  strenuously  urged  upon  the  authorities. 
These  investigations,  w  hich  were  gradually  pushed 
fm'ther  and  further,  till  he  had  visited  the  most 
of  the  county  jails  in  England  and  in  Ireland 
and  Scotland  (1775),  strengthened  in  his  mind  the 
conviction  of  the  urgent  call  for  remedial  meas- 
ui'es.  The  rooms  were,  in  part,  underground  and 
damp,  and,  as  a  rule,  gloomy  and  filthy ;  in  one 
case  the  connnon  sewer  of  the  city  running  direct- 
ly under  one  of  the  prisons,  and  uncovered.  The 
bedding,  if  any,  was  usually  confined  to  straw, 
and  the  rations  unhealthy  and  insufficient.  Jail- 
fever,  and  small-pox  in  its  most  virulent  form, 
were  common  diseases.  In  1774  he  was  called  to 
testify  before  tlie  connnittee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. That  body  passed  a  resolution  "recogniz- 
ing the  hunumity  and  zeal  which  had  led  him  to 
visit  the  several  jails  in  this  kingdom,"  and  the 
same  year  passed  two  bills  for  the  better  treat- 
ment of  prisoners,  and  care  of  jails.  In  the  spring 
of  1775  Howard  visited  Paris,  where,  after  nuich 
perseverance,  he  succeeded  in  getting  admission 
to  the  jails,  which  he  describes  as  "  beyond  im- 
agination horrid  and  dreadful."  He  also  travelled 
through  Svvitzerland,  Germany,  Belgium,  and 
Holland,  finding  in  the  last  two  countries  the 
prison  acconnuodations  in  a  comparatively'  good 
state.  On  his  return  to  England  he  published  a 
work  on  the  Stale  of  the  Prisons  in  En  (/land  anil 
Wales,  with  Preliminary  Ohseroations,  etc.  In  the 
years  which  immediately  followed,  lie  extended 
his  visits  to  Sweden,  Russia,  Hungary,  and  every 
other  country  in  I'2urope,  everywhere  pursuing 
the  one  philanthropic  passion  of  his  life. 

The  last  five  years  of  Howard's  life  were  spent 
in  measures  for  the  mitigation  of  the  horrors  of 
the  plague.  With  this  design  he  visited,  in  178.5, 
the  lazarettos  of  various  cities  of  Italy,  went  as 
far  as  Smyrna,  and  travelled  unknown  on  vessels 
infected  with  the  plague  in  order  to  be  able  the 
better  to  find  out  the  character  of  the  treatment 
of  the  disease,  and  the  nature  of  the  quarantine 
regulations.  In  17S9,  on  his  last  sojourn  in  Eng- 
land, he  published  an  Account  of  the  Principal 
Lazarettos  in  Europe,  etc.  These  latter  years  were 
saddened  by  the  \\  ild  course  of  an  only  son,  who 
lost  his  reason  ;  but  once  again  he  started  on  a 
journey  to  the  Continent,  reached  Cherson  on  the 
Black  Sea,  caught  the  jilague  from  a  lady  whom 
he  tried  to  CLU'e,  and  died.  A  monument  to  his 
memory  was  placed  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  con- 
taining a  well-deserved  eulogy.  To  his  ett'orts 
are  due  the  improved  system  of  prison  acconnno- 
dation  and  that  discipline  which  seeks  to  reform 


the  criminal,  not  only  in  Great  Britain,  but,  to 
some  extent,  throughout  a  largo  part  of  Europe. 
Of  the  animating  principle  of  his  career.  Dr. 
.Stoughton  has  said  that  "religious  principle 
developed  in  simple  and  uno.stentatious,  almost 
puritanical,  forms,  constituted  the  strength  and 
inspiration  of  Howard's  world-known  character." 
Mr.  Howard's  Life  has  been  written  by  Aikkx 
(London,  17!f2),  Bkow.v  (London,  1818),  Hep- 
wouTH  UixoN  (Lon<l(jn,  .jth  ed.,  18.54),  Tayi.ou 
(London,  1830),  John  Fikld  (London,  1850), 
S'rouciHTON  (London,  1853),  and  his  Correspond- 
ence edited  by  Field  (London,  185.5). 

HOWE,  John,  an  eminent  Puritan  divine  and 
author;  b.  May  17, 1030,  at  Loughborough,  Leices- 
tershire, where  his  father  was  minister;  d.  April 
2,  1705,  in  London.  The  elder  Howe  was  thrust 
out  of  his  position  by  Laud  for  espousing  the 
cause  of  the  Puritans,  and  went  to  Ireland  when 
the  subject  of  this  sketch  was  five  years  old.  He 
afterwards  returned  to  England,  and  settled  in 
Lancaster.  John  Howe  was  educated  at  Cani- 
bridge  and  Oxford,  and  made  fellow  of  Magdalen 
College  in  the  latter  university,  of  which  Dr. 
Thomas  Goodwin  was  at  the  time  the  president. 
About  1052  he  became  pastor  at  Great  Torring- 
ton  in  Devonshire.  In  this  place,  according  to 
his  own  statement,  the  order  of  his  services  on 
fast-days  was  as  follows :  Beginning  at  nine  in 
the  morning,  he  made  an  invocation  a  quarter 
of  an  hour  in  length,  spent  three-quarters  of  an 
hour  in  expounding  a  chapter,  prayed  for  an 
hour,  preached  for  an  horn',  then  prayed  again 
for  half  an  hour.  Here  followed  a  recess,  in  which 
ilr.  Howe  took  some  refreshment,  lieturning  in 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  (the  people  singing  all  the 
while),  the  services  were  resumed  with  a  prayer 
of  an  hour,  continued  with  a  sermon  of  another 
hour,  and  concluded  at  four  in  the  afternoon  with 
a  final  prayer  "of  about  a  half  an  hour  or  more." 
Mr.  Howe  was  a  successful  pastor;  but  his  biog- 
rapher, Edmund  Calamy,  without  doubt  has  the 
sympathy  of  the  present  age  when  he  closes  this 
description  by  exclaiming,  "A  sort  of  .service  that 
few  could  liave  gone  through  without  inexpressi- 
ble weariness,  both  to  themselves  and  their  audi- 
tories." 

In  1054  Howe  went  on  a  visit  to  London,  and 
was  an  auditor  in  the  chapel  at  Whitehall,  when 
he  was  espied,  and  recognized  from  his  garb,  by 
Cromwell,  to  be  a  country  minister.  .Vttracted 
by  his  fine  appearance,  the  Protector  despatched 
a  messenger  after  him  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
services,  and  pressed  him  so  hard  to  remain  over 
the  following  Sabbath  and  pi-each  before  him, 
that  in  vain  he  pleaded  one  excuse  after  another. 
The  result  was  that  Howe,  nmch  against  his  pri- 
vate preferences,  became  one  of  Cromwell's  chap- 
lains. Elevated  to  this  position,  he  '.showed  a 
tolerant  spirit,  and  lielped  more  than  one  of  the 
Episcopalian  clergymen,  as,  notably.  Thomas  Ful- 
ler and  Dr.  Ward,  afterwards  Bisliop  of  Exeter. 
Upon  Richard's  depiosition,  he  returned  to  his 
former  parish  at  Torrington.  When  the  Act  of 
Uniformity  was  passed,  he  quitted  his  chmxh,  but 
continued  for  some  time  in  the  neighborhood, 
preaching  in  private  houses.  In  this  pieriod  he 
was  called  to  Exeter  to  see  the  bishop,  who  pro- 
posed to  him  to  be  re-ordained.  Howe  answere<l, 
"  The  thought  is  shocking,  my  lord  ;  it  hurts  H:y 


HOWIE. 


1028 


HUBERT. 


understanding.  It  is  an  absurdity,  for  nothing- 
can  have  two  beginnings.  I  am  sure  I  am  a  min- 
ister of  Christ.  aii<l  I  can't  begin  again  to  be  a 
minister."  In  common  with  Dr.  Bates  and  others, 
he  accepted  the  Five-Mile  .\ct,  wiiich  was  passed 
in  1665,  with  the  limiting  clause,  ••  so  far  as  the 
laws  of  man  are  agreeable  to  the  AA'ord  of  God." 
lu  1671,  having  preached  privately  at  houses  in 
the  mean  while,  he  accepted  an  invitation  to 
Antrim,  Ireland,  as  chaplain  to  Lord  Massarene. 
In  167-3  he  accepted  a  call  to  London,  and  was 
allowed  to  preach  by  the  king's  indulgence.  He 
was  several  times  approached  by  persons  high  in 
position,  in  the  hope  that  he  might  be  led  to  con- 
form. In  1685,  on  account  of  the  gTeater  severity 
shown  to  the  dissenters,  he  accepted  an  invitation 
to  accompany  Lord  Wharton  to  the  Continent, 
and  the  year  following  settled  at  Utrecht.  'When 
James  II.  issued  his  declaration  for  liberty  of 
conscience  (in  1687),  Howe  returned  to  his  old 
position  in  London.  From  this  time  till  his  deatli 
he  took  an  active  interest  in  the  theological  dis- 
cussions of  the  day  (as  that  on  the  Trinity),  and 
preserved  the  respect  of  all  parties. 

Mr.  Howe  is  described  as  tall  in  person,  grace- 
ful in  manner,  and  of  a  piercing  but  pleasant  eye. 
He  was  a  ready  offhand  preacher,  and  never  used 
notes.  He  was  conciliatory  in  disposition,  catho- 
lic in  spirit,  anxious  to  promote  Chri.'itian  unity, 
and  more  than  once  put  his  opponents  in  contro- 
versy to  the  blush  by  his  moderation  and  fairness. 

Howe's  works,  in  spite  of  being  somewhat  pro- 
lix and  tedious,  are  among  the  most  suggestive 
and  profound  of  the  Turitau  ^^Titings.  "  I  have 
learned  more  from  John  Howe  than  from  any 
author  I  ever  I'ead,"  said  Robert  Hall.  "  There 
is  an  astonishing  magnilicence  about  his  concep- 
tions "  (edition  of  his  works,  Loud.,  1853,  vi.  120). 
His  principal  w  orks  are  the  treatise,  DeliyldiiKj  in 
God,  1671;  The  Lii-iii//  Temple,  1st  part,  1676, 
2d  part,  1702,  in  which  he  discusses  the  questions 
naturally  suggested  by  the  idea  that  man  is  the 
temple  of  God ;  The  Redeemer's  Tears  over  Lost 
Souls,  1681.  Ilis  Complete  IF»)7.'.<  were  first  issued 
(with  a  Life  by  Ed.muxd  C.\l.\my)  Loud.,  1724, 
2  vols.,  then  by  Hi-nt,  Lond.,  1810-22,  7  vols. 
The  most  accessible  edition  (containing  the  Life 
by  Calamy),  X.Y.,  1861),  2  vols.  See  also  Rogeus  : 
Life  of  John  Hoire,  Lond.,  1836. 

HOWIE,  John,  a  Scotch  Presbyterian  layman; 
b.  at  Lochgoin,  Nov.  11,  1735;  d.  there  Septend>cr, 
1791.  He  wrote  that  famous  book,  'J'lie  Scots 
Worthies,  or,  as  the  full  title  reads,  JJihliothecu 
Scoticana;  or  a  hrief  historic<d  nccuiinl  of  the  most 
eminent  Scots  worthies,  etc.,  1503-16SS,  Glasgow, 
1774  and  often;  new  ed.,  revised,  corrected,  and 
enlarged,  with  a  jirelace  and  notes  by  William 
McGaviu,  F-dinburgh  and  New  York,  1853.  The 
book  is  still  in  jiriiil,  and  read. 

HOYLE,  Joshua,  D.D.,  b.  at  Sorby,  near  Hali- 
fa.\,  Yoikshire,  Kng. ;  d.  Dec.  6,  1654.  He  was 
educated  in  .Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  but  became 
fellow  of  Trinity  College.  Dublin,  and  took  his 
degrees  of  divinity,  and  became  i)rofessor  of 
divinity,  in  that  university.  lie  devoted  him- 
self to  biblical  stmlies  and  the  Koman-Catholic 
controversy,  and  w;is  a  friend  and  warm  admirer 
of  Archbishop  U.s»iier.  He  fled  from  tli(t  Irish 
massacre  and  returned  to  Kiigland,  and  became 
vicar  of  Stepney  near  lyondon.      In  1643  htt  was 


appointed  a  member  of  the  Westminster  .Assem- 
bly of  Divines.  He  labored  on  the  connnittee 
on  the  Confession  of  Faith.  In  1648  he  was 
appointed  master  of  L'niversitj'  College,  Oxford, 
and  Kings  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  university. 
His  two  published  works  are,  A  rejoinder  to  Mr. 
Malone,  Jesuit,  his  reply  concerning  Real  Presence 
(4to,  pp.  662,  Dublin,  1641),  and  Jehoiadah's 
justice  af/riinst  Mattan,  Baal's  Priest,  a  sermon 
(London.  1645).  C.  A.  BRIGGS. 

HRABANUS.     See  Rabanus. 

HROSWITHA,  a  nun  of  the  convent  of  Gan- 
dersheiia  in  the  duchy  of  Saxony;  wrote,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  tenth  centm'y,  a  series  of  legends 
in  leonine  verses  {Maria,  Ascensio  Domini,  Passio 
S.  Gon(/olf,  etc.),  an  epic  {Gesta  Oddonis),  and 
six  religious  comedies  (Gallicanus,  Duleilius,  Ca- 
llmachus,  Aliraham,  Pafnutius,  and  Sapientia),  to 
counteract  the  influence  of  Terence  on  the  stu- 
dents of  the  cloister-schools.  Her  works  were 
edited  by  K.  Barach,  Xuremlierg,  1858.  See 
KoEPKE  :   Hrotsiiil  am  (iiiiiiUrshtint,  Berlin,  1869. 

HUBER,  Johannes  Nepomuk,  b.  in  Munich, 
.\ug.  l.s,  18:i(l;  d.  there,  .March  2ii,  187(1.  He 
was  extraordinary  professor  of  philosophy  (1859), 
and  then  ordinary  professor  (1864),  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Munich,  one  of  the  most  fearless  oppo- 
nents of  Ultramontanism,  and  later  a  leader  in 
the  Old  Catholic  movement.  His  principal  writ- 
ings are  Pliilosopkie  der  Kirchenrdter  (Miinchen, 
1859,  put  on  the  Ltdex  in  1860),  Johann  Scotits 
Erigena  (1859),  Das  Papslthum  u.  d.  Slaat  (1870), 
Geschichle  des  Jesuitenordens  (1873).  He  also 
took  part  in  the  composition  of  Janus  (1869),  and 
wrote  Quirinus  (1870).  See  his  Life  by  Ziii.v- 
GiEur.,  Munehen,  1881. 

HUBER,  Samuel,  b.  at  Burgdoi-f,  near  Berne. 
1517;  (1.  at  Osterwiek,  in  Hanover,  i\Iarch  23. 
1624  ;  studied  theology,  and  was  appointed  pa.stor 
of  his  native  parish.  He  inclined  very  strongly 
toward  Lutheranism ;  anil,  being  of  a  very  com- 
bative temperament,  he  caught  at  every  opportu- 
luty  of  attacking  Beza,  Musculns,  and  tlie  other 
leaders  of  the  Reformed  Church,  especially  on 
the  question  of  predestination.  The  result  was, 
that  lie  w.as  deposed  from  his  office,  and  banished 
from  the  country,  June  28,  1588.  .\t  Tiibingeii. 
whither  he  repaired,  he  openly  endiraced  Lu- 
theranism ;  and  in  1592  he  was  made  professor 
of  tlieology  at  Wittenberg.  But  there,  too,  he 
fell  out  with  his  colleagues.  He  would  make  no 
distinction  between  dilectio  and  electio,  but  taught 
a  iniiversalism  which  scandalized  the  Lutherans. 
Jan.  18,  1595,  he  w'as  once  more  deposed,  and 
banished  from  the  country.  The  rest  of  his  life 
he  spent  wandering  from  place  to  place,  in  very 
depressed  circumstances.  .\  comjilete  list  of  his 
works,  among  which  his  Anii-lie/larminus  (1007) 
occupies  the  principal  pilace,  is  found  in  J.  A. 
SciiMiD  :  Dissert,  de  S.  H.,  Helmstiidt,  17(18.  See 
also  Acta  Ilulieriana,  Tiibingen,  1597,  and  Acta 
Iluln  riitna.  ed.  Gotze.  Liibeck,  1707. 

HUBERINUS,  Caspar,  b.  at  Wilspach,  Bav.v 
ria.  D.r.  21.  l.'.llO;  d.  at  Oehringen,  Oct.  0,  1553; 
was  a  monk,  when  in  1525  he  began  to  preach 
the  Reformation  in  .\ugsbnrg,  and  became  evan- 
gelical pastor  there  in  1528,  ami  in  1544  superin- 
tendent at  Oehringen.  He  ]published  several 
colleclicins  of  sermons. 

HUBERT,  St.,  son  of  Bertrand,  Duke  of  Gui- 


HUBMAIBR. 


1029 


HUGHES. 


enne,  and  a  passionate  hunter;  was  converted  by 
meeting  a  stag  which  bore  a  cross  between  his 
antlers,  and  became  bishop  of  Liege  in  708.  He 
died  in  727 ;  and  his  remains  were  afterwards 
deposited  in  the  monastery  of  Audoin,  which  bears 
his  name.  See  Granges  :  Vie  de  saint  Hubert, 
Moulins,  1S73. 

HUBMAIER,  or,  as  he  used  to  write  the  name 
himself,  HUBMOR,  Balthasar,  b.  at  Friedberg, 
near  Augsburg,  1480;  d.  in  Vienna  (burnt  at  the 
stake)  March  10,  1528;  studied  theology  and  phi- 
losophy at  Freiburg  under  Eck,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Ingolstadt  in  1512,  and 
preacher  at  the  cathedral  of  Ratisbon  in  1510. 
From  the  latter  position  he  was  removed  in  1522, 
suspected  of  favoring  the  Keforniation ;  and,  as 
soon  as  he  liad  become  settled  as  preacher  of 
Waldshut,  he  entered  into  conmiunication  with 
Zwingli,  and  openly  embraced  the  reformed  faith. 
At  the  same  time  he  made  tlie  acquaintance  of 
Th.  Miinzer;  and  when,  in  1525,  he  published  his 
Voii  (lent  ehristlichen  Tauf  der  Gldubiyen,  it  became 
apparent  that  he  had  adopted  the  Anabaptist 
views.  Expelled  from  Waldshut  by  the  Austri- 
ans,  he  fled  to  Ziirich,  but  was  imprisoned  there, 
and  compelled  to  recant  April  G,  1.526.  He  after- 
wards retracted  the  recantation,  and  settled  in 
Moravia,  wliere  he  found  many  adlierents,  and 
developed  a  great  activity,  preaching  and  writ- 
ing; but  when,  after  the  death  of  King  Lewis  of 
Hungary,  Moravia  fell  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
Hiibmaier  was  dragged  to  Vienna,  and  executed. 
Calvary,  in  his  Mitt,  aux  dem  Antiquariale  (vol.  i., 
Berlin,  1870),  gives  a  picture  of  the  man  and  a 
complete  list  of  his  works.  CUNITZ. 

HUC,  Evariste  Regis,  b.  at  Toidouse,  Aug.  1, 
1813;  d.  in  Paris,  March  31,  1800;  entered  the 
Congregation  of  St.  Lazarus,  and  went  in  1839 
to  China  as  a  missionary.  Li  1849  he  returned, 
and  published  Voyage  dans  la  Tarlarie,  le  Thibet 
el  la  Chine  (Pari.s,  1850;  translated  into  English, 
London,  1851,  New  York,  1853),  L'Empire  Chi- 
nois  (Paris,  1854 ;  translated  into  English,  New 
York,  1855),  and  Le  Christ ianisme  en  Chine,  en 
Tartaric,  et  an  Thibet  (Paris,  1857). 

HUCARIUS.     See  Caxo.x  Law. 

HUCBALD,  b.  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury ;  d.  930 ;  was  director  first  of  the  cloister- 
school  of  St.  Amand  in  Flanders,  then  of  the 
cathedral-school  of  Rheims.  He  wrote  two  trea- 
tises on  music,  which  occupy  a  prominent  place  in 
the  history  of  music,  some  biographies  of  saints, 
which  are  of  historical  value,  and  a  poem.  See 
G.  NiSARD  :  Huchald,  Paris,  1867. 

HUET,  Francois,  b.  at  Villeau,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Eure-et-Loir,  Dec.  26,  1814 ;  d.  iu  Paris, 
July  1,  186!) ;  was  for  several  years  professor  of 
philosophy  at  Ghent,  but  lost  that  position  by  the 
persecutions  of  the  Ultramontanists ;  became 
tutor  to  Prince  Milan  of  Servia,  and  published 
Recherches  sur  la  vie  el  les  ouvrages  d'Henri  de 
Gatid,  1838;  Le  Cartesianisme,  1843,  2  vols.;  Le 
regne  social  du  Chrislianisme,  1853 ;  Essais  de  rd- 
forme  catholique,  1856,  in  connection  witli  Bordas- 
Demoulin ;  La  Revolution  religieuse  an  19ine  siecle, 
1866. 

HUET,  Pierre  Daniel,  b.  at  Caen,  Feb.  8,  1630; 
d  in  Paris,  Jan.  26,  1721 ;  was  one  of  the  teach- 
ers of  the  young  dauphin,  and  was  in  1689  made 
bishop  of  Avranches,  but  resigned  in  1699,  and 


devoted  himself  for  the  rest  of  his  life  exclusively 
to  literature.  He  pul>li.slied  a  celebrated  edition 
of  Origen,  2  vols,  folio,  1668.  Of  his  original 
works,  tiie  principal  are  Demonstratio  evangelica, 
1679;  Censura  philosopliiw.  cartcsiamc,  1689;  Quces- 
liones  Aluclance,  Ki'.Kl;  etc.  See  Bartholmess  : 
Huet,  ou  le  sccjiticisnie  lhcologif/t(e,  1850. 

HUG,  Johann  Leonard,  Uoman-Catholic  bibli- 
cal scholar;  b.  at  Constanz,  June  1,  1705;  d.  at 
Freiburg,  South  Germany,  March  11, 1846.  After 
a  brilliant  career  iu  the  iniiversity  of  Freiburg, 
he  became  (1787)  superintendent  of  the  studies 
in  the  seminary  for  the  training  of  priests  in  con- 
nection with  the  university,  and  in  1791  professor 
of  the  Oriental  languages  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  (1792)  of  the  New  Testament.  The  remain- 
der of  his  life  was  laboriously  spent  in  the  service 
of  his  beloved  university  ;  although  his  great  repu- 
tation induced  calls  to  Breslau,  Cologne,  Tubin- 
gen, and  Bonn  (three  times).  It  was  Hug's  great 
service  to  oppo.se  the  Sender  school  of  New  Tes- 
tament, particularly  of  gospel,  interpretation. 
Hug  held  firmly  to  the  historicity  of  the  New- 
Testament  writings,  and  on  this  basis  vigorously 
defended  them.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  by  his 
Einleilung  in  die  Schriflen  des  neuen  Testaments, 
Stuttgart  u.  Tiibingen,  1808,  2  vols.,  later  editions, 
1821,  1826,  1847,  French  (partial)  translation  by 
J.  E.  Cellerier,  Geneva,  1823,  English  translation 
by  Wait,  London,  1827,  and  by  Fosdick,  with 
notes  by  Moses  Stuart,  Andover,  1836.  In  this 
work  he  advocates  the  tiieory,  that  up  to  the  mid- 
dle of  the  third  century  the  New-Testament  text 
existed  only  in  a  common  edition  (xoit^  fmSooif), 
which  was  subsequently  revised  by  Hesychius, 
Lncian  of  Antioch,  and  by  Origen.  (See  the 
discussion  of  this  theory  by  Tregelles,  in  Home's 
Introduction,  14th  ed.,  vol.  iv.  pp.  78-87,  and  by 
Scrivener,  Introduction,  2d  ed.,  pp.  458-460.) 
Among  other  noteworthy  writings  by  Hug  is  his 
new  interpretation  of  the  C^anticles,  given  in  Das 
hohe  Lied  in  einer  noch  unversuchlen  Deutung  (Frei- 
burg, 1813)  and  Schutzschrift  fiir  seine  Deutung 
des  liohen  Liedes  und  derselben  weitere  Erldutcrung 
(Frieburg,  1818).  According  to  him,  the  bride 
is  of  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes ;  the  bride- 
groom is  King  Hezekiah  ;  the  brothers  of  .Shula- 
mith  are  a  party  in  the  house  of  Jndah;  the  wliole 
is  "a  representation,  clothed  in  idyllic  form,  of 
the  longing  felt  by  the  kingdom  of  the  ten  tribes 
for  re-union  with  Judah,  but  which  those  'broth- 
ers' opposed."  (See  Zockler,  in  Lange's  Commen- 
lary,  American  edition,  Introduction  to  the  Song  of 
Solomon,  p.  32.)  For  a  full  account  of  Hug,  see 
Ad.  ]\L\ier  :  Geddchlnissrede  auf  Hug,  Freiburg, 
1847. 

HUGHES,  John,  first  archbishop  of  New  York  ; 
b.  at  Annaloghan,  Ireland,  June  24,  1797 ;  d.  in 
New-York  City,  Jan.  3,  1864.  He  emigrated  in 
1817 ;  entered  the  Mount  St.  Mary's  Catholic  Col- 
lege at  Ennnittsburg,  Frederick  County,  Md., 
1820 ;  ordained  priest  1826,  and  settled  in  Phila- 
delphia, where  he  remained  until  1837,  when  he 
was  appointed  co-adjutor  bishop  of  New  York, 
and  consecrated  Jan.  7,  1838.  In  1842,  on  the 
death  of  Bishop  Dubois,  he  became  titular  bishop : 
in  18.50  the  see  of  New  York  -was  raised  to  metro- 
politan rank,  and  he  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the 
pallium  at  the  hands  of  the  Pope.  In  1847  he 
delivered  before  both  houses  of  Congress,  and  at 


HUGHES. 


1030 


HUGO   OF   ST.   VICTOR. 


their  request,  a  discourse  upon  Christlatiity,  the 
only  source  of  moral,  social,  and  political  regenera- 
tion. Ou  Aug.  5.  1855,  he  laid  the  corner-stone 
of  the  cathedral  on  Fifth  Avenue,  which  was 
dedicated  Jlay  25,  1879.  In  Xovember,  ISGl,  in 
company  with  Mr.  Thurlow  AVeed,  he  made  a 
semi-official  journey  to  Europe,  at  tlie  request  of 
Secretary  Seward,  in  order  to  secure  the  friendly 
neutrality  of  European  nations,  especially  of 
France.  In  July,  1863,  he  addressed,  as  he  sup- 
posed, the  rioters,  from  the  balcony  of  his  house, 
Madison  Avenue,  corner  36th  Street ;  but  the 
great  crowd  which  had  collected,  although  Koman 
Catholic  and  Irish,  was  probably  not  riotous. 
Bishop  Hughes  played  a  more  prominent  part  in 
America  than  any  other  Roman  Catholic  of  his 
day,  and  enjoyed  a  great  deal  of  general  respect 
and  popularity.  He  was,  however,  a  determined 
Romanist,  beiit  upon  securing  the  destruction  of 
the  puljlic  schools  and  the  support  by  the  public 
money  of  Roman-Catholic  schools.  He  was  ever 
ready  to  defend  himself  and  his  church.  He  had 
memorable  encounters  with  Dr.  John  Breckin- 
ridge in  1833  and  1835  (subsequently  published, 
Philadelpliia,  1833  and  1836),  before  the  Connnon 
Council  of  New- York  City  (1839),  in  1817-48  with 
Dr.  Nicolas  JIurray  (Kirwan),  whose  letters  were 
published  and  widely  circulated  in  several  lan- 
guages, and  with  Erastus  Brooks,  editor  of  the 
jV((f  York  Express,  1855.  One  of  his  acts  as 
bishop  was  to  remove  the  lay  trustees  of  church 
property,  and  to  secure  the  titles  in  his  own  name. 
In  tliis  w-ay  he  stopped  litigation,  which  had 
brought  Romanists  into  disrepute.  He  estab- 
lished (1841)  St.  John's  College  at  Fordham, 
Westchester  County,  N.Y.  See  his  Works,  edited 
by  L.  Kehoe,  Xew  York,  1864-65,  and  his  Life 
by  J.  K.  Cr.  Ilassard,  New  York,  1866. 

HUGHES,  Joseph,  D.D.,  a  Baptist  minister, 
1).  in  London,  Jan.  1,  1769;  d.  there  Oct.  12, 
1833.  He  proceeded  iM.A.  at  Aberdeen,  1790; 
he  participated  in  the  formation  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society  (1799),  and  of  the  Britisli  and  For- 
eign Bible  Society  (1804)  ;  w-as  the  first  secretary 
to  each  of  these  organizations,  and  faithfully  and 
ably  discharged  his  duties.  See  Ids  Memoir,  by 
Lkikchild,  London,  1834,  and  Bihlk  Societies, 
ji.  260. 

HUGO  OF  AMIENS,  b.  at  Amiens,  towards  the 
close  of  the  eleventli  century ;  d.  at  Rouen,  Nov. 
11,  1164;  entered  the  monaslery  of  Cluny  in 
1113;  was  elected  Archbislioji  of  Rouen  in  1129; 
took  a  pronunent  part  in  political  and  ecclesiasti- 
cal life,  and  wrote  Dialoiji  Theolo(jici  (printed  hi 
Mautexe,  Thesaurus,  vol.  ii.),  and  Contra  llce- 
reticas,  printed  as  an  appendix  to  the  works  of 
Guibert  de  Nogent,  in  the  edition  of  D'Achery. 

HUGO  OF  LINCOLN,  b.  about  1135,  at  Ava- 
lon,  liurgnndy ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  19,  1200; 
entered  the  monastery  of  tiie  Grande  Chartreuse; 
was  afterwards  invited  to  England  l)y  Henry  II. 
to  establish  the  first  Carthusian  monastery  in 
England,  at  Witham,  and  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Lincoln  in  1186.  He  was  canonized  alnuit 
twenty  vears  after  his  death.     See  Peuuv  :  Life 

of  St.  lhl<il,  of  .-\rn\i,ii.  1870. 

■  HUGO  OF  ST.  CHER  (/>  Sanclo  Caro),  al.so 
called  Hugo  de  St.  Theodorico,  was  b.  at  St. 
Cher,  a  suburb  of  \'i<'nnc  in  Danphine ;  studied 
theology  and   canon  law  in   I'aris;   entered  tlie 


Dominican  order  in  1224 ;  was  made  a  cardinal 
by  Innocent  lY.  in  1245 ;  and  d.  at  Orvieto  in 
1263.  He  was  a  learned  man,  took  an  active 
part  in  the  controversy'  between  William  of  St. 
Amour  and  the  mendicant  orders,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  formed  to  examine  the 
Introductorius  in  Evangelium  ceternnm  by  Gerhard. 
His  own  works,  however,  are  those  of  a  collector 
rather  than  those  of  an  author.  His  Postilla  in 
unioersa  Bihlia  gives  short  explanations  —  literal, 
allegorical,  mystical,  and  moral  —  of  the  single 
words,  and  contains  many  curious  things.  But 
his  Sacrorum  Bdiliorum  Concordanlim,  also  called 
Concordanfice  H.  ,/ucobi  (because  he  was  aided  by 
monks  from  the  Dominican  monastery  of  St. 
Jacob),  or  Concordantiie  Anglicana:  (because  the 
quotations  were  afterwards  written  out  by  Eng- 
lish monks  residing  in  Paris),  became  the  model 
for  all  following  works  of  the  kind.  Many  works 
bearing  his  name  are  still  extant  in  manuscript; 
but  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  belong  to  him. 
See  QuETiF  et  Echard  :  Scriptores  ordinis  prce- 
dicatoruni,  I.  194  sq.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

HUGO  OF  ST.  VICTOR,  with  his  contempo- 
raries Abelard  and  Bernard,  one  of  the  most  influ- 
ential theologians  of  the  twelfth  centurv;  was  b. 
about  1097;  d.  Feb.  11,  1141.  He  gave  hini.self 
up  to  a  contemplative  conventual  life,  and  shone 
in  consequence  of  piety  and  speculative  thought, 
rather  than  of  active  participation  in  the  ecclesi- 
astical affairs  of  his  day.  He  nmst  be  regarded 
as  the  real  founder  of  the  inediiBval  mysticism  of 
France,  for  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  is  dependent 
upon  him  for  the  essential  features  of  his  mysti- 
cal speculations.  The  same  may  be  affirmed  of 
Peter  Lombard.  After-generations  gave  lum  the 
title  of  Diduscalns  ("teacher"),  or  .Alter  Augus- 
tinus  ("the  second  Augustine").  Two  localities 
claim  the  honor  of  being  Hugo's  birthiilace,  — 
the  vicinage  of  Ypres  in  Flanders,  and  Saxony. 
The  Benedictines,  in  vol.  xii.  of  the  Hist,  liter,  de  la 
France,  bring  forward  three  testimonies  from  old 
authors  in  favor  of  the  former.  Hut  there  are 
weightier  testimonies  for  Saxony.  His  tombstone 
declared  Hugo  to  be  of  Saxon  birth  {origine  Saxo). 
This  view  easily  explains  liis  attendance  upon 
the  cloistral  .school  of  Ilamersleben  in  1115.  To 
these  must  be  added  the  testimonies  of  early 
Saxon  writers  who  speak  of  Hugo  as  belonging 
to  the  families  of  Von  Blankenburg  and  Regen- 
stein  in  the  Ilartz  Mountains.  .Vfter  pa.ssing 
through  the  scliool  at  Ilamersleben,  he  went  with 
his  uncle,  arcluleacon  Hugo  of  Halberstadt,  to 
France,  and  entered  the  famous  cloistral  institu- 
tion of  St.  Victor,  near  Paris.  Fifteen  years 
afterward  lie  was  made  preceptor  of  the  .school, 
—  a  position  whicli  he  continued  to  fill  for  eight 
years.  Among  liis  scliolars  were  the  atterv\ards 
celebrated  Adam  and  Richard  of  St.  N'ictor. 
Hugo  stood  in  intimate  relations  witli  liernard, 
but  took  no  proininent  part  in  tlie  public  affairs 
of  Church  and  State.  He  was  of  delicate  and 
sickly  constitution. 

Hugo's  writings  are  quite  numerous.  Those  of 
a  more  mijstical  tendency  belong  to  his  earlier 
period.  Among  these  are  the  three  tracts,  —  De 
Area  Moral i,  ])e  Area  Mi/stica,  and  De  Vanitate 
Mundi,  —  in  whicli  he  conqiares  Noah's  ark  with 
tli(^  cliurch,  tlie  soul  in  this  world  willi  the  soul  at 
peace  with  God,  etc.    His  exegetical  works  are  con 


HUGUENOTS. 


1031 


HUGUENOTS. 


fined  to  no  single  period  of  his  life.  They  have 
only  a  honiiletical  interest,  and  are  the  least  origi- 
nal of  his  writings.  They  inelude  a  short  Intro- 
duction to  the  Scriptures,  Commentaries  on  the 
Pentateuch,  and  the  other  historical  books  of  the 
Old  Testament,  on  the  Psalms  and  Lamentations, 
and  nineteen  Homilies  on  Ecclesiastes.  The  other 
commentaries  ascribed  to  him  (Luke,  John,  etc.) 
are  of  very  doubtful  authenticity.  To  the  last 
period  of  Hugo's  life  belong  his  three  most  valua- 
ble works.  The  Eruditio  Didaxcalia  is  encyclo- 
pedic, and  treats  in  three  books  of  the  natural 
sciences,  and  in  an  equal  number  gives  a  sort  of 
introduction  to  church  history  and  the  Scriptures. 
Leaning  upon  the  authority  of  Jerome,  he  distin- 
guishes in  this  second  section  sharply  between  the 
canon  and  the  Apocrypha,  but  nevertheless  seems 
to  give  to  the  writings  of  tlie  church  fathers  an 
equal  authority  with  tlie  canonical  books. 

The  other  two  works  of  the  last  period  (the 
Summa  Sententiarum  and  the  De  Sacramentis 
Christ.  Fidei)  give  the  outline  of  Hugo's  theologi- 
cal views.  In  the  latter  lie  defines  his  relation  to 
Abelard,  to  whom,  and  Anselm,  he  is  under  obli- 
gations for  some  of  his  speculations.  The  works 
of  God  he  treats  under  Wor/cs  of  Creation,  and 
Works  of  Restoration.  He  discusses  the  Trinity 
and  the  three  fundamental  divine  attributes, — 
power,  wisdom,  and  love.  In  the  treatment  of 
the  origin  of  evil,  lie  is  far  from  the  superfluous 
subtleties  of  the  scholastics  of  a  later  period.  Ori- 
ginal sin  he  agrees,  with  Melanchthon,  to  consist 
in  ignorance  and  concupiscence.  He  mentions 
five  sacraments,  —  baptism,  the  Eucharist,  con- 
firmation, extreme  unction,  and  marriage.  They 
confer  grace.  In  the  three  sections  on  eschatol- 
ogy  he  commends  prayers  to  the  saints. 

Lit.  —  Editions  of  Hugo's  works  :  Paris,  1518 
(incomplete)  and  1526,  3  vols,  (more  valuable) ; 
Venice,  1588;  Mainz,  1617;  Cologne,  1017;  Rouen, 
1648,  3  vols,  (the  best).  Migne's  edition  in  his 
Patrology  is  an  uncritical  reprint.  Hist.  Liter,  de 
la  France,  vol.  xii.,  Paris,  1830;  Liebxeh  :  Hugo 
V.  S.  Victor,  1832  (the  most  comprehensive  mono- 
graph) ;  IlADREAU  :  //.  de  S.  V.,  Noucel  Examen 
lie  I'cd.  de  ses  (Eeuvres,  Paris,  1850 ;  K,\uncii : 
D.  Lehren  d.  Hugo  u.  Rich,  de  St.  Victor,  Prag, 
1864.  See  also  the  works  on  mediaeval  mysticism, 
philosophy,  and  theology.  zockler. 

HUGUENOTS,  a  designation  given  to  the  Re- 
formed, or  Calvinists,  of  France.  The  origin  of 
the  word  is  involved  in  great  obscurity.  The 
French  Protestants  received  at  different  times  a 
variety  of  names,  applied,  for  the  most  part,  in 
derision ;  such  as  Lutherans,  Sacranientarians, 
Christaudins,  Parjjaillots,  "  those  of  the  pretended 
reformed  religion,"  or  simply  "  those  of  the  reli- 
gion," "religionnaires,"  etc.  It  was  not  until  the 
time  of  the  Tumult  of  Amboise,  1560,  that  the 
term  '■  Huguenot "  came  into  general  use.  Among 
the  many  explanations  of  the  word  that  have 
been  offered,  only  three  need  be  mentioned.  It 
has  been  derived  from  the  German  Eidgenossen 
(•'confederates"),  —  a  designation  borne  by  the 
patriotic  party  in  Geneva  a  (piarter  of  a  century 
earlier.  This  view  was  naturally  a  favorite  one 
with  those  writers  who  represented  the  Hugue- 
nots as  secret  conspirators  against  the  crown. 
Against  it  may  be  urged  the  difficulty  of  account- 
ing for  the  transfer  of  the  name  from  Geneva  to 


the  Valley  of  the  Loire,  the  length  of  time  that 
elapsed  before  the  alleged  re-appearance  of  the 
word,  ami  trhe  iireffrcnce  given  by  Beza,  in  tlie 
history  written  by  him  or  under  his  supervision, 
in  Geneva,  for  another  derivation.  Less  plausi- 
ble is  tlie  explanation  ottered  by  some  of  the 
Reformed  themselves,  who  maintained  that  thej- 
were  called  Huguenots  because  they  loyally  advo- 
cated the  cause  of  the  descendants  of  Hugh 
(Ilug-ues)  Capet,  as  against  the  pretensions  of 
the  Guises,  who  claimed  descent  from  Charle- 
magne. A  sufficient  answer  to  this  is  that  the 
word  "  Huguenot "  was  unquestionably,  in  its  ori- 
gin, a  term  of  reproach,  the  application  of  which 
was  resented  as  a  gross  insult,  and  that  the  king 
was  petitioned  to  forbid  its  use.  A  third  explana- 
tion is  given  by  Etieiine  Pasquier,  in  one  of  v  hose 
letters  the  word  first  occurs,  and  who  may  be 
regarded  as  our  best  authority.  It  arose,  he  says, 
in  Tours,  from  a  popular  superstition  that  a  hob- 
goblin, known  as  le  rog  Hugon,  or  Huguon,  nightly 
roamed  the  streets  of  the  city ;  whence  the  Protes- 
tants, who,  from  fear  of  persecution,  dared  not  to 
meet  save  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  came  to 
be  called  Huguenots.  It  is  an  additional  point  in 
favor  (sf  this  interpretation,  that  Pasquier  affirms 
that  he  heard  the  Protestants  called  Huguenots, 
by  certain  friends  of  his  living  at  Tours,  eiglit  or 
nine  years  before  the  Tumult  of  Amboise. 

The  history  of  the  Huguenots  in  the  kingdom 
of  France  may  be  considered  under  five  periods . 
the  period  of  persecution  under  the  forms  of  law 
until  the  fii'st  recognition  of  the  Reformed  reli- 
gion in  the  edict  of  January  (1562)  ;  the  civil 
wars  under  Charles  IX.,  culminating  in  the  Mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (1572);  the  strug- 
gle to  secure  full  toleration  in  the  reigns  of  Heni-y 
HI.  and  Henry  IV.,  down  to  the  proclamation  of 
tlie  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  ;  the  period  that 
closes  with  the  disastrous  revocation  of  that  edict 
by  Louis  XIV.  (1685)  ;  and  the  period  of  the 
entire  proscription  of  Protestantism,  ending  with 
the  ijublication  of  the  Edict  of  Toleration  by 
Louis  XVI.  (1787),  Just  before  the  first  French 
Revolution. 

I.  The  Period  of  Persecution  under  the 
Forms  of  Law  (1512-62).  —  The  Reformation  in 
France  may  be  regarded  as  dating  from  1512, 
when  a  professor  in  the  University  of  Paris,  the 
learned  Jacques  Lefevre  d'Etaples,  in  a  Latin 
commentary  upon  the  Epistles  of  .St.  Paul,  clearly 
enunciated  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith. 
In  1516  William  Bricjonnet,  a  patron  of  letters 
and  an  advocate  of  a  moderate  reformation,  was 
appointed  Bishop  of  Meaux.  He  soon  gathered 
about  him  a  group  of  scholars,  including  Leffevre 
and  his  pupil  William  Farel,  iNIartial  5lazm'ier, 
Gierard  Roussel,  and  others,  by  whom  the  gospel 
was  preached  with  much  fervor  in  the  churches 
of  his  diocese.  In  1523  Lefevre  published  a 
French  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
in  1528  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  This 
version,  made  from  the  Latin  Vidgate,  served  as 
a  basis  of  the  subsequent  version  of  Olivetanus,  , 
the  first  French  translation  from  the  original 
Greek  and  Hebrew.  The  resolution  of  Bishop 
Bri(;onnet  having  given  way  before  threats  of 
persecution,  the  open  reformatory  movement  of 
Meaux  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  dispersion 
of  the  teachers  whom  he  had  invited,  although 


HUGUENOTS. 


103:2 


HUGUENOTS. 


the  seeds  of  truth  they  had  scattered  lost  noue  of 
tlieir  vitality. 

At  first,  uiider  the  influence  of  his  sister,  the 
cultivated  Margaret,  Duchess  of  Angouleme, 
i'rancis  I.  showed  a  disposition  to  favor  the 
Ket'orraation.  This  arose,  however,  rather  from 
a  taste  for  learning,  and  ambition  to  earn  distinc- 
tion as  a  patron  of  the  revival  of  letters,  than 
from  any  hearty  sympathy  with  the  doctrinal 
views  of  the  reformers.  Moreover,  the  immense 
ecclesiastical  patronage  which  he  secured  by 
means  of  the  concordat  entered  into  with  Leo  X., 
made  it  important  to  his  material  interests  that 
lie  should  remain  on  good  terms  with  the  Papacy. 
The  active  participation  of  Francis  I.  in  the  per- 
secution of  the  Protestants  dates  from  the  "  affair 
of  the  placards  "  (1534),  when  a  violent  handbill 
agaaist  the  papal  mass  was  found  posted  upon 
the  door  of  the  king's  bed-chamber  in  the  Castle 
of  Amboise.  In  connection  with  the  great  expia- 
tory procession,  soon  after  instituted  (January, 
153-5),  six  Protestants  were  burned  alive  before 
the  king's  eyes,  and  Francis  declared  his  pur- 
pose to  extirpate  heresy  from  his  dominions.  He 
would,  he  said,  cut  off  his  own  arm  were  it  infect- 
ed with  this  poison. 

The  executions  that  followed  for  some  months 
were  the  first  serious  attempt  at  persecution ; 
although  some  distinguished  victims,  such  as  the 
learned  and  noble  Louis  de  Berquin,  had  suffered 
earlier.  Legislation  became  more  systematically 
severe.  In  1545  took  place  the  Massacre  of  ilerin- 
dol  and  Cabrieres.  Twenty-two  towns  and  vil- 
lages on  the  River  Durance,  inhabited  by  French 
^\'aldenses  of  the  same  stock  witli  the  Waldenses 
of  Piedmont,  were  destroyed  by  an  armed  expe- 
dition fitted  out  at  Aix  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Parliament  of  Provence.  The  next  year  witness- 
ed the  martyrdom  of  the  "Fourteen  of  Meaux." 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  the  bigoted  and 
licentious  son  of  Francis  (1547-59),  Protestantism 
grew  steadily,  di-spile  the  most  earnest  attempts 
to  destroy  it.  The  centre  of  tlu;  reformatory 
movement  was  Geneva,  whence  John  Calvin  ex- 
erted, by  means  of  his  books  and  his  immense 
correspondence,  as  well  as  indirectly  through  his 
former  pupils,  an  influence  that  was  almost  in- 
credible. Stringent  laws  against  tlie  importation 
of  any  books  from  Geneva  accomplished  nothing. 
In  15.55  an  attempt  to  introduce  the  Spanish 
Inquisition  failed  in  consequence  of  tlie  enlight- 
ened and  determined  resistance  of  the  Parliament 
of  Paris,  with  President  Seguier  at  its  liead.  In 
the  same  year  an  expedition,  under  the  patronage 
of  Admiral  Coligny,  set  sail  for  Brazil,  where  it 
was  hoped  that  a  home  for  the  persecuted  might 
be  found ;  but  the  scheme  failed  tlirougli  the 
treachery  of  Villegagnon. 

The  Protestants  increased  greatly  in  numl)ers 
during  the  last  years  of  Henry's  life.  Of  this 
fact  a  proof  was  given  in  the  jiuLlic  psalm-singing 
by  great  crowds  in  Paris  itself.  One  of  the  chief 
motives  of  the  king  in  concluding  a  di.sgraceful 
peace  witli  .Spain  was  avowedly  tliat  Henry  might 
have  leisure  to  devote  himself  to  the  extermin.a- 
tion  of  the  Protestants.  .Six  weeks  before  the 
fatal  tournament  in  whicli  the  moiuirch  lost  liis 
life,  the  first  national  synoil  of  th(;  Frencli  Ke- 
forined  clmrches  met  secretly  in  Paris  (May  2('), 
1559)      It  adojited  a  confession  of  faith  whicli 


was  tliereafter  the  standard  of  the  Protestant 
French-speaking  communities.  It  also  estab- 
lished, in  its  "  ecclesiastical  discipline,"  a  repre- 
sentative form  of  church  government,  with  its 
courts,  consistory,  provincial  colloquy  or  synod, 
and  national  synod.  During  the  succeeding  hun- 
dred years  twenty-eight  more  national  synods 
were  held.  After  1059,  the  government  refused  to 
permit  any  further  national  synods  to  be  convened. 

The  brief  reign  of  Francis  II.,  a  youth  of  only 
sixteen  years  of  age  (1559-60),  was  eventful. 
The  execution  of  Anne  du  Bourg,  a  counsellor  of 
Parliament,  distinguished  for  ability  and  for  sin- 
gular purity  of  character,  contributed  more  to 
advance  Protestantism  in  France,  and  to  exasper- 
ate liberal-minded  men  with  the  prevailing  tyran- 
ny, than  any  previous  acts  of  cruelty.  Through 
the  pusillanimity  of  Antoine  of  Bourbon,  King  of 
Xavarre,  the  first  prince  of  the  blood,  the  entire 
control  of  affairs  had  been  suffered  to  fall  into 
the  hands  of  the  two  uncles  of  the  young  Queen 
of  France,  Mary  of  Scots,  —  Charles,  Cardinal 
of  Lorraine ;  and  Francis,  Duke  of  Guise.  The 
Protestants  liad  borne  persecution  with  exem- 
plary patience,  so  long  as  it  was  inflicted  by  their 
legitimate  sovereign.  They  were  less  inclined  to 
submit  to  the  usinped  power  of  the  Guises,  who 
abused  the  authority  of  a  king  as  inunature  in 
mind  as  he  was  feeble  in  body.  Tlieir  impatience 
w  as  shared  by  a  large  number  of  patriotic  French- 
men, not  Protestants,  who  refused  to  bear  the  rule 
of  a  family  regarded  by  them  as  foreign.  The 
Tumult  of  Amboise  (1560)  was  the  result  of  an 
attempt  to  seize  the  obnoxious  ministers,  and  to 
give  the  king  more  constitutional  advisers.  The 
Prince  of  Cond^,  youngest  brother  of  the  King  of 
Navarre,  was  the  secret  head  of  the  movement, 
which,  though  unsuccessful,  led  the  Guises,  in 
the  terror  of  the  moment,  to  consent  (March, 
1560)  to  an  edict  of  amnesty  for  the  past,  with  no 
provision  for  the  toleration  of  Protestantism  in 
future.  At  the  assembly  of  notables  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  (August,  1500),  Admiral  Coligny  pre- 
sented, in  behalf  of  the  Huguenots,  petitions  for 
liberty  of  worship;  and  two  prelates.  Archbishop 
Marillac  and  Bishop  Montluc,  openly  advocated 
the  as.senibling  of  a  national  council  to  heal  the 
malady  of  the  church. 

The  opiwrtune  death  of  Francis  II.  (December, 
1500)  not  only  saved  the  life  of  the  Prince  of 
Conde,  whom  the  (iuises  had  succeeded  in  enti- 
cing to  Orleans,  and  who  had  been  tried  by  a 
commission,  and  sentenced  to  be  beheaded,  but 
frustrated  a  larger  plot  for  the  extermination  of 
the  Huguenots.  I'nder  Cliarles  IX.,  a  boy  of 
ten,  the  tolerant  policy  of  Chancellor  L'llopital 
for  a  time  prevailed.  The  Colloquy  of  Pois.sy 
was  held  (.Septcudier,  1501),  at  which  the  Hugue- 
nots for  the  first  time  enjoyed  the  opportunity  of 
vindicating  their  religious  views  in  the  presence 
of  the  king.  Theodore  Beza  and  Peter  Martyr 
were  the  cliief  sjieakers  on  the  Protestant  side, 
and  the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  was  tlie  most  pi-omi- 
neiit  advocate  of  tlie  Roman  Catholics.  On  the 
17th  of  January,  15012,  the  famous  edict  known 
as  the  "Edict  of  January"  was  published.  It 
embodied  the  first  formal  recognition  of  tin:  Prot- 
estant  religion,  to  whose  adlierents  it  conceded  the 
liberty  to  meet  for  worshij),  without  arms,  in  all 
places  outside  of  the  walled  towns. 


HUGUENOTS. 


1033 


HUGUENOTS. 


The  Edict  of  January  was  the  Magna  Charta  of 
Huguenot  rights.  Its  violation  was  tlie  fruitful 
source  of  a  long  period  of  civil  coniniotion  :  for  a 
whole  generation  the  exertions  of  the  Huguenots 
were  directed  almost  solely  to  the  maintenance  or 
recovery  of  its  provisions. 

II.  The  Civil  Wars  under  Charles  IX., 
AND  THE  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Day  (1582-74).  —  Scarcely  had  the  edict  been 
signed,  when  the  unprovoked  Massacre  of  Vassy, 
perpetrated  by  the  Duke  of  Guise  upon  an  assem- 
bly of  Protestant  worshippers,  gave  the  signal  for 
the  first  civil  war  (1.j6'J-63).  Admiral  Coligny 
and  the  Prince  of  Cond6  were  the  Huguenot 
leaders :  Constable  Jlontmorency,  the  Duke  of 
Guise,  and  Jlarshal  Saint  Andre  were  the  princi- 
pal Roman-Catholic  generals.  The  war  raged 
over  a  great  part  of  France,  with  various  suc- 
cesses on  both  sides.  Both  Montmorency  and 
Conde  were  taken  prisoners ;  and  St.  Andrd  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  Dreux,  where  the  Hugue- 
nots met  with  defeat.  The  murder  of  Duke 
Francis  of  Guise,  by  a  fanatic  named  Poltrot, 
was  closely  followed  by  the  conclusion  of  the 
Peace  of  Amboise.  Instead  of  unrestricted  wor- 
ship outside  of  town- walls  throughout  France,  the 
Huguenots  were  now  allowed  to  meet  in  the  sub- 
urbs of  a  single  town  in  every  bailiwick,  and  in 
certain  cities  that  remained  in  their  possession 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  peace.  A  few  noble- 
men had  the  right  to  have  service  in  their  own 
castles. 

In  1565  the  Conference  of  Bayonne  was  held 
between  Catharine  de'  Medici,  and  the  king  her 
son,  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Duke  of  Alva  on  the 
other.  At  this  meeting  it  has  been  generally,  but 
erroneously,  supposed  that  the  plan  of  the  Massa- 
cre of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day,  executed  seven 
years  later,  was  traced  or  even  agreed  upon.  A 
second  civil  war  (1567-GS)  soon  broke  out,  but 
it  was  of  short  duration.  The  third  civil  war 
(1568-70)  was  a  more  sanguinary  struggle.  The 
Huguenots  were  defeated  in  the  two  pitched  bat- 
tles of  Jarnac  and  IMoncontour,  in  the  former  of 
which,  Louis,  Prince  of  Conde,  was  killed.  But 
the  admirable  generalship  of  Coligny  not  only 
saved  the  Huguenots  from  destruction,  but  en- 
abled them  to  secure  favorable  terms  of  peace. 

Two  years  of  quiet  followed,  and  there  seemed 
to  be  a  fair  prospect  that  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
the  internecine  contest  might  soon  heal.  Henry, 
King  of  Navarre,  was  married  to  Margaret  of 
Valois,  youngest  sister  of  Charles  IX.  In  the 
midst  of  the  festivities  attending  the  occasion, 
Coligny  was  wounded  by  an  assassin.  This  event 
was  followed  within  forty-eight  hours  by  the 
Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew's  Day  (Sunday, 
Aug.  24,  1572).  By  this  blow  the  attempt  was 
made  to  annihilate  the  Huguenots,  whom  their 
enemies  had  been  unable  to  destroy  in  honorable 
combat.  Coligny  and  many  of  the  most  distin- 
guished leaders,  together  with  nmltitudes  of  their 
brethren  in  the  faith,  were  mercilessly  butchered. 
The  number  of  victims  in  Paris  and  throughout 
the  rest  of  the  kingdom  has  been  estimated  vari- 
ously at  from  twenty  thousand  to  one  hundred 
thousand.  (See  Bartholomew's  Day,  Massa- 
cre OF  St.) 

The  Huguenots  were  not,  however,  exterminat- 
ed.    In   a  fourth   war   (1572-73)   they  not   only 


defended  La  Rochelle  with  success  against  the 
king,  but  obtained  honorable  terms  of  peace. 

III.  The  Struggle  to  secure  Full  Tol- 
eration, IN  THE  Reigns  of  Henry  III.  and 
Henry  IV.,  to  the  Edict  ok  Nantes  (1574-98). 
—  A  fifth  civil  war,  begun  a  few  weeks  before  the 
accession  of  Henry  III.,  lasted  until  the  new  king 
became  convinced  that  it  was  a  hopeless  under- 
taking to  reduce  his  Protestant  subjects,  re- 
enforced  as  they  were  by  a  strong  German  aux- 
iliary army.  The  peace  now  conceded,  commonly 
known  as  "La  Paix  de  Monsieur"  (Edict  of  Beau- 
lieu,  May,  1576),  was  ostensibly  more  advanta^ 
geous  than  any  previously  granted  to  the  Hugue- 
nots ;  since  it  authorized  the  celebi-ation  of  their 
worship  everywhere  in  France  outside  of  Paris, 
without  exception  as  to  time  or  place,  unless  the 
nobleman  upon  whose  lands  it  was  proposed  to 
hold  it  should  object. 

The  very  liberality  of  the  new  pacification  led 
to  its  speedy  overthrow.  At  the  instigation  of 
the  Roman-Catholic  clergy  and  of  the  Guises,  the 
Holy  and  Christian  League  sprang  up  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  France,  having  for  its  avowed  ob- 
ject the  extirpation  of  heresy.  At  the  meeting 
of  the  States- General  at  Blois,  the  king  was  in- 
duced to  proclaim  himself  head  of  the  league. 
Hence  arose  the  sixth  civil  war,  which  lasted  only 
a  few  months,  since  the  king  found  the  states 
unwilling  to  supply  him  the  means  of  carrying 
on  hostilities.  The  new  peace  (Edict  of  Poitiers, 
September,  1577)  re-introduced  discriminations 
as  to  the  cities  wherein  Protestant  worship  might 
be  held,  and  the  noblemen  entitled  to  have  sei- 
vices  ill  their  castles.  As  in  the  previous  peace, 
eight  cities  were  placed  in  Protestant  hands  as 
pledges  of  its  faithful  execution,  and  mixed  courts 
were  instituted  to  adjudicate  cases  in  which  the 
parties  belonged  to  different  religions. 

For  eight  years,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
months  covered  by  the  unimportant  seventh  civil 
war,  otherwise  known  as  "  La  Guerre  des  Amou- 
reux"  (1580),  the  peace  was  unbroken;  although 
there  was  no  lack  of  surprises  of  cities  and  other 
infractions  of  the  treaty. 

In  1584  the  king's  only  brother  died.  As  Ilei.-^, 
III.  was  childless,  Henry  of  Bourbon,  the  Hugue- 
not King  of  Navarre,  became  heii-  to  the  throne  of 
France.  The  prospect  that  a  "  heretic  "  might 
succeed  gave  new  life  to  the  league.  The  Guises, 
with  the  support  of  Philip  II.,  made  war  upon 
Henry  III.,  and  after  a  struggle,  in  which  the 
Huguenots  took  no  part,  compelled  the  reluctant 
monarch  to  proscribe  the  Protestant  religion  by 
the  Edict  of  Nemours  (July,  1585). 

The  eighth  civil  war  followed  (1585-89).  The 
most  noted  action  was  the  battle  of  Coutras 
(1587),  in  which  the  Roman  Catholics,  mider  the 
Duke  of  Joyeuse,  were  defeated  by  the  Huguenot 
troops  of  Henry  of  Navarre;  the  didre  himself 
being  killed  in  the  engagement.  This  was  the 
first  pitched  battle  ever  won  by  the  Huguenots  ; 
and  it  made  so  deep  an  impression  upon  their 
enemies,  that  the  very  siglit  of  the  Protestant 
soldiers  kneeling  before  joining  battle,  as  they 
had  done  at  Coutras,  struck  terror  into  the  hearts 
of  the  Roman-Catholic  soldiers  in  subsequent 
engagements.  The  murder  of  Henry,  Duke  of 
Guise,  and  of  his  brother,  the  Cardinal  of  Guise, 
at  the  second  States  of  Blois  (December,  15SS), 


HUGUENOTS. 


1034 


HUGUENOTS. 


was  followed,  a  few  mouths  subsequently,  bj'  a 
truce  between  Henry  III.  and  Henry  of  Xavarre. 
The  assassination  of  Henry  III.  (August,  15S9) 
brought  Henrj'  of  Xavarre,  a  Protestant  prince, 
to  the  throne  of  France,  under  the  title  of  Henry 
IV. 

In  the  wars  in  which  this  king  was  engaged  for 
years  against  the  League,  backed  by  the  money 
and  troops  of  Philip  II.,  he  enjoyed  the  hearty 
support  of  the  Huguenots.  After  his  insincere 
abjuration  in  1593  (see  Hexry  IV.),  their  posi- 
tion was  in  some  respects  less  favorable  than  it 
had  been  under  the  Valois  kings ;  since  they  had 
lost  their  nomuial  leader  and  the  "  protector  "  of 
their  churches.  After  a  long  and  vexatious  delay, 
tlie  king  fulfilled  his  promise,  and  imdertook  to 
determine  the  civil  status  of  the  Protestants  by 
a  law  which  was  declared  to  be  "  perpetual  and 
irrevocable."  The  Edict  of  Nanles  (.-Vpril,  1598) 
secui'ed  freedom  of  conscience  throughout  the 
kingdom,  and  recognized  the  right  of  the  Prot- 
estants to  meet  for  worship  on  the  lands  of  noble- 
men entitled  to  exercise  hauit:  justice  (there  were 
about  thirty-five  hundred  such),  and  in  the  places 
where  Protestant  worship  had  been  conceded  by 
the  edict  of  1.377  and  subsequent  interpretative 
declarations.  These  and  other  concessions  re- 
specting the  admission  of  the  Reformed  to  civil 
offices,  and  to  universities  and  schools,  on  equal 
terms  with  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  establish- 
ment of  mixed  courts,  etc.,  made  the  edict  the 
most  important  bulwark  of  Protestant  riglits. 

IV.  The  Period  from  the  Public.\tion  to 

THE  ReVOCATIOX  OF  THE  EdICT  OF  XaNTES 

(1598-1().S5).  —  The  edict  of  Henry  IV.  was,  after 
his  assa.ssination  (1610),  solennily  confirmed  by 
tlie  successive  declarations  of  the  regent,  Marie 
de'  Medici,  of  Louis  XIII.  and  Louis  XIV.  None 
the  less  had  tiie  Huguenots  soon  reason  to  com- 
plain of  infractions  of  a  vexatious  character,  for 
which  no  satisfaction  could  be  obtained.  The 
ruin  of  the  Protestant  churches  of  Beam  (1620), 
whither  Louis  XIII.  proceeded  in  person,  and  vio- 
lently re-established  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  hierarchy,  led  to  a  Huguenot  uprising. 
This  was  of  brief  duration  ;  but  in  1625  hostili- 
ties were  renewed.  The  Protestants  being  no 
match  for  the  forces  of  the  king,  the  fall  of  La 
Rochelle  (1628),  after  a  vigorous  siege  conducted 
by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  marked  the  close  of  the 
war  and  the  end  of  the  political  importance  of 
the  Huguenots  as  a  power  in  the  State. 

Meantime  never  were  the  Huguenots  intellectu- 
ally more  active.  Their  worship  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Paris,  after  having  been  fixed  at  the 
village  of  Ablon,  a  spot  both  distant,  and  dillicult 
of  access  (see  Ablo.n),  had  been  brought  to  the 
nearer  and  more  convenient  Charenton.  This 
place  became  the  centre  of  a  powerful  religious 
and  philosophical  influence  that  made  itself  felt 
in  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and  at  the  royal 
court.  The  immber  of  eminent  writers  and  preach- 
ers was  great.  In  different  parts  of  the  king<U)m 
not  less  than  six  theological  seminaries,  or  "acad(5- 
niios,"  had  been  instituted,  ol'  which  tho.se  of 
.Sauniur,  Montauban,  and  Sedan,  were  the  most 
important. 

Althougii  the  violations  of  the  spirit  and  even 
the  letter  of  thi^  Edict  of  Nantes  luid  been  fre- 
quent, it  was  not  until  after  the  death  of  Cardi- 


nal Mazarin  (1661),  that  the  process  of  restric- 
tion, whose  logical  conclusion  could  only  be  the 
complete  repeal  of  Henrj-  l\'.'s  ordinance,  may 
be  said  distinctly  to  have  begun.  From  this  time 
forward,  the  Huguenots,  although  thej-  had  been 
highly  praised  by  the  monarch  himself  more  than 
once  for  their  loyalty  to  the  crown  at  the  time  of 
the  troubles  of  the  "  Fronde,"  were  allowed  little 
rest.  Vexatious  regulations  successively  depriv;d 
them  of  their  places  of  worship,  excluded  them 
from  one  employment  after  another,  or,  under 
the  forms  of  law,  robbed  them  of  their  property, 
and  even  the  possession  of  their  children.  As 
the  time  for  the  last  act  approached,  the  terrible 
dragonnades  were  set  on  foot  to  compel  the  abju- 
ration of  those  whose  constancy  rational  persua- 
sion had  been  powerless  to  shake.  At  length 
(October,  1685),  on  the  pretence  that  his  measures 
had  proved  successful,  and  that  the  reformed  re- 
ligion no  longer  existed  in  his  dominions,  Louis 
XR'.  signed  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Xantes.  No  exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion 
was  to  be  tolerated  in  France.  All  ministers  of 
the  gospel  were  to  leave  the  kingdom  within  a 
fortnight.  No  other  persons  could  emigrate,  under 
penalty  of  the  galleys  for  men,  of  imprisonment 
and  confiscation  of  property  for  women.  Jlore 
cruel  than  the  infamous  "  League "  itself,  the 
Edict  of  Revocation  shut  up  the  French  Protes- 
tants as  in  a  prison,  punishing  inexorably  all 
attempts  at  escape. 

V.  From  the  Revocatiox  to  the  Edict 
OF  Toleration  (1685-1787).  —  In  spite  of  the 
prohibition  contained  in  the  Edict  of  Revocation, 
the  immediate  effect  was  a  great  increase  in  the 
number  of  French  Protestants  that  fled  into  for- 
eign lands.  The  total  number  cannot  be  defi- 
nitely ascertained.  It  has  been  estimated  as  high 
as  eight  hundred  thousand ;  but  this  figure  is 
undoubtedly  excessive,  the  number  probably  not 
being  over  three  hundred  thousand  to  four  hun- 
dred thousand.  The  exodus  included  the  most 
industrious  and  thrifty  part  of  the  population. 
For  a  hundred  years  the  Protestants  tliat  re- 
mained in  France  enjoyed  only  such  rare  and 
precarious  means  of  edification  as  were  afforded 
by  the  so-called  ".Assemblies  of  the  Desert,"  — 
meetings  in  secluded  .spots  remote  from  the  towns, 
or  in  the  bleak  region  of  the  Cevennes  Mountains. 
Attendance  on  these  gatherings  was  a  grave  of- 
fence;  and  the  venturesome  minister  incurred,  if 
apiirehended,  the  punishment  of  being  broken 
upon  the  wheel.  So  late  as  Feb.  19,  1762,  a  minis- 
ter named  Rochette  was  beheaded,  by  authority 
of  the  Parliament  of  Toulou.se,  for  the  sole  crime 
of  having  jireached,  performed  marriages,  and 
administered  the  sacraments  of  Rapt  ism  and  the 
Lord's  Supper.  In  1767,  for  the  same  offence, 
another  mini.ster,  Berenger,  was  condemned  to 
death,  and  executed  in  efligy. 

The  episode  of  the  war  of  the  Camisards,  which 
lasted  from  1702-5,  has  been  treated  elsewhere. 
(See  Camisards.) 

At  length,  yielding  to  the  force  of  public  opin- 
ion, Louis  X\'I.  published  (Noveiidier,  1787)  the 
Edict  of  Toleration.  This  document  still  de- 
clared that  "the  Catholic,  A])ostolic,  and  Koman 
religion  alone  shall  continue  to  enjoy  public  wor- 
shii)."  But  it  authorized  the  registry  of  Protes- 
tant birtlm,  marriages,  and  deaths,  and  forbade 


HUGUENOTS. 


1035 


HUGUENOTS. 


that  the  Protestants  shoulil  in  any  way  be  dis- 
turbed because  of  their  faith. 

The  National  Assembly,  in  1790,  took  steps 
for  the  restoration  of  tlie  confiscated  property  of 
Protestant  refugees.  The  law  of  the  eigliteenth 
Germinal  Year  X.  (1802)  organized  the  lleformed 
and  Lutheran  churclies,  whose  pastors  were  hence- 
forth paid  by  the  State. 

The  Huguenot  Refugees.  The  Huguenots, 
driven  from  France  by  persecution,  were  welcomed 
by  all  the  countries  to  which  they  turned  their 
steps.  All  the  Protestant  lands  of  Europe  were 
glad  to  enrich  their  trade  and  manufactures  by 
tlie  accession  of  the  most  intelligent  and  indus- 
trious class  of  the  French  population.  The  very 
name  "  Huguenot,"  having  acquired  an  honorable 
a.ssociation,  became  a  passport  to  favor. 

Swilzerkmd,  "  destined  by  Providence  to  be  a 
land  of  refuge,"  had  been  the  resort  of  persecuted 
Frenchmen  from  the  beginning  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. The  Huguenot  fugitives  increased  greatly 
after  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartlioloniew's  Day; 
while  the  persecution  cvdmiuating  in  tlie  Revoca- 
tion brought  in  so  large  a  number,  that  the  re- 
sources of  the  hospitable  cantons  were  taxed  to 
the  utmost  to  provide  for  tlieir  sustenance.  IMany 
of  tlie  fugitives  from  the  earlier  persecutions  re- 
turned to  France  wlien  the  storm  had  partially 
spent  its  fury :  others,  particuhirly  after  tlie  Revo- 
cation, made  Switzerland  only  tlie  first  stage  in 
their  retreat.  These  passed  on,  after  a  time,  to 
'\\'urtemberg,  Hesse,  Brandenburg,  and  other  parts 
of  Germany,  whose  rulers  saw  in  the  Huguenot 
peasants  and  artisans  the  very  persons  whom  they 
needed  for  the  regions  depopulated  by  the  Thirty- 
Years'  War. 

In  the  very  month  in  which  Louis  XIV.  signed 
at  Fontainebleau  the  Revocation  of  tlie  Edict  of 
Xaiites,  the  elector,  Frederick  William  of  Brnn- 
ilenhurg,  signed  at  Potsdam  an  edict  by  which 
not  only  was  warm  sympathy  expressed,  but  great 
inducements  were  held  forth  to  all  Huguenots 
that  might  desire  to  settle  in  his  dominions. 
Provision  was  made  both  for  the  safety  and  for 
the  expenses  of  the  refugees  in  reaching  their  des- 
tination. Despite  strenuous  efforts  on  the  part  of 
the  French  Government  to  suppress  or  discredit 
it,  copies  of  the  Potsdam  edict  were  circulated  in 
every  part  of  France,  and  crowds  of  Huguenots 
found  their  way  to  F"rankfort-on-the-Main.  Here 
they  were  met  by  agents  of  the  elector,  and  were 
generously  helped  on  their  way.  An  important 
French  colony  sprang  up  in  Berlin,  which  still 
maintains  a  distinctive  existence.  Many  families 
of  HugTienot  origin  have,  however,  become  thor- 
oughly German  in  character,  even  the  names  hav- 
ing been  translated  or  modified  to  suit  the  German 
ear.  It  has  been  remarked,  that,  in  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71,  many  of  the  officers  of 
the  victorious  army  of  invasion  were  descendants 
of  those  whom  the  intolerant  policy  of  Louis  XIV. 
compelled  to  expatriate  themselves. . 

In  Holland  the  Huguenot  refugees  were  treated 
■with  great  kindness.  Xot  only  was  a  public  fast 
instituted  wlien  the  tidings  of  the  Revocation 
came,  but  valuable  political  concessions  were 
made.  Utreclit  conferred  on  the  refugees  the 
freedom  of  the  city,  and  exemption  from  imposts 
for  twelve  years.  Sliddleburg  in  Zealand  relieved 
them  of  the  burden  of  taxation  for  ten  years. 


General  collections  were  made  for  their  relief,  in 
which  Lutlierans,  Anabaptists,  and  even  Roman 
Catholics,  took  part.  The  exiled  pastors,  two 
hundred  anil  fifty  in  lumiber,  were  .specially  cared 
for.  Military  men  secured  positions  in  the  army, 
with  ample  pay,  and  promise  of  in-omotion.  But 
all  the  fugitives  were  not  poor.  Some  brought 
to  their  adopted  country  large  fortunes;  for  as 
early  as  the  last  months  of  1G85  it  was  reported 
that  twenty  million  livres  liad  been  carried  out  of 
France  by  those  who  were  regarded  as  among  the 
wealthiest  merchants  of  the  land.  Holland  was 
greatly  enriched  intellectually,  as  well  as  in  a 
material  point  of  view.  Basnage,  Benoit,  DuBoso, 
and  Martin  were  among  the  scholars  she  gained 
from  France.  The  refugees  settling  on  Dutch 
soil  alone  were  estimated  by  Caveyrac  at  fifty-five 
thousand,  and  another  Roman-Catholic  source 
places  them  at  seventy-five  thousand,  in  the  first 
year  after  the  Revocation.  In  1709,  the  same 
year  that  Queen  Anne  gave  letters  of  naturaliza- 
tion to  all  the  refugees  in  England,  the  States 
of  Holland  and  West  Friesland  took  the  same 
step.  Other  jirovinces  followed  the  example,  and 
in  1715  the  States-General  extended  the  same 
blessing  to  all  the  republic. 

Northern  Europe  opened  its  doors  to  the  fugi- 
tives. Despite  the  strong  Lutheran  sentiments  of 
Denmark,  tlie  king,  on  liearing  of  the  cruel  drag- 
onnades,  in  ICSl  published  a  declaration  offer- 
ing the  French  refugees  an  asylum,  the  right  to 
build  churches,  exemption  from  taxation  for  eight 
years,  etc.  In  1085  a  new  edict  conferred  upon 
French  noble  refugees  the  same  distinctions  that 
they  had  enjoyed  at  home,  to  officers  a  correspond- 
ing rank,  and  great  inducements  to  manufactur- 
ers. SeA'eral  flourishing  colonies  were  established 
at  different  points.  Sweden -was  less  hospitable; 
but  in  liui<Kia  a  ukase,  signed  by  Peter  and  Ivan 
(1088),  opened  to  the  refugees  all  the  provinces 
of  the  empire,  and  gave  to  officers  employment  in 
the  army.  Voltaire  maintains  tliat  one-third  of 
the  regiment  of  twelve  thousand  formed  by  the 
Genevese  Lefort  for  Peter  was  composed  of  French 
refugees. 

"While  all  the  countries  mentioned  received  a 
great  accession  of  wealth  from  the  industries 
brought  with  them  by  the  fugitive  Huguenots,  it 
was  England  that  profited  most  by  the  ill-judged 
act  of  Louis  XIV.  From  the  time  of  the  pious 
Edward  VI.,  the  monarchs  of  that  country,  with 
the  single  exception  of  IMary,  had  been  their  allies 
and  protectors.  The  French  Church  of  London 
owed  its  origin  (1550)  to  the  kind  offices  of  the 
Duke  of  Somerset  and  Archbishop  Cranmer.  In 
1501,  under  (iueen  Elizabetli,  a  French  church 
was  founded  at  Canterbiiiy  for  the  Walloons, 
meeting  in  the  crypts  of  the  cathedral,  as  it  con- 
tinues to  do  to  the  present  day.  In  1670  it  had 
a  niembei-ship  of  twenty-five  hundred  communi- 
cants. Soon  after,  the  French  refugees  proper 
went  off  and  formed  a  new  churcli.  Before  the 
Revocation,  there  had  also  arisen  French  churches 
at  Sandwich,  Norwich,  Southampton,  Glastonbury, 
Rye,  and  six  or  seven  other  places ;  whUe  the  old 
French  church  at  the  capital  had  been  re-enforced 
by  the  Savoy,  Marylebone,  and  Castle-street 
churches. 

On  the  outbreak  of  the  dragonnades,  Charles 
II.  issued  (July  28,  1081)  the   proclamation   of 


HUGUENOTS. 


1036 


HUGUENOTS. 


Hampton  Court,  welcoming  the  Huguenot  refu- 
gees, promising  to  them  letters  of  naturalization, 
and  privileges  for  carrying  on  trade  and  manu- 
factures. After  the  Revocation,  James  II.  ex- 
tended to  them  a  similar  invitation.  !M.  Weiss 
estimates  the  number  of  Huguenots  that  fled  to 
Eugland,  dm'ing  the  decade  in  which  the  Revoca- 
tion feU,  at  eighty  thousand  persons,  of  whom 
about  one-thu'd  settled  in  London.  To  the  five 
earlier  French  churches  of  the  metropolis  there 
were  added  twenty-six  new  churches,  almost  all 
during  the  reigns  of  William  and  Mary,  of  Anne, 
and  of  George  I.  Eleven  or  twelve  more  sprang 
up  in  other  parts  of  England.  An  order  of  coimcil 
enjoined  a  general  collection  in  favor  of  the  refu- 
gees, from  which  a  fund  of  about  two  hundred 
thousand  pounds  resulted.  Xor  were  the  services 
rendered  by  the  Huguenots  slight.  In  the  army 
of  William  of  Orange,  when  he  marched  against 
his  father-in-law,  there  were  tlu-ee  regiments  of 
foot  and  a  squadron  of  horse,  composed  exclu- 
sively of  French  Protestant  refugees.  To  these 
troops,  and  to  a  strong  element  of  Fi'ench  officers, 
— veterans  of  Conde  and  Turenue,  seven  hundi'ed 
and  thirty-six  in  number,  —  scattered  through  the 
rest  of  the  army,  the  overthrow  of  the  last  Stuart 
king  was  in  great  part  due.  Schomberg,  Ruvigny, 
and  others  distinguished  themselves  in  the  fresh 
warfare  to  which  they  were  called,  and  both  hon- 
ored and  benefited  tlieir  adopted  country.  ]\Iore 
important  and  lasting  was  the  service  done  by  the 
introduction  of  a  number  of  new  manufactures, 
until  then  but  little  known  in  England.  For  the 
first  time,  thanks  to  the  IIu".ueuots,  the  finer 
kinds  of  paper,  of  hats,  and  of  glass,  were  made 
on  British  soil.  Silks  and  satins  were  produced 
north  of  the  Channel  such  as  had  previously  come 
only  from  the  looms  of  Lyons :  in  a  word,  the 
manufactures  of  England  were  built  up  at  the 
expense  of  France.  Even  in  an  intellectual  point 
of  view,  the  influence  of  the  refugees  was  great. 
A\'e  need  only  mention  the  names  of  Denis  I'apin, 
the  first  investigator  of  the  principles  of  steam, 
and  Rapin-Thoyi'as,  whose  History  of  England 
was  without  a  rival  until  the  appearance  of  the 
work  of  ]-)avid  Hume,  .\lthough,  willi  the  lapse 
of  time,  the  refugees  have  beeomi-  tliorouglily 
merged  in  the  population  of  tlie  L'nited  Kingdom, 
there  remain  many  historic  traces  of  interest; 
sucli  as  the  Hospital  for  Poor  French  Protestants 
and  their  Descendants  residing  in  Great  Britain, 
whose  new  and  elegant  building  attracts  the  eye 
of  the  visitor. 

The  Huguenots  in  tlie  United  Sinlc.i.  —  The 
unfortunate  attempt  at  coloiuzation  in  Brazil  has 
already  been  referred  to.  Equally  fruitless  was 
the  undertaking,  inider  the  j)atronage  of  Admiral 
Coligny,  to  found  a  Frencli  I'rotestant  settlement 
in  Florida  (1502).  Greater  success  attended  tlie 
.subsetjuent  emigration  of  the  Huguenots,  which, 
if  it  did  not  lead  to  the  acciuisition  by  France  of 
an  AmericAU  empire,  added  mucli  to  the  ]iros- 
j>erity  of  the  English  colonial  .system.  The  Dutch 
in  -America  W'cre  the  iirst  to  profit  by  it.  Long- 
before  the  Revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  the 
stream  of  Huguenot  emigr.itiou  set  in  toward 
Xew  Xetherland.  The  first  band  of  settler.s  sent 
over  (162;J)  liy  tlie  Dutch  West  India  Company 
consisted  of  tliirty  families,  chiefly  Walloons. 
These  were  the  founders  of  the  city  of  New  Am- 


sterdam (New  York),  where  French  was  sjioken, 
and  the  Huguenot  faith  was  professed  from  the 
outset.  Other  Walloons  and  French  settled  at  an 
early  day  on  Long  Island  and  Staten  Island,  and 
upon  the  banks  of  the  Delaware,  and  in  1660 
founded  New  PaH?  on  the  Hudson.  As  the  severi- 
ties visited  upon  the  Protestants  in  France  in- 
creased, large  numbers  of  refugees  came  to  this 
country,  establishing  themselves  in  New  York,  in 
Boston,  in  Maryland,  and  Virginia,  and  in  Charles- 
ton, S.C.  Detachments  from  these  bodies  of 
immigrants  settled  in  Oxford,  !Mass.,  Kingston, 
R.I.,  New  Rochelle,  N.Y.,  and  on  the  Cooper  and 
Sautee  Rivers,  South  Carolina.  In  all  these 
places  churches  were  organized,  and  ministere  of 
the  French  Reformed  Church  officiated.  The 
French  settlements  in  Oxford,  Mass.,  and  Kings- 
ton, R.I.,  were  soon  broken  up:  the  others  con- 
tinued for  several  generations  to  maintain  a  dis- 
tinct character.  The  French  church  in  Boston 
lasted  until  the  year  17-lS,  having  for  its  pastors 
Pierre  Daille  (16'9G-1715)  and  Andre  Le  Mercier 
(1716-48).  The  French  congregation  in  New 
York,  long  flourishing  and  influential,  had  a  suc- 
cession of  Reformed  pastors,  the  last  of  whom 
submitted  to  Episcopal  ordination  m  1806,  when 
the  church  adopted  the  Episcopal  rite,  and  took 
the  name  of  "L'Eglise  du  Saint  Esprit."  In  New 
Rochelle,  N.Y.,  two  churches  were  maintained 
almost  until  the  outbreak  of  the  American  Revo- 
lution, —  the  French  Reformed  Church,  founded 
in  1688,  and  a  French  Episcopal  Church,  organ- 
ized in  1709.  In  New  Paltz  the  Dutch  language 
superseded  the  French  in  public  worship  about 
the  year  1735.  Three  of  the  four  Huguenot 
congregations  of  South  Carolina  went  out  of  ex- 
istence, or  became  merged  with  neighboruig  Eng- 
lish-speaking churches :  the  French  church  in 
Charleston  alone  survives  to  the  present  day,  and 
uses  an  excellent  liturgy. 

No  precise  statement  can  be  ventured  as  to  the 
numbers  of  Huguenots  that  came  to  America; 
but  it  is  certain  that  they  nmst  have  readied 
several  thousands.  The  influence  of  this  element 
in  moulding  the  character  of  the  American  people 
has  been  considerable,  and  out  of  all  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  the  immigration;  and  the  iiromi- 
nence  of  Huguenot  names  in  the  roll  of  patriots, 
statesmen,  philanthropists,  ministers  of  the  gos- 
pel, men  of  note  in  every  calling  in  the  Cnited 
States,  is  a  noticeable  and  significant  fact. 

SouitCES. — TiiiionouK  DE  Bezk  :  Ilistoire 
cedes,  des  eyliscs  rc'furmi'cs  dc  France,  Antwerp, 
1580  (a  very  correct  re-impression,  with  notes, 
Toulouse,  1880,  2  vols^-  It  covers  the  period 
from  1517  to  1563.  Jean  de  Seures  :  Com- 
mentarii  de  statu  rclUjionis  el  reipublicce  in  Gallia, 
Geneva,  1570-80,  5  vols.,  each  containing  3  books. 
This  very  accurate  history  covers  the  years  1557- 
76.  [.SiMox  (kui.AiU),  or  Jean  de  Sekue.s]  ; 
Ilecueil  des  clinses  mi'iuoruhlcs  avenues  en  France  sous 
le  rhjnc  de  Henri  J  I.,  Fran^-ois  II.,  Charles  IX., 
Henri  III.,  et  Henri  IV.  (known  al.so  as  Ilistoire 
des  cinq  rois),  Dort,  1598.  Covers  the  years  1547- 
96.  P.  DE  l.A  Place,  Commentaires'de  I'estal  de 
la  rel.  et  repuh.,  and  Regnier  de  l.\  Planciie, 
Hist,  de  I'estat  de  France  (both  republislied  in 
Pantheon  Litteraire).  Tlie  former  covers  the  years 
1550-01 ;  the  latter,  1559-00.  Theodore  Aoru-j'a 
D'AuuiGNt:  Ilistoire  universelte,  Mailld,  1018-'JO, 


HUISSBAU. 


1037 


HUMANIST. 


3  vols.  Covers  the  years  1550-1601.  J.  A.  de 
Thou  (Thuanus)  :  Histoire  uuiverselle,  with  the 
contiiiuatioi.  of  N.  Rigault.  Numerous  editions 
111  I^atiu  and  French.  Covers  the  years  1546- 
1610.  Du  Plessis  Mornay  :  Manoircs  el  corre- 
spondance,  1824.  Jean  Cresi'in  (Crispinus) : 
Actiones  et  nwnintenia  mariyrum,  1560,  witli  many 
editions  under  different  titles.  J.  Aymon  :  Tons 
les  sijnodes  nalionaux  des  erjHses  rcf.  de  France, 
Hague,  1710,  2  vols.  IIeu.minjard:  Correspon- 
dance  des  reformateurs  dans  les  pays  de  langue  fran- 
f-aise,  1866-78,  5  vols.  Also  many  works  in  the 
Collection  de  Documents  inedits,  published  by  the 
French  Government ;  the  Memoires  of  Conde,  of 
the  League,  of  Sully,  and  others  contained  iu  the 
collections  of  Petitot,  of  Michaud  et  Pou.iou- 
i.AT,  etc. ;  the  letters  of  Calvin,  etc. ;  the  numer- 
ous documents  in  the  Bulletin  de  la  socie'te'de  I'hisl. 
du  Prot.  franf.,  1852-82,  31  vols. 

Lit.  (arrangement  according  to  the  periods  cov- 
ered by  the  books).  —  AV.  G.  Soldan  :  Gcschichle 
d.  Protestant ismits  in  Frankreich  (to  1574),  Leipzig, 
1854,  2  vols. ;  G.  von  Polenz  :  Geschichte  d.franz. 
Calvinismus  (to  1629),  Gotha,  1857-69,  5  vols.; 
AV.  S.  Browning:  History  of  t/ie  Huyuenots  {1520- 
1838),  1829-39,  3  vols.  ;  E.  Smedley  :  Iliston/  of 
the  Reformed  Religion  in  France  (1.521-1830),  1S32- 
34,  3  vols. ;  G.  de  Felice:  History  of  the  Protes- 
tants of  France,  translated  from  the  French  (1512- 
1849)j  New  York,  1851 ;  H.  White  :  Massacre  of 
St.  Bartholomew,  preceded  by  a  History  of  the  Civil 
Wars  in  the  reiyn  of  Charles  IX.,  New  York,  1808; 
E.  Stahelin  :  Der  Ueberlritt  Heinrichs  IV.,  Hnsel, 
1856  ;  E.  Benoit  :  Hist,  de  I'Edit  de  Nantes,  1693, 
5  vols.  ;  H.  M.  Baird  :  History  of  the  Rise  of  the 
Huguenots  of  France  (1512-74),  New  York,  1879, 
2  vols.  ;  Haag  :  La  France  protestante,  10  vols., 
new  ed.,  1877;  Weiss:  Hist,  des  refugie's  protes- 
tantsde  France,  1853,  2  vols.,  translated  New  Y'ork, 
1854,  with  an  Appendix  upon  the  American  Hu- 
guenots, vol.  ii.  pp.  283-333 ;  Mrs.  H.  F.  Lee  : 
The  Huguenots  in  France  and  America,  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  1843,  2  vols. ;  B.  A.  Holmes  :  Memoir  of 
the  French  Protestants  ivko  settled  at  Oxford,  Mass., 
A.D.  1686,  with  a  Sketch  of  the  Entire  History  of 
the  Protestants  of  France,  in  Collections  of  the 
Massachusetts  Historical  Society,  1830;  William 
Henry  Foote:  The  Huguenots,  or  Reformed 
French  Church,  Richmond,  Va.,  1870  (Part  III., 
The  Huguenot  in  America);  Samuel  Smiles:  The 
Huguenots,  their  Settlements,  Churches,  aiul  Indus- 
tries in  England  and  Ireland,  London,  1807  (Ameri- 
can edition.  New  Y'ork,  1868,  with  Appendix  by 
Hon.  G.  P.  DisoswAY,  Huguenots  in  America); 
by  the  same  author :  The  Huguenots  in  France 
after  the  Revocation,  N.Y'.,  1874 ;  Reginald  Lane 
Poole  :  History  of  the  Huguenots  of  the  Dispersion 
at  the  Recall  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  London,  1880; 
C.  W.  Baird:  Hist,  of  Huguenot  Emigration  to 
America,  N.Y.,  18S5,  2  vols.  H.  M.  baird. 

HUISSEAU,  Isaac  d',  b.  in  Paris  towards  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  ;  d.  in  England 
after  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes ;  stud- 
ied at  Sedan,  and  became  pastor  of  Sauniur.  He 
published  La  discipline  des  e'glises  nforme'es  de 
France  (1650),  which  has  run  through  many  edi- 
tions, and  is  still  of  great  value;  and  La  reunion 
du  cliristianisme  (1670),  which  was  violsntly  at- 
tacked by  the  rigid  Calvinists. 

HULSE,  John,  Rev.,  b.  at  Middlewich,  Chesh- 


ire, Eng.,  1708;  d.  there  Dec.  14,  1790.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  be(iueatlied  all  his 
property  to  tliat  university  for  the  purpose  of 
founding  two  scholar.sliips,  a  Pi'ize  Essay,  and 
the  offices  of  Christian  Advocate  and  Christian 
Preacher,  or  Ilulsean  Lecturer.  The  latter's  du- 
ties, according  to  Mr.  Ilulse's  will,  were  to  deliv- 
er and  print  twenty  sermons  yearly,  eitlier  upon 
the  evidences  of  Christianity,  or  upon  the  difficul- 
ties of  the  Bible.  But  several  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  execution  of  this  will.  The  Ilulsean 
professorship  was  by  statute  substituted  iu  1860 
for  the  Christian  advocateship ;  in  1830  the  num- 
ber of  annual  lecture-sermons  was  reduced  to 
eight,  and  again,  still  later,  to  four ;  and  of  the- 
annual  revenue  (between  eight  hundred  and  nine 
hundred  pounds)  eightrtenths  goes  to  the  Ilulsean 
professor,  and  one-tenth  to  the  Ilulsean  prize  man 
and  lecturer  respectively.  See,  for  list  of  lectures, 
the  art.  Lectukks  in  the  Appendix. 

HULSEAN  LECTURES.     See  Hulse,  John. 

HOLSEMANN,  Johann,  b.  in  O.stfriesland,  1002; 
d.  at  Leipzig,  1001 ;  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Wittenberg,  1629,  and  at  Leipzig, 
1646.  His  principal  works  are  Calvinismus  irre- 
conciliahilis,  1646,  and  Breviarium  Iheologice  (which 
appeared  in  an  enlarged  form  iu  1655,  —  Extensio 
hreriarii  theologim).  and  gives  an  interesting  repre- 
sentation of  orthodox  Lutheran  dogmatics. 

HUMANIST,  a  term  derived  from  the  Cicero- 
nian expression  Literce  liumaniores,  was  adopted  as 
a  name  iu  the  sixteenth  century,  and  probably 
not  without  a  side-glance  at  such  terms  as  scholas- 
ticism, scientia  sacra,  etc.,  by  those  who,  in  the 
field  of  literature  proper,  represented  the  power- 
ful movement  of  the  Renaissance.  Bursting 
forth  everywhere,  this  movement  produced  every- 
where a  revolution.  A  new  poetry,  a  new  art, 
new  methods  of  science,  new  maxims  of  morals, 
new  political  tendencies,  followed  in  its  steps;  but 
its  influence  was,  perhaps,  nowhere  more  striking- 
ly apparent  than  in  the  sphere  of  belles-lettres. 

The  humanists  were  literati,  not  theologians ; 
teachers,  not  priests.  The  task  with  which  they 
originally  started  was  simply  to  restore  the  Latin 
language.  Under  the  hands  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  and  treated  as  badly  by  the 
barbarous  subtlety  of  the  schoolmen  as  by  the 
barbarian  ignorance  of  the  monks,  the  l.,atin  lan- 
guage had  become  a  thing  unspeakable ;  and  it 
was  as  much  indignation  at  its  pitiful  state,  as 
enthusiasm  for  its  former  glory,  which  fired  the 
Italians  to  attempt  its  restoration.  The  attempt 
succeeded  ;  but,  though  other  and  quite  different 
tasks  presented  themselves,  the  humanists  never 
lost  the  character  of  being  the  philologists,  gram- 
marians,  exegetes,  and  critics  of  their  age ;  and 
their  best  work  lies  in  that  line.  They  made 
the  study  of  Greek  an  indispensable  element  of 
scholarly  education ;  they  introduced  the  study 
of  Hebrew :  yea,  even  the  development  of  the 
vernacular  tongues  received  a  powerful  impulse 
from  them.  The  Italian  language  was  first  WTit- 
teii  by  its  Latin  scholars.  Lebrija  wrote  the  first 
Spanish  grammar.  In  the  schools  of  the  Brethren 
of  the  Common  Life  and  in  the  preaching  of  the 
German  mystics,  that  language  grew  up  which 
Luther  fixed  as  the  German.  The  inventor  of  the 
French  style,  Rabelais,  was  a  humanist. 

So  far,  no  antagonism  arose  between  the  Chui-ch 


HUMANITARIANS. 


1038 


HUME. 


and  the  humanists,  tliough  it  could  not  he  long 
concealed  that  their  greatest  philological  achieve- 
ments—  the  C'omplutensian  polyglot,  the  printing 
of  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  etc.  — 
were  seized  upon  hy  tlie  adversaries  of  Rome,  and 
used  as  weapons  against  her.  But  after  the  lan- 
guage followed  the  authors,  and  after  the  authors 
their  ideas.  Graduallv  the  humanist  grew  from 
a  philologist  into  an  liistorian,  and  from  an  histo- 
rian into  a  philosojiher.  He  studied  not  only 
classical  language  and  literature,  but  also  classi- 
cal life  and  spirit.  He  claimed  to  know  what 
belongs  to  man  by  nature  (his  faculties  and  his 
failings)  and  what  concerns  man  by  nature  (his 
rights  and  his  duties).  His  criticism  of  words 
became  criticism  of  facts ;  and  Laurentius  Valla 
laughed  at  the  donation  of  Constantine.  His 
knowledge  of  history  became  political  demands, 
and  lleuchlin  could  not  be  made  to  submit  to 
the  Inquisition.  A  spirit  got  abroad  extremely 
dangerous  to  the  Roman  Church,  if  not  directly 
antagonistic. 

Xot  to  overrate,  however,  the  influence  which 
the  humanists  have  exercised  on  the  history  of 
the  Church,  it  must  be  noticed,  that  though  they 
furnished  the  Reformers  with  arms,  and  seemed 
personally  very  favorably  disposed  to  the  Refor- 
mation, only  few  of  them  actually  took  part  in 
the  work.  Erasmus  retreated  before  the  task; 
and,  even  with  Melanchthon  in  full  sight,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  humanists  would  never  have 
made  the  Reformation. 

Lit.  —  Recent  books  upon  humanism  are 
Gkokge  Voigt  :  Die  Wieilerhelehunri  des  clas- 
sixclieit  Alterlhumn,  oder  das  ersle  Jahrhundcrt  des 
Humanismn.'i,  Berlin,  1859,  2d  ed.,  1880,  1881, 
2  vols.  ;  Kk.\fft  v.  Checelius  :  Beitrdr/e  ziir  Ge- 
schichle  des  Humanismus,  Elberfeld,  1870-75;  A. 
HoR.iWiTZ:  Ancdecten  zur  Geschichte  des  Hitma- 
nismus  in  Schwaben,  M'ien,  1878.  See  Literature 
under    Eu.iSMUS,   Huttex,   Rex.\iss.\nce,   and 

RErclll.IX.  CLEMENS  PETERSEN. 

HUMANITARIANS,  a  name  applied  both  to 
that  school  of  Unitarians,  or  those  anti-Trinitari- 
ans in  general,  who  consider  Christ  a  mere  man 
{homo),  and  to  such  parties  as  profess  the  "  reli- 
gion of  humanity,"  wliose  fundamental  dogma  is 
the  spontaneous  perfectibility  of  the  human  race 
withciut  anv  superhuman  aid. 

HUME,  David,  b.  at  Edinliurgh,  April  20, 1711 ; 
d.  there  Aug.  20,  1770.  He  was  tlie  son  of  a 
member  of  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  who  passed 
his  life  as  a  country  gentleman  at  the  family-seat 
of  Ninevvells  in  the  border  country  of  Scotland. 
He  entered  Edinburgh  University  before  lie  was 
twelve  years  of  age,  and  was  introduced  to  studies 
beyond  the  powers  of  one  so  young.  He  tells 
us,  "  I  was  seized  very  early  with  a  passion  for 
literature,  which  has  been  tlie  ruling  passion  of 
my  life."  We  have  admirable  accounts  of  his 
li^e :  tlie  one,  il/y  Oicn  Life,  calm  as  philosopliy 
itself;  the  other  by  Mr.  "Hill  Burton,  who  had 
access  to  the  papers  collected  by  Baron  Hume, 
and  depositf'd  with  tlie  Hoyal  Society  of  ICdin- 
burgh.  The  latter  has  published  a  remarkable 
letter  written  to  an  eminent  pliysician  by  tlie 
young  man  at  tlie  very  crisis  of  his  being.  It 
appears,  that,  ffir  a  time,  lie  labored  to  lind  .secu- 
rity and  peace  in  philosopliy.  "Having  read  many 
books  of  morality,  such  as  Cicero,  Seneca,  and 


Plutarch,  and  being  smit  with  their  beautiful 
representations  of  virtue  and  philosophy,  I  under- 
took the  improvement  of  my  temper  and  will, 
along  with  my  reason  and  understanding.  I  was 
continually  fortifying  myself  with  reflections 
against  death  and  poverty,  and  shame  and  pain, 
and  all  the  other  calamities  of  life."  But  in  this 
attempt  he  utterly  liroke  down. 

Hating  the  study  of  law,  to  which  he  was  des- 
tined by  his  friends,  he  was  sent  to  Bristol  to 
engage  in  business ;  but,  finding  the  einplo\nnent 
unsuitable  to  him,  he  went,  at  the  age  of  twenty- 
three,  to  France,  to  engage  in  the  observation  of 
mankind  and  in  the  study  of  his  favorite  subjects. 
After  living  there  for  three  years,  he  brought 
back  witli  him  his  Treatise  of  Hmnan  Nature,  the 
tw'O  first  volumes  of  which  were  pulilished  in 
London  in  the  end  of  1738.  "  Kever  literary  at- 
tempt was  more  unfortunate  than  my  Treatise 
of  Hmnan  Nature.  It  fell  dead-born  from  the 
press,  without  reaching  such  distinction  as  even 
to  create  a  murmur  among  zealots."  But  with 
indomitable  perseverance,  which  was  one  of  his 
most  marked  characteristics,  he  persevered  in  his 
life-work.  Next  year  he  published  the  third  vol- 
ume of  his  treatise,  that  on  ethics,  with  no  better 
success.  In  1748  he  cast  the  first  part  of  his 
unfortunate  treatise  in  a  new  form,  Inqniri/  con- 
cerning Human  Understanding.  He  now  broke 
down  his  great  work  into  smaller  essays,  wliich 
in  due  time  commanded  attention,  such  as  liis 
Essai/s,  Moral  and  Political,  and  in  1752  his  Politi- 
cal Discourses,  which  immediately  attracted  much 
attention,  and  his  Inquiry  Concerning  tlie  Princi- 
ples of  Moruls,  which  he  regarded  as  likely  to  be 
the  most  influential  of  all  his  works.  [Our  space 
does  not  admit  of  our  giving  a  detailed  account 
of  his  further  life.]  He  held  for  five  years  the 
office  of  librarian  to  the  jVdvocates'  Library  in 
Edinburgh,  and  here  he  commenced  writing  his 
Histori/  of  England.  In  1703  he  was  sent  on  the 
English  embassy  to  Paris,  where  he  was  received 
witli  acclamation  by  the  highest  circles,  literary 
and  fashionable.  He  afterwards  settled  in  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  passed  his  remaining  days,  the 
centre  of  an  eminent  literary  circle,  and  every- 
where showing  good  nature.  He  left  a  posthu- 
mous work  (Dialogues  on  Natural  Religion),  under- 
mining all  religion,  natural  and  revealed. 

He  is  usually  called  Hume  the  sceptic  or  athe- 
ist :  had  the  word  been  coined  in  liis  day,  he 
would  liave  been  called  an  agnostic.  He  does  not 
avowedly  deny  any  thing:  he  simply  shows  tliat 
we  have  no  proof  of  its  existence.  It  will  be  neces- 
sary to  give  a  compend  of  his  whole  philosophy, 
as  his  scepticism  can  bo  met  only  by  exposing 
it  throughout.  He  thus  opens  his  Treatise  of 
Huinau  Nature  :  "  All  the  )ierceptious  of  the  Im- 
man  mind  resolve  themselves  into  two  distinct 
kinds,  wliicli  I  call  impressions  and  iileas.  The 
difference  betwixt  them  consists  in  the  degrees  of 
force  and  liveliness  with  which  they  strike  upon 
mind,  and  make  their  way  into  our  thouglit  or 
consciousness.  Those  jiercejitious  which  enter 
with  most  force  and  violences  we  may  iiauu^  im- 
pressions; and  under  this  name  I  C(>m))rehi'nd  all 
our  sensati<uis,  passimis,  and  emotions,  as  they 
make  their  first  appearand^  in  the  soul.  l!y  ideas 
I  mean  the  faint  images  of  the.se  in  tliinking  and 
reasoning:  such,  for  instance,  are  all  tlie  jierceji- 


HUME. 


303f) 


HUME. 


tions  exerted  liy  tlie  present  discourse,  excejiting 
only  tlie  immediate  pleasure  or  uneasiness  they 
may  occasion."  In  assuming  tliese  impressions, 
he  does  not  assume  a  perceiving  mind,  or  a  thing 
perceived.  Hume  is  to  be  met  as  Reid  met  him 
at  this  early  stage.  "  I  never  catch  myself  at  any 
time  without  a  perception,  and  never  can  observe 
any  thing  but  the  perception."  This  very  lan- 
guage implies  more.  He  speaks  of  "mind "and 
"soul,"  and  of  the  perceptions  "striking  ou  the 
mind,"  and  of  catching  himself.  What  is  this 
self  which  he  catches?  We  never  do  observe  a 
perception  alone :  we  always  observe  it  as  per- 
ceiving. We  should  maintain  that  we  are  cogni- 
zant of  a  self  perceiving  and  a  thing  perceived.  He 
next  treats  of  memory,  in  wliich  the  impressions 
-come  forth  in  their  original  order  and  position, 
and  are  now  ideas.  But  in  memoi'y  we  have 
more  than  a  mere  reproduction  of  a  sensation : 
we  recognize  it  as  liavhig  been  before  us  in  time  past, 
and  have  thus  a  knowledge  of  ourselves  in  the 
past  and  the  present,  and  an  idea  of  time  as  a 
reality.  He  has  a  subtle  discussion  as  to  our 
ideas  of  space  and  time,  and  of  points,  lines,  and 
surfaces,  and  argues  that  they  have  no  objective 
reality.  There  follows  a  criticism  of  existence 
and  knowledge;  and  he  maintains  that  it  is  "  im- 
possible for  us  so  much  as  to  conceive  or  form  an 
idea  of  any  thing  specifically  different  from  ideas 
or  impressions."  He  reaches  the  conclusion  that 
we  know  nothing  but  phenomena  or  appearances, 
a  conclusion  unfortunately  allowed  by  Kant.  He 
is  to  be  met  by  showing  that  we  know  not  mere 
appearances,  but  things  appearing. 

He  has  an  admirable  sevenfold  classification  of 
relations,  which  he  says  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  —  into  such  as  depend  entirely  on  the 
ideas  which  we  compare,  and  such  as  may  be 
■changed  without  any  change  in  the  ideas.  In  the 
first  he  places  resemblance,  contrariety,  degree, 
quantity,  which  can  never  go  beyond  our  impres- 
sions. The  other  three,  identity,  space  and  time, 
cause  and  effect,  may  seem  to  carry  us  farther ; 
but  this  is  an  illusion.  In  identity,  and  in  time 
and  space,  we  can  never  go  beyond  what  is  imme- 
diately j)resent  to  the  senses,  and  so  can  never 
discover  the  real  existence  of  the  relation  of  ob- 
jects ;  and  so  "  tis  only  causation  which  produces 
such  a  connection  as  to  give  us  assurance  from  the 
existence  or  action  of  one  object  that  was  followed 
or  preceded  by  any  other  existence  or  action." 
He  devotes  the  whole  energy  of  his  mind  to  show- 
ing that  we  know  nothing  of  the  relation  of  cause 
and  effect ;  that  we  know  their  conjunction  and 
not  their  connection.  The  relation  is  merely  that 
of  invariable  antecedence  and  consequence  within 
om-  experience,  and  might  have  no  place  in  other 
worlds,  or  in  regard  to  world-making,  of  which 
we  have  no  experience.  In  this  way  he  under- 
ndned  the  proof  of  the  existence  of  God.  He  is 
to  be  met  by  showing,  that,  looking  at  the  nature 
of  things,  we  are  led  to  believe  that  every  efi^ect 
must  have  a  cause,  and  that  there  is  power  in  the 
object  acting  as  the  cause  to  produce  the  effect. 

In  these  discussions  he  started  the  questions 
which  have  ever  since  been  agitated  as  to  belief, 
which  he  says  "  joins  no  new  ideas  to  those  wdnch 
compose  the  idea  of  the  object ; "  and  argues 
tb.at  the  only  difference  between  belief  and  incre- 
tlulity  consists  in  the  liveliness  of  belief  which 
14-11 


constitutes  its  essence.  But  surely  we  have  at 
times  imaginations  as  lively  as  our  beliefs;  and 
in  all  cases  of  belief  we  have  a  conviction,  whether 
right  or  wrong,  to  be  didermined  by  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  an  object.  He  uses  this  theory 
to  account  for  our  belief  in  the  existence  of  mind 
and  matter.  "  What  we  call  mind  is  nothing  but 
a  heap  or  collection  of  different  impression.s,  unit- 
ed together  by  certain  relations,  and  supjiosed, 
though  falsely,  to  be  endowed  with  a  perfect  sim- 
plicity and  identity.  Again  :  as  to  matter  we  can 
never,  on  the  mere  ground  of  a  conjunction  wliicli 
we  have  witnessed,  argue  from  om-  perceptions  to 
the  existence  of  external  continued  objects."  He 
thus  undermines  tlie  usual  arguments  for  the 
immateriality  and  immortality  of  the  soul.  "  Iden- 
tity is  merely  a  quality  which  we  ascrilje  to  per- 
ceptions, Itecause  of  ideas  in  the  imagination ; 
and  the  identity  which  we  ascribe  to  the  mind  i.s 
merely  a  fictitious  one."  He  is  to  be  answered  by 
showing  that  I  know  myself  to  be  the  same  per- 
son to-day  that  I  was  at  any  other  time  remem- 
bered by  me. 

In  his  E.isay  on  Miracles  he  assails  supernatural 
revelatioir,  —  not  its  possibility,  but  the  evidence 
of  it.  He  .shows  that  there  has  been  an  invariable 
experience  in  favor  of  the  uniformity  of  nature ; 
and  that  a  miracle,  being  "a  violation  of  the  laws 
of  nature,"  cannot  be  established  by  as  strong 
proof  as  that  which  can  be  advanced  against  it. 
He  exerts  his  ingenuity  in  disparaging  the  evi- 
dence usually  advanced  in  favor  of  miraculous 
occurrences,  by  showing  how  apt  mankind  are  to 
be  swayed  on  these  subjects  by  fear,  wonder, 
fancy,  and  the  like.  I  allow,  that,  in  the  present 
advanced  state  of  science,  there  is  ample  proof 
that  there  is  a  unifornnty  in  nature ;  but  let  us 
place  alongside  of  this  the  counterpart  fact,  that 
there  is  sufficient  evidence  of  there  being  a  super- 
natural system.  Let  the  cumulative  proofs,  exter- 
nal and  internal,  in  behalf  of  Chri.stianit}',  be  ad- 
duced,—  those  derived  from  testimony  and  from 
prophecy ;  those  drawn  from  the  adaptation  of  the 
revelation  to  our  natiu-e,  from  the  character  of 
Jesus  and  from  the  unity  of  the  doctrine  and  mo- 
rality, —  and  we  shall  find  in  their  consistency  and 
congruity  evidence  of  equal  value  to  that  which 
establishes  the  existence  of  system  in  nature. 

People  commonly  shrink  from  Hume's  nega- 
tions on  the  subject  of  natural  religion ;  but  he 
has  had  a  large  following  in  his  utilitarian  theory 
of  morals.  He  holds  that  tlie  mind  has  an  origi- 
nal instinct,  which  tends  to  unite  itself  with  the 
good  and  the  evil.  He  maintains  that  virtue  con- 
sists in  the  agreeable  and  the  usefid  :  "  Vice  and 
virtue  may  be  compared  to  sound,  color,  heat, 
which,  according  to  modern  philosophy,  are  not 
qualities  of  objects,  but  perceptions  of  the  mind." 
Virtue  is  distinguished  by  the  pleasure,  and  vice 
by  the  pain,  that  any  action,  sentiment,  or  char- 
acter gives  us  by  the  mei-e  view  and  contempla- 
tion. He  is  to  be  opposed  by  showing,  first  that 
the  moral  power  in  man  is  more  than  an  instinct, 
that  it  is  a  cognitive  power,  and  it  perceives  and 
knows  the  distinction  between  good  and  evil; 
and,  secondly,  that  the  good,  say  piety,  or  justice, 
or  benevolence,  is  perceived  to  be  good  in  itself.  It 
is  to  be  shown  specially  that  the  conscience  claims 
supremacy  over  all  our  voluntary  states,  and  that 
the  good  implies  obligation  to  perform  it. 


HUMERALB. 


1040 


HUNDESHAGEN. 


Hume's  Treatise  of  Human  Nature  contains  the 
substance  of  all  liis  philosophy.  The  pu!)lication 
of  it  (1738-39)  constitutes  an  era  in  the  history 
of  philosophy.  He  tore  down  the  old  and  venera- 
ble edifice,  and  henceforth  men  have  had  to  build 
anew,  and  from  the  foundation.  His  earliest 
opponents  were  Thomas  Reid  (1763-64)  and  Lu- 
nianue!  Kant  (1781).  As  his  principles  under- 
mined all  religion,  natural  and  revealed,  theolo- 
gians have  to  examine  them. 

There  is  an  edition  of  Hume's  Philosophical 
Works,  in  4  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1826  (A.  Black), 
and  an  edition  of  his  Treatise  of  Human  Nature, 
by  T.  H.  Green  and  T.  H.  Grose,  with  Disser- 
tations and  Notes  on  the  principles  of  Hegel, 
London,  1878.  I  may  be  permitted  to  add  that  I 
have  an  article  on  Hume  in  my  Scottish  Philoso- 
phy/. JAMES  McCOSH. 

H  U  M  E  R  A  L  E .     See  Vestm  ents. 

HUMILIATI  was  the  name  of  an  association 
formed  by  some  Milanese  noblemen,  on  their  re- 
turn from  German  captivity,  in  the  eleventh  or 
twelfth  century.  In  the  middle  of  this  laymen's 
association  a  religious  order  grew  up,  bearing  the 
same  name,  and  confirmed  by  Innocent  III.  in 
1201.  The  members  of  the  lay  association  after- 
wards fell  in  with  the  Arnoldists  and  the  Wal- 
denses,  and  the  religious  order  also  degenerated. 
In  1569  Cardinal  Borromeo  attempted  to  reform 
it,  but  nearly  fell  a  victim  to  the  violence  of  the 
monks ;  after  which  Pius  V.  dissolved  the  order, 
in  1571.  A  female  order  of  Humiliati,  also  called 
the  "Nuns  of  Blassoni,"  was  founded  by  Clara 
Blassoni  of  Milan  in  1150,  and  still  exists.  See 
HiEROXYMUs  TiER.\nosciii :  Vetei-a  Humiliatorum 
monumenta.  Milan,  1766-68,  T.  III.      ZOCKLER. 

HUMILIATION     OF    CHRIST.       See   Chris- 

TOLOGY. 

HUMILITY,  a  virtue  opposed  to  pride  and  self- 
conceit,  by  reason  of  which  a  man  thinks  of  liim- 
self  no  more  highly  than  he  ought  to  think  (Rom. 
xii.  3),  and  places  himself  in  subjection  to  him 
to  whom  he  owes  subjection.  This  person  is 
primarily  God;  so  that  humility  is,  first  of  all,  the 
sense  of  absolute  dependence  upon  him.  In  the 
strict  sense  of  the  term,  humility  is  proper  only 
in  man's  relations  to  God,  and  modesty  in  man's 
relations  to  man  (I)e  Wette).  It  is  not  merely 
the  sense  of  God's  infinitude  over  against  human 
limitation,  but  of  God's  holiness  over  against 
man's  moral  deficiency  and  guilt.  Sophocles  came 
nearest  to  the  true  conception  of  humility  in  clas- 
sical antiquity.  It  runs  like  a  thread  through  all 
the  piety  of  the  Old  Testament  ((Jen.  xvii.  1  ; 
Mic.  vi.  8)  down  to  John  the  15aptist  (Matt.  iii.  2). 
Christ,  although  without  sin,  was  indiued  witli 
childlike  humility  (Matt.  xix.  17;  John  v.  30), 
and  made  it  a  condition  of  entrance  into  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  (Matt.  v.  3,  xviii.  2).  It  must 
actuate  the  Christian  at  all  times,  and  remind 
him  to  work  out  liis  salvation  with  fear  and  trem- 
bUng  (Phil.  ii.  12).  Love,  which  is  the  pulse- 
beat  of  the  Cliristian  life,  is  influenced  by  it,  and 
held  back  from  the  en-ors  of  mysticism  and  quiet- 
isn),  and  converts  it  into  adoring  reveience  ff)r 
God,  tru.st  in  and  obedience  to  him,  even  in  suf- 
ferings (1  Pet.  v.  0).  A  .sham  humility  betrays 
it.self  in  its  beliavior  to  mankind  (Luki!  xviii. 
13  sqq.).  It  is  free  from  all  vain  self-conceit,  but 
at  the  same  time  is  conscious  of  man's  dignity 


in  the  sight  of  God,  and  may  be  said  to  ascend 
upwards  on  the  six  steps  of  patience,  meekness, 
kindness,  friendliness,  peaceableness,  and  placa- 
bility (Arndt),  —  virtues  which  the  apostles  .so 
urgently  insist  upon.  See  the  various  works  on 
Christian  ethics.  E.  SCHWARZ. 

HUMPHREY,  Heman,  D.D.,  b.  in  AVest  Sims- 
bury,  Conn.,  March  26.  1779;  d.  at  Pittsfield  in 
1859.  He  graduated  at  Yale  College  in  1805; 
was  a  Congregational  pastor  at  Fairfield,  Conn., 
at  Pittsfield,  Blass. ;  then  president  of  Amherst 
College  for  twenty-three  years  (1823-45).  He 
was  one  of  the  best  and  weightiest  men  of  his 
day,  and  exerted  a  wide  influence  in  shaping  its 
religious  movements,  especially  in  the  Congrega- 
tional and  Presbj-terian  churches.  He  contrib- 
uted largely  to  the  religious  press,  wrote  able 
pamphlets  against  intemperance  and  slavery,  and 
was  the  author  of  a  number  of  books,  among 
them  a  Tour  in  France,  Great  Britain,  and  Belgium. 
in  two  volumes.  (See  Ty-ler's  History  of  Amherst 
College.)  Zephaniah  Moore,  D.D.,  son  of  the 
preceding;  b.  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  Aug.  30,  1821  ; 
d.  in  Cincinnati,  Nov.  13,  1881 ;  graduated  at 
Amherst  College  and  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary;  pastor  of  churches  at  Racine  and 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  1850-59,  of  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  Chicago,  18.")9-6S,  of  Calvary  Church, 
Philadelphia,  1868-75  ;  professor  of  ecclesiastical 
history  and  church  polity  in  Lane  Theological 
Seminary,  Cincinnati,  1875-81 ;  and  moderator 
of  the  General  Assembly  at  Chicago  in  1871.  He 
was  a  gifted  preacher,  and  a  faithful  servant  of 
Christ.  n.  i,.  prextiss. 

HUNDESHAGEN,  Karl  Bernhard,  b.  in  Friede- 
wald,  Hesse,  Jan.  lit,  1810;  d.  in  Bonn,  June  2. 
1873  ;  was  one  of  the  most  prominent  and  original 
theologians  which  the  Reformed  Church  of  Ger- 
many has  given  in  this  century  to  the  service  of 
the  Evangelical  Church.  His  peculiar  importance 
consisted  in  this,  that  in  his  own  way  he  showed 
how  certain  features  of  the  Reformed  Church 
might  be  advantageously  applied  to  the  living 
Christianity  of  the  day.  He  emphasized  the 
ethical  principle  in  Protestantism  over  against 
a  mere  dogmatic  or  critical  intellectualism.  and 
laid  stress  upon  the  social  element  in  the  Church, 
wliich  was  languishing  by  reason  of  its  amalga- 
mation with  the  State.  He  entered  the  I'niver- 
sity  of  Giessen  at  fifteen,  and  passed  from  there 
to  Halle,  where  he  liecame  a  favorite  pupil  of 
LHlmann.  In  1830  he  went  back  to  (iiessen  as 
rcpcteni,  and  in  1834  accepted  a  call  to  a  professor- 
ship in  the  newly  founded  university  of  Bern.  In 
1846  his  anonymous  work,  D.  deutsrhe  Protestan- 
tismus,  s.  Vergangenhrit  u.  s.  hculigcn  Lchensfragcn, 
etc.,  appeared,  and  fell  like  a  flash  of  liglitning 
in  that  troubled  period.  Two  more  editions  were 
called  for  in  1847  and  1850.  With  an  intense 
earnestness  of  tone,  here  and  there  relieved  by 
flashes  of  humor,  the  author  showed  the  intimate 
connection  of  the  religious  and  national  cdndition 
of  Germany,  and  held  up  the  central  act  of  the 
IJeformation  as  an  act,  not  of  science,  but  of  con- 
science, and  as  calling  for  imitation.  From  this 
he  passed  over  to  the  ecclesiastical  questions  of 
the  day.  This  work  made  Ilundesiiagen's  repu- 
tation, and  he  was  at  once  called  to  the  chair 
(jf  N<'w-Testament  exegesis  and  church  history 
at  Heidelberg,  where  he  continued  to  labor  for 


HUNGARY. 


1041 


HUNGARY. 


twenty  years  (1847-67).  In  1864  he  published 
liis  great  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  re- 
lations of  tho.  State  to  the  Church,  —  BeUriiije  zur 
Kirchciivcrfassmiy  u.  KircJienpolili/c,  iiishesonflere  d. 
Prok'slciiilismus.  But  the  last  years  of  his  stay  in 
Ileiflelberg  were  made  unpleasant  by  tlu^  relations 
of  the  Church  to  the  government  of  Baden,  which 
were  entirely  at  discord  with  his  own  views,  and 
by  the  isolated  position  of  the  faculty  in  which 
Umbreit's  death  left  him.  lie  gladly  accepted  a 
call  to  Bonn  in  1867,  where  he  spent  his  last  years 
in  peaceful  and  friendly  relations  with  his  col- 
leagues, although  a  great  sufferer  in  body.  lie 
rejoiced  in  the  restoration  of  the  German  Empire 
in  1870,  and  greeted  the  hour  of  his  departure 
with  Christian  fortitude  and  joyfulness.  A  col- 
lection of  his  shorter  writings  was  edited  in  2  vols, 
by  Dr.  Christlieb,  Gotha,  1874.  See  Christlieh  : 
A".  B.  Hundeshayen,  Eine  Lehensskizze ,  Gotha, 
1.S7:!.  -mLLIBALD  BEYSCHLAG. 

HUNGARY,  The  Kingdom  of,  consists  of  Hun- 
gary Proper,  the  principality  of  Transylvania,  the 
provinces  of  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  the  Military 
Frontier,  and  comprises  an  area  of  124,234  square 
miles,  with  15,509,455  inhabitants,  of  whom 
7,558.558  are  Roman  Catholics;  1,599,628,  Greek 
Catholics;  5,133,  Armenian  Catholics;  2,589,319 
belong  to  the  Greek  Church;  1,113,508  are  Lu- 
therans; 2,031,243,  Calvinists;  54,822,  Unitari- 
ans ;  553,641,  Jews,  etc. 

When  the  Jlagyars  first  crossed  the  Carpathian 
range,  and  settled  in  the  plains  of  the  Danube 
and  the  Theiss,  they  were  still  heathens.  They 
believed  in  a  greatest  god,  who  had  created 
heaven  and  earth,  and  whom  they  worshipped  in 
groves  under  the  open  sky.  They  had  no  idols, 
no  temples,  no  priests.  Sacrifices,  especially  of 
horses,  were  presented  at  certain  occasions.  The 
oath  was  sacred  to  them,  and  marriage  was 
accomplished  with  religious  ceremonies.  A  cen- 
tury later  (972)  they  became  acquainted  with 
Christianity,  when  their  duke,  Gej'za,  married  a 
Christian  princess,  Sarolta,  a  daughter  of  the 
Trausylvanian  prince  Giula,  who  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity  during  a  stay  in  Constanti- 
nople. It  was,  however,  not  the  Greek,  but  the 
Roman  Church,  which  finally  converted  the  Mag- 
yars. The  lively  political  relations  which  soon 
sprang  up  between  the  iMagyar  duke  and  the 
German  emperor  made  it  easier  for  the  German 
missionary  to  penetrate  into  the  country;  and  it 
was  Adalbert  of  Prague  who  in  994  baptized 
Geyza's  son  Voik,  and  gave  him  the  name  of  Ste- 
phen. Stephen,  afterwards  known  as  St.  Stephen 
of  Hungary,  changed  the  constitution  from  a 
tribal  union  to  a  kingdom,  and  accomplished  the 
christianization  of  the  people,  travelling  from 
one  end  of  the  country  to  the  other,  preaching, 
baptizing,  building  churches  and  monasteries, 
founding  schools,  organizing  governments,  and 
establishing  authorities.  From  Pope  Sylvester 
11.  he  received  a  golden  crown  and  the  title  of 
apostolic  king ;  and  in  1000  he  was  solemnly 
crowned  by  the  Archbishop  of  Gran.  At  a  diet 
held  shortly  after,  he  made  the  clergy  tlie  first 
state  of  the  people,  gave  the  bishops  rich  dona- 
tions, introduced  the  tithe,  enforced  the  celebra- 
tion of  Sunday,  the  Friday  fast,  etc.  In  no  other 
country  the  Roman  Cliurch  attained  such  a  power 
and  such  a  wealth  as  in   Hungary.     A  curious 


testimony  of  her  influence  is  found  in  the  circinn- 
stance  that  the  Latin  language  became  the  official 
language,  not  only  of  the  church,  the  university, 
and  the  school,  but  also  of  the  government,  the 
adnuuistration,  and  the  court,  and  continued  so 
till  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 

When  the  Reformation  arose  in  Germany,  and 
became  known  in  Hungary  througli  the  writings 
of  the  Refoi'niers,  the  Hungarian  ('hurcli  seemed 
to  be  singularly  well  prepared  for  the  encounter. 
A  diet  of  1523  decreed  that  Protestantism  should 
be  stamped  out;  that  all  Lutherans,  and  even 
their  abetters,  should  be  seized  and  burnt,  etc. 
But  Aug.  29,  1526,  the  battle  of  Mohacz  was 
fought.  The  King,  Louis  II.,  fell,  the  last  scion 
of  the  native  dynasty,  and  around  him  most  of 
the  chiefs  of  the  gi-eat  families.  The  Turks 
occupied  one  part  of  the  country;  and  two  pre- 
tenders, Zapolya,  and  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
fought  about  the  other.  L'nder  such  circum- 
stances the  religious  affairs  were  for  some  time 
entirely  lost  siglit  of;  and  the  Reformation  was 
allowed  to  spread,  as  it  caused  no  disturbance. 
It  quietly  took  possession  of  the  ground,  priest 
and  congregation  compromising  with  each  other ; 
and  when,  in  1549,  Leonhard  Stockel  drew  up  the 
new  confession.  King  Ferdinand  accepted  it,  and 
confirmed  it.  The  first  forebodings  of  coming 
troubles  appeared  within  the  Protestant  camp 
itself.  The  Lutherans  and  Calvinists  hated  each 
other  worse  than  they  hated  the  Romanists  ;  and 
when  Rudolph  I.  ascended  the  throne  in  1577, 
and  the  Jesuits  were  recalled,  and  formally  in- 
stalled at  Thurdcz,  intrigues,  violence,  and  soon 
actual  persecution,  began.  The  Protestants  rose 
in  revolt,  led  by  Prince  Bocskaj  of  Transylvania, 
and  compelled  the  king  to  the  so-called  "peace  of 
Vienna"  (1606),  which  granted  freedom  of  con- 
science, and  liberty  of  worship.  The  articles  of 
this  treaty  were  incorporated  with  the  laws  of  the 
land  by  the  Diet  of  Pressburg  (1608),  in  spite  of 
the  protest  of  the  Roman-Catholic  bishops;  and, 
when  Rudolph  made  an  attempt  at  cancelling  the 
whole  treaty,  he  was  deposed,  and  his  brother 
Matthias  raised  on  the  throne.  In  Peter  Pazniani, 
however,  who,  though  born  of  Protestant  parents, 
entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and  finally  be- 
came Archbishop  of  Gran,  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  found  the  right  tool  to  work  with.  More 
than  fifty  noble  families  he  succeeded  in  bringing 
back  to  the  Roman  faith ;  and  with  the  magnates 
followed  their  whole  retinues.  Thus  re-enforced, 
and  strongly  supported  by  the  court,  the  Roman 
Church  began  a  warfare  of  open  attack.  The 
Protestants  were  deprived  of  their  church-build- 
ings, prevented  from  making  complaints  at  the 
diets,  compelled  to  pay  for  the  support  of  the 
Roman  clergy,  forced  to  participate  in  processions 
in  honor  of  the  Virgin  and  the  saints,  accused  of 
the  most  horrible  crimes,  —  conspiracy  with  the 
Turks,  seditions  against  the  king,  etc.  Twice 
they  rose  in  open  rebellion,  under  the  lead  of  the 
Rakoczys,  father  and  son ;  and  both  times  they 
were  successful.  By  the  peace  of  Linz  (1645), 
and  by  that  of  Szathmar  (1711),  the  rights  which 
they  had  obtained  by  the  peace  of  Vienna  were 
recognized  and  confirmed.  But  the  treaties  were 
made  only  to  be  broken;  and  the  state  of  the 
evangelical  churches  in  Hungai-y  was  very  preca- 
rious, when  the  Edict  of  Toleration  of  Joseph  II. 


HUNNIUS. 


1042 


HUPFBLD. 


(Oct.  29,  1781)  at  once  eifected  a  radical  change. 
The  Protestants  were  in  all  essential  points  placed 
on  an  equal  footing  with  the  Roman  Catholics ; 
and  in  this  arrangement  the  legislation  of  Joseph's 
successor,  Leopold,  especially  the  law  of  1791, 
made  no  material  alterations. 

At  present  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  has 
seventeen  bishops  in  Hungary,  and  four  arch- 
bishops,—  Zagrab  (Agrani),  Eger  (Erlau),  Kalocsa, 
and  Esztergom  (Gran),  of  whom  the  last  is  the 
primate  of  the  wliole  Church,  and  bears  the  title 
of  prince.  The  Greek  Catholic  Church  (Greek 
in  confession  and  rite,  but  under  Roman  jui'isdic- 
tion)  has  six  bishops ;  the  Armenian  Catholic 
Church  two.  The  Greek  Church  has  a  metro- 
politan at  Carlowitz  with  five  suffragan  bishops, 
and  an  archbisliop  at  Jfagyezeben  (Hermann- 
stadt)  witli  two.  In  the  evangelical  churches  each 
congregation  elects  its  own  eldership,  which  ap- 
points the  pastor,  and  governs  all  tlie  affairs  of 
tlie  congregation.  Several  congi'egations  form  a 
seniorate ;  several  seniorates,  a  superintendency. 
There  are  five  Lutheran  and  five  Calvinist  super- 
intendencies.  Of  the  fortj--five  theological  insti- 
tutions, which  in  1878  labored  with  284  professors 
and  1,53-1  students,  twenty-five  belonged  to  the 
Roman-Catholic  Church,  four  to  the  Greek  Catho- 
lic, three  to  the  Greek  Church,  seven  to  the  Lu- 
theran, and  five  to  the  Cahnnist.  See  Geschichle 
d.  ei'dtii/.  Kirche  in  Ungarn,  Berlin,  1854. 

HUNNIUS,  /Egidius,  b.  at  Winneuden,  Wiir- 
temliiTg,  Dec.  21,  1550;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  April 
4,  1603 ;  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Marburg  1576,  and  at 
Wittenberg  1592.  He  was  a  stanch  champion 
of  J^utheran  orthodoxy.  During  his  stay  in 
^Marburg  he  opposed,  in  preaching  and  writing, 
the  reigning  Calvinistic  tendency,  and  succeeded 
in  forming  a  party  which  finally  effected  an  eccle- 
siastical split  between  Uji^ier  and  Lower  Hesse. 
In  Wittenberg  he  was  a  member  of  the  Committee 
on  Visitation,  and  contributed  much  to  suppress 
all  Pliillipistic  traditions.  A  collected  edition  of 
his  Latin  works,  among  which  are  De  persona 
Clirixli,  Calvinttx  Juflaizant:,  etc.,  appeared  at  Wit- 
tenbrrg.  It;il7-li9',  in  :!  vols.  fol. 

HUNNIUS,  Nicolaus,  b.  at  Marburg,  July  11, 
1585;  d.  at  Liibeck,  April  12,  1643;  studied' tlie- 
ologj'  at  Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  superin- 
tendent of  Eileid)urg  1012,  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg  1017,  and  pastor  of  the  Church  of 
St.  Mary  in  Liibeck  1022.  He  followed  the  same 
theological  direction  as  his  father,  inherited  liis 
temper  and  talent  as  a  polemist,  and  was,  Iil;e 
him,  possessed  of  great  learning.  I  le  wrote  against 
the  Roman  Church,  Dcmonitlrafio  Minintcrii  Lutlicr- 
ani  and  Ciijnslrnin  llnnnio  paratum,  etc.,  1617; 
against  the  I'hotinians,  Exninen  errorum  I'/mtini- 
anorum,  1020;  and,  against  the  enthusiasts  of  his 
time,  ChrMiche  Belrachluny,  1022;  Aiix/ilrticher 
Bericht  von  tier  neuen  1'7-ophelcn,  IGUi;  etc.  In 
Liibeck  he  revived  the  Alinislerium  Irlpotilanum, 
an  as.sociation  between  the  clergy  of  Liibeck, 
Hamburg,  and  Liineburg;  and  l)y  )iis  Consnllalio 
(1632)  lie  gave  the  idea  of  a  Collcg'nim  irtnicwn, 
or  Coller/inin  ffuiinianum,  wliicli  was  intended  to 
form  a  kind  of  suprenu;  court  for  all  theological 
controversie:'.  His  biography  was  written  by 
]Ii-,i.i.Kii,  Lubcck,  ]si:!. 

HUNTING  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.     In  the 


Bible  w'e  find  hunting  connected  .with  royalty  as 
early  as  in  the  days  of  Ximrod,  who  "  was  a 
mighty  hunter  before  the  Lord"  (Gen.  x.  9). 
The  patriarchs  were  rather  herdsmen  than  hunt- 
ers :  only  Ishmael  was  an  archer  (Gen.  xxi.  20), 
and  Esau  a  cunning  hunter  (Gen.  xxv.  27).  That 
beasts  of  the  chase  were  plentiful  in  the  laud  of 
promise  we  see  from  Exod.  xxiii.  29.  From  the 
provision  made  in  Lev.  xvii.  13,  it  is  manifest 
that  hunting  was  practised  after  the  settlement 
in  Canaan,  and  was  piu'sued  with  the  view  of 
obtaining  food  (Deut.  xii.  22).  That  birds  were 
also  shot  we  may  infer  from  1  Sam.  xxvi.  20 ;  but 
the  law  provided  for  their  protection  (Deut.  xxii. 
6  sq.).  Quiver  and  bow  (Gen.  xxvii.  3)  were 
generally  used  as  hunting  utensils.  Various  mis- 
siles, pitfalls,  snares,  and  gins  were  made  use  of 
in  hunting  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20;  Ps.  xci.  3;  Amos 
iii.  5).  That  hunting  continued  to  be  followed 
till  toward  the  end  of  the  Jewish  state  we  see 
from  Josephus.  War,  I.  21,  13.  LEYRER. 

HUNTINGDON,  Selina,  Countess  of,  a  distin- 
guished supporter  of  evangelical  piety  and  the 
5lethodist  movement ;  b.  Aug.  24,  1707,  at  Stan- 
ton Harold  in  Leicestershire ;  d.  June  17,  1791, 
in  London.  She  was  the  second  daughter  of 
Washington  Shirley,  Earl  of  Ferrers,  and  in  1728 
married  the  Earl  of  Huntingdon.  L'nder  the 
influence  of  the  earl's  sisters  and  a  severe  illness, 
she  became  deeply  interested  in  religion,  and 
with  her  husband  attended  the  meetings  of  the 
^Methodist  Society  in  Fetterlane,  London,  from 
its  organization,  in  1738.  She  lost  all  her  chil- 
dren, and  in  1740  the  earl  died.  From  this  time 
on.  Lady  Huntingdon  devoted  herself  uninterrupt- 
edly to  the  advancement  of  religion.  Among  lier 
friends  in  the  ministry  were  Doddridge,  John 
Wesley,  and  Fletcher;  and  Whitefield  and  Ito- 
maine  acted  as  her  chaplains.  Her  house  in  Park 
Street,  London,  she  opened  for  preaching-services, 
to  which  her  social  connections,  and  the  estima- 
tion in  which  she  was  held,  dre\\'  many  persons 
of  high  rank,  among  whom  were  Bolingbroke  and 
Chesterfield.  She  Ijuilt  numerous  chapels,  —  the 
expenses  of  the  first,  at  Brighton  (1701),  being 
met  by  the  sale  of  her  jewels,  amounting  to  seven 
hundred  pounds,  —  and  in  1768  founded  tlie  theo- 
logical seminary  of  Trevecca  in  Southern  Wales, 
which,  after  her  death,  was  removed  to  Chestnut 
Ilc-rts.  When  the  br(>ach  occurred  between  A\'esley 
and  ^Vhitefield,  Lady  Huntingdon  took  sides  with 
tlie  latter,  and  at  his  death  (1777)  became  sole 
trustee  of  his  institutions  in  Georgia.  But  she 
did  not  leave  the  Church  of  England  till  1779, 
and  then  she  was  forced  to  it  in  order  to  avoid 
the  injunction  against  her  chaplains'  jireaching 
in  the  Panlheon.  Lady  Huntingdon  superin- 
tended her  chapels  in  person,  and  at  the  time  of 
her  death  there  were  sixty-four  belonging  to  what 
was  called  "  the  Countess  of  Huntingdon  Con- 
nexion." These  congregations  were  in  polity 
Congregationalist,  in  doctrine  Calvinistic,  and 
in  worship  u.sed  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 
According  to  Whitaker's  Almanac  for  1882,  the 
"Connexion"  now  only  lias  thirty-four  cliap<'ls. 
See  Life  and  Times  of  Helina,  Countess  of  Iltinlin;/- 
don,  t.ondon,  1840,"2  vols.;  A.  H.  ^^EW:^  The 
Coronet  and  the  Cross,  or  Memorials  of  Sclinw 
Cnnnlt ss  of  Ilmilitu/don,  Lomlon.  1S,')7. 

HUPFELD,  Hermann  (Christian  Karl  Friedrlch), 


HURD. 


1043 


HUS. 


a  scholar  of  th6  first  rank  among  the  exegetes  of 
the  Old  Ti'stamont,  and  son  ot  an  evangelical 
pastor;  b.  .March  ;]1,  170C,  at  Marburg;  d.  April 
24,  18G6,  at  Ilulle.  He  studied  theology  at  jMar- 
burg,  and,  soon  after  completing  his  course,  be- 
came assistant  to  one  of  the  pastors  in  that  city. 
After  a  brief  service  in  this  capacity,  he  was 
appointed  teacher  in  tlie  gymnasium  at  Ilanau, 
where  he  remained  three  years.  Returning  to 
his  home  with  the  intention  of  devoting  his  life 
to  the  ministry,  his  feelings  suddenly  underwent 
a  change,  and  determined  liini  in  favor  of  an 
academic  career.  In  1824  he  placed  himself  under 
Gesenius  at  Halle,  "  habilitated  "  in  philosophy, 
and  began  lecturing  on  Hebrew  grannnar.  In 
1825  he  was  appointed  professor  of  theology  in 
]\Iarburg,  and  pulilished  his  Exercilaliones  /Elhio- 
picce  (Leipzig),  which  placed  him  at  the  side  of 
the  ablest  investigators  of  the  day.  In  1843  he 
became  Gesenius'  successor  at  Halle.  As  a  teacher, 
Hupfeld's  manner  was  not  attractive ;  but  he  in- 
terested his  hearers  deeply  by  clearness  of  presen- 
tation, thoroughness  of  treatment,  and  his  love  of 
truth.  In  1865  he  was  accused  by  certain  theolo- 
gians, before  the  minister  of  worship,  of  dispara- 
ging the  divine  element  in  the  Old  Testament. 
But  he  easily  disproved  the  charge ;  and  all  his 
colleagues,  Julius  ^fuller  and  Tholuck  included, 
rose  up  in  his  defence.  He  did  not  belong  to  the 
strict  evangelical  school  (  VermiUlungs-therAoijie)  ; 
but  he  was  the  friend  of  a  living  biblical  Chris- 
tianity, the  foe  of  all  impiety,  and  a  strict  lover 
of  truth  and  justice.  Tholuck  pronounced  his 
funeral  oration. 

Hupfeld  once  said  of  himself,  that  his  literary 
activity  had  diffused  itself  over  too  wide  a  range, 
and  lacked  a  well-defined  plan.  His  writings  are 
very  valuable,  but  appeared,  for  the  most  part,  in 
periodicals  and  religious  journals.  His  greatest 
work  was  the  translation  and  Commentary  on  the 
Psalms,  Gotha,  1855-61,  4  vols.,  2d  ed.  by  Riehni, 
1867-71.  The  translation  is  prosaic,  but  in  textual 
criticism  it  is  unsurpassed  among  the  works  on 
that  portion  of  Scripture.  Die  Quellcn  d.  Geneais 
u.  d.  Art  Hirer  Zusammensetzung,  von  neuem  unter- 
sucht  (Berlin,  185.3)  has  also  a  permanent  value, 
[and  analyzes  Genesis  into  an  original  Elohistic 
document  amended  by  a  j'ounger  Elohist  and  a 
Jehovistic  editor].  Hupfeld  began  in  1828  the 
publication  of  an  AusfU/irliche  Hehr.  Grammatik, 
which  he  never  completed.  His  contributions  to 
periodicals  were  frequent  and  valuable ;  nor  did 
he  confine  himself  to  theology,  but  took  also  a 
deep  interest  in  the  political  agitations  of  his  day, 
which  often  exercised  his  pen.  This  pious  scholar 
could  well  say  of  himself,  "  To  be  true,  that  has 
always  been  my  endeavor;  and  to  remain  an 
honorable  man  in  the  face  of  the  grimaces  of  this 
world,  that  has  seemed  to  me  to  be  the  highest 
praise."  For  further  particulars  of  Hupfeld's  life, 
and  an  admirable  criticism  of  his  professorial  and 
literary  activity,  see  the  justly  appreciative  biog- 
raphy "by  HiEUM,  Halle,  1867."     Kamphausen. 

HURD,  Richard,  Bishop  of  AVorcester;  b.  of 
humble  parents  at  Congreve,  Staffordshire,  Jan. 
13,  1720;  d.  May  28,  1808;  in  1730  graduated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  elected 
fellow  1742.  He  became  rector  of  Thurcaston 
1757,  preacher  of  Lincoln's  Inn  1706,  archdeacon 
of  Gloucester  1767,  and  bishop  of  Lichfield  and 


Coventry  1774,  from  which  he  was  translated  in 
1781  to  the  see  of  Worcester.  In  1783  he  was 
offered  the  see  of  Canterbury,  which  he  declined 
on  the  ground  of  its  being  a  "charge  not  suited  to 
his  temjier  and  talents,  and  much  too  heavy  for 
him  to  sustain,  especially  at  this  time."  Bishop 
Hurd  was  a  man  of  much  polish  and  elegance  of 
manner,  and  was  pronounced  by  George  III.  "the 
most  naturally  polite  man  he  liad  ever  known." 
He  kept  up  a  sumptuous  retinue,  but  with  these 
tastes  combined  literary  ambitions.  Among  his 
other  works  are  a  Coimnenlarij  on  Horace's  Ars 
Poelica,  1749,  4tli  ed.,  1763;  a  volume  of  Mornl 
and  Political  Dialogues  (sincerity,  retirement,  etc.), 
1759;  3  vols,  of  'Sermons,  1776-80.  He  edited 
the  Works  of  Warburlon,  7  vols.,  1788.  His  most 
ambitiovis  theological  work  was  Introduction  to  the 
Stud;/  of  the  Propheciri,;  1772  (1778,  2  vols.).  His 
collected  Works  with  an  Autobiography  apipeared 
in  8  vols.,  1811.  See  Kilveht  :  Life  and  Writings 
of  Bishop  Hurd,  London,  1860. 

HURTER,  Friedrlch  Emanuel  von,  b.  at  Schaff- 
hausen,  Switzerland,  of  Protestant  parents,  March 
19,  1787 ;  d.  at  Graz,  Aug.  27,  1865.  He  studied 
theology  in  Gottingen;  in  1824  was  chief  pastor  in 
Schaffhausen,  and  in  1835  dean  of  the  synod,  but 
was  converted  to  Roman  Catliolicism  through  his 
historical  studies,  and  in  1844  entered  that  churcli. 
He  was  called  to  Vienna  in  1845  as  imperial  coun- 
sellor and  historiographer,  and  in  1851  ennobled 
under  the  title  Von  Amann.  Besides  controver- 
sial writings,  he  was  the  author  of  the  famous 
Geschichte  d.  Papstes  Innocenz  III.  u.  seiner  Zeil- 
genossen,  Hamburg,  1834-42,  4  vols. ;  and  an 
account  of  his  conversion,  which  is  said  to  be  one 
of  the  best  books  of  its  class :  G churl  ti.  M'icder- 
geburt,  Erinnerungen  aiis  meinem  Leben  u.  Blicke 
ail f  die  Kirche,  Schaffhausen,  1845, 4  vols.,  4th  ed., 
1867,  2  vols.  His  life  was  written  by  one  of  his 
sons,  Graz,  1876,  2  vols.  Two  of  his  sous  have 
taken  prominent  places  in  the  Roman  Church. 

HUS,  John,  Bohemian  reformer  and  martvr; 
b.  in  1369  [according  to  Gillett,  July  6,  1373],'  at 
Hussinetz,  Bohemia,  not  far  from  the  Bavarian 
line;  d.  at  the  stake,  in  Constance,  Germany, 
J»ly  6,  1415.  Hus  is  an  abbreviation  of  Hussi- 
netz, and  was  used  by  him  from  1396.  His  par- 
ents were  Czechs,  in  comfortable  circumstances. 
John  studied  at  Prague,  taking  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  of  Theology  m  1394,  and  Master  of  Arts 
1396.  In  1398  he  delivered  his  first  lectures,  in 
1401  was  made  dean  of  the  philosophical  faculty, 
and  in  1403  rector  of  the  university.  He  was  a 
constant  student  of  Wiclif's  works ;  and  it  is 
altogether  likely,  that  in  following  the  rule  that 
a  bachelor  might  only  lecture  upon  tlie  treatises 
of  a  Prague,  Parisian,  or  Oxford  master,  Hus 
took  np  Wiclif.  It  is,  at  any  rate,  a  noticeable 
coincidence  that  a  manuscript  containing  five 
of  Wiclif's  philosophical  writings,  preserved  at 
Stockholm,  was  written  by  Hus  in  1398. 

In  1402  Hus  was  made  pastor  of  the  Bethlehem 
Church,  which  was  founded  (1391)  to  afford  preach- 
ing for  the  Czechs.  This  position  brought  him 
into  close  contact  with  the  common  people,  and 
stimulated  him  to  a  closer  study  of  Scripture,  as 
well  as  to  the  study  of  ^^"iclif's  theological  works. 

In  the  period  from  1402  to  1410  Hus  hoped  to 
effect  a  religious  reformation,  with  the  aid  of  his 
ecclesiastical   superiors.      A   disputation   of   the 


HUS. 


1044 


HUS. 


year  1403  led  the  autliorities  to  forbid  the  pro- 
mulgation of  forty-five  theses  of  ^^'iclif  at  the 
university ;  but,  five  years  later,  the  interdiction 
was  confirmed  only  to  the  extent  that  no  one 
should  give  to  them  an  heretical  construction. 
Hus  had  the  full  confidence  of  the  archbishop. 
Dr.  Sbyiiko,  and  was  appointed  synodical  preach- 
er by  him.  At  the  opening  of  the  provincial 
synod,  he  repeatedly  took  occasion  to  lay  bare  the 
errors,  and  denounce  the  sins,  of  the  clerg}'.  With 
two  others,  he  was  appointed  by  the  archbishop  to 
investigate  the  alleged  miracles  performed  by  the 
blood  of  Christ  in  the  church  at  \ViIsnack.  They 
were  pronounced  a  deception,  and  formed  the 
occasion  of  Hus's  pamphlet.  All  the  Blood  of  Christ 
is  Glorified.  He  here  bids  Christians  seek,  not 
for  signs  and  miracles,  but  search  the  Scriptures. 
But  his  relations  to  the  archbishop  changed,  and 
in  1408  he  was  prohibited  from  exercising  priestly 
functions  within  the  diocese.  The  complete  rup- 
ture was  still  to  come. 

In  1409  the  University  of  Prague  lost  all  its 
foreign  students  in  consequence  of  a  royal  decree 
giving  the  Bohemian  students  three  votes,  the 
others  only  one.  Leipzig  University  was  founded ; 
Init  in  Prague  an  intense  national  spirit  henceforth 
prevailed,  which  demanded  ecclesiastical  reforms, 
ilus  was  made  rector,  and  was  very  popular,  not 
only  among  the  students,  but  at  court.  This  free- 
dom of  inquiry  excited  the  apprehension  of  the 
archbishop,  who  accused  Hus  to  the  Pope,  appris- 
ing him,  at  the  same  time,  of  the  wide  prevalence 
of  the  doctrines  of  AViclif.  A  papal  bull  of  Dec. 
L'O,  1409,  prohibited  the  use  of  the  English  Re- 
former's writings,  and  forbade  preaching  at  places 
where  the  practice  was  not  an  ancient  one.  \Vhen 
the  bull  was  announced  (March  9, 1410),  it  aroused 
much  opposition;  but  the  archbishop  executed  it, 
burning  on  July  16  two  hundred  volumes  of  Wic- 
lif,  in  spite  of  the  adverse  decision  of  the  uni- 
versity. But  Hus  continued  to  preach,  and  the 
opposition  increased.  Verses  lampooning  the  arch- 
bishop were  sung  on  the  .streets,  and  even  the 
lives  of  the  priests  menaced.  Hus  and  his  friends 
openly  defended  Wiclif's  writings  at  the  univer- 
sity;  while  the  archbishop,  in  a  .sjniodical  edict, 
condemned  them  as  heretical.  The  congrega- 
tions at  the  Bethlehem  Church  grew  to  a  vast 
size.  Hus  became  bolder  and  more  outspoken ; 
and  his  audiences  frequently  showed  their  approv- 
al by  ajiplause.  On  March  1.0,  1411,  he  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  archbishop,  and  tiie  city 
laid  under  an  interdict.  Both  sentenc(\s  were 
ignored ;  and  the  prelate  wa.s  attempting  to  ar- 
range a  compronuse,  when  death  overtook  liim 
(Sept.  28). 

In  1412  Hus  and  his  sympathizers  were  roused 
to  indignation  by  the  preaching  of  a  crusade 
against  Naples,  and  of  indulgences  commanded 
by  Pope  John  XXIH.,  and  commended  by  the 
kmg.  'l"he  university  was  divided ;  bid.  in  a 
public  disputation  (Juno  7,  1412)  it  was  emphati- 
cally allirmod  that  neither  Pope  nor  bishop  liail 
the  right  to  draw  the  sword,  for  it  was  said  to 
Peter,  "  I'ut  up  thy  sword."  As  for  indulgences, 
it  was  declared  that  not 


it  money,  but  tr\w  ri'jH'nt- 
of  forgiveness.    The  P(j|>e 


ance,  was  the  condition 

does  not  know  who  are  the  elect,  and  they  only 
can  be  saved  ;  and  the  doctrine  that  he  cannot  err 
is  bla.sphemous. 


The  populace  sympathized  with  these  utterances 
of  the  university,  went  in  contemptuous  proces- 
sion in  front  of  the  archbishop's  palace,  and  made 
a  bonfire  of  the  papal  bulls  in  the  market-place. 
The  king,  Wenceslaus,  forbade  all  popular  insult 
to  the  Pope,  and  executed  three  young  men  who 
declared  the  indulgences  to  be  a  humbug.  But 
Hus,  attended  by  a  number  of  students,  took  up 
their  bodies,  and  buried  them  in  the  Bethlehem 
Church.  Cardinal  Peter  of  St.  Angelo  now  de- 
termined to  use  more  decisive  measures,  inter- 
dicted Hus's  place  of  residence,  and  threatened 
him  with  the  civil  ban.  This  was  effective.  At 
the  king's  request  he  left  the  city  (December, 
1412),  but  not  until  he  had  written  a  work  (the 
Appellatio),  in  which  he  appeals  from  the  Roman 
curia  to  Christ  the  righteous  Judge.  He  passed 
his  exile  at  Kozihradek  and  Krakowetz,  near 
Prague,  preaching  to  large  concourses  of  people, 
and  writing  his  principal  work,  De  Ecclesia,  which 
only  reproduced  Wiclif's  De  Ecclesia. 

'The  religiotis  agitation  of  Bohemia  had  become 
matter  of  European  notoriety,  and  King  Sigis- 
mund  (of  Ilungarj')  decided  that  the  case  ought 
to  be  brought  before  the  General  Council  about 
to  be  assembled  at  Constance.  Hus  cheerfully 
agreed  to  appear :  three  of  the  Bohemian  nobility 
(at  the  king's  command)  and  two  personal  friends 
attended  him,  starting  on  their  journey  Oct.  11, 
1414.  The  party  was  well  received  on  the  way, 
and  an'ived  Nov.  3  at  Constance.  Four  weeks 
afterwards  the  cardinals  trumped  up  a  charge  of 
attempted  flight,  and  placed  him  in  confinement 
in  a  Dominican  convent.  A  commission  of  three 
bishops  made  the  preliminary  investigation  ;  the 
accused  being  denied  a  hearing.  The  articles  of 
accusation  were  concerned  principally  with  Hus's 
errors  about  the  Church.  Only  later  was  the  dis- 
tribution of  both  the  elements  at  communion 
added. 

The  flight  of  John  XXIIT.  rendered  the  work  of 
his  commission  invalid  ;  and  the  council  appointed 
another,  of  four  members,  including  d'Ailly.  Thej' 
were  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  Wiclif's  doctrines, 
as  well  as  upon  those  of  the  Bohemian  reformer, 
for  both  were  set  in  the  same  key.  On  May  4. 
141.5,  the  council  adopted  their  report  so  far  as  it 
concerned  Wiclif,  damning  his  person,  his  writ- 
ings, and  his  doctrines. 

On  the  .Oth  of  June,  Hus  had  his  first  public 
hearing  in  the  Franciscan  convent.  The  hereti- 
cal articles  extracted  from  his  writings  were  reail ; 
but  his  attempt  to  vindicate  them  was  inter- 
rupted by  tumultuous  cries.  The  .secoiul  public 
hearing  occurred  on  June  7.  Sigismund  him.selE 
was  present.  The  question  was  upon  his  relation 
to  Wiclif  and  liis  book  on  the  Church.  He  boldly 
alJirined  his  esteem  for  the  English  Reformer  as  a 
pifuis  man,  but  denied  that  he  had  adopted  his 
views  against  transubstantiation.  At  the  third 
session  (June  8)  he  defended  some  of  the  articles 
drawn  from  his  work  on  the  Church. 

The  condemiuition  of  Hus  to  the  stake  was  a 
foregone  conclusion.  He  himself  knew  it.  His 
letters  bear  tiie  stamp  of  approaching  death. 
During  the  four  weeks  that  followed,  efforts  were 
made  to  induce  him  to  retract,  but  in  vain.  On 
.Saturday,  .July  (i,  MLO,  the  sentence  of  the  coun- 
cil was  pronounced  in  the  cathedral,  condenniing 
him  as  a  heretic,  and  condemning  his  boolcs  to  b.; 


HUSSITES. 


1045 


HUSSITES. 


burned.  Hus  fell  on  his  knees,  and,  lifting  up  iiis 
hands,  appealed  to  Heaven,  and  prayed  for  his 
enemies.  Thereupon  followed  his  degradation 
from  the  priestly  otlice,  and  all  cried  out  together, 
"  Thy  soul  we  deliver  up  to  the  Devil."  Hus  an- 
swered, "  And  I  commend  it  to  the  holy  Lord 
Jesus."  Then  a  paper  cap  a  yard  high  was  placed 
on  his  head,  with  the  writing,  "  Heresiarcha !  " 
He  was  then  led  forth  to  the  judgment-square, 
his  neck  bound  by  a  chain  to  a  stake.  As  the 
flames  rose  around  him,  he  refused  again  to  re- 
cant, and  died  singing,  "  Christ,  thou  Son  of  the 
living  God,  have  mercy  upon  me."  His  ashes 
were  thrown  into  the  Rhine. 

Valid  ground  for  the  sentence  of  condemnation, 
even  according  to  the  canons  of  that  day,  there 
was  none.  Hus  denied  holding  to  Wiclif's  views 
against  transubstantiation,  and  his  views  upon 
the  Church  he  founded  upon  Augustine.  He  then 
died  because  he  based  his  reform  of  the  Church 
upon  conscience  and  Scripture,  and  not  upon 
ecclesiastical  aulhortly.  Judged  by  the  canons  of 
law  then  prevailing,  Hus's  death  was  a  judicial 
murder. 

Hus  regarded  the  Scriptures  as  an  infallible 
authority  and  the  supreme  standard  of  conduct. 
'I'lie  other  main  subject  of  his  teaching  was  the 
nature  of  the  true  Church,  which,  with  Wiclif,  he 
defined  to  be  the  body  of  the  elect.  Church- 
membership  or  ecclesiastical  dignities  were  no 
infallible  sign  of  election.  He  approved  the 
conununion  under  both  kinds  to  the  laity,  but 
<lid  not  oppose  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation 
as  was  charged  by  the  council. 

John  Hus  was  not  an  original,  creative  mind. 
As  a  tliinker,  he  had  neither  speculative  talent  nor 
constructive  faculty.  In  comparison  with  AViclif, 
he  is  a  moon  with  borrowed  light.  Nor  was  he 
by  nature  a  strong  character,  twice  hardened,  and 
keen  as  steel.  Rather  was  he  a  feeble  and  tender 
spirit,  more  sensitive  than  designed  for  heroic 
deed.  But  with  his  tenderness  there  was  com- 
bined moral  tenacity,  indomitable  constancy,  and 
inflexible  firmness.  If  we  add  to  these  character- 
istics his  purity  and  humility,  his  manly  fear  of 
God,  and  tender  conscientiousness,  we  have  in 
Hus  a  man  to  love  and  admire.  Seldom  have  the 
power  of  conscience  and  the  imperial  strength  of 
a  faith  rooted  in  Christ  asserted  themselves  in  so 
commanding  and  heroic  a  manner. 

Lit.  —  Ulrich  von  Hutten  edited  some  of  Hus's 
writings  1520 ;  also  Hist,  el  monument.  J.  Hus 
alque  Hieronymi  Pragensis,  Nurnberg,  L'JSS,  2 
vols.,  new  edition,  1715.  The  Bohemian  works 
have  been  edited  by  Erben,  Prague,  1866,  3  vols. ; 
P.\LACKY  :  Documenta  May.  J.  Hus  cilam,  doc- 
Iririam  .  .  .  illustrantia,  Prague,  1869  (very  valua- 
ble). [Biographies  by  Zitte,  Prague,  1788-05; 
Helfert:  Hus  u.  Hieronijmus  (ultramontane), 
Prague,  1857;  by  Friedrich,  Regensburg,  1862; 
Kru.mmel,  Darmstadt,  1863;  Gillett  :  Life  and 
Time.-i  of  J.  Huss,  Boston,  1861,  2  vols.  (3d  ed., 
1870)  ;  Berger  :  J.  Hus  u.  Koniy  Sigismund, 
Augsburg,  1872  ;  Denis  :  Huss  et  la  Guerre  des 
Hussite.':,  Paris,  1878 ;  A\'ratisl.\w  :  Joltn  Hus, 
London,  1882;  Lechler:  John  Wiclif:  Loserth: 
Hus  u.   Wiclif,  Prag,  188i.]         G.  V.'  LEC'HLEK. 

HUSSITES,  the  Bohemian  followers  of  John 
Hus.  The  execution  of  Hus  excited  inten.se 
feeling  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia ;  and  it  was  no 


wonder  that  some  of  the  reformer's  enemies 
among  the  priests  were  stabbed,  or  thrown  into 
the  Moldau,  and  that  the  archbishop  himself 
barely  escaped  the  wvatli  of  the  infuriated  popu- 
lace. The  king,  Wenceslaus,  tried  to  maintain  a 
neutral  attitude  between  both  parties.  But  in 
September,  1415,  a  large  assemljly  was  held,  at 
which  four  hundred  and  fifty-two  of  the  nobility 
signed  a  protest  to  the  Council  of  Constance,  and 
approved  the  doctrines  of  Hus.  On  the  5th  they 
formed  a  league  for  mutual  aid  in  religious  con- 
cerns, binding  themselves  to  protect  the  free 
preaching  of  God's  Word  on  their  estates,  and  to 
recognize  the  edicts  of  prelates  only  so  far  «s  they 
accorded  with  the  Scriptures. 

The  ecclesiastical  party  entered  into  a  counter 
league;  and  the  Council  of  Constance  cited  the 
nobles  to  appear  before  it,  and  even  threatened 
(Feb.  24,  1416)  Bohemia  with  a  crusade.  But 
the  Hussites  could  not  be  so  easily  intiundated. 
Pope  Martin  V.  inaugurated  more  energetic  meas- 
ures, and,  after  dissolving  the  council  (April  22, 
1418),  determined  to  destroy  the  Bohemian  heresy 
root  and  branch.  Wenceslaus  was  persuaded  in 
1419  to  move  against  it,  and  the  Hussites  at  court 
were  obliged  to  leave.  On  Aug.  16  the  king 
died,  but  civil  war  had  already  begun. 

What  was  the  character  of  this  Bohemian  move- 
ment ?  First  of  all  we  are  struck  with  the  intense 
veneration  for  Hus.  His  followers,  however,  dis- 
avowed the  name  "  Hussites,"  and  wanted  to  be 
known  as  Catholic  Christians.  They  were  unani- 
mous in  regarding  the  Scriptures  as  tlie  supreme 
authority  in  doctrine  and  life,  but  they  split  into 
two  parties  in  the  application  of  this  principle. 
The  radical  wing,  accepting  only  that  which  was 
expressly  commanded  in  Scripture,  rejected  the 
doctrines  of  purgatory,  the  worship  of  saints, 
the  use  of  a  foreign  tongue  in  public  services,  etc. 
TJie  moderate  wing  accepted  all  ecclesiastical 
customs  the  Scriptures  did  not  expressly  forbid. 
They  put  forth  the  famous  Four  Prague  Articles 
in  Latin,  Czech,  and  Gei'man,  in  July,  1420.  These 
called  for  (1)  the  free  preaching  of  God's  AVord, 
(2)  the  distribution  of  the  sacrament  under  two 
kinds,  (3)  the  deprivation  of  the  clerg-y  of  secular 
power  and  possessions  which  they  used  to  the 
injury  of  their  office  and  the  state,  and  (4)  the 
repression  of  mortal  sins  and  public  scandals. 
The  moderate  party  was  called  the  Praguers,  and, 
later,  Calixtines  (from  calix,  "cup"),  or  Utraquists. 
They  had  at  then-  head  Baron  Czenko  of  Warten- 
berg.  The  radicals  acknowledged  Nicholas  of 
Pistna  and  John  Zizka  as  leaders,  and  were  called 
Taborites,  from  the  fortress  of  Tabor,  sixty  miles 
south  of  Prague,  which  they  occupied. 

From  1420  to  1425,  Catholic  Germany  marched 
in  crusades  against  the  Hussites ;  but  the  latter 
were  victorious,  and,  from  1427  on,  took  the  offen- 
sive against  their  enemies  under  the  generalship 
of  Procopius  the  Great.  Cardinal  Julian  Cesa- 
rini,  after  the  ignominious  defeat  of  the  last  cru- 
sade, which  he  led  Aug.  14,  1431,  concluded,  as 
president  of  the  Basel  Council,  that  the  only  way 
to  put  down  the  heresy  was  by  conciliatory  treat- 
ment. In  October  the  council  invited  the  Bohe- 
mians to  appear  before  it.  They  refu.sed  until  the 
delegates  had  conceded  their  main  conditions  at 
Eger.  This  was  the  first  instance  in  the  whole 
history  of  the  Church  for  a  council  to  treat  upon 


HUTCHINSON. 


1046 


HUTTBN. 


an  equal  footing  with  a  party  demanding  reforms. 
On  Nov.  30, 1433,  articles  were  agreed  upon  fully 
gi'anting  the  administration  of  the  communion 
in  both  kinds,  and  conceding  the  other  points  of 
the  Prague  Articles,  but  in  a  somewhat  illusory 
manner. 

The  moderate  party  was  satisfied,  the  Taborites 
not.  Civil  war  broke  out  afresh  ;  and  the  army  of 
the  latter  was  defeated  in  a  decisive  battle  ]May 

30,  1434.  The  Taborites  gradually  disappeared, 
or  were  lost,  a  genei-atiou  or  two  later,  in  the  Bohe- 
mian Brethren. 

The  articles  of  the  Basel  Council  were  con- 
firmed by  the  National  Bohemian  Assembly  at 
Iglau,  July  5. 1436.     But  Pope  Pius  II.,  on  March 

31,  1402,  "declared  them  void,  threatening  with 
excommunication  all  who  administered  the  cup 
to  the  laity.  The  Utraquist  party  was  not  intimi- 
dated. In  1485  the  king  signed  an  agreement 
confirming  the  articles  of  Basel,  and  in  1512  the 
Bohemian  Parliament  granted  to  the  Utraquists 
equal  right.s  with  the  Catholics. 

The  Utraquists  sent  words  of  cheer  to  Luther 
(July  16,  1519),  and  with  them  Hus's  works,  in 
which  he  was  sui-prised  to  find  his  own  doctrines 
taught.  A  portion  only  of  the  party  fell  in  with 
the  Reformation.  In  1575  the  Bohemian  Parlia- 
ment passed  tlie  Confessio  Bohemica  on  the  basis 
of  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

Lit.  —  Palacky  :  Gesch.  v.  Bolimen,  iii.  1-3, 
iv.  1,  2,  V.  1,  2;  Hofler:  J.  Hus  u.  d.  Ahzu// 
d.  deutschen  Professoren  u.  Sttidenlen  atis  Prarj., 
Prague,  1864 ;  GkL'xhagen  :  D.  IIussile7ikampJe 
d.  Scldesier,  1420-35,  Breslau,  1872;  [Bezold  : 
Konig  Setjismiuid  u.  die  Reichskriege  gegen  die 
Husiten,  5lUnchen,  1875-77 ;  J.  Loserth  :  Bei- 
trage  zur  Geschichte  d.  Iiusilischen  Beweyung,  Wien, 
1878-81) ;  E.  Dexis  :  Huss  el  la  guerre  des  Husxites, 
Pari.s,  1878].     See  IIus.  G.  V.  LECHLER. 

HUTCHINSON,  Anne,  a  religious  enthusiast 
of  New  England;  was  b.  in  Lincolnshire,  Eng. , 
1591 ;  emigrated  to  Boston  1034,  and  murdered 
by  the  Indians  in  AVestchester  County,  New  York, 
in  August,  1613.  She  was  a  member  of  Dr. 
Cotton's  cliurch  ;  but,  holding  some  peculiar  doc- 
trines of  her  own,  she  "set  up  weekly  meetings 
at  her  house,  whereto  tinee  or  four  score  people 
would  resort"  (Mather),  and  at  which  she  criti- 
cised Ur.  Cotton's  sermons.  "  It  was  wonderful 
to  see,"  continues  blather,  "with  wh.at  a  speedy 
and  spreading  fnsciitalinn  these  doctrines  did  be- 
ivitch  the  minds  of  the  people,"  etc.  She  was 
excommunicated  from  Ur.  Cotton's  church  for 
antinomian  errors;  and,  the  court  ordering  her  to 
leave  the  Colony,  .she  went  first  to  Rhode  Island, 
and  tlien  to  Ilebgate  (probably  nell-(;ate)  West- 
chester County,  N.Y.  Cotton  Mather  uses  very 
strong  language  against  her  doctrinal  errors.  See 
his  AI(ig>i<di<i,  vii.  3  (vol.  ii.  pp.  510  sqq.),  and 
Sl'AHKs:   Aniiririm  Jiingrnplii/,  vol.  vi. 

HUTCHINSON,  John,  a  lajman  who  repre- 
sented peculiar  views  concerning  biblical  inter- 
pretation ;  b.  in  Sjiennithorue,  Yorkshire,  1674 ; 
d.  Aug.  28,  1727.  lie  was  stew.ird  in  several 
families,  and  last  to  tlie  Duke  of  Somerset,  who 
procured  for  liini  a  sinecure  appointment  worth 
two  hun<lrcd  po\mds.  In  1724  lie  publislied  part  i., 
and  in  1727  ])art  ii.,  of  his  Musts'  J'riiicijiia,  —  a 
work  in  which  he  attacked  Newton's  theory  of 
gravitation.    He  held  that  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 


contained  the  elements  of  all  rational  philosophy, 
natural  history,  and  true  religion.  He  laid  great 
stress  upon  the  typical  sense,  and  held  that  all 
parts  of  our  Saviour's  character  and  work  are 
symbolized  in  the  Old  Testament.  His  views 
were  adopted  by  such  men  as  Bishop  Home,  Jones 
of  Nayland,  etc.  His  collected  works  were  edited 
in  12  vols,  by  Spearman  and  Bate,  1748:  An 
Abstract  from  the  Works  of  J.  Hutchinson,  contain- 
ing a  Summary  of  his  Discoi'eries  in  Philosophy  and 
Divinity,  London,  1753.  See  Life  by  Spearman 
in  the  edition  of  1765. 

HUTTEN,  Ulrich  von,  b.  at  Steckelberg,  in 
Hesse-Cassel,  April  22,  1488 ;  d.  in  the  Island  of 
Ufnau,  in  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  Aug.  19,  1523 ; 
descended  from  a  noble  Franconian  family,  and 
was,  when  eleven  years  old,  placed  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Fulda.  But  monastic  life  was  very  much 
against  his  nature.  In  his  .sixteenth  year  he  fled 
from  Fulda,  and  began,  aided  by  some  friends  of 
his  family,  to  study  humuniora  at  Erfurt,  scho- 
lasticism at  Cologne,  and  philology  and  belles- 
lettres  at  Francfort-on-the-Oder.  After  some  wild 
adventures  at  Greifswald  and  Rostock,  he  visited 
Wittenberg  in  1510,  and  Vienna  in  1512.  In 
order  to  be  reconciled  to  his  father,  he  went  in 
the  latter  year  to  Italy,  and  began  to  study  law 
at  Pavia  and  Bologna.  But  the  principal  result 
of  his  Italian  journey  was  a  satirical  poem.  He 
returned  to  Germany  in  1517  as  a  common  soldier 
in  the  army  of  Maximilian.  An  incident  suddenly 
brought  him  into  prominence.  The  Duke  of 
Wiirtemberg,  stirred  up  by  an  adulterous  passion, 
assassinated  Hans  von  Hutten,  his  equerry,  and 
the  head  of  the  Hutten  family ;  and  Ulrich  then 
stepped  forth  as  the  avenger  of  the  family,  and 
depicted  in  a  number  of  satirical  pamphlets  the 
duke  as  a  monster  of  a  tyrant.  The  satires  were 
good.  The  educated  world  became  attentive;  and 
as  the  books  contained  numerous  social  and  polit- 
ical allusions,  all  pointing  in  the  direction  of 
freedom  and  nationality,  the  author  became  at 
once  very  popular.  The  great  aim  of  Ilutten's 
life  was  to  free  Germany  from  the  yoke  un<ier 
which  it  was  held  by  Rome,  by  the  Pope  and  the 
curia;  and  for  this  cause  he  wrote  and  fought 
with  great  valor.  The  Epistolm  obscurorum  virornm 
are,  at  least  in  part,  his  work.  His  Rbmisclie 
Dreifaltigkeit  (1519)  contains  a  more  direct  attack. 
At  tlie  diet  of  Augsburg  (1518)  and  the  crowning 
of  Charles  V.  (1520)  he  spoke  openly  of  a  union 
between  the  German  princes  against  the  Po]ie. 
But  the  motive-power  in  this  ]ilaii  was  political 
and  social,  rather  than  religious.  Though  often 
working  in  unison  with  the  Reformers,  Ulrich  von 
Hutten  was  not  a  Reformer  himself  :  he  was  only 
a  humorist  and  a  knight-errant.  When  it  proved 
impo.ssible  to  bring  about  such  a  union  between 
the  (ierinan  princes  against  the  l'c>)>i>,  he  formed 
an  idea  of  uniting  the  (ierinan  noliility  and  free 
cities  against  the  ]>rinccs,  calcul.ating  that  the 
emperor  hardly  would  ojipose  such  a  movement 
'with  any  great  vigor.  He  joined  Franz  von 
Sickingen,  and  the  latter  began  a  fend  against 
the  elector  of  Treves.  But  the  undertaking  mis- 
carried completely.  Hutten  fled  to  Switzerland, 
suffering  frightfully  from  a  disease  he  had  con- 
tract^'d  in  his  early  youth.  Erasmus  refused  to 
see  him.  The  magistrates  of  Zurieli  forbade  him 
the  city.     Only  by  Zwingli's  mediation  he  was 


HOTTER. 


1047 


HYMNOLOGY. 


allowed  to  go  and  die  in  peace  in  the  house  of 
an  evangelical  minister. 

Lit.  —  His  Works  were  edited  by  Eduard  Beck- 
ing, Leipzig,  18o9-0L  5  vols.,  with  a  Supplement 
in  2  vols.,  containing  his  Letters,  Leipzig,  1864-70. 
His  Life  was  written  by  U.  F.  Strauss,  Leipzig, 
18.58-60,  :5  vols. ;  2d  ed.  in  1  vol.,  1871 ;  Eng.  trans, 
by  Mrs.  G.  Sturge,  Loudon,  1874.        KLUI'FEL. 

HUTTER,  Elias,  b.  atGorlitz,  15.54  ^  d.  at  Augs- 
burg or  Francfort,  1605 ;  studied  at  Jena,  ami 
taught  Oriental  languages  at  Rostock,  Liibeck, 
Hamburg,  Nuremberg,  and  other  places,  always 
occupied  with  the  publication  of  some  polyglot 
Hible,  —  the  Hamburg  polyglot  in  four  languages, 
the  Niireniberg  polyglot  in  six  languages,  a  New 
Testament  in  twelve  languages,  —  a  kind  of  work 
for  which  he  had  neither  sufficient  knowledge  nor 
sufficient  means.  WaGENMAXN. 

HUTTER,  Leonhard,  b.  at  Nellingen,  near  Ulm, 
in  January,  1563;  d.  at  Wittenberg,  Oct.  28,  1016; 
studied  philology,  philosophy,  and  aftei'wards 
theology,  at  Strassburg,  1581-91  ;  visited  also  the 
universities  of  Leipzig,  Heidelberg,  and  Jena, 
and  was  in  1596  appointed  professor  of  theology 
at  Wittenberg.  He  was  a  typical  representative 
of  Lutheran  orthodoxy  in  its  older  form,  before 
its  scholastic  development,  while  it  still  confined 
itself  to  reproduction  and  polemics ;  and  his 
Compendium  locorum  theotw/icorian  (1610),  written 
at  the  instance  of  the  Elector  Christian  IL  of 
Saxony,  and  destined  to  supersede  the  Loci  of 
jMelanchthon,  ran  through  many  editions,  and  was 
translated  into  German  and  Swedish.  It  has 
recently  been  republished  by  Twesten  (Berlin, 
1855  and  1863),  and  brought  into  fresh  attention 
by  Hase's  Hutlerus  redioivu,-!.  The  Loci  communes 
Ikeologici,  published  after  Ilutter's  death  (1619), 
is  simply  a  further  elaboration  of  the  Comjxm- 
dium.  No  less  distinction  he  gained  as  a  pole- 
mist,  chiefly  directing  his  attacks  against  the  Cal- 
vinists:  Calvinisla  aulicn-poLiticus,  1610;  Cnlmnisfa 
aidico-polilicus  alter,  1614;  Concordia  concors, 
1614;  y;-en(cww,  1614 ;  etc.  A  Life  of  him,  and 
a  complete  list  of  his  Works  by  Ambros.  Rhode, 
m.ay  be  found  in  Witte  :  iMemurice  theot.  Decas, 
i.  p.  89.  WAGENMAJfX. 

HYDASPES.     See  Hystaspes. 

HYDE,  Thomas,  Orientalist;  b.  at  Billingsley, 
Yorkshire,  Eng.,  June  29,  1636;  d.  at  Oxford, 
Jan.  18,  1703.  His  taste  for  languages  was  so 
carefully  nurtured  by  his  father,  that  he  made 
extraordinary  progress,  as  is  evinced  by  his  assist> 
ing  Walton  upon  his  Poli/i/lot  when  only  seven- 
teen years  old.  He  became  successively  Hebrew 
reader  at  Oxford  (1658),  under-keeper  of  the 
Bodleian  Library  (16.59),  prebendary  of  Salisbury 
(1660),  principal  Bodleian  librarian  (1665-1701), 
archdeacon  of  Gloucester  (1678),  doctor  of  divini- 
ty (1682),  Laudian  Professor  of  Arabic  (1691), 
Kegius  Professor  of  Hebrew,  and  Canon  of  Christ 
Church  (1697).  He  was  a  master  of  Turkish, 
Arabic,  Syriac.  Persic,  Hebrew,  and  INIalay :  he 
even  studied  Chinese.  His  principal  work  is 
Hisloria  reliyionis  relerum  Persarum  eorumque  Ma- 
(jorum,  Oxford,  1700,  reprinted  by  Hunt  and  Cos- 
tard, 1760.  His  miscellanies  (Latin)  under  the 
title  Sytitatptia  dissertadunum  iptas  olim  .  .  .  T. 
Hyde  sep.  edidit  appeared  in  2  vols.,  Oxford,  1767, 
with  a  Life  of  Hyde  prefixed. 

HYCINUS  was,  according  to  Irenseus,  the  suc- 


cessor of  Telesphorus,  and  reigned,  according  to 
Jaffe,  from  139  to  142,  —  the  eighth  or  ninth 
pope.  The  martyi'ologies  give  the  10th  or  11th 
January  as  the  date  of  his  death.  During  his 
reign,  the  gnostics  Cerdon,  Valentine,  and  Mar- 
cion,  appeared  in  Rome.  See  Mi'katoui  :  Jier. 
Ital.  Her.  iii.  ;  Jaffe:  Key.  I'onl.  Rom.,  p.  3; 
Act.  Sanct.,  Jan.  11. 

HYLE  (vAri),  in  tlie  dualistic  .systems  of  religion, 
the  realm  of  darkness,  the  principle  of  evil,  the 
lower  element  of  existence,  matter.  See  Gnosti- 
cis.M  and  Manicheans. 

HYLOZOISM  (CA;?,  "matter,"  and  C^^,  "life"), 
the  doctrine  of  the  eternity  of  matter,  and  also 
that  special  tenet  of  materialistic  philosophy 
which  defines  life  as  a  sixintaneous  evolution  of 
matter. 

HYMNOLOGY.  Definition.  —  A  hymn  is  a 
spiritual  meditation  in  rhythmical  prose  or  verse. 
Its  chief  constituents  are  praise  and  jirayer  to 
God.  The  definition  of  Augustine  is  too  narrow 
for  our  modern  conception,  when  he  says  a  "  hymn 
must  contain  praise,  must  praise  God,  and  be 
sung  "  (oportet,  ut  sit  hymnus,  habeat  hccc  tria,  taudcin 
et  Dei  el  canticum:  Ps.  Ixxii.).  On  the  other  hand, 
the  definition  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches 
is  too  comprehensive  when  it  includes  praises  to 
saints  among  hynnis.  The  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  use  three  terms  (Eph.  v.  19,  etc.)  for 
Christian  songs,  —  psalm  (ijia'AjioQ),  hymn  (vfivo()^  and 
spiritual  ode  ((J<i^  TrvevfiaTimi).  The  word  "  hymn  " 
was  a  common  one  among  the  Greeks,  who  with 
the  Romans  sang  songs  to  their  divinities  and  in 
honor  of  famous  men.  Such  "  hymns  "  are  found 
in  the  poems  of  Homer,  and  Ilesiod  begins  his 
Works  anil  Days  by  invoking  the  JIu.ses  to  sing 
"  liynms "  to  Zeus,  and  speaks  of  them  in  his 
T/ieoyony  as  singing  "hynms  to  all  the  gods." 
Pindar  expre.ssly  calls  his  odes  "hynms."  Paul, 
in  his  sermon  on  !Mars  Hill,  quotes  the  words 
(Acts  xvii.  28),  "  For  we  are  his  offspring,"  from 
a  "  hymn  "  of  Aratus  of  Cilicia  (third  century 
B.C.).  The  Christian  hynnis  differ  from  the 
hynnis  of  heathen  antiquity  in  their  spirit  and 
the  object  of  worship,  but  not  nece.s.sarily  in  form. 
It  is  addressed  to  GJod,  or  one  of  the  three  persons 
in  the  Trinity,  and  admits  nothing  uncljaste.  It 
is  the  communion  of  the  soul  with  God. 

Hymns  have  from  the  earliest  times  entered  as 
an  important  element  into  the  services  of  the 
sanctuary,  and  have  contributed  at  all  periods  to 
the  piety  of  the  Church.  At  the  creation  "the 
morning  stars  sang  together,  and  all  the  sons  of 
God  shouted  for  joy  "  (Job  xxxviii.  7).  Heaven 
it.self  is  choral  with  anthems ;  and  the  angelic  host 
sings,  "  Holy,  holy,  holy,  is  the  Lord  of  hosts;  the 
whole  earth  is  full  of  his  glory  "  (Isa.  vi.  3).  The 
fiest  periods  of  Hebrew  history  were  vocal  with 
sacred  song;  and  the  fresh  fervor  of  the  early 
Christians  found  vent  in  singing.  From  the  sixth 
century  to  this  day,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  church- 
es, with  some  recent  exceptions,  the  singing  of 
hymns  in  the  church  has  been  restricted  to  the 
choir  and  clergy.  The  Flagellants  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries  on  the  Continent 
{hymnos  in  latina  rel  vulyari  lingua,  "they  sung 
hymns  in  the  Latin  or  vulgar  tongue,"  Summa 
hist.,  Antoninus  Florentinus  (d.  1450),  and  others), 
the  Lollards  of  the  fourteenth  in  England,  ami 
also  the  Hussites  of  Bohemia  m  the  fifteenth,  re- 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1048 


HYMNOLOGY. 


vived  the  use  of  sacred  songs  amongst  the  people. 
The  Protestant  Reformation,  under  the  lead  of 
Luther,  himself  a  devoted  singer  and  vigorous 
hymnist,  vindicated  the  right  of  the  people  to 
the  use  of  hymns,  and  again  identified  congrega- 
tional song  with  the  exercises  of  worship.  The 
second  Reformation  in  England  in  the  last  cen- 
tui-y  was  marked  by  great  fertility  in  the  produc- 
tion of  hymns,  in  which  the  members  of  the 
Establishment  (Toplady.  Xewton,  etc.)  vied  with 
the  leaders  of  the  Methodist  movement.  Hynnis, 
as  Bishop  Nicetius  of  Treves  {c.  .563)  said  {De 
Psalmodiie  bono),  "  have  consoled  the  sad,  checked 
the  joyful,  subdued  the  enraged,  refreshed  the 
poor."  They  have  been  on  the  tongues  of  be- 
lievers in  the  first  ardor  of  their  faith,  and  have 
ascended  as  tlie  last  fervid  utterances  of  mai-tyrs 
at  the  stake,  from  Polycarp  {Martyr.  Polyc,  §  14) 
to  Hus,  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  and  are  chanted 
by  the  church  triumphant  in  the  presence  of  the 
Redeemer  (Rev.  v.  9,  xiv.  3,  etc.).  They  are  the 
common  heritage  of  all  believers,  and  bind  to- 
gether all  ages.  In  them  denominational  distinc- 
tions are  lost  sight  of ;  and  it  is  made  plain  that 
Christian  faith,  hope,  and  love  exist,  in  their 
purity,  in  all  communions  of  the  Church.  The 
hymns  of  Ambrose,  and  John  of  Damascus,  Lu- 
ther and  Tersteegen,  'Wesley  and  Toplady,  Muh- 
lenberg and  John  Henr}'  Xewman,  stand  side  by 
side  in  our  hymn-books,  and  are  consentient  in 
praise  to  the  one  God,  and  love  for  the  one 
Saviour. 

Hebrew  Hymns.  —  From  very  early  times  the 
Hebrews  sang  hymns  commemorating  tlie  might 
and  excellency  of  Jehovah.  The  songs  of  Miriam 
(Exod.  XV.  21),  iloses  (Exod.  xv.  1-19 ;  Dent. 
xxxii.  1-43),  Deborah  (Judg.  v.  1  sqq.),  and  Han- 
nah (1  Sam.  ii.  1-9),  are  sacred  hymns,  full  of 
sublime  imagery,  and  inflamed  with  a  fervid 
devotion  to  Jehovah.  The  Book  of  Psalms  is 
the  oldest  hynm-book  in  existence.  Although 
sung  by  the  shepherd  of  Bethlehem  and  other 
Psalmists,  many  centuries  before  Christ,  it  has 
been  in  all  ages  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  con- 
tinues to  be,  a  fresh  and  living  fountain  of  devo- 
tion and  prai.se.  Even  in  captivity  tlie  Hebrew- 
people  did  not  forget  to  sing,  but  mingled  praises 
witli  their  laments,  although  it  was  hard  to  sing 
"the  Lord's  song  in  a  strange  land  "  (Ps.  cxxxvii. 
4).  The  Psalms  were  sung  to  musical  accompa- 
niment (1  Chron.  vi.  31;  2  Chron.  xx.  21,  etc.). 
Under  David,  and  subsequently,  the  Jews  had 
organized  choirs;  and  there  returned  with  Zerub- 
babel  more  than  two  hundred  "  singing-men  and 
singing-women"  (Ez.  ii.  05;  Xeh.  vii.  07).  See 
art.  PsAi.Ms. 

Eurly  Clirislian  Hymns.  —  At  the  threshold  of 
the  Christian  dispensation  we  have  the  sublime 
songs  of  Mary,  called  the  Ma(/ni/ical,  from  the 
first  word  of  the  Latin  translation  (Luke  i.  40- 
55) ;  of  Zacharias,  called  the  licneilicltis,  likewise 
from  the  J^atin  translation  of  the  first  word 
"blessed"  (Luke  i.  08-79);  of  the  angels,  calle<l 
tlie  Gloria  in  ExcKlsii,  "  Glory  in  the  iiigliest " 
(Luke  ii.  18);  and  of  Simon,  called  the  Nunc  Diinil- 
lis,  "  Now  lettcst "  (Luke  ii.  29-32).  Other  por- 
tions of  the  New  Testament  have  so  much  the 
form  of  hynnis  a.s  to  give  tlie  impression  tiiat 
they  are  actually  fragments  of  hymns  (Acts  iv. 
24-30;  Eph.  v.  11;  1  Tim.  iii.  10,  vi.  10;  Jas.  i. 


17;  Rev.  xv.  3,  etc.).  The  Saviour,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  last  passover,  sang  a  hymn  (a  part 
of  the  Hallel,  Ps.  cxv.-cxviii.)  with  his  disciples 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30).  The  early  Christians  used 
hymns  as  a  means  of  edification  (1  Cor.  xiv.  20 ; 
Eph.  V.  19;  Col.  iii.  10),  and  interrupted  the 
monotony,  and  checked  the  depression,  of  impri- 
sonment by  alternating  prayer  with  song  (Acts 
xvi.  25).  It  seems  probable  that  the  hymn  in 
the  public  assembly  was,  like  the  prophecy  and 
the  discourse,  sometimes  the  spontaneous  product 
of  the   moment  (1  Cor.  xiv.  26). 

There  is  evidence  from  heathen  as  well  as  Chris- 
tian sources,  that  singing  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  Christian  services  in  the^josNapostolic 
age.  Early  in  the  second  century,  Pliny  writes  to 
Trajan  that  the  Christians  were  in  the  habit  of 
meeting  before  daylight,  and  of  singing  songs  to 
Christ  as  God  among  themselves  alternately  (statu 
(lie  ante  litcem  convenire  carmenmie  Cliristo  r/uasi 
Deo  (ticere  secuminvicem).  Lord  Selborne  finds  in 
the  last  words  a  reference  to  responsive  singing. 
Xone  of  the  hymns  of  the  second  century  have 
been  preserved.  The  hynm  Light  of  Gladness. 
Beam  Divine  (^uf  ilapov^,  which  is  still  sung  in 
the  Greek  Church,  has  been  attributed  to  Athe- 
nagenes  (d.  169),  but  without  sufficient  reason. 
Basil  (d.  379)  refers  to  it  as  an  ancient  compo- 
sition, but  denies  that  Athenagenes  was  the  au- 
thor. The  oldest  Christian  hymn  in  existence  is 
S/ieplierd  of  Tender  Youth  (mofuov  ttMut),  which 
Dr.  Schaff,  in  Christ  in  Son;/,  p.  547,  characterizes 
as  a  "sublime  but  somewhat  turgid  song  of  praise 
to  Christ."  It  is  a  free  transfusion  of  a  hymn  of 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  composed  about  the  year 
200.  After  the  third  century,  it  is  convenient  to 
distinguish  between  the  hymnody  of  the  Eastern 
and  Latin  churches. 

Hymns  of  the  Eastern  Church.  —  So  general  and 
popular  was  the  custom  of  singing  hynnis  in  the 
third  century,  that  one  of  the  charges  put  forth  by 
the  .second  council  of  Antioch  (209),  in  its  letter 
to  th(^  Bi.shops  of  Rome  and  Alexandria  against 
Paul  of  Samosata,  was  that  he  had  put  a  stop  to 
it.  In  the  fourtli  century,  aec-ording  to  Theodoret 
(//.  E.,  ii.  24),  anti|)Iu>nal  singing  was  introduced 
into  Con.stantinople,  wiiicli  in  this  respect  fol- 
lowed the  lead  of  tiie  church  of  Antioch.  Whilo 
Chrysostom  (d.  407)  was  archbishop  of  Con.stan- 
tinople, the  Trinitarian  party  was  accustomed  to 
gather  in  tlie  open  .spaces  of  the  city,  and  marched 
in  midnight  processions,  singing  sacred  music  as 
an  elVective  means  of  defeating  the  Arians,  who 
had  hymns  of  tlunr  own.  According  to  Cardinal 
Pitra,  the  number  of  Greek  hymns  is  very  large  ; 
and,  if  those  that  have  been  published  were  col- 
lected, they  would  fill  fifteen  or  twenty  volumes, 
while  the  number  that  exist  only  in  manuscripts 
is  equally  large. 

Epliraem  Syriis  (d.  about  378)  is  the  father  of 
Christian  liyiiniody  in  the  Syrian  Church.  He 
wrote'  in  Syriac,  and  seems  to  have  gotten  the 
impulse  to  write  hymns  from  the  religious  .songs 
of  the  Gnostic  poet,  Bardesanes.  He  was  a  fertile 
writer.  Theodoret  .speaks  of  Eiihraem's  hymns 
as  sweet,  and  coutributing  much  to  the  solemnity 
of  festal  occasions  in  his  day.  They  oommemo- 
raled  .some  of  the  great  facts  in  the  .Saviour's  life 
from  the  nativity  to  the  ascension,  —  the  deaths 
of  pious  persons  and  the  lives  of  martyrs. 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1049 


HYMNOLOGY. 


Gregory  Xazianzen  (d.  390)  and  Anatolius  (d. 
458)  are  the  two  greatest  hyimi-writers  of  the 
period  oi  formation  (as  Dr.  Neale  calls  it)  in  (Jreek 
sacred  poetry.  From  the  latter  we  have  the  solemn 
hymn  in  three  stanzas,  beginning  Fierce  teas  the 
wild  billoic  (Zo<pirpuc  TpiKV/xiac).  'Jiie  best  hymns 
of  the  Eastern  Cliureh  were  produced  in  the  next 
period,  which  Dr.  Neale  dates  from  720  to  820. 
Among  its  hynm-writers  were  Romanus  (d.  about 
720),  to  whom  Cardinal  Pitra  ascribes  twenty-five 
hymns,  which  excel  in  originality  and  vigor  of 
expression;  Cosmas  (d.  780),  surnamed  the  "Melo- 
dist;" John  of  Damascus  (d.  before  787),  the 
great  theologian  of  the  Eastern  Church,  whose 
'Tis  the  Day  of  Resurrection  (uvaaraaeuc  Vf^pa)  has 
passed  into  many  English  hymn-books ;  and  Ste- 
phen of  St.  Sabas  (d.  794),  a  convent  in  Pales- 
tine, near  the  Dead  Sea,  whose  Art  Ihoa  weary,  art 
thou  languid  {kottov  re  ml  Kufiarov)  is  the  most  simple 
and  restful  lyric  in  any  language  upon  the  words 
of  Christ,  "  Come  unto  me,  all  ye  that  labor,"  etc. 
Still  later  than  these  are  three  otlier  writers,  whose 
names  have  made  the  convent  of  the  Studium 
in  Constantinople  famous  for  all  time.  Theodore 
of  the  Studium  (d.  826)  and  Joseph  (d.  about 
830)  are  the  most  voluminous  of  all  the  Greek 
liymnists.  A  good  specimen  of  the  hymns  of 
Theodore  is  the  judgment-hymn,  That  Fearful 
Day,  that  Day  of  Dread  (jijv  iificpav  tt/v  (jiptKTJiv),  and 
of  Joseph,  the  hymn  to  Christ,  Jesus,  Lord  of  Life 
Eternal  {Irjoovc  6  ZcjoAjtt/c).  The  third,  Theoctistus 
of  the  Studium  (d.  about  890),  is  best  known  by 
the  hymn,  Jesu,  Name  all  Names  above  (JhiaoO 
yhiKVTaTc'). 

Lit.- — Daniel:  Thesaur. Hymnolog.,vo]s. iii.iv., 
Leipzig,  1855 ;  Cardinal  Pitra  :  Hymnog.  de 
I'Eglise  Grecque,  Rome,  1867,  Collecta  Sacra,  Paris, 
1876,  and  Anthol.  Grmca  Carminum  Christian., 
Leipzig,  1871;  Cii.^ndler:  The  Hymns  of  the 
Primitive  Church,  London,  1837;  Keale  :  Hymns 
of  the  Eastern  Church  translated,  tvith  Notes  and 
an  Introduction,  London,  1862,  and  since;  Sciiaff: 
Christ  in  Song,  New  York,  1869,  and  London,  1870. 

Hymns  of  the  Latin  Church.  —  The  founders  of 
Latin  hymnology  were  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Poictiers 
(d.  366),  and  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan  (d.  397). 
Hilary  was  banished  from  Gaul  to  Asia  Minor  on 
account  of  his  energetic  advocacy  of  Trinitarian 
doctrines.  He  came  into  close  contact  with  the 
Eastern  Church,  and  on  his  return  to  his  diocese 
was  fitted  to  make  the  Book  of  Hymns,  of  which 
Jerome  (d.  420)  speaks.  Daniel  gives  six  hymns 
under  his  name,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  a 
single  one  by  him  is  in  our  possession.  In  the 
church  at  Milan,  of  which  Ambrose  was  bishop, 
the  singing  of  hyms  was  very  popular.  Augus- 
tine, speaking  of  the  church  music  in  that  city, 
exclaims,  "  How-  have  I  wept  at  tliy  [Ambrose] 
hymns  and  canticles,  bitterly  moved  by  the  voices 
sweetly  resounding  through  thy  church  I  Those 
strains  flowed  into  my  ears,  and  tlie  truth  distilled 
in  my'  heart.  My  feelings  of  piety  were  enkin- 
dled, and  tears  fell  from  my  eyes,"  etc.  Ninety 
hymns  are  attributed  to  the  Anibrosian  school. 
At  least  twelve  of  these  are  by  Ambrose  himself. 
They  combine  vigor  with  simplicity,  and  tersely 
render  the  great  facts  and  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity. Good  specimens  are.  Redeemer  of  all  Na- 
tions, come  (Veni,  Redemptor),  and  Maker  of  all 
Things,  Glorious  God  (Deus  Creator). 


Hymn-writing  also  flourished  in  Spain  in  the 
fifth  century;  and  some  of  the  finest  Latin  hymns 
are  by  Prudentius,  a  Spanish  layman,  who  died 
in  405.  His  hymns,  about  fifteen  in  number, 
are  taken  from  larger  poems,  and,  according  to 
Lord  Selboriie,  are  "full  of  fervor  and  sweetness." 
That  on  the  birth  of  Christ,  llelhlchem  of  Nahlest 
Cities  (O  sola  magnarum  vrbium)  is  one  of  the 
most  finished  and  chaste  on  that  event;  and  the 
hymn  on  the  martyrs  of  Bethlehem,  Hail,  Infant 
Martyrs  (Salrete  Jlores  murtyrum),  is  justly  ad- 
mired. Sedulius,  a  native  of  Scotland  or  Ireland, 
of  the  fifth  century,  also  wrote  some  fine  hymns. 

Gregory,  Bishop  of  Rome  (d.  604),  and  Fortu- 
natus.  Bishop  of  Poictiers  (d.  609),  mark  the 
transition  to  the  mediaeval  period  of  Latin  hym- 
nody.  The  Ambrosian  music,  which  had  held 
undisputed  sway  for  two  centuries,  was  supplanted 
by  the  Gregorian.  The  recitative  was  introduced, 
and  public  song  in  the  church  restricted  to  the 
choir  of  priests,  the  congregation  being  limited 
to  the  responses.  The  two  best  liymns  of  l-"ortu- 
natus  are,  The  Royal  Banner  is  unfurled  {Vej:dla 
Regis),  and  Sing,  my  Tongue,  the  Saviour's  Battle 
{Pange,  lingua). 

The  hymns  of  the  middle  ages  liave  their  own 
peculiar  characteristics.  The  joyful,  jubilant  tone 
of  the  Ambrosian  and  Prudentian  hymns  is  no 
longer  so  prominent :  they  are  set  in  the  key  of 
mystic  fervor.  Begotten  in  the  cloister,  they  ring 
with  the  soft  and  subdued  but  ardent  tones  of 
contemplative  devotion.  The  singers  linger  near 
the  cross,  and  gaze  upon  the  suffering  agonies  of 
its  scenes,  rather  than  breathe  the  clear  air  of  the 
resurrection  morning,  or  celebrate  the  triumphant 
exaltation  and  reign  of  Christ.  Some  of  these 
hymns  were  by  the  most  subtle  theologians  and 
devout  saints,  and,  with  some  of  the  great  theo- 
logical ideas  of  Anselm,  are  the  most  precious 
legacies  of  the  mediajval  Church.  Some  of  them 
have  never  been  surpassed. 

Amongst  others  we  pass  by,  with  simple  mention, 
the  Venerable  Bede,  the  monk  of  Yarrow  (d.  735), 
who  was  not  only  the  father  of  English  learning, 
but  the  first  English  hymn-writer;  and  Notker  of 
St.  Gall  (d.  912),  who  was  led  by  the  sound  of  a 
mill-wheel  to  compose  a  new  kind  of  hymns  known 
as  "sequences."  One  of  the  sweetest  hymns  of 
this  period  is  ascribed  to  Robert,  king  of  France 
(d.  1031),  and  has  been  appropriated  by  all  hymn- 
books, —  Come,  Holy  Ghost,  in  Love  (Veni,  Sonde 
Spiritus).  Adam  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1172),  whom 
Archbishop  Trench  and  Dr.  Neale  agree  in  pro- 
nouncing "the greatest  of  mediaeval  poets,"  made 
the  monastery  of  St.  Victor,  just  outside  the  city  of 
Paris,  no  less  famous  by  his  hymns,  than  his  teach- 
er, Hugo  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1135),  liad  done  by  his 
writings,  which  founded  the  mysticism  of  mediwval 
France.  In  the  judgment  of  Dr.  Neale,  his  best 
hymn  is  Be  the  Cross  our  Theme  and  Story  (Laud es 
crucis').  Two  other  mediaeval  convents  will  always 
be  associated  with  church  hymnody.  Clairvaux, 
through  Bernard  (d.  1153),  the  greatest  man  of 
his  age,  and  one  of  the  purest  saints  of  any  age, 
gave  to  the  Church  the  hymn  Hail,  thou  Head,  so 
bruised  and  wounded  (.Salve,  Caput  crucntatum), 
and  a  poem  of  two  hundred  lines,  from  wliicli 
have  been  taken  the  three  hymns, — Jesus,  the  very 
Thought  of  thee  (Jesu,  dulcis  memoria),  Jesus,  thou 
Joy  of  Loving  Hearts  (Jesu,  dulcedo  cordium),  and 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1050 


HYMNOLOGY. 


0  Jesus,  King  mo^t  Wonderful  (Jesu,  rex  adinirahitis). 
Cluny,  tliroiigh  anotlier  Bernai'd,  gave  to  the 
Church  a  long  poem  of  three  thousand  lines,  from 
which  have  been  extracted  several  hymns  breath- 
ing an  ardent  longing  for  the  heavenly  country, 
of  which  Jerusalem,  the  Golden  (Urbs  Syon  aurea) 
is  the  most  familiar. 

The  grandest  liymn  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
perhaps  of  all  ages,  is  the  Dies  Ira;  of  Thomas 
of  Celano  (d.  about  1250),  the  friend  and  biog- 
rapher of  Francis  d'Assisi.  It  has  never  been 
equalled  as  a  sublime  and  reverential  description 
of  the  awe  and  terror  of  the  last  judgment,  and 
has  exercised  the  .skill  of  many  translators. 
'\\'alter  Scott,  without  translating  tlie  letter,  has 
jireserved  the  spirit,  of  the  original  in  the  three 
verses  beginning,  — 

"  That  day  of  wrath,  that  dreadful  day, 
When  heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away!  " 

Dr.  .Schaff  says  (Christ  in  Smuj,  p.  290).  "This  mar- 
vellous hjnnn  is  the  acknowledged  mastei-piece  of 
Latin  poetry,  and  the  mostsublimeof  all  uninspired 
hymns.  It  is  one  of  those  rare  productions  which 
can  never  die,  but  which  increase  in  value  as  the 
ages  advance.  The  secret  of  its  in-esistible  power 
lies  in  the  awful  grandeur  of  the  theme,  the  in- 
tense earnestness  and  pathos  of  the  poet,  the  sim- 
ple majesty  and  solemn  music  of  its  language," 
etc.  If  tlie  Dies  Irie  excels  all  other  hymns  in 
grandeur,  then  another  hymn  of  the  middle  ages 
—  the  Utabat  Mater  ("At  the  Cross  her  station 
keeping ")  of  Jacopone  da  Todi,  or  Jacobus  de 
Benedictis  (d.  130(3)  —  .stands  unapproached  for 
patlios.  Its  deep  tone  of  sorrow  charms  the  ear, 
and  melts  the  heart,  in  spite  of  its  Mariolatry. 
Among  other  hymn-writers  of  the  middle  ages 
the  greatest  are  Thomas  Aquinas  (d.  1274)  and 
Bonaventura  (<1.  1274).  To  the  former  belong 
four  .sacramental  hyran.s,  —  Siny,  iiii/  Tongue,  the 
Mi/sleri/  telling  (^Pange,  lingua  gloriosi),  etc.  ;  to  the 
latter,  Jesus,  thy  Holy  Cross  and  Dying  (Recordare 
sanctre  cruris).  To  this  class  of  hymn.s,  though 
later  in  time,  belong  the  liynms  of  Francis  Xavier 
(d.  1.552),  the  famous  missionary  to  China  (^Jesus, 

1  lore  thee,  not  because),  and  of  .Saint  Theresa 
(d.  1582)  ;  and  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  the 
best  hymns  of  the  Homan-Catholic  Cliurcli  since, 
like  those  of  Madame  (iuyon,  the  Lead,  Kindly 
Light  of  John  Henry  Newuuui,  and  the  hymns  of 
Faber,  are  set  in  the  key  of  media-val  hymnody. 

Lit.  —  The  Roman  Hreriury  ,  Monk;  Latein. 
Hymnen,  Freiburg-im-Brei.sgau,  18.53,  3  vols.  ; 
Daniki,  :  Thesaur,  lIy7nnol.  (vols.  i.  ii.),  Leipzig, 
1855;  Maucii  :  fMtin  Hymns  witli  English  Notes, 
for  Use  in  Schools,  etc.,  Xew  York,  1871;  art. 
Hymnody  by  I.,ord  Sei.hok.m;,  in  Encyclopadia 
Britannica.  — Translations.  Willi  am.s  :  Hymns 
from  the  Parisian  Breviary,  London,  18.'i9;  Cas- 
WALL  :  Lyra  Cntholica,  London,  1819;  Xkalk: 
Mediwral  Hymns  and  Sci/uences,  London,  1851, 
.3d  ed.,  1807  ;'Tiii;xcii :  Sacred  Latin  Poetry,  2d  ed., 
London,  1804;  Bi;nki>ict  :  The  Hymn  if  Hitdc- 
l/erl  and  other  Media:i<(d  Hymns,  New  York,  1809; 
Manx:  Ancient  Hymns  from  the  Roman  Breviary, 
new  ed.,  London,  1871;  Moiujan  :  Hymns  and 
other  Poetry  of  the  Latin  Church,  Oxford,  1880. 
The  Poetry  of  Adam  of  St.  Victor  has  been  i-ecently 
published,  with  Translations  and  Notes  by  Wkanu- 
llAM,  London,  1881,  3  vols. 


German  Hymns.  —  Germany  possesses  not  ordy 
a  more  voluminous  but  a  richer  hyinnology  tlian 
any  other  country.  In  1780  Ludwig  von  Harden- 
berg  prepiared  a  list  of  72,732  German  hymns, 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  Tlie  number  now 
cannot  be  far  from  a  hundred  thousand ;  and 
among  tliese  ai'e  many  of  the  clioicest  pieces  of 
religious  poetry,  overflowing  with  devotion,  and 
praise  to  the  Redeemer.  The  introduction  of 
hymns  and  congregational  singing  into  the  public 
services  was  one  of  the  first  results  of  tlie  Kefor- 
ination  in  Germany,  and  that  country  had  a  fine 
supply  of  hymns  long  before  any  were  composed 
in  English. 

The  father  of  German  hymnody,  as  of  German 
church  music,  was  Martin  Lutlier  (d.  1540). 
Among  the  works  of  Hus  (d.  1415)  which  the 
Bohemian  Brethren  sent  to  Luther  were  that 
martyr's  hymns;  and  lie  subsequently  made  a 
free  translation  of  Hus's  Jesus  Christus,  nostra 
Salus.  In  1523  Luther  published  eight  hymns 
of  his  own,  which  had  increased  to  a  hundred 
and  twenty-five  in  1545.  Tliese  hymns  were  car- 
ried by  travelling  singers  from  village  to  village, 
and  sung  into  the  hearts  of  the  German  people. 
Coleridge's  statement  was  exaggerated,  namely 
that  "  Luther  did  as  much  for  the  Reforinatioii 
by  his  liymns  as  by  his  translation  of  the  Bible  :" 
but  his  hymns  were  effective  agencies  for  spread- 
ing the  Kefonnation.  The  Roman-Catholic  theo- 
logian Conzenius  (1020)  wrote  that  the  "  hymns 
of  Luther  have  destroyed  more  souls  than  his 
writings  and  sermons." 

Luther's  hymns  were  joyful  and  confident  out^ 
hursts  of  a  manly  and  unwavering  trust  in  God. 
His  whole  pei-sonality  breathes  through  Ein'  feste 
Burg  ist  tinscr  Gott,  translated  by  Carlyle  "  A  safe 
Stronghold  our  God  is  still."  It  was  the  trium- 
phant-trumpet-blast  of  the  Reformation,  and  bade 
defiance  to  satanic  and  human  foes.  It  is  as  much 
the  great  popular  song  of  the  German  nation  as 
Luther  himself  is  the  hero  and  t^iiical  representa- 
tive of  German  life.  His  other  hymns  are  preg- 
nant w'ith  Christian  thought  and  joylulness;  as, 
A^un  freni  eiich,  Hebe  Cliristeng'mein'  ("Doar  Chris- 
tian jieople,  now  rejoice  ").  Luther  had  co-laborers 
in  this  field.  Among  these  were  Justus  Jonas, 
Eber,  and  .Michael  Weiss  (d.  1510).  The  latter, 
in  1531,  edited  German  translations  of  the  hymns 
of  the  Bohemian  Brethren,  to  which  he  added 
some  of  his  own. 

Tlie  I-utheran  Church  was  not  only  in  advance 
of  the  Reformed  Church  of  (iermany  in  the  de- 
partment of  hymiiodv,  but  its  contributions  have 
continued  to  tic  mncJi  the  more  numerous.  The 
best  hymn-writer  of  tlie  sixteenth  century  was 
Philip  Nicolai  (d.  1008),  a  jiious  preacher.  Dur- 
ing a  violent  pestilence  in  1597,  he  wrote  one  of 
the  grandest  and  also  one  of  the  sweetest  hymns 
in  the  (ierman  or  any  other  language,  Wachel  auf! 
r\fl  uns  die  Stimme  ("\\'ake!  the  startling  watch- 
cry  pealeth  "),  and  II'/c  schOn  teuchli  I  tier  Morgen- 
stern  ("  How  lovely  shines  the  IMorning  .Star  !"), — 
two  hymns  \vhi<'h  i-isi'  up  side  by  sitle  like  twin 
peaks.  The  jirriud  of  the  Thirty-years'  War(1018- 
48)  was  fruitful  in  line  hynuis,  among  which  an; 
llie  battle-song  of  (iustav  Adolpli  (d.  1032),  before 
the  fatal  day  of  Liitzen,  Verzage  nicht,  du  Hhuf- 
lein  klein  ("Fear  not,  O  little  flock,  the  foe"), 
and  the  very  rugged  lliank.sgiving  liyniii  of  Uiuk- 


HYMNOLOQY. 


1051 


HYMNOLOQY. 


art  (d.  1649),  wliicli  is  so  popular  in  Germany, 
Nun  (lankeL  alle  Golt  ("  Now  thank  we  all  our 
(iod  "),  and  has  been  called  the  national  Te  Deiun. 
Among  the  most  fertile  hynm-writers  of  this 
period  was  Johann  Heerniann  (d.  1047),  a  pastor 
who  hardly  knew  what  it  was  to  have  a  day  free 
from  pain,  and  whose  hymns  are  the  products 
of  a  rich  Christian  experience.  The  hymns  of 
Scheffler  (d.  1077),  better  known  as  Angelus  Sile- 
sius,  from  his  native  province,  Silesia,  are  full  of 
patlios,  and  devotion  to  the  Master,  which  his 
transition  to  the  Catholic  Church  (in  1001)  did 
not  change.  One  of  his  sweetest  hymns  is  Ich 
icilt  dich  lieben,  meine  Starke  ("  Thee  will  I  love, 
my  Strength,  my  Tower  "). 

German  hynniology  reached  its  culminating 
jioint  in  Paid  Gerhardt,  a  Lutheran  pastor  (d. 
1670).  Knapp  calls  hini  "beyond  dispute,  the 
first  of  German  church  poets."  More  than  thirty 
of  his  Imndred  and  twenty-three  hymns  are  classi- 
cal. Among  his  finest  are  0  Haupl  voU  Btut  it. 
IVunden  ("  O  sacred  Head  now  wounded  "), 
]Vie  soil  ich  dich  empfangen  ("  Oh !  how  shall  I 
receive  Thee  "),  and  Bejiehl  du  deine  Wege  ("  Give 
the  winds  thy  fears  ")  ;  but  it  is  difficult  to  make 
a  selection  where  so  many  are  so  uniformly  ex- 
cellent. 

The  first  hymn-writer  of  the  Reformed  Church 
was  Joachim  Neander  (d.  1080),  who  died,  as 
pastor  in  Bremen,  at  the  early  age  of  thirty.  He 
came  under  the  influence  of  Spener.  His  hynms 
are  "full  of  spiritual  depth  and  unction."  His 
Lobe  den  Herren  den  machtigen  Konitj  der  Ehren 
C  Praise  to  Jehovah !  the  Almighty  King  of  Crea- 
tion ")  is  a  jubilant  song  of  thanksgiving,  and  one 
of  the  most  popular  in  Germany.  The  school  of 
Pietists,  of  the  latter  part  of  this  and  the  begin- 
ning of  the  eighteenth  century,  was  fertile  in  the 
production  of  hymns :  Spener  (d.  1705),  Franke 
(1727),  and  Freylinghausen  (d.  1739)  were  the 
most  prominent.  Schniolke  (d.  1737),  a  pastor  in 
Silesia,  was  a  copious  author  of  hynms.  They 
are  pervaded  with  Christian  warmth  and  devo- 
tion, and  some  of  them  are  of  perpetual  value. 
His  Mein  Jesu  wie  du  wUisl  has  passed  into  many 
English  collections  in  the  translation,  "  My  Jesus, 
as  Thou  wilt."  One  of  the  most  voluminous 
writers  of  hymns  in  this  century  was  Hiller  (d. 
1769),  a  pastor  in  Wurtemberg.  Albert  Knapp, 
who  gives  twice  as  many  (two  Imndred  and  sixty- 
four)  of  his  hynms  as  of  any  other  author,  .speaks 
witli  enthusiasm  of  tiie  powerful  influence  which 
they  have  exercised  upon  the  spiritual  life  of 
Southern  Germany. 

Allied  in  devotional,  almost  mystical  fervor,  are 
the  hymns  of  Count  Zinzendorf  (d.  1760)  and 
Tersteegen  (d.  1769.)  The  former  was  the  founder 
of  the  Moravian  connnunity  at  Herrnhut,  and 
produced  many  fine  hymns,  two  hundred  and  five 
of  which  have  passed  into  the  Moravian  hymn- 
book  in  the  English  language.  Wesley  translated 
and  freely  transfused  some  of  them.  Christi  Blul 
vnd  Gerechtigkeit  ("Jesus,  thy  Blood  and  Right- 
eousness ")  is  a  good  example  of  his  style.  Ters- 
teegen was  a  layman  in  the  Reformed  Church, 
and  published  a  hundred  and  eleven  hymns,  some 
of  which  are  very  fine  and  very  popular.  GoH 
isl  gegenwarlig,  lassel  uns  anbelen  ("  Lo,  God  is 
here,  let  us  adore  "),  is  one  of  the  best.  Novalis, 
whose  real  name  was  Hardenberg,  died  prema- 


turely, at  the  age  of  twenty-nine  (1801),  but  left 
behind  him  some  glovving  hynms,  of  whicli  the 
best  are  Ich  sage  jedem  /lass  er  lebt  ("  I  say  to  all 
men  far  and  near"),  and  Wcnn  ich  ihn  nur  hahe 
("  If  1  only  have  Thee  ").  Lavater,  who  died  the 
same  year,  also  left  behind  .some  excellent  hymns, 
of  which  Jesus  Christ,  tvnchs  du  in  mir  ("Jesus 
Christ,  grow  thou  in  me  "),  is  nnich  sung. 

The  early  part  of  the  present  century  witnessed 
a  great  revival  of  interest  in  church  liynmody  in 
Germany.  It  was  led  by  Schleiermacher,  Claus 
Harms,  Arndt  (c.  Wort  u.  Kirchcnlied,  1819),  and 
others,  and  was  contemporary  with,  if  not  a  prod- 
uct of,  the  great  national  Luther  tri-centennial  of 
1817.  The  hymns  of  the  old  writers  had  been 
subjected  to  ruthless  treatment  at  the  liands  of 
the  rationalists  and  literati  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. Even  such  a  man  as  Schlegel  felt  justified, 
in  order  to  avoid  the  elision,  to  alter  the  first  line 
of  Luther's  great  hynm  to  "  E in  starker  Schutz." 
This  movement  was  inaugurated  by  Justus  Gese- 
nius  in  his  hymnological  collection  (1647).  The 
better  taste  of  tlie  early  part  of  the  present  cen- 
tury demanded  the  restoration  of  hynms  to  their 
original  form.  In  this  direction  Bunsen,  Stier, 
Daniel,  Knapp,  and  others  did  good  service  by 
their  hymnological  collections. 

Many  fine  hymns  have  been  added  during  the 
present  centmy  to  the  already  rich  and  well-filled 
stores  of  Germany.  Arndt  (d.  1860),  Friedricli 
Ruckert  (d.  1867),  Meta  Heusser  (d.  1876),  a 
Swiss  poetess,  and  others,  have  made  their  offer- 
ings. But  the  two  most  copious  contributors 
have  been  Spitta  (d.  1859)  and  Albert  Knapp 
(d.  1804).  The  former's  Psalter  und  Harfe  ("Psal- 
ter and  Harp  "),  a  collection  of  sacred  lyrics,  had  a 
very  wide  circulation,  and  contains  .some  very  fine 
hymns.  One  of  his  best  is  Alles  schwindet ;  Her- 
zen  brechen  ("  All  is  dying,  hearts  are  breaking"). 
One  of  the  best  of  Knapp's  is  Eines  tcunsch  ich 
mir  vor  allem  andern  ("More  than  all,  one  thing 
my  heart  is  craving").  The  first  living  hynmist 
of  Germany  is  Pralat  Karl  Gerok,  formerly  court- 
preacher  to  the  king  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  author 
of  some  choice  collections  of  sacred  lyrics. 

Lit.  —  The  best  Collections  of  German  hynins 
are  by  Rambach  (Hamburg,  1817-33),  Karl  v. 
Raumek  (1830),  BiNSEN  {^Versuclt  eines  ally, 
evang.  Gesang.  u.  Gebetbuchs,  Leipzig,  1833,  new 
edition  by  Fischer,  Gotha,  1881),  Stier  (1835), 
Alhert  Knapp  (Ecanq.  Liederschatz,  Stuttgart, 
1837,  3d  ed.,  1865,  upon  the  whole  the  best). 
Schaff's  Deutsches  Gesangbuch  (five  hundred  and 
and  forty  hymns),  Philadelphia,  is  widely  used 
by  German  congregations  in  America.  —  Histo- 
ries. Koch:  Gesch.  d.  Kirchenlieds  u.  Kirchenge- 
satigs,  3d  ed.,  Stuttgart,  1860-76,  8  vols. ;  AVack- 
ernagex,  :  Bibliogr.  zur  Gesch.  d.  d.  Kirchenl.  im 
xvi.  Jarhrh..  Frankfurt,  1855,  and  D.  d.  Kirchenl. 
V.  d.  dltesten  Zeit  bis  zu  Anfang  d.  xvii.  Jahrh.,  Leip- 
zig, 1864-70,3  vols.;  Cunz:  Gesch.  d.  deutschen 
Kirchenl.,  Leipzig,  1855;  Miss  Win'Kwortii  : 
Christian  Singers  of  Germany,  London,  1869  ; 
Fischer  :  Kirchenlieder  Lexicon,  Gotlia,  1878 
(notices  of  forty-five  hundred  hynms  of  all  ages 
and  their  authors).  —  Translations  of  German 
Hymns.  Miss  Winkworth  :  Lyra  Gernianica, 
2  vols.,  London,  1855-58,  and  often  since;  Miss 
Cox :  Sacred  Hymns  from  the  German,  London, 
1841,  2d  ed.,  1864 ;    Hymns  from  the  Land  of  Lu- 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1052 


HYMNOLOGY. 


ihcr  (Miss  BoRTHWicK  and  Mrs.  Findlather), 
Edinburgh,  1862  ;  Massie  :  Lyra  Donieslica,  Lon- 
don, 18(30;  Schaff:  Christ  in  Sonr;,  Xew  York 
and  London,  1870. 

French  Hymns.  —  Calvin,  like  Luther,  advocat- 
ed congregational  singing;  and  quite  recently  a 
hymn  by  him  was  found  in  an  old  Genevese  prayer- 
book.  It  was  printed  in  1868.  The  opening  line 
is  Je  Te  salue,  mon  certain  Redemptenr  ("  I  greet 
Thee,  who  my  sure  Redeemer  art.")  See  Christ  in 
Song,  p.  549.  'While  Calvin  was  at  Strassburg  he 
came  into  possession  of  some  of  Clement  Marot's 
versions  of  the  Psalms  without  knowing  they 
were  his,  and  had  them  set  to  music.  These  with 
five  original  versions  of  Ps.  xiv.,  xxxvi.,  xlvi., 
xci.,  cxxxviii.,  the  Apostles'  Creed,  and  the  Song 
of  Simeon,  and  the  Decalogue  in  verse  (by  his 
own  hand),  he  published  at  Strassburg,  1539,  under 
the  title  Aulcuns  Pseaulmes  et  Cantiques  7nys  en 
chant.  This  book,  consisting  of  twenty-one  pieces, 
with  the  tune  at  the  beginning  of  each  psalm, 
but  without  preface  or  the  name  of  the  author, 
was  the  first  collection  of  psalms  in  the  French 
Reformed  Church.  Marot  (d.  at  Turin,  15-14)  in 
1541  received  permission  to  publish  the  Trente 
Psaulmes  ("Thirty  Psalms"),  which  appeared  the 
following  year  with  a  dedication  to  Charles  V. 
In  1543  he  published  Cinquante  Psatmes  ("Fifty 
Psalms").  After  ISIarot's  death,  Beza  added 
translations  of  other  psalms;  but  it  was  not  till 
1562  that  a  complete  collection  of  the  whole 
Psalter  appeared.  Marot's  versions  are  felici- 
tous, and  with  few  changes  continue  to  be  sung 
to  the  present  day  in  the  French  churches.  Claude 
Goudimel  set  them  to  music. 

The  hyuinology  of  the  French  clmrches  is  mea- 
gre. To  Cesar  Malan  (d.  1864),  according  to 
Vinet,  belongs  the  honor  of  restoring  the  hymn 
to  them.  In  connection  with  Bost  (d.  1874)  he 
jniblished  in  1824  a  collection  of  French  hymns, 
under  the  title  Chants  <le  .Sion,  which  appeared  in 
an  improved  form  in  1841,  under  the  title  Chants 
Chrc'tiens.  Malan  wrotf!  more  tlian  a  thousand 
hymns.  The  hynni  for  the  dying,  Non,  ce  n'esl 
pas  mourir  ("Ko,  no,  it  is  not  dying"),  is  famil- 
iar to  English  ears.  The  Chants  chre'liens  has 
incorporated  some  fine  hymns  and  psalms  from 
Roinan-Catliolic  writers,  as  Bisliop  (iodeau  (d. 
1672),  who  published  a  collection  of  elegant  tran.s- 
lations  of  the  Psalms  (Les  psaumcs  de  David  tra- 
duits  en  vers  /'ran fats),  Corneille  (d.  1684),  Racine 
(d.  1699),  Madame  (Juyon  (d.  1717),  and  others. 
JIadame  Guyon's  hynnis  are  distinguished  by 
graceful  composition  and  devotional  fervor.  A 
numljer  of  tliem  were  translated  by  Cowper,  who 
could  fully  synijiathize  with  the  mystical  temper 
of  their  author,  and  some  are  found  in  English 
liynni-book.s. 

Lit.  —  BovET  :  Hi.st.  du  Psauticr  des  Ef/l.  ref., 
Paris,  1872;  Doten  :  Clt'mini  Marot  et  le  Psautier 
huquiiiol,  Paii>.  1n79.  Ii.   H.   RCIIAFF 

HYNINOLOGY,  English  and  American.  Not- 
withstanding th(!  grc^at  antiquity  of  religions 
poetry,  English  hymnology  is  one  of  the  late.st 
fruits  of  the  Engli.sh  mind.  A  liymn  is  define<l 
in  the  dictionaries  to  be  a  sacred  lyric,  or  a 
song  of  praise  to  God;  but  this  would  include 
jisalms,  wliicli  are  now  distinguished  from  hymns 
proper.  The  word  "  psalm  "  does  not  differ  mate- 
rially in  its  etymological  signification  from  the 


word  "  hymn,"  each  meaning  "  a  sacred  song  or 
hymn."  But  by  a  psalm  we  now  mean,  either 
one  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  or  a  version  of  one ; 
while  a  Christian  hymn  is  a  song  of  praise  to 
God,  generally  based  upon  some  thought  or  form 
of  words  found  in  the  Bible.  The  propriety  of 
using  in  Christian  worship  any  metrical  compo- 
sitions except  versions  of  the  Psalms  of  David, 
was  not  readily  conceded  by  our  conservative 
forefathers ;  and  a  centm-y,  almost,  had  elapsed 
after  the  Reformation  before  hymns  were  looked 
upon  with  favor. 

By  far  the  greatest  portion  of  the  most  ancient 
English  literature  was  founded  upon  the  Bible, 
and  at  a  very  early  date  large  portions  of  the 
Scriptures  were  put  into  a  metrical  form.  There 
is  no  evidence  that  these  compositions  were  in- 
tended to  be  used  in  worship;  though  as  late  as 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  it  was  contended  that 
all  Scripture  should  be  versified  and  sung;  and 
the  first  fourteen  chapters  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  were  actually  so  used  in  the  royal  chapel, 
and  the  Books  of  Genesis  and  Kings  were  done 
into  metre  with  a  like  intent. 

In  the  same  reign  a  zealous  reformer,  Thomas 
Sternhold,  who  had  been  groom  of  the  robes  to 
Henry  VIII. ,  and  held  the  same  office  imder 
Edward,  "  became  so  scandalized  at  the  amorous 
and  obscene  songs  used  in  the  court,  that  he,  for- 
sooth, turned  into  English  metre  fifty-one  of 
David's  Psalms,  and  caused  musical  notes  to  be 
set  to  them,  thinking  thereby  that  the  courtiers 
would  sing  them,  instead  of  their  sonnets ;  but 
they  did  not,  only  some  few  excepted  "  CW'oon  : 
Athence  Oxonienses). 

This  was  the  beginning  of  the  version  of  the 
Psalms  still  known  under  the  names  of  Sternhold 
and  Hopkins.  The  first  edition  (1548  or  1549) 
comprised  but  nineteen  psalms ;  but  others  were 
added  in  successive  editions,  until  in  1562  all  the 
Psalms  had  been  translated,  and  aimexed  to  the 
prayer-l)ook. 

The  year  after  this  publication.  Sir  Philip  Sid- 
ney was  born.  His  name  is  associated  with  a 
metrical  version  of  the  Psalms  made  in  connec- 
tion with  his  sister,  the  Countess  of  Pembroke; 
but  it  remained  in  manuscript  until  the  present 
century.  The  version  of  Sternhold  and  Hopkins 
stood  the  test  of  use  for  nearly  a  hundred  years  : 
but,  at  about  the  middle  of  the  .seventeenth  cen- 
tury, complaint  was  made  of  its  "  obsoleteness ;  " 
and  in  1646  there  appeared  a  new  version,  printed 
under  authority  of  the  House  of  Commons,  liy 
Francis  Rons,  a  member  of  Parliament,  who  after- 
wards became  one  of  Cromwell's  jirivy  council, 
and  was  privileged  to  sit  in  the  \\'estminster 
Assembly  among  tlie  few  laymen  tiiere. 

A  hall-century  later  the  version  of  Tate  and 
Brady  a]ipeared.  In  the  mean  time  a  number  of 
.singers  had  enriched  the  religious  literature  of 
our  tongue.  Herbert  and  \'aughan,  Southwell 
and  Milton,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Richard  Baxter, 
all  wrott'  elevating  poetry,  wliich  has  not  yet  lost 
its  power  to  lift  up  the  spiritual  mind;  but  their 
liroductions  can  hardly  be  called  hynms.  In  1683 
.(ohn  Mason,  grandfather  of  the  author  of  the 
Treatise  on  Sel/'-kiioivledi/e,  published  thirty-three 
Snn;/s  of  I'raise,  which  obtained  .some  Jiopularity, 
and  w(^re,  perha]>s,  the  first  hynms  actually  u.^'d 
in  public  worship.     That  none  of  tlie.se  writers 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1053 


HYMNOLOGY. 


liart  sviccei'ded  in  firmly  establishiiifj  tliis  use  of 
hyimis  is  evident  from  the  fact,  that,  when  Isaac 
Watts  presented  his  hymns  to  the  public,  lie  en- 
tered into  a  long  prefatory  argument,  as  a  "  bold 
and  determined  iimovator,"  in  favor  of  the  right 
to  found  hymns  on  "  any  portion  "  of  Scripture. 
The  practice  of  doing  this  was,  howei-er,  an  an- 
cient one.  The  old  Latin  and  Greek  hymns, 
largely  produced  during  the  so-called  "  dark 
ages,"  liave  of  late  come  back  into  use,  to  the 
great  enrichment  of  our  collections  ;  and  they,  we 
know,  were  used  in  public  worship.  Still,  so 
strong  was  the  attachment  of  the  people  to  jisalm- 
ody,  that  they  were  unwilling  to  countenance 
the  use  of  words,  though  expressing  scriptural 
thoughts  and  aspirations,  which  were  not  also 
simple  versions  of  the  psalms  used  in  the  service 
of  the  Jewish  temple. 

To  Watts  —  the  orthodox  dissenter,  though 
overflowing  with  Christian  love  for  members  of 
all  denominations  —  it  was  given  substantially 
to  create  English  hymnology.  Bishop  Ken  had 
preceded  him,  and  had  fixed  his  Doxology  in 
Englisli  hymn-books  forever ;  the  persecuted  Ro- 
manist, John  Austin,  had  given  the  church  the 
hymn,  Hark,  my  Soul,  liow  Every  tkinrj ;  Joseph 
Addison  had  written.  The  Spacious  Fmnament  on 
high,  and  other  hymns  now  found  in  our  hynnials  ; 
and  John  Byrom  had  written  liis  then  impub- 
lished  hymns :  but  none  of  these  had  made  any 
determined  attempt  to  supersede  the  Psalter. 
P^nglish  hynmology  may,  therefore,  be  said  to 
have  begun  in  the  year  1707,  when  Isaac  Watts 
published  his  first  hymns,  —  hymns  that  were  so 
much  superior  to  all  that  had  gone  before  them 
as  to  force  their  way  into  acceptance,  and  to  live 
to  the  present  day  among  those  most  loved  and 
most  often  used. 

Watts  was  followed  by  imitators,  many  of 
whom  produced  hymns  that  are  still  found  in  all 
collections.  Among  these  were  Simon  Browne, 
who  wrote  Come,  Holy  Spirit,  Heavenly  Dove ; 
Thomas  Gibbons,  author  of  Now  let  our  Souls,  on 
Winys  sublime,  Benjamin  Beddome,  who  wrote 
Did  Christ  o'er  Sinners  loeep  ?  John  Fawcett,  au- 
thor of  Blest  be  the  Tie  that  binds ,  Thomas  Haweis, 
author  of  From  the  Cross  tiplifted  high;  Thomas 
Stennett,  who  wrote  Majestic  Sweetness  sits  En- 
throned,  Thomas  Scott,  author  of  Angels,  roll  the 
Rock  away  ,  and  others. 

Before  the  peaceful  life  of  Dr.  AVatts  had  closed, 
the  next  great  leader  in  English  hynmology  had 
arisen.  He  was  an  outgrowth  of  the  stirring- 
scenes  in  the  midst  of  which  grew  up  the  Wesley- 
an  body.  There  had  been  meetings  at  Oxford 
in  1729,  meetings  in  Savannah  (Ga.)  in  1736,  and 
in  1739  the  formation  of  the  United  Society  of 
Methodists.  There  had  been  spiritual  struggles, 
opposition  to  the  apathy  that  the  members  of  the 
new  reform  saw  in  the  Established  Cliurch,  pro- 
tests against  the  want  of  enthusiasm  in  religious 
life  which  marked  the  times ;  and  the  new  hym- 
nology reflected  all  of  it.  A  body  of  Christians  so 
enthusiastic  as  the  early  ^Methodists  could  not  live 
without  the  service  of  song,  and  they  needed 
more  stirring  lyrics  than  those  of  Watts  and 
his  school.  The  demand  insured  the  supply.  All 
of  the  Wesleys  were  able  to  give  metrical  utter- 
ance to  feeling ;  but  the  singer  among  them  was 
Charles,  who  produced  seven  thousand   hymns. 


The  first  were  published  in  173.0,  and  the  last 
after  the  writer's  death.  They  illustrate  his  ex- 
perience, and  for  that  reason  appeal  to  all  hearts. 
'J'he  hymn  Glory  to  God,  and  Praise  and  Love 
(usually  beginning  "  Oh  for  a  thousand  tongues 
to  sing")  was  written  in  commemoration  of  We.s- 
ley's  "witne.ss  of  adoption,"  which  occurred,  he 
states,  on  Whitsunday,  May  21,  1737.  Among 
Charles  Wesley's  hymns  are,V,V)n!e,  Thou  Almighty 
King:  Hark,  How  all  the  Welkin  rings !  Thou  God 
of  Glorious  Majesty  (usuaWy  beginning  "  Eo,  on 
a  narrow  neck  of  land  ")  ;  Love  Divine  all  Love 
excelling ;  lilow  ye  the  Trumpet,  blow  ;  and  Jesiut, 
Lover  of  my  Soul. 

Wesley  was  followed  by  Tliomas  Olivers,  author 
of  The  God  of  Abraham  praise ;  John  Cennick, 
who  wrote  Children  of  the  Heavenly  King;  Augus- 
tus Montague  Toplady,  the  doctrinal  opponent, 
though  the  poetical  child,  of  A\^esley,  wlio  wrote 
.4  fairing  and  Dying  Prayer  for  the  Holiest  Believer 
in  the  World  (which  Viegins  "  Rock  of  Ages,  cleft 
for  me  "),  and  Your  Harps,  ye  Trembling  Saints. 

Among  the  hyinn-writers  who  followed,  before 
the  present  century,  were  William  Ilannnond 
(Awake,  and  sing  the  Song  of  Moses  and  the  Lamb), 
Jo,seph  Hart  (Come,  ye  Sinners,  Poor  andWrctched), 
William  Cowper  ( Wlial  Various  Hindrances  we 
meet),  Samuel  ISIedley  (Mortals,  awake,  with  An- 
gels join),  William  Williams  (Guide  me,  O  thou 
Great  Jehovah),  John  Ryland  (Sovereign  Ruler  of 
the  Skies),  Joseph  Griggs  (Behold  !  a  Stranger's  at 
the  Door),  Edward  Perrouet  (All  hail  the  Power 
of  Jesus'  Name),  Robert  Seagrave  (Rise,  my  Soul, 
and  stretch  thy  Wings),  and  Robert  Robinson  (Come, 
thou  Fount  of  every  Blessing).  Philip  Doddridge 
was  one  of  the  most  successful  hymn-writers  of 
the  period.  He  was  a  warm  friend  of  Dr.  Watts, 
though  much  his  junior.  He  wrote  nearly  four 
hundred  hymns,  among  which  were  To-morrow. 
Lord,  is  Thine ;  Do  not  I  love  thee,  O  my  Lord?  Ye 
Servants  of  the  Lord:  Hark!  the  Glad  Sound,  the 
Saviour  Coynes ;  Grace,  'tis  a  Charming  Sound :  and 
Awake,  my  Soul,  stretch  every  Nerve. 

Two  women  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
last  century  —  Mrs.  Barbauld  and  Anne  Steele  — 
mark  the  beginning  of  the  line  of  hj'mn-writers 
of  the  gentler  sex  that  has  so  greatly  enriched 
English  hymnology  during  the  present  century. 
Mrs.  Barbauld  is  known  as  a  writer  of  considera^ 
ble  repute  beyond  her  hymns,  but  Miss  Steele 
was  a  hymn-writer  only.  She  wrote  from  expe- 
rience gained  in  a  life  of  suffering  and  bereave- 
ment; and  it  has  been  said  that  no  woman,  and 
but  few  men,  have  written  so  many  hymns  that 
have  had  general  acceptance  in  the  Church.  Of 
her  productions  (a  hundred  and  forty-four  in 
number)  the  following  are  familiar :  Father, 
whate'er  of  Earthly  Bliss;  He  lives,  the  Great  Re- 
deemer lives ;  Father  of  Mercies,  in  thy  Word;  and 
Far  from  these  Narrow  Scenes  of  Night.  Among 
the  hymns  of  Mrs.  Barbauld  are,  Come,  said  Jesus' 
Saci'eil  Voice;  Praise  to  God,  Immortal  Praise; 
and  How  blest  the  Righteous  when  he  dies .' 

To  this  period  belongs  Henry  Kirke  White,  the 
youthful  genius  in  whom  Southey  was  so  much 
interested.  His  When  marshalled  oii  the  Nightly 
Plain,  Oft  in  Danger,  oft  in  Woe,  and  Through 
Sorrow's  Night  and  Danger's  Path,  reflect  las  per- 
sonal experience,  and  hold  a  prominent  place  in 
many  hymn-books.     The  last  to  be  mentioned  in 


HYMNOLOGY. 


1054 


HYMNOLOGY. 


this  period  is  John  Newton,  whose  remarkable 
experience  was  much  more  phenomenal  than  tliat 
of  White,  and  has  left  its  mark  on  his  hymns. 
Among  his  productions  that  are  well  known  are, 
By  Faith  in  Christ  I  walk  icith  God ;  One  there  is 
above  all  Others ;  How  Sweet  the  Name  of  Jesus 
sotinds .'  Safely  through  another  Week;  Amazing 
Grace,  how  Sweet  the  Sound!  Come,  my  Soul,  thy 
Suit  prepare;  Approach,  my  Soul,  the  Mercy-seat ; 
and  Glorious  Things  of  thee  are  spoken,  Zion,  City 
of  our  God.  Few  hymns  are  more  explicitly 
recoi-ds  of  experience  (and  the  wTiter  said  plainly 
that  they  were  such)  than  those  of  Xewton. 

English  hymnology  has  been  enriched  during 
the  present  century  from  two  chief  sources  be- 
sides natural  growth.  The  so-called  "  Oxford  " 
movement,  and  the  contributions  of  writers  be- 
longing, like  Edward  Caswall,  J.  H.  Newman, 
and  Frederick  W.  Faber,  to  the  Roman-Catholic 
communion,  have  both  given  us  many  hymns 
that  are  accepted  by  Christians  of  every  name  as 
true  outpourings  of  the  pious  heart.  John  Keble, 
the  poetical  leader  in  tlie  Oxford  movement, 
published  in  1S27  the  most  extensively  circulated 
book  of  religious  poetry  of  modern  times,  —  The 
Christian  Year.  J.  II.  Newman  wrote.  Lead, 
kindly  Light.  John  ]\Iason  Neale,  a  practical 
philantliropist,  as  well  as  a  scholar  and  a  poet, 
opened  to  modern  Christians  the  wealth  of  medi- 
reval  Greek  and  Latin  hymnology,  and  enriched 
our  collections  with  such  translations  as  Fierce 
was  the  Wild  Billow ;  The  Royal  Banners  forward 
go ;  Safe  Home,  Safe  Home,  in  Port ;  Tlie  World 
is  very  Evil ;  Jerusalem  the  golden ;  and  a  number 
of  others  that  the  Church  will  not  willingly  let 
die.  We  mention  also  Earl  Nelson  (O  Wisdom, 
spreading  mightily),  Sir  Henry  AVilliams  Baker 
{How  Welcome  was  the  Call),  John  S.  B.  Jlonsell 
(Birds  have  their  Quiet  A^est,  Soon  and  Forever,  such 
Promise  our  Trust),  AVilliam  Chatterton  Dix  (As 
with  Gladness  Men  of  Old),  Francis  Turner  I'al- 
gravo  (Star  of  Mom  and  Even),  Dean  Henry  Al- 
ford  (Saviour  of  them  that  trust  in  thee),  Mrs.  Cecil 
Frances  Alexandi-r  ( When  wounded  sore,  the  Strick- 
en Soul),  Christopher  AN'ordswortli  (O  Day  of  Rest 
and  Glad7iess). 

The  Moravian,  James  Montgomery,  was  one  of 
the  early  hymn-writers  of  the  cent  ury ;  and,  though 
he  was  a  poet  of  but  mediocre  talent,  he  has  fixed 
his  name  in  the  collections  by  certain  hynms, 
such  as  Songs  of  Praise  the  Angels  sang;  Go  to 
Dark  Gethsemune;  Oh!  where  shall  Rest  be  found? 
Hark!  the  Sung  of  Jubilee ;  Forever  with  tlie  Lord; 
and  W hat  are  these  in  Bright  Array?  In  spite  of 
their  want  of  poetic  tire,  these  hymns  liave  proved, 
as  the  author  himself  says,  "  accejitable  vehicles 
of  expression  of  the  experience  of  his  fellow- 
creatures  during  the  pilgrimage  of  the  Christian 
life." 

There  remain  to  be  mentioned  among  the  wo- 
men of  the  present  century  Harriet  Auber  (Our 
Ble.ised  Redeemer,  ere  he  breathed  his  Last  Fare- 
ivell),  Cliarlotti!  Elliott  (Just  as  I  am,  without  one 
Plea),  Sarah  Flower  Adams  (Nearer,  my  God,  to 
thee),  and  Frances  Ridley  Ilavergal  (/  gave  my 
Life  for  thee). 

Reginald  Heber,  the  saintly  bishop  of  Calcutta 
(d.  1H20),  was  author  of  Brii/hlrst  and  Best  of  the 
Sons  of  the  Morning,  By  Cool  Siloavt's  Shady  Rill: 
Thou  art  gone  to  the  Grave,  but  we  will  not  deplore 


thee:  and  other  hymns  of  merit.  Later  in  the 
century  the  number  of  hymn-writers  greatly  in- 
creased. Among  them  were  Henry  Francis  Lyte, 
who  wrote  Jesus,  I  my  Cross  have  taken,  and  that 
almost  faultless  hymn.  Abide  with  me,  fast  falls  the 
Eventide.  Sir  John  Bowring  (1792-1872)  was 
author  of  some  of  the  liest  hymns  of  our  day. 
among  which  are  Goil  is  Love,  his  Mercy  brightens; 
In  the  C)'oss  of  Christ  I  glory ;  and  Watchman,  tell 
us  of  the  Night.  Sir  Robert  Grant  (1785-1838) 
wrote  Oh !  zvorship  the  King,  all  Glorious  above , 
When  Gathering  Clouds  around  I  view,  and  Sav- 
iour, when  in  Dust  to  Thee,  —  showing  a  deep  spir- 
ituality that  marked  his  character  while  he  was 
involved  in  the  responsibility  of  public  affairs. 
Among  the  later  writers  of  this  centiuy  are  Jo- 
siah  Conder  (1789-1855),  a  friend  of  Montgomery 
and  Chalmers  (The  Lord  is  King,  lift  up  thy 
Voice),  James  Edmeston,  1791-1867  (Saviour, 
breathe  an  Evening  Blessing),  a  London  architect, 
Thomas  Toke  Lynch,  1818-71  (Gracious  Spirit, 
dwell  jvith  me),  Joseph  Anstice,  1808-30  (When 
came  in  Flesh  the  Incarnate  Word),  Horatius 
Bonar,  b.  1808  {I  heard  the  Voice  of  Jesus  say), 
and  Thomas  Hornblower  Gill,  b.  1819  (Father, 
thine  Elect  who  lovest).  Of  the  last,  Professor 
F.  M.  Bird,  the  hyninologist,  has  said  that  his 
hymns  were  destined  to  a  long  life,  though  they 
were  scarcely  less  innovations  at  the  time  they 
appeared  than  those  of  Wesley  were  in  1739. 

Hymnology  has  not  developed  in  America  as  it 
has  in  England,  chiefly,  perhaps,  because  we  have 
had  the  riches  of  the  mother-country  to  make 
choice  from,  and  needed  only  such  lyrics  as  a  few 
different  circumstances  rendered  necessary;  still, 
American  poets  have  made  considerable  contri- 
butions to  this  department  of  letters.  Timothy 
Dwight  (1752-1817),  president  of  Yale  College 
from  1795  to  1800,  wrote  I  lore  thy  Kingdom,  Lonl. 
and  other  hymns  that  still  live.  James  AVaddell 
Alexander  (180-1-59)  translated  from  the  Gernum 
of  Gerhardt  the  hymn  which  the  latter  had  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  of  St.  Bernard,  0  Sacred 
Heail,  now  wounded.  Bishop  (Jeorge  W.  Uoane 
(1799-1859)  wrote  Softly  noiv  the  Light  of  Day. 
Bishop  Henry  Ustick  Onderdonk  (1789-185.S) 
wrote  Tlie  Spirit  in  our  Hearts,  and  ]Vhen,  lord, 
to  this  our  Western  Land.  The  saintly  William 
Augustus  Muhlenberg  (179U-1S77)  wrote  Like 
Noah's  Weary  Dove,  and  /  icould  not  live  ahcay. 
The  poets,  William  Cullen  Bryant  (1794-1879), 
Jolm  Pierjiont  (1785-18(10),  and  Phoebe  Cary 
(1821-71)  wrote  resjiectively,  Oh,  deem  not  they 
are  blest  alone;  The  Winds  are  hushed,  the  Peaceful 
.Moon  ;  and  One  Sweetly  Solemn  Thought.  Samuel 
Uavies  (1721-01)  wrote  at  an  earlier  period.  Lord. 
I  am  Thine,  entirely  Thine;  and  Edward  Hamilton 
Sears  (1810-70),  Calm  on  the  Listening  ICar  of 
Night,  and  It  came  upon  tlie  Midnight  Clear,  that 
Glorious  Song  of  Old.  -Among  the  latest  Ameri- 
can hymn-writers  an;  Bishop  Arthur  Cleveland 
Coxe,  b.  1818  (Oh!  where  are  Kings  and  Em/iirrs 
nou'?),  Hay  Palmer,  b.  1808  (My  Faith  looks  tip  to 
Thee),  and  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  b.  1809,  who 
wrote  O  Love  Divine,  that  stooped  to  share,  anil 
Lord  of  all  Being,  throned  afar. 

The  i)rogre.s8  of  Englisli  iiynuiology  has  been 
from  rugged  style  and  gro.ss  conceptions  to  ele- 
gance and  streugtli  of  style,  and  spirituality  of 
conception.     The  hymns  of  the  present  day  arc 


HYPATIA. 


1055 


HYBCANUS    n. 


superior  in  almost  every  respect,  to  those  that  sat- 
isfied our  ancestors,  thougli  we  cull  from  earlier 
compositions  many  a  gem  to  adorn  our  books 
of  sacred  lyrics,  and  often  sing  tlieir  rugged 
psalms,  and  read  their  sacred  poems,  to  arouse 
our  sometimes  dull  spirituality.  The  best 
hymn-books  of  to-day  unite  the  medieval  pro- 
ductions of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Church  with 
the  hynms  of  Watts  and  'Wesley,  and  the  sweet 
expressions  of  the  experience  of  a  Lyte  or  a 
Muhlenburg.  There  has  been  a  steady  growth  ; 
but  we  cannot  leave  the  past  behind,  with  its 
rich  experiences  and  consecrated  expression  of  a 
living  C'liristianity.  ARTHUR  GILMAX. 

HYPATIA,  b.  in  Alexandria,  about  the  middle 
of  the  fourtli  century  ;  a  daughter  of  the  philoso- 
pher and  mathematician  Theon ;  stood,  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  as  the  recognized 
liead  of  the  Neo-Platonic  school ;  attracted  large 
audiences  to  her  lectures  in  Athens  and  Alexan- 
dria by  her  learning  and  eloquence ;  and  was 
generally  beloved  and  esteemed  in  her  native 
city  on  account  of  her  beauty  and  virtue.  One 
day  she  wa?  assailed  in  the  streets  by  a  Christian 
mo..,  which  dragged  her  from  her  chariot  into  a 
neighboring  church,  cut  her  into  pieces  by  oyster- 
shells,  and  burnt  her.  According  to  Socrates 
{Hlsl.  EccL,  vii.  15),  the  fury  of  the  mob  was 
due  to  the  fanaticism  of  the  Nitrian  monks; 
according  to  Suidas,  to  the  intrigues  of  Cyril. 
A  Latin  letter  addressed  to  Cyril,  and  found 
in  Baluze  (ConciL,  i.  210),  is  ascribed  to  her; 
but  it  is  spurious.  Several  letters,  liowever,  ad- 
dressed to  her  by  Synesius,  once  her  disciple,  and 
afterwards  bishop  of  Ptolemais,  are  still  extant. 
Traces  of  her  life  re-appear  in  the  legend  of  St. 
Catharine,  according  to  Mrs.  Ja.mkson  :  Sacred 
<ind  Le</eiiilanj  Art.  She  forms  the  subject  of  a 
kind  of  historical  romance :  Hypatia,  by  Charles 
KixGSLKY,  London,  1853. 

HYPERIUS,  Andreas  Gerhard,  b.  at  Ypres 
{whence  Hi/periiix).  May  10,  1511  ;  d.  at  Marburg, 
Feb.  1,  1564;  studied  in  Paris  1528  35;  travelled 
in  Germany;  embraced  the  Reformation;  visited 
England  1537-41;  and  was  in  1542  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Marburg.  He  was  a 
Jiian  of  a  mild  and  conciliatory  temper,  —  a 
representative  of  that  school  of  theology  which 
endeavored  to  mediate  between  the  different  Prot- 
estant parties,  and  soften  down  the  theological 
ire.  On  the  formation  of  the  evangelical  theolo- 
gy he  exercised  a  considerable  influence.  He  is 
the  father  of  homiletics ;  and  his  De  formandis 
concionibiis  sacris  (1553)  and  Topica  theologica 
(1561)  were  extensively  used,  even  by  Roman- 
Catholic  preachers.  His  exegetical  works,  partly 
published  among  his  Opuscula  (two  collections, 
1570  and  1580),  and  partly  edited  independently 
by  1.  Mylius  (1582-84),  are  among  the  best  pro- 
ductions of  the  kind  which  the  time  jiresented. 
His  Methodus  Iheologice  remained  unfinished.  See 
the  Memoir  by  Wiga.vd  Okth  before  Meth.  Iheol. 
and  De  form.  cone.  MANGOLD. 

HYPOSTASIS  (iiTTofframf,  substantia,  or  subsisten- 
tia),  a  term  occurring  in  tlie  Trinitarian  contro- 
versies, and  used  in  various  dialectical  combina- 
tions with  ovma  (^essentia)  and  npoauixov  (persona). 
The  Council  of  Alexandria,  however  (362),  finally 
defined  hypostasis  as  synonymous  with  person. 

HYPSISTARIANS,  a  religious  sect  living  in 
15-11 


('appadocia  in  the  fourth  century,  it  was  a  sin- 
gular mixture  of  I'aganism  and  Judaism.  It 
retained  the  woi'ship  of  fire  and  light,  but  rejected 
all  image-woi'ship.  It  retained  the  Sabbath,  the 
regulations  of  diet,  etc.,  but  rejected  the  circum- 
cision. All  we  know  of  this  sect  is  derived  from 
(jregory  Xazianzen  (Oral.,  xviii.  5),  who  be- 
longed to  it  before  his  conversion  to  C'liristianity, 


and   Gregory  of  Nyssa  (A(/v.    Ennuinn, 


'-)■ 


See  Ul-LMANN :  De  IIi/ps.,  Heidelberg,  1833;  and 
BiinMKR  :  De  II1//1S.,  Berlin,  1834. 

HYRCANUS  i.,  John,  a  member  of  the  Asmo- 
na;an  family;  king  and  high  prie.st  of  the  Jews; 
d.  105  B.C.  He  was  a  son  of  Simon  Maccabajus, 
and,  at  the  murder  of  his  father  and  two  brothers, 
fell  heir  to  the  two  highest  dignities  of  his  nation 
(135  B.C.).  The  same  Ptolemy  who  had  murdered 
his  father  intended  to  put  him  out  of  the  way 
likewise;  but  Hyrcanus  escaped,  and  afterwards 
established  himself  firmly  in  the  possession  of 
his  power  by  arms  against  Ptolemy,  and  by  a 
tribute  of  five  hundred  talents  to  Antiochus  VIL 
After  the  latter's  death  (128  B.C.)  he  extended  his 
kingdom  over  Samaria  and  Iduinea,  and  strength- 
ened his  throne  by  a  treaty  with  the  Romans. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  the  antagonisni 
between  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees  began  to 
show  itself.  Ilyrcanus  followed  the  traditions  of 
his  house,  and  favored  the  former  party  (Joseph., 
Aiitii/.,  xiii.  10,  5),  until  they  clamored  for  his 
resignation  of  the  high  priestly  oHice,  when  he 
went  over  to  the  Sadducees.  Schtirer  says  of  his 
reign,  that  "  it  was  the  most  glorious  Israel  hail 
seen  since  the  days  of  Solomon."  See  WKi!Xf;K  : 
Jithann  Hyrkan,  Wernigerode,  1877;  Schi'kkr: 
iV.  T'liche  Zeitgesc/iichte,  pp.  107-117,  Leipzig, 
1874;  Ew.\LD :  Hktory  of  Israel,  vol.  iv.  ;  St.\n- 
LEY  :   History  of  the  J.^'cish  Churcli,  iii. 

HYRCANUS  II.,  grandson  of  Hyrcanus  I.,  and 
high  priest  of  the  Jews;  was  executed  30  B.C. 
He  was  a  weak  character,  easily  deceived,  and 
the  dupe  or  tool  of  others  for  forty  years.  At 
the  death  of  his  mother  Alexandra  (09  B.C.), 
who  had  succeeded  to  the  throne  at  her  husbaiul's 
death  (78  B.C.),  his  younger  brother  di.sputed 
his  rightful  accession  to  power  by  arms,  defeated 
him,  and  forced  him  not  only  to  renounce  the 
kingly  office,  but  even  the  high  priestly  dignity, 
to  which  he  had  been  elevated  at  his  father's 
death.  He  was,  however,  induced  by  the  artifice 
and  ambition  of  Antipater,  the  founder  of  the 
Herodian  family,  to  repent  his  action,  and,  escap- 
ing from  Jerusalem  by  night,  fled  to  Petra.  When 
Pompey  advanced  ujxin  Damascus  (in  64  B.C.), 
he  sought  his  favor,  and  the  year  following  was 
restored  by  him  to  the  high  priesthood.  In  this 
otfice  he  was  confirmed  by  Caesar  (47  B.C.),  and 
received  a  nominal  civil  jurisdiction  at  the  side 
of  Antipater,  the  procurator  of  Jiidfea.  When 
the  Parthians  overran  the  land,  and  plundered 
Jerusalem  (40  B.C.),  they  took  Hyrcanus  prison- 
er, cut  off  his  ears  in  order  to  unfit  him  forever 
for  the  high  priesthood,  placed  his  son  Antigonus 
in  that  office,  and  took  him  into  captivity.  He 
returned  to  Jerusalem  in  36  B.C.,  but  was  put 
to  death  by  Herod  the  Great,  who  had  married 
his  beautiful  daughter  Mariamne  in  order  to 
avoid  the  possibility  of  his  royal  claims  being 
recognized  by  the  Romans,  and  to  annihilate  the 
influence   of   the   name  "  AsuiouEeau "  upon  the 


HYSTASPES. 


1056 


HYSTASPES. 


Jews,  his  subjects.  See  Schurer  :  N.  Tliche 
Zeitgesch.,  pp.  173-183;  Ewald:  Hist,  of  Israel, 
iv.  ;  Stanley:  Historic  of  the  Jewish  Church,  in., 
pp.  453-475;  art.  Macc.\hees. 

HYSTASPES,  or  HYDASPES.  Among  the 
Christians  of  the  first  century,  there  circulated 
a  proplietico-apocal^-ptic  book,  pretending  to  be 
the  work  of  the  Persian  or  Median  wise  man  and 
king,  Hystaspes,  and  to  contain  prophecies  of 
Christ  and  his  kingdom.  It  was  one  of  those 
pseudepigraphous  compositions  which  at  that 
time  were  made  in  great  number,  and  of  various 
forms,  for  apologetic  purposes.  Cienerally  they 
were  ascribed  to  some  person  of  the  old  covenant; 
but,  as  soon  as  Christianity  penetrated  into  the 
Pagan  world,  the  attempt  was  made,  not  only  to 
interpret  real  dicla  of  elder  Pagan  seers  and  poets 
with  a  Christian  intention,  but  also  to  manufac- 
ture heathen  prophecies  of  Christianity.  The 
most  remarkable  productions  of  tliis  kind  were 
the  so-called  "  Sibylline  books,"  much  used  by 
the  apologists  and  fathers  from  the  second  to  the 
fourth  century ;  and  they  found  their  Oriental 
counterpart  in  the  Valicinia  Hyslaspis. 

The  book  is  spoken  of  by  three  of  the  fathers, 
—  Justin  {Apolog.,  i.  "20  "and  44),  Clement  of 
Alexandria  {Strom.,  v.  6,  §  43),  and  Lactantius 


(Tnstit.  div.,  vii.  15,  18;  Epilom.,  T.  ii.  p.  69). 
Of  the  author,  Justin  and  Clement  say  nothing; 
but  Lactantius  adds  that  he  was  an  ancient 
Median  king,  living  before  the  Trojan  war.  la 
spite  of  the  chronological  confusion,  it  is  proba- 
ble that  Lactantius  here  thinks  of  the  father  of 
King  Darius  I.,  of  whom  Amniianus  Marcellinus 
(xsiii.  6)  tells  us  that  he  had  learnt  much  wis- 
dom and  many  secret  arts  from  the  Brahmins  of 
India,  and  again  taught  them  to  the  magians. 
Cyathius,  a  Byzantine  historian  from  the  si.xth 
century,  speaks  {Hist.,  ii.  :24)  of  a  Hystaspes, 
a  contemporary  of  Zoroaster,  without  deciding 
whether  or  not  he  was  identical  with  the  father 
of  Darius.  It  is  evident  that  we  here  meet  with 
traces  of  the  Persian  myths  about  the  Bactrian 
king  Vistaspa,  or  Gustasp,  a  contemporary  of 
Zoroaster;  and  we  may  safely  assume  that  the 
Vaticinia  Hystaspis  were  founded  on  Persian  remi- 
niscences, though  the  scanty  notices  of  the  book 
which  have  come  down  to  us  do  not  allow  us  to 
form  any  explicit  opinion  of  its  form,  contents, 
or  tendency. 

Lit.  —  C.  W.  F.  Walch;  De  Hystaspe.  in 
Comment.  Societ.  Gotting.,  ii.  1779 ;  and  especially 
Oracula  Sibyllina,  edited  by  Alexandi-e,  Paris, 
1856,  ii.  267.  wagenmann. 


IBAS. 


1057 


IDOL. 


IBAS  succeeded  Rabulas  as  bishop  of  Edessa 
in  435,  though  he  had  previously  opposed  him 
very  strenuously  in  his  endeavors  to  have  the 
writings  of  Theodore  of  Mopsuestia  condemned 
as  heretical.  But  when  he  undertook,  in  connec- 
tion with  two  other  residents  of  Edessa  (Cunuis 
and  Probus),  to  translate  these  writings  into 
Syriac,  he  was  accused,  before  the  patriarch  Pro- 
clus  and  Emperor  Theodosius  II.,  of  propagating 
the  Nestorian  heresies,  and  was  deposed  by  the 
Robber  Synod  of  Ephesus,  Aug.  22,  449.  He  was 
reinstated,  however,  by  the  synod  of  Chalcedon 
(451),  and  died  Oct.  28,  457.  Parts  of  his  epistle 
to  Mares  of  Beth-Hardashir  (Seleucia)  on  the 
Tigris,  of  great  interest  as  an  authentic  document 
from  the  very  time  of  the  Nestorian  controversy, 
liave  been  preserved  in  a  Greek  translation 
an]ong  the  acts  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  and 
are  found  in  Mansi  :  ConciL,  VII.  He  is  not 
recognized  by  the  Jacobites.  See  Assem.-vni  : 
Bib.  Orient.,  I.  p.  200.  E.  NESTLE. 

IBN  EZRA.     See  Aben  Ezra. 

ICELAND,  an  island  belonging  to  Denmark, 
situated  in  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean,  just  south 
of  the  polar  circle,  130  miles  south-east  of  Green- 
land, and  850  miles  west  of  Norway,  comprises 
an  area  of  39,200  square  miles,  with  about  70,000 
inliabitants.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth 
century  the  country  was  visited  by  Celtic  monks 
from  Ireland  :  in  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century 
it  was  settled  by  Norwegian  emigrants.  The 
settlers  were  Pagans;  but,  through  their  inter- 
course with  the  mother-country,  they  became 
acquainted  with  Christianity  during  the  tenth 
century,  and  in  1000  Christianity  was  officially 
established  as  the  religion  of  the  country.  In 
1055  an  episcopal  see  was  founded  at  Skalholdt, 
and  in  1106  another  at  Holar.  The  tithe  was 
introduced  in  1090,  and  an  ecclesiastical  code 
was  promulgated  in  1125.  The  country  belonged 
first  to  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  Hamburg- 
Bremen,  then  to  that  of  Lund  (1100),  and  finally 
to  that  of  Nidaros  (1237)  ;  but  the  connection 
was  rather  loose,  as  the  bishops  were  elected  by 
the  people.  In  1550  the  Reformation  was  intro- 
duced with  armed  force  by  the  Danish  king, 
though  without  effecting  any  great  change  in  the 
religious  state  of  tlie  people.  In  1801  the  bishop- 
ric of  Holar  was  abolished,  and  in  1825  the  whole 
island  was  laid  under  the  authority  of  the  episco- 
pal see  of  Rejkyawick.  See  G.  J.  Thokkelin  : 
Jus  ecclesiaKticum,  etc.,  Copenhagen,  1776 ;  Har- 
BOW :  Om  Reformationen  i  Island,  Copenhagen, 
1843. 

ICHTHYS  (Greek  Ix^k,  "a  fish;"  the  acrostic 
of  the  sentence  'IJimic  Xpiarbc,  Qmv  Tide,  ^uriip, 
"Jesus  Christ,  God's  Son,  Saviour")  forms  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  frequently  used  Chris- 
tian symbols.  The  name  "  ichthys,"  or  the  picture 
of  a  fish,  is  often  found  on  rings,  gems,  utensils, 
tombstones,  etc. ;  and  numerous  metaphorical 
expressions  or  elaborate  allegories  in  the  writings 
of  the  Fathers  were  occasioned  by  this  acrostic. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  {Poedag.,  III.  11)  men- 


tions the  fish  as  one  of  the  Christian  symbols, 

though  without  making  any  allusion  to  its  origin. 
The  first  who,  in  speaking  of  the  syniliol,  also 
tliinks  of  the  acrostic,  is  TertuUian  {JJe  Baplismo, 
I.).  See  F.  Becker  :  D.  Darslellmuj  J.  C.  unter 
d.  Bilde  d.  Fisckes,  Leipzig,  1800,  2il  ed.,  1876. 

ICO'NIUIVI,  the  present  Koniyeh,  a  city  of  Asia 
Minor,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Taurus,  on  the  road 
from  Antioch  in  Pisidia  to  Derbe,  was  at  one 
time  the  capital  of  Lycaonia,  and  through  many 
centuries  a  flourishing  place.  Paul  visited  it 
three  times  (Acts  xiii.  51,  xiv.  1,  19,  21,  xvi.  2), 
and  it  is  the  scene  of  the  legend  of  Paul  and 
Theehi. 

ICONOCLAST,  "image-breaker,"  and  ICON- 
ODULIST,  "image-server"  (from  dnuv,  "an  im- 
age," and  iikutl,cLv,  "  to  break,"  or  dov'Mveiv,  "  to 
serve  "),  are  the  Greek  names  of  the  two  oppo- 
site parties  in  the  great  controversy  concerning 
Image- WousHii' ;  which  article  see.  In  modern 
usage,  the  word  "  iconoclast "  is  applied  to  one 
who  destroys  shams  or  impositions  of  any  kind. 

ICONOS'TASIS,  a  piece  of  furniture  in  the 
Eastern  Churcli,  corresponding,  not  to  our  rood- 
screen,  which  separates  the  choir  from  the  nave, 
but  to  our  altar-rails,  forming  a  holiest  of  the 
lioly.  It  developed,  indeed,  from  the  simple, 
open  altar-rails  which  were  in  use  in  the  Chris- 
tian churches  from  the  earliest  date,  into  a  solid 
panel,  completely  concealing  the  altar  by  degrees, 
as  the  service  in  the  Greek  Church  assumed  the 
character  of  a  great  liturgical  drama.  Its  name 
it  received  from  its  being  highly  ornamented 
with  pictures  (dKuv),  and  it  probably  reached  its 
present  form  in  the  eighth  century. 

IDOL  and  IDOLATRY.  In  classical  Greek 
the  word  ildulov  is  used  of  any  kind  of  represen- 
tation, bodily  or  ideal,  pictorial,  sculptural,  or 
mimical ;  and  it  has  no  reference  at  all  to  the 
question  whether  the  representation  is  to  be 
recognized  as  an  object  of  worship,  or  simply 
looked  at  as  a  product  of  art.  The  idea  of  an 
idol  did  not  exist  in  the  Greek  civilization.  It 
originated  among  the  Jews,  under  the  first  cove- 
nant :  and,  though  the  Septuagint  uses  eldu'Aov  to 
translate  no  less  than  sixteen  ditt'ereut  Hebrew 
words,  it  applies  it,  nevertheless,  exclusively  to 
such  representations  as  are  destined  for  worship, 
leaving  entirely  out  of  consideration  whether  the 
subject  of  the  representation  be  the  true  God  or 
a  false  one ;  as,  according  to  the  Second  Com- 
mandment, any  bodily  representation  of  any 
deity,  when  worshipped,  is  an  idol. 

The  word  dduTio'Aarpua  is  of  Christian  origin, 
and  occurs  for  the  first  time  in  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament  (1  Cor.  x.  14;  Gal.  v.  20: 
1  Pet.  iv.  3;  Col.  iii.  5).  As  at  tlie  time  of 
Christ  the  Jews  had  ceased  long  ago  to  use  any 
bodily  representation  of  God  in  their  service, 
while  all  the  Pagan  religions  found  within  the 
boundaries  of  the  Roman  Empire  worshipped 
their  gods  under  some  kind  of  bodily  representa- 
tion, it  was  quite  natural  that  the  apostolic 
writers,  and  after  them  the  Fathers,  should  apply 


IDUM^A. 


1058 


IGNATIUS  OF  ANTIOCH. 


the  word  in  a  general  way  as  meaning  simply  the 
■worship  of  false  gods.  But  in  course  of  time, 
■when  the  worsliip  of  false  gods  had  been  stamped 
out  (a  law  of  392  declared  sacrifice  and  divina- 
tion treason,  and  punishable  with  death),  it  was 
discovered  that  idolatry  might  be  found  also  in 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  as  it  really  means 
the  worship  of  any  bodily  representation  of  any 
deity.     See  Image-Worship. 

lbUM>E'A.     See  E'dom. 

IGNATIAN    EPISTLES.      See    Ignatius    or 
Antiocii. 

IGNATIUS  OF  ANTIOCH.  The  only  sources 
fiom  which  any  information  can  be  drawn  about 
tins  celebrated  person  are  the  epistles  circulating 
under  his  name.  Eusebius  knows  nothing  more 
of  him  than  what  can  be  extracted  from  the 
epistles,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  short  notices 
by  Irenseus  (Ado.  Hares.,  V.  28,  4)  and  by  Ori- 
gen  (prologue  to  the  Canticles,  and  in  Ho/n.  6,  on 
Luke),  which  he  also  knows.  But  the  list  he 
gives  of  tlie  bishops  of  Autioch  is  doubtful  with 
respect  to  its  chronology.  Compare  A.  Hau- 
nack:  Die  Zeit  des  IgnaliiLi,  Leipzig,  1878.  He 
places  Ignatius  as  the  second  bishop  after  Peter. 
As  nobody  knew  any  tiling  about  the  intervening 
Euodius,  he  gradually  dropped  out  of  attention, 
and  a  new  tradition  formed,  placing  Ignatius 
immediately  after  Peter  (Chrysostom,  the  Paschal 
Chronicle,  Theodoret).  Between  these  two  tra- 
ditions the  Const.  Ap.  (VII.  46)  tries  to  mediate 
by  making  Peter  consecrate,  first  Euodius,  and 
then  Ignatius.  'WTiat  tradition  else  has  pre- 
served concerning  Ignatius  —  the  story  that  he 
was  the  child  spoken  of  in  Matt,  xviii.  5,  and 
other  fictions  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes  and  Vin- 
centius  —  is  completely  worthless.  Nor  are  the 
various  Ada  Marli/rii  of  any  historical  value.  We 
liave  two  which  are  completely  independent  of 
each  other.  I.  Marli/rium  CoH/erliinuii,  first  pub- 
lished bv  Ussher,  1017,  in  a  barbarous  but  literal 
translation,  then  in  a  Greek  version  by  Ruinart, 
in  Act.  Marl.,  1089,  and  finally  in  a  Syriac  trans- 
lation by  Mbsinger,  in  Supplem.  Corp.  lyn., 
Innsbruck,  1872.  II.  Marli/rium  Vaticauum,  ed- 
ited by  Dressel,  in  Patr.  Aposl.,  p.  308.  The 
Latin  Vila  Ifjnatii,  in  Act.  .Sand.  Feb.,  I.,  29,  the 
Armenian  Marli/rium,  edited  by  Petermann,  and 
the  Vila,  by  .Symeon  Metaplira-stcs,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  mere  compilatiuns  from  the  two  first 
mentioned.  This  whole  literature  lias  been  col- 
lected and  edited  bv  Zahn,  in  Pair.  Ap.  Opcr., 
Leipzig,  1870  [F.  X.'Funk,  Op.  Pair.  Ap.,  Tiiliin- 
gen,  1881,  and  ,J.  B.  Liglitfoot,  London,  1.S85]. 
But  all  these  Ada  Martiirii  are  spurious:  they 
contradict  the  ei:)istles;  tliey  swarm  with  uiihis- 
torical  statements ;  they  were  not  known  to  any 
old  writer,  not  even  to  Eusebius;  tliey  date, 
probably,  from  the  fifth  century.  Thus  tlie  epis- 
tles are  the  only  sourci;  of  information  left  to  us. 
They  claim  to  have  been  written  by  Ignatius,  on 
his  Journey  from  Antioch  (where  he  had  Ijeeii 
condemned  to  death)  to  Home,  where  lie  wa.s  to 
suffer  the  punishment  of  being  torn  to  pieces  by 
wild  beasts. 

The  total  number  of  epistles  bearing  the  name 
of  Ignatius  is  fifteen,  but  they  are  of  very  dif- 
ferent date  and  worth.  Seven  of  them,  namely, 
those  Ad  Ephcsios,  Mat/nesios,  Trallianos,  Komanos, 
/'/tiludelphciios,   Hini/rniBos,    and   Poli/curpum,   are 


extant  in  a  double  Greek  version,  —  a  shorter  and 
a  longer.  The  latter  contains  five  more  epistles; 
namely,  those  Ad  Mariatn  Cafsobotitani,  Tarsen- 
ses,  Antiochenos,  Heronem,  and  Philippenses:  and 
finally  we  have  three  more  epistles,  but  only  in 
a  Latin  translation;  namely,  two  Ad  S.  Joanuem, 
and  one  Ad  S.  Mariam  Virtjinem,  to  which  is 
added  a  Re.iponsio  B.  Maria  }'.  ad  Ignatium. 
The  three  last-mentioned  letters  were  probably 
originally  written  in  Latin,  and  are  completely 
worthless.  They  are  found  in  Z.\hn  1.  c.  Of 
the  shorter  Greek  version,  G ',  we  have  two 
manuscripts, —  Codex  Mcdiceo-Laiirenlianus,  and 
Codex  Casanatensis,  of  which,  however,  the  latter 
is  a  transcription  of  the  former.  There  also 
exist  a  Latin  translation,  first  published  by 
Ussher,  1644,  a  Syriac  translation,  extant  only  in 
fragments,  and  a  complete  Armenian  translation 
of  the  Syriac  translation,  published  by  the  Arme- 
nian Bishop  Menas  of  Constantinople,  1783.  The 
epistle  Ad  Romanos  is  also  found  in  the  Codex 
Colbertinus,  and  has  been  published  by  Mosinger 
1.  c.  The  whole  shorter  version  was  first  pub- 
lished by  Ussher  in  Latin,  1644,  and  then  in 
Greek  by  Isaac  Vossius.  Later  editions  are  very 
numerous,  the  best  by  Zahn  1.  c.  Of  the  longer 
Greek  version,  G  ^,  containing  twelve  epistles, 
there  exist  nine  manuscripts,  and  a  Latin  trans- 
lation. The  above-mentioned  Armenian  transla- 
tion also  contains  the  five  additional  epistles  of 
the  longer  version.  The  whole  longer  version 
was  first  edited  by  Pacseus,  1557,  then  by  And. 
Gessner,  1559,  and  afterwards  often,  best  by 
Zahn  1.  c.  Lately  the  three  epistles  Ad  Epliesios, 
SmyrncBos,  and  Polycarpum,  have  been  discovered 
in  a  version  still  .shorter  than  G  '.  This  version, 
however,  exists  only  in  a  Syriac  translation.  It 
has  been  published  hy  Cureton,  The  Ancient 
Syriac  Version  of  the  Epistles  of  S.  Ignatius,  Lon- 
don, 1845,  and  still  better  in  Corpus  1  ynatianum, 
Berlin,  1849.  A  very  rich  collection  of  materials 
belonging  to  the  subject,  especially  of  Oriental 
versions,  is  found  in  Petkkmann:  iS'.  Ignalii 
Epislolce,  Leipzig,  1849. 

On  account  of  the  great  importance  which  the 
epistles  of  Ignatius  have  for  the  older  church 
history,  the  question  about  their  genuineness 
gave  rise  to  a  very  lively  debate,  the  more  as  a 
preliminary  question  about  the  authenticity  of 
the  versions  had  to  be  settled  in  advance.  Tlie 
liistory  of  the  debate  falls  into  three  period.s. 
The  first  period  ends  with  the  discovery  of  the 
shorter  version,  G  ' ;  and  its  principal  result  was 
the  general  recognition  of  the  spuriousness  of 
those  three  epistles  Ad  S.  Joanncm  and  t».  Mari- 
an Virginem,  which  exist  only  in  a  Latin  trans- 
lation :  even  Baronius  gave  tliem  up.  Witli 
respect  to  the  remaining  twelve  epistles,  most 
Koman-Catholic  theologians  (Ilartung,  Baronius, 
Bellarmin)  aceejited  them ;  while  most  Protes- 
tant theologians  (the  Magcleburg  Centuries.  Cal- 
vin) rejected  them.  Among  the  former,  however, 
Martiaiis  jMastranis  acknowledged  that  the  text 
was  interpolated;  and  among  the  latter  Nic. 
Vedelius  recognized  the  only  seven  epistles  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius.  With  the  publication  of  the 
shorter  version,  G ',  the  second  period  opens.  The 
vcM'sion  (i '  was  soon  generally  aeceiited  as  authen- 
tic, anil  the  version  G  ^  rejected  as  interpolated; 
and  lately  Zahn  has  fixed  the  date  of  tliis  inter- 


IGNATIUS. 


1059 


IGNATIUS. 


polation  to  the  latter  half  of  the  second  cental y 
(If/nalius  rnn  Aniiochia,  Gotha,  1873).  The  ques- 
tion of  the  authenticity  of  the  text  thus  settled, 
the  question  (if  the  authorshiii  was  again  taken 
up.  The  five  epistles  not  mentioned  by  Kuse- 
bius,  and  not  contained  in  the  shorter  version 
(Ad  Mariam  Cassobolilam,  Tarsenncs,  Anilockenos, 
Heronem,  and  Philippenseti),  -weve  immediately  ex- 
cluded as  spurious.  With  respect  to  the  remain- 
ing seven  epistles,  the  que.stion  was  answered 
in  the  affirmative  by  Rothe,  Huther,  Uiisterdieck, 
and  others ;  in  the  negative,  especially  by  15aur, 
who  fixes  their  date  at  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  The  third  period  begins  with  tlie  dis- 
covery of  the  shortest  Syrian  version,  S,  of  the 
three  epistles  Ail  liomanos,  Ephesioi:,  and  Poli/- 
carpum.  Cureton,  who  first  editeil  this  version, 
asserted  without  hesitation  that  the  original  and 
genuine  epistles  of  Ignatius  had  now  been  found ; 
that  the  versions  G  *  and  G  ■'  were  nothing  but 
interpolations  and  expansions  in  support  of  a 
later  state  of  ecclesiastical  development;  that 
the  four  epistles  Ad  Magnesias,  SmyrncEos,  Ph'da- 
delphenos,  and  Trallianos,  were  mere  fictitious 
compositions,  etc.  Bunsen  exerted  himself  much 
to  introduce  these  views  in  Germany  {D.  drei 
echlen  u.  vier  unechien  Brie/e  d.  Icptaiius,  Ham- 
burg, 1847,  and  Ignatius  von  Aniiochien  u.  s.  Zeil, 
llambm-g,  1847).  They  found  also  many  adher- 
ents (RiLschl,  Weiss,  Bohringer,  and  Lipsius) ; 
but  they  met  with  still  stronger  opposition,  both 
among  those  who  rejected  the  Ignatian  epistles 
in  any  version,  such  as  Baur  {Die  ignatianischeu 
Brie/e  und  ihr  neuester  Kritiker,  Tiibingen,  1848), 
and  among  those  who  accepted  them  in  version 
(i^  such  as  Denzinger  (Ueher  d.  Aechtheil  d. 
hisheriqen  Textes  d.  ignatianischeu  Brie/e,  WUrz- 
burg,  1849),  Uhlhorn  (Zeilscliri/t /.  d.  hist.  TheoL, 
1855,  I. -II.),  Petevmann,  Merx  (Melelemata  ly- 
natiana,  1861),  and  Zahn.  In  the  course  of  the 
debate,  conclusive  evidence  was  produced,  partly 
from  a  logical  analysis  of  the  contents  of  the 
epistles,  partly  from  a  comparison  of  the  various 
Syrian  translations,  that  S  is  nothing  more  than 
an  extract  from  G '.  Some  of  the  stanchest 
champions  of  S,  as,  for  instance,  Lipsius  and 
Lightfoot,  fell  off ;  and  the  whole  period  passed 
off  as  an  episode,  leaving  the  debate  at  the  old 
dilemma :  either  we  have  the  genuine  epistles  of 
Ignatius  in  the  version  G ',  or  we  have  no  epistles 
at  all  by  Ignatius,  but  only  spurious  compositions 
bearing  his  name. 

A  decision  iu  the  matter  has  not  yet  been 
reached,  though  it  may  not  be  so  very  far  off. 
The  objections  to  the  genuineness  of  the  epistles 
are:  (1)  That  the  fact  on  which  they  rest  is  un- 
histoncal.  When,  however,  the  fact  is  read  out 
of  the  epistles  themselves,  and  not,  as  Baur  did, 
out  of  the  spurious  Acta  Marti/rii,  it  fits  in  very 
well  with  the  actual  state  of  affairs.  That  Chris- 
tians suffered  martyrdom  under  Trajan  is  well 
known ;  and  it  need  cause  no  hesitation  that 
Ignatius  was  condenmed  ad  Oesticu^  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  Antioch,  as  instances  of  such  condemna- 
tions occur  even  in  Hennas,  and  soon  after 
become  very  frequent.  Nor  is  it  strange  that  he 
should  be  brought  to  Rome  to  be  executed.  The 
law  forbidding  the  governor  to  send  convicts  from 
one  province  to  another  dates  from  tlie  time  of 
Severus  and  Antoninus ;  and  the  law  regulating 


the  transferrence  of  such  prisoners  to  Rome  is 
still  later.  The  route  of  the  journey  has  nothing 
improbable  about  it,  as  little  as  the  circumstance, 
that,  on  the  road,  Ignatius  was  at  liberty  to  con- 
verse with  the  congi'egations,  and  write  letters. 
Similar  instances  occur  in  Lucian  (/>e  7norte  pere- 
grini),  and  in  the  acts  of  Perpetua  and  F(!licitas. 
The  whole  situation,  finally,  presupposed  by  the 
Epistle  All  liomanos,  the  anxiety  of  Ignatius  that 
the  Romans  might  take  some  step  in  order  to 
secure  his  liberation,  is  easily  explained  by  the 
legal  right  which  any  one  concerned  had  to  appeal 
in  behalf  of  another,  even  against  his  will.  (2) 
When  next  it  has  been  said  (by  Baur)  that  the 
character  of  Ignatius,  such  as  it  appears  in  the 
epistles,  looks  more  like  a  fiction  than  a  reality, 
that  his  forced  humility  and  strained  heroism  are 
downright  offensive,  etc.,  the  mere  subjectivity 
of  this  objection,  and  consequently  its  insuf- 
ficiency as  an  argument,  is  proved  by  the  cir- 
cumstance that  others  (e.g.,  Rothe)  find  a  strong 
evidence  of  the  genuineness  of  the  epistles  in  the 
picture  they  give  of  the  character  of  Ignatius. 
(3)  Of  much  more  weight  is  the  objection  that 
the  heresies  attacked  in  the  epistles  belong  to  a 
later  period  than  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century.  It  has  been  doubted  whether  the  epis- 
tles speak  of  two  distinct  heresies,  —  a  gnostico- 
docetic  and  a  judaizing, — or  only  of  one,  com- 
bining both  these  elements;  and  it  has  been 
asserted  that  such  a  combination  would  be  an 
impossibility.  But  we  know  too  little  of  the 
earlier  stages  of  Gnosticism  to  make  such  an 
assertion ;  and  a  cautions  criticism  must,  no 
doubt,  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  epistles 
were  written  before  Gnosticism  reached  that  form 
under  which  it  presents  itself  between  130  and 
140.  A  decision  with  respect  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  epistles  cannot  be  reached  from  this  point ; 
and,  should  from  some  other  point  an  irrefragable 
evidence  of  their  genuineness  be  produced,  we 
would  have  to  change  our  ideas  of  the  historical 
development  of  Gnosticism.  (4)  It  has  also  been 
alleged  that  the  church  constitution  mirrored  by 
the  epistles,  especially  the  episcopacy,  belongs  to 
a  later  time.  It  is  true  that  the  epistles  distin- 
guish .sharply  between  the  bishop,  the  presbyter, 
and  the  deacon ;  that  they  represent  the  episco- 
pate as  superior  to  the  presbytery ;  that  they 
never  weary  of  extolling  the  bishop,  and  exhort- 
ing the  faithful  to  rally  "around  him  as  the  visible 
representative  of  the  unity  of  the  congregation, 
etc.  But,  though  the  epistles  doubtless  show  an 
advance  beyond  Clemens  Romanus  and  Hermas, 
they  certainly  fall  behind  Irenanis.  Ignatius 
knows  nothing  about  an  apostolical  establish- 
ment of  the  episcopate,  nor  does  he  connect  with 
it  those  ideas  of  a  priesthood  which  afterwards 
were  borrowed  from  the  Old  Testament.  The 
episcopate  is  to  him  an  office  in  the  congi-egation. 
not  an  oHice  in  the  church.  The  bishop  is  to 
him  not  the  successor  of  the  apostles,  nor  is  he 
the  bearer  of  the  doctrinal  tradition.  To  sum 
up  the  whole,  though  not  every  difficulty  pre- 
sented by  the  above  objections  can  be  said  to 
have  been  successfully  solved,  the  collective  mass 
of  internal  evidence  against  the  genuineness  of 
the  epistles  would,  nevertheless,  be  insufficient  tc 
counterbalance  the  testimony  in  its  favor  of  one 
single  external  witness ;  and  there  is  such  a  testi 


IGNATroS. 


1060 


IGNATIUS. 


moiiy  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp  to  the  Philippi- 
ans.  He  who  will  prove  the  epistles  of  Ignatius 
to  be  spurious  must  begin  by  proving  the  Epistle 
of  PoIycai"p  to  be  spurious,  or  at  least  very 
heavily  inteqiolated ;  but  such  an  undertaking 
will  hardly  ever  succeed.  [Besides  the  works  al- 
ready mentioned,  see  .J.  Xirschl:  Die  Theoloyie  des 
Jielliijen  If/natius,  JIainz,  1880.]      G.  UHLHORN. 

IGNATIUS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  b.  in 
790  or  706 ;  a  son  of  the  emperor  Michael  I. ; 
was  seized,  mutilated,  and  shut  up  in  a  monastery 
by  the  usurper,  l^eo  V.,  the  Armenian,  but  rose 
gradually  in  the  service  of  the  Church,  and  was 
made  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  847.  He 
could  not  agree,  however,  with  the  emperor, 
Michael  HI. :  and  by  the  intrigues  of  his  uncle, 
C'Ksar  Bardas,  he  was  deposed  in  8.i8,  and  ban- 
ished to  the  Island  of  Tei-ebinthus.  Pliotius  was 
put  in  his  place.  But  Ignatius  could  not  be  made 
to  give  up  his  claims,  and  thus  a  schism  arose. 
The  Pope,  Nicholas  I.,  was  called  in  as  a  media- 
tor; but  he  came  as  a  judge,  and  his  verdict  went 
against  Photius.  Photius,  however,  succeeded  in 
vindicating  hini.self  in  the  patriarchal  chair  until 
8G7,  when  Michael  III.  was  dethroned  and  mur- 
dered by  Basilius  Macedo.  Basilius  recalled 
Ignatius,  who  remained  in  possession  of  his  office 
to  his  death  in  (878).  Between  Ignatius  and  Adri- 
an II.,  the  successor  of  Nicholas  I.,  there  arose  a 
vehement  controversy  concerning  Bulgaria,  which 
each  bishop  demanded  as  belonging  to  his  dio- 
cese. See  Mansi:  Concii.  Coll.  xvii.,  jj.  62. 
Besides  his  letters,  also  a  Vita  Tarasii  by  Igna- 
tius has  come  down  to  us.     See  Photius. 

IGNATIUS  LOYOLA  (Don  Inigo  Lopez  de  Re- 
calde),  li.  in  the  Castle  of  Loyola.  Guipuzcoa, 
Spain,  14!ll ;  d.  in  Rome,  July  31,  1.556  ;  was  edu- 
cated at  the  court  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic,  —  a 
knight  in  the  full  romantic  sense  of  the  word. 
In  1521,  when  defending  the  fortress  of  Pamplona 
against  the  French,  he  received  an  extremely 
painful  wound  in  the  foot,  and  was  brought  to 
the  paternal  castle  to  be  nursed.  While  on  his 
sick-bed,  he  asked  for  books:  and  as  his  favorite 
reading,  the  fantastic  and  voluptuous  romances 
of  chivalry,  could  not  be  procured,  he  plunged 
himself  into  the  legen<larie8  of  the  Church,  —  the 
lives  of  the  saints.  The  effect  was  most  wonder- 
ful,—  a  complete  conversion,  an  unquench.ible 
passion.  From  the  sick-bed  he  innnediately  re- 
paired to  the  monastery  of  Montserrat,  hung  up 
his  armor  before  the  image  of  the  Virgin,  ex- 
changed his  gay  and  splendid  attire  for  the  rags 
of  a  beggar,  and  retired  to  a  cavern  at  Manresa, 
where  he  spent  some  time  practising  the  severest 
ascetic  exerci.se.s,  but  also  visited  and  comforted 
by  gloriou.s  visions.  At  Manresa  he  drew  up  the 
first  sketch  of  his  famous  Excrcilki  Spiritudliu, 
which,  by  the  members  of  the  order  he  founded, 
is  considered  a  work  of  divine  insi)iration. 

In  1523  he  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Palestine  ;  and 
on  his  return  he  began  to  study,  first  grammar 
at  Barcelona,  and  then  philosophy  at  Alcala. 
While  studj'ing,  he  lived  on  alms;  an<l  attliesanie 
time  he  devoted  himself  to  the  nursing  of  the 
sick.  But  as  lie  also  appeared  among  the  stu- 
dents and  in  tlie  hosjiitals,  as  a  curcr  of  souls,  Ik; 
became  suspected  of  belonging  to  the  Alombra- 
dos.  Though  acijuitted  wIicmi  placiMl  before  the 
Inquisition,    he    wiuj  continually   watched ;   and 


i  when,  at  Salamanca,  he  was  condemned  to  keep 
silent  for  four  years  on  all  topics  of  theology,  he 
left  Spain  (1528),  and  went  to  Paris.  In  Paris 
he  succeeded,  by  his  innate  power  of  attracting 
and  commanding  men,  and  by  the  instrumentality 
of  his  Exercilia  Spirdualia,  in  gathering  a  small 
circle  around  himself,  consisting  of  PieiTe  Favre 
the  Savoyard,  Simon  Rodriguez  the  Portuguese, 
and  the  Spaniards,  Francis  Xavier,  Alphoiis  .Sal- 
meron,  Jacob  Lainez,  and  Nicolaus  Bobadilla. 
Aug.  15,  1534,  these  men  met  in  the  Church  of 
Montmartre,  formed  an  association,  took  the  vows 
of  chastity  and  povertj-,  and  promised  further- 
more, that,  after  finishing  tlieir  studies,  they 
would  either  go  to  Jerusalem  and  devote  them- 
selves to  missionary  work,  and  work  in  the  hos- 
pitals, or  place  themselves  unconditionally  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Pope,  —  a  characteristic  alterna- 
tive. 

Ill  1537  the  association,  increased  by  three  new 
members,  met  in  Venice ;  but  the  war  between  the 
republic  and  the  Turks  prevented  them  from  con- 
tinuing the  journey  to  Jerusalem.  While  labor- 
ing in  the  hospitals,  they  met  with  the  Theatines, 
and  the  meeting  was  pregnant  with  great  conse- 
quences to  them.  They  were  all  ordained  priests, 
and  started  for  Rome,  preaching  along  the  road, 
in  the  public  squares,  in  the  universities,  in  the 
hospitals,  etc.,  and  preaching  with  great  effect, 
though  they  could  speak  only  broken  Italian.  In 
Koine  they  soon  acquired  the  confidence  of  the 
Pope,  and  were  intrusted  with  important  missions 
to  Parma,  Piacenza,  Calabria,  and  other  places. 
Ignatius  had  new  visions ;  and  on  Blarch  14,  1543, 
Paul  III.  confirmed  the  association  under  the 
name  of  Sociclat:  Jesu.  Ignatius  was  unanimously 
elected  general  of  the  new-  order ;  and,  when  he 
died,  the  order  counted  thirteen  provinces, — seven 
in  Spain  and  Portugal,  tliree  in  Italy,  two  in  (ier- 
many,  and  one  in  France.  Only  a  short  time 
elapsed  before  the  eminent  usefulness  of  the  new 
instrument  became  quite  apparent ;  and  on  March 
13,  1623,  Gregory  XV.  canonized  its  founder,  to- 
gether with  Francis  Xavier. 

For  its  external  organization  the  order  i.s,  in 
some  respects,  as  deeply  indebted  to  its  second  as 
to  its  first  general ;  but  its  informing  spirit  it 
received  from  Ignatius  Loyola,  and  in  his  Exercilkt 
Spirilualid  that  sjiirit  found  a  most  characteristic 
expression.  The  book  may  be  desci'ibed  as  the 
personal  experience  of  the  author  transformed 
into  rules,  which  the  reader  must  follow  in  order 
to  reach  the  same  goal  as  he  reached.  And  what 
is  that  goal?  To  be  able,  through  prayers  and 
fasts,  through  ascetic  and  spiritual  exercises  of 
the  severest  description,  through  absolute  seclu- 
sion from  the  world  and  concentrated  meditation, 
to  take  an  irrevocable  vow  of  ol)edience,  —  the 
obedience  of  the  dead  body,  wliich  has  no  will 
and  no  motion  of  its  own,  —  the  obedience  of 
the  stick,  wliich  one  may  take,  or  leave  standing, 
just  as  one  pleases.  The  obedience  goes  from  the 
members  to  the  general,  and  from  the  general  to 
the  Pope ;  and  when  the  Pope  says  that  black  is 
white,  and  white  black,  it  is  tlu!  great  moral  glory 
of  the  order  that  it  is  able  to  repeat  the  lie  (liciju- 
Iw  ad  senlieudiwi  cum  Ecclesia).     See  Jksuits. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  lives  of  Ignatius  found  in 
Art.  .Sand.,  Juhj  SI,  larger  biographies  of  him 
have  been  written  by  Ribadeneira,  Jlalfei,  and 


IGNORANTINES. 


1061 


IMAGE  OF  GOD. 


Orlanrlini;  also  bj' Isaac  Taylor,Lond.  and  N.i'., 
1849.  SeeSpuLLER:  Ljnuci' dc  Loi/dIii  it,  lit  atm- 
pagnie  de  Jenus,  Paris,  1876  ;  G.  ('.  IIietsciiel,: 
Luther  und  Loyola,  Wittcnlx-rg,  187!);  [A.  v. 
Dkussel  :  Ifjiiatiu.i  von  Loyola  an  iler  rihn  ixcheii  Cu- 
rie, Miincheu,  1879;  H.  Baumgaiiten:  Ignatius 
von  Loyola,  Strassljurg,  1880].        G.  E.  steitz. 

IGNORANTINES  (Fratres  Tgnorantia:,  Freres 
ifjiioraiiliii.i,  Freres  iles  e'coles  chrt'tiennes)  is  the 
name  of  the  members  of  an  institution  founded 
in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  in 
France,  by  the  abbot  Baptiste  de  la  Salle,  and 
■energetically  supported  by  the  Jesuits.  Its  pur- 
pose was  to  give  free  instruction  to  people,  not 
only  in  religion,  but  also  in  the  elements  of  secu- 
lar education,  and  thereby  prevent  any  idea  ini- 
mical to  the  Roman  Church  entering  or  taking 
possession  of  the  young  mind.  It  developed 
a  great  activity  in  France,  and  represented,  so 
to  speak,  the  Jesuits,  when  (in  1764)  that  order 
was  banished  from  the  country.  In  1790,  when 
the  institution  was  dissolved  by  the  revolutionary 
government,  it  numbered  no  less  than  a  hundred 
and  twenty-one  schools  and  colleges.  Its  mem- 
bers sought  refuge  in  Italy,  and  were  recalled  in 
1S06  by  Napoleon,  who  acknowledged  their  use- 
fulness for  popular  education.  [In  1878  they 
numbered  9,818,  teaching  in  1,064  public  schools 
and  in  385  free  schools.]  NEUDECKER. 

I.  H.  S.,  an  inscription  dating  far  back  in  the 
Iiistory  of  the  Christian  Church,  but  whose  inter- 
pretation is  somewhat  doubtful.  Some  explain  it 
as  In  Hoc  Signo,  scilicet,  vinces  ("  with  tliis  token 
thou  shalt  be  victorious"),  the  words  accompany- 
ing the  vision  of  the  radiant  cross  appearing  to 
Constantine  and  his  army :  others,  as  Jesus  Homi- 
num  Salvalor  ("Jesus,  Men's  Saviour"),  the  motto 
•of  the  Jesuits.  The  most  probable  explanation, 
however,  is  that  which  derives  the  inscription 
simply  from  the  Greek  IH20T2  ("Jesus  "),  as  the 
transformation  of  the  2  into  the  Latin  S  presents 
no  difficulties.  See  Argument  for  the  Greek  Ori- 
gin of  the  Monogram  I.H.S.,  publislied  by  the 
Cambridge  Camden  Society,  London,  1841. 

ILDEFONSUS,  St.,  b.  at  Toledo,  607;  d.  there 
Jan.  23,  067;  was  a  pupil  of  Isidore  of  Sevilla; 
entered  the  monastery  of  Agli,  against  his 
father's  will ;  became  a  monk,  and  afterwards 
abbot;  founded  a  nunnery  near  Toledo,  and  was 
made  archbishop  of  his  native  city  in  657.  Ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Julian,  his  successor, 
he  was  a  prolific  writer,  though  he  left  most  of 
his  works  in  an  unfinished  state.  Still  extant 
are  Libetlus  de  virginitate  S.  Mariee,  first  edited  by 
Carranza,  1556,  and  found  in  Migne,  Bib.  Patr., 
96,  the  first  impulse  to  that  enthusiastic  worship 
of  the  Virgin  which  characterized  the  early 
Spanish  Church;  Annotationes  de  cognilione  bap- 
tismi  et  de  itinere  deserti  (INIigne  1.  c),  a  complete 
dogmatic  and  moral  system,  but  probably  only 
an  imitation  of  an  older  Spanish  work ;  two  let- 
ters (Migne  1.  c.)  ;  and  his  continuation  of  Isi- 
dore's work  Le  viris  illustribus,  often  published 
with  an  appendix  by  Julian,  Vila  lid.  Tolet. 
(Migne  1.  c),  and  containing  the  lives  of  Gregory 
tlie  Great  and  fourteen  Spanish  churchmen.  The 
Adoptionists  of  the  eighth  century  claimed  him  as 
one  of  their  forerunners.  His  life  was  written  by 
■Carranza  (1556),  Salazar  de  Mendoza  (1618),  May- 
ans y  Siscar  (1727).    See  also  Act.  Sand.,  Jan.  23; 


Mahillox:   .4.   S.  Ben.,  ii.,   iii.  ;  and   Florez: 

Espiinna  Sagrada,  v.,  429.  WAGENMANN. 

ILLGEN,  Christian  Friedrlch,  b.  at  Chemnitz, 
Sept.  10,  17H6;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Aug.  4,  1844; 
studied  in  the  University  of  Leipzig,  and  was 
appointed  professor  there  of  philo.sopny  in  1818, 
and  of  theology  in  1823.  Besides  other  works, 
he  wrote  Lalius  Socinus'  Leben,  Leipzig,  1814,  and 
founded  the  Historisch-Theol.  Gesellschaft  in  1814, 
and  the  Zeitschriftf.  hist.  TheoL,  1832,  which  was 
afterwards  continued  by  Niedner  and  by  Kahnis, 
and  contains  many  valuable  contributions  to  the 
clearing  up  of  obscure  points  of  church  history. 

ILLUMINATI  was  the  name  adopted  by  the 
members  of  a  secret  society  of  half-political  and 
half-religious  character,  which  was  founded  May 
1,  1776,  at  Ingolstadt,  by  Adam  Weishaupt,  pro- 
fessor in  the  university.  The  founder's  object 
was  simply  to  form  a  tool  for  the  gratification  of 
his  own  ambition ;  and  the  model  after  which  he 
worked  was  the  Society  of  Jesu.  Aided  by  the 
singular  passion  for  secret  societies  which  char- 
acterized the  rationalism  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, he  succeeded  in  forming  classes  of  novices 
in  Ingolstadt,  Freising,  Munich,  in  Tyrol,  West- 
phalia, Saxony ;  and  by  means  of  an  inexhausti- 
ble talent  for  charlatanry,  and  a  well-planned 
system  of  espionage,  he  also  succeeded  in  keeping 
his  novices  in  due  submission.  But  what  about 
the  further  development  and  final  organization  of 
the  society?  Weishaupt  was  near  his  wit's  end, 
and  confessed  that  he  really  did  not  know  what 
to  do  with  his  novices,  when  Baron  Adolf  von 
Knigge  entered  the  society  in  1780,  and  brought 
speed  and  order  in  its  development.  A  firm  con- 
nection was  established  with  the  Freemasons  of 
Munich,  Freising,  Francfort,  etc.  Three  classes 
were  formed,  —  one  of  novices  or  minervals,  one 
of  Freemasons  or  Scotch  Knights,  and  one  of  the 
pupils  of  the  small  and  great  INIysteries ;  and  the 
society  spread  so  widely  that  even  the  greatest 
names  in  Germany  were  mentioned  as  members. 
But  in  1784  'Weishaupt  and  Knigge  fell  out  with 
each  other,  both  wanting  to  become  the  Magus  or 
Rex  of  the  society ;  and  in  the  same  year  a  decree 
was  issued  in  Bavaria,  forbidding  all  secret  socie- 
ties. The  lUuminati  felt  safe,  possessed  as  they 
were  of  a  considerable  political,  social,  and  moral 
power ;  but  they  overlooked  that  the  manner  in 
which  they  wielded  that  power  had  already  made 
them  many  enemies ;  and  in  1785  began  a  sharp 
persecution,  which,  within  a  year  or  two,  brought 
the  whole  institution  to  collapse.  [They  do  not 
appear  ever  to  have  numbered  more  than  two 
thousand.]  The  literature  of  the  affair  is  enor- 
mous. As  the  principal  documents  may  be  con- 
sidered the  writings  of  Weishaupt  :  Gesch.  d. 
Verfolgung  d.  I lluminaien,  1786 ;  Apologie  der  Illu- 
minaten,  1787 ;  D.  verbesserte  Systein,  1787,  Kurze 
Rechtfertigung,  1787,  etc.  KLUCKHOHN. 

IMAGE  OF  GOD.  The  conception  of  the  im- 
age of  God  is  a  fundamental  one  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Christian  anthropology.  Man  is  declared 
(Geu.  i.  26)  to  have  been  created  in  God's  image 
(D7S,  tselem)  and  after  his  likeness  (^''2'1,  d'muth). 
There  is  no  other  difference  between  these  two 
terms  than  the  difference  between  a  concrete  and 
abstract  desigiaation  (comp.  Gen.  v.  3,  ix.  6). 
The  use  of  different  prepositions,  however,  indi- 
cates that  the  former  was  inalienable :  the  latter 


IMAGE  OF  GOD. 


1062 


IMAGE-WORSHIP. 


might  be  lost.  The  dominion  over  the  creatiu-es 
■nhich  is  ascribed  to  man  in  Gen.  i.  28  is  not  to 
he  regarded  as  of  the  essence  of  the  image  of 
God,  but  as  a  consequence  of  it.  In  the  Xew 
Testament,  sinful  man  is  on  the  one  hand  recog-  ^ 
nized  as  still  possessing  the  image  of  God,  as  in 
Luke  iii.  38  (where  .\dam,  as  the  founder  of  the 
race,  is  called  the  son  of  God)  ;  1  Cor.  xi.  7 ;  Jas. 
iii.  9,  etc.  :  on  the  other,  he  is  urged  to  put  on 
the  new  man,  which  is  renewed  in  knowledge 
(Col.  iii.  10),  righteousness,  and  holiness  (Eph. 
iv.  24),  after  the  divine  image.  Christ  is  the 
perfect  image  of  God  (2  Cor.  iv.  4;  Col.  i.  15); 
and  we  become  renewed  after  the  image  of  God 
when  we  become  conformed  to  the  image  of 
Christ  (Rom.  viii.  29). 

We  find  a  variety  of  utterances  in  the  fathers 
on  this  subject.  They  agree,  however,  in  ascrib- 
ing the  divine  image  to  qualities  differentiating 
man  from  the  rest  of  the  creation,  and  deiine 
them  as  reason  and  freedom  (Geeg.  Nyss-\,  De 
horn,  opif.,  iv.,  v).  Irenreus,  TertuUiau,  and 
Melito  of  Sardis  included  under  it  a  physical 
similarity  to  God,  which  the  Alexandrians  and 
Augustine  denied.  The  fathers  also  referred  it 
to  the  moral  nature,  and  defined  it  as  righteous- 
ness. The  scholastics  made  a  sharp  distinction 
between  imago  ("  image  ")  and  simililiulo  ("  like- 
ness ") ;  including  under  the  former  the  intel- 
lectual powers  of  reason  and  freedom,  and  under 
the  latter  moral  righteousness,  which  was  lost  at 
the  Fall.  This  distinction  is  preserved  by  the 
theologians  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  who 
declare  man's  original  righteousness  {juslilia  orig.) 
to  have  been  a  superadded  gift.  The  Protestant 
Church,  ignoring  this  distinction,  places  the  im- 
age of  God  in  the  religious  and  moral  nature,  and 
defines  it  as  the  original  righteousness  with  which 
man  was  created.  .Socinianism  defined  it  as 
man's  dominion  over  the  animal  creation. 

In  order  to  rightly  understand  the  meaning  of 
the  divine  image,  we  must  start  from  the  nature 
of  God,  who  created  man  for  conniiunion  with 
Himself,  and  the  world  for  man's  well-being. 
Mm\  alone  received  the  spirit  of  life,  and  is  a 
spiritual  being,  a  personal  soul.  Man  as  a  per- 
son is  the  image  of  God,  and  in  the  totality  ol 
his  being  (body  and  soul).  This  may  be  termed 
the  essential  element  in  the  image  of  God  in 
man,  and  is  indestructible.  To  it  corresponds 
the  habitual  element.  Man  as  the  creature  of 
God  is  designed  for  a  life  of  love,  which  mani- 
fests itself  in  the  intellect  as  knowledge  and  wis- 
dom, and  in  the  will  as  freedom  and  holiness. 
The  likeness  to  God  further  shows  itself  in  the 
innnortality  of  the  body  and  the  dominion  over 
nature.  This  liabilual  element  was  lost  at  the 
Fall,  when  love  for  (iod  was  dis])laced  by  selfish- 
ness. The  Son  of  God  in  the  flesh  was  the  con- 
crete personal  restoration  of  the  divine  image ; 
and  through  his  vicarious  deatii  and  victorious 
resurrection  we  become  partakers  of  liis  righteous- 
ness, and  by  the  Holy  Spirit  poured  out  in  our 
hearts  are  restored  to  the  divine  image. 

Lit.  —  Tii.EMAN'ii  Craoii:  De  imag.  dci  in 
primis  hnmin.,  etc.,  A'ittenb.,  1549 ;  Seb.  Schmidt  : 
Tract,  de  imag.  dei,  etc.,  .\rgent.,  1059;  Calo- 
vius:  De  imag.  dei  in  liom  ante  lajmitin  ,  KiiuNi-.u  : 
iJi.M  hist  theol.  de  imag.  dieina,  Vittenb.,  1703 ; 
Keerl:    D.    Mensch,   d.    Ehenbild    Gottes,  1806; 


[Robert   .Soi'Th:     .^ermon   on    Cnd'a    Image    in 
J/oh].  SCHOEBERLEIN. 

IMAGE-WORSHIP.  I.  I.n-  the  Easter.v 
Church.  —  The  greatest  difficulties  which  the 
Emperor  Leo  III.,  the  Isaurian  (717-741),  expe- 
rienced in  his  endeavors  to  make  the  Church  co- 
extensive with  the  State,  and  perfectly  uniform, 
arose  from  the  image-worship,  which,  since  the 
fifth  century,  had  become  general  amon^  the 
Christians.  Especially  the  Mohannuedans  hated 
the  practice  as  a  Pagan  abomination ;  and  Leo 
himself  looked  upon  it  as  idolatry.  From  regard, 
however,  for  the  Patriarch  Germanus,  the  em- 
peror proceeded  with  caution  in  his  attempt  to 
destroy  it.  The  edict  of  726  simply  forbade  pros- 
tration before  the  images,  and  ordered  them  to  be 
hung  so  high  on  the  walls  that  people  could  not 
reach  and  kiss  them.  But  to  some  bishops  this 
manner  of  proceeding  was  too  slow :  on  their 
own  account  they  removed  the  images  from  the- 
churches.  A  great  fermentation  Immediately  took 
place,  and  dangerous  riots  occurred  in  variovis 
places.  Pope  Gregory  II.  and  John  of  Damas- 
cus, the  most  celebrated  theologian  of  the  Greek 
Church,  declared  against  the  emperor,  and  la 
favor  of  the  images.  Leo  did  not  yield,  however. 
An  edict  of  73U  ordered  all  images  to  be  removed 
from  the  churches,  or  painted  over.  'I'he  refrac- 
tory patriarch  was  deposed ;  and,  as  an  answer  to- 
the  synod  which  Gregory  III.  convened  against 
the  iconoclasts,  the  papal  revenues  from  Sicily 
and  Calabria  were  confiscated,  and  Illyria  was 
incorporated  with  the  patriarchate  of  Constant! 
nople.  Leo's  son,  Constantine  V.,  Copronynms 
(741-775),  inherited  his  father's  views  of  inuige- 
worship.  In  754  he  convened  an  ecumenical 
synod  in  Constantinople.  The  three  lumdred  and 
thirty-eight  bi.shops  assembled  —  none  of  the 
patriarchs  were  present,  nor  had  the  Pope  .sent 
any  delegates — ascribed  the  re-introduction  of 
idols  and  idol-worship  among  men  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Devil,  and  decided,  on  the  basis  of  the 
first  six  ojcumenical  synods,  that  he  who  painted 
or  worshipped  an  image  of  Christ  must  be  either 
a  Nestorian  or  an  Eutychian  ;  that  the  Eucliarist 
is  the  only  legitinuiti'  image  of  Christ,  as  it  alone 
contains  the  whole  Christ,  both  according  to  his 
human  and  according  to  his  divine  nature ;  that 
image-worship  is  forbidden  bv  Scriiiture  (John 
iv.  24,  XX.  29;  Dent.  v.  8,  9;  Rom.  i.  '23;  2  Cor. 
V.  7;  Rom.  x.  17),  and  by  the  fathers  (Epipha- 
nius,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Ciirysostom,  Eusebius 
of  Cajsarea,  and  others);  that,  consequently,  any 
one  who  makes  or  worsliips  images  shall  be  ex- 
communicated and  cursed,  etc.  All  the  clergy 
were  conqielled  to  subscribe  these  decisions,  and 
the  monks  who  refused  were  cruelly  per.socuted. 
A  conspiracy  was  suppressed  by  the  emperor 
with  fearful  severity:  even  the  Patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople was  decapitated.  The  popes,  how- 
ever, rejected  tlie  canons  of  754,  and  a  synod  of 
tlie  Lateran  condemned  the  iconoclasts  in  7()9. 
Under  Irene,  who  after  the  death  of  her  husband, 
\mo  IV.  Chazarus  (780),  was  made  regent  during 
the  minority  of  her  son  (Constantine  VI  ),  a 
change  took  place  in  the  policy  of  the  imperial 
government.  Images  were  tolerated.  'I'he  monks, 
iconodulists  by  profession,  again  stepped  for- 
ward ;  and  their  zeal  and  influence  increa.sed 
rapidly,  as  did  their  number.      An  cecuiiieuicaL 


IMAGE-WORSHIP. 


1063 


IMAGE-WORSHIP. 


council  was  thought  of  as  the  proper  means  of 
carrying  out  a  reversal  of  the  legislation  of  754. 
But  the  Oriental  patriarchs  refused  to  be  present, 
from  a  regard  to  the  Saracens ;  and  J'ope  Adri- 
an I.  demanded,  as  a  conditio  sine  qua  non,  the 
immediate  surrender  of  the  revenues  of  which 
Leo  III.  had  despoiled  him.  A  common  council 
was  then  resorted  to,  convened  in  Constantinople 
786.  But  the  number  of  iconoclastic  bishops  was 
too  great,  and  the  attitude  of  the  army  (the  sol- 
diers being  iconoclasts  by  training  since  the  days 
of  Leo  III.)  was  too  dangerous  :  nothing  could  be 
done.  Next  year,  however,  a  well-managed  Coun- 
cil of  Nicrea  (787)  proved  successful.  A  shrewd 
distinction  was  made  between  the  full  worship 
(uh/'SivTi  Xarpria),  which  ought  to  be  offered  to  Cod 
alone,  and  the  tokens  of  honor  and  veneration 
(uCTiracr/iof  Kal  ti/iiitikt/  ■KponKvviiaii;)  which  are  due  to 
the  holy  images;  and  on  the  basis  of  this  distinc- 
tion the  iconoclasts  were  condemned.  In  the 
West  the  decisions  of  787  were  refuted  by  the 
Lihri  Cdrolini,  and  rejected  by  the  Council  of 
Frankfurt  (794) ;  but  in  the  East  they  were 
enforced  without  causing  any  disturbance,  as, 
indeed,  they  represented  the  views  of  the  great 
mass  of  the  people.  But  when,  in  813,  Leo  V.,  the 
Armenian,  ascended  the  throne,  the  soldiers  again 
got  the  ascendency  over  the  monks ;  and  on  their 
peremptory  demand  the  ernperor  issued  a  decree 
against  image-worship  in  814.  The  patriarch 
and  the  monks,  who  labored  secretly  and  openly 
against  the  emperor,  were  punished.  A  new  patri- 
arch, presiding  over  a  council  in  Constantinople 
(81o),  cancelled  the  canons  of  7S7  ;  and  Theodore, 
abbot  of  the  monastery  of  Studiiun  in  Constan- 
tinople, and  the  head  of  the  iconodulists,  was 
banished.  Leo's  successor,  however,  Michael  II., 
Balbus  (820-8"29),  again  yielded  to  the  iconodu- 
lists, and  allowed  image-worship  in  private ;  and 
though  his  son  (Theophilus,  829-842)  forbade 
people  to  have  images  in  their  houses,  and  perse- 
cuted the  monks  witli  cruelty,  his  wife  Theodora 
was  a  zealous  image-worshipper;  and  when  she 
became  regent,  during  tlie  minority  of  her  son 
(Michael  III.),  the  laws  of  787  were  once  more 
enforced,  and  the  iconoclasts  were  persecuted. 
On  Feb.  19,  842,  the  orthodox,  that  is  the  image- 
worshippers,  celebrated  their  victory  with  a  great 
festival,  and  the  images  were  solemnly  brought 
back  into  the  churches.  The  iconoclasts  never 
more  came  into  power,  and  thus  image-worship 
continued  an  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Greek 
Church  [though  only  flat  pictures  are  worshipped, 
while  raised  images  are  forbidden.  See  art. 
Greek  Church,  p.  902].     albrecht  vogel. 

II.  In  the  Western  Church. — The  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  has  a.  peculiar  talent  for  denying 
in  principle  what  she  admits  in  practice.  She 
does  not  forbid  people  to  read  the  Bible,  but  she 
jirevents  them  from  doing  it.  She  does  not  deny 
that  it  is  the  merit  of  Chi'ist  which  makes  man's 
works  meritorious,  but  she  inculcates  that  it  is 
his  own  works  which  save  a  man.  She  does  not 
teach  image-worship,  but  she  allows  it.  The 
l.'ouncil  of  Trent  {Sessio  XXV.  de  invocatione 
Snnctormn)  says  that  images  of  Christ,  the  \\\-- 
gin,  and  the  saints,  ought  to  be  retained  in  the 
churches,  and  shown  the  honor  and  veneration 
due  to  them  .  .  .  not  because  they  are  themselves 
the  harbingers  of  any  divine  power  to  which  man 


can  pray,  or  in  which  he  can  confide  .  .  .  but 
because  they  image  forth  to  man  such  a  divine 
power,  and  because  the  lionor  and  veneration 
which  lie  shows  them  refei'  to  the  I'ealily  they 
represent.  But  history  shows  both  how  utterly 
unable  the  great  mass  of  the  people  are  to  make 
such  a  distinction,  and  how  very  little  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  cares  about  having  it  made. 
Indeed,  the  very  same  arguments  which  she  once 
rejected  when  the  Pagans  presented  them  in  favor 
of  their  idol-worship,  she  now  urges  in  favor  of 
her  own  image-worship.  The  primitive  Chris- 
tians condemned  all  use  of  images  in  the  church. 
(.See  the  acts  of  the  .synod  of  Elvira,  305,  c.  36.) 
They  evidently  feared  that  somehow  the  represen- 
tation might  be  taken  for  the  reality.  But  when, 
in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  the  whole  un- 
educated mass  of  the  people  was  admitted  into 
the  congregations,  the  images  began  to  invade 
the  churches,  and  the  common  plea  for  them  was 
their  power  of  teaching.  Gregory  the  Great,  in 
a  letter  to  Bishop  Serenus  of  Marseille  {Lib.  IX., 
Ep.  105),  recommends  theh'  use  in  the  churches, 
on  the  ground  that  they  enable  those  who  know 
not  their  letters  to  read  on  the  wall  what  they 
cannot  read  in  the  books.  But  the  danger  con- 
nected with  the  use  of  images  is  apparent  from 
the  very  same  letter ;  for  the  reason  why  Serenus 
had  destroyed  a  number  of  images  was  just  that 
liis  congregation  adored  them.  When  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nicffia  (787)  legitimatized  not  only  the  use, 
but  tlie  worship,  of  images,  the  Lihri  Carolini 
appeared  as  a  refutation  ;  and  the  author  empha- 
sizes the  fact  (III.  16),  that  though  images  might 
be  used  as  memorials  of  the  great  events  of  the 
history  of  the  Church,  and  as  adornment  of  the 
walls,  without  harm  to  the  educated,  who  worship 
only  the  reality  behind  the  representations,  they 
cannot  help  seducing  the  uneducated,  who  wor- 
ship only  what  they  see.  The  Frankish  Church 
was  strongly  opposed  to  the  introduction  of  im- 
ages. The  synod  of  Frankfurt  (794)  rejected  the 
decisions  of  the  Second  Council  of  Nicrea  (though 
the  Pope,  Adrian  I.,  had  accepted  them),  and  con- 
demned the  iconoclasts.  The  opposition  was  con- 
tinued through  the  ninth  century.  A  synod  of 
Paris  (825)  repeated  the  rejection  of  the  decis- 
ions of  the  Pope  and  the  Council  of  Nica5a  in  a 
rather  emphatic  manner ;  and  Claudius  of  Turin, 
Agobard,  Jonas  of  Orleans,  and  other  bishops, 
were  decided  enemies  of  images.  At  last,  how- 
ever, Rome  prevailed ;  and  the  peculiar  tendency 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  has  to  ascribe  divine 
character  to  the  various  mediators  she  places 
between  Ciod  and  man,  showed  itself  also  in  this 
field.  What  Thomas  Aquinas  teaches  concern- 
ing images  and  their  use  is,  to  say  the  least,  some- 
what equivocal  (Summa  Quest.  23,  art.  4,  5),  and 
so  are  the  expositions  of  Bonaventura.  But  Bel- 
larmin  is  completely  unequivocal.  Without  any 
remonstrance  from"  the  side  of  the  Church,  he 
teaches,  in  his  De  Imaginilnis  Sanctoru7n,  that  im- 
ages of  Christ  and  the  saints  shall  be  worshipped 
in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  so  that  the  devo- 
tion does  not  stretch  beyond  the  image  towards 
the  object  which  it  represents,  but  remains  at  rest 
in  the  image  itself,  such  as  it  is.  Thus  the  diifer- 
ence  between  the  honor  due  to  God  and  the  honor 
due  to  the  image  is  one  of  degree  only,  not  of 
kind;  one  of  quantity  only,  not  of  quality. 


IMAM. 


1064      IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION. 


Lit.  —  The  sources  of  the  history  of  the  great 
controversy  are  Goldast  :  Imperialia  decreta  de 
cii/^u //nnc/iHU)?;,  Frankfurt,  160S;  Maxsi  :  Concil. 
Co//.,  T.  XIIl. ;  John  of  Damascus:  Aoyoi  utto- 
>j>yriii.Koi,  ed.  Le  Quien  ;  Theodorus  Studita': 
Opera,  ed.  Sirmoud  ;  Nicephorus  :  Breciarium 
Hiftoriie,  ed.  Petavius  ,  Gregorius  Monachus: 
Chrnnicoti,  ed.  Muralto.  See  also  Dall.eus  : 
De  Iniaginibus,  Lyons,  1642;  >L\nrBOURG:  His- 
toire  de  I'htresie  des  Iconodasles,  Paris,  1679  ;  Span- 
HEIM :  Historia  Imaginum,  hyoitsi,  1686;  Schlos- 
SER :  Gesch.  d.  hildersiilrmenden  Kaiser,  Frankfurt, 
1812;  ]Mar.\  :  D.  Bdderstreit  d.  byzantinischen 
Kaiser,  Treves,  1839  ;  Kurtz  :  Handhuck  d.  allge- 
meinen  Kirchengesc/i.,  'id  ed.,  Mitau,  18.54 ;  Her- 
genrother  :  Handhuch  d.  allgemeinen  Kirchen- 
gesch.,  1876;  [Iv.  Schexk  :  Kaiser  Leon  III.  Ein 
Beitrag  zur  Geschich.  d.  BUderstreites,  Halle, 
1880]  HERZOG. 

IMAM,  the  priest  who  leads  the  prayers  of  a 
Mohammedan  congregation,  and  in  Turkey  also 
performs  the  rites  of  circumcision,  marriage,  and 
burial.  The  name  conies  from  the  Koran  (Sura 
II.,  "The  Cow,"  V.  118:  "When  his  Lord  made 
trial  of  Abraham,  by  commands  which  he  ful- 
filled, he  said, '  I  am  about  to  make  thee  an  Imam 
t priest]  to  mankind'").  The  title  "Imam"  is 
lorne  by  the  caliphs,  or  successors  of  Bloham- 
nied,  and  thus  has  the  secondary  meaning  of 
"the  head  of  the  faith."  The  present  Osmanli 
dynasty  of  Turkish  sultans  arrogates  the  title  on 
the  ground  that  the  last  legitimate  caliph.  El 
Mutawakkel,  in  1517  ceded  his  right  to  it  to 
Selim  L,  the  first  sidtan,  and  his  heirs.  But  the 
Shiahs,  or  Shiites,  the  so-called  heretical  Moham- 
medans, deny  the  right  of  the  sultan  to  this  title, 
and  limit  it  to  twelve  pei-sons.  Eleven  Imams 
have  already  appeared  ;  the  twelfth  is  announced. 
Inilfcd.  Iht-v  li"ik  for  Ins  appearance  at  any  time. 

IMMACULATE  CONCEPTION  OF  THE  VIR- 
GIN MARY,  a  modern  dogma  of  the  Roman 
Clnucli,  which  exempts  the  Virgin  Mary  from  all 
persomd  contact  witli  sin,  and  in  this  respect  puts 
her  above  all  other  descendants  of  Adam,  and  on 
the  same  scale  of  sinless  purity  as  Christ.  It 
■was  proclaimed  by  Pope  Pius  IX.,  on  the  Feast 
of  the  Conception,  Dec.  8,  18ol,  in  the  Church  of 
St.  Peter  an<l  in  the  presence  of  more  than  two 
hundred  cardinals,  bishops,  and  otlier  <lignitaries, 
in  these  words:  "That  the  most  blessed  Virgin 
Mary,  in  the  first  moment  of  her  conception,  by 
a  special  grace  and  privileM  of  Almighty  God, 
in  virtue  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  was  preserved 
immaculate  from  all  stain  of  original  sin "  (o4 
omtii  originalis  cul/xe  labe  preservalam  immunem). 
This  the  papal  bull  Ineffabilis  Dens  declares  to  be 
a  divinely  revealed  fact  and  dogma,  which  must 
hereafter  be  constantly  believed  by  all  Catholics, 
on  pain  of  excommunication.  The  dogma  was 
not  sanctioned  by  any  fecunienical  council ;  but 
since  the  A'atican  Council  of  1870  declared  the 
Pope  infallible,  independent  of  a  council,  the 
decree  of  1854  must  bo  received  as  an  infallibh! 
utterance,  and  cannot  be  changed.  Pius  IX.  had 
previously,  by  an  encyclical  of  Feb.  2,  1819,  in- 
vited tlie  opinion  of  thi'  Catholic  bishops  on  tlii' 
subject,  and  received  more  tlian  six  hnmlred 
affirmative  answers.  Only  four  dis.sent<nl  from 
tlie  Pope's  view;  and  fifty-two,  while  agreeing 
witli  liini  in  the  dogma  itself,  deemed  it  inoppor- 


tune to  define  and  proclaim  it.  This  shows  that 
the  tendency  of  the  Roman  Church  was  strongly 
in  this  direction.  The  dogma  of  the  immaculate 
conception,  and  the  Vatican  dogma  of  papal  infal- 
libility, are  tlie  characteristic  features  of  modern 
Romanism,  as  distinct  from  the  Romanism  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  and  widen  the  breach  between 
it  and  the  Greek  and  Protestant  churches.  By 
the  decree  of  1854  the  Virgin  Mary  is  taken  out 
of  the  family  of  the  redeemed,  and  declared  abso- 
lutely free  from  all  complication  with  the  fall 
of  Adam  and  its  consequences.  The  definition  of 
such  a  dogma  presupposes  a  divine  revelation ; 
for  God  omniscient  alone  knows  the  fact  of  the 
immaculate  conception ;  and,  as  the  Bible  no- 
where informs  us  of  it,  God  must  have  revealed 
it  to  Pius  IX.  in  1854,  either  directly,  or  through 
the  voice  of  the  six  hundred  bishops  assenting  to 
his  view.  But,  if  he  was  really  infallible,  he  did 
not  need  the  advice  of  others. 

From  the  Roman  stand-point,  this  dogma  com- 
pletes the  Mariology  and  i^Iariolatry,  which,  step 
by  step,  proceeded  from  the  perpetual  virginity 
of  Mary  to  her  freedom  from  actual  sin  after  the 
conception  of  the  Saviour,  then  to  freedom  from 
sin  after  her  birth,  and  at  last  to  her  freedom 
from  original  or  hereditary  sin.  The  only  thing 
left  now  is  to  proclaim  the  dogma  of  her  assump- 
tion to  heaven,  which  has  long  since  been  a  pious 
opinion  in  the  Roman  Church.  To  this  corre- 
sponds the  progress  in  the  worship  of  Mary,  and 
the  multiplication  of  her  festivals.  Her  worship 
even  overshadows  the  worship  of  Christ.  She, 
the  tender,  compassionate,  lovely  woman,  is  in- 
voked for  her  powerful  intercession,  rather  than 
her  divine  Son,  She  is  made  the  fountain  of  all 
grace,  the  mediatrix  between  Christ  and  the 
believer,  and  is  virtually  put  in  the  place  of  the 
Holy  Ghost.  There  is  scarcely  an  epithet  of 
Christ  which  devout  Roman  Catholics  do  not 
apply  to  the  Virgin  (see  St.  Liguori's  Glories  of 
Mary) ;  and  Pope  Pius  IX.,  who  was  liimself 
an  intense  worshipper  of  Mary,  sanctioned  the 
false  interpretation  of  Gen.  iii.  15,  that  she  (not 
Christ)  "crushed  the  head  of  the  serpent." 

As  to  the  history  of  the  dogma,  no  pa.ssage  in 
its  favor  can  be  found  in  the  Old  or  Xew  Testa- 
ment; for  the  interpretation  of  the  Prolcrangelium 
just  alluded  to  is  clearly  ruled  out  by  tlie  Hebrew 
text.  On  the  contrary,  the  Bible  declares  all 
men  to  be  sinners,  and  in  need  of  redemption, 
and  exempts  Christ  alone,  the  sinless  Redeemer, 
from  this  universal  rule.  Mary  herself  calls  God 
her  Saviour  (Luke  i.  47),  and  thereby  includes 
herself  in  the  number  of  the  saved ;  which  im- 
plies her  sense  of  personal  sin  and  guilt.  AVith 
this  corresponds  also  the  predicate  given  her  by 
the  angel  (i.  28),  —  "endued  with  grace,  highly 
favored "  (Kcx'^pnu/iivt!,  which  the  Vulgate  has 
mi.scliievously  clianged  into  the  active  gralia 
plena,  "full  of  grace").  The  Christian  fathers, 
though  numy  ot  them  (even  St.  Augustine)  ex- 
empted Mary  from  actual  transgression,  know 
notiiing  of  her  freedom  from  original  sin,  but 
always  imply,  and  often  expressly  teach,  the  con- 
trary. Some  (as  Irena'us,  Tertullian,  Origen, 
and  Chryso.stom)  interpret  Christ's  words  at  the 
wedding  of  Cana  (John  ii.  4)  as  a  rebnki'  of  her 
unseasonable  haste  and  immoderate  and)ilion. 
The  origin  of  the  dogma  must  be  sought  in  the 


IMMANUEL. 


1065 


IMMORTALITY. 


Apocryphal  Gospels,  which  substituted  mythology 
for  real  history,  and  nourished  superstition  rather 
than  rational  faith. 

The  doctrine  crept  into  tlieology  through  the 
door  of  worship.  The  tirst  clear  trace  of  it  is 
found  in  the  twelfth  century,  in  the  .south  of 
France,  when  the  canons  of  Lyons  introduced  the 
festival  of  tiie  conception  of  the  innnaculate 
Mary,  Dec.  8,  1139.  This  proves  that  the  belief 
then  existed  as  a  pious  opinion,  but  by  no  means 
as  a  dogma.  On  the  contrary,  St.  IJernard,  the 
greatest  doctor  and  saint  of  his  age,  opposed  the 
new  festival  as  an  unauthorized  innovation,  de- 
rogatory to  the  dignity  of  Christ,  the  only  sinless 
being  in  the  world.  He  asked  the  canons  of 
l.,yons  whence  they  discovered  such  a  hidden 
fact.  On  the  same  ground  they  might  appoint 
festivals  for  the  conception  of  the  mother,  grand- 
mother, and  great-grandmother  of  Mary,  and  so 
back  to  the  beginning.  The  same  ground  is 
taken  essentially  by  the  greatest  schoolmen,  as 
Anselm,  Bonaventura,  Albertu.s  Magnus,  Thomas 
Aquinas.  But  during  the  fourteenth  century, 
through  the  influence  chiefly  of  Duns  Scotus, 
"the  subtle  doctor,'"  the  doctrine  of  the  immacu- 
late conception  became  a  part  of  the  theology  of 
the  Franciscans  or  Scotists,  and  was  a  bone  of 
contention  between  them  and  the  Dominicans  or 
Thoniists.  They  charged  each  other  with  heresy, 
for  holding  the  one  view  or  the  other.  The 
Council  of  Trent  did  not  settle  the  question,  but 
rather  leaned  towards  the  Franciscan  side.  Soon 
afterwards  the  Jesuits  took  up  the  same  side,  and 
defended  it  against  the  Jansenists.  To  their  zeal 
and  perseverance,  and  their  influence  over  Pope 
Pius  IX.,  the  recent  triumph  of  tlie  dogma  is 
chiefly  due.  The  whole  Roman-Catholic  world 
quietly  acquiesced  until  the  Vatican  Council 
roused  the  "  Old  Catholic "  ojiposition  against 
papal  infallibility,  which  extended  also  to  the 
dogma  of  the  immaculate  conception. 

Lit.  —  The  papal  bull  Ineffabilis  Deus  (Dec.  8, 
1854) ;  Perrone  :  On  the  Immaculate  Conception 
(Latin,  German,  etc.,  1849)  ;  Pa.ssaqli.\  :  De 
immac.  Deijxirce  semper  Virg.  cone.  (18.54  sq. , 
3  vols.)  ;  Preuss  :  T/ie  Romi.^h  Doctrine  of  the  Im- 
maculate Conception  (Cierman  and  English,  1865; 
recalled  by  the  author  when  he  seceded  from 
the  Lutheran  to  the  Roman  Church  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.);  Pusey:  Eirenikon  (part  ii,  18G7) ;  H.  B. 
Smith,  in  the  Method.  Quarterly  Rev.  for  1855; 
Hase  :  Handbook  of  Protestant  Polemics  (1871)  ; 
ScHAFF,  in  Johnson's  Cyclopwdia.  Of  older 
Catholic  works  we  mention  J  Turrecremata  : 
De  veritaie  conceptionis  heat.  Virginis  (1.547;  re- 
published by  Pusey,  1869) ;  and  J.  de  Lauxoy, 
a  Jansenist :  Prcescriptiones  de  Conceptu  B-  Mariie 
Virg.  (1677),  —  both  against  the  immaculate  con- 
ception. PniLIP  SCHAFF. 

IMMAN'UEL,  a  Hebrew  word  meaning  "  God 
with  us,"  occurring  in  the  prophecy  spoken  by 
Isaiah  to  Aluiz  concerning  the  speedy  downfall 
of  Syria  (Isa.  vii.  14).  But  the  Holy  Spirit  has 
taught  us  (in  Matt.  i.  23)  to  see,  in  the  "vir- 
gin "  who  bore  Immanuel  in  the  days  of  Ahaz, 
the  type  of  the  Virgin  ^lary.  who  miraculously 
bore  Jesus  the  Messiah,  the  .Son  of  God.  See  the 
commentaries  upon  Isa.  vii.  14  and  Matt.  i.  23. 

IMMERSION.     SeeBAPTLSM. 

IMMORTALITY.     The  motives  for  belief   in 


immortality,  which  are  to  be  found  in  men's  hopes 
and  fears,  are  of  a  sulijective  nature ;  and  there 
lies  in  such  motives  doubt  of  the  truth  of  immor- 
tality :  hence,  from  of  old,  men  liave  sought  for 
purely  objective  grounds  for  this  belief.  Cliri.s- 
tian  faith  finds  them  in  the  resurrection  of  Christ. 
But  this  belief  possesses  objective  worth  only  to 
those  who  stand  in  the  Christian  faitli.  More- 
over, belief  in  immortality  is  a  great  help  and 
support  to,  if  not  one  of  the  conditions  of,  Chri,s- 
tian  faith  :  hence  not  only  ancient,  but  also  Chris- 
tian, philosophy  searches  for  objective  grounds  for 
belief  in  immortality  without  the  religious  prov- 
ince. Such  ground  is  sometimes  supposed  to  be 
found  in  the  nature  of  the  soul,  in  the  difference 
between  psychical  and  physical  appearances,  in 
the  opposition  of  body  and  soul  as  two  distinct 
substances.  But  this  would  only  show  that  the 
soul  may  continue  in  existence,  not  that  it  must. 
To  prove  fi'om  the  nature  of  the  soul  its  necessary 
existence,  it  must  be  assumed  tliat  the  soul  is 
a  simple  suKstance,  immaterial  and  indivisible, 
and  therefore  not  to  be  dissolved,  like  the  body, 
into  its  elements.  But  Kant  objected,  that,  even 
though  the  soul  appears  to  be  one  and  simple,  it 
cannot,  therefore,  be  assumed  that  it  is  so.  No 
psychology,  at  least,  has  succeeded  in  reducing 
the  different  activities  of  the  soul  to  one  simple 
power.  The  soul  niay  be  a  unity ;  but  it  cannot 
be  conceived  as  a  simple  substance  which  should 
exclude  all  inherent  manifoldness  of  powers. 
The  sepiaration  between  the  material  and  the  im- 
material should  not  in  our  conceptions  be  cari-ied 
so  far  as  to  threaten  to  tear  body  and  soul  apart, 
and  to  make  their  union  an  incomprehensible 
miracle.  Nothing  is  gained  by  referring  to  the 
self-conscious  activity  of  the  soul  as  evidence  of 
an  indestructible  power.  Self-consciousness  may 
be  lost  through  disturbances  of  the  brain,  and 
narcotics ;  but  the  reason,  according  to  its  nature 
and  idea,  may  be  thought  to  require  its  own  con- 
tinuance and  lordship.  It  is  unreasonable  to 
suppose  the  loss  of  reason,  its  dissolution  in  un- 
reason. But  the  continued  existence  of  the  indi- 
vidual is  not  secured  by  the  dominion  of  reason 
in  general.  Finally,  it  has  been  affirmed  that 
the  soul  could  not  form  the  ideas  of  eternity  and 
infinity,  the  idea  of  truth,  and  the  true  ideas 
(axioms,  etc.),  w-hich  it  holds  to  be  eternally  true, 
absolutely  unchangeable,  if  the  soul  did  not  can-y 
eternity  within  itself;  for  the  temporal  cannot 
possibly  conceive  the  eternal,  the  finite  the  infi- 
nite. We  must,  alas !  deny  to  this  argument  all 
validity ;  for  these  ideas  are,  upon  their  part,  con- 
troverted conceptions.  And,  moreover,  all  con- 
scious conception  involves  the  distinction  of  the 
object  from  the  subject,  and  by  no  means  involves 
the  possession  by  the  soul  of  all  that  it  can  con- 
ceive. We  see,  then,  that  the  question  concern- 
ing the  relation  of  soul  and  body  in  respect  to 
self-consciousness  presses  into  the  foregi'ound  of 
the  examination,  and  must  be  answered  before 
we  can  come  to  any  result.  Besides,  it  is  the  whole 
man,  the  whole  being  of  man  only,  from  which 
objective  reasons  for  belief  in  immortality  can  be 
derived.  In  this  relation  it  stands  physiologi- 
cally and  psychologically  fast,  that,  until  now  at 
least,  it  seems  impossible  to  derive  psychological 
phenomena  from  the  general  physical  and  chemi- 
cal powers  of  nature.     But  every  power  appears 


IMMORTALITY. 


1066 


IMMUNITY. 


united  to  some  substance.  Upon  what  substance, 
then,  is  the  psychical  powei-  bound?  —  upon  the 
body,  or  some  special  substance?  Xothing  pre- 
vents us  from  supposing  that  the  soul  is  a  centre 
of  those  particular  powers  which  lie  at  the  ground 
of  psychical  appearances ;  i.e.,  that  these  powers 
are  not  bound  up  with  the  atoms  of  the  body,  but 
form  a  centre  for  themselves ;  and  they  are  united 
with  the  substances  and  powers  of  the  body  only 
in  an  intimate  relation  of  action  and  re-action. 
The  unity  of  consciousness  is  the  pledge  of  the 
unity  of  the  soul;  i.e.,  the  unity  of  psychical 
powers  in  one  centre.  The  hypothesis  that  this 
centre  of  the  soul  is  a  single  atom  is  contradicted 
by  the  facts,  and  is  no  longer  tenable.  There  is 
no  trace  in  the  Iirain  of  that  centralization  of  ele- 
ments and  activities  which  is  the  indisputable 
characteristic  of  the  soul ;  and  it  follows,  there- 
fore, from  the  science  of  the  human  body,  that  the 
soul  is  not  a  simple  function  of  the  brain,  but  a 
special  centre  of  special  powers,  and  therefore  is 
to  be  regarded  as  a  peculiar  existence  distinct 
from  the  body.  It  does  not  follow,  from  the  fact 
of  the  constant  co-working  of  body  and  soul,  that 
consciousness  is  a  product  simply  of  the  nervous 
system  :  as  certainly  as  the  physical  appearances 
in  general  can  be  explained  only  from  the  work- 
ing of  special  physical  powers,  so  consciousness 
in  itself  can  be  only  a  product  of  the  soul.  But 
since  the  soul  does  not  produce  consciousness, 
or  individual  .sensations,  perceptions,  etc.,  inde- 
pendently by  itself  alone ;  since,  rather,  both  the 
origin  and  continuance  of  consciousness,  as  of  par- 
ticular perceptions,  etc.,  appear  to  be  conditioned 
through  the  co-working  of  the  nervous  system, — 
we  must,  therefore,  admit  absolutely,  in  view  of 
scientific  facts,  that  a  continued  existence  of  self- 
consciousness  without  a  bodily  organism  cannot 
be  considered.  Natural  science  is  therefore  right 
when  it  steadfastly  denies  immortality  as  an 
isolated  continuance  of  the  .soul  separated  from 
all  embodiment.  Hut  this  is  not  the  oidy  possi- 
ble or  generally  l)elieved  form  of  immortality. 

Christianity  atlirms  not  only  the  continuance 
of  the  soul,  but  also  the  resurrection  of  the  body, 
i.e.,  the  restoration  of  the  body,  or  tlio  re-union 
of  tlie  .soul  with  a  new,  similar  (more  perfect) 
embodiment.  This  Christian  faith  is  not  con- 
tradicted by  physical  or  psychical  facts ;  on  the 
contrary,  it  seems  to  be  reijuired  even  In'  tlieui. 
Consciousness  is  restored  alter  interruptions  of 
it  through  l)oilily  injuries,  and  with  its  previous 
contents  unchanged:  in  like  manner,  not  only 
may  consciousness  be  restored  after  separation 
of  the  soul  and  body;  but  it  must  be  restored 
so  soon  as  the  soul  enters  into  union  with  the 
same  or  a  similar  organization.  Absolutely  tlie 
same  body  caimot  be  restored.  The  only  ques- 
tion, then,  is  whether  the  re-union  of  tlio  .'<oul 
with  a  new,  equal,  or  similar  body,  is  pliysiologi- 
cally  conceivable.  We  alliiin  that  it  is  not  only 
tenable,  but  is  required,  because  it  lies  wholly  in 
the  consequence  of  the  principles  whicli  rule 
nature,  and  are  proved  by  natural  science ;  for 
nature  everywhere  tends  to  give  to  conditioned 
forces  the  po.ssibility  also  of  their  exercise,  the 
sphere  for  their  activity.  All  powers  of  nature 
find  without  themselves  continually  the  means 
and  conditions  under  which  to  manifest  tlieir 
activity.    In  this  consists  tl;e  very  order  and  regu- 


larity of  nature.  Consequently  natural  science 
must  suppose,  that,  for  the  soul  also,  there  shall  be 
preserved  room,  not  only  for  the  temporary  and 
passing  play  of  its  powers,  but  also  for  their  en- 
during activity ;  that  the  force  of  consciousness, 
although  temporarily  robbed  of  its  power  of  mani- 
festation, is  destined  to  make  itself  availing  agam 
in  re-union  with  a  body  corresponding  to  it.  Ac- 
cording to  analogies  of  natural  science,  this  pro- 
cess may  be  regarded  as  constantly  repeating 
itself,  and,  with  that,  natural  science  may  stop. 
But  it  cannot  deny  the  possibility  that  this  pro- 
cess may  come  to  an  end  in  a  last  act  through 
the  union  of  the  soul  with  a  body  no  more 
separable  from  it ;  and  reason  demands  such  a 
conclusion,  because  an  endless,  aimless  circling  is 
unreasonable. 

Therefore  real  science  cannot  conflict  with  the 
belief  in  immortality;  but,  in  consistency,  it  must 
allow  it,  and  affirm,  if  not  its  truth,  at  least  its 
probability.  Now,  after  we  have  won  such  ob- 
jective gTounds  for  this  belief,  it  receives  higher 
importance  from  religious,  natural,  and  moral 
motives.  It  is  a  postulate  of  the  ethical  belief  in 
God  as  love.  Reason  leads  to  the  same  result ; 
for  reason  which  obtains  throughout  the  creation 
requires  the  conception  of  the  highest  end,  and, 
therefore,  the  passing  from  temporal  becoming 
into  eternal  being.  So,  also,  the  ethical  ideas  of 
the  true,  good,  and  beautiful,  lead  to  the  same 
conclusion.  These  are  ideals  whose  perfect  reali- 
zation involves  innnortality. 

[The  scientific  argument  for  the  probability  of 
immortality  has  recently  been  presented  with 
much  force  by  Professors  Tait  and  Balfour  Stew- 
art, in  a  volume  entitled  the  Unseen  Universe, 
published  in  London  in  1875.  They  argue  that 
immortality  is  the  natuial  consequence  of  modern 
ideas  of  the  conservation  of  force  and  the  princi- 
ple of  continuity.  The  moral  argument  receives 
additional  force  when  immortality  is  conceived 
of  as  the  necessary  perfection  of  society.  All  the 
reasons  for  the  continued  life  of  tlie  individual 
are  enhanced  when  taken  up  into  the  hope  of  .social 
innnortality,  or  the  perfection  of  tlie  kingdom  of 
(iod.]  '  TLRICI.  (NT:\VMAN  SMYTH.) 

IMMUNITY.  Canon  law  makes  a  distinction 
between  imviiinilas  ecclesia;  which  simply  means 
the  right  of  asylum  once  enjoyed  by  the  Cluirch, 
and  immunitas  eccltsidslica,  winch  denotes  a  gen- 
eral exemption  from  civil  obligations.  When 
the  Church  was  recognized  by  the  Roman  State, 
great  iirivileges  were  conferred  upon  her  by  the 
emperors.  The  clergy  was  exempteil  from  assum- 
ing ofhce,  either  ill  the  State  or  in  the  commune, 
—  at  that  time  the  heaviest  duty  of  a  Roman 
citizen,  —  the  ruin  of  the  rich,  the  perdition  of  the 
honest.  They  were  furthermore  exempted  from 
public  taxation,  drafting,  (luarlering,  and  every 
kind  of  menial  service.  The.se  immunities  the 
Church  succeeded  in  vindicating  for  herself,  also, 
when  she  became  established  among  the  barba- 
rians. She  carried  tlie  Roman  law  along  with 
her  into  (Jc'rmany,  into  France,  into  every  coun- 
try whither  she  went,  and  its  ecclesiastical  part 
she  (h'vcloped  more  and  more  in  her  own  favor. 
Kcclesiasti(-al  |)ei-sons  were  gradually  I'xempted 
from  the  comnion  law,  and  subjected  only  to  lueir 
own  .sjK'cial  courts;  ecclesiastical  pio|ierly  was 
gradually  based  on  other  claims,  and  held  ou  other 


IMPANATIO. 


1067 


IMPOSTORIBUS. 


oonditions,  than  secular  property ;  finally,  the 
principle  of  immunity  was  declared  a  divine  ordi- 
nation, and  acknowledged  as  such,  for  instance,  by 
the  emperor  Frederic  If.  in  his  Atithenlica  (Pertz  : 
Man.,  4,  2-13).  These  advantages  were  not  gained, 
however,  without  contest  with  the  secular  powers  ; 
and  the  whole  church  organization  began  to  weak- 
en in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries.  The 
victories  of  former  days  were  sorely  reversed.  It 
was  in  vain  that  the  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  25, 
c.  20)  undertook  to  defend  the  principle  of  immu- 
uity,  that  the  bull  In  ccenu  Domini  excommuni- 
cated any  one  who  should  infringe  upon  the 
immunities  of  the  chm-ch,  that  Urban  VIII.  in 
162G  established  a  special  department  of  the  curia 
as  Concjregatio  Juried ictionis  el  Inimuniialis  Eccle- 
siasticcK.  The  absolute  State  was  by  its  own  prin- 
ciple compelled  to  destroy  such  privileges  and 
particular  rights,  and  the  constitutional  State  fol- 
lowed in  its  track.  While  the  syllabus  of  Dec. 
8,  1864,  still  clings  to  the  principle  of  ecclesiasti- 
•cal  inununity  as  a  divine  ordination,  the  military 
laws  of  Germany  and  France  (1871-73)  grant 
only  a  partial  exemjition  from  military  service  to 
the  clergy.  [See  F.  Cham.\rd:  De  rimmunite 
eccte'si((sliifie  el  monaslique,  Paris,  187S.]    MEJER. 

IMPANATIO  (from  in  and /)«««,"  bread")  de- 
notes one  of  the  many  modifications  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  real  presence  of  the  flesh  and  blood 
of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  which  arose  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation.  Ru- 
precht  of  Dentz,  who  died  in  1135,  is  the  father  of 
this  idea.  In  his  Comm.  in  Exncl.,  ii.  10  {Opera, 
i.  p.  267,  Cologne,  1602)  he  explains  how  God 
connects  the  real  flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  with 
the  real  bread  and  w  ine  in  the  Eucharist,  without 
disturbing  the  substance  of  either,  just  as,  in  the 
womb  of  the  Virgin,  he  connected  the  Word  and 
the  human  nature  without  changing  the  charac- 
ter of  the  latter.  The  word  impanalio,  however, 
is  first  used  by  a  contemporary  of  his,  Alger  of 
Liege,  who  died  in  1131,  and  wrote  against  him, 
in  defence  of  transubstantiation,  In  pane  Chris- 
tum impanalum,  sicut  Dciim  in  came  personaliter 
incarnatmn.  In  the  period  of  the  Reformation 
Carlstadt  accused  Osiander  of  holding  the  view 
of  impanation ;  and  the  same  accusation  was 
preferred  by  the  Romanists  in  general  against 
Luther,  who  denied  it.  L.  PELT. 

IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS  (impositio  manimm, 
xeipoTovia).  This  custom  is  as  old  as  the  race,  and 
rests  upon  the  significance  of  the  human  hand 
in  the  bodily  organism  and  in  social  life.  Thus 
■we  speak  of  the  hand  of  peace,  the  hand  of  war, 
the  helping,  protecting,  needy,  cruel  hand,  and 
distinguish  between  laying  hands  on,  laying 
hands  upon,  raising  hands  over,  raising  hands  to, 
a  person.  The  biblical  custom  of  laying  on  of 
hands  rests  upon  the  conception  of  the  hand  as 
the  organ  of  mediation  and  of  transferrence.  So 
the  priest  laid  his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the 
bullock  or  the  goat  to  indicate  that  he  had  trans- 
ferred to  it  his  guilt  or  the  guilt  of  the  people 
(Lev.  i.  4,  iii.  2,  viii.  14,  xvi.  21,  24).  The  Old- 
Testament  imposition  of  hands  can  be  divided 
into  three  stages,  —  the  patriarchal  (typical  and 
benedictory),  the  prophecy  of  the  continuance  of 
the  hereditary  blessing  (cf.  Gen.  xlviii.  14)  ;  the 
legal  (symbolical  and  oflicially  consecrating),  an 
investiture  of  the  authority  of  office,  and  prom- 


ise of  the  blessing  attached  (cf.  Exod.  xxix.  lO; 
Num.  xxvii.  18) ;  and  the  prophetic  (dynamic  and 
healing  ),  a  miraculous  power  to  heal  and  to  re- 
store lite  (cf.  2  Kings  iv.  31).  The  New-Testa- 
ment instances  do  realli/  what  the  Old  Testament's 
do  only  typically,  and  admit  of  a  similar  classifi- 
cation into  tlie  spiritual-patriarchal  laying-on  of 
hands  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  the  spiritual- 
legal  and  official  by  the  Church,  and  the  prophet- 
ical-healing, a  New-Testament  charisma,  of  a 
mysterious  character.  Our  Lord  healed  at  first 
by  laying  on  of  hands  (Mark  vi.  5;  Luke  iv.  41), 
but  gradually  passed  over  to  the  exclusive  use  of 
the  word  of  power  in  order  that  he  might  not 
encourage  the  popular  idea  that  there  was  a  neces- 
sary connection  between  the  laying-on  of  hands 
and  the  cure.  He  transferred  his  spirit  to  his  dis- 
ciples, when  he  raised  his  hands  in  blessing  over 
them  as  he  ascended  (Luke  xxiv.  50).  This  act, 
in  connection  with  the  outpouring  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  is  the  source  of  the  apostolic  laying-on  of 
hands.  With  the  withdrawal  of  the  miraculous 
gift  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  ordination  was  developed 
as  a  legal  and  symbolical  form  out  of  the  ecclesi- 
astico-otticial  laying-on  of  hands.  But  in  the  Ro- 
man Church  the  latter  continues  as  a  practice,  in 
connection  with  the  consecrating  of  catechumens, 
the  preparation  for  baptism,  confirmation,  and 
particularly  oi-dination,  where  the  laying-on  of 
hands  constitutes  the  specific  visible  sign  of  the 
sacrament.     See  Oudination.       J.  P.  lange. 

IMPOSTORIBUS,  De  Tribus.  In  his  ency- 
clica  (May  21-July  1,  1239)  Gregory  IX.  accused 
Frederic  II.  of  having  said  that  the  world  had 
been  deceived  by  three  impostors,  —  Jesus,  Moses, 
and  Mohammed;  that  he  who  thought  that  God, 
the  Creator  of  the  world,  could  be  born  of  a 
woman,  was  a  fool;  that  nothing  ought  to  be 
believed  but  that  which  is  self-evident,  or  can 
be  proved,  etc.  The  emperor  peremptorily  denied 
ever  to  have  used  such  expressions  ;  but  when  we 
remember  how  well  he  liked  to  be  called  the  pre- 
cursor of  the  Antichrist,  how  infatuated  he  was 
by  Arab  philosophy,  and  how  anticlerical  was  the 
whole  atmosphere  of  the  Ilohenstaufen  court,  it 
seems  not  improbable  that  he  may  have  enter- 
tained very  sceptical  views,  though  there  is  no 
direct  proof.  So  much  for  the  origin  of  the 
phrase.  With  respect  to  the  book  having  this  or 
a  similar  phrase  for  its  title,  there  circulated  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  the  most 
singular  and  contradictory  rumors  concerning  its 
date  and  author,  and  even  concerning  its  con- 
tents ;  for  the  book  itself  seemed  to  have  disap- 
peared. See  Genthe:  De  imposlura  religiomim, 
Leipzig,  1833.  The  text  edited  by  E.  Weller 
in  1846,  and  again  in  1876,  is  derived  from  a 
copy  found  in  tlie  Royal  Library  of  Dresden,  and 
dated  1598.  But  there  must  have  been  earlier 
editions,  as  the  book  is  mentioned  by  Wilhelm 
Postel  in  1503 ;  and  Campanella,  who  was  accused 
of  being  its  author,  says  that  it  was  published 
thirty  years  before  he  was  born,  consequently  in 
1538.  The  contents  of  the  book  are  sceptical 
throughout :  even  the  ideas  of  the  existence  of 
God  and  the  necessity  of  worshipping  him  are 
undermined.  But  the  argumentation  sliows  often 
a  glaring  lack  of  religious  sense  and  theological 
knowledge,  and  has  probably  never  led  any  one 
astray.  W.  mollek. 


IMPUTATION. 


1068 


IMPUTATION. 


IMPUTATION  OF  SIN  AND  OF  RIGHT- 
EOUSNESS. I.  The  Word  in  its  Scriptural 
Usage.  —  It  is  represented  in  tlie  Old  Testament 
by  the  ilebrew  2C'n.  and  in  the  Septuagint  and 
New  Testament  by  the  Greek  word  7x>yi!fiiuiJ.. 
These  wurds  occur  frequently  in  Scripture,  and 
are  variously  translated  in  the  authorized  ver- 
sion;  e.g.,  "0  think  (Job  xsxv.  2;  Rom.  ii.  3), 
to  regard  (Isa.  xxxiii.  S),  to  esteem  (Isa.  xxix. 
16,  17 ;  Rom.  xiv.  14),  to  reckon  (2  Sam.  iv.  2), 
to  be  reckonea  for  or  among  (Rom.  iv.  4,  Lnke 
xxii.  37),  to  impute  (Lev.  vii.  18;  Rom.  iv.  6-8), 
to  lay  to  one's  charge  (2  Tim.  iv.  16),  to  count 
(Rom.  iv.  5).  Liddell  and  Scott  define  AoyiCo/"!' 
equivalent  to  "to  count,  deem,  consider  that  any 
tiling  is."  Cremer  (Bib.  Theo.  Lex.  of  New- 
Testament  Greek)  says,  Aoy/feoflo!  ri  nri  is  equiva- 
lent to  "  to  reckon  any  thing  to  a  person.;  to  put 
to  his  account,  either  m  his  favor,  or  as  to  what 
he  must  be  answerable  for." 

II.  The  Doctrine  oe  the  Imputation  of 
Adam's  First  Sin  to  his  Descendants. — 
The  foregoing  citations  make  it  plain  that  the 
'•imputation "of  sin"  cannot  be  a  physical  act, 
or  the  making  any  one  subjectively  .sinful,  but 
that  it  is  always  a  forensic  act,  or  a  charging 
to  one  the  guflt  of  any  sin  as  a  ground  of 
punishment.  To  "impute  sin"  is  punitatively 
to  lay  it  to  one's  charge  (2  Tim.  iv.  16)  :  "  not 
to  impute  sin  "  is  to  remit  the  punishment,  or  to 
acquit  or  to  justify  the  person. 

The  entire  historical  church  from  the  first  has 
equally  repudiated  the  two  antithetic  liere.sies 
of  Manich^ism  and  Pelagianism.  In  denying 
Manicha-ism,  or  the  doctrine  that  sin  is  a  sub- 
stance, eternal  and  self-existent,  the  whole  church 
has  maintained  that  sin  could  have  originated 
only  in  an  apostatizing  self-decision  of  an  intelli- 
gent and  free  creature.  In  denying  Pelagianism 
she  has  uniformly  held  that  all  infants  come  into 
the  world  with  their  moral  natures  depraved  and 
guilty,  and  therefore  needing  redemption  before 
they  "have  individually  done  either  good  or  evil. 
This  problem  involves,  therefore,  three  distinct 
though  related  questions.  (1)  If  all  men,  except 
the  fij-st,  come  into  existence  with  natures  mor- 
ally corrupt  anterior  to  personal  agency  of  what- 
ever kind,  then  how  can  Manichajism  be  avoided, 
and  their  sin  be  shown  to  originate  in  an  act 
of  personal  self-decision?  (2)  llow  can  God  be 
justified  in  bringing  (whether  directly  or  medi- 
ately through  natural  law,  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence) this  root  of  all  evils  upon  new-created 
creatures  at  the  beginning  of  their  careers?  (3) 
How  can  this  natural  depravity  be  regarded  as 
guilt,  and  not  as  di.sease  and  misfortune  ? 

Origen,  followed  only  by  a  few  individuals, 
has  answered  all  tliese  questions  at  once  by 
maintaining  that  all  human  souls  had  a  personal 
probation  in  a  pre-existing  state ;  that  the  sinful 
character  of  each  infant  is  a  righteously  imposeil 
penal  consequence  of  his  own  personal  apostasy 
in  that  state  (JJa  Princi/nis.  II.,  IX.).  Dr.  .lulius 
MiiUer  (Vhristian  Doctrine  of  Sin,  vol.  ii.  ]i. 
liJ7)  in  like  manner  refers  this  natural  deprav- 
ity to  a  transcendental  and  timeless  personal  self- 
decision  of  each  soul. 

But  the  historical  church  in  all  its  branches 
has  answere<l  these  thrive  (|Ue8tions  at  once  by 
Iciicliing  that  this  natuial  depravity,  which  in- 


fects each  human  soul  from  birth,  is,  in  every 
case,  a  penal  consequence  of  Adam's  apostatizing 
act.  Augustine  {De  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  xiii.  c.  3  and 
14 ;  Op.  imperf.  o.  Jul.  lib.  iv.  §  104) ;  Dr.  G.  F. 
yViggers  (Augustinianism  anil  Pelagianism,  chsil).  5, 
2,  §2);  Anselm  (Cur  Deus  Homo  ?  lib.  ii.  cap. 
8;  De  Conceptu  Virg.  et  Orig.  Pec,  caput  x.) ; 
Thomas  Aquinas  (Summa  Theo.,  i.  quse.  100,  and 
ii'.  quses.  81  and  82) ;  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  v. 
1  and  2);  Bellarmin  (Amiss.  6'ra/.,  iii.  1);  Philip 
Jlelanchthon  (Apol.  Aug.  Con/.,  46,  47;  Expli. 
Symb.  Nicen.,  in  Corp.  Rcjor.,  xxiii.  403,  583 ; 
Formula  Concordiw,  Pars  II.  1  ;  De  Pec.  Orig., 
27);  Quenstedt  (^Ques.  Theo.  Did.,  Pol.  I.  994); 
Calvin  {Instil.  Theol.,  bk.  ii.  chap.  1,  §§  4-7; 
Second  Helcetic  Con/.,  cap.  viii.  §  1)  ;  Zacharias 
Ursinus  (Surnme  of  Christian  Religion  ;  Lectures  on 
Heidelberg  Catechiim ;  Origin  of  Sin ;  What  are 
the  Causes  of  Si)i?);  Amesius  (Medul.  Theol., 
lib.  i.  cap.  17)  ;  II.  Witsius  {Eccon.  of  Coven., 
bk.  i.  chap.  8,  §§  33,  34) ;  J.  Arminius  (Public 
Disputations,  Disp.  7,  and  Private  Disputations, 
Disp.  31)  ;  Robert  Watson  (Institutes  of  Theology, 
pt.  ii.  chap,  xviii.)  ;  President  Witherspoon 
(Works,  vol.  iv.  p.  96). 

But,  while  the  entire  church  has  been  thus  far 
agreed,  different  schools  have  widely  differed  as 
to  the  true  answer  to  the  question.  On  what 
ground  the  descendants  of  Adam  are  held  legally 
responsible  for,  i.e.,  punishable  on  account  of, 
his  first  sin  ?  The  tendency  at  the  first  was  to 
ascribe  it  to  the  natural  relation  of  Adam  alone, 
and  sin  was  regarded  as  propagated  ex  traduce. 
Thus  Tertullian  taught  that  Adam  is  fons  generis 
el  prince})S,  and  his  soul  matrix  omnium  (Dorner's 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  pt.  ii.  §  74),  This 
obviously  accounts  for  the  fact  of  innate  pollu- 
tion, but  not  of  guilt :  it  shows  hoiv  sin  descends, 
but  not  how  the  permission  that  it  should  thus 
descend  consists  with  the  justice  of  God.  There- 
fore Augustine  strove  to  introduce  a  mural  ground 
for  our  sharing  in  the  penal  consequences  of 
Adam"s  sin  by  showing  that  our  wills  were  in 
some  way  repre.sented  in  his  will.  "  Omnes  enim 
fuimus  in  illo,  quando  omnes  fuimus  ille  unus" 
(De  Civ.  Dei,  lib.  xiii.  cap.  xiv.). 

This  conception  of  Augustine  was  repeated  in 
various  forms,  but  with  virtual  identity,  until  the 
appearance  of  the  '■  federal  theory,"  altout  the 
age  of  the  Reformation.  Sometimes  it  has  been 
illustrated  and  re-enforced  by  realistic  philoso- 
phy, but  oftener  it  has  stood  alone  as  a  revealed 
fact;  or  as  a  necessary  inference  from  revealed 
facts.  The  federal  view  presujiposes  the  natural 
headship  of  Adam  as  the  [irogenitor  of  the 
entire  human  race,  and  builds  upon  it  the  fui'- 
ther  idea  of  moral  representation  under  tlie 
analogy  of  a  covenant,  including  all  mankind  in 
tlieir  first  parent.  Dr.  Charles  P.  Kiautli  says, 
"  The  technicalities  of  the  federal  idea  are  late 
in  appearing;  but  the  essential  idea  itself  comes 
in  from  the  beginning  in  our  (the  Lutlieran) 
theology."  It  was  first  prominently  advanced 
by  Catluirinus  in  the  Council  of  Trent  (K.  Paul 
S'arpi's  History  of  Council  of  Trent,  translated  by 
Sir  N.  Brent,  i>ondon,  1676,  pi«.  162-16li),  and 
by  Ilyjierius,  Oh'vianus.  and  Kajihael  Kglin  (Dor- 
ner's History  (f  Protestant  Theology,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
31-45).  iMelanchthon  said  (Expli.  Symli.  Airen., 
in  the  Corp.  lief  or.,  xxiii.  403  and  583),  "Adam 


IMPUTATION. 


1069 


INCARNATION. 


and  Eve  merited  guilt  and  depravity  for  their 
posterity,  and  in  this  trial  they  represented  the 
whole  human  race." 

This  view  was  generally  adopted  among  all 
the  churches,  Anniniau  as  well  as  Reformed,  and 
lias  prevailed  almost  universally  until  the  appear- 
ance (if  tlie  modern  school  of  German  specula- 
tive theologians.  The  "federal  theology,"  as  a 
method  of  exhibiting  the  whole  plan  of  God's 
dealings  with  men  in  creation  and  redemption, 
under  the  forms  of  the  two  covenants  of  works 
and  of  grace,  is  generally  attributed  to  Cocce- 
jus,  professor  iu  Leyden  (d.  16ti9) ;  but  it  is 
certain  that  this  conception  had  taken  hold  of 
the  Britisli  Reformed  churches  from  the  first. 
This  is  proved  from  the  Method  of  the  Chrklian 
Relu/iun,  compiled  by  Ussher  in  the  second  dec- 
ade of  the  seventeenth  century ;  from  IST.  Bye- 
field's  (father  of  the  clerk  of  the  Westminster 
Assembly)  Principles,  or  the  Pattern  of  Whole- 
some Words,  first  edition,  161S;  from  Treatise  of 
the  Cocenant  of  Grace,  by  J.  Ball,  published  1645, 
after  his  death;  and  from  the  Mi/sterium  et  Me- 
dulla  Bibliorum,  by  Francis  Roberts,  London, 
1657,  a  complete  system  of  divinity  on  the 
method  of  covenants. 

III.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Imputation 
OF  Christ's  Righteousness  to  his  People. 
—  As  Adam's  apostatizing  act  is  the  guilty 
ground  of  the  condemnation,  alienation,  and  con- 
sequent depravity  of  the  race,  so  the  obedience 
and  suSerings  of  Christ  in  their  stead  is  the 
meritorious  ground  of  the  justification,  recon- 
ciliation, and  consequent  regeneration  of  the 
beneficiaries  of  his  redemption.  This  has  vir- 
tually been  the  faith  of  the  historical  church 
from  the  beginning  ;  although,  from  the  preva- 
lent confusion  of  the  ideas  of  justification  and 
sanctification,  the  ground  of  justification  in  ini- 
piuted  righteousness  was  not  explicitly  set  forth 
before  the  Reformation,  yet  it  was  iu  essence  in- 
volved in  what  the  better  schoolmen  (as  Anselm 
and  Thomas  Aquinas,  etc.)  taught  as  to  the 
nature  of  the  atonement,  as  to  the  headship  of 
Christ,  and  as  to  the  distinction  between  satisfac- 
tion and  merit  (Suimna,  pt.  iii.  quss.  48,  49). 
While  the  thought  of  Luther  is  fully  expressed 
in  the  language  of  St.  Bernard  {Tract,  c.  err. 
Abcelardi,  cap.  vi.  15),  the  most  evangelical  of  the 
schoolmen,  "ut  videlicet  satisfactio  iinius  omnibus 
imputetur,  siciit  omnium  peccata  unus  ille  portavit." 
This  doctrine,  in  its  strictest  definition,  was  the 
characteristic  of  all  the  Reformers,  and  of  the 
confessions  and  classical  theology  which  has  pro- 
ceeded from  them  {A/iol.  Aurj.  Coiif.  de  Justif  , 
Form.  Concord,  pt.  ii.  9,  17  ;  Calvin's  Institutes, 
bk.  iii.  chap.  11,  §  2;  Heidelberg  Catechism,  Ques. 
60;    Westminster  Confession,  c\\<),'p.  xi.). 

Lit.  —  In  addition  to  the  sources  above  cited, 
Schaff's  Creeds  of  Christendom,  and  Doctrinal 
and  Historical  Excursus,  in  his  edition  of  Lanye's 
Commentary  on  Romans  (pp.  191-197),  Decretum 
.Syn.  Nation.  Eccle.  Ref.  Gal.  (1045),  de  impit- 
tatione,  etc.  (Rivet:  0pp.,  tom.  iii.);  essays 
of  Dr.  C.  Hodge,  in  the  Biblical  Repertory, 
July,  1830,  July,  1831,  and  October,  1839;  Bern- 
hard  DE  Moou :  Commcnlanus  J.  Marchii  Com- 
pendium, caput  XV.  ;  De  Peccato  Hominuin  ,  Dr. 
George  I'.  Fisher's  article  on  Imputation,  in 
New-Enylander,  July,  1868;  Dr.  William  Cun- 


ningham's The  Reformers  and  the  Theology  of 
the  Reformation,  Edinburgh,  1866,  essay  vii. 
§  2.  A.  A.  IIODGE. 

INABILITY  in  theology  means  want  of  power 
to  do  God's  will.  It  may  be  natural,  wlien  the- 
cause  is  extrinsic  to  the  will ;  moral,  when  the 
cause  is  inherent  in  the  will.  The  New  .School 
Calvinistic  theologians  contended  that  man  has. 
not  natural,  but  merely  moral,  inability:  conse- 
quently he  can  serve  God  if  he  will.  The  Old 
School  denied  him  ability  of  any  kind.  The  Ar- 
minians  do  the  same,  but  affirm  gracious  ability,, 
whereby  man  is  enabled  to  be  saved.  See  A.  A. 
Hodge  :  Outlines,  chap.  xx. ;  C.  Hodge  :  Hys. 
Theol..  ii.  257-277. 

INCAPACITY,  as  an  ecclesiastical  term,  de- 
notes absolute  unfitness  for  ordination.  The 
Roman-Catholic  Church  has  established  two  cases 
of  incapacity :  women  cannot  be  ordained,  and 
men  who  are  not  baptized.  In  the  latter  case  th& 
incapacity  is  self-evident ;  in  the  former  it  is 
based  on  1  Tim.  ii.  12,  1  Cor.  xiv.  34-35,  and 
has  never  been  doubted  by  the  Church.  The 
Protestant  churches  followed  originally  the  same 
rules  as  the  Roman  Churcli,  until  lately  some- 
exceptions  have  been  made  with  respect  to  wo- 
men's incapacity. 

INCARNATION.  The  doctrine  of  the  incar- 
nation, in  its  biblical  elements  and  liistorical  de- 
velopment, has  already  been  treated  in  the  art. 
Ciiristology.  Its  present  relation  and  impor- 
tance, in  view  of  modern  conceptions  of  the  crea- 
tion, require  distinct  mention.  Three  points 
should  be  noticed  as  specially  significant. 

1.  The  present  tendency  among  many  theolo- 
gians is  to  lay  increased  stress  upon  the  ethical 
necessity  of  the  incarnation.  It  is  to  be  conceived 
of  as  an  immanent  necessity  of  the  love  of  God,, 
and  as  involved  in  the  purpose  of  the  best  possi- 
ble creation.  It  is  necessary  to  the  comjilete  self- 
revelation  and  self-impartation  of  God  to  the 
creation,  and  also  for  the  perfection  and  consum- 
mation of  the  creation.  The  incarnation  is  that 
full  and  final  outgoing  of  God  into  his  creation 
which  satisfies  God's  own  moral  perfection.  It 
is,  therefore,  ideally  necessary,  involved,  that  is, 
in  the  idea  of  a  perfect  God  and  a  perfect  crea- 
tion. The  purpose  of  creation  may  be  said,  there- 
fore, to  include  the  purpose  of  incarnation  ;  and 
the  incarnation  may  be  regarded  as  an  eternal 
counsel  of  God,  irrespective  of  the  contingency 
of  sin,  and  purpose  of  redemption.  This  con- 
ception of  an  incarnation  as  the  consummation 
of  the  creation,  even  had  there  been  no  sin,  is  not- 
to  be  confounded  with  the  conception  of  a  pan- 
theistic .self-development  of  the  divine  nature. 
There  was  no  metaphysical  necessity,  but  a  purely 
ethical  necessity,  of  incarnation  for  the  perfect 
God.  Therefore  this  view  of  it  does  not  dimin- 
isli  the  glory  of  free  grace ;  rather  redemption 
through  the  Son  of  God  is  seen  to  be  no  after- 
thouglit,  or  expedient  of  grace,  but  to  be  provided 
for,  and  made  possible,  in  the  eternal  purpose  of 
creation.  Not  only  in  the  divine  idea  of  creation- 
was  sin  rendered  possible,  but  also  redemption 
through  Him  who  is  the  completion  and  goal  of 
the  creation.  The  world  was  made  capable  of 
redemption  in  the  same  thought  and  purpose  by 
which  it  w'as  made  capable  of  sinning.  The 
incarnation,  then,  becomes  a  central  and  essen- 


INCENSE. 


1070 


IN  CCBNA  DOMINI. 


tial  fact  in  our  tlieodicy.     All  God's  wavs  t'lom 
the  beginning  lead  up  to  Christ. 

2.  More  stress  is  laid  in  recent  theology  upon 
^he  cosniical  relations  of  the  incarnation.  The 
-old  truth  of  the  natural  headship  of  Christ  re- 
ceives new  significance  in  view  of  modern  theo- 
ries of  the  origin  and  unity  of  the  creation.  If 
a  theistic  evolution  be  assumed,  the  Christ  is  not 
dethroned,  but  exalted,  as  the  goal  of  the  whole 
asceut  of  life,  the  end  and  completion  of  all  con- 
ceivable development,  the  perfect  Man  beyond 
whom  there  can  be  none  higher,  the  Head  over 
all,  in  whom  humanity  is  raised  to  the  tlirone  of 
divinity,  the  second  Man,  who  is  tiie  Lord  from 
heaven.  The  whole  universe  is  thus  seen  to  be 
created  for  Christ,  through  whom  all  things  shall 
.at  last  be  made  subject  unto  the  Father,  that  God 
may  be  all,  and  in  all. 

3.  These  conceptions  and  tendencies  of  modern 
•theology  are  proving  themselves  helpful,  also,  in 
relation  to  the  problem  of  the  two  natures  in  the 
person  of  Christ.  This  has  been,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  Christian  theology,  its  great  transcendent 
problem  ;  and  no  thought  of  man  can  be  great 
•enough  to  comprehend  the  mystery  of  God  in 
Clirist.  But  any  conception  which  brings  this 
miracle  of  history  into  new  light,  or  more  appar- 
ent harmony  with  reason,  is  a  welcome  contribu- 
tion to  theology.  So  far  as  any  progress  in  this 
doctrine  has  been  made  since  the  Protestant  con- 
fessions were  worked  out,  it  has  been  by  apply- 
ing to  the  incarnation  the  idea  of  development 
(as  Professor  Dorner  has  done)  ;  so  that  the  incar- 
nation may  be  conceived  as  a  process  of  union  of 
two  natures  in  one  person.  "  The  Word  becami 
flesh."  This  becoming  flesh  was  real  at  tht 
nativity.  The  birth  of  Jesus  was  the  iii'st  monieni 
■of  an  actual,  real  incarnation.  But  it  was  nol 
-completed  in  the  manger:  the  union  of  the  two 
natures  required  the  mediation  of  a  life,  as  web 
as  birth.  It  was  a  process  begun  at  the  nativity. 
and  completed  in  the  a.scension  of  the  Christ  t( 
the  right  hand  of  the  Majesty  on  high.  Kooni 
is  thus  found  in  this  conception  for  the  growtl. 
of  the  human  nature,  the  coming  to  itself  of  th( 
human  soul ;  and,  as  far  and  as  fast  as  the  gTowtl- 
of  the  human  nature  permitted,  it  was  made  out 
in  immutable  nninii  witli  tlie  higher  nature  ol 
the  second  man,  the  Lord  from  heaven.  Christ 
was  made  perfect  through  suffering,  and  the  life 
of  Jesus  was  iiece.s.sary  to  the  perfection  of  the 
person  of  the  K(!deeiner.  Modern  theology  may 
be  able  to  bring  in  this  manner  the  fact  of  the 
incarnation  into  more  hopeful  relation  to  modern 
tendencies  of  thought;  but  imiierfect  as  any  con- 
ception of  the  mode  of  it  nmst  be,  inaderiuate  as 
-are  all  human  definitions  of  the  method  of  (jod's 
love  in  the  incarnation,  the  fact  of  it  is  the  key 
to  the  creation  and  to  history.  This  is  the  mys- 
tery of  God,  ill  who.se  light  other  mysteries  are 
made  plain.  The  incarnation,  itself  tian.sceiid- 
ing  rca.soii,  is  the  one  sulficient,  rational  expla- 
nation of  the  universe.  nicwman  smytu. 

INCENSE.  The  burning  of  incense  entered, 
as  a  .symbolical  act,  very  largely  into  the  religious 
rituals  of  Judaism  and  Gia^co-Koman  Paganism. 
The  Christian  Church  at  first  rejected  the  cus- 
tom. .See  Tertullian  :  Apolot/.,  -30;  Dc  cur.  iiii/il., 
10;  Athenagoras  :  Ler/al.  pro  C/irinl.,  I'-i  ;  Arno- 
bius:  AtJv.  Gent.,  7,  25.     Later  on,  however,  the 


Church  adopted  it.  In  the  very  minute  descrip- 
tions of  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
in  the  Calecheaes  oi  Cyril  and  the  .ijiosUilical  C"h- 
ariliitioiis,  it  is  not  mentioned.  It  occurs  for  the 
first  time  in  the  Aposlnlical  Canons  (can.,  iii.). 
Evagrius  (sixth  century.  Hist.  EccL,  vi.  21)  speaks 
of  a  golden  ^v/uari/pioi;  or  censer,  presented  to  the 
Church  of  Jerusalem  by  Chosroes.  At  that  time 
it  had  become  common  in  the  Eastern  Church  to 
fume  with  incense  the  elements  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  —  a  ceremony  which  is  found  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  middle  ages  in  the  Fraiikish  Church. 
See  Capilul.  i.  6,  in  Harduin  :  Cone.  Coll.,  v.  In 
the  evangelical  churches  the  custom  was  never 
adopted.     See  Frankixcexse.      G.  e.  steitz. 

INCEST  means  carnal  intercourse  between  per- 
sons within  the  degrees  of  relationship  forbidden 
by  law.  Canon  law  followed  in  this  field  in  the 
track  of  the  lloman  law,  though  with  various 
modifications.  Thus  it  distinguishes  between 
incesliis Juris  dicini  and  incestus  Juris  /(uwoni;  the 
former  being  an  offence  against  the  precepts  of 
Lev.  xviii.  and  xx.,  the  latter  an  offence  against 
the  precepts  of  some  other  law.  It  furthermore 
ascribes  the  same  effect  to  relationship  by  alRnitj- 
as  to  that  of  consanguinity,  and  it  establishes  an 
entirely  new  description  of  relationship  by  the 
so-calle<l  spiritual  affinity,  the  effect  of  having 
been  baptized  or  confirmed  together.  The  inceshe 
conjuncliones  are  specially  treated  by  Concilium 
A  urclianense,  iii.  (53S)  c.  10,  and  Turonicum,  ii. 
(5(57),  c.  20.  See  also  the  Pseudo-Isidorian  De- 
cretals (c.  -1,  C.  III.  q.  4;  c.  2,  C.  XXXV.  q.  2; 
c.  12,  C.  VI.  q.  1).  During  the  middle  ages 
incest  was  cognizable  only  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  which  had  the  power  to  annul  incestuous 
marriages,  and  compel  the  offender  to  do  iien- 
ance.  MEJER. 

INCHOFER,  Nlelchior,  b.  1584,  in  Vienna,  or, 
according  to  others,  at  Gtiuz  in  Hungary ;  d.  at 
Milan,  Sept.  28,  1G48;  entered  the  Society  of 
Jesus  in  1607  ;  taught  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Messina  till  163G  ;  lived  for  ten  years  in  Home, 
an  intimate  friend  of  Leo  AUatius,  and  member 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index;  and  was  in 
1()4()  appointed  professor  of  the  college  of  Mace- 
rata.  Of  his  Epistnla:  B.  Maria-  ]'.  ad  Messanen- 
ses  Veritas  rinilicala  (11)20),  the  first  edition  was 
put  on  the  Index,  and  suppressed.  In  his  Ilisloria 
saerw  lalinilalis  (1035)  he  makes  Latin  the  Lan- 
guage of  the  blessed  iu  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
In  his  .Innalcs  ceclcsiaslici  rci/ni  Ilnnyariiv  (1044) 
he  has  invented  a  bull  to  prove  the  dependence 
of  Ilung.ary  on  Rome.  He  was  at  one  time  con- 
sidered the  author  of  the  remarkable  satire  on 
the  Jesuits,  Monarchia  Snlipsorum,  which,  how- 
ever, Audiu  has  jiroved  to  belong  to  Scotti. 

IN  CdNA  DOMINI,  the  faiuous  bull  fulmi- 
nating curses  ;iiici  rxcdinmunications,  not  only 
over  all  heretics  and  those  who  in  any  way  sup- 
port them,  but  also  over  all  who  oppose  or  wrong 
the  church  by  taxing  the  clergy,  appealing  to  a 
general  council,  etc.,  was  the  work  of  several 
])opes,  and  was,  with  various  modification,  pub- 
lislied  every  j'ear  on  Holy  Thursday  or  Easter 
Monday,  from  the  fourteenth  century  till  1770, 
when  Clement  XH'.  discontinued  the  pulilica- 
lion  fnuu  a  regard  to  the  temporal  powers,  which 
c(uild  not  belli  feeling  offended  by  the  tone  and 
spirit  of  that  document. 


INCORPORATION. 


1071 


INDIA. 


INCORPORATION  of  an  ecclesiastical  bene- 
fice im^aiis  tliat  some  ecclesiastical  corporation, 
for  instance,  a  monastery,  takes  possessimi  of  the 
benefice,  enjoying  its  revennes,  but  also  perform- 
ing, the  spiritual  duties  for  the  sake  of  which  it 
originally  was  founded.  From  the  ninth  century 
such  incoriiorations  became  very  frequent  as  a 
ineans  by  which  the  ecclesiastical  corporations 
endeavored  to  increase  their  revenues.  But,  as 
they  were  always  connected  with  more  or  less 
glaring  abuses,  the  councils  tried  to  regulate  the 
jiroceedings  (see  Cone.  Trid.  sess.,  7,  c.  7)  ;  and, 
when  the  monasteries  and  other  ecclesiastical 
institutions  were  secularized,  they  ceased  alto- 
gether. 

INDEPENDENTS.     See  Congregationalism. 

INDEX  LIBRORUM  PROHIBITORUM  is  a 
list  of  books  which  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
forliids  its  members  to  read,  under  penalty  of  ex- 
communication. As  a  formally  established  insti- 
tution, the  Index  dates  back  only  to  the  sixteenth 
century ;  but  the  practice  of  forbidding  the  read- 
ing of  books  antagonistic  to  the  interests  of  the 
Church  is  very  old.  The  books  of  Arius  were 
condennied  and  burnt;  and,  in  the  course  of  the 
fifth  century,  condemnations,  with  accompanying 
conflagrations  of  books  deemed  heretical,  became 
very  common.  A  Council  of  Carthage  (400)  even 
"went  so  far  as  to  forbid  the  reading  of  Pagan 
Looks.  Jt  was,  however,  not  so  much  the  purity 
of  the  doctrines  which  the  Koman  Church  meant 
to  defend  by  those  proceedings,  as  her  position  as 
a  power  in  the  world.  Consequently,  when,  by 
reading  the  Bible,  pieople  became  aware  of  the 
huge  discrepancy  between  the  ideal  and  the 
actual  chuixh,  the  Bible  itself  was  made  a  for- 
bidden l)Ook ;  translations  into  the  vernacular 
tongues  were  prohibited;  and  a  Council  of  Toledo 
(1229)  forbade  laymen  to  have  in  their  possession 
any  of  the  books  of  the  Old  or  New  Testament. 
AVith  the  Reformation  and  the  invention  of  the 
printing-press,  the  number  of  dangerous  books 
attacking  the  Church,  both  her  doctrines  and  her 
practices,  increased  in  such  a  degree  tliat  a  sys- 
tematization  of  the  old  measures  of  prohibiting 
and  forbidding  became  necessary;  and  in  1557 
Paul  IV.  published  in  Rome  the  first  official 
Index.  In  its  eighteenth  session  the  Council  of 
Trent  took  the  question  under  consideration,  and 
a  special  committee  was  formed  ;  but  in  its 
twenty-fiftli  session  the  council  determined  to 
place  the  whole  affair  under  the  direct  authority 
of  the  Pope ;  and  in  loGi  Pius  IV.  issued  a  new 
Index,  generally  known  as  Index  Tridenlinus. 
Sixtus  V.  finally  organized  a  special  congregation 
of  the  Index,  which  is  still  in  operation,  and 
■which,  besides  the  Index  librorum  prohihitorum, 
also  prepares  an  Index  librorum  cxpuryandorum ; 
that  is,  a  list  of  books  which  may  be  read  after 
being  expurgated,  and  freed  from  certain  offen- 
sive passages.  See  Index  librorum  prohibilurum 
Rome,  187U ;  Reuscii  :  D.  Index  d.  verhotenen 
Backer,  Bonn,  1883-85,  2  vols. 

INDIA,  Religions  of.  SeeBuAiiMANisM,  Bkaii- 
MO  SoMA.i,  Buddhism. 

INDIA,  or  Hindustan,  is  one  of  the  most  exten- 
sive empires  of  the  world,  possesses  an  august 
history,  has  given  birth  to  two  of  the  most  preva- 
lent religions  of  mankind,  h.as  preserved  venera- 
ble works  of  literature  and  art,  and  for  the  last 
16  —  11 


two  generations  has  furni.shed  the  most  violent 
opposition  to,  as  well  as  enjoyed  the  most  earnest 
labors  of.  Christian  nii.ssionary  endeavor. 

CouNTiiV.  —  India  com|iris('s  an  area  of  1,474,- 
OOO  square  miles.  Lying  between  the  Himalayas 
on  the  north  —  the  most  sublime  mountain  peaks 
in  the  world,  rising,  at  their  highest  elevation 
(Mount  Evei-est),  twenty-nine  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea  —  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the  Indian 
Ocean  on  the  south,  it  possesses  a  great  variety 
of  climate  and  scenery.  The  country,  for  the 
most  part,  is  poorly  watered ;  but  the  Brahma- 
putra and  Ganges  are  two  mighty  rivers,  the 
latter  more  than  thirteen  hundred  miles  in  length. 
The  present  population  is  two  hundred  and  forty 
millions,  of  whom  a  hundred  and  twenty-one  thou- 
sand are  Europeans.  There  are  eighteen  cities 
with  a  population  of  over  one  hundred  thousand ; 
and  of  these  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Madras,  and 
Lucknow  are  the  largest. 

People.  —  The  people  are  of  mixed  descent. 
Tlie  old  aboriginal  races,  which  inhabited  the 
country  before  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
still  preserve  their  identity.  The  most  ancient 
is  the  so-called  Dravidian  stock,  which  includes 
those  speaking  the  Tamil,  Telugu,  Malayalam, 
etc.  These  natives  are  dusky  in  complexion. 
With  them  have  been  intermingled  the  conquer- 
ing races  from  the  north.  t!ie  more  noble  .Aryans 
(who  have  imposed  their  literature  upon  the 
country),  and  the  Mahometans,  coming  from  Per- 
sia, Arabia,  and  other  Asiatic  countries.  The 
most  recent  intermixture  has  come  from  Europe, 
and  more  especially  through  the  English,  who 
approached  India  from  the  sea,  and  are  now  the 
donnnant  factor  in  Indian  society,  although  in- 
significant in  jioint  of  numbers.  The  population 
is  divided,  as  to  religion,  amongst  various  forms 
of  worship.  Brahmanism,  or  ilinduism,  is  the 
most  venerable  in  point  of  age,  and  goes  back 
several  centuries  before  the  advent  of  Christ. 
Buddhism  came  next  in  point  of  time,  threat- 
ened to  efface  the  Bi'ahman  worship,  but  was 
itself  almost  exterminated  by  the  revolt  of  the 
Brahmans.  Then  came  Mahometanisin,  and 
finally  Christianity,  which  is  the  youngest  and 
last.  See  Buddhism  and  Brahm.anism.  The 
people  are  divided  as  follows  :  — 

Hindus 139,OUU,000 

Maliometans 40,000.000 

Bu(ldhi6U 3,000,000 

Sikhs 1,000,000 

Cbristians iiOO.OOO 

The  people  speak  nearly  a  hundred  languages, 
of  which  the  principal  are  the  Hindustani  (and 
Hindi,  which  is,  strictly  speaking,  the  proper 
term  for  the  modern  dialect),  Bengali,  Mahratta, 
Telugu,  Tamil,  Punjabi. 

IIisTOKY.  —  The  history  of  India  reaches  far 
back  into  dim  antiquity,  and  has  its  chief  inter- 
est to  us  as  a  history  of  invasions  and  the  domi- 
nation, in  turn,  of  the  foreign  invaders  over  the 
native  populations.  Alexander  the  Great  crossed 
the  Indus  in  327  B.C.,  but  was  forced,  by  the 
discontent  of  his  troops,  to  forego  the  ambition 
of  waving  his  victorious  sword  over  the  penin- 
sula. In  G04  the  first  invasion  of  the  followers 
of  ^lahomet  occurred.  The  invaders  were  re- 
pelled, but  returned  in  greater  force  in  711,  and 
subdued  the  Hindus  of  Sindh,  but  were  driven 
back  again.     The  great  Mahometan  invasion  is 


INDIA, 


1072 


INDIA. 


connected  with  the  famous  name  of  Sultan  Mah- 
niud  of  Ghazni  (997-1030),  fourteen  of  whose 
descendants  sat  on  the  throne  of  India.  The 
name  of  that  fierce  warrior  Timur  (Tamerlane) 
also  has  a  place  in  Indian  history.  He  was 
crowned  at  Delhi  in  1398.  Of  Indian  sover- 
eigns, the  greatest  has  been  Akbar  the  Great, 
whose  reign  lasted  from  1556  to  1605.  He  ruled 
over  a  large  part  of  India,  and  his  name  is 
famous  as  that  of  a  conqueror  and  an  admin- 
istrator. 

The  connection  of  modern  Europe  with  India 
dates  from  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  history  of  tlie  land  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  English, 
and  also,  to  some  extent,  with  the  French.  Co- 
lumbus, when  he  set  sail  from  Europe  in  1492, 
steered  his  vessels,  as  he  thought,  towards  India, 
or  the  East  Indies  as  the  country  was  then 
called.  In  1498  Vasco  da  Gama  cast  anchor  off 
the  Indian  city  of  Calicut;  and  the  Portuguese 
at  once  began  to  establish  trading-posts,  and  con- 
tinued to  iiave  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  during 
the  whole  of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  1509  the 
Portuguese  governor,  Albuquercjue,  seized  Goa, 
which  has  ever  since  been  the  capital  of  the 
Portuguese  possessions  in  India.  The  avowed 
object  of  the  Poi'tuguese  was  to  promote  the 
spread  of  Christianity,  and  conquer  the  land. 
'They  retain  control  of  only  a  thousand  and 
eighty-six  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
four  hundred  thousand.  In  1602  the  Dutch  East- 
India  Company  was  organized.  The  Dutch  were 
the  first  to  di.sturb  the  undisputed  possession  of 
the  Portuguese.  During  the  sixteenth  century, 
vessels  from  Holland  had  traded  with  Indian 
ports;  and,  in  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth, 
the  Dutch  rapidly  extended  their  possessions,  ex- 
pelling the  Portuguese  before  them. 

The  first  foundation  of  British  empire  in  India 
was  laid  by  the  English  East-India  Company, 
which  received  a  charter  in  1600  from  Queen 
Elizabeth.  Its  capital  stock  amounted  then  only 
to  the  modest  sum  of  seventy  thousand  pounds. 
The  wealth  of  this  corporation  grew  with  aston- 
ishing rapidity,  and  its  power  almost  kept  pace 
with  its  wealth.  Lord  Clive  and  A\'arren  Has- 
tings may  be  said  to  liavo  been  tlie  architects  of 
the  Hriti.^h  empire  in  India,  which  is  usually 
dated  from  the  battle  of  Plassey  (June  23,  1757), 
in  which  Clive  won  a  decisive  victory.  The 
influence  of  the  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  French, 
henceforth  waned  before  the  dominant  power  of 
the  English.  He  was  appointed,  in  1758,  first 
governor  of  all  the  company's  settlements  in 
Bengal ;  and,  after  a  visit  to  England,  he  filled 
the  ofiice  for  a  second  time,  —  from  1605  to  1667. 
Warren  Hastings  arrived  in  India  in  1772,  and 
organized  tlie  administrative  government  of  the 
empire  which  Clive  had  fomided.  From  that 
time  on,  till  tlie  present,  tlie  British  dominions  in 
India  have  been  extending,  until,  at  the  present 
time,  there  are  eight  provinc(;s  under  the  admin- 
istration of  England,  stretching  from  the  watms 
of  Cape  C'omorin  to  tlie  shadows  of  the  Hima- 
layas. The  Hritish  power  has  since  been  seri- 
ously threatened  only  once  (in  1857),  by  the 
Irjdian  mutiny,  which,  spreading  from  an  appar- 
ently insignificant  cause,  but  really  rooted  in  the 
aversion  to  the  rulers,  spread  rajiidly  among  the 


people,  and  entailed  a  series  of  quick  and  thrill- 
ing horrors  upon  the  English  residents.  Until 
1858  the  East  India  Company,  under  various 
restrictions,  exercised  supreme  sway  over  India, 
its  power  culminating  in  the  "governor-general 
in  council."  In  this  year  it  was  abolished,  and 
India  was  placed  under  the  immediate  adminis- 
tration of  the  English  Government.  Its  highest 
officer  is  called  "  viceroy,"  and  a  secretary  for 
India  sits  in  the  cabinet.  The  Earl  of  Ripon 
has  been  viceroy  since  1880.  On  Jan.  1,  1877, 
the  Queen  of  England  was  proclaimed  Empress 
of  India. 

During  the  century  great  changes  have  been  ef- 
fected in  the  condition  of  the  population  of  India. 
It  is  not  possible  to  separate  these  reforms  from 
the  direct  influence  of  the  missionaries.  But  there 
have  been  distinguished  Christian  governors-gen- 
eral of  India,  such  as  Lord  Bentinck  (1828-35), 
the  Earl  of  Dalhousie  (1848-56),  and  others,  whose 
enlightened  statesmanship  has  effected  perma- 
nent and  most  salutary  reforms  in  the  administra- 
tion of  the  courts,  the  abolition  of  revolting  social 
customs,  the  promotion  of  education,  and  the 
extension  of  commercial  benefits,  such  as  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  of  which  there  were  8,21.5 
miles  in  operation  in  1878.  To  Lord  Bentinck 
is  due  the  honor  of  having  suppressed  the  suttee, 
or  the  practice  of  burning  widows  alive  on  the 
graves  of  their  husbands.  In  1817  no  less  than 
seven  liuiidred  widows  were  committed  to  the 
flames  in  Bengal  alone.  By  the  decree  of  1829 
all  who  abetted  suttee  were  declared  guilty  of 
"culpable  homicide."  It  was  this  same  enlight- 
ened administrator  who  suppressed  the  Thugs,  a 
large  and  secret  association  of  assassins,  who 
spread  terror  througli  the  land.  To  the  govern- 
ment are  also  due  measures  for  the  suppression  of 
infanticide,  which  once  was  practised  to  an  enor- 
mous extent;  female  infants  being  particularly 
chosen  as  the  victims. 

Christian  Missions.  —  India  has  been  the 
chief  seat  of  missionary  endeavor  for  the  last  two 
generations.  Nearly  all  the  missionary  organi- 
zations of  Europe  and  America  have  made  it  a 
basis  of  operations;  and  with  it  will  alw.ays  be 
associated  some  of  the  juirest  names  in  the 
proud  annals  of  modern  missions,  —  Ziegenbalg, 
Schwartz,  Henry  Martyn,  Carey,  !Maishinan, 
Keginald  Ileber,  and  others.  There  Christi- 
anity was  struggling  through  trials  and  discour- 
agements, while  the  islands  of  the  South  Seas 
were  rapidly  emerging  from  darkness  into  the 
light.  But,  although  the  n'sults  were  slow  in 
showing  themselves,  the  recent  current  towards 
Christianity  has  been  strong,  and  has  surpassed 
the  most  sanguine  expectations.  Although  the 
proportion  of  Christians  to  the  whole  population 
is  still  small  (one-half  of  one  percent),  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  influence  of  the  gospel 
cannot  be  accurately  measured  by  niunliers. 
Christian  influences  are,  by  the  testimony  of  all 
parties,  gradually  undermining  superstitious  prac- 
tices, and  working  a  reform  in  the  social  life. 
"Missions,"  said  Lord  Lawrence,  "have  done 
more  to  benefit  India  tiian  all  other  agencie.'i 
combined."  Sir  Bartle  Frero  said,  "  I\Iissions 
liavt'  worked  changes  niori!  extraordinary  for 
India  than  any  thing  witnessed  in  modern  Eu- 
rope."    Other  testimonies  from  civilians,  to  the 


INDIA. 


1073 


INDIA. 


same  import,  might  be  added  if  necessary-  An 
ancient  tradition  represents  that  St.  Tliomas 
planted  Christianity  in  India.  We  come  to  solid 
ground  when  Francis  Xavier  (d.  1552)  was.sentout 
as  a  missionary  by  the  king  of  Portugal.  In  1534 
<^ioa  was  made  the  first  (Catholic)  bishopric  of 
India.  One  of  the  professed  objects  of  the  Portu- 
guese occupation  of  India  was  the  spread  of 
the  gospel.  After  various  vicissitudes,  Roman 
Catholicism  continues  to  flourish  ;  but  its  influ- 
ence in  elevating  the  tone  of  the  moral  and  social 
life  of  the  people  is  hardly  perceptible.  The  ear- 
liest Protestant  mission  to  India  was  founded  by 
Frederick  IV.  of  Denmark  in  1705;  and  in  1706 
Ziegenbalg  arrived  at  Tranquebar,  and  began 
his  devoted  labors.  The  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures into  Tamil  was  begun  by  him.  This  Dan- 
ish mission  passed,  in  1825,  over  to  the  Society  for 
the  Propagation  of  the  Gospel.  In  1751  Chris- 
tian Friedrich  Schwartz  (venerahile  et  jjrceclarum 
notnen),  having  been  ordained  at  Copenhagen, 
arrived  at  the  mission.  He  died  in  1708,  but 
had  lived  long  enough  to  win  the  confidence  of 
the  native  princes,  and  to  secure  for  his  name  an 
undying  fame.  At  the  present  time,  thirty-five 
Protestant  societies  have  missionaries  in  India. 
There  are  six  hundred  and  eighty-nine  ordained 
European  and  American  ministers,  two  hundred 
and  forty-four  of  whom  are  from  England.  It 
will  be  possible  here  only  to  give  a  brief  account 
of  the  labors  of  the  principal  of  these  societies, 
and  we  shall  arrange  them  according  to  the  date 
of  their  beginning  operations. 

The  Englis!i  Baptist  Missionary  Society  began 
its  work  in  India  in  1793,  when  William  Carey 
arrived  (Nov.  7)  in  Bengal.  He  established  him- 
self thirty  miles  from  Calcutta;  then  at  Mudna- 
batty,  two  hundred  and  sixty  miles  north  of  Cal- 
cutta, where  he  opened  a  school  (1798),  and  put 
up  a  printing-press;  and  finally  at  Serampore, 
which  became  a  distinguished  centre  of  light  for 
-all  India,  and  from  whose  printing-presses  issued 
translations  of  the  Scriptures  into  many  of  the 
languages  of  the  land.  In  1799  this  mission  was 
re-enforced  by  those  devoted  laborers.  Ward  and 
Marshman.  In  1800  the  first  part  of  the  New 
Testament  had  been  translated  into  Bengalee  ; 
and  on  Feb.  7,  1801,  the  entire  New  Testament 
was  finished.  In  1809  the  translation  of  the 
entire  Bible  into  Bengalee,  and  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment into  Sanscrit,  was  completed.  Carey  died 
June  9,  183-1.  Ilis  example,  heroism,  and  mis- 
sionary devotion  will  ever  stamp  him  as  one  of 
the  apostles  of  India.  Statistics  of  1881 :  English 
missionaries,  8";  evangelists,  131;  native  commu- 
nicants, 3,467  ;  day  schools,  104 ;  scholars,  2,225. 

The  London  Missionary  Society  sent  three  mis- 
sionaries to  India  in  1804,  who  establi.'^hed  them- 
selves at  Vizagapatam,  five  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
south-west  of  Calcutta.  In  1819  its  agents  had 
translated  the  whole  New  Testament  into  the 
Telinga  language.  In  1805  it  established  itself 
at  Matlras;  in  1800,  in  Travancore;  1816,  at  Cal- 
cutta, etc.  Statistics  of  1882:  48  English  mission- 
aries, 271  native  ordained  ministers  and  preachers, 
5,210  communicants,  378  schools,  5,928  scholars. 

The  American  Board  began  its  labors  in  India 
in  1812,  when  .Tudson,  Rice,  Nott,  Newell,  and 
Hall  sailed  for  there.  The  opposition  of  tin- 
government  forced  them  all  to  retire.     Hall  and 


Nott  went  to  Bombay,  but  were  not  faii'ly  settled 
in  their  work  till  1814.  The  following  year  they 
were  sufficiently  proficient  in  the  Mahratta  lan- 
guage to  begin  preaching.  In  March,  1810,  they 
introduced  the  first  printing-press  in  Bombay, 
and  at  once  .set  to  work  to  translate  and  print 
the  New  Testament.  In  1818  there  were  eleven 
schools  under  tlie  care  of  the  Board,  with  an 
attendance  of  six  hundred  scholars.  On  May  12, 
1823,  the  chapel  was  dedicated  in  Madras,  "the 
first  Christian  temple  on  the  western  side  of  the 
Indian  peninsula."  In  1821  Newell  died.  Hall 
following  him  in  1820.  In  1831  occurred  the  fir.st 
Christian  marriage  of  a  Brahman.  The  missiona- 
ries established  a  native  temperance  society  in 
1832,  binding  its  members  to  abstain  from  strong 
drink,  opium,  and  tobacco.  In  1839  there  was 
strong  opposition  against  the  missionaries  on  ac- 
count of  their  succe.ss ;  and  a  legal  process  was 
instituted  to  force  them  to  abstain  from  the  work 
of  making  converts,  but  in  vain.  In  1843  the  oppo- 
sition took  the  form  of  [irinting  native  books  and 
papers  at  Bombay,  and  refuting  Christianity  from 
the  writings  of  Paine,  Voltaire,  and  other  infidel 
authors.  The  translation  of  the  entire  Scriptures 
into  Mahratta  was  completed  in  1847,  the  New 
Testament  having  been  finished  in  1826.  The 
American  Board  has  two  centres  of  missions  in 
India  Proper,  —  Maratha  in  Western  India,  and 
Madura  in  Southern  India:  and  in  1881  employed 
52  missionaries  and  assistant  missionaries,  and 
563  native  helpers.  Its  churches  had  3.931  mem- 
bers, and  5,669  scholars  in  its  schools.  In  Ceylon 
it  employs  16  missionaries.  172  native  helpers,  and 
has  972  church-members,  and  8,981  scholars. 

The  Church  Missionary  Society  (English)  began 
its  labors  in  India  at  Agra  in  1813,  and  at  Ma- 
dras in  1815.  It  had  encouraged  the  Danish  mis- 
sions before.  It  directed  its  efforts  at  the  first 
mainly  to  Ti-anquebar  and  Tinnevelly.  In  1853 
it  had  5,815  conununicants,  and  17,000  .scholars 
in  its  schools.  Statistics  of  1882:  103  European 
and  121  native  missionaries,  20,439  communicants, 
1,157  schools  with  32,853  boy  and  11,452  girl 
scholars.  In  Ceylon  it  employs  18  European  and 
14  native  missionaries,  and  has  1,636  commmii- 
cants. 

The  Society  for  the  Proparjation  nf  the  Gospel 
(English)  began  its  Indian  mission  in  1818,  at 
Calcutta.  In  1853  it  had  48  missions,  with  166 
assistants,  4,629  comnmnicants,  and  5,500  schol- 
ars. Its  missions  in  the  Punjaub  an<l  Siudh  in 
Northern  India  are  making  rapid  progress.  Since 
1877  the  accessions  of  this  society  in  Tinnevelly 
alone  amount  to  20,000,  and  it  lias  60,000  adher- 
ents in  that  district.  These  two  societies  of  the 
Church  of  England  have  the  largest  number  of 
adherents  in  India.  The  Church  of  England  has 
at  present  four  Indian  episcopal  sees,  —  Calcutta 
(Metropolitan),  Bombay,  Madras,  and  Lahore, 
with  six  bishops,  Drs.  Sargent  and  Caldwell  being 
assistants  to  the  Bishoji  of  Madras. 

The  Wesleyan  Missionary  Society  (English) 
began  its  work,  through  the  Rev.  ISIr.  Lynch,  in 
Madras,  in  1817.  In  1830  the  number  of  missiona- 
ries was  nine,  and  of  schools  twenty-five.  Mysore 
and  Calcutta  have  been  their  two  most  important 
strategic  centres.  In  the  former  place  their 
schools  are  in  a  very  prosperous  condition.  The 
society  in    1881   had  100  missionaries  in  India, 


INDIA. 


1074 


INDIA. 


129  schools,  9,148  scholars,  1,497  communicauts, 
and  3,081  communicants  in  Ce^'lon. 

The  Church  of  Scotland  sent  out  its  first  mis- 
sionary to  India  in  1829,  in  the  person  of  Dr. 
Duff,  wlio  arrived  in  Calcutta  in  1830.  During 
his  long  and  eminently  useful  career  he  secured 
the  respect  of  all  classes :  and  his  eloquent  voice 
on  his  visits  to  Scotland  and  the  United  States 
aroused  the  deepest  interest  in  the  general  cause 
of  missions.  He  established  a  collegiate  insti- 
tute in  Calcutta,  which  has  been  attended  by  hun- 
dreds of  Hindus.  Ur.  John  Wilson,  about  the 
same  time,  inaugurated  the  work  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  at  Bombay.  The  disruption  of  1843 
in  the  Scotch  Church  led  to  a  division  of  the 
■work  in  India;  and  both  the  Established  and  Free 
churches  support  their  own  nnssionary  force. 
Narayan  Sheshadri,  the  converted  Brahman  who 
has  made  two  visits  to  America  (in  1873  and  1880), 
is  connected  u  iili  the  Free  Church.  In  1882  it  had 
142  schools,  10,414  scholars,  1,286  comnmnicants. 

The  American  Presbyterian  Mission  in  India  was 
started  in  1834  by  the  arrival  of  William  Read 
and  John  C.  Lowrie.  These  mi-ssionaries  chose 
as  the  scene  of  their  labors  the  northern  prov- 
inces, whither  no  mi.ssionaries  had,  up  to  that 
time,  penetrated.  Lodiana  was  the  first  centre 
of  operations  (1834).  The  Ciospel  of  John  was 
translated,  in  1840,  into  the  Punjabi,  the  language 
of  the  Sikhs.  The  mission  has  been  very  suc- 
cessful. In  1842  three  presbyteries  were  consti- 
tuted,—  Lodiana,  Furrukhabad,  and  Allahabad; 
and  in  1845  the  first  meeting  of  the  synod  of 
Northern  India  convened  at  Futtehgurh.  Kola- 
poor  is  now  a  fourth  centre  of  missionary  opera- 
tions. According  to  the  report  of  1882,  the  mis- 
sion has  .5,870  boys  and  2.341  girls  in  its  schools, 
and  carries  on  its  work  through  30  American,  15 
native  preachers,  and  52  American  female,  and 
171  native  lay  missionaries.  The  number  of 
connnunicants  connected  with  the  mission  is 
1,019.  and  its  annual  expenditure  8102,982. 

Tlie  Basel  Missionary  Society  opened  a  mis- 
sion on  the  we.st  coast  of  India  in  1834.  In  1850 
it  had  28  missionaries  and  the  same  number 
of  native  assistants,  with  487  communicants.  It 
now  has  1,100  communicants. 

The  American  Baptist  ^lission  was  begun  in 
1835;  is  intere.sted  more  especially  in  the  Telu- 
gus,  of  whom  there  are  1.5,000,000.  whose  district 
lies  on  the  eastern  coast,  and  stretches  nearly 
eight  hundred  miles,  — from  the  northern  borders 
of  tlie  Carnatic  to  Ori.ssa.  In  1854  this  society 
had  one  .station,  two  missionaries,  nine  commu- 
nicants, and  two  schools,  with  sixty-three  pupils. 
The  history  of  this  mission  is  one  of  the  most 
inspiring  single  episodes  in  recent  church  history. 
Twenty-seven  years  ago  it  w.as  pro]iosed,  at  the 
anniversary  meeting  of  the  Baptist  Foreign  Mis- 
sionary Society  in  .Mbany,  to  abandon  the  mis- 
sion among  the  Telugus  as  a  liopeless  entcrj^rise. 
It  was  called  the  '•  Lone  Star  Mission."  After  a 
protract.fHl  discussion,  it  was  decided  to  continue 
tlie  work;  and  a  hymn  which  Dr.  F.  S.  Smith 
had  rethed  to  compose  was  read,  containing  the 
verse  which  now  seems  like  a  prophecy:  — 

"  Shine  on,  '  Lone  Star  I '  the  day  draws  near 
When  none  shall  sliiiie  more  fair  than  thou  : 
Thou,  horn  and  nursed  in  chinlit  and  fear, 
Wilt  glitter  on  Iiuoiauuera  brow." 


In  1879  a  remarkable  movement  took  place  among 
the  people,  which  would  have  justified  even  more 
patience  than  the  missionaries  had  exercised. 
8,691  were  baptized  in  Xellore  in  two  months,  and 
2,222  in  a  single  day.  Statistics  of  1882:  American 
missionaries.  29 ;  native,  94 ;  comnumicants,  18,992. 

The  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist- Epis- 
copal Church  (American)  began  operations  in 
Northern  India  in  IS.jfi,  and  in  .Southern  India  in 
1872.  The  North  India  Conference  was  organized 
in  1800,  and  consists  of  the  Rohilkund,  Oudh, 
aud  Kumaon  districts.  According  to  the  report 
of  1882,  the  Conference  employs  21  foreign  mis- 
sionaries and  16  assistants,  has  19  ordained  native 
preachers  and  68  unordained  native  preachers, 
with  1.916  church-members  and  1,307  probation- 
ers. Its  day  schools  number  242,  with  an  attend- 
ance of  8,500  .scholars.  The  Conference  of  South 
India  was  organized  in  1876,  and  is  composed  of 
four  districts,  —  Bombay,  ^Madras,  Calcutta,  and 
Allahabad.  In  1881  it  employed  27  foreign  mi.s- 
sionaries  and  38  native  preachers.  The  total 
number  of  communicants  was  1,253,  and  of  pro- 
bationers 726.  It  carries  on  14  day  schools,  with 
an  attendance  of  600. 

The  Ciossner  (1838).  Berlin  (1843),  and  Leip- 
zig (1853)  societies  also  carry  on  an  important 
work  in  India.  The  Quakers  (four  missions). 
General  Baptists  (1827).  Freewill  Baptists  (1836), 
Irish  Presbyterians  (1841),  American  Lutherans, 
Moravians,  Scotch  and  American  L'nited  Presby^ 
terians,  the  Reformed  Churcli  in  .\merica,  and 
other  denominations,  have  missions. 

Turning  away  from  the  missionary  agencies, 
it  remains  to  present  a  general  \'iew  of  the  dif- 
ficulties of  missionary  effort  in  India,  aud  the 
results  which  have  been  secured. 

The  first  missionaries  to  India  not  only  had  the 
opposition  from  the  native  population  to  contend 
against,  but  also  the  hostility  of  the  East-India 
Company,  which  at  one  time  absolutely  forbade 
all  missionary  effin-t,  jirohibited  Judson  and  the 
other  missionaries  from  laboring  at  Calcutta,  and 
for  many  years  greatly  restricted  the  freedom  of 
the  nussionaries.  But  in  1813  a  resolution  by  the 
I<'.nglish  Parliament  was  passed,  by  which  the  com- 
pany was  forced  to  accord  to  all  Briti.sh  subjects 
the  right  to  establish  schools  and  missions  in 
India;  and  in  1833,  at  the  renewal  of  its  charter, 
full  liberty  of  missionary  ojiei'ations  was  granted, 
and  tlie  privilege  accorded  to  foreigners  to  settle 
in  India.  These  privileges  were  immediately 
taken  advantage  of  by  several  American  societies. 
For  the  character  of  the  religions  wliich  tlie  na- 
tives of  India  profess,  it  must  sullice  to  refer  the 
reader  to  the  arts.  Buahmanism,  Buddhism,  aud 

MOIIAMMKDANISM. 

One  of  the  peculiar  obstacles,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  most  serious  ones,  to  the  success  of  missions 
in  India,  has  been  tlie  system  of  caste.  By  it 
llic  jicfijile  are  divided  off  into  cla.sses,  of  which  the 
Braiiinans  are  the  highest.  'I'hese  cla.s.ses  are 
fixed;  and  the  dignity  of  the  one,  and  the  degra- 
dation of  the  other,  jiass  down  from  generation 
to  generation  unalterably.  Oj>po.sed  to  one  of  the 
fundaniental  iileas  of  the  New  Testament,  that 
"(iod  is  no  respecter  of  jiersoiis,"  the  missiona- 
ries have  almost  unaiiiniously  and  uniformly  re- 
fused to  acknowledge  any  sucli  distinction  among 
the  converts.     But  this  principle  is  deeply  rooted 


INDIA. 


1075 


INDIA. 


in  the  Rrahinan's  mind.  "  It  is  clifRnult  for  us 
Europeans,"  said  Professor  Monier  Williams  of 
Oxford,  in  1879,  "to  understand  how  tlie  pride 
of  caste  as  a  ilivine  ordinance  interpenetrates  the 
whole  being  of  a  Hindu.  lie  looks  upon  caste 
as  his  veritable  god  ;  and  those  caste-rules  which 
we  believe  to  be  a  hlnderance  to  his  adoption 
of  the  true  religion,  are  to  him  the  very  essence  of 
all  religion ;  for  they  influence  his  whole  life  and 
conduct."  Henry  Martyn  said,  "If  I  ever  .see 
a  Hindu  Brahman  converted  to  Jesus  Christ,  I 
shall  see  something  more  nearly  approaching  the 
resurrection  of  a  dead  body  than  any  thing  I  have 
ever  yt^t  seen."  Up  to  the  year  1849  converts  were 
subjected,  not  only  to  exclusion  from  the  society 
of  the  caste,  but  to  contisoations  of  property. 
But  in  tliat  year  a  law  was  established,  giving 
equal  rights  to  all  subjects,  and  protecting  con- 
verts against  confiscations.  Not  a  few  Brahmans 
are  active  and  influential  C'liristians ;  but  the 
great  mass  of  the  converts  have  been,  as  was  to 
be  expected,  from  the  lower  classes.  The  other 
obstacles  to  missionary  progress  have  been  of  the 
same  general  character  as  those  met  with  in  other 
lauds. 

The  progress  of  the  gospel  in  India  for  the  first 
fifty  years  was  slow,  when  we  look  at  the  number 
of  native  baptisms ;  but  within  the  whole  period 
remarkable  changes  have  been  eifected  in  the 
habits  of  thought  and  social  condition  of  the  peo- 
ple ;  and,  within  the  last  few  years,  evidence  has 
been  furnished,  in  the  large  accessions  to  the 
churches,  that  the  patient  and  faithful  labors  of 
the  missionaries  had  been  laying  deep  and  perma- 
nent foundations.  In  1851  there  were  17,000  bajv 
tized  and  128,000  native  nominal  Christians  in 
India,  with  857  foreign  missionaries.  In  1861 
the  number  had  increased  to  48,000  baptized  and 
21.3,000  nominal  Christians;  in  1871,  to  78,000 
baptized  and  818,000  nominal  Christians.  In 
1882  there  were  not  less  than  800,000  or  900,000 
nominal  Christians,  with  689  foreign  missiona- 
ries, and  many  self-supporting  native  churches. 
The  additions  to  the  churches  within  the  last 
several  years  have  been  exceedingly  numerous. 
The  great  famine  which  prevailed  in  1879,  and 
which,  according  to  the  London  Times,  carried  off 
3,000,000  in  the  province  of  Madras  alone,  afford- 
ed an  occasion  for  the  display  of  Christian  cliari- 
ty.  The  bountiful  distributions  of  aid  won  the 
hearts  of  the  natives,  who  flocked  to  the  churches  ; 
and  16,000  were  added  in  Tinnevelly  alone.  In 
this  period  (1877-79)  the  number  of  converts 
under  the  care  of  the  five  Lutheran  societies  rose 
from  3,000  to  42,<1H0.  The  ten  Presbyterian  mis- 
sions of  Scotland,  Ireland,  America,  and  England, 
from  1850  to  1878,  increased  their  native  con- 
stituency from  800  to  10,000 ;  the  London  Mis- 
sionary "  Society,  from  20,000  to  48,000  ;  and 
the  Church  Missionary  .Society  and  Propagation 
Society,  from  61,000  to  164,000  (Christlieb'i  For- 
eign Missions,  p.  153).  The  early  progress  was 
amidst  discouragements,  but  the  recent  accre- 
tions more  than  atone  for  them.  In  1850  there 
were  four  baptized  converts  among  the  Kohls; 
and  for  five  years  six  (Jernian  missionaries  (Goss- 
iier  Society)  had  labored  among  them  with  only 
one  convert,  and  five  of  their  own  number  falling 
at  their  post.  There  are  now  at  least  4,000  bap- 
tized converts  under  the  care  of  the  English  and 


German  societies.  The  London  and  Propagatioa 
Societies  labored  for  thirty  years  at  {.'uddapali  in 
the  Telugu  district,  with  "only  200  converts,  and 
now  they  have  11,000.  These,  w'ith  the  case  of 
the  American  Telugu  mission  above  referred  to, 
are  but  illustrations  of  the  discouragements  and 
encouragements  of  the  work. 

The  beneficent  influence  of  missions  is  appar- 
ent in  the  abolition  of  superstitious  and  cruel 
customs,  the  increase  of  intelligence,  the  diffusion 
of  a  literature  in  almost  all  the  native  languages, 
and  in  a  general  leavening  process,  which  has 
affected  a  large  part  of  the  Indian  society  of  the 
upper  classes.  In  the  work  of  suppressing  super- 
stitious and  cruel  customs,  the  government  has- 
done  much  ;  but  even  this  activity  can  be  clearly 
traced  to  the  influence  of  missions  in  India.  The 
abolition  of  the  suttee  by  Lord  Bentinck  has  al- 
ready been  referred  to ;  and  to  this  same  class 
of  reforms  belong  the  suppression  of  the  annual 
holocausts  under  Juggernaut's  car,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  infanticide,  and  the  throwing  of  infants- 
into  the  Ganges,  as  a  religious  service.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  change  which  is  slowly  taking 
place  in  the  position  of  woman  is  due  entirely  to> 
the  missionaries,  especially  to  the  efforts  of  female 
missionaries.  These  gain  admittance  to  the  seclu- 
sion of  the  zenanas,  and  give  instruction  to  the 
superstitious  and  unfortunate  women  of  India. 
The  government  does  not  directly  give  the  weight 
of  its  influence  on  the  side  of  mis.sions  ;  but  rather, 
on  the  contrary,  it  impedes  the  progress  of  the 
gospel  by  the  rigid  exclusion  of  religious  instruc- 
tion from  tlie  government  schools.  The  printing- 
press  has  been  introduced  by  missionary  enter- 
prise into  almost  every  large  centre  of  influence. 
The  first  newspaper  estalilished  was  the  Siiiiidckar 
Durpun  at  Serampore,  in  1818,  by  the  Baptist 
mission.  Not  only  have  the  papers  muler  the 
control  of  the  missionaries  and  the  English  mul- 
tiplied greatly,  but  a  native  periodical  literature 
has  grown  up,  which  owes  its  origin  to  a  feeling 
of  the  necessity  of  combating  Christianity  in  this 
way.  The  Bible  has  been  translated  entire  into 
many  of  the  languages,  and  ponderous  libraries 
have  already  been  printed  in  them. 

The  promotion  of  education  as  a  means  of 
reaching  the  people  has  been  vigorously  pushed. 
It  may  be  a  fair  question  whether  the  missiona- 
ries have  not  devoted  relatively  too  much  time  to- 
the  schoolroom.  Be  that  as  it  may,  however, 
there  is  to-day  a  cordon  of  schools  in  the  cities  and 
larger  towns  of  the  Indian  Empire.  The  govern- 
ment now  conducts  an  extensive  plan  of  educa- 
tion; but  it  got  the  impetus  from  the  large  advan- 
tages which  it  was  apparent  were  accruing  from 
the  mission  schools  (art.  India  in  Enci/c.  Britan.}. 
In  1854  it  established  universities  in  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay.  The  government  schools 
are  divorced  from  religion.  The  nnssion  schools 
directly  or  indirectly  teach  the  gospel.  The  edu- 
cation of  women  has  progressed  slowly.  In  1861 
there  were  60,600  boys  and  16,008  girls  in  the 
mission  schools  of  India.  In  1871  the  numbei-» 
had  risen  to  95,500  boys  and  26,600  girls.  The 
writer  in  the  Encyclopmdia  Dritannica  (p.  775), 
above  referred  to,  says,  "  In  a  few  exceptional 
places,  e.g.,  Tinnevelly,  Madras,  and  the  Khasl 
liills  of  Assam,  female  education  has  a  real  exist- 
ence ;  for   in  these  places  the  missionaries  have 


INDUCTION. 


io;ii 


INDULGENCES. 


influence  enough  to  overcome  the  prejudices  of 
the  people.''  In  1S7S  there  were  66,600  girls  at- 
tending schools  for  girls,  and  90,900  boys  and 
girls  attending  the  mixed  schools. 

The  power  of  Christian  missions  in  India  has 
been  further  demonstrated  by  the  new  religious 
movements  which  have  been  begun  to  check  its 
progress,  or  at  any  rate  to  find  a  mean  between 
the  superstitions  of  the  native  religions  and  the 
supernatural  element  of  Christianity.  The  Brah- 
mo  Soniaj  (see  art.)  inaugurated  by  Keshub 
Chuuder  Sen  is  the  principal  of  this  cla.ss.  The.se 
movements  betray  the  unrest  of  the  people,  their 
growing  discontent  with  their  native  religions, 
and  longing  for  something  purer  and  more  ra- 
tional to  supply  tlieir  place,  and  to  counteract  the 
advance  of  Christianity.  But  as  Dr.  Christlieb 
(p.  188)  says,  "The  Hindus  themselves  feel  and 
know  that  the  downfall  of  their  faith  is  inevita- 
ble. The  dissolution  of  the  Brahmo  Somaj  has 
already  begun ;  and  Keshub  Cliunder  Sen  was 
obliged  long  ago  to  acknowledge  that  '  native 
society  is  being  roused,  enlightened,  and  reformed 
■under  the  influence  of  Clu-istianity.' "  In  a  pub- 
lic speech  at  Calcutta  he  has  said,  "  Our  hearts 
jire  touched,  conquered,  overcome,  by  a  higher 
power ;  and  this  power  is  Christ.  Christ,  not  the 
British  Government,  rules  India.  No  one  but 
Christ  has  deserved  the  precious  diadem  of  the 
Indian  crown,  and  he  will  have  it."  These  words 
of  this  remarkable  man  may  be  regarded  as  pro- 
phetic of  the  issue  of  the  movement  which  was 
begun  by  .Schwartz,  Carey,  and  Jlartyn.  Chris- 
tianity—  which  rings  the  death-knell  to  caste, 
suppresses  infanticide,  abolishes  child-marriages, 
takes  woman  out  of  the  degrading  seclusion  of 
the  zenana,  promotes  culture,  and  builds  up 
homes  —  has  commended  itself  as  the  power  for 
the  regeneration  of  the  land  by  the  testimony  of 
I^ngiish  civilians  and  native  scholars,  as  well  as  in 
its  fruits  in  the  changed  lives  of  its  converts,  and 
will  prevail. 

Lit.  —  See  reports  of  the  various  missionary 
societies  now  in  India.  Among  works  illustrative 
of  the  subject  nuiy  be  mentioned  Elphinstoxe  : 
History  of  India,  fifth  edition,  1866 ;  Heber  : 
Journey  Ihronr/h  Inilia,2  vols.,  1828;  Siiehring  : 
Hindu  Tribes  nml  Cns'tes,  Protestant  Missions  in 
India  from  1706  to  1871,  London,  1875;  Andeu- 
soN:  History  of  the  Missions  of  t/ie  A.  B.  C.  F.  M. 
in  India,  Boston,  1874;  Mullens:  London  and 
Calcutta  compared  in  their  Heathenism,  Privilef/es, 
and  Prospects,  Lond.,  1809;  Miss  Brittan  :  A  Wo- 
man's Talksahout  India,  Phila.,  1880;  Bainbuidge  : 
Aronnil  the  World  'Pour  of  Christian  Missions,  Bost., 
1882;  Hodgson:  I^ssays  on  Indian  Suhjects,  2  v., 
1880;  M.  WiLLiAM.s:  Reliifious  Life  and  Thought 
in  Iiiilia,  Lond.,  1883;  and  the  Lives  of  Schwartz, 
Alartyn,  Carey,  Ileber,  Marshman,  Dulf,  and  Lit. 
under  Huaiimanism,  Buddhism.    U.  s.  sciiaff. 

INDIANS.     North.American.     See  Appendix. 

INDUCTION  'iinotcs,  as  (lie  term  is  used  in 
the  Church  of  England,  the  formal  installation, 
in  accordance  willi  the  mandate  of  the  bishoii,  of 
a  clerk,  already  instituted,  in  possession  of  a  bene- 
fice. Tlie  act  is  generally  performed  by  the  dea- 
con, who  accompanies  the  clerk  to  the  churcli, 
pliice.s  his  hand  on  the  key  or  the.  ring  of  the 
•church-door,  and  say.s  to  lim,  "  By  virtue  of  this 
mandate   I  do  induct  you  into  the  real,  actual, 


and  corporal  possessions  of  this  church  of  Christ, 
with  all  the  rights,  profits,  and  appurtenances 
thereto  belonging."  The  clerk  then  opens  the 
door,  enters  the  church,  and  tolls  a  bell,  to  make 
his  induction  known  to  the  parishioners,  after 
which  the  inductor  indorses  the  certificate  of  in- 
duction on  the  mandate  of  the  bishojj. 

INDULGENCES  {InduUjentia),  an  institution 
peculiar  to  the  Roman  Church,  originated  from 
confession.  In  order  to  make  the  absolution 
effective,  the  sacrament  of  confession  must  com- 
prise, besides  contritio  cordis  and  confessio  oris,  also 
satisfactio ;  and  this  satisfaction  consists  chiefly  in 
so-called  good  works,  —  penances,  by  which  the 
wrongs  done  are  paid  for.  In  the  old  church  tlie 
amount  of  satisfactio  was  measured  by  the  time 
alone  during  which  the  state  of  penitence  should 
last.  But  gradually  the  custom  grew  up  of  sub- 
stituting specific  good  works,  such  as  pilgrimages, 
alms,  etc.,  for  the  general  state  of  penitence ; 
and  an  elaborate  scheme  of  accounts  was  drawn 
up,  by  which  the  penances  were  transformed  into 
money-payments,  varying  according  to  the  wealth 
or  poverty  of  the  sinner.  On  the  basis  of  this 
practice  the  scholastic  theology  developed  its  doc- 
trine of  indulgentia  :  it  was  completed  by  Thomas 
Aquinas,  and  retained  unchanged  by  the  Council 
of  Trent. 

With  respect  to  the  natural  consequences  of 
sin,  such  as  disease,  infamy,  etc.,  the  Roman 
Church  does  not  pretend  to  possess  any  power ; 
but  with  respect  to  those  punishments  which  God 
inflicts  on  sinners,  either  in  this  world  or  in  pur- 
gatory, she  claims  to  have  absolute  jurisdiction 
conferred  upon  her  by  Christ,  with  the  power  of 
the  keys ;  and  the  Council  of  Trent  fulminated  its 
anathema  against  any  one  who  should  venture  on 
a  denial.  If,  now,  the  Church  should  remit  those 
punishments  from  mere  mercy,  and  without  any 
satisfactio,  she  would  violate  the  divine  justice, 
which  demands  that  every  sin  shall  be  balanced 
by  a  good  work.  But  how,  tlien,  does  the  indul- 
ijentia  of  the  Church  enter  into  the  transaction? 
Partly  through  the  doctrine  of  good  works  as 
opera  optrata,  that  is,  as  values  which  can  be  trans- 
ferred from  one  to  another;  and  partly  through 
the  doctrine  of  communio  sanctorum,  or  the  co- 
ownership  of  the  Church  in  the  inexhaustible 
fund  of  good  works  which  Christ  and  the  saints 
have  left,  and  of  which  they  have  no  need  them- 
selves. The  trustee  of  these  funds  —  this  thesau- 
rus meritorum,  thesaurus  supercroyationis  pcrfecto- 
rum  —  is  the  Pojje  ;  and  he  can  give  or  sell  from 
these  funds  to  any  one  just  such  an  amount  of 
good  work  as  is  necessary  to  counterbalance  a 
certain  ipumtity  of  sin.  See  Alexander  IIale- 
sius:  Humma,  p.  4,  quifst.  23,  art.  2,  number  5; 
and  Thomas  Aqu'N.vs  :  Sn?nma  supplernent,  p.  3, 
qua'st.  2.5,  c.  28  X. 

As  a  reminiscence  of  the  discipline  of  the 
ancient  Church,  indulgences  are  still  granted  for 
days,  months,  and  years.  They  are  either  com- 
plete {^indnlycntia  plenaria)  or  jiartial  (^indulgentia 
minus  jilena) :  either  general,  for  the  whole  cluirch  ; 
or  particular,  for  a  special  diocese.  The  most 
general  indulgence  gi-anted  by  the  Roman  Church 
is  that  of  her  jubilee.  'l"he  wluile  department  of 
indulgences  is  administrated  by  a  special  congre- 
g;ition  of  cardinals ;  but  the  Qiitrstioncs  EUtmosy- 
tiorum,  or  travelling  agents,  have  been  abolished. 


INFALLIBILIST. 


1077 


INFALLIBILITY. 


It  was  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Germany,  by 
Tetzel,  which  first  roused  the  indignation  of 
Luther,  and  opened  the  Reformation.  See  Lu- 
ther, Reformation,  Tetzel.  See  Amort:  De 
Origine,  ProgresKu,  etc.,  Inibdgentkiruiii,  Augshiirg, 
1735;  and  I.  B.  Hirscher  :  D.  Lehre  void  Abliiss, 
Tubingen,  1844.  mejek. 

INFALLIBILIST,  one  who  believes  in  \nd  de- 
fends the  official  infallibility  of  the  Pope  of  Rome, 
or  his  freedom  from  error  when  giving  a  decision 
on  matters  of  faith  or  morals.  The  term  is  of 
scholastic  or  recent  origin,  from  the  Latin  iiifalti- 
hilis,  which  is  likewise  modern,  and  found  neither 
in  classical  nor  patristic  writers.  Lewis  and  Short, 
in  Harpers'  Latin  Dictionari/,  wrongly  quote  Augus- 
tine (Prced.  Sanct.,  15,  2)  for  infdUibilitur:  the 
word  there  used  is  ineffal/iliter.  The  designation 
was  prominently  brought  into  use  in  ls7l),  dur- 
ing the  Vatican  Council,  which  was  at  first  divid- 
ed between  infallihilists  and  anti-iii/alllbilisl^,  but 
at  last  decided  in  favor  of  infallibility.  The  auti- 
infallibilists  were  divided  again  into  two  parties, 
—  those  who  opposed  the  doctrine  of  papal  in- 
fallibility from  principle,  as  false  (Bishops  Ilefele, 
Maret,  Kenrick,  Darboy,  Strossnieyer),  and  those 
who  opposed  it  only  from  expediency,  deeming 
it  inopportune,  or  untimely  and  unwise,  to  define 
and  to  declare  the  dogma :  hence  the  latter  w'ere 
called  also  inopportunisls,  as  distinct  from  the 
opportunists.  See  Infallibility  and  Vatican 
Council.  philip  sciiaff. 

INFALLIBILITY  OF  THE  POPE,  the  doctrine 
that  the  Bisliop  of  Rome  in  his  official  charac- 
ter, i.e.,  whenever  he  speaks  ex  cathedra  on  a 
question  of  Catholic  doctrine  or  morals,  is  free 
from  error,  and  that  liis  decisions  must  be  ac- 
cepted as  final,  without  needing  confirmation  by 
an  oecumenical  council.  Personally  the  Pope  may 
be  a  heretic  and  a  bad  man,  or  an  ignoranms ; 
but  as  the  head  of  the  Church  he  is  supposed  to 
be  divinely  protected  from  error.  The  fathers, 
the  ancient  creeds  and  councils,  know  nothing  of 
this  doctrine ;  and  tlie  Greek  Church  rejects  it  as 
a  blasphemous  assumption.  It  arose  in  the  mid- 
dle ages,  in  connection  with  the  pseudo-Isidorian 
decretals,  and  was  defended  by  able  schoolmen 
(even  Thomas  Aquinas),  but  stoutly  denied  by 
the  reformatory  councils  of  Pisa,  Constance,  and 
Basle,  which  asserted  the  superiority  of  a  council 
over  the  Pope.  After  the  Council  of  Trent,  it  be- 
came a  bone  of  contention  between  the  (jallicans 
and  the  Jesuits.  The  latter  triumphed  in  tlie 
Vatican  Council,  which  lirought  the  controversy 
to  a  close,  and  formulated  the  new  article  of  faith 
by  the  decree  of  July  18,  1870,  in  these  words: 
"  Therefore,  faitlifully  adhering  to  the  tradition 
received  from  the  beginning  of  the  Christian 
faith,  for  tlie  glory  of  God  our  Saviour,  the  exal- 
tation of  the  Catholic  religion,  and  the  salvation 
of  Christian  people,  the  Sacred  Council  approving, 
we  teach  and  define  that  it  is  a  dogma  divinely 
revealed,  that  the  Romnn  pontiff  w'hen  he  speaks 
ex  cathedra  —  that  is,  when,  in  discharge  of  the 
office  of  pastor  and  doctor  of  all  Christians,  by 
virtue  of  his  supreme  apostolic  authority,  he  de- 
fines a  doctrine  regarding  faith  or  morals  to  be 
held  by  the  universal  church,  by  the  divine  a.ssist- 
ance  promised  to  him  in  blessed  Peter  (Luke  xxii. 
32)  —  is  possessed  of  that  infallihilitij  with  icliich  the 
divine  Redeemer  willed  that   his   Church  should  be 


endoired  for  defining  doctrine  regarding  faith  or  mor- 
als :  and    that  therefore  such  definitions  of   the 
Roman  pontiff  are  irreformtdile  of  themselrts,  and 
not  from  the  consent  of  the  Church.     But  if  any 
one  —  which  may  tiod  avert!  —  presume  to  con- 
tradict this  our  definition,  let  him  be  anatlienia." 
Papal  infallibility  was  the  chief  tojiic  of  the 
Vatican  Council :  it  was  discussed  under  power- 
ful  opposition  for  several   months.       When   the 
vote  was  first  taken   in  secret  session   (July  13, 
1870),  six  hundred  and  one  niemliers  being  pres- 
ent, four  hundred  and  fifty-one  bishops  voted  in 
the  affirmative  (placet),  eighty-eight  in  the  nega- 
tive {nan  placet),  sixty-two  voted  with   a  quali- 
fication (placet  juxta  nioduni),  and  over  eighty, 
tliough  present  in  Rome,  abstained  from  voting. 
On   the  evening  of  the  same  day  the  minority, 
which  included  the  ablest  and  most  influential  ' 
prelates  (as  Darboy  of  Paris,  Schwarzenberg  of 
Prague,  Rauscher  of  Vienna,  Dupanloup  of  Or- 
leans, Fijrster  of  Breslau.  Ketteler  of  .Mayence, 
Strossniayer   of   Bosnia,    Ilefele   of    Rottenburg, 
Kenrick  of  St.  Louis),  sent  a  deputation  to  the 
Pope,  and  begged  him  on  their  knees  to  modify 
the  proposed  decree,  and  to  make  some  concession 
for  the  peace  and  unity  of  the  Church.     But  Pius 
IX.  surprised  the  deputation  with  the  assurance 
that  tlie  Ciiurch  had  always  believed  in  the  un- 
conditional infallibility  of  the  Pope  ("I  am  the 
tradition  ").     In  the  secret  session  of  July  10,  on 
motion  of  some  Spanish  bishop,  an  addition  was 
inserted,  declaring  the  Pope  infallible  before  and 
without  the  consent  of  the  Church   (non  uutem  <  t 
consensu  ecclesice).     On  the  17th  of  July,  fifty-six 
bishops,  opposed  to  the  dogma,  sent  a  written  pro- 
test to  the  Pope,  declaring  their  firm  adherence 
to  their  conviction,  but  also  their  reluctance  to 
vote  against  him  on  a  matter  affecting  him  per- 
sonally, and  asking  leave  to  retiu-n  home.     On 
the  evening  of  the  same  day,  the  signers  of  this 
protest,  and  sixty  additional  members  of  the  oppo- 
sition, left  Rome  (taking  advantage  of  the  ru- 
mors of  war),  and  thus  gave  an  easy  victory  to 
the  majority.     In  the  public  session,  held  July 
18,  there  were  but  five  hundred  and  thirty-five 
members  present,  and  all  voted  placet  except  two 
(Bishop  Riccio  of  Sicily,  and  Bi.shop  Fitzgerald 
of  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  who  dared  to  protest  against 
the  Big  Rock  of  Rome)  ;  but  these  two  changed 
their  vote  before  the  close  of  the  session.     After 
the  vote,  the  Pope,  amidst  a  fearful  thuudei'storm 
and  flashes  of  lightning,  read  by  candlelight,  in 
St.  Peter's  Cathedral,  the  decree  of  his  own  infal- 
libility.    The  day  after.  Napoleon  III.,  his  chief 
political  support,  declared  war  against  Germany. 
This  war  in  a  few  weeks  swept  away  both  his 
throne  and  that  of  the  Pope,  and  resulted  in  the 
unification  of  Italy,  with  Rome  for  its  capital,  and 
the  establishment  of  the  German  Empire  under 
the  lead  of  Protestant  Prussia.     The  proclama- 
tion of  this  new  dogma  is  the  cause  of  the  seces- 
sion of  the  "  Old  Catholics,"  under  the  lead  of 
Dbllinger   (heretofore  the   pride   of   the    Roman 
Church  in  Germany)  and  other  eminent  Catholic 
scholars.     It  is  also  the  cause  of  the  renewal  of 
the  serious   conflict  between  tlie  Pope    and   the 
Emperor  (the   Culturkampf,  the  Falk-Laws,  Bis- 
marck's refusal  to  go  to  Caiiossa,  etc.),  and  of  a 
similar  conflict  between  the  Pope  and  the  French 
Republic,  which  arose  on  the  ruins  of  the  empire. 


INFALLIBILITY. 


1078 


INFANT  COMMUNION. 


The  Vatican  dogma  is  the  apex  of  the  pyramid 
of  the  Roman  hieravcliy.  Logically  it  is  more  con- 
sistent than  the  Gallican  theory,  as  an  absolute 
monarchy  is  more  consistent  than  a  constitutional 
monarch}-.  It  teaches  an  unbroken  and  ever- 
active  infallibility;  while  Gallicanism  secures 
only  a  periodic  and  intermittent  infallibility, 
which  never  reveals  itself  except  in  an  oecumeni- 
cal council.  But  neither  theory  can  stand  the 
test  of  history,  and  is  a  mere  pretension.  The 
sixth  Q?cunienical  council  (held  in  Constantinople 
G80)  condemned  and  exconnmmicated  Pope  Ilono- 
rius  I.  (625-638)  "as  a  heretic  (INIonothelite), 
■who,  with  the  help  of  the  old  serpent,  had  scat^ 
tered  deadly  error."  This  anathema  was  solemn- 
ly repeated  by  the  seventh  and  by  the  eighth 
cecumenical  councils  (787  and  869),  and  even  by 
the  popes  themselves,  who,  down  to  the  eleventh 
century,  in  a  solemn  oath  at  their  accession,  in- 
dorsed the  sixth  cecumenical  council,  and  pro- 
nounced •'  an  eternal  anathema  "  on  the  authors 
of  the  Monothelite  heresy,  together  with  Pope 
Ilonorius,  "  because  lie  had  given  aid  and  comfort 
to  the  perverse  doctrines  of  the  lieretics."  This 
papal  oath  was  probably  prescribed  by  Gregory  II. 
at  tlie  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  and  was 
found  in  the  Liber  diurnus  and  Liher  ponlijicalis 
down  to  the  eleventh  century.  Even  the  editions 
of  the  Roman  Breviary,  before  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, reiterated  the  charge  of  heresy  against  Ilono- 
rius. Pope  Leo  II.  strongly  confirmed  the  decree 
of  the  council  against  his  predecessor  Honorius, 
and  denounced  him  as  one  who  "  endeavored  by 
profane  treason  to  overthrow  the  immaculate  faith 
of  the  Roman  Church  '"  (<jiii  Iiniic  apostolicam 
ecclesinm  non  aposto/icw  t7-ailili(»us  iloclrina  lustra- 
vil,  sed  profatia  pnidilioiie  hmiidculdlam  Jidem  sub- 
vertere  conatus  est").  See  Mansi,  Concilia,  Tom. 
XI.  p.  7-31.  \ow,  either  the  council,  or  the  Pope, 
or  both,  must  have  erred.  The  stubborn  case  of 
Ilonorius,  which  alone  is  sufficient  to  upset  the 
dogma  (for  sifalsus  in  uno,fahus  in  omnibus'),  was 
strongly  urged  before  the  passage  of  the  decree 
by  learned  members  of  the  council,  as  Bishops 
llefele  and  Kenrick ;  and  tlieir  arguments  have 
never  been  refuted.  But  a  dogma  ti-iumphed  over 
history.  If  facts  are  against  opinion  (it  was  said 
l)y  the  infallibilists),  all  the  worse  for  the  facts. 

Ilistorv  knows  of  other  heretical  popes.  Zephi- 
rinus  (201-219)  and  Callistus  (219-223)  were 
Patripa.ssians;  Liberins  (358)  signed  an  Arian 
creed,  and  condenmed  Athaiiasiu.s,  "the  father 
of  orthodoxy,"  who  mentions  tlie  fact  with  indig- 
nation;  Felix  II.  was  a  decided  Arian;  Zosinms 
(417)  at  first  indor.sed  the  heresy  of  I'elagius  and 
Coelestius,  whom  his  predecessor,  Innocent  I.,  had 
condemned;  Vigilius  (538-555)  vacillated  between 
two  opposite  decisions  during  the  Tiiree  Chapter 
Controversy,  and  thereby  jtroduced  a  long  schism 
in  the  West;  John  XXII.  (d  1331)  denounced  a 
certain  opinion  of  Nicholas  III.  ami  Clement  V. 
as  heretical;  .several  popes  taught  the  universal 
depravity  of  men  in  a  manner  that  clearly  in- 
cludes the  Virgin  Mary,  and  is  ivicconcilalile  witli 
the  recent  dogma  of  the  inunaculate  conception  ; 
.SLxtns  V.  issued  an  edition  of  the  Latin  ISible 
with  innumerable  blunders,  partly  of  his  own 
making,  and  declared  it  tlie  only  true  authentic 
text.  IJellarmiu,  the  great  Roman  ciinlroversial- 
i^i  -lu,]  inliilliliilist,  could  not  deny  tlie  facts,  and 


advised  the  printing  of  a  new  edition  with  the 
bold  statement  in  the  preface,  charging  the  errors 
of  the  infallible  Pope  upon  the  fallilile  printer, 
though  the  Pope  had  himself  corrected  the  proofs. 
Pius  IX.,  who  proclaimed  his  own  infallibility, 
started  out  as  a  political  reformer,  and  advocate 
of  Italian  unity,  but  afterwards  detested  and 
condemned  it  as  the  worst  enemy  of  Christianity. 
But  since  1870  Gallicanism  is  dead,  and  the  Ro- 
man Church  must  sink  or  swim  with  an  infalli- 
ble pope. 

Lit.  —  1.  In  favor  of  papal  infallibility.  Car- 
DONi :  Elucubratio  de  dogmalica  Romani  Pontijicis 
infallihilitale,  Rome,  1870  (semi-official)  ;  ]\Ian- 
NING :  Petri  Privilegium,  London,  1871,  also  his 
reply  to  Gladstone  (1874)  ;  Dechajips  :  L'infailli- 
bilite  et  Le  Concile  General,  Paris,  1869 ;  J.  H.  New- 
M.4N :  Letter  to  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  in  reply  to 
Gladstone's  Vatican  Decrees,  London  and  New 
York,  1874  (a  very  qualilied  defence  of  infalli- 
bility, with  a  reserve  of  the  rights  of  conscience). 
—  2.  Against  papal  infallibility,  (a)  by  mem- 
bers of  the  Vatican  Council.  Bishop  Maret  :  Du 
Concile  General  et  de  la  paix  reliyieitse,  Paris,  1869, 
2  vols.  ;  Archbishop  Darboy  :  La  liberie'  du  Con- 
cile et  I'infaillibilile'  (in  Friedrich's  Documenia,  i. 
129-186)  ;  Bishop  IIefele  (the  author  of  the  best 
history  of  cxjuncils)  :  Causa  Honorii  Papce,  Neap., 
1870),  and  Honorius  und  das  sechste  allgemeine 
Concil,  Tubingen,  1870  (translated  by  II.  B.  Smitli, 
in  the  Presbyterian  Quarterly  Review  for  April, 
1872,  p.  273)  ;  Archbishop  Kenrick  of  St.  Louis : 
Concio  in  Concilio  Valicano  habenda  at  non  liabila, 
Naples,  1870,  reprinted  in  Friedrich's  Documenia, 
i.  187-226.  (b)  By  Catholics  not  members  of  the 
council  (Old  Catholic  seceders).  .Ianus  (pseu- 
donymous) :  T/ie  Pope  and  the  Council,  German 
and  English,  Leipsic  and  London,  1869 ;  DiiL- 
I.INGER  :  Ueber  die  Unfehlbarkeits-Adresse,  Mu- 
nich, 1870;  Langen  :  Das  vatikan.  Dogma  ron 
dem  Universalepiskopat  und  der  Unfehlbarkeit  des 
Papsles,  Bonn,  1871-76,  4  vols,  (c)  By  Protes- 
tants. W.  E.  Gladstone:  The  Vatican  Decrees 
in  their  Bearing  on  Cicil  Allegiance,  London,  1874, 
with  a  history  of  the  council  and  the  text  of  the 
decrees,  by  Philip  Schaff,  New  York,  1875  ; 
Gladstone:  Vaticanism,  an  Answer  to  Reproofs 
and  Replies,  of  Manning,  Newman,  aiul  others, 
London,  1875;  Scuaff:  Creeds  of  Christendom, 
i.  M7-1S9,  ii.  231-271.  riiiLir  schaff. 

INFANT  BAPTISM.  See  Baitism  of  In- 
fants. 

INFANT  COMMUNION,  or  the  di.spensing  of 
the  elements  to  actual  babes  ami  to  verv  young 
children.  Th(^  first  trace  of  this  custom  is  fotnid 
in  (Cyprian  (third  century),  who,  in  his  treatise 
On  the  Lapsed,  represents  infants  as  saying,  on 
the  day  of  judgment,  "We  have  not  forsaken  the 
Lord's  bread  and  cup"  (7)e  lapsis,  c.  ix.);  and  in 
the  same  book  he  tells  a  striking  story,  how  an 
infant  refused  the  cup,  and,  when  the  deacon 
forced  some  of  the  wine  down  her  throat,  she 
was  seized  with  vomiting.  The  exjilanation  was, 
that  the  child,  unknown"  to  her  parents,  had  pre- 
viously, while  uniler  the  care  of  her  nurse,  eaten 
bread  sonki'd  in  wine  which  had  been  poured 
nut  at  an  idolatrous  ceremony  (De  lapsis,  c.xxv.). 
The  custom  of  infant  comniMHion  was  indeed 
univi'rsal  at  that  time  :  connnunion  followed 
l);iptism.     The  .so-called  Liturgy  of  St.  Clement^ 


INFANT  COMMUNION. 


1079 


INFANT  SALVATION. 


in  the  Constit.  Apost.,  viii.  13,  prescribes,  in  the 
■order  of  coniinunicants,  the  place  of  the  little 
children  (iraidla).  Augustine  (fifth  century)  uses 
this  language:  "They  are  infants;  but  they  are 
made  partakers  of  His  table  that  they  may  have 
life  in  themselves  {Serm.  74,  §  7).  Again  :  he 
argues,  that,  if  infants  were  not  born  in  sin, 
Christ's  words,  "  Except  ye  eat  the  flesh,"  etc. 
(John  vi.  5-'i),  would  not  be  true  of  them  {Contra 
villas  epp.  Pelag.  i.  xxii.  §  40).  The  practice  is 
also  proved  by  regulations  respecting  its  execu- 
tion;  e.g.,  Gennadius  of  Marseilles  (49.5),  in  his 
De  Eccl.  (login.,  a.  22.  The  sixth  canon  of  the 
Council  of  Macon  (585)  decrees  that  the  rem- 
nants of  the  consecrated  bread,  moistened  with 
wine,  be  distributed  every  Wednesday  or  Friday 
to  innocent  children,  who  must  receive  it  fasting 
(see  Hefele :  Concilgescli. ,  iii.  36);  and  the  Gre- 
gorian Liturgy,  in  its  earliest  form,  enjoins,  "  If 
the  bishop  be  present,  it  is  fit  that  the  infant  be 
forthwitli  confirmed  with  chrism,  and,  after  that, 
communicated.  And,  if  the  bishop  be  not  pres- 
ent, let  him  be  communicated  by  the  presbyter  " 
(Lilurgia  Rorn.  Vet.,  Murat.,  Tom.  ii.  col.  158). 
The  Ordo  Roinaiius  prescribes,  that,  where  possi- 
ble, the  infant  be  not  suckled  from  the  time  of 
its  baptism  to  its  communion,  i.e.,  when  the  two 
rites  were  performed  on  the  same  day ;  and  the 
Capitularies  of  the  Frankish  kings  (i.  161),  of 
Walter  of  Orleans  (ninth  century,  c.  7),  and  of 
Regino,  demanded  that  the  priest  should  be  pro- 
vided at  all  times  witli  the  holy  bread,  so  that 
no  child  might  die  without  the  sacrament.  The 
sacrament  was  dispensed  in  both  kinds,  though 
"there  is  little  clear  evidence  to  that  effect." 
One  of  the  most  striking  proofs  is  in  can.  14  of 
the  Council  of  Toledo  (67.5),  which,  "  after  men- 
tioning the  occasional  rejection  of  one  element 
by  the  sick,  '  because,  except  the  draught  of  the 
Lord's  cup,  they  could  not  swallow  the  Eucharist 
delivered  to  them,'  proceeds  to  the  case  of  others 
'who  do  such  things  in  the  time  of  infancy.'" 
The  inference  appears  good  that  the  Eucharist 
was  offered  to  both,  in  bread  as  well  as  wine  " 
(Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet.  Chr.  Antiq.,  vol.  i. 
p.  837). 

The  early  practice  in  the  East,  of  giving  the 
consecrated  elements  to  blameless  young  persons, 
was  paralleled  in  the  West  by  the  distribution 
of  the  so-called  euloyice,  i.e.,  tliat  portion  of  the 
Eucharist  which  was  conveyed  by  the  hands  of 
the  deacons  to  those  who  were  absent,  and,  later 
on,  by  the  practice  of  giving  children  the  bread 
and  wine  before  consecration.  The  custom  of 
infant  comnninion  died  out  in  the  West ;  and  the 
Council  of  Trent,  in  its  twenty-first  session,  de- 
clared, "  Little  children  are  not  by  any  necessity 
obliged  to  the  sacramental  communion  of  the 
Eucharist.  .  .  .  Not  therefore,  however,  is  anti- 
quity to  be  condeuuied,  if,  in  some  places,  it  at 
one  time  observed  that  custom ;  for,  as  those 
most  holy  fathers  had  a  probable  cause  for  what 
they  did  in  respect  of  their  times,  so,  assuredly, 
is  it  to  be  believed,  without  controversy,  that 
they  did  this  without  any  necessity  thereof  unto 
salvation"  (see  Schaff,  Creeds,  vol.  ii.  p.  174). 
The  Roman  Church  has  now  abandoned  both 
infant  communion  and  its  shadow,  —  the  giving 
of  the  vmconsecrated  elements  to  children.  The 
Greek  Church  to-day,  and  also  the  Nestoriaus, 


Jacobites,  Armenians,  and  Maronites,  persist  in 
the  practice,  using  generally  only  the  wine,  and 
giving  it  eitlier  by  a  spoon  or  by  the  finger.  All 
Protestant  churches  unite  in  rejecting  infant 
connnunion. 

Lii'.  — J.  F.  Mayer  :  Cnmmentarius  Hist.  Tlieul. 
de  eucharistia  infantibus  olim  data.  Lips.,  1673 ; 
but,  much  better,  P.  Zorn  :  Ilisloria  eucharistiie 
infant.,  Berolin,  1736.  C'f.  art.  Kinderkoniinunion, 
by  Zezschwitz,  in  IIerzog,  vol.  vii.  671-673, 
and  art.  Infant  Communion,  by  Scudamore,  in 
Smith  and  Cheetham  :  Diet.  Clir.  Antiq.,  vol.  i. 
835-837.  SAMUEL  m.  jackson. 

INFANT  JESUS,  The  Congregation  of  the 
Daughters  of  the,  was  founded  in  Rome,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  by  Anna 
Moroni,  as  an  institution  in  which  poor  girls 
received  free  instruction  in  some  useful  arts,  and 
shortly  after  transformed  into  a  regular  order  of 
the  Church  by  Pope  Clement  X.  'I'he  novitiate 
lasts  three  years ;  and  the  novice,  when  entering 
the  order,  takes  the  vows  of  povei'ty,  chastity, 
and  obedience.  They  wear  a  dark-brown  dress 
with  a  white  hood. 

INFANT  SALVATION,  or  the  salvation  of 
those  who  die  in  infancy.  The  doctrines  of 
infant  danmation  and  of  non-elect  infants  were 
unknown  to  the  early  Church.  The  fact  that  the 
baptism  of  infants  was  so  commonly  postponed 
to  Easter  Week  proves  that  it  was  even  not  con- 
sidered any  loss  to  the  child  to  die  unbaptized. 
But,  as  sacerdotal  and  ecclesiastical  ideas  spread 
in  the  Church,  baptism  was  more  and  more 
emphasized,  until  Gregory  of  Nazianzus  and  Am- 
brose (fourth  century)  could  say  that  unbaptized 
children  could  not  be  saved.  The  first,  however, 
argued,  that  since  they  had  suffered,  and  not 
caused,  the  loss  of  baptism,  the  righteous  Judge 
would  not  punish  them ;  and  Ambro.se,  while 
claiming  that  there  could  be  no  exception  made 
for  them  on  account  of  their  infancy,  yet  thought 
they  would  be  free  from  pain.  It  was  left  to 
Augustine  to  teach  the  damnation  of  infants. 
But  their  sufferings,  though  eternal,  are  bearable, 
being  of  the  mildest  character  {De  pecc.  merit., 
i.  c.  xvi.).  He  also  opposed  the  idea  of  an  inter- 
mediate state  in  which  these  infants  were.  Pela- 
gius,  whom  Augustine  so  vigorouslj-  opposed, 
expressed  no  decided  opinion  upon  this  point, 
but  said,  "  Whither  they  may  not  go,  I  know : 
whither  they  may  go,  I  do  not  know."  Their 
punishment  must,  he  thought,  be  of  the  mildest 
sort,  since  they  had  not  committed  any  actual 
transgression,  and  had  no  original  sin  :  indeed,  he 
was  ready  to  confess  it  seemed  to  him  doubtful 
whether  they  were  punished  at  all.  The  Roman 
Church,  accepting  Augustine's  conceptions  of  the 
necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation,  and  of  the 
mildness  of  the  punishment  of  those  infants  who 
died  unbaptized,  agreed  with  him  that  they  were 
sent  to  hell,  and  assigned  to  them  a  separate 
place  in  it,  the  limbus  infantum,  or  puerorum.  (See 
Thomas  Aquinas's  Sum.  TheoL,  pt.  iii.  q.  Ixviii. 
2;  Suppl.,  q.  Ixxi.  7;  also  Dante:  Inferno,  canto 
iv.).  There  is,  however,  a  difference  of  opinion 
in  this  Church  as  to  the  character  of  their  suffer- 
ings, whether  it  is  actual  {pana  sensus),  or  only  a 
deprivation  of  the  vision  of  God  {earentia  ri.-^ionis 
Dei).  In  the  Council  of  Trent  the  Dominicans 
and  Franciscans  contradicted  each  other.     The 


INFANT  SALVATION. 


1080 


INFANT  SALVATION. 


former  held  that  these  lost  infants  were  in  a 
dark  subterranean  region  without  fire ;  the  latter, 
that  they  were  above  the  earth  and  in  the  light. 
Others  spoke  yet  more  cheerfully  of  their  condi- 
tion, supposing  them  to  be  occupied  with  the 
study  of  nature,  and  to  be  occasionally  recipients 
of  the  visits  of  angels  and  saints.  The  council 
refused  to  commit  itself  to  a  decision,  though 
affirming  the  necessity  of  baptism  (^Sess.  v.  4)  ; 
and,  since  then,  some  theologians  have  followed 
Peter  Lombard  in  the  supposition  that  they  suffer 
some  sort  of  misery  in  punishment  of  original 
sin  (Bellarmine :  De  amiss,  gral.,  6,  6).  Others, 
like  Cardinal  Sfondrani  (Nodus  pradest.  dissnl., 
1,  1,  "23),  have  maintained  that  they  enjoy  as 
much  happiness  as  they  are  capable  of.  Perrone 
represents,  probably,  the  prevalent  view  when  he 
says  (5,  275)  that  they  suft'er  only  the  lack  of  the 
beatific  vision :  they  are  in  "  a  condition  of  pure 
nature."  And,  further,  Roman-Catholic  theolo- 
gians teach  that  the  desire  for  baptism,  even  on 
the  part  of  unborn  children,  is  accepted  for  the 
bapitism  itself :  therefore,  there  need  be  no  feai'S 
for  children  of  Christians  who  die  in  infancy. 

The  first  one  to  enter  the  lists  against  the 
Roman  theory-  of  the  necessity  of  baptism  to 
infant  salvation  was  Zwingli.  He  taught  that 
all  elect  children  who  die  in  infancy  are  saved, 
whether  they  are  baptized  or  not,  whether  Pagan 
or  Christian ;  and,  further,  tliat  all  who  die  in 
infancy  are  elect,  since  their  early  death  is  a 
token  of  God's  peculiar  mercy,  and  therefore  of 
their  salvation.  Luther,  on  the  other  hand, 
taught  the  necessity  of  baptism  to  salvation ; 
and  this  doctrine  is  part  of  the  Lutheran  creed, 
involving  baptismal  regeneration.  Calvin  held 
to  election  in  regard  to  infants,  and  speaks 
thus :  — 

"  As  to  infants,  they  seem  to  perish,  not  by  their 
own  fault,  but  hy  the  fault  of  another.  But  tliere  is 
a  doul>le  solution.  Though  sin  does  not  yet  appear 
in  tliem,  yet  it  is  latent;  for  they  hear  corruption 
shut  up  in  the  soul,  so  tliat  before  God  they  are 
damnable."  "  That  infants  who  are  to  he  saved  (as, 
certainly,  out  of  that  ajje  some  are  saved)  must  be 
previously  regenerated  hy  the  Lord  is  clear."  — /»- 
stitvt.,  iv.,  xvi.  IT. 

We  find  this  doctrine  of  infant  salvation 
through  election  expressed  in  the  Calvinistic  sym- 
bols. The  Canons  of  the  Synod  of  l)orl  (1619) 
declare : — 

"  Since  we  are  to  judge  of  the  will  of  God  from 
his  word  ( which  testihes  that  the  rliildrin  of  lieliev- 
ers  are  holy,  not  hy  naturi',  Imt  in  virtue  of  tlic  cove- 
nant of  grace,  in  which  they,  together  with  the 
parents,  are  comprehended),  godly  parents  liave  no 
reason  to  doubt  of  the  election  and  .salvation  of  tlxiir 
children  whom  it  pleaseth  God  to  call  out  of  this 
life  in  their  infancy."  —  First  Head  of  Doctrine,  art. 
XVII. 

And  the  Westminster  Confession:  — 

"  The  grace  promised  [in  hantism]  is  not  only 
offered,  hut  really  c.\hiliit<Ml  and  conferred,  hy  the 
Holy  Ghost,  to  snch  (whether  of  age  or  infants)  as 
that  grace  helongetli  unto,  arcordinp  to  tlu'  coun- 
sel of  God's  own  will,  in  his  appomtod  time."  — 
XXVIII.,  vi. 

And 

"  Elect  infants  dying  in  infancy  ari^  regenoratcKl 
and  saved  hy  Christ,  through  the  .Spirit,  who  work- 
eth  when  and  where  and  how  he  plea.Heth."  —  X.  HI. 


But,  in  the  Second  Scotch  Confession  (1580),  it 
says,  — 

"  We  abhor  and  detest  the  cruel  judgment  against 
infants  dying  without  baptism." — See  Schaff  : 
Creeds,  vol.  iii.  p.  482. 

Since  Calvinists  distinguish  between  elect  and 
non-elect  infants,  it  is  not  strange  that  some  of 
their  theologians  have  spoken  of  elect  and  repro- 
bate infants.     Thus  jMuscuIus  says, — 

"  Since,  therefore,  this  discrimination  of  elect  and 
reprobate  in  new-born  infants  is  hidden  from  our 
judgment,  it  is  not  fitting  that  we  should  inquire 
into  it,  lest  by  ignorance  we  reject  vessels  of  grace." 
—  Loci  Com7nitnes,  336. 

And  the  Swiss  theologians  at  the  Synod  of  Dort 

said, — 

"That  there  is  an  election  and  reprobation  of 
infants,  no  less  than  of  adults,  we  cannot  deny  in 
the  face  of  God,  who  loves  and  hates  unborn  chil- 
dren." —  Acta  Synod.  Dort.  Jndic,,  40. 

A  proof  of  the  existence  of  this  stern  view  in 
Calvinistic  New  England  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury is  the  passage  in  that  curious  poem.  The 
Day  of  Doom,  written  by  Rev.  ^lichael  Wiggles- 
worth,  which  was  published  in  1662,  ran  through 
many  editions,  and  was  reprinted  as  a  curiosity, 
New  York,  1867.  Among  the  classes  of  sinners 
who  make  their  plea  for  mercy  are  the  "  repro- 
bate infants  "  who  died  in  infancy, 

"  And  never  had  or  good  or  bad 
effected  pers'nally; 
But  from  the  womb  unto  the  tomb 
were  straightway  carried 
(Or  at  the  least  ere  they  transgress'd)." 

But  they  are  answered  like  the  rest.  However, 
in  recognition  of  their  innocence,  they  are  allowed 
"the  easiest  room  in  hell."  Calvinism,  by  its 
doctrine  of  election,  rids  itself  of  the  stigma  of 
infant  damnation ;  for  surely  it  is  allowable  to 
hope,  at  least,  that  the  grace  of  election  extends 
to  all  who  die  in  infancy. 

In  the  seventeenth  centurj',  the  Arminians  re- 
sumed Zwingli's  position,  and,  consistently  willi 
tlieir  theory  that  original  sin  was  not  punishable 
apart  from  actual  tran.sgression,  taught  the  gen- 
eral salvation  of  infants:  so  do  the  Methodists 
and  Baptists  to-day.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Lutherans,  and  all  others  who  teach  baptismal 
regeneration,  are  logically  .shut  up  to  the  view 
that  all  who  die  unbaptized  are  lost.  Also  the- 
Rev.  .lolm  Heni-y  Blunt,  in  his  Dirt.  Doc.  Theol., 
p.  ;^46,  note,  spcaldng,  doubtless,  for  High-church- 
men generally,  says,  — 

"  It  can  hardly^  I  think,  be  doubted  that  they 
do  sustain  a  loss,  of  whatever  kind.  In  tiie 
Institutions  of  a  Christian  Man,  the  Clinrcli  of 
Kngland  declares,  '  Insomuch  as  infants,  and  chil- 
dren dying  in  their  infancy,  shall  un<loubtedly 
be  saved  thereby  (i.e.,  by  baptism),  else  not.'  In 
the  last  revision  of  the  "Prayer- book  we  read,  'It 
is  certain,  by  (Jod's  woi-d,  that  cliildreii  which 
are  liaptized,  dying  before  they  commit  actual 
sin,  are  inidoitbtedly  saved  : '  in  other  woi-ds,  we 
are  certain  of  the  future  happiness  of  the  liaptized, 
but  have  no  assurance  of  tlie  salvation  of  the  uii- 
baptiz(^d,  infant.  The  cpu'stion  must  thus  be  left 
in  obscurity,  a.s  we  h.ave  no  snlliciiMit  warrant  to- 
go  beyond  the  cautious  statement  of  our  Chiircb." 


INFANTICIDE. 


1081 


INFIDELITY. 


But  the  heart  is  stronger  than  logic.  The 
tendency  is  towards  milder  views ;  and  it  may 
well  be  questioned  if  there  be  a  single  living 
Lutheran  theologian  of  high  standing  who  con- 
fines the  grace  of  salvation  to  baptized  in- 
fants. So,  also,  the  Calvinists  speak.  Thus 
Dr.  Charles, Hodge,  whose  orthodoxy  is  unques- 
tioned, teaches  emphatically  the  salvation  of  all 
infants  who  die  in  infancy,  and  asserts  that  this 
is  the  "common  doctrine  of  evangelical  Protes- 
tants" (St/sleynatic  Theology,  i.  26). 

It  will  thus  be  seen,  from  this  review  of  opin- 
ions upon  this  subject,  that  there  has  been  recent 
progress.  We  now  believe  that  God's  grace  has 
been  extended  to  all  lands,  and  ai'e  ready  to  say 
that  infants  of  heathens,  no  less  than  of  Chris- 
tians, enter  heaven  through  the  blood  of  Christ. 
Surely,  He  who  said,  "  Suffer  the  little  children, 
and  forbid  them  not,  to  come  unto  nie,  for  of 
such  is  the  kingdom  of  heaven,"  shuts  the  king- 
dom of  heaven  in  no  infant's  face. 

Lit.  —  C.  P.  Krauth  :  Infant- Salvation  in  the 
Calvinistic  Si/stcm,  Philadelphia,  1874  (from  which 
the  above  quotations  of  Calvin  and  Musculus 
have  been  taken).  Compare  Wiogeus  :  Auyus- 
tinis7nus  u.  Pelagianismus,  i.  -i'JS;  Hodge:  i>i/s- 
■tematic  Theoloyij,  vol.  iii.  605 ;  Hagenbach  ; 
Hist.  Doctrines,  English  translations,  vol.  ii.  74  ; 
SCHAFF :  Creeds  of  Christendom,  i.  378-381,  and 
the  art.  LiMiu-s.  S.-iMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

INFANTICIDE,  the  practice  of  murdering  new- 
born children,  has  been  known  from  early  times, 
and  amongst  cultivated  as  well  as  barliai'oiis 
nations.  It  has  taken  the  form  of  a  religious 
■custom,  as  among  the  worshippers  of  Moloch, 
"  horrid  king,"  who  threw  their  children  as  sacri- 
fices into  his  molten  arms,  and  the  Hindus,  who 
cast  their  children  into  the  Ganges.  Vi'e  first 
meet  with  the  j^ractice  of  abnormal  or  murderous 
infanticide  at  Sparta,  where  it  was  enjoined  by 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus.  AVeakly  or  deformed  in- 
fants were  exposed  to  die  on  Mount  Taygetos,  on 
the  ground  that  they  would  never  be  of  service 
to  tlie  State.  In  Rome  the  practice  prevailed  to 
a  large  degree  during  the  imperial  period,  when 
the  marriage-vow  was  not  regarded  as  binding, 
and  Roman  ladies  counted  their  years  by  the  num- 
ber of  their  divorces  (Seneca).  Some  of  the  first 
men  of  antiquity  commended  the  practice,  as  Aris- 
totle (Repuh.,  vii.  16)  and  Pliny  the  elder.  Seneca 
and  other  Roman  satirists  bear  witness  to  the  wide 
extent  of  its  prevalence.  The  custom  has  also 
prevailed  among  the  peoples  of  Hindustan,  the 
Chinese,  the  Society  and  other  groups  of  islands 
in  the  Pacific,  some  of  the  Indian  tribes  (Alaska), 
and  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  Mahome- 
tans also  practise  the  custom  of  murdering  girls 
at  tlieir  birth.  The  motives  which  have  impelled 
parents  to  murder  their  children  have  been  con- 
siderations of  civil  obligation  (Sparta),  shame, 
■disinclination  to  rear  children,  and  poverty. 

Christianity  early  set  itself  against  the  practice ; 
and  Christian  emperors,  beginning  with  Constan- 
tine,  provided  statutes  looking  to  the  care  of  chil- 
dren exposed  by  their  parents  to  death.  In  the 
fifth  century  the  custom  was  in  vogue  of  laying 
such  children  at  the  church-doors  (Cone.  Aries  II. 
can.  51,  451).  By  the  eighth  century,  asylums 
were  established  in  Treves,  Milan,  and  other 
-cities,  for  the  care  and  training  of  deserted  chil- 


dren; and  the  Church  granted  to  them  hypotheti- 
cal baptism  (Si  non  es  baptizatus,  etc.,  "  If  thou  art 
not  baptized,"  etc.).  At  a  much  later  period  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  St.  Vincent  de  Paul  di- 
rected his  energies  to  the  relief  of  this  class  of 
persons,  with  great  zeal.  The  last  century  and 
the  early  part  of  this  have  witnessed  the  estab- 
lishment of  many  foundling  asylums  in  the  differ- 
ent countries  of  Europe.  In  England  severe  laws 
have  been  passed,  punishing  with  penal  servitude 
and  other  penalties  the  murder  of  children  after 
and  before  their  birth.  In  France  a  great  increase 
in  the  number  of  foundlings  is  supposed  to  have 
followed  upon  the  use  of  the  lour,  or  revolving 
box,  which  was  so  arranged  that  the  depositor 
might  leave  the  infant  in  the  box  without  him- 
self becoming  exposed.  By  a  simple  turn  of  the 
box  from  within,  the  child  was  drawn  inside  the 
building.  In  1833  this  arrangement  was  abol- 
ished, and  the  number  of  foundlings  decreased 
from  thirty-five  thousand  in  1832  to  twenty-six 
thousand  in  1838.  A  hospital  in  Dublin,  also, 
used  a  box  of  this  description  till  1826,  when  it 
was  ordered  removed  by  Parliament.  All  the 
nations  of  Southern  Europe,  except  Greece,  and 
including  Austria,  have  permitted  the  use  of  the 
box.  According  to  Von  Oettingen  {Moralslalislilc) 
the  number  of  foundling  asylums  in  France  is 
a  hiuidred  and  one,  Spain  forty-nine,  Austria 
thirty-six,  etc.  In  the  United  States  such  asylums 
are  conqiaratively  rare.  The  principal  Roman- 
Catholic  institution  of  the  kind  is  the  New-York 
Foundling  ."Asylum,  at  the  corner  of  Lexington 
Avenue  and  Sixty-eighth  Sti'eet,  New-lork  City. 
There  ai-e  two  Protestant  (undenominational) 
institutions  in  Nevv-York  City,  —  the  New  York 
Infant  Asylum,  and  the  Infants'  Home  and  Day 
Nursery  (established  1854).  Both  of  these  insti- 
tutions give  shelter  to  the  mothers  during  their 
confinement,  and  urge  them  to  remain  for  a  period 
with  their  children.  The  results  have  been  satis- 
factory, both  in  saving  the  mothers  from  a  con- 
tinued life  of  shame,  and  in  preserving  the  lives 
of  the  children  (about  eighty  per  cent). 

Lit. — J.  Cave  Browne:  Infanticide  m  India, 
London,  1857;  Kunze  :  D.  Kindmnord,  hist.  u. 
krit.  darcjest.,  Leipzig,  1860;  Gke.wes:  Observa- 
tions on  Some  of  the  Causes  of  Infanticide,  Manches- 
ter, 1863;  Hugel:  D.  Findelhauser  u.  a.  Ftndel- 
wesen  Europas,  Vienna,  1863;  Tardieu:  Etude 
me'd.-le'y.  sur  I'infanticide,  Paris,  1880  ;  arts.  Infan- 
ticide and  Foundling  Hospitals,  in  Enci/clopcedia 
Britannica ,  and  two  arts,  in  the  New-York  Inde- 
pendent for  March  9  and  16,  1882,  by  President 

WoOLSEY. 

INFIDELITY.  In  this  article,  infidelity  is  used 
to  denote  the  denial  of  the  claims  of  Christianity 
as  a  divine  revelation.  In  this  sense  it  is  not 
quite  the  same  with  unbelief;  for  ^  nbelief  equally 
takes  in  other  negative  positions,  such  as  athe- 
ism :  and  it  is  not  quite  the  same  with  scepticism, 
as  this  involves  the  deeper  philosophical  principle 
that  nothing  is  or  can  be  known.  Still,  unbelief 
may  be  used  to  include  infidelity,  all  the  more 
that  negative  views  as  to  God's  existence,  or 
personality,  or  character,  also  tend  to  cut  off  faith 
in  a  revelation  of  his  will ;  and  in  like  manner 
scepticism,  having  the  same  result,  may  with 
proper  distinction  be  used  as  a  synonyme.  It  is 
to  be  added  that  the  word  "infidelity  "  carries  with 


INFIDELITY. 


1082 


INFIDELITY. 


it  a  shade  of  censure.  It  is  not  ignorance,  or 
simple  non-acceptance  of  Christianity,  tliat  is  as- 
serted, but  rejection ;  which  the  Christian  Church 
holds  to  be  sinful.  As  faith  is  a  duty,  and  as 
those  nominal  Christians  who  come  short  of  it, 
in  not  personally  accepting  Christ  as  a  Saviour, 
are  condemned,  so  those  who  caiTy  their  repul- 
sion farther,  even  to  denial  of  his  mission  and 
of  the  authority  of  his  word,  must  be  still  more 
blameworthy. 

The  causes  of  infidelity,  though  manifold  and 
subtle,  may  be  briefly  indicated.  They  are  of 
two  kinds,  —  suhjeclice  and  objective.  The  former 
lies  in  the  prejudices  against  Christianity  that  are 
foimd  within ;  the  latter,  in  the  scandals  and 
hitidrances  that  come  from  wthout.  Of  preju- 
dices, the  chief  are  moral,  being  found  ui  the 
lusts  and  passions  which  the  gospel  condemns, 
or,  where  these  do  not  rule,  in  the  pride  and  self- 
righteousness  which  cannot  be  renounced,  or  in 
the  want  of  that  loving  and  tender  spirit  without 
which  Christianity  is  only  a  name ;  so  that  even 
the  better  class  of  unbelievers  find  uncongenial 
to  them  the  lofty  devotion  to  the  glory  of  God, 
and  the  humbling  sense  of  sin,  in  which  the  very 
soul  of  Christianity  consists.  With  these  moral 
prejudices  intellectual  ones  may  concur,  such  as 
a  sceptical  temper,  or  a  philosophy  that  excludes 
the  supernatural,  or  a  bias  against  some  cardinal 
doctrine  of  Christianity,  —  such  as  the  trinity,  or 
the  atonement,  or  the  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
Under  the  head  of  scandals  fall  all  the  misrepre- 
sentations of  Christianity  which  exist  in  doc- 
trine and  life,  —  the  corruptions  and  divisions  of 
churches,  the  sins  of  Christian  nations,  the 
slow  progress  and  limited  success  of  the  gospel 
through  the  fault  of  its  supporters,  and  even  the 
mistakes  of  Christians  in  dealing  with  infidelity 
itself.  With  these  causes  at  work  amidst  a  race, 
which,  as  Christians  believe,  is  ungodly  and 
fallen,  it  is  not  wonderful,  that,  as  there  has  lieen 
always  so  much  practical  unbelief  in  the  world,  a 
portion  of  this  should  take  the  form  of  open 
denial  of  the  divine  character  and  claims  of 
Christianity. 

In  sketching  the  history  of  infidelity,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  divide  it  into  two  great  periods,  the 
ancient  and  the  modern,  which  are  found  to 
differ  not  only  in  time,  but  in  character.  The 
ancient  infidelity  meets  the  Christian  religion  at 
its  birth,  and  continues  till  the  fall  of  Paganism, 
opposing  the  gospel  from  the  ground  of  false  reli- 
gion, or  professed  revelation  of  some  kind  or 
other ;  whereas  the  modern  infidelity  lias  more 
and  more  detached  itself,  since  the  Keforniation, 
from  all  belief  in  the  supcniatural,  or  at  least  in 
any  revelation  of  which  the  claims  can  be  upheld 
against  Ciiiistianity  This  classification,  indeed, 
is  not  strictly  ci  n'l'ect ;  for  there  were  earlier  <)]>po- 
nents  of  Christianity,  like  Lucian,  who  antici- 
pated the  more  negative  and  anti-supcrnatiiralist 
style  of  more  recent  centuries,  as,  indeed,  this 
neces.sarily  followed  from  the  sceptical  and  K])i- 
curean  philosophy.  Hut  the  most  influential 
antagonists  of  ('hristianily  all  wrote  in  the  inter- 
ests of  the  popular  religion,  however  spiritualized, 
and  did  not  reject  Clii'istianity  becau.se  it  was  a 
revelation,  but  because  it  set  aside  other  and 
better-warranted  revelations,  like  tliosc  of  I'agan- 
isrn.     It  is  only  on  the  mi.ssion-field  that  Chris- 


tianity now  finds  similar  resistance ;  but  this  is- 
hardly  called  infidelity.  The  only  form  of  oppo- 
sition which  is  the  same  all  through  is  that  of 
the  Jews;  Justin  Martyr  encountering  Tri,-pho 
in  the  second  century ;  and  Limborch,  Orobi'o,  in 
the  seventeenth  in  the  same  way,  each  uphold- 
ing one  revelation  against  another  as  professed. 
But,  as  the  Jewish  controversy  hardly  belongs  to 
infidelity,  this  exception  may  be  also  disregarded. 
Without  entering  into  the  whole  field  of  ancient 
apologetics,  it  is  sufficient  to  notice  the  principal 
wTiters  on  the  unbelieving  side.  We  need  not 
dwell  on  Lucian,  who  satirizes  the  credulity  of 
the  Christians,  which  laid  them  open  to  impostors 
like  the  adventurer  Peregrinus ;  nor  the  Emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius,  who,  in  his  Meditations  (XI.  3), 
condemns  their  martyr-spirit  as  "  mere  ob.stinacy." 
But  there  are  four  writers  between  the  second 
and  fourth  century  who  bring  out  the  whole 
spirit  of  early  infidelity,  and  in  the  replies  to- 
them  by  leading  Christians  (though  in  some 
cases  most  of  the  attack  or  defence  has  perished) 
the  controversy  is  exhausted.  These  are  Celsus, 
Porphyry,  Hierocles,  and  Julian.  Of  these  by 
far  the  most  important  is  the  first,  Celsus.  He 
is  probably  to  be  placed  in  the  last  thirty  years 
of  the  .second  century ;  and  his  work  was  entitled 
The  True  Woril  (u/*r/i9^f  ?-"}of).  We  know  it 
almost  entirely  from  the  reply  of  Origen,  the 
masterpiece  of  ancient  apologetics,  which,  how- 
ever, was  not  written  till  seventy  or  eighty  years 
later.  The  value  of  the  work  of  Celsus  is  very 
great,  not  so  much  from  the  ability  and  learning 
of  its  author,  though  these  are  considerable,  as 
from  the  fulness  with  which  it  reflects  early  hos- 
tility to  Christ,  and  from  the  confirmation  which 
it  gives  to  the  early  reception  of  the  Christian 
books,  and  to  the  truth  of  the  Christian  histoiy. 
It  is  not  easy  to  reduce  Celsus  to  any  category ; 
and,  though  he  is  repeatedly  charged  by  Origen 
with  being  an  Epicurean,  there  are  large  Platonic 
elements  in  his  philosophy.  He  assumes  even 
the  tone  of  a  Jew,  and  under  that  character  re- 
proaches, in  the  beginning  of  his  work,  first 
Christ,  and  then  those  Jews  who  had  gone  over 
to  Christianity.  He  is,  however,  most  at  home 
as  a  Pagan,  accepting  in  the  gro.ss  the  polytheism 
of  his  age,  without  .seeking  much  to  spiritualize 
it,  and  inculcating  adherence  to  tradition,  faith 
in  demon.s,  and  worship  of  images.  He  has,  to 
begin  with,  a  very  low  idea  of  human  destiny, 
as  little  di.stinguis'liable  from  that  of  the  beasts, 
which  makes  him  resent  the  pretensions  of  Chris- 
tians, and  ridicule  their  hojies  of  the  resurrection 
as  the  "hopes  of  worms."  His  philo.sophical 
pride  makes  him  recoil  from  their  blind  faith ; 
and  his  .self-righteousness  leads  him  to  repel  a 
sect  that  opened  the  door  to  "sinners."  His 
greatest  stumbling-block  is  the  incarnation  of 
Christ,  to  which  he  perpetually  returns,  with  the 
humiliation  of  the  Saviour's  life  an<l  <!ealh  ;  and 
it  is  curious  to  see,  that,  while  attacking  the  .Tews, 
he  ha.s  all  the  contempt  of  the  .lew  for  the  absence 
of  signs,  and  of  the  (ireek  for  the  neglect  of 
wisdom.  There  is  also  the  offence  in  Chri.s- 
tianity,  beyond  .ludaism,  of  a  larger  .sjiirit,  aver.se 
to  national  ties,  of  a  more  enthusiastic  hoi>e,  and 
of  a  proselytism  .strong  enough,  with  all  its 
alleged  childish  w-eakness,  to  shake  the  empire, 
and  to  turn  contempt  into  anger  and  fear.     The 


INFIDELITY. 


1  OS: 


INFIDELITY. 


more  special  doctrines  of  Christianity,  such  as 
the  atonement  and  the  new  birth,  Celsus  hardly 
sees,  and  therefore  he  hardly  assails  them.  It  is 
still  to  him  the  exiliahilis  superslhio  of  Tacitus, 
brought  a  good  deal  nearer,  and  in  iiro]iortion 
more  hateful.  Still  it  is  wonderful,  witliin  his 
own  range,  that  Celsus  sees  so  much,  and  has 
anticii^atecT  so  naich,  of  the  coarser  style  of  attack 
on  Christianity.  The  contradictions  of  Scripture, 
and  its  plagiarisms  from  Plato  and  the  iihiloso- 
phers;  the  divisions  and  strifes  of  Christians; 
the  want  of  patriotism  and  public  spirit,  witli  a 
general  ridiculous  narrowness  and  fanaticism,  — 
these  are  his  characteristic  contribution  to  the 
reproaches  of  ages.  Nor  has  he  made  one  single 
concession,  or  written  one  redeeming  sentence ; 
so  that  his  great  services  to  Christian  apologetics, 
in  his  admissions  as  to  the  dates  of  sacred  books, 
and  other  facts,  are  wholly  involuntary.  It  has 
been  the  function  of  Christianity  to  train  even 
its  opponents  to  seize  something  of  its  own  point 
of  view.  But  to  this  Celsus  is  the  ideal  oppo- 
site; and  the  contrast  is  most  complete  in  his 
gi-eat  antagonist  Origen,  who,  in  meeting  Celsus, 
has  met  the  best  who  have  followed  him,  and  has 
jnade  this  first  still  the  most  fruitful  and  sugges- 
tive of  all  apologetic  controversies. 

Porphyry,  though  a  much  abler  man  than  Cel- 
sus, and  a  more  voluminous  writer  against  Chris- 
tianity, exists  in  much  .scantier  fragments;  so  that 
little  is  added  from  him  to  the  stock  of  argu- 
ment, lie  was  a  native  of  Tyre,  born  about 
:2;53  A.D.,  and  was  the  companion,  biographer, 
and  expositor  of  Plotinus,  the  founder  of  the 
Xeo-Platonic  philo.sophy.  In  him  and  in  his 
party  this  system  of  mystic  idealism,  opposed  to 
Christianity  by  its  I'adical  exclusion  of  the  incar- 
nation, was  further  bent  into  hostility  by  its 
effort  to  spiritualize  the  current  Paganism,  and 
maintain  its  influence.  This,  doubtless,  lent  a 
color  to  the  elaborate  work  of  Porphyry  against 
tlie  Christians  (/cart  ;i;p(cmai'iji),  in  fifteen  books, 
which  was  written  about  the  year  270.  But  as 
the  lengthened  replies  to  this  work,  including 
that  of  Eusebius  the  church  historian,  have  per- 
ished, we  cannot  trace  its  sequence,  or  even  its 
characteristic  features.  He  seems  more  than 
Celsus  to  have  gone  into  detailed  criticism  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  Scriptures;  and  hence 
the  attacks  on  the  prophecies  of  Daniel,  as  writ- 
ten after  the  event,  which  are  replied  to  by 
Jerome  and  other  writers ;  and  also  on  Paul, 
whom  Celsus  does  not  notice.  As  an  example  of 
his  more  philosophical  manner,  there  is  the  ques- 
tion, why  the  gospel  was  not  sent  earlier  to 
nations  like  the  Britons,  that  so  greatly  needed  it. 
But  altogether  the  materials  for  an  account  of 
PorphjTy's  polemic  against  the  Christians  are 
diappointingly  meagre ;  and  the  difficulties  are 
increased  by  his  work  on  The  PhUosophji  of  Ora- 
cles, in  which,  though  after  Eusebius  generally 
accepted,  there  is  much  not  easy  to  reconcile  with 
the  more  .spiritualizing  strain  of  his  philo.sophy ; 
e.g.,  in  the  oracle  on  Christ,  as  eminent  in  piety, 
and  admitted  to  heaven,  which  is  not  such  as 
would  have  been  expected  from  an  author  who 
passed  as  one  of  the  most  strenuous  opponents  of 
Christianity. 

Hierocles  was  Governor  of  Bithynia  during  the 
last  persecution,  which  began  under  Diocletian,  iu 


303.  In  a  work  addressed  to  Christians,  with  other 
attacks  he  drew  a  parallel,  to  the  disadvantage  of 
Christ,  between  his  life  and  miracles  and  tliose 
of  ApoUonius  of  Tyana.  This  Pagan  hero,  half 
philosopher,  half  nuigician,  had  lived  from  the 
days  of  Nero  to  tho.se  of  Domitian,  and  wandered 
over  much  of  the  world.  His  life  had  been  writ- 
ten a  century  after  his  death  by  Philostratus,  a 
rhetorician  of  Lenmos  ;  and  now  Hierocles  turned 
this  biography  into  a  weapon  of  invidious  con- 
trast. Eusebius,  in  a  very  able  reply,  shows  how 
loose  the  historical  foundation  was,  how  ludi- 
crous or  ill-attested  the  miracles  were  (professedly 
wrought  in  Ephesus,  Rome,  and  elsewhere),  and 
liow  void  the  whole  career  was  of  moral  greatness 
and  significance.  The  attempt  of  Hierocles  is 
only  interesting  as  a  type  of  similar  efforts,  even 
to  our  own  day,  to  meet  the  claims  of  Christ  by 
a  general  natui'alist  theory  of  hero-worship  or  of 
founders  in  religion;  but  the  modern  theories, 
though  far  more  refined  and  extended,  are  even 
more  helpless,  as  they  wholly  deny  the  supernatu- 
ral, and  so  reduce  the  possible  dimensions  of  the 
hero,  that  Christ,  if  at  all  drawn  after  the  Gospels, 
still  leaves  every  parallel  behind. 

The  last  name,  Julian,  is  more  important  as  a 
figure  in  history  than  as  a  writer  against  Chris- 
tianity. His  public  career  does  not  need  to  be 
noticed  here.  The  admirable  sketch  of  Gibbon, 
supplemented  on  its  religious  side  by  that  of 
Neander,  meets  all  necessities.  It  is  only  requi- 
site to  notice  his  work  against  the  Cliristians, 
written  in  the  winter  of  3G2,  in  Antioch.  Of 
this  we  have  numerous  fragments  preserved  in 
the  interesting  reply  of  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  in 
ten  books,  who,  though  inferior  to  Origen,  meets 
Julian  with  a  Greek  learning  and  dialectical 
skill  worthy  of  his  cause  and  his  opponent.  Of 
this  work  of  Julian  a  large  part  was  occupied 
with  charges  against  the  Old  Testament,  which 
he  endeavored  to  show  that  Christians  had  no 
authority  for  relaxing  in  any  of  its  ordinances, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  took  the  side  of  the 
Jews  against  them ;  and  similar  attacks  were 
made  on  the  New  Testament,  as,  for  example, 
that  John  alone  had  asserted  the  Saviour's  deity. 
None  of  the  concessions  which  Julian  had  prac- 
tically made  to  Christianity  in  borrowing  from  it 
ai-e  hinted  at  in  this  treatise ;  but  the  whole 
strain  is  satirical  and  derisive,  as  towards  a  reli- 
gion which  boasted  such  great  things,  and  yet 
shut  itself  uj)  in  a  corner  of  the  world. 

From  the  fall  of  Paganism  to  the  Reformation 
tire  conflict  with  infidelity  ceases,  or  is  only  pro- 
longed by  other  weapons  than  those  of  contro- 
versy. Slohammedanism  comes  on  the  scene, 
retorting  on  its  opponents  the  reproach  of  being- 
infidels  ;  but  this  leads  to  no  collision  of  argu- 
ment, but  of  sterner  combat.  At  length  the 
Reformation  in  the  M'estern  Church  appears,  and 
this,  from  a  Roman-Catholic  point  of  view,  might 
be  regarded  as  unbelief;  but  Protestantism  dis- 
owns the  name,  and  though  cut  off  from  the 
Christian  pale,  yet,  by  its  witness  for  the  Bible 
and  for  the  authority  of  Christ,  hinders  even  Rome 
from  branding  its  career  as  the  same  with  that 
of  infidelity.  It  is  not  till  a  century  after  the 
Reformation,  that  in  lands  jirofessedly  Christian, 
whether  Catholic  or  Protestant,  a  phenomenon 
truly  entitled  to  the  name  of  infidelity  arises,  ni.d 


INFIDELITY. 


1084 


INFIDELITY. 


tliat  with  such  new  features  as  to  stand  distinct 
from  the  Pagan  unbelief  of  tlie  early  centuries. 
Of  this,  as  already  stated,  the  marked  feature, 
though  it  comes  slowly  and  hesitatingly  to  light, 
is  the  denial  of  all  revelation,  and  the  confine- 
ment of  whatever  religion  is  still  retained,  be  it 
much  or  little,  to  reason  as  its  origin  and  sover- 
eign rule.  This,  accordingly,  ^  the  modern  infi- 
delity from  the  seventeenth  centurj-  to  our  own 
days,  —  has  now  to  be  sketched. 

In  its  earlier  shapes  this  unbelief  is  less  national ; 
afterwards  it  concentrates  itself  in  different  lands, 
and  passes  through  successive  national  phases.  To 
the  earliest  period  belong  Herbert  and  Ilobbes, 
who,  though  English,  have  by  education  and  char- 
acter a  cosmopolitan  element;  Spinoza,  who  as 
a  Jew  belongs  to  all  literature  ;  and  Bayle,  whose 
wandering  life,  and  studies  in  universal  criticism, 
abate  his  otherwise  French  individuality.  It  is 
only  in  tlie  nineteenth  century  that  unbelief,  after 
the  national  phases  of  the  eighteenth,  —  deism, 
encyclopedism,  rationalism,  —  has  returned  to  its 
earlier  t\-[ie. 

Lord  Herbert  of  Cherbury  (1581-1648),  whose 
life  as  that  of  a  soldier-philosopher  is  a  kind  of 
reduced  image  of  Descartes,  holds,  like  him,  to 
.spiritualism,  and,  though  unhappily  never  recov- 
ered to  the  faith  of  his  brother  George  the  poet, 
still  retains  many  Christian  elements,  and  in  his 
five  principles  —  God,  worship,  virtue,  repentance, 
rewards  and  punishments  —  advances  nothing 
hostile  to  Christianity,  though  he  ignores  it. 
His  De  Verilate  (1624) was  followed  after  his 
death  by  his  De  Relirjione  GentUium  (1663),  which 
fails  to  establish  these  principles  as  the  sum  of 
Paganism,  though  it  begins,  amid  much  awkward- 
ness, modern  inquiries  into  comparative  religion 
in  a  .spirit  out  of  sympathy  with  Christianity. 

Hobbes  (l.oS8-167t))  is  even  less  an  avowed  un- 
believer than  Herbert ;  and  his  scheme  might  in 
strictness  be  called  heresy  rather  than  infidel- 
ity. He  seeks  in  his  otlier  works,  and  especially 
in  the  Lerialhan,  to  build  \ip  a  .sy.stem  that  may 
support  his  political  pliilo.so]>hy  as  one  of  des- 
potism, from  the  Bilile.  But  the  foundations  of 
materialism,  selfishnes.s,  and  agnosticism,  on  which 
the  wliole  rests,  are  such  tiiat  tlie  walls  of  the 
structure  are  pressed  out  of  their  place,  even  had 
the  style  of  Bible  interpretation  not  been  so  arbi- 
trary and  paradoxical  as  to  forfeit  identity  in  the 
structure  with  all  ordinary  Christianity.  A  Christ 
who.se  other  otiices  are  subordinated  to  his  kingly, 
and  whose  kingly  office  is  practically  absorbed  in 
that  of  tlie  civil  magistrate,  is  about  all  of  Chris- 
tianity that  Ilobbes,  with  hi.s  elaborate  deductions 
and  e.xpositions,  retains. 

Spinoza  (l<!:i2-77)  departs  entirely  from  Her- 
V)ert  in  renouncing  theism,  and  resting  on  a  pan- 
theistic basis  {Elliicu,  1677)  ;  but,  so  long  as  lie 
profes.sed  theism  (Traclalun  Thcolor/irn-l'oliticus, 
1670),  lie  recalls  Hobbes  at  least  in  his  founding 
of  right  on  power,  and  in  his  free  and  rationaliz- 
ing .strain  of  Scripture  criticism.  Many  of  S)iino- 
za's  hypotheses  in  excluding  the  miraculous  are  a.s 
arbitrary  as  tlio.se  01  Hoblii's;  and  it  was  certainly 
uncandid  for  him  to  argue  .against  miracles  a.s  a 
theist,  while  keeping  his  pantheism  in  reserve; 
but  his  schemes  and  theories  have  lieeii  still  more 
influential,  and  are  to  this  day  widely  current. 
His  pantheism  does  not  require  to  be  here  noticed, 


as  lying  beyond  our  definition  of  infidelity.  It  is 
important,  however,  to  consider  how  much  there 
is  of  lingering  sympathy'  with  the  Christian  view 
of  the  exalted  character  of  Christ,  all  the  more 
remarkable  as  coming  from  a  Jew,  though  the 
radical  pantheism  and  anti-supernaturalism  of  his 
system  bar  the  just  influence  of  this  tendency. 

The  sceptical  side  of  this  early  period  is  repre- 
sented by  Bayle  (1647-1706),  whose  Huguenot 
extraction,  and  temporai'y  conversion  to  Roman- 
ism, so  far  determine  the  type  of  his  hostility  to 
Christian  faith.  A  professor  in  Protestant  semi- 
naries like  Sedan  and  Rotterdam,  void  of  all  sym- 
pathy with  the  Reformed  creed,  save  on  the  side 
of  culture  and  liberty,  his  life  becomes  one  long 
critical  process  without  earnestness  or  fruit,  save 
only  as  the  debates  of  all  systems  with  each  other 
are  recorded.  This  is  the  work  of  his  Dictionary, 
published  in  1697,  and  for  the  next  century  a 
storehouse  of  negative  criticism  and  a  forerunner 
of  the  French  Encyclopedic ;  only  that  Bayle  is 
more  fair  in  dealing  out  doubts  and  difficulties 
all  round,  so  that  orthodoxy  merely  shares  in  the 
general  weakness  of  the  human  mind. 

It  is  apparent  that  this  earliest  period  of  mod- 
ern doubt  contained  all  the  internal  conflicts  and 
discords  that  were  afterwards  to  be  developed, 
and  which  have  made  it  strong  for  attack  on 
Christianity,  but  feeble  in  supplying  its  place. 
All  comes  more  to  light  in  the  next  century, 
when  infidelity  gains  more  full  expression  and 
power.  This  brings  with  it  the  three  national 
and  mutually  related  movements  in  England, 
France,  and  Germany. 

English  deism  springs  up  on  the  soil  of  reli- 
gious decay  and  latitude  and  of  political  freedom, 
not  without  help  from  the  Sociiiian  tendency 
which  had  clung  as  a  shade  to  the  Reformation, 
and  with  its  waning  light  gained  in  influence. 
The  deistic  movement  stands  out  as  the  first  com- 
bined protest  of  educated  thought  in  luirope 
against  Christianity ;  and  therefore  its  history  is 
all  the  more  instructive,  and  its  failure  confirma- 
tory of  faith.  It  fills  up  the  space  from  the 
Revolution  to  the  rise  of  Slethodism  and  the  re- 
awakening of  religious  life  in  England.  Its  earlier 
struggles  are  more  desultory  .and  miscellaneous  ; 
its  later,  more  concentrated  and  definite. 

To  the  former  belongs  Charles  Blount,  whose 
Oracles  of  Reason,  published  in  KiO.'i,  after  his 
death,  discloses  the  fact  that  the  name  "  Deists  " 
had  been  taken  bv  the  party  which  traced  itself 
to  Herbert,  and  wlio,  in  an  earlier  work  (KiSd)  on 
.-Vpollonius  of  Tyana,  had,  .aiipareutly  without 
knowing  it,  renewed  the  effort  of  Ilierocles  to  ac- 
count on  natural  principles  for  the  career  of  Jesus 
Christ.  Another  mi.scellaneous  writer,  of  Irish 
birth,  is  Toland  (1G70-17l'i2),  who,  in  his  Chrisli- 
anily  vof  Afyslerious,  touciies  without  real  depth 
the  n.ature  of  mysteries,  then  maintains  in  liis 
Amyntor  tho  looseness  of  the  canon,  drawing  forth 
the  masterly  work  of  I.ardner,  and  after  other 
fugitive  pieces,  still  professing. something  of  Chris- 
tianity, ends  in  17liO  by  iniblishing  anonymously 
a  confession  of  pantheism  in  his  I'anllieislicon, 
tliough  bal.anced  liy  another  work  of  a  contrary 
tenor  in  the  same  year.  We  may  perhaps  include 
here  also  Lord  .Shaftesbury,  wliose  ( 'lidrnclerlslics 
(1711)  contain  strictures  on  the  moral  aspects  of 
('hristianily  liardly  consistent  with  his  profession 


INFIDELITY. 


1085 


INFIDELITY. 


■of  belief,  and  certainly  Anthony  Collins  (1G7G- 
1729),  whose  first  appearance  in  connection  with 
this  controvei'sy,  in  his  D'uscnursc  un  Frcethinkhuj 
(1713),  is  little  more  than  a  clever  burlesque,  de- 
signed, without  any  scientific  method,  to  put 
Christians  on  the  same  ground  of  ultimate  de- 
pendence on  reason  witli  the  rising  sect  of  free- 
thinkers, thoui;h  this  manifesto  more  than  met 
its  match  in  t^ie  learning,  argument,  aud  wit  of 
Bentley. 

The  most  imjiortant  period  in  the  deistic  move- 
ment, that  which  deals  more  with  definite  topics, 
falls  undei' the  Hanoverian  dynasty;  and  this  is 
led  in  by  Collins,  whose  work  on  prophecy,  Tlie 
■Grnuuds  <tn<!  Reasons  of  the  Christian  Religion 
(1724),  is  more  solid  and  serious  than  his  first, 
though  marked  also  by  a  one-sidedness  aud  con- 
troversial art  above  which  he  never  rose.  The 
aim  of  this  treatise  was  to  show  that  propliecy 
had  only  been  meant,  and  only  fulfilled,  allegori- 
■cally,  that  is,  not  at  all ;  and  the  conflict  betwee;i 
him  and  Bishop  Chandler  and  his  many  other 
opponents  turned  on  the  criticism  of  texts,  and 
the  evidence  of  their  accomplishment.  He  replied 
to  the  bishop  in  his  Scheme  of  Literal  Prophecy 
considered  {\T21),  but  somewhat  changed  his 
groimd  without  acknowledging  it.  He  has  anti- 
cipated modern  criticism  as  to  Daniel,  but  is  out 
of  harmony  with  it  in  denying  all  early  Messianic 
liopes  and  traditions. 

The  discussion  on  prophecy  gave  birth  to  that 
on  miracles,  which  was  conducted  by  Thomas 
Woolston,  an  ex-fellow  of  Sidney  College,  Cam- 
bridge (1667-1733).  As  Collins  had  reduced 
prophecy,  so  Woolston  reduced  miracle,  to  alle- 
goiT,  and  denied  the  literal  facts.  His  Discourses 
on  the  Miracles  of  our  Sai-iour  (1727-30),  though 
reaching  a  sale  of  thirty  thousand  copies,  are  now 
generally  discredited  for  their  violent  and  uncrit- 
ical spirit,  which  may  be  judged  of  by  his  assert- 
ing a  compact  between  the  disciples  and  Jew-ish 
rulers,  which  the  foi'mer  violated  by  stealing  the 
Saviour's  body.  It  would  have  been  well  had 
Woolston  been  replied  to  only  in  works  like 
Bishop  Sherlock's  Trial  of  the  Witnesses,  but, 
unhappily,  he  was  fined  anil  imprisoned,  and  died 
in  some  degi'ee  of  restraint. 

The  central  passage  of  this  controversy  was 
the  debate  on  the  possibility  and  credibility  of 
revelation.  This  arose  with  Matthew  Ti'udal 
(16.56-1733),  an  ex-fellow  of  All  Souls',  Oxford, 
who  had  in  his  youth  gone  over  to  Popery,  aud 
then  recoiled  to  a  different  extreme.  His  work, 
Christianit)/  as  Old  as  the  Creation  (1730),  was  mainly 
designed  to  set  aside  revelation  by  building  on 
the  law  of  nature,  or  equal  relation  of  God  to  liis 
creatures  at  all  times.  This  was  answered  best 
of  all  by  Conybeare  (1732),  that  the  law  of  nature 
left  room  for  the  progressive  light  of  nature,  and 
that,  especially  where  sin  had  entered,  this  might 
take  the  form  of  revelation,  and  attest  itself  to 
the  inward  eye,  without  being  absolutely  the 
same  with  natural  data  To  this  writer  also, 
more  than  to  any  other,  Butler,  in  his  Analnf/y 
(1736),  replied,  without  naming  him,  by  showing 
that  objections  to  the  limited  area  or  defective 
evidence  of  revelation  struck  equally  at  natural 
religion.  With  the  defeat  of  Tindai,  the  deistic 
conflict  slackened,  and  no  equal  work  appeared. 

Thomas   Chubb   (1679-1747),  glove-maker   in 


Salisbury,  with  considei-able  force  of  untrained 
faculties,  nnngled  repeatedly  in  the  controversy, 
though  at  first  more  as  a  Sociuian,  till  in  his  last 
work  he  a.ssails  the  nioralily  (jf  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  seems  to  give  up  all  Christ's  historic 
claims.  With  his  assault  on  morality  in  its 
Christian  shape  might  seem  to  agree  the  work 
published  in  1737,  7he  Moral  Philosopher,  known 
to  be  by  Thomas  Morgan,  a  dispossessed  dissent- 
ing minister,  who  died  in  1743.  But  Morgan  only 
as.sails  the  Old  Testament,  allows  the  sinlessness 
of  Christ,  and  acknowledges  the  greatness  of 
Paul ;  though,  like  the  Tiibinnen  school,  he  separ 
rates  between  him  and  the  .lewisli  apostles,  and 
even  regards  the  Apocalypse  as  a  jirotest  against 
him.  Morgan's  antipathy  to  the  Old  Testament 
has  been  supposed  to  have  called  forth  \\'arbur- 
ton's  Dirine  Legation  of  Moses;  but  this  was  medi- 
tated and  partly  written  before. 

The  English  deism,  as  Lechler  has  well  shown, 
had  a  tendency  to  .scepticism,  though  he  is  prolia- 
bly  wrong  in  supposing  that  our  next  writer  cre- 
ated any  epoch.  This  was  Henry  Dodwell,  the 
son  of  the  celebrated  non-juror  of  that  name, 
whose  Christianity  not  Founded  on  Argument  (VI ^2) 
is  a  pretended  defence  of  the  gospel  as  resting  ou 
inward  light;  which,  however,  is  pushed  so  far  as 
to  be  caricatured.  The  necessary  lindtation,  and 
the  vindication  of  the  self-evidencing  power  of 
Christianity,  was  ably  given  by  Philip  Doddridge. 

A  still  more  sceptical  wTiter,  though  a  pi'ofessed 
theist,  was  Lord  Bolingbroke  (1678-1751).  This 
eminent  statesman  had  no  radical  principles  in 
theology  ;  aud,  witliout  any  theory  of  scepticism, 
liis  views  as  to  tlie  divine  attributes  are  radically 
contradictory,  and  change  whenever  Christianity 
is  to  be  assailed.  His  posthumous  book,  in 
5  vols.  {Pkilosopliiccd  Works,  1754),  which  is  largely 
an  attempt  to  trace  Cliristianity  to  Platonism,  of 
which  he  has  a  dark  idea,  is  a  total  failure  from 
want  of  learning  (the  Platonic  authorities  being 
quoted  in  Latin)  and  of  fairness;  and  his  attacks 
on  the  Old  Testament  are  equally  violent.  There 
is  here  the  origin  of  much  in  Voltaire ;  but  no 
intelligent  opponent  could  now  write  in  this  strain. 

The  greatest  name  on  the  sceptical  side,  beyond 
all  question,  is  that  of  Hume  (1711-76).  But 
Hume's  scepticism,  if  more,  as  he  said  himself, 
than  a  play  of  the  intellect,  would  not  be  fair; 
and  Theism  and  Christianity  might  still  be  as 
practical  as  the  necessarj'  biases  of  human  motive 
and  character.  Hume  has  not  thus  held  the  bal- 
ance even ;  and  his  famous  argument  on  miracles 
(1748)  would,  as  Mill  has  conceded,  be  recalled 
by  restoring  the  idea  of  God,  not  to  mention, 
that,  in  seeming  to  argue  against  the  credibilit}- 
of  testimony,  he  has  argued  equally  against  the 
credibility  of  sense,  and  so  far  begged  the  ques- 
tion, that  miracles  are  only  matters  of  testimony, 
and  never  of  experience.  Other  exceptions  are 
taken,  in  the  best  reply  to  Hume,  —  that  by  Camp- 
bell, On  Miracles  (1762) ;  and  Hume  has  not  been 
generally  followed,  except  by  those  w  ho  deny  mira- 
cles, not  merely  as  incognizable,  but  as  impossible. 

AVith  Hume,  though  lying  outside  of  the  deistic 
controversy,  we  may  rank  his  great,  even  greater, 
fellow-historian,  Gibbon  (1737-94).  Gibbon,  like 
Bayle,  lo.ses  all  the  earnestness  of  belief  with 
his  return  from  Romanism ;  and  his  Decline  and 
Fall  shows  how  deeply  insensible  he  was  to  the 


INFIDELITY. 


1086 


INFIDELITY. 


divine  power  of  Christianity.  Yet  the  work  is 
an  invohuitary  tribute  to  its  greatness;  and  the 
attempt,  far  bejond  any  thing  in  deism,  to  ac- 
count for  it  by  secondary  causes,  is  an  anticipa- 
tion of  more  recent  eiforts,  while  recognizing  its 
■n-orld-liistorical  importance,  to  bring  it  witliin  the 
laws  of  natural  development.  Gibbon,  however, 
here  lies  beyond  even  the  position  of  French 
encycloijedisin,  of  which  he  was  a  sympathetic 
witness,  and  of  this  we  must  now  speak. 

The  national  unbelief  of  France  in  the  last  cen- 
tury has  been  called,  from  its  Encyclopt-die  (1751- 
65), "  Encyclopedism ; "  but  to  Voltaire  (1604-1778), 
more  than  to  any  other  writer  in  that  work,  it  is 
due.  The  way  had  been  prepared  by  the  innnense 
abuses  and  corruptions  in  Church  and  State,  by 
the  quarrels  between  Jesuitism  and  Jansenism  in 
the  bosom  of  Rome,  and  bj-  the  absence  of  Bible 
knowledge  and  of  living  piety.  A'oltaire,  bor- 
rowing his  materials  from  England,  where  he  had 
resided  from  17l*6  to  17'28,  and  favored  by  high 
influence  with  great  personages,  like  Frederick 
the  Great  (at  whose  court  he  resided  from  1750 
to  1753),  gave,  by  his  dexterity  and  wit,  to  unbe- 
lief a  European  prominence,  to  which  also  his 
struggles  for  toleration,  as  in  the  case  of  Calas 
(1762),  contributed.  But  there  is  in  Voltaire  no 
accurate  learning,  or  sustained  ai'gument,  or  even 
consistent  scheme  of  natural  religion ;  and  his 
criticisms  on  the  Bible,  as  on  Sliakspeare  and 
Milton,  have  been  set  aside  as  superficial  and 
inadequate.  Yet  his  works,  issued  from  his  re- 
treat at  Ferney,  and  those  of  his  associates  (like 
D'Alembert,  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Enci/clopc- 
'lie),  while  tho.se  of  others  (like  the  still  more 
important  editor,  Diderot)  went  on  to  atheism, 
produced  a  universal  agitation,  and  undoubtedly 
contributed  much  to  the  French  Revolution,  with 
its  temporary  overthrow  of  Christianity. 

Ill  this  work  of  antichristiaii  propagaiidisin 
it  has  been  common  to  unite  with  the  name  of 
Voltaire  that  of  Rousseau  (1712-78);  but  this 
has  been  shown  by  more  careful  inquiries  to  be 
a  mistake.  The  Swiss  writer,  no  doubt,  in  his 
Coniral  Social  (1762),  had  struck  a  democratic  note 
deeper  tlian  any  thing  in  N'oltaire;  and  in  liis 
EiniU'  (1762)  he  had.  in  the  "  I'rcifession  of  Faith  " 
put  into  the  mouth  of  a  .Swiss  vicar,  .seemed  to 
share  the  prevailing  doubts  as  to  the  evidences 
of  revelation.  But,  though  these  and  other  facts 
linked  Kou.s.seau  with  levohition,  there  was  a  dis- 
cord with  Voltaire  more  than  personal,  lie  elo- 
quently protested  again.st  the  atheism  by  which 
Voltaire  suffered  himself  to  be  surrounded,  strove 
to  explain  his  own  liberties  in  harmony  with  be- 
lief ill  Christianitj,  and  in  his  tributes  to  the 
Bible  and  to  the  cliaracter  of  Christ,  however 
unhajipy  the  tenor  of  lii.s  life,  .separated  himself 
from  every  writer  of  that  school.  As  it  was,  the 
encj'clopetlic  movement  was  only  powerful  for 
destruction;  and  infidelily,  in  subniitting  to  the 
return  even  of  Uomanism  to  fresh  ascendency, 
had  openly  to  confess  its  own  weakness. 

Tlie  movement  in  (ieriiiany  called  rationalism 
was  largely  derived  from  Knglish  and  French 
sources,  liiit  ]ir(ibably  as  much  from  the  decay 
of  Ciiristian  i'ailli  and  life  among  the  (Jcrman 
people.  The  revival,  under  Speiier  ami  Fraiicke, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  century,  had  failed  to 
arrest  the  downward  course  of  all  the  old  churches 


of  the  Reformation;  and  a  cold  and  scholastic 
orthodoxy  gave  way  to  doubt  and  negation,  as 
can-ying  with  them  apparently  more  of  freshness 
and  interest.  A  threefold  tendency  has  been 
here  remarked :  Firft,  The  popular  philosophy  move- 
ment, which,  no  longer  met  by  the  speculative 
element  (as  in  Leibnitz,  and  less  strictly  in  Wolff), 
reduced  philosophy  to  empiricism,  and  religion 
to  naturalism.  Of  this  school  an  exaggerated 
example  was  C.  F.  Bahrdt  (1741-92).  Second!;/, 
The  critical  school,  which,  developing  the  conces- 
sions of  Baumgarten,  Ernesti,  and  J.  D.  Michaelis, 
passed  —  in  the  hands  of  Semlerin  Halle,  Eichhorn 
in  (idttingen,  and  Paulus  in  Heidelberg,  with 
many  others  —  to  a  denial  of  all  distinctive  inspira- 
tion in  the  sacred  books,  and  of  all  special  Chris- 
tian doctrine  in  their  contents,  while  still  exalting 
Christ  as  a  great  Example  and  Teacher.  In  one 
who  belonged  partly  to  the  popular  and  partly  to 
the  critical  school  —  Reimarus  (1694-1768),  teacher 
in  the  Gymnasium  of  Hamburg  —  this  minimum 
of  doctrine  was  not  retained ;  and  in  his  work, 
published  after  liis  death  by  Lessing  as  Fr-tiymenls 
from  the  Library  of  WotfenhiiUel  (1774-78),  the 
Saviour,  though  not  without  excellent  morality, 
is  treated  as  a  political  enthusiast  who  failed  in 
setting  up  by  his  triumphal  entry  a  temporal 
kingdom,  and  his  disciples  as  schemers  who 
adapted  their  theology  to  the  altered  circum- 
stances, and  stole  the  body  of  Jesus  to  counte- 
nance the  fraud  of  a  resurrection.  Lessing,  in 
publishing  these  fragments,  disclaimed  all  .syiiipa- 
tliy  with  them,  as,  indeed,  his  Eilucaliun  of  the 
Human.  Race  (1777-80)  is  based  upon  a  different 
principle ;  but  in  his  replies  to  Pastor  Goetze  of 
Hamburg,  and  others,  who  resented  his  act,  he 
showed  himself  so  much  an  apologist  of  Keima- 
rus,  and  an  assailant  of  the  letter  of  the  gospel 
history,  while  professing  to  uphold  its  spirit,  that 
his  relation  to  Christianity  is  rendered  uncertain. 
The  third  school  is  that  of  ethical  rationalism, 
represented  by  Kant  and  his  followers,  which 
finds  expression  in  that  philo.sopher's  Re/ii/ioi> 
icilhin  the  Limits  of  Mere  Reason  (1792).  Here 
the  weakness  of  Kant's  philosophy,  in  making  the 
infinite  and  absolute  mere  regulative  ideas  that 
could  not  come  within  the  grasp  of  the  finite,  is 
seen;  for  the  incarnation,  the  keystone  of  Cliri.s- 
tianity,  is  misunderstood,  and  the  historical  Christ 
becomes  the  mere  ultimatum  of  ethical  teaching, 
whose  so-called  ortices  are  to  be  idealized  into 
subjective  processes  in  the  jieart  of  the  individual, 
while  also  connected  with  a. society  in  wliicli  moral 
results  can  alone  be  achieved,  but  who  stands 
upon  the  footing  of  reason  and  moral  law,  rather 
than  of  redemption  and  grace  in  the  ordinary 
Christian  .sense  of  these  terms.  Hence,  wliile 
Kant  is  the  highest  summit  of  ratiou.alism,  and 
even  so  far  the  prophet  of  a  return  to  faith,  in- 
cluding in  a  sinless  Christ  miracle  and  the  basis 
of  incarnation,  it  remained  for  another  century, 
under  Sclilciermaclier  and  his  followers,  not 
without  their  own  inconsistencies,  to  escape  from 
mere  nature,  and  to  restore  an  historical  Chris- 
tianity to  its  true  place. 

.Such  was  unbelief  at  the  end  of  the  last  cen- 
tury ;  and,  as  the  ]iresent  advanced,  the  demonstrat- 
I'd  failure  of  .scepticism  to  organize  revolution, 
with  the  re-action  in  favor  of  belief,  com]ielleil 
it  to  assume  a  more  respectful  attitude  toward" 


INFIDELITY. 


1087 


INFULA. 


Christianity,  and  at  the  same  time  to  attempt 
more  earnestly,  on  naturalist  prinoiplee,  to  solve 
its  origin  and  history.  To  this  latter  task  the 
movement  in  philosophy  and  science  also  urged ; 
and  hence  unbelief  has  grappled  with  this  prob- 
lem luider  one  or  other  of  the  reigning  tendencies 
that  have  divided  the  century :  Jirsl,  speculative 
pantheism,  and,  secondly,  materialistic  or  evolu- 
tionist agnosticism.  These  types  appear  succes- 
sively in  the  most  prominent  unbeliever  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  David  Friedrich  Strauss :  in 
others  they  are  more  or  less  traceable.  Strauss 
passes  through  three  periods,  publishing  the  first 
edition  of  his  Leben  Jesii  in  1835,  in  which  he 
gathers  up  the  hints  of  earlier  critics,  like  P2ieh- 
hovn  and  Gabler,  as  to  a  mythical  element  in  the 
life  of  Jesus,  and  explains  the  facts  as  stated  in 
the  Gospels  as  unhistorical  reflections  of  the  dis- 
ciples' love  and  admiration,  fashioning  their  Christ 
after  Messianic  traditions  and  their  own  fancies, 
the  only  truth  being  the  embodiment  in  him  of 
the  Hegelian  idea  that  God  and  man  are  one ; 
then,  in  his  recast  of  this  work  in  1864,  dropping 
altogether  the  Hegelian  frame,  and  in  the  old 
deistic  way  treating  Jesus  as  a  great  personality 
who  realizes  the  fatherhood  of  God,  while  from  the 
school  of  Baur  tendency  is  called  in  to  help  out 
the  myth ;  then,  lastly,  in  his  Old  and  New  Fadh 
of  1873,  not  long  before  his  death,  going  over  to 
the  theory  of  evolutionism  in  its  atheistic  shape, 
and  striking  out  many  of  his  concessions  to  the 
character  of  Jesus ;  for  which,  indeed,  the  way 
was  prepared  by  his  admiring  biographies  of 
Keimarus  (in  1862)  and  of  Voltaire  (in  1872). 
Such  a  career  refutes  itself,  notwithstanding  the 
great  acuteness  of  the  criticism  of  this  author; 
for  the  only  thing  common  to  its  successive  philo- 
sophic schemes  is  the  unbounded  confidence  with 
which  each  is  upheld. 

Similar  is  the  failure  of  Ernest  Renan,  whose 
Vie  de  Jesu.t  (1803)  reveals  less  of  a  philosophic 
and  theologic  basis;  the  chief  thing  of  this  kind 
being  an  immoral  deism,  which  builds  the  universe 
upon  the  mixture  of  good  and  evil,  and  makes 
the  spurious  miracles  of  Jesus  necessary  to  his 
success.  Here  there  are  less  of  the  critical  dis- 
sections of  Strauss,  and  more  of  pictorial  efforts 
to  give  the  career  of  Jesus  a  lifelike  reality,  which, 
however,  break  down  through  the  moral  incon- 
gruities blended  in  the  character,  and  the  devia- 
tion of  the  history  from  its  professed  sources. 
Kenan,  in  conformity  with  the  tendency  of  recent 
criticism,  even  that  of  the  Tubingen  school,  has 
in  his  work  on  the  origin  of  Christianity,  of 
which  the  life  of  Jesus  is  the  first  part,  carried 
up  tlie  date  of  the  gospels,  much  higher  than 
Strauss,  believing  as  he  does  that  time  was  not 
needed  for  the  transformation  of  history ;  and, 
though  this  must  he  denied,  the  admission  as  to 
these  dates  and  facts  of  authorship  is  valuable 
on  the  side  of  Christian  faith. 

These  works  prolialily  exhaust  the  struggles  of 
Continental  unbelief  to  deal  with  the  Christian 
problem  ;  the  .schemes  of  Schenkel  in  liis  C/iarak- 
terhild  (186f)),  and  of  Keim  in  his  Jenus  von 
Nazara  (1873),  belonging  to  the  history  of  Uni- 
tarianism  rather  than  of  infidelity.  Nor  in  Eng- 
land has  much  been  added;  the  work  of  Mr.  W.  K. 
Greg(CVeerf  of  C/irhlendom,  18.50,  new  ed.,  1877) 
relying  largely  on  dates  of  Strauss  and  others, 
n-ir 


which  have  now  been  abandoned,  and  presenting 
no  coherent  image  of  Christ's  life  and  death ; 
Superniiliind  HeUgidii  (1877,  7tli  ed.)  being  mainly 
a  reproduction  of  Tubingen  criticism  as  to  the  late 
reception  of  the  Gospels,  with  arguments  against 
the  supernatural,  rather  than  any  positive  .system 
of  the  life  of  Jesus;  and  Mill's  posthumous  Tliree 
Essays  on  Religion,  while  leaving  I'oom  for  the 
supernatural  as  a  possibility  and  a  hope,  not  going 
fully  into  the  question  of  the  origin  of  Christ's 
character  and  greatness,  tliough  granting  him  a 
transcendent  place  in  history,  and  allowing  that 
"  religion  cannot  be  said  to  have  nuide  a  bad 
choice  in  pitching  on  this  man  as  the  ideal  repre- 
sentative and  guide  of  humanity."  Even  the 
evolutionist  philosophy  has  not  in  England  openly 
fiuug  itself,  in  any  of  its  repiresentatives,  into  the 
same  abyss  with'  Strauss.  The  agnosticism  of 
Herbert  Spencer  has  not  led  him  to  any  attempted 
solution  of  Christ's  development  in  history ;  and 
the  work  of  Huxley  on  Hume  (1879),  while  re- 
producing his  argument  on  miracles,  does  not  go 
beyond  his  (Hume'.s)  own  silence  on  the  diffi- 
culty thus  arising  as  to  the  career  and  influence 
of  the  Founder  of  Christianity. 

It  is  remarkable  that  .\merican  literature  has 
not  produced  any  material  addition  to  I-2uropean 
unbelief,  but  either  imported  or  slightly  recast 
it.  The  Age  of  Reason  of  Thomas  Paine,  written 
in  Paris  in  1793,  under  the  a-gis  of  American 
citizenship,  and  addressed  to  the  protection  of  the 
United  States,  was  but  the  repetition  of  English 
deism  in  its  lowest  form,  winch  he  had  lirought 
from  his  own  country,  and  exalted  by  the  boastful 
strain  of  France,  which  now  contrasts  \\itli  the 
oblivion  into  which  the  work  has  fallen.  The 
extremes  of  Theodore  Parker  and  other  writers 
from  the  left  side  of  Unitarianism  are  but  tlie 
exaggerations  of  German  criticism  and  negative 
theory.  America  has  been  more  productive  on 
the  side  of  excesses  of  faith  tlian  of  denials  of  it ; 
and  the  progress  of  Christianity,  from  the  forma- 
tion of  the  I'epublic  onward,  in  an  age,  when,  as 
everywhere,  unbelief  was  so  wide-spread,  to  the 
present  day,  when,  however  still  existing  and 
active,  it  is  comparatively  so  outmatched  and 
restrained,  is  a  hopeful  augury,  that,  on  the  West- 
ern Continent,  the  time  will  come,  when,  through 
tlie  preventive  and  healing  influence  of  the  gospel, 
the  struggles  of  the  Old  World  against  infidelity 
may  be  less  and  less  reproduced.   JOHN  CAIRN'S. 

INFRALAPSARIANISM  (from  infra,  "after," 
and  la/isus,  "  a  fall  ")  is  the  doctrine,  that  God  for 
his  own  glory  determined  (1)  to  create  the  world, 
(2)  to  permit  the  fall  of  man,  (3)  to  elect  from 
the  ma.ss  of  fallen  men  an  innumerable  multitude 
as  "vessels  of  mercy,"  (4)  to  send  his  Son  for 
their  redemption,  (5)  to  leave  the  residue  of  inan- 
kiiid  to  suffer  the  just  puni.shment  of  their  sins. 
Tills  is  the  common  doctrine  of  .\ugustinians, 
and  is  taught  in  the  Calvinistic  symbolical  books. 
It  is  to  be  distinguished  from  suprala/jsarianism, 
the  theory  of  some  Calvinisis,  and  is  tiie  same  as 
<uhlapsamirianism  :  which  articles  see. 

INFULA  means,  in  classical  Latin,  the  band  of 
red  and  white  stripes  which  the  priest  and  the 
victim  wore  around  the  brow  at  a  Pagan  sacrifice  : 
hence  it  was  quite  early  introduced  into  Chris- 
tian usage,  and  applied  to  the  priest's  head-dress, 
afterwards  to  that  of  the  bishop. 


INGATHERING. 


1088 


INHERITANCE. 


INGATHERING,  Feast  of.  See  Taberna- 
cles.   FkaSI    (IK. 

INGHAM,  Benjamin  ("  the  Yorkshire  Evangel- 
ist ").  Ii.  lit  Osset.  ill  Yorkshire,  Eng.,  June  11, 
1712:  d.  at  .\berford  in  177"2.  He  was  educated 
at  Queen's  College,  Oxford,  where  he  was  one  of 
the  "  Holy  Club."  On  .June  1,  1735.  he  was  or- 
dained by  Bishop  Potter,  and  soon  after  went  on 
ji  sort  of  ecclesiastical  itinerancy  of  great  u.seful- 
ness  among'  the  villages  about  London,  and  then 
settled  down  as  curate  in  Matching,  Essex ;  but 
scarcely  three  months  elapsed  (Oct.  14)  before  he 
wa.s  induced  to  accompany  John  AVe-sley  and 
others  on  his  expedition  to  Georgia.  He  landed 
there  Feb.  5,  1736  ;  re-embarked  for  England, 
Feb.  26,  1737,  in  order  to  obtain  help  for  the 
colonists,  having  accomplished  almost  nothing, 
except  the  composition,  in  Dr.  Byrom's  shorthand, 
of  a  list  of  half  the  words  in  an  Indian  language. 
On  his  outward  voyage  he  had  been  brought  in 
contact  witli  Moravian  bi.shops,  and  thus  his  life 
was  affected.  He  and  Wesley  joined  their  London 
Society  in  Fetter  Lane ;  and  in  1738  he  accompa- 
nied Wesley  on  his  journey  of  inspection  to  Ilerrn- 
hnt,  and  was  freely  admitted  to  communion.  On 
his  return  he  preached  in  Yorkshire  with  singular 
etfect;  and,  when  prohibited  (June  6,  1739)  from 
the  pulpits  of  the  Established  Cliurch,  lie  imitated 
John  Wesley,  and  preached  in  the  fields,  barns, 
anywhere  lie  could,  and  so  successfully,  that  in 
1740  he  could  say  that  fifty  societies  had  been 
formed,  and  that  he  had  two  thousand  hearers. 
In  1740  Wesley  was  expelled  from  the  Fetter 
Lane  Moravian  Society;  but  Ingham  remained  in 
it,  and  tlius  virtually  seceded  from  the  Church  of 
England,  and  became  the  head  of  the  Yorkshire 
Moravians.  On  Nov.  12,  1741,  he  married  in  Lon- 
don, Lady  Margaret  Hastings,  sister  of  the  Earl 
of  Huntingdon.  On  July  30,  1742,  he  formally 
transferred  his  Yorkshire  and  Lancashire  socie- 
ties to  the  Moravians,  and  immediately  began 
forming  other.s;  for  his  special  work  was  that  of 
an  evangelist  at  large.  In  1744  he  gave  up  open- 
air  preaching.  In  1753,  owing  to  the  .state  of  the 
Moravians  in  England,  he  withdrew  from  them, 
and  estalilished  a  sect  of  his  own.  Members  were 
received  by  laying  on  of  hands.  They  had  elders, 
and  the  love-feast  and  the  Lonl's  Supper  monthly. 
Tlie  chief  governing  power  was  in  llie  hands  of 
the  general  over.seer,  who  was  chosen  and  aji- 
pointed  by  the  trustees,  with  the  con.seiit  of  the 
societies.  In  1755  Ingham  was  admitted  to  Wes- 
ley's conference  at  l^eeds,  although  there  is  no 
clear  evidence  that  he  wished  to  unite  his  .socie- 
ties with  Wesley's.  After  Inghani  had  been  made 
general  over.seer,  or,  as  Lady  Huntingdon  used  to 
call  him,  "bishop,"  of  hi.s  own  .sect,  he  ordained 
two  of  liis  fellow-laiiorers.  In  17.59  Ingliaiii  be- 
came in  tlieology  a  Sandemaniaii  (see  art.)  by 
reading  Sandeman's  Inciters  un  Tlicrim  and  As/iasio 
(Edinburgh,  1757),  —  a  reply  to  the  work  of  that 
name  by  James  llervey  (London,  17.55,  3  vols)., 
—  and  also  Glas's  T/ia  Te.idjiuini/  of  llie  hint/ of 
Marli/rs  amcernintj  His  Kiuydom  (rerth,  1727).  He 
.sent  two  of  his  assistants  to  Scotland  to  see  the 
leaders,  and  the  result  of  their  mission  was  llieir 
conversion  to  the  .Sandemanian  tenets.  A  .split 
in  the  Ingham  sect  followed.  Out  of  the  eighty 
societies  so  energetically  gathered  and  ruled,  only 
tiiirliien  remained  faithful  to  him.    Many  of  them 


became  Wesleyans,  or  dissenters:  others  joined 
fche  Daleites,  or  Scotch  Independents,  —  a  small 
sect  established  in  '  Glasgow  by  David  Dale,  a 
wealthy  cotton  manufacturer,  whose  views,  in 
general,  were  Sandemanian,  only  they  were  not 
so  strict  upon  the  question  of  iiitei'course  with 
other  denominations,  and  laid  more  stress  upon 
practical  holiness.  The  Inghaniites  never  recov- 
ered the  ground  they  lost.  Sorrow  over  the  de- 
fection probably  hastened  Ingham's  death.  The 
only  publication  of  his  known  to  Tyerman  is 
A  Discourse  on  the  Faith  and  Hope  of  the  Gospel, 
Leeds,  1763,  which  contains  his  doctrinal  views. 
His  sect  still  survives,  but  in  1873  numbered  only 
six  societies.  See  Tyerman  :  Tlie  Oxford  Method- 
ists, Xew  York,  1873,  pp.  57-154. 

INGLIS,  David,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Greenlaw, 
Berwickshire,  Scotland,  June  8, 1824  ;  d.  in  Brook- 
lyn, N.Y.,  Dec.  15,  1877.  He  was  graduated  from 
the  university  of  Edinburgh  1841 ;  entered  the 
Presbyterian  ministry ;  emigrated  to  America 
1846,  and  was  pastor  of  several  churches  in  the 
United  States ;  called  to  Montreal  1852,  and 
thence  to  Hamilton,  Out.,  1855.  From  1871  to 
1872  lie  was  professor  of  systematic  theology  in 
Knox  College,  Toronto.  In  the  latter  year  he 
became  pastor  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church 
on  the  Heights,  Brooklyn,  L.I.  Dr.  Inglis  was 
of  comniaiidiiig  presence,  and  a  remarkably  fine 
preacher,  riveting  the  attention,  notwithstanding 
the  monotony  of  his  delivery,  and  his  incessant 
pacing  back  and  forth  in  the  pulpit. 

INGULPHUS,  or  INGULF,  abbot  of  Crowland, 
or  Croyland  ;  b.  in  London,  1030  (V) ;  d.  at  Crow- 
land,  Lincolnshire,  Eng.,  Dec.  16,  1109.  In  1051 
he  became  secretary  to  \\'illiani  of  Norniaiidy  ;  in 
1064  he  went  on  a  iiilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
and  on  his  return  entered  the  monastery  of  Fon- 
tenelle  in  Normandy ;  but  in  1076  was  made 
abbot  of  Crowland  by  his  former  patron,  who 
had  meanwhile  become  king  of  England,  and 
through  wlioni  he  secured  many  privileges  for 
the  alibey,  besides  the  enlargement  and  adorn- 
ment of  the  building  itself.  His  name  has  long- 
been  famous  for  his  supposed  authorship  of  the 
Ilistoria  monasterii  corylandensis,  from  the  reign 
of  Penda  (d.  6.5.5)  to  1091.  A  continuation  of  the 
Ilistori/  to  1117  was  issued  by  Peter  of  Blois,  arch- 
deacon of  Bath,  who  died  1220 ;  and  by  three 
other  continuations  it  was  brought  down  to  1486. 
Fulnian  printed  the  work,  as  continued  by  Peter 
of  Blois,  in  tiie  first  volume  of  Herum  anijliatrum 
scriptores  veteres,  Oxford,  1684.  But  the  History 
is  now  pronounced  by  competent  judges,  especial- 
ly since  Sir  Francis  Palgrave  attacked  it  in  the 
(iuarterli/  Rerieiv,  September,  1826,  to  be  so  largely 
interpolated,  that  it  is  without  niucli  historical 
authority.  The  Charters  in  it  are  plainly  forger- 
ies of  a  later  date  than  Ingulf.  The  continua- 
tions have  more  value.  The  original  work  was 
probably  of  monkish  origin,  and  dates  from  the 
thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century.  A  translation 
of  it  by  H.  T.  Riley  forms  a  volume  of  Bohn's 
Antiquarian  Lihrarij.  Sec  Hahdy's  Rerum  Bri- 
tannirtiniiti  nndii  art  srriploris,  \ul.  ii.  (b^O.'i). 

INHERITANCE  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS. 
Jehovah  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  owner  of 
the  land  of  Israel ;  and  therefore,  although  it 
was  formally  divided  among  the  twelve  tribes, 
it  wa.s  understood  that  the  right  to  dispose  finally 


INNER  MISSION. 


1089 


INNER  MISSION. 


of  the  property  was  vested  in  him  (Lev.  xxv.  23). 
Accordingly,  there  could  be  no  irrevocable  part- 
ing with  the  birthright.  The  Year  of  .Jul)ilee 
restored  all  property  to  its  original  owner  or  his 
heirs  (Lev.  xxv.  10).  This  fact  exjilains  Na- 
both's  refusal  to  part  with  his  vineyard,  even  to 
the  king  (1  Kings  xxi.  3  sq.).  Along  with  real 
estate,  other  things,  such  as  slaves,  came,  at  the 
death  of  the  father,  to  his  sons  by  his  wife  or 
wives.  The  sons  by  concubines  received  only 
presents  (Gen.  xxv.  5  sq.),  while  the  sons  of 
harlots  got  nothing  (Judg.  xi.  2).  The  first-born 
son  received  a  double  portion  of  the  entire  in- 
heritance, even  in  cases  where  a  son  of  a  favor- 
ite wife  had  the  father's  preference  (Deut.  xxi. 
1.5-17).  The  cases  of  Esau  and  Reuben  show 
that  this  right  of  primogeniture  might  be  for- 
feited (Gen.  xxv.  31  sqq.,  xlviii.  17,  xlix.  3). 
Daughters  inherited  only  when  there  were  no 
.sons ;  and  in  these  cases  they  must  marry  in 
their  own  tribe,  lest  the  patrimony  be  alienated 
(Num.  xxvii.  1-11,  xxxvi.).  In  cases  where 
there  were  no  children,  the  brother,  the  paternal 
uncle,  or  the  nearest  kinsman,  inherited  (Xum. 
xxvii.  9  sqq.).  Sometimes  a  faithful  slave  inher- 
ited Ills  master's  property  in  cases  where  lie  had 
married  the  daughter  (1  Chron.  ii.  34,  35),  or 
had  been  adopted  (Gen.  xv.  2,  3),  or  was  guard- 
ian of  an  imbecile  son  (Prov.  xvii.  2),  [or  even 
in  case  of  misconduct  of  the  heir  (2  Sam.  xvi. 
4)].  The  Mosaic  law  so  exactly  defined  the  depo- 
sition of  estates,  that  wills,  in  our  .sense  of  the 
term,  were  plainly  superfluous;  and  so  the  word 
does  not  occur  in  the  Hebrew  Bible.  The  phrase 
"to  set  one's  house  in  order"  (in  2  Sam.  xvii.  23 
and  Isa.  xxxviii.  1)  refers  to  household  affairs 
merely.  But  wills  necessarily  became  common 
among  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion,  and  they  are 
referred  to  in  the  JJew  Testament  (Gal.  iii.  15; 
lleb.  ix.  17).  The  Hebrew  word  for  them  was 
commonly  'p''?'"',  a  transliteration  of  (Swtf^/ti?; 
but  the  rabbis  u.sed  instead  the  non-biblical  nXJY, 
from  n;V,  "  to  command."  Occasionally  there  was 
a  partial  ante  mortem  distribution  of  property 
(of.  Luke  XV.  12)  ;  and  sometimes,  at  least,  as 
might  be  expected,  property  occasioned  disputes 
(cf.  Luke  xii.  13  sq.).  rOetschi. 

INNER  MISSION,  The,  an  agency  for  pro- 
moting the  spiritual  and  bodily  welfare  of  the 
destitute  and  spiritually  indifferent  in  Germany. 
Its  ultimate  object  is  to  evangelize  the  clas.ses 
that  have  fallen  away  from  Christian  truth  and 
faith.  The  movement  developed  out  of  the  con- 
viction that  the  Protestant  Church  of  Germany 
was  not  accomplishing  all  it  might.  Fliedner 
was  the  first  to  embody  this  conviction  in  prac- 
tical institutions ;  and  the  various  charities  he 
organized  and  carried  out  into  successful  opera- 
tion at  Kaiserswerth  have  done  much  towards 
the  revival  of  Christian  benevolence  throughout 
the  land.  But  it  remained  for  Wichern  tp  deter- 
mine the  character,  and  seciu'e  the  success',  of  the 
work  of  the  Inner  Mission.  The  very  name  is 
due  to  him,  although  Dr.  Lucke  of  Giittingen 
had  previously  used  it  in  a  publication  printed 
in  Hamburg,  1843.  It  occurred  to  Dr.  Wichern, 
that  a  movement  was  necessary,  witliin  the  limits 
of  Germany,  as  well  as  among  the  heathen,  to 
stem  the  tide  of  irreligion,  and  to  build  up  the 


kingdom  of  God.  It  was  this  conviction  which 
led  him  to  refuse  ihe  appeal  of  some  friends  to 
turn  the  Rauhe  Hans  at  Hamburg  [which  he 
had  founded  in  1H33]  into  an  institution  for 
training  missionaries  for  the  heathen.  There 
was  a  sufficiently  large  field  at  home,  and  the 
two  agencies  were  of  sufficient  importance  to  be 
kept  separate.  The  term  "  Inner  Mission  "  be- 
came the  universal  designation  for  this  peculiar 
domestic  work  after  Wichern 's  stirring  apjjeal  to 
the  Protestant  Church  at  the  Kirchentcuj  [a  vol- 
untary ecclesiastical  synod :  see  art.],  held  in 
Wittenberg,  1848. 

The  Inner  Mission  directs  itself  to  tho.se  classes 
which  have  become  indifferent  to  Christ,  or,  out 
of  ignorance,  have  remained  far  from  him.  [The 
term  and  work  of  the  Inner  Mission  are  more 
comprehensive  than  Home  Missions,  and  include, 
not  only  efforts  to  spread  the  gospel  by  preach- 
ing, but  also  various  other  agencies  for  the  spir- 
itual, as  well  as  physical,  welfare  of  the  destitute.] 
It  employs  as  its  means  the  preaching  of  the 
gospel  and  efforts  to  relieve  the  victims  of  dis- 
ease, and  those  who  have  been  led  astray.  The 
Inner  Mission  is  not  a  comliination  of  a  variety 
of  associations  and  institutions  devoted  to  differ- 
ent forms  of  benevolent  Christian  work.  It  uses 
such  agencies,  but  is  itself  a  force  behind  them, 
which  also  works  through  the  instrumentality  of 
individuals.  Nor  is  it  a  mere  philanthropic  agen- 
cy, but  a  distinctly  evangelistic  agency,  whose 
ultimate  aim  is  to  win  men  to  the  gospel. 

Since  the  organization  of  the  movement  at  the 
Wittenberg  Kirchentag,  in  1848,  the  necessity  for 
its  existence  has  been  made  more  apparent  by 
the  socialism,  nihilism,  humanitarian  culture,  and 
other  evils,  of  the  land.  At  that  conference 
was  formed  the  Central  Committee  of  the  Inner 
Mission  of  the  German-Protestant  Church.  Its 
design  was  not  to  control  the  work,  but  to  give 
suggestions  and  impulses  for  the  organization  of 
efforts  in  different  parts  of  the  land.  It  origi- 
nated a  conference  which  has  had  twenty-two 
meetings,  the  last  being  held  at  Bremen,  in  Sep- 
tember, 1881.  The  movement  passed  through  a 
period  of  much  opposition,  but  gradually  won 
the  sympathies  of  a  large  constituency  from  all 
schools  of  Christian  thought  and  activity.  Since 
1848  the  si:ihere  of  effort  has  become  more  com- 
prehensive, and  now  includes  schools  for  children 
and  cripples,  houses  of  refuge,  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  poor,  the  conduct  of  Sunday  school.s,  the 
organization  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions, the  training  of  servants,  the  various  forms 
of  city  missionary  activity",  the  promotion  of  sab- 
bath observance,  and  other  forms  of  Christian 
work.  There  are  central  committees  in  different 
parts  of  the  land,  and  under  their  influence  a 
body  of  specially  trained  evangelists,  colportors, 
and  other  officers,  has  been  educated.  To  these 
specific  agencies  of  the  Inner  ^Mission  must  be 
added  the  Institution  of  Deaconesses  [which  was 
founded  by  Theodore  Fliedner,  in  Kaiserswerth, 
1836],  which  now  numbers  nearly  four  thousand 
sisters.  [The  work  of  the  Inner  Mission  is  not 
dependent  upon  State  control.  It  is  not  an  or- 
ganization, but  an  impulse  or  movement,  which, 
working  itself  out  in  various  channels  and  parts 
of  the  land,  seeks  to  advance  the  cause  of  true 
religion.     The  various   institutions  representing 


INNOCENT  I. 


1090 


INNOCENT  II. 


the  idea  are  supported  by  voluntary  contribu- 
tions. There  is  no  central  power  upon  which 
they  are  dependent.] 

Lit.  — WiCHERN  :  D.  innere  Mission  d.  deutsch. 
evang.  Kirche,  e.  Denkschrifl  an  d.  deutsche  Nation, 
second  edition,  Hamburg,  1849 ;  the  addresses 
of  WicnEitN'  and  others,  in  the  volume  of  the 
Proceedings  of  the  Wittenberg  Conference,  Ber- 
lin, 1849 ;  Braune  :  Unsere  Zeit  u.  d.  innere 
Mission,  Leipsic,  1850  ;  Wichern  :  D.  innere  Mis- 
sion, etc.,  Berlin,  1S57  ■.  Zezschwitz:  Innere  Mis- 
sion, etc.,  Frankfurt,  1864;  Beck:  D.  innere 
Missiiir,,  Augsburg,  1874.  The  periodical  Fliegende 
Blatter,  i'ounded  by  Wichern  in  1844,  is  published 
at  Hamburg,  and  is  devoted  to  the  objects  of 
the  Inner  Mission.  Tlie  Reports  of  the  Proceed- 
ings (22  vols.)  of  all  the  church  conferences  have 
been  publislied,  and  contain  a  vast  amount  of 
information  on  the  subject.  [For  an  extensive 
list  of  literature,  covering  four  pages,  see  the 
German  article.]  F.  OLDEXBERG. 

INNOCENT  I.,  Pope  A.D.  402-417.  Accord- 
ing to  Jerome,  he  was  the  son  of  his  predecessor, 
Anastasius  I.,  on  whose  death  he  was  elected  to 
the  papal  chair  (in  402).  A  fundamental  principle 
it  was  with  him  never  to  neglect  an  opportunity 
for  extending  the  authority  of  the  Roman  see. 
On  sending  to  Victricius,  Bishop  of  Rouen,  rules 
of  discipline  for  use  throughout  Gaul,  he  inserts 
the  injunction,  "  Si  niajores  causa?  in  medium  fue- 
rint  devolva',  ad  sedem  apostolicam,  sicut  synodus 
statuit,  et  beata  consuetudo  exigit ;  post  judici- 
um episcopale  referantur."  If  the  reference  here 
is  to  the  edict  of  the  Council  of  Sardica  (344) 
on  the  subject,  he  certainly  goes  far  beyond  the 
somewhat  general  concessions  here  made  ;  since 
ke  insists  that  all  bishops  in  all  weightier  matters 
should  report  to  Rome.  Exuperius,  Bishop  of 
Toulouse,  he  highly  compliments  (405)  for  refer- 
ring his  inquiries  to  the  Roman  chair,  without 
first  attempting  to  decide  them  for  himself.  The 
Macedonian  bishops  he  severely  rebukes  (414)  for 
daring  to  consult  him  the  second  time  on  a  point 
on  which  he  had  already  given  a  decision.  To 
Alexaiuler  of  Antioch  he  explains  (415)  that  the 
prerogatives  yielded  to  his  see  were  not  on  ac- 
count of  the  greatness  of  Antioch,  but  simply 
because  that  city  had  been,  though  but  for  a  brief 
while,  the  first  .seat  of  Peter;  while  at  Rome,  on 
the  contrary,  Peter  liad  dwelt  until  his  death. 
Yearly  his  claims  for  power  grew  more  and  more 
exorbitant.  In  416  he  writes  to  Bishop  Decen- 
tius,  "  Who  does  not  know  that  what  has  been 
handed  down  to  the  Roman  Church  liy  I'eter,  the 
prince  of  the  apostles,  nuist  l>e  held  fast  by  all, 
especially  since  all  the  churches  throughout  Gaul, 
Spain,  Ital\',  and  Africa,  owe  their  existence  to 
priests  ordained  by  Peter  and  his  successors?" 
A  particularly  favorable  occasion  presented  itself 
for  expatiating  on  the  plenary  authority  of  Rome, 
when  in  417  he  confirmed  by  lett(!r  the  resolutions 
against  the  Pelagian  heresy,  adopted  and  sent  to 
hini  for  sanction  liy  the  synod  of  Cartilage. 

It  was  in  accordance  with  these  lofty  concep- 
tions of  papal  prerogative,  that  Innocent  conducts 
ed  him.self  in  the  case  of  Chrysostom,  wlien  that 
famous  man  was  persecuted  by  Tlu'dphijus  of 
Alexandria.  After  his  deposition.  Chrysostom 
appealed  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  (for  his  words 
addressed  to  Innocent  can  be  understood  in  no 


other  light),  and  invoked  the  papal  interference 
as  that  of  a  higher  court.  And  even  Theophi- 
lus  shows  his  deference  to  the  Pope  by  reporting 
to  him  the  course  which  Chrysostom's  case  had 
taken,  and  seeking  to  enlist  him  on  his  own  side, 
though  it  was  only  to  be  coolly  told  that  the  Pope 
would  continue  to  recognize  Chrysostom  as  bishop 
until  convicted  by  a  regular  tribunal.  Failing, 
however,  in  his  efforts  to  have  the  cause  adjudi- 
cated before  him  in  a  council  composed  of  Eastern 
and  Western  bishops,  the  Pope  renounced  fellow- 
ship with  Theophilus  and  his  associates.  To  the 
afflicted  Chrysostom  in  his  exile,  the  conduct  of 
the  Pope  was  full  of  consolation  and  support,  as 
he  gratefully  testifies. 

Trying  days  befell  Innocent  when  Alaric  be- 
sieged Rome.  Pending  the  negotiations  with 
this  invader,  he  went,  by  order  of  tlie  senate,  to 
Honorius,  at  Ravenna,  to  induce  him  to  accept 
the  proposals  of  the  Goth.  By  this  journey  he 
was  spared  the  sight  of  the  cruelties  inflicted  on 
Rome.     In  410  Alaric  sacked  the  city. 

Among  the  dogmatic  decisions  of  Innocent  I. 
must  be  mentioned  his  condemnation  of  Pelagius, 
and  his  order  to  the  synod  of  Mileve  (417),  that 
Pelagius  and  Celestius  be  exconimunicated  until 
they  delivered  themselves  from  the  snares  of 
Satan.  Inasmuch  as  these  men  had  gi-ossly  mal- 
treated Jerome  at  Bethlehem,  and  John,  Bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  had  taken  no  steps  against  the 
criminals.  Innocent  .sent  Jerome  a  consoling  let- 
ter, but  to  John  a  vigorous  remonstrance.  Espe- 
cially strenuous  was  he  in  enforcing  the  ordinance 
of  Siricius,  forbidding  the  married  clergy  all 
marital  intercourse,  and  deposing  such  as  should 
beget  children  as  unworthy  of  the  sacred  office. 
Innocent  died  March  12,  417,  and  was  reckoned 
among  the  saints  of  the  Catholic  Church. 

Sources.  —  I7m  Innocentii  /.,  in  the  Liber  Pon- 
tijicatis ,  MuRATORi  :  Her.  Ital.  scri.,  torn.  III., 
p.  115  sq. :  the  letters  of  Innocent  I.,  in  Cou- 
stant:  Epistola:  Romanorum  Pontijicorum,  Vnria, 
1721,  p.  738  sq. ;  and  Migne  :  Patrologim  cursus 
completus,  series  prima,  tom.  XX.,  p.  463  sq. ; 
ZosiMUS:  Historia  Romana,  lib.  v.  c.  41  and  45; 
SozOMENUS  :  Histor.  cedes.,  lib.  viii.  c.  26,  lib. 
ix.  c.  6  sq. ;  Paulus  Orosius:  Historiarum,\\h. 
vii.,  adversus  pagnnos,  lib.  vii.  c.  39  etc. 

Lit.  (on  all  the  Innocents).  —  Milman  :  Lot. 
Christ.:  (iKEKNWooii :   Cath.  J'et. 

INNOCENT  II.  (Gregorio  de'  Papi,  or  Papare- 
schi),  Pojie  1130—13.  Having  taken  orders  from 
(iuibert  of  Ravenna,  and  afterwards  filled  impor- 
tant positions  under  Popes  Paschal  II.,  Gelasius 
II.,  and  Calixtus  II.,  we  find  him  in  1123,  in 
company  with  his  after-opiionent,  Cardinal  Peter 
Pierleoni,  as  papal  legate  in  France. 

While  Pope  Honorius  lay  dying,  Gregory's 
practical  tact,  his  friendly  relation  to  the  empe- 
rial  court,  and  his  pure  life,  attracted  to  him  the 
favorable  notice  of  those  of  the  cardinals  who 
were  uiider  the  lead  of  the  chancellor,  Ilainieri- 
cus;  and  these,  at  most  fifteen  in  number,  ere 
yet  the  Pope  had  been  interred,  and  without  in- 
formation of  his  decease  having  been  sent  to  the 
ab.sent  cardinals,  hurriedly  el(>cte(l  (Jregnrv  to  the 
chair  (Feb.  14, 113(1).  But  his  dread  of  the'Roman 
nobles,  who  were  mostly  hostile  to  liinj,  forced 
liim  lo  take  refuge  in  a  cloister  oecujiicd  in  com- 
mon by  liie  troops  of  the  Cenci  and  Frangipani, 


INNOCENT  II. 


1091 


INNOCENT  III. 


his  chief  friends  in  the  city.  Meanwhile  Peter 
Pierleoni  was  cliosen  as  his  rival  in  an  orderly 
election  by  a  majority  of  the  cardinals  who  were 
entitled  to  vote,  and  mounted  the  papal  throne 
under  the  name  of  Anacletus  II.  (see  art.).  Im- 
pelled now  by  fear,  Innocent  II.  fled  to  Pisa,  and 
thence  to  Genoa,  where  Bernard  had  prepared  for 
his  reception  by  influencing  the  French  court  and 
clergy  in  his  favor.  Also,  at  the  synod  of  Ktampes, 
this  same  all-powerful  champion  secured  the  re- 
jection of  Anacletus  II.  and  the  formal  recogni- 
tion of  Innocent  II.  Then  followed  a  long  con- 
flict between  the  partisans  on  both  sides.  In 
October,  1130,  a  synod  held  at  Wiirzburg  declared 
for  Innocent ;  and  a  stately  embassy  was  sent  to 
inform  him  of  his  recognition  by  the  German 
sovereign,  Lothair,  and  the  German  bishops.  In 
January,  1131,  Henry  of  England,  at  a  personal 
interview,  presented  him  witb  a  thousand  marks 
of  silver.  Encouraged  liy  this  support,  Innocent 
demanded  of  Lothair  that  he  march  to  Kome  in 
force,  expel  his  rival,  and  put  him  in  his  seat. 
In  return,  Lothair  asked  the  surrender  of  those 
privileges  which  had  been  extorted  by  the  Con- 
cordat of  AVorms,  and  was  only  dissuaded  from 
insisting  on  his  request,  by  the  eloquent  appeal 
of  Bernard.  In  August,  1133,  Lothair  marched  to 
Italy ;  and,  after  some  futile  attenqits  at  negotia- 
tion by  Anacletus,  he  compelled  the  latter  to  shut 
himself  in  St.  Peter's  Church,  and  had  himself 
crowned  emperor  in  June,  at  the  Lateran,  by  his 
chosen  pope.  As  a  requital  for  such  success, 
Lothair  once  more  pressed  on  the  Pope  his  former 
request,  but  was  again  dissuaded  from  it,  this  time 
by  Xorbert;  and  he  was  obliged  to  content  him- 
self with  some  small  concessions.  During  the 
festivities  of  the  coronation,  the  Pope  invested 
the  emperor  with  the  goods  of  Mathilda  of  Tu.s- 
cany,  on  condition  of  an  annuity  of  a  hundred 
marks  of  silver.  From  this  act  was  afterwards 
deduced  the  right  of  regarding  the  emperor  as 
the  vassal  of  the  Roman  see.  On  leaving  Rome, 
Lothair  committed  his  pope  to  the  care  of  the 
Frangipani :  but,  distrusting  his  guardians.  Inno- 
cent removed  (1133)  to  Pisa;  and  there  (in  1135) 
assembling  a  numerous  council,  he  hurled  ex- 
communication afresh  against  Anacletus  and  Ins 
party.  Though  inclined  at  first  to  scorn  the  im- 
potent decree,  the  latter  soon  learned  liis  full  dan- 
ger when  Bernard  went  to  JVIilan,  and  in  a  few 
days  drew  over  to  Innocent's  side  the  whole  popu- 
lation of  the  city,  which  had  been  hitherto  devot- 
ed to  him.  His  last  prop  was  removed  when 
Roger  of  Sicily  was  expelled  from  Italy  by  Lo- 
thair, who  died,  however,  on  his  return  from  the 
expedition,  without  completing  the  fuU  establish- 
ment of  his  ward  in  St.  Peter's  chair.  But  Inno- 
cent still  possessed  in  Bernard  an  ally  mightier 
than  the  emperor's  sword.  Then,  just  as  this  sup- 
port, too,  seemed  likely  to  fail,  Anacletus  died, 
leaving  him  master  of  'the  situation.  The  peace 
of  the  church  thus  effected  was  proclaimed  in  the 
Lateran  Council  (1139),  and  Roger  of  Sicily  put 
under  the  ban.  Thereupon  Innocent  led  an  army 
in  person  against  the  king,  but,  falling  into  an 
aml.)ush,  was  captured.  Tiie  residt  was  the  pur- 
chase of  his  freedom  by  recognizing  Roger  as 
king.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  he  undertook  to 
heal  the  wounds  which  the  long  schism  had  in- 
r.icted  upon  the  Church  and  people,  and  to  restore 


the  authority  of  Rome  over  the  smaller  states 
which  had  formerly  been  under  its  rule.  The 
result  was  a  long  war  with  Tivoli,  concluded  by 
a  peace  favorable,  indeed,  to  the  Church,  but 
exasperating  to  the  Romans,  who  desired  the 
utter  demolition  of  the  city.  In  consequence, 
the  Romans  renounced  obedience  to  the  Pope, 
chose  their  own  rulers,  and  called  into  life  again 
the  old  republican  senate.  In  addition  to  tliis 
misfortune,  the  good  understanding  had  with 
Louis  of  France  was  ruptured,  because  of  the 
king's  refusal  to  accept  a  candidate  whom  the 
Pope  had  recommended  to  the  bi.shopric  of  Brou- 
ges.  The  strife  jiroceeded  so  far,  that  the  Pope 
is  said  to  have  suspended  an  interdict  over  the 
kingdom.  In  the  midst  of  these  contentions 
Innocent  died  (Sept.  23,  1143).  The  most  nota- 
ble of  his  dogmatic  decisions  was  his  condemna- 
tion of  the  doctrines  of  Abelard  and  of  Arnold 
of  Brescia  (see  tho.se  arts.). 

SoURCKS.  —  liiiiocenii  II.,  vita  a  Bosone  Cardi- 
nali  conscripta  ap.  Muratori  {Rer.  Ital.  scr., 
Tom.  III.,  p.  431  sq.)  and  Wattericii  {Pon- 
tificum  Romanorum  rilcc,  tom.  II.,  p.  174  .sq.). 
Intiocenti  II.,  Vila  a  Benian/o  Guidoni  ap.  ^lu- 
ratori  (Rer.  Ital.  scr.,  tom.  III.,  p.  433  sq.)  ; 
Chronicon  Mauriniacenise  ap.  BouQET  (Recueil  des 
historiens  des  Gaules  et  de  la  France,  tom.  XXL, 
p.  79  sq.)  ;  Ernaldus  :  Vita  s.  Bernardi  ap.  s. 
Benmrdi  opera,  ed.  Mabillon,  Paris,  1690,  tom. 
II.,  p.  1107  sq. 

INNOCENT  III.,  Antipope  to  Alexander  III. 
from  1179  to  1180;  by  name  Landus  of  Sezza; 
from  one  of  the  oldest  Lombard  families,  and 
not  from  the  Frangipani.  He  was  chosen  pope  by 
the  Roman  nobles,  and  those  of  the  clergy  who 
were  hostile  to  Alexander,  on  Sept.  29,  1179  {7iot 
1178).  The  relatives  of  Octavian  (Victor  IV.), 
the  first  antipope,  supported  him  ;  and  Octavian 's 
brother  received  him  into  a  stronghold  between 
Palombara  and  Rome.  By  bribery  Alexander 
succeeded  in  getting  him  into  his  hands,  and  sent 
him  to  the  convent  of  La  Cava,  January,  1180. 
See  Muratori  :  Rer.  [led.  scr.  VII.  p.  874. 

INNOCENT  III.  (Lothair,  or,  in  full,  Giovanni 
Lotario  Conti),  I'ope  1198-1216;  a  member  of 
the  distinguished  family  of  the  Scotti;  b.  1160. 
His  education,  begun  in  Rijuie,  was  completed  at 
Paris  and  Bologna.  Returning  to  Rome,  he  was 
made  canon  of  St.  Peter,  and,  by  the  aid  of  his 
relatives  among  the  cardinals,  rapidly  mounted 
the  ecclesiastical  stairs.  Appointed  a  sub-deacon 
by  Gregory  VIII.,  he  in  1190  exchanged  this 
position  for  that  of  cardinal-deacon  at  the  wish 
of  his  uncle,  Clement  III.,  in  order,  that,  as  the 
Pope's  nephew,  he  might  act  a  distinguished  part 
among  the  cardinals,  while  as  yet  not  thirty  years 
old.  Owing,  probably,  to  family  jealousies,  he 
was,  under  Celestine  III.,  seldom  called  to  the 
business  of  the  curia.  The  leisure  thus  afforded 
he  employed  in  composing  various  treatises,  —  one 
in  three  books  (De  contemptu  mundi,  sire  de  riii.teria 
liumance  coitdiliunis),  another  hi  six  books  (Mi/.ite- 
riorum  evanyelicce  leyis  ac  sacramenti  ciicliaristee), 
another,  on  ecclesiastical  law  (De  qwulrupartita 
specie  nuptiamm).  The  first  two  only  are  extant. 
At  the  death  of  Celestine  III.  (Jan.  8,  1198) 
Lothair  was  elected  pope,  in  the  tliirt3--seventli 
year  of  his  life ;  then,  rapidly  piassing  through 
priestly  and   episcopal   orders,  he  was   crowned 


INNOCENT  III. 


1092 


INNOCENT  III. 


Feb.  22.  Before  entering  on  the  world-wide  prob- 
lems of  his  position,  it  devolved  on  him  to  restore 
the  papal  seat  to  Rome,  secure  the  respect  of  the 
Italians,  induce  the  city  prefect  to  recognize  liis 
superiority,  and  secure  the  resignation  of  the  sena- 
tor chosen  by  the  people,  and  hitlierto  independ- 
ent of  papal  authority.  He  then  stepped  forth 
as  the  deliverer  of  Italy  from  the  dominion  of 
the  German  princes  appointed  by  Henry  A' I.  He 
plundered  .Spoleto,  subjected  Perugia,  took  a  com- 
manding position  in  Tuscany,  placed  his  rectors 
in  patrimonies,  and  soon  became  the  acknow-1- 
edged  defender  of  national  mdependence.  Sicily, 
too,  contributed  to  his  good  fortune.  Here  ruled 
Constance,  the  widow  of  Henry  VI.,  as  guardian 
of  her  minor  son  Frederic.  Pressed  by  contend- 
ing factions,  she  renounced  the  privileges  of  the 
Xorman  rule  in  relation  to  the  Church,  and  took 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  Innocent  as  his  feuda- 
tory. Dying  in  1198,  she  by  will  named  Inno- 
cent regent  of  the  kingdom,  and  protector  of  her 
son.  At  once  the  Pope  entered  with  zeal  upon 
his  new  duties,  subjecting  the  German  princes  to 
his  young  ward,  and  taking  care  of  his  education. 
In  Germany  aifairs  were  most  favorable  for  the 
extension  of  the  papal  power  there.  Two  claim- 
ants were  contending  for  the  imperial  crown,  — 
Philip  of  Swabia,  and  Otto  IV.  The  lattei-  at 
once  sought  the  favor  of  Innocent  by  renouncing 
the  rights  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  and  surrender- 
ing the  exarchate  of  Ravenna,  the  Pentapolis, 
and  the  kingdom  of  .Spoleto.  Philip's  followers, 
on  the  contiary,  sliowed  a  strong  suspicion  of  the 
Pope-  While  prnnusing  him  due  respect  as  the 
head  of  the  Church,  they  at  the  same  time  begged 
him  not  to  interfere  with  the  rights  of  the  empire. 
Though  naturally  inclined  to  prefer  the  Guelph  to 
the  Hohenstaufen.  yet,  in  a  letter  of  reply  to  the 
German  princes,  the  Po]ie  assumed  the  appearance 
of  an  impartial  umpiri',  desirous  of  pre.serving 
the  independence  of  the  electoral  college,  and  fear- 
ful only,  lest,  by  the  choice  of  Philip,  (iennany  be- 
came the  hereditary  possession  of  a  ruling  liouse. 
His  hope  was,  that  both  claimants  would  snlimit 
their  pretensions  to  a  tribunal  composed  of  Ger- 
man princes,  and  that  Otto  would  be  elected.  In 
this  he  was  disappointed.  His  next  step  was  to 
Lssue  a  memorial  on  tlie  subject,  sotting  forth  the 
superior  clanns  of  Otto  as  descended  from  a 
family  long  devoted  to  the  Roman  see,  and  a 
friend  to  the  Church.  On  this  ground  Guido  of 
Preneste  was  instructed  to  go  to  Germany  as 
legate,  and  operate.  In  March,  Innocent,  by  letter, 
recognized  Otto  as  emperor,  and  in  .July  secured 
the  excommunication  of  all  members  of  the  op- 
posing faction  at  an  assembly  of  Otto's  partisans. 
But  this  was  done  only  after  a  renewed  pledge 
given  by  the  Guelph,  dated  Neuss,  June  .'<,  1201, 
to  concede  to  the  Roman  chair  all  the  territories 
belonging  to  it,  both  those  "  which  it  now  liolds 
and  \viii(-li  it  may  yet  hold,  and  to  assist  it  in 
obtaining  those  which  it  does  not  now  occupy." 
The  significance  of  this  document  is  evident,  fur- 
nishing as  it  did  a  foundation  for  the  wider  exten- 
.sion  of  tlie  Clunch  state.  In  the  fortune  of  arms 
Otto  was  at  first  successful;  and  Philip  was  in- 
duced to  try  negotiations  with  the  Pope,  but  on 
terms  which  could  not  be  granted.  In  IJOl-Oo, 
however,  affairs  took  a  decided  turn.  .Several  of 
the  strongest  partisans  of  Otto  deserted  to  Pliilip. 


The  king  of  France,  too,  as  Philip's  ally,  van- 
quished King  John  of  England,  Otto's  confed- 
erate; in  battle.  Thus  put  in  the  ascendant,  Philip 
directed  a  letter  to  Innocent,  offering  to  submit 
the  matters  in  debate  to  a  tribunal  composed  of 
cardinals,  and  princes  of  the  empire.  The  Pope 
was  forced  to  take  account  of  the  changed  condi- 
tion of  affairs,  and  bade  Otto  resign.  But,  as  the 
latter  remained  mnnoved,  Innocent  urged  the 
victorious  Hohenstaufen  to  accede  to  a  tribunal 
to  be  constituted  by  himself  at  Rome,  assuring 
him  at  the  same  time  of  a  decision  in  his  favor. 
To  this  both  rivals  at  last  yielded;  and  the  con- 
summate statesmanship  of  Innocent  triumphed 
at  last  in  having  the  contest  referred  to  Rome. 
Whether  the  tribunal  was  ever  held,  is  uncertain. 
One  thing,  however,  is  known  :  in  spite  of  all 
his  political  shrewdness,  the  Pope  was  pirevailed 
upon  to  pledge  the  restoration  to  the  empire  of 
all  possessions  unjustly  obtained  in  Central  Italy, 
pi'ovided  Philip's  daughter  shoidd  lie  given  in 
marriage  to  his  nephew,  and  the  latter,  as  Phil- 
ip's son-in-law,  .should  be  made  Duke  of  Tuscany. 
Even  the  gi'eat  Innocent  could  not  withstand  the 
temptation  to  nepotism.  Just  at  this  juncture, 
Philip  was  assassinated  by  Otto  of  Wittenbach 
(June  21,  1208),  and  Otto  became  the  undisputed 
sovereign  of  Germany.  Innocent  again  dexter- 
ously shifted  his  tactics.  He  held  up  before  Otto 
the  imperial  crown,  and  wrote  him,  "  We  demand 
of  thee,  dearest  son,  the  thing  which  thou  canst 
not  but  grant,  because  it  accords  with  thy  view, 
and  serves  for  thy  soul's  salvation."  Otto  replied, 
outdoing  all  his  former  pledges.  He  acknowl- 
edged tlie  bomids  of  the  States  of  the  Church  as 
drawn  by  Innocent,  promised  lielp  in  rooting  out 
heresy,  I'enounced  interference  in  church  elections, 
and,  in  short,  surrendered  every  thing  which  had 
been  secured  to  the  empire  by  the  Concordat  of 
Worms.  -Vt  such  a  price  did  Otto  purchase  liis 
coronation  as  emperor.  In  the  summer  of  1209 
he  began  his  march  over  the  Alps  with  a  mighty 
host,  and  met  the  Pope  at  A'iterbo.  The  inter- 
view was  one  which  hardly  sustained  the  Pope's 
first  greeting,  "This  is  my  beloved  son,  in  whom 
my  .soul  is  well  pleased."  Yet  he  deemed  it  not 
prudent  to  postpone  the  coronation,  which  took 
pl.ace  at  St.  Peter's,  Oct.  4,  1209.  Once  crowned. 
Otto  ignored  all  his  pronuses  and  obligations,  and 
proceeded  to  deal  as  best  lie  could  for  his  own 
and  tlie  emjiire's  advantage.  He  declared  war 
against  the  Pope's  prolc'r/r,  Frederic  of  Sicily,  and 
seized  a  part  of  the  patrimony  of  Peter,  and  for 
the.se  acts  of  violence  was  put  under  the  papal  ban. 
Nor  was  Iimocent  content  with  anathema  alone. 
Ho  proceeded  to  stir  up  against  his  ijuondam  pet 
the  Italian  nobles  and  German  princes,  and  treat- 
ed with  the  king  of  France  tor  his  dethrone- 
ment. In  these  measures  lie  was  so  far  success- 
ful as  not  only  to  rescue  his  ward,  Frederic,  from 
imminent  jieril,  but  also  eventually  to  see  him 
elected  to  the  German  throne  by  tlio  iirinces  of 
the  empire  (1212),  in  jilaco  of  Otto,  and  crowned 
,at  Main.  On  July  12, 12b),  the  emperor  elect  guar- 
anteed to  liis  protector  and  benefactor,  the  Pope, 
all  th(^  realms,  rights,  and  concessions  wliicli  Otto 
had  formerly  pledged.  On  July  27, 1211,  tlie  great 
bailie  of  liouvinos  was  fought,  which  ended  in  (he 
utter  defeat  of  Otto,  and  decided  the  (■(iiifliet  in 
Frederic's  favor;  and  in  an  imposing  council  held 


INNOCENT  III. 


1093 


INNOCENT  III. 


at  Rome  in  1215,  he  was  duly  proclaiinofl  emperor 
elect,  and  his  rival  once  more  anathematized. 
Death  spared  tlie  Pope  the  discovery  of  the  enor- 
mous bhmder,  which,  from  an  ecclesiastical  point 
of  view,  he  had  committed  in  thus  exalting  Fred- 
eric II.  to  the  throne. 

A  worthier  trinniph  was  achieved  by  Innocent, 
over  riiilip  (II.)  Augustus  of  France,  in  forcing 
him  to  the  correct  maintenance  of  his  marriage 
relations.  Under  the  pretext  of  a  too  close  con- 
nection hi  blood,  but  really  on  the  ground  of 
a  conceived  aversion,  this  prince  had  obtained 
from  his  bishops  a  divorce  from  his  wife  Inge- 
burga,  and  had  married  Agnes,  daughter  of  Duke 
Bertholdt  III.  Against  such  proceedings  Celes- 
tine  III.  had  already  entered  his  protest,  and 
now  Innocent  took  up  the  cau.se  of  the  rejected 
queen.  His  remonstrance  being  unl^eeded,  he 
put  the  whole  of  France  under  interdict,  stirred 
up  against  the  king  a  large  portion  of  the  clergy, 
the  nobles,  and  the  common  people,  and  at  last, 
on  Sept.  7,  1200,  compelled  I'hilip  to  pledge  the 
restoration  of  Ingeburga  to  her  position  as  queen 
and  wife.  It  was,  however,  to  little  purpose. 
The  separation  which  the  king  could  not  effect 
by  law,  he  sought  to  accomplish  by  subjecting 
his  wife  to  constant  vexations  and  humiliations, 
which  might  eventually  compel  her  to  leave  him 
of  her  own  accord.  In  all  these  trials  the  Pope  re- 
mained her  friend ;  and  though  he  I'elaxed  some- 
what in  the  energy  of  his  measures  for  her  relief, 
when  the  aid  of  the  king  was  needed  in  some  of 
his  projects,  yet  he  persevered  in  refusing  his  con- 
sent to  the  divorce,  and  had  the  satisfaction  of 
knowing  at  last  that  the  queen,  who  for  seventeen 
years  had  been  watched  and  harassed  as  a  prison- 
er, was  received  back  into  full  honor  by  her  peni- 
tent husband.  With  like  success  the  Pope  inter- 
fered in  tlie  domestic  affairs  of  Alphonso  IX.  of 
Leon,  whose  wife  he  constrained  to  depart  from 
liim  by  the  force  of  an  interdict,  because  of  a  too 
close  consanguinity ;  and  also  iu  those  of  Peter  of 
Aragon,  whose  contemplated  espousal  of  Bianca 
of  Aragon  he  firevented  for  the  same  reason  ;  and 
then,  when,  after  Peter's  marriage  with  Maria  of 
Montpellier,  the  royal  libertine  wished  to  put  her 
away,  and  scorned  the  papal  prohibition  of  that 
act,  Innocent,  by  ecclesiastical  weapons  alone, 
soon  brought  the  oifender  to  terms,  and  humbled 
him  even  to  the  surrender  of  his  kingdom,  which 
he  accepted  back  as  a  papal  feof .  King  Sancho 
of  Portugal,  also,  he  compelled  to  pay  the  tribute 
promised  to  the  papal  see  by  his  father,  though 
nuich  against  his  will ;  and  Ladislaus  of  Poland, 
when  guilty  of  robbing  the  church  and  bishops 
of  goods  and  rights,  he  soon  subjected  to  his  re- 
quirements. The  extent  to  which  Innocent  as- 
serted to  himself  the  sole  right  of  putting  princes 
under  ban,  and  of  releasing  them  from  it,  may 
be  seen  in  his  dealings  with  Ilakon  of  Sweden. 
When  this  king,  upon  atonement  made  for  his 
father's  wrongs,  was  released  from  the  ban  which 
had  been  put  on  the  kingdom  by  Archbishop  Eric, 
the  Pope  wrote  to  Eric  that  he  had  imitated  him 
ape-fashion,  and  reminded  him  that  such  release 
was  valid  only  when  granted  by  the  vicar  of  St. 
Peter.  In  1204  Innocent  succeeded  in  uniting  the 
Bulgarians,  who  formerly  belonged  to  the  Greek 
Church,  with  the  Church  of  Rome  by  consenting 
to  Prince  John's  request  for  coronation,  who  de 


sired  it  for  the  sake  of  papal  protection  against 
foreign  and  domestic  foes. 

But  it  was  in  his  treatment  of  John  Lackland, 
the  king  of  England,  that  Innocent's  assump- 
tion of  universal  power  as  the  "  vicar  of  Clirist  " 
fully  culminated.  The  quarrel  was  occasioned 
by  the  king's  interference  in  the  election  of  a 
superior  over  the  monks  of  C'anterbury.  Tlie 
Pope,  refusing  to  sanction  his  clioic(!,  made  a 
countermove  by  convening  some  menibers  of  the 
convent,  who  happened  to  be  at  Rome,  and  secur- 
ing, through  them,  election  of  Stephen  Langton, 
a  cardinal  priest,  to  the  contested  position.  This 
step  enraged  the  king.  When  threatened  with 
an  interdict,  he  swore,  "  by  God's  teeth,"  that 
he  would  hunt  every  ecclesiastic  who  dared  to 
proclaim  it,  out  of  the  land.  The  interdict  fell, 
and  John  sought  to  make  good  his  oath.  A  ban 
followed  ;  and,  in  spite  of  all  John's  efforts  to 
hinder  its  publication,  it  became  known.  The 
nobles,  who  hated  his  tyranny,  rose  against  him ; 
and  fierce  the  conflict  grew,  until  at  last  Innocent 
declared  the  throne  vacant,  and  instigated  Philip 
Augustus  of  France  to  take  pos.session  of  it, 
promising  to  all  who  engaged  in  the  attempt  the 
title  and  privilege  of  crusaders.  This  extreme 
measure  frightened  the  king  into  abject  submis- 
sion ;  and  on  May  13,  1213,  he  concluded  a  con- 
vention witli  ten  papal  plenipotentiaries  at  Dover, 
pledging  the  acknowledgment  of  Stephen  Lang- 
ton  as  archbishop,  and  the  i-estoration  to  the 
church  of  all  its  property  which  had  been  seized, 
and  also  of  all  exiles  to  their  homes.  Nor  was 
this  humiliation  sufficient.  To  secure  himself 
against  the  threatened  invasion  of  Philip,  al- 
though under  the  pretext  of  atoning  for  his  sins, 
on  May  18  John  surrendered  his  realms  "  to  God 
and  the  Pope,"  and  received  them  back  as  a  papal 
feudatory,  bound  to  an  annual  payment  of  seven 
hundred  marks  for  England,  and  three  hundred 
for  Ireland.  Then  it  was,  when  prostrate  in  the 
dust  at  the  feet  of  the  archbishop  as  a  suppliant 
for  mercy,  that  he  was  released  from  the  ban. 
The  interdict  was  not  lifted  until  July  2,  1214,  on 
the  fulfilment  of  the  conditions  pledged.  But, 
though  now  reconciled  with  the  Pope,  the  quarrel 
with  the  barons  went  on,  until  by  force  of  arms 
they  extorted  from  the  king  the  famous  Magna 
Charta,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Eng- 
lish political  constitution.  No  sooner  did  Inno- 
cent learn  of  these  transactions  than  he  pro- 
nounced the  terms  of  the  charter  null  and  void. 
It  touched  too  closely  upon  the  royal  prerogatives, 
and  indirectly  upon  the  feudal  sovereignty  of  the 
Pope.  But  neither  declaration  nor  excommunica- 
tion had  any  effect  on  the  nation.  One  only  who 
took  part  in  the  uprising  of  the  barons  fell  a 
sacrifice  under  the  power  of  the  Pope  :  this  was 
Langton.  By  reason  of  his  refusal  to  put  the 
insurgents  under  the  ban,  he  was,  while  attend- 
ing a  council  at  Rome  in  1215,  suspended  from 
his  archbishopric.  But  nothing  so  damaged  the 
papal  cause  in  England  as  this  opposition  of  Inno- 
cent to  the  Magna  Charta.  Here  it  was  where 
the  Pope  had  at  last  fully  realized  his  ideal  of  the 
true  relations  between  Church  and  State,  and 
here  it  was  where  the  papacy  began  to  encounter 
its  most  effective  opposition. 

What  Innocent's  ideal  was  may  be  learned  from 
what  he  wrote  to  King  John :  "  Jeaus  Christ  wills 


INNOCENT  III. 


100-i 


INNOCENT  III. 


that  the  kingdom  should  be  priestly,  and  the 
priesthood  kingly.  Over  all,  he  has  set  me  as  his 
vicar  mxjn  earth,  so  that,  as  before  Jesus  'everj' 
knee  shall  bow,'  in  like  manner  to  his  yicar  all 
shall  be  obedient,  and  there  shall  be  one  fold  and 
one  shepherd.  Pondering  this  truth,  thou,  as  a 
secular  prince,  hast  subjected  thy  realm  to  Him  to 
whom  all  is  spiritually  subject."  Accordingly,  in 
entertaining  this  view  of  his  position.  Innocent 
naturally  felt,  when  defending  the  rights  of  the 
Roman  chair  before  princes  and  peoples,  that 
whatsoever  he  did  was  wrought  in  and  through 
the  influence  of  Him  whose  vicar  he  was.  More- 
over, he  applied  to  himself  the  word  of  Jesus : 
"  All  power  is  given  unto  me  in  heaven  and  earth." 
Peter's  miraculous  walk  upon  the  sea  was  to  him 
a  sign  of  how  the  nations  of  the  earth  were  to  be 
subdued  under  the  feet  of  himself  and  his  succes- 
sors. Like  Melchizedek,  the  Pope,  he  conceived, 
united  in  one  person  the  offices  of  king  and  high 
priest.  And  as,  in  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  the 
rod  was  placed  beside  the  tables  of  the  law,  so  he 
considered,  that,  in  the  heart  of  the  Pope,  there 
resided  togetlier  botli  the  fearful  power  of  destruc- 
tion and  the  right  to  bestow  grace.  The  parallel 
already  drawn  by  Gregory  VH.,  comparing  the 
Church  and  State  to  the  sun  and  moon  severally, 
Innocent  expanded  into  an  illustration  for  show- 
ing how  the  State  was  actually  dependent  on  the 
Church  for  its  true  lustre  and  glory.  A  frequent 
declaration  of  his  was  it,  that  the  priesthood  alone 
(i.e.,  the  Church)  sprang  from  the  divine  appoint- 
ment, while  the  State  originated  "from  human 
extortions."  Hence,  in  all  cases  where  a  heinous 
sin  was  in  question,  he  claimed  the  right  to  test 
the  decisions  of  the  secular  tribunals,  and  if 
necessary  to  quash  them.  Both  the  secular  and 
the  spiritual  swords,  he  afiirnied,  belonged  to  the 
Pope ;  and,  while  he  reserved  to  himself  the  latter, 
the  former  he  gave  over  to  the  princes. 

In  discharging  liis  duty  as  the  vicar  of  Christ, 
Innocent  now,  as  at  the  beginning  of  his  pontifi- 
cate, felt  it  obligatory  on  him  to  summon  the 
kings  and  peoples  of  the  earth  to  a  holy  war  for 
the  recovery  of  Palestine.  In  this  movement  he 
was  largely  aided  by  the  rai'e  eloquence  of  two 
men,  — •  Fulk  of  Neuilly,  who  wrouglit  effectually 
among  the  French  nobles,  and  Abbot  Martin,  who 
was  no  less  influential  willi  those  of  South  Ger- 
many. But  the  crusading  host  encamping  near 
Venice  was  early  turned  aside  from  its  under- 
taking by  the  craft  of  the  Doge  Dandolo,  wlio 
employeil  it  for  the  recovery  of  Zara  from  the 
king  of  Hungary.  In  vain  did  Innocent  use 
warning  and  threatening  to  divert  them  from  this 
attempt.  The  doge's  work  was  done.  Hardly 
was  tiiis  difficulty  adjusted,  when  the  crusaders 
engaged  in  another  enterprise,  equally  foreign  to 
their  original  purpose,  and  no  less  contrary  to  the 
will  of  the  Pope.  Influenced  by  the  persuiisions 
of  Philip  of  (iermany,  they  lent  their  assistance 
to  his  brother-in-law,  Alexius  Angelus,  in  his  pro- 
ject of  regaining  his  ancestral  inheritance  from 
the  usurper,  Alexis  III.  Constantinople  was  cap- 
tured. But  by  this  event  the  relations  between 
the  Greeks  and  Latins  became  so  disturbed,  that, 
in  a  popular  insurrection,  Alexius  was  ca\iglit, 
imprisoned,  ami  finally  strangled.  Thereupon 
the  crusaders  took  possession  of  the  city,  and  set 
up  there  a  Latin  empire.    On  May  10,  VMi,  Bald- 


win of  Flanders  was  crowned  emperor.  This 
event,  opening  as  it  did  to  the  Pope  a  prospect  of 
uniting  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  reconciled 
him  to  the  course  pursued  by  the  crusaders  .  and 
in  a  letter  to  them  he  expressed  the  joyful  hope 
that  henceforth  there  would  be  but  one  fold  and 
one  shepherd.  And  now  was  vouchsafed  to  him 
that  which  his  predecessors  had  sighed  for  in 
vain;  viz.,  the  nomination  of  a  Catholic  patri- 
arch for  Constantinople. 

On  Oct.  12,  1204,  Innocent  issued  a  bull  for 
raising  a  crusading  expedition  into  Livonia.  The 
leader  of  the  several  enterprises  which  followed 
was  Albert,  Bishop  of  Livonia,  who  succeeded 
in  baptizing  the  Livonians  in  1206,  and  also  the 
neighboring  Letti  in  1208,  and  subjecting  both  to 
the  chair  of  Peter.  In  reward  for  this,  Albert 
was  released  from  the  control  of  his  metropolitan 
at  Bremen,  and  made,  in  a  measure,  independent. 
But,  on  his  becoming  involved  in  a  conflict  with 
the  "  Knighthood  of  Christ  in  Livonia,"  Innocent 
sought  to  adjust  the  difficulty  by  a  compromise, 
the  conflicting  terms  of  which  soon  made  it  evi- 
dent how  impracticable  it  was  for  a  church  power 
centralized  at  Rome  to  manage  w'isely  the  condi- 
tions and  relations  of  remote  ecclesiastical  prov- 
inces. 

It  is  not  so  creditable  to  Innocent,  that  he  first 
employed  the  crusades  for  the  extermination  of 
heresy.  In  1207  he  enjoined  on  the  French  king 
the  duty  of  annihilating  the  heretics  of  Toulouse. 
The  cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Albigenses,  in  conse- 
quence, are  not  to  be  charged  so  nuich  on  Innocent 
himself  as  on  his  system,  which  may  be  traced 
back  to  Augustine  (see  art.  Cathaki).  The 
orders  of  the  Pope  against  heretics  were  approved 
at  the  twelfth  general  synod  (1215),  and  incorpo- 
rated in  the  canon  law.  They  were,  in  substance, 
that  all  rulers  should  be  exhorted  to  tolerate  no 
heretics  in  their  domains :  if  a  ruler  refused  to 
clear  his  land  of  heretics  at  the  demand  of  the 
Church,  and  should  persist  in  his  refusal,  he 
should  be  deprived  of  his  authority,  and  even 
ejected  from  it  by  force  :  to  every  one  who  joined 
in  the  expeditions  against  heretics,  like  favors 
should  be  granted  as  were  granted  to  crusaders. 
At  the  same  council  the  severest  enactments  were 
issued  against  the  Jews.  Rulers  were  forbidden 
to  trust  them  with  public  olfices.  In  order  to  be 
known  as  Jews,  they  were  to  clothe  themsc.'lves 
with  a  peculiar  garb.  During  Holy  Week  they 
were  not  to  appear  on  the  streets,  lest,  in  that 
season  of  sorrow.  Christians  should  be  scandalized 
by  their  decorated  attire.  At  this  council,  also, 
condemnation  was  pronounced  upon  the  doctrine 
of  Amalrich  of  Bena  (see  art.),  and  on  a  trea- 
tise against  Peter  Lombard  by  Joacliini  of  Flore 
(see  art.).  Moreover,  the  formation  of  new  inonas- 
tic  orders  was  discouraged ;  and  alike  on  Domi- 
nic and  on  Francis,  both  of  whom  prayed  to  have 
their  orders  confirmed,  was  the  connnand  of  the 
council  imposed,  that  they  should  subject  their 
societies  to  existing  rules.  The  last  deliverance 
of  the  council  was  to  summon  Christendom  to  a 
new  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land,  in  1217.  At  this 
council,  held  near  the  close  of  Innocent's  jiontifi- 
cate,  the  Pope  .showed  himself  as  the  unliniited 
ruler  of  the  great  ones  of  the  world  and  of  the 
church.  Emperors,  kings,  and  jirinces  had  sent 
to  it  their  plenipotentiaries ;  and  fifteen  hundred 


INNOCENT  III. 


1095 


INNOCENT    IV. 


archbishops,  bishops,  and  abbots  took  part  in  its 
transactions,  or,  rather,  were  present  to  listen  to 
and  record  tlie  decrees  of  Innocent.  Delibera- 
tions, properly  speaking,  there  were  none.  Con- 
sent foHowod  at  once  on  the  reading  of  the  Pope's 
decree.  But,  while  the  ecclesiastics  thns  exalted 
their  superior,  they  virtually  voted  their  own 
abdication.  None  of  Innocent's  ]iredecessors  had 
so  cut  down  the  privileges  of  bishops  and  metro- 
politans as  he  had  done,  and  none  had  so  largely 
assumed  tlie  right  of  patronage  belonging  to 
local  church  officers.  He  was  the  first  to  assert 
the  Pope's  right  to  grant  benefices ;  and  he  issued 
countless  commissions  in  order  to  secure  a  pro- 
ductive living  for  the  papal  servants  and  the 
Romish  clergy,  and  even  to  his  own  relatives  and 
intimates.  And  he  did  this  at  the  cost  of  the 
country  clergy,  and  to  the  disparagement  of  the 
authority  of  the  bishops  in  the  regions  where  these 
commissions  were  executed.  This  centralization 
of  power  was  still  furthered  by  a  claim  laid  to  the 
bishops'  chairs,  in  case  any  overstepped  canonical 
regulations  and  privileges.  The  right  to  depose 
bishops  was  also  declared  to  belong  to  the  Pope 
alone,  who,  as  the  vicar  of  Christ,  had  the  sole 
power  to  annul  the  marriage  between  the  bishop 
and  his  congregation.  Large  as  all  these  claims 
were,  they  were  sustained,  on  the  part  of  Innocent, 
by  rare  discernment  and  profound  knowledge. 
Even  during  his  reigu,  his  bulls  and  decretals  were 
collected  and  published  at  three  several  times ; 
and  a  fourth  collection,  comprising  those  of  the 
last  six  years,  was  issued  shortly  after  his  death. 
But,  though  thus  crowded  with  woi-k,  this  Pope 
found  leisure  for  literary  labors.  We  have  from 
his  pen  an  exposition  of  the  seven  penitential 
Psalms,  evincing  a  tone  of  sincere  piety.  More- 
over, he  preached  frequently,  not  only  at  Rome, 
but  also  upon  his  journeys ;  and  those  of  his  ser- 
mons which  have  come  down  to  us  bear  testimony 
to  his  earnest  piety  and  deep  humility.  Once  and 
again  did  he  utter  a  sigh  for  rest  from  occupa- 
tions which  wore  out  body  and  soul.  And  this 
rest  he  found  in  death  (July  16,  121G)  at  Peru- 
gia. Pride  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  the  ruling 
element  of  his  character.  When  he  burns,  ex- 
communicates, binds,  and  loosens,  he  is  not  seek- 
ing his  own  honor,  but  the  honor  of  Ilim  whose 
vicegerent  he  believed  himself  to  be.  The  high 
office  of  the  Papacy,  so  repugnant  to  Protestant 
feeling,  he  spiritualized  and  ennobled.  In  his 
blameless  walk,  his  brotherly  love,  his  readiness 
for  self-sacrifice,  he  showed  the  devoted  Christian. 
We  can  hardly  call  him  covetous,  since  he  devoted 
his  whole  income  to  the  good  of  the  Church.  The 
only  spot  that  stains  his  name  is  that  he  did  once 
and  again  endow  his  relatives  and  trusted  ser- 
vants with  ecclesiastical  livings ;  but  this  is  a 
spot  which  cleaves  almost  to  the  entire  Papacy. 

Sources.  —  Gesta  Innocentii  III.,  atictore  anony- 
ino  cocevo,  ap.  Muratori  :  Rer.  Ital.  scri. ,  III. 
1,  Mediol.,  1723,  p.  486  sq. ;  with  this  compare 
Elkan  :  Die  Gesta  Innocentii  III.,  im  Verhdlini.t.t  zu 
den  Regexten  desselben  Papsies,  Heidelberg,  1876; 
Vita  Innocentii  III.,  ex  MS.  Bernardi  Guidouis, 
ap.  Muratori  :  Rer.  Ital.  scr.,  torn.  III.  1,  p.  480 
sq. ;  Burchardi  et  Chuonradi  Urspergensimn 
Chronicon.  The  great  work  is  by  Hurter  :  Ge- 
schichle  Papst  Innocenz  III.,  3d  ed.,  Hamburg, 
1841-43,  4  vols.     See  also  Letlre  inedile  d'lnno- 


cent  III.,  (le  Van  1S06,  Nogent  le  Rotron,  1876; 
F.  Delitzsch  :  Pap.sl  Innocenz  III.,  u.  sein  Ein- 
Jiuss  auf.  die  Kirche,  Hreslau,  1876 ;  W.  Molitor  : 
Die  Decretale  'Per  Venerabilem'  v.  Innocenz  III., 
MUnster,  1876;  .1.  N.  Brisciiau  :  Papst  Innocenz 
u.  .seine  Zcil,  Freiburj;-iiii-rir.,  1S8:>. 

INNOCENT  IV.  (Senibaldi  de  Fieschi),  Pope 
1243-.'J4.  Celestine  IV.  died  suddeidy,  and  was 
followed,  June  '25,  1243,  after  the  interval  of  a 
year  and  a  half,  by  Innocent  i\' .,  who.se  choice 
was  secured  through  the  infiuence  of  the  empe- 
ror. The  new  pontiff  was  an  eminent  jurist  be- 
longing to  one  of  the  first  families  of  Genoa; 
and  it  was  hoped  that  his  election  would  termi- 
nate the  long  strife  which  had  been  waged  be- 
tween the  Church  and  the  emperor,  inasmuch  as 
the  new  Pope,  while  cardinal,  had  been  the  con- 
stant friend  of  the  latter.  To  this  end  a  settle- 
ment was  proposed,  highly  advantageous  to  the 
Pope,  but  which  failed  of  success  by  reason  of 
the  mutual  distrust  entertained  by  the  parties. 
The  Pope,  pending  negotiations,  fled  suddenly  to 
Lyons,  whither  he  called  a  general  council,  for 
the  ostensible  purpose  of  correcting  abuses  in 
the  Church,  of  carrying  aid  to  the  Eastern  Chris- 
tians, and  of  settling  the  difficulties  between  the 
Church  and  the  empire.  The  emperor,  on  the 
other  liand,  issued,  in  his  own  interest,  a  letter 
to  the  princes  of  Christendom,  unveiling  the  real 
purpose  of  the  Pope,  and  promising  to  organize 
a  crusade,  provided  Iimocent  would  remove  the 
ban  that  had  been  put  on  him,  and  would  quiet 
the  rebellion  in  Lombardy.  But,  at  the  third 
session  of  the  papal  council,  Frederick  II.  was 
deposed  and  excomnuniicated,  and  the  electoral 
princes  called  upon  to  choose  a  new  emperor. 
Notwithstanding  the  mediation  of  Louis  IX.,  and 
the  orthodox  confession  made  by  the  emperoi' 
before  the  Bishop  of  Palermo,  the  Pope  remained 
obdurate,  and  the  strife  waxed  bitter.  Innocent 
fomented  rebellion  in  Sicily,  and  had  Henry 
Raspe,  landgrave  of  Turingia,  proclaimed  em- 
peror of  Germany.  The  princes  of  the  empire, 
however,  for  the  most  part  remained  true  to  Fred- 
erick ;  and  his  rival  soon  fell,  fighting  against 
the  imperial  forces,  led  by  Conrad,  son  of  Fred- 
erick. His  death  left  Frederick's  influence  in 
Germany  paramount.  The  Pope  could  find  no 
one  willing  to  accept  the  gift  of  the  crown,  save 
Count  William  of  Holland,  whose  supporters  had 
to  be  bought  with  gold.  Frederick  died  Dec.  13, 
1247,  transnutting  his  feud  with  the  Pope  to  his 
son  Conrad,  whose  hereditary  crown  of  Sicily 
Innocent  had  bestowed  upon  the  English  prince. 
Edmund.  Sudden  death,  which  so  often  had 
favored  the  popes,  carried  off  Conrad  while  in  the 
act  of  asserting  his  rights.  His  infant  heir,  the 
ten-year-old  Conradin,  was  left  under  the  guard- 
ianship of  Manfred,  natural  son  of  Frederick, 
who  made  terms  with  the  pontiff,  on  condition 
that  the  claims  of  his  ward  to  the  Sicilian  crown 
should  be  respected.  The  Pope  pi-oving  faithless. 
Manfred  took  the  field,  and  succeeded  in  compel- 
ling the  entire  papal  army  to  surrender.  Inno- 
cent died  five  days  later,  at  Naples,  where  he  lies 
buried  in  the  cathedral.  In  the  midst  of  a  busy 
and  stormy  life  Innocent  found  time  for  grand 
missionary  enterprises  to  the  East.  He  ceded  to 
Conrad,  Grand  ^Master  of  the  German  order,  his 
proprietary   right    over  Prussia,    which   he   had 


INNOCENT  V. 


1096 


INNOCENT  VII. 


di\-ided  into  four  bishoprics.  To  him,  also,  is 
due  the  custom  of  decorating  cardinals  with  the 
red  hat.  He  is,  moreover,  the  author  of  a  work 
entitled  Apparatus  in  (/uiiujue  lihros  decretal iiiin, 
highly  prized  as  an  authority  on  canon  law,  and 
also  A  Defence  of  the  Papal  Prerogative  against 
Peter  de  Vineis,  the  chancellor  of  Frederick  II. 
lie  died  at  Xaples,  Dec.  7,  12.54. 

INNOCENT  V.  (Pietro  de  Tarantasia),  Pope 
1276,  was  chosen  to  succeed  Gregory  X.  Jan.  21, 
1276.  He  had  been  Archbishop  of  Lyons,  Cardi- 
nal Bishop  of  Ostia,  and  grand  confessor.  His 
first  aim  was  to  reconcile  the  warring  factions 
of  the  Guelph  and  Ghibelline,  which  had  em- 
broiled the  Italian  states ;  and  he  succeeded  so 
far  as  to  bring  Lucca  and  Pisa  into  friendly 
relation,  and  give  peace  to  Tuscany.  AVhilst  pre- 
paring to  send  a  numerous  embassy  to  the  Greek 
emperor,  Michael  Palseologus,  in  the  interest  of 
the  union  of  the  two  churches  east  and  west  (to 
which  the  Greek  ambassadors  at  Lyons  had  pre- 
viously consented),  Innocent  died  (June  22),  after 
a  brief  pontificate  of  five  months.  He  was  a 
voluminous  writer.  Besides  his  postils  and  quod- 
libets,  he  composed  a  number  of  philosophic  and 
other  works,  most  noteworthy  of  which  were 
commentaries  on  the  Pauline  Epistles  and  on 
the  "  Sentences  "  of  Peter  Lombard.  A  hundred 
propositions  drawn  from  his  writings,  and  con- 
demned by  learned  contemporaries,  were  de- 
fended bv  Thomas  Aquinas. 

INNOCENT  VI.  (Etienne  d'Albert),  Pope  1352- 
62.  On  the  death  of  Clement  VI.  the  cardi- 
nals as.sembled,  and,  before  making  choice  of  his 
successor,  proceeded  to  limit  the  prerogatives  of 
the  papal  chair  as  follows:  (1)  The  Pope  shall 
appoint  no  new  cardinals  until  the  existing  num- 
ber shall  have  been  reduced  to  sixteen.  The 
whole  number  shall  never  exceed  twenty,  and 
none  shall  be  appointed  without  the  consent  of 
at  lea.ft  two-thirds  of  the  cardinals.  (2)  The 
Pope  shall  not  imprison,  depose,  place  under  the 
ban,  or  suspend  a  cardinal,  without  the  consent 
of  all  his  peers.  (3)  The  Pope  shall  neither  alien- 
ate the  lands  of  the  Chiu'ch,  nor  invest  any  one 
with  the  same,  without  the  consent  of  two-thirds 
of  the  cardinals.  (4)  The  revenues  of  the  Church 
shall  be  equally  divided  ;  one  half  going  to  the 
support  of  the  Pope,  the  other  to  the  cardinals. 

(5)  Xo  relative  of  the  Pope  shall  be  appointed 
governor  of  any  of  the  provinces  of  the  Church. 

(6)  The  Pope  shall  not  receive  tithes  of  ecclesi- 
astical livings,  nor  any  subsidies,  without  consent 
of  two-thirds  of  the  cardinals.  These  proposi- 
tions the  cardinals  were  compelled  to  sub.scrilie 
under  oath,  some  doing  so  with  the  reservation 
"  .Si  jure  niterentur."  Thereupon  the  votes  were 
taken;  and  the  choice  fell  upon  Stephen  Albert, 
Bishop  of  O.stia,  Dec.  18,  1302.  He  took  the  title 
of  Innocent  VI.,  and  his  first  act  was  to  declare 
the  propositions  which  he  suljscrilied  with  the  res- 
ervation above  specified  null  and  void.  Deeply 
versed  in  canon  law,  and  severe  in  morals,  he 
at  once  set  about  correcting  abu-ses.  Unlawful 
grants  were  recalled;  grievous  taxes  were  abol- 
ished ;  the  clergy  who  liad  flocked  to  Avignon  on 
the  occasion  ot  his  coronation,  in  the  nope  i>{ 
preferment,  were  ordered  to  return  within  live 
days  to  tlieir  benefices,  on  the  pain  of  excom- 
munication ;    and   by  precept   and  example   the 


luxurious  living  of  the  cardinals  was  rebuked. 
That  the  judges  of  the  Rota  might  be  the  more 
impartial,  they  were  assigned  a  competent  sup- 
port. Charles  IV.,  who  was  crowned  at  Rome 
April  5, 1355,  was  compelled  by  the  Pope  to  leave 
for  Germany  that  selfsame  day.  Bologna  was 
wrested  from  Bernardo  'N'isconti,  the  powerful  and 
unscrupulous  ruler  of  Milan.  The  new  Pope, 
moreover,  sought  to  mediate  between  Edward  of 
England,  and  John  of  France,  and  to  unite  the 
Venetians  and  Genoese,  then  at  war  with  each 
other,  against  the  Turks.  He  also  put  Peter 
of  Castile  under  the  ban  for  poisoning  his  wife, 
and  undertook  to  fortify  Avignon  against  the 
hordes  of  mercenaries  which  were  plundering 
the  south  of  France ;  but,  ere  he  could  complete 
the  latter  work,  the  city  was  invested,  and  the 
withdrawal  of  the  besiegers  had  to  be  pm'chased 
by  a  large  sum  of  money  and  a  plenary  pardon. 
At  the  instance  of  Charles  IV.  the  festival  of  the 
Sacred  Lance  was  instituted,  to  be  celebrated  year- 
ly, on  the  Friday  following  Easter,  througliout 
Germany  and  Bohemia.  The  ilendicant  Friars, 
whose  reputation  for  sanctity  had  greatly  suf- 
fered in  the  popular  estimation,  found  a  power 
ful  champion  in  Innocent,  who  restored  them  to 
all  former  privileges.  He  died  Sept.  12,  1362, 
leaving  behind  him  the  reputation  of  a  just  and 
upright  man.  Of  his  writings  there  have  come 
down  to  us  only  a  few  letters  and  some  bulls. 
See  E.  Werunsky:  Italienisclie  Polilik  Papist  Inno- 
cent VI.  u.  Kbniq  Karl  IV.  in  J.  1S5S,  1354,  Wien, 
1878. 

INNOCENT  VII.  (Cosimo  de  Migliorati),  Pope 
li01-()6.  On  the  death  of  Boniface  IX.,  the 
cardinals  bound  themselves  by  oath  to  do  their 
utmost  to  secure  the  healing  of  the  great  Western 
schism,  mutually  pledging  their  willingness  to 
resign  even  the  papal  chair,  in  case  such  a  step 
should  be  deemed  necessary  to  the  furtherance 
of  an  end  so  desirable.  The  new  Pope  (elected 
Oct.  17,  1404)  was  distinguished  alike  for  the 
pm-ity  of  his  character  and  the  extent  of  his 
learning,  particularly  in  the  provinces  of  civil 
aiul  canon  law.  He  had  been  previously  ap- 
pointed to  several  responsible  positions,  and  em- 
ployed in  a  number  of  delicate  missions,  by 
Urban  VI. ;  nominated  also  chamberlain  of  the 
Church  and  cardinal  by  Boniface  IX.  ;  and  was 
sixty-five  years  old  when  elected  Pope.  He  as- 
sumed the  title  of  Innocent  VH.  Sluirtly  after 
his  accession,  a  tunudt  broke  out  in  Rome  between 
the  (ineljihs  and  Ghibcllines ;  a  nephew  of  Inno- 
cent heading  the  former.  In  it  a  number  of  citi- 
zens were  slain,  and  tlie  Pope  was  compelled  to 
flee  tlie  city.  His  exile,  however,  was  brief.  The 
people,  as  .soon  as  they  were  convinced  of  his 
freedom  from  all  complicity  in  tlie  murderous 
act,  restored  him  in  Iriuiiipli.  Since  the  party 
opposed  to  the  Pojie  was  openly  encouraged  by 
Ladislaus,  king  of  Naples,  and  Neapolitan  troops 
were  employed  by  it  in  attacks  upon  the  city,  and 
raids  into  the  country.  Innocent  was  coni|X'lled 
to  put  the  king  under  the  ban,  and  declare  his 
kingdom  forfeited.  The  lung,  however,  fearing 
an  attack  from  his  rival,  the  Duke  of  Anjou,  soou 
submitted  to  the  conditions  of  the  Pope,  .\bout 
this  time  the.  antipope,  Bi^nedict  XIII.,  came  as 
far  as  (Jenoa,  desiring  safe  conduct  from  Inno- 
cent to  Rome,  under  the  pretext  of  holding  cou- 


INNOCENT   VIII. 


1097 


INNOCENT  X. 


ference  with  liim  in  reference  to  harmonizing  the 
Churcli.  The  wily  request  of  Benedict  was  de- 
nied, and  the  conduct  of  each  in  the  matter  gave 
occasion  for  mutual  reproach  and  recrimination. 
Innocent  died  suddenly  of  apoplexy  (Nov.  (J,  14()fi), 
giving  rise  to  the  groundless  suspicion  of  having 
been  poisoned.  This  Pope,  otherwise  simple, 
genial,  and  ingenuous,  cannot  viholly  escape  the 
charge  of  nepotism.  His  relatives  were  advanced 
to  the  most  considerable  places,  and  loaded  with 
riches.  His  sole  literary  relic  is  a  speech,  of  little 
merit,  on  the  re-union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
churches. 

INNOCENT  VIII.  (Giovanni  Battista  Clbo), 
Pope  1484-92;  chosen  Aug.  29,  1484.  lie  sprang 
from  a  Genoese  family  of  Greek  origin.  We 
find  him  first  as  a  youth  at  the  Neapolitan 
court,  then  at  Rome,  in  the  service  of  Cardinal 
Philip  of  Bologna.  After  having  held  succes- 
sively the  bishoprics  of  Savona  and  Melfi,  he  was 
made  cardinal  1473 :  on  his  accession  he  vainly 
sought  to  unite  the  princes  of  Christendom  in  a 
crusade  against  the  Turks.  He  became  involved 
in  war  with  Ferdinand  of  Naples,  whose  crown 
he  offered  to  Renaldus,  Duke  of  Lorraine.  A 
peace  favorable  to  the  Pope  was  effected  Aug.  12, 
1486.  It  was,  however,  shortly  after  violated  by 
Ferdinand,  who  was  excommunicated,  and  kept 
under  the  ban  until  peace  was  declared  (1492). 
While  urging  the  princes  and  people  to  arm 
against  the  Turk,  the  Pope  shamelessly  entered 
into  treaty  with  the  Sultan  Bajazet,  according  to 
which  he  agreed  —  for  the  sum  of  forty  thousand 
ducats  per  year,  and  the  gift  of  the  sacred  spear 
which  was  said  to  liave  pierced  our  Saviour's  side 
—  to  keep  Zezim,  a  brother  of  the  sultan,  and  a 
pretender  to  his  throne,  who  had  fallen  into  liis 
hands,  a  close  prisoner.  Thus  he  thriftily  turned 
to  advantage  his  relations  to  both  Christian  and 
Pagan.  The  reputed  wizards,  witches,  and  sooth- 
sayers with  which  Germany  was  at  this  time 
filled,  were  by  him  prosecuted  with  great  severity. 
The  processes  which  his  judges  employed  against 
these  wretched  creatures  have  been  preserved  in 
a  book,  which  is  remarkable  alike  for  its  learn- 
ing, superstition,  and  vulgarity  (see  Witches  and 
Processes  against  Witches).  He  strove  also  to 
arrest  the  progress  of  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia, 
canonized  the  Margrave  Leopold  of  Austria,  and 
passed  the  closing  years  of  his  reign  in  creating 
new  places,  that  by  their  sale  he  might  enrich  his 
treasury.  Innocent  died  July  25,  1492.  His  six- 
teen children  bear  witness  to  the  fidelity  with 
which  he  kept  his  vow  of  chastity.  These  he  was 
constantly  and  shamelessly  seeking  to  enrich  and 
advance.  One  of  the  eight  cardinals  he  created 
was  the  son  of  Lorenzo  de  Medicis,  whom  he 
elevated  to  the  office  before  he  had  passed  his 
thirteenth  year. 

INNOCENT  IX.  (Giovanni  Antonio  Facchi- 
netti).  Pope  1591 ;  elected  Oct.  30, 1591.  He  was 
b.  at  Bologna  1519.  Previous  to  his  elevation 
to  the  papal  chair,  he  had  held,  together  with 
other  dignities,  the  office  of  patriarch  of  Jerusa- 
lem, president  of  the  Inquisition,  and  cardinal. 
His  pontificate  lasted  two  months,  and  was  distin- 
guished by  a  number  of  judicious  and  laudable 
enterprises  undertaken  by  him.  He  forbade  the 
alienation  of  church  property,  interdicted  debt, 
and  reduced  burdensome  taxation.     He  also  im- 


proved the  harbor  of  Ancona,  and  dug  a  canal  in 
the  neighborhood  of  St.  Angelo  to  protect  Rome 
from  the  overflow  of  tlic  Tiber.  Dying  Dec.  30, 
1591,  he  left  behind  him  a  considerable  number 
of  writings  (as  yet  unprinted)  and  the  character 
of  a  true  and  ingenuous  man. 

INNOCENT  X.  (Giovanni  Battista  Pampliili), 
Pope  104-4-55;  was  chosen  I'o])(^  (Sept.  15,  1(141) 
in  his  seventy-second  year,  ehielly  because  he  had 
said  little  and  accomplished  less.  He  owed  alike 
his  ill  fortune  and  ill  fame  to  Donna  Olimpia 
Maidalchina,  liis  brother's  widow,  with  whom, 
even  during  the  life  of  her  husband,  he  held 
questionable  relations.  On  the  sudden  death  of 
the  husband,  she  became  the  absolute  mistress  of 
the  prelate,  and  the  inspiration  of  his  whole  life ; 
so  that  caricaturists  were  in  the  habit  of  repre- 
senting the  vicegerent  of  Christ  as  arrayed  in  a 
frock,  styling  him  another  Johanna,  with  the 
keys  of  St.  Peter.  Though  he  owed  his  elevation 
to  the  family  of  the  Barberini,  he  was  no  sooner 
seated  than  he  called  upon  them  to  give  an  ac- 
count of  their  stewardship,  in  hopes  of  transfer- 
ring their  vast  wealth  into  his  own  hands.  Flee- 
ing to  France,  they  succeeded  in  enlisting  the 
French  king  in  their  cause,  which  led  to  a  rup- 
ture with  the  Pope,  and  a  seizure,  by  tlie  Frencli, 
of  Piombino  and  Portalongano.  The  result  was 
a  restoration  of  the  Barberini  to  their  offices  and 
estates.  The  Duke  of  Parma,  having,  in  defiance 
of  the  Pope,  invested  a  certain  infamous  Theatine 
monk  witli  the  bishopric  of  Castro,  the  papal 
authorities  took  possession  of  the  bishopric  and 
earldom,  and  razed  the  fortifications  of  the  city. 
The  Peace  of  Westphalia,  concluded  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  vigorous  and  repeated  protests  of  the 
papal  nuncio  (October,  1648),  seriously  impaired 
the  papal  prerogative.  In  anticipation  of  the 
Pope's  bull,  declaring  the  articles  of  peace  imll 
and  void,  it  was  stipulated  that  no  spiritual  or 
secular  rights,  nor  decree  of  council,  privilege  or 
indulgence,  edict  or  inhibition,  no  papal  concor- 
dat, dispensation,  absolution,  or  remonstrance, 
made  in  contravention  of  the  treaty,  or  of  any  of 
its  separate  provisions,  would  either  be  heard  or 
entertained.  The  papal  protest,  however,  was 
not  to  be  without  its  significance  in  the  future. 
For  the  present,  its  only  influence  was  to  damage 
the  prestige  of  the  Pope.  The  papal  mmcio,  hav- 
ing boldly  published  the  pontiff's  bull  at  ^'ienna, 
was  expelled  from  the  city  with  a  scurrilous  mes- 
sage to  his  Holiness.  Innocent's  zeal  for  the 
purity  of  doctrine  was  shown  in  his  formal  con- 
demnation (1653)  of  five  propositions  taken  from 
the  works  of  Jansenius.  Guided  by  the  counsel 
of  Donna  Olimpia,  he  succeeded  in  devising 
means  for  enriching  the  papal  coffers,  which  he 
had  found  burdened  with  a  debt  of  eight  million 
scudi.  The  most  shameful  system  of  bribery 
and  corruption  prevailed  in  every  rank  of  the 
papal  hierarchy :  offices  were  openly  bought  and 
sold.  Two  thousand  of  the  smaller  cloisters  were 
closed,  and  their  revenues  sequestered.  Amongst 
the  more  extraordinary  measures  taken  to  bring 
money  to  Rome  was  the  Pope's  letter,  Unii-ersaks 
maximique  juhilixi,  1650.  The  most  injurious  was 
the  monopoly  of  the  corn-trade  by  the  papal  ex- 
chequer, by  means  of  which  flour  was  retailed  to 
the  baker  at  an  increase  of  one-third  in  price,  and 
a  reduction  of  one-third  in  measure,  resulting,  as 


INNOCENT  XI. 


1098 


INNOCENT  XIII. 


is  alleged,  in  the  ruin  of   agriculture  in   Italy. 
Innocent   died    Jan.    5,   1655.       His   pontificate 
covers  a  period  of  deep  degeneracy  in  the  Church, 
marked  by  a  commingling  of  things  profane  and  j 
sacred,  and  by  the  domination  of  parasites  and  j 
mistresses,  the  Church  all  the  while  contending  j 
for  her  ancient  prerogatives  in  all  their  fulness. 
See  RossTEXSCHER  :  Hisl.  Innoc.  A'.,  Wittenberg, 
1(371  :  and  Raske  :  Hist,  of  the  Popes. 

INNOCENT  XI.  (Benedetto  Odeschalchi), 
Pope  1670-89.  He  was  b.  at  Como,  May  16, 1611 ; 
educated  by  the  Jesuits ;  and  studied  law  at  Genoa, 
Xaples,  and  Rome.  After  having  distinguished 
himself  for  his  integrity  and  ability  in  various  high 
positions,  he  was  created  cardinal  (1647)  through 
the  influence  of  Donna  Olimpia,  aiid  subsequent- 
ly nominated  legate  of  Ferarra,  and  Bishop  of 
Xovara.  He  owed  his  elevation,  Sept.  21,  1676, 
to  the  French  party  in  the  College  of  Cardinals. 
On  his  accession,  he  set  about  the  furtherance  of 
a  stricter  morality  in  Church  and  State.  He  re- 
buked by  his  example  the  prevailing  extrava- 
gance, rigidly  limiting  his  own  expenses,  and 
abolishing  all  cardinalships  and  benefices  whose 
services  could  be  dispensed  with ;  revived  the 
stringent  laws  regadating  the  examination  of  can- 
didates for  consecration  ;  enjoined  upon  the 
clergy  the  leading  of  holy  lives,  the  catechising 
of  the  children,  and  the  opening  of  schools  for 
their  instruction ;  forbade  the  use  of  dialectic 
sophistries  and  fables  in  the  pulpit,  bidding  tlie 
priest  pi'oclaiin  only  tlie  crucified  Christ;  dis- 
missed the  eunuchs  from  the  papal  chapel;  inter- 
dicted the  luxurious  habits  of  dress  prevalent 
amongst  the  women,  forbidding  them  the  study 
of  music;  condemned  the  morality  of  the  Jesuits 
in  his  bull  .March  '2,  1679;  and  came  into  collision 
with  France  on  account  of  the  so-called  "  Privi- 
lege of  Asylum  "  claimed  by  foreign  ambassa- 
dors for  criminals,  not  only  within  their  palaces, 
but  also  in  the  pi'ecincts  adjacent.  This  jirivilege 
J^ouis  XIV'.  would  not  consent  to  have  abrogated ; 
and  his  ambassador  Do  Lavardin,  who  entered 
Rome  with  a  retinue  of  a  thousand  soldiers  and 
servants,  was  accordingly  put  under  the  ban. 
Neitlier  party  would  yield,  and  the  question  I'e- 
mained  open  until  after  the  death  of  the  Pope. 
It  was  finally  settled  in  his  favor.  The  so-called 
"  Regal  Right "  was  another  api'le  of  discord  be- 
tween the  Pope  and  the  French  king.  Louis  had 
insisted  upon  appropriating  the  revenues  of  cer- 
tain vacant  churches  and  benefices,  even  in  cases 
where  they  had  not  been  planted  by  the  crown. 
This  atteujpt  was  resisted  by  the  bishops;  and  the 
Pope  sustained  them,  even  to  the  extent  of  threat- 
ening the  king  with  the  extreme  censure  of  tlie 
Church.  As  a  countermove,  the  latter  called  a 
council  of  the  French  clergy  (Nov.  9,  1681),  who 
not  only  confirmed  the  disputed  claims  of  the 
tin'one,  but  made  a  solenni  deliverance  consisting 
of  four  fundamental  propositions  (Qaaluor  prnpo- 
aitioiies  Cleri  Gallicani).  A  copy  of  these,  by 
order  of  the  Pope,  was  openly  burnt  at  the  liands 
of  tlie  public  executioner,  and  confirmation  re- 
fused to  all  such  as  were  nominateil  to  livings. 
In  consequence,  at  liis  death,  the  bisliops  of  no 
less  lliati  thirty  dioceses  were  witliout  juipal  conse- 
cration, 'I'liough  the  cruel  persecution  of  the  .Jits- 
uits,  and  tin-  Ui'vocation  of  tlie  Edict  of  Nantes, 
by  tlie  Frencli  king,  subsequently  drew  from  the 


Pope  the  very  highest  commendation  of  the  king, 
he  never,  to  the  day  of  his  death,  halted  in  his 
opposition  to  the  so-called  "  Regal  Right,  or  Free- 
dom of  Quarters."  Innocent  died  Aug.  12, 1689. 
The  French  king  and  the  Jesuits  alike  sought  to 
blacken  his  memory  after  death  ;  and  his  canoni- 
zation, urged  by  Philip  II.,  encountered  opposition 
chiefly  from  these  quarters.  AV'ithout  doubt  he 
was  an  ecclesiastical  prince  of  pure  and  noble 
virtues,  and  one  of  the  most  illustrious  men  that 
had  ever  filled  the  chair  of  St.  Peter.  He  was 
compelled  by  the  Inquisition  to  condemn,  by  a 
bull,  the  writings  of  Molinos  (Nov.  20,  1687), 
although  he  was  very  frieudly  to  Molinos.  The 
efforts  of  James  II.  to  convert  England  to  Ca- 
tholicism were,  by  Innocent,  not  only  considered 
rash,  but  as  calculated  to  increase  the  power  of 
the  king  and  lead  to  an  alliance  with  France, 
rather  than  to  advance  the  Church.  The  fall  of 
James  was  therefore  not  mourned ;  and  his  plea 
for  the  papal  help  was  answered  by  a  cool  rejec- 
tion, on  the  ground  of  the  Pope's  absorption  in 
his  struggle  with  France.  See  Gerix:  Le  pape 
Innocent  XI.  et  la  resolution  anglaise  de  16S8, 
Paris,  1876  [also  Bigelow  :  Molinos  the  Quietist, 
N.y.,  1882,  which  gives,  pp.  113-127,  a  translation 
of  Innocent's  bull,  and  Molinos]. 

INNOCENT  XII.  (Antonio  Pignatelli),  Pope 
1691-1700,  was  cliosen  Feb.  12.  1691,  after  a 
five-months'  conclave.  Born  ilarch  13,  1615,  he 
was  in  his  seventy-seventh  year  when  elected. 
He  entered  public  life  early.  After  holding  jnany 
important  offices,  was  made  cardinal  bishop  of 
Faenza,  and  archbishop  of  Xaples  by  Innocent 
XI.,  whose  title  he  took,  and  whose  example 
he  strove  to  imitate.  He  had  no  sooner  taken 
his  seat  than  he  set  his  face  sternly  against 
nepotism.  The  poor  were  his  beneficiaries  ;  the 
Laterau,  his  hospital.  He  declared  it  unlawful 
for  any  pope  in  the  future  to  invest  his  relatives 
witli  any  of  the  oflices  or  revenues  of  tlie  Church. 
He  .sought  to  reform  cloister  discipline  and  the 
lives  of  the  .secular  clergy ;  interdicted  the  lot- 
tery ;  brought  to  a  close  the  controversy  with  the 
French  king,  on  tlie  condition  of  limiting  the 
exercise  of  "Regal  Right"  to  vacant  benefices 
lying  within  the  territory  of  Old  France,  The 
Pope  was  several  times  involved  in  controversy 
with  Leopold  I.  of  (jermany  in  reference  to 
questions  of  pi'ecedenee ;  but,  through  mutual 
concessions,  these,  as  they  aro.se,  were  amicably 
settled.  Friendly  relations  with  Charles  II.  of 
Spain  were  interrupted  by  a  question  concerning 
the  Inquisition  in  Naples.  Pending  its  solution, 
both  king  and  pope  died;  the  latter  Sept.  27, 
1700.  In  the  controversy  between  Bossuet  and 
Fdnelon,  the  Pope  decided  for  the  former,  con- 
demning .some  twenty-tliree  propositions,  which 
he  alTected  to  find  in  Fenelon's  writings,  as  con- 
trary to  good  morals  and  sound  doctrine.  He 
bequeathed  a  large  sum  of  money  to  a  ho.spital 
which  he  had  founded,  and  ordered  that  tiie 
money  accruing  from  the  sale  of  his  personal 
effects  should  be  given  to  the  poor.  His  reputa- 
tion is  that  of  a  just,  charitable,  unselfish,  and 
benefii-rni  man. 

INNOCENT  XIII.  (Michel  Angelo  Conti),  Pope 
1721  21.  He  was  born  ,May  13,  1665.  Alex- 
andiM-  N'HI.  had  made  him  a  member  of  his 
court   family,   and  Clement  XL,   cardinal,     lie 


INNOCENTS'  DAY. 


109D 


INQUISITION. 


was  elected  May  8,  1721,  after  a  stormy  session 
of  the  conclave,  dnring  which  the  cardinals 
came  to  blows,  and  inkstands  were  hurled. 
His  accession  was  hailed  as  jironiising  rest  to 
the  Church,  and  peace  to  Christendom.  His 
nomination  of  his  brother  as  cardinal  aronsed 
fears  of  nepotism,  which,  happily,  proved  ground- 
less. Italy  prospered  under  his  reign.  Like  liis 
predecessor,  he  espoused  the  cause  of  the  Pre- 
tender to  the  British  throne  under  the  title  of 
James  III.  Charles  V-I.  of  Germany  he  in- 
vested with  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  He  also 
wrested  Caslel  I'alo,  on  the  Mediterranean,  from 
its  unwilling  proprietor,  and,  under  French  in- 
fluences, clotlied  a  contemptible  profligate  with 
the  office  of  cardinal.  These  two  last  acts  are 
•spots  on  a  character  otherwise  fair.  AVhen  Malta 
was  invested  by  the  Turks,  after  issuing  a  call 
to  Christendom,  he  himself  hastened  to  the  rescue 
witli  men  and  money.  He  had  serious  thoughts 
of  abolishing  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  on  account 
of  their  opposition  to  tlie  Chinese  mission,  and 
took  under  his  protection  the  so-called  "  Constitu- 
tio  Unigenitus,"  which  had  been  wrung  from 
his  predecessor.     His  death  occurred   March  7, 

1724.  R.   ZOPFFEL  (trans,  by  D.  W.  Poor). 

INNOCENTS'  DAY,  a  church  festival  in  honor 
of  the  children  slain  by  Herod  in  Bethlehem 
{Matt.  ii.  16),  and  who  thus  were  in  a  sense 
the  first  Christian  martyrs.  It  was  very  early 
■celebrated;  for  it  is  mentioned  by  Ireiueus  and 
Cyprian,  at  first,  in  connection  w-ith  Epijiliany. 
Later,  in  the  Western  Church,  Innocents'  Day 
•came  on  Dec.  28;  in  the  Eastern  Church,  on 
Dec.  29.  It  is  not  known  when  the  festivals 
were  given  different  days.  Peter  of  Ravenna 
(Chrysologus),  a  bishop  of  the  fifth  century, 
has  left  two  sermons  upon  the  Massacre  of  the 
Innocents,  considered  quite  apart  from  the  Epiph- 
any ;  and  the  fact  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
the  separation  was  made  in  his  day.  At  present, 
in  the  Roman,  Anglican,  and  Episcopal  churches. 
Innocents'  Day  is  Dec.  28.  The  Roman  priest 
celebrates  the  mass  on  this  day  in  a  blue  gown. 
The  Armeno-Gregorian  calendar  gives  the  num- 
ber of  infants  slain  by  Herod  at  fourteen  thou- 
sand :  the  true  number  was  probably  less  than 
thirty. 

INNS  AMONG  THE  HEBREWS.  In  one  sense 
of  the  term,  inns  did  not  exist  in  antiquity ;  but 
there  were  enclosures  which  afforded  some  pro- 
tection, and  in  whicli  there  was  a  fountain.  In 
later  times  there  were  built  "khans,"  or  "cara- 
vanserais," wliich  are  large  square  buildings 
containing  rooms  enclosing  an  open  court  (Jer. 
ix.  2).  But  no  food  for  man  or  beast  was  pro- 
vided, as  the  traveller  was  expected  to  carry  it 
with  him.  In  the  parable  of  tlie  Good  Samaritan, 
mention  is  made  (Luke  x.  34)  of  another  sort  of 
caravanserai,  which  had  a  keeper,  and  where  per- 
.sonal  care,  besides  food,  could  be  obtained.  The 
■"inn  "  to  which  Joseph  and  Mary  went  (Luke  ii. 
7)  was  proljably  a  caravanserai.  RUETScni. 

INQUISITION  (Inijuisilio  hareticce pravitatis),  or 
the  "  Holy  Office  "  (Saitctujii  Officium),  is  the  name 
of  the  spiritual  court  of  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church,  for  the  detection  and  punishment  of  those 
whose  opinions  differed  from  the  doctrines  of  the 
■Church.  It  was  the  abnormal  outgrowth  of  the 
ancient  ecclesiastical   discipline   which    charged 


the  bishops  with  the  duty  of  .searching  out  the 
heresies  in  tlieir  dioce.ses,  and  stemming  the  prog- 
ress of  error.  [The  (Ihurcli  fathers  treated  all 
departures  from  the  creed  of  tlie  Churcli  with 
great  severity,  and  tlw;  early  councils  forbade  all 
relations  of  the  members  of  the  Church  with 
heretics.]  From  the  reign  of  Constantiue  the 
Great  the  laws  against  heretics  became  more  and 
more  rigorous.  [In  310  Constantiue  issued  an 
edict  condemning  the  Donatists  to  the  loss  of 
their  goods.]  But  the  first  Christian  emperor  to 
pronounce  the  sentence  of  deatli  against  tlieni  was 
Theodosius,  who,  in  382,  condemned  (lie  Mani- 
chieans.  Eminent  Church  fathers,  however,  like 
Clirysostoni  {Iloinll.  29,  4U,  in  Mntlli.)  and  Au- 
gustine {Ep.  93  ad  Vicentium,  etc.),  pronounced 
against  the  death  penalty ;  but  Jerome  {Ep.  37 
ad  Ripariuiii)  found  a  justification  of  it  in  Deut. 
xiii.  G  .sqq.,  and  Leo  tlie  Great  openly  advocated 
it  {Ep.  15  ad  Turribrium).  The  civil  arm  executed 
the  penalty,  but  bishops  and  clergy  were  often 
lukewarm  in  searching  out  heresies.  The  see  of 
Rome  was  not  content  witli  decrees  of  councils, 
or  the  capitularies  of  Charlemagne  command- 
ing the  bishops  to  check  erroi',  and  gave  full 
powers  into  the  liands  of  legates,  who,  backed  by 
the  edicts  of  councils  (Toulouse,  1119  ;  Oxford, 
1160;  Tours,  1103;  the  Third  Lateran,  1179;  Ve- 
rona, 1184),  relentlessly  pursued  the  Catluiri  and 
the  Poor  j\len  of  Lyons  in  .Southern  Fiance,  and 
the  Catareni  in  Northern  Italy.  Finally  it  was 
Innocent  III.  [1198-1216]  who  developed  the  or- 
ganization for  the  detection  and  punishment  of 
heretics  which  for  several  centuries  conducted 
the  Inquisition,  in  the  technical  sense  of  the  term. 
By  the  Fourth  Lateran  Council  every  bishop  was 
instructed  to  visit  his  see  in  person,  or  to  appoint 
visitors  of  irreproacliable  character  to  do  it,  and, 
where  the  exigencies  of  the  case  demanded  it,  to 
take  an  oath  of  the  inhabitants  to  inform  against 
heretics,  and  to  reveal  their  jslaces  of  meeting. 
The  refusal  to  take  the  oath  was  regarded  as  an 
evidence  of  lieresy. 

The  measures  of  Innocent  III.  were  revised  by 
the  Council  of  Toulouse  (1229).  It  passed  forty- 
five  articles,  instructing  the  bishops  to  bind  by 
an  oath  a  priest  in  every  parish,  and  two  or  more 
laymen,  to  search  out  and  apprehend  heretics 
and  tliose  who  sheltered  them.  Heresy  was  to 
be  punished  with  the  loss  of  property,  and  the 
house  ill  which  a  heretic  was  found  was  to  be 
burned.  Heretics  who  repented  were  to  wear 
two  crosses,  — one  on  their  back,  and  one  on  their 
chest.  But  if  the  repentance  seemed  to  be  a  re- 
sult of  the  fear  of  deatli,  the  guilty  person  was 
to  be  shut  up  in  a  convent.  Every  two  years, 
males  from  fourteen  years  upwards,  and  females 
from  twelve  years  upwards,  were  obligated  to 
repeat  an  oath  to  inform  against  heretics.  The 
neglect  of  the  annual  confession  was  a  sufficient 
ground  of  suspicion,  as  also  the  possession  by 
laymen  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  in  transla- 
tions. In  spite  of  these  measures  and  the  rigorous 
execution  of  them,  especially  in  Southern  France, 
the  desired  result  was  not  secured.  The  bishops 
were  accused  of  apathy,  and  were  themselves  made 
subject  to  the  Inquisition  by  the  papal  chair. 
In  1232  and  1233  Gregory  IX."  appointed  the  Do- 
minicans a  standing  comini.ssion  of  inquisitors 
in   Austria,  Germany,   Aragon,  Lombardj-,  and 


INQUISITION. 


1100 


INQUISITION. 


Southern  France.  At  the  same  period  was  or- 
ganized the  so-called  "  soldiery  of  Jesus  Christ 
against  heretics."  Louis  the  Pious,  in  his  famous 
edict  of  1228  {ad  fives  Nai-bomice)  made  it  tlie 
special  duty  of  the  civil  power  to  root  out  heresy, 
and  to  punish  without  dela^'  tliose  who  were  con- 
demned. The  suspicion  of  heresy  was  made  a 
sufficient  ground  for  apprehension  ;  and,  by  a  bull 
of  Innocent  IV.,  in  1252  {ad  eistirpanda),  resort 
was  to  be  had,  if  necessary,  to  torture,  to  extract 
a  confession. 

The  notion  of  heresy  was  enlarged  so  as  to 
comprehend  not  only  the  slightest  deviation  from 
the  creed  of  tlie  Church,  but  also  usury,  sorcery, 
contempt  of  the  cross  and  clergy,  dealings  with 
Jews,  etc.  [The  case  of  Galileo  Galilei  shows 
how  heresy  was  understood.  This  distinguished 
astronomer  (b.  Pisa,  Feb.  18, 1501 ;  d.  in  the  Villa 
Martellini,  at  Arceti,  near  Florence,  Jan.  8, 1642) 
was  tried  by  the  Inquisition  in  Rome  (June  21, 
1633).  The  charge  against  him  was,  that  he  held 
the  Copernican  theory,  and  had  written  in  advo- 
cacy of  its  doctrines  condemned  in  the  decree  of 
1616  ;  viz.,  that  the  sun  is  fixed  in  the  centre  of 
the  world,  and  that  the  earth  rotates.  In  reply, 
he  said,  that,  since  the  Congregation  of  the  Index 
had  condemned  it,  he  had  not  held  the  Coperni- 
can theory.  The  published  documents  of  the 
trial  do  not  sustain  the  charge  that  he  was  tor- 
tured. He  made  public  recantation  the  next  day. 
The  famous  legend,  that,  on  rising  from  his  knees 
after  his  recantation,  he  exclaimed,  "  E  pur  si 
7nuove .' "  ("And  yet  it  does  move!")  seems  to 
have  no  adequate  foundation.  See  Wohi.will  : 
1st  Galilei  ijefoltert  u-ordenf  (Leipzig,  1877) ;  Ge- 
mlkk:  GaWco  (Stuttgart,  1876,  77,  2  vols.)  ;  De 
i.'Ei'iNois;  Les  pieces  du  proves  de  Galilee  (Rome, 
1877)  ;  Reuscii  :  D.  Prozess  Galileis  u.  d.  Jesuiten 
(I5onn,  1870)].  The  punishments  were  loss  of 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  privileges;  rigorous  confine- 
ment ;  and  death,  eitlier  by  a  simple  execution,  or 
by  incarceration  and  the  flames,  often  preceded 
by  cruel  tortures.  The  property  of  the  condenmed 
party  fell  to  tlio  Inquisition,  from  whose  sentence 
there  was  no  appeal. 

The  people  in  many  places  rose  up  against 
the  inquisitors,  as  in  Albi,  and  Narbonne  (1234), 
and  Toidouse;  and  in  France,  wliere  tlie  Inquisi- 
tion had  first  been  put  in  force,  it  was  first  abol- 
ished. In  (jermany,  the  Dominican  Kom-ad 
Droso,  and  e.specially  Konrad  of  Marburg  (1231- 
33),  were  Uie  most  active  agents  of  thc^  Incpiisi- 
tion  ;  but  lioth  were  murdered,  the  latter  at  Mar- 
burg. The  F>niperor  Frederick  II.,  as  a  means 
of  clearing  himself  of  the  charge  of  heresy,  issued 
from  Rav(!ima,  in  1232,  orders  for  carrying  out 
the  regulations  of  thi^  rn(iuisition ;  but  so  de- 
termined was  tlie  resistance  of  the  ])eople,  that 
its  power  was  felt  only  in  a  few  rare  cases  in  the 
century  that  followed.  About  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  I'rban  appointed  inquisitors 
to  proceed  against  Ihi'.  Begiiaids  in  Constaniu', 
Speier,  Erfurt,  and  Magdeburg.  In  1372  (ireg- 
ory  XI.  placed  the  number  at  five  for  all  (iei- 
many,  and  in  13!)!)  IJoniface  IX.  appointed  six 
for  Nortiiern  Oerinaiiy  alone.  Many  were  put  to 
<leatli,  even  during  llie  progress  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, in  conseiiueiice  of  the  famous  Malleus  vialiji- 
<«nim("  The  Witches'  llainiiier,"  Cologne,  1480), 
whicli  was  put  forth  by  the  Pope  at  the  instance 


of  two  inquisitors  (Heinrich  Kramers  and  Jacob- 
Spreiiger).  The  Jesuits  sought  to  restore  the 
Inquisition  in  Bavaria  (1590),  and  during  tlie 
Thirty-Yeai's'  War  it  found  an  occasional  victim  ; 
but  iiaria  Theresa  abolished  it  in  her  kingdom, 
and  it  soon  afterwards  disappeared  in  Germany. 

The  Inquisition  had  no  hold  in  England,  Swe- 
den, Xorway,  or  Denmark ;  but  in  Spain,  Portu- 
gal, and  the  Netherlands  it  enjoyed  a  luxuriant 
growth.  In  the  thirteenth  century  it  was  intro- 
duced into  Aragon  against  the  Moors  and  Jews. 
Nicolaus  Eymericus  (d.  1399)  was  inquisitor-gen- 
eral for  forty-four  years,  and  wrote  the  Inijuisitor's 
Manual  (Directorium  Inquisitorum),  which  states 
with  appalling  distinctness  tlie  rules  regulating 
the  methods  of  procedure.  They  were  first  put 
into  full  practice  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  at  the 
union  of  Castile  and  Aragon  by  the  marriage  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Hefele,  in  his  Life  of 
Ximenes,  and  in  the  art.  l7iquisition,  in  AVetzer  and 
AVelte,  has  shown  that  the  methods  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion were  in  some  respects  less  cruel  than  those 
of  the  criminal  courts  of  the  day ;  Vint  he  fails  to 
prove  that  the  Spanish  Inquisition  originated  with 
the  State  rather  than  with  the  Church.  The  one 
to  give  complete  organization  to  the  movement 
in  Spain  was  the  bloody  Domingo  de  Torquemada, 
who  [in  1483]  was  appointed  inquisitor-general. 
His  associates  received  the  most  definite  instruc- 
tions, and  surrounded  themselves  with  spies,  the 
.so-called  "  Familiars  of  the  Holy  Office."  The 
most  noble  in  the  land  offered  themselves  for  this 
service  in  order  to  secure  their  own  persons.  The 
terror  which  the  horrible  punishments  of  the  In- 
quisition produced  was  the  occasion  of  revolts 
and  occasional  assassinations  of  the  inquisitors; 
but  it  continued  to  rage,  the  king  himself  using 
it  to  extend  his  authority,  and  fill  his  treasury. 
In  1492  all  the  Jews  who  refused  to  become 
Christians  were  compelled  to  emigrate ;  and  a 
similar  edict  was  passed  upon  the  Moors  under 
Toniuemada's  successor,  Diego  Deza  (1409-1506). 
Under  the  third  inquisitor-general,  Ximenes 
(1507-17),  according  to  Llorente,  2,536  were  put 
to  death,  1,368  burned  in  effigy,  and  47,263  pun- 
ished in  otluM-  ways.  Each  tribunal  consisted  of 
three  inquisitors,  besides  assessors,  secretaries, 
familiars,  and  other  officers.  The  place  of  meet- 
ing was  called  the  "holy  house"  {casa  sania). 
If  the  accused  apjieared,  lie  was  carefully  exam- 
ined, and  placed  in  a  dark  pri.son.  His  bead  was 
shorn;  his  property,  especially  his  books,  inven- 
toried ;  his  income  usually  confiscated;  and  so 
terrible  was  the  fear  the  tribunal  inspired,  that 
not  even  the  accused's  nearest  friends  dared  to 
appear  in  his  defence.  Immediate  avowal  and 
renunciation  of  heresy  .secured  to  the  Jiarty  im- 
munity from  the  sentence  of  death,  but  seldom 
averted  the  loss  of  property  and  continenu'iit.  In 
spite  of  iiis  renunciation,  tlie  accused  was  obliged, 
for  a  certain  period,  to  wear  the  Saii  heuito  (a  sliirt 
without  sleeves,  and  bearing  a  red  St.  Andrew's 
cross  on  the  back  and  on  the  breast).  On  the 
other  hand,  the  denial  of  the  charge  of  liercsy 
seldom  secured  the  release  of  tlu'  prisoner ;  and 
extreme  tortures  were  applied  to  extort  a  confes- 
sion. If  these  failed,  artifice  was  used  to  entrap 
the  accused ;  and,  where  all  means  were  ex- 
hausl(;d,  the  victim  was  put  to  death  at  once,  or 
condemned  to  a  miserable  life  in  prison.     The 


INQUISITION. 


1101 


INSPIRATION. 


sentence  of  death  was  enforced  by  the  civil  arm, 
and  the  accused  was  usually  burnt  alive.  He 
was  taken,  in  a  solemn  procession,  to  the  public 
square,  where  the  Auto  da  fe  (act  of  faith)  was 
consummated. 

Under  Charles  I.  the  Cortes  sought  for  a  modi- 
fication of  the  laws  of  the  Inquisition  ;  but  under 
I'hilip  II.  the  flames  burned  brightly  again,  at 
first  in  Seville  and  Valladolid  (15.59  sq.).  But 
by  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  all  vestiges 
of  tlie  Reformation  were  effaced,  and  the  activity 
of  the  Inquisition  became  limited  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  prohibited  books,  of  which  an  Index  had 
been  prepared  in  ISijS.  Under  Charles  III.,  in 
1770,  an  edict  was  passed,  securing  an  accused 
party  from  arbitrary  impri.soument ;  and  other 
regulations  were  passed,  curtailing  the  powers  of 
the  Inquisition,  until,  in  1808,  Joseph  Napoleon 
abolished  it  entirely.  In  1814  Ferdinand  VII. 
restored  it ;  but  the  popular  rage  in  1820  destroyed 
the  inquisitor's  palace  at  Madrid,  and  the  Cortes 
'  again  abolished  it.  But  in  1825,  by  the  efforts  of 
the  clergy,  another  inquisitorial  commission  was 
appointed.  It  continued  till  1834,  when  it  was 
finally  abolished,  and  its  property  applied  to  the 
payment  of  the  public  debt.  But  it  may  be  a 
long  while  before  the  country  will  revive  from 
the  effects  of  the  court,  whic"li,  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries,  extinguished  her  active 
literary  life,  and  placed  this  nation,  so  riclily  en- 
dowed, almost  outside  of  the  circle  of  European 
civilization.  Spain,  it  is  true,  remained  free  from 
heresies  and  religious  wars ;  but  her  rest  was  the 
rest  of  the  grave,  so  far  as  religious  vitality  was 
concerned. 

The  fortunes  of  the  Inquisition  in  Portugal 
were  similar  to  those  which  it  had  in  Spain.  In 
the  reign  of  .John  VI.  (1818-20)  it  was  finally 
abolished.  The  last  relics  of  the  Italian  Inquisi- 
tion disappeared  at  the  unification  of  the  nation. 
The  Congregation  of  the  Inquisition  at  Rome, 
appointed  by  Sixtus  V.  in  1587,  is  all  that  remains 
of  it.  In  its  day  it  likewise  had  crushed  out  the 
Reformation,  and  had  raged  the  most  fearfully  in 
Venice ;  but  there  its  activity  seems  to  have  ceased 
in  1781,  and  in  1808  Napoleon  abolished  it.  Re- 
stored under  Pius  VII.  in  1814,  it  directed  its 
energies  to  prevent  the  diffusion  of  the  Italian 
Bible,  and  to  check  the  introduction  of  evangelical 
truth.  In  the  Netherlands,  where  the  hKpiisition 
was  first  introduced  in  the  thirteenth  century,  it 
became  a  terrible  weapon  in  tlie  time  of  the 
Reformation.  In  1521  Charles  V.  passed  a  rigor- 
ous edict  against  heretics,  and  appointed  Franz 
van  der  Hulst  inquisitor-general.  In  1525  three 
inquisitors-general  were  appointed,  in  1537  the 
number  was  increased  to  four,  and  in  1545  one 
was  appointed  for  each  of  the  provinces.  Ac- 
cording to  Grotius,  a  hundred  thousand  victims 
died  under  Charles  V. ;  according  to  the  Prince 
of  Orange,  fifty  thousand.  Both  computations 
are  probably  too  large.  Under  Philip  11.  the  in- 
quisitors developed  the  most  zeal ;  and  the  Duke 
of  Alva,  in  1567,  appointed  the  Bloody  Comicil, 
which  proceeded  with  unheard-of  cruelty  against 
those  whose  wealth  excited  their  avarice,  or  whose 
heresy  aroused  their  suspicion.  In  1573  Alva 
was  recalled  ;  and  three  years  later  the  provinces 
concluded  the  League  of  Ghent,  whose  fifth  arti- 
cle abolished  the  edicts  against  heresy. 


Lit.  —  Eymekici's  :  Dlrectorium  Inquisilnrum. 
Rome,  1587,  Venice,  1G07 ;  Paramo:  Dh  Ori(j.  cl 
Proyreasu  Officii  Saitctce,  pto.,  Madrid,  1580;  SAitri: 
Storia  della  Sacra  IiKjuisizione,  Serravalle,  10.'!8 ; 
IIeu.ss  :  Samiidunij  d.  Inslruktioncn  d.  spanisch. 
Inquisitionsgerichls,  Hannover,  1788;  Fuiedoi.in 
Hoffmann  :  Gesch.  d.  Inquisition,  Bonn,  1878, 
2  vols.  ;  Llorente  :  Hist.  crit.  de  I' Inquisition 
d'Espagne,  Paris,  1817,  4  vols.  (German  translation 
by  IliJCK,  Gmiind,  1819,4  vols.);  Cauniceko:  La 
Inquisicion  Juslamente  restablecida,  etc.,  Madrid, 
1816  (against  Llorente);  Orti  y  Lara:  La  In- 
quisicion, Madr.,  1877;  Rodrigo  :  Hist,  i-erdadera 
de  la  Inquisicion,  Madr.  (1879?);  Aluanese  : 
L'Inquis.  relig.  nella  Repuld.  di  Venezia,  Venice, 
1875  ;  M'Crie  :  Ilistorij  of  tlie  Reformation  in  Italij 
new  edition,  Edinb.,  1850,  and  in  S/min.  [See 
also  LlMBORCll :  Hislor.  In</uisitionis,  Amst.,  10!)2;, 
Rule  :  T/ie  History  of  the  Ini/uisition,  London,  1874, 
2  vols. ;  MoLlNlER  :  L'Inquisition  ilans  le  miili  dc 
la  France  au  ISme  et  Hmc  siecles,  Paris,  1880;  the 
same:  Defratre  Guillehno  Pelisso  veterrimo  inqnisi- 
tionis  historico,  Paris,  1880 ;  J.  de  Maistre  :  Lettrr 
a  un  gentilhomme  russe  sur  ['inquisition  espagnolc, 
Lyons,  1880;  V.  de  FerEAl:  Les  Mysteres  de 
I' inquisition,  Paris,  1880  ;  the  same  :  Storia  della 
tremenda  Inquisizione  di  Spagna,  Firenze,  1881  ; 
C.  R.  V.  IIoFLER  :  Monumenta  Hispanira ;  I.  Cor- 
respondenz  d.  Gohernadors  von  CastiUen,  Grossin- 
quisilors  in  Spanien,  Prag,  1881  ;  Ochsenbein  :  D. 
Inquisilionsprozess  wider  d.  Waldenser  zu  Freiburg 
i.  tl.  im  J.  H30,  Bern,  1881 ;  Practica  im/uisilionis 
heretice  pravitatis,  auctore  Bern.\rdo  (Umdonis. 
Docunient^mhlie  pour  la  premiere  fois  par  C.  Douais, 
Paris,  18S(;].  neudeckek  (hexratii). 

INSPIRATION  designates  the  influence  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  upon  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures, 
by  "which  they  have  become  the  expression  of 
God's  will  to  us.  The  term  comes  from  the  Vul- 
gate translation  of  2  Tim.  iii.  16:  Omnis  scriji- 
tura  dioiniCus  inspirata  ("  All  scripture  divinely  in- 
spired ").  The  Cireek  word  ^coKvivaTit^,  of  which 
"  inspired  "  is  the  translation,  does  not  occur  in 
classical  or  profane  Greek, — its  occurrence  in 
Plutarch  (De  placit.  phil.  5,  2)  being  in  all  proba- 
bility an  error  of  the  copyist, —  but  seems  to 
have  been  used  for  the  first  time,  in  writing,  in 
2  Tim.  iii.  16.  The  word  sometimes  had  the 
passive  meaning  of  "endowed  with  (iod's  Spirit" 
(Sibgll.  5,  406 ;  Vita  Sabce,  16) ;  but  here,  after 
the  analogy  of  uTrvevaTa;  ("breathing  ill"),  etc., 
the  meaning  seems  to  be  "  breathing  the  divine 
Spirit,"  and  not,  with  the  Vulgate,  "  given  by  the 
divine  Spirit."  The  latter  interpretation  has  in  its 
favor  that  the  word  has  that  meaning  when  joined 
with  avi/p  ("  man  ")  ;  but  the  former  suits  better 
with  the  context  "profitable  for  instruction,"  etc. 
(v.  15),  and  the  usual  mode  of  speaking  of  the 
Scripture  as  the  word  of  the  Holy  Ghost  (Acts 
xxviii.  25,  etc.).  Origen  seems  to  have  under- 
stood it  in  this  sense  when  he  said  the  "  holy  vol- 
umes breathe  the  fulness  of  the  Sjiirit"  {sacra 
volumina  spiritus  pleniludinem  spirant,  Ilom.  21  in 
Jerem.).  The  Peshito,  on  the  other  hand,  and 
the  Ethiopic  versions,  understand  it  as  meaning 
"inspired  by  God,"  the  former  translating  it. 
"  Every  scripture  which  is  written  in  the  Spirit  " 

(iv  TTV^VfiaTl'). 

A  well-defined  doctrine  of  inspiration  cannot 
be  said  to  have  existed  mitil  after  the  Reforma- 


INSPIRATION. 


1102 


INSPIRATION. 


tion.  The  earliest  views  on  inspiration  in  the 
Church  leaned  upon  the  Alexandrian  theology 
much  more  than  upon  the  Jewish.  The  Talmudic 
and  Alexandrian  Judaism  agreed  in  ascribing  a 
peculiar  authority  to  the  Old  Testament.  The 
former  held  that  the  Thorah,  or  Law,  was  of  im- 
mediate divine  origin.  God  wrote  it  with  liis  own 
hand,  or  dictated  it  to  Moses  as  liis  amanuensis. 
Although  some  teachers  were  inclined  to  regard 
Joshua  as  the  author  of  the  account  of  Moses' 
death  (Deut.  xxxiv.  5),  others  held  that  Moses 
was  the  author,  and  wrote  it  with  tears.  The 
other  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  were  not 
inspired  in  the  same  degree ;  and  the  Jewish 
theologians  of  the  middle  ages  taught  that  the 
prophetical  books  were  written  by  the  spirit  of 
prophecy,  and  the  Ilagiographa  by  the  spirit  of  ho- 
liness, and  that  the  writers  of  tlie  latter  exer- 
cised their  individuality  to  a  larger  extent  than 
the  former.  Joseph  us  held  that  the  canonical 
boolcs  were  all  written  before  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  425  B.C.  (c.  Ap. 
1,8);  but  lioth  he  and  Philo  speak  of  a  continu- 
ance of  the  gift  of  prophecy,  the  latter  ascribing  it 
to  every  pious  and  wise  man.  All  the  writers  of 
the  Old  Testament  were  prophets,  and,  as  such, 
interpreters  of  the  divine  will,  and  unconscious 
of  what  they  spoke.  They  were  in  an  ecstatic 
condition,  or  trance  (^t3co(p6priroc  fiav'ta),  both  when 
they  spoke  and  wrote,  and  were  simply  the  pas- 
sive organs  of  the  Spirit  of  God. 

The  Scriptures  recognize  an  ecstatic  condition  ; 
but  it  is  something  different  from  the  ecstasy  of 
I'hilo,  except,  perhaps,  in  the  case  of  Balaam, 
who  prophesied  against  his  will.  It  is  not,  as 
Augustine  has  rightly  said,  a  suspension  of  the 
mental  faculties  (nliciiatio  ti  mente),  but  an  "aliena- 
tion of  the  nund  from  physical  sense-perception  " 
{cdienalio  mentis  a  sensibus  corporis).  The  Hellen- 
istic or  Philonic  theory,  therefore,  was  not  derived 
either  from  Scripture  or  from  .Jewish  theology 
l)roper,  but  rather  from  heathen  sources.  Hea- 
thenism alone  knew  of  an  ecstasy  (iJco^opiyT-of  jiavia), 
as  Philo  defined  it.  He  got  it,  undoubtedly,  from 
I'lato,  who  regarded  a  divine  enthusiasm  UvOvama- 
fk)  or  ecstasy  as  the  primal  fount  of  philosophy 
where  the  inspiration  was  drawn,  but  differed 
from  Plato  in  holding  that  the  individual  con- 
sciousness was  enlinsly  lost. 

These  are  tlie  views  we  meet  with  in  the  writings 
of  the  early  Church.  The  apostolic  fathers  pre- 
•supposed  tlie  fact  of  inspiration  ;  but  the  apolo- 
getic writers  of  the  second  century,  such  as  Justin 
Slartyr  (C'o/i.  ad  Grcec.  8,  10;  Apol.  1.  36)  and 
Athenagora.s  (Ley.  9,  42),  emphasized  the  divine 
origin  of  the  .Scriptures,  and  give  the  imiiression 
that  they  lield  not  merely  to  tlie  mechanical,  but 
to  the  mantic  theory.  This  view  was  advocated 
by  the  Montanists;  and  it  is  to  the  oiiposition  of 
tlie  Church  to  them  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 
prevalence  of  sounder  views  of  inspiration.  Mil- 
tiadcs,  an  apologetic  writer,  wrot(!  a  work  against 
Moiitanisin,  oiiposing  the  vii^w  tliat  the  jirophi'ts 
.spoke  in  an  ecstatic  condition,  or  trance  (^i/k  tov  fji/ 
ihiv  T/ioijiiinjV  hi  iKariwu  lakdv,  ICu.seb.,  //.  E.,  .5,  17); 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria  regarded  such  a  con- 
dition as  an  evidence  of  false  prophets  and  an  evil 
Ml)irit  (Sirnin.  1,  311).  After  Origen,  the  Churcli 
teachers  emiihatically  denied  that  the  ])ropliets 
were   in  a  state   of   unconsciousne.ss   when   they 


spoke.  They  did  not  limit  the  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  upon  the  biblical  authors,  but  ad- 
mitted their  independence,  to  which  more  than 
form  and  style  are  attributed.  But  they  did  not 
attempt  to  reconcile  the  divine  and  human  fac- 
tors; and  both  Ii-en;eus  (Adv.  liar.  III.  IG,  2)  and 
Augustine  (Z)e  con.i.  err.  II.,  12),  while  speaking 
of  the  apostles  as  writing  down  what  they  re- 
membered, at  the  same  time  compared  them  to 
the  hands  which  wrote  down  what  Christ  dictated. 
Jerome  discovers  solecisms  in  Scripture  (Ep.  ad. 
Eph.  II.  ad  3,  1);  and  Origen  goes  farther,  when  he 
distinguishes  between  the  contents  of  Scripture, 
which  are  always  true,  and  its  language,  in  which 
the  writers,  who  carefully  elaborated  their  style, 
sometimes  made  mistakes.  Origen  gave  moi'e 
attention  to  the  discussion  of  the  nature  of  in- 
spiration than  any  of  the  other  fathers ;  and, 
according  to  him,  it  included  an  elevated  activity 
of  the  human  faculties  and  the  activity  of  the 
Spirit  calling  the  former  forth.  In  the  Church 
of  Antioch  the  human  side  was  made  prominent; 
and  Theodore  of  IMopsuestia  held  that  Job  was  a 
poem  which  had  sprung  up  on  heathen  soil :  but 
in  the  Western  Church  the  councils,  as  well  as 
the  Church  itself,  came  to  be  regarded  as  being 
in  a  certain  sense  inspired.  At  a  later  period, 
when  Agobard  of  Lyons  (d.  840)  affirmed  that  the 
biblical  writers  did  not  always  observe  the  laws  of 
grammar,  the  abbot  Fredegis  of  Tours  went  so  far 
in  his  reply  as  to  say  that  the  Holy  Ghost  formed 
the  very  words  themselves  in  the  mouths  of  the 
apostles  (eliam  ipsa  corporatia  verba  exirinsecus  in 
ore  aposloloruiu'). 

Scholasticism  manifested  no  special  interest  in 
the  doctrine  of  inspiration,  although  Anselm  laid 
awake  many  nights,  meditating  how  the  prophets 
could  look  upon  the  future  as  though  it  were  the 
present;  and  Thomas  of  Aquinas  made  a  distinc- 
tion between  revelation  and  inspiration.  The 
latter  recognized  different  grades  of  inspiration 
among  the  prophets  of  the  Old  Testament;  so 
that  David  knew  more  than  Mo.ses.  The  princi- 
ple was,  that,  the  nearer  they  lived  to  the  advent 
of  Christ,  the  greater  was  their  illumination. 
The  Holy  Spirit  used  the  tongue  of  the  speaker, 
but  did  not  destroy  his  independent  activity. 
The  autliority  of  the  Scriptures  was  universally 
acknowledgeci ;  and  only  Abelard  thought  of  as- 
serting that  the  prophets  and  apostles  were  not 
always  free  from  error,  quoting  (ial.  ii.  11  sqq. 
in  support  of  the  assertion. 

The    Reformation    emphasized   the   authority, 
and  encouraged  the  use,  of  tlie  Scriptures.     No 
one   thought   of   denying   their   authority.     The 
only  question  was  as  to  t^ieir  meaning  and  appli- 
cation.    This  explains  the  absence  of  all  di.scus- 
}  sion  of  the  nature  of  ins]uration  by  the  Reformers. 
Luther,  on  the  one  hand,  regarded  tlie  Bible  as  a 
book  on  "  a  letter  or  title  of  which  more  hung  / 
than  upon  heaven  and  earth,"  but.  on  the  other  / 
hand,  speaks  of  it  as  containing  hay,  straw,  and 
stulible,  of  an  insufliciency  in    Paul's   argument  j 
((Jal.  iv.  22  sqq.),  etc.     lie  regarded  the    Holy  ; 
Spirit  as  the  author  of  Scripture,  but  recognized 
the  writers  by  their  peculiar  characteristics,  and 
asserts    tliat   they  poured  out  their  whole   heart 
into  their  words.     Calvin  held  the   same  views. 
In  the   Scriptures  we  hear,  as  it  were,  tlie  very 
voice  of  God ;  but  he  does  not  shrink  from  speak- 


INSPIRATION. 


1103 


INSPIRATION. 


dug  of  inaccuracies  (as  in  Matt,  xxvii.  9).  The 
Confessions  emphasized  the  supreme  authority 
<if  Scripture,  but  did  not  investigate  the  nature  of 
inspiration  ;  nor  did  Gerhard  (d.  1037),  even  in  his 
ri-ch  chapter  De  script,  sacra.  Calovius  was  tlie 
author  of  the  theory  which  is  usually  denomi- 
nated the  ( )rthodox  Trotestant  theory.  According 
to  him,  inspiration  is  the  form  which  revelation 
assumes,  and  nothing  exists  in  the  Scriptures 
which  was  not  divinely  suggested  and  inspired 
(dieinhus  suggestum  el  inspiraium).  Quenstedt, 
Baier,  Ilollaz,  and  others  followed,  affirming  that 
the  writers  were  dependent  upon  the  Spirit  for 
their  very  words,  and  denying  that  there  were  any 
solecisms  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Buxtorfs 
extended  inspiration  to  the  vowel-points  of  the 
Old  Testament.  This  view  was  adopted  in  the 
Formula  Cons.  Helv.,  and  GisbertVoetius  extended 
inspiration  to  the  very  punctuation.  This  doctrine 
was  an  absolute  novelty.  The  Pietists,  especially 
Spener,  in  the  interest  of  the  direct  influence  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the  heart,  denied  that  the 
biblical '  writers  were  absolutely  passive.  The 
theology  of  the  Church  gradually  assumed  a  more 
liberal  form,  and  the  divine  contents  of  the  Bible 
were  sought  for  in  vain  by  the  rationalists;  while 
the  supernaturalists,  lowering  the  tijeory  of  inspi- 
ration to  that  of  a  divine  superintendency,  held 
that  oidy  to  be  inspired  which  the  ordinary  reason 
could  not  discover. 

The  more  recent  development  of  the  doctrine  of 
inspiration  has  proceeded,  in  part,  upon  the  princi- 
ples of  Schleiermacher,  and  in  part  upon  those 
of  the  school  of  Bengel.  The  former,  pursuing 
an  original  treatment,  ascribed  inspiration  to  the 
spirit  pervading  the  Church  {Gemeingeist  der 
Kirc/ie),  and  made  it  to  consist  of  two  essential 
elements  —  a  receptivity  and  an  activity — awak- 
ened by  Christ.  It  therefore  extends,  not  only 
to  the  writings,  but  to  the  entire  activity,  of  the 
apostles.  The  Old  Testament  proceeded  from  the 
spirit  of  the  Israelitish  Church,  and  therefore  has 
not  the  dignity  of  the  Xew  Testament.  lie  laid 
the  principal  stress  upon  the  human  factors  in  the 
composition,  who  are,  by  reason  of  their  relation 
to  Christ,  the  accredited  and  trustworthy  wit- 
nesses of  Christian  truth.  The  spirit  which  con- 
trols them  is  not  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  third  person 
of  the  Trinity.  Far  as  he  departed  from  the 
theory  of  inspiration  which  prevailed  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century,  it  is  Schleiermacher's  merit  to 
have  emphasized  the  human  element  in  the  com- 
position of  the  Scriptures.  Twesten  renewed  the 
supernatural  theory  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
without  its  exaggerations ;  and  Beck  regarded  it 
-as  an  essential  element  in  the  "  organism  of  Reve- 
lation," and  not  to  be  confounded  with  revelation. 
Both  he  and  Philippi  conceived  of  it  as  illumina- 
tion ;  the  latter  defining  it  as  "  that  influence  of 
the  Spirit  by  which  the  mind  is  wholly  transferred 
into  the  sphere  of  revelation,  and  is  fitted  to 
report  the  special  subject  exactly,  or  as  that 
connnunion  of  the  human  mind  with  the  mind 
of  the  Spirit  by  which  the  revelation  of  the  latter 
becomes,  without  adulteration,  the  thought  of 
the  former."  Kothe  defined  inspiration  as  the 
momentary  condition  of  the  soul  by  which  it  is 
enabled  to  understand  and  to  infallibly  interpret 
revelation.  The  inspiration  of  the  apostles  was 
only  the  increased  measure  of  the  Spirit  indwell- 
18  — 11 


ing  in  them,  and  the  Scriptures  are  simply  the 
outflowing  of  the  divine  life  of  their  authors. 

As  we  said  at  the  beginning,  inspiration  means 
something  different  from  the  Greek  deoTivevaTor 
("breathing  the  divine  Sjiirit").  It  refers  to  the 
origination,  the  latter  to  the  contents,  of  the  Bible. 
But,  if  the  Bible  breathes  the  Spirit  of  God,  then 
it  must  have  received  this  characteristic  from 
God.  If  it  breathes  his  Spirit  iii  a  peculiar  man- 
ner, then  it  must  have  received  it  in  a  j)eculiar 
way.  We  are  therefore  justified  in  speaking  of 
a  special  influence  of  the  Spirit  uijon  the  authors 
of  the  Scriptures.  For  this  idea  the  Church  has 
coined  the  term  "in.spiration."  The  first  ques- 
tion is,  whether  the  Scriptures  do  really  breathe 
the  Holy  Spirit  in  a  peculiar  manner.  This  is  a 
matter  of  experience  (an  experience  of  faith),  just 
as  God's  nature  is  a  matter  of  experience ;  but 
this  experience  must  be  of  the  nature  of  a  uni- 
versal one  for  all  religiously  disposed  persons, 
and  such  we  find  it  to  be.  It  is  and  has  been 
the  experience  of  the  Church  with  reference  to 
tlie  Scriptures  as  a  w^hole ;  and  the  Church  has 
regarded  them  as  the  infallible  standard  of  a  reli- 
gious life,  and  the  absolutely  pure  spring  of  all 
religious  convictions  derived  from  them.  The 
Scriptures,  however,  contain  the  revelation  of  sal- 
vation :  their  authors,  therefore,  must  have  stood 
in  peculiar  relations  to  the  Holy  Spirit.  Of  what 
nature  this  relation  was  can  only  be  ascertained 
from  the  history  of  salvation  as  it  is  found  in  the 
Scriptures  themselves.  This  relation  varies  at 
different  times,  and  is  modified  by  the  relative 
nearness  of  the  parties  to  God.  The  distinction 
between  the  inspiration  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments  is  brought  out  by  the  words  used  in 
the  two  cases.  It  is  uniformly  said  of  the  proph- 
ets, that  the  "  word  of  the  Lord  came  to,"  or  the 
"  word  of  the  Lord  which  .  .  .  saw  "  (Isa.  ii.  1 ; 
Amos  i.  1,  etc.).  In  the  New  Testament  the 
word  of  the  Lord  was  revealed  through  Christ 
(Acts  X.  36;  Rom.  x.  5-8;  Tit.  i.  3,  etc.).  Here, 
in  order  to  apprehend  the  revelation  of  God  in 
Christ,  only  a  relation  of  faith  to  Christ  is  neces- 
sary (Luke  X.  24;  1  Pet.  i.  10;  Matt.  xi.  25,  xyi. 
17).  The  preparation  to  be  a  witness  for  Christ 
is  a  fruit  of  a  personal  relation  to  him  (Matt.  x. 
27 ;  John  xv.  15). 

The  attestation  of  the  gospel  is  conditioned 
upon  the  indwelling  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  the 
heart  of  the  witness ;  but  it  is  a  special  calling, 
and,  like  every  ecclesiastical  service,  requires  a 
special  preparation  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  Every 
one  who  is  regenerated  is  not  inspired,  but  every 
one  who  is  inspired  is  regenerated.  Inspiration, 
therefore,  is  the  charism  which  fitted  the  apostles, 
in  spite  of  their  personal  imperfections  (comp. 
Gal.  ii.  with  1  Cor.  ix.  16  sqq.),  to  announce  au- 
tlioritatively,  and  for  all  time,  the  facts  of  salva- 
tion and  their  meaning.  If  a  special  preparation 
was  necessary  under  the  new  dispensation,  much 
more  so  was  it  under  the  old.  Here  the  influence 
of  inspiration  might  be  exerted  upon  persons  in 
whom  the  Spirit  did  not  dwell  as  a  vital  and  con- 
stant principle.  Again :  the  inspiration,  at  least 
of  the  prophets,  was  a  temporary  endowment ; 
that  of  the  apostles,  an  abiding  one ;  and  the 
former  suffered  from  the  same  defects  of  spiritual 
experience  as  their  contemporaries  (.John  vii.  39  ; 
1  Pet.  i.  10,  11).     Under  the  old  covenant  the 


INSPIRATION. 


]104 


INSPIRATION. 


writers  had  to  be  prepared  to  interpret  the  mean- 
ing of  history  with  reference  to  salvation.  The 
liuowledge  of  historical  facts  they  got  in  the  usual 
way;  and  if  it  be  true  that  the  preparation  of  the 
Spirit  extended  only  to  the  interpretation,  and 
not  to  the  acquisition,  of  historical  facts,  then  we 
can  easily  explain  their  divergences  in  matters 
of  chronological  sequence,  the  attendant  circum- 
stances, etc. 

The  activity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is,  therefore, 
neither  limited  nor  made  impossible  by  the  inde- 
pendence and  peculiarities  of  the  biblical  writers, 
as  was  thought  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but 
made  possible  and  advanced  by  it.  Inspiration 
is  the  very  opposite  of  a  suspension  of  human  in- 
dependence. It  rather  confirms  and  sanctifies  it. 
The  gift  of  inspiration  does  not  stand  out  of  rela- 
tion to  the  facts  of  Christian  experience,  but 
belongs  among  the  charisms  of  the  Church ;  was 
a  preparation  for  giving  the  testimony  of  the 
gospel,  and  not  merely  for  wTiting  the  Scriptures  ; 
and  was  confined   to  the  earliest  period  of   the 

Church.  HERM.\NN  CRESIER. 

In  view  of  the  great  importance  of  the  subject 
discussed  in  this  article,  it  is  desirable,  without 
repeating  what  has  already  been  said,  to  bring 
out  some  of  its  aspects  a  little  more  sharply,  and 
to  emphasize  some  further  considerations.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  theory  of  the 
mode  and  degree  (as  distinct  from  the  fact)  of 
inspiration,  although  of  great  importance,  is  "  not 
fundamental  to  the  truth  of  Christianit}' "  (Pro- 
fessor A.  A.  IIoDGE  :  Presh.  Rev.  for  1881,  p.  227). 

I.  Inspiration  and  the  Canon.  —  Our  present 
canon  does  not  necessarily  measure  the  extent  of 
inspiration.  Both  must  be  determined  by  the 
same  process,  upon  the  basis  of  the  contents  of 
the  books,  the  statements  of  their  authors,  their 
relation  to  Christ  (in  the  New  Testament),  and 
the  judgment  of  the  Church.  It  is  evident  that 
a  book  belonging  to  our  present  canon  may  not 
be  inspired.  Seven  books  of  the  New  Testament 
were  disputed  in  the  Cliurch  of  the  first  four 
centuries,  and  are  hence  called  Antilegomcna  by 
Kusebius,  as  distinct  from  the  Ilomuloijumena, 
which  were  universally  accepted  as  canonical. 
The  Roman-Catholic  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
still  includes  the  Apocrypha,  which  are  rejected  by 
I'rotestants.  Luther  doubted  the  inspiration  of 
Esther  (see  art.),  an<l  ln^ld  an  unfavorable  view  of, 
the  Epistle  of  James  and  the  Apocalypse,  (.'alvin 
expressed  doubts  about  2  Peter.  The  liibht  is  an 
organism  ;  and,  tliough  to  one  part  inspiration  be 
denied,  the  inspiration  of  the  wliole  is  not  thereby 
of  necessity  affected.  The  (piestion  of  the  inspi- 
ration of  the  (iospel  of  John,  for  example,  may  be 
independent  of  the  proof  that  the  Books  of  the 
Chronicles  ai'e  inspired. 

II.  Theories. — Canon  Farrar  (jBi'We  Educator) 
has  grouped  the  theories  of  inspiration  held  in 
the  Christian  Cliuicli  under  five  heads.  .Morcll, 
VVestcott,  A.  S.  Farrar  (Crit.  llisl.  of  Free 
Thonijht,  p.  47.5  sqi].),  Dorner,  and  others  include 
all  th(!  views  under  two  heads,  —  the  mochanical 
("docetic,"  Dorner)  and  the  dynamical.  Against 
this  division  is  the  serious  olijectiou,  that  under 
the  former  head  are  jihKM'd  all  who  holil  to  verbal 
inspiration;  while  many  of  thc^  advocates  of  this 
view  (Dr.  Cliarh's  llodge,  Khedd,  etc.)  expressly 
deny  that  the  writers  of  the  Scriptures  forfeited 


their  individuality,  and  became  mere  machines. 
The  most  popular  distinction  is  that  of  plenary 
and  partial,  or  verbal  and  partial.  These  terms 
are  apt  to  be  misleading,  unless  it  is  carefully 
borne  in  mind  to  what  the  inspiration  is  applied. 
One,  for  example,  may  hold  to  the  plenary  inspi- 
ration of  the  authors,  and  yet  deny  the  verbal 
inspiration  of  their  writings.  The  following 
classification  will  repi-eseut  the  different  views  :  — 

1.  The  writers  of  Scripture  had  the  innnediate 
influence  of  the  Spirit  to  such  an  extent,  that  they 
could  not  err  in  any  point.  Every  statement  of 
.Scripture  is  accurate  and  infallible.  "Inspira- 
tion extends  to  all  the  contents  of  the  several 
books,  whether  religious,  scientific,  historical,  or 
geographical  "  (Charles  IIodge:  Theology,  i.  ii. 
163).  "They  were  preserved  from  error  of  fact, 
doctrine,  and  judgment"  (Patton  :  Inspiration, 
p.  92).  In  the  seventeenth  century  this  view  was 
held  in  such  a  way,  that  inspiration  became  sy- 
nonymous with  dictation,  and  the  writers  were 
compared  to  pens  {calami  Spiritus  S.  dictantis),  or 
to  a  flute  (Carpzov,  Quenstedt,  etc.).  Others, 
while  denying  this  mechanical  view,  hold  to  the 
plenary  verbal  inspiration  theory  (Gaussen,  Dr. 
Charles  Hodge,  Shedd,  Patton,  Given,  etc.).  The 
very  words  are  the  words  of  the  Sjiirit,  because 
"  the  thoughts  are  in  the  words,  and  the  two  are 
inseparable"  (Hodge:  TheoL,  i.  p.  164).  Inspi- 
ration has  also  been  described  as  an  influence  of 
superintendence.  This  word,  first  used  by  Dod- 
dridge in  this  connection,  has  recently  been  made 
prominent  by  Drs.  Hodge  and  Warfield  {Presh. 
Her.),  who  say,  "The  essence  of  inspiration  was 
superintendence"  (p.  226).  "The  Holy  Spirit 
elevated  and  directed  the  faculties  of  the  writers, 
when  need  be,  and  thus  secured  the  errorle.<s 
expre.ssion  in  language  of  the  thought  designed 
by  God  "  (p.  231).  They  admit,  however,  that 
there  may  be  errors  in  Scripture  as  we  now  possess 
it,  and  as.sert  infallibility  "onlj-  for  the  original 
autographic  text "  (p.  245). 

This  cla.ss  of  views  has  in  its  favor  (1)  the 
difiiculty  of  conceiving  how  the  thought  could 
lie  suggested  by  the  Spirit  without  the  language ; 
and  (2)  the  support  it  gives  to  the  authority  of 
the  Scripture  as  a  system  of  truth  and  a  guide 
of  action.  Against  this  class  of  views  the  follow- 
ing objections  are  urged:  (1)  It  is  hard,  on  this 
general  theory,  to  account  for  the  individual 
peculiarities  of  the  writings.  The  style  of  Milton 
in  Paradise  Lost  is  the  same,  whether  he  dictates 
to  one  daughter  or  to  another.  But  in  the  Scrip- 
tures there  is  a  marked  difference  between  tlie 
style  of  Hosea  and  Isaiah,  John  and  Paul,  althou"h 
the  same  .Spirit  suggested  the  language  of  each. 
It  is  urged,  nowever,  that  the  .'^pirit  accommodated 
himself  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  writers.  (2) 
There  are  differences  of  statement  in  the  .Scrip- 
tures concerning  the  same  facts.  To  instance  a 
single  case,  Paul  says  twenty-three  thousand  died 
in  the  jilague  (1  Cor.  x.  8)  in  which  Moses  reports 
twenty-four  tho\isand  to  have  died  (Xuni.  xxv.  9). 
(3)  It  is  hard  to  ex|)laiu  the  divergences  (not  con- 
tradictions) in  the  Gosjiels  when  (he  narratives 
refer  l<>  the  same  facts  or  to  the  s:ime  discourses  of 
our  Lord.  Compare,  for  exiimple,  (he  four  forms 
in  which  the  superscription  on  the  cross  is  given, 
or  the  words  of  our  Lord  to  the  disciples  on  the 
lake.     Matthew  (viii.  25-27)   reports   the  latter 


INSPIRATION. 


INSPIRATION. 


as,  ■'  Why  are  ye  fearful,  O  ye  of  Utile  faith  f " 
Mark  (iv.  30-41),  "Why  are  ye  fearful?  /lai'e  ye 
not  yet  faith  V  The  force  of  this  consideration 
led  Osiander  {Harm.  Eov.,  Basel,  15:)7),  who  held 
a  high  theory  of  inspiration,  to  assume  that 
Peter's  wife's  mother  was  healed  of  the  fever 
three  times!  (4)  It  is  very  difficult  to  understand 
why  the  New-Testament  writers  usually  ([uote 
the  Septuaghit  translation,  and  not  the  original 
Hebrew  of  the  Old  Testament  (comp.  Acts.  ii. 
10-21,  etc.).  In  many  cases  the  divergence  from 
the  Hebrew  text  is  great;  as  in  the  quotation 
which  .James  made  at  the  Council  of  .lerusaleni, 
in  other  passages  of  the  Acts,  and  in  many  pas- 
sagi's  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (which  always 
(pu:)tes  from  the  Septuagint).  (5)  The  autograplis 
of  the  sacred  writers  are  lost.  For  tlie  Hebrew 
.Sci'iptures  we  have  to  depend  upon  Jewish  manu- 
scripts not  older  than  the  eighth  century.  In  tiie 
(ireek  New  Testament  we  have  an  ever  increasing 
number  of  variations  (now  exceeding  a  hundred 
thousand),  which,  indeed,  do  not  affect  any  doc- 
trine or  pi-ecept,  yet  seem  to  be  inconsistent  wi'th 
this  theory  ;  for,  if  a  literal  inspiration  were  neces- 
sary for  the  Church,  God  (so  we  should  expect) 
■woukl  have  provided  for  the  errorless  preservation 
of  the  original  text.  Moreover,  the  great  mass  of 
Christians  has  to  depend  upon  vernacular  trans- 
lations, for  none  of  which  infallible  acciu'acy  is 
claimed. 

2.  The  second  general  theory  of  inspiration  is, 
that  the  writers  of  Scripture  enjoyed  the  influence 
of  the  Spirit  to  such  an  extent,  that  it  is  the  Word, 
and  contains  tlie  will,  of  God.  This  view  is  the 
prevailiu"'  view  to-day,  and  lias  been  held  by 
l.uther,  Calvin,  Baxter,  Doddridge,  Wm.  Lowtli, 
Baunigarten,  Neander,  Tholuck,  Stier,  Lange, 
Hare,  Alford,  Van  Oosterzee,  Plumptre  (Com.  on 
Acts,  ch.  vii.),  F.  W.  Farrar,  Corner,  etc.  It 
admits  mistakes  (or  at  least  the  possibility  of  mis- 
takes) in  historical  and  geographical  statements, 
but  denies  any  error  in  matters  of  faith  or  morals. 
Baxter  said,  "  We  may  doubt  some  of  the  words 
of  the  Old  Testament  and  circumstances  of  the 
New,  and  yet  have  no  reason  to  doubt  the  Chris- 
tian religion  "  (Cat.  of  Families).  Our  conviction 
of  the  truth  of  Scripture  "  is  not  shattered,  if  the 
holy  men  could  err  in  things  about  which  it  was 
not  necessary  to  receive  certainty,  and  certainty 
in  regard  to  which  is  unimportant  from  a  religious 
point  of  view.  It  is  sufficient  that  they  received 
unadulterated,  and  present  without  error,  the 
infallible  spiritual  truth,  to  witness  which  to 
mankind  they  were  appointed,"  etc.  (  Dorneu  : 
Glaubenslehre,  i.  635).  This  view  lays  stress  upon 
the  sense  of  Scripture  as  a  revelation  of  God's 
will,  and  leaves  room  for  the  full  play  of  human 
agency  in  the  composition.  It  preserves  the 
spiritual  marrow,  and  does  not  imperil  the  whole 
by  an  appeal  to  our  ignorance  to  explain  unes- 
sential variations. 

This  theory  (1)  admits  of  the  highest  respect 
for  the  Scriptures  as  the  Word  of  God.  Luther 
accused  Paul  in  one  instance  of  false  logic,  and 
spoke  disparagingly  of  Esther;  but  no  one  has 
ever  magnified  Paul  or  the  Scriptures  more  than 
he.  The  fine  word  of  Athanasius  (ad  Marc.)  would 
still  hold,  ec7Tt  yup  ev  toIq  jCtv  ypaipCtv  ^fiaoLv  v  Kvpiog 
("  The  Lord  is  in  the  words  of  Scripture  ").  (2) 
It  helps  us  to  understand  the  divergences  in  the 


accounts  of  our  Lord's  life,  and  the  inconsistencies 
in  historical  statement  of  differc'ut  parts  of  the 
Bible.  An  instance  is  found,  in  the  report  of 
Stephen's  speech,  where  it  is  stated  that  "  Abra- 
ham purchased  the  field  from  the  sons  of  Ilamor 
in  Sheohem"  (Acts  vii.  10).  In  Genesis,  .Jacob 
is  reported  to  have  purchased  the  field.  (3)  This 
theory  is  more  in  accordance  with  the  miitliod  of 
the  Spirit's  working  in  general.  The  ajtostles 
were  not  perfect  in  their  conduct  and  judgment 
as  rulers  and  teachers  of  the  Church  (,\cts  xv.  39  ; 
xxiii.  3;  Gal.  ii.  12;  1  Cor.  xiii.  12;  Phil.  iii.  12). 
The  grace  of  God  was  in  them  as  earthen  vessels. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Scriptures.  They 
are  a  human  vase  in  which  the  divine  revelation 
is  contained.  They  are  God's  book,  and  yet  man's 
composition ;  and  the  subtle  inter-relation  of  the 
human  and  divine  elements  is  as  difficult  of  ex- 
planation as  that  of  God  and  man  in  the  work  of 
salvation  (Phil.  ii.  12,  13),  or  that  of  the  soul 
and  the  body.  (4)  It  removes  a  hinderance  out 
of  the  way  of  many  who  would  gladly  believe 
the  Bible  to  contain  the  word  of  God,  if  it  were 
not  necessary  to  give  their  assent  to  all  its  his- 
torical statements.  (See  excellent  remarks  by 
Morell,  p.  169.)  Many  can  believe  the  discourses 
of  our  Lord  in  John  (xii.  sqq.)  to  be  divine  who 
cannot  so  regard  the  list  of  the  Dukes  of  Edom 
(Gen.  xxxvi.  1.5-43),  or  all  the  tables  of  the 
Books  of  Chronicles,  or  the  exact  number  killed 
for  looking  into  the  ark, — 50,070  (1  Sam.  vi. 
19).  It  may  be  said  that  we  would  thus  be 
embarrassed  to  know  what  is  and  what  is  not 
inspired.  The  objection  is  to  some  extent  well 
founded;  but  in  this  case,  as  in  men's  individual 
relations  to  Christ,  they  are  left  to  exercise  their 
judgment,  guided  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  (5)  This 
view  makes  the  absence  of  an  absolutely  pure 
text  intelligible.  The  autographs  of  the  apostles 
do  not  exist;  and  we  may  speak  reverently  in 
saying  that  this  might  have  been  expected,  it  the 
letter  of  Scripture  were  the  work  of  the  Spirit. 

III.  Proofs  of  Inspiration.  —  The  passage  "All 
Scripture  is  given  by  inspiration  of  God  "  (2  Tim. 
iii.  16)  is  often  quoted  as  a  proof  of  the  inspi- 
ration of  all  the  canonical  books.  The  mean- 
ing of  the  term  ^coTrvcvaTo^  has  been  discussed 
above.  Here  it  is  sufficient  to  say  that  the 
passage  has  reference  to  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  that  the  translation  making  it  a 
dogmatic  statement  is  probably  incorrect.  The 
Revised  Version  gives  the  true  rendering;  "  Every 
scripture  inspired  of  God  is,"  etc.  The  proofs  of 
inspiration  are  as  follows  :  (1)  The  statements 
of  Scripture  itself.  In  the  Old  Testament  the 
authors  testify  to  the  divine  origin  of  their  mes- 
sage by  such  expressions  as  the  "word  of  the 
Lord  came,"  or  the  "Lord  spake  by  his  servant." 
The  prophets  were  specially  called  (.Jer.  i.  9,  etc.). 
The  inspiration  of  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testiv 
ment  is  also  proved  by  the  terms  applied  to  their 
writings  in  the  New  Testament  (Kom.  i.  2 ;  2 
Tim.  iii.  10,  etc.),  the  explicit  statements  of  our 
Lord  (Matt.  iv.  4,  xxii.  29;  Luke  x.  26)  and 
his  apostles  (Heb.  i.  2),  their  frequent  quotations 
from  it,  and  our  Lord's  proof  of  his  claims  from 
its  utterances  (John  v.  39  ;  Luke  xxiv.  27,  etc.). 
The  inspiration  of  the  New  Testament  is  likewise 
proved  by  its  own  testimony,  the  apostles  insisting 
upon  the  infallibility  of  their  words  (1  Cor.  ii. 


INSPIRED. 


1106 


INTERCESSION. 


13;  1  Thess.  ii.  13;  2  Thess.  ii.  13),  and  by  the 
Lord's  promise  to  tliem  of  a  special  endowment 
of  the  Spirit  (John  xiv.  26,  xvi.  13 ;  comii. 
1  Cor.  vii.  40,  etc.),  and  a  supernatural  supply  of 
\vi,sdom  and  words  (Matt.  x.  20;  Luke  xxi.  1.5). 
Christ,  it  is  true,  did  not  appoint  scribes ;  but  he 
appointed  tcilnesses,  and  promised  to  them  a 
miraculous  presence  and  power.  (2)  The  nature 
of  the  contents.  The  inherent  excellences  of 
.Scripture  (as  in  the  case  of  the  person  of  Christ) 
are  sufficient  witnesses  to  its  heavenly  origin. 
The  unity  of  the  book,  unfolding  a  single  piu'- 
pose ;  its  elevated  tone ;  the  faultless  character  of 
Christ ;  the  nature  of  the  facts  revealed  of  God, 
the  soul,  and  the  future,  —  all  stamp  it  as  a  work 
of  more  than  ordinary  human  genius  or  insight. 
This  testimony  is,  for  most  minds,  the  strongest 
of  all.  It  is  the  testimony  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
the  experience.  "  The  more  familiar,"  says  Dod- 
dridge, "  one  becomes  with  these  books,  the  more 
will  one  be  struck  with  this  evidence;  "  and  Van 
Oosterzee  well  says,  •'  lie  who  will  acknowledge  in 
Scripture  no  higher  than  a  purely  human  charac- 
ter comes  into  collision,  not  only  with  our  Lord's 
word  and  that  of  his  witnesses,  but  also  with  the 
Christian  consciousness  of  all  ages,"  etc.  (Doff- 
ynatics,  p.  199).  (3)  The  a  priori  proof.  This 
argument  is  hardly  less  strong  than  the  previous 
ones,  for  minds  which  hold  that  God  has  given  to 
men  a  revelation  of  his  will.  If  Giod  has  made 
such  a  revelation,  he  would  make  special  provision 
for  its  infallible  communication. 

Lit.  —  B.\XTER  :  Catechiz.  of  Familie:',  1681 ; 
LowTii  :  Vindication  of  the  Inspiration  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  1692  ;  Doddridge  :  The  In- 
spiration of  the  ifeti>  Testament  as  proved  from  the 
Facts  recorded  in  the  Historical  Books  of  it ,  Son- 
tag  :  Doctr.  inspir.  ejus(jue  ratio,  hist,  et  tisus  popu- 
laris,  Heidelb.,  1810 ;  Credxer  :  De  lihb.  N.  T. 
inspir.  quid  staluerint  christiani  ante  sac.  tertium 
medium,  etc.,  Jena,  1828;  Henderson:  Divine 
Inspiration,  Lond.,  1836  (4th  ed.,  1852) ;  Gaus.sen  : 
Thcopneusti/,  English  translation,  N.  Y.,  1842; 
Bishop  Wordsworth  :  On  the  Inspiration  of  the 
lloli/  Scripture,  Lond.,  1851;  Morell:  Philosoph;/ 
of  Itelifjion  (chaps,  v.,  vi.,  on  Revelation  and  Inspi- 
ration), N.Y.,  1849;  Lee  :  Inspiration  of  Holy  Scrip- 
ture, its  Nature  and  Proof,  N.Y.,  1866;  1'atton  : 
Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures,  Phila.,  1869;  Elliot  : 
A  Treatiie  on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Hoi >/  Scriptures, 
Ediub.,  1877;  W.  E.  Atwkll:  The  Pauline  Theorij 
of  Inspiration,  Lond.,  1878;  W.  R.  Brown  :  /«.«/«'- 
ration  of  the  New  Testament,  Lond.,  1880;  Given  : 
Truth  of  Scripture  in  Connexion  with  Revelation, 
Inspiration,  and  the  Canon,  Etlinb.,  1881 ;  IIopki.ns  : 
The  Doctrine  of  Inspiration,  Roclie.ster,  1881  (his- 
torical, but  printed  only  for  ]u'ivate  circulation) ; 
tlie  works  on  theology  of  Hodge  (i.  pp.  153-182), 
Van  Oosterzee  (194-208)  and  Dorner  (§§.57- 
59)  ;  Westcott  :  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the 
Gospels  (Introductory  chapter  and  Appendix  B, 
on  the  Primitive  Doctrine  of  Inspiration);  and  arts. 
on  Inspiration  by  Tiioluck  (in  IIerzog's  Ency- 
rloprrdia,  Isl  ed.),  Fari!.\r  (in  the  Ilihle  Eilucator, 
L,  IL,  5  arts. ),  A.  A.  lloDOE  and  Warfield,  ami 
I'lRKiGs  (ill  Preshylerian  linview,  \.Y.,  1881);  Vt. 
T.  Ladh:  Doctrine  if  Sacred  Scripture,  N.Y., 
1883.  2  vols.  '  I).  S.  S(,'II.\KR 

INSPIRED,  The,  is  the  name  of  a  .sect  which 
was  formed  in  (lei-many  about  170(1,  under  the 


influence  of  the  prophets  of  the  Camisards. 
Driven  out  of  France,  those  enthusiasts  went 
first  to  England,  then  to  the  Netherlands,  and 
finally  to  Germany,  where  they  found  many  ad- 
herents, not  only  among  the  French  refuge's,  but 
soon  also  among  the  natives.  Congregations  were 
formed  in  Halle  (1713)  and  Berlin  (1714)  ;  and 
a  number  of  German  prophets  arose,  tlie  most 
prominent  among  whom  were  E.  L.  Gruber  and 
J.  F.  Rock.  Especially  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Wetterau,  Wittgenstein,  and  Wied,  where  the 
country  swarmed  with  separatists  of  all  kinds, 
the  movement  gained  strength ;  and  in  the  second 
decade  of  the  eighteenth  century  congregations 
of  the  Inspired  were  found  in  Ilesse,  the  Palati- 
nate, Wiirtemberg,  and  Saxony.  In  doctrine  they 
differed  not  so  very  much  from  the  evangelical 
churches,  though  they  believed  in  continuous 
inspiration ;  but  their  ideas  of  discipline  and 
organization  separated  them  completely  from  any 
established  church.  In  their  congregations  there 
was  no  office  of  teaclier  or  preacher.  Their  service 
consisted  of  free  prayers,  singing,  and  recital  of 
Gruber's  Die  24  Regeln  der  wahren  Gottseligkeit 
und  heiliqen  Wandels,  and  prophecies,  if  any  were 
given.  Rock  was  the  last  medium  of  inspiration 
among  them ;  and  after  his  death,  in  1749,  the}' 
lived  very  quietly  until  the  second  decade  of  the 
present  century,  when  new  prophets  arose  among 
them.  The  Hessian  and  Prussian  governments., 
however,  saw  fit  to  interfere  with  the  prophets ; 
and  in  1841  a  considerable  emigration  (about  eight 
hundred  souls)  took  place.  The  emigrants  went 
to  America,  where  they  formed  a  flourishing 
colony  at  Ebenezer,  in  the  State  of  New  York. 
They  afterwards  left  that  place,  and  settled  in 
Iowa.  See  M.  Goebel  :  Gesch.  d.  wahren  Inspira- 
tionsqemeinden,  in  Zeitschr.f.  hist.  Theol.,  1854,  II.. 

III.;  185.5, 1.,  III. 

INSTALLATION  denotes  generally  the  cere- 
monial act  by  which  a  person  ordained  .and  ap- 
pointed is  formally  put  into  possession  of  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice,  but  is  in  the  English 
Church  sometimes  applied  .specially  to  the  office 
of  a  canon  or  prebendary,  or  the  eiithronizatiou 
of  a  bisliop,  and  the  induction  of  a  minister. 

INSTITUTION,  in  canon  law,  denotes  the  final 
act  by  which  a  person  elected  by  the  chapter,  or 
nominated  by  the  government,  is  appointed  by 
the  proper  authority  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice, 
more  esjieciallv  a  bishopric. 

INTERCESSION,  the  act  of  one  who  endeav- 
ors to  reconcil<'  persons  at  variance,  or  of  one  who 
ple.ads  for  another.  'Die  .act  is  often  performed 
among  men,  .and  constitutes  one  of  the  good  traits 
of  our  fallen  humanity.  But  theologically  it  is 
used  of  the  work  of  Christ,  and  im]iru])erly  of 
deceased  saints.  Christ  is  set  forth  in  Scripture 
as  our  intercessor.  It  is  his  function  as  higli 
priest;  .and  therefore,  in  his  wondrous  prayer 
before  his  death,  he  remembers  us  all  (John  xvii. 
11,  2()).  He  appears  in  the  presence  of  God  for 
us  (Ileb.  ix.  24),  and  makes  intercession  for  us 


(Rom.  viii.  34 ;  Ilel). 


!5) :   he   is   therefore 


denominated  our  advocate  (1  John  ii.  1).  The 
ground  of  his  intercession  is  his  atoning  work. 
He  ple.ads  the  sliedding  of  his  blood,  and  thus 
obtains  the  pardon  of  our  sins.  His  int(^rccssion 
is  "  authoritative  (he  intt^rcedes  not  without  right : 
John  xvii.  24),  toise  (he  understands  the  nature 


INTERDICT. 


1107 


INTRODUCTION. 


of  his  work  and  the  wants  of  his  people :  John 
ii.  25),  riylUeous  (for  it  is  founded  upon  justice 
and  truth  :  1  John  iii.  5),  compassionate  (Ileb.  ii. 
17,  V.  8),  unique  (he  is  the  only  intercessor: 
1  Tim.  ii.  5),  perpetual  (Heb.  vii.  25),  efficacious 
(1  Jolm  ii.  1,  2)."  It  follows,  from  tlie  above, 
that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  the  supposed  inter- 
cession of  saints.  The  arguments  against  such 
erroneous  teacliing  may  be  thus  stated:  (1)  It 
supposes  the  existence  of  a  cla.ss  of  beings  who 
do  not  exist, — canonized  departed  spirits,  who 
have  been  officially  declared  to  be  such  by  the 
Church.  (2)  It  leads  to  practical  idolatry.  The 
saints,  and  particularly  the  Virgin  Mary,  are 
prayed  to,  instead  of  God.  (3)  It  is  derogatory 
to  Christ.  It  makes  him  share  the  work  of  inter- 
cession with  others,  as  if  he  were  incompetent  to 
do  it  alone.  (4)  It  supposes  that  some  have  suf- 
ficient merit  of  their  own  to  have  a  claim  upon 
God.  (5)  It  is  superstitious,  because  there  is  no 
evidence  in  Scripture  of  any  such  intercession ; 
and  degrading,  because  it  calls  the  attention  of  the 
worshipper  from  God  to  a  creature,  and  teaches 
him  to  lean  upon  an  arm  of  flesh.  See  Hodge, 
Systematic  Theology,  ii.  592-595.     See  Mediator. 

INTERDICT,  a  punishment  which  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  inflicts  upon  its  members,  forbid- 
ding the  celebration  of  service,  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  the  performance  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal burial,  etc.,  developed  from  the  excommunica- 
tion, and  occurs  under  a  triple  form,  —  personal, 
local,  and  mixed.  The  first  traces  of  it  are  met 
with  in  the  times  of  Gregory  of  Tours ;  but  it  did 
not  develop  into  a  well-defined  institution  in  the 
practice  of  the  Church  until  the  eleventh  century. 
During  the  middle  ages  it  was  often  used  with 
gTeat  effect.  Innocent  III.,  in  1208,  put  England 
under  an  interdict.  The  last  instance  of  a  local 
interdict  occurred  in  1606,  pronounced  by  Paul 
V.  over  the  republic  of  Venice ;  though  a  milder 
form  of  it  (the  so-called  cessatio  in  divinis,  by 
which  the  Church  is  put  into  a  state  of  mourning, 
and  no  bells  or  organs  are  used)  was  pronounced 
in  the  diocese  of  Posen-Gnesen  in  18.39.  The 
right  of  pronouncing  an  interdict  devolves  upon 
the  Popie,  the  councils,  and  the  bishops :  the  right 
of  revoking  it  devolves  upon  him  who  has  pro- 
nounced it,  or  his  superior.  See  Kober,  in  Archiv 
f.  kath.  Kirchen.,  vol.  xxi.  SCHEURL. 

INTERIM,  a  provisional  establishment,  or  mo- 
dus vioendi,  imposed  upon  the  German  reformers 
by  Charles  V.,  until  a  general  council  should 
have  decided  between  them  and  the  Pope.  There 
were  three  such  interims,  named  after  the  places 
where  they  were  issued ;  namely,  Ratisbon, 
Augsburg,  and  Leipzig,  which  see. 

INTERPRETATION.      See    Exegesis,    Her- 

MEXEUTICS. 

INTERSTITIA  TEMPORUM.    Canon  13  of  the 

Council  of  Sardica  (347)  demands  that  a  clerk 
shall  remain  for  some  time  in  each  order ;  so  that 
a  certain  interstitium  temporis  elapses  before  he  is 
promoted  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  order.  As 
long  as  the  lower  orders  were  still  connected  with 
clerical  functions,  the  above  maxim  was  applied 
also  to  them ;  but  when,  in  course  of  time,  they 
became  merely  preparatory  steps  towards  the 
higher  orders,  it  became  customary  to  confer  them 
all  in  one  day.  The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  23, 
can.  17)  attemped  to  correct  this  practice,  but  in 


vain.  For  the  higher  orders  it  decided  that  the 
interstitiurn  should  compi-ise  a  whole  year.  The 
bishops  obtained,  however,  a  certain  power  of 
dispensation.  WASSEKSCnLEBEN. 

INTINCTION  denotes  the  peculiar  mode  in 
which,  in  the  Greek  Church,  the  Eucharist  is 
administered  to  the  laity;  the  consecrated  bread 
being  broken  into  the  con.secrated  wine,  and  both 
elements  given  together  in  a  spoon.  Greek  writers 
on  liturgy  claim  that  this  custom  dates  back  to 
the  time  of  Chrysostom.  In  the  Western  Church 
it  never  gained  foothold.  It  was  forbidden  by 
Julius  I.  (337-3.52)  as  unscriptural. 

INTONATION,  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  in 
tlie  act  of  reading  a  liturgical  service,  so  as  to 
produce  a  musical  accentuation  and  tone.  It  is 
practised  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  and 
in  some  Episcopal  churches.  It  adds  to  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  the  service,  if  it  be  really  finely 
done  ;  but  it  mars  its  inti'lligibility. 

INTRODUCTION.  I.  Old  Testament Wide- 
ly different  opinions  exist  re.specting  the  idea  and 
treatment  of  this  branch  of  theological  study.  On 
the  one  hand,  J.  G.  Carpzov  (Introductio,  Leipzig, 
1721),  and  at  a  much  later  date  De  Wette,  even 
in  the  last  edition  of  his  Introduction,  which  he 
edited  (7th  edition,  Berlin,  18.52).  maintained 
that  it  properly  concerned  all  that  helped  to  make 
the  Scriptures  intelligible.  On  the  other  hand, 
Reusch  (R.  C.)  includes  under  the  term  only 
the  origin  of  the  several  books,  their  collection 
(canon),  inspiration,  and  preservation  ;  and  Keil 
defines  Old-Testament  Introduction  as  the  knowl- 
edge of  those  underlying  historico-critical  princi- 
ples of  the  Old-Testament  canon  which  explain 
and  justify  its  theological  use  by  Jew  and  Chris- 
tian. Franz  Kaulen  (R.  C),  in  the  logical  wake 
of  Keil,  assigns  Introduction  to  dogmatic  theology 
as  a  branch  of  apologetics.  Richard  Simon  ex- 
pressed the  right  idea  in  his  Hisloire  critique  du 
vieux  testament  (Paris,  1678),  that  it  was  an  his- 
torical science,  and  accordingly  he  treats  of  the 
history  of  the  text,  etc. ;  but  unhajipily  he  was  not 
faithful  to  his  own  principles.  Ilupfeld  (1844) 
suggested  making  Introduction  a  history  of  the 
Old-Testament  writings.  Such  a  history  would 
not  necessarily  be  the  same  as  a  biljlical  Hebrew 
literary  histor}',  although  Hupfeld,  J.  J.  Stiihelin, 
and  Delitzsch  would  so  consider  it ;  for  the  latter 
properly  is  a  history  of  the  literary  development 
of  the  old  Hebrews,  as  displayed  in  their  litera- 
ture, while  the  former  has  to  do  with  the  origin 
and  history  of  that  collection  of  books  we  style 
the  "Old  testament." 

The  idea,  of  course,  directly  affects  the  treat- 
ment. When  Old-Testament  Introduction  is  con- 
sidered as  a  collection  of  important  facts  bearing 
upon  the  interpretation  and  estimation  of  the  Old 
Testament,  it  is  divided  into  two  parts,  general 
and  special.  General  Introduction  treats  of  tlie 
original  languages  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
versions,  the  history  and  criticism  of  the  text, 
the  history  of  the  canon  ;  special  Introduction, 
of  the  contents,  origin,  and  credibility  of  the 
separate  books.  But  if  Old-Testament  Introduc- 
tion be  looked  at  as  a  history  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  Testament,  then  it  comprises  the 
origin  of  the  single  writings,  the  history  of  their 
collection,  of  their  canonicity,  and,  finally,  of 
their  transmission   and  spread  with  a  canonical 


INTRODUCTION. 


11  OS 


INTRODUCTION. 


authority.     A  historico-critical  treatment  of  the 
matter  is  throughout  obligatory. 

As  an  independent  discipline,  Old-Testaraent 
Iiitroduction  is  comparatively  recent ;  for  the 
ancient  Church  had  no  interest  in  merely  scientific 
questions  respecting  the  Scriptures.  Jerome  gives 
.some  valuable  materials,  and  Adrianus'  tract, 
tiaayuyt)  fi'f  riif  iSff'af  ypinpiig  (fiftli  century,  published 
first  by  Htischel,  1G02,  and  in  Critici  sacri,  London), 
probably  gave  the  name  to  the  science;  but  her- 
meneutics,  rather  than  introduction,  was  served. 
The  nearest  approach  in  this  period  was  made  by 
Cassiodorus  (sixth  century),  in  his  Institutiones 
/Iwinarum  literarum.  in  which  he  enumerates  the 
dift'erent  books,  and  mentions  the  most  important 
commentaries  upon  them,  gives  hermeneutical 
rules,  and  then  passes  on  to  speak  of  the  biblical 
divisions,  canon  and  criticism.  The  only  work 
on  Introduction  produced  in  the  middle  ages  was 
that  of  Nicolaus  of  Lyra  (d.  1310),  Poslilla  per- 
pelua  s.  brevis  cmnmeyUarius  in  luiirersa  hihlia, 
published  in  Antwerp,  1634.  But  the  revival  of 
learning,  and  the  mighty  impetus  given  liy  the 
new  art  of  printing,  prepared  the  way  for  inde- 
pendent investigations  of  the  Bible ;  although  at 
first  the  Protestants  were  more  interested  in  dog- 
matic than  in  critical  questions.  The  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  has  the  honor  of  producing  the 
first  work  in  Introduction  proper:  it  was  by  Santes 
Pagninus  Lucensis  (Sante  Pagnino  of  Lucca,  d. 
1541),  and  entitled  haf/ogce  ad  sacras  tileras,  liber 
imicits  (Lyons,  1.336).  Then  came  Sixtus  of  .Siena 
(d.  1.5!)9),  Bibliolheca  sancia  ex  precipuis  calliolicoe 
ecclesiw  auctoribus  collecta,  el  in  octn  lihros  tlif/esta 
(Venice,  15fl(i,  and  often;  last  edition,  Naples, 
1742).  The  contest  between  Buxtorf  and  Cap- 
I'Ei.ms  (see  those  arts.)  over  the  vowel-points 
called  forth  quite  a  literature  from  the  Protes- 
tants, who  have  since  kept  the  field.  In  biblical 
criticism  two  works  of  this  period  deserve  especial 
mention,  —  Brian  Walton,  In  Biblia  poh/tjlotta 
Prolegomena,  London,  lGo7  (ed.  Heidegger,  Zurich, 
1()73;  by  .1.  A.  Dafhe,  Leipzig,  1777;"and  by  F. 
Wrangham,  Cambridge,  IS'JS,  2  vols.);  and  Ilum- 
phry  Ilody,  De  bibliorum  texdbiis  orii/intilibus,  rer- 
xionihiis  grcccis  el  latina  vul<jala  libri.i  /I'.,  Oxford. 
170.5.  General  Introductions  were  written  by 
Andr.  Kivetus  (Leyden,  1627),  Abr.  Calov  (Wit- 
tenberg, 1643),  J.  II.  Heidegger  (Zurich,  1681 
and  often),  .1.  Leusden  (Utrecht,  16.56).  The 
scepticism  which  from  England  and  France 
.spread  all  over  Europe,  naturally  laid  violent 
hands  upon  the  Bible,  as  was  done  by  Holilies, 
in  his  Levialhun  (London,  Hi51  ;  modern  edition, 
London,  1882),  and  jiarticularly  by  Sjiinoza  (Trac- 
taliis  tkeoloffico-polilirus,  IIand>urg,  1670  [(id.  l)y 
van  Vloten  and  Land,  The  Hague,  vol.  i.,  1882, 
pp.  377-610],  chapters  viii.-x.).  A  niucli  nearer 
afiproaeh  to  the  traditional  treatment  was  made 
by  Kichard  .SinioTi  (^Hinloire  critique  flu  Vieux  Tes- 
lament,  Paris,  1678),  who  first  establislied  Intro- 
duction's claim  to  be  an  liistorical  science.  The 
tendency  of  tlie  time  was,  liowever,  towards  nega^ 
live  criticism;  and  in  this  direction  were  tlie 
works  of  Semler  (^Abhanillttnijen  von  freier  Unler- 
Hurhunrj  iles  Kannms,  Halle,"  1771-75,  4  parts; 
and  A/i/iaratuti  ail  liberalcm  V.  T.  intcrprelationem, 
Halli',  1773).  After  liini,  holding  more  or  le.ss 
nearly  his  views,  came  Kichhorn  (Leipzig,  17H0- 
83,   A    parts),    (L    i>.    Bauer   (Niirnberg,    17!i4), 


August!  (Leipzig,  1806),  and  L.  Bertholdt  (Er- 
langen,  1812-19,  6  parts).  But  most  completely 
the  negative  criticism  was  exhibited  by  De  Wette, 
Lehrbuch  d.  Jiist.-kritixch.  Einleitung  in  d.  alle 
Testament  (Berlin,  1817),  i-emodelled,  and  changed 
in  opinion,  in  its  eightli  edition  by  Eberhard 
Sclirader  (Berlin,  1869).  Of  works  of  a  mediat- 
ing tendency  may  be  mentioned  (Friedrich  Bleek) 
Einleitung  in  das  alte  Testament,  orig.  ed.,  Berlin, 
1860,  4th  ed.  bv  J.  Wellhausen,  1878  [Engli.sh 
trans.,  London,"  1869,  2  vols.];  (J.  J.  Stahelin) 
Specielle  Einleitung  in  die  Icanonischcn  BUcher  des 
alten  Testaments,  Elberfeld,  1862 ;  (A.  Kuenen) 
Ilislorisch  Kritisch  onderzoek  naar  het  ontstaan  en 
de  i^erzameling  van  de  Boeken  des  Ouden  Verbomls, 
Leiden,  1861-65,  3  parts  [2d  ed.  much  altered, 
1885  sqq. ;  English  trans.,  London,  1886  sqq.]; 
(S.  Da\'idson)  Aii  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, London,  1862,  3  vols.  Jewish  scholars  have 
contributed  to  Introduction,  such  as  J.  Fiirst 
(^DerKanond.  A.  T.  n.il.  Uebevlieferung  in  Talmud 
und  Midrasch,  Leipzig,  1868)  and  J.  S.  Bloch 
(Studlen  z.  Gesch.  d.  Samml.  d.  nltheb.  Lit.,  Leipzig, 
1875)  ;  and  Roman-Catholic  scholars,  such  as 
J  aim  (Wien,  1793;  later  ed.,  1805;  new  ed.  by 
Ackermann,  1825  [Eng.  trans,  by  S.  H.  Turner 
and  W.  R.  Whittinghim,  Xew  York,  1827]),  J. 
G.  Herbst  (Karlsruhe,  1840-42,  2  parts),  J.  M.  A. 
Scholz  (Kbln,  1845-48,  3  parts),  F.  II.  Reusch 
(Freiburg-i.-B..  1859;  3d  ed.,  1868),  and  Franz 
Kaulen  (Freiburg-i.-B.,  1876-82).  From  the 
Evangelical  Church  have  proceeded  the  Introduc- 
tions of  J.  D.  Michaelis  (Hamburg,  1787,  unfin- 
ished), E.  W.  Hengstenberg  (Berlin,  1831-39, 
3  vols.),  H.  A.  C.  Hjivernick  (Erlangen,  Parts  1. 
and  II.,  1836-39  ;  2d  ed.  of  Part  I.,  by  C.  F.  Keil, 
Frankfurt,  1854-56 ;  Part  III.  ed.  by  Keil,  1849 
[Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1852]),  and  C.  F.  Keil 
(Frankfurt,  1853;  3d  ed.,  1873  [Eng.  trans.,  Edin- 
burgh, 1869,  2  vols.]).  [Recent  works.  —  F.  W. 
Wki!ER  :  Kurtzge/asste  Ei7ileitung  in  ilie  lieiligen 
Schri/ten  Alten  u.  Neuen  Testaments,  Nordlingen, 
1863  (6th  ed.,  1881)  ;  Ubaldi  :  Introductio  in  sac. 
script.,  Rome,  1877,  vol.  iii.,  1882;  P.  Kleinert  : 
Ahriss  d.  Einleitung  zum  A.  T.  in  Tabellenform, 
Berlin,  1878 ;  H.  M.  IIarman  :  Introduction  to  the 
.Slwli/  of  lldli/  .Srrijiture.  Xew  York,  1878  (4th  ed., 
18S4);  L.  Har.m.s:  Biblisclie  Einleitung.  Ilermanns- 
liurg,  1879;  .1.  P.  Lange:  d'rundriss  d.  Ihlielkunde, 
Heidelberg.  1881 ;  G.  La.ngiiaxs:  Ilandbuchd.bibl. 
Ge.ich.  u.  Lit  .5th  ed.,l?ern,  1881;  Liiiiu:  D.  Gesch. 
d.  heiligen  Sclirift  rom  An  fang  d.  Dinge,  Berlin, 
1881;  Reu8s  :  Gesch.  d.  heiligen  Scliriften  A.  T., 
Braunsch.  1881.        n.  a.  ii.\iin  (.\.  koiiucu). 

II.  New  Testament. —  What  we  mean  by  In- 
troduction was  not  .studied  in  the  Early  Cliurch. 
There  was  no  felt  necessity  to  learn  about  the 
origin,  the  inducing  causes,  the  inunediate  de- 
signs, and  the  histories  of  the  New-Testament 
books.  Even  the  presence  of  the  apocryphal 
books,  and  of  the  heretics  who  had  composed 
them,  or  who  had  departed  from  the  canon,  while 
it  increased  the  reverence  of  the  Church  for  those 
l>ooks  known  to  be  the  genuine  writings  of  the 
apostles  and  evangelists,  led  to  very  little  woi'k 
in  this  department  in  the  first  two  centuries. 
DionysiuH  of  Alexandria  (third  century)  m.ay  l)e 
called  the  father  of  New-TestaMu'ut  historical 
criticism;  for  he  contested  the  claim  of  .John  tlie 
apostle  to  be  the  author  of  the  Revelation,  while 


INTRODUCTION. 


1109 


INTRODUCTION. 


formally  granting  its  canonicity-  The  incitement 
to  critical  considuration  of  the  hooks  of  the  New 
Testament  liad,  however,  been  previously  given 
by  the  discovery,  when  the  Church  came  into 
more  active  intercourse,  that  some  of  these  books 
had  experienced  different  treatment  in  different 
places.  For  instance,  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
wliich  the  Alexaudrian  Church  had  accepted  as 
Pauline,  was  found  to  be  little  known  in  othei' 
equally  orthodox  churches,  and,  indeed,  in  most 
was  considered  im-Pauline  and  even  uncanonical ; 
•  and  the  Shepherd  of  Hennas,  it  was  found,  was 
greatly  valued  in  some  churches,  while  in  others 
it  was  little  esteemed.  Local  tradition  was  thus 
robbed  of  its  value ;  and  the  necessity  of  a  critical 
comparison  of  these  ecclesiastical  traditions  was 
felt  by  the  Palestinian  branch  of  the  school  of 
(Jrigen.  Eusebius'  study  of  the  primitive  Chris- 
tian literature  was  displayed  in  a  comprehensive 
collection  of  the  older  witne.sses  for  and  against 
the  not  uncontested  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  by  so  doing  he  rendered  a  valuable  ser- 
vice, although  liis  intention  to  substantiate  certain 
pi'ejudices  respecting  the  limits  of  the  canon  de- 
stroys the  objectivity  of  his  information.  From 
him,  however,  we  have  received  pretty  much  all 
we  know  of  the  older  tradition  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  universally  accepted  books.  Jerome 
followed  in  his  steps,  but  added  nothing,  except 
a  little  about  the  difference  between  the  Oriental 
and  Occidental  canons  and  the  Gospel  of  the  He- 
brews. The  dogmatic  controversies  of  the  fourth 
and  following  centuries  diverted  attention  from 
critical  questions ;  and  wliat  had  been  previously 
gained  was  merely  repeated  in  the  introductions 
to  connnentaries,  catenas,  and  similar  works. 

But  from  the  Revival  of  Learning  began  a 
better  day  for  New-Testament  Introduction.  The 
works  of  Santes  Pagninus  (1.536),  Sixtus  of 
Siena  (156G),  and  A.  Rivetus  (1627),  contained 
much  information  in  this  department,  along  with 
dogmatical  considerations,  and  the  new  study  of 
textual  criticism  gave  great  impetus.  Richard 
.Simon  (1638-1712)  published  his  three  works 
upon  the  critical  history  of  the  New  Testament 
{Histoire  critique  du  N.  T.,  Rotterdam,  1689-93), 
and  thus  won  his  place  as  the  father  of  New- 
Testament  Introduction.  By  critique  he  under- 
stood the  investigations  for  the  establishment  of 
the  original  text ;  and,  by  his  history  from  the 
sources,  he  disproved  not  only  the  Protestant 
claim  of  "  a  witness  of  the  .Spirit,"  but  also  the 
scholastic  treatment,  which,  resting  upon  imper- 
fect acquaintance  with  antiquity,  could  not  prove 
that  Christianity  was  a  religion  based  on  facts, 
and  that  the  Bible  was  the  record  of  those  facts. 
But  in  the  effort  to  establish  the  New-Testament 
text,  he  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  province  of 
Introduction. 

The  next  name  to  be  mentioned  is  Johann 
David  Michaelis  (1717-1791),  who  wrote  the 
Einleitung  in  die  gdttlichen  Schriflen  des  Neuen 
Buiules  (Gdttingen,  1750).  He  di.scl.aimed  de- 
pendency upon  Simon  ;  and  yet  (as  only  in  textual 
criticism,  by  Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wetstein,  had 
much  been  done)  his  work  w"as  really,  in  its  first 
shape,  based  upon  Simon.  With  each  succeeding 
edition  it  was  greatly  improved ;  but,  even  in  the 
fourth  and  last  edition  (1788),  its  stand-point  was 
a  strongly  rational  supernaturalism.     The  differ- 


ences to  be  noted  between  the  editions  are  mainly, 
that  his  attacks  on  the  "  doubters  "  became  milder, 
and  that  he  preferred  at  last  to  give  np  the  in- 
spiration of  the  historical  books,  denied  also  the 
inspiration  of  the  non-apostolic  books  (among 
which  he  reckoned  apparently  tlie  ICpistle  to  tlie 
Hebrews),  and,  indeed,  tlatly  declared  that  tlie 
"inner  witness  of  the  Spirit"  w.as  of  as  little 
worth  as  the  witness  of  the  Churcli,  in  proof  of 
the  inspiration  of  any  book. 

Johann  Salomo  Semler  (172.5-1791)  made  the 
next  contribution  of  importance  (in  his  Ahhand- 
lung  von  freier  Untersuchung  des  Kanons,  Halle, 
1771-75,  4  parts),  when  he  distinguished  between 
the  word  of  God,  which  contained  the  doctrines 
of  directly  spiritual  value,  and  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, which  contained  them  only  sporadically. 
There  is,  however,  no  historical  proof  that  any 
particular  passage  was  the  word  of  God :  the 
inner  witness  for  the  truth  was  tlie  only  source 
of  proof.  The  C'hurch  had  the  right,  exercised 
by  the  ancient  Church  and  liy  the  reformers,  to 
say  what  books  should  constitute  her  canon.  One 
cannot  say  that  Introduction  was  influenced  jier- 
inanently  by  Seinler :  rather  we  must  give  the 
palm  to  Michaelis,  who  was  followed  by  .J.  E. 
Chr  .Schmidt  (1804).  Eichhorn  (1808),  and  Hug 
(1808).  .Schmidt  applied  the  phrase  "  historico- 
critical  "  —  since  so  widely  used  —  to  his  Intro- 
tion  ;  Eichhorn  started  his  "original  gospel" 
theory ;  Hug,  in  an  unexcelled  manner,  investi- 
gated the  relations  of  the  synoptists.  Schleier- 
macher  (1811)  called  attention  to  the  need  of  a 
reconstruction  of  this  branch  of  study,  declaring 
that  its  object  was  a  history  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, so  that  its  present  readers  might  be,  in  tlieir 
knowledge  of  the  origin  of  the  books  and  tlieir 
text,  on  a  level  with  the  first.  This  idea  —  to 
write  a  history  of  the  New  Test.ament  —  has  been 
carried  out  by  Credner  (1836),  Reuss  (1842),  and 
Hupfeld  (1844);  so  also  by  Davidson  (1868)  and 
Hilgenfeld  (1875),  under  the  old  name  "  Intro- 
duction." 

Ferdinand  Christian  Baur  (1792-1860)  h.as  had 
by  far  the  most  influence  upon  New-Testament 
studies  of  any  man  of  modern  tinges.  He  at- 
tempted nothing  le.ss  than  a  reconstruction  of  all 
apostolic  and  post-apostolic  history  and  literature, 
in  the  face  of  all  ecclesiastical  and  scholarly  tra- 
dition, from  the  four  Pauline  Epistles  ((ialatians, 
1  and  2  Corinthians,  and  Romans),  which  alone 
he  considered  genuine.  Starting  with  the  idea 
that  the  difference  between  Paul  and  the  rest  of 
the  apostles  was  fundamental,  he  declared  that 
those  New-Testament  writings  which  either  put 
the  relations  of  the  apostles  in  a  more  favorable 
light,  or  seemed  to  ignore  their  dift'erences  alto- 
gether, were  either  forgeries,  or  the  products  of  a 
later  time.  But  his  historical  considerations  were 
derived  from  Hegel's  philosophy,  and  his  criticism 
rested  upon  dogmatic  convictions.  These  four 
points  may  be  made  against  him  :  (1)  He  reasoned 
in  a  circle ;  for  he  examined  critically,  first  the 
sources  of  the  history,  and  then  the  history  of  the 
sources.  The  reasoning  which  reduced  the  genuine 
Pauline  Epistles  to  four  reduces  the  four  to  none ; 
so  that  Paul  is  robbed  of  his  title  to  have  produced 
any  writing  which  lasted.  (2)  Baur  certainly  was 
extraordinarily  familiar  with  the  old  Christian 
literature ;  but  he  read  it  with  prejudice,  and  not 


INTRODUCTION. 


1110 


INVESTITURE. 


with  a  desire  to  learn  any  thing  different  from 
liis  preconceptions.  (3)  He  was  lacking  in  the 
sense  of  the  concrete  and  the  value  of  the  indi- 
vidual, and  therefore  could  not  grasp  complicated 
relations  and  their  results.  (4)  If  it  is  self-evi- 
dent that  one  must  understand  what  he  criticises, 
and  that  his  criticism  must  rest  upon  thorough 
exegesis,  then  Baur  surely  was  unfitted  for  his 
labor ;  for  he  was  any  thing  rather  than  an 
exegete,  and  his  school  has  done  nothing  in 
exegesis.  It  should,  however,  be  added,  that 
these  defects  in  Baur's  method  of  work  were  sup- 
plied by  others ;  and  the  result  of  the  operations 
of  friend  and  foe  is  a  much  better  understanding 
of  the  Xew  Testament. 

Lit.  ^  General  works.  Richard  Simon  :  His- 
loire  critique  du  texte  du  N.  T.,  Rotterdam,  1689 ; 
the  same:  Hist.  crit.  des  versions  du  N.  T.,  1690, 
and  Hist,  des  principaux  commentatews  du  N.  T., 
1603,  and  a  supplement,  Nouvelles  observations 
sur  le  texte  et  les  versions  du  N.  T.,  Paris,  1695 ; 
J  D.  MlCH.\ELls :  Einleitung  in  die  gottlichen 
Schriften  des  Neuen  Bundcs,  Gottingen,  1750-66, 
2  vols.,  4th  ed.,  1788  (Eng.  trans,  by  Herbert 
^larsh,  Cambridge,  1793-1801,  4  vols.";  German 
trans,  of  Marsh's  observations  and  additions  by 
Rosennniller,  Gottingen,  179.5-1803,  2  vols.)  ;  H. 
K.  HXxLEir :  Handbuch  der  Einleitunq  in  die 
Schriften  des  X.  T.'s,  Erlangen,  1794-1800,  3  parts 
(2d  ed.,  1801-1809)  ,  J.  E.  Chr.  Schmidt:  //i.s- 
torisch-K'ritische  Einleitunrj  ins  N.  T.,  Giessen, 
1804,  1805;  J.  G.  Eichhorn  :  Einleitung  in  das 
X.  T.,  Leipzig,  vols.  1-3,  1804-14  (iM  ed.,  1820), 
vols.  4,  5,  1827;  J.  L.  Hug:  Einleitung  in  die 
Schrijten  des  X.  T.,  Stuttgart  u.  Tubingen,  1808, 
2  parts  (4th  ed.,  1847),  [Eng.  trans,  with  Stuart's 
note.s,  Andover,  1836] ;  L.  Bertholdt  :  Histo- 
risch-krit.  Einleitung  in  die  scimmlliche  kanon.  u. 
apokr  Schriften  d.  A.  u.  X.  T.,  Erlangen,  1812-19, 
6  vols.;  Thomas  Hahtwell  Horne:  An  Intro- 
duction to  the  Critical  Study  ana  Knowledge  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  London,  1818,  3  vols.  (2d  ed., 
1821,  4  vols.),  [10th  ed.,  18.36,  2d  vol.  ed.  by  Dr. 
Sanme!  Davidson;  11th  ed.,  2d  vol.  ed.  by  Rev. 
.Tohn  AjTe,  and  the  4th  vol.  bv  Sanmel  Prideaux 
Tregelles,  LL.D. ;  14th  ed.,  18'77,  4  vols.  Home's 
Introduction  is  very  comprehensive,  embracing 
Christian  evidences,  hermeneutics,  biblical  geog- 
raphy and  antiquities,  and  bibliography];  W.  M. 
L.  De  Wktte:  Einleitung  in  d.  X.  T.,  Berlin, 
1826;  2  vols.  (6th  ed.  by  Messner  and  Liineinann, 
1860) ;  K.  A.  Ckkdner  :  Beilrage  zur  Einleitung 
■'.  die  bib.  Schriften  (unfinished),  Halle,  1830, 
1838,  2  vols. ;  E.  Reuss  :  Die  Geschichte  der  hcil. 
Schriften  X.  T.'s,  Braun.schweig,  1842,  5th  ed., 
1874  ,  H.  E.  F.  GuEKiCKE  :  Xeutcstiimcntlirhe  Isa- 
gogik,  Leipzig,  1843,  3d  ed.,  1868;  F.  Schi.eier- 
MACMEU:  Einleitung  in  d.  X.  T.,  Berlin,  1845; 
SamI'EI.  Davidson:  Introduction  to  the  X.  T., 
Jx)ndon,  18-48-51,  3  vols.  ;  the  same:  Introduction 
to  the  study  of  the  X.  'P.,  1868,  2  vols.  [2d  ed., 
1882.  These  works  differ  in  stand-point  and 
arrangement ;  for  Davidson,  between  1S48  and 
1868,  had  been  greatly  influenced  by  the  Tubin- 
gen school];  .Johannes  Hendrik  Schoi.ten  : 
Jlislorisch-knilsche  Inleiduiig  tot  de  Schriften  dis 
nieuwen  Te.ttarnents,  Leiden,  1853,  2d  ed.,  1850 
(German  tran.slation,  Leipzig,  18.56);  Fkiedrich 
Bi.EEK:  Einleitung  in  t/fi*-  X.  T.,  Berlin,  1802,  3d 
ed   by  Mangold;  1875  [Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh, 


1870,  2  vols.];  R.  Grau  :  Entwicklungsgesch.  d. 
neutesl.  Schriftthums,  Gutersloh,  1st  and  2d  vols., 
1871;  Adolf  Hilgenfeld:  Histor.-krit.  Einlei- 
tung in  das  Xeue  Testament,  Leipzig,  1875.  Works 
on  New  Testament  Introduction  have  been  recently 
written  in  German  by  Heisrich  Julius  Holtz- 
m.\nn:  Lehrbuch  derhistorisch-kritischen  Einleitung 
in  das  Xeue  Testament,  Freiburg-iin-Br.,  1885; 
in  Engliih,  hy  T.  R.  Lumby:  ,4  I'opidar  Intro- 
duction to  the  Xew  Testament,  London,  1883 ;  A.  H. 
Charteris:  The  Xew  Testament  Scriptures,  ISSZ; 
V.  W.  Farrar  :  The  Messages  of  the  Books,  1884; 
G.  Salmon  :  The  Study  of  the  Xew  Testament^ 
1885.  On  textual  criticism,  see  the  works  by 
F.  H.  A.  Scrivener,  Cambridge,  1861,  3d  ed., 
1883;  Mitchell,  Andover,  1880;  Schaff,  New 
York,  1883,  2d  ed.,  1885;  J.  P.  Martin,  Paris, 
1884. 

INTROIT,  the  name,  in  the  Roman  Church,  for 
the  anthem  sung  at  the  beginning  of  the  com- 
munion service.  Its  origin  is  obscure.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Liber  Ponlif calls,  it  was  introduced  liy 
Celestine  in  423.  See  the  art.  by  W.  E.  Scud*- 
more,  in  Smith  and  Cheetham,  Diet,  of  Chr. 
Antiq.,  vol.  i.  pp.  805-867. 

INVENTION  OF  THE  CROSS.    See  Cross. 

INVESTITURE.  In  the  Frankish  monarchy 
the  idea  gradually  became  prevalent,  that  the 
\  ruler  of  the  realm  had  the  right  to  appoint 
bishops ;  and  in  Germany  the  kings  clung  so 
1  much  the  more  tenaciously  to  this  idea,  as,  in 
course  of  time,  the  bishoprics  and  abbacies  there 
entirely  changed  their  original  character  of  being 
merely  ecclesiastical  organizations,  and  became, 
to  all  intents  and  purposes,  political  divisions, 
with  rights  of  coinage,  toll,  jurisdiction,  etc.,  and 
with  corresponding  duties,  especially  of  a  military 
description.  When  a  bishop  died,  his  staff  and 
ring  were  brought  from  his  residence  to  tlie  king;, 
and,  when  the  king  had  made  up  his  mind  with 
respect  to  the  choice  of  a  successor,  he  put  the 
new  Ijishop  or  abbot  into  possession  of  tlie  tempo- 
ralities of  the  fief  by  investing  him  with  the  staff 
and  the  ring,  and  receiving  his  homage,  or  oath 
of  fealty.  After  the  investiture,  there  followed, 
as  the  last  act  in  the  installation,  the  consecration 
by  the  metropolitan ;  but  that  the  latter  should 
exercise  more  than  an  advisory  influence  on  the 
whole  transaction  was  out  of  the  question. 

Meanwhile,  during  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh 
century,  the  ideas  of  the  reform  party  in  the 
Roman  curia,  concerning  the  perfect  freedom  of 
the  Church  from  any  secular  power,  began  to  as- 
sume definite  shape.  As  the  bishops  and  abbots 
used  to  offer  great  presents  to  the  king  on  the 
occasion  of  their  investiture,  it  was  easy  to  throw 
a  sliadow  of  simony  over  the  whole  transaction; 
and  the  statutes  of  the  ecclesiastical  law  concern- 
ing simony  were  very  severe.  As  yet,  however, 
no  direct  application  was  made.  The  curia  spoke 
oidy  in  general  terms  when  it  forbade  ecclesias- 
tics to  .accept  their  otfices  from  tlie  hands  of  lay- 
men ;  but  in  106S  it  came  to  an  actual  cl.ish. 
The  king  appointed  a  bishop  of  Milan  in  the 
usn.al  w.ay,  —  by  investiture  ;  while  the  people, 
instigated  by  the  curia,  demanded  a  bishop  canon- 
ically  elected  .and  instituted.  As  the  king  would 
not  yield,  a  Roman  synod  of  1074  .aggrav.ated  tlie 
severity  of  the  laws  concerning  simony  ;  and  the 
next  year  Gregory  VII.  officially  denied  the  king's 


INVOCATION  OF   SAINTS. 


1111 


lONA. 


riglit  of  investiture,  and  adnionislied  the  people 
to  oppose,  in  all  their  ecclesiastical  functions,  such 
bisliops  as  iiad  obtained  their  office  in  an  unca- 
nonical,  siinoniacal  manner. 

This  meant  for  Germany  the  complete  over- 
throw of  its  constitution.  The  bishops  and 
abbots  were  princes  of  the  empire,  holding  the 
larger  mass  of  the  imperial  fiefs ;  and,  as  no  dy- 
nastical  claims  could  be  put  forwai'd  with  respect 
to  these  fiefs,  the  king  wielded  an  immense  power 
through  his  right  to  give  them  to  whom  he 
pleased.  It  was  evident  that  he  would  immedi- 
ately break  down  before  the  Pope  if  he  lost  this 
right,  —  if  the  bishops  and  abbots  of  his  realm 
should  be  canonically  elected,  that  is,  elected  by 
a  clergy,  which,  by  the  law  of  celibacy,  was  com- 
pletely severed  from  the  interests  of  the  State, 
and  transformed  into  mere  tools  of  the  Church. 
The  contest  was  long,  extremely  bitter,  and  at 
times  doubtful  with  respect  to  its  issue.  The 
final  .settlement,  however,  by  the  concordat  of 
Worms  (1122),  was  in  favor  of  the  Pope.  The 
emperor  gave  up  altogether  his  right  of  investi- 
ture with  ring  and  staff;  and  though  he  retained 
a  certain  influence  on  the  elections,  and  the  right 
of  investiture  witli  the  so-called  regalia,  in  its 
golden  days  the  Church  knew  very  well  how  to 
elude  these  latter  obligations.  The  concordat  of 
Worms  continued  in  active  operation  until  the 
dissolution  of  the  German  Empire  in  ISOfJ. 

In  no  other  country  did  the  controversy  concern- 
ing the  right  of  investiture  reach  such  a  pitch  of 
intensity  as  in  Germany,  —  partly  because  the 
popes  knew  that  victory  on  one  point  would  be 
victory  all  along  the  whole  line,  and  were  too 
shrewd  to  engage  in  an  unnecessary  warfare  with 
the  whole  world  at  once  ;  partly  because  the  ques- 
tion nowhere  else  affected  the  political  constitu- 
tion .so  deeply.  In  France,  where  the  bishops  and 
abbots,  though  large  fief-holders,  were  not  princes 
of  the  empire,  the  kings  renounced  their  right  of 
investiture  with  ring  and  staff  towards  the  close 
.  of  the  eleventh  century ;  but  no  elections  could 
take  place  without  their  permission,  nor  was  it 
valid  until  it  received  their  confirmation,  —  two 
points  which  secured  to  them  a  considerable  influ 
ence.  In  England  it  came  to  a  compromise  be- 
tween Pa.schalis  II.  and  Henry  I.  (1107),  by  which 
the  king  retained  his  right  of  nomination  and  of 
demanding  an  oath  of  fealty.  Stephen,  however, 
Henry's  successor  (1135-54),  gave  up  his  right 
of  nonunation ;  and  in  1215  John  repeated  the 
renunciation.  Nevertheless,  practically  the  Eng- 
lish chapters  never  obtained  freedom  in  their 
elections. 

Lit.— Staudknmaier:  Gesch.  tier  Bischofsicah- 
len,  Tubingen,  1830 ;  Meltzer  :  Gregor  Vll.  und 
(I.  Bixfhofiwalilen,  Dresden,  1S70 ;  Bernheim  :  D. 
Wormser Konkonlal,  Gottingeo,  1S78 ;  [K.  Panzer  : 
Wido  V.  Ferrara  de  ncismale  Hildebrandi,  Leipzig, 
1880;  W.  Klemm:  D.  enylische  Investitwstreit  unler 
Heinrich  /.,  Leipzig,  1880]. 

INVOCATION  OF  SAINTS.  See  Image-Wor- 
ship, Intercession. 

lONA,  HY  or  HII,  I  or  lA,  lOUA,  from  which,  by 
a  mistake  of  a  transcriber,  the  present  name  of 
lona  has  come.  It  gets  also  the  name  of  Icolumb- 
kill,  or  the  Island  of  Columba  of  the  Cell,  and 
occasionally  Innis  van  Druidheach,  or  Island  of 
the  Druids.    It  is  one  of  the  Outer  Hebrides,  lying 


north-east  and  south-west,  and  separated  from 
the  Ross,  or  south-western  promontory  of  the 
Island  of  Mull,  by  a  shallow  channel  about  a 
mile  in  breadth.  It  is  about  three  miles  and 
a  half  in  length,  and  one  and  a  half  in  breadtjli; 
the  rocks  of  igneous  formation  ;  the  surface  gen- 
erally low,  but  rising  into  a  luimber  of  irregular 
cnocs  or  knolls,  not  usually  exceeding  a  hundred 
feet  in  height;  the  highest  of  them,  which  bears 
the  name  of  Dun-i,  or  Dun-ii,  and  is  situate  on 
the  north  of  the  island,  being  about  three  hun- 
dred and  thirty  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It 
has  been  variously  estimated  as  containing  from 
sixteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  acres,  nnich  less 
than  half  of  which  are  arable,  and  not  more  than 
six  hundred  actually  under  cultivation.  The  pas- 
tures on  the  sides  of  the  knolls  and  ravines  afford 
sustenance  to  about  six  hundred  sheep,  and  from 
two  to  three  hundred  larger  cattle.  The  pojuila- 
tion,  according  to  the  latest  census,  was  two  hun- 
dred and  forty-three,  and  maintains  itself  partly 
by  agriculture,  and  partly  by  fishing;  the  large 
flounders  in  the  neighboring  seas  being  accounted 
unusually  fine.  The  coast  is  diversified  by  a  num- 
ber of  small  rocky  bays  and  headlands,  and  three 
or  four  landing-places,  —  Port-na-Currach,  on  the 
south-west,  where  Columba  is  supposed  to  have 
first  landed;  Port-na-Muintir  on  the  south-east, 
the  usual  starting-point  in  crossing  from  lona  to 
Mull;  and  Port-na-Marbli,  at  which  the  bodies 
brought  for  burial  in  the  island  were  landed. 
The  island  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation  ap- 
pears to  have  constituted  a  distinct  parish,  but 
afterwards  to  have  been  united  to  the  parish  of 
Kilfinnichen  in  Mull,  and  only  in  our  own  day 
to  have  been  re-erected  into  a  parish  (/uoad  sacra. 
Besides  the  parish  church  and  the  school,  there  is 
also  a  P'ree  Church. 

Tluit  which  for  ages  has  attracted  visitors  from 
all  cpuxrters  to  this  little  island,  and  still  holds 
them  captive  by  a  spell  more  powerful  than  the 
neighboring  Statt'a  does  by  its  grander  scenery 
and  greater  scientific  interest,  is  that  it  was  once 
"  the  luminary  of  the  Caledonian  regions,  whence," 
as  Dr.  Johnson  says,  "savage  clans  and  roving- 
barbarians  derived  the  benefits  of  civilization  and 
the  blessings  of  religion."  But  though  its  attrac- 
tions arise  chiefly  from  its  history,  and  it  must 
yield  to  its  neighbor  in  respect  of  the  grandeur  of 
its  scenery  and  the  marvels  of  its  geological  struc- 
ture, it  is  by  no  means  so  destitute  of  physical 
attractions  as  Montalembert  has  represented  it  to 
be.  Jlr.  Skene,  who  knows  it  far  better,  has  said, 
"  No  one  who  pays  merely  a  flying  visit  to  lona 
in  an  excursion  steamer,  and  is  hurried  by  his 
guide  over  the  sights,  that  he  may  return  by  tlie 
steamer  the  same  daj-,  can  form  any  conception 
of  the  hidden  beauties,  —  its  retired  dells,  its  long 
reaches  of  sand  on  shores  indented  with  cpiiet  bays, 
its  little  coves  between  bare  and  striking  rock.s. 
and  the  bolder  rocky  scenery  of  its  north-western 
and  south-western  shores,  where  it  opposes  wild 
barren  cliffs  and  high  rocky  islets  to  the  sweep  of 
the  Atlantic  waves."  The  Duke  of  Argyll  fully 
concurs  in  the  views  of  Jlr.  Skene.  Even  he 
who  is  most  impressed  with  its  higher  claims, 
and  feels  most  the  force  of  Dr.  Johnson's  noble 
words,  need  not  fail  to  own  that  Columba  could 
hardly  have  found  a  spot  combining  more  of  the 
natural    beauty   he   loved  with   the   security  he 


lONA. 


1112 


IRELAND. 


souglit,  and  in  all  respects  so  -well  adapted  for  an 
island  monastery  designed  "  to  form  the  centre 
of  a  great  missionary-  ^YOrk,  and  to  exhibit  the 
Christian  life  in  contrast  with  the  surrounding 
Paganism."  These  beauties  seem  to  have  been 
felt  by  him,  especially  those  of  the  south-western 
corner,  which  Sir.  Skene  pronounces  to  be  "  the 
very  perfection  of  rocky  scenery."  where  was  tlie 
Cuilnan  Erin.  From  its  summit  the  saint  could 
look  out  on  the  wide  ocean  without  catcliing  a 
glimpse  of  the  land  of  his  birth,  and  might  have 
had  suggested  to  his  mind  the  glowing  imagery  of 
the  poem  in  which  he  revels  on  the  delight  of  gaz- 
ing from  a  pinnacle  of  rock  on  the  face  of  ocean, 
with  its  heaving  waves  chanting  music  to  their 
father,  or  more  hoarsely  thundering  on  the  rocks. 

It  was  in  563  that  the  island  became  the  home 
of  the  saint,  being  given  to  him  either  by  the 
king  of  the  Dalriad  Scots,  or  by  the  Picts,  its 
more  ancient  jiossessors.  It  was  well  suited  for 
a  Celtic  monastery,  no  less  by  its  own  limited 
size  than  by  its  proximity  to  larger  islands  and 
to  the  mainland,  and  it  became  not  only  the  usual 
abode  of  Columba,  but  the  head  of  all  his  monas- 
teries and  missions.  From  it  as  a  centre  he  went 
out  on  many  evangelistic  tours,  both  to  the  isl- 
ands and  the  mainland,  till  the  kingdom  of  the 
Northern  Picts  was  brought  over  to  the  Christian 
faith,  and  the  faith  as  well  as  the  fortunes  of  his 
own  Scotic  race  were  revived.  From  it  missiona- 
ries went  forth,  or  were  sent,  to  more  distant 
tribes  and  nations,  and  particularly  to  the  Angles 
of  Xorthumbria,  to  the  Continent,  to  Iceland,  and 
other  hyperborean  regions ;  and  the  blessings  of 
civilization,  learning,  and  religion,  were  extended 
far  and  wide. 

The  remains  of  the  ancient  church,  nunnerj', 
and  monastery,  now  found  in  the  island,  belong 
to  a  much  later  age  tlian  tliat  of  Columba.  The 
buildings  erected  by  him,  being,  according  to 
Scotic  custom,  of  wood  or  wattles,  have  all  dis- 
appeared many  centuries  ago,  and  their  very  site 
can  now  be  but  indistinctly  jiointed  out.  They 
were  surrounded  by  a  rampart,  some  portions  of 
which  can  still  be  traced,  and  were  not  far  from 
the  Port-na-.Muintir,  or/;(;rtu.s-  instiheoi  Adanman, 
facing  a  similar  landing-place  on  the  coast  of 
Mull.  Adamnan  makes  mention  of  a  kiln  and 
barn,  and  gives  us  reason  to  infer  there  was  also 
a  mill.  lie  mentions  the  monaslenum  with  its 
refectorj-;  the  hospitium,  or  guest-chamber,  wliich 
was  wattled  ;  the  cells  of  the  monks ;  the  little 
court  in  the  centre;  and  the  church  or  oralorium, 
whicli  is  supposed  to  liave  been  of  oaken  planks 
or  beams.  The  dnmus,  or  cell  of  Columba,  was 
built  of  planks,  and  occupied  the  liighest  yiart  of 
the  ground,  not  far  from  the  Tar  an  Abh,  fi'om 
wliich  he  took  his  last  survey  of  his  community 
and  their  agricultural  operations.  There  would 
.seem  also  to  have  been  a  library,  whicli  Jlr. 
Cosmo  Innes  supposes  at  a  considerably  later 
period  still  to  have  had  manu.scripts,  which  had 
probalily  been  in  its  possession  from  these  early 
times,  and  was  of  great  value. 

In  the  niiitli  and  tenth  centuries  the  island  was 
repeatedly. lavaged,  the  monastery  destroycKl,  and 
part  of  its  inmates  slaughtered  by  the  Danes  and 
other  northern  rovers,  and  the  primacy  of  tlie 
Scottish  Culumban  churclies  was  removed  to 
Uunkeld.     In  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 


when  the  Western  Isles  were  formally  ceded  to 
Norway,  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of  the  Isles  was 
transferred  from  lona  to  Slan,  and  the  diocese 
incorporated  into  the  Norwegian  archbishopric 
of  Drontheim.  In  li'66,  when  the  isles  were  re- 
stored to  Scotland,  the  patronage  of  this  bishopric 
was  restored  also,  but  with  reservation  of  the 
rights  the  Church  of  Drontheim  could  legiti- 
mately claim  over  it.  In  the  following  century 
the  Island  of  Man  was  seized  by  Edward  III.,  and 
its  bishop  swore  allegiance  to  him.  After  13S0 
the  English  appointed  a  bishop  of  JIan.  and  the 
Scotch  a  bishop  of  the  Isles ;  but  no  regular  divis- 
ion of  the  diocese  appears  to  have  taken  place. 
The  later  ecclesiastical  buildings,  of  which  re- 
mains still  exist  in  the  island,  date  mostly  from 
the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries.  The  most 
ancient,  the  temple  or  chapel  of  Oran  or  Odhrain, 
may  possibh*  be  even  of  the  time  of  Queen  Mar- 
garet. It  is  built  of  red  granite,  and  has  for 
its  western  dooi-way  a  Norman  arch,  with  beak- 
headed  ornament.  Near  it  is  tlie  Reilig  Oran, 
an  ancient  cemetery  and  sanctuary,  said  to  have 
formed  the  burial-ijlace  of  the  Scottish  and  Pict- 
ish  kings  till  the  time  of  Malcolm  the  Third, 
and  anciently  to  have  contained  three  luvmli, 
appropriated  respectively  to  the  kings  of  Scot- 
land, Ireland,  and  Norway,  and  in  which  forty- 
eight  Scotch,  four  Irish,  and  eight  Norwegian 
kings  were  buried.  North  of  this  cemetery  are 
the  remains  of  the  medifeval  monastery  of  the 
thirteenth  centurj-,  erected  for  the  Benedictine 
monks  who  had  succeeded  the  Celtic.  In  con- 
nection with  the  cloisters  is  a  Norman  arcade  of 
somewhat  older  date.  The  abbey  or  cathedral 
churcli  is  supposed  to  have  been  erected  also  in 
the  thirteenth  century.  It  is  liuilt  of  red  granite, 
and  in  cruciform  shape,  with  nave,  transept,  and 
choir,  and  with  central  tower  rising  to  the  height 
of  sevent)'-five  feet.  The  tower  is  said  to  have 
contained  a  fine  jieal  of  bells,  two  of  which  were 
carried  off  to  Kaphoe  in  Ireland,  by  Bishop  Knox, 
when  ti'uiisferred  to  that  see  by  James  I.  King 
Charles  I.  ordered  Knox's  successor  to  restore 
them  ;  but  whether  this  was  actually  done  is  not 
now  known  {Transactions  of  lona  Club,  p.  187, 
Edinburgh.  1824). 

Lit.  —  In  addition  to  authorities  given  in  arti- 
cle on  Columba,  Historical  Account  of  lona.  by  L. 
Maclean,  Edinb.,  1833;  Origines  Parochiaks 
Scotia:,  vol.  ii.  pt.  3,  Edinb.,  18o4 ;  Neu-  Statistical 
Account  of  Scotland,  vol.  vii.,  Edinb.,  1845;  T/ic 
Abbey  and  Cathedral  of  lona,  by  the  Bisiioi-  of 
AitOYLL  AND  THE  IsLES,  Loud.,  ISCG;  lona,  by 
the  Duke  of  Augyli.,  Lond.,  1870;  Skene's 
Celtic  Scotland,  vol.  ii.,  Edinb.,  1877  ;  Sculptured 
Monuments  in  lona  and  \\'(st  Iliijidands,  by  James 
DiuMMoxD.  Edinb..  18S1.  ai.ex.  k.  Mitchell. 

IRELAND.  I.  The  Cotntky.  —  Ireland  is 
situated  to  the  west  of  Great  Britain.  Its  great- 
est length  is  three  hundred  miles,  and  greatest 
width  two  hundred  ;  its  area,  32,53.")  square  miles. 
Tlie  surface  is  an  undulating  plain,  with  a  rim 
of  low  mountains  round  llie  coast.  The  climate 
is  moist,  variable  but  temperate,  and  better 
adapted  to  cattle-raising  than  to  the  cultivation 
of  cereals.  'i"he  manufactures  are  not  important, 
excejit  that  of  linen  in  the  north.  The  country 
is  divided  into  the  four  jiiovinces,  I'Ister,  Eeiiister, 
Munster,  and    Connauglit,  and   subdivided   into 


IRELAND. 


1113 


IRELAND. 


thirty-two  counties,  comprising  316  baronies,  with 
2,532  parishes. 

II.  History.  1.  To  the  Union  of  Ike  Irish 
Church  with  Rome.  —  Ireland  was  at  an  early  date 
.settled  by  Celtic  tribes,  differing  considerably 
among  themselves,  and  maintaining  constant  war- 
fare with  each  other.  Christianity  was  introduced 
into  the  country,  certainly  early  in  the  fifth  centu- 
ry, through  intercourse  with  lii.sh  colonies  formed 
in  Wales  and  Cornwall  on  the  decadence  of  the 
Roman  power  in  Britain  ;  but  the  founding  of  an 
organized  church  is  usually  admitted  to  be  due 
to  St.  Patrick.  The  I'atrician  Church  was  inde- 
pendent of  Home,  and,  although  agreeing  in 
doctrine  with  the  Western  Church  of  that  time, 
differed  widely  in  organization.  At  first  we  find 
no  diocesan  bisliops  with  definite  territory,  and 
clergy  under  them,  much  less  metropolitans  in 
their  turn  overseeing  the  bishops.  The  early  Irish 
Church  was  essentially  monastic,  and  adapted  to 
the  state  of  society  then  existing  among  the  Irish 
Celts.  The  former  religion  was  what  is  vaguely 
known  as  "  Druidism ; "  and  the  so-called  "schools 
of  the  Druids  "  may  have  accustomed  the  Irish  to 
the  monastic  idea.  The  tribal  system  was  in  full 
force ;  and,  owing  to  this,  a  chief  could  not  make 
an  absolute  gift  of  land  to  the  Church  :  he  could 
only  make  over  his  own  rights,  the  clansmen 
retaining  theirs.  Such  religious  comnmnities 
were  called  "monasteries,"  though  only  a  few 
members  may  have  taken  vows  of  celibacy.  The 
heads  of  such  bodies  were  the  real  ecclesiastical 
rulers  of  Ireland  ;  and  we  find  presbyters,  laymen, 
and  (in  one  famous  instance,  that  of  St.  Brigit) 
a  woman,  filling  such  positions,  and  in  authority 
over  bishops.  That  the  bishops  were  not  terri- 
torial in  early  times  is  shovvii  by  the  facts  tliat 
St.  Patrick  himself  is  traditionally  reported  to 
have  ordained  between  three  hundred  and  four 
hundred  bishops  for  a  population  of  probably  not 
half  a  million  persons,  and  that  St.  Mochta  is 
said  to  have  had  one  hundred  bishops  in  his 
monastery.  The  history  of  the  Irish  Church  for 
the  next  six  centuries  is  the  history  of  its  gradual 
conformation  to  that  of  Rome.  As  a  rule,  the 
higher  and  more  educated  of  the  clergy,  im- 
pressed by  the  greatness  and  splendor  of  the 
Roman  Church,  were  in  favor  of  such  changes  as 
looked  towards  the  establishment  of  the  Roman 
graded  hierarchy.  In  633  part  of  the  Church 
adopted  the  Roman  method  of  reckoning  Easter  : 
in  716  the  rest  followed.  The  stricter  Benedic- 
tine rule  was  introduced  into  the  monasteries ; 
and  the  tribe  bishops  approximated  in  time  to 
diocesans.  An  apparent  exception  to  the  non- 
hierarchical  constitution  was  the  ard-bishop  of 
Armagh,  who  bore  this  title  at  a  comparatively 
early  date.  But  a  little  examination  shows  that 
the  title  "  ard  "  was  applied  very  loosely,  and  that 
the  so-called  early  bishops  of  Armagh  were  some- 
times laymen,  and  were,  in  fact,  abbots  rather 
than  bishops.  The  Irish  Church  of  the  seventh 
and  eighth  centuries  was  honorably  distinguished 
for  its  missionary  enterprise  and  its  schools  :  the 
latter  gave  Ireland  a  literature  two  centuries  in 
advance  of  the  other  barbarous  nations  of  Europe. 

Jealousy  of  the  power  of  the  northern  bishop 
of  Armagh  led  to  the  calling  of  the  synod  of 
Rathbreasail,  in  1110,  at  which  the  first  papal 
legate  in  Ireland,  Gillebert,  bishop  of  Limerick, 


presided.  This  synod  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Romanizing  party.  The  archbishop  of  Casliel 
was  acknowledged  as  a  rival  to  Armagli,  and  the 
country  plaeed  under  twenty-three  diocesans ; 
but  so  imperfectly  were  the.se  arrangements  car- 
ried out,  that  we  fiiul  similar  nu'asures  introduced 
at  the  subseipient  synods  of  Kolls  aiul  Casliel. 
At  this  period  a  frightful  state  of  anarchy  ]ire- 
vailed;  and,  as  was  natural,  the  Churcli  suffered 
fearfully.  At  this  juncture  St.  Malachy,  a  man  of 
great  power,  began  his  labors.  As  the  fruit  of  his 
efforts,  a  great  synod  was  held  at  Kells  in  1152 
(four  years  after  his  death),  where  true  diocesan 
jurisdiction  was  set  up,  two  new  archbishoprics 
were  established  in  Dublin  and  Tuam  respec- 
tively, and  the  authority  of  Rome  was  formally 
acknowledged. 

We  now  reach  the  period  of  the  Norman  Inva- 
sion. Adrian  IV.,  the  only  English  Pope,  granted 
to  Henry  II.,  in  1155,  a  bull  conferring  on  him 
the  sovereignty  of  Ireland ;  the  condition  being 
the  complete  submission  of  the  Irish  Church. 
The  expulsion  of  Dermod  JiacMurrough,  a  Lein- 
ster  chieftain,  gave  the  desired  opportuniy.  Der- 
mod applied  to  Henry  for  aid,  and  received  letter.s- 
patent  authorizing  English  subjects  to  assist  him. 

Richard  de  Clare,  since  known  as  Strongbow, 
agreed  to  reconquer  Leinster  for  Dermod,  receiv- 
ing in  marriage  Eva,  Dermod's  only  child,  and 
with  her  the  reversion  of  Dermod's  lands,  which, 
according  to  tribal  law,  Dermod  had  no  right  to 
give.  In  1169  and  1170  the  Xornian  knights 
landed  in  Ireland,  and  succeeded  in  firmly  estab- 
lishing themselves.  In  1172  Henry  visited  Ire- 
land, and  received  the  country  fro2ii  Strongbow. 
A  synod  assembled  at  Ca.sliel  formally  united  the 
Church  of  Ireland  to  the  Churcli  of  Home;  and 
so  the  last  of  the  western  national  churches  sur- 
rendered. And  from  this  time  until  the  Refor- 
mation, the  history  of  the  Iri.sh  Church  is  the 
history  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Cliurch  in  Ireland 

2.  From  the  Union  of  the  Iris/i  Churcli  tcith  that 
of  Rome  to  the  Reformation.  —  At  first  the  advent 
of  the  Norman  rulers  was  an  unmixed  benefit. 
To  the  tillers  of  the  soil  any  strong  rule  was 
better  than  subjection  to  the  exaction  of  every 
captain  of  banditti  who  could  muster  twenty  men. 
But  the  Normans  rapidly  assimilated  themselves 
to  the  Irish  ;  and  in  a  short  time  the  only  differ- 
ence between  the  old  and  the  new  state  of  affairs 
was,  that  some  of  the  clansmen  now  fought  under 
Norman  instead  of  Celtic  leaders.  In  1367,  less 
than  two  hundred  years  from  the  landing  of 
Strongbow,  the  Anglo-Irish  Parliament  assembled 
at  Kilkenny  passed  a  statute  treating  the  old 
English  settlers  with  almost  as  much  severity  as 
the  Irish.  Near  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth 
century  considerable  bodies  of  Celtic-Scotch  in- 
vaded Ulster.  Like  other  invaders  of  Ireland, 
they  found  allies,  and  made  permanent  settle- 
ments. 

During  the  wars  of  the  Roses  in  England,  Ire- 
land was  left  almost  to  herself;  and  on  the  acces- 
sion of  Henry  VII.,  although  the  most  powerful 
families  were  of  Anglo-Norman  name,  the  author- 
ity of  the  king  extended  only  to  the  country 
immediately  surrounding  Dublin.  Henry,  an  able 
and  astute  monarch,  sent  over  Sir  Edward  Poyn- 
ings.  A  Parliament  assembled  by  him  in  li95 
1  made  all   English  statutes  law  in  Ireland,  and 


IRELAND. 


nu 


IRELAND. 


subjected  the  Irish  Parliament  to  the  Eiiglisli 
privy  council.  —  an  arrangement  which  remained 
in  force  until  within  eighteen  years  of  the  union 
of  the  two  countries. 

Under  the  strong  rule  of  Henry's  deputy,  the 
Earl  of  Kildare,  —  the  head  of  the  great  family 
of  the  Geraldines.  —  the  English  authority  was 
extended,  the  turbulence  of  the  barons  and  native 
chiefs  was  checked,  and  the  unhappy  country 
enjoyed  probably  a  greater  degree  of  quiet  than 
at  any  time  since  her  history  opened.  This  state 
of  things  continued  through  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  VHL,  broken  only  by  the  mad 
rebellion  of  "  Silken  Thomas,"  which  ended  in 
the  ruin  of  the  Kildare  family. 

;}.  From  the  Reformation  lo  the  Period  of  Protes- 
tant Ascendency,  and  of  the  Penal  Laics.  —  A  new 
and  all-important  factor  is  now  introduced  into 
Irish  history.  Henry  VHI.  extended  his  refor- 
mation to  Ireland.  Up  to  this  time  the  Irish 
Church  had  been  directly  under  the  control  of 
Rome.  The  Pope  appointed  the  archbishops, 
and  the  king  of  England  was  seldom  able  to 
enforce  his  claim  to  any  authority  in  ecclesiastical 
matters.  At  the  time  of  the  Keformation  the 
Irish  Church  was  as  corrupt  as  any  in  Europe. 
Simony,  lawlessness,  and  sexual  immorality  char- 
acterized the  clergj'.  Nowhere  was  reform  more 
needed :  but  unfortunately  the  worst  side  of  the 
Keformation  was  turned  to  Ireland,  and  it  could 
scarcely  have  happened  otherwise  than  that  it 
should  be  rejected  by  the  mass  of  the  people. 
The  Irish  were  now  beginning  to  realize  that  the 
power  of  England  was  real,  and  was  to  be  exerted 
to  crush  out  their  tribal  institutions,  and  substi- 
tute the  common  law  of  England  for  that  of  the 
P.rehon  lawyers.  Northmen  and  Danes,  Norman 
barons  and  Celtic  Scotch,  had  all  been  welcomed 
as  allies  by  some  Irish  power,  and  had  been 
absorbed  till  they  became  "more  Irish  than  the 
Irish."  But  under  Henry  VII.  the  Celt  was  made 
to  feel  that  there  was  a  force  he  could  not  mould 
or  bend.  —  a  force  that  nmst  either  bend  or  break 
him,  and  would,  if  possible,  compel  him  to  order. 
Hence  the  Reformation  appe.ared  to  the  Irish 
simply  as  an  arl)itrary  act  of  the  power  they  had 
learned  to  hate.  Henry  \'1II.  called  a  I'arlia- 
nient.  which  passed  whatever  acts  he  wished. 
Most  of  the  bishops  and  clergy  acquiesced  in  the 
supremacy  of  the  king ;  but  so  unpopular  was 
the  change,  that  O'Neill  was  able  to  raise  an 
insurrection  in  Ulster  to  oppo.se  it,  which  was 
vigorously  supjiressed.  It  was  not,  however,  until 
15.31,  that  Protestantism  was  formally  established 
by  law.  Queen  Mary  restored  the  old  order,  of 
course ;  but  her  power  in  Ireland  was  so  weak, 
that  the  country  gave  asylum  to  English  Protes- 
tant refugees.  In  15fi(i,  after  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  a  Parliament  was  held,  in  which  sat 
three  archbishops  and  seventeen  Ijishops.  This 
J'arliami'iit  restored  the  ecclesiastical  order  of 
Henry  VHI.  and  PMward  VI.,  but  it  is  not  cer- 
tain how  many  of  the  bishops  actually  conformed. 
The  Reformation  made  no  re.al  progress  among 
the  people.  At  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
•lames  1.  the  condition  ol  the  established  Church 
was  deplorable..  The  clergy  were  largely  illit- 
erate, and  drawn  from  the  lowest  orders,  .and, 
although  often  pluralists,  were  almost  beggars; 
the  revenues  being  absorbed,  under  corrupt  agree- 


ments, by  those  in  authority.  During  the  reigns 
of  (Jueens  Mary  and  Elizabeth  the  civil  history 
presents  a  succession  of  rebellions  and  ferocious 
internal  feuds.  Exhaustion  brought  peace,  and 
King  James  I.  took  advantage  of  the  desolation 
of  Ulster  to  introduce  Scotch  settlers.  These 
settlers  were  strongly  opposed  to  prelacy,  and 
formed  a  basis  for  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland. 

Charles  I.  tried  the  ruinous  policy  of  using 
Ireland  as  a  power  against  his  Parliament.  The 
Protestants  were  systematically  disarmed,  and 
the  frightful  outbreak  of  1641  was  the  result. 
The  Parliament  sent  some  Scotch  troops  to  Car- 
rickfergus,  attended  by  chaplains;  and  among 
them,  in  1642,  was  organized  the  first  presbytery 
of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  Ireland.  The 
misery  of  the  coimtry  for  the  next  few  years  was 
such  as  can  hardly  be  equalled,  even  in  her  dismal 
annals.  When  Cromwell  came,  he  found  five 
hostile  armies  ranged  against  each  other,  and  all 
pi-eying  on  the  wretched  peasantry.  His  sharp 
and  decisive  treatment  is  well  known.  He  pro- 
ceeded to  parcel  out  the  forfeited  and  almost 
depojiulated  lands  among  English  settlers,  mostly 
Baptists  and  Independents.  Eor  a  few  yeai'S 
Ireland  enjoyed  prosperity,  but  the  policy  of  the 
Restoration  undid  much  of  the  work.  Crom- 
well's settlers  were  displaced,  and  many  of  them 
emigrated  to  the  New  World.  Up  to  this  time 
it  does  not  appear  that  the  penal  laws  against 
Roman  Catholics  had  been  seriously  enforced, 
although  Cromwell  refused  liberty  to  celebrate  the 
mass.  The  effect  of  Protestantism  showed  itself 
in  a  marked  way  on  the  Roinan-Catholic  clergy. 
From  this  time  we  hear  no  more  of  illegitimate 
children  of  bishops,  nor  of  scandalous  lives  among 
the  priests.  Those  who  see  most  clearly  the 
mischief  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  does  in  Ire- 
land admit,  th.at,  with  regard  to  purity  of  life, 
the  Irish  priesthood  stands  pre-eminent  among 
the  Roman-Catholic  clergy  of  Europe. 

When  the  Revolution  of  1G.S8  took  place,  and 
James  II.  landed  in  Ireland,  the  Protestants  of 
the  North  saved  a  footing  in  Ireland  for  King 
William.  After  the  battles  of  the  Boyne  (IGOO) 
and  -Vughrim  (l(i91)  had  ruined  the  cau.se  of 
James,  ]ieace  w.as  concluded  by  the  treaty  of 
Limerick,  which  guaranteed  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics all  rights  which  they  had  enjoyed  under 
Charles  I.  In  Ulster  large  districts  which  had 
been  forfeited  were  bestowed  on  owners  who 
leased  them  for  terms  of  thirty  years  to  Scotch 
Presbyterian  .settlers. 

4.  From  the  Protestant  Ascendency  to  the  Union 
of  Ireland  to  Great  Britain.  —  The  government 
now  fell  entirely  into  the  hands  of  a  few  great 
Protestant-Episcopal  land-holders:  the  treaty  of 
Limerick  was  disregarded;  and  Ireland  became 
the  worst  governed  country  in  Europe.  During 
the  reign  of  (^ueen  .Amie,  penal  laws  which  bore 
almost  as  heavily  on  Presbyterians  as  on  Roman 
Catholics  were  vigorously  enforced.  The  stale 
of  religion  was  deplorable.  The  Established 
Church  had  gaiiu'd  no  hold  on  the  jieople,  and, 
indeed,  had  made  no  adecjuate  effort  to  do  so. 
The  richer  bishopries  and  deaneries  wore  occupied 
by  men  who  were  chosi-n  for  quite  other  rea- 
.sons  tli;in  s]iirilual  fitness.  Most  of  the  clergy 
were  poorly  paid,  and  were  content  to   perform 


IRELAND. 


1115 


IRELAND. 


meclianically  the  duties  required  of  them.  The 
Romau-C'atliolic  priests  were,  for  the  most  part, 
very  uneducated ;  and  the  penal  laws  were  en- 
forced with  such  severity,  that  in  many  places 
the  sacraments  were  left  unadministered.  Crom- 
well's Baptists  and  Independents,  who  at  one  time 
were  computed  to  have  formed  one-half  of  the 
Protestant  population,  had  almost  disappeared, 
in  a  way  hard  to  account  for.  The  Presbyterian 
C'luirch  presented  a  brighter  aspect.  It  was  felt 
that  the  strong  Presbyterians  were  needed ;  and 
even  the  bigoted  Irish  Parliament  liad  to  provide 
for  their  admission  to  the  army,  and  in  1719 
passed  au  act  of  toleration  in  spite  of  the  hyster- 
ical protests  of  the  bishops. 

In  1727  the  Presbyterian  Church  was  weakened 
by  the  secession  of  the  synod  of  Antrim,  —  a  body 
sympathizing  so  much  with  latitudinarian  views 
as  to  the  divinity  of  Christ,  as  to  make  a  subscrip- 
tion to  the  Westminster  standards  distasteful,  — 
and  still  further  by  the  emigration  of  her  members 
to  America.  As  the  leases  granted  under  William 
III.  fell  in,  the  landlords  raised  the  rents,  char- 
ging the  tenants  for  their  own  improvements. 
The  enterprising  Ulster  farmers  would  not  sub- 
mit ;  and  this,  with  the  policy  towards  dissenters 
from  the  Established  Church  which  England  had 
sanctioned,  sent  many  of  the  race  whicli  had 
fought  for  her  cause  in  Ireland  in  1688  to  figlit 
against  her  in  America  in  1776. 

In  1747  Wesley  preached  in  Ireland  with 
success.  The  good  he  did  must  not  be  measured 
only  by  the  number  of  his  converts :  his  move- 
ment infused  life,  in  many  places,  into  the  exist- 
ing organizations. 

In  17-16  the  first  seceding  Presbyterian  minister 
had  settled  in  Ireland,  and  in  17.50  the  first  pres- 
bytery of  this  body  was  organized.  In  Ulster 
the  system  of  lay  patronage  had  never  existed ; 
but  the  rigidly  orthodox  secession  church  found 
a  reason  for  being  in  the  prevailing  latitudinal 
rianism  of  the  synod  of  Ulster. 

The  rest  of  the  eighteenth  century  may  be 
passed  over  rapidly.  The  penal  laws  with  regard 
to  the  Roman  Catholics  were  gi'adually  I'elaxed. 
Fear  of  French  invasion  caused  tlie  arming  of 
the  volunteers.  The  efforts  of  Grattan  and 
Flood,  backed  by  the  strength  of  the  volunteers, 
obtained  in  1782  the  independence  of  the  Irish 
Parliament.  Ireland,  for  eighteen  years,  had 
home  rule ;  but,  under  the  system  of  parliament- 
ary representation  then  in  force,  this  meant  only 
the  tyranny  of  a  land-holding  minority.  The 
rebellion  of  1798,  with  its  frightful  outrages  on 
both  sides,  took  place.  Pitt,  then  at  the  head  of 
the  English  Government,  resolved  to  do  away 
with  the  farce  of  Irish  independence.  He  was 
resolved  on  union.  The  Roman  Catholics  favored 
the  measure  as  promising  them  some  relief,  and 
it  was  carried  by  direct  bribery. 

5.  From  the  Union  to  the  Present  Tune.  —  In  the 
first  years  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the  state  of 
religion  in  the  Protestant  churches  in  Ireland 
was  not  encouraging ;  but  a  better  day  soon 
dawned.  In  1827  the  synod  of  Ulster,  under  the 
leadership  of  Henry  Cooke,  freed  herself  from 
Arianism,  which  had  obtained  some  foothold ;  and, 
as  a  result  of  this  movement,  the  remonstrant 
synod  of  Ulster  was  formed  of  a  few  ministers 
who  felt  they  could  not  remain  in  the  Chui'ch. 


In  1829  important  reforms  were  carried  out  in 
the  administration  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church, 
in  particular  witli  regard  to  the  appointment  of 
bisfiojis. 

In  183.3  the  anti-tithe  demonstrations  led  to  a 
reform  of  the  Established  Church,  by  which  it 
was  arranged  that  the  archbishoprics  of  Cashel 
and  Tuam,  and  eight  bishoprics,  were  to  be  left 
unfilled  on  their  becoming  vacant.  This  measure 
was  vigorously  opposed  by  the  bishops  and  clergy 
of  the  Established  Church,  and  there  were  dismal 
prophecies  of  the  results.  The  actual  lo.ss  of 
spiritual  light  due  to  tlie  extinction  of  these 
ecclesiastical  stars  was,  however,  less  than  was 
expected.  In  fact,  we  have  entered  on  a  period 
of  progress  and  success  in  both  the  Established 
and  Presbyterian  churches.  The  clergy  of  the 
former  showed  an  earnest  and  faithful  interest  in 
the  spu-itual  and  temporal  welfare  of  their  charges, 
in  strong  contrast  to  their  predecessors  of  the 
eighteenth  century ;  while  among  the  Presbyte- 
rians new  congregations  were  rapidly  organized, 
and  increased  life  shown  in  those  already  existing. 
In  1840  a  union  was  effected  between  the  synod 
of  Ulster  and  the  secession  synod.  The  292  con- 
gregations of  the  synod  of  Ulster  united  with  141 
seceding  congregations  to  form  the  Presbyterian 
Churcli  in  Ireland. 

In  1869  the  act  of  Parliament  was  passed,  dis- 
establishing and  disendowing  the  Episcopal 
Church  of  Ii-eland.  This  bill  went  into  effect 
Jan.  1,  1871. 

The  principal  events  of  the  secular  history  since 
the  union  were  the  Catholic  emancipation  (1829), 
which  gave  political  enfranchisement  to  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  ;  the  fearful  famine  of  1846,  which, 
with  emigration,  reduced  the  population  by  more 
than  a  million  and  a  half  in  five  years ;  the  abor- 
tive rising  of  1848;  the  home-rule  agitation,  begun 
in  1874;  and  the  passing  of  a  land  bill  in  1881, 
securing  to  the  tenant  rights  to  any  improvements 
he  may  make,  in  a  manner  that  to  some  seems 
to  infringe  on  the  commonly  accepted  rights  of 
property. 

III.  Present  Condition.  —  The  population, 
after  desolating  wars  such  as  the  Elizabethan, 
has  been  estimated  at  much  less  than  one  million. 
At  the  end  of  the  last  century  it  had  increased  to 
nearly  five  millions,  and  in  1845  reached  the 
astonisliing  maximum  of  8,29.5,061.  Then  came 
the  famine  and  emigration,  and  in  1851  the  popu- 
lation was  only  a  little  more  than  six  millions 
and  a  half.  Emigi-ation  has  kept  up  the  decrease 
ever  since,  but  at  a  slower  rate.  The  census  re- 
turns of  1881  showed  a  total  of  5,159,839. 

At  the  census  of  1881  there  were  3,951,881 
Roman  Catholics,  635,670  Protestant  Episcopa- 
lians, 485,503  Presbyterians,  and  47,669  :Method- 
ists;  forming  respectively,  76.6,  12.3,  9.4,  and  .9 
per  cent  of  the  whole  population.  All  other 
religious  bodies,  including  about  4,500  Independ- 
ents (or  Congregationalists),  about  the  same 
number  of  Baptists,  about  4,000  Quakers,  453 
Jews,  and  1,144  persons  who  refused  information, 
numbered  only  39,109,  or  .8  per  cent. 

The  Roman-Catholic  Church  is  under  the  four 
archbishops  of  Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and 
Tuam,  and  twenty-three  bishops.  On  the  death 
of  a  bishop,  the  clergy  of  the  diocese  nominate  a 
successor  to  the  vacancy ;  and  the  bishops  of  the 


IRELAND. 


1116 


IREN^US. 


pronnce  also  name  two  or  three  persons.  Usually 
the  new  bishop  is  chosen  from  the  latter  number, 
by  the  cardinals  composing  the  congregation  De 
Propaganda  Fide.  There  are  nearly  1,000  parish 
priests,  and  1,750  curates;  and  the  total  number 
of  the  clergy  in  all  capacities  is  given  a.s  3,198. 
The  parishes  number  1,084,  and  churches  and 
chapels  nearly  2,500. 

The  Ma,\-nooth  Roman-Catholic  College,  founded 
in  1795,  formerly  received  annual  government 
grants,  which  in  1871  were  commuted  for  the 
sum  of  £372,.J31.  Although  the  Roman-Catholic 
Church  in  Ireland  is  in  most  things  ultramontane, 
in  national  qiiestions  it  has  sometimes  shown  a 
strong  spirit  of  independence. 

The  Pi'otestant- Episcopal  Church  includes  most 
of  the  land-holding  class.  It  is  under  two  arch- 
bishops and  ten  bishops.  Thei-e  are  33  dioceses, 
divided  into  gi-oups  of  two,  three,  or  four  each, 
and  about  1,300  benefices.  There  are  364  curates. 
The  commissioners  appointed  for  the  purpose 
have  paid  over  more  than  seven  million  and  a  half 
sterling  in  commutation  of  life-interests  existing 
at  the  time  of  the  disestablishment.  Although 
tlie  disestablishment  has  in  some  ways  weakened 
the  Protestant-Episcopal  Church,  principally  with 
regard  to  the  social  standing  of  candidates  for 
orders,  yet,  on  tlie  other  hand,  a  spirit  is  making 
itself  felt  among  the  laity  which  promises  much 
good  for  the  future. 

Tlie  strength  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Ireland  is  chiefly  in  Ulster,  where  there  is  a  lai-ge 
population  of  Scotcli  descent.  Before  tlie  dis- 
establishment, the  Presbyterian  Church  received 
£40,0(10  annually,  from  the  government.  In  1880 
the  Church  embraced  36  presbyteries,  nearly  600 
congregations,  79,214  families,  and  104,769  com- 
municants. The  revenues  were  £139,840,  of 
which  £44,922  was  paid  to  ministers,  whose  salary 
is  made  up  in  part  in  this  way,  and  in  part  by 
their  congragatioris.  The  Presbyterian  College, 
Belfast,  and  the  Magee  College,  Londonderry,  are 
the  "  theological  seminaries  "  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church. 

The  other  Presbyterian  bodies  are  inconsidera- 
ble. They  are,  the  remonstrant  synod  of  Ulster 
(1830),  with  23  ministers:  the  presbytery  of 
Antrim  (1727),  with  8  ministers;  the  northern 
presbytery  of  Antrim  (1862),  with  6  ministers  ; 
the  remnant  of  the  seccision  church  in  Ireland 
(which  refused  to  unite  in  1840),  with  10  ministers  ; 
a  branch  of  the  United  Presbyterians  of  .Scotland, 
with  13  ministers;  and  two  branches  of  the  Re- 
formed Presbyterian  Church,  or  Covenanters,  with 
about  34  ministers.  The  synod  of  Munster  (1660), 
with  5  ministers,  though  in  connection  with  the 
(ieneral  .\sseinbly  of  tlie  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Ireland,  is  kept  up  for  legal  convenience  with 
regard  to  certain  properties  held  by  it. 

The  Methodist  Church  in  Ireland  was  formed 
in  1878,  Ijy  the  union  of  the  Wesleyan  Metlio<lists 
with  the  Primitive  Wesleyan  Methodists.  Its 
hundredth  annual  conference,  held  in  Cork  in 
.Jnne,  1881,  had  under  its  care  10  districts  and 
146  stiitions.  The  Methodist  New  Connection 
Church  has  only  7  stations. 

The  Congregational  cliurches  in  Ireland  h.'ive 
21  ministers,  and  the  association  of  Baptist 
churches  25.  The  Moravians  have  8  congrega- 
tions. 


The  oldest  Irish  university  is  that  of  Dublin, 
established  1591.  The  Queen's  University,  soon 
to  be  superseded  by  the  Royal  University,  has 
colleges  in  Belfast.  Cork,  and  Galway. 

In  1880  the  national  school  system  maintained 
7,590  schools,  having  on  their  rolls  1,083,020 
pupils.  In  1841,  53  per  cent  of  the  population 
could  neither  read  nor  write.  In  1871  this  per- 
centage was  reduced  to  33  for  the  whole  country, 
and  to  27  for  Ulster. 

Lit.  —  L.\NIGAX  :  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ire- 
land, Dublin,  1829;  Manx:  History  of  the  Church 
of  Ireland,  London,  1840;  King:  Irish  Church 
History,  Dublin,  1845 ;  Wordsworth  :  History  of 
the  Church  of  Ireland,  London,  18G9 ;  Killen  : 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  Ireland,  London,  1876,  2 
vols.  ;  O'DoxovAX  :  Annals  of  the  Four  Masters, 
Dublin,  1862;  Todd:  Life  of 'Si.  Patrick.  Dublin. 
1864;  MoRAx  :  Early  Irish  Church,  Dublin,  1861 ; 
the  same  :  Episcopal  Succession  in  Ireland,  Dub- 
lin, 1866;  Reid  :  History  of  the  Presbyterian  Church 
in  Ireland,  Belfast,  1867;  Porter  :  Life  and  Times 
of  Henry  Cooke,  London,  1871  ;  Froude  :  The 
English  in  Ireland  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  Lou- 
don, 1872  ;  W.  Nevixs  :  Ireland  and  the  Holy  See 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  Dublin,  1879;  C.  H.  Crook- 
shanks  :  Hist.  Methodism  in  Ireland,  Belfast,  1885 
sqq. ;  Seddall  :  The  Church  of  Ireland,  1886. 
Compare  the  general  histories  of  Ireland  by 
MacGeoghan,  Gordon,  Leland,  Musgr.we, 
and  others,  also  art.  Ireland,  in  Encyc/opxedia  Bri- 
tannica.  For  present  condition  and  statistics,  see 
Statesman's  Year  Book,  ljO\\A.,\di8Q;  Thom's  Offi 
cial  Directory,  1886.       .TOHX  nALL;  R.  W.  IT  ALL. 

IRELAND,  John,  b.  at  Ashburton,  Devonshire, 
Eng.,  Sept.  8,  1761;  d.  in  London,  Sept.  1,  1842. 
He  was  graduated  at  (h-iel  College,  Oxford,  1780; 
took  orders,  and  was  made  dean  of  Westminster 
1816.  lie  was  the  author  of  Fire  Discourses  ;  con- 
taining Certain  Arguments  for  and  against  the  Recep- 
tion of  Christianity  hy  the  Ancient  Jetvs  and  Greeks, 
London,  1796;  Nuptice  sacrce,  or  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Scrij)tu)-al  Doctrine  of  Marriage  and  Divorce, 
London,  1821 ;  The  Plague  of  Marseilles  in  the 
Year  1720,  London,  1834.  Besides  other  bene- 
factions, he  left  ten  thousand  pounds  to  establish 
at  Oxford  a  profes.sorship  of  biblical  exegesis. 
This  profe.s.-iorship  lias  been  held  by  Canon  H.  P. 
Liddnn,  D.D.,  since  1870. 

IREN/EUS,  Bishoj)  of  Lyons  (Ltigdunum),  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  authors  and  theologians 
of  the  early  Church  ;  was  b.,  probably  in  .Vsia 
Minor,  about  115;  d.  in  Lyons  about  190  [usual 
date  202].  As  the  facts  oi"  his  life  are  drawn,  to 
a  large  extent,  fi'om  liis  own  writings,  we  will 
begin  with  a  survey  of  the  latter. 

1.  Writings.  —  The  only  work  of  Irena;us  which 
has  come  down  to  us  entire  is  his  treatise  against 
(jnosticism,  'F,?^x<K  «"'  uvaTpoTr)/  Tf/(  xjievdaviifiov 
}T(J(Tf(jf  ["Disproof  and  Refutation  of  the  Gnosis 
fal.sely  so  called  "].  It  was  written  in  (ireek.  but 
is  preserved  only  in  a  L.atin  translation  and  some 
fragments  of  a  Syriac  version.  A  portion  of  the 
original  Greek  text  has,  however,  biMUi  preserved 
by  Epiphanius,  who  transcribed  verbally  the  first 
book,  to  21,  4,  in  his  work  on  Hi  resits  (31,  9-34), 
and  ipiotes  largely  in  other  places  without,  how- 
ever, mentioning  the  source,  llippolytus  likewise 
drew  from  the  Greek  original  of  Irena>us  in  his 
Refutation  of  alt  Heresies  (vi.  38,  42-52,  vii.  32- 


IRBN^US. 


1117 


IREN^US. 


37).  This  work  of  Irenaeus  was  usually  quoted 
by  the  shorter  titles,  Tpdf  ruf  alpcaeic,  or  /card  aipe- 
aeuv  ("Against  the  Heresies"),  and  Ailv.  iKcreses, 
or  Adv.  lucrelicos  ("  Against  Heretics  ").  lrena>us 
may  have  found  occasion,  in  the  prevalence  of 
Gnostic  errors  in  his  own  diocese,  for  composing 
this  work,  as  some  of  the  disciples  of  the  (inostic 
Marcus  had  come  to  that  vicinity  (i.  13,  7),  and 
the  writings  of  Florinus,  an  apostate  to  Valentini- 
anism,  were  circulated  in  the  congregations  along 
the  Rhone.  But  the  primary  occasion  of  the 
work  was  the  request  of  a  friend  to  be  supplied 
with  more  definite  information  in  regard  to  the 
doctrines  of  Valentinus.     See  Gnosticism. 

The  work  itself  consists  of  five  books.  In  the 
first  the  author  gives  a  description  of  the  Gnostic 
heresies,  and  in  the  remaining  four  a  refutation 
of  them  by  suumiarizing  the  teachings  of  tlie 
evangelists  and  the  Pauline  Epistles.  The  work 
shows  clearness  of  thought,  but  is  somewhat  dis- 
cursive. He  makes  no  pretension  to  literary 
finish,  or  elegance  of  Greek  diction  (i.  Prcef.), 
but  eagerly  pursues  the  one  object  in  view. 
While  it  is  his  primary  purpose  to  analyze  and 
refute  the  Valentinian  heresy,  he  takes  in  all 
heresies,  inasmuch  as  it  is  only  a  "  recapitulation 
of  all  heresies,"  and  has  its  roots  back  in  Simon 
Magus.  He  was  acquainted  with  older  treatises 
against  heresies  (iv.  Prcef.),  but  draws  largely 
upon  the  writings  of  Valentinus  and  his  personal 
contact  with  that  Gnostic's  disciples.  The  third 
book  (iii.  21,  1)  was  written  while  Eleutherus 
was  bishop  of  Rome  (175-1S9).  The  Latin  trans- 
lation must  have  been  made  soon  after  the  origi- 
nal was  written,  as  Tertullian,  in  his  treatise 
against  the  Valentinians  (about  202-207),  speaks 
of  IreuKus  as  one  of  his  authorities,  and  as  the 
most  "  studious  explorer  of  all  doctrines"  (omnium 
doctrhiarum  curiosisxiimis  exploralor). 

Ireuseus  wrote  at  least  two  other  works  on  the 
heresies,  both  addressed  to  Florinus, — emarolfi  nepi 
fiovapx'tagy  Trepi  fir/  elvat  tov  ^edv  -KonjTijv  KaKuv  ["A  Let- 
ter concerning  the  Divine  Sovereignty,  or  whetlier 
God  is  not  the  Creator  of  Evils  "],  and  nnoiKhafia 
Trcpl  dydoddoc:  ["Zeal  concerning  tlie  Ogdoad  "]. 
Both  these  works  are  quoted  by  Eusebius.  The 
latter  is  preserved  in  a  Syriac  translation.  Ii'e- 
na3us  took  an  active  interest  in  the  Easter  contro- 
versies of  his  day  (see  Easter),  and  wrote  on 
this  subject  a  letter  to  Victor,  bishop  of  Rome, 
and  probably  his  treatise  addressed  to  the  Roman 
Blastus,  TTcpi  cxinfiaro;  ["  The  Schism  "].  Eusebius 
(v.  26)  and  Jeroiue  refer  to  a  Book-  of  Vca-ious 
Discussions,  which  was  jirobably  a  collection  of 
homilies;  and  Eusebiu.s  (v.  26),  to  an  apologetic 
work  (n-pdf  'ETihiva;,  etc.),  probably  on  the  rule  of 
faith.  Other  works  attributed  to  him,  as  a  Com- 
mentary  on  the  Canticles,  are  of  doubtful  authenti- 
city. 

2.  Life.  —  Irenasus  spent  the  earlier  years  of 
his  life  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  probably  born 
there  early  in  the  second  century.  He  speaks 
(v.  30,  3)  of  the  Apocaly[)se  of  John  as  "  having 
been  seen  almost  in  our  own  generation  at  (or 
near)  the  close  of  Domitian's  reign  "  (96).  Ire- 
nasus'  piainstaking  accuracy  leaves  no  ground  for 
extending  this  period  to  fifty  years,  and  putting 
the  date  of  his  birth  so  late  as  140  (Massiiet)  or 
147  (Ziegler).  These  late  dates  are  also  incom- 
patible with  other  positive  testimonies  in  regard 


to  his  relations  to  Polycarp  and  other  disciples  of 
the  apostles  in  Asia  Minor;  although  it  is  doubt- 
ful whether  I'apias  was  among  them,  as  .Jerome 
states  (-£)>.,  7.5,  3  (ul  Thpodornm).  He  speaks  in 
such  a  way  of  those  "who  had  seen  John  face  to 
face,"  and  "  of  some  who  iiad  not  only  seen  John, 
but  others  of  the  apostles"  (ii.  22  5;  v.  5,  1; 
30,  1 ;  33,  3 ;  36,  2),  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  he 
had  been  the  recipient  of  verbal  connnunications 
from  them.  Polycarp  suffered  martyrdom  Feb. 
23,  155.  Of  his  relations  to  him  he  says  (iii.  3,  4), 
bv  nal  r/|Udf  iupuKu/iev  iv  rfj  TrpuTri  i/ii^iv  rj'AiKiif  l:m- 
7TO/li)  yilp  napi/ieivt  nai  mm  ytpaUor^,  cvSo^u^  koI,  im- 
(pavcarnTa  fiaprupi/oa^,  etc.  ["  whom  we  also  saw  in 
our  early  years,  for  he  remained  a  very  long  time, 
and  at  a  great  age  was  put  to  death,  testifying 
most  gloriously,"  etc.].  The  period  expres.sed 
by  "  early  year.s  "  must  evidently  be  used  in  the 
usual  sense  among  the  (ireeks,  for  the  years  of 
early  manhood,  eighteen  to  thirty-five,  especially 
as  Iren^us  himself  reckons  the  thirtietli  year  to 
the '•  first  period  of  Wie"  ( prima  wtas),  and  ex- 
tends it  to  the  fortieth  year  (ii.  22,  5).  As  Poly- 
carp was  about  a  hundred  years  old  when  he 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Smyrna,  he  would  have 
been  an  aged  man  in  130,  when  we  may  think  of 
Irena'us  as  having  first  seen  him.  Another  evi- 
dence that  Irena^us  was  born  about  115,  and  lived 
in  or  near  Smyrna  between  130  and  140,  is  his  ac- 
quaintance with  Florinus.  He  reminds  Florinus, 
in  his  letter  to  him,  of  having  met  him  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  .j.-  npany  with  Polycarp,  while  he  (Ire- 
nfeus)  was  still  a  boy  (iraif).  Florinus  was  a  court 
official.  Lightfoot  (Conlemp.  Rev.,  1875)  ventures 
the  dovibtful  explanation  that  this  does  not  mean 
that  he  was  at  the  court  of  the  then  ruling  em- 
peror, Init  belonged  to  the  household  of  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  who  afterwards  became  emperor,  and 
was  proconsul  of  Asia  about  135.  Rather  must 
we  think  of  one  of  the  two  visits  of  the  Emperor 
Hadrian  to  Asia  Minor,  and  of  these  the  second, 
when  he  tarried  for  some  time.  Both  visits  oc- 
curred between  122  and  130,  and  the  second  about 
P29.  Our  assumption,  then,  of  the  year  115  as 
the  date  of  Irenjeus'  birth  falls  in  well  with  the 
description  that  he  was  still  a  boy  (waiv)  at  the 
time  of  his  meeting  with  Florinus  (129).  The 
term  iroij  ("boy  "),  however,  is  sometimes  extend- 
ed to  an  older  period  of  life.  Eusebius,  for  exam- 
ple, calls  Origen  a  hoij  when  he  was  a  theological 
teacher,  and  certainly  above  eighteen  (//.  E.,  vi. 
3,  3 ;  8,  1-5)  ;  and  Constautine  sjieaks  of  himself 
in  the  same  way  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Diocletian 
persecution,  when  he  was  almost  thirty  (Euseb. : 
Vita  Const.,  ii.  51,  1 ;  comp.  i.  19,  1). 

Another  evidence  for  the  year  115  as  the  date 
of  IreniEus'  birth  is  the  fact  that  he  was  resident 
in  Rome  as  a  teacher  at  the  time  of  Polycarp 's 
death  (155).  The  account  of  Polycarp's  martyr- 
dom {Marlyrium  Poli/c),  written,  at  the  latest, 
before  the  close  of  the  fourth  centm-y,  is  our 
credible  authority  on  this  point.  In  this  case  it 
draws  from  one  of  Irenoeus'  own  works ;  and  as, 
in  other  cases  where  it  draws  from  Irena?us'  great 
work,  it  is  accurate,  so  we  may  expect  it  to  be  in 
this.  This  residence  in  Rome  explains  the  lively 
interest  Irenreus  afterwards  took  in  the  Roman 
Church,  and  his  accurate  acquaintance  with  its 
traditions,  as  the  short  sojourn  in  177  scarcely 
can.     He  speaks  of  details  of  the  pontificates  of 


IREN^US  OF  TYRE. 


1118 


IRENICAL  THEOLOGY. 


Anicetus  (d.  166)  and  his  immediate  predecessors 
(i.  25,  6;  iii.  4,  3);  aud  his  double  account  of 
Polycarp's  visit  to  Home  leaves  upon  us  the  im- 
pression that  he  accompanied  him  on  that  visit, 
—  an  impression  which  is  confirmed  by  the 
account  of  I'ionius. 

Wliat  it  was  that  led  Irenwus  to  Gaul  is  not 
known.  In  177  he  is  a  presbyter  at  Lyons,  whom 
the  confessors  then  lying  in  prison  there  chose  as 
their  representative  before  Eleutherus,  bishop  of 
Rome  (d.  189).  During  the  persecutions  at  Lj-ons, 
therefore,  he  went  to  Rome  (Euseb.  :  H.  E.,  v. 
;5,  4).  At  his  i"eturn  he  was  elected  bishop,  to 
succeed  the  martyred  Pothinus.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Quarto-deciman,  or  Easter  con- 
troversies of  the  day,  and  wrote  to  Victor,  bishop 
of  Rome,  in  the  interest  of  peace  and  liberty. 
Jerome  {Com.  in  Es.,  xvii.)  mentions  cursorily 
that  he  died  a  martjT.  Ziegler  and  liarvey  (ii. 
4.54)  have  mentioned  other  authorities  on  this 
point,  but  they  are  of  little  value.  Ilippolytus, 
Tertullian,  Eusebius,  and  others  do  not  speak 
of  it.  [Irenaeus  occupies  a  prominent  position  as 
d  theologian,  and  "is  the  first  of  aU  the  church 
teachers  to  give  a  careful  analysis  of  the  work  of 
redemption,  and  his  view  is  by  far  the  deepest 
and  soundest  we  find  in  the  first  three  centuries  " 
(Scn.\FF :  Ch.  Hist.,  i.  297).  He  also  occupies  a 
very  important  position  as  a  link  in  the  chain 
of  evidence  for  the  authenticity  of  John's  Gospel, 
himself  being  the  disciple  of  Polycarp,  who,  in 
turn,  was  the  disciple  of  John,  as  well  as  for  the 
whole  canon  of  the  Xew  Testament.] 

Lit.  —  Editions  of  his  works,  by  Ek.\smus, 
Basel,  1526 ;  Feu.^kde.vt,  Paris,  1575,  and  Co- 
logne, 1596 ;  Grabe,  Oxford,  1702 ;  Massuet, 
Paris,  1710;  Stieise.v,  Leipzig,  1853  (2  vols.); 
Harvey,  Cambridge,  18.J7  (2  vols.).  See  the 
various  Churcli  Histories,  and  the  Prolegomena  of 
Massuet,  Grabe,  Harvky;  Dodwell  :  Dissert, 
in  Iren.,  Oxford,  1689;  Stieren,  iu  Ekscu  and 
Gruber's  Enci/klo/>cidie  ;  [Beaven  :  Life  of  Ire- 
nceus,  London,  1841;  Dcncker:  D.  Ckrisloloyie 
d.  h.  /ren(E«s,  Gottingen,  1843  ;  Ziegler:  Iren.  d. 
Bischof  V.  Lijon,  Berlin,  1S71;  Sciixeemann  :  St. 
Iren.  de  ecclesice  lloin.  principatu  testim.,  1875  ;  E. 
Mo.ntet:  La  Ityende  d'lrtne'e  el  t' introduction  du 
chri.ilianiime  (i  Lyon,  Geneve,  1880.  A  translation 
of  Irenajus  is  in  Ci.auk's  Anie-Nicene  C/tristiiin 
Library,  Edinburgh,  1868-69,  2  vols.  .See  two  arts. 
on  /n mens,  in  liililiotheca  Sacra,  1877,  by  Professor 

€.  .1.    II.    Uoi'Ks]. 

IREN>EUS  OF  TYRE  represented  the  Emperor 
Theodosius  11.  at  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431, 
and  espoused  the  cause  of  Nestorius,  but  was,  for 
that  very  rea.soM,  banished  from  the  court;  and, 
when  the  Oriental  bishops  made  him  bi.shop  of 
Tyre  (445),  he  was  deposed  and  banished  by  an 
imperial  decree.  Of  his  Greek  work  on  tlie 
Nestorian  controversy,  only  .some  fragments  of  a 
Latin  translation  are  still  extant :  Variorum  I'a- 
(runi  E/jist(jlir  ltd  <  'micilinm  E/j/ies.  perlinentes,  ed. 
Chri>tian  Lupus,  Louvain,  1682. 

IRENAUS,  Christoph,  b.  at  Scliweidnitz,  Saxo- 
ny, d.  at  Horn,  Austria,  at  unknown  dates;  was 
appointed  pastor  at  Kislebcn  in  1562,  and  afler- 
ward.'i  comt-preacher  at  Weiinar,  but  was  dis- 
charged and  banished  in  1572,  as  one  of  the 
noisiest  cliampions  of  Flacius;  emigrated  to 
Austria,  and   published  a  pamphlet  against  the 


first  article  of  the  Formula  Concordiie,  1581 ;  and 
another,  ]'om  Bilde  Gottes,  1585. 

IRENE,  b.  at  Athens,  752,  in  very  humble  cir 
cunistances ;  d.  in  destitution,  in  the  Isle  of 
Lesbos,  803  ;  was  married  in  769  to  the  Emperor 
Leo  IV.,  and  ruled  over  the  Eastern  Empire  with 
great  vigor  and  adroitness,  from  his  death  in  780 
to  her  banishment  in  802.  Her  passion  was 
power;  and  for  its  gratification  she  dared  any 
thing,  from  the  most  hideous  crimes  to  the  most 
ridiculous  absurdities.  She  had  her  own  son, 
Constantine  VI.,  blinded  in  order  to  make  him 
unfit  to  reign ;  and  she  proposed  marriage  to 
Charlemagne  in  order  to  unite  the  Eastern  and 
■Western  empires.  But,  in  spite  of  all  her  crimes 
aud  cruelties,  she  is  a  saint  of  the  Greek  Church ; 
for  she  overthrew  the  iconoclasts,  and  re-estab- 
lished image-worsliip ;  which  article  see.  At  last, 
however,  she  was  over-reached  by  her  own  treas- 
urer, Xicephorus,  deposed,  and  banished  to  the 
Isle  of  Lesbos,  where  she  earned  her  living  by 
spinning. 

IRENICAL  THEOLOGY,  or  IRENICS  (from 
eipT/uij.  "  peace  "),  presents  the  points  of  agreement 
among  Christians  with  a  view  to  the  ultimate 
unity,  if  not  organic  union,  of  Christendom.  It 
is  the  opposite  of  polemics,  yet  its  legitimate 
successor,  heir  by  divine  right  to  its  territory.  It 
seeks  to  show  how  large  is  the  common  ground, 
and  how^  comparatively  unimportant  are  the  points 
in  dispute.  In  every  age  of  the  Church  there  have 
been  peace-loving  spirits;  such  as  Gi'egory  of 
Xazianzus  and  Chrysostom  in  the  Xicene  age ; 
jNlelanchthon  and  Butzer  in  the  sixteenth  century ; 
Calixtus,  Grotius,  Baxter,  Dury,  Spener,  Zinzen- 
dorf,  and  X'eander  in  later  times.  The  union  of 
the  various  denominations  in  Christian  work 
proves  the  existence  of  the  irenical  temper,  and, 
so  far  as  it  is  the  result  of  a  recognition  of  the 
common  Christianity,  it  is  to  be  applauded ;  but 
there  is  a  sort  of  irenics  which  results  from  indif- 
ference, and  such  a  temper  is  reprehensible. 

The  noble  .sentence  of  Rupertus  Mcldenius  (of- 
ten falsely  attributed  to  Augustine)  —  '-In  neces- 
sary things,  unity;  in  unnecessary  things,  liberty; 
in  all  things,  charity"  —  has  probably  contrib- 
uted as  much  as  any  treatise  to  bring  about  broth- 
erhood among  Christians.  But  there  is  quite  a 
literature  on  the  subject,  of  wliich  we  may  men- 
tion Er.\8MU8:  De  amalnli  ecclesiw  conror-dia ; 
John  Dury:  Irenicorum  traclatnum  Prodromus, 
Amsterdam,  1662 ;  J.  C.  KiiciiER :  Bibliolheca 
theolof/ia:  irenicce,  Jena,  1764.  Die  Iriiiik  is  the 
fourth  part  of  Lange's  Doymatik  (Heidelberg, 
1852) ;  but  the  woid  is  used  in  a  broad  sense,  and 
applied  to  the  coniinon  ground  between  Christian 
and  Pagan  religions  thought.  The  existence  of 
the  Evangelical  Alliance,  of  the  Kirchentag  in 
Germany  (see  art.),  and  the  family  gatherings 
among  those  holding  the  same  polity,  —  such  as 
the  Pan-Presbyterian,  Pan-Anglican,  and  Pan- 
Methodist  councils,  —  are  so  many  indications 
that  the  days  of  fiery  debate  among  Protestants 
are  over.  But  whether  there  can  \w  peaceful,  self- 
resi)ecting  intercourse  between  Priitestanis  and 
Roman  and  (Ireek  Catliolics  is  a  <lill'erent  matter. 
In  these  latter  churches  the  elements  of  truth  are 
deeply  buried  under  sad  and  destrnc'tive  erroni : 
nevertheless  it  is  sincerely  to  b<'  desired  that 
there   might   be    more   kindly  feeling  than  now 


IRREGULARITIES. 


1119 


IRVING. 


■exists.  Protestants  cannot  afford  to  denounce 
unsparingly  those  who  hold  to  the  distinguishing 
doctrines  of  Christianity.  The  Catholic  is  still  a 
Christian.  See  Herzog,  ed.  i.,  vol.  vii.  GO  sqq. ; 
also  n.  G.  IIasse:  Grundlinien  ckristliclier  Irenik, 
Leipzig,  1882. 

IRREGULARITIES  denote,  in  canon  law,  such 
defects  as  prevent  a  person  from  receiving  eccle- 
siastical orders.  The  statutes  are  based  on 
1  Tim.  iii.  2  sqq.,  Tit.  i.  6  sqq.,  Lev.  xxi.,  and 
comprise  irregularities  of  two  kinds, —  irret/u- 
kirtldles  ex  defectu  and  irregular'dates  ex  delicto.  To 
the  first  class  belong  illegitimate  birth,  bodily 
deformity,  uncanonical  age,  lack  of  education, 
the  pursuit  of  certain  professions  which  may 
make  a  person  instrumental  to  the  death  of  his 
fellow-men  (soldiers,  judges,  though  not  physi- 
cians), etc.  To  the  second  cla.ss  belong  all  crimes 
which  have  become  public,  and  also  some  crimes, 
such  as  heresy  and  apostasy,  though  they  have 
not  become  public.  The  Pope,  however,  and,  in 
certain  ca,ses,  also  the  bishops,  have  the  right 
of  giving  dispensation  from  these  irregularities. 
There  is  nothing  corresponding  to  them  among 
Protestants. 

IRVINC,  Edward,  an  original  and  distinguished 
preacher,  and  the  real  founder  of  the  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church,  was  b.  in  Annan,  .Scotland, 
Aug.  4, 1792,  and  d.  in  Glasgow,  Dec.  7, 1834.  His 
fathei-  was  a  tanner.  At  the  age  of  thirteen  he 
went  to  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and,  gradu- 
ating four  years  afterward,  he  took  a  school  at 
Haddington,  and  in  1812  one  at  Kirkcaldy.  At 
the  former  place  he  was  the  tutor  of  Jane  Welsh, 
afterwards  the  wife  of  Carlyle.  In  1815  he  was 
licensed  to  preach,  aid  in  1818  he  left  the  school- 
voorn  to  seek  a  pastoral  settlement.  After  long 
waiting,  he  was  thinking  seriously  of  offering  him- 
self as  a  foreign  missionary,  when  Dr.  Chalmers 
invited  him  to  become  his  assistant  in  Glasgow 
(1819).  There  he  remained  till  1822,  when  he 
was  called  to  the  Caledonian  Church,  London. 
The  audience,  which  was  at  first  small,  grew  rap- 
idly, until  it  completely  filled  the  church.  A 
reference  to  Irving's  eloquence  by  Canning  on  the 
flooi'  of  Parliament,  is  thought  to  have  contributed 
to  this  result.  Two  years  later  a  new  church 
was  l.uiilt  on  Regent  Square.  Irving  was  a  man 
of  commanding  form  and  stature  (six  feet  two 
inches  tall),  with  pale,  meagre,  but  interesting 
face,  coal-black  hair  i-eaching  down  to  his  shoul- 
ders, eyes  from  which  he  looked  forth  somewhat 
obliquely,  but  with  an  expression  of  severe,  holy 
earnestness,  not  unnuxed  with  self-consciousness. 
His  utterances  were  pi-egnant  with  original 
thoughts,  but  florid,  and  adorned  by  the  figures  of 
a  rich  imagination.  Walter  Scott  said  he  nnssed 
in  his  sermons  the  chaste  simplicity  which  is 
seemly  in  a  sermon.     They  were  unusually  long. 

Irving's  mind  was  especially  moving  "in  the 
realm  of  eschatological  problenis,  and  in  1823  he 
published  an  Argument  for  tlie  Judgment  to  come. 
Then  he  gave  himself  lip  to  the  study  of  a  work 
on  the  second  coming  of  Christ,  which  had  ap- 
peared in  Spanish  under  the  name  of  Ben  Ezra 
(1812),  and  which  intluenced  him  so  powerfully 
that  he  published  a  translation  of  it  [with  an 
original  Introduction  in  1827].  In  his  thought 
upon  these  subjects,  in  which  he  became  in  an 
increasing  measure  engrossed  during  the  reniain- 
W  — II 


der  of  his  life,  he  found  a  kindred  spirit  in  Henry 
Drummond,  a  rich  banker,  who  afterwards  took 
a  prominent  ]iai't  in  the  Irvingitc  njovement. 
Irving  was  in  the  mean  time  dejiartiug  in  some 
particulars  from  the  received  doctrine  of  the 
Scottish  Church,  and  preached  that  the  decree  of 
salvation  was  a  universal  one  ;  that  Christ  assumed 
human  nature  as  it  was,  —  corrupted  by  sin,— 
without,  however,  himself  sinning.  He  al.s« 
adopted  the  doctrine  of  ba]>tismal  regeneration. 
His  theological  opinions  were  largely  influenced 
by  Richard  Hooker  ["  tlie  venerable  companion 
of  my  early  days"].  In  1830  he  was  accused 
before  the  presbytery  of  London  for  his  view's  on 
the  humanity  of  Christ,  and  condemned ;  but  he 
appealed  to  the  General  .Synod. 

In  1830  the  news  was  spread  abroad  of  the 
strange  speaking  with  tongues  which  had  occurred 
in  widely  sefiarated  parts  of  Scotland.  Mr.  Car- 
dale,  a  Scotch  lawyer,  brought  the  news  to  London, 
and  in  1831  his  wife  and  a  Mr.  Taplin  began  to 
"prophesy,"  and  speak  in  an  unknown  tongue,  in 
Irving's  church.  Irving  fell  in  with  the  move- 
ment, heartily  convinced  of  its  scriptural  basis 
and  divine  authority.  Forsaken  by  a  large  part 
of  his  congregation,  he  began  to  hold  services, 
on  May  6,  1832,  with  eight  hundred  communi- 
cants, in  a  new  place  of  worship.  To  the  Scotch 
presbytery  of  Annan  the  .synod  had  referred 
Irving's  appeal,  and  before  it  he  appeared.  But 
his  plea  was  in  vain ;  and  in  1833  he  was  con- 
demned, and  excluded  from  the  Church.  On  his 
return  to  Loudon,  Cardale.  who  had  been  before 
recognized  as  an  apostle,  forbade  his  administering 
the  sacraments,  until,  instructed  by  a  prophecy  of 
Taplin,  he  ordained  Irving  bishop,  or  "angel  "  of 
a  special  congregation.  His  health,  however,  was 
plainly  undernuned.  In  1834  he  went  to  Scotland, 
in  obedience  to  a  prophecy  which  predicted  tliat 
he  would  labor  there  as  a  great  prophet,  and  con- 
vert the  masses;  but  he  almost  immediately  ff II 
a  victim  to  consumption  in  Glasgow  at  the  age  of 
forty-two  [fully  convinced  of  tlie  truth  of  his 
views,  and  confiding  in  the  prophecy  that  God 
had  a  great  work  for  him  to  do  in  Scotland,  and 
repeating  as  his  last  words,  "  In  life  and  in  death 
I  am  the  Loi'd's."  Of  him  his  friend  Thomas 
Carlyle,  a  kindred  nature  in  the  originality  of  his 
mind,  imposing  impressiveness  of  personality,  and 
strength  of  will,  writing  in  1835  said,  "  His  was 
the  freest,  brotherliest,  bravest  human  soul  mine 
ever  came  in  contact  with.  I  call  him,  on  the 
whole,  the  best  man  I  have  ever  found  in  this 
world,  or  hope  to  find."  This  admiration  suffered 
no  abatement  with  years,  and  in  1867  he  again 
took  up  his  pen  to  commemorate  Irving's  strong 
personality.  He  regarded  his  friend  as  having 
been  the  Victim  of  hallucination,  but  passed  a 
high  tribute  (as  far  as  he  could  do  so  in  his  atra- 
biliar  temper  of  mind)  upon  liis  purity  of  motives, 
straightforward  honestness,  and  that  "style  of 
modesty  and  friendly  magnanimity  which  no  mor- 
tal could  surpass"].  See  Mrs.  Oliph.^st's  Life 
of  Edward  Irving,  London  (3d  ed.,  1865)  ;  Edw. 
Miller:  IJistory  and  Doctrine  of  Irvingism,  Lon- 
don, 1878, 2  vols. ;  [G.  Seesem.\nn  :  Die  Lehre  der 
Irringianery  nac/i  ihren  Scliriften  dargelegl  u.  n.  d.  h. 
Sc/trift  gepriift,  Mitau,  1881 ;  Carlyle's  Essay  on 
the  Death  of  Irving,  in  his  Miscellanies,  and  the 
chapter  on  his  life,  in  Carlyle's  Reminiscences, 


IRVINGITES. 


1120 


ISAIAH. 


edited  by  FRorDE,  Xew  York,  1881].  See  Cath- 
olic Apostolic  Church.  kostlix. 

IRVINGITES.  See  Catholic  Apostolic 
Chukch. 

I  SAAC  (pni"  or  pHE'",  "laiisrhter"),  the  son  of 
Abraham  and  Sarah,  is  a  much  less  conspicuous 
and  energetic  personality  than  his  father.  He 
was  an  occasion  to  Abraham  for  the  display  of 
faith  and  obedience,  in  his  circumc"ision  (Gen. 
xxi.  -i),  and  his  willingness  to  otfer  him  up  as  a 
sacrifice  (Gen.  xxii.).  Isaac  shows  his  dutiful- 
ness  by  marrying  Hebekah,  as  Abraham  wished 
him  to  do,  and  this  when  he  was  already  forty 
years  old.  He  was  generous  to  his  friends,  and 
always  yielded  to  his  neighbors  (Gen.  xxvi.  "JO 
sqq.),  but  won  the  respect  of  more  powerful  chiefs, 
who  considered  it  advisable  to  be  on  good  terms 
with  the  "blessed  of  the  Lord"  (Gen.  xxvi.  28 
sqq.).  Isaac's  importance  consists  mainly  in  the 
fact  that  he  was  the  link  extending  the  blessing 
of  the  covenant  from  Abraham  to  Jacob.  Two 
sons  were  born  to  him  late  in  life  (Gen.  xxv.  21); 
and  although  he  preferred  the  older,  Esau,  he 
was  deceived  into  conferring  the  blessing  upon 
Jacob,  the  younger.  A  feud  broke  out,  in  conse- 
quence, between  the  two  brothers :  but  the  death 
of  the  father,  in  his  hundred  and  eightieth  year, 
■was  tlie  occasion  of  their  reconciliation.  Isaac 
bowed  submissively  to  the  dispensations  of  Provi- 
dence ;  and,  although  the  weakest  of  the  three 
patriarchs,  he  represents  the  pious  fidelity  which 
quietly  preserves  the  inherited  blessing.  The 
later  Jews  regarded  him  as  the  prototype  of  tlie 
martyrs. 

[Josephus  says  that  Isaac  was  twenty-five  years 
old  when  Abraham  led  him  into  the  land  of 
Moriah,  to  sacrifice  him.  There  is  no  other 
authority  for  this  statement.  But  it  is  evident 
that  Isaac  was  at  least  a  lad,  as  the  father  placed 
the  wood  of  sacrifice  on  his  back  for  liiin  to  carry 
(Gen.  xxii.  6).  He  was  not  only  a  dutiful  son, 
but  a  constant  and  gentle  husband,  and  in  all  his 
trials  seems  to  have  been  a  pattern  of  resignation 
and  humility.  Tertullian  and  others  of  the 
fathers,  and  Fairlniirn  and  others  in  modern 
times,  regard  liim  as  a  type  of  Christ  in  this 
respect.  The  discussion  of  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac 
belongs  most  properly  under  Abraham  ;  but  this 
much  may  be  said  here:  (1)  The  ancient  idea, 
universally  prevalent,  tliat  the  son  was  the  prop- 
erty of  the  fatlier,  pervades  the  whole  account  of 
the  event,  as  Professor  Mozley  specially  insists. 
(2)  It  was  God  who  commanded  tlie  deed.  (Ji) 
The  whole  circumstance  was  designed  to  try  and 
to  strengthen  the  faith  of  Abraham.  (-1)  It  was 
a  vivid  object-lesson,  warning  the  Hebrews  for 
all  future  time  against  human  sacrifices.]  See 
the  Hi.stories  of  Israel,  of  Krinz,  Kwald,  Hknc;- 
STENijEitG  [Stanlky]  ;  Hkknstei.v  :  Urapnnig 
it.  Hatjen  v.  Abraham,  Isaac,  u.  Juknh,  1871  ; 
[Mauhice:  Patriarchs  ami  Lawgivers:  and,  on 
the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  the  excellent  treatment  by 
Professor  Mozi.kv  :  llulim/  fileas  in  ICarli/  Ai/es 
(ch.  ii.,  iii.),  Xcw  York,  187r)].  v.  OIlKLLi'. 

ISAAC  OF  ANTIOCH.  Tlie  question  whether 
there  was  one  or  sevend  Syriac  church-writers  of 
the  name  I.saac,  the  .Monophy8it<',  Jacob  of  Edes- 
sa,  of  the  sevcntli  century,  answers  by  mentioning 
three  (Wright :  Calaloijue  ii.,  003  sq.),  —  two  "  or- 


thodox," and  one  "a  Chalcedoniau  heretic;" 
namely  (I.)  Isaac  of  Amid,  who  was  a  pupil  of 
Ephraem  Syrus,  and  went  to  Rome  during  the 
reign  of  .\rcadius,  to  see  the  Capitol,  but  was 
imprisoned  for  a  long  time  in  Constantinople, 
while  on  his  return ;  (II.)  Isaac  of  Edessa,  who 
in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  and  during  the 
patriarcliate  of  Petrus  FuUo,  came  to  .\utioch, 
and  preached  against  tlie  Xestorians,  deriving 
his  text  from  a  parrgt,  which  could  screech  the 
trisagion,  witli  the  addition,  6  aravpuiOelr  6i  W"f; 
and  another  (HI.)  Isaac  of  Edessa,  who  was 
orthodox  in  the  time  of  Bishop  Paul  (ol2),  but  a 
Nestorian  in  the  time  of  Bishop  .Vsclepius  (522). 

Gennadius  knows  two  Syriac  church-writers  of 
the  name  Isaac.  The  latter  of  them  he  calls  a 
"presbyter  of  the  Church  of  Antioch,"and  ascribes- 
to  him  a  very  long  life,  during  which  he  wrote 
much  in  Syriac,  and  finally,  during  the  reign  of 
Leo  and  Majoranus,  a  great  elegiac  poem  lament- 
ing the  destruction  of  Antioch  (459). 

Biekell  identifies  the  two  first  Isaacs  of  Jacob 
of  Edessa  with  the  .second  Isaac  of  Gennadius, 
and  considers  him  to  be  orthodox;  though  his 
sermons  contain  no  direct  recognition  of  the  synod 
of  Chalcedon,  but,  on  the  coiitrary,  a  number  of 
passages  of  rank  Monophysitism,  which  Biekell 
can  explain  away  only  by  assuming  very  large 
interpolations.  One  point,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  .settled :  the  book  i>e  contemptu  mi/txii 
(Magna  BihI.,  VI.,  2,  688,  Col.  1(318;  Lugd..  XI. 
1019 ;  Gallandi  XII.  2)  does  not  belong  to  Isaac 
of  Autioch,  but  to  Isaac  Ninivita,  who  lived  a 
century  later  on,  and  to  whom  it  is  ascribed  both 
by  the  Greek  edition  of  Xicephorus  Theotokius, 
Leipzig,  1770,  and  by  the  Syriac  and  Arabian 
manuscripts. 

Lit.  —  BiCKELL  :  Ausgewahlte  Gedichte  d.  sgris- 
chen  Kirchenciiter,  Kempten,  1872;  and  Isaaci 
A  nliocheni  Opera  Omnia,  edited  G.  Biekell.  Giessen, 
i.  187;),  ii.  1-^77.  E.  NESTLE. 

ISAAC  LEVITA,  b.  at  Wetzlar  1515;  studied 
rabbinical  lore,  and  filled  for  several  years  the 
office  of  a  rabbi,  but  was  by  the  study  of  the 
Messianic  prophecies  led  to  embrace  Christianity  ; 
assumed  the  name  of  Johann  Isaac  Levi :  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  Hebrew  and  Chaldee 
languages  at  Louvain  1516,  and  at  Cologne  1551. 
He  wrote  several  works  on  Hebrew  grammar, 
which  were  mucli  valued  in  their  time,  also  a  de- 
fence of  the  trustworthiness  of  the  Old  Testament : 
Dcfcnsiii  Veritalis  H.  Sac.  Script.,  Cologne,  1559. 

ISA'IAH  (in'i'l?",  or  rvyu)  was  the  greatest  of 
the  Hebrew  prophets.  His  name  has  been  de- 
rived from  i'ty  [in  which  case  it  meaiis  "  Salvation 
of  Jehovah  "].  But  I  prefer  the  derivation  from 
rti'iJ'  ("  to  look  "),  and  the  pronunciation  'n'i'ty 
("  Yishayahu  "),  or  r\yv'  ("  Yishaya").  There 
are  only  two  notices  of  Isaiah  in  the  Bible  out- 
side of  "the  prophecy  itself  and  2  Kings  xviii.  sqq. 
Ill  2  Chron.  xxvi.  22  it  is  said,  "The  rest  of  tlie 
acts  of  Uzziah  did  Isaiali  tlie  .son  of  Amoz  write." 
This  may  refer  to  a  special  work  of  Isaiali  not 
preserved,  or  to  a  portion  of  the  Hook  of  the 
Kings,  or  to  the  first  six  chapters  of  the  prophecy. 
It  has  afforded  ground  for  some  critics  to  iiiaiii- 
tain  that  the  first  five  chapters  <late,  in  whole  or 
in  part,  from  the  early  years  of  I'zziah's  reign. 
But   it  is  evident  that  nothing  definite  can   ho 


ISAIAH. 


1121 


ISAIAH. 


drawu  from  the  words.  The  second  notice 
(2  Chron.  xxxii.  32)  reads,  "  The  rest  of  the 
acts  of  Hezekiah  .  .  .  are  written  in  the  vision 
of  Isaiah,"  etc.  This  undoubtedly  refers  to  th(^ 
prophecy  of  Isaiah,  which  is  called  the  "\'ision 
of  Isaiah"  (i.  1).  But  from  very  ancient  times 
many  have  found  here  a  trace  of  another  work  of 
Isaiah.  An  attempt  to  imitate  or  restore  such  a 
-work  has  come  down  to  us  in  the  so-called  Vision 
■of  Isaiak,  which  is  combined  with  an  account  of 
the  prophet's  martyrdom.  This  work  was  cited 
lay  Origen,  and  has  been  edited  from  ICthiopic 
manuscripts  by  Laurence  (1819)  and  Uillinann 
(1877),  under  the  title  Ascenaio  haice.  A  Cliris- 
tiaawas  vmdoidjtedly  its  author  (Dillmann);  but 
the  matter  was  a  subject  of  Jewish  tradition,  and 
we  meet  with  it  in  other  places.  It  states  that 
Isaiah  suffered  a  violent  death  in  the  reign  of 
JVIanasseh,  being  sawn  asunder  with  a  wooden 
saw  (see  Justin  :  Dial.  c.  Tryph.,  ed.  Otto,  p.  430), 
after  an  iron  one  had  been  tried  in  vain  (see 
v.  Gebhardt's  edition  of  the  Greek  account  of  the 
martyrdom  in  Hilgenfeld's  Zeitschi:,  1878,  p.  341). 
Origen  says  the  condemnation  was  based  upon  the 
prophet's  blasphemous  utterances  concerning  God 
and  Jerusalem  (iii.  6-12).  The  Gemara  also  says 
that  Manasseh  jaut  Isaiah  to  death,  but  goes  on 
to  narrate  that  he  was  encompassed  by  a  cedar, 
which  they  sawed  through  until  Isaiah's  blood 
flowed  out  like  water  (see  also  Targum  in  CdiI. 
Reuchlin,  at  Isa.  Ixvi.  1).  The  Roman  Church  cele- 
brates his  martyrdom  July  6;  the  Greek,  May  9. 
One  fact,  at  least,  may  with  certainty  be  derived 
from  these  traditions ;  namely,  that  Isaiah  died 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh.  Combining  this  fact 
with  the  statement  that  Isaiah  prophesied  "in 
the  days  of  Uzziali,  Jothara,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah  " 
(i.  1),  we  conclude  that  his  public  life  began  some 
time  in  Uzziah's  reign,  and  extended  into  that  of 
Manasseh.  More  definitely  (according  to  vi.  1) 
it  began  in  the  fifty-second  year  of  Uzziah's  reign, 
which  was  the  year  of  his  death.  Uzziah  died 
758  B.C.  ;  and,  if  we  suppose  that  Isaiah  was 
twenty  years  old  at  that  time,  he  would  have 
been  eighty-one  at  the  beginning  of  Manasseh's 
I'eign  (in  696  B.C.)  ;  so  that  it  is  not  necessary 
at  all  to  assume  that  Isaiah  lived  to  an  unusually 
great  age. 

These  years  of  Isaiah's  prophetic  activity  (758- 
690  B.C.)  were  years  of  the  most  varied  events 
and  decisive  changes.  Here  belong  the  protracted 
attempts  of  the  Assyrian  kings  to  become  mas- 
ters of  Palestine  and  Syria.  In  the  realization 
of  this  design  they  were  hampered  by  the  Medes 
and  the  repeated  attempts  of  the  Babylonians  to 
throw  off  the  Assyrian  j'oke,  as  well  as  by  the 
Egyptians,  whose  foreign  policy  had  begun  to  be 
aggressive.  The  Jews  of  Jerusalem  were  kept 
informed  of  the  movements  in  the  political  world 
by  communications  from  their  exiled  brethren  in 
AssjTia,  and  by  the  various  expeditions  wliieh 
passed  through  the  land ;  so  that  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  tlie  prophet's  vision  took  in, 
not  only  the  small  neighboring  peoples,  but  also 
tribes  living  at  a  distance.  At  this  period  the 
northern  kingdom  was  torn  by  tribal  jealousy, 
and  sought  an  alliance,  now  with  Assyria,  and 
now  with  Egypt.  Uzziah,  king  of  Judah,  and 
his  successor  .lotham,  seem  to  have  essayed  to 
bold  the  kingdom  aloof  from  political  complica- 


tions by  strengthening  the  defences,  and  accu- 
mulating war  materials.  But  Ahaz  pursued  a 
different  policy,  and  depended  more  upon  the 
As.syi'ian  monarch  than  upon  .Jehovah.  Heze- 
kiah, however,  felt  that  he  held  his  kingdom  only 
in  trust,  and  that  Jehovah  exercised  supei-natural 
agency  to  preserve  it.  The  le.sson  these  circum- 
stances were  meant  to  teach  the  peo)>le  of  Israel 
was,  that  they  should  not  renounce  the  old  faith  ; 
that  Jehovah,  as  the  God  of  Israel,  was  working 
out  his  purpose,  which  was  to  be  honored  evia'V- 
where  on  the  earth,  and  to  establish  a  kingdom 
which  should  not  be  limited  to  Jerusalem  or 
Israel.  The  carnal  hopes  of  those  who  looked 
for  external  glory  for  the  kingdom,  in  spite  of 
their  sins  and  unrighteousness,  were  declared  to 
he  fallacious.  The  .Jerusalem  which  opened  its 
doors  to  heathen  luxury,  and  ignored  mercy,  was 
not  the  Jerusalem  from  which  the  light  of  the 
knowledge  of  God  was  to  beam  forth  to  all  ]>eo- 
ples.  God  could,  without  denying  his  promise  to 
Abraham,  lead  the  people  into  foreign  bondage, 
and  desolate  ttie  land  of  Israel.  The  national 
catastrophe  meant  disappointment  for  such  carnal 
hopes ;  l)ut  a  remnant  was  to  lie  jireserved,  which 
should  be  animated  by  a  new  life,  and  enjoy  an 
undying  glory.  The  house  of  Havid,  which  had 
disappeared  in  the  darkness,  was  to  revive  again 
in  the  royal  son  of  a  virgin  ;  and  the  tree  of  Jesse, 
which  had  been  cut  down,  to  flourish  again  in  a 
new  scion.  To  this  x'enmant  belong  only  those 
who  in  humble  faith  recognized  the  hand  of  God 
in  the  calamities  of  the  nation,  and  obeyed  his 
will.  It  was  the  invisible  church,  known  only 
to  God,  and  pervaded  by  moral  life.  For  the 
prophet  himself,  the  supreme  idea  was  the  sepa- 
ration of  a  congregation  of  the  Spirit,  of  faith 
and  righteousness  of  life. 

Isaiah  was  led  to  this  train  of  thought  by  his 
own  experiences  and  the  events  narrated  in  his 
prophecy.  He  was  a  citizen  of  .Jerusalem,  had  at 
least  two  sons  (vii.  3,  viii.  1),  treated  his  wife 
and  children  as  living  pictures,  and  emblems  of 
what  he  announced,  and  looked  back  to  the  vision 
of  vi.  1  as  the  turning-point  of  his  thought  and 
life,  which  made  it  possible  for  him  to  stand  firm, 
without  distrust  or  fear,  where  all  was  unstable 
and  dark  (viii.  11  sqq.).  He  regarded  it  as  his 
duty  to  train  up  a  body  of  disciples  to  retain  their 
trust  in  God,  but  with  resignation  looked  forward 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  as  an  unavoidable 
event,  and  counselled  unreserved  submission  to 
the  As.syrian  power.  It  becomes  a  matter  of  no 
surprise  that  a  prophet  who  identified  himself  so 
closely  with  public  affairs  should  have  gathered 
about  him  a  body  of  disciples.  For  these  di.sci- 
ples,  as  well  as  for  future  generations,  he  wrote 
down  his  utterances ;  and  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  wrote  much.  The  only  question  that 
arises  is,  whether  the  book  which  goes  by  his 
name  has  come  down  in  its  original  form.  In  the 
consideration  of  this  question,  it  will  help  us  little 
to  trace  out  evidences  of  the  style  and  spirit  of 
Isaiah  in  ditt'erent  parts  of  the  book  (for  what  was 
that  style  and  spirit?)  or  to  fall  back  upon  certain 
prepossessions  of  what  God  is  able  to  reveal 
through  prophecy  concerning  the  future. 

All  historical  investigation  about  the  authen- 
ticity of  the  prophecy  must  start  from  the  account 
of  Isaiah  in  chaps,  xxxvi.-xxxix.     It  was  placed 


ISAIAH. 


11: 


ISHBOSHBTH. 


by  the  editor  between  two  series  of  anonymous 
prophecies,  of  whicli  the  preceding  one  relates 
the  transformation  of  the  Assyrian,  and  the  suc- 
ceeding one  the  transformation  of  the  Babylonian, 
oppression  into  salvation  for  Judah.  It  is  un- 
scholarly  and  arbitrary  to  make  a  break  at  the 
end  of  chap.  sxxv.  and  at  chap,  xxxix.,  as  though 
one  had  reached,  in  chap.  xl.  1,  the  coast  of  an 
unknown  land.  These  portions  all  belong  togeth- 
er. He  who  has  read  chap.  xxv.  3, 4,  finds  nothing 
strange  in  xl.  1 ;  and  only  he  who  has  read  chaps. 
xxviii.-xxxix.  understands  xlviii.  3-11,  and  ap- 
preciates that  one  and  tlie  same  prophet  (xlviii. 
16)  distinguishes  two  periods  in  his  prophetic 
activity,  whose  utterances  run  along  parallel  lines, 
and  who,  on  the  basis  of  their  fulfilment  in  the 
first  period,  can  demand  obedience  in  the  second. 
He  who  consents  to  recognize  chaps,  xxviii.-xxxv., 
as  a  whole,  as  Isaiah's,  has  no  scientific  ground 
for  denying  that  chaps,  xl.-lxvi  are  essentially 
his  also.  The  main  difficulties  have  been,  that 
Cyrus  is  predicted  by  name,  the  overthrow  of  the 
Babylonian  power,  and  the  liberation  of  the  Jews. 
But  if  the  description  of  the  servant  of  Jehovah, 
which  suits  Jesus  of  Nazareth  best,  was  fulfilled, 
why  not  the  prediction  concerning  Cyrus  V  The 
freer  from  prejudices  the  student  is,  the  more 
certainly  will  he  conclude  that  chaps,  xl.-lxvi. 
contain  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  although  arranged 
in  their  present  form  by  another  hand  than  his. 

In  the  narrative  of  chaps,  xxxvi.-xxxix.  we 
learn,  that  from  the  thirteenth  year  of  Hezekiah's 
reign,  until  after  Sennacherib's  campaign,  Isaiah 
stood  in  high  esteem  at  court,  and  his  word  was 
accepted  as  authority.  In  the  six  prophecies  of 
chaps,  xxviii.-xxxv.  the  author  takes  the  same 
position  that  the  author  of  chaps,  xxxvi.-xxxix. 
does  concerning  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib. 
Chaps,  xxxiv.  and  xxxv.  have  been  denied  to 
Isaiah,  and  been  referred  to  the  time  of  the  exile ; 
but  this  certainly  would  never  have  been  done  if 
the  wilderness  (xxxv.)  had  not  been  arbitrarily 
explained  to  be  the  wilderness  lying  between 
Babylon  and  Judali,  and  the  Book  of  Jehovah 
(xxxiv.  16)  been  explaineil  to  he  the  Book  of  Isaiah. 

The  other  two  portions  of  Isaiah  (ii.-xii.  and 
xiii.-xxvii.)  bear  Lsaiah's  name.  Here  we  find 
many  parallels  with  chaps,  xxviii.-xxxix.  (comp. 
ii.  20  with  xxx.  22,  iii.  S-iv.  1  with  xxxii.  l-"20, 
etc.);  but  the  plan  of  chaps,  ii.-xii.  agrees  re- 
markably with  the  plan  of  chaps,  xxviii.-xxxv. 
We  may,  it  seems  to  me,  confidently  assort  that 
all  of  this  section  belongs  to  Isaiah,  although 
parts  of  it  (v.-xii.)  may  not  be  preserved  in  the 
order  in  which  they  belong.  The  pi'ophetic 
utterances  of  the  second  portion  (xiii.-xxvii.) 
are  distinguished  by  being  the  expression  of  the 
mind  immediately  under  the  influence  of  its 
ecstatic  emotion.  In  the  first  part,  the  ruling- 
thought  is  the  preservation  of  David's  throne  and 
city  by  Jehovah,  and  their  restoration  to  a  ]iosition 
of  glorious  prosperity.  In  tlie  second,  the  ruling 
thought  is  the  universal  kingilom  of  Jehovali 
arising  out  of  liis  judgments  upon  the  peoples, 
and  tne  humiliation  of  all  liuman  greatness. 
The  whole  consists  of  prophecies  of  Isaiah  with 
older  fragments. 

Lit.  —  See  the  Commentaries  of  Gesenius 
(Leip.,  1821,2  vols.,  especially  instructive,  and  dis- 
tinguished  for  jihilological  acumen),  Dklitzscii 


(Leipzig,  3d  ed.,  1879),  Xagelsbach  (Bielefeld, 
1877  [in  Lange,  English  translation.  New  York, 
1878],  which  is  distinguished  by  conscientious 
investigation,  and  new  interpretations,  which, 
however,  cannot  always  be  accepted).  The  most 
original  and  stimulating,  however,  is  that  of 
ViTRiNGA  (Bas.,  1732,  2  vols.),  who  read  Isaiah 
in  a  spirit  of  literary  devotion  and  sympathy  not 
since  attained.  [Other  Commentaries  by  the 
fathers  (Tuf.odoret,  Jeromk,  etc.),  and  the 
Reformers, —  Lowtii,  London,  1778,  Am.  ed., 
Boston,  1834;  KosEXMi'LLEU,  Leipzig,  1791-93, 
etc.;  HiTziG,  Heidelberg,  1833;  ^Iaurer,  Leip- 
zig, 1835;  IIenderson,  London,  1840,  2d  ed., 
1857;  Ewald:  D.  Proph.  d.  A.  B.,  Stuttgart, 
1841,  2d  ed.,  1868;  Knobel,  4th  ed.  by  DiesteL 
Leipzig,  1872;  Drechsler,  3  vols.,  1845-54; 
J.  A.  Alexander,  2  vols..  New  York,  1846-47,. 
new  ed.,  1875;  Kay,  in  Speaker's  Coin.,  New 
Y'ork,  1875;  Neteler,  Miinster,  1876;  F.  W. 
Weber,  Nordlingen,  1876;  Lehir,  Paris,  1877; 
A.  Heiligstedt,  2d  ed.,  Halle,  1878;  S.  .Sharpe, 
revised  translation,  chronologically  arranged, 
London,  1877;  Birks,  London,  1878;  KiisTLiNV 
Berlin,  1879 ;  Nutt  :  Commtnlary  hi/  R.  Eleazer 
of  Beaugenci,  with  Notice  of  Mediceval  French  and 
Spanish  Exei/esis,  London,  Paris,  1879 ;  Cheyne, 
London,  188(.'»  -81,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1884  ;  Rodwell, 
London,  1881;  Kx.iBKXBAUEi!,  Kreiburg-i.-Br., 
1881  :  Bertram.  London.  18^4-86,  2  vols.  Also. 
Driver  and  Neubacer  :  The  53d  Chapter  of 
Isaiah  accordini)  to  the  Jetcish  Interpreters,  O.xford 
and  London,  1876-77,  2  parts;  Urwick  :  Tlie  Ser- 
vant of  Jehovah,  a  Commentary  upon  Isaiah,  Hi.  IS- 
liii.  is,  Edinburgh,  1877;  Lour:  Zur  Frar/e  iibcr 
d.  Echthiit  ron  Jesaias  40-66,  Berlin,  1878-8(1,  3 
parts;  C.  T.  Bredenkamp:  Vaticinium  epind  de 
Immamiele  ed.  Je.iaias,  Erlangen,  1880;  H.  Kur- 
GER :  La  theoloyie  d'Esciic  xl.-lxci.,  Paris,  1881 ;  S. 
M.Sciiii.ler-Szixessy:  An  Exjiosition  of  Isaiah  Hi, 
IS,  14,  15,  and  liii.,  London,  1882.  The  Introdiic 
lions  to  the  Old  Testament  of  Bleek,  Keil,  David 
SON,  and  Reuss,  and  the  Ilistorij  of  the  Jen-s  of 
EwAM)  and  Stanley  (ii.  494-504),  Hengsten- 
berg's  Christo!oi/ie,  und  the  art.  Isaiah,  \n  S.mith's- 
Bible  Dictionary  and  Encyclopmdia  Britannicu  (Pro- 
fes.sor  Ciieyne).]  klostermann. 

ISH'BO'SHETH  (nc/a^'N,  '-man  of  .shame")- 
was  that  son  of  Saul  who  survived  the  ruin  of  his 
father's  family  in  th(^  baltle  of  Gilboa.  His  real 
name  was  Esli-baal  (1  Cliron.  ix.  30),  which  a 
later  generation  gave  up  in  order  to  avoid  the 
use  ol  the  nanu^  Baal.  Abner,  Saul's  captain, 
espoused  the  claims  of  Ishbosheth  after  the  death 
of  his  father  and  three  brothers,  and  he  was  pnj- 
elaimcd  king  of  the  tran.s-Jordanic  tribes  and 
all  Israel,  the  house  of  Judah  alone  remaining 
true  to  David  (2  Sam.  ii.  8-10).  lie  was  about 
forty  years  old  at  the  time.  He  was  a  timid 
nuiii,  and  depended  very  l.irgely  upon  Abner 
The  latt<'r  was  ealleil  to  account  for  his  intimate 
rel.-itions  with  the  king's  concubine,  Rizpah,  but 
in  turn  reproached  the  king  for  his  ingratitude, 
and  declared  he  would  esjiouse  the  cause  of  David. 
Ishboslieth  gave  uji  his  sister  Michal  to  David,  at 
his  recjuest.  Abner  now  jilotted  to  deliver  up 
the  northern  tribes  to  David,  but  was  munlei-ed 
by  Joab  (2  Sam.  iii.  2-39).  Ishbosheth  liim.sclf 
was  murdered  by  two  of  his  officers.  They  cut 
olf  his  heail,  and  carried  it  to  David.     But  David 


ISHMABL. 


1128 


ISIDORE   OP  SEVILLE. 


gave  it  honorable  liurial,  and  put  tlie  assassins  to 
death  (2  Sam.  iv.  1-1'J).  H.  guthe. 

ISH'MAEL  (h^yop^  "God  hears")  was  the 
son  of  Abraliam  and  Hagar  (an  Egyptian  slave). 
He  was  circumcised  at  the  age  of  thirteen  ((Jen. 
xvii.  25),  but  was  sent  awaj'  with  his  mother, 
reluctantly,  by  Abraham,  to  satisfy  JSarah,  who 
had  become  jealous  of  the  playful  (wrongly  trans- 
lated mockiiuj)  lad  (Gen.  xxi.  9).  The  ralibins 
falsely  explained  the  word,  of  malicious  bantering 
treatment  of  Isaac.  In  the  desert  of  Beersheba, 
Hagar  received  a  revelation,  when  she  and  her 
son  seemed  to  be  destined  to  die  for  want  of 
water.  The  narrative  (Gen.  xxi.  9  sqq.).  which 
represents  Ishmael  as  a  tender  lad,  seems  to  be 
inconsistent  with  Gen.  xvii.  25,  according  to 
■which  he  was  circumcised  at  thirteen,  and  must 
have  been  at  least  fifteen  when  he  was  sent  away 
by  Abraham.  But  the  jiassages  xxi.  14,  15,  18, 
do  not  imply  that  he  was  carried  on  his  mother's 
arm,  which  is  the  popular  idea.  Ishmael  united 
with  Isaac  in  burying  his  father  (xxv.  9),  and 
died  at  the  age  of  a  hundred  and  thirty-seven 
(xxv.  17).  The  descendants  of  Ishmael  were  not 
heirs  of  the  covenant  promise,  but  became  very 
numerous.  Twelve  Arab  tribes  looked  back  to 
him  as  their  ancestor  (xxv.  12-18).  The  general 
character  of  these  descendants  was  indicated  in 
the  words  spoken  of  Ishmael :  "He  will  be  a  man 
like  a  wild  ass,  his  hand  against  every  man,  and 
every  man  against  him"  (xvi.  12).  This  is  a 
masterly  characterization,  to  which  the  wander- 
ing life  of  tho.se  tribes,  shunning  every  place  of 
civilization,  accurately  corresponds.  They  have 
ever  since  lived  by  their  flocks  and  their  bow,  in 
the  use  of  which  they  became  skilful,  like  their 
ancestor  (Gen.  xxi.  20;  Isa.  xxi.  17).  They  in- 
habited the  desert  east  of  Palestine,  and  stretched 
iu  a  southerly  direction  to  the  Persian  Gulf  and 
over  Xorthern  Arabia.  The  Moslem  Arabs,  who 
speak  with  pride  of  their  descent  from  Ishmael, 
say  that  he  and  his  mother,  Hagar,  lie  buried  in 
the  Caaba  at  Mecca.  v.  ORELLI. 

ISIDORE  MERCATOR,  a  fictitious  person,  a 
mere  name,  gotten  up  and  put  into  circulation  by 
a  mistake.  In  the  introductory  matter  to  the 
Pseudo-Isidorian  Decretals,  there  occur  a  quota- 
tion from  Isidore  of  Seville,  and  another  from 
Marius  Mercator.  By  a  combination  of  those 
two  quotations,  an  Isidore  ISIercator  was  made 
up;  but  he  never  existed.  See  Hin.schius  :  De- 
cretales  Pseudo-hiiloriance,  Leipzig,  1863. 

ISIDORE  OF  MOSCOW,  d.  in  Rome,  April 
27,  1103;  was  a  native  of  Thcssalonica ;  entered 
the  Church  at  Constantinople,  and  was  in  1437 
made  metropolitan  of  the  Russian  Church.  As 
such  he  attended  the  Council  of  Florence,  and 
labored,  together  with  Bessarion,  zealously  for 
the  union  of  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 
The  czar,  however,  was  dissatisfied  with  the  result 
of  the  negotiations,  imprisoned  him,  and  con- 
denmed  him  to  be  burnt  alive.  But  he  escaped, 
sought  refuge  in  Rome,  and  was  afterwards  em- 
ployed by  Nicholas  V.  as  ambassador  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

ISIDORE  OF  PELUSIUM.b.  not  after  370;  d. 
not  before  431  ;  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and 
spent  most  of  his  life  as  presbyter  and  abbot  of 
a  monastery  at   Pelusium.     He   left  about  two 


thousand  letters,  whicli  represent  him  as  one  o£ 
the  noblest  religious  characters  of  the  age,  in 
intimate  connection  with  all  the  most  prominent 
men  of  his  time.  In  dogmatics  he  is  orthodox, 
so  far  as  an  orthodoxy  was  established  in  the 
Greek  Church  at  that  period.  But  he  is  much 
more  interesting  as  an  exegete  than  as  a  dogma- 
tist. Many  of  his  letters  are  devoted  to  the 
exposition  of  Scriptures  ;  and,  though  he  does  not 
altogether  abstain  from  allegory,  principally  he 
places  ioTopia  far  beyond  dtupia.  The  greatest 
interest,  however,  he  yields  as  a  practical  moralist. 
Monastic  life  he  represents  as  the  true  ideal  of 
Christian  life ;  but  he  is  liy  no  means  blind  to 
the  many  peculiar  dangers,  illusions,  and  vices 
which  may  be  engendered  in  a  monastery.  Col- 
lected editions  of  these  letters  appeared  in  Paris, 
1638,  5  vols.,  folio,  and  in  Mignk  :  Patrol.  Grceca. 
vol.  58.  See  P.  B.  Gluck  :  hidori  P.  Summa 
Doclriixe  Moralis,  Wirceb.,  1848.     W.  mOI.I.ER. 

ISIDORE  OF  SEVILLE  (Isidorus  Hispalensis, 
also  called  Isidorus  Junior,  in  contradistinction 
to  Isidore  of  Cordova),  b.  560,  at  Carthagena,  or 
Seville ;  d.  in  the  latter  city  April  4,  036  ;  de- 
scended from  a  noble  Roman  (not  Gothic)  family, 
and  was,  after  the  early  death  of  his  parents, 
educated  by  his  elder  brother,  Leander,  Bishop  of 
Seville,  whom  he  succeeded  in  600.  For  thirty- 
six  years  he  governed  his  diocese  with  unflagging 
vigor  and  great  dignity,  presided  over  the  synods 
of  Seville  (619)  and  Toledo  (633),  founded  several 
institutions  for  the  better  education  of  the  clergy, 
and  exercised  a  lasting  influence  on  Spanish  legis- 
lation, civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical.  But  it  was 
as  an  author  that  he  achieved  his  greatest  fame. 
He  wrote  on  nearly  every  branch  of  science  then 
known  ;  and,  though  his  books  are  distinguished 
by  industry  and  learning  rather  than  by  genius 
and  originality,  they  are  far  from  being  mere 
compilations,  and  in  the  dark  ages  they  were 
almost  the  only  light  shining.  We  have  two  old 
lists  of  his  works, — one  by  his  friend  and  col- 
league. Bishop  Braulio  of  Saragossa;  and  another 
by  his  pupil,  Ildefonsus  of  Toledo;  and  all  the 
works  enumerated  in  these  lists  are  still  extant. 
The  principal  ones  are:  OJficioruin  Lihri  11.,  a 
kind  of  ecclesiastical  archjeology,  the  first  book 
treating  of  the  institutions  and  their  working- 
materials,  the  second  of  the  officers  and  their  func- 
tions, the  w4iole  dedicated  to  his  younger  brother 
Fulgentius,  Bishop  of  Astigi  ;  De  Nahtra  Rerum, 
a  conii>endium  of  natural  plulosophy,  specially 
edited  by  G.  Becker,  Berlin,  1857 ;  Senlenliarum 
sive  de  Summo  Bono  Libri  111.,  his  most  important 
theological  work,  the  first  book  treating  of  dog- 
matics, the  two  last  of  ethics  ;  De  Viris  lllustrihus, 
a  continuation  of  Jerome  and  Gennadius,  con- 
taining biogi-aphies  of  forty-six  authors,  —  four- 
teen Spaniards  between  Hosius  of  Cordova  and  his 
own  time,  and  thirty-two  foreigners  between  Pope 
Xystus  and  Gregory  the  Great;  Etymolor/ke  si're 
Oric/ines,  his  mos't  famous  work,  a  kind  of  theo- 
logical encyclopffidia,  and  still  of  great  value. 
Besides  the"  works  mentioned  in  the  above  lists, 
several  of  his  letters  have  come  down  to  us,  and 
there  circulate  under  his  name  a  large  number  of 
spurious  works,  even  poems;  thus  the  so-called 
Isidorian  Decretals  have  no  connection  whatever 
with  him.  The  best  collected  edition  of  his  works 
is  that  by  Faustinus  Arevalus,  Rome,  1797-1803, 


ISLAM. 


11: 


ISRAEL. 


7  vols,  quarto,  reprinted  in  IMigne  :  Pah:  Lai., 
vol.  81-83. 

Lit.  —  The  sources  of  his  life  have  been  gath- 
ered together  by  Arevalus  (vol.  i.,  ii.),  and  re- 
printed by  MiGXE.  Modern  biographies  have 
been  written  by  C.\.iet.\x  (Rome,  1616),  Du- 
.MESNiL  (Paris,  1843),  and  Collo.miset  (Paris, 
ISW).  WAUENMANN. 

ISLAM.     .See  ]Mohammed.\xis.m. 

ISRAEL,  Biblical  History  of.  Israel's  history 
commences  with  the  call  of  .Abraham,  who,  as  the 
rock  whence  Israel  was  hewn  (Isa.  h.  1),  was  not 
only  at  the  head  of  the  people  of  the  old  covenant, 
but  also  of  the  people  of  the  new  covenant  in 
consequence  of  the  organic  connection  (Gal.  iii. 
29).  Whilst  the  nations  of  the  earth  went  their 
own  ways,  in  which  they  developed  their  natural 
characteristics,  in  the  seed  of  Abraham  a  people 
were  to  be  raised,  which,  in  their  particular  forma- 
tion, were  to  be,  not  the  result  of  natural  develop- 
ment, but  the  product  of  the  creative  power  and 
grace  of  God  (Dent,  xxxii.  6);  thus  not  only  forming 
a  contrast  to  the  nations  of  the  world,  but  also  con- 
taining the  germ  of  removing  this  contrast,  since 
all  nations  of  the  earth  were  to  be  blessed  in  the 
seed  of  Abraham  (Gen.  xii.  3,  xviii.  18).  The 
character  and  future  of  the  people  of  God  are 
depicted  in  the  life  of  his  jiatriarchs  and  in  the 
promises  given  to  them  by  God,  who  calls  him- 
self the  God  of  Abraham,  of  Isaac,  and  of  Jacob 
(Gen.  xii.  2-7,  xiii.  15 sq.,  xv.  5,  xvii.  6  sq.,  xviii. 
IS,  xxii.  17,  xxvi.  2  sq.,  xxviii.  14,  xxxv.  11  sq. ; 
Kxod.  iii.  (i,  lu). 

The  patriarchal  period  closes  with  the  migra- 
tion of  Jacob  and  his  family  into  Egypt,  where 
Israel  was  to  become  a  people.  Here,  it  seems, 
the  people  were  ruled  by  elders  and  other  officers, 
who,  again,  were  under  P^gyptian  masters.  The 
great  mass  was  given  to  idolatry  (Josh,  x.xiv.  14; 
Kzek.  XX.  7  sq.,  xxiii.  3,  8,  1!));  and  the  remem- 
brance of  the  God  of  the  fathers,  and  of  the 
promises  given  to  them,  had  to  be  revived  fir.st  in 
the  people.  Tin?  deliverance  of  Israel  is  narrated 
in  Exodus.  To  stop  the  rajiid  increase  of  the  peo- 
ple, heavy  tasks  were  laid  uiion  them  by  the  Egyp- 
tians. At  last  a  royal  edict  was  issued  to  kill  all 
newly-born  male  children.  \l  the  point  of  this 
deepest  humiliation,  when  the  jicople  were  like  a 
helpless  child  cast  out  in  the  open  iield,  and  jiollutr 
ed  in  its  own  blood  (Ezek.  xvi.  5,  0),  the  ])ronii.se 
given  to  the  fathers  was  to  be  inaugurated,  and 
El-Shaddai  was  to  be  revealed  as  Jehovah.  Moses 
is  boin,  and  raised  up  as  a  deliverer  of  the  peoi>le. 
In  tlie  ten  plagues  the  battle  of  the  living  God 
with  the  national  deities  is  victoriously  fouglit 
(Exod.  xii.  12;  Num.  xxxiii.  4),  thus  foreshadow- 
ing tlie  triumph  of  the  kingdom  of  God  over  he.a- 
theuisni  (Exod.  xv.  11,  xviii.  11).  Moses  leads 
the  people,  who  were  not  yet  ready  for  tlie 
l)attle  with  the  nations  of  Canaan,  not  l)y  the 
way  of  the  land  of  the  Pliilistines  to  Canaan 
(Exod.  xiii.  17),  but  through  the  desert  of  the 
binaitic  peninsula.  Here  they  are  persecuted  by 
tlie  Egyptians.  The  people  are  told  to  go  on.  A 
heavy  gale  drive's  the  water  back.  Israel  in  the 
noi.se  of  the  elements  is  led  by  its  God  like  a  flock 
(Ps.  Ixxvii.  10-20;  Isa.  Ixiii.  11)  through  the 
Keil  Sea;  but  the  Egyptians  were  buried  by  the 
water.  "  And  the  peo])le  feariMl  the  Lord,  and 
believed  the  I.,ord  and  his  servant  Moses"  (Exod. 


xiv.  31).  To  prepare  the  people  for  their  theocratic 
calling,  they  had  to  remain  in  the  desert  (Dent, 
viii.  2-5, 14-18).  The  law  was  given  by  which  the 
tribes  of  Israel  became  a  holy  communion,  and 
thus  "he  was  king  in  Jeshurun"  (Deut.  xxxiii. 
5).  The  sacrifice  of  the  covenant  sealed  the  en- 
trance of  the  people  into  the  communion  of  the 
holy  God.  The  manner  in  which  the  covenant 
of  the  law  is  made  shows  both  the  electing  love  of 
that  God  who  here  enters  into  a  covenant  with 
his  people  (Ezek.  xvi.  8),  and  the  holy  zeal  of 
the  Holy  One  of  Israel  and  of  his  law  (Amos  iii. 
2).  As  for  grace  and  judgment,  Israel  is  now  the 
privileged  people. 

By  means  of  the  covenant,  Jehovah  was  to 
dwell  among  his  people.  But,  before  the  laws 
concerning  the  building  of  the  sanctuary  were 
given,  the  people,  in  the  absence  of  Moses,  make 
a  calf,  and  break  the  covenant.  Moses  causeth 
the  idolaters  to  be  slain,  the  tribe  of  Levi  show- 
ing especial  zeal  for  the  honor  of  Jehovah. 
Moses  intercedes  for  the  people,  till  at  last  par- 
don is  granted.  The  first  breaking  of  the  cove- 
nant leads  to  the  new  revelation  of  Jehovah  as 
the  merciful  a,nd  (/racious  (Exod.  xxxiv.  6).  Dur- 
ing the  first  year's  residence  at  Sinai,  the  holy 
tabernacle  is  erected  and  dedicated,  and  sucli 
laws  were  given  as  would  distinguish  the  people 
from  the  Egyptians  and  the  Canaanitish  tribes 
(Lev.  xviii  3  sq.,  xx.  23  sq.).  A  census  is  then 
taken  ;  and  the  encampment  is  ordered,  and  regu- 
lations about  the  tribe  of  Levi  are  made.  In  the 
second  year,  on  the  20th  of  the  second  month, 
the  journey  from  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  to  the 
wilderness  of  Paran  began.  IMoses  sends  spies 
to  Canaan.  Their  evil  report  causes  a  general  mur- 
niui-ing  (Num.  xiv.  1  sq.).  As  a  punishment, 
the  people  had  now  to  remain  forty  years  in 
the  wilderness,  where  Moses  also  died,  after  hav- 
ing appointed  Joshua  his  successor.  .Joshua,  by 
divine  direction,  waged  a  successful  war  against 
the  inhabitants  of  the  promised  land,  and  dis- 
tributed the  conquered  territory  among  tlie  tribes 
of  Israel.  The  people  are  warned,  that,  by  trans- 
gressing the  law  of  (iod,  the  same  ininishnient 
will  be  inrticted  upon  them  as  was  upon  the  Ca- 
naanites  (Deut.  viii.  19  scj.  ;  .Josh,  xxiii.  15  sq.). 
After  the  death  of  .loshua,  the  people  weri!  ruled 
by  the  .so-called  "  Shojiheta-,"  or  judges.  During 
this  period,  the  Israelites  were  steeped  in  idola- 
try, for  which  they  were  punished  ;  though,  on 
their  repentance,  they  were  always  re-instated  in 
the  divine  favor  through  the  judges  whom  (iod 
raised  uj)  for  them.  Towards  the  end  of  the  so- 
called  '•  time  of  the  judges,"  the  temporal  and 
spiritual  supreme  power  seems  to  have;  resided  in 
the  high  priest  Eli,  at  .Sliiloh  ;  Imt  his  administra- 
tion was  sullied  by  such  sins,  that  (iod  allowed  the 
Philistines  to  be  victoi'ioiis  over  his  pc^ople,  and 
even  to  capture  the  holy  ark  (1  Sam.  iv.).  The 
lo.ss  of  this  great  national  treasure  .seems  to  have 
at  bust  awakened  throughout  all  the  tribes  the 
consciousness  of  their  forming  one  nation ;  and 
when,  at  last,  the  ark  w'as  recovered,  Samuel,  who 
had  succeeded  Eli  as  high  ])ricst  and  judge,  ob- 
tained a  hold  upon  the  nation  which  .sc'emed  to 
have  I'ecognized  his  aulhoiitv-  In  Samuel's  time 
the  tribe.s  renewed  their  wisli,  formerly  expressed 
to  (iideon  (Jndg.  viii.  22  sc).),  tor  a  king.  Sam- 
uel yielded  to  the  request  in  such  a  manner,  that 


ISRAEL. 


1125 


ISRAEL. 


the  theocratic  principle  was  preserved ;  the  Lord 
being  now,  as  before,  the  real  king  of  the  people, 
whilst  the  king  as  his  anointed  was  subject  to 
him.  Saul  having  been  made  king,  Samuel  re- 
tired from  his  activity  us  judge,  to  act  solely  as 
prophet,  and  preserver  ol  the  theocracy. 

The  history  of  Israel  during  the  time  of  the 
undivided  kingdom  may  be  divided,  according  to 
the  three  kings,  into  three  characteristic  parts. 
Saul,  whose  endeavor  it  was  to  emancipate  the 
kingdom  from  the  prophetic  superintendence,  and 
hence  from  the  subjection  under  the  theocratic 
principle,  succumbs  in  this  endeavor.  David, 
being  fully  alive  to  the  idea  of  a  theocratic  king, 
gave  his  nation  a  capital  and  a  religious  centre,  — 
Jerusalem,  the  city  of  God  (Ps.  xlvi.  4),  the  city 
■of  the  great  King  (Ps.  xlviii.  2),  which,  with  her 
mountains  round  about,  was  in  itself  a  symbol  of 
the  divine  kingdom  (Ps.  cxxv.  2  sq.).  The  in- 
stitutions of  the  theocracy  were  especially  devel- 
oped by  David  by  his  instituting  the  order  of  the 
Levites  and  priests.  As  David  was  a  type  of  the 
theocratic  kingdom,  he  was  also  destined  to  be  its 
bearer  by  means  of  the  divine  promise  given  to 
him  by  the  prophet  Kathau,  according  to  2  Sam. 
vii.,  which  forms  one  of  the  most  important  turn- 
ing-points in  the  history  of  tlie  theocracy.  David 
was  succeeded  by  Solomon,  who  was  destined  to 
build  the  temple,  from  which  the  knowledge  of 
the  true  God  was  to  go  to  all  nations  (1  Kings  viii. 
41).  Alter  the  death  of  Solomon,  the  decline  of 
the  Jewish  nation  begins.  Under  Rehoboam, 
Solomon's  successor,  ten  tribes  revolted,  leaving 
him  but  Judah  and  Benjamin  to  reign  over,  whilst 
Jeroboam  became  king  over  tlie  ten  tribes.  The 
history  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  kingdom  of  Israel, 
or,  as  it  is  called  according  to  its  main  tribe,  the 
kingdom  of  Ephraim,  forms,  from  a  theocratic 
stand-point,  the  history  of  a  continual  apostasy 
from  Jehovah,  until  at  last,  notwithstanding  all 
means  to  save  it,  "  the  sinful  kingdom  "  (Amos 
ix.  8)  is  given  to  destruction,  and,  after  an  exist- 
ence of  two  hundred  years,  its  people  are  carried 
away  as  captives  in  722  B.C.  Diu-ing  these  two 
hundred  years,  there  reigned  in  Israel  nineteen 
kings,  belonging  to  nine  different  houses.  The 
last  king  was  Ho.sea,  who  after  Samaria,  "the 
crown  of  pride,  the  drunkards  of  Ephraim,"  was 
trodden  under  feet  (Isa.  xxviii.  3),  was  carried 
away  with  his  people  by  Shahnaneser. 

Different  was  the  history  of  the  kingdom  of 
.ludah,  which,  although  smaller,  was  more  power- 
ful, because  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the  true 
sanctuary  with  its  priests  and  Levites,  and  be- 
cause its  kings  belonged  to  the  royal  lineage  of 
David,  which  was  hallowed  by  the  memory  of  the 
glorious  ancestor  David,  and  the  promise  given 
to  his  posterity.  Thus  it  happened,  that  of  the 
nineteen  kings  who  reigned  during  three  hun- 
dred and  eighty-seven  years  (from  the  time  of 
Rehoboam  to  the  downfall  of  the  kingdom),  there 
were  some  excellent  men,  in  whom  the  idea  of  a 
theocratic  kingdom  was  alive.  Such  were  Asa, 
Jehoshaphat,  Joash,  Josiah,  Ilezekiah,  who  re- 
vived the  religious  state  of  the  people.  In  the 
end,  however,  the  people  of  Judah,  too,  had  to 
submit  to  the  divine  punishment  for  their  many 
Ijackslidings,  and  to  go  into  captivity  to  Babylon 
<5Ss  B.C.). 

In  Babylon  the  people  enjoyed  the  guidance  of 


the  prophets  Ezekiel  and  Daniel ;  and  the  piou.s 
among  them  never  resigned  the  hope  of  regain- 
ing their  country,  as  predicted  by  Jeremiah  (1.). 
Eor  this  future,  Israel  was  to  be  preserved  in  the 
exile.  In  accordance  herewith,  we  see  tlie  people 
settled  in  Babylon,  forming,  as  it  were,  a  nation 
within  a  nation,  and  not  in  the  least  .amalgamat- 
ing with  their  Gentile  neighbors.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Babylonian  iMnpire  by  the  Persians, 
Cyrus  permitted  the  Jews  (.530  B.C.)  to  return 
to  their  own  land,  and  to  rebuild  Jerusalem  and 
the  temple  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22  sq.  ;  Ez.  i.  1  sq.). 
The  return  from  Babylon  took  place  under  the 
guidance  of  Zerubbabel,  of  the  house  of  David, 
and  Joshua  the  high  priest.  A  second  colony  fol- 
lowed under  Ezra,  who  with  Nehemiah  restored 
the  law,  and  constituted  the  Jews  into  a  compact 
religious  community.  Under  them  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  collected,  and 
such  reforms  were  introduced  as  to  make  the 
Jews  again  a  people  of  God.  In  the  twelfth  year 
of  his  administration,  Nehemiah  returned  to  the 
Persian  court  (433  B.C.).  During  his  absence  of 
many  years,  affairs  fell  into  disorder ;  but  on  his 
return,  after  a  long  i-esidence  in  Persia,  Nehemiah 
reformed  all  these  disorders,  and  even  expelled  a 
grandson  of  the  high  priest,  Eliashib,  on  account 
of  his  unlawful  marriage  with  the  daughter  of 
Sanballat  (Neh.  xiii.  28).  This  expelled  priest 
is  undoubtedly  one  and  the  same  person  with 
Manasseh,  who  built  a  rival  temple  on  the  moun- 
tain of  Gerizim.  Before  or  during  the  second 
absence  of  Nehendah,  the  prophet  JNIalachi  lived 
and  labored. 

From  the  administration  of  Nehemiah  to  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  one  atrocious  crime, 
committed  in  the  family  of  the  high  priest,  appears 
as  the  only  memorable  transaction  in  the  unevent- 
ful annals  of  Judtea.  Eliashib  was  succeeded  in 
the  high  priesthood  by  Judas ;  Judas,  by  John. 
The  latter,  jealous  of  the  influence  of  his  brother 
Jesus  with  Bagoses,  the  Persian  governor,  and 
suspecting  him  of  designs  on  the  high  priesthood, 
murdered  him  within  the  precincts  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. The  Persian  came  in  gi-eat  indignation 
to  Jerusalem;  and,  when  the  Jews  would  have 
prevented  his  entrance  into  the  temple,  he  ex- 
claimed, "  Am  I  not  purer  than  the  one  who  has 
been  murdered  in  the  temple  ?  "  Bagoses  laid  a 
heavy  mulct  on  the  people,  —  fifty  drachms  for 
every  lamb  offered  in  daily  sacrifice. 

At  length  the  peace  of  this  favored  district 
was  interrupted  by  the  invasion  of  Alexander. 
While  he  was  at  the  siege  of  Tjtc,  he  sent  to 
demand  the  surrender  of  Jerusalem.  The  high 
priest  answered  that  he  had  sworn  fealty  to 
Darius,  and  was  bound  to  maintain  his  allegiance 
to  that  monarch.  After  the  taking  of  Gaza,  the 
conqueror  advanced  against  Jerusalem,  and  was 
met  by  the  high  priest  Jaddua,  himself  clad  in 
his  pontifical  robes,  the  priests  in  their  ceremonial 
attire,  the  people  in  white  garments.  No  sooner 
had  Alexander  beheld  the  high  priest,  than  he 
was  reminded  of  a  vision  he  once  had,  and  in 
which  he  saw  a  figure,  in  that  very  dress,  exhort- 
ing him  to  pass  over  into  Asia,  and  achieve  the 
conquest  of  Persia.  Alexander  even  worshipped 
the  God  of  the  .Jews,  entered  the  city,  and  offered 
a  sacrifice  in  the  temple,  whilst  the  high  priest 
communicated  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  concern- 


ISRAEL. 


1126 


ISRAEL. 


ing  the  Greeks.  Whatever  truth  there  is  in  that 
story,  certain  it  is,  that  the  Jews  enjoyed  great 
liberties  and  privileges.  Palestine  now  became 
subject  to  the  ilacedouian  rule.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander,  Juda'a  came  into  the  possession  of 
Laomedon.  After  the  defeat  of  Laomedon  (B.C. 
320),  Ptolemy,  the  king  of  Egypt,  attempted  to 
seize  the  whole  of  Syria.  He  advanced  against 
Jerusalem  on  the  sabbath,  carried  a  great  many 
Jews  away  as  captives,  whom  he  settled  in  Egypt. 
Under  the  Ptolemies,  the  Jews  enjoyed  great 
liberties  and  prosperity.  In  the  time  of  Antioch 
the  Great  (223-1S7),  Palestine  wa,s  again  the  seat 
of  war  between  Syria  and  Egypt,  till  at  last, 
under  Seleucus  IV.  (187-175),  it  came  under  the 
Syrian  sway. 

The  plan  of  Alexander,  to  imbue  the  nations  of 
the  East  with  Greek  culture,  was  continued  under 
his  successors,  and  by  degrees  Grecian  influence 
was  felt  in  Palestine.  Thus  Antigonus  of  Socho, 
the  first  who  has  a  Grecian  name,  is  said  to  have 
been  a  student  of  Greek  literature.  In  opposition 
to  these  Hellenists,  whose  Judaism  was  of  a  very 
lax  nature,  there  developed  itself,  in  a  quiet  man- 
ner, the  party  of  the  pious,  or  Chasidim,  which 
rigidly  adhered  to  the  laws  of  the  fathers,  and 
openly  showed  itself  afterwards  in  the  struggle  of 
the  Maccabees.  Under  Seleucus  IV.,  as  has  been 
stated,  the  Jews  had  come  under  the  Syrian  sway. 
The  people  were  governed  by  the  high  priest,  and 
thus  their  condition  was  tolerable.  'When,  how- 
ever, the  effort  was  made  to  hasten  the  process  of 
HeUenizing  the  people,  and  to  destroy  altogether 
the  Jewish  nationality,  new  troubles  began,  which 
resulted  in  the  rise  of  the  Jlaccabees.  Seleucus 
was  succeeded  by  Antiochus  (IV.)  Epiphanes 
(175-lUl  B.C.).  Wlien  he  ascended  the  throne, 
there  were  at  Jerusalem  two  parties,  —  a  national 
one,  adhering  to  the  laws  of  the  fathers;  and  the 
Greek,  whicli  endeavored  to  introduce  Grecian 
manners,  vices,  and  idolatry.  Joshua,  or  Jason, 
the  brother  of  Onias  III.,  tlie  high  priest,  by  the 
offer  of  four  hundred  and  forty  talents  annually 
as  tribute,  and  a  hundred  and  fifty  inore  for  per- 
mission to  build  a  gymnasium,  obtained  the 
priesthood  from  Antiochus,  wlio  deposc'd  Onias 
(2  ^lacc.  iv.  7-10).  Now  the  (jreek  party  made 
rapid  progress  in  Jud;ca.  But  Ja.son  soon  lost 
his  high  ortice.  Menelaus,  another  devotee  of 
the  new  ideas,  simply  offered  .Vntiochus  a  higher 
tribute  than  Jason  was  paying,  and  got  the  office. 
The  latter,  however,  did  not  leave  him  long  in 
peace.  Wijile  the  king  was  absent  on  his  second 
expedition  against  Egypt  (170  B.C.),  lie  took  pos- 
session of  Jerusalem  for  a  time,  with  his  retainers, 
and  compelled  his  rival  to  flee  to  the  citadel. 
Antiochu.s,  professing  to  look  upon  this  act  of 
Jason  as  a  rebellion  on  the  jiart  of  his  Jewish 
subjects,  on  his  return  took  fearful  vengeance  on 
temple  and  people  (1  Mace.  i.  l()-2fS;  2  Mace.  v. 
11-23  ;  comp.  Dan.  xi.  28).  In  the  year  1G8  a  royal 
edict  was  issued,  according  to  which  the  exercise 
of  the  Jewisii  religion  and  circumcision  was  in- 
terdicted, and  the  temple  at  .Icrusaleui  was  con- 
verted into  one  to  Jupiter  Olynipins  (1  Mace.  i. 
43  sq.  ;  2  Mace.  vi.  1  sij.  ;  Dan.  xi.  30).  At  last 
the  patience  of  tin:  pi'ojile  was  exhausted,  and 
gave  rise  to  the  .Maccab;ran  struggle,  wliich  ended 
in  the  independence  of  J  iida^a.  The  Maccabuiin 
successors  of  Judas  united  in  their  own  persons 


the  offices  of  king  and  high  priest  (1  Mace.  xiv. 
28  sq.)  ;  but,  though  they  proved  valiant  defend- 
ers of  the  country  against  foreign  enemies,  thev 
could  not  prevent  Palestine  from  being  torn  by 
interior  factions.  At  that  time  the  two  reli- 
gious factions  known  as  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
stood  in  opposition  to  each  other.  Hitherto  the 
Maccabees  had  sided  with  the  Pharisees ;  but 
the  third  successor  of  .Judas  IMaccaba'us,  named 
John  Hyrcanus,  being  offended  by  the  Pharisees, 
broke  with  them,  and  prepared  great  troubles  for 
his  descendants.  His  eldest  son's  (Aristobulus) 
reign  was  but  short;  hut,  when  his  second  son 
(Alexander  Jannreus),  ascended  the  throne,  he  was 
so  annoyed  by  the  popular  party  of  the  Pharisees, 
that,  before  his  death,  he  felt  obliged  to  advise 
his  wife  Alexandra  to  join  the  Pharisees,  and 
abandon  the  Sadducees  entirely.  Through  this 
policy,  peace  was  restored,  and  Hyrcanus  II.  was 
made  high  priest  while  Alexandra  occupied  the 
throne.  After  Alexandra's  death  (70  B.C.)  a 
deadly  strife  began  between  the  two  sons  (Hyr- 
canus and  Aristobulus)  for  the  sovereignty.  In 
the  course  of  this  struggle  both  parties  appealed 
to  Pompey,  who  at  once  invaded  Palestine,  and, 
after  having  taken  Jerusalem  and  its  temple, 
appointed  Hyrcanus  high  priest,  limiting  his  do- 
minion, however,  to  Juda;a  alone,  and  taking  his 
brother  Aristobulus,  with  liis  two  sons,  as  captives 
to  Rome.  Alexander,  one  of  the  sons  of  Aris- 
tobulus, managed  to  escape,  and  tried  to  raise  the 
standard  of  revolt  against  Hyrcanus,  luit  with  no 
success.  Hyrcanus  was  recognized  as  high  priest; 
and  Antipater,  for  services'  rendered  to  Julius 
Ctesar,  was  appointed  procurator  over  Judaea. 
Csesar  also  granted  the  Jews  many  jirivileges, 
and  at  his  death  they  were  among  the  first  to 
mourn  for  him  (Suetonius  :  C'(esar,  c.  84.).  An- 
tipater made  his  son  Phasael  governor  of  .Jerusa- 
lem, while  he  placed  his  .son  Herod  over  Galilee. 
The  latter  soon  succeeded,  by  the  help  of  the 
Romans,  in  becoming  king  of  the  Jews  (30  B.C.). 
Under  him  Aristobulus,  the  last  of  the  ilacca- 
bfeans,  acted  as  high  priest ;  but  he  was  put  to 
death.  Ilerod  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Arche- 
laus,  who,  after  a  few  years'  reign,  was  deposed 
(G  A.U.),  and  Juda-a  became  part  of  a  Ronuin 
province  with  Syria,  but  with  its  own  prociu'ator 
residing  at  Cajsarea.  When  QiiiriMius  took  the 
census,  he  succeeded  in  quelling  a  general  revolt; 
but  the  fiercer  spirits  found  a  leader  in  Judas  the 
Galilean,  who,  lighting  for  the  theocratic  princi- 
ple (according  to  the  notions  of  the  Pharisees) 
against  the  Konian  yoke,  kindled  a  fire  in  the 
people,  which,  tliimgli  oflm  quenched,  was  not 
extinguished.  Side  by  side  witli  the  deeds  of 
God,  who  now  sent  to  his  people  the  promised 
Messiah  to  build  up  the  messianic  kingdom,  we 
now  see,  as  if  caricaturing  (iod's  word  and  prom- 
ise, a  wild,  demagogical  power,  which  leads  the 
people,  after  having  rejected  the  invitation  of  the 
Good  Shejiherd,  to  utter  destruction.  In  (juick 
succession  the  Roman  governors  follow  each  other. 
In  quicker  succession  followed  the  high  jiriests, 
with  the  exception  of  Caiaphas,  who  rctainrd  his 
olUce  during  the  long  reign  of  I'diitius  I'ilate 
(2f!-3li  A.I).).  The  ])rinci]ile  of  iulerl'ering  as 
little  a.s  possible  with  the  religious  liberty  of  the 
Jews  was  rudely  assailed  by  the  Einperor  Caligula, 
who  gave  orders  that  his  inuige  should  be  set  uj> 


ISRAEL. 


1127 


ISRAEL. 


in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  as  in  others  else- 
where. It  was  entirely  through  the  courage  and 
tact  of  the  Syrian  governor  I'etronius,  that  the 
execution  of  these  orders  was  temporarily  post- 
poned until  tlie  emperor  was  induced  Ijy  Agrippa 
I.  to  withdraw  them.  Caligula  soon  afterwards 
died;  and  under  the  rule  of  Agrippa  I.,  to  whom 
the  government  of  the  entire  kingdom  of  his 
grandfather  Herod  was  committed  liy  Clau<lius, 
the  Jews  enjoyed  nnich  prosperity.  In  every 
respect  the  king  was  all  they  could  wish.  At 
the  time  of  liis  death  (in  44  A.I).  :  conijiare  also 
Acts  xii.  23),  his  son  Agrippa  being  too  young, 
Judaea  was  again  ruled  by  Uoniau  governors ; 
viz.,  Cuspius  Fadus  (from  44,  under  whom  Theu- 
das  played  his  part;  .Joseph.,  Ant.  XX.  !),  1), 
Tiberius  Alexander  (the  nephew  of  Philo,  till 
48),  Cumanus  (48-52),  and  Felix  (52-GO).  Felix, 
who  has  the  honor  to  be  pilloried  in  the  pages  of 
Tacitus  (Hixl.  5,  9),  contrived  to  make  the  dis- 
peace  permanent  (.Joseph.,  Wars  II.  1-i).  He  was 
followed  l)y  Festus  (60-63).  At  the  death  of  the 
latter,  the  high  priest  Ananus,  a  cruel  Sadducee, 
caused  the  death  of  James  the  .Just,  and  of  other 
Christians.  Festus'  successor,  Albinus  (64),  caused 
great  dissatisfaction ;  and,  under  Florus,  distur- 
bances in  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  and  Csesarea 
were  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  massacre  fol- 
lowed upon  massacre,  until  Cestius  Gallus,  the 
prefect  of  Syria,  moved  his  troops  towards  .Jerusa- 
lem. In  Jerusalem  a  war  party,  called  "  Zealots," 
prepared  for  the  defence  of  the  temple.  The 
peace  party  tried  in  vain  to  pacify  the  insurgents, 
and  in  vaiu  also  were  all  attempts  at  peacemaking 
on  the  part  of  Agrippa  II.  .Judai-a  was  at  open  war 
with  the  Emperor  Nero,  who  sent  the  first  general 
of  the  empire,  Vespasian,  to  subjugate  Palestine. 
Into  all  parts  of  Palestine  prominent  men  were 
sent  to  manage  the  affairs ;  and  thus  Josephus, 
the  Jewish  historian,  was  intrusted  with  the 
defence  of  Galilee.  While  Galilee  and  other 
provinces  fell  into  the  hands  of  Vespasian,  .Jeru- 
salem awaited  the  enemy,  but  not  with  the  whole 
united  sti-ength.  but  torn  up  into  three  factions, 
under  .John  of  Gischala,  Eleazar,  and  Simon,  son 
of  tiioras.  At  length,  however,  Vespasian,  who 
in  the  mean  time  had  become  emperor,  sent  his 
son  Titus  to  reduce  .Jerusalem.  Titus  besieged 
.Jerusalem,  took  the  temple,  and  burned  it  to 
the  ground  Aug.  10,  70  A.D.  The  history  of  the 
world  knows  of  no  other  catastrophe  so  mortal 
as  was  the  combat  of  the  .Jewish  people  with  the 
Roman  power.  The  presentiment  of  the  heathen 
Titus,  that  a  special  divine  judgment  had  taken 
place,  was  but  the  fulfilment  of  the  word  of  the 
Lord.  Jerusalem  fell,  because  it  knew  not  the 
time  of  her  visitation  (LuIm  xix.  44).  .Since 
these  last  words  were  spoken  by  her  rejected 
Messiah  (Matt,  xxiii.  37  sq.),  .Jerusalem  and  the 
defiled  temple  are  dedicated  to  destruction :  the 
kingdom  of  God  shall  be  taken  from  the  .Jewish 
people,  and  given  to  the  heathen  (Matt.  xxi.  43). 
From  that  time  on,  till  the  final  ruin,  the  elected 
residue  is  gathered  from  the  ancient  covenant 
people,  which  is  to  form  the  root  of  the  new  con- 
gregation of  salvation,  the  branch  into  which  the 
believing  Gentiles  were  to  be  grafted.  This  con- 
gregation is  now  the  Israel  of  God,  which  as- 
sumes all  the  prerogatives  of  the  latter,  becom- 
ing "  the  chosen  generation,  the  royal  priesthood, 


the  holy  nation,  the  peculiar  people  "  (1  Pet.  ii.  9), 
to  which  belong  the  divine  promises.  And  yet 
Israel  according  to  the  flesh,  in  whom  (iod  das 
shown,  before  all  nations,  how  he  loves  and  liow 
he  punishes,  is  not  yet  excluded  from  the  realm 
of  promise.  Concerning  the  same,  the  old  law 
remains  in  force,  that  it  cannot  peri.sh,  even  in 
the  banishment  and  dispersion,  but  is  .sjiared 
rather  to  an  induction  into  the  divin<!  kingdom. 
Israel's  captivity  and  .Jerusalem's  destruction 
shall  last  until  the  times  of  the  nations  of  the 
earth  are  full.  And  when  the  fulness  of  the  Gen- 
tiles has  come  in  (Ilom.  xi.  20),  Israel  as  a  whole 
.shall  receive  the  go.spel,  and  see  his  Messiah 
(Matt,  xxiii.  39);  "for  the  gifts  and  calling  of 
God  are  without  repentance"  (lioni.  xi.  2!)). 

Lit. — Works  of  .Josephus ;  Shuckford:  The 
Sacred  and  Profane  History  of  the  World  connected 
[from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of 
Joshua],  London,  1727,  2  vols,  [new  edition  by 
Talboys  Wheeler,  1858 ;  Russell- Wheeler  :  A 
Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  from 
the  Death  of  Joshua  to  the  Decline  of  the  Kingdoms 
of  Israel  and  Judah,  London,  1869,  2  vols.] ; 
Humphrey  Pride.\ux  :  The  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments connected  in  the  History  of  the  Jetvs  and 
Neighboring  Nations,  London,  1716-18,  2  vols, 
[new  edition  by  Wheeler,  London,  1805];  Ewald  : 
Gesch.  des  Volkes  Israel,  Gbttingen,  3d  ed.,  1864-68, 
7  vols.  [English  translation,  London,  1871  sq.]; 
Kurtz:  Gesch.  d.  alien  Bundes,  Berlin,  1853-55, 
2  vols.  [English  translation,  Edinburgh,  I860]; 
Weber  und  Holtzmann  :  Geschidile  des  Voiles 
Israel,  Leipzig,  1867,  2  vols.  ;  F.  Hitzig  :  Gesch. 
d.  Volkes  Israel  con  Anbcginn  his  znr  Eroberung 
Masadas  72  A.D.,  Leipzig,  1869,  2  parts;  Kuenen  : 
De  Godsdienst  van  Israel,  Leiden,  1869-70  [Eng- 
lish translation.  The  Religion  of  Israel  to  the  Fall 
of  the  Jewish  State,  London,  1874-76,  3  vols.]  ; 
Hengstenberg  :  Gesch.  des  Reiches  Golles  unler 
dem  alten  Bunde,  Leipzig,  1869-71,  3  vols.  [Eng- 
lish translation.  History  of  the  Kingdom  of  God 
under  the  Old  Covenant,  Edinburgh,  1872,  2  vols. 
MiLiiAN :  History  of  the  Jews,  Lond.,  1829-30, 3  vols. ; 
Stanley  :  Lectures  on  the  History  of  the  Jeirish 
Church,  New  York,  1874-77,  3  vol's.;  Wellhau- 
SEN :  Geschichte  Israels,  Berlin,  1878,  1  Bd.  ;  W. 
R.  Smith  :  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church, 
New  York,  1881 ;  the  same  :  The  Prophets  of  Israel, 
1S82;  Wellhausen's  art.  Israel,  in  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  vol.  xiii.,  1882  ;  M.  Verne's  art.  Israel, 
in  Liclitenberger's  Encyclopddie  des  Sciences  Reli- 
gieuses  ;  F.  W.  Schultz  :  Die  Geschichte  Is}-aels,  in 
Zockler's  Handbuch  der  theologischen  Wissenschaf- 
ten,  vol.  i.  p.  258  sq.,  Ndrdlingen,  1882]. — By 
Jews.  JoST :  Gesch.  d.  Juden  seit  der  Zeit  der 
Makkabder  bis  auf  unsere  Tage,  Berlin,  1820  sq., 
9  vols.;  by  the  same:  Gesch.  d.  JudeiUhuyns  u. 
seiner  Sekten,  Berlin,  1857-59,  3  vols.;  Gratz: 
Geschichte  der  Israeliten,  Berlin,  18.54  .sq.,  11  vols. ; 
Geiger  :  Das  Judenthum  u.  seine  Geschichte,  .3 
parts,  1864  ;  L.  Seinecke  :  Geschichte  d.  V.  I., 
Giittingen,  1st  vol.,  1876;  B.ack  :  Gesch.  des  jii- 
dischen  Volkes  n.  seiner  Literatur,  Lissa,  1878.  — 
For  the  New-Testament  Period.  Hausrath  : 
Neutestamentliche  Zeitgeschichte,  Heidelberg,  1868 
sq.,  second  edition,  1873-77;  SchL'rer:  Lehrbuch 
der  neiitestamentlichen  Zeitgeschichte,  Leipzig,  1873. 
[See  also  Derenbourg  :  Essai  sur  Vhistoire  el  la 
geographic   de   la    Palestine,   Paris,    1867 ;    J.    H- 


ISRAEL. 


11:28 


ISRAEL. 


Weiss:  Zwr  GeschiclUe  d.  jiidischen  Tradition,  1 
u.  2  Thl.,  Wieu,  1871-76;  E.  H.  Palmek  :  His- 
tory of  the  Jewish  Nation,  Loudon,  1874 ;  Ookt  : 
Israel,  het  folk  van  den  godsdienst,  Leiden,  1875 ; 
Weiss  :  La  morale  du  Judaisme,  T.  1,  Paris,  1875; 
Gratz  :  Geschichte  der  Juden,  Leipzig,  1876,  2 
vols.;  P.  ScHOLz:  Gotzendienst  u.  Zuuherwesen  bei 
den  alten  Hebrdern,  Regensburg,  1877 ;  Hecker  : 
De  Israeliten  en  het  monotheisme,  Grouiugen,  1878; 
Simon  :  L' Education  el  i' instruction  dcs  eiifants  chez 
les  anciens  Juifs  d'apres  la  Bible  et  la  Talmud,  3d 
ed.,  Leipzig,  1879  ;  Bruston  :  L'idc'e  de  I'immorta- 
lite  de  tame  chez  les  Phc'niciens  et  chez  les  Hebreux, 
Paris,  1879;  E.  SchI'rer:  Die  Gemeindeverfassuny 
der  Juden  in  Rom  in  der  Kaiserzcit,  Leipzig,  1879 ; 
Hecker:  Die  Israeliten  u.  d.  Monotheismus,  Aus 
d.  Holland.,  Leipzig,  1879  ;  E.  Ledrain  :  Histoire 
d'Israiil,  1  a  887  B.  C.,  acec  appendice  par  J.  Oppcrt, 
Paris,  1879;  II.  iL\TZAT:  Chronologische  Unter- 
suchunyen  zur  Geschichte  der  Kdnige  von  Juda  u. 
Israel,  Weilbiirg,  1S80;  A.  Edersheim  :  History 
of  Judah  and  Israel  from  the  Birth  of  Solomon  to 
the  Reign  of  Ahab,  Jjoudoii,  1880 ;  B.  Pick  :  Jii- 
disches  Vollcsleben  zur  Zeil  Jesu,  Rochester,  1880; 
J.  LirPERT :  Der  Seelencult  in  seinen  Beziehungen 
z.  allhebr.  Relig.,  Berlin,  1881 ;  Histories  by  Sime 
(Loud.,  1883),  .Ski.neckk  (Golting.,  1884),  Stade 

(Berlin,  18S  !  .-(|.).]     OEIILKK,  lovisiJ  by  V.  OKELU. 

ISRAEL,  Post-Biblical  History  of.  With  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Israel,  or  the  Jews  as 
this  people  is  generally  called  since  the  return 
from  Babylon,  were  without  metropolis  and  with- 
out temple.  For  a  time  Jamnia  was  chosen  as 
the  seat  of  the  college  of  learning,  and  Gamaliel 
XL  was  chosen  its  spiritual  head.  The  religious 
life  of  the  Jews  was  re-organized,  and  the  decisions 
of  Jamuia  were  carried  to  the  Jews  of  the  dia- 
spora. On  th(!  ruins  of  the  city  and  tlie  temple, 
the  Pharisaic  .ludaism,  which  rests  upon  the  law 
and  the  school,  celebrated  its  triumph.  National 
fanaticism,  indeed,  was  not  yet  extinguished;  but 
it  burnt  it-solf  completely  out  in  the  vigorous  in- 
surrection led  by  Bar-C'ocheba,  the  pseudo-JIessiah, 
in  which  nearly  si.K  million  Jews  lost  thoir  lives, 
together  with  the  famous  Rabbi  Akiba,  one  of 
the  pseudo-Messiah's  most  ardent  adherents  (135 
A.D.).  Hadrian,  to  annihilate  forever  all  hopes 
of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  kingdom,  ac- 
complished his  plan  of  establishing  a  new  city 
on  the  site  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  called  ^Elia 
(japitoliua.  An  edict  prohibited  any  Jew  from 
entering  the  new  city,  on  pain  of  death.  More 
effectually  to  keep  t^iem  away,  the  image  of  a 
swine  was  placed  over  the  gate  leading  to  Bethle- 
hem. The  seat  of  the  spiritual  head,  or  patriarcli, 
was  now  transferred  fiom  .Jamnia  to  Tiberias, 
where  it  renuiined  till  tlie  year  429.  Wien,  in 
the  fifth  century,  Palestine  ceased  to  be  the  centre 
of  .Judaism,  IJabylonia  took  her  place.  From 
the  period  of  the  exile  a  numerous  and  colierent 
body  of  .Jews  had  continued  to  subsist  there. 
'I  he  Partliians  and  Sassanida;  granted  them  self- 
government.  At  their  head  was  a  native  ])rinc(!, 
or  Kosh  Cialutha,  who,  when  the  Palestinian  patri- 
archate came  to  an  end,  was  left  williout  a  rival. 
'I'he  schools  there  at  Pumbaditha,  Sora,  and 
Nahardea,  pro»|)ered  greatly,  vied  with  those  of 
Palestine,  and  continued  to  exist  after  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  latter,  wiien  the  patriarchate  became 
.•jxtiuct;  thus  they  had  the  last  word  in  the  settle- 


ment of  doctrine,  which  was  embodied  in  the 
celebrated  Babylonian  Talmud,  compiled  about 
the  year  500. 

In  the  Roman  Empire,  after  the  reign  of  Ves- 
pasian and  Hadrian,  tlie  position  of  the  Jews  was 
not  only  tolerable,  but  in  many  respects  prosper- 
ous. Their  position  changed  entu-ely  after  the 
conversion  of  Constantine.  The  Jews,  who  for- 
merly had  taken  a  great  share  in  the  persecutions 
of  the  Christians  by  Pagan  Rome,  became  now  a 
condemned  and  persecuted  sect.  A  gleam  of  hope 
shone  upon  them  in  the  days  of  Julian  tlie  Apos- 
tate ;  but  they  were  only  the  more  ill  treated 
under  his  Christian  successors,  especially  by 
Justinian. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  century,  with 
the  rise  of  ]\lahoinet,  better  times  were  ushered  in 
for  the  Jews,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they 
were  expelled  from  Arabia  by  Omar;  but  outside 
of  Arabia,  in  Mauritania  and  Spain,  they  throve 
especially  well.  In  the  latter  coimtry  their  pros- 
perous condition  lasted  so  long  as  the  Catholic 
Church  did  not  dominate  the  State.  In  the  Ger- 
manic states  wliich  arose  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  Emi^ire,  the  Jews  fared  well  on  the  whole, 
especially  under  the  Frankish  monarchy.  The 
Carlovingians  helped  them  in  every  possible  way, 
making  no  account  of  the  complaints  of  the 
bishops. 

Meanwhile  the  Church  was  not  remiss  in  seek- 
ing constantly  repeated  re-enactments  of  the  old 
laws  which  she  enacted  in  former  years.  Gradu- 
ally she  succeeded.  The  feudal  system,  and  the 
crusading  spirit  of  the  middle  ages,  only  tended 
to  lower  the  position  of  the  Jews  in  Christian 
society.  Kot  only  was  intercourse  with  them 
sliunned  :  they  were  also  obliged  to  wear  a  litth; 
wheel  upon  their  dress  as  a  mark.  Outbreaks 
against  the  Jews  were  of  repeated  occurrence ; 
and  though  popes  and  other  prelates  set  them- 
selves against  such  persecutions,  yet  tlie  popular 
aversion  against  the  Jew  was  too  strong.  It  was 
not  only  religious  hate,  whicli  was  accompanied 
by  repeated  deadly  outbreaks,  —  especially  when 
the  Black  Death,  in  1348,  was  raging,  and  Jews 
were  blamed  for  it,  on  the  notion  they  had  poi- 
soned tlie  wells  and  rivers,  —  but  also  worldly  con- 
siderations. The  Jews,  having  at  that  time  the 
control  of  iinancial  affaire  in  their  hands,  used  it 
without  scruple,  and  thus  made  themselves  still 
more  repugnant  to  the  Christians  than  they  pre- 
viously were  by  means  of  their  religion.  TLus  it 
came  about,  that,  where  the  spirit  of  toleration 
was  exhausted,  the  .Tews  liad  to  leave  the  country. 
England  was  the  (irst  kingdom  in  wliich  this  oc- 
curred, under  Edward  I.  in  1290;  France  followed 
in  1395;  Spain  and  Portugal,  in  1492  and  1495. 
In  this  way  it  happened  that  Germany,  Italy,  and 
adjoining  districts  became  the  cliief  abode  of  the 
.lews.  In  the  German  Enijiire  the  .lews,  as  Kam- 
mcrknechte,  or  servants  of  the  imperial  chamber, 
enjoyed  protection  of  person  and  propci'ty  for  a 
tax  [laiil  to  the  emjieror.  In  some  respects  they 
maintained  a  kind  of  autonomy,  and  settled  civil 
alTairs  among  themselves  by  tlic  dicta  of  their 
rabbins.  And  though  they  had  repeatedly  to 
sutler  from  the  pojmlar  rage,  which  often  marked 
its  course  by  bloodshed  and  desolation,  yet  the 
.Jews  maintained  their  ground  on  account  of  the 
political  confusion  then  prevailing  in  Germany; 


ISRAEL. 


1129 


ISRAEL. 


and,  if  tliey  were  expelled  from  one  locality,  they 
readily  found  refuge  in  some  other. 

At  tlie  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
AVestern  Europe  was  almost  depopulated  of  Jews. 
Most  of  them  lived  in  Gernuxny,  Italy,  Poland, 
and  in  the  (Jsmanic  and  African  states.  In  small 
numbers  they  were  found  in  India,  Malabar, 
Cochin-China,  Bokhara,  China,  and  Abyssinia. 
Very  great  was  their  number  in  Turkey,  \\'liere 
many  European  exiles  sought  refuge,  especially 
froni  Spain,  on  account  of  persecution  under 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  Very  large  congrega- 
tions were  soon  formed  at  Constantinople,  Smyrna, 
Damascus,  and  other  places. 

The  Reformation  opened  a  new  and  better  era 
to  the  Jews.  Xot  that  the  lleformer.s  personally 
were  much  more  tolerant  towards  them  than  the 
Roman-Catholic  hierarchy;  but  the  very  fact  that 
the  boasted  unity  of  the  Chui'ch  had  received  a 
serious  blow  made  people  more  inclined  to  tol- 
eration. The  fury  of  persecution,  formerly  di- 
rected against  the  Jews,  was  now  directed  against 
heretics  in  the  bosom  of  Christianity  itself ;  and 
whilst  the  Jews  were  left  alone,  yet  the  anathema 
of  public  contempt,  humiliation,  and  exclusion 
from  every  public  or  private  connection,  still  lay 
heavily  upon  them.  The  period  which  intervened 
between  the  Reformation  and  the  French  Revolu- 
tion was  of  a  monotonous  character  to  the  Jews, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  instances  which  at- 
tracted public  attention.  Thus  in  1(577  rose  the 
pseudo-Messiah,  Sabbathai  Zevi,  born  at  Smyrna 
in  1625,  and  died  at  Belgrade,  as  a  Mohanmiedan. 
Notwithstanding  the  apostasy  of  this  pretender, 
there  were  some  who  upheld  his  claims  even  after 
his  death,  and  asserted  that  he  was  still  the  true 
Messiah,  and  that  he  was  to  return  from  the  dead. 
A  few  years  later,  this  heresy  appeared  under  a 
new  form,  and  under  the  guidance  of  two  Polish 
rabbis,  who  travelletl  extensively  to  propagate 
Sabbathaism,  which  had  its  followers  from 
Smyrna  to  Amsterdam,  and  even  in  Poland.  In 
1722  the  whole  sect  was  solenmly  execrated  in  all 
the  synagogues  of  Europe.  In  1750  Jacob  Frank, 
a  native  of  Poland,  made  his  appearance,  and 
caused  a  schism  in  the  synagogues  of  his  native 
counti'y,  and  founded  the  sect  of  the  "  Frankists." 
The  inost  extraordinary  movement  which  occurred 
among  the  Jews  in  the  eighteenth  century  was 
that  of  the  sect  termed  the  "Chassidim"  (see  art.). 

Contemporary  with  the  rise  and  progress  of  this 
sect,  there  lived  in  Germany  the  famous  Moses 
Mendelssohn  (see  art.),  b.  in  1729  at  Dessau,  d.  at 
Berlin,  1786,  —  a  man  whose  remarkable  talents 
and  writings  constituted  an  era  in  the  history  of 
the  modern  Jews.  He  destroyed  all  respect  for 
the  Talmud  and  rabbinic  writings  among  the 
Jews  who  approved  his  opinions,  and  thus  ren- 
dered them  dissatisfied  with  their  religion,  and 
drove  them,  on  the  one  hand,  either  to  the  adop- 
tion of  total  infidelity,  or  of  Christianity,  ou  the 
other,  as  in  the  case  of  his  own  children. 

Six  years  before  IMendelssohn's  death,  Joseph 
II.  ascended  the  throne  of  Austria,  and  issued  in 
1782  his  edict  of  toleration,  which  marked  for 
the  Jews  the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  as  well  as  in  the  other  Austrian 
countries.  A  century  before,  the  Elector  of  Bran- 
denburg, Frederick  William,  liad  already  paved 
the  way  for  this  change.    Peter  the  Great  admitted 


them  into  Russia;  England  received  them  again; 
the  Netherlands,  Denmark,  and  Hamburg  were 
opened  to  them;  whilst  in  North  America  and 
Brazil  they  built  colonies.  The  example  set  in 
1783  by  the  American  Union,  which  allowed  to 
her  citizens  the  free  exercise  of  tlieir  religion, 
without  respect  of  ci-eed,  was  followed  by  the 
French  Revolution,  which  in  1791  declared  the 
Jews  French  citizens.  In  1796  they  were  eman- 
cipated in  the  Netherlands;  in  1818,  in  Germany. 
At  present  the  Jews  occupy  the  most  prominent 
positions  everywhere.  As  for  the  Jews  in  general, 
they  divide  themselves  into  the  Chassidim,  or 
strict  rabbinic  Jews;  the  Karaites  (see  art.),  or  the 
Protestants  of  Judaism,  who  took  their  rise  in 
the  eighth  century,  rejecting  entirely  the  authority 
of  tradition ;  the  orthodox  Jews ;  and  the  re- 
formed, or  liberal  Jews.  All  these  pjarties  are 
separated  from  Christendom  by  their  religion. 
The  emancipation  of  the  Jews,  it  is  true,  has 
brought  about  many  changes  among  them.  They 
imitate  the  manners  of  the  Gentiles,  not  only  in 
their  social  position,  Imt  also  in  religious  matters. 
Their  synagogue  choirs  are  mostly  composed  of 
Christian  singers.  Tliey  have  tlie  rite  of  con- 
firmation ;  they  use  organs ;  and  the  service,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  is  lifld  in  the  language  of  the 
country.  But  all  these  imitations  bring  them  not 
nearer  to  the  Church,  the  founder  of  which  they 
regard  as  an  Essene,  and  not  as  the  Christ,  the 
promised  Messiah.  Whatever  the  destinies  of 
this  people  in  the  hands  of  Providence  may  be, 
certain  it  is  that  God  has  great  things  in  store 
for  the  Jews,  for  whose  conversion  the  Church 
has  to  pray  till  Jesus  is  all  in  all. 

According  to  calculations  published  in  18S1, 
there  are  5,1G6,.326  Jews  in  Europe,  402,996  in 
Africa,  182,847  in  Asia,  307,963  in  America,  and 
20,000  in  Australia;  or  6,080,132  Jews  in  the 
world,  exclusive  of  200,000  Falashas  (Appletons' 
Annual  Cijclopcedia  for  1881,  p.  456).  See  Jews, 
Missions  ajioxg  the. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  works  of  Graetz,  Geiger, 
JosT,  Back,  jMilman,  mentioned  at  the  end  of 
the  previous  article,  compare  Cassel's  art.  Juclen, 
in  Eksch  und  Gruiseu's  Allgemeine  Encyklopadie , 
Da  Costa  :  Israel  and  the  Gentiles,  London,  1850; 
Raphall  :  Post-Biblical  Histortj  of  the  Jews,  Lon- 
don, 1836,  2  vols..  New  York,  1866  ;  Alexander  : 
The  JeiL'S,  their  Past,  Present,  and  Future.  London, 
1870.  For  the  Jews  in  England,  compare  Toway  : 
Anr/tia  Judaica,  Oxford,  1738;  Margoliouth: 
Histonj  of  the  Jews  in  Great  Britain,  London,  1851, 
3  vols. ;  by  the  same:  Vestiges  of  the  Historic  Anglo- 
Hehrews  in  East  Anglia,  London,  1870;  Picciotto: 
Sketches  of  Anr/lo-Jeivish  History,  London,  1875. 
On  the  Jews  in  Spain  and  Portugal,  see  Kaiser- 
I-IXG  :  Gesehichte  der  Judtn  in  Portugal,  Leipzig, 
1867 ;  by  the  same :  Sephardim.  Rumanische  Poesien 
der  Juden  in  Spanien,  Leipzig,  1859;  Finn: 
Sephardim;  or,  History  of  the  Jews  in  Spain  and 
Portugal,  London,  1841;  LiXDo:  History  of  the 
Jews  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  London,  1848.  On 
the  Jews  in  France  and  the  Romanic  States,  see 
Haller:  Les  Juifs  en  France,  Paris,  1845;  Bed.\- 
RiDE  :  Les  Juifs  en  France,  en  Italie,  et  en  Espagnc, 
Paris,  18.59 ;  Brauxschweiger  :  Gesehichte  der 
Juden  in  den  rnntanischen  Staaten,  AViirzburg,  1865. 
From  a  Roman-Catholic  stand-point  wrote  Ri"- 
I'ERT:  L'Eglise  et  la  Synagogue,  Paris,  1859  (Ger- 


ISSACHAR. 


1130 


ITALY. 


man  translation,  Die  Juden  unter  den  Christen, 
Schaffhausen,  1871)  ;  Gougexot  des  Mous- 
SEArx:  Le  Juif.  Le  Jiidaisme  el  la  Judaisation  des 
j)eiij)les  c/in'liens,  Paris,  1869.  The  literature  of 
the  Jews  in  connection  with  history  has  been 
treated  by  D.  Cassel  :  Lehrhuch  der  judischen 
Geschichle  uiid  Lilemtur,  Leipzig,  1879.  See  also 
M.  Maxxheimek  :  Die  Judenrerjblf/ungen  in  Spei/er, 
Worms,  und  Mainz  im  Jahre  1096,  Darmstadt,  1877  ; 
D.  Kaufmaxn:  Gesch.  d.  Attribulcnlehre  in  d. 
jiidisc/ien  Religionsphilosojihie  d.  MittclaUers,  Gotha, 
1877:  .SchL'rer:  Juden  in  Rom,  Leipzig,  1879; 
M.  GL'DEMAXX:  Geschichte  d.  Erziehtmgsmesen 
«.  d.  Cultur  d.  Juden  in  Frankreich  u.  Deutscldand 
ron  d.  Begrilndung  d.  jiid.  Wissenschafl  in  d.  Ldti- 
dern  bis  zur  Verlreibtax/  d.  Juden  aus  Frankreich 
[X-XIV  cent.],  Wieii,  1880;  .1.  Hamburger: 
Die  Nichtjuden  u.  d.  Sekten  in  Tabnudisdien  Schrifl- 
thum,  2d  ed.,  Xeustrelitz,  1880  ;  ().  I1exxe-Am- 
Khyx  :  Kullurrjeschichle  des  Judenlhums,  Jena, 
1880;  F.  Webei!  :  Sijstem  der  altsijnagoiialen  palds- 
tinischen  Theologie,  heiimg,  1880;  S.  M.  Samuel: 
Jewish  Life  in  the  East,  London,  1881 ;  G.  Saige  : 
Les  Juifs  du  Languedoc  anttirieurement  au  XlVe. 
siecle,  Paris,  1881 ;  W.  R.  Sorley  :  Jewish  Chris- 
tians and  Judaisjn,  a  study  of  the  first  and  second 
centuries,  London,  1881 ;  JL  Litteris:  Die  sammt- 
lichen  Festgebete  d.  Israeliten,  iibersetzt,  Prag,  1882, 
5  vols. ;  Heinrich  Ellenberger  :  Die  Leiden  u. 
Verfolf/nngen  d.  Juden,  1650  B.C.  bis  zur  Gegen- 
wart.  Prag,  2d  ed.,  1882.  B.  PICK. 

ISSACHAR,     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

ITALIC  VERSION.     See  Bible  Versioxs. 

ITALY,  Ecclesiastical  Statistics  of.  The  king- 
dom of  Italy  comprises  an  area  of  11:5,000  square 
miles,  with  a  population  of  28,000,000,  of  which 
100,1100  are  Greek  Catholics,  96,000  Evangelical 
Christians,  :50,000  .lews,  and  25,000  Mohamme- 
dans, while  all  the  rest  belong  to  the  Roman- 
Catliolic  Church. 

The  Romati-Catholic  C/»«r/i.  —  Sept.  20,  1870, 
the  temporal  power  of  the  Pojie  glided  quietly  out 
of  existence;  but  May  13,  1871,  the  legislative 
assembly  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  passed  a  law 
guaranteeing  the  independence  of  the  Pope  and 
the  holy  see.  The  jierson  of  tlie  Pope  is  sacred 
and  inviolable,  like  that  of  tlie  king.  The  honors 
of  sovereignty  are  due  to  hiiri,  and  he  is  allowed 
to  keep  a  tiody-guard.  The  State  pays  him  annu- 
ally a  pension  of  -5,225,000  lires,  which,  however, 
he  has  hitherto  declined  to  receive  ;  and  tlie  pal- 
aces of  the  Vatican  and  the  L;iteran,  and  the  villa 
of  Castle  Gaiidolfo,  with  their  librari(!S  and  col- 
lections, are  declared  to  be  the  property  of  the 
holy  see,  inalienable,  free  of  taxation,  and  exempt- 
ed from  expropriation.  The  Italian  Government 
furthermore  guarantees  the  freedom  and  inde- 
pendence of  the  conclave,  and  of  all  ecclesiastical 
oflicer.s  in  the  execution  of  their  official  functions. 
In  the  city  of  Rome,  all  seminaries,  academies,  and 
colleges  for  the  education  of  the  clergy,  HMuain 
under  the  .special  authority  of  the  Pope  ;  ami  the 
State  has  renounced  its  right  of  appointment  and 
nomination  to  the  higher  ecclesia.stical  benefices. 
No  Italian  bishop  is  compelled  to  take  the  oath  to 
the  king,  and  no  royal  placcl  is  necessary  to  the 
execution  of  a  purely  ecclesiastical  act.  The  law 
is  very  lilieral,  ami  ought  to  be  so  on  account  of 
the  anomalous  character  of  the  situation.  Mean- 
while the  Pope  resides  in  the  Vatican,  keeping  a 


court  of  about  eighteen  hundred  persons,  and 
working  a  huge  machine  (see  Curia)  for  the 
government  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  at 
large. 

Another  question  presenting  nearly  as  great 
difficulties  as  that  of  abolishing  the  temporal 
power  of  the  Pope,  though  preserving  his  spiritu- 
al sovereignty,  arose  from  the  monastic  orders. 
In  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  the  law  of  May  29, 
1855,  dissolved  all  religious  orders  not  engaged  in 
pireaching,  teaching,  or  nursing  tlie  sick,  abro-  ■ 
gated  all  chapters  of  collegiate  churches  having 
no  cure  of  souls,  and  abolished  all  private  bene- 
fices for  which  the  holders  paid  no  service ;  and 
thus  274  monasteries  with  3,733  monks,  and  61 
convents  with  1,756  nuns,  were  closed,  and  2,722 
chapters  and  private  benefices  were  disestab- 
lished. As  the  union  of  Italy  progressed,  the 
same  principles  were  applied  in  Unibria,  the 
Marches,  Naples,  and  Rome,  by  the  laws  of  July 
7,  1806,  Aug.  15, 1867,  and  June  19, 1873.  When 
the  census  of  1866  was  taken,  there  still  existed 
in  Italy,  outside  of  the  city  and  province  of  Rome, 
32  orders  of  monks,  with  3,874  brethren  in  625 
monasteries,  and  an  annual  income  of  6,714,371 
lires;  31  orders  of  nuns,  with  8,264  sisters  in  537 
convents,  and  an  annual  income  of  7,008,624 
lires;  10  mendicant  orders,  with  10,848  brethren 
in  1,209  monasteries;  and  3  orders  of  mendicant 
nuns,  with  876  sisters  in  43  convents.  When  the 
census  of  1871  was  taken,  there  were  iu  the  prov- 
ince and  city  of  Rome  474  monasteries  (311  for 
monks  and  163  for  nuns),  with  8,151  inmates 
(4,326  male  and  3,825  female),  and  an  annual  in- 
come of  4,780,891  lires.  An  idea  of  the  benefit 
which  the  State  or  the  people  derived  from  these 
institutions  may  be  formed  by  observing,  that,  of 
the  thirty-two  monastic  orders  having  an  inde- 
pendent fortune,  ten  were  devoted  to  teaching, 
one  to  nursing  the  sick,  and  the  rest  to  a  contem- 
plative life ;  Init  of  the  annual  revenue  of  6,714,- 
371  lires,  only  451,732  lires  were  spient  for  edu- 
cational purposes,  and  151,401  lires  on  the  sick, 
while  the  rest  was  eaten  up  by  contemplation. 
The  legislation  since  1855  has  disestablished  about 
fifty  tliousand  ecclesiastical  foundations,  which 
rendered  no  other  service  than  supporting  idle- 
ness, ignorance,  and  vice.  From  the  closed  mon- 
asteries the  monks  and  nuns  returned  into  society 
with  the  full  riglits  and  duties  of  citizens;  but 
each  of  them  received  a  pension  varying  from 
one  hundred  to  six  hundred  lires,  according  to 
age  and  other  circumstances.  The  confiscated 
estates  became  State  domains,  but  were  gathered 
into  a  special  fund,  from  whicli  the  ecclesia.stical 
pensions,  the  expenses  of  public  education,  etc., 
are  paid.  The  capital  value  of  the  property 
which  has  thus  accrued  to  the  domain  since  1855 
is  estimated  at  839,776,076  lires,  yielding  an  an- 
nual revenue  of  30,069,165  lires. 

The  Romau-Catholie  Church  in  Italy  numbers 
265  e)iiscopal  dioceses  (of  which  eleven  archi- 
episeopal  and  sixty-three  episcopal  sees  are  inde- 
liendent  of  any  metropolitan  authority,  and  stand 
iinniedialely  under  the  Pope);  and  24,980  jiarishes, 
wliich  vary  very  much  in  size,  from  fourteen  tliou- 
sand to  one  hundred  souls.  The  jiarish  [iriest  is 
always  landholder,  and  ilerives  his  principal  in- 
come from  his  jioilere ;  but  the  State  spcmls  yi'arly 
about  one  million  lires  in  augmentation  of   tho 


ITALY. 


1131 


ITALY. 


parochial  stipends.  The  rite  employed  is  the 
ordinary  Latin  rite,  though  other  rites  are  recog- 
nized. Thus  the  Albanians  in  the  southern  prov- 
inces use  the  Cireek  rite  and  the  Greek  language 
in  their  worship,  and  their  priests  are  allowed  to 
marry.  Othi-r  differences  of  rite  ocoir  among  the 
Armenians  in  Venice  and  in  the  church  of  l\Iilan. 

The  Efaiujdical  Church  is  represented  in  Italy 
Ijy  the  old  and  celebrated  Church  of  the  AValden- 
sians,  the  Free  Italian  Church,  and  various  more 
or  less  successful  endeavors  by  the  Methodists, 
Baptists,  Presbyterians,  and  J^piscopalians,  and 
other  denominations. 

By  a  decree  of  Feb.  17,  1848,  religious  liberty 
was  established  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia.  The 
Church  of  the  Waldensians  consisted  at  that  time 
of  fifteen  congregations  up  among  the  mountains, 
and  one  in  Turin.  But  it  immediately  took  on 
a  considerable  missionary  activity,  and  after- 
wards formed  39  new  congregations  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  with  34  ordained  pastors,  23  evan- 
gelists, 44  teachers,  2,813  communicants,  and 
about  400  catechumens,  1,GS4  pupils  in  the  pri- 
mary schools,  and  1,636  in  the  Sunday  school. 
It  has  a  theological  school,  with  three  professors 
and  eighteen  students,  founded  in  18.5.5  at  Torre 
Pellice,  but  removed  in  1862  to  Florence.  Before 
the  establishment  of  this  school  the  \V'aldensian 
ministers  were  educated  at  Lausanne  or  Geneva. 

The  Free  Italian  Church  was  founded  in  iSIilan 
(1870)  by  twenty-three  congregations,  which  had 
been  formed  independently  of  the  Waklensian 
evangelization.  It  numbers  (report  of  1881)  now 
36  congregations,  with  13  ordained  ministers,  16 
evangelists,  21  teachei-s,  1,750  communicants,  284 
catechumens,  1,250  pupils  in  the  week-day  schools, 
657  pupils  in  the  Sunday  schools,  and  a  theologi- 
cal school  with  four  professors  and  ten  students 
in  Rome.  [Gavazzi  is  one  of  the  leading  spirits  in 
this  church.]  The  Methodists  have  in  their  north- 
ern missionary  district  28  congregations,  and  15 
in  their  southern  district,  and  in  all  22  ordained 
preachers.  [The  American  Methodists  who  liegan 
missionary  efforts  in  Italy  in  1873,  have  15  Italian 
preachers,  one  American  missionary  (Dr.  Vernon), 
708  church-members,  and  311  probationers  The 
Presbyterians  work  in  Italy  through  the  Walden- 
sian  and  Free  churches.  The  Church  of  England 
has  three  congregations  in  Rome.  Dr.  Robert 
Nevin  is  rector  of  the  American  Episcopial  Church 
in  Rome,  which  has  the  largest  Protestant  house 
of  worship,  built  by  his  own  exertions.  The 
American  Baptists  have  had  an  Italian  mission 
since  1870,  and  now  have  nine  jireachers,  and 
175  communicants,  with  congregations  at  Milan, 
Rome,  Naples,  Venice,  etc.  The  English  Baptists 
have  eleven  preachers,  and  began  their  mission  in 
1871.]  K.    ROXNEKE. 

ITALY,  Protestantism  In.  Every  now  and 
then  tlie  noblest  and  loftiest  spirits  jsroduced  by 
the  Italian  people  —  Dante,  Petrarca,  Lauren- 
tius  A'alla,  .Savonarola,  zEgidius  of  Viterbo,  Picus 
de  Mirandola  —  burst  out  in  open  denunciation 
of  tiie  corruption  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and 
demanded  reforms.  Councils,  such  as  those  of 
Pisa  and  Constance,  supported  the  movement ; 
and  popes,  such  as  Adrian  VI.  and  Paul  III., 
took  the  lead  of  it,  or  at  least  made  people  be- 
lieve that  thej'  did.  The  reforms  demanded  were 
purely  moral,  however,  not  doctrinal :   it  was  a 


reform  of  the  clergy,  rather  than  a  reform  of  the 
Church,  which  was  intended.  Thus  the  order  of 
the  Theatines  was  founded  in  1.524  by  Cajetan 
of  Threne  and  Bishop  Carafta  of  Theate  (after- 
wards Paul  IV.),  for  the  express  purpose  of 
reforming  the  clergy;  but  at  the  same  time  the 
Theatines  were  the  bitterest  enemies,  the  most 
furious  persecutors,  of  the  Reformation  ;  and,  as 
soon  as  it  became  apparent  tiiat  a  moral  reform 
could  not  be  accomplished,  unless  on  the  ba.sis 
of  a  doctrinal  reform,  the  council  and  the  Pope, 
the  monk  and  the  prelate,  at  once  agreed  in 
calling  in  the  Inquisition  for  the  purjwse  of 
stamping  out  "  heresy."  In  Italy  all  the  neces- 
sary materials  for  a  moral  reform  were  absolutely 
lacking.  The  revival  of  letters,  which  had  been 
more  vigorous  there  tlian  in  any  other  country, 
turned  out  to  be  essentially  a  revival  of  Paganism, 
and  resulted  in  a  religious  indiffereutism  and 
cynical  scepticism,  wlaich  might  have  a  great 
talent  for  railing  at  vices,  but  certainly  showed 
very  little  power  to  correct  them.  But,  where 
such  a  spirit  is  reigning,  no  moral  reform  is  pos- 
sible :  there  the  reform  must  begin  with  the 
spirit,  the  idea,  the  doctrine.  In  the  case  of 
Italy,  evidences  were  plenty  and  striking.  The 
consilium  nocemcirale,  consisting  of  Contarini, 
Pole,  Caraffa,  Sadolet,  Fregoso,  Giberti,  Badia, 
Cortese,  and  Aleandre,  which  Paul  III.  organized 
in  1536  for  the  purpose  of  reforming  the  chau- 
celry,  the  episcopacy,  the  morals  of  the  clergy, 
the  penitential,  tlie  administration  of  the  rola, 
etc.,  barely  escaped  having  its  report  put  on  the 
Index ;  for  it  was,  indeed,  impossible  to  explain 
the  causes  of  the  reigning  evils,  and  indicate 
remedies  against  them,  without  touching  upon 
questions  of  doctrine.  But  a  doctrinal  reform  the 
Church  of  Rome  neither  would  nor  could  consent 
to  ;  for  it  surely  meant  a  revision  and  consequent 
alteration  of  her  w4iole  social  and  piolitical  posi- 
tion. As  soon,  therefore,  as  Paul  III.  came  to 
understand  that  this  cry  for  reform,  which  had 
arisen  spontaneously  in  Italy,  and  earlier  there 
than  in  any  other  country,  was  in  principle  iden- 
tical with  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  he  handed 
over  the  whole  case  to  the  Inquisition  (established 
by  a  bull  of  June  21,  1842);  and,  two  generations 
later  on,  every  trace  of  Protestantism  was  wiped 
off  from  the  face  of  Italy. 

In  Northern  Italy  the  transition  from  a  moral 
to  a  doctrinal  reform  took  place  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  Reformation  in  Germany.  The 
works  of  the  reformers — Luther,  ISIelauchthon, 
Zwingli,  and  Butzer  —  were  early  introduced  into 
Venice,  often  under  fictitious  names.  Thus  the 
Loci  connnunes  of  Melanchthon  circulated  under 
the  name  of  Hippnphilo  de  Terra  Neyra.  In  1520 
the  writings  of  Luther  were  seized  and  burnt 
by  the  Patriarch  Contarini,  which,  however,  did 
not  prevent  tliem  from  being  clandestinely  re- 
printed, and  widely  read.  In  1643  Luther  was  in 
actual  correspondence  with  the  Venetian  Govern- 
ment through  Baldassari  Altieri,  secretary  to  the 
English  embassy  in  Venice.  The  rapid  spread 
of  Protestantism  in  the  territory  of  the  Republic 
during  the  period  1520-42  was,  to  a  great  extent, 
due  to  the  indefatigable  exertions  of  Altieri,  sup- 
ported by  the  fervent  preachings  of  a  numlier  of 
monks,  and  the  translation  of  the  Bible  by  Bruc- 
cioli,  a  disciple  of   Savonarola.     Of   course   the 


ITALY. 


1132 


ITALY. 


Roman  curia  protested  in  the  most  vehement 
manner.  But  the  Venetian  ambassador,  Tiepolo, 
had  the  cynical  frankness  to  tell  Pius  V.  to  his 
face,  that  toleration  or  intoleration  with  respect 
to  heretics  was  to  the  Republic  merely  a  question 
of  policy.  And  so  it  was.  As  soon  as  the  Re- 
public needed  the  friendship  of  the  Pope,  the 
Inquisition  was  established,  Altieri  was  banished, 
fifteen  hundred  and  forty-five  processes  were  in- 
stituted against  Protestants  of  the  higher  classes, 
while  those  of  the  lower  were  tracked  like  game 
on  the  Lido.  The  arcliives  of  the  Inquisition 
contain  the  acts  of  two  hundred  and  forty-three 
processes  instituted  between  1541  and  1592,  some 
against  members  of  the  first  families,  —  the 
Giustiniani,  Dandola,  Falieri,  etc.,  —  twenty-six 
against  ecclesiastics ;  but  thousands  of  persons 
were  quietly  burnt,  drowned,  decapitated,  tortm'ed, 
or  exiled.  The  same  proceedings  were  enacted 
throughout  the  whole  territory  of  the  Republic,  in 
Vicentia,  Padua,  Berganso,  Treviso,  Undino,  etc. 
Into  Lombardy  —  bounded  north  by  Switzerland, 
and  west  by  Piedmont  —  Protestantism  penetrated 
in  a  double  stream ;  and  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century  several  of  the  Lombard  cities 
maintained  connections  with  Geneva,  Ziirich,  and 
Wittenberg.  In  1521  verses  were  composed  and 
sung  in  Milan  in  honor  of  Luther ;  and  Gerdes 
tells  us,  that  in  1524  the  Reformation  was 
preached  there  with  great  success.  In  1530  Curio 
fled  from  Piedmont,  and  found  refuge  in  Milan, 
though  he  had  openly  embraced  the  Reformation  ; 
and  in  1555  Paleario  could  still  write  his  Actio  in 
Pontijices  Romanos  undisturbed  in  Milan.  The 
year  previous.  Archbishop  Arcimboldi  forbade 
the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  his  diocese,  and 
stipulated  that  a  part  of  the  confiscated  property 
of  heretics  should  be  given  to  the  informers  and 
spies  of  the  Inquisition.  But  .Vrcimboldi  was  a 
contemptible  person:  he  could  be  cruel,  but  he 
could  al.so  be  cowed.  Quite  otherwise  with  his 
successor,  Carlo  Borromeo  (15.59-84).  He  was 
as  sincere  as  he  was  pa.ssionate.  His  merciless 
severity  has  sometliing  noble  in  its  motives,  which 
connnaiids  respect.  lie  was  able,  chiefly  by  the 
aid  of  the  Inquisition  and  the  .Jesuits,  not  only 
to  cleanse  Milan  thoroughly  from  heresy,  but 
also  to  make  it  a  barrier  against  all  influence 
from  Germany.  In  Piedmont  there  existed  at 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  numerous 
evangelical  congregations  founded  by  missionaries 
of  the  Waldensian  Church  (whicli  see).  But 
also  the  influence  from  Geneva  and  Wittenberg 
was  considerable.  When  Calvin,  in  1530,  passed 
through  the  valley  of  Aosta,  he  found  many  ad- 
herents; and  in  15liO  it  was  said,  even  of  the 
Princess  Maigaretta,  that  she  was  a  secret  Cal- 
vini.st.  But  in  I'iedmont,  as  in  Venice,  political 
regards  compelled  the  government  to  yield  to  tlie 
Pope's  demands.  The  IiKjuisition  was  estab- 
lished ;  and  in  cases  in  which  it  was  found  im- 
passible to  apply  this  instrument,  —  namely,  wlien 
the  question  was  not  about  individual  persons, 
but  about  whole  families,  towns,  districts,  —  the 
children  were  by  force  taken  from  the  parents, 
and  placed  in  convents,  to  be  educated  in  the 
Koman-Catholic  faith. 

In  Sotilhern  and  Central  Italy  tlie  movement 
was  started  by  the  circle  of  euunent  men  which 
formed  in  Naples  (1535-40)  around  the  .Spaniard 


Valdez ;  but  it  was  in  many  ways  nom-ished,  both 
through  direct  communication  with  the  German 
reformers,  and  by  the  existence  of  evangelical 
congregations  founded  by  Waldensian  missiona- 
ries. Valdez  fled  from  Spain  on  account  of  a 
satirical  dialogue  he  wrote  against  the  clergy. 
In  Xaples  he  lived  very  quietly,  and  he  died  be- 
fqre  the  persecutions  began.  But  he  exercised  a 
considerable  influence,  both  by  his  writings,  and 
still  more  through  his  friends,  —  Bernardino 
Ochino  from  Siena,  general  of  the  Capuchins,  a 
celebrated  preacher,  who  formed  congregations  at 
Venice,  Florence,  .Siena,  and  Perugia,  but  fled  to 
Geneva,  Aug.  23,  1542 ;  Peter  Martyr  Vermigli, 
professor  of  theology,  first  at  Xaples,  afterwards 
at  Lucca,  strongl\'  influenced  by  the  reformers  of 
Geneva,  whither  lie  fled  a  few  days  later  than 
Ochinus ;  Carnesecchi,  who  had  been  secretary  to 
Clement  VII.,  and  twice  escaped  from  the  grip  of 
the  Inqui.sition  (1546  and  15.59),  but  finally  fell 
a  victim  to  the  unconquerable  hatred  of  Pius  V. 
and  the  loose  policy  of  Cosmus  of  Jledicis  (1567)  ; 
Flaminius,  author  of  the  beautiful  book,  Del 
Benefizio  tli  Gesic  C/iristi  confesso,  which  the  In- 
quisition hunted  after  with  nearly  as  nuich  appe- 
tite as  after  the  Bible ;  and  Caracciolo.  who 
became  the  founder  of  the  Italian  congregation  at 
Geneva.  When  the  Inquisition  began  its  work, 
it  found  large  congregations  formed  by  these 
men  in  nearly  all  the  great  cities  of  Central  and 
Southern  Italy;  and,  what  was  still  worse,  in 
many  cases  it  found  the  very  officers  of  the 
Church  most  strongly  affected  by  the  disease  it 
was  sent  to  extirpate.  In  the  environs  of  Xaples 
the  bishops  of  Chironia,  Sorrente,  Isola,  Caiazzo, 
Mola,  Civita  di  Penna,  Policastro,  Reggio,  etc., 
read  the  works  of  Luther,  and  were  more  or  less 
infected  with  Lutheranisni.  j\Iost  of  them  re- 
canted immediately;  but  some  of  them  it  was 
necessary  to  punish.  Yea,  at  some  places  the 
Inquisition  had  to  siqiplement  itself  with  laymen 
in  order  to  be  sure  of  having  no  heretics  among 
its  own  members.  With  the  chiefs,  liovvever,  the 
Inquisition  liad  comparatively  easy  work.  They 
often  succeeded  in  escaping  to  foreign  countries. 
Geneva,  London,  and  Cracow  swarmed  with  Italian 
Protestants.  In  such  cases  the  Inquisition  had 
only  to  burn  their  books,  —  Florence  was  especially 
prominent  by  its  autcis-da-jl-  of  Ihat  kind,  —  and 
to  prohibit  all  further  conmnuiication  with  the 
mother-comitry,  in  which  respect  Lucca  proved 
herself  mo.st  sagacious.  But  the  task  became 
rather  diflicult  when  the  question  was  about  whole 
congregations.  In  Calabria  the  Waldenses  had 
occupied  the  villages  of  Guardia,  San  Sisto,  Vac- 
carizzo.  Hosa,  Argentina,  San  Vincenzo,  and 
Montalto  since  1315.  What  was  to  be  done  in 
such  a  ca.se'?  Well,  the  villages  were  razed  to  the 
gi-ounil,  and  sixteen  hundred  persons  were  carried 
into  the  donjons  of  Na])les,  whence  some  of  them 
were  exported  to  the  Saracen  slave-market.s,  while 
others  were  removed  to  the  rowing-baidcs  of  the 
Spanisli  galleys  (1558-00).  In  Home  new  pris- 
ons had  to  be  built;  but  the  attendance  which 
the  Pope  could  spare  for  the  inmates  was  not 
sullicient  to  prevent  them  from  being  occasionally 
starved  to  death.  No  day  passed  away  without 
its  sacrifice  of  human  flesh.  On  one  occasion 
eighty-eight  victims  were  despatched  in  one  day 
by  one   executioner  and  with  one  knife.     After 


ITINERANCY. 


1133 


IVO   OP  CHARTRBS. 


working  in  tliis  manner  for  about  half  a  century, 
tlie  Inquisition  succeeded  in  completely  silencing 
Protestantism  in  Italy  ;  and  nothing  further  was 
heard  from  this  movement  until  the  fourth  and 
fifth  decade  of  the  present  century.  See  arts. 
Waldexsians,  and  Italy,  Ecclesia.stical  Sta- 
tistics OF. 

Lit.  —  De  Leva:  Storia  di  Carlo  V.,  vols.  i. 
and  iii.,  1873  ;  E.  Comba,  in  the  Rivista  Chrisliana, 
1873-78 ;  the  same  :  Storia  del  mardri  della  Riforma 
itnliana,  vol.  i.,  Turin,  1879;  and  Sloria  delta  Ri- 
forma in  Italia,  vol.  i.,  Florence,  1881  ;  John 
StouGhton  :  Footsteps  of  the  Italian  Reforiiierx, 
London,  1881.  See  also,  for  further  literature, 
the  special  biographies,  and  K.  Benrath  :  Uetjer 
'I.  Quellen  d.  italienisclien  Reforinationsgeschichte, 
Bonn,  ]87(). 

ITINERANCY.  Our  Lord  had  no  settled  place 
of  abode  and  no  fixed  congregation.  The  apos- 
tles similarly  went  from  place  to  place,  at  least 
during  a  portion  of  their  ministry.  JNIethodists 
thus  find  Scripture  precedent  for  their  peculiar 
system  of  ministerial  appointments.  The  minis- 
ters of  this  denomination,  in  tlie  settled  parts  of 
this  country,  are  assigned  to  churches  by  tlie  bish- 
ops, but  are  not  allowed  to  hold  the  same  charge 
more  than  three  consecutive  years ;  then  they  are 
put  over  another  church  in  the  same  conference. 
In  this  way  they  move  from  place  to  place  in  the 
conference.  In  England  and  upon  our  frontiers, 
the  circuit-system  prevails ;  i.e.,  a  number  of 
churches  or  preaching-places  are  served  by  the 
same  set  of  preachers  in  rotation.  There  can  be 
no  question  of  the  immense  value  of  this  itiner- 
ant system  in  the  past  history  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  It  was  started  by  Jolm  Wesley,  who,  as 
early  as  his  third  conference  (May,  1746),  assigned 
the  "lay-preaching  to  certain  fields  of  labor  called 
then  and  now  "circuits."  But,  owing  to  tlie 
altered  circumstances  of  the  church,  the  question 
of  abolishuig  the  system,  or  greatly  modifying  it, 
has  been  of  late  very  earnestly  debated.  The 
weight  of  opinion  seems  to  be  against  any  essen- 
tial change.     See  Methodism. 

ITUR/E'A,  the  country  of  the  Itur^eans,  was  at 
one  time  identified  with  Auranitis,  or  Trachonitis 
(Eusebius,  Jerome,  and  others),  in  direct  contra- 
diction of  Luke  iii.  1.  Modern  archaeologists 
liave  placed  it  in  the  plains  of  north-eastern  (Jali- 
lee,  or  on  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Ilauran  Moun- 
tains ;  but  neither  of  these  locations  agrees  with 
the  notes  of  ancient  writers.  As  the  Iturseans 
were  a  nomadic  tribe,  they  may  have  lived  at 
various  places  in  various  times.  They  descended 
from  Ishmael  (Gen.  xxv.  15;  1  Chron.  i.  31),  and, 
together  with  other  Arabian  tribes,  they  fought 
with  the  Israelites  settled  east  of  the  Jordan 
(1  Chron.  v.  18-22).  Aristobulus  I.  conquered 
them  (lO.j  B  C.)  ;  but  Pompey  was  the  first  who 
i-eally  succeeded  in  subduing  them.  Afterwards 
they  are  often  mentioned  as  excellent  soldiers, 
serving  as  archers  in  the  Roman  army.  Their 
country  often  changed  dominion  until  Claudius 
definitively  incorporated  it  with  Syria.  See 
Fkiedkich  MiJNTER  :  De  rebus  Ilurmorum,  Copen- 
hagen, 1824.  KUETSCHI. 


IVES,  Rt.   Rev.  Levi  Silliman,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b. 

at  Meriden,  Conn.,  Sept.  IG,  1797;  d.  at  Abanhat- 
tanville.  New- York  City,  Oct.  13,  18(i7.  lie  came 
of  Presbyterian  .stock;  l)ut  in  181!)  he  became  an 
Episcopalian,  and  in  1823  he  was  ordained  jirii'st, 
and  settled  over  Trinity  Church,  Piiiladelphia. 
In  1831  he  was  consecrated  bishop  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  displayed  zeal  and  ability  in  the  reli- 
gious education  of  the  .slaves.  He  was  a  High 
Churchman,  and  sided  with  the  Oxford  Tracta- 
rians.  In  December,  18.52,  he  visited  Kome,  and 
there  Joined  the  Roman  Church.  His  friend  and 
confessor.  Dr.  Forbes,  went  with  liim,  but  returned 
again  to  the  Episcopal  Chui'ch.  Iv(;s  was  deposed- 
from  his  bishopric  (Oct.  14,  185.3),  but  made  pro- 
fessor of  rhetoric  in  St.  Joseph's  (K.C.)  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  at  Fordham,  N.Y.  Among  his  last 
labors  was  the  founding  of  the  Protectory  for 
Roman-Catholic  children  at  Westchester,  N.Y., 
and  of  the  Manhattanville  College,  where  he 
taught.  He  published  an  ai'ology  for  his  seces- 
sion, Tlie  Trials  of  a  Mind  in  its  Progress  to  Cathol- 
icism, London  and  Boston,  1854. 

IVO  OF  CHARTRES  (Yvo  Carnotensis),  b. 
about  1040  in  the  diocese  of  Beauvais ;  d.  at 
Chartres,  Dec.  23,  1116;  studied  hmnnniora  and 
philosophy  in  Paris,  and  theology  in  the  monas- 
tery of  Bee,  where  he  had  Lanfranc  for  teacher, 
and  Ansetm  for  a  schoolmate,  and  was  appointed 
director  of  the  monastery  of  St.  Quentin  in  1075, 
and  bishop  of  Chartres  in  1090.  He  was  impli- 
cated in  grave  controversies,  first  with  his  prede- 
cessor, Ganfried,  who  had  been  deposed  by  the 
Pope  on  account  of  simony,  but  still  found  many 
adherents  in  France,  and  afterward  witli  Plii- 
lippe  I.,  who  had  repudiated  his  legitimate  spouse,. 
Bertha,  and  entered  into  an  adulterous  connec- 
tion with  Bertrade  of  Anjou.  But  the  most  in- 
teresting point  in  his  life  is  the  stand-point  he 
occupied  in  the  great  contest  concerning  the  right 
of  investiture  (see  his  letters  63,  232,  236,  and 
Baronius  ad  ami.  1106  and  1111).  He  denounced 
with  great  frankness  the  faults  and  failings  of 
the  Roman  curia,  and  is  often  represented  as  one 
of  the  principal  champions  of  Gallicanism.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  the  extreme  hierarchical 
party,  indignant  at  the  concessions  which  Pascha- 
lis  II.  had  made  to  the  emperor,  tried  to  have 
these  concessions  condemned  by  a  general  coun- 
cil as  heretical,  Ivo  interfered,  and  defended  Pas- 
chalis.  Moderation  and  a  deep  sense  of  equity 
distinguished  his  views,  and  governed  all  his  ac- 
tions. Of  his  works  the  two  most  important  are- 
his  collections  of  canons  :  Decretum  or  Decretorum 
Opus  in  seventeen  books,  and  Pannnrmia  in  eight 
books.  His  letters,  numbering  two  hundred  and 
eighty-seven,  have  also  great  interest  for  the  his- 
tory of  his  time.  Whether  the  Breve  chronicon 
de  rebus  Francorum'is.  by  him  is  uncertain;  but 
the  Historia  ecclesiastica  was  written  by  Hugo  of 
Fleury.  A  collected  edition  of  his  works  (except 
the  Pannormia),  Paris,  1647,  has  been  reprinted  by 
Migne,  Potr.  Latin.,  torn.  157,  161.  Biographies 
of  him  ^^-ere  written  by  I.  Fronteau  (Hamburg, 
1720),  Abry  (Strassburg,  1841),  and  Ritzke  (Bres-- 

lau,  1863).  WAGEN.\I.VNX. 


JABBOK. 


1134 


JACOB. 


J. 


JAB'BOK,  the  present  Zurka,  a  stream  which 

rises  in  the  plateau  east  of  Gilead,  cuts  through 
Giiead  in  a  narrow  defile,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Jordan,  about  midway  between  the  Sea  of 
Galilee  and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  formed  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Ammon,  and  separated  the  king- 
doms of  Sihon  and  Og  (Num.  xxi.  24 ;  Dent. 
ii.  37,  iii.  16;  Josh.  sii.  2;  Judg.  xi.  13,  22).  On 
the  south  bank  of  tlie  Jabbok  the  interview  took 
place  between  Jacob  and  Esau  (Geu.  xxxii.  22). 

JABLONSKI,  Daniel  Ernst,  b.  at  Nassenhuben, 
near  Danzig,  Xov.  20,  IGHO;  d.  in  Berlin,  May 
25,  1741  ;  studied  theology  and  Oriental  lan- 
guages at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder  and  Oxford,  and 
was  appointed  pastor  of  the  Reformed  congrega- 
tion in  JIagdeburg  in  1683,  pastor  of  the  Polish 
congregation  in  Lissa  in  1686,  court-preacher  at 
Konigsberg  in  1671,  and  court-preacher  at  Ber- 
lin in  1697.  He  sprung  originally  from  the  Bohe- 
mian diaspora,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  in 
1699.  In  1737  he  consecrated  Count  Zinzendorf 
bishop,  and  thus  he  formed  the  transition  from 
the  old  stock  of  the  Moravian  Brethren  to  the 
younger  branch  of  the  Ilerrnhuters.  In  the 
chm'ch-history  of  Prussia  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  his  exertions  to  bring  about  a  union  be- 
tween the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches.  But 
his  long  negotiations  with  Leibnitz,  who  repre- 
sented a  sinular  tendency  in  Hanover,  came  to  a 
sudden  end  in  1706,  chiefly  on  account  of  the 
indiscretion  of  superintendent  Winkler  of  iSIag- 
•deburg.  He  published  several  collections  of  ser- 
mons, and  an  annotated  text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
which  is  still  of  value.  See  Kappe  :  Sammlung 
verlrauler  Brie/e  Leibnitzens  und  Jablonskis,  Leip- 
zig, 1747 ;  Sack  :  Relation  des  mc'sttres  .  .  .  pour 
introduire  la  li/urr/ie  (inijlicaine  dans  le  royamne  de 
Prusse,  Lond.,  1760;  Uhcrdie  VereinUjunij  der  Kir- 
cheiipnrleieii,  I'.erlin,  1812.  PAUL  ivLEINEIlT. 

JACKSON,  Arthur,  b.  at  Little  Waldinfield, 
Suffolk,  1.'j93:  d.  in  London  (?)  Aug.  5,  16G6. 
He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College  ;  became  lec- 
turer of  St.  Michael's,  U'ood  Street,  London; 
•afterwards  obtained  the  living  of  St.  Faith's, 
under  St.  Paul's,  but  was  ejected  in  1662.  He 
■was  no  friend  to  Cromwell,  and  was  imprisoned 
for  refusing  to  t<i.stLfy  in  the  trial  of  Love  (16;)1). 
He  wrote  A  Help  for  lite  Understanding  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (or  annotations  on  Genesis  to 
Canticles),  Cambridge,  1643-58,  3  vols.  ;  Annota- 
tions on  the  whole  Book  of  Isaiah,  u-ith  Memoir  of 
lite  Aiiiliiir.  published  by  his  son,  London,  1682. 

JACKSON,  John,  b,  at  Lensey,  Yorkshire,  A]>ril 
4,  1686  ;  educated  at  Cambridge,  apjiointed  mas- 
ter of  Wigston's  Hospital,  in  Leicester,  172(i,  where 
he  d.  May  12,  1763.  He  wa.s  an  Arian,  and  en- 
gaged in  many  a  theological  controversy  now  for- 
fotteti.  For  a  list  of  his  many  publications,  .see 
>arling's  C'i/ctopa;dia  IJiltliofi.,  1623-2.'3.  Dr.  Snl- 
toii  of  Leicest(;r  piiblislnMl  a  memoir  of  his  life 
anil  uritiiiys,  l^nncloji,  1761. 

JACKSON,  Thomas,  D.D.,  h.  at  Willowing, 
Durham,  1579;  d.  1640.  lie  was  educated  at 
Oxford  ;  was  made  president  of  Corpus   Christi 


College,  Oxford,  1630,  and  dean  of  Peterborough 
1638.  He  was  originally  a  Calvinist,  but  became 
an  Arminian.  His  valuable  works  were  published 
in  3  vols,  folio,  1673,  and  in  12  vols.  8vo,  Oxford, 
1844.  Each  of  these  editious  is  prefaced  by  his 
Life.  His  Commentaries  upon  the  Creed  have  been 
particularly  admired. 

JACKSON,  Thomas,  b.  at  Sancton,  Yorkshire, 
Dec.  12,  1783 ;  d.  at  Richmond,  March  11,  1873. 
He  became  an  itinerant  in  the  "Wesleyan  con- 
nection, 1804;  in  1824  was  chosen  by  the  British 
Conference  "  connectional  editor ;  "  in  1833  was 
appointed  tutor  in  the  Richmond  Theological 
Institution,  resigned  in  1861,  on  account  of  age. 
His  principal  publications  are  Centenary  of  Meth- 
odism (London,  1839),  Library  of  Christian  Biog- 
raphi/  (1837-70,  12  vols.),  Life  of  Charles  Wesley 
(1841,  2  vols.).  Journal  of  Charles  Wesley  (1849, 
2  vols.),  Lices  of  Early  Methodists  (1849,  3  vols.), 
Curiosities  of  Pulpit  Literature  (1868),  and  The 
Institutions  of  Christianity  (3  vols.). 

JA'COB  (heel-holder,  or  supplanter),  or  IS'RAEL 
(prince  of  God,  or  icarrior  of  God),  the  son  of 
Isaac  and  the  direct  ancestor  of  the  Israelites. 
His  life  is  plainly  divisible  into  three  parts, — 
(1)  his  birth,  youth,  and  early  manhood  (Gen.  xxv. 
22-xxviii.  22) ;  (2)  His  mature  years  (xxix.  1- 
XXXV.  29)  ;  (3)  His  old  age  (xxxvii.  1-xlix.  33). 
(1)  The  characteristic  feature  of  his  early  years 
was  his  desire  to  get  the  birthright  from  Esau. 
He  began  the  struggle  before  he  was  born  (xxv. 
22),  took  advantage  of  his  twin-brother's  momen- 
tary despair  to  buy  it  from  him  for  a  mess  of  pot- 
tage (xxv.  33),  and  finally  got  the  blessing  by 
fraud  (xxvii.).  For  this  act  of  perfidy  he  had  to 
flee,  and  went  to  Haran,  where  his  uncle  (Laban) 
lived.  On  his  way  thither  he  had  a  vision  at 
Luz,  in  conse(iuence  of  whicli  he  called  the  place 
Beth-el.  (2)  Kindly  received  by  his  uncle,  he  fell 
in  love  with  Rachel,  and  served  seven  years  for 
her,  only  to  be  cheated  by  the  substitution  of  the 
older  daughter,  Leah,  for  Rachel,  on  the  wedding- 
night,  —  a  proceeding  which  the  Eastern  mar- 
riage-customs render compaiat ively  easy.  He  had 
thei-efore  to  serve  another  seven  years  for  his 
chosen  wife.  Leah  bore  him  four  sons  succes- 
sively,—  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi, and  Judali;  while 
Rachel  remained  childless.  By  Rachel's  maid, 
Billiah,  Jacob  had  Dan  and  Xaphtaii;  by  Leah's 
maid,  Zilpah,  Gad  and  Asher;  by  Leah  herself, 
Isaachar,  Zebulun,  and  his  only  daughter  men- 
tioned,—  Dinah.  At  length  God  remembered  Ra 
chel,  and  she  bore  Josejih.  Not  only  in  children 
but  in  all  his  possessions,  nuuiifestly  favored,  it  is 
no  wonder  Laban  desire<l  him  to  stay;  but  Jacob 
had  l)Bcome  weary  of  the  long  subordination  and 
the  frequent  trickery  (xxxi.  7),  and,  knowing 
that  Lal)an  would  not  willingly  let  him  go,  he 
departed  secretly,  was  pursuetl,  overtaken,  came 
to  an  understanding  witli  ]>aban,  aiuj  so  in  peace 
started  once  more  for  Canaan.  The  news  of  tlie 
ai>proach  of  liis  brother  with  his  band  alarmed 
him.  But,  ere  he  met  his  brotlicr,  a  clumge  was 
wrought  in  liim.     He  wrestled  at  the  Jabbok  with 


JACOB'S  WELL. 


1135 


JACOB  OF  EDESSA. 


God  all  night,  until  the  breaking  of  the  day,  and, 
in  reward  of  his  persistency,  received  the  bless- 
ing he  so  earnestly  desired,  and  a  new  name,  — 
Israel.  But,  ere  granting  his  request,  tlie  "man" 
touclied  the  sinew  of  Jacob's  thigh,  and  it  shrank, 
uutting  his  thigh  out  of  joint.  To  his  surprise, 
Esau  was  very  friendly ;  and  the  brothers  sepa- 
rated peaceably,  to  meet  once  more  at  the  funeral 
of  their  father.  Jacob  settled  first  at  Shechein, 
but  was  compelled  to  leave  in  consequence  of 
Simeon's  and  Levi's  conduct,  and  went  to  Beth-el, 
and  thence  to  Hebron.  On  this  latter  journey, 
Rachel  died  at  Bethlehem,  .shortly  after  bearing 
Benoni,  or  Benjamin.  (3)  In  Hebron  the  patri- 
arch lived  quietly,  passed  through  heavy  sorrows 
in  the  supposed  death  of  Joseph,  the  pressure  of 
famine,  and  the  reluctant  separation  from  Benja- 
min. But  the  night  of  weeping  was  followed  by 
the  morning  of  joy.  He  left  Hebron  at  the  sum- 
mons of  Joseph,  was  personally  honored  by  the 
Pharaoh,  and  in  prosperity  and  tranquillity  passed 
his  last  days  in  the  land  of  Goshen.  When  he 
felt  the  hand  of  death  upon  him,  he  gathered  his 
sons  about  him,  prophesied  the  ft>rtunes  of  their 
respective  descendants,  and  died  at  the  age  of  a 
hundred  and  forty-seven  years.  His  funeral  was 
attended  with  royal  pomp. 

Tlie  character  of  this  remai-kable  man  is  best 
expressed  by  his  double  name.  Jacob  was  he  ;  for 
he  was  naturally  adroit  and  sly,  and  thus  got  the 
better  of  the  physically  stronger,  more  warlike 
Esau,  and  the  egoistical,  calculating  Laban.  Yet 
he  was  not  sordid  in  his  aims.  He  sought  some- 
thing higher  than  mere  earthly  possessions,  and 
so  he  was  Israel :  for  he  wrestled  for  the  divine 
blessing  as  the  most  valuable  thing  one  could 
have ;  to  win  it,  he  sunnnoned  all  his  energy,  and 
underwent  every  deprivation.  It  was  the  ambi- 
tion of  his  life.  He  began  the  struggle  in  his 
mother's  womb,  and  kept  this  end  steadily  in 
view,  until,  in  the  maturity  of  his  powers,  he  re- 
ceived it.  It  is  true  he  was  far  from  being  per- 
fect. In  him  the  lower  nature  was  in  conflict 
with  the  higher,  and  often  victorious ;  but,  in  the 
course  of  a  life  much  more  troubled  than  that  of 
his  father's,  he  was  purified.  He  was  punished 
by  a  personal  experience  of  the  treatment  he  had 
given  others.  The  deceiver  of  his  father  was 
deceived  by  Laban  and  by  his  own  sons.  The 
loving  God  of  Jacob  was  by  no  means  blind  to 
the  faults  of  his  favorite,  but  approved  liis  hum- 
ble, hearty,  undaunted  desire  after  salvation. 

Lit.  —  See  the  appropriate  sections  in  Josephus, 
the  Commentaries,  Bible  Dictionaries,  in  Kurtz  : 
Hiatory  of  the  Old  Covenant;  EwALD:  History  of 
Israel;  Hengstenberg  :  Kingdom  of  God  under 
the  Old  Testament ;  Bernstein  :  Ursprung  d.  Sagen 
von  Abraham,  Isiiak,  raid  Jacob,  Berlin,  1871  ; 
A.  Kohler  :  Biblische  Geschichte  A.  T.,  Erlangen, 
1875;  L.  Seinecke  :  Geschichte  d.  Volkes  Israel, 
Gcittingen,  1876.  See  also  the  art.  in  Hambur- 
ger :  Real-Encijklopndie  des  Judenthums  for  the 
Tahnudic  fancies  respecting  Jacob,     v.  ORELLI. 

JA'COB'S  WELL  is  mentioned  in  John  iv.  5 
as  a  well  near  the  city  of  Sychar,  in  Samaria,  on 
the  parcel  of  ground  which  the  patriarch  Jacob 
gave  to  his  son  Joseph  (compare  Gen.  xxxiii.  1.9 ; 
Josh.  xxiv.  •'i2).  There  the  Lord  sat  down  once 
while  travelling  from  Judaea  to  Galilee,  wearied 
from  the  journey,  and  then  occurred  the  wonderful 

20  —  11 


conversation  related  in  John  iv.  7-28.  The  place 
can  still  be  identified  with  certainty,  as  situated 
one  mile  and  a  hall'  to  the  south-east  of  the  town 
of  Nal)lu.s,  the  ancient  Shechem,  close  by  the 
highway  from  Jerusalem  to  (ialilee,  at  the  eastern 
base  of  Mount  Gerizim.  The  well,  which  is  lined 
with  masonry,  is  now  only  seventy-five  feet  deep, 
and  mostly  dry,  it  having  been  filled  up  with 
debris  of  the  adjacent  ruined  buildings ;  but  in 
1838,  when  Robinson  visited  it,  it  was  a  hundred 
and  five  feet  deep.  Jerome,  in  his  Onomasticon, 
tells  us  that  at  his  time  a  church  built  over  the 
well  occupied  the  site.  That  church  was  de- 
stroyed during  the  crusades ;  but  in  tlie  twelfth 
century  it  was  replaced  by  a  chapel,  which  now 
also  has  fallen  into  ruins.  See  Coxdeu  :  Si/char 
and  Si/chem,  in  Stalements,lS77,p.  li',1:  [Schaff: 
Throur/h  Bible  Lands,  1879,  p.  312.]      KUETSCHI. 

JACOB  BARAD/EUS,  b.  at  Telia;  was  edu- 
cated in  the  monastery  of  Phasilta,  near  Xisibis, 
and  lived  for  fifteen  years  in  Constantinople  as  a 
monk,  when,  in  the  year  543,  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  of  Nisibis  by  Theodosius,  the  Monophysite 
patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  was  held  a  jirisoner 
in  Constantinople.  In  this  position  he  labored 
with  great  energy  and  success  for  the  reorganiza- 
tion and  consolidation  of  the  scattered  Monophy- 
site  party  in  the  East.  "  Light-footed  as  Asa^ 
hel "  (2  Sam.  ii.  18),  and.  clad  in  rags  (whence 
Baradai,  "a  coarse  horse-blanket"),  he  wandered 
from  the  boundary  of  Egypt  to  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates,  preaching  during  the  day,  and  often 
walking  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  the  night,  thus 
escaping  his  persecutors.  He  consecrated  two 
patriarchs,  twenty-seven  (according  to  another 
reading,  eighty-seven)  bishops,  and  a  hundred 
thousand  priests  and  deacons.  Ko  wonder,  there- 
fore, that  the  whole  party  w-as  called,  after  him, 
the  Jacobites.  Of  written  monuments  he  left  very 
little.  An  anaphora,  translated  into  Latin  by 
Renaudot  (Lit.  Or.  Coll.,  ii.  333),  is  ascribed  to 
him ;  also  a  Confession,  of  which  an  Ethiopian 
version  is  extant  in  several  manuscripts,  edited 
and  translated  by  Cornill,  in  Zeilsrhrift  d.  Deul. 
Morgcid.  Gesellsctiiift,  1876.  A  number  of  his  ency- 
clical letters  are  in  a  Svrian  manuscript  in  the 
British  Museum.    1).  Jul v  30,  578.      E.  NESTLE. 

JACOB  OF  EDESSA  (Syriac,  Orrhoenus),  b. 
in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  at  'Indaba, 
near  Antioch  ;  studied  in  Alexandria,  and  was  m 
687  appointed  bishop  of  Edessa,  but  resigned  in 
688,  on  account  of  disputes  with  his  clergy,  and 
lived  eleven  years  in  the  monastery  of  Eusebona, 
then  nine  years  in  the  great  monastery  of  Tell  'eda. 
When  his  successor  in  the  see  of  Edessa,  Habib, 
died,  in  708,  he  was  invited  to  resume  office.  He 
consented,  but  died  while  on  the  journey  to 
Edessa,  June  5.  He  wrote  on  theology,  history, 
philosophy,  and  grammar.  He  was  master  of 
three  languages,  —  Syriac,  Greek,  and  Hebrew. 
He  corrected  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  translated  books  of  Aristotle,  Por- 
phyry, the  two  Gregories,  and  others,  into  Syriac : 
his  literary  accomplishments  were,  indeed,  of  the 
very  highest  order.  Of  his  works  much  has  come 
down  to  us,  and  is  found  in  the  libraries  of  Lon- 
don, Paris,  Florence,  and  Rome.  See  the  respec- 
tive catalogues  of  Swiac  manuscripts.  Something 
has  also  been  published :  his  Syriac  grammar, 
edited  by  Wright,  London,  1871 ;  several  of  bi5 


JACOB  OF  JUTBRBOGK. 


1136 


JACOBI. 


letters  in  Assemani  :  BihUotheca  Orientalis,  i.  468- 
494  ;  and  by  Wright  :  Journal  of  Sacred  Litera- 
ture, 1867.  See  also  Barhebr^eus  :  Chronicon 
Ecclesidft.  (1872.  i.  289).  E.  NESTLE. 

JACOB  OF  JUTERBOGK,  b.  at  Juteibogk, 
ill  the  Prussian  pro\"iiice  of  Brandenburg,  1381  ; 
d.  at  Erfurt,  1405  or  1466 ;  entered  the  Polish 
monastery,  the  Paradise,  and  was  by  its  abbot 
sent  to  Cracow  to  study ;  found  the  rules  of  the 
Cistercian  order  too  lax,  and  adopted  those  of 
the  Carthusian  order,  1441 ;  removed  to  the  mon- 
astery, ad  monlein  St.  Salvaloris,  in  Erfurt,  and 
labored  in  the  university  there  as  professor  of 
canon  law.  lie  has  a  special  interest  on  account 
of  his  reformatory  zeal.  Not  that  he  in  any  way 
felt  himself  at  variance  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
Church  ;  but  he  fully  realized  the  corruption  of 
her  morals,  and  spoke  with  great  frankness  of  the 
necessary  reforms  in  Peliliones  relirjiosorum  pro 
reformalione  sui  status;  De  neglir/entia  jtrcelatorum  ; 
Avisamentum  ad  papain,  addressed  to  Nicholas 
v.;  and  De  seplem  stalibus  ecctesice.  In  his  works 
he  calls  himself  variously  Jacobus  de  Jutirbock,  de 
Paradiso,  de  Polonia,  Cisterciensis,  Carthuslensis, 
de  Erfordia,  etc.  See  Uli,ji.\nn  :  Reformaloren 
vord.'Rcf.,  1866,  vol.  i.        P.\lL  TSCHACKERT. 

JACOB  (Aphraates)  OF  MAR  MATTAI,  See 
Ai'hi{aatp:s. 

JACOB  OF  MISA,  also  called  Jacobellus,  from 
his  small  stature ;  b.  at  !Misa,  in  Bohemia,  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  fourteenth  century ;  studied 
theology  at  Prague,  and  was  appointed  pastor, 
first  at  Tina,  afterwards  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Michael  in  Prague,  where  he  d.  Aug.  9,  1429. 
His  study  of  Scripture  and  the  Fathers  showed 
him  that  the  withholding  of  the  cup  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  Lord's  Supper  to  the  laity 
was  an  arbitrary'  and  completely  unwarranted 
mea.sure  of  the  Roman  Cliurcli.  He  iir.st  pro- 
poiuided  and  defended  his  views  in  a  public 
di.sputation  (1414) ;  and  when  Hus,  at  that  time 
in  jail  in  Con.stance,  accepted  them,  he  published 
his  Demonstralio,  and  began  to  administer  the 
cup  to  his  parishioners,  in  spite  of  the  remon- 
strances of  the  bishop  and  the  university.  The 
fathers  of  the  council  were  much  alarmed;  and 
in  the  thirteenth  session  (June  1.5,  1415),  thoy 
issued  a  curious  decree,  admitting  in  theory  as 
truth  what  in  practice  they  condemned  as  heresy. 
Jacob  answered  in  \iK  A],oU>(iia :  ami,  though  he 
would  by  no  means  submit,  lie  was  not  removed 
from  his  office,  perhaps  becau.se  in  other  points, 
as,  for  instance,  in  thi'  doctrine  of  purgatoiy,  he 
agreed  with  (lir  Koiiian  Church. 

JACOB  OF  NISIBIS,  also  called  Jacob  the 
Great,  lived  for  some  time,  together  with  Eugeni- 
us,  the  founder  of  Persian  monachism,  as  a  hermit 
in  the  Kurdian  Mountains,  but  was  in  309  chosen 
bisliop  of  N'isibis  (Zoba);  built  the  famous  clnn'ch 
there  (31.3-320),  of  which  ruins  are  still  extant; 
was  present,  togethei-  with  his  discij>le,  Ephraem 
Syrus,  at  the  Council  of  Nicroa,  325;  and  d.  338. 
None  of  his  writings  have  come  down  to  us.  See 
art.  .\iMiiiAAi  i:s,  and  EriiUAEM  :  Cannimi  Nisi- 
hi'.nn,  cd.  Bickell,  1«66.  K.  NESTLE. 

JACOB  OF  SAROg,  b.  at  Curtannim,  on  the 
Kuplirates,  towards  tin:  close  of  the  year  451  ;  d. 
at  Sariig,  Nov.  29,  521,  where  he  had  been  clio.sen 
bi.shop  in  519.  He  was  a  very  prolific  writer, 
keeping   no  less  tlian  soventy  scrilies  busy  witli 


copying  his  works.  Besides  other  works,  sevea 
hundred  and  sixty-three  homilies  or  orations,  in 
tlie  common  Syriac  metre,  are  ascribed  to  him. 
Barhebrpeus  knew  a  hundred  and  eighty-two ;  the 
Library  of  the  A'atican  contains  two  hundred 
and  thirty-three ;  that  of  London,  a  liundred  and 
forty ;  that  of  Paris,  one  hundred.  Most  of  his 
works  still  remain  in  manuscript.  Some  have 
been  printed  in  Breviariuni  feriale  %r.,and  Offici- 
um  Dominicalc;  Assemani:  Act.  Sanct.  Mart.,  ii.; 
Cureton:  Ancient  Syriac  Documents,  1864;  Monu- 
menta  Si/rica,  i. ;  Abbeloos  :  J.  B.  de  vita  et  scrijitis 
S.  J.  But.  Sar.,  Louvain,  1867.  His  memory  is 
greatly  revered  by  the  Jacobites  and  JNIaronites, 
and  even  by  the  later  Nestorians ;  though,  accord- 
ing to  documents  published  by  Abbe  ^lartin,  in 
Zcitsclirift  d.  Deutsch.  Morgenland.  Gesellscliaft, 
1876,  he  remained  a  Monophysite  to  his  death. 
A  Life  of  him  was  written  113'  Jacob  of  Edessa, 
Bibl.  Orient.,  i. :  another  (anonymous)  is  found  in 
Act.  Sanct.  Oct.  12,  929,  andin  Abbeloos,  I.e. 
See  Abbe  Martin  :  Un  Eveque-Poete,  in  Revue 
des  Sciences  Ecclesiastiqves,  4  ser.  t.  iii.,  October, 
November,  1876.  E.  NESTLE. 

JACOB  OF  VITRY  (Jacobus  Vitriacus,  or  de 
Vitrlaco),  b.  at  Vitry-sur-Seine,  1170;  d.  in 
Home,  April  30,  1240;  was  appointed  presbyter 
parocJiialis,  at  Argenteuil,  near  Paris,  1200,  but 
gave  up  this  position  in  1210,  and  removed  to  the 
monastery  of  Oignies,  in  the  diocese  of  Liege, 
attracted  by  the  sanctity  of  the  Belgian  nun 
!Mary,  whose  life  he  wrote  (ed.  by  Fr.  Jloschus, 
Arras,  1660,  and  in  Act.  Sanct.,  June  23).  At 
the  instance  of  the  Pope  lie  began  in  121-3 
preaching  a  crusade  against  the  Albigen.ses ;  and 
so  great  was  the  impression  liis  eloquence  pro- 
duced (^Sermnnes,  Antwerp,  1575;  compare  Le  t  OY 
DE  la  Marciik  :  La  Chaire  franfoise  au  moyen 
({(je.  1868),  that  in  1217  he  was  elected  bishop  of 
Ptolemais.  In  Palestine,  where  he  remained  for 
ten  years,  he  made  himself  well  approved,  espe- 
cially by  the  care  he  bestowed  upon  the  children 
of  the  Saracen  captives.  But,  shortly  before  the 
death  of  Honorius  III.,  he  .seems  to  have  returned 
to  Oignies.  Gregory  IX.,  however,  used  him  in 
many  important  diplomatical  missions,  and  made 
him  bishop  of  Frascati,  and  a  cardinal.  His 
jirincipal  w'ork,  Historia  orientalis  et  occidenlalls, 
was  first  edited  by  Fr.  Jloschus,  Douay,  1.597; 
then  by  Martfcne  and  Durand,  in  T/ies.  A'or. 
Anccd.,  iii.,  Paris,  1717.  His  letters  have  also 
great  interest;  Martene,  I.e.,  and  BoNfiAusu's: 
Gesta  Dei  per  Francos,  i.  See  Matz.ner  :  De  J. 
Vitr.,  Miinslcr,  1^64.  WAOKNMA.N'N. 

JACOBI,  Friedi-ich  Helnrich,  b.  at  Uiisseldorf, 
Jan.  2.5,  1743;  d.  at  Penipelfort,  an  estat(!  he 
possessed  near  his  native  city,  Marcli  10,  1819; 
was  educated,  at  Francfort  and  Geneva,  I'or  a 
commercial  career,  but  sliowed  fiom  early  youth 
great  inclination  towards  literature  and  ]iliiloso- 
phy.  In  1763  he  took  the  lead  of  the  mercantile 
concern  his  father  had  established  at  Diisseldorf ; 
and  in  1770  he  was  made  a  niemlier  of  the  coun- 
cil for  the  duchies  of  Jaliers  and  Berg.  In  1779 
he  was  invited  to  Munich  to  take  a  similar  posi- 
tion ;  but,  not  finding  circumstances  there  after 
his  t.aste,  he  retired  to  Pinipelfort,  where  he 
remained  until  the  war  drove  him  away,  1793. 
He  went  to  Holstein,  and  staid  there  lor  ten  year.s. 
in  1804  he  was  again  invited  to  Muuicli,  as  presi- 


JACOBITES. 


1137 


JACOBUS  DB  VORAGINE. 


dent  of  the  academy ;  and  he  remained  there 
till  1812.  His  first  literary  productions  were 
AllwilVs  Brief- Sammluiicj  (1771)  and  Woldemar 
(1779),  two  philosophical  novels,  of  which  espe- 
cially the  latter  gives  an  easy  outline  of  his 
philosophical  speculations.  In  1785  his  Briefe 
iiher  die  Lehre  Spinuzas  implicated  him  in  a  con- 
troversy with  Moses  Mendelssohn  and  the  Berlin 
philosophers;  and  in  1787  a  similar  conflict  with 
Kant  and  the  critical  school  ensued  from  his  David 
Hume  iiher  den  Glauben.  In  1801  he  published 
one  of  his  most  important  works,  Ueber  das  Unler- 
nehmen  des  Krilicismus  die  Vernunjl  zu  Verstande 
zu  bringen,  and  in  1811  his  last  great  book,  Von 
den  gollUchen  Dingen,  which  called  forth  a  very 
bitter  rejoinder  from  Schelling.  Jaoobi's  philoso- 
phy is  not  a  system  :  on  the  contrary,  his  fun- 
damental principle  —  the  limitation  of  thought, 
its  incapability  to  explain  the  existence  of  facts, 
to  do  any  thing  more  than  connect  them  with 
each  other  —  places  him  in  direct  opposition  to 
any  purely  demonstrative  system.  All  thought, 
when  applied  alone,  and  carried  resolutely  to  its 
last  consequences,  ends  in  atheism  and  fatalism. 
It  needs  to  be  supplemented  with  faith,  which  is 
the  only  organ  of  objective  truth.  Nevertheless, 
though  Jacobi,  as  the  "philosopher  of  faith,"  rests 
his  speculations  on  intuition  as  their  proper  foun- 
dation, he  is  very  far  from  the  romantic  fanciful- 
uess  of  Schelling.  He  was  a  sharp  critic ;  and 
Schelling,  as  well  as  Kant,  felt  the  penetrating 
power  of  his  searching  eye.  In  this  point,  as  in 
many  others,  he  resembles  Sir  William  Hamilton, 
who,  indeed,  owed  not  a  little  to  him.  His  works 
were  collected  by  himself,  and  provided  with  very 
instructive  prefaces  and  appendixes.  His  letters 
were  edited  by  Roth,  1825-27,  2  vols.  His  life 
was  written  by  Kuhs  :  Jacobi  und  die  Philosophie 
seiner  Zeit,  1834,  and  Zierngiebl  :  Jacobis  Leben, 
Dichten,  und  Denlcen,  1867. 

JACOBITES  was,  from  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  the  name  of  the  Syrian,  and  some- 
times also  that  of  the  Egyptian  Monophysites. 
Originating  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century, 
Monophysitism  spread  among  the  Syrians,  Copts, 
Abyssinians,  and  Armenians  ;  and  indeed,  with 
the  exception  of  some  minor  modifications,  these 
four  churches  agree  in  all  fundamental  doctrines. 
The  name,  however,  derived  from  Jacob  Bara- 
dseus,  and  not  from  the  apostle  or  the  patriarch, 
is  generally  confined  to  the  Syrian  Monophysites. 
The  Egyptian  Monophysites  called  themselves, 
in  olden  times,  Theodosians,  or  Severians,  or 
Dioscorians. 

Most  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  were  hostile 
to  the  Monophysites.  Only  Zeno  and  Anastar 
sius  favored  them.  Justinian's  attempt  at  recon- 
ciling them  with  the  Catholic  Church  failed. 
From  the  later  emperors  the  Syrian  Jacobites 
suffered  very  much,  while  their  Egyptian  breth- 
ren seemed  to  get  along  tolerably  well  with  the 
Mohammedans.  In  the  time  of  Gregory  XIII. 
(1572-85)  the  number  of  Jacobites  in  Syria  ap- 
pears to  have  decreased.  It  was  estimated,  that 
in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Babylonia,  there  lived 
only  about  fifty  thousand  families  scattered  about, 
mostly  in  the  villages  and  small  towns.  Tlieir 
patriarch  resided  at  Caramit :  under  him  ranged 
five  metropolitans,  —  at  Amid,  Mosul,  Maadau, 
Halebi  and  Jerusalem,  —  and  six  bishops,  at  Mar- 


din,  Edessa,  Gezira,  Gargara,  Tagrit,  and  Damas- 
cus. The  Dutchman,  Kootwyk  (Itiner.  Hierosol. 
el  Syriamen,  Antwerp,  1019),  describes  them  as 
very  poor.  Richard  Pococke  (Descriptions  of  the 
East,  London,  174.3-45)  estimated,  that,  out  of 
twenty  thousand  Christians  in  Damascus,  there 
were  only  two  hundred  Jacobites.  Niebuhr 
(Reisebeschreibung,  Copenhagen,  1770)  found  a 
small  congregation  at  Nisibis,  and  tells  us  that 
at  Mardin  they  had  three  churches;  at  Orfa,  a 
hundred  and  fifty  houses ;  in  Jerusalem,  a  small 
monastery,  etc. ;  while  they  occupied  the  whole 
district  of  Tor,  where  they  also  had  an  independ- 
ent patriarch  besides  the  one  residing  at  Caramit. 
Buckiiigliam,  who  travelled  in  Mesopotamia  in 
1816,  estimated  the  number  of  Jacobites  in  Mar- 
din  at  two  thousand  out  of  a  population  of  twenty 
thousand ;  and  in  the  neigliborhood  of  the  city 
he  found  two  Jacobite  monasteries.  In  Diabekr 
he  counted  four  hundred,  and  in  Mosul  three 
hundred  families.  In  these  figures  no  considera- 
ble change  seems  to  have  taken  place  later  on. 
See  E.  Robinson:  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine, 
Boston,  1841 ;  J.  L.  Porter  :  Five  Years  in  Da- 
mascus, London,  1855.  Sadad,  where  they  num- 
ber about  six  thousand  souls,  is  now  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Jacobites  in  Syria. 

The  jjeculiar  doctrines  and  institutions  which 
distinguish  the  Jacobites  are,  the  conception  of 
one  nature  in  Christ,  resulting  from  a  perfect 
blending  of  the  divine  and  human  in  him,  ac- 
cording to  the  formula,  ex  duabus  naluris,  non  in 
duabus ;  the  rejection  of  the  canons  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  while  those  of  the  second 
council  of  Ephesus,  the  so-called  "  Robber  Syn- 
od," are  accepted;  the  veneration  of  Jacob  of 
Sarug,  Jacob  of  Edessa,  Dioscorus,  Severus,  Pe- 
trus  Fullo,  and  Jacob  Baradieus  as  teachers  and 
saints,  while  Eutyches  is  condemned ;  the  use  of 
leavened  bread  in  the  Lord's  Supper ;  the  mak- 
ing of  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  one  finger ;  the 
frequent  application  of  the  lot  at  elections  of 
bisiiops  and  patriarchs.  Tlie  Jacobite  patriarch 
is  styled  "Patriarch  of  Antioch;"  but  the 
Greeks,  who  consider  the  Jacobites  as  heretics, 
have  never  allowed  him  to  reside  there.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  ninth  century  it  became  custom- 
ary for  the  patriarch  to  change  his  name  on  his 
election  ;  and  in  the  fourteenth  Ignatius  became 
the  fixed  name  of  the  Jacobite  patriarch,  as 
Peter  is  that  of  the  Maronite,  Joseph  that  of  the 
Chaldean,  and  Simon  or  Elijah,  that  of  the  Nes- 
torian  patriarclis.  The  Jacobite  Church  has 
produced  quite  a  number  of  distinguished  men, 
scholars,  autliors,  etc.  See  Assemani :  Bibl.  Ori- 
ent., ii.  The  various  attempts  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church  to  bring  about  a  reconciliation 
with  the  Jacobites  have  not  led  to  any  remarka- 
ble results. 

Lit.  —  D'AvRiL  :  Etude  sur  la  Chalde'e  chre'ti- 
enne,  Paris,  1864 ;  Martin  :  La  Chalde'e,  Rome, 
1867 ;  Kh.wyath  :  Syri  orientates,  etc,  Rome, 
1870.  E.  RODIGER.      E.  NESTLE. 

JACOBUS  DE  VORAGINE,  b.  at  Viraggio, 
1230 ;  d.  in  Genoa,  1298 ;  entered  the  order  of  the 
Preaching  Friars  in  1244,  and  was  made  arch- 
bishop of  Genoa  in  1292.  His  great  fame  he  owes 
to  his  coUection  of  legends,  —  Legenda  Sancto- 
rum, Legenda  Aurea,  also  called  Historia  Longobar- 
dica,  from  the  short  Lombard  chronicle  attached 


JACOBUS. 


1138 


JAEL. 


to  the  life  of  Pope  Pelagius.  The  materials  of 
which  the  hook  is  composed  were  derived  partly 
from  apocryphal  gospels,  acts  of  apostles,  acts  of 
martyrs,  and  partly  from  media-val  traditions  of 
the  wildest  description;  but  just  this  made  it  ac- 
ceptable to  the  time.  It  was  translated  into  all 
European  languages  [into  English  by  William 
Caxton,  in  the  fifteenth  century],  and  reprinted 
over  and  over  again.  He  also  wrote  a  number 
of  sermons  (Sennones  de  Sanctis,  Lyons,  149i; 
Muriale,  Venice,  1497,  etc.)  and  a  book  in  de- 
fence of  the  Dominican  order.  His  chronicle  of 
Genoa  is  found  in  Mur.^tori  :  Scriptures  Rerum 
Italicarum.  ix.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

JACOBUS,  Melancthon  Williams,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
b.  at  Newark,  X.J.,  Sept.  19,  1815;  d.  at  Alle- 
gheny, Penn.,  Oct.  28.  187tJ.  He  was  gi-aduated 
at  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  1834,  and  at  Prince- 
ton Theological  Seminary,  1838;  taught  in  the 
Hebrew  department  for  a  year;  was  pastor  of 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church  of  Brooklyn,  1839- 
50 ;  and  from  1851  till  his  death  was  professor  of 
Oriental  and  biblical  literature  in  the  theological 
seminary  at  vVllegheny,  Penn.  In  1869  he  was 
moderator  of  the  General  Assembly  (Old  School), 
the  last  assembly  before  the  re-union.  He  was 
the  author  of  a  popular  series  of  Notes  on  the 
New  Testament,  of  which  there  appeared  Matthew, 
with  Harmnny  (New  York,  1848),  Mark  and  Luke 
(1853),  John  (1856),  Acts  (1859),  and  in  1864-65 
Notes  on  the  Bonk  of  Genesis,  2  vols.  His  Notes 
on  the  New  Testament  were  republi-slied  in  Edin- 
burgh, 1862.  See  sketch  of  his  life  in  Presbyte- 
rian Ri-uiiion  Memorial  Volume,  pp.  530-532. 

JACOMB,  Thomas,  b.  at  Burton  Lazars,  Leice-s- 
tershirr,  liiL'J;  educated  at  Cambridge;  pastor  in 
London  ;  ejected  in  1662  for  nonconformity ;  d. 
at  Exeter,  March  27,  1687.  He  was  one  of  the 
continuators  of  Poole's  .<4?ino/«/(OH.s-;  but  his  fame 
rests  upon  his  Several  Sermons  preached  on  the 
whole  Eighth  Chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans : 
Eighteen  of  which,  on  the  1st,  2(1,  Sd,  and  ^fh  verses, 
are  here  putilisheil  [all  pnlilished],  London,  1672, 
republished,  Edinburgh,  18(iS. 

JACOPONE  DA  TODI,  the  author  of  the  Stahat 
mater,  b,  at  'i'odi,  Italy,  about  1210;  d.  Dec.  24, 
1306,  in  the  (-ouventof  Colla/oiu-.  His  real  name 
was  Jacopo  de  Benedetti,  or  Jacobus  de  Benedic- 
tis  (the  Latin  form),  Benedetti  being  the  family 
name.  He  spent  the  j-ears  of  early  manhood  in 
revelry  and  carousing.  His  talents,  however,  won 
him  both  degrees  of  the  law  at  Bologna.  He 
gave  himself  up  with  enthusiasm  to  the  practice 
of  law,  when  the  whole  tenor  of  his  life  was  sud- 
denlj'  changed  by  the  violent  death  of  his  wife, 
from  the  falling  of  a  gallery  in  a  theatre.  He 
decided  to  become  a  monk,  and  one  morning  ap- 
peared in  tlie  market-place,  on  his  hands  and 
knees,  harnessed  like  a  beast  of  burden.  He  sub- 
mitted to  painful  asceticism  for  ten  j'ears,  wh(Mi 
he  was  admitted,  in  1278,  to  the  Franciscan  order 
of  Minorites.  He  was  led  by  the  corruption  of 
the  Church  to  compose  poems  arraigning  I'ope 
Bonifa<.'e  VHL  (1294-1303),  and  in  1297  entered 
into  a  confederacy  of  Roman  nobles  to  compass 
liis  deposition.  For  this  he  was  placed  in  clos(^ 
confinement,  aiul  limited  to  bri'ad  and  water,  until 
the  death  of  Boniface,  in  1303.  He  .sjient  his  last 
days  at  Collazone,  and  lies  buried  at  Todi,  where 
the  following  inscription  was  placed  over  his  re- 


mains in  1569 :  Ossn  Bead  Jacoponi  de  Benediclis 
Tudertini  Fratris  ordinis  Minorum,  qui  stultus  prop- 
ter Chrisltim  nova  mundum  arte  delusit  et  caelum 
rapuit  ("  The  remains  of  the  ble.ssed  J.  d.  B.  T.,  a 
brother  of  the  order  of  Jlinorites,  who,  becoming 
a  fool  for  Christ's  sake,  deluded  the  world  by  a 
new  art,  and  carried  off  heaven").  The  expres- 
sion "  fool "  refers  to  the  tradition  that  he  was 
partially  insane.  His  last  hours  were  consoled 
by  his  own  hymn,  Giesu  nostra  Jidanza  (-'Jesus 
our  confidence  ")  ;  and  his  last  words  are  reported 
to  have  been,  "  Into  thy  hands  I  commit  my 
spirit." 

Jacopone  wrote  poems  in  Latin  and  Italian. 
The  Florentine  edition  of  1490  contains  a  hun- 
dred Italian  pieces;  and  the  Venetian  of  1614, 
two  hundred  and  eleven.  These  poems  consist 
of  odes,  satires,  penitential  psalms,  etc.  He  wrote 
for  the  people,  and  reached  the  heart  of  his 
nation.  His  two  most  important  Latin  hymns 
(if  the  second  be  his)  are  the  Stabat  mater  dolorosa 
("  At  the  cross  lier  station  keeping  "),  and  its  com- 
panion-piece, recently  discovered,  Stabat  mater  ape- 
ciosa  ("  Stood  the  glad  aiid  beauteous  mother  "). 
The  former  hyum  depicts  the  sorrows  of  the 
mother  of  Jesus  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  (John 
xix.  25) ;  the  latter,  lier  joys  at  the  manger.  The 
Stabat  mater  has  been  attributed  to  Gregory  the 
Great  (d.  606),  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  (d.  l"i53), 
and  Innocent  HI.  It  is  anonymous  in  the  copies 
of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries;  but  the 
uniform  tradition  attrilnites  it  to  Jacopone,  and 
there  is  no  sufficient  reason  why  we  should  not 
hold  to  it.  The  Flagellants,  who  marched  through 
Italy  in  1398,  sang  it  l_Summa  historalis,  by  Anto- 
ninus Florentinus  (d.  1450)  ;  Annals  of  Detmar 
of  Lubeck  and  Georg  Stella  (d.  1420)]. 

The  Stabat  mater  is  the  most  pathetic  hymn  of 
the  middle  ages  or  any  other  age.  It  is  defaced 
by  Mariolatry,  but  its  soft  melody  and  tender 
pathos  will  always  delight  and  soothe  the  ear. 
It  has  frequently  been  set  to  nmsic ;  first  by 
Naniui  (about  1620),  and  since  by  Astorga  (about 
1700),  Palestrina.  Pergolese  (about  1736),  Haydn, 
Rossini,  and  others.  It  is  sung  to  Palcstrina's 
music  on  Palm  Sunday,  at  Rome.  [Lisco  gives 
fifty-three  German  translations  of  the  Stahat  mater ; 
and  it  has  often  been  translated  into  Englisli  by- 
Lord  Lindsay,  Caswall,  Coles,  Benedict,  etc.  The 
Mater  spcciosa  has  been  translated  by  Dr.  Neale, 
Coles,  Benedict,  etc.] 

Lit.  —  Laude  di  Frate  Jac.  da  Toili,  Firenze, 
1490;  Wadding:  Annales  Minorum,  Rome,  1733 
(v.  407  s(iq. ;  vi.  77  sqq.)  ;  Lisco :  Stabat  mater, 
Berlin,  1843;  the  works  of  Daniel  and  AIonf.  ; 
OzANAM  :  Les  pokes  Franciscains  en  Italic  au 
treizihne  si'ecle,  Paris,  1852 ;  [Coi.ks  :  Latin  Hymns 
with  Orif/inal  Translations  and  Notes,  New  York, 
1868;  S'ciiaif:  Art.  in  Hours  at  Home,  for  1866, 
and  Christ  in  Sony,  New  York,  1869,  pp.  136- 
138].  I.AU.^IANN. 

JA'EL  (bj';,  "wild  goat"),  the  wife  of  Ileber, 
the  chief  of  a  nomadic  Arab  tribe,  was  a  lieroine 
whose  patriotic  deed  Deborah  magnified  in  her 
triumphant  song  of  victory  (.ludg.  v.  21-26). 
In  the  iirecipitate  flight  of  the  Canaanites,  after 
their  defeat  by  Bar.iU  an<l  Deborah,  Si.sei'a  was 
induced,  by  the  invitation  of  Jael,  to  .stop  in  al 
her  tent,  whose  seclusion  might  bo  exjiected  to 
effectually  conceal  him.    After  refreshing  himself 


JAFF^. 


1139 


JAMES. 


with  butteruiilk,  he  fell  asleep.  While  in  this  con- 
ilition,  Jael  took  a  teiit^pin,  and  drove  it  through 
his  temples.  The  impassioned  eulogy  of  Deborah 
expressed  the  gratitude  of  the  nation  for  its 
deliverance  from  its  enemy.  Jael's  deed  was 
prompted  by  patriotic  motives,  anil  was  a  bold 
act ;  but  the  deed  was  carried  out  by  a  resort  to 
treachery  and  a  disregard  of  the  laws  of  hospitality. 
The  best  treatment  of  the  general  subject  of  the 
justification  of  the  deed  will  be  found  in  Mozley's 
Ruliiii;  /ijiiis  ill  Enrlij  Ayes. 

JAFFE,  Philipp,  b.  at  Schwerzenz,  Posen,  Feb. 

17,  ISlU;  d.  in  Berlin.  April,  1870.  lie  studied 
first  medicine,  but  afterwards  devoted  himself  to 
literature  and  history;  was  the  collaborator  of 
Pertz  in  the  publication  of  the  J\Io»iiiiienlas  Ger- 
man'uc,  bS54-03,  and  was  in  1862  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  history  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 
His  principal  works  are,  Ilislori/  of  ilie  Einpire 
under  Lolhair  the  Saxon;  Histnrij  of  the  Einpire 
under  Conrad  III.  ,'  Reyesia  Pontijicum  Iloniiino- 
rum,  1851  ("Jded.,  1881  sq.);  and  BiUiotheca  Rerum 
Geniifiiioruin,  18G-1— 60. 

JAHN,  Johann,  b.  at  Tasswitz,  Moravia,  June 

18,  17.">i)  ;  d.  in  \'ienna,  Aug.  16,  1816;  entered 
the  Premonstiatensian  order  in  1774,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  Oriental  languages  and 
exegesis  at  the  gynn^asiunis  of  Olmutz  in  1784, 
and  in  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1789 ;  but,  as 
on  several  points  of  exegesis  his  views  deviated 
from  those  maintained  by  the  theologians  of  the 
curia,  he  was  removed  from  his  chair  in  1805, 
and  made  canon  of  St.  .Stephen.  His  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Old  Testament  and  Arch.  Bililica  were 
even  put  ou  the  Index.  His  granniiars  and  text- 
books were  much  used  by  students  of  the  Syriac, 
Arab,  and  Chaldee  languages.  In  English  ai-e 
his  Biblical  Archceoloijij,  Andover  (U.  .S.),  1823, 
5th  ed.,  N.  Y.,  1849 ;  and  his  Histori/  of  the  Hebrew 
Commonwealth,  Andover  (U.  S.),  1828,  2  vols.,  3d 
ed.  rev.,  Oxford,  1840. 

JAINS,  The  name  of  a  vei-y  numerous  and 
wealthy  sect  among  the  Hindus,  founded  in  the 
fifth  or  sixth  century  B.C.,  by  Vardhamana 
(commonly  called  Maha-vira),  a  contemporary  of 
Gautama,  the  Buddha.  Their  belief  resembles 
Buddhism  in  some  particulars,  as  in  their  rever- 
ence for  life  in  all  its  forms,  which  leads  them 
to  scrupulously  avoid  destroying  even  insects. 
They  are,  too,  accounted  heretics  by  the  orthodox 
Brahman.  But  in  most  respects  they  differ  from 
Buddhists;  as  («)  in  the  use  of  the  word  "nirvana," 
by  which  they  mean  immortality,  and  the  delivery 
of  the  soul  from  the  bondage  of  transmigration, 
in  consequence  of  "  the  practice  of  the  four  virtues, 
—  liberality,  gentleness,  piety,  and  remorse  for 
failings,  —  by  goodness  in  thought,  word,  and 
deed,  and  by  kindness  to  the  mute  creation,  and 
even  to  the  forms  of  vegetable  life ;  "  (b)  in  their 
theism,  indeed  almost  monotheism  ;  and  (c)  in 
their  customs.  They  reject  the  Vedas,  and  apjjeal 
to  their  own  sacred  books,  called  Agamas,  which 
are  now  written  in  Sanscrit,  though  formerly  in 
Prakrit.  They  worship  twenty-four  immortal 
saints,  and  deny  the  sacrednes  of  caste.  They 
are  divided  into  two  parties,  —  the  Dii/iiriibaran, 
the  "  sky-clad  "  (i.e.,  naked),  and  the  Swddiiibaras, 
the  "  white-robed."  Vardhamana  and  his  imme- 
diate followers  went  naked ;  but  the  custom  is 
now  abandoned,  although  the  idols  in   the  Jain 


temples  are  still  always  naked.  Their  priests  are 
celibates,  and  their  widows  are  not  allowed  to 
remarry.  The  .Iain  temples  and  caves  are  re- 
markable. The  series  of  temples  and  shi'ines  ou 
Mount  Abu  is  "one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  India," 
and  presents  most  striking  evidence  of  the  wealth 
and  importance  of  the  .sect.  Some  of  their  idols 
are  enormous  in  height. 

Lit.  — Wilson:  A  Sketch  of  the  Reliyious  Sects 
of  the  Hindus,  Calcutta,  1846;  Elliott:  On  the 
Chai-acteri.slic.':  of  the  Population  of  India,  London, 
1869  ;  M.  Williams  :  Hinduism,  London,  1878  ;  A. 
B.'iKTii:  The  Relic/ions  of  India,  London,  1881; 
FUROUSSON  and  Burgess  :  Cave  Temples  in  India, 
London,  1880. 

JAMES,  the  name  of  three  important  characters 
of  the  New  Testament. 

I.  James  the  Son  of  Zebedee.  —  His  mother, 
Salome,  was  a  follower  of  .Jesus  (JIatt.  xxvii.  56 ; 
Mark  xv.  41).  He  was  the  brother  of  John,  and 
older  than  he,  as  is  very  probable  from  the  fact 
that  his  name  is  almost  always  mentioned  before 
John's  (Matt.  x.  2;  Mark  "iii.  17,  etc.).  It  is 
likely,  though  not  certain,  that  he  became  a  fol- 
lower of  Christ  immediately  after  the  baptism  in 
the  Jordan  (John  i.  32  sqq.).  He  and  his  brother 
were  surnained  Boanerges,  i.e.,  "sons  of  thunder" 
by  Christ  (Mark  iii.  17).  The  reason  for  giving 
this  designation  is  not  recorded.  He  certainly 
did  not  intend  an  allusion  to  their  eloquence,  as 
the  fathers  supposed.  The  more  probable  view 
is,  that  the  surname  had  reference  to  their  pas- 
sionate and  vehement  nature,  both  in  thought 
and  emotion,  which  sometimes  showed  it.self  in 
ambitious  aspirations  (Mark  x.  35  sqq.)  for  a 
place  of  honor  in  the  I\Iessianic  kingdom,  but 
also  in  an  ardent  attachment  to  the  person  of 
Christ.  James  belonged,  with  John  and  Peter, 
to  the  naiTower  circle  of  Christ's  more  intimate 
disciples,  was  admitted  into  the  chamber  of 
Jairus'  daughter  (Mark  v.  37),  to  the  vision  of 
the  transfiguration  (Mark  ix.  2),  and  to  the 
scene  of  the  agony  in  Gethsemane  (Matt.  xxvi. 
37).  In  the  history  of  the  early  apostolic  church 
nothing  further  is  recorded  of  him  than  his  death 
by  the  sword,  under  Herod  Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xii. 
2).  He  was  the  first  of  the  apostles  to  suffer 
martyrdom ;  and  thus,  in  a  more  pronounced 
measure  than  in  the  case  of  John,  the  prediction 
of  Christ  was  fulfilled  in  his  experience,  that  the 
brothers  should  indeed  drink  of  his  cup,  and  be 
baptized  with  his  baptism  (Mark  x.  39);  and,  at 
least  in  point  of  time,  he  received  the  second 
place  of  honor  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  Eccle- 
siastical tradition  says  that  the  accuser  of  James 
confessed  Christ,  and,  after  receiving  the  apostle's 
pardon,  himself  suffered  martyrdom  (Clem.  Alex., 
in  Euseb.,  H.  E.,  ii.  9).  The  Chur.ch  of  Spain 
boasts  that  he  shared  in  its  foundation,  but  its 
fables  are  in  conflict  with  the  statements  of  the 
New  Testament. 

II.  James  the  Son  of  Alph^eus,  one  of  the 
twelve  disciples  of  Jesus.  He  is  .so  designated  in 
four  places,  —  Matt.  x.  3;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi. 
15;  Acts  i.  13.  No  other  passage  can  with  cer- 
tainty be  regarded  as  referring  to  him  or  his 
family,  and  nothing  further  is  known  definitely 
of  his  life.  The  alleged  blood  relationship  of  his 
family  with  the  hou.se  of  Jesus  lacks  all  evidence. 
This  liypothesis  identifies  his  father  Alphaius  witli 


JAMES. 


1140 


JAMES. 


Clopas,  and  makes  "  Mary  the  icife  of  Clopas " 
(■John  xix.  25)  a  sister  of  Mary  the  mother  of 
jesus,  or  Clopas  a  brotlier  of  Josejih  (Hegesippus). 
These  suggestions  are  pure  assumptions ;  for  it  is 
jiot  at  all  certain  that  Map<a  ^  tov  K/lun-a  means  the 
wife  of  Clopas.  It  may  mean  the  mother,  or  the 
daughter,  of  Clopas.  Nor  has  the  identification 
of  the  name  Alphreus  with  Clopas  any  thing  in 
its  favor.  A  further  objection  is,  that  sisters 
would  not  be  apt  to  have  the  same  name,  jNIary. 
It  is  possible  that  he  is  the  .James  whose  mother 
is  called  ilary  (Matt,  xsvii.  50;  Mark  xvi.  1), 
and  who  is  styled  "James  the  Le.ss,"  and  the 
brother  of  Joses  (Mark  xv.  40).  The  title  "the 
Less  "  contained  an  allusion  to  his  stature,  and 
was  not  given  to  distinguish  him  from  James  the 
son  of  Zebedee  (Meyer).  But  it  is  possible  that 
another  James  is  here  mentioned,  as  we  would 
rather  expect  the  expression,  "  .James  the  son  of 
Alphieus."  Of  his  further  experiences  we  know 
nothing,  except  that,  according  to  tradition,  he 
labored  in  Egypt,  where  he  suffered  martyrdom 
by  crucifixion,  in  the  city  of  Ostrakiue  (Xiceph., 
ii*.  40). 

III.  James  the  .Just,  the  Brother  or  the 
Lord,  the  head  of  the  Church  at  Jerusalem,  is 
distinguished  from  the  two  apostles  of  the  same 
name  in  Matt.  xiii.  55;  Mark  vi.  3;  Acts  xii.  17, 
XV.  13,  xxi.  18;  1  Cor.  xv.  7;  Gal.  i.  19,  ii.  9,  12; 
Jas.  i.  1:  Judfi  1  ;  and  is  mentioned  by  Josephus 
(^Ant.,  XX.  t),  1),  Hegesippus  (Eusebius  :  //.  E.,  ii. 
33),  and  the  Church  fathers.  In  the  early  Church 
the  existence  of  our  James  as  a  distinct  person 
was  denied  by  some ;  he  being  identified  with 
one  of  the  two  apostles  of  that  name,  and  more 
generally  with  James  the  son  of  Alphasus.  The 
fraternal  relation  reported  to  have  existed  between 
James  and  Jesus  was  explained  as  a  relation  be- 
tween cousins.  But  Tertullian  is  a  witness  to 
the  fact  that  the  distinction  between  James  and 
the  apostles  was  still  held  in  his  day.  lie  speaks 
of  the  consummation  of  Mary's  marriage  with 
Joseph  after  the  birth  of  Jesus,  and  of  the  broth- 
ers of  Jesus  {De  came  Cliriull  7,  <ulv.  Marc.  19),  to 
prove  the  reality  of  the  incarnation  over  against 
Gnostic  objections.  At  a  somewhat  later  date  the 
Apoatolic  Constitutions  (ii.  55,  vi.  12,  13)  declare  for 
the  same  view,  when  they  mention  as  the  repre- 
■sentatives  of  Catholic  doctrine  tlie  twelve  apostles, 
Paul,  and  .James  the  brother  of  the  J^ord,  who  is 
.also  placed  among  the  seventy  disciples.  That  a 
fraternal  relation  is  here  meant  is  vouched  for  by 
.another  passage  (vii.  40)  :  "  I  James,  a  brother  of 
the  Lord  according  to  the  flesh."  The  testimony 
■of  Eusebius  is  also  very  important.  He  clearly 
distinguishes  James,  the  brother  of  the  Lord, 
from  the  twelve  apostles,  places  him  among  the 
seventy  disciples,  and  counts  fourtciui  apostles  in 
all,  Paul  being  the  thirteenth,  and  James  the 
fourteenth  (Com.  Jes.  xvii.  5  ;  //.  E.,  i.  12,  ii.  1, 
vii.  19);  and  the  passage  {II.  E.,  ii.  1)  in  wliich 
he  speaks  of  him  as  the  "  so-called  "  brother  of 
the  Lord  does  not  refer  to  a  more  distant  relation- 
ship, for  he  iirepares  the  way  for  this  expression 
l>y  stating  that  .lesus  was  born  before  the  consum- 
mation of  the  nuirriage  between  Mary  and  .Joseph. 

Gradually  the  presumption  of  tlie  perpetual 
virginity  of  Mary  gained  currency,  and  the  fra- 
ternal relation  of  .James  was  resolved  into  th(' 
relation  of  a  step-brother.     It  is  a  matter  of 


doubt  whether  this  was  done  by  Hegesippus,  and 
in  the  pseudo-Clementine  writings;  but  it  is  cer- 
tain that  there  is  not  a  trace  in  either  of  an 
identification  of  the  brother  of  the  Lord  with  an 
apostle.  Hegesippus  clearly  makes  this  distinc- 
tion (Euseb.  :  H.  E.,  ii.  23).  In  the  Protecange- 
limu  Jacobi,  which  originated  in  Essenic  Christian 
circles,  Joseph  is  represented  as  having  been  an 
aged  man,  surrounded  W'ith  grown-up  sons,  before  . 
his  espousal  with  Mary.  It  was  only  with  hesi- 
tation that  some  learned  Fathers,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  growing  devotion  to  Mary,  adopted  this 
fable.  The  first  trace  of  it  occurs  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  —  whom  Origen  followed,  leaning 
upon  Josephus  and  some  others  (tlvcC),  —  Gregory 
of  Nyssa,  Cyril  of  Alexandria,  fficumenius,  Hilary, 
and  others. 

From  this  hypothesis,  which  was  entirely  want- 
ing in  historical  confirmation,  it  was  natural  to 
proceed  farther,  and  resolve  the  fraternal  relation 
into  that  of  cousin,  and  identify  the  so-called 
bi'others  of  our  Lord  with  the  apostles  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  quite  possible  that  Clement  of 
Alexandria  identifies  James  the  brother  of  the 
Lord  with  James  the  son  of  Alphfeus ;  for  he 
speaks  of  only  two  men  by  this  name,  —  the  one 
thrown  from  a  tower,  the  other  executed  with  the 
sword  (Euseb. :  H.E.,  ii.  1).  But  the  first  to  de- 
clare himself  distinctly  for  this  identification  was 
Jerome,  who  wrote  a  work  against  Helvidius,  advo- 
cating the  doctrine  of  Mary's  perpetual  virginity. 
He  speaks  of  the  theory  that  James  was  a  sou  of 
Joseph  by  a  former  marriage  as  an  ungrounded 
fancy  taken  from  the  Apoci'ypha,  and  tries  to 
prove  that  our  James  was  the  same  as  James  the 
son  of  Alphivus  by  identifying  Mary  of  John  xix. 
25  ("Mary  the  wife  of  Clopas"),  the  sister  of 
Jesus'  mother,  with  the  wife  of  Alplutus.  He 
seems  afterwards  to  have  renounced  this  theory ; 
for  in  his  Commentary  on  Isaiah  (xvii.  6)  he 
mentions  fourteen  apostles, — the  twelve,  James 
the  brother  of  the  Lord,  and  Paul.  Augustine 
spoke  of  James  as  the  son  of  .Joseph  by  a  former 
mariiage,  or  as  a  relation  of  JIary.  To  the  latter 
view  he  gave  the  preference. 

These  various  views  have  all  had  their  advo- 
cates among  modern  divines.  The  theory  that 
James  th(^  Just  w'as  a  sou  of  Mary  and  Joseph, 
and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  apostles,  has 
been  held  by  Herder,  .Stier,  Credner,  I)e  Wette, 
Wieseler,  Neander,  Schalf,  Lechler,  Ueuss,  Iluther, 
B.  Weiss,  Bleek,  Keim  [Alford,  Farrar],  and 
others ;  Stier  and  Wieseler,  however,  relerring 
Acts  xii.  17,  XV.  13,  xxi.  18,  Gal.  ii.  9-12  to  James 
the  son  of  Alpliwus.  Semler,  Hug,  Schneckeu- 
burger,  Hofmann,  Langc,  and  others  identify  our 
James  with  Jajues  the  son  of  Alphreus.  And 
Thiersch  and  [Lightfoot]  hold  that  he  was  a  son 
of  Joseph  by  a  former  marriage. 

The  statements  of  the  New  Testament  emphat- 
ically favor  the  first  view.  The  expressions  in 
Matt.  i.  25  and  Luke  ii.  7  most  naturally  imjily 
that  the  marriage  between  Joseph  and  Mary  was 
consumnnited  after  Christ's  birth;  and  the  e.\- 
jiression  "  first-born  son,"  by  the  analogy  of  the 
other  cases  in  the  New  Testament  (Rom.  viii.  29; 
Col.  i.  15,  18;  Ileb.  xi.  28;  Rev.  i.  5),  indicates 
thai-  other  children  were  born  to  M.ary.  'I'hi^ 
snliseiiuent  close  relation  in  which  the  so-called 
brothers  of  our  Lord  stuud  to  JMary  (Matt.  xii.  17 


JAMES. 


1141 


JAMES. 


sqq.,  xiii.  5.3;  Mark  vi.  .3;  John  ii.  12;  Acts  i.  14) 
likewise  strongly  favoi'S  this  view.  'J'lie  word 
"brother"  (uds'Aipog)  is  never  used  in  the  New 
Testament  of  any  otiier  tlian  the  fraternal  rela- 
tion ;  and  the  few  cases  adduced  from  the  Old 
Testament  are  indefinite ;  and  special  terms  are 
employed  for  kindred  (myycvr/c)  and  cousin  (uvifcoi;., 
MarkVi.  4;  Luke  i.  36,  ii.  44;  Col.  iv.  10).  To 
these  arguments  must  be  added  tlie  fact  that 
James  the  brother  of  the  Lord  and  the  Lord's 
"  brethren  "  are  distinguished  from  the  apostles 
(John  ii.  12 ;  Acts  i.  13  ;  1  Cor.  ix.  5).  In  John 
vii.  5  it  is  stated,  that,  in  contrast  to  the  disci- 
ples, the  brethren  of  the  Lord  had  not  believed ; 
and  in  Matt.  xii.  40  Christ  institutes  a  compari- 
son between  his  brethren  by  blood  and  by  moral 
affinity.  Paul's  expression  in  Gal.  i.  19  — 
"  Other  of  the  apostles  saw  I  none  save  James 
the  Lord's  brother"  —  refers  back  to  Peter,  and 
not  forward  to  James.  lie  afterwards  (Gal.  ii.  9) 
calls  James  a  "pillar"  of  the  Church,  avoiding 
the  expression  '•  apostle ;  "  but  in  1  Cor.  xv.  7 
he  is  as  little  distinguislied  from  "all  the  apostles" 
as  Peter  is  from  the  twelve  (I  Cor.  xv.  5).  The 
expression  "servant  of  the  Lord"  (Jas.  i.  1)  does 
not  prove  any  thing  at  all  against  the  view ;  for 
the  appellation  "the  brother  of  the  Lord,"  which 
was  given  to  him  by  others  as  a  mark  of  distinc- 
tion, would  have  been  out  of  place  in  his  own 
mouth.  The  objection  that  the  names  of  the 
four  brothers  of  the  Lord  correspond  to  the  names 
of  four  of  the  apostles  ought  to  be  of  little  weight 
when  we  remember  that  Josephus  mentions  no 
less  than  twenty-one  different  persons  by  the 
name  of  Simon,  and  sixteen  by  the  name  of 
Judas.  James  was,  therefore,  the  full  brother  of 
Jesus,  and  a  different  person  from  the  two  apostles 
of  that  name. 

James  was  the  representative  of  the  conserva- 
tive Jewish  party  at  the  council  of  Jerusalem 
(Acts  XV.),  and  stood  at  the  head  of  the  local 
church.  The  party  of  the  Ebionites  took  him  for 
their  patron ;  and  Hegesippus  described  him  as  a 
Nazarite,  who  from  his  childhood  liad  drunk  nei- 
ther wine  nor  strong  drink,  had  never  been  anoint- 
ed with  oil,  never  bathed,  never  worn  any  but 
linen  garments,  and  whose  hair  had  never  been 
cut.  He  was  surnamed  the  Just,  and  represented 
as  having  prayed  constantly  at  the  temple  for  the 
forgiveness  of  his  people.  According  to  Hegesip- 
pus, he  suffered  martyrdom  in  69,  by  being  thrown 
from  a  pinnacle  of  the  temple  by  the  Pharisees; 
but  according  to  Josephus  he  was  stoned  to  death 
by  the  Sadducees  in  62  or  63.  The  latter  passage 
is  of  doubtful  authenticity,  and  the  former  state- 
ment is  to  be  preferred. 

Lit.  —  ScHAFF  :  D.  Verhaltniss  d.  Jakobus,  Bru- 
ders  d.  Herrn,  zu  J.  Alphcei,  Berlin,  1S42;  Ne- 
ANDER :  The  Planting  of  the  Christian  Church ; 
[LiGHTFOOT :  Commentary  on  the  Galatians,  Ex- 
cursus (pp.  247-283)  On  the  Brethren  of  the  Lord, 
2d  ed.,  London,  1866;  Eadie:  Commentary  on 
Galatians,  Edinburgh,  1809,  pp.  57  sqq.,  and  the 
Commentaries  on  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistle  of 
James].  sieffert. 

JAMES,  The  Epistle  of,  was  written  by  James, 
a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  addressed  to  the 
Jews  of  the  Dispersion  (Jas.  i.  1).  The  readers 
are  the  Jewish  people  as  a  whole,  not  in  the  for- 
eign country  of  this  world  (Hofmann),  but  out- 


side of  Palestine,  only  in  so  far,  however,  as  they 
recognize  the  authority  of  a  servant  of  Jesu3 
(comp.  i.  18  ;  ii.  1 ;  v.  7).  They  are  not  all  classes 
of  Jews,  Christian  and  non-Christian  (Grotius, 
Credner,  etc.),  nor  Christians  without  reference  to 
birth  and  nationality  (De  Wotte,  Schwegler,  Hil- 
genfeld),  nor  Jt!ws  both  in  and  out  of  Palestine 
(Thiersch,  Hofmann),  but  Jewish  Christians  of 
the  Diaspora.  They  belonged  not  to  a  single  dis- 
trict, but  to  foreign  lands  generally.  There  are 
no  references  to  any  personal  relations  between 
the  writer  and  his  readers ;  no  greetings  or  re- 
quests, as  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  for  ex- 
ample, which  was  addressed  to  a  special  locality. 
The  Epistle  of  James  is  a  circular-letter  designed 
for  a  general  class  of  readers.  That  which  he  finds 
as  a  universal  characteristic  of  the  condition  of 
tlie  Jewish  Christians  at  that  time,  was  the  secu- 
larization of  Christian  truth,  and  its  reduction 
to  a  system  of  external  observances.  Influenced 
by  exposure  to  trial  (i.  2),  and  the  delay  of  the 
Second  Coming  (v.  7,  8),  men  had  begun  to  lose 
patience,  and  to  divide  their  hearts  between  God 
and  the  world  (i.  8).  The  "friendship  of  the 
world"  (iv.  4)  displays  itself  in  the  disregard 
of  the  poor,  and  the  preference  given  to  the  rich 
(ii.  1  sqq.),  in  petitions  to  God  for  means  to 
gratify  lusts  (iv.  3),  or  in  the  temporary  forget- 
fulness  of  God  (iv.  13  sqq.).  They  were  also 
attempting  to  substitute  external  professions  and 
ceremonies  for  piety  of  heart,  and  appealed  to 
their  creed  (ii.  14)  rather  than  to  their  deeds. 

The  object  of  the  Epistle  is  to  clieck  these  ten- 
dencies by  warnings  and  exhortations;  and  for 
this  reason  the  contents  are,  for  the  most  part, 
of  a  parenetic  and  practical  character.  The  ex- 
hortation (1)  to  steadfastness  under  temptation 
(i.  2-12)  IS  followed  by  (2)  the  teaching  that 
temptation  originates  with  the  heart,  and  not 
with  God  (i.  13-18),  and  the  exhortation  (3)  to 
be  obedient  to  the  word  of  the  divine  truth  (i. 
19-27).  Hereupon  follow  special  exhortations 
against  partisan  preference  for  the  rich  (ii.  1-13), 
a  dead  faith  (ii.  14-26),  pride  of  wisdom  (iii. 
1-18),  and  the  pursuit  of  worldliness,  carnal  se- 
curity, etc.  (iv.  1-v.  11).  The  Epistle  is  brought 
to  a  close  by  some  briefer  exhortations  (v. 
1-2-19). 

The  ethical  nature  of  the  Epistle  is  due  not 
merely  to  the  tendency  towards  laxness  and 
worldliness  which  called  it  forth,  but  to  the  gen- 
eral conception  of  the  gospel  in  the  mind  of  the 
writer.  It  is  characteristic  that  he  calls  the  gos- 
pel the  "law  of  liberty"  (i.  25).  He,  however, 
recognizes  the  distinction  between  it  and  the  law 
of  the  Old  Testament,  that  it  is  not  a  servile 
yoke  on  the  neck  of  man,  but,  implanted  in  his 
heart,  it  produces  new  motives  and  divine  inclina- 
tions. And  yet  the  word  of  Christ  is  in  the  last 
resort  also  a  law,  a  revelation  of  God's  will  bear- 
ing upon  human  activity.  The  words  of  Christ 
are  brought  out  more  prominently  than  his  per- 
son ;  and  no  writer  of  the  New  Testament  lays  so 
much  stress  on  the  discourses  of  Christ  which 
developed  the  idea  of  the  righteousness  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  as  he  (comp.  i.  2,  4,  5,  9,  20 ; 
ii.  13,  14;  iii.  17,  18;  iv.  4 ;  v.  10,  r2,  etc.).  For 
this  reason  he  stands  farthest  away,  of  all  the 
apostolic  laborers,  from  Paul. ,  Some  have  assert- 
ed  that   these   two  writers   expressly  contradict 


JAMES. 


1142 


JANES. 


one  another  (Baur,  Schwegler.  Holtzmann,  etc.)  ; 
others,  that  there  is  a  contrast  between  them 
■whicli  cannot  be  reconciled  (Luther,  Kern) ; 
while  there  are  others  still  who  hold  tliat  there 
is  entire  agreement  (Thiersch.  Hofmann,  Lange, 
Philippi,  Huther,  etc.).  Weiss  and  Beyschlag 
have  recently  tried  to  remove  the  whole  difficulty, 
on  the  basis  of  the  early  date  of  James.  There 
is  no  direct  antithesis  between  the  two  men,  for 
James  was  wi-iting  for  those  who  held  the  works 
of  faith  to  be  unnecessary.  Paul,  on  the  other 
hand,  wrote  to  show  the  incompetency  of  the 
works  of  the  natural  man  to  justify.  James 
agrees  with  Paul  in  his  main  point,  that  faith 
without  corresponding  works  is  insufficient  (comp. 
1  Cor.  xiii.  2;  2  Cor.  v.  10). 

There  are  indications  that  the  Epistle  was  writ- 
ten at  a  comparatively  late  date  in  the  apostolic 
period.  Schneckenburger,  Thiersch,  Hofmann, 
Schaff,  B  Weiss,  Bleek,  Beysclilag,  [Alford, 
Plumptre,  Lumby],  and  others  hold  to  an  earlier 
origin ;  and  some  regard  it  as  the  first  of  the 
New-Testament  writings.  Their  reasons  do  not 
seem  to  us  sufficieut.  The  synagogue  (ii.  2)  is 
not  a  Jewish  synagogue,  but  a  place  of  Christian 
worship,  controlled  by  Christians  (ii.  3).  The  ex- 
pectation of  the  second  coming  is  also  appealed 
to  (v.  8  sqq.);  but  this  expectation  prevailed 
during  the  whole  of  the  apostolic  period.  As  the 
First  Epistle  of  Peter  seems  to  liave  made  use  of 
James,  and  itself  was  written  in  the  year  65  or 
66,  we  conclude  that  James  was  written  a  few 
years  before. 

The  author  designates  himself  as  "  James  a 
servant  of  Jesus  Christ."  This  was  the  brother 
of  the  Lord,  who  stood  at  the  head  of  the  Church 
at  Jerusalem,  and  took  such  a  prominent  part  in 
the  council  of  Jerusalem  (Acts  xv.).  Notices 
confirming  the  genuineness  of  the  Epistle  are  not 
found  till  the  close  of  the  second  century,  and 
Origen  is  the  first  to  quote  him  by  name ;  but  he 
did  not  regard  the  work  as  authentic.  Eusebius 
also  placed  it  among  the  antilegomena.  In  the 
Syrian  Church,  however,  the  Peshito  version  re- 
ceived it,  and  Ej>hraem  quoted  it.  In  the  Latin 
Church,  Jerome  accepted  it  as  canonical,  and  so, 
likewise,  Augustine.  This  difference  of  opinion 
is  to  be  regarded  as  due  to  the  fact  that  James 
the  brother  of  the  Lord  was  not  an  apostle.  (See 
preceding  article.)  But  the  whole  tone,  as  well 
as  the  special  injunctions,  of  the  book,  are  in 
exact  accord  with  the  character  of  James  as  it  is 
brought  out  in  the  New  Testament  and  by  Ilege- 
sippus.  He  looked  at  the  gospel  in  its  legal 
aspect,  and  insisted  upon  rigliteousncss  of  life. 
Both  these  features  are  jiroinincnt  in  the  Epistle. 
The  comparatively  good  Greek  style  of  the  com- 
position is  no  argument  against  its  genuineness ; 
for  Galilee  in  the  first  century  was  completely 
hellenized. 

Lit.  —  The  principal  Commentaries  on  the 
Epistle  of  James  arc  by  Cai.vin,  Bkza  [Hicn- 
AUD  TunNiii'i.i,  (London,  1606)],  IIf.kdku  {/Irif/c 
zweene.r  ]irUilcr  ,/esu  in  unsi;rm  Kanon,  VJlb), 
SeMLKU  (1781),  KoSF.NMiJLI.KK  (17H7),  IIOTTI.N- 
OEU  (181.0J,  SciINIX'KKNntMtGKK    (1832),  TlIKIl.K 

(I..flipzig,  I83:i),  Kkhn  (Tubingen,  1838),  Cellkh- 
ITM  ((Jeneva,  18.00),  ()lsiiaiisen-Wiesin(;eu 
(KiinigHberg,  ISril),  [Ai.roun  (I>ondoii,  3d  ed., 
1864)],  De  Wette-BkUcknek  (Leipzig,  3d  ed., 


1865),  La.xge  and  Van  Oosterzee  (Bielefeld, 
1866)  [English  translation  by  Mcmbkut,  New 
York,  1867],  Huther,  in  IMeyer's  Commentary 
(Gottingen,  3d  ed.,  1870),  [Blom  (Dort,  1869)], 
Ewald  (Gottin.,  1870),  [J.  C.  K.  vox  Hofmann 
(Nordlingen,  1876),  Bassett  (London,  1876), 
Punch ARD,  in  EUicott's  Commentary  (London, 
1878),  D.  Erdmann  (Berlin,  1881),  Dean  Scott. 
in  the  Bible  (Speaker's)  Commentary  (London 
and  New  York,  1882),  Beyschlag,  in  the  last 
edition  of  Meyer  (Gottingen,  1882),  Gloag,  in 
Schaif 's  Commentary  (New  York  and  Edinburgh, 
1883).  See  also  Histories  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  • 
of  Neander  and  Schaff,  and  art.  of  Lumby,  in 
the  f>ncyclop<'edia  Britannica].  SIEFFEKT. 

JAMES,  John  Angell,  an  English  Congrega- 
tional pastor;  b.  at  Blandford,  June  6,1785;  d. 
at  Birmingham,  Oct.  1,  1859 ;  educated  in  the 
theological  academy  conducted  by  Rev.  David 
Bogue,  D.D.,  at  Gosport ;  ordained  pastor  of 
Carr's  Lane  Chapel  at  Birmingham,  May  8,  1806, 
when  barely  twenty-one,  and  continued  in  that 
office  till  his  death,  over  fifty  years.  Rev.  R.  W. 
Dale  becoming  his  co-pastor  in  later  j'ears,  and 
afterwards  his  biographer.  Mr.  James  was  a 
very  laborious,  earnest,  and  successful  pastor, 
not  remarkable  for  scholarship,  but  with  fine  tal- 
ents for  practical  service,  a  good  person  and  voice, 
a  ready  flow  of  language,  and  a  constant  aim  at 
religious  impression.  As  an  author  he  is  best 
known  by  The  Anxious  Eiujuirer  after  Salvation 
Directed  and  Encouraged,  which  has  had  so  wide 
a  circulation  in  Britain  and  America,  and  has 
been  translated  into  several  languages.  But  a 
collected  edition  of  his  works  numbers  fifteen 
volumes.  They  consist  of  sermons  and  addresses 
on  practical  subjects,  —  the  ministry,  the  family, 
revivals.  Christian  graces,  duties  of  young  men, 
young  women,  and  church-members.  Mr.  James 
cultivated  a  warm  friendship  with  American  min- 
isters,—  Dr.  W.  B.  Sprague,  Dr.  S.  H.  Cox,  Dr. 
C.  G.  Finney,  and  others,  —  and  was  a  chief  pro- 
moter of  the  formation  of  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance in  1816.  See  D.-\i.e  :  Life  and  Letters  of  John 
Anycll  James,  Loud.,  1862.  V.  H.  MARLINU. 

JAMESON  (Anna  Murphy),  Mrs.,  b.  in  Dublin, 
May  19,  1797 ;  nuirried  Robert  Jameson,  1823, 
but  soon  after  ceased  to  live  with  him ;  d.  at 
Ealing,  London,  March  17,  1860.  She  is  men- 
tioned here  because  of  her  familiar  Sac7-ed  and 
Legendary  Art  (London,  1818,  2  vols.).  Legends 
of  the  Monastic  Orders  (1850),  Legends  of  the  Ma- 
donna (1852),  History  of  our  I^ord  and  of  his  Pre- 
cursor as  represented  in  Art  (vol.  i.  1860,  vol.  ii. 
finished  by  Lady  Eastlake,  1864).  Tlie.se  works 
have  all  been  republished  in  .Vnicrioa. 

JANES,  Edmund  Storer,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at 
Shellield,  Mass.,  Ai)ril  27,  1807  ;  d.  in  New- York 
City,  Sept.  18,  1876.  From  1824  to  1830  he 
taught  school  in  New- York  State  and  New  Jer- 
sey, when  he  entered  the  Methodist  ministry;  in 
May,  1840,  i)e  was  elected  financial  secretary  of 
the  American  Bible  Society,  and  in  18J4  resigned 
to  accept  the  episcopate,  having  already  impressed 
the  whole  church  with  his  piety,  eloquence,  and 
wisdom.  Henceforth  for  thirty-two  years  ho  was 
to  be  a  wanderer  over  the  earth,  travelling  longer 
distances,  enduring  longer  absences  from  home, 
and  performing  more  official  work,  than  any  of 
liis  colleagues.     There  was  liardly  a  single  sue- 


JANEWAY. 


1143 


JANSEN. 


cessful  measure  of  his  denomination  which  did 
not  bear  tlic  trace  of  his  wisdom  in  council,  and 
the  vigor  of  liis  hand  in  execution.  He  greatly 
excelled  as  a  preacher.  See  his  Life  by  Henry  B. 
Ridgeway,  D.D.,  New  York,  1882. 

JANEWAY,  Jacob  Jones,  D.D.,  a  Presbyterian 
divine;  was  b.  in  Xew-York  City,  1776;  d.  at  New 
Brunswick,  N..J.,  June  27,  1858.  He  graduated 
at  Columbia  College,  1794;  became  co-pastor  of 
the  Second  Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  in 
1799 ;  was  chosen  professor  of  theology  in  the 
Western  Theological  Seminary  at  Allegheny  in 
1826  ;  and  spent  the  last  years  of  his  life  at  New 
Brunswick,  where  he  acted  as  pastor  of  a  Dutch 
Reformed  Church  from  1830  to  1832,  and  as  vice- 
president  of  Rutgers  College  from  1833  to  1839. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  Princeton  Semi- 
nary, and  took  an  active  part  in  the  theological 
controversies  of  the  day.  He  wrote  Cmmnenlnries 
OH  Romaiia  (iiid  Hehreirs  (Philadelphia),  Internal 
Edtlence  of  the  Bible  (1845),  Revirw  of  Scliajf'  on 
Prolexlanlifin,  etc.      See  his  Life.  1861. 

JANNES  AND  JAM'BRES,  spoken  of  in  2  Tim. 
iii.  8  as  opposing  Moses,  are  often  referred  to  in 
Jewish  tradition  under  different  spellings.  .The 
names  are  evidently  phonetically  paired.  They 
are  Hebrew,  not  Egyptian,  names,  'iavvijc,  also 
written  D'J".  and  013V,  also  called  i^ni',  comes 
from  the  root  N?J  ("to  seduce");  'Io/</3pw,  with 
the  Greek  ending  w,  and  with  j3  inserted  (written 
in  the  Targum  D'i3a%  Qnspr,  but  in  the  Talmud 

K^DD  or  'IDD),  comes  from  the  root  siD  ("to  be 
obstinate; "  in  Hiphil,  "to  rebel  ").  So  the  names 
mean  "the  seducer"  and  "the  inciter"  respec- 
tively. Jewish  tradition  has  much  to  say  about 
them.  They  two  evidently  stand  opposite  the 
two  leaders,  Moses  and  Aaron,  whose  miracles 
they  imitated  in  the  presence  of  Pharaoh.  They 
were  sons  of  Balaam,  killed  the  Israelitish  chil- 
dren on  Pharaoh's  order,  opposed  that  people, 
carried  on  debates  with  Moses  (whose  teachers 
they  had  previously  been),  prepared  a  model  of 
the  golden  calf,  and  fin.ally  accompanied  Balaam. 
There  is  nothing  remarkable  in  Paul's  mention 
of  them  :  their  n.ames  must  have  been  often  heard 
in  Gamaliel's  school,  and  they  were  current  among 
the  heathen.  Pliny  apparently  borrowed  (^Hist. 
nai.  XXX.  2)  from  an  apocryphal  writing  upon 
them  mentioned  by  Origen  {Trad.  xxxv.  in  Matth.) 
and  Ambrose  (on  2  Tim.).  The  Pythagorean 
Numenius  in  the  second  century  knew  of  them 
(Origen:  c.  Celsxis.,  iv.  51,  and  Eusebius :  Prcep. 
evang.,  ix.  8),  as  did  Apuleius  (Apol.  II.)  and  the 
author  of  the  Gospel  of  Nicodcmus  (c.  5).  The  com- 
parison between  them  and  the  teachers  described 
in  the  context  (2  Tim.  iii.  8  sq.)  rests  upon  the 
similarity  of  their  wilful  resistance  to  the  heralds 
of  the  divine  truth  and  their  lack  of  genuine  faith- 
power.  For  the  original  passages  concerning  them, 
see  Fabricius :  Codex  Pseudepigrapkus,  ed.  2,  I. 
813-825.  V.  ORELLI. 

JANOW,  Matthias  von,  d.  in  Prague,  Nov.  30, 
1894  ;  descended  from  a  noble  Bohemian  family ; 
studied  theology  in  Prague  and  Paris,  whence  he 
was  often  called  Magister  Parisieyisis ;  was  ap- 
pointed canon  in  the  Cathedral  of  St.  Vitus  in 
1381,  and  stands  in  the  history  of  the  Bohemian 
Church  as  one  of  the  predecessors  of  Hus.  He 
was  not  a  great  preacher,  but  exercised  influence 


through  his  practical  care  of  souls,  and  through 
his  writings, — -treatises,  which  in  1392  he  col- 
lected under  the  title  Regulm  vc.leris  et  novi  tesla- 
menti.  The  i)rincipl('s  of  reform  which  he  propa- 
gated were  the  abolition  of  any  merely  human 
addition  to  Christianity  (doctrinal  or  ceremonial) 
and  the  return  to  the  simple  foundation  on  wliicli 
rested  the  Apostolical  Cliurch.  In  1433  Johann 
Rockycana  asserted  before  the  council  of  Basi'l 
that  Janow  used  to  administer  the  cup  to  the 
laity  in  the  Lord's  Supper ;  but  there  is  nothing 
in  his  writings  which  confirms  that  statement. 
See  Jordan  :  Die  Vorldufer  des  Hus.^ilenthinns  in 
Buhnen,  Leipzig,  1846.  G.  LECHLEK. 

JANSEN,  Cornelius,  b.  in  the  village  of  Ac- 
quoy.  North  Holland,  Oct.  28,  1585;  d.  in  Ypres, 
May  6,  1638.  After  completing  his  preliminary 
studies  at  Leerdam  and  Utrecht,  he  went  to 
Louvain  in  1602,  and  studied  for  a  short  time  at 
the  Jesuit  college ;  but,  becoming  dissatisfied 
with  the  doctrines  taught  there,  he  removed  to 
the  College  of  Adrian  VI.,  and  came  under  the 
influence  of  Jacobus  Jansenius,  a  follower  of 
Michael  Bajus,  and  a  disciple  of  Augustine. 
Here  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  M.  du  Vergier 
de  Hauranne,  afterwards  Abbe  de  St.  Cyran. 
Having  graduated  in  philosophy  at  Louvain  in 
1604,  he  went  to  Paris,  and  subsequently  accom- 
panied Du  Vergier  to  Bayonne,  where  they  re- 
mained together  for  six  years,  devoting  them- 
selves to  the  study  of  Augustine's  writings. 
Returning  to  Louvain  in  1617,  he  declined  the 
offer  of  a  chair  of  philosophy,  and  was  made 
director  of  the  newly  founded  College  of  St.  Pul- 
cheria,  which  was  completed,  and  its  regulations 
instituted  by  him.  He  did  not  long  retain  this 
position,  desiring  to  devote  himself  to  theology. 
In  1619  he  became  doctor  in  that  faculty.  By 
incessant  study  of  Augustine  he  became  con- 
vinced that  Catholic  theologians  had  departed 
from  the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  Church.  On  a 
visit  of  St.  Cyran  to  Louvain,  in  1621,  they  di- 
vided their  work  for  the  reformation  of  the 
Church,  Jansen  taking  the  department  of  teach- 
ing, and  St.  Cyran  that  of  organization.  Inti- 
mate relations  were  formed  with  distinguished 
priests  in  Ireland.  In  1623,  and  again  in  1627, 
Jansen,  deputed  by  the  university,  travelled  to 
Spain  in  order  to  oppose  the  Jesuits,  who  had 
attempted  to  establish  professorships  of  their 
own  at  Louvain.  He  was  successful,  the  Jesuits 
in  the  Low  Countries  being  ordered  to  continue 
to  observe  the  restrictions  which  had  been  laid 
upon  them  in  1612.  Notwithstanding  their  hos- 
tility, he  was  appointed  in  1630  to  the  Regius 
Professorship  of  biblical  exegesis  at  Louvain. 
In  the  same  year  he  engaged  in  a_  controversy 
about  Protestantism  with  Voetius,  in  which  he 
was  worsted.  He  secured  the  favor  of  the  Span- 
ish court  by  his  opposition  to  France  and  its 
recent  alliance  with  the  Protestant  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  He  also  attacked  the  pretensions  of 
France,  in  his  pseudonymous  work  entitled  Alex- 
andri  Palricii  Armacani,  Theologi,  Mars  Gallicus, 
seu  de  Juslitia  Annorum  et  Fcederum  Regis  Oallice 
Libri  Duo.  For  this  service  to  Spain  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  bishopric  of  Ypres  in  1636. 
Here  he  died  of  the  plague  two  years  after,  just 
as  he  had  completed  his  great  work,  the  A  ugus- 
tinus,  embodying  the  results  of  twenty-two  yeare' 


JANSENISM. 


1144 


JANSENISM. 


study  of  the  writings  of  Augustine.  These 
writings  he  declared  that  he  had  read  througli 
ten  times,  pen  in  hand,  and  the  portions  relating 
to  sin  and  grace  thirty  times.  The  manuscripts 
of  his  work  were  bequeathed  to  Lamseus,  Fro- 
mundus,  and  Caleuus,  for  publicatiou ;  but  he 
declared  his  obedience  to  the  Roman  see,  if  any 
alterations  should  be  desired.  The  work  was 
published  under  the  title  Cornelii  Janseiiii  Epi.t- 
copi  Iprensis,  Augusliniia,  seu  Doclrbia  Sti  Auyus- 
lini  de  HumancE  Natitne  Sanilale,  ^yritudine, 
Medicina,  adversus  Pelayianos  el  Massilienses.  It 
consists  of  three  parts.  In  the  first  he  gives  an 
historical  account  of  the  Pelagian  and  Semi- 
I'elagian  (Massilian)  heresies.  In  the  second 
lie  sets  forth  the  Augustinian  doctrine  as  to 
human  nature  in  its  primitive  and  fallen  states. 
The  third  part,  in  ten  books,  expounds  Augus- 
tine's ideas  concerning  grace,  and  also  the  pre- 
destination of  men  and  angels.  The  fundamental 
proposition  of  the  work  is,  that,  since  Adam"s 
fall,  free  agency  no  longer  exists  in  man,  pure 
works  are  a  mere  gratuitous  gift  of  God,  and 
the  predestination  of  the  elect  is  not  an  effect  of 
his  prescience  of  our  works,  but  of  his  free  voli- 
tion. The  Augustinus  struck  at  the  Jesuits,  who 
wished  to  conciliate  the  doctrine  of  salvation  by 
grace  with  a  certain  amount  of  free  agency ;  and 
its  sting  lay  mainly  in  the  epilogue,  which  draws 
a  parallel  between  the  errors  of  the  JIassilians 
and  those  recentiorum  quorundam,  the  Jesuits  be- 
ing referred  to. 

Other  works  of  Jansen.  —  Oralio  de  Interioris 
Jlominis  Keformatlone  (1627)  ;  Alexiphaiinacum 
pro  Cioibus  Silvct  Ducensibus,  adversus  Ministro- 
riim  Sunrum  Fasciiium,  sice  Responsio  Brecis  ad 
LibeUum  Eorum  Provocatorium  (Louvaiu,  1630)  ; 
Sponyia  Nolarum,  r/uibus  Alexiphannacum  aspersil 
Gisbertus  Voetius  (Louvain,  1631) ;  Telrateuclius, 
sire  Comment arixis  in  Quuluor  Evanyelia  (Louvain, 
1639);  Penlaleuchus,  sire  Conimenlarius  in  Qulnijue 
Libros  Moysis  (Louvain,  1641);  Analecla  in  Pro- 
rerbia,  Ecctesiaslen,  Sapientiam,  Ilabacum  el  Sopho- 
uiaui  (Louvain,  1644). 

Lit. — Vid.  Pout  Koyal.  Jansen's  life  has 
been  written  by  Lkydeckek:  Ilistoria  Jansenismi, 
Utrecht,  1695,  8vo;  also  by  Mrs.  Schimmel- 
PKX.NINCK  :  Select  Memoirs  of  Port  Royal,  London, 
Hamilton,  Adams,  &  Co.,  1835;  andby  Chaklks 
liiiAKi) :  Port  Royal,  London,  Longmans,  1861 
(the  best  Englisli  history  of  the  Jansenist  con- 
troversy). See  also  Ai.i'H.  Vandenpekkeboom: 
Cornelius  Jansenius,  septieme  c'veijtie  d'Ypres,  sa 
Mori,  son  testament,  ses  epilaphi,  Bruges,  1882. 
Vid.  also  Jansenism.  m.  r.  Vincent. 

JANSENISM.  See  Jansen.  —  The  printing  of 
the  Aiiyu.ilinus  was  completed  in  1610,  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  the  Jesuits  to  suppress  it. 
In  1641  the  reading  of  it  was  prohibited  liy  the 
Inrjuisition,  and  in  1643  by  the  bull  hi  Emincnli 
of  Urban  VIII.  Tliough  opposed  in  France  and 
Belgium,  the  bull  was  finally  accepted  in  1651, 
subscription  not  being  insisted  on.  Jansen's 
friends  urged  that  the  bull  .specified  no  particu- 
lar doctrines  as  heretical  ;  accordingly  eiglit 
heretical  propositions,  afterwards  reilucej  to  live, 
were  submitted  to  the  I'ope  as  contained  in  the 
Auyustinus:  (1)  There  are  .some  commandments 
of  (iod  which  just  men,  altiiougli  willing  and 
anxious  to  obey  them,  are  unable  with  the  strength 


they  have  to  fulfil,  and  the  grace  by  which  they 
might  fulfil  them  is  also  wanting  to  them.  (2)  In 
the  state  of  fallen  nature,  inwai-d  grace  is  never 
resisted.  (3)  In  the  fallen  state,  merit  and  demerit 
do  not  depend  on  a  liberty  which  excludes  neces- 
sity, but  on  a  liberty  which  excludes  constraint. 
(4)  The  Semi-Pelagians  admitted  the  necessity 
of  an  inward  preveuient  grace  for  the  perform- 
ance of  each  particular  act,  and  also  for  the  first 
act  of  faith,  and  yet  were  heretical,  since  they 
maintained  that  this  grace  was  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  will  of  man  was  able  either  to  resist  or 
obey  it.  (5)  It  is  Semi-Pelagian  to  say  that  Christ 
died,  or  shed  his  blood,  for  all  men  without  excep- 
tion. 

In  1653  Innocent  X.,  in  the  bull  Cum  Occasione 
Iv>pressionis  Libri,  pronounced  the  five  proposi- 
tions heretical.  The  Jansenists  declared  their 
readiness  to  condemn  the  propositions  in  the 
heretical  sense,  but  not  as  the  sense  of  Jansen. 
Thei-efore,  in  1654,  the  Pope  declared  the  con- 
denmed  propositions  to  be  in  the  Auyustimis,  and 
that  their  condemnation  as  the  teaching  of  Jan- 
sen must  be  subscribed.  Arnauld  and  the  Port 
Rojialists  refused  (see  Pout  Royal),  maintain- 
ing that  the  Pope's  infallibility  extended  only  to 
the  doctrine  of  the  faith,  and  not  to  a  question  of 
fact.  He  was  expelled  from  the  Sorbonne,  and 
eighty  others  withdrew  with  him.  The  same  year 
a  general  assembly  of  the  clergy  adopted  a  for- 
mula condemning  the  five  propositions  as  con- 
tained in  the  Auyustinus,  and  declaring  that 
Jansen  had  perverted  Augustine's  meaning.  A 
bull  of  Alexander  VII.,  Oct.  16,  indorsed  the 
decision  of  the  assembly.  This  document  was 
sanctioned  by  the  king  in  1661 ;  and  the  clergy, 
and  all  inmates  of  conventual  establishments, 
were  required  to  sign  it  on  penalty  <  if  being  treated 
as  heretics.  The  leading  Jansenists  went  into 
hiding,  and  the  Port  Royal  nuns  were  imprisoned 
and  cruelly  treated.  (See  Pout  Royal.)  Four 
bishops  refused  to  subscribe  to  more  tlian  the 
promise  of  a  "  respectful  silence  "  concerning  the 
question  of  fact.  At  the  solicitation  of  tlie  king, 
the  Pope  named  twoarchbishops  and  seven  bishops 
as  a  tribunal  to  try  the  four,  and  with  authority 
to  suspend  or  excommunicate.  Before  they  met, 
Alexander  VII.  died,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Clement  IX.  Nineteen  bishops  who  hiid  sub- 
scribed the  condemnation  now  addressed  the  Pope 
on  behalf  of  the  four,  asserting  their  orthodoxy. 
This  they  followed  by  a  letter  to  the  king,  de- 
claring that  the  sentence  of  the  lour  woidd  be 
an  invasion  of  the  liberties  of  the  Church,  and 
would  make  the  bishops  no  more  than  vicars  of 
the  Pope.  In  September,  1668,  instructions  came 
from  Rome  to  make  up  with  the  four  on  any 
terms  which  wovdd  save  the  credit  of  the  holy 
see.  The  result  was  the  compromise  known  as 
"The  Peace  of  Clement  IX.,"  by  which  assent 
was  not  required  to  the  declaration  that  Jansen 
had  taught  the  five  propositions  in  a  purely  hereti- 
cal sense.  This  was  a  virtual  defeat  of  the  holy 
see.    The  conditions  of  the  peace  were  kept  secret. 

The  quiet  was  of  short  duration.  Louis  XIV. 
was  won  over  by  the  Jesuits.  The  old  question 
of  subscription  was  revived  by  M.  Eustace,  con- 
fessor of  Port  Royal,  who  threw  into  the  form  of 
a  Case  of  Conscience  the  (]uestion  whether  one 
who   condrnmed    tlu;    incriminated    doctrine   of 


JANSENISM. 


114^ 


JAPAN. 


Jansen,  yet  maintained  a  respectful  silence  as  to 
the  question  of  fact,  could  sign  the  formulary 
■with  a  good  conscience.  A  violent  controversy 
ensued,  resulting  in  the  bull  of  Clement  XI. 
(1705),  Vinenm  Dnmini,  confirming  and  renewing 
all  preceding  condemnations  of  the  five  proposi- 
tions. The  refusal  of  the  Port  Royal  nuns  to 
subscribe  this  bull  was  jjunished  by  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  convent  in  170!).  and  the  complete  de- 
struction of  the  buildings  in  1710.  The  demand 
for  a  new  edition  of  Quesnel's  Reflexions  Mnrnles 
sur  le  Nouveau  Texlnment  stimulated  the  Jesuits 
to  secure  its  condemnation  by  the  papal  see.  They 
obtained  an  edict  of  Clement  XI.  in  1712,  con- 
demning it  as  a  text-book  of  undisguised  Jan- 
senism. This  was  followed,  in  1713,  by  the  bull 
Unigenitus,  in  which  a  hundred  and  one  proposi- 
tions from  Quesnel's  New  Testament  were  con- 
demned as  Jansenistic.  Upon  this  bull  the  French 
Church  divided  into  two  parties.  The  king  finally 
decided  that  the  bull  should  be  binding  on  Church 
and  State.  On  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.  the 
Jansenists  appealed  to  a  general  council,  claim- 
ing that  the  bull  was  an  attack  upon  the  Catholic 
faith  and  morals.  They  were  called,  therefore, 
Appellanls ;  their  opponents,  .•lcf(?/)/a«fe.  The  Ap- 
pellants were  at  last  forced  to  submit.  The  bull 
was  formally  registered  in  17l20  as  the  law  of  the 
kingdom,  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Gallic  Church.  From  this  time  for- 
ward the  Jansenists  were  rigorously  repressed, 
and  during  the  eighteenth  century  Jansenism 
degenerated  in  France.  A  temporary  revival  was 
stimulated  by  the  reported  miracles  wrought  in 
the  cemetery  of  St.  Medard,  in  Paris,  at  the  grave 
of  Francois  de  Paris,  a  Jansenist  deacon  of  St. 
Medard,  and  afterwards  a  recluse,  who  died  in 
1727.  The  spot  became  a  shrine  of  pilgrimage, 
and  a  scene  of  fanatical  excesses,  which  weakened 
the  cause  of  Jansenism  in  intelligent  minds.  The 
grave  of  Fran9ois  became  the  grave  of  Jansenism. 
After  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
Jansenists  of  France  ceased  to  attract  public  at- 
tention. Driven  from  France,  they  took  refuge 
in  Holland,  in  Utrecht,  and  Haarlem,  which  re- 
mained faithful  to  Rome  when  the  rest  of  the 
United  Provinces  embraced  Calvinism  on  their 
liberation  from  the  Spanish  yoke.  In  1702  Peter 
Codde,  vicar  of  the  the  chapter  of  Utrecht,  was 
suspended  by  Clement  XI.  for  holding  Jansen- 
istic principles,  and  was  detained  at  Rome  for 
three  years,  while  Theodore  de  Cock,  a  Jesuit, 
was  appointed  in  his  stead.  The  chapter  of 
Utrecht  refused  to  acknowledge  him,  and  joined 
themselves  with  the  Appellants.  The  govern- 
ment of  Holland,  in  1703,  suspended  the  papal 
bull,  and  deposed  De  Cock.  Codde  and  his 
friends  in  1723  elected  an  archbishop,  Cornelius 
Steenhoven,  for  whom  episcopal  consecration  was 
obtained  from  Vorlet,  a  Jansenistic  bishop.  In 
1742  Meindarts,  Jansenist  bishop  of  Utrecht,  es- 
tablished Haarlem,  and  in  1758  Deventer,  as  his 
suffragan  sees ;  and  in  1763  a  synod  was  held 
which  sent  its  acts  to  Rome  in  recognition  of  the 
primacy  of  that  see.  Since  that  time  the  formal 
succession  has  been  maintained ;  each  bishop  on 
his  appointment  notifying  the  Pope  of  his  elec- 
tion, and  asking  for  confirmation.  This  has 
uniformly  been  refused,  except  on  condition  of 
accepting  the  bull  Unigenilus.     In  1856  the  Jan- 


senists issued  a  protest  against  the  dogma  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  which  was  answered  by 
a  formal  anathema  from  Rome.  The  Jansenists 
are  Roman  (Jatholics,  but  deny  tlie  papal  infalli- 
bility, and  recognize  the  I'ope  only  as  head  of  the 
bishops,  and  place  the  highest  authority  of  the 
Church  in  a  general  council.  They  style  them- 
selves "The  Roman  Catholics  of  the  episcopal 
clergy."  They  number  about  five  thousand,  and 
are  divided  into  twenty-five  parishes  in  the  dio- 
ceses of  Haarlem  and  Utrecht.  They  have  a 
seminary  at  Amersfoort,  founded  in  1726. 

Lit.  —  See  Port  Royal.  Dumas  :  Hisl.  des 
cinq  Propositions  ;  Leydeckek  :  Hisloria  Janse- 
nismi,  Utrecht,  1695,  8vo ;  Frick  :  Uebersetzung 
der  Bulla  Unigenilus,  etc.,  Ulm,  1717,  4to;  Ge- 
schiedenis  i-an  de  Chrislelijke  Kerk  in  de  18'le  eeuw, 
door  A.  Ijpeij,  XII.,  335-387 ;  Henke:  Kirchen- 
geschickte  des  ISlen  Jahrhunderts ;  Montgeron  : 
La  verile  des  Miracles,  open's  par  I' intercession  de 
Mr.  de  Paris,  1737-45 ;  Professors  De  (iROOT, 
Ter  Haar,  Ki8t,  Moll,  Nieuwenhuis,  etc.: 
Geschiedenis  der  Christelijke  Kerk,  vol.  v.,  Amster- 
dam, 1859;  CoLONiA  :  Diet,  des  Livresjansenistes, 
Declaration  des  Eveqiies  de  Hollande,  etc.,  Paris, 
1827;  Gerberon  :  Hist,  de  Janse'nisme ;  Voltaire  : 
Siecle  de  Louis  XIV.,  II.  264;  Rapin  (Jesuit): 
Histoire  de  Jansenistne,  edit,  by  Domenech,  Paris, 
1861,  8vo;  BouviER  :  Etude  Critique  sur  le  Jansc- 
7nsme,  Strassburg,  1864;  Sainte-Beuve  :  Port 
Roijul,  vol.  i.,  Paris,  Eugene  Renduel,  1840,  5  vols.; 
II.  Reuchlin  :  Gescliichte  v.  Port  Royal,  der 
Kampf  des  reformirten  tind  des  jesuitischen  Kalholi- 
cisinns  unter  Ludwig  XI IL  u.  XIV.,  2  vols.,  1839- 
44;  ScHiLL:  Die  Constitution  Unigenitus,  Frei- 
burg, 1876;  BouviEU:  La  verite  sur  les  Arnaulds, 
complctce  avec  I'a.ide  de  leur  corrcspondance  ine'dite, 
2  vols.,  1877.  H.  REUCHUN.     M.  R.  VINCENT. 

JANUARIUS,  St.  (San  Genuaro),  the  patron 
saint  of  the  city  of  Naples,  was  bishop  of  Bene- 
vento  when  the  persecution  of  Diocletian  broke 
out,  and  was  decapitated  at  Puteoli.  His  head 
and  two  phials  containing  his  blood  are  preserved 
in  a  chapel  of  the  cathedral  of  Naples,  and  ex- 
hibited twice  a  year, — May  1  and  Sept.  19. 
When  the  phials  are  brought  within  sight  of  the 
head,  the  blood  becomes  liquid,  and  begins  to 
bubble  up  ;  and  this  miracle,  when  happening 
promptly  and  in  a  vigorous  manner,  is  considered 
a  good  omen  for  the  city  and  people  of  Naples. 
There  are  no  less  than  thirteen  other  saints  and 
martyrs  of  the  name  Januarius,  which  at  one 
time  was  very  common  in  Africa  and  Southern 
Italy.     See  Act.  Sand.  Sept.  19. 

JAPAN,  Christianity  in.  No  seeds  of  the  reli- 
gion of  .Jesus  are  known  to  have  been  planted  in 
Nihon  until  the  arrival  at  Kagoshima,  in  Satsuma, 
of  Francis  Xavier,  in  1549.  The  "black  ships  " 
of  Kurope  visited  Japan  as  early  as  1542,  when 
a  lucrative  commerce  at  once  sprung  up  witli 
Portugal.  Anjiro,  a  Japanese  refugee,  assisted 
by  Mendez  Pinto,  in  1545  reached  Malacca  on 
one  of  these  ships,  and  there  met  Xavier,  accom- 
panying him  to  Goa,  north  of  Calcutta,  where  he 
embraced  Christianity,  was  baptized,  and  educated 
in  the  .Jesuit  College.  In  .July,  1549,  Xavier, 
with  Cosmo  Torrez  his  principal  assistant,  Joan 
Fernandez  a  layman,  and  "  Brother  Paul  of  the 
Holy  Faith  "  (Anjiro),  sailed  from  Goa,  reaching 
Ximo   (Shima,  "the   island,"  or   Kiiishiu),  and 


JAPAN. 


1146 


JAPAN. 


landing  at  Kagoshima  Aug.  12.  Tlie  first  con- 
verts were  the  wife  and  relatives  of  Anjiro;  and, 
after  a  year's  stay,  one  Inuidred  believers  were 
numbered.  Obliged  to  leave  on  account  of  the 
irritation  of  the  dainiio  (feudal  lord)  of  Satsunia 
at  the  conduct  of  the  Portuguese  merchants,  the 
missionaries  went  to  Hirado  Island,  making  a 
hundred  converts  in  a  fortnight,  and  thence 
crossing  over  to  Yamaguchi,  in  Nagato  province. 
^Meeting  with  little  success  here,  they  set  out  to 
Kioto,  the  miak-o,  or  capital.  Owing  to  the  chronic 
civil  war,  amounting  almost  to  anarchy,  which 
afflicted  Japan  during  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  nothing  could  be  done  in  Kioto.  So, 
returning  to  Yamaguchi,  Xavier  presented  his 
gifts  and  credentials,  and,  in  place  of  a  return 
in  kind,  received  permission  to  preacli  in  public, 
and,  later,  the  gift  of  ground  for  a  church  and 
college.  Within  two  months,  five  hundred  con- 
verts were  gathered,  when  Xavier  (with  his  char- 
acteristic restlessness)  went  to  Bungo  province, 
and  shortly  after  left  Japan,  dying  on  an  island 
on  the  coast  of  China.  In  1553  new  missionaries 
arrived,  and  Bungo  became  the  centre  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Japan.  In  1566  there  were  two  thou- 
.sand  converts  at  Yamaguchi,  when,  a  feudal 
revolution  having  broken  out,  the  church  was 
burned,  Torrez  fled,  and  tlie  chm'ch  was  for  eigh- 
teen years  without  a  pastor.  In  1558  Villela 
visited  Kioto  and  Sakai,  securing  two  converts 
among  the  feudal  nobility,  —  the  holder  of  the 
fief  of  Omura,  and  one  Arima  no  Kami.  The 
violent  excesses  and  ostentatious  destruction  of 
temples  and  idols  practised  by  the  former  aroused 
the  hostility  of  the  Buddhist  priests,  w'ho  hence- 
fovward  became  the  relentless  foe  of  the  new 
failli.  Portugal  sent  new  re-enforcements  of 
.Jesuit  [iriests  in  1000 ;  but  the  civil  war,  and  the 
bitter  enmity  of  Mori  (then  lord  of  ten  provinces), 
drove  them  from  Kioto  and  Omura,  and  finally 
to  Nagasaki.  At  tliis  stage  there  were  already 
many  thousands  of  Ciu'istians. 

We  may  here  glance  at  the  condition  of  Japan 
and  the  methods  of  propagation  employed.  Po- 
litically it  was  that  period  known  in  Japanese 
liistory  as  the  epoch  of  civil  war,  when  learning 
and  the  arts  of  peace  were  at  a  low  ebb,  and 
fighting  was  the  chief  pastime.  The  power  of 
the  mikado,  or  emperor,  was  a  mere  shadow. 
The  family  of  the  Ashikaga  shoguns,  or  military 
regents  (13:55-1573),  had  so  decayc^d  that  their 
rule  was  nominal ;  .so  that  the  country  was  par- 
celled out  among  tlie  feudal  barons,  or  daimiOs, 
all  jealous  of,  and  fighting  with,  each  other. 
lOager  for  the  advantages  of  foreign  trade,  tlu' 
daimios  of  Kiushiu  especially  favored  the  mis- 
sionaries, and  in  several  instances  compelled  llieir 
subjects  to  become  Christians  by  i)roclanuitious  ; 
tlie  alternative  being  banisliment,  or  confiscation 
of  goods. 

Heligiously,  Japan  was  ri]x;  for  a  new  faith. 
Shinto,  the  indigenous  cult,  liad  been  so  overlaid 
l)y  I'luddhism,  that  it  had  fallen  away  into  a  mere 
iriatler  of  an  li.'cology  for  tiie  scholar,  and  mythol- 
ogy for  tlie  people. 

On  the  other  liand,  tlie  peasantry,  reduced  to 
]X)verty  and  misery  by  centuries  of  war,  found 
little  comfort  in  the  faith  of  India.  Tlie  simple 
tenets  of  Shaka  Muni  had  .swollen  to  a  sensuous 
system   of  worship   and   of   commcruial   jjrayers 


and  masses.  Except  the  gorgeous  magnificence 
of  altars  and  temples,  and  the  plethora  of  mon- 
asteries and  bonzes,  there  was  little  to  show  of 
vitality  in  Buddhism.  Further,  the  monks  were 
really  a  clerical  militia,  capable  of  equipping  ajid 
leading  to  battle  whole  armies  of  adherents,  both 
in  tonsure  and  topknot,  and  were  thus  an  organ- 
ized and  dangerous  political  power. 

At  such  a  time,  and  among  such  an  imaginative 
people  as  the  Japanese,  the  Portuguese  Jesuits 
landed.  With  crucifix  and  painting,  medal  and 
cross,  vestment,  incense,  lights,  altars,  and  abun- 
dant gold,  they  outdazzled  the  scenic  displays  of 
the  Buddhists.  With  eloquence,  fervor,  and  de- 
votion, with  their  new  doctrines  and  morality, 
they  won  thousands  of  enthusiastic  converts. 

In  Xobunaga,  the  hater  and  crushing  persecutor 
of  the  Buddhists,  who  had  also  deposed  Ashikaga, 
and  wished  to  unify  all  Japan  for  the  mikado, 
missionaries  found  a  friend  who  needed  a  coun- 
terpoise to  the  bonzes.  Organtin,  under  his  pro- 
tection, labored  in  Kioto  from  1568  to  1578.  In 
1582  the  three  Christian  nobles  sent  a  mission  to 
the  Holy  See.  In  company  with  Valignaui,  they 
reached  Iiome,  making  a  lengthened  stay  in 
Europe ;  but  in  the  year  of  their  return,  in  1585, 
Xobunaga  tlieir  friend  was  assassinated.  Hide- 
yoshi  (Faxiba),  his  successor,  thougli  from  the 
first  opposed  to  Christianity,  masked  liis  policy, 
since  his  prime  necessity  was  to  win  the  friend- 
ship of  the  southern  daimios,  among  whom  were 
the  Christian  nobles  and  gentry,  in  order  to  bring 
them  to  his  sideand  under  his  control.  Colleges 
were  planted  at  Ozaka  and  Sakai ;  churches  were 
built  in  many  provinces;  and  the  illustrious  con- 
verts, Kuroda  ("  Koudera  ")  and  Konishi  ("  Don 
Austin  ")  professed  their  faith. 

Ill  1587  Hideyoshi,  unmasking  his  purpose, 
ordered  all  the  foreign  priests  to  proceed  to 
Ilirado,  and  leave  the  country.  The  measure  not 
being  urged,  they  k-ft  Ilirado,  and,  under  the 
protection  of  the  Christian  princes,  pursued  their 
work  in  private.  Organtin  and  Kodriguez  returned 
to  Kioto ;  and  in  1591  Martizen,  tlie  first  bishop 
of  Japan,  arrived.  Three  tlionsaiul  Japanese  were 
baptized  between  1587  and  1590,  and  the  literary 
activity  in  the  interest  of  the  propaganda  went  on. 

Hitherto  tlie  only  foreigners  in  Japan  were 
Portuguese,  and  the  only  phase  of  Cliristianity 
Jesuitism.  In  1590,  in  an  embassy  sent  from 
tlie  governor  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  were  four 
Franciscan  friars,  who  trespassed  on  tiie  Jesuits' 
ground,  on  the  pUa  that  they  came  as  atluche's  to 
the  embassy,  liy  the  bull  of  Pope  Gregory  XIII., 
dated  Jail.  28,  1585  (confirmed  by  Clement  III. 
in  1000),  Japan  liad  been  assigned  e.\ehisively  to 
the  Jesuits.  The  Franciscans,  violating  their 
promise  made  to  the  Japanese  ruler,  not  to 
preach,  began  to  do  tliat  very  thing,  tiiereby 
rousing  tlie  wrath  of  a  man  who  was  never  trifled 
with. 

IIid<5yo.shi  having  reduced  all  Japan  to  unity, 
and  been  made  kuambaku,  or  regent,  had  now  to 
face  the  double  ])n)lilem  of  finding  em]iloymeut 
for  a  liost  of  warriors  bred  to  arms  from  infancy, 
and  of  ridding  .Japan  of  a  foreign  priestliood 
whom  lie  suspected  of  political  designs.  On  a 
frivolous  pretext  he  declared  war  against  Corea, 
and  in  1592  sent  an  army  of  a  liundied  and  fifty 
thousand  men,  comiiosed  largely  of  converts,  led 


JAPAN. 


1147 


JAPAN. 


by  Christian  generals,  to  invade  tliat  country, 
and  the  next  year  arrested  six  Franciscans  and 
three  Jesuits,  who  were  publicly  burned  to  death 
at  Nagasaki.  Nevertheless,  more  Spanish  men- 
dicant friars  entered  Japan,  and  the  Jesuits 
explained  Ilideyoshi's  act  as  an  excess  of  zeal 
in  his  lieutenants.  They  also  ably  seconded  the 
eiforts  of  the  Japanese  ruler  to  break  up  the  slave- 
trade  then  cursing  the  country.  The  wretched- 
ness and  poverty  brought  on  by  the  Corean  war 
caused  many  of  the  Japanese  poor  people  to  sell 
themselves  to  the  Portuguese  slave-traders,  who 
also  bought  Corean  captives,  and  sold  them  in 
China  and  the  Philippines.  Even  the  Malay  and 
negro  servants  speculated  in  human  tiesh.  Ilide- 
yoshi  died  Sept.  10,  1598 ;  the  Christian  leaders 
came  back  from  Corea;  and  in  KJOU  one  hundred 
Jesuit  priests  arrived  to  stimulate  the  propaga- 
tion of  the  faith.  The  hopes  of  the  Christians 
now  gathered  around  Iliddyori,  the  son  of  Ilide- 
yoshi;  but  in  the  battle  of  Sekigahara  (October, 
1600),  the  southern  army,  in  which  the  Christian 
generals  fought  against  lyeyasQ,  was  defeated. 
lyeyasQ  became  master  of  the  country,  and  from 
Yedo  issued  a  decree  of  expulsion  against  the 
foreign  priests.  In  160:2  large  numbers  of  new 
missionaries  of  various  orders  arrived ;  and  al- 
though Oi-gantin,  Kuroda,  and  Konishi  were  dead, 
the  Christians  were  said  to  number  a  million  eight 
hundred  thousand.  In  1U08  Japan  was  declared 
a,  missionary  field,  open  to  all  missionaries  of 
the  Roraan-Catholio  Church  by  the  bull  of  Pope 
Paul  V. ;  while  in  1611  Dutch,  Spanish,  and  Por- 
tuguese embassies  came  to  Japan,  and  in  1613 
the  English  established  a  factory  at  Ilirado. 
To  the  intrigues  of  the  English  and  Dutch  trad- 
ers, the  Jesuit  writers  attribute  the  open  liostili- 
ty  manifested  by  lyeyasQ.  In  1614  Christianity 
was  declared  a  religion  dangerous  to  the  State ; 
and  this  time  the  decrees  were  rigidly  enforced. 
The  churches  were  destroyed;  and  a  hundred  and 
thirty-nine  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Jesu- 
its, with  several  hundred  Japanese  priests  and 
helpers,  were  arrested,  put  on  board  three  large 
junks  at  Nagasaki,  and  sent  out  of  the  country. 
When  many  of  these  secretly  returned,  they  were 
ferreted  out,  and  put  to  death.  The  Christians, 
mostly  of  the  peasantry,  were  thus  wholly  de- 
prived of  teachers  and  leaders.  In  1617  all  for- 
eign commerce  was  confined  to  Nagasaki;  in  1621 
Japanese  were  forbidden  to  leave  the  country ; 
and  in  1024  the  empire  was  closed  to  all  aliens, 
except  Dutch  and  Chinese.  Fire  and  sword  were 
r.zn  used  to  annihilate  Christianity,  and  to  Pagan- 
ize the  people.  Trampling  on  the  crucifix  be- 
came tlie  sign  and  proof  of  apostasy.  Thousands 
of  native  Christians  fled  to  China,  Formosa,  and 
the  Philippines  ;  and  in  1637  thousands  more  rose 
in  armed  rebellion,  and,  seizing  an  old  castle  at 
Shimabara  in  Kiushiu,  I'esisted  for  two  months 
the  assaults  of  the  government  troops.  Once 
captured,  the  thirty-seven  thousand  Christians 
were  given  over  to  massacre,  and  drowning  in  the 
sea.  After  this,  persecution,  inquisition,  and 
torture  went  on  so  successfully,  that,  when  the 
eighteenth  century  opened,  tliere  were  no  known 
believers  in  "  the  Jesus  doctrine  "  in  Japan,  ex- 
cept some  gray-headed  prisoners.  In  1709  Jean 
Baptiste  Sidotti,  an  Italian  priest,  reached  Japan 
by   way   of    Manila,    but    was    at  once  seized, 


brought  before  the  Inquisition  at  Yedo,  and  im- 
prisoned until  his  death.  In  1829  several  Chris- 
tians were  seized  at  Ozaka,  and  crucified,  on  the 
suspicion  of  connnunicating  with  foreigners.  In 
spite  of  two  centuries  and  a  half  of  vigilant  re- 
pression and  supposed  extirpation,  tlie  roots  of 
the  faith  still  kept  their  vitality. 

When,  after  long  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the 
world,  Japan  was  opened  to  foreign  trade  and 
residence,  in  1859,  the  three  gi-eat  branches  of  the 
Christian  Church  at  once  sent  their  mLssionaries 
into  the  field  at  Nagasaki,  Kanagawa,  or  Hako- 
date. The  Roman  Catholics  had  the  advantage 
of  historic  continuity  in  their  labors  ;  for,  almost 
as  soon  as  they  landed,  they  found  in  the  villages 
near  Nagasaki  thousands  of  believers,  descend- 
ants of  the  martyrs  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
still  secretly  practising  their  faith.  At  intervals, 
however,  until  1872,  when  the  government  ceased 
persecution,  many  of  these  Christians  were  seized, 
imprisoned,  and  exiled  among  the  northern  prov- 
inces. Statistics  of  Roman  Catholicism  in  Japan 
are  not  easily  accessible. 

"  The  Holy  Orthodox  Catholic  and  Apostolic 
Church  "  of  Russia  has  a  mission  whose  impos- 
ing buildings  are  in  Tokio ;  and  its  founder,  the 
archimandrite  Nioolai,  with  his  assistants,  has 
trained  up  a  large  native  ministry,  whose  follow- 
ing numbers  several  thousands. 

Protestant  missionary  operations  were  also  be- 
gun in  1859  by  the  London  Missionary  Society 
and  four  American  chiu'ches  —  Reformed  (Dutch), 
Episcojial,  Presbyterian,  and  Baptist  —  at  Naga- 
saki and  Kanagawa.  Owing  to  the  jealous  hostil- 
ity of  the  government,  no  disciples,  except  those 
"who  came  by  night,"  were  made  for  ten  years. 
Profession  of  the  outlaw'ed  religion  was  at  risk 
of  life  or  limb.  Meanwhile  the  mastery  of  the 
language,  and  the  work  of  healing,  teaching,  and 
translation,  went  on.  The  first  Protestant  Chris- 
tian Church  was  organized  at  Yokohama,  on  the 
Perry  treaty-ground,  in  1872,  by  the  Rev.  James 
Ballagh  of  the  Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in 
America;  and  the  fourth,  in  Tokio,  the  capital, 
in  1873,  in  which  year  the  anti-Christian  edicts 
were  removed.  The  Reformed  churches  holding 
the  presbyterial  order  formed  themselves  into  an 
alliance  for  mutual  help:  other  native  bodies  of 
believei's  were  organized  on  an  independent  basis. 
In  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  increasing 
interest  was  manifested  in  this  most  promising 
missionary  field ;  and  all  the  important  evangeli- 
cal bodies  soon  had  representatives  at  one  of  the 
open  ports,  which,  since  1S68,  have  been  Nagasaki, 
Yokohama,  IliOgo,  Hakodate,  Niigata,  besides 
Tokio.  Since  1874,  Christians  have  organized 
chm-ches,  and  worshipped  unmolested  in  many 
places  in  the  interior;  and  now  every  large  island 
has  flourishing  churches  of  the  Protestant,  Ro- 
man, and  Greek  communions.  The  methods  of 
propagation  used  by  the  brethren  of  the  Mission 
Apostolique  of  Paris  are  in  the  main  those  of 
Papal  Christianity  everywhere,  and  not  differing 
greatly  from  those  of  the  sixteenth  centiu-y  in 
Japan.  They  claim  a  following  of  many  thou- 
sands. The  mission  of  the  Holy  Synod  of  Rus- 
sia makes  liberal  use  of  Protestant  versions  of 
the  Holy  Bible,  but  is  otherwise  rigidly  faith- 
ful to  traditional  medit-evalism.  All  Christian 
bodies  make  use  of  the  press,  secular  and  reli- 


JAPAN. 


1148 


JARCHI. 


gious  schools.  The  literary  opposition  is  in  gen- 
eral not  very  severe,  nor  of  a  character  to  inspire 
respect  for  the  Japanese  intellect.  The  vigorous 
native  newspapers  may  be  said  to  be  as  friendly 
as  hostile.  Buddhist  priests  and  rabid  patriots 
are  the  chief  opponents  ;  and  the  products  of  the 
infidel  writers  and  lectures  of  Christendom  are 
diligently  translated  into  Japanese. 

The  statistics  of  the  work  of  Protestant  evan- 
gelicals for  the  year  1881  are  as  follows :  — 

TABLE  OF  STATISTICS  FOB  1881. 


Dbnohinations. 


American  Preebyterian  Church     . 

Reformed  Church  in  America  .     . 

American  Protestant  Episcopal 
Cliurch 

American  Baptist  Church     .     .    . 

American  Board  C.  F.  M.  (Con- 
gregationaliBt) 

(English)  Church  Missionary  So- 
ciety       

American  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church 

Canada  Methodist  Church     .     .    . 

(English)  Society  for  the  Propa- 
gation of  the  Gospel 

Edinburgh  Medical  Mission  .    .     . 

United  Presbyterian  Church  of 
Scotland 

Cumberland  Presbyterian  Church, 

English  Baptist  Church    .... 

Kefurmed  Church  of  the  United 
States 

Protestant  Methodist  Church    .    . 

Independent  Native  Churches  .    . 

Roman  Catholic 

Uusso-Greek 


1869 
1859 


1859 
1860 


1873 
1873 

1873 
1874 

1874 
1877 
1879 

1879 
1880 

1859 
1860 


821 
403 


79 
182 


201 

517 
299 

208 
90 

120 
8 

18 


148 
15,000? 

lo.ogo? 


Total  of  all  Protestant  societies  and  churches,  3,811, 


The  Bible  societies  —  Aiuerican,  National  (Scot- 
land), and  British  and  Foreign — liave  agents, 
who  in  1881  disposed  (Jiij  sale,  only)  of  eighteen 
million  printed  pages  of  the  Bible  (in  whole,  or 
in  parts),  at  sixteen  thousand  dollars  ;  one  society 
reporting  an  increase  of  business,  in  one  yeai',  of 
a  hundred  per  cent.  Two  tract  societies  —  the 
American  and  London  Religious  —  disposed  of  a 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  books  and  tracts, 
or  two  and  a  half  million  pages.  Tlio  .Japanese 
Christian  associations  and  native  religious  pi'css 
help  in  diffusing  Christian  leaven.  A  high  moral 
standard  of  character  is  insisted  upon  by  all  the 
Protestant  churches;  and  in  no  other  respect, 
except  in  the  constant  use  of  the  Holy  Scrijitures 
in  the  vernaculai-,  does  the  lleformed  Christianity 
of  to-day  differ  more  from  that  known  during 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  in  .Japan. 
The  influences  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  are  pene- 
trating deeply  into  the  social  life  of  the  people, 
and  rooting  themselves  in  heart  and  intellect 
alike.  Undoubtedly  the  way  has  been  prepai'ed 
and  made  smotith  for  the  rapid  success  of  mis- 
sionary operations  by  the  wondrous  assimilation 
of  modern  civilization  by  the  Japanese.  By  a 
series  of  iiolitical  movements,  which  began  during 
the  century  preceding  ihr.  arriv.al  of  Commodore 
Perry,  and  wliieli  culminated  in  the  revolution 
of  1808  (which  destroyed  tlie  duarcliy  of  which 
Yedo  witli  the  "tycoon,"  and  Kioto  with  the 
mikado  were   foci),  the  ualiou  was  prepared  to 


adopt  the  civilization  to  which  Christendom  hat 
given  birth,  and  which  she  has  nourished.  The 
government  of  the  mikado,  when  restored  to 
supreme  authority  in  Tokio,  in  1868,  at  first  per- 
secuted, but  later,  under  pressure  of  diplomacy  at 
home,  and  of  shame  in  Europe,  abandoned  co- 
ercion in  religious  matters,  suffered  Shinto  to  fall 
into  abeyance,  and,  nominally  at  least,  granted 
toleration.  Now,  in  friendly  rivalrj',  the  national 
common  school  and  the  missionary  educational 
systems  flourish  together,  male  and  female  in  both 
having  equal  privileges.  There  also  prevails  in- 
creasingly among  the  people  of  Japan  the  belief 
that  righteousness  exalts  a  nation,  and  that  pure 
religion  and  morals,  such  as  Christianity  offers 
and  demands,  furnish  the  surest  ground  of  pro- 
gress and  national  longevity.  Licentiousness,  in- 
temperance, and  lying  are  the  moral  cancers  of 
the  national  character;  but  the  ideals  of  Jesus, 
once  grafted  upon  the  affectionate,  filial,  loyal, 
courteous  spirit  of  the  Japanese,  will  heal  the 
scars  of  sin,  and  produce  one  of  the  noblest  types 
of  redeemed  humauity. 

Not  the  least  tokens  of  the  zeal  and  consecra- 
tion which  characterize  Protestant  missionaries 
in  Japan  are  the  fruits  of  their  laborious  scholar- 
ship. The  various  translations,  grammar,  and 
phrase-book  of  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown,  D.D.,  the 
superb  dictionaries  of  .1.  C.  Hepburn,  M.D.,  the 
linguistic  helps,  scholarly  and  religious  works,  of 
Imbrie,  Amerman,  Stout,  Ivnox,  Eby,  N.  Brown, 
and  others,  have  not  only  shed  lustre  upon  Ameri- 
can scholarship,  but  have  greatly  enriched  native 
and  foreign  Christian  literature,  especially  the  for- 
mer. The  medical,  literary,  and  pedagogic  work 
of  others  have  borne  fruit  in  a  mighty  harvest  of 
good  to  the  nation  at  large.  Like  some  of  the 
enormous  blocks  of  stones  that  form  the  founda- 
tion-wall of  their  fortresses,  defying  war,  time,  and 
earthquake-shock,  are  the  works  of  Christian  mis- 
sionaries in  the  edifice  of  .Japan's  new  civilization. 

Lit.  —  CuAKLEVOi.x:  Ilistoire  du  Japan,  CiiAS- 
SET :  Ilistoire  de  I'Eglise  du  Japan ,  De  Reims 
Indicts  el  Japonicis ;  Leon  Page:  Hisloire  de  la 
Itelir/ion  Chn'tienne  an  Japan,  Paris,  1869  ;  Dixox  : 
Japan,  Edinburgh,  1869;  GniKEis:  The  Mifrado's 
Empire,  New  York,  1876;  and  Corca,  llic  Hermit 
Nati(»i,  New  York,  1882;  \Z.  Stock:  Japan  and 
the  Japan  Mission  of  the  Chnrrh  Missionari/  Socie- 
ty, I-oudon,  ISSO;  the  jjajxa's  of  Messrs.  Satow, 
McClatciiie,  Stout,  and  Wukjht,  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  .Japan ;  and  the 
recent  works  of  travel  by  E.  WAititEN  Clakk, 
.Jn.iA  CAUUOTiiEits,  ]•:.  .J.  Reed,  IsAnEi.i.A 
Bii!i>,  J.  .J.  Rein,  W.  Gray  Dixon,  1)k  IHjknek, 

and   others.  \VM.   ELLIOT   GlllFFlS. 

JAQUELOT,  Isaac,  b.  at  Vassy,  Dec.  IG,  imi ; 
d.  in  Berlin,  Oct.  20,  1708 ;  was  a  pastor  in  his 
native  town,  when  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of 
Nantes  compelled  him  to  leave  France;  and  set- 
tl('(l,  first  at  The  Hague  (168(i),  afterwards  iu 
B<'iiiii  (1702),  as  p.astor  of  French  congregations 
ot  exiles.  Besides  two  volumes  of  sermons,  and 
several  |ihilosophical  treatises,  he  publishetl  Avis 
snr  Ic  tahlcan  du  socinianisme  de  M.  Jurien  (1U92), 
against  the  dogmatism  of  .Jmieu,  and  Canformite 
lie  lufiii  el  lie  la  riiison  (1705),  against  thc^  scepti- 
cism of  Bayle,  following  iqi  both  of  these  tracts 
with  si'Vi'ial  other  polemical  works. 

JARCHI.     See  Rasiii. 


JARVIS. 


1149 


JAVAN. 


JARVIS,  Samuel  Farmer,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  histo- 
riographer to  the  Episcopal  Church  in  tlie  United 
States  of  America;  b.  at  Middletown,  Conn., 
Jan.  20,  1786  ;  d.  there  March  20,  1851.  He  was 
graduated  at  Yale  College  1805;  entered  the  min- 
istry of  the  Episcopal  Church  1810 ;  was  minister 
in  New-York  City  until  1819;  from  1820  to  1826 
was  minister  in  Boston  ;  then  spent  nearly  ten 
years  in  Europe.  On  his  return,  in  1S:!5,  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  Oriental  literature  in 
Washington  (now  Trinity)  College,  Hartford; 
from  1837  to  18-12  minister  in  Middletown,  Conn.; 
and  1838,  historiographer.  He  published  A  Chron- 
ological Introduction  to  the  Histonj  of  the  Church, 
London  and  New  York,  1844 ;  The  Church  of  the 
Redeemed,  or  the  History  of  the  Mediatorial  King- 
dom, vol.  i.  (all  published),  Boston,  1850. 

JA'SHER,  Book  of.  The  volume  itself  has 
perished ;  but  two  allusions  to  it  are  found  in  the 
Bible,  —  Josh.  x.  13  and  2  Sam.  i.  18.  The  word 
"  Yashar"  (Jasher)  means  upright;  and  therefore 
the  title  is  probably  a  description  of  the  book's 
contents,  —  a  collection  of  lyrics  setting  forth  the 
glorious  deeds  of  the  nation's  heroes.  We  have 
no  knowledge  when  the  collection  was  made,  nor 
how  much  ground  it  covered ;  yet  interest  in  this 
lost  book  has  been  excited  by  our  very  ignorance, 
and  conjecture  has  been  rife.  There  have  also 
been  several  books  written  which  pretended  to  be 
the  Book  of  Jasher,  or,  at  all  events,  bore  this 
title.  Three  of  these  are  of  Jewish  origin.  One 
is  a  moral  treatise,  written  in  A.D.  1394  by  Rabbi 
Shabbatai  Carmuz  Levita,  and  exists  in  manu- 
script in  the  Vatican  Library.  Another,  by  Rabbi 
Tham  (d.  1171),  is  a  treatise  on  the  Jewish  ritual. 
It  was  published  in  Hebrew  in  Italy  (1.544),  at 
Cracow  (1580),  and  Vienna  (1811).  The  third 
is  a  fabulous  history  of  the  events  of  the  Ilexa- 
teuch,  was  probably  written  by  a  Spanish  Jew  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  has  been  published  at 
Venice  (1625),  Cracow  (1628),  and  Prague  (1668), 
in  German,  in  Frankfurt-on-the-Main  (1674), 
and  in  English  (New  York,  1840).  A  fourtli  Book 
of  Jasher  was  a  palpable  and  malicious  fraud, 
perpetrated  by  Jacob  Hive,  an  infidel  printer  and 
type-founder  of  Bristol,  Eng.,  who  wrote,  secretly 
printed  at  Bristol,  and  published  at  London,  in 
1751,  The  Book  of  Jaaher,  translated  into  English 
from  the  Hebrew  by  Alcuin  of  Britain,  who  went  on 
a  Pilgrimage  into  the  Holy  Land,  rejirinted  at  Bris- 
tol. 1827,  and  published  in  London,  1829  (2d  ed., 
1833,  by  Rev.  C.  R.  Bond).  The  forgery  owes 
its  reputation  to  Home's  demolishing  exposure. 
Introduction,  iv.  741-747.  For  Dr.  J.  W.  Don- 
aldson's attempt  to  reconstruct  the  book  of  Jashar 
out  of  the  Bible,  see  art.  Donaldson.  See  also 
art.  The  Book  of  Jasher,  in  Emanuel  Deutsch's 
Literary  Remains,  New  York,  1874,  and  in  Smith's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible. 

JA'SON  is  the  name  of  several  Jews  who  figure 
largely  in  history  during  the  period  of  the  Mac- 
cabees.—  I.  Jason,  son  of  Eleazar,  was  by  Judas 
Maccaba?us  sent  as  ambassador  to  Rome  to  renew 
the  alliance  with  the  Romans  (1  Mace.  viii.  17). 
He  was  perhaps  father  of  that  Numenios  who  by 
Jonathan  was  sent  to  Rome  to  have  the  treaty 
renewed  (1  Mace.  xii.  16,  xiv.  22).  —  II.  Jason  of 
Cyrene,  a  Hellenistic  Jew,  who  shortly  before 
the  time  of  Christ,  or  perhaps  in  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  wrote  the  history  of  Judas 


Maccaba?us  and  his  brethren,  the  purification  of 
the  temple,  the  wars  against  Antiochus  Epiphanes 
and  Eupator,  the  restoration  of  the  law,  and  tlie 
liberation  of  the  Holy  City  (17.5-160  B.C.).  The 
work  was  in  five  books,  but  the  original  has  per- 
ished. The  present  Second  Book  of  tlie  Macca- 
bees, however,  is  an  extract  from  it  (2  Mace.  ii.  19). 
—  III.  Jason,  brother  of  the  high  priest(Jiiias  III., 
who,  from  .sheer  personal  ambition,  forgot  his 
religion  and  fatherland  so  far  as  to  buy  the  dignity 
of  high  priest  for  a  considerable  sum  of  money 
from  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  then  prostitute 
the  office  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  Hellenism 
among  his  countrymen,  and  despoiling  them  of 
their  old  national  liberties  (2  Mace.  iv.  7 ;  comp. 
1  Mace.  i.  13).  His  own  name  he  changed  from 
Jesus  into  Jason  (Josephus  :  Antif/. ,  yill.  5,  1). 
Under  the  castle  in  Jerusalem  he  established  a 
gymnasium  for  the  propagation  of  Hellenic  cul- 
ture. To  the  games  at  Tyre  in  honor  of  Herakles 
he  sent  ambassadors  with  presents,  and  Antiochus 
he  received  in  the  Holy  City  with  great  magnifi- 
cence (2  Mace.  iv.  22).  But  after  the  lapse  of 
three  years,  in- 172  or  171  B.C.,  he  was  supplanted 
in  the  favor  of  the  king  by  a  certain  Menelaos,  a 
brother  of  the  Benjamite  Simon  (2  Mace.  iv.  23). 
Menelaos  made  a  higher  bid  for  the  high-priestly 
office,  and  Jason  was  compelled  to  fly  to  the  Am- 
monites. Soon  after,  however,  when  a  rumor 
arose  that  Antiochus  had  perished  on  an  expedi- 
tion against  Egypt,  Jason  returned,  at  the  head 
of  one  thousand  men,  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem, 
and  conquered  the  city,  with  the  exception  of  the 
castle.  He  took  a  bloody  revenge  on  his  ene- 
mies, but  was  in  the  long-run  unable  to  maintain 
himself.  Once  more  he  fled  to  the  Ammonites; 
and  afterwai'ds,  pursued  by  the  Arabian  King 
Aretas,  he  wandered  about  from  place  to  place, 
until  he  finally  perished  miserably  in  Sparta 
(2  Mace.  V.  5).  Josephus,  however,  gives  quite 
another  account  of  his  life  and  character  {Anliq., 
XII.  5,  1 ;  XX.  10,  3).  According  to  that  report, 
he  succeeded  his  brother  Onias  HI.  in  a  legitimate 
way,  but  was  himself  expelled  by  a  younger 
brother,  ^Menelaos ;  and  it  was  IMenelaos,  and  not 
Jason,  who  labored  to  propagate  Ilellenisin  among 
the  Jews.  But  we  have  no  means  to  decide  be- 
tween the  two  accounts.  See  ScuiiRER  :  Neulest. 
Zeitgeschichte,  p.  74. — IV.  Jason,  a  Christian, 
in  whose  house  Paul  lived  in  Thessalonica  (Acts 
xvii.  5-9).  Whether  he  was  identical  with  the 
Jason  mentioned  in  Rom.  xvi.  21  as  a  relative  of 
Paul  is  not  known.  RtJETSCHI. 

JAUFFRET,  Gaspard  Jean  Andre  Josephj  b. 
at  La  Roque-Brussane,  Provence,  Dec.  13,  1759; 
d.  in  Paris,  May  13,  1823 ;  studied  at  Toulon,  Aix,. 
and  Paris;  founded  in  1791  the  An7iales  de  la 
Religion;  became  in  ISOl  attached  to  Cardinal 
Fesch  as  private  secretary  and  vicar-general,  and 
was  appointed  bishop  of  Metz  in  1806,  and  arch- 
bishop of  Aix  in  1811.  Many  congregations  of 
monks  and  nuns,  both  in  Paris  and  in  his  dio- 
ceses, owe  their  re-organization  to  him.  His 
principal  writings  are,  De  la  Religion  h  I'Assem- 
ble'e  JSationale,  1791,  and  Du  Culte  Public,  1795. 

JA'VAN  designates  in  Hebrew,  as  in  the  other 
Oriental  languages,  —  Syriac,  Arabic,  Coptic,  aud 
Persian,  —  the  Greeks,  and  is  derived  from  ''  loni- 
ans  "  ("laowf).  In  the  table  of  nations  (Gen.  x. 
2-4)  Javan  is  mentioned  as  a  son  of  Japheth,  and 


JAY. 


1150 


JEANNE  D'ALBRET. 


I'atlier  of  Elishah,  Tarshish,  Kittim,  and  Doda- 
nini.  The  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Assyria  con- 
tain the  same  notices.  The  Hindoos  also  call 
the  people  of  the  farthest  West  Jaiana  (juvenis, 
"  young  "),  because  the  Western  nations  were  the 
youngest  branches  of  the  Indo-Germanic  race. 
There  was  also  a  city  of  Javan  in  Arabia,  alluded 
to  in  Ezek.  xxvii.  19.  [See  B.  Stade  :  De  Popu- 
lo  JaKun  parergon  patrio  sermone  cunscriptum,  Gies- 
sen,  1880,  20  pp.]  ruetschi. 

JAY,  William,  an  English  clergyman,  for  near- 
ly sixty-two  years  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church  at  Argyle  Chapel,  Bath,  Somersetshire ; 
b.  at  Tisbm-y,  Wiltshire,  Jlay  6, 1769 ;  d.  at  Bath, 
Dec.  27,  1853 ;  educated  by  "Cornelius  Winter  at 
the  dissenting  academy  at  Marlborough.  Began 
to  preach  at  sixteen,  and  in  1788  became  preacher 
to  a  small  church  at  Churhan  Malford,  near  Chip- 
penham ;  thence  he  removed  to  Hope  Chapel, 
•  Clifton,  in  1789,  and  was  ordained  pastor  at  Bath, 
»Jau.  30,  1791.  Jay's  preaching  attracted  hearers 
of  all  classes.  John  Foster  said  he  was  the 
^'  Prince  of  Preachers."  Sheridan  declared  him 
to  be  the  most  manly  orator  he  had  ever  heard. 
His  published  sermons  have  been  widely  circu- 
lated. His  chief  works  are,  An  Essay  on  Mar- 
riage, Memoirs  of  the  Rev.  Cornelius  Winter,  Me- 
moirs of  the  Rec.  John  Clark,  Lectures  on  Female 
Scripture  Characters.  His  'Morning  and  Evening 
Exercises  (4  vols.)  have  been  very  popular.  His 
Autobiography,  with  a  supiilement  by  Bedford 
and  J.  A.  James,  was  published  in  1854.  His 
ministry  was  distinguished  by  its  directness,  sim- 
plicity, scriptural  and  evangelical  character,  and 
was  attended  and  maintained  with  marked  suc- 
cess. LLEWELYX  D.  BEVAN. 

JEALOUSY,  The  Trial  of,  is  clearly  and  mi- 
nutely described  i]i  Num.  v.  11-31  ;  but,  as  Jew- 
ish tradition  modified  and  interpreted  tlie  legal 
statements,  the  following  explanations  will  be  of 
interest.  "  Tlie  tenth  part  of  an  epliah  of  barley- 
jneal  "  —  the  "oiTering  of  jealousy,  an  offering  of 
memorial,  bringing  iniquity  to "  remembrance,"' 
Ijecause  it  liad  the  object  of  bringing  the  wife's 
guilt  before  (iod,  so  that  he  miglit  uncover  it  — 
(v.  15)  was  an  offering  of  the  suspected  wife,  and 
taken  out  of  her  liand  (v.  25) ;  yet,  since  wives 
had  no  personal  property,  it  really  came  from  him, 
and  very  appropriately  too,  since  he  instigated  the 
trial,  without  the  assent  of  his  wife.  It  was  a 
bloodless  offering,  because  in  no  case  was  tliere  in 
it  any  atonement ;  yet  it  was  necessary,  because 
no  one  dare  appear  empty  before  Jehovali  (Exod. 
xxiii.  15,  xxxiv.  20).  Jt  introduced  the  proceed- 
ings, and,  as  far  as  the  wife  was  concerned,  had 
no  prejudicial  value:  it  merely  signified  that  she 
wa>i  suspected,  not  condemned,  and  consisted  of 
barley,  the  food  of  the  poor  and  of  cattle,  to  iii- 
•dicate  this  suspicion  ;  and,  lastly,  it  was  prepared 
without  oil  or  frankincense,  so  that  it  miglit  have 
no  sweetrsmelling  savor.  The  woman's  head  was 
uncovered,  and  her  hair  unloosed,  to  indicate  her 
as.siM'ted  immodesty.  The  vc'ssel  used  to  hold  the 
bitUn- drink  was  earthen,  and  therefore  wortliless. 
Dust — the  .sign  of  the  deejiest  hnniiliation  and 
contumely  —  from  the  floor  of  the  tabernacli!  was 
mixed  with  the  water  taken  from  the  laver  in  the 
holj"  place.  The  source  indicated  the  lioliness, 
which  imparted,  even  to  the.  dust  of  the  tal)erna- 
cle,  a  lioly  character,  and  thereby  increased  the 


strength  of  the  drink.  It  was  the  water  which 
wrought  the  curse  (cf.  Ps.  cix.  18).  The  under- 
lying idea  was,  that  God  dwelt  in  the  midst  of  his 
people,  and  would  come,  according  to  his  promise, 
and  render  efficacious  his  own  appointed  ordi- 
nances. In  the  working  of  the  water  of  jealousy 
lay  the  punishment  of  the  adulteress ;  and  there- 
fore the  convict  was  not  liable  to  the  punishment 
for  adultery  enjoined  in  Lev.  xx.  10,  Deut.  xxii. 

The  Talmudic  tract  Sola  (i.e.,  the  dissolute 
wife)  adds  certain  particulars  to  the  Bible  account. 
Before  the  trial  of  jealousy,  warning  must  have 
been  given  by  the  liusband.  This  being  disregard- 
ed, the  wife  was  taken  before  the  local  authorities, 
and  then  before  the  Sanhedrin  at  Jerusalem.  By 
the  latter  she  was  kindly  but  warningly  exhorted 
to  confession.  If  she  confessed,  then  her  marriage- 
certificate  was  destroyed,  and  she  lost  all  claim 
upon  her  husband's  property,  but  was  otherwise 
unpunished.  If  she  refused  to  confess,  she  was 
taken  to  the  Nicanor  Gate  of  the  temple,  which 
was  between  the  Court  of  Israel  and  the  Court  of 
the  Women,  and  there  the  solemn  rites  were  per- 
formed. Her  veil  and  her  ornaments  were  re- 
moved, she  was  dressed  in  black  garments,  given 
the  waters  of  jealousy  to  drink,  and  then  the  meal 
was  thrown  upon  the  altar.  If  innocent,  she  suf- 
fered no  harm :  if  guilty,  she  felt  its  disastrous 
effects.  These  traditional  ceremonies  were  de- 
signed to  lessen  the  number  of  trial-cases,  and 
certain  whole  classes  of  women  were  debarred 
ever  drinking  the  waters  of  jealousy;  e.g.,  those 
who  by  nature  or  age  were  incapable  of  bearing 
children.  Moreover  it  was  decided,  that,  if  the 
jealous  husband  had  himself  been  unchaste,  the 
waters  would  have  no  effect ;  and  so  in  other  cases. 
Again :  the  good  conduct  of  the  woman,  especially 
her  zeal  in  teaching  and  practising  the  law,  de- 
barred such  a  trial  for  a  certain  length  of  time, 
even  as  long  as  three  years.  The  school  of  Ilillel 
abolished  it  entirely. 

[It  is  important  to  observe  the  striking  differ- 
ence between  the  divine  test  of  conjugal  fidelity 
and  human  tests.  In  the  former  case  tlie  innocent 
woman  certainly  escaped,  since  there  was  really 
nothing  given  iier  but  a  little  pure  water  and  a 
few  pinches  of  dust.  But  in  the  ordeals  of  the 
middle  age,  and  among  heathen  nations,  the  result 
of  the  test  was  certain  to  be  eitlic:r  death  or  great 
suffering,  entirely  irrespective  of  the  moral  status 
of  the  suspected  wife.  See  Waoenseil:  Sota, 
hoc  est  liber  Mischnicus  ile  uxore  ailulterii  suspecta, 
Altdorf,  1G74;  .see  also  Fkanz  Delitzscii's  art. 
Eiferopfer,  in  IllEllM'.s  llandbuch  d.  lib.  Aller- 
Ihiaiis.]  CIEIILER. 

JEANNE  D'ALBRET,  Queen  of  Navarre, 
mother  of  Henry  \\'.,  of  France,  and  the  faithful 
friend  of  French  Protestantism;  b.  in  Pan,  Jan. 
7,  1528;  d.  in  Paris,  June  9,  1572.  She  was  the 
eldest  child  of  Henry  d'.Vlbret,  King  of  Xavarre, 
and  Margaret  d'.Vngouleine-.Meiiron,  sister  of 
Francis  1.  of  France.  By  tlie  death  of  her  only 
brother  she  became  in  1530  heii-iiresuniiitive  of 
the  kingdom  Navarre-Hearn,  which,  though  small 
in  area,  attained  a  large  importance  liy  its  strate- 
gic location  on  the  boundary  between  France  and 
Spain.  Jeanne  was  a  feeble  child,  but  possessed 
a  clear  and  discerning  mind,  strong  will,  indomi- 
table energy,  and  an  unusual  aptitude  for  diplo- 


JBBB. 


1151 


JEHORAM. 


inacy.  In  1548  she  was  married  to  the  Duke 
Antoine  de  Bourbon  Vendome,  a  man  of  elegant 
manners,  but  profligate  habits.  Their  third  cliild 
jifterwards  became  Ilenry  IV.  of  France.  In  15.5.5 
tlie  Ivingdoni  of  Navarre,  by  the  death  of  her 
fatlier,  passed  into  her  liands. 

Tliis  princess  played  a  very  prominent  part  in 
the  Protestant  Reformation  of  F'rance.  She  had 
breathed  the  atmo.sphere  of  the  new  religious 
;  Movement  at  the  court  of  her  mother,  and  in 
1560  publicly  renounced  Catholicism,  and  accepted 
the  confession  of  the  Reformed  Churches.  Her 
.subsequent  bold  advocacy  of  Protestantism  won 
for  her  the  title  of  the  "  Deborah  of  the  Hugue- 
nots." Upon  the  death  of  her  husband,  in  15G2, 
who  had  assumed  an  unfavoralile  attitude  towards 
Protestantism,  she  began  in  earnest  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  Reformation  in  her  realm.  The  New 
Testament  was  translated  by  John  de  Lic^arrague 
de  Briscours,  and  published  at  Rochelle,  1571, 
under  the  title,  Jesus  Christ  Gure  Jauriaren  Testa- 
mentu  Berria  ;  and  a  church  discipline  (^Discipline 
cedes,  du  pays  de  Beam)  was  drawn  up  after  the 
model  of  the  Genevan,  by  Raymond  Merlin.  In 
1568  an  army  invaded  her  territory ;  but,  warned 
beforehand,  she  made  good  her  escape  to  La 
Rochelle,  the  common  refuge  of  the  Huguenots. 
During  the  troublous  period  that  followed,  down 
to  the  time  of  her  death,  she  manifested  the  most 
ardent  attachment  to  the  cause  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. She  remained  at  Rochelle  three  years;  and 
her  name  and  that  of  her  son  appear  at  the  head 
of  the  list  of  those  who  were  present  at  the  third 
general  synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  held  in 
that  city.  She  died  of  a  fever,  at  Paris,  whither 
slie  had  gone  to  make  preparations  for  the  mar- 
riage of  her  son  with  Margaret  of  Valois. 

Jeanne  conti'ibuted  much  to  the  cause  of  the 
Protestants  in  France.  She  is  a  representative 
type  of  tlie  Huguenot,  —  full  of  faith,  and  animate 
ed  by  lofty  purposes  and  indomitable  courage. 
She  will  always  remain  one  of  the  foremost  figures 
of  French  Protestantism,  as  she  was  one  of  the 
noblest  queens  of  the  century. 

Lit.  Biographies.  —  Vauvii.liers  :  Histoire  de 
Jeanne  d'Albret,  Paris,  1823;  Muket:  La  vie  de 
Jeanne  d'Albret.  Her  correspondence  was  edited 
by  RocHAMBEAU,  Pal is,  1877,  Lettres  d' Antoine  de 
Bourbon  el  de  Jeanne  d'Albret. — General  works. 
BoRDENAVE :  Hisloire  de  Beam  et  Navarre,  Paris, 
1873;  [Baird:  History  of  the  Huguenots,  New 
York,  1879,  2  vols.].  klippel-schott. 

JEBB,  John,  b.  at  Drogheda,  Sept.  27,  1775; 
d.  at  Limerickj  Dec.  7,  1833.  He  was  graduated 
at  Dublin  University,  and  was  made  bishop  of 
Limerick  1823.  His  principal  work  is  Sacred 
Literature  (London,  1820,  several  editions),  which 
was  intended  to  be  a  review  of  Lowth  on  Hebrew 
Poetry  and  Isaiah,  but  has  inuoh  independent 
value  as  a  scholarly  contribution  to  Bible  exegesis. 
See  Charles  Forster  :  Life  of  Bishop  Jebb,  with 
a  Selection  from  his  Letters,  London,  1836,  2  vols., 
in  1  vol.,  1837. 

JE'BUS  and  JEB'USITES  (rfr^;)/ace,  ov  trodden- 
dowit  place,  i.e.,  perhaps,  for  a  threshing-floor). 
The  Jebusites  were  a  Canaanitic  tribe  (Gen.  x.  16), 
belonging  to  the  Amoritic  branch  (Josh.  x.  5). 
They  are  always  mentioned  last  among  the 
Canaanites  (Gen.  xv.  21;  Josh.  ix.  1,  xxiv.  11), 
probably  because  they  formed  only  a  small  tribe. 
21—11 


But  they  were  brave.  When  the  Israelites  entered 
the  promised  land,  the  Jebusites  occupied  the 
southern  part  of  the  mountains  of  Judah,  and 
were  called,  after  their  chief  stronghold,  Jebus, 
the  later  Jerusalem  (Josh.  xi.  3,  xviii.  28).  Their 
land  was  allotted  to  Benjamin  ;  but  Jebus,  or 
Jebusi,  successfully  resisted  Joshua  and  later 
sieges,  and  was  conquered  only  by  David  (2  Sam. 
V.  6;  1  Chron.  xi.  4),  who  made  it  his  capital,  as 
it  had  been  that  of  the  Canaanites  for  many  cen- 
turies ;  probably  so  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham, if,  as  is  likely,  it  was  identical  with  the 
Salem  of  Gen.  xiv.  18.  It  was  at  that  time  very 
small,  covering  only  the  hill  of  Zion.  It  owed 
its  strength  simply  to  its  situation.  In  the  divis- 
ion of  the  land,  Jebus  fell  to  Benjamin  (Josh, 
xviii.  28). 

JEHOI'ACHIN  (whom  Jehovah  has  appointed'), 
the  son  and  successor  of  Jehoiakim ;  king  of 
Judah  (2  Kings  xxiv.  8-16).  He  reigned  only 
three  months  and  ten  days  ;  for  Nebuchadnezzar 
took  Jerusalem,  carried  him  and  ten  thousand 
captives,  including  the  nobles  and  artisans,  to 
Babylon,  and  he  remained  in  captivity  thirty-seven 
years,  until  Evil-merodach  released  him,  and  put 
him  at  the  head  of  all  the  captive  kmgs  (Jer.  lii. 
31-,34). 

JEHOI'ADA  (whom  Jehovah  knows),  high  priest, 
and  liusliand  of  Jehosheba,  the  aunt  of  Joash, 
who  alone  of  the  family  of  Ahaziah  escaped  the 
murderous  hand  of  Athaliah  (2  Kings  xi.  1-xii. 
2).  Jehoiada  was  the  guardian  of  the  young 
king,  put  him  upon  the  throne,  killed  Athaliah, 
and,  so  long  as  he  lived,  .so  wLsely  directed  Joash 
that  all  things  went  well.  In  recognition  of  his 
eminent  services  to  Church  and  State  he  was 
buried  "in  the  city  of  David,  among  the  kings" 
(2  Chron.  xxiv.  16).  The  chronicler  states  his  age 
at  death  to  have  been  a  hundred  and  thirty  years. 

JEHOI'AKIM  (tvhom  .Jehovah  sets  up),  the  eldest 
son  of  Josiah,  and  the  brother  and  successor  of 
Jehoahaz  upon  the  throne  of  Judah.  He  reigned 
wickedly  for  eleven  years,  when  he  was  killed  or 
murdered,  and  "  buried  with  the  burial  of  an  ass, 
drawn,  and  cast  forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jeru- 
salem "  (Jer.  xxii.  19).  His  original  name  was 
Eliakim  (2  Kings  xxiii.  34) ;  and  he  owed  his 
elevation  in  his  twenty-fifth  year  to  Pharaoh- 
nechoh,  whose  tributary  he  became.  But  after 
four  years  he  was  defeated  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to  him.  After  three 
years  he  rebelled,  was  taken  prisoner,  but  ulti- 
mately relea.sed,  and  allowed  to  reign  as  a  vassal. 
It  was  he  who  muidered  the  prophet  L^rijah  (Jer. 
xxvi.  23),  and  so  impiously  cut  up  and  burnt 
Jeremiah's  roll  of  proi'liecies  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23). 
His  history  is  given  briefly  in  2  Kings  xxiii.  34- 
xxiv.  6  and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4-8;  but  many  de- 
tails are  supplied  by  Jer.  xxii.  1-3-19,  xxvi.,  xxxvi. 

JEHO'RAM  or  JO'RAM  (whom  Jehovah  has  ex- 
alted), the  name  of  two  kings.  I.  The  eldest 
son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  his  successor,  as  king  of 
Judah,  B.C.  892-885.  His  history  is  given  in 
1  Kings  xxii.  50,  2  Kings  viii.  16-24,  2  Chron. 
xxi.  8.  His  wife  was  Athaliah,  daughter  of  Ahab 
and  Jezebel ;  and  under  her  baneful  influence  he 
slew  his  brothers  on  coming  to  the  throne,  and 
led  a  bad  life,  full  of  misfortunes  for  himself 
and  his  kingdom,  until  a  terrible  disease  of  the 
bowels  terminated  his  career,  after  two  years  of 


JEHOSHAPHAT. 


1152 


JEHOVAH. 


bodily  suffering.  He  died  unwept,  unsung :  and, 
although  buried  in  the  city  of  D.ivid,  it  was  not 
in  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings.  To  him  Elijah 
sent  a  warning  letter,  foretelling  his  end.  Under 
him  the  Edomites  and  Libnah  successfully  re- 
Tolted. 

II.  The  son  of  Ahab  and  Jezebel,  and  there- 
fore brother-in-law  to  the  preceding ;  king  of 
Israel,  B  C.  896-884.  His  history  is  given  in 
2  Kings  i.  17,  iii.  4-27,  vi.  8-viii,"  24.  He  was 
weak,  rather  than  positively  bad  ;  although  he 
followed  the  traditions  of  his  house  in  the  Baal 
■worship.  With  Jehoshaphat  he  contracted  friend- 
ship, and  seems  also  to  have  been  liked  by 
Elisha.  For  his  union  with  the  former  in  war 
upon  Moab,  see  Jehoshaphat.  Elisha  acted  as 
his  councillor  in  his  war  with  Syria,  revealing 
prophetically  the  plans  of  the  foe ;  but  subse- 
quently, when  Benhadad  besieged  Samaria,  and 
produced  a  grievous  famine  in  the  city,  Jehoram 
laid  the  blame  upon  Elisha,  and  sought  to  kill 
him  The  prophet,  however,  foretold  the  plenty 
which  quickly  came,  and  the  king's  friendship 
returned.  When  Hazael  revolted  in  Damascus,  in 
consequence  of  Elisha's  prediction  (2  Kings  viii. 
12),  Jehoram  attempted,  by  the  helji  of  Ahaziah, 
king  of  Judah  (his  nephew),  to  take  Ramoth- 
gilead  from  the  Syrians,  thinking  to  profit  by  the 
confusion  of  that  kingdom.  The  project  failed, 
and  Jehoram  went  to  Jezreel  to  recover  from  his 
■wounds.  When  thus  invalided,  Jehu  rebelled 
against  him,  in  obedience  to  the  Lord's  order 
through  Elisha  (2  Kings  ix.  6),  attacked  him  in 
Jezreel,  met  him  in  his  chariot,  and  shot  him 
through  the  heart  with  an  arrow  on  the  plat  of 
ground  which  .Ahab  had  wrested  from  Naboth  the 
Jezreelite.  And  thus  Elijah's  prophecy  was  lit- 
erally fulfilled  (1  Kings  xxi  17-29).  Jehoram 
■was  the  last  king  of  the  <lynaaty  of  Omri. 

JEHOSHAPHAT  (Jeliora/i  ilois  justice),  the  son 
and  successor  of  Asa;  King  of  Judah  for  twenty- 
five  years,  —  914-889  B.C  .according  to  the  com- 
mon reckoning.  The  sources  of  his  history  are 
1  Kings  xxii.  41-50;  2  Chron.  xvii.-xxi.  1.  lie 
succeeded  in  raising  Juilali  to  a  position  it  had 
not  occupied  since  Solomon,  and  thus  made  it 
seem  very  desirable  to  Ahab  to  have  him  as  an 
ally  against  Syria.  The  proposition  was  received 
with  only  too  great  readiness  on  Jehoshaphat's 
part;  and  the  brother-kings  fought  against  Syria 
at  Ramoth-gilead,  notwithstanding  the  solemn 
■warning  of  the  Jehovali  prophet  Alicaiah.  For 
this  conduct  he  was  reproved  by  Jehu  on  his  re- 
turn home.  .Some  time  after  this,  the  Ammonites 
and  Moabites  attacked  Judah.  The  intelligence 
was  received  with  great  api)rehension,  but  laid 
before  the  Lord  in  prayer  by  the  king.  In  answer, 
Jahaziel,  a  I>e,vite,  was  inspired  to  announce  that 
the  Lord  would  fight  for  them  on  the  morrow :  .so 
upon  that  day  Judah  went  out  preceded  by  singers, 
and  found  that  their  enemies  had  turned  their 
swords  against  one  another,  and  fled  in  great 
confusion.  Again:  still  later,  Jehoshaphat  showed 
his  weakness  by  joining  Jehoram,  the  .son  of  .Miab, 
in  an  expedition  against  Moab.  Elisha  accom- 
panied them,  and  by  his  interposition  averted  a 
water-famine  (2  Kings  iii.  HJ-2II).  He  told  them 
to  dig  trenches,  which,  when  filled  with  tlie  water 
which  Jehovah  sent,  .seemed  to  run  with  blood 
when  the  sun  shone  upon  them.    Thus  the  Moab- 


ites  were  deceived  to  their  destruction  as  they 
came  up  to  the  camp  of  Israel,  supposing  that 
they  had  smitten  one  another,  and  were  them- 
selves slain.  The  king  of  Jloab,  Mesha.  straitly 
besieged  in  Kir-haraseth,  offered  up  his  eldest  son 
upon  the  wall.  "  And  there  was  great  indigna- 
tion against  Israel ;  and  they  departed  from  him, 
and  returned  to  their  own  land."  These  myste- 
rious words  imply  some  sort  of  a  panic.  A  third 
co-operation  with  Israel  was  with  Ahaziah  on  an 
unfortunate  commercial  enterprise. 

But  the  greatness  of  Jehoshaphat  was  certainly 
not  displayed  in  his  wai-s,  but  in  his  government. 
He  was  a  pious  king,  and  ruled  in  the  fear  of  the 
Lord ;  yet  the  high  places  were  not  removed,  and 
the  amount  of  permanent  good  he  did  was  small, 
not  through  any  fault  of  his,  however.  In  his 
zeal  he  sent  five  of  his  princes  —  nine  Levites  and 
two  priests  —  to  teach  in  all  the  cities  of  Judah  the 
law  of  the  Lord  (2  Chron.  xvii.  7-9).  He  also 
arranged  a  system  of  appellate  jurisdiction,  cul- 
minating in  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  xix.  5-11).  A 
priest  judged  in  spiritual,  and  a  prince  in  tempo- 
ral affairs.  It  was  no  wonder  that  Jehoshaph.at 
waxed  great  exceedingly,  and  that  the  land 
rejoiced  in  its  prosperity  (2  Chron.  xvii.  12  sqq.). 
But  Jehoram,  the  son  of  this  pious  and  prosperous 
king,  married  the  daughter  of  Ahab,  and  reigned 
wickedly ;  so  that  the  kingdom  rapidly  lost  posi- 
tion. 

Lit.  —  Besides  tlie  Commentaries,  see  especially 
the  Bible  Hi.stories  of  Ewald  and  Hitzig;  upon 
Mesha,  see  the  art.  Moab.  v.  orelli. 

JEHO'VAH,  nin-  [Jhvh]  is  the  name  of  God 
which  is  characteristic  of  and  peculiar  to  the  Old 
Testament,  and  for  that  reason  called  by  the  Jews 
the  peculiar  name  (inVDn    DU).  and  the  name 

which  does  not  express  an  attribute  of  God,  like 
Elohim,  but  his  whole  being. 

I.  Pronunciation  and  Eti/molo<ji/. — The  tetra- 
grammalon  TWTV  was  not  pronounced  by  the  Jews, 
and  the  Masorites  gave  to  it  the  vowel-points  of 
another  divine  name, 'j'lX  {Adonai);  but,  where 
these  two  names  occur  side  by  side,  they  gave  to 
it  the  vowels  of  Elohim  (Isa.  xxii.  12.  14,  etc.). 
The  Jews  based  the  rule  prohibiting  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  name  on  Lev.  xxiv.  l(i,  where 
the  translation  "  blaspheme  "  is  proper  ;  but  the 
LXX.  translated  it  "  naming  the  name  of  the 
Lord"  (<im/ui(uv  rd  uvofia).  The  first  trace  of 
the  feeling  which  shuinied  the  pronunciation  of 
the  name  is  fouiul  in  some  of  the  later  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  which  use  the  word  Jhvh 
comparatively  seldom  ;  aiul  in  the  LXX.,  which 
always  translates  it  by  Lord  (li'P'"?).  Josephus 
says  he  was  not  allowed  to  utter  the  nanle(/ln^ 
II.  12,  4),  atul  Fhilo  relates  that  it  was  heard  and 
uttered  in  the  Holy  of  holies  {Vit.  Afox..  iii.  11). 
The  Mishna  Barachoth  (ix.  5)  says,  in  com- 
inenting  ujion  Ruth  ii.  4,  Judg.  ii.  1(1,  that  its 
use  was  jiermitted  in  greetings.  Abba  Schaul 
(Sanhi'drin  x.  1),  on  the  other  haiul.  includes 
amongst  those  who  lijive  no  part  in  the  future 
life  all  who  pronounce  the  divine  name  as  it  is 
written.  According  to  Maimonides  (,1/ore,  i.  61), 
the  name  might  only  be  uttered  in  the  temple  by 
the  pri<?sts  in  pronouncing  the  ble.ssing,  an<l  by  the 
high  priest  on  the  day  of  atonement;  but  even 
this  privilege  was  taken  away  after  the  death  o£ 


JEHOVAH. 


1153 


JBHUDAH. 


Simeon.  Among  the  Jews  the  opinion  prevailed, 
tliat  the  knowledge  of  how  the  name  was  pro- 
nounced was  lost  at  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem ;  but  many  Christian  theologians  ((iataker, 
Leusden,  etc.)  have  held  that  Jehovah  (niiT)  is 
the  original  pronunciation.  The  data  for  the 
determination  of  the  pronunciation  and  the  ety- 
mology are  found  in  Exod.  iii.  14.  There  the 
name  of  God  is  revealed  to  Moses  as  T^/X   r!'ns< 

H'HS    ["I    AM    THAT    I    am"]    .    .    .    ITHN    [I    AM] 

"hath  sent  me  to  you."  This  makes  it  clear 
that  mrr  [Jlivh]  is  formed  from  the  third  person 
«f  the  imperfect  of  nin  [Havah],  an  older  form 
of  TTT\,  and  is  to  be  pronounced  either  nin" 
[Jahve],  or  nin'.  [Jahaveh],  from  ^^\}'.,  which  is 
tlie  more  natural  and  rhj-thmioal.  According  to 
Tlieodoret,  the  Samaritans  read  the  name,  'lajSi 
[Jabe]  ;  the  Jews,  'Ain  [ Aia] ;  according  to  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  'laoit  [Yaou].  The  first  and  the 
last,  perhaps,  point  to  the  use  of  'H'  [Jahu]  as  a 
name  for  God  in  common  conversation. 

II.  Meaning.  — According  to  Exod.  iii.  14,  the 
meaning  of  niH'  is  He,  that  is  who  he  is.  But,  as 
the  verb  originally  signifies  to  become,  the  name 
signifies  that  the  being  of  God  has  a  progressive 
manifestation  or  development.  It  points  to  God  s 
relations  to  man  in  history.  The  heathen  re- 
garded the  revelation  of  their  gods  almost  exclu- 
sively as  a  thing  of  the  past;  but  this  name 
shows  that  God  was  revealing  himself  constantly 
and  progressively :  in  other  words,  it  witnes.sed 
to  the  Hebrew  people  that  their  God  was  a  God 
of  the  future.  The  word  distinctly  expresses  the 
two  ideas,  (1)  of  the  divine  free  will  and  self- 
determination,  and  (2)  of  God's  absolute  self- 
consistency  and  unchangeableness  (ISlal.  iii.  6), 
remaining  and  revealing  himself  through  all 
eternity  as  one  and  the  same.  But  the  name 
(Exod.  xxxiii.  19;  2  Kings  viii.  1 ;  Ezek.  xii.  2.5) 
means  more.  It  means  the  all-powerful  one, 
who  is  determined  by  nothing  else  than  his  own 
will,  and  rules  in  history,  —  the  Lord  of  the 
future,  the  God  of  the  plan  of  salvation.  (See 
Delitzsch:  TrosI  d.  Gnttesnaniens,  etc.,  1876,  pp. 
77  sqq.)  Compared  with  Etohim  and  El,  Jahve 
brings  out  the  historical  revelation  of  God,  and 
liis  reign  in  his  kingdom  on  the  earth.  Elohim 
refers  to  God's  transcendence  above  the  world, 
and  his  activity  in  its  creation  (Gen.  i.  1).  The 
difference  is  brought  out  in  Ps.  xix.,  where  God 
is  called  El  when  his  revelation  in  nature  is  re- 
ferred to  (1),  but  Jehovah  wlien  the  reference 
is  to  his  revelation  in  the  Law  (8  sqq.).  Jehovah 
is  the  living  God,  who  does  all  that  he  pleases 
(Ps.  cxv.  3),  —  hears  prayer,  etc.,  in  contrast 
■with  the  gods  of  the  heathen.  For  this  reason 
there  is  no  stronger  oath  than  "Jehovah  lives;  " 
"  Elohim  lives"  never  being  used.  And,  as  it  is 
Jeliovah  who  reveals  himself  to  men,  anthropo- 
morphisms (hands,  eyes,  mouth,  etc.)  are  usually 
ascribed  to  Jehovah,  and  not  to  Elohim.  Very 
striking  is  the  Juxtaposition  in  Gen.  vii.  16. 

III.  Origin.  —  The  origin  of  the  name  "Je- 
hovah," at  least  in  the  meaning  above  given,  is 
to  be  looked  for  only  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Some  have  urged  an  Egyptian  or  Indian  deriva- 
tion; but  these  derivations  have  all  been  proved 
to  he  without  foundation.  (See  especially  Tho- 
luck  :  Verm.  SchriJIen).    But  it  is  possible,  as  some 


proper  names  seem  to  indicate,  that  the  word 
existed  in  another  form,  J. /<«,  amongst  Shemitic 
peoples,  before  it  became  current  in  Israel, 
although  Baudissin  says  that  this  fact  is  due  to 
the  adoption  of  the  God  of  the  Hebrews  as  one  of 
their  gods  by  other  peoples.  The  principal  ques- 
tion is  when  the  name  was  first  revealed.  Jo- 
sephus  explained  Exod.  vi.  3  ("  by  my  name 
Jehovah  was  I  not  known  to  them  ")  to  mean  that 
the  patriarchs  were  not  acquainted  with  it;  but 
this  view  flatly  contradicts  Gen.  iv.  26,  xii.  8,  and 
other  passages.  Another  and  the  better  explana- 
tion of  the  passage  is,  that  the  patriarchs  did  not 
fully  understand  its  import  (conip.  Exod.  xxxiii. 
19,  xxxiv.  6).  The  name  is,  then,  to  be  regarded 
as  having  been  known  before  the  time  of  Moses, 
as  is  also  plain  from  the  fact  that  the  name  of 
Moses'  mother  [Jochebed,  to  Jehovah  is  the  glorijl 
contains  it  (Exod.  vi.  20).  See  Reland  :  Decas 
exercit.  phil.  de  vera  pronunt.  nominis  Jehovali,  1707  ; 
Tholuck  :  Verm.  Schriften,  i.  377-405 ;  [Ewald  : 
D.  Compos,  d.  Genesis,  Braunschw.,  1823;  the 
excellent  art.  Jehovah,  by  W.  Aldis  Wright,  in 
Smith's  Bible  Dictionary,  and  the  Commentaries 
on  Exod.  iii.  14 ;  also  Baudissin  :  Jahve  et  Moloch, 
Leipzig,  1871].  OEHLER.    DELITZSCH, 

JE'HU  (Nin-,  "Jehovah  is  he  "),King  of  Israel, 
exterminated  the  house  of  Ahab,  and  executed  the 
priests  of  Baal,  whom  Jezebel  had  introduced 
into  the  kingdom.  He  was  anointed  king  of  Is- 
rael (2  Kings  ix.  6)  by  a  messenger  of  Elisha,  in 
accordance  with  previous  directions  of  Elijah  to 
Elisha.  He  must  have  been  a  man  of  influence, 
and  perhaps  known  as  a  foe  of  the  reigning  dy- 
nasty (2  Kings  ix.  20).  Shutting  off  all  coiimiu- 
nication  between  Ramoth-gilead  and  Jezreel,  he 
set  out  in  his  chariot  for  Jezreel,  the  capital  city. 
Joram,  the  reignmg  king,  and  Ahaziah,  the  king 
of  Judah,  who  was  on  a  visit  in  Jezreel,  after  some 
delay  went  out  in  their  chariots  to  meet  him,  and 
inquire  his  mission.  Arrows  from  Jehu's  bow 
killed  them  both.  On  entering  the  city,  he  gave 
the  word  to  some  officers  of  the  royal  palace,  who 
threw  Jezebel  out  of  the  window  at  which  she  was 
standing.  The  propliecy  of  the  young  man  who 
anointed  Jehu  king  was  fulfilled  in  her  death  (2 
Kings  ix.  10).  With  ruthless  cruelty  Jehu  exter- 
minated the  house  of  Ahab,  and  put  to  death 
forty-two  meinbei's  of  the  family  of  Ahaziah, 
king  of  Judah,  and  Ahab's  grandson.  He  gath- 
ered the  priests  of  Baal  into  Baal's  temple,  until 
it  was  densely  crowded,  and  then  treacherously 
ordered  his  guard  to  slay  them.  He,  however, 
himself  was  not  faithful  to  the  worship  of  Jeho- 
vah (2  Kings  X.  31).  His  kingdom  was  harassed 
and  diminished  by  the  armies  of  Hazael.  He 
was  buried  in  Samaria,  after  a  reign  of  twenty- 
eight  years.  An  inscription  has  been  found  read- 
ing, Jahua  hahal  Hu-umri,  which  has  been  trans- 
lated, "Jehu,  son  (or  successor)  of  Omri."  The 
reference  to  the  king  of  Israel,  however,  has  been 
questioned. 

JEHUDAH  (HA-LEVI)  BEN  SAMUEL,  called  by 
Arabic  writers  Abul  Hassan,  the  greatest  Jewish 
poet  of  the  middle  age,  and  father-in-law  to  the 
gTeatest  Jewish  grammarian  of  that  age,  Aben 
Ezra;  b.  in  Castile,  Spain;  athisprime,1140  A.D.; 
d.  at  Jerusalem  about  1150;  according  to  tradition, 
trampled  to  death  by  a  IMohamniedau  horseman, 
because  he  lamented  so  loudly  over  the  -lesolation 


JENKS. 


1104 


JBPHTHAH. 


(if  the  city.  At  once  poet,  philosopher,  crrainma- 
rian,  scholar,  he  taught  the  faith  of  Judaism,  to 
the  ■nondering  delight  of  his  nation.  To  later 
ages  he  is  known  as  the  author  of  The  Book  of 
Cosari,  or,  in  full.  The  Book  of  Evidence  anil  Argu- 
ment in  Apotoi/i/  for  the  Despised  Relirjion  (i.e., 
Judaism),  written  in  Arabic,  first  published  in 
Hebrew  translation  at  Fano,  1.504.  and  at  Ven- 
ice, 1547  ;  with  an  Introduction  and  Commentary 
by  Muscato,  Venice.  1594 ;  with  Latin  translation 
by  the  younger  Johannes  Buxtorf.  Basel,  10(50; 
with  a  (jerman  translation  by  David  Cassel,  Leip- 
zig, 1853.  It  is  considered  the  ablest  presenta- 
tion of  the  superiority  of  Judaism  to  Ileatlienisni, 
Mohammedanism,  and  Christianity.  In  it  rab- 
binical learning  and  poetic  beauty  unite.  See  D. 
K.\i:km.\n'N  :  Jeliudah  Halewi,  Breslau,  1877,  and 
art.  Kosri,  in  Herzog,  ed.  i.,  viii.  32-36. 

JENKS,  Benjamin,  b.  in  Shropshire,  1646 ;  d. 
at  Ilarley,  May  10,  1724;  wrote  a  book  which  is 
still  valued,  Prayers  and  Ojfices  of  Devotion  for 
Faiuilies,  and  for  Particular  Persons  upon  most 
Occasions.  London,  1697;  27th  edition  by  Rev. 
Charles  .Simeon,  London,  ISIO,  reprinted,  1866. 

JENKS,  William,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Newton, 
Mass.,  Nov.  25,  1778;  d.  in  Boston,  Nov.  13,  1866. 
He  was  graduated  from  Harvard  College  1797 ; 
entered  the  ministry;  from  1815  to  1818  he  was 
professor  of  English  and  Oriental  literature  in 
Bowdoin  College,  Me.,  when  he  resigned,  went  to 
Boston,  and  opened  a  private  school.  In  that  city 
he  founded  tlie  first  seamen's  church,  the  parent 
of  similar  institutions  in  the  country.  From  1826 
to  1845  he  was  pastor  of  a  Congregational  church 
in  Green  Street.  During  this  period  he  compiled 
his  Comprehensive  Commentary  on  the  Holy  Bible, 
with  Scott's  References  and  Practical  Observations, 
Matthew  Henry's  Commentary  Condeyised ,  Explana- 
tory, Critical,  and  Philological  Notes  from  Various 
Authors,  Brattlcborough,  Vt.,  1834,  5  vols.,  witli 
suiiplemeutary  vol. ;  now  published  in  I'liiladel- 
phia.  It  has  been  very  extensively  .sold,  and  even 
••adapted  to  the  views  of  Baptists,  by  Kev.  J.  A. 
Warne."  Dr.  Jenks  was  one  of  tlie  founders  of 
the  .\nierican  Oriental  .Societj'. 

JENKYN,  William,  nonconformist  divine  and 
.scholar;  b.  at  Sudbury,  Suffolk,  Kng,,  1612;  d. 
in  Newgate  Prison,  whither  he  had  been  sent  for 
holding  a  conventicle,  Jan.  19,  1085.  He  was 
educated  at  Cambridge,  and  possessed  great  abil- 
ity. He  IS  remembered  for  his  excell(Mit  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Epistle  ofJude,  London,  1652-54,  2  vols. 
4to  ;  reprinted  by  Kev.  James  Sherman,  with  me- 
moir, London,  1839,  and,  in  connection  with 
Daille  on  I'hilippians  and  Colossians,  Kdinburgh, 
18(;5. 

JENNINGS,  David,  a  dissenting  minister;  b. 
at  Kibworth,  Leiceftersliire,  1691 ;  d.  in  Loudon, 
Sept.  16,  1762,  where  lie  had  been  pastor  for  forly- 
four  years.  Ho  is  reuKMubered  for  his  Jcirish  An- 
tiipiilies ;  or  a  Course  of  Lertures  on  the  EirsI  Three 
Books  of  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  to  which  is 
annexed  a  Dissertation  on  the  Hebrew  Language, 
London,  1766,  2  vols  ;  10th  ed.,  1839. 

JEPHTHAH,  a  judge  and  towering  tragic  liero 
of  Israel,  the  illegitimate  .son  of  a  man  of  (iilead. 
His  history  is  told  in  Judg.  xi.,  xii.  He  was 
driven  out  of  his  father's  liouse  l)y  the  legitimate 
children,  and  went  to  the  hmd  of  Tob,  in  Kasteni 
Hauraii,  where  he  gathered  about  him  a  band  of 


men.  When  the  Ammonites  invaded  Israel,  the 
chiefs  of  Gilead  had  recourse  to  Jephthah,  who, 
complying  with  their  appeal,  undertook  the  office 
in  the  fear  of  God.  He  was  not  merely  a  fiei-ce 
warrior,  for  he  sent  a  delegation  to  the  Ammon- 
ites in  the  interest  of  peace ;  but  when  they 
demanded  a  large  tract  of  territory  bounded  by 
the  Arnon,  Jabbok,  and  Jordan,  on  the  ground 
of  possession  prior  to  the  Israelitish  conquest, 
Jephthah  sent  back  a  gallant  reply,  to  the  effect 
that  the  territory  was  God's  gift,  and  had  been 
the  lawful  possession  of  Israel  for  three  tiundred 
years.  The  war  broke  out;  but  the  Gileadite 
leader  made  a  vow  to  dedicate  to  God,  in  case  of 
victory,  whatever  he  met,  on  his  return,  first  com- 
ing towards  him  from  his  house.  Jephthah,  in 
his  vow,  did  not  think  of  his  daughter,  for  daugh- 
ters remained  in  the  inner  part  of  the  houses,  but 
of  the  triumphal  procession  that  would  be  pre- 
pared for  him  on  his  return,  with  its  presents  to 
the  victor,  and  the  spoils  of  gold,  weapons,  etc., 
of  the  war. 

As  he  returned  from  his  triumph,  the  first  to- 
meet  him  was  his  own  and  only  daughter  with 
timbrels.  His  lieart  breaks,  but  a  veritable  otter- 
ing will  be  made.  It  will  cost  a  pang  to  give  up 
that  which  is  dearest  to  him.  And  he  does  not 
hesitate,  or  seek  for  excuses  in  the  letter  of  his 
vow  ;  for  a  person  was  not  included  in  the  "  what- 
soever Cometh  forth "  (Judg.  xi.  31).  It  is  a, 
tragedy  solitary  in  its  pathos  and  contrasts.  .AH 
is  jubilation;  only  the  author  of  it  is  not  jubilant ! 
The  trumpets  ring  with  the  joyous  strains  of 
victory ;  and  only  the  victor,  crowned  witli  glory, 
has  a  broken  heart!  He  came  to  place  the  crown 
of  the  first  citizen  on  his  daughter's  head,  and  he 
must  oft'er  her  up!  But  how  great  a  faith  do 
not  his  words  presuppose  (Judg.  xi.  35),  and  how 
grand  does  he  not  appear  beside  that  Roman  who 
offers  up  his  son,  only  out  of  respect  for  military 
discipline  !  He  was  not  right  in  thinking  that 
God  would  be  vvell  pleased  with  such  an  offering; 
but  he  did  not  want  to  appear  before  the  people 
as  only  willing  to  keep  his  vow  when  it  demanded 
any  tiling  else  but  his  child. 

Tlie  spirit  of  the  daughter  is  not  beneath  thai; 
of  her  father,  and  she  is  ready  to  be  the  sacrifice. 
This  sacrifice  did  not  consist,  as  some  have  urged, 
in  the  death  of  his  d.aughter.  The  Jewish  com- 
mentators have  done  well  in  insisting  upon  the 
meaning  of  or  for  1  ("and")  in  the  words  of  the 
vow,  running,  "  shall  surely  be  the  Lord's,  or  (and) 
1  will  oft'er  it  up  for  a  burnt  ottering"  (Judg.  xi. 
31).  If  Je]iht!iah  had  thought  only  of  the  burnt 
ottering,  the  first  clause  would  have  been  superflu- 
ous. Again  :  Jephth.ah  knew  the  history  of  Israel 
too  well  (xi.  15-26,  etc.)  to  have  forgotten  (tod's 
refusal  to  permit  the  sacrifice  of  Isa.ac.  Further: 
such  expressions  as  "she  knew  no  man,"  and  "let 
me  bewail  my  virginity"  (xi.  3!))  indicate  the 
very  nature  of  tlie  sacrifice;  and  the  daughters 
of  Isr.ael  in  after-years  did  not  lament  her  deatli, 
but  her  virginity.  It  was  in  this  that  the  ottering 
consisted,  and  tlie  virginity  only  has  a  meaning 
on  the  supposition  that  she  continued  to  live.  It 
is  interesting  to  reniembei'  that  the  maidens  of 
the  virgin  (ireek  goddess  Artemis  celebrated  a 
festival  like  that  wliioh  the  maidens  of  Israel 
celebrated  over  Jeplit hall's  daughter. 

Jeplithah's  last  soldierly  deed  was  the  defeat 


JEREMIAH. 


1155 


JEREMIAH. 


of  the  Epliraiinites  ('ludg-  xii.),  —  a  tribe  which 
on  several  occasions  raised  claims  after  the  danger 
was  over.  He  judged  Israel  six  years.  Ilis  name, 
which  does  not  occur  in  connection  with  any  other 
person,  may  be  connected  with  iipi  ("mighty"), 
or  with  np;  ("  beautiful  "),  witli  which  word  many 
Greek  female  names — Iphigenia,  Iphigone,  etc. 
—  seem  to  have  a  connection.  The  older  exposi- 
tors regarded  Jephthah  as  a  type  of  Him  who 
said,  "  Not  my  will  but  thine  be  done."  [See  the 
Commentaries  on  Judges  by  Bertheau,  Keil, 
Professor  Cassell  (in  Lange),  Canon  Cook 
(in  Speaker's  Com.),  and  the  art.  Jephtliah,  in 
Smith's  Diet,  of  the  Bible^.     paulus  cassel. 

JEREMI'AH  Cn;p_T,  or  rr^O-l",  from  np-;,  "  Jeho- 
vah throws  "),  one  of  the  great  Hebrew  prophets. 
I.  Life.  —  Jeremiah  was  the  .son  of  Hilkiali,  a 
priest  of  Anathoth  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin 
(i.  1,  etc.),  who,  however,  is  not  to  be  identified 
with  the  high  priest  (2  Kings  xxii.  4)  of  that 
name  ("Clem.  Alex.,  Jerome,  Eichhorn,  Umbreit), 
as  the  high  jiriest  belonged  to  the  house  of  Elea- 
zar,  and  only  the  priests  of  the  line  of  Ithamar 
resided  at  Anathoth  (1  Kings  ii.  26;  1  Chron. 
xxiv.  3).  He  was  called  at  an  early  age  to  the 
prophetic  office  (i.  6),  and  in  tlie  thirteenth  year 
of  Josiah's  reign  (i.  2,  xxv.  3),  —  629  or  627. 
Josiah  had  already  begun  his  reformatory  activity 
(2  Chron.  xxxiv.  3)  ;  but  the  prophet  was  not 
deceived  by  the  auspicious  outlook.  It  is  proba- 
ble that  he  prophesied  for  a  time  at  Anathoth 
(xi.  21),  but  then  in  Jerusalem.  The  first  twenty- 
two  years  of  his  prophetic  career  seem  to  have 
passed  without  any  notable  personal  incident, 
and  probably  only  the  quintessence  of  his  prophe- 
cies during  this  period  are  preserved  (iii.-x.). 
The  year  605  B.C.,  in  which  the  battle  of  Car- 
chemish  was  fought,  marks  a  turning-point  in  his 
life.  Before  this  event,  he  had  prophesied  the 
downfall  of  the  theocracy ;  but  now  for  the  first 
time  (in  chap,  xxv.)  he  announces  the  name  of 
the  people  (the  Chaldeans)  by  whom  it  was  to  be 
effected.  Four  years  after  Carchemish,  Nebu- 
chadnezzar made  Judaea  tributary  to  his  kingdom 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  1).  Jeremiah  laid  out  a  definite 
sketch  of  the  immediate  future  (seventy  years), 
not  only  of  the  theocracy,  but  also  of  the  C'hal- 
dean  monarchy,  and  the  nations  to  be  conquered 
by  it,  —  Egypt,  Uz,  Edom,  etc.  (xxv.  19-25).  All 
resistance  would  be  in  vain  (xxvii.  8),  and  the 
only  means  of  escaping  total  destruction  would 
be  voluntary  submission  (xxvii.  11).  At  the  end 
of  seventy  years  the  land  was  to  be  delivered. 
Immediately  after  the  victory  of  Carchemish,  he 
regards  Nebuchadnezzar's  supremacy  over  Judaea 
and  the  nations  mentioned  in  xxv.  11  sqq.  as  not 
only  assured,  but  a  matter  of  divine  right.  This 
period  of  seventy  years  begins  with  605  B.C.,  and 
closes  with  536  B.C.,  —  the  last  year  of  the  exile. 
Another  fact  marking  the  progress  of  Jeremiah 
after  the  turning-point  just  mentioned  is,  that, 
in  obedience  to  a  divine  command,  he  commits 
his  prophecies  to  writing  in  the  fourth  year  of 
Jehoiakim's  reign  (xxxvi.).  What  we  read  in  the 
twenty-fifth  chapter  and  the  chapters  belonging 
with  it  is  the  kernel  and  heart  of  the  prophecy. 
Jehoiakini,  after  being  subject  to  Nebuchadnez- 
zar for  three  years,  was  put  to  a  horrible  death 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  1-6),  and  succeeded  by  his  son 
Jehoiachin,  who  reigned  only  three  months  (Jer. 


lii.  31-34).  Then  Nebuchadnezzar  deported  a 
large  portion  of  the  people.  Zedekiah  followed 
Jehoiachin  (xxxvii.  1),  but  the  position  of  the 
prophet  was  a  very  painful  one  in  conse(iuence  of 
the  callousness  of  the  i^eople  and  .stolid  indiifer- 
ence  of  its  leaders  (xxi.-xxiv.).  The  king  liroke 
his  oath  promising  fealty  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  in 
the  expectation  of  aid  from  Egypt.  'I'lie  Chal- 
deans besieged  Jerusalem ;  but  their  expedition 
against  the  Egyptians  excited  hopes  which  Jere- 
miah showed  to  be  fallacious  (xxxvii.  6-11). 

From  this  time  dates  the  period  of  the  proph- 
et's severe  afflictions.  He  was  thrown  into  prison 
(xxxvii.  11-16).  The  king  had  recourse  to  him 
for  counsel ;  but  the  prophet,  persisting  in  prophe- 
sying the  downfall  of  the  city,  was  cast  into  a 
"  dungeon  where  there  was  no  water,  but  mire  " 
(xxxviii.  6),  from  which  he  was  only  rescued  by 
the  intercession  of  a  royal  eunuch  (xxxviii.  1-13). 
This  was  the  culmination  of  his  sufferings;  but 
it  is  noticeable,  that,  just  at  this  time  of  personal 
suffering,  the  prophet  utters  liis  most  glowing 
prophecies  as  that  of  the  Lord  our  Rigliteousness 
(xxxiii.  16).  In  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign,  -Jerusalem  was  taken.  The  prophet  was 
released,  and  betook  himself  to  Mizpeh,  the  resi- 
dence of  Gedaliah,  the  Chaldean  governor  (xl. 
1-6).  The  latter  was  soon  afterwards  murdered, 
and  Jeremiah  was  forced  by  the  people  to  accom- 
pany them  to  Egypt,  although  he  had  advised 
against  the  expedition,  as  displeasing  to  God 
(xli.  17-xliii.).  At  Tahpanhes,  where  the  Jews 
encamped,  he  again  lifted  up  his  prophetic  voice 
against  Egypt  (xliii.,  xliv.)  ;  and  this  is  tlie  last 
we  hear  of  him  in  the  Bible.  Jerome  (Ar/r.  Jo- 
vin.,  ii.  37),  TertuUian,  and  others  relate  that  he 
was  stoned  to  death  in  Egypt.  His  grave  is  shown 
at  Cairo.  The  estimation  in  which  Jeremiah  was 
held  by  his  people  after  his  death  was  as  great  as 
his  persecution  had  been  severe  during  his  life- 
time. Ilis  prophecies  were  diligently  studied  by 
the  Jews  in  exile  (Dan.  Ix.  2  ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
21 ;  Ez.  i.  1).  He  was  turned  into  an  ideal  hero 
(2  Mace.  ii.  1,  xv.  14,  etc.),  and  he  gradually 
came  to  be  regarded  as  the  prophet  (o  Trpofi/TTji) 
who  should  re-appear  again  (Deut.  xviii.  15)  ;  and 
in  the  New  Testament  there  are  references  to  this 
expectation  (Matt.  xvi.  14,;  John  i.  21). 

II.  Character  and  Style.  — Jeremiah  had  the  most 
painful  and  difficult  task  of  any  of  the  prophets. 
By  nature  timid  and  sensitive,  resembling  John 
the  Evangelist,  rather  than  .John  the  Baptist,  in 
temperament,  he  w  as,  nevertheless,  called  upon  to 
carry  on  a  life-and-death  struggle  with  powerful 
and  imbittered  enemies.  And  not  only  had  he 
to  utter  warning  words  against  his  own  nation, 
but  also  against  other  nations.  He  was  in  con- 
stant danger  of  his  life  (xi.  21,  xx.  10  sqq.,  etc.). 
Like  a  second  Job,  he  cursed  the  day  of  his  birth 
(xx.  14),  and  longed  to  be  free  of  his  office  (xx. 
9).  The  recollection,  however,  of  his  official  re- 
sponsibilities was  "in  his  heart  as  a  burning  fire 
shut  up  in  his  bones."  Every  one  was  against 
liini.  He  stood  alone,  at  least  in  the  period  of 
greatest  national  misery.  Ezekiel  and  Daniel 
lived  with  him  after  the  great  catastrophe;  but 
they  lived  in  exile.  Jeremiah,  therefore,  in  the  pe- 
riod of  Israel's  deepest  humiliation  before  Christ, 
stood  alone,  as  a  rock  in  the  sea,  resisting,  by  the 
help  of  God,  the  assaults  of  hostile  forces,  and 


JEREMIAH. 


1156 


JEREMIAH  II. 


represents  in  his  own  personal  life  and  attitude 
the  servant  of  God  in  the  higiiest  stage  of  liis  de- 
velopment in  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament. 
He  was  a  type,  not  of  John  the  Baptist,  as  Heng- 
stenberg  holds,  but  of  Christ  himself.  The  first 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  corresponds  to  the  sec- 
ond ;  and,  as  Jeremiah  was  the  prophet  of  the 
former,  so  Christ  was  the  prophet  of  the  latter 
(Matt,  xxiii.  29-32  ;  Luke  xiii.  34,  etc.).  And, 
as  the  former  was  despised  and  persecuted  for 
telling  unwelcome  tidings,  so  was  Christ;  and  in 
his  crucifixion  the  people  filled  up  the  measure  of 
their  fathers'  hatred  (Matt,  xxiii.  32),  which  cul- 
minated upon  Jeremiah.  If  .Jeremiah  be  the 
author  of  Ps.  xxii.  (a  view  I  would  uncondition- 
ally adopt,  but  for  the  heading),  then  the  com- 
parison becomes  even  more  striking. 

When  we  come  to  Jeremiah  as  an  author,  we 
may  apply  the  saying,  Le  stt/te  c'eM  I'homme  ["the 
style  is  the  man  "].  As  a  writer  he  is  like  a  brazen 
wall,  inasmuch  as  no  influence  can  change  the 
fundamental  tone  of  his  prophecy,  and  like  soft 
wax,  for  his  mighty  words  come  forth  from  a 
tender  and  broken  heart.  His  sentences  ai'e  long 
rather  than  sententious;  and  often  the  contents 
of  the  prophecy  seem  to  be  meagre  compared  with 
the  multitude  of  words.  He  presents  a  series  of 
tableaux,  each  of  which  portrays  the  same  prin- 
cipal figures  and  the  same  scene  of  action,  only 
in  the  most  varied  groupings.  This  method  ex- 
plains the  author's  apparent  repetitiousness,  and 
relieves  him  of  the  charge  of  a  disregard  of  logi- 
cal connection.  Jeremiah  breathes  the  atmos- 
phere of  the  Pentateuch,  and  especially  of  Deu- 
teronomy. Umbreit  (^Com.  on  Jeremiah)  ascribes 
to  him  the  most  poetic  nature  among  the  proph- 
ets. .Jerome  .speaks  of  his  style  being  more  rustic 
than  that  of  the  other  prophets  (xermoue  dliis 
propkeiis  videtur  esse  rusiicior). 

III.  Prophecy.  —  Chapter  i.  forms  an  historical 
preface,  and  chap.  ii.  an  introduction.  Between 
chaps,  ii.  and  Hi.  (the  authenticity  of  lii.  being 
douotful)  the  book  falls  into  two  parts.  Part  I. 
(iii.-xlv.)  contains  prophecies  referring  to  the 
theocracy;  part  II.  (xlvi.-li.),  prophecies  referring 
to  foreign  peoples.  According  to  chap,  xxxvi., 
Jeremiah,  in  obedience  to  a  divine  command, 
wrote  down  his  prophecies  in  a  Jjook.  It  was 
finished  in  the  sixth  year  of  Jehoiakira's  reign  ; 
l)nt  the  book  that  we  have  in  our  hands  is  larger 
than  that  book  was,  and  contains  things  wliich 
liappened  down  to  the  eleventli  year  of  Zedekiah's 
reign  (i.  2,  3).  But  even  this  date  is  overleaped, 
as  we  see  from  the  events  narrated  in  chaps,  xl.- 
xliv.  The  prophet  must  either  have  himself  em- 
bodied these  discourses  in  his  book,  or  anotli'er 
have  done  it.  But  it  is  higlily  probable  that  the 
present  arrangement  of  the  parts  was  not  the 
original  one ;  for  not  only  do  the  statements  in 
i.  2,  3,  and  xxxvi.  2  indicate  a  chronological  ar- 
rangement in  the  original  work,  l)ut  we  find  in 
the  arrangement  as  we  now  have  it  a  combination 
of  methods  employed,  —  an  arrangement  accord- 
ing to  subject-matter  and  according  to  the  dates 
of  the  events.  This  intermingling  is  apparent 
in  xxi. -xxxvi. 

The  Alexandrine  (or  Septuagint)  and  Masoretic 
texts  differ  not  inconsiderably  in  their  arrange- 
ment of  the  chapters  and  in  readings.  In  JCgypt, 
■where  the  prophet  spent  his  last  days,  he  was 


specially  revered  and  diligently  studied  by  the 
Jews ;  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Greek  text 
contains  interpolations.  The  Hebrew  text  (Mi- 
chaelis  to  the  contrary,  notwithstanding)  is  to  be 
regarded  as  the  more  accurate ;  and  all  the  differ- 
ences are  to  be  explained  on  the  ground  of  the 
imperfection  of  the  Greek  translation.  But  the 
unity  of  the  prophecy  has  seldom  been  questioned; 
and  even  Ewald  admits  it  with  the  exception  of 
chaps.  1.,  Ii.,  whose  genuineness,  however,  I  have 
tried  to  prove  in  my  Jerem.  und  Babylon.  The 
passage  xxxix.  1-14  seems  to  be,  in  part,  interpo- 
lated. As  for  chap,  lii.,  which  Lowth  regards  as 
an  introduction  to  Lamentations,  it  seems  to  me 
that  it  w^as  not  written  by  Jeremiah,  or  at  least 
that  he  did  not  place  it  in  its  present  position. 

Lit.  —  The  best  Commentaries  are  by  Jerome 
and  Theodoret  (among  the  Fathers),  by  Cal- 
vin and  CEcoLAMPADius  (among  the  Reformers), 
and  by  [Lowth  (London,  1718)],  Venema  (Leov., 
1765,  2  vols.),  Blay.vey  (London,  1784)  [new 
edition,  Edinburgh,  ISIO],  ^Iichaelis  (Gottin- 
gen,  1793),  Dahler  (French,  Strassburg,  1825, 
2  vols.),  Ewald  (1840,  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1876), 
HiTziG  (Leipzig,  1841),  Umbreit  (Hamburg, 
1842),  [Henderson  (London,  1851,  Andover, 
1868)],  Neumann  (Leipzig,  1858),  Graf  (Leip- 
zig, 1862),  Ernst  Meier  (Stuttgart,  1863),  Keil 
(Eng.  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1873),  Nagelsbach 
(in  Lange)  [Eng.  trans.,  New  York,  1871,  Dean 
Smith  (in  Speaker's  Com.,  New  York,  1875),  Leiiir 
(Paris,  1877),  A.  Sciiolz  (Wiirzburg,  1880),  A. 
Il.\AnE  (Leipzig,  1880),  L.  A.  Schneedorfeu 
(Prag,  1881),  A.  W  Streane  (Cambridge,  1881), 
Rabbi  Josef  ben  Simeon  Kara  (Paris,  1881), 
W.  II.  .Jellie  (in  Preacher's  Commentary,  Lon- 
don, 1882).  See  also  Nagelsbach  :  Jeremias  u. 
Babylon,  Erlangen,  1850;  H.  Guthe:  De  foederis 
notione  Jeremiana,  Leipzig,  1877  ;  KiisTLiN  :  Jesaja 
u.  Jeremia  ihr  Leben  u.  Wirken,  Berlin,  1879  ;  CoR- 
NILL  :  Jeremia  «.  seine  Zeil,  1881  ;  the  histories  of 
the  .Jews  by  Ewald  and  .Stanley  (ii.  570-622), 
who  is  particularly  good  on  Jeremiah ;  see  also 
The  Puljiil  Commentary  on  Jeremiah,  London,  1885; 
and  the  art.  Jeremiah,  in  Encyctopirdia  Brilannira, 
by  T.  K.  CheynkJ.  r;.  nacjelsuach. 

JEREMI'AH,  Epistle  of.    See  Apocrypha,  Old 

TEsrAMIO.NT. 

JEREMI'AH,  Lamentations  of.  See  Lamenta- 
tions. 

JEREMI'AH  II.,  b.  in  l.")3(;  at  Anchialus,  an  old 
npi.>Jcoi)al  see  on  the  Black  Sea ;  d.  in  1594  at 
Constantinople  ;  was,  while  still  very  young,  made 
metropolitan  of  Larissa  in  Thessalia,  and  in  1572 
patriarch  of  Constantinople.  Twice  he  was  ex- 
pelled from  his  see  by  tiie  violence  and  intrigues 
of  his  competitors,  .and  he  finally  succeeded  in 
vindicating  himself  only  by  paying  his  rivals 
annual  pensions.  In  this  way  the  p.atriarchal 
treasury  became  com]detely  exhausted,  and  in 
1589  .Jeremiah  maile  a  journey  to  Mo.scovv  to  ask 
for  a  pecuniary  suiijiort  from  thi^  czar.  He  ob- 
tained what  he  demanded,  but  was  induced  to 
recognize  Russia  as  an  independent  patriarchate, 
and  consecrate  .Job,  the  metropolitan  of  Moscow, 
patriarch,  —  a  measure  for  which  he  was  .after- 
wards severely  criticised  by  his  own  bishops.  Of 
still  greater  interest  arc  his  dealings  witii  the 
Gc'rman  Protestants.  In  1573  Stcpiien  (ierlach 
went  to  Constantinople  as  preacher  to  the  (jernian 


JERICHO. 


1157 


JBKOME. 


ambassador,  and  brought  with  him  letters  of  rec- 
ommendation to  the  patriarch  from  Jacob  Andrea, 
chancelhir  of  tlie  university  of  Tiibingen,  and 
Martin  Criisius,  the  celebrated  Hellenist  and  his- 
torian. The  letters  were  well  received;  and  the 
Tiibingen  professors,  at  that  moment  the  chief 
representatives  of  Lutheranism,  were  not  slow  to 
avail  themselves  of  the  proffered  opportunity  of 
establishing  an  intercommunication  between  the 
Greek  Church  and  the  Keformation.  They  sent 
a  second  letter,  dated  Sept.  15,  1574,  and  accom- 
panied with  a  Greek  translation  of  the  Confe.isio 
Aiiguslana,  and  a  third  letter,  dated  March  20, 
1575,  and  accompanied  with  a  Greek  translation 
of  two  sermons  by  Andrea.  The  patriarch's 
answer,  dated  May  15,  1576,  consists  of  an  elabo- 
rate treatise,  in  which  he  goes  through  the  whole 
confession,  part  by  part.  Now  and  then  he  pi'aises, 
as,  for  instance,  the  articles  on  the  church,  the 
ecclesiastical  office,  the  marriage  of  priests,  etc. ; 
but  generally  he  censures,  especially  the  introduc- 
tion of  FUioque  in  the  creed,  tiie  depreciation  of 
good  works,  etc.  The  treatise,  however,  induced 
the  Tiibingen  theologians  to  give  a  .systematical 
representation  of  the  principles  on  which  their 
confession  rested ;  and  a  new  letter  was  sent, 
dated  June  18, 1577,  and  written  by  Lucas  Osian- 
der  and  Crusius.  But  it  took  two  years  before 
the  patriarch's  answer  arrived  (May,  1579),  and  it 
read  more  like  a  rebuke  than  an  answer.  Never- 
theless, Andrea,  Schnepf,  Bidembach,  and  Heer- 
brand  determined  to  try  once  more,  and  sent,  in 
tlie  spring,  1580,  a  defence  to  Constantinople  ;  but 
the  p.atriarch's  answer  of  June  6,  1581,  was  curt 
and  final.  In  1582  the  Roman  canon,  Stanislaus 
Socolovius,  published  a  report  of  these  negotia- 
tions, and  a  Latin  translation  of  the  respective 
documents,  under  the  title,  Censura  orienlalis 
eccleslcE,  etc.  ;  but,  as  tlie  purpose  of  that  under- 
taking simply  was  to  hurt  the  Protestant  cause, 
the  Tubingen  theologians  gave  themselves  a  report 
with  the  documents  in  Latin  and  Greek,  Ada  el 
scripla  iheoluijorum  W irtemhergensmin  et  Patriarchce 
Const/wlitani  D.  Hieremsite,  etc.,  1584.        OASS. 

JER'ICHO,  the  City  of,  stood  in  the  valley  of 
the  Jordan,  five  miles  west  of  the  river,  and  six 
or  seven  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Between 
the  craggy  and  barren  mountains  of  Judah  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  lofty  but  equally  barren  moun- 
tains of  Moab  on  the  other  side,  the  valley  of  the 
Jordan  is  sunk  about  nine  hundred  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  climate  thereby 
becoming  completely  tropical.  .Scorched  by  the 
heat,  the  plain  stretches  along,  yellow  and  'deso- 
late, until  about  Jericho,  where  a  number  of 
springs,  among  which  is  the  Fountain  of  Elisha 
(2  Kings  ii.  19-22),  form  small  streams,  and  at 
once,  as  if  by  magic,  transform  the  desert  into  a 
luxuriant  garden.  Even  in  tlie  times  of  Joshua, 
Jericho  was  spoken  of  as  "  the  city  of  the  palm- 
tree"  (Deut,  xxxiv.  3;  Judg.  i.  16;  2  Chron. 
sxviii.  15).  The  wheat  ripened  there  several 
weeks  earlier  than  in  other  places  of  the  country 
(Lev.  xxiii.  10).  Flax  and  hemp  were  cultivated 
there  (Josh.  ii.  6),  and  the  place  was  celebrated 
for  its  roses  (Ecclus.  xxiv.  14),  its  sycamores 
(Luke  xix.  4),  its  balsam,  grapes,  etc.  When  the 
Israelites  entered  the  promised  land,  the  city  was 
flourishing,  strongly  fortified,  and  the  residence 
of  a  king  (Josh.  ii.  3,  vi.  2).     It  was  taken  by 


Joshua,  and  allotted  to  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  21). 
In  the  Old  Testament  it  is  mentioned  sixty-three 
times,  and  in  the  New  Testament,  seven,  —  the 
meeting  with  Zaccheus  (Luke  xix.  1-9),  tlie  heal- 
ing of  the  blind  men  (Matt.  xx.  24-IJ4 ;  Mark  x. 
46-52;  Luke  xviii.  35-43).  When  the  Komans 
conquered  the  country,  they  built  an  excellent 
road  from  Jericho  to  .lerusalem.  Anthony  pre- 
sented the  balsam-gardens  to  Cleopatra,  who  sold 
them  to  Herod.  He  fortified  the  city,  adorned  it 
with  a  palace  and  a  circus,  and  chose  it  for  his 
winter  residence.  Destroyed  by  Titus,  it  was  re- 
stored by  Justinian,  who  built  a  church  and  a 
hospice  there.  Again  destroyed  by  the  Arabs,  it 
was  once  more  restored  by  the  Crusaders,  though 
not  exactly  on  the  same  site.  New  Jericho  occu- 
pied the  same  place  as  the  present  village  of  Ri- 
cha,  or  er-Riha.  The  creation,  however,  of  the 
Crusaders,  did  not  prosper.  At  present  the  palm- 
trees  have  disappeared  ;  the  roses,  the  grapes,  the 
balsam,  have  gone  ;  and  of  the  .splendid  old  city 
nothing  is  left  but  a  heap  of  ruins.  The  site  is 
now  inhabited  by  a  degraded  race,  scattered  about 
in  some  miserable  huts.  For  pertinent  literature, 
see  Palestine.  fr.  w.  schultz. 

JEROBO'AM  (whose  people  is  many).,  the  name 
of  two  kings  of  Israel.  I.  (1  Kings  xi.  26-39,  xii. 
1-xiv.  20  ;  cf.  2  Chr.  x.-xiii.)  The  son  of  Nebat, 
an  Ephrainiite,  raised  by  Solomon,  on  account  of 
his  superior  capacity,  to  be  superintendent  of  the 
levies  furnished  by  the  house  of  Joseph.  Some 
time  after  this  the  prophet  Aliijah  met  him  in  a 
field  near  Jerusalem,  and,  tearing  his  mantle  into 
twelve  pieces,  gave  him  ten,  to  indicate  that  the 
kingdom  was  to  be  dismembered,  and  he  was  to 
rule  ten  tribes.  Perhaps  Solomon  heard  of  this 
prophecy;  but  at  all  events  Jeroboam  thought  it 
prudent  to  flee  to  Egypt,  where  he  remained  until 
Solomon's  death.  On  his  return  he  headed  the 
disaffected  ten  tribes  in  their  revolt,  and  was 
chosen  their  king.  (See  Rehoboam.)  In  order 
to  .strengthen  his  hold,  he  revived  the  ancient 
calf-worship  at  Bethel  and  Dan,  the  southern  and 
northern  limits  of  his  territory  respectively,  and 
with  his  sons  otRciated  at  the  altars.  While  thus 
engaged  at  Bethel,  a  nameless  prophet  from  Judali 
predicted  in  his  presence  the  birth  of  King  Jo- 
siah,  who  should  destroy  that  altar,  and  sacrifice 
its  priests  upon  it.  Jeroboam  stretched  forth  his 
hand  to  order  the  prophet's  arrest,  when  he  found 
it  so  stiff  he  could  not  move  it :  meanwhile  the 
altar  was  miraculously  rent,  in  confirmation  of 
the  prophet's  authority,  and  he  had  to  implore  the 
prophet's  prayer  for  his  restoration.  The  king, 
however,  persisted  in  his  calf-worship ;  and  since 
the  Levites  had  refused  to  obey  him,  and  gone  to 
Judah,  he  made  a  new  priesthood,  irrespective  of 
tribal  ancestry.  He  reigned  for  twenty-seven 
years,  and  waged  unremitting  warfare  with  Ju- 
dah. 

II.  (2  Kings  xiv.  23-29.)  The  son  of  Joash, 
and  great-grandson  of  .lehu ;  was  king  of  Israel 
foi-  forty-one  years,  and  enjoyed  a  reign  of  ex- 
traordinary splendor  and  success.  He  recovered 
the  full  extent  of  the  northern  kingdom,  having 
reduced  all  the  revolted  countries  on  the  east  of 
the  Jordan.  Yet  Hosea  and  Amos  (ii.  6-16,  v. 
6)  show  plainly  that  during  his  long  reign  vice 
was  rampant. 

JEROME       (HIERONYMUS)     SOPHRONIUS 


JEROME. 


1158 


JEROME  OP  PRAGUE. 


EUSEBIUS,  the  most  erudite  and  scholarly  among 
the  Fathers  of  the  Latin  Church  ;  b.,  as  we  gather 
from  his  letters,  at  Stridon,  on  the  border-line 
separating  Dahnatia  and  Pannonia,  between  340 
and  U2 ;  d.  at  Bethlehem,  Sept.  30,  420.  After 
studying  with  his  father  Eusebius,  a  Christian, 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was  introduced  into 
Greek  philosophy  and  Roman  literature.  Chris- 
tian Rome  also  exerted  an  influence  over  his 
mind ;  and  he  speaks,  in  the  Introduction  to  his 
Commentary  on  Ezekiel,  of  the  feelings  of  rever- 
ence with  which  he  had  visited  the  catacombs. 
He  was  baptized  by  Bishop  Liberius  in  :360.  In 
a  journey  to  Gaul  (about  372)  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  Rufinus,  subsequently  his  rival  and 
opponent.  About  the  same  time  he  started  on  a 
tour  to  the  East,  and  tarried  till  374  in  Antioch. 
A  dream  changed  the  tenor  of  his  literary  life. 
Christ  appeared  to  him  with  the  words,  "  Jerome, 
thou  art  not  a  Christian,  but  a  Ciceronian."  This 
led  Jerome  to  give  himself  up  almost  exclusively 
to  ecclesiastical  studies.  His  works,  however, 
abound  in  references  to  the  classics. 

A  fever  which  attacked  him  at  Antiocli  gave  to 
his  mind  a  powerful  impulse  to  asceticism,  and 
he  retired  to  the  wastes  of  Chalcis,  south-east  of 
Antioch.  His  constitution,  however,  could  not 
bear  the  severe  habits  of  abstinence  and  penauce; 
so  that  he  returned  to  Antioch,  where  he  was 
ordained  presbyter  in  379,  against  his  will.  He 
went  to  Constantinople  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  Grego- 
ry Naziauzen,  and  from  there  back  to  Rome  (382). 
The  Roman  bishop,  Damasus,  respected  his  schol- 
arship, and  secured  his  assistance  in  ecclesiastical 
writings  (in  chartls  eccles.  adjm-are)  ;  which  has  led 
some  writers  to  the  opinion  that  he  occupied  the 
post  of  papal  secretary  or  librarian.  A  company 
of  Christian  women  gathered  around  him  to  listen 
to  his  expositions  of  Scripture,  and  to  be  influ- 
enced towards  a  conventual  life.  With  two  of 
their  number,  I'aula  and  her  daughter  Eustochi- 
uni,  he  went  on  a  pilgrinuige  to  the  Holy  Land 
in  38.0.  On  his  way  he  stop]icd  in  Kgyjit,  where 
he  iieard  the  bliiiil  Didynuis  intcqircting  Ilosea. 

In  the  Holy  Land  he  retired  to  a  cell  in  the 
vicinity  of  Bethlehem.  A  convent,  over  whicli 
Paula  presided,  was  soon  erected,  and  an  inn  for 
pilgrims.  Here  Jerome  remained  till  his  death, 
engaged  in  devotions  and  literary  labors,  but  find- 
ing, also,  time  to  participate  in  the  ecclesiastical 
disputes  of  the  day. 

The  scholarly  or  literary  activity  of  Jerome 
was  far  more  prominent  than  the  theological ; 
but  he  was  intensely  .solicitous  to  be  known  as 
orthodox ;  as,  for  example,  when  he  submitted 
himself  blindly  to  the  l)isliop  of  Rome  in  the 
Miletian  dispute.  Once  an  enthusiastic  follower 
of  Origen,  who.se  writings  he  had  translated,  lie 
appeared  as  his  opponent  in  later  years.  About 
391  he  became  acquainteil  with  .Vugiistine,  whom, 
in  spite  of  .sonut  differences,  he  profoundly  n;- 
spected  (Ep.  cxxxiv.,  Tc  (imtir<\  le  susci/ien',  cotcrc, 
mirari,  etc.).  He  agreed  fully  with  Augustine  in 
the  Pelagian  controversy,  ./(^rome  zealously  ad- 
vocated tlie  perpetual  virginity  of  Mary  {Ailv. 
Helviilium),  tne  meritoriousness  of  fasting  and 
celibacy  (Adv.  Jovitiianum),  and  the  wor.shi[i  of 
martyrs  and  relics  (A(li>.  Vir/il(t7itium). 

These  extravagances  must  not  blind  our  eyes 
to  Jerome's  great  services  to  the  Church  in  the 


translation  of  the  Vulgate,  which  was  a  revision 
of  the  Itala.  (See  Vulgate.)  His  exegetica^ 
labors  also  deserve  respectful  notice  on  account 
of  their  author's  acquaintance  with  Oriental  lan- 
guages. One  healthy  product  of  his  critical  meth- 
od was  the  distinction  between  the  Canon  and  the 
Apocrypha ;  which  latter  he  says  the  "  Church 
reads  for  the  edification  of  the  people,  not  for 
confirming  the  authority  of  ecclesiastical  doc- 
trines "  {Prolog.  Galeatus).  His  writings  on  geog- 
raphy and  antiquities  {De  Nominibus  Hehrmor.  and 
De  Situ  et  Nominib.  Locorum  liebraic.)  laid  the 
foundation  of  the  Science  of  Biblical  Antiquities. 
His  work,  De  Viris  ilhistribus  s.  de  Scriptoribus 
eccles.,  was  the  first  attempt  in  the  department 
of  Patrology.  Jerome's  Letters  are  also  very  im- 
portant :  they  answer  questions  of  conscience, 
commend  monastic  life,  comfort  the  sorrowing, 
flatter  friends,  condemn  the  vices  and  foUies  of 
the  day,  etc.  They  were  extravagantly  admired 
in  the  ancient  church ;  but  Luther,  w  ith  character- 
istic penetration,  in  his  Tahle-Talk  said  in  regard 
to  them,  "  I  know  no  teacher  to  whom  I  am  so 
hostile  as  Ilieronymus ;  for  he  writes  only  of  fast- 
ing, meats,  virginity,  etc.  If  he  only  had  insisted 
upon  the  works  of  faith,  and  performed  them ! 
But  he  teaches  nothing  either  about  faith,  or  love, 
or  hope,  or  the  works  of  faith." 

Lit.  —  Editions  of  Jerome's  Works  by  Eras- 
mus (assisted  by  (Ecolampadius),  Basel,  l.'ilfi-SO, 
9  vols. ;  by  Mar.  Victorius,  Rome,  1566-72, 
9  vols. ;  Tribbechovius,  Frankf.,  1684,  12  vols.; 
Marti.\nay  (Benedictine  edition),  Paris,  1706, 
5  vols,  (incomplete)  ;  Vallarsi  and  Maffei, 
V^eron.,  1734-42  ;  Migne,  Paris,  1845;  [i)e  Viris 
illustribus  liber,  ed.  Herding,  Leipzig,  1879].  Lives 
of  Jerome  by  Erasjius,  Martiaxay,  and  Vil- 
L.4RSI  in  their  editions;  Stilting  (in  the  Ada 
Sanctorum,  t.  viii.),  Antw.,  1762;  Engelstoft  : 
Hieron.  Strid.  interpres,  crilicus,  exegeta,  etc., 
Ilavn.,  1798:  Collombet:  Hist,  de  Si.  Jerome, 
Lyon,  1844;  Zockleu  :  Hieron.  s.  Leben  u.  Wir- 
ken,  Gotha,  1865;  AMfcDEE  Thierry:  St.  Jerome, 
la  Sociv'te'  chre'tienne  a  Rome,  etc.,  Paris,  1867, 
2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1876 ;  Xowack  :  Die  Bcdeutung 
des  Hieronyimis  fiir  die  alttestanietitliche  Textkritik, 
Gottingen,  1875;  Cutts  :  St.  Jerome,  London, 
1877.  riAGKNBACn   (ZOCKLKR). 

JEROME  OF  PRAGUE,  Ikihemian  reformer 
and  martyr;  of  a  noble  family  of  Prague;  b. 
about  1365 ;  d.  at  the  stake,  in  Constance,  Alay  30, 
1416.  He  studied  at  Oxford,  probably  in  1396, 
and  retm-ned  to  Prague  with  A^"iclif's  theological 
writings.  In  1398  he  took  the  degree  of  bachelor 
of  arts  at  Prague,  and  sub.seiinently  that  of  mas- 
ter in  Paris.  He  did  not  return  to  Prague  till 
1407,  when  he  entered  into  hearty  sympathy  with 
the  plans  of  Hus.  In  1410  ho  went,  on  the  invi- 
tation of  the  king  of  Poland,  to  assist  in  putting 
(he  university  of  Cracow  on  a  secure  basis,  and 
from  there  to  Ofen  to  preach  before  Sigismund, 
king  (if  Hungary.  He  was  suspected  of  licretical 
doctrines,  however,  and  fled  to  Vienna,  but  was 
put  in  prison,  from  which  he  was  only  released 
on  the  reciuisition  of  the  university  of  Prague. 

When,  III  October,  1 114,  Hus  was  about  to  leave 
for  Constance,  Jerome  encouraged  liim  to  forti- 
tude, and  pronii.sed  to  go  to  his  assistance  if  neces- 
sary. On  April  4,  141.3,  he  fulfilled  his  promise, 
but,  on  the  advice  of  the  Buhemian  nobles,  fled 


JERUSALEM. 


1159 


JERUSALEM. 


from  Constance  the  day  after  his  arrival.  He 
was  recognized  at  Ilirschau  by  his  denunciations 
of  the  council,  taken  prisoner,  and  sent  back  in 
■chains  to  Constance.  After  IIus'  death,  tlie  coun- 
cil attempted  to  induce  Jerome  to  retract,  and 
succeeded  Sept.  10 ;  but  the  day  following  he 
withdrew  his  retraction.  The  council  instituted 
a  second  trial,  but  not  until  the  following  May 
(1416)  was  he  granted  a  public  hearing.  All 
■attempts  to  move  him  again  were  unavailing. 
On  May  30  he  was  condemned  by  the  council  as 
a  heretic.  As  the  flames  crept  about  him,  he 
sang  the  Easter  hymn.  Salve  festa  dies,  etc.  ("  Hail, 
festal  day  "),  and  repeated  the  three  articles  of 
the  Apostolic  Creed  concerning  God  the  Father, 
Son,  and  Holy  Ghost.  Compared  with  Hus, 
Jerome  was,  perhaps,  his  superior  in  intellectual 
■endowments  and  learning,  but  his  inferior  in 
nobility  of  soul,  and  strength  of  will.  The  un- 
alloyed joyfulness  and  heroism  with  which  he 
died  atoned  for  the  weakness  he  had  before 
shown  in  retracting. 

Lit.  —  [Heller  :  Hieronymus  v.  Prag,  Liibeck, 
1835  ;  Becker  :  Hus  u.  Hlcron.  v.  Prag,  Ndrdling., 
1858.     See  Lit.  under  Hus.]  lechler. 

JERU'SALEM  {abode  of  peace).  I.  Situation 
AND  Present  Condition.  —  The  city  is  built 
upon  high  ground  in  the  midst  of  a  semi-desert. 
It  is  thirty-two  miles  east  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  and  eighteen  miles  north  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
Above  it  tower  the  surrounding  hills,  and  around 
it  lies  the  dry,  rough  country.  The  atmosphere  is 
wonderfully  clear.  The  temperature  in  summer 
is  sometimes  as  high  as  102°  Fahr.,  and  in  winter 
as  low  as  25°  ;  but  on  the  average  the  highest 
mean  temperature,  according  to  observations  ex- 
tending over  five  years,  is  77°  in  July,  and  the 
lowest  42°. 8  in  January.  Snow  often  falls  in 
January  and  Februaiy,  even  to  the  depth  of  a 
foot;  but  the  ground  never  freezes.  On  the  east 
is  the  Mount  of  Olives,  which  has  three  principal 
summits.  The  middle  one  is  the  Jlount  of  Ascen- 
sion, 2,640  feet :  the  most  southerly  is  the  Mount 
of  Offence,  so  called  from  its  having  been  the  seat 
of  Solomon's  idol-worship  (1  Kings  xi.  7,  8). 
South  of  the  city  is  the  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel, 
separated  from  the  Mount  of  Offence  by  the  Ke- 
dron  Valley  (which  see),  and  so  called  from  the 
monastic  tradition,  that  upon  it  Caiaphas  had  his 
house,  and  held  the  deliberations  spoken  of  in 
Matt.  xxvi.  3,  4,  John  xi.  47-53.  Between  it  and 
the  city  is  the  Valley  of  Hinnom.  On  the  west 
stretches  the  monotonous  range  which  consti- 
tutes the  watershed  between  the  I\Iediterranean 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  Nearer  the  city  is  the  Valley 
of  Gihon.     On  the  north  is  Mount  Scopus. 

The  ground  of  the  city  rises  from  east  to  west : 
&o,  as  Josephus  has  already  remarked,  the  city 
lies  in  the  manner  of  a  theatre  {AnCiq.,  XV.  11, 
■5)  ;  but  it  is  much  evener  than  it  was,  for  in  the 
course  of  centuries  many  of  the  inequalities  have 
been  filled  up,  and  among  them  the  Tyropceon 
Valley,  or  Valley  of  the  Cheesemongers.  The  ex- 
cavations carried  on  by  the  British  Ordnance 
Survey  have  revealed  the  enormous  substructure 
built  by  Solomon  to  support  the  broad  levels  of 
his  temple  and  its  courts.  In  the  eastern  wall  of 
the  present  Haram  enclosure  is  the  Golden  Gate, 
covered  in  by  debris,  and  walled  up  externally. 
The  Haram  wall  was  in  one  place  originally  a 


hundred  and  twenty  feet  above  the  ground.  Here, 
doubtless,  issued  a  south-easterly  valley,  of  which 
at  present  there  are  no  traces.  Between  the  east 
and  west  parts  of  the  city,  from  north  to  south, 
there  runs  a  depression,  which  in  places  is  filled 
by  debris  to  the  depth  of  a  hundred  feet.  Be- 
tween the  southern  and  northern  parts  of  the 
western  half  of  the  city  there  is  a  cut  from  west 
to  east.  In  consequence  of  this  cut,  the  city  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  —  the  holy  part,  which 
included  the  temple,  on  the  east;  on  the  south- 
west, Zion  ;  and  on  the  north-west  the  business 
part,  in  which  is  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepul- 
chre. As  a  fourth  part  may  be  reckoned  the  hill 
Bezetha. 

The  view  of  Jerusalem  from  Olivet  or  Scopus 
is  imposing.  Around  the  present  city  is  a  wall, 
thirty-eight  feet  and  a  half  high,  having  thirty- 
four  towers  and  seven  gates,  and  with  a  total  cir- 
cumference of  two  miles  and  a  fifth.  Within  it 
one  sees  the  innumerable  domes  upon,  and  the 
balustrades  around,  the  flat  roofs  of  the  houses ; 
the  minarets,  like  tapers  against  the  clear  sky  ;  the 
mosques  and  the  churches,  of  which  the  chief  are 
the  Mosque  of  Omar  and  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  re.spectively;  the  cloisters  and  the  pub- 
lic buildings ;  and,  highest  of  all,  that  reminder 
of  the  Turkish  rule,  the  Citadel.  Nor  does  en- 
trance entirely  dispel  the  pleasing  impression. 
The  streets  are,  it  is  true,  narrow ;  but  they  are 
cleaner,  and  the  houses  are  better  built,  than 
those  of  Smyrna  or  Constantinople.  Damascus 
Street  divides  the  Christian  or  Greek  quarter  (the 
north-west  part)  from  the  Moslem  quarter ;  and 
Bazaar  Street,  running  at  right  angles,  divides 
the  Armenian  quarter  from  the  Greek. 

II.  The  Origin  of  the  Different  Parts 
OF  THE  City.  —  Jebus  (see  art.),  Jerusalem,  iElia 
Capitolina,  El-Kuds  ("the  sanctuary"),  by  these 
names  successively  has  the  city  been  known. 
When  David  took  Jebus,  giving  rise  to  the  term 
"  city  of  David,"  the  city  was  on  Mount  Zion, 
which  was  neither  the  north-west,  nor  the  south- 
east, or  the  southern  part  of  the  temple  hOl,  but 
the  south-west  part  of  the  city,  extending  to  the 
Jaffa  Gate.  Reasons  for  this  view  are :  (a)  Nei- 
ther in  the  north-west  nor  in  the  south-east  has 
there  ever  later  been  a  citadel ;  (J)  Micah  (iii. 
12)  very  clearly  distinguishes  Zion  from  the  tem- 
ple hill ;  (c)  Too  much  building  is  spoken  of  in 
Neh.  iii.  for  Zion  to  be  part  of  the  temple  hill; 
((/)  Although  Zion  and  the  temple  hill  are  iden- 
tical iu  the  mouths  of  psalmists  and  prophets, 
uniform  tradition  identifies  the  city  of  David  with 
the  hill  in  the  south-west  part  of  the  city ;  cf .  1 
Mace.  i.  33,  Josephus  {War,  V.  4,  1;  Antiq.,  VII. 
3,  2),  Eusebius,  and  Jerome. 

David  materially  enlarged  Jebus,  and  made  it 
the  political  and  religious  capital  of  the  nation ; 
but  to  Solomon  it  owed  most.  Besides  the  tem- 
ple upon  Mount  IMoriah,  he  built  his  great  palace 
upon  Ophel,  as  is  proven  by  (a)  the  circumstance 
that  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  "came  up  out  of 
the  city  of  David  (1  Kings  iii.  1)  unto  her  house 
which  Solomon  had  built  for  her"  (ix.  24);  {h) 
the  "ascent  by  which  he  went  up  unto  the  house 
of  the  Lord"  (x.  5);  (c)  Micah  (iv.  8),  who 
brings  the  "tower  of  the  flock,"  in  connection 
with  Ophel,  and  Isaiah  (xxxii.  14),  who  brings 
iu  the  same  connection  the  "watch-tower,"  by 


JERUSALEM. 


1160 


JERUSALEM. 


■wT\ich  he  probably  means  the  same  tower  of  the 
palace  :  (d)  the  entire  narrative  in  Xeh.  iii. ;  and 
(e)  especially  the  mention  of  the  Horse  Gate  in 
verse  28,  which  shows  that  the  king's  palace  and 
its  tower  were  south  of  the  temple.  The  temple, 
with  its  courts,  did  not  nearly  cover  the  present 
Harani  enclosure ;  and  there  were  about  it  manj' 
private  houses.  A  third  important  building  of 
Solomon  was  Millo  (1  Kings  is.  1.5,  24),  not  to 
be  confounded  with  the  Millo  mentioned  in  2 
Sam.  V.  9,  which  had  probably  fallen  down,  but 
a  new  fortress  on  the  north-west  corner  of  Zion. 

In  the  post-Solorr.onic  time  the  city  gi-e\v  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  temple,  as  was  quite  natural, 
inasmuch  as  it  was  the  centre  of  so  much  life. 
Isaiah  (vii.  3)  speaks  of  FuUer's-field  Street,  run- 
ning north  from  Zion,  and  Jeremiah  (xxxvii.  21), 
of  Bakers'  Street,  in  the  same  locality,  where  were 
also,  in  after-time,  the  quarters  of  the  smiths  and 
the  cheesemakers,  the  fish  and  the  sheep  markets. 
The  lower  city  was  in  the  same  direction,  and 
particularly  inhabited  by  merchants  and  capital- 
ists (Zeph."  i.  10) .  " The  city  of  David  "  extended, 
probably,  as  far  as  Siloah ;  and  upon  Ophel  also 
there  were  many  houses.  After  the  exile  Jeru- 
salem took  a  long  time  to  recuperate.  In  Nehe- 
miah's  time  the  old  walls  were  far  removed  from 
the  dwellings  (Neh.  vii.  4).  Eventually,  how- 
ever, it  even  overran  its  ancient  limits;  so  that  a 
new  suburb,  Bezetha,  was  built  up  (Josephus : 
Wa7;  V.  4,  2).  The  number  of  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  is  not  easily  calculated :  twenty  thou- 
sand is  probably  too  low  an  estimate  for  the  pre- 
exilian  time.  Josephus  says  that  at  the  passover 
there  were  two  million  seven  hundred  thousand 
in  the  city  (Il'ar,  VI.  9,  3). 

III.  The  Walls,  Gates,  and  Towers.  The 
Walls.  —  There  were  three  walls  on  the  north  of 
the  city,  while  m\  the  other  sides  there  was  only 
one.  The  cour.se  of  the  northern  wails  is  dis- 
puted, and  hence  individual  opinion  alone  can  be 
stated.  When  it  is  said  that  Solomon  built  the 
wall  of  Jerusalem  round  about  (1  Kings  iii.  1), 
it  is  meant  that  he  built  higher  and  stronger,  and 
provided  with  towers,  walls  already  existing. 
Who  built  the  wall  about  the  second  city  is  un- 
known ;  but  this  was  the  wall  of  which  four 
huTidred  cubits  were  broken  down  by  Jehoash, 
king  of  Israel  (2  Kings  xiv.  13),  and  restored  by 
Uzziah  (Josephus  :  Aniltj.  IX.  10,  3).  WalJ- 
building  is  also  attributed  to  Jotham  (2  t'hron. 
xxvii.  3),  Ilezekiah  (xxxii.  .5).  and  .Manasseh 
xxxiii.  14).  The  First  Wall,  according  to  .Ios(!- 
phus,  ran  from  the  Towerof  Ilippicu.s,on  the  north 
side  of  Ziou,  to  the  temple,  on  the  west  side  to 
the  Gate  of  the  Essenes,  on  the  south  to  the  Foun- 
tain of  Siloah,  and  thence,  making  a  bend,  around 
to  the  east  side  of  the  temple.  The  Sccoml  \\'all 
began,  says  the  same  authority,  at  the  Gemiatli,  or 
Garden  (Jate,  which  belonged  to  tlie  first  wall, 
and,  compassing  the  northern  quarter,  reached  as 
far  as  the  Tower  .Vntonia.  The  interpretation  is 
disputed.  Robinson  puts  tlie  Garden  (iate  in  the 
extreme  north-west  corner  of  Zion ;  so  that,  accord- 
ing to  him,  the  second  wall  ran  fust  north-west, 
and  then  north-east,  somewh.at  in  tli<!  course  of 
the  present  walls,  to  the  inside  of  the  Damascus 
Gate,  then  either  south-e.ast  to  .\ntonia,  or  east 
to  the  Kedron.  This  puts  the  Church  of  the 
Holy  .Sepulchre  entirely  inside   the   walls,  and 


destroys  its  claim  to  be  the  true  site.  But  against 
this  view  may  be  urged,  (a)  ^Tien  Cestius,  i-n 
the  year  66.  had  broken  through  the  third  wall, 
he  burnt  Bezetha  and  the  wood-market,  and. 
without  being  hindered  by  the  second  wall,  pressed 
upon  the  upper  city, — i.e.,  to  the  north-west, — 
and  opposite  to  it  pitched  his  tent  (Josephus : 
War,  II.  19,  4).  (b)  In  explanation  of  the  de- 
termination of  Titus  to  open  his  attack  at  the 
monument  of  John  the  high  priest,  which  stood 
in  the  north-western  Xew  Cit^-,  .Josephus  expressly 
states,  that  there  "the  first  fortification  was  lower, 
and  the  second  not  joined  to  it  [i.e.,  to  the  outer- 
most wall,  so  that  a  part  of  the  New  City  was 
enclosed  by  it] ;  the  builders  neglecting  to  build 
the  wall  strong  when  the  New  City  was  not  much 
inhabited.  Here,  also,  was  an  easy  passage  to 
the  third  wall,  through  which  he  (Titus)  thought 
to  take  the  upper  citv,  and,  through  the  tower  of 
Antonia,  the  temple' itself  "  (War,  V.  6,  2).  (c) 
'\^'hen  Titus  had  carried  the  second  wall,  and  torn 
down  its  northern  part,  he  erected  two  banks  for 
the  capture  of  the  upper  city,  and  two  for  that  of 
Antonia.  The  first  two  were  outside  of  the  second 
wall,  by  John's  monument;  the  second  two, by  the 
Pool  Amygdalon,  which  was  also  outside  the  sec- 
ond wall.  The  second  wall  may  be  considered  to 
have  started  at  the  present  bazaar,  and  run,  first 
northwards,  then  eastwards,  from  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  gradually  bending  towards 
the  east,  and  then  somewhere  upon  the  ridge, 
which  is  visible  to  the  east  from  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre,  extending  to  the  Antonia 
Tower.  The  Third  Wall  (Josephus:  War,  V.  4,  2), 
which  took  in  the  New  City  in  the  north-west 
and  north,  was  begun  by  Herod  Agrippa  I.  about 
A.D.  42;  but,  out  of  fear  of  Claudius  Cresar,  he 
stopped  with  the  foundations,  and  it  was  finished 
after  a  lighter  pattern  by  later  Jews.  Its  entire 
height  was  twenty-five  cubits,  with  battlements 
of  two  cubits,  and  turrets  of  three  cubits.  It  was 
defended  by  ninety  towers,  of  which  the  strongest 
was  Psephinos,  at  the  north-western  angle,  west 
from  the  Latin  convent,  npw.ards  of  a  hundred 
feet  high,  and  upon  the  highest  ground  of  the 
city  (twenty-live  hundred  and  ninety  feet  above 
the  .sea),  'f  he  course  of  this  third  wall  was  prob- 
ably, in  general,  that  of  the  present  walls. 

Till:  Gates.  —  Thei'e  were  four  gates  to  the  tem- 
ple enclosure.  On  the  north,  the  Upper  Gate  of 
the  House  of  Jehovah,  also  called  the  Upper  Gate 
of  Benjamin  (.ler.  xxxviii.  7),  or  the  New  Gate 
(xxxvi.  10);  on  the  east,  the  King's  Gate  (1  Chron. 
ix.  18),  called  the  Gate  of  the  Inner  Court  (Ezek. 
xlvi.  ij,  and  the  East  Gate  (Neh.  iii.  29);  on  the 
west,  the  (i.ate  .Shallecheth  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  16);  on 
the  .south,  the  (iate  Miphkail  (Neh.  iii.  31);  and. 
besides  these,  the  G.ate  Sur  (2  Kings  xi.  0),  or 
Gate  of  Foundation  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  5),  and  the 
(iate  behind  the  Guard  (2  Kings  xi.  6).  City 
gates  mentioned  are  the  Corner  Gate  (2  Chron. 
xxvi.  '.)),  probably  on  the  north-west  corner  of 
the  second  city:  the  Valley  (iate  (iliitl.),  on  the 
north-west  comer  of  Zion,  {]ic  site  of  the  present 
Jail'a  (iate.  The  following  g.ates  are  not  spoken 
of  after  the  pre-exilian  period  :  (1)  the  Gate  of 
.lo.shua,  the  governor  of  the  city  (2  Kings  xxiii. 
8),  apparently  in  the  north  wall  of  Zion  near  the 
citadel ;  (2)  the  Pottery  (iate  (A.V.,  the  E.asi  (iate, 
Jer.  xix.  2),  in  the  south  wall  of  Zion,  leading  to 


JERUSALEM. 


1161 


JERUSALEM. 


the  "Valley  of  Hinnom;  ,(3)  the  Middle  Gate 
(Jer.  xxxix.  3),  in  the  royal  palace,  leading  to  the 
middle  city ;  (4)  the  gate  between  the  two  walls 
(2  Kings  XXV.  4 ;  Jer.  xxxix.  4),  in  the  south  end 
of  Ophel,  where  the  west  and  east  walls  of  these 
hills  meet.  For  learning  the  gates  of  the  post- 
exilian  period,  Neheniiah  (pai'ticiilarly  chap,  iii.) 
is  the  best  guide.  Beginning  with  the  .Sheep  Gate 
in  the  east,  north  from  the  then  temple  area,  and 
south  of  the  present  St.  Stephen's  Gate,  and  going 
west,  there  came  in  order  the  Fish  Gate,  where 
the  Tyrian  fish-market  was  held;  the  Old  Gate; 
the  Gate  of  Ephraim  or  of  Benjamin  ;  the  Valley 
Gate,  on  the  north-west  corner  of  Zion  ;  south- 
ward, the  Dung  Gate,  near  the  present  Birket  es 
Sultan ;  the  Fountain  Gate,  close  to  the  Pool  of 
Siloam ;  then  came  the  Stairs  that  go  down  from 
the  city  of  David.  The  next  gate  mentioned  is 
the  Water  Gate,  on  the  south  end  of  Ophel,  through 
which  the  water  used  for  libations  in  the  feast  of 
tabernacles  was  drawn.  Next  and  last  came  the 
Horse  Gate,  through  which  the  king's  horses 
were  taken  to  their  stalls  in  the  substruction  of 
the  temple  area. 

Three  Toicers  are  spoken  of  :  (1)  the  Tower  of 
Meah,  (2)  the  Tower  of  liananeel,  —  both  near 
togethei',  between  the  Sheep  Gate  and  the  Fish 
Gate,  (3)  the  Tower  of  the  Furnaces,  between 
the  Gate  of  Ephraim  and  the  Valley  Gate. 

The  walls  were  almost  entirely  destroyed,  along 
with  the  city,  by  Titus,  A.D.  70,  but  rebuilt  by 
Hadrian,  A.D.  132-136,  who  probably  restored  the 
old  citadel  built  by  Herod ;  for  in  1099  the  cru- 
saders found  at  the  spot  a  fortress  which  long 
resisted  their  attacks.  They  called  it  the  Tower 
of  David,  and  this  name  it  has  retained  until  the 
present  day.  It  is  now  the  most  prominent  object 
as  one  enters  the  Jaffa  Gate,  and  consists  of  five 
square  towers  originally  surrounded  by  a  ditch. 
The  foundations  of  the  towers  are  manifestly 
ancient.  It  is  probably  the  Tower  of  Phasaelus. 
The  present  walls  are  of  Arabic  construction,  and 
date  from  Sultan  Soleymaii  T.  (1536-39).  Both 
these  and  those  of  Hadrian,  in  unintentional  but 
apparent  literal  fulfilment  of  Mic.  iii.  12  (•'  there- 
fore shall  Zion  for  your  sake  be  ploughed  as  a 
field"),  do  not  circumvent  the  southern  part  of 
Zion,  thus  shutting  it  off  from  the  city.  But  in 
general  the  new  walls  rest  upon  the  old  foun- 
dations. 

IV.  The  most  Important  Buildings  and 
Sites.  —  Akra  was  situated  near  the  temple.  It  is 
called  by  Josephus,  our  only  informer,  "the  Lower 
City,"  and  corresponds  to  the  present  Christian 
quarter  upon  the  rocky  ridge  between  the  Tyro- 
pceon  and  the  "  broad  "  valley.  It  took  its  name 
from  the  fortress  Akra,  built  by  Antiochus.  (See 
Joseph.  :  Antiq.,  XII.  .5,  4.) 

Boris,  or  Anionia  as  Herod  called  it,  was  a 
citadel  belonging  to  the  temple,  and  on  its  north- 
west cornel",  mentioned  by  Nehemiah  (ii.  8,cf.  vii. 
2  [A.  V.  "  palace  "  =  fortress,  in  Hebrew  Birali, 
which  corresponds  to  the  Greek  /3dpif]),  called  by 
Josephus  the  Acropolis  (Antiq.,  XV.  11,  4),  forti- 
fied by  Simon  (1  Mace.  xiii.  52),  but  especially 
by  Herod  (War,  I.  3,  3).  It  commanded  the 
temple,  and  interiorly  was  fitted  up  like  a  palace. 

The  Palace  of  the  Asmonceans  was  on  the  north- 
east side  of  Zion,  opposite  the  south-west  corner 
of  the  temple  (Antiq.,  XX.  8,  11). 


The  Palace  of  Herod  was  upon  the  site  of  the 
old  tower  of  David  (  War,  V.  4,  4). 

Tlie  Palace  of  the  Hiyli  Priest,  built  by  Herod, 
was  in  the  Upper  City. 

The  Theatre  was  also  built  by  Herod  (Antiq., 
XV.  8, 1)  ;  perhaps  it  was  identical  with  the  Hip- 
podrome on  the  southerly  part  of  the  UiJper  City. 
His  Amphitheatre  was  north  of  the  city  (Antiq.,  XV. 
8,  1).  The  Xi/slus,  forgynmastic  exercises,  and  a 
place  for  popular  assemblages,  was  on  the  extreme 
north-east  corner  of  Zion  (  War,  V.  4,  2 ;  VI.  3, 
2;  6,2;  8,1).  The  Town-hall  was  between  the 
Xystus  and  the  temple,  probably  by  the  side  of 
the  western  hall  of  the  temple. 

The  Connection  between  the  City  and  the  Temple. 
—  According  to  Antiq.  XV.  11,  5,  there  were  in 
the  west  side  of  the  temple  enclosure  four  gates, 
of  which  one  led  to  the  king's  palace,  and  went 
to  a  passage  over  the  intermediate  valley  ;  two 
led  to  the  suburbs  of  the  city ;  and  the  fourth  led 
to  the  Lower  City,  where  the  road  descended  into 
the  valley  by  a  great  number  of  steps.  The  first 
evidently  led  to  the  bridge  between  the  temple 
and  Xystus  (War,  II.  16,  3).  The  "suburbs" 
were  called  Akra.  Many  traces  of  old  gates  and 
bridges  have  been  discovered  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Ilaram  ;  but  these  can  scarcely  be  identified 
with  those  mentioned  by  Josephus.  For  instance, 
the  Bab  es  Silseleh,  or  Gate  of  the  Chain,  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  to  the  Haram  on  the  west,  stands 
upon  an  arch  discovered  by  Capt.  Wilson ;  but 
the  road  over  this  bridge  apparently  did  not  lead 
to  the  Upper  City,  but  to  the  suburb  lying  inune- 
diately  to  the  north.  About  midway  between  the 
Bab  es  Silseleh  and  the  south-west  corner  of  the 
Haram,  somewhat  south  of  the  Jews'  Wailing- 
Place,  Barclay  discovered  the  so-called  "  Gate  of 
the  Prophet.''  Robinson's  Arch,  so  called  because 
discovered  by  him,  is  thirty-nine  feet  north  of 
the  south-west  end  of  the  Haram.  It  consists  of 
three  courses  of  huge  stones  projecting  from  the 
wall,  forming  the  segment  of  an  arch,  which  ex- 
tends fifty  feet  along  the  wall. 

Places  connected  with  the  PassioTi  and  Ascension 
of  our  Lord.  —  The  house  in  which  the  Last  Sujv 
per  was  eaten,  and,  later,  the  miraculous  tongues 
of  fire  of  Pentecost  were  seen,  is  traditionally 
placed  on  the  southern  brow  of  Zion,  not  now 
within  the  walls.  It  is  the  Coetmculum  of  the 
present  day,  the  "  upper  room  "  of  the  Evangel- 
ists, and  was  probably  the  Church  of  the  Apos- 
tles spoken  of  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  the  fourth 
century.  It  is  in  the  group  of  buildings  over  the 
pretended  tomb  of  David,  and  is  fifty  feet  long 
by  thirty  wide.  The  Palace  of  Caiaphas,  between 
the  Coenaculum  and  the  Zion  Gate,  is  an  Arme- 
nian cloister.  The  Prfetorium,  or  Judgment-hall 
of  Pilate,  was  probably  in  Antouia.  (See  Gabba- 
TH.\.)  The  Via  Dolorosa  proper,  along  which 
Jesus  is  supposed  to  have  been  led,  bearing  his 
cross,  runs  from  Antonia  to  the  Church  of  the 
Sepulchre,  jiassing  the  Ecce  Homo  Arch  near  the 
Church  of  the  F''lagellation.  The  name  is,  how- 
ever, now  given  to  the  whole  street  running  from 
St.  Stephen's  Gate  to  the  street  of  the  Gate  of 
the  Column,  of  which  the  traditional  Via  Dolo- 
rosa is  part.  At  the  foot  of  the  ilount  of  Olives, 
opposite  St.  Stephen's  Gate,  was  Gethsemane. 
The  present  site  so  called  is  a  little  garden,  with 
eight  olive-trees  of  great  age,  though  scarcely  as 


JERUSALEM. 


1162 


JERUSALEM. 


old  as  Christianity,  in  charge  of  Franciscan  monks. 
It  is  probably  rightly  placed.  About  a  hundred 
paces  distant  is  the  Grotto  of  the  Agony  (antrum 
agonice),  a  dark,  irregular  cave,  hewn  in  the  rock. 
The  place  of  the  ascension  is  fixed  by  Luke  xxiv. 
50  ("  he  led  them  out  until  they  were  over  against 
Bethany  ")  between  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  the 
Hill  of  Offence,  where  the  road  winds  towards 
Bethany.  But  tradition  puts  the  spot  on  the  top 
of  Olivet,  and  there  Helena  built  a  church,  now 
destroyed.  A  small  chapel,  under  the  charge  of 
the  Mohammedans,  occupies  the  traditional  spot : 
near  it  is  the  place  where,  according  to  monastic 
tradition,  Jesus  taught  his  disciples  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  the  Apostles  composed  the  Creed. 
Bethphage  lay  nearer  to  Jerusalem  than  Bethany 
(which  see),  and  rather  oif  the  direct  road.  In 
the  Talmud  it  is  often  mentioned  as  within  the 
city  limits.  The  name  was  probably  given  to 
several  successive  places,  which  would  account 
for  the  conflicting  traditions  as  to  its  site.  Schick 
puts  it  between  the  Kedron  and  Bethany. 

V.  The  Water-Supply.  —  Since  Jerusalem 
lies  in  a  rocky  limestone  region,  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pected that  it  would  be  destitute  of  springs  ;  but 
this  natural  lack  was  formerly  supplied  by  an 
extensive  .system  of  aqueducts,  pools,  and  cisterns; 
so  that  in  no  one  of  her  numerous  sieges  do  we 
read  of  any  suffering  for  water  on  the  part  of  the 
inhabitants,  while  the  besiegers  have  often  suf- 
fered severely.  At  the  present  day  rain-water  is 
exclusively  used;  and  the  better  class  of  houses 
have  three  or  four  cisterns,  from  five  to  thirty 
feet  long  by  the  same  in  breadth,  and  ten  to 
twenty  feet  deep,  generally  vaulted,  with  a  small 
opening  on  top,  surrounded  by  stone-work,  and 
provided  with  bucket  and  wheel.  But  formerly 
there  were  aqueducts  from  north,  west,  and  espe- 
cially from  the  south.  That  from  the  north  can 
be  identifieil  with  the  subterranean  canal  which 
has  an  opening  under  the  Convent  of  tlie  Sisters 
of  Zion,  an<l  flows  thence  southwards  to  the  west 
side  of  the  Harain.  That  from  the  west  can  be 
traced  from  the  Russian  colony  into  the  city. 
These  contain  only  rain-water,  drained  off  the 
neighboring  hills.  But  from  the  south  came  two 
■which  were  supplied  with  spring-water.  (1)  An 
upper  and  straighter  aqueduct,  only  partially 
traceable,  which  went  from  the,  Wady  el  Biyar, 
on  the  road  to  Hebron,  south-west  of  Urtas  and 
Bethlehem,  up  the  Valley  of  Hinnom  to  Zion,  and 
SO  into  the  city.  In  places,  e.g.,  by  Kachers  Tomb, 
the  water  flows  through  a  tube  fifteen  inches  in 
diameter,  formed  of  huge  perforated  blocks  of 
stone  cemented  together.  (1)  .\  lower  and  much 
more  winding  aqueduct  from  Wady  .\rrub,  south 
of  Tekoa,  following  tlie  valley  by  liethlehem,  .so 
to  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  which  it  crosses  upon 
nine  low  arclies  nortii  of  the  liirket  es  Sutlitn,  then 
it  turns  southward,  then  eastward,  sweeps  around 
Zion,  passing  under  Wilson's  Bridge,  through  the 
Tyropfeon  V'alley,  into  the  Harain.  Tlie  Lower 
Aqueduct  was  repaired  and  used  in  18.50  and 
IHfiO,  but  stopi)ed  up  by  the  Bethlehemites  in 
1803.  ^■ery  i)robably  this  aqueduct  formerly 
watered  the  gardens  upon  Zion  by  means  of  a 
network  of  canals,  and  to  this  fact  Ps.  xlvi.  4 
("  there  is  a  river  the  streams  when^of  shall 
make  glad  the  city  of  God  ")  alludes.  The  ri)per 
and  Lower  Acjueducts  were  each  two  feet  wide, 


and  at  least  that  deep,  and  constructed  of  well- 
cemented  masonry.  They  draw  from  the  great 
reservoirs  at  Urtas  (Etham),  which  are  commonly, 
though  erroneously,  called  Solomon's  Pools. 
[There  are  three  of  them,  three  hundred  and 
eighty  feet,  four  hundred  and  twenty-three  feet, 
and  five  hundred  and  eighty-two  feet  long  respec- 
tively, and  so  arranged  that  the  bottom  of  each 
pool  is  higher  than  the  top  of  the  one  below  it, 
in  order  that  as  nmch  water  might  be  collected  as 
possible.  The  water  in  them  comes  from  ■'  a  sub- 
terranean fountain  some  distance  up  the  valley  to 
the  north-west.  The  only  visible  mark  is  an 
opening  like  the  mouth  of  a  well,  generally  cov- 
ered by  a  large  stone.  The  water  springs  up  at 
four  places,  from  which  little  ducts  carry  it  into 
a  basin  :  it  then  flows  through  a  subterranean 
passage  to  a  place  at  the  north-west  corner  of  the 
upper  pool.  Here  the  stream  is  divided,  a  por- 
tion flowing  into  a  vault  twenty-four  feet  by  five, 
and  thence  through  a  duct  at  the  side  into  the 
upper  pool.  The  remainder  of  the  water  is  car- 
ried by  an  aqueduct  along  the  hillside,  but  so 
arranged  as  to  send  a  portion  off  into  the  second 
and  third  pools  :  it  then  descends  till  it  meets  the 
lower  end  of  the  lower  pool,  and  runs  by  Bethle- 
hem in  a  winding  course  to  Jerusalem."  —  J.  L. 
Porter,  in  Murray's  Handbook  for  Travellers  in 
Syria  and  Palestine,  1875,  p.  107].  The  builder  of 
this  aqueduct  was  probably  Pilate.  Of.  Joseph. : 
Antiq.,  XVIII.  3,  2;   War,  II.  9.  4. 

There  are  two  fountains  on  or  by  the  temple : 
hence  the  allusions  in  Joel  iii.  18,  Ezek.  xlvii. 
1-12,  Zech.  xiv.  8.  The  principal  one  is  Siloam, 
mentioned  in  Xeh.  iii.  15,  Isa.  viii.  6,  and  John 
ix.  11,  and  called  hy  Mohammed  "  a  Fountain  of 
Paradise."  Its  name,  "  Sent,"  indicated  that  its 
water  was  conveyed  to  some  pool ;  and  this  pool, 
according  to  Neh.  iii.  15  (cf.  War,  V.  4,  1,  2),  was 
ojiposite  the  south-east  end  of  Zion,  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  Tyropceon  Valley,  on  the  west  side  of 
Ophel.  All  the  conditions  are  met  in  the  pres- 
ent Pool  of  Siloam,  —  a  re.scrvoir  fifty-three  feet 
long,  eighteen  wide,  and  nineteen  deep,  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty-five  feet  from  the  end  of  the 
Tyrop<eon,  — but  even  better  in  the  somewhat 
larger  liirket  el  Ilaiiira,  farther  down  in  the  Ke- 
dron, now  filled  with  earth.  The  present  so-called 
"  Pool  of  Siloam  "  then  corresponds  to  the  "  pool 
that  w.as  made  "  (cf.  Xeh.  iii.  Ifi),  but  jirobably 
receives  its  water  from  the  same  spring  as  the  real 
Pool  of  Silo.am.  The  rountain  of  the  Virgin  (Ain 
siti  Miriam)  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Kedron, 
three  huu<lred  yards  south  of  the  Haram,  on  the 
other  side  of  Ojiliel  from  the  Pool  of  Siloam: 
it  is  now  called  "  .4  m  um  ed  DeraJ"  (the  Fonn- 
tain  of  the  Mother  of  .Stairs),  because  one  nnist 
go  down  thirty  steps  to  reach  the  water.  The 
peculiarity  of  the  fountain  is  the  intermittent 
flow  of  the  water.  Often  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  except  in  summer,  when  this  happens  only 
two  or  three  times  a  week,  the  water  rises  sud- 
denly several  feet  during  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  then  flows  out  with  a  gurgling  sound  through 
a  channel  leading  to  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  until 
its  ordinary  level  is  reached.  The  connecting 
canal  between  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin  and  the 
Pool  of  Siloam  has  been  explored  by  Kobin.son 
(April,  18.i8),  Tobler  f March,  1840),  and  War- 
ren ;  and  the  ri.se  and  fall  of  the  water  —  vulgarly 


JERUSALEM. 


1163 


JERUSALEM. 


explained  by  the  movement  of  a  dragon,  flowing 
when  he  awakes,  and  stopping  while  he  sleeps  — 
has  been  found  to  be  due  to  the  intermittent  char- 
acter of  its  source,  as  was  noticed  by  Jerome  in 
regard  to  the  Pool  of  Siloani,  hut  not  now  visi- 
ble in  it,  owing  to  the  slower  and  smaller  flow  of 
water.  The  water  in  the  Fountain  of  the  Virgin 
is  now  unpleasant  to  the  taste.  [In  June,  1880, 
one  of  the  pupils  of  Herr  Schick,  German  archi- 
tect long  resident  in  Jerusalem,  accidentally  fell 
into  the  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  thus  discovered  some 
letters  in  the  wall  of  the  conduit  from  the  Foun- 
tain of  the  Virgin.  By  the  united  efforts  of  Ileir 
Schick,  Professor  A.  H.  Sayce,  Dr.  Guthe,  and 
others,  the  inscription  has  been  almost  entirely 
copied.  It  consists  of  six  lines  in  a  space  twenty- 
eight  inches  long  by  eight  inches  in  height.  It  is 
thus  translated  upon  page  403  of  The  Preshyteiian 
Mevieic,  April  number,  1882:  "The  excavation. 
Now  this  is  the  story  of  the  excavation.  While 
.  .  .  the  pick,  one  toward  the  other.  While  three 
cubits  .  .  .  the  voice  of  one  called  to  the  other 
that  there  was  an  overflow  (?)  in  the  rock,  water. 
.  .  .  And  on  the  day  of  the  excavation  the  ex- 
cavators struck  each  to  meet  the  other,  pick  over 
against  pick,  and  the  waters  flowed  from  their 
outlet  in  the  pool  1,200  cubits,  and  100  cubits  was 
the  height  of  the  rock  over  the  head  of  the  exca- 
vators." Various  dates  have  been  assigned  to  the 
inscription,  from  Solomon  to  Ilezekiah.  Its  archfe- 
ological  importance  is  slight.  But  its  discovery 
will  be  a  stimulus,  and  many  far  more  important 
inscriptions  will  doubtless  be  found.  Another 
aqueduct,  two  or  more  feet  deep  by  three  feet  and 
a  half  wide,  leading  down  the  Kedron  from  the 
Pool  of  Siloam,  in  the  direction  of,  and  pirobably 
to,  Bir  Eijuh  (En  Rogel),  was  discovered  in  the 
spring  of  1882.  The  channel  is  rock  cut,  and 
roofed  over  with  slabs.] 

En  Ro;/el  is  a  well  of  living  water  below  the 
city,  in  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  famous  as  the 
site  of  Adonijah's  feast  (1  Kings  i.  9),  now  called 
by  the  Arabs  Bir  Eyub  (the  ^\'ell  of  Jacob),  and 
by  the  Franks  "  the  Well  of  Nehemiah,"  because 
Neheniiah  there  found  the  holy  fire  (2  Mace.  i.  19, 
22).  It  is  a  hundred  and  twenty-flve  feet  deep, 
with  fifty  feet  of  sweet  water. 

Besides  these  fountains,  there  are  several  pools. 
The  Lower  Pool  (Isa.  xxii.  9)  is  identified  with 
the  Birket  es  Sultan  (sc.  Soleyman),  in  the  Gihon 
Valley,  below  the  south-eastern  angle  of  the  city's 
wall.  The  Old  Pool  (Isa.  xxii.  11 ;  cf.  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  30,  "upper  watercourse  of  Gihon,"  and  2 
Kings  xviii.  17 ;  Isa.  vii.  3,  "  Upper  Pool,  in  the 
highway  of  tlie  Fuller's  Field  ")  is  identified  with 
the  Birket  cI-Mnuilla  (so  called  from  St.  Manilla's 
Church),  in  tlie  upper  end  of  Gihon.  It  is  filled 
with  rain-water  In  winter,  but  empty  and  dry  in 
summer  and  autumn.  The  water  of  this  pool  is 
conducted  into  the  Pool  of  Hezekiah,  or  of  the 
Patriarchs  (Birket  Hammam  el-Batrak),  inside  the 
city,  near  the  Jaffa  Gate.  For  the  Pool  of  Be- 
thesda,  .see  Bethesda. 

VI.  The  Tombs.  — It  is  doubtful  whether  any 
one  of  the  tombs  pointed  out  around  the  city  is 
really  very  old.  David  was  buried  in  the  city  of 
David  (1  Kings  ii.  10),  and  his  tomb  was  well 
known  in  Christ's  day  (Acts  ii.  29).  Hyrcanus 
(.Joseph.  :  Antiei.,  VII.  15,  3)  and  Herod  (Antiq., 
XVL  7,  1)  robbed  it  of  its  treasures.     The  tombs 


of  the  kings  were  on  the  south-east  corner  of  Zion 
(Neh.  iii.  16)  ;  and  there  lay  almost  all  the  Judaic 
kings,  as  well  as  the  high  priest  Jehoiada  (2 
Chron.  xxiv.  10).  But  the  Tombs  of  tlie  Kiiir/s 
now  shown  to  the  traveller  lii;  ten  minutes  north 
from  the  Damascus  Gate,  and  probably  were  con- 
structed by  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene,  for  her- 
self, son,  and  his  twenty-four  children.  [It  is 
properly  a  catacomb,  and  contains  a  remarkable 
contrivance,  —  an  inner  door,  made  of  "a  ma.ssive 
slab  of  stone,  fitting  exactly  hito  a  deeply  recessed 
opening,  and  so  hung  upon  pivots  that  it  yielded 
to  pressure  from  without,  but  immediately  fell 
back  into  its  place  on  the  pressure  being  removed. 
Should  any  one  be  so  unfortunate  as  to  enter,  and 
leave  the  door  for  an  instant,  his  fate  was  sealed; 
for  it  fitted  so  closely  that  he  had  no  means  of 
pulling  it  open  again."  —  Porter.]  South  of  it, 
and  only  two  or  three  minutes  from  the  Damascus 
Gate,  is  the  so-called  Grotto  of  Jeremiah,  where  the 
Lamentations  are  said  to  have  been  composed, 
and  the  prophet  buried ;  but  it  really  is  a  section 
of  an  old  quarry.  The  Tombs  of  the  Jiuh/es,  also 
called  the  "  Tombs  of  the  Prophets  "  and  "  of  the 
Sanhedrin,"  are  fifteen  minutes  north-west  from 
the  Tombs  of  the  Kings,  and  elaborately  finished. 
On  the  opposite  side,  south-east  from  Jerusalem, 
is  the  little  labyrinth  called  the  Tombs  of  the 
Prophets,  —  certainly  very  old.  Farther  down  is 
the  Tomb  of  Zacharias  (cf.  2  Chron.  xxiv.  21, 
Jewish  reference ;  or  Matt,  xxiii.  35,  Christian), 
and  somewhat  to  the  north  the  Tomb  of  Absalom. 
The  first  of  the  two  last-mentioned  is  a  monolith 
throughout ;  the  second,  only  so  below,  its  upper 
]>art  being  of  masonry.  Between  them  is  the 
Tomb  of  St.  James,  so  called  because  in  it  the 
apostle  .James  hid  himself  after  our  Lord's  cap- 
ture, and  fasted  there  until  his  resm-rection. 
North  of  the  Tomb  of  Absalom  is  the  Tomb  of 
Jehoshaphat,  whose  principal  chamber  was  used  as 
a  Christian  chapel.  North  of  Gethsemane  is  the 
Tomb  of  Mary,  where  also  her  parents  and  husband 
are  said  to  be  buried. 

Jerusalem  is  fairly  surrounded  by  graves.  The 
oldest  necropolis  is  in  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  by 
the  Hill  of  Evil  Counsel.  Lately  the  Christians 
have  buried  upon  Zion,  from  Zion  Gate  south- 
ward; the  Mohammedans,  in  the  Kedron  by  St. 
Stephen's  Gate ;  and  the  Jews,  principally  upon 
the  west  slopes  of  Olivet. 

VII.  The  Churches,  Mosques,  and  Eccle- 
siastical Affairs.  —  Hadrian  (117-138)  pro- 
faned the  holy  city,  and  called  it  jElia  Capitoiina; 
forbade  the  .Tews,  a  few  of  whom  had  returned 
after  its  destruction  by  Titus  (70),  to  enter  it,  on 
pain  of  death ;  and  built  upon  the  rnins  of  the 
temple  to  .Jehovah  a  temple  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus, 
ornamented  with  statues  of  tlie  god  and  of  him- 
self (cf.  Munter  :  Der  jUil.  Krie//  unler  Trajan 
u.  Hadrian,  Altona,  1821).  L^pon  the  site  of  the 
present  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  stood  a 
temple  to  Venus.  But  this  triumph  of  heathenism 
was  short  lived.  Constantine  (308-337)  allowed 
the  Jews  to  return  once  a  year,  and  pray  upon 
the  sites  of  their  holy  places.  .Julian  (361-363) 
ordered  them  to  rebuild  the  temple  ;  but  the  work 
was  stopped  by  an  earthquake. 

There  seem  always  to  have  been  Christians  in 
Jerusalem,  who  had  a  church  on  Zion  (the  Cce- 
naculum,  or  Church  of  the  Apostles) ;  and  from 


JERUSALEM. 


1164 


JERUSALEM. 


Constaiitine  and  his  mother  Helena  they  receiyed 
substantial  support.  The  former  built  tlie  Church 
of  tlie  Holy  Sepulchre ;  the  latter,  the  Church  of 
the  Ascension,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives.  The 
patriarcliate  of  Jerusalem  (see  art.)  was  erected 
in  451.  Justinian  Vuiilt  the  Church  of  the  Virgin, 
or  Theotokdi  ("  mother  of  God"),  upon  the  south- 
■western  part  of  the  temple  area,  and  ten  or  eleven 
convents,  besides  a  hospice,  in  the  city ;  for  from 
the  third  century  pilgrimages  were  made  thither. 

In  637  the  Jlohammedans,  under  Omar,  took 
the  city,  which  had  already  been  venerated  by 
Mohammed,  called  El  Kuds  ("the  Sanctuary"), 
and  considered  by  his  followers  second  only  to 
Mecca  in  holiness.  Omar  took  the  Church  of 
the  Virgin,  which  was  a  basilica,  and  transformed 
it  into  the  Mosque  El-Aksa.  Later  caliphs  re- 
stored and  remodelled  it  to  its  present  condition. 
But  the  whole  temple  area  has  been  altered  by 
the  ^lohamraedans.  It  is  now  called  the  Haram 
esh  Sherif,  and  is  an  irregular  parallelogram,  on 
the  west  1,601  feet,  on  the  east  1,530,  on  the  north 
l,0i2,  and  on  the  south  922.  In  the  middle  stands 
the  Kubbet  es-Sakhara  (•'  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  "), 
also  called  the  ilosque  of  Omar,  built  by  Abd 
el-Melek  (.V.D.  G86),  —  a  large,  stately  octagonal 
building,  sixty-seven  feet  each  side.  The  interior 
is  a  hundred  and  forty-eight  feet  in  diameter ; 
entrance  is  by  four  doors.  Under  the  dome  is  the 
famous  rock,  rising  above  the  floor,  surrounded 
by  a  railing.  The  Moh.ammedans  suppose  it  to 
be  suspended  in  the  air,  but  it  is  merely  the  top 
of  a  cave.  Many  hold  that  the  great  altar  of 
burnt-offering  was  built  upon  it.  It  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible. 

Jerusalem  is  ruled  by  the  Turks,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  7nulasarrif  under  the  wall/  of  Syria.  Its  piresent 
population  consists  of  about  twenty-four  thou- 
sand, thus  divided :  Mohammedans,  thirteen 
thousand;  Christians,  seven  thousand;  Jews,  four 
thousand.  The  latter  are  supported  by  the  charity 
of  their  co-religionists.  Baron  Rothschild's  hos- 
pital, near  the  south  wall,  built  in  1855,  and  Sir 
Moses  Montefiore's  almshouses,  west  of  the  liirket 
es-Sultan,  are  their  principal  institutions.  Every 
Friday  at  four  p.m.,  and  on  festivals,  many  of  the 
Jews  gather  to  mourn  the  fall  of  the  city,  and  to 
pray  for  its  restoration,  at  the  VVailing-l'lace, 
just  outside  the  enclosure  of  the  Mosque  El-Aksa, 
and  near  Robinson's  Arch,  where  a  portion  of  the 
old  temple  wall  is  still  uncovered. 

The  Christians  belong  to  the  Greek,  old  Arme- 
nian, and  Latin,  and  a  few  to  Protestant  cliurches. 
Tlie  Greeks  are  the  most  numerous  and  powerful. 
They  have  over  them  a  |)atriarcli.  Tlu^  Russian 
czars  have  done  much  for  lliem.  There  is  a  Rus- 
sian colony  outside  the  walls,  near  the  Jaffa  (jate, 
with  a  cathedral,  hospital,  and  accommodations 
for  a  tliousand  jiilgrims.  The  Armenians  have  a 
large  convent  inside  the  .Jaffa  Gate,  where  their 

Eatriarch  and  a  hundred  and  eighty  monks  and 
rothers  live :  adjoining  is  the  largest  and  finest 
garden  in  Jerusalem.  Thc-y  have  also  a  printing- 
press  and  a  photographic  establi.shment.  The 
Latins  have  only  been  numerous  there  since  1S17. 
They  number  now  fifteen  liundred,  have  churches, 
convents,  schools,  and  a  printiug-|>ress,  whence 
issue  Arabic  school-books.  The  I'rulestanls  are 
very  few.  Besides  tlie  cliurch  and  school,  which 
beloni;   to  the  bishopric  of  Jerusalem  (see  next 


art.  and  Gobat),  there  are  German  hospitals  and 
an  orphanage.     There  is  also  a  lazar-house. 

Lit.  —  Kemal  ed-Din  :  The  History  of  Jerusa- 
lem, translated  by  James  Reynolds,  London,  1831 ; 
J.  Olsh.\usen  :  Zur  Topographie  des  alten  Jerusa- 
lems,  Kiel,  1833;  E.  Robinso.n:  Biblical  Research- 
es, Boston,  1841,  3  vols.,  revised  edition,  1856 ;  E. 
G.  ScHULTZ :  Jerusalem,  Berlin.  1845;  G.  AViL- 
LiAMs  :  The  Holy  City,  London.  1845,  2d  ed.,  1849  ; 
ScHWARZ :  Palestine.  English  translation,  Phila- 
delphia, 1850;  T.  ToBLEis:  Zwei  BUcher  Topogra- 
phie von  Jerusaletn  u.  seine  Umgebungeii,  Berlin, 
1853-54  ;  the  same  :  Dritte  Wanderung  nach  Palas- 
ftVio,  1859;  TiiRUPP:  Ancient Jerusalem,C2mhriA^e, 
1855;  J.  F.  Barclay:  Jerusalem,  Philadelphia, 
1857;  Sepp:  Jerusalem  u.  d.  h.  Land,  Miinchen, 
1864,  2  vols.,  2d  ed.,  1873-75;  K.  Furrer  : 
Wanderungen  durcli  Paldstina,  Ziirich  1865 ;  T. 
Tobler  :  Bibliog.  Geographica  Palcestinm,  Leipzig, 
1867,  with  supplement,  1875  (the  best  list  for 
notices  of  Jerusalem,  383-1000  A.D. ;  for  an  addi- 
tional list  see  Socin,  in  Zeitschrift  des  deutschen 
Paldslina-Vereins,  1878,  p.  40  sqq.)  ;  AViLSOJf  and 
Warren:  Recovery  of  Jerusalem,  London,  1871; 
W.  B.\sant  and  E.  H.  P.vlhier:  Jerusalem,  the  City 
of  Herod  and  Saladin,  London,  1871  (from  crusad- 
ing and  Arabic  sources) ;  Our  Work  in  Palestitte, 
London,  1873;  Badeker  (Socin):  Paldstina  und 
Syrien,  Leipzig,  1875,  2d  ed.,  1880;  [Sauvaire: 
Histoire  de  Jerusalem  et  d'He'bron  depuis  Abraham 
jusqu'a  la  fin  du  15e  si'ecle  de  Jc'sus-Christ,  traduit 
sur  la  texte  arabc  (Mujir  ed-Din),  Paris,  1876 ; 
AVarren  :  Underground  Jerusalem,  London,  1876  ; 
Itinera  Hierosylmitana,  ed.  Tobler  et  Molinier, 
Geneva,  1879  sq.  ;  Spiess  :  Das  Jerusalem  des  Jo- 
sephus,  Berlin,  1881  ;  Gildemeister  :  Theodosius, 
de  situ  terrae  sane,  im  dchten  Text,  u.  d.  Breviarius 
de  Hierosoh/ma,  Bonn,  1882].      F.  w.  schultz. 

JERUSALEM,  The  Episcopal  See  of  St.  James 
in.  In  1818  the  American  Board  of  Foreign  Mi.s- 
sions  sent  two  missionaries  to  Palestine  to  work 
among  the  Palestinian  .lews,  who,  in  the  course 
of  time,  had  sunk  into  utter  spiritual  degradation. 
After  the  occupation  of  the  country  by  ^leheinet 
AH,  in  1832,  the  London  Association  for  Missionary 
Work  among  the  .lews  also  entered  the  field;  and 
in  1833  the  celebrated  Orientalist  Nicolayson  per- 
manently .settled  in  Jerusalem.  Yet  while  the 
Greek,  the  Latin,  and  the  Armenian  churches  had 
legally  established  organizations  in  .lerusalem, 
the  Prot.i'stant  churches  were  still  without  any 
official  representation,  until,  by  tlie  joint  expedi- 
tion of  the  European  giand  powers  in  1840, 
Friedrich  Wilhelin  IV.  of  Prussia  opened  nego- 
tiations with  Queen  Victoria  for  the  establishnient 
of  a  Protestant  episcopal  see  in  Jerusalem  under 
the  patronage  of  the  two  Protestant  states,  —  Eng- 
land and  Prussia.  The  Prussian  propositions 
were  most  cordially  accepted  by  the  prelates  of 
the  Anglican  Church,  who  spoke  of  the  establish- 
ment as  a  great  advantage  for  the  missions  among 
the  .Jews,  and  a  propitious  introductory  to  a  union 
between  the  Protestant  churches  in  Germany 
and  ICnglamL  'I'he  dotation  of  the  see  was  fixed 
at  thirty  thousand  pounds,  in  order  to  insure  a 
yearly  income  of  twelve  hundred  pounds,  of 
which  England  paid  one  half,  and  Prussia  the 
other.  With  respect  to  jurisdiction,  it  was  placed 
under  the  metropolitan  authority  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.     The  right  of  apixjintnient 


JERUSALEM. 


1165 


JERUSALEM. 


■was  to  be  alternative  between  the  two  states, 
though  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  retained  a 
veto  also  in  case  of  a  Prussian  ajipoiutnient. 
The  first  bishop,  Michael  Sal.  Alexander  (1).  in 
1790  at  Schonlanke  in  Posen),  a  converted  Jew, 
professor  of  Hebrew  in  King's  College  in  London, 
was  appointed  by  England,  and  entered  Jerusa- 
lenj  Jan.  21,  ISli',  but  died  Nov.  2:!,  1815,  near 
Cairo.  The  second  bishop,  Samuel  Ciobat  (see 
art.),  was  appointed  by  Prussia.  He  occupied  the 
see  until  his  death,  Slay  11,  1879,  and  founded 
twelve  minor  Protestant  congregations  in  P.ale.s- 
tine,  with  churches  in  Jerusalem,  Nazareth,  Jaffa, 
Bethleliem,  and  Nablus,  and  with  thirty-seven 
.schools  frequented  by  fifteen  hundred  cliildren. 
The  third  bishop,  Joseph  Barclay,  was  appointed 
by  England,  unit  died  Oct.  23,  1881.  The  fourth, 
G.  F.  P.  Blytli,  the  present  bishop,  was  appoint- 
ed in  1887.  tiiJDER. 

Chevalier  Bunsen  was  the  chief  adviser  of 
King  William  IV.  in  the  scheme  of  founding 
the  bishopric  of  St.  James.  The  High-Church 
party  in  England  was  opposed  to  it  on  the  ground 
that  it  interfered  with  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Greek  Patriarch.  The  bishopric  has  disappointed 
the  sanguine  union-schemes  of  its  founders,  but 
is  doing  a  good  missionary  work,  especially  in 
the  education  of  youth,  and  in  Christian  cliarity 
■to  the  poor  and  sick.  Protestant  services  are  held 
in  English,  German,  and  Hebrew.  The  English 
Church  is  near  the  Jaffa  Gate  and  the  Medi- 
terranean Hotel,  and  is  well  tilled  during  tlie 
Easter  season. 

JERUSALEM,  The  Patriarchate  of,  owes  its 
interest  to  the  memories  connected  with  the  name 
and  the  place,  rather  than  to  the  influence  it  has 
actually  exercised  on  the  history  of  the  Church. 
Eusebius  gives  a  list  of  the  "bishops"  from  the 
origin  of  the  congregation  to  his  own  time;  but 
it  contains  only  a  few  names  of  prominence. 
During  the  reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  tlie 
city  began  to  attract  the  general  attention  of 
Christendom,  especially  by  its  relics.  Magnificent 
churches  were  built  within  its  precincts,  and  the 
Council  of  Niccea(co(/.  7)  conferred  on  it  a  preced- 
ence of  honor  as  the  true  cradle  of  Christianity. 
The  see  remained,  nevertheless,  under  the  metio- 
politan  authority  of  Csesarea  until  Theodosius  II. 
elevated  it  into  a  patriarchate.  Some  difficulties 
arose  with  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and  Alexan- 
dria concerning  the  boundaries  of  the  new  diocese; 
but  they  were  solved  by  the  Council  of  Chaleedon, 
451.  By  the  successive  Persian,  Arabic,  and  Turk- 
ish conquests  of  the  Holy  Land,  all  connection 
was  broken  off  between  the  patriarchate  and  the 
rest  of  Christendom  until  the  crusaders  took  )ios- 
session  of  the  country  in  1099.  The  victors  found 
the  patriarchal  throne  vacant,  the  last  patriarch 
having  fled  to  Cj'jirus,  where  he  died.  In  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  clergy,  tliey  established 
Arnulph,  a  mean  character,  as  the  first  Latin  patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem.  Arnulph 's  successor,  i)ago- 
bert,  who,  as  archbishop  of  Pisn,  had  accompanied 
Urban  II.  on  his  voyage  through  France  in  1095, 
tried  to  give  a  thoroughly  hierarchical  character 
to  the  constitution  of  the  new  kingdom  ;  but  the 
relations  between  the  patriarch  and  the  Pope  soon 
became  disturbed,  and  these  disturbances  again 
affected  the  relations  between  the  patriarch  and 
the  king.    lu  1138  the  Patriarch  William  thought 


of  separating  from  Rome  altogether,  and  in  1187 
the  Patriarch  Ileraclius  surrendered  the  city  of 
.Jerusalem  to  Saladin.  Saladin  expelled  the  Lat- 
ins :  oidy  some  members  of  the  Franciscan  order 
were  allowed  to  settle  in  a  monastery  on  Mount 
Zion.  In  the  negotiations  concerning  a  union 
between  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches,  the  patri- 
archs of  Jerusalem  played  only  a  very  small  part. 
At  the  Council  of  Florence  (1438)  the  see  was 
represented  ;  but  in  1443  the  agreement  arrived 
at  there  was  rejected  in  .lerusalem,  as  well  as  in 
.Alexandria  and  .Vntioch.  Tlie  rehitions  with 
the  Russian  Church  were  very  friendly :  the  Ru.s- 
sian  confession  of  1043  was  signed  by  Paisius 
of  Jerusalem.  The  most  conspicuous  point  in 
the  later  history  of  the  patriarchate  is  tlie  synod 
of  Jerusalem,  lt!72  (which  see),  .\fter  that  time 
it  gradually  dwindled  down  into  insignificance. 
It  once  comprised  sixty-eight  episcopal  dioceses, 
with  twenty-five  suffragans  :  it  now  comprises 
only  fourteen,  —  Csesarea,  Palestina,  Scythopolis, 
Petra,  Ptolemais,  Betlilehem,  Nazareth,  Lydda, 
Gaza,  Sinai,  Joppa,  Nablus,  Sebaste,  and  Phila- 
delphia ;  and  these  fourteen  dioceses  number 
only  seventeen  thousand  .souls.  Tlie  last  patri- 
arcii,  Athanasius,  resided  in  Constantinople,  and 
administered  the  patriarchate  by  a  synod.  The 
present  one  resides  in  Jerusalem,  in  a  newly  built 
magnificent  palace.  See  CiEORGE  Williams  : 
Tlie  Hobj  City,  London,  1845,  2d  ed.,  1849,  2 
vols.,  i.  195  sq. ;  Wilson  :  The  Lands  of  the  Bible, 
Edinburgh,  1847,  2  vols.,  ii.  569  sqq.  ;  [Sciiaff  : 
Throucjh  Bible  Lands,  New  York,  1880,  chapter 
xxiv.].  GASS. 

JERUSALEM,  Synod  of,  1672.  The  doctrines 
of  Cyril  Lucar  were  condemned  by  his  successor 
at  the  Council  of  Constantinople,  1638,  and  again 
liy  the  next  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Parthe- 
nius,  at  the  Synod  of  Jassy,  1642.  The  metro- 
politan of  Kjew,  Petrus  Mogilas,  also  found  it 
necessary  to  protest  against  those  doctrines ;  and 
his  confession  was  sanctioned,  1643,  by  the  patri- 
archs of  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  .\ntioch, 
.lerusalem,  and  Moscow.  Thus  an  effective  barrier 
seemed  to  be  raised  against  the  Calvinistic  in- 
vasions of  the  Orthodoxy  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
Nevertheless,  both  the  Reformed  and  the  Roman- 
Catholic  theologians  continued  to  hint  that  the 
Greek  Church  had  given  up  its  insulated  attitude, 
and  was  leaning  respectively  either  this  or  that 
way.  In  the  controversy  between  the  Reformed 
minister,  Jean  Claude,  and  the  Jansenists  Nicole 
and  Arnauld,  concerning  the  Eucharist  and  tran- 
substantiation,  the  former  alleged,  in  support  of 
his  views,  the  dogma  of  the  Eastern  Church  such 
as  it  appeared  in  its  oldest  form,  and  such  as  it 
had  been  revived  by  CjtH  Lucar;  while  the  latter 
appealed  to  the  dogma'  of  the  Eastern  Church  in 
its  oecumenical  form.  In  1060  the  Patriarch  of 
Jerusalem,  Nectarius,  published  a  book  against 
Claude;  and  in  1672  his  successor,  Uositheus, 
convened  a  synod  at  Jerusalem  for  the  purpose 
of  still  further  defending  the  Orthodoxy  of  the 
Eastern  Church.  The  synod  was  frequented  by 
sixty-eight  representatives,  and  resulted  in  the 
so-called  Shield  of  Orthodoxy  (ao^rif  opdodo^ia^), 
March  20,  1672,  —  one  of  the  most  important 
confessional  works  of  the  Eastern  Church.  The 
first  part  is  historico-critical,  and  contains  a  strong 
condemnation  of  the  views  ascribed  to  Cyril  Lucar, 


JERUSALEM. 


1166 


JESUITS. 


and  at  the  same  time  an  adroit  vindication  of  him 
personally,  flatly  denying  that  he  ever  held  such 
opinions,  ever  wrote  the  books  containing  them, 
etc.  The  second  part  is  critico-dogmatical,  and 
presents  a  full  confession  of  the  Orthodox  Greek 
faith  in  the  form  of  a  refutation  of  the  theses  of 
Cyril. 

'Lit.  —  The  best  editions  of  the  acts  of  the 
synod  are  found  in  Harduin  :  Cone,  xi.  p.  179 
Bqq.,  and  Kimmel  :  Monum.  Jidei  eccl.  Orient., 
Jena,  1850.  [See  Sch.\ff:  Creeds  of  Cltrislenilom, 
vol.  i.  pp.  61-67.].  RUD.   IIOFMAXX. 

JERUSALEM,  Johann  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  b. 
at  Osnabriick,  Nov.  22,  1709 ;  studied  at  Leipzig, 
Leyden,  and  The  Hague  ;  resided  for  some  time 
in  London ;  and  was  in  1742  appointed  court- 
preacher  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  in  1743 
provost  of  the  monasteries  of  St.  Crucis  and  St. 
^Egidius,  in  1749  abbot  of  Marientlial,  in  1752 
abbot  of  Kiddagshausen,  and  in  1771  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  consistory  of  AVolfenbiittel,  where  he 
died  Sept.  2,  1789.  Be.sides  several  collections 
of  sermons,  he  published  Belrachlungen  liher  die 
vornthmxten  Warheiten  der  Religion,  1768-79; 
which  was  translated  into  several  foreign  lan- 
guages, and  is  considered  one  of  the  best  apolo- 
getical  works  produced  in  the  latter  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  lie  was  the  father  of  that 
Jerusalem  who  by  his  suicide  at  Welzlav,  in  1775, 
gave  the  occasion  to  Goethe's  Leiden  des  Jinujen 
Werl/icr.  II.VGENH.VCU. 

JERUSALEM  CHAMBER,  where  met  the  West- 
minster Assembly  in  the  seventeenth,  and  the 
revisers  of  the  Authorized  Aversion  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  is  a  large  hall  in  the  deanery 
of  Westminster,  London,  hung  with  tapestries, 
mostly  from  Henry  VIII.'s  time,  representing  the 
circumcision,  the  adoration  of  the  magi,  and  the 
passage  tlirough  the  wilderness,  and  furnished 
with  a  long  table  and  chairs.  It  was  built  by 
Abbot  Ivilllinglon,  between  1376  and  1386,  as  a 
guest-room  for  the  abbot's  house.  In  it  Henry  IV. 
died  (ilarch  20,  1413)  wlien  on  the  eve  of  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem ;  and  thus  tlie  prophec}'  that 
he  should  die  in  Jerusalem  was  suppose<l  to 
be  fulfilled  (cf.  Shakspeare :  llenri/  IV.,  2d  part, 
act  iv.  sc.  4).  Here  .Vddison  (1719)  and  Con- 
greve  (1728)  lay  in  state  before  burial  in  the 
Abbey.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  ob.scure.  Some 
derive  it  from  the  pictures  of  Jerusalem  on  the 
tapestries;  others  (e.g.,  Dr.  Jolm  Stoughton),  from 
its  adjiiiniug  the  sanctuary,  "the  place  of  peace." 
The  Westminster  As.sembly  adjourned  thither  at 
the  clo.S(!  of  September,  1643,  because  the  room 
W'as  well  heated  from  its  huge  fireplace.  The 
Lower  Housi^  of  Convocation  now  meets  in  the 
Jerusalem  Chamber.  See  Dean  Stanley  :  Me- 
morials It/  Wesluiinsicr  Abbey. 

JESUITS.       I.     Co.NSTITlTION      AND     ClIAKAC- 

TKR.  —  The  Society  of  Jesus  consists  of  four 
classes,  —  novice.s,  sciujlastics,  coadjutors,  and  pro- 
fessed. Novices  are  admitted  only  after  a  minute 
and  searching  examination  of  their  character  and 
social  circumstanci^s.  Tlie  novitiate  lasts  for 
two  yeai.s,  which  are  .spent  in  iiou.ses  established 
for  the  special  purpose.  Time  is  there  regulated 
from  hour  to  liour.  Heading,  meditation.  ]irayer, 
and  devotional  exercises,  alternate  with  nursing  in 
the  hospitals,  travels  as  beggars,  menial  .services,  j 
and  ascetic  practices.     A  course  of  training   is 


gone  through  which  enables  the  novice  to  com- 
pletely break  his  individual  will,  and  prepares 
him  to  be  a  fit  instrument  for  the  will  of  the 
society.  The  term  of  probation  ended,  the  novice 
takes  the  three  monastic  vows  of  poverty,  chasti- 
ty, and  obedience,  and  enters  one  of  the  colleges 
of  the  society  as  a  scholastic.  There  he  studies 
gi-ammar,  rhetoric,  and  literature  for  two  years, 
and  philosophy,  physics,  and  mathematics  for 
three ;  teaches  these  subjects  through  all  the 
classes  of  the  college  for  five  or  six  years ;  stud- 
ies theology  for  five  or  six  years,  and  finally  com- 
pletes his  education  by  going  through  another 
novitiate  of  spiritual  exercises.  The  whole  course 
of  studies  is  very  minutely  jirescribed  The  old- 
est ratio  studinrum  dates  from  1586.  That  agreed 
ujion  by  the  fifth  congregation,  and  published  in 
1599,  was  in  use  until  Rootliaan,  in  1S32,  intro 
duced  a  new  and  reformed  plan.  After  the  sec- 
ond novitiate,  the  scholastic  is  ordained  a  priest, 
and  becomes  an  active  member  of  the  society, 
either  as  coadjutor  or  professed,  adding  to  the 
three  common  monastic  vows,  in  the  former  case, 
that  of  zealous  devotion  to  the  education  of  the 
young,  in  the  latter,  that  of  undertaking  any  task 
which  the  Pope  might  see  fit  to  confide  to  him. 
There  are,  however,  besides  the  regular  professi 
qualuor  rolormn,  also  some  jn-ofessi  trium  votorum ; 
though  it  is  not  clear  what  thereby  is  meant,  un- 
less the  expression  refers  to  the  so-called  secret 
Jesuits. 

At  the  head  of  the  society  stands  a  general 
{prcepositus  generalis),  who  is  represented  in  each 
province  by  a  provincial  (prcepositii.i  prorincialis), 
and  in  each  individual  establishment  by  a  supe- 
rior ( prcrposiliis,  or  magister  noritiorum,  or  rector). 
The  general  is  elected  for  lifetime  by  the  con- 
gregation ;  that  is,  the  assembly  of  the  jirofessed, 
which  meets  ordinarily  only  for  the  purpose  of 
electing  the  general.  He  holils  in  his  hands  the 
whole  administration,  jurisdiction,  and  govern- 
ment. He  appoints  the  provincials  and  all  other 
othcials,  generally  only  for  a  term  of  three  years ; 
he  decides  about  admission  to  or  expulsion  from 
the  order  ;  he  receives  at  fixed  times  reports  from 
all  the  provincials  and  superi(n'S  ;  and  he  investi- 
gates the  state  of  the  various  establishments  by 
special  inspectoi's ;  he  can  give  dispensation  from 
the  rules  just  as  he  .sees  fit,  etc.  His  power  is  alv 
solute.  He  is  to  the  order  what  the  Pope  is  to  the 
Church,  —  the  representative  of  God.  Indeed, 
the  cemen  twhich  holds  the  whole  fabric  together 
is  implicit  obedience.  To  the  inferior  his  supe- 
rior is  the  Christ,  before  whose  commandment  he 
must  cancel  his  own  will,  his  own  intellect,  his 
own  natural  mode  of  f(?eling.  Kverj-  trace  of 
individuality  >uust  be  obliterated,  unless  the  su- 
perior chooses  to  develop  and  use  it  for  purjioses 
of  the  order.  All  .lesiiits  should  at  all  times,  and 
under  all  circumstances,  show  the  same  physi- 
ognomy. No  to.ssing  of  the  head,  no  impatient 
movement  of  the  hand,  perfect  composure,  unini- 
])eachal>le  dignity.  Slowly  he  raises  his  eyes- 
from  the  ground  when  spoken  to,  and  fixes  them 
cahnly  on  the  lower  pari  of  the  face  of  his  inter- 
locutor.    Never  a  frown,  still  less  a  sneer. 

The  informing  idea  of  tiiis  finely  articulated 
organism  is  not  the  perfection  of  the  inner  life, 
but  simply  the  nerlormanci'  of  some  external 
task.     All  that  the  order  does  for  the  educati(jn 


JESUITS. 


1167 


JESUITS. 


of  its  members  and  the  elevation  of  their  souls 
is  done  merely  with  an  eye  to  some  practical  end. 
Science  and  art,  religion  and  morals,  are  consid- 
ered and  employed  only  as  so  many  tools  or  wea- 
pons for  the  rehabilitation  of  mediaeval  Catholi- 
cism and  the  establishment  of  the  reign  of  the 
Church  over  the  State.  The  order  has  produced 
quite  a  number  of  reputed  scientists,  though 
hardly  any  of  first,  or  even  second  rank.  Science 
has  an  aim  of  its  own,  and  so  has  the  Jesuit. 
Whenever  these  two  aims  do  not  coincide,  the 
Jesuit  is  compelled  to  leave  science  alone.  He 
has  succeeded  best  in  those  sciences  which  are 
most  foreign  to  his  own  purpose,  such  as  mathe- 
matics, chronology,  interpretation  of  classical 
authors  and  ancient  inscriptions  ;  though  in  this 
last  field  he  has  been  far  surpassed  by  the  Bene- 
dictines. On  theology  the  order  has  exercised 
considerable  influence.  INIediaeval  dogmatics  de- 
veloped in  different  directions  :  not  only  scholas- 
ticism and  mysticism  presented  sharply  opposed 
views,  but  also,  within  the  pale  of  the  former, 
various  scliools  were  formed.  With  the  Refor- 
mation arose  quite  a  number  of  expositions  con- 
cerning the  great  question,  —  justification  by 
faith,  or  justification  by  good  works,  forming  a 
transition  between  Protestantism  and  Ivomanisni. 
All  these  stand-points  had  their  representatives 
at  the  Council  of  Trent ;  but  it  was  the  Jesuits 
Lainez  and  Salmeron  who  finally  succeeded  in 
deciding  the  debate,  and  driving  the  dogmatics  of 
the  Roman  Church  back  into  the  stift'est  and  most 
barren  scholasticism.  The  dogmatical  stand-point 
of  the  order  may  be  characterized  as  that  most 
directly  opposed  to  Protestantism.  The  general 
outlines  are  derived  from  Thomas  Aquinas ;  but 
the  details  are  evidently  treated  with  the  con- 
scious aim  of  producing  a  contrast  to  Protestant- 
ism. An  inclination  towards  Pelagianisni  is 
apparent,  and  everywhere  prevailing.  Luis  Moli- 
na went  even  so  tar  as  to  ascribe  to  the  natural 
will  of  man  the  power  of  fitting  itself  for  actions 
which  all  were  used  to  consider  as  the  effects  of 
divine  grace ;  and  justification  he  defined  as  the 
result  of  the  equal  co-operation  of  gr.ace  and  free 
will.  Still  more  characteristic  is  the  Jesuitical 
system  of  morals.  By  its  audacious  unscnqiu- 
lousness  it  finally  became  the  rock  on  which  the 
fortunes  of  the  order  were  wrecked ;  and  very 
early  its  limitation  of  si  n  to  conscious  and  volun- 
tary transgressions;  its  foctrines  of  probabilism  ; 
of  methodus  dirigendce  inteiittonis,  which  leads  di- 
rectly to  the  maxim,  the  end  justifies  the  means  ; 
of  i-eseroatio  )nciil(dis,  which  destroys  all  faith  be- 
tween man  and  man  ;  of  amphibology,  which  may 
be  made  to  cover  any  kind  of  falsehood,  —  made 
its  adepts  suspected,  and  even  hated. 

II.  Early  History,  and  Activity  during 
THE  Period  of  Religious  Re-actios.  —  Ac- 
cording to  the  ideas  of  the  founder  (see  Igx.\tius 
Loyola),  missions  should  lie  the  true  field  of 
activity  for  the  order,  —  foreign  missions  among 
tiie  heathens,  domestic  missions  within  the  pale 
of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  and  missions  tor 
the  conversion  of  the  Protestants.  The  functions 
to  which  the  members  of  the  order  had  to  adapt 
themselves  were  consequently  preaching,  teach- 
ing the  young,  and  confession ;  and  great  privi- 
leges were  conferred  upon  them  to  aid  them  in 
the  fulfilment  of  their  task.     Paul  III.  gave  them 


a  right  to  preach  everywhere,  —  in  the  churches 
and  in  the  streets,  —  to  a<lininister  the  sacra- 
ments, to  hear  confession,  and  to  give  absolution 
in  all  ca.ses  except  those  mentioned  in  the  bull 
In  Ciena  Dumhii.  By  a  bull  of  1.54.5  they  were 
exempted  from  keeping  the  cnnonioal  hours,  and 
afterwards,  also,  from  participating  in  proces- 
sions, and  from  other  regulations  infringing  ujx)!! 
their  time.  Great  obstacles,  however,  were  also 
thrown  in  their  way. 

In  Portugal  they  rapidly  took  root  during  the 
reign  of  John  HI.  At  Coimbra  they  founded 
their  first  college  (1542),  and  .Simon  Rodriguez 
became  its  rector.  The  second  they  founded  at 
Goa;  and  Francis  Xavier  made  the  Indian  mission 
a  great  exploit.  Under  Sebastian,  Rodriguez  and 
the  Jesuits  actually  governed  the  country.  But 
in  Spain  they  met  with  decided  opposition  from 
Melchior  Canus,  from  the  royal  cliaplain  and 
lilirarian,  Arias  Montanus,  and  from  others.  Even 
Philip  II.  declared  that  the  Society  of  Jesu  was 
the  only  ecclesiastical  institution  he  did  not 
understand ;  and  he  continued  maintaining  a  re- 
served attitude  towards  them,  even  after  seeing 
them  at  work  in  Belgium.  The  country  was  half 
Protestant  when  they  entered  it  in  1542:  it  was 
exclusively  Roman  Catholic,  when,  half  a  century 
later  on  (in  1592),  they  puslied  their  outposts 
farther  on  into  the  United  Netherlands. 

Still  greater  difficulties  they  encountered  in 
France,  wliere  for  a  long  time  they  were  looked 
upon  with  suspicion  and  antipathy.  In  1540 
Ignatius  sent  some  young  men  to  Paris  to  study ; 
l)ut  in  1542,  when  the  war  witli  Spain  broke  out, 
they  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country.  In 
the  Cardinal  of  Lorraine  the  order  found  an  ener- 
getic patron,  but  all  his  exertions  in  its  behalf 
were  baffled  by  the  decided  opposition  of  the  Par- 
li.ament  of  Paris  and  the  Sorbonne.  At  the  con- 
vention of  Poissy,  where  he  was  present  in  person 
(1561),  Lainez  succeeded  in  getting  admission  for 
the  order,  but  only  on  very  precarious  conditions. 
Thus  it  had  to  change  its  name,  and  call  itself, 
after  its  residency  in  Paris,  College  Clermont. 
Its  first  stable  and  flourishing  establishment  in 
France  it  founded  at  Lyons.  One  of  its  priests, 
Edmond  Angier,  produced  by  his  preaching  such 
an  excitement  in  that  vicinity,  that  all  Reformed 
ministers  were  expelled,  all  Reformed  churches 
destroyed,  and  all  Reformed  books  burned.  As 
a  monument  of  this  great  victory,  the  Roman- 
Catholic  population  built  the  order  a  magnificent 
college  in  the  city.  As  the  great  task  of  the 
JesuHs  in  France  was  to  stamp  out  the  Reforma- 
tion there,  and  rid  the  country  of  the  Huguenots, 
tliey  were  naturally  opposed  to  Henry  IV.,  and 
intrigued  against  him,  even  after  his  conversion 
to  Romanism.  The  result  was.  that  they  were 
expelled  by  the  Parliament  of  Paris.  They  suc- 
ceeded, however,  in  maintaining  themselves  in  the 
circuits  of  the  two  southern  parliaments,  and  they 
soon  came  to  under.stand  that  they  could  do 
nothing,  unless  in  alliance  with  the  king.  From 
that  nioment  they  labored  zealously  for  a  recon- 
ciliation between  the  king  and  the  Pope ;  and 
afterwards,  during  the  embroilments  with  Spain, 
they  even  espoused  the  interests  of  France.  -As 
a  reward,  Henry  IV.  gave,  in  spite  of  the  reclama- 
tions of  the  university,  the  College  Clermont  per- 
mission to  teach,  not  only  theology,  but  also  the 


JESUITS. 


1168 


JESUITS. 


other  sciences  (1610),  and  he  chose  a  Jesuit, 
Father  Cotton,  for  his  confessor.  This  was  a 
great  victory.  At  the  same  time,  however,  they 
suffered  a  great  loss  in  a  neighboring  country. 
In  Venice  they  were  bitterly  opposed  by  Fra 
Paolo  Sarpi ;  and  when,  in  1606,  Paul  V.  placed 
the  republic  under  the  interdict,  they  left  the 
territory,  together  with  the  Theatines  and  Capu- 
chins. But,  when  a  reconciliation  was  brought 
about  between  the  Pope  and  the  republic,  the 
latter  made  it  a  condition  that  the  Jesuits  should 
not  be  allowed  to  return,  and  even  the  Spanish 
ambassador  had  not  a  word  to  say  in  their 
favor. 

The  two  countries,  however,  in  wliieh  they 
achieved  their  greatest  successes,  and  suffered 
their  greatest  losses,  were  England  and  Ciermany. 
The  biographies  of  AVilliam  AUen,  Perron,  Cani- 
pian,  and  others,  give  an  idea  of  their  exertions  in 
England.  Under  James  II.  they  were  established 
in  a  magnificent  college  at  the  Savoy,  London, 
and  Father  Edward  Petre  was  made  the  private 
secretary  of  tlie  king.  But  the  result  was  the  loss 
of  the  crown  of  England  to  the  House  of  Stuart. 
In  Germany,  on  the  contrary,  they  really  suc- 
ceeded in  producing  a  re-action  which  actually 
turned  back  the  current  of  the  Reformation.  The 
first  Jesuit,  Le  Jay,  appeared  in  Germany  in  1550, 
at  the  diet  of  .-Vugsburg.  He  obtained  permis- 
.sion  from  King  Ferdinand  to  found  a  college  in 
Vienna,  and  in  1551  fifteen  Jesuits  entered  the 
Austrian  capital.  In  15.52  Ignatius  founded  the 
Collegium  Germanicum,  for  the  education  of  Ger- 
man youths  as  missionaries  ;  and  in  1556  similar 
establishments  were  founded  at  Cologne  and 
Ingolstadt,  together  with  a  school  for  young- 
noblemen  at  Prague,  to  which  the  king  sent  his 
pages.  In  1559  the  Jesuits  arrived  at  Munich, 
w  hich  city  they  soon  transformed  into  a  "  German 
Home ;  "  and  during  the  next  years  they  spread 
rapidly  along  the  Rhine  and  the  ^Nlain,  —  Treves, 
IMayence,  Spires,  Aschaffenburg,  Wurzbnrg,  etc. 
Tin;  influence  of  their  universities  began  to  be 
felt  as  a  counterpoi.se  to  that  of  tin;  universities 
of  Wittenberg  and  (ieneva,  and  their  schools 
were  greatly  admired  on  account  of  the  consistent 
method  of  tlie  teachers  and  the  .sure  progress  of 
the  pupils.  Even  Protestants  sent  their  children 
thither ;  and  through  Ids  pupils  the  teacher  noise- 
lessly peneti'ated  into  the  Protestant  family,  with 
fasts,  rosaries,  prayers  to  the  Vii-gin,  etc.,  follow- 
ing in  his  step.  Very  soon  the  order  felt  prepared 
to  u.se  force  ,as  a  means  of  conversion,  and  con- 
seipiently  force  was  used.  Duke  Albert  V.  of 
Bavaria  gave  his  Protestant  subject  the  choice 
between  returning  to  the  Cluirch  of  Home,  or 
leaving  the  country  :  as  a  ward  of  the  Margrave 
of  Baden,  a  minor,  he  extended  the  m(;asure  also 
to  that  country.  Thus  supported,  the  Jesuits 
accomjilished  the  "reformation"  of  the  two  coim- 
triesin  l.'>7()anil  l.'iTl.  The  example  was  foIlow(;d 
ill  Cologne,  Munsler,  Ililde.sheim,  Paderborn, 
Wiirzburg,  and  other  places.  In  Austria  the 
counter-reformation  began  in  1.578.  Confiscation, 
exile,  torture,  etc.,  were  the  instruments.  In 
1603  the  task  was  completed,  and  the  workmen 
went  to  Boliemia  and  Ilungaria.  The  former 
country  was  entindy  lost  to  Protestantism :  in 
the  latter,  the  progress  of  the  Uefonnation  was 
stopped. 


III.  Decay  and  Dissolution. — After  Igna- 
tius Loyola,  followed,  as  generals  of  the  order, 
Jacob  Lainez  (1558-65),  Francis  Borgia  (1565-72), 
Eberhard  Mercurian  (1572-81),  Claudius  Aqua^ 
viva  (15S1-1615),  etc.  During  this  period  various 
attempts  were  made  by  the  popes  to  alter  the 
constitution.  The  monarchical  organization  of 
the  society  gave  to  the  general  a  tremendous, 
and,  as  it  would  seem,  even  dangerous  power. 
Paul  IV.  demanded  that  the  general  should  be 
elected,  not  for  life,  but  only  for  three  years ; 
and  Pius  V.,  that  the  number  of  professed  should 
be  increased  ;  and  a  steady  influence  on  the  gov- 
ernment consented  to  the  congregation.  Foreign 
monarchs,  the  kings  of  Spain  and  France,  had  tlie 
same  misgivings  with  respect  to  the  order,  and 
remonstrated  with  the  Pope  for  an  alteration  of 
its  constitution.  Yea,  denunciations  of  tyranny 
arose  even  from  among  its  own  members.  (See 
Mariana.)  It  required  all  the  power,  wealth, 
cunning,  and  discipline  of  which  the  order  was 
possessed,  to  escape  from  these  dangers.  But, 
what  the  Pope  had  not  been  able  to  effect  came 
gradually  by  itself.  After  Aquaviva,  followed  a 
number  of  incompetent  generals.  Unable  to 
wield  the  tremendous  power  they  held,  they  lived 
in  comfort  and  splendor;  and  gradually  the  weak- 
ness of  the  centre  transfused  itself  through  the 
whole  body.  The  professed  followed  the  example 
of  the  general.  From  a  phalanx  of  heroes,  ready 
at  any  time  to  any  sacrifice,  they  changed  into  a 
swarm  of  intriguing  diplomates,  beset  with  all 
the  vices  of  ambition  and  debauch.  The  ecclesi- 
astical and  educational  functions  of  the  order 
were  left  to  the  performance  of  young  and  inex- 
perienced people  ;  and  the  schools,  once  admired 
as  model  institutions  of  their  kind,  became  dens 
of  disorder  and  vice.  Novices  were  admitted 
without  due  discrimin.ition,  mostly  with  an  ej'e 
to  their  fortune ;  and  when  dotations  grew  scarce, 
while  at  the  same  time  the  needs  and  expenses  of 
the  order  greatly  increased,  the  order  decided  to 
engage  in  business.  Commercial  houses  were 
established,  and  factories  built,  in  all  the  most 
producti\'e  regions  of  the  earth.  Every  college  was 
transformed  into  a  kind  of  banking-house,  and  un- 
dertakings of  unparalleled  nuignitude  were  begun. 

Tlius  the  order  changed  character,  and  so  did 
the  world  around  it,  but  on  the  opposite  principle; 
so  that,  the  less  the  order  was  ready  to  give,  the 
more  the  world  insisted  upon  having.  In  their 
controversy  with  the  .lan.senists,  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  though  the  Jesuits 
succeeded  in  silencing  their  adversaries,  they 
nevertheless  suifered  a  severe  defeat;  for  it  wa.s 
the  ideas  of  the  Janseiiists  which  kept  the  ground 
when  the  battle  was  ended  :  and  the  odium  and 
ridicule  which  had  been  thrown  upcju  the  Jesviits 
went  on  increasing,  though  fed  by  no  visible 
hand.  In  the  Chinese  mission  affair  their  moral 
rejiutatinn  was  much  damaged.  It  S(!enied  doubt- 
ful wliether  it  was  the  Jesuits  who  had  converted 
the  Chine.sc,  or  the  Chinese  who  had  converted  the 
Jesuits,  to  such  an  extent  had  the  ndssionaries 
modified  Christianity,  and  amalgamated  it  with 
heathen  elements.  Em-ope  stood  scandalized, 
and  it  came  to  an  opi'U  breach  with  the  Pope. 
Still  worse  fared  their  intellectual  fame  under 
the  attacks  of  (ho  l'".iu;yclopedists.  They  were 
reprcsent<;d  as  the  true  type  of  obscurantism,  aud 


JESUITS. 


1169 


JESUITS. 


condemned  as  the  most  dangerous  and  most  con- 
temptible remnants  of  an  entirely  antiquated  and 
inadequate  state  of  affairs  ;  and  they  had  nothing 
to  say  in  defence.  Under  such  circumstances, 
they  were  at  once  imjJicated  in  the  most  vehe- 
ment contests  with  the  governments  of  I'ortugal, 
France,  Sp.ain,  and  Italy. 

In  1750  Portugal  and  Spain  made  an  exchange 
of  certain  territories  in  South  America;  but  the 
inhabitants,  who  were  known  to  walk  blindly  by 
the  strings  of  their  .Jesuit  priests  and  teachers, 
offered  resistance,  and  met  in  the  field,  provided 
with  European  arms.  It  took  eight  years  to  put 
down  the  rebellion.  Moreover,  the  great  mercan- 
tile privileges  and  monopolies  which  tlie  .Jesuits 
held  in  Portugal  caused  continuous  disturbances 
and  losses  to  the  commerce  of  the  country;  and 
as  the  complaints  of  Marquis  Pombal  in  Rome 
had  no  effect,  but  were  answered  with  an  assault 
on  the  life  of  the  king,  the  order  was  expelled 
Sept.  3,  175!).  Its  property  was  confiscated,  aiul 
its  members  were  shipped  to  the  States  of  the 
Church.  In  1700  Father  Lavalette,  procvn-ator  of 
the  order,  director  of  all  its  factories  and  mer- 
cantile establishments  in  the  Island  of  Martinique, 
and  a  resident  of  France,  made  a  heavy  failure, 
of  two  million  four  hundred  thousand  livi'es ; 
and  the  order  refused  to  pay  the  debt,  laying  all 
responsibility  on  the  shoulders  of  its  procurator. 
The  case  was  brought  before  the  I'arliament  of 
Paris ;  and  the  examination  of  the  constitution 
of  the  order,  thereby  occasioned,  showed,  that,  in 
many  points,  it  came  in  conflict  with  the  constitu- 
tion of  France.  For  this  reason  the  Parliament 
declared  the  society  dissolved  .A.ug.  6,  17G2 ;  and, 
after  some  haggling  between  the  king  and  the 
Parliament,  a  royal  decree  of  December,  1764, 
enforced  the  dissolution.  On  account  of  partici- 
pation in  conspiracies  against  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment, all  Jesuits,  not  only  in  Spain,  but  also 
in  the  .Spanish  colonies,  were  arrested  during 
the  night  of  March  31,  1767,  and  sent  to  Italy. 
Neither  the  Pope  nor  the  general  would  receive 
them.  After  wandering  about  for  several  days 
on  the  open  sea  in  overcrowded  vessels,  they  were 
allowed  to  land  in  Corsica.  Similar  measures  were 
introduced  in  Naples,  Nov.  5,  1767,  and  Parma, 
Feb.  7,  1768  ;  and  when  Pope  Clement  XIII.  tried 
to  come  to  the  rescue  of  the  order,  and  launched 
a  bull  of  excommunication  against  its  weakest 
enemy,  the  Duke  of  Piirm.a,  the  French  ambassa- 
dor in  Rome  declared,  Dec.  10,  1708,  in  the  name 
of  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  Naples,  and  Parma, 
that,  if  the  Pope  did  not  retract,  war  would  im- 
mediately be  waged  against  him.  This  declara- 
tion literally  killed  Clement  XIII. ;  but  his  suc- 
cessor, Clement  XIV.,  dissolved  the  society  by 
the  bull  Dominux  ac  Redemptor  tioster,  July  21, 
1773.  The  general,  Lorenzo  Ricci,  w-as  impri.s- 
oned  in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  where  he  died 
in  1775.  Clement  XIV.  died  in  1774  from  poison. 
—  At  the  moment  when  the  catastrophe  of  its 
dissolution  began,  the  order  had  41  provinces, 
22,589  members  (of  whom  11,295  were  priests), 
069  colleges,  176  seminaries,  61  houses  for  novices, 
273  missions  in  foreign  countries,  .335  residences, 
and  the  controlling  influence  over  80  theological 
faculties. 

IV.  Attempts  at  Restitution.  —  After  the 
dissolution  of   the  order,  some  of   its  members 


joined  the  Fathers  of  the  Faitli,  or  the  Clerks  of 
the  Sacred  Heart,  or  the  Redemptorists  ;  while 
otliers,  on  the  plea  that  a  papal  bidl  has  no  author- 
ity in  a  dominion  which  lies  outsider  of  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  Pope,  retired  into  Prussia  and  Russia, 
and  continued  the  society  in  its  old  forms,  and 
after  its  old  rules.  Friedrich  II.  favored  them: 
he  hoped  in  them  to  find  the  best  and  cheapest 
schoolmasters  for  Silesia.  Catharine  II.  even 
flattered  them  :  she  needed  them  for  her  further 
designs  with  respect  to  Poland.  She  confirmed 
their  deeds  of  property  in  Russia,  and  in  1782 
they  chose  a  Pole  to  l>e  their  vicar-general.  In 
1800  they  received  the  Roman-Catholic  cathedral 
in  St.  Petersburg,  and  permission  to  found  a  col- 
lege there;  and  by  a  brief  of  March  7,  I'SOl, 
Pius  VII.  oSicially  recognized  the  restitution  of 
the  order  in  Russia,  and  conferred  the  dignity  of 
general  on  its  chief.  In  1804  King  Ferdinand  IV. 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  asked  tlie  Pope  for  the  restora- 
tion of  the  order  in  his  kingdom,  and  Pius  VII. 
was  only  too  glad  to  grant  the  request ;  but,  as 
Naples  was  occupied  by  the  French  from  1806  to 
1815,  only  the  Island  of  Sicily  could  avail  itself 
of  the  advantage.  Finally,  when,  after  the  fall  of 
Napoleon,  Pius  VII.  returned  to  Rome,  he  sum- 
moned back  the  Jesuits,  o]iened  the  Church  of 
Gesii  to  them,  and  completely  restored  the  order, 
"  in  accordance  with  the  unanimous  wishes  of 
Christendom,"  as  he  said  in  the  bull  SoUcitudo 
omnium  ecclesiarum,  of  Aug.  7,  1814. 

This  "  unanimity,"  however,  proved  a  mistake. 
In  Russia,  where  Alexander  I.,  in  1812,  gave  their 
college  at  Polotzk  the  rank  of  a  university,  and 
bestowed  other  great  privileges  on  them,  the  Jes- 
uits began  to  make  proselytes  among  the  members 
of  the  Russian  Church,  and  to  intrigue  against  the 
Bible  Society,  one  of  the  emperor's  favorite  institu- 
tions. As  a  warning,  they  were  banished  from  St. 
Petersburg  and  Moscow,  Jan.  1.  1815.  But  they 
heeded  not  the  warning  :  on  the  contrary,  they 
tried  their  proselytizing  talent  even  on  the  Russian 
army;  and  March  25,  1820,  they  were  banished 
from  the  country  "forever."  Into  .Spain  they 
were  admitted  by  Ferdinand  VII.  ;  but  when,  in 
the  civil  war  which  broke  out  after  his  death 
(1833),  they  sided  with  Don  Carlos,  their  college 
in  Madrid  was  stormed  by  the  people,  July  17, 
1834;  and  they  were  expelled  by  the  regent, 
Queen  Christina,  July  4,  1835.  In  Portugal  they 
sided  with  Dom  Miguel,  and  wei-e  expelled  (May 
24,  1834)  by  Dom  Pedro.  In  France  they  never 
obtained  a  legal  position;  but  they  were  tolerated 
and  even  favored  by  Louis  XVI II.  and  Charles  X. 
At  Lyons  they  founded  a  very  flourishing  college. 
They  made  their  influence  strongly  felt  on  the 
whole  middle  stage  of  education,  —  that  is,  the 
stage  between  the  elementary  and  the  scientific 
education ;  and  their  number  rose  to  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six,  when  the  revolution  of  1830 
suddenly  swept  them  out  of  the  country.  Under 
I^ouis  Philippe  they  returned,  and  Father  Ra- 
vignan  became  the  most  fashionable  preacher  in 
Paris  ;  but  the  popular  animosity  against  them  — 
brought  to  its  liighest  pitch  by  E.  Sue's  romance, 
The  "Wanderinff  Jew  —  compelled,  in  1845,  their 
own  general.  Roothaan,  to  recall  them.  Indeed, 
the  only  country  w  hich  they  really  succeeded  in 
bringing  under  their  sway  was  Belgium.  They 
were  among  the  most  prominent  agents  in  the 


JESUITS. 


1170 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


revolution  which  separated  Belgium  from  Hol- 
land ;  and,  -when  the  former  was  constituted  an 
independent  kingdom,  they  took  possession  of  it 
as  a  conquered  province,  and  domineered  for  some 
time,  not  oulj'  in  the  Church  and  the  school,  but 
even  in  the  civil  administration  and  the  court. 

One  of  the  ideas  of  the  revolution  of  1848 
proved  very  favorable  to  the  Jesuits,  —  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  Church  from  the  State ;  and  they 
were  not  slow  in  availing  themselves  of  the  cir- 
cumstance. In  1849  the  Roman-Catholic  bishops 
of  Prussia  demanded,  in  the  name  of  the  revolu- 
tion, free  communication  with  Rome,  full  power 
of  discipline  within  their  Church,  right  of  ap- 
pointing priests  and  other  ecclesiastical  officers, 
imconditional  power  over  the  administration  of 
the  property  of  the  Church,  superintendence  of 
all  religious  instruction  in  the  schools,  the  semi- 
naries, and  the  universities,  etc.  Friedrich 
Wilhelm  IT.  jielded  in  nearly  all  the  points,  and 
through  the  breach  thus  opened  the  Jesuits  stole 
into  the  country.  By  the  concordat  of  Aug.  18, 
1855,  between  Austria  and  the  Pope,  the  order 
came  into  possession  of  the  colleges  of  Liuz, 
Leitmeriz,  and  Innsbruck,  and  in  18.57  also  of  the 
academy  and  university  of  Vienna,  whose  students 
and  professors  were  forced  to  hear  sermons  by  the 
Jesuits  ever}'  Sunday.  In  1858  they  directed  a 
hundred  and  seventy-two  out  of  the  two  hundred 
and  fifty-six  gymnasiums  in  Austria.  But  in 
these  great  successes  the  declaration  of  the  dogma 
of  papal  infallibility  made  a  fearful  havoc.  July 
31,  1870,  Austria  cancelled  the  concordat;  and 
there,  as  in  Italy,  the  influence  of  the  Jesuits  is 
steadily  on  the  wane,  though  they  have  not  yet 
been  expelled.  In  Germany  the  papal  infallibili- 
ty dogma  caused  tiie  KuUurkampf ,  and  by  the  law 
of  July  4,  1872,  the  Jesuits  were  banished.  A 
similar  fate  overtook  them  in  France,  where  they 
had  played  a  conspicuous  rule  during  the  second 
empire :  the  Ferry  laws  drove  them  out  of  the 
country.  In  1878  the  order  had  10,033  membei-s, 
of  whom  4,060  were  priests,  2,G7U  scholastics,  and 
2,649  coadjutors.  In  England,  where  Thomas 
Weld  of  Sulworth  Castle  established  them  (at 
Stoiiyhurst,  in  1799),  they  have  several  establish- 
ments, also  in  Scotland  and  Ireland.  In  the 
United  States,  whither  they  first  came  with  Lord 
Baltimoie,  in  1634,  they  have  1,100  fathers,  6 
establishments  for  novices,  and  20  larger  educa^ 
tional  institutions. 

Lit.  —  For  the  constitution  and  character  of 
the  order,  see  Inslitutum  Socielatis  Jesu,  .\vignon, 
1830-38,  7  vols.  ;  .Iokdan  :  Die  Jesuilen  und  ilcr 
Jesuilismus,  Leipzig,  1839 ;  Okklli  :  Das  Wesen 
des  Jesuitenordens,  Potsdam,  1846  ;  Bode  :  Das  Jn- 
nere  der  GeselUc/iafl  Jesu,  Leipzig,  1847;  IIuiiKii : 
Der  Jesuilenorden  nuch  seiner  Ver/assuni/u.  Dollrin, 
Wirlcsamkeil  und  Geschichle  characterisirt,  Berlin, 
1873.  For  the  liistory  of  the  order,  see  Oulan- 
Dixi  :  Hisioria  Socielatis  Jesu,  Antwerp,  1620 : 
Imago  primi  smculi  Soc.  Jesu,  Antwerp,  1C40  ; 
AVolf:  Ceschichte  der  Jesuitcn,  2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1803,  2  voLs.  (reliable  only  for  the  period  of  dis- 
solution) ;  KoRTU.M  :  Die  Entstehunijsijcschichlc 
des  Jesuitenordens,  Manheim,  1843;  Ckktini;au- 
JoLY :  Histoire  de  la  Compaynie  dc  Jesus,  Paris, 
1844-46,  C  vols.  ;  Sugf.nhkim  :  C'nsc/iic/ile  der 
Jesuilen  in  Deulschland  von  15^0-1778,  Francfort, 
1847,  2  vols.  I  LuTTEROTii :  Russia  and  the  Jesuits 


from  1772  to  1820  (French  and  German  transla- 
tions from  the  Russian)  ;  Buss :  Die  Gesellsckajl 
Jesu,  Mayence,  1854 ;  [Guettee  :  Histoire  des 
Jt'suites,  Paris,  1858-59,  3  vols. ;  P.arkman  :  The 
Jesuits  in  North  America,  Boston,  1868;  Stewart 
Rose  :  lynatius  Loyola  and  the  Early  Jesuits,  Lon- 
don, 1871  ;  ^loXTY  :  Refonnateurs  et  Jt'suites, 
Dijon,  1876 ;  Kelle  :  Die  Jesuitengymnasien  in 
Oeslerreicli,  Miinchen,  1876;  Lemer  :  Dossier  des 
Je'suites  et  des  liberte's  de  I'eglise  gallicane,  Paris, 
1876:  Cavla  :  U expulsion  des  Je'suites,  Paris,  1876  ; 
E.  PoNTAL  :  Uunicersite  et  les  Je'suites.  Deux proc'es 
en  cour  de  parlement  au  XVI'  siecle,  Paris,  1877; 
J.  Wallon  :  Jesus  et  les  Jt'suites,  Paris,  1878;  A. 
Michel:  Les  Je'suites, V&v\%,  1879:  A.  Livac:  Les 
Je'suites  et  la  Uberte  religieuse  sous  la  Restauration, 
Paris,  1879  ;  E.  Bovsse  :  Le  theatre  des  Je'suites, 
Paris,  1880  ;  C.  Daniel  :  Les  Je'suites  institeurs  de 
la  jeunesse  franfaise  au  X  VII'  et  au  X  VIII'  si'ecle, 
Paris,  1880 ,  A.  de  Massougnes  :  Les  Je'suites 
a  Angouleme,  leur  expulsion  et  ses  conse'quences 
{1516-1792),  Angouleme,  1880;  J.  Friedrich: 
Beitrdye  zur  Geschichle  des  Jesuiten  Ordens,  Miin- 
chen, 1881;  J.  A.  Wylie  :  T/ie  Jesuits,  London, 
1881].  GEORG  E.   STEITZ. 

JE'SUS  CHRIST.  Our  purpose  in  this  article 
is  to  give  a  brief  abstract  of  the  history  of  the 
earthly  activity  of  God  our  Saviour,  with  which 
we  will  combine  a  short  consideration  of  the 
sources  of  this  history,  its  chronology,  and  the 
literature. 

I.  DocuMENT.\RY  SOURCES.  —  The  sources  of 
the  history  of  .lesus  are  usually  distinguished  into 
biblical  and  extra-biblical,  but  in  truth  we  can 
only  sjieak  of  biblical  sources.  The  notices  of 
Tacitus,  Suetonius,  Pliny,  and  of  the  later  authors, 
Lampridius,  Lucian,  and  Celsus,  afford  little  mat- 
ter, and  hardly  deserve  a  place  in  this  category ; 
and  the  Syi-iac  letter  of  the  Pagan  Mara  to  his 
son  Serapion,  written  about  73  A.D.  (ed.  by  Cure- 
ton,  in  Spicilegium  Syriacum,  Lond.,  1855),  is  at 
best  an  interesting  witness  to  the  spiritual  power 
of  Christianity  at  the  end  of  the  apostolic  age. 
The  letters  of  Abgar  of  Edessa,  and  the  reply  of 
Jesus,  preserved  by  Eusebius  {H.  E.,  I.  13),  would 
be  e.Kceedingly  valuable,  were  they  not  ungenuine. 
Turning  to  the  extra-biblical  sources  of  Clu'istian 
origin,  we  have  the  apocrj'phal  Gospels.  The 
oldest  and  best  of  these,  the  so-called  Hebrew 
Gospel,  is  very  deficient  in  originality,  compared 
with  Mattliew,  and  contains  a  profusion  ot  his- 
torical inventions  (Keim).  The  apocryphal  Gos- 
pels were  written  between  the  second  and  seventh 
centuries,  and  were  fantastic  attempts  to  fill  up 
the  gaps  in  the  life  of  our  Lord,  especially  in  the 
periods  of  his  infancy,  childhood,  and  passion, 
and  are  only  valuable  for  the  contrast  they  pre- 
.sent  to  the  canonical  Gospels.  The  atl<>mpts  of 
Lentulus  to  describe  the  appearance  of  Christ,  and 
the  brass  statue  of  Christ  and  the  woman  with  the 
issue  of  blood  at  Paneas,  described  by  Eusebius, 
belong  to  a  still  lower  plane.  Of  more  value  are 
the  descriptions  some  of  tlu;  Fathers  of  the  first 
two  centuries  give  of  Christ's  experiences  and 
words;  as  particularly  the  accoiuit  which  the 
Epistle  of  Barnabas  gives  of  the  c;ill  of  the  apos- 
tles (5),  the  resurrection  and  ascension  (1.5),  etc. 
Extra-biblical  accounts  of  .lewish  origin  might 
bo  expected  in  the  writings  of  Philo  and  .losophus. 
The  lonner,  an  Alexandrian  Jew,  completely  ig- 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


1171 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


nores  Christ  and  John  the  Baptist.  Tlie  (:cliO)rated 
passage  of  .Josephus  {Ant'ui.,  XIII.  3,  ;i)  hardly  de- 
serves to  be  regarded  as  genuine,  altliough  it  is 
found  in  all  the  manuscripts,  and  is  noticed  by 
Eusebius  (//.  E.,  II.  11).  M,  all  events,  it  is  not 
genuine  as  it  now  stands.  The  references  to 
Christ's  superhuman  nature,  resurrection,  etc.,  be- 
tray the  hand  of  an  early  Christian  interi)olator. 
Paulus,  Olshausen,  Gieseler,  Ilase,  lleuss,  Ewald, 
and  others,  hold  this  view,  —  that  the  pa.ssago  has 
been  tampered  with,  but  is  in  part  from  the  hand 
of  Josephus.  After  the  middle  of  the  second  cen- 
tury, the  Jewish  writings  took  notice  of  Jesus,  but 
only  to  malign  his  character.  Celsus  and  Por- 
phyry both  drew  from  these  sources.  He  was  de- 
scribed as  the  child  of  an  adulterous  connection 
of  his  mother  w'ith  the  soldier  Panthera,  as  having 
been  trained  by  Egyptian  sorcerers  in  all  kinds  of 
magical  arts,  etc.  These  malicious  falsehoods  were 
collected  in  the  Talmud  and  in  the  Book  of  the 
Origins  of  Jeschu  Hannozai. 

The  student  of  the  life  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth  is, 
therefore,  almost  exclusivelv  shut  up  to  the  Xew 
Testament,  especially  the  four  Gospels.  In  spite 
of  the  attacks  of  modern  criticism,  these  four 
biographies  are  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
genuine,  the  first  three  dating  from  the  period 
preceding  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70). 
Each  has  its  own  characteristics.  Matthew  de- 
picts Christ  as  the  promised  IMessiali  and  the  son 
of  David.  Mark  portrays  him  as  the  Son  of  God, 
who  established  his  Messianic  mission  by  miracu- 
lous deeds.  Luke  describes  him  as  the  Savioiu' 
and  revealer  of  truth,  sent  from  God  to  save  and 
enlighten  all  peoples.  John  differs  very  materially 
from  the  other  evangelists,  by  exhibiting  more  of 
the  inner  life  and  thoughts  of  Christ.  The  other 
writings  of  the  Xew  Testament  are  very  valuable 
as  witnesses  to  the  truth  of  the  gospel  narratives 
and  their  picture  of  Christ  which  they  presuppose. 
They  corroborate  many  individual  traits,  the  Acts 
giving  an  account  of  the  ascension  (i.  4-11)  and 
an  otherwise  unrecorded  saying  of  our  Lord  (xx. 
35) ;  while  Paul  makes  a  valuable  addition  to  the 
history  of  tlie  days  succeeding  the  resurrection 
(1  Cor.  XV.  3-8).  The  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament agree  in  their  testimony  to  the  reality  of 
the  revelation  of  God  in  Christ ;  and  their  narra- 
tive lays  claim  to  our  respect  in  proportion  as  it 
can  stand  alone,  and  does  not  need  any  illustra- 
tion from  the  dull  and  flickering  light  of  the 
apocryphal  inventions. 

II.  Life  of  Jesus.  1.  Pedigree,  Birth,  and 
Infancy.  — Jesus  was  descended  from  David  (Matt. 
i.  6 ;  Luke  iii.  31).  His  contemporaries  recognized 
this  pedigree  (Matt.  xv.  '22,  xx.  30)  ;  and  Paul 
(Rom.  i.  3)  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (vii. 
14)  assume  it  as  a  thing  generally  acknowledged. 
Both  Matthew  and  Luke  agree  in  representing 
him  as  being  conceived  by  the  Holy  Ghost.  He 
was  born,  not  in  the  town  of  Nazareth,  where 
Joseph  and  ilary  resided,  but  in  Bethlehem.  Thus 
the  prophecy  of  Jlicah  (v.  2)  was  fulfilled.  There 
was  no  room  in  the  inn ;  and  Jesus,  the  priestly 
King  of  Israel,  and  the  world's  Redeemei-,  was 
born,  probably,  in  a  cave  or  grotto,  and  laid  in  a 
manger.  Shepherds,  led  by  angels,  were  the  first 
witnesses  of  his  birth.  The  child  was  circumcised 
on  the  eighth  day,  according  to  the  Mosaic  custom. 
Witnesses  soon  appeared  to  the  divine  mission  of 


the  child,  in  tho.se  who  were  waiting  for  the  king- 
dom of  God,  such  as  Anna  the  pi'ophetess,  and 
Simeon  at  the  temple.  Wise  men  from  the  East 
(Matt.  ii.  1-12),  led  by  a  startling  sign  in  the 
heavens,  also  came  to  adore  the  child.  King 
Herod  regarded  with  suspicion  the  young  scion  of 
royal  descent,  and  by  his  murderous  plans  his 
parents  wei'e  led  to  flee  into  Egypt,  from  which, 
when  they  returned,  they  went  to  live  in  Nazareth. 
These  narratives  of  the  infancy  have  been  dis- 
credited by  the  modern  critical  school ;  but  they 
stand  in  the  strongest  contrast  to  those  of  the 
apocryphal  Gospels ;  and  much  in  the  accounts 
both  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  instead  of  being  of  the 
nature  of  legendary  reminiscences  (  Beyschlag ), 
seems  to  have  come  from  eye-witnesses. 

2.  Development,  Baptism,  and  Temptation.  —  Dur- 
ing the  years  spent  at  Nazareth,  Jesus  ''  advanced 
in  wisdom,  and  stature,  and  in  favor  with  God  and 
men  "  (Luke  ii.  52).  In  all  this  develoimient  he 
remained  absolutely  without  sin,  and  was  trium- 
phant over  every  temptation  (.John  viii.  40  ;  2  Cor. 
V.  21,  etc.).  He  in  whom  dwelt  "  all  the  fulness  of 
the  Godhead  bodily  "  (Col.  ii.  9)  lived  and  learned 
as  the  son  of  a  carpenter,  and  was  himself  called 
'•  the  carpenter "  (Mark  vi.  3).  The  religious 
arrangements  of  the  synagogue  nmst  have  con- 
tributed to  his  religious  development.  In  the  syna- 
gogues the  influence  of  the  Pharisees  was  supreme  ; 
but  it  is  evident  that  Jesus  in  no  wise  became 
identified  with  them,  or  their  instructions,  or  he 
could  not  have  subsequently  directed  so  many 
scathing  rebukes  against  the  "  Pharisees  and 
scribes."  But  he  must  have  studied  the  Old-Tes- 
tament Scriptures.  When  he  began  his  ministry, 
he  was  able  to  teach  with  authority,  and  not  as 
the  scribes  (Matt.  vii.  29).  His  baptism  by  John 
also  contributed  to  prepare  him  to  inaugurate  his 
public  activity  in  the  spirit  of  a  divine  conscious- 
ness. He  who  was  without  sin  submitted  to  the 
water-baptism  of  repentance  (Matt.  iii.  11),  in 
humble  obedience  to  the  law  (Matt.  iii.  15)  and 
voluntary  condescension.  But  he  received  at  the 
Jordan  the  unction  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  was 
declared  by  God  to  be  his  well-beloved  Son.  John, 
who  up  to  this  time  had  not  known  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah,  now  instructed  of  the  heavenly  voice, 
recognized  him  as  the  "  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh 
away  the  sin  of  the  world  "  (.John  i.  29).  Jesus 
here  became  fully  conscious  of  his  ISIessianic  mis- 
sion, but  was  immediately  led  by  the  "  Spirit  into 
the  wilderness,  to  be  tempted  of  the  devil  "  (Matt, 
iv.  1,  etc.).  He  resisted,  one  after  the  other,  the 
three  temptations,  of  which  he,  at  a  later  period, 
spoke  to  his  disciples,  and  was  ministered^  to  by 
angels.  It  was  not  till  after  this  conflict  with  the 
prince  of  this  world  that  he  inaugurated  his  pub- 
lic activity  in  the  world,  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing his  kingdom  in  it.  From  this  time  forth 
he  manifested  forth  his  higher  gifts  and  powers, 
and  in  the  first  instance  with  the  design  of  estab- 
lishing the  nucleus  of  the  Church. 

3.  Plan  and  Metliods  of  the  Messianic  Activity 
of  Jesus.  —  The  hj-pothesis  that  Jesus  had  a  defi- 
nite plan  before  his  mind  when  he  began  his 
public  activity  has  been  given  up  by  some  mod- 
ern theologians  (Schleiermacher,  UUmann,  Kahnis, 
etc.);  but,  if  it  be  allowed  that  the  purpose  of  his 
life  was  revealed  to  Jesus  by  the  Spirit  at  his 
baptism,  then  it  is  proper  to  speak  of  his  haviug 


JESUS   CHRIST. 


1172 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


had  a  definite  Messianic  plan.  Our  Lord  him- 
self seems  to  declare  this,  in  an  indirect  way,  in 
parables  (Luke  xiv.  28-33),  and  in  discourses  to 
his  disciples  of  his  hour,  which  had  not  yet  come 
(John  ii.  4),  of  the  bread  of  life  (John  vi.  51), 
etc.  The  majority  of  the  parables  about  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  show  a  progress  of  ideas,  and 
indicate  the  same  thing.  The  main  periods  of  his 
public  activity  are  the  Galilean  ministry,  lasting 
more  than  two  years;  a  ministry  of  four  months, 
beginning  with  the  mission  of  the  seventy,  and 
spent  between  Galilee  and  Judaea;  and  the  last 
fifty  days,  lasting  from  the  beginning  of  the  pas- 
sion-week to  the  ascension.  The  methods  which 
Jesus  used  during  these  three  periods  were  sub- 
stantially the  same.  A  distinction  is  justly  made 
between  his  miraculous  and  teaching  activity ; 
but  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that  many  of  the 
miracles  had  a  deep  symbolical  meaning  (as  the 
restoration  of  the  blind  to  sight),  and  that  Jesus 
frequently  followed  the  working  of  a  miracle  with 
words  of  instruction.  The  miracles  must  be  re- 
garded as  sustaining  an  intimate  connection  with 
his  divine-human  personality.  They  were  not 
mere  evidences  for  overcoming  unbelief,  but  were 
signs  of  the  higlier  Jlessianic  life  of  Christ,  and 
prophetic  pledges  of  the  glorious  future  of  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  From  this  point  of  view 
the  miraculous  activity  was  a  necessary  accompa- 
niment of  all  the  three  periods  of  his  life.  The 
form  and  contents  of  the  teaching  of  Jesus 
changed  to  this  extent,  that,  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  Galilean  ministry,  there  was  more  of  legal 
precept,  but  later  more  of  prophecy  and  promise. 
The  discourses  preserved  by  the  synoptists  are 
predominantly  parabolic  and  gnomic  ;  those  pi'e- 
served  by  John,  allegorical  and  symbolic.  The 
synoptists  contain  more  of  teaching  about  Christ 
(^doclrina  de  C/iri.ito)  ;  eJohn,  more  of  the  teaching 
of  Christ  {(loctrina  Clirisli). 

4.  The  Galilean  Mi»isl!-i/.  —  (a)  Co-operation 
with  John  the  Bitptisl.  The  ministry  of  Jesus  was 
not  yet  concentrated  in  Galilee.  John  alone  gives 
an  account  of  tlie  incidents  of  tliis  period  before 
the  imprisonment  of  the  Baptist,  which  Mark 
(i.  14)  and  Matthew  (iv.  12)  mention  as  the  oc- 
casion for  his  going  to  Galilee.  The  main  inci- 
dents belonging  here  are  the  choice  of  some 
disciples  from  the  body  of  John's  followers  (Jolm 
i.  35-51),  the  purification  of  the  temple,  in  which 
he  for  the  first  time  manifested  his  opposition  to 
the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  people  (John  ii.  13-25), 
and  the  conversation  with  Xicodenius.  Here, 
also,  belong  the  first  exhibition  of  hi.s  miraculous 
power  at  Cana  of  Galilee  (.John  ii.  1-11),  and  a 
short  visit  to  Capernaum  (Jolm  ii.  12).  At  the 
end  of  this  period  he  turned  again  to  Galilee,  liold- 
ing  on  the  way  the  conversation  at  Jacob's  well 
with  the  Samaritan  woman  (.lohn  iv.  4-42).  Har- 
monists differ  as  to  wlietlier  tliis  conversation 
precedes  or  follows  the  miracle  at  the  ]ioo!  of 
Bethesda  (.lohn  v  1-17),  as  well  as  .John's  impris- 
onment. In  the  former  case,  Jesus  must  have 
returned  yet  once  again  to  .luda'a  before  .John's 
impri.sonment.  (i)  To  the  Death  of  John  ami  the 
Miracle  of  the  Loaves.  —  The  characteristic  of  tliis 
period,  which  includes  the  most  of  the  (Jalilean 
miracles,  consists  in  the  gradual  .selection  of  the 
twelve  (li.scipl('8,  and  the  large  mas.ses  of  people 
who  gathered  about  him  at  the  Lake  of  Galilee. 


The  length  of  this  period  cannot  be  determined 
with  certainty,  on  account  of  the  dilEculty  of  de- 
ciding whether  the  miracles  of  John  iv.  47-54 
and  V.  1  sqq.  belong  here,  and  because  it  is  some- 
what doubtful  wliether  the  passover  of  John  vi. 
4  is  the  only  one  that  fell  in  this  period.  The 
main  incidents  were  as  follows :  after  being  re- 
jected at  Nazareth,  Jesus  passed  to  Capernaum 
(Luke  iv.  16  sqq. ;  Matt.  iv.  13),  where  he  per- 
formed a  number  of  miracles.  Here  belongs  the 
choice  of  the  disciples  in  the  stricter  sense  (Matt, 
iv.  18-22,  etc.),  followed  by  the  solemn  instruc- 
tions of  Matt,  v.-vii.  (Mark  iii.  13 ;  Luke  vi. 
17  sqq.).  Between  this  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
and  the  mission  of  the  twelve  (IMatt.  x.  1  sqq.) 
occurred  many  remarkable  cures,  such  as  the 
centurion's  servant  (Matt.  viii.  5-13 ;  Luke  vii. 
1-10),  and  other  miracles,  such  as  the  stilling  of 
the  storm  on  Lake  Galilee.  Here,  also,  belongs- 
the  raising  of  Jairus'  daughter  (JIatt.  ix.  23-27), 
and  that  of  the  widow  of  Xain's  son  (Luke  vii. 
11-17).  which  must  have  occurred  soon  afterwards. 
Matthew  places  at  this  time  the  discourses  and 
parables  of  chaps,  xii.,  xiii.,  which  ^lark  and 
Luke  break  up  into  parts,  and  give  in  other  con- 
nections. But  the  three  sjnioptists  agree  again 
in  their  accounts  of  the  miracle  of  the  five  loaves,, 
and  the  walking  on  the  lake,  which  they  put  in 
connection  with  the  news  of  the  Baptist's  decapi- 
tation. John  also  joins  in  with  the  synoptists  at 
this  point,  (c)  The  Last  Summer  in  Galilee.  — 
This  period  is  marked  by  a  growing  conflict  with 
the  luibelieving  Galileans,  who  have  forgotten 
their  once  enthusiasm,  and  especially  with  the 
Pharisees.  This  opposition  obliges  Jesus  to  retire 
frequently  to  desert-places,  and  even  to  pass  at 
times  beyond  the  confines  of  Galilee.  The  period 
lasts  from  the  passover  of  John  vi.  4  to  the  feast 
of  tabernacles  (.John  vii.  2)  ;  that  is,  through  the 
summer  and  fall.  Among  the  main  incidents 
were  the  condemnation  of  the  Pharisees  (Matt.  xv. 
1-20),  the  visits  to  the  regions  of  Tyre  and  Sidon 
and  CcCsarea  Philipjii,  the  confession  of  Peter,  the 
first  definite  announcement  of  the  crucifixion 
(Matt.  xvi.  13-23).  the  transfiguration,  the  jour- 
ney to  the  feast  of  tabernacles  (.John  vii.  S-lO), 
and  the  presentation  of  the  child  as  an  illustra- 
tion of  fitness  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Matt, 
xviii.  1  sqq.). 

5.  The  Extra-Galilean  Ministri/.  —  During  the 
winter  months  previous  to  the  passion.  Luke  (ix. 
51-xviii.  33)  gives  the  most  elaViorate  account  of 
this  period ;  but  all  three  .synoptists  (Mark  x.  1, 
32;  Matt.  xix.  1)  agree  in  describing  the  last 
departure  of  Christ  from  Galilee  as  a  jiarticu- 
larly  injportant  and  solemn  event.  .Jesus  set  his 
face  towarils  .Jerusalem,  but  first  touched  upon 
Samaria  (Luke  ix.  .')2-55),  and  labored  in  Penea 
(Matt.  ix.  1;  Mark  x.  1).  The  mission  of  the 
seventy  belongs  here  (Luke  x.  l-'20).  iMuch  that 
I>uk(!  narrates  in  these  chajiters  may  not  be  put 
in  chronological  order  ;  but  it  is  likely  that  .lesus 
repeated  some  of  his  discouises,  as  the  model 
prayer  (Luke  xi.  1  sqq.).  John  mentions  some 
of  tlie  journeys  of  .Jesus  to  .Jerusalem  at  this 
period,  to  the  feast  of  dedication  in  December 
(X.  22-2!)),  to  Bethany  at  the  death  of  Lazarus 
(xi.  7  sqq.),  and  to  the  last  passover  (xi.  51). 
We  do  not  iireteiid  to  be  able  to  anange  in  more 
definite  chronological  sequence  the  incidents  und 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


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JESUS  CHRIST. 


discourses  of  Luke  ix.-xviii.  Besides  running 
parallel  with  Luke  at  this  point,  in  some  cases 
Matthew  and  Mark  add,  towards  the  close  of  the 
period,  the  reply  of  the  ^Laster  to  the  question 
about  divorce  (Matt.  xix.  1-112 ;  Mark  x.  2-12), 
the  parable  of  the  laborers  in  the  vineyard  (Matt. 
XX.  1-16),  and  the  conversation  with  the  mother 
of  John  and  James  (Matt.  xx.  20;  Mark  x.  35). 
On  the  other  hand,  John  narrates  the  raising  of 
Lazarus  from  the  dead  (xi.  1  sciq.),  and  the  re- 
tirement of  Jesus  to  Ephraim  to  escape  the  mur- 
derous plans  of  the  rulers  of  the  people  (xi. 
54  sqq.). 

6.  Tlie  Passion  and  the  Resurrection.  —  The 
Pharisees  and  chief  priests,  who  liad  been  en- 
raged, by  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus,  against  the 
Galilean  prophet,  now  witnessed  a  growing  enthu- 
siasm on  the  part  of  the  people  in  liis  favor.  In 
Jericho  he  healed  Bartinuieus,  and  was  the  guest 
of  Zaccheus.  At  Bethany  he  was  anointed  by 
.Mary  with  costly  nard,  which  was  the  occasion 
for  Judas  to  murmur,  and  for  our  Lord  to  predict 
bis  speedy  death  (.John  xii.  1-11,  etc.).  On  the 
following  day,  Sundaj',  lie  entered  Jerusalem, 
amidst  the  llosannas  of  the  people,  who  liailed 
him  as  the  Messianic  king  (John  xii.  12-19,  etc.). 
He  spent  the  following  nights  at  Bethany,  and 
the  days  in  teaching  at  the  temple  or  by  the  way- 
side, or  in  disputing  with  the  representatives  of 
Phariseeism  and  Sadduoeeism.  After  spending 
Wednesday  at  Bethany,  he  despatched  Peter  and 
John  to  Jerusalem  to  prepare  the  passover,  whicli 
he  partakes  of  with  his  disciples  on  Thursday 
(see  below).  In  the  account  of  this  general 
scene,  the  synoptists  linger  upon  the  institution 
of  the  Lord's  Supper,  while  John  dwells  upon 
the  introductory  act  of  the  foot-washing  and  tiie 
consolatory  discourses  and  prayer  which  followed 
the  institution.  All  four  evangelists  detail  the 
recognition  and  departure  of  the  traitor,  and  the 
prediction  of  Peter's  denial.  Then  followed 
the  departiu'e  to  Gethsemane  and  the  agony  (nar- 
rated only  by  the  synoptists),  the  approach  of 
the  traitor,  and  the  apprehension  of  the  Saviour. 
Jesus  was  in  turn  brought  before  Annas,  Caiaphas, 
—  who  condemns  him  to  death  for  blasphemy,  — 
and  Pontius  Pilate,  in  the  prajtorium,  that  he 
might  confirm  the  death-penalty  of  the  Sanhedriu. 
Pilate  hoped  to  escape  the  necessity  of  so  doing 
by  sending  him  to  Herod  Antipas  (Matt,  xxvii. 
12-14,  etc.),  but  on  his  return  yielded,  though  re- 
luctantly, to  the  demand  of  high  priests  and  people 
for  ins  crucifixion.  Jesus  was  then  scourged,  and 
nailed  to  a  cross  outside  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
on  which  he  liung  for  six  hours,  giving  up  the 
ghost  at  three  in  the  afternoon,  amidst  a  darken- 
ing of  the  sky,  the  rending  of  the  veil  of  the 
temple,  and  tlie  confession  by  the  centurion  that 
he  was  the  Son  of  God.  After  his  death  he  was 
laid  in  a  new  tomb  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  from 
whicli  he  rose  in  the  early  morning  of  the  tliird 
day.  He  appeared  first  to  Mary  JNIagdalene,  tlien 
to  Peter,  and  during  the  afternoon  to  two  disci- 
ples on  their  way  to  Emmaus,  and  in  the  evening 
to  ten  of  his  disciples.  Eight  days  later,  on  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  he  appeared  again  to  the 
disciples,  Thomas  being  present,  who  was  forced 
to  make  a  remarkalile  confession  of  his  faith  in 
the  risen  Lord  and  his  divinity  (John  xx.  24-29). 
Foiu'  other  appearances  are  narrated  (the  appear- 


ance of  1  Cor.  XV.  7  being,  as  is  probable,  the  same 
as  that  described  in  Matt,  xxviii.  10-20),  at  the 
last  of  which,  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  near  Jeru- 
salem, he  was  received  up  into  heaven  (Acts  i. 
3-9;  compare  Luke  xxiv.  51 ;  Mark  xvi.  19). 

III.    ClIUO.N'OLOGY   OF    THE    LiFE    OK     ClIKIST. 

1.  Day  and  Year  of  Birth.  —  There  are  six  dates 
in  the  Gospels  which  are  of  greater  or  le.ss  value 
in  fixing  the  time  of  our  Lord's  birth,  (n)  Jesus' 
age  at  his  baptism,  which,  according  to  Luke 
iii.  23,  was  "  about  thirty  years,"  when  compared 
with  the  notice  of  the  Baptist's  public  appearance 
in  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius  (782 
or  783  of  Kome),  would  give  753  or  754  of  the 
city  of  Rome  as  the  year  of  the  birth.  Basing 
his  calculations  upon  a  comparison  of  these  no- 
tices, Dionysius  Exiguus,  in  the  sixth  century, 
fixed  the  chronology  of  Christ's  life,  which  has 
since  had  general  currency  in  the  Church ;  and 
the  25th  of  December  has  been  accepted  since  the 
fourth  century  as  the  day  of  tlie  birth.  The  pre- 
cariousuess  of  this  calculation  becomes,  however, 
apparent,  when  we  remember  that  Christ  is  only 
said  to  have  been  "about  thirty  years  of  age,"  and 
tlie  difficulty  of  determining  the  point  from  which 
the  reign  of  Tiberius  is  to  be  reckoned  as  having 
begun,  (h)  The  notice  of  Jolin  ii.  20,  tluit  the 
temple  had  been  forty-six  years  in  building,  has 
also  been  used,  but  does  not  give  any  exact  results. 
(c)  The  same  may  be  said  concerning  the  enrol- 
ment under  Quirinius  (Luke  ii.  2),  which  was  the 
occasion  of  Joseph's  journey  to  Jerusalem,  (d) 
We  get  a  better  datum  from  the  serx'ice  of  the 
priestly  course  of  Abijah,  to  whicli  Zacharias  be- 
longed (Luke  i.  5).  This  was  the  eighth  of  the 
twenty- four  courses  which  served  in  the  temple 
a  week  at  a  time.  We  know  that  the  evening 
before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  (9th  Ab,  823 
of  the  city  of  Rome),  the  first  course  began  its 
service.  This  would  give  us  the  17th  to  the  23d 
of  April,  or  the  3d  to  the  9th  of  October,  of  748, 
as  the  time  when  Zacharias  had  the  vision  of  the 
angel.  Jesus'  birth,  occurring  fifteen  months 
thereafter,  would  have  happened  in  749,  or  five 
years  before  the  beginning  of  our  present  era. 
This  calculation  is  based"  upon  the  supposition 
that  there  had  been  no  interruption  in  the  regular 
sequence  and  ministration  of  the  priestly  courses 
from  the  time  of  Judas  Maccaba;us  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  (e)  Of  most  value  is  the  cal- 
culation which  starts  out  with  the  date  of  Herod's 
death  in  750  of  Rome  (Josephus).  The  king  died 
soon  after  the  command  to  destroy  the  cliildren 
of  Bethjehem  (Matt.  ii.  19).  This  would  give  us 
749,  or  4-5  B.C.,  as  the  year  of  Christ's  birth.  (/) 
Another  calculation  has  been  based  upon  astrono- 
mical facts  compared  with  the  star  of  the  magi. 
Kepler,  in  his  Ve  Jesu  Christi  vera  anno  natalilio 
(1006),  took  up  this  method,  and  found  that  a 
conjunction  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn  had  occurred 
in  747  of  Rome.  INIade  curious  by  this  phenome- 
non, the  magi,  some  time  later  (748  according  to 
Kepler,  or  740-750  according  to  AVieseler,  etc.), 
directed  by  a  new  stellar  appearance  at  the  time 
of  Christ's  birth,  started  towards  Jerusalem. 
Kepler  and  Ebrard  regard  this  as  a  fixed  star, 
appearing  for  the  first  tinie,  like  that  in  Cassiopeia, 
in  1572,  or  in  Ophiunchus,  in  1604,  Wieseler  and 
others  looked  upon  it  as  a  comet.  This  calcula- 
tion would  also  give  us  4  or  5  B.C.  as  the  year  of 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


1174 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


Christ's  birth.  The  date  cannot  he  fixed  with 
absolute  definiteness ;  hut  it  niav  be  regarded  as 
reasonably  certain  that  it  fell  a'bout  halfway  be- 
tween 747  and  753  of  the  city  of  Rome. 

2.  Duration  of  the  Public  Ministry. — John  ex- 
pressly mentions  two  passovers  as  occurring  dur- 
ing Cfarisfs  life.  The  first  (John  ii.  20)  happened 
in  780  of  Rome,  .Jesus  having  begun  his  ministry 
the  autumn  before.  The  .second  passover  is  men- 
tioned in  connection  with  the  feeding  of  the  five 
thousand  (John  vi.  4).  The  synoptists  speak  of 
only  one  passover  for  the  whole  period  of  the 
ministry,  and  would  seem,  for  this  reason,  to 
regard  it  as  having  lasted  only  one  year.  This 
was  the  view  of  many  of  the  early  Fathers,  who 
adduced  in  confirmation  the  expression,  "the 
acceptable  year  of  the  Lord  "  (Isa.  Ixi.  2  ;  Luke 
iv.  19).  Keim  has  recently  revived  this  theory; 
but  it  is  inconsistent  with  some  expressions  in 
the  synoptists  themselves,  as  the  last  words  over 
Jerusalem  (" how  o/?en,"  etc..  Matt,  xxiii.  37:  Luke 
xiii.  34),  the  intimate  relations  with  the  family 
at  Bethau}',  which  seem  to  call  for  frequent  visits 
to  it  (compare  Luke  x.  38  sqq.  with  Mark  _xi. 
11  sq.),  etc.  Two  passovers,  then,  occurred  during 
the  Lord's  public  ministry,  and  a  third  at  its 
close,  which  therefore  lasted  from  two  years  and 
a  half  to  three  years.  This  conclusion  rests  upon 
the  view  that  the  feast  of  .John  v.  1  was  not  a 
passover,  as  Irenffus,  Luther,  Grotius,  Tholuck, 
etc.,  held,  but  one  of  the  otlier  Jewish  feasts. 
Jesus  began  his  ministrv  in  the  summer  or  fall 
of  26  A.I).  (779  R.),  and  was  crucified  in  the 
spring  of  29  A.D.  (782  R.). 

S.  Dai/  of  the  Crucifixion.  —  The  evangelists 
agree  in  describing  the  crucifixion  as  liaving  oc- 
curred on  Friday.  The  universal  tradition  of  the 
ancient  Church  followed  this  view.  The  synop- 
tists .seem  to  indicate  that  this  Friday  was  the 
first  day  of  the  passover,  or  the  15th  of  Nisau. 
John,  on  the  other  hand,  describes  it  as  the  eve 
of  the  passover,  or  the  14th  of  Nisan,  and  clearly 
distinguishes  the  Lord's  Supper  from  the  usual 
paschal  meal  which  took  place  on  the  evening  of 
the  14th  (xiii.  1-2!))  states  that  the  passover  was 
to  follow  the  crucifixion  in  the  evening  (xviii. 
28),  and  menlions  that  the  crucifixion  took  place 
on  the  "preparation  of  flie  passover"  (xix.  14, 
31).  The  conclusion  can  hardly  be  avoided,  that 
the  accounts  of  the  synoptists  and  .John  are  diver- 
gent, and  tliat  .Fohn's  date  is  to  lui  preferred. 
Jesus  was  crucified  on  the  14th  of  Nisan.  Some 
incidents  in  the  synoptists  seem  to  confirm  this 
result;  as  the  return  of  Simon  of  Cyrcne  from 
the  country  (Mark  xv.  21  ;  Luke  xxiii.  2(;V  and 
the  preparation  of  the  women  for  the  embalming 
of  the  body  (Luke  xxiii.  50),  whicli  indicali'  that 
it  was  a  work  and  not  a  feast  day.  [Lightfoot, 
Wieseler,  Kobinson,  Lange,  Milligan,  Plumptre, 
Schaff,  and  others,  deny  tliat  there  is  any  real 
divergence  between  the  accounts  of  the  synoptists 
and  .Tohn,  and  hold  that  Jesus  was  crucified  on 
the  1.5th  of  Nisan.  See,  for  the  arguments,  Rob- 
inson's Ifarmnn)/  nf  the  Gospels,  note  8,  pp.  212- 
223;  SciiAKi-'s  C/i«r<?/i  Histonj,  vol.  i.  (revised 
edition)  pji.  133  sfjq.] 

4.  The  I'erio'l  ajirr  the  Resurrection.  —  Neither 
the  arrangement  of  Paul  in  1  Cor.  xv.  3-8,  nor 
those  of  the  evaiigcdi.sts,  are  to  be  regarded  as 
decisive.    Jesus  had  intercourse  with  his  dibciples 


for  forty  days  after  the  resurrection  (Acts  i.  3). 
At  first  sight  we  might  conclude,  from  Luke  xxiv. 
50  sqq.,  that  Jesus  ascended  on  the  evening  of  the 
day  of  the  resurrection.  The  whole  passage,  how- 
ever, is  to  be  regarded  as  a  summary  statement 
of  the  history  of  the  resurrection  and  ascension. 
But  on  the  basis  of  it  and  other  passages  (John 
XX.  17),  an  early  Church  tradition  (Ep.  of  Barna- 
bas, c.  15),  Kinkel,  Greve  (i).  Ilimmelfahrt  unseres 
Herrn,  etc.,  Hanover,  1868),  and  others,  have 
assumed  that  there  were  repeated  ascensions. 

Lit.  —  (Compare  especially  the  extensive  treat- 
ment of  Hase,  in  his  Geschichte  Jesu,  pp.  110-174). 
1.  The  earlij  Church  did  not  attempt  an  histor- 
ical treatment  of  Christ's  life  in  the  real  sense, 
but  contented  itself  with  poetical  I'epresentations 
and  labors  on  the  Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  The 
oldest  Harmonies  are  those  of  Tatian  (about 
170),  Ammoxius  of  Alexandria  (about  220),  and 
the  later  imitations  of  Bi.shop  Victor  of  Capua 
(about  550).  The  poetic  representations  were 
either  lyrical,  as  the  Apotheosis  of  Pkudentius, 
and  the  Hymnus  acrostichus,  etc.,  of  Sedui.ius; 
dramatic,  as  the  .tpiorof  Trnat""  of  Gregory  Nazi- 
ANZEN ;  or  epic,  as  the  Hist,  eranr/elica  of  the 
Spanish  presbyter  C.  Vettius  AiiVinxus  .)u- 
VEXcus  (about  330),  the  Greek  paraphrase  of  the 
Gospel  of  John  by  the  Egjqitian  Nonnus  (fifth 
century),  and  the  heroic  poem  of  the  miracles 
(Mirabilium  divinoruin  ■  ■  Carmen  paschale)  of 
Ca:Lirs  SEDULirs  (about  450). 

2.  The  middle  ages  produced  harmonies  of  the 
Gospels,  in  the  old  High  German  rendering  of 
the  Harmony  of  Victor  of  Capua  in  the  nintli 
century  (cd.  Sciimeller,  Vienna,  1841),  and  tlK>^ 
Monotpssaron  of  Gerson  (Cologne,  1471),  which 
was  based  upon  tliorough  investigations,  and 
almost  inspired  by  a  critical  spirit.  They  also 
produced  poetical  treatments  at  the  beginning  of 
the  period  in  epic  verse,  like  that  of  the  Saxon 
C.EDMON  (about  680),  the  Heliand  (about  820), 
and  the  one  by  Otfried  (in  rhyme),  and,  towards 
the  close,  in  dramatic  verse,  —  the  passion  j>lays. 
The  middle  ages  gave  birth  to  the  first  Lires  of 
Christ  for  practical  purposes,  and  enriched  with 
legendary  matter, —  Boxaventura  :  ]'ita  Christ!. 
first  printed  tibout  1480  [English  translation  by 
Ilutchings,  London,  1881]  ;  Ludoi.I'HUS  de  Sa.x- 
ONIA  (a  Carthusian  in  Strassburg  about  13.30): 
Vita  J.  Chr.  e  qualuor  Err.  et  scriptorihus  orthoiloxis 
concinnata,  Stra.s.sburg,  1470,  last  edition,  Brussels, 
1870;  Simon  I)E  Cassia  (an  Augustiniau  in  Flor- 
ence) :  De  c/estis  Domini,  Itali;in,  Florence,  MiKi, 
Latin,  Basel,  1517 ;  Xavii-.k  (nephew  of  Francis 
Xavier) :  Hist.  Christi,  first  written  in  Portuguese, 
then  translated  into  Persian  for  missionary  pur- 
po.ses,  Latin  translation,  Lngd.,  Batavia,  lli39. 

3.  Modern  Times  (down  to  the  beginning  of 
this  century).  —  The  literature  of  Harmonies  of 
the  Gospels  [see  Harmony]  and  of  poetic  repre- 
sentations continues.  Of  the  latter  we  mention 
here  Hi'GO  (inoTius:  Christus  patiens,  la.st  edition, 
Tiibingen,  1712;  Klopstock  :  Me.isias.  174s ;  |,a- 
VATER  :  Jesus  Christus  [1783-86],  and  J'lmtius 
Pilalus  [1782-85,  4  vols.].  Lives  of  Clirist  lor 
purpo.ses  of  edification  were  publi.shed  within  the 
pale  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Chinch  by  ALmmin 
v.  Coi'iiEM  (3d  ed.,  Regcnsburg,  18(i2),  and  tli(i 
nun  Catharine  Emmerich  (d.  1824),  J>.  bitlre 
Leiden  urn.  Herrn  J.  Christi,  new  edition,  Kegens- 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


1175 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


burg,  1858 ;  and  within  the  Protestant  Church, 
in  English,  by  Jeremy  Taylor  (London,  1653), 
Readinc  (I.ohcIou,  1710;  new  ed.,  1S52),  [John 
Fleetwood  (al>()ut  1770)]  ;  and  in  German  by 
Creutziiehi;  (1714),  Bogat/.ky  (175:5),  etc.  A 
large  number  of  works  of  this  class  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  century  by  Sciiuleh,  Nosselt,  Mak- 
heinecke,  v.  Ammon  (the  last  two  in  the  form 
of  sermons),  etc.  The  critical  method,  which 
began  to  be  practi.sed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  was  first  used  in  the  interest 
of  sheer  negations  of  the  historical  credibility  of 
the  Gospel  history  by  the  Deists  of  England, — 
W'oolston,  Chubb,  and  others.  Introduced  into 
(iermany,  it  was  applied  liy  Reimarius  (d.  1768): 
Fraqmeiile  eines  Ungenunnlen  (edited  by  Lessing), 
1777;  Bahrdt  :  Briefe  ii.  d.  Bihel,  etc.,  Ilalle,  1782, 
and  Ausfuhrunr;  d.  Planes  Jesn,  12  vols.,  Berlin, 
1784  sqq.  (less  hostile  to  Christianity);  Vexti'ri- 
Nl:  Nalmilche  Gesch.  d.  ffrosseii  I'ni/ihelfii  c.  Na:a- 
reM,  Copenhagen,  1800-02.  Kahi-dt  and  Venturini 
to  .some  extent  apply  the  principles  of  the  .so-called 
naturalistic  method  of  explaining  the  miracles  ; 
but  it  afterwards  found  its  chief  representative 
in  Paulus  (d.  1851),  in  his  Conunentaries  on  the 
Gospels,  and  in  his  Life  of  Jesus,  Heidelberg,  1S28. 
2  vols.  These  hostile  tendencies  were  opposed 
by  Lardn'er,  Stackhouse,  Paley,  etc.,  in  Eng- 
land, and  DoDERLEiN  (Niirnberg,  1778,  2  vols.), 
Semleu  (^Beantworlunrj  d.  Fruf/iiieitle  e.  Ungenaiin- 
ten,  Ilalle,  1780),  REiNfLiRo' (Wittenberg,  1781, 
5th  ed.,  1830),  Herder  (Voin  Erloser,  etc.,  and 
Von  Gottes  Son,  etc.,  5  vols.,  Riga,  1796  sqq.), 
.Jacob  Hess  {Lehensr/esch.  Jesu,  Leipzig,  1768;  7th 
ed.,  Zurich,  1823,  3  vols.). 

4.  Recent  Times.  —  The  studies  of  the  life  of 
Christ  of  the  last  fifty  years,  both  on  the  part  of 
the  negative  (denying  Christ's  divinity)  and  the 
positive  and  believing  schools,  have  been  con- 
ducted upon  critical  principles,  and  with  freedom 
from  doctrinal  preposse.ssions.  This  period  may 
be  denominated  the  critical  and  scientific  period. 
Sciileiermacher's  Lectures,  delivered  in  Berlin 
for  the  first  time  in  1819  (publi-shed  1804),  and  K. 
Hase's  Lectures,  delivered  for  the  first  time  at  Tu- 
bingen, 1823  (published  1829;  5th  ed.,  1865;  and, 
under  the  title  Gesch.  Jesu,  Leipsic,  1870),  may  be 
regarded  as  respectively  the  starting-points  for  the 
two  schools,  although  both  treatments  lean  strong- 
ly in  many  points  towards  rationalism  (.Schleier- 
niacher  assuming  some  of  the  incidents  of  the 
infancy  to  be  legends,  etc.).  We  shall  divide  the 
literature  into  two  groups:  — 

(n)  The  negative  method  has  passed  through 
three  stages.  The  mythical  hypothesis  left  little 
remaining  in  the  Gospels  as  beyond  all  doubt  re- 
liable. It  was  developed  by  D.wid  Friedrich 
Strauss  :  D.  Lehen  Jesu  (Tub.,  2  vols.,  1835;  4th 
ed.,  1840)  [English  translation  from  3d  ed.  by 
George  Eliot,  Lond.,  1846,  3  vols. ;  republished 
N.Y.,  1850],  and  D.  Lehen  Jesu  f.  d.  deulsche 
Volk  hearbeilet  (Leip.,  1864;  3d  ed.,  1875)  [Eng- 
lish translation,  Lond.,  1865,2  vols.];  Weisse  : 
D.  Lehen  Jesu  kritisch  u.  philo.ioph.  hearheitet,  Leip., 
1838,  2  vols. ;  Salvator  :  Jesus  Christ,  etc.,  Paris, 
1838,  2  vols. ;  Gfrorer  :  Gesch.  d.  Urchristenthums, 
Stuttg.,  1868.  The  Tubingen  .school,  or  so-called 
Tendenz  criticism,  which  discredited  tlie  sources  of 
the  life  of  Christ,  and  directed  its  attacks  espe- 
cially against  the  Gospel  of  John,  which  it  put  in 


the  second  century,  was  represented  by  Bruno 
Bauer  :  Kritik  d.  evang.  Gesch.  d.  Johannes  (Bre- 
men, 1840),  Krit.  d.  evnng.  Gesch.  d.  Si/noj/liker 
(Leip  ,  1811,  2  vols.),  Krit.  d.  Ernngelien  u.  Gesch. 
ihres  Urspntngs  (Berlin,  1850,  3  vols.,  etc.);  F. 
Cur.  v.  Bauu  (more  moderate  and  scholarly): 
Krit.  Untersuchungen  ii.  d.  kanon.  Evangelien  (1847) 
and  D.  Christenthuni.  u.  d.  chrisll.  Kirche  d.  drei 
ersten  Jahrhunderte  {IS'hjj;  IIilge.vkeld:  D.  Ernn- 
gelien, etc.  (1854);  G.  A'oLKiMAK  (more  radical): 
D.  Religion  Chrisli,  etc.  (18.57),  [Jesus  Nazarenus 
und  die  erste  chrisdiche  Zeit  (Zur.,  1882)].  The 
eclectic  principle  has  been  emploj-ed  by  Renax: 
Vie  de  Jesus,  Paris,  1863  [16th  ed.,  1879 ;  English 
translation,  N.Y.,  1863],  who  resolves  the  life  of 
Christ  into  romance  ;  Schenkel  :  D.  Chnrakler- 
hild  Jesu  (Wiesb.,  1804;  4th  ed.,  1873),  and  D. 
Christusbild d.  Aposlel,  etc.  (Leip.,  1878);  the  same: 
Das  Christusbild  der  Apostel  u.  der  nachajiostnl. 
Zeit  (Leip.,  1879);  Keim  :  D.  Geschicldl.  Christus 
(Zur.,  1865  ;  3d  ed.,  1860),  Gesch.  Jesu  ron  Naz<irn 
(Zur,  1867-72, 3  vols.)  [English  translation,  Lond., 
1873-82,  6  vols.],  Supemat.  Religion  (Lond.,  Is74, 
3  vols.  ;  7th  ed.,  1879)  ;  \^'nTiCHEN  ;  Das  Lehen 
Jesu  (Jena,  1876). 

(h)  These  tendencies  have  been  opposeil  by  a 
large  literature  advocating  the  crediliility  of  the 
(iospel  history,  and  presenting  a  picture  of  the  tlie- 
anthropic  character  of  Christ.  Against  Strauss's 
Life  of  Chrkt  have  appeared  Tholuck  :  Z>.  Glauh- 
iciirdigkeit  d.  evang.  Gescliichic,  llamb.,  1837;  Me- 
ander :  Life  of  Christ,  Hanib.,  1837  (7th  ed., 
Gotha,  1873)  [English  translation,  N.Y.,  184s]  ; 
I2buard:  Wissenschaft.  Kritik  d.  evang.  Gesch., 
Frankf..  1842  (3d  ed.,  1868)  [condensed  transla- 
tion, Edinb.,  1809]  ;  Wieseler  :  Chrunol.  Synojise, 
d.  rier  Eranr/elien,  Hamb.,  1843  ;  J.  P.  Lan(;  e  :  Life 
of  Christ.  Heidelb.,  1844-47,  5  vols.  [English 
tran.slation,  Edinb.,  1864,  6  vols.  ;  new  ed.,  Phila., 
1872,4  vols.];  IIahn  :  Lehen  Jesu,  Bresl.,  1844; 
also  the  Catholic  theologians  Sepp:  D.  Lehen 
ChristI,  Regensb.,  1843  sqq.,  4  vols.  (2d  ed.,  1805)  ; 
P.rriiEi!:  D.  Lehen  J.  C,  Stuttg.,  1859;  Bishop 
Dupanloup;  flistoire de nntre  Saureur.h'sus  Christ, 
Paris,  1870.  Against  the  criticism  of  the  Tubin- 
gen school  (Tendenzkritik)  have  apjieared  Ew.ald  : 
Gesch.  Jesu  u.  seiner  Zeit  (vol.  v.  of  his  History  of 
Israel),  2d  ed.,  18.57  [English  translation,  Camb., 
1805];  Rigoenbach:  Vorlesungen  iiber  d.  Lehen 
Jesu,  Basel,  1858.  Again.st  Renan,  Schenkel, 
Keim,  etc.,  have  appeared  Luthardt  :  D.  modcr- 
nen  Darstellungen  d.  Lehens  Jesu,  Leipzig,  1804 ; 
Weizacker:  Untersuchungen  iiber  d.  ecung,  Ge- 
si7//c/i(e,  etc.,  Gotha,  1804;  Pressense;^!;','--!^  Christ, 
son  tempts,  sa  rie,  son  ceuvre,  Paris,  1865  [English 
translation,  Loud..  1860;  7th  ed.,  1879];  Wiese- 
LEP, :  Beitrcige  zur  richtigen  WUrdigung  der  Erange- 
lien.  Gotha,  1809.  .See  also  Ellicott  :  Historical 
I^ectures  on  the  Life  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  Lond., 
1860  (5th  ed.,  1869)  ;  [S.  J.  Andrews:  The  Life  of 
our  Lord,  N.Y.,  1862  (4th  ed.,  1879)]  ;  F.  ^V.  Far- 
rar  :  Life  of  Christ.  Lond.,  1875,  2  vols.  (28th  ed., 
1882)  ;  [Lives  tf  Christ  have  been  recently  written 
by  J.  Grimm  (Roman  Catholic),  Regensb.,  1876 
sqq.  ;  C.  CJeikie,  Lond.,  1877,  2  vols.  (30th  eii., 
188,5);  B.  Weiss.  Berl.,  1882,  2  vols..  2d  ed.. 
1884;  English  translation,  Edinburgh,  1883-84,3 
vols. ;  A.  Edersheim.  London,  1883,2  vols..  3d  ed., 
1880;  W.  Beyschl.^g.  Halle,  1885  .sqq.  Popular 
Lices,  rather  than  scientific,  bv  Jeremy  Taylor 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


1176 


JESUS  CHRIST. 


f  London,  1653;  new  ed.,  188i),  Abbott  (N.Y., 
1369  :  new  ed..  1882),  Hanx.\  (Edinb.,  1868-69, 
6  vols.  ;  rev.  ed.,  1882,  1  vol.),  Beecher  (X.Y., 
vol  i  ,  1871),  Crosby  (N.Y.,  1871),  Deems  (X.Y., 
1872)].  For  the  works  upon  the  theological  and 
moral  aspects  of  Christ's  life,  see  C.  Ui-LMAxn  : 
Die  Siindlosigkeit  Jesu.  Hamb.,  1828  (7tli  ed.,  1863) 
[English  trans,  from  7th  ed..  The  Sinkfs>ies:<  of 
./c-.sus,  Edinb.,  1S70;  Gess  :  Clirisli  Person  u.]Verk; 
Basel,  1870-79,  2  parts;  .Sch.\ff:  Tlie  Person  of 
Clirisi,  Bo!it.  and  N.Y.,  1865  (12th  ed.  rev.,  N.Y., 
1882;  translated  into  German,  French,  and  Dutch); 
Professor  J.  R.  Seeley  :  Ecce  Homo.  Loud.,  1866 
[1865] ;  Delitszcm  ;  Jesus  u.  HMcl.  Erlan;;.,  1867 
(3d  ed.  revised,  1879);  W.  B.  Pope  :  Tlie  Person  of 
Clirisl,  Loud.,  1871]  ;  E.  BouGAun  (vicar-general 
of  Orleans):  Le  chrtstianisme  et  les  temps  prc'sents, 
t.  ii.  Jesus  Christ,  Paris,  1871  (3d  ed.,  1877,  2  vols.) 
[partial  English  translation.  An  Arjiiiment  for  the 
Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  Loudon,  1882.  See  J. 
P.  Thompson:  Theology  of  Christ,  X.Y.  1871; 
Xaville  :  Le  Christ,  Geneva,  1878  (Engli.sh  trans., 
Edinb.,  1880);  E.  Worxer  :  Die  LehreJesu,'Ba»e\, 
1882;  F.  A.  Malleson:  Christ  Jesus:  his  Life 
timl  his  Work;  Loud.,  1880  (new  ed.,  1882)  ;  A.  M. 
F.iiRBAlRX  :  Studies  in  the  Life  of  Chi-isl.  Loud, 
and  X.Y.,  1881  (2d  ed.,  same  year);  Henry 
A\'.\ce  :  The  Gospel  and  its  Witnesses.  The  Principal 
Facts  m  the  Life  of  our  L  ord,  and  the  A  uthority  of  the 
Evangelical  Narratives,  Loud.,  18S2  ;  Joseph  Par- 
ker :  The  Inner  Life  of  Christ,  Loud.,  1882,  3  vols. ; 
IL  H.  ^^'ENDT  :  Die  Lehre  ,/esti,  Giittiugen,  1886  sq. 
F'or  chronological  questions  see  Robinson  :  Ha?-- 
mony  of  the  Gospels  (notes),  rev  ed.,  Bost.,  1862 : 
A.  W.  Zumpt  :  Das  Gehurtsjahr  Christi,  Leip., 
18G9 ;  F.  W.  Upham  :  The  MHse  Men,  X. Y.,  1869 ; 
the  same:  Tlie  Star  of  our  Lord,  N.Y.,  1873; 
Herm.  Sevin  :  Chronologie  des  Lebens  Jesu,  Ilei- 
delb  ,  1870  (2d  ed.  revised  and  much  enlarged, 
Tub.,  187-1);  L.K;N(iiiKRG ;  Chronologie  de  la  vie  de 
Jesus,  Paris,  1878;  Litteiuieck;  Die  Jahre  Christi 
nach  alexanilrin.  Ansatz  u.  neueren  astrnnom.  Bestim- 
mungen,  (Jiessen,  1878:  F.  RiESs:  Das  Gelmrl.yahr 
Chriiti.  Freib.-i.-B.,  1880;  J.  K.  Aldrich  :  A 
Critical  Examination  rf  the  Question  in  regard  to  the 
Time  of  Our  Saviour's  Crucifixion,  shoiring  that  he 
teas  crucified  on  Thursdaij,  the  14lh  Dai/  of  the  Jeirish 
Month  ofNisan,  A.D.  SO,  Bo.st.,  1882.  "  A  cla.^sical 
monograph  on  Christ's  death  is  W.  KTRotn:  The 
Physical  Cause  of  the  Death  of  Christ,  Loud.,  1S17  ; 
2d  ed.,  1871.  As  recent  works  upon  the  leg(Midary 
and  mythical  Christ,  see  Rudolf  Hofmann  :  Das 
Lehen  Jesu  nach  den  Apokryphen,  Leip.,  1851  ;  Ri- 
Vall.xxi)  :  Le  martyr  du  Golgotha,  traditions  oricti- 
tales  stir  la  vie  et  la  mort  de  Je'.tus  Christ,  Paris, 
1876;  E.  Marius  :  Die  Personlichkeit  Jesu  Christi 
mil  hesoitderer  lliicksicht  auf  die  Mythologien  mid 
Mysterien  der  alten  Viilker,  Leip.,  1879  (2d  ed., 
1881)  ;  E.  Sayol'S  :  Jesus-Christ  d'aprcs  Mahomet, 
Leip..  1880  ;  R.  Seydel  :  Das  Erangeliiim  von  Jesu 
in  semen  Verliiitlnissen  zn  JJinldha-Sage  ii.  lliiddha- 
Lehre,  Leip.,  1882  (an  attempt  to  prove  that  the 
Go.spels  were  coniiKwed  under  tlic  influence  of 
Buddhi.st  legends,  while  holding  to  historic  Chris- 
tianity)]. See  Ciiristology,  J1e,ssiaii,  and 
oilier  articles.  zOckleh. 

JE  SUS  CHRIST,  Three  Offices  of.  .\  three- 
I'dld  oH'icc  (if  prophet,  high  ]irii',^l,  :iiid  king,  was 
ascribed  to  Jesus  long  ago  by  Euscl)ius  (U.K.,  I. 
3):  Calvin,  in  his  /nslilutcs  (II.  15),  introduced  it 


as  a  doctrine  into  systematic  theology.  It  passed 
over  into  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  (31) ;  and 
from  that  time  the  theologians  of  the  Reformed 
churches  treated  the  work  of  Christ  under  this 
threefold  aspect.  The  principle  was  first  in- 
dorsed in  the  Lutheran  Church  by  John  Gerhard. 
This  division  of  Christ's  redeeming  work  was  ;i 
natural  one ;  and  nothing  is  more  certain  than 
that  the  Old  Testament  depicts  him  as  the  per- 
fect prophet,  and  then  as  the  sen-ant  of  .Jehovah, 
to  whom  the  functions  of  prophet,  priest,  and 
king,  belong,  and  finally  as  the  royal  seed  of 
David,  and  the  priest-king.  All  three  of  these 
offices  branch  out  from  the  idea  of  the  Messiah,  or 
the  Anointed  ;  for  Christ  v,-as  anointed  prophet  to 
preach  to  the  poor  (Isa.  Ixi.  1),  King  of  righteous- 
ness (Heb.  i.  8,  9),  and  High  Priest  "after  the 
power  of  an  endless  life"  (Heb.  vii.  16). 

The  prophets  spoke  of  the  Redeemer  as  the 
future  and  perfect  Prophet.  This  was  first  done 
in  Deut.  xviii.  15.     Moses  in  the  wilderness  was 


sent  u]}  to  Mount  Sinai  to  hear  (Deut. 


r),  and 


there  it  was  revealed  that  God  would  send  down 
a  Prophet  to  whom  the  people  would  listen.  Here 
is  the  dawning  of  the  contrast  between  the  law 
and  the  gospel.  The  prophecies  of  Isaiah  xL- 
Ixvi.  do  not  in  the  first  instance  concern  a  proph- 
et, but  the  "servant  of  Jehovah."  Isaiah  works 
(xlix.  4)  in  vain ;  but  a  future  Servant  of  Jehovah 
will  carry  out  the  destiny  of  Israel  by  being  a 
prophet,  and  more  than  a  prophet,  —  by  bearing 
the  punishment  of  our  sins  (fiii.).  He  is  also  rep- 
resented in  this  section  as  the  King  of  kings, 
before  whom  the  kings  of  the  earth  bow.  A  radi- 
cal principle  of  the  Messianic  prophecies  is  the 
royal  dominion  of  Christ.  He  was  promised  as 
the  seed  of  David,  whose  throne  should  last  for- 
ever (2  Sam.  vii.  18  sqq.  ;  Ps.  ii.  6,  7,  ex.)  ;  and 
not  only  was  he  to  be  a  king,  but  a  priest-king, 
after  the  order  of  Melchizedek  (Ps.  ex.  4 ;  Zech. 
vi.  12, 13).  Thus  the  faithful  Israelite  was  taught 
to  expect  a  Me.ssi.ah  who  should  unite  (he  priestly 
and  prophetic  offices,  and  at  the  same  time  estab- 
lish a  throne  of  peace.  The  carnal  Israelite,  how- 
ever, looked  for  a  Messiah  who  should  found  a 
worldly  kingdom,  and  not  exercise  prophetic  or 
prie.stly  functions. 

Jesus  attested  his  tin-eefold  office  by  his  activi- 
ty, suffering,  and  final  end.  When  he  announced 
(he  near  approach  of  the  kingdom  of  (lod,  and 
confirmed  his  word  by  signs  ((j;;/xrin),  he  w.as  act- 
ing as  the  prophet,  and  was  so  acknowledged  bv 
his  disciples  (Luke  xxiv.  19)  and  others  (Luke  vii. 
16,  ix.  8;  John  iv.  19,  etc.).  Not  only  his  .activi- 
ty, however,  but  his  very  person,  was  prophelic. 
It  w;is  the  revelation  of  the  Father  (.John  xiv.  9), 
and  he  made  known  the  fulness  of  his  nature  and 
will  (Heb.  i.  1  scjcp).  For  this  reason  he  is  desig- 
nated the  Word  (John  i.  1  s<]q.),  which  was  in 
the  beginning,  and  became  flesli  (John  i.  14).  He 
was  the  li\ing  eternal  laiv  of  Gail,  because  1h^ 
was  a  man  as  God  would  have  man  (Matt.  iii.  17 ; 
John  iv.  34,  v.  19,  etc.).  He  was  at  the  same  time 
the  gospel  as  embodying  the  gracious  will  of  the 
Fatlier  (Luke  iv.  17  sqq. ;  John  i.  29,  etc.).  Jesus 
is  depicted  as  a  priest,  or  rather  as  the  high  priest, 
by  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (vii.  scjq.).  He 
offered  up  himself  as  a  sacrifice.  It  is  the  clear 
teaching  of  Scripture  tliiit  Christ,  on  the  one  hand, 
fulfilled  all  the  laws  of  God  to  man,  and  that  hi.s 


JESUS. 


1177 


JEW. 


life  was  a  holy  and  spotless  sacrifice,  and,  on  the 
other,  that  he  submitted  himself  to  death,  wliich 
was  the  ininishiiient  of  sin.  lie,  therefore,  was 
the  suljxliliile  for  our  guilt  and  punishment ;  for  the 
fundamental  idea  of  the  atoning  sacrifices  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  that  of  vicarious  substitu- 
tion. Christ's  death  had  not  a  whit  of  the  nature 
of  a  suicide.  It  was  his  priestly  and  holy  life 
wliich  caused  his  death.  His  saci-ifice  was  a 
priestly  one,  just  because  he  remained  faithful 
where  fidelity  led  him  into  the  jaws  of  death. 

But  from  ChrLst's  death  the  crown  of  thorns  is 
inseparable,  and  from  the  crown  of  thorns  his 
royal  dignity.  He  did  not  refuse,  in  the  day  of 
Ins  humiliation,  the  title  of  "  Son  of  David '' 
(Matt  ix.  "27,  xxi.  9  etc.)  ;  for  he  was  really  so, 
and  he  declared  himself  to  be  such  (John  iv.  20  ; 
Matt.  xxii.  42  sqq.).  He  did  not  exercise  his 
royalty  as  the  masses  wanted  him  to  do,  but  he 
manifested  it  in  his  acts.  As  a  reward  for  the 
royalty  of  his  priestly  self-abnegation,  he  was 
crowned  with  the  crown  of  glory  (Phil.  ii.  0,  10; 
Heb.  ii.  9),  and  has  a  right,  as  king,  to  his  peop)le 
(1  Pet.  ii.  9)  ;  for  all  who  come  to  him  are  given 
to  him  (John  xvii.  6).  and  shall  jiartake  of  hi.s 
glory  (John  xvii.  22,  24,  26). 

From  the  above  considerations  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  threefold  division  of  Christ's  work  is 
essential  to  the  scriptural  representations  of  him. 
But,  apart  from  the  fall  and  redemption,  this 
threefold  office  develops  out  of  the  very  idea  of  a 
mediator.  If  man  had  not  sinned,  there  woidd 
have  been  a  development.  In  this  case,  would 
there  not  have  been  an  incarnation'.'  To  deny 
this  would  mean  nothing  more  nor  less  than  that 
the  fall  was  an  absolutely  indispensable  stage  in 
the  development  towards  perfection,  which  could 
not  have  happened  without  sin.  If  the  proposi- 
tion be  true,  —  no  apostasy,  no  Christ,  —  then  sin 
is  an  advantage,  a  conclusion  which  would  be  the 
grave  of  all  the  first  principles  of  Christian  ethics. 
God  would  have  revealed  himself  to  the  race,  even 
if  there  had  been  no  apostasj'.  He  would  have 
then  revealed  himself  through  a  prophet  to  lead 
men  to  higher  stages  of  knowledge,  through  a 
priest  who  would  offer  himself  up  a  living  offer- 
ing to  the  good  of  every  individual,  and  through 
a  king  as  the  leader  of  men. 

Christ  combined  these  three  offices,  and,  as  the 
AVord,  led  sinful  man  out  of  his  error,  darkness, 
and  falsehood,  and  revealed  to  him  tlie  law  and 
the  grace  of  God.  As  the  holy,  priestly  offering, 
lie  removed  the  curse  of  sin  from  the  world  by 
himself  bearing  it  in  our  stead.  As  the  king,  he 
reigns  in  heaven.  The  exercise  of  these  three 
offices  were  not  confined  to  any  special  periods  in 
Christ's  public  life  on  earth,  nor  is  it  limited  to 
any  special  period  in  his  glory;  for  he  continues 
at  all  times  to  be  the  exponent  of  the  Father  to 
the  world,  the  world's  intercessor  with  the  Father, 
and  the  head  of  his  Chm-ch.  EBK.\RD. 

JESUS,  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of.  The 
devotion  to  the  sacred  heart  of  Jesus  was  the 
work  of  the  Jesuit  La  Combiere,  who  reared  the 
institution  on  the  visions  of  Maria  Alacoque,  a 
nun  in  the  monastery  of  Paray  le  Monial  in  Bur- 
gundy (d.  in  1690,  canonized  in  18G4).  After- 
wards the  Jesuits  were  very  zealous  for  the  for- 
mation of  brotherhoods  of  the  Devotion  to  the 
Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus,  whose  number  in  1726 


increased  to  three  hundred  and  ten  in  France, 
Germany,  the  Netherlands,  Italy,  and  Poland  ; 
and  it  was  on  the  basis  of  these  brotherhoods, 
that,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
a  iminber  of  societies  was  organized,  in  which  the 
Jesuits  hoped  to  continue  the  existence  of  their 
order.  Thus  the  ex-Jesuits,  De  Tournely,  I)e 
Broglie,  and  other.s,  formed  in  1794,  at  l^ouvain, 
the  Society  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus.  By 
the  advancing  French  armies  the  society  was 
compelled  to  flee,  first  to  Augsburg,  then  to  Pas- 
sau,  and  finally  to  Vienna.  In  1798  they  had 
a  college  at  Ilagenbrunn,  a  novitiate-house  at 
Prague,  etc.  ;  but  in  the  following  year  they 
united  with  the  Baccanarists,  according  to  the 
wish  of  the  Pope. 

Of  much  more  impoi'tance  is  the  female  society 
of  the  same  name.  The  Ladies  of  the  Sacred 
Heart  (Z)«m«s  rfii  6'oere' Cffur).  It  was  organized 
at  Paris  in  ISOO,  and  in  1866  it  numbered  about 
ten  thousand  members.  Its  organization  and 
rules  are  those  of  the  order  of  the  .Jesuits,  only 
with  such  modifications  as  the  difference  of  the 
.sex  of  the  members  makes  necessary.  Its  object 
is  female  education.  The  association  has  been 
expelled  from  all  countries  from  which  the  Jesu- 
its have  been  excluded.  G.  E.  STEITZ. 

JETER,  Jeremiah  B.,  D.D.,  li.  in  Bedford  Coun- 
ty, Va.,  July  18,  18u2;  d.  in  Kicliinond,  Feb.  25, 
1880.  He  entered  the  Baptist  ministry  in  1822, 
and  occupied  a  very  prominent  position.  He  was, 
jierhaps,  more  widely  known  in  the  United  States 
than  any  other  Baptist  minister  ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  his  ministry  was  spent  in  Richmond. 

JE'THRO.     .See  "Mose.s. 

JEW,  The  Wandering.  The  legend  of  tlie 
Wandering  Jew  appeared  for  the  first  time  in 
German  literature  in  a  small  pamphlet,  Kurze 
Beschrcibunff  und  Erzdlung  von  einera  Juden  mil 
Namen  Aliasuerus,  1602.  Before  that  time  no 
trace  can  be  found  of  it  in  Germany ;  and  it  is 
quite  evident,  that,  for  instance,  neither  Luther 
nor  Hans  Sach.s  knew  any  thing  about  it.  The 
pamphlet  pretends  to  be  a  report  of  an  interview 
between  Paulus  von  Eitzen,  bishop  of  Sleswick, 
and  the  Wandei'ing  Jew,  which  took  place  in 
Hamburg,  1542.  According  to  Von  Eitzen's  re- 
port, Ahasuerus  is  the  name  of  the  '\^'andering 
Jew ;  and  he  was  a  shoemaker  in  Jerusalem  at 
the  time  of  Christ.  When  Jesus,  on  his  way  to 
Golgotha,  passed  by  his  house,  he  stopped  for  a 
moment,  and  leaned  against  the  door-po.st;  and 
when  Ahasuerus  pushed  him  aside,  and  bade  him 
to  move  on,  Jesus  said  to  him,  "  I  will  stand  here 
and  rest,  laut  thou  shalt  go  on  until  the  last 
day."  From  that  moment  Ahasuerus  found  rest 
nowhere.  AVandering  about  from  place  to  place, 
he  has  been  seen  in  Spain,  Germany,  and  other 
places,  as  later  editions  of  the  Kurze  Beschreihutuj 
report. 

In  the  English  and  French  literatures  the 
legend  appeared  about  four  centuries  earlier, 
though  in  a  somewhat  different  shape,  ilatthew 
Paris,  an  English  monk  who  lived  in  the  monas- 
tery of  St.  Albau  in  Paris,  and  died  1259.  tells  a 
story  about  a  certain  Cartapiiilus,  which  he  claims 
to  have  heard  from  an  Armenian  bishop  who 
visited  London .  According  to  this  story,  Cartapiii- 
lus was  a  door-keeper  in  the  palace  of  Pilate ; 
and,  when  Jesus  was  led  out  to  be  crucified,  he 


JEWEL. 


1178 


JEWEL. 


struck  him,  and  said  to  him,  "  Go,  Jesus  :  go  on 
faster."  To  which  Jesus  replied,  "I  go,  but 
thou  shalt  wait  till  I  return."  Afterwards  Car- 
taphiliis  was  baptized  by  Ananias,  assumed  the 
name  of  Joseph,  and  settled  in  Armenia,  where 
he  was  still  living  when  Matthew  Paris  wrote  his 
HiMoria  Major.  The  same  story  is  repeated  in 
the  Chroiiique  Rime'e,  by  Philippe  Jlouskes,  who 
was  bishop  of  Tournay,  and  died  in  1283. 

Against  the  identity  of  these  two  representa- 
tions, it  has  been  argued  that  Cartaphilus  was  not 
a  Jew,  but  a  Christian,  and  probably,  before  bap- 
tism, a  Pagan  ;  that  he  was  not  perpetually  wan- 
dering, but  comfortably  fixed  in  Armenia,  etc. 
[But  transitions  as  comprehensive  and  vital  as 
this,  from  the  door-keeper  of  the  thirteenth,  to 
the  shoemaker  of  the  sixteenth  century,  are  often 
met  with  in  legends  and  popular  tales,  in  their 
wanderings  through  several  centuries  and  from 
one  people  to  another ;  and  the  explanations 
whicli  Karl  Blind  has  given  of  several  features 
of  the  transition  (Geutleman'g  Mafjazine,  Jul}-, 
1880)  are  at  least  suggestive.  lie  derives  the 
name  Ahasuerus  from  the  Teutonic  As-Vidar, 
the  only  god  who  should  survive  the  destruction 
of  the  world,  and  who  should  avenge  the  fall  of 
the  Asers  by  thrusting  his  foot,  well  beshod, 
down  into  the  throat  of  the  wolf  Fenris.] 

Lit.  — F.  Bassler  :  Vom  ewigen  Juden,  Berlin, 
1870 ;  F.  IIelbio  :  Vom  ewigen  Juden,  Berlin, 
1874 ;  Charles  Schoebel  :  La  k'gcnde  du  Juif- 
errant,  Paris,  1877  ;  P.  Lavayssiere  :  La  legende 
du  Juif-errant,  Limoges,  1878;  [Gaston  Paris; 
Le  Juif-erranl,  Paris,  1880;  M.  D.  Conway:  The 
U'«(u/«W/if/./<.'«-,  Lond.,  1881.]    carl  bektheau. 

JEWEL,  John,  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  the  fore- 
most apologetical  writer  of  the  F.nglish  Church, 
and  its  literary  representative  in  the  first  years  of 
Elizabeth's  reign  ;  was  b.  in  Buden,  Devonshire, 
IMay  22  [24],  1522 :  d.  at  Monkton  Farleigh,  in 
his  diocese,  Sept.  23.  1071.  lie  entered  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  at  the  age  of  thirteen,  and  was 
placed  under  the  tuition  of  Parkhurst,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Norwich,  from  vvliom  lie  received  the 
principles  of  the  Keformalion  [and  who  directed 
him  to  compare  Tyndale's  translation  with  that 
of  Coverdale].  He  was  an  excellent  (ireek  schol- 
ar, and  in  1540  graduated  from  Corpus  Chri.sti 
College.  [He  was  in  the  habit,  as  a  student,  of 
rising  at  four  in  the  morning,  but  sutfei-ed.  during 
his  university  career,  from  a  rheumatic  atfectiun, 
which  left  him  lame  for  life.]  He  acted  as  Header 
in  Humanity  and  Rhetoric  [and  after  1551  cared 
for  the  cure  of  Snnning\v(;ll,  near  Oxford].  Fn 
1549  he  heard  Peter  Martyr,  and  became  an  ad- 
vocate of  the  Reformation.  When  Mary  a.scen(le<l 
the  throne  in  1553,  he  was  expelled  from  his 
college  as  a  diligent  hearer  of  Peter  Martyr,  as 
having  taken  orders  according  to  the  liturgy  of 
Kdward,  and  preaching  heretical  doctrines.  In 
spite  of  this,  however,  he  was  chosen  university 
orator,  and  in  this  capacity  had  to  pen  a  letter 
congratulating  Mary  on  her  accession.  In  a  mo- 
ment of  weakness  he  gave  his  consent  to  Romish 
articles,  liut,  rejienting.  fied  to  the  Continent  in 
1555.  Arriving  at  Frankfurt,  he  made  a  public 
recantation  on  the  first  .Sunday  after  his  arrival 
["8ofarwa.s  this  saint  of  (joii  from  accounting 
sophistry  any  part  of  the  science  of  salvation,  or 
justifying  any  equivocating  shifts  whicli  are  daily 


hatched  in  the  school  of  antiehri.st."  —  Featley, 
Life  of  Jewel,  1609].  Most  of  his  time  on  tl'ie 
Continent,  Jewel  spent  at  Strassburg  and  Zurich, 
in  the  most  intimate  intercourse  with  his  old 
teacher  and  friend,  Peter  Martyr. 

On  the  death  of  Mary,  in  1558,  Jewel  returned 
to  England  [in  January,  1559,  was  appointed 
pre.acher  at  St.  Paul's  Cross];  and  in  March  we 
find  him  at  Westminster,  with  seven  other  repre- 
sentatives of  the  new  views,  engaged  in  debate 
with  eight  representatives  of  the  old  views.  He 
was  afterwards  appointed  to  visit  the  churches 
in  the  western  part  of  England,  and  on  Jan.  21, 
1560,  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  He 
was  at  first  reluctant  to  assume  the  canonical 
vestments,  which  he  called  "theatrical"  and 
'^ludicrce  ineptice,"  but  overcame  his  scruples  at 
the  advice  of  Bullinger  and  Peter  MartjT. 

.Soon  after  returning  from  the  Continent,  he 
issued  a  challenge  from  the  pulpit  of  .St.  Paul's 
Cross,  in  which  he  denied  that  any  of  the  papal 
errors  could  be  found  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers. 
This  precipitated  controversies  with  Dr.  Cole  and 
ilr.  Harding,  to  which  we  owe  his  distinguished 
apologetical  work.  Apologia  Ecclesia:  anglicana', 
which  appeared  in  1562  ['•  to  the  abundant  estab- 
lishment of  this  Reformed  Church  upon  an- 
tiquity."—  .Strype].  This  work,  which  was  one 
of  the  most  learned  and  important  contributions 
of  the  sixteenth  century  to  theology,  was  soon 
diffused  througliout  Europe,  and  translated  into 
Italian,  Spanish,  French,  German,  Dutch,  Greek, 
and  AVelsh.  The  English  translation  (1564)  was 
made  by  Lady  Anna  Bacon,  the  wife  of  Sir  Nicho- 
las. It  was  considered  of  such  importance,  that 
the  Council  of  Trent  appointed  two  bishops  to 
answer  it.  The  most  able  of  Jewel's  opponents 
in  controversy  was  Thomas  Harding,  who  had 
been  professor  of  Hebrew  at  Oxford,  under  Henry 
VIII.  Jewel  replied  to  his  attacks  in  several 
writings,  the  principal  of  which  appieared  in  1567, 
under  the  title  Defence  of  the  Apology  [which 
apjieared  in  an  enlarged  form  in  1570].  Harding 
found  in  it  a  number  of  errors,  falsehoods,  eva- 
sions, etc.,  and  replied  in  the  Detection  of  sundr-i/ 
foul  errors.  Jewel  died,  on  a  tour  of  visitation, 
in  the  fiftieth  year  of  his  age ;  [and  Thomas 
Fuller,  speaking  of  tlie  event,  (juaintly  says,  "  It 
is  hard  to  s.ay  whether  his  soul  or  his  ejaculations 
arrived  first  in  heaven,  seeing  lie  prayed  dying, 
and  diiul  praying"]. 

.lewel's  .\pologij  is  the  most  perfect  expression 
of  the  peculiar  position  of  the  F.nglish  Church. 
It  is  diviile<l  into  si.\  parts,  and  refutes  the  charges 
of  heresy,  godlessucss,  libertinism,  apostasy  from 
the  Church,  etc.  In  tlie  doctrinal  treatment  he 
shows  the  infiuence  of  Calvin  and  Peter  Martyr; 
and  in  the  articles  on  the  I'er.son  of  Christ,  the 
Power  of  the  Kej'S,  and  the  .Saeranu'iits,  he  is  in 
perfect  agreement  with  tliem.  On  the  other  hand, 
tlie  doctrine  of  lu'edestination  is  wanting;  and 
ill  regard  to  justification,  he  says  that  our  salva- 
tion depends  entirely  upon  Christ,  and  not  upon 
works.  He  makes  no  distinction  lietween  the 
visible  and  invisible  Church.  He  teaches  that 
there  are  three  orders,  but  defines  their  functions 
in  a  Calvinistic  .sense,  and  grants  to  laymen  the 
exercise  of  ministerial  duties  in  cases  of  necessity. 
The  statement  is  repeated  again  and  again,  that 
the  English  Reformation  was  only  a  return  to  tho 


JEWISH  CHRISTIANS. 


1179 


JEWS. 


old  true  Catholic  Cluirch  of  the  first  centuries; 
and  the  charge  of  innovation  he  repels  by  aflirni- 
ing  it  of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church,  which  had 
forsaken  Christ  and  the  Apostles  and  Fathers. 
The  Scriptures  are  the  ultimate  rule  of  faith  ; 
and  the  Fathers  are  not  our  spiritual  "  lords,  but 
our  leaders  "  (non  suiil  domiiii,  seil  duces  nostri). 

Among  Jewel's  other  works,  were  yl  View  of  lite 
sei/ilious  Bull  sent  into  England  bij  Pius  V.  in  1569 
[excommunicating  the  queen,  158l'],  Sermons,  an 
Exposition  upon  the  Two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians  [1583],  and  many  Letters  to  Peter  Martyr. 
[Jewel  had,  perhaps,  no  superior  in  the  realm  of 
patristic  .scholarship  among  the  English  clergy 
of  the  Elizabethan  period.  His  works  are  a  the- 
saurus of  quotation,  "his  margin  being  painted 
with  many  authorities."  Richard  Hoolcer,  who 
had  experienced  kindness  from  him,  says  that  he 
was  "  the  worthiest  divine  that  Christendom  had 
bred  for  some  hundreds  of  years."] 

Lit.  —  The  first  edition  of  Bishop  .Jewel's 
works  appeared  in  1609,  recent  editions,  in  the 
Parker  Society  Library,  Camb.,  1845-50,  4  vols., 
and  [by  Dr.  Jelf,  Oxford,  1848,  8  vols.] ;  Lires 
by  Humphrey  (1573),  Charles  Webb  le  B.\s, 
1835  [and  in  the  above  editions].        SIGWART. 

JEWISH  CHRISTIANS,  JUDAIZERS.  The 
primitive  form  of  Christianity  was  .Tewish  Chris- 
tianity. The  Christians  at  first  appeared  to  be 
simply  a  part  of  Israel.  Like  Israel,  they  had 
their  centre  in  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  church  there, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  College  of  the 
Apostles,  was  not  only  the  chief,  but  in  a  sense 
the  only  one,  of  which  the  other  gatherings  of 
Christians  were  branches.  The  introduction  of 
the  diaconate,  to  which  followed  the  presbyterate, 
caused  the  first  loosening  from  Judaism.  Yet  the 
Law  held  the  Christian  and  his  Jewish  brother 
alike ;  while  the  confession  that  the  crucified  and 
risen  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  was  the  dividing 
mark.  Both,  however,  took  part  in  the  temple- 
worship  ;  and  even  the  separate  services  of  the 
Christians,  as  they  did  not  involve  any  change  of 
life,  seemed  to  be  merely  additional.  But  when 
a  Gentile  Christian  Church  sprang  up,  and  the 
hatred  of  the  unconverted  Israelites  increased, 
the  question  of  the  real  relation  of  Judaism  to 
Christianity  claimed  discussion.  This  causjd  a 
split  among  the  Jewish  Christians.  Some  of  them 
maintained  that  the  whole  Law  was  binding  upon 
the  converted  heathens ;  others,  and  they  were  the 
majority  in  the  Council  of  .Jerusalem  (see  Apos- 
tolic Council),  that  it  was  binding  only  upon 
the  .Jewish  Christians.  The  minority  organized 
a  counter-mission  to  that  of  Paul,  opposed  him 
vigorously,  decried  him,  and  strove  to  bring  the 
Gentile  Christians  to  their  views.  The.se  were 
the  Judaizers,  who  gave  Paul  so  much  trouble. 
They  claimed  the  countenance  of  James,  and 
with  some  show  of  reason. 

Doubtless  there  were  churches  of  the  liberal 
Jewish  believers  in  Palestine  and  the  adjacent 
parts.  At  their  head  were,  first,  the  "  pillar 
apostles,"  — James,  Peter,  and  John  ;  later,  James 
the  Lord's  brother,  who  wielded  almost  episcopal 
authority.  This  mild  .Jewish-Christian  stand-point 
is  represented  in  the  Epistles  of  James,  .Jude,  and 
1  Peter,  and  the  Revelation,  to  which  also  may 
be  reckoned  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark. 
Characteristic  of  them  is  the  absence  of  dogmat- 


ics, an<l  the  stress  laid  upon  practice.  Facts  are 
held,  but  principles  are  not  evolved.  Another 
charactori.stic  is  their  immediate  gra.sp  upon  the 
person  of  Christ,  without  entering  at  all  upon  the 
reason  for  his  appearance,  or  upon  tlie  grounds  of 
his  being  and  work.  Christology  is  in  the  back- 
ground :  on  the  other  hand,  eschatology  is  in  the 
front.  They  emphasize  the  kingship  of  Christ  in 
fulfilment  of  Old-Testament  prophecy,  and  look 
for  his  second  coming  in  glory.  In  these  books, 
however,  we  may  see  progress.  .James  most  ex- 
actly represents  the  .Jewish-Christian  stand-point ; 
Jude  forms  the  transition  to  Peter;  Peter  to  Paul ; 
and  the  Revelation  is  the  connecting  link  between 
the  .lewish-Christian  and  the  Johannean  types  of 
doctrine. 

The  whole  position  of  Jewish  Christianity  at 
this  time  was  provisional.  The  council  had  not 
settled  its  relation  to  Christianity  in  general.  It 
was  plain  that  it  must  either  enter  the  stream, 
and  lose  its  individuality,  or  else  narrow  into  a 
mere  sect ;  for,  even  in  Paul's  lifetime,  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  Gentile  Christians  would  gradually 
accept  the  Mosaic  law  became  untenable.  Two 
causes  hastened  the  decisive  change,  —  the  increas- 
ing speed  of  conversions  among  the  Gentiles,  and 
the  increasing  hardness  of  the  Israelites  against 
the  gospel.  But  exactly  when  the  .Jewish  Chris- 
tians were  forbidden  the  temple  is  not  determi- 
nable :  they  would  scarcely  be  tolerated  in  it 
down  to  the  destruction  of  the  city.  It  irmst 
have  been  a  trying  time  for  the  converts,  and 
many,  doubtless,  chose  to  give  up  the  Messiah 
rather  than  their  people  and  the  old  religion. 
The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  written  at  this  peri- 
od, gives  us  a  hint  of  this  perplexity.  The  final 
separation  between  Jewish  Christianity  and  Israel 
may  be  set  down  as  taking  place  when  Hadrian 
ordered  all  Jews  to  leave  Jerusalem ;  for,  after  the 
destruction  of  the  city  by  Titus  (A.D.  70),  many 
had  returned,  and  a  Jewish-Christian  episcopacy 
had  been  established.  For  the  after-history  of 
these  believers  see  Ebionites.  See  also  Jeru- 
SALEJi  and  the  cognate  articles.  uhlhorn'. 

JEWS.     See  Israel. 

JEWS,  Missions  amongst  the.  Although  the 
kingdom  of  God  was  designed,  according  to  the 
predictions  of  the  prophets,  to  be  co-extensive 
with  the  whole  earth,  nevertheless,  Jesus  confined 
his  activity  to  Israel,  and  enjoined  on  his  disciples 
not  to  go  in  the  way  of  the  Gentiles  (Matt.  x.  5). 
It  was  not  till  he  was  about  to  depart  from  the 
earth  that  he  commanded  them  to  go  into  all  the 
world  (Matt,  xxviii.  19).  The  Twelve,  however, 
directed  their  efforts,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the 
Jews;  and  the  earliest  Christian  congxegations 
were  composed  entirely  of  Jews,  and  proselytes 
to  Judaisni.  Apostolic  missions  among  the  Jews 
were  so  successful,  that  Paul  could  speak  [about 
58  A.D.]  of  mj-riads  of  converted  .Jews  (Acts 
xxi.  20)  ;  and  we  are  safe  in  computing  their 
number  at  twenty-five  thousand  at  least.  A  large 
number  of  priests  were  also  obedient  to  the  faitli 
(Acts  vi.  7);  and  in  the  congregations  which  Paul 
founded  in  Asia  ilinor  and  Greece  the  nucleus 
was  Israelites.  Wherever  he  went,  whether  to 
Cyprus,  Macedonia,  or  Corinth,  he  proclaimed 
the  gospel  first  in  the  synagogues. 

The  conversion  of  the  .Jews  was  not  lost  sight 
of  in  the  second  or  third  century,  as  is  proved  by 


JEWS. 


1180 


JEWS. 


the  dialogue  of  Justin  Jlartyr  with  the  Jew 
Trypho,  and  Tertullian's  work  Adversus  Judaos. 
But  Jewisli  Christianity  had  long  since  followed  a 
heretical  tendency  by  insisting  upon  Jewish  pecul- 
iarities of  religion  and  nationality,  and  by  sub- 
mitting to  the  rankest  Gnosticism.  Deprived  of 
their  piolitical  power  and  national  autonomy,  the 
Jews  concentrated  their  whole  spiritual  life  ujion 
the  study  of  the  law,  and  produced  the  Talmud. 
As  long  as  the  temple  stood,  Judaism  still  pre- 
served much  of  its  Mosaic  cast,  although  leavened 
by  Pharisaism.  But  the  transition  from  Mosaisra 
to  Tahnudism  opened  a  chasm  between  Jews  and 
Christians,  which  made  an  impartial  examination 
of  Christianity  on  the  part  of  the  Jews  impossi- 
ble. From  the  very  beginidng,  the  spirit  of  the 
Talmud  drew  a  veil  over  their  eyes  (2  Cor.  iii. 
13-16),  and  will  continue  to  hold  it  there  until  it 
itself  disappears.  The  whole  history  of  Jewish 
missions  confirms  this.  They  are  successful  only 
among  such  Jews  as  break  with  the  Talmud. 

I.  Romax-Catholic  Mi.ssions  among  the 
Jews.  —  The  ancient  Church  did  not  institute 
special  measures  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jews, 
although  it  was  always  inspired  by  a  wish  to  win 
them  for  Christianity.  The  love  of  Christ,  and 
other  motives,  led  to  this  activity.  Cassiodorus, 
when  he  became  a  monk,  felt  called  upon  to  urge 
the  Jews  to  repent  in  his  Exposition  to  the  Psalms 
(comp.  Ps.  Ixxxi.).  The  Emperor  Justinian,  on 
the  other  hand,  did  not  conceal  the  fact  that  the 
reason  lie  had  in  ordering  the  synagogues  to  use 
the  Greek  or  Latin  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  to  abstain  from  the  Talniudic  exposition 
of  the  same,  was  to  lead  them  to  Christianity 
His  were  political  motives.  Bishops  did  not  hesi- 
tate to  resort  to  acts  of  v-iolence  to  compel  the 
Jews  to  become  Christians.  Bishop  Avitus  of 
Clermont  Ferrand  having  preached  to  the  Jews 
without  any  results,  tlu^  Christians  destroyed  the 
synagogues.  Jewish  blood  was  spilled,  and  five 
hundred  Jews  declared  themselves  ready  for  bap- 
tism. The  day  of  baptism  was  a  festival  of  joy, 
and  Venantius  Fortunatus  commemorated  the 
event  in  verse.  Such  conversions,  unfortunately, 
occurred  only  too  often.  Justice,  however,  de- 
mands the  remark  that  the  popes  have  always 
been  protectors  of  tlie  Jews  ((iriitz :  Gesch.  d. 
Judin,  v.  41).  Gregory  I.  condemned  forced 
baptisms,  but  endeavored  to  win  the  Jews  to  the 
Church  by  rewards  and  favors.  "  If  we  do  not 
win  the  parents,"  he  said,  "we  shall  have  their 
children," — a  remark  whicli  experience  proved 
to  1)0  ill  founded,  especially  in  Spain.  There  is 
hardly  a  century  that  works  weie  not  writti-n  to 
bring  about  their  conversion,  liardly  one  in  which 
rewards  were  not  offered  to  secure  them  for  the 
Church,  l>ut  also  not  a  century  in  which  numbers 
of  j)roselytes,  thoroughly  convinced,  did  not  pass 
over  to  Christianity,  many  of  wlioni  became  or- 
naments in  the  Church. 

It  lias  been  especially  proselytes  who  in  all  ages, 
inspired  by  missionary  zeal,  have  sought  to  influ- 
ence their  brethren.  Thus  the  proselyte  and 
bishop  Julian  of  Toledo  (d.  U!)0)  wrote  a  work 
(De  suilm  (tinlis  compriilidtionc  cimtra  JudfEos)  in 
order  to  refute  the  Jewish  notion,  then  a.sserting 
it.self,  that  Jesus  could  not  lie  the  Messiah,  as  he 
was  not  to  appear  until  the  year  (!()00  of  the 
world's  history.     About  the  same  time  Isidore  of 


Seville  WTote  two  books  proving  Christianity  from 
the  Old  Testament.  The  activity  of  the  great 
Dominican  Raymund  of  Pennaforte  must  also  be 
mentioned,  who  introduced  into  his  order  the  study 
of  Hebrew  and  the  Talmud  in  order  to  promote 
missionary  activity  amongst  the  Jews.  A  disciple 
of  this  order,  Pablo  Cliristiani  of  ilontpellier,  a 
Jew  by  descent,  was  the  first  real  missionary 
preacher.  He  travelled  in  Southern  France  and 
elsewhere,  preaching,  and  disputing  with  the 
Jews,  and  proving  the  Messiahship  of  Jesus  from 
the  Bible  and  the  Talmud.  In  1273  he  held  a 
debate,  lasting  four  days,  in  the  royal  palace  at 
Barcelona,  with  the  most  illustrious  rabbi  of  Spain, 
Moses  Xachmani.  At  the  same  time  the  Domini- 
can Raymund  Jlartin,  a  born  Christian,  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and 
Arabic,  put  forth  his  learned  work,  Pugio  Jidei 
contra  Maiiros  et  Judccos.  Abner  of  Burgos,  a 
learned  Jewish  physician,  known  as  a  Christian, 
by  the  name  of  Alphonso,  and  sacristan  of  a 
church  at  Valladolid,  wrote  several  Hebrew  and 
Spanish  works  for  the  conversion  of  the  Jew's. 
Cardinal  Pedro  de  Luna,  known  later  as  Benedict 
XIII.,  him.'^elf  had  a  debate  in  Pampeluna  with 
Rabbi  Schem  Tob  ben  Schaprut,  and  took  a  life- 
long interest  in  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  He 
was  the  first  patron  of  Rabbi  Solomon  Halevi 
(1353-1435),  later  known  as  Paul  of  St.  Maria, 
archbishop  of  Burgos,  and  interchanged  letters 
with  Joshua  of  Lorca,  until  he  finally  became  a 
Christian.  Amongst  the  thousands  who  at  that 
time,  from  fear  and  force,  entered  the  Church, 
there  were  a  large  number  of  earnest  disciples  of 
Jesus.  Even  Gratz  must  confess  that  ■•  Judaism 
was  deprived  of  much  talent  in  the  transition  of 
learned  and  cultured  men  —  physicians,  authors, 
poets  —  to  Christianity,  many  of  whom,  however, 
were  possessed  of  proselyting  zeal,  as  though  they 
were  born  Dominicans  "  (viii.  83).  Astnie 
Raimuch  and  John  Baptista,  both  physicians  and 
proselytes,  demonstrated  their  missionary  zeal  by 
words  and  pen.  Leading  to  the  most  results  was 
the  great  disjiutation  at  Tortosa  (February,  1413, 
to  Xov.  12,  1414),  which  held  sixty-eight  sittings, 
and  was  carried  on  by  eiglit  of  the  most  learned 
rabbis  of  Spain,  with  two  proselytes,  under  the 
chairmanship  of  Benedict  XIII.  Contemporane- 
ously the  Dominican  \'incentins  Ferrer  developed 
his  extensive  missionary  activity  amongst  the 
Jews,  preaching  repentance  in  Italy,  France,  and 
(iermany  ;  so  that  at  least-  twenty  thousand  five 
hundred  Jews  in  Castile  and  Aragon  (the  exag- 
gerated Jewish  accounts  even  speak  of  two  hun- 
dred thousand)  were  baptized. 

The  case  was  (pute  dilferent  in  France.  With 
the  exception  of  Nicholas  of  Lyra  (13(10-40),  born 
a  Christian,  but  liy  descent  a  .)ew,  there  is  hardly 
a  name  of  any  importance.  In  Italy,  on  the  other 
hand,  both  popes  and  monks  interested  them- 
selves ill  the  conversion  of  the  Jews.  Laurontin 
of  Brundisiuni  (d.  IGl!)),  general  of  the  Capu- 
chins, ]ireached  with  great  power,  and  travelled 
through  Italy,  with  Hebrew  Bible  in  hand,  con- 
verting rabliisand  laymen.  In  Rome  many  Jews, 
at  all  periods,  accepted  Christianity.  In  1550 
Paul  III.  founded  an  institution  for  their  conver- 
sion, (iregory  XIII.  enlarged  it,  and  Pius  V.  is 
said  to  have  led  one  hundred  Iiiarned  and  rich  Jews 
to  baptism.     The  Council  of  Constance  concerned 


JEWS. 


1181 


JEWS. 


itself  with  the  general  subject;  and  the  proselyte 
Theobald,  professor  of  theology,  delivered  in  1416 
a  discourse  before  it.  The  Council  of  Basel 
(14:U)  and  Milan  (1565)  all  took  up  the  subject. 
Vei'y  numerous  have  been  the  proselytes,  learned 
noble  and  rich,  who  since  the  sixteenth  century, 
in  Italy,  liave  accepted  the  faith,  and  held  high 
offices  in  the  Church. 
/■  The  history  of  missions  among  the  Jews  in 
England  is  singular.  It  happened,  that,  under 
William  Rufus,  the  Jews  complained  because  so 
many  of  the  brethren  became  Christians.  The 
king  wanted  to  force  them  to  return  to  .ludaism, 
but  the  fidelity  of  the  proselytes  withstood  him. 
About  1200  Richard,  prior  of  Bermondsey,  built 
a  hospital  of  converts.  The  Dominicans  in  Oxford 
opened  a  similar  institution.  [The  great  Bishop 
of  Lincoln,  Robert  Grosseteste  (d.  1253),  wrote  a 
work  {De  Cessalione  Legalium)  to  promote  tlie  con- 
version of  the  Jews.l  Henry  III.  set  apart  in 
London  a  house  for  the  reception  and  care  of 
proselytes.  Lender  Edward  1.  five  Imndred  prose- 
lytes, according  to  a  list  still  existing,  received 
baptism  in  it.  Notwithstanding  this,  sixteen 
thousand  five  hundred  Jews  were  banished  from 
the  land  by  this  clement  prince  in  1290. 

More  recently  Roman-Catholic  missions  among 
the  Jew-s  have  been  represented  by  the  two  broth- 
ers Ratisbonne  and  the  two  brothers  Lehmann. 
The  last  two,  priests  in  the  diocese  of  Lyons, 
were  commissioned  by  Pius  IX.,  and  have  since 
labored  in  France  among  the  Jews.  The  pro.se- 
lyte  Abbe  Bauer  also  employed  his  brilliant  ora- 
torical gifts  for  the  Jews  in  Paris  and  Vienna. 
Tlie  most  extensive  w'ork,  however,  is  carried  on 
in  Palestine  by  the  proselyte  JNIaria  Alphonso 
Ratisbonne,  a  man  of  a  rich  French  family,  who 
in  1842  accepted  Christianity.  With  his  brotlier 
he  e.stablished  the  order  of  Nuns  of  our  Lady  of 
Sion  for  the  education  of  Jewish  girls.  In  1862 
this  order  completed  the  imposing  convent  Ecce 
Homo  in  Jerusalem.  It  also  has  institutions  in 
several  places,  in  France,  England,  Chalcedon,  on 
jMount  Lebanon,  etc. 

II.  Protestant  Missions  among  the  Jews. 
— •  In  the  work  Dass  Jesus  ein  gehorner  Jude  war 
("Jesus  was  a  born  Jew")  Luther  expressed  the 

■    assurance,  "that  if  the  Jews  were  kindly  treated, 
" '  and  decently  instructed  from  the  Scriptures,  they 

.     no  doubt  would  become  Christians,  and  return  to 

'•  the  faith  of  their  prophets  and  patriarclis,  from 
which  they  are  only  driven   away  by  tho.se   who 

<  condemn  their  peculiarities,  and  treat  them  with 
haughty  contempt.  As  they  conducted  them- 
selves fraternally  with  us  Pagans,  we  should  treat 
them  so  in  return."  LTnfortunately,  Luther  ex- 
pressed himself  differently  in  his  tracts.  Von  d. 
Juden  u.  ihren  Lilgen  ("the  Jews  and  their  Lies") 
and  Vom  Schem  Hamphoras.  "  To  convert  Jews 
it  is  as  impossible  as  to  convert  the  devil.  A  Jew- 
ish heart  is  stubborn,  and  hard  as  stone  and  iron  ; 
so  that  it  cannot  be  moved  at  all.  Sinnma :  they 
are  young  devils  condemned  to  hell,  so  demon- 
ized,  and  pervaded  with  poison  and  Satan,  that 
for  fourteen  hundred  years  they  have  been  our 
plague,  pestilence,  and  every  thing  that  is  evil." 
But  even  worse  are  his  unmerciful  coun.sels  for 
tlieir  extermination.  Notwithstanding  these  senti- 
ments, however,  there  were  numerous  proselytes 
to  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed  churches,  among 


whom  Irumanuel  Tremellius  of  Ferrara  was  the 
most  prominent,  who  aided  Ursinus  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  lleidclljci'g  Catechism.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  it  was  Esdi'as  Edzard  in 
Hamburg,  a  student  of  Buxtorf,  who  especially 
interested  himself  in  the  conveision  of  the  Jews, 
aiul  established  a  fund  for  this  purpose.  Similar 
funds  seem  to  have  existed  in  other  cities;  as,  foi 
example,  in  Geneva,  whei'e  a  part  of  the  ecclesi- 
astical revenue  is  still  called  Fond  des  I'roselyles. 

It  remained  for  the  Pietists  and  Moravians  to 
show  a  special  interest  in  missions  among  the 
Jews.  Spener,  who  received  many  Jews  into  the 
Church,  declared  it  the  duty  of  the  State  to  jiro- 
vide  for  their  conversion.  Zinzendorf  wrote  an 
open  letter,  calling  upon  the  Jews  to  become  like 
children,  and  accept  Christianity.  In  Halle,  Pro- 
fessor Callenberg,  encouraged  thereto  by  Francke, 
established  in  1728  an  Instilutum  Judaicmn,  which 
continued  in  operation  till  1792,  and  sent  out 
twenty  missionaries,  by  whose  labors  many  Jews 
were  converted. 

The  French  Revolution  brought  about  a  change 
in  the  condition  of  the  Jews ;  and  a  new  spiritual 
life  was  aroused  amongst  them  by  the  influence 
of  Lessing  and  Mendelssohn.  The  Jews  were 
led  to  renounce  the  Tabnud,  the  immediate  re- 
sults of  ^^■hich,  in  Germany,  were,  that  large  num- 
bers turned  to  Christianity.  "In  thirty  years  the 
half  of  the  Berlin  connnunity  passed  over  to  the 
Church  "  (Ghitz,  xi.  171).  Between  the  years  1816 
and  1843,  3,984  Jews,  and  the.se  the  richest  and 
most  cultured,  were  baptized  in  eight  Prussian 
provinces.  About  the  same  time  a  new  zeal  for 
the  conversion  of  the  Jews  manifested  itself  in 
Christian  lands,  —  a  consequence,  in  part,  of  the 
expectation  of  the  near  end  of  the  world.  It  was 
Lewis  Way,  a  rich  clergyman  of  England,  who 
was  the  first  to  give  his  time  and  means  for  the 
promotion  of  this  object.  With  Professor  .Sim- 
eon of  Cambridge,  Leigh  Richmond,  the  prosehi:e 
Fry,  and  others,  he  founded,  in  1808,  the  London 
Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Cliristiandij  among  the 
Jews.  In  1815  it  came  exclusively  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  the  Church  of  England.  Way'  trav- 
elled through  Holland,  Germany,  and  Russia,  to 
improve  the  social,  political,  and  religious  condi- 
tion of  the  Jews;  and  he  was  successful  in  influ- 
encing the  czar,  Alexander  I.,  to  promise,  in  1817, 
his  special  protection,  as  well  as  lands,  to  baptized 
Jews.  In  1814  the  Duke  of  Kent  laid  the  corner- 
stone of  a  churcli  for  the  Jews,  with  which  was 
afterwards  associated  a  school  for  the  children  of 
proselytes,  a  college  for  the  training  of  missiona- 
ries, etc.,  which  gave  the  block  the  name  of  Pales- 
tine Block-.  In  London  and  other  places  there 
were  many  baptisms:  so  that  some  proselytes  were 
in  1832  seriously  thinking  of  a  Hebrew  Christian 
Church,  which,  fortunately,  was  not  founded.  In 
1880  this  society  had  twenty-eight  stations  in 
Europe,  three  in  Asia,  six  in  Africa,  with  a  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  missionary  teachers,  etc.,  of 
whom  eighty-four  were  proselytes.  Its  income 
was  thirty-five  thousand  pounds.  Since  the  open- 
ing of  the  chapel  in  the  Palestine  Block,  698  adults 
and  729  children  have  been  baptized.  At  all  Eng- 
lish stations,  in  seventy-two  years,  3,959  Jews  have 
been  baptized,  and  78  in  1879.  Its  principal  organ 
is  Dibre  Emetli,  or  •'  Words  of  Truth,"  edited  by 
Hartmann,  and  more  recently  by  Le  Roi. 


JEZEBEL. 


1182 


JOAB. 


Among  the  other  ruissionary  societies  for  the 
conversion  of  tlie  Jews  are  the  following:  — 

(1)  The  Mission  of  the  Church  of  Scotland, 
established  in  1840,  with  twenty-six  laborers, 
amongst  whom  are  seven  proselytes,  laboring  at 
six  stations  in  Turkey  and  Egj-pt.  (2)  The  Brit^ 
isli  Society,  est.ablished  in  1842,  and  made  up  prin- 
cipallv  of  dissenters.  All  its  laborers  are  prose- 
Ivtes,  "twenty-seven  in  number,  working  at  nineteen 
stations  in  England,  Hungary,  Russia,  Turkey, 
etc.  Its  organ  is  the  Jewish  Herald.  In  1879  fif- 
teen Jews  were  baptized.  (3)  The  Mission  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland,  established  in  1843,  la- 
boring at  five  stations,  and  employing  twenty-seven 
workers.  (4)  The  Presbyterian  Church  of  Ireland 
(twelve  workers),  tlie  United  Presbyterian  Church 
of  Scotland  (in  Spain  and  in  Algiers),  and  the 
Pi-esb_\-terians  in  England  (two  stations  in  Lon- 
don), carry  on  missions.  (5)  The  London  City 
iSIissionary  Society  employs  three  missionaries  for 
the  Jews."  (6)  The  German  societies  are  four. 
The  Berlin  Society,  established  in  1S2l',  and  greats 
ly  encouraged  by  "Professor  Tholuck,  now  employs 
four  missionaries,  and  in  1879  six  Jews  were  baji- 
tized.  The  Westph,alian  Society,  established  in 
1844,  employs  four  laborers.  The  Lutheran  Soci- 
ety, established  at  Leipzig,  1849,  has  one  mission- 
ary. Professor  Delitzsch  is  the  soul  of  this  society, 
and  has  done  much  for  its  work  by  his  masterly 
translation  of  the  Xew  Testament  into  Hebrew. 
The  AVurtemVierg  Society  was  established  in  1874. 
<7)  There  are  also  societies  in  Basel  (1831),  Norway 
(1846),  Amsterdam  (1861),  Stockholm  (1874),  etc. 
[(8)  In  the  L'nited  States  there  is  only  one  society 
for  the  prosecution  of  missions  among  the  Jews. 
It  is  connected  with  the  Episcopal  Church,  with 
Rev.  C.  Ellis  Stevens  (32  Bible  House)  as  its  sec- 
retary, was  organized  in  1878,  avid  has  an  income 
of  seven  thousand  dollars.  There  are,  however, 
some  independent  workers  among  the  Jews,  as 
Rev.  Jacob  Freshman,  himself  a  convert,  who 
holds  weekly  services  in  Xew  York  (1882)]. 
These  societies,  which  number  in  all  more  than 
twenty,  employ  altout  270  workers,  of  whom 
about  one-half  are  cf  Jewish  extraction.  The 
average  yearly  number  of  baptisms  is  626,  of 
which  165  occur  in  the  Protestant  Church,  and 
461  in  the  Greek.  A  hundred  thousand  is  a  fair 
estimate  of  the  number  of  Jews  who  have  accepted 
Christianity  since  the  beginning  of  the  century. 

Lit.  —  .St.  Stegkk:  D.  ecauijel.  Judemnission, 
Halle,  1857;  Kalkak:  Israel  u.  d.  Kirche.  Gesch. 
Ueherblick  d.  Dek-cliruiif/en  d.  Juden  z.  C/ir!slenth. 
in  alien  JahrliiDiderlen  (Gerinnw  translation)  Ham- 
burg, 1869 ;  (iuATZ  :  Gesch.  d.  Juden  (Jewish,  and 
written  in  the  most  liostile  spirit).  For  statistics, 
see  Dihre  Emetti,  the  periodical  of  the  London  .So- 
ciety; and,  for  most  excellent  essays  designed  to 
secure  tlie  attention  of  the  Jc'ws,  see  the  periodical 
edited  by  Profes.sor  Delitzscli  at  Leipzig,  .S'<«i'  (("/' 
IlolOntn,/.  DU.  C.  F.  IlEMAN. 

JEZ'EBEL  (^?r«,  "chaste"),  a  daugliter  of 
Ethbaal,  king  of  the  Zidonians  (1  Kings  xvi.  31), 
was  the  wife  of  .Vliab,  king  of  Israel,  and  one  of 
the  most  un.scrupulous,  and  at  the  same  time 
energetic,  quec-ns  of  history.  She  was  the  first 
Caiiaanitish  woman  to  share  the  throne  of  Israel. 
She  .seeni.s  to  have  swayed  the  mind  of  her  hus- 
band ;  and  where  he  was  weak  and  viUMllaling,  like 
Lady  Macbeth,  she  supplied  courage  and  resolu- 


tion. .She  established  the  Phoenician  worship 
in  the  kingdom,  and  supported  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  of  the  priests  of  Baal  and  of  the  groves 
at  the  royal  table.  AVith  unflagging  energj-  she 
persecuted  the  propihets  of  Israel  (1  Kings  xviii.  4), 
and  vowed  vengeance  upon  Elijah  (1  Kings  xix.  2). 
When  her  husband  despaired  of  getting  Xaboth's 
vineyard,  she  was  not  at  a  loss  for  measures,  and 
plotted  and  perpetrated  X'aboth's  ghastly  murder 
(1  Kings  xxi.  5).  .She  survived  Ahab  fourteen 
years,  but  continued  to  have  great  influence  at 
court,  under  lier  son,  and  saw  her  daughter 
Athaliah  married  to  the  king  of  Judah  (2  Kings 
viii.  26).  But  the  day  of  retribution  predicted 
by  Elijah  came  at  last.  AVhen  Jehu  drove  into 
Jezreel,  with  the  design  of  extirpating  the  house 
of  Ahab,  Jezebel  stood,  attired  in  the  fashion  of 
the  day,  at  the  window  of  the  palace.  At  a  word 
from  Jehu,  she  was  thrown  out  by  several  cham- 
berlains, and  was  dashed  to  death  on  the  stones 
beneath.  Her  body  was  subjected  to  being 
crushed  by  Jehu's  chariot-wheels,  and  devoured 
by  the  dogs  (2  Kings  ix.  30-35). 

JEZ'REEL,  The  City  of,  stood  in  the  plain  of 
the  same  name,  between  Gilboa  and  Little  Her- 
mon.  It  was  of  very  little  importance  until 
Ahab  chose  it  for  his  residence.  His  palace  was 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  city,  forming  part  of 
the  wall,  the  gateway  of  the  city  being  also  that 
of  the  palace  (2  Kings  ix.  30)  ;  and  near  by  was 
a  temple,  and  grove  of  Astarte,  with  four  hundred 
priests,  the  whole  establishment  supported  by 
Jezebel  (1  Kings  xviii.  19).  After  the  fall  of  the 
house  of  Ahab,  the  city  again  sank  into  insignifi- 
cance. Now  it  is  represented  by  a  small  village, 
Zerin. 

JIMENES,  Cardinal.  See  Ximenes. 
JO'AB  (2SV,  "  whose  father  is  Jehovah  "),  one 
of  the  three  .sons  of  Zeruiah,  David's  sister  (2  Sam. 
ii.  18),  and  one  of  David's  most  valiant  captains; 
contributed  very  materially  to  establish  the 
Davidic  dynasty.  He  was  a  bold  and  intrepid 
soldier,  but  never  rose  above  the  level  of  the  wild 
chieftains  of  his  day,  as  David  did.  He  won  a 
brilliant  victory  at  Gibeou,  over  Abner,  Ishbo- 
shoth's  lieutenant  (2  Sam.  ii.  18-24).  At  a  later 
])eriod,  wiien  Abner  was  arranging  for  a  revolt  to 
David,  Joab,  in  order  to  avenge  his  brother  Asahel, 
and  ]ierliaps  from  motives  of  jealousy,  murdered 
him  ill  cold  blood  (2  .Sam.  iii.  27).  David  was  in- 
censed at  the  deed,  but  did  not  feel  strong  enough 
to  punish  his  captain.  In  a  campaign  against 
Edoni  he  put  the  inhabitants  to  deatli  witiiout 
mercy  (I  Kings  xi.  15-17).  He  fought  against 
the  Svrians  (2  Sam.  x.  6-14),  and  in  the  following 
year  besieged  Rabbali,  the  chief  city  of  the  Am- 
monites (2  Sam.  xi.  1).  About  this  time  Joab 
became  an  accessory  to  the  murder  of  L'riali,  whom 
David's  imiiroper  relations  to  his  wife;  induced 
him  to  put  out  of  the  way.  Obedient  to  liis  king, 
he  stationed  Uriah  in  the  most  expo.sed  part  of 
the  army,  where  he  was  shot  down  by  the  enemy 
(2  .Sam.  xi.).  Wlien  AUsalom  was  cauglit  in  the 
oak,  Joab  murdered  him  in  .spile  of  the  king's 
order  that  he  should  be  spared  (2  Sam.  xviii.  14). 
Tlie  last  deed  of  blood  which  is  recorded  of  Joab 
was  liis  treacherous  murder  of  Ama.sa,  .Vbsalom's 
captain  (2  .Sam.  xx.  10).  He  remained  faithful 
to  David  till  the  last  years  of  his  reign,  when  ho 
espoused  tlie  cau.se  ol  .\donijah.     Solomon,  how- 


JOACHIM  OF  FLOBIS. 


1183 


JOAN  OF  ARC. 


■ever,  ascended  the  throne.  He  at  first  .spared 
Joab,  but  subsequently  was  led  to  change  his 
mind,  and,  when  he  fled  to  the  altar  of  the 
sanctuai'v,  had  him  murdered  (1  Kinf;.s  ii.  i.'8-34). 
JOACHIM  OF  FLORIS.  Very  little  is  known 
witli  certainty  of  the  life  of  this  remarkable  man. 
The  biography  which  Jacobus  Gra;cus  .Syllanaeus, 
a  monk  of  the  monastery  of  Flore,  published  in 
101  J,  is  very  little  reliable,  in  spite  of  the  author's 
appeal  to  elder  documents ;  and  the  notes  of  his 
friend  and  secretary  Jacobus  have  not  come  down 
to  us  in  their  original  form.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  born  at  Caelicum,  a  village  near  Cosenza,  in 
1145,  and  to  have  been  brought  to  the  court  of 
Iloger  II.  of  Sicily  when  he  was  fourteen  years  old 
(Roger  II.,  however,  died  in  1154).  After  a  pil- 
grimage to  the  Holy  Land,  he  became  monk,  and 
afterwards  abbot,  of  the  Cistercian  monastery  of 
Corace  in  Calabria.  (See  Janauscheck  :  Origin. 
Cislerc,  Vienna,  1877,  i.  p.  168.)  But  he  after- 
wards left  that  place,  and  retired,  with  his  friend 
Rainerius,  to  the  mountain  solitudes  of  Syla3,  near 
Cosenza.  There  he  built  a  new  monastery  (St 
Joannis  en  Flori),  of  which  he  became  abbot, 
and  into  which  he  introduced  a  set  of  rules  more 
severe  tlian  those  of  the  Cistercians.  The  monas- 
tery was  confirmed  as  an  independent  institution 
by  Coelestine  III.,  and  became  the  mother  of 
several  other  similar  establishments.    Three  popes 

—  Lucius  III.,  Urban  III.,  and  Clement  III. — 
took  an  interest  in  liis  prophetico-apocalyptical 
studies ;  and  in  a  document  drawn  up  in  TJOO, 
and  containing  the  names  of  his  works,  —  Con- 
conjid  utriusque  lestamenli ;  Exposiliones  in  Apocal. , 
Psallerium  ;  Contra  Judceos ;  Contra  Cathol.  Fid. 
Ailoersarios,  of  which  the  two  last  have  perished, 

—  lie  admonished  his  brother-abbots  to  lay  his 
works  before  the  Pope,  and  ol;)tain  his  sanction. 
He  died  between  September,  1201,  and  June,  1202. 

The  first  point  in  which  Joachim  drew  down 
upon  himself  the  censure  of  the  Church,  though 
not  until  after  his  death,  was  his  polemics  against 
the  scholastic  exposition  of  tlie  doctrine  of  the 
Holy  Trinity  by  Petrus  Lombardns.  The  Lom- 
bard's definition  of  the  divine  essence  seemed  to 
him  to  lead  to  a  quaternity ;  but,  in  his  attempt 
to  escape  f  'oni  this  error,  he  himself  fell  into  a 
kind  of  trithcism,  which  was  severely  censured  by 
the  Fourth  Council  of  the  Lateran,  1215  (Mansi : 
Concil.,  xxii.  981).  Of  still  graver  import  were 
those  speculations  which  developed  from  his 
eschatological  views,  and  which  finally  assLuned 
a  decidedly  anti-Roman  and  anti-cliurchly  ten- 
dency. Joachim  taught  that  tliere  had  been  a 
reign  of  the  Father  from  the  creation  to  the  birth 
of  Christ,  and  a  reign  of  the  Son,  which  should 
come  to  an  end  in  1260,  and  be  followed  by  a 
reigti  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  These  views  were 
adopted  by  certain  groups  of  the  Franciscan  order, 
and  gave  rise  to  the  idea  of  an  everlasting  gospel, 
which  should  supersede  both  the  Old  and  the 
Is'ew  Testament.  The  Inlruductorius  in  Eran(/eli- 
um  ^Elernitm,  written  by  Ghehardinus  de  Biirgo 
Sancti  Domini,  and  published  in  Paris,  1254, 
made  an  immense  sensation,  and  caused  a  still 
further  development  of  the  apocalyptical  ideas 
of  Joachim.  See  Gervaise  ;  Histoire  de  I' Abbe 
Joachim,  Paris,  1745,  2  vols  ;  Renan  :  Joachim  de 
Flore  et  I'Evangile  e'ternel,  in  the  Reoue  des  Deux 
Mondes,  I'Sa^i  ;  and  Preger  :  Evangelium  oelernum 
•J.)  —  II 


nnil  Joachim  von  Floris,  in  Ahhandtunt/en  der  kg. 
bayer.  Akademie,  Munich,  1874.        W.'  MOI.LER. 

JOAN,  Pope,  a  fable  in  which  hardly  anybody 
now  believes,  and  whose  whole  interest  consists 
in  its  origin.  It  is  first  m(;ntioned  by  Stephen 
of  Bourbon,  a  French  Dominican,  wlio  died  in 
12G1 ;  but  it  did  not  .spread  among  people  until  it 
became  inserted  (for  in  the  oldest  manuscripts  it  is 
not  found)  in  the  Chronicle  of  ^Slartinus  Polouus, 
a  much  used  text-book.  According  to  this  inter- 
polation, she  reigned  for  more  than  two  years, 
and  died  in  855,  from  bearing  a  child  while  walk- 
ing in  a  procession  through  the  streets.  .See  DiiL- 
i.ingkr:  Die  Pabstfabeln  des  Mittetalters,  Muntcii, 
1863  ;  English  translation.  Fables  respecting  the 
Popes  in  the  Middle  Ages,  New  York,  1872,  pp. 
3-74.  O.  VOIGT. 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  "  the  :Maid  of  Orleans  "  [whose 
name  was  properly  Joanneta  Dare,  or  d'Arc ;  but 
probably  "d'  "  did  not  at  that  time  imply  nobility]; 
b.  at  Domremy,  which  was  then  partly  in  Cham- 
pagne, and  partly  in  Lorraine  [now  part  of  (jer- 
many,  and  called,  in  honor  of  its  illustrious 
daughter,  Domremy-la-Pucelle],  Jan.  6,  1411  ; 
burned  at  the  stake,  in  Rouen,  May  30,  1431.  Her 
life  may  be  divided  into  three  periods:  (1)  her 
development,  and  call  to  her  departure  for  Vau- 
couleurs  in  her  eighteenth  year;  (2)  her  career 
of  victory  and  glory  to  the  coronation  of  the  king 
at  Rheims,  July  17,  1429;  (3)  her  career  of  fight- 
ing and  defeat,  until  her  death.  In  all  these 
periods  she  is  one  of  the  greatest  heroines  in 
history;  in  the  second  a  recognized  seer,  unmis- 
takably called  of  God ;  in  the  third  an  enthusiast, 
but  genuinely  pious  and  noble,  ^\hose  exit  consti- 
tutes a  tragedy  most  thrilling  and  elevated. 

In  order  to  understand  her  work,  a  word  must 
be  spoken  upon  the  then  state  of  the  country  now 
called  France.  By  the  help  of  Philip  of  Bur- 
gundy, the  English  had  overrun  all  the  country 
north  of  the  Loire,  as  well  as  Guienne.  France 
had  fallen  to  pieces.  The  queen-mother  l.sabella 
had  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  upon  her  side,  and 
the  two  had  taken  Paris.  .She  h.ad  disinherited 
the  dauphin  (Charles  VII.)  in  favor  of  Henry  V. 
of  England ;  and  when  he  was  .succeeded  by  his 
son  (1422),  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  came 
over  to  France  as  English  regent,  was  received 
by  the  Parisians,  and  besieged  Orleans  (1428). 
Meanwhile  Charles  VII.,  who  had  been  crowned 
at  Poitiers,  was  idly  looking  at  the  destruction 
of  his  kingdom ;  but,  unknown  to  him,  God  was 
preparing  a  deliverer. 

1.  In  the  little  village  on  the  Maas,  amid 
beautiful  scenery  and  under  favorable  parental 
auspices,  a  girl  was  growing  up.  She  learned 
from  her  mother  the  traditional  creed,  and  forms 
of  prayer.  She  drank  in  the  tales  of  fairies  and 
saints  and  devils  which  the  .simple  folk  so  often 
told.  One  saying,  attributed  to  Merlin,  made 
quite  an  impression  upon  her.  —  France  should 
one  day  be  destroyed  by  a  woman,  and  be  saved 
by  a  virgin  from  the  borders  of  Lorraine.  The 
people  about  her  had  decided  that  the  destroyer 
was  the  qneeu-mother  Isabella,  and  at  last  she 
believed  herself  to  be  the  restorer  She  grew  up 
to  womanhood  skilful  in  woman's  work,  espe- 
cially in  needlework,  shy,  shunning,  indeed,  all 
amorous  looks  and  words,  ignorant  of  reading  and 
writing,  but  wise  in  divine   things,  loving   the 


JOAN   OP   ARC. 


1184 


JOAN  OF  ARC. 


Church  and  its  servicps,  tender  toward  the  poor 
and  toward  children,  —  a  maiden  pious,  brave, 
obedient.  It  should  be  remarked  that  her  village 
was  for  the  dauphin,  wliile  the  neighboring  village 
was  for  Burgundy.  One  day,  in  her  thirteenth 
year,  she  was  fasting  in  her  father's  garden  (it 
was  about  noon),  when  suddenly  she  lieard  a  voice 
which  she  learned  was  that  of  .St.  Michael.  She 
tlien  saw  him  and  the  angels  who  attended  him. 
.\t  a  subsequent  time  she  heard  the  voices  of  the 
archangel  Gabriel  and  the  saints  Catherine  and 
JIargaret.  These  all  urged  upon  her  one  duty, 
—  to  help  the  king  to  save  France.  .She  shrank 
in  terror  from  their  connuand.  For  five  years  she 
was  visited  almost  daily,  and  often  more  than 
once  a  day.  At  last  the  news  came  of  the  siege 
of  Orleans.  She  could  no  longer  refuse  obedience. 
Impelled  by  an  overmastering  sense  of  duty,  she 
broke  through  the  lines  of  paternal  authority,  left 
Domremy,  and  repaired  to  Vaucouleurs.  Thus 
ended  the  first  period  of  her  existence. 

2.  Then  followed  the  epic  of  her  life.  By  per- 
sistency she  secured  from  IJobert  de  Baudicourt, 
the  governor  of  Vaucouleurs,  an  introduction  to 
the  dauphin,  at  Chinon.  The  journey  thither  was 
perilous ;  and,  for  safety's  sake,  .loan  wore  male 
attire.  But  the  hardest  part  of  her  work  remained 
for  her  to  do.  She  grandly  succeeded,  however, 
overcame  the  doubts  of  the  king,  removed  all 
prejudices,  lilled  the  troops  with  lier  courage,  and 
started  the  king  and  his  army  towards  Orleans. 
She  rode  by  the  king,  clad  in  armor,  carrying  an 
ancient  sword,  whicli  she  liad  found  by  revelation 
hidden  near  the  altar  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cathe- 
rine de  Fierbois,  and  a  banner  of  her  own  design, 
under  the  guidance  of  St.  Catlierine,  on  one  side 
of  which  was  a  representation  of  God  seated  upon 
his  throne,  and  holding  the  world  in  liis  hand ; 
on  the  other  side  a  picture  of  the  annunciation. 
Arrived  at  Orleans,  she  was  able  to  enter  it  April 
29,  1429  ;  and  the  siege  was  raised  May  8.  Other 
victories  followed.  The  English  were  driven  be- 
yond the  Loire.  Then  the  king  was  induced  by 
her  to  go  to  Kheims,  and  there  be  crowned.  On 
the  way  thither,  Troyes  was  captured.  Klieims 
was  entered  July  10,  and  the  coronation  took 
place  the  next  day.  The  maid's  work  was  now 
accomplished.  The  heavenly  voices  ceased  to 
speak  to  her,  and  well  had  it  been  if  she  had 
gone  ([uietly  back  to  her  father's  flocks.  But  it 
could  not  be.  She  was  now  the  idol  of  the  army, 
the  savior  of  her  country;  and  king  and  council 
would  not  hear  of  her  going. 

3.  Thus,  amid  shouts  of  victory,  the  final  period 
of  her  life  was  ushered  in.  But  she  was  altered. 
Her  head  was  turned.  She  had  become  an  enthu- 
siast. The  court  and  the  army  had  also  changed 
respecting  lier.  Thoy  obeyed  no  longer  liei-  guid- 
ing voice.  They  deified  her.  She  was  not  now  a 
leader,  but  a  god, — sure  sign  that  lier  mission 
was  over.  She  went  with  enthusiasm  on  mar- 
tial expeditions;  but  she  was  no  longer  personally 
invulnerable,  nor  a  .synonyme  of  victory.  On  the 
contrary,  .she  fell,  wounded  in  the  thigh,  while 
vmsuccessfully  attacking  Paris,  Sept.  8;  later  she 
was  wonnded  .again  before  Orleans,  and  the  army 
sustained  another  defeat.  (Jn  Dec.  29,  1129,  she 
and  her  family  were  ennobled  with  the  surname 
of  Du  Lis.  .Vliout  this  time  she  wrot(.' a  threaten- 
ing letter  to  the  Hussites  to  repent  of  their  heresy, 


or  else  she  would  draw  sword  again.st  them.  She 
also  announced  her  ambitious  dreams  of  releasing 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  freeing  the  Holy  Land  from 
its  usurpers,  ending  the  papal  schism,  and  giving 
the  Papacy  to  its  rightful  claimant.  But,  while 
such  visions  floated  before  her  eyes,  her  "  voices  " 
told  her  that  she  would  be  taken  prisoner.  In 
her  distracted  frame  of  mind  she  mistrusted  the 
voices.  She  went  in  IMai'ch,  1430,  to  defend 
Compiegne  against  the  English  and  the  Duke  of 
Burgundy.  On  May  24  she  was  captured  on  a 
sortie.  Great  was  the  triumph  of  the  English, 
and  Paris  broke  out  in  rejoicing.  The  sorceress 
had  been  caught.  Joan  was  taken  to  the  fortress 
of  Jean  de  Luxembourg.  Contrary  to  tlie  warn- 
ing of  .St.  Catherine,  she  leaped  from  the  tower. 
Stunned,  severely  wounded,  she  was  picked  up 
and  carried  back,  and,  on  coming  to.  the  saint 
upbraided  her  for  her  disobedience.  Her  further 
troubles  came  heavy  and  fast.  A  disreputable 
traffic  was  carried  on  between  the  Duke  of  Lux- 
embourg and  the  English,  at  the  instigation  of 
the  university  of  I'aris,  resulting  in  the  sale  of 
Joan,  in  November,  to  the  latter  for  ten  thousand 
livres :  Normandy  paid  the  money-  On  her  re- 
covery' from  her  injuries,  she  was  carried  to  Rouen, 
put  in  chains,  guarded  by  rude  soldiers,  insulted 
in  various  ways,  and  finally  accused  of  heresy  and 
sorcery.  L'^pon  these  charges  she  was  tried  by 
the  Liquisition.  It  was  a  shameful  travesty  of 
justice.  Verdict  was  given  against  her  on  the 
following  counts :  that  she  had  worn  men's  cloth- 
ing, contrary  to  the  law  in  the  Old  Testament 
(Deut.  xxii.  5)  ;  that  she  had  allied  herself  witli 
evil  spirits  under  the  enchanted  trees  of  her  native 
province  ;  and  that  her  revelations  were  machina- 
tions of  the  Devil,  or  sorcery  (in  proof  whereof 
her  departure  from  her  home  was  cited).  .Slie 
was  sentenced  to  be  burnt  as  a  witch.  'I'errified 
at  the  prospect  of  such  a  frightful  death,  shi' 
recanted,  saying,  that  since  the  churchmen  had 
found  that  she  had  not  received  visits  from  saints, 
as  she  had  previously  asserted,  she  would  not 
make  the  assertion  any  more.  It  is  said  that  she 
smiled  wlieii  uttering  the  .sentence  of  recantaticui, 
and  signeil  the  formula  with  a  naught,  but  then, 
under  guidance,  with  a  cross.  Both  these  phenom- 
ena were  considered  suspicious.  In  consequence 
of  the  recantation,  her  sentence  was  mitigated  to 
imprisonment  for  life.  The  English  were  furi- 
ous, but  were  consoled  by  the  jissurance  that  she 
would  yet  be  burnt.  A  tiap  was  cunningly  laid 
for  her  destruction.  A  suit  of  men's  clotlies  was 
hung  in  lier  cell.  She  put  it  on,  thinking  thus 
to  be  better  protected  from  the  soldiers'  insults. 
But  the  action  was  interpreted  as  a  relapse  into 
her  former  sinful  disobedience  to  divine  coni- 
maud,  and  she  was  again  tried  and  condemned. 
This  tinu'  she  ccnild  not  escape.  The  sentence  of 
death,  after  the  first  outcry,  was  patiently  borne. 
.She  appealed  from  the  liishop  (Pierre  Cauchon) 
to  (iod  ;  stood  at  the  stake,  the  heretic's  cap  upon 
her  head,  pressing  to  her  heart  a  rude  wooden 
cross  which  a  pitiful  Englishman  had  made  for 
her;  spoke  a  word  of  .sym]>alhy  for  Uouen;  cleared 
the  king  of  all  responsibility  for  lier  enterprise; 
called  upon  her  saints  and  her  .Saviour ;  and  per- 
ished amid  the  flames.  Her  ashes  were  thrown 
into  the  .Seine. 
'I'he  king  whom  she  had  crowned  made  uo  effort 


JOAN  OF  ARC. 


1185 


JOB. 


to  free  her,  thinking,  perhaps,  he  was  well  rid  of 
her.  But  it  was  not  long,  before  her  death,  under 
sentence  of  the  Inquisition,  was  considered  a  veri- 
table martyrdom.  It  was  said  that  a  white  dove 
flew  towards  heaven  from  her  scaffold  in  witness 
of  her  virgin  innocence.  When  Uouen  was  taken 
in  1449,  the  king  ordered  a  revision  of  her  trial. 
Calixtus  III.,  on  demand  of  France,  had  the  pro- 
ceedings examined  by  the  bishops  and  the  inquisi- 
tor. Before  this  tribunal,  Joan's  niullier  pleaded 
for  justice  to  the  memory  of  her  injured  chilil ; 
and  the  sentence  was  reversed  by  the  Pope,  July 
7,  1456.  Her  name  is  now  reverently  spoken 
everywhere.  [A  fine  statue  of  her  was  unveiled 
in  the  Place  des  Pyramids,  Paris,  Feb.  25,  1873.] 

And  what  about  her  visions?  They  were  real, 
were  sent  from  God  to  incite  and  strengthen  her 
for  her  great  mission.  In  them  and  in  the  gen- 
eral tenor  of  her  life  we  see  the  providence  of 
<jod.  Since  God  had  cho.seu  her  to  be  the  savior 
of  France,  he  chose  also  the  means  of  inducing  her 
to  play  the  part.  The  persons  beheld  are  proof 
of  this.  Why  did  she  not  see  the  Virgin  Mary, 
St.  Dionysius,  and  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  the  guard- 
ian of  France?  And  whom  did  she  see?  The 
archangel  Michael,  who  was  the  victorious  angel 
of  the  covenant,  the  guardian  of  the  people  of 
Israel,  and,  in  the  middle  age,  the  guardian  of 
Christian  nationality;  St.  ^largaret,  the  dragon 
conqueress,  who  was  the  guai'dian  of  Christian 
virginity ;  and  St.  Catherine,  who  was  the  guard- 
ian of  the  university  of  Paris,  and  had  been  suc- 
cessful in  converting  learned  people  and  rulers 
generally.  Now,  nationality,  purity,  and  power  to 
convert  royal  persons,  scholars,  and  soldiers,  were 
exactly  what  was  needed  to  restore  France  to 
honor.  Joan  resembled,  somewhat,  Swedenborg 
and  other  seers.  But  her  saints  punished  her, 
and  she  did  penance.  They  came  back  after  her 
recantation,  and  then  she  no  longer  resisted  them, 
buc  died  in  testimony  of  their  reality. 

[A  curious  phenomenon,  which  proved  the  re- 
versal of  feeling  in  favor  of  Joan,  was  the  appear- 
ance, in  1436,  of  a  false  Joan,  who  told  the  story 
that  some  other  woman  had  been  burnt  for  her. 
Many  believed  the  impostor.  She  married  Kob- 
ert  des  Armoises  about  1439,  and  died  about  1444, 
having  previously  confessed  her  impostui-e. 

[Joan  of  Arc  is  thus  described :  "  She  was  of 
medium  height,  stoutly  built,  but  finely  propor- 
tioned ;  and  her  frame  was  capable  of  enduring 
great  fatigue.  The  most  authentic  testimonies 
represent  her  as  less  comely  than  many  in  her 
own  station.  Her  features  expressed  rustic  hon- 
esty and  innocence  rather  than  mental  power; 
but  her  eyes  were  large,  melancholy,  and,  lit  up 
with  her  enthusiasm,  indescribably  charming. 
Her  voice  was  powerful,  but  sweet ;  and  her  man- 
ner possessed  a  fine  natural  dignity  and  grace, 
which,  while  it  repelled  familiarity,  softened  and 
subdued  even  the  rudest  of  the  soldiers." 

[Lit.  —  Proc'es  de  condamnalion  et  de  re'kahiUtalion 
de  Jeanne  d'Arc,  ed.  J.  Quicherat,  Paris,  1841—19, 
b  vols.  ;  the  same  :  Apeixus  nouveaux  sur  riiifl.  de 
J.  d'Arc,  Paris,  1850.  The  Proc'ts  are  in  Latin: 
a  French  translation,  by  E.  O'Reilly,  appeared 
Paris,  1868.  One  of  the  best  works  is  Goenes  : 
Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Katisbon,  1834.  For 
more  recent  Lires  of  Joan,  see  those  in  French  by 
B.  Martin  (last  ed.,  1875),  Wallon  (1860),  Vil- 


LiAUMK  (1803);  in  German,  by  IIask  (in  Neue 
Prup/ielen,  1861),  Eyselt,  (1864),  Hikzell  (1877); 
in  English,  by  Hakuiet  Pahk  (1860),  Mrs.  Phay, 
(1874),  and  '.■\Iiss  Janet  Tuckev  (1880).  One 
of  Schiller's  most  famo'us  dramas  is  Die  Jungfrau 
von  Or/t'anx.^  J.  I'.  L.\N(!E,  from  Ilcrzog,  ed.  I. 

JOB.  The  Book  of  Job  is  a  product  of  the 
Chochma  literature  of  the  ancient  Hebrews.  All 
the  features  which  distinguish  the  Proverbs,  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  and  Ecclesiastes,  from  the  pro- 
phetical books,  are  found  in  it.  It  is  the  iiroduct 
of  an  age  of  reflection  and  of  art,  and  does  not 
lay  claim  to  being  an  historical  work.  It  con- 
tains, however,  an  historical  tradition  which  the 
author  worked  over.  The  proper  names  do  not 
contain  a  trace  of  a  symbolical  purpose  ;  and  pure 
invention  of  stories  was  not  a  custom  of  antiquity. 
Luther  said,  "  I  hold  the  Book  of  Job  to  be  a 
record  of  facts ;  but,  that  every  thing  happened 
just  as  it  is  recorded,  I  do  not  believe,"  etc.  The 
author  does  not  once  refer,  even  indirectly,  to  the 
law,  religion,  or  history  of  Israel ;  but  he  does 
not  ignore  his  Hebrew  stand-point.  In  the  nar- 
rative portion,  God  is  called  .Jehovah ;  but  in  the 
rest  of  the  book  he  is,  for  the  most  part,  called 
Eloah,  or  by  the  patriarchal  designation  Shaddai. 
It  is  noticeable,  that  oidy  the  most  ancient  form 
of  heathen  worship,  the  worship  of  the  stars,  is 
referred  to  (xxxi.  26-28),  and  that  he  intention- 
ally avoids  the  divine  name.  Lord  of  Hosts,  which 
was  characteristic  of  the  period  of  the  kings. 
The  book  discusses  a  theme  which  lias  interest 
for  the  race  without  regard  to  nationality,  and  is 
the  Melchizedek  among  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

Job  lived  in  the  land  of  Uz  (probably  the  Hau- 
ran);  but  the  time  is  not  indicated.  The  high 
age  (a  hundred  and  forty  years)  to  which  the 
patriarch  attained  (xlii.  10)  jxiints  to  a  very  early 
period ;  and  this  explains  why  oidj-  one  kind  of 
money  (xlii.  11;  comp.  Gen.  xxxiii.  19),  and 
only  the  three  most  ancient  musical  instruments 
are  mentioned  (xxi.  12,  xxx.  31;  conip.  Gen.  iv. 
21,  xxxi.  27).  A  hero  of  pre-5Iosaic  times  suited 
the  author's  purposes  best,  as  ignorance  of  the  God 
of  Israel  after  the  possession  of  the  land  by  Joshua, 
would  have  been  regarded  as  a  sad  deficiency. 
Job  was  a  just  man,  who  was  plunged  from  great 
prosperity  into  the  depths  of  suffering.  He  was 
himself  unable  to  solve  the  mystery  of  this  sudden 
change.  The  attempt  was  made  by  his  friends, 
who  only  increased  his  trials.  They  sought  to 
console  him  by  insisting  that  suffering  is  invaria- 
bly the  punishment  of  transgression  ;  but  he  con- 
tinued to  assert  his  innocency,  which  Jehovah 
himself  finally  confirmed  (xlii.  8).  The  mistake 
of  the  comforters  was,  that  they  failed  to  distin- 
guish between  different  kinds  of  suffering  and  its 
cause.  Job's  sufferings  were  not  punitive,  but  a 
trial  which  he  was  called  upon,  as  the  servant  of 
Jehovah,  to  endure.  His  friends  cannot  think  of 
suffering  without  sin,  and,  instead  of  offering 
words  of  sympathy,  heap  up  exhortations  to  re- 
pentance. But  there  is  a  kind  of  suffering  which 
does  not  proceed  from  God's  anger,  but  fiom  his 
love,  and  has  the  design  to  test  and  perfect  the 
jiiety  of  a  righteous  man.  This  is  the  lesson  the 
Book  of  Job  is  meant  to  teach. 

After  Job's  conversation  with  his  three  friends, 
and  the  renewed  protestation  of   his  innocency. 


JOB. 


1186 


JOB. 


Jehovah  himself  appears  on  the  scene  to  solve  the 
problem.  But,  before  this  occurs,  a  certain  Elihu, 
the  Buzite,  appears,  and  intei-jects  four  discourses 
(xxsii.-xsxvii.).  He  was  a  young  man,  who  had 
up  to  this  time  been  restrained  by  considerations 
of  modesty  from  entering  into  tlie  conversation. 
He  now  censures  Job  for  justifying  himself  at  the 
expense  of  God,  and  the  three  friends  for  having 
had  only  words  of  condemnation  for  Job.  Elihu 
does  not  get  beyond  the  thoughts  of  these  friends, 
and  regards  Job's  sufferings  as  a  divine  course  of 
discipline,  which  will  issue  in  his  destruction 
unless  he  repents.  The  thought  is  the  same  as 
that  which  Eliphaz  had  before  expressed  (v.  17). 
Instead  of  treating  Job  as  a  righteous  man,  he 
treats  him  as  one  who  deserved  his  sufferings, 
and  whom  only  blasphemous  pride  and  ignorance 
deterred  from  repentance.  He  has  no  word  of 
sympathy.  He  does  not  make  any  reference  to 
Job's  patience.  His  answer  is  no  less  frigid  and 
formal  than  that  of  the  three  friends.  Jerome 
and  Gregory  the  Great  had  the  same  unfavorable 
impression  of  Elihu's  speeches.  The  former  saw 
in  him  a  representative  of  a  false  and  irreligious 
philosophy ;  the  latter,  a  self-confident  and  vain 
babbler.  Herder  shared  the  same  view  when  he 
said,  "  Elihu,  a  young  prophet,  assuming,  auda- 
cious, wi.se  in  his  own  conceit,  he  heaps  up  figures 
without  meaning,  and  appears  as  an  empty  shad- 
ow. For  this  reason  no  one  replies  to  him." 
These  discourses  did  not  originate  with  the  author 
of  the  rest  of  the  work.  Their  diction,  and  method 
of  thought,  are  against  this  supposition.  Every 
reader  of  festhetic  sensibility  must  feel,  when  he 
comes  to  chap,  sxxii.,  that  he  has  entered  a  dif- 
ferent atmosphere.  There  is  a  striking  contrast 
between  the  assumed  pathos  of  this  portion  of  the 
book  and  the  massive  strength  of  the  rest.  The 
language  affords  no  proof  that  it  belongs  to  a 
later  period  of  composition  than  the  book  as  a 
whole;  but  there  is  a  fundamental  difference  in  the 
style,  and  the  impression  cannot  be  avoided  that 
the  poet  is  far  behind  the  writer  of  the  rest  of  the 
book  in  aliility.  We  miss  the  liuld  and  sublime 
figures  and  the  ideal  thoughts  which  well  up  in 
the  rest  of  the  book  in  inexhaustible  fulness. 
With  this  single  exception,  tlie  Book  of  Job-is  the 
work  of  one  author,  and  bears  the  stamp  of  a  single 
genius.  This  is  now  almost  universally  acknowl- 
edged, except  in  the  case  of  xl.  1.5-xli.  26.  It  is 
urged  that  the  passages  about  the  crocodile  aiul 
leviathan  are  inappropriate  here  :  but  the  very 
opposite  is  true,  for  these  two  fierce  monsters  are 
introduced  to  prove  to  Jol>  how  weak  he  is  com- 
pared to  the  other  creatures  over  which  (iod  rules. 
We  turn  now  to  the  skilful  construction  and 
form  of  the  composition.  What  I  have  to  say 
under  this  head  ha,s  been,  for  the  most  part,  said 
before  by  Huiifeld  (I )eitl.':c/ie  Zeilsclir.  f.  r/irisll. 
W itxensrh .  ».  clirisll.  Leben,  IS'jO).  With  him,  I 
regard  Job  as  a  drama,  and,  in  the  narrower  sense, 
a  tragedy.  In  the  prologue  (i.-iii.)  the  iirul>li'ni 
is  presented.  In  the  tliree  stages  ot  the  discourse 
(iv.-xiv.,  xv.-xxi.,  xxii.-xxvi.)  it  becomes  inon- 
and  more  intricate  and  mysterious.  In  the  fifth 
part  (xxvii-xxxi.)  Job's  monologues  prepare  the 
way  for  the  solution.  This  follows  in  tiie  sixtli 
part  (xxxviii.-xlii.  G).  And  in  the  last  part  the 
servant  of  God,  who  ha.s  remained  faitliful,  is 
crowned  with  the  benediction  of  Jehovah.    To  be 


sure,  it  is  not  a  perfect  drama  in  every  particular. 
It  is  true,  also,  that  there  is  no  interchange  of 
action,  nor  contest  with  the  fist  or  the  sword; 
yet  there  is  a  contest  of  thought  and  words.  The 
book  is  distinguished  by  its  full  and  clear  outlines 
of  character.  Satan,  Job's  wife.  Job  himself,  the 
three  friends,  stand  out  distinctly.  Each  of  the- 
three  friends  has  his  individual  characteristics. 
The  poet  shows  his  dramatic  skill  in  gradually 
developing  the  contrast  between  Job  and  his 
friends,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  us  feel 
incensed  with  the  latter,  in  spite  of  some  truths- 
they  utter,  and  in  sympathy  with  Job.  But  th& 
culminating  feature  in  the  dramatic  art  consists 
in  this,  that,  while  the  book  nowhere  defines  the 
central  idea,  it  makes  it  vivid  and  lifelike.  The 
Book  of  Job  was  not  intended  for  the  stage  :  for 
the  Jews  got  the  theatre  for  the  first  time  at  a 
much  later  period,  from  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ; 
and  dramatic  representations  were  out  of  accord 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Jewish  religion.  But  a 
drama  is  possible  without  a  stage.  Brentius,  in 
the  dedication  of  his  Commentary  on  Job,  calls  it 
a  tragedy,  and  justifies  the  designation  from  the- 
fact  that  persons  are  represented  in  it  as  talking, 
that  their  speeches  are  characterized  by  outbursts 
of  passion,  and  accusations,  of  longing  for  death, 
and  justification  before  God.  The  Job  of  the 
Hebrew  poet  is,  in  fact,  no  less  a  tragic  hero  than 
the  ffidipus  of  Sophocles.  Here  Jehovah  takes 
the  place  of  imnuitable  fate.  The  hero  is  over- 
whelmed with  mysterious  afflictions.  He  contends 
with  God  like  a  Titan  ;  though,  to  be  sure,  all  is 
only  the  ghostly  creation  of  his  mind.  The  true 
God  finally  declares  his  innocence.  But  in  the 
mean  time  his  friends  prove  merciless  judges; 
and  nature  and  grace,  fancy  and  faith,  defiance 
and  humility,  fill  Job's  heart.  The  book  does  not 
end  with  the  destruction  of  the  hero  by  fate,  but 
the  end  of  the  hero  forever  destroys  the  notion 
of  fate.  In  the  development  of  this  train  of 
thought,  the  author  uses  the  most  elevated  style 
po.ssible.  Figure  follows  figure :  all  that  nature 
and  man  can  present  of  the  sublime  and  the  mas- 
sive here  passes  before  us.  The  contents  are 
draped  in  the  garments  of  the  night,  yet  flash 
foi'th  with  glory.  "  The  diction  of  this  book," 
says  Luther,  "  is  magnificent  and  sublime  as  no 
other  book  of  Scripture."  The  greatest  poets  of 
all  times,  ospeciallv  Shakespeare  and  Goethe,  have 
drawn  from  it.  Jacobi  well  said,  that,  wliether 
the  work  be  history  or  invention,  the  poet  was  a 
seer  of  God.  [Thomas  (.'arlyle,  in  his  chapter  on 
Mahomet  in  his  Heroes  (mil  Hero-Worship,  says, 
"  I  call  the  Book  of  Job  one  of  the  grandest  things 
ever  written  with  pen.  One  feel.s,  indeed,  as  if  it 
were  not  Hebrew,  such  a  noble  universality,  dif- 
ferent from  noble  patriotism  or  .sectarianism, 
reigns  in  it.  A  nobU'  liook,  all  men's  book!  It 
is  our  first,  oldest  statement  of  the  never-ending 
I'roblem,  —  man's  destiny,  and  (iod's  ways  with 
him  here  in  this  earth.  .  .  .  There  is  nothing 
written,  I  think,  in  the  Bil)!e  orout  of  it,  of  equal 
literary  merit."  .Mr.  Frotule  calls  it  a  -'book 
which  will  one  day,  perhaps,  when  it  is  allowed 
to  stand  on  its  own  merits,  be  seen  towering  up 
alone,  far  above  all  th(!  ]ioetry  of  the  world."] 

This  masterly  composition  cannot  be  placed 
before  the  reign  of  Solomon.  Oehler,  lliehm, 
Dillman,  and   others,  put   it   after  the  reign   of 


JOB. 


1187 


JOEL. 


Solomon.  Rut  I  cannot  agree  with  them  ;  for  no 
work  belonging  to  the  Chochrriah  literature  can 
compare  with  Job  in  classic  style,  except  the  Song 
of  Songs,  and  this  is  Solomonic.  The  abundant 
references  to  natural  history  and  scientific  knowl- 
edge in  general  in  Job  are  explained  by  the  broad, 
extensive  relations  of  Judaja  to  other  parts  of  the 
world  under  Solomon,  —  to  Phoenicia,  Egypt, 
Ophir,  Tarsus,  etc.  The  relation  of  the  book  to 
the  other  books  of  the  canon  also  points  to  this 
date.  The  utterances  concei'niiig  the  future  are 
not  only  the  same  in  tenor,  but  also  often  identi- 
cal in  form,  with  those  of  the  jisalms  of  David's 
and  Solomon's  reigns.  (Compare  Ps.  xvii.  1.5, 
Ixxxviii.  10  sq.)  In  the  telling  language  of 
Friedrich  von  Schlegel,  Job  belongs  to  the  Old- 
Testament  books  of  longing  after  the  future. 
The  doctrine  about  wisdom  in  Proverbs  (i.  1-9, 
viii.)  declares  for  the  priority  of  the  treatment  of 
the  subject  in  Job  (xxviii.).  Both  authors  speak 
of  the  preciousness  of  wisdom  and  its  co-operation 
in  the  creation,  and  sometimes  in  the  same  words ; 
but  the  treatment  of  Proverbs  shows  a  develo2> 
ment  upon  that  of  Job,  and  wisdom  appears  per- 
sonified. The  agreement  between  Ps.  Ixxxviii. 
and  Ixxxix.  and  parts  of  Job  (vii.  7,  xiv.  14,  xvi. 
19,  XXX.  10,  xxxi.  34)  is  striking;  and,  while  it 
does  not  prove  an  identity  of  authorship,  it  does 
indicate  that  Job  was  written  by  one  of  the  wise 
men  who  a.ssembled  in  Solomon's  court.  This 
view  is  held  by  Roseumiiller,  Ilavernick,  Vai- 
hinger,  Schlottmann,  Keil,  and  Hofmann ;  but 
the  prevailing  opinion  at  present  is,  that  it  belongs 
to  a  later  period,  —  the  period  between  Isaiah 
and  Jeremiah,  that  is,  between  the  Assyrian  and 
Babylonian  exile.  This  view  is  mainly  based 
upon  the  author's  acquaintance  with  the  leading 
of  nations  into  captivity  (xii.  23).  But  as  for 
ourselves,  we  feel  confident  that  Job  was  a  much 
read  work  in  the  eighth  century,  and  that  Amos, 
Isaiah,  and  Hezekiah  were  well  acquainted  with 
it. 

[Those  who  hold  that  the  Book  of  Job  was 
written  in  a  very  early  age,  in  the  time  of  Moses, 
or  even  earlier,  urge  its  un-Jewish  tone  and  its 
general  spirit,  which  indicate  an  early  period  of 
the  race.  The  absence  of  all  references,  direct 
and  indirect,  to  the  Mosaic  law,  the  temple,  the 
priesthood,  and  the  sacrifices,  as  well  as  to  JewLsh 
history,  is  very  striking,  and  is  justly  emphasized. 
The  difficulty  of  conceiving  of  a  Jew  in  the  reign 
of  Solomon  transferring  himself  to  a  pre-Mosaic 
condition  of  affairs,  and  ignoring  entirely  his 
own  religion,  cannot  be  easily  set  aside.  This 
view  was  held  largely  among  the  Jews,  by  the 
Fathers  (Origen,  Jerome,  etc.),  and  by  many 
modern  commentators,  including  Bertholdt,  Eich- 
horn,  Lowth,  Tayler  Lewis,  Canon  Cook,  etc.] 

[Lit.  —  Amongst  the  older  commentaries,  those 
of  Gregory  the  Great  (Exposllio  in  beat.  Job.) 
and  Brentius  (ylnno(aa'o;ies  in  Job.,  Halfe,  1546) 
deserve  special  mention.  Amongst  the  more  re- 
cent ones  we  mention  Stuhlmann  :  Hiob,  Ham- 
burg, 1804 ;  Umbreit  ;  D.  Buck  Hiob.  Heidelberg. 
1824  (2d  ed.,  1832)  ;  Samuel  Lee  :  The  Book  of 
the  Patriarch  Job,  London,  1837;  Vaiiiinger:  £>. 
B.  Hiob,  etc.,  Stuttgart,  1842  (2d  ed.,  18.56); 
Schlottmann  :  D.  B.  Hiob  rerdrutscht  u.  erlaufert, 
Berlin,  1851  ;  Conant  :  The  Book  of  Job,  New 
York,  1857;  A.  Ebrard:  B.  B.  Hiob  als  poetisches 


Knnstwerk,  etc.,  Landa\i,  1858 ;  Kenan  :  Le  livre 
lie  Job  traduil  ile  I'He'breu,  aoec  une  etude,  etc.,  Paris, 
1859;  A.  B.  Davidson:  A  Commentary,  Gram- 
matical and  Exeyetical,  on  the  Book  of  Job,  vol.  i., 
London  and  Edinburgh,  1862;  Delitzsch  :  D.  B. 
Hiob,  Leipzig,  1804  (2d  ed.,  1870;  English  transla- 
tion, 2  vols.,  Edinburgh,  1809);  Dillmann:  HirVi, 
Leipzig,  1869 ;  Hengstenberg  :  J).  B.  Hiob  eriiiut., 
Berlin,  1871-75,2  parts;  Zockler:  The  Book  of 
Job,  translated  by  Professor  L.  J.  Evan.s,  in 
Lange's  Commentary,  with  a  rhythmical  version 
by  Professor  Tayler  Lewis,  1874  ;  Canon  Cook, 
in  Speaker's  Commentary,  Lond.  and  N.  Y.,  1874  ;  C. 
P.  Robinson  :  Homiletical  Commentary  on  the  Book 
of  Job,  London,  1S76;  Rogge:  Hiob,  der  Gemeinde 
daryeboten,  Erlangen,  1877  ;  J.  K.  Burr  :  The 
Book  of  Job  (intended  for  popular  use),  New  York, 
1879  (incorporated  in  Whedon's  Commentary, 
New  York,  1881);  D.  Thomas:  ProUemaliva 
mundi:  the  Book  of  Job  practically  and  exegeticalty 
considered,  London,  1878  (2d  ed.,  1879)  ;  Samuel 
Cox:  The  Book  of  Job,  London,  1880;  II.  J. 
Clarke  :  Job,  London,  1880;  G.  L.  Studer  :  Das 
Buck  Hiob,  Bremen,  1881 ;  Bishop  Wordsworth 
(new  edition,  London,  1881).  See  also  Ewald: 
D.  Dichter  d.  A.  B.  (his  Job  was  translated  Lon- 
don, 1882) ;  HuPFELD :  Com.  in  quosdam  Jobeidos 
/ocas-,  Halle,  1853;  J.  A.  Froude:  The  Book  of 
Job,  in  Short  Studies  on  Great  Subjects ;  W.  H. 
Green  :  The  Argument  of  the  Book  oj'  Job  unfolded. 
New  York,  1874;  Budde-  Beitriiye  z.  Kritik  d.  B. 
Hiob,  Bonn,  1876 ;  Barth  :  Zur  Erklarung  des 
B  Hiob.  Leipzig,  1876;  Ancessi  :  Job  et  P Eyypte, 
Paris,  1877;  Ray.viond  :  The  Book  of  Job :  essays 
and  a  metrical  paraphrase.  New  York,  1878;  Giese- 
brecht  :  Der  Wendepunkt  des  B.  Hiob,  cap.  27  u. 
2S.  Berlin,  1879;  commentaries  on  Job  by  G.  H. 
B.  Wright.  London,  1883;  A.  B.  Davidson, 
1884.  For  further  literature,  see  Delitzsch  and 
Lange.]  delitzsch. 

JOBSON,  Frederick  James,  D.D.,  b.  at  Lincoln, 
1812;  d.  in  London,  Jan.  3,  1881.  He  was  arti- 
cled to  an  architect,  but  subsequently  ordained  to 
the  Wesleyan  ministry  in  1834;  rose  to  eminence, 
and  became  president  of  the  conference  in  1869. 
He  was  a  man  of  gTeat  usefulness,  and  wrote, 
besides  some  devotional  books.  Chapel  and  School 
Architecture  as  appropriate  to  the  Buildings  of  Non- 
conformists, London,  1850;  America  and  American 
Methodism,  1857  ;  Australia,  with  Notes  by  the  Way 
on  Egypt,  Ceylon,  Bombay,  and  the  Holy  Land,  1862. 

JO'EL  ('7XV,  "Jehovah  is  God  "),  the  second  of 
the  ]Minor  Prophets.  From  the  contents  of  his 
prophecy  we  are  led  to  conclude  that  he  belonged 
to  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  was  in  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  his  prophetic  activity.  He  prophe- 
sied in  the  first  thirty  years  of  the  reign  of  Joash 
(877-847  B.C.).  The  usual  reasons  given  for  tluLi 
view  are  the  following  :  (1)  Amos  had  Joel's  proph- 
ecy before  him  (comp.  Amos  i.  2  with  Joel  iii.  16); 
(2)  Joel  had  the  hard  fate  of  Jerusalem  and 
Judah  under  Joram  fresh  before  his  mind,  and 
makes  no  mention  of  the  Syrians,  which  he  cer- 
tainly would  have  done, had  he  lived  after  Ilazael's 
campaign  against  Jerusalem  at  the  end  of  the 
reign  of  Joa.sh  (2  Kings  xii.  18  sqq.)  ;  and  (3)  he 
refers  to  the  temple  services  and  priests  (i.  9,  13, 
ii.  14,  17),  which  points  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah, 
which  was  restored  under  Joash,  and  retained  for 
thirty  years  of   his  reign.     This  is  the  view  of 


JOHN   THE  APOSTLE. 


1188 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE. 


Hitzig,  Ewald,  Keil,  Delitzsch,  and  others.  Heiig- 
stenberg,  Ivnobel,  and  others  place  liis  activity 
under  the  reigns  of  Jeroboam  II.  and  Uzziah 
(when  Amos  prophesied).  Merx  regards  the 
prophecy  as  a  Midrash  written  after  445  B.C.;  [and 
Professor  W.  Robertson  Smitli,  in  the  Enci/clo- 
pcedia  Britannwa. 'pata  it  in  the  period  after  Ezra, 
and  finds  a  confirmation  of  tliis  view  in  Joel's 
reference  to  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  chap.  ii.  7,  9]. 
The  pre-exile  date  rests,  above  all,  on  '•  the  fresh- 
ness and  originality  of  Joel's  description," ''the 
classical  form  of  the  prophecy,"  the  fact  that  it 
was  in  the  hands  of  Amos,  and  the  general  char- 
acter of  its  contents,  which  not  only  do  not  refer 
to  the  SjTians,  but  presuppose  a  healthful  religious 
condition  for  Judah. 

The  occasion  of  Joel's  prophecy  was  a  terrible 
locust  scourge,  which  combined  with  a  drought 
to  completely  devastate  the  land.  In  the  first 
part  (i.-ii.  17)  the  prophet  describes  the  devasta- 
tion and  the  locusts,  and  exhorts  the  people  to 
repent  and  fast.  This  call  must  have  been  heeded 
(ii  18,  19)  In  the  second  part  (ii.  19-iii.  21) 
he  predicts  prosperity  and  blessing.  This  predic- 
tion refers  to  the  near  future  in  the  destruction 
of  the  enemy,  etc.,  and  to  the  far  future  in  the 
outpouring  of  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  and  the 
judgment  of  the  world.  At  the  time  of  the  latter, 
all  nations  will  be  gathered  to  the  "\' alley  of 
Jehoshaphat.  The  scourge  of  locusts  is  to  be 
interpreted  literally,  and  not  allegorically,  as  Je- 
rome, Hengstenberg,  Hiivernick,  [Lowth,  Pusey] 
do.  The  main  argument  for  the  allegorical  inter- 
pretation is  the  name  which  is  given  to  the  army 
of  locusts  (ii.  20).  It  is  designated  as  the  "  north- 
ern." Tlie  locusts  usually  start  froiTi  the  deserts 
of  Asia  and  Afi'ica,  iind  pursue  a  northerly  course; 
and  it  might  seem  at  first  more  accurate  and 
natural  to  explain  it  of  nations.  But  locusts  are 
also  found  in  the  Syrian  desert,  and  might  well 
be  blown  in  a  southerh'  direction  without  passing 
over  Mount  Lebanon.  However  this  may  be,  the 
remainder  of  the  description  militati^s  against  the 
allegorical  interpretation,  and  also  the  fact  that 
not  a  trace  of  a  reference  can  be  found  to  a  liostile 
invasion  before  or  afterwards  in  the  book.  There 
is  no  ground  for  calling  in  question  the  Joelic 
authorship.  Peter  quotes  Joel  (ii.  28,  29)  in  his 
sermon  at  the  temple  (Acts  ii.  17,  18),  and  applies 
the  prophecy  to  the  outpouring  of  the  .Spirit  on 
the  day  of  Penteco.st.  Its  complete  fulfilment  we 
may  expect  at  the  revelation  of  Jesus  in  glory. 
The  vision  of  the  day  of  the  Lord  in  Uov.  xix.  11 
sqq.  draws  upon  the  descriptions  of  Joel  and 
Zecliariah  (xiv.).  [For  full  literature  see  Mixou 
Piioi'iiKTS.  Special  Commentaries  by  I'ksinus 
(Francov.,  1G41J,  Leusdkx  (./oe/  exiillcalus,  I'ltraj., 
1057),  I'ococKK  (Oxford,  1001),  Cha.ndi.kh  (Lon- 
don, 1735),  Baumgauten  (Halle,  1750),  .Tusti 
(Leipzig,  1792).  Cuedxek  (Ilalle,  1831),  Meier 
(Tub.,  1811),  Wi=.\sciMc  (Lcip.,  1872).  Kaiii.e 
(Leip.,  1877),  and  A.  Meux  (Hallo,  1879).  AV.  L. 
Peauson:  ./oil,  Li'i]i/i'4.  ISS.").]  VOr.CK. 

JOHN  THE  APOSTLE  and  "his  Writings.  The 
peculiar  and  ]irominent  place  which  .lohii  holds 
among  the  twelve  disciples  and  the  authors  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  the  critical  a.ssaults  upon 
the  writings  that  bear  his  name,  make  desirable 
a  comprehensive  presentation  of  his  character, 
ictivity,  and  literary  remains. 


I.  Life  AND  Character  of  Johx. — Among 
the  apostles,  by  far  the  most  prominent  are  John, 
Peter,  and  Paul.  Compared  with  Peter,  Jmpulsive 
and  quick  of  action,  John  was  of  a  quiet,  thought- 
ful, and  receptive  temperament.  He  treasured 
up  the  words  of  the  Lord  in  his  heart,  and  lost 
himself  in  the  contemplation  of  his  glory.  When 
Jesus  speaks  and  acts,  he  does  not  ask,  like  Peter, 
'•  What  shall  1  do  V  .Shall  I  draw-  the  sword  against 
Malchus?  Shall  I  build  three  tabernacles?  "  but 
rather,  "  What  does  He  do?  what  does  He  speak  ?  " 
It  is  due  to  this  attitude  that  his  memory,  like  a 
mirror,  reflected  the  inner  life  of  the  Lord,  and 
retained  whole  discourses  entire.  The  peculiar 
majesty  and  glory  of  Christ  was  certainly  not 
hidden  from  the  eyes  of  the  other  disciples ;  but 
John  alone  was  competent  to  reproduce  them  in 
a  vivid  description.  The  other  evangelists  pre- 
serve those  discourses  and  acts  of  Jesus  which 
produced  greater  visible  effects  at  the  time,  —  the 
miracles,  the  .Sermon  on  the  Mount,  which  brought 
together  a  large  throng.  John  preserves  incidents, 
which,  though  equally  important,  were  not  accom- 
panied with  so  much  display,  —  the  conversations 
with  Nicodemus  and  the  Samaritan  woman,  and 
the  discussions  in  the  temple.  There  is  more 
resemblance  between  John  and  Paul.  They  are 
both  of  thoughtful,  reflective  disposition ;  but 
Paul's  mind  assumes  a  logical  and  dialectic  form. 
John  is  contemplative  only.  Paul  dwells  upon 
the  sinner's  appropriation  of  salvation,  John  upon 
its  author ;  Paul  upon  conversion,  John  upon  the 
fulness  of  life  in  Christ. 

John  has  been  called  the  "  .\postle  of  Love," 
because  love  is  a  controlling  conception  in  his 
system.  This  word,  however,  occurs  as  frequently 
in  Paul's  writings,  only  he  uses  it  in  connection 
with  Jhitli.  John  employs  it  as  the  opposite  of 
hatred  and  iniquity.  From  Luke  ix.  54,  where 
he  would  punish  the  Samaritan  vill.agers,  the  op- 
posite conclusion  might  be  drawn,  that  ho  was  a 
man  of  violent  tenqierament.  Neither  of  these 
views  may  be  hold  in  isolation.  He  w'as  a  man 
of  mild  disposition,  but  of  strong,  ardent  convic- 
tions. 

John  received  a  religious  training.  His  mother, 
.Salome  (Mtirk  xvi.  1 ;  Matt.  xx.  20),  was  a  true 
Isr.aelite,  and  afterwards  a  devoted  foUow'or  of 
Christ  (Mark  xv.  40).  Tradition  iioints  to  Beth- 
.saida  as  the  place  of  his  birth.  Chrysostom  and 
others  speak  with  confidence  on  this  point.  He 
had  some  me.ans  (John  xix.  27).  and  seems  to  have 
been  of  better  connection  tlian  the  other  disciples, 
for  he  knew'  the  high  priest  (John  wiii.  15).  It 
is  probable  that  he  w.as  a  disciple  of  the  Baptist 
before  he  was  called  of  Christ.  He  apprehended 
the  .spirit  and  meaning  of  that  prophet's  preach- 
ing better  than  any  of  the  other  disciples  (.John 
i.  26-3G).  .\s  a  disciple  of  Christ,  he  leaned  upon 
Christ's  bosom,  and  is  called  "  the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved."  He  gave  himself  up  unreservedly 
to  him. 

This  decision,  wliich  marked  his  attachment  to 
Christ,  likewi.se  distinguishes  his  conception  of 
Christ's  work.  Paul  depicts  the  struggle  of  the 
believer  in  .appropriating  salvation :  .John  portrays 
salvation  as  a  victory  of  the  light  already  won 
over  darkness.  Paul  treats  of  sin  largsly  as 
weakness:  John  treats  of  it  as  iniquity,  it  was 
not  possible  for  John  to  do  the  work  wliich  Paul 


JOHN  THE   APOSTLE. 


1189 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE. 


did;  but  it  was  liis  high  mission  to  keep  the 
Church,  already  established,  pure,  and  to  purify 
it.  It  was  not  liis  mission  to  extend  the  Cliurcli, 
but  to  supplement  the  activity  of  the  other  apostles 
by  contending  against  the  corruption  within  its 
pale  and  the  rising  Gnosticism. 

Jolm's  aposlolical  actioiti/ ior  the  first  thirty  years 
after  the  resurrection  was  in  harmony  with  his 
nature,  —  a  (puet  and  retiring  one.  After  the  re.s- 
urrection  he  occupied  no  prominent  official  posi- 
tion. If  it  were  not  for  Gal.  ii.  9,  we  would  not 
even  know  that  he  was  held  in  peculiar  esteem  at 
the  side  of  Peter  and  James  by  the  Church  at 
Jerusalem.  In  the  earliest  period  of  apostolic 
activity  he  is  found  in  company  with  Peter.  But 
the  latter  is  always  the  spokesman ;  and  even  in 
the  year  50,  at  the  council  in  Jerusalem  (Acts 
XV.)  it  is  Peter  and  James,  not  John,  who  are 
in  the  foreground.  In  the  year  58  .lames  and  the 
presbj'ters  alone  are  left  in  the  city  (Acts  xxi.  18). 
In  the  interval  the  other  apostles  seem  to  have 
been  scattered.  An  old  tradition  has  it  (Clemens 
Alex. :  Strom.,  vi.  5)  that  John  left  Jerusalem 
twelve  years  after  the  i-esurrection.  He  spent 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  in  Ephesus ;  but  he 
could  not  have  gone  there  long  before  Paul's 
death  (A.D.  64),  or  there  would  have  been  some 
reference  to  him  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians, 
or  at  the  leave-taking  with  the  elders  of  Miletus. 
The  testimony  of  the  Fathers  agrees  that  he  pre- 
sided over  the  clau'ches  of  Asia  Minor  from  Ephe- 
sus as  a  centre.  Irenieus  states  that  he  lived  there 
till  the  times  of  Trajan.  His  testimony  is  of 
peculiar  value,  for  his  teaclier  Polycarp  had  been 
a  pupil  of  .John. 

It  is  unanimously  agreed  that  he  was  banished 
to  Patnios.  Irenreus  says  that  this  occurred  under 
Domitian ;  and  Jerome  gives  the  more  particular 
date  as  the  fourteenth  year  of  his  reign  (94-95). 
[But  another  tradition  assigns  the  exile  to  the 
reign  of  Xero  (68).]  He  was  permitted  by  Nerva 
to  return  the  year  following.  These  are  all  the 
data  we  have  of  .John's  life.  The  exact  date  of 
his  death  is  unknown. 

II.  The  Writings  of  John  divide  themselves 
into  two  classes.  The  first  includes  the  Gospel 
and  the  Epistles  ;  the  second,  the  Apocalypse. 

(1)  The  Gospel  of  John  is  seen  at  first  sight  to 
dift'er  from  the  first  three  Gospels.  He  omits 
very  much  that  they  contain,  and  adds  much  new 
and  characteristic  matter.  It  is  obvious  that  he 
supplements  the  narratives  of  the  synoptists ;  and 
there  can  hardly  be  a  doul^t  that  it  was  hi.s  design 
to  do  so.  But  in  a  deeper  sense  does  he  supplement 
their  narratives.  He  delineates  with  special  care 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ,  opening  hi.s  Gospel 
with  a  narrative  of  his  divine  antecedents,  and 
reporting  frequent  discourses  in  which  Christ 
speaks  of  his  eternal  relation  to  the  Father.  He 
also  portrays  the  vital  union  of  Christ  with  be- 
lievers (John  iii.  8,  xiv.  16  sqq.,  xvii.  "21-23). 
John's  individuality  was  not  the  sole  factor  lead- 
ing him  to  give  to  his  Gospel  its  supplemental 
character.  lie  was  led  to  do  this  by  the  special 
needs  of  the  Church,  and  the  dangers  to  which  it 
was  exposed. 

He  awoke  to  the  realization  of  his  special  mis- 
sion in  the  last  j-ears  of  the  first  century.  At  the 
death  of  Paul  and  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Church  entered  upon  a  new  stage.     The  He- 


brew nation,  rejecting  the  witness  of  the  apostles, 
had  become  the  DUwpora.  Christianity  now  had 
to  do  only  with  Heathen  Rome  and  witli  individ- 
ual Jews  as  they  opposed  the  Christians  in  the 
Roman  Empire.  The  period  was  past  in  which 
Paul  was  called  upon  to  contend  against  Judaiz- 
ing  tendencies  in  Christian  congregations.  The 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  had  sealed  his  teaching. 

But,  in  spite  of  this  event,  there  was  a  Jewish 
party  in  the  Church,  which  so  little  understood  its 
meaning,  that  they  continued  to  cling  to  the  forms 
of  the  old  dispensation.  They  were  called  the  sect 
of  the  Nazarenes,  and  in  its  ultimate  form  their 
system  was  known  as  Ebiouitism.  They  saw  in 
Chri-st  only  a  lawgiver  and  a  man.  This  tendency 
did  not  reach  its  full  development  in  John's  time  ; 
but  his  keen  foresight  discerned  it  in  the  future, 
and  he  was  aroused  by  it  to  give  his  testimony  to 
the  eternal  Son.ship  of  Christ. 

Contemporary  with  this,  the  first  indications  of 
Gnosticism  began  to  make  themselves  felt.  At  the 
bottom  a  Ileatlien  philosoj^hy,  it  incorporated  some 
of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity,  but  ignored  faith 
and  the  atonement.  Cerinthus,  the  first  impor- 
tant expounder  of  this  school,  taught  that  the 
world  was  not  created  by  God,  but  by  a  power  dis- 
tinct from  him ;  that  Jesus  was  the  son  of  Mary 
and  Joseph ;  that  at  his  baptism  he  received  the 
aion  Christ  into  union  with  himself,  and,  enlight- 
ened by  it,  taught  more  exalted  doctrines  concern- 
ing God  than  had  ever  been  taught  before.  This 
aion  withdrew  from  Jesus  before  the  passion,  so 
that  only  the  man  Jesus  suffered  on  the  cross. 
According  to  Polycarp,  John  met  Cerinthus  in  the 
baths,  and  it  is  ipiite  probable  that  he  was  obliged 
to  contend  against  his  errors.  We  are  thus  led 
to  the  conclusion  that  the  Cerinthian  Gnosis  was 
the  principal  cause  which  induced  John  to  believe 
that  the  time  had  come  for  him  to  make  known 
his  peculiar  gift,  which  he  had  hitherto  kept  con- 
cealed. It  was  his  mission,  by  testifying  more 
emphatically  than  had  been  done  to  the  incarna- 
tion and  divinity  of  Christ,  to  lay  the  last  stone 
in  the  structure  of  apostolical  teachmg.  He  em- 
phasizes faith  in  Jesus  the  Son  of  God  (xx.  31) 
over  against  a  bare  gnosis.  To  the  false  specula- 
tions which  denied  now  the  divinity,  now  the  hu- 
manity, of  Christ,  he  opposed  his  utterances  about 
his  eternal  relation  with  the  Father,  and  the  reve- 
lation of  the  Father  through  him.  To  the  mere 
intellectual  striving  after  knowledge  without  holi- 
ness, he  opposes  the  mystical  life  of  the  imion  with 
Christ.  The  best  evidence  that  this  is  the  design 
of  the  Gospel  is  found  in  the  statement  of  chap. 
XX.  31 :  "  These  are  written  that  ye  may  believe 
that  .Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that, 
believing,  ye  may  have  life  in  his  name."  No 
sharper  antithesis  to  Cerinthian  specidations  could 
be  conceived. 

(2)  A  further  proof  that  this  was  the  purpose 
of  the  evangelist  is  found  in  his  First  Epistle. 
This  work  resembled  the  Gospel  in  language,  style, 
tone,  and  ideas.  In  chap.  ii.  12-14  the  writer 
speaks  six  times  of  the  object  for  which  he  had 
written,  and  was  then  writing.  Must  not  these 
statements,  then,  beyond  a  doubt,  refer  to  some- 
thing else  than  the  Epistle,  —  to  the  Gospel  itself  ? 
If  this  point  be  well  taken,  then  the  Epistle  as- 
sumes the  character  of  an  accompanying  docu- 
ment, as  J.  P.  Lange  and  Hug  have  held  in  com- 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE. 


1190 


JOHN  THE  APOSTLE. 


inon  with  myself.  Be  this  granted  or  not,  it  may 
with  certainty  be  deduced  from  1  .Jolin  iv.  2  sqq. 
that  the  apostle  had  to  contend  witli  sucli  as  de- 
nied that  Jesus  was  the  Christ.  It  was  for  the 
purpose  of  convincing  of  this  that  he  wrote  liis 
Gospel  (John  xx.  31). 

(3)  The  Apucalypfe  is  the  second  division  of 
John's  literary  labors.  Here  is  revealed  to  the 
seer  the  contrast  between  light  and  darkness,  truth 
and  falsehood,  which  is  the  underlying  theme  of 
the  Go.spel,  to  its  final  consummation.  John  alone, 
whose  mind  had  been  occupied  with  these  con- 
trasts, was  ca,..jble  of  receiving  the.se  revelations. 
In  chap.  i.  1  lie  declares  himself  definitely  as  the 
author  of  tlie  book.  Polycrates  pronounces  him 
who  leaned  on  the  Saviour's  bosom  to  have  re- 
ceived the  revelation,  like  a  priest  of  the  Old-Tes- 
tament dispensation,  by  means  of  the  Urim  and 
Thunnnim.  [Dr.  Ebrard  assigns  Revelation  to 
the  traditional  date  A.D.  95 ;  but  most  critics  now 
assign  it  to  A.D.  68-70.] 

(4)  The  Genuineness  of  Ihe  Fourth  Gospel  and 
the  First  Epistle  is  established  by  incontrovertible 
proofs.  There  can  be  only  the  choice  between 
genuineness  and  designed  fraud ;  for  tlie  writer 
announces  himself  to  have  been  an  eye-witness  of 
Christ's  life  (.John  i.  li,  xix.  35;  1  .lohn  i.  1). 

Undesigned  evidence  in  favor  of  the  Johannean 
authorship  is  to  be  found  in  the  Gospel  itself,  in 
the  evident  determination  to  avoid  the  mention  of 
the  sons  of  Zebedee  (Jolm  i.  35,  xiii.  "23.  xviii.  15, 
xix.  26,  XX.  2),  in  constantly  referring  to  himself 
as  the  "  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved,"  in  giving  to 
Thomas  his  cognomen  (xi.  16),  etc.  But  to  this 
indirect  testimony  comes  a  strong  and  unbroken 
chain  of  external  testimonies.  In  the  early  part 
of  tlie  second  century  we  find  a  number  of  remi- 
niscences and  echoes  of  John  which  cannot  fail  to 
be  recognized.  Ignatius  must  have  reference  to 
him  when  he  compares  the  Spirit  with  the  wind, 
and  speaks  (^Pliilad.  0 ;  Itoni.  7)  of  Christ  as  the 
"door  of  the  Father,"  aiul  tlie  "  bread  of  lieaven." 
Justin  Martyr  (b.  about  8!))  is  charged  witli  .Jo- 
hannean conceptions.  He  calls  Christ  tlie  "  living 
water,"  the  Myoi  rov  dtov,  the  /iovoym/i,  speaks  of 
the  incarnation  {aapKOTronfUiivai)  and  the  new  birth, 
and  refers,  time  and  again,  to  sucli  passages  as 
John  xiv.  2,  3.  Melito  of  Sardis  (l.iO)  quotes 
John  vi.  .54,  xii.  24,  xv.  5,  with  the  w  ords,  "  Christ 
says  in  the  Gospel." 

Marcion's  polemics  against  the  Gospel  show  that 
it  was  at  that  time  acknowledged  in  the  Church  to 
be  genuine  and  canonical  (Tertul. :  Adv.  Marc,  VI. 
3).  Valenfinu.s,  no  longer  questioning  its  genu- 
inene.s.s,  sought  to  establish  his  Gnosticism  by  an 
allegorical  exposition  of  it ;  and  his  pupil  Ilera- 
cleon,  from  this  stand-point,  wrote  a  Commentary 
upon  it,  of  which  Origen  has  preserved  numerous 
fragments.  Basilides  (125)  cited  John  i.  9,  with 
the  words,  "  That  is  what  is  said  in  tlie  Gospels." 
Theodotus  cites  Jolin  i.  9,  vi.  51,  etc. ;  and  I'tole- 
meus  (Ad  Floram),  Jolin  i.  3.  Tatian  (about  17()) 
wrote  a  Harmony  of  the  four  Gospels,  and  'I'hc- 
opjhiliis  of  Antioch  (about  109)  a  Coninienlary 
upon  the  four  Gospels,  which  Jerome  himself  had 
read.  Theophilus  {Ad  AutoL,  II.  22)  designates 
it  by  name.  Here  belongs  Ircna^ns  (b.  about  115), 
who  cites  the  Gospel  at  length.  Ilii)polvtus,  Apoli- 
iiariu.s,  and  Papias,  all  three  are  to  be  added  ius  wit- 
nesseB  to  the  genuineness.    These  testimonios  and 


other  facts  cannot  be  explained  on  the  supposition 
that  the  (iospel  is  post-apostolic.  Fifty  or  sixty 
years  after  John's  death  we  find  it  generally  re- 
ceived, and  held  in  highest  esteem.  The  concur- 
rence of  evidence  is  so  strong,  that  it  was  not  till 
late  in  the  history  of  rationalism,  that  its  genuine- 
ness was  attacked.  It  remained  for  the  Tiibingen 
school  to  do  this,  who  hold  that  the  author  of  the 
Gospel  cannot  be  the  same  as  the  writer  of  the 
Apocalypse.  But,  whatever  differences  of  idiom 
there  may  be,  the  spirit  tliat  pervades  the  two 
writings  is  the  same ;  and  the  variations  of  lan- 
guage are  explained  by  the  difterence  of  the  theme 
and  the  time  of  their  composition. 

The  Appendix  (chap,  xxi.)  of  the  Gospel  is  also 
to  be  taken  into  account  as  evidence  for  its  genu- 
ineness. This  chapter  bears  marks  of  being- 
written  by  the  apo.stle  himself  (ver.  24).  It  was 
written  by  him  after  the  first  composition,  and 
added  to  the  Gospel,  not  by  his  own  hand,  but  by 
the  hand  of  another,  perhaps  by  the  presbyter 
John  (vers.  24,  25).  He  bore  witness  to  the  au- 
thorship ;  and  this  Appendix  must  liave  been  add- 
ed very  soon  after  the  composition  of  the  Gospel, 
as  it  is  not  wanting  in  a  single  manuscript. 

[Lit.  — The  Johannean  literature  has  grown 
very  rapidly  during  the  last  twenty  years,  espe- 
cially in  consequence  of  the  assaults  made  on 
the  genuineness  of  the  fourth  Gospel  bv'  .Strauss^ 
Baur,  Keini,  Kenan,  and  their  sympathizers.  As 
Ebrard,  in  Ilerzog,  gives  no  literature,  we  append, 
here  a  selection  of  the  most  important  works, 
referring  for  fuller  lists  to  Schaff's  Church  His- 
tory, revised  edition,  vol.  i.,  1882,  pp.  406  sqq., 
and  to  Gregory's  Appendix  to  his  translation  of 
Luthardt's  Commentary,  Edinburgh,  1875. 

I.  Bior/raphical  and  Critical.  —  Fn.  TuKXfii  i 
Life  and  Character  of  St.  John  the  Eranj/ilist  (Lon- 
don, 1850);  Dean  .Stanley:  Sermons  ami  E.tsays 
on  Ihe  Apostolic  Aye  (3d  ed.,  1874,  pp.  234-281); 
Krexkel:  D.  Apostel  Johannes  (Leipzig,  1871); 
.J.  C'ATKRcaAN:  Ecclcsice  Ephesince  de  ol/itu  Jormnis 
apostoli  narralio,  ex  rersione  J.  Carmenica  .la-culi  I'., 
latine  (AV'ien,  1877);  IMaciio.nald  :  'I'lic  Life  and 
Writinys  of  St.  John  (Xew  York.  1877);  Xiesk: 
Das  Lcben  des  liciliycn  Johannes  (Leipzig,  1878): 
CuLCUO.ss:  John,  wliom  Jesus  lored  (New  York, 
1878).  Compare  tlie  biographical  sketches  in  the 
Introductions  to  the  Conimentaries  of  LI'cke, 
Lange,  Luthahdt,  GoilET,  etc. 

II.  Doctrinal.  —  The  .Johannean  tyjie  of  doc- 
trine is  expounded  by  Neaxdkk  (1847),  F^uom- 
MANN  (D.  Johann.  Lehrhcqrid,  Ix'ipzig,  1839), 
C.  Keinh.  Kii.sTi.ix  (1843),'  Reuss  (La  Thad. 
johannique,  l^aris  1879),  SciiMin,  B.vrii.  Hilck.n- 
FF.i.D  (1849  and  1863),  B.  Weiss  (D.  Johann. 
Lehrheyri/f,  1862,  and  in  Biht.  Theot.  des  N.  T., 
3d  ed.,  lis80). 

III.  Commentaries  on  Ihe  Gospel.  —  Lampe 
(1724,  3  vols.),  Ll-CKE  (1820;  3ded.,  1843),  Tiio- 
l.i'CK  (1827;  7tli  ed.,  1857),  Hencste.mikuc 
(1863;  2d  ed.,  1867;  English  translation,  1865), 
l>i;TilA]ti)T  (1852  ;  2d  ed.,  entirely  rewritten,  1875, 
1876;  translated  by  Gregory),  De  Wktte-Bui'ik- 
.NEit  (5th  ed.,  1863),  Meyek  (6th  ed.  by  Weiss, 
1880),  EwAi.i)  (1861),  GoDKT  (1865;  2d  ed.,  1.S77  ; 
3d  ed.,  1881-85,  3  vols. ;  translated  and  edited 
by  I'rof.  Timothy  Dwight,  N.Y.,  18,S6,  2  vols.), 
Lanok  (as  translated  and  enlarged  by  Schan, 
New    York    and    Edinburgh,    1871).    \\  estcdTT 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST. 


1191 


JOHN  THE  BAPTIST. 


(ill  Spi-d/cer's  Commenlary,  1879),  jMilligan  and 
MouLToN  (in  Schaff's  Popular  Commentary, 
1880),  R.  GovETT  (1881),  Keil  (1881),  Couard 
(188-2),  I\r.  F.  Sadler  (1883). 

IV.  Special  Treatises  on  the  Genuineness  and 
Credibility.  —  (1)  AVriters  against  the  tJenuine- 
ness:  E.  Evanson  (1792),  K.  G.  Hretsciinei- 
DER  (1820),  Bauh  (1844,  and  again  in  1847,  18.59), 
Keim  (1807),  ScoHLTEN  (1871),  .Samuel  David- 
son (1868  and  1882),  A.  Thoma  (Die  Genesis  des 
Johannes  Evangeliums,  Berlin,  1882),  Edwin  A. 
Abbott  (in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  vol.  x.,  art. 
Gospels,  1879).  (2)  Writers  for  the  Genuine- 
ness: Schi.eiermacher,  LucKE  (1820  and  1840), 
Bleek  (1846  and  1862),  and  De  Wette  (after 
some  hesitation,  1837;  5th  ed.,  by  Bruckner, 
1863),  Credner  (1836),  Neander  (1837),  Tiio- 
LUCK  (1837),  Andrews  Norton  (1837-44,  3  vols. ; 
2d  ed.,  1846),  Ebrard  (1845),  Astie  (1863), 
TisCHENDORF  (1865;  4th  ed.,  1866),  Riggenbach 
(1866),  Meyer  (Commentan/,  5th  ed.,  1869),  Weiss 
(6th  ed.  of  Meyer,  1880),  Van  Osterzee  (1867, 
against  Scholten,  English  translation  by  Ilurst), 
Lange  (1871),  Sanday  (1872),  Lutiiardt  (2d 
ed.,  1875),  LiGHTFOOT  (in  the  Contemporary  Re- 
view, 1875-77,  against  Supernatural  Relif/ion). 
Beyschlag  (Zur  Johanneisclien  Frage,  Gotha, 
1876),  George  P.  Fisher  (Beginnings  of  Chris- 
tianity, 1877),  Godet  (Commentaire  ,  3d  ed., 
'■^  compCetement  revue"  vol.  i..  Introduction  histo- 
■•■ique  et  critique,  Paris,  1881,  376  pp.),  Westcott 
(Introduction  to  the  Gospels,  1862,  1875,  and  Coni- 
mentary,  1879),  JIcClellan  (The  Four  Gospels, 
1875),  MiLLKiAN  (several  articles  in  the  Contem- 
porary Review,  for  1807,  1868,  1871,  and  in  his  and 
Moulton's  Conniientai-y,  1880),  Ezra  Abbot 
(The  Authorship  of  the  Fourth  Gospel:  TheExternal 
incidences,  Boston,  1880).  See  also  E.  II.  Sears  : 
The  Fourth  Gospel,  the  Heart  of  Christ,  Boston, 
1872;  and  T.  Griffith:  The'Gospel  of  the  Di- 
vine Life :  a  Study  of  the  Fourth  Evangelist,  Lon- 
don, 1881. 

V.  Commentaries  on  the  Epistles.  —  Calvin, 
Bullinger,  LI'cke  (3d  ed.,  1856),  De  Wette 
(18.37;  5th  ed.  by  Bruckner,  1863),  Neander 
(1851 ;  English  translation  by  Mrs.  C'onant,  18.)2), 
DtisTERDiECK  (1852-56,  2  vols.).  IIuther  (in 
jMeyer's  Commentary,  1855;  4th  ed.,  1880),  F.  D. 
Maurice  (18.57),  Ebrard  (in  (^lsii-^usen's  Com- 
mentary, 1859;  translated  by  W.  B.  Pope,  Edin- 
burgh, 1860),  Ewald(1861),  BRAUNB(in  Lange's 
Commentan/,  1805;  English  edition  by  Mombert, 
1867),  Candlish  (1866),  Erich  Haupt  (1869; 
English  translation  by  W.  B.  Pope,  Edinburgh, 
1879),  R.  Rothe  (1879),  C.  A.  Wolf  (1881),  B. 
F.  Westcott  (1883).  For  Lit.  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse, see  Revelation.]  ebrakd. 

JOHN  THE  BAPTIST,  son  of  the  priest  Zacha- 
rias  and  Elisabeth  ;  born  six  months  before  Jesus, 
and  probably  in  the  early  part  of  the  second  half 
of  the  year  749  A.U.C.  (B.C.  5),  in  a  city  of 
.ludah,  according  to  a  Jewish  tradition,  Hebron 
or  Jutta.  His  birth  was  announced  by  an  angel 
of  the  Lord  (Luke  i.  13),  who  prophesied  that  he 
should  be  anointed  v\ith  the  spirit  and  power  of 
Elijah.  For  thirty  years  we  hear  nothing  of  him, 
except  that  he  was  in  the  deserts  (Luke  i.  80). 
He  suddenly  appeared,  at  the  end  of  this  interval, 
as  a  reformer  and  prophet.  His  appearance  was 
that  of  an  ascetic.     His  clothing  consisted  of  a 


garment  of  camel's  hair  bound  by  a  leathern 
girdle ;  his  food,  locusts  and  wild  honey  (Matt, 
iii.  4,  etc.).  The  angelic  announcement  that  he 
should  drink  neither  wine  nor  strong  drink  seenjs 
to  indicate  that  he  took  the  vows  of  a  Nazarite. 
John  stands  out  in  sharp  contrast  to  the  iiuinners 
of  his  age ;  and  his  message,  to  its  ways  of  think- 
ing. The  central  doctrine  of  his  preacliing  was 
ill  opposition  to  tlie  rigiiteousness  of  woi'ks,  — 
repentance  in  view  of  the  near  approach  of  the 
kingdom  of  God.  With  his  preaching  he  as.so- 
ciated  a  baptism  of  repentance  looking  to  the 
forgiveness  of  sins  (Matt.  iii.  11;  Luke  iii.  3; 
Acts  xiii.  24).  It  was  a  confession  of  personal 
guilt  (Matt.  iii.  6),  and  an  invitation  into  the 
circle  of  those  who  were  expecting  the  kingdom 
of  heaven.  It  was,  however,  a  baptism  only  of 
water,  as  opposed  to  the  baptism  of  the  Spirit  and 
fire,  which  was  introduced  by  Christ  (Matt.  iii. 
11  ;  John  i.  26,  etc.) 

John's  fame  extended  far  and  wide  through 
the  land,  and  spread  among  all  classes.  Throngs 
came  to  his  baptism  at  Bethaliara,  of  publicans 
and  soldiers,  as  well  as  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
(Matt.  iii.  7,  xi.  7,  etc.).  There  was  a  preva- 
lent expectation  that  he  might  prove  to  be  the 
Messiah;  and  the  Sanhedrin  sent  out  a  delegation 
to  question  him  about  it  (Luke  iii.  15;  John  i. 
20 ;  Acts  xiii.  25).  His  intluence  over  the  masses, 
was  very  great;  and  it  was  dangerous,  in  their 
presence,  to  deny  that  he  was  a  projihet  (Matt. 
xxi.  26,  etc.).  John  was  more  than  reformer: 
he  was  the  forerunner  of  Christ.  He  represented! 
himself,  m  accordance  with  Isa.  xl.  3,  as  a  "  voice 
crying  in  the  wilderness,"  etc.  (.John  i.  23). 
With  ingenuous  humility  he  rejected  all  claims  of 
Messianic  dignity,  and  points  to  the  Greater  One, 
whose  shoes'  latchet  he  was  not  worthy  to  unloose 
(Matt.  iii.  11;  .John  i.  27;  Acts  xifi.  25).  He 
designated  Christ  more  particularly  as  pre-existent 
to  himself,  though  his  junior  in  birth  (John  i. 
15,  30),  as  the  Son  of  God  (John  i.  34),  and, 
with  reference  to  Isa.  liii.  7,  as  the  "  LaniV)  of 
God  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world" 
(John  i.  29,  36).  His  public  activity  did  not  last 
more  than  two  years  at  the  most.  He  was  cast 
into  the  prison  of  MacluTrus  for  his  bold  arraign- 
ment of  Herod  Antipas  for  his  adulterous  con- 
nection with  Herodias  (John  iii.  24,  etc.),  and 
was  subsequently  beheaded,  in  obedience  to  an 
oath  the  king,  in  a  moment  of  voluptuous  fes- 
tivity, made  to  Salome,  Herodias'  daughter  (Matt, 
xiv.  3  .sqq.,  etc.).  According  to  Josephus,  the 
reason  for  the  beheadal  was  jealousy  at  John's 
preponderant  influence  with  the  people  (Antiq., 
XVIII.  5,  2).  The  mission  of  the  deputation  to 
Christ  from  his  prison  is  not  to  be  attributed  to 
any  doubt  that  lie  was  the  Slessiah,  but  to  a  feel- 
ing of  discontent  with  his  slow  and  imexpected 
method  of  procedure  (Matt.  xi.  2 ;  Luke  vii.  19, 
etc.).  Christ  pronounced  John  the  Baptist  to  be 
the  greatest  among  the  prophets,  although  less 
than  the  least  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven  (Luke 
vii.  28).  He  was  a  "  burning  and  shining  light  " 
(John  V.  33,  35),  and  the  Elijah  whose  coming^ 
prophets  had  predicted  (Mai.  iii.  1  ;  .Tohn  i.  21, 
etc.).  He  did  no  miracle  (John  x.  41);  but  he 
prepared  tlie  way  of  tlie  Lord,  and  stands  on  a 
lofty  plane  of  pre-eminence,  for  his  self-denial, 
intrepid   courage,   and   cliildlike   humility.      He 


JOHN. 


11!  "2 


JOHN. 


represents  tlie  completion  of  the  old  dispensation, 
which,  like  the  morning  star,  was  paling  before 
the  rising  sun  of  the  new  economy  (John  iii.  30). 
Lit.  —  See  the  various  Commentaries  and  Lives 
of  Chrisl  [HoLJiES  :  John  the  Baptist,  Hampton 
Lecture,  London.  1783;  Reynolds:  John  the 
Baptint,  London,  187-4  ;  Symington  :  Vox  Claman- 
tis.  Life  and  Ministri/  of  John  the  Baptist,  London, 
1882].  "  GiJDER. 

JOHN  is  the  name  of  twent3--three  popes. — 
John  I.,  Saint,  b.  in  Siena,  and  made  Bishop  of 
Rome,  Aug.  13,  523.  He  was  sent  by  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  to  Byzantium,  to  repre- 
sent the  cause  of  the  Arians,  against  whom  the 
emperor,  Justin  IL,  had  issued  an  edict.  Tradi- 
tion says  he  was  received  with  much  honor  at  the 
Eastern  capital.  Returning  to  Ravenna,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  where  he  died  Jlav  IS,  526. 

—  John  II.  (Dec.  31,  532-May  27,  53."^)  had  to 
make  many  queer  shifts  between  the  dogmatical 
prescripts  of  the  Emperor  Justinian  and  the  dog- 
matical decisions  of  his  predecessor,  Hormisdas. 

—  John  III.  (July  14,  .560-July  13,  573).  — John  IV., 
b.  in  Dalmatia,  and  consecrated  Pope,  Dec.  25, 
640;  d.  Oct.  12,  642.  He  was  zealous  in  estab- 
lishing monasteries.  In  the  debate  on  the  Mono- 
thelitic  confession  of  the  Patriarch  Sergius,  he 
placed  liiniself  at  the  head  of  the  opposite  party, 
and  defended  the  orthodoxy  of  his  predecessor, 
Honorius.  His  synod  in  Rome  of  041  condemned 
Monothelitism.  — -John  V.  (May  or  July,  685-Aug. 
2,  686)  was  a  Syrian  liy  birth,  and  spent  rao.st  of  the 
time  of  his  reign  in  lied.  His  alleged  letters  are 
probably  spurious.  —  John  VI.  (Oct.  30,  701-,Tan. 
10,  705).  —John  VII.  (.March  1,  705-Oct.  18,  707) 
received  from  Justinian  H.  the  canons  of  the 
Council  of  Tiulhi,  l)ut  dared  not  pronounce  upon 
them.  —  John  VIII.,  a  Roman  by  birth,  and  made 
Bishop  of  Rome,  Dec.  14,  872.  He  was  a  bold 
spirit,  of  restless  ambition,  and  skilled  in  state- 
craft. He  conceived  large  plans  of  extending  the 
territory  of  the  Pope  over  all  of  Central  and 
Southern  Italy,  and  of  using  the  emperors  in  the 
interest  of  the  papal  power  in  Italy.  They  were 
all  shattered,  tie  crowned  King  Charles  tlie  Bald 
as  emperor,  875.  The  king  iii.ide  him  large  dona- 
tions of  territory.  In  881  he  crowned  his  suc- 
cessor, Charles  the  Fat,  expecting  to  get  aid 
against  the  Saracens.  In  this  he  failed.  He 
recognized  Photius  as  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
in  the  hope  of  securing  the  aid  of  the  Byzantine 
emperor  to  further  his  schemes  in  Italy.  Fintling 
himself  disappointed,  he  retracted  the  recognition. 
He  confirmed  Methodius  as  bishop  among  the 
Slavs.  He  was  murdered  with  a  hammer,  Dec. 
15,  882.  Three  hundred  and  eight  of  John's 
letters  are  extant.     See  Maxsi  :  C'oncil.,  T.  xvii. 

—  John  IX.  (June,  8!)8-July,  000)  held  two  .synod.s, 

—  one  in  Home,  which  gave  Formosus  redress, 
and  another  at  Ravenna,  against  robbery  of 
church  property.  Mansi  :  ConciV.,  xviii. — John 
X.,  raised,  by  the  influence  of  the  profligate  Theo- 
dora, to  the  sees  of  Bologna  and  Ravenna,  and  in 
914  to  the  bishopric  of  Rome.  He  gave  himself 
up  to  worMly  amusements,  and  wa,s  the  first  of 
the  popes  to  enter  armed  into  the  camp.  He  led 
a  succe.ssfid  campaign  against  the  marauding 
Saracens.  He  was  suffocated  in  prison  in  929.  — 
John  XI.  (March,  931-January,  930),  a  son  of 
Marozia  and  Sergius  HI.,  was  atone  time  inipriu- 


oned  by  his  half-brother,  Alberic.  —  John  XII. 
(Octavian)  followed  his  father  as  Prince  (I'atricius) 
of  Rome,  from  which  position  he  was  suddenly 
called,  in  his  sixteenth  or  eighteenth  year,  to  the 
papal  office,  Dec.  10,  955.  Like  his  predecessors, 
he  was  ambitious  to  secure  tiie  supposed  temporal 
rights  of  the  Pope,  and  called  in  Otto  I.  across 
the  Alps  to  his  aid  against  King  Berengar  and  the 
Greeks.  Although  Otto  promised  safety  for  the 
person  of  John,  and  continuance  in  the  inher- 
itance of  Peter,  yet  the  struggle  between  the 
Papacy  and  the  emperors  began  with  him.  He 
secured  from  John  an  oath  never  to  conclude  a 
treaty  with  Berengar  and  the  Greeks.  -John  for- 
got his  pledge,  and  in  903  was  forced  to  flee  before 
Otto  as  he  returned  in  triumph  to  the  city.  The 
Romans  were  compelled  to  take  an  oath  never  to 
elect  or  consecrate  a  pope  without  the  consent  of 
the  emperor  or  his  son.  John  led  a  wanton  life, 
and  the  Lateran  rang  with  sounds  of  impure 
revelry  and  Pagan  oaths  over  games  of  chance. 
He  was  convicted,  by  a  synod  held  in  St.  Peter's 
in  963,  of  various  crimes,  —  such  as  murder,  for- 
nication, perjury,  —  and  deposed.  After  the  de- 
parture of  Otto,  he  returned  to  the  city,  was 
re-instated  by  a  second  synod,  but  died  suddenl)', 
on  May  14,  964,  in  an  adulterous  bed,  of  apo- 
plexy. See  Giesebrecht:  Gesch.  d.  deulscli. 
Kaiserxeil,  and  Di'mmler:  Ottod.  G'ro.«.<c,  Leipzig, 
1876. —John  XIII.  (Oct.  1,  965-Sept.  6,  972)  was 
expelled  from  Rome  by  the  nobility,  but  was 
restored  and  upheld  liy  the  Emperor  Otto,  who, 
at  a  synod  of  Ravenna,  guaranteed  to  the  Roman 
see  the  possession,  not  only  of  the  city  and 
circle  of  Ravenna,  but  every  estate  which  it  had 
ever  held.  Lives  of  him  in  JIuratori  :  Script, 
rerum  Ital.,  T.  iii.  pt.  ii.  —  John  XIV.  (Xovember  or 
December,  983-Aug.  20,  984)  perished  in  a  dun- 
geon of  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  where  he  hii<l 
been  confined  by  Boniface  VII.  — John  XV.  (Sep- 
tember, 985-April,  996)  was  expelled  from  Rome 
by  .lohn  Crescentius,  but  managed  to  return,  and 
to  fill  his  private  coffers  with  tlie  wealth  of  the 
Church.  — John  XVI.  (.May,  997-.March,  99S),  a 
(ireck  by  birth,  was  nuide  Pope  by  John  Crescen- 
tius, but  overtaken  by  Gregory  V.,  and  fearfully 
mutilated  by  him.  —  John  XVII.  (Juru>  l.'J-Dec.  7, 
1003).  — John  XVIII.  (Dec.  25,  1003-.Iune,  1009) 
was,  like  liis  piedcces.sor,  a  mere  tool  in  the  hands 
of  tlie  L'diiiiui  Patrician, the  son  of  .lohn  Crescen- 
tius.-John  XIX.  (July,  1024-January,  1033) 
was  a  layman  when  he  grasped  the  t  iara,  by  force 
and  by  bribery,  after  the  death  of  his  brother, 
Benedict  V^IH.,  and  received  on  one  day  all  the 
ecclesiastical  orders.  —  John  XXI.  (Sept.  8,  1276- 
May  20,  1277)  ought  to  be  counted  as  John  XX., 
but  called  liim.self  .lohn  XXI.  The  confusion 
begins  with  John  XVII.,  who  is  also  called  .lohn 
XVTIL,  some  aiitipope  of  the  name  .lohn  being 
counted  .John  X^'II.  It  is  not  altogether  certain 
whether  .lohn  XXI.  is  identical  with  Petrus 
Hispanus,  the  noted  author  of  several  medical 
and  philosophical  treatises.  Pottiiast:  AVr/. 
Pontif.  Rom.,  vol.  ii. — John  XXII.,  a  Frcncli- 
man,  b.  in  Cahors,  of  humble  parentage,  and 
elected,  by  the  conclave.  Pope  at  Lyons,  Aug.  7, 
1311!.  He  had  his  residence  at  Avignon.  In  1324 
he  showed  himself  the  slave  of  the  French  king 
by  the  excommunication  of  Louis  of  Bavaria, 
who,  in  turn,  called  a  general  council,  declared 


JOHN. 


1193 


JOHN  OP  DAMASCUS. 


John  a  heretic,  secured,  through  a  synod  in  Rome, 
his  deposition  and  tlie  election  of  Nicolaus  V.  to 
his  place.  John  sanctioned  the  custom  of  salut- 
ing the  Virgin  with  three  A  ve  Marias  in  honor 
of  the  Trinity,  deprived  the  towns  of  the  right 
of  electing  their  bishops,  and  left  behind  an  im- 
mense sum  of  money,  which  he  had  secured  by 
annats,  and  otherwise.  He  died  Dec.  4,  1334. 
—  John  XXIII.,  a  Neapolitan  of  fine  talents,  but 
corrupt  morals  ;  d.  Dec.  "22,  1419.  He  secured, 
liy  bribes  and  threats,  his  election,  on  May  17, 
1410,  to  the  papal  throne.  He  was  deposed,  and 
imprisoned  in  Heidelberg;  but,  escaping,  he  fell 
at  the  feet  of  Martin  V.,  and  was  made  cardinal- 
bishop  of  Tusculum.  G.  VOIOT. 
JOHN,  Popess.  See  .Toax,  Pope. 
JOHN  IV.,  Jejunator  (the  Faster),  Patriarch  of 
Constantinople  582-59.);  had  a  high  reputation 
for  piety.  He  became  involved  in  difficulties  with 
Popes  Pelagius  H.  and  Gregory  I.,  by  following 
the  precedent  of  some  of  his  predecessors  in  assum- 
ing the  title  of  (Ecumenical  Patriarch.  Gregory 
was  intensely  aroused  by  this  assumption,  declar- 
ing it  to  be  a  suggestion  of  Satan,  and  an  indica- 
tion of  the  near  advent  of  Antichrist.  John  soon 
died,  and  the  Greek  Church  placed  his  name  on 
the  calendar  of  the  saints.  A  later  and  untrust- 
worthy tradition  states  that  Gregory  had  excom- 
municated him  before  his  death. 

The  writings  attributed  to  .John  (Libellus  pmni- 
tentialis  and  Tractalus  c/e  Confexsione  et  pcenitentia) 
are  of  very  doubtful  authenticity.  See  Life  of 
John,  by  Patriarch  Nicephorus,  and  the  Church 
History  of  ScHRiicKH.  WAGENMANN. 

JOHN  X.,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  known 
for  his  connection  with  the  measures  of  the  Em- 
peror Michael  Paleologus,  looking  to  the  union 
of  Christendom.  He  at  first  refused  his  aid,  and 
declared  the  Latins  heretics,  for  which  he  was 
thrown  into  prison.  He  there  had  leisure  to  inves- 
tigate the  history  of  the  dissensions  of  the  Gi-eek 
and  Latin  churches,  and  to  change  his  mind.  He 
was  released,  and  made  patriarch,  but,  after  the 
death  of  the  emperor,  retired  to  a  cloister  in  1283. 
He  was  again  restored,  and  again  exiled,  dying 
1298.  The  Greek  Church  excludes  his  name 
from  the  number  of  the  orthodox.  GASS. 

JOHN  OF  ANTIOCH,  surnamed  Scholasticus ; 
b.  at  Sirimis,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Antioch  ; 
practised  as  an  advocate  in  the  latter  city,  and  was 
a  presbyter  of  the  Church,  when,  during  the  reign 
of  .Justinian,  he  was  sent  as  apocrisiarius  to  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  Monophysite  controversies  the 
emperor  opposed  the  orthodox;  and,  as  he  could 
not  compel  Eutychius  the  patriarch  to  submit 
to  his  views,  he  had  him  deposed  by  a  synod  of 
564,  and  .John  placed  in  his  stead.  .John,  how- 
ever, is  chiefly  known  to  us  through  his  Collcctio 
Canonum,  which  he  made  while  presbyter  of  An- 
tioch. It  contains  eighty-six  so-called  apostolical 
canons.  The  Nomocanon,  containing  some  addi- 
tional capita  ecclesiaslica  and  a  number  of  civil 
laws,  is  also  ascribed  to  him.  Both  collections 
are  found  (Greek  and  Ijatiu)  in  H.  Justelli  : 
Bihliotheca  Juris  Canonici,  Paris,  1662,  t.  ii.  The 
date  of  his  death  is  generallv  fixed  at  578. 

JOHN  OF  AVILA,  the  modern  apostle  of  Anda- 
lusia; b.  at  Almoddvar  del  Campo,  in  the  diocese 
of  Toledo,  1502;  d.  at  Montilla,  May  10,  1569, 
began  to  study  law  at  Salamanca,  when  he  was 


fourteen  years  old,  but  retired  soon  after  to  his 
home,  where  for  three  years  he  led  a  life  of  tlie 
severest  asceticism.  After  studying  tlieology  at 
Alcala,  under  Domingo  de  Soto,  he  began  to  preach 
at  Seville,  Cordova,  Granada,  everywhere  produ- 
cing the  deepest  impression.  He  was  summoned 
before  the  Inquisition,  but  refused  to  answer.  He 
was  offered  the  highest  preferments  in  the  Church, 
but  declined  to  accept.  His  health  failed,  how- 
ever; and  the  last  twenty  years  of  his  life  he  had 
to  confine  himself  to  teaching  in  a  monastery. 
Several  of  his  works,  De  tos  malos  lenrjuayes  del 
Muiulo,  Epislolario  espiritual,  were  translated  into 
French,  English,  and  German.  A  collected  edi- 
tion appeared  in  Madrid,  1757,  in  nine  volumes 
quarto.  His  life  lias  been  written  by  Luis  de 
Granada  and  Nicolas  Antonio  {Bililiotheca  His- 
pana  Nova,  I.).  benrath. 

JOHN  OF  CHUR  (Coire),  surnamed  Riitberg. 
The  term  "  Friends  of  God "  is  applied  to  the 
mystics  and  pietists  in  the  latter  part  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  who  yearned  for  a  more  vital 
type  of  religion  than  they  found  in  the  Church. 
Here  and  there  they  formed  brotherhoods,  and 
not  infrequently  laymen  were  their  leaders.  Thej 
flourished  especially  in  the  Rhineland,  Cologne, 
Strassburg,  and  the  Netherlands.  Eckart  (d. 
.about  1329)  .and  Tauler  (1290-1361)  belonged  to 
their  number,  and  also  the  author  of  the  work 
called  Tfie  German  Theology. 

John  of  Chur,  the  son  of  a  rich  merchant,  was 
one  of  the  "  Friends  of  God."  Suddenly  arrested 
in  a  wild  career,  he  gave  himself  up  entirely  to 
mystical  contemplations.  He  renounced  all  his 
fortune,  to  which  he  had  fallen  heir  by  the  death 
of  his  father,  and  distributed  it  for  "benevolent 
purposes.  He  regarded  suffering  as  a  special  gift 
of  divine  grace ;  and  even  evil  thoughts,  doubts, 
and  impure  desires,  he  believed  were  to  be  pa- 
tiently endured,  rather  than  striven  against,  for 
they  were  dispensed  by  God.  He  taught  that  the 
perfect  m.an  "  has  become  one  with  God  when 
he  wants  nothing  else  except  what  God  wDls." 
About  1357  he  sought  to  unite  his  friends  who 
were  of  the  same  spirit  into  a  society.  From 
indications  in  his  writings,  we  conclude  that  Chur, 
or  Coire,  in  the  canton  of  the  Grisons,  Switzer- 
land, w.as  his  native  city.  In  1365  he  determined 
to  separate  himself  from  the  bustle  of  the  town, 
and  led  with  two  companions,  in  a  miraculous 
manner,  by  a  black  dog,  he  wandered  to  a  moun- 
tain, where  he  built  a  chapel.  He  died  about  the 
year  1380.  Little  is  known  definitely  about  his 
life ;  but  I  am  led  by  my  investigations  to  con- 
clude that  he  built  his  chapel  on  a  mountain  in 
the  canton  St.  Gall,  near  the  castle  Riitberg. 
For  this  reason  I  have  given  him  the  distinguish- 
ing surname  of  Riitberg.  Among  the  printed 
writings  of  John  of  Chur  the  principal  one  is 
The  Book  of  the  Five  Men  (D.  Buch  von  d.  5  Man- 
nen). 

Lit. — Denifle  :  D.  Goltesfreund  im  Oherland 
n.  NH-olaus  v.  Basel,  Munich,  1875  ;  Aug.  Jundt  : 
Lcs  Amis  de  Dieu  au  quatorzihne  si'ecte,  Paris, 
1879.  {C.  SCHMIDT)  AUG.  JUXDT. 

JOHN  OF  DAMASCUS,  surnamed  Chrysor- 
rhoas  (f/old pouring)  on  account  of  his  eloquence, 
and  called,  among  the  Arabs,  Mansur,  is  the  last 
of  the  (ireek  Fathers,  and  the  most  authoritative 
theologian  in   the  Oriental  Church.     The  main 


JOHN  OF  DAMASCUS. 


1194       JOHN  OF  MONTE  CORVINO. 


facts  of  his  life  are  taken  from  John  of  Jerusa- 
lem, who  wrote  in  the  middle  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury, and  in  a  legendary  style.  He  was  born  in 
Damascus  (then  under  Saracenic  rule),  at  the 
close  of  the  seventh  or  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century.  His  father,  Sergius,  placed  him  under 
the  instruction  of  the  Italian  monk  Cosmas.  At 
the  death  of  his  father,  he  was  raised  to  high 
official  position  by  the  caliph.  About  the  year 
730  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian.  out  of  revenge 
for  a  book  John  had  written  in  defence  of  images, 
the  use  of  which  he  was  seeking  to  abolish,  con- 
victed him,  by  the  aid  of  a  forged  letter,  of  trea- 
son to  the  caliph,  who  ordered  one  of  his  hands 
to  be  cut  off.  .John  prostrated  himself  before 
the  Virgin,  W'ho  restored  the  maimed  part.  Out 
of  gratitude  to  her,  whom  he  calls  the  "  Mother 
of  God,  and  mistress  of  all  creation "'  (De  Fide 
Orthoil..  iii.  !"_',  iv.  14),  he  renounced  his  office, 
to  which  he  liad  been  recalled,  distributed  his 
goods  amongst  his  relatives  and  in  abns,  and 
entered  the  convent  of  St.  Sabas,  near  Jerusa- 
lem. He  was  subsequently  ordained  presbyter 
of  .Jerusalem.  In  the  last  period  of  his  life  he 
defended  with  great  zeal,  against  the  Emperor 
Constantine  Capronymus,  the  use  of  images,  trav- 
elling through  Syria,  and  even  going  to  Constan- 
tinople, in  this  interest.  It  is  probable  that  he 
returned  to  the  convent,  where  he  died  some 
time  between  the  years  754  and  787. 

John's  principal  work  is  the  Fountain  of  Knowl- 
edge (ct/}./)  )v(j(7fws'),  which  consists  of  three  parts, 
—  an  application  of  Aristotle's  Dialectic  to  the- 
ology, a  Treatise  on  Heresies,  and  An  Accunite 
Exposition  of  the  most  Orthodox  Faith  (hdoaic  mpiiSiic 
mareui- v(>tim)d^ov) .  He  developed  a  system  of  the- 
ology, using  philosopliy  in  the  service' of  theolo- 
gy, com]iaring  the  latter  to  a  princess  who  is 
waited  upon  by  maids.  In  this,  as  also  by  his 
confessed  dependence  upon  tradition,  he  shows 
himself  to  be  the  forerunner  of  mediaeval  scholas- 
ticism. In  the  department  of  theology  proper  he 
affirms  that  God's  nature  is  miknowalile,  and  that 
therefore  negative  attributes  only  can  be  predicat- 
ed of  him;  e.g.,  i/ifinity,  //iComiirelKMisibility,  etc. 
But,  in  his  relations  to  tliat  whicli  is  not  himself, 
we  may  speak  of  him  as  good,  just,  etc.  He 
vindicates  the  arguments  for  (Jod's  existence,  in- 
.stancing  the  cosniological  proof,  and  that  which 
argues  from  imperfect  being  to  the  idea  of  a  per- 
fect personal  (iod.  He  investigates  the  Trinity, 
and  finds  in  it  a  union  of  the  fimdiimental  ideas 
of  Heathenism  and  .Juda'ism,  in  that  the  plu- 
rality, as  well  as  unity,  is  preserved.  He  finds 
an  aiuilogy  to  the  triuitarian  persons  in  the  mind, 
word,  and  breath.  In  consonance  with  the  Ori- 
ental Eatliers,  he  teaches  tlie  subordination  of  Ihe 
Second  and  Third  I'(;r.son.s.  His  doctrine  of  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  a  modification  of 
theirs,  and  approaches  nearer  that  of  the  Latin 
Fathers :  "  Tlie  Spirit  proceedeth  from  the  Father 
through  the  Son"  (De  Fide  Ortho.,  i.  8).  With 
reference  to  the  decree  of  predestination,  he  says 
that  (iod  foresees  our  acts  of  free  will,  but  does 
not  fore-ordain  them.  In  the  departnu'nt  of 
Christotoi/i/,  .John  pre.sse.s  tln^  n-ality  and  full  va- 
lidity of  the  two  natures.  The  /leivon  of  Clirist 
is,  a-s  it  were,  the  common  meeting-ground  of  tin; 
humanity  and  the  divinity.  He  affirms  full  lili- 
•rty  of  liotli    natures,   but   denies   to   Cliri.st  all 


spiritual  growth,  and  that  his  prayer  was  in  the 
true  sense  prayer ;  it  being  only  a  means  to  teach 
men  by  example,  or  to  honor  God.  The  work  of 
Christ  was  to  restore  what  sin  had  ruined.  Sin 
has  its  origin  in  the  freedom  of  the  will.  By  the 
Fall,  man  forfeited  his  immortality,  but  did  not 
entirely  lose  the  freedom  of  the  will.  God  had 
made  provision  beforehand  for  the  contingency 
of  sin,  creating  woman,  as  well  as  man,  that  the 
race  might  be  continued  by  propagation,  and 
forming  him  with  the  capacity  of  suffering,  that 
through  it,  after  the  Fall,  he  might  be  chastened 
(ii.  28).  Punishment  is  an  act  of  justice,  but 
has  also  an  educational  purpose.  Christ  suffered 
death  as  a  ransom  to  redeem  us  from  the  Devil 
(iii.  18,  27).  (iod  hereby  asserts  his  justice,  and 
manifests  his  love.  Satan  had  a  just  claim  to 
the  r.ace,  which  had  to  be  paid  off.  The  benefits 
of  the  atonement  are  appropriated  through  the 
choice  of  our  own  free  will  and  the  continued 
activity  of  Christ  through  the  Spirit  in  the  heart. 
In  baptism  the  Spirit  unites  itself  with  the  water 
at  the  prayer  of  consecration,  and  works,  in  be- 
lievers, regeneration.  In  the  Lord's  Supper  the 
elements  are  changed  into  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ,  and  become  part  of  the  essence  (aoy- 
raaii)  of  our  souls  and  bodies.  Although  he  gives 
no  fully  developed  theory  of  trausubstantiation, 
yet  he  teaches  it  rhetorically,  and  also  that  the 
sacrament  is  a  bloodle.ss  sacrifice. 

In  addition  to  his  great  work,  a  number  of 
smaller  writings  have  come  down  to  us  under  his 
name.  He  commented  upon  the  Pauline  Epis- 
tles, wrote  homilies,  and  composed  .some  tine 
hynms  [of  which  one  of  the  most  beautiful  is 
the  resurrection  hymn  found  in  many  English 
hymn-books,  "  The  Day  of  Resurrection,  Earth, 
tell  it  out  abroad,"  uvaamaajc:  ijiiipa].  The  in- 
teresting romance  of  Barlaam  and  Joasaph,  in 
which  monastic  life  is  held  up  to  admiration, 
may  have  been  edited  by  him. 

Lit. — The  works  of  John  of  Damascus  were 
edited  by  Lk  Quikx  in  2  folio  vols.,  Paris,  1712. 
[See  F.  11.  .T.  (iHU.NDLEiiNEu  :  Joh.  Damascenus, 
Utreclit,  187(j ;  .Tosiii-il  Langen:  Joh.  r.  Damas- 
cus, (iotha,  1870;  J.  II.  Lurrox :  St.  John  of 
Damasfus,  London,  1882. |]       aI'GUST  DOUxkr. 

JOHN,  MouDpliysite  bishop  of  Ephesus;  lived 
in  the  sixth  century.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
Church  History,  in  three  part.s,  from  the  time  of 
the  earliest  Konian  emperors  to  .58.5.  A  part  of  it 
was  discovered  in  18.53,  among  some  Syriac  manu- 
scripts, and  edited  by  Cureton,  under  the  title  Tlie 
Tliiril  Part  of  the  Kcclcsiaslind  History  of  John, 
liishop  of  Ephesus,  Oxford,  18.53;  English  transla- 
tion livK.   I'livne  Sniitli.  ()\-f.,  ISOO.      NK.STLK. 

JOHN  OF  MONTE  CORVINO,  the  apostle  of 
the  iMongols ;  b.  in  iMonte  Corvino,  Southern 
Italy,  about  12.50;  d.  1332.  lie  went  into  Persia, 
and  proved  very  successful  in  winning  the  Mon- 
gols to  Christianity,  lie  was  sunnnoned  back  to 
Italy  in  1288,  to  rejiort  in  person  about  the  great 
work.  In  1201  he  was  connuissioned  to  labor 
amongst  the  peojile  of  China,  whose  emperor, 
Kublai,  had  oxiiressed  a  desire  to  have  Christian 
teachers.  He  dwelt  utterly  alone  for  eleven 
years,  surrounded  by  Pagans  and  unfriendly  Nes- 
toi-ians,  and  sulTering  violent  persecution.  lie 
baptized  .six  thousand  heathen,  translated  the 
Psalms   and   New    Testament,   and   gathered   a 


JOHN  OF  SALISBURY. 


1195 


JOHN  NEPOMUK. 


school  of  boys.     In   1305   seven   assistants  were 
sent  to  liis  aid,  who  carried  to  him  the  title  of 

Arolit)islio|)  of  I'ekin. 

JOHN  OF  SALISBURY  (called  also  Parvus, 
the  Little),  b.  of  Saxon  parentage,  between  1110 
and  llL'O,  in  Salisbury  (Saruni);  d.  in  France, 
Oct.  2.),  1180.  He  went  to  France,  as  the  cnstou) 
then  was,  and  studied  under  Abelard  and  other 
teachers.  He  became  eminent  for  his  attainments 
in  pliiio.sophy  and  theology.  In  HIS  he  returned 
to  England,  with  letters  of  recommendation  from 
Bernard  of  C'lairvaux,  and  Peter  the  Cistercian 
abbot.  Theobald,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  ap- 
pointed him  his  chaplain  and  secretary.  The 
responsibility  of  the  ecclesiastical  concerns  of 
Great  Kritain  largely  devolved  upon  him.  He 
stood  in  relations  of  clo.se  intimacy  with  popes 
Eugenius  III.  and  Adrian  IV.  By  his  influence, 
the  claims  of  Alexander  III.  were  recognized  in 
England  as  against  those  of  Victor  IV.  He  was 
the  intimate  adviser  of  Thomas  h  Becket,  and 
shared  his  misfortunes,  going  into  exile  with  him 
to  France.  After  that  prelate's  murder,  he  zeal- 
ously interested  himself  in  his  canonization.  In 
1176  he  was  chosen  bishop  of  Chartres,  and  lived 
to  administer  its  affairs  four  years.  One  of  the 
last  acts  of  his  life  was  a  speech  at  the  Eateran 
Council  (1179),  in  which  he  warned  against  eccle- 
siastical assumption,  and  urged  the  gospel  as  the 
rule  of  life. 

John's  writings  consist  of  many  Letters  to  popes 
and  other  dignitaries,  a  work  on  ancient  and 
Christian  philosophy,  entitled  Entheticus,  and 
two  works  on  ecclesiastical  and  political  ethics, 
designed  for  princes  and  statesmen,  and  entitled 
Policralicus  and  Metalogicus.  He  also  wrote  Licea 
of  Anselm  and  Thomas  a  Becket,  whose  latter 
sufferings  he  does  not  hesitate  to  compare  with 
the  passion  of  our  Lord.  His  complete  works 
were  edited,  in  5  vols.,  by  Giles  (Oxford,  1848), 
and  MiGNE  (^Patrol.  Lai.,  vol.  xcix.).  See  H. 
Reuter:  Jo/i.  v.  Salisbury,  Berlin,  1842;  Schaar- 
SCHMIDT :  Joh.  Salisbury  nach  Leben  u.  Sludien, 
Leipzig,  1862.  WAGENMAnn. 

JOHN,  Patriarch  of  Thessalonica  at  the  clo.se 
of  the  seventh  and  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
centuries ;  was  noted  as  a  defender  of  image-wor- 
ship ;  and  wrote  on  that  subject  a  dialogue  be- 
tween a  Jew  and  a  Christian,  of  which  an  extract 
was  read  aloud  at  the  second  council  of  Nica^a. 
See  M.\NSi  :   Counc,  XIII.  p.  156. 

JOHN  (Eleemosynarius,  tJie  Almsgirer),  so  called 
because  of  his  extraordinary  benevolence ;  Patri- 
arch of  Constantinople  from  606  to  616,  when  he 
died  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  whither  he  had  fled 
before  the  persecution  of  the  Persians.  It  is 
pleasing  to  add  that  benevolence  was  not  his  only 
virtue.  He  was  a  great  lover  of  peace,  forgiving 
towards  his  enemies,  and  willing  to  bear  patiently 
his  own  ills,  while  he  helped  others  to  bear  theirs. 
He  is  commemorated  upon  Jan.  23,  and  under 
that  date  the  Bollandists  tell  many  edifying  tales 
about  him. 

JOHN  FREDERICK,  son  of  John  the  Constant, 
and  elector  of  Saxony  1532-1547;  b.  at  Torgau, 
June  30,  l.)03 ;  d.  March  3,  1554.  Brought  up  in 
the  lap  of  the  Reformation,  he  became  its  un- 
wavering advocate.  Like  his  father,  he  was  on 
terms  of  most  intimate  friendship  with  Luther, 
■with  whom  he  carried  on  an  uninterrupted  corre- 


spondence. He  increa.sed  the  endowment  of  the 
university  of  Wittenberg  from  the  sequestrated 
revenues  of  convents,  and  in  1548  fcnmdcd  the 
university  of  ,Iena.  His  relations  to  the  imperial 
court  were  unpleasant.  In  1.536  he  entered  into 
a  re-affirmation  of  the  Smalcald  league,  by  which 
the  Protestant  princes  bound  th(Mnselves  to  mutual 
protection  for  ten  years.  In  1544  Charles  was 
left  free  to  give  his  whole  attention  to  afl'airs  in 
(iermany.  A  war  broke  out.  Frederick  was 
finally  defeated,  and  taken  prisoner,  at  Miihlberg, 
April  24,  1547.  He  remained  in  ])rison  till  1552; 
and  the  electoral  office  was  conferred  upon  his 
nephew,  Moritz.  He  lived  as  a  suliject  lor  two 
years  after  he  was  set  at  liberty.  His  fidelity 
under  many  vicissitudes  has  confirmed  the  waning 
courage  of  thousands.  See  Bukkiiakdt  :  D. 
Gefunyenschaft  Joh.  Fr.  d.  Grossiniilliiyen,  1863; 
and  the  Histories  of  the  Reformation. 

JOHN,  surnamed  Lackland,  king  of  England, 
May  26,  1199-Oct.  19,  1216;  was  born  Dec.  24, 
1167;  the  youngest  son  of  Henry  II.  In  1205  his 
quarrel  with  the  Church  and  the  Pope  began.  The 
see  of  Canterbury  was  vacant.  The  monks  elect- 
ed their  sub-prior,  Reginald ;  and  the  king  nomi- 
nated John  de  Gray,  bishop  of  Norwich.  Neither 
the  one  nor  the  other  pleased  the  suft'ragan  bish- 
ops. All  parties  appealed  to  the  Pope  ;  and  Inno- 
cent III.  appointed  Stephen  Langton  archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  As  the  king  refused  to  recognize 
this  appointment,  the  Pope  laid  interdict  on  his 
whole  kingdom  1208,  and  excommunicated  him 
personally  1209.  John,  however,  who  did  not 
seem  to  care  much  about  the  Pope,  went  on  his 
own  way,  very  successful  in  curliing  the  refractory 
clergy,  and  suppressing  occasional  revolts.  Inno- 
cent then  determined  to  burst  the  last  bomb.  In 
1211  he  deposed  John,  and  charged  Philippe  II., 
king  of  France,  with  the  execution  of  the  decree. 
This  took  effect.  John,  a  loose,  cowardly  charac- 
ter, sometimes  made  audacious  by  his  cruelty,  or 
stubborn  by  his  sensuality,  immediately  submitted, 
and  not  only  accepted  Stephen  Langton,  but  even 
consented  to  hold  his  own  kingdom  as  a  fief  of  the 
papal  see,  and  took  an  oath  of  fealty  to  Innocent. 
Utterly  disgusted  at  this  humiliation,  and  gener- 
ally irritated  by  his  irregularities,  the  l.iarons  rose 
against  him,  and  compelled  him  to  sign  I  he  Magna 
Charla,  the  basis  of  English  freedom,  at  Runny- 
niede,  June  15,  1215.  Innocent,  now  his  ally,  tried 
to  come  to  his  rescue,  and  condemned  tlie  charter. 
But  a  large  national  party  was  formed,  compris- 
ing not  only  the  barons,  but  also  the  clergy  and 
the  cities  ;  and,  in  the  war  which  ensued,  John  lost 
one  part  of  the  country  after  the  other,  until  at 
last  he  became  a  true  lackland.  Having  nearly 
escaped  being  drowned  by  fording  the  Wash,  he 
died  at  Newark  Castle,  from  dysentery,  the  result 
of  gluttony  and  fatigue. 

JOHN  NEPOMUK,  the  most  popular  national 
saint  of  Bohemia  ;  canonized  by  Benedict  XIII. 
in  1729;  b.  between  1330  and  1340,  in  Pomuk; 
suffered  martyrdom  at  Prague,  March  20(V),  1393. 
The  facts  of  his  life  are  involved  in  obscurity. 
According  to  the -Jesuit  Bohu.slav  Balbinns  (1670), 
he  studied  at  the  university  of  Prague,  and  after- 
wards became  preacher  at  the  cathedral.  He  was 
the  confessor  of  Queen  Johanna.  Her  husband, 
King  Wenzel,  sought  in  vain,  by  tempting  prom- 
ises, to  induce  him  to  reveal  the  matter  of  her 


JOHN  PHILOPONUS. 


1196 


JOHN  THE  LITTLE. 


confessions.  He  subsequently  resorted  to  impris- 
onmeut  and  torture  to  gain  his  end.  Finding 
himself  still  unsuccessful,  and  incensed  by  a  ser- 
mon which  John  preached  in  the  cathedral,  and  in 
which  he  applied  to  himself  the  words,  •'  In  a 
little  while  ye  shall  not  see  me,"  the  king  ordered 
him  to  be  apprehended,  under  cover  of  the  night, 
and  thrown  from  the  bi-idge  into  the  Moldau 
(138.3).  According  to  the  same  authority,  mira- 
cles were  performed  in  connection  with  his  body. 
Thousands  of  lights  appeared  on  the  river,  and 
his  corpse  was  thrown  upon  a  sand-bar.  A  heaven- 
ly odor  issued  from  it,  and  the  sick  were  cured 
at  his  shrine.  Much  of  this  account  must  be  re- 
garded as  legendary.  The  facts  are  probably 
these  :  a  John  of  Pomuk  did  live  in  the  four- 
teenth centurj',  was  raised  to  high  ecclesiastical 
dignity,  and  afterwards  thrown,  by  command  of 
the  king,  into  the  ]\Ioldau.  But  the  most  authen- 
tic sources  put  the  date  ten  years  later,  in  1393 
(March  20  ?),  and  know  nothing  of  his  being  the 
confessor  of  the  queen.  They  give  conflicting 
reasons  for  the  violent  treatment  of  the  king. 
These  differences  led,  as  early  as  1541,  to  the  sup- 
position of  Ilajek  of  Lobocan,  that  there  were  two 
Johns  of  Pomuk.  dying  within  ten  years  of  each 
other.  The  Jesuit  Buhuslav  (1G70)  followed  this 
supposition,  and  fully  developed  the  legendary 
details.  But  an  able  investigator,  John  Dabrow- 
sky  (17S7),  refuted  the  hypothesis,  and  has  finally 
settled  it  that  there  was  only  one.  The  tradi- 
tion that  John  was  the  queen's  confessor  can  be 
traced  back  to  the  year  1171,  and  no  farther. 

Lit.  —  BoHUSLAV  B.\lbinus  :  Life  of  John 
Nepomuk,  Acta  Sanctorum,  Mail,  iii.  16;  Otto 
Abel  :  D.  Legende  v.  hi.  Job.  Nepomuk,  Berlin, 
1855;  P.  Anton  Frind:  D.  geschichtl.  hi.  Joh. 
Nepomuk;  Eger,  1831.  [See  Palacky  :  Hitttory 
of  Bohemin.']  (i.  LECHLER. 

JOHN  PHILOPONUS  (called  also  Alexandrinus 
ami  Grammaticus),  who  lived  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  fifth,  and  first  ]iart  of  the  si.xth  century,  won  a 
place  among  the  philosophical  and  theological  writ- 
ers of  his  age.  The  chronology  of  his  life  is  very 
uncertain,  and  no  details  are  known,  ile  was  an 
Aristotelian  in  philosophy,  and,  in  the  Christologi- 
cal  controversy  of  the  time,  allied  liimself  to  the 
Egyptian  ]KU-ty,  and  was  a  Monophysite.  His 
principal  theological  work,  the  AiaiTi/Ti/;,  is  lost,  and 
known  oidy  by  quotations.  He  held,  that,  if  Clnlst 
had  more  than  one  nature,  he  had  more  than  one 
person.  He  was  unjustly  reported  by  l.,eontius 
to  be  the  founder  of  the  'i'ritheists.  He  sought  in 
another  work,  iJe  yEleniitali;  Mnndi,  to  establish 
the  Christian  doctrine  of  the  creation  without  the 
aid  of  the  15ible.  He  also  wrote  works  on  the  six 
days  of  creation,  and  on  the  date  of  the  Paschal 
Supper,  putting  it  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  the 
month,  one  day  Ix^fore  the  Mosaic  passover.  Ho 
was  a  prolilic  autiior.  There  is  no  complete  edi- 
tion of  his  woiks  extant.     See  Scharfenbkkg  : 

/>  ./ohiitiru:  I'hilop..  Lips.,  1708.  GAS8. 

JOHN  SCHOLASTICUS,  a  monk  of  the  latter 
part  of  tlic  sixth  ci-utury,  and  a  zealous  advocate 
of  the  monastic  lile;  became  abbot  of  a  convent 
on  Mount  Sinai,  and  died,  at  the  age  of  one  iiun- 
dred,  in  fiOli.  He  n^ceived  the  name  of  Climachus, 
from  a  work  entitled  KTuiiai  rob  ■Kapaittaov.  I  In 
here  gives  a  sketch  of  tiie  conditions  of  the  sold 
through  which  men  pass  in  their  progress  to  the 


perfect  life.  This  course  begins  with  the  forsak- 
ing of  the  world,  and  mortification  of  the  passions, 
and  ends  with  a  composed  state,  in  which  one  en- 
joys already  liere  the  blessings  of  paradise. 

Lit.  —  Daniel  :  Monarchi  Vila  Johannis  Cli- 
maci,  etc.  6A8S. 

JOHN  THE  CONSTANT,  Elector  of  Saxony 
1.525-32 ;  one  of  the  most  zealous  of  the  princely 
supporters  of  the  Reformation ;  b.  in  Jleissen, 
June  30, 1408;  d.  Aug.  10, 1532.  He  early  imbibed 
a  love  for  a  military  life,  and  in  several  campaigns 
under  ^Maximilian  I.,  against  the  Hungarians  and 
Venetians,  he  displayed  great  decision  and  courage. 
At  the  opening  of  the  Reformation  struggle  he 
w-as  already  fifty  years  old.  He  followed  it  with 
interest  from  the  very  beginning,  and  early  laid 
down  an  evangelical  confession.  He  was  an  inti- 
mate friend  and  admirer  of  Luther,  of  whose 
sermons  he  frequently  took  notes.  His  prudence, 
probity,  and  firnmess  contributed  not  a  little  to 
the  progress  of  the  Reformation  ;  and  he  bade  the 
priests  in  his  realm  preach  the  gospel,  and  admin- 
ister the  sacraments  according  to  the  institution 
of  Christ.  He  was  threatened  by  a  league  of 
Catholic  princes,  formed  at  Breslau  1528,  with 
exile  from  his  land  and  people,  unless  he  delivered 
up  Luther,  and  restored  the  old  order  of  things. 
He  expressed  his  refusal  to  comply  by  marshal- 
ling his  troops,  wliich,  however,  it  did  not  become 
necessary  to  use.  At  the  second  diet  of  Spires 
he  signed  a  protest  against  the  action  of  the 
majority,  forbidding  all  religious  iimovations,  or 
discussions  of  the  mass,  until  the  convention  of 
an  oecumenical  council.  He  acknow  ledged  obedi- 
ence to  the  emperor,  except  where  it  conflicted 
with  the  honor  of  God  and  his  soul's  welfare. 
At  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  in  1.530,  his  conduct  w  as 
heroic.  In  spite  of  the  slighting  treatment  of 
Charles  V.,  he  did  not  retreat  a  step  from  his 
evangelical  position,  but  determined  to  stand  "by 
the  imperishable  Word  of  God."  On  Feb.  27, 
1531,  he  entered  into  a  league  of  defence  with 
Protestant  cities  and  princes  for  six  years,  which 
forced  upon  the  emperor  the  religious  peace  of 
Niirnberg  of  July  23,  1532.  On  the  16th  of 
August  lie  was  suddenly  attacked  with  apoplexy 
on  returning  from  a  hunt,  and  died.  Luther 
preached  the  funeral  sermon  from  1  Thess.  iv. 
14-18 ;  and  Melanchtlion  jironounced  a  memorial 
address  soon  after,  in  Latin.  .John  had  not  the 
gifts  of  statesmansliip  his  brother  Frederick  pos- 
sessed ;  but  he  was  a  man  of  fearless  courage, 
deepest  evangelical  convictions,  and  unsullied  life. 
Luther  regarded  him  as  a  "pious,  upright  prince, 
wiiliout  gall."  He  was  a  man  of  peace,  but  a 
good  soldier  of  .Jesus  Christ.  See  Si'.\l.\tin  : 
Life  of  John  the  Constant,  in  IMencke  ;  Ranke  : 
Deutsche  Gesch.  im  Zeitaller  d.  liiformation,  i.-iii. 
[other  Histories  of  the  Reformation,  and  also  the 
Lires  of  /.ullirr]  OSWALD  SCHMIDT. 

JOHN  THE  LITTLE  (Jean  Petit),  b.  in  Nor- 
mandy; d.  al  llesdin,  July  b''.  Mil;  vvas  pro- 
fessor of  theology  in  llie  university  of  I'aris  ;  and 
made,  on  the  instance  of  the  Duke  of  Burgundy 
(who  had  assassinated  tlio  Duke  of  Orleans,  the 
brother  of  the  king),  a  speech,  in  which  he  de- 
fended that  nuuder  with  twelve  rea.sons,  —  one  in 
honor  of  each  of  the  twelve  apostles.  The  speech 
was  comlennied,  not  only  by  the  iniiversity,  but 
also  by  the  Council  of  Constance  (sess.  5),  and  the 


JOHN  THE  PRESBYTER. 


1197 


JONAH. 


orator  was  expelled  from  the  university ;  but  he 
was  munificently  rewarded  by  the  duke.  Com- 
pare Barante  :  Histoire  den  dues  de  Bourqognc, 
1824,  torn.  iv.  pp.  108  sqq.  th.  tressel. 

JOHN  THE  PRESBYTER,  a  half-mythical 
character  of  tlie  twelfth  crntury,  whose  fame 
aroused  an  intense  curiosity,  but  whose  very 
identity  is  a  matter  of  uncertainty.  The  report 
spread  through  Europe,  that,  beyond  Persia  and 
Armenia,  a  powerful  Christian  was  ruliuy,  who 
had  routed  the  Mohammedans  in  a  great  battle. 
He  combined  with  his  royal  functions  the  conse- 
cration of  a  priest.  Pope  Alexander  III.  sent 
his  physician,  Philip,  as  legate,  with  letters  ad- 
dressed to  John  as  the  "  King  of  the  Indies,  and 
most  holy  of  priests  "  {Indiorum  regi,  sacerdotum 
sanclissimo).  A  second  epoch  in  the  reports  and 
fables  concerning  him  begins  in  1245,  with  the 
mission  of  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans  for 
the  evangelization  of  Kastern  Asia.  They  carried 
instructions  from  Innocent  I V^.  to  search  for  the 
kingdom  of  the  Presbyter  John.  Rubruquis,  one 
of  their  number,  reported  that  .John  was  dead, 
but  that  "  he  had  been  a  Nestorian,  lived  as  a 
shepherd,  and,  after  the  death  of  Coirkhan,  was 
made  king."  A  third  epoch  in  this  legendary 
history  begins  with  the  account  of  Marco  Polo, 
who  reported  the  existence  of  a  powerful  Chris- 
tian kingdom  in  Middle  India  which  was  named 
Abascia.  The  similarity  of  the  names  soon  led 
to  the  inference  that  he  referred  to  Abyssinia. 
The  Catholic  bishop,  Jordanus  of  Quilon,  in 
Southern  India,  called  its  king  .John.  He  was 
identified  with  the  Presbyter ;  and  this  continued 
to  be  the  universally  received  view  of  scholars 
till  the  seventeenth  century.  The  present  phase 
of  the  question  is,  that  a  certain  King  John  did 
rule  in  Central  Asia.  The  name  had  been  cor- 
rupted from  Jorkhan,  which,  in  turn,  was  a  corrup- 
tion of  Coirkhan.  He  was  a  Buddhist  himself, 
but  had  Nestorians  among  his  subjects.  His 
daughter  became  a  Christian,  as  did  some  of  his 
descendants.  See  Oppert  :  Der  Presbyter  Johan- 
nes in  Sage  und  Geschichte,  Berlin,  2d  ed.,  1870; 
[G.  Brunet  :  La  le'gende  du  prelre  Jean,  Bor- 
deaux, 1877;  F.  Zahncke:  Der  Priester  Johannes, 
Leipzig,  1879].  w.  germann. 

JOHN,  St.,  Eve  of,  was,  like  Christmas  Eve, 
formerly  celebrated  among  all  Germanic  nations 
with  merry-makings  of  various  descriptions,  — 
lighting  of  bonfires  on  the  hilltops,  dancing  around 
the  fires  with  garlands  and  songs,  jumping  through 
the  fires,  partly  as  sport,  and  partly  as  a  protection 
against  witchcraft,  etc.  It  is  of  Pagan  origin, 
and  refers  to  the  summer  solstice,  falling  on  June 
24.  The  Christian  Church,  however,  adopted  it 
very  early,  and  interpreted  its  peculiar  features 
in  her  own  way.  The  fire  was  put  into  relation 
with  John  i.  8,  explained  as  a  symbol  of  baptism, 
and  blessed  by  the  priest ;  but  in  the  nineteenth 
century  this,  as  so  many  other  popular  customs, 
has  nearly  disappeared.  See  Paciandi  :  Be  cultu 
S.  Joannis.  Kome,  1758;  De  Khautz:  De  ritu 
ignis  in  nulidi  S.  ./..  Vienna,  1759;  Jacob  Grimm: 
Deutsche  Mi/ilmloi/ie,  ]i.  578. 

JOHN,  Knights  of  St.     See  Military  Orders. 

JOHNSON,  Samuel,  D.D.,  first  president  of 
King's  (now  Columbia)  College,  Xew  York;  b.  in 
Guiiford,  Conn.,  Oct.  14,  1696;  d.  in  Stratford, 
Conn.,  June  6,  1772.     He  was  graduated  at  Yale 


College  1714 ;  in  1720  was  ordained  a  Congregjv- 
tional  minister,  but  in  1723  was  re-ordained  in 
the  Church  of  England;  returned  to  America  as- 
missionary  of  the  S.  P.  (j.,  he  settled  in  Stratford, 
Conn.  In  175."?  he  was  chosen  first  president  of 
King's  College,  but  resigned  1763.  He  was  the- 
author  of  Eleinenla  PUilosophica  and  Eleuienta- 
I'Uhini,  Philadelphia,  1752  (botli  anonymous,  and 
printed  by  Benjamin  Franklin),  a  Iltlirew  (Jram- 
iiKii:  17()7,  besides  minor  theological  works.  Dr. 
.InlniMiii  was  the  most  prominent  American  influ- 
enced by  Bishop  Berkeley  while  in  America.  See 
his  /.//;;  by  Bearpsley,  X.Y.,  1874;  and  Ueber- 
weg's  Historij  of  Philosophy,  vol.  ii.  p.  4.50. 

JOHNSON,  Samuel,  b  in  Salem,  Mass.,  Oct. 
10,  1822;  (1.  at  North  Andover,  Ma.ss.,  Sunday,. 
Feb.  19,  1882.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
College  1842,  and  at  the  Divinity  School  1843, 
but  never  associated  himself  with  any  religious  de- 
nomination, although  his  views  were  more  nearly 
Unitarian  than  any  other.  In  1853  he  became 
pastor  of  a  Free  Church  of  Lynn,  Mass.,  and  held 
the  position  for  some  twenty  years.  He  was 
prominent  in  the  antislavery  agitation,  but  rather 
as  a  sympathizer  and  pulpit  advocate  than  as  plat- 
form speaker.  He  was  a  man  of  very  lovable- 
disposition,  of  gi-eat  modesty,  industry,  and  kind- 
liness. He  issued,  in  connection  with  Rev.  Samuel 
Longfellow,  A  Book  of  Hymns  (Boston,  1846) ;  in 
1868  Tlie  Worship  of  Jesus ,  and  for  many  years 
before  his  death  he  had  been  at  work  upon  a 
series.  Oriental  Religions,  and  their  Relations  to 
Universal  Religion,  of  which  India  (Boston,  1872) 
and  China  (1877)  have  appeared.  Although  these 
two  books  are  compilations,  and  not  drawn  from 
the  sources,  they  have  won  a  high  place  for  their 
reliable  and  interesting  contents,  and  appreciative- 
spirit. 

JOK'TAN  was  the  son  of  Eber,  the  brother  of 
Peleg,  and  father  of  thirteen  sons  (Gen.  x.  25  j 
1  Chron.  i.  19).  According  to  the  genealogical 
table  of  Genesis,  the  Shemitic  race  was,  long  be- 
fore the  emigration  of  the  Abrahamites,  divided 
into  a  northern  branch  (Peleg)  and  a  southern 
(Joktan).  The  names  of  the  thirteen  sons  of 
Joktan  point  towards  Southern  Arabia.  Several 
of  them  have  been  identified  with  those  of  exist- 
ing tribes,  and  the  rest  are  probably  identifiable 
in  the  same  manner.  The  distinction  which 
Genesis  makes  between  the  old  Joktanite  Arabs- 
and  the  j-ounger  Ishmaelite  Arabs  is,  indeed,  an 
ethnographical  fact  well  understood  also  by  the 
Arabic  ethnographers.  KAUTZSCH. 

JO'NAH  (njv,  ["  dove "]),  one  of  the  Minor 
Prophets,  was  the  son  of  Amittai,  who,  according 
to  2  Kings  xiv.  25,  uttered  a  prophecy  concerning 
Jeroboam  II.  The  Book  of  Jonah  is  distinguished 
from  the  other  prophetical  books  by  tiie  fact  that 
it  is  not  the  prophecy,  but  the  personal  experi- 
ences of  the  man,  in  which  the  interest  centres. 
In  order  to  escape  the  divine  sunnnons  to  preacK 
repentance  to  Nineveh,  he  embarked  from  Joppa. 
for  Tarshish,  but  during  a  storm  was,  at  his  own 
advice  and  by  the  issue  of  a  lot,  thrown  over- 
board, and  swallowed  by  a  great  fish  (i.  17). 
Three  days  after\\ards  he  was  thrown  up  upon 
the  land,  and,  after  a  second  summons,  began 
preaching  to  the  Ninevites.  Wlien  both  king  and 
people  began  to  repent,  Jonah  became  indignant 
at  the  divine  compassion,  but  was  convinced  by 


JONAH. 


1198 


JOPPA. 


God  of  his  foolishness  by  a  gourd  (iv.).  Such 
jre  the  contents  of  the  book ;  and  many  have 
regarded  it  as  an  allegory,  or  a  iioetic  niytk  The 
prevailing  view  at  present  among  the  representa- 
tives of  modern  criticism  is,  that  it  was  a  national 
prophetic  tradition  designed  to  serve  a  didactic 
aim,  and  with  some  elements  of  historic  truth. 
The  historical  view  appeals  to  the  geographical 
and  historical  notices  in  the  prophecy ;  as,  for 
example,  the  evident  accuracy  of  the  description 
of  Xineveli,  the  fitness  of  Jonah's  mission  at  that 
particular  period,  when  Israel  was  for  the  first 
time  coming  into  contact  with  Assyria,  etc. 
Those  who  deny  the  credibility  make  much  of 
the  miraculous  story  of  the  great  fish;  but  this 
very  incident  is  attested  by  our  Lord's  use  of  it 
(Matt.  xii.  39,  xvi.  4;  Luke  xi.  2'J).  He  here,  in 
the  most  emphatic  manner,  compares  himself  with 
Jonah,  whose  deglutition  by  the  whale  typified 
his  burial.  But  Christ  was  greater  than  Jonah. 
The  latter  escaped  only  from  tlie  peril  of  death : 
the  former  overcame  death.  If  this  be  the  right 
interpretation  of  our  Lord's  words,  then  the  mi- 
raculous preservation  of  Jonah  gets  its  signifi- 
cance from  the  fact  that  it  happened  to  him  as  a 
prophet.  The  central  purport  of  the  book  is  not 
that  repentance  was  preached  to  the  heathen,  but 
that  the  prophet  of  God  must  do  whatever  the 
Lord  commands,  that  not  even  death  can  frustrate 
his  calling,  and  that  the  prophet  must  leave  the 
fulfilment  to  God.  Following  the  line  of  these 
three  thoughts,  the  book  details  historical  facts 
which  were  a  propliecy  of  Ilim  in  whom  the  pro- 
phetic calling  culminated.  As  for  the  prophet's 
prayer  (ii.  3-10),  we  may  say,  with  Luther,  that 
Jonah  in  the  fish's  l)elly  did  not  utter  these 
words  with  the  mouth,  in  tlieir  present  form  ;  but 
he  thereby  indicates  how  he  felt,  and  what  the 
thoughts  of  his  lieart  were  while  he  was  engaged 
in  such  a  fearful  contest  with  death. 

It  cannot  be  proved  that  the  prophet  left  liis 
work  in  its  present  form.  The  abruptness  of  the 
record  leads  us  to  suppose  that  it  was  originally 
one  of  a  series  of  similai'  accounts.  An  old 
Ilaggadah  calls  Jonah  a  prophet  of  Elisha's  school, 
and  it  is  possible  that  it  originated  in  one  of  these 
schools.  Opinion  has  been  divided  abont  tlie 
date,  some  putting  it  as  hite  as  the  period  of  the 
Maccabees.  This  view  is  entirely  ruled  out  by 
the  fact  of  its  reception  into  the  prophetical  canon, 
and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  was  written 
before  the  Kabylonian  captivity.  Jonah's  tomb 
is  still  shown  near  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh. 

Lit.  —  'I'he  Commentaries  of  I>UTiii;ii,  Witten- 
berg, 1520;  l^KLSDK.N,  Traj.,  1057;  II.  A.  (;uim.m, 
Uiisseldorf,  1789  ;  .SiuTnoui'K,  Stuttgart,  1S13  ; 
Kaui.k.v,  Mog.,  1S02;  [Ki.iiiNKUT  (in  Lange), 
New  York,  1^75;  IIu.vrAiti.K  (in  Spea/rer's  Com- 
mentary).  New  York,  1S7(J;  Pkhownk,  London, 
1882];  Goi.imoitN  :  Kxkurse  z.  B.  J.,  Leijaig, 
1803;  Kl-.i.NDl. :  D.  Scniluii;/ d.  P.J.nach  Ninecc.li, 
Hamburg,  1820;  FlUKDltlcilSKN  :  Krit.  i'ebers.  il. 
vemche.il.  Ansic/iloi  iibcr  d.  Ii.  ./.,  2d  ed.,  Leipzig, 
1841 ;  \Vl(lcilT,  Jnnali  lelrui/lutl.  (in  four  Shemitic 
•versions),  London,  1857.  See  also  Hengstkn- 
iiEUG  :  C/irixtoliii/i): :  Kwali>  :  Prophelen ;  [H. 
Makti.v  (London,  1800,  2d  ed.,  1870),  A.  Halkigh 
riSGO,  2d  ed.,  1875),  .Shaut  MnciiEi.i.  (Phila- 
delphia, 1875),  nn  ./»»((//].  For  further  literature, 
see  Mi.siii;    I'liol'llKTS.  VOI.CK. 


JONAS,  bishop  of  Orleans  821-844,  played  an 
important  part  in  the  controversy  concerning 
image-worship.  In  his  work  De  cu/lu  imayinum 
he  assumes  a  position  intermediate  between  the 
rationalistic  argumentation  ol  the  iconoclast 
Claudius  of  Turin,  and  the  superstitious  instincts 
of  the  multitude.  His  De  inflUutione  lalcali  has 
considerable  interest  for  the  history  of  Christian 
ethics.  The  former  work  is  found  in  DiUiotheca 
Maxima,  xiv. ;  the  latter,  in  D'Achery  :  Spicilegi- 
tim,  i.  pp.  258  sqq. ;  Migne,  CVI.     UAGEXBACH. 

JONAS,  Justus,  b.  at  Nordhausen,  June  5,  1493; 
d.  at  Fisfeld,  Oct.  9,  1555;  studied  canon  law  at 
Erfurt,  and  took  his  degree,  but  devoted  himself 
after  1519  to  theology,  led  to  do  so  by  Luther's 
proceedings  in  1517,  and  encouraged  by  Erasnms. 
In  1521  he  W'as  appointed  provost  of  ^\'ittenberg, 
and  became  one  of  Luther's  principal  co-workers 
and  one  of  his  most  intimate  friends.  In  1541  he 
removed  to  Halle :  but  in  1540  he  was  expelled 
from  that  place  by  Duke  Maurice  ;  and,  though  in 
1548  he  was  allowed  to  return,  he  was  not  allowed 
to  preach,  and  left  again.  After  participating  in 
the  foundation  of  the  university  of  Jena,  he  was 
made  court-preacher  at  Coburg  in  1551,  and  pas- 
tor of  Eisfeld-on-the-Werra  in  1553.  His  original 
writings  are  mostly  polemical :  De  conjtu/io  sacer- 
dotali,  1523 ;  Witc/i  die  reckte  Kirch,  etc.,  1537. 
A  great  number  of  Luther's  and  Melanchthou's 
works  he  translated  from  Latin  into  German,  or 
from  German  into  Latin.  His  friend.ship  with 
Luther  is  the  most  interesting  fact  concerning 
Jonas.  He  was  one  of  the  witnesses  of  Luther's 
marriage,  carried  on  an  intimate  correspondence 
with  him  for  twenty-five  years,  accompanied  him 
on  his  last  journey  to  Eisleben  and  stood  at  his 
bedside,  and,  an  hour  later,  wrote  a  jiarticular 
account  of  his  decease  to  the  elector,  and  finally 
had  tlie  melancholy  privilege  of  preaching  the 
funeral  sermon  upon  the  great  Ileformei-,  both  at 
Eisleben  and  Halle.  Jonas  was  rather  a  fiery 
character,  but  enjoyed  the  fullest  confidence  of 
friends  and  foes.  His  letters,  of  great  interest 
for  the  history  of  the  Ueformation,  have  been  col- 
lected and  edited  by  Gustav  Kawekau,  Halle, 
1884-8.5,  2  parts,  ci.'Corp.  Ref.  His  life  was  writ- 
ten by  Keiniiaiu)  (Weimar,  1731),  K.xapp  (Halle, 
1.SI4),  Hasse,  in  Meurek:  Leben  d.  Ahvdter  d. 
Lut/i.  Kirchv,  1804.  OSWALD  SCHMIDT. 

JONGOURT,  Pierre  de,  b.  at  Clermont  in  the 
middle  (if  the  seventeenth  century  ;  was  appointed 
pastor  of  Middelbourg  in  1078.  and  in  1080  at 
The  Hague,  where  he  died  in  1715.  In  his  En- 
(n'lien.i  sur  its  dijfc'nnles  mc'llioilpa d'cr/iliijuer  I'Ecri- 
lure  (Amsterdam,  1707)  he  violently  attacked  the 
allegorical  method,  and  happened  to  use  some 
expressions  about  Cocceius,  who  had  carried  this 
method  to  its  extreme  limits,  which  the  synod  of 
Nimeguen.  1708,  compelled  him  to  retract.  He 
also  jiublished  a  revision  of  the  translation  of  the 
I'salms  by  Clement  Marot  and  Tlieodore  Beza, 
.\mslerdam,  1710. 

JONES,  Jeremiah,  b.  in  the  north  of  England, 
about  1793  ;  minister  of  a  dissenting  congregation 
at  Forest  Green,  Gloucestershire,  where  he  d. 
1724.  Author  of  A  Nctv  and  Full  Mclliod of  sclUim/ 
llic  Canonical  Autlwrity  of  the  New  Tcslaiiunl,  Lon- 
don, 1720-27,  3  vols.  ;  3d  ed.,  1827. 

JOP'PA,  Sometimes  called  Japho  (.losh.  xix. 
40),  the  present  Yd/a,  or  ./ajjd,  is  a  \ cry  old  city, 


JORDAN. 


1199 


JOSEPH. 


standing  on  a  promontory  jutting  out  into  the 
Mediterranean,  thirty-five  miles  north-wesc  of 
Jernsiileiii.  Oriiiinally  a  Pliieniciaii  colony,  it 
was  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Uan  (.losh.  xix.  41!); 
and  iMicliM-  the  reign  of  Solomon  it  became  the 
port  of  Jerusalem  (2  Chron.  ii.  10).  Jonah 
started  I'rom  there  (Jon.  i.  3).  Several  times 
taken  and  lost  by  the  Maccabees,  the  city  was  a 
Roman  possession  in  tlie  time  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, when  it  was  the  scene  of  the  raising  of 
Tabitha  to  life  by  Peter  (Acts  ix.  3tj-4;!),  and  of 
I'eti'r's  vision  on  the  housetop  (Acts  x.  11).  In 
the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  it  was  the  seat  of  a 
bishop.  In  the  period  of  the  Crusades  it  was 
several  times  <lestroyed.  At  present  it  has  eigh- 
teen thousand  inhabitants,  and  a  Greek,  a  Latin, 
and  an  Arnienian  convent. 

JORDAN,  The  (Hebrew,  Yarden,  from  a  root 
signifying  '-to  descend  "),  called  by  the  Arabs 
EshrS/wnali,  rises  among  the  mountains  of  Anti- 
Lebanon,  from  four  different  sources ;  descends 
1,434  feet,  and  forms  the  lake  El-IIuleli ,  descends 
again  897  feet  in  a  course  of  nine  miles,  and  enters 
the  Sea  of  Galilee  682i  feet  below  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  forms  the  "  upper  "  and  the  "  lower  " 
plain ;  and  finally  empties  itself  into  the  Dead 
Sea,  1,292  feet  below  the  Mediterranean,  having 
descended  2,999  feet  in  a  distance  of  136  miles. 
It  is  mentioned  a  hundred  and  eighty  times  in 
the  Old  Testament,  the  first  time  in  (ien.  xiii.  10, 
where  Lot  beheld  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  as  the 
garden  of  the  Lord,  —  and  fifteen  times  in  the 
New  Testament,  —  the  first  time  in  Matt.  iii.  6, 
wiiere  John  baptized  the  multitudes.  As  two 
and  a  half  tribes  of  Israel  were  settled  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Jordan,  the  i-iver  must  have  been 
well  known  to  the  people.  It  was  frequently 
crossed  and  recrossed ;  as,  for  instance,  by  Jacob 
(Gen.  xxxii.  10),  by  the  Israelites  when  entering 
tlie  promised  land  (Josh.  iii.  14),  by  Gideon  pur- 
suing Zebah  and  Zalmunna  (Judg.  viii.  4),  by 
the  Ammonites  invading  Judah  (Judg.  x.  0),  by 
Abner  (2  Sam.  ii.  29),  David  (2  Sam.  xvii.  22, 
xix.  15),  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xvii.  24).  Elijah  and 
Elisha  (2  Kings  ii.  6-14),  etc.  The  Jordan  is 
not,  and  never  was,  a  navigable  stream.  It  ha.s, 
however,  been  navigated  in  a  boat  in  modern 
times  by  Costigan  (1S35),  Molyneaux  (1847), 
Lynch  (1848),  and  McGregor  (1869).  See  art. 
on  Palestine. 

JORIS,  Johann  David,  one  of  the  most  curious 
characters  among  the  Anabaptist  fanatics  of  the 
period  of  the  Reformation ;  was  b.  at  Bruges, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and 
educated  at  Delft,  where  he  married  in  1524,  and 
settled  as  a  merchant.  Having  become  acquainted 
with  the  Reformation,  he  adopted  its  ideas ;  but 
the  ostentatious  and  expostulating  manner  in 
which  he  professed  his  faith  caused  him  to  be 
put  in  the  pillory,  and  expelled  from  the  city, 
■with  his  tongue  pierced  by  a  red-hot  iron.  AVhile 
roving  about  homeless,  he  fell  in  with  the  Ana- 
baptists, W'as  solemnly  recognized  as  the  anointed 
of  the  Lord  by  one  of  their  martyrs,  received 
visions  and  divine  revelations,  etc.  After  re- 
turning to  Delft,  he  began  to  form  an  Anabaptist- 
C'hiliast-Adamic  sect,  whose  messiah  he  was. 
Tlie  government  tried  in  vain  to  stop  this  nuisance 
by  catching  the  author.  He  always  escaped,  and 
sometimes  in  a  manner  so  surprising,  that  people 
24  —  11 


were  led  to  believe  that  he  could  make  himself 
invisible.  One  of  the  characteristics  of  the  sect 
was  the  absolute  confidence  which  the  members 
put  in  the  head.  For  this  messiah  they  were 
willing  to  sacrifice  every  thing,  even  life.  Many 
of  them  were  burnt  at  the  stake,  or  perished  in 
the  dungeon.  This  confidence  Joris  used  to 
gather  a  considerable  fortune;  and,  with  his  fami- 
ly and  his  money,  he  removed,  in  1544,  to  Basel, 
where  he  settled,  under  the  name  of  Johann  of 
Bruges,  no  one  suspecting  that  the  new,  rich,  and 
pious  citizen  had  any  thing  to  do  with  tlie  noto- 
rious David  Joris,  whose  pamphlets  —  ]ieculiar 
mixtures  of  unintelligible  mysticism  and  the 
coarsest  sensuality,  of  which  he  published  half  a 
dozen  every  year  —  continued  to  cause  grave  dis- 
turbances. The  truth  oozed  out,  however,  after 
his  de.ath  (Aug.  25,  1550)  ;  and  the  magistrate  of 
Basel  instituted  an  investigation,  after  which  his 
body,  portrait,  and  books  were  burnt  by  the  hang- 
man, in  the  presence  of  an  innnense  crowd,  and 
all  the  survivors  of  his  household  were  compelled 
to  make  public  penance,  June  6,  1559,  in  the  cathe- 
dral. His  sect  did  not  die  out  till  more  than  a 
century  afterwards.  See  his  Life,  by  Niitold, 
in  Zeitschri/t  f.  Iiiat.  Theo!or/ie,  1S63,  i.,  and  1864, 
iv.  BEKNH.VRD  KIGGENBACH. 

JORTIN,  John,  D.D.,  b.  in  London,  t)ct.  23, 
1698;  d.  there  Sept.  5,  1770.  He  was  graduated 
at  Cambridge ;  took  holy  orders  1724 ;  became 
archdeacon  of  London  1704.  He  was  an  admired 
preacher  and  a  learned  man.  He  wrote,  Iteinarks 
upon  Ecclesiastical  Histori/.  London,  1751-54 ;  re- 
printed, together  with  Discourses  conceruitiij  Ike 
Tnilh  of  the  Christian  Religion,  1805.  3  vols.  ;  Life 
of  Erasmus,  1758-60,  3  vols.  ;  reprinted  1808.  See 
John  Disney:  Memoirs  of  John  Jorlin,  D.D.,  Lou- 
don, 1792. 

JOSCELIN,  Bishop  of  Soissons  1126-52;  sat 
among  the  judges  of  Abelard  at  the  Council  of 
Sens,  and  among  those  of  Gilbert  de  la  Porree  at 
the  Council  of  Paris.  In  1131  he  acconqianied  St. 
Bernard  on  his  missionary  journey  to  the  court  of 
Bordeaux.  His  Exposilw  Si/mboli  and  Expositio 
Oralionis  Dominica-  are  found  in  Mautene  and  Du- 
KAxn  ;  Ampl.  Coll.,  ix. 

JO'SEPH  (=1l)V,  "  may  he  [God]  increase  !  ")  was 
the  oldest  son  of  Jacob  by  Rachel,  whom  Jacob 
loved  above  all  his  other  children.  Stirred  up  by 
jealousy  and  hatred,  his  older  brothers  sold  him, 
in  his  seventeenth  year,  to  a  caravan  of  merchants. 
He  was  taken  to  Egypt,  where  he  acted  as  the 
faithful  servant  of  a'court  official,  but  was  falsely 
accused  by  his  master's  wife,  who  had  sought  in 
vain  to  seduce  him,  and  was  thrown  into  prison. 
He  secured  his  release  by  the  happy  use  of  the 
gift  of  interpreting  dreams,  and  more  especially 
the  dream  of  Pharaoh  (Gen.  xli.).  He  was  ele- 
vated to  the  most  dignified  position  in  the  king- 
dom next  to  the  throne,  and  developed  a  rare 
statesmanship  in  the  measures  he  pursued,  during 
the  seven  years  of  plenty,  to  prepare  for  the  years 
of  dearth.  The  famine  of  seven  years  was  the 
occasion  for  Joseph's  brothers  coming  down  to 
Egypt.  Joseph  recognized  them,  and  ultimately 
gave  them  and  his  father  Jacob  a  cordial  recep- 
tion. He  received  a  double  blessing  at  his  father's 
death,  and  extracted  the  promise  from  his  breth- 
ren, that,  at  the  return  of  the  Israelites  to  Canaan, 
they  would  take  his  bones  with  them.    The  prom- 


JOSEPH. 


1200 


JOSEPH  II. 


ise  was  kept,  and  the  remains  were  buried  at 
Shechem  (Exod.  siii.  19  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  32). 

Joseph's  character  justified  Jacob's  warm  affec- 
tion. He  displaj-ed  througliout  his  entire  life  a 
profound  fear  of  God  and  the  marked  influence 
of  the  divine  Spirit.  He  won  all  hearts.  As  a 
statesman,  he  developed  an  exceedingly  compre- 
hensive, wise,  and  energetic  activity,  but  always 
remained  true  to  his  own  people.  In  his  life  di- 
vine providences  are  very  prominent.  God's  wis- 
dom used  and  overruled  tl]e  base  projects  of  men 
(Gen.  1.  20).  Joseph's  sale  was  the  occasion  of 
the  transplanting  of  Israel  to  Egypt,  the  best  ad- 
ministered .state  of  the  ancient  world.  God  did 
not  send  them  in  vain  to  that  school,  where  they 
adopted  much  of  its  better  culture,  and  likewise 
suffered  the  enmity  of  the  world,  that  they  might 
be  taught  the  saving  deeds  of  Jehovah. 

The  references  to  Egyptian  customs  and  man- 
ners are  of  great  importance  in  their  bearing  upon 
the  authenticity  of  the  story  of  Joseph's  life. 
There  was  a  time  when  scholars  (von  Bohlen, 
Knobel,  etc.)  adduced  many  contradictions  to 
Egy])tian  customs;  but  the  researches  of  modern 
Egyptologists  (Ebers,  Brugsch,  etc.)  have  con- 
firmed in  a  remarkable  manner  the  notices  of 
Genesis.  Commerce  by  caravans  has  been  carried 
on  between  Syria  and  Palestine  and  Egypt  from 
time  immemorial ;  and  the  three  spices  mentioned 
in  Gen  xxxvii.  25  have  always  been  amongst  the 
principal  objects  of  commerce.  The  name  Poti- 
phar  ("  dedicated  to  Phra,"  or  Ra,  the  god  of  the 
sun)  is  a  real  Egyptian  name.  Great  stress  was 
laid  upon  dreams  in  Egypt.  The  title  "chief  of 
the  bakers  "  (Gen.  xl.  2)  has  been  found  on  monu- 
ments by  Ebers.  Wine,  the  use  of  which  at  this 
time  in  Egypt  has  been  denied,  has  been  proved 
to  have  been  in  u.se;  and  a  baker  carrying  a 
board  with  loaves  of  liread  on  liis  iiead  has  been 
discovered  on  the  monuments.  Even  the  title 
"  father  to  Pharaoh  "  (Gen.  xlv.  8)  has  been  found 
in  several  places  on  the  rolls,  in  the  sense  of  coun- 
sellor, or  minister.  These,  and  many  other  de- 
tails, liave  been  abundantly  corroborated  ;  and  the 
impression  cannot  well  be  avoided  wliich  Ebers 
embodies  in  the  following  words :  "  Tlie  whole  his- 
tory of  Joseph  must  be  declared,  even  in  its  de- 
tails, to  correspond  throughout  with  the  real  state 
of  affairs  in  ancient  Egypt." 

The  chronological  queslion  is  more  difficult  of 
satisfactory  solution.  Did  Josepli's  administra- 
tion occur  under  the  Ilyksos  kings,  or  later?  AVe 
hold  to  the  former  view ;  and  taking  four  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  (Exod.  xii.  40)  as  the  period 
of  bondage,  and  regarding  Uameses  II.  as  the 
Phar.aoli  of  the  oppression,  we  are  led  back  to  the 
Hyksos  dynasty,  and  perhaps  to  King  Apopi, 
wiioin  (j.  iSyiicellus  also  idcntifioil  with  the  Pha- 
raoh of  Joseph.  IJrugsch  justly  lays  stress  upon 
the  fact  that  a  famine  occurred  about  tlie  time  of 
Ills  reign.  It  is  to  the  destruction  of  the  monu- 
ments of  the  Hyksos  kings  by  a  later  dynasty 
that  the  absence  of  all  records  of  Jo.seph  and  his 
family  is  due.  The  Molianiniedaiis  linger  with 
peculiar  d('light  over  tlie  story  of  Joseph's  life, 
which  .Mohammed  called  the  prettiest  of  all  sto- 
ries. 

Lit.  —  The  Histories  of  Israel  of  Ewald. 
KiTKTZ  [and  Stanlky,  Lect.  iv.l ;  Hkngstk.s'- 
BKitu  :    Din  Bticlier  Mo.icx  und  /Lijupltn  (Ibll)  ; 


Ebers:  ^Egypten  ii.  d.  Bilcher  Moses,  1868;  and  the 
article  in  Riehm  [and  Smith].  v.  ORELLi. 

JOSEPH  II.  (Roman  emperor  1780-90)  intro- 
duced into  his  hereditary  Austrian  possessions  a 
series  of  ecclesiastical  reforms,  which,  in  many 
respects,  remind  one  of  those  established  in  Eng- 
land by  Henry  VIII.  Though  touching  the 
Church  at  very  different  points,  —  worship,  inner 
organization,  education  of  officers,  relation  to  the 
State,  etc.,  —  they  all  point  in  the  same  direction, 
and  reveal  a  common  tendency,  which,  in  church 
history,  has  received  the  name  of  "  Josephinism." 

It  was  evidently  the  emperor's  object  to  form  a 
national  Austrian  Church,  congruent  with  the 
territory  of  the  State,  closely  connected  with  the 
strongly  centralized,  secular  government,  and  as 
far  as  possible  independent  of  Rome.  As,  on 
many  points  along  the  boundaries,  Austrian  do- 
minions ranged  under  the  authority  of  foreign 
bishops,  a  new  circumscription  of  the  dioceses 
was  necessary  ;  and  it  was  carried  out  with  very 
little  ceremony.  A  new  oath  of  subjection  to 
the  temporal  ruler  was  demanded  of  the  bishops. 
All  imperial  decrees  were  sent  to  the  bishops, 
and  again  by  them  to  the  pastors,  who  had  to 
make  them  known  to  their  flocks  from  the  pulpit. 
Papal  bulls  and  briefs,  on  the  contrary,  whether 
referring  to  dogmatics  or  jurisdiction,  could  not 
be  published  in  the  country  without  an  imperial 
placet.  Petitions  to  Rome  for  indulgences,  for 
the  establishment  of  new  festivals,  etc.,  were 
absolutely  forbidden;  and  all  rights  of  absolution 
or  dispensation  were  vested  in  the  bishops.  The 
oath  of  obedience  to  the  Pope,  and  the  professio 
Jidei  Tridenlincc,  usual  at  the  distribution  of  de- 
grees, were  abrogated.  The  bulls  In  ccena  Domini 
and  Unigenilus  were  torn  out  of  the  books  of 
liturgy.  All  relations  were  broken  off  between 
the  religious  orders  and  their  brethren  in  foreign 
countries,  or  even  their  generals,  unless  resident 
in  Austria.  The  theological  students  were  for- 
bidden to  visit  the  Collegium  Germntiico-Hunga- 
riiiiii  in  Rome,  which  in.stitution  was  replaced  by 
a  Collegium  Germanicum  et  Ilungarium  in  Pavia. 
The  philological  and  theological  schools  in  the 
monasteries  were  closed,  and  diocesan  seminaries 
were  opened  under  the  superintendence  of  an 
imperial  committee,  etc. 

No  less  comprehensive,  and  evincing  the  same 
chai'acter,  were  the  reforms  relating  to  the  inter- 
nal life  of  the  Church.  The  Latin  l.inguage  was 
abolished,  and  the  German  introduced  into  the 
services.  Pilgrimages  outside  of  the  country  were 
forbidden.  Kules  were  given  with  respect  to  the 
luxuriant  ornamentation  of  the  churches,  the 
magnificent  processions,  the  brilliant  illumina- 
tions, etc.  .\ll  religious  orders  not  engaged  in 
preaching,  teaching,  or  nursing  the  sick,  were  dis- 
S()lve(l.  Holwcen  1780  aii<l  178(j  the  number  of 
moiuisteries  sank  from  2,l.J(i  to  l,12."i,  and  that 
of  nioidvs  and  nuns  from  04,890  to  1 1,280.  An 
edict  of  Oct,  i;5,  1781,  established  religious  tolera- 
tion. The  evangcdical  churches  oblaincd  a  limit- 
ed freedom  of  worship.  Civil  disi[ualificatious 
arising  from  denominational  differences  were 
abolished.  Even  the  position  of  the  Jews  was 
improved.  The  Roman  curia  became,  of  course, 
very  alarmed  at  the.se  proceedings ;  and  in  1782 
Pius  VI.  deterndned  to  go  him.self  to  Vienna,  and 
jiay  the  emperor  a  visit.     But  he  was  received 


JOSEPH  OP  ARIMATH^A. 


1201 


JOSEPHUS. 


with  cold  politeness,  and  returned,  after  a  montli's 
stay,  liuniiliated  and  in  despair.  The  early  death 
of  the  emperor,  however,  prevented  liis  reforms 
from  taking  root;  and  during  his  immediate  suc- 
cessors much  was  again  reversed.  See  the  Biog- 
raphies by  Geissler,  Halle,  1783 ;  Meusel,  Leip- 
zig, 1790;  Perzl,  Vienna,  1700;  F.  X.  IIuber, 
Vienna,  1792 ;  Cornova,  Prague,  ISOl  ;  Gross- 
IIoFFiNGER,  Stuttgart,  18.35-37,  4  vols. ;  Heyne, 
Leipzig,  1848,  3  vols. ;  Ramshorn,  Leipzig,  1861 ; 
Meynert,  Vienna,  1832;  [Rieiil  u.  REiNiiiiL: 
Kaher  Joiief  II.  als  Reform,  auf  kirchlich.  Gcbiete, 
Wien,  1881 ;  G.  Frank  :  Das  Tolermiz-PatenI  Kaiser 
Joseph  II.,  AVien,  1882].  CARL  MtiLLER. 

JO'SEPH  OF  ARIMATH/EA,  a  rich  and  pious 
Jew,  who  accorded  burial  to  the  body  of  Jesus  in 
a  tomb  of  his  own.  He  was  probably  a  member 
of  the  Sanhedrin  (Luke  xxiii.  50),  and  refused 
his  consent  to  the  sentence  of  Jesus  to  death. 
All  the  four  evangelists  (Matt,  xxvii.  57-60 ; 
Mark  xv.  43-46  ;  Luke  xxiii.  50-54 ;  John  xix. 
38—42)  refer  to  the  part  he  took  in  the  burial  of 
Jesus.  He  asked  the  body  of  Pilate,  and,  in  con- 
junction with  Nicodemus,  wound  it  in  linen 
clothes,  with  spices,  and  deposited  it  in  a  rock- 
hewn  tomb,  in  a  garden,  which  had  never  been 
used.  A  wholly  untrustworthy  tradition  makes 
him  the  apostle  of  England ;  and  guides  still  show 
a  thorn-bush  at  Glastonbury  which  purports  to 
have  sprung  from  a  staff  he  stuck  in  the  ground. 
See  Graai.. 

JOSEPHINISM.     See  Joseph  n. 

JOSEPHUS,  Flavius,  b.  in  Jeru.salem  37  or  38 
A.D.;  belonged  to  a  rich  and  distinguished  fami- 
ly; received  a  careful  education,  and  joined,  after 
living  three  years  with  a  hermit,  Banus,  the  sect 
of  the  Pharisees,  when  he  was  nineteen  years  old. 
In  64  he  made  a  journey  to  Rome  in  order  to 
effect  the  release  of  some  Jewish  priests  who  had 
been  imprisoned ;  and  through  the  instrumentali- 
ty of  Alityrus,  a  Jewish  actor,  he  obtained  access 
to  the  Empress  Poppsea,  and  successfully  fulfilled 
the  mission.  Shortly  after  his  return  to  "Palestine, 
the  Jewish  revolt  against  the  Romans  broke  out 
(66).  Like  most  of  the  wealthy  men  among  the 
Jews,  he  was  opposed  to  the  revolt ;  but  he  was 
compelled  to  participate  in  it,  and  was  chosen 
governor  of  Galilee.  Besieged  in  the  fortress  of 
Jotapata  by  the  army  of  Vespasian,  he  surren- 
dered, after  the  lapse  of  a  month  and  a  half,  and 
was  taken  prisoner;  but  when,  two  years  later  on 
(69),  Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
Syrian  and  Egyptian  legions,  he  not  only  ob- 
tained his  liberty,  but  accompanied  the  emperor 
to  Alexandria,  and  received  dotations  and  an 
annual  pension.  Living  in  Rome,  he  devoted 
himself  to  studies  and  literary  pursuits,  continu- 
ing to  enjoy  the  imperial  favor  as  long  as  the 
Flavian  dynasty  reigned.  Dm-ing  the  reign  of 
Trajan  he  died,  but  the  exact  date  of  his  death 
is  not  known.  See  Hoevell  :  Commentado  de 
F.J.  vita,  Traj.-ad-Rh.,  1835;  Terwogt  :  Het 
leven  van  den  joodschen  geschiedschrijoer,  F.  J., 
Utrecht,  1863;  Baerwal'd:  Josephus  in  Galiltia, 
Breslau,  1877. 

Josephus  wrote  in  Greek.  I.  His  first  work, 
however.  History  of  the  Jewish  War,  was  originally 
written  in  Aramaic,  but  translated  into  Greek  by 
the  author  himself.  It  was  sent  to  Vespasian, 
Titus,  Agrippa  11.,  and  other  distinguished  per- 


son.s,  and  received  many  compliments.  It  is  writ- 
ten with  care ;  and,  though  it  bears  the  marks  of 
the  taste  of  tiie  time  in  its  fictitious  speeches  and 
other  rhetorical  ornaments,  it  is  generally  trust- 
worthy. Less  careful  is  II.,  his  Jewish  An'lii/uiiies, 
finished  in  93  or  94,  and  containing  a  history  of 
the  Jews  from  the  beginning  to  66.  For  the 
biblical  part,  the  Bible  is,  of  course,  the  principal 
authority  of  the  author,  though  he  does  not  hesitate 
to  modifydetails  which  ho  fears  might  give  offence. 
lie  also  incorporates  various  elements  of  tradi- 
tions, and  extracts  from  earlier  Greek  treatments 
of  Jewish  history  (Demetrius  and  Artapanus). 
Concerning  his  whole  method  of  treating  biblical 
history,  and  more  especially  his  method  of  using 
the  Septuagint  and  the  original  text,  seeERNESTi : 
Exercitat.  Flav.,  in  Opuscul.;  Spittlek:  De  usu 
versionis  Alexandrince  apud  Josephum,  Gottingen, 
1779 ;  Scharfenberg  :  De  Josephi  el  versionis 
Alexandrince  consensu,  Leipzig,  1780 ;  Burger  : 
Essai  sur  fusage  que  F.  J.  a  fait  des  livres  cano- 
niques  del'A.  f.,  Strassburg,  1836  ;  Gerlach:  Die 
Weissagungen  d.  A.  T.  in  den  Schriflen  d.  F.  J., 
1863  ;  iJuscHAK  :  /.  F.  und  die  Tradition,  Vienna, 
1864;  Plaut:  F.  J.  und  die  Bihel,  Berlin,  1867; 
Tachauer  :  Das  Verhaltniss  d.  F.  J.  zur  Bihel  und 
zur  Tradition,  Erlangen,  1871.  The  post-biblical 
part  is  treated  with  great  unevenness.  The  period 
between  Alexander  the  Great  and  the  Maccabees 
is  nearly  a  blank,  only  filled  out  by  a  lengthy 
extract  from  Pseudo-Aristeus.  For  the  history 
of  the  Maccabees  the  author  had  an  excellent  au- 
thority in  the  First  Book  of  the  ]\Iaccabees,  but 
he  has  not  taken  great  pains  in  utilizing  it.  The 
later  history  of  the  Asmoneans  and  of  Herod  is 
extracted  from  Strabo  and  Nicholas  of  Damascus. 
The  relations  of  the  Jews  to  foreign  nations  form 
the  principal  part  of  the  narrative,  and  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  inner  history  of  the  people  has 
a  rather  legendary  character.  See  Xussbaum  : 
Obsereationes  in  Flavii  Josephi  Antiquilales,  Gottin- 
gen, 1875 ;  Bloch  ;  Die  Quellen  d.  F.  J.  in  seiner 
Archaologie,  Leipzig,  1879.  The  eighteenth  book 
of  the  work  contains  (3,  3)  a  short  report  of 
Christ,  in  which  the  author  openly  confesses  that 
he  believes  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah  ;  but,  though 
this  famous  testimony  has  been  quoted  by  Euse- 
bius  {Hist.  Eccl.  i.  11),  it  is  evidently  spurious. 
See  Eichstaedt  :  Flaviani  testimonii  authenlia, 
Jena,  1841;  Question,  super  F.,  Jena,  1845;  Ger- 
lach: Die  Weissaqunqen  d.  A.  T.  in  den  Schriflen 
d.  F.  J.,  Berlin,  1863." 

A  curious  work  is  HI.,  his  so-called  Autobiog- 
raphy, written  after  the  death  of  Agrippa  II. ; 
that  is,  after  100.  It  is  not  so  much  a  biography 
as  a  plea  for  his  activity  in  Galilee  in  the  winter 
of  66-67,  or  a  polemic  against  Justus  of  Tiberias. 
The  latter  had  written  a  work  in  which  he  repre- 
sented himself  as  the  decided  opponent  of  the 
rebellion,  and  Josephus  as  the  true  instigator  of 
it.  Of  course,  the  former  revolutionary  leader, 
now  living  as  a  pensioner  at  the  imperial  court, 
could  not  let  such  an  accusation  pass  bj-  unno- 
ticed. But  Josephus  seems  to  have  become  very 
much  excited,  and  his  book  swarms  with  patent 
perversions  of  facts.  IV.  Quite  otherwise  with 
his  apology  of  Judaism,  generally  known  under 
the  title  Contra  Apionem.  It  is  a  careful  and 
conscientious  work.  See  the  monographs  by  Zip- 
SEB  (Vienna,  1871)  and  J.  G.  Mull£R  (Basel, 


JOSHUA. 


1202 


JOSHUA. 


1877).  tlie  latter  containing  both  the  text  and 
explanations.  Besides  these  four  works,  about 
whose  authenticity  there  can  be  no  doubt,  the 
so-called  Fourth  Book  of  the  .Maccabees  is  ascribed 
to  Josephus,  but  by  a  mistake.  See  the  mono- 
graph by  Frkudexthal,  Breslau,  1869.  Another 
book.  Unpi  Tov  ^raiTof  (■'  On  the  all  "),  is  quoted  by 
Photius.  John  Philoponus,  John  Damascenus,  and 
John  Zonaras,  as  a  work  of  Josephus ;  but  it 
proliably  belongs  to  Hippolytus. 

The  first  printed  edition  of  Josephus's  works, 
by  FuoBKNius  and  Episcopius,  appeared  at 
Basel,  1.544.  Much  improved  texts  were  pub- 
lished by  Hudson'  (Oxford,  1720)  and  Haver- 
camp  (.\nisterdani,  172G).  More  recent  editions 
have  been  published  by  Ockkthi'Ij  (Leipzig, 
1782-85),  RicHTER  (Leipzig,  1826-27),  Dindorf 
(Paris.  184.5-47),  Bekker  (pocket  edition,  Leipzig, 
1855-56),  best  by  B.  Xiese  (Berlin,  1885  siiq.). 
The  Jeiri.ili  War,  ed.  bj'  Cardwei.i..  Oxford, 
1837;  and  the  Vita,  ed.  by  IIexke,  Brunswick, 
1786.  Several  English  translations  have  ap- 
peared :  the  most  commonly  known  is  that  by 
Whiston,  London,  1737  (many  editions).  The 
.Jewish  War  was  translated  by  R.  Traill,  Lon- 
don, 1862.  See  also  Boettger  :  Topographisch- 
histonsches  Lexicon  zu  den  Sckriflen  ties  Flavins 
Josephus,  Leipzig.  1879;  [J.  v.  Destinon  :  Die 
Chronologie  il.  Josephuf,  Kiel,  1880  (35  pages); 
the  same  •  Die  Queilen  d.  Flaviux  Josephus,  I.  Die 
Quellen  d.  Archaologie  Buck  xii.-xoii.  ^=Jud.  Krieg 
li.  i.,  Kiel,  1882.]  e.  scHtlKER. 

JOSH'UA  (;'tyin',  "  God,  his  help  "),  a  brave  and 
God-fearing  Hebrew  warrior  of  the  tribe  of  Eph- 
raim,  who  led  the  armies  of  Israel  across  the 
.Jordan,  conquered  the  piromLsed  land,  and  dis- 
tributed the  territory  among  the  tribes.  He  was 
neither  a  prophet  nor  law-giver,  like  Moses,  but 
completed  tlie  work  which  he  had  begun,  of  turn- 
ing a  people  of  slaves  into  a  nation  with  a  country. 
The  Lord  appeared  to  him  appropriately  in  the 
form  of  a  soldier  with  drawn  sword  (Josh.  v.  13). 
Joshua  makes  his  first  appearance  in  the  battle 
of  the  .Vmalekites,  when  lie  routed  the  enemy 
(Exod.  xvii.  9).  We  next  find  him  among  the 
twelve  spies  sent  to  spy  out  tlie  land  (Num.  xiii. 
8,  16).  It  was  at  this  time  tliat  Moses  clianged 
his  name  from  Oshea  ("help")  to  Joshua,  which, 
in  King  James's  version,  is  written  in  two  j)laces 
Jesus  (Acts  vii.  45;  Heb.  iv.  8).  He  was  con.se- 
crated  by  Moses  as  his  successor  just  before  the 
close  of  the  wilderness  period  (Num.  xxvii.  18; 
Deut.  xxxiv.  9). 

The  second  period  of  Joshua's  career  began  at 
the  death  of  the  great  law-giver,  wliich  marked 
the  termination  of  the  wanderings  in  the  wilder- 
ness. With  the  freshness  of  spring  life  the  peo- 
ple prepared,  under  their  new  leader,  to  fight  for 
tlie  possession  of  the  land  promised  to  Abraham. 
Joshua  seems  at  fir.st  to  have  hesitated,  but,  once 
fully  assured  of  the  divine  command  and  aid 
(Josh,  i  5,  9),  displayed  great  energy  in  ]irepar- 
ing  for  the  campaign,  and  skill  and  intrejiidity 
in  prosecuting  it.  Circumsjiect  and  careful  in 
liis  precautlon.s,  as  in  the  de.s]>atch  of  the  sjiies 
(ii.),  he  was  no  less  bohl  in  conception,  and  rapi<l 
in  his  movements  (x.  i),  xi.  7,  etc.).  The  under- 
taking wiis  no  easy  one.  The  t'anaanitirs  were  at 
this  time  in  their  most  flourishing  period  (Kwald, 
ii.  340).     The  kings  were  bound  togetlier  by  trea- 


ties, the  land  protected  by  fortresses  and  walled 
towns,  and  the  armies  provided  with  horses  and 
chariots.  But  Joshua  was  backed  b\'  a  people 
enthusiastic  to  enter  into  the  land  which  they 
regarded  as  their  own,  and  who  fully  recognized 
their  leader's  authority  (Josh.  i.  16)." 

The  Jordan  being  crossed,  Joshua  took  up  a 
position  at  Gilgal.  From  there  he  fell  upon  Jeri- 
cho, after  which,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
repulse  at  Ai,  he  sw-ept  over  the  land  in  an  un- 
broken succession  of  victories,  spreading  conster- 
nation among  all  the  tribes  (ii.  9,  24,  etc.).  The 
battle  of  Gibeon,  or  Beth-horon.  was  the  decisive 
one.  .So  great  was  the  victory,  that  Jehovah  is 
described  as  having  fought  on  the  side  of  Israel 
(x.  12-15)  ;  and,  with  poetic  license,  the  Book  of 
Jasher  boldly  represents  the  Almighty  as  halting 
the  sun  in  its  course  over  Gibeon,  and  the  moon 
over  Ajalon.  The  kings  gathered  for  a  last 
resistance  at  Merom  (xi.),  but  were  utterly  routed. 
During  the  war,  which  lasted  five  or  six  years, 
thirty-one  kings  had  been  slain,  and  six  nations 
overthrown  (xii.  24);  and,  if  the  land  was  by  no 
means  all  subdued,  enough  had  been  conquered 
to  insure  to  the  Israelites  safety  of  possession. 

The  third  period  of  Joshua's  career  extends 
fi-om  the  close  of  the  war  till  his  death.  In  the 
delicate  work  of  distributing  the  territory  among 
the  tribes,  he  seems  to  have  been  no  less  discreet 
and  successful  than  he  had  been  brave  and  victo- 
rious on  the  battle-field.  He  acted  in  accord  with 
Eleazar  (xvii.  4,  xxi.  1),  and,  with  characteristic 
modesty,  was  himself  content  with  a  small  portion 
(xix.  49,  50). 

Like  some  modern  soldiers,  as  Gustav  Adolf, 
Cromwell,  and  Ilavelock,  Joshua  did  not  allow 
the  confusion  of  the  camp  to  interrupt  the  exer- 
cises of  religion.  He  was  a  God-fearing  com- 
mander, who  made  prayer  and  renewed  consecra- 
tion a  preparation  for  battle  and  danger  (iii.  5, 
etc),  regarded  the  observance  of  the  law  as  a 
condition  of  divine  favor  (xxiii.  6),  and  built 
altars  in  comniemoratiou  of  the  divine  guidance 
and  victories  (iv.  6,  7,  viii.  30,  xviii.  1,  etc.).  He 
was  a  devout  hero,  wlio  combined  mildness  with 
strength,  and  composure  with  daring.  His  closing 
words  to  the  congregated  elders  and  people  (xxiii., 
xxiv.)  contained  no  .self-laudation,  but  directed 
their  thoughts  to  the  divine  Hel]ier,  and  urged 
them  to  cleave  to  Him,  and  keep  the  law  (xxiii.  8). 
He  died  at  the  age  of  one  hundred  and  ten.  Joshua 
is  a  type  of  the  greater  Joshua  (.lesus),  the  Captain 
of  our  salvation,  who  leads  his  people  into  the 
rest  of  the  heavenly  Canaan  (Heb.  iv.  8,  9). 

No  records  exist  for  Joshua's  life  outside  of  the 
Bible,  except  one.  Procopiiis,  who  tiourished  in 
the  sixth  century,  relates  that  a  Pho'iiician  in'.scrip- 
tion  existed  in  Tiiigis,  .Mauritania,  with  the  words, 
"  We  are  they  who  fled  from  the  face  of  Joshua 
the  robber,  the  .son  of  Xun."  Hawlinson  accepts 
it  as  genuine  (Ham/itim  Led.,  91);  but  Ewald  gives 
reasons  for  denying  its  genuineness  in  the  second 
.volume  of  his  History. 

Tlie  dates  of  Joshua's  life  may  be  assigned 
with  comparative  certainty.  From  Josh.  xiv.  7-10 
we  learn  that  Caleb  was  lorty  at  the  time  he  was 
sent  out  as  a  spy,  or  thirty-eight  at  the  time  of 
the  departure  from  Egypt,  and  eighty-fivi!  when 
Hebron  was  assigned  to  him.  .\s  the  wilderness 
period  lasted  forty  years,  ho  was  seventy-eight  or 


JOSHUA. 


1203 


JOSIAH. 


seveiity-niiie  at  the  time  of  the  crossing'  of  Jordan. 
This  would  give  five  or  six  years  for  tlie  duration 
of  the  war.  Supposing  that  Josliua  was  about 
tlie  same  age  as  Caleb,  and  regarding  1190  as  the 
date  of  the  exodus,  then  he  crossed  the  Jordan 
(14.50)  at  the  age  of  seventy-eight,  and  concluded 
the  war  (14-15)  at  the  age  of  eighty-three.  This 
would  leave  twenty-seven  years  until  his  death 
at  one  hundred  and  ten,  —  a  period  corresponding 
•well  to  what  is  called  a  "  long  time  "  in  Josh. 
xxiii.  1.  See  the  Histories  of  Israel  by  Kw.-m.d, 
Stanlky,  etc.,  and,  for  his  typical  significance, 
Peausd.n-  :   (Jii  tlie  Creed  (art.  ii.). 

JOSHUA,  Book  of,  so  called  because  he  was  the 
hero  of  it,  begins  the  li.st  of  those  historical  books 
in  the  Old  Testament  (Josh.-li  Kings)  which  re- 
late to  the  time  between  the  death  of  Moses  and 
the  exaltation  of  King  Jehoiachiu  at  the  court  of 
Babylon,  and  which  are  put  together  in  the  He- 
brew canon  under  the  title  Former  Propliels.  It 
falls  naturally  into  three  parts.  1  (purely  histori- 
cal). The  history  of  the  conquest  of  Israel  (chaps, 
i.-xii.).  2  (geographical  and  legislative).  The 
partition  of  the  country  among  the  tribes  (chaps, 
xiii.-xxi.).  3  (historical).  The  dismission  of  the 
transjordanic  tribes,  Joshua's  exhortation  to  the 
assembled  tribes,  their  renewal  of  the  covenant, 
deaths  of  Joshua  and  Eleazar  (chaps,  xxii.-xxiv.). 
Joshua  is  by  modern  critics  declared  of  compos- 
ite origin,  because  the  same  peculiarity  in  the  use 
of  two  names  for  the  Divine  Being  (Jehovah  and 
Elohim),  wliich  occurs  in  the  Pentateucli,  is  found 
in  it,  and  is  considered  to  prove  difference  of  au- 
thorship between  the  portions  in  which  one  or  the 
other  is  uniformly  used,  and  also  the  literary  unity 
of  Joshua  with  the  Pentateuch,  of  which  it  is 
indeed  a  veritable  and  avowed  continuation,  or 
the  existence  of  a  Hexateuch,  as  the  sixfold  book 
is  called.  The  writers  were  probably  contempora- 
ries, or  else  had  access  to  contemporary  docu- 
ments ;  for  the  narrative  is  fresh  and  vivid,  and 
the  iuformation  throughout  is  that  most  likely  to 
proceed  from  eye-witnesses.  The  very  defects  of 
the  book  in  its  geographical  portion — e.g.,  no 
lists  of  the  towns  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  im- 
perfect lists  for  Zebulon  and  Asher  —  indicate  the 
composition  of  these  sections  before  the  final  set- 
tlement of  the  country.  On  the  other  hand,  ac- 
counts of  events  which  took  place  after  Joshua's 
death,  as  the  capture  of  Hebron  by  Caleb,  of  Debir 
by  Othniel  (xv.  13-20),  and  of  Leshem  by  the 
Danites  (xix.  47)  ;  such  [ihrases  as  that  the  Jebu- 
sites  "  dwelt  with  the  children  of  Judah  at  Jerusa- 
lem" (xv.  63),  and  the  oft-repeated  "unto  this 
day"  (e.g.,  iv.  9,  v.  9)  ;  the  mention  of  Raliab  as 
still  living  when  the  author  wrote  (vi.  25)  ;  and 
other  literary  phenomena, — seem  to  show  that  the 
book,  as  a  whole,  is  later  than  Joshua.  That 
Joshua  himself  furnished  materials  for  it  is  prob- 
able :  indeed,  he  may  have  w  ritten  large  portions 
of  it.  But,  although  our  present  book  beai's  traces 
of  more  than  one  hand  in  its  materials,  it  has  been 
imified  and  revised  by  some  unknown  editor;  s(^ 
that,  as  it  comes  before  us  to-day,  it  is  a  consist- 
ent narrative. 

The  two  difficulties  often  urged  against  the  book, 
on  the  score  of  science  and  of  morals,  are  of  little 
importance.  The  first  relates  to  the  sun  standing 
still  upon  Gibeon  (x.  13).  But  this  passage  is 
avowedly  poetical,  and  no  such  violent  change  in 


the  universe  as  the  supposed  miracle  would  involve 
was  dreamed  of  by  the  writer,  who  merely  incor- 
porated in  his  narrative  a  few  lines  from  a  justly 
celebrated  historical  poem.  The  second  dilliculty 
relates  to  the  extermination  of  the  C'anaanites.  It 
is  sufficient  to  say,  that  the  hopeless  corruption  of 
the  C'anaanites,  and  the  religious  interests  of  Israel 
and  of  humanity,  demanded  it.  And  as  much 
of  the  later  trouble  of  Israel  came  from  their  dis- 
obedience in  stopping  before  the  conquest  was  real- 
ly concluded,  and  in  allowing  the  idolatrous  and 
licentious  Canaauites  to  remain  in  any  portion 
of  the  promised  land,  the  wisdom  of  the  divine 
conmumd  is  manifest  "  Shall  not  the  Judge  of 
all  the  earth  do  right'.'"  Besides,  the  Israelites 
under  Joshua  were  hardy  warriors,  and  carnage 
to  their  eyes  was  not  sliocking,  and  they  rightly 
considered  the  Canaanites  as  foes  to  Jehovah,  and 
unworthy  to  live. 

Lit.  —  Among  modern  commentators  may  be 
mentioned  Maurer  (Stuttgart,  1S31),  Keil  (Er- 
langen,  1847 ;  English  translation,  Edinburgh, 
1857;  abridged,  Leipzig,  1863;  2d  ed.,  1874), 
Knobel  (Leipzig,  1861),  Fay  (in  Lange,  Biele- 
feld, 1870;  English  translation,  Xew  York,  1872); 
Crosby  (New  York,  1875) ;  G.  A.  jNIcLeod  (Cam- 
bridge, 1878);  COLENSO :  The  Pentaleiie/i  and  the 
Book  of  Joshua  (London,  1879),  Tlie  Pulpit  Com- 
mentary {hondou,  1881);  J.  J.  Lias  (Cambridge, 
1882).  See  also  jNIiss  S.miley  :  The  Fulness  oJ'Bless- 
imj  (New  York,  1876),  an  allegorical  commentary 
on  Joshua,  but  very  edifying  and  impressive. 

JOSHUA,  Spurious  Book  of,  a  compilation  made 
among  the  Samaritans,  but  not  recognized  liy 
them.  It  relates  the  history  of  Joshua,  with  nu- 
merous departures  from  the  Hebrew  text,  mere 
Samaritan  fables,  and  continues  the  Jewish  his- 
tory down  to  Alexander  Severus.  The  only  man- 
uscript copy  of  it  in  existence  belonged  to  Jos. 
Scaliger,  and  is  now  in  the  Leyden  Library.  It 
was  reprinted  by  T.  G.  J.  Juynboll  :  Liber  Josucb 
CItrouiciim  Hamaritanum,  Lud.  Batav.  [Leyden], 
1848.  It  is  written  in  Arabic  in  Samaritan  char- 
acters. Another  reproduction  of  Josliua's  history 
is  the  Samaritan  Chronicle  of  .'Vbul  Phetach. 
.See  Abulfatiii  Annates  iSaiiuirilani,  edited  by 
E<1.  Vilmar,  Gotha,  1866  (with  Latin  transla- 
tion). 

JOSI'AH  (ichom  Jehovah  heals),  king  of  Judah, 
son  and  successor  of  the  murdered  Amon ;  was 
put  on  the  throne,  at  the  age  of  eight  years,  by 
the  people,  who  frustrated  the  designs  of  his 
father's  murderers,  and  reigned  thirty-one  years 
(B.C.  641-609).  The  account  of  his  reigii  is 
given  in  2  Kings  xxii.-xxiii.  30,  2  Chron.  xxxiv.- 
XXXV.  Nothing  is  told  us,  however,  about  the 
early  history  of  the  king,  nor  of  the  influences 
under  which  he  grew  up.  The  narrative  in  Kings 
begins  with  his  repair  of  the  temple  in  the  eigh- 
teenth year  of  his  reign  ;  and  that  in  Chronicles, 
with  the  beginning  of  his  destruction  of  idolatry 
in  the  twelfth.  But  that  the.se  acts  were  not  the 
first  evidences  of  his  pious  character,  which 
made  him  one  of  the  best  of  Judah's  kings,  is 
manifest  from  the  high  praise  of  2  Kings  xxii.  2, 
xxiii.  25.  The  great  event  in  his  reign  occuiTed 
in  his  eighteenth  year,  referred  to  above.  During 
the  repairs,  which  apparently  had  not  been  made 
since  Jehoiada's  day  (2  Kings  xii.  11  sq.),  the 
book  of  the  law  was  found  in  the  house  of  the 


JOSIAH. 


1204 


JOVINIAN. 


Lord  by  Hilkiah  the  priest.  Hilkiah  gave  it  to 
Shapliau  the  scribe,  who  read  it  before  the  king. 
{The  ''book"  was  probably  Deuteronomy :  if  it 
•was  tlie  whole  Pentateuch,  then  it  must  have 
taken  at  least  ten  hoiu-s  to  read  it  through  aloud.) 
The  king  was  so  much  terrified  by  the  "  book," 
that  he  rent  his  clotlies,  and  immediately  sent 
Sliaphan  and  three  others  to  Huldah  the  proph- 
etess to  learn  the  will  of  the  Lord.  She  replied, 
that  the  Lord  intended  to  punish  the  people  for 
their  long-continued  disobedience,  according  to 
the  warnings  of  the  book ;  but,  in  consequence 
•of  Josiah's  ready  and  sincere  humiliation,  the 
strokes  were  to  be  delayed  until  after  his  death. 
The  king  gathered  together  all  the  elders  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem,  the  priests  and  the  proph- 
ets, and  all  the  people,  and  read  to  them  the 
"  book  of  the  law,"'  and  with  them  entered  into 
a  solemn  covenant  to  keep  all  its  words.  Then 
began  a  vigorous  cleansing  of  the  city  and  the 
land  of  all  traces  of  idolatry  (2  Kings  sxiii. 
4-19).  The  "high  places"  (see  art.)  were  also 
destroyed  from  Geba  to  Beer-sheba ;  i.e.,  from 
the  northern  to  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
land  of  Israel.  The  reference  to  the  high  places  j 
at  the  gate  of  Joshua,  "  which  were  on  a  man's  ! 
left  hand  at  the  gate  of  the  city "  (xxiii.  8),  [ 
shows  that  this  is  the  recital  of  an  eye-witness.  ' 
■Josiah's  destruction  of  Jeroboam's  altar  at  Bethel 
was  a  fulfilment  of  prophecy  (of.  1  Kings  xiii.  2). 
The  great  work  of  jiurificatiou  ended,  the  king 
returned  to  Jerusalem,  and  celebrated  the  pass- 
over  so  exactly  according  to  the  "  book,"  that  the 
.sacred  iiistorian  saj's,  "  Sm-ely  there  was  not 
holden  such  a  passover  from  the  days  of  the 
judges  that  judged  Israel,  nor  in  all  the  days  of 
the  kings  of  Israel,  nor  of  the  kings  of  Judah  " 
(xxiii.  22).  So  Josiah's  passover  exceeded  Ileze- 
kiah's  in  pomp  and  .solemnity  (cf.  2  Chron.  xxx.). 
Some  suppose  that  the  reason  of  the  remark 
quoted  was  twofold,  —  the  union  of  all  the  cele- 
brants in  one  place,  and  the  joint  offering  of  sheep 
and  bullocks,  according  to  the  requisition  of 
Deut.  xvi.  2,  5;  cf.  Exod.  xii.  Upon  the  last  point 
2  Cliron.  xxxv.  7  sqq.  seems  to  lay  particular 
weight. 

Josiah  lost  his  life  in  battle.  Judah  may  have 
been  at  this  time  tributary  to  Assyria,  or  Josiah 
may  have  asserted  his  power  over  all  Israel,  as 
would  seem  indicated  by  his  journey  thi-ougli  the 
former  northern  kingdom  to  destroy  idolatry,  and 
therefore  would  repel  any  invader;  but  at  aU 
events,  when  Pharaoh-Xecho,  king  of  Egypt,  en- 
tered Judiea  on  liis  way  to  Assyria,  Josiah  gave 
him  battle  at  Megiddo,  and  was  so  sorely  wound- 
ed tiiat  he  died  in  Jerusalem.  Ilis  death  was  the 
occasion  for  an  outburst  of  popular  grief  .so  great 
as  to  become  proverbial  (Zech.  xii.  11)  Jeremiah 
wrote  an  elegy  over  him  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  25). 

The  newness  to  Josiah  of  the  book  of  the  law 
found  in  the  ti.'nqile  i,s  no  proof  of  its  recent  ori- 
gin, as  some  claim ;  much  less  that  it  was  the 
product  of  a  "  pious  fraud,"  and  palmed  off  upon, 
the  king  as  a  genuine  work  of  Mo.ses.  Rather 
was  it  proljalily  a  genuine  temple  copy  of  a  ytor- 
tion  of  tlie  Pentateuch,  most  likely  of  Deuter- 
onomy, which  in  those  days  of  idolatry,  and 
ignorance  of  the  Jeliovah  worship,  had'  been 
ttiislaid  and  forgotten.  It  need  occasion  no  sur- 
prise thai  the  king  heard  it  with  astonishumut. 


Even  he  may  well  have  been  little  instructed  in 
religion. 

During  his  reign  a  nomadic  horde  of  Scythians 
overran  Asia  (Herod.,  I.  104— lOti),  of  which  no 
mention  is  made  in  the  Bible,  although  we  know 
they  must  have  crossed  near  the  lower  portion  of 
Judali.  Jeremiah  and  Zephaniah  were  the  proph- 
ets of  Jo.siah's  reign. 

JOST,  Isaac  Marcus,  b.  at  Bernburg,  Feb.  22, 
1793:  d.  at  Francfort-on-the-Main,  Nov.  20,1860; 
was  educated  in  a  Jewish  orphan-asylum  at 
Wolfenbuttel ;  studied  at  Gottingen  and  Berlin; 
and  was  director  of  a  Jewish  school,  first  at  Ber- 
lin, afterwards  at  Francfort-on-the-Main.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer;  but  his  principal  work  is 
his  Geschichte  der  Israeliten  (1820-28,  9  vols),  of 
which  a  continuation,  a  tenth  volume,  appeared 
1846-47. 

JO'THAM  {Jehovah  is  upriyht)  —\.  The 
youngest  son  of  Gideon,  and  the  only  one  of  his 
family  who  escaped  the  massacre  of  Abimelech, 
at  Ophrah.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for  his 
famous  parable  of  the  trees,  by  whicli  he  rebuked 
the  Shechemites  for  their  treachery.  After  he 
had  delivered  his  warning,  he  disappeared  from 
history.  (See  Judg.  ix.  5-21.)  —  2.  The  son  and 
successor  of  Uzziah,  or  Azariah,  king  of  Judah 
(2  Kings  XV.  .32-38).  The  date  and  length  of 
his  reign  cannot  be  exactly  determined.  It  was, 
however,  prosperous ;  and  he  showed  his  piety  by 
building,  or  rebuilding,  "  the  higher  gate  "  of  the 
temple  (2  Kings  xv.  35),  called  in  Jer.  xx.  2  the 
'•  Benjamin  Gate,"  and  described  by  Ezek.  viii. 
3  as  the  gate  towards  the  north,  near  the  great 
altar;  and  the  chronicler  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  3,4) 
relates,  that,  "  on  the  wall  of  Ophel  he  built  much. 
Moreover,  he  built  cities  in  the  mountains  of 
Judah,  and  in  the  forests  he  built  castles  and 
towers."  lie  led  a  successful  campaign  against 
the  Ammonites  (2  Chron.  xxvii.  5).  Isaiah 
prophesied  under  him.  K.vUTZSCH. 

JOVIANUS,  Flavius  Claudius,  was  command- 
er of  the  imperial  life-guard  when  Julian  died 
(June  27,  363),  and  was  proclaimed  emperor  by 
tlic  army  the  following  day.  He  was  a  kind  and 
prudent  man,  but  neither  a  great  mind  nor  a  per- 
fectly pure  character.  A  Christian  himself,  he 
immediately  cancelled  the  laws  of  Julian  against 
Christianity,  revived  the  monogr.am  of  Christ  on 
the  iniiH'rial  standards,  and  restored  to  the  Chris- 
tian clergy  their  privileges  an<l  revenues.  But  at 
the  same  time  he  showed  perfect  toleration  with 
respect  to  Paganism,  defended  the  Neo-Platonic 
philo.sophers  against  Christian  fanatics,  re-opened 
those  temples  which  had  been  shut  on  the  death 
of  Julian,  etc.  He  was  a  decided  adherent  of 
Athanasius,  and  invited  him  to  Antioch  to  confer 
with  him  ;  but  he  showed  himself  perfectly  im- 
partial in  his  dealings  with  the  Arians.  He 
might  have  exercised  a  beneficial  influence  on 
the  turbulent  development  of  the  Church  ;  but 
he  died  suddenly,  after  a  reign  of  only  eight 
months,  at  Dadastana,  on  the  road  from  .Vntioch 
to  Constantinople,  Feb.  17,  304.  See  Dr.  la 
Hi.KTKUiK  :  Histoire  de  i'empereur  Jorien,  Amster- 
dam, 1740.  W.VGENMANN. 

JOVINIAN,  a  I'oman  monk  and  "  heretic,"  from 
the  .sficiTid  lialf  of  the  fourth  century ;  d.  probably 
before  406.  Of  his  life  very  little  is  known. 
About  388  he  lived  iu  Rome,  dressed  poorly,  went 


JUBILEE. 


1205 


JUDAH. 


barefoot,  ate  nothing  but  bread  and  water,  and 
remained  unmarried.  He  knew  tlie  Scriptures 
well,  and  wrote  several  pamphlets  which  attracted 
attention.  His  "heresy"  consisted  principally 
in  his  opposition  to  the  ascetic  tendencies  then 
reigning.  Between  virginity,  widowhood,  and 
the  married  state,  there  is  no  moral  dift'erence,  he 
said  ;  between  abstinence  from  food,  and  eating 
it  properly,  there  is  no  difference.  He  especially 
protested  against  the  establishment  of  a  scale  of 
virtue  and  a  corresponding  scale  of  blessedness, 
asserting  that  the  divine  element  in  human  life 
is  one  and  the  same  under  all  external  circum- 
stances ;  that  all  who  are  baptized  to  Christ,  and 
born  anew,  have  morally  the  same  calling,  the 
same  dignity,  the  same  grace,  and  the  same  bless- 
edness. How  deep  an  impression  he  made  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  in  390  Pope  Si- 
ricius  found  it  necessary  to  convene  a  synod  in 
Home,  and  have  him  condemned.  This  decision 
M'as  communicated  to  other  bishops,  more  espe- 
cially to  Anibrosius  of  Milan,  in  whose  diocese 
Jovinian  and  his  adherents  had  .sought  refuge; 
and  in  395  Ambrosius  convened  a  synod  in  Milan, 
where  the  condemnation  was  repeated.  Augus- 
tine wrote  against  Jovinian  {Hceres.,  82 ;  De  Bono 
Conjugali ;  De  Virginitate),  especially  against  his 
denial  of  the  perpelua  virginitas  Marian,  and  his 
doctrine  of  the  equality  of  all  sins.  But  it  is  more 
specially  Jerome's  Adversus  .Jooinianmn  which 
throws  light  on  this  whole  subject,  though  it  is 
■written  with  so  much  acrimony  that  it  cannot  be 
used  without  great  caution.  By  modern  church- 
historians —  Flavins,  Basnage,  Mosheira,  Walch, 
Neander,  Baur,  and  others  —  Jovinian  has  gener- 
ally been  recognized  as  a  representative  of  the 
true  principle  of  Protestantism.  See  G.  B. 
Lindner  :    De  Joviniano   et    Vigilantio,   Leipzig, 

1840.  \VA(3ENMANN. 

JUBILEE,  Year  of,  among  the  Hebrews.  See 
Sabbatical  Year. 

JUBILEE,  or  JUBILEE  YEAR,  one  of  the  mean- 
est institutions  of  the  Roman- Catholic  Church; 
has  no  connection  whatever,  either  historically  or 
typically,  with  the  jubilee-year  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. It  originated  incidentally.  In  the  last 
days  of  1299  a  rumor  sprang  up  in  Rome  that 
every  one  who  visited  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  on 
Jan.  1,  1300,  would  receive  full  ab.solution.  As, 
in  consequence  of  this  rumor,  immense  crowds 
thronged  the  church  on  that  day,  —  not  only  citi- 
zens of  Rome,  but  also  foreign  pilgrims,  —  the 
attention  of  the  Pope  was  aroused,  and  investiga- 
tions were  made  in  the  papal  archives  concerning 
any  probable  foundation  for  the  rumor.  Nothing 
was  found.  Mevertheless,  when  an  old  peasant 
of  one  hundred  and  seven  years  told  the  Pope, 
that,  one  hundred  years  ago,  his  father  had  gone 
to  Rome  to  obtain  the  jubilee  absolution,  and  that 
an  indulgence  valid  for  a  whole  century  was  to 
be  had  in  Rome  at  any  day  during  that  year, 
Boniface  VIII.  issued  a  bull  (April  -22,  1300)  in- 
viting all  to  come  to  Rome  and  receive  absolution. 
The  influx  of  pilgrims  was  enormous,  swelling 
the  power  of  the  Pope  and  the  pockets  of  the 
citizens.  In  1343  the  latter  petitioned  Clement 
VI.  to  shorten  the  term  between  each  two  jubi- 
lees, and  celebrate  the  festival  every  fiftieth  year. 
The  Pope  was  merciful,  and  granted  the  petition. 
Other  popes  were  still  more  merciful.    Urban  VI. 


shortened  the  term  to  thirty-three  years,  April  8, 
1389  ;  Paul  II.,  to  twenty-five  years,  1470.  It  was 
even  determined  that  a  pilgrimage  to  Rome  should 
not  l)e  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  jidiilee  in- 
dulgence :  it  could  be  had  in  the  nearest  church 
by  paying  a  sum  of  money  e(pial  to  the  expenses 
oi  the  pilgrimage.  After  the  Reformation,  how- 
ever, the  institution  lo.st  its  dignity,  even  in  the 
eyes  of  the  Koman  Catholics  them.selves.  Never- 
theless it  has  not  been  abrogated.         G.  PLITT. 

JUBILEES,  Book  of.  See  P.seudepigraphs, 
Old  Testament. 

JUD  (pronounced  Yiule),  Leo  (haXm,LeoJudm), 
in  every-day  life  called  Meixtcr  Leu,  which  name 
his  descendants  adopted ;  b.  at  Gemar  in  Alsace, 
1482;  d.  at  ZUrich,  .lune  19,  1.542;  studied  at 
Ba.sel,  1499-1500  (first  medicine,  afterwards,  on 
the  instance  of  Zwingli,  theology),  and  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  Einsiedeln  in  1518,  and  of  the 
Church  of  St.  Peter  in  Ziirich  in  1522.  He  was 
an  intimate  friend  of  Zwingli,  and  his  true  and 
steady  assistant  in  the  carrying-out  of  the  Refor- 
mation in  Ziirich.  In  literary  respects  he  was 
mostly  active  as  translator.  Of  the  so-called 
Ziirich  Bible  he  did  the  Old  Testament.  He  al.so 
translated  the  New  Testament  into  Latin.  His 
Life  was  written  by  C.  Pestalozzi,  Elberfeld, 
18G0.  His  was  the  German  Bible  used  by  Cover- 
dale.  See  Westcott's  History  of  the  English 
Bible,  pp.  213,  214. 

JUD^'A  was  the  name  given  to  the  lowermost 
of  the  three  divisions  of  the  Holy  Land  in  the 
Saviour's  time.  It  lay  south  of  Samaria,  and  west 
of  the  Jordan.  It  was  occupied,  after  the  exile, 
by  the  captives  from  Assyria  and  Babylonia,  but 
was  made  a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Syria  A.D.  6,  after  Archelaus  was  deposed,  and 
was  ruled  by  a  procurator  under  the  governor  of 
Syria,  and  whose  residence  was  in  Ccesarea,  not 
in  .Jerusalem.  The  word  first  occurs  in  Dan.  v.  13 
(A.  v.,  "  Jewry  ") ;  and  the  "  province  "  of  Judsea 
is  first  mentioned  in  Ez.  v.  8,  and  alluded  to  in 
Nell.  xi.  3  (Hebrew  and  A.  V.,  ".Judah  ").  In  the 
Apocrypha,  .ludfea  and  "  country  of  Judsea  "  fre- 
quently occur.  In  New-Testament  times  the 
terra  was  loosely  used  to  include  the  transjordanic 
provinces  (Matt.  xix.  1,  etc.). 

The  hill  country  of  Jmkea  (Luke  i.  65)  was  the 
central  ridge  of  mountains  stretching  from  north 
to  south  through  Palestine. 

The  iviklerness  of  Judaa  is  a  wild,  desolate, 
uninhabited  region,  extending  from  the  hill  coun- 
try, near  Jerusalem,  south-east  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
with  an  average  width  of  fifteen  miles  (Matt.  iii.  1). 
Here  .John  preached,  and  our  Lord  was  tempted. 

JU'DAH  {praise;  Greek  form,  Judas),  a.  com- 
mon name  among  the  later  Jews,  particularly  the 
Levites.  Judah,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  al- 
though in  age  the  fourth,  vii'tually  supplanted 
Reuben,  the  first-born,  and  enjoyed  the  respect 
of  all  his  brothers  by  his  energy  of  character.  It 
was  he  who  advised  the  selling  of  .loseph  to  Egypt 
/Gen.  xxxvii.  26,  27),  and  who  became  surety  for 
Benjamin  (xliii.  9),  and  made  that  touching  speech 
before  Joseph  (xliv.  18-34).  In  the  matter  of 
Tamar  (xxxviii.)  he  does  not  appear  in  a  favorable 
light;  but  even  then  his  sense  of  justice  and  his 
inherent  nobility  came  out.  These  traits  charac- 
terized his  descendants ;  and  the  prophecy  of 
Jacob  was  fulfilled  according  to  which  the  right 


JUDAH. 


1206 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT.  '»■ 


of  primogeniture  was  given  to  him  by  his  breth- 
ren, and  he  held  the  sceptre  until  Shiloh  came 
(xlix.  S-1'2).  V.  ORELLI. 

JU'DAH,  Kingdom  of.     See  Israel. 

JUDAH,  Tribe  of.     See  Tribes  of  Isr.a.el. 

JUDAIZERS.     See  Jewish  Christians. 

JU'DAS,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  carefully 
distinguished  hy  the  evangelists  from  Judas  Is- 
cariot ;  called  also  Lebbaeus  and  Thaddseus  (ilatt. 
X.  3;  Mark  iii.  18;  Luke  vi.  10;  John  xiv.  22; 
Acts  i.  13).  His  surnames  Lebbseus  and  Thad- 
dseus mean  the  same  thing.  The  first  comes  from 
2h  ("heart "),  and  the  second  from  -\r\  ("a  mother's 
breast"):  hence  they  mean  beloved  child.  We  know 
nothing  about  his  history  before  or  after  his  con- 
nection with  Jesus.  Tradition  is  also  late  and 
contradictory.  According  to  Abdias  lie  preached 
and  was  martyred  in  Persia :  according  to  Xiceph- 
orus,  he  died  naturally  at  Edessa,  after  laboring 
for  a  period  in  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Arabia. 
The  Syrian  Church  iir.st  distinguishes  him  from 
Thaddseus  the  missionary  of  Syria,  then  confounds 
him  with  the  latter,  and  puts  his  martyrdom  in 
Phcenicia.  SIEFFERT. 

JU'DAS  ISCAR'IOT,  one  of  the  twelve  disci- 
ples, and  the  betrayer  of  Jesus ;  was  the  son  of  a 
certain  Simon.  The  name  Iscariot,  it  is  now 
generally  agreed,  is  a  derivative  of  Kerioth,  a 
town  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  25).  If  it 
be  true  that  this  was  the  native  place  of  Judas, 
then  he  was  the  solitary  Judrean  among  the  dis- 
ciples, who  otherwise  were  from  Galilee.  The 
references  to  Judas  in  the  New  Testament  are  as 
follows:  (1)  Mention  of  his  name  in  the  list  of 
the  disciples  (Matt.  x.  4 ;  Mark  iii.  19 ;  Luke  vi. 
16)  ;  (2)  Occasional  allusions  (John  vi.  64,  70,  71, 
xii.  4  .sqq.,  xvii.  12)  ;  (3)  History  of  the  betrayal 
(Matt.  xxvi.  14-10,  21-25,  46-50 ;  Mark  xiv.  10, 
11,  18-21,  42-46;  Luke  xxii.  3-6,  21-23,  47  sq. ; 
John  xiii.  2-11,  18  sq.,  21-30,  xviii.  2-9)  ;  (4)  Ac- 
count of  his  death  (Jlatt.  xxvii.  3-10;  Acts  i. 
16-25).  The  name  of  Judas  is  always  mentioned 
last  in  the  lists  of  the  disciples,  and  probably 
with  reference  to  the  infamy,  which,  ever  after  his 
betrayal,  rested  on  his  name.  Matthew'  and  Mark 
add  after  the  name  the  defining  clause,  "  who 
also  betrayed  him :  "  and  Luke,  "  who  was  the 
traitor."  John  also  adds  the  same  information 
when  he  mentions  his  name ;  and,  in  the  high 
priestly  prayer  of  our  Lord,  Judas  is  called  the 
"son  of  perdition"  (John  xvii.  12).  The  few 
notices  which  John  gives  of  his  career  as  a  disci- 
ple previous  to  the  events  of  the  last  night  of 
Christ's  life  represent  him  as  the  treasurer  of  the 
Twelve,  who  carried  the  bag,  and  probably  dis- 
pensed their  charities,  and  purchased  their  pro- 
visions, lie  is  also  descrilxMl  as  having  been 
displeased  with  the  self-sacrificing  act  of  Mary, 
who  poured  the  contents  of  the  box  of  nard  upon 
Christ's  head,  on  the  grouiul  tliat  it  was  a  useless 
waste,  and  that  the  money  it  would  have  brought 
might  do  good  to  the  poor.  Jolm  represents  tliis 
as  the  hypocritical  plea  of  a  "  thief  "  (xii.  6)  who 
had  no  sympathy  with  the  poor. 

.Judas'  tr(.'acliery  was  the  first  act  directly  lead- 
ing to  the  crucifixion  of  the  Son  of  m.an.  He  was 
present  at  tho  Last  Supper,  partook,  at  least  in 
part,  of  the  sacred  meal,  and,  with  the  rest  of  the 
disciples,  his  feet  were  wa.shed  by  the  condescen- 


sion of  the  Lord.  While  the  disciples  were  still 
at  the  table,  Jesus  annoimced  that  one  of  theni 
should  betray  him  ;  and,  recognizing  the  one  who 
was  to  do  the  act,  he  bade  the  traitor  consummate 
his  work  with  despatch,  .^  an  injunction  which 
the  rest  of  the  companj'  did  not  understand  at 
the  time  (John  xiii.  27).  Some  time  before  this, 
Judas  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy  with  the 
Jewish  authorities,  who  promised  to  pay  him 
thirty  pieces  of  silver  for  delivering  Christ  up 
into  their  hands.  Going  out  from  the  upper 
chamber  into  the  night  (John  xiii.  30),  he  con- 
summated his  treachery,  and,  returning  with  a 
band  of  soldiers,  found  Christ  in  the  garden,  and 
pointed  him  out.  The  synoptists  in  the  account 
of  this  event  agree  in  all  the  details.  John's  nar- 
rative presents  an  apparent  divergence.  Accord- 
ing to  the  synoptists,  Judas,  stepping  forward, 
gave  the  Master  a  kiss,  which,  by  arrangement, 
was  a  signal  for  the  band.  Jesus  then  replied  to 
the  traitor,  "  Friend,  do  that  for  which  thou  art 
come"  (Matt.  xxvi.  50).  According  to  John, 
.Jesus  was  not  recognized  at  first,  but,  on  the  ap- 
proach of  the  soldiers,  asked  them  who  they  were 
seeking,  and,  after  their  amazement,  repeated  the 
question.  It  must  not  be  forgotten,  in  reading 
the  accounts,  that  it  was  night.  It  is  inherently 
probable  that  Jesus  first  addressed  the  soldiers, 
and  that  Judas,  whom  we  are  to  conceive  of  as 
having  at  first  not  seen  him,  then  went  forward 
and  kissed  him.  The  manner  of  Judas'  death  is 
related  by  INIatthew,  whose  account  is  supple- 
mented by  the  references  of  Peter  in  his  address 
after  the  ascension  (Acts  i.  16-25).  Disappointed, 
perhaps,  with  the  ultimate  issue  of  his  deed,  and 
remorseful  at  having  been  the  cause  of  Christ's 
death,  he  threw  his  ill-gotten  silver  upon  the  floor 
of  the  temple,  went  forth  and  hanged  himself. 
It  was  probably  at  the  edge  of  a  precipice  ;  and 
falling  headlong,  as  Peter  adds,  his  body  was 
broken  asunder.  Dr.  Hackett  discovered  a  spot 
which  seemed  to  him  to  be  the  probable  scene  of 
this  tragedy  {Cummentar;/  on  Acts,  Notes  on  i.  18), 
and  satisfied  the  details  of  both  accounts.  A 
ragged,  weather-beaten,  forlorn-looking  tree  near 
.Jerusalem  is  called  the  Judas  tree,  and  is  pointed 
out  to  the  traveller  as  the  one  from  which  the 
disciple  committed  suicide. 

Two  questions  force  themselves  upon  the  at- 
tention in  the  study  of  the  character  of  Judas : 
What  was  Christ's  purpose  in  admitting  him  to 
the  number  of  the  twelve  discipl(\s?  and  what 
motives  liad  .Judas  in  betraying  Christ? 

I.  The  Admission  of  Judas  to  the  Com- 
pany OK  THE  Disciples.  —  The  difficulty  of 
arriving  at  satisfactory  results  in  the  discussion 
of  this  question  ari.ses  from  the  theanthropic  pei-- 
.sonality  of  Christ,  and  the  meeting  in  him  of  a 
divine  and  human  knowledge.  Different  theories 
have  been  urged  to  account  for  Christ's  admission 
of  .Judas.  (1)  Christ  made  the  choice  with  the 
prevision  that  .Judas  would  betray  him.  He  knew 
that  lie  was  a  thorouglily  depravcid  man.  He 
selected  .Judas  because  he  knew  he  would  be- 
tray him  (Calvin,  Ilengstenberg,  Plumptre,  and 
others),  or  in  obedience  to  the  Father  (Ijuther, 
(iodet,  etc.).  If  the  words  of  .John,  ".Icsus  knew 
from  the  beginning  .  .  .  who  it  was  that  should 
betray  him  "  (vi.  64),  admit  only  of  the  interpre- 
tation that  he  knew  it  from  the  very  first  choice 


JUDAS   ISCARIOT. 


1207 


JUDB, 


of  the  disciples,  then  this  view  is  the  only  tenable 
one.  (2)  Jesus  admitted  .ludas  into  the  college 
of  the  disciples,  recognizing  his  good  qualities, 
and  hoping  to  train  him  into  a  devoted  follower, 
as  he  did  Peter.  He  did  not  foresee  his  treason, 
just  as  he  did  not  know  the  day  of  judgment. 
Judas  was  led  by  his  Messianic  hopes,  and  a  cer- 
tain admiration  of  Jesus,  to  join  himself  to  his 
followers.  Jesus  gradually  became  familiar  with 
the  inveterate  depravity  of  his  nature,  as  it  ex- 
pressed itself  in  liypocrisy,  an  inordinate  love  of 
money,  etc.  This  is  the  view  of  Neander,  Lange, 
Ebrard,  Weiss  (^Com.  on  John,  Note  on  chap,  vi.), 
and  others.  In  Christ'.s  presence,  men  became 
either  better  or  worse.  Judas  might  have  become 
better ;  but  in  reality  he  became  worse. 

II.  Motives  of  the  Betray.\l.  —  The 
treachery  of  Judas  stands  out  in  the  sharpest 
contrast  to  the  goodness  of  Christ.  It  perhaps 
represents  the  culmination  of  human  ingratitude, 
as  the  cross  represents  the  culmination  of  divine 
love.  Luke  and  John  both  ascribe  Judas'  deed 
to  the  influence  of  Satan  entering  into  him  (Luke 
xxii.  3;  John  xiii.  2,  27).  The  evangelists  do 
not  give  us  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  the  motives 
of  his  deed.  (1)  The  immediate  motive  advanced 
by  them  was  avarice.  Thirty  pieces  of  silver 
was  not  much,  but  great  crimes  have  been  com- 
mitted for  sums  more  paltry.  There  were,  no 
doubt,  other  motives  mixed  up  with  this.  A 
grave  crime  is  often  the  resultant  of  many  motives. 
(2)  He  desired  to  save  himself.  He  felt  that 
Christ  could  not  go  on  much  longer  as  he  had 
been  going.  The  bitter  enmity  of  the  Jews  would 
inevitably  burst  upon  him,  and  the  disciples 
might  share  the  destructive  consequences  of  the 
storm.  Motives  of  self-interest  led  him  to  secure 
himself  with  the  chief  priests.  (3)  He  was  actu- 
ated by  malice.  His  character  threw  a  shadow- 
across  the  pathway  of  Christ.  He  recognized 
the  purity  of  the  Master,  and  in  the  presence  of 
it  he  felt  himself  condemned.  He  shrank  from 
that  pure  and  benevolent  eye.  Such  words  as 
"  Ye  are  clean,  but  not  all,"  the  commendation 
of  Mary  (John  xii.),  and  the  reproof  of  miserli- 
ness, festered  in  his  bosom.  Vice,  as  it  often 
does,  in  his  case  became  vindictive,  and,  in  the 
hope  of  excusing  itself,  struck  at  virtue.  Other 
motives  have  been  assigned  for  Judas'  action. 
(1)  He  betrayed  Christ  from  motives  of  patriot- 
ism. (2)  He  was  carrying  out  a  subtle  plan  by 
which  he  expected  to  force  Christ  to  manifest  his 
Messianic  power,  and  realize  the  triumph  of  the 
Messianic  kingdom.  This,  the  view  of  Arch- 
bishop Whately,  supposes  that  Judas  had  confi- 
dence in  Christ,  and  believed  he  would  not  suffer 
himself  to  be  put  to  death.  Both  these  views  are 
at  vai'iance  with  the  accounts  in  the  Gospels. 

The  crime  of  Judas  some  have  attempted  to 
extenuate  on  the  gi'ound  that  he  was  the  execu- 
tive of  a  divine  and  irresistible  purpose  to  bring 
about  Christ's  death,  which  was  necessary  to  the 
salvation  of  the  race.  The  Perata;  and  Cainites, 
two  Gnostic  sects  of  the  second  century,  went 
so  far  as  to  represent  him  as  the  true  apostle, 
whose  deed  liberated  Christ  from  the  bondage  of 
matter.  All  representations  of  this  kind  founder 
on  the  words  of  Christ,  "  Woe  unto  that  man  by 
■whom  the  Son  of  man  is  betrayed  I  It  had  been 
good  for  that  man  if  he  bad  not  been  born" 


(Matt.  xxvi.  24).  Dante  places  Judas,  together 
with  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  the  lowest  apartment 
of  hell.  The  last  words  of  Judas,  "  I  have  sinned 
in  that  I  betrayed  innocent  blood  "  (Matt,  xxvii. 
4),  were  not  words  of  repentance,  but  of  remorse 
and  despair.  They  were  uttered  in  the  spirit  of 
Macbeth  after  he  had  murdered  IJnucan, — 

'*  I  am  afraid  to  think  what  I  liave  done. 
Lookon'tagain,  I  dare  not." 

Peter's  denial  differed  from  Judas'  crime  by  being 
a  sin  of  "  sudden  lapse."  Judas  was  deliberate 
in  his  planning,  and  malevolent  in  his  intent. 

Lit.  —  Zandt  :  Comment,  ile  Juda  prodilore. 
Lips.,  17IJ9;  Daub:  Judas  hcharinth,  Heidelberg, 
1810-18 ;  the  Commentaries  on  Matthew  and 
John,  and  an  excellent  article  in  Smith's  Bible 
Dictionari)  by  Dean  Plumptre,  and  the  addition 
in  the  American  edition  by  Professor  Edwards 
A.  Park.  d.  s.  schaff. 

JU'DAS  OF  GALILEE,  mentioned  by  Gamaliel 
in  Acts  V.  37,  and  by  Josejihus  (Antiii.,  XVIII. 

I,  6;   War,  II.  8,  1;  cf.  Antiq.,  XX.  it,  2;   War, 

II.  17,  8)  as  the  leader  of  an  insurrection  against 
the  Roman  enrolment  under  Augustus.  The  Jew- 
ish rabbi  and  historian  agi-ee  in  their  facts,  but 
differ  curiously  in  their  estimation  of  the  event ; 
for  the  former  evidently  regarded  the  insurrection 
as  of  temporary  importance,  and  its  failure  as  a 
proof  of  its  godlessness;  while  Josephus  regarded 
it  as  the  beginning  of  the  Zealot  movement,  which 
broke  out  with  such  terrific  force  under  Gessius 
Florus.  K.  SCHMIDT. 

JUDAS  MACCAB/EUS.      See  Maccabee. 

JUDE,  The  Epistle  of,  one  of  the  seven  Catholic 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament ;  was  written  by 
"  Jude,  a  servant  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  Vjrother  of 
James"  (ver.  1).  The  author  does  not  call  him- 
self an  apostle,  nor  does  any  thing  in  the  Epistle 
indicate  that  he  was  known  by  that  title.  He 
distinctly  indicates  that  he  was  not  an  apo.stle  in 
verse  17,  where  he  speaks  of  the  '•  apostles  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  For  this  reason  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  the  author  was  a  different  per- 
son from  Judas  Lebbfeus,  one  of  the  Twelve.  This 
is  made  certain  by  his  fraternal  relation  to  James 
(ver.  1),  who  can  be  none  other  than  the  brother 
of  our  Lord,  and  the  head  of  the  Church  in  Jerusa- 
lem. (See  James,  the  Brother  of  Our  Lord.) 
Jude  was,  therefoi'e,  one  of  the  Lord's  brothers 
(Matt.  xiii.  .5.5 ;  Mark  vi.  3),  and  the  sou  of  Mary. 
Jude  addressed  his  letter,  not  to  any  local  congre- 
gation, but  to  the  Church  at  large.  Its  cu'cle  of 
readers  was  even  larger  than  that  addressed  by 
James,  including  not  only  the  believing  Jews  out- 
side of  Palestine,  but  all  believers,  without  dis- 
tinction of  birth  or  locality.  It  is  true,  however, 
that  certain  local  perversions  of  the  truth,  and 
moral  decay,  formed  the  occasion  of  the  Epistle. 
It  contains  references  and  warnings  to  those  that 
had  given  themselves  up  to  fornication  (ver.  8), 
and  were  walking  after  their  own  lusts  (ver.  16). 
But  they  were  not  simply  practical  libertines  (De 
Wette),  but  combined  with  their  moral  laxness 
errors  of  doctrine.  They  were,  in  fact,  false  teach- 
ers (Dorner,  Doctr.  of  the  Person  of  Christ,  i.  p. 
104),  as  is  evident  from  verse  4,  which  speaks  of 
"  certain  men  who  had  crept  in,"  and  had  pen^ert- 
ed  the  teaching  of  the  "  common  salvation  "  (ver. 
3).  These  teachers  were  stiU  in  communion  with 
the  Church  (ver.  12) ;  but  their  doctrines  tended 


JUDB. 


1-208 


JUDGES  OF   ISRAEL. 


to  derogate  from  the  honor  of  Christ.  They  en- 
gaged in  dreamy  speculations  (ver.  S),  and  from 
them  proceeded 'their  immoral  conduct,  and  the 
depreciation  of  Christ  ajid  the  angels. 

These  teachers,  however,  are  not  to  be  identi- 
fied with  the  Gnostics  of  the  second  century. 
The  descriptions  in  the  Epistle  are  too  general  in 
their  character  to  warrant  this  view.  Neverthe- 
less, the  false  teaching  described  in  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  belongs  to  the  germ-period,  of  Gnosticism. 
Hegesippus  (Euseb.,  H.E.,  IV.  22)  was  not  with- 
out authority  for  saying,  that,  after  the  death  of 
James,  ditficulties  manifested  themselves  in  the 
Church,  which  he  associates  very  closely  with  tlie 
Gnosticism  of  a  later  period.  The  errorists  of  Jude 
resemble  the  Nicolaitans  of  the  Apocah-pse  ;  and 
Thiersch,  Ewald,  and  Ilutherfind  the  resemblance 
so  strong  as  to  regard  their  errors  as  a  later  form 
of  the  Nicolaitan  heresy.  Whether  tliese  tenden- 
cies were  really  prevalent  over  the  whole  Christian 
Church,  or  not,  Judas  writes  as  though  they  were, 
and  exhorts  the  believers  to  hold  fast  to  the  teacli- 
ing  of  the  Apostles  (vers.  3,  17). 

The  date  at  which  Jude  wrote  liis  Epistle  can- 
not be  determined  with  definiteness  from  the  use 
it  made  of  other  writings,  and  the  use  they  made 
of  it.  The  Book  of  Enoch  is  not  only  referred  to 
in  verse  6,  but  is  also  quoted  (ver.  14  sq.).  This 
work  in  its  original  form  was  certainly  written  in 
the  time  of  the  early  Maccabean  princes  (Liicke, 
Ewald,  Dilhnann,  Hilgenfeld,  Lang-en),  and  prob-  | 
ably  in  tlie  reign  of  Jonathan  (Sieifert,  De  Apoc- 
ryphi  libri  Hennchi  ori(/ine  et  argumento,  lir>67). 
The  Assumplin  Mosis,  which  seems  to  be  referred 
to  in  verse  9,  was  probably  written  before  44  .\.D. 
Jude  also  betrays  a  knowledge  of  Paul's  writings. 
The  Second  Epistle  of  Peter,  on  the  other  hand, 
shows  an  acquaintance  witli  Jude  ((Juericke,  Wie- 
singer,  Bleek,  Wei.ss,  etc.).  We  iiave,  however, 
no  right  to  conclude,  because  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  is  not  mentioned  among  the  examples 
(cf.  ver.  5  sqq.),  that  that  event  had  not  already 
occurred  before  the  Epistle  was  written.  There 
was  no  good  reason  for  Jude  to  have  mentioned  it. 
The  fact  that  he,  the  brother  of  James,  feels  him- 
self called  upon  to  warn  against  the  false  teach- 
ers, indicates  that  he  wrote  after  that  brother's 
death  (69  A.D.).  Tlie  date  of  composition  may 
therefore  be  pretty  confidently  set  down  between 
70  and  80  after  Christ. 

The  geimineness  of  the  Epistle  has  been  called 
in  question  by  Luther,  Grotius,  Semler,  the  Tii- 
bingen  school,  etc.  It  is  true  that  the  testimo- 
nies of  antiquity  in  regard  to  it  are  vacillating. 
The  Muratorian  Canon  mentions  it,  but  denies 
that  Jude  was  the  author.  Tertullian  and  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  are  acquainted  with  it,  and  so 
likewise  (_)rigen,  who,  however,  mentions  doubts 
about  its  genuineness.  Tlie  Peshito  did  not  origi- 
nally contain  it,  and  Eusebius  placed  it  among 
the  Anlilerjnmena.  Jerome,  through  whose  iiiHn- 
ence  it  came  to  be  generally  accepted,  says  that  it 
was  rejected  by  the  majority  on  account  of  its 
apocryphal  quotation.  These  testimonies  unfa- 
vorable to  tlie  geiiuinene.ss  are  to  be  explained  by 
the  fact  tliat  the  author  was  not  an  apostle,  and 
that  he  quoted  from  the  apocryplial  Book  of  Enoch, 
but  are  not  a  sudicient  argument  against  it. 

Lit.  —  The  Cnmmenlaries  oi\  .luile  by  WiTSUis 
(Basel,   17;i9;,   Sciimid    (Lips.,   17G8),   Semlkk 


(Halle,  1782),  L.A.riMANN  (Groningen,  1818), 
Stier  (Berlin,  1850),  Arxaud  (Strassburg  and 
Paris,  1851),  Fronmuller,  in  Lange  (Bielefeld, 
1859  [English  translation  by  Mombert,  New 
York,  1867),  Alford  (3d  ed.,  London,  1866),  IIu- 
THER,  iu  Meyer  (4th  ed.,  Gbttiugeii,  1877),  J.  C. 
K.  HoF.MANN  (Nordlingen,  1876),  J.  R.  Lumby, 
iu  Spealer's  Commentarij  (Xew  York,  1881). 
See  also  the  fntruducliuiis  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment]. SIEFFERT. 

JUDGES  OF  ISRAEL.  (This  article  treats  of 
the  persons  so  named  in  the  Book  of  Judges :  for 
the  use  of  the  word  in  a  wider  sense  see  Court.) 
Three  facts  characterized  the  jieriod  of  the  judges. 

(1)  Israel  shared  the  land  with  the  heathen  peo- 
ples ;  because,  through  laziness,  fear,  and  other 
reasons,  it  had  failed  to  carry  out  the  divine  com- 
mand to  exterminate  the  latter.  The  consequence 
was  successive  relapses  into  idolatry,  and  successive 
subjections  to  the  idolaters,  lasting  until  tlie  Lord 
in  his  mercy  raised  up  the  successive  deliverers. 

(2)  A  lack  of  unity.  The  people  kept  together 
during  Joshua's  life  and  the  lives  of  the  elder."! 
that  outlived  Joshua,  and  who  had  seen  all  the 
great  works  of  the  Lord  that  he  did  for  Israel 
(Judg.  ii.  7)  ;  but  the  connecting  bonds  were  lax, 
and  it  was  not  long  before  jealousy  between  the 
tribes  kept  them  asunder.  Judah  was  at  first 
the  leading  tribe  (i.  1,  2),  and  to  her  belonged  0th- 
niel,  the  first  judge ;  then  the  leadership  passed 
to  Ephraim,  first  under  Deborah,  until  Jephthah 
had  his  break  with  the  tribe.  After  him  no  tribe 
gained  especial  ascendency.  It  was  not,  indeed, 
until  Eli,  at  the  end  of  the  period,  uniting  in 
himself  the  prie.stly  and  the  judicial  elements, 
drew  the  people  together,  that  a  nation  wa.s 
evolved.  In  consequence  of  this  lack  of  unity,  we 
read  in  Judges  of  individual  undertakings  only 
and  conquests.  Twice,  indeed,  under  Othiiiel  and 
Ehud,  "  all  Israel "  joined  in  the  struggle :  bul 
Deborah  seems  to  have  collected  only  Ephraim, 
Benjamin,  Mamusseh,  Zebulon,  Issachar,  and 
Naphtali  ;  Gideon  ruled  over  only  Manasseh, 
Asher,  Zebulon,  and  Naphtali ;  .leplitiiah  fought 
the  Ammonites  with  the  as.sistaiice  of  only  Gilead 
and  Manasseh ;  and  Samson  ruled  only  Judali 
and  Dan.  Thus  tlie  repeated  remark  of  tlio 
historian  is  strikingly  true:  "  In  those  days  there 
was  no  king  in  Israel ;  every  man  did  what  was 
right  in  his  own  eyes"  (Judg  xvii.  6,  xxi.  25). 
Of  course  from  such  a  state  of  tilings  one  would 
expect  no  .security  for  life  or  property;  and  for 
proof  that  there  was  none  see  Deborah's  state- 
ment, V.  6.  Nor  would  religion  prosper.  Israel 
was  a  tlieocracy,  and  the  holy  place  was  where 
tlie  tabernacle  was.  Accordingly  there  the 
people  .assembled  to  learn  .Jehovah's  will,  .so 
tliat  they  might  follow  his  direction  (xx.  18, 
xxi.  2;  cf.  i.  1,  x.  10).  But  the  book  plainly 
shows,  that,  after  all,  the  influence  of  the  labef- 
nacle  wa.s  slight.  It  is  a  striking  fact,  that  from 
Pliinelias,  at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  to  Eli, 
at  its  close,  not  a  single  high  priest  is  named, — 
a  sure  proof  of  their  small  importance.  On  the 
oilier  liand,  the  repealed  apostasies,  and  such 
unions  of  idolatry  and  the  .lehovah  worship  as 
in  the  case  of  (jideon's  ephod  (viii.  27)  and 
.Micah's  Iiouse  of  gods  (xvii.  .5),  speak  volumes 
on  the  real  state  of  religion.  The  ark  it.self  wa.*; 
an  object  of  superstitious  reverence  (1  Sam.  iv.  3). 


JUDGES  OF  ISRAEL. 


1209 


JUDGES. 


(3)  The  third  characteristic  was  the  change  in 
the  divine  revelations  (of.  1  Sam.  iii.  1).  In  the 
beginnini;,  (jod  dealt  personally  with  men,  then 
tliiougli  angels,  then  through  prophets,  until 
finally  even  these  ceased  after  Malachi.  The 
jjeriod  of  the  judges  marks  the  transition  from 
the  second  to  the  third  species  of  divine  revela- 
tions. The  angel  of  the  Lord  appeared  at  the 
beginning  of  the  period  with  what  read  like  fare- 
well worcls  (Judg.  ii.  1-3) ;  but,  besides  the  passing 
allusion  in  Deborah's  song,  only  two  important 
actions  are  done  or  announced  by  angels,  —  the 
call  of  Gideon  (vi.  11  sqq.)  and  the  birth  of  Sam- 
son (xiii.  3).  In  1  Sara,  no  angel  is  mentioned; 
in  2  Sam.,  only  one  (xxiv.  16  sqi].).  In  the  days 
of  the  judges,  on  the  other  hand,  the  prophetic 
office  was  developed.  Deborah  was  a  prophetess 
(Judg  iv.  4)  ;  two  unnamed  prophets  are  spoken 
•f  (vi.  8;  1  Sam  ii.  27  sqq.);  and  at  the  close 
of  the  period  appears  Sanmel,  a  prophet  in  the 
full  meaning  of  the  term.  I?y  him  the  schools 
of  the  prophets,  or,  more  correctly,  unions  of 
prophets,  were  established  (1  Sam.  x.  5.  10). 

In  general,  the  period  of  the  judges  was  both 
a  close  and  a  beginning.  It  closed  the  nomadic, 
unsettled  life  of  the  wandering  and  the  conquest : 
it  prepared  the  way  for  the  orderly  and  regulated 
life  of  the  monarchy.  In  Egypt,  Israel  had  become 
a  people  without  a  country:  in  the  period  of  the 
judges  the  people  took  root  in  the  territory  God 
gave  them.  It  was  a  time  of  per.sonal  heroism; 
but  these  heroes  of  Israel  are  not  to  be  confounded 
with  the  heroes  of  mythologj',  as  some  would  do, 
It  was  a  time  of  noble  words,  as  well  as  deeds. 
Deborah's  ode  is  a  masterpiece,  and  a  model  for 
all  time;  Jotham's  fable  (Judg.  ix.  7  sqq.)  equals 
any,  although  it  is  the  oldest  of  all ;  the  speeches 
of  Gideon  and  Jephthah  are  fine  specimens  of 
rugged  eloquence ;  and,  finally,  Samuel  was  a 
teacher  sent  from  God,  faithful,  fearless,  fertile, 
from  whose  lips  dropped  pearls  of  wisdom.  It 
was  the  time  of  the  strongest  theocracy  in  form, 
but  the  weakest  in  power  ;  for  only  while  the 
accepted  representative  of  Jehovah,  the  judge, 
lived,  did  the  people  worship  Jehovah. 

The  name  Judge  (i33C')  implies  chiefly,  but  not 
only,  judicial  activity  in  the  strict  sense.  Some 
of  them,  e.g.,  Samson,  were  probably  not  judges 
at  all ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  others  were,  e.g., 
Deborah  (Judg.  iv.  5),  Samuel  (1  Sam.  vii.  15-17), 
and  his  sons  (viii.  1-3).  Again :  the  "  judge  "  was 
not  iiereditary  ruler,  not  king  (hence  Abimelech, 
who,  on  the  strength  of  his  father's  [Gideon's] 
authority,  claimed  kingsliip,  cannot  be  reckoned 
among  the  Judges) ;  but  he  was  divinely  appointed 
ruler,  and  had  the  piety  of  the  people  in  charge. 
But  the  "judge"  was  always  the  savior  of  his 
country. 

The  following  was  the  order  of  the  judges  : 
1.  Othuiel,  who  delivered  Israel  from  Chusan- 
rishathaim,  the  king  of  Mesopotamia,  their  lord 
for  eight  years,  and  judged  forty  years ;  2.  Ehud, 
from  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  with  his  allies  Am- 
nion and  Amalek,  masters  eighteen  years,  "and 
the  land  had  rest  eighty  years ; "  3.  Shanigar, 
from  the  Philistines ;  4.  Deborah;  and  5.  Barak, 
from  Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  "  and  the  land  had 
rest  forty  years ;  "  6.  Gideon,  from  the  Midianites, 
Anialekites,  and  "  the  children  of  the  East,"  judged 
forty  years ;  7.  Tola  judged  twenty-three  years ; 


8.  Jair  judged  twenty-two  years ;  9.  Jephthah, 
from  the  Ammonites,  judged  six  years ;  10.  Ibzan 
judged  seven  years;  11.  Klon  judged  ten  years; 
12.  Abdon  judged  eight  years;  13.  Samson,  who 
herjan  to  deliver  Israel  from  the  I'hilistines,  judged 
twenty  years;  14.  Eli  judged  forty  years;  15. 
Samuel;  16.  His  sons,  Joel  and  Abiah." 

The  chronology  of  the  period  is  confused.  If 
the  successive  dates  are  added,  the  result  is  four 
hundred  and  ten  years  from  Othniel  to  Samson. 
To  this  add  the  forty  years  of  Eli's  adniinistra^ 
tion,  and  there  result  the  four  hundred  and  fifty 
years  of  Paul's  statement  (Acts  xiii.  20).  But 
that  this  sum  is  too  large  is  proved  iiy  Jephthah's 
statement,  that  from  the  conquest  to  his  day  was 
three  hundred  years  (Judg.  xii.  26),  and  by  the 
statement  in  1  Kings  vi.  1,  —  that  from  the  exodus 
to  the  fourth  year  of  Solomon's  I'eign  was  four 
hundred  and  eighty  years.  The  simplest  expla- 
nation of  this  manifest  discrepancy  is  that  sever- 
al of  the  judges  were  contemporaries.  Proof  of 
the  .supposition  is  derived  from  the  juxtaposition 
of  Shanigar  and  I^hud  (Judg.  iii.  31,  iv.  1),  with- 
out statement  of  the  length  of  Sliamgar's  judge- 
ship, both  coming  in  the  eighty  years  of  iii.  30; 
and  from  x.  7,  which  recounts  a  simultaneous  op- 
pression by  Philistines  and  Ammonites.  We  may 
therefore  consider  the  period  divided  into  six  forty 
j'ears  :  i  e.,  from  Othniel  to  Samson  were  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  years,  which  harmonizes  with  Judg. 
xi.  6,  1  Kings  vi.  1.  The  other  numbers  are  then 
parallel  numbers.  [Baldeweg  :  Dan  Zeitalier  di  r 
Richler,  Zittau,  1877.]  E.  NAGELSBACII. 

JUDGES,  Book  of.  The  book  falls  into/Aoe 
divisions.  1st,  Chaps,  i.  1-iii.  6.  In  regard  to 
this  division,  three  queries  have  been  raised,  — • 
whether  it  should  embrace  more  or  less  matter; 
whether  the  events  of  chap.  i.  are  contemporary 
with,  or  earlier  than,  those  of  ii.-iii.  6  ;  and  wheth- 
er chap.  i.  is  written  by  the  author  of  the  greater 
part  of  the  book.  In  answer,  we  state  that  the 
division  should  be  considered  introductory  to  the 
book,  even  if  i.  1-ii.  5,  and  ii.  .5-iii.  6,  are  derived 
from  different  sources;  for  the  whole  Book  of 
Judges  treats  of  the  alternation  of  infidelity  and 
jmnishment,  repentance  and  delivery.  Of  this 
history,  ii.  11-iii.  6  is  a  summary,  while  i.  1-ii.  5 
is,  in  turn,  an  introduction  to  the  summary,  setting 
before  us  the  obedience  or  disobedience  of  the  re- 
spective tribes  to  the  divine  command  to  drive  out 
the  Canaanites,  upon  which  the  subsequent  fate 
of  Israel  depended.  In  this  struggle  with  Canaan, 
Judah  and  Simeon  were  particularly  faithful ; 
and  to  Judah  was  given  the  leadership  (i.  2),  al- 
though, later  on,  Ephraim,  not  so  faithful  in  ex- 
termination (i.  29),  seems  to  have  obtained  it. 
This  entire  first  section  joins  directly  on  to  the 
Book  of  Joshua,  and  shows  how  badly  Israel  ful- 
fdled  the  task  plainly  set  before  them  at  Joshua's 
death,  —  so  badly,  that  the  angel  of  the  Lord  re- 
buked them  severely,  and  prophesied  that  the 
remaining  Canaanites  should  be  adversaries,  and 
their  gods  a  snare  (ii.  1-5).  The  author  explains 
the  failure,  in  part,  on  the  idea  that  the  genera- 
tion which  arose  after  Joshua,  and  the  elders  that 
outlived  him,  "  knew  not  the  Lord,  nor  yet  the 
works  which  he  had  done  for  Israel"  (ii.  10).  In 
order  to  set  forth  this  point  clearly,  the  author 
recurs  again  to  the  last  official  act  of  Joshua 
recorded  in  Josh.  xxiv.  28,  and  retells  the  succer 


JUDGMENT. 


1210 


JUDGMENT. 


sive  deaths  of  tlie  fathers,  and  then  summarizes 
the  history  of  the  period  of  the  judges.  Chap, 
iii.  1-6  contains  these  two  ground  thoughts  of 
the  book,  gives  a  list  of  the  nations  left  to  prove 
Israel,  and  adds  the  new  ideas  that  these  nations 
taught  the  Israelites  how  to  war  (iii.  2),  and  that 
they  lived  peaceably  together,  even  to  the  extent 
of  intermarriage. 

2d,  Chaps,  iii.  7-xvi.  This  division,  the  main 
part  of  the  book,  contains  the  sis  great  periods  of 
the  history,  with  their  subdivisions :  (1)  Othniel 
(iii.  7-11) :  (2)  Ehud  (iii.  12-30),  with  allusion  to 
•Shamgar  (iii.  31),  a  contemporary  judge ;  (3)  Debo- 
rah and  Barak  (iv.  and  v.) ;  (4)  Gideon  (vi.  1- 
viii.  35),  with  the  history  of  Abimelech  (ix.),  and 
allusion  to  Tola  and  Jair  (x.  1-5),  contemporary 
judges;  (5)  Jephthah  (x.  C-xii.  7),  and  allusion 
to  Ibzan,  Elon,  and  Abdon  (xii.  8-15),  contem- 
porary judges ;  (6)  Samson  (xiii.-xvi.). 

3d,  Chaps,  xvii.-xxii.  The  third  division  con- 
tains a  local  history,  —  Micah  the  Ephraimite  and 
liis  house  of  gods  (xvii.-xviii.) ;  and  a  tribal  his- 
tory,—  the  destruction  of  Benjamin  (xix.-xxi.). 
That  these  two  histories  were  put  at  the  end  of 
the  book  is  proof  that  the  autlior  had  a  plan  for 
Ids  work.  They  throw  a  flood  of  light  upon  the 
moral  and  religious  condition  of  the  people,  and 
thus  serve  his  purpose,  and  are  a  vital  part  of  the 
book.  The  stories  fall  in  the  earlier  part  of  the 
period:  in  proof  cf.  xviii.  1  with  i.  31;  and,  for 
the  second,  cf.  xx.  27  sq.  with  Josh.  xxii.  13, 
xxiv.  33. 

The  Book  of  Judges  is  of  single  authorship,  al- 
though the  materials  may  have  been  derived  from 
various  sources.  The  only  note  of  time  of  coni- 
]iosition  is  given  in  xviii.  30.  "Jonathan  .  .  . 
and  his  sons  were  priests  to  tlie  tribe  of  Dan  until 
the  day  of  the  captivity  of  the  land."  This  doubt- 
less refers  to  the  Assyrian  captivity,  either  under 
Tiglath-pileser  (2  Kings  xv.  29),  B.C.  742,  or  Shal- 
maneser,  or  Sargon  (2  Kings  xvii.  (J),  B.C.  721 ; 
and  therefore  the  book  was  written  after  that  oc- 
curred. 

Lit.  —  Modern  commentaries  are  by  Studer 
(Bern,  1835;  2d  (title)  ed.,  1812);  Bkrtiie.vu 
(Leipzig,  1815)  ;  Kkil  (Leipzig,  18()3  [English 
translation,  Edinburgh,  18U5)  ;  Cassicl,  in  L.-VN(Mi 
(English  translation.  New  York,  1872)  ;  IIkkvkv, 
in  SpeuLcr's  Commenlary  (Sew  York,  1875j;  Doug- 
las (Edinburgh,  1881)  ;  cf.  Wkli.hauskn-Blk.kk 
(Einleiluny,  Berlin,  1878),  and  AVellhausen  (G't- 
sc/uckle,  c.  vii.).  See  also  Baldewicg  :  IMs  Zeit- 
allerd.  Jiiclder,  Zittau,  1877].     e.  nagklsb.\CII. 

JUDGMENT,  The  Divine.  The  word  "judg- 
ment" is  ill  the  Bible  used  in  three  sen.ses:  1st, 
Pictorially  as  the  place  of  judgment,  inclusive, 
liowever,  of  the  act  (Ps.  i.  .5,  cxix.  81,  cxliii  2; 
Eccl.  xi.  9,  xii.  4);  2d,  Condemnation  (Mark  iii. 
29;  John  v.  29 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  4;  Jude  G)  ;  3d,  The 
single  acts  of  judgment  upon  individuals  or  na- 
tions, particularly  punishments  (Ps.  x.  5,  cxix. 
75).  Such  judgments  as  are  executed  U]ion  earth 
tlirough  miracles,  or  in  the  ordinary  course  of 
(iod's  providence,  are  only  relative,  and  look  for- 
ward to  a  future  absolutely  right  an<I  absuhitely 
complete  divine  judgment  whicli  is  aiijiointed  to 
every  soul  after  death  (Eccl.  xi.  9;  Ih^b.  ix.  27), 
and  to  tlie  whole  race  at  some  future  definitely 
fixed  time  called  "The  [judgment]  dav  of  Jeho- 
vah," or   "the  day  of  judgment"  (2  I'et.   ii.   9, 


iii.  7 ;  1  John  iv.  17 ;  cf.  Rev.  xiv.  7).  So  the 
prophets  declare.  Thus  Joel,  after  describing  the 
plague  of  locusts  which  woidd  visit  Judah,  passes 
on  to  speak  of  the  judgment  which  was  to  come 
upon  all  nations  (iii.  1  sqq.)  ;  and  so  Amos  (v. 
18sqq.);  and  from  that  time  Isaiah  speaks  of 
the  exile  as  an  imminent  judgment  upon  Israel 
(iii.  14),  after  which  there  would  be  a  deliverance 
through  the  Messiah,  and  finally  Jehovah  would 
come  to  judge  all  those  who  had  not  accepted  the 
Messiah  (xxxiv.  1  sqq.,  Ixvi.  15  sqq. ;  Dan.  vii. 
22  sqq.). 

Thus  it  is  shown  that  the  idea  of  a  world's 
judgment  was  familiar  to  the  Old  Testament; 
but  its  aim  was  not  to  show  God's  desire  to  re- 
ward every  man  according  to  his  work,  but  rather 
to  dispilay  his  love  towards  those  who  accept  his 
grace.  Since  man  can  refuse  this  grace,  God 
would  separate  the  sinners  from  the  righteous, 
and  thus  render  it  possible  to  have  his  will  done 
on  earth  as  in  heaven.  The  motive  to  this  sepa- 
ration is  simply  the  saving  and  perfection  of  the 
Church  upon  the  earth. 

The  doctrine  of  the  divine  judgment  is  com- 
pleted in  the  New  Testament.  That  it  is  by  no 
means  in  its  idea  a  manifestation  of  abstract  dis- 
tributive justice  is  proved  by  the  person  chosen 
to  be  the  judge,  who  is  none  other  than  the  Son 
(John  V.  22),  and  who  judges,  as  the  Son  of  man, 
the  head  and  redeemer  of  his  Church,  and  for  his 
Church's  sake.  He  judges  his  Church,  in  the  first 
place,  in  order  that  it  may  be  holy,  calling  upon 
it  to  suffer  persecution  and  trial  so  that  its  virtues 
may  increase.  But  when  the  world  threatens  to 
destroy  his  Church,  then  he  comes  to  avenge  her 
(Luke  xviii.  7,  xxi.  22;  Rev.  vi.  10,  xix.  2). 
Hence  it  follows  that  the  persons  who  are  to  be 
judged  on  the  last  day  are  those  who  do  not  be- 
long to  Christ's  Church,  those  who  are  his  living 
or  dead  enemies  (John  v.  24).  Those  who  have 
fallen  asleep  in  Christ  live  with  him  in  heaven 
(1  Thess.  V.  10),  and  are  awakened  in  the  first 
resurrection  (Rev.  xx.  11  sqip),  and  are  in  tlie 
second  resurrection,  i.e.,  to  judgment,  active  par- 
ticipants (Matt.  xix.  28;  Luke  xxii.  30;  cf. 
1  Cor.  vi.  2,  3).  What  Paul  says  (2  Cor.  v.  10; 
Rom.  xiv.  10)  does  not  contradict  this  view ;  for 
he  is  speaking  of  a  manifestation  of  the  works  of 
the  body,  not  of  a  judgment  of  the  doers.  The 
(.)ld-Testanient  saints,  also,  although  they  had 
tenanted  Sheol  with  the  unbelievers  (e.g.,  Sam- 
uel with  Saul,  1  Sam.  xxviii.  19,  cf.  xvi.  19  sqq.), 
are  not  the  objects  of  the  judgment;  for  they 
have  been  delivered  from  Slieol  by  Christ,  and 
are  now  in  heaven  (Matt,  xxvii.  57  ;  cf.  John  viii. 
5G). 

The  judgment  falls  naturally  into  two  parts, 
—  that  of  the  living  and  that  of  the  dead,  or  those 
upon  the  earth  and  those  in  Sheol.  The  first 
])arl  is  in  two  acts  :  First,  immediately  upon 
Christ's  second  coming  he  will  "cast  alive  into 
the  lake  of  fire "  the  antichrist  and  the  false 
prophet  (Rev.  xix.  20 ;  cf.  Isa.  Ixvi.  24)  :  the 
rest  o!  the  ]ieo]ile  will  be  allowed  to  live  under 
favorable  s])iritiial  inlluences  exerted  by  the  chil- 
dren of  God  among  them  (Rev.  xx.  1  sqij.). 
After  an  jeon  has  passed,  the  wicked  will  be  de- 
stroyed by  fire  from  heaven  (xx.  9)  .  there  thus 
will  be  no  more  living.  Then  the  .second  act 
begins  the  judgment  of  the  dead.     Sheol  gives 


JUDITH. 


1211 


JUDSON. 


lip  her  dead  (xx.  12).  All  de,scendant.s  of  the 
first  Adam  who  have  not  been  regenerated, 
cousequeutly  all  lieatliens,  all  merely  nominal 
Christians,  and  all  unbelieving  Jews,  will  all  be 
judged  according  to  their  works  (Matt.  xvi.  27, 
XXV.  31  sqq. ;  Rom.  ii.  6-8;  Rev.  xx.  12  sqq., 
xxii.  12).  And  herein  lies  a  great  hope.  Tlie 
judge  is  the  Son  of  man,  the  Saviour.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  judgment  is  not  abstract  distributive 
justice,  but  the  completion  of  his  Church.  Tlie 
question  he  asks  is,  therefore,  ^Vlio  has  shown 
him.self  by  his  works  savable?  who  by  patience 
in  well  doing  has  sought  for  glory  and  honor  and 
incorruption?  (Acts  x.  35;  Rom.  ii.  7.)  And 
those  who  stand  this  test,  though  they  never  heard 
the  gospel  preached,  shall  be  saved  through  the 
blood  of  the  Lamb,  and  to  these  sick  souls  the 
leaves  of  the  tree  of  life  will  bring  health  (Rev. 
xxii.  2).  But  those  who  cannot  stand  this  test 
are  forever  lost.  ebkakd. 

JU'DITH.    See  Apocrypha,  Old  Testament. 

JUDSON,  Adoniram,  the  Apostle  of  Burmah, 
-and  one  of  the  first  and  most  devoted  of  the 
foreign  mi-ssionaries  of  the  American  churches ; 
b.  Aug.  9,  1788,  at  Maiden,  Mass. ;  d.  on  board 
of  a  vessel  off  the  coast  of  Burmah,  April  12, 
1850.  His  father  was  the  pastor  of  the  Congre- 
gational Church  at  Maiden  at  the  time  of  his 
liivtli.  He  graduated  first  in  his  class,  at  Brown 
University,  in  1807.  He  then  tauglit  school  for  a 
year  at  Plymouth,  during  which  time  he  published 
Elements  of  English  Grammar  and  The  Youn;) 
Ladies'  Arithmetic  (both,  Boston).  In  the  fall  of 
1808  he  entered  Andover  Seminary,  although 
"  not  a  professor  of  religion,  or  a  candidate  for 
the  ministry,  but  as  a  person  deeply  in  earnest  on 
the  subject,  and  desirous  of  arriving  at  the  truth  " 
(Wayland).  The  following  May  he  made  a  pro- 
fession of  his  faith  in  the  Third  Congregational 
Church  at  Plymouth,  of  which  his  father  was 
then  pastor. 

Mr  Judson's  attention  was  first  drawn  to  the 
subject  of  missionary  effort  in  heathen  lands  by 
the  perusal,  in  1809,  of  Buchanan's  Star  iv  the 
East ;  and  in  February,  1810,  he  finally  devoted 
liimself  to  that  work.  About  this  time  he  en- 
tered into  intimate  relations  with  that  illustrious 
band  of  young  men  —  Mills,  Nott,  Richards,  etc. 
—  who  had  previously  formed  their  foreign  mis- 
sionary association.  On  Jan.  1, 1811,  he  was  sent 
to  England,  by  the  American  Board  of  Missions, 
to  promote  measures  of  affiliation  and  co-operation 
between  it  and  the  London  Missionary  Society. 
He  returned  unsuccessful  in  the  immediate  de- 
sign of  his  journey,  but  was  appointed,  with 
Nott,  Newell,  Hall,  and  Rice,  a  missionary  to  the 
Indian  Empire.  He  was  ordained,  with  these  four 
men,  on  Feb.  6,  1812,  at  Salem,  Mass.  ]Mr.  Jud- 
son  sailed  on  the  19th,  from  New  York,  with  Mrs. 
Judson  and  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Newell,  for  Calcutta, 
where  he  arrived  June  17.  On  the  voyage  his 
views  on  the  proper  mode  of  baptism  underwent 
a  change ;  and,  after  his  arrival  in  India,  he  and 
!Mrs.  Judson  were  baptized  bj'  immersion  in  the 
Baptist  Church  of  Calcutta.  In  consequence  of 
this  change  of  views,  he  at  a  subsequent  period 
passed  under  the  care  of  the  American  Baptist 
Jlissionary  Union.  The  East  India  Company 
forbade  his  prosecution  of  missionar}-  labors  in 
India;  and,  after  various  vicissitudes,  he  landed 


in  July,  1813,  at  Rangoon,  Burmah,  taking  up 
his  residence  at  the  Mission  House  of  Mr.  Carey. 
Mr.  Judson  at  once  devoted  himself  with  assiduity 
to  the  acquisition  of  the  language,  in  which  he 
afterwards  became  a  proficient  scholar.  After 
six  years  of  labor,  the  first  convert,  Monng  Nau, 
was  baptized  at  Rangoon,  June  27,  1819.  He 
was  the  first  Burman  accession  to  the  Church  of 
Christ.  From  1821  to  1826,  during  the  war  of 
England  against  Burmah,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Judson 
suft'ered  almost  incredible  hardships.  He  himself 
was  imprisoned  for  seventeen  months  in  the  jails 
of  Ava  and  Oung-pen-Ia,  being  bound  during 
nine  months  of  this  period,  with  three,  and  dur- 
ing two  months  with  no  less  than  five,  pairs  of 
fetters.  His  sufferings  from  fever,  excrnciating 
heat,  hunger,  repeated  disappointments,  and  the 
cruelty  of  his  keepers,  form  one  of  the  most  thrill- 
ing narratives  in  the  annals  of  modern  mission- 
ary trial.  ]Mrs.  Judson  sufi'ered  uo  less  than  her 
husband,  although  not  subjected  to  imprisonment. 
Her  heroic  efforts  to  relieve  the  sufferings  of  the 
English  prisoners  received  the  tributes  of  warmest 
gratitude  and  praise  at  the  time.  In  1826  Mr. 
Judson  transferred  the  headquarters  of  the  mis- 
sion to  Amherst  in  the  Tenasserim  provinces. 

On  Oct.  24,  of  that  year,  Mrs  Ann  IIas.seltine 
Judson  died.  She  was  born  in  Bradford,  IMass., 
Dec.  22,  1789,  and  had  been  married  on  Feb.  5, 
1812.  She  entered  with  great  enthusiasm  into 
missionary  effort,  and  established  a  scliool  at  Ran- 
goon for  girls.  In  1821  she  paid  a  visit  to  America 
Her  health  was  never  robust ;  but  she  combined 
with  strong  intellectual  powers  a  remarkable 
heroism  and  fortitude.  During  the  imprisonment 
of  her  husband  she  was  unremitting  in  her  self- 
sacrifice,  and  walked  fearless  and  respected  from 
palace  to  prison  among  the  excited  Burman  popu- 
lation. 

In  1830  Mr.  Judson  began  preaching  to  the 
Karens.  In  1835  he  completed  the  revision  of 
the  Old  Testament  in  the  Burmese  language,  and 
in  1837  that  of  the  New  Testament.  In  the 
latter  year  there  were  1,144  baptized  converts  iu 
Burmah.  After  an  absence  of  more  than  thirty 
years,  the  now  worn  missionary  returned,  in  1845, 
for  a  visit  to  his  native  land.  On  the  voyage  his 
.second  wife  died  (Sept.  1)  at  St.  Helena.  She  was 
the  widow  of  the  missionary.  Dr.  Boardnian,  and 
was  married  to  JMr.  Judson  in  1834.  Mr.  Jud- 
son's arrival  in  the  United  States  was  the  signal 
for  an  enthusiastic  outburst  of  admiration  for  the 
missionary,  and  interest  in  the  cause  he  repre- 
sented. Everywhere  crowded  assemblies  gathered 
to  see  and  hear  him.  He,  however,  shunned  the 
public  gaze,  and  was  diSident  as  a  speaker. 
As  early  as  1823,  Brown  University  had  honored 
him  with  the  degree  of  D.D.  On  July  11,  1846, 
he  again  set  sail  for  Burmah,  having  married,  a 
few  days  before.  Miss  Emily  Chubbuck  of  Eaton, 
N.Y.,  who  afterwards  wrote  under  the  name  of 
'•  Fanny  Forester."  He  arrived  safely  at  Ran- 
goon, and  spent  much  of  the  remaining  period  of 
his  life  iu  editing  a  dictionary  of  the  Burmese 
language.  His  health,  however,  was  shattered; 
ami  he  died  while  on  a  voyage  to  the  Isle  of 
Bourbon,  iu  its  interests.  His  body  was  buried 
in  the  ocean. 

Mr.  Judson  was  a  man  of  medium  height  and 
slender  person.     He  was  endowed  with   stroug 


JUGGERNAUT. 


1212 


JULIAN. 


intellectual  powers,  and  sought  in  his  Christian 
Jife,  by  the  perusal  of  the  works  of  Mnie.  Guyon 
and  others,  a  fervent  type  of  piety.  His  confi- 
dence in  the  success  of  missionary  effort  was 
peculiarly  strong.  Being  asked,  on  his  visit  to 
America,  whether  the  prospects  were  bright  for 
the  conversion  of  the  world,  he  immediately  re- 
plied. '•  As  bright,  Sir,  as  the  pi-oniises  of  God." 
Adonirani  Jud.son  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  and 
devoted,  as  well  as  one  of  the  earliest,  missionaries 
which  America  sent  forth  to  heathen  lands.  His 
name  will  ever  continue  to  shine  amongst  the 
galaxy  of  apostolic  laborers.  He  has  merited, 
and  will  ever  continue  to  be  known  by,  the  proud 
title  of  the  Apostle  of  Burmah.  See  J.  D. 
Knowles:  Life  of  Mrs.  Ann  H.  Judxon,  3d  ed., 
Bo.ston,  1829;"Stuart  :  Lii-es  of  Mrs.  Ann  H.  and 
Sarah  B.  Jttdson,  with  a  Biographical  Sketch  of  Mrs. 
Emili/  C.  Jwlson,  18.53;  Fu.\NCis  Wayland:  Life 
and  Labors  of  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson,  D.D.,  2  vols., 
Bo.ston  and 'London,  1S.53.  D.  8.  8CHAFF. 

JUGCERNAUT  (more  correctly  Jaijannatha),  a 
town  on  the  seacoast  of  Orissa,  in  Bengal,  India, 
famous  for  its  temple  with  its  idol,  and  formerly 
for  disgusting  human  sacrifices.  It  is  the  holi- 
est of  Hindoo  shrines,  and  animally  visited,  it  is 
said,  by  upwards  of  a  million  jnlgrims.  The 
temple  may  be  described  as  a  city  of  temples  ; 
for  most  of  the  Hindoo  divinities  have  temjiles 
within  the  enclosure.  Krishna  (one  of  the  incar- 
nations of  Vishnu)  is,  however,  honored  by  the 
principal  idol,  bearing  the  epithet  Jat/annHtha, 
"  the  lord  of  the  world,"  whence  the  name  Jnr/- 
r/ernaul ;  and  with  it  are  Siva  and  Sudhadra,  each 
a  block  of  wood,  six  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a 
hideous  representation  of  a  human  face.  Krishna 
is  painted  dark  blue,  Siva  white,  and  Sudhadra 
yellow.  Each  idol  has  a  special  chariot;  but 
Krislma's  is  the  largest,  forty-three  feet  and  a 
half  high,  thirty-four  feet  and  a  half  square, 
rolling  on  sixteen  wheels,  each  six  feet  .and  a  iialf 
in  diameter.  Every  March  the  great  festival  of 
•Inggertiaut  is  celebrated.  On  this  occasion  the 
famous  idols  are  drawn  one  mile  and  a  half  out 
of  the  city,  to  their  cotmtry-hous<',  by  means  of 
ropes  pulled  by  tliousands  of  pilgrims.  It  is 
said  that  formerly  many  of  these  threw  them- 
.selvea  beneath  the  wheels,  voluntary  sacrifices  to 
the  great  Jagannatha.  But  nothing  of  tlie  kind 
happens  now.  The  worship  of  tlie  idol  is  charac- 
terized by  ob.scenity  ;  yet  the  Britisli,  who  took 
the  town  in  1S03,  down  to  185.),  actually  sup- 
ported it;  at  first  by  a  tax  upon  the  pilgrims, 
anil  then  by  direct  grant.  But  this  di.sgrace  is 
now  no  more. 

JULIAN  (Flavius  Claudius  Jullanus),  Roman 
Enipcror  3(11-3113;  b.  331;  was  a  son  ot  Constau- 
tius,  the  yoimger  half-brother  of  Constantine  the 
(Jrcat.  When  Constantine's  sons  .succeeded  tlu'ir 
father  (in  :!37),  Constant  ins  was  put  to  death,  and 
Julian  and  iiis  oldei-  half-brother  were  spared  only 
liecausf-  they  were  considered  liarudess.  .Julian 
was  educated  in  the  Christian  faith.  Eusebius 
of  NicouKulia  was  his  tutor;  .and  when,  after  the 
death  of  the  great  bishop  (in  31'J)he  was  removi'd 
from  Constantino]il(;  to  Macellum  in  Cappadcx'i.a, 
hi.s  every-day  company  were  the  Christian  clerks 
of  the  place.  He  copied  religious  books,  built 
a  chapel,  an<l  particii)ated,  as  a  lector,  in  con- 
ducting the  service,  though  he  was  probably  not 


baptized.  Nevertheless,  that  one  of  his  teachers, 
who,  according  to  his  own  words,  exercised  the 
deepest  influence  on  him,  was  Mardonius,  a  man 
whose  whole  mental  development  w<as  based  on 
the  ideas  of  Greek  Paganism,  though  externally 
he  was  a  Christian.  The  grammarian  Nicocles 
and  the  rhetorician  Ecebolius,  under  whom  he 
studied  when  (in  350)  he  was  recalled  from  Ma- 
cellum to  Constantinople,  were  Christinns  of  the 
same  description :  hence  the  explanation  of  his 
.so-called  apostasy.  In  351  he  was  again  banished 
from  Constantinople.  While  .sojourning  in  Nico- 
media,  Pergamum,  and  Ephesus,  he  became  ac- 
quainted, through  Libanius  and  Maximus,  with 
the  highest  form  of  Pagan  civilization,  —  Neo- 
Platonism  ;  and  on  the  instance  of  Maximus  he 
formally  abandoned  Christianity,  and  embraced 
Paganism.  But  his  cousin,  the  emperor,  was  a 
fanatic  adversary  of  Paganism.  He  had  closed 
the  temples,  forbidden  the  sacrifices,  and  all  but 
destroyed  the  whole  worship.  Julian  was  conse- 
quently compelled  to  conceal  the  change  which 
had  taken  place  within  him,  and  this  compulsory 
hypocrisy  made  the  young  enthusiast  pa.ssionate 
and  bitter.  In  355  he  was  .again  called  to  the 
court,  made  Caesar,  married  to  the  emperor's  sister 
Helena,  and  appointed  governor  of  Gaul.  In  this 
position  he  developed  an  unsuspected  niilit.ary 
and  administrative  ability ;  and  when  (in  3G0) 
the  emperor  ordered  the  best  part  of  the  army  of 
Gaul  to  the  East,  the  soldiers  refused,  and  pro- 
claimed .Tuli.an  Augustus.  He  man.aged  this 
delicate  affair  with  great  tact.  He  a.sked  the 
emperor  to  sanction  wliat  had  taken  place,  and 
only  when  the  emperor  threateningly  refused  to 
do  so  did  he  march  towards  the  E.ast  at  the  head 
of  the  whole  army.  On  the  frontier  of  Thr<acia 
the  news  of  the  emperor's  de.ath  reached  him 
(October,  301),  and  in  December  he  entered  Con- 
stantinople sole  ruler  of  the  Kotn.an  Empire.  In 
March,  3(33,  he  departed  from  Antioch,  where  he 
had  resided  for  nearly  a  year,  and  entered  upon 
the  campaign  against  the  Persians.  The  first 
encounters  with  the  enemy  were  .succe.ssfnl ;  Imt 
on  June  '20,  303,  while  fighting  in  the  midst  of 
the  battle,  without  armor,  ho  was  deadly  wounded 
by  a  spear, — ^  Persian  or  Roman,  Pagan  or  tliris- 
tian,  nobody  knows.  Of  his  last  Innns,  legend 
gives  us  very  diiferent  reports.  The  most  widely 
known,  because  of  its  glittering  dramatical  point, 
is  that  contained  in  Theodoret's  llisl.  Ecrl.,  iii. 
25,  according  to  which  he  cried  out,  while  in  the 
.agonies  of  death, "Thou  hastconipu'red,(!alilean." 
The  most  conspicuous  feature  of  the  short  reign 
of  Julian  is  his  attempt  at  restoring  Paganism. 
As  soon  .as  he  w.as  proclaimed  Augustus,  he  threw 
off  the  mask.  On  his  way  towards  the  East  he 
re-opened  the  temples,  whidi  iuid  been  closed. 
On  entering  Constantinople,  he  dismis.sed  the 
Christian  officers  from  the  palace,  the  Prreioriaii 
guard,  and  the  .administration.  I'lu-  cross  was 
removed  from  the  military  stan<lards,  the  court- 
room, the  imperial  statue,  etc.,  and  Pagan  eTnl)lem» 
were  substituted.  A  decree  ordered  all  decaying 
temples  to  be  put  in  repair,  all  destroyed  ones  to 
be  rebuilt  at  the  cost  of  th(^  destructors.  Confis- 
cated temple  estates  or  temple  treasures  should 
b(!  restored  by  the  de.spoilers.  Paganism  should 
once  more  be  made  the  religiim  of  the  Slate,  and 
enjoy  all  the  preferences  and  privileges  of  a  Statu 


JULIAN. 


1213 


JULIUS. 


establishment.  It  must  bo  noticed,  however,  tliat 
the  restoration  thus  atteinjited  was  not  simply  a 
re-action  against  C'liristiauity,  but  much  more  — 
a  fundamental  reform  of  Paganism  itself.  It  was 
not  the  old,  naice,  popular  worship  which  Julian 
wished  to  revive  :  it  was  a  new,  subtle,  theological 
system,  based  on  the  philosopliy  of  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists,  which  he  wanted  to  establish.  All  the 
practical  lines  of  his  plaus  ruu  back  to  the  mys- 
teries as  the  model.  The  Paganism  which  Julian 
labored  to  restore  was  the  mystery  transformed 
from  an  esoteric  science  into  a  popular  education, 
from  an  exclusive  institution  to  a  general  social 
function.  The  return  to  Paganism  was  to  be 
made  dependent  upon  a  kind  of  inauguration, 
with  peculiar  ceremonies.  A  priesthood  was  to 
be  created,  not  only  hierarchically  organized,  with 
the  emperor  at  the  head  as  ponlifex  maiimus,  but 
also  socially  distinguished  from  the  mass  of  the 
people.  A  priest  should  be  a  man  of  philosophy 
and  asceticism,  .shunning  the  inns  and  the  theatres, 
and  occupied  in  prayers,  and  caring  for  the  poor; 
for  Julian  was  not  afraid  of  borrowing  from 
Christianity  itself.  Charity  is  a  specifically  Chris- 
tian virtue,  entirely  unknown  to  antique  civiliza- 
tion ;  and  Julian  admired  the  relations  which 
Christianity  had  created  between  rich  and  poor. 
He  consequently  wanted  to  ingraft  the  new  prin- 
ciple on  his  restored  Paganism ;  but  this  character 
of  his  work  —  its  being  a  reform,  rather  than  a 
restoration,  of  Paganism  —  explains  the  singular 
coldness  with  which  it  was  met  by  the  Pagans 
themselves.  While  residing  in  Antioch,  he  nnist 
have  noticed  many  indications,  not  only  of  lack 
of  sympathy  with  his  plans,  but  of  direct  aversion 
to  them  ;  and  he  must  have  received  some  impres- 
sion from  them,  coming  as  they  did  from  those 
among  his  subjects  to  whom  he  wanted  to  appear 
as  a  liberator. 

The  question,  what  .Julian  finally  meant  to  do 
with  Christianity,  is  not  easy  to  answer.  He  de- 
spised it,  perhaps  he  hated  it :  at  all  events  his 
hand  fell  heavy  upon  it.  Not  only  were  the  Chris- 
tians excluded  from  all  public  offices,  but  the 
Church  lost  all  its  privileges.  It  was  bereft  of 
the  support  from  the  State,  and  in  some  cases 
even  compelled  to  pay  back  what  it  had  received 
in  earlier  times.  It  lost  its  right  of  jurisdiction, 
of  legalizing  wills,  of  receiving  donations,  etc. 
The  clergy  was  again  made  subject  to  taxation 
and  conscription.  The  hardest  blow,  however, 
was  the  school  law  of  .June  17,  .362.  It  ordered 
that  all  candidates  for  positions  as  teachers  should 
obtain  the  confirmation  of  the  secular  authorities, 
that  is,  indirectly  from  the  emperor  himself ;  and 
such  a  law  could  not  fail,  in  the  course  of  time, 
practically  to  exclude  the  Christians  from  the 
schools  and  from  all  higher  education.  With 
respect  to  the  internal  affairs  of  the  Church  the 
emperor  refrained  altogether  from  interfering 
with  them.  He  treated  all  parties  in  the  same 
manner.  Immediately  after  his  accession  he  al- 
lowed the  orthodox  bishops,  who  had  been  exiled 
by  the  Arian  Constantius,  to  return,  and  gave 
them  back  their  confiscated  property.  But  it  is 
more  than  proliable  that  he  looked  with  great 
satisfaction  at  the  internal  dissensions  which  tore 
the  Church.  Actual  per.secutions  he  did  not  insti- 
tute, but  he  connived  at  injustice  and  violence. 
While  riots  began  to  take  place  in  the  provinces, 


and  mobs  to  fall  upon  the  Christians,  the  emperor 
remained  silent  and  pas.sive ;  and  in  some  ca.ses 
he  openly  apjilauded  government  offKicrs,  though 
they  had  actually  overstepped  their  instructions 
in  their  chicatieries  against  the  Christians.  Be- 
fore he  left  for  the  Persian  war,  a  rumor  sprang 
up,  that,  on  his  return,  he  had  decided  to  change 
his  policy  of  indifference  with  respect  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  open  a  direct  attack  on  the  Church. 
This  rumor  is  often  referred  to  by  contemporary 
Christian  writers,  and  specially  spoken  of  by 
Ephraera  Syrus  in  his  four  poems  against  Julian 
(written  in  363 ;  edited  by  Overbeck,  Oxford, 
1865).  It  is  probably  not  altogether  fictitious, 
but  its  substance  is  not  recognizable  any  more. 
.Julian's  Epistle  to  Basilius,  dated  some  days  be- 
fore he  went  away  to  the  camp,  and  containing 
open  threats,  is,  no  doubt,  spurious. 

I>iT.  —  The  principal  source  for  the  life  of 
Julian  is,  of  course,  found  in  his  own  works, 
edited  by  C.  Hertlein,  Leipzig,  1875-76,  two  vol- 
umes, and  containing  ei"ht  orations,  an  address 
to  Theniistius,  and  another  to  the  Athenians,  a 
Symposium  held  in  Olynip  by  the  deceased  em- 
perors, Misopogon,  "  the  beard-hater,"  a  satire, 
and  eighty-three  Letters.  Of  his  work  against 
the  Christians,  only  fragments  have  come  down 
to  us.  Among  Pagan  writers,  Ammianus  Marcelli- 
nus,  Eutropius,  Zosimus,  are  the  most  important; 
among  Christian  writers,  Gregory  Xazianzen, 
Ephraem  Syrus,  Rufinus,  Socrates,  Sozomenus, 
and  Theodoret.  Of  modern  treatments  of  the 
subject  we  mention  those  by  Xeander,  Berlin, 
1812  ;  Tkuffel,  Tubingen,  18-H  ;  STiiAUS,s  :  Der 
Uomantiker  auf  dem  Throne  der  Ciiuiren,  Mann- 
heim, 1847;  Rode,  Jena,  1877;  [Navh.le,  Neu- 
chatel,  1877;  Kellerbaueh,  Leipzig,  1877];  Al- 
FioNow  (Russian),  Kasan,  1877 ;  Tokquati  (Ital- 
ian), Rome,  1878;  Rendall,  London,  1879.  [See 
also  Juliatii  imperatoris  librorunt  contra  Christi- 
anas quce  supersunt,  edited  by  Neumann,  and  the 
German  translation  by  the  same,  Kaiser  JuHam 
BUcher  (jeyen  die  Christen,  both  Leip.,  1880;  .Joii.  G. 
E.  Hoffmann  :  Jutianos  der  AblrUnniye,  Sijrische 
Erzahlungen,  Leiden,  1880;  Ragey:  La  perse'c. 
de  Julien  VApostat,  Paris,  1881  ;  and  Schaff's 
Church  History,  vol.  3].  ADOLF  IIARNACK. 

JULIAN  C/ESARINI,  or  CESARINI,  belongea 
to  a  distinguished  Roman  family,  and  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  curia  by  his  successive  aetivi- 
tj'  as  a  teacher  of  humaniora  and  canon  law  in  the 
university  of  Padua.  Having  entered  the  papal 
service,  he  was  made  a  cardinal  in  14:26,  and  used 
in  many  difficult  affairs.  The  Hussite  question 
was  confided  to  him,  and  he  entered  Bohemia  at 
the  head  of  a  crusading  army ;  but  the  army 
was  defeated,  and  the  cardinal  fled  (1431).  From 
1431  to  1438  he  presided  over  the  Council  of 
Basel  with  great  distinction.  In  1438  and  1439 
he  was  active  in  Florence  and  Ferrara,  and  in 
1440  he  went  to  Hungary  to  stir  up  a  war  against 
the  Turks.  He  succeeded  ;  but  in  1444  the  Hun- 
garians were  defeated  at  Vama,  and  the  cardinal 
perished  on  the  flight,  probably  assassinated. 

JULIUS  is  the  name  of  three  popes.  — Julius  I. 
(337- April  12,  352)  sided  with  Athanasius  in  the 
Arian  controversy,  and  sent  his  legates  to  the 
Council  of  Sardica,  which,  "  from  regard  to 
the  memory  of  the  apostle  Peter,"  conceded  to 
the   Pope   the   right  of   accepting   appeals  from 


JULIUS. 


1214 


JUMPERS. 


bishops  who  had   been   deposed   by  a  provincial 
synod.     His  letters  are  found  in  Migxe  :   Pa/r. 
Latin,  viii. ;   his  life,  in  Muratori  :   Her.  Ilal. 
Script.,  iii.  1.      See  Friedrich  :    Geschichte   ties 
Primates,  Bonn,  1879.  — Julius  II.  (Oct.  31,  1503- 
Feb.  20,  1513),  b.  at  Albizola,  near  Savona,  1443, 
in   humble   circumstances;    was  educated  to  be- 
come a  merchant,  but  entered  the  service  of  the 
Church,  when   his  uncle,  Francesco  Kovere,  be- 
came a  cardinal ;  and  was  made  a  cardinal  him- 
self (1471)  when   the  uncle  ascended  the  papal 
throne.     Under  Sextus  IV.,  however,  he  was  not 
much  used.     Under  Innocent  VIII.  he  exercised 
more  influence.     Alexander  VI.  was  his  deadly 
enemy.    He  fled  to  France ;  and,  though  he  after- 
wards condescended  to  conduct  the  negotiations 
for  the  marriage  of  CKsar  Borgia,  a  reconciliation 
never  was  effected.     During  the  last  year  of  the 
reign  of  Alexander  VI.  he  was  compelled  to  keep 
himself  concealed  in  order  to  escape  the  dagger 
and  the  poison  of   the   Pope.     After  the  short 
reign  of  Pius  HI.,  he  himself  ascended  the  papal 
throne.     His   great  object  was   the  aggrandize- 
ment of  the  States  of  the  Church,  the  formation 
of  an  independent  state  of  military  and  political 
■consequence    in    Central    Italy  under  the    Pope ; 
and  he  partiallj'  succeeded.     But  the  means  he 
employed  —  the  most  unscrupulous  diplomacy,  the 
fiercest   and    bloodiest   wars  —  were    such    tliat 
people  turned  away  from  him  with  horror.     To 
wrench   the    Romagna   from    the   Venetian,    he 
formed  the  League  of  Carabray  with  Germany, 
France,  and  Spain;  but,  when  he  had  reached  his 
goal,  he  wheeled  ai'ouud,  and  formed  the  Holy 
League  with  Venice  and  Spain  against  France, 
and  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  Ferrara.    At  one 
moment  his  position  was  very  dangerous.     Lewis 
XII.  stood  in  Italy ;  Maximilian  thought  of  mak- 
ing himself  pope  ;  even  the  cardinals  abandoned 
his   cause.     But   he  succeeded  in  drawing,  first 
England,  afterwards  even  Germany,  into  the  Holy 
League;  the  result  of  which  was  that  the  French 
left   Italy ;    and    Ferrara,    Parma,   and   Piacenza 
were  incorporated  with  the  Pajial  States.     In  the 
fields  of  science  and  art  he  wa.s  as  ardent  and 
energetic  as  in  tho.se  of  politics  and  war.     He 
built  the  largest  part  of  the  Church  of  St.  Peter, 
founded  the  Museum  of  the  Vatican,  undertook 
extensive   excavations    in    Konie,  etc.     He  kept 
Bramante,  Jlichel  Angelo,  IlafTaello,  and  others, 
in  his  service,  and  paid  them  well.     Nevertheless, 
when    he  died,  he  left   a   treasure  worth  half   a 
million  of  ducats.     His  bulls  are  found  in  Che- 
KUBixus:  Mai/num  Btillnriutii,  i^yona,  1055,  torn. 
i.    See  M.  Buoscu:  Paj)st  Julius  //.,Gijtha,  1878. 
—  Julius  III.  (Feb.  7,  1.550-March  23,  15.55),  b.  in 
Rome,  1487;  was  made  a  canlinal  in  153(5,  and 
acted  as  jiapal  legate  at  the  opening  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  'I'rent,  1545.     In  this  ]iositioii  he  <lid  every 
tiling  in  his   power  to  thwart  and  frustrate  the 
plans  of  Charles  V.     Nevertheless,  as  soon  as  lie 
had  ascended   the  papal  throne,  he  became  the 
■emperor's  willing  follower  almost  in  every  case. 
He  lacked  power  of  will,  and  capacity  for  .action. 
In  the  events  then  occurring,  both  in  Germany 
and  England,  he  took  very  little  part.     His  bulls 
are  found  in  Cherudinus:    Maijnmn  liullarium, 
Lyons,  1055,  torn.  i.     See  Rainerius:  De  crca- 
tiorie  Julii  III.,  Ronii,',  1550;  th(;  works  of  Ver- 
UEUius,  and  the  diaries  of  AIassarelli,  in  Diii.- 


LINGER :  Urkunden  d.  Concils  von  Trient,  Nord- 
lingen,  1876;  [also  Balan  :  Giulio  II.  nel  1511, 
e  Giulio  III.  nel  1551  e  155S ;  2d  ed.,  Mirandola, 

1876].  R.   ZOEPFFEL. 

JULIUS  AFRICANUS,  Sextus,  one  of  the  most 
prominent  ecclesiastical  scholars  from  the  first 
half  of  the  third  century ;  was  an  older  contem- 
porary of  Origen ;  wrote  during  the  reign  of  Heli- 
ogabalus  and  Alexander  Severus,  and  died  after 
240.  The  date  and  place  of  his  bh-th  and  death 
are  unknown ;  but  Suidas  says  he  was  a  native 
of  Lib^-a.  He  lived  in  Emmaus  (Nicopolis),  in 
Palestine ;  went  once  to  Alexandria  to  hear  Ile- 
raclus ;  was  another  time  sent  on  a  mission  to 
Ileliogabalus  to  work  for  the  rebuilding  of  the 
city ;  maintained  friendly  relations  with  that 
Abgar  whose  name  is  connected  with  Bardesanes ; 
and  used  the  archives  of  Edessa.  The  circum- 
stance that  he  was  sent  to  Ileliogabalus,  and 
afterwards  dedicated  one  of  his  works  to  Alexan- 
der Severus,  indicates  that  he  was  a  distinguished 
person.  His  principal  work  was  his  Chronu- 
graphia,  a  world's  history,  beginning  with  the 
creation,  5499  B.C.,  and  ending  with  the  third 
year  of  the  reign  of  Ileliogabalus.  It  is  first  men- 
tioned by  Eusebius,  who  appears  to  have  used 
it  very  largely  in  his  Chronicle.  Only  fragments 
of  it  have  come  down  to  us,  the  most  complete 
collection  of  which  is  that  by  Routh,  in  lleliq. 
Sacr.,  ii.  Two  epistles  of  exegetical  import  are 
still  extant,  —  one  to  Origen,  on  the  genuineness 
of  the  story  of  Susannah  in  the  Book  of  Uaniel; 
and  another  to  Aristides,  on  the  genealogies  of 
Christ  in  ^Matthew  and  Luke.  Of  the  latter  we 
have  only  fragments,  collected  by  F.  Spitta  (Der 
Brief  (les  Julius  Africanus  an  Aristides,  Halle, 
1877).  Of  the  work  Kearoi,  "  embroiderings,"  a 
large  compilation  in  many  books,  dedicated  to 
Alexander  Severus,  two  books  on  military  matters 
have  come  down  to  us.  Besides  these,  quite  a 
numlier  of  other  works  are  ascribed  to  Julius 
Africanus.  See  ISIigne  :  Patrol.  Grwc,  x. ;  [and 
II.  Gelzer:  Sextus  Julius  Africanus  u.  d.  hi/zan- 
tinische  Chronot/raphie,!.:  Die  Chronofirapliie.heip- 
zig,  18S(),  IL,  1885].  ADOLF   IIAUNACK. 

JUMPERS,  a  designation  applied  to  some 
AVelsli  religionists  of  tlie  last  century,  who  intro- 
duc<'d  into  their  worship  the  practice  of  dancing 
and  jumiiing.  Under  date  of  .Juno  27,  17G3,  .John 
"Wesley  wrote  from  AVales,  "  There  is  here  [at 
Lancroyes]  what  some  call  a  great  reformation 
in  religion  among  the  Methodists ;  but  the  case  is 
really  this :  they  have  a  sort  of  rustic  dance  in 
their  public  worship,  which  they  call  religious 
dancing,  in  imitation  of  David's  dancing  before 
the  ark."  This  jiractice  started  with  the  Welsh 
I\Iethodists,  and  was  conlined  to  a  small  circle. 
It  was  at  first  simply  one  of  the  bodily  manifes- 
tations which  followed  tiie  fervent  preaching  of 
the  j\Iethodisls.  In  favor  of  the  more  formal 
practice  two  p.assages  were  quoted,  "David  danced 
before  the  Lord  witli  .ill  liis  might.  .  .  .  jMichal 
saw  David  leaping  and  dancing  l>of ore  the  Lord  " 
(2  Sam.  vi.  ll-Ki),  ami  "  Rejoice  ye  in  that  day, 
and  leap /or  yo.y"  (Luke  vi.  23).  William  Wil- 
liams, tlie  famous  Welsli  hymn-writer,  and  for 
many  years  a  de\oteil  ]iastor  in  Wales,  advocated 
and  adopted  the  practice.  The  jumping  usually 
followed  the  sermon,  and  was  preceded  liy  the 
singing  of   a  verso   of  some   hymn,  which  waa 


JUNILIUS. 


1215 


JURISDICTION. 


repeated  again  and  again,  sometimes  forty  or  even 
more  times.  The  jumping  was  accompanied  with 
all  kinds  of  gestures,  and  often  lasted  for  hours. 
Mr.  Wesley  regarded  these  religionists  as  sincere 
men,  with  the  love  of  God  in  their  heart ;  but 
"  they  have  little  experience  of  the  ways  of  God 
or  the  devices  of  Satan  "  (Tyerman,  Life  of  John 
Wcdeij,  ii.  pp.  480,  481).  It  is  doubtful  whether 
this  [iractice  has  any  followers  now  in  Wales.  In 
the  middle  ages  the  sect  called  the  Dancers  (see 
art.)  indulged  in  the  same  odd  religious  rite ;  and 
the  Shakers  (see  art.)  still  perpetuate  it.  See 
Evans  :  Denominations  of  the  Cliristian  World, 
London,  1811;  and  Tyerma.x  :  Life  of  John  Wes- 
leij,  vol.  ii.  pp.  480,  481. 

JUNILIUS,  a  native  of  Africa,  a  contemporary 
of  Cassiodorus  ;  lived  in  Constantinople,  where 
lie  held  a  high  position  in  the  civil  administration 
imder  Justinian.  In  551  he  published  a  book 
(Instituta  refjularia  dioime  let/is)  generally  but  erro- 
neously called  JJe  partibus  divin(s  legis,  after  the 
heading  of  the  first  chapter.  The  work,  which 
is  one  of  the  first  attempts  in  the  field  of  biblical 
introduction,  is  dedicated  to  Bishop  Primosius ; 
and  in  the  dedication  the  author  states  that  he 
has  derived  the  contents  of  his  work  from  a  cer- 
tain Paulus,  a  native  of  Persia,  and  a  pupil  of  the 
famous  school  of  Nisebis.  The  work  is  found 
in  Migne,  Putr.  Lot.,  Isviii.,  and  has  recently 
been  edited  by  Kihn,  Freiburg,  1880.  See  G.  A. 
Beekicu  :  Das  System  des  Kirehenoaters,  i.,  Llibeck, 
1787  ;  KniN  ;  Theodor  von  Mopsuestia  and  Junilius 
African  IIS,    Freiburg,  1879.  W.  MOLLER. 

JUNIUS,  Franciscus  (Du  Jon),  b.  at  Bourges 
151.");  d.  at  Leyden  1602;  studied  theology  in 
(jeneva ;  was  appointed  ].iastor  of  the  Walloon 
congregation  in  Antwerp  1565  ;  accompanied  the 
Prince  of  Orange  as  camp-preacher  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1568;  settled  iii  1573  at  Heidelberg,  on 
the  invitation  of  tlie  elector,  and  worked  with 
Tremellius  on  the  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment; and  was  in  15S'2  made  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Leyden.  Besides  his  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament,  he  wrote  exegetical,  philological, 
and  polemical  treatises,  wliich  have  been  collected 
in  two  volumes  folio,  also  containing  his  biogra- 
phy, Geneva,  1613,  republislied  under  the  editor- 
ship of  Abraham  Kuypers,  Amsterdam,  1882  sqq. 

JUNKIN,  George,"  D.D.,  LL.D.,  a  prouunent 
Presbyterian  clergyman  and  educator ;  b.  near 
Kingston,  Penn.,  Nov.  1,  1790;  d.  in  Philadel- 
phia, May  20,  1868.  He  graduated  at  Jefferson 
College ;  studied  theology  under  Dr.  John  M. 
Mason  in  New  York ;  was  pastor  of  the  churches 
at  Milton  and  McEwensville,  Penn.;  and  in  1832 
became  president  of  Lafayette  College.  He  occu- 
pied this  jjosition  till  1841,  when  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  Miami  University,  which  he  re- 
signed in  1844  to  return  to  his  old  place  at  Lafay- 
ette, which  he  tilled  till  1848,  when  he  became 
president  of  Washington  College  at  Lexington, 
Va.  Here  he  remained  till  1861,  when  his  loyal- 
ty to  the  Union  forced  him  to  return  to  the  North. 
Dr.  Junkin  exercised  a  large  influence  upon  the 
Presbyterian  Church ;  was  a  keen  and  logical  de- 
bater, and  one  of  the  leaders  and  warmest  adher- 
ents of  the  Old  School  branch  after  the  division. 
He  appeared  as  the  accuser  of  Albert  Barnes, 
although  belonging  to  a  different  presbytery. 
He  was  moderator  of  the  Old  School  Assembly 
25  —  11 


in  1844.  Among  his  works  are  Treatise  on  Justifi- 
cation, Philadelphia,  1839,  The  IJttle  Stone  and 
the  Great  Image,  or  Lectures  on  the  PropJiecies,  etc. 
(delivered  before  Lafayette  College,  1830-37), 
Philadelphia,  1844,  Commentary  on  the  Hehrews, 
Philadelphia,  1873,  etc. 

JURIEU,  Pierre,  b.  at  Mer,  Dec.  24,  10-37;  d.  at 
llotterdam,  Jan.  11,  1713  ;  studied  theology  at 
Saumur  and  Sedan ;  travelled  in  Holland  and 
England  ;  and  was  appointed  professor  of  theolo- 
gy at  Sedan,  1675,  and,  after  the  sujipression  of 
that  institution  in  1681,  at  Rotterdam.  Even  his 
first  works,  Examen  du  livre  de  la  reunion  du  Chris- 
tianisme,  1671,  Traite  de  la  Devotion,  1674  (trans- 
lated into  English),  etc.,  as  well  as  his  lectures 
at  Sedan,  gave  him  a  prominent  position  in  the 
Reformed  Church ;  and  his  fame  and  authority 
were  greatly  enhanced  by  his  Apoloyie  pour  la 
morale  des  Reformes,  1075  (against  Bossuet),  Let- 
tres  Pastorales,  1686-87,  etc.,  as  well  as  by  his 
zeal  and  disinterestedness  in  aidhig  liis  persecuted 
brethren  of  the  Reformed  Church.  But  the  mis- 
eries and  calamities  he  witnessed  after  tlie  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  led  liini,  as  so  many 
others,  to  seek  for  consolation  in  the  apocalyp- 
tic prophecies  of  Scripture  (^AccompUssement  des 
Prophclies,  1686) ;  and  this  circumstance,  in  con- 
nection with  the  great  vehemence  whicli  he  ex- 
hibited in  his  controversies  with  Bayle  and  others, 
made  him  many  enemies;  and  at  one  time  even 
his  own  orthodoxy  was  impugned.  His  Histoire 
critique  des  Dvymes  el  des  Cultes,  1704,  translated 
into  English  (Loudon,  1715,  2  vols.),  was  his  last 
great  work.  A.  schweizer. 

JURISDICTION,  Ecclesiastical.  Occasioned 
by  the  admonition  of  Paul,  that  Christians  should 
not  bring  their  cases  of  litigation  before  unbe- 
lieving judges  (1  Cor.  vi.  1  sqq.),  and  modelled 
after  the  practice  of  the  synagogue,  which  had 
received  the  sanction  of  the  State  (Josephus : 
Antiij.,  14,  10),  there  early  developed  among  the 
Christians  a  form  of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
devolving  upon  the  head  of  the  congregation,  and 
comprising  not  only  ecclesiastical,  but  also  civil 
affairs.  As,  no  doubt,  most,  if  not  all,  of  the 
judges  of  the  State,  w-ere  Pagans  at  the  time  when 
Christianity  was  publicly  recognized  by  the  gov- 
ernment as  the  reigning  religion,  it  was  simply 
a  measure  of  due  protection,  when,  by  a  decree  of 
331,  Constantine  formally  legalized  the  institu- 
tion, and  extended  its  compass  so  far  that  the 
ecclesiastical  court  became  competent,  even  in 
oases  in  which  only  one  of  the  litigant  parties 
chose  to  go  before  it.  Half  a  century  later 
on,  when  the  judges  of  the  State  had  become 
Christians  themselves,  it  was  found  undesirable, 
because  unnecessary,  to  give  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  so  wide  a  scope;  and,  by  a  decree  of 
Arcadius  and  Honorius  (398),  the  competence  of 
the  ecclesiastical  court  was  made  dependent  upon 
the  agreement  of  both  parties.  Its  general  defi- 
nition by  the  Roman  law  may  be  sunnned  up  in 
this  way.  With  respect  to  the  laity,  —  all  connuon 
crimes  w-ere  to  be  punislied  by  the  civil  courts, 
the  Church  simply  following  after  with  the  pen- 
ance; but  all  infringements  of  the  order  of  the 
Church,  doctrinal  or  disciplinary,  were  to  be  pun- 
ished by  the  Church  herself  (c.  17,  23,  41,  47, 
Cod.  Theod.  de  episc.  et  clerices,  XVI.  2;  and  c.  1, 
Cod.  Theod.  de  relig.,  XVI.  11).    With  respect  to 


JURISDICTION. 


1216 


JURISDICTION. 


the  clergy,  —  originally  all  common  crimes  com- 
mitted by  the  clergy  were  reported  to  the  bishop, 
who  then  deposed  the  culprit,  and  surrendered 
him  to  the  civil  courts  for  punishment;  but  by 
Justinian  {Xov.,  LXXIX.,  LXXXIII.  princ. 
CXXIII.  cap.  8,  21,  22)  the  clergy  was  made 
amenable,  even  in  civil  cases,  to  the  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  only. 

As  Christianity  became  established  in  the 
Prankish  Empire  and  Germany,  the  principle  of 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  was  introduced  ;  but  the 
institution  developed  very  slowly.  AVith  respect 
to  civil  suits,  tlie  State,  or  rather  the  ruler,  granted, 
{ir.st,  that  no  clerk  should  be  bound  to  appear 
before  a  secular  court,  either  as  plaintiff  or  as 
defendant,  without  the  consent  of  his  bishop 
(Concil.  Aurelian.,  III.  a.  538,  can.  32;  IV.  a. 
541,  can.  20)  ;  second,  that,  when  both  parties 
belonged  to  the  clergy,  the  case  should  always  be 
decided  in  an  ecclesiastical  court  (Concil.  Matis- 
con.,  I.  a.  581,  c.  8;  Concil.  Tolelan.,  III.  a.  589, 
0.  13)  ;  third,  that,  whenever  a  clerk  was  impli- 
cated in  a  case,  a  mixed  coiu-t  should  be  formed, 
of  which  his  bishop  was  a  member  {Capil.  Franco- 
furl.,  a.  794,  c.  30  ;  Caroli  Maijni  leges  Langohard., 
c.  99)  ;  and,  finally,  that  the  clergy  could  be  cited 
only  before  the  ecclesiastical  courts  (the  principle 
of  Justinian  recognized  by  the  Conftif.  Freikrici 
II.  a.  1220.  c.  4).  With  respect  to  criminal  cases, 
all  jurisdiction  belonged  originally  to  the  State, 
both  among  the  Franks  and  the  Germans.  For 
all  common  crimes,  not  ecclesiastical,  such  as 
nmrder,  theft,  adultery,  etc.,  the  clergy  were  pun- 
ished by  the  secular  courts.  Only  the  bishops 
formed  an  exception  :  they  were  judged  by  the 
synods,  though  the  State  had  a  right  to  take  part 
in  the  prosecution.  But  in  614  an  edict  of  Clo- 
tar  II.  (Pertz:  Monum.  German.,  iii.  14)  granted 
that  only  the  lower  clei'gy,  inclusive  of  the  sub- 
deacon,  and  only  the  minor  and  patent  crime.s, 
were  amenable  to  the  secular  jurisdiction,  while 
under  other  circumstances  a  mixed  court  should 
be  formed,  with  the  bishop  for  its  president. 
Finally,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighth  century, 
the  clergy  was  completely  exempted  from  the 
secular  jurisdiction,  also  in  criminal  cases  {Capil. 
Franco/.,  a.  789,  c.  38,  a.  794,  c.  39;  Capil.  Lan- 
gohard., a.  803,  c.  12)  :  the  police  autliorities  could 
oidy  arrest  the  criminal  monk  or  jiriest,  lujt  prose- 
cute, and  still  less  punish  him.  It  must  be  ob- 
serve<l,  however,  that  practice  did  not  in  this  field 
keep  step  with  theory.  Even  in  Italy,  those  cities 
which  did  not  belong  immediately  to  the  papal 
dominion  continued  to  assert  their  right  of  juris- 
diction over  the  clergy  in  all  criminal  cases,  though 
synod  after  synod,  and  jiope  after  pope,  from  Urban 
II.  to  Leo  X.,  continued  to  fulminate  their  curses 
again.st  them. 

From  an  early  date  the  right  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  developed  along  a  double  track,  con- 
quering new  territory  lioth  thnnigh  tlie  <•«.«>■  and 
tJirough  i\\ti  permnn  that  it  succeeded  in  bringing 
under  its  authority;  and,  such  as  it  once  for  all 
stands  defined  by  canon  law,  it  is  indeed  fully 
equipped  to  supt^rsede  at  any  given  op])ortunity, 
the  right  of  secular  jurisdiction  altog(!tlier.  Ac- 
cording to  canon  law,  the  cases  subject  to  ecclesi- 
a.stical  jurisdiction  are:  I.  Causte.  mere,  pure,  in- 
Irinsece  spinluates,  belonging  to  faith,  doctrine, 
sacraments,   liturgy,  ceremonies,   etc.,    most    of 


which  fall  entirely  outside  of  the  competency  of 
a  civil  court;  while  others  —  as,  for  instance, 
marriage  cases  —  contain  one  or  more  elementa, 
which,  being  defined  as  of  sacramental  nature, — 
such  as  prohibited  degrees  of  kinship,  divorce,  etc., 
—  necessarily  bring  them  before  the  ecclesiastical 
court ;  II.  Causae  ex  pure  spiritual ihus  dependenles, 
extrinsece  spirituales,  such  as  vows,  oaths,  wills, 
engagements  to  marriage,  patronage,  ecclesia-stical 
benefices,  burial,  tithes,  etc.;  and,  finally,  III. 
Ca«.s-<E  civiles  ecclesiaslicis  accessoriic  mixta,  such 
as  pecuniary  questions  arising  from  marriage, 
inheritance,  legitimate  birth,  etc.  But,  as  canon 
law  includes  under  the  last  head  all  that  can  be 
brought  under  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  by  the 
so-called  denunciatio  evangelica,  there  is,  indefii, 
no  case  imaginable  which  the  ecclesiastical  court 
is  incompetent  to  decide.  The  persons,  who,  ac- 
coi'ding  to  canon  law,  are  subject  to  ecclesia,stical 
jurisdiction,  are  ecclesiastics  of  all  degrees  and 
orders,  any  one  who  by  the  tonsure  is  designated 
as  belonging  to  the  clerical  state,  monks  and 
nuns,  ecclesiastical  institutions  of  all  descrip- 
tions, schools  and  universities,  with  their  teachers 
and  pupils,  pilgrims  and  crusaders,  and,  as  it  is 
the  duty  of  the  Church  to  take  care  of  all  persontr 
miserahiles,  also  poor  people,  widows,  orphans,  and 
penitents.  Of  course,  all  per.sons  not  belonging 
under  "  this  head  "  have  a  right  to  prefer  a  secu- 
lar court  in  all  secular  affairs;  but  if  a  question 
should  arise,  whether  or  not  a  certain  person  be- 
longs under  "this  head,"  it  is  the  ecclesiiistical 
court  which  gives  the  answer. 

As  above  mentioned,  this  idea  of  an  ecclesia,s 
tical  jurisdiction  superseding  or  absorbing  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  State  was  nowhere  fully  real- 
ized. But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Church  of 
Rome  never  ceased  to  fight  for  its  realization  ; 
and,  when  the  modern  State  began  to  develop, 
sharp  conflicts  arose.  Already,  during  the  first 
half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  the  encroachments 
of  the  ecclesiastical  courts  called  forth  determinetl 
protests  in  France ;  and  in  that  country  they 
never  attained  competency  in  cases  about  real 
estate,  even  though  there  were  a  will  in  the  ca.se. 
As  the  controversy  between  Philip  the  Fair  and 
Boniface  VIII.  ended  favorably  to  the  liberty  of 
the  (iallican  Church,  .several  edicts  were  i.ssncd 
during  the  fourteenth  century,  circumscribing  the 
competency  of  the  ecclesiastical  courts;  and  tke 
parliaments  were  not  slow  in  enforcing  those 
edicts  against  the  refractory  clergy.  By  the  edict 
of  l.")39  the  Church  was  practically  deprived  of 
all  jurisdiction  over  lay  people,  except  in  purely 
spiritual  cases,  .such  as  vows,  oaths,  etc.  ;  and  the 
fundamental  maxim  from  which  the  whole  Frenck 
process  developed  during  the  seventeenth  century. 
Toule  justice  I'mane  du  mi,  was  in  direct  ojiposi- 
tion  to  that  on  which  canon  law  was  founded. 
During  the  Revolution,  finally,  by  the  Civil  Con- 
stitution of  the  clergy,  Aug.  24,  1790,  all  ecclesi- 
astical courts  were  suppressed ;  au<l  the  bishop 
retained  a  kind  of  jurisdiction  only  over  the  in- 
ferior clergy  of  his  diocese  and  in  )iurely  ecclesi- 
astical affairs.  The  h^gislation  of  the  first  empire 
and  the  Restoration  did  not  materially  alter  this 
state  of  affairs,  though  the  Code  Napoleon  laid 
nuitrimonial  cases  under  ecclesiastical  jurisdic- 
tion. In  1820,  however,  the  Bishop  of  Mel/, 
established,  on  his  own  account,  a  court,  to  which 


JURISDICTION. 


1217 


JUSTIFICATION. 


he  invitpfl  his  flock  to  resort  for  advice  and  judg- 
ment. The  example  was  followed  in  other  dio- 
ceses ;  and  such  courts  still  exist  in  France,  neither 
forbiddiMi  nor  recognized  by  the  State. 

In  Germany  the  opposition  to  the  jurisdiction 
usurped  by  the  Church  al.so  began  in  the  thir- 
teenth century.  Laymen  were  forbidden,  under 
severe  penalties,  to  cite  other  laymen  before  an 
ecclesiastical  court  (Saclnien  spiegel  LandrechI, 
Bucli  iii.  art.  87,  §  1;  Ilambunjer  Slalulcn  1270, 
ix.  15);  and  in  real  actions  ecclesiastics  were 
demaiiiled  to  appear  before  the  secular  judge 
(SvkirHliischex  LandrccJit,  art.  9o).  Nevertheless, 
the  i)rinciple  of  denuncialio  ecangeVica  continued 
in  active  operation  till  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  a  well-marked  boundary-line  was 
not  drawn  between  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Church 
and  that  of  the  State  until  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  In  consequence  of  the  Hunitert 
Beschwerden  der  deulsc/ieii  Nation,  1522,  all  causm 
mixUe  and  a  great  number  of  causw  extrinsece 
spiriliKiles  were  referred  to  the  courts  of  the  State  ; 
and  since  that  time  a  re-action  against  the  right 
©f  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  has  been  steadily  at 
work  in  Germany.  In  Austria  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  are,  at  present,  competent  only  in  cases 
concerning  faith,  sacraments,  and  discipline. 
Even  marriage  cases  belong  exclusively  under  the 
civil  courts.  In  Prussia,  where,  according  to  the 
reigning  idea  of  the  State,  all  jurisdiction  ought 
to  belong  to  the  State,  it  is  only  a  regard  to  the 
conscience  of  the  Roman-Catholic  part  of  the 
population  which  has  prevented  the  government 
from  abolishing  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
altogetlier.  Even  in  purely  disciplinary  affairs, 
the  so-called  "  Falk  Laws "  have  confined  the 
ecclesiastical  authority  within  very  narrow  bounds. 

In  the  various  countries  in  which  the  Refor- 
mation took  root,  various  lines  of  policy  were 
pursued,  though  the  general  principle  seems  to 
be  nearly  the  same.  With  respect  to  all  civil 
affairs,  Luther  said,  "  With  the  burgomaster's 
business  I  will  not  meddle  ;  "  and  he  consequently 
surrendered  this  whole  field  of  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction  to  the  State.  Nevertheless,  when  a 
eonsi.storial  constitution  was  established,  the  con- 
sistory stepped  adroitly  into  the  shoes  of  the 
bishop,  and  the  forum  ecclesiuxticum  personaruin  et 
rerwn  again  flourished  in  many  Lutheran  coun- 
tries until  the  replacement  of  the  principle  of 
territorialism  by  that  of  toleration,  and  still 
more  the  separation  of  the  Church  from  tlie  State, 
gradually  caused  it  to  disappear.  The  develop- 
ment was  very  unequal,  however,  in  the  various 
countries.  In  Prussia  all  marriage  cases  were 
referred  to  the  civil  courts  in  174S ;  in  Hanover, 
not  until  1869.  The  Presbyterian  churches  also 
exercised  some  kind  of  jurisdiction  in  civil  affairs 
through  their  synods,  but  only  in  some  countries 
(as,  for  instance,  Holland)  and  for  a  short  time. 
In  England  the  ecclesiastical  court  is  still  com- 
petent in  marriage  cases,  will  cases,  etc.  With 
respect  to  purely  spiritual  and  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
the  Lutheran  churches  were  often  so  closely 
united  with  the  states  to  which  they  belonged, 
that  the  minister  of  worship  and  public  education 
changed  their  catechisms  and  text-books  accord- 
ing to  his  ideas ;  while  a  police-officer  counted 
the  persons  present  at  service  in  the  church,  and 
fined  the  absent.     But  by  degrees,  as  the  idea  of 


separating  the  Church  from  the  State  gains 
ground,  they  have  succeeded  in  regaining  con- 
trol over  their  own  affairs,  —  a  point  in  which 
the  Presbyterian  churches  always  have  excelled 
them.  MEJER. 

JUSTIFICATION.  The  doctrine  of  justification 
by  faith,  and  by  faith  alone,  was  the  one  in  which 
the  churches  of  the  Reformation,  especially  the 
Lutheran  Church,  recognized  their  essential  and 
central  teaching.  It  was  known  as  the  article  of 
the  standing  or  falling  church  (wiicultis  xianlis 
vel  cadenlis  ecclesiw),  the  one  upon  which  hung  the 
very  existence  of  evangelical  Christianity.  This 
was  expressed  by  one  of  the  German  princes,  a 
most  faithful  confes.sor  of  the  gospel,  when  he 
told  one  of  his  theologians  just  starting  out  for  a 
disputation  with  the  Catholics,  that  that  which 
lay  nearest  to  his  heart  was  that  they  should  re- 
turn with  the  little  word  sola,  referring  to  the 
proposition,  "  Man  is  justified  by  faith  alone  "  (sola 
Jide  juslijicari  hominem).  It  is  not  surprising,  that, 
in  the  development  of  this  doctrine  over  against 
the  attacks  of  the  opposing  party,  various  shades 
of  distinction  should  have  manifested  themselves. 
We  shall  first  direct  our  attention  to  the  teaching 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  to  the  conception  of  that 
teaching  in  the  Church  prior  to  the  Reformation. 

The  classic  and  biblical  use  of  the  Greek  word 
dmaioiw  ("  to  justify  ")  differs  in  a  remarkable  man- 
ner. In  the  first  case  it  designates  the  re-action 
of  offended  justice  upon  the  offender,  —  to  make 
rif/hteous ;  i.e.,  to  remove  the  offence  against  jus- 
tice from  the  offender,  by  his  condemnation  or 
punishment  (Herodotus,  Thucydides,  Plato).  In 
the  second  it  means  the  very  opposite;  namely,  to 
exculpate,  to  declare  rir/hleous,  be  it  that  the  indi- 
vidual himself  is  blameless,  or  that,  having  offend- 
ed justice,  he  is  exculpated,  made  free  of  guilt,  by 
the  divine  goodness,  and  thereby  is  declared  and 
treated  as  having  satisfied  the  divine  demands, 
and  as  being  righteous.  The  Old-Testament  use 
of  the  term  prevails  in  Matthew  (xi.  19,  xii.  37) 
and  Luke  (vii.  29,  x.  29,  xvi.  15).  Its  first  use 
in  the  strict  New-Testament  sense  occurs  in  the 
account  of  the  penitent  publican  (Luke  xviii.  14), 
who  is  said  to  have  been  regarded  as  just  by  God 
(diKaiovaSai') .  It  i.s,  however,  in  the  Pauline  writ- 
ings, especially  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and 
Galatians,  that  the  word  occurs  in  the  specific 
sense.  After  describing,  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  the  law  and  its  works  as  incapable  of  jus- 
tifying, or  making  righteous,  inasmuch  as  the  law 
only  serves  to  give  a  kuowdedge  of  sin  (iii.  20,  vii. 
7  sqq.),  the  apostle  takes  up  a  righteousness  of 
God  with  which  the  law  has  nothing  to  do,  and 
which  is  mediated  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  extends 
to  all  believers.  This  righteousness  is  described 
as  passing  over  to  offending  humanity  by  reason 
of  grace  on  God's  part,  and  of  the  redemption  of 
Christ,  on  account  of  whose  atoning  death  CJod 
had  determined  that  there  should  be  no  contradic- 
tion between  his  own  justice  and  the  justification 
of  believers  (iii.  26).  Then,  after  having  estab- 
lished the  proposition  of  justification  by  faith  in 
chap,  iii.,  Paul  passes  over,  in  the  next  chapter, 
to  show  that  this  idea  does  not  contradict  God's 
revelation  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  believer  is 
the  object  of  justification,  and  becomes  so,  not 
on  account  of  his  own  deeds,  or  in  the  way  of  a 
debt,  but  on  account  of  grace,  he  reuouuciug  all 


JUSTIFICATION. 


1218 


JUSTIFICATION. 


trust  in  meritorious  works  of  his  own,  and  putting 
his  confidence  alone  in  God.  To  justify  is  also 
termed  to  reckon  for  righteousness  (iv.  2'2,  Aoy/fcc- 
Oai  iiKaiomvnv).  Faith  is  joined  with  this  concep- 
tion as  that  which  is  reckoned  for  righteousness. 
The  faith  which  is  attributed  to  Abraham  is  de- 
scribed as  trust  in  the  divine  power  and  purpose 
to  perfect  the  divine  promises.  While  here  a 
comparison  is  instituted  between  Abraham  and 
his  spiritual  children,  the  usual  New- Testament 
expression  is,  that  it  is  faith  in  Christ  which  is 
reckoned  for  righteousness.  Christ  is  represented 
as  the  one  who  makes  this  possible  (Gal.  ii.  16). 
He  is  also  represented  as  being  made  by  God  right- 
eousness unto  us  (1  Cor.  i.  30),  and  as  having 
been  made  sin  on  our  behalf,  that  we  might  be- 
come the  righteousness  of  God  in  him  (2  Cor.  v. 
21).  We  are  righteous  by  reason  of  connuunion 
with  Christ.  He  died  and  rose ;  so  that  we  are  re- 
garded as  having  died  and  risen  with  him  (Rom. 
vi.  11 ;  2  Cor.  v.  14  ;  Col.  ii.  11  sqq.)  This  com- 
munion is  achieved  on  our  part  by  faith  in  Christ, 
or  the  faith  of  Jesus.  The  divine  act  of  justifica- 
tion leans  upon  the  divine  purpose  (TrpoiScoif),  which 
excludes  absolutely  all  condemnation  (Rom.  viii. 
28-33).  Hereby  the  righteousness  of  God  (Rom. 
i.  17,  iii.  21)  is  made  manifest.  From  this  justi- 
fication, which  marks  the  entrance  of  the  sinner 
into  the  condition  of  salvation,  that  active  justifi- 
cation is  to  be  distinguished  wliich  constitutes  the 
conclusion  of  the  entire  work  of  salvation,  and 
which  is  the  object  of  Christian  hope  (Gal.  v.  5). 
Here  belong  such  passages  as  Rom.  ii.  13,  16  ;  1 
Cor.  iv.  5 ;  2  Cor.  v.  10.  At  this  point  we  are 
brought  in  contact  with  the  activity  of  faith  in 
love  and  constancy  and  the  works  of  faith  (Gal. 
V.  6,  etc.).  The  simplest  solution  of  the  apparent 
contradiction  between  Paul  and  James  (Jas.  ii. 
14  sqq.)  is,  that  James  does  not  refer  to  the  en- 
trance into  the  state  of  salvation,  as  Paul  so  fre- 
quently does  (Rom.  iii.  4;  Gal.  iii.),  but  has  in 
view  the  conduct  of  the  believer  after  entering 
this  state. 

Turning,  now,  to  the  post-apostolic  conception, 
we  find  the  Greek  expositors  explaining  ^ikoiovv 
as  dinaiov  uTTOfaiveiv,  so  that  tlie  New-Testament 
use  of  the  term  is  understood;  but  the  distinction 
of  declaring  "  righteous  "  as  the  foundation  and 
as  the  consummation  of  the  state  of  grace  is  not 
sufficiently  indicated.  In  the  Latin  Church  the 
term  Justijicare  is  used,  now  in  a  narrower  sense, 
and  now  in  a  broader,  the  imputation  of  "riglit>- 
eousness  "  including  an  impartation  of  it.  Augus- 
tine gives  the  norm  for  the  doctrine  of  the  middle 
ages  when  he  says,  "God  justifies  the  ungodly, 
not  only  by  renntting  the  evil  he  has  done,  but 
also  Ijy  imparting  love,  whicli  rejects  the  evil,  and 
does  tlie  good,"  and  "the  ungodly  is  justified  by 
the  grace  of  God ;  i.e.,  from  being  ungodly,  is 
made  righteous." 

Here  begins  the  confusion  of  justification  with 
.sanctification,  which  is  apparent  in  the  teachings 
of  the  scholastics  and  mystics.  It  remained  for 
the  Reformers  to  make  a  .sharp  distinction  be- 
tween them  ;  justification  being  defin<'d  simply  as 
the  gracious  act  of  God,  who  for  llu;  sake  of 
Clirist,  and  by  the  imputation  of  his  rightfiousness, 
declares  or  regards  the  sinner  just.  Man  only 
receives,  and  does  not  give- ;  is  passive,  and  not 
active,  according  to  the  Reformers.     The  Roman 


Church,  on  the  other  Iiand,  regards  justifying 
faith  as  Jldes  formata,  i.e.,  faith  which  is  inspired 
by  love ;  so  that  this  love,  active  in  faith,  is  really 
that  whereby  and  on  account  of  which  man  is 
justified,  or  whereby  man  renders  himself  worthy 
of  forgiveness  and  sanctifying  grace.  Love  is 
an  act  of  free  will.  The  evangelical  doctrine  of 
justification,  on  the  other  hand,  which  has  its 
roots  in  the  sense  of  sin  as  guilt,  regards  such  a 
feeling  of  love  in  the  heart  for  God  as  being  a 
consequence  of  God's  act,  removing  guilt,  and 
drawing  him  to  himself.  This  justifying  activity 
of  God  presupposes  nothing  in  man  except  a 
sense  of  sin,  which  is  a  product  of  divine  grace, 
or  the  divine  Spirit  operating  upon  man's  con- 
science, and  implanting  a  knowledge  of  God's 
holiness  and  of  his  own  violation  of  that  holiness 
in  his  conduct.  This  frame  of  heart  is  a  receptive 
condition  for  justifying  grace  :  hence  arises  faith, 
which  proceeds  from  knowledge  implanted  by  the 
Holy  (Si^irit  (nolitia),  and  passes  on  to  assent 
(asseiisus^  and  trust  (^/iducia).  Here  love  for  God 
is  for  the  first  time  felt  (1  John  iv.  10,  19)  ;  and 
from  it  proceeds  sanctification,  or  the  fruits  of 
righteousness.  Thus  faith  works  through  love 
(Gal.  v.  6).  Thus  the  Scripture  distinctly  renders 
to  God  all  the  glory,  depriving  man  of  all  merito- 
riousness.  Man,  like  an  empty  vessel,  is  filled 
more  and  more  by  God,  and  assumes  likeness 
with  Christ. 

There  was  a  danger  of  regarding  faith  more  as 
a  theoretical  assent,  and  unduly  emphasizing 
justification  by  putting  sanctification  in  the  back- 
ground. The  imputation  of  Christ's  merit  was 
made  prominent  in  such  a  way  that  vital  union 
with  Christ  was  moi'e  or  less  lost  sight  of.  There 
was  a  peril  of  the  old  man,  with  its  sinful  lusts, 
being  lulled  to  sleep  without  having  been  sancti- 
fied. To  resist  this  evil,  Andreas  Osiander  ap- 
peared against  the  school  of  ISIelatichthon,  which 
was  inclined  to  modify  the  Lutheran  view.  He 
substituted  a  real  impartation  of  Christ's  right- 
eousness for  the  judicial  imputatiim.  Christ  is 
righteous  so  far  as  he  is  the  essential  righteous- 
ness of  God ;  and  man  is  made  righteous  by 
laying  hold  of  it  by  faith,  and  thereby  receiving 
(he  divine  nature  of  Christ  to  reside  in  liini.  God 
regards  liim  as  righteous,  therefore,  because  he 
sustained  the  relation  to  Christ  of  the  branch  to 
the  vine.  But  in  this  view  the  hunuuiity  of  Christ 
and  his  ethical  niiHliatiou  are  not  properly  brought 
out.  The  Formula  of  Concord,  on  the  other  liand, 
emphasizes  that  Christ  is  our  righteousness  in  his 
entire  divine-human  personality,  and  redeems  us 
by  his  perfect  obedience. 

The  distinction  between  the  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed doctrines  of  justification  beeonu^s  appar- 
ent from  anotlier  stand-jioint  Schneckenburger 
brought  out  this  difference  with  great  aeuteness. 
It  arises,  in  part,  from  a  dilT(>rence  of  view  about 
man's  natural  state  and  the  relation  of  the  divine 
decree  oC  predestination  to  human  freedom.  Tlie 
theologians  of  the  Reformed  Church  regard  the 
natural  condition  of  fallen  man  from  the  stand- 
point of  misery  and  want,  and  consequently  look 
upon  salvation  as  that  wliich  elfects  their  removal, 
.and  imparts  a  positive  benefit.  The  divine  elec- 
tion is  the  all-efiicient  principle  in  this  process, 
and  reveals  itself  in  the  call  which  excitt's  faith. 
By  this  faith  the  sinner  apprehends  Christ,  and 


JUSTIFICATION. 


1210 


JUSTIN  MARTYR. 


is  made  one  with  liim,  a  new  man  (Epli.  iv.  21). 
He  tlius  becomes  conscious  of  justification  as  a 
divine  justifying  decision.  In  the  Lutheran  sys- 
tem, on  the  othei-  hand,  the  justification  of  the 
sinner  as  sinful  is  the  principle,  the  first  stop, 
from  which  all  else  proceeds.  It  is  the  divine 
decision,  based  upon  the  satisfaction  of  Christ 
for  sin,  by  which  God  declares  the  sinner  right- 
eons,  and  adopts  him  as  his  child.  In  tiiis  case 
the  divine  decision  of  justification  is  the  efficient 
force  which  engenders  faith  in  the  heart  of  the 
subject.  This  work  is  completed  by  the  partici- 
pation in  the  sacraments.  Justification  does  not 
insure  the  permanent  continuance  of  the  subject 
in  tlie  state  of  grace  :  he  may  fall  away  from  it. 
A  renewal  of  repentance  on  his  part  insures  tlie 
renewal  of  justification.  This  is  the  doctrine  of 
the  Lutheran  Church.  According  to  the  Reformed 
doctrine,  however,  the  sinner  cannot  fall  away 
from  this  state. 

It  is  apparent  that  the  difference  in  the  two 
conceptions  is  owing  to  the  different  place  which 
the  doctrine  of  election  has  in  the  two  systems, 
it  being  the  all-determining  principle  in  the 
Reformed  system. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Reformed  Church  is  logical- 
ly the  more  perfect,  as  it  starts  from  the  divine 
decree  of  election,  and  passes  on,  by  logical  neces- 
sity, to  the  absolute  efficiency  of  the  act  of  justi- 
fication, which  nothing  can  overthrow.  For  this 
reason,  some  Lutheran  theologians,  as  Nitzscli, 
Von  Ilofmann,  Philippi,  and  Dorner,  have  shown 
a  leaning  to  the  Reformed  view.  But  it  may  be 
questioned  whether  the  freedom  of  man's  will  is 
not  cramped  by  the  Reformed  doctrine.  In  the 
Lutheran  system  it  has  more  room  to  exert  itself. 
And  this  relation  of  man  to  God  in  justification 
admits,  to  a  greater  extent,  of  the  voluntary  ac- 
tivity of  the  soul.  In  this  respect  the  Lutheran 
view  seems  also  to  be  more  in  accordance  witli 
Christian  experience. 

[The  (German)  editors  desire  to  supplement 
the  statement  about  the  relations  of  the  Lutheran 
and  Reformed  doctrines  of  justification  by  refer- 
ring to  the  art.  Luther,  and  by  the  following  de- 
finition of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (see  Jacobs  : 
Book  of  Concord,  p.  657).  "Thus  far  is  the  mys- 
tery of  predestination  revealed  to  us  in  (iod's 
Word;  and  if  we  abide  thereby,  and  cleave  thereto, 
it  is  a  very  useful,  salutary,  consolatory  doctrine; 
for  it  establishes  very  effectually  the  article  that 
we  are  justified  and  saved  without  works  and 
merits  of  our  own,  purely  out  of  grace,  and  only 
for  Christ's  sake.  -For  before  the  ages  of  the 
world,  before  we  were  born,  yea,  before  the  foun- 
dation of  the  world  was  laid,  when  we,  indeed, 
could  do  nothing  good,  we  were,  according  to 
God's  purpose,  chosen,  out  of  gi-ace  in  Christ, 
to  salvation  (Rom.  ix.  11;  2  Tim.  i.  9).  All 
opinions  and  erroneous  doctrines  concerning  the 
powers  of  our  natural  will  are  thereby  overthrown ; 
because  God,  in  his  counsel  before  the  ages  of  the 
world,  decided  and  ordained  that  he  himself,  by 
the  power  of  his  Holy  Spirit,  would  produce  and 
work  in  us,  through  the  Word,  every  thing  that 
pertains  to  our  conversion,"  etc.  \Ve  must  call 
attention  to  the  difference  which  exists  between 
the  views  of  the  Lutheran  Church  as  embodied 
in  its  symbols,  and  the  views  which  were  subse- 
quently developed,  for  which   see   Schweizeb  : 


CentraUlogmen,  and  Julius  Muller  :  D.  evangc- 
lische   Union.  1854.]  KLING. 

JUSTIN  MARTYR,  the  first  Christian  apologist 
whose  works  have  come  down  to  us ;  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom under  Marcus  ,\urelius,  as  we  gather  from 
tiie  Acts  of  his  Martyrdom,  preserved  by  Meta- 
phrastes  (tenth  century),  which  seem  to  be  relia- 
ble. The  Chron.  pascliale  places  the  martyrdom 
in  165.  He  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  by  Ta- 
tian  as  the  "  most  wonderful  Justin  "  (Or.  c.  Gr., 
18),  and  quoted  by  Tertullian  as  the  "  philoso- 
pher and  martyr  "  {Adv.  Vol.,  5),  and  by  I lijipoly- 
tus  as  "the  martyr"  (Phitos.,  viii.  16),  and  is  the 
first  Christian  after  the  apostles,  the  notices  of 
whose  life  are  sufficiently  numerous,  and  enough 
of  whose  writings  are  preserved,  to  enable  us  to 
form  a  clear  picture  of  the  man  and  his  system, 
both  of  which  are  of  unusual  value  for  ehurch 
history.  Irenseus  mentions  a  work  against  Mar- 
cion  (avvTayjia  Kara  MapKiuvo;)  as  by  .Justin ;  and 
Eusebius  (//.  E.,  IV.  17,  26)  ascribes  quite  a 
number  of  writings  to  him.  The  oldest  manu- 
scripts are  the  Rer/ius  Pnrisimis  (1364)  and  Claro- 
montanits,  in  England  (1.541),  both  of  which  con- 
tain eleven  of  Justin's  writings,  arranged  in  the 
same  order.  The  only  genuine  works  are  the  two 
Apologies,  the  Dialogue  with  Trijpho  (all  of  which 
are  mentioned  by  Eusebius),  and  a  few  frag- 
ments. The  exact  date  of  these  works  cannot  be 
determined.  Eusebius  ascribed  the  larger  Apol- 
ogy to  the  year  140-141,  and  the  smaller  one  to 
the  reign  of  Aurelius.  Recently  the  former  has 
been  put  between  144  and  160 ;  but  it  seems  to 
have  been  written  in  the  reign  of  Antoninus,  and 
before  147.  The  Dialogue  with  Tri/pko  also  belongs 
to  the  reign  of  Antoninus  (138-161).  Those  who 
favor  a  later  date  are  influenced  by  the  presump- 
tion that  Marcion's  activity  in  Rome  occurred  in 
the  last  years  of  Anicetus  (150-155,  Keim,  Gesch. 
Jesu). 

From  Justin's  own  mouth  we  learn  the  follow- 
ing details  (Ap.,  i.  1)  :  He  was  born  in  Xeapolis 
(the  ancient  Shechem),  in  Palestine,  of  heathen 
(Greek?)  parentage.  He  grew  up  as  a  "disciple 
of  Plato  "  (Ap.  ii.  12).  His  attention  was  drawn 
to  Christianity  by  the  pious  conduct  of  the  Chris- 
tians and  the  steadfastness  of  their  martyrs.  In 
the  Introduction  to  the  Dialogue  he  relates  the 
stages  through  which  he  passed  before  becoming 
a  Christian.  He  was  successively  a  Stoic,  a  Peri- 
patetic, a  Pythagorean,  and  a  follower  of  Plato, 
and  hoped  to  have  finally  reached  the  goal  of  in- 
tellectual contentment  in  the  Platonic  philosophy. 
His  delusion  was  laid  bare  by  an  aged  Christian, 
who  showed  him  that  human  investigation  could 
at  best  reach  the  true  idea  of  God,  but  not  the 
living  God  himself.  He  must  be  heard  and  seen 
to  be  known.  He  was  then  pointed  to  the  Old 
Testament,  especially  to  the  prophets.  Justin  de- 
voted himself  to  the  study  of  their  prophecies,  was 
convinced,  and  at  once  consecrated  his  life  to  the 
diffusion  of  the  Christian  faith.  In  Rome  he  de- 
bated with  M.arcion,  publicly  disputed  with  the 
cjniic  Crescens,  and  took  up  the  cause  of  his  perse- 
cuted fellow-Christians  in  his  Apology,  which  he 
addressed  to  the  emperor.  In  this  work  he  portrays 
the  "  doctrines  and  lives  of  the  Christians,"  and 
exonerates  them  from  the  charges  of  atheism  and 
secret  criminal  practices.  Christianity  is  derived 
from  God,  and  proves  its  divine  origin  by  the 


JUSTIN  MARTYR. 


1220 


JUSTINIAN  I. 


Jidfilment  of  prophecy,  and  the  fact  that  it  was 
niade  known  bj-  prophets  and  the  Son  of  God. 
The  Christians  were  not  mad  in  worsliipping  the 
crucified  Christ ;  for  he  was  the  Son,  the  Logos  of 
God  in  the  flesh.  He  has  shown  the  way  to  right- 
eousness and  God.  As  the  teacliings  of  Chris- 
tianity are  pure  and  wliolesonie,  and  agree  with 
that  which  had  been  recognized  to  be  good  before 
Christ's  appearance,  and  as  tliey  are  at  variance 
only  with  idolatry  and  vice,  the  hatred  against 
Christians  is  unreasonable,  and  their  persecution 
due  to  the  agency  of  demons,  whose  kingdom 
*'hrist  came  to  destroy. 

Justin  went  from  Rome  to  Asia  Jlinor.  After 
chis  visit  lie  wrote  the  Dialoyue  icith  Tri/pho,  to 
show  that  the  God  of  the  Jews  was  the  God  of  the 
Christians  likewise,  and  that  the  authority  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  recognized  by  Christians.  He 
labored  further  to  prove  that  Jesus  was  tlie  proph- 
esied Messiah,  sent  by  the  God  of  Abraham  for 
the  salvation  of  the  world,  and  that  his  followers 
■were  the  true  Israel.  In  tliese  works  Justin  pro- 
fesses to  present  the  system  of  doctrine  as  it  was 
held  by  all  Christians,  and  seeks  to  be  orthodox 
(Jipdoyvujiuv'^  on  all  points.  The  only  difference  he 
knows  of  as  existing  between  Christians  con- 
cerned the  millennium.  Thus  Justin  is  an  incon- 
trovertible witness  for  the  unity  of  faith  in  the 
Church  of  his  day,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  Gen- 
tile type  of  Christianity  prevailed.  According 
to  him,  Christianity  consisted  in  faith  in  God,  the 
Father  of  the  world,  in  Jesus  Christ  his  Son,  and 
in  the  prophetic  Spirit,  or,  in  one  word,  faith  in 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God.  This  was  the  rule  of 
faith.  His  attitude  towards  the  Scriptures  is  im- 
portant. The  Old  Testament  he  regarded  as  the 
"  Holy  Scriptures,"  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
He,  however,  nowhere  mentions  a  collection  of 
apo.st<jlic  writings.  The  accounts  of  the  life  of  the 
Lord  he  calls  uTroftvTjfinvevfinTa  rdiv  unomuAuv  ("  Me- 
morials of  the  .Apostles  "),  but  never  mentions  the 
authors  by  name,  and  quotes  almost  exclusively 
Clirist's  words.  From  these  quotations  it  is  evi- 
dent tliat  he  had  the  Go.spels  of  Matthew  and 
Luke  before  him.  He  only  quotes  one  passage 
from  Mark,  and  not  a  single  one  from  John;  but 
it  is  now  pretty  generally  agreed  that  he  was  ac- 
quainted with  John's  Gospel.  He  says  that  the.se 
writings  "  were  also  called  (iospels,"  were  written 
by  apostles  or  their  companions,  and  were  read  in 
the  .services  of  the  Christians.  They  were  God's 
word,  becau.se  tiiey  contained  Christ's  utterances 
and  doctrine.  The  unity  and  apostolic  character 
of  the  faith  of  the  Christians  at  that  time  are  the 
sufficient  reasons  why  Justin  was  not  concerned 
about  the  question  of  the  canon. 

Justin  does  not  mention  Paul  by  name.  This 
fact,  and  the  stress  he  lays  upon  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, liave  been  used  as  evidence  by  Credner, 
Schwegler,  Baur,  and  Ililgenfeld,  that  he  n'pre- 
sented  the  Eliionitic  or  Jewish  type  of  Cln-isti- 
anity.  This  view  is  sufficiently  contradicted  by 
Justin's  failure  to  understand  how  (iod  could 
choose  one  nation  from  among  the  nations  as 
especially  his  own,  and  the  juxtaposition  in  which 
he  places  Abraham  and  Socrates.  The  Mosaic 
law  wa.s  given  on  account  of  tlie  godlessne.ss  and 
wickedness  of  the  Jews,  wlio  in  tlie  future  have 
no  part  to  play.  Finally  Justin's  Chiliaani  Is 
thoroughly  uiijewish. 


Justin's  doctrine  of  the  justification  of  th« 
sinner  is  not  the  Pauline  doctrine.  He  adopts 
the  moral  or  legal  view  of  Christianity.  He  goes 
back  to  the  will  and  its  freedom.  Reason  and 
freewill  are  not  only  of  divine  origin,  but  the 
reason  is  a  part,  or  seed,  of  the  creative  reason. 
All  men,  like  Socrates,  are  free  to  choose  between 
the  evil  and  the  good.  This  notion  determines 
his  conception  of  grace  and  salvation.  Baptism 
cleanses  from  previous  sins,  hut  it  is  only  offered 
to  the  penitent.  In  the  Eucharist  we  "  receive  a 
nourishment  which  is  the  flesh  and  blood  of  the 
Christ,  who  became  flesh ;  and  by  it  our  flesh  and 
blood  by  a  change  (^naru  fiei ajioTiijv)  are  fed"  {Ap. 
i.  66).  This  is  the  earliest  notice  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  eucharist. 

In  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos,  Justin  has  been 
represented  as  the  author  of  new  views ;  but  he 
was  not  altogether  original.  It  was  customary 
before  his  day  to  call  the  Son  of  God  the  Logos. 
He  used  the  idea  to  prove  that  God  had  a  son  who 
became  flesh,  and  placed  the  material  in  the  hands 
of  the  Church  to  formulate  that  doctrine  clearly. 
But  he  also  gave  the  occasion,  by  his  use  of  the 
doctrine,  for  the  subordiuationism  of  a  later  peri-, 
od.  This  is  clear  when  we  remember  that  he  did 
not  use  it  to  prove  the  equality  of  the  Son  with 
the  Father,  but  only  to  justify  faith  in  the  Son  of 
God,  who  alone  was  fitted  to  assume  human  na- 
ture. The  deity  of  Christ,  and  the  propriety  of 
prayer  to  him,  lie  proved  from  the  Old  Testament 
alone. 

Lit.  —  Justin's  works  have  been  edited  by 
R.  Stephens,  Paris,  1551 ;  Sylburg,  Paris,  1593 ; 
[MoRELL,  Paris,  1615];  Maran,  Paris,  1742  (witli 
a  translation  of  the  Apologies,  the  Dialogue,  etc.); 
MiGNE,  Paris,  18,52;  but  especially  Otto,  Jena, 
1842;  3d  ed.,  1876-81,  3  vols,  (with  valuable  criti- 
cal notes  and  indexes).  See  Semisch  :  Justin  d. 
Mcirli/rer,  Breslau,  1840-42,  2  vols.  ;  D.  aposloiiche 
Denkiriirdigkeiten  Justins,  Hamburg,  1848;  AuBfe: 
.s'.  Justin  p/iilos.  et  martyr.,  Paris,  1875;  Engel- 
HARDT  :  D.  Christenthum  Justins  d.  Mdrtyrers,  etc., 
Erlangen,  1878;  A.  Staiielin  :  Justin  d.  Mar- 
tyrer  und  scin  ncusler  Beurtheiler,  Leipzig,  1880. 
See  also  Crednkr-Volckmak:  Geschichte  d.  Ca- 
nons, Supernatural  Ilelif/ion,  i.  pp.  287  sqq.,  and 
the  Notes ;  [English  translation  of  Justin  in 
Clark's  Ante-Nicene  Christian  Library,  Edinb., 
1867].  V.  ENOKLIIAKDT. 

JUSTINIAN  I.  (Roman  emperor,  .Vug.  1,  .'527- 
Nov.  14,  5(!.5),  b.  at  Tauresium  in  Illyrimii,  May 
11,483;  was  a  Slav  by  descent;  his  original  name 
was  Uprauda.  The  good  fortunes  of  his  uncle, 
.Justin  L,  —  a  Dacian  peasant  who  served  in  the 
Imperial  Guard,  owed  his  advancement  to  the 
size  of  his  body  and  the  strength  of  his  limbs, 
and  in  51S  saw  fit  to  sn.atch  the  imperial  crown,  — ^ 
brought  him  early  to  Constantinople.  He  received 
an  excellent  education;  and,  though  he  never 
learned  to  speak  C!reek  without  a  foreign  accent, 
he  «as  well  prepared  when  he  succeeded  to  the 
throne. 

The  most  brilliant  feature  of  the  reign  of  Jus- 
tinian I.  was  his  legislation,  or  rather  his  codifica- 
tion of  the  already  existing  Roman  law,  executed 
by  .several  committees,  of  wliicli  Trclioiiius  was 
the  inspiring  soul,  and  resulting  in  the  so-calUul 
Corpus  ,/iiris  Jusliaoi.  \\y  this  work  he  confi'rred 
a  great  and  lasting  benefit,  not  only  on  the  Roman 


JUSTINIAN  I. 


1221 


JUVENCUS. 


Ejiipire,  but  on  civilization  at  large.  Of  a  ques- 
tionable value,  however,  were  his  conquests  of 
Africa,  Southern  Spain,  and  Italy,  by  his  two 
famous  generals,  Belisarius  and  Narses.  lie  was 
unable  to  preserve  these  conquests ;  and,  what  was 
still  worse,  he  was  unable  to  give  the  conquered 
countries  a  better  government  than  that  they  had 
enjoyed  under  their  barbarian  rulers.  Altogether 
objectionable,  finally,  was  his  ecclesiastical  policy, 
—  that  part  of  his  activity  on  which  he  bestowed 
the  greatest  amount  of  industry  and  care. 

Justinian  I.  was  a  Christian,  orthodox,  full  of 
zeal  for  the  purity  of  the  faith,  and  waging  a  per- 
petual war  against  Paganism  and  heresy.  The 
lower  classes  of  the  population  were  still  Pagan 
in  many  places,  as,  for  instance,  in  Peloponnesus 
and  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  in  the  upper 
strata  of  society  there  reigned  a  wide-spread  reli- 
gious indifference.  The  latter,  Justinian  I.  com- 
pelled to  conform,  at  least  externally,  to  Chris- 
tianity; and  with  respect  to  the  former  he  boasted 
of  conversions  by  the  thousands.  The  philosophi- 
cal schools  of  Athens  he  closed  in  529,  and  ban- 
isheil  the  teachers.  They  went  to  Persia ;  but,  by 
the  intercession  of  Chosroes,  they  were  afterwards 
allowed  to  return.  Less  leniently  he  treated  the 
Christian  heretics,  —  the  Montanists,  Nestorians, 
Eutychiaus,  and  others;  and  the  marvellous  suc- 
cess of  the  Mohammedan  invasion  of  Egypt  and 
Syria  half  a  century  later  is  generally  ascribed  to 
the  total  disaffection  of  the  population,  which 
resulted  from  the  ecclesiastical  policy  of  Jus- 
tinian. 

The  inhabitants  of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  parts  of 
Asia  Minor,  were  IMonophysites,  and  rejected  the 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedou  (451)  as 
tainted  with  Nestorianism.  Between  orthodoxy 
and  Monophysitism  a  compromise  was  brought 
about  by  Zeno's  Henotikon  (482)  ;  but  that  docu- 
ment, which  the  bishops  of  the  Eastern  Church 
had  been  compelled  to  subscribe  to,  was  abso- 
lutely rejected  by  the  Western  Church,  and  for- 
mally anathematized  by  Felix  II.  In  order  to 
heal  the  schism  thus  established  between  the 
Eastern  and  the  AVestern  Church,  Justinian  re- 
pealed the  Henotikon  immediately  after  his  acces- 
sion. But  then  something  had  to  be  done  with 
the  Monophysites  in  order  to  prevent  a  schism 
within  the  Eastern  Church.  The  empress  Theodo- 
ra, who  was  a  secret  iMonophysite,  persuaded  her 
husband  that  the  true  reason  why  the  IMonophy- 
sites refused  to  accept  the  decrees  of  the  Coun- 
cil of  Chalcedon,  was  that  the  writings  of  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia,  Theodoret,  and  Ibas,  had  not 
been  condemned ;  and  that  non-condemnation  the 
Monophysites  considered  as  implying  a  positive 


confirmation.  The  emperor  then  issued  a  decree 
condemning  the  above  writings,  and  the  con- 
denniation  was  repeated  by  the  fifth  fecumenical 
Council  of  Constantinople  (.553).  The  Monophy- 
sites were  satisfied;  but  what  was  won  in  the 
East  was  lost  in  the  West  by  the  breaking-out  of 
the  Three  Chapter  controversy,  so  called  because, 
in  Justinian's  decree  of  condemnation,  there  were 
three  parts,  or  "  chapters,"  relating  to  Theodore's 
writings  and  person,  to  Theodoret's  treatise,  and 
to  Ibas'  letter  respectively.  See  art.  Tiihee 
Chapters. 

At  last  the  old  emperor  himself  lapised  into 
heresy.  He  adopted  the  Aphthartodocetic  views  of 
the  incorruptibility  of  the  Imman  body  of  Christ, 
and  issued  a  decree  to  force  tliem  upon  the  Church. 
But  Aphthartodoceti.sm  is  simply  Monophysitism, 
and  thus  his  princijial  dogmatical  labors  met  with 
a  somewhat  similar  fate  to  that  which  has  over- 
taken his  chief  architectural  monument.  He 
built  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantino- 
ple ;  and  this  church,  once  the  most  magnificent 
cathedral  of  Christendom,  is  now  a  Turkish 
mosque. 

Lit.  —  The  principal  source  to  the  life  of  Jus- 
tinian I.  is  Procopius.  Among  modern  biogra- 
phies we  mention  Lsambert  :  Vie  de  Juatiuien, 
Paris,  1856,  2  vols.  See  also  T.  C.  Sandars's 
edition  of  the  Institutes  (6th  ed.,  London,  1880), 
jMo.mmsen's  edition  of  the  Digest  (Berlin,  1868- 
70),  and  KruGer's  edition  of  the  Codex  (Berlin. 
1875-77).  Compare  art.  Justinian  by  Professor 
James  Bryce,  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  vol.  xiii. 
pp.  792-798,  and  by  the  same  in  SsriTii  and 
Wace,  Diclionarij  of  Christian  Bior/rapJii/,  vol.  iii. 

JUVENCUS,  Cajus  Vettius  Aquilius,  a  .Span- 
iard by  birth,  and  presbyter  of  his  native  church ; 
wrote,  about  330,  a  Historia  ecangelica,  or  ]'ersus 
de  quatnor  Evangeliis,  a  poetical  transcription  of 
the  gospel  history,  in  3,233  Latin  hexameters. 
The  text  which  he  used,  and  to  which  he  kept 
very  closely,  was  partly  the  Cireek  original,  partly 
the  oldest  Latin  translation,  the  so-called  Itala. 
The  contents  thus  derived,  he  moulded  in  forms 
borrowed  principally  from  Virgil,  but  also  from 
Lucan,  Lucretius,  and  Ovid,  and  generally  arranged 
with  adroitness.  The  result  has,  at  all  events, 
interest,  as  the  first  Christian  epic  :  in  its  own 
time,  and  during  the  middle  ages,  it  enjoyed  a 
great  reputation.  It  was  first  printed  at  Deven- 
ter,  1490;  afterwai'ds  often,  as,  for  instance,  in 
MiGNE  :  Patr.  Lai.,  vol.  xix.  Several  other  poems, 
especially,  the  Liber  in  Genesin,  have  been  ascribed 
to  Juvencus,  but  erroneously,  as  it  would  seem. 
See  A.  R.  Gebser:  Diss,  de  J.  Vita  et  Scriptis, 
Jena,  1827.  wagenjiann. 


KAABA. 


1222 


KADESH. 


K. 


KAABA  {square  house),  the  sacred  shrine  of  the 
Mohammedans,  iu  which  is  the  Black  Stone.  It 
stands  within  tlie  court  of  the  great  mosque  at 
Jlecca ;  is  oblong  in  shape ;  built  of  large,  irregu- 
lar, and  unpolished  blocks  of  stone ;  is  about 
forty  feet  in  height;  has  no  windows,  and  only 
one  door,  which  is  raised  seven  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  (reddish-)  Black  Stone  is  a  frag- 
ment of  volcanic  basalt,  sprinkled  with  colored 
crystals.  According  to  Jlohamraedau  tradition, 
it  was  originally  white,  but  was  blackened  by 
the  kisses  of  sinful  mortals.  It  is  inserted  in 
the  north-east  corner  of  the  building,  some  five 
feet  above  the  floor;  is  an  irregular  oval,  and 
about  seven  inches  in  diameter.  It  has  a  band 
of  silver  around  it.  The  Kaaba  may  be  called 
the  centre  of  the  Mohammedan  world  All 
Moslems  turu  toward  it  in  prayer.  It  is,  how- 
ever, far  older  than  Mohammed ;  the  worship  of 
the  Black  Stone  being  well-nigh  primitive  with 
the  Arabs,  who  came  to  kiss  it,  and  make  seven 
circuits  of  the  Kaaba.  The  keep  of  the  sacred 
stone  was  in  ilohannned's  family  long  before  his 
birth ;  and  it  was  to  his  uncle,  Abu  Talib,  the 
guardian  of  the  Kaaba,  that  he  owed  his  pro- 
tection for  j'ears.  Arab  tradition  attributes  the 
Kaaba's  first  erection  to  Adam  and  Eve,  and  its 
second  to  Abraham  and  Ishmael,  to  whom  Gabriel 
brought  from  heaven  the  Black  Stone.  Its  actual 
age  is  unknown ;  but  it  was  rebuilt  in  Moham- 
med's thii-ty-lifth  year  (605  A.D.),  and  lie  is  said 
to  have  put  the  Black  Stone  in  its  place.  For  an 
interesting  description  of  the  Kaaba,  see  Richakd 
F.  Burton's  I'ilfjrliinKje  lo  El  Mrilinak  and  Mecca, 
London,  Ib.^jo,  3  vols.  (vol.  iii.). 

KADESH  (En-mish'pat,  Ka'desh.bar'nea,  Mar'- 
ibah-Ka'desh).  Scarcely  any  biblical  site  has 
proved  a  more  vexed  question  than  this.  Some 
have  unnecessarily  inclined  to  look  for  two  sites 
to  meet  the  conditions  of  the  text.  Later  inves- 
tigations have  freed  the  question  of  many  difli- 
culties,  and  tended  to  fix  the  location  at  an  oasis 
aljout  ninety  miles  .southerly  from  Hebron,  bear- 
ing the  name  Qadls,  the  Arabic  equivalent  of  the 
Hebrew  Kadesh. 

Kadesh  is  first  mentioned  (Gen.  xiv.  7)  as  on 
tiie  route  of  Chcdorlaonier,  from  the  wilderness 
of  Paran  northward;  again  as  a  boundary  limit 
eastward  for  locating  the  homes  of  Hagar  (G<ui. 
xvi.  14)  and  of  Abraliam  ((Jen.  xx.  1).  Later  it 
appears  iis  a  city  in  the  southern  lionndary  of  the 
Xegeb,or  south country,siiutliward  of  Ihehill  coun- 
try of  the  Amorites,  northward  of  the  Wilderne.ss 
of  Paran,  iu  the  Wilderness  of  Zin,  westward  of 
the  territory  of  Edom.  (C'f.  Xiim.  xiii.  17,  2(i,  xx. 
14,  10,  xxvii.  14,  xxxiii.  3iJ,  xxxiv.  4  ;  Deut.  i.  19, 
20.)  A  notable  fountain,  called  the  "  Well  of  Judg- 
ment." was  at  Kadesh  (Gen.  xiv.  7),  iiroceeding 
from  a  clitf  (Num.  xx.  S).  A  wilderness  about  it 
bore  its  name  (I's.  xxix.  8).  It  was  a  suitable 
abode  for  the  host  of  Israel  (Deut.  i.  40).  A  moun- 
tain was  just  north  of  it  toward  Canaan  (Xnni. 
xiii.  17;  Deut.  i.  20,24).  It  was  distant  frnui 
Alouiit  Sinai  an  eleven-days'  journey  (Deut,  i.  2;. 


Kadesh  was  an  objective  point  of  the  Israelites 
when  they  left  Sinai  for  the  borders  of  the  prom- 
ised land"(Deut.  i.  6,  7, 19-21).  Thence  the  spies 
were  sent  into  Canaan  (Num.  xiii.  17,  20).  There 
the  people  rebelled,  through  fear  and  a  lack  of 
faith,  and  were  sentenced  to  a  forty-years'  stay  in 
the  wilderness  (Num.  xiv.).  Kadesh  seems  to 
have  been  the  headquarters  or  rallying-place  of 
the  Israelites  during  their  wanderings  (Deut.  i.  46). 
They  re-assembled  there  for  a  final  move  towai'd 
Canaan  (Num.  xx.  1).  There  Miriam  died  and 
was  buried;  the  people  murnmred  for  lack  of 
water;  the  rock  gave  forth  water  miraculously. 
Moses,  having  sinned  in  spirit  and  act  at  this 
time,  was  sentenced  to  die  without  entering 
Canaan  (Num.  xx.  1-13).  Thence  iMoses  sent 
messengers  to  the  kings  of  Edom  and  INIoab, 
requesting  permission  to  pass  through  their  terri- 
tory (Num.  XX.  14-21 ;  Judg.  xi.  16, 17).  Being 
refused  this  permission,  the  Israelites  journeyed 
to  Mount  Hor,  and  thence  made  a  circuit  around 
Edom  and  Moab  toward  the  Jordan  (Num.  xxi.  4; 
Deut.  ii.  1-8).  Kadesh  is  named  prominently  as 
a  landmark  in  the  southern  boundary-line  of  the 
promised  land  (Num.  xxxiv.  4;  Josh,  xvi  3;  Ezek. 
xlvii.  19,  xlviii.  28).  Its  location  is  admitted  to 
be  a  key  to  both  the  wanderings  of  the  Israelites 
and  the  boundary  of  their  domain. 

All  the  conditions  of  the  Bible-text  are  met  in 
Qadls,  as  in  no  other  suggested  site.  A  Wady 
Qadis,  a  Jebel  Qadls,  and  an  'Ain  Qadls  are  there. 
Wady  Qadls  is  an  extensive  hill-encircled  region 
of  sufficient  extent  to  encamp  and  guard  a  host 
like  Israel's.  Large  portions  of  it  are  arable. 
Extensive  primitive  niius  are  about  it.  Springs 
of  rare  abundance  and  sweetness  flow  from  under 
a  high  clift'.  By  name  aiul  by  tradition  it  is  the 
site  of  Kadesh.  Just  north  of  it  is  a  lofty  moun- 
tain, over  which  is  a  camel-pass  toward  Hebron. 
It  lies  just  off  the  only  feasible  route  for  an  in- 
vading army  from  the  direction  of  Sinai,  or  from 
east  of  Akabah,  and  is  well  adajited  for  a  pro- 
tected strategic  point  of  rendezvous  prior  to  an 
immediate  move  northward.  It  is  at  that  central 
position  of  tlie  southern  boundary-line  of  Canaan 
which  is  given  to  Kadesh  in  its  later  mentions  in 
the  15ible-text.  Its  relations  to  the  probable  limits 
ol  Kdoin  and  to  all  the  well-ideiitifird  siti^s  of 
Southern  Canaan,  and  its  dist.ince  from  Mount 
Sinai,  conform  lo  Mie  Bible  record. 

Rowlands,  in  1S42,  was  the  first  modern  travel- 
ler to  visit  'Ain  C^adls,  and  i<lentify  it  with  Kadesh. 
His  identification  lias  been  accepted  by  Hitter, 
Winer,  Kurt/,,  Tuch,  Keil,  Delitzsch,  Fries,  Ka- 
liscli,  KiioIm^I,  Bun.sen,  I^Ieiike,  Hamburger,  ISIiili- 
lau  and  Volck,  Wilton,  rainier,  Wilson,  Alford, 
M'ordswortli,  'i'ristram,  Edersheiin,  (jcikic,  Bart- 
li'tt,  Lowrio,  and  many  others.  Trumbull  visited 
this  site  iu  i.SSl,and  added  confirmatory  evidence 
of  its  identity  witli  Kadesh. 

Dean  .Stanley,  ri'stingon  ambiguous  references 
in  tin'.  TaliMuil,  Jo.si']iliu.s,  EiLscbius,  and  J<'roni(', 
advocated  Tetra  as  the  site  of  Kadi'sli;  but  tli.-il, 
being   iu  the   heart  of  hostile  Edom,  is  clearly 


KADI. 


1223 


KANT. 


inadmissible  (Deut.  ii.  5,  8).  Burckhardt  pro- 
posed tlie  entire  'Arabah  as  the  site;  and,  after 
him,  others  suggested  various  points  in  or  near 
tlie  'Ai-abali;  e.g.,  Robinson,  'Ain  el-AVeibeh; 
Vou  Raunier,  'Ain  Hash;  Oliu,  Wady  el-Fikreh; 
Berghaus,  Renss,  and  Buddajus,  a  point  near 
Ezion-geber:  Laborde,  Emshash  in  Wady  Je- 
■rafeh;  Dr.  William  Smith,  'Ain  esh-Sheliabeh; 
Bertou,  Kadessa  on  Jebel  Madflra.  Rablii  Schwarz 
jiamed  Wady  Gaian,  not  far  from  Wady  Qadis ; 
Henry  Crossley  made  an  ingenious  argument  for 
Elusa,  or  El  Khalaseh ;  but  only  'Aiji  el-Weibeh 
.has  had  any  considerable  support  against  'Ain 
■Qadls  among  scholars. 

Dr.  Robinson  presses  the  claim  of  'Ain  el- 
Weibeh  ;  and  he  is  followed  by  Hitzig,  Von 
-Gerlach,  Clark,  Hayman,  Espin,  Porter,  Stewart, 
Payne  Smith,  Fausset,  Durbin,  Coleman,  and 
■others.  For  this  site  are  urged  its  proximity  to 
the  supposed  but  disputed  borders  of  Edom  and 
the  traditional  Mount  Hor,  and  the  fact  that  it 
is  a  nmch  frequented  watering-place  of  caravans 
to-day.  The  chief  objections  to  this  identifica- 
tion are,  that  it  would  have  brought  the  Israelites 
into  a  defenceless  position  in  the  face  of  their 
enemies ;  that  it  is  not  on  the  route  otherwise 
indicated  as  taken  by  them  toward  Canaan  ;  that 
it  would  be  counted  on  the  eastern,  rather  than 
the  southern,  border-line  of  Canaan,  according  to 
the  description  of  that  boundary ;  that  it  occupies 
no  such  central  position  in  the  southern  border- 
line as  the  text  gives  to  Kadesh ;  that  it  shows 
no  such  cliff  as  the  narrative  indicates ;  that  in 
name,  traditions,  or  neighboring  ruins,  there  is 
no  trace  of  its  conformity  with  the  requirements 
of  the  text :  moreover,  that  the  arguments  em- 
ploj'ed  in  its  favor  as  against  'Ain  Qadis  by 
Robinson  and  his  followers  are  largely  based  on 
the  strangely  erroneous  assumption  that  'Ain 
Qadls  is  located  in  Wady  el-' Ain. 

Lit.  —  Williams  :  The  Holy  Cily,  London, 
1845  (Appendix,  pp.  487-492);  Wilton:  The 
Negeb,  London,  1863  passim;  Palmek:  Deserl 
of  the  Exodus,  London,  1871,  vol.  ii.  chap.  4; 
Robinson  :  Biblical  Researches  in  Palestine,  Bos- 
ton, 1874,  vol.  ii.  pp.  175,  194;  Smith:  Bible 
Dictionary,  American  edition.  New  York,  1872 
(sub  voce  "Kadesh");  Keil  and  Delitzsch  : 
Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch,  Edinburgh,  1880, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  82  sq.,  133  sq. ;  Kurtz:  History  of 
the  Old  Covenant,  Edinburgh,  1872,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
197-210 ;  Clark  :  The  Bible  Atlas,  London,  1868, 
p.  24sqq. ;  Trumbull:  Kadesh-barnea,  New  York, 

1883.  H.  CLAY  TRUMBULL. 

KADI,  the  title  of  an  assistant  judge  among 
Mohammedans :  the  chief  judge  is  called  molla . 
and  both  belong  to  the  higher  clergy,  because 
Mohammedan  civil  law  is  based  upon  the  Ko- 
ran. 

KAFFRARIA  (from  the  Arabic,  Kafir,  "  inti- 
•del "),  the  common  but  not  official  name  of  those 
regions  of  south-eastern  Africa  which  are  inhab- 
ited by  the  Kaffres.  One  part  is  under  English 
rule,  and  was  in  1866  incorporated  with  the  Cape 
Colony;  another  is  still  independent.  The  Kaffres 
form  the  handsomest  and  best  gifted  tribe  of  the 
negro  type.  They  have  developed  a  remarkable 
political  organization,  but  in  religion  they  are 
very  backward.  They  seem  hardly  to  have  any 
idea  of  a  Supreme  Being;  their  wholu  religion 


being  confined  to  a  kind  of  ancestry-worship. 
Various  forms  of  superstition,  however,  liave 
grown  luxuriantly  aiii^  y  them  ;  as,  for  instance, 
belief  in  witchcraft,  the  medicine-man,  etc.  'J'he 
Moravian  Brethren  sent  the  first  Christian  mis- 
sionaries to  them  1798:  in  1820  followed  the  Wes- 
leyans.  At  present  the  Anglican  Cliurch,  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church,  the  German  IJaptists, 
and  others,  labor  with  success  among  them.  See 
I.  Shooter  :  Kafirs  of  Natal,  1857 ;  L.  Grout  : 
Zulu-land,  1867  ;  W.  Houlden  :  Past  and  Future 
of  the  Kaffre  Races,  1867. 

KALDi,  Georg,  b.  at  Tyrnau,  Hungary,  1570; 
d.  in  Presburg,  1634;  entered  the  Society  of  Jesua; 
taught  theology  at  Olmiitz,  and  was  finally  ai> 
pointed  director  of  the  College  of  Presburg.  He 
translated  the  Bible  into  Hungarian  (Vienna, 
1626),  in  opposition  to  the  translation  by  the 
Reformed  Caspar  Karoly,  1589.  A  volume  of  his 
sermons  appeared  at  Presburg,  1631. 

KALTEISEN,  Heinrich,  b.  at  Ehrenbreitstein ; 
d.  at  Coblentz  1465;  was  educated  in  the  Domini- 
can convent  of  Coblentz  ;  studied  in  Vienna  and 
Cologne ;  and  was  successively  appointed  inquisi- 
tor-general of  Germany,  magister  sacri  palatii 
(1443),  and  bishop  of  Tronhjem  (1452).  He  owed 
most  of  his  reputation  to  his  dispute  with  the 
Hussites  at  Basel  (1433).  The  speech  he  de- 
livered on  that  occasion  lasted  tliree  days,  and  is 
found  in  H.  Canisius  :  Led.  anliq.  He  was  a 
prolific  writer,  but  most  of  his  works  have  re- 
mained unprinted. 

KANT,  hn manual,  was  b.  at  Konigsberg,  April 
22,  1724 ;  lectured  in  Konigsberg  from  1755  till 
his  death ;  and  d.  in  Konigsberg  Feb.  12,  1804. 
He  never  travelled  away  from  the  centre  of  his 
activity,  where  he  had  been  introduced  into  life, 
and  did  his  life's  work;  but  he  read  books  of 
travel,  and  conversed  with  travellers,  thereby 
obtaining  exact  acquaintance  with  the  features 
of  many  parts  of  the  world.  He  lived  the  life 
of  the  philosophic  recluse,  concentrating  his  at- 
tention on  abstract  study ;  and  yet  he  gathered 
around  his  table  men  of  all  classes,  so  keeping  up 
a  large  degree  of  intercourse  with  the  society  of 
K6nig.sberg.  There  is  no  more  marked  example 
of  concentrated  philosophic  thought  than  is  af- 
forded by  this  even-going  life  spent  in  this  town 
in  Northern  Prussia.  The  thinker  was  the  great- 
est of  abstract  thinkers  tlie  world  has  yet  seen. 
Kant  was  of  Scotch  descent,  his  grandfather  hav- 
ing emigrated  from  Scotland  at  the  end  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  The  family  name  was  writ- 
ten "  Cant,"  and  is  still  common  in  Scotland ;  but 
Cierman  pronunciation  turned  it  into  "  Sant,"  and 
that  was  certain  to  become  "  Zant ; "  to  guard 
against  which  calamity  the  philosopher  changed 
the  spelling  to  "Kant."  He  was  the  child  of 
honest,  industrious,  religious  parents ;  his  mother 
having  been  a  woman  of  lofty  ability  and  char- 
acter, whose  influence  for  good  over  him  Kant 
acknowledged  in  the  most  explicit  terms.  In 
early  years  Kant  was  devoted  to  the  study  of 
classics  and  mathematics.  He  entered  upon  study 
for  the  ministry,  and  completed  his  theological 
course,  and  occasionally  preached,  but  did  not 
give  himself  to  the  professional  career.  His  first 
efforts  in  preparation  for  the  press  were  concerned 
with  the  structure  of  the  imiverse ;  and  in  1755 
he  published  A  General   Theory  of  the  Heavens,  a 


KANT. 


1224 


KANT. 


fact  which  may  be  noted  by  those  ■who  recall  the 
enthusiasm  \rith  which  he  spoke  of  the  starry 
heavens  and  the  conception  of  duty  as  the  two 
things  wliich  most  overawed  his  spirit.  This 
work  he  described  as  an  Essay  on  (he  Mechanical 
Origin  of  the  Slriwture  of  the  Universe,  in  which 
he  seeks  to  explain  the  origin  of  worlds  by  the 
forces  of  attraction  and  repulsion.  So  much  j 
was  he  addicted  to  physical  research,  that  he 
afterwards  lectured  on  physical  geography  and 
fortification,  and  for  a  time  gained  a  considerable 
part  of  his  support  by  teaching  the  latter  subject. 
In  the  same  year  he  published,  in  Latin,  A  Neiv 
Elucidation  of  the  First  Principles  of  Metaphysical 
Knoicleclfie.  This  he  publicly  defended  as  his 
thesis  when  supporting  his  application  to  be  al- 
lowed to  teach  in  the  university  in  the  rank  of 
pricat-docent,  or  non-professorial  teacher.  Thi^ 
essay  contains  the  ground  of  his  theory,  after- 
wards elaborated  in  the  Critir/ue  of  Pure  Reason. 
From  this  time  onwards,  he  taught  in  the  uni- 
versity, lecturing  on  a  great  variety  of  subjects, 
including,  besides  the  two  named,  philosophy, 
natural  theologj",  and  anthropology.  In  1770  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  philosophy  in  his  own 
imiversity,  and  this  fixed  his  sphere  for  life.  As 
a  lecturer  he  was  very  attractive,  clear  in  style, 
varied  in  the  range  of  illustration,  exceedingly 
suggestive  and  stimulating.  The  most  important 
autobiographic  remark  he  made  —  and  it  has 
found  general  currency  in  consequence  —  was, 
that  by  Hume  he  was  awoke  from  dogmatic  slum- 
ber. He  was  by  natural  bias  a  metaphysician, 
and  had  been  deeply  pondering  metaphysical  ques- 
tions from  his  earlj' years;  but  the  sceptical  as- 
sault of  Hume  on  the  experiential  philosophy 
convince<l  him  that  sometliing  more  was  required 
than  a  dogmatic  scheme,  if  philosophy  was  to 
maintain  its  jjosition.  In  this  way  he  entered 
upon  t!ie  critical  method  with  the  view  of  distin- 
guishing the  products  of  experience  from  the 
elements  in  consciousness  which  are  given  by  the 
mind.  His  aim  was  a  thorough-going  discrimina- 
tion between  the  a  posteriori  and  the  a  priori  ele- 
ments in  knowledge.  It  thus  became  a  search  for 
the  transcendental  in  consciousness,  or  the  forms 
of  knowledge  which  transcend  experience.  These 
two  words,  "  critical  "  and  "  transcendental,"  natu- 
rally describe  the  Kantian  philosophy  as  a  scheme 
of  knowledge. 

According  to  Kant,  the  forms  of  the  mind  are 
the  native  and  necessary  conditions  of  knowledge. 
Our  knowledge  is  of  phenomena,  or  apjiearances 
po.ssible  to  us  under  the  forms  which  our  mental 
constitution  imposes.  It  follows  tliat  we  do  not 
know  tilings  in  themselves,  but  only  such  appear- 
ances as  are  possible  to  us  under  the  conditions 
of  knowledge  to  which  we  are  limited.  Tlie 
sensory  involves  recognition  of  an  outer  world, 
and  the  forms  of  the  sensory  native  to  mind  are 
space  and  time.  These  two  impose  their  formal 
conditions  on  all  experience:  accordingly  we  know 
only  ai)pearances  under  these  forms  peculiar  to 
us  as  intelligent  beings.  In  reducing  all  knowl- 
edge of  the  outer  to  the  plienomenal  in  this  way, 
he  seems  only  to  help  Hume,  instea<l  of  refuting 
him.  Kant  does  not,  however,  allirin  that  exter- 
nal things  do  not  exist,  or  that  there  can  be  any 
rational  ground  for  such  an  aflirmation  :  he  main- 
tains only  tliat  our  knowledge  tlirough  the  senses 


is  knowledge  of  appearances  under  recognized 
mental  conditions,  —  an  unsatisfactory  theory  of 
external  perception,  however  true  in  what  it  af- 
firms. With  this  beginning,  the  lines  of  develop- 
ment for  the  theory  are  fixed.  When  the  under- 
standing or  reasoning  power  proceeds  to  work 
up  into  systematized  order  the  multifarious  facts 
recognized  through  the  senses,  the  categories  or 
pure  conceptions  of  the  understanding  —  unity, 
plurality,  totality,  etc.  —  "  prescribe  laws  a  priori 
to  phenomena."  In  this  higher  region,  also,  all 
that  is  known  is  determined  by  phenomena  and 
the  forms  which  the  understanding  imposes. 
When  we  rise  still  higher,  to  contemplate  the 
universe  as  a  whole,  there  cannot  be  any  thing 
but  a  further  illustration  of  our  subjection  to  the 
forms  which  the  mind  imposes.  The  reason  gives 
us  the  ideas  of  God,  the  universe,  and  self.  These 
are  the  forms  prescribed  by  the  highest  faculty 
we  possess ;  but  we  are  not  able  to  say  more  of 
them  than  that  they  are  forms  of  the  reason 
regulative  of  intellectual  procedure,  but  not  cri- 
teria of  truth.  Thus  the  idea  of  God  is  in  our 
mind ;  but  we  have  not  thereby  any  knowledge 
of  God,  or  certainty  of  his  existence.  The  ar- 
gaiment  which  was  all  in  all  to  Descartes  was 
nothing  to  Kant.  The  error  appearing  in  Kant's 
theory  at  the  outset  clings  to  it  throughout,  leav- 
ing us  still  to  seek  an  adequate  theory  of  knowl- 
edge. Kant  leads  to  a  sceptical  result,  if  we  are 
content  to  treat  his  intellectual  scheme,  developed 
in  the  Criti<jue  of  Pure  Reason,  as  a  complete 
theory,  and  do  not  advance  to  his  moral  philoso- 
phy or  practical  reason  as  a  necessary  part  of  it. 
The  direct  historical  result  of  his  Critique  has 
been  the  development  of  a  succession  of  transcen- 
dental theories  in  Germany  which  have  rapidly 
worked  themselves  out  of  favor,  and  of  a  theory 
of  Agnosticism  which  has  been  eagerly  embraced 
and  defended  by  the  experiential  school.  See 
Agnosticism. 

The  ethical  scheme  of  Kant  may,  however,  be 
taken  as  part  of  his  theory  of  knowledge,  and  in 
strict  justice  ought  to  be  so  regarded ;  in  which 
case  it  appears  that  the  requirements  of  practical 
life  give  us  certainty  as  to  the  divine  existence 
and  government,  under  which  liberty  is  the  birth- 
right of  tlie  moral  agent.  From  pure  reason  he 
passes  over  to  treat  of  practical  reason,  \\  hioh  is 
given  "for  the  government  of  will,  to  constitute 
it  good."  Here  we  become  familiar  with  the 
categorical  imperative,  whose  formula  is,  "  Act 
from  a  maxim  at  all  times  fit  for  law  universal." 
Tliis  makes  universality  the  test  of  moral  law; 
and  tliough  the  f ornuila  is  too  abstract,  and  needs 
to  have  its  application  expounded,  it  concentrates 
on  an  essential  characteristic  of  moral  law,  and 
makes  the  destruction  of  the  self-seeking  spirit 
e.s.sential  to  the  moral  life.  This  implies  an  ideal 
of  moral  excellence  in  the  human  mind,  to  which, 
indeed,  Kant  had  made  reference  in  the  Critique 
of  Pure  Reason  (^Transcendental  Dialectic,  bk.  I., 
sect.  1),  and  which  is  treated  as  a  grand  certain- 
ty in  human  knowledge,  as  it  is  the  imperative 
requirement  of  human  life.  From  this  follows 
freedom  of  will  as  involved  in  the  imperative 
"thou  shall,"  implying  "thou  canst."  With  these 
things  follow  the  divine  existence  and  govern- 
ment as  certainties,  and  the  recognition  of  a 
suijerseusiblo  world,  to  which  man  belongs,  and 


KAPFF. 


1225 


KARAITE  JEWS. 


in  which  he  is  free  from  the  dominion  of  physical 
law.  Thu.s  the  ethical  scheme  is  tlie  completion 
of  the  theory  of  Kant,  and  in  some  .sense  a  rec- 
tification of  the  whole,  even  while  it  must  be 
admitted  that  a  reconstruction  of  the  intellectual 
side  is  needful,  if  a  true  harmony  is  to  be  made 
out. 

After  every  deduction  has  been  made  which 
rigid  criticism  seems  to  require,  Kant's  name 
stands  out  as  the  most  noted  in  the  roll  of  modern 
philo.sophy.  He  is  decidedly  the  most  powerful 
and  rigid  thinker,  whose  work  must  influence  the 
whole  future  of  mental  philosophy.  Enthusias- 
tic admirers  have  claimed  for  Hegel  precedence  ; 
but  all  the  signs  of  recent  years  are  against  the 
claim,  showing  that  Hegel  is  abandoned,  and  that 
the  return  is  upon  ICant  for  a  new  start.  AVhat- 
■ever  judgment  men  may  incline  to  form  of  the 
•comparative  merits  of  Kant  and  Hegel,  moral 
conceptions  cannot  be  left  out  of  account  m  judg- 
ing of  a  theory  of  knowledge. 

Lit.  —  A  collected  edition  of  Kant's  works 
was  edited  by  Rosenkranz  and  Schubert,  Leipzig, 
1838-42,  12  vols.  —  English  Translations.  By 
Se.mple:  Metaphysics  of  Ethics,  Edinburgh,  1836 
■(republished,  1809,  1870);  by  the  same:  Religion 
within  the  Boundary  of  Pure  Reason,  Edinburgh, 
1838;  by  Meiklejohn  :  Critique  of  Pure  Reason, 
London,  1858;  by  Abbott:  Theory  of  Ethics,  Lon- 
■don,  1873  (enlarged  edition,  1879);  by  the  same: 
Critique  of  Practical  Reason,  and  other  Works,  Lon- 
don, 1873  (new  edition,  1881);  by  Max  Muller  : 
Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  London,  1882,  2  vols. 
A  translation  of  Kant's  Anthropology  appeared  in 
Journal  of  Speculatioe  Philosophy,  St.  Louis,  vol. 
ix.,  X.,  xi.,  beginning  with  Xo.  33.  —  Works  on 
Kant's  Philosophy.  Mahaffy  :  Kant's  Critical 
Philosophy  for  English  Readers,  London,  1871  ; 
the  same  :  Translation  of  Kuno  Fischer's  Commen- 
iary  on  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  London, 
1866  ;  jMonck  :  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Philoso- 
2>hy,  Dublin,  1874;  Edward  Cairo:  Philosophy 
of  Kant,  London,  1877;  Watson:  Kant  and  his 
English  Critics,  London,  1881 ;  J.  H.  Stirling  : 
A  Text-book  of  Kant,  London,  1881 ;  J.  G.  Schur- 
MANN  :  Kaiitian  Ethics  and  the  Ethics  of  Evolution, 
London,  1881 ;  A.  'Wiek  :  The  Criticcil  Philosophy 
of  Kant,  London,  1881 ;  Andrew  Setii  :  77*6 
Decelopment  from  Kant  to  Hegel,  London,  1882 ; 
Adamson  :  Philosophy  of  Kant ;  James  Edmunds  : 
Clavis  to  an  Index  of  Kant's  Ethics,  Louisville,  Ky., 
U.  S.  A.;  W.  Wallace:  Kant,  London,  1882. 
For  biography  of  Kant,  see  De  Quincey's  trans- 
lation of  Wasianski's  Last  Days  of  Kant,  Abbot's 
Memoir,  prefaced  to  enlarged  "edition  of  the 
Theory  of  Ethics  (1879),  and  J.  H.  W.  Stuck- 
enberg  :  A  Life  of  Kant,  London,  1882.  An 
•abridgment  of  the  Critique  of  Pure  Reason,  with 
notes  and  introduction  by  G.'S.  Morris,  was  pub- 
lished, Chicago,  1882.  —  AVorks  upon  the  religious 
views  of  Kant  are,  Punjer  :  Die  Religionslehre 
A'a;i/s,  Jena,  1874;  P.Bridel:  La  philos.  delarelig. 
de  Kant,  Lausanne,  1876.         H.  calderwood. 

KAPFF,  Sixt  Karl,  the  most  perfect  representa- 
tive of  the  type  of  piety  prevailing  in  Wiirtem- 
berg  in  the  last  generation ;  the  son  of  a  minister ; 
b.  in  Guglingen,  Wiirtemberg,  Oct.  22,  1805;  d.  in 
Stuttgart,  Sept.  1,  1879.  From  earliest  childhood 
he  was  religiously  disposed  ;  and  at  the  university 
■of  Tiibingeu  he  engaged  in  daily  prayer  with  his 


intimate  friend  William  Hofacker.  After  filling 
the  positions  of  [vicar  at  Tuttlingen]  teacher"at 
Hofwyl,  and  Repelent  in  Tubingen,  he  became,  in 
1833,  pastor  of  the  colony  of  Pietists  at  Kornthal 
[seven  miles  from  Stuttgart].  In  1843  he  was 
made  Dekun  at  Munsingen,  and  in  1847  at  Herren- 
berg;  in  1850  was  transferred  to  Reutlingen,  and 
two  years  afterwards  to  Stuttgart,  where,  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life,  he  was  Prdlat  and  the  gi'eatly 
beloved  and  influential  pastor  of  the  Stifls/cirche. 

Kapff  was  a  genuine  Sualiian,  and  combined 
the  genial  manners,  trustfulness,  and  sympathetic 
warmth  of  the  Suabian  character.  He  was  a 
friend  to  ministers  all  over  AViirtemberg,  and 
attracted  all  classes  to  him  who  had  an  interest 
in  religion.  As  a  preacher,  he  did  not  repre.sent 
any  sharply-defined  theological  or  ecclesiastical 
tendency.  His  sermons  had  much  in  them  of  the 
supernaturalism  of  the  old  Tulniigen  school,  but 
more  warmth  and  sympathy  than  belonged  to  it. 
He  had  an  eye  to  the  domestic  and  social  wants 
of  his  people,  and  drew  largely  upon  his  every- 
day intercourse  with  them  for  his  subjects.  He 
was  not  eloquent,  but  spoke  in  an  earnest,  con- 
versational tone,  that  won  the  heart.  His  influ- 
ence as  jiastor  was  very  great,  his  annual  pastoral 
calls  amounting  to  three  thousand.  He  also  took 
the  warmest  interest  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs 
of  Wiirtemberg,  and  in  foreign  missions  as  ad- 
vanced by  the  missionary  institution  in  Basel. 
Thus,  for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century,  he 
was  the  centre  of  the  pious  circles  of  the  land. 

He  published  quite  a  number  of  collections  of 
sermons  and  smaller  works.  Of  these  the  princi- 
pal are,  83  Predigten  ii.  d.  alten  Ecangelien,  Stutt- 
gart, 3d  ed.,  1875  [10,000  copies]  ;  80  Predigten 
U.  d.  alien  Episteln,  6th  ed.,  1880  [14,000  copies]; 
Communionbuch,  19th  ed.,  1880  [70,000  copies; 
posthumously  published,  Casualreden,  Stuttgart, 
1880,  etc.  See  his  Lebensbild,  by  his  son  Carl 
Kapff,  Stuttgart,  1881].  burk. 

KARAITE  "jews.  The  name  "  Karaite  "  is 
from  the  Hebrew  krira  ("to  read"  or  "recite"), 
and  denotes  the  radical  difference  of  the  Karaites 
from  the  Rabbinites.  AMiile  the  latter  adhered 
to  tradition,  the  former  rejected  the  same,  and 
strictly  adhered  to  the  letter  of  the  Bible  :  hence 
they  were  called  also  "Textualists."'  The  founder 
of  Karaism  was  Anan,  the  son  of  David.  His 
uncle  Solomon,  who  was  patriarch  of  the  exiled 
Jews,  died  childless  in  761  or  762  A.D. ;  and  thus 
Anan  was  the  legitimate  successor  to  the  patri- 
archate. He  was,  however,  prevented  from  ob- 
taining the  dignity  on  account  of  his  rejecting  the 
traditions  of  the  fathers  ;  and  his  younger  broth- 
er, Chanaja,  was  elected  in  his  stead.  Anan,  not 
being  willing  to  submit  to  such  a  slight,  appealed 
to  the  caliph,  Abujafar  Almansar,  who  was  at 
first  disposed  to  favor  his  claim  ;  but  the  rabbinic 
party  succeeded  at  last,  and  Anan  was  obliged  to 
flee.  He  retired  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  built  a 
synagogue,  and  where  he  soon  was  recognized  as 
the  legitimate  prince  of  the  captivity.  The  schism 
became  formal,  and  anathemas  and  counter-anath- 
emas followed.  Anan's  works  are  unfortunately 
lost,  and  his  doctrinal  system  is  only  known  from 
statements  and  allusions  in  the  works  of  Arabic 
historians.  His  advice  to  his  followers  was  to 
"search  the  Scriptures  deeply."  Of  Christ  as  the 
founder  of  Christianity  Anan  spoke  in  the  terms 


KARAITE  JEWS. 


1226 


KARG. 


of  the  highest  respect.  He  declared  Jesus  of 
Kazareth  was  a  very  wise,  just,  holy,  and  God- 
fearing man,  who  did  not  at  all  wish  to  be  recog- 
nized as  a  prophet,  nor  to  promulgate  a  new 
religion  in  opposition  to  Judaism,  but  simply 
desired  to  uphold  the  law  of  Jloses,  and  do  away 
with  the  commandments  of  men.  And  Anan 
therefore  condemns  the  Jews  for  having  treated 
Jesus  as  an  impostor,  and  for  having  put  him  to 
death  without  weighing  the  justice  of  his  preten- 
sions. (Comp.  De  S.\CY  :  Chrislomatlde  Arahe,\. 
326;  Wolf:  Bihl.  Hchnca,  i.  p.  1086.)  Anan's 
death  is  commemorated  in  a  prayer,  which  his 
followers  offer  up  for  him  every  sabbath  to  the 
present  day.  After  his  death  (765-780)  his  son 
Saul  was  elected,  who  was  succeeded  by  Benjamin 
ben  Moses  Xahavendi  (about  800-820),  the  great- 
est luminary  among  the  Karaites.  He  introduced 
many  reforms  amongst  his  co-religionists,  which 
were  so  highly  appreciated  by  the  followers  of 
Anan,  that  they  deserted  the  name  Ananites,  and 
henceforth  called  themselves  Karaites,  i.e.,  Scrip- 
turalists,  or  B'ne  and  Baale  Mikra,  followers  of 
the  Bible,  in  contradistinction  to  Baale  Ha-kabala, 
or  followers  of  tradition. 

After  Xahavendi,  tlie  next  conspicuous  Karaite 
■was  Daniel  ben  Moses  el-Kumassi  (820-860). 
AVe  may  also  mention  Eldad  ha-D,ani  (about  880- 
890),  the  famous  traveller;  Chawd-el-Balchi,  the 
Karaite  freethinker  and  first  rationalistic  critic 
of  the  Bible,  who  flourished  after  880.  About 
the  year  900,  Karaism  was  finally  fixed,  both  in 
its  opposition  to  Rabbinism  and  in  the  funda- 
mental articles  of  faith  by  which  its  followers 
demand  to  be  judged.  These  articles  are  thus 
expressed  in  their  confession  of  faith  as  translated 
by  Rule :  — 

"1.  That  all  this  biidily  (or  material)  existence, 
that  is  to  say,  the  spheres  and  all  that  is  in  them, 
is  created;  2.  That  they  have  a  Creator,  aud  the 
Creator  has  his  own  soul  (or  spirit);  3.  That  lie  has 
no  similitude,  and  he  is  one,  separate  trum  all;  4. 
That  he  sent  Moses,  our  niastrr  (upon  whom  he 
Iieaoe  !);  5.  That  he  sent  with  Moses,  our  master, 
his  law,  which  is  perfect;  (i.  For  tlic  instruction  of 
the  faithful,  the  language  of  our  law,  and  the  inter- 
pretation,—  that  is  to  say,  the  reading  (or  text)  and 
the  division  (or  vowel-pointinj;);  7.  That  the  blessed 
God  sent  forth  the  otlirr  projihcts  ;  8.  That  God 
(blessed  be  his  name  !)  will  raist*  tlie  sons  of  men  to 
life  in  tlu^  day  of  judKUient;  !l.  Tliat  the  blessed  God 
piveth  to  men  according  to  his  ways  ivnd  accoriiing 
to  the  fruit  of  his  doings;  10.  That  the  blessed  God 
lias  not  rejirobated  the  men  of  the  caiitivity,  but 
they  are  under  the  chastis(^iiients  of  God,  and  it  is 
every  day  right  that  they  should  obtain  his  salvation 
by  the  hands  of  Messiah,  the  Scm  of  David." 

The  Britisli  Museum  acquired  in  the  summer 
of  1882  a  large  numlier  of  Oriental  manuscripts, 
some  containing  Arabic  commentaries  on  the 
Bible,  witli  the  Hebrew  text  written  by  Karaite 
Jews.  One  of  these  is  dated  !l."i9  .\.D.  Tlie 
Hebrew  is  not  written  in  the  s<iuare  character,  as 
the  Talmud  required,  and  as  has  liitherto  been 
supposed  to  have  been  tlie  case  among  the  later 
Hebrews.  The  commentaries  are  in  -Arabic,  but 
contain  large  quotations  from  Anan's  commen- 
taries in  Aramaic,  thus  jiroving  that  Anan,  the 
founder  of  the  Karaites,  wrote  in  Aramaic. 

The  numlier  of  Karaite  Jews  is  not  very  large 
at  present.  We  find  lliem  in  the  Crimea  (where 
tliey  number  six  thousand),  Constantinople,  Da- 
mascus, Jerusalem  (wlieie  they  number  only  ten 


families).  They  have  a  printing  establishment 
at  Eupatoria.  Everywhere  their  morality  is  un- 
exceptionable :  their  honesty  and  general  probity 
are  proverbial. 

Lit.  —  PiNSKER  :  Likute  Kadmonist,  Vienna, 
1860;  FuRST :  Geschichte  des  Karaerthums,  Leip- 
zig, 1862-69,  3  vols.  ;  Jost  :  Geschichte  des  Juden- 
thums  und  seiner  Sekten,  ii.  pp.  263  sq.,  294,  300  sq., 
396,  iii.  426 ;  Gr.\etz  :  Geschichte  der  Juden,  v. 
174  sq.  ;  Ginsburg  :  The  Karaites,  their  Hislori/ 
and  Literature,  1S62  ;  Rule  :  History  of  the  Karaite 
Jeivs,  London,  1870;  art.  Caraite,  in  Bihliotheca 
Sacra,  Andover  (J.anuary),  1864 ;  Steinsciinei- 
DER  :  Jewish  Literature,  ^'\i.  B.  PICK. 

KARENS,  a  race  of  people  widely  scattered 
over  Burinah,  and  dwelling  in  temporary  villages. 
Their  origin  has  been  a  subject  of  much  discus- 
sion ;  some  regarding  them  as  the  aborigines  of 
the  land ;  others,  as  immigrants  from  Thibet. 
Up  to  the  time  of  their  conversion,  they  were 
severely  oppressed  by  their  Burman  masters. 
They  afford  an  interesting  study  to  the  student 
of  foreign  missions.  About  the  year  1828-30, 
Drs.  Boardman  and  Judson  for  the  first  time 
came  in  contact  with  the  Karens,  found  them  a 
shy  and  wild  people,  but  very  susceptible  to  the 
influences  of  the  gospel.  This  susceptibility  was, 
perhaps,  due  in  some  measure  to  the  absence 
of  any  very  definite  forms  of  religion,  and  any 
priestliood  among  them.  Dr.  Boardman's  atten- 
tion was  attracted  to  them  more  especially  by  his 
acquaintance  with  a  Karen  slave,  Kho-Thah-byu, 
whose  freedom  had  been  purchased  by  the  mis- 
sionaries. He  had  been  a  man  of  flagitious  life, 
and  had  committed  no  less  than  twenty-four 
murders.  But,  converted  to  the  Christian  faith, 
he  became  a  veritable  apostle  to  his  countrymen, 
and  for  many  years  was  indefatigable  in  his  efforts 
to  win  them  to  Christ.  In  1878  the  fiftieth  anni- 
versary of  tlie  foundation  of  the  mission  was 
celebrated  by  the  dedication  of  a  beautiful  hall 
to  this  noble  man's  memory.  Schools  were  at 
once  planted ;  and  the  preaching  of  the  gospel 
has  met  with  wonderful  success  amongst  this 
people,  completely  transforming  their  modes  of 
life.  In  1832  Mr.  ^Vade  made  an  alphabet  of  the 
Karen  language,  which  differs  from  the  Burmese. 
Portions  of  the  Scripture,  and  tracts,  were  soon 
printed.  A  writer  in  the  Madras  Observer,  in 
October,  1868,  states,  tliat,  on  a  journev  through 
the  Karen  districts,  on  foot,  "he  fomui  liiniself, 
for  seventeen  successive  niglits,  at  the  end  of  his 
day's  journey  through  the  forest,  in  a  native 
Cliristian  village."  There  were,  in  1882,  21,889 
native  church-members,  and  432  Karen  Baptist 
churches,  with  91  ordained  and  293  unordained 
preadiers.  There  is  a  Karen  tiieological  seminary 
at  Rangoon  with  31  students.  See  King  :  IJ/c  of 
I'lKirdiiKin  :  W.\Yl..vxi):  Life  of  J  iidson  ;  F.  MasON: 
77/(  Karen  Aiiosllr,  Boston;  and  the  Reports  of 
the  American  Baptist  Missionary  I'liion. 

KARG,  GEORGE  (Parsimon'ius),  b.  at  Herol- 
(lingen  in  Saxony,  l.')12;  d.  at  Ansbacli,  l.')76  ; 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg,  but  fell  in  with 
some  .\nabaptists,  and  was  for  a  short  time  even 
incarcerated.  Nevertheless,  in  1.539  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  of  (itiingen  on  the  recommendation 
of  Lntlier.  Ex]ielled  from  that  place  in  ir)47  by 
the  Interim,  lie  found  refuge  in  Brandenburg,  and 
was  in  1551  made  pastor  of  Schwabach,  wlieucej. 


KATERKAMP. 


1227 


KEBLE. 


in  1556,  he  was  removed  to  Ansbach  as  pastor 
and  superintendent>general.  Once  more,  however, 
he  fell  into  error.  He  set  forth  some  curious 
speculation  with  i-espect  to  the  value  of  the  obe- 
dience which  Christ  had  rendered  to  the  law 
during  his  life  on  earth,  and  these  views  caused 
much  confusion  and  strife.  He  was  suspended, 
but  retracted,  and  was  restored.  He  wrote  a  cate- 
chism, which  was  in  use  in  Ansbach  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  present  century.  See  Lullier'x  Briefe, 
ed.  l)e  Wette,  5,  94,  97,  200  ;  Laulerbach's  Taychu'ch. 
ed.  Seidemann,  pp.  1,  5,  8,  14,  44.        G.  plitt. 

KATERKAMP,  Johann  Theodor  Hermann,  b. 
at  Ochtrap,  Westphalia,  Jan.  !7,  1704;  d.  at 
Minister,  July  8,  1834  ;  was  educated  in  the  gym- 
nasium of  Rlieine  ;  studied  theology  at  Munster ; 
was  ordained  a  priest  1787  ;  spent  ten  years  (1787- 
97)  in  the  family  of  Droste-Vischering  as  tutor, 
and  travelled  through  Germany,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy  with  his  pupils :  lived  then  from  1797  to 
1809  in  the  hou.se  of  the  Princess  Gallitzin ;  and 
■was  in  1809  appointed  professor  of  church  history 
at  the  university  of  AlUnster.  His  principal  work 
is  his  Church  History,  of  which  the  introductory 
volume  appeared  at  Miinster,  1819,  the  five  fol- 
lowing (to  1153)  between  1823  and  1834.  He 
also  published  Denkwurdiykeiten  aus  d.  Leben  d. 
Fiirstln  Amalia  ron  Gallitzin,  Miinster,  1828. 

KAUTZ,  Jakob  (Cucius),  b.  at  Bockenheim 
about  1500  ;  settled  at  Worms  as  Reformed 
pi'eacher  in  1524,  but  came  soon  in  conflict,  not 
only  with  the  Roman-Catholic  clergy,  but  also 
with  his  colleagues  of  the  Evangelical  Church  : 
they  sympathized  with  Wittenberg,  and  he  with 
Strasburg.  He  openly  joined  Denck  and  Ilaet- 
zer;  ami  June  9,  1527,  he  published  a  number  of 
xVnabaptist  theses  as  a  challenge  to  the  Lutheran 
preachers.  The  disputation  did  probably  not 
take  place.  The  magistrate  interfered,  and  Kautz 
was  expelled  from  the  city.  From  that  moment 
he  was  a  fugitive,  wandering  Anabaptist  preacher 
of  the  common  kind.  In  1528  he  once  more  vis- 
ited Strasburg,  and  nearly  succeeded  in  seducing 
his  old  friend  Capito.  But  in  1529  he  was  again 
expelled  on  account  of  tumultuary  behavior,  and 
soon  after  he  disappeared  from  history.  The  date 
of  his  death  is  ind^nown.  B.  RIGGENBACH. 

KAYE,  John,  D.D.,  b.  at  Hammersmith,  Lon- 
don, 1783;  d.  at  Lincoln,  Feb.  19,  1853.  He  was 
graduated  at  Cambridge,  1804,  at  the  head  of 
both  the  classical  and  philosophical  honor  lists  ; 
made  master  of  Chri.st's  College,  1814 ;  D.D., 
1815;  regius  profe.ssor  of  divinity,  1816;  bishop 
of  Bristol,  1820,  transferred  to  Lincoln,  1827. 
He  wrote  7Vie  Ecclesiasllcal  Histori/  of  Ihe  Second 
and  Tliird  Cenluries.  illustrated  from  the  Writim/.i 
of  Tertullian,  Cambi'idge,  1825  (5th  ed.,  1815); 
Some  Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of 
Justin  Martyr,  London,  1829  (3d  ed.,  1853);  Some 
Account  of  the  Writings  and  Opinions  of  Clement 
of  Alexandria,  London,  1835  ;  The  Council  of 
yiccea  in  Connection  with  Athanasius,  London, 
1853;  External  Government  and  Discipline  of  the 
Church  during  the  First  Three  Centuries,  London, 
1855. 

KEACH,  Benjamin,  b.  at  Stokehaman,  Bucks, 
Feb.  29,  1640 ;  d.  at  Hor.sleydown,  .Southwark, 
London,  July  18,  1704.  where  he  was  pastor  from 
1668.  He  belonged  to  the  Particular  or  Calvinis- 
tic   Baptists,  and   was   esteemed   for   piety   and 


knowledge,  although  "cruelly  persecuted  for  his 
bold  ad\'ocacy  of  his  opinions."  Besides  many 
other  books,  he  wrote  Tropotogia,  a  Key  to  open 
Scripture  Metaphors  and  Types,  London,  1681 
(the  first  book  was  written  by  Thomas  Delaune), 
reprinted  1853  and  1856 ;  Travels  of  True  Godli- 
ness, 1683  (reprinted,  with  Memoir,  by  Dr.  H. 
Malcom,  New  York,  1831,  and  in  London,  1846 
and  1849)  ;  Progress  of  Sin,  or  the  Travels  of  Un- 
godliness, Last  edition,  London,  1849  (these  two 
books  are  in  the  Bunyan  manner,  and  were  once 
popular);  A  Golden  Mine  opened,  1694  (contains 
portrait  of  Keach)  ;  Gospel  Mysteries  unveiled,  or 
an  Exposition  of  all  the  Parables,  and  many  Ex- 
press Similitudes  contained  in  the  Four  Evangelists, 
1701,2  vols,  folio,  best  reprint,  1856;  War  with 
the  Devil,  1776.     For  Memoir,  see  above. 

KEBLE,  John,  M.A.,  a  saintly  divine  and  poet 
of  the  Church  of  England ;  was  b.  April  25,  1792, 
at  Fairford,  Gloucester;  d.  March  29,  1866,  at 
Bournemouth.  He  has  been  called  the  George 
Herbert  of  the  century.  His  father,  who  was  a 
clergyman,  conducted  his  education  until  he  en- 
tered Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  in  1806. 
After  a  brilliant  collegiate  career,  he  was  made,  in 
1811,  fellow  of  Oriel,  at  that  time  the  "  centre  of  all 
the  finest  ability  in  Oxford  "  (including  Whate- 
ly,  Arnold,  Pusey,  Newman,  etc.) ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1816  ;  became  curate  of  East  Leach  and 
Burthorpe  (near  Fairford),  and  tutor  at  Oriel,  1818. 
In  1823  he  gave  up  his  tutorship,  and  retired  to  his 
curacy,  from  which  he  removed  in  1825,  to  assume 
the  curacy  of  Ilursley,  Hampshire,  where  he  re- 
mained during  the  remainder  of  his  life,  becom- 
ing vicar  in  1835.  He  held  the  lectiu-eship  of  poe- 
try in  Oxford  from  1831  to  1841. 

Keble's  reputation  rests  upon  his  contributions 
to  devotional  poetry,  and  the  share  he  took  in  the 
spread  of  sacramentarian  views  in  the  Church  of 
England,  and  the  development  of  the  Oxford,  or 
Tractarian,  movement.  In  1827  he  published  his 
Christian  Year  (Oxford,  2  vols.),  a  collection  of 
sacred  lyrics,  which  appeared  at  first  anonymously. 
This  work,  which  has  been  very  widely  used,  is 
imbued  with  a  spirit  of  rare  spiritual  fervor,  —  a 
characteristic  which  has  been  suflicient  to  render 
of  little  effect  the  not  unjust  criticisms,  that  the 
author  is  frequently  careless  of  the  forms  of  poe- 
try, and  not  always  felicitous  in  diction.  "Some 
of  the  poems,"  says  Principal  Shairp,  "  are  fault- 
less after  their  kind,  flowing  from  the  first  verse 
to  the  last,  lucid  in  thought,  vivid  in  diction, 
harmonious  in  their  pensive  melody."  Jlany  of 
the  originals  of  the  poems  were  written  on  the 
backs  and  edges  of  letters,  in  old  account-books 
and  pocket-books.  The  first  edition  was  five 
hundred  copies.  Between  1827  and  1873,  when 
the  copjTight  expired,  a  hundred  and  forty  edi- 
tions appeared,  and  305,500  copies  were  sold. 
During  the  following  five  years  the  original  pub- 
lishers alone  sold  70,000  copies.  In  183Si  appeared 
his  Metrical  Version  of  the  Psalter,  and  in  1846 
another  volume  of  sacred  lyrics  entitled  Lyra 
Innocenlium,  a  collection  of  poems  for  childhood, 
its  weaknesses,  troubles,  temptations,  religious 
privileges.  Mr.  Keble's  most  important  literary 
work  was  the  edition  of  the  Tl'or^-.s-  of  Richard 
Hooker,  which  he  prepared  at  the  request  of  the 
University  Press,  and  which,  after  six  years  of 
labor,  appeared  at  Oxford  in  1836.     It  is  justly 


KECKERMANN. 


1228 


KEIM. 


considered  the  liest  edition  of  Hooker.  Several  of 
Keble's  hymns  have  been  introduced  into  English 
hymn-books,  of  which  the  best  are  "  O  God  of 
mercy,  God  of  might,"  and  the  devout  and  restful 
evening  song,  "  Sun  of  my  soul,  thou  Saviour 
dear,"  taken  from  the  second  poem  in  the  Chrisliarj 
Year,  entitled  ''Evening." 

Mr.  Keble  adopted  very  high  views  on  the  sac- 
raments and  the  apostolical  constitution  of  the 
Church.  He  held  to  the  doctrine  of  the  apostoli- 
cal succession,  the  higli  sacramental  view  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  the  usefulness  of  the  confes- 
sional, which  he  regretted  that  circumstances  did 
not  justify  him  in  introducing  into  his  own  church. 
At  Oxford  he  was  a  close  and  intimate  friend  of 
N'ewman.  Pusey,  and  Hurrell  Fronde,  who  had 
once  been  his  pupil.  With  him  and  several  others, 
the  notion  started  of  issuing  brief  and  pointed 
tracts  promulging  High-Church  principles,  and 
raising  the  standard  of  piety  in  the  Cliurch.  The 
result  was  the  so-called  Tracts  for  the  Times,  which 
reached  the  number  of  ninety,  created  a  profound 
impression  in  England,  and  the  studies  spent  in 
the  preparation  of  which,  or  the  stimulus  of  them, 
led  to  the  defection  to  the  Roman-Catholic  com- 
munion of  Newman,  and  others  of  the  best  spirits 
of  the  Church  of  England.  Keble  himself  wrote 
eight  of  the  series,  Xos.  4,  13,  40,  52,  54,  57,  60, 
89  ;  the  first  (No.  4)  being  on  apostolical  succes- 
sion. On  July  14,  1S33.  he  preached  a  sermon,  in 
Oxford,  on  National  Apostasy,  the  occasion  of  which 
was  the  suppression  of  ten  Irish  bishoprics,  and 
whicli  Cardinal  Newman  heard  with  the  deepest 
interest,  and  has  characterized  as  the  starting-point 
for  the  Romeward  tendency.  Mr.  Keble  saw  Dr. 
Newman's  famous  tract,  No.  90,  before  it  was 
published,  and  approved  of  it;  but,  though  much 
dissatisfied  with  the  state  of  the  English  Church, 
he  did  not  leave  its  communion,  and  regarded  the 
doctrine  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (1854)  as 
an  insuperable  barrier  to  ecclesiastical  union.  He 
was  not  eloquent  as  a  preacher,  but  scriptural  and 
impressive.  He  had  a  wonderful  magnetic  power 
of  attracting  very  closely  to  himself  butli  the  old 
and  the  young.  It  is  characteristic  of  the  genial 
type  of  his  piety,  and  his  simple  spirit,  that  for 
tbii-ty  years  he  was  scrupiilovis  in  his  attendance 
upon  the  sabbath  school  twice  a  day.  Although 
he  took  such  a  deep  interest  in  eliildren,  he  was 
himself  childless.  Shortly  after  his  decease,  his 
friends  and  ailnnrors  raised  a  large  fund,  and 
erected  to  his  memory  the  beautiful  structure  of 
Keble  College  at  Oxford. 

In  addition  to  the  works  above  mentioned, 
Keble  contributed  to  tlie  Lyra  Aposlolica,  a::d 
published  his  Oxford  Lectures  on  I'oetry,  under 
the  title,  I'rmlectiones  Academicce  (2  vols.,  Oxford, 
1844),  a  Life  of  Bishop  Wilson  (Oxford,  1S(53,  etc.). 
There  have  ajipearccl  since  his  deatli  a  volume  of 
Occasional  J'a/Jtrs  nnil  Reviews  (Oxford,  1877), 
and  eleven  volumes  of  Sermons  (Oxford,  l87li-SI)). 
See  Sir  J.  T.  Coi.ehidgk  :  Memoir  of  John  Keble, 
M.A.  (2  vols.,  Oxford,  18G9,  and  since),  and  art. 
Kehle  iu  Enci/rtopwdia  Britannica  by  I'rincipal 
Shairp.  '  D.  a  HfllAKF. 

KECKERMANN,  Bartholonnaus,  b.  in  Dantzig, 
1571  ;  d.  (hiTc  Aug.  2.'),  l(i()9;  studied  at  Witten- 
berg; was  a  teaclicr  in  tlie  pitdagogiuni ;  after- 
wards professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  university  of 
Heidelberg,  and  accepted  in  1(J02  a  cull  as  rector  i 


of  the  g'jinnasium  in  his  native  city.  Though  he 
was  only  thirty-eight  years  old  when  he  died,  hia 
Opera  Omnia,  which  appeared  at  Geneva,  1614, 
touch  almost  every  important  point  of  philosophy 
and  theology,  and  have  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  internal  organization  of  these 
two  sciences.  In  their  common  aversion  to  scho- 
lasticism, the  Reformers  pm'sued  various  paths. 
Some  of  them  (such  as  Luther)  rejected,  together 
with  the  scholastic  theology,  also  the  scholasticall}' 
developed  philosophy  of  Aristotle ;  while  others 
(such  as  Melauchthon)  retained  philosophy  as  a 
great  science,  but  distinct  from  theologj-.  It  could 
not  fail,  however,  that,  after  a  little  wliile,  also 
the  former  party  came  to  feel  the  need  of  a  plu- 
losophy ;  and  tliey  gradually  adopted  the  method 
and  ideas  of  Petrus  Ramus,  oi-,  iu  general,  of  the 
new  philosophical  school  of  Paris.  In  direct  op- 
position to  this  movement,  Keckermann  urged 
the  indispensableness  of  the  works  of  Aristotle 
and  Plato ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  established 
a  sharp  and  decisive  distinction  between  phi- 
losophy and  Christian  theology.  Especially  in 
the  field  of  ethics  this  distinction  became  of 
paramount  importance.  Ethics,  together  with 
politics,  he  treated  as  the  practical  division  of 
philosophy,  though  without  denying  that  there 
might  be  a  Christian  ethics,  just  as  there  was  a 
philosophical  ethics;  since  theologj',  like  phi- 
losophy, fell  into  two  great  divisions,  —  theoretical 
and  practical  theology.  ALEX.  SCHWEIZER. 

KE'DRON,  or  KID'RON,  a  small  stream  which 
rises  a  mile  and  a  half  north-west  of  Jerusalem, 
strikes  the  north-eastern  corner  of  the  wall  of  the 
city,  forms  a  deep  gorge  in  the  Valley  of  Jehosha- 
phat,  between  ilount  Moriah  and  ]\Iount  Olivet, 
cuts  its  way  through  the  Wilderness  of  Judah, 
and  finally  empties  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea. 
Its  name,  from  a  Hebrew  root  which  signifies 
"  gloom,"  probably  refers  to  the  gloom  of  the 
surroundings,  deepened  by  various  historical  asso- 
ciations (1  Kings  xiv.  13;  2  Kings  xi.  16;  2 
Chron.  xv.  16,  xxix.  16,  xxx.  14).  In  the  New 
Testament  it  is  mentioned  (Mark  xiv.  26  ;  Luke 
xxii.  39  ;  John  xviii.  1),  Christ  crossing  it  on  his 
way  to  Gethsemane. 

KEIL,  Karl  August  Gottlieb,  b.  at  Grossenhaiu, 
Saxony,  .\pril  23,  1754;  d.  in  Leipzig,  April  22, 
1818 ;  studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  and  was  ap- 
pointed professor  tliere,  of  philosophy,  in  1785, 
and  of  theology  in  1787.  As  an  exegetc  he  tried 
to  combine  the  historical  principle  of  Sender  with 
the  grannnatical  principle  of  Ernesti.  His  views 
lie  has  set  forth  in  his  llermtneutik  des  Neuen 
Testament  (Leipzig,  1810),  translated  into  Latin 
by  Eunuerling  (1812).  His  minor  treatises,  re- 
lating to  the  exegesis  of  the  New  Testament, 
appeared  at  Leipzig,  1820,  under  the  title  Opnscula 
Academica.  .  W.  SCHMIDT. 

KEIM,  Carl  Theodor,  D.D.,  b.  at  Stuttgart, 
Dec.  17,  1825;  d.  at  (;i<'.s.sen.  Nov.  17,  1878.  He 
studied  at  Maulbronn  and  at  the  univei'sities  of 
Tiibingen  (where  lie  came  under  Haur's  influence) 
and  lionu  (1843-47);  was  tutor  in  the  family  of 
Count  Sontheim  (1848-50);  Repelcnt  at  Tubin- 
gen (1851-55);  ]iastor  in  Esslingen,  Wiirtemberg, 
from  1856  ti.  18,59;  from  18(i6  (o  1873  lie  was 
ordinary  professor  of  historical  tlieology  at  the 
university  of  Zurich  ;  from  1873  until  shortly 
before  his  death,  wlien  ill  health  compelled  hi.« 


KEIM. 


1229 


KEITH. 


Tesignation,  in  the  corresponding  position  at 
Giesseii.  Keirn's  life  was,  on  the  whole,  sad.  He 
was  an  invalid  ;  and  he  chafed  under  the  com- 
parative obscurity  of  liis  academical  position,  for 
he  felt  himself  fitted  for  a  higher  post.  Mis 
theological  stand-point  may  have  hindered  his 
promotion  ;  for,  while  a  rationalist,  he  was  singu- 
larly candid  and  moderate,  so  that  he  pleased 
neither  the  orthodox  nor  the  radicals.  From  1851 
he  was  the  victim  of  an  incurable  brain  trouble, 
which  rendered  him  nervous  and  irritable.  And 
this  fact  is  the  explanation  of  his  resentment  at 
adverse  criticism;  for  at  heart,  like  many  another 
misjudged  man,  he  was  tender  and  lovable.  The 
three  years  of  preaching  and  pastoral  labor  at 
Esslingen,  of  which  the  memorial  is  Freumlenworle 
zur  Gemeinde.  Eine  Saniiutunf/  PreiHr/ten  aus  den 
Jahren  1857-60  (Stuttgart,  ISGl,  1862,2  vols.),— 
A  collection  of  sermons  which  put  the  great  criti- 
cal scliolar  in  a  new  light,  and  show  him  to  have 
been  an  eloquent  and  edifying  preacher,  —  were 
■delightful  to  him ;  and  the  way  in  wliich  he  per- 
formed his  work  evinced  both  his  earnestness  and 
his  spirituality.  But  he  was  essentially  an  his- 
torian. At  first,  and  for  many  years,  the  history 
of  the  Reformation  in  Swalna  occupied  him ;  and 
during  this  period  he  produced  his  masterly  vol- 
umes :  Die  Reformation  der  Reic/issladt  Ulm  (Stutt- 
gart, 1851),  Schwdhische  Reformationsge.ic/iichle  bis 
zum  Augshurger  Reichstag  (Tiibingen,  1855),  Am- 
brosius  Blarer  (Stuttgart,  1860),  Reformalion.ihldtter 
der  Reichsstadt  Esslingen  (Esslingen,  1860).  When 
he  accepted  the  chair  of  theologv'  at  Ziirich,  he 
turned  his  energies  into  another  part  of  the  field 
of  church  history.  Henceforth,  to  his  death,  he 
studied  the  beginnings  of  Christianity,  and  it  was 
in  this  department  lie  won  his  universal  fame. 
He  chose  as  the  theme  of  his  inaugural  (Dec.  17, 
1860)  Die  menschliche  Entwicklung  Jesu  Chrisli 
{The  Human  Decelopment  of  Jesus  Christ),  Zurich, 
1861.  The  address  raised  high  expectations.  It 
was  evident  Keim  had  a  message.  Die  geschichtliche 
W'drde  Jesu  {The  Historical  Dignity  of  Jesus), 
Zurich,  1864,  came  next.  He  then  '  republished 
the  two  just  named,  with  a  new  lecture,  under 
ihe  cs,-gt\on,  Der  geschichtliche  Christus  {The  His- 
torical Christ),  Zurich,  1865,  3d  ed.,  1866.  At 
last  came  the  first  instalment  of  the  great  work 
for  which  scholars  had  impatiently  waited :  Die 
Geschichte  Jesu  von  Nazara  in  ihrer  Verkettunq  mit 
dem  Gesammtlehen  seines  Volkes,  Ziirich,  1867-72, 
3  vols.  ;  English  translation,  Jerus  of  Nazareth, 
and  the  National  Life  of  Israel,  London,  1873-82, 
6  vols.  Nothing  like  it  hail  hitherto  appeared. 
Immense  learning,  tireless  energy,  nervous  force, 
deep  convictions,  cautious  judgment,  reverence, 
these  united  to  give  the  work  a  lasting  impor- 
tance. It  was,  and  remains,  the  Life  of  desus 
from  the  rationalistic  stand-point.  In  order  to  give 
his  views  a  wider  currency,  Keim  published "Z)('e 
Geschichte  Jesu  nach  den  Ergehnissen  heutiger  Wis- 
senschaft  fur  weitere  Kreise  iiiersichllich  erzahlt  {The 
History  of  Jesus  in  the  Light  of  the  most  Recent 
Researches,  told  in  condensed  form  for  General 
Circulation),  Zurich,  1873,  2d  ed.,  1875.  In  this 
latter  work  Keim  altered  his  position  upon  some 
points.  In  the  second  edition  he  made  impor- 
tant additions,  particularly  of  a  critical  Appen- 
dix. His  last  work  was  Aus  dent  Urchristentlinm. 
Geschichtliche   Untersuchungen  in  zwangloser  Folgc 


{Miscellaneous  Essays  upon  Points  connected  with 
Primitive  Christianity),  Ziirich,  1878.  Only  one 
volume  has  appeared  up  to  this  time  (1882). 
Besides  these,  he  issued  an  important  essay  upon 
the  edicts  of  toleration  of  Christianity  issued  by 
Roman  emperors  {Die  romischen  Toleranzedicte 
fiir  das  Christenthum,  311-343,  und  ihr  geschicht- 
licher  Werth,  in  the  "Theologische  Jahrbiicher,"  1852), 
in  which  he  prepared  the  way  for  the  final  explo- 
sion of  the  idea,  accepted  by  Mosheim,  Neander, 
and  others,  that  there  were  three  edicts  of  tolera- 
tion, while  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  were  only 
two.  See  Mason  :  The  Persecution  of  Diocletian, 
pp.  327,  328.  Keim  also  wrote  on  the  conversion 
of  Constantine,  Der  Uebertritl  Konslantins  des 
Grossen,  Zurich,  1862;  and  on  Celsus,Wahres  Wort, 
Ziu'ich,  1873  (a  reproduction,  by  piecing  together 
Origen's  quotations  of  Celsus'  attack  upon  Chris- 
tianity, to  which  Origen  replied,  and  an  elaborate 
and  ingenious  study  of  the  same).  After  his 
death,  H.  Ziegler,  his  literary  executor,  care- 
fully edited  and  carried  through  the  press  another 
book  found  among  his  papers,  Rom  und  das  Chris- 
tenthum, Berlin,  1881.  This  last  volume  was 
written  by  Keim  during  1855  and  1860,  but,  owing 
probably  to  his  change  of  occupation,  never  fin- 
ished. It  is  a  masterly  analysis  of  the  conditions 
under  which  Christianity  took  its  rise,  and  a  clear 
and  engrossing  sketch  of  its  early  struggles  with 
Paganism. 

Keim  was  an  intense  man.  He  threw  his  whole 
soul  into  whatever  he  took  up.  In  his  student 
days  he  studied,  with  great  zeal.  Oriental  lan- 
guages under  Ewald,  and  then  philosopliy  under 
Reift'.  When  he  turned  from  Reformation  studies 
to  early  church  history,  he  turned  completely. 
Theologically  he  belonged  to  the  school  of  Baur : 
but  he  was  no  blind  follower  of  the  great  master ; 
rather  a  fearless,  independent  student.  Therefore 
he  gave  up  such  positions  as  he  had  satisfied 
himself  were  untenable.  In  his  great  book  upon 
the  life  of  Christ,  he  put  opposite  to  Paul,  upon 
whom  the  Tubingen  school  dwelt  so  forcibly,,  'ihe 
majestic  figure  of  Christ;  and,  while  agreeing  in 
the  main  with  their  conclusions,  he  emphasized 
the  paramount  importance  of  the  Master.  He 
unfortunately  rejected  the  fourth  Gospel,  and 
minimized  the  miracidous  element;  but  he  refuted 
the  hypothesis  of  a  vision,  and  assumed  revela- 
tions of  the  glorified  Lord  to  his  disciples  to  ex- 
jilain  the  story  of  the  resurrection ;  and,  compelled 
by  his  fairness,  admitted  the  superhuman  character 
of  Christ,  saying,  "  The  person  of  Jesus  is  not 
only  a  phenomenon  among  the  manj'  phenomena 
of  Ciod,  it  is  a  special  work  of  God,  the  crown  of 
all  the  divine  revelations."  He  calls  Jesus  "the 
sinless  one,  the  Son  of  God,"  and  says  he  "makes 
the  impression  of  a  superhuman  miracle." 

Keim  never  married.  His  sister  kept  house  for 
him,  and  he  had  a  canary  bird  and  a  cat  to  keep 
him  company.  His  style  of  composition  is  a  fre- 
quent subject  of  complaint.  He  endeavored  to 
say  too  much  in  a  single  sentence.  His  hand- 
writing was  almost  illegible.  (See  the  sketch  of 
his  life  by  H.  Ziegler.  prefixed  to  Rom  und  das 
Christenthum,  from  which  this  article  is  mainly 
taken.)  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

KEITH,  Alexander,  D.D.,  author  of  several 
works  on  prophecy,  b.  at  Keith  Hall,  Aberdeen- 
shire, Scotland,  1791 ;  d.  in  Buxton,  Feb.  7,  1880 ; 


KEITH. 


1230 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


and  ordained  minister  of  the  parish  of  St.  Cyrus, 
Kincardineshire,  in  1816.  In  1S24  he  published  in 
Edinlnirgh,  where  his  subsequent  books  also  ap- 
peared, his  first  work,  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the 
Christian  Religion,  derived  from  the  Literal  Fulfil- 
ment of  Prophecy.  The  book  had  a  great  run, 
nearly  forty  editions  having  been  printed  in  the 
author's  lifetime.  Its  most  original  feature  was 
the  use  it  made  of  the  testimony  of  modern  trav- 
ellers as  to  the  present  condition  of  Palestine  and 
other  Bible  countries,  the  truth  of  the  prophecies 
being  unconsciously  attested  by  them.  At  various 
times  Dr.  Keith  followed  up  this  work  by  The 
Signs  of  the  Times  (1832,  2  vols.,  8th  ed.  1847,  _— 
an  exposition  of  symbolical  prophecies  in  Daniel 
and  Revelation),  Demonstration  of  the  Truth  of 
Christianity  (1838),  The  Land  of  Israel  (18i3),  The 
Harmony  of  Prophecy  (1851),  History  and  Destiny  of 
the  World  and  of  the  Church  (1801),  Reply  to  Elliot's 
Horce  Apocalypticce,  Replg  to  Stanley's  Remari's  on 
Prophecy,  etc.,  in  his  Sinai  and  Palestine.  In  1839 
Dr  Keith,  with  Dr.  Black  of  Aberdeen,  Rev.  R. 
M.  McCheyne,  and  Rev.  Andrew  Bonar,  went 
out  to  Palestine,  Eastern  Europe,  etc.,  by  appoint- 
ment of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of 
Scotland,  on  a  mission  of  inquiry  as  to  the  state 
of  the  Jews  preparatory  to  the  establishment  of 
a  mission  among  them.  In  1843,  on  the  occur- 
rence of  the  disruption,  he  gave  up  his  connection 
with  the  Establishment,  and  helped  to  found  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland.  For  a  nunibei'  of  years 
he  was  convener  of  the  committee  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews.  Though  he  lived  to  a  great 
age,  he  was  always  somewhat  of  an  invalid,  and 
at  a  comparatively  early  period  he  retired  from 
active  service  in  the  ministry,  and  devoted  him- 
self to  literary  work.  W.  G.  BLAIKIE. 

KEITH,  George,  a  distinguished  (Quaker,  who, 
in  till-  latter  period  of  his  life,  joined  the  Church 
of  England ;  b.  in  Aberdeen,  Scotland,  about 
l(j40:  d.  in  Edlnirton,  Sussex,  about  1714.  He 
was  designed  for  the  Presbyterian  ministry,  but 
adopted  the  principles  of  tlie  (Quakers  about  10G4. 
He  suffered  imprisonment  for  preaching  in  Eng- 
'and,  and  emigrated  to  America,  where  he  was 
surveyor-general  in  East  New  Jersej-,  1(J85-8S, 
and  taught  a  scliool  in  Philadelphia,  lG8i).  He 
travelled  in  New  England,  and  defended  the 
principles  of  the  (Quakers  against  Increase  aiul 
Cotlou  Mather.  Returning  to  Philadeljihia,  he 
became  involved  in  a  controversy  with  his  own 
sect,  chiefly  upon  the  atonement.  He  also  accu.sed 
the  Fiiends  of  being  infected  with  deistic  notions. 
Returning  to  England,  he  met  Penn  himself,  who, 
on  hearing  one  of  his  soi'Mioiis  on  the  atonemer  t, 
ro.se  in  his  seat,  and  jironounced  him  an  a]iostate. 
Keith  was  condennied  by  the  Annual  Meeting, 
but  formed  a  body  of  his  own,  known  as  the 
"Christian  (Quakers,"  or  '•  Keithians."  Still  rest- 
less, hi!  united  with  the  Church  (>(  England,  and 
was  sent  out  to  .America  as  a  missionary.  In  170(3 
he  returned  to  England,  and  was  settled  at  Edbur- 
ton,  where  he  died.  Burnet,  in  liis  Hir^tory  of  our 
own  Times,  says  that  Keith  "was  esteemed  the 
most  learned  man  that  ever  was  in  that  .sect,  and 
was  well  ver.sed  in  the  Oriental  tongues,  philoso- 
phy, and  mathematics."  He  engaged  in  a  con- 
troversy witli  Roliert  Barclay,  against  whom 
he  wrote  his  jirincipal  work.  The  Standard  of  the 
Quakers  examined  ;  or,  an  Answer  to  Hie  A/>olngi/  of 


Robert  Barclay,  London,  1702.  In  this  work  he- 
tries  to  prove  the  seemingly  "  impregnable  bul- 
wark "  of  Barclay  "  defective,  unsound,  and  erro- 
neous," and  considers  a  variety  of  subjects,  from 
immediate  revelation  and  man's  fall,  to  recrea- 
tions, oaths,  and  defensive  war.  See  Janney's 
Histonj  of  the  Friends,  Philadelphia,  1867. 

KELLS,  the  Synod  of,  was  convened,  in  1152, 
by  Cardinal  Paparo,  the  legate  of  Eugenius  III., 
for  the  purpose  of  re-organizing  the  Church  of  Ire- 
land after  the  Roman  model.  Only  the  south- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  inhabited  by  Danish 
settlers  who  had  received  Christianity  from  their 
kinsmen  in  England,  stood  in  active  communica- 
tion with  Rome,  through  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbm-y.  In  the  rest  of  the  country  the  old  Keltic 
Church  was  still  living,  though  insulated,  and  now 
rapidly  falling  into  decay.  The  .synod  effected  the 
ecclesiastical  division  of  the  country  into  the  four 
archbishoprics  of  Armagh,  Cashel,  Dublin,  and 
Tuam,  the  establishment  of  a  hierarchy,  the  intro- 
duction of  tithes  and  the  Peter's-pence,  the  ac- 
knowledgment of  the  papal  supremacy,  etc. 

KELLY,  Thomas,  the  author  of  some  excellent 
hymns  ;  b.  near  Athy,  in  Queen's  County,  Ireland, 
1769  ;  d.  ilay  14,  1855.  Graduating  with  honor  at 
Dublin  University,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  law,  in  London,  until,  his  mind  being  aroused 
on  the  subject  of  religion,  he  consecrated  himself 
to  the  ministry,  and  was  ordained  in  the  Estab- 
lished Church  in  1792.  His  preaching  was  more 
fervid  and  evangelistic  in  character  than  was  usual 
at  that  day.  He  was  encouraged  by  the  visit  of 
Rowland  Hili  to  Ireland,  in  1793.  to  preserve  this 
style,  liut  was.  after  a  time,  inhiliited,  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  from  preaching  in  the  diocese. 
He  then  began  preaching  in  dissenting  chajiels  in 
Dublin,  soon  became  a  dissenter  himself,  and  from 
his  ample  means  built  a  number  of  Congregation- 
al chui-ches  at  Athy,  ^^'exford,  ^^"aterford,  etc. 
In  1804  Mr.  Kelly  published  a  volume  of  ninety- 
six  lli/mns  on  ]'nrious  Passages  of  Scripture.  In 
subsequent  editions  (7th  ed.,  Dublin,  1853)  the 
number  was  greatly  increased.  Mr.  Kelly's  best 
hymns  are  "  On  the  mountain-tops  appearing," 
and  "  AVe  sing  the  praise  of  Him  wlio  died."  which 
is  distinguished  by  fervor  and  strong  Christian 
confidenc<'. 

KELTIC  CHURCH.  This  title  may  be  said 
to  a|i|ily  ]iriniaiilv  to  the  early  Christian  com- 
munities among  t"lie  almriginal  tribes  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  —  the  Britons,  the  Picts,  and 
the  .Scot i,  or  Irish.  —  as  well  as  among  the  kin- 
dred tribes  of  Brittany  and  (iallicia.  Notwith- 
standing many  feuds,  they  were  bound  together 
by  allinilies  of  race  and  language,  and  by  cer- 
tain customs  and  peculiarities  of  church  organi- 
zation to  which  they  tenaciously  clung  long  after 
they  had  been  abandoned  elsewhere.  Seconda- 
rily the  term  may  be  held  to  embrace  those  mis- 
sions among  other  nationalities  —  Saxon,  Frank, 
Burgundian,  (ierman,  Swiss,  and  Lombard  — 
which  originated  in  the  zealous  and  self-denying 
laliors  of  Keltic  missionaries  from  Ireland  or 
lona. 

The  history  of  the  Keltic  Cliurch  has  been, 
apprniiriately  divided  into  three  jieriods  •  (1)  The 
period  of  its  rise  and  growlli  in  the  counlries 
which  were  its  home,  extending  from  tlu'  third 
to  the  fifth  century  ,  (2)  That  i4  its  full  maturity 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1231 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


of  Christian  life  and  culture  at  home,  and  of 
missionary  activity  abroad,  extending  from  the 
sixth  to  the  eighth  century ;  (3)  That  of  its 
gradual  decay  or  violent  suppression  from  the 
ninth  to  the  twelfth  century.  It  will  be  evident, 
that,  in  the  compass  of  this  article,  we  can  give 
only  the  barest  outline  of  the  history,  and  but 
the  briefest  account  of  the  doctrine,  ritual,  and 
organization,  of  the  Keltic  Church. 

A.  History.  I.  Period  of  Rise  and  Growth 
IN  THE  Countries  which  were  its  Home. 
1.  South  Britain.  —  When  and  how  ChrLstianity 
was  first  introduced  into  Britain  is  a  question  we 
cannot  fail  to  ask,  and  one  to  which  as  yet  we 
must  be  content  without  a  very  definite  answer. 
But  the  little  we  know  of  British  Christianity  in 
pre-Saxon  times  —  of  the  doctrine,  rites,  and  con- 
stitution of  the  Church  —  seems  rather  to  favor 
the  idea  of  its  origin  from,  and  clo.se  connection 
■with,  the  half-Oriental,  half-Keltic  churches  of 
Gaul  than  more  directly  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
or,  as  was  once  supposed,  that  of  Asia  Minor. 
It  is  only  at  the  close  of  the  second  century,  or 
beginning  of  the  third,  that  we  reach  firm  stand- 
ing-ground in  the  brief  but  significant  statement 
of  Tertidlian  :  "  Britannorum  inaccessa  Romania 
loca  Christo  vero  subdita."  This  is  a  very  sig- 
nificant testimony,  even  if  we  translate,  as  we 
probably  should,  not  the  places,  but  only  indefi- 
nitely places,  i.e.,  .some  places  of  the  Britons  in- 
accessible to  the  Romans,  but  subdued  to  Christ ; 
and  shows  that  the  soldiers  of  the  cross,  even  at 
that  early  date,  had  succeeded  in  extending  the 
Master's  sway  beyond  the  limits  which  the  Ro- 
man legions  had  reached,  or  at  least  had  been 
able  to  hold  in  permanent  subjection.  Hardly 
less  significant  is  the  testimony  of  Origen,  that 
there  were  those  in  Britain  who  believed  in  the 
name  of  the  Saviour,  and  with  joy  called  upon 
the  Lord ;  and  its  significance  is  not  diminished 
by  his  further  statement,  that  there  were  still 
very  many,  in  Bri',ain  and  other  distant  lands, 
who  had  not  ye^  hsard  the  word  of  the  gospel. 
The  triumphs  of  the  cross  were  still  very  limited 
in  those  regions ;  but  there  were  certainly  Chris- 
tians who  believed  in  the  one  God,  and  in  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and,  perhaps,  meetings  of 
Christians  who  worshipped  with  joy  the  Father 
and  the  Son.  True,  they  may  liave  continued  for 
a  time  but  a  "  feeble  folk,"  not  many  wise,  not 
many  noble,  may  have  been  called,  whose  names 
would  have  been  blazoned  while  they  lived,  or 
graven  in  brass  or  stone  when  tliey  died.  But, 
through  the  whole  of  the  third  century,  there 
were  tliose  in  Britain  who  in  truth  gave  them- 
selves to  Christ,  and  did  not  dishonor  his  name, 
and  who,  when  the  day  of  trial  came,  proved 
fajtliful  unto  death.  This  was  in  the  Diocletian 
persecution,  the  longest  and  bloodiest  the  Chris- 
tian Church  had  to  endure,  during  which  Gildas, 
the  native  historian,  speaking  somewhat  vaguely, 
tells  us,  "  The  whole  Church  seemed  under  execu- 
tion, and  charging  bravely  through  an  ill-natured 
and  inhospitable  world,  marched,  as  it  were,  in 
whole  troops  to  lieaven."  Some  maintain  that 
he  shoidd  have  excepted  his  own  country,  and 
(iaul  from  the  range  of  the  persecution  ;  but  the 
latest  British  historian  of  these  troubles  throws 
his  shield  over  the  earliest,  and  shows  that  he 
was  neither  so  ignorant  nor  so  credulous  as  some 
2G  — II 


have  imagined  him  to  be.  "  Some  doubt,"  says 
Mr.  Mason,  in  his  historical  essay  on  the  Diocle- 
tian persecution,  "  has  been  entertained  on  the 
question  whether  Constantius  did  not  hinder  the 
persecution  from  being  universal  by  refusing  to 
take  any  part  in  the  work  at  all.  It  is  diflicult 
to  discover  how  far  Constantius  really  partici- 
pated in  the  persecution ;  but  that  he  did  so  is 
plain,  not  only  from  the  fact  that  the  edicts  were 
now  the  law  of  the  empire,  to  which  he  must 
needs  conform,  but  also  because  some  positive 
statements  in  the  Acts  of  St.  Crispina  .  .  . 
prove,  that,  in  RLaximinian's  part  of  the  empire, 
the  name  of  the  Ciesar,  Constantius,  was  officially 
quoted  as  countenancing  the  promulgation  of 
the  edict.  Even  the  second  edict,  ordering  the 
arrest  of  the  clergy,  must  have  been  promul- 
gated by  Constantius ;  for  that,  at  least,  is  needed 
to  explain  the  one  circumstantially  related  mar- 
tyrdom of  that  time  to  which  the  British  Church 
can  lay  claim."  This  is  th.at  of  Alban,  com- 
monly accounted  the  proto-martyr  of  Bi'itain. 
Required  to  make  his  choice  between  sacrificing 
to  the  gods,  and  submitting  to  the  punishment 
■which  would  have  been  allotted  to  the  presbyter 
•n'hose  escape  he  had  aided,  he  adhered  to  his 
confession,  and,  after  being  scourged,  was  or- 
dered to  be  beheaded.  The  same  evening  the 
sentence  was  executed  on  the  hill  outside  the 
Roman  town  of  Verulamium,  ■nhere  the  city  now 
stands  which  commemorates  the  martyr's  name 
and  fame. 

From  the  cessation  of  the  persecution  we  may 
date  a  more  flourishing  era  of  the  British  Church. 
It  increased  considerably  in  numbers,  and  was 
more  fully  organized ;  though  it  was  yet  far  from 
fulfilling  its  mission,  and  gathering  into  its  fold 
the  majority  of  the  British  tribes.  Tliree  of  its 
bishops  (those  of  London,  York,  and  of  Colonia 
Londinensium,  which  some  identify  with  Col- 
chester, others  'with  Lincoln  or  Caerleon)  are 
registered  among  those  who  attended  the  synod 
of  Aries  held  in  314,  and  are  held  as  assenting 
to  certain  canons  not  in  harmony  with  the  later 
usages  of  the  Keltic  Church.  It  is  possible  that 
some  of  them  were  present  at  the  Council  of 
.Sardica  in  347 ;  it  is  certain  that  some  were  at 
the  synod  of  Ariminum  in  359,  and  that  three 
of  them  were  so  poor  as  to  be  obliged  to  accept 
the  allowance  offered  by  the  emperor  to  defray 
their  expenses.  They  were  as  yet,  in  all  proba- 
bility, like  the  Gallic  and  African  bishops,  —  but 
the  pastors  of  single  congregations,  or  of  a  small 
circle  of  congregations. 

The  British  churches  and  theh-  bishops,  like 
most  of  those  in  the  West,  sided,  with  Athana- 
sius  and  the  Council  of  Nicaea.  against  .-^rius ; 
though,  like  many  others,  they  were  more  con- 
cerned about  the  sid^stance  of  the  faith  than 
about  the  particular  terms  used  to  express  it. 
This  gave  occasion  to  Hilary  to  exhort  them,  as 
well  as  their  brethren  in  Gaul  and  Germany,  to 
take  care,  not  only  that  they  ■were  orthodox  in 
the  substance  of  their  belief,  but  also  that  they 
were  in  agreement  with  the  Coimcil  of  Xiciea  as 
to  the  terms  in  which  they  expressed  it.  But, 
though  the  general  orthodoxy  of  the  British 
churches  and  their  pastors  is  unquestionably  es- 
tablished by  the  statements  of  Athanasius  and 
Hilary,  it  seems  to  me  that  they  push  these  state- 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1232 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


ments  too  far  -n-ho  seek,  on  the  ground  of  them, 
to  cast  discredit  on  the  testimony  of  the  native 
historians  Gildas  and  Bede,  that  Arianism  did, 
to  some  extent,  malve  its  presence  known,  and  its 
power  felt.  The  two  sets  of  statements  are  not 
inconsistent.  The  clmrches,  as  a  wliole,  may 
have  been  steadfast  in  the  faith,  while  individ- 
uals here  and  there  were  carried  away  for  a  time 
by  Arian  or  semi-Arian  speculations. 

From  Pelagianism,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
fifth  century,  the  British  chui-ches  confessedly 
suffered  far  moi-e  severely  than  they  had  done 
from  any  previous  heresy.  Indeed,  Pelagius, 
from  whom  it  took  its  name,  is  supposed,  on  good 
grounds,  to  have  been  a  native  of  Britain.  It 
was  not  in  Britain,  however,  that  he  first  pro- 
mulgated his  errors ;  but  after  he  had  vented 
them  in  the  chief  centres  of  Christian  thought, 
and  they  had  been  refuted  and  condenmed  there, 
some  of  his  partisans,  perhaps  his  fellow-coun- 
trymen (Fastidius,  and  Agricola,  son  of  Severia- 
nus,  are  the  only  ones  mentioned  by  name),  found 
their  way  into  Britain,  and  pronndgated  their 
views  there,  at  least  with  temporary  success. 
The  British  bishops,  being  unable  to  cope  with 
the  intruders,  sought  an  antidote  from  the  same 
quarter  from  which,  probably,  the  poison  had 
come.  At  their  request,  Germanus  of  Auxerre, 
and  Lupus  of  Poictiers,  were,  in  4"J9,  deputed  by 
a  Gallic  synod  (and,  as  Prosper  has  it,  by  direc- 
tion of  Pope  Celestine)  to  give  the  assistance 
desired.  Received  with  joy,  they  preached  in 
the  churches  and  in  the  fields ;  and  so  enthusias- 
tic was  the  re-action  they  stirred  up,  that  for  a 
time  the  teachers  of  the  new  opinions  hesitated 
to  confront  them  in  public.  At  length  they  sum- 
moned up  courage  to  accept  the  challenge  of  the 
foreign  bishops.  A  great  meeting  was  lield  near 
Verulainium  to  hear  the  questions  in  dispute  dis- 
cussed. According  to  Bede,  the  Pelagians  came 
forward  in  all  the  pride  of  wealth,  and  advo- 
cated their  cause  with  the  most  inflated  rhetoric. 
But  Germanus  and  Lupus,  when  it  came  to  their 
turn  to  reply,  so  overwhelmed  them  with  argu- 
ments and  authorities  in  support  of  their  doc- 
trine, and  so  forcibly  urged  the  objections  to  the 
Pelagian  theory,  that  the  horesiarchs  wore  si- 
lenced for  the  time,  and  the  whole  assembly  tri- 
umphed in  their  discomfiture.  Having  thus,  to 
all  appearance,  fulfilled  their  mission,  (iermanus 
and  Lupus  returned  to  Gaul.  The  Pelagians, 
freed  from  the  presence  of  tlieir  foreign  antago- 
nists, speedily  set  to  work  to  seduce  once  more 
the  inconstant  Britons ;  ami  with  such  success 
did  they  work,  that  in  147  (iermanus  was  again 
entreated  to  come  over  aiul  oppose  them.  He 
came,  attended  by  Severus  of  Treves,  and  once 
more  he  conquered ;  but,  not  again  content  with 
refuting  liis  opponents,  he  procured  the  banish- 
ment of  their  leaders  from  tiie  island.  On  the 
final  vvithdrawal  of  the  Romans  from  the  island, 
the  feeble  Britons,  hara.s.sed  first  by  the  Picts 
and  .Scots,  and  then  by  the  Saxons,  who.se  help 
they  had  invited  against  tlie  otlieis,  were  in  the 
end  dispossessed  by  tliem  of  tlie  larger  part  of 
their  country,  and  enslaved  or  massacred  without 
mercy,  till  the  hi.storian  of  their  troubles  couM 
find  no  wiirils  adequate  to  express  the  extremity 
of  their  nii.sery  but  those  of  the  Hebrew  P.salm- 
ist  in  the  time  of  liis  people's  sorest  distress. 


2.  Britain  between  the  Roman  walls,  i.e.,  the  Brit- 
ish kingdom  of  Cumbria  or  Stralhclyde.  —  Here 
some  would  place  the  loca  Romanis  inaccessa 
Christo  verb  subdita,  of  which  Tertullian  speaks. 
Two  famous  missionaries  are  supposed  to  have 
been  born  here  in  the  fourth  century,  both  of 
Christian  parents.  St.  Patrick  is  still,  by  the 
best  authorities,  held  to  have  been  born  near 
Alcluaith,  or  Dumbarton  ;  and  as  his  father  was  a 
deacon,  and  his  grandfather  a  presbyter,  we  seem 
warranted  to  infer  that  Christianity,  and  some 
organization  of  Christians,  was  not  unknown  in 
the  district  before  the  close  of  the  previous  cen- 
tury. The  various  dedications  of  churches,  etc., 
to  Patrick  in  the  disti-ict,  seem,  according  to  Kel- 
tic usage,  to  show  that  he  had  labored  there,  as 
well  as  in  Ireland.  Two  who  did  much  for  the 
continuance  or  revival  of  his  work  in  Ireland 
are  said  to  have  been  born  in  Cumbria ;  viz., 
Mochta,  or  IMachutus,  and  Gildas. 

Xinian,  or  Ninyas,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
a  native  of  the  same  region,  born  of  Christian 
parents  soon  after  the  middle  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. After  such  training  as  he  could  get  at 
home,  he  is  said  to  have  gone  to  one  or  more  of 
the  great  centres  of  Christian  thought  and  life ; 
and,  if  liis  visit  to  Rome  is  somewhat  doubtful, 
his  training  under  St.  Martin  of  Tours  is  more 
unquestioned.  From  him  he  probably  received 
his  mission,  and  had  that  enthusiasm  which  was 
to  fit  him  for  it  kindled  or  quickened.  To  him 
he  dedicated  the  stone  church,  which,  with  the 
help  of  nuisons  from  Gaul,  he  built  at  Candida 
Casa,  or  Whithorn.  Like  him,  he  not  oidy  acted 
as  bishop  of  the  region,  but  became  the  head 
of  a  great  monastic  school.  By  his  missionary 
labors  he  spread  the  gospel  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Galloway  and  Strathclyde,  as  well  as 
among  the  Picts  between  the  Grampian  Moun- 
tains and  the  Firth  of  Forth.  No  doubt  his 
work  was,  to  a  large  extent,  but  temporary  and 
partial ;  so  that  St.  Patrick,  soon  after  his  death, 
could  speak  of  the  Picts  as  apostate.  Still  the 
memory  of  it  lived,  and  gave  an  advantageous 
foothold  to  Kentigern,  Serf  (?),  Ternan,  and  the 
companions  of  Columba,  who  afterwards  brought 
these  various  regions  more  thoroughly  under  the 
influence  of  Christianity.  His  greatest  and  most 
]iei-manent  work,  undoiditedly,  was  that  effected 
through  his  monastic  .school,  where,  under  him- 
self and  his  like-minded  successors,  youths  (many 
of  them  of  noble  birth)  from  the  surrounding 
trilies  and  from  Ireland  were  trained  in  Chris- 
tian living,  and  stimulated  to  active  Christian 
work,  and  in  due  time  largely  helped  on  the 
revival  of  religion  in  Irelan<l,  as  in  Scotland. 

3.  Ireland.  —  This  was  the  earliest  home  of 
the  Scoti,  and  is,  undoubtedly,  the  Scotia  of  the 
earlier  middle  ages.  (Christianity  is  supposed  to 
have  come  to  it  from  France,  with  which  there 
was  pretty  clo.se  inti^'course  <luring  the  third  and 
fourth  centiu'ies;  btit,  if  it  met  with  any  success, 
it  must  have  been  of  a  very  limited  kind.  Celes- 
tius,  the  conqianion  of  Pelagius,  is  supposed  by 
.some  to  have  l)een  of  Scotic,  i.e.,  Irish  origin, 
and  is  .said  to  have  kejit  up  correspondence  with 
the  land  of  his  birth  after  hi'  left  it.  L'nder  the 
vear  4;il — the  year  of  the  famous  Council  of 
^Cphesus  — we  read  in  the  Chrnnicon  of  Prosper 
of  Aqiiitaine,  "Ad  Scotos  in    Christum   credentes 


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KELTIC  CHURCH. 


oixlinatur  a  Papa  Celestino  Palladius  et  primus 
episcopus  mittitur."  There  were,  then,  ah'eady 
Scots  wlio  believed  in  Christ;  and,  according  to 
the  Irish  legends,  Palladius  was  not  honored 
greatly  to  enlarge  their  number,  and  after  a 
short  time  he  left  the  country,  and  died  in  the 
land  of  the  Piots.  The  Scottish  legend  is,  that 
he  lived  there  for  many  years,  and  can-ied  on  his 
mission  with  more  success  than  in  Ireland.  The 
true  apostle  of  Ireland  was  that  Patricius  to 
whom  we  have  already  referred  as  born  near  Dum- 
barton, in  the  kingdom  of  Strathclyde,  who,  being 
carried  captive  in  his  youth  to  Ireland,  served 
there  for  six  years  as  a  slave,  and  who,  after  a 
second  and  very  brief  captivity,  felt  an  inward 
call  to  devote  hiinsul:  to  the  work  of  converting 
the  liarbarous  tribes  among  whom  his  lot,  when 
a  slave,  had  been  cast.  Some  suppiose  that  lie 
had  begun  his  missionaiy  work  before  Palladius 
set  foot  in  the  country ;  otliers,  that  he  only 
began  it  after  Palladius  had  retired  from  it  in 
despair.  If  there  is  much  that  is  legendary  and 
untrustworthy  in  the  accounts  that  have  come 
down  to  us  regarding  him,  there  can  be  little 
doubt  that  he  began  his  work  about  that  time, 
and  that  he  prosecuted  it  with  great  perseverance, 
and  with  a  large  amount  of  success.  According 
to  the  old  Irish  tradition,  the  saints  of  the  first 
order  were  all  bishops.  St.  Patrick  is  said  to 
have  ordained  three  hundred  and  fifty  or  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five  of  them,  and  to  have 
founded  as  many  cluirches.  They  were,  there- 
fore, of  a  very  liuinble  grade,  —  such  village  or 
tribal  bishops  as  were  to  be  found  in  Keltic  Brit- 
tany, and  such  they  appear  to  have  continued 
to  a  compiaratively  late  date  in  Ireland.  Two 
writings  attributed  to  St.  Patrick  have  been  pre- 
served,—  his  Confessio  and  his  Epislola  ad  Coro- 
licum ;  the  former  of  which  is  certainly,  and 
the  latter  is  probably,  genuine.  Both  exhibit 
him  as  a  humble,  simple-minded,  self-denying, 
and  devoted  Christian  missionary,  holding  by 
the  great  truths  generally  held  by  the  worthies  of 
the  ancient  church,  and  apparently  unacquainted 
with,  or  averse  to,  several  erroneous  opinions 
which  were  coming  into  favor  elsewhere.  The 
hymn  attributed  to  him,  and  translated  in  Dr. 
Todd's  life  of  the  saint,  shows,  that,  to  some 
extent,  superstitious  notions  still  mingled  with 
his  simple  faith.  Neither  the  style  nor  the  con- 
tents of  his  confessio  are  in  harmony  with  the 
opinion  that  he  spent  several  years  in  lionie,  or 
sought  or  got  any  confirmation  of  his  mission 
from  it. 

II.  Period  of  Revived  Christi.\n  Life  at 
Home,  and  of  ^Missionary  Activity  abroad. 
—  The  clergy  of  the  earlier  period,  even  in  Ire- 
land, seem  to  have  been  mainly  a  secular  clergy, 
and  had  to  deal  with  people  scattered  among 
their  heathen  kindred,  and  in  strict  subjection 
to  their  secular  chiefs.  Monastic  institutions,  so 
far  as  they  were  present  at  all,  formed  but  a  sub- 
ordinate feature  in  the  Church  of  that  time.  But 
in  this  second  period,  and  under  the  second  order 
of  saints,  these  institutions  held  a  more  impor- 
tant place  in  Wales  and  Ireland,  and  in  Scot- 
land became  the  most  distinctive  feature  of  the 
Church,  —  nay,  with  their  dependencies  and  mis- 
sionary colonies,  may  be  said  to  have  constituted 
the  Church.     These  houses,  however,  were  rather 


mi.ssionary  institutes,  like  those  of  the  Mora- 
vians, for  the  conversion  of  surrounding  tribes, 
and  the  training  and  protection  of  the  converts, 
than  monasteries  in  the  later  sense.  Whence  the 
new  life  and  organization  came,  —  whether  from 
the  mcujnum  monasterium  of  Xinian  at  Whithorn, 
or  from  the  source  from  which  the  founder  of 
that  monastery  had  got  it,  —  the  monastery  at 
Tours,  or  some  atliliated  institution  in  Brittany, 
or  whether,  as  Gildas  says,  it  was  the  result  of 
the  deep  penitence  of  the  Britons  under  the 
terrible  chastisements  they  suffered  at  the  hands 
of  the  Saxon  invaders  —  it  were  not  easy  now 
to  determine.  All  w-e  know  with  certainty  is, 
that,  in  the  sixth  century,  it  .specially  manifested 
itself  in  the  monastic  schools  of  \\'ales,  was  con- 
veyed from  them  to  Ireland  through  Finnian  of 
Clonard,  and  from  Ireland  was  brought  back 
in  intensified  form  to  Scotland.  This  century. 
Bishop  Forbes  tells  us,  in  his  Introduction  to  the 
Life  of  St.  Kentigern,  "  was,  in  'Wales,  a  century 
of  national  life,  of  religious  and  mental  activity. 
It  was  the  age  of  Sts.  David,  lltutus,  Samp.son, 
Teilo  ; "  it  sent  missionaries  to  Ireland  and  to 
Brittany.  Indeed,  Brittany,  which  had  suffered 
from  various  invaders  almost  as  severely  as  Eng- 
land itself,  was  to  a  large  extent  repeopled  from 
Britain.  It  was  at  this  epoch  that  the  celebrated 
monastic  college  of  Bangor — Iscoed  on  the  Dee 
—  was  founded.  It  was  from  the  Welsh  saints, 
especially  David,  Gildas,  and  Cadoc.  tliat  the  im- 
pulse to  the  new  movement  in  Ireland  came. 
The  traditions  as  to  the  second  order  of  Irish 
saints,  almost  all  of  whom  were  presbyters  and 
monks,  point  to  a  great  revival  and  spread  of 
religion  through  a  new  and  living  agency  based 
on  monastic  institutions,  in  wliich  the  population 
w'hich  gathered  round  the  more  strictly  ecclesias- 
tical nucleus,  separated  from  heathen  relations, 
and  freed  from  the  arbitrary  control  of  secular 
chieftains,  could  be  more  fully  instructed  in 
Christian  truth,  more  carefully  trained  in  Chris- 
tian living,  and  guarded  from  contamination 
with  the  pollutions  of  heathenism.  In  these 
institutions  attention  was  given  to  various  de- 
partments of  learning  and  culture,  as  well  as  to 
more  simple  instruction  in  Christian  truth  and 
the  practices  of  Christian  devotion.  That  and 
the  two  succeeding  centuries  are  .spoken  of  as  the 
"golden  age  of  Ireland,"  when,  within  these  mo- 
nastic sanctuaries  at  least,  there  was  contentment, 
prosperity,  zealous  study,  and  earnest  Christian 
life  ;  vv'hen  they  were  the  resort  of  students  from 
Britain  and  the  continent  of  Europe ;  and  when 
the  land  was  known  as  the  '■  liome  of  learning,"  as 
well  as  the  "  island  of  saints."  This  mission-work 
was  especially  carried  on  by  twelve  of  Finnian 's 
disciples,  who  covered  their  native  laud  with  such 
institutions,  and  became  known  as  the  '■  twelve 
apostles  of  Ireland."  Two  of  the  baud  were,  like 
their  master,  descended  from  the  Irish  Picts ;  and 
one  of  them,  at  least,  found  scope  for  his  mis- 
sionary activity  among  the  Picts  of  Scotland,  as 
well  as  among  their  brethren  in  Ireland.  But 
the  chief  of  all  the  twelve  was  Columba,  who 
united  in  himself  the  training  of  both  the  great 
monastic  schools,  having  been  the  pupil  of  Fin- 
nian of  Moville,  who  had  the  training  of  Whi- 
thorn, as  well  as  of  Finnian  of  Clonard,  who  had 
the  training  of   the  Welsh  school.     The  details 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1234 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


of  his  romantic  career  and  marvellous  success  are 
given  in  the  article  on  Columba  (vol.  i.  pp.  515, 
516),  and  need  not  be  here  repeated.  The  work 
be^n  by  him  and  his  twelve  companions  at  lona 
was  carried  on  by  their  successors  till  all  Pictland 
and  the  Scotic  kingdom  of  Dalriada,  as  well  as 
part  of  their  native  country,  were  covered  with 
institutions  subject  to  the  mother-house  of  lona 
and  its  presbyter  abbot,  the  coarb  of  Columba ; 
and  evangelists  were  sent  out  thence  to  many  of 
the  outlying  islands,  and  to  the  great  Anglic 
kingdom  of  Xorthumbria. 

It  is  said  to  have  been  but  a  few  years  before 
the  death  of  Columba,  that  the  last  of  the  Brit- 
ish bishops  in  England  abandoned  their  sees, 
and,  with  tlie  remnant  of  their  flocks,  sought 
refuge  from  the  cruel  oppression  of  their  heathen 
invaders  in  the  mountain  fastnesses  of  the  west 
and  south,  which  yet  remamed  in  the  hands  of 
their  kindred.  It  was  in  the  very  year  of  Coluni- 
ba's  death,  that  Augustme  and  liis  companions  — 
the  emissaries  of  Pope  Gregory  I.  —  connneuced 
in  Kent  their  mission  for  the  conversion  of  the 
Saxon  tribes,  and  made  various  but  fruitless 
efforts  to  bring  the  British  Church  to  adopt  their 
usages,  and  aid  their  work.  Their  labors,  at  first, 
were  attended  with  partial  success,  both  at  the 
court  of  the  ruler  of  Kent  and  at  that  of  Edwin 
of  Xorthumbria;  but,  on  the  defeat  and  death 
of  the  latter,  liis  successors  and  their  subjects 
returned  to  heathenism.  The  ultimate  conver- 
sion of  the  tribes  between  the  Forth  and  the 
Humber,  as  even  Dr.  Hook  has  acknowledged, 
was  far  more  largely  due  to  influences  proceeding 
from  lona  than  from  Rome  or  Canterbury.  The 
family  of  Edwin's  predecessor  had  taken  refuge 
among  the  Scots,  had  been  educated  by  the 
monks  of  lona,  and  some  of  them,  at  least,  had 
sincerely  embraced  the  Christian  faith.  When 
Oswald  succeeded  his  elder  brother  on  the  throne, 
and  finall}-  defeated  the  British  champion  who 
liad  triumphed  l)oth  over  Edwin  and  his  brother, 
he  was  desirous  that  all  his  people  should  be 
brought  over  to  the  Christian  faith.  He  accord- 
ingly sent  to  "  the  seniors  of  the  Scots,"  among 
whom  he  and  his  followers  had  received  the  sac- 
rament of  baptism,  and  recjuested  that  they  wo\ikl 
•send  him  a  bishop  to  instruct  his  people  in  the 
faith.  They  sent,  first,  Cormac ;  and,  on  his 
proving  too  stern  to  gain  the  rude  Angles,  tiiey 
commissioned  Aidan,  a  man,  according  to  Bede, 
of  singular  meekness,  piety,  and  moderation. 
The  king  assigned  to  Aidan,  as  his  residence, 
the  Island  of  Lindi.sfarne,  or  the  Holy  Island, 
on  the  east  coast  of  Northumberland,  not  far 
from  the  royal  Castle  of  Bamboroiigh.  There 
he  estalilished  a  monastery,  after  the  model  of 
that  of  lona,  bringing,  at  least,  twelve  compan- 
ions with  him,  and  taking  in  training  several 
bands  of  young  Saxons,  some  of  whom  after- 
wards became  missionaries,  and  aided  in  the  evan- 
gelization of  their  Saxon  countrymen.  Aidan 
and  his  companions  preached  the  gospel  zeal- 
ously, travelling  from  place  to  place,  and  pressing 
their  message  on  the  acceptance  of  all.  The 
king  often  acted  as  their  interpreter  till  they 
liecame  familiar  with  the  language  of  his  sub- 
jects. All  commended  th(ur  doctrines  by  their 
holy,  humble,  self-denying  lives.  Oswin,  tiie 
brother  of   Oswald,  and  the  ruler  of   Southern 


Northumberland,  or  Deira,  also  welcomed  the 
Scottish  missionaries,  who  thus  had  free  course, 
as  evangelists,  from  the  Forth  to  the  Humber. 
Aidan  died  in  651,  and  Finan,  or  Finnian,  was 
sent  from  lona  as  his  successor.  He  was  hon- 
ored, not  only  to  carry  forward  the  work  which 
Aidan  had  so  nobly  begun  in  Northumbria,  but 
also  to  extend  it  to  the  south,  gaining  an  entrance 
for  the  faith  into  the  Pagan  kingdom  of  Mercia, 
and  also  recalling  to  it  the  East  Saxons,  formerly 
won  over  partially  by  one  of  the  Roman  mis- 
sionaries. An  Irish  missionary  also  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the 
East  Angles.  Thus,  from  Keltic  lona  and  Ire- 
land "  the  gospel  was  carried  among  the  Pagan 
tribes  from  the  Forth  to  the  Thames ;  and  the 
Jutes  and  Angles  of  Northumbria,  the  Middle 
Angles  of  IMercia,  the  East  Angles  and  the  East 
Saxons,  were  won  over  to  the  Christian  faith." 
In  661  Finan  was  succeeded  by  C'olman.  In  his 
time  occurred  the  famous  synod,  or  conference, 
at  Streaneschalch,  or  AVhitby,  at  which  it  was 
determined  by  Oswy  that  the  Saxon  churches 
should  conform  to  the  Roman,  in  the  time  of 
observing  Easter,  and  in  the  form  of  the  clerical 
tonsure.  Colman,  who  could  not  bring  himself 
to  abandon  the  customs  of  the  Church  of  lona, 
thereupon  retired  from  England ;  but  several 
of  his  and  of  Aidan's  pupils  remained,  and, 
while  conforming  in  these  external  things  to  the 
new  i-ef/ime,  continued  with  vigor  their  evangelis- 
tic woi'k.  In  the  course  of  the  sixth  century 
many  earnest  and  able  men  went  forth  from  the 
Scoto-Irish  monasteries  to  labor  as  missionaries 
on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  win  over  to 
Christianity,  or  the  trinitarian  form  of  it,  the 
Teutonic  tribes  who  had  broken  up  and  over- 
si:)read  the  western  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
Chief  among  these,  towards  the  close  of  the 
centurj',  was  Columbanus,  or  Columba,  jun.,  the 
pupil  of  Comghall  and  Finnian  of  Clonard.  Set- 
ting out,  like  his  elder  namesake,  with  twelve 
comjianions,  he  attempted  to  carry  the  gospel  to 
some  of  the  heathen  tribes  in  England.  Meet- 
ing with  no  success  among  them,  he  passed  on 
to  the  Continent,  and  settled  first  in  Burgundy, 
at  Luxovium,  or  Luxeuil.  There,  amidst  the 
forests,  he  constructed  a  monastery  in  Scotic 
form,  which  soon  became  famous  as  a  nursery  of 
piety,  a  centre  of  Nicene  orthodoxy,  and  a  school 
lor  the  training  of  Christian  youth.  Two  otlier 
institutions  of  a  similar  character  were  set  up 
in  the  surrounding  districts,  and  occupied  by  his 
disciples,  remaining,  according  to  the  custom  of 
his  native  land,  subject  to  his  jurisdiction.  He 
and  his  disciples  .soon  succeeded  in  gaining  the 
confidence  of  the  people  among  whom  they  had 
settled ;  b\it  their  popularity  at  length  roused  the 
jealousy  of  the  native  clergy  who  had  remained 
in  that  part  of  (iaul  after  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Burgundians.  In  particular,  their 
adherence  to  the  custom  of  the  Iri.sh  Church,  as 
to  the  time  of  observing  the  Easter  festival,  and 
their  claim  to  a  separate  organization,  exposed 
them  to  much  trouble.  Columbanus  wrote  boldly 
in  defence  of  his  views,  both  to  (Jregory  I.  and 
to  one  of  his  successors.  He  wrote  in  similar 
terms  to  a  French  .synod,  assembled  to  determine 
the  matt<'r  in  disjiute,  resolutely  contending  for 
the   custom   of    his   own    churcli,   and   earnestly 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1235 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


pleading  to  be  allowed  "to  live  quietly  in  those 
woods,  beside  the  bones  of  his  seventeen  departed 
brethren,"  as  hitherto.  By  his  stern  faitlifulness 
in  relinking  the  shameless  e.xcesses  of  'I'heodorio, 
■or  Thierry,  he  also  incurred  the  displeasure  of 
that  Burgundian  monarch,  and  was  ordered  to 
leave  the  kingdom.  After  laboring  for  a  short 
time  in  various  German  cities  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  he  made  his  way  into  Switzerland, 
where  he  was  successful  in  reclaiming  many  who 
had  relapsed  into  Paganism.  He  preached  the 
gospel  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Constance  and  in 
the  Khsetian  territory;  and  leaving  behind  him 
Gallus,  the  disciple  whose  name  has  been  perma- 
nently associated  with  the  district,  to  complete 
his  work,  he  passed  over  the  Alps  into  Italy.  By 
permission  of  the  king  of  the  Lombards,  lie 
settled  in  his  dominions,  and  raised  at  Bobbio 
that  monastery  which  was  to  preserve  to  future 
generations  his  name  and  fame,  and  many  of  his 
writings.  It  is  to  these  writings  tliat  Dr.  Ebrard 
is  mainly  indebted  for  the  account  he  has  given 
of  the  teaching  of  the  Columban  missionaries, 
and  they  certainly  present  it  in  its  most  favorable 
aspect.     Columbanus  died  in  615. 

Under  Theodoric's  successor,  the  monastery  of 
Luxovium  revived,  and  became  the  mother  of  a 
con.siderable  number  of  similar  institutions  in 
various  parts  of  France.  Eustasius,  who  presided 
over  it,  also  carried  the  gospel  to  Bavaria;  Kilian, 
to  Thuringia;  Fiacre,  Fursey,  Ultan,  and  others, 
to  various  parts  of  France,  Belgium,  etc.  Less 
known  Irish  missionaries  in  the  eighth  century 
introduced  Christianity  into  the  Faroe  Islands, 
and  even  into  Iceland.  "  Thus,  between  the  fifth 
and  eighth  centuries,  the  Keltic  Church  extended, 
with  intermissions,  north  and  south  from  Iceland 
to  Spain,  east  and  west  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Danulje,  from  westernmost  Ireland  to  the  Italian 
Bobbio  and  the  German  Salzburg,  —  catholic  in 
doctrine  and  practice,  and  yet  with  its  claims  to 
catholicity  ignored  or  impugned;  with  a  long  roll 
of  saints,  every  name  of  note  on  which  is  either 
that  of  one,  like  Columbanus,  taking  a  line  wholly 
independent  of  Rome,  or,  like  Colman  at  the 
synod  of  Whitby,  directly  in  collision  with  her ; 
having  its  own  liturgy,  its  own  translation  of  the 
Bible,  its  own  mode  of  chanting,  its  own  monastic 
rule,  its  own  cycle  for  the  calculation  of  Easter, 
and  presenting  both  internal  and  external  evi- 
dence of  a  complete  autonomy."  "It  brought 
religion  straight  home  to  men's  hearts  by  sheer 
power  of  love  and  self-sacrifice.  It  held  up  before 
them,  in  the  unconscious  goodness  and  nobleness 
of  its  representatives,  the  moral  evidence  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  made  them  feel  what  it  was  to  be 
taught  and  cared  for  in  the  life  spiritual  by  pas- 
tors, who,  before  all  things,  were  the  disciples 
and  ministers  of  Christ"  (like  Aidan,  Colum- 
banus, and  Gallus). 

III.  PEiiion  OF  ITS  Gradual  Decay  or  Vio- 
lent SuppRES.sioN.  —  As  already  stated,  the  Co- 
lumban Church  of  Northumbria  was  required  by 
Oswy,  in  064,  to  conform  to  certain  customs  of 
the  Roman  Church.  Bishop  Colman  and  some 
of  his  clergy,  who  refused  to  do  so,  returned  to 
their  native  countiT.  Others,  who  complied,  were 
allowed  to  remain;  though  some  had  to  submit  to 
a  ceremony  which  implied  that  their  Scotic  ordi- 
nation was  imperfect.     Wilfrid,  who  had   been 


the  chief  advocate  of  Roman  usages  at  Whitby, 
was  promoted  to  the  vacant  bishopric ;  and,  de- 
clining to  own  the  mission  of  the  Scotic  prelates, 
he  sought  and  olitained  consecration  on  tlie  Con- 
tinent. The  British  churches  in  Wales  did  not 
conform  to  the  Roman  rule  for  determining  the 
Easter  festival  till  a  century  after  the  .synod  of 
Whitby,  nor  were  they  brought  fully  under  the 
English  metropolitan  see  till  the  twelfth  century. 
The  cluirches  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  con- 
formed to  the  Roman  Easter  about  the  beginning 
of  the  eighth  century,  but  were  not  completely 
brought  under  the  archbishop  of  Canterbuiy  till 
the  Xorinan  times.  The  see  of  St.  Ninian  at 
Wliithorn  was  revived  by  the  Saxons  when  mas- 
ters of  that  part  of  Xorth  Britain,  and  continued 
for  several  centuries  to  be  subject  to  tlie  archi- 
episcopal  see  of  York.  Tlie  see  of  St.  Kentigern, 
by  persuasion  of  Adamnan,  conformed  to  the 
Roman  usages  in  688,  and  for  a  time  also  was 
brought  into  subjection  to  the  see  of  York.  Xech- 
tan,  the  imperious  king  of  the  Picts,  who  turned 
the  tide  of  Saxon  conquest  in  Scotland,  on  the 
suggestion  of  Saxon  or  Irish  emissaries,  required 
his  clergy  to  conform  to  the  Roman  customs.  But 
part  of  them,  if  they  yielded  for  a  time,  did  so 
against  their  convictions:  and  in  717  lie  took  the 
strong  step  of  expelling  from  his  dominions  the 
Scotic  monks,  or  "family  of  Hii,  or  Hy."  They 
were  not  restored  to  their  old  foundations  till  the 
time  of  Kennetli  Mac  Alpin ;  and  immigrants  were 
brought  from  various  quarters  to  supply  their 
places,  —  some  from  Saxon  England,  more  from 
the  south  of  Ireland.  These  were  disciples  of  the 
third  order  of  Irish  saints,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  mainly  Culdees.  (See  art.  on  Cul- 
DEES,  vol.  i  pp.  579-581.)  The  Church  of  South 
Ireland  accepted  the  Roman  reckoning  of  the 
Easter  festival  in  631,  that  of  North  Ireland 
about  710;  but  no  doubt  there  continued  for  a 
time,  in  several  of  the  smaller  monasteries,  adher- 
ents of  the  older  custom.  lona  is  said  to  have 
conformed  in  717  :  but  in  729  Mr.  Skene  tells  us 
but  one  festival  is  mentioned  on  which  the  new 
custom  had  been  observed  ;  and  till  771  it  is  said 
there  was  a  schism  in  the  island,  —  rival  abbots, 
and  probably  rival  celelirations  of  the  festival. 
The  final  extinction  of  the  old  Keltic  Church,  both 
in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  was  due,  in  part  at  least, 
to  internal  decay,  and  was  not  completed  till  the 
close  of  the  eleventh  century,  under  St.  IMargaret 
in  Scotland  and  St.  Malacliy  in  Ireland.  The 
Keltic  bishopric  in  Gallicia  seems  to  have  been 
brought  into  conformity  with  the  Church  of  Spain 
ill  tlie  seventh  century.  Tlie  peculiar  usages  of 
the  Church  in  Brittany  were  not  abandoned  till 
the  nintli  century,  nor  was  it  till  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century  that  it  was  finally  ln-ought  under 
the  archbisliopric  of  Tours.  The  suppression  of 
the  Keltic  Church  in  Germany  was  brought  about 
mainly  tlirough  the  labors  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Winfred,  or  St.  Boniface,  and  in  the  first  half  of 
the  eighth  century. 

B.  Doctrine,  Ritual,  and  Constitution.  1.  Doc- 
trine of  Kcllic  Chiircli.  —  The  general  orthodoxy 
of  its  great  teachers  is  shown  by  the  professions 
of  faith  contained  in  the  writings  of  St.  Patrick 
and  Columbanus,  by  the  statements  of  Gildas, 
Bede,  and  others  in  early  times,  and  the  acknowl- 
edgments  of    Montalembert   and   other   Roman 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1236 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


"Catholics"  in  our  own  time.  In  the  controversy 
as  to  the  "  Tria  Capitula  "  in  connection  with  the 
fifth  general  council,  Baronius  admits  that  the 
Irish  Church  took  a  ditferent  view  from  that  of 
Rome.  But  what  mainly  separated  it  and  the 
British  churches,  in  the  second  period  of  their 
history,  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  was  the  differ- 
ence of  their  usages  as  to  the  reckcming  of  the 
Easter  festival,  the  tonsure,  etc.,  their  claim  to 
independence  in  their  own  lands,  and  assertion 
of  the  right  to  send  luissionaries  elsewhere  with- 
out authority  from  Rome.  Ebrard  and  some 
others  seem  still  to  regard  them  as  a  sort  of  pre- 
mature protestants.  We  think  it  would  be  nearer 
the  truth  to  say,  that,  as  the  twilight  lasts  so  much 
longer  in  these  northern  regions,  so  also  the  after- 
glow of  the  primitive  day  was  lengthened  out 
there,  when  darkness  was  coming  on  apace  else- 
where, and  that  the  great  teachers  there  retained 
a  singularly  living  hold  of  the  central  doctrines 
of  the  gospel,  and,  above  all,  of  the  evangelistic 
commission  given  by  the  great  Head  to  his 
Church,  and  of  tlie  supremacy  of  his  Holy  Word. 
AVe  doubt  if,  anywhere  in  the  early  literature  of 
the  Christian  Church,  more  emphatic  i-eference 
will  be  found  to  that  commission  than  in  the 
confession  of  St.  Patrick,  or  a  more  touching  and 
hearty  vindication  of  the  supremacy  of  Scripture 
than  in  Columbanus's  letters  to  Gregory  the  Great 
and  Boniface  IV.  Even  Adamnan  says  that  they 
were  wont  to  support  their  doctrines  "  by  referring 
to  the  testimony  of  Holy  Scripture ; "'  and  the 
Saxon  Bede  testifies  that  they  "only  observed 
those  works  of  piety  and  chastity  which  they 
could  learn  in  the  prophetical,  evangelical,  and 
apostolical  writings."  The  teaching  of  their  great 
doctors,  from  Patrick  to  Colunibanus,  concen- 
trated itself  round  the  person  and  work  of  our 
divine-human  Iledi-emer,  —  "  Christ  before,  Chri.st 
beliin<l,  Cin-ist  above,  Christ  beneath,  Clirist  in 
the  heart,  Christ  in  the  eye,  Christ  at  home, 
Clirist  abroad." 

2.  Ritual.  —  Xo  fragment  of  a  liiurgy  or  missal 
in  any  ancient  Ivcltic  dialect  lias  yet  been  brought 
to  liglit.  Mr.  Skene,  however,  the  most  careful 
and  impartial  investigator  in  onr  day,  does  not 
hesitate  to  atfirm,  that,  from  the  account  of  the 
Culdee  .service  at  St.  Andrews,  given  in  the  life 
of  St.  Margaret  as  being  cotiira  totius  ecclcsice  con- 
fiielmUncm  rilu  harharo,  it  is  a  not  unnatural  infer- 
ence that  tliere  was  a  vernacular  service-book. 
(Jn  tlie  other  hand,  it  is  maintained  by  Mr. 
Fladdan  that  the  earliest  converts  to  Christianity 
in  Britain  were  Romans  or  Itoniani/ing  Britons ; 
tlial  hatin  was  understood  liy  most  of  them  for 
a  long  time  after;  that  most  of  tlie  writings  of 
British  and  Scoto-Irish  authors  of  tlie  first  six 
centuries,  all  the  extant  psalters  and  books  of 
the  Gospels,  and  the  few  liturgical  fragments 
which  have  survived,  are  written  in  Latin ;  and 
that  the  ecclesiastical  use  of  the  Keltic  did  not 
commence  till  the  Church  began  to  include  among 
her  members  and  ministers  persons  who  were 
ignorant  of  Latin,  and  that  even  then  it  was  con- 
fined to  rulirics  and  sermons,  or  addresses,  and 
translations  into  tlie  vernacular  of  Scriptures  read 
in  Latin.  .\  detailed  and  interesting  account  of 
these  Kidtic  liturgical  fragments  has  been  givi^n 
by  F.  E.  AVanen,  B.l).,  in  his  Lilitn/y  and  liilual 
af  the  Keltic  Church  (1881).     The  Scottish  frag- 


ment in  the  Book  of  Deer,  the  Irish  fragments 
in  the  Books  of  Dimnia,  Mulling  Armagh,  and  in 
certain  St.  Gall  and  Basle  manuscripts,  he  and 
other  careful  students  of  liturgiologT  hold  to  be 
of  distinctly  Ephesine  character,  and  in  faT  closer 
agreement  with  the  ancient  Gallican  than  with  the 
Roman  offices,  though  having  various  distinctive 
characteristics.  The  Stowe  jlissal,  of  which  he 
gives  a  fuller  account  than  we  had  before,  he  holds 
to  be  of  a  more  composite  character,  and  to  belong 
to  tliat  later  time  when  the  Irish  saints  dioersas 
rcgulas  et  jni.isas  hahebant.  '\A'arren.  as  well  as 
Westcott,  Iladdan,  and  Stubbs,  says,  that,  though 
there  was  no  vernacular  translation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, there  was  a  special  British  and  Irish  recen- 
sion of  the  old  Latin  text  of  the  Bible  for  use  in 
the  Keltic  Church. 

3.  Cliurch  Constitution.  —  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  originally  the  constitution  of  the  Keltic 
Church  was  that  of  other  churches  of  the  age. 
In  South  Britain  tliere  were  bishops,  and  with 
distinct  sees.  There  were  at  least  seven  in  Wales 
at  the  time  of  the  conference  at  Aust  with  Augu.<- 
tine  of  Canterbury.  Tliere  was  no  lack  of  them 
in  Ireland,  apparently,  in  the  time  of  St.  Patrick 
and  the  first  order  of  Irish  saints ;  though  they 
seem  to  have  been  but  tribal  bishops,  and  at  times 
located  in  groups  of  seven  near  each  other.  Ac- 
cording to  the  ancient  tradition,  they  were  greatly 
diminished  in  number  under  the  second  and  third 
orders  of  saints,  when  the  Church  assumed  more 
distinctively  its  monastic  and  missionary  form. 
Some  will  have  it,  that,  in  North  Britain,  they 
were  wanting  for  a  time  altogether  as  a  distinct 
order :  others  say  this  is  an  invention  of  igno- 
rant and  prejudiced  Presbyterians  ;  but,  whether 
it  be  true  or  not,  it  was  certainly  no  invention 
of  theirs,  any  more  than  the  sham  catalogues  of 
bishops  at  Armagh,  and  down  from  the  time  of 
St.  Patrick,  were  the  invention  of  liieir  Anglican 
opjionents.  Both  .statements  came  from  Roman- 
Catholic  sources ;  and  the  worst  that  can  be  said 
of  the  respective  parties  is,  that  each  may  have 
received  too  credulously  that  statement  which 
seemed  to  favor  their  own  views.  The  abbot  — 
generally  a  relative  of  the  cliieftain,  who  endowed 
the  religions  house  —  was  certainly  the  mo.st  im- 
portant dignitary  in  it,  and,  with  his  cimneil  of 
seniors,  not  only  managed  its  concerns  and  those 
of  affiliated  houses,  but  (according  to  Mr.  King, 
wlio  is  himself  an  Episoop.'ilian)  presided  in 
church  councils,  and  decided  controversies  "in 
connection  with  matters  of  religious  ojiinion  and 
lu'.actice."  Wliether  further  research  shall  oonfirm 
the  conclusions  of  Drs.  Killen  and  JI'Lauchlan,  or 
shall  clearly  show  (what  the  facts  as  yet  alleged 
by  Drs.  Reeves  and  Skene  seem  to  me  hardly 
sufficient  to  show)  that  thi'ro  were  from  the  JirsI 
in  the  monasteries  of  .Scollaml,  as  there  were  in  sev- 
eral of  the  monasteries  of  Ireland,  persons  bear- 
ing the  name  of  bishops;  whether  it  shall  confirm 
the  opinion  of  Ebrard,  that  the  Columban  bishops 
were  like  the  abbots  and  the  lectors  (simply  pres- 
byters appointed  to  a  special  work),  or  that  of  the 
learned  Irish  and  Scottish  anti(iuaries,  who  con- 
tend that  they  had  some  distinct  ordination,  — the 
fact  remains  uncontroverted  and  incontrovertible, 
that  for  centuries  they  were,  in  Ireland  and  .Scot- 
land, and  the  missions  on  the  Continent,  •mliordinate 
to  the  presbyter-abbot  and  his  council.     This  fact, 


KELTIC  CHURCH. 


1237 


KEMPIS. 


admitted  by  Bede,  and  in  harmony  witli  many 
others  recently  brought  to  light  by  Ritschl,  Light- 
foot,  and  Hatch,  is  capable  of  explanation  on  the 
hypothesis  that  l)ishop  and  presbyter  were  origi- 
nally but  different  names  for  one  office,  and  that 
the  distinction  between  theni  was  a  matter  of 
human  arrangement,  and  that  the  superiority  of 
the  former  over  the  latter  was  developed  after  the 
days  of  the  apostles  "  by  little  and  little,"  and  in 
some  countries  more  slowly  tlian  in  others.  But 
■on  the  hypothesis  that  the  bishop,  under  that  name 
or  any  other,  was  by  divine  appointment  distinct 
from  the  presbyter,  and  superior  to  him,  the  facts 
now  admitted  as  to  the  constitution  of  the  old 
Irish  and  Scottish  monastic  Church  seem  to  me 
.all  but  inexplicable.  The  analogy  sometimes 
drawn  between  the  position  of  such  a  bishop  and 
that  in  which  a  bishop  may  sometimes  find  hinr- 
self  in  a  college  or  university  still,  —  under  a 
presbyter  president  or  vice-chancellor,  —  fails  in 
<i  most  important  respect ;  for  neither  the  college 
nor  university  is  the  church  in  which  /lud  bishop 
he  is  to  discharge  his  function.  But  in  the  second 
period  of  the  Keltic  Church  the  monastery  and 
the  Church  were  one ;  and  the  special  sphere  in 
which  the  bishop  as  bishop  had  to  work  was  the 
mother-house,  or  its  affiliated  institutions.  In  all 
he  did  he  was  directed  by  the  abbot  and  his  coun- 
cil, and  that  even  in  the  act  of  ordination.  If 
the  word  onlinanles,  which  Bede  (in  Book  iii.  5) 
uses  of  the  presbyter-abbot  and  his  seniors  at 
lona,  is  not  to  be  taken  in  its  natural  sense  of 
an  act  done  by  themselves,  then  it  can  only  be 
taken  causatively,  i.e.,  of  an  act  ordered  or  caused 
to  be  done  by  them.  That  interpretation  is  hardly 
less  fatal  to  any  claim  of  the  bishop  to  an  office 
jure  diviito  higher  than  the  presbyter's. 

Lit.  —  Besides  the  Confessio  and  Epislola  of  St. 
Patrick,  the  Histories  of  Gildas,  Bede,  and  Nen- 
iiius ;  the  Annals  of  Ulster  and  of  the  Four  Mas- 
ters, in  O'Connor's  Rerum  Hibernicarum  Scrip- 
Jores,  Annates  Cambrice  ,  Chronicles  of  Ike  Picts  and 
•Scots ;  Books  of  Armagh,  Uimma,  Deer,  and  Lan- 
daff;Leabhar  Breacc;  Lives  of  Columba,  Colum- 
banus,  and  St.  Gall ;  Colgan's  and  Pinkertox's 
Lh-es  of  Saints  ,■  medisval  Lives  of  Ninian.  Kenti- 
gern,  and  other  British  and  Irish  saints ;  Martyr- 
ology  of  Angus  the  Culdee ,  Turgot's  Life  of  Si. 
Margaret  of  Scotland ,  Bernard's  Life  of  St. 
Malachy  of  Armagh,  Ussher's  Britannicarum 
Ecclesiarwn  ^n^i^uiVate,  and  other  works  ;  Ulster 
Journal  of  Archceology ,  publications  of  the  Irish 
Archsological  Society,  and  of  other  Irish  and 
Scottish  antiquarian  societies ;  L.\nigan's  and 
KiLLEx's  Church  Histories  of  Ireland ;  King's 
Primer  of  History  of  Church  in  Ireland  and  Early 
History  of  Primacy  of  Armagh  ,  Todd's  Life  of  St. 
Patrick  and  Hymns  of  Ancient  Church  of  Ireland  ; 
Haddan  and  Stubbs's  Councils  and  Ecclesiastical 
Documents  relating  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
{Oxford,  1S60)  ;' Remains  of  A.  W.  S.  Haddan 
(Oxford,  1876)  ;  Bright's  Early  English  Church 
History  (Oxford,  1878) ;  AV'arrex's  Lilurr/y  and 
Ritual  of  Keltic  Church  (Oxford,  1881),  and  litur- 
gical works  enumerated  therein  ;  arts,  in  Christian 
Remembrancer  from  1859  to  1867,  by  the  late  Pro- 
fessor Mozley;  Schoell's  De  EcciesiasticcE  Brito- 
num  et  Scotorum  Historice  fontibus,  and  art.  by  him 
in  Herzog's  Real-EncyHopddie  :  Scotland  in  Early 
Christian  Times,  being  Rhind  Lectures  in  connec- 


tion with  the  Antiq.  Soc.  of  Scotland,  by  Dr. 
Joseph  Anderson  (1st  series,  1879,  L'd  series,  1881); 
Skexe's  Keltic  Scotland,  and  other  works  enumer- 
ated in  arts,  on  Columba  and  Culdees  iii  previ- 
ous volume  of  this  work.     ALE.X.  F.  MITCITELL. 

KEMPIS,  Thomas  a,  the  author  of  the  I)e  Imi- 
tatione  Christi  ("  The  Imitatio]i  of  Christ ")  ;  b.  in 
1379,  or  1380,  in  Kempen,  a  town  forty  miles  noiHi 
of  Cologne;  d.  July  L'6,  1471,  at  Zwolle,  in  Uio 
Netherlands.  His  paternal  name  was  Hiimorken, 
or,  Latinized,  Malleolus.  He  was  brought  up 
with  care  by  his  parents,  and  sent  in  1395  to  a 
famous  school  in  Deventer,  then  under  the  charge 
of  Florentius  Radewijns  and  the  Brothers  of  Com- 
mon Life.  In  1400  he  was  admitted  to  the  Au- 
gustine convent  at  Mount  St.  Agnes,  near  Zwolle, 
received  priest's  orders  in  1413,  and  was  cho.sen 
subprior  in  1429.  In  consequence  of  a  papal  in- 
terdict, he  left  the  convent  for  a  season,  sojourn- 
ing at  Arnheim.  On  his  return  he  was  again,  in 
1448,  made  subprior. 

The  life  of  Thomas  was  an  uneventful  one,  and 
he  seems  to  have  taken  no  prominent  part  in  the 
public  movements  of  his  day.  It  was  while  he 
still  lived  that  the  papal  scliism,  the  condemnation 
of  Hus  and  Jerome,  and  other  important  ecclesi- 
astical events,  transpired.  His  piety  was  of  a  mys- 
tical type,  and  his  contemplative  nature  delighted 
(so  we  gather  from  his  ascetic  and  devotional  writ- 
ings) in  analyzing  the  motives  and  feelings  of  the 
soul,  and  directing  the  gaze  of  the  soul  to  Christ. 
He  confined  himself  to  the  retirement  of  the  con- 
vent, where  he  sometimes  preached,  and  devoted 
much  time  to  making  copies  of  manuscripts, 
amongst  which  was  the  Bible.  Underneath  an 
old  portrait  of  him  are  the  words,  which  no  doubt 
fitly  characterize  his  life,  "  Everywhere  I  sought 
quiet,  and  found  it  now  here  else  than  in  solitude 
and  amongst  books."  He  left  behind  him  a  num- 
ber of  works,  all  written  in  Latin,  most  of  which 
are  of  a  devotional  character.  Some  of  the  titles 
of  these  are,  The  Garden  of  the  Roses  {Hortulus 
rosarum),  The  Valley  of  the  Lilies  (  Vallis  liliorum), 
The  Soliloquy  of  the  Soul  (^Solilo<iuium  animee).  The 
Three  Tabernacles  {De  tribus  tabernaculis ;  i.e.,  pov- 
erty, humility,  and  patience).  Sermons  to  Novices, 
Sermons  and  Meditations  {Condones  et  medilationes 
on  the  life  and  death  of  our  Lord),  and  a  biogra- 
phy of  Florentius  Radewijns.  These  works,  how- 
ever, would  not  of  themselves  have  made  their 
author  famous,  and  given  to  his  name  a  tithe  of 
the  interest  which  attaches  to  it.  The  immortali- 
ty of  his  name  is  derived  from  the  De  Imitatione 
Christi.  This  work,  consisting  of  four  books,  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  heading  of  the  first  chap- 
ter of  the  first  book.  It  contains  meditations  upon 
the  spiritual  estate  of  the  soul,  and  the  ways  of 
drawing  into  a  closer  and  more  personal  union 
with  Christ,  and  overcoming  the  evil  tendencies 
of  the  natural  man.  It  would  be  superfluous  to 
say  any  thing  in  praise  of  this  book,  although  it 
must  be  confessed  that  its  quietistic  instructions 
need  to  be  supplemented  by  counsels  for  active 
work  amongst  men  to  make  it  fullj"  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  Christians.  It  is  calculated  to  promote 
personal  piety  in  retirement,  rather  than  to  fit  men 
for  engaging  in  the  public  battles  and  work  of  life. 
Next  to  the  Bible  it  has  perhaps  been  the  most 
extensively  u.sed  manual  of  devotion  in  Christian 
lauds.    The  first  printed  edition  appeared  at  Augs- 


KBMPIS. 


1238 


KBMPIS. 


burg,  in  1486  ;  and  there  were  at  least  twenty 
editions  before  the  close  of  the  century.  Since 
then  it  has  been  translated  into  many  languages, 
including  the  Hebrew  (Frankfurt,  1837).  A 
polyglot  edition  appeared  at  Sulzbach  in  1S37, 
coniprisiug  the  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  French, 
German,  English,  and  Greek  translations.  Some 
conception  of  the  number  of  editions  \\'hich  ha\'e 
since  appeared  may  be  secured  from  the  BUllingen 
collection  of  editions,  which  was  donated,  in  1838, 
to  the  Cologne  municipal  library,  and  contained 
at  that  time  four  hundred  copies. 

Tlie  authorship  of  the  Imitation  of  Christ,  al- 
though now  pretty  generally  ascribed  to  Thomas 
a  Kenjpis,  has  been  the  subject  of  one  of  the 
most  heated  discussions  in  the  history  of  litera- 
ture, and  one  in  which  not  only  individuals  took 
part,  but  also  two  celebrated  monastic  orders,  — ■ 
the  Angustinians  and  Benedictines.  Even  the 
honor  of  whole  nations  was  deemed  wrapped  up 
in  the  settlement  of  the  dispute.  This  discussion 
was  introduced  in  1604  by  Padro  Manriquez,  who 
asserted,  on  the  basis  of  an  alleged  quotation  of 
the  Imitation  of  Christ  by  Bonaventura,  in  his  Col- 
lationes,  that  the  author  must  have  lived  before 
Bonaventura.  About  the  same  time,  Rossignoli, 
superior  of  the  Jesuit  College  at  Arona,  near 
Milan,  found  a  manuscript  which  was  undated, 
but  bore  the  title  Inci/iiunt  capituta  primi  libri  Ahba- 
tis  Joh.  Gersen  or  Gesen.  As  the  establisliment  had 
originally  belonged  to  the  Benedictines,  it  was 
supposed  the  manuscript  was  very  old;  but  it  was 
proved  to  have  been  brought  from  Genoa  in  1579. 
It  was  natural  to  suppose  that  the  famous  chancel- 
lor of  Paris,  John  Gerson,  was  here  intended.  But 
the  Benedictine  Cajetan,  secretary  of  Paul  V., 
.sought  to  turn  the  discovery  to  the  advantage  of 
the  Benedictine  order,  and  had  an  edition  printed 
in  Rome,  in  which  the  work  was  ascribed  to  the 
"venerable  man  John  Gersen,  abbot  of  the  order 
of  St.  Benedict."  About  the  same  time  he  an- 
nounced tlie  discovery  of  a  Venice  edition,  in 
wliich  the  statement  occurred,  "  Xot  John  Gerson, 
but  John,  abbot  of  Vcrcelli,  wrote  this  book." 
Advocates  now  arose  defending  the  view  that  the 
work  was  written  by  Thomas  a  Kempis,  wliich 
had  been  the  most  current  view  up  to  tlie  begin- 
ning of  tlie  century.  In  1638  Cajetan  won  a  vic- 
tory, when  the  congregation  of  the  Index  allowed 
it  to  be  printed  under  the  name  of  Gersen.  But 
the  dispute  became  more  involved,  and  the  advo- 
cates of  the  different  views  more  intense  in  tlieir 
convictions.  The  Italians  claimed  that  it  must 
have  been  written  by  an  Italian;  the  French,  by 
the  great  Paris  cliancellor ;  and  the  Germans,  by 
a  Cierman.  In  1640  Richelieu  ordered  a  splendid 
edition,  but  lieing  urged,  on  the  one  hand,  by 
the  Benedictines  to  ascribe  it  to  Gersen,  by  the 
Angustinians,  on  the  other,  to  Thomas  h  Kempis, 
he  allowed  it  to  go  forth  as  an  anonymous  work. 
A  iminlier  of  works  were  written  on  the  subject, 
and  Du  Cange  and  Mabillon,  among  others,  es- 
jiou.sed  the  Benedictine  side;  while  Cane  (77i.  ft 
Kempis  a  aeipso  restitutus,  Paris,  1651),  liefer,  and 
others,  insisting  upon  the  Germanisms  of  the 
.style,  and  other  arguments,  urged  the  view  that 
Thomas  was  the  author.  The  dispute  has  been 
carried  on  down  to  the  present  time.  The  most 
inifiortant  of  the  more  recent  advocates  of  the 
Ger.son  authorshiij  are  Gr(;gory,  and  the  Italian 


Bartolomeo  Yeratti;  and,  of  the  Thomas  view, 
Malou,  Ullmann,  Bishop  Ilefele,  and  Kettlewell. 
On  the  other  hand  many  editors,  like  De  Sacy 
(Paris  edition,  1853)  and  Caro  (preface  to  Paris- 
edition,  1875),  leave  the  matter  undecided. 

The  weight  of  argument  is  decided!}'  on  the 
side  of  Thomas  k  Kempis.  Leaving  out  of  view 
the  evidence  di'awn  from  the  contents  of  the  De 
Imitatione,  and  the  alleged  Germanisms  in  the 
style,  we  will  briefly  sum  up  the  historical  proofs. 
(1)  The  anonymous  life  of  Thomas  k  Kempis,  a 
copy  of  which,  in  the  British  Museum,  bears  the 
date  1494,  but  which  was  probably  written  about 
ten  years  before,  states  that  Thomas  wrote  The 
Interior  Speaking  of  Christ  to  the  Faithful  Soul, 
which  is  the  third  book  of  the  De  Imitatione.  It 
adds  a  catalogue  of  thirty-eight  of  Thomas's  writ- 
ings, among  which  are  the  four  books  of  the  De 
Imitatione.  Buschius  (Adrien  de  But)  of  Win- 
desheim,  in  his  Chronicles  of  Windesheim,  writ- 
ten six  years  before  Tliomas's  death  (1464),  and 
Hermann  Ryd  (b.  1408),  expressly  attribute  it  to 
Thomas,  the  latter  speaking  of  him  as  a  brother 
at  Mount  St.  Agnes.  Further :  Peter  Schott,  who 
in  1488  edited  Gerson's  works,  does  not  include  it 
amongst  them,  but  expressly  ascribes  it  to  Thom- 
as. (2)  By  far  the  larger  number  of  manu- 
scripts before  1500  bear  his  name,  as  well  as  of 
the  printed  editions. 

There  are  no  contemporai-y  witnesses  to  the 
view  that  Gerson  was  the  author :  on  the  con- 
trary, the  lists  of  Gerson's  writings  given  by  John, 
prior  at  Lyons,  in  1423,  and  by  Caresius  in  1420, 
do  not  mention  the  De  hnitatione.  It  is  true  that 
some  of  the  manuscripts  give  his  name ;  but  this 
can  easily  be  explained  on  the  ground  that  Ger- 
son's reputation  as  a  theologian  and  mystical 
writer  was  constantly  increasing,  while  Thomas  a 
Kempis  was  comparatively  unknown.  As  for  Ger- 
sen, or  Gesen,  it  is  not  even  proved  that  a  dis- 
tinct person  of  this  name  ever  lived ;  and  the 
most  tenable  theory  is,  that  the  name  was  a  mis- 
spelling for  the  chancellor  of  Paris. 

Lit.  —  A  complete  edition  of  Thomas's  works 
by  SOiMMALius,  3  vols.,  Antwerp,  1600.  One  of 
the  best  Latin  editions  of  the  De  Imitatione  is 
IIihscuk's,  Berlin,  1874.  The  English  editions 
are  too  numerous  to  mention.  Canon  Fariar  con- 
tributed a  Preface  to  the  London  edition,  1881. 
For  his  Life  see,  besides  the  one  above  men- 
tioned, JoDocus  Bai>ius  AscKNSirs:  T7/rt  Rcr. 
P.  T'ho7nw  ii  Kempis,  1500;  RoswKynK:  Chronicon 
monast.  s.  Agnetis,  Antwerp,  1615,  cum  Jinswei/ili 
rindiciis  Kempensilnis,  1622;  L'li,m.\N",\  :  Reformers 
hifore  the  Reformation ,  Biiiiiu.Nii  :  IVi.  a  Kempis 
d.  Prediger  d.  Nachfolge  Christi,  etc.,  Bei'lin,  1854  ; 
Mooukn:  Nachrichten  iiher  Th.  a  A'cmy/Zs,  Crcl'eld, 
1855;  Kettlewkll  :  Thomas  a  Kemjiis  and  the 
Brothers  of  Common  Life,  2  vols.,  London  and 
New  York,  1882.  — Tlieauthorship  of  tlie  De  Imi- 
tatione. Gregory  :  Hist,  ilu  tirre  de  limitation, 
2  vols.,  1842;  Vkratti  :  Disqnizioni  fdologiche  e 
criliche  intorno  a  I'aulorc  del  libra  de  Jmit.  Christi, 
Modena,  1857;  Mai.iw  (bishop  of  Bruges):  Re- 
chcrchcs  hislorinties  et  crili(jues  sur  Ic  veritable  auteur 
du  livrc  de  V Imitation  de  J.  Christ.,  Touriiav, 
1848  (3d  ed.,  1858);  HihsciiE:  Prolngg.  zu  rin'er 
ncuen  Ausgabe  il.  Imilatio  Christi,  Berlin,  1873; 
Ketti.kwkli,  :  The  Authorship  if  the  De  Imita- 
tione Christi,  London,  1877 ;  Woi-ksokubku  (who 


KEN. 


1239 


KENNICOTT. 


gives  a  long  list  of  the  writers  on  this  subject)  : 
Giooanni  Gersen,  sein  Leben  untl  sein  Wcrk  de  Iini- 
tatione  Chrisli,  Augsburg,  1880;  Spitzen  :  T/i.  a 
Kernpis  als  Schrijccr  d.  Nauotinye  ihih  Chriali, 
Utrecht,  ISSl.  I).  S.  8C1IAFF. 

KEN,  Thomas,  a  devout  poet  and  bishop  of  the 
Church  of  England  ;  b.  at  Berkhanipstead,  Hert- 
fordshire, .July,  1(J37;  d.  at  Longleat,  Somerset- 
shire, March  19,  1711.  He  studied  at  Winchester 
school  and  Oxford ;  was  fellow  of  Winchester 
College  in  1600,  and  prebendary  of  the  cathedral 
in  1069.  In  1075  lie  visited  Rome,  and  on  his 
I'eturn  was  accused  of  leanings  towards  the  Ro- 
man-Catholic Church,  but  falsely.  In  1079  he 
was  made  chaplain  to  Mary,  at  tiie  court  of  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  .at  Tlie  Hague,  but  soon  returned 
to  England.  In  168^5,  when  he  was  again  residing 
at  Winchester,  he  showed  the  metal  lie  was  made 
of  by  refusing  to  give  up  his  apartment  to  Xell 
Gwynn,  the  mistress  of  Charles  II.,  who  was 
visiting  the  city.  When  called  upon  to  vacate  his 
room,  be  replied,  "  Not  for  the  king's  kingdom!  " 
Charles  respected  his  refusal,  and  soon  after- 
wards, when  the  see  of  Bath  and  Wells  became 
vacant,  made  him  bishop,  exclaiming,  "  Odds 
fish  !  who  shall  have  Bath  and  Wells  but  the 
little  fellow  who  would  not  give  poor  Nelly  a 
lodging."  He  was  with  the  king  during  his  last 
hours,  and  urged  him  to  beg  the  pardon  of  his 
wife  for  his  miserable  treatment  of  her,  pro- 
nounced absolution  over  him,  and  offered  him 
(though  in  vain)  the  sacrament.  He  was  loyal 
to  .lames  II.,  but  refused  to  read  the  Declaration 
of  Indulgence  which  that  sovereign  ordered  (May 
4,  1088)  to  be  read  in  the  churches,  and  was  one 
of  the  seven  bishops  thrown  into  the  Tower.  At 
the  accession  of  William  and  Mary  he  continued 
to  be  loyal  to  the  fortunes  of  the  exiled  king, 
and,  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  was 
in  1091  deprived  of  his  see.  He  retired  to  Long- 
leat in  Somersetshire,  where  he  spent  the  remain- 
der of  his  days,  and,  for  the  greater  part  of  the 
time,  preserved  from  want  by  an  annuity  from 
Queen  Anne,  of  two  hundred  pounds,  lie  de- 
clined to  be  reinstated  in  his  bishopric  at  the 
death  of  his  successor,  in  1703. 

Bishop  Ken  was  a  man  of  rare  piety  and  sweet- 
ness of  spirit,  and  of  fearless  independence.  He 
was  a  Non-juror  from  conscientious  convictions. 
Macaulay  speaks  of  his  "moral  character,  when 
impartially  reviewed,  as  sustaining  a  comparison 
with  any  in  ecclesiastical  history,  and  as  ap- 
proaching, as  near  as  human  infirmity  permits,  to 
the  ideal  perfection  of  Christian  virtue."  Of  his 
ability  in  the  pulpit,  no  testimony  remains,  except 
that  of  Evelyn,  who  speaks  of  '■  the  wonderful 
eloquence  of  this  admirable  preacher."  His  ser- 
mons are  no  longer  read.  Ken  has  a  conspicuous 
place  in  our  church  hynniology  as  tli«  author  of 
the  doxology,  "  Praise  God,  from  whom  all  bless- 
ings flow."  Two  of  his  hynms  —  the  morning 
hymn,  "  Awake,  my  soul,  and  with  the  sun,"  and 
the  evening  hynm,  '•  Glory  to  thee,  my  Lord,  this 
night,"  or,  as  it  is  usually  written,  "  All  praise  to 
thee,  my  God,  this  night"  —  are  among  the  purest, 
as  well  as  most  genial,  hymns  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. The  Doxology  forms  the  last  stanza  of 
the  evening  hymn.  His  sacred  lyrics  went  under 
the  title.  Morning,  Evening,  and  Midnight  Hi/mns; 
and,  according  to  Bowles,  many  of  them  (includ- 


ing the  Morning  and  Evening  Hymns)  were  written 
for  the  boys  of  Winchester  College,  and  during 
his  incumbency  as  fellow.  During  the  last  years 
of  his  life  this  devout  man  carried  his  shroud  in 
liis  portmanteau,  and  was  accustomed  to  say  that 
"  it  might  be  as  soon  wanted  as  any  other  of  his 
habiliments."  He  was  buried  at  Frome,  near 
Longleat,  and,  at  his  request,  just  as  the  sun  was 
rising,  —  a  circumstance  appropriate  to  the  first 
line  of  his  morning  hymn,  which  was  sung. 

Ken's  Poetical  IFocfo  were  pulilished  in  4  vols., 
London,  1721,  with  a  Life  prefixed  by  W.  Haw- 
kins, which  had  previously  appeared  separately 
in  17L5.  His  Prose  Works  were  edited  by 
Round,  London,  1838.  Other  Lives,  L-,-  Bowles, 
2  vols.,  London,  18.30;  A  Layman  (.J.  L.  An- 
derdon),  London,  1851,  2d  ed.,  1854  (the  best) ; 
DuYCK.sHANK,  New  York,  1859. 

KEN'ITES,  The,  were  a  small  tribe  belonging 
to  the  Mi<lianites.  They  are  first  mentioned  in 
Abraham's  time,  as  living,  in  part  at  least,  in 
Canaan  (Gen.  xv.  19).  In  the  time  of  the  wan- 
dering they  are  found  about  Sinai ;  for  to  them 
Hobab,  Moses'  brother-in-law  belonged  (cf.  .Judg. 
i.  16 ;  Num.  x.  29),  and  with  the  Israelites  they 
made  the  journey  to  Palestine.  Their  encamp- 
ment, apart  from  the  latter's,  was  noticed  by 
Balaam  (Num.  xxiv.  21,  22).  At  a  later  period 
some  of  them  were  living  in  the  northern  part  of 
Canaan  (Judg.  iv.  11),  and  some  in  the  extreme 
south,  near  Judah  (Judg.  i.  10);  and  there  they 
were  in  Saul's  time  (1  Sam.  xv.  6).  The  kind- 
ness they  had  showed  to  Israel  in  the  wilderness 
was  gratefully  remembered ;  and  so  they  were 
not  only  spared  by  Saul,  but  David  allowed  them 
to  share  in  the  spoil  he  took  from  the  Amalekites 
(1  Sam.  XV.  6,  xxvii.  10,  xxx.  29).  They  then 
lived  in  cities.  RUETJ5CHI. 

KENNET,  White,  antiquary,  b.  at  Dover,  1660; 
d.  at  Westminster,  Dec.  19,  1728.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  Oxfoi'd,  where  he  was,  a  few  years 
later,  tutor  and  vice-principal  of  St.  Edmund's 
Hall,  and  excited  great  interest  in  antiquities. 
He  was  made  dean  of  Peterborougli,  1707,  and 
then  bishop  of  the  diocese  of  that  name,  1718. 
His  most  valuable  work  is  Parochial  Antiquities 
of  Oxford  and  Buckshire,  Oxford,  1095.  He  was 
a  vigorous  upholder  of  the  Low  Church  party. 

KENNICOTT,  Benjamin,  Hebraist,  b.at  Totnes, 
Devonshire,  April  4,  1718;  d.  at  Oxford,  Sept.  18, 
1783.  lie  studied  at  Oxford,  and  was  elected 
fellow  of  Exeter  College,  1747,  in  consequence  of 
Two  Dissertations :  the  First  on  the  Tree  of  Life  in 
Paradise,  and  the  Second  on  the  Oblations  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  Oxford,  1747.  Soon  after,  he  formed 
the  design  of  collating  the  Hebrew  manuscripts 
of  the  Bible ;  and,  in  order  to  excite  interest  in 
his  plans,  he  published  The  State  of  the  Printed 
Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament  considered,  Ox- 
ford, 1753-59,  2  vols.  The  expenses  of  the  colla- 
tion w-ere  borne  by  a  subscription  of  ten  thousand 
pounds.  Very  many  persons  at  home  and  abroad 
were  employed  :  chief  of  tlie.se  was  Professor 
Paul  Jakobiis  Bruns  of  Hehnstadt  (d.  1814),  who 
collated  Hebrew  manuscripts  in  Germany.  Italy, 
and  Switzerland.  The  work  lasted  from  1760  to 
1709  inclusive.  Annual  reports  \Yere  made.  Six 
hundred  and  fifteen  Hebrew  manuscripts  and 
sixteen  manuscripts  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch 
were  collated.     As  the  result  of  this  long  labor, 


KENOSIS. 


1240 


KESSLBR. 


lie  published  his  Hebrew  Bible,  Velus  Testametdum 
Hebraicum  cum  variis  Lectinnihus.  Oxford,  1776-80, 

2  vols.  Meanwhile,  in  1761,  he  took  his  doctor's 
degree;  in  1767  was  made  Radclifte  librarian;  and 
in  October,  1770,  canon  of  Christ  Chiuch,  and 
rector  of  CuUjam,  Oxfordshire. 

The  various  readings  noticed  in  his  Hebrew 
Bible,  and  which  were  printed  at  tlie  foot  of  the 
page,  relate  only  to  the  consonants.  The  text  is 
Van  der  Hooght's,  pointed.  To  the  second  vol- 
ume, Kennicott  prefixed  a  Dissirlatio  gentralis  in 
r.  T.  Hebraicum  (separately  published  by  Bruns, 
Brunswick,  17S3),  in  which  he  described  and 
justified  his  undertaking,  and  gave  a  history  of 
the  Hebrew  text  from  the  Babylonian  captivity. 
De  Rossi  supplemented  the  labors  of  Kennicott 
in  his  Variae  lectiones  V.  T.,  etc.  (Parma,  1784:-88, 
4  vols.  ;  supplement,  1798).  The  whole  number 
of  manuscripts  collated  by  these  two  was  thirteen 
iuudred  and  forty-six.  Kennicott's  work  was 
affected  adversely  by  his  preference  for  the  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch,  his  deliberate  neglect  of  the 
Massorah,  and  disregard  of  the  vowel-points,  his 
lack  of  uniforjuity,  and  occasionally  of  accuracy, 
and  his  defective  judgment.  But,  on  the  other 
hand,  his  service  to  textual  criticism  was  immense, 
and  he  desei'ves  the  highest  praise.  See  Horxe  : 
Introduction.  14th  ed.,  p.  iv.  674 ;  Davidson  : 
Biblical_  Criticism. 

KENOSIS.     See  Christology,  pp.  461  sqq. 

KENRICK,  Francis  Patrick,  American  Roman- 
Catliolic  prelate ;  b.  in  Dublin,  Dec.  3,  1797 ;  d.  in 
Baltimore,  July  8, 1863.  He  was  educated  at  the 
Propaganda,  Rome ;  came  to  America  1821 ;  was 
consecrated  coadjutor-bishop  at  Bardstown,  Ky., 
June  6,  1830;  became  full  bishop  1842;  made 
archbishop  of  Baltimore  1851 ;  presided  as  "apos- 
tolic delegate  "  over  the  first  plenary  council  otf 
the  United  States,  convened  at  Baltimore,  May, 
18.52 :  and  in  1859  the  Pope  conferred  upon  him 
and  liis  successors  the  "  primacy  of  honor,"  which 
puts  the  see  of  Baltimore  at  the  head  of  the 
Roman-Catholic  clergy  of  tlie  United  States.  As 
a  writer  lie  was  highly  esteemed.  Besides  polem- 
ical works,  he  wrote  Thenlogia  doi/matica  (Phila- 
delpliia,  1839-10,4  vols.;  2d  ed.,' Mechlin,  18.58, 

3  vols.)  and  Theotogia  moralis  (Philadelpliia,  1841- 
43,  3  vols. ;  2d  ed.,  Mechlin,  18.59).  These  volumes 
are  in  Latin,  and  cou.stitute  a  com])lete  body  of 
divinity,  and  are  considered  classical  in  the 
Roman-Catholic  seminaries  of  America.  He 
likewise  rendered  a  service  to  Bible  .study  by 
issuing  an  annotated  and  revised  translation  of 
the  entire  New  Testament  (New  York,  1849-51, 
2  vols.),  and  ef  the  Old  Testament,  the  Psahns, 
Book  of  Wisdom,  and  Canticles  (Baltimore,  1857), 
Job  and  the  Pro[)liets  (18.59),  and  tlie  Pentateuch 
(1860),  Historical  Books  (1862).  This  revi.sed 
translation  ranks  with  the  best  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  versions,  and  is  far  superior  to  tliat  in 
ordinary  use. 

KENTICERN  {head  master),  St.,  a  Scottish  saint, 
"the  apostle  of  Strathclyde,  and  the  restorer  of 
Cliristianity  among  the  Cumbrians ;  "  1).  at  Cul- 
cross  about  516;  d.  at  Ghisgow  603.  He  is  sup- 
po-sed  to  have  l^en  the  cliil<l  of  a  nun;  but  little 
certain  is  known  respecting  Ids  lif(%  Tradition 
makes  him  the  foster-child  of  a  man  who  livi'd 
two  hundred  years  after  him,  and  to  have  wrought 
many  miracles.     According   to  the  8torie.s   told 


about  him,  which  may  have  elements  of  truth  in 
them,  his  earlj'  home  was  Culenross  (Culcross). 
His  popular  name,  INIunghu,  or  Mungo  {dearest 
friend),  was  a  proof  of  his  amiability.  The  jeal- 
ousy of  his  fellow-pupils  drove  him  to  Cathures 
(Glasgow)  :  there  he  lived  with  two  brothers, 
ever  increasing  in  fame  on  account  of  his  sanctity 
and  miracles.  He  attracted  the  notice  of  the 
King  of  Cumbria,  and  was  consecrated  bishop  of 
Glasgu  {the  dear  Jamil!/).  Owing  to  the  feuds 
and  wars,  he  was  some  time  afterwards  compelled 
to  flee  into  South  Wales,  where  he  founded  the 
Monastery  of  Llanelwy,  afterwards  St.  Asaph's. 
But  in  560  he  returned,  and  died  in  his  see.  His 
day  is  Jan.  13.  See  Bishop  Foubes,  in  vol.  v. 
of  The  Historians  of  Scotland,  Edinburgh,  1871, 
who  gives  the  legendary  lives  of  the  saint ;  also 
Skkxe's  Ccllic  Scotland,  London,  1876-80,  3  vols. 

KERCKHAVEN,  Jan  van  den  (Polyander),  b. 
at  Metz,  March  26,  1568 ;  d.  at  Leyden,  Feb.  4, 
1646 ;  studied  at  Heidelberg  and  Geneva,  and  was 
appointed  pastor  of  the  French  congregation  in 
Dort,  1591,  and  professor  of  theology  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden,  1611.  As  a  member  of  the 
synod  of  Dort,  he  sided  with  Goniarus,  and  was 
charged  with  the  drawing-up  of  the  canons.  He 
was  also  a  member  of  the  committee  on  the  revis- 
ion of  the  Bible  and  a  prolific  writer  of  polemics. 

KERI  and  KETHIBH,  better,  K'ri  and  K'thibh. 
The  margin  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  exhibits  numer- 
ous various  readings,  i.e.,  variations  from  the  text, 
of  an  early  date,  which  have  been  preferred  by 
Jewish  critics  to  the  readings  in  the  text.  These 
are  called  "^p  ("to  be  read  ")  ;  and  the  text-read- 
ings, 2'P3  ("  written  "),  —  words  corresponding  to 
our  text  (Kethibh)  and  nuirgin  (Keri).  The  Keri 
is  the  most  valuable  critico-exegetical  legacy  from 
the  ancient  .Jewish  critics.  Dr.  Ginsburg  states 
that  there  are  1,353  Keris  in  the  rabbinic  Bibles. 
The  Keri  is  always  printed  without  points;  but 
the  points  which  properly  belong  to  it  are  given 
to  the  word  in  the  text.  To  indicate  the  Keri,  a 
small  circle  or  asterisk  is  put  over  the  word  in  the 
text;  e.g.,  Jer.  xlii.  6:  Kethibh  is  •^jx;  Keri  is 
ijnjN ;  transferring  the  vowels  in  tlie  text  to  the 
margin  gives  '^JnjN,  while,  if  the  text  had  its 
proper  vowels,  it  would  read  '^JK.  See  Gixsuurg, 
art.  in  Kitto's  C;/cloj»rdia  of  Biblical  Literature. 

KERO,  said  to  have  been  a  monk  of  St.  Gall  in 
the  time  of  Abbot  Otlimar,  720-759.  Melchior 
(Joldast  (d.  1635)  and  .Todocus  Metzler  (il.  1639) 
ascribe  to  him  the  oldest  German  translation  of 
the  rules  of  the  Benedictines,  the  GViw.svin'nm  Ke- 
ronif,  and  several  other  works.  But  the  only  KiTO 
we  know  of  .is  monk  in  .St.  Gall  during  the  eighth 
century,  is  mentioned  in  a  document  dated  Oct. 
28,  799 ;  and  internal  reasons  forbid  to  consider 
him  the  author  of  the  above  works.  Kero  seems, 
indeed,  to  be  a  purely  fictitious  name  under  which 
a  number  of  works  were  gathered  in  the  cata- 
logues. See  SciiiCKKU  :  Verzeichniss  d.  Hand- 
schriftcn  d.  Stiflsbibliolhck  ron  St.  (iatlcn.  310-313. 

KESSLER,  Johannes  (Chesselius,  Ahenarius), 
b.  at  St.  (iall;  d.  there  March  1.5,  1574  ;  studied 
theology  at  Basel,  and  went  in  1.522  to  Wittenberg, 
but  determined,  on  his  return,  in  1523,  to  go  into 
business,  ami  not  to  take  ordiMS.  He  became  a 
saddler.  Nevertheless,  lie  soon  after  began  to 
^.'Bach,  and  hold  meetings  in  private  liouses;  and 


KETTBLBR. 


1241 


KBYS. 


the  impression  lie  made  was  so  strong,  that  the 
magistrate  became  alarmed,  and  interfered.  After 
a  sliort  interruption,  however,  he  began  again ; 
and  in  1535  lie  became,  with  tlie  consent  of  the 
magistrate,  the  regular  preacher  to  tlie  evangeli- 
cal congregation  of  St.  Margaret.  In  1537  he  was 
appointed  teacher  of  classical  languages  in  the 
gymnasium,  and  in  1542  regular  pastor  of  St. 
Gall,  whose  evangelization  he  successfully  carried 
through.  He  wrote  the  history  of  the  reforma- 
tion of  St. 'Gall,  Sahbatii,  edited  by  Ernst  (iotzin- 
ger,  18(in-(i8.  and  a  Life  of  Vadian.  See  J.  J. 
BKitXET  :  Johaiin  A'f.Wer,  r/ciiannt  Ahcnarius,  St. 
(iall,   l.S2(;.  BER.N'ilAUD    KIGOENHACir. 

KETTELER,  Wilhelm  Emanuel,  Baron  von,  b. 
at  Miinster,  Dec.  25,  1811 ;  d.  at  Burghausen,  in 
Upper  Bavaria,  July  13,  1877  ;  was  ecUicated  by 
the  Jesuits  at  Brieg,  in  Valais,  Switzerland  ;  stud- 
ied law  at  Gottingen,  Berlin,  Munich,  and  Heidel- 
berg; and  received  an  appointment  in  the  Prussian 
civil  service,  but  gave  up  this  position  in  18iS7 ; 
studied  theology  at  Miinster ;  entered  the  service 
of  the  Church;  was  ordained  priest  in  1844;  and 
appointed  liishop  of  Mayence  in  1851.  To  restore 
the  Church  of  Rome  to  its  old  power  and  splendor 
was  the  great  idea  of  his  life  ;  and,  as  the  acknowl- 
edged leader  of  the  Ultramontane  party  in  Ger- 
many, he  fought  for  this  idea  with  as  much  adroit- 
ness as  audacity.  At  the  Council  of  the  Vatican 
he  belonged  to  the  minority  (see  his  Das  all;/e- 
meine  Concil,  1869),  and  he  left  Rome  before  its 
close ;  but,  as  soon  as  the  dogma  of  papal  infalli- 
bility was  promulgated,  he  accepted  it,  published 
it  in  his  diocese,  and  employed  every  means  at  his 
disposal  for  the  suppression  of  opposition  to  it. 
Well  aware  of  the  danger  to  the  realization  of  his 
ideas,  which  arose  from  the  establishment  of  a 
German  empire  under  the  Protestant  liouse  of 
Hohenzollern,  he  resisted  the  consolidation  of  the 
new  organization  in  every  possible  way :  he  even 
forbade  the  celebration  of  the  anniversary  of  the 
battle  of  Sedan  in  his  diocese.  In  his  opposition 
to  Prince  Bismarck's  policy  of  placing  tlie  Roman- 
Catholic  Cliurch,  in  its  relation  to  the  State,  on  an 
equality  with  other  social  institutions,  no  measure 
seemed  to  him  too  mean,  if  it  promised  to  prove 
effective.  He  fomented  the  Socialist  movement, 
and  even  made  an  alliance  with  Ferdinand  La- 
salle.  (See  his  D.  Arheiterfrage  itnil  d.  Christen- 
thum,  1864.)  His  writings  consist  mostly  of  minor 
pamphlets  destined  for  certain  occasions,  such  as 
Freiheit,  AiUorituI,  und  Kirche  (1862),  Hirtenbrief 
iiber  d.  Syllabus  (1865),  etc. 

KETTENBACH,  Heinrich  von,  siicoeeded,  in 
1.521,  .lohann  Kberlin  von  Gunzburg,  who  was  dis- 
charged for  holding  evangelical  views  as  lector  in 
the  Franciscan  monastery  of  Ulm,  but  fled  from 
the  city  the  next  year,  having  delivered  a  series 
of  sermons,  in  which  he  held  up  both  the  Pope 
and  the  Church  of  Rome  to  contemi^t  and  ridicule. 
In  1523  he  wrote  in  behalf  of  Sickingen,  and, 
after  Sickingen's  death,  in  his  defence ;  and  in 
1524  he  published  an  apology  for  Luther,  less 
passionate,  but  still  very  effective.  After  that 
time  he  disapipears :  perhaps  he  fell  in  the  Peas- 
ants' War,  which,  with  or  against  his  will,  he  had 
contributed  much  to  stir  up.  The  circumstance 
that  in  1530  Eck  cites  him,  together  with  Luther 
and  Blaurer,  shows  that  he  had  made  a  considera- 
ble impression,  as  also  that  he  wrote  more  than 


what  has  come  down  to  us.     See  Keim  :  Reform, 
d.  Rrichstadt  Ulm.         BERNIIAKD   RlGCiENBACH. 

KEYS,  The  Power  of  the,  a  symbolical  term, 
whicli  in  a  more  extended  sense  denotes  the 
whole  range  of  the  power  of  the  Church,  while 
in  a  narrower  sense  it  simply  means  the  ])ower 
of  granting  or  refusing  absolution.  In  the  his- 
tory of  the  Church  the  meaning  of  the  term  lias 
undergone  a  mo.st  significant  development,  and  it 
still  forms  one  of  the  chief  points  of  difference 
between  the  diffei-ent  parts  of  Christendom. 

I.  In  the  New  Testament.  —  The  expres- 
sion "the  keys  of  the  house  of  David"  (Isa.  xxii. 
22)  refers  to  the  power  which  the  steward  of  the 
king  exercised  in  the  royal  household ;  and,  by 
a  somewhat  extended  symbolism,  the  expression 
"  the  key  of  David  "  (Rev.  iii.  7)  refers  to  the 
power  W'hich  Christ  exercises  in  his  own  king- 
dom, especially  with  regard  to  admission  and  ex- 
clusion. AVhen  Jesus  solemnly  gave  the  keys  of 
the  kingdom  of  heaven  to  Peter  (Matt.  xvi.  19), 
he  thereby  simply  introduced  him  into  the  apos- 
tolical office,  authorizing  him  to  fomid  the  Chris- 
tian Church  :  and  the  connnission  to  the  apostles 
in  general  (John  xx.  23)  must  be  understood  in 
the  same  sense.  At  all  events,  there  is  in  the  Xew 
Testament  no  trace  of  an  apostle  forgiving  sins 
in  the  same  personal,  categorical  manner  as  Jesus 
did  it  (Matt.  ix.  2)  ;  and,  even  if  there  were,  it 
would  still  be  doubtful  whether  such  a  pow-er  — 
by  its  very  nature  a  personal  charisma,  and  not 
by  any  means  an  attribute  of  an  office  —  ever  was 
ti'ansf erred  to  the  later  Cliurch. 

From  this  power  of  the  keys,  signifying  the 
general  apostolical  authority,  must  be  distin- 
guished the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  which 
Jesus  conferred  first  on  Peter  (Matt.  xvi.  19),  and 
then  (Matt,  xviii.  18),  not  only  on  the  other  apos- 
tles, but  on  the  whole  congregation.  The  ex- 
pression "  to  bind  and  to  loose,"  which,  according 
to  New-Testament  usage,  requires  an  impersonal 
and  not  a  personal  object  for  its  completion, 
means  in  rabbinical  language  simply  to  allow  and 
forbid,  to  confirm  and  abolish  (Ligiitfoot  :  Horce 
Hcbraicce  in  ev.  Malth.,  xvi.  19;  Vitringa  :  De 
si/n.  vet.,  7.54;  Boehmer:  Diss.  Jur.  eccL,  p.  S3; 
Ritschl  :  Altlalh.  Kirche,  2d  ed.,  p.  372).  and 
refers  in  the  above  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment exclusively  to  the  social  sphere  of  the  life 
of  the  Christian  Church.  The  apostolical  writ- 
ings know  no  other  power  of  forgiving  sins  as 
active  in  the  congregation,  but  the  preaching  of 
the  gospel  (2  Cor.  v.  18)  and  the  prayers  of  the 
faithful  (1  John  v.  16 ;  Jas.  v.  16)  ;  and,  when 
the  later  Church  undertook  to  rear  a  different 
opinion  on  the  basis  of  1  Cor.  v.  3-5,  it  erred,  as 
is  shown  by  Ritschl,  /.  c,  p.  337. 

II.  Among  the  F.\thers.  —  Misconceptions 
of  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  arose  very 
early.  The  Clementine  Homilies,  representing  a 
Jud»o-Christian  stand-point,  know  very  well  the 
original  meaning  of  the  two  verbs,  "  to  bind  "  and 
"  to  loose,"  and  correctly  supplement  them  with 
impersonal  objects  ;  but  at  the  same  time  tliey  ex- 
tend the  sense  so  as  to  encompass  the  whole  power 
of  the  episcopal  office  as  a  continuation  of  the 
apostolic  office  (iii.  72).  (hi  the  other  hand,  the 
Gentile-Christian  churches  of  the  second  century 
interpreted  the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  as  an 
authority  to   retain   and  remit  sin,  and   supple' 


KEYS. 


1242 


KETS. 


mented  the  two  verbs  with  personal  objects.  But 
while  thus  identifying  the  power  of  the  keys,  and 
the  power  to  bind  and  to  loose,  making  no  other 
distinction  between  them  than  that  between  the 
more  general  and  the  more  special  expression, 
the  Gentile-Christian  churches  did  not  consider 
the  bishop  the  bearer  of  this  power :  it  rested 
with  the  congregation  as  a  totality. 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  however,  that  some 
vagueness  and  confusion  should  prevail  in  the 
ancient  Church  concerning  these  ideas.  In  the 
further  development,  Montanism  forms  an  impor- 
tant link.  Tertullian  teaches  that  the  power  to 
forgive  sins  belongs  to  the  Church  ;  but,  as  it  be- 
longs to  the  Church  only  so  far  as  she  is  identical 
with  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  right  to  exercise  the 
power  belongs  exclusively  to  her  truly  spiritual 
members,  —  the  homo  spiritualis.  In  his  work  De 
puiUcitia  he  sets  forth  this  idea  in  opposition  to 
the  bishop  of  Rome,  who  taught  that  the  power 
to  forgive  sins  was  vested  in  tiie  whole  episcopate 
(numerus  episcoporuni) .  The  latter  view  was  then 
taken  up  and  carried  farther  by  Cj'prian.  As 
the  bishop,  he  says,  is  the  heir  ot  the  apostolical 
power,  and  the  seat  and  organ  of  the  Holy  Spii-it, 
he — that  is,  not  the  whole  episcopate,  but  evei-j* 
single  bishop  —  has  the  power  to  forgive  sins. 
Optatus  of  Slileve  finally  formulates  the  argu- 
ment in  this  way  :  Christ  gave  the  keys  to  Peter, 
and  it  was  Peter  who  then  gave  them  to  the  other 
apostles. 

In  the  works  of  Cyprian,  the  phrase  "  to  bind 
and  to  loose  "  always  means  to  retain  and  to  re- 
mit sin.  Excommunication  and  reconciliation 
are  identical  with  anathema  and  absolution,  only 
that  the  words  have  not  yet  that  fulness  and  ex- 
plicitness  of  meaning  which  they  attained  during 
the  middle  ages.  The  atoning  power  of  penance 
still  depends  upon  the  activity  of  the  penitent, 
rather  than  upon  the  activity  of  the  Church.  All 
the  Church  can  do  is  to  prescribe  the  medicine  for 
the  wounds  which  sin  has  made ;  and  wound  and 
sin,  medicine  and  penance,  physician  and  priests, 
are  ever  recurring  similitudes.  Nevertheless,  the 
Churcli  is  not  altogether  without  some  kind  of  a 
mediating  office.  Eilrn  erdesiam  nulla  salus  ("  out- 
side of  the  Church  no  salvation  "),  says  Cyprian  ; 
and  he  repeats  it  with  great  empliasis.  The  na- 
ture of  this  orticc  begins  to  show  in  the  writings 
of  Augustine.  The  similitudes  change.  Sin  does 
not  make  a  wound  any  more:  it  kills.  The  sin- 
ner is  not  a  sick  man  who  needs  to  be  cured,  but 
a  dead  man,  who  needs  to  be  restored  to  life.  The 
resurrection  of  Lazarus  is  woven  into  the  whole 
argument.  This  restoration  to  life  thi'  Churcli, 
of  course,  cannot  perform;  but  Augustine  asserts 
(Serm.,  99,  9)  that  it  is  done  througli  tlie  Church, 
by  means  of  tlie  Church.  In  the  writings  of  Leo 
the  Great,  finally,  the  Iloman-Catholic  idea  of 
the  priesthood  as  a  special  power  mediating  be- 
tween (jod  and  man,  and  without  whose  media- 
tion no  divine  grace  can  take  effect,  liecomes 
definitely  formed  :  without  the  intercession  of  the 
priest,  sin  cannot  lie  forgiven,  —  ul  iiuluhjenlia  Dei 
nisi  supplicfitionihn.i  saceritolum  nequeal  ohlineri 
(Kp.  li»8,  ml  T/ieml.,  cap.  ii.). 

III.    DtJKI.NIi    TIIK    MiDDI.K  AoE.I,  AND    IN   TIIF. 

Koman-Catiioi.ic  Dogmatics. — The  primitive 
Church  distinguished  lietween  tliree  classes  of 
members,  —  the  faithful,  the   catechumens,  and 


the  penitent.  The  power  of  the  keys  was  estab> 
lished  chiefly  for  the  third  class,  though  in  some 
respects  also  for  the  second  ;  but  there  is  nothing 
which  indicates  that  the  faithful  ever  made  a 
confession  of  sin  to  the  priest,  even  not  before 
partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Early  in  the 
middle  ages,  however,  and  among  the  newly  con- 
verted German  peoples,  a  tendency  arose  to  make 
penance,  which  originally  was  a  special  institu- 
tion for  special  occasions,  a  general  characteristic 
of  the  whole  Church,  and  to  establish  the  power 
of  the  keys,  which  originally  dealt  with  the  peni- 
tents only,  as  a  general  court  of  judicature  above 
all  the  faithful.  The  first  germ  of  that  tendency 
may  be  discovered  in  the  circumstance,  that, 
through  the  monastic  discipline,  sins  in  thought 
gradually  became  subject  to  the  power  of  the  keys, 
which  in  the  primitive  Church  they  were  not. 
(See  Wasserschleben  :  Bussonhiuugen  der  abend- 
landischen  Kirche.)  In  the  monasteries  it  was 
considered  a  rule  of  discipline  to  confess  to  the 
brethren  even  the  slightest  occurrences  of  sinful 
emotions.  The  penitential  of  Vinnian,  an  Irish- 
man who  flourished  in  the  old  Briton  Church 
towards  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  prescribes 
for  sins  in  thought  a  rigid  fast  for  half  a  j-ear,  and 
abstinence  from  wine  and  meat  for  a  whole  year. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  penitential,  which  bears  the 
name  of  Theodore  of  Canterbury,  prescribes  from 
twenty  to  forty  days'  fast  for  feeling  lust.  Co- 
lumban  (d.  015)  brought  this  whole  system  to  the 
Continent ;  and  so  rapidlv  did  it  take  root  there, 
that  Abbot  Gthmar  of  St.  Gall  (d.  761)  sets  it 
forth  as  a  maxim,  —  no  confession,  no  forgiveness 
of  sin ;  and  Regino  of  Priim  (d.  915)  demands 
that  every  member  of  the  congregation  shall 
confess  at  least  once  a  year.  The  first  provincial 
svnod  which  makes  confession  a  general  duty  is 
that  of  Aenham,  1109.  Innocent  III.  (1198-1216) 
finally  introduced  confession  throughout  the 
Church  in  spite  of  the  opposition  which  the 
penitentials  produced,  especially  in  France. 

With  regard  to  the  tlieological  definition  of 
absolution,  and  the  part  belonging  to  the  priest 
in  its  administration,  two  different  views  run 
almost  parallel  witli  each  other  during  the  first 
part  of  the  middle  ages.  According  to  tlie  one 
view  represented  by  Jerome  and  Gn^goiy  the 
Great,  the  priest  is  simply  judge  in  foro  rcrlesice : 
lie  declares  that  forgiveness  has  taken  place,  but 
takes  no  part  hinuself  in  the  act  of  forgiving. 
The  diviiu^  forgiveness  takes  place  before  the  ab- 
solution by  the  priest,  even  before  the  confession 
by  the  sinner,  in  the  very  moment  the  heart 
repents.  How  prominent  tliis  view  was,  even  in 
the  twelfth  century,  may  be  seen  from  the  manner 
in  whicli  Gratian  treats  the  subject  (cans,  xxxiii. 
qu.  iii.).  He  rai.'ses  the  question  wliether  or  not 
a  sinner  can  satisfy  God  by  repentance  only,  and 
secret  penance  without  confession,  then  .stales  the 
arguments  and  authorities  on  both  sides,  but 
finally  leaves  the  reader  to  decide  the  ([uestion 
for  luniself.  Petrus  Lombardns,  the  contempo- 
rary of  Gratian,  detines  (lib.  iv.  dist.  17)  the 
(iriest's  power  to  bind  and  to  loose  as  a  power 
merely  of  declaration,  just  as  the  disciples  could 
not  free  Lazarus  from  liis  bands  unlil  Christ  had 
revivified  him.  Still  Miore  explicit  are  Cani'pa; 
Robi^rt  Pulleyn  (d.  ll.'')(l)  and  Peter  of  Poitiers, 
chancellor  of   the  university  of   Paris  (d.  about 


KEYS. 


1243 


KHLESL. 


1204).  According-  to  tlie  other  view,  represented 
by  Leo  the  (ireat  and  Alcuin,  the  priest  is  not 
simply  judge  hi  foro  ecclesm,\>\it  in  foro  Dei, — 
a  true  and  indispensable  mediator  between  God 
and  the  penitent.  It  fouiul  its  full  development 
in  the  De  vera  ct  falsa pumilentia,  a  work  belonging 
to  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  century,  but  ascribed 
to  Augustine,  and  in  the  school  of  the  Vietorines. 
The  priest  appears  as  the  representative  of  God, 
<3r  as  a  kind  of  God  himself ;  and,  in  his  De 
potestate  Ugandi  el  solvendi,  Richard  of  St.  Victor 
■explains  how  God  transforms  the  eternal  punish- 
ment into  a  transitory  one,  and  how  the  priest 
transforms  the  transitory  punishment  into  a  pen- 
ance. 

These  views  were  dialectically  reconciled,  and 
•combined  with  each  other,  by  the  great  schoolmen 
■of  the  thirteenth  century,  especially  by  Thomas 
Aquinas.  He  starts  from  the  propositions  on 
■which  the  first  of  the  above-mentioned  views  is 
based,  —  that  it  is  God  alone  who  can  forgive  sin, 
and  that  he  does  so  solely  for  the  sake  of  the 
sinner's  repentance.  But  he  considerably  modi- 
fies the  bearing  of  these  propositions  by  adding 
that  no  repentance  can  be  full,  or  fully  effective, 
unless  it  involves  a  desire  for  the  sacramental 
confession  and  absolution.  And  he  finally  reaches 
the  second,  the  opposite  view,  by  defining  the  part 
belonging  to  the  priest  in  the  sacrament  of  pen- 
ance in  analogy  with  that  belonging  to  the  water 
in  the  sacrament  of  baptism :  the  priest  is  tlie 
inslrumeidum  animatum,  as  the  water  is  the  instru- 
mentum  inanimalum.  He  consequently  defends 
with  great  ardor  the  formula.  Ego  te  absoloo,  etc. 
(^Opusc,  xxii.).  The  view  of  Thomas  was  dog- 
matically fixed,  and  officially  adojited  as  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Roman-Catholic  Church  by  the 
■Council  of  Trent  iu  its  fourteenth  session,  Nov. 
25,  1551. 

TV.  During  the  Reformation,  and  in  the 
Protestant  Dogmatics.  —  AVith  the  Reforma- 
tion, all  those  ideas  which  are  covered  by  the 
•expression,  "  the  power  of  the  keys,"  entered  a 
new  stage  of  development.  From  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  Luther  retained  confession  and 
absolution,  though  both  were  unknown  to  the 
primitive  Church.  Confession  he  considered  an 
institution  valid  throughout  Christendom,  and 
the  sacramental  character  of  absolution  he  never 
entirely  abandoned.  But,  pervaded  by  the  spirit 
■of  the  Reformation,  these  ideas  assumed  new 
forms  and  new  significations.  To  Luther,  absolu- 
tion is  not  a  verdict  based  on  the  conviction  that 
the  sinner  has  repented  and  is  in  a  state  of  grace, 
but  simply  a  means  by  which  to  strengthen  his 
faith,  analogous  to  the  sermon,  and,  indeed,  a 
mode  of  preaching  the  gospel.  It  has  no  sacer- 
dotal character  whatever.  It  can  be  refused  to  no 
■one  ;  and  it  can  be  given  by  every  one,  layman  or 
priest,  with  the  only  difference,  that  in  the  former 
case  it  is  private,  while  in  the  latter  it  may  be 
public.  Only  when  the  sinner  places  himself  in 
open  opposition  to  God,  the  Church  assumes  the 
office  of  a  judge,  and  excommunicates  him.  Thus, 
to  Luther,  absolution  has  the  triple  character  of 
preaching,  jurisdiction,  and  sacrament. 

Calvin  refers  the  power  of  the  keys  partly  to 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  partly  to  the  mainte- 
nance of  church  discipline ;  but  he  entirely  ex- 
cludes the  idea  of   its  being  a  sacrament.     His 


views  may  be  summed  up  in  the  following  propo- 
sitions:  (1)  There  is  a  double  absolution,  one 
serving  the  faith,  the  other  belonging  to  church 
discipline ;  (2)  Absolution  is  l>y  itself  iiotliing 
else  but  the  promise  of  forgiveness  of  sin  such 
as  is  contained  in  the  Gospels ;  (3)  Absolution  is 
conditional,  and  its  conditions  are  penance  and 
faith  ;  (4)  Whether  or  not  these  conditions  have 
been  fulfilled,  no  human  being  can  know,  and 
consequently  the  certainty  of  the  binding  and 
loosing  can  never  depend  upon  the  verdict  of  a 
human  court ;  (5)  That  absolution,  which  forms 
part  of  church  discipline,  has  nothing  to  do  with 
secret  sins, — it  deals  only  with  open  scandals; 
but,  in  censuring  such  acts,  the  Church  simply 
follows  the  unerring  rules  of  the  Scriptures,  pro- 
nouncing that  adulterers,  thieves,  murderers,  and 
misers  have  no  part  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 

It  was  the  views  of  Calvin  which  finally  con- 
quered the  Protestant  world.  In  the  Lutheran 
churches  the  threefold  signification  of  the  power 
of  the  keys  underwent  a  number  of  violent 
changes.  Chemnitz  was  the  first  who  denied  that 
absolution  is  a  sacrament  in  the  same  sense  of 
the  word  as  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper;  but 
lie  found  many  followers.  When  the  fresh  and 
vivid  spirit  of  the  Reformation  gradually  lost  its 
vigor,  the  private  confession  and  absolution  be- 
came empty  forms,  more  apt  to  foster  a  false 
self-sufficiency  than  to  strengthen  the  faith.  The 
church-ban  was  early  taken  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  clergy,  on  account  of  the  misuses  they  made 
of  it;  but,  in  the  hands  of  the  consistories,  it 
entirely  lost  its  religious  character,  and  became 
an  appendix  to  the  police-institution.  The  first 
piowerful  attack  on  the  reigning  state  of  affairs 
was  made  by  the  Pietists,  but  it  was  renewed  by 
the  Rationalists.  And  when,  in  the  contest,  the 
orthodox  of  the  old  Lutheran  school  attempted 
to  represent  the  power  of  the  keys  as  a  divinely 
estalilished  institution,  they  not  only  failed  utterly, 
but  had  to  look  on  in  idleness  while  the  institu- 
tion was  crumbling  into  pieces.  In  Protestant 
theology  the  power  of  the  keys  has  been  neglected 
as  a  merely  symbolical  expression,  and  the  vari- 
ous ideas  comprised  by  the  expression  have  been 
treated,  in  dogmatics,  under  the  head  of  grace 
and  justification ;  in  practical  theologj',  among 
the  preparations  to  the  Lord's  Supper;  and  in 
canon  law,  under  discipline. 

Lit.  —  Steitz  :  D.  romische  Busssacrame7it , 
Francfort,  1854,  and  Pricadieiclile  u.  Priralabsolu- 
tion,  Francfort,  1854;  Kliefoth  :  Beichle  u.  Ahso- 
hition,  Schwerin,  1856:  Pfisteker:  Luther's  Lehre 
von  d.  Beichte,  Stuttgart,  1857.        G.  E.  STEITZ. 

KHAN.     See  Inn. 

KHLESL,  Melchior,  b.  in  Vienna.  155.3;  d.  there 
Sept.  IS,  lt)30.  His  parents  were  Lutherans,  and 
he  was  educated  in  the  Protestant  faith;  but 
in  1569  he  embraced  Romanism,  studied  under 
the  Jesuits,  and  was  ordained  priest  in  1579.  His 
ambition,  however,  forbade  him  to  enter  the 
order ;  but  he  was  made  administrator  of  Neus- 
tadt  1588,  bishop  of  Vienna  1598,  and  cardinal 
1616.  Though  his  o-mi  faith  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  of  the  safest  description,  he  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  counter-reformation  in 
Austria,  and  spared  neither  cunning  nor  violence 
in  his  labor.  He  was  deeply  implicated  in  the 
intrigues  which  cost,  first  Rudolph  H.,  and  then 


KIDRON. 


1244 


KIMCHI. 


Matthias,  the  crown.  Under  ^Matthias  he  was 
president  of  the  privy  council ;  but  under  Ferdi- 
nand he  was  imprisoned,  1618,  and  not  released 
until  10'27,  through  the  intervention  of  the  Pope. 
See  HAMMEn-PuRGSTALL:  Lehen  des  Cardinal  K., 
Vienna.  1817-51,  4  vols. 

KIDRON.     See  Ke'drox. 

KIEF,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Russia,  stands 
on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dnieper,  and  contains 
about  sixty  thousand  inhabitants.  It  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Russian  Church.  In  988  Vladimir, 
who  had  recently  been  baptized  himself,  and 
espoused  a  Byzantine  princess,  ordered  the  whole 
population  of  the  city  —  men  and  women,  young 
and  old  —  to  descend  into  the  Dnieper,  while  some 
Byzantine  priests,  standing  on  the  cliffs  of  the 
bank,  read  aloud  the  baptismal  formula.  Tlius 
the  city  was  Christianized.  A  metrojiolitan  see 
was  founded  there,  and  it  was  the  seat  of  two 
important  councils:  (1)  in  1147,  when  Clement 
of  Smolensk  was  elected  bisliop,  in  spite  of  the 
protest  of  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and 
consecrated  by  the  dead  hand  of  St.  Clement  of 
Rome  (a  relic  of  the  cathedral  of  Kief)  :  and  (2) 
in  1G22,  w'hen  Archbishop  Meletius  of  Polotsk 
was  compelled  to  retract,  and  do  public  penance. 
He  afterwards  fled  to  Rome. 

KIERKEGAARD,  Soren  Aaby,  b.  in  Copenha- 
gen, ^lay  5,  1813  ;  d.  there  Xov.  11,  18.55;  studied 
theology,  and  spent  his  whole  life  in  his  native 
city,  devoting  himself  to  a  literary  activity  of 
enormous  dimensions  and  a  very  striking  charac- 
ter, lie  was  rich  and  a  bachelor.  In  1843  he 
published  pseudonyniously  his  first  large  work, 
Wliellier —  Or?  in  two  parts,  representing  respec- 
tively the  festhetical  and  the  ethical  type  of  life, 
and  placing  indirectly  before  the  reader  the  ques- 
tion :  AVhich  of  these  two  types  ought  to  be 
chosen  ?  But  on  the  same  day  he  also  published, 
over  his  name,  a  small  collection  of  sermons,  thus 
answering  the  question  himself:  Neither;  for 
religion  alone  contains  the  truth  of  life.  This 
double  track  of  production  —  one  line  of  critical 
analysis  published  jiseudouyniously  (Bils  nf  I'hi- 
losiipliy ;  Stations  along  the  Uoiid,  etc.),  and  an- 
other, of  positive  construction,  publi.slied  over  liis 
name  (Trainimj  for  Chrislianiti/;  Deeds  of  Charity, 
etc.)  —  he  then  continued  to  follow,  as  it  would 
seem,  according  to  a  preconceived  plan  ;  and  the 
plan  he  executed  witli  complete  mastery  of  the 
subjects  chosen,  with  such  a  richness  and  origi- 
nality of  productivity,  and  with  so  consumm.ate 
dialectical  .skill,  that  all  criticism  grew  silent.  His 
positive  construction,  liowever,  of  Christianity,  did 
not  seem  to  find  many  adherents.  Dogmatically 
he  defined  Christianity  as  the  paradox;  ethically, 
as  unmixed  suft'ering;  p.sycliologically,  as  a  "pas- 
sionate leap  "  away  from  the  world.  The  ideas 
of  creed,  church,  priest,  etc.,  ho  altogether  re- 
jected. A  Christian  is,  according  to  him,  an  in- 
sulated individual,  alone  with  God,  and  in  contact 
with  tlie  world  only  through  sufftM'ing.  Never- 
theless, when  he  was  through  with  the  theoretical 
representation  of  his  views,  and  began  tlu^  pr.acti- 
cal  application,  attacking  the  Dani.sh  Chnrcli  with 
merciless  sarcasm  and  ojii'n  denunciation,  it-  was 
evident  that  at  least  something  of  his  Christianity 
had  sunk  deeply  into  the  people,  and  was  silently 
fermenting.  Several  of  his  books  Inivt;  been 
translated  into  (jermaii ;  e.g.,  by  A.  BXiniioi.u 


at  Halle,  Die  Lilien  auf  dem  Felde  u.  die  Vogel 
unter  dem  Himmel.  Hoherpriester,  Zollner.  Siindcrin 
(1877),  Lessing  u.  objective  Wahrheit  (1877),  Einil- 
bung  im  Christenthum  (1878), Die  Krankheit  zum  Tode 
(ISSl)  ;  by  H,  C.  Ketels,  at  Erlangen,  Ftircht  u. 
Zittern  (1882)  ;  but  there  is  no  biography  of  hira 
(except  his  Diaries.  9  vols.),  nor  any  satisfactory 
representation  of  his  philosophical  and  religious 
stand-point.  clemexs  Petersen. 

KILHAM,  Alexander,  founder  of  the  "New 
Connection  of  Wesleyan  Slethodists,"  frequently 
called  the  "  Kilhamites  ;  "  b.  at  Epworth,  Eng., 
July  10,  1762 ;  d.  in  1798.  In  1785  he  was  ad- 
mitted by  Wesley  into  the  regular  itinerant  min- 
istry ;  rose  to  prominence ;  was,  even  before 
Wesley's  death,  an  outspoken  advocate  of  separa- 
tion of  the  ISIethodists  from  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. After  Wesley's  death  he  was  expelled  from 
the  London  Conference  (1796).  This  action  re- 
sulted in  the  formation  of  the  "New  Connection."" 
See  Methodism  in  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. 

KILIAN,  St.  Rabanus  Maurus  (from  the  middle 
of  the  ninth  century)  tells  us.  in  his  Martyrologium, 
that  Kilian  and  his  companions,  Colonian  and 
Totnan,  all  natives  of  Hibemia  Scotoruni,  came 
to  Franconia  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century, 
preached  Christianity  in  the  country,  more  espe- 
cially in  'W'lirzburg,  and  were  put  to  death  by 
an  unjust  judge  of  the  name  Gozbert.  Notker 
Balbulus  of  St.  Gall  (from  the  end  of  the  ninth 
century)  knows  much  more  of  Kilian,  and  tells 
us,  in  his  Marlijrologiam,  that  Kilian  was  tlie  first 
bishop  of  Wiirzburg,  and  preached  on  a  license 
from  the  Pope ;  that  Gozbert  was  Duke  of  Fran- 
conia, and  was  by  Kilian  compelled  to  divorce  his 
wife  Geila,  because  she  was  the  widow  of  his 
brother;  that  Geila,  from  revenge,  had  Kilian 
and  his  companions  assassinated,  but  afterwards 
became  in.sane ;  that  heavy  punishments  for  the 
murder  of  the  saint  were  inflicted  upon  all  the 
descendants  of  Gozbert,  etc.  In  the  biographies 
of  the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  the  legend 
develops  still  further,  until  it  finally  lo.ses  all 
historical  elements  in  its  versified  forms.  See 
Canisius:  Lectiones  Antiqua:,  ii.  2,  333.  ii.  3, 
150  sqq.,  iii.  1, 175  and  180;  Ebraud  :  Die  irisch- 
sc/iotlische  Missiotiskirc/ie,  Giitei'sloh,  1873;  Rett- 
BERG  :  Kirchengeschichte  Deutschlands,  Gottingen, 
181(i.  ii.  303  sqq.  ALtBRECHT  VOGEL. 

KIMCHI  (or  KIMHI)  is  the  name  of  a  Jewi.sh 
family  which  flourished  at  Narbonne,  Southern 
France,  in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries, 
anil  produced  several  learned  rabbis.  The  most 
celebrated  nuunber  of  the  family  was  David 
Kimchi,  b.  in  1160;  d.  about  1210.  Of  his  per- 
.sonal  life  nothing  is  known  ;  but  he  must  have- 
enjoyed  a  great  reputation  anumg  his  co-i'eligion- 
ists,  as  lie  was  chosen  arbiter  in  the  controversy 
which  the  doctrities  of  Mainumides  caused  be- 
tween the  Spanish  and  tin-  French  .lews.  He 
was  a  prolific  writer;  and  his  princijial  works  are, 
a  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  (first  printed  in 
1477,  at  Bologna,  and  translated  into  Latin  by 
.lanvier,  Constance,  1544),  a  Hebrew  grammar 
(generally  called  Miklole,  perfection,  edited,  with, 
notes,  by  Elias  ]>evita,  Venice,  1545,  and  by  ^I. 
Hechim,  Furth,  1793,  and  translated  into  Latin 
by  (iuidocier,  P.aris,  1540),  and  a  Hebrew  dic- 
tionary, 'J'/ie  Book  of  Roots,  N.aples,  1491,  edited 


KING. 


^■2l: 


KING. 


by  Elias  Levita  (Venice,  lu4(j)  and  Biesenthal 
and  Lebrecht  (Berlin,  1817),  and  translated  into 
Latin  in  1535.  The  Hebrew  (irannnar  of  F.  E. 
Kcinig  (1st  part,  Leipzif^,  18S1)  is  professedly 
based  npon  Kimchi;  and  all  Hebrew  grammarians 
have  drawn  more  or  less  from  him.  For  six  hnn- 
dred  and  fifty  years  he  has  beiMi  the  aclinowledged 
greatest  .J((wish  grannnarian,  lexioographm-,  and 
biblieal  conunentator.  Besides  the  Connnentary 
on  the  I'sahns  mentioned  above,  ho  wrote  npon 
Genesis  and  all  the  prophets.  His  work  U]ion 
Zechariah  was  translated  by  McCanl,  London, 
1837.  See  art.  Kimhi,  in  Encijcliipirdia  Britanruca, 
9th  ed.,  v<il.  xiv. 

KING,  John,  D.D.,  b.  at  Wornall,  Bnckingham- 
shire,  about  1559  ;  d.  in  London,  !March  30,  1621. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  and  was  succes- 
sively chaplain  to  Queen  Elizabeth,  archdeacon 
of  JJottingham  (1590),  dean  of  Chri.st  Church 
(1605),  and  bishop  of  London  (1011).  James  I. 
called  him  the  "  king  "  of  preachers  ;  others,  "  the 
bishop  with  the  royal  name."  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  Lectures  upon  Jonas,  delivered  at  Yorke 
1594,  Oxford;  1597,  5th  ed.,  1618;  reprinted  in 
Xicliol's  Series  of  Puritan  Connnentaries,  Lon- 
don, 186-1.  It  was  in  its  day  the  book  upon 
Jonah.     There  are  forty-eight  lectures  in  all. 

KING,  Jonas,  D.D.,  b.  at  Hawley,  Mass.,  July 
29,  1792;  d.  at  Athens,  Greece,  May  22,  1809. 
He  wa.3  graduated  at  Williams  College,  1810, 
and  at  Andover  Seminary,  1819 ;  entered  the 
Congregational  nuuistry  ;  labored  as  missionary  in 
Syria  (1823-20),  and  in  tireece  from  July,  1828, 
to  his  death.  He  published  there  several  volumes 
of  translations,  and  original  works  in  modern 
Greek.  His  work  in  Athens  was  at  all  times 
disliked  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities ;  and  in 
1844  efforts  were  made  to  induce  him  to  leave. 
He  was  brought  into  controversy,  in  one  of  the 
jirincipal  newspapers,  upon  the  subject  of  Mari- 
olatry,  and  published  a  book  upon  it,  made  up 
principally  of  extracts  from  Greek  saints  who 
taught  as  Dr.  King  did.  In  1845  this  book  was 
condemned  by  the  Greek  .synod;  "every  orthodox 
Christian  "  was  prohibited  from  reading  it ;  and 
Dr.  King's  prosecution  was  demanded  of  the  gov- 
ernment. The  request  was  granted.  The  case 
was  carried  up  to  the  Areopagus.  But  at  last 
Dr.  King  was  cited  to  appear  at  Syra  on  a  crimi- 
nal charge ;  but  the  trial  was  postponed,  and  he 
returned  to  Athens,  and,  under  the  protection  of 
the  British  and  American  representatives,  he  re- 
sumed his  work.  In  the  spring  of  1850  he  was 
again  prosecuted  for  proselyting,  but  his  work 
was  not  seriously  affected  luitil  1851 .  On  .Sept. 
7  of  that  year  he  was  informed  that  the  Coun- 
cil of  Judges  in  the  Criminal  Court  of  Athens 
had  directed  him  to  be  tried  for  preaching,  in  his 
own  house,  "doctrines,  principles,  and  opinions 
eontrary  to  the  basis  of  the  religion  of  the  Orien- 
tal Church  "  Appeal  was  taken  to  the  Areopa- 
gus, which  decided  that  the  penal  law  forbidding 
the  expression  of  sentiments  and  opinions  con- 
trary to  the  basis  of  religion  and  morals  did  not 
apply  to  the  case  of  Dr.  King.  Trial  began 
March  5,  1852,  and  lasted  six  hours.  He  was 
condemned  on  the  very  count  which  the  Areopa- 
gus had  declared  had  no  bearing  upon  his  case, 
sentenced  to  unprisonmeut  for  fifteen  days  in  the 
city  prison,  to  pay  the  expenses  of  the  trial,  and 


(hen  to  banishment  from  the  kingdom.  On  the 
Otli  of  ilarch  he  went  to  the  prison  in  .Athens, 
a  vile  place ;  so  that  he  was  glad  to  be  removed 
the  next  day  to  the  police-olfice,  where  he  was 
kindly  treated.  On  March  13  he  fell  ill,  and 
was  taken  home,  where  he  was  guarded.  The 
Areopagus  decided  adversely  to  him,  but  reduced 
his  imprisonment  to  fourteen  days  and  to  lianisli- 
nient.  But  he  was,  in  reality,  imprisoned  only 
the  one  d.ay  mentioned  above ;  and  the  latter  part 
of  the  sentence  was  never  executed:  indeed,  in 
1854  he  was  officially  ijiformcd  that  it  had  been 
revoked.  As  might  have  been  expected,  the  ease 
excited  great  interest,  and  the  Protestant  world 
demanded  his  protection.  He  was  never  free 
from  petty  persecution  ;  was  anatliematized  in 
1803  by  the  Holy  Synod  of  .\thens;  but  his  lib- 
erty was  not  taken  away.  See  the  reports  of  the 
American  Board  for  the  years  cited ;  also  the 
jMissionary  Herald,  June,  1852,  for  the  ti'ial. 
Among  his  numerous  publications  may  be  men- 
tioned The  Oriental  CInirch,  and  the  Latin,  New 
York,  1865.     See  his  Memoir,  New  York,  1S79. 

KING,  Thomas  Starr,  a  Unitarian  clergyman, 
son  of  a  Universalist  clergyman;  b.  in  New-Ycjrk 
City,  Dec.  17,  1824;  d.  in  .San  Francisco,  Cal., 
March  4,  1804.  His  education  was  desultory 
but  he  made  the  most  of  his  advantages,  and  ac- 
quired a  knowledge  of  many  literatures.  When 
fifteen,  his  father's  death  compelled  his  earning 
his  own  living,  and  he  was  in  business  for  some 
six  years.  But  the  call  to  preach  was  his,  and  in 
1845  he  began  his  life-work.  In  1846  he  was  set- 
tled in  Charlestown,  over  a  Universalist  Church  ; 
from  1848  to  1860,  in  Boston,  over  the  Ilollis-street 
Unitarian  Church  ;  from  1800  to  his  death,  in  San 
Francisco,  in  the  same  denomination.  By  his 
eloquence  and  energy  he  did  more  than  any  other 
man  to  save  the  State  of  California  to  the  Union  : 
for  in  the  early  days  of  the  civil  war  there  seemed 
to  be  some  danger  that  it  would  secede.  He  also 
was  the  prime  mover  in  the  branch  of  the  United- 
States  Sanitary  Commission  organized  there.  His 
reputation  was  national,  for  his  popularity  as  a 
lecturer  had  carried  him  everywhere.  Personally 
he  was  most  lovable  :  intellectually  he  was  one  of 
the  most  brilliant  speakers  America  has  produced. 
One  peculiarity  in  his  preparation  for  the  pulpit 
was,  that  he  dictated  his  discourses  to  an  amanuen- 
sis as  he  w'alked  up  and  down  his  I'oom.  He  pub- 
lished onlyone  book,  J'he  Wliite  Hdh,  their  legends, 
landscape,  and  poetry  (Boston,  1851);  but  there  have 
been  several  collections  of  his  lectures  and  sermons 
published  in  Boston  since  his  death  :  Patriotism, 
and  other  papers  (1864),  Christianity  and  Humanity 
[sermons]  (1877),  Substance  and  Show,  and  other 
lectures  (1878).  .See  A  Tribute  to  'J homas  Starr 
Kin(j,  by  Richard  Frothixgham,  Boston,  1804: 
and  the  Memoir,  by  E.  P.  Whipple,  prefixed  tc 
Christianity  and  Humanity,  pp.  vii-lxxx. 

KING,  William,  Archbi.?hop  of  Dublin;  b.  in 
Antrim,  :\Iay  1,  1050;  d.  at  Dublin,  May  8,  1729. 
He  studied  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  1067-73; 
ordained,  1074  ;  became  dean  of  .St.  Patrick's,  1688, 
as  a  reward  for  his  stanch  Protestantism  ;  which 
very  fact  led  to  his  dual  imprisonment  that  same 
year,  in  Dublin  Castle,  by  James  II.  In  1091  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Derry,  and  in  1702  Archbish- 
op of  Dublin.  He  was  a  profound  metaphysician 
and  theologian.     He  wrote  The  Slate  of  the  Prot- 


KINGDOM  OP  GOD. 


124(> 


KINGDOM  OF  GOD. 


tstants  in  Ireland  under  the  Late  King  James's  Gov- 
ernment (London,  1691 ;  3d  and  best  ed.,  1692), 
Divine  Predestination  and  Foreknoivledge  consistent 
with  the  Freedom  of  Man's  Will:  a  Sermon  (Lon- 
don, 1710):  but  his  principal  work  is  De  origine 
mali  (London,  1701?,  translated  by  Bishop  Edmund 
Law,  Cambridge,  1731;  4th  and  best  ed..  1758; 
-3tli  ed.,  1781),  in  whicli  lie  endeavors  to  show  that 
the  existence  of  evil  can  be  reconciled  with  the 
i;oodness  of  God,  and  explained  without  resort  to 
the  supposition  of  an  evil  principle. 

KINGDOM  OF  GOD,  The,  The  idea  of  the 
kingdom  of  God  is  the  central  idea  of  the  whole 
<lispensation  of  revelation.  The  kingdom  of  God 
is  the  end  and  motive  of  all  divine  revelations 
and  institutions  of  the  old  and  new  covenants  ; 
yea,  of  the  creation  and  promise  from  the  begin- 
ning. The  general  foundation  of  this  idea  is  the 
all-inclusive  power  and  dominion  of  God  (1  Chron. 
xxix.  11;  Ps.  ciii.  19;  Dan.  iv.  34).  But  the  real 
aim  and  centre  of  revelation  is  the  moral  kingdom 
of  God,  wliich  is  called  the  kingdom  of  grace,  and, 
with  reference  to  its  consummation,  the  kingdom 
of  glory.  This  kingdom  (Eph.  i.  10)  includes 
the  heavenly  angels,  who  do  God's  will  (Ps.  ciii. 
20).  and  mankind.  The  latter  come  especially 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  Scriptures.  At  the 
fall,  man  defaced  the  divine  image,  became  dis- 
obedient to  the  divine  will,  and  passed  outside  of 
the  kingdom  of  God.  His  restoration  begins  with 
self-humiliation.  In  Paganism  the  light  of  God 
in  man  became  more  and  more  darkened,  and  the 
faith  which  gives  God  all  the  glory,  more  and  more 
indi.stinct.  God  chose  to  establish  his  kingdom 
liy  the  separation  of  a  peculiar  nation,  and  of  an 
individual  (Gen.  ix.  26),  who  should  become  the 
recipient  of  a  promise  for  all  nations.  God  re- 
vealed himself  as  the  one,  who,  in  human  impoten- 
ce-, can  do  all  that  he  wills.  Weak,  and  nothing  in 
themselves,  but  strong  and  mighty  in  God,  such  is 
the  ]irogressive  experience  of  the  people  of  God, 
from  the  patriarchs  down.  This  people  was  chosen 
to  be  God"s  kingdom,  his  property  above  all  the 
peoples  of  the  earth,  —  a  kingdom  of  priests  (Exod. 
xix.  0).  On  account  of  its  sinful  incompetency, 
Israel  was  only  tiie  adumbration  of  the  kingdom 
of  God,  which,  however,  was  to  some  extent  real- 
ized in  believing  individuals,  pious  kings,  and 
prophets.  The  idc^a  of  this  kingdom  came  out 
more  fully  in  Jiicob's  propliecy  of  the  prince  out 
of  Judah.  It  became  more  distinct  in  David's 
prophecy  of  the  everlasting  kingdom,  and  of  a 
king  of  righteousness  and  peace  (Ps.  xxii.,  Ixxii., 
ex.).  In  Daniel  the  eternity  of  this  kingdom, 
and  its  superiority  over  the  kingdoms  of  the 
world,  are  strongly  brought  out. 

To  this  kingdom  of  promise  and  prophecy  the 
people  of  Israel  looked  forward  with  ard(Mit  long- 
ing. In  contrast  with  the  pomp  and  ostentation 
of  the  world,  its  beginning  was  inconspicuous. 
The  promised  One  came  into  the  world  in  circum- 
stances of  poverty.  He,  the  eternal  .Son,  to  whom 
the  kingdom  belongs,  because  all  things  are  m.adi; 
by  him  and  consist  by  him,  desired  to  come  into 
tlie  actual  possession  in  no  other  way  tlian  by  the 
complete  emptying  of  his  (icjdhead  in  order  that 
lie  might  atone  for  man's  original  guilt  through 
Ills  own  «elf-<lominion.  .Seeking  notliing  but  God's 
glory,  manifesting  and  im[>arting  absolute  love, 
taking  upon  his  own  pure  consciousness  the  guilty 


feeling  of  the  race,  and  bearing  its  due  and  severe 
punishment  in  patience,  he  has  been  elevated 
above  all  things  with  supreme  power  in  heaven 
and  on  earth  (Phil.  ii.  5  sqq. ;  ^latt.  xxviii.  18). 
His  sacrifice  of  love  was  the  basis  of  the  new 
covenant,  or  kingdom  of  God,  in  which  the  re- 
deemed submit  to  the  divine  will,  as  did  the  Re- 
deemer himself.  This  is  the  kingdom  which  is 
righteousness,  peace,  and  joy  (Rom.  xiv.  17). 

In  an  earlier  period  this  kingdom  was  identified 
with  the  Church.  The  Roman  Catholics  regarded 
it  as  the  visible  Church,  ruled  by  a  visible  repre- 
sentative of  Christ  (the  Pojie).  "The  Protestants, 
looking  upon  its  ideal  side,  regarded  it  as  the 
Christian  institution  of  salvation.  But  the  more 
recent  theology  has  given  to  the  idea  a  broader 
significance  :  namely,  that  it  designates  redeemed 
humanity  with  its  divinely  revealed  destiny  mani- 
festing itself  in  a  religious  communion  or  the 
Church,  a  social  communion  or  the  State,  and  an 
aisthetic  connnunion,  expressing  itself  in  forms  of 
knowledge  and  art. 

According  to  Scripture,  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
its  real  and  ultimate  constitution  does  not  belong 
to  the  present  age,  is  not  the  result  of  a  simple, 
natural,  process  of  cosmic  development.  It  is  a 
kingdom  from  heaven,  manifesting  itself  in  a 
world  of  sin,  —  a  fountain  of  life  gushing  out  into 
the  desolation  of  death  ;  and  its  ciliject  is  to  shape 
human-  life  according  to  the  divine  image  in 
Christ.  It  develops  itself  in  conflict  with  a  false 
kingdom  and  religion,  whose  head  is  the  prince 
of  this  world.  Before  Christianity  or  Clirist 
finally  overcomes  the  false  and  opposing  ele- 
ments, a  consummation  of  the  kingdom  ot  God 
cannot  be  said  to  have  taken  place.  .  This  will 
happen  in  consequente  of  a  great  crisis,  —  the 
destruction  of  the  false  church,  the  anti-Christian 
power  of  this  world.  Then  a  kingdom  of  right- 
eousness and  peace  shall  be  established,  all  the 
powers  of  darkness  being  dispelled,  and  .Satan 
bound;  and  the  millennial  kingdom  (see  AIillen- 
.vium)  will  begin,  which  is  only  the  prelude  of 
the  absolute  consummation  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  when  God  shall  be  all  in  all  (1  Cor.  xv.  28). 

Everywhere  the  Scriptin-e  points  to  the  king- 
dom of  God  as  a  thing  of  the  future  (Dan.  vil. 
27:  Matt.  xix.  28;  1  Cor.  vi.  9;  Gal.  v.  21; 
2  Thess.  i.  .T ;  Kev.  xx.  sqq.).  The  kingdom  of 
(iod  is  already  here  (Luke  .xi.  20.  xvii.  21),  and  is 
in  a  i>rocr.ss  of  evolution  or  development,  as  some 
of  the  parables  of  Jlatt.  xiii.  teach.  In  the  Old 
Testament  we  have  merely  the  shadow  of  this 
kingdom,  a  preparative  economy.  In  the  New 
Testament  it  is  embodied,  in  its  very  es.sence,  in 
the  divine-human  king,  who  shows  perfect  subjec- 
tion to  the  divine  will,  and  estaldislies  the  king- 
dom amongst  men,  first  by  his  redeeming  activity, 
and  tben  by  the  establishment  of  a  redeemed 
church.  Jesus  is  tlie  embodiment  of  the  king- 
dom of  God,  the  ideal  of  human  life;  and  reli- 
gion, state,  and  culture  nnist  be  governed  by  his 
law.  It  is  the  t.ask  of  this  evangelical  period  of 
Christianity  to  restore  the  riglit  i-ehition  between 
tlie  Church  on  the  one  haiul,  and  human  conduct 
and  the  State  on  the  other,  jind  to  establish  the 
freedom  of  the  Church  and  the  primacy  of  reli- 
gion as  a  moral  force  with  the  right  lo  control  the 
life  of  the  .State  and  the  department  of  culture, 
as  well  as  individual  conduct.     The  complete  con- 


KINGLY  OFFICE  OP  CHRIST.      1247 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL. 


fluraniation  of  the  kingdom  of  God  can  only  be 
realized  here  in  part,  and  presupposes  the  eman- 
cipation of  the  Church  from  all  admixture  with 
the  spirit  of  the  world.  Then  it  will  appear  in 
its  power  and  glory.  Its  consummation  belongs 
to  the  hereafter,  and  will  be  the  product  of  the 
life-giving  energy  concentrated  in  the  divine- 
human  person  of  Christ,  who,  in  the  midst  of  the 
natural  development  of  this  world,  is  separating 
for  himself  a  distinct  kingdom  of  God,  and,  after 
his  decisive  victory  over  tlie  satanic  power  which 
is  concentrated  in  anti-Christ  and  his  kingdom, 
will  establish  it  in  its  visible  and  complete  per- 
fection. [JIaurice:  The  Kingdom  iif  Christ, 
London,  lb38;  Hengstenberg  :  History  of  the 
Kingdom  nf  God  under  the  Old  Testament,  Edin- 
burgh, 1872,  2  vols. ;  H.  Brockmann  :  Geschic/tte 
und  Lehre   d.    Reichs    Gottes,  2d  ed.,   Hanover, 

1877.]  KLING. 

KINGLY  OFFICE  OF  CHRIST.  See  Jesus 
Christ,  Three  Offices  of. 

KINCO,  Thomas,  b.  at  Slangerup,  in  the  Island 
of  Sealand,  1634 ;  d.  at  Odense,  in  the  Island  of 
Funen,  1703;  studied  theology  in  Copenhagen, 
and  was  appointed  pastor  of  his  native  parish  in 
1668,  and  bishop  of  Funen  in  1677.  He  was  a 
poet  born,  and  a  powerful  Christian  character, 
and  he  has  given  the  Danish  Church  some  of  its 
very  best  hynms.  Of  his  Aandetige  SJunge-Chor, 
the  collection  of  his  hymns,  first  part  appeared 
1674,  second,  1681.  Charged  by  the  government 
with  the  compilation  of  a  new  hymn-book,  he 
€dited  the  so-called  Kingo's  Psalmehng,  1699,  which 
is  still  used  in  many  places  in  Jutland  and  Nor- 
way. See  Brandt  and  Helweg  :  Den  Danske 
Pscdmeditjtning,  Copenhagen,  1847. 

KINGS  OF  ISRAEL,  The.  Israel  was  a  the- 
ocracy ;  i.e.,  God  was  the  real  ruler.  Ths  king 
was  only  God's  vicegerent  (1  Sam.  x.  1 ;  .ludg. 
Tiii.  23),  and  from  God  proceeded  all  authority 
(Isa.  xxxiii.  22).  As  this  idea  was  conceived  by 
"the  Israelites,  it  was  limited  to  the  chosen  people. 
God  was  not,  in  this  especial  sense,  the  king  of 
the  whole  world ;  he  would  only  become  so  when 
he  came  in  his  final  kingdom  :  and  the  nations  of 
the  Gentiles  bowed  to  him  as  the  God  of  Israel 
(Exod.  XV.  18 ;  Ps.  x.  16,  Ixxxix.  19,  xciii.,  xcvii., 
xcix.  ;  Isa.  xxiv.  23,  xliii.  15 ;  Obad.,  21 ;  Zech. 
xiv.  9).  The  Mosaic  legislation  did  not  provide 
any  one  central  earthly  organ  for  the  divine 
authority  :  still  it  plainly  declared  the  eventual 
rise  of  a  king,  and  therefore  laid  down  rules  for 
the  contingency  (Deut.  xvii.  14-20.  Some  critics 
Jiave  pronounced  this  section  a  composition  of 
Samuel's ;  but  the  mention  of  horses  and  of  a 
possible  return  to  Egypt  in  verse  16  is  a  weighty 
argument  against  the  opinion.) 

The  rise  of  the  Israelitish  kingdom  is  related 
in  1  Sam.  viii.  The  reason  given  was  a  desire 
to  be  like  the  nations  round,  but  the  occasion  of 
the  vigorous  expression  of  the  wish  was  the  un- 
fitness of  Samuel's  sons  to  rule.  Once  before  in 
the  history  of  Israel  had  there  been  a  "king; "  for 
Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine, 
was  proclaimed  king  by  the  Shechemites,  and 
ruled  for  three  years ;  but  his  power  was  local. 
The  way  in  which  the  elders  asked  for  a  king 
was  really  blasphemous,  since  it  was  a  virtual 
rejection  of  Jehovah's  supremacy ;  and  so  the 
Lord  regarded  it  (1  Sam.  viii.  7).  Notwithstand- 
27  — ir 


ing,  the  Lord  told  Samuel  to  heed  the  request 
To  show  the  utter  independence  of  the  divine 
action,  tlu^  king  chosen  (Saul)  by  (he  Lord  was 
a  member  of  the  least  family  of  the  least  tribe 
(Benjamin)  ;  and  his  meeting  with  Samuel  was 
unexpected  (ix.,  x.)  The  consecration  was  by 
solemn  anointing  (x.  1).  Since  anointing  is 
only  spoken  of  in  the  cases  of  David,  Absalom, 
Solomon,  Joash,  and  Jehoahaz  of  Judah,  and 
only  of  .lehu  of  the  northern  kingdom,  the  rab- 
bins maintained  that  it  was  not  employed,  except 
upon  the  foundation  of  a  new  dynasty,  or  when 
there  was  some  exceptional  circumstance  attend- 
ing the  succession.  [This  conclusion  is  poorly 
supported.  It  is  far  more  probable  that  anoint- 
ing, both  in  .ludah  and  Israel,  was  invariable,  and 
only  the  mention  of  it  occasional.]  The  oil  used 
on  these  occasions  was  "  holy  oil "  (1  Kings  i.  39), 
and  it  was  poured  by  the  high  priest.  It  made 
its  recipient  "Jehovah's  anointed,"  and  this  was 
the  ordinary  designation  of  the  theocratic  king 
(Ps.  XX.  6,  xxviii.  8,  etc.).  The  anointing  was 
the  symbol,  partly  of  the  divine  consecration,  and 
partly  of  the  divine  equipment  for  the  office 
through  gifts  and  graces.  After  it,  the  person  of 
the  king  was  sacred ;  and  it  was  sacrilegious  to 
kill  him,  even  at  his  own  request  (1  Sam.  xxiv. 
6,  10,  xxvi.  9,  16;  2  Sam.  i.  14).  Among  the 
other  ceremonies  connected  with  an  anointing  was 
the  coronation  with  the  crown-diadem,  in  sign  of 
kingly  dignity  (2  Kings  xi.  12).  This  diadem 
was  worn  by  the  king  as  part  of  his  uniform 
(2  Sam.  i.  10). 

In  the  case  of  Saul  some  little  time  elapsed 
between  his  consecration  and  his  establishment 
over  the  kingdom.  The  latter  was  the  direct  act 
of  Samuel,  who  assembled  the  people  at  Mizpeh, 
showed  them  the  chosen  king,  and  then  told 
them  the  "  manner  of  the  kingdom,  and  then 
wrote  it  in  a  book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the 
Lord"  (1  Sam.  x.  2.5).  This  writing  was  not, 
however,  a  constitution  in  the  modern  sense,  but 
a  covenant  between  king  and  people,  like  David's 
(2  Sam.  V.  2,  3),  and  such  as  Jehoiada  subse- 
quently composed  in  the  case  of  Joash  (2  Kings 
xi.  17).  That  this  covenant  should  not  become 
a  dead  letter,  but  really  clieck  the  action  of  the 
king,  was  the  care  of  the  jjrophets.  The  idea  of 
theocracy  was  nearest  realized  in  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon. 

The  theocratic  king  was  declared  to  be  the 
"  son  of  God,"  the  first-born  among  all  the  kings 
of  the  earth  (2  Sam.  vii.  14;  Ps.  Ixxxix.  27,  28; 
cf.  ii.  7).  Since  his  divine  sonship  and  election 
were  correlative  terms,  there  was,  on  God's  part, 
an  expression  of  the  tenderest  love  for  the  king 
as  the  prince  of  the  chosen  people.  And,  because 
the  king  stood  in  this  relation,  his  glory  was  a 
reflection  of  the  divine;  his  judgeship,  also,  was 
a  divine  act :  he  was,  in  short,  the  earthly  repre- 
sentative of  the  heavenly  king,  and  sat  upon  the 
throne  of  .Jehovah  (1  Chron.  xxix.  23).  David's 
psalms  sufficiently  show  how  thoroughly  he  en- 
tered into  the  theocratic  idea  (cf.  Ps.  xxiv.  7-10, 
xlviii.  2,  XX.  6,  ex.  2).  The  theocratic  kingdom 
was  to  last  forever  (2  Sam.  vii.  16).  The  king- 
ship, under  David  and  Solomon,  took  on  a  priestly 
character,  for  the  king  prayed  in  the  name  of 
the  people  (1  Kings  viii.);  yet  there  was  no  in- 
fringement of  priestly  rights  and  privileges,  for 


KINGS  OP  ISRAEL. 


1248 


KINGS   OP   ISRAEL. 


no  king  of  Judah  offered  sacriftces  by  his  own 
hand.  Notwithstanding  all  this,  the  government 
had  a  popular  character.  There  was  no  worship 
of  the  king,  as  among  other  Oriental  peoples: 
on  the  contrary,  he  was  directly  and  at  any  time 
accessible,  administered  justice  personally,  and 
moved  freely  among  the  people.  (Compare  the 
life  of  an  Egyptian  king,  bound  by  etiquette.) 
I^ike  Orientals,  however,  the  king  had  his  harem, 
and  it  fell  to  his  successor  as  part  of  his  posses- 
sions ;  so  that  taking  it  was  equivalent  to  suc- 
cession, and  a  request  for  any  member  of  it 
treasonable :  hence  Ahithophel's  advice  (2  Sam. 
xvi.  21  ;  cf.  also  2  Sam.  xii.  8,  lii.  7 ;  1  Kings 
ii.  17  sqq.).  The  succession  was  usually  given 
to  the  first-born  son  (2  Chron.  xxi.  3),  yet  there 
were  exceptions,  as  Jehoahaz  (2  Kings  xxiii.  30). 
During  a  minority,  the  kingdom  was  under  a 
regent  (2  Kings  xii.  2).     As  a  rule,  the  mother 


of  the  king  (the  queen-mother)  exercised  consid- 
erable authority,  and  her  name  is  always  given 
in  the  official  recoi'd  of  an  accession  (1  Kings 
xiv.  21,  XV.  2,  etc.).  The  king  bowed  himself 
unto  her  (1  Kings  ii.  19),  while  the  king's  v.ives 
bowed  themselves  to  him  (1  Kings  i.  10). 

The  disruption  destroyed  the  theocratic  gov- 
ernment, as  far  as  the  northern  kingdom  was 
concerned,  but  it  was  continued  respecting  the 
house  of  David ;  and  it  was  to  the  I'estoration 
of  the  splendor  of  the  Davidic  kingdom  that  the 
prophets  looked  (cf.  Hos.  iii.  5).  The  Herodian 
dynasty  was  a  mere  caricature. 

The  court  officers  under  David  (2  Sam.  viii. 
16-lS),  not  counting  the  princes  (1  Kings  iv.  2), 
who  were  also  the  king's  councillors,  were  as 
follows :  (1)  The  general  of  the  army ;  (2)  The 
captain  of  the  Cherethites  and  I'elethites,  the 
king's  body-guard ;  (3)  The  chancellor,  who  was 


KIXGS  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH.i 
Showing  their  order,  relative  length  of  reigns,  contemporary  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  after  the  division,  etc. 


EIM03   OP  ISRAEL  BEFORE  TBB 

OTHER 

B.C. 

KINGS   OP  JUDAH 

AND   ISRAEL  AFTER  THE 

OTHER 

DIVISION. 

KINGDO.MS. 

DIVISION. 

KINGDOMS. 

B.C 

Saul 

40  years. 

1095 

Uzziah 

or 
Azariah 

52. 

Pulof 
Nineveh. 

11  TAnarcby.] 
J-  Zaehariah  (6  moB.) 
[-jShallum  (1  mo.) 

- 

Darid 

40. 

10  JMenabem. 

Tiglath. 
Pilesei-  of 

2  pPekabiab. 

20 

Pekah. 

Assyria. 

Hiram  of 

Jotbam    16. 

Tyre. 

Uezin  of 

Solomon 


40. 

1000 

Ahaz    16. 

9[J 
8 

Anarcliy.] 
Iloshea. 

S^ria. 

Kingdom 

DIVIDED  975  B.C. 

Rezon  of 
Syria. 

Hezckiah 

29. 

Samaria    taken.      Erid 
of  kingdom  of  Israel. 

.Shnlaiftnozcr 
and  Saigon 
of  Assyria. 

Juflah,         

Iftrael. 

Shishak  of 

Egypt- 

72i5.a 

Sennacherib 
of  Assyria. 

700 

Rwhohoam 

ii.  .  ;:'.: 

Jeroboam. 

Z" 

Abijam  C 
Asa 

3.; 

41..     ., 

■  24 
•     2 

J  Nadab. 
Baasba. 
_  Elah. 

Benhadad  I. 
of  Syria. 

Manasseb 

65. 

Esar-IIaddon 
of  Babylon. 

■  ,     l,Zimri  (Tdays). 
4  rrTibnianUOmrl. 

■  8  ^  Omri. 

Anion  1       2. 

Jcbosbapbat 

25.    •_  22 

Ahab. 

900 

Joslab 

31. 

Nebuchad- 

Ben'dad II. 

Jchoraml  6.    '^'P  Ahazlab. 
Ahaziah   ^  1.  .  3^     Jeboram. 
Athaliiih     38.         '—, 

of  Syria. 

nezzar 

of  Babylon. 

Ilazael  of 

Syria. 

Jehoahaz  rz 

3m. 

■  Jerusalem  taken  605, 

Joash 

40-.      28 

Jehu. 

...  Jcholaklm 

11.. 

600 

Jehoi.'ichin  C~ 

3m. 

.  Jerusalem  destroyed  668. 

Carthai,'e 

1  It     Jcboahaz. 

founded. 

Zedeklab    11. 

Babylonian  tapthUy.     £nd  of  kingdom  of  Judah. 

Amazlnh  T 

29.    _      U    Jchossh. 

Ben'dad  III. 
of  Syria. 

■|       "... 

Jerokcaii  II. 

I". 

800 

Diagram  of  tub  Kings.  — The  deslttn  of  the  foretfolnfif  tnblo  of  the  klng«of  Iwnul  and  .)udah  in  lo  r»'t)reHenl  to  tliei-yc 
iho  ordiT  in  which  llie  klM^n  rel(<ncd,  and  tht;  dates  nnd  reiiitivo  duration  of  their  reigne.  The  period  of  Jowlan  history  covered 
by  thf  tnble  U  from  D.c.  Ii)0.'>  to  ii.c.  .')K(1,  or  nboiiL  WKi  yearn. 

Wheri!  the  relKii'*  were  very  hliorl  (an  one  nionlli  or  nix  mnntlis).  It  was  necesBary  to  make  tlie  "llnee"  or  "sti'i)8'* 
rcprcKeiithiK  their  relutiM  somewhat  out  of  llie  exact  proportion.  Frequently  /laft.t  of  yearn  are  counted  in  round  nunilM  tk,  us  if 
/itU  yearn.  For  example.  Nndnh's  relifn  is  ^Iven  as  *'  'J  yearn,"  lhoni;h  it  wiih  not  nrobably  two  full  years,  but  only  p:irln  of 
them.  This  will  explain  mveral  of  tlui  f1i;ureH  ifiven.  •Tehonhaphai  assoriaterl  .Telioram  with  him  during  the  latit  two  year?^ 
of  biH  rt:\gn:  no  Jclioi«hiij)hat'H  "'J.')  ycnrn"  und  dehorani's  "  0  yearn  "  overlap  each  other. 

■  Uvprhiled  (by  permlbitloii  of  the  Am.  S.  H.  Union)  from  Bchafl'u  £ible  Uiciionary, 


KINGS. 


1249 


KINGS. 


not  simply  the  cliroiiicler  [as  tlii'  authorized  ver- 
sion, 2  Sam.  viii.  16,  see  margin],  but  firesident 
of  the  council,  and  first  minister  of  the  crown; 
(4)  The  secretary  of  state ;  (5)  "  The  officer,"  i.e., 
who  had  charge  of  the  levies;  (0)  Priests;  (7) 
Courtiers.  To  these  Solomon  (1  Kings  iv.  5,  G) 
added  ;  (8)  The  officer  ovei-  the  twelve  officers  who 
in  turn  tor  a  month  provided  victuals  for  the 
king  and  liis  hou,sehokl ;  (9)  The  officer  over  the 
household.  In  addition,  there  were  the  usual 
suliordinate  court  servants.  "  Eunuchs  "  appear 
first  to  luive  been  employed  in  the  northern  king- 
dom (1  Kings  xxii.  9  marg.),  but  later  ni  Judah 
<{2  Kings  xxiii.  11  marg.).  By  the  term,  perhaps 
■often  only  an  office  is  meant. 

The  royal  revenue  seems  at  first  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  spoils  of  war  (2  Sam.  viii.  11 
sq.,  xii.  30),  and  from  presents  more  or  less  vol- 
untary (1  Sam.  X.  27,  xvi.  20,  etc.),  not  only  by 
liis  subjects,  but  by  strangers;  and  these,  in  the 
•case  of  Solomon,  amounted  to  a  good  deal,  and 
were  regularly  given  (1  Kings  x.  25).  The  king 
iilso  had  private  property  (cf.  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
25-31).  He  also  exercised  the  right  to  levy  a 
tribute  of  bond-sei-vice,  not  only  from  the  rem- 
nants of  the  conquered  peoples  (1  Kings  ix.  20, 
21),  but  also  from  the  Israelites  (1  Kings  v.  13, 
xii.  4),  and  on  two  occasions  collected  a  sort  of 
tax  from  the  men  of  wealth  in  order  to  buy  off 
an  invader  (Pul,  2  Kings  xv.  20 ;  Pharaoli-nechoh, 

xxiii.  35).  OEHLER.    ;VON  ORELLI.) 

KINGS,  First  and  Second  Book  of.  The  two 
liooks  were  originally  one.  The  separation  was 
fir.st  made  by  the  LXX.  (followed  by  the  Vulgate, 
and  so  in  modern  versions),  which  joined  them 
^^'ith  First  and  Second  Samuel  under  the  general 
caption  Kings;  so  that  the  four  together  consti- 
tuted four  books  of  Kings  Daniel  Bomberg 
transferred  this  nomenclature  into  our  Hebrew 
Bibles. 

Our  Kings  may  be  divided  into  three  parts : 
1.  The  history  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  i.-xi.),  with 
the  subdivisions ;  (a)  His  ascent  of  the  tiirone 
(i.-ii.)  ;  (i)  His  brilliant  reign  (iii.  1-ix.  9),  under 
which  come  (a)  his  marriage,  prayer,  and  judicial 
wisdom  (iii.),  (0)  his  court  and  officers,  might 
splendor,  and  wisdom  (iv.-v.  10),  (7)  his  build- 
ing operations  with  help  of  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre, 
and  consecration  of  the  temple  (v.  17-ix.  9) ; 
(c)  His  foreign  affairs,  great  rejiutation  and  reve- 
nue, his  degeneracy  through  polygamy  and  idola- 
try, its  consequences,  and  his  death  (ix.  10-xi. 
43).  2.  The  synchronous  history  of  the  divided 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  (1  Kings  xii.  1- 
2  Kings  xvii.  41), with  the  subdivisions;  (a)  The 
history  of  the  separation,  and  the  hostile  position 
of  the  kingdoms  until  Ahab's  reign  (xii.  1-xvi. 
28);  (i)  The  dynasty  of  Ahab,  the  fatal  league  of 
the  two  royal  houses,  to  the  slaying  of  .Jehoram 
of  Israel  and  Ahaziah  of  Judah  by  Jehu  (xvi. 
29-2  Kings  x.  36) ;  (r)  The  liistory  of  the  dynasty 
of  Jehu  to  the  overthrow  of  Israel  (xi.  1-xvii.  41). 
3.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah  from 
Hezekiah  to  its  overthrow  and  the  Babylonian 
■exile  (xviii.  1-xxv.).  With  the  release  and  ele- 
vation of  Jehoiachin  at  the  court  of  Evil-merodach 
the  history  ends. 

But  Kings  is  no  mere  chronicle,  but  a  work 
governed  throughout  by  a  single  purpose,  which 
■was  to  show  the  fatal  effect  of  disobedience  upon 


the  cho.'^en  people.  This  is  e.icpressed  in  2  Kings 
xvii.  7  sqq.,  which  in  few  words  tells  how  Israel, 
in  lioth  kingdoms,  had  tran.sgre.ssed  the  plain  di- 
vine commands  connnuiiicated  through  prophets, 
especially  by  idolatry,  and  tlius  prepared  their 
fall ;  but  furtlier,  that  foi'  Judah  there  was  hope 
of  restoration,  if  it  would  listen  to  the  pro]>hets. 
Of  the  fulfilment  of  this  promise  the  elevation  of 
Jehoiachin  was  a  pledge.  Agreeably  to  the  pur- 
port of  the  history,  the  position  of  each  successive 
king,  from  Solomon  down,  towards  the  liigli  jilaces, 
is  clearly  stated.  In  Kings  are  no  li^ss  than  nine- 
teen prophetic  words  and  speeches.  Another 
proof  of  the  unity  of  the  history  i.'!  the  regular 
recurrence  of  identical,  .synonymous,  and  analo- 
gous expressions  to  express  the  beginning,  dura- 
tion, and  close  of  each  reign,  the  death  and  burial 
of  each  king,  and  the  theocratic  value  of  his  work. 
E.g.  in  1  Kings  cf.  xi.  43,  xiv.  20  sq. ;  cf.  xv.  3, 
xxii.  43;  cf.  xiv.  9,  xv.  26;  cf.  viii.  16,  ix.  4; 
cf.  viii.  61,  xi.  4.  It  links  itself  immediately  on 
Samuel,  and  thus  closes  the  great  history  which 
begins  with  Gen.  i. 

It  is  characteristic  of  Kings  to  make  continual 
references  to  the  original  sources.  Up  to  1  Kings 
ii.  46  it  draws  from  Samuel's  source  for  the  history 
of  David.  For  the  history  of  Solomon  it  refers 
to  the  "  book  of  the  acts  of  Solomon,"  xi.  41  ; 
for  that  of  tlie  kings  after  Solomon,  it  refers  four- 
teen times  to  the  "  book  of  the  chronicles  of  the 
kings  of  Judah,"  and  seventeen  times  to  a  similar 
"  book  "  for  Israel.  Such  references  are  lacking 
only  in  the  cases  of  Ahaziah,  Amaziah,  and  Je- 
hoahaz  of  the  southern,  and  in  that  of  .Jehoram 
of  tlie  northern  kingdom.  The  books  were  doubt- 
less official  records.  Of  a  quite  different  charac- 
ter was  the  "commentary  of  the  book  of  the 
kings,"  referred  to  in  2  Chron.  xxiv.  27.  The 
liistories  of  Elijah  and  Elisha  rest  upon  an  inde- 
pendent, prophetic,  Ephraimitish  source. 

The  aye  and  authorship  of  the  Book  of  Kings 
cannot  be  exactly  determined.  While  through- 
out the  book  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  the 
temple  are  spoken  of  as  standing  (to  which  period, 
and  not  to  the  exile,  the  recurrent  formula,  "  unto 
this  day,"  refers),  the  closing  verses  (2  Kings  xxv. 
27-30)  set  us  in  the  middle  of  the  exile  ;  and  so, 
while  the  book  as  a  whole  was  written  before  the 
exile,  it  was  revised  and  brought  down  to  date  by 
some  one  of  the  exiles.  The  Talmud  ascribes 
the  book  to  Jeremiah  (Baba  halhra  15'),  and  surely 
the  verbal  and  mental  relationship  between  it 
and  his  writings  is  striking  (2  Kings  xxiv.  18- 
XXV.  30,  and  Jer.  Iii.  are  almost  word  for  word 
identical)  ;  but  the  first  arises  from  their  being 
written  at  the  same  time,  and  from  the  familiarity 
of  the  author  of  Kings  with  .Jeremiah's  writ- 
ings ;  while  the  second  relationship  merely  shows 
the  dependence  of  one  upon  the  other,  not  their 
common  origin.  All  that  can  be  said  upon  the 
matter  is,  that  the  Book  of  the  Kings  was  sub- 
stantially written  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim,  and 
the  redaction  took  place  after  B.C.  561,  and  be- 
fore B.C.  536,  the  close  of  the  exile. 

The  historicity  of  the  book  is  universally  recog- 
nized. The  acknowledged  difficulties  in  chro- 
nology result  from  textual  errors  and  corruptions. 

Lit.  —  Modern  commentators  are  Kkil  (Mos- 
cow, 1845;  new  ed.,  Leipzig,  1864),  Thenius 
(Leipzig,  1849;  2d  ed.,  1873),  Bahr  (Bielefeld, 


KING'S  EVIL. 


1250 


KINGSLBY. 


1868  [trans,  ia  the  Lange  series,  X.Y.,  li<72,  Raw- 
LINSON  (in  Speaker's  Commenlarji,  Lond.,  1873), 
Hammond  (in  Pulpit  Commentary,  1882),  Barlow 
(in  Preacher's  Commentary,  18S5)].  VOLCK. 

KING'S  EVIL,  as  scrofula  was  called,  from  the 
belief,  which  prevailed  for  many  centuries  iu 
France  and  England,  that  scrofula  could  be  cured 
by  the  touch  of  the  king;  the  power  to  work  this 
miracle  being  "  part  of  the  religion  attached  to 
the  person  of  the  king."  In  the  English  Prayer- 
Book  down  to  1719,  there  was  a  special  service 
(part  of  the  Liturgy)  to  give  due  solemnity  to 
the  act.  (See  Hook's  Church  Dictionary.)  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  (1042-60)  was  the  first  Eng- 
lish sovereign,  and  Anne  (1702-14)  the  last,  to 
"  touch  "  for  the  disease.  It  is  said  that  the  fa- 
mous Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  was  the  last  child 
"touched."  Charles  II.  (1660-84)  '-touched" 
more  persons  than  any  other  monarch,  averaging 
four  thousand  a  year.  Prince  Charles  Edward, 
the  Young  Pretender,  tried  in  1745  to  curry  favor 
by  "  touching"  at  Holyrood  Palace.  Among  the 
French  kings  who  practised  the  act  may  be  men- 
tion Louis  XL  (1461-83)  in  1480,  Charles  VIII. 
(1483-98)  at  Rome  and  Naples  in  1495,  Francis  I. 
(1515-47)  in  1527,  and  Louis  XVI.  (1774-93)  at 
Kheims  in  1775. 

KINGSLEY,  Calvin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Methodist- 
Episcopal  bisliop ;  b.  at  Annsville,  Oneida  Coun- 
ty, N.Y.,  Sept.  S,  1812  ;  d.  at  BeirCt,  8>Tia,  April 
6,  1870.  After  gTaduation  at  Alleghany  College, 
Meadville,  Penn.  (1841),  he  entered  its  faculty  as 
professor  of  mathematics,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  two  years  of  pastoral  labor,  continued  in  it 
until  1856,  when  he  was  elected  editor  of  the  West- 
ern Christian  Advocate.  In  1864  he  was  elected  a 
bishop ;  in  May,  1869,  started  upon  an  episcopal 
tour  around  tlie  world,  visited  the  conferences  on 
the  Pacific  coast,  those  at  Foochow,  China,  at 
Bareily,  India,  and  was  passing  through  Syria 
when  he  died.  Besides  controversial  works,  lie 
published  Resurrection  of  the  Human  Body,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1845;  Jiound  the  IKorW,  Cincinnati,  1870, 
2  vols. 

KINGSLEY,  Charles,  b.  at  Holne  Vicarage,  Dev- 
onshire, Kng.,  June  12,  1819  ;  d.  at  Eversley,  Jan. 
23,  1875.  He  entered  Magdalen  College,  Cam- 
bridge, in  1840,  where  he  distinguished  himself 
as  a  classical  and  mathematical  student.  Evers- 
ley in  Hampshire  was  his  first  an<l  la.st  charge ; 
originally  as  curate,  finally  as  rector.  It  was  a 
spot  which  above  all  others  he  loved,  and  in  tlie 
providence  of  God  its  rustic  beauty  bound  the 
two  ends  of  his  life  together.  He  no  sooner  be- 
gan to  preach  than  he  began  to  publish  ;  and  his 
village  sermons,  which  at  once  made  a  mark  on 
English  homiletic  literature,  appeared  in  1844. 
Poet  as  well  as  preacher,  he  wrote,  four  years  after- 
wards, The  Saint's  Tragedy,  or  True  Story  of  Eliza- 
beth of  Hungary,  in  whicli,  with  a  keen  a]>prociation 
of  inediieval  life  and  sentiment,  he  brfiught  out 
the  idea  of  true  wedded  love  in  its  sim]i)e  imrity, 
contra.sted  with  the  falsities  of  a  superstitious 
asceticism.  HLs  own  wedded  life  furnished  one 
of  the  most  charming  instances  of  the  kind  on 
record.  Not,  however,  in  jioetical  sentimentalism, 
or  in  domestic  felicity,  did  hf  allow  his  time  to 
be  absorl)ed  ;  but  looking  on  the  state  of  society 
in  England,  especially  amongst  men  of  tlie  work- 
iug-class,  he  steadfastly  set   before  liimself   the 


task  of  a  social  reformer,  in  company  with  hie 
friend  Mr.  ^Maurice,  and  other  like-minded  per- 
sons. He  laid  a  foundation  for  manifold  improve- 
ments in  the  condition  of  working-men,  intellectu- 
ally, morally,  and  religiously :  classes  for  mental 
instruction,  and  unions  for  pecuniary  benefit, 
sprung  out  of  his  efforts  at  a  period  when  such 
efforts  were  by  no  means  piopular.  He  studied 
the  condition  of  people  in  London  workshops  and 
in  rural  districts,  and,  after  revolving  in  his  mind 
the  problem  of  their  elevation,  wrought  out  his 
ideas  on  the  subject  by  composing  two  memora- 
ble works  of  fiction,  Alton  Locke,  Tailor  and  Poet, 
published  in  1849,  and  Yea.'^t,  a  Problem,  published 
in  1851.  Letters  on  imiversity  reform  speedily 
followed,  with  Lectures  on  Agriculture,  and  at  the 
same  time  he  found  himself  involved  in  a  contro- 
versy on  social  doctrines,  occasioned  by  the  novels 
he  had  written,  especially  the  last.  Hypatia,  or 
New  Foes  with  an  Old  Face,  appeared  in  1853,  in 
which  he  drew  the  liveliest  pictiu'e  ever  seen  of 
the  social  condition  of  Alexandria  in  the  fourth 
century,  as  Greek  philosophy  and  Gothic  Pagan- 
ism came  into  conflict  with  the  advancement  of 
Christianity,  already  deteriorated  by  asceticism 
and  superstition.  In  aU  those  works,  under  a 
clothing  of  fiction  he  sought  to  exhibit  lessons 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  their  bearing  on  his 
own  age,  and  the  evils  which  surrounded  him  in 
Church  and  State.  With  this  work  may  be  cou- 
pled Alexandria  and  her  Schools  ,  and  within  the 
historical  class  of  his  productions  we  must  not 
overlook  his  lectures  on  The  Roman  and  the  Teu- 
ton ;  but  it  is  only  just  to  say  that  his  philoso- 
phy and  his  imagination  too  much  influenced  his 
reading  of  facts.  He  was  fond  of  North  Devon, 
and  pitched  liis  tent  there  for  a  time,  and,  amidst 
the  inspiring  scenes  and  traditions  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, sat  down  to  write  Westward  Ho .'  paint- 
ing in  vivid  colors  the  adventures  of  the  grand 
old  sea-kings  of  Elizabeth's  times,  when  they 
made  theii'  daring  expeditions  to  the  New  World. 
This  book,  issued  in  1855,  touched  a  chord  in 
English  hearts  which  has  never  ceased  to  vibrate; 
and  men  and  women,  boys  and  girls,  found  and 
still  find  enchantments  in  these  brilliant  pages. 
The  same  year  saw  liis  Heroes,  or  Greek  Fairy- 
Tales,  relating  the  story  of  the  Golden  Fleece  and 
other  cla,ssical  legends  with  exquisite  simplicity 
and  skill.  The  Water  Bahies,  a  wild  fairy-tale, 
full  of  incredible  dreams  ;  Glaucus,  or  the  Wonders 
of  the  Seashore ,  Hercward  the  Wake,  last  of  the 
English  ,  Prose  Idyls,  Xcw  and  Old,  —  tliese  are  all 
full  of  imagination,  wreathed  around  facts  in  na- 
ture and  facts  in  history.  Kingsley  had  a  keen 
eye  for  scientific  inquiry,  as  well  as  a  poet's  taste 
for  beauty  everywhere ;  or,  to  use  the  language  of 
his  loving  friend  Dean  Stanley,  "that  listening 
ear,  like  that  of  the  hero  in  the  fairy-tale,  seemed 
ahnost  to  catch  the  growing  of  the  grass,  and  the 
opening  of  the  shell."  lie  publi.shed  a  number  of 
sermons,  T/ie  Good  News  (f  God,  Sermons  fir  the 
Times,  Discipline,  The  Water  (f  Life,  and  .1//- 
Sainls'  Day ;  and  liiough  he  was  at  home  in  iioetry 
and  fiction,  he  found  a  more  desired  home  in  the 
Christian  puljiit,  where,  with  the  outspokenness 
of  a  Hebrew  projihet,  he  rebuked  the  sins  of  the 
age,  and  called  on  liigh  and  low  to  live  lives  of 
righteousness  in  the  fear  and  love  of  God  and 
Clirist.     He  was  njueli  mure  of  a  practical  tlian  a 


KIPPIS. 


1251 


KIRCHHOFER. 


theoretic  theologian,  and  seems  to  have  known 
and  cared  very  little  about  the  history  of  opinion, 
or  about  systems  of  divinity.  Aijil  lie  did  not 
bring  out  in  his  ministry  all  the  truths  which  are 
precious  to  Evangelical  Christians.  He  was  not 
only  rector  of  Evei'sley,  but  canon  of  Chester,  to 
which  he  was  appointed  in  1870,  thence  he  was 
transferred  to  a  canonry  in  Westminster  Abbey. 
He  was  a  royal  chaplain.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
as  a  youth  listened  to  his  lectures,  and  with  the 
younger  branches  of  the  Queen's  family  he  was  a 
great  favorite.  His  preaching  at  the  abbey  at- 
tracted great  crowds ;  and,  when  he  died,  the  loss 
was  keenly  felt  by  those  who  only  for  a  few 
months  flocked  round  his  pulpit.  The  visit  he 
paid  to  America,  and  the  lectures  he  delivered 
there,  made  a  deep  impression,  and  he  returned 
from  his  Western  travels  in  1874  to  die  the  fol- 
lowing year.  Individuality  and  earnestness  to  an 
extraordinary  degree  were  exemplified  in  his  life. 
He  was  a  great  deal  more  than  he  ever  did,  hav- 
ing in  him  a  genius  and  a  spiritual  force  which 
no  words  or  deeds  could  ever  exhaust.  His  letters 
and  memoirs  of  his  life,  in  two  volumes,  are  edited 
by  his  wife,  London,  1876  ;  abridged  edition,  in  one 
volume.  New  York,  1877.      JOHN  STOUGHTON. 

KIPPIS,  Andrew,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.A.S. ;  b.  at 
Nottingham,  March  28,  1725;  d.  in  London,  Oct. 
8,  1795.  He  was  educated  for  the  Presbyterian 
ministry  by  Dr.  Doddridge,  but  from  1753  was  a 
Unitarian  pastor  in  London,  and  teacher  in  Uni- 
tarian theological  institutions.  His  reputation 
rests  upon  his  editorial  work,  upon  five  volumes 
of  a  revised  edition  of  the  Bioyraphia  Brilannica, 
London,  1778-93  (down  to  "  Fastoltf :  "  a  part  of 
vol.  vi.  —  Featley-Foster  —  was  printed ;  but 
Dibdin  says  only  two  copies  of  this  part  are 
known),  upon  the  Works  of  Dr.  Xathaniel  Lard- 
ner  (London,  1788,  11  vols.;  last  edition  in  1827, 
10  vols.),  and  upon  the  Lectures  of  Dr.  Philip 
Doddridge.  He  also  wrote  Lives  of  Lardner, 
Capt.  Cook  (1788),  and  others. 

KIR,  mentioned  (2  Kings  xvi.  9 ;  Amos.  i.  5,  ix. 
7)  as  the  place  whence  the  Syrians  came  before 
they  settled  in  the  regions  north  of  Palestine, 
and  to  which  Tiglath-pileser  sent  the  prisoners 
after  the  conquest  of  Damascus.  It  has  not  yet 
been  possible  to  identify  the  place. 

KIRCHENTAG  {church  diet)  is  the  German 
name  of  a  periodical  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  various  evangelical  churches  of  Germany,  — 
the  Lutheran  Church,  the  Reformed,  the  United, 
and  the  Moravian  (Unilas  Fratrum),  —  on  the 
basis  of  the  common  evangelical  principle  of 
their  confessions,  and  for  the  purpose  of  estab- 
lishing a  common  organization  of  their  denomi- 
nations. The  conventions  took  their  beginning 
in  1848.  It  was  quite  natural  that  the  passionate 
demand  for  political  unity  which  at  that  moment 
swayed  most  men's  minds  in  Germany  should 
call  forth  the  idea  of  ecclesiastical  unity.  i\lore- 
over,  it  seemed  as  if  the  State  were  going  to  dis- 
solve its  old  connection  with  the  Church,  and 
leave  her  to  take  care  of  her  own  organization ; 
not  to  speak  of  the  danger  which  threatened  the 
Church  from  the  peculiar  coloring  of  infidelity 
with  which  the  political  movement  was  tainted. 
In  April,  1848,  Bethmann-HoUweg,  professor  of 
law  in  the  university  of  Bonn,  jmblished  a  Vor- 
schlag  einer  evangelischen  Kirchenversammlung   im 


laufenden  Jahre  1848,  proposing  that  representst- 

five  men  of  the  various  evangelical  churches  in 
Germany  should  meet  together,  and  discu.ss  the 
situation.  In  May,  same  year,  at  the  annual  con- 
ference of  Sandhof,  near  Franci'ort,  the  idea 
obtained  a  more  definite  form  by  the  efforts  of 
Philipp  Wackernagel  of  Wiesbaden.  A  com- 
mittee was  appointed,  and  charged  with  inviting 
representative  men  of  the  various  evangelical 
denominations  to  meet  at  Sandhof,  June  21,  and 
discuss  the  question  how  the  various  evangelical 
State  churches  could  be  organized  into  one  com- 
mon confession  church.  Eighty-eight  men  were 
present,  among  whom  were  Bethmann-Ilollweg 
and  Dorner  from  Bonn,  UUmann  and  Hundesha- 
gen  from  Heidelberg,  Zimmermann  and  Palmer 
from  Darmstadt;  and  the  first  Kirchentay  y/as  con- 
vened at  Wittenberg,  Sept.  21,  1848.  More  than 
five  hundred  delegates  met,  and  the  a.ssembly 
agreed,  (1)  That  the  evangelical  church  communi- 
ties of  Germany  should  form  a  unity ;  (2)  That  the 
unity  should  not  have  the  form  of  a  union,  abol- 
ishing the  differences  of  confession,  but  only  the 
form  of  a  confederacy ;  (3)  That  the  confederacy, 
based  on  the  common  evangelical  principle  of  the 
confessions,  should  leave  to  each  Church  to  ar- 
range its  relations  to  the  State,  its  constitution,  its 
ritual,  and  doctrinal  system,  as  it  pleased ;  while 
(4)  The  confederacy  as  such  should  represent  the 
unity,  bear  witness  against  the  non-evangelical 
churches,  administer  advice  and  support,  defend 
the  rights  and  liberties  which  belong  to  every 
evangelical  church,  etc.  The  confederacy  was 
never  established,  and  no  Kirchenlag  has  been 
convened  since  1871.  Nevertheless,  the  move- 
ment exercised  a  great  and  beneficial  influence, 
both  spiritual  and  material.  From  it  sprang  the 
Koiif/ressfur  innere  Mission,  which  holds  its  annual 
meetings  at  various  places  in  Germany,  and  has 
greatly  extended  its  activity  during  the  last  ten 
years.  Its  leading  genius  was  Dr.  Wichern  till 
his  death  (1881).  See  the  transactions  of  the 
several  sessions  of  the  Kirchentag  at  'Witten- 
berg, Berlin,  Stuttgart,  etc.,  published  by  Hertz, 
Berlin.  wilhelm  baur. 

KIRCHER,  Athanasius,  b.  at  Geyssa,  near  Ful- 
da,  1601  ;  d.  in  Rome,  1680 ;  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  and  most  prolific  writers  of  his  time.  In 
1618  he  entered  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
taught  mathematics  at  Wiirzburg  (whence  he  was 
expelled  by  the  Swedes),  and  afterwards  in  Rome. 
Among  his  works,  most  of  which  treat  mathemat- 
ical and  physical  subjects,  are  Ars  mwjna  lucis  et 
umbrae,  Mundus  subterriiiieus,  Area  Nod,  Turrls  Ba- 
bel, etc.  He  founded  the  first  museum  of  natural 
history  (in  Rome).  His  autobiography  and  letters 
were  edited  by  Loutjenmahtel,  Augsburg,  1684. 

KIRCHHOFER,  Melchior,  b.  Jan.  3,  1775,  at 
Schaffhausen ;  d.  Feb.  13,  1853,  at  Stein,  in  the 
canton  of  Schaflihausen,  where  he  was  appointed 
minister  in  1808,  after  studying  at  Marburg,  1794- 
96.  He  is  one  of  the  ablest  church-historians 
Switzerland  has  produced,  wrote  monographs  on 
S.  Hofmeister  (1810),  Oswald  Myconius  (1813), 
Werner  Steiner  (1818),  Berthold  Ilaller  (1828), 
Guillaume  Farel  (1831),  and  continued  Hottin- 
ger's  Helvelische  Kirchengeschichle.  [He  is  not  to 
be  confounded  with  Johannes  Kirchhofer,  who 
composed  the  able  book,  Quellensammlung  zur 
Geschichle  des  Neutestamentlichen   Canons  bis  auf 


KIRK. 


1252 


KITTO. 


nicronijmus,  Ziiricli,  1844,  upon  which  Professor 
A.  II.  Charteris,  U.D.,  based  his  book,  Canoncity, 
Edinburgh,  ISSO.]  hagesbach. 

KIRK,  Edward  Norris,  D.D,,  b.  in  New  York 
Aug.  14, 1802 :  d.  iu  Boston,  March  27,  1874.  He 
was  graduated  at  the  College  of  Xew  Jersey,  1820, 
and,  after  a  brief  study  of  law,  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  1825.  From  1829  to  1837  he  was 
])astor  of  the  Fourth  Presbyterian  Church  in 
Albany,  N.Y. ;  the  years  from  1837  to  1842  were 
spent  iu  Europe,  and  in  travelling  in  the  United 
States,  iu  the  iutei-est  of  the  Foreign  Evangelical 
.Society,  of  whicli  he  was  secretary.  From  1842  to 
1871  he  was  pastor  of  the  Mount  Vernon  Church 
(Congregational),  Boston,  Mass.  During  his  last 
years  lie  was  almost  entirely  blind.  Dr.  Kirk  was 
one  of  the  first  members  of  the  Evangelical  Al- 
liance, and  a  vigorous  advocate  of  the  evangeliza- 
tion of  the  Roman-Catholic  countries  of  Europe. 
He  published  Memorial  of  Rec.  John  Chester,  D.D. 
{Albany,  1829),  Lectures  on  Christ's  Parables  (New 
York,  1856),  two  volumes  of  Sei-moits  (Xew  Y'^ork, 
1840,  and  Bo.ston,  18G0);  translations  of  Gaussen's 
Tlieopneusty  (New  York,  1842),  and  Canon  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  (abridged,  Boston,  1862),  and  of 
-.1.  F.  Astie's  Louis  Fourteenth,  and  the  Writers  of 
/lis  Age  (Boston,  1855).  His  Lectures  on  Herivals, 
edited  by  Rev.  D.  O.  Alears,  appeared  Boston,  1874. 
See  D.  6.  Me.\rs  :  Life  of  Edward  Norris  Kirk, 
D.D.,  Boston,  1877. 

KIRKLAND,  Samuel,  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
Dec.  1,  1744 ;  d.  at  Clinton,  N.Y'.,  Feb.  28,  1808. 
He  was  graduated  at  the  College  of  New  Jersey, 
1765 ;  ordained  in  the  Congregational  ministry, 
1766 ;  was  a  famous  missionary  among  the  Six 
Nations,  and,  after  serving  as  an  army  chaplain  in 
the  Revolutionary  ^V'ar,  returned  to  his  work 
among  the  Indians.  He  founded  at  Wliitestown, 
N.Y.,  in  1793,  the  Hamilton  Oneida  Academy, 
from  which  .sprang  Hamilton  College.  See  liis 
Memoir  \\\  .Sparks's  American  Biography.  —  John 
Thornton,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  .son  of  the  preceding;  b. 
at  Little  Falls,  N.Y.,  Aug.  17,  1770;  d.  at  Boston, 
April  26,  1840.  He  was  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  1789  ;  pa,stor  of  the  Summer-street  (Con- 
gregational) Church,  Bo.ston,  1794-l.SlO;  and  presi- 
dent of  Harvard  College,  1810-28.  His  presidency 
marks  a  brilliant  period  in  the  history  of  the  col- 
lege. He  wrote  a  life  of  Fisher  Ames,  and  edited 
liis  works,  Boston,  1809. 

KIRK-SESSION  is  the  lowest  court  in  the  Pres- 
byterian churches  of  Scotland,  the  same  that  is 
called  the  "  .session  "  in  America,  consisting  of  the 
minister  and  elders. 

KIRWAN,  Walter  Blake,  b.  at  Galwav,  Ireland, 
17.")0;  d.  in  1805.  Educated  in  the  English  Jesuit 
College  of  St.  Omer,  he  was  ordained  a  priest,  and 
became  professor  of  natural  and  mora!  philosoiihy 
at  Louvain  ;  but  in  1787  he  entered  the  Protestant 
ministry,  held  various  charges,  and  died,  as  dean 
of  Killala,  1810.  He  enjoyed  extraimlinary  pojiu- 
laritv  as  a  preacher,  and  was  jiarl  icularly  noted  for 
his  charitv  sermons.  .Some  of  these  have  been  pub- 
lished, witli  a  ski'Ich  of  his  life  ;  .Sermons,  London, 
1814;  2d  ed.,  1816.  It  will  be  remembered  tiiat 
"  Kirwan  "  was  the  pseudonyme  of  Dr.  Nicholas 
Murray. 

KI'SHON,  or,  in  Ps.  l.\xx.  9,  Ki'son,  the  present 
Nabr  .Mukutta,  rises  on  'I'abor  and  Little  Her- 
mon,  and  flows  through  the  plains  of  £sdraelon 


and  Acre,  into  the  jMediterranean,  —  a  torrent  in 
the  winter  time,  but  almost  dry  during  summer. 
See  Judg.  iv.  7,  v.  21 ;  1  Kings  xviii.  40. 

KISS  "of  peace,  The,  occurs  very  early,  both 
in  the  life  and  in  the  worship  of  the  Christian 
Church,  as  a  symbol  of  brotherliood  and  love 
(Rom.  xvi.  16;'l  Cor.  xvi.  20;  2  Cor.  xiii.  12; 
1  Thess.  V.  26;  1  Pet.  v.  14).  It  became,  in- 
deed, the  common  form  of  greeting  each  other, 
especially  when  people  met  in  the  church ;  and  it 
was  given  unrestrictedly,  without  regard  to  sex, 
rank,  or  age,  as  a  natural  expression  of  that  com- 
munity of  spirit  which  bound  together  all  the 
members  of  the  church.  It  is  apparent,  liowever, 
tliat  such  a  custom  involved  many  inconveniences, 
and  was  liable  to  degenerate.  Tertullian  (Ad 
Uxor.,  2,  4)  speaks  of  the  annoyance  it  must  be 
to  a  heathen  husband  to  see  his  Christian  wife 
exchange  the  kiss  of  peace  with  her  religious 
brethren.  Origen  (In  Horn.,  x.  33)  inculcates 
that  the  kiss  shall  be  holy,  that  is,  chaste  and  sin- 
cere, and  not  like  the  kiss  of  Judas,  but  expres- 
sive of  peace  and  simplicitj-  unfeigned.  And 
Clement  of  Alexandria  even  goes  so  far  as  to 
censure  those  shameless  kisses  which  made  the 
churches  resound,  and  occasioned  foul  suspicions 
and  evil  reports  (Pcedog.,  13,  11).  Thus  certain 
restrictions  soon  became  necessary.  The  Apos- 
tolical Constitutions  (8,  2),  prescribe  tliat  wlien 
the  deacon  says,  "  Salute  ye  one  another  with  the 
holy  kiss,"  the  clergy  shall  salute  the  bishop,  and 
of  the  laity  the  men  the  men,  and  the  women  the 
women  ;  and  similar  restrictions  were  made  by 
contemporary  and  later  councils.  But  in  that,  or 
in  a  somewhat  similar  form,  tlie  custom  has  sur- 
vived down  to  our  time  in  the  Eastern  Cliurch : 
and  in  the  Western  it  was  not  wliolly  superseded 
until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  a  plate  of  wood 
or  metal  (osculatorium),  stamped  with  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  crucifixion,  was  ki.s.sed,  first  by 
the  priest,  and  then  by  all  the  comnumicants  in 
succession,  as  a  token  of  their  mutual  love  in 
Christ.  With  respect  to  the  special  u.se  of  the 
kiss  in  the  worsliip  of  the  ancient  church,  at  com- 
munion,  baptism,  wedding,  etc.,  see  the  elabo- 
rate article  by  ICdnumd  A'enables,  in  Smith  and 
CiiKETHAM  :  Christian  Anlii/uities,  ii.  902. 

KITTO,  John,  b.  at  Plymouth,  Eng.,  Dec.  4, 
1804;  d.  at  Cannstadt,  Wiirtemberg,  Germany, 
Nov.  2.5,  1854.  His  father  was  a  poor  m.ason 
and  a  drunkard,  who  could  afford  him  only  three 
years'  schooling;  and  so,  in  his  twelftli  year,  he 
began  to  earn  his  own  living  as  a  barber's  appren- 
tice, but  was  dismisseti  for  sujiposed  connivance 
at  theft.  On  Feb.  13,  1817,  he  was  assisting  his 
father  at  his  trade  ;  but,  "  wlien  in  the  act  of  »te|v 
ping  from  tiu;  top  of  the  Ladder  to  the  roof  of  the 
house,  lie  lost  his  footing,  and  fell,  a  distance  of 
thirty-five  feet,  into  tiie  court  bene.ath."  By  this 
fall  lie  wa,s  severely  injured  bodily,  and  totally 
and  perni.'inently  deprived  of  tlie  sense  of  hearing. 
On  recovering  his  strength,  lie  resorted  to  various 
expedients  to  g.ain  a  few'  pennies  wliereby  he 
might  liuy  books;  for  reading  was  his  pa.ssion. 
His  jntiablc  condition  —  "pinched  with  hunger, 
shivering  in  rags,  crawling  about  with  expo.sed 
and  bleeding  feet"  —  led  to  his  being  put  in  the 
Plymouth  workhouse,  Nov.  15,  1H19;  and  there 
he  remained  until  July  17,  1823,  with  the  excejv 
tion  of  a  few  months  (1821-22)  of  iiidentureship 


KITTO. 


1253 


KITTO. 


to  a  shoemaker  in  the  place,  who  cruelly  treated 
him.  In  1823  he  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
famous  scientist  Harvey,  and  ultimately  of  other 
educated  persons  who  were  interested  in  tlie  arti- 
cles he  wrote  for  the  Plijmotith  Weekly  Journal; 
and  he  obtained  through  them  the  post  of  sub- 
librarian of  the  Plymouth  Public  Library.  The 
tide  had  turned  with  him.  From  this  position 
he  passed,  in  1824,  into  the  service  of  a  Mr. 
Groves,  a  dentist  at  Exeter.  In  1825  appeared 
his  first  volume.  Essays  and  Letters,  with  a  Short 
Memoir  of  the  Author,  Plymouth.  Through  Mr. 
Groves's  mediation,  he  was  engaged  by  the  Church 
Missionary  Association  as  printer;  and  in  July, 
1825,  he  went,  to  learn  that  art,  to  the  Missionary 
College  at  Islington.  By  this  time  he  had  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  Latin  and  Greek,  and  now 
began  Persian.  Owing  to  an  unhappy  misunder- 
standing, he  resigned  December,  1826.  The  fault 
was  equally  his  and  the  committee's.  Kitto  was 
too  much  given  to  literature  to  be  an  efficient 
printer ;  and  as  he  never  brooked  control,  and  the 
committee  did  not  deal  properly  with  his  sensitive 
and  extraordinary  natiu-e,  never  supposing  that 
the  man  whom  they  hired  as  a  mere  printer  had 
such  lofty  pretensions  to  authorship,  a  rupture 
was  inevitable.  He  repented  of  the  step  he  had 
taken ;  and,  by  the  solicitation  of  friends,  he 
was  restored  a  few  months  afterwards,  and  sent 
to  Malta,  where  he  lived  for  eighteen  months. 
But,  owing  to  the  same  absorption  in  literary 
matters,  he  broke  his  rash  pledge  to  abstain  from 
literary  pursuits,  and  so  was  supposed  by  the 
society  to  be  unable  to  do  as  much  printing  as 
was  required.  Nothing  remained  but  for  him  to 
leave  their  employ.  Arrived  in  London,  he  met 
with  Mr.  Groves,  and  engaged  to  go  with  him  as 
tutor  to  his  family  upon  his  missionary  journey 
to  the  East.  The  party  sailed  from  Gravesend, 
June  12,  1829,  and  arrived  at  Bagdad,  Sunday, 
Dec.  6,  1829.  On  Sept.  19,  1832,  he  left  that  city 
for  England,  having  practically  exhausted  his 
usefulness  to  Mr.  Groves,  and  arrived  at  Graves- 
end  in  June,  1833.  He  obtained  emjiloyment, 
as  a  literary  hack,  with  Charles  Knight,  and  wrote 
industriously  for  the  Penny  Magazine  and  the 
Penny  Cyclopcedia.  On  Sept.  21,  1833,  he  married. 
In  1835  he  began,  and  in  I\Iay,  1838,  he  finished, 
for  Mr.  Knight,  the  Pictorial  Bible,  which  had  an 
immense  and  long-enduring  popularity.  The  first 
edition  was  in  three  large  octavo  volumes,  and 
was  reprinted  the  first  year.  The  standard  edi- 
tion was  begun  in  1847,  and  finished  in  1849  (4 
vols.,  imperial  8vo).  The  work  appeared  at  first 
anonymously,  but  the  real  author  was  soon  known. 
He  had  at  last  found  his  place,  and  produced  in 
succession  the  following  works :  Uncle  Oliver's 
Travels  in  Persia,  1838,  2  vols. ;  Pictorial  History 
of  Palesli)ie  and  the  Holy  Land,  includinrj  a  Com- 
plete History  of  the  Jews,  1841,  2  vols. ;  Gallery  of 
Scripture  Enyravings,  1841^3,  3  vols.  ;  History 
of  Palestine  from  the  Patriarchal  Age  to  the  Present 
Time,  Edinburgh,  1843;  Cyclopcedia  of  Biblical 
TJterature  (which  he  edited  and  largely  wrote), 
Edinburgh,  1843-45,  2  vols.  (3d  ed.  greatly  en- 
larged by  W.  L.  Alexander,  D.D.,  London,  1866, 
3  vols.) ;  The  Pictorial  Sunday  Book,  London,  1845  ; 
The  Lost  Senses,  Deafness  and  Blindness,  1845,  2 
vols. ;  Ancient  Jerusalem,  1846  ;  Modern  Jerusalem, 
1847  ;   The  Court  of  Persia,  1849 ;   Tlte  People  of 


Persia,  1849  ;  The  Tabernacle  and  its  Furniture, 
1849;  The  Bible  History  of  the  Holy  Land,  1849 
(6th  ed.,  1867) ;  Daily  Bible  Illustrations,  Morning 
Readings,  1849-51,  4  vols.,  and  Evening  Readings, 
1851-5.3,  4  vols,  (new  edition  by  J.  L.  Porter,  D.D., 
Edinburgh,  1866,  8  vols.),  —  his  most  popular,  and, 
next  to  his  Cyclopwdia,  his  most  valuable  produc- 
tion. On  Jan.  1,  1848,  he  began  the  issue  of  the 
Journal  of  Sacred  Literature,  and  was  by  far  the 
most  voluminous  contributor;  but  the  Journal 
had  not  a  sufficient  pecuniary  basis,  and  involved 
him  in  heavy  loss;  .so  that  at  last,  in  1853,  after 
eleven  volumes  had  been  issued,  he  abandoned  it 
to  the  hands  of  Dr.  Burgess.  By  these  works  he 
won  a  distinguished  position  among  the  popular- 
izers  of  Bible  science.  In  1844  the  university 
of  Giessen,  Germany,  made  him  a  doctor  of 
divinity.  In  1845  he  became  a  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Antiquaries.  On  Dec.  17,  1850, 
he  was  put  upon  the  civil  list,  and  received  a  grant 
of  a  hundred  pounds  a  year  "on  account  of  his 
useful  and  meritorious  works."  He  had  been  all 
his  life  subject  to  severe  headaches ;  but  in  1851 
he  manifested  decided  indications  of  cerebral 
debility,  and  was  more  or  less  of  an  invalid  from 
that  time  on.  In  February,  1854,  he  was  forced 
to  stop  work.  Generous  friends  raised  eighteen 
hundred  pounds  for  his  support.  On  the  9th  of 
August  he  left  for  Germany,  and  there  he  died. 

Kitto  was  a  layman,  although  a  doctor  of  di- 
vinity. His  life  was  full  of  vicissitudes,  but 
steadily  progressive.  The  contrast  between  its 
beginning  and  its  close  was  remarkable  :  in  fact, 
in  the  entire  range  of  religious  biography  there 
is  scarcely  a  parallel  case.  The  totally  deaf  boy, 
who  in  poverty  and  misery,  in  cold  and  naked- 
ness, wandered  upon  the  streets  of  Plymouth, 
won  for  himself  a  name  honored  in  thousands 
of  homes.  The  secret  of  his  success,  apart  from 
his  literary  gifts,  lay  in  his  indomitable  persever- 
ance, buoyed  up  by  his  great  self-confidence.  He 
never  put  a  low  estimate  upon  himself.  His 
ultimate  position  was  only  the  realization  of  the 
expectations  of  his  boyhood.  Much  of  his  success 
may  be  explained  on  the  score  of  his  deafness ; 
for,  as  he  was  totally  cut  off  from  ordinary  soci- 
ety, he  gave  all  his  time  to  study.  It  is  a  curious 
fact  in  this  connection,  that  for  sonie  years  he 
scarcely  spoke  a  word ;  but,  by  the  kindly  strata- 
gem of  friends  upon  his  voyage  to  Malta,  he  was 
compelled  to  speak,  and  recovered  the  use  of  his 
vocal  organs.  His  voice  and  pronunciation  were 
peculiar,  but  he  ever  afterwards  was  iutelligihle. 
Having  been  all  his  life  a  voracious  and  multifa- 
rious reader,  and  a  student  whose  day  was  sixteen 
hours  long,  it  is  no  wonder  that  he  acquired  much 
learning;  yet,  owing  to  his  irregular  education, 
it  would  be  perhaps  wrong  to  call  him  a  scholar. 
"  He  had  as  much  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Greek, 
Latin,  and  the  modern  tongues,  as  sufficed  for  liis 
purpose."  Dr.  Kitto  was  a  member  of  the  Church 
of  England,  and  very  catholic  and  liberal.  Every 
Christian  was  considered  by  him  a  brother.  His 
piety  was  genuine  and  genial,  permanent  and 
pervasive.  His  life  reads  like  a  romance;  but 
his  influence  was  real  and  most  helpful  in  his 
day,  and  is  likely  to  be  in  some  ways  permanent. 
He  consecrated  his  energies  to  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  Bible,  and  under  his  directions 
a  multitude  explored  the  mine  of  divine  truth. 


KLARENBACH. 


1254 


KLOPSTOCK. 


See  lives  of  Kitto  by  .T.  E.  Rylaxd  (London. 
1856),  and  especially  by  John  Eadie  (Edinburgh, 
1857).  and  the  autobiographic  matter  in  Kitto's 
Lost  Senses.  SAMUEL  M.  JACKSON. 

KLARENBACH,  Adolf,  b.  at  a  farm  near  Len- 
nep.  in  the  duchy  of  Berg,  towards  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  centurj';  was  educated  at  Miinster; 
studied  at  Cologne ;  embraced  the  Reformation, 
and  participated  in  the  reformatory  movements 
at  Wesel,  at  Biiderich  (where  he  worked  together 
with  the  minister,  Johann  Klopreis),  at  Osna- 
briick,  and  in  his  native  place.  In  1528  Klopreis 
was  arrested  at  Cologne,  and  summoned  before 
the  Inquisition.  Klarenbach  inmiediately  went 
to  the  city  to  aid  him  in  his  defence,  but  was 
also  arrested.  Cologne  was  at  that  moment  the 
principal  outpost  of  Rome  in  Germany.  Reforma- 
tory tendencies  had  .shown  themselves  in  tlie  city; 
but  the  clergy,  the  university,  the  magistrate,  and 
the  majority  of  the  burghers,  were  zealous  Ro- 
manists. Klopreis  escaped;  but  Klarenbach  was 
kept  in  prison  for  eighteen  months,  in  spite  of 
the  remonstrances  of  his  friends  and  his  native 
city.  Together  with  Peter  Fliesteden,  he  was 
finally  convicted  of  heresy  by  the  Inquisition, 
and  delivered  over  for  punishment  to  the  secular 
authorities.  Sept.  28,  1529,  he  was  burnt  in  tlie 
square  outside  the  gate.  In  1829  the  third  cen- 
tennial of  his  martp'dom  was  celebrated  through- 
out his  native  country,  and  a  monument  erected 
in  hi.s  honor.  C.  KR.VFKT. 

KLEE,  Heinrich,b.  at  Coblentz,  April  20,  1800; 
d.  in  Munich,  July  28,  1841.  He  was  educated 
in  the  Roman-Catholic  seminary  of  JNIayence,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  there  in  1825, 
at  Bonn  in  ls:30,  and  in  Munich  in  1839,  having 
been  ordamed  priest  in  1823.  At  Bonn  his  posi- 
tion was  in  the  beginning  somewhat  ilifiicult,  as 
he  was  a  decided  adversary  of  llennes  and  the 
Hermesian  school.  He  re]>resented  tlie  old  tra- 
ditional stand-point  of  the  Church  of  Home.  To 
him  revelation,  Christianity,  and  the  Church 
formed  the  one  undivided  fact  of  objective  reason, 
wliich  pre.sents  no  other  problems  to  subjective 
reason  but  those  of  its  historical  development. 
But  he  was  an  able  representative  of  this  stand- 
point ;  and,  after  the  accession  of  Clemens  August 
to  tlie  archiepiscopal  throne,  the  lecture-rooms  of 
the  Ilerniesians  soon  became  empty.  Klee's  prin- 
cipal works  are,  Hystem  d.  Kalliol.  Do//matik,  1831 ; 
Die  E/iP,  1833;  Die  Kallwl.  Dixjmalik;  1831-35,  3 
vols.  :   Dii'/menr/esch.,  1835-37.  2  vols.       L.\N'GE. 

KLEUKER,  Johann  Friedrich,  b.  Oct.  21,  1719, 
at  Oslerode,  in  Hanover;  d.  at  Kiel,  May  31, 
1827.  He  studied  philosophy  and  theology  at 
Gdttingen,  and  obtained  in  1773  a  position  as 
private  tutor  in  Biickebuig,  where  he  made  the 
acquaintance  of  Herder.  In  1778  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  gymnasium  of  Osnabriick, 
and  in  1798  professor  of  theology  at  Kiel,  from 
which  position  he  retired  in  1820.  He  was  a 
stanch  adversary  of  the  ever  increasing  rational- 
ism of  his  time,  and  developed  an  astounding 
literary  activity,  which  testifies,  not  only  to  his 
industry,  but  also  to  hi.s  erudition,  especially  in 
Oriental  languages  and  classical  literature.  See 
Kat.ikn  :  ./.  /''.  Klcuker  uml  Briefe  seiner  Freunite, 
(iiittingi-n,  1812.  O.  II.  KLiri-KL, 

KLINC,  Christian  Friedrich,  b.  at  Altdorf, 
Wiirtemberg,  Nov.   1,   1800;   d.  at  Marbach-on- 


the-Neckar,  Schiller's  birthplace,  in  April,  1861. 
He  studied  at  Tubingen  and  Berlin,  and  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Waiblingen,  1826;  professor  of 

[theology  at  Marburg,  1832,  and  at  Bonn,  1842; 

I  pastor  at  Ebersbach  in  Wiirtemberg,  1849 ;  and 
dean  of  Marbach,  1851.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
.Schleiermacher  and  Neander.  In  his  writings, 
as  in  his  lectures,  instructive,  sound,  and  winning; 
a  man  of  fine  discrimination  and  indejiendent 
judgment.  In  1831  he  edited  the  sermons  of 
Bertholdt,  a  Franciscan  revival  preacher  of  the 
twelfth  century ;  and  in  the  last  years  of  his  life 
he  prepared  for  Lange's  Bihclwerk  the  Commen- 
tary on  the  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  translated 
into  English  by  Drs.  D.  W.  Poor  and  Conway  P. 
\\'ing,  in  SchafE's  edition  of  Lange's  Commenlary, 
New  York,  1868.  He  also  contributed  numerous 
minor  essays  to  the  leading  tlieological  reviews  of 
Germany,  and  articles  for  Herzog's  Enci/clnpcedia. 
KLOPSTOCK,  Friedrich  Gottlieb,  b.'at  Qued- 
linburg.  Saxony,  July  2,  1724,  d.  at  Hamburg, 
ilarch  14,  1803.  He  was  educated  at  Scliul- 
pforte.  When  he  left  that  institution  (in  1745),_ 
he  made  a  Latin  valediction  on  epic  poetry,  which 
shows,  that,  though  only  twenty-one  years  old,  he 
had  fully  made  up  his  mind  to  become  a  poet,  to- 
write  an  epic,  and  to  use  Christ  for  his  hero. 
(.See  Freybe :  Klopstocks  Abschiedsredc,  Halle, 
1868.)  He  studied  first  at  Jena:  but  the  mode 
of  life  which  prevailed  there  among  the  students- 
displeased  him ;  and  in  1740  he  removed  to  Leipzig, 
where  he  remained  until  after  the  appearance  of 
the  three  fir.st  songs  of  his  Messias,  published  in 
Bremische  Beilrdr/e,  1748.  (See  D.  F.  Strauss: 
Klopstoei's  Jiigendgeschiclite,  in  K/eiiie  Schriften, 
Berlin,  1806.)  After  staying  for  two  years  as  a 
private  tutor  in  the  house  of  a  relative  at  Langen- 
salza,  he  went  in  1750  to  Ziirich  to  visit  Bodiner. 
(See  Jloerikofer :  Kiopstock  in  Ziiricli,  1750-51, 
Ziirich,  1851.)  In  1751  he  went  to  Copenhagen, 
where  he  lived,  somewhat  retired,  but  highly 
honored,  at  the  court  of  Frederick  V.,  who  gave 
him  a  pension  of  four  hundred  thalers.  After 
the  death  of  the  king  (in  1700)  he  removed  to 
Hamburg,  but  he  retained  the  pension.  In 
Hamburg  he  lived  in  the  same  style  as  in  Copen- 
hagen. His  house  gradually  became  a  pilgrim's 
shrine.  (.See  Klamer-Schiuidt :  KInpstock  vnd 
seine  Freunde,  Ilalberstadt,  1810.)  He  died  after 
a  long  illness,  and  was  buried  at  Ottensen  with 
great  pomp.  (.See  Meyer:  Klopslocks  Oediielilnis- 
fcier,  Hamburg,  1803;  Ktoj>sl(tcks  Tudlenfeier, 
Hamburg,  1804.)  lie  was  twice  married,  —  first 
time  (1754)  to  Margareta  JloUer,  who  died  in 
1758;  second  time  (1791)  to  Mrs.  Winthem,  a 
niece  of  his  first  wife.     He  had  no  children. 

The  great  event,  which,  during  the  youth  of 
Kiopstock,  filled  the  history  of  (jernian  literature, 
was  the  controversy  between  (lott.sched  and  Bod- 
mer.  Gottsclied  stood  at  the  liead  of  the  French 
school.  The  drama  was  to  him  the  highest  artis- 
tic form ;  and  the  rules,  with  the  elegance  of 
expression  and  clearness  of  movement  which  they 
produced,  he  considere<l  as  the  very  essence  of 
poetry.  He  and  his  wife  translated  French  trage- 
dies, and  wrote  original  pieces  after  tlu;  same 
model.  Bodmer  stood  at  the  head  of  the  English 
school;  and  the  epic,  with  nalional  ]>icturcs(]ue- 
ness  and  sublime  plasticity,  was  his  art-ideal. 
Homer  and  Miltou  were  his  favorites,     lie  pub- 


KLUPFBL. 


1255 


KNAPP. 


lished  the  first  edition  of  the  Niehelungen.  Klop- 
stock  was,  so  to  speak,  awakened  by  Bodiner. 
He  fully  adopted  his  ideas ;  and  the  great  work 
of  his  life  was  the  Messias,  an  epic  poem,  written 
in  hexameters,  published  in  parts  between  1748 
and  1780,  and  translated  into  English,  French, 
Dutch,  Polish,  Swedish,  and  Latin,  lie  wrote 
also  dramas,  but  with  Shakespeare,  not  Kacine,  as 
his  model.  Die  Hermuum^chldchl  (1700),  dedicated 
to  Joseph  II.,  is  a  very  characteristic  composition. 
His  Oden  und  Elegien  (1771)  were  translated  into 
English  by  W.  Nind,  1847.  The  first  collected 
edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  Leipzig,  1798- 
1810,  in  seven  volumes.  The  most  complete  is 
that  of  Leipzig,  1844-4.5,  with  letters  and  bio- 
graphical supplements  by  Herman  Schmidlin. 

The  two  fundamental  ideas  on  which  K  lop- 
stock's  poesy  is  based  are  nationality  and  reli- 
gion ;  and  though  his  Germanenthum  is  somewhat 
affected,  and  liis  Christentlium  somewhat  senti- 
mental, the  power  with  which  he  forced  these 
two  ideas  into  the  spiritual  life  of  his  time  made 
him  a  tui'ning-point  in  the  history  of  German 
literature.  Modern  German  poetry  begins  with 
him.  His  literary  influence  was  enormous,  de- 
cisive ;  and,  besides  this,  he  exercised,  both  by 
his  Mess'ms  and  by  his  Oden  and  Geistliche  Lieder, 
a  purely  religious  influence.  In  a  time  in  which 
Lutheran  orthodoxy  had  transformed  religion 
into  a  mere  system  of  docti'ines,  Klopstock  maile 
people  feel  that  Christianity  is  something  more, — 
that  it  speaks  as  well  to  the  inuigiuation  and  the 
sentiment  as  to  the  intellect.  More  especially  he 
was  the  singer  of  the  resurrection  and  the  coming 
kingdom  of  heaven;  and  numerous  proofs  of  the 
deep  impression  he  produced  can  be  found  in  the 
German  literature.  See  C.  F.  Ckamek:  Er  und 
iiber  ihn,  Hamburg,  1780;  and  DiiiUNG:  Klop- 
stocks  Leben,  Weimar,  18:25.  A.  FREYBE. 

KLUPFEL,  Engelbert,  b.  at  AVipfelda,  Lower 
Franconia,  Jan.  18,  1733;  d.  at  Freiburg,  in 
Breisgau,  July  8,  1811.  In  17.50  he  entered  the 
order  of  the  Augustinians  at  Wiirzburg ;  studied 
philosophy  at  Erfurt,  theology  at  Freiburg,  and 
was  ordained  priest  at  Constance  in  1756 ;  taught 
philosophy  in  the  gymnasiums  of  JIannerstadt 
and  Oberndorf,  theology  at  Mayence  and  Con- 
stance; and  was  in  1767  made  profes.sor  of  the- 
ology at  Freiburg.  This  appointment  roused  the 
jealousy  of  the  Jesuits,  who  had  liithei'to  held 
the  chair;  but  Kliipfel  was  supported  by  the 
Austrian  court,  and  allowed  to  continue  his  ac- 
tivity unmolested.  With  the  Protestant  rational- 
ists, especially  Semler,  he  also  carried  on  a  hot 
controversy  in  his  Nuva  Bihtiollieca  Ecclesiastica, — 
a  periodical  which  he  founded  in  1775,  and  con- 
tinued to  1700  (7  vols).  His  principal  work  is 
his  Institutiones  t/ieologke  doymaticce  (1789),  which 
was  used  as  text-book  in  many  universities,  but 
has  been  materially  altered  in  its  fourth  edition 
by  Ziegler.  His  De  vita  et  scriplis  Conradi  Cellis, 
containing  some  autobiographical  notes,  was  pub- 
lished after  his  death.  See  Johann  L.  Hug: 
Elof/ium  Kliipfel.  KLOSE. 

KNAPP,  Albert,  the  most  distinguished  writer 
of  spiritual  songs  in  Germany  in  the  first  half  of 
this  century  ;  was  b.  in  Tubingen,  July  25,  1798  ; 
d.  in  Stuttgart,  June  18,  1864.  In  his  second  year 
his  parents  removed  to  Alpirsbach  in  the  Black 
Forest,  where  they  remained  till  1809.     The  beau- 


ties of  the  scenery  exercised  a  lasting  influence 
upon  the  fresh  imagination  of  the  young  ]ioet. 
He  studied  at  the  theological  semimiry  in  Tubing- 
en ;  but  the  years  were  fuller  of  poetry  than  of 
theology.  In  1820  he  became  vicar  at  Feuerbacli, 
and  afterwards  at  Gaisburg,  —  two  villages  nisar 
Stuttgart.  His  intercourse  at  this  period  with 
Wilhelm  Hofacker  gave  to  him  a  new  insight 
"  into  his  own  corruption  and  into  Christ's  grace 
and  maje.sty,  which  becanie  the  beginning  of  an 
entirely  new  life,  and  conception  of  the  world." 
After  passing  to  Sulz  (1825)  and  to  Kirchheim 
(1831),  he  was  transferred  to  Stuttgart  in  1836, 
and  in  1845  was  made  pastor  of  St.  Leonhard's 
Church.  He  endeared  himself  to  his  people ;  and 
although  he  was  not  fitted,  like  Ludwig  Hofacker, 
liy  an  impressive  emphasis  of  sin  and  grace,  to 
become  a  pattern  as  an  awakening  preacher,  his 
sermons  were  noted  for  a  remarkable  richness  of 
spiritual  thought.  He  was  a  num  of  decided 
evangelical  sentiments,  and  clung  to  the  Divine 
Word.  "  Then  is  the  soul  joyful,"  he  says,  "  when 
it  passes  from  the  confusion  of  a  capricious,  dry, 
and  limited  human  wisdom,  into  the  clear  light  of 
the  Divine  Word." 

Knapp's  claim  to  permanent  fame  rests  upon 
his  peculiar  gift  of  spiritual  poetry.  He  was  an 
original  poet  and  a  liymnologist.  His  first  efforts 
appeared  in  two  volumes,  under  the  title  Christ- 
liclie  Geilic/ile  ("  Christian  Poems  "),  and  were  pub- 
lished, by  the  generosity  of  .some  friends,  at  Ba- 
sel, in  1829.  Most  of  Knapp's  hymns,  which  were 
afterwards  incorporated  in  hymn-book.s,  appeared 
in  this  edition.  Other  volumes  of  iJoenis  appeared 
under  the  titles,  Neuere  Gedichte  ("  New  Poems  "), 
1834,  2  vols.  ;  Chrislenlieder  ("  Songs  for  Chris- 
tians), 1841 ;  Gedichte  ("  Poems  "),  1854, 1868;  and 
Herbstljliithen  ("  Autumn  Flowers  "),  1 859.  These 
volumes  contain  more  than  twelve  hundred  origi- 
nal hymns  and  poems.  Although  they  are  not 
always  classic  in  form,  they  are  rich  in  thought. 
The  subjects  are  drawn  from  every  department. 
Men  of  war,  poets,  musicians,  as  well  as  the  beau- 
ties of  nature  and  the  praises  of  Christ,  are  sung. 
For,  as  he  says,  "  the  whole  world  belongs  to  the 
Christian ;  and  his  mind  and  heart  may  tarry 
everywhere  except  in  the  domain  of  sin  and  van- 
ity, and  everywhere  seek  the  vestiges  of  his  God." 
But  he  ahvays  returned  with  joy  to  the  Word  of 
Ciod.  "  Here  there  is  an  endless  store.  Though 
one  may  have  composed  a  hundred  poems  on  it 
with  careful  labor,  yet  he  has  done  no  more  than 
does  a  fly  when  it  has  walked  over  the  keys  of  a 
piano  full  of  music.  Especially  do  I  look  upon 
the  Old  Testament  as  a  real  gold-mine  of  the 
highest  style  of  poetry."  It  was  his  glory,  as 
Fr.  Krummacher  said,  that  he  laid  all  his  talents 
at  the  feet  of  Christ ;  and  some  of  his  hynms  will 
alwa3'S  continue  to  be  fountains  of  blessing ;  as, 
A  n  (lein  Bluten  und  Erbleichen ;  Eines  iciinsch  ich 
mir  I'or  allem  andern  ["!More  than  all,  one  thing 
my  heart  is  craving,"  Schaif's  Christ  in  Song,  p. 
497]  ;  Einer  ist's,  an  dem  iL-ir  hangen  ;  Hallelujah, 
wie  lieblich  slehn ! 

Knapp  also  did  a  great  work  by  editing  a  collec- 
tion of  hynms,  Ecangelischer  Liederschalz  fur Kirche 
und  Ilaus  ("  Treasm'y  of  Hvmns  for  the  Church 
and  Home  "),  Stuttgart,  1837;  3d  ed.,  1865.  He 
here  gives  an  admirable  selection  of  3,590  out  of 
the  80,000  German  hymns.     In  the  first  edition 


KNAPP. 


1256 


KNOLLYS. 


he  inade  many  corrections  in  the  hymns,  but  after- 
wards confessed  he  had  gone  too  far  in  this  direc- 
tion. [Its  notices  of  tlie  hymn-writers  are  written 
with  skill,  and  are  very  valuable.]  This  woi-k 
contributed  very  materially  to  sharpen  and  satisfy 
the  taste  for  good  hynuis.  Knapp  also  edited  the 
Chrisloler/ie  from  1833  to  1853,  a  Cliristian  alma- 
nac, and  published  some  biographies.  See  Lebens- 
bild  v.  A.  Knapp  (memoirs  begun  by  himself,  and 
completed  by  his  son,  Joseph  Knapp)  [and  a  lec- 
ture of  thirty-seven  pages  by  Kakl  Gekok  :  Albert 
Knapp,  Der  schwdbische  Dicliter,  Stuttgart,  1879], 
Stuttgart,  1867.  palmer,   (lauxm^vnn.) 

KNAPP,  Georg  Christian,  b.  at  Glaucha,  1753; 
d.  at  Ilalle,  Oct.  14.  1S25.  He  studied  at  Halle 
and  Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  Halle  in  1777,  and  director  of  the 
Francke  Institution  in  1785.  Surrounded  on  all 
sides  by  the  prevailing  rationalism,  he  represent- 
ed the  influence  of  Spener;  and  the  impression  he 
made  was  both  deep  and  wide,  though  a  natural 
timidity,  which  made  him  shrink  from  any  direct 
conflict,  prevented  him  from  forming  a  school. 
He  published  a  valuable  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament (3d  ed.,  1824)  ;  and  his  Scripta  varii  argu- 
menli  (2  vols. ;  2d  ed.,  1823)  contains  several  ex- 
cellent essays.  After  his  death,  his  Lectures  on 
Christian  T/ieolof/ij  was  jmblLshed  by  Thilo  (1827- 
28,  2  vols.),  [and  translated  into  English  by  Leon- 
ard Woods  (Andover,  1831-39,  2  vols.)]  ;  and  his 
Biblische  Glaubenslchre  zum  prnk'tischen  Gehrauch, 
by  Guericke,  1840.  See  Niemeyer  :  Epicedien 
zum   Andritleu  anf  Knapp.  1825.  THOLUCK. 

KNATCHBULL,  Sir  Norton,  b.  in  Kent,  1601 ; 
d.  1084.  He  wrote  Annotations  upon  some  Difficult 
Texts  in  alt  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament  (Cam- 
bridge, 1693),  a  translation,  with  improvements  of 
his  own,  —  .4  nimadcersiones  in  libros  JV.  T.  para- 
doxic ort/iodoxte  (London,  1659).  It  was  once 
highly  esteemi'd,  and  frequently  reprinted. 

KNEELAND,  Abner,  b.  1774;  d.  at  Farming- 
ton,  lo.,  Aug.  27,  1844.  He  w-as  first  a  Baptist, 
and  then  a  Universalist  minister,  but  ultimately 
became  a  deist.  In  1836  he  was  tried  for  blas- 
phemy before  the  Supreme  Court  at  Boston.  He 
published  The  Deist  (1822,  2  vols.),  Lectures  on 
the  Doctrine  of  Universal  Saloalion  (Philadelphia, 
1824),  lieview  of  the  Evidences  of  Vliristianitij 
(1829).  But  his  most  notable  publication  was  a 
translation  of  the  Xew  Testament,  with  a  Greek 
text,  I'hiladelpliia,  1822,  2  vols. 

KNEELING  (Genuflexion,  Prostration).  The 
Jews  prayed  standing  or  kneeling  (Neh.  ix.  2-4; 
Matt.  vi.  5;  Luke  xviii.  11,  13;  2  Chron.  vi.  13; 
Dan.  vi.  10;  Ez.  ix.  5,  etc.).  Among  the  Chris- 
tians, however,  the  kneeling  posture  very  early 
became  the  most  common.  Compare  Acts  vii. 
CO,  ix.  40,  XX.  36,  xxi.  5 ;  Eph.  iii.  14,  not  to  speak 
of  frequent  allusions  by  Clemens  Romanus,  St. 
Ignatius,  ■Hennas,  and  others.  See  art.  Genu- 
flection in  S.MiTii  and  Ciieetiiam,  Dictionary  of 
Christian  Antii/uities,  i.  723  sq. 

KNIPPERDOLLING,  Bernard.    See  MiiNSTEU. 

KNIPSTRO  (not  Knipstrow,  though  in  Latin 
Ktiipstrorius),  Johann,  b.  at  Sandow-in-tlie-AIark, 
May  1,  1497;  d.  at  Wolgast,  Oct.  4,  1556.  He 
early  entered  the  Franciscan  order,  and  was,  on 
account  of  his  mental  brightness,  sent  to  study 
in  the  university  of  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder,  where 
he  greatly  di.stingui.shed  himself  by  defending  the 


theses  of  Luther  against  Tetzel  in  a  public  dispu- 
tation, Jan.  20,  1518.  In  order  to  prevent  his 
embracing  the  Reformation,  he  was  by  his  supe- 
riors sent  to  the  Fi'anciscan  monastery  at  PjTitz 
in  Pomerania;  but  in  a  short  time  he  converted 
all  the  monks  to  Protestantism.  The  bishop  of 
Cammin  interfered ;  and  Knipstro  fled  to  Stettin, 
where  he  married,  and  thence  to  Stralsund,  where 
he  was  made  assistant  preacher  at  St.  JIary,  and 
afterwards  superintendent.  At  the  sjoiod  of 
Treptow',  1534,  the  dukes  of  Pomerania  agreed 
to  introduce  the  Reformation  in  their  possessions ; 
and  Knipstro  was  made  superintendent-general 
over  the  Wolgast  dominions.  His  activity  was, 
on  the  whole,  more  practical  than  theoretical. 
His  writings  (Epistola  ad  Melanchthonem,  Wieder- 
legung  dcs  Bekenntnisses  A.  Osiandri,  etc.)  are  not 
many.  His  life  is  found  in  J.  H.  Balthaser  : 
Sammlungen,  Greifswald,  1723, 1725,  2  vols.,  i.  93, 
and  ii.  317-386.  G.  plitt. 

KNOBEL,  Karl  August,  one  of  the  greatest 
Hebrew  exegetes  of  our  age ;  b.  at  Tzschecheln, 
in  Lower  Lusatia,  Aug.  7,  1807;  d.  at  Giessen, 
May  25,  1863.  He  was  educated  at  Sorau,  stud- 
ied at  Breslau ;  was  appointed  professor  extraor- 
dinary of  theology  there  in  1835,  and,  after  the 
publication  of  his  Prophetismus  der  Hebrcier  (Bres- 
lau, 1837,  2  vols.), -ordinary  professor  of  theology 
at  Giessen,  1839.  To  Hirzel's  Kurzgefasstes  exc- 
getisches  Handbuch  zum  Alten  Testament  he  contrib- 
uted the  Commentaries  on  Isaiah  (which  involved 
him  in  a  controversy  with  Ewald,  and  occasioned 
him  to  write  liis  Exegetisches  Vailemecwn  fiir  Herrn 
Ewald  in  Tiibini/en,  Giessen.  1844),  1843,  3d  edi- 
tion, 1861;  Genesis,  1852,  2d  edition,  1860;  Exo- 
dus and  Leviticus,  18.57;  and  Xumbers,  Deuter- 
onomy, and  Joshua,  1861 ;  and  his  contributions 
are  distinguished  by  their  learning  and  acuteness, 
originality  of  view,  and  solid  argumentation, 
though  the  decidedly  rationalistic  bent  of  his 
mind  prevented  him  from  thoi'ouglily  appreciat- 
ing the  poetical  and  theological  value  of  the 
works  commented  upon.  He  also  wrote  Commen- 
tar  iiher  das  Buck  Kohelelh,  1836,  and  Volkertafel 
der  Genesis,  1850.  ZOCKLEk". 

KNOLLYS,  Hansard,  an  eminent  Engli.sh  Bap- 
tist minister;  b.  in  Cluilkwell,  Lincolnshire,  1598; 
d.  in  London,  Sept.  19,  1691.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge  University,  and  ordained  priest  by 
the  bishop  of  Peterborough.  Changing  his  views 
on  infant  baptism,  he  was  recognized  as  a  non- 
cor.fnrmist,  and  subjected  to  much  persecution 
for  preaching.  In  l(i38  lie  left  the  country,  and 
sailed  for  America.  Arriving  in  Boston,  he  be- 
came involved  in  a  controver.sy  with  the  authori- 
ties. Cotton  Matlier  called  him  "Mr.  Absurd 
Knowle.ss."  He  was  the  first  minister  of  Dover. 
N.II.  He  returned  to  Engl.md  in  1611,  where 
the  remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  in  varying 
vicissitudes,  a  part  of  the  time  as  a  fugitive  on 
the  Continent.  ^Ir.  Knollys  w.as  a  learned  scholar 
and  an  able  pre.ichcr,  and,  before  his  departun' 
for  America,  is  said  to  h.avc  had  a  regular  audi- 
ence of  one  thousand  persons  when  lie  preached 
in  London.  He  published  Flaming  Fire  in  Zion 
(1616),  Jiudiments  of  the  Hebrew  Grammar  (lGi8). 
■Mu\  liis  Antobingrapliy  (1672).  The  last  work  was 
contiiuicd  by  Kii-ein,  1692,  and  rrpriiited  1813. 
See  al.so  Brooks  :  lAves  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  iii. 
Tho  Ilanserd  Knollys  (Bai)tist)  Society  was  or- 


KNOWN-MEN. 


1257 


KNOX. 


ganized  in  England  in  1845  to  republish  t-arly 
Baptist  writings. 

KNOWN-MEN,  a  designation  for  Lollards,  and, 
later,  for  J'liritans,  in  Henry  VIII. 's  time;  u.sed 
among  themselves  to  mark  the  fact  of  their  ac- 
quaintance with  the  New  Testament.  They  con- 
sidered themselves  to  be  "  known  men  "  of  God, 
because  they  knew  God's  Book. 

KNOX,  John,  the  Scottish  reformer;  b.  1505; 
d.  Nov.  24,  1572;  was  the  son  of  William  Knox, 
a  small  landed  proprietor  of  fair  tliough  not  dis- 
tinguished descent,  in  the  county  of  Lanark. 
His  mother's  name  was  Sinclair;  and  his  birth- 
place (Works,  edited  by  D.  Laing,  vol.  vi.  p.  10) 
appears  to  have  been,  not  Giffoi-d  village,  as  usu- 
ally represented,  but  a  suburb  of  the  town  of 
Haddington,  known  as  Giffordgate.  It  was  like- 
wise in  Haddington  that  he  i-eceived  the  ele- 
ments of  a  liberal  education.  Haddington  early 
enjoyed  the  advantage  of  possessing  an  excellent 
grammar-school,  —  one  of  those  schools  originally 
monastic,  and  due  to  the  public  spirit,  which,  at 
least  as  regards  education,  animated  the  Scottish 
Church  even  antecedently  to  the  Reformation. 
In  these  schools,  if  not,  except  in  rare  instances, 
Greek,  at  least  the  Latin  language  was  taught, 
along  with  the  more  ordinary  branches  of  popu- 
lar instruction.  The  schools  of  Aberdeen,  Perth, 
Stirling,  Dumbarton,  Killeani,  and  Haddington, 
are  particularly  mentioned  in  contemporary  writ- 
ings, as,  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, celebrated  for  the  skill  of  their  masters,  and 
the  attainments  of  the  often  numerous  pupils  — 
including  sons  of  the  principal  nobility  and  gen- 
try —  who  were  educated  within  their  w  alls. 

From  Haddington  school  he  appears  to  have 
proceeded  to  the  University  of  Glasgow,  then  not 
so  well  equipped  as  it  has  since  become,  being, 
in  the  words  of  its  distinguished  principal,  John 
Major,  "parum  dohitum,  parumi/ue  celebrem"  and 
chiefly  adorned  by  the  presidency  of  a  man  who 
was  one  of  the  greatest  scholars  of  his  times. 
How  long  Knox  remained  at  college  is  uncertain. 
His  name  occurs  among  the  Incorporati  in  the 
Annales  of  Glasgow  College  for  1522.  It  is  not 
to  be  found  in  any  subsequent  year,  either  in  the 
Glasgow  registers,  or  in  those  of  the  other  Scot- 
tish universities.  He  may  have  been  a  student, 
however,  without  matriculating.  Knox  certainly 
never  made  any  pretence  to  be  such  a  scholar  as  his 
contemporaries  George  Buchanan  or  Alesius;  nor 
is  there  evidence  that  he  even  graduated.  That 
he  was  a  fair  Latinist,  and  accustomed  to  study, 
appears,  however,  from  the  fact,  which  seems  to 
be  well  attested,  of  his  familiarity  with  the 
writings  of  Augustine  and  Jerome.  He  acquired 
the  Greek  and  Hebrew  languages  after  middle 
life,  probably  when  on  the  Continent.  Knox  is 
said  to  have  been  ordained  to  the  priesthood 
before  the  year  1530.  The  fact  of  his  ordination 
is  admitted  both  by  friends  and  foes;  but  neither 
for  the  date  of  this  event,  nor  for  almost  any 
other  incident  in  the  reformer's  career,  between 
his  matriculation  in  Glasgow  in  1522  and  the 
time  when  he  renounced  the  errors  of  Romanism, 
and  professed  his  adherence  to  the  Protestant 
faith,  have  we  authentic  evidence.  The  principal 
authority  for  the  facts  of  his  life  at  this  period 
is  an  article  in  Beza's  Icojtea  Virorum  1  lluslrium 
(1580) ;   but  the   details   given   in   this   curious 


series  of  contemporary  biographies  are  not  by 
any  means  always  reliable.  One  fact,  whatever 
its  value,  is  ascertained.  It  appears,  from  evi- 
dence adduced  l>y  Mr.  Laing,  that  in  the  year 
1544  Knox  had  not  yet  divested  himself  of  Rom- 
ish orders ;  in  so  far,  that,  in  his  character  of  a 
priest,  he  signed  a  notarial  instrument  dated 
March  27  of  that  year,  the  original  of  which  is 
still  to  be  found  in  the  Charter-room  at  Tyning- 
hanie  Castle.  Up  to  this  time,  however,  he 
seems  to  have  employed  himself  in  private  tui- 
tion, rather  than  in  parochial  duties ;  and,  at  the 
moment  when  he  last  signed  his  name  as  a  priest, 
he  was  probably  already  engaged  in  the  office  — 
which  he  held  for  several  years  —  as  tutor  or  peda- 
gogue in  the  family  of  Hugh  Douglas  of  Long- 
niddry,  in  East  Lothian,  with  the  further  charge 
of  the  .son  of  a  neighboring  gentleman,  John 
Cockburn  of  Ormiston  :  both  of  them  persons, 
who,  like  himself,  had  even  at  this  time  a  lean- 
ing to  the  new  doctrines. 

Knox  was  forty  years  of  age  when  he  first  pub- 
licly professed  the  Protestant  faith.  His  mind 
had  in  all  probability  been  directed  to  that  faith 
for  some  time  before  the  change  was  avowed. 
According  to  Calderwood,  Thomas  Guillaume,  a 
native  of  East  Lothian,  and  provincial  of  the 
order  of  Blackfriars,  was  the  first  "to  give  Mr. 
Knox  a  taste  of  the  truth."  Beza  attributes  his 
original  change  of  opinion  to  the  study  in  St. 
Andrews,  in  early  manhood,  of  the  writings  of 
Augustine  and  Jerome.  But  the  immediate  in- 
strument of  his  actual  conversion  was  the  equally 
learned  and  amiable  George  Wishart,  who,  after 
a  period  of  banishment,  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  1544,  to  perish,  in  the  following 
year,  at  the  stake,  as  the  last  and  most  illus- 
trious of  the  victims  of  Cardinal  Beaton.  Among 
other  places  where  he  preached  the  Reformed 
doctrines  in  these  years,  Wishart  had  come  to 
East  Lothian,  and  there  made  Knox's  acquaint- 
ance. The  attachment  which  the  latter  formed 
for  the  person  as  for  the  doctrine  of  Wishart, 
must,  notwithstanding  his  mature  years,  be  de- 
scribed as  of  the  nature  of  a  youthful  enthusi- 
asm. He  followed  him  everywhere,  and  consti- 
tuted himself  his  body-guard,  bearing,  it  is  said, 
a  two-edged  sword,  that  he  might  be  prepared  to 
defend  him  against  the  cardinal's  emissaries, 
then  known  to  be  seeking  Wishart's  life.  And, 
on  the  night  of  the  martyr's  apprehension,  he 
was  hardly  restrained  from  sharing  his  captivity, 
and  consequently,  in  all  probability,  his  fate. 
The  terms  of  Wishart's  remonstrance  are  well 
known:  "Nay,  return  to  your  bairns  (pupils). 
One  is  sufficient  for  a  sacrifice." 

His  first  call  to  the  Protestant  ministry  took 
place  at  St.  Andrews,  a  picturesque  city,  rich  in 
ecclesiastical  traditions  from  the  C'uldee  period, 
which  was  throughout  his  life  intimately  associ- 
ated with  the  reformer's  career.  Thei-e  appears 
to  have  been  no  regular  ordination.  Of  course,  he 
was  already  ordained  as  a  priest  in  the  Church 
of  Rome.  But  imposition  of  hands,  and  other 
forms  in  constituting  the  ministerial  character, 
were  (as  appears  from  the  Book  of  Policy  for  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  which  he  afterwards  assisted 
to  draw  up,  and  at  all  events  sanctioned)  not 
regarded  by  Knox  as  at  most  of  more  than  sec- 
ondary importance.     A  graphic  account  of  the 


KNOX. 


1258 


KNOX. 


whole  proceedings  connected  with  his  call  to  the 
ministry,  together  with  a  report  of  his  first  ser- 
mon in  St.  Andrews,  will  be  found  in  Knox's 
Histort/  nf  the  Reformation. 

At  this  time  he  was  residing  in  the  Castle  of 
St.  Andrews.  After  Beaton's  death,  this  strong- 
hold became  a  place  of  refuge  for  many  of  the 
Protestants.  Along  with  his  pupils,  the  sons  of 
the  lairds  of  Longniddry  and  (.)rnnston,  already 
mentioned,  he  passed  there  some  comparatively 
peaceful  months.  His  repose  was  rudely  inter- 
rupted by  the  investiture  and  capitulation  of  the 
castle  in  the  end  of  July,  1547,  succeeded,  as  re- 
garded Knox  and  some  of  the  rest  of  the  refugees, 
by  imprisonment  in  the  French  galleys.  He  now 
spent  no  less  than  nineteen  months  as  a  galley- 
slave,  amongst  hardships  and  miseries  which  are 
said  to  have  permanently  injured  his  health,  and 
which  he  never  cared  to  refer  to,  so  painful  was 
the  recollection.  "  How  long  I  continued  pris- 
oner," he  said  in  a  sermon  preached  in  St.  An- 
drews, in  1569,  "what  torments  I  sustained  in 
the  galleys,  and  what  were  the  sobs  of  my  heart, 
is  now  no  time  to  recite."  He  adds,  however, 
that  he  always  continued  to  hope  for  a  return  to 
his  native  country.  In  the  Hislonj  (vol.  i.  p.  228), 
the  same  confidence  of  a  return  is  referred  to  as 
never  having  forsaken  him  ;  and  he  gives  a  curi- 
ous testimony  to  the  fact,  by  mentioning  how,  on 
one  occasion,  "lying  betwixt  Dundee  and  .St. 
Andrews,  tlie  second  time  that  the  galleys  re- 
turned to  Scotland,  the  said  Jolin  [Knox]  being 
so  extremely  sick  that  few  hoped  his  life,  JIaister 
[afterwards  .Sir]  James  [Balfour,  one  of  his  fel- 
low-prisoners] willed  him  to  look  to  the  land, 
and  asked  if  he  knew  it.  Who  answered,  '  Yes, 
I  know  it  well ;  for  I  see  the  steeple  of  that  place 
where  God  first  in  public  opened  my  mouth  to 
his  glory ;  and  I  am  fully  pers\iaded,  how  weak 
soever  I  now  appear,  that  I  shall  not  depart  this 
life,  till  that  my  tongue  shall  glorify  his  godly 
name  in  the  same  place.'  " 

On  his  release,  which  took  place  early  in  1549, 
through  (as  is  supposed)  the  mediation  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  Knox  found,  that,  in  the  existing  state 
of  the  country,  he  could  Ik^  of  little  use  in  his  be- 
loved Scotland.  For  nearly  ten  years  we  accord- 
ingly find  him  submitting  to  voluntary  exile,  like 
so  many  of  the  worthiest  of  his  countrymen  in 
those  troublou.i  timers.  All  these  years,  however, 
he  devoted  himself  to  mini.stc-rial  labors  in  con- 
nection with  the  Keformed  Church.  His  fir.st 
sphere  of  duty  was  provided  for  him  in  Kngland, 
as  a  minister  of  the  English  Church.  For  a  full 
account  of  this  period  (extending  over  about  five 
years)  of  the  life  of  Knox,  the  reader  nnist  be 
referred  to  Ur.  Lorimer's  work,  mentioned  below. 
That  the  father  of  the  Presbyterian  Ciiurch  of 
Scotland  should  have  been  from  1519  to  1551  a 
minister  of  the  Church  of  Kngland  will  appear 
the  le.ss  remarkable,  when  it  is  remiMubered,  that, 
during  the  whole  reign  of  Kdward  VI.,  the  Clnircli 
of  England  was  in  a  transition  slate;  some  of  its 
most  marked  peculiarities  (which  Knox  himself 
and  others  in  .Scotland  and  aliroad  afterwards 
objected  to)  bfdng  thtui  in  abeyance,  or  at  least 
not  insi-sted  upon  as  terms  of  communion.  'I'hus, 
the  Prayer-Book  was  not  obligatory,  neitlier  was 
kneeling  at  tlie  communion.  Epi.scopal  gfivern- 
ineiit  was  of   course  acknowledged;   but   Knox, 


when  himself  offered,  in  the  year  1552,  the  bish- 
opric of  Rochester,  declined  the  preferment,  on 
the  same  grounds  on  which  he  afterwards  objected 
to  the  re-introduction  of  Episcopacy  into  Scotland. 
The  offices  he  held  in  the  Church  of  England 
are  roughly  indicated  in  the  History,  which  says, 
"  He  was  first  appointed  preacher  to  Berwick,  then 
to  Newcastle ;  and  last  he  was  called  to  London 
and  to  the  southern  parts  of  England,  where  he 
remained  till  the  death  of  Edward  VI."  (Works, 
I.  p.  280).  From  other  sources  it  appears  thai 
in  1551  he  was  appouited  one  of  the  six  chajv 
lains  in  ordinary  to  the  king;  and  that  in  this 
capacity  he  had  submitted  to  him,  and,  after 
revisal,  joined  the  other  chaplains  in  sanctioning, 
"The  Articles  concerning  an  Uniformity  in  Reli- 
gion "  of  1552,  which  became  the  basis  of  the 
"  Thirty-nine  Articles"  of  the  Church  of  England. 

From  England,  at  the  death  of  Edward,  Knox 
proceeded  to  the  Continent,  travelling  for  a  time 
from  place  to  place  in  some  uncertainty.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1554,  having  reached  Geneva,  where  he 
saw  Calvin,  he  accepted  a  call  to  the  English 
Church  at  Frankfurt.  At  Frankfurt  controver- 
sies in  connection  with  vestments,  ceremonies, 
and  the  use  of  the  English  Prayer-Book,  met  him, 
and.  notwithstanding  the  great  moder.ation  which 
he  showed  from  fir.st  to  last,  led,  in  March,  1555, 
to  his  resignation  of  his  charge.  On  this  subject 
the  reader  is  referred  to  his  treatise,  reprinted  in 
Laing's  edition  of  Knox's  works,  entitled  A  Briefe 
Narrative  of  the  Troutiles  which  arose  at  Frankfurt 
(1554).  From  Frankfurt,  Knox  passed  a  second 
time  to  Geneva,  where  he  was  at  once  invited  to 
become  minister  of  the  English  Church  ;  and  to 
that  charge  he  was  formally  elected  in  December, 
1556,  on  his  return  from  a  visit  which  he  paid  to 
Scotland  on  the  occasion  of  his  first  marriage. 
The  church  in  which  he  preached  at  tieneva  was 
called  the  "Temple  de  Notre  Dame  la  Neuve," 
and  had  been  granted,  at  Calvin's  solicitation, 
for  the  use  of  the  English  and  Italian  congrega- 
tions, by  the  municipal  authorities  of  that  city. 
Knox  continued  to  officiate  in  (jeneva  till  Janu- 
ary, 1559,  when  he  finally  left  for  Scotland. 

He  arrived  in  I'.dinliurgh  on  the  2d  of  May  of 
that  year.  The  time  was  a  critical  one ;  but 
the  life  of  Kno.x  from  this  period  belongs  to  the 
history  of  his  country,  and  only  those  particulars 
need  be  noticed  which  have  a  strictly  personal 
interest. 

When  the  Reformed  religion  was,  in  1.500,  for- 
mally ratified  by  law  in  Scotland,  Knox  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  the  Church  of  St.  Giles,  then 
the  great  parish  church  of  ICdiiiburgh.  He  w,as 
at  this  tinu^  a  man  of  fifty-five  years,  and  in  the 
full  vigor  of  his  powers,  as  appears  abundantly 
in  the  style  of  his  Histori/  of  the  Reformation,  —  iv 
work  which  appears  to  have  been  begun  about 
1559.  and  completed  in  tlx-  course  of  the  ni'xt  five 
or  six  years.  The  Uistortj,  if  sometimes  rough 
and  even  coarse  in  language,  and  not  always 
defensible  in  temjier  and  spirit,  is  written  witii  a 
I  force  and  vigor  not  surjiasscd  l)y  any  of  his  other 
writings:  of  all  of  wiiicli  it  may  here  be  said, 
that,  whatever  tlieir  faults,  they  are  works  of 
true  genius,  and  well  worthy  in  their  character, 
upon  the  whole,  of  the  gTeat  leader  and  states- 
man who  wrote  them.  At  the  very  beginning  of 
his  labors  as  minister  of  Edinburgh,  he  had  thd 


KNOX. 


1259 


KNOX. 


misfortune  to  lose  his  much-loved  wife,  Marjory 
Bowes,  then  only  in  her  twenty -seventh  or  twenty- 
eighth  year.  She  was  tlie  daughter  of  Richard 
Bowes,  cajitain  of  Xorhani  Castle,  and  a  scion 
of  a  family  of  distinction  in  Northumberland. 
He  had  secured  lier  affections  during  his  early 
ministry  at  Berwick,  and  had  returned  from  Ge- 
neva in  15.5.5  to  marry  her.  In  1563  Knox  made 
a  second  marriage,  which  was  greatly  talked  of  at 
the  time,  not  so  much  for  the  difference  of  rank, 
<as  the  disparity  in  age,  between  the  parties,  but 
which,  notwithstanding  these  circumstances,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  happy  one.  The  young 
lady  was  Margaret  Stewart,  daughter  of  Andrew 
Lord  Stewart  of  Ochiltree.  At  this  time  our 
reformer  lived  not  only  a  very  laborious  life, — 
being  much  engrossed  with  the  public  affairs 
of  the  nascent  church,  and  at  the  same  time 
<levoted  to  his  work  as  a  parish  minister,  to  say 
nothing  of  his  continual,  and  perhaps,  in  his  posi- 
tion, unavoidable  controversies,  more  or  less  per- 
sonal, with  the  ecclesiastical  and  political  factions 
of  the  day,  whom  he  regarded  as  his  own  and  his 
country's  enemies,  —  but  a  life  not  without  its 
social  and  family  enjoyments.  He  had  a  fair 
stipend  of  four  hundred  merks  scots,  equal  to 
about  forty-four  pounds  of  English  money  of  that 
day,  and  the  value  of  which  may  be  computed 
when  it  is  stated  that  the  amoinit  was  considera- 
bly higher  than  that  of  the  salaries  of  the  judges 
of  the  Court  of  Session  in  Scotland,  and  not  much 
lower  than  those  of  the  English  judges  of  the 
same  times.  Then  he  had  a  good  house,  which 
was  provided  and  kept  in  repair  by  the  munici- 
pality,—  a  house  previously  occupied  by  the  abbot 
of  Dunfermline.  The  house  is  still  preserved, 
with  little  change,  and  forms  a  memorial  —  hith- 
erto the  only  memorial  —  of  the  great  reformer 
in  the  scene  of  so  many  of  his  labors.  From  his 
will,  too,  it  appears  that  he  had  sometimes  as  much 
as  a  hogshead  of  wine  in  his  cellar.  Nor  was  he, 
with  all  his  severity  and  even  fierceness  of  tem- 
per, a  man  indisposed  in  those  days  to  exchange 
friendly  and  kindly  relations  with  his  neighbors, 
many  of  whom,  in  every  raiik,  were  among  his 
intimate  friends,  or  to  give  way,  when  the  occa- 
sion fitted  (perhaps  even  sometimes  when  it  did 
not  fit),  to  mirth  and  humor,  of  which,  as  of 
other  traits  of  his  character,  his  writings  furnish 
abundant  evidence. 

An  interesting  description  of  Knox's  appear- 
ance, and  especially  of  liis  style  as  a  preacher,  in 
his  later  years,  is  furnished  in  the  Diary  of  James 
Melville  {Bannalyne  Club,  1829,  pp.  20,  33).  Mel- 
ville was  at  the  time  a  student  in  St.  Andrews, 
and  the  period  he  refers  to  is  the  year  1571,  when 
Knox,  for  his  personal  security,  had,  not  for  the 
first  time  in  his  life,  taken  refuge  in  that  city. 
"  Of  all  the  benefits  I  had  that  year "  (writes 
Melville)  "  was  the  coming  of  that  most  notable 
prophet  and  apostle  of  our  nation,  ]\Ir.  John 
Knox,  to  St.  Andrews,  w'ho,  by  the  faction  of  the 
•queen  occupying  the  castle  and  town  of  Edin- 
burgh, was  compelled  to  remove  therefrom,  with 
a  number  of  the  best,  and  chose  to  come  to  St. 
Andrews.  .  .  .  Mr.  Knox  would  sometimes  come 
in,  and  repose  him  in  our  college-yard,  and  call 
us  scholars  unto  him,  and  bless  us,  and  exhort  us 
to  know  God  and  his  work  in  our  country,  and 
stand  by  the  good  cause;  to  use  our  time  well. 


and  learn  the  good  instructions,  and  follow  the 
good  example,  of  our  masters.  ...  He  was  very 
weak.  1  saw  him  every  day  of  liis  doctrine  go 
liulie  and  fear,  with  a  furring  of  martriks  about 
his  neck,  a  staff  in  the  one  hand,  and  good  godly 
Richard  Ballantyne,  his  servant,  holding  up  the 
other  oxtar,  from  the  alibey  to  the  parish  church, 
and  by  the  said  Richard  and  another  servant 
lifted  up  to  the  pulpit,  whore  he  behoved  to  lean 
at  his  first  entry ;  but  or  he  had  done  with  his 
sermon,  he  was  so  active  and  vigorous  that  he 
was  like  to  ding  that  pulpit  in  bla<ls  and  fly  out 
of  it." 

John  Knox  died  on  Monday,  the  24th  of  Novem- 
ber, 1.572,  in  the  sixty-seventh  year  of  his  age. 
He  died  as  he  had  lived,  —  full  of  faith,  but 
always  ready  for  conflict.  He  found  a  devoted 
nurse  in  his  young  wife  ;  and  all  the  noblest  and 
best  men  of  Scotland  hung  about  his  house  for 
tidings  of  the  progress  of  his  malady,  in  the  vain 
hope  of  his  being  longer  spared.  Two  lirief  esti- 
mates of  his  character,  both  of  them  contempo- 
rary, may  be  here  added.  One  is  found  in  the 
account  of  his  last  illness  and  death  by  his  ser- 
vant, Richard  BallantJ^le,  who,  after  detailing 
the  incidents  of  his  last  liours,  says,  "  Of  this 
maimer  departit  this  man  of  God,  the  lycht  of 
Scotland,  the  comfort  of  tlie  Kirke  within  the 
same,  the  mirrour  of  Godliness,  and  [latroue  and 
exemple  to  all  trew  ministeris,  in  puritie  of  lyfe, 
soundness  in  doctrine,  and  in  bauldness  in  re- 
proving of  wicketness,  and  one  that  caired  not 
tlie  favore  of  men  (how  great  soever  they  were) 
to  reprove  thair  abuses  and  synes.  .  .  .  What 
dexteritie  in  teiching,  bauldness  in  reproving, 
and  hatred  of  wickedness  was  in  him,  my  igno- 
rant dulness  is  not  able  to  declair." 

But  the  highest  testimony  to  the  worth  of  a 
man  not  without  faults  was  that  pronounced  at 
his  grave  in  the  churchyard  of  St.  Giles  by  the 
Earl  of  ]Mortoun,  the  regent  of  Scotland,  in  the 
presence  of  an  innnense  concourse,  \\  ho  had  fol- 
lowed him  to  his  last  resting-place  :  "  Here  lyeth 
a  man  who  in  his  life  never  feared  the  face  of 
man,  who  hath  been  often  threatened  with  dagge 
and  dagger,  but  yet  hath  ended  his  dayes  in  peace 
and  honour." 

Lit.  —  The  Works  of  John  Knox,  collected  and 
edited  by  David  Laing  in  0  vols.,  Edinburgh, 
printed  for  the  Bannatyne  Club,  1864  (a  most 
learned,  elaborate,  and  every  w-ay  admirable  edi- 
tion, the  labor  of  love  of  a  man  more  competent 
than  any  other  person  to  un<lertake  such  a  nation- 
al memorial).  TuoM.\s  MoCrie,  D.D.  :  Life  of 
John  Knox,  Edinburgh,  1841 ;  F.  Branres  :  Joint 
A'nox,  Elberf eld,  1862  ;  Lorimer  :  John  Kttox  anrl 
the  Church  of  England,  Loud.,  1875;  [Taylor: 
John  Knox,  N.Y.,  1885].  "mLLIAM  LEE. 

KNOX,  Vicesimus,  b.  at  Newington  Green, 
Middlesex,  Dec.  8,  1752;  d.  in  Timbridge,  Kent, 
Sept.  6,  1821.  He  was  educated  at  St.  John's 
College,  Oxford :  succeeded  his  father  as  master 
of  Tunbridge  School,  and  held  the  position  with 
honor  for  thirty-three  years.  He  is  well  known 
as  the  autlior  of  Essays:  (London,  1777 ;  more  than 
twenty  editions  published),  and  as  the  compiler 
of  Elegant  Extracts  in  Prose  (1783),  Elegant  Extracts 
In  Verse  (il'M),  Elegant  Epistles  (1792)  (the  three 
volumes  reprinted,  Boston,  Jlass.,  6  vols.),  and 
of   Family  Lectures,  1791.     He  was  an   admired 


KOHATH. 


1260 


KOL  NIDR^. 


preacher,  impassioned  and  iiowery.  His  Works, 
with  biographical  preface,  were  published,  Lon- 
don. 1824.  7  vols. 

KOHATH  (iissembly),  second  son  of  Levi  (Gen. 
xlvi.  11),  founder  of  the  Kohathites  (1  Chron. 
xxiii.  12),  who  were  Levites  of  the  highest  rank. 
According  to  the  account  in  Xum.  iii.  29-31,  iv. 
2  sq.,  the  Kohathites  pitched  their  tents  on  the 
south  side  of  the  tabernacle  while  in  the  wilder- 
ness, and  had  charge  of  "  the  ark  and  the  table, 
and  the  candlestick,  and  the  altars,  and  the  vessels 
of  the  sanctuary  wherewith  they  minister,  and 
the  hanging,  and  the  service  thereof."  In  later 
times  they  helped  to  bring  the  ark  to  .lerusalem 
(1  Chron.  xv.  5).  They  had  twenty-three  cities 
assigned  to  them  at  the  conquest  (Josh.  xxi.  4,  5). 
They  occupied  the  proudest  positions  in  the  land, 
being  judges  and  officers  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  20-26), 
also  temple-singers  (2  Chron.  xx.  19).  See  Le- 
vites. 

KOHLBRUGGE,  Hermann  Friedrich,  the 
founder  of  the  Dutch-Reformed  (Niederlcindisch- 
Reformirle)  congregation  at  Elberfeld ;  b.  in  Am- 
sterdam, Aug.  lo,  lb03;  d.  at  Elberfeld,  March 
5,  1875.  His  parents  were  Lutherans ;  and,  after 
studying  theology,  he  became  preacher  to  a  Luther- 
an congregation  in  Amsterdam.  But  between 
the  cold  rationalism  of  his  colleagues  and  his 
own  hot  enthusiasm,  a  conflict  was  unavoidable, 
and  he  was  deposed.  After  living  for  several 
years  in  retirement,  he  joined  tlie  Reformed 
Church;  and  in  1834,  while  travelling  through 
the  Rhine  regions,  where  just  at  that  time  a  kind 
of  revival  took  place,  he  preached  often,  and  made 
a  deep  impression.  But  the  Prussian  Govern- 
ment, considering  hira  a  dangerous  enemy  of  their 
plans  of  uniting  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
churches,  finally  forbade  him  the  pulpit.  Mean- 
while the  act  of  union  produced  a  great  fermen- 
tation, especially  among  the  Reformed  congrega- 
tions; and  that  of  Elberfeld  finally  separated 
from  tlie  State  establishment,  and  cho.se  Kohl- 
briigge  for  its  minister  (1847),  constituting  itself 
as  a  member  of  the  Church  of  the  Netherlands. 
There  he  labored  with  great  success  till  his  death. 
Besides  a  consiilerable  number  of  .sermons,  he 
published.  Dux  sichente  Kapitel  d.  Briefes  Pauti  an 
die  Hiimer ;  Batrachtun;]  ubcr  d.  crate  Kapitel  d. 
Evaiii/i-/inms  nach  Malthdm,  etc.        rAI,.\MlNUS. 

KOHLER,  Christian  and  Hieronymus,  two 
brothers,  natives  of  Briigglen,  a  village  in  the 
canton  of  Bern,  and  founders  of  tlie  so-called 
"Briigglen"  .sect,  which  flourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Badly  eilu- 
cated,  but  not  without  considerable  natural  gifts, 
sensuous,  shrewd,  with  an  inclination  towards 
the  marvellous  and  mystical.  Christian  supported 
himself  as  a  common  day-laborer,  and  llieroiiymus 
as  a  wagoner.  Neither  of  them  seems  to  have  led  a 
blameless  life:  nevertheless,  when,  in  174'),  a  re- 
vival movement  reached  the  country  in  which 
they  lived,  they  succeeded  in  placing  themselves 
at  the  head  of  the  movement.  'J'hey  left  otf  work- 
ing, and  began  to  preach  and  exhort.  I'hey  had 
visions  and  revelations.  They  represented  them- 
selves as  the  two  witnesses  of  the  Revelation. 
They  asserted  that  Christian  was  the  temple  of 
the  Father  ;  Micronymus,  that  of  the  Son;  and 
Ki.ssling,  a  woman  of  not  altogetluT  inc]iroa('h;i- 
ble  reputation,  that  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  destined 


to  bring  forth  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  Their 
doctrines,  so  far  as  they  had  any  doctrines,  were 
a  mere  maze  of  wilful  distortions,  intended  U> 
justify  the  immorality  of  their  own  lives.  But 
they,  nevertheless,  succeeded  in  seducing  quite  a 
number  of  people  in  Briigglen  and  the  neighboring 
parishes.  Jan.  2,  1750,  they  were  banished  from 
Bern ;  but  they  secretly  returned,  obtained  money 
to  release  deceased  souls  from  purgatory,  allured 
people  into  idleness  and  debauchery  by  predict- 
ing the  near  end  of  the  world,  etc.  Oct.  8,  1752, 
Hieronymus  was  arrested ;  and  Jan.  16,  1753,  he 
was  sentenced  to  death,  and  executed.  At  the 
same  time  Christian  was  arrested  at  Neuenburg ; 
but  his  final  fate  is  unknowii.  Kissling  was 
locked  up  in  a  house  of  correction.  Shortly  after, 
the  sect  disappeared,  though  it  is  noticeable  that 
afterwards  the  Antonians  found  ready  acceptance 
in  the  very  parishes  in  which  the  Briigglen  sect 
had  flourished.  See  Kybukz  :  Das  entdeckte  Ge- 
heinmis  der  Bosheit  in  der  Briiggler-SeJcte,  Zurich, 
1753,  2  vols.  TRECHSEL. 

KOLLENBUSCH,  Samuel,  b.  at  Wichling- 
hausen,  near  Barmen,  Sept.  1,  1724;  d.  at  Bar- 
men, Sept.  1,  1803.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Duisburg  and  Strassburg,  and  practised  as  a 
physician,  first  at  Duisburg,  afterwards  in  his 
native  city.  As  a  mystic,  he  stands  between 
Tersteegen  and  Jung-Stilling.  But  he  was  a  bib- 
lical realist,  believing  in  the  literal  truth  of  every 
word  of  the  Bible,  and  a  zealous  churchman ; 
and  this  same  character  the  circle  of  adherents 
retained,  which  gradually  formed  around  him^ 
and  which  afterwards  was  considerably  widened 
by  the  exertions  of  G.  Jlenken  at  Bremen.  For 
his  peculiar  doctrines,  see  Erklarumj  hiblischer 
Wahrheiten  (Elberfeld,  1807),  and  Goldene  Apfel 
in  silhernen  Schalen  (Barmen,  1854)  :  for  his  life,. 
see  Mittheilungen  aus  d.  Lchen  u.  Wirken  S.  Col- 
lenbusch  in  Barmen  (Barmen,  1853).  See  also  Fr. 
W.  KruG  :  Die  Lehre  d.  Dr.  Knllenbusch  (Elber- 
feld, 1846)  and  Krilische  Geschichle  d.  protfst.-relig. 
Schiffir7iierei  im  Grossherz.  Berg  (Elberfeld,  1851), 
and  i\L  Gof.bel  :  Gesch.  d.  t-lirist.  Lehens  in  d.  rhein- 
Westjdial.  erang.  Kirche,  Coblenz,  1849-1860,  3- 
vols.  (1st  vol.  jntroduction).  M.  GOEUEL. 

KOL  NIDRE  (")-ir'73),  "  all  vows  "),  a  formu- 
la uttered  three  times,  with  increasing  loudness, 
by  the  official  leader  of  worship  in  the  Jewish 
synagogues,  upon  the  evening  of  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  as  part  of  the  .service.  Each  time  it 
is  pronounced,  the  congregation  repeat  it  softly. 
It  is  to  tliis  efl'ect :  "  AU  vows,  renunciations, 
prohibitions,  and  obligations  of  every  kind,  which 
we  have  made,  sworn,  and  bound  upon  us,  from 
this  Day  of  Atonement  to  the  next,  we  now  re- 
pent of,  and  pronounce  them  broken,  and  of  no 
efficacy.  Our  vows  are  no  vows :  our  oaths  are 
no  oaths."  As  might  be  suppo.sed,  this  liturgical 
formula  has  been  turned  against  the  Jews,  as  if 
by  it  tliey  absolved  llieinsclves  from  all  obligations, 
and  therefore  could  not  be  bound  by  an  oath. 
But  the  charge  is  unjust;  for  the  Kol  Xidre  applies 
only  to  I'ow'.v,  —  i.e.,  what  tlie  s]ieaki>r  binds  upon 
himself,  —  and  not  Utoal/is,  which  would  bind  him 
to  others.  The  latter  are  regarded  by  them  as 
inviolable,  except  by  the  ])ersonal  con.sent  of  the 
individual  who  liad  received  th(>  oath.  A  general 
release  from  future  vows  can  be  made  on  New 
Year,  or  between  New  Year's  and  the  Day  o£ 


KOMANDBR. 


1261 


KONRAD  OF  MARBURG. 


Atonement,  in  the  synagogue,  if  three  individuals 
unite  in  the  request. 

Kol  Nidre  dates  from  about  the  ninth  Christian 
century.  At  first  it  referred  to  congregational 
and  not  to  individual  vows.  In  the  manuscripts, 
the  formula  varies  considerably.  Although  not 
so  in  design,  it  is  easily  made  an  instrument  of 
unrighteousness.  Bad  men  use  it  to  escape  obli- 
gations.    See  Oath  among  the  Hebrews. 

Lit.  —  L.  J.  Mandelstamm  :  Hora:  Talmudica, 
Berlin,  1860;  Lehmann  :  Die  Ahschoffiauj  ties  KoL 
Nidre,  Mainz,  180:5 ;  Rohling  :  Der  Talmudjude, 
Miinster,  Cth  ed.,  1877.     hermaxn  l.  strack. 

KOMANDER  (DORFMANN),  Johann,  was  prob- 
ably born  at  Chur;  early  became  acquainted  with 
Zwingli;  and  in  Aiigust,  1524,  was  appointed 
parish-priest  at  St.  Martin-in-Chur.  The  state  of 
affairs  in  the  Grisons  was  at  that  moment  almost 
desperate.  The  population  —  belonging  to  vari- 
ous races,  and  in  the  different  valleys  speaking 
different  languages  (Italian,  Romaunce,  French, 
and  German) — was  sunk  into  utter  ignorance. 
Only  a  limited  number  of  grown-up  persons  knew 
any  thing  of  the  Decalogue  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
The  clergy  was  debauched  beyond  description. 
The  monks  lived  in  the  monasteries  with  wife 
and  children.  The  bishops  and  abbots,  and  even 
the  priests,  were  foreigners,  who  could  not  under- 
stand the  language  spoken  by  their  flocks.  Under 
such  circumstances,  Komander,  an  intimate  friend 
of  Zwingli,  planted  the  Reformation  in  the  coun- 
try, and  vindicated  its  cause  with  great  energy 
and  success  till  his  death,  in  1557.  April  4,  1524, 
the  union  diet  issued  the  so-called  Arlikelbrief, 
which;  among  other  things,  demanded  that  the 
holder  of  an  ecclesiastical  office  should  be  able  to 
perform  its  duties  himself ;  and,  as  the  parish 
priest  of  St.  Maitin-in-Chur  declared  himself 
unable  to  preach,  the  government  deposed  him, 
and  gave  his  office  to  Komander.  The  Roman- 
Catholic  clergy,  roused  by  these  proceedings,  be- 
gan intriguing  against  Komander,  and  tried  to 
make  him  responsible  for  the  troubles  caused  by 
the  Anabaptists.  The  intrigue  failed,  however ; 
and  when  the  diet,  in  June,  1526,  issued  twenty 
new  "articles  of  reformation,"  the  bishop  fled. 
Tolerably  undisturbed,  Komander  then  went  on 
holding  public  disputations,  establishing  a  regu- 
larly convened  synod,  drawing  up  a  catechism, 
founding  a  seminary  at  Chur,  etc.  See  De  Porta  : 
Histona  reformationis  eccles.  Rhatic,  Chur,  1772, 
vol.  _i.  KARL  PKSTALOZZI. 

KONIG,  Johann  Friedrich,  b.  at  Dresden,  Oct. 
16,  1619 ;  studied  at  Leipzig  and  Wittenberg,  and 
was  successively  Swedish  court-preacher,  professor 
of  theology  at  Greifswald  (1651),  superintendent 
of  Meklenburg  and  Ratzeburg  (1656),  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Rostock  (1659)  ;  in  which 
position  he  died,  Sept.  15,  1664.  He  was  promi- 
nent among  the  "  virtuosos  in  dogmatics  "  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  and  his  Tkeoloc/ia  positira 
acroamaiica  (Rostack,  1664)  was  often  republislied, 
and  widely  used  as  a  text-book,  and  forms  the 
foundation  of  Quenstjidt's  famous  work.  See 
Gass  :  Geschichte  d.  protest.  Doymatik,  i.,  321  et 
sqq. ..  HAGENBACH. 

KONIG,  Samuel,  b.  at  Gerzensee,  in  canton  of 
Bern,  1670;  studied  at  Bern  and  Zurich;  visited 
Holland  and  England,  in  which  latter  country  he 
was  initiated  in  the  mystic  and  chiliastic  ideas 


of  Jane  Leade;  returned  home  in  1698,  and  was 
appointed  preacher  in  the  hospital  of  the  city  of 
Bern  while  preparing  liini.self  for  an  academical 
career.  In  the  beginning,  he  kept  aloof  from  the 
Pietists,  then  .spreading  rapidly  in  the  canton  of 
Bern  ;  but  later  on  he  changed  his  mind,  and  be- 
came one  of  their  principal  leaders.  Accused 
before  the  Grand  Council,  he  defended  his  chili- 
astic and  pietistic  views  with  great  vigor,  but  was, 
nevertheless,  banished  from  the  country,  1699. 
For  several  years  he  went  from  place  to  place, 
until,  in  1711,  he  was  appointed  court-preacher 
to  the  court  of  Isenburg.  In  17;!0  he  was  allowed 
to  return  to  Bern ;  and  a  chair  in  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  mathematics  was  established  for  him 
in  the  university.  That  activity,  however,  did 
not  satisfy  him,  and  he  continued  to  labor  for  the- 
cause  of  Pietism,  preaching  and  holding  meet- 
ings to  his  death.  May  31,  1750.  Among  his. 
numerous  works  are  Thentotjia  mystica  (Bern, 
1736),  Etymoloyicon  lielleno-hehraicum  (Frankfurt, 
1722),  an  attempt  to  derive  the  Greek  language- 
from  Shemitic  roots,  a  prophecy  about  the  fall 
of  the  Turkish  Empire,  etc.  See  Trechsel: 
Kbnig  und  d.  Pietismus  in  Bern,  in  Berner  Taschen- 
Inicli,  1^52.  TRECHSEL. 

KONRAD  OF  MARBURG,  one  of  the  most 
notorious  names  in  German  church  history ;  was 
b.  at  Marburg  in  the  second  half  of  the  twelfth, 
century  ;  and  killed  there  July  30,  1233.  Of  his 
personal  life  very  little  is  known.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  he  ever  studied  in  any  university,  though. 
he  bore  the  title  of  magister ,  and  it  cannot  be 
ascertained  whether  he  was  a  secular  priest,  or 
belonged  to  one  of  tlie  religious  orders.  When 
he  first  appeared  in  history,  at  the  court  of  land- 
grave Ludwig  IV.  of  Thuringia  and  Hes.se,  dur- 
ing the  reign  of  Pope  Ilonorius  III.,  he  was 
highly  praised  for  his  zeal  and  disinterestedness. 
But  during  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  after  the 
death  of  Ludwig  IV.  and  Honorius  III.,  when  the 
widowed  landgravine  Elizabeth  made  him  her 
spiritual  guardian,  and  Gregory  IX.  appointed 
him  inquisitor-general  of  Germany,  his  virtues, 
if  ever  he  had  any,  turned  into  so  many  vices. 
The  treatment  to  which  he  subjected  the  land- 
gravine, in  order  to  produce  a  saint,  is  utterly  dis- 
gusting and  revolting.  He  succeeded,  however. 
She  died  in  1231,  twenty-four  years  old,  and  was 
canonized  in  1235.  Equally  revolting,  and  utterly 
detestable,  were  the  methods  he  employed  as  in- 
quisitor-general,—  espionage  and  denunciations, 
no  procedure  and  no  appeal,  immediate  execu- 
tion by  the  aid  of  the  secular  power,  or  by  his 
own  tools,  generally  chosen  among  robbers  and 
incendiaries.  None  escaped  him,  neither  priest 
nor  knight,  neither  bishop  nor  king.  On  July 
25,  1233,  King  Henry  convened  a  great  assembly 
of  princes  and  bishops  at  Mayence ;  and  the  as- 
sembly insisted  upon  the  organization  of  a  regu- 
lar procedure.  Konrad  refused,  and  the  bishops 
addressed  themselves  to  the  Pope.  On  his  return 
to  Marburg,  Konrad  was  killed;  and  the  Pope  ful- 
minated. But  so  great  was  the  hatred  which 
Konrad  had  produced,  that  at  the  diet  of  Franc- 
fort,  in  February,  1234,  none  dared  to  take  up  his 
cause  or  that  of  the  Pope  ;  and  though  heavy 
penances  were  imposed  upon  his  murderers,  and 
his  remains  were  buried  beside  those  of  St.  Eliza- 
beth, the  papal  inquisition  was  not  re-established 


KOOLHAAS. 


126S 


KORNTHAL. 


ill  Germany  any  more.  The  punishment  of  here- 
tics was  again  laid  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bisliops.     See  Elizabeth,  St.,  and  Inquisition. 

Lit.  —  The  life  of  Konrad  of  Marburg  has 
been  written  by  Stadtlkr  (Aachen,  1837), 
Hen-ke  (Marburg,  1861),  Hausuath  (Ileidel- 
terg,  1801),  Beck  (1871),  Cuxo  (1877),  and 
Kaltner  (Prag,  1882).  See  also  the  literature 
under  St.  Elizabeth.  wagenmann. 

KOOLHAAS,  Kaspar,  b.  at  Cologne,  1.536;  d. 
at  Leyden,  1015.  lie  studied  at  Dusseldorf,  but 
■embraced  the  Reformation  in  1560,  and  was  in 
1574  made  professor  of  theology  at  Leydeu ;  from 
which  position,  however,  he  afterwards  retired. 
His  De  jure  Christiani  magistratus  circa  discipli7iam 
et  regimen  ecclesice  gave  great  offence ;  and  the 
synod  of  Mittelburg  (1581)  demanded  that  he 
should  retract,  and  subscribe  to  the  Belgian  Con- 
fession. When  he  refused,  and  appealed  to  the 
states-general,  the  provincial  synod  of  Holland 
•excommunicated  him.  1.582;  luit  the  magistrate  of 
Leyden  supported  him,  and  he  lived  undisturbed 
in  the  city  as  a  private  teacher.  He  held  with 
respect  to  church  government,  predestination, 
etc.,  nearly  the  same  views  as  afterwards  Ar- 
luinius.        '  A.  SCH'tt'EIZER. 

KOPPE,  Johann  Benjamin,  b.  at  Dantzig, 
Aug.  19,  1750  :  d.  at  Hanover,  Feb.  12,  1791.  lie 
studied  theology  and  philology  at  Leipzig  and 
Gottingen,  and  was  appointed  professor  of  the- 
ology at  Gottingen  in  1776,  superintendent-gen- 
eral of  Gotha  in  1784,  and  court-preacher  at 
Hanover  in  178S.  As  a  pupil  of  Ernesti  and 
Heyne,  and  transferring  their  grammatico-his- 
torical  principle  to  the  exegesis  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, he  began  the  publication  of  his  Norum 
T'exlamentum  Gr.  perpel.  annotat.  illustr.  in  1778, 
but  he  finished  only  the  Epistles  to  the  Gala- 
tians,  Thessalonians,  and  Ephesians.  The  work 
was  continued  by  Tychsen,  Anmion,  Heinrichs, 
and  Pott.  G.  H.  KLIPPEL. 

KO'RAH,  a  .son  of  Izhar  (Exod.  vi.  18,  21,  24), 
and  leader  of  the  rebellion  against  Moses  and 
Aaron  (Num.  .xvi.  xxvi.  9,  xxvii.  3).  See  Moses. 
Jude  (11)  couples  Korah  with  Cain  and  Balaam 
in  his  warnings  against  false  and  self-seeking 
teacliers. 

KORAHITES,  sons,  i.e.,  de.scendants,  of  Korah; 
part  of  the  Kohathite  family  of  the  priests,  the 
<lescendaiits  of  Koliath,  a  son  of  Levi  (Exod.  vi. 
16,  18,  21).  Some  of  them  were  noted  .singers 
(2  Chron.  xx.  19).  Eleven  of  the  psalms  (xl., 
xliv.-xlix.,  Ixxxiv.,  Ixxxv.,  Ixxxvii.,  Ixxxviii.) 
are  headed,  "  For  the  sons  of  Korah ; "  so  that 
probably  the  "sons  of  Korah  "  became,  in  course 
■of  time,  a  descriptive  term  for  the  temple-sing- 
ers. Others  of  the  Korahit(!S  wi're  door-kee|iers 
(1  Chron.  ix.  17-19);  while  one,  Mattitliiah,  '-had 
the  set  office  over  the  things  tluit  wei-e  inadi'  in 
tlie  ]ians "  (ix.  31),  i.e.,  the  minchah,  or  me.it- 
offering  of  the  temple,  offered  daily  in  the  morn- 
ing .-inil  fviMiing  (cf.  Lev.  ii.  .5,  6,  vi.  14). 

KORAN.     .Sec  Mohammki). 

KORNTHAL,  a  religious  comnnuiity  in  AViir- 
temlxTg,  seven  miles  from  Stuttgart,  was  founded 
by,  and  biicame  the  lallying-point  of,  Wiirtem- 
berg  Pietists  in  the  early  part  of  this  century.  'i"he 
Pietism  of  W'iirtemberg,  which  liad  among  its 
principal  advocates  .1.  A.  IJengel  (d.  17.52)  aiul 
Oetinger  (d.  1782),  developed,  and  was  in  turn 


affected  by,  the  original  and  energetic  mind  of  a 
peasant,  ^Michael  Ilahn.  The  latter  had  a  follow- 
ing [of  at  least  fifteen  thousand  people] ;  and 
when,  in  1810,  the  government  determined  to  in- 
troduce a  new  hymn-book  and  a  rationalizing  lit- 
urgy into  the  churches,  m  spite  of  the  opposition 
of  the  Pietists,  many  of  them  emigrated  to  South- 
ern Russia.  Soon  after  his  accession.  King  Wil- 
helm  sought  to  stem  the  tide  of  emigration,  and 
in  1818  called  upon  Gottlieb  M'ilhelin  Hoffmann, 
the  mayor  of  Leonberg,  to  draw  up  a  plan  of  pie- 
tistic  communities  such  as  Hoffmann  himself,  a 
year  before,  had  proposed,  in  a  document  addressed 
to  his  Majesty.  The  king  fell  in  with  tiie  general 
idea,  and  on  Sept.  8,  1818,  published  an  edict 
granting  toleration  to  a  colony  such  as  was  pro- 
posed. The  following  year  a  number  of  families, 
taking  advantage  of  the  edict,  purchased  the  GiJr- 
litz  estate  of  Korntlial  (a  thousand  acres  for  a 
hundred  and  thirteen  thousand  gulden,  or  fifty 
thousand  dollars) ;  and  on  Nov.  7,  1819,  the 
church  was  dedicated.  Michael  Halm  was  cho.sen 
as  the  first  president  (Voj-steher),  but  died  a  few 
days  after  his  election,  and  was  succeeded  by 
Hoffmann,  who,  after  a  very  successful  adminis- 
tration, died  in  1846.  It  soon  called  a  pastor, 
Friedrich  von  Winzerhausen,  who  was  succeeded 
in  1833  by  Dr.  v.  Kapff,  who  subsequently  became 
one  of  the  most  eminent  preachers  of  the  land, 
and  pastor  of  the  Stiftskirche  in  Stuttgart.  He 
was  succeeded  by  Pfarrer  Staudt,  who  is  still  ac- 
tive. The  colony  sought  to  realize  the  ideal  of  a 
corporation  of  Christians;  and  Hoffmann,  who 
was  largely  influenced  by  the  institutions  of  the 
Moravians,  determined  to  make  it  also  a  model  of 
agricultural  and  mechanical  thrift  and  educational 
institutions.  It  did  not  become  schismatic,  but 
adopted  the  Augsburg  Confession,  with  only  a  few 
omissions.  However,  it  was  stipulated,  in  the 
royal  act  of  incorporation,  that  it  should  be  inde- 
pendent of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  Wtir- 
temberg,  and  enjoy  the  absolute  right  to  manage 
its  own  church-matters.  It  also  secured  the  power 
to  Itanisli  any  person  from  the  community,  the 
corporation  purchasing  back  his  tract  of  land. 
The  original  .statutes  also  extenil  the  ecclesias- 
tical jurisdiction  of  the  corporation  to  matters 
of  dress,  food,  etc.  Cliiliastic  views,  were  very 
prevalent  in  the  community,  and  the  second 
coming  was  expected  to  occur  in  1836.  After 
that  date,  the  town  assumed  a  more  permanent 
aspect.  In  1824,  at  the  request  of  the  king,  Korn- 
thal  founded  an  offshoot  in  Northern  Wiirtem- 
bcrg,  W'ilhelm.sdorf ,  which  enjoyed  tlie  same  privi- 
leges iis  the  mother,  but  was  not  so  successful,  and 
in  18.52  voluntarily  resigned  its  cliarter. 

The  community  iias  serveil  its  purpose  well,  and 
stands  forth  as  a  model  corjioration.  Tliere  .are 
no  lawsuits,  no  children  liorn  out  of  wedlock,  no 
drinking-bouts,  no  intemperane<',  no  blasjihemers, 
[Church-attendance  is  universal,  and  the  two  ser- 
vices on  the  sabbath  ai'e  always  cn)wded.  'J'he 
cluirch  then  jiresents  a  singularly  interesting  ap- 
pearance. The  p.astor  sits  in  the  centre  of  the 
bench,  beliind  the  pulpit,  with  the  elders  of  the 
town  on  each  side  of  hnn.  Tlie  little  children  all 
•sit  on  the  steps  of  the  pulpit-iilall'orm,  facing  the 
congregation.  —  the  young  women  on  the  riglU  of 
the  pulpit,  and  the  young  men  on  the  left.  Each, 
from  the  smallest  cliilil  up  to  tlie  young  men,  has  a 


KORTHOLT. 


1263 


KRAUTH. 


papei  and  pencil  in  hand,  witli  which  they  make 
notes  of  the  sermon,  and  on  which  tliey  are  exam- 
ined during  the  weelc  by  the  ]iastor.  The  yiuing 
people  arn  oliligated  to  attend  the  services;  and, 
after  file  sermon,  the  pastor  passes  down  on  one 
side,  and  the  chief  magistrate  on  the  other,  and 
call  out  the  roll  of  the  young  men  and  women. 
Absences  must  be  accounted  for  during  the  week. 
A  beautiful  Easter  custom  is  in  vogue  among  the 
Kornthalers,  by  vvliich  they  meet  at  six  o'clock 
in  the  graveyard,  and,  after  music  from  trumpets, 
sing  a  hynm,  and  engage  in  prayer.  Nothing  to 
jar  the  repose  of  the  community  occurs.  Even 
petty  crimes  are  unknown,  and  the  whole  atmos- 
phere is  freighted  with  the  calm  of  a  serious  and 
devout  religiousness.  There  is  only  one  inn  in 
the  place ;  and  that  is  patronized  but  very  sel- 
dom by  the  people,  who  constitute  one  of  the  ideal 
temperance  societies  in  the  world.  The  con- 
trast which  Kornthal  presents  to  the  neighboring 
communities  is  vevy  marked,  botl.  in  point  of  piety 
and  intelligence  of  the  people  and  their  general 
thrift  and  diligence.  The  town  has  been  cele- 
brated for  its  schools  ;  and  a  number  of  English 
and  American  boys  have  received  their  German 
education  in  the  Knnb'ni-Institut,  until  recently 
presided  over  by  Professor  Pfleiderer.  Kornthal 
is  prettily  located  in  the  midst  of  vineyards  and 
richly  cultivated  fields,  and  has  a  population  of 
about  nine  hundred.]  For  further  information 
«ee  Ilo/fhiannsclie  Trnpfen  (j.  d.  Glinilienaohnmiichl  u. 
Zeil,  Tuliingen,  1820  ;  Kapff  :  D.  iviirl.  Briiilinje- 
meinilen  Kunit/ial  u.  WUhelmsdorJ]  etc.,  Kornthal, 
1839;  [Palmer:  Gemeinschaften  u.  Selcten  Wiirlem- 
berg.t,  Tiiliiugen,  1877].  J.  G.  PFLEIDERER. 

kORTHOLT,  Christian,  b.  at  Borg,  in  the 
Island  of  Femern,  Jan.  15,  1632;  d.  at  Kiel, 
March  31,  1694.  He  studied  at  Rostock,  Jena, 
Leipzig,  and  Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Greek  at  Rostock  in  1662,  and  professor 
of  theology  at  Kiel  in  1666.  His  great  reputa- 
tion as  a  church  historian  he  owes,  not  so  nmch 
to  his  Hist.  EccL,  Leipzig,  1697,  as  to  his  mono- 
graphs,—  De perseculionibus  ecct.  prim.,  Jena,  1660; 
Payatnis  obtreclalor,  Kiel,  1598;  Disquisitiones  Anli- 
Baroniina,  Kiel,  1700;  De  coHOHg  (against  Bellar- 
min),  Ristock,  1665,  etc.  hagenbacii. 

KRAFFT,  Johann  Christian  Gottlob  Ludwig, 
b.  at  Duisburg,  Dec.  12,  1784;  d.  at  Erlangen, 
May  15,  1845.  He  studied  theology  at  Duisburg, 
and  was  for  several  years  a  private  tutor  in 
Francfort^on-the-Main.  In  1808  he  became  pas- 
tor of  the  Reformed  congregation  at  Weeze,  near 
Cleve ;  and  in  1817  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
the  Reformed  congregation  at  Erlangen,  and,  in 
the  following  year,  professor  of  theology  in  the 
university.  His  works  consist  of  several  collec- 
tions of  sermons,  an  essay,  De  servo  et  libera 
■arbilrio  (Nuremberg,  1818),  and  Chronologie  und 
Harmonie  der  vier  Evangelien,  edited,  after  his 
death  by  Dr.  Burger,  Erlangen,  1848.  The  great 
influence,  how-ever,  which  he  exercised,  was  due 
less  to  his  writings  than  to  his  lectures,  and, 
agahi,  less  to  his  teaching  than  to  his  person. 
He  was  "a  truly  apostolical  character;  "  his  very 
appearance,  "  a  silent  sermon  on  the  strength  of 
God  withm  him."  He  imparted  new  life  to  the 
Protestant  Church  in  Bavaria,  which  had  sunk 
into  insipid  rationalism;  and,  long  before  the 
name  of  "  inner  missions  "  ever  was  heard  of,  he 

28  — IT 


performed  the  work  far  and  wide.  He  was  the 
first  German  professor  who  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  on  the  history  of  missions.  See  Thoma- 
sius  :  D.  Widererwach.  d.  erun;/.  Lebens  in  d.  Lul/i. 
Kirche  Bai/erns,  Erlangen,  1867.         K.  GOEliEl,. 

KRALIZ,  a  castle  in  Moravia,  celebrati'd  as  the 
place  where  the  first  Bohemian  translation  of  the 
Bible  was  made  from  the  original  text,  the  pre- 
ceding ones  having  been  made  from  the  Vulgate. 
This  translation  (the  Bible  of  Kraliz)  was  issued 
in  six  volumes  in  folio,  1579-93,  and  is  still  re- 
printed by  foreign  Bible  societies.  But  speci- 
mens of  the  original  work  are  very  scarce;  as, 
during  the  counter-reformation  in  Bohemia,  the 
Jesuits  destroyed  every  copy  they  could  lay  their 
hands  on. 

KRANTZ,  Albert,  b.  at  Hamburg  about  1445; 
d.  tliere  Dec.  7,  1517.  He  studied  theology,  phi- 
losophy, and  history  at  Rostock  and  Cologne ; 
travelled  in  Gerinany  and  Italy ;  lectured  on 
philosophy  and  canon  law  in  the  university  of 
Ro.stock,  whose  rector  he  was  in  1482 ;  and  set- 
tled in  1489  in  his  native  city,  first  as  lector  pri- 
mwins  theologies  at  the  cathedral,  then  as  dean 
of  the  chapter.  He  was  often  employed  by  the 
magistrate  of  Hamburg  in  diplonuitical  nego- 
tiations, and  in  1500  he  was  chosen  arliitrator 
between  King  Hans  of  Denmark  and  Duke  Fred- 
erick of  Holstein.  During  his  lifetime  he  pub- 
lished several  theological  works,  —  Ordo  missalis 
secundum  ritiun  ecclesice  Hfunburgensis  (Strassliurg, 
1509),  and  Spiranlissimum  opusrulmn  in  ojficlum 
misse  (edited,  after  his  lectures,  by  Bertold  lloller, 
1506)  ;  but  his  literary  fame  he  owes  to  his  his- 
torical works,  —  Vandulia  (1519),  Saxonia  (1.520), 
Daiiia  (1546),  and  Mdropohs  (1548),  published 
after  his  death,  and  containing  many  precious  ma- 
terials to  the  church  hi.story  of  his  time.  When, 
on  his  death-bed,  he  read  the  theses  of  Luther, 
he  exclaimed,  "  Alas  I  my  good  brother,  you  had 
better  go  back  to  J'our  cell,  and  sing  a  miserere. 
The  thing  is  too  big.  It  cannot  be  done." 
Clement  VIH.  put  his  historical  works  on  the 
Index.  See  Leben  d.  Albert  KranV^,  Hamburg, 
1722,  2d  ed.,  1729  ;  Johannes  Moller  ■  Cimbria 
Literata,  iii.  pp.  376-391.  CARL  BERTHEAU. 

KRASINSKI,  Count  Valerian,  1)  about  1780; 
d.  Dec.  22,  1855.  A  Protestant  liy  faith,  he  held 
a  position  in  the  department  of  public  instruc- 
tion when  the  insurrection  of  1830  took  place  in 
Warsaw,  and  was,  by  the  provisory  government, 
sent  to  England  as  a  member  of  its  embassy  to 
St.  James.  The  speedy  suppression  of  the  rebel- 
lion prevented  him  from  ever  returning  home. 
He  remained  in  England,  residing,  first  in  Lon- 
don, and  afterwards  in  Edinburgh,  and  occupying 
himself  with  literary  pursuits.  He  wrote,  among 
other  works,  The  Rise,  Progress,  and  Decline  of 
the  Reformation  in  Poland  (London,  1838-1840,  2 
vols.),  and  Lectures  on  the  Religious  History  of  the 
Slavonian  Nations  (Edinburgh,  1851). 

KRAUTH,  Charles  Phitip,  D.D.,  American 
Lutheran  divine ;  b.  in  ^Montgomery  County, 
Pennsylvania,  May  7,  1797;  d.  in  Gettysburg, 
May  30,  1867 ;  entered  the  ministry  1819 ;  was 
called  to  Philadelphia  1827,  and  elected  professor 
of  biblical  and  Oriental  literature  in  the  theologi- 
cal seminary  at  Gettysburg  1833,  and  president 
of  Pennsylvania  College,  in  the  same  place,  the 
next  year;   discharged   the  duties  of  these  two 


KREBS. 


1264 


KRUMMACHEB, 


positions  simultaneously  until  1850,  ■nheu  he  gave 
up  the  presidency.  He  edited  the  Evangelical 
Quarterly  Review  from  1850  to  1861. 

KREBS,  John  Michael,  D.D.,  Presbyterian;  b. 
at  Ilagerstown,  Md..  ^lay  (J,  1804;  d.  in  Xew- 
York  City,  Sept.  30,  1807.  He  was  graduated  at 
Dickinson  College  1827,  and  at  Princeton  Theo- 
logical Seminary  1830,  from  which  year  f.ill  his 
death  he  was  pastor  of  the  Rutgers-street  Prts- 
byterian  Church,  New- York  City.  From  1837  to 
1845  he  was  permanent  clerk  of  th»  General 
Assemblj'  (O.  S.),  and  in  1845  moderator.  He 
was  a  director  of  the  Princeton  Theological  Semi- 
nary from  1842,  and  president  of  the  board  in 
1866,  also  an  original  member,  and  for  some  time 
president,  of  the  Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of 
the  Presbyterian  Church. 

KRELL,  or  CRELL,  Nikolaus,  b.  at  Leipzig  in 
the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  centurj^  between  1550 
and  1553 ;  beheaded  at  Dresden,  Oct.  9,  1601.  He 
was  educated  at  Grirama,  studied  jurisprudence 
at  Leipzig,  entered  the  civil  service  in  1580,  and 
was  in  1589  made  chancellor  by  the  young  elector. 
Christian  I.  Saxony  was  at  that  moment  strictly 
Lutheran.  The  attempt  of  the  professors  of  Wit- 
tenberg to  smuggle  into  the  country  the  Calvin- 
istic  Philippism  (as  it  was  called,  after  Philip 
Melanchthon),  under  the  covering  of  genuine 
Lutheranisui,  was  successfully  baifled  in  1574; 
aud  all  who  had  supported  it  —  such  as  the  chan- 
cellor Cracau,  the  body-physician  Peucer,  the 
court^preacher  Schutz,  and  the  superintendent 
Stdssel — were  discharged  and  imprisoned.  Krell, 
however,  who,  on  his  travels  in  France  and  Swit- 
zerland, had  often  enjoyed  the  intercourse  of  Beza, 
was  much  in  favor  of  the  so-called  Crypto-Calvin- 
ism;  and,  as  soon  as  he  came  into  power,  he  began 
to  prepare  the  way  foi  it.  Subscription  to  the 
Formula  ConcordicE  was  not  demanded  any  more. 
The  preachers  were  requested  to  abstain  from 
all  polenncs  in  the  pulpit.  The  superintendent 
Selneecer  of  Leipzig,  an  intractable  champion 
of  Lutheranism,  was  rejilaced  hy  the  Calvinistic 
Wolfgang  Harder.  The  court-preachers  Salmutli 
and  Steinbach  were  busy  in  writing  aud  sjieak- 
ing  for  Calvinism;  the  former  publisliing  a  new 
edition  of  the  German  Bible,  with  Calvinistic 
notes  on  the  margin,  the  so-called  "  Ivrell's  Bible ; " 
the  latter  drawing  up  a  new  catechism  of  the 
same  character.  The  supreme  consistory  at  Dres- 
den was  abolished,  and  a  .severe  censorship  of 
theological  books  was  established.  Finally,  July 
4,  1591,  the  exorcism  was  erased  from  the  baptis- 
mal formula,  but  thereby  the  popular  conscience 
was  touched;  aiul  a  citizen  of  Dresden,  a  butcher, 
met  at  the  baptismal  font,  aud  demanded,  witli 
the  axe  raised  over  against  the  neck  of  the  min- 
ister, to  have  his  child  baptized  with  exf)rcism. 
Tlic  chancellor's  religious  predilections  also  nuule 
themselves  felt  in  his  foreign  policy.  He  sujv 
ported  the  Huguenots  in  France,  but  the  cam- 
paign was  disastrous;  and  when,  in  the  summer 
of  1591,  the  troops  returned,  h<^  had  no  nioncv  to 
pay  them.  At  that  nujnient  tlie  elector  died 
(Sept.  2.5,  1591);  and  the  unhappy  chancellor  was 
immediately  dismissed  by  Duke  FriedrichWilhelm 
of  Saxe-.Mtenburg,  guardian  of  the  infant  heir, 
and  imprisoned  in  the  Konigstein.  A  )>rocess 
was  institutcrd  against  him,  which  lasted  for  ten 
years,  but  which  has  uo  religious  ititercst.    Many 


of  its  details  are  very  obscure.  It  ended  with  his 
condemnation  ;  and,  long  before  that  time,  erery 
vestige  of  his  propaganda  for  Crypto-Calvinism 
had  been  completely  obliterated.  See  Richard: 
Dr.  Nicholas  Krell,  Dresden,  1859,  2  vols. ;  RoB- 
EUT  Calinich  :   Zwei  sachs.  Kanzler,  Chemnitz, 

1868.  __  OSWALD  SCHMIDT. 

KRUDENER,  Barbara  Juliane,  Baroness  von, 

b.  at  Riga,  Nov.  21,  1764 ;  d.  at  Kara.su-Bazar, 
Dec.  25,  1824.  A  daughter  of  a  Russian  states- 
man (Von  Wietingholf),  she  was  married  to  an- 
other Russian  statesman  (Von  Kriidener)  when 
she  was  fourteen  years  old.  The  marriage  proved 
unliappy,  and  in  1792  she  separated  from  her 
husband.  She  settled  in  Paris,  and  led  a  very 
frivolous  life,  which  she  has  described  in  a  novel, 
Valerie.  An  accident,  the  sudden  death  of  one 
of  her  lovers,  converted  her.  She  became  reli- 
gious. She  was  no  doubt  sincere,  but  an  enthu- 
siast without  self-control.  In  1815  she  became 
acquainted  with  the  Emperor,  Alexander  I.,  and 
their  intercourse  in  Paris  was  very  intimate.  She 
exercised  great  influence  on  him.  She  gave  the 
Holy  Alliance  its  name.  During  the  two  years  of 
famine,  1816-17,  she  was  a  great  support  to  many 
poor  people  in  Switzerland  and  Southern  Ger- 
many. But  even  her  charity  showed  so  peculiar 
and  so  eccentric  a  character,  that  it  gave  offence, 
and  in  1818  she  was  actually  transported  liome  to 
Russia  by  the  police.  Meanwhile  the  friendship  of 
Alexander  I.  had  grown  rather  cold;  and,  when  she 
openly  denounced  his  lukewarmness  in  the  affairs 
of  Greece,  he  ordered  her  to  leave  St.  Petersburg. 
She  was  on  her  way  to  the  Crimea,  with  the 
Princess  Gallitzin  and  a  immber  of  German  colo- 
nists, when  she  died.  See  Cii.  Eynard  :  Vie  de 
Mme.  de  Kriidener,  Paris,  1849,  2  vols. ;  Stern- 
berg :  Leben  d.  Frau  von  Kriidener,  Leipzig,  1856; 
M.  ZiETHE :  Juliane  von  Kriidener,  New  York, 
1867.  See  also  Sainte-Beuvk  :  Portraits  de 
feinmcs  and  Dernicrs  Portraits. 

KRUC,  Wllhelm  Traugott,  b.  at  Radis,  near 
Wittenberg,  June  22,  1770 ;  d.  at  Leipzig,  Jan. 
13,  1842.  He  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  philosophy  there  in  1794, 
at  Francfort-on-the-Oder  in  1801,  at  Konigsberg 
in  1805,  and  at  Leipzig  in  1809.  He  was  a  very 
prolific  writer  on  philosophy  .and  theology.  His 
principal  theological  works  are  Uiber  d.  Perfecti- 
hilitdt  d.  geoffenbarlen  Religion,  Leipzig,  1795  ; 
Pistcdlcir/ie  oder  Glauhc,  Alierglaulie,  u.  Unglauhe, 
Leipzig,  1825;  Rationalismus  und  Sitjiranaturat- 
ismus.  Leipzig,  1820.  See  Maine  Lcbensreise  in 
sechs  Sidtimicn,  an  autobiograpliy. 

KRUMMACHER,  Friedrich  Adolf,  the  eldest 
of  a  ci'lfbrated  group  (if  Kefdrnieil  pastors  of  tliis 
name;  b.  at  Teckleulmrg,  July  13,  1767;  d.  in 
Bremen,  April  4,  1845.  .\fter  stu<lying  thffllogy 
at  Halle,  he  taught  .school  until  1800,  wlien  he 
was  called,  as  professor  of  theology  and  rhetoric, 
to  the  seminary  at  Berg,  who.se  star  had  abcady 
begun  to  descend  to  its  setting.  While  here,  he 
]iulilished,  in  1805,  his  Parahcln  (Parables),  8th  ed., 
1848,  —  a  work  which  won  for  him  a  pernuinent 
jilace  in  German  literature  [Knglish  translation, 
London,  1844  and  often].  In  1S07  lie  exchanged 
his  jirofessorial  chair  for  the  [lulpit  of  Kettwig, 
aud  in  1^12  accepted  a  call  to  ISernberg  as  general 
.superintendent  and  pastor.  During  these  years 
lie  was  a  fertile  writer;  and  some  of  his  books 


KRUMMACHER. 


1265 


KRUMMACHER. 


for  children,  especially  his  catechisms,  Bihelkate- 
ckismus  (1810,  12th  ed.,  1843),  had  a  wide  circula- 
tion. In  1820  he  refused  a  call  to  the  university 
of  Bonn,  but  in  1824  went  to  Bremen  as  the  pas- 
tor of  the  Ansgar  Church.  Although  he  could 
not  compete  with  his  colleague  Draseke  in  the 
pulpit,  he  was  highly  esteemed  as  a  Christian 
counsellor,  and  was  revered  by  a  large  circle  as 
a  father  (Valerchen).  Krumniacher  was  also  a 
poet,  and  wrote  some  good  hymns.  See  A.  W. 
MoLLER :  F.  A.  Krummacher  u.  s.  Freunde.,  Bre- 
men, 1849,  2  vols.  H.  MALLET. 

KRUMMACHER,  Friedrich  Wilhelm,  a  son  of 
the  former;  one  of  the  most  eloquent  and  influ- 
ential preachers  of  Germany  in  this  century ;  was 
b.  Jan.  28,  1796,  at  Mors  on  the  Rhine,  the  birth- 
place of  the  fervid  German  hymn-writer,  Terstee- 
gen ;  d.  Dec.  10,  1868,  at  Potsdam.  lie  studied 
at  the  university  of  Halle  from  181.5  to  1817  (where 
he  heard  the  lectures  of  the  extreme  rationalist, 
Wegscheider,  and  the  modest  but  devout  Knapp), 
and  at  Jena.  In  1819  he  became  the  assistant 
pastor  of  the  Reformed  congregation  at  Frank- 
furt, where  lie  remained  till  1823,  when  he  ac- 
cepted a  call  from  the  village  of  Ruhrort.  Two 
years  subsequently,  in  1825,  he  removed  to  Bar- 
men in  the  \Vupperthal.  It  was  here,  at  a  week- 
day evening  service,  that  he  delivered  his  lectures 
on  Elijah  and  Elisha.  Crowded  congregations 
listened  to  them,  large  numbers  coming  from  the 
neighboring  city  of  Elberfeld.  In  1834  he  was 
called  for  tlie  second  time  to  Elberfeld,  and  ac- 
cepted. During  his  residence  in  this  city,  he 
received  a  delegation  from  the  synod  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  consisting 
of  Dr.  Hoffeditz  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Schneck,  ex- 
tending to  him  a  call  to  a  chair  in  the  theological 
seminary  at  Mercersburg.  He  finally  decided  to 
decline  the  position,  but  directed  tlie  attention  of 
the  delegation  to  Dr.  Schaff,  then  a  privat  docent 
at  Berlin,  who  accepted  the  call  (in  1844). 

Krummacher  exerted  a  wide  and  beneficent 
influence  upon  Elberfeld  and  the  Wupperthal, 
and  his  affections  became  deeply  rooted  in  its 
soil ;  and  in  1847  he  followed  with  reluctance  a 
call,  as  Marheinecke's  successor,  at  tlie  Trinity 
Church,  Berlin,  to  which  position  he  had  been 
appointed  by  King  Frederick  William  IV.  He 
continued  to  labor  there,  entering  heartily  into 
the  religious  circles  of  the  city,  and  preaching  the 
gospel  of  repentance  and  faith,  undaunted  by  the 
wide  diffusion  of  rationalism,  until  1853,  when 
he  was  appointed  court-chaplain  at  Potsdam.  He 
sustained  a  relation  of  great  intimacy  with  the 
king.  Dr.  Krummacher  took  a  lively  interest  in 
the  Evangelical  Alliance ;  was  present  at  the  con- 
ference in  London,  1851,  and  at  every  succeeding 
conference,  till  his  death.  From  the  conference 
of  Paris  he  wrote,  "I  became  in  Paris  young  again 
as  an  eagle.  ...  It  was  the  kingdom  of  God  in 
blessed  concentration."  He  was  one  of  the  most 
earnest  promoters  of  the  conference  in  Berlin, 
1857.  In  1862  he  accepted  the  invitation  of 
Queen  Victoria,  as  one  of  the  ministers  to  preach 
in  their  own  language  at  the  London  Exposition. 

Dr.  Krunmiacher  was  a  fervid  and  bold  preacher 
of  the  gospel,  and  takes  his  place  among  the 
most  faithful  and  powerful  witnesses  of  the  truth 
from  the  pulpit  of  his  day  in  German)',  lie  was 
on  intimate  terms  with  the  Hofackers  and  Albert 


Knapp,  the  fervent  evangelical  preachers  of 
Southern  Germany,  as  well  as  with  the  pious 
men  in  the  pulpits  and  at  the  universities  of 
Northern  Germany ;  had  a  broad  interest  in  tlie 
cause  of  evangelical  religion  in  other  lands ;  and 
numbered  among  his  friends  Adolphe  Monod  and 
others  of  the  best  spirits  of  France  and  Great 
Britain.  Dr.  Schaff,  in  a  letter  to  Tlie  New-York 
Observer  (Feb.  4,  1869),  says,  "Krummacher  was 
endowed  with  every  gift  that  constitutes  an  orator, 
—  a  most  fertile  and  brilliant  imagination,  a 
vigorous  and  original  mind,  a  glowing  heart,  an 
extraordinary  facility  and  felicity  of  diction,  per- 
fect familiarity  with  the  Scriptures,  an  athletic 
and  commanding  presence,  and  a  powerful  and 
melodious  voice,  which,  however,  in  latter  years, 
underwent  a  great  change,  and  sounded  like  the 
rolling  of  the  distant  thunder.  .  .  .  He  will 
always  shine  as  one  of  the  brightest  stars  in  the 
galaxy  of  those  gTeat  and  good  men,  who,  in  the 
present  century,  have  fought  the  good  fight  of 
the  evangelical  faith  against  prevailing  rational- 
ism and  infidelity,  and  have  entitled  themselves 
to  the  gratitude  of  the  present  and  future  genera- 
tions." Thorwaldsen,  the  great  sculptor,  meeting 
Krummacher  in  Frankfurt  at  the  seventieth  anni- 
versary of  Goethe's  birth,  was  attracted  by  his 
noble  forehead  and  appearance,  and  asked,  "  Are 
you  an  artist?"  —  "No,  a  theologian,"  was  the 
reply.  To  which  the  sculptor  answered,  "How 
can  one  be  only  a  theologian !  " 

Krumniacher  is  better  known  in  England  and 
America  than  any  other  German  preacher :  in 
fact,  is  the  only  one  who  is  well  known.  He  pub- 
lished a  number  of  volumes  of  sermons,  some  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  the  English,  and 
widely  read.  Of  these  volumes  the  principal 
are,  Salomo  iind  Sulamith,  1827,  9th  ed.,  1875; 
Elijah  the  Tishbite  ("  itself  baptized  with  the  fire 
of  Elijah,"  as  Heubner  characterized  this  work), 
Elberfeld,  1828,  6th  ed.,  1874  (English  translation, 
London  and  New  York,  1838,  and  many  edi- 
tions) ;  The  Prophet  Eli.s-ha,  Elberfeld,  1835 '(Eng- 
lish translation,  London)  ;  Das  Passionsbuch,  der 
leidende  Christus,  Bielefeld,  1854,  3d  ed.,  1878 
(English  translation.  The  Siijf'erinr/  Saviour,  Ed- 
inburgh and  Boston,  1870)  ;  David,  the  King  of 
Israel,  Berlin,  1867  (English  translation,  Edin- 
burgh and  New  York,  1870).  See  Autobiography 
edited  by  his  daughter  (English  translation  by 
M.  G.  Easton,  2d  ed.,  Edinburgh,  1871),  and  art. 
in  Herzog  by  Rud.  Kbgel.  • 

KRUMMACHER,  Gottfried  Daniel,  a  younger 
brother  of  Friedrich  Adolf;  h.  in  Tecklenburg, 
April  1,  1774 ;  d.,  as  pastor  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  in  Elberfeld.  Jan.  30, 1837.  After  study- 
ing  theologj-  at  Duisburg,  he  was  successively 
pastor  in  Baerl  (1798),  Wiilfrath  (1801),  and 
Elberfeld  (1816).  He  was  a  man  of  some  eccen- 
tricities, but  a  strong  and  robust  Christian  char- 
acter and  preacher.  He  was  a  most  zealous 
champion  of  the  theology  of  the  synod  of  Dort. 
His  removal  to  Elberfeld  occurred  at  a  time  of 
the  universal  awakening  of  religious  thought 
in  Germany,  and  aroused  new  life  in  his  congre- 
gation. He  drew  the  extreme  conclusions  from 
the  doctrine  of  predestination ;  and  some  of  his 
ardent  followers  disturbed  the  meetings  of  other 
Christians  by  loud  laughing,  and  other  demon- 
strations  of   ridicule   or  dissent.      Krummacher 


KUINOIi. 


1266 


KYRIE  ELEYSON. 


for  a  while  uplield  this  course  of  his  followers, 
but  gradually  retreated  from  this  position.  How- 
ever, under  his  influence,  a  strong  predestinarian 
party  was  formed  in  Elberfeld  and  the  Wupper- 
thal.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to  the  efforts  at 
chm-ch  union,  and  in  this  was  out  of  sympatliy 
with  the  spirit  of  the  Reformed  Church.  Among 
his  printed  volumes  of  sermons  the  most  celebrat- 
ed is  a  volume  about  the  names  of  the  camping- 
places  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert :  D.  Waii- 
dcrunt/oi  Israels  (lurch  d.  Wiisle  nach  Kanacin, 
18:34.  M.  GOEBEL. 

KUINOL  (KUHNOL),  Christian,  one  of  the 
most  widely  learned  of  the  rationalistic  super- 
natural scliool  of  the  closing  part  of  the  eigh- 
teenth centurv;  b.  at  Leipzig,  Jan.  2,  1708:  d.  at 
Giessen,  Oct.  23,  1841,  He  studied  theology  and 
philology  in  his  native  city,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  philosophy  there  in  1790,  and  pro- 
fessor of  theology  at  Giessen  in  1799.  His  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Old  Testament,  Hosea,  the 
Psalms,  etc.,  are  now  antiquated ;  but  his  Com- 
menlarhi.s  in  lihros  .Xovi  Testamenii  kisloricns  (Leip- 
zig, 18(17-18,  4  vols.)  is,  in  spite  of  the  somewhat 
dry  and  pedantic  method,  still  a  valuable  work. 
[It  was  reprinted,  along  with  the  Greek  text,  in 
London,  ls:!."i,  3  vols.]  ZOCKLER. 

KUNZE,  John  Christopher,  D.D,,  one  of  the 
most  learned  among  Lutheran  theologians  of  this 
country ;  b.  at  .-Vrtern,  Prussian  Saxony,  Aug.  4, 
1744 ;  d.  at  Xew  York,  July  24,  1807.  Having 
finished  his  education  as  a  student  of  theology 
at  Leipzig,  he  was  for  three  years  employed  as 
teacher  of  the  higher  branches  in  the  reputed 
school  at  Closter- Bergen,  near  Magdeburg,  and 
for  one  year  as  inspector  of  the  Orphans-Home 
at  Graiz,  when,  through  the  Rev.  Dr.  J  G. 
Knapp,  superintendent  of  the  Francke  Insti- 
tution at  Halle,  a  call  came  to  him  from  the 
Lutheran  St.  Michael's  and  Zion"s  congregations 
at  Pliiladelphia,  Penn.  Setting  sail  for  the  New 
World,  June  29,  1770,  he  entered  his  oftice  as  the 
third  collegiate  pastor  of  that  congregation,  Sept. 
27  of  the  same  year,  and  married,  July  23,  1771, 
Margaret  Henrietta,  daughter  of  Rev.  II.  M. 
Muhlenberg,  D.D.,  rector  of  the  congregation, 
patriarch  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  tliis  country, 
who.se  succes.sor  in  the  ollice  of  rector  lie  became 
A.D.  1779.  Conscientious  in  the  performance 
of  his  pastoral  duties,  he  had  an  eye  to  the  wants 
of  the  Church  at  large,  opened  a  theological  sem- 
inary, which  the  War  of  Indejiendence  brought 
to  an  untimely  eiul,  influenced  the  board  of  tru.s- 
tees  of  the  College  (liefore  17o5  Academy,  since 
1779  University  of  Pennsylvania)  in  behalf  of 
the  special  interests  of  the  German  language  and 
stuflents,  and  took  a  lively  interest  in  tlie  Gei'- 
man  Uenevolent  Society.  A.D.  1784  he  followed 
a  call  to  the  I^utheran  congregation  at  Nc'W  York, 
assisted  in  establishing  the  New- York  I'niversity, 
served  as  one  of  the  regents,  and  as  professor  of 
Oriental  languages  and  literature.  He  belonged 
to  till?  later  Pietists,  leaning  to  the  so-called 
Supernatiualistic  .School.  He  was  of  very  studi- 
ous habits,  and  continually  gathering  solid  infor- 


mation, whereof  his  diaries  give  ample  evidence. 
He  excelled  in  Arabic  and  Hebrew  and  in  higher 
mathematics.  He  published  A  Table  of  a  new 
construction  for  calculating  the  great  Eclipse,  expected 
to  happen  on  the  16  of  June,  1806  :  also  a  Hi/mn  ami 
Prayer  Book  for  the  use  of  such  Lutheran  Churches 
as  use  the  English  language,  probably  the  first  Lu- 
theran English  hymn-book  ever  edited.  He  also 
published  historical  essays,  sermons,  occasional 
addresses,  etc.  W.  .J.  MAXN. 

KURTZ,  a  family  of  American  Lutheran  min- 
isters.—  John  Nicholas,  D.D.,  b.  at  Lutzelinden, 
Nassau,  Germany,  aliout  1720 :  d.  at  Baltimore, 
Md.,  1794.  He  was  the  tirst  Lutheran  minister 
ordained  in  the  British  colonies  of  America ;  la- 
bored from  1745  to  1790  as  a  missionary  in  Penn- 
sylvania, often  at  the  risk  of  his  life.  —  John 
Daniel,  D.D.,  son  of  the  preceding;  b.  at  German- 
town,  Penn,  1763;  d.  at  Baltimore,  i\Id.,  Dec.  29. 
1865.  He  was  pastor  of  the  princij:ial  Lutheran 
Chui-ch  of  Baltimore  (1786-1832),  and  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  general  synod  of  the  Lutheran 
Church.  —  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  nephew  of  J.  D. 
Kurtz;  b.  at  Ilarrisburg,  Perm.,  Feb.  28,  1795: 
d.  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  Dec.  29,  1865.  He  edited 
the  Lutheran  Observer  from  1833  to  1862;  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Gettysburg  Theologi- 
cal Seminary  (for  which  he  collected  funds  and 
books  in  (iermany),  and  in  every  way  prominent 
in  his  deiuiuiination. 

KYRIE  ELEYSON.  The  prayer  which  in  the 
Septuagint  reads  IMrtabv  uc,  b  Otdf,  "  God,  have 
mercy  upon  me!"  (Ps.  li.),  or,  i?.iriaov  i/ftdc  nipte, 
"  Lord,  have  mercy  upon  us !  "  (Ps.  cxxiii.),  and 
which  in  the  New  Testament  (^Nlatt.  ix.  27,  xv. 
22,  XX.  30 ;  Mark  x.  47)  always  is  addressed  to- 
Jesus,  the  Son  of  David,  very  early  became  a 
fixed  formula  in  the  counnon  church-prayer  of 
the  Greek  Chnrch.  The  Coiistit.  AjMst.  (viii.  6) 
prescribes  that  the  laity,  especially  the  children, 
shall  respond  with  a  li/rie  eleyson  to  each  single 
prayer  of  the  litany  recited  by  the  deacon.  At 
the  time  of  Basil  the  Great  the  custom  was  gener- 
ally adopted  throughout  the  Greek  Church,  and 
it  is  still  customary  in  all  Oriental  churches,  to- 
repeat  the  ki/rie  clegsun  ovei'  and  over  again,  the 
choir  singing  it  in  Latin,  the  laity  in  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue.  In  the  Roman  Church,  Pope  Sylves- 
ter I.  (314-335),  is  said  to  have  first  introduced 
the  u.se  of  the  Greek  words.  At  tin-  time  of  Felix 
v.,  when  the  council  was  h(4d  at  Vai.son  (in  .529). 
they  were  generally  used  throughout  the  Western 
Church.  A  Christe  eleyson  was  added,  and  the 
trijile  exclanuition,  Kyrie-christe,  Kyrie  eleyson,  was 
given  in  reference  to  the  Holy  Trinity.  In  910 
Pope  Sergius  ordered  in  his  will,  that,  in  those 
churches  to  which  he  had  given  donations,  the 
priests  should  every  day  sing  one  hundred  ki/rics 
and  one  hundred  Christe  eleysons.  In  the  latw 
middle  ages,  great  pains  were  taken  to  expand 
the  kyrie.  In  liis  Christliche  Cullu.<,  2d  ed.,  p.  493. 
Alt  ([notes,  from  a  Rouian  missate  of  1631,  such  an 
expaiuled  kyrir,  destined  for  the  great  festivals. 
After  the  Refornuition,  the  kyrie  eleyson  was  re- 
tained iu  many  I'rotestaiit  churclies.     U.  MEllZ. 


LABADIB. 


1267 


LABAT. 


L. 


LABADIE,  Jean  de,  b.  Feb.  13,  1610,  at  Bourg, 
near  Ijoideaux;  d.  Feb.  13,  1674,  at  Altoiia.  He 
\va.s  educated  in  the  .Jesuit  college  at  Bordeaux: 
studied  theology  and  philosophy,  the  Bible  and 
the  mystics,  especially  Augustine  and  St.  Bernard ; 
entered  the  order,  but  left  it  again  in  1639,  and 
began  his  practical  career  as  a  popular  preacher 
in  Bordeaux,  Paris,  and  Amiens,  where  he  was 
made  a  canon,  and  teacher  of  theology,  in  1640. 
He  made  a  deep  impression  by  his  preaching;  but 
his  passionate  demands  of  reform,  his  sermons  on 
freewill  and  predestination,  on  grace  and  good 
works,  and  his  administration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per in  both  forms,  roused  the  hatred  and  persecu- 
tions of  the  Jesuits.  Richelieu,  however,  protected 
him  ;  but  under  Mazariu  he  was  expelled  from 
Amiens,  and  retired  to  the  Carmelite  hermitage 
at  Graville.  While  tliere,  he  I'ead  Calvin's  /n.v/i- 
tuliones  ;  and  in  16.50  —  what  has  been  told  of  his 
joining  the  Brethren  of  the  Oratory,  and  after- 
wards the  Jansenists,  is  unhistorical  —  he  em- 
braced the  Reformed  faith,  and  was  appointed 
preacher,  and  professor  of  theology,  at  Montauban. 
He  carried,  however,  his  vivid  reformatory  in- 
stincts with  him  from  the  old  into  the  new  church; 
and  though  as  pastor  in  Geneva,  and  afterwards 
at  Middleburg,  he  contributed  very  much  to  the 
spiritual  purification  and  moral  elevation  of  the 
Reformed  congregations,  a  separatistic  tendency 
became  more  and  more  apparent  in  his  activity. 
Like  all  separatists,  he  dreamed  of  forming  a  con- 
gregation of  saints.  In  1666,  when  moving  from 
Geneva  to  ^Nliddelburg,  he  formed  a  secret  union 
with  Pierre  Yvon,  Pierre  Dulignon,  and  Fran(;ois 
Menuret,  which  was  separatistic  in  its  very  char- 
acter, and  became  the  nucleus  of  the  later  Laba- 
dist  sect.  In  Middelburg  he  refused  to  subscribe 
to  the  Belgian  Confession,  and  recognize  the  au- 
thority of  the  synod.  He  was  suspended  from 
his  office  in  1668,  and  shortly  after  expelled  from 
the  city.  On  the  invitation  of  the  countess- 
palatine,  Elizabeth,  he  settled  at  Herford  with 
his  followers,  who  already  formed  a  completely 
organized  body,  separate  from  Church,  with  doc- 
trines and  a  disciplinary  system  of  their  own, 
practising  comnmnity  of  property,  etc.  At  Her- 
ford a  peculiar  outburst  of  enthusiasm  took  place 
in  the  congregation ;  and,  in  spite  of  the  inter- 
cession of  Maurice  of  Orange  and  the  elector  of 
Brandenburg,  the  alarmed  magistrate  banished 
them  from  the  city  1672.  They  removed  to 
Altona,  where  they  lived  in  peace  for  some  time, 
and  where  Labadie  died.  Of  his  writings,  many 
of  which  were  translated  into  German,  and  mucli 
read  among  the  Pietists  and  the  Jloravian  Breth- 
ren, the  principal  are.  La  Prophclie  (1668),  Manuel 
de  pie'tc  (1660),  Protestation  de  bonne  foi  el  saine 
doctrine  (1670),  Brieve  declaration  de  nos  sentiments 
touchani  I'^t/lise  (1670). 

Shortly  after  the  death  of  their  leader  (1674) 
the  war  between  Denmark  and  Sweden  induced 
the  Labadists  to  leave  Altona.  They  settled  at 
Wiewert  in  West  Friesland;  and  while  there 
they  achieved  their  greatest  success,  in  spite  of 


the  ill-will  and  chicaneries  of  the  Frisian  clergy- 
Their  number  increased  from  a  hundred  and  fifty 
to  about  four  hundred  between  167.3  and  161)0. 
In  1680  they  received  an  invitation  from  Coi'nelis 
van  Sonnnelsdyk,  the  governor  of  Surinam,  to 
found  a  colony  in  his  dominions.  The  invitation 
was  accepted  with  great  enthusiasm.  But  in  1688 
the  governor  was  assassinated;  and  the  colony, 
which  had  already  been  founded,  soon  died  out. 
A  similar  attempt  at  New  Bohemia,  on  the  Hud- 
.son  River,  New- York  State,  U.  S.  A.,  also  failed. 
It  was,  however,  not  so  much  these  misfortunes,- 
as  internal  difficulties  arising  from  the  abolition 
of  connnunity  of  property,  which  brought  the  sect 
to  fall  into  decay.  In  1703  only  about  thirty  per- 
sons remained  at  Wiewert  under  the  rigid  discip- 
line of  Yvon. 

Lit.  —  The  older  literature  is  found  in  J.  G. 
Waixii  :  Bibliolheca  Iheologica  selecta,  ii.  48-.o6. 
Of  recent  literature,  see  H.  Berkum  :  De  Laliadie 
en  de  Labadisten,  Sneek,  1851,  2  vols.  ;  Goehel  : 
Gexch.  des  chrisllichen  Lebens  in  d.  rheiniaeh-ireitt- 
phiilischen  Kirche,  Coblentz,  1852  (ii.  181-273); 
Heppe  :  Gesch.  d.  Pietisynus  d.  reformirten  Kirche^ 
namentlich  der  Niederlande,  Leyden,  1879  (pp. 
241-374).  M.  GOEBEL. 

LABADISTS.     See  above. 

LABARUM  (probably  from  the  Basque,  labarva, 
"  a  standard  ")  is  the  name  given  to  Constantine's- 
modification  of  the  ordinary  cavalry  standard 
(vexiUuni).  The  latter  was  a  square  piece  of  cloth 
stretched  on  top  by  a  cross-bar,  and  suspended 
from  a  gilt  spear  surmounted  by  an  eagle  of  vic- 
tory. Before  his  victorious  battle  with  Maxentius 
(312),  in  consequence  of  his  vision  of  the  cress, 
Constantine  adopted  the  vexilimn  as  the  standard 
for  the  entire  army  ;  and  he  attributed  his  success 
to  the  fact  that  the  battle  was  fought  imder  this 
sign.  In  place  of  the  eagle  he  put  the  monogram 
of  Christ  (see  Christ,  Monogram  of),  and  on  th& 
banner.  Christian  emblems.  He  also  appointed 
fifty  of  the  "  stoutest  and  most  religious  "  of  his 
soldiers  to  carry  it  by  turns,  and  together  consti- 
tute its  special  guard.  It  was  a  very  happy  inspi- 
ration on  Constantine's  part  to  take  as  the  imperial 
ensign  the  labaruin,  — whose  cruciform  framework 
the  Christians  already  regarded  as  emblematic  of 
the  cross  of  Christ,  and  which  at  the  same  time 
was  greatly  revered  in  its  Pagan  form  by  the 
soldiery,  —  and  transform  it  into  a  religious  sym- 
bol, "the  saving  sign  of  the  Roman  Empire;" 
for  by  this  means  he  muted  enthusiastically  the 
Christian  and  the  Pagan  elements  in  his  army. 
Constantine's  siiccessors,  except,  of  course,  Julian, 
likew'ise  adopted  the  labarum  as  their  ensign. 
The  word  '•  labarum  "  w'as  sube.squently  applied 
to  the  monogram,  and  even  to  the  cross  by  itself. 
It  is  interesting  to  know  that  neither  the  word 
nor  the  thing  dates  from  Constantine.  See  Smith 
and  CnEETH.\M,  Dictionary  of  Christian  Antiqui- 
ties, s.  V. 

LABAT,  Jean  Baptiste,  a  French  Dominican 
missionary  and  historian;  b.  in  Paris  1663;  d. 
there  Jan.  6,  1738.     He  passed  ten  years  in  the 


LABB^. 


1268 


LACROIX. 


West  Indies,  and  wrote  the  valuable  work,  Nouveau 
vot/aqe  nnx  lies  ili'  !'Ama-ii]ue,  Paris,  1722,  6  vols. 

LABBE,  Philippe,  b.  at  Bourges,  July  10.  1607; 
entered  the  Jesuit  order  1623 ;  was  for  some  time 
-a  teacher  of  philosopliy  and  theology,  but  devoted 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  exclusively  to  literature, 
and  d.  in  Paris,  March  25,  1G67.  He  wrote  seven- 
ty-five different  works,  and  is  consequently  the 
great  boast  of  his  order.  Tlie  greatest  and  most 
valuable  of  liis  productions  is  his  Concilia  (Paris, 
1672,  18  vols.),  of  which,  however,  only  the  eight 
first  were  edited  by  him,  the  rest,  after  his  death, 
by  Cossart.  The  work  was  reprinted  at  Venice, 
in  1728,  by  Xic.  Colletti. 

LA  CHAISE,  Fran9ois  de,  b.  in  the  castle  of 
Aix,  in  tlie  province  of  Forez,  Aug.  25,  1624;  d. 
at  Versailles,  Jan.  20,  1705.  As  a  younger  son 
of  a  noble  family,  he  entered  the  order  of  the 
Jesuits;  taught  pliilosophy  and  theology  with 
great  success  at  Lyons  and  Grenoble ;  and  was 
in  1673  appointed  confessor  to  Louis  XIV.,  in 
which  position  he  exercised  a  great  influence  on 
all  the  affairs  of  the  French  Church,  —  the  revo- 
cation of  the  Edict  of  Xantes  and  the  dragon- 
ades,  the  controversy  between  Bossuet  and  Fene- 
lon,  the  difficulties  between  the  Pope  and  the 
king,  etc.  A  man  of  polite  manners  and  easy 
morals,  cunning  and  patient,  he  managed  the 
conscience  of  the  king  just  as  the  king  wished 
to  have  it  managed,  and  was  rewarded  with  great 
donations  to  himself,  and  great  privileges  to  his 
order.  The  ground  near  Paris  which  was  given 
to  him  by  tlie  king,  and  on  which  he  built  his 
sumptuous  villa,  was  afterwards  transformed  into 
a  cemetery,  which  still  bears  his  name,  Pere  La 
Chaise.  See  R.  de  Chantelauze  :  Le  Pere  de 
La  Chaise,  Lyons,  1859. 

LA'CHISH  {inrirtcibic),  a  Canaanitish  city,  was 
conquered  by  Joshua,  and  allotted  to  Judah. 
Jeroboam  fortified  it,  and  made  it  a  place  of  great 
.strength  (2  Chron.  xi.  9).  On  his  way  to  Egypt, 
Sennacherib  besieged  it  (2  Kings  xviii.  13 ;  Isa. 
xxxvi.  1)  ;  and  a  slab  fonnd  in  one  of  the  cham- 
bers of  the  palace  of  Koiiyunjik  has  been  ex- 
plained l)y  Layard  as  representing  Semiacherib 
laying  siege  to  Lachish  (conip.  2  Cliron.  xxxii.  1 ; 
2  Kings  xix.  8;  Jer.  xxxiv.  7). 

LACHMANN,  Karl,  b.  at  Brmiswick,  March  1, 
1793;  d.  in  Berlin,  Marcli  13,  1851.  He  studied 
at  Leipzig  and  (iottingen,  and  was  professor  of 
philology,  first  at  Kiinigsberg  (1816),  and  after- 
wards in  Berlin  (1827).  The  restoration  of  old 
texts  was  tlie  special  object  of  his  studies ;  and 
his  editions  of  Lucretius,  Propertius,  and  other 
classics,  are  celebrated-  His  editions  of  the  Greek 
text  of  the  Xew  Testament  (1831,  2d  ed.,  1812- 
1850,  2  vols.)  show  the  experience  and  the  jirinci- 
ples  of  a  master  of  classical  criticism.  His  object 
was  purely  historical  or  diplomatic ;  namely  to  re- 
store the  oldest  attainable  text,  the  text  of  the 
fourth  century,  and  that  not  as  a  final  text,  but  sini- 
jily  as  asure  historical  liasis  for  further  operations 
of  internal  criticism.  .See  his  I.iJ'e  by  Hkktz,  Ber- 
lin, 1851 ;  Sch.vff's  Companion  to  Ihe  Greek  Testa- 
ment, pp.  253-2.50,  and  art.  P.iiu.e-Text,  p.  274. 

LACORDAIRE,  Jean  Baptists  Henri,  b.  at 
Keccy-siM-Oiircc-,  in  the  department  of  Cote  d'Or, 
JIarch  12,  1802;  d.  at  Sorreze,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Tarn,  Nov.  21,  1861.  He  studied  law 
at   Dijou  and  Paris,  and  began  to  practi.se   as 


an  advocate  in  the  latter  city.  But  roused  by 
Lamennais'  Essai  sur  Vliulijje'rence,  and  rapidlv 
arriving  at  the  conviction  that  Christianity  (or. 
more  precisely,  the  Roman-Catholic  Chiu'ch)  is 
necessary  for  the  social  development  of  the 
human  race,  he  entered  the  ecclesiastical  .semi- 
nary of  St.  Sulpice  in  1824,  and  was  ordained 
a  priest  in  1827.  Together  with  Lamennais  and 
jSIontalembert,  he  placed  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  peculiar  movement,  which,  under  the  device 
"  God  and  liberty,"  demanded  a  close  union  be- 
tween ultramontanisnr  and  radicalism,  hierarchy 
and  democracy,  papal  inf.allibility  and  universal 
suffrage.  But  tlie  school  which  they  opened  in 
Paris,  immediately  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  of  1830,  in  defiance  of  the  privilege 
of  the  State  university,  was  soon  after  closed  by 
the  police;  and  in  1831  their  paper,  L'Avenir, 
was  condemned  by  the  Pope.  Lacordaire  went 
to  Rome,  and  submitted  unconditionally.  On 
his  return  from  Rome,  he  opened  a  course  of  lec- 
tures (conferences}  in  defence  of  the  doctrinal 
system  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  these  lec- 
tures jiroduced  an  enormous  sensation.  In  1835 
he  was  appointed  preacher  at  the  Cathedral  of 
Notre  Dame ;  and,  whenever  he  preached,  the  vast 
building  was  filled  to  the  utmost  of  its  capacity. 
He  was  generally  acknowledged  as  the  most  elo- 
quent man  who  had  ever  been  heard  in  a  French 
pulpit.  In  1838  he  again  visited  Rome ;  and, 
after  a  novitiate,  he  entered  the  Dominican  order, 
April  6,  1840.  The  revival  of  this  order  in  France 
then  became  one  of  his  great  objects,  but  his 
success  was  small.  As  a  preacher,  however,  he 
continued  to  command  the  widest  popularity. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  National 
.•\ssembly,  and  took  his  seat  among  the  radicals ; 
but  having,  in  a  speech,  declared  himself  a  Re- 
publican, he  received  a  rebuke  from  his  ecclesias- 
tical superior;  in  consequence  of  which  he  retired 
from  politics.  Tlie  extreme  sharpness  with  wliich 
he,  in  a  sermon  (1852),  expressed  himself  about 
the  coiij)  d'etat,  had  the  result  that  he  some  time 
after  also  retired  from  the  pulpit,  and  settled  at 
Sorreze  as  director  of  the  .school.  His  collected 
work.s  —  Conferences,  Considerations,  Correspon- 
dance  avec  madame  Sicetcliine,  Letlres  ii  un  jeune 
liornme,  etc.  —  were  published  in  Paris,  1872-73, 
9  vols.  [His  Conferences  delivered  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Notre  Dame  were  translated  into  English 
by  Henry  Langdon,  New  York,  1870:  otliers  have 
also  been  translated, — Jesus  Christ  {IS~()),  God 
(1870),  God  and  Man  (1872),  Life  (1875).] 

Lit.  —  The  best  characterizations  of  Lacor- 
daire (his  character  and  his  talent)  were  given 
by  Sainte-Beuve,  in  his  Causeries  de  Lundi, 
and  by  CiiAiu.ES  nv.  M.\zai>e,  in  Jiemie  des  Deux 
Mondes,  of  I^Iay  1,  1864.  His  life  has  been  writ- 
ten by  MoNTAi.KMiiEUT,  1863,  [by  CnocAiiNK 
(6th  ed.,  1880;  translated  into  luiglish  by  Fatlier 
Ayi.waiuj,  London  and  New  York,  18(i7,  2cl  ed., 
1878),  by  H.  L.  Suiney  Leak  (London,  1882), 
and  by  Kicakk.  Paris,  1882].  REl'C'lII.IN. 

LACROIX,  John  Power,  b.  of  Fieiicli  parents, 
fariiirrs,  at  llaverliill,  ().,  Feb.  13,  1S,33;  d.  at 
Delaware,  O.,  Sept.  22,  1879.  He  was  graduated 
at  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  University,  1857.  For  two 
years  afterward  he  taiiglit  in  New  Orleans,  and 
there  began  liis  contributions  to  tlie  periodical 
literature  of  the  day,  which  he  coiilinued  to  his 


LACTANTIUS  FIRMIANUS. 


1269 


LAINEZ. 


death.  Besides  translations  and  original  articles 
in  the  monthlies  and  reviews,  he  averaged 
an  article  weekly  for  the  religious  press.  In 
1H59  he  entered  the  ministry  of  the  Methodist- 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  Ohio  Conference.  In 
ISd)  he  became  tutor  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyan  Uiii- 
ver.sity ;  .soon  after  he  went  abroad,  and  .studied 
sixteen  mouths  in  the  German  universities.  From 
18(il  to  l'S79  he  filled  the  chair  of  modern  lan- 
guages in  the  Ohio  "Wesleyan  University.  He 
translated  De  Pressense's  Religion  and  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  New  York,  1868 ;  Naville's  Prolilem  of 
£■(•(7,1871;  Abelous'  William  the  Tacitiaii,  1S7'2; 
Wuttke's  Christian  El/tics,  2  vols.,  1873.  lie 
wrote  Life  of  Rudolf  Slier,  1874,  Outlines  of  Chris- 
tian Ethics,  1879,  and  numerous  articles  in  Mc- 
Clixtock  and  Sritoxc/s  Cyclopcedia.  He  was  a 
modest  man,  of  wide  information,  sober  views, 
and  exalted  Christian  life. 

LACTANTIUS  FIRMIANUS  (to  which  names 
some  old  manuscripts  add  those  of  Lucius  Caecili- 
us,  or  Caelius)  was  probably  a  native  of  Italy, 
and,  according  to  Jerome  {De  vir.  ill.,  80),  a  dis- 
ciple of  Arnobius.  By  Diocletian  he  was  called 
to  Nicomedia  as  teacher  of  Latin  rhetoric ;  but, 
as  the  city  was  entirely  Greek,  he  found  very  few 
pupils,  and  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  author- 
ship. Having  embraced  Christianity,  he  resigned 
his  professorship  when  the  persecution  of  Diocle- 
tian broke  out;  and  he  seems  to  have  lived  in 
very  humble  circumstances  until  Constantine  the 
Great  called  him  to  his  court  in  Ciaul  as  tutor 
of  his  .son  Crispus.  The  date  of  his  death,  like 
that  of  his  birth,  is  unknown. 

The  most  important  and  most  celebrated  of 
the  Christian  works  of  Lactantius  is  his  Dici- 
narum  Inslitutionum  Libri  Scptem,  written  during 
the  persecution  of  Diocletian  (between  307  and 
310),  and  afterwards,  in  a  second  edition,  dedi- 
cated to  Constantine  the  Great,  between  318  and 
323.  It  is  an  apology  of  Christianity,  opening 
with  an  attack  on  heathen  religion  and  philoso- 
phy, and  then  turning  into  a  positive  exposition 
of  the  truths  of  Christianity.  It  was  intended 
for  people  of  education ;  and  the  author  took 
special  pains  to  satisfy  even  the  most  fastidious 
taste  with  respect  to  style  and  composition,  in 
which  he  also  succeeded  so  well,  that  he  is  gen- 
erally called  the  "  Christian  Cicero."  According 
to  Jerome,  lie  himself  made  an  abridgment  of 
the  work,  of  which  a  complete  copy  w'as  found  in 
the  library  of  Turin,  and  published  in  1712  by 
Pfall.  In  close  connection  with  the  Institutiones 
stands  the  book  De  ira  Dei,  in  which  Lactantius 
attacks  the  various  philosophical  schools,  espe- 
cially the  Epicureans  and  Stoics,  because  they 
represent  God  as  incapable  of  anger,  as  without 
affections.  An  earlier  work  by  him,  De  opijicio 
Dei,  was  meant  to  form  a  supplement  to  the 
fourth  book  of  Cicero's  De  RepuUiea.  Among 
his  other  works  are  De  mortibiis  persecutorum 
(written  at  Nicomedia  in  31-1 ;  first  published  by 
Baluze,  Paris,  1679;  latest  edition  by  Dubner, 
Paris,  1879),  and  De  ave  Pliienice,  a  poem  con- 
sisting of  eighty-five  distichs,  and  treating  the 
fabulous  bird  as  a  symbol  of  the  immortality  of 
the  soul. 

Lit.  —  Collected  editions  of  the  works  of  Lac- 
tantius have  been  given  by  Conrad  .Sweynheim 
and  Arnold  Panuarz  (Rome,   1465),  Biinemann 


(Leipzig,  1739),  Le  Brun  and  Longlet  du  Fresnoy 
(Paris,  1748),  and  Frilzsche  (Leipzig,  1842).  See 
J.  G.  TiiKO.  iNI'l'LLEK:  Qucestiones  Lactantiance, 
Gottingen,  1875;  Rotiifichs:  Lanct.  de  morti- 
bus  persecutorum,  etc.,  Marburg,  1862;  Eiiert  : 
Uherd.  Verfasser  d.  Buchesde  morl.  pers.,  Dresden, 
1870;  Keiikein:  Quis  scripserit  lihellum  de  mart, 
pers.,  Stuttgart,  1877.  EBEKT. 

LACTICJNIA  (literally  "milk-dishes")  denotes 
all  those  kinds  of  food  which  are  derived  from 
the  mammalia  in  a  more  or  less  indirect  way; 
such  as  milk,  butter,  cheese,  etc.  :  eggs  are  placed 
in  the  same  class  of  food.  The  Council  of  Lao- 
dicea,  351,  and  the  Trullan  Council  of  692  ordered 
complete  abstinence  from  all  lacticinia  during  fast- 
ing; and  such  is  still  the  custom  in  most  Eastern 
churches.  In  the  Western  Church  the  absti- 
nence from  lacticinia  was  generally  confined  to  the 
quadragesimal  fast  before  Easter,  and  dispensa- 
tions were  not  difficult  to  jirocure. 

L/ETARE  SUNDAY,  the  fourth  Sunday  of 
Lent,  thus  called  from  the  first  word  of  the  in- 
troit  of  the  mass,  Icelare,  "  to  rejoice ; "  is  also 
called  Dominica  de  rosa,  because  being  the  day 
selected  by  the  Pope  for  the  blessing  of  the  gold- 
en rose. 

LAFITEAU,  Joseph  Fran9ois,  a  French  Jesuit 
and  missionary;  b.  at  Bordeaux,  1670;  d.  there 
July  3,  1746.  He  labored  in  the  Iroquois  Indian 
Mission  at  Sanlt  St.  Louis,  Can.,  from  1712  to 
1717.  He  published  Mceurs  des  sauvages  ame'ri- 
quains  comparees  aux  mceurs  des  premiers  temps 
(Paris,  1723-24,  2  vols.),  in  which  he  maintained, 
from  a  study  of  Indian  character,  that  they  are 
descendants  of  the  "  barbarians  "  who  inhabited 
Greece  at  an  early  period. 

LAIDLIE,  Archibald,  D.D.,  b.  in  Kelso,  Scot- 
land, Dec.  4,  1727;  d.  at  Red  Hook,  N.Y.,  Nov. 
14,  1779.  He  was  educated  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh ;  ordained  1759,  and  settled  over  the 
Scotch  Church  at  Flushing,  Holland ;  thence  he 
w-as  called  in  1763  to  New- York  City  to  preach  in 
English  in  the  Collegiate  Church,  —  the  first  Eng- 
lish preacher  in  the  denomination.  He  was  emi- 
nently successful  as  preacher  and  pastor,  although 
at  first  called  upon  to  endure  great  opposition 
fi'om  many  of  the  Dutch  denomination. 

LAINEZ,  lago,  the  .second  general  of  the  order 
of  the  Jesuits;  b.  at  Ahnancaris,  Castile,  in  1512; 
d.  in  Rome,  Jan.  19,  lofio.  He  studied  at  Alcala; 
joined  Ignatius  Loyola  in  Paris ;  was  one  of  the 
six  who  made  the  vow  of  a  spiritiuil  crusade  in 
the  Church  of  Montmartre,  Aug.  1.5,  15.'!4;  and 
succeeded  Loyola  as  general,  June  19,  1557.  He 
completed  and  consolidated  the  despotic  constitu- 
tion of  the  order,  awakened  and  developed  its 
great  faculty  for  education,  initiated  and  trained 
its  wonderful  talent  for  intrigue,  and  made  it 
that  frightful  instrument  of  ambition  which  it 
afterwards  proved  to  be.  He  exercised,  also,  a 
direct  influence  on  the  history  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Cluu'ch  by  the  activity  he  developed  at 
the  Council  of  Trent.  He  actually  suppressed 
every  attempt  to  modify  the  old  doctrine  of  justi- 
fication in  favor  of  the  ideas  of  the  Reformation ; 
and  his  violent  assertions  of  the  supremacy  of 
the  papal  power  in  its  relation  to  the  bishops,  the 
councils,  etc.,  had  at  all  events  the  effect  of  em- 
barrassing his  opponents.  See  AIichel  d'Esne  : 
Vie  de  Lainez,  Douai,  1597 ;  Ribadeneira  :  Life 


LAITY. 


1270 


LAMBERT  OF  HERSFELD. 


of  Lainez,  Madrid,  1592;  translated  into  Latin 
by  A.  Schott,  Antwerp,  159S. 

LAITY.  In  the  Primitive  Christian  Church 
there  was  tlieoretical  and  practical  parity  of  all 
believers.  It  was  not  only  taught  (1  Pet.  ii.  9, 10, 
V.  3),  but  acted  upon.  Laymen  had  the  right  to 
and  did  preach,  baptize,  administer  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  exercise  discipline.  The  distinction 
between  clergy  and  laity  was  not  sharply  drawn. 
The  former  were  chosen  by  the  people  to  be  their 
governors  and  leaders  in  worsliip,  because  they 
had  the  requisite  gifts;  but  they  formed  no  priest- 
ly caste,  nor  did  they  pretend  to  impose  laws  upon 
the  churches.  As  Hatch  says,  "  Church  officers 
were  originally  regarded  as  existing  for  the  good 
government  of  the  community  and  for  the  gener- 
al management  of  its  affairs :  the  difference  be- 
tween [them]  and  other  baptized  persons  was  one 
of  status  and  degree.  Respecting  the  spiritual 
life,  the  two  classes  were  on  the  same  footing ; 
and  the  functions  which  the  officers  performed 
were  such  as,  apart  from  the  question  of  order, 
might  be  performed  by  any  member  of  the  com- 
munity." These  functions  were,  however,  open 
only  to  the  male  members  (1  Cor.  xiv.  34  sq.); 
except  prophesj-ing,  which  was  the  privilege  of 
either  sex  (1  Cor.  xi.  5).  How  long  this  parity 
of  members  lasted,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  The 
growth  of  the  Church  pushed  the  officers  into 
greater  prominence,  for  their  offices  increased  in 
importance ;  and  gradually  those  "  who  did  not 
hold  office  were  excluded  from  the  performance 
of  almost  all  ecclesiastical  functions."  The  en- 
forced celibacy  of  the  clergy  kept  them  aloof 
from  the  common  interests  of  the  laity.  They 
were  at  last  considered  priests  in  a  peculiar  sense. 
The  Lord's  Supper  became  the  mass,  and  the  cup 
was  withdrawn  from  the  laity.  Portions  of  the 
clmrches,  and  entire  houses,  were  set  apart  for 
clerical  use.  The  breach  widened;  and  so,  in 
spite  of  an  occasional  protest,  the  Christian 
world  was  divided  into  two  camps,  —  one  lay,  the 
other  clerical.  I'riestly  arrogance  and  corruption 
wrought  their  own  cure.  ']"he  heart  of  Europe 
became  sick  of  pretence  and  tyranny.  The 
Keforniation  broke  out.  Tlien  the  laity  re- 
covered, in  a  measure,  their  lost  riglits.  To-day 
in  Protestant  churches,  specially  the  non-Episco- 
pal, the  laity  have  every  fitting  privilege  granted 
them,  and  theoretically  the  priesthood  of  all  believ- 
ers is  granted.  Nevertheless,  lay  administration 
of  the  sacraments  is  probably  very  rarely  prac- 
tised, and  would  not  in  many  instances  be  allowed. 
For  further  information,  see  arts.  Bai'Tism,  Clek- 
«;y,  Dkess  ok  tiik  Eaui-y  Ciiuistiaxs,  Lay  Cum- 
Mc.N'ioN,  Lay  Pkkaching,  Lay  Rkpuksknta- 
TION.  See  also  Sciiaff  :  History  of  the  Apostolic 
Church,  bk.  iii.  §  128,  pp.  500  sq. ;  Ligiitfoot: 
Commentarij  on  I'hilippinns,  excursus.  The  Christian 
Ministry,  pp.  179  S().  ;  E.  Hatch  :  The  (>r//aniz(i- 
lion  of  the  Early  Church,  pp.  Ill  sq.  ;  E.  Mf.li.ok  : 
Priesthood  in  the  Lii/ht  of  the  New  Testament,  Lon- 
don, 1870;  .J.  15.  Paton  :"y'/(e  Oriijinofthe  Priesthood 
in  the  Christian  Church,  London  [187G],  pp.  135  ; 
and  P.  Madsen  :  Das  geistliche  Priesterthum  dcr 
Christ' II.  (luti-rsloh,  1882. 

LAMAISM  is  a  peculiar  development,  half  reli- 
gious aTid  lialf  political,  of  P.uddliism.  It  took 
place  in  Thibet,  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  and  presents  the  most  extreme  form  of 


a  hierarchy,  the  realization  of  the  very  ideal  for 
which  tlie  raedia?val  popes  fought.  From  Thibet 
it  spread  both  into  India  and  China;  but  Lhassa 
is  still  its  Rome,  and  Thibet  its patrimonium  Petri. 

In  the  priiniti\e  Buddhism,  such  as  was  taught 
in  India  by  Gautama  in  the  sixth  century  B.C., 
the  two  principal  points  are,  theoretically,  the  suc- 
cessive, but  not  continuous,  revelation  of  the  truth 
that  saves,  through  a  Buddha;  and,  practically, 
the  embracing  of  that  truth  by  a  converted  heart, 
and  a  systematical  method  of  ethical  and  mental 
self-culture.  But  in  the  Buddhism  which  was  in- 
troduced in  Thibet  in  the  sixth  century  A.D. 
both  these  points  had  been  nmch  corrupted.  The 
idea  of  a  Buddha  had  entirely  changed.  Instead 
of  "  a  man,  who,  by  self-denying  efforts  continued 
through  many  hundreds  of  different  births,  had 
acquired  the  ten  cardinal  virtues  in  such  perfec- 
tion that  he  was  alile,  when  sin  and  ignorance 
have  gained  the  upper  hand  throughout  the  world, 
to  save  the  human  race  from  ruin,"  there  present- 
ed itself  a  phantasm,  hovering  between  heaven 
and  earth,  and  surrounded  with  a  host  of  fictitious 
beings.  As  completely  man's  relation  to  the 
Buddha  had  changed.  A  tricky  priesthood,  play- 
ing upon  the  superstitions  of  the  mass,  had  taken 
the  place  of  tlie  heart's  conversion  and  the  severe 
practice  of  self-training.  In  the  ninth  century 
the  old  Thibetan  worship  of  evil  demons,  the 
Bompa  religion,  suddenly  arose  again  ;  and  for 
a  time  the  Buddhist  priests  were  banished  from 
the  country.  In  the  fourteenth  centurj'  a  monk, 
Tsonkapa,  attempted  a  reform  of  Buddhism. 
Nevertheless,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  trans- 
formation of  Buddhism  into  Lamaism  began. 

In  its  highest  form  a  hierarchy  cannot  rest  sat- 
isfied with  an  infallible  pope :  it  must  have  an 
incarnate  pope.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  Gedun 
Dub,  the  head  of  the  Tliibetan  priesthood,  de- 
clared himself  an  incarnation  of  that  Buddha 
who  appeared  for  tlie  last  time  in  the  sixth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  assumed  the  title  of  Dalai  Lama  ("the 
priest-ocean  "),  and  took  up  his  residence  in  the 
celebrated  monastery  Chabroung,  in  Lhassa.  In 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  princes  and  the  army, 
wliich  was  ovei-come  by  the  aid  of  the  Alongols,  the 
Dalai  l^ama  gradually  succeeded,  during  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  in  usurping  the 
whole  civil  power ;  .so  that  at  present  he  is  not  only 
the  highest,  but  the  only,  power  in  the  country. 
L^ider  him  is  arianged  a  graduated  series  of  eccle- 
siastical officers,  ending  with  the  monks,  whose 
number  is  almost  incredible.  In  Lhassa  tliere 
are  eighteen  tliousand :  in  Tliibet,  in  general, 
every  seventh  man  is  a  monk.  The  large  bulk 
of  the  annual  revenue  is  used  to  sustain  the  mon- 
asteries, tliovigh  the  monks  are  the  nio.st  olistinate 
beggars  in  the  world,  and  the  priests  exceedingly 
shrewd  in  extracting  nion<'v  from  their  flocks. 
Tli(^  olfice  of  Dalai  Lanni  is  not  hen-ditary.  \Mien 
he  dies,  another  incarnate  Buddlia  is  <'stablished 
by  election;  and  th(^  Chini>se  (iovernment  is  said 
to  exercise  not  small  infiuence  on  the  election. 
See  ScuoTT  :  Ueber  d.  Biuldhismus  in  Hoch-Asien 
[n.  d.]. 

LAMB  OF  GOD.     See  .\gnus  Dei. 

LAMBERT  OF  HERSFELD  became  a  monk  at 
Ilersfeld,  .March  l.'j,  1058,  and  was  ordained  priest 
at  Aschalfenbiirg,  Sept.  !•')  same  year.  He  after- 
wards made  a  journey  to  Jerusalem ;  and  on  liis 


LAMBERT. 


1271 


LAMENTATIONS. 


return  he  visited  the  monasteries  of  Siegburg  and 
Saalfeld,  to  make  himself  acquainted  with  the 
severer  rules  there  introduced.  He  came,  how- 
ever, to  the  conclusion  that  the  rules  of  St.  Bene- 
dict would  suffice,  if  rigidly  held.  His  literary 
career  he  opened  with  a  poem  on  the  history  of 
his  time  ;  which  seems  to  have  perished,  though 
(iiesebrecht  supposes  it  to  be  identical  with  the 
Gesta  Heinrici  impcratoris  metrice,  edited  by  Waitz, 
in  Abhandlmif/en  der  GiUimrjen  Gexellsch.  dcr  Wis- 
senschaflen,  1870.  His  second  effort  was  a  history 
of  the  monastery  of  Hersfeld  :  Libellus  ile  in.tfitu- 
lione  HerxveldensU  ecclefUe,  of  which  only  a  few 
fragments  have  come  down  to  us.  His  principal 
work  is  his  Annates,  and  it  has  been  preserved 
whole.  It  begins  with  Adam,  and  is  at  first  a 
mere  chronological  outline  ;  but  with  the  year  10-10 
the  narrative  becomes  ampler,  and  from  1073  to 
1077  it  is  the  history  of  the  time.  The  author 
combines  simplicity  and  naturalness  with  learn- 
ing and  education  ;  and,  tliough  he  cannot  be  said 
to  be  impartial,  his  views  are  not  without  eleva- 
tion, and  his  judgment  is  always  moderate.  The 
book  was  edited  by  Hesse,  1843  and  1874,  and 
several  times  translated  into  German.  See  the 
dissertations  by  Lefarth  (1871),  and  II.  Delbriick 
(1873). 

LAMBERT,  Fran9ois,  b.  at  Avignon,  1486;  d. 
at  Marburg,  April  18, 1530.  In  his  fifteenth  year 
he  entered  the  Franciscan  order,  and  worked,  later 
on,  with  great  success,  though  without  fully  satis- 
fying himself,  as  an  itinerant  preacher.  Luther's 
writings  made  a  deep  impression  upon  him ;  and 
when  they  were  taken  from  him,  anathematized, 
and  burnt,  he  made  up  his  mind  to  leave  his 
monastery  and  his  native  country.  Over  Geneva 
and  Zurich  he  went  to  Wittenberg,  where  he 
arrived  in  1.523,  staid  a  whole  year,  married,  lec- 
tured on  the  prophets,  and  translated  several  of 
the  Reformers'  books  into  French  and  Italian. 
In  1524  he  went  to  Strassburg,  where  he  published 
his  Commentaries  on  the  Prophets,  and  several 
treatises,  —  De  arhilrio  hominis  vere  captivo  (against 
Erasmus),  De  causis  excmcadnnis  muhorum  scgcu- 
lorum,  Farrago  omnunn  fere  rerum  theologicarum, 
etc.  But  in  Strassburg  he  also  gradually  turned 
away  from  the  strict  Lutherism,  and  adopted  the 
views  of  the  Swiss  Reformers.  In  1526  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
of  Marburg;  and,  enjoying  the  confidence  of 
Landgrave  Philipp  of  Hesse,  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  establishment  of  the  Reforma- 
tion in  that  country.  He  diew  up  the  famous 
Heformalio  ecclesiarum  Ilas.iiie,  which,  though 
never  carried  out,  forms  one  of  the  most  inter- 
esting documents  of  its  kind  from  the  period  of 
the  Reformation  (printed  in  F.  C.  Schmincke  : 
Monumen.  Hassiaca,  ii.).  See  his  biographies  by 
J.  W.  Baum  (German,  Strasshm-g,  1840),  F. 
St.  Stieve  (Latin,  Breslau,  1867),  and  Louis 
RuFFET  (French,  Paris,  1873).    WAGENMANN. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.  See  Articles,  Lam- 
beth 

LAMBRUSCHINI,  Luigi,  b.  at  Genoa,  May  6, 
1776 ;  d.  in  Rome,  May  8,  18.54.  He  entered  the 
order  of  the  Barnabites ;  was  made  Archbishop 
of  Genoa  in  1819 ;  and  was  in  1823  sent  as  papal 
nuncio  to  Paris,  where,  by  the  advice  he  gave 
Charles  X.,  he  is  said  to  have  contributed  not  a 
little  to  the  fall  of  the  Bourbons.     JIade  cardi- 


nal in  1831,  and  secretary  of  state  in  1836,  he  was 
tlie  true  father  of  that  policy  which  characterized 
the  reign  of  Gregoi-y  XVI.,  and  whicli  linally 
conjured  up  the  revolution  in  the  very  dominions 
of  the  Pope.  With  the  death  of  (Jregory  X\'l. 
his  pulilic  career  was  ended  ;  but  he  was  so  hated, 
that,  when  the  Revolution  broke  out  in  1848,  he 
was  compelled  to  flee,  di.sguised  as  a  groom.  Ili.s 
Opere  spirituali  were  published  in  Rome,  1836. 
His  celebrated  memoir  in  the  Droste-Vischer- 
ing  aifair  was  translated  into  German,  Ratisbon, 

1838.  KLtJPFEL. 

LA'MECH.     See  Cain. 

LAMENNAIS,  Hugues  Felicite  Robert  de,  b.  at 
St.  Malo,  July  10,  1782;  d.  in  Paris,  Feb.  27, 
1854.  He  entered  the  seminary  of  St.  Malo  iu 
1811,  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1816,  and  published 
in  1817  the  first  volume  of  his  Exsai  aur  Vlndijj'i'- 
rence  en  matiere  de  Religion,  of  which  the  fourth 
and  last  volume  appeared  in  1824.  The  book 
made  a  great  sensation.  It  at  once  rallied  and 
consolidated  the  Ultramontanist  party,  and  in  the 
Church  in  general  it  produced  a  kind  of  revival. 
The  bishops,  the  Sorbonne,  and  the  Jesuits  were 
strongly  opposed  to  it;  but  Leo  XII.  offered  the 
author  a  cardinal's  hat,  which,  however,  he  de- 
clined. With  Gallicanism  he  broke  still  more 
decidedly  in  his  De  la  religion  considere'e  dans  ses 
rapports  avec  V ordre  politique  et  cii.'i7(1826);  and  soon 
after  he  abandoned  the  Bourbons,  whose  fall  he 
predicted  in  his  Des  progres  de  la  rcrolution  (1829). 
In  order  to  make  the  Church  perfectly  free,  he 
demanded  to  have  it  separated  from  the  State, 
and  rebuilt  on  completely  democratic  principles ; 
but  these  ideas,  which  he  propagated  in  his  paper, 
L'Avenir,  —  founded  in  1830,  when  the  revolution 
had  established  the  liberty  of  the  press,  —  did  not 
find  favor  with  the  Pope.  By  an  encyclicon  of 
Aug.  15,  1832,  Gregory  XVI.  condenmed  them, 
L'Avenir  ceased  to  come  out,  and  Lameunais 
retired  from  public  life.  He  did  not  submit, 
however.  By  his  Paroles  d'lin  Croyanl  (1836) 
he  definitely  broke  with  Rome,  and  pursued  his 
course  independently,  showing  more  and  more  of 
the  social  radicalism  which  he  combined  with  his 
religious  radicalism  :  Livre  du  peuple  (1837),  L'Es- 
clavage  moderne,  Le  pays  et  le  gourernement,  etc. 
His  last  great  works  were  his  Esquisse  d'une  phi- 
losophie  (1841-46),  and  a  translation,  with  notes, 
of  the  Gospels  (1846).  In  1848  he  was  elected 
a  member  of  the  National  Assembly,  but  was 
unable  to  carry  through  any  of  his  plans,  and, 
after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1852,  he  retired  altogether 
from  public  life,  deeply  disappointed.  See  L.\cor- 
DAIRE :  Considerations  sur  le  syst'eme  philosoph.  de 
M.  de  L.,  Paris,  1834;  A.  Blaize:  Essai  biug. 
sur  inmeHnojs,  Paris,  1858;  Emile  Forgues:  Cor- 
rcspondance,  Paris,  1858,  2  vols.       C.  PFESDER. 

LAMENTATIONS  is  the  name  of  five  elegies, 
in  which  is  bewailed  the  mournful  lot  that  came 
upon  Jerusalem  in  tlie  Chaktean  invasion  of  588 
B.C.  The  name  in  the  Hebrew  text  is  Echah 
(np'S,  "  How  "),  —  the  word  with  which  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  chapters  open  ;  but  the  Jews, 
according  to  Jerome,  also  used  the  designation 
"Lamentations"  (Kinoth,  ^IJ'p),  which  was  like- 
wise employed  in  the  LXX.  (Opf/voi")  and  the  Vul- 
gate (Threni).  It  was  counted  in  the  LXX.  as  one 
book  with  Jeremiah's  Prophecy,  just  as  Ruth  was 


LAMENTATIONS. 


1272 


LANCE. 


counted  as  a  part  of  Judges ;  but  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible  it  was  placed  among  the  Hagiugrapha.  So 
far  as  the  structure  of  the  elegies  is  concerned,  four 
of  them  are  acrostic  [the  twenty-two  verses  in  the 
Authorized  Version  corresponding  to  the  twentj- 
two  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet].  In  chap,  iii., 
which  represents  the  culmination  of  the  author's 
feelings,  each  letter  is  repeated  three  times.  In 
chap.  V.  the  acrostic  arrangement  is  ignored.  A 
striking  fact  meets  us  in  chaps,  ii.,  iii.,  iv.,  where 
i"  follows  2 ;  whereas  in  chap.  i.  the  usual  order 
of  the  alphabet  is  followed.  The  contents  of  the 
five  poems  concern  the  national  sorrow,  but  each 
brings  out  a  distinct  phase  of  the  calamity.  Chap. 
i.  depicts  Zion  weeping,  —  the  once  rich  and 
liappy,  but  now  desolate  city.  Chap.  ii.  is  more 
vivacious,  and  describes  the  destruction  as  the 
deed  of  the  Lord.  In  chap.  iii.  an  individual 
relates  his  own  personal  sutferings,  though  not 
exclusively.  In  chap.  iv.  the  mournful  condition 
of  the  people  is  brought  under  view,  who,  during 
the  siege  and  after  it,  suffered  so  fearfully  from 
the  ravages  of  the  sword  and  famine.  Chap.  v. 
portrays  the  present  miserable  condition  of  the 
people.  If  there  is  no  real  progress  in  the  tliought, 
this  will  be  attributed  to  the  acrostic  method. 
That  the  five  pieces  were  cast  in  the  same  mould 
is  psychologically  improbable,  but  the  unity  of 
style  points  to  a  single  hand.  The  scene  is  through- 
out the  same,  and  was  vividly  before  the  mind  of 
the  writer,  who  wrote  after  the  siege. 

Who  is  the  authnr  oi  these  songs?  Tradition 
with  unbi-oken  uniformity  speaks  of  Jeremiah ; 
and  the  LXX.  distinctly  declares  for  the  same 
view,  and  introduces  the  first  chapter  with  the 
words :  "  And  it  came  to  pass,  that  after  Israel 
was  carried  into  captivity,  and  .Jerusalem  was 
laid  waste,  Jeremiah  sat  weeping,  and  made  this 
lamentation  over  Jerusalem,  and  said."  Jerome 
wi'ongly  identifies  our  book  with  the  elegies  sung 
by  Jeremiah  at  Josiah"s  death  (2  Chron.  xxxv. 
25).  But  this  passage  shows  how  well  fitted 
Jeremiah  was  to  write  the  Lamentations  (comp. 
Jer.  viii.  18-22,  xiv.  17  sq.).  They  also  have 
much  ill  common  with  the  Prophecy,  both  in  lan- 
guage, and  line  of  thought.  It  is  only  in  (iintc 
recent  times  that  the  Jeremianic  authorshi])  has 
been  denied  in  whole  (Ewahl,  Xiildeke,  Sclirader, 
Nagelsbach  [Professor  W.  11.  Smith],  etc.)  or  in 
part  (Thenius,  etc.).  The  lexicographical  differ- 
ences in  the  Prophecy  and  Lamentations  have 
been  urged  (Nagelsbach),  but  the  diiferencc  of 
contents  of  the  compositions  is  in  (his  connection 
to  be  taken  into  account.  No  striking  difference 
in  the  spiritual  tone  can  be  made  out.  In  general, 
we  must  remember  that  Jeremiah  Iiere  ajijieais 
exclusively  as  the  patriot,  and  not  at  all  as  the 
divinely-sent  advocate,  as  in  the  Prophecy.  Chai>. 
iii.  strongly  favors  the  current  an<l  traditional 
view.  We  cannot  get  rid  of  the  impression  that 
it  is  Jeremiah  who  is  relating  his  own  personal 
experiences.  In  later  times  the  Lamentations 
were  sung  by  the  Jews  on  the  9th  of  Ab,  the 
aimiver.sary  of  the  burning  of  the  temple;  and 
in  the  Catholic  Churcli  they  are  incorporated  in 
the  liturgical  service  of  Passion  Week. 

Lit. —  Paukau  :  Thnui  Jcr.  phUolog.  c.t  crit. 
illustr.,  Lugd.  Bat.,  1790;  also  the  Commentaries 
of  TriKNirs  (Leipzig,  185.J),  [Hkndehso.n  (l.,ond., 
1851,  Anilover,  1808)],  Engkliiarut    (Leipzig, 


1867),  Xaglesbach  (Bielefeld,  1868),  [Eng.  trans, 
in  Laxge,  New  York,  1871],  Keil,  Leipzig.  1872 
[Eng.  trans.,  187i],  Dean  R.  Payne  Smith,  in 
Spealcer's  Comnientari/  (New  York,  1875),  Sciixee- 
DORFEU  (Prague,  1876).  See  also  Ewald  :  Dichter 
d.  A.  B.;  R.  LoWTH  :  De  sacra  poesi  Hehr.;  the 
Introductions  to  the  Old  Testament  of  De  Wette, 
Bleek,  [and  Reuss  ;  the  excellent  article  of  Dr. 
Plumptre,  in  Smith's  Bible  Dictionary;  and 
Professor  AV.  R.  Smith,  in  Encyclopcedia  Britan- 
nica.  See  also  Dr.  Wiinsche's  translation  of  Echa 
Rahhati,  the  Midrash  upon  Lamentations,  Leipzig, 
1882.  For  full  list  of  Literature,  see  Lange's 
Coinmcntarij].  VOX  ORELLI. 

LAMI,  Bernard,  b.  at  Mans.  June,  1640;  d.  at 
Rouen,  Jan.  29,  1715.  In  1658  he  entered  the 
Congregation  of  the  (Jratoi"}',  and  taught  philoso- 
phy and  mathematics  at  various  places;  but  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  Cartesian  philosophy  made 
him  many  enemies  among  the  Aristotelians,  and 
in  1676  he  was  banished  to  Grenoble.  Recalled 
to  Paris  in  1686,  he  was  banished  once  more,  and 
finally  settled  at  Rouen.  His  Apparatus  Biblicus 
(Lyons.  1696)  was  twice  translated  into  French 
under  the  title,  Introduction  a  I'Ecriture  sainte.  by 
Bellegarde  and  by  Boyer.  and  also  into  English 
by  R.  Bundy  (London,  1723).  Among  his  other 
works  are  Harmunia  sice  Concordia  rjuatunr  Ecan- 
gc'lislarum  (1689)  and  De  Tahcrtiacnlo  faderis, 
etc.  (1720).  on  which  he  is  said  to  have  worked 
for  thirty  years. 

LAMMAS-DAY,  or  LAMMAS-TIDE,  Aug.  1, 
celebrated  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  memory  of 
St.  Peter's  imprisonment,  is  probably  an  old  Pagan 
festival  dating  back  to  tlie  days  of  Druidisin. 
The  derivation  of  the  name  (whether  from  lamb- 
mass  or  from  loaf-mass)  is  uncertain,  though  the 
latter  seems  preferable,  as  it  was  an  old  Saxon 
custom  to  make  sacrifices  of  grain  on  the  1st  of 
August. 

LAMPE,  Friedrich  Adolf,  one  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished Cahinistic  divines  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  b.  Feb.  18,  168:),  at  Detmold ;  d.  at 
Bremen,  Dec.  6,  1729.  lie  was  educated  in  the 
academy  of  Bremen,  1698-1702;  studied  theolo- 
gy at  Franeker;  was  professor  of  dogmatics  at  the 
university  of  Utrecht,  1720-27,  anil  finally  jxustor 
of  St.  Ansgar,  and  professor  at  the  academy  of 
Bremen.  The  revival  of  the  federal  theology, 
and  the  advancement  of  Bible  study  in  the  Ke- 
formed  Church,  are  his  great  merits.  Ills  prin- 
cipal works  are,  Gdieimniss  des  Gtiadenliumles 
(0  vols.);  MUch  der  ]Varlieit,  an  exposition  of  the 
Heidelberg  Catechism  ;  Tlieologia  actioa  sen  prac- 
tica,  a  very  full  commentary  on  the  Gospel  of 
John  (3  vols.)  ;  and  a  number  of  excellent  hymns, 
etc.  See  ().  'Thelkmann  :  Friederick  A  dot)' Lampe, 
186^^.  O.  TIIEUSMANN. 

LAMPETIANS.     See  Messalians. 

LANCE,  The  Holy,  was,  according  to  the  report 
of  liisho]>  Lnilprand  of  Cremona,  presented  by 
King  Rudolph  of  liurgnndy  to  King  Ihniry  1.  of 
(Jermany.  According  to  the  origin,-il  tradition, 
it  was  made  from  the  nails  with  wliieh  Jesus  was 
fastened  to  the  cross;  but  a  later  tradition  identi- 
fied it  with  th(!  spear  with  which  the  Homan  sol- 
dier pierced  the  side  of  .lesus.  Under  Ch.-irle.s  IV. 
it  was  brought  to  Prague,  and  in  U!51  Innocent 
VI.  establislied  a  festival  Olc  laiicea)  in  its  honor. 
Another  holy  lauce  was  discovered  by  the  Em- 


LANCELOTT. 


1273 


LANE. 


press  Helena,  and  preserved  in  the  portico  of  the 
Church  of  tlie  Holy  Sepulchre.  It  was  afterwards 
brought  to  Antioch,  where  it  was  discovered,  in 
1093,  by  the  French  monk  Peter  Bartholomew, 
who  exhibited  it  to  the  crusaders,  and  thereby 
fli'ed  their  courage  in  their  great  battles  with  the 
Saracens.  Afterwards  it  travelled  from  Antioch 
to  Constantinople,  from  Constantinople  to  Venice, 
from  Venice  to  France,  and  thence  back  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  iron  with  which  it  was  inlaid 
was  brought  to  Rome  under  Innocent  VIII.,  and 
is  preserved  in  the  basilica  of  the  Vatican. 
Neither  of  these  lances,  how'ever,  has  been  for- 
mally recognized  as  genuine  by  the  Church  of 
Rome.  KLUPFEL. 

[In  the  Greek  Church  the  "  holy  lance  "  is  the 
name  given  to  the  knife  with  which  the  officiate 
ing  priest  pierces  the  bread  of  the  Eucharist,  in 
symbol  of  the  piercing  of  the  side  of  Jesus  by  the 
Roman  soldier  when  upon  his  cross.  See  Lord's 
Supper,  Forms  of  Celebration.] 

LANCELOTT,  Joannes  Paulus,  was  professor 
of  canon  law  at  Perugia,  where  he  died  (1590), 
and  is  noted  as  author  of  the  In.ftiluliones  jiirix 
canonici,  which  are  often  printed  as  an  appendix 
to  the  Corpus  Ju7-is  canonici.  In  1557  Paul  lY. 
charged  him  with  writing  a  text-book  of  canon 
law  after  the  model  of  Justinian's  Insli/utiones, 
and  two  years  afterwards  he  handed  in  the  finished 
work  to  the  papal  censor.  The  committee  ap- 
pointed to  examine  it  recommended  it  very  highly; 
but,  on  account  of  certain  passages  which  the 
author  was  unwilling  to  change,  it  did  not  obtain 
the  approbation  of  the  Pope.  It  was  published 
at  Perugia  (1503),  with  a  dedication  to  Pius  IV.  ; 
and,  as  it  found  a  very  extended  use  as  a  text- 
book, Paul  V.  allowed  it  to  be  printed  as  an 
appendix  to  the  Corpus  Juris  canonici,  though 
without  formally  authorizing  its  use.  Later 
editors  have  carefully  noted  the  differences  which 
canonical  legislation  after  the  Council  of  Trent 
has  introduced.  A  French  translation  by  Durand 
de  Maillane  (Lyons,  1710)  notes  the  difference  of 
Italian  and  Galilean  practice.  See  Von  Schulte  : 
Geschichte  d.  Quel.  u.  Lit.  d.  rdm.  Rechtes,  vol.  3, 
pp.  451  sqq.  H.  F.  JACOBSON. 

LANOERER,  Maximilian  Albert  von,  one  of 
the  most  learned  and  able,  though  not  one  of  the 
best  known,  representatives  of  the  school  of  the- 
ology occupying  an  intermediate  position  between 
the  old  supranaturalism  and  modern  rationalism 
(Vermitdungstheologie)  ;  b.  Jan.  14,  1810,  in  Maul- 
bronn,  Wiirtemberg;  d.  April  13,  1878,  in  Tubin- 
gen. He  was  a  man  who  shunned  the  public 
gaze ;  and  his  literary  activity  was  carried  on  in 
quiet,  unostentatious  retirement.  After  studying 
at  Tiibingen,  where  Dorner  was  his  fellow-stu- 
dent, he  became  his  father's  assistant  in  the 
pastorate  of  Walddorf,  then  tutor  at  IMaulbronn, 
and  repetent  at  Tiibingen.  In  1839  he  became 
pastor  in  Goppingen ;  but  a  growing  deafness  and 
a  poor  address  made  him  ill  fitted  for  the  pastoral 
office,  and  in  1841  he  returned  to  Tubingen  as 
professor.  Here  he  continued  during  the  remain- 
der of  his  life,  refusing  in  1862  a  call  to  Gottin- 
gen.  In  1875  he  sustained  a  serious  injury  from 
falling  down  stairs,  never  was  able  to  lectiu-e 
again,  and  in  1877  resigned  his  professorship. 
At  Tiibingen  he  occupied  an  intermediate  posi- 
tion between  Baur  and  J.   T.  Beck.     Rejecting 


the  Hegelian  principle  of  absolute  knowledge, 
he  emphasized  the  religious  experience  in  the 
department  of  systematic  theology.  He  did  not, 
however,  forcibly  separate  it  from  tlie  revelation 
of  the  Scriptures.  The  central  doctrine  in  sy.s- 
tematic  theology  he  regarded  as  the  perfect  union 
of  God  and  man  in  Jesus  of  Kazareth ;  and  lie 
laid  special  emphasis  on  the  humanity  of  Christ, 
insisting,  however,  upon  his  supernatural  birth 
and  absolute  sinlessness. 

He  was  a  faithful  lecturer,  but  had  a  decided 
Suabian  accent,  which  sometimes  made  it  hard 
for  students  from  other  parts  of  Germany  to 
understand  him.  He  was  not  as  imposing  iii 
presence  as  Baur  or  Beck,  and  yet,  as  we  have 
said,  he  was  one  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
theologians  of  his  school;  and  the  student  learned 
to  respect  him  more  highly,  the  more  intimately 
he  came  in  contact  with  hiui.  Yet  we  look  almost 
in  vain  for  any  fruits  of  his  literary  activitj'  in 
published  works.  In  fact,  these  were  confined, 
during  his  lifetime,  to  thirteen  articles  in  the  first 
edition  of  Herzog,  and  an  article  on  the  relation 
of  grace  to  the  freedom  of  the  will  in  the  appli- 
cation of  salvation,  in  the  Jalirhucher  f.  d.  Tlieol. 
The  articles  in  Herzog,  especially  that  on  Me- 
lanchthon,  were  excellent.  The  small  number  of 
his  publications  was  the  result  of  a  conscientious 
disinclination  to  neglect  the  utmost  elaboration 
of  his  lectures,  and  a  want  of  self-confidence.  He 
shrank  from  appearing  before  the  public  with  his 
lectures  on  theology ;  and  he  was,  in  fact,  unusually 
sensitive  to  all  criticism.  But  he  combined  all 
the  best  qualities  of  the  Suabian  character,  was 
strictly  honest,  and  despised  sham. 

Since  his  death  there  have  been  edited  from  his 
manuscripts  Zur  Doymatik.  Zwei  akad.  Ileilen  (by 
BuDER  and  Weiss),  with  his  Gediichtnissrede  auf 
F.  C.  Baur,  Tiibingen,  1879  ;  a  volume  of  Sermons 
(by  Lang),  Heilbronn,  1880;  and  Neuesle  Docj- 
mengesch.  (by  Paul  Zeller),  Heilbronn,  1881, 
which  takes  up  the  period  from  Seniler  to  the 
present  time.  See  Worte  d.  Erinnerung  an  Dr.  M. 
A.  Landerer,  Tubingen,  1878.         H.  SCHMIDT. 

LANDO  (Pope,  from  November,  913,  to  May 
914)  succeeded  Anastasius  HI.,  and  was  succeed- 
ed by  John  X.  Nothing  is  known  of  his  personal 
life  or  his  reign. 

LANE  THEOLOGICAL  SEIVIINARY,  Cincin- 
nati, O.,  was  founded  in  1829.  Its  original  endow- 
ment consisted  of  four  thousand  dollars  donated 
by  Ebenezer  Lane  and  brother,  and  of  sixty  acres 
of  land  on  Walnut  Hills,  given  by  members  of  the 
Kemper  family.  It  was  at  first  proposed  to  estab- 
lish an  academic  and  collegiate  as  well  as  theo- 
logical institution  ;  and  a  preparatory  school  was 
first  opened  Nov.  18,  1829.  After  an  experiment 
of  five  years,  the  academic  and  collegiate  depart- 
ments were  finally  closed.  The  theological  de- 
partment went  into  operation  in  December,  1832, 
when  Drs.  Lyman  Beecher  and  T.  J.  Biggs  were 
formally  inducted  into  office.  Professor  Calvin 
E.  Stowe,  D.D.,  entered  upon  his  duties  in  the 
following  July,  and  Baxter  Dickinson,  D.D.,  in 
October,  1835. 

Among  those  who  have  served  the  seminary 
since  its  organization,  next  to  Dr.  Beecher,  the 
name  of  D.  Howe  Allen,  D.D.,  is  especially  con- 
spicuous. He  was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric 
from  1840  to  1851,  and  from  that  date  till  1867 


LANFRANC. 


1274 


LANFRANC. 


(when  he  resigned)  the  professor  in  systematic 
theology.  Like  Dr.  Beecher,  he  continued  to  be 
professor  emeritus  till  his  death,  which  occurred 
in  1870.  George  E.  Day,  D.D.,  was  professor  of 
biblical  literature  from  1851  to  1866.  Henry  A. 
^Nelson,  D.D.,  was  professor  of  theology  from 
1867  to  1874;  and  Thomas  E.  Thomas,  D.D., 
professor  of  New-Testament  literature  from  1871 
to  his  death,  in  1875.  Jonathan  B.  Condit,  D.D., 
and  Elisha  Ballantine,  D.D.,  served  the  seminary 
for  shorter  periods.  Henry  Smith,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
was  professor  of  sacred  rhetoric  from  1855  to 
1861.  In  1865  he  returned  to  the  same  depart- 
ment, and  remained  in  the  discharge  of  its  duties, 
with  the  addition  of  pastoral  theology,  till  his 
decease,  in  1879.  Zephaniah  M.  Humphrey,  D.D., 
■was  professor  of  chiu'ch  history  from  1875  till  his 
death  in  1881. 

The  faculty  at  present  (1882)  consists  of  five 
professors  :  occasional  lectures  and  instructions 
are  given  by  others.  The  average  number  of  stu- 
dents in  attendance  is  about  forty,  but  increasing 
annually.  The  institution  has  a  fair  endowment, 
some  scholarship  and  library  funds,  and  a  theo- 
logical library  of  thirteen  thousand  volumes.  Its 
buildings  are  new  and  commodious. 

The  whole  number  of  graduates  is  about  seven 
hundred,  of  whom  probably  five  hundred  and 
fifty  are  still  living.  The  large  majority  of  these 
brethren  have  been,  or  still  are,  engaged  in  the 
missionary  work  of  the  Presbj'terian  Church,  in 
the  region  between  the  Alleghanies  and  the  out- 
lying territories  of  the  West,  whilst  nearly  forty 
have  gone  into  the  foreign  field.  Many  of  them 
have  signalized  themselves  as  capable  and  effec- 
tive preachers,  and  as  earnest  and  practical  labor- 
ers in  every  department  of  ministerial  service. 
The  actual  work  done  by  them,  their  unques- 
tioned orthodoxy,  and  their  unsullied  Christian 
character,  have  been  the  best  possilile  witness  to 
the  faithfulness,  the  complctcne.ss,  and  the  prac- 
tical nature,  of  the  training  they  have  received  at 
the  scminarv.  E.  D.  MOllRIS. 

LANFRANC,  thirty-fourth  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, out!  of  the  most  prominent  instruments 
in  the  revival  of  church  and  theology  in  France 
and  England  in  the  eleventh  century;  the  defender 
of  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  against  Be- 
rengar  of  Tours;  and  the  assistant  of  William  the 
Conqueror  in  the  conquest  of  England  ;  was  the 
son  of  Ilambald,  a  senator  of  Pavia;  b.  at  Pavia, 
1005;  d.  at  Canterbury,  May'_>8,  1089.  Destined 
for  the  study  of  law,  he  secured  his  education  at 
Bologna,  and  became  a  teacher  of  jurisprudence 
in  Pavia.  His  position  not  satisfying  his  ambi- 
tion, he  went  to  Normandy  in  l();i9,  and  opened 
a  school  at  Avranches,  which  became  widely  cele- 
brated. In  consequence  of  a  sudden  change  of 
sentiment,  he  renounced  tlie  world  (1012),  and 
entered  the  Benedictine  convent  of  liec,  ulii're  he 
was  kindly  received  by  the  abbot,  Ilerluin.  Tliei-(' 
;ie  spent  three  years  in  ab.solute  retirement;  so 
that,  wlien  Ik;  appeared  again,  tlie  world  was 
surprised  that  the  great  master  was  still  living. 
In  1015  he  wa.s  nnide  jirior  of  tlie  conv<!nt,  and 
used  lii.s  position,  not  only  to  promote  discipline, 
but  also  the  study  of  theology  and  the  sciences. 
Among  his  scholars  were  Anselin  (afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Canterlmry)  and  Anselm  of  Lucca 
(afterwards  Pope  Alexander  IL).     His  most  fa- 


mous opponent  during  his  priorship  was  Berengar 
of  Tours,  whose  discussion  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation  began  to  awaken  interest  in 
1046.  Berengar  was  at  first  his  friend  ;  but  their 
friendship  was  broken  oft'  about  the  close  of  1049, 
when  Berengar  wrote  to  Lanfranc,  expressing  re- 
gret that  he  should  regard  as  heretical  the  views 
advocated  in  the  work  of  Ratramnus,  which  then 
was  ascribed  to  John  Scotus.  This  letter  was  the 
ground  of  the  charge  of  heresy  against  Berengar 
in  the  year  1050,  at  the  Easter  synod,  Rome. 

Of  not  a  little  importance  is  Lanfranc's  literary 
activity,  to  which  he  was  incited  by  this  discus- 
sion. Berengar,  although  in  1059,  at  the  Lateraa 
synod,  he  had  laid  down  his  arms,  attacked  the 
synod,  and  especially  Cardinal  Humbert,  the 
author  of  the  articles  of  faith  which  he  had  been 
forced  to  subscribe.  Lanfranc  answered  him  in 
his  Liber  de  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini.  When 
this  appeared,  he  was  abbot  of  St.  Stephen's  con- 
vent in  Caen,  his  reputation  having  risen  in  the 
interval.  He  had  also  attracted  the  attention  of 
William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  who  solicited  his 
advice,  before  the  conquest  of  England,  in  ecclesi- 
astical and  civil  matters,  as  well  as  after.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  very  soul  of  this  bold 
enterprise,  which  William  carried  out  in  alliance 
with  Rome,  and  under  the  plea  of  being  a  savior 
of  the  needy  Church  in  England.  It  was  because 
he  was  indispensable  to  the  organization  of  the 
English  Church,  and  had  an  understanding  with 
William  (Freeman,  vol.  iv.  p.  95),  that  he  re- 
fused the  archbishopric  of  Rouen  in  1007,  and 
three  years  later  accepted  the  archbishopric  of 
Canterbury.  With  this  view  his  reluctance  to 
assume  the  latter  office  is  quite  compatible ;  the 
rudeness  of  the  clergy,  and  especially  the  revolt 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons  against  the  dominion  of 
foreigners  in  the  Church,  offering  not  incon- 
siderable dilheulties.  He  contributed  much  to 
the  establishment  of  the  Norman  dominion  by  the 
concentration  ol  the  liierarchy  in  Cantei-bury;  the 
metropolitan  of  York  being  made,  by  the  synods 
of  Winchester  and  Wind.sor  (1072),  subject  to 
Canterbury.  AVith  dii)loniatic  skill  he  gradually 
displaced  the  native  prelates  aiul  abbots;  so  that 
at  last  WuU'staii  was  the  only  Anglo-Saxon  occu- 
pying a  bislK)pric.  Otherwi.se  he  was  an  enlight- 
ened prelate,  insisting  upon  the  reformation  of 
conventual  life,  and  the  pursuit  of  literature. 

In  his  relation  to  Rome,  Lanfranc  advocated 
the  reforms  of  llildebrand,  to  whom  he  offered, 
upon  the  whole,  loyal  obedience  ;  but  he  insisted 
upon  the  king's  independence,  even  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs.  'I'he  decree  of  celibacy  was  enforced 
by  him  (at  the  .synod  of  Winchester,  1070)  for 
the  higher  clergy  ;  the  parochial  clergy  being 
allowed  to  retain  llieir  wives,  but  all  clergymen 
being  l'orbidd<'n  to  marry  in  the  future.  In  some 
instances  he  espouseil  (lie  side  of  his  .sovereign 
against  the  Pope,  and  even  refused  to  ajipear  at 
Rome  wlien  (lOSl)  the  Pope  demanded  liis  pres- 
ence, with  the  threat  of  suspension  if  he  did  not 
comply.  He  outlived  the  Conqueror  (d.  1087), 
and  leluctantly  acquiesced  in  hij>  request  to  crown 
William  Kufus  king. 

Lanfranc  was  more  prominent  as  an  eeclesiasti- 
ea!  administrator  than  as  a  writer.  Hut  the  suc- 
ceeding generations  were  loud  in  their  praises  of 
his  literary  achievements;  and  we  cannot  doubt, 


LANG. 


1275 


LANGB. 


•that,  so  long'  as  he  remained  in  Norniantly,  he 
took  a  prominent  place  as  a  teacher  and  author. 
Milo  Crispinus  sajs  that  Athens  appeared  again 
iit  Bee  under  his  influence  :  and  William  of 
Malmesbury  describes  the  convent  there  as  a 
great  and  famous  literary  gynniasium,  and  calls 
jiim  the  most  learned  man  of  his  time  {l)e  Gest. 
ri//r/.  Am/L,  i.,  iii.).  It  is  not  necessary  to  give 
iither  testimonies  of  a  like  intent.  To  him  we 
must,  at  any  rate,  accord  a  foremo.st  place  among 
those  who  contributed  to  the  revival  of  learning 
iu  the  eleventh  century.  He  was  a  skilled  dia- 
lectician, and  proposed  an  emendation  of  the  Vul- 
gate, which  probably  was  meant  to  extend  only  to 
the  correction  of  the  copies.  But  there  are  no 
evidences  of  speculative  ability  in  his  writings. 

The  most  important  of  Lanfranc's  works  is  the 
Liher  i/e  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini  ("The  Body 
and  Blood  of  Christ "),  which  is  composed  of 
twenty-three  chapters,  written  in  an  epistolary 
form.  It  teaches  the  doctrine  of  traiisubstantia- 
tion,  and  was  meant  to  be  a  defence  of  it  against 
Berengar.  He  goes  even  beyond  Paschasius  Rad- 
bertus,  when  he  says  that  those  who  unworthily 
partake  {indiyne  sumentes)  of  the  bread  and  wine 
receive  the  essence  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  without,  however,  being  salutarily  affected 
thereby.  He  proves  the  doctrine  by  the  omnipo- 
tence of  God  (c.  18),  miraculous  phenomena  (c. 
17),  the  proposition  that  the  sacraments  of  the 
New  Testament  must  be  distinguished  from  those 
of  the  Old  Testament  by  a  superior  dignity  and 
the  common  consent  of  Christians  (c.  22).  He 
also  answers  the  specific  objections  of  Berengar, 
such  as  the  impossibility  of  Christ's  body  being 
at  the  same  time  in  heaven  and  on  earth.  Lan- 
franc  also  wrote  Libellus  de  celanda  confessione, 
L  V.  Letters,  Statula  pro  online  s.  Benedicti.  Others 
ascribe  to  him,  but  unjustly,  a  Commentary  on 
the  Pauline  EpLstles  (see  Giles,  ii.  17-147)  and 
Elucidarium  give  dialogus  de  siimma  totius  christ. 
tlieol.  (considered  genuine  by  Prantl  and  Ueber- 
weg).  His  Exposition  of  the  Psalms,  Church 
History,  and  Panegyric  of  AVilliam  the  Con- 
queror, are  lost. 

Lit.  —  Tlie  De  corpore  et  sanguine  Domini  ap- 
peared at  Basel,  1528,  Rouen,  1540,  and  often 
since.  Complete  editions  of  his  works  by 
D'AcHERY  (Paris,  1648),  Giles  (Oxford  and 
Paris,  1844,  2  vols.),  and  Migne,  Tom.  cl.  — 
Sources.  MiLO  Ckispinus  :  Vita  S.  Lanfranci 
(in  Giles,  i.  281  sqq.),  C/tronicon  Beccense  (in  the 
same);  Eadmer  :  Vita  S.  Anselmi;  WiLii.  de 
JuMiEGE:  Hist. Normannorum,  Will.  ofMalmes- 
BURY :  De  geslis  regum,  and  De  gestis  pontijicum 
Angt. ,  Mabillon:  Annales  ordinis  S.  Benedicti, 
Paris,  1707 ;  Lessing  :  Berengarius  Turonensis, 
1707;  Hasse  :  Anselm  von  Canterburi/  (i.  21-41); 
Charma:  Lanfranc,  Paris,  1849;  J.  de  Crozals  : 
Lanfranc,  Paris,  1877;  Hook  :  Lives  of  the  Arch- 
bishops of  Canterbury  (vol.  ii.)  ;  and  especially 
Freeman  :  History  of  the  Norman  Conquest  of 
England  (iv.  345--450),  and  [Reign  of  William 
Rufus,  1882].  F.  NITZSCH. 

LANG,  Heinrich,  b.  at  Frommen  in  Wiirteni- 
berg,  Nov.  14,  182G ;  d.  in  Ziirich,  Jan.  3,  1876. 
He  studied  theology  in  Tubingen,  under  F.  C. 
Baur,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Wartau  in  the 
canton  of  St.  Gall,  in  1848,  of  Meilon  on  the  Lake 
of  Ziirich,  in  1863,  and  of  St.  Peter  in  Ziirich, 


in  1871.  He  edited  the  Zeitstimmen  (1859-72), 
and  published  Versuch  einer  christlichen  Dogmatik, 
a  popular  representation  of  the  dogmatics  of  the 
.school  of  Tiibingen,  1857;  Stunden  der  Andacht, 
1862-65,  2  vols.  ;  Ein  Gang  (lurch  die  christliche 
Well,  Religiose  Charactere,  Das  Leben  des  Apostels 
Paulus,  etc.  See  E.  Stroehlin  :  A.  CoquereletH. 
Lam/,  Geneva,  1876 ;  Biedermann  :  Henri  Lang, 
Zurich,  1876 ;  Mayer  ;  //.  Lang,  Basel,  1877. 

LANG,  John  Dunmore,  D.D.  This  extraordi- 
nary man,  whose  influence  on  the  political  and 
moral,  as  well  as  on  the  ecclesiastical,  history  of 
Australia,  has  been  very  great,  was  born  at  Green- 
ock, Scotland,  in  1799,  and  died  at  Sydney,  New 
South  Wales,  in  1878.  Educated  at  the  parish 
school  of  Largs  and  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
he  was  ordained  by  the  presbytery  of  Irvine,  and 
proceeded  in  1823,  as  the  first  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  to  Australia.  At  a  time 
when  every  increase  to  the  population  was  of  the 
utraoist  consequence,  he  was  the  means  of  bringing 
out  many  thousands  of  excellent  emigrants  from 
Great  Britain  to  the  new  colonies,  as  also  minis- 
ters and  teachers  for  the  work  of  the  Church. 
He  represented  Port  Philip,  Moreton  Bay,  and 
Sydney  successively  in  the  Legislative  Assembly, 
and  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  securing  the 
separation  and  independence  of  Victoria  and 
Queensland  from  New  South  Wales.  He  also 
carried  other  useful  measures  in  Parliament,  in- 
cluding the  repeal  of  the  act  impo.sing  a  poll-tax 
on  Chinamen.  Besides  a  lengthened  connection 
with  the  newspaper  press,  in  which  he  strove  to 
advance  the  moral  and  political  welfare  of  his 
countrymen,  he  published  several  works,  the  chief 
of  which  is  the  Llistory  of  New  South  Wales.  He 
took  an  active  interest  in  the  union  of  the  Pres- 
byterian churches,  and  in  establishing  the  Presby- 
terian college.  The  large  place  he  filled  in 
Church  and  State  was  evinced  by  the  presence  of 
seventy  thousand  people  at  his  funeral,  including 
the  most  distinguished  men  in  the  connnunity  of 
different  denominations.  K.  S.  DUFF. 

LANCE,  Joachim,  b.  at  Gardelegen  in  Altmark, 
Oct.  26,  1670  ;  d.  at  Halle,  May  7,^1744.  He  was 
educated  at  Qnedlinburg  and  Magdeburg,  and 
studied  theology  at  Leipzig,  where  he  became 
intimately  acquainted  with  A.  II.  Francke,  whom 
he  followed  to  Erfurt  (1090)  and  Halle  (1691). 
In  1693  he  settled  in  Berlin,  first  as  private  tutor, 
afterwards  as  rector  of  the  Friederichswerdersche 
college.  In  BerUn  he  conversed  much  with 
Spener;  and  when,  in  1709, -he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle,  he  became  the 
literary  representative  of  the  Pietists.  He  was 
an  exceedingly  prolific  writer.  In  his  controversy 
with  the  orthodox,  represented  by  Loscher,  he 
wrote  Idea  theologize  pseudorthodoxce  (1706),  Auf- 
richtige  Nachricht  (1707-14,  5  vols.),  Antiharbaras 
orthodoxi(e{l70Q-U),RichtigeMiltelstra!<seil712-U, 
4  vols.,  etc.).  In  his  controversy  with  C.  Wolff, 
tlie  philosopher,  he  wrote  Causa  Dci  (1723),  Mo- 
desta  disquisitio,  Nora  anatome  (1726),  etc.  Though 
he  succeeded  iu  having  Wolff  expelled  from 
Halle,  he  could  not  prevent  him  from  returning 
triumphantly,  while  he  himself  was  ordered  to 
stop  writing  against  him.  He  also  published  a 
number  of  historical,  dogmatical,  and  exegetical 
works,  and  an  autobiography  (incomplete),  Leip- 
zig, 1744.  WAGKXMANX. 


LANIGAN. 


1276 


LANGUET. 


LANIGAN,  John,  Irish  Roman-Catliolic  priest; 
b.  in  Cashel,  175S  ;  d.  at  Finglas,  near  Dublin, 
July  7,  1828.  He  was  educated  at  the  Irish  col- 
lege at  Rome,  where  he  took  a  doctor's  degree. 
Subsequently  he  was  professor  of  '■  Hebrew, 
divinity,  and  the  Scriptures "  in  Pavia,  but  in 
1796  appointed  to  a  position  in  the  record  tower, 
Dublin,  to  the  original  duties  of  which,  in  1799, 
were  added  those  of  librarian,  editor,  and  trans- 
lator for  the  Dublin  Society.  In  1821  he  had  to 
be  removed  to  a  private  insaue-asylum  at  Finglas. 
He  was  the  author  of  the  valuable  works,  Itjxll- 
tulionum  bihlicarum  (Pavia,  1791),  ProtestanCs 
Apology  for  the  Romai^-Cathollc  C/iurck  (Dulilin, 
1809),  Ecclesiaxtical  History  of  Ireland  to  the  Thir- 
teenth Century  (Dublin,  1822,  4  vols. ;  2d  ed.,  1829). 
He  also  published  an  Irish  translation  of  the 
Roman  Breviary. 

LANG  RES,  Synod  of  (Concilium  Lingonense). 
Early  in  June,  859,  a  council  was  held  at  Langres, 
a  city  of  Burgundy.  Sixteen  canones  (referring 
to  dogmatics,  church  polity,  and  discipline)  were 
agreed  upon.  Annual  provincial  and  biennial 
general  synods  were  established.  The  right  of 
the  people,  still  existing  in  some  places,  to  elect 
their  bishop,  was  severely  attacked ;  and  so  was  the 
exemption  of  certain  monasteries  from  the  epis- 
copal authority.  In  dogmatical  respect  the  synod 
of  Langres  was  merely  a  preparation  for  the 
synod  of  Toul,  for  the  campaign  against  the  semi- 
Pelagian  views  represented  by  Hincmar,  as  was 
soon  shown.  See  M.\xsi,  xv.  537;  Hakduin,  v. 
481. 

LANGTON,  Stephen,  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, and  a  di.stinguished  statesman;  d.  at  Slin- 
<lon",  July  9,  1228.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
known ;  and  there  is  much  uncertainty  about  the 
locality,  Lincolnshire  having  most  claim  to  the 
honor.  There  is  no  doubt,  that,  unlike  many  of 
his  predecessors,  he  was  born  in  England.  He  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Paris,  and  seems  to 
have  held  a  position  of  influence  in  connection 
with  it.  He  there  contracted  a  friendship  with 
Lotliario,  afterwaids  Innocent  III.  In  12()<)  he 
went  to  Rome,  and  was  made  cardinal-priest  of 
St.  Chrysogonus.  At  the  deatii  of  Hubert,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  Reginald  appeared  before 
the  Pope  with  some  monks,  claiming  to  have  been 
elected  by  the  chapter  to  the  vacant  see,  and  de- 
manding recognition.  Soon  after,  an  envoy  of 
priests  from  King  .John  arrived,  desiring  the  Pope 
to  confer  the  pallium  on  the  bisliop  of  Norwich. 
Innocent,  ignoring  both  these  nominees,  on  the 
ground  of  alleged  irregularities  in  tlieir  election, 
ordered  the  priests  from  England  to  proceed  to  an 
election  in  his  presence,  and,  at  liis  suggestion, 
chose  Langton.  He  was  consecrated  by  tlie  Pope's 
own  iiand,  at  Viterbo,  June  17,  1207,  and  in  sjiite 
of  the  king's  protests.  A  better  choice  could  not 
have  been  made  ;  for  Stephen  was  not  only  a  man 
of  learning  and  piety,  but  advanced,  at  a  later 
period,  to  the  front  rank  of  English  patriots.  For 
six  years  he  was  obliged  to  wait  at  Pontigiiy,  in 
France,  before  coming  into  I  he  possession  of  his 
see.  In  the  mean  time  his  election  became  the 
occasion  of  one  of  the  most  spirited  contests  in 
the  history  of  the  relations  of  th(!  ]iapal  see  with 
princes.  John  prosecuting  the  priests  who  had 
elected  Stephen,  and  refusing  to  receive  the  arch- 
Vjiehop,   England   was   put    under  an    interdict. 


The  bells  ceased  to  ring,  and  the  churches  were 
closed.  John,  after  a  period  of  resistance,  at  last 
gave  in  a  most  ignoble  submission  to  Innocent, 
and  Stephen  Langton  was  admitted  to  the  realm. 
He  met  and  absolved  the  king  at  Winchester,  the 
latter  falling  prosti-ate  before  him. 

From  the  first,  Stephen  was  a  champion  of  the 
old  English  customs  and  law,  as  against  the  per- 
sonal despotism  of  the  sovereign.  "  As  Anselni," 
says  Green,  in  his  History  of  the  English  People, 
"had  withstood  William  Rufus,  as  Theobald  had 
rescued  England  from  the  lawlessness  of  Stephen, 
so  Langton  prepared  to  withstand,  and  rescue  his 
country  from,  the  tyranny  of  John."  He  lielped 
to  unite  the  barons  in  a  confederation,  produced 
the  old  charter  of  Henry  I.  at  the  meeting  held  in 
St.  Paul's,  London  (Aug.  25, 1214),  and  shared  in 
the  preparation  of  the  Magna  Charta.  Pandulph, 
the  papal  legate,  secured  a  sentence  repealing 
from  the  Pope  this  document ;  and,  when  Langton 
refused  to  allow  it  to  be  read  in  the  churches,  he 
was  suspended  from  his  archiepiscopal  oflice  by 
the  papal  commissioners.  He  went  to  Rome,  but 
the  Pope  confirmed  the  sentence.  He  did  not 
return  to  England  till  1218,  remahiing  a  state  pris- 
oner in  Rome  for  at  least  a  part  of  the  interval. 
He  crowned  Henry  III.  in  12"20,  and  maintained 
a  firm  attitude  during  his  reign.  A  stone  coffin  is 
still  exhibited  in  Canterbury  Cathedral,  which  is 
said  to  contain  his  remains. 

There  are  few  materials  for  the  history  of  Ste- 
phen Langton's  life,  but  the  little  that  we  do 
know  shows  him  to  have  been  a  man  of  states- 
manlike energy  and  abilities.  He  left  a  number 
of  writings;  e.g.,  a  Connnentary  on  most  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  Hexamcron  on  the 
six  days  of  the  creation,  and  is  said  to  have  writ^ 
ten  a  Life  of  Richard  I.,  etc.  Stephen's  lirother, 
Simon  Langton,  was  also  a  man  of  much  intlu- 
ence  in  his  day,  and  was  chosen  archbishop  of 
York,  but  not  [lermitted  by  John  to  occupy  the 
see.  Tlie  principal  authority  for  the  events  of 
Stephen's  life  is  the  Chronicle  of  Roger  of  Wen- 
dover.  See  Hook,  Liven  of  the  Archbishops  of  Can- 
terbury, ii.  G.'J7-761,  the  various  histories  of  Eng- 
land and  the  Church  of  England,  and  art.  Inno- 
cent III. 

LANGUET,  Hubert,  b.  at  Viteaux,  near  Autun, 
in  151s ;  il.  in  .\iil\verp,  Scjit.  lid.  1581.  He  stud- 
ied theology,  canon  law,  history,  and  natural  sci- 
ence, in  Poitiers,  Padua,  and  Bologna;  visited  also 
Spain,  and  was,  by  the  leading  ot  Melanchthon'.s 
Loci  Tlieologici,  induced  to  go  to  Wittenlierg, 
where  he  lived  in  Melanchthon's  house  from  151!) 
to  15(iO,  making  frequent  journeys  in  Cermany 
and  Scandinavia.  At  what  period  he  definitely 
embraced  the  Peformation  is  not  known.  In 
15(i0  he  entered  the  service  of  the  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, and  acted  as  his  di)iloniatic;U  agent  till  1577, 
ill  Paris,  Vienna,  and  other  jilaces.  The  last  years 
of  his  life  he  spent  in  the  Netherlands,  in  inti- 
mate connection  with  William  of  Orange.  His 
letters,  which  are  of  the  greatest  interest  for  the 
liistory  of  liis  time,  have  been  )iublished  in  several 
collections;  Imt  the  work  which  gives  him  a  ]ilace 
in  ecclesiastical  history  is  his  ['indicia'  contra  ty- 
raiinos,  published  pseudonynionsly  in  1579,  and 
treating  in  an  elaborate  manner  the  question 
whether  subjects  (for  inst.uice,  Protestants)  have 
a  right  to  revolt,  when  suppressed  for  their  reli 


LAODICBA. 


1277 


LAO-TSZE. 


gion's  sake  by  their  princes.  The  book  made  a 
great  sensation,  and  was  translated  into  all  Euro- 
pean languages.  See  his  biographies  by  Piiili- 
BERT  »E  L.4  Mare  (Halle,  17(10)  and  II.  Ciie- 
VREiHL  (Paris,  IS^Ci),  and  Tkeitzsciike,  prefixed 
to  tlie  latter's  edition  of  the  Vindicia,  Leipzig, 
1841).  THEODOR  SCHOTT. 

LAODICE'A  was  the  name  of  .several  cities  in 
Syria  and  Asia  Minor,  of  which  one  —  generally 
called  "  Laodicea-ad-Lycum,"  and  situated  near 
the  boundary-line  between  Phrygia  and  Lydia,  on 
the  Lycus  —  is  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
During  the  latter  part  of  the  republic  of  Home 
and  the  first  period  of  the  empire,  the  city  was 
the  capital  of  Greater  Phrygia,  and  a  flourishing 
commercial  place;  and  an  important  Christian 
congregation  was  early  formed  there.  Having 
suffered  nmch  at  various  times  from  earthquakes 
(e.g.,  A.D.  64),  it  was  finally  destroyed  by  the 
Turks,  and  is  now  only  a  heap  of  ruins.  A  coun- 
cil was  held  there  between  343  and  381 ;  and  the 
sixty  canones  agreed  upon  there  are  still  extant. 
They  are  exclusively  of  disciplinary  interest.  In 
the  enumeration  of  the  books  contained  in  the 
Bible,  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament  and 
the  Book  of  Revelation  of  the  New  Testament 
are  left  out.  See  Harduin,  i. ;  Mansi,  ii. ;  He- 
FELE,  i.  pp.  721-751;  and  Lightfoot,  On  Colos- 
sians,  pp.  1-72. 

LAODICEA,  the  Epistle  from.  The  allusion  of 
Paul  to  an  epistle  from  Laodicea  (Col.  iv.  IG)  has 
given  rise  to  much  speculation.  Bishop  Light- 
foot,  in  his  Commentary  on  the  Colosskms  (pp. 
340-366),  presents  an  exhaustive  excursus  upon 
the  subject.  He  thus  tabulates  the  various  theo- 
ries. The  epistle  in  question  was  (1)  An  epistle 
written  by  the  Laodiceans  to  (a)  Paul,  (/3)  Epa- 
phras,  (7)  ColossK  ;  (2)  An  epistle  written  liy  Paul 
from  Laodicea,  identical  with  (a)  1  Timothy,  (i3) 
1  Thessalonians,  (;)  2  Thessalonians,  (d)  Gala- 
tians ;  (3)  An  epistle  addressed  to  the  Laodiceans 
by  (o)  John,  —  1  John,  (i)  some  companion  of 
Paul,  —  Epaphras  or  Luke,  (c)  Paul  himself,  —  (i) 
a  lost  epistle ;  (ii)  one  of  the  canonical  epistles, 
(a)  Hebrews,  ())  Philemon,  (y)  Ephesians ;  (iii) 
the  apocryphal  epistle.  Lightfoot  discusses  brief- 
ly but  sufficiently  these  theories,  and  decides  for 
the  identification  of  the  epistle  with  the  canoni- 
cal Ephesians.  This  is  doubtless  the  true  solution 
of  the  problem.  The  other  views  are  either  con- 
tradicted by  the  Greek,  or  actuated  by  a  desire  to 
withdraw  from  the  apocryphal  epistle,  or  else  mere 
speculation.  But,  for  the  identification  with  the 
Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  there  are  the  tenable  ar- 
guments that  the  words  ev  'Eipiau  ("  in  Ephesus  ") 
(Eph.  i.  1)  are  wanting  in  some  of  the  best  manu- 
scripts, and  are  bracketed  by  Westcott  and  Hort ; 
but,  if  they  were  omitted  by  the  apostle,  then  he 
meant  to  make  the  epistle  an  encyclical ;  in  which 
case  it  might  be  sent  to  Laodicea,  and  by  the  La- 
odiceans forwarded  to  Colosse.  Again  :  this  ex- 
plains the  absence  of  personal  allusions  in  Ephe- 
sians, and  obviates  the  supposition  that  an  epistle, 
to  which  particular  attention  was  called,  has  been 
lost. 

As  for  the  apocryphal  Epistle  to  the  Laodice- 
ans, it  is  "  a  cento  of  Pauline  phrases  strung  to- 
gether without  any  definite  connection  or  any 
clear  object  .  .  .  taken  chiefly  from  the  lipistle 
to  the  Philippians,     It  is  quite  harmless,  so  far 


as  falsity  and  stupidity  combined  can  ever  be  re- 
garded as  harmless."  It  was  probably  originally 
written,  or  rather  compiled,  in  Greek,  and  trans- 
lated into  Latin  at  a  very  early  period.  It  was 
widely  known  prior  to  the  close  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, condemned  emphatically  by  Jerome,  Theo- 
dore of  Mopsuestia,  and  Theodoret,  yet  read  in  tlie 
eighth  century;  for  the  second  Council  of  Nic^-pa 
(787)  warned  against  it.  It  was  in  the  Latin  trans- 
lation that  it  attained  circulation ;  and,  in  the  Latin 
Church,  Gregory  alluded  to  it  as  genuine, — not 
by  name,  however,  —  and  subsequent  writers  fol- 
lowed him.  It  is  found  in  Pauline  manuscripts 
from  the  sixth  to  the  fifteenth  centuries,  in  one  of 
the  two  most  ancient  copies  of  the  Vulgate,  and 
frequently  in  the  versions,  even  in  English,  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  though  Wiclif  and  Purvey  ex- 
cluded it.  At  length  the  revival  of  learning  "dealt 
its  death-blow  to  this,  as  to  so  many  other  spuri- 
ous jiretensions.  See  Anger  :  Ueher  den  Landi- 
cener/irief,  Leipzig,  1843;  and  Lightfoot:  Si. 
PauVs  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  and  to  Philemon, 
London,  187.5. 

LAOS,  an  Asiatic  people  inhabiting  the  eastern 
portion  of  .Siam.  They  have  all  the  characteris- 
tics of  the  Siamese,  by  whom  their  country,  w  hicli 
up  to  that  time  had  been  independent,  was  subju- 
gated in  1828.  They  number  about  one  million 
five  hundred  thousand.  Tlie  Board  of  Foreign 
Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  (United 
States)  established  a  mission  among  the  Laos  in 
1867.  The  chief  .station  is  Cliieng-Mai,  five  hun- 
dred miles  north  of  Bangkok.  There  were  in  1882 
two  clerical,  one  medical,  and  one  female  mission- 
ary connected  with  the  mission,  with  a  hundred 
and  twenty-seven  native  communicants,  fifty  of 
of  whom  were  added  in  1881. 

LAO-TSZE,  the  reputed  founder  of  the  Chinese 
religion  called  "Taoism."  He  was  born  about  604 
B.C.,  near  the  present  Kwei-te,  in  Ilo-nan  prov- 
ince, China;  d.  at  an  unknown  place  and  time, 
probably  at  a  great  age.  In  517  B.C.  he  met 
Kung-fu-tsze  (Confucius),  and  the  brief  account 
of  their  interview  is  the  only  fact  of  interest  con- 
cerning him.  He  was  keeper  of  the  archives  at 
the  court  of  C'hau,  and  it  was  to  learn  something 
about  the  ancient  rites  and  ceremonies  of  Cliau 
that  Confucius  came  to  him.  Foreseeing  the 
downfall  of  Chau,  Lao  retired  to  a  far  country', 
stopping,  however,  long  enough  with  Yin  Use  to 
write  for  him  the  remarkable  volume,  in  five 
thousand  characters,  on  the  subject  of  Tan  (the 
Waj')  and  I'eh  (Virtue),  called  Tdo  Teh  King. 
Lao  was  a  philo.sopher,  as  his  name  ("the  Old 
Philosopher  ")  implies.  His  great  work,  7ao  Teh 
King,  is  translated  in  Legge's  Chinese  Classics, 
and  in  Chalmer's  The  Speculations  of  the  "  Old 
Philosopher  "  Lau-tsze.  It  is,  however,  not  through- 
out intelligible  even  to  native  Chinese  .scholars, 
much  less  to  other  readers.  It  may  be  briefly 
described  as  an  ethical  treatise,  in  which  the 
duties  of  the  individual  and  the  State  are  set 
forth.  Lao  lays  great  stress  upon  humility  and 
upon  gentleness,  and,  in  one  .sentence  at  least, 
approaches  Christian  ethics.  "  It  is  the  way  of 
Tao  not  to  act  from  any  personal  motive,  to  con- 
duct affairs  without  feeling  the  trouble  of  them, 
to  taste  without  being  aware  of  the  flavor,  to 
account  the  great  as  small,  and  the  small  as  great, 
to  recompense  injury  with  kindness."     Lao  wa.s 


LAPLACE. 


1278 


LAPSED. 


a  theist,  although  he  is  not  explicit  on  this  point. 
"  There  is  hardly  a  word  in  his  treatise  which 
savors  either  of  superstition  or  religion."  It  is 
now  agreed  that  the  word  "Jehovah"  does  not 
occur  in  it,  as  was  fancied  ;  and  so  the  supposition 
that  Lao  was  inspired,  or  else  had  contact  with 
the  true  religion  in  some  shajie,  is  baseless. 

Taoism  is  to-day  one  of  the  Chinese  religions, 
ranking  with  Confucianism  and  Buddhism;  but 
it  is  only  in  small  measure  based  upon  Lao's  teach- 
ings, and  is  so  vastly  inferior  in  its  conceptions, 
that  Dr.  Legge  says  "  he  ought  not  to  bear  the 
obloquy  "  of  being  its  founder.  Taoism  did  not 
come  up  until  five  hundred  years  after  Lao's  death. 
At  first  it  was  little  more  than  a  belief  in  magic. 
In  the  first  century  before  Christ,  the  head  of  the 
sect  was  a  wonderful  magician ;  and  the  present 
acknowledged  "pope"  of  Taoism  is  one  of  this 
magician's  descendants.  In  the  first  Christian 
century,  Taoism  took  on  more  of  the  outward 
semblance  of  a  religion,  borrowing  from  Buddh- 
ism its  temples,  monasteries,  liturgies,  and  forms 
of  worship.  In  its  present  form  it  is  a  system  of 
the  '■  wildest  polytheism,"  and  of  base  and  dan- 
gerous .superstitions,  —  alchemy,  geomancy,  and 
spiritualism.  The  morals  of  its  priests  and  nuns 
are  notoriously  low.  Professor  Douglas  says, 
"  Every  trace  of  philosophy  and  truth  has  disap- 
peared from  it ;  and  in  place  of  the  keen  search- 
ings  after  the  infinite,  to  which  Lao-t.sze  devoted 
himself,  the  highest  ambition  of  his  priestly  fol- 
lowers is  to  learn  how  best  to  impose  ou  their 
countrymen  by  tlie  vainest  of  supei-stitions,  and 
to  practise  on  their  credulity  by  tricks  of  legerde- 
main."    See  Taoism. 

Lit.  —  Stanislas  Julien  :  Le  Livre  de  la  Voie 
et  de  la  Vertu,  Paris,  1842 ;  James  Legge  :  The 
Chinese  Classics;  Watteks:  Ldo-tsze,  a  Stitdy  in 
Chinese  Philosoplii/ ;  Cii.\i.mers:  T/ie  Speculations 
on  Metaphysics,  Pulili/.  and  Moralitij  of  the  "  Old 
Philosopher"  {LAo-Tsze'),  London,  18(58;  J.  Ed- 
kins:  Jieliffion  in  China,  London,  2d  ed.,  1877; 
R.  K.  Douglas:  Confucianism  and  Taoui'<m,  Lon- 
don, 1879;  J.  Legge.  The  Religions  of  China, 
London,  IssO. 

LAPLACE,  Josue  de.     See  Placeus. 

LAPLAND.     See  Sweden,  Thomas  of  "Wes- 

TEX. 

LAPSE,  the  slip  or  omission  of  a  patron  to 
present  a  clergyman  to  a  benefice  within  six 
months  after  it  becomes  void. 

LAPSED,  The  (lapsi),  were  those  baptized  and 
catholic  C'liristians  (under  certain  circumstances, 
also  catechumens)  who,  in  periods  of  persecution, 
either  disavowed  their  faitli  publicly  and  expli- 
citly, or,  by  means  not  recognized  by  Christian 
morals,  eluded  their  duty  of  juofe.ssion.  There 
were,  however,  in  tlie  ancient  Chinch,  difl'erent 
opinions,  both  with  respect  to  the  definition  of 
the  fact  itself,  and  with  respect  to  its  disciplinary 
treatment.  The  (piestion  ran  through  a  long 
development,  and  did  not  arrive  at  a  final  answer 
until  long  after  tlic  turn-  of  Diocletian.  Never- 
theless, in  the  third  century,  and  more  especially 
in  the  years  of  the  Deciaii  and  Valerian  per.seeu- 
tions,  the  controversy  reached  its  point  of  culmi- 
nation. 

Open  profession  is  demanded  in  the  Gospels, 
and  a  verdict  of  condemnation  pronounced  against 
such  as  disavow  their  faith  (Matt.  x.  33;  ALirk 


viii.  38;  Luke  ix.  26,  xii.  9).  The  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  and  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter  exhort 
to  constancy  under  the  sufferings  of  persecution. 
During  the  first  century,  however,  the  general 
state  of  affairs  was  quite  favorable  to  the  young 
congregations.  The  danger  of  relapses  into 
Paganism  or  Judaism  was  not  great ;  and,  when 
it  first  showed  itself,  the  congregations  appeared 
to  have  courage  to  brave  it.  In  the  time  of  Trajan, 
tlie  Roman  officials  knew  very  well  that  the  true 
Christian  could  not  be  forced  to  participate  in 
the  Pagan  sacrifices.  (See  the  Letter  of  Pliny 
to  Trajan.)  The  Christian  apologists  after  Justin 
state,  that,  in  general,  the  Christians  continued 
faithful;  and  Roman  and  Greek  writers  of  the  sec- 
ond century  —  such  as  Marcus  Aurelius,  Lucian, 
Celsus,  and  others  —  speak  often  of  the  fanatical 
contempt  of  death  evinced  by  the  Christians. 
Indeed,  a  passion  for  martyrdom  grew  up  in  the 
congregations,  looked  upon  with  dissatisfaction 
by  the  more  sober  and  self-controlled  members. 
That  martyrdom  could  become  a  duty  was  gener- 
ally accepted  throughout  the  Church  :  people  only 
differed  with  respect  to  the  point  at  which  the 
duty  entered.  Some  considered  it  legitimate  to 
flee  from  persecution  and  martyrdom,  wliile  the 
Montanists  declared  that  every  true  Christian 
should  seek  martyrdom.  Nevertheless,  it  must 
not  be  overlooked,  that,  during  the  second  and 
third  centuries,  the  danger  of  relapse  was  really 
great.  Many  fell  away,  and  their  number  in- 
creased with  every  new  persecution.  Pastor 
Hennas  contains  many  striking  illustrations  of 
the  effect  which  the  persecutions  of  Trajan  and 
Hadrian  had  on  the  congregation  of  Rome.  He 
enumerates  the  various  motives  of  apostasy,  and 
notices  that  relapses  occurred  also  in  perfectly 
quiet  times.  What  a  disorganizing  and  almost 
dissolving  influence  the  Decian  and  Valerian 
persecutions  exercised  is  apparent  from  the  letters 
of  Cyprian,  and  his  treatise,  Dr  lajisit.  Eu.sebius 
throws  a  veil  over  the  whole  affair;  but  that  which 
can  be  seen  through  the  veil  is  sufficient  to  show 
that  the  numlier  of  apostates  was  fearful,  and 
yet  the  amount  of  open  apostasy  was  probably 
small  in  comparison  with  that  of  defection  more 
or  less  concealed. 

After  2ii0,  different  classes  of  lapsi  were  distin- 
guished, ^  .s'atr//(ea/i,  who  had  sacrificed;  thurif- 
cati,  who  had  burned  incense  before  the  images  of 
the  gods ;  lihillalici,  who  by  bribery  had  procured 
a  passport,  or  ticket,  or  letters-patent,  exempting 
them  from  any  further  interference  from  the  side 
of  the  officials ;  and /rn(/(?»)v;.v,  who  iiad  delivered 
up  their  sacred  books.  At  the  same  time  a  change 
took  place  in  the  disciplinary  treatment  of  tlie 
lapsi.  In  the  second  century  it  was  generally 
accepted  throughout  the  Church  that  a  Christian 
who  had  relapsed  into  idolatry  could  under  no 
circumstances  be  re-admitted  to  the  congregation. 
Repentance  and  penitence  were  not  sufficient : 
only  open  ]>rofession  under  a  new  trial,  and  mar- 
tyrdom, could  blot  out  the  guilt.  Rut  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  milder  views  were 
adopted.  In  250  Cyjirian  and  the  Homan  clergy 
still  felt  uncertain  about  the  cpieslion  ;  but  gradu- 
ally the  milder  practice  prevailed  in  the  churches 
of  Carthage,  RoiiK^,  .Vlexand^ia,  and  Antioch,  anil 
lielween  201  and  325  a  complete  sy.stem  of  l^eni- 
teiitial  rules  was  elaborated  by  the  bishops.     Not 


LARDNER. 


1279 


LASCO. 


<july  was  a  distinction  made  between  sacrijicati 

iuid  lihellatici,  etc.,  but  regard  was  paid  to  the 
individual  circumstances  of  each  case,  thus  gradu- 
ally transforming  the  penitential  into  a  system 
of  casuistry.  The  oldest  and  most  important  of 
such  penitential  decisions  are  the  Liber  de  pceni- 
tentia  hy  Petrus  Alexandrinus,  the  canones,  1-1 
of  the  synod  of  Elvira  (300),  1-9  of  the  synod 
of  Ancyra  (314),  and  10-14  of  the  synod  of 
Xiciea  (325).  See  MoRixus :  De  dlsci/dina,  1G51; 
Srr.iTz:  D((x riitnisdte Busssacraiiwnt,lS!)i;  Frank: 
Die  Buxsdiscijilin  der  Kirche  his  zum  7.  Jahrhun- 
drrt,  18(;S.  ADOLF  IIARNACK. 

LARDNER,  Nathaniel,  b.  at  Ilawkhurst,  Kent, 
June  G,  1G84 ;  d.  there  July  24,  17G8.  He  was 
educated  at  an  academy  in  Ilo.xton  Square,  and 
at  Utrecht,  where,  in  1G99,  he  continued  his  stud- 
ies. He  then  removed  to  Leyden  for  six  months, 
and  returned  to  London  in  1703.  He  devoted 
himself  for  six  years  longer  to  those  studies  which 
made  him  so  eminently  learned.  He  was  for  a 
time  chaplain  to  Lady  Treby ;  and  under  her 
roof,  after  travelling  in  the  Netherlands,  he  re- 
sided until  the  time  of  her  death.  Here  he  had 
ample  opportunities  for  pursuing  those  researches 
which  qualified  him  for  the  work  he  afterwards 
accomplished.  No  orator  (indeed,  very  defective 
in  elocution),  he  was  unfitted  to  make  an  impres- 
.sion  in  the  pulpit;  and  consequently  the  only  charge 
lie  had  in  early  life  was  an  assistantship  to  his 
father,  Mr.  Richard  Lardner.  What  still  further 
incapacitated  him  for  ministerial  work  was  his 
extreme  deafness ;  for  he  said,  "  When  I  sit  in 
the  pulpit,  and  the  congregation  is  singing,  I  can 
hardly  tell  whether  they  are  singing  or  not."  His 
learning,  however,  eminently  qualified  him  for 
lecturing ;  and  in  this  important  employment  we 
find  him  engaged  in  1723,  when  a  course  of  lec- 
tures was  "  set  on  foot,  on  a  Tuesday  evening,  for 
the  purpose  of  s  iiting  and  defending  the  evi- 
dences of  natural  and  revealed  religion."  These 
lectures  no  doubt  contained  the  germs  of  his  great 
work  on  The  Credibililij  of  the  Gospel  History. 
which  he  published  by  degrees  in  two  unequal 
parts.  The  first  part  appeai'ed  in  1727 ;  the  first 
volume  of  the  second  part,  in  1733 ;  the  second 
volume  of  the  second  part,  in  1735 ;  the  thu"d  vol- 
ume of  that  part,  in  1738;  the  fourth,  in  1740;  the 
fifth,  in  1743;  the  sixth,  in  1745;  the  seventh,  in 
1748;  the  eighth,  in  1750;  the  ninth,  in  1752;  the 
tenth,  in  1753 ;  the  eleventh,  in  1754 ;  and  the 
twelfth,  in  1755.  The  dates  are  interesting. 
Oaks  do  not  grow  like  larches ;  and  such  a  work 
as  Lardner's  was  the  work  of  a  lifetime.  There 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  treasures  of  learning  in 
reference  to  Christianity  contained  in  these  vol- 
umes have  supplied  capital  not  only  for  Paley, 
but  a  good  many  more.  Indeed,  Gibbon  owed 
much  to  this  author.  Lardner  published  many 
other  books  besides  liis  mafjnum  opus,  and  par- 
ticularly unfolded  his  views  of  the  person  of 
Christ  iu  his  True  Doctrine  of  the  New  Testament 
on  that  subject,  in  which  he  says  that  the  Logos 
who  is  "  the  divine  power  and  wisdom,"  marvel- 
lously dwelt  in  the  humanity  of  Jesus ;  that  he 
was  miraculously  conceived,  and  possessed  "  di- 
vine qualities  or  perfections."  We  have  not 
space  to  enumerate  all  which  Lardner  publislied  ; 
but  it  will  be  found  in  the  handsome  edition  of 
his  works  in  ten  volumes,  edited  by  Kippis  in 
29  — U 


1829.  The  history  of  his  books  is  the  history  of 
Jus  life;  but  it  .should  be  added  that  they  attract- 
ed toward  him  learned  men  of  all  sorts,  wlio, 
provided  with  pen  and  ink  and  paper,  laboriously 
communicated  with  the  poor  deaf  scholar.  As  to 
ecclesiastical  government,  he  ranks  with  English 
Presbyterians.  A  life  of  him  is  prefixed  to  his 
works.  .JOUN  STOUGHTON. 

LA  SALLE,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  founder  of  the 
Ignorantines  (see  art.) ;  b.  at  Ilheims,  1G51 ;  d.  at 
Rouen,  1719.  He  entered  holy  orders,  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  theology  from  the  university 
of  Paris,  and  became  a  canon  at  Rheims.  In 
1681  he  began  his  free  schools  for  youth ;  and 
so  great  was  the  success  of  his  rules,  that  he 
founded  a  teaching  order  of  religions.  Benedict 
XIII.  approved  his  design  ;  and  the  order  adopted 
the  name  Fferes  des  Ecoles  chre'tiennes,  otherwise 
known  as  Ignorantines.  La  Salle  was  canonized 
in  1S.")2  by  Pius  IX.  See  his  Life  by  Abbe  Ayma, 
Aix,  1858. 

LA  SAUSSAYE,  Daniel  Chantepie  de,  Dutch 
theologian,  b.  at  The  Hague,  Dec.  10,  1818 ;  d. 
in  Groningen,  Feb.  13,  1874.  He  was  educated 
at  the  university  of  Leyden.  He  was  pastor  at 
Leeuwarde  (1842-48),  at  Leyden  (184H-G2),  at 
Rotterdam  (1862-72),  and  in  the  latter  year 
was  appointed  professor  of  biblical  and  dogmati- 
cal theology  at  Groningen.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  D.D.  from  Bonn,  iu  1858.  His  fame  rests 
upon  his  distinguished  sei'vices  in  combating  the 
negative  and  rationalistic  views  of  the  Leyden 
school,  especially  its  founder,  J.  II.  Scholten. 
He  was  a  fervent  orator,  impressed  with  the 
supernatural  origin  of  Christianity,  and  eager  in 
its  defence.  His  works  are  not,  however,  of  per- 
manent value.  See  list  in  Lichtenberger's  En- 
cycliijM'ilie  i/es  sciences  reli yeuses,  vol.  xii.  p.  692. 

LAS  CASAS.     See  Casas. 

LASITIUS,  Johannes  (Jan  Laslcky,  or  Lasicz- 
ky),  b.  in  1534;  d.  about  1600.  Of  his  personal 
life  very  little  is  known.  Several  years  he  spent 
in  foreign  countries,  —  as  a  student  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Basel,  Bern,  and  Ziirich ;  as  a  tutor  to 
young  noblemen;  and  as  a  .diplomatical  agent. 
During  his  youth  the  Reformation  reached  Po- 
land ;  and,  though  not  a  theologian,  he  devoted 
his  life  to  the  cause.  He  took  a  special  interest 
in  the  Bohemian  lirethren,  settled  since  1548  in 
Poland.  He  wrote  an  outline  of  their  history, — • 
De  origine  et  inslitulis  fratrurn  christ.,  etc.  (15G7— 
69),  —  and,  afterwards,  an  elaborate  work  on  the 
subject,  De  origine  el  rebus  gestis  Frat.  Boliem., 
which,  however,  has  never  been  jjublished  com- 
plete. Only  a  part  of  it  has  been  printed  by 
Amos  Comenius,  1649.  wauenmann. 

LASCO,  Johannes  a,  or  Jan  Laski,  b.  in  War- 
saw, 1499 ;  d.  on  his  estate,  near  Krticic.  Jan.  13, 
1560.  Descending  from  one  of  the  oldest,  rich- 
est, and  most  distinguished  families  of  the  Polish 
nobility,  but  a  younger  son,  he  was  educated  for 
the  Clmrch,  and  went,  when  twenty-five  years 
old,  abroad,  to  finish  his  education.  He  visited 
Louvain,  Zurich  (where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Zwingli),  and  Basel,  where  he  lived  in 
the  house  of  Erasmus.  Returning  home  iu  1526, 
he  was  rapidly  promoted ;  but  when  the  king,  m 
153G,  offered  him  the  episcopal  see  of  Cujavien, 
he  declined,  proclaimed  his  adoption  of  the  Ref- 
ormation,  and   left   his   native   country.     Frisia 


LATERAN  CHURCH. 


1280 


LATIMER. 


became  his  first  field  of  labor  in  the  cause  of  his 
new  faith.  In  1542  he  was  appointed  pastor  of 
Eniden,  and  superintendent  of  the  whole  country. 
The  situation  was  difficult:  on  the  one  side,  the 
Roman  Catholics  with  their  intrigues ;  on  the 
other,  the  sectarians  with  their  violence.  But  A 
Lasco  was  possessed  of  a  great  talent  for  admin- 
istration and  organization ;  and  in  the  course  of 
a  few  years  he  succeeded  in  founding  and  con- 
solidating the  Frisian  Church  on  Reformed  prin- 
ciples, and  with  a  strongly  marked  system  of 
discipline.  In  1549  the  Interim  drove  him  away, 
and  he  went  to  London,  where  he  founded  the 
Foreign  Protestant  Congregation,  whose  constitu- 
tion—  Forma  ac  ratio  lota  ecclesiaxtici  Mintsterii, 
etc.,  Loudon,  1550  —  is  an  exceeduigly  interest- 
ing document.  After  the  death  of  Edward  VI. 
(in  1553)  and  the  accession  of  Mary,  that  con- 
gregation^ was  not  allowed  to  live  in  London  any 
longer.  A  Lasco  hoped  to  find  a  safe  refuge  for 
his  flock  in  Denmark ;  but  having  arrived  at 
Elsinor  in  October,  15.53,  he  learned  that  his  con- 
gregation was  even  not  permitted  to  stay  in  the 
country  during  the  winter.  Under  unspeakable 
sufferings,  they  were  ordered  to  proceed  farther  ; 
and  when  they  finallj',  at  Christmas,  landed  at 
Rostock  and  Liibeck,  new  and  still  harder  perse- 
cutions were  raised  against  them  from  the  side 
of  the  Lutheran  clergy  and  magistrates.  Not 
until  Easter,  1554,  A  Lasco  succeeded  in  bringing 
his  flock  in  haven  at  Emden.  ^^"hile  preparing 
himself  to  spend  the  rest  of  his  life  at  Eraden, 
an  invitation  arrived  from  Poland,  calliug  him 
home.  King  Sigismund  August  was  favorably 
inclined  towards  the  Iteformation,  and  in  1556 
A  Lasco  was  settled  at  Krticic  as  superintendent 
of  the  Reformed  congregations  of  Little  Poland. 
The  principal  fruit  of  his  labors  during  those 
years  was  the  Polish  translation  of  the  Bible, 
undertaken  by  a  number  of  scholars  under  his 
supervision. 

Lit.  —  The  collected  works  of  A  Lasco  were 
edited  by  A.  Kuyper,  .Vmsterdara,  1806,  '2  vols. 
His  life  was  written  by  Bortels  (Elberfeld,  ISIJl) 
[and  Dalton  (Gotha,  1881).  See  also  Ivu.\sin- 
SKi :  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  in  Poluml,  London, 

1838,  2  vols.].  O.    TIIK1.KM.\N.\. 

LATERAN  CHURCH  AND  COUNCILS.     The 

terra  "  Lateran  Councils"  denotes  generally  all 
synods  convened  in  the  Lateran  basilica  in  Rome, 
but  refers  more  especially  to  those  five  which  are 
recognized  by  the  Church  of  Rome  as  oecumeni- 
cal,—1123,  1139,  1179,  1215,  and  1512.  The 
name  of  the  place  points  back  to  old  Rome, 
one  of  whose  most  magnificent  palaces  was  the 
Domus  Lateranorum  {Juven.  Sat.,  10,  17),  which 
Nero  confiscated  because  a  member  of  the  family, 
Plautius  Latcranus,  had  taken  part  in  a  conspi- 
racy against  him  (Tacit.  Anna/.,  15,  49,  53).  After- 
wards it  was  often  inliabite<l  by  the  emperors. 
Fausta,  the  second  wife  of  Constantine,  resided 
there.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  Constan- 
tinople, tlie  emperor  presented  the  Domus  Faustx' 
to  the  Bishop  of  Rome ;  and  tlie  successors  of 
Sylvester  lived  there  for  nearly  one  thousand 
years,  —  until  llie  emigration  to  Avignon.  During 
that  long  period  the  strncturi'  was,  of  course,  much 
altered:  si^veral  chapels  and  basilicas  were  added. 
The  old  basilica,  built  by  Constantine  the  (jreat, 
was  originally  dedicated  to  Christ  the  Saviour 


(Sahator),  but  came  in  the  sixth  centui-y  to  bear 
the  name  of  St.  John  the  Baptist.  It  was  also 
called  "Basilica  Constantina,"  after  its  founder; 
or  "  Basilica  aurea,"  on  account  of  its  magnifi- 
cence. It  burnt  down  in  the  tenth  century,  and 
was  rebuilt  l)y  Sergius  III.  The  present  structure 
dates  from  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  Church  of  the  Lateran  is  considered  the 
mother-church  of  Christendom  (^Omnium  L'rhis  ct 
Orbif  Ecclesiarum  Mater  el  Caput).  It  is  the  Papal 
cathedral,  and  every  new  Pope  takes  possession 
of  it  with  great  solemnity. 

The  Jirst  Lateran  council  (in  the  narrower 
sense  of  the  words)  took  place  in  1123,  under 
Calixtus  III.  (ilansi:  Concil.  Collect.,  xxi.  49). 
The  concordat  of  Worms  was  confirmed ;  the  in- 
dulgences granted  to  the  crusaders  by  Urban  II. 
were  renewed ;  the  consecrations  performed  by 
Burdin,  the  antipope,  were  annulled;  the  decrees 
against  simony,  marriage  of  the  clergy,  etc.,  were 
repeated.  The  second  (1139),  under  Innocent  II., 
laid  the  interdict  upon  King  Roger  of  Sicily, 
excommunicated  the  Petrobrusians,  and  ordeied 
Arnold  of  Brescia  to  keep  silent  (Mansi,  xxi. 
525).  The  third  (1179),  under  Alexander  III., 
decreed  that  a  vote  of  two-thirds  of  the  total 
conclave  should  be  required  to  legitimatelj'  elect 
a  pope  (Mansi,  xxii.  213).  The  /ou)V/(,  convened 
by  Innocent  III.  in  1215,  is  the  most  important 
of  all  the  Lateran  councils.  Besides  representa- 
tives of  many  princes,  two  Oriental  patriarchs 
were  present,  four  hundred  and  twelve  bishops, 
and  eight  hundred  abbots  and  priors.  Seventy 
decrees  were  issued.  The  first,  directed  against 
the  Cathari  and  Waldensians,  contains  a  con- 
fession of  faith,  in  which  the  terra  transuktlantititiif 
occurs  for  the  first  time.  The  second  decides 
the  Trinitarian  controver.sy  between  Petrus  Lom- 
bardus  and  Joachim  of  Floris  (in  favor  of  the 
former).  The  thirteenth  forbids  the  foundation 
of  new  inonastical  orders.  The  twenty-first  de- 
mands that  every  faithful  one  shall  confess  at  least 
once  a  year  to  his  sacer<l(>s  pro/triu.i  (Mansi,  xxii. 
953-1086).  The  Ji/th  (1512-17),  which  is  not 
recognized  as  oecumenical  by  the  Gallican  Church, 
abrogated,  on  the  command  of  Julius  II.,  tho 
decrees  of  the  council  of  Pisa. 

Lit.  —  A.  Vai.kntini  :  Dasilica  Lateranense  rfe- 
scrilta  ed  illustrala,  Rome,  1S39;  J.  F.  BuDDEUS: 
De  cone.  Lf(^era»Mi.,  Jena,  1725.         F.  NITZSCH. 

LATHROP,  Joseph,  D.D.,  b.  at  Norwich,  Conn., 
Oct.  20,  1731 ;  d.  at  West  Springfield,  Mass.,  Dec. 
31,  1820,  where  he  had  licen  settled  since  .\ug. 
25,  1756.  He  was  a  famous  ecclesiastical  arbiter, 
and  a  clear,  simple,  edifying  preacher.  He  pub- 
lished seven  volumes,  mostly  .sermons,  between 
1796  and  1801,  accompanying  the  series  with  an 
autobiography.  Since  then,  there  has  been  .sep- 
arately iniblished  his  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Ephesians,  with  Memoir  by  Dr.  Sprague, 
Philadcli.hia,  1864. 

LATIMER,  Hugh,  one  of  the  most  influential 
preachi'i-s,  heroic  nuirlyrs,  and  foremost  leaders 
of  the  English  Ixcfornialion ;  b.  at  Tliurcaston, 
Leicestershire,  in  1490  or  1491  :  d.  at  the  stake,  in 
Oxford,  Oct.  l(i,  1555.  His  father  was  a  yeoman, 
who,  by  Latimer's  own  ti'stimouy,  "brought  up 
his  children  in  godliness  and  the  fear  of  God" 
{First  Sermon  before  Edward  17.,  Parker  Society 
edition  of  his  Sermons,  p.  101).     Entering  Cam- 


' 


LATIMER. 


1281 


LATIN  LANGUAGE. 


bridge  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  he  became  fellow 
of  Clare  Hall  in  1500.  According  to  Strype,  he 
was  reiiKirkable  during  his  university  career  for 
the  "sanctimony  of  liis  life."  lie  was  at  that 
time  a  hitter  opponent  of  the  Rel'oruiation,  and 
his  bacheUjv's  oration  was  directed  against  tlie 
views  of  Meh'inchthon.  Of  this  period  he  at  a 
later  time  said  from  tiie  juilpit,  "  I  was  as  obsti- 
nate a  I'apist  as  any  in  England."  Coming  in 
contact,  however,  with  Bilney,  who  heard  his 
bachelor's  oration,  lie  was  impressed  with  his 
confession  of  the  faith  of  the  Reformers,  and 
finally  accepted  their  views  himself.  As  soon  as 
his  change  of  opinion  became  known,  whole 
"swarms  of  friars  and  doctors,"  as  Foxe  puts  it, 
"flocked  against  IMaster  Latimer  on  every  side." 
At  Christmas,  1.529,  lie  delivered  his  famous  ser- 
mons On  the  Card,  in  which  he  represents  him- 
self and  congregation  as  playing  at  triumph,  —  a 
game  of  cards  something  like  whist.  These  and 
other  sermons  attracted  so  much  attention,  and 
were  so  full  of  keen  hits  against  the  then  state  of 
the  clergy  in  England,  that  the  Bishop  of  Ely 
forbade  him  preaching  in  his  diocese ;  but  the 
Augustine  friars  opened  their  church  to  him, 
which  was  exempt  from  episcopal  authority. 
The  Papists  appealed  to  Wolsey,  who  held  a 
court  at  York  to  decide  the  case,  but  acquitteil 
the  accused.  He  was  appointed  by  his  univer- 
sity one  of  its  representatives  to  examine  into 
tlie  lawfulness  of  the  king's  divorce,  and  was  in 
favor  of  it.  In  1530  (Dec.  1)  he  wrote  to  the 
king,  pleading  "for  the  restoring  again  of  the 
free  liberty  of  reading  "  the  Scriptures.  He  was 
made  a  royal  chaplain,  and  preached  often  in 
London,  but  was  soon  offered  the  rectory  of  West 
Kington,  Wiltshire.  While  incumbent  of  this 
parish,  he  was  cited  to  London,  where  he  submit- 
ted to  convocation.  But  Stokesly,  the  bishop  of 
London,  was  so  little  satisfied,  that  he  forbade  his 
preaching  in  his  diocese.  In  1535  he  was  raised, 
through  the  influence  of  Anne  Boleyn  and  Crom- 
well, to  the  see  of  Worcester,  which  he,  however, 
administered  only  for  four  years.  When  the  Six 
or  Bloody  Articles  were  passed  (in  1539),  which 
show  a  rebound  of  Henry's  mind  to  Catholicism, 
lie  refused  his  assent,  resigned  his  bishopric,  and 
retired  to  the  country.  At  a  later  time  (1610)  he 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  where,  as  he  writes, 
he  was  "kept  without  tire  in  the  frosty  winter." 
Released,  at  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.,  he 
became  a  most  ardent  advocate  of  the  principles 
of  the  Reformation  from  the  pulpits  of  London. 
The  offer  of  returning  to  his  bishopric  he  refu.sed, 
and  became  an  occupant  of  the  archiepiscopal 
palace  as  an  adviser  of  Cranmer.  After  the  ac- 
cession of  JMary,  he  was  again  committed  to  the 
Tower  (September,  1553).  With  his  fellow-pris- 
oners, .Vrchbishop  Cranmer  and  Bishop  Ridley, 
he  was  transferred  to  Oxford  (April,  1554),  where 
they  were  to  hold  disputations  with  representa- 
tives of  the  old  views.  Latimer  was  convicted 
of  heresy,  excommunicated,  and  committed  to 
Bocardo,  the  common  jail.  Another  trial,  for  the 
sake  of  formality,  was  liad,  and  they  were  sen- 
tenced to  death  ;  the  sentence  hinging  upon  their 
denial  of  transubstantiation  and  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ  in  the  mass.  On  Oct.  IG,  1555,  he  was  led 
forth,  with  Ridley,  to  the  stake,  in  front  of  Balliol 
College.     He  met  his  fate  with  great  heroism; 


and  his  manly  words  to  his  companion  will  al- 
ways be  remembered,  with  those  of  Tyndale  at 
Vilvorde,  as  the  most  striking  utterances  of  the 
English  martyrs  who  suft'ered  for  their  faith. 
"Be  of  good  comfort.  Master  Riilley,"  he  said: 
"  play  the  man.  We  shall  this  day  light  such  a 
candle,  by  God's  grace,  in  England,  as,  I  trust, 
shall  never  be  put  out."  His  sufferings  were  soon 
brought  to  a  close,  while  Ridley  lingered  for  a 
considerable  time. 

Hugh  Latimer  was  not  a  man  of  great  learn- 
ing :  but  his  practical  and  bold  advocacy  of  the 
principles  of  the  Reformation  made  him  one  of 
the  coryphffii  of  that  movement;  while  his  noble 
bearing  in  prison,  and  in  the  face  of  the  flames, 
will  forever  enshrine  him  in  the  affections  of  his 
countrymen.  With  Hooper  he  was  one  of  the 
most  powerful  preachers  of  his  day  in  England. 
This  power  was  derived  from  his  bold  temper, 
directness  of  statement,  fearless  denunciation  of 
the  extravagances  of  doctrine  and  immoralities 
of  life  of  the  clergy,  and  his  sense  of  humor. 
Perhaps  he  approaches  nearer  than  any  of  the 
English  Reformers  to  Luther  in  the  earnestness 
of  his  manner,  the  bluntness  of  his  style,  and  the 
keen  tone  of  his  practical  exhortations.  "  He 
spake  nothing,  but  it  left,  as  it  were,  certain 
pricks  and  stings  in  the  hearts  of  his  hearers, 
which  moved  them  to  consent  to  his  doctrine. 
None  but  the  stiff-necked  and  uncircumcised  in 
heart  went  away  from  his  sermons  without  being 
affected  with  high  detestation  of  sin,"  etc.  (Becon: 
Jewel  of  Jul/).  He  was  plain  of  speech,  and 
spared  not  the  abuses  of  the  Church  of  his  day. 
He  held,  in  general,  to  all  the  fundamental  views 
of  the  Reformation,  —  the  distinction  of  the 
Roman  and  the  Catholic  Church,  the  use  of  the 
vulgar  tongue  in  worship,  the  abolition  of  the  con- 
fessional, the  spiritual  conception  of  the  sacra/- 
ments,  etc.  One  of  the  elements  of  his  character 
upon  which  Dr.  Tulloch  lays  just  stress  is  his 
cheerfulness  of  temper.  Mr.  Froude,  in  an  ani- 
mated sketcli  of  his  trial  and  martyrdom,  takes 
occasion  to  exclaim,  "  So  stood  the  greatest  man, 
perhaps,  then  living  in  the  world,  a  prisoner  on 
his  trial,  waiting  to  be  condemned  to  death,"  etc. 

Lit.  —  Latimer  wrote  no  treatises,  but  has  left 
behind  some  sermons,  which  are  valuable  as  giv- 
ing us  an  insight  into  his  character.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  has  been  published  by  G.  E. 
ConRiE,  in  2  vols.,  Cambridge,  1814,  1845.  For 
his  life,  see  the  vivid  sketch  of  Foxe:  Book  of 
Marti/rs,  Strype:  Memorials  (vol.  in.);  William 
Gilpin  :  Life  of  Latimer,  London,  1755;  Btrxet: 
llistorij  of  the  Reformation ,  Tulloch:  Leatlern  of 
the  Reformation  ;  Dem.a.us  :  Life  of  H.  Latimer, 
1869  (new  edition,  1881)  ;  Froude  :  History  of 
Enrjlanil  (especially  vol.  vi.). 

LATIN  LANGUAGE,  Use  of  the,  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  Because  it  is  the  universal  religion, 
Christianity  cannot,  like  Judaism  and  JMoham- 
medanism,  confine  itself  to  one  language.  In  the 
East,  the  Greek,  Coptic,  Armenian,  Arabic,  Sla- 
vonian languages  are  used.  In  the  West,  however, 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  protested  against  the 
introduction  of  the  vernacular  tongues  in  the  ser- 
vice as  a  danger  and  a  profanation.  The  Council 
of  Trent  (Sess.  IV.)  recognizes  only  the  Vulgate, 
the  Latin  translation  of  the  Bible,  as  the  authentic 
text   of  Holy  Writ  in  questions  of  doctrine,  in 


LATIN  VERSIONS. 


1282 


LAUD. 


cases  of  cauon  law,  and  in  every-day  use  for  de- 
votional purposes  and  the  cure  of  souls.  Less 
exclusively  the  council  expresses  itself  with  respect 
to  the  use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments.  It  says,  "  Althougli 
the  mass  contains  great  instruction  for  the  faith- 
ful people,  nevertheless,  it  has  not  seemed  expedi- 
ent to  the  Fathers  that  it  should  be  everjT\here 
celebrated  in  the  vulgar  tongue."  It  enjoins, 
however,  the  explanation  of  the  mysteries  to  the 
people,  but  anathematizes  those  who  say  "  that 
the  mass  ought  to  be  celebrated  in  the  vulgar 
tongue  only."  (Sess.  XXII.  c.  YIII.  and  can.  ix. 
Compare  Schafif,  Creeds,  ii.  183,  186.) 

It  was  quite  natural  that  the  Church  of  Rome 
should  adopt  the  Latin  language,  and  carry  it 
with  her  wherever  she  went.  And  during  the 
early  middle  ages,  when  the  modern  European 
languages  did  not  exist,  but  had  barely  entered 
into  the  process  of  formation,  it  was,  no  doubt, 
a  great  boon  to  European  civilization,  that  there 
■was  a  common  language  in  which  all  public  busi- 
ness could  be  transacted.  Into  the  dark  and 
chaotic  fermentation,  Latin  brought  the  necessary 
light  and  cohesion.  But  thei'e  came  a  change. 
The  languages  gi-adually  ripened  into  maturity, 
and  the  nations  began  to  demand  to  have  their 
most  sacred  interests  served  in  the  most  effectual 
way.  At  first  the  popes  seemed  willing  to  assent. 
Xo  objection  was  made  to  the  use  of  the  vernacu- 
lar tongue  when  Cyrillus  and  Methodius  converted 
Bohemia.  But  it  was  soon  discovered,  that,  in 
the  exclusive  use  of  the  Latin  language,  the 
Church  of  Rome  possessed  one  of  her  most  effec- 
tive means  of  consolidation,  and  consequently  she 
immediately  became  very  imperious  in  its  de- 
fence. The  reasons  with  which  she  vindicated 
her  protest  are  often  curious,  sometimes  cynical, 
seldom  just:  they  have  been  aptly  summed  up 
by  Bellarmin  :  Oper.  iii.  119. 

With  the  Reformation,  the  popular  demand  for 
the  vernacular  tongue  in  divine  service  became 
more  general :  it  was  heard  even  in  regions  whith- 
er the  Reformation  had  not  i)enetraled.  In  the 
Church  of  England  the  abrogation  of  the  Latin 
language  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  was  one  of  the  first  acts  of  the  lieforniers 
(.see  art.  24  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles).  In  the 
Lutheran  churches,  Latin  liturgies  were  still  used 
for  some  time,  but  gradually  disapj^uarcd.  To- 
wards the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  and  in 
the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  a  movement 
arose  among  the  Roman  Catholics  in  Germany, 
for  the  introduction  of  (ierman  into  their  service ; 
but  it  was  speedily  quelled  by  the  clergy.  See 
(J.  Koi'KMAN'K  :  Gtscliichte  d.  Kirchenlateins,  Bres- 
lau,  1879  sqq. 

LATIN  VERSIONS.     See  Bible  Ver.iioxs. 

LATITUDINARIANS,  the  designation  of  a  school 
of  opinion  within  the  Church  of  England,  which 
arose  in  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  ai)plie(l, 
somewhat  indelinitely,  to  men  who  differed  quite 
widely  in  their  theological  opinions,  and  yet 
agreed  in  manifesting  a  spirit  of  toleration  towanls 
the  Dissenters,  and  were  willing  to  admit  lib(M'ty 
in  the  use  of  the  forms  of  the  J'^ii.scopal  Church, 
and  even  a  revision  of  the  Liturgy,  in  the  ]ioi)e 
of  winning  the  Di.ssenters.  They  were  thus  at 
the  opjiosite  extreme  from  the  Iligh-Churchmeu. 
In  the  doctrinal  part  of   religion   tiiey  laid  em- 


phasis upon  the  fundamentals.  Hales  and  Chil- 
lingworth,  Cudworth,  Theophilus  Gale,  Wliichcot, 
Tillotson,  and  perhaps  Stillingfleet,  are  among 
those  who  were  classed  as  prominent  representa- 
tives of  this  school.  After  the  Restoration  (1660) 
the  school  gained  influence ;  some  of  its  represen- 
tatives being  raised  to  high  positions  in  the 
Church.  The  sph-itual  apathy  and  indifference 
in  the  Church  of  England  in  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury has  been  pronounced  as  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  Latitudinarians  by  Canon  Perry  (History 
of  the  English  Church,  student's  edition,  vol.  ii. 
511  sq.)  and  others,  but  without  good  reason, 
unless  it  is  fair  to  class  in  the  same  school  with. 
Archbishop  Tillotson  and  Cudworth  men  who  ap- 
proached very  close  to  the  Sociuians  and  Deists. 
The  modern  representative  of  the  Latitudinarians 
is  the  so-called  "  Broad  Church  "  party  in  the 
Church  of  England.  Those  who  are  classed  in 
this  school  are  regarded  as  laying  great  stress- 
upon  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
and  the  Christian  temper  of  the  daily  life,  as  op- 
posed to  that  view  which  emphasizes  unduly  a 
rigid  conformity  to  a  ritual,  and  are  consequently 
tolerant  towards  members  of  other  communions. 
S.  T.  Coleridge,  Dr.  Arnold,  Jul.  Ch.  Hare,  F.  W. 
IMaurice,  Charles  Kingsley,  .and  Dean  Stanley" 
have  been  among  the  distinguished  representa- 
tives of  the  Broad  Church  party.  See  Tulloch  : 
Ratio7ial  Theology  and  Christian  Philosophij  in 
England  in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  Edinburgh, 
1872,  2  vols.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  6  sqq. ;  Churton:  Lati- 
tudinaria/is  from  1671  to  17S7,  London,  1861 ;  and 
aits.  Chillingwokth,  Cudworth,  Platoxists, 
Camhridge,  High  Ciidrch,  Low  Church. 

LATOMUS  is  a  name  of  frequent  occurrence 
among  the  scholars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seven- 
teenth centuries.  Two  have  special  theological 
interest. — Jacobus  Latomus  (Jaques  JIasson), 
b.  at  Cambron,  Hainault,  in  1475;  d.  at  Louvain, 
May  29,  1544.  He  studied  theology  in  Paris,  and 
was  in  1514  appointed  teacher  of  theology  in  the 
university  of  Louvain,  and  dean  of  St.  Peter's. 
He  was  a  zealous  champion  of  scholasticism,  more 
especially  of  the  theology  of  Thomas,  and  attacked 
both  the  Humanists  (especially  Erasmus)  and  the 
Reformers,  —  Luther,  (Ecolampadius,  Melanch- 
thon,  and  Tyndal.  A  collected  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  by  his  nephew.  Jacobus 
Latonms,  Louvain,  15,50.  —  Bartholomaeus  Lato- 
mus, b.  at  Arlon,  Luxeniburg,  in  1485;  d.  at 
Coblentz  in  1566.  He  taught  Latin  at  Treves; 
rhetoric  at  Cologne,  Freiburg,  and  Paris ;  visited 
Italy  in  15:!9;  and  was  in  1.541  aiipointed  coun- 
sellor at  the  electoral  coiu't  of  Trevi'S,  residing  at 
Coblentz.  He  was  a  philologist,  but  took  also 
part  in  the  tlieological  conti'oversies  of  the  day, 
and  wrote  against  Bucer,  Andreii,  and  others: 
Briefe  an  J.  Sturm  iiber  Kirchenspaltung  u.  Kirchen- 
(>itii(/rinr/,  etc.  WAOKN.MANN. 

LATTER-DAY   SAINTS.     See  IMokmoxs. 

LAUD,  William,  Arclibishopof  Canterbury,  and 
chief  ininist<'r  of  state,  in  tne  reign  of  Cliarles 
I.  ;  was  b.  Oct.  7,  1573,  and  d.  (by  the  hands  of 
the  iMililic  executioner,  under  a  bill  of  attainder, 
for  high  treason)  Jan.  10,  1644.  He  was  a  native 
of  Reading,  Berks,  where  his  father  was  a  master 
cloth-weaver  in  good  circumstances.  His  mother 
(by  name,  Lucy  Webb)  belonged  to  the  .same 
social  class;  and  he  could  boast  of  au  uncle,  on  the 


LAUD. 


1283 


LAUD. 


mother's  side,  who  became  lord-mayor  of  London, 
and  receive<I  the  honor  of  knighthood.  Some  of 
his  eneniii's  (among  tliem  William  Prynne,  the 
well-known  Puritan,  who  early  became  a  victim 
of  Laud's  implacable  persecution)  were  used  to 
say  tliat  he  was  born  of  "  obscure  parents,"  —  a 
charge,  which,  strangely  enough,  seems  to  have 
been  peculiarly  obnoxious  to  his  feelings.  Ileylin, 
his  chaplain  and  biograjiher,  tells  us,  that,  after 
Laud  had  attained  to  the  primacy,  he  one  day 
found  him  in  his  gardens  at  Lambeth,  with  more 
than  ordinary  trouble  in  his  countenance,  and 
was  told  by  him  that  the  cause  was  a  printed 
sheet,  whicli  he  had  just  received,  reproaching 
him  with  "  so  base  a  parentage  as  if  he  had  been 
raked  out  of  a  dunghill."  The  archbishop 
"added,  withal,  that,  though  he  had  not  the  good 
fortune  to  be  born  a  gentleman,  yet  he  tlianke<l 
God  he  had  been  born  of  honest  parents,  who 
lived  in  a  good  condition,  employed  many  poor 
people  in  their  way,  and  left  a  good  report  behind 
them"  {Cyprianus  Auylicus,  \>.  43). 

It  was,  however,  chiefly  to  himself,  rather  than 
to  any  adventitious  circumstances  like  those  of 
birth,  that  William  Laud  owed  the  splendid  suc- 
cess, no  less  than,  it  must  be  added,  the  grievous 
errors  and  terrible  disasters,  both  personal  and 
public,  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  careers  in 
the  history  of  England. 

He  received  the  elements  of  his  education  in 
the  free  grammar-school  of  his  native  town,  under 
a  "  very  severe  schoolmaster,"  who,  however,  al- 
ready found  in  him  the  promise  of  future  distinc- 
tion. At  the  age  of  sixteen  he  was  entered  as  a 
commoner  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford,  at  which 
same  college  he  obtained  a  scholarship  in  1590 
and  a  fellowship  in  1594. 

At  college  he  was  not  only  remarked  for  his 
ability,  combined,  it  is  said,  with  not  a  little  self- 
confidence,  but,  under  the  most  unfavorable  cir- 
cumstances, assumed  the  position  in  church  policy 
which  characterized  his  whole  after-history.  In 
no  part  of  England  had  Puritanism,  at  the  period 
now  referred  to,  taken  deeper  root  than  at  Oxfoi-d ; 
what  Hejlin  describes  as  the  ultra  Protestantism 
of  that  university  having  been  chiefly  due  to  the 
influence  of  j\Ir.  Laurence  Humphrey,  president 
of  Magdalen  College,  and  professor  of  divinity. 
Laud  was,  Heylin  says,  of  too  stubborn  a  nature 
to  give  way  to  common  opinions  merely  because 
they  were  common ;  and  his  studies  in  divinity 
had  been  "founded,"  as  the  same  author  states,  "on 
the  Holy  Scriptures  according  to  the  glosses  and 
interpretations  of  the  ancient  Fathers  and  other 
godly  bishops  of  the  primitive  times."  Accord- 
ingly, even  in  his  college  life,  we  find  him  assert- 
ing High-Church  principles  on  every  occasion,  and 
already  suspected  of  a  leaning  to  Popery.  AVhen 
he  was  ordained,  in  1601,  by  "Young,  Bishop  of 
Rochester,  the  bishop  "  found  his  study  raised 
above  the  system  and  opinions  of  the  age,  upon 
the  noble  foundation  of  the  Fathers,  councils,  and 
ecclesiastical  historians;  and  presaged,  that,  if  he 
lived,  he  would  be  an  instrument  of  restoring  the 
Church  from  the  narrow  and  private  principles 
of  modern  times."  It  was  not,  however,  in  this 
spirit  that  his  protests  against  tlie  Church  princi- 
ples then  in  fashion  were  generally  met.  For 
some  time  after  his  admission  to  orders,  a  series 
of  collisions  with  the  university  authorities  fol- 


lowed every  one  of  his  public  appearances  in  the 
university.  A  sermon  delivered  in  1600,  in  the 
pulpit  of  St.  Mary's,  is  especially  noted  as  having 
brought  down  upon  him  a  vehement  attack  from 
the  vice-chancellor,  and  a  trial  in  tlie  vice-chan- 
cellor's court,  which,  in  some  of  its  circumstances, 
is  said  to  have  presented,  at  the  commencement 
of  his  life,  a  counterpart  to  the  more  public  event 
of  the  same  nature  in  which  that  lite  closed. 

At  this  time  Laud  w  as  without  friends,  or  power, 
or  influence ;  but,  as  regards  his  public  position, 
a  great  change  was  in  prospect.  He  had  to  wait 
longer  for  preferment  in  tlie  Church,  and  espe- 
cially at  the  hands  of  the  court,  than  many  men 
less  able  and  less  ambitious.  Even  after  he  be- 
came a  royal  chaplain,  the  influence  of  Abbot,  his 
predecessor  at  Canterbury  (who  always  distrusted 
him,  chiefly  owing  to  a  suspicion  of  Romanist 
tendencies),  long  stood  between  Laud  and  the 
confidence  of  the  king.  Indeed,  he  had  already 
reached  his  forty-third  year  before  the  attention 
of  the  court  was  directed  towards  him.  Upon 
the  whole,  however,  no  man  in  the  same  position 
by  native  rank,  ever  received,  from  first  to  last, 
more  numerous  and  more  valuable  ajipointments 
than  Laud.  In  the  University,  the  Church,  and 
the  State,  he  alike  rose  to  the  highest  honors 
attainable  by  any  English  subject.  Thus  he  be- 
came piresident  of  his  own  college  of  St  John's, 
Oxford,  in  1611  ;  and  in  1628  he  was  ajipointed 
to  the  high  office  of  chancellor  of  the  university, 
in  which  latter  capacity  it  was  his  duty  and  his 
pride  to  entertain,  in  1636,  the  king  and  queen 
as  his  guests  during  a  royal  visit  to  Oxford.  In 
the  Church,  as  appears  from  entries  in  his  diary, 
he  must  have  early  enjoyed  large  revenues  from 
numerous  benefices,  many  of  them  held  m  com- 
mendam,  and  retained  even  after  he  had  been 
raised  to  the  episcopal  bench.  15ut  his  principal 
preferments  included  the  deanery  of  Gloucester 
(1616),  the  bishopric  of  St.  David's  (1021),  the 
bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells  (1626),  the  deanery 
of  the  Chapel  Royal  (1626),  the  bishopric  of 
London  (1628),  the  deanery  of  Westminster,  and 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbui-y  and  primacy  of 
all  England  (1033).  He  was  a  statesman  no 
less  than  a  churchman,  and  in  the  State  his  ad- 
vancement was  equallj'  signal.  He  became  a  privy 
counsellor  in  1627,  and  from  that  time  held  vari- 
ous high  appointments  in  the  administration  of 
civil  affairs,  culminating  in  his  selection,  in  the 
year  1628,  for  the  office  of  chief  minister  of  the 
state;  the  death  of  the  famous  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham by  the  hands  of  the  assassin  Felton  having 
paved  the  way  for  an  elevation  unprecedented  in 
the  case  of  any  English  ecclesiastic  since  the  fall 
of  Wolsey. 

At  the  height  of  his  fortune,  the  position  of 
the  son  of  the  clothier  of  Reading  must  have 
tran.scended  the  most  daring  aspirations  of  his 
youth.  As  primate  he  was  the  first  peer  of  the 
realm,  being  next  in  dignity  to  royalty;  and  in 
his  case  the  high  honors  always  appertaining  to 
the  chief  minister  of  the  Church  were  greatly 
augmented  by  the  secular  offices,  hardly  less  lofty, 
which  he  sustained  at  court.  "  English  nobles 
and  foreign  ambassadors,"  says  Dean  Hook  (p 
228),  "paid  their  court  to  him  at  Lambeth.  The 
interior  courts  of  his  palace  were  filled  with  men 
at-armsand  horsemen;  and  while  holding  a  levee. 


LAUD. 


1284 


LAUD. 


or  granting  an  interview,  the  archbishop  himself 
held  a  court  second  only  in  grandeur  to  that  of 
the  king." 

Above  all,  Laud  reached  an  eminence,  as  regards 
power  and  influence,  which  could  not  fail  to  be 
peculiarly  dear  to  him.  It  does  not  anpvhere 
appear,  that  eager  as  he  was  for  place,  wealth, 
and  honors,  and  indefatigable  (perhaps  not  always 
very  scrupulous)  in  their  pursuit,  he  ever  cared 
for  them  for  their  own  sakes.  He  seems  to  have 
been  altogether  free  from  the  sordid  ambition  of 
vulgar  place-hunters.  He  spent  most  of  his  large 
jevenues  during  his  life  in  splendid  benefactions 
to  the  Church  and  his  own  university.  It  is  to 
his  honor  that  he  died  comparatively  a  poor  man, 
and  that,  as  appears  from  his  will,  such  money 
or  lands  as  remained  to  him  at  his  death  he 
bequeathed,  not  for  the  enrichment  of  his  own 
family,  but  chiefly  for  the  encouragement  of  reli- 
gion and  learning.  He  sought  honors  and  high 
place  as  the  means  of  accomplishing  public  bene- 
fits, and  more  especially  for  the  accomplishment 
of  what  he  regarded  as  the  true  intei-ests  and 
welfare  of  the  Church.  In  a  great  degree  he 
gained  the  power  of  realizing,  at  least  for  a  time, 
the  dream  of  his  college  days.  It  is  true  that 
the  results  were  disastrous,  on  the  whole,  at  the 
moment  at  least,  if  not  (for  this  is  disputed)  even 
in  relation  to  the  future  ;  but,  full  of  a  great  idea, 
he  contrived  to  reach  a  place  in  the  Church  and 
in  the  State  which  enabled  him  for  a  time  to 
make  his  will  law. 

What  was  his  great  aim  throughout  life  can 
only  be  briefly  indicated. 

He  had  various  projects  apart  from  that  pre- 
dominating design,  and  many  of  these  he  accom- 
plished. Among  them  was  the  erection  of  new 
buildings  at  St.  John's  College,  Oxford ;  the 
repair  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  Church,  London; 
the  annexing,  in  perpetuity,  some  commendams 
to  ill-endowed  bishopries ;  the  increase  of  the  in- 
come of  poor  curates ;  the  setting-up  a  Greek 
press  in  London  and  in  Oxford  for  the  purpose 
of  prinling  the  library  manuscripts  (many  of  tiiem 
his  own  munificent  gifts)  ;  and  the  erection  of  an 
Arabic  lection  at  Oxford. 

His  great  aim,  however,  was  the  re-organization 
of  the  Cliurch  of  England  as  a  wliole,  or  its  res- 
toration, in  doctrine  and  worship,  to  wliat  he 
regarded  as  the  purity  of  primitive  times.  It  is 
not  difficult  to  determine  what  was  understood  by 
Laud  by  primitive  or  patristic  purity  of  worship 
and  doctiine.  He  always  disclaimed  disloyalty 
to  the  Reformed  Church  of  England,  and  any 
wish  to  rc'store  Poperj'.  At  his  trial  he  said,  "  I 
will  die  with  the.se  words  in  my  mouth  :  that  I 
never  int<;nded,  much  less  endeavored  .  .  .  the 
bringing-in  of  Popish  superstitions  upon  the  true 
Protestant  religion  ('stal)lished  in  this  kingdom." 
Nor  have  we  any  sufficient  reason  to  impeach  his 
honesty  in  this  explicit  disavowal  of  (lelilx'rate 
treachery.  Neither,  however,  on  the  other  hand, 
can  it  be  reasonably  questioned  that  tiie  doctrines 
and  usages,  which,  under  the  naini!  of  primitive 
or  patristic  Christianity,  it  was  his  great  aim  to 
introduce  in  the  Church  of  England,  wen;  doc- 
trines and  usages  unknown  to  the  fatliers  of  the 
English  Peformation,  ami  which  in  every  case 
tended  in  one  direction,  and  tliat  direction  Iloman- 
ism.    If  not  a  Papist  at  heart,  as  so  many  (probalily, 


in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  term,  without  warrant) 
suspected,  it  is  at  least  very  evident  that  all  his 
predilections,  as  all  his  actual  changes  in  church 
policy,  were  in  favor  of  the  sacramentarian  prin- 
ciples and  ceremonial  observances  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  —  a  church  he  always  regarded,  as,  in 
his  own  words,  '•  a  true  Church,"  "a  Church  which 
had  never  erred  in  fundamentals,"  "a  true,  but 
not  an  orthodox  Church."  All  his  innovations 
showed  the  same  tendency.  His  own  friends 
acknowledged  that  there  was  some  difiiculty  in 
reconciling  some  of  his  i>roceedings  with  his  pro- 
fessed character.  "  I  would  I  knew  where  to  find 
you,"  wrote  Joseph  Hall  from  Cambridge.  "  To- 
day you  are  in  the  tents  of  the  Romanists,  to- 
morrow in  ours,  the  next  day  between  both, 
against  both."  The  truth  appears  to  have  been, 
that,  while  disavowing  the  authority  of  the  Pope, 
the  Church  for  which,  under  the  name  of  the 
Church  of  England,  Laud  labored  and  suffered, 
would,  if  his  own  ideal  had  been  fully  carried 
out,  have  been  Romanist  in  almost  every  thing 
but  the  name. 

That  some,  at  least,  of  the  ceremonies  and  other 
innovations  introduced  by  him,  were  at  all  events 
contrary  to,  or  an  advance  upon,  Protestantism,  is, 
though  denied  by  himself  (Troubles  cuul  Trial, — 
Worlcs,  iii.,  437),  both  admitted  and  insisted  on 
by  the  modern  representatives  of  the  school  of 
which  he  is  the  chief  founder.  •'  Laud's  imme- 
diate acts  and  aims,'"  writes  Canon  Moseley,  in  his 
able  sketch  of  the  life  of  Laud,  "  were  most  prac- 
tical ;  and  a  great  practical  rise  of  the  English 
Church  was  the  effect  of  his  career.  .  .  .  The 
Holy  Table  in  all  our  churches,  altar-wise,  at  the 
east  end,  is  a  visible  memorial  of  Laud,  which 
none  can  escape.  //  was  not  su  before  his  time .  it 
is  not  necessarily  so  by  the  rubric  of  our  Church 
at  this  moment.  .  .  .  That  any  one  of  Catholic 
predilections  can  belong  to  the  English  Church 
is  owing,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  to  Laud." 

But  it  is  for  the  means  he  employed  to  carry  it 
out,  nmch  more  than  for  the  aim  he  set  before 
him,  which  was  in  itself,  from  an  English  Church- 
man's point  of  view,  legitimate  enough,  that  Laud 
will  be  generally  condemned.  The  attempt  to 
restore  the  ("hurch  by  silencing  Puritans  and  all 
nonconformists,  as  the  indis)iensable  condition  of 
such  a  restoration,  was  the  fir.st  principle  of  the 
Laudian  policy.  "  Tlie  holy  Church,"  wrote 
Wren,  bishop  of  Norwich,  "  subsists  not  without 
the  communion  of  saints.  No  connnunion  with 
them,  without  union  among  ourselves.  That  union 
impossible,  unless  we  ]>reserve  a  uniformity  for 
doctrine  and  a  uniformity  for  discipline."  (See 
Gardiner  ;  Fall  of  Ihe  Mouarcli//,  vol.  i.  p.  2.)  The 
fact  now  referred  to  is  of  itself  sufiicient;  and  it 
is  hardly  necessary  to  go  into  tlie  question,  how, 
under  i^aud's  rule,  the  repression  of  tlie  noncon- 
formists was  carried  out.  He  is  said  to  have 
preferred  persuasion  to  force;  but  it  is  not  denied, 
that,  when  necessary,  thi^  most  horrible  severities 
were  employed  under  his  sanction  to  enforce  con- 
formity. The  c;vses  of  I^eighton,  I'rymie,  Post- 
wick,  and  Burton,  are  well  known,  with  hundreds 
of  cases  of  dissenters,  who,  if  not  shockingly 
mutilated,  and  condemned  to  perpetual  imprison- 
ment, were  silenced,  and  compelled  to  seek  liberty 
of  conscience  beyond  sea.s,  or,  worse  than  all,  to 
violate  tlieir  own  sense  of  duty,  and  lose  their 


LAUD. 


1285 


LAUD. 


spiritual,  in  seeking  to  save  their  bodily,  life  and 
well-being.  Nor  is  it  disputed,  that  of  the  Star 
Chamber  and  Court  of  Ilish  Commission,  by 
which  these  men  were  condenmed.  Laud  was  the 
moving  spirit;  nay,  that  if,  in  these  courts,  any 
voice  was  for  more  than  ordinarily  severe  meas- 
ures, it  was  sure  to  be  his  (Gardiner:  Per.ional 
Histori/,  i.  G).  But  perhaps  the  worst  charge 
against  Laud  in  this  connection  is  the  alleged  fact, 
that  to  gain  the  power  of  suppressing  the  non- 
conformists, and  otherwise  securing  the  restora- 
tion of  a  piu'e  and  catholic  church  according  to 
his  own  ideal,  I^aud  did  not  hesitate  to  encour- 
age in  the  king  those  absolute  principles,  which, 
if  he  had  prevailed,  instead  of  the  Parliament, 
would  have  been  fatal  to  the  liberties  of  the 
English  people. 

It  need  only  be  here  further  noted,  that  Laud's 
prudence  and  sagacity  were  not  by  any  means 
equal  to  his  zeal  as  a  statesman.  Good  intentions 
anil  bad  management  were  said  to  be  his  chai'ac- 
teristics.  His  whole  life's  dream  as  to  a  united 
church  in  England  was  visionary  and  impracti- 
calile.  But  perhaps  his  unfitness  for  public 
affairs  was  never  better  illustrated  than  in  his  ilis- 
astrons  attempt  to  bring  Scotland  into  the  scheme 
of  uniformity.  The  history  of  the  Scottish  canons 
of  1630  and  the  Scottish  liturgy  of  1637  cannot 
here  be  told  at  length.  It  was  a  delicate  under- 
taking to  introduce  episcopacy  into  Scotland,  and 
could  only  have  been  accomplished  warily.  But 
no  prudence  was  exercised  by  Laud.  The  new 
canons  and  the  new  liturgy  were  open  to  two 
insuperable  objections.  In  their  subject-matter 
they  were  opposed  to  all  the  prepossessions  of  a 
people  brought  up  in  Presbyterianism ;  and,  as 
regards  the  way  in  which  they  were  introduced, 
they  were  especially  obnoxious,  having  been 
founded  on  the  royal  prerogative  alone,  witliout 
consent  of  any  of  the  national  judicatories,  who 
had,  indeed,  not  been  consulted.  In  Scotland, 
defeat  and  disgrace  attended  the  policy  of  the 
archbishop,  and  by  reasonable  men  nothing  else 
could  have  been  expected.  It  is  an  instructive 
fact,  that,  twenty  years  before  the  fatal  Edinburgh 
riots  of  1637,  the  same  course,  which,  urdiappily 
for  himself,  was  adopted  by  Charles  I.,  had  been 
recommended  by  Laud  to  James  L,  who,  however, 
had,  with  all  his  foolishness,  too  much  sagacity 
to  follow  it,  and  afterwards  expressed  his  judg- 
ment of  its  adviser.  "The  truth  is,"  he  said 
when  an  apppointment  to  a  vacant  bishopric  was 
in  question,  "that  I  keep  back  Laud  from  all 
place  of  rule  and  authority,  because  he  hath  a 
restless  spirit,  and  cannot  see  when  matters  are 
well,  but  loves  to  to.ss  and  change,  and  to  bring 
things  to  a  pitch  of  reformation  floating  in  his 
own  brain,  which  may  endanger  the  steadfastness 
of  that  which  is  in  good  pass,  God  be  praised !  I 
speak  not  at  random.  He  hath  made  hira.self 
known  to  me  to  be  such  a  one ;  for  when,  three 
years  since,  I  had  obtained  of  the  Assembly  of 
Perth  to  consent  to  five  articles  of  order  and  de- 
cency in  correspondence  with  this  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  gave  them  promise  ...  I  would  try 
their  obedience  no  further  anent  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  nor  put  them  out  of  their  own  w.ay,  which 
custom  had  made  pleasing  to  them,  with  any  new 
encroachments,  yet  this  man  hath  pressed  me  to 
invite  them  to  a  nearer  conjunction  with  the  lit- 


urgy and  canons  of  this  nation ;  but  I  sent  him 
back  again  with  the  frivolous  draught  he  had 
drawn  "  (Bishu]>  Ilacket's  Memorial  of  Mm  Wil- 
liams, D.D.,  p.  64). 

The  circumstances  attending  the  death  of  Laud 
will  be  found  fully  detailed  in  his  Trnnhlcs  and 
Trial,  as  written  by  liimself  in  the  Tower  of 
London,  and  in  the  Appendix,  printed  along  with 
that  narrative,  by  its  editor,  H.  Wharton,  which 
also  includes  his  speech  on  the  scaffold.  These 
documents  form  two  volumes  of  the  last  and  most 
complete  edition  of  his  works.  His  death  was 
every  way  worthy  of  one,  who,  whatever  may  liave 
been  his  faults,  was  nmiuestionably  a  great,  and 
in  many  respects  a  good  man.  His  last  words 
avouched  his  loyalty  to  the  Church  of  England. 
'•  The  last  particular,  for  I  am  not  willing  to  be 
too  long,  is."  he  said,  "  myself.  I  was  born  and 
baptized  in  the  Church  of  England,  established  by 
law,  and  in  that  I  come  now  to  die."  After  he 
had  laid  his  head  upon  tlie  block,  he  ci'ied  aloud, 
"Lord,  receive  my  soul."  This  was  the  signal 
agreed  upon  with  the  executioner ;  and,  as  the 
words  were  spoken,  his  head  was  separated  from 
his  body  at  a  single  blow.  It  was  his  wish  that 
he  might  be  buried  in  his  own  college;  and  though 
first  interred  in  the  Church  of  All  Hallows,  near 
the  Tower,  his  remains  were,  after  the  Restora- 
tion, transferred  to  the  Chapel  of  St.  John's, 
Oxford,  and  there  deposited  beneath  the  altar. 

He  was  a  little  man,  of  staid  and  cold  manners, 
but  in  temper  hasty  and  arrogant.  He  never 
married.  His  life,  impeached  by  Prynne  on  the 
authoi'ity  of  some  ambiguous  expressions  in  his 
Diary  and  Private  Derotiunf.  appears  to  have  l.ieen 
pure.  Judging  him  by  the  prayers  which  he  had 
composed  for  liis  secret  use,  he  must  have  been  a 
man  of  singular  devoutness  of  spirit.  As  has 
already  aj>peared,  he  was  often  rasli  and  precipii- 
tate  in  public  affairs;  though  otherwise  his  capa- 
city for  high  office,  whether  in  Church  or  State, 
was  very  great.  How  far  he  deserved  well  of  his 
Church  and  country  as  regards,  if  not  the  results, 
at  least  the  intentions,  of  his  policy,  is  a  question 
on  which  there  will  always  be  difference  of  opinion. 

His  pirincipal  wi'itings  are :  a  Conference  with. 
Fisher,  a  Jesuit,  published  in  1628;  Answer  lo  the 
Speech  of  Lord  Sai/e  and  Secde  touching  the  Liturgy, 
l69o;  Seven  Sermons  preached  on  Public  Occasions, 
1651 ;  ^-1  Summarie  of  Derations,  compiled  and  used 
liy  Dr.  Wdliam  Laud,  now  published  according  to 
the  Copy  written  with  hi.^  own  Hand,  1667 ;  History 
of  the  Troubles  and  Tryal  of  the  most  Revered 
Father  in  God  and  Blessed  Martyr  William  Laud, 
written  by  Himself  160.5;  several  Speeches,  and 
his  Letters  [vei-y  important,  especially  those  to 
Lord  Strafford]. 

Lit.  —  The  Worhs  of  William  Laud,  D.D.,  in 
7  vols.,  Oxford,  1853:  Cyprianus  Anglicus :  or,  the 
History  of  the  Life  of  William  Laud,  etc.,  by  P. 
Heylin,  D.D.,  London,  1671;  A  Breviate  of  the 
Life  of  William  Laud,  extracted,  for  the  most  Part, 
verbatim,  from  his  Own  Diary  and  Other  Writings 
out  of  his  Own  Hand,  by  WiLLLiM  Pryxxe  of 
Lincolnes  Inn,  Esq.,  London,  1644;  Canterbury's 
Doome ,  or,  the  First  Part  of  a  Complete  History 
of  William  Laud,  by  Willi.^m  Pryn.vk,  London, 
1646;  Lives  of  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbury,  by 
W.  F.  Hook,  D.D.,  second  series,  vol.  vi.,  Lon- 
don, 1875;  The  Personal  Government  of  Charles  f.; 


LAUNAY. 


1286 


LAURBNTIUS. 


by  S.  R.  Gardixek,  London,  1877;  The  Fall  of 
the  Monarchy  of  Charles  I.,  by  S.  R.  Gardiner, 
London,  1882.  WILLIAM  lee. 

LAUNAY,  Pierre  de,  b.  at  Blois  in  1573  ;  d.  in 
Paris,  June  29,  1661.  He  held  an  important 
position  in  tlie  civil  service  of  his  country,  but 
retired  in  1613  into  private  life,  and  devoted  his 
whole  time  to  tlie  study  of  the  Bible.  lie  wrote 
paraphrases  of  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  the  prophet 
Daniel,  etc.  ;  carried  on  a  long  controversy  with 
Amyraut  concerning  C'hiliasni,  of  which  he  was 
an  ardent  adherent ;  and  partook  with  "Teat  zeal 
in  the  general  life  of  the  Reformed  C'hurch  in 
France.  His  principal  work,  however,  was  not 
published  until  after  his  death,  —  Remarques  sur 
le  texle  de  la  Bible,  Geneva,  1667.  This  work  cost 
him  twenty  years  of  labor.  It  is  intended  to 
explain  the  difficult  words,  phrases,  and  fig-ures  of 
the  Bible  by  grouping  them  together  under  appro- 
priate heads,  and  translating  them  with  their  con- 
text, without  commenting,  or  giving  grammatical 
explanations.  It  has  its  uses  still,  although,  of 
course,  largely  superseded. 

LAUNOI,  Jean  de,  b.  at  Valognes,  in  Normandv, 
Dec.  21,  1603;  d.  in  Paris,  March  10,  1678.  He 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1683,  and  took  his  degree 
as  doctor  of  divinity  in  1636 ;  but  he  never  held 
a  benefice.  He  lived  in  retirement,  and  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  literature.  His  principal 
works  treat  of  historical  subjects,  and  were  written 
partly  in  defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Galilean 
Church,  partlj-  in  pursuit  of  general  critical 
principles,  attacking  titles  to  saintship,  apostol- 
ical foundation,  etc.  His  method  he  defended 
in  his  De  autoritale  neyaniis  aryumenti,  1653.  A 
list  of  his  works  is  found  in  E.  du  Pin  :  Nouvelle 
Blbliolheque  des  Auteurs  Eccle'siasti(jues,  xviii. 
p.  58.  H.  F.  JACOBSON. 

LAURA,  like  ccenobium,  denotes  a  monastic  com- 
munity, but  \\  ith  the  difference,  that,  in  the  laura, 
the  cells  are  separate  structures,  and  the  inmates 
live  in  solitude,  meeting  each  other  only  on  the 
first  and  last  days  of  the  week  for  common  services 
in  the  chapel.  Thus  the  laura,  which  was  found 
only  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Palestine,  forms  a 
transition  between  the  hermitage  and  the  cceno- 
bium, or  monastery.  The  etymology  of  the  word 
is  uncertain.  The  most  probaljlc  derivation  is 
from  labra  (/*u(3f)a),  a  term  fri'()uently  used  in 
.Mexandria  for  an  allev  or  small  court. 

LAURENTIUS,  St.,  a  pupil  of  Sixtns  H.,  dea- 
con of  the  Church  of  Home ;  was  martyred  in  the 
Valerian  persecution  (258)  a  few  days  after  his 
master.  The  Roman  prefect,  having  heard  that 
the  Christian  Church  was  in  po.ssession  of  gre.at 
treasures,  demanded  that  Laurenlius  should  sur- 
render tliem.  Laurentius  seemed  willing  to  com- 
ply with  the  demand,  was  released,  and  returning 
with  a  host  of  old,  poor,  an<l  sick  people,  paupers 
and  cripjiles,  said,  "There  are  our  treasures."  The 
prefect  felt  insulted,  and  sentenced  Laurentius 
to  be  roasted  to  death  over  a  slow  fire ;  ami  tlu," 
Christians  of  Rome  actually  saw  and  lieard  liow 
"his  living  limbs  hissed  over  the  coals."  His 
festival  is  celebrated  on  Aug.  10.  .See  AMnnosi;: 
De  offic.  mininlr.,  i.  41,  ii.  28;  and  PurincNXius  : 
Hi/tnn.  in  T.nnr.  Til.   l-HICSSKI,. 

LAURENTIUS,  antipop(!  to  Symnuichus  (408). 
He  wa.s  an  arch-presbyter  in  Rome,  and  the  choice 
of  the  im[>erial  party,  and  was  actually  ordained 


by  the  Bishop  of  Rome  (Nov.  22,  498)  as  successor 
of  Anastasius  II.  The  Roman  party  chose  Sym- 
machus.  The  decision  was  left  to  Theodorlc, 
king  of  the  Ostro-Goths,  who  decided  in  favor 
of  Symmachus ;  and  Laurentius  was  made  bish- 
op of  Kocera  (498) ;  but,  principally  in  conse- 
quence of  his  machinations  against  Symmachus, 
although  the  charge  of  I^utychiauism  was  brought 
against  him,  he  was  deposed  (501),  and  died  in 
exile  about  520. 

LAURENTIUS  VALLA  (Lorenzo  della  Valle), 
humanist,  philologist,  exegete,  and  critic;  b.  in 
Rome,  1406  or  1407 ;  d.  there  Aug.  1,  1457.  He 
received  a  very  careful  education ;  was  ordained 
priest  in  1431 ;  published  in  the  same  year  his 
first  book,  Dialogi  III.  de  voluplate,  which  attract- 
ed much  attention ;  and  was  appointed  professor 
elotjuentice  at  the  university  of  Pavia,  where  he 
published  the  two  famous  books,  Quwstiones  dia- 
leclicCE  and  De  elegantia  Latini  sermonis,  —  open 
denunciations  of  the  logic  taught  in  the  schools 
and  of  the  style  employed  in  literature.  The 
professors  became  furious,  not  only  the  theolo- 
gians, but  also  the  philosophers  and  the  jurists. 
Valla  left  Pavia,  and  for  some  time  he  led  a 
rather  erratic  life  in  jMilan,  Genoa,  and  Florence, 
until,  in  1436,  he  entered  the  service  of  King 
Alfonso  V.  of  Aragon,  as  his  secretary.  As  the 
king  sided  with  the  Council  of  Basel  against 
Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  Laurentius  saw  fit  to  publish 
his  book,  Declamatio  de  falso  credita  el  emenlita 
Constantini  donalione.  In  1442  Alfonso  took  pos- 
session of  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and 
Laurentius  took  up  his  abode  in  Naples.  But  his 
denial  of  the  genuineness  of  the  correspondence 
between  Christ  and  King  Abgarus,  and  of  the 
Epistola  Lenluli,  and  his  further  denial  of  the 
apostolical  authorship  of  the  Si/mbolum  aposlolicum, 
and  of  the  identity  of  Dionysius  of  Athens  with 
the  author  of  the  "  areopagitical "  writings,  exas- 
perated the  monks  and  priests  and  professors  to 
such  a  degree,  that  he  was  summoned  before  the 
Inquisition.  The  king  saved  him.  No  process 
was  instituted ;  and  Laurentius  went  on  increasing 
the  scandal  by  furnishing  a  list  of  errors  found 
in  the  Vulgate,  of  mistakes  made  by  St.  Jerome, 
of  heresies  picked  from  the  writing's  of  St.  Augus- 
tine. Nevertheless,  he  wished  to  quit  Naples, 
and  live  in  Rome.  The  first  attempt  he  made 
of  settling  there,  in  1444,  when  Eugenius  and 
Alfonso  had  been  reconciled,  failed,  as  the  lower 
clergy  incited  the  mob  against  him ;  and  he  was 
compelled  to  flee.  But  in  1447,  after  the  accession 
of  Nicholas  V.,  he  succeeded  in  getting  a  foothold 
in  Rome ;  and  he  remained  th(?re  to  his  death, 
translating  the  Iliad,  Tluicydides,  etc.,  and  carry- 
ing on  his  controversy  with  I'oggio, —  Invectirm 
in  Vallam,  Antidoli  in  Pogijium  (two  books  so 
rude,  so  coarse,  so  indecent,  that  it  is  rather  hard 
to  understand  how  such  things  could  be  written 
and  published  at  the  papal  court ;  and  yet  Anti- 
doli  in  Poyyium  was  dedicated  to  the  Pope,  and 
its  author  was  ajipointcd  Secrclarius  aposlolicus). 
.\niong  the  Italian  humanists,  Laurentius  Valla 
occupies  a  place  of  his  own.  He  was  not  only  a 
philologist  or  an  archfcologist,  he  was  a  critic, 
and  an  excellent  critic;  and  it  is  not  altogether 
without  reason  that  Bellarniin  designates  him  as 
a  prcecursor  Lnlheri.  His  works  were  among  the 
first   which   the    newly   invented   printing-preae 


LAVATER. 


1287 


LAVATER. 


spread  over  the  world.  His  Declamatio  was  first 
printed  without  date  or  place,  and  then,  in  1517, 
Dy  Ilutten,  with  a  dedication  to  Leo  X.  Erasmus 
•edited  his  Annolationes  in  N.  T.,  Paris,  1505. 
Collected  editions  of  his  works  (though  not  com- 
plete) appeared  at  Basel,  1540-43,  and  Venice, 
1.592. 

Lit. — See  Tiraboschi:  Sloria  delta  lett.  ilal. 
vi.  3.  Independent  monographs  have  been  writ- 
ten by  Christof.  Poggiali  (Piacenza,  1700), 
J.  WIldsciiut  (Leyden,  1830),  Jon.  Clausen 
(Copenhagen,  1861),  and  D.  G.  IMo.xkai)  (Gotha, 

1881).  WAOENMANN. 

LAVATER,  Johann  Kaspar,  a  distinguished 
Swiss  divine,  poet,  physiognomist,  and  philan- 
thropist; the  twelfth  child  of  a  physician;  b.  in 
Zurich,  Nov.  15,  1741;  d.  in  Ztirich,  Jan.  2, 1801. 
As  a  child  he  was  awkward,  dreamj%  and  mis- 
understood. He  early  displayed  a  decided  reli- 
gious nature,  and  devoted  much  time  to  the  study 
of  the  Bible.  After  studying  theology  in  Zurich, 
he  became  widely  known  by  his  spirited  denun- 
ciation of  the  lan/lrogt,  Felix  Grebe],  for  malver- 
sation of  office ;  which  resulted  in  the  latter's 
laying  down  his  office.  In  1763  he  went,  in  com- 
pany with  two  friends,  to  Germany,  and  studied 
with  Spalding  in  Pomerania,  —  the  best  representa- 
tive of  the  Pietistic  revival.  It  was  not  till  1768 
that  he  received  his  first  appointment  as  deacon 
-of  the  church  at  the  Orphan-house  at  Zurich.  In 
1786  he  became  pastor  of  the  great  St.  Peter's 
Church.  He  was  very  popular  as  a  preacher, 
•effective  as  a  pastor,  and  beloved  as  a  man  ;  so 
that  no  inducement  —  not  even  the  flattering  call 
to  the  Ansgar  Church,  Bremen,  1786 — was  strong 
enough  to  lure  him  away  from  Ziirich.  His  sei-- 
mons,  many  of  whicls  were  published,  are  not 
models,  but  are  characterized  by  earnestness,  bib- 
lical unction,  and  clear  testimony  to  Jesus  Christ. 
He  attracted  a  large  circle  of  friends,  both  at  home 
and  abroad.  Not  to  speak  of  others,  we  mention 
Goethe,  Herder,  Hamann,  Fr.  Stolberg,  Oberlin, 
and  Hasenkamp,  with  whom  he  maintained  a 
regular  correspondence  ;  and  that  with  Goethe, 
Herder.,  and  Hasenkamp,  has  been  published. 
Goethe  once  said  of  him,  "  He  is  the  best,  great- 
est, wisest,  and  .sincerest  of  all  the  men  that  I 
know."'  But  after  Lavater's  visit  to  him  in  Wei- 
mar, in  1786,  their  friendship  cooled. 

Lavater  was  a  voluminous  writer,  but  his  great- 
ness does  not  depend  upon  his  literary  achieve- 
ments. He  wrote  far  too  nmcli  and  too  superficially. 
He  is  himself  guilty  of  the  gossipy,  "  night-gown 
style  "  (Schlafrochnanier)  which  he  condemned  in 
others.  Xevertheless.  many  a  rich  gold  vein  glit- 
ters from  the  dull  quartz  of  his  composition.  He 
made  his  debut  as  a  poet,  and  continued  to  write 
poetry  till  his  dying  hour.  He  composed  many 
hymns;  the  best-known  collection  of  which  ap- 
peared under  the  title,  SOO  chrisll.  Liedei  ("Two 
Hundred  Christian  Hymns").  [One  of  his  best, 
which  is  very  popular  where  German  congrega- 
tions meet,  is  0  Jesus  Chrisltis,  wachs  in  mir  ("  O 
Jesus  Christ,  grow  thou  in  me  ").]  With  Klopstock 
for  a  master,  he  composed  the  Apocalypse  (1780), 
and  paraphrases  of  the  Gospels  and  Epistles  in  epic 
verse  [Jems  Mcssias,  oder  d.  Evanyelien  u.  Apostel- 
gesch.  in  Gesnnr/rn,  1783-86].  He  was  engaged 
for  a  long  time  over  a  philosophical  poem  on  the 
future  life,  but  published  in  its  stead  four  volumes 


under  the  title  Aussichten  in  d.  Ewigkeit  ("Out- 
looks into  Eternity  "),  in  which  he  gives  his  imagi- 
nation the  rein,  and  pictures  a  good  many  things 
about  which  the  Bible  is  silent.  He  excelled 
most,  however,  as  a  composer  of  brief  proverbial 
lines,  and  published  several  volumes  of  this  kind, 
—  Solmnon  (or  doctrines  of  wisdom),  1785,  and 
Vennischte  unjJiysioynoniischen  lier/eln  zur  Mensch- 
enkennlniss,  1787-88  ("Miscellaneous  Unphysi- 
ognomic  Rules  for  judging  of  Men"),  which  have 
not  been  surpassed.  Lavater  wrote  extensively  in 
the  department  of  the  practical  philosophy  of  life. 
In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  his  rela- 
tions with  Mendelssohn  the  philosopher.  Lavater 
had  translated  Bonnet's  Palingenesis,  and,  regard- 
ing his  arguments  for  God's  existence  irrefutable, 
he  dedicated  the  book  to  Mendelssohn,  with  the  de- 
mand that  he  should  either  refute  the  arguments, 
or  honorably  acknowledge  the  truth,  and  become 
a  Christian.  To  this  the  philosopher  very  coolly 
replied,  that  his  religion,  philosophy,  and  civil 
relations,  alike  obliged  him  to  avoid  controver- 
sies about  the  merits  of  particular  religions.  His 
greatest  work,  and  the  one  by  which  his  name  is 
best  known  to  the  world,  was  the  Phijsiognomische 
Fragmente  z.  Be/nrderung  d.  Menschenkenntniss  u. 
Menschenliebe  ("  Physiognomic  Fragments  to  ad- 
vance the  Knowledge  of  Men  and  Love  amongst 
Men  "),  which  appeared  in  four  large  volumes 
(1775-78),  enriched  with  innumerable  pictures 
and  silhouettes.  The  author  here  seeks  to  build 
up  a  science  of  physiognomy  from  the  judgments 
which  men  form  from  the  lineaments  of  the  face. 
lie  started  from  the  principle  that  these  correspond 
to  tlie  feelings  of  the  heart.  The  manuscript  was 
sent  to  Goethe,  who  added  some  sections ;  as,  for 
example,  the  one  on  the  physiognomies  of  animals. 
Lavater  was  confident  that  his  work  would  con- 
tribute to  the  welfare  of  mankind,  and  spent  not 
only  much  labor,  hut  much  of  his  income,  upon 
it,  and  in  gathering  a  collection  of  engravings, 
silhouettes,  etc.,  of  celebrated  men,  which  is  said 
to  be  preserved  to  this  day  in  Vienna.  Of  his 
other  writings,  Ponlius  Pilatus  (1782-85,  4  vols.) 
and  Nathanael  (1786)  are  to  be  mentioned.  Both 
are  apologetic.  The  former  answered  Pilate's  ques- 
tion, "What  is  truth?"  from  the  teachings  of 
Christ  about  God,  the  Devil,  the  Son  of  God,  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,  etc.  :  the  latter,  directed  to 
persons  of  honest  hearts,  adduces  those  who  be- 
lieved in  Christ  as  the  witnesses  for  the  power  of 
his  gospel.  Besides  these  works,  he  wrote  a  great 
number  of  smaller  works  of  a  devotional  charac- 
ter, some  of  which  are  used  to  this  day. 

Lavater  was  a  strictly  evangelical  divine,  and 
became  the  object  of  ridicule  from  some  quarters 
by  his  strict  views  of  inspiration,  the  gifts  of  the 
Spirit,  the  value  of  prayer,  etc.  He  avoided  dog- 
matic forms  of  expression,  and  laid  far  more  stress 
on  biblical  than  on  theological  orthodoxy.  He 
was  also  an  ardent  patriot,  and,  during  the  French 
Revolution  and  the  subsequent  wars,  took  a  bold 
course  against  the  rule  of  the  French  in  Switzer- 
land. He  was  taken  prisoner,  for  a  patriotic  ser- 
mon, to  Basel.  His  return  to  Zurich,  on  the  16th 
of  August,  1799,  was  hailed  by  a  general  jubila- 
tion ;  but,  after  the  battle  with  Massena  in  Zii- 
rich (Sept.  25),  he  was  shot  through  tlie  breast 
by  a  French  grenadier,  without  provocation  and 
while  engaged  on  an  errand  of  mercy      He  lin- 


LAYER. 


1288 


LAY  PREACHING. 


gered  on  for  more  than  a  year,  suffering  the  most 
acute  pains,  but  active  with  his  pen  almost  up  to 
the  day  of  liis  death.     DiSerent  judgments  were 

gassed  upon  Lavater  during  his  life  :  but,  with  all 
is  faults,  he  was  a  religious  genius  of  the  first 
order,  and,  in  a  time  of  religious  dearth,  scattered 
the  seed  of  life  with  apostolic  zeal,  ildrikofer, 
who  knew  most  about  liira,  could  honestly  say, 
that,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  he  was  a  man 
of  strong  individuality,  strong  will,  and  undaunt- 
ed courage,  and,  as  a  living  embodiment  of  Chris- 
tian truth  and  temper,  the  most  important  man  of 
his  century.  Lives  of  Lavater  have  been  written 
by  Gessner  (Ziirich,  1802,  3  vols.),  Herbst 
(Ansbach,  183l'),  Bodemann  (Gotha,  1S.jO  ;  2d 
ed.,  1877  sq.),  and  especially  Morikofer,  iu  his 
Schweizerisclie  Literatur  d.  18-  Jalirhundcrls,  pp. 
322-tOO,  Leipzig,  1861.  Von  Orelli  edited  a  se- 
lection from  his  woi^ks  in  eight  small  volumes, 
Zurich,  1845.  JUSTUS  HEER. 

LAVER.  The  laver  which  stood  in  the  court  of 
the  Israelitish  sanctuary,  between  the  tabernacle 
of  the  congregation  and  tlie  altar,  was  a  round 
brass  vessel,  with  open  top,  and  stood  on  feet  of 
brass.  It  served  for  the  washing  of  the  hands  and 
feet  of  the  priests  when  they  went  into  the  taber- 
nacle, or  when  the}'  came  near  to  the  altar  to  min- 
ister, "  that  they  die  not."  This  syinbolic  ceremony 
of  purification  was  to  remind  them  always  that 
they  were  to  come  before  the  Lord  cleansed  from 
all  defilements  which  occur  in  the  daily  transac- 
tions of  life,  and  that  they  were  not  to  enter  the 
tabernacle  with  unsanctified  feet,  nor  were  they 
to  minister  with  unholy  hands,  which  would  be  a 
sacrilege  of  the  most  holy,  worthy  of  death  (comp. 
Exod.  XXX.  17  sq. ,  xxxviii.  8,  xl.  7,  11,  30).  On 
the  anointing  and  sanctification  of  the  laver,  see 
Exod.  XXX.  28;  Lev.  viii.  11.  According  to  Exod. 
XXXV.  24  sq.,  xxxviii.  8,  the  women  who  served 
in  the  sanctuary  furnished  tlie  material  by  dedi- 
cating the  brass  of  their  brazen  looking-glasses. 
Such  glasses  were  fastened  somewhere  to  the 
lav(!r,  to  serve  the  priests  as  an  admonishing  sym- 
bol that  purification  and  sanctification  nmst  be 
preceded  by  self-examination.  The  .Septuagint 
and  .'Samaritan  Pentateuch  have  in  Num.  iv.  14, 
an  additioiuil  passage,  which  prescribes  tliat  the 
laver  was  to  be  packed  in  a  purple  cloth,  protected 
by  a  skin  covering.  In  Solomon's  temple  there 
were  ten  l,i\>"is  (  1  Kimj;s  vii.  38).  LEYRER. 

LAW  OF  MOSES.  "SeeMosE.s:  Tiior.vh. 

LAW,  Natural.     See  X.\hral  Law. 

LAW,  William,  b.  at  Kiujj's  Cliffe,  Northamp- 
tonshire, l(i8(i.  d.  tliere  April  9,  1761  ;  one  of  the 
most  eminent  English  writers  on  practical  divinity 
in  the  eighteenth  century.  He  was  educated  at 
Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  of  whicli  he  be- 
came fellow,  and  in  1711  received  holy  orders. 
He  was  a  fearle.ss  non-juror,  and,  in  consequence 
of  hi.s  refusal  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance  and 
abjuration  on  the  accession  of  (ieorge  L,  forfeited 
his  fellowship,  and  all  prospects  of  advancement 
in  the  Clnirch.  His  days  were  pas.sed  cliiefiy  in 
retirement  and  meditation,  in  literary  labors,  ami 
in  good  work.s.  He  died,  in  full  vigor  of  mind, 
and  ill  raptures  of  holy  joy,  at  the  .ige  of  .seventy- 
five.  Law  was  a  man  of  genius,  a  saint,  and  a 
writer  of  ^rcat  jjower.  He  was  al.so  a  >;eiiuine 
mystic,  although  he  liveil  in  a  very  worldly  ami 
rationalistic  age.     He  seemed,  indeed,  strangely 


out  of  place  in  the  eighteenth  century.  "To" 
come  across  such  a  man  in  the  midst  of  his  sur- 
roundings is  like  coming  across  an  old  Gothic 
cathedral,  with  its  air  of  cahn  grandeur  and  mel- 
lowed beauty,  in  the  midst  of  the  staring  red-brick 
buildings  of  a  brand-new  manufacturing  town," 
says  Mr.  Overton,  his  latest  and  best  biographer. 

Law  is  best  known  by  his  Serious  Call,  a  work 
of  singular  power.  AVith  the  exception  of  The 
Pilyrim's  Progress,  no  book  on  practical  religion  in 
the  language  has,  perhaps,  been  so  highly  praised. 
Gibbon,  Dr.  Johnson,  Doddridge,  and  John  Wes- 
ley, vie  with  each  other  iu  connnendiug  it  as  a 
masterpiece.  At  one  time,  Law  was  a  kind  of 
oracle  with  Wesley,  and  his  influence  upon  early 
Methodism  was  of  an  almost  formative  character. 
Afterwards  a  rupture  occurred  between  these  two 
great  and  good  men.  In  his  later  years.  Law  be- 
came an  enthusiastic  student  of  Jacob  Behmen, 
the  pious,  simple-hearted  Teutonic  theosophist; 
but  his  strong  chm-chly  feeling  and  his  sound 
English  sense  kept  him  from  the  wild  errors  and 
extravagances  into  which  some  of  Behmen's  dis- 
ciples fell.  In  T/ic  .Spirit  of  Prayer  a,nd  The  Spirit 
of  Love,  Law  unfolds  his  mystical  views,  and  an- 
swers the  objections  which  had  been  made  to  them. 
They  are  remarkable  works,  and  abound  iu  pas- 
sages of  uncommon  spii'itual  force  and  beauty. 
Law  died,  as  he  had  lived,  urging  upon  all  C'hri.s- 
tiau  men,  especially  upon  the  clergy,  his  favorite 
doctrine,  that  "  nothing  godly  can  he  alive  in  us 
but  what  has  all  its  life  from  the  Spirit  of  (Jod 
living  and  breathing  in  us."  See  J.  H.  Overton  : 
William  Law,  London,  1881.        G.  L.  PRENTISS. 

LAY  ABBOTS.     See  Abbots. 

LAY  BAPTISM.     See  Baptism. 

LAY  BROTHERS.     See  Moxasticism. 

LAY  COMMUNION,  as  a  technical  term,  de- 
notes reduction  to  the  state  of  a  layman,  as  a 
punishment  inflicted  upon  clergymen  for  certain 
offences,  which  in  laymen  would  be  punished  by 
suspension.  As  has  been  amply  shown  by  Rev. 
W.  E.  Scudamore,  in  Smith  and  Cheethain's  Dic- 
tionary of  Christian  Anti(iuilies,'\t  has  "no  imme- 
diate reference  to  the  reception  of  the  Eucharist : " 
it  does  not  mean  communion  in  one  kind ;  it  sim- 
ply means  to  be  deprived  of  office,  to  be  forbidden 
to  exercise  clerical  functions,  to  be  reduced  to  the 
state  of  a  lavman. 

LAY  PREACHING.  Since  the  original  and 
proper  status  of  every  Christian  is  that  of  a  priest, 
there  was  primitively  no  such  distinction  between 
clergy  and  laity  .as  al'terw.ards  prevailed.  Hence 
it  is  in.accnrate  to  speak  of  lay  preaching  in  the 
apostolic  ag(!,  as  if  there  was  any  other  kind.  The 
truth  is,  that,  in  tiu'  primitive  Christian  Clinreh, 
the  obligation  to  preach  the  gospel  was  felt  b}' 
every  member.  Our  Lord  sent  .seventy  of  his  dis- 
ciples "before  his  face,  into  every  city  and  place 
whither  he  himself  would  coine"(Lnke  x.  1):  and 
the  Church  believed  that  it  liad  tlie  same  duty  of 
preparing  his  coming  to  ]ierforni.  Accordingly, 
when  the  .Jcrusali'in  Churcli  was  dispersed  by  the 
]ier.'*eculion  which  arose  afb-r  Ste|ihen's  disith, 
"  they  that  were  .scattered  abroad  went  about 
preaching  the  word  "  (.\cts  viii.  4,  xi.  19).  With- 
out any  explicit  mention  of  the  fact  in  the  New 
Testament,  it  is  evi<Ient  that  the  lielievers  did 
not  wait  for  the  apostles  to  pr(>cede  or  accom- 
pany them.     One  cliurch  (Antioch),  at  all  events, 


LAY  PREACHING. 


1289 


LAY  REPRESENTATION. 


probably  did  not  receive  an  apostolic  visit  until 
it  had  been  several  years  in  existence  (Acts  xi. 
19-20).  The  satne,  in  all  probability,  was  true  of 
the  church  at  Rome  and  at  many  other  places. 
Doubtless,  the  greater  simplicity  of  primitive 
church  worship  encouraged  unofficial  effort  in 
their  assemblies,  which  resembled  our  prayer- 
meetings  more  than  our  Lord's  Day  wonship;  and 
the  energy  of  their  faith  and  the  fervor  of  their 
love  sent  them  forth  to  preach  the  Saviour.  Hatch 
says,  "It  is  clear,  from  both  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  that  'liberty  of  proph- 
esying'prevailed  in  the  apostolic  age.  It  is  equally 
clear  that  [it]  existed  after  the  apostolic  age.  In 
the  first  place,  one  of  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  the  second  century  consists  of  a  sermon 
or  homily  [the  so-called  Second  Epistle  of  Clem- 
ent], which  was  preached,  probably,  by  a  layman 
at  Rome.  In  the  second  place,  the  Apostolical 
Constitutions  [8,  31],  which  are  of  even  later  date, 
•expressly  contemplate  the  existence  of  preaching 
by  laymen.  '  Even  if  a  teacher  be  a  layman,  still 
if  he  be  skilled  in  the  word,  and  reverent  in  habit, 
let  him  teach  '  "  {Organization  nf  the  Eariij  Chris- 
tian Church,  pp.  114,  115).  But  "little  by  little 
those  membeis  of  the  Christian  churches  who  did 
not  hold  office  were  excluded  fi'om  the  perform- 
ance of  almost  all  ecclesiastical  functions.  .\t 
first  a  layman  might  not  preacli  if  a  bisliop  were 
present,  and  then  not  if  any  church-officer  was 
present,  and  finally  not  at  all"  (Hatch,  p.  124). 
Here  and  there  one  was  found  who  asserted  his 
right  to  be  heard.  Origen  (d.  254),  while  a  lay- 
man, preached  before  the  Bishop  of  Csesarea. 
Tertullian  (d.  245)  maintained  in  its  fullest  sense 
the  priesthood  of  all  Christians,  and  their  conse- 
quent right  to  teach  ;  for  he  says,  "  Are  not  we 
laics  priests?  It  is  written,  '  A  kingdom  also,  and 
priests  to  his  God  and  Father,  hath  he  made  us.' 
It  is  the  authority  of  the  Churcli,  and  the  honor 
which  has  acquired  sanctity  through  the  joint 
session  of  the  order,  which  has  established  the 
■difference  between  the  order  and  the  laity.  Where 
three  are,  a  church  is,  albeit  they  be  laics  "  (De  Ex. 
Cast.,  vii.).  Lay  preaching  was  likewise  defended 
by  Augustine  and  Chrysostom.  It  seems  to  have 
been  first  prohibited  by  Leo  the  Great,  in  the 
Interests  of  ecclesiastical  order.  (See  Hatch,  p. 
115  n.)  But  preaching  died  out  in  the  Catholic 
Church,  until  the  preaching  orders,  such  as  the 
Dominican  and  Franciscan  (which  were  composed 
of  laymen),  revived  the  practice  in  the  thirteenth 
century.  In  the  various  sects  which  from  time  to 
time  broke  loose  from  the  trammels  of  the  Catho 
lie  Church,  lav  effort  in  promulgating  their  tenets 
was  relied  upon ;  and  when  the  Protestant,  espe- 
cially the  Calvinistic,  churches  arose,  lay  preach- 
ing was  again  sanctioned.  ]\Lartin  Chemnitz, 
Johann  Arndt,  and  Johann  Gerhard,  among  the 
Lutherans,  defended  it ;  and  they  were  by  no 
means  alone.  Pietism  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury took  it  up,  and  thus  in  some  quarters  threw 
it  into  disfavor.  Wesley  was  the  great  restorer 
of  lay  preaching.  The  wonderful  movement  he 
inaugurated  would  have  completely  failed,  had 
he  trusted  entirely  to  an  ordained  miuLstry.  But 
he  wisely  allowed  great  liberty  to  all  who  were 
piously  inclined,  and  gifted  in  speech ;  and  the 
consequence  was,  that  Methodism  marvellously 
spread.      (See   Local   Preachers.)     In   quite 


modern  times  several  lay  preachers  (e.g.,  Moody, 
Brownlow  North,  Murphy)  have  achieved  great 

celebrity. 

The  lay  preacher  has  the  amplest  scriptural 
warrant;  and  he  has  several  manifest  advantages 
over  the  regular  minister,  as  that  the  reproach  of 
being  paid  to  uphold  a  certain  doctrine  does  not 
lie  against  him,  and  that  he  will  naturally  be 
more  in  sympathy  with  those  whom  he  addresses, 
for  he  will  be  more  or  less  practically  acquainted 
with  their  businesses  or  occupations.  But  to 
offset  these  advantages  are  certain  disadvantages, 
such  as  an  uncritical,  and  tlierefore  probably 
defective,  knowledge  of  the  Bible,  causing  him 
to  trust  implicitly  to  the  letter  of  his  vernacular 
Scriptures,  even  when  the  translation  is  confess- 
edly inaccurate ;  a  lack  of  .systetnatic  training  in 
logic  and  rhetoric,  leading  to  undue  emphasis 
upon  popular,  and  yet,  it  may  be,  flimsy  argu- 
ments in  defence  of  Christianity ;  a  lack  of  ap- 
preciation of  scholarship,  followed,  probably,  fiy 
resentment  at  views  differing  from  the  traditional. 
The  lay  preachei  is,  of  course,  beset  by  the  same 
temptations  as  the  ordained  minister.  If  he  is 
successful  in  attracting  attention,  he  is  tempted 
to  attribute  too  little  to  God,  and  to  be  puffed  up 
by  his  success.  On  the  othei  hand,  if  he  is  not 
successful,  he  is  tempted  to  attribute  the  failure 
to  malign  influences,  rather  than  to  his  lack  of 
ability. 

Lay  preaching  is  an  adjunct  to  clerical  preach- 
ing, not  a  sulistitute  for  it.  In  the  hands  of  wise 
and  devout  ministers,  the  lay  preacher  can  be  a 
jiowerful  agent  for  God ;  but,  if  ill  directed,  he 
becomes  a  power  for  the  spread  of  bigotry,  fanati- 
cism, and  cant. 

LAY  REPRESENTATION.  The  right  of  the 
laity  to  a  voice  in  the  government  of  the  chm-ch 
was  recognized  in  apostolic  times ;  for  lay  elders 
and  deacons  were  chosen  in  and  by  each  con- 
gregation, subject  to  the  approval  of  the  apostles. 
In  the  apostolic  council  of  Jerusalem  the  eutire 
church  participated  But,  with  the  rise  of  sacer- 
dotalism, the  laity  declined  in  power,  until  they 
were  entirely  ignored  in  the  church  councils : 
indeed,  the  Council  of  Trent  anathematizes  the 
Scripture  idea  of  the  priesthood  of  all  believers. 
Luther  broke  the  string  which  tied  the  tongue 
of  the  laity,  and  introduced  the  novelty  of  lay 
representation.  It  is  not  yet  realized  in  all  de- 
nominations ;  although  all,  or  at  least  nearly  all, 
the  churches  in  America  provide  foi  it.  Li  Ger- 
many and  other  Lutheran  countries,  the  Lutheran 
Church  is  governed  by  boards  (consistories),  com- 
posed of  clergy  and  laymen.  In  England,  the 
church  is  governed  by  laymen,  so  far  as  its  affairs 
are  controlled  l)y  the  Crown  and  Parliament.  In 
Ireland,  laymen  are  regularly  sent  to  the  church 
convocations.  In  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the 
United  States,  three  lay  delegates  are  sent  from 
each  parish  to  the  annual  diocesan  convention. 
In  the  general  convention,  which  meets  every 
three  years,  there  is,  in  the  House  of  Clerical  and 
Lay  Deputies,  an  equal  number  of  clerical  and 
laydelegates,  elected  by  the  diocesan  conventions. 

In  the  Presbyterian  churches  throughout  the 
world,  the  laity  have  representation  in,  (1)  the 
Session,  composed  of  the  pastor  and  the  elders, 
both  elected  by  the  congTegation  ;  (2)  in  Presby- 
ter}', composed  of  the  ministers,  and  one  elder 


LAYING  ON  OF  HANDS. 


1290 


LEAVEN. 


from  each  congregation  in  a  certain  district ;  (3)  in 
Synod,  composed  of  all  the  ministers  and  one 
elder  from  each  congregation,  in  a  larger  district 
embracing  several  presbyteries ;  (4)  in  General 
Assembly,  composed  of  ministers  and  elders  in 
equal  numbers,  elected  by  Presbytery.  In  the 
Reformed  (Dutch)  Church  in  America,  similar 
courts  exist;  but  they  are  named  differently,  being 
called  Consistory,  Classis,  Particular  Synod,  and 
General  Synod  respectively.  The  constitution 
of  the  first  two  is  similar  to  that  just  described. 
The  two  last  are  delegate  bodies,  and  so  the  laity 
have  less  numerous  representatives ;  but,  as  the 
number  of  ministers  and  elders  is  equal,  they 
have  more  equable  representation. 

In  churches  of  the  Congregational  order  (Con- 
gregationalists,  Baptists,  Universalists,  Unitari- 
ans) the  laity  have  full  representation.  In  the 
Wesleyan-Jlethodist  Church  of  England  there  is 
no  lay  representation ;  but  in  the  Methodist-Epis- 
copal  Church  in  the  United  States  there  are  one 
or  two  lay  delegates  for  each  annual  conference, 
chosen  by  an  electoral  conference  of  laymen,  com- 
posed of  one  layman  from  each  circuit  or  station 
witliin  tlie  bounds  of  the  annual  conference;  such 
laymen  being  chosen  by  the  preceding  quarterly 
conference.  The  lay  and  ministerial  delegates  sit 
together,  l.nit  may  vote  separately. 

LAYING  ON  OF  HANDS.  See  Imposition  of 
Hands. 

LAZARISTS,  a  congregation  of  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church,  founded  in  1624  by  St.  Vincent 
de  Paul,  authorized  to  reside  and  labor  in  France 
in  1627,  and  confirmed  as  an  independent  reli- 
gious order  by  Urban  ^'III.  Their  original  name 
was  "  Priests  of  the  Mission."  The  name  of 
"Lazarists"  originated  from  the  house  in  Paris, 
College  de  St.  Lazare,  which  they  obtained  in  1632. 
Their  olijects  were  to  do  mission-work  among  the 
rural  population  and  in  foreign  countries,  espe- 
cially Barbary,  and  to  educate  young  priests.  At 
the  time  of  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution,  the 
congregation  numbered  eleven  hundred  and  nine- 
ty-five members,  and  had  sixty-three  establish- 
ments in  France,  and  as  many  in  foreign  countries, 
especially  in  Poland.  Dissolved  by  tiie  Conven- 
tion, the  congregation  was  restored  by  Napoleon 
in  18(14;  again  dissolved  in  1809,  it  was  again 
restored  in  I.SIG. 

LEADE,  Jane,  founder  of  the  Pliiladelphian 
Society:  b.  in  Norfolk,  Eng.,  1 023  ;  d.  in  London, 
Aug.  19,  1704.  Her  maiden  name  was  Ward; 
but  she  married  AVilliam  Leade,  her  first  cousin, 
in  1644.  Her  conversion  took  place  in  her  six- 
teenth year ;  and  slie  at  once  gave  herself  up  to 
a  life  of  prayer  and  meditation.  Her  married 
life  was  happy  and  blessed.  But  in  1()7()  her  hu.s- 
band  died,  her  fortune  was  lost  to  her  by  treach- 
ery, ami  thus  her  mystical  tendency  was  confirmed 
by  poverty  and  loneliTiess.  She  joined  a  congre- 
gation of  mystics  in  London  (among  whom  was 
Dr.  I'ordagc),  in  ol)edience  to  visions,  as  she 
claimed,  and  became  their  leader.  In  1'17()  she 
foundc'd  the  I'liiladelpliian  Society  (see  art.),  and 
in  1680  she  began  to  iniblish  lier  revelations,  and 
interpretations  of  Scripture.  In  1099  she  became 
blind,  but  her  visions  continued.  When  "slie 
perceived  her  end  <lrawing  near,  she  dictated  her 
own  funeral  sermon.  Her  numerous  writings  arc 
in   the   line  of   Bohme's, — very  chiliastic  (she 


prophesied  the  coming  of  Christ  would  take  place 
about  1700),  very  mystical,  often  obscure.  She 
labored  by  means  of  them  to  form  a  society  of 
true  Christians  gathered  from  all  sects.  Her 
writings  are  at  present  very  scarce.  Perhaps  the 
best  of  them  are  The  Wonders  of  God's  Creation 
manifested  in  the  Variety  of  Eight  Worlds,  as  they 
were  made  tcnoum  experimentally  to  the  Author 
(London,  1695),  and  The  Tree  of  Faith  (1096). 
See  Phil.\delphian  Society,  and,  for  a  com- 
plete list  and  analysis  of  her  writings,  .see  Hoch- 
HUTn:  Jane  Leade  und  die philadelphische  Gemeinde 
in  Enr/land,  in  Zeitschrift  fur  die  hist.  Theolof/ie, 
vol.  XXXV.  (186.5),  pp.  l'71-290. 

LEADERS,  AND  LEADERS'  AND  STEWARDS' 
MEETINGS.  A  "leader,"  in  Jlethodist  parlance, 
is  one  who  has  charge  of  a  "  class,"  composed  of 
a  certain  section  of  the  communicants  of  the 
congregation.  The  leader  meets  them  statedly, 
and  examines  into  their  spiritual  condition,  and, 
if  any  are  absent,  ascertains  the  cause :  in  short, 
acts  as  a  pastor  to  them.  It  is  evident  that  piety 
and  common  sense  are  indispensable  requisites  in 
a  good  leader.  The  leaders  are  appointed  by  the 
persons  in  charge  of  the  respective  circuits,  and 
are  responsible  to  them.  These  persons  also 
examine  the  leaders  at  least  once  a  quarter,  and, 
as  often  as  practicable,  meet  the  leaders  and 
stewards  in  wh,at  is  known  as  "  leaders'  and  stew- 
ards' meetings."     See  Methodism. 

LEANDER",  St.,  b.  at  Cartagena  in  the  middle 
of  the  sixth  century  ;  d.,  probably,  March  13,  597, 
at  Ferrara.  He  was  an  elder  brother  of  Isidore, 
and  entered  very  early  into  a  monastery.  As  in- 
strumental in  the  conversion,  from  Arianism  to 
Catholicism,  of  Hermenegild,  a  son  of  Leovigild, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  he  was  banished,  and  went 
to  Byzantium,  where  he  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Gregory  the  Great.  On  his  return  to  Spain, 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  Seville,  584 ;  in  which 
position  he  continued  to  labor  zealously  in  the 
interest  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  seems  to 
have  been  instrumental,  also,  in  the  conversion 
of  Ileccared,  the  second  son  of  Leovigild,  and  his 
successor,  587.  At  all  events,  he  presided  over 
the  national  council  of  Toledo  (589),  at  which 
the  whole  Visigothic  nation  abandoned  .Vrianism, 
and  entered  the  Catholic  Church.  It  was  also  at 
this  synod  that  the  Filioque  first  was  introduced 
in  the  creeds  of  tin;  Western  Clnirch.  Of  the 
works  of  Leander,  mentioned  by  Isidore,  —  De  vir. 
illuslr.,  41,  —  only  his  Regula  sen  de  instittitione  vir- 
(jinnm  (Holsten  :  Cod.  rey.,  iii.)  and  Ilomilia  de 
triumpho  ecclesi(e  (M.4NSi)  are  still  extant.  See 
the  arts,  by  GiiitUES,  in  Fnrschunyen  zur  deutschen 
Geschichte  (1872)  and  Zeitschrift  f.  hht.  Theolo- 
<jie  (1873).  '  ZbCKLER. 

LEANDER  VAN  ESS.     See  Ess,  van. 

LEAVEN.  Tin  use  of  leaven  is  very  old,  cer- 
tainly as  early  as  Aliraham's  day  ;  for  the  reason 
why "  Lot  offered  liis  angel  guests  unleavened 
bread  was  his  h.aste  (Gen.  xix.  3).  Its  general 
use  in  Egypt  is  jiroved  by  Exod.  xii.  34,  39. 
Different  articles  were  used  for  leaven,  —  yeast, 
wine-lees,  etc.  Leaven  must  not  be  used  in  the 
cakes  used  in  divine  service  among  the  .lews 
(Kxod.  xxix.  2;  Lev.  ii.  4,  11,  vii.  12  s(i(i.), except 
in  tilt;  two  wave-loaves  of  tbe  Feast,  of  I'entecost, 
the  representatives  of  the  ordinary  d.aily  bread 
(Lev.  xxiii.  17).     During  the  Passover  no  loaveu 


LEAVITT. 


1291 


LECENE. 


must  be  found  in  any  house  ^Exod.  xii.  15,  19 ; 
cf.  1  Cor.  V.  7).  The  explanation  of  these  enact- 
ments is  easy.  The  bread  of  Passover  is  the 
bread  of  oppression,  a  reminder  of  their  suffer- 
ings in  Egypt,  and  of  the  haste  of  their  exodus,  and 
also  of  the  truth  that  the  old  leaven  of  wicked- 
ness must  be  put  out  of  tlie  heart  of  those  wlio 
would  serve  God  in  newness  of  spirit :  there  must 
not  be  left  the  least  trace  of  the  old,  lest  it  should 
lead  to  a  return  to  the  old  bondage.  The  ety- 
mology of  the  word  in  Hebrew  and  Greek  favors 
the  idea,  that,  symbolically  speaking,  the  primary 
idea  of  leaven  was  its  intense,  permeating,  and 
transforming  power,  while  that  of  wickedness  is 
secondary.  In  our  Lord's  use  of  the  figure  in  the 
pai'able  (Luke  xiii.  21)  the  primary  signification 
is  that  seized  upon.  leyrer. 

LEAVITT,  Joshua,  b.  in  Heath,  Mass.,  Sept.  8, 
1794;  d.  in  Brooklyn,  N.Y.,  Jan.  16.  1873.  He 
was  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1810;  studied 
law;  after  two  years'  practice,  abandoned  it  for 
theology  in  Yale  Divinity  School,  1823,  and  was 
ordained  in  the  Congregational  ministry ;  was 
pastor  in  Stratford,  Conn.,  182.5-28;  secretary 
of  the  Seamen's  Fi'iend  Society,  New- York  City, 
1828-31;  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  New -York 
Evangelist,  1831-37 ;  an  organizer  of  the  New- 
York  Antislavery  Society.  In  1837  he  edited  the 
Emancipator ;  removed  to  Boston  18-11,  and  there 
started  the  Dail//  Chronicle,  —  the  first  daily  anti- 
slavery  paper.  In  1818  he  became  managing 
editor  of  7Vje  Independent,  and  wrote  for  it  until 
his  deatli.  "  He  was  the  first  lecturer  sent  out 
by  the  American  Temperance  Society.  He  edited 
the  Christian  Lyre,  the  first  hymn-book  published 
in  America  with  the  notes  attached." 

LEB'ANON  probably  received  its  name,  "the 
white  mountain,"  from  the  circumstance  that 
several  of  its  peaks  are  covered  with  snow  for 
the  larger  part  of  the  year  (Jer.  xviii.  14),  though 
Robinson  derives  the  name  from  the  whitish  or 
gray  color  of  the  Jurassic  limestone,  which  forms 
the  bulk  of  its  mass.  The  sj'stem  consists  of  two 
ranges,  —  Lebanon  proper  and  Anti-Lebanon,  — 
enclosing  the  plateau  of  Coelesyria,  the  present 
El-Bflka'a.  Lebanon  proper,  the  western  range, 
begins  in  tlie  south  at  the  lliver  Litani,  the  ancient 
Leontes,  and  ends  in  the  north  at  the  River  Nahr- 
el-Kebir,  the  ancient  Eleutheros.  Gradually  rising 
ir  terraces  from  the  shore  of  the  Mediterranean, 
it  readies  an  average  height  of  from  six  thousand 
to  eight  thousand  feet.  Its  highest  peak,  Jebel 
Mukhmel,  is  ten  thousand  two  hundred  feet; 
Sannin,  nine  thousand  feet.  The  line  of  cultiva- 
tion runs  at  an  elevation  of  about  six  thousand 
feet.  The  descent  towards  El-Boka'a  is  abrupt. 
Anti-Lebanon,  the  eastern  range,  begins  in  the 
south  at  JMount  Hermon,  and  runs  north-east, 
nearly  parallel  with  Lebanon,  gradually  losing 
itself  east  in  the  plains  of  Palmyra,  north  in  the 
steppes  of  Homs.  xVnti-Lebanon  is  barren  and 
forbidding,  while  Lebanon  is  exceedingly  fertile 
and  fascinating. 

The  country  covered  by  these  mountains  never 
belonged  to  the  Israelites,  though  it  is  mentioned 
(Josh.  xiii.  5)  as  a  territory  which  should  be  con- 
quered, and  though  parts  of  Southern  Lebanon 
really  seem  to  have  been  subjugated  during  the 
reign  of  Solomon  (1  Kings  ix.  19;  Cant.  iv.  8). 
It  is  generally  mentioned  simply  as  the  northern 


boundary  of  Judaea  (Deut.  i.  7,  xi.  24 ;  Josh.  i.  4, 
ix.  1)  ;  but  Lebanon  proper  is  often  spoken  of 
with  admiration  as  a  fertile  land  with  thick  for- 
ests (Ps.  Ixxii.  16;  Isa.  x.  34),  charming  by  its 
fresh  fragiance  (Cant.  iv.  11),  its  wine  (Hos.  xiv. 
7),  its  abundance  of  water  (Cant.  iv.  15),  and 
rich  in  game  (2  Kings  xiv.  9;  Isa.  xl.  16).  Its 
beauty  evidently  made  a  deep  impression  on  the 
imagination  of  the  Israelites.  To  the  mind  of 
the  prophets,  it  presented  itself  as  a  symbol  of 
the  sublime  (Isa.  xxxvii.  24),  or  the  firm  and 
steady  (Ps.  xxix.  6;  Hos.  xiv.  5).  They  praise 
its  "glory"  (Isa.  xxxv.  2),  and  to  their  eyes  its 
seasons  depict  the  desolation  of  the  days  of  evil 
(Isa.  xxxiii.  9)  and  the  restoration  at  tlie  coming 
of  the  Messiah  (Isa.  xxix.  17).  In  the  oldest 
times  these  regions  were  inhabited  by  the  Ilivites 
and  the  Giblites  (Josh.  xiii.  5,  6;  Judg.  iii.  3). 
Lebanon  belonged  to  Phoenicia;  Anti-Lebanon,  to 
Damascus.  In  the  fourth  century  before  Christ 
the  whole  country  was  incorporated  with  the 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucida;,  and  later  on  it  ran 
the  gauntlet  through  the  Roman,  Saracen,  and 
Turkish  rule.  At  j^resent,  Lebanon  is  inhabited 
by  Christians  (Maronites  and  Druses);  Anti-Leba- 
non, by  Mohammedans.  A  list  of  the  whole  lit- 
erature pertaining  to  the  subject  is  given  in 
RiTTER  :  Erdenkunde,  vol.  17.  See  especially 
Robinson  :  Biblical  Researches,  Boston,  1841  ; 
Porter:  Five  Years  in  Damascus,  London,  1855; 
FuAAS  :  Drei  Monate  im  Lihanon,  Stuttgart,  1876, 
2d  ed.,  1877.  ARNOLD. 

LEBB/E'US.     See  Jddas. 

LEBRIJA,  /Elius  Antonius  de,  generally  called 
Nebrissensis,  from  Lebrixa,  or  Lebrija,  the  old 
Nebrissa  on  the  Gaudalquiver ;  b.  1442  or  1444 ; 
d.  July  2,  1522.  Allured  to  Italy  by  the  revival 
of  classical  studies,  he  staid  for  ten  years.  After 
his  return  to  his  native  country,  he  was  teacher, 
first  at  Salamanca,  afterwards  at  Alcala,  fighting 
for  the  cause  of  the  humanists  against  the  scliool- 
men,  and  even  against  the  Inquisition,  from  whose 
gi'asp  Cardinal  Ximenes  had  to  rescue  him.  He 
wrote  a  Latin  grammar  and  dictionary,  a  histori- 
cal work  on  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic, 
etc.,  and  was  one  of  the  principal  contributors  to 
the  Complutensian  Polyglot.  See  J.  B.  MuSoz, 
in  Memorias  de  la  real  academia  de  la  historia, 
3,  1-30. 

LEBUIN,  or  LIAFWIN  (Latin,  Zamus ,  not  to 
be  confounded  with  anotlier  Livinus,  who,  a  cen- 
tury earlier,  preached  Christianity  in  Flanders, 
and  is  the  patron  saint  of  Ghent),  was  a  mission- 
ary among  the  Frisians  and  Saxons  during  the 
first  years  of  the  reign  of  Charlemagne.  He 
was  an  Anglo-.Saxon  by  birth,  but  left  his  English 
home,  and  offered  his  services  to  Gregory  of 
Utreclit.  Gregory  sent  him,  together  with  Mar- 
chelni,  or  JIaroellin,  into  Friesland,  where  he 
built  two  churches,  —  one  in  Wulpen,  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Yssel,  and  another  in  Deven- 
ter,  on  the  eastern.  He  also  penetrated  into  the 
land  of  the  Saxons.  The  church  of  Deventer  was 
twice  burned  down,  the  last  time,  as  it  seems,  by 
the  Saxons  (776).  Lebuin  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Deventer,  and  he  is  commemorated  on  Nov.  12 
or  Jifly  25.  See  Surius  :  Vitie  Sanctorum,  vi. 
277  ;  and  Mabillon  :  Acta  Sanctorum,  v.  21  and 
36.  ZOCKLEE. 

LECInE,   Charles,  b.   at   Caen,   1647:   d.   in 


LE  CLBRC. 


1202 


LEE. 


London,  1703.  He  studied  at  Sedan,  Geneva, 
and  Saunmr,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Ilon- 
fleur,  1G72,  and  of  Charenton,  1682,  but  was 
denounced  as  a  Pelagian  before  the  consistory. 
After  the  revocation  of  tlie  Edict  of  Xantes,  lie 
retired  into  Holland,  and  afterwards  to  London. 
He  wrote,  besides  some  theological  treatises, 
Projet  il'tine  nnuvelle  version  J'rancaise  de  la  Bible 
(Rotterdam,  1696)  ;  and  after  his  death  his  trans- 
lation of  tlie  Bible  was  published  by  his  son 
(Amsterdam,  1741).  "  Let  us  make  man  in  our 
image,  after  our  likeness,"  he  translates,  Faisons 
les  hommes  siir  le  clessein  et  sur  I'ide'e  que  nous  en 
avons  fo>-mc'e,  and  "the  sons  of  God"  (Job  i.  6), 
personnes  de  ijualitc',  and  so  throughout  the  version 
is  bizarre  and  inexact,  poor  in  style,  and  para- 
phrastic rather  than  literal.  The  synod  of  Brille 
(17-12)  condemned  the  translation. 

LE  CLERC,  Jean.     See  Clericus. 

LECTERN,  or  LECTURN,  the  reading-desk  in 
the  choir  of  a  cliurch.  Tlie  commonest  form  at 
present  is  tliat  of  an  eagle  with  outstretched 
wings.  They  are  commonly  made  of  brass, 
though  primarily  of  wood.  In  Scotland,  a  gen- 
eration ago,  the  precentor's  desk  was  so  named ; 
but  the  word  was  pronounced  lettern. 

LECTIONARIES.  In  its  liturgical  sense,  lectio 
(uvu^i-vuok; .  or  aviqvuaiia)  denotes  the  reading, 
which,  besides  singing,  prayers,  preaching,  and 
the  administration  of  the  sacraments,  forms  part 
of  the  divine  service.  The  custom  dates  back  to 
the  first  days  of  the  Church  (Justin  :  ApoL,  i.  67 ; 
TertuUiau:  Apolog.  39),  and  was  borrowed  from 
the  synagogue.  In  the  oldest  time  the  lessons 
were,  of  course,  taken  from  the  Old  Testament 
alone,  afterwards  also  from  the  Xew  Testament. 
And  at  one  time  it  was  qiute  common  to  use  ser- 
mons by  celebrated  preachers  ;  the  Ada  Mart //rum 
and  other  writings  not  belonging  to  the  canon  (as 
shown  both  by  the  very  existence  of  the  so-called 
Libri  ecclesiastici,  that  is,  uncanonical  books  used 
in  divine  service,  and  by  the  decrees  of  several 
councils,  Laodicea,  360,  can.  .'59 ;  Hippo,  393,  can. 
36;  Carthage,  397,  etc.)  forbidding  the  use  of 
such  books.  The  number  of  lessons  varied.  The 
Galilean  Church  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries, 
that  is,  l)efore  tlie  introduction  of  the  Roman 
ritual,  had  three  lessons,  and  so  had  the  Spanish, 
—  one  from  the  Old  Testament,  one  from  the 
Gospels,  and  one  from  the  Epistles.  The  Greek 
and  Roman  churolie.s,  which  the  Lutheran  and 
Anglican  churches  follow,  have  only  two  lessons, 
of  which  the  .second  is  always  taken  from  the 
fiospels,  while  the  first  may  be  taken  from  the 
Epistles,  the  Acts,  or  the  Old  Testament.  Origi- 
nally the  lessons  were  continuous  {lectio  continun); 
that  is,  one  began  where  the  other  lia<l  stopped. 
Hut  soon  it  became  customary  to  appoint  certain 
lessons  for  certain  days  (as,  for  instance,  tlie  nar- 
rative of  the  resurrection  for  Easter  Day)  ;  and 
from  this  custom  gradually  developed  a  complete 
.system  of  lessons  for  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
year.  (.See  the  art.  I'KRicori-;.)  Such  a  list  of 
lessons  w.as  callerl  Lcctionarin  {sc.  rnluniina),  or 
Leclinnarii  (sc.  lihri),  or,  with  refeience  to  its 
special  contents,  either  Eranf/elislaria  or  JCplslo- 
laria.  The  oldest  Lectionaria  are  the  so-called 
Comes,  which,  howevei-,  is  not  the  work  of  Jerome 
(see  0pp.  flieron.,  ed.  Vall.ars.,  xi.  p.  .')2in.  the 
Lectionarium  Oallicunum  (discovered  by  Maliillon 


in  the  monastery  of  Luxeuil,  and  edited  in  his 
De  liturg.  Gall.),  Lectionarium  Romanum  (found 
in  the  Calendariwn  Romanum,  ed.  Froulo,  Paris, 
1652),  and  Lectionarium  Alamanicum,  edited  by 
Gerbert,  in  Monum.  cetera  liturgice  Alaman,  1777. 

Lit.  —  G.  E.  Tentzel  :  De  ritu  lectionum  sacra- 
nwi,  Viteb.,  168.5;  Brill:  De  Icctionariis,  Helm-, 
stiidt,  1703;  J.  H.  Thamer:  De  orig.  pericoparum,, 
Jena,   1734;    E.   R.\xke:    Das  kirchl.   Perikopen- 
si)stem,  Berlin,  1847.     [Dean  Burgon,  in  chap.  s.  ' 
of  his  work.  The  Last  Twelve  Verses  of  St.  Mark 
(London,  1871),  gives  a  most  valuable  account 
of  lectionaries  ;  and  Dr.  Scrivener's  art.  Lcctionary 
(in  Smith  and  Cheeth.\m  :   Dictionary  of  Chris- 
tian Antiquities,  vol.  ii.   pp.  953-967)  should  be 
consulted.]  F.  NITZSCH. 

LECTOR  (avayvuarric),  an  officer  of  the  ancient 
Church,  whose  duty  it  was  to  read  the  lessons  in 
the  divine  service,  and  to  keep  the  sacred  books. 
At  what  time  this  part  of  the  public  service  be- 
came connected  with  a  special  office  is  imcertain ; 
but  Tertullian  and  Cyprian  speak  of  the  lector 
as  a  regular  church  otficer,  and  of  his  ordination 
as  a  grave  and  solemn  ceremony.  As  his  duty, 
however,  consisted  in  the  merely  mechanical 
reading  of  the  lessons,  without  any  exegetical  or 
homiletical  exposition,  his  office  belonged  to  the 
lower  clerical  orders,  and  gradually  disappeared 
altogether.  In  the  fifth  century  the  deacon  was 
charged  with  the  reading  of  the  Gospels,  and, 
later  on,  the  subdeacon,  with  that  of  the  Epistles. 
At  present  the  Church  of  Rome  has  no  lectors  at 
all,  and  the  ordination  as  lector  is  only  a  prepa- 
ration to  the  priestly  ordination.  See  J.  A. 
Schmidt:  De  primitives  ecclesioe  lectoribus,  Helm- 
stiidt.  1096.  F.  xiTZSCn. 

LECTURES,  LECTURE  COURSES.  See 
Bamptox,  Boyle,  Hdlse.ax.  etc  ,  and  .\ppexdix. 

LEE,  Ann,  fouudi-ess  of  the  sect  of  Shakers  in 
America;  b.  in  Manchester,  Eng..  Feb.  28, 1736;  d. 
at  Watervliet,  N.Y.,  Sept.  8,  1784.  Her  father  was 
a  blacKsmith,  and  she  received  no  education,  but 
was  sent  to  work  in  a  cotton-facturv ;  afterwards, 
was  a  cook  in  the  Manchester  Infirmary;  and  then, 
while  yet  young,  married  Abraham  Standley,  a 
blacksinith,  by  whom  she  had  four  children,  who 
died  in  infancy.  In  1758  she  joined  the  Man- 
chester society  of  Friends,  who  were  called  the 
"Shaking  Quakers,"  and  were  headed  by  James 
Wardley.  Being  naturally  excitable,  she  was 
(juickly  affected  by  the  so-called  "religious  exer- 
cises "  of  the  society,  and  began  to  practise  aus- 
terities, and  to  have  visions,  and  make  revelations. 
But  it  was  not  until  1770  that  she  had  the  epoch- 
making  revelation  against  marriage,  and  began 
her  "  testimony  against  all  lustful  gratifications 
as  the  source  and  foundation  of  human  corruption 
and  misery."  Her  course  led  to  her  imprison- 
ment in  Manchester.  It  was  tlien  that  Chri.st 
appeared  to  her  in  a  vision,  and  ri'vealed  to  her 
that  she  was  the  second  iiicarnatiou  of  Christ, 
and  thus  the  head  of  all  women,  .as  he  was  the 
head  of  all  men.  From  that  time  forth,  she  has 
been  called  by  her  followers,  "  Mother  Ann,"  and 
believed  to  be  perfectly  righteous.  At  this  time 
she  separated  herself  from  her  husband.  Hence- 
forth she  claimed  to  be  directed  by  revelations 
and  visions.  In  1774  she  came  with  her  followers 
to  .Vmeriea,  and  finally  settled,  in  the  spring  of 
1776,  at  Watervliet,  near  Albany,  N.Y.     During 


LEE. 


1293 


LEGATES. 


the  Revolutionary  War  she  was  accused  of  treason- 
able correspondence  with  the  British,  and  cast  into 
prison,  but  was  released  by  Gov.  Clinton,  1777. 
At  a  later  period  (1780)  she  was  again  impri.soned 
for  refusing  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
State  of  New  York,  which  she  could  not  conscien- 
tiously do,  but  was  released  without  trial  by  the 
same  governor.  Persecution  had  the  usual  effect, 
—  of  increasing  the  numbers  of  the  persecuted. 
Taking  advantage  of  a  revival  of  religion  (1779), 
she  gathered  many  converts,  and  in  1780  removed 
the  community  to  New  Lebanon,  Columbia  Coun- 
ty, N.Y.  From  1781  to  1783  she  went  through 
Xew  England  on  a  missionary  tour.  Her  influ- 
ence is  still  felt  by  the  Shakers,  who  revere  her 
memory,  and  she  is  entitled  to  fame  as  a  remarka- 
ble woman.     See  Shakeus. 

LEE,  Jesse,  ''the  apostle  of  Methodism  in  New 
England ; "  b.  in  Prince  George  County,  Va., 
March  12,  1758,  d.  in  Baltimore,  Md.,  Sept.  12, 
1816.  He  was  received  into  the  conference,  1783. 
After  three  years'  labor  in  North  Carolina,  Vir- 
ginia, Maryland,  and  New  Jersey,  he  was  sent  to 
New  England,  where,  in  Stratfield,  Conn.,  Sept. 
26,  1787,  he  formed  the  first  Methodist  "  class  " 
(consisting  of  three  women)  ;  and  the  first  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  July  13,  1792  (his  first  sermon 
there  was  preached  on  the  Common,  July  9, 1790). 
In  1706  he  became  assistant  to  Asbury.  After 
1800  he  returned  to  the  South,  leaving  beliind 
him  in  New  England  fifty  Methodist  preachers 
and  six  thousand  members,  as  the  fruit  of  his 
toil.  In  1^07,  1812,  and  1813,  he  was  chaplain 
of  the  United-States  House  of  Representatives, 
and  from  1814  until  his  death,  chaplain  of  the 
United-States  Senate.  He  was  a  fearless,  plain, 
and  successful  preaclier.  As  an  organizer  and 
founder,  he  ranks  next  to  Asbury.  In  the  field  of 
denominational  reform,  in  which  he  was  greatly 
interested,  he  distinguished  himself  by  suggesting, 
in  1792,  the  delegated  general  conference  of  the 
Jlethodist  Church ;  but  the  idea  was  not  carried 
out  until  1808.  He  published  a  valuable  History 
of  Methodism  in  America,  Baltimore,  1807.  See 
Leuoy  M.  Lee  :  Life  ami  Times  of  Jesse  Lee, 
Richmond,  Va.,  1848. 

LEE,  Samuel,  D.D.,  Orientalist,  b.  at  Longnor, 
Shropshire,  Eng.,  May  14,  1783;  d.  at  Barley, 
Somersetshire,  Dec.  16,  1852.  The  rudiments  of 
his  education  were  received  at  a  charity  school ; 
but  he  was  apprenticed  to  a  carpenter  at  the  age 
of  twelve.  While  working  at  his  ti-ade,  he  studied 
especially  languages ;  and  before  he  was  twenty- 
five  he  liad  acquired,  without  a  teacher,  Latin, 
Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  .Samaritan,  and  Syriac, 
to  which  he  subsequently  added  Arabic,  Persian, 
Ilindustanee,  French,  and  German.  In  1810  he 
became  master  of  Bowdler's  School,  Shrewsbury. 
In  1813  he  entered  Queen's  College,  Cambridge  ; 
took  his  degree  of  B.A.,  1817;  entered  the  min- 
istry ;  was  made  professor  of  Arabic  in  his  uni- 
versity, 1S19,  and  regius  professor  of  Hebrew, 
1831 ;  at  his  death  he  was  also  rector  of  Barley. 
He  received  the  degree  of  D.D.  fi-om  Halle  in 
1S22,  and  from  Cambridge,  1833.  His  publica- 
tions evince  learning  and  ability  of  a  high  order. 
The  chief  are,  Proletjomena  m  Diblica  Pohjr/lot. 
Lunil.  Minor.  (London,  1828)  ;  Trovels  of  Ihn 
Batuta,  translated  from  the  Arabic  (1829) ;  Grammar 
of  the   Hebrew  Language,  compiled  from  the  Best 


Authorities,  principally  from  Oriental  Sources  (1830, 
new  ed.,  1844);  The  Book  of  the  Patriarch  Job  trans- 
lated,  with  Introduction  and  Commentary  {IS'iT);  A 
Lexicon.  Hi'breic,  Chaldee,  and  English  (1810). 

LE   FEVRE.     See  F.\iiEU  St.\pulensis. 

LEGATES  AND  NUNCIOS  IN  THE  ROMAN- 
CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  At  first,  legali,  nuncii, 
niissi,  were  .synonymous  expressions  designating 
the  papal  representatives  at  the  eight  fir.st  councils 
held  in  the  Orient.  The  position  which  tho.se 
representatives  occupied  varied  according  to  cir- 
cumstances ;  and  general  canonical  regulations 
concerning  their  office  there  were  not.  In  the 
latter  part  of  the  fourth  century,  and  in  connec- 
tion with  tile  papal  jurisdiction  in  the  so-called 
causcB  majores,  we  meet  both  with  missi,  or  legati 
apostolici,  appointed  for  the  investigation  of  some 
special  case  of  the  kind,  and  with  ricarii  ajwstolici, 
generally  exercising  the  papal  authority  in  a  cer- 
tain territory.  The  latter  were  generally  arch- 
bishop.s.  who  entered  into  a  clo.ser  connection  with 
Rome,  giving  up  something  of  their  independence, 
and  thereby  acquiring  a  higher  rank.  Their 
authority  often  extended  over  a  whole  country, 
and  was  then  generally  connected  with  the  title 
of  primate ;  but  real,  practical  importance  the 
institution  never  attained.  As  the  Papiacy  de- 
veloped, especially  during  the  reign  of  Gregory 
VIL,  the  institution  of  legati  and  nuncii  also  de- 
veloped. See  Petr.  de  Marca  :  De  concord, 
sacerdotii  el  imperii,  1.  5,  c.  19;  and  Thom.a.ssin: 
Vetus  ac  nova  discipl.  eccl.  T.  1,  1.  2,  c.  107. 

In  a  thoroughly  systematized  form  the  institu- 
tion presents  itself  in  the  decretals,  more  espe- 
cially in  the  collections  of  Gregory  IX.  (x.  1,  30) 
and  Boniface  VIII.  (vi.  1,  15),  where  it  is  treated 
under  the  head  De  officio  legati.  A  distinction  is 
made  between  two  kinds  of  legates,  —  nali  and 
dati,  or  missi.  The  former,  the  legali  nati,  whose 
office  was  once  for  all  connected  with  an  episcopal 
see,  had  originally  the  same  rights  as  the  other 
kind  of  legates.  But  in  the  sixteenth  century 
their  power  became  much  circumscribed.  Their 
jurisdiction  was  completely  suspended  by  the  pres- 
ence of  a  legatus  a  latere:  they  were  not  allowed 
to  have  the  cross  carried  before  them  in  public; 
they  retained,  indeed,  not  much  more  than  the  title 
and  its  rank.  See  Schott  :  De  legatis  natis,  Bam- 
berg, 1788;  aud  Sartori  :  Geistliches  und  welt- 
liches  katholisches  Statswohl,  Nuremberg,  1788. 
The  second  kind  of  legates  consisted  of  Delegati 
{Legati  missi,  properly  speaking)  and  Legati  a 
latere.  The  Legati  missi,  afterwards  generally 
called  Nuncii  apostolici,  appeared  in  red  robes,  on 
white  horses,  with  gold  spurs  on,  etc.  But  their 
power,  defined  by  a  mandatum  speciale,  was  limited 
to  that  special  case  for  which  they  were  sent. 
The  Legatus  a  latere,  "  from  the  side,"  of  the  Pope, 
always  a  cardinal,  is  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word 
the  representative  of  the  Pope.  Ills  power  is 
subject  only  to  a  very  few  limitations.  He  cannot 
remand  a  bishop  ;  he  cannot  divide  a  bishopric, 
or  unite  two,  etc.  He  is  allowed  to  have  a  cross 
carried  before  him  through  the  street,  and  to  sit 
on  a  throne,  under  a  canopy.  See  P.  A.  Gaji- 
B.\RUS :  Tractatus  de  officio  leg.  a  latere,  Venice, 
1.571;  S.  F.  DE  LA  Torre:  De  auctoritate  legati  a 
latere,  Rome,  1656;  G.  "Wagenseil:  Diss,  de  legato 
a  latere,  Altdorf,  1696. 

As  the  legates  often  misused  their  power,  ar.l 


LEGEND. 


129-4 


LEGION. 


the  secular  governments  complained,  and  in  many 
special  cases  compelled  the  Pope  to  make  conces- 
sions, the  whole  institution  underwent  some  slight 
changes  during  the  reign  of  Leo  X.  But  of  much 
greater  importance  were  the  alterations  which 
resulted  from  the  German  Reformation.  By  the 
peace  of  Augsburg  (1555)  the  German  Empire 
declared  that  its  army  should  not  be  used  for  the 
suppression  of  Protestantism.  In  Xorthern  and 
Western  Germany,  however,  as  also  in  the  Span- 
ish Netherlands,  there  were  evangelical  territories 
in  which  the  Roman-Catholic  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops could  not  be  maintained.  In  order  not 
to  abandon  those  territories  altogether,  it  became 
necessarj'  to  establish  fixed  nunciatures.  Such 
fixed  nunciatures  already  existed,  —  one  in  Vien- 
na, and  another  in  Warsaw,  —  but  both  those 
nunciatures  were  of  political  origin  and  of  pre- 
eminently political  character.  The  three  new 
ones  —  established  at  Cologne,  158:2,  Lucern, 
15S6,  and  Brussels,  1600  —  had  for  their  principal 
object  to  do  missionary  work  in  the  evangelical 
territories.  It  soon  became  apparent,  however, 
that  the  institution  was  unable  to  work  in  unison 
with  the  episcopacy ;  and  great  troubles  ensued. 
See  the  art.  Ems,  Congress  of.  mejeb. 

LEGEND.  In  medi;eval  language  Legenda,  or 
Legendar'd  (sc.  libri)  denotes  such  collections  of 
extracts  from  the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs  as 
were  authorized  to  be  used  as  lessons  in  divine 
service  on  their  memorial  days.  A  more  exact 
expression  distinguishes  between  Passionarii  and 
Legendarii,  referring  the  former  specially  to  the 
martyrs,  and  the  latter  to  the  saints  in  general. 
The  custom,  however,  of  reading  the  lives  of  mar- 
tyrs and  saints  in  the  divine  service  on  their  me- 
morial days  is  much  ojder  than  the  mediaeval  name 
indicates.  The  thirty-sixth  canon  of  the  synod 
of  Hippo  (393)  allows  the  passions  of  the  martyi'S 
to  be  read  on  their  anniversaries  ;  and  from  Au- 
gustine's sermons  (Nos.  273  and  31.5)  it  appears, 
that,  at  his  time,  tlie  custom  was  general  in  the 
Xorth  African  churches.  The  Leclifmiirium  Gal- 
ticarium  contains  lessons  from  the  Arid  Marli/rum, 
and  Avitus  of  Vienue  states  that  the  passion  of 
the  holy  martyrs  of  Agannum  was  read  e.v  cnn- 
suelwlinis  debilo.  The  Gelasian  decree,  De  lihrii 
recipicndia.  forbade  the  use  of  the  Ada  Marli/nim 
as  les.sons,  becau.se  their  authors  were  unknown; 
but  Adrian  I.  again  allowed  it. 

The  liturgical  use,  however,  which  was  made 
of  the  legends,  by  no  means  exhausts  their  theo- 
logical significance.  They  originated  without 
reference  to  liturgy  :  they  would  also  have  devel- 
oped without  conni'Ction  with  it.  A  congrega- 
tion could  never  fail  to  take  an  interest  in  its 
own  saints  and  martyrs,  nor  could  it  ever  fail  to 
find  edilication  in  the  reading  of  their  lives. 
Thus  legends  became  a  literature.  In  the  first 
century  this  literature  had  a  historical  character. 
Legends  form  a  historical  .source,  though  a  source 
winch  must  lie  used  with  caution.  The  Aria 
M(irli/rum  and  Ada  Satidnrum  (following  the 
Calendaria,  Dipli/clia,  and  Marli/rologia),  the  \'ilce 
I'alrum  and  I'assitmalia  of  the  old  Church,  W(?re 
not  mere  story-books.  Eusebius'  book  on  the 
martyrs  of  Palestine,  I'alladius' ///.</wm  /.nuslarii, 
even  Theodorefs  (jn'/jidtnc  inropia,  and  .).  Moschus' 
Tieifiuv,  contained  true  liistorical  information,  as 
well  as  the  De  Viris  lllustribus  by  Jeioine,  Culta- 


tionesPatrum  by  Cassianus,  VitmPatrum  by  Gregory 
of  Tours,  etc. 

But  there  came  a  time,  about  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, when  a  regard  to  edification,  an  inclination 
towards  fantasticalness,  and  even  less  excusable 
motives,  got  the  better  of  the  historical  sense,  and 
transformed  the  legends  into  a  maze  of  fiction. 
This  tendency  is  represented  in  the  Greek  Church 
by  the  lives  of  saints,  by  Simeon  Metaphrastes, 
and  in  the  Latin  Church  by  the  Legenda  Anna 
of  Jacobus  a  Voragine.  The  exaggerations,  how- 
ever, and,  in  many  cases,  the  frauds,  were  so  pal- 
pable, that  no  amount  of  credulit}'  was  sufficient 
to  bear  them  for  a  long  time.  Even  in  the  fifteenth 
century  the  historical  conscience  stirred  up  Jlom- 
britius  ;  and  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  whole 
mass  of  legendary  matter  was  subjected  to  an 
often  very  acute  criticism  hj'  the  Bollandists  In 
the  eighteenth  century,  on  the  instance  of  Herder, 
the  legends  were  once  more  taken  up,  but  from 
a  merely  literary  or  a>sthetical  point  of  view. 
See  M.vuitv  :  Les  Lt'gendes  pieuses  dn  ]\[oyen  Age, 
Paris.  Ibl'.i;  IIorst.mann:  Allenglisdic  Legenden, 
Paderliorn,  1875.  F.  NITZSCH. 

LEGENDARY  THEORY.     See  Mythical. 

LECER,  Jean,  b.  at  Villa  Sana,  in  Piedniont, 
Feb.  2,  1015;  studied  at  Geneva;  was  appointed 
pastor  of  the  churches  of  Prali  and  Ilodoreto  in 
1(539,  and  in  1043  of  the  Church  of  St.  Giovanni 
among  the  Waldenses ;  fled  in  1655,  on  account 
of  the  barbarous  persecutions  instituted  by  the 
Duke  of  Savoy,  and  sought  aid  for  his  flock  from 
Louis  XIV.  and  Cromwell,  on  whose  recommen- 
dation the  Patentes  de  grace  were  granted,  but 
became  afterwards  the  subject  of  a  special  per- 
secution ;  fled  once  more,  and  found  rescue  at 
Leyden.  The  exact  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
His  Hisloire  gtncrale  den  J^glises  evangiTuiuef  du 
PiedinonI,  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  infor- 
mation concerning  the  Waldenses,  apjieared  at 
Leyden,  1069,  2  vols.  EMILIO  CxniBA. 

LEGIO  FULMINATRIX.    See  Legion,  Thun- 

DEIU.NG. 

LEGION,  The  Theban.  According  to  the  le- 
gend,—  such  as  itoccurs,  in  its  oldest  and  simplest 
form,  in  the  Passio  ascribed  to  Bishop  Eucherius 
of  Lyons,  —  a  legion  consisting  of  sixty-six  hun- 
dred men,  and  called  the  "  Theban,"  was  sent 
from  the  Orient  to  Xorthern  Italy  to  re-enforce 
the  army  of  Maximinian.  He  inteiuled  to  use 
his  army  to  pei-secute  the  Christians ;  but  the 
.soUliers  "of  the  Theban  Legion,  being  Christians 
themselves,  refused  to  obey  his  orders.  Exas- 
jierated  at  the  refu.sal,  he  had  the  legion  twice 
decinuited;  and  as  the  soldiers,  exhorted  by  their 
connuander  Mauritius,  continued  firm,  he  had  the 
whole  legion  nnissacred.  In  later  versions  this 
legend  appears  nuich  extended,  and  adorned  with 
many  more  or  less  fabulous  features. 

The  Magdelinrg  Cenlnrics  declared  Mauritius, 
tliough  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  Alagdeburg,  an 
idol, "and  the  whole  legend  a  fiction.  Its  nntena- 
bleness  was  still  more  elaborately  demonstrated 
by  .1.  A.  du  Bordieu  (Dis.ieiiallon  critique  stir  le 
Martip-e  de  la  It'gian  T/n'lx'enne.  Amsterdam,  1705) 
and  llottinger  (flelrrlische  Kircliciu/excliiclile,  Zu- 
rich, 1708).  On  the  other  hand,  its  histori- 
cal ness  was  defended  by  De  Tlsle,  canon  of  St. 
Maurice  (Di'/euse  de  la  ci'rili'  de  In  legion  Thc'h.., 
Nancy,  1741),  by  the  Bollandists  (who  gave  a  verj 


LEGION. 


1295 


LEIBNITZ. 


careful  collection  of  all  pertaining  materials),  and 
De  Rivaz  (Eclaircissemtiits  sur  le  Maiii/ie  <le  la 
legion  The'htenne,  1779).  Among  moik'ni  authors, 
Rettberg  rejects  the  legend,  and  Friedrich  siqi- 
ports  it,  in  their  I'espective  works  on  the  church 
history  of  Germany. 

Between  the  alleged  event  and  the  first  report, 
about  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  passed  away, — 
time  enough  for  such  a  legend  to  grow  up.  Still 
worse,  none  of  the  contemporary  authors,  or  of 
those  nearest  to  the  event  (Eusebius,  Lactantius, 
Orosius,  Sulpicius  Severus),  speak  of  it ;  and  it 
would,  at  least  for  Lactantius,  seem  very  singular 
to  say  nothing,  if  he  knew  any  thing  about  it. 
The  worst  of  all  is,  that  it  has  not  been  possible 
to  place  the  event  properly,  or  even  probably,  in 
history :  neither  time  nor  place  will  fit.  Gener- 
ally, therefore,  the  legend  must  be  declared  un- 
historical,  which,  however,  does  not  forbid  to 
assume  that  some  kind  of  real  fact  underlies  the 
fiction.  G.   UHLHOKN. 

LECION,  The  Thundering  (Legio  Fulininalrix). 
The  event — a  llonian  legion  shut  up  in  a  dismal 
valley  among  the  Alps,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
heathen  enemies,  and  almost  suffocated  by  thirst, 
but  saved  at  the  culminating  moment  of  the  dan- 
ger by  a  timely  shower  of  rain  —  is  recorded  both 
by  Christian  and  I'agan  authors,  as  also  by  the 
reliefs  of  the  Colunm  of  Marcus  Aurelius  in  Rome. 
The  Christian  authors  Tertulliau  (Apologel.,  5) 
and  Eusebius  (Hist.  EccL,  5,  5)  recognize  in  this 
event  a  miraculous  interference  of  Providence, 
and  ascribe  it  to  the  prayers  of  the  Christian  sol- 
diers. The  Pagan  authors  are  inclined  to  view 
the  event  in  the  same  light,  but  ascribe  it  either 
to  the  prayers  of  the  emperor  (Capitolinus  :  Vita 
Marci  Aurelii,  24),  or  to  the  art  of  an  Egyptian 
sorcerer,  as,  for  instance,  Dio  Cassius  does.  The 
reliefs  on  the  imperial  column  represent  the  fact, 
but  attempt  no  explanation.  The  letter  from 
Marcus  Aurelius  to  the  Senate,  printed  in  the  ap- 
pendix to  .Justin's  Apology,  is  a  forgery. 

LEIBNITZ,  Gottfried  Wilhelm,  b.  at  Leipzig, 
July  3,  1646;  d.  at  Hanover,  Nov.  14,  1716.  He 
studied  jurisprudence,  mathematics,  and  philoso- 
phy at  Leipzig  and  .Jena,  and  entered  in  1666, 
through  the  recommendation  of  Baron  von  Boine- 
burg  (a  Protestant  convert  to  Romanism),  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Elector  of  Mayeuce,  in  wliich  he  held 
various  positions,  and  was  chiefly  occupied  with 
j  lu'isprudence  :  Methndus  nura  disceiitke  docenilre- 
ijiie  jurisprudenlice  (1667)  ;  though  his  Confessio 
iiuiurm contra  alheiski!'  (1069)  and  Defensio  Trinita- 
tif  (1669)  show  a  much  wider  range  of  studies.  In 
1672  le  went  to  Paris  as  tutor  to  Boinetiurg's  sons, 
visited  London,  returned  to  Paris,  and  staid  there 
till  1676,  principally  engaged  in  the  stiidy  of  nat- 
ural science  an<l  mathematics.  His  great  mathe- 
matical discovery,  the  differential  calcidus,  dates 
back  to  1676,  though  it  was  not  published  imtil 
1684.  As,  in  the  mean  time,  the  Elector  of  Blay- 
ence  had  died,  he  accepted  in  1676  an  offer  from 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick  to  settle  at  Hanover  as 
librarian.  Charged  with  writing  the  history  of 
the  house  of  Brunswick,  he  made  various  journeys 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  and  gathered  together  an 
immense  amount  of  materials,  —  Codex  juris  gen- 
tium diplomaticus  (1693-1700)  and  Scrip/ores  rerum 
Brunsvicensium  (1701-11).  But  his  Annates  Bruns- 
vicenses  were  never  completed,  and  not  published 
ao— II 


until  a  century  and  a  half   later  on,  by  Pertz. 

.\long  with  those  historical  studies  he  wrote,  how- 
ever, a  great  number  of  mathematical,  philosophi- 
cal, and  theological  treatises,  mostly  published  in 
Acta  eruditorum  Lips,  and  Journal  des  Saoants. 
But  a  complete  systematic  representation  of  his 
philosophical  doctrines  he  never  gave.  The  best 
exposition  of  his  nionadology  is  a  mere  summary, 
which  he  prepared  for  Prince  Eugen  during  his 
stay  in  Vienna,  1714. 

That  of  Leibnitz's  works  which  has  the  great- 
est interest  to  the  theologian  is,  of  course,  his 
Essais  de  thi'odicee  sur  la  honli'  de  Dieu,  la  lilierle'  ile 
I'homme  et  Voriyine  du  nud,  1710.  It  originated  as 
a  polemic  against  the  dictionary  of  Baylo,  and 
was  occasioned  by  the  request  of  Queen  Sophia 
Charlotte.  In  many  ways  his  metaphysical  doc- 
trines, his  optimism,  his  determinism,  etc.,  mirror 
themselves  in  the  book.  His  doctrine,  that  this 
world  is  the  best  world  which  could  possibly  ex- 
ist, leads  him  to  a  conception  of  the  evil  which  is 
essentially  different  from  that  held  by  the  religious 
consciousness.  Evil  is  to  his  mind  the  simple  and 
natural  result  of  the  necessary  limitation  of  every 
thing  created  :  it  is  consequently  something  metar 
physical,  and  not  ethical.  In  a  similar  way,  his 
doctrine  of  the  pre-established  harmony  leads  him 
into  a  kind  of  determinism,  in  \\hich  the  freedom 
of  the  will  becomes  lost  in  the  metaphysical  ne- 
cessity, or  at  least  loses  its  true  ethical  point. 
In  general  he  considers  Christianity  only  as  the 
purest  and  noblest  of  all  religions,  as  the  reli- 
gion of  the  wise  made  by  Christ  the  religion  of 
all,  as  the  natural  religion  raised  by  Christ  into 
a  law.  Nevertheless  the  book  is  written  with 
great  vigor  and  warmth,  nor  did  it  fail  to  make  a 
wide  and  deep  impression. 

Another  interesting  side  of  Leibnitz's  theologi- 
cal activity  is  his  participation  in  the  endeavors 
then  made  for  the  purpose  of  uniting  the  diiferent 
Christian  denominations.  The  general  feeling 
prevalent  after  the  end  of  the  Tliirty- Years'  War 
was  favorable  to  such  plans ;  and  the  subject  was 
ably  broached  by  Bossuet's  Exposition  de  lafoi  de 
t'eglise  catholiijue,  —  a  defence  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  but  conciliatory  in  its  spirit,  and  very  guard- 
ed in  its  exjiressions.  Rojas  de  Spinola,  a  Fran- 
ciscan monk  of  Spanish  descent,  and  coufes.sor 
to  the  Emperor  Leopold,  was  a  zealous  champion  of 
the  project.  He  visited  Hanover  several  times,  on 
the  instance  of  the  emperor ;  and,  as  Duke  Ernst 
August  was  willing  to  enter  into  negotiations,  a 
conference  was  arranged  between  Rojas  de  Spino- 
la on  the  one  side,  and  INIolanus  and  Leibnitz  on 
the  other.  The  results  of  the  conference  were  re- 
ceived with  great  hopes,  both  in  Hanover  and  in 
Vienna  and  Rome.  A  couple  of  years  later  on 
appeared  I>eibnitz's  Syslenia  theologicuin,  which  has 
made  the  truth  of  his  Protestant  faith  suspected 
by  many.  Again  a  couple  of  years  passed  on,  and 
in  16!U  the  correspondence  began  between  Bos- 
suet  and  Leibnitz.  But  the  authority  of  the 
Council  of  Trent,  absolutely  insisted  upon  by  Bos- 
suet,  and  absolutely  rejected  by  Leibnitz,  proved 
the  rock  on  which  all  the  plans  and  negotiations 
for  a  luiion  between  Romanism  and  Protestant- 
ism were  wrecked.  In  the  attempts  of  uniting 
the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  Churches,  car- 
ried out  by  the  courts  of  Berlin  and  Hanover, 
Leibnitz  also  took  part.     A  coufereuce  was  held. 


LEIGH. 


1290 


LBIGHTON. 


in  Hanover  between  the  Prussian  court-preacher, 
Jablon.ski,  on  the  one  side,  and  Molanus  and  Leib- 
nitz on  the  other.  A  Collef/ium  irenicum  was 
established  in  Berlin  1703 ;  but  the  only  result  of 
the  negotiations  seems  to  have  been  the  term 
"  evangelical  "  as  tlie  common  designation  of  the 
diiferent  Reformed  churches,  iu  contradistinction 
to  the  Church  of  Rome. 

Lit.  —  The  philosophical  works  of  Leibnitz 
have  been  edited  bv  Erdm.\xx  (Berlin,  18.39-40), 
Jacques  (Paris,  1842),  Janet  (Paris,  ISGG). 
Complete  edition.s  have  been  published  by  Pertz 
(Hanover,  1813)  and  Foucher  de  C-\reil  (Paris, 
i860).  Hi.s  German  works  were  edited  by  Guii- 
RAXER  (Berlin,  1838-40),  who  also  wrote  his  Life 
(Breslau,  1842,  2  vols).  See  also  Class  :  D.  mela- 
physischen  Vuraussetzungen  des  Leibnitz.  Determinis- 
mus,  1874 ;  Tichler  :  Die  T/ieolor/ie  des  Leibnitz, 
1869.  R.  EUCKEX. 

LEICH,  Edward.  Puritan  writer ;  b.  at  Shaw- 
ell,  Leicestershire,  March  24,  1602;  d.  in  Staf- 
1  irilshire,  June  2,  1671.  He  proceeded  M.A.  at 
;\Iagdalen  Hall,  Oxford,  1623,  and  entered  the 
Middle  Temple.  In  1636  he  sat  in  Parliament  as 
member  for  Stafford,  and  was  expelled  with  his 
brother  Presbyterians  in  1648.  He  gave  much 
attention  to  theology  and  biblical  studies,  and 
published  several  useful  works,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned  Critica  sacra,  containing  Obser- 
vations on  all  the  Radices  of  lite  Hebrew  Words  of 
llie  Old,  and  the  Greek  of  the  Xew,  Testament,  J^on- 
don,  1639.  4th  and  best  edition,  1662,  Latin  trans- 
lation, Amsterdam,  1696  (formerly  much  used, 
now  supplanted)  ;  A  Body  of  Divinity  in  Ten 
Books,  16.54;  Treatise  nf  Religion  ami  Learning, 
and  of  Religious  and  Learned  Men,  1656  ;  and  a 
compilation,  Annotations  upon  the  New  Testament, 
16.50  (Latin  translation,  Leipzig,  1732). 

LEIGHTON,  Robert,  successively  minister  of 
Kewljattle,  principal  of  the  university  of  Edin- 
burgh, bishop  of  Dunblane,  and  archbishop  of 
(ilasgow;  b.  (place  unknown)  1611;  d.  in  Lon- 
don, .June  2.5,  1684.  He  was  graduated  from  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  1631,  and  then  spent 
several  years  on  the  Continent,  especially  in 
Douay,  France.  His  father,  Alexander  Leighton, 
was  a  I'resbyterian  clergyman  and  physician,  who 
was  cruelly  handled  by  the  Star  Chamber,  .and 
imprisoned  ten  years  in  l^oudon  for  "  sedition," 
becau.se  he  had  defeiuled  Presbyterianisni.  The 
son  was  licensed  by  the  presbytery  of  Eiiinburgli, 
July,  1641,  and  settled  in  the  parish  of  Newbattle 
(formerly  Xewbotle,  "  botle  "  meaning  hamlet), 
four  miles  long  by  two  wide,  in  the  presbytery  of 
Dalkeith,  Dec.  16,  1611.  Leigliton  was  then  in 
his  thirtieth  year,  with  a  mind  eidarged  by  years 
of  study  ami  travel,  thoroughly  disciplined  for 
thinking  clearly,  and  expressing  his  ideas  with 
per.su,asive  force  and  beauty.  He  was  a  ripe 
scholar;  a  tlieologian  who  had  a  firm  grasp  of 
the  go.spel  verities,  in  which  his  own  heart  found 
repo.se;  a  Christian  man,  who.se  inner  life  breathed 
tiie  air  of  habitual  fellowship  with  (iod.  As  a 
preacher,  he  eschewed  the  habit  of  his  time  in 
multitudinous  divisions  of  his  subject;  and  Bur- 
net testifies  to  the  '•  inipressiveness,  majesty,  and 
beauty,"  of  his  .sermons.  The  current  .account 
of  his  life,  after  Burnet,  is  singularly  inaccurate, 
as  if  for  eleven  years  lie  had  worn  an  Anglican 
cassock  under  his  Genevan  gown.     The  records  of 


the  session  of  Newbattle  and  of  the  presbytery 
of  Dalkeith  durmg  his  incumbency,  printed  in 
1862  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Gordon,  the  present  minis- 
ter of  the  parish,  dispel  many  hitherto  accepted 
ojiinions  concerning  him.  Instead  of  "  scarce 
ever  going  to  the  meetings  of  presbytery,"  he 
was  one  of  the  most  faithful  and  regular  in  his 
attendance,  taking  his  share  in  all  the  business, 
preaching  often  before  the  presbytery,  the  synod, 
the  assembly,  and  sometimes  before  the  Scottish 
Parliament.  If  he  "disliked  their  covenant,  par- 
ticularly the  imposing  it,"  he  nevertheless  signed 
it  himself  in  1643,  along  with  his  heritors  and 
parishioners,  and  so  late  as  1650  administered  it 
to  a  parishioner  who  had  been  twelve  years  in 
Germany.  He  was  a  member  of  the  assembly 
which  met  at  St.  Andrews  on  July  28,  1642,  and 
was  one  of  the  commission  which  met  on  Oct.  18 
of  that  year,  when  the  commissioners  were  nomi- 
nated for  the  Westminster  Asseniblj'.  So  far 
from  being  estranged  from  his  brethren,  "  living 
in  great  retirement,  minding  only  the  care  of  his 
own  parish,"  no  minister  seems  more  active  or 
trusted.  In  1651  he  was  unanimously  selected  by 
the  synod  of  Lothian  to  repair  to  London  "  for 
negotiating  the  freedom  of  brethren  imprisoned 
there."  He  was  one  of  a  commission  appointed  by 
the  synod,  in  November,  1648,  "for  trying  of  any 
Members  of  the  Assemblie  that  had  been  active 
promoters  of  the  last  sinfull  ingadgement,  or  had 
accession  theirto."  And  he  often  comes  promi- 
nently forward  on  tlie  side  of  the  prevailing 
party.  The  tradition  of  his  replying  to  a  ques- 
tion in  the  synod,  "  whether  he  preached  to  the 
times,"  by  asking  another,  "  Who  does  so  ?  "  and, 
when  he  got  the  rejoinder  '•  that  all  the  breth- 
ren did  so,"  his  saying  "  that  they  might  permit 
one  jioor  brother  to  preach  Jesus  Christ  and  eter- 
nity," may  be  set  opposite  a  statement  in  the 
minutes    of    his   presbytery,   under   date    April, 

1652,  regarding  "the  union  and  harmonic  wherein 
this  presbytery  are  so  singularly  happy  in  this 
distracted  time."  But  he  became  weary  of  the 
increasing  contentions  and  "  anxious  to  be  left  to 
his  own  thoughts." 

On  Dec.  16, 16.52,  he  offered  to  demit  his  charge, 
and  the  presbytery  refused  to  accept  of  the  demis- 
sion. The  reasons  Leighton  gave  for  his  request 
were  "the  greatness  of  the  congregation  far  ex- 
ceeding his  strength  for  discharging  the  duties 
thereof,  especially  the  extrenu^  weakness  of  his 
voice,  not  being  able  to  reach  the  half  of  them 
A\hen  they  are  convened,  which  had  long  pressed 
him  very  .sore,  which  he  formerly  had  often  ex- 
])re.ssed  to  us  [i\u:  jiresbytery]."  '    But  in  .January, 

1653,  the  town  council  of  Edinburgh  having 
elected  liini  to  bi^  princip.al  of  the  college  there, 
the  presbytery,  on  the  3d  of  February,  "  transport- 

•  IJurnut  RpeukH  of  his  low  voice  In  preaclitnic.  The  com- 
rnuiilciiiiu  of  tilt*  piirit))),  in  l(i4S,  nunibured  nine  luindred 
(tin;  niitnbcr  in  1S81  wat.  four  linndrcd  iinil  tliirly).  I.ci^lUon 
wan  of  Hniiili  Ktatnre,  nnd  wiiK  familiarly  ealli-tl.  at  [tn  after. 
day,  "the  liltle  bisliop."  He  waM  never  robuNt  in  liealtb.  Tbe 
oeca(*lon»  of  Ills  absence  from  the  prehbylery  were  ellller 
"  «icknei*8,'*or  his  Koini;  to  London  once  a  year  to  see  bis.  fatber. 
In  .Itine,  lfi48,  he  made  bin  preeeiiKn'  read  "tbe  Declaration 
anenl  tbe  Enffa^einent,"  as  be  ..aid,  "  liccatiMe  of  the  Iowiu^bhc, 
of  liiH  awne  voice,  wblrli  could  not  be  luard  tliorow  tbe  Kirk, 
ar.  be  M-aH  HO  troubled  witli  ane  );real  detlucti.iti  that  be  waB 
not  able  to  extend  hiM  voyce."  In  .\ui;uHt  of  that  year  lie 
exeUMed  bimnelf  on  aecouitt  of  "ane  diwlilialion  and  weakneos 
of  bodie."  Kvldently  be  wan  liable  to  Huddeli  attackr.  of  throat 
or  cheHt  ntVeetloiiH.  IIIh  la..t  illni'HH  was  a  sudden  stroku  ol 
pleurisy,  to  which  be  succumbed  in  u  few  days. 


LEIGHTON. 


1297 


LEIGHTON. 


ed  him  to  that  charge."  Leighton  held  this  high 
office  till  the  Restoration. 

As  principal  and  primarius  profe.ssor  of  divin- 
ity he  gave  a  lecture  in  theology  to  the  students 
once  a  week,  and  preached  in  the  college  church 
every  third  sabbath.  His  I'rtelecliones  Tltedlor/icw, 
along  with  his  Parccnesen  and  MeiJilutionea  ethico- 
critic(E  in  Psalino.f,  written  in  Latin  of  Ciceronian 
purity,  were  read  in  the  college,  and  are  given 
with  his  published  works.  According  to  Dr. 
Tulloch,  "  they  are  the  most  interesting  of  his 
works  ;  "  though  that  which  has  chiefly  endeared 
him  to  earnest  Christians  is  his  Commentary  on 
the  First  Epistle  of  Peter.  Of  his  writings. 
Bishop  Jebb  has  said,  "  His  commentary  is  a 
treasury  of  devotion ;  his  theological  lectures  are 
the  very  philosophy  of  the  New  Testament;  and 
his  meditations  on  some  of  the  psalms  raise  us 
to  those  purer  and  sublimer  heiglits  where  it  was 
his  delight  and  privilege  habitually  to  dwell." 
All  were  composed  wliile  he  was  a  minister  or 
professor  in  the  Covenanting  Church ;  and  that 
he  was  able  to  continue  in  it  till  it  was  over- 
thrown, while  he  was  allowed,  or  felt  constrained, 
to  resign  his  place  in  tliat  which  succeeded,  is 
the  best  proof,  that,  with  all  superficial  differ- 
ences there  were  deeper  and  more  essential  har- 
monies between  him  and  the  best  of  his  Puritan 
contemporaries  than  have  been  yet  acknowledged. 
jMany  of  his  finest  gems  have  a  genuine  Puritan 
tinge. 

He  succeeded  in  obtaining  from  Cromwell's  gov- 
ernment a  better  revenue  for  the  university;  and, 
in  order  to  elevate  academical  training,  he  recom- 
mended, as  Knox  had  done,  the  e.stablishment  of 
grammar-schools  in  various  parts  of  Scotland.  In 
the  recess  of  the  college  session  he  made  visits  to 
the  Continent,  and  kept  up  correspondence  with 
some  of  the  Jansenists,  which  gave  rise  to  a  sus- 
picion of  his  becoming  a  Catholic,  and  probably, 
along  with  the  contentions  of  his  time,  developed 
that  quietism,  and  indifference  to  e.xternals,  which 
prepared  the  way  for  a  change  in  his  ecclesiasti- 
cal relations.  This  change  occurred  in  1001,  on 
the  establishment  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland.  He 
decided  to  remain  in  the  reconstituted  church, 
became  bishop  of  Dunblane,  and  was  consecrated 
to  that  see,  along  with  Sharp  and  other  two,  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  Dec.  lo,  1661. 

It  was  an  immen.se  gain  to  the  new  order  to 
have  a  bishop  with  the  endowments,  learning, 
and  eminent  piety  of  Leighton,  in  their  ranks. 
The  purity  antl  sincerity  of  his  motives  in  mak- 
ing the  transition  are  above  all  question.  Dr. 
Flint  has  said,  "  A  purer,  humbler,  holier  spirit 
than  that  of  Robert  Leighton  never  tabernacled 
in  Scottish  clay  ;  "  and  he  might  have  added,  "  nor 
in  any  other  clay."  "  He  was  accounted  a  saint 
from  his  youtli,"  and  his  days  were  "  linked  eacli  to 
each  by  natural  piety."  That  gentle,  loving,  and 
devout  student,  as  he  comes  before  us  in  his  let- 
ters to  his  parents,  gradually  increased  in  learn- 
ing, in  culture,  in  spiritual  insight  and  practical 
devotion,  till  he  became  the  "angelic  man"  whom 
Burnet  so  lovingly  portrayed,  —  "  that  true  Father 
of  the  Church  of  Christ,"  whose  noble  thoughts 
Coleridge  has  delighted  to  unfold.  He  was,  as 
Bishop  Jebb  says,  "  a  human  seraph,  uniting  the 
solar  warmth  with  the  solar  light,  uix/e  an/el  unde 
Ixicet."     He  was,  in  fact,  the  Scottish  Hooker  and 


Howe  in  one,  and  "  will  not  suffer  by  comparison 
with  any  divine  in  any  age."  Even  Scotchmen, 
who  thank  (>od  for  the  noble  men  who  "preached 
to  the  times,"  and  sacrificed  life  and  all  they  held 
dear  to  carry  on  tlie  struggle  in  which  Leighton's 
father  suffered  .so  cruelly,  will  not  fail  to  thank 
God  that  there  was  one  noble  man  in  those  un- 
quiet days  who  kept  so  much  apart  from  the 
strife  of  tongues,  fixed  his  gaze  so  steadily  be- 
yond passing  controversies,  preached  and  lived 
for  eternity,  and  whose  voice  is  still  "a  continual 
reminder  that  .  .  .  the  celestial  mountains  are 
before  us,  and  thither  lies  our  true  destiny." 

Very  soon  after  his  alliance  with  Shai-p  he  be- 
gan to  discover  how  hard  a  task  he  had  under- 
taken;  and,  as  Burnet  says,  "he  quickly  lost  all 
heart  and  hope,  observing  such  cross  characters 
of  an  angry  Providence  as  seemed  to  say  that 
God  was  against  them."  He  entered  his  see  in 
1662,  and  discharged  its  duties  in  a  loving  and 
tender  spirit  till  1672.  His  diocese  consisted  of 
the  two  presbyteries  of  Dunblane  and  Auchter- 
arder,  comprising  more  than  thirty  parishes  in  the 
western  part  of  Perthshire.  These  presbyteries 
continued  their  meetings  as  before ;  and  the 
synod  over  which  Leighton  presided,  as  its  rec- 
ords published  by  Dr.  John  Wilson  in  1877  fully 
show,  met  twice  a  year,  and  each  member  had 
"  full  liberty  of  voting,  and  debating  their  assent 
and  dissent,  as  ever  they  had  in  former  times." 
There  were  only  three  or  four  nonconformist 
ministers.  The  ritual  of  the  church  was  un- 
changed, neither  liturgy  nor  surplice  being  used. 
Externally  the  frame-work  was  the  same,  but  a 
new  motive-power  had  been  introduced  into  the 
machinery.  As  Sharp's  and  other  bishops'  views 
were  not  in  accordance  with  his,  Leighton's  modi- 
fied episcopacy,  and  the  spirit  of  conciliation  he 
tried  to  infuse  into  the  counsels  of  the  king  and 
his  ministers,  were  thwarted.  Leighton.  both  in 
Parliament  and  in  pre.sence  of  Charles  11.,  plead- 
ed for  milder  measures,  and  got  the  "  Indul- 
gence." Archbishop  Burnet  of  Glasgow,  having 
opposed  this  clemency,  was  superseded,  and  Leigh- 
ton was  appointed  commendator  of  Glasgow  in 
1670,  and  archliishop  of  Glasgow  in  1672.  In 
the  wider  sphere  in  which  he  was  thus  placed,  he 
launched  a  scheme  of  "  Acconnnodation,"  .so  as  to 
bridge  over  the  gulf  that  yawned  between  the 
Presbyterians  and  Episcopalians  ;  and  along  with 
Dr.  Gilbert  Burnet,  then  professor  of  divinity  in 
Glasgow  University,  and  afterwards  bishop  of 
Salisbury,  he  labored  hard  to  gain  his  object. 
The  bridge  broke  down.  He  was  disheartened 
with  the  remorseless  measures  of  the  government 
against  the  Covenanters,  and  the  stern  resolution 
of  the  anti-prelatists  to  admit  of  no  surrender. 
He  accordingly  went  to  London,  and  tendered  his 
resignation,  as,  indeed,  he  had  done  more  than 
once  when  in  Dunblane.  Charles  II.  persuaded 
him  to  continue  one  year  longer;  and  he  was 
permitted  to  retire  in  September.  1674.  For  a 
short  time  he  lived  within  the  college  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  afterwards  found  a  home  of  peace 
under  the  roof-tree  of  his  sister,  jMrs.  Liglitmaker, 
at  Broadhurst  in  Sussex.  In  167fl  he  was  invited 
by  the  king  to  go  down  to  Scotland,  after  Sharp's 
assassination,  to  pour  oil  on  the  troubled  waves ; 
but  he  remained  in  his  loved  retreat.  He  went  up 
to  London  to  meet  the  Earl  of  Perth  in  1684 ;  and 


LBIGHTON. 


1298 


LEIPZIG. 


Burnet,  who  met  him,  congratulated  him  on  his 
healthy  looks.  He  in  reply  stated  "that  he  was 
near  his  end,  and  his  journey  almost  done."  Next 
day  he  was  seized  with  pleurisy,  and  in  two  days 
more,  ou  the  25th  of  June,  1684,  died  at  the  Bell 
Inn,  Warwick  Lane,  thus  realizing  a  fond  wish  of 
his  life,  that,  like  a  pilgrim,  he  might  die  in  an 
inn.  He  was  buried  in  the  south  chancel  of  the 
Church  of  Horsted  Keynes,  Sussex,  the  parish  in 
which  he  had  resided  for  some  years.  He  be- 
queathed his  library  to  the  diocese  of  Dunblane, 
where  it  still  continues.  His  works  consist  of 
Sermons  ami  Charges  tu  the  Clergy,  Pnelecliones 
Theologicce  et  Parceneses,  and  Commentanj  on  the 
First  Epistle  of  Peter.  Coleridge  has  based  his 
work,  Aids  to  Reflection,  on  some  of  the  choicest 
pieces  of  Leiohton's  rich  mind,  and  has  brought 
them  as  mucn  into  favor  among  the  cultured  as 
they  had  long  been  among  humble,  earnest  Chris- 
tians. 

Lit.  —  Leighton  is  said  to  have  published  noth- 
ing during  his  lifetime,  and  before  his  death  to 
have  signified  to  his  relatives  his  wish  that  his 
papers  should  be  destroyed.  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  and  4 
in  the  subjoined  list,  which  may  be  said  to  con- 
stitute the  eilitio  princeps  of  his  works,  were  pub- 
lished with  the  sanction  of  these  relatives,  and 
edited  by  Dr.  James  Fall,  principal  of  Glasgow 
University  before  the  Revolution,  and  afterwards 
canon  of  York.  Their  titles  are,  (1)  Sermons 
Preached  by  Dr.  Robert  Leighton,  late  Archbishop 
of  Glasgow.  Published,  at  the  desire  of  his  friends, 
after  his  death,  from  his  papers,  written  with  his  oxen 
hand,  etc.  London,  1692,  8vo.  (2)  A  Practical 
Commentary  upon  the  Two  First  Chapters  of  the 
Fir.^t  Epi.<ttle  General  of  St.  Peter,  by  the  Most 
Rev.  Dr.  Robert  Leighton,  some  time  Archbishop  of 
Glasgow.  Published  after  his  death  at  the  ret/uest 
of  his  friends.  York,  169:i,  4to.  (3)  Pndectiones 
Theologicfe,  etc.,  ito.  London,  1693.  (i)  Practi- 
cal Commentary  upon  the  First  Epistle  General  of 
St.  Peter.  Part  ii.,  London,  1694.  The  principal 
subsequent  editions  of  his  works  are  those  of 
Wilson  (Edinbm-gh,  1746-63),  of  IMiddletou  (Lon- 
don, c.  1750),  of  Foster  (London,  1777),  of  Jernient 
(London,  1808  and  1814),  of  Baynes  (London, 
1823  and  1829),  of  Pearson  (London,  1825,  and 
again  in  1855),  and,  above  all,  that  begun  in 
1869,  and  still  proceeding  with  such  learned 
pains  and  loving  care,  but  yet  with  sucli  a  strong 
Iligh-Churcli  bias,  by  the  Rev.  W.  West,  B.A., 
and  publishi'd  by  the  Longmans,  London.  The 
volume  which  is  to  contain  the  life  and  letters  of 
tlu^  archl)isliop  is  expected  to  be  published  soon, 
and  cannot  fail  to  cast  much  fresh,  if  not  always 
quite  uncolored,  light  on  his  history  and  that  of 
his  father.  In  Wilson's  edition  (vol.  i)  we  have 
the  first  attempt  at  a  biography,  and  also  a  pref- 
ace by  Dr.  Doddridge.  The  former  was  appro- 
priated by  Middleton,  and  the  latter  by  most 
subsequent  editors.  The  life  by  Jerment  is  a 
decided  advance  on  Wil.son's;  and  I'ear.sou's,  no 
less  decided  advance  on  his. 

The  following  are  the  other  materials  for  illus- 
trating his  liiography  :  Life  of  Archbishoji  Leigh- 
ton, Edinburgh  [n.d.  by  Dr.  Thomas  Murray]; 
the  same,  in  Iuvi.no's  TJves  of  Scottish  Writers, 
Edinburgh;  the  same,  by  Dr.  (now  Cardinal) 
^Ianning,  in  The  WLidoni  of  our  Fathers,  Tract 
Society,   London;    Life  of  Archbishop    Leighton, 


zvith  Brief  Extracts  from  his  Writings,  New  York, 
1840 ;  Extracts  from  the  Presbytery  Records  of 
Dalkeith,  relating  to  the  Pai-ish  of  Newbattle  dur- 
ing the  Incumbency  of  Mr.  Robert  Leighton,  164.1- 
1653.  Communicated  by  the  Ret:  Thomas  Gordon, 
Minister  of  Newbattle.  With  .some  Introductory  Re- 
marks by  David  Laing,  Esq.,  V.P.,  of  the  Society  of 
Antiquaries,  Edinburgh.  Printed  in  Proceedings 
of  the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  Scotland,  1862. 
pp.  459-489,  and  substance  of  them  embodied  in 
letter  to  editor  of  Xotes  and  Queries  (vol.  i.,  1862, 
pp.  441-44.5).  Several  letters  of  Leighton,  recov- 
ered from  State-paper  office,  or  drawn  from  the 
Lauderdale  correspondence  now  in  the  British 
iluseum,  wiU  be  found  in  same  volume  of  Notes 
and  Queries,  pp.  106,  121,  143,  165,  244.  Three 
papers  entitled  Archbishop  Leighton  are  to  be  found 
in  The  United  Presbyterian  Magazine  (Edinburgh), 
1865,  pp.  397,  493,  and  1866,  p.  15,  by  the  present 
wi-iter ;  also  Four  papers  in  the  same  serial  by  the 
same  writer,  1869,  entitled  The  Bishop  of  Dun- 
blane, pp.  304,  355,  400,  448 ;  Two  papers,  by  the 
writer  of  this  article,  in  the  British  and  Foreign 
Evangelical  Review  (London),  1869,^ — the  first 
entitled  A  Scottish  Presbytery  of  the  Seventeenth 
Century,  p.  22 ;  the  second,  Scottish  Prelacy  after 
the  Restoration,  p.  331;  —  Register  of  the  Diocesan 
Synoil  of  Dunblane  (1662-88),  with  an  Introduc- 
tion and  Biographical  Notes,  by  John  Wilson, 
D.D.,  clerk  to  the  synod  of  Perth  and  Stirling, 
Edinburgh,  1877,  4to;  An  Account  of  the  Foun- 
dation of  the  Leightonian  Library,  by  Robert 
Douglas,  bishop  of  Dunblane  [with  introduc- 
tion by  D.  Laing,  Esq.,  and  notes,  etc.],  in  the 
third  volume  of  The  Bannatyne  Miscellany,  print- 
ed at  Edinburgh,  1855  (pp.  229-272),  4to;  Rol,- 
ert  Leighton :  or,  the  Peacefulness  of  Faith,  from 
Lights  of  tlie  World,  or  Illustrations  of  Character 
drawn  from  the  Records  of  Christian  Life,  by  the 
Rev.  John  Stoughton,  D.D.,  London,  Religious 
Tract  Society,  pp.  37-60,  n.d.  ;  Aids  to  Reflection, 
by  Samuel  Taylou  Coleridge,  London,  1824; 
Scotichronicon,  vol.  ii.,  by  I.  F.  S.  Gordon,  D.D., 
Glasgow,  1870;  articles  iu  various  encyclopaedias 
and  biographical  dictionaries.  The  writer  of  this 
notice  issued  in  London,  1884,  selections  from  the 
writings  of  Archbisliop  Leigliton,  w-ith  a  life  of 
the  author.  \V.    HLAli;,  D.D.  (of  Dunbiuiic). 

LEIPZIG,  The  Colloquy  of,  between  the  Lu- 
theran and  Reformed  theologians  in  1631,  was 
occasioned  by  the  assembly,  in  that  city,  of  the 
Protestant  jirinces  for  the  purpose  of  protesting 
against  the  Edict  of  Keslitution.  The  elector 
of  Brandenburg  was  accompanied  by  his  court- 
jireacher,  Johann  Bergius;  and  the  landgrave  of 
Hes.se,  V)y  his  court-preacher,  Theophilus  Neu- 
berger,  and  Professor  Jolianu  Crocius.  These 
theologians,  who  all  belonged  to  the  Reformed 
faith,  invited  tlic^  Saxon  theologians  (belonging  to 
the  Lutheran  faith,  and  headed  by  Matthias  Hoe 
von  Hohenegg,  court-preacher  to  the  elector  of 
Saxony)  to  a  colloquy  on  the  various  points  of 
dilTerence  bijtween  them.  The  colloquy  began 
March  3,  and  continued  till  March  23.  As  basis, 
was  chosen  the  Confessiu  Augustana.  An  ajjree- 
ment  was  soon  arrived  at  with  respect  to  articles 
1-2,  5-9,  11-28;  and  the  tone  of  the  colloquy  was 
friendly,  also,  in  ca.ses  in  which  concord  could  not 
be  attained.  As  the  colUiquy  was  private,  only 
four  copies  of  the  protocol  were  taken,  —  one  for 


LEIPZIG   DISPUTATION. 


1299 


LEO. 


each  of  the  princes,  and  one  for  the  faculty  of 
Leipzig ;  but  general  reports  were  soon  after  pub- 
lished in  Germany,  Holland,  France,  and  Eng- 
land. The  protocol  may  be  found  printed  in 
AuGUSTi .  Corpus  libr.  sijinboL,  Elberfeldt,  1827, 
and  in  Niemeyer  :  Collectio  conf.  in  eccl.  reform., 
Leipzig,  1840. 

Lit. — J.  Bergius:  Relation  der  Prioal-Confe- 
'•enz,  Leipzig,  1631 ;  Hering  :  Gesch.  d.  kircUichen 
Unionsversuche,  Leipzig,  18:i6.  HAUCK. 

LEIPZIG    DISPUTATION.     See   Eck,    Carl- 

ST.\DT,    LUTHEU. 

LEIPZIG  INTERIM,  The,  was  drawn  up  by 
JNIelanchthon,  Paul  Eber,  Bugenhagen,  Ilierony- 
mus  AVeller,  Antonius  Lauterbach,  Georg  Major, 
and  Joachim  Camerarins,  and  was  issued  at  Leip- 
zig, Uec.  22,  1518.  It  made  great  concessions  to 
the  Roman-Catholic  Church  with  re.spect  to  bap- 
tism, penance,  ordination,  mass,  fast,  etc.,  and 
met  with  great  opposition  from  the  Lutherans, 
especially  Flacius.     In  1552  it  was  revoked. 

LELAND,  John,  b.  at  Wigan,  Lancashire,  Oct. 
IS,  1091  ;  d  at  Dublin,  Ireland,  Jan.  16,  1766. 
He  was  educated  at  the  LTniversity  of  Dublin, 
and  from  1716  to  his  death  was  ]iastor  of  a  Pres- 
byterian church  in  that  city.  lie  wrote  in  1733 
A  Defence  of  Chrislianilij,  in  reply  to  Tindal's 
Chrislianily  as  Old  as  the  Creation ,  ni  1738,  T/ie 
Dieine  Authority  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
asserted.  In  reply  to  Morgan's  Moral  Philosopher ; 
and  in  1766,  The  Aihantage  am!  Necessity  of  the 
Christian  Religion.  After  his  death,  his  Discour.'ies 
on  Various  Subjects  (1768-69,  4  vols.)  was  pub- 
lished, with  his  life.  All  these  works  are  now  for- 
gotten. But  one  of  his  books  still  lives,  A  View  of 
the  Principal  Deislical  Writers  that  hane  appeared 
in  England  in  the  Last  and  Present  Century,  Lon- 
don, 1754-56,  2  vols. ;  best  edition,  London,  1837, 
1  vol.  This  work  is  valuable  for  its  industrious 
collection  of  facts  about  the  deistic  writers,  but 
its  arguments  are  not  adapted  for  present  use. 

LELONG,  Jacques,  b.  in  Paris,  April  19,  1665; 
d.  there  Aug.  17,  1721.  He  entered  the  Congre- 
gation of  the  Oratory  in  1686 ;  and  was  in  1099 
appointed  librarian  at  the  Oratoire  St.  Honore  in 
Paris.  His  principal  work  is  his  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
(Paris,  1709),  of  which  enlarged  editions  were  pub- 
lished by  C.  F.  Bcirner,  Leipzig,  1769,  and  by 
A.  G.  Mascli,  Halle,  1778-90.  He  also  published 
Discours  historiques  ■<ur  les  principales  editions  des 
Bibles  Polyglottes  (1713),  SupplemetU  a  I'histoire  des 
dictionnaires  Hebreux  tie  Wolfius,  1707 ;  and  Nou- 
velle  me'lhode  des  langues  Hcbra'iiiue  et  Chaldaigue, 
1708. 

LE  MAITRE,  Louis  Isaac,  better  known  under 
the  name  DE  SACY,  b.  in  Paris,  March  29,  1613; 
d.  at  Poniponne,  Jan.  4,  1684.  After  studying 
theology,  he  entered  the  service  of  the  Church ; 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1648  ;  and  was  appointed 
director  of  Port-lloyal.  As  a  decided  Jansenist, 
he  could  not  escape  the  hatred  of  the  Jesuits.  In 
1666  he  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille,  and  not 
released  until  1668.  Though  he  returned  to  Port- 
Royal  in  1075,  he  was  in  1679  compelled  to  give 
up  his  position,  and  retire  to  Pomponne.  He 
was  a  very  prolific  writer,  especially  an  indus- 
trious and  successful  translator.  His  principal 
work  is  his  translation  of  the  Bible,  of  which  Les 
Psaumes  de  David  appeared  in  1006,  Le  Nouveau 
Testament,  at  Amsterdam,  printed  by  Elzevir  iu 


1667 ;  while  the  larger  part  of  the  Old  Testament 
was  done  in  the  Bastille. 

LENFANT,  Jacques,  b.  at  Bazoches-in-the 
Beauce,  April  13,  1061 ;  d  in  Berlin,  Aug.  7, 
1728.  He  studied  theology  at  Saumur  and  Ge- 
neva, and  was  appointed  preacher  to  the  French 
congregation  at  Heidelberg,  1684,  and  at  Berlin, 
1688.  He  was  a  prolific  writer,  especially  on 
church  history,  —  Hist,  du  Concile  de  Constance, 
Amsterdam,  1714;  Hist,  du  Concile  de  Pise,  Am- 
sterdam, 1724 ;  Hist,  de  la  papesse  Jeanne,  etc. 
He  translated  the  New  Testament,  and  wrote  a 
commentary  to  it.  Noticeable  is  also  his  polem- 
ical work,  Prcservatif  contre  la  reunion  acec  le 
Siege  de  Rome,  1723.  C.  PFENDER. 

LENT,  from  the  Anglo-.Saxon /ene(en  ("spring"). 
The  German  Len:  denotes  the  fast  pieparatory 
to  the  celebration  of  Easter.  Through  Irenreus 
and  TertuUian,  the  existence  of  such  a  fast  can 
be  traced  back  to  a  \'ery  early  date  in  the  historj* 
of  the  Church  ;  but  it  also  appears  that  great 
uncertainty  and  arbitrariness  prevailed,  both  with 
respect  to  its  duration  and  its  Sti'ictness.  Origi- 
nally it  seems  to  have  lasted  only  forty  hours, 
referring  to  the  time  between  the  crucifixion 
and  the  resurrection,  during  which  Christ  was 
under  the  power  of  death.  But  gradually  those 
forty  hours  became  forty  days,  referring  to  the 
forty-days'  fast  of  Moses,  Elijah,  and  our  Lord. 
Gregory  the  Great  speaks  of  Lent  as  lasting  six 
weeks  ;  that  is,  thirty-six  days,  as  the  Sundays 
were  not  fast  days.  AVhen  the  four  days  were 
added  (by  Gregory  the  Great  or  by  Gregory  II.) 
is  not  known ;  but  from  the  number  of  forty  is 
the  Latin  name  derived,  — quadragesima  (French, 
careme).  The  fast  consisted,  in  some  places  and 
at  some  times,  iu  total  abstinence  from  all  kinds 
of  food  until  evening  on  all  days  except  Sundays; 
in  other  places  and  at  other  times,  in  abstinence 
from  flesh  and  wine.  But  generally  the  fast  was 
accompanied  with  the  ce.ssation  of  every  thing 
having  a  festal  character,  such  as  public  games, 
theatrical  shows,  etc.  Even  the  courts  were  closed. 
At  the  same  time  the  service  in  the  churches 
assumed  a  more  sombre  character.  Tlie  pictures 
were  veiled,  the  organ  grew  silent,  etc.  In  the 
English  Church  the  celebration  of  Lent  was  intro- 
duced in  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  century  by 
Ercambert,  king  of  Kent.  Lent,  when  observed 
to-dav,  retains  its  ancient  features. 

LENTULUS,  Epistle  of.  .See  Christ,  Pic- 
tures OF. 

LEO  is  the  n.anie  of  thirteen  Popes;  namely, 
-eo  I.,  the  Great  (440-461).  Very  little  is  known 
of  his  earlier  life  ;  though,  for  some  years  previous 
to  his  election,  he  occupied  a  prominent  position 
in  Rome.  It  was  to  him  that  Cyril  of  Alexandria, 
in  his  controversy  with  Juvenal  of  Jerusalem, 
addressed  himself  in  431 ;  and  in  the  moment  of 
his  election  lie  was  absent  in  Gaul,  sent  thither 
by  tlie  emperor  as  mediator  between  Aetius  and 
Albinus.  Singularly  enough,  also,  his  death  is 
uncertahi ;  the  date  varying  between  April  11, 
June  28,  Oct.  30,  and  Nov.  10:  while  otherwise 
his  reign  stands  out  in  full  light,  both  with  re.spect 
to  its  general  bearing,  and  with  respect  to  its  de- 
tails. It  denotes  the  foundation  of  the  Papacy. 
Leo  I.  is  the  true  inventor  of  the  theory  of  an 
ecclesiastical  monarchy  under  the  lieadship  of  the 
Pope.    The  two  propositions  on  which  that  whole 


LEO. 


1300 


LEO. 


theory  hangs  —  the  primacy  of  Peter  ainoiig  the 
apostles,  on  account  of  which  all  pastors  are  sub- 
ject to  his  supreme  authority  (.Strm  .  iv.  2)  :  and 
the  transferrence  of  that  primacy  to  his  successors, 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  on  account  of  which  Peter 
himself  speaks  whenever  a  Pope  speaks  (.Serai., 
iii.  2)  —  found,  both  for  the  first  time,  their  full 
and  exhaustive  exposition  in  the  sermons  and 
letters  of  Leo  I.  ;  and  he  added  (Ep.  lOj,  to  revolt 
against  this  primacy  is  to  precipitate  one's  self 
into  hell. 

His  success  in  carrying  out  his  theory  into 
practice  was  various.  In  proconsular  Africa  the 
Christian  Church  had,  to  a  large  extent,  lost  its 
importance.  Only  Mauritania  Cjesariensis  still 
belonged  to  the  empire,  and  remained  true  to  the 
Confession  of  Nicsea.  But  that  insidated  remnant 
of  the  orthodox  Church  in  Africa  needed  support 
from  witiiout,  and  was  consequently  easily  made 
subject  to  the  authority  of  the  supporter.  Leo 
.sent  Bishop  Polentius  "thither  to  investigate  the 
state  of  atfairs ;  and  when  Polentius  reported, 
that,  through  intrigues  and  riots,  many  unworthy 
persons  had  been  installed  into  the  first  offices  of 
the  Church,  thei'e  followed  a  vei'V  severe  rebuke 
froTU  the  Pope.  .Appeals  to  Rome,  which,  a  dec- 
ade before,  had  been  absolutely  forbidden  by  an 
African  synoil,  were  now  regularly  instituted; 
and  the  Pope  demanded  that  all  synodal  decisions 
should  be  sent  to  Rome  for  continuation  (£/>.  12). 
More  complicated  proved  the  affairs  of  Illyria 
and  Gaul.  In  Illyria  the  contest  was  standing 
between  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  and  the 
Bishop  of  Rome.  Imiocent  I.  had  conferred  a 
kind  of  apostolical  vicariate  on  the  metropolitan 
of  Thessalonica ;  but  tlie  lUyriau  bishops  contin- 
ued, nevertheles.s,  to  be  drawn  towards  Constan- 
tinople, as  if  liy  a  natural  force.  Leo  I.  conferred 
the  vicariate  on  the  metropolitan  .-Vnastasius 
(Ep.  6),  and  was  in  the  beginning  very  much 
pleased  with  his  behavior  (Ep.  13),  but  foimd 
occasion  afterwards  to  administer  some  .sharp 
rebukes  (Ep.  lo).  The  issue,  however,  of  the 
affair  is  not  known.  In  Gaul,  Pope  Zosim.is  had 
conferred  the  primacy  on  Bishop  Patroclus  of 
Aries  in  417  ;  and  on  account  of  the  peculiar 
position  of  the  Galilean  Church,  the  weakness  of 
the  Honuin  power,  the  establishment  of  .\rian 
kingdoms  in  the  comitry,  and  the  general  confu- 
sion caused  by  the  unintermittent  invasion  of 
barbarous  nations,  siu'h  a  measure  of  centraliza- 
tion seemed  quite  expedient.  But  the  successor 
of  Patroclus,  Ililarius,  cann'  into  conflict  with 
Celidoniu.s.  metropolitan  of  Besancon  ;  and,  when 
Celidoiiins  was  depo.sed  by  a  (iallican  .synod,  he 
appealed  to  the  Pojie,  and  repaired  to  Rome. 
Ililarius  al.so  went  to  Rome,  but  Hed  in  haste 
from  the  city,  fearing  the  worst.  It  was,  indeed, 
the  pf)licy  of  the  Roman  bishoiis  to  favor  the  .ap- 
pellant, in  order  to  encourage  appeals;  and  this 
policy  was  followed  also  in  the  present  case.  A 
lloman  synod  of  445  restored  Celidonius,  and 
strictly  confined  the  power  of  ililarius  to  his  own 
diocese;  and,  in  order  to  secure  i\w.  enforcement 
of  these  decisions,  Leo  I.  sought  and  obtained 
the  support  of  the  secular  goveinment.  June  (i, 
44.5,  Valimtinian  III.  issued  the  lainous  law, 
which,  from  reg.ard  tfi  the  nic^rits  of  the  apostle 
Peter,  the  dignity  of  the  city  of  Rome,  aiul  the 
decisions  of  the  Council  of  Kicaea  (the  spurious 


sixth  canon),  recognized  the  Bishop  of  Rome  as 
the  head  of  the  Christian  Church,  established  his 
ordin.ances  as  general  laws,  defined  opposition  to 
them  as  a  kind  of  crimen  laxa:  majexlatis.  and 
ordered  all  secular  authorities  to  arrest  aiul  sur- 
render any  person,  who,  summoned  by  the  Pope, 
neglected  to  apjiear.  Less  effective  was  his  inter- 
ference in  the  affairs  of  the  Church  of  Alexandria. 
In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  he  addressed  that 
church  {Ep.  9)  concerning  certain  ritual  and  litur- 
gical differences.  The  Church  of  Rome,  he  argues, 
is  built  exclusively  on  Peter,  the  prince  of  the 
apostles ;  but  how  is  it  possible  that  his  disciple 
JIark  should  have  deviated  from  his  master  in 
founding  the  .Vlexandrian  Church?  The  Alex- 
andrian Church,  however,  seems  to  have  had  too 
lofty  a  self-consciousness  to  heed  the  anxious 
questions  of  the  Pope. 

The  most  brilliant  part  of  the  reign  of  Leo  I. 
is  his  relation  to  the  Eastern  Church  and  the 
christological  controversies  then  taking  place 
there.  Eutyches  first  addressed  him.  complaining 
of  the  re-appearance  of  Nestorianism  ;  and  after 
his  condenniation  by  Flavian,  patriarch  of  Con- 
stantinople, he  wholly  threw  himself  upon  Leo, 
protestino-  his  willingness  to  acquiesce  in  any 
decision  lie  might  make  in  the  case.  As  the 
entreaties  of  Eutyches  were  supported  by  the 
Emperor  Theodosius.  Leo  was  at  once  drawn  into 
the  very  midst  of  the  controversy ;  and,  as  was 
natural,  he  at  first  assumed  a  very  cold  attitude 
towards  Flavian.  Nevertheless,  after  receiving 
the  acts  of  the  synod  which  had  condemned 
Eutyches,  together  with  all  other  materials  ]ierti- 
nent,  he  confirmed  the  condemnation,  and  accom- 
panied the  confirmation  with  a  positive  exposition 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  two  natures  united  in  Christ, 
—  the  celebrated  Letter  to  Flavian  of  June  13,  449 
(Ep.  28).  In  consequence,  the  .synod  of  Kphesus 
(440)  excommunicated  him;  but  the  oidy  result 
of  the  exconnnnnication  was,  that  the  ill-used  and 
maltreated  nunority  of  the  Eastern  Church  rallied 
.so  iruich  the  more  closely  around  him.  \  synod 
of  Rome  of  the  same  year  rejected  all  the  canons 
of  the  synod  of  Iqihesus,  which  it  characterized 
as  a  lalriH-inium  ("  a  den  ol  robbers  ")  ;  and  when, 
shortly  after,  Pulcheria  and  her  husband  .Mareiau 
ascended  the  inqierial  throne,  a  complete  rc-action 
took  place.  Tlie  acceptance  of  the  doctrinal 
letter  of  Leo  by  all  the  bishops  of  the  ICastern 
Church  was  commanded  by  the  emperor.  .\t  the 
oecumenical  synod  of  Chalcedon  (l.")l)his  legates 
presided,  his  doctrinal  letter  was  made  the  basis 
of  the  confession,  and  the  canons  of  the  synod 
were  .sent  to  Rome  for  his  confirmation.  There 
w;us,  however,  one  of  those  canons  (c.  28)  which 
arou.sed  his  displeasm'e  in  the  highest  degree. 
It  defines  the  reflation  between  the  Bishop  of 
Rome  ami  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople.  It 
givi's  the  former  the  first  rank ;  but  it  gives  the 
latter  an  ecpial  ]iower.  ]ilacing  Asia,  Pimtus,  and 
Thrace  imder  his  jurisdiction.  When  the  canon 
was  put  under  deiiate,  the  papal  leg.ates  refused 
to  be  jiresent ;  and,  when  it  was  voted,  they  dic- 
tated their  .'<olenm  ]irotest  to  the  protocol.  Leo 
approved  of  the  ]irocee(Iings  of  his  leg.ates,  and 
confirmed  only  the  doctiinal  canons  of  the  .synod. 
He  even  induced  the  enqieror  to  cancel  the  ob- 
noxious canon  by  a  law  of  4.')4 ;  but,  though  his 
triumph  thus  .seemed  complete,  the  Patriarch  of 


LEO  II. 


1301 


LEO  III. 


Constantinople  exercised  jurisdiction  in  Asia,  Pon- 
tus,  and  Tlirace  after  tlie  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
just  as  he  had  done  before. 

The  meeting  between  Leo  I.  and  Attila,  the 
king  of  the  Iluns,  has  been  the  subject  of  much 
legendary  embellishment.  After  the  battle  of 
the  Catalauuian  fields  (452),  Attila  broke  into 
Italy,  and  Rome  lay  like  a  hapless  prey  between 
his  claws,  when,  according  to  tlie  report  of  Pros- 
per of  Aquitania,  a  contemporary  of  the  event 
(see  Roesler :  Chronica  med'd  cevi,  p.  325),  on  the 
instance  of  the  emperor,  Leo  went  to  meet  him, 
and  made  such  an  impression  upon  him,  that  he 
concluded  peace,  and  retreated  behind  the  Dan- 
ube. According  to  the  Histuria  miscelta  (from 
tlie  tenth  century,  edited  by  Eyssenhardt,  1S69), 
Leo  L  was  not  alone  when  he  approached  Attila, 
but  was  preceded  by  St.  Peter  himself,  who,  with 
sword  in  hand,  compelled  the  Iluns  to  submit  to 
the  demands  of  the  bishop.  There  is,  however, 
an  entu'ely  different  version  of  what  took  place. 
According  to  an  ordinance  issued  by  Theodoric, 
king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  and  found  in  Cassiodo- 
rus'  Varice,  i.  4  (Opera,  edit.  Garetius,  1079),  it 
was  tlie  elder  Cassiodorus  who  went  as  ambassa- 
dor to  Attila,  and  induced  him  to  retreat  in  peace. 
AVhich  of  these  two  reports  is  the  true  one,  it  is 
impossible  to  decide :  probably  they  contain  some 
truth,  both  of  them.  As  Attila's  position  in  Italy 
was  very  precarious,  and  we  know  the  price  he 
■was  paid  for  his  retreat,  —  the  sisterof  Valentinian 
III.  and  her  dowry,  —  the  event  seems  to  have 
taken  place  in  a  very  simple  and  natural  way : 
most  probably  there  were  many  embassies,  and 
very  various  negotiations.  Under  somewhat  simi- 
lar circumstances  Leo  I.  had  to  meet  Genseric, 
the  king  of  the  Vandals,  in  456 ;  but  at  this  occa- 
sion, at  which  history  speaks  of  no  other  media- 
tor, the  result  was,  that  the  city  was  given  up  to 
plunder  for  two  weeks,  and  many  thousands  of 
its  inhabitants  were  carried  away,  and  sold  as 
slaves. 

Lit.  —  The  works  of  Leo  I.,  consisting  of  let- 
ters and  sermons,  were  collected  and  edited  by 
QuESNEL  (Lyons,  1700),  Ballerini  (Venice,  1755- 
57),  and  Migne  :  Patrologia,  54-56.  His  life  was 
written  by  Arendt  (Mayence,  18.35),  Perthel 
(Jena,  184.3),  and  Saist-Jeron  (Paris,  1845). 
See  also  Hinschius  :  Das  Kircltenreckt  der  Katho- 
liken  und  Proleslanten  in  Deutschlaiid,  1S68,  i.  583- 
588  (Illyria),  588-591  (Gaul). 

Leo  II.  (682-683),  a  native  of  Sicily;  a  good 
Greek  scholar,  and  well  versed  in  music.  His 
short  reign  devolved  upon  him  a  duty  of  whose 
full  meaning  he  was  hardly  conscious.  The 
sixth  cecumeuical  council  (held  in  Constantino- 
ple, 680)  condemned  the  Monothelites  and  their 
leaders,  among  whom  was  the  former  Pope,  Ho- 
norius ;  and  tne  Emperor  Constantine  Pogonatus 
confirmed  the  condemnation  to  its  whole  extent. 
In  July,  682,  the  papal  legates  brought  the  acts 
of  the  council,  with  a  letter  from  the  emperor,  to 
Rome ;  and  between  September  and  December, 
same  year,  Leo  II.  answered,  accepting  the  canons, 
and,  recognizing  the  condemnation,  included  Ho- 
norius,  qui  hanc  apostolicam  sedein  non  apostolicce 
Iradilionis  doclrina  luslravit  sed  pro/ana  proditione 
immaculatam  Jidem  suboertere  conatus  est  (Mansi, 
11,725;  Harduix,  3,  1470).  He  afterwards  re- 
peated the  condemnation  of  Ilonorius  in  a  letter 


to  the  bishops  of  Spain  (Mansi,  11,  10.50),  and 
in  another  to  Herweg,  king  of  the  Visigoths 
(Mansi,  11,  1054).  See  the  literature  to  IIono- 
RIUS  I. 

Leo  III.,  elected  Dec.  26,  795;  buried  June  12, 
816.  His  first  act  was  to  send  the  keys  of  the 
tomb  of  St.  Peter  and  the  standard  of  the  city 
of  Rome,  together  with  many  presents,  to  Ciiarle- 
magne,  asking  him  to  send  some  of  his  nobles 
to  Rome  to  receive  the  oath  of  allegiance  from 
the  people.  Shortly  after,  he  again  addressed  the 
Frankish  king,  but  this  time  as  a  suppliant. 
There  was  a  party  in  Rome  strongly  opposed  to 
his  election ;  and  one  day,  during  a  procession, 
they  attacked  him.  He  was  rescued  by  the  Duke 
of  Spoleto,  and  from  Spoleto  he  repaired  to  the 
court  of  Charlemagne  at  Paderborn,  where  he 
was  received  with  great  ceremonies.  Meanwhile, 
his  adversaries  raised  very  grave  accusations 
against  him ;  and,  after  his  return  to  Rome 
(which  city  he  entered  Nov.  29,  799,  accompa- 
nied by  many  archbishops,  bishops,  and  counts), 
the  plenipotentiaries  of  tlie  king  instituted  an 
investigation,  which,  however,  ended  with  the 
banishment  of  Leo's  enemies.  The  following 
year  (800),  Charlemagne  himself  arrived  at  Rome ; 
and  a  new  investigation  was  instituted,  which 
ended  with  the  Pope  clearing  himself  from  any 
guilt  in  the  crimes  alleged,  by  a  solemn  oath. 
Two  days  afterwards  (Dec.  25),  the  crowning  of 
Charlemagne  as  Roman  emperor  took  place  in 
the  Chuj'ch  of  St.  Peter.  The  internal  springs 
active  in  this  event  are  still  somewhat  obscure. 
It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  idea  put  into 
circulation  by  the  bull  Venerabilen,  of  Innocent 
III.,  —  and  according  to  which  the  Pope  trans- 
ferred the  Roman  Empire  to  the  Franks  in  virtue 
of  a  divine  authority,  —  was  completely  foreign 
to  the  actors  themselves.  Generally,  the  eleva- 
tion of  Charlemagne  to  Roman  emperor  was  con- 
sidered an  elective  act  of  the  Roman  people ;  and, 
in  the  performance  of  this  act,  the  Pope  played 
no  other  part  than  that  of  the  first  man  of  the 
people, — its  representative.  The  relation  between 
the  new  emperor  and  the  Pope  gives  ample  evi- 
dence. In  the  will  of  Charlemagne,  signed  by 
Leo  himself,  Rome  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
metropolitan  sees  of  his  realm,  besides  Ravenna, 
Milano,  etc.  The  imperial  Missus  in  Rome  held 
court  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  and  was  the 
sole  administrator  of  criminal  justice.  He  had, 
also,  a  kind  of  superintendence  over  the  papal 
officials,  and  received  appeals  from  them.  After 
the  death  of  Charlemagne,  a  conflict  immediately 
arose  between  his  successor,  Louis  the  Pious,  and 
the  Pope.  As  soon  as  the  report  of  the  death  of 
the  emi^eror  reached  Rome,  the  opposition  party 
renewed  its  attack  on  Leo  III.  ;  liut  the  high- 
handed manner  in  which  he  put  down  the  rising 
caused  much  displeasure  at  the  Frankish  court, 
and  an  investigation  was  instituted,  whose  pro- 
ceedings, however,  were  stopped  by  the  death  of 
the  Pope.  For  the  part  wliich  Leo  took  in  the 
Adoptionist  and  the  Filioque  controversies,  see 
those  articles. 

Lit.  —  The  letters  of  Leo  HI.  are  found  in 
Jafke:  Reg.  Poniif. ,  his  correspondence  with 
Charlemagne,  in  Monumenta  Carolina  in  Jaffe: 
BibL  rer.  Germanic,  tom.  iv. ;  his  life,  in  the  Liber 
Ponlijicalis,  ii.  (though  much  distorted). 


LEO   IV. 


1302 


LEO  X. 


Leo  IV.  (April  10,  S-17-July  17,  855)  restored 
and  extended  the  fortifications  of  Rome,  admon- 
ished by  the  frightful  invasion  of  the  Saracens 
in  846/ by  which  the  Chm-ch  of  St.  Peter  (at 
that  time  situated  outside  of  the  wall)  was  plun- 
dered, and  immense  treasures  carried  away  by  the 
enemy.  By  the  extension  of  the  wall  originated 
the  so-called  "Civitas  Leonina."  He  also  im- 
proved the  fortifications  of  Portus,  where  he  set- 
tled a  number  of  Corsicans ;  but  Leopolis,  whicli 
he  founded,  instead  of  the  destroyed  Circum- 
cellje  some  miles  inland,  did  not  thrive.  Though 
the  dependence  of  the  Pope  on  the  emperor  still 
is  strikingly  illustrated  by  many  events  of  the 
reign  of  Leo  IV.,  a  tendency  towards  independ- 
ence now  becomes  noticeable.  He  begins  his 
bulls  with  his  own  name,  not  with  that  of  the 
person  addressed.  He  gives  the  title  of  Dominus 
to  no  one,  even  not  to  the  emperor.  The  acts 
of  the  synod  of  853  are  dated,  not  only  from 
the  year  of  the  emperor,  but  also  from  that  of 
the  Pope,  etc.  His  letters  are  found  in  Jaffe  : 
Jieg.  Pontif.  ;  his  life,  in  Liber  Pontificalis,  iii.  — 
Leo  Vi  (903)  reigned  only  between  thirty  and 
fifty  days.  He  was  imprisoned,  and  compelled 
to  abdicate  by  his  presbyter,  Christophorus.  The 
few  notices  of  him  still  extant  are  found  in 
Watterich  :  Vit(E  Pontijicum,  i.  .32.  —  Leo  VI. 
(928-929)  reigned  for  seven  months,  and  five  or 
fifteen  days  ;  but  nothing  is  known  of  him.  See 
Watterich,  i.  33.  —  Leo  VII.  (.January,  936- 
July,  939),  a  quiet  and  pious  man,  who  left  the 
government  of  Rome  to  Alberic  II.,  the  son  of 
ilarozia.  He  was  very  partial  towards  the  mon- 
astery of  Cluny,  and  made  Archbishop  Friedrich 
of  JMayence  papal  vicar,  and  legate  and  primate 
of  Germany.  See  his  life  by  Flodoardus,  in 
MuuATORi:  Script,  rer.  IlaL,  IIP,  32-1:;  sources 
by  .Jaffe  and  Watterich.  —  Leo  VIII.  (963- 
965)  was  elected  by  the  synod  which  deposed 
John  XII.  (Dec.  4,  963)  under  the  influence  of 
Otho  I.,  but  met  with  such  an  opposition  from 
the  Roman  people,  that  he  fled  from  Rome, 
and  was  deposed  by  a  synod  con\ened  by  John 
XII.  (February,  964).  John  XII.  died  Shortly 
after,  in  tlie  bed  of  an  adulteress ;  but  the  Ro- 
mans elected  Benedict  V.  Pope.  Otho  I.  once 
more  re-instated  Leo  VIII.  by  armed  force;  but 
between  February  and  April,  965,  he  died.  Two 
bulls  are  ascribed  to  him,  —  the  one  returning  the 
donations  of  Charlemagne,  Pepin,  .lustinian,  etc., 
to  the  emperor;  and  the  other  surrendering  to 
the  emperor  the  right  of  appointing  popes,  arch- 
bi.shops,  and  bishops.  But  both  bulls  are  evi- 
dently spurious,  belonging  to  the  period  of  the 
investiture-contest.  The  sources  are  found  in 
.lAFFft  (Rill.  I'ont.)  and  Watterich  ( ViUc  Ponlif.). 
—  Leo  IX'.  (Feb.  12,  1049-.\pril  19,  1054)  de- 
scended from  a  noble  family  in  Alsace :  liis 
father  wa«  a  cousin  to  the  emperor,  Conrad  II. 
He  was  bishop  of  Toul,  when,  in  December,  1048, 
the  empf'ror,  Henry  III.,  and  the  emissaries  of 
the  Roman  people,  at  a  meeting  at  Worms,  agreed 
upon  him  as  the  successor  of  Daniasus  II.  He 
accepted  the  offer,  however,  only  on  t)ie  condi- 
tion that  he  should  be  unanimously  elected  by 
the  clergy  and  people  of  Rome ;  and  m  February, 
1049,  he  entered  the   city  in    a  plain   pilgrim's 

farb,  accompanied   by  the  young   monk   flilde- 
rand.     His  reign  had  great  importance  for  tlie 


internal  organization  of  the  church.  The  re- 
form which  was  started  at  Cluny,  and  thence 
spread  widely  among  the  monks,  reached,  through 
him,  the  church  in  general.  The  means  he  em- 
ployed was  the  synod.  With  the  exception  of 
the  period  between  325  and  381,  that  vital  or- 
gan of  the  church  never  was  in  greater  activity 
than  diu-ing  the  reign  of  Leo  IX.  Always  on 
the  road,  —  travelling  from  southern  Italy  to- 
northern  Germany,  from  the  centre  of  France 
to  the  centre  of  Hungary,  —  he  everywhere  con- 
vened the  clergy  into  sj-nods,  discussing  the 
affairs  of  the  church ;  and  by  consecrations, 
ordmations,  etc.,  he  everywhere  knew  how  to 
awaken  in  the  mass  of  the  people  an  interest 
in  what  was  going  on  in  the  church.  The  aboli- 
tion of  simony  and  the  establishment  of  celibacy 
were  his  great  aims.  At  one  time  he  thought 
of  deposing  every  clergyman  who  had  obtained 
his  benefice  by  simony;  but  he  had  to  abandon 
so  sweeping  a  measure,  as  it  would  strike  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  officers  of  the  church. 
The  celibacy  he  extended  to  the  orders  of  sub- 
deacon  ;  and  people  already  began  to  speak  of  un- 
chaste priests,  thereby  meauing  priests  who  were 
married.  In  his  external  policy  he  was  not  so 
very  successful.  The  Normans  had  taken  pos- 
session of  Benevent ;  and,  as  the  emperor  proved 
unwilling  to  come  to  the  defence  of  the  holy  see^ 
the  Pope  himself  marched  against  the  intruders, 
at  the  head  of  an  army  of  Italian  mercenaries 
and  Suabian  volunteers.  But  he  lost  the  battle 
at  Astagunne,  was  taken  prisonei-,  and  held  in  cap- 
tivity at  Benevent,  from  June  23,  1053,  to  March 
12, 1054.  He  was  treated  with  the  utmost  respect 
by  his  Norman  conquerors,  but  he  was  not  re- 
leased until  he  left  them  what  they  had  taken 
in  the  form  of  papal  fiefs.  See  the  articles  on 
Berengar  of  Tours  and  C.erularil's,  and  his 
biographies  by  IIunckler,  1851  (German)  and 
Spacu,  1864  (French). 

Leo  X.  (April  11,  1513-Dec.  1,  1521),  b.  at  Flor- 
ence, Dec.  11,  1475;  the  second  .son  of  Lorenzo 
the  Magnificent  and  Clarissa  Orsiiii ;  received 
the  tonsure  when  he  was  seven  years  old,  and 
was  in  the  very  next  year  made  Archbishop  of 
Aix  by  King  Louis  XL  of  France.  Pope  Sixtus 
IV.,  however,  had  some  scruples  with  respect  ta 
his  age;  and  he  had  to  content  himself  with  the 
rich  abbey  of  Passignano,  and  a  number  of  otlier 
benefices.  In  1488  (that  is,  in  liis  thirteenth 
year)  he  was  made  cardinal  deacon  of  .Santa 
3laria  in  Dominica;  ami  the  only  re.servation 
which  Innocent  VIII.  took  was,  tliat  he  should 
not  put  on  the  insignia  of  bis  dignity,  nor  take 
part  in  the  business  of  his  oflice,  until  he  was  six- 
teen years  old.  Meanwhile,  his  education  was 
carried  on  without  the  least  regard  to  the  position 
lie  was  going  to  occupy  in  the  churcli.  Politian 
was  his  teacher  in  Latin ;  Johannes  Argj'roph- 
ilu.s,  in  Greek;  Marsilius  Ficinus,  and  Picus 
of  Mirandola,  in  philosophy.  The  Humanists, 
with  their  refined  Paganism,  were  his  daily  con- 
verse :  the  Renaissance,  with  its  elegant,  sensu- 
ality, was  the  atmosphere  in  which  he  breatlied. 
In  1492  he  was  solemnly  introduced  into  the  Col- 
lege of  Cardinals,  and  intrusted  with  tlie  govern- 
ment of  Tu.scany  as  papal  legate.  During  the 
reign  of  Alexander  V  I.  he  was  in  the  eclijise. 
The  Mediceans  were  expelled  from  Florence,  and 


LEO  X. 


1303 


LEO  XII. 


he  himself  found  it  advisable  to  keep  aloof  from 
Rome,  journeying  in  Germany,  Flanders,  and 
France.  But  under  Julius  II.  he  was  again  in 
favor;  and  his  luxurious  residence  in  Rome 
swarmed  with  poets,  philosophers,  artists,  and 
litlerateur^  of  all  descriptions.  In  tlie  battle  at 
Ravenna  he  held  the  supreme  command,  but  was 
defeated,  and  taken  prisoner.  He  was  to  be 
transported  to  France;  but  in  Milan  he  e.scaped, 
and  returned  to  Florence.  While  there,  he  heard 
of  the  death  of  Julius  II.  (Feb.  21.  1513).  He 
was  sick  from  a  disease  which  cannot  be  spoken 
of,  and  which  was  never  cm-ed  (Guegorovius  : 
(•'cschiclile  der  Sladt  Rom,  viii.  197).  Neverthe- 
less, he  hastened  to  Home,  and  arrived  in  time  to 
make  a  bargain  with  a  party  of  the  cardinals 
(IIoFLEU:  Zur  Krilik  und  Quellenkunde,  etc.,  in 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Vienna, 
Plulos.-IIisL  Ckis.ie,  vol.  xxviii.).  He  was  elected 
and  enthroned  under  the  loud  applause  of  the 
people. 

His  foreign  policy,  always  ambiguous,  and  often 
false,  had  in  reality  no  other  aim  than  the  aggran- 
dizement of  the  house  of  Medici,  —  the  throne 
of  Naples  for  his  brother  Julian,  and  Tuscany, 
with  Ferrara  and  Urbino,  for  his  nephew  Lorenzo. 
For  this  purpose  he  connived  at  the  French  plans 
against  Milan,  and  formed  a  secret  alliance  with 
Louis  XII.  On  the  acce.ssion  of  Francis  1.  he 
offered  to  renew  the  alliance,  on  the  condition  of 
the  surrender  of  the  crown  of  Naples  to  Julian ; 
and,  when  Franci.s  declined,  he  immediately  joined 
the  anti-French  league.  But  the  brilliant  victory 
at  Marignana  (Sept.  13,  1515)  compelled  him  to 
throw  hini.self  on  the  mercy  of  Francis  I.;  and 
at  their  meeting  at  Bologna,  in  December,  he 
had  to  con.sent  to  the  abolition  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction  and  the  establishnipnt  of  a  concordat, 
which  gave  the  king,  within  his  realm,  the  right 
of  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  (except  in  a  few 
cases)  and  the  right  of  ecclesiastical  appoiutment, 
only  that  the  anuats  were  paid  into  the  papal 
treasury.  The  crown  of  Naples  should  go  to  the 
house  of  Valois;  and  compensation  to  the  house 
of  Medici  was  spoken  of  only  in  very  vague 
terms.  In  1516  Julian  died,  and  all  his  plans 
now  centred  in  Lorenzo.  By  a  series  of  abomi- 
nable intrigues  and  atrocious  wars,  he  was  estab- 
lished as  Duke  of  Urbino,  and  married  to  a 
princess  of  the  royal  house  of  France ;  but  in 
1519  he,  too,  died.  And,  in  the  mean  time,  the 
hatred  of  the  great  Roman  families  had  been 
roused  to  such  a  pitch,  that  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  the  Pope,  among  whose  members 
were  the  cardinals  Alfonso  Petrucci  (who  was 
charged  with  killing  Leo),  Bandinello  de  Sauli, 
Soderini,  Castellesi,  and  Riario.  The  conspiracy 
was  discovered.  Petrucci  was  decapitated  ;  and 
the  other  cardinals  escaped,  only  by  paying  enor- 
mous sums.  As  Leo  at  the  same  time  created 
thirty-one  new  cardinals,  each  of  whom  had  to 
pay  a  considerable  fee,  a  rumor  arose,  that  the 
conspiracy  was  a  mere  fiction,  a  device  for  mak- 
ing money,  a  financial  operation.  The  creation, 
however,  of  the  thirty-one  new  cardinals,  was  a 
necessity.  He  needed  a  college  which  he  could 
trust,  or  at  least  manage  ;  for  the  affairs  became 
more  and  more  complicated.  He  wished  neither 
Charles  V.  nor  Francis  I.  to  be  elected  king  of 
Germany  in  1519  :  either  of  them  was  too  power- 


ful. Nevertheless,  he  supported  both  ;  and  when 
Charles  V.  was  elected,  and  a  secret  alliance  was 
concluded  with  him,  Leo  continued  to  negotiate 
with  Francis  until  Chai'le.s,  exa.sperated  by  his 
double-i'aceduess,  compelled  him  to  make  his 
choice,  and  stick  to  his  words. 

The  hnances  were,  indeed,  the  sore  point  of 
the  reign  of  Leo  X.  Though  the  revenues  of  the 
Holy  See  were  enormous,  they  were  insufficient 
by  far  to  meet  the  )>rodigality  of  the  Pope.  The 
taxes  had  been  raised  to  tlie  highest  possible 
point  in  the  papal  dominions;  a  tithe  had  been 
levied  on  all  Christendom  foi-  the  purjiose  of  a  cru- 
sade ;  loans  were  made  in  Italian  banking-houses 
at  forty  per  cent;  every  benefice  of  the  church 
was  sold  and  re.sold  in  Rome  :  and  yet  every  day 
the  same  question  arose, — how  to  procure  money. 
The  sale  of  indulgences  seemed  to  be  a  good 
idea,  but  it  stirred  up  Luther  in  Germany.  Leo 
instituted  a  process  against  him,  though  probably 
without  understanding  tlie  whole  bearing  of  the 
question.  Meanwhile,  the  golden  spring  stopped 
running,  however  much  its  waters  were  needed. 
It  cost  money  to  keep  Raphael  and  Michelangelo 
busy,  to  buy  manuscripts,  form  libraries,  and 
found  universities,  to  make  all  his  friends  and 
favorites  happy ;  and  yet  the  sums  spent  in  those 
ways  were  very  small  indeed  when  compared  with 
what  he  squandered  on  frivolous  luxury,  or  sunk 
in  ambitious  schemes.  When  he  died  —  to  the 
despair  of  his  creditors  —  there  was  not  money 
enough  in  the  treasury  to  pay  for  the  funei-al 
candles. 

Lit.  —  Paulus  Jovius  :  De  vita  Leonin  X. 
(Florence,  1548)  and  Hisloria  sui  lemjjuris  (Flor- 
ence, 1550);  Fabroxius  :  Vila  Leonin  A'.,  1797; 
RoscoE :  The  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.,'2Ci 
edition,  18U6;  Audin  :  Histoire  de  Leon  A'.,  1844; 
Dandalo  :  It  secolo  di  Leone  X.,  1861,  3  vols.; 
Petruceli.i  della  Gattina  :  Hist.  dip.  des  con- 
clare.i,  1804;  Regeata  ed.,  Ilergenrdther,  1884  .sqq. 

Leo  XL  (elected  Ajiril  1,  consecrated  April  10, 
d.  April  27,  1605)  belonged  to  the  family  of 
Medici.  See  Petrucelli  della  Gattina  ;  Hist. 
diplom.  des  conclaves,  ii.  404-452. 

Leo  XM.  (.Sept.  28, 1823-Feb.  10, 1829),  Annibale 
della  Genga  ;  b.  Aug.  22, 1700  ;  descended  from  a 
noble  family  in  the  Romagna;  was  ordained  priest 
in  1783,  and  made  archbishop  of  Tyre  in  1793,  and 
cardinal  in  1816.  After  the  death  of  Pius  VII., 
he  carried  the  conclave,  principally  because  he 
was  a  decided  adversary  of  C'onsalvi.  Neverthe- 
less, all  the  principal  acts  of  his  reign  —  the  close 
approach  to  France,  the  strict  measures  against 
the  Carbonaii.  the  jubilee  of  l.s2".  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  church  in  tlie  South- .American  re- 
publics, the .  assertions  for  the  emancipation  of 
the  Roman  Catholics  in  England,  etc.  —  were  due 
to  the  direct  influence  of  C'onsalvi.  In  spite  of 
his  encyclical  of  May  3,  1824,  which  condemned 
the  maxims  of  tolerance  as  identical  with  in- 
differentism,  and  contained  some  very  harsh 
invectives  against  the  Bible  societies,  the  gen- 
eral character  of  his  reign  was  moderation.  See 
Aktaud  de  Moxtor  :  Histoire  du  pape  Leon 
XII.  (Paris,  1843,  2  vols.),  of  which  Scherer"s 
Leo  XII.  (Schaffhausen,  1844)  is  only  a  mis- 
erable compilation.  Koberle  :  Leo  XII.  und  der 
Geist  der  rom.  Hierarchic,  Leipzig,  1840 ;  '\\'iSE- 
MAX:   Recollections  of  the  Four  La.it  Popes.  Lon- 


LEO  XIII. 


1304 


LEPROSY. 


don,  1S5S;  Eugexio  Cipoletta  :  Memorie  poli- 
tiche  sur  conclavi  da  Pio  VII.  a  Pio  IX.,  Milan, 
1S63.  K.  iltfLLER. 

[Leo  XIII.,  the  present  Pope  (March  3,  1878), 
Vincenzo  Gioacchino  Pecci;  b.  at  Carpineto,  Italy, 
March  2,  1810.] 

LEON,  Luis  de,  b.  at  Belmonte,  in  Southern 
Spain,  15J7;  d.  at  Salamanca,  Aug.  23,  1591. 
When  sixteen  years  old,  he  entered  the  order  of 
the  Augustinians,  and  in  1561  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca.  As  he  always, 
in  his  studies,  went  back  to  the  sources,  —  the 
Scriptures  and  the  Fathers,  —  his  enemies  suc- 
ceeded in  making  him  suspected  of  being  con- 
nected with  the  Reformation ;  and  he  spent  five 
years  in  the  dungeons  of  the  Inquisition,  but  was 
finally  acquitted  in  1.571.  The  acts  of  his  process 
were  published  in  Madrid,  1847.  See  also  Jose 
GoxzAi.KS  DE  Tejada  :  VUla  de  Fray  Luis  de 
Leon.  Madrid,  1863.  He  also  distinguished  him- 
self as  a  poet.  His  poetical  works  were  published 
in  a  collected  edition  in  Madrid,  1804-16,  6  vols. 
See  TiCKNou :  Hislor//  of  Spanish  Literature,  Bos- 
ton, 1864,  2d  ed.,  ii.  75-87.  BENRATH. 

LEONTIUS  OF  BYZANTIUM.  Great  confu- 
sion has  gathered  around  this  name.  A  number 
of  books  bearing  it  on  the  titlepage  were  certainly 
written  by  the  same  man ;  but  the  relation  be- 
tween him  and  one  or  two  other  authors  is  very 
doubtful.  He  is  styled  "  Byzantinus,"  as  a  native 
of  Byzantium  ;  or  "  Hierosolymitanus,"  as  an  in- 
mate of  the  monastery  of  St.  Saba,  near  Jerusa- 
lem :  or  "  advocatus,"  and  "  scholasticus,"  proba- 
bly because  he  was  a  lawyer  or  a  rhetorician, 
before  he  became  a  monk.  The  identification  of 
these  surnames,  however,  is  not  altogether  without 
difficulties:  and  Basnage  distinguishes,  though 
unnecessarily,  between  Byzantinus  and  Hiero- 
solymitanus. Nor  are  the  dates  of  his  life  ea.sy 
to  fix,  though,  as  he  speaks  of  the  tritheistic  con- 
troversy (about  564),  he  must  have  written  towards 
the  close  of  the  sixth  century.  The  works  which 
with  certainty  belong  to  him  are,  De  seclis,  a 
valuable  contribution  to  ha;resiology,  first  printed 
(the  Greek  text  with  the  Latin  translation  of 
Lennclavius)  at  Basel,  1578,  and  afterwards  in- 
corporated with  the  collections  of  Morell.  (xi.), 
Galland.  (xii.),  and  others;  Contra  Nestorianos  et 
Euti/rhianas,  a  polemical  treatise,  somewhat  un- 
readable on  account  of  its  lengthy  and  hair-drawn 
dialectics,  but  serviceable  as  an  introduction  in(o 
the  subtleties  of  the  Monophysite  controversies 
(first  edited  in  Latin  by  Canisiu.s,  in  l.icliim. 
anii/juur.,  iv.,  and  then  in  (jreek  by  .Vngelo  May, 
in  Spicile;/.  Rom.,  xii.);  Adrer.tiis  Ajililliarlniliicetes 
and  .4f/i,'tr.<!/.s  fraudcs  .{pijllinarisliinim,  both  in 
SpicUey.  Rom.  ;  finally  Duhitaliones  lii/pollielic(c 
(Latin,  by  Cani.sius;  Greek,  liy  A.  Mai),  in  Script. 
vet.,  vii. 

To  be  distinguished  from  this  I^eontius  is  an- 
other, who,  in  th(r  beginning  of  the  .seventh  cen- 
tury, was  a  bisho]>  of  Xeapolis,  or  IIagia)iolis,  in 
Cyprus,  and  wrote  lioniilies,  which  have  l)een 
published  by  C'ombefis  in  Aiicl.  nor.  BiliL,  Paris, 
1648.  He  is  soini'timcs  identified  with  the  pre- 
ceding, but  without  sufficient  reason.  .See  V.  Sau- 
TOKlfs  ;  lliimilin  /.mntii  in  ./olium,  Dorpat.  1S28. 
In  the  iM-ginning  of  thi;  tenth  century,  al)out  !)2(), 
the  chronographer  J>eontius  of  Byzantium  wrote, 
on  the  instance  of  Coustantiue  Porphyrogeuetus, 


a  life  of  the  Emperor  Leo  Armenius,  which  has 
found  a  place  among  the  works  of  the  Byzantine 
historians,  as  a  continuation  of  Theophanes. 
Fabricius  names  other  authors  of  the  name  Leon- 
tius,  but  they  have  no  importance.  GASS. 

LEONTIUS  OF  NEAPOLIS.     See  above. 

LEPROSY.  This  di.sease  —  one  of  the  most 
fearful  of  ancient  and  modern  times,  slow  and  in- 
sidious in  its  onset,  but  generally  keeping  steadily 
on  its  destructive  course,  in  spite  of  all  the  skill 
of  medical  art  —  has  existed  from  times  preceding 
the  ages  which  history  takes  cognizance  of  in  its 
backward  sweep,  has  spread  widely  over  the  civil- 
ized and  barbarous  world,  and  still  exists  endemi- 
cally  in  some  regions.  The  Hebrews  were  sorely 
afliicted  with  it  before  leaving  Egypt  (indeed,  the 
banks  of  the  Xile,  with  their  humid  atmosphere, 
seem  to  have  been  a  cradle  of  the  disease) ;  so 
much  so,  that,  according  to  the  historian  Manetho 
(Josephus :  Cont.  Ap.,  1,  26),  the  Egyptians  drove 
them  out  on  account  of  this  plague  of  leprosy. 
It  probably  existed  in  Syria  before  the  Hebrews 
came,  bringing  it  with  them  into  that  country. 
From  Egypt  and  Palestine  it  spread  to  Greece 
and  Italy,  and  other  countries  bordering  upon  the 
Mediterranean.  It  appears  to  have  been  intro- 
duced into  Central  and  Western  Europe  some- 
where between  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centu- 
ries, probably  through  the  agency  of  the  returning 
crusaders,  and  spread  with  alarming  rapidity. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  it  had 
almost  disappeared  from  those  sections  of  Europe, 
and  somewhat  curiously,  as  it  disappeared,  syphi- 
lis appeared,  thus  giving  ground  for  the  opinion 
of  some  authors,  tliat  syphilis  is  a  debased  form 
of  leprosy ;  but  this  view  is  no  longer  held.  At 
present,  leprosy,  or  Elephantiasis  Grecorum,  is  found 
on  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Black,  and  Caspian  Seas,  in  Norway,  Asia  Minor, 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Indian 
and  Chiuiv  Seas,  in  the  islands  of  the  Australian 
Archii«?lago,  in  South  and  Central  America,  and 
in  Iceland. 

By  almost  all  peoples  and  races,  leprosy  has 
been  regarded  as  a  visitation  of  God  on  account 
of  some  sin,  and  the  lepers  have  been  kept  apart 
fidui  the  rest  of  the  people.  The  Jews  were  told 
that  it  came  upon  a  man  for  idolatry,  blasphemy, 
uncha,stity,  theft,  slander,  fal.se  witne.ss,  false 
judgment,  perjury,  infringing  the  borders  of  a 
neighbor,  devising  malicious  plans,  or  creating  dis- 
cord between  brothers.  Lepers  were  considered 
unclean  (Lev.  xiii.  44-4G),  had  to  rend  their 
garments  (excepting  in  the  case  of  the  wonuni), 
cover  their  faces,  go  with  unkempt  hair,  and  cry, 
"Unclean,  unclean  1  "  They  had  to  live  without 
the  camp  or  city ;  had  a  SfXicial  part  of  the  syna- 
gogue reserved  for  them:  and  any  thing  they 
touched,  or  into  whatsoever  house  they  enteretl, 
was  declared  unclean.  An  ehiborate  ceremonial 
was  prescribed  for  the  cleansing  of  the  h'per  when 
the  iii.sease  h;ul  left  him;  for  which  see  l^ev.  xiv. 
Amongst  the  .lews,  not  only  was  leprosy  consid- 
ered as  attacking  human  beings,  but  also  it  was 
declared  to  be  in  garments,  hou.ses,  and  vessels 
(L(^v.  xiii.  47-.')!)  and  xiv.  33--.')3) ;  and  ceremonials 
were  prescribed  for  their  cleansing.  Tlie  exact 
Uiitun^  of  this  leprosy  of  garments  and  houses  is 
not  known.  Its  distinctive  signs  were,  in  a  gar- 
ment, greenish  or  reddish  spots,  which   spread; 


LEPROSY. 


1305 


LEPROSY. 


ill  a  house,  greenish  or  reddish  streaks  lower  than 
the  snrface  of  the  wall,  which  spread.  This  was, 
probably,  in  either  case,  a  species  of  mildew,  or 
else  indicated  the  presence  of  some  fungus,  which, 
by  contact,  would  generate  disease  in  the  liuman. 
The  Targmn  of  Palestine  regarded  it  as  a  visita- 
tion on  a  house  built  with  unjust  gains. 

The  Persians  went  even  farther  than  the  .Tews, 
and  excluded  foreign  lepers  from  their  country. 
The  Greek  writers  thought  leprosy  was  a  punisli- 
nient  for  some  sin  against  Phoelsus.  The  Arabs  will 
neither  sleep  near,  eat  with,  lepers,  nor  marry  into 
families  known  to  be  leprous.  By  the  Church  of 
Rome  in  early  ages,  lepers  were  regarded  as  dead, 
and  the  last  I'ites  of  the  church  were  said  over 
them.  In  757  A.D.  it  was  declared  a  ground  for 
divorce,  and  the  sound  party  could  marry  again. 
In  France,  at  different  times,  laws  were  passed 
forbidding  lepers  to  marry.  The  leper  lost  all 
control  of  his  property,  and  could  not  inherit  any  : 
he  could  not  act  as  a  witness,  nor  challenge  to  a 
duel.  Oddly  enough,  while,  in  general,  leprosy 
was  regarded  as  a  punishment,  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  it  was  held  to  be  a  sign  of  divine  jirefer- 
euce  for  those  attacked ;  as,  in  a  woman,  it  was 
to  preserve  her  chastity.  They  were  regarded  as 
saints,  and  rendei'ed  much  honor  and  alms.  All 
over  Europe  the  lepers  had  to  live  apart,  and  had 
special  churches,  priests,  etc.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  a  siiecial  dress  was  prescribed  for  them. 
The  houses  in  which  tliese  unfortunate  ones  lived 
were  called  "  lazav-houses."  They  were  generally 
located  just  outside  the  gates  of  the  cities,  in 
close  proximity  to  .some  body  of  water;  so  that 
the  inmates  coidd  bathe.  They  were  usuallj- 
religious  in  character.  The  inmates  had  to  be 
silent,  and  attend  morning  praj'er  and  mass ;  and 
in  some  of  the  houses  they  had  to .  say  so  many 
prayers  each  day,  that  they  had  very  little  time 
for  any  thing  else.  No  woman  was  allowed  to 
enter  the  male  lazar-houses,  excepting  the  washer- 
woman ;  and  she  had  to  be  of  sober  age  and  good 
manners,  and  must  enter  the  house  at  a  fixed 
time  of  day,  when  she  could  be  seen  of  all.  A 
female  relative  had  to  obtain  special  permission 
before  she  could  speak  to  a  male  leper.  These 
houses  were  supported  largely  by  begging,  entirely 
by  alms. 

Frequently  leprosy  is  hereditary,  the  disease 
lying  dormant  in  the  system  for  a  number  of 
years,  to  break  out  at  or  after  the  age  of  puberty. 
By  proper  hygiene  the  outbreak  may  be  prevent- 
ed. Often  the  etiology  is  obscure,  and  various 
conjectures  have  been  formed  as  to  it.  Doubtless 
it  is  due  to  some  poison  in  the  blood.  It  is  seen 
mostly  in  localities  where  air  and  earth  are  hu- 
mid, as  upon  the  coasts  of  seas,  banks  of  rivers, 
and  on  islands ;  and  the  climatic  is  probably  the 
largest  factor  in  its  production.  Thus,  during 
the  forty-years'  wandering  of  the  Jews  in  the 
desert,  with  its  dry  atmosphere,  it  is  likely  that 
fewer  cases  occurred  than  when  in  the  land  of 
Egypt.  That  food  has  any  great  influence  upon 
the  development  of  the  disease  is  questionable  : 
though  it  would  seem  that  bad  water,  salt  or 
decayed  fish,  salt  meat,  etc.,  aggravate  the  dis- 
ease. It  has  been  thought  by  some  commenta- 
tors that  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  eat  pork 
on  account  of  its  tendency  to  produce  leprosy. 
Violent  outbreaks  of  passion  have  been  assigned 


as  a  cause,  as  in  the  case  of  U/.ziah,  who,  in  a  fit 
of  passion,  performed  a  priestly  office  (2  (Ijiron. 
xxvi.  21).  By  the  ancients  it  was  thought  to  be 
contagious,  but  tliis  theory  has  recently  lost 
ground.  By  some,  the  disease  is  thought  to  be 
of  nervous  origin.  As  to  sex,  more  males  are 
attacked  than  females.  Neither  rich  nor  i>oor 
are  exempt.  Some  authorities  now  claim  to  have 
found  a  parasite  peculiar  to  leprosy. 

Between  what  is  called  "  leprosy  "  in  our  version 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  leprosy  as  described  by  the 
liest  authorities  on  skin  diseases,  there  is  very- 
little  correspondence:  indeed,  the  writer  is  in- 
clined to  adopt  the  theory  advanced  in  the  ai-ti- 
cle  on  leprosy  in  Smith's  Dictionary  of  tlw  Bible 
(American  edition,  vol.  ii.  p.  10.30),  that  the  leprosy 
of  the  IMosaic  dispensation  (Lepra  Mosaicaj  is  not 
one  disease,  but  an  enumeration  of  certain  symp- 
toms, which,  on  account  of  their  frightful  charac- 
ter, and  tendency  to  .spread,  would  render  the 
individual  an  object  of  aversion,  and  demand  his 
sejiaration.  It  is  certainly  but  in  few  points  akin 
to  Elephantiasis  Grecorum,  the  modern  leprosy. 
The  symptoms  of  leprosy,  as  in  Lev.  xiii.,  and 
the  expression  used  there  and  elsewhere, —  leprous, 
"white  as  snow,"  —  lead  one  to  conjecture  that 
the  Lepra  Mosaica  is  analogous  to  the  Lepra  i-ul- 
garis,  more  commonly  called  Psoriasis.  For  the 
sake  of  clearness  we  will  give  briefly  the  biblical 
leprosy,  and  then  the  modern  form.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  diseases  have  a  tendency  to 
change  their  form  as  they  move  from  land  to 
land,  and  this  may  account  somewliat  for  the 
marked  difference  in  the  diseases  now  presented. 

Lepra  Mosaica  (Heb.  Tzara'ath),  leprosy  of 
Lev.  xiii.  and  xiv.  Its  most  marked  .sj'mptoms 
were  "  a  rising,  a  scab,  or  a  bright  spot,"  "  in  the 
skin  of  the  flesh  "  (Lev.  xiii.  2),  with  a  hair  turned 
white  in  the  rising,  scab,  or  bright  spot,  these 
being  deeper  than  the  scarf-skin  (xiii.  3),  and 
spreading  of  the  scab,  etc.  (xiii.  7,  8).  As  a 
more  advanced  case  we  have  '•  quick  raw  flesh  in 
the  rising"  (xiii.  10).  In  ver.se  18  we  find  that 
the  disease  may  take  its  origin  in  a  boil,  with  the 
same  symptoms.  In  verse  29  we  have  the  disease 
appearing  in  the  beard,  or  hair  of  the  head,  —  a 
great  calamity  to  the  Jew,  who  was  so  proud  of 
his  beard ;  and  here  it  comes  in  the  form  of  a 
scall,  with  thin  yellow  hairs  in  the  patches.  Tliese 
are  all  tlie  symptoms  we  have  ;  and  the3'  are  prob- 
ably given  merely  as  initial  symptoms,  so  that  the 
priest  shoidd  recognize  the  onslaught  of  different 
diseases  in  their  earliest  stages.  The  "  rising  " 
may  correspond  to  the  tubercles  of  Lepra  tubercu- 
losa, or  the  bullce  of  Lejira  (Duesthetica  of  the  most 
recent  authors.  The  scall  of  the  head  may  be 
the  Morphoea  alopecinta,  or  Foxtnanije,  placed  by 
Kaposi  (Haiith-nnlheiten,  Wien,  1880)  as  a  sub- 
division of  the  second  form  of  leprosy,  —  the 
Lepra  maculosa.  In  verses  12-17  we  read,  that, 
if  the  patient  is  white  all  over,  he  is  clean,  no 
doubt  because  the  disease  had  then  run  its  coiu'se. 
In  this  case  it  is  probably  a  general  Psoriasis. 

Modern  leprosy,  the  Elephantiasis  Grecorum,  is 
divided  into  three  varieties :  (1)  Lepra  tuberosa, 
the  tubercular  form ;  (2)  Lepra  maculosa,  the  spot- 
ted or  streaked  form;  (3)  Lepra  amesthetica,  the 
ansesthetic  form.  For  months  or  years  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  disease,  the  patieut  may  have 
vague   prodromal   symptoms,   as   weakness,   los.s 


LEPROSY. 


1306 


LEPROSY. 


of  appetite,  sleeplessness,  lassitude,  slight  fever, 
diarrhoea,  and  sometimes  pemphigus  blebs  (little 
blisters).  In  the  Lepra  tuberosa  the  disease  begins 
with  the  outbreak,  on  the  general  sm-face  of  the 
body,  of  irregular  or  round  shaped  spots,  in  size 
from  a  finger-nail  to  tlie  palm  of  the  liaud ;  at 
first  red,  and  disappearing  under  pressure ;  soon 
becoming  gray  to  sepia  brown  or  bronze  color. 
Over  the  spots  the  skin  is  smooth  and  glistening 
(as  if  painted  with  oil),  or  bronzed  and  thickened, 
or  slightly  prominent,  and  painful  on  pressure. 
The  spots  are  distributed  over  the  trunk  and  ex- 
tremities,—  face,  hands,  and  feet.  In  some  situa- 
tions they  become  confluent;  in  some  disappear; 
in  others  disappear  in  the  centre,  while  the  peri- 
pheries extend,  thus  forming  ring  shapes.  The 
tubercles,  the  distinctive  type  of  this  form,  appear 
after  the  disease  has  lasted  months,  or  may  be 
years ;  are  of  various  sizes,  up  to  that  of  a  hazel- 
nut at  the  surface  of  the  skin,  or  somewhat  pro- 
truding ;  dirty-brown-red  and  glistening ;  hard- 
elastic  to  soft  to  the  touch,  covered  with  epidermis 
scales;  diffuse,  or  closely  pressed  together,  and 
forming,  either  irregular  uneven  plaques,  or  regu- 
lar circles.  They  are  principally  located  on  the 
face  and  ears.  On  the  eyebrows  they  form  thick 
parallel  rows,  projecting  over  the  eyes;  on  the 
cheeks,  nose,  and  cliin  they  are  massed  into  irregu- 
lar heaps.  The  lips  become  thick,  swollen,  and 
protruding ;  the  under-lip  hangs  down  ;  and  this, 
with  the  prominent,  overhanging,  knotty  eye- 
brows, and  the  deeply-wrinkled  forehead,  gives 
the  countenance  a  morose  and  stupid  appearance. 
Sometimes  the  eyelids  are  everted,  and  the  lobes 
of  the  ears  hang  down  in  thick  masses.  Conse- 
quent upon  the  eversion  of  the  eyelids,  disease  of 
the  eye  sets  in.  The  extremities  also  become 
tuberculated,  though  not  so  much  as  the  face ; 
and  the  pi-esence  of  tubercles  in  the  palms  of  the 
hand.s  and  soles  of  the  feet  render  handling  and 
walking  very  painful.  Tubercles  ujipear  in  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth,  pharynx,  and 
upper  part  of  larynx;  the  tongue  becoming  thick 
and  cracked,  with  loss  of  taste  ensuing;  the  larynx 
beconnng  narrow,  with  loss  of  voice ;  thi!  breath 
becoming  sweetish.  After  many  months,  these 
tubercles  may  be  absorbed,  leaving  beliiiul  dark 
pigmented  atrophic  places  :  sometimes  they  soften 
centrally,  and  spread  out  peripherally  ;  sometimes 
break  down,  and  form  leprous  idcers,  which  tend 
to  skin  over,  only  to  break  down  again.  Some- 
times the  ulceration  goes  deeper;  necrosis  joins 
itself  to  it;  a  diffused  inflammation  sets  in,  lead- 
ing, in  the  under  extremities  especially,  to  deep 
excavation,  and  finally  opening  of  joints,  and  self- 
amputation  of  entire  members  (Lepra  muliUins). 
Earlier  or  later  anajsthesia  develops  in  diiferent 
parts  of  the  body,  and  the  ulnar  nerve  will  be 
lound  enlarged  and  cordy.  The  disease  is  gener- 
ally chronic,  lasting  some  eiglit  to  ten  years,  the 
patient  dying  of  specific  nuirasmus,  or  .some  com- 
plicating disea.se  of  internal  organs.  Or  the  di.s- 
ease  may  be  more  acute,  with  high  fever,  and 
reaching  in  a  few  months  to  a  state  wliich  in 
other  cases  is  not  readied  in  years.  This  disea.se 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  one  witli  wliich  Job 
was  afflicted,  though  this  is  questioned.  The 
Lepra  maculosa  is  characterized  by  the  appear- 
ance on  the  skin  of  a  large  number  of  red  or 
brown  gli.stening  spots,  or  by  diffuse  dark   pig- 


mentation, intermixed  with  which  are  white 
points,  spots,  or  stripes ;  so  that  the  body  seems 
streaked.  This  frequently  changes  into  the  form- 
er variety,  or  into  the 

Lepra  ancesihefica,  in  which  anaesthesia  is  the 
marked  feature.  It  succeeds  to  the  preceding 
forms,  or  else  begins  with  an  outbreak  of  pemphi- 
gus buUcE  (water-blisters),  which,  on  healing,  leave 
white,  glistening,  and  ana3Sthetic  places,  or,  break- 
ing, leave  ulcerations.  Sometimes  anaesthesia 
appears  on  fully  normal  places ;  sometimes  the 
spot  has  been  red  and  hypera-sthetic  for  months 
before.  Over  the  aniesthetic  spots  the  skin  often 
becomes  wrinkled,  the  wrinkled  places  being 
bounded  by  a  red,  hyperssthetic  border ;  the 
wrinkling  only  taking  place  where  the  anesthet- 
ic spots  have  become  stable,  for  at  first  they  tend 
to  change  their  location.  The  anaesthesia  is  com- 
plete, the  patient  not  feeling  a  needle  thrust  deep 
into  the  nmscles.  The  chief  nerve-trunks  be- 
come swollen,  and  painful  to  pressure.  Some- 
times hypenesthesia  precedes  anajsthesia  to  such 
a  degree,  that  the  patient  is  not  able  to  sit  or  lie 
for  any  length  of  time  in  one  place,  cannot  take 
any  thing  in  his  hands,  aud  walking  and  stand- 
ing give  him  the  greatest  pain.  The  anaesthesia 
is  followed  by  atrophy  of  muscles,  and  wrin- 
kling; the  sphincter  muscle  of  the  ej-e  becomes 
lamed;  the  under  eyelid  and  the  under-lip  hang 
down ;  the  tears  flow  over  the  cheeks ;  and  the  sali- 
va runs  dribbling  out  of  the  mouth  ;  and  thus  the 
face  ofttimes,  already  swollen  and  out  of  shape  by 
the  presence  of  the  tubercles,  assumes  a  peculiar, 
old,  idiotic,  foolish  expression.  The  flexor  mus- 
cles of  the  hand  not  being  atropliied  so  much  as 
the  extensor,  the  fingers  become  half  bent,  the 
hollow  of  the  hand  becomes  convex  and  pressed 
forward,  the  back  of  the  hand  bent  in  ;  the  finger- 
ends  becomes  clubbed,  finger-nails  thinned ;  the 
hair  falls  out.  Ulceration  finally  sets  in  in  the 
ana'sthetic  places,  or  the  tissues  gradually  atrophy 
away  till  the  skin,  fasciae,  tendons,  disappear,  one 
or  another  joint  is  laid  liare,  when  suddenly  a 
whole  foot,  liaiul,  or  extremity  falls  off.  Patient 
grows  foolish  and  apathetic,  and  dies  after  a 
lapse  of  eighteen  to  nineteen  years. 

The  tubercles  are  composed  of  a  granulation 
membrane  rich  in  cells,  which  follows  the  walls 
of  the  ves.sels,  and  spreads  out  from  them  througli 
the  whole  thickness  of  the  skin,  setting  up,  by  tlie 
pressure  caused  by  its  presence,  a  disturbance  of 
circulation  and  function  of  the  skin;  and,  extend- 
ing into  the  deeper  parts,  gives  rise  to  a  painless 
suppuration  of  the  joints.  The  tubercles  are 
also  deposited  in  the  nuiiu  nerve-trunks,  at  first 
only  in  their  sheaths,  but  ultimately  pressing  in 
between  the  fibriUa!. 

Treatment  is  only  .symptomatic.  Tlie  best  is 
to  remove  the  patient  from  leprous  regions. 

The  lepers  whom  our  Lord  healed  were  proba- 
bly not  alHicted  with  IClephantiasis  Grecurum,  but 
with  Elephiiiidasis  nilgaris  (Psoriasis). 

Outside  of  .lerusaliMu  is  a  hospital  for  lepers, 
managed  by  a  Moravian  coujile,  wlio,  in  a  truly 
Christ-like  sjiirit,  care  for  t-liese  wretched  and  dis- 
gusting sulTerers. 

Lei)rosy  is  biblically  regarded  as  an  emblem  of 
sin,  Ijccause  of  its  loatli.sonieness,  its  affecting 
ev(!ry  part,  and  its  incurability,  save  upon  divine 
intervention.      Again,   as   leprosy  excluded   oni» 


i 


LERINS. 


1307 


LESLIE. 


from  the  abodes  of  mortals,  sin  excludes  us  from 
heaven,  the  abode  of  God. 

Lit.  —  The  Bible;  The  Bible  Commentary  {^\)P.ak-- 
er'.s)  on  Levit.  xiii.,  xiv.  ;  Smith:  Diclionary  of 
the  Bible,  art.  "  Leper,  Leprosy;  "  Daniki.sskn  and 
BoECK :  Traitc  de  la  Spidalskhed  ou  Elephantiasis 
ties  Grecs,  Paris,  1848;  Virchow  :  Krankhafte 
Geschwiilste;  IL  Vandyke  Carter  :  On  Leprosij 
and  Elephantiasis,  London,  1874  ;  Tilbury  Fox  : 
Skin  Diseases,  London,  1877  ;  Kaposi  :  Hautkrank- 
heiten,  Wien,  1880 ;  Good  :  Stud)/  of  Medicine, 
vol.  iv.  —  .\ncient  authorities.  Hippocrates: 
Prorrhellva,  lib.  xii.  ap.  fin. ;  Galen  :  ExpUcatio 
Lin</uiv  Hippoe.,  and  De  art.  Curat. ,\\h.  ii.;  Celsus  : 
De  Medir.,  v.  28,  §  19.  G.  T.  JACKSON,  M.D. 

LERINS,  Convent  of.  When,  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  fourth  century,  the  enthusiasm  of  asceti- 
cism, after  the  model  of  the  Egyptian  anchorites 
and  monks,  began  to  spread  in  Western  f2urope, 
the  islands  strewn  along  the  coasts  of  Dahnatia, 
Italy,  and  Southern  France  became  the  favorite 
abodes  of  the  votaries  of  the  new  spiritual  life. 
The  two  islands  in  front  of  Cannes  —  Lero,  the 
larger,  the  present  Sainte  Marguerite,  and  Leri- 
nuin,  the  mmor,  the  present  Saint  Ilonorat  —  were 
also  peopled  with  anchorites ;  and  about  400  St. 
Honorat  settled  with  his  followers  on  the  latter. 
A  coenobium  was  formed,  a  monastery  was  built; 
and  from  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  the  con- 
vent of  Lerins  exercised  for  several  centuries  a 
decisive  influence  on  the  church  of  Southern 
France.  In  course  of  time,  the  discipline  became 
weakened.  At  the  close  of  the  sixth  century 
Gregory  the  Great  (Ep.,  V.  56,  IX.  8)  admon- 
ished the  abbot  Bonon,  or  Conon,  to  introduce  re- 
form. A  little  later  Attala  left  Lerins,  and  joined 
Columbanus  at  Luxovium  (Jona.s  Bonn :  Vita 
Attal<e,  in  Mabillon:  Act.  Sanct.,  ii.  123).  In 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century,  the  attempt  of 
Aigulf  to  introduce  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict 
resulted  in  his  assassination  (Aldecraldas  :  Vita 
Aigulji,  in  Mabillox  :  Acta  Sanct.,  ii.  G29).  Nev- 
ertheless the  moral  standing  of  the  institution 
was  generally  commendable ;  and  though  the  mon- 
astery was  plundered  in  the  eighth  century  by  the 
Arabs,  in  the  tenth  liy  the  Saracens,  and  after- 
wards by  Genoese  pirates,  it  gradually  grew  im- 
mensely rich.  In  the  fourteenth  century  the 
monks  refused  to  be  called  fratres,  and  demanded 
to  be  called  domini ;  and  a  chapter-general  of  1319 
decided  that  the  monks  should  be  allowed  to  hold 
jjrivate  property,  and  do  with  it  as  they  liked. 
But  the  real  decay  of  the  institution  began  with 
the  removal  of  the  papal  residence  to  Avignon. 
After  discovering  how  wealthy  the  abbey  was, 
John  XXII.,  Clement  VI.,  Innocent  VI.,  in  order 
to  get  hold  of  a  part  of  that  wealth,  gave  away 
the  abbey  in  commendam,  that  i.s,  sold  it.  In  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  the  institution 
partially  lost  its  independence,  and  was  luiited  to 
the  Benedictine  CongTegation  of  St.  Justina  of 
Padua,  genei'ally  called  the  Congregation  of  Jlonte 
Cassino.  Hence  resulted  a  great  deal  of  haggling 
between  the  Italian  congi-egation  and  the  French 
government,  until,  in  1732,  Fleury  simply  dis- 
solved the  union.  In  1788  the  abbey  was  secu- 
larized and  the  monastery  closed ;  and  in  1791  the 
island  was  sold. 

Lit.  — HiLARius  Arelat.  :  Vita  St.  Honor.,  in 
Bibl.  Patr.  Max.  viii. ;  Vinc.  Barralis  Saleu- 


Nus ;  Chronologia  Sanct.  Insula  Lerinensis,  Lyons, 
1613 ;  Alliez  :  Ilistoire  du  monast'ere  de  Lerins, 
Paris,  1662,  2  vols. ;  Sileverberg  :  Historia  Mo- 
nasterii  Lerinensis  usque  ad  ann.  731,  Copenhagen, 
1834  ;  PiERRUGUES  :  Vie  de  St.  Honor. ,Va,ntt,  1875; 
Raymond-Feraud  :  La  vida  de  sunt  Honor.,  od. 
by  Sardou,  Nice,  1875.  W.  molleu. 

LESLEY,  John,  b.  in  Scotland,  1.527;  d.  in  a 
monastery  at  Gurtenbnrg,  near  lirnssols.  May  31, 
1596.  He  was  educated  at  the  university  of  Aber- 
deen, where  he  became  canon  in  1547.  He  was  a 
vigorous  champion  of  the  Itoman  faith  and  of 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  He  appeared  against  Knox 
in  the  disputation  at  Edinburgh  (1561),  and,  as 
one  of  the  commissioners,  brought  Mary  to  Scot- 
land. In  1565  he  was  made  Bishop  of  llo.ss.  He 
shared  the  misfortunes  of  the  royal  cause,  and  par- 
ticipated in,  indeed  originated,  some  of  the  innu- 
merable intrigues  Mary  connived  at.  For  this 
conduct  he  suffered  imprisonment.  But  he  made 
good  use  of  his  enforced  leisure  by  gathering  ma- 
terials for  his  De  origine  moribus  et  rebus  gestis  Sco- 
tnrum,  a  history  of  Scotland,  in  ten  books,  down  to 
1561,  published  at  Rome,  1578;  reprinted  in  Hol- 
land, 1675.  Upon  this  work  his  fame  rests;  but 
he  also  wrote  much  in  defence  of  Mary,  and  for 
her  benefit  composed  Pim  ajflicti  animi  consolationes 
et  tranquilli  animi  mnnimentum,  Paris,  1.574.  He 
was  released  in  1573,  went  to  the  Continent, 
endeavored  to  enlist  foreign  princes  in  behalf  of 
Mary.  In  1593  he  was  made  Bishop  of  Coutances 
in  Normandy,  but  soon  after,  wearied  with  life,  re- 
tired to  a  monastery.    See  his  Life,  London,  1885. 

LESLIE,  Charles,  author  of  A  Short  and  Easy 
Method  with  the  Deists;  h.  at  Raphoe,  County  Done- 
gal, Ireland,  1650 ;  d.  at  Glaslough,  Monaghau, 
April  13,  1722.  His  father  (d.  1671)  had  been 
bishop  of  the  Orkneys,  of  Rajilioe,  and  of  Clogher 
successively.  Charles  was  educated  at  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  in  1671 ;  removed  to  England, 
and  studied  law  at  the  Temple,  liut  in  1680  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England.  He  returned 
to  Ireland  in  1687;  became  chancellor  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Connor,  but  lost  his  position  in  con- 
sequence of  his  refusal  to  take  the  oath  of  allegi- 
ance to  AVilliam  and  Mary.  In  this  he  was  true 
to  his  family  traditions  (for  his  father  had  been 
privy  councillor  to  Charles  I.)  and  to  his  declared 
preferences.  In  1689  he  went  to  England,  and 
for  twenty  years  lived  unmolested,  can-ying 
vigorously  on  his  controversies  against  Quakers, 
Socinians,  Roman  Catholics,  Jews,  and,  above 
all.  Deists.  In  1710  he  published  The  Good  Old 
Cause;  or,  lying  in  Truth,  —  a  pamphlet  against 
Bishop  Burnet,  with  whom  he  had  had  previously 
a  controversy  on  the  doctrine  of  passive  obedi- 
ence, to  which  he  as  a  non-juror  held ;  and  soon 
after  fled  to  the  Pretender,  at  Bar-le-Duc.  He 
staid  faithfully  in  the  Pretender's  service,  tried 
to  win  the  latter  to  Protestantism,  shared  his 
hopes  and  misfortunes ;  but  in  1721  he  obtained 
permission  to  return  home,  where  he  soon  after 
died. 

Leslie  is  now  remembered  principally  by  one 
book,  A  Short  and  Easy  Method  icith  the  Deists, 
wherein  the  Certainty  of  the  Christian  Reliyion  is 
demonstrated  by  Infallible  Proof  from  Four  Rules, 
which  are  Incompatible  to  am/  Imposture  that  ever  yet 
has  been,  or  that  can  possibly  be,  London,  1697  (often 
reprinted,  e.g.,  in  Bohu's  Christian  Evidences,  Lou- 


LESS. 


1308 


LESSING. 


don,  1867,  pp.  367-387).  In  Bohn's  edition  it  is 
stated  that  the  rough  draft  of  it  was  written  in 
three  days,  in  response  to  a  request  for  a  simple 
proof  of  the  truth  of  Christianity,  from  Thomas, 
first  Duke  of  Leeds,  who  said,  on  perusing  it,  "  I 
thought  I  was  a  Christian  before,  but  now  I  am 
sure  of  it."  The  argument  has  been  thus  given  : 
"  The  Christian  religion  consists  of  facts  and  doc- 
trines, the  one  depending  on  the  other;  so  that, 
if  the  facts  are  true,  the  doctrines  must  be  true. 
The  truth  of  a  matter  of  fact  may  be  certainly 
known,  if  it  be  attended  with  certain  marks  such 
as  no  false  fact  can  possibly  have."  These  marks, 
as  stated  by  Leslie,  are  four:  "1st,  That  the 
matter  of  fact  be  such  as  that  men's  outward 
senses,  their  eyes  and  ears,  may  be  judges  of  it ; 
2d,  That  it  be  done  publicly,  in  the  face  of  the 
world ;  3d,  That  not  only  public  monuments  be 
kept  up  in  memory  of  it,  but  some  outward  actions 
be  performed ;  4th,  That  such  monuments,  and 
such  actions  or  observances,  be  instituted,  and 
do  commence,  from  the  time  that  the  matter  of 
fact  was  done."  Leslie  endeavors  to  prove  that 
the  facts  of  Christianity  have  these  marks,  there- 
fore Christianity  is  the  true  religion.  Besides 
this  work,  he  wrote  many  others :  A  Short  and 
East/  Method  with  the  Jews  (169S) ;  The  Truth  of 
Christianitij  demonstrated  in  a  Dialogue  betwixt  a 
Christian  and  a  Deist,  wherein  the  Case  of  the  Jews 
is  lil'ewise  considered ;  The  Snake  in  the  Grass 
(1096,  against  the  Quakers),  etc.  Dr.  Johnson 
said  he  "  was  a  reasoner,  and  a  reasoner  who  was 
not  to  be  reasoned  against."  Bishop  Home  men- 
tions that  he  (Leslie)  "  is  said  to  have  brought 
more  persons  from  other  persuasions  into  the 
Church  of  England  than  any  man  ever  did." 
Leslie  was  an  intense  High-Churchman,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  Dissenters  the  same  rough-shod  logic 
he  did  to  the  Deists;  declaring,  that,  since  they 
had  not  possession  of  the  ground,  they  must  show 
cause  why  they  should  exist.  His  activity  as  a 
politician  was  quite  as  great  as  a  theologian. 
For  nearly  seven  j'ears  (170i- 11)  he  maintained  a 
paper  entitled  Rehearsals,  or  a  Vieio  of  the  Times, 
their  Principles  and  Practices  (2d  ed.  1750.  0  vols.), 
"published  at  first  once,  and  afterwards  twice, 
a  week ;  written  in  the  form  of  a  dialogu(\  and 
entirely  confined  to  the  state  of  public  affairs." 
He  collected  and  published  his  Theological  Works 
himself,  London,  1721,  2  vols,  folio.  They  have 
since  been  republished  (Oxford,  1832,  7  vols.  8vo), 
with  a  Life  prefixed. 

LESS,  Gottfried,  b.  at  Conitz,  West  Pru.ssia, 
.Ian.  :!1,  IT^iii;  d.  at  Hanover,  Aug.  28,  1707. 
He  studied  theology  at  .Jena  and  Hallo;  travelled 
in  Holland  and  Kngland  ;  and  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  theologj-  in  Gbttingen,  1703,  and  court- 
preacher  at  Hanover  in  17!)1.  He  was  a  very 
prolific  writer.  Influenced  by  the  Pietism  reign- 
ing in  Halle,  and  by  the  lectures  of  Bauingarten, 
Wolff's  most  prominent  disciple,  he  stands  in 
literature  a.s  a  transition  from  orthodoxy,  through 
Pietism  and  Wolfiianism,  to  rationalism.  His 
principal  works  are  :  lieweis  der  Warhcit  drr  chrisl- 
lirhen  Reliyioii,  Bremen,  1768,  5th  ed.,  17S5  [part 
of  which  has  been  translated  into  Knglish  under 
the  title,  A  ulhenticily,  Uncorrupted  Presercalion,  and 
Crediljilit;/  of  the  New  Testament,  London,  1801; 
reprinted  in  Boiin'8  Christian  Trea.iuri/,  London, 
1863]  ;  /lawlh.  d.  christl.  Moral,  1777, 4th  ed.,  1787. 


Even  his  dogmatical  works,  Handbuch  d.  christl 
Religionstheorie,  etc.,  have  a  decidedly  practical 
and  apologetical  character.  See  his  biography  by 
Holscher,  Hanover,  1797.  WAGENMANN. 

LESSING,  Gotthold  Ephralm,  b.  at  Kamenz 
in  Upper  Lusatia,  .Jan.  22, 1729 ;  d.  at  Brunswick, 
Feb.  15,  1781.  His  father,  a  Lutheran  minister, 
took  him  out  of  the  school  of  Kamenz.  because 
the  rector,  in  an  opening  address,  had  called  the 
theatre  a  school  of  eloquence.  Nevertheless, 
when  in  1746  young  Lessing  was  sent  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipzig  to  study  theology,  it  was  the 
stage,  where  just  at  that  moment  the  famous 
actress  Neuber  shone  her  brightest,  which  occu- 
pied the  larger  portion  of  his  attention.  He 
studied  theology,  philosophj',  and  philology ;  and 
in  each  of  these  departments  of  science  he,  in 
course  of  time,  not  only  accumulated  a  vast 
amount  of  knowledge,  but  acquired  real  insight. 
Nevertheless,  sesthetics,  literature,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  drama,  formed  the  true  field  of  his 
genius.  In  1748  Neuber  brought  out  Le.ssing's  first 
play  {Der  junge  Gelehrte)  on  the  stage ;  and  in 
the  same  year  Lessing  removed  to  Berlin,  where, 
with  various  incidental  interruptions,  he  resided 
till  1760.  In  Berlin  he  exclusively  occupied  him- 
self with  literary  work,  though  for  some  time  he 
still  wore  the  title  of  Studiosus  medicince.  He 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Voltaire,  whose  pleas 
in  the  notorious  suit  against  Hirsch  he  translated 
into  German.  He  al.so  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Mendelssohn  and  Nicolai,  with  whom  he  edited 
the  Briefe,  die  neueste  Litterattir  helreffend.  ^lany 
of  his  criticisms  attracted  attention.  His  new 
drama.  Miss  Sara  Sampson  (1755),  produced  a 
sensation.  He  began  to  make  a  name  for  him- 
self. In  1760  he  accepted  a  position  as  secretary 
to  Gen.  von  Tauentzieu  at  Breslau,  and  there  he 
remained  till  1765.  The  life  in  the  barracks  did 
not  displease  hiin  ;  and  he  found  time  to  continue 
his  studies,  and  write  Laokoun  and  Minna  von 
Barnhebn.  The  prospect  of  a  position  as  librarian 
in  Berlin  allured  him  away  from  Breslau,  but 
deceived  him.  In  1767  he  went  to  Hamburg  as 
a  kind  of  artistic  director  of  the  theatre  of  the 
city  ;  and  there  he  staid  till  1770,  to  which  period 
belong  his  Dramarturgie  and  his  arch.Tological 
controversy  with  Klotz.  In  1770  he  was  appointed 
librarian  at  Wolfenbiittel ;  and  while  there  he 
published  Emilie  Galoiti  (1772)  and  Nathan  der 
Wcise  (1779,  translated  into  English  by  Ellen 
Frothingham,  New  York,  1871),  Die  Erziehung 
de.s  Menschcnyeschlechts  (17H0),  and  the  Fragmcnie 
eines  Ungenannten  (1774-78)  [partially  translated 
into  English,  Fragments  from  Rcimarus,  Loudon, 
1879],  together  with  the  whole  Goe/.e  controversy. 

The  influence  which  Le.ssing  exerci.sed  on  Ger- 
man litcu-ature,  through  his  criticism  and  through 
his  dramas,  was  <lecisive,  and  is  unmistakable 
with  respect  to  its  character.  ]\Iore  obscure  is 
his  relation  to  theology.  If  those  who  still  make 
a  distinction  between  the  religion  of  Christ  and 
the  Christian  religion  are  right,  then  they  may 
point  to  Lessing  as  their  predecessor  and  the 
founder  of  a  new  theological  school.  If,  indeed, 
this  so-called  religion  of  Christ  is  the  true  Chris- 
tianity, then  ix'ssing  w^as  certainly  a  true  Chris- 
tian, a  I'rotestant  in  the  full  sense  of  the  word; 
and  he  has  carried  farther  the  work  of  Luther. 
But  if,  on  the  other  side,  those  are  right,  who,  on 


LESSIUS. 


1309 


LEVIRATE   MARRIAGE. 


the  instance  of  Schleierinacher,  consider  the  per- 
sonal relation  to  the  person  of  the  Saviour,  and 
not  the  doctrinal  system,  as  the  essence  of  Chris- 
tianity, then  Lessing  was,  in  spite  of  the  deep 
veneration  which  he  always  nourished  for  Jesus 
of  Nazareth,  not  a  Christian  man.  His  theologi- 
cal stand-point  is  very  difficult  to  define.  First,  as 
he  confesses  himself,  he  often  spoke  as  a  learner, 
not  as  a  teacher.  Next,  lie  evidently  went  through 
no  important  development  during  the  latter  part 
of  his  life,  for  he  remained  pretty  much  as  he 
was  before.  F.  II.  Jacobi  has  jniblished  a  con- 
versation which  he  held  with  Lessing  at  Wol- 
fenbiittel,  July  0  and  7,  17S0;  but  it  does  not 
show  that  Lessing  ended  :i  eoiifirmed  Spino- 
zist;  while  Wackernagel,  Stirm,  and  others 
think  that  they  have  discovered  in  his  Erzie- 
hung  deK  yreiuchengeschlcchtu  a  decided  progress 
towards  Christianity.  Both  these  opinions  are 
probably  somewhat  exaggerated.  The  truth 
seems  to  be,  that,  even  at  the  end  of  his  life, 
Lessing's  theological  stand-point  was  still  in  the 
process  of  formation ;  that  is,  unfinished,  unsettled. 
See  also  arts  Goeze,  and  Woleenbuttel  Frag- 
ments , 

Lit.  —  Collected  editions  of  Lessing's  works 
are  very  numerous,  that  by  Hempel  the  most 
complete.  His  life  was  written  by  Th.  W.  D.\n- 
ZEL  (vol.  i.,  1850)  and  G.  E.  Guhrauer  (vol.  ii., 
1853-54),  new  edition  by  Maltzahn  and  Box- 
berger,  Berlin,  1S80  ;  [by  J.  Claassen,  Giiters- 
loh,  1881,  2  vols.,  and  by  A.  Duntzer,  Leipzig, 
1882].  See  H.  Ritter  :  Ueher  L.  philosoph.  ami 
religiose  Grundscitze,  Gottingen,  1847;  Schwarz: 
Lessing  als  Theolog,  Halle,  1854;  Beyschl.\g: 
Nathan  aer  Weise  und  das  positive  Chrlftentlinm, 
Berlin,  1863.  carl  bkrtheau. 

LESSIUS,  Leonhard,  b.  at  Brecht-in-Brabant, 
Oct  1,  15.54;  d.  at  Louvain,  Jan.  .5,  1623.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Society  of  Jesu,  and  teacher 
of  philosophy  and  theology  at  Louvain.  He  owed 
his  reputation  principally  to  his  work  on  morals, 
Libri  IV.  de  Justitia,  1605  (afterwards  often  re- 
printed), though  it  shows  the  same  marks  of 
sophistry  as  most  works  on  morals  by  Jesuits. 
At  present  he  is  remembered  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  part  he  took  in  the  Augustinian  controver- 
sies. The  Pope  having  condennied  seventy-six 
propositions  in  the  writings  of  Bajus  (1567). 
Lessius  went  so  far  in  his  polemics  that  the  fac- 
ulty of  Louvain,  in  1587,  found  occasion  to  con- 
demn as  Pelagian  thirty-four  propositions  drawn 
from  his  works  and  tliose  of  Hamel,  another 
Jesuit.  See  Alegambe  :  Bibl.  Script.  Socletatis 
Jesu,j).  301.  h.  PELT. 

LESTINES,  Synod  of.  At  LIflina,  or  Lestines, 
a  royal  villa  near  Binche  in  Hainault,  the  second 
Austrasian  synod  during  the  reign  of  Carloman 
was  held,  probably  in  743  The  acts  of  that  synod 
are  in  many  respects  nothing  but  a  confirmation 
of  the  acts  of  the  first  Austrasian  synod  of  742. 
At  some  points,  however,  the  tendency  of  model- 
ling the  ecclesiastical  organization  of  Austrasia 
after  tliat  of  the  primitive  Church  stands  out  quite 
prominently ,  and  with  respect  to  innnense  secu- 
larization, under  the  Carolingians,  of  the  estates 
of  the  Church,  which  almost  amounted  to  a  for- 
mal divisio  between  Church  and  State,  the  acts 
are  of  gi-eat  interest.  See  Paul  Roth  :  D.  Sdku- 
larisation  des  Kirchenguls  unter  den  Karolingern, 


in  the    Munich   Historical  Jahrhnch,   1865,   i.   p. 
275.  JULIUS  wkizs,\(;ker. 

LEUSDEN,  Johannes,  li.  at  Utrecht,  April  26, 
1624;  d.  there  Sept.  30,  1699.  He  studied  the- 
ology, and  especially  Oriental  languages,  in  his 
native  city  and  in  Amsterdam,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  Hebrew  at  Utreolit  in  1650.  His 
lectures,  distinguished  by  clearness  and  learning, 
were  much  frequented ;  and  his  elementary  He- 
brew grammar  and  dictionary  (1688)  were  much 
used.  He  edited  the  Hebrew  Bible  (1617),  the 
Greek  Testament  (1075  and  often),  the  Scptuagint 
(1683),  and  the  Syriac  New  Testament,  and  wrote 
valuable  jjhilological  treatises  and  commentaries 
A  complete  list  of  his  works  is  found  in  Bur- 
MANN  :  Traject.  erudlt.,  pp.  187-191.  See  also  J. 
Fabricius:  Hist.  Bibl.  Fabr.,  i.  p.  244. 

LE'VI.     See  Tribes  of  Israel. 

LEVI'ATHAN,  described  in  a  liighly  poetical, 
but  not  a  legendary  or  hyperliolical,  manner,  in 
Job.  xli..  is  probably,  in  tliat  passage,  the  croco- 
dile, which  Tristram  thus  describes  :  "  The  whole 
head,  back,  and  tail  are  covered  with  quadrangular 
horny  plates  or  scales,  which  not  only  protect  the 
body,  a  rifle-ball  glancing  off  from  them  as  from 
a  rook,  but  also  serve  as  ballast,  enabling  the 
creature  to  sink  rapidly,  on  being  disturbed,  by 
merely  expelling  the  air  from  its  lungs."  The 
crocodile  is  now  rarely  seen,  even  in  Upper  Egypt, 
although  once  common  up  to  the  very  mouth  of 
the  Nile.  The  "  leviathan  "  of  Ps.  Ixxiv.  14  and 
Isa.  xxvii.  1  is  also  the  crocodile ;  but  in  Ps.  civ. 
26  the  word  is  probably  used  of  the  whale.  By 
"whirlpool,"  in  the  margin  of  Job  xli.  (A.V.), 
is  probably  meant  a  sperm-whale.  See  Eastwood 
and  Wright:  Bible  Word  Book. 

LEVIRATE  MARRIAGE.  This  is  the  name 
applied  to  an  ancient  usage  of  the  Hebrews  (Gen. 
xxxviii.),  and  re-ordained  by  Moses  (Ueut.  xxv. 
5-10),  that,  when  an  Israelite  died  witliout  leav- 
ing male  issue,  his  brother  resident  with  him  was 
compelled  to  marry  the  widow  (cf.  also  Matt. 
xxii.  24).  The  first-born  son  issuing  from  this 
marriage  was  to  continue  the  deceased  brother's 
family,  that  his  name  be  not  put  out  of  Israel.  In 
case  a  man  only  left  daughters,  and  no  brother  to 
marry  his  widow,  then  the  daughtei's  were  married 
to  men  belonging  to  the  same  tribe,  who  had  to 
keep  up  the  name  and  patrimony  of  the  deceased. 
In  case  a  man  left  chikli'en,  the  brother  was  not 
allowed  to  marry  the  deceased's  wife  (Lev.  xviii. 
16,  XX.  21).  In  case  of  a  brother  living  in  a  far 
distance,  he  was  dispensed  from  the  levirate  law. 
When  there  was  no  brother  aiive,  the  levirate 
law,  as  we  see  from  the  case  of  Ruth,  extended 
to  the  nearest  relative  of  the  deceased  husband. 
As  sometimes  damages  were  connected  with  an- 
other marriage,  a  good  many  tried  to  get  rid  of 
the  levirate  law.  There  existed  no  legal  objec- 
tion, but  a  moral  one,  in  a  certain  sense.  In  case 
of  unwillingness,  the  brother's  wife  could  cite 
him  before  the  elders.  If  he  there  insisted  upon 
his  intention,  and  the  court  did  not  regard  his 
reasons  as  satisfactory,  the  widow  had  to  "loose 
his  shoe  from  off  his  foot,  and  spit  in  his  face, 
saying,  .So  shall  it  be  done  unto  that  man  that 
will  not  liuild  up  his  brother's  house.  And  his 
name  shall  be  called  in  Israel,  The  house  of  him 
that  hath  his  shoe  loosed  "  (Deut.  xxv.  9  sq.). 
Different   is   the  case  in  Ruth  iv.  7,  where  the 


LEVITBS. 


1310 


LEVITES. 


nearest  kinsman  who  resigned  the  right  or  duty 
(being  neither  the  brother-in-law  of  Ruth  nor 
Mahlon's  brother)  drew  off  liis  shoe.  This  pluck- 
ing off  the  shoe  was  an  ancient  symbol  of  ceding 
a  property.  The  widow  was  not  to  marry  another 
man  so  long  as  she  thought  it  possible  that  her 
brother-hi-law  would  fulfil  his  duty:  if  she  did, 
.such  a  connection  was  regarded  as  adultery,  and 
the  offender  was  burnt  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24).  High 
priests  (Lev.  xxi.  14)  were  not  bound  to  adhere 
to  this  law.  That  this  law  was  yet  in  full  power 
in  the  time  of  Jesus,  we  see  from  Matt.   xxii. 

24  sq.  LEYRER. 

LE'VITES.  The  Levites  are  the  descendants 
of  Levi,  the  third  son  of  Jacob,  by  Leah  (Gen. 
xxix.  34,  XXXV.  23).  This  name  was  given  to 
him  by  his  mother,  with  the  assurance,  "  This 
time  will  my  husband  be  joined  unto  me."  One 
fact  only  is  recorded  of  him,  the  deed  perpetrated 
with  his  brother  Simeon  upon  the  Shechemites 
(Gen.  xxxiv.  25  sq.),  in  consequence  of  which, 
^Jacob  has  no  blessing  for  these  two  sons,  but 
rather,  "  cursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce ; 
and  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel.  I  will  divide 
them  in  Jacob,  and  scatter  them  in  Lsrael "  (Gen. 
xlix.  5  sq.).  Levi  died  in  Egypt,  aged  a  hundred 
and  thirty-seven  years ;  left  three  sous,  Gershon, 
Kohath,  and  Merari  ((ien.  xlvi.  11  ;  Exod.  vi.  10), 
from  whom  went  forth  eight  branches  (Exod.  vi. 
17-19 ;  Num.  iii.  17-39  [comp.  1  Chron.  vi.  1 
sq.,  and  xxiii.]),  —  two  from  Gershon,  Libni  (for 
which  1  Chron.  xxiii.  7  reads  Ladan)  and  Shimei ; 
four  from  Kohath,  Amram  (to  whom  belonged 
Moses  and  Aaron),  Izhar,  Hebron,  and  Uzzie! ;  and 
two  from  !Merari,  Mahcili  and  Mushi.  When, 
after  the  making  of  the  golden  calf,  Moses  called 
ujion  those  who  were  on  the  Lord's  side,  the  Le- 
vites gathered  themselves  together  unto  him,  and 
,sleW' tho.se  «'ho  had  sinned  (Exod.  xxxii.  26  sq.). 
In  them  tit  zeal  of  their  progenitor  was  revived, 
but  not  for  their  own,  but  for  God's  honor  ;  and 
for  this  cause  tlie  cur.se  resting  upon  them  is 
changed  into  a  liles.sing. 

From  this  time  they  occupy  a  prominent  posi- 
tion :  they  become  consecrated  unto  the  Lord. 
According  to  Exod.  xiii.  every  first-born  of  man 
or  cattl(!  is  dedicated  unto  Jehovah  since  the  exo- 
dus from  ICgypt.  In  place  of  the  first-born  of 
all  the  eliildren  of  Israel,  Jeliovah  now  takes  the 
Levites  (Num.  viii.  16),  and,  instead  of  their  cattle, 
that  of  the  Levites  (iii.  4.5),  Since,  according  to 
verse  43,  all  the  first-born  males  were  22,273,  the 
number  of  the  Levites,  however,  only  was  22,()()(), 
the  surplus  is  equalized  by  a  redemption  money  of 
five  shekels  apiece,  to  be  paid  to  .\aron  and  his 
.sons  (iii.  46-51).  As  to  the  significance  of  the 
representation  of  the  first-born  by  the  Levite.s, 
the  following  is  to  be  borne  in  mind.  As  the 
Egyptians,  on  account  ot  their  sinfulness,  were 
judged  in  their  fir.st-born  ones,  who  thus  became 
vicariously  a  sacrifice  for  the  wliole,  which  was 
to  be  destroyed;  so,  likewLso,  Israel,  on  tlie  con- 
trary, whom  Jeliovah  has  elected,  and  redeemi'd 
from  human  slavery,  in  testimony  thereof  that 
its  very  existence  and  po.s.session  wa,s  owing  en- 
tirely to  the  divine  ^race,  was  to  bring  vicariously 
the  first-born  of  his  domestic  blessing  for  the 
whole,  as  a  payment  to  God.  Hut  the  offering 
of  men  is  not  effected  by  killing,  but  by  their 
dedication  to  a  continual  service  in  the  sanctuary 


(1  Sam.  i.  22,  28).  Since,  however,  the  people,  on 
account  of  its  impurity,  cannot  approach  God  in 
the  holy  place,  and  consequently  cannot  appoint 
from  its  midst  the  servants  for  a  continual  ser- 
vice, in  place  of  the  first-born,  one  tribe  is  by 
divine  election  permanently  taken  away  from  its 
usual  avocation,  and  is  placed  in  a  near  relation- 
ship to  Jehovah,  to  perform  the  service  in  the 
holy  place,  thus  mediating  to  the  people  the  com- 
munion of  the  sanctuary.  The  Levites  are  thus, 
in  the  first  place,  the  living  sacrifice  v.  ith  which 
the  people  pays  Jehovah  what  it  owes  unto  him ; 
in  the  second  place,  they  are  the  substitute  for 
the  first-born.  In  their  first  relation  the  Levites 
are  given  as  a  gift  to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii.  6)  : 
they  were,  with  reference  to  their  name,  to  Join 
themselves  to  the  priest,  and  to  xeri-c  him.  In 
tlieir  second  relation  the  Levites  take  part  of  the 
mediatorial  position  which  belongs  to  the  priest- 
hood. The  tribe  of  Levi  forms  the  basis  of  a 
gradually  advancing  representation  of  the  people 
before  God.  As  Israel  as  a  whole  has  a  priestly 
character  over  and  against  the  nations  of  the 
earth  (Exod.  xix.  4-6),  so  is  this  character  in  a 
higher  degree  stamped  upon  the  tribe  of  Levi 
(Num.  xvi.  9).  As  to  the  functionary  duties  of 
the  Levite.s,  they  are  to  keep  the  charge  of  the 
sanctuary  with  the  priests  in  general,  yet  dis- 
tinctly separated  from  the  latter.  Tiie  priests 
shall  lieep  their  office  for  every  thing  of  the  altar 
and  within  the  veil  (Num.  xviii.  7)  ;  but  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Levites  is  called  ser^■ice  of  the  taber- 
nacle of  the  Lord  (comp.  Num.  i.  53,  xvi.  9, 
xviii.  4).  In  the  journey  through  the  wilderness 
the  Levites  had  to  bear  the  tabernacle  and  all 
the  vessels  thereof  (Num.  i.  50  sq.),  especially, 
also,  the  ark  of  the  covenant  (Deut.  xxxi.  26)  : 
the  latter  had  to  be  first  covered  by  the  priests 
(Num.  iv.  5  sq.)  ;  but  the  Levites  were  strictly 
forbidden  to  look  at  it  (Num.  iv.  17  sq.).  The 
different  duties  were  assigned  to  the  three  tribes 
(Num.  iii.  25-37,  and  iv.).  The  Gershonites  had 
charge  of  the  coverings  and  curtains ;  the  Ko- 
hathites,  of  the  holy  vessels  ;  the  Merarite.s,  of 
the  boards,  bars,  pillars.  Tlie  latter  and  the  first 
were  under  the  charge  of  Ithaniar;  the  Koha- 
tliites,  under  that  of  Eleazar.  The  ago  required 
for  such  service  was,  according  to  Num.  iv.  3,  23, 
30,  from  thirty  to  fifty,  whil.st  in  Num.  viii.  24, 
25,  it  is  said  to  commence  at  twenty-five.  This 
contradiction  is  easily  .solved  by  the  assumption 
that  the  former  pa.ssages  refer  to  the  service  at 
th(^  traiisjiort  of  the  tabernacle  ;  the  latter,  to  the 
Levitical  service  in  general. 

Theac/  o/consecralioii  of  the  Levites  is  recorded 
Num.  viii.  5-22.  Tlie  first  act  was  to  .sininkle 
them  with  tlie  water  of  purifying.  They  liad,  in 
the  next  place,  to  shave  off  all  the  liairfrom  their 
body,  and  tlien  wasli  their  garments.  After  this, 
they  were  brought  before  the  door  of  the  taber- 
nacle, along  with  two  Imlloeks,  and  fine  flour 
mingled  with  oil,  when  the  wliole  congregati<in, 
IJH-ough  their  ciders  who  represented  them,  laid 
their  hands  ujion  the  heads  of  the  Levites,  and 
.set  them  ajiart  for  the  .service  of  the  sanctuaryi 
to  occupy  the  place  of  tlie  lirst-born  of  the  whole 
congregation  ;  whereuiion  tin;  priests  waved  them 
before  the  Lord.  Thus  consecrated  to  the  service 
of  the  Lord,  it  was  necessary  that  tiie  tribe  of 
Levi  should  be  relieved  from  the  temporal  pur- 


I 


LBVITBS. 


1311 


LEVITBS. 


suits  of  the  rest  of  the  people  to  enalile  them  to 
give  themselves  wholly  to  tlieir  spiritual  functions. 
For  this  reason  they  were  to  have  no  territorial 
possessions,  but  Jehovah  was  to  be  their  inherit- 
ance (Xum.  xviii.  L'O ;  Deut.  x.  9).  Therefore  it 
was  ordained  that  they  should  receive  from  the 
people  the  tithes  of  the  produce  of  the  land,  from 
which  the  Levites,  in  their  turn,  had  to  offer  a 
tithe  to  the  priests  (Num.  xviii.  21-L'4  sq.).  The 
Levites  could  eat  the  tithes  everywhere.  As  if 
to  provide  for  the  contingency  of  failing  crops, 
or  the  like,  and  the  consetpient  inadequacy  of  the 
tithes  thus  assigned  to  them,  the  Levite,  no  less 
than  the  widow  and  the  orphan,  was  coninieuded 
to  the  special  kindness  of  the  people  (Deut.  xii. 
19,  xiv.  27,  2!(). 

As  an  abode,  the  Levites,  according  to  Num. 
XXXV.  6,  received  forty-eight  cities,  together  with 
their  suburbs,  six  of  which  were  to  be  cities  of 
refuge.  'J'his  provision  includes  also  the  priests. 
Afterwards,  however,  thirteen  of  the  forty-eight 
cities  were  assigned  to  the  priests  (Josh.  xxi.  4 
sq.)  in  the  territories  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  and 
Simeon.  Of  the  remaining  thirty-five  cities  be- 
longing to  the  Levites,  ten  were  in  the  territories 
of  Ephraim,  Dan,  and  Half  Manasseh  (West), 
thirteen  in  Half  Manasseh  (East),  Issachar,  Asher, 
and  Naphtali,  and  twelve  in  Zebulon,  Reuben,  and 
Gad.  But  the  Levites  were  by  no  means  the  sole 
occupants  or  proprietors  ;  they  were  simply  to  have 
in  them  those  houses  which  they  required  as  dwell- 
ings, and  the  fields  necessary  for  the  pasture  of 
their  cattle.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
the  Levites  were  allowed  to  sell  their  houses : 
otherwise  Lev.  xxv.  32  sq.  would  have  no  mean- 
ing, unless  it  is  presumed  that  other  Israelites  lived 
together  with  the  Levites. 

That  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  did 
not  occupy  all  the  cities  allotted  to  them,  may  be 
seen  from  the  fact  that  .A.jalon  (Josh.  xxi.  24;  Judg. 
i.  ;55)  and  Gezer  (Jo.sh.  xxi.  21)  were,  like  many 
other  cities,  not  in  the  possession  of  the  Israelites. 
The  very  fact  that  not  all  Canaanites  were  driven 
out  from  the  land  made  it  impossible  to  carry  out 
the  provisions  for  the  Levites;  and  thus  many 
of  them  sought  refuge  in  cities  not  belonging  to 
those  allotted  to  the  Levites  (comp.  Judg.  xvii.  7, 
xix.  1).  That,  in  spite  of  the.se  troublesome  times, 
the  otfice  of  the  Levites  was  known  among  the 
people,  may  be  seen  from  Judg.  xvii.,  xviii. :  other- 
wise we  could  not  understand  why  Micah  (Judg. 
xvii.  13)  should  rejoice  for  having  a  Levite  to  his 
priest. 

The  activity  of  David  in  behalf  of  the  cultus 
included  also  the  re-organization  of  the  Levitical 
order.  When  the  ark  was  carried  up  to  Jerusa- 
lem, their  claim  to  be  the  bearers  of  it  was  publicly 
acknowledged  (1  Chron.  xv.  2).  The  Levites  en- 
gaged in  conveying  the  ark  were  divided  into  six 
father's  houses,  headed  by  six  chiefs,  four  belong- 
ing to  Kohath,  one  to  Gershon,  and  one  to  Me- 
rari  (1  Chrou.  xv.  .5  sq.).  Of  special  import  is  the 
Levites  being  emploj'ed  for  the  first  time  in  choral 
service  (1  Chron.  xv.  16-24,  xvi.  4-30):  others, 
again,  were  appointed  as  doorkeepers  (1  Chron.  xv. 
23,  24).  Still  the  thorough  re-organization  of  the 
whole  tribe  was  effected  liy  David  in  the  last  days 
of  his  life,  when  he  thought  of  building  the  tem- 
ple. The  Levites,  from  thirty  years  of  age  and 
upward,  were,  first  of  all,  numbered,  when  it  was 
ol  — II 


found  that  they  were  thirty-eight  thousand  (1 
Chron.  xxiii.2,  3).  Of  these,  twenty-four  thousand 
were  appointed  to  assist  the  priests  in  tlie  work  of 
the  sanctuary,  six  thousand  as  judges  and  scribes, 
four  thousand  as  gate-keepers,  and  four  thousand 
as  musicians.  Like  the  priests,  the  first  class,  or 
the  assistants,  were  subdivided  into  twenty-foi::: 
courses,  of  which  six  belonged  to  Gershon,  nine 
to  Kohath,  and  nine  to  Merari.  The  second  class, 
or  the  musicians,  were  subdivided  into  twenty- 
four  choirs,  each  lieaded  by  a  chief  (1  Chron. 
XXV.),  and  assisted  by  eleven  mastei'S  belonging 
to  the  same  family.  Four  of  the  chiefs  were  sons 
of  Asaph,  a  de.scendant  of  Gershon  (1  Chron. 
XXV.  2)  ;  six  were  sons  of  Jeduthnn,  also  called 
Ethan,  a  descendant  of  Merari  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3); 
and  fourteen  were  sons  of  Haman,  a  descendant 
of  Kohath  (1  Chron.  xxv.  4).  Tin?  third  class,  or 
gate-keepers,  too,  were  subdivided  into  twenty- 
four  courses,  and  were  headed  by  twenty-four 
chiefs  from  the  three  great  families  of  Levi : 
seven  were  sons  of  Meshelemiah,  a  descendant 
of  Kohath  ;  thirteen  were  from  Obed-edom,  a 
descendant  of  Gershon ;  and  four  were  sons  of 
Hosah,  a  descendant  of  Merari.  These  faniiliea 
had  to  supply  the  temple  daily  with  twenty-four 
sentinel-posts.  For  the  fourth  class,  or  judges  and 
scribes,  see  1  Chron.  xxvi.  29  sq.  This  re-organi- 
zation effected  by  David  was  adopted  by  his  son 
Solomon  when  the  temple  was  completed  (2  Chron. 
viii.  14  sq.). 

Different  from  the  Levites  w-ere  the  Netldnim, 
who  performed  the  menial  work  for  the  Levites : 
hence  they  are  mentioned  along  with  the  Levites 
(1  Chron.  ix.  2;  Ez.  vii.  24  sq.).  The  original 
stock  of  the  Nethinim  were  probablj'  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  whom  Joshua  made  "hewers  of  wood,  and 
drawers  of  water"  (Josh.  ix.  27).  The  Nethinim 
of  1  Chron.  ix.  2,  Ez.  ii.  43,  were  probably  sprung 
from  captives  taken  by  David  in  the  later  wars, 
who  were  assigned  to  the  service  of  the  taberna- 
cle, replacing  possibly  the  Gibeonites,  who  had 
been  slain  by  Saul  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1).  Undoubted- 
ly these  Nethinim  were  obliged  to  keep  the  Mo- 
saic law.  From  Neh.  x.  29  sq.  we  know  that  such 
was  the  case  in  the  post-exilian  period. 

But  to  return  to  the  Levites.  The  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  and  the  policy  pursued  by  Jeroboam, 
obliged  the  Levites  to  leave  the  cities  assigned  to 
them  in  the  territory  of  Israel,  and  gather  round 
the  metropolis  of  Judah  (2  Chron.  xi.  13  sq.). 
In  the  Bible  history  of  Judah  the  Levites  are 
scarcely  mentioned  :  yet  when  they  are,  it  is  in  a 
way  which  presupposes  the  existence  of  Levitical 
institutions.  They  are  sent  out  by  Jehoshaphat 
to  instruct  and  judge  the  people  (2  Chron.  xix. 
8-10).  Prophets  of  their  order  encourage  the  king 
in  his  war  against  Moab  and  Amnion,  and  go  be- 
fore his  army  with  their  loud  hallelujahs  (2  Chron. 
XX.  21).  They  became  especially  prominent  under 
Hezekiah,  as  consecrating  themselves  to  the  spe- 
cial work  of  cleansing  and  repairing  the  temple 
(2  Chron.  xxix.  12-15);  and  the  hymns  of  David 
and  of  Asaph  were  again  renewed.  Their  old 
privileges  were  restored,  and  the  payment  of  tithes 
was  renewed  (2  Chron.  xxxi.  4).  The  prominence 
into  which  they  had  been  brought  by  Hezekiah 
and  Josiah  had"  apparently  tempted  the  Levites  to 
think  that  they  might  encroach  permanently  oa 
the  special  functions  of  the  priesthood ;  and  thus 


LEVITICUS. 


1312 


LEYDBCKER. 


the  sin  of  Korah  was  renewed  (Ezek.  xliv.  10-14, 
xlviii.  11).  After  the  Captivity,  the  first  body  of  re- 
turning exiles  had  but  few  Levites  (Ez.  ii.  36-40). 
Those  who  did  come  tool\  their  old  parts  at  the 
foundation  and  dedication  of  the  second  temple 
(Ez.  iii.  10,  vi.  18).  In  the  next  movement  under 
Ezra  tlieir  reluctance  was  even  more  strongly 
marked.  Xone  of  them  presented  themselves  at 
the  first  great  gathering  (Ez.  viii.  15).  According 
to  a  Jewish  tradition  (Mishna,  Sola,  IX.  10),  Ezra 
is  said  to  have  punished  the  backwardness  of  the 
Levites  by  depriving  them  of  their  tithes,  and 
transferring  the  right  to  the  priest;  but  Xeh.  x. 
38,  xiii.  10,  is  against  this  tradition.  Under  Ne- 
hemiah  the  number  of  the  Levites  had  greatly 
increased. 

Among  those  who  returned  from  the  exile  were 
the  Nethinim  also.  Their  number  was  six  hun- 
dred and  twelve,  of  whom  three  hundred  and 
ninety-two  returned  with  Zerubbabel  (Ez.  ii.  58 ; 
Neh.  vii.  60),  and  two  hundred  and  twenty  with 
Ezra  (Ez.  viii.  20),  under  the  leadershiii  of  Ziha 
and  Gispa  (Neh.  xi.  21).  Some  of  them  lived  in 
the  proximity  of  the  temple  (Neh.  iii.  26)  :  others 
dwelt  with  the  Levites  in  their  own  cities  (Ez.  ii. 
70).  They  were  exempted  from  taxation  by  the 
Persian  satrap  (Ez.  vii.  24),  because  of  belonging 
to  the  temple.  With  the  destruction  of  the  tem- 
ple, the  order  of  the  Levites,  as  well  as  of  the 
priests,  lost  its  significance :  the  synagogue  is  not 
in  need  of  it ;  although  there  are  up  to  this  day 
among  the  Jews  some  who  claim  to  be  descend- 
ants of  Levi,  and  as  such  enjoy  some  prerogatives 
in  the  synagogue  oultus. 

Lit. — Vatke  :  Die  Religion  des  Alien  Testaments, 
1835,  i.  pp.  343  sq.  ;  Baur  :  St/tnbotilc  des  mosa- 
ischen  Culttis,  ii.  3  sq.  ;  Ew.\ld  :  Alterthiimer  des 
Volkes  Israel,  3d  ed.,  1866,  pp.  345  sq.  (English 
translation  by  H.  S.  Solly,  Boston,  1876)  ;  KuE- 
NEN :  Oodsdienst  van  Israel,  1869-70,  ii.  104  .sq. 
(English  translation  by  II.  A.  May,  London,  1874, 
1875);  KiinLER  :  Bilil.  Gesch.  A.  7'.'.<,  1875,  i.  pp. 
375  ft.;  S.  I.  CuRTiss:  The  Lecitical  Priests,  Edin- 
burgh, 1877  ;  by  the  same  :  De  Aaronitici  sacerilutii 
atque  Ihorce  eloh.  origine ;  Wellhausen  :  (Jescliichte 
Israels,  Ml" 8,  i.  pp.  123  sq. ;  W.  Kobertso.v  Smith  : 
The  Old  Testament  in  the  Jewish  Church,  London 
and  New  York,  1881  ;  W.  II.  Green:  Muses  and 
the  Prophets,  New  York,  1882;  art.  Levi,  in  .Sciien- 
kel's  Bibellexicon ,  Dillmann  :  Com.  zu  Exodmi 
und  Leviticus,  1880,  p.  4.55 ;  Fraxz  Delitzscii  : 
Pentateuclikritische  Studien,  in  Lutiiaudt's  Zeil- 
schrifl  fUr  kirchUche  Wissenscha/t  und  Lehen,  1880, 
part  i.  sq.  VON  okelli  (H.  ricK,. 

LEVITICUS.     See  PENrATKUCii. 

LEWIS,  Tayler,  LL.D.,  L.H.D.,  1).  in  Northum- 
berland, Saratoga  County,  N.Y.,  March  27,  18(l2; 
d.  in  .Schenectady,  X.Y.,  May  11,  1877.  lie  was 
prepared  for  college  l)y  Dr.  Proudfit  of  Salem, 
X.Y. ;  was  graduated  from  Union  College,  Sche- 
nectady, in  1820  ;  studied  law  with  Judge  S.  A. 
Foot  at  Albany;  commenced  practice  at  Fort 
Miller  in  1824  ;  married,  and  became  principal  of 
the  academy  at  Waterford,  in  1833;  professor  of 
(■reek  an<l  Latin  in  the  University  of  the  City 
of  New  York  in  1838;  professor  of  Greek  in  Union 
College  in  181!l,  and  afterwards  of  Oriental  lan- 
guages and  biblical  literature;  which  position  he 
retanied  till  his  death.  In  early  life  he  became 
a  member,  in  full  communion,  of  tlie  Reformed 


Dutch  Church,  and  so  continued  till  the  last.  lie 
was  an  eager  and  lifelong  student,  and  of  such 
versatility,  that  no  subject  repelled  him.  He 
delighted  to  work  out  problems  in  the  higher 
matliematics,  and  was  enthusiastic  in  the  study 
of  astronomy  and  music.  But  his  preference 
was  for  linguistics  and  philosophy.  He  was  at 
home  not  only  in  Latin  and  Greek  literature,  but 
in  the  Semitic  languages,  being  more  familiar 
with  Arabic  than  any  other  scholar  in  America. 

Being  early  accustomed  to  the  use  of  the  pen, 
he  poured  forth  during  forty  years  a  constant 
stream  of  articles  in  newspapers,  magazines,  and 
reviews,  touching  every  theme  which  interests  the 
Christian,  the  patriot,  or  the  scholar ;  and  in  no 
case  could  the  treatment  be  said  to  be  careless  or 
superficial.  Although  he  wrote  so  much,  he  wrote 
nothing  that  was  not  worth  reading.  His  larger 
publications  were  Plato  contra  Atheos  (in  Greek, 
being  the  tenth  book  of  the  Dialogue  on  Laws,  with 
luminous  notes  and  discussions).  New  York,  1844; 
The  Six  Days  of  Creation,  Schenectady,  1855  (new- 
edition,  New  I'ork,  1879)  ;  The  Bible  and  Science, 
Schenectady,  1856;  The  Divine  Human  in  the 
Scriptures,  New  Y'ork,  1860 ;  State  Rights,  a  Photo- 
graph from  the  Ruins  nf  Ancient  Greece,  1862; 
additions  to  the  Notes  on  Genesis  in  Lange's 
Bibel-Werk,  edited  by  Dr.  Schafi,  New  Y'ork, 
1868 ;  Metrical  Version  of  Ecclesiasles,  teith  Notes., 
in  Schaff's  Lange,  1870;  Metrical  Version  of 
Job,  with  Notes,  in  same,  1874 ;  The  Light  by  tvhich 
we  see  Light;  or,  Nature  and  the  Scriptures  (Ted- 
der Lectures),  1875.  Dr.  Lewis  had  nearly  every 
quality  requisite  for  the  successful  handling  of  the 
subjects  he  took  up.  He  had  a  keen  and  subtle 
intellect,  a  fertile  imagination,  and  a  quick  percep- 
tion of  recondite  relations.  His  style  was  fresh, 
incisive,  and  eloqvieiit.  His  vast  learning  never 
overpowered  his  native  force,  but  simply  fur- 
nished the  nuiterials  for  comparison  and  illustra- 
tion. He  liad  a  profound  reverence  for  Ciod  and 
his  word,  and  a  supreme  devotion  to  truth.  And 
although,  by  conviction  and  lifelong  experience, 
a  humble  believer  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  he 
would  never  advocate  his  cause  by  an  argument 
which  he  thought  unsound  or  even  doubtful.  He 
did  nothing  by  halves.  His  whole  .soul  entered 
into  every  discussion ;  and  this  made  his  words 
stimulating,  even  when  not  eonclusive.  His  cliief 
if  not  only  defect  was  the  lack  of  a  Ivcidiis  ordo. 
There  are  several  of  hi.s  volumes  in  which  the 
chapters  might  be  largely  transjiosed  without 
iiijm-ing  the  general  effect.  Notwithstanding 
this  disagreeable  fact,  his  writings  will  long  per- 
petuate liis  name  and  intlnence  as  a  profound  and 
brilliant  Christian  scholar,  and  be  a  source  of  in- 
struction and  of  helpful  suggestions  to  succeeding 
generations.  His  riding  jirinciples  of  action  are 
well  expressed  in  the  motto  in  llelirew  and  Latin, 
given  by  him  to  be  placed  upon  the  dome  of  Me- 
morial Hall  at  Schenectady;  — 

Dues  BHEvis, 
Opus  Mui/riiM, 
Mkroks  maona, 
AIaoistku  domOs  tiroet. 

t.  w.  chambers. 

LEYDECKER,  Melchlor,  b.  at  Middelburg, 
1042  ;  was  ajipoinleil  professor  of  theology  at 
Utrecht,  1679;  and  died  there  in  1721.  Hi'"  \va.s 
an  ardent  champion  of  the  Reformed  system  of 


LEYDEN. 


1313 


LIBER  PONTIPICALIS. 


doctrines  in  its  traditional  form,  —  De  veritatefidei 
Reformatce  (1694),  De  veconomia  trium  pcrsonarum, 
•etc.  (1682),  Historia  eccksia;  A/rlcana;  (1690)  ; 
and  from  that  stand-point  he  wrote  poleniically 
against  Balthasar  Becker,  the  Cocceijans,  the  Car- 
tesian philosophy,  Herman  Witsius,  and  others. 
His  works  against  the  Cocceijans  —  Fax  verilalis 
(1677),  ]'is  veritatis  (1679),  and  Si/nupsis  contro- 
■versiarum  (1690)  —  are  still  of  interest  to  students 
of  those  times.  A.  SCHWEIZER. 

LEYDEN,  John  of.     See  Bockiiold. 

LEYSER,  Polykarp,  b.  at  Winnenden,  Wur- 
temberg,  March  18,  1552;  d.  at  Dresden,  Feb.  22, 
1610.  He  studied  theology  at  Tubingen ;  and 
was  appointed  pastor  at  Gellersdorf  in  Lower 
Austria  in  1573.  In  1577  lie  was  called,  as 
.■superintendent  and  professor  of  theology,  to  Wit- 
tenberg, where  the  Crypto-Calvinists  had  been 
overthrown  in  1574.  They  gained  the  ascend- 
ancy again,  however;  and  in  1587  Leyser removed 
as  superintendent  to  Bi-unswick.  Recalled  to 
Wittenberg  in  1591,  he  was  finally  appointed 
court-preacher  at  Dresden  in  1594.  His  princi- 
pal works  are  his  edition  of  Chenmitz's  Loci  the- 
■ologici  (1592),  and  his  continuation  of  the  same 
author's  Harmonia  eeanyl.  (1593).  But  most 
attention  he  attracted  by  his  polemical  writings 
against  the  Calvinists  :  Why  it  is  belter  to  keep 
Company  with  Papists  than  with  Calvinists,  etc. 
His  life  was  written  by  L.  Hotter  (Wittenberg, 
1610),  H.  Hopfner  (Leipzig,  1610),  and  P.  Ley- 
ser, his  grandson  :  Officium  pielatis,  etc.,  Leipzig, 
1706.  WAGENMAifN. 

LIASWIN.     See  Lebuin. 

LIBANIUS,  the  most  prolific  and  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  sophists  of  the  fourth  century ; 
b.  at  Antiochia,  on  the  Orentes,  314  or  316;  d. 
there  after  395;  studied  in  Athens;  taught  in 
Constantinople,  but  was  in  346  expelled  from 
"that  city,  accused  of  magic ;  taught  then  for  some 
time  in  Nicoraedia;  returned  once  more  to  Con- 
stantinople, and  settled  finally  in  his  native  city. 
He  was  a  great  admirer  and  also  a  friend  of  the 
Emperor  Julian,  on  whose  deatli  he  wrote  a  poem, 
still  extant.  He  was  a  teacher  of  Basil  the  Great 
and  Chrysostom,  and  maintained  friendly  rela- 
tions with  them  throughout  life.  Of  his  works, 
his  discourse  in  defence  of  the  Pagan  temples 
(addressed  to  Theodosius,  edited  by  Sinner,  Paris, 
1842),  his  moral  treatises,  and  his  letters  (about 
two  thousand)  have  great  interest.  There  is  no 
collected  edition  of  his  works,  many  of  which 
still  remain  in  manuscript.  TIL  PRESSEL. 

LIBELLATICI.     See  L.^psed. 

LIBELLI  PACIS.     See  Lapsed. 

LIBER  DIURNUS  ROMANORUM  PONTI- 
FICUM,  a  collection  of  formulas  used  by  the 
Church  of  Rome  at  certain  important  occasions, 
such  as  the  installation  of  a  Pope,  the  ordination 
of  a  suburbicarian  bishop,  the  bestowal  of  the 
pallium,  the  granting  of  privileges,  etc.  The 
collection,  which  was  chiefly  made  from  the  briefs 
of  Gelasius  I.  and  Gregory  the  Great,  and  for  the 
use  of  the  papal  chancery,  originated  between 
685  and  751,  and  was  in  use  till  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. Some  of  its  formulas  still  occur  in  the 
collections  of  canons  from  the  twelfth  century. 
But  at  that  time  the  changed  position  of  the 
Papacy  had  gradually  made  its  formulas  anti- 
quated; and  it  was  entirely  forgotten,  when,  in 


1650,  Holstenius  discovered  a  manuscript  copy 

of  it  in  the  monastery  of  S.  Croce  in  CJerusaleme 
in  Rome,  which  he  |)repared  for  jiublication. 
The  publication,  however,  was  forbidden  by  the 
censor,  as  the  book,  besides  other  disagreeable 
things,  contained  the  confession  of  faith,  which 
the  Pope  liad  to  subscribe  at  his  accession  ;  anil 
that  confe.ssion,  accepting  the  canons  of  the  sixth 
oecumenical  council,  condemned  Pope  Ilonorius  i. 
as  a  heretic.  Meanwhile  the  attention  had  been 
drawn  to  the  curious  book,  and  in  1680  the  Jesuit 
Gamier  published  it  in  Paris.  Other  editions 
were  made  by  Mabillox,  in  his  Museum  Italicum, 
by  G.  Hoffmann,  in  his  Nova  collectio  scriptor.  et 
monumentor.  (Leipzig,  1733),  by  Riegger  (Vienna, 
1762),  and  finally,  fully  satisfactory  in  scientific 
respect,  by  Roziere  {Liber  diurnus,  ou  recueil  des 
formules  iisite'es  par  la  chancellerie  puntijicale  du  V. 
au  XL  siecle,  Paris,  1869).  Later  collections,  from, 
the  period  between  John  XXII.  and  Gregory  XII., 
and  collections  of  formidas  for  the  use  of  bishops 
and  abbots,  exist  in  manuscript. 

LIBER  PONTIPICALIS  (in  the  older  manu- 
scripts also  called  Gesta  Pontificum  Romanorum, 
or  Gesta  Summorum  Pontificum,  or  Liber  Ges- 
torum  Pontificalium)  is  a  history  of  the  bishops 
of  Rome  from  the  apostle  Peter  down  to  the 
second  half  of  the  ninth  century.  Following  Onu- 
phrio  Panvini,  the  first  editors  considered  Ana.s- 
tasius  (abbot  of  a  monastery  in  Rome,  librarian  to 
the  Church  of  Rome  during  the  reign  of  Nicholas 
I.,  858-867,  and  translator  of  several  Greek  works 
on  church  history)  to  be  the  author  of  the  whole 
book ;  but  later  investigations  have  proved  this 
supposition  untenable.  Differences,  both  formal 
and  material,  between  the  various  biographies, 
show  that  the  book  nmst  be  the  work  of  more 
than  one  writer;  and  this  view  is  still  further 
corroborated  by  the  circumstance  that  passages 
of  the  Liber  pontijicalis  are  found  quoted  before 
the  time  of  Anastasius.  A  more  correct  concep- 
tion of  the  origin  of  the  work  was  developed  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
set  forth  by  E.  von  Schelstrate,  librarian  of  the 
Vatican,  in  his  Dissertalio  de  antiipiis  Romanorum 
Pontificum  cataloyis  (Rome,  1692),  by  Joannes 
Ciampini  {Mayister  Brecium  Gratia),  in  his  Eiavien 
libri  pontijicalis  (Rome,  1688),  and  by  Franc. 
Bianchini,  in  the  preface  to  his  edition  of  the 
Liber  pontijicalis.  (See  Muratori  :  Rerum  Itali- 
carum  Scriptores,  iii.  1,  33,  55.)  Further  results 
were  gained,  partly  by  the  examination  of  manu- 
scripts which  were  made  in  behalf  of  the  new 
edition  of  tlie  book  in  Pertz  :  Monumenta  O'er- 
manice  (comp.  Lipsius  :  Chronologic  der  rbmischen 
Bischbfe  bis  zur  Mitle  des  I^  Jahrhunderts,  Kiel,  1869), 
partly  by  the  studies  of  L.  Duchesne,  also  prepa- 
ratory to  a  new  edition  {Etude  sur  le  Liber  pontiji- 
calis, Paris,  1877).  (See  G  Waitz  :  Ueber  die 
verschiedenen  Texte  des  L.  p  ,  in  Neues  Archiv,  ii.  ; 
Lipsius  :  Neue  Studien  zur  Papstchronologie,  in 
Jahrhiicher  fUr  protestantische  Theologie,  1879;  and 
Duchesne  :  La  date  et  les  recensions  du  L.  p.,  in 
Revue  des  questions  historiques,  1879.) 

The  oldest  of  the  sources  still  extant  from 
which  the  Liber  pontijicalis  has  drawn  its  contents 
is  a  catalogue  of  popes  {Catalogus  Liberii),  reach- 
ing down  to  Liberius,  and  probably  made  up 
during  his  reign  (352-366),  since  it  does  not 
mention  his  death.     The  original  manuscript  of 


LIBER  SEXTUS. 


1314 


LIBERIUS. 


this  catalogue  is  lost ;  but  there  exist  three  tran- 
scriptions of  it,  which  have  been  published  in 
Origines  de  Vtglise  Romaine,  par  les  membres  de  la 
communaute  de  Solesmes,  Paris,  1826,  i.  (Comp. 
MoMMSEx:  Ueber  den  Chronographen  vom  Jahre 
354,  hi  the  Memoirs  of  the  Royal  Scientific  Society 
of  Saxony,  Philolog.-Histor.,  Class  I.)  A  second 
catalogue  {Catalogus  Felicianus^  reaches  down  to 
Felix  IV.,  who  died  in  530.  It  was  iirst  published, 
as  far  as  Sylvester,  by  Hensclien  and  Papebroch, 
in  the  Prolegomena  to  the  first  volume  of  Ada 
Sanctorum  April.,  not  after  the  original  manu- 
script, which  is  lost,  but  after  a  transcript  pre- 
sented by  Queen  Christine  of  Sweden  to  the 
Vatican  Library.  It  is  also  found  in  the  above- 
mentioned  Origines  de  I'cglise  Romaine.  A  third 
catalogue,  finally  (Calalogus  Cononianus"),  reaches 
down  to  Conon,  687.  It  was  first  discovered  in 
the  archives  of  the  cathedral  of  Verona,  and 
published  by  Bianchini,  1.  c,  vol.  iv.  But,  beyond 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventh  century,  none  of  the 
existing  catalogues  reaches ;  and  it  is  evident, 
from  a  comparison  of  the  manuscripts,  that  those 
earlier  catalogues  which  form  the  basis  of  the 
Liber  pontificalis  have  not  come  down  to  us  in 
their  original  form,  but  have  been  subjected  to 
many  kinds  of  additions  and  alterations. 

The  notices  which  the  Liber  pontificalis  gives  of 
each  pope  are  at  first  very  spare ;  "but,  after  Syl- 
vester, they  become  more  ample,  and  give  much 
information  concerning  the  single  churches  of 
Rome  and  their  property,  concerning  liturgy, 
archeology,  etc.  ;  drawing  matei'ials,  not  only 
from  the  catalogues,  but  also  from  the  ecclesias- 
tical archives,  the  acts  of  those  popes  who  were 
venerated  as  martyrs,  lists  of  papal  decrees,  build- 
ings, grants,  etc.  From  the  close  of  the  Catalo- 
gtis  Cononianus,  the  various  manuscripts  —  that 
of  Lucca,  that  of  Milan,  etc.  —  continue  with 
various  modifications  ;  and  it  is  evident  that 
Anastasius  Bibliothecarius  is  simply  one  of  the 
continuators.  Schelstrate  even  thiidvs  that  only 
the  biography  of  Nicholas  I.  can  with  certainty 
be  ascribed  to  him.  As  the  first  edition  of  the 
Liber  pontificalis,  Schelstrate  designates  the  Con- 
cilia, liy  P.  Crabbe,  Cologne,  15:58;  but  that  work 
gives  only  extracts.  The  real  e<litio  princeps  is 
that  by  Busreus,  Mayence,  1G02.  Continuations 
beyond  the  second  half  of  the  ninth  century  also 
exist,  though  not  as  parts  of  the  Liber  pontificalis. 
One  stops  at  Gregory  VI.;  another  {Codex  Vati- 
canu.^y  gives  notices  about  the  popes  of  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries;  a  third  treats 
the  period  from  Leo  IX.  to  Ilonorius  II.  ;  a 
fourth  (Acta  Vaticana)  stops  at  Alexander  III., 
etc.  G.  WAITZ. 

LIBER  SEXTUS.     See  Canon  Law. 

LIBERIA,  a  negro  republic  in  Western  Africa, 
founded  in  1820  by  the  American  Colonization 
Society,  declared  independent  Aug.  21,  lS-17,  and 
at  present  in  treaty  relations  with  all  the  great 
powers  of  the  world.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  nearly 
six  hundred  miles,  and  extends  inwards  toward 
the  heart  of  the  continent  to  an  average  distance 
of  three  hundred  miles.  The  territory  lias  been 
secured  at  different  times  by  purchase.  The 
colony  owed  its  origin  to  the  ))hilanthropic  im- 
pulses of  the  American  Colonization  Society  to 
provide  a  home  in  their  native  country  for  Ameri- 
can negroes.     The  idea  of  sending  negro  mission- 


aries to  Africa,  and  associating  a  colony  with 
them,  occurred  first  to  Dr.  Samuel  Hopkins  of 
Newport  in  177.3.  He  agitated  the  subject,  and 
secured  funds  for  the  education  of  two  negi-oes 
in  Yale  College.  In  1815  Dr.  Robert  Finley, 
pastor  of  the  Presbj'terian  Church  of  Basking 
Ridge,  N.J.,  Rev.  Samuel  J.  Mills,  and  others, 
combined  in  the  thought  of  establishing  a  society 
for  African  colonization.  The  issue  was  the 
American  Colonization  Society,  which  was  finajly 
organized,  with  regularly  elected  otficers,  on  Jaii. 
1,  1817.  The  same  year  it  despatched  the  Rev. 
Samuel  J.  Jlills  and  Rev.  Mr.  Burgess  to  explore 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  and  Sierra  Leone, 
with  reference  to  securing  a  tract  suitable  for  the 
society's  purposes.  Mr.  Alills  died  at  sea  on  his 
return  journey ;  but  Jlr.  Burgess  made  a  report, 
the  first  results  of  which  were  seen  in  the  despatch 
of  a  colony  of  eighty-nine  persons,  on  Jan.  21, 
1820,  from  New  York.  It  purchased  Cape  Mesii- 
rado,  near  the  present  city  of  Monrovia.  In  1882 
the  colony  numbered  eighteen  thousand  civilized 
Africans,  mostly  of  American  origin,  and  an 
indefinite  number,  of  a  million  or  more,  of  half- 
barbarous  natives.  The  government  of  Liberia 
is  a  republic,  electing  a  President  and  Vice-Presi- 
dent every  two  years,  and  a  Legislature  of  two 
houses.  The  capital  is  Monrovia.  A  system  of 
public  schools  is  in  vogue,  with  a  central  univer- 
sity, of  which  Dr.  Blyden  is  now  the  president. 

Missions  to  Liberia  began  in  1821,  with  the 
arrival  of  Lot  Cary  and  Colin  Teage,  and  their 
families,  who  were  sent  out  by  the  African  Mis- 
sionary Society,  established  in  Richmond  in  1815, 
and  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Cary.  This 
man  had  purchased  his  own  freedom  from  slavery, 
and,  at  the  time  of  his  departure  for  Africa,  was 
pastor  of  a  Baptist  Church  in  Richmond  of  eight 
hundred  members.  'The  mission  of  the  Method- 
ist>-Episcopal  Church  of  the  L^nited  States  was 
commenced  in  1833.  In  1836  a  conference  was 
organized,  which  in  1882  was  divided  into  four 
districts,  with  one  foreign  missionary,  21  native 
ordained  preachers,  24  native  local  preachers, 
1,383  conimunicants,  and  20  Sunday  schools.  The 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  I'liited  States  supports 
a  mission,  which  in  1882  included  one  bishop 
(Dr.  Penick),  two  white  and  six  colored  presby- 
ters, six  deacons  and  other  helpers,  35(5  comnmiii- 
cants,  and  ten  day,  five  boarding,  and  seven  Sun- 
day, schools.  The  mission  of  the  Pre.<byterian 
Church  of  the  United  States,  established  in  1842, 
employed  in  1882  tlirpo  American  missionaries 
and  six  helpers,  and  had  276  communicants,  and 
114  chilch'en  in  its  day  scliools.  In  close  con- 
nection with  this  mission  are  the  Presbyterian 
churches  of  (Jalioou  and  Corisco,  with  their  seven 
American  and  five  native  preachers,  and  374  com- 
municants. .See  SrocKWKi.i. :  T/ie  Republic  of 
Liticrin.  N<'W  York,  18(18;  and  the  Reports  and 
Doi'uniiMit.^  of  (he  .American  Colonization  .S)cietv. 

LIBERIUS,  Bishop  of  Rome  from  May  22,  352, 
to  Sept.  24,  36(i.  As  the  successor  of  Julius,  tlie 
stancli  ally  of  .\thanasius,  ho  became  for  a  mo- 
ment the  centre  of  the  Arian  controversy.  Con- 
stantius,  after  his  victory  over  Magnentius  in  353, 
also  possessed  of  the  Western  Empire,  sided  with 
the  Eu.sebians,  and  sought  to  establish  peace  in 
the  Cliurch  by  sacrificing  Athanasius,  and  aban- 
doning (he  confession  of  Xic;ea.     Liberius,  how- 


LIBERIUS. 


1315 


LIBERTINES. 


ever,  took  a  firm  stand  against  liini,  and  sent 
Bishop  Viiicentius  of  Capua,  and  Marcelliis,  to  the 
imperial  court  at  Aries,  asking  for  an  (ecumenical 
council  convened  at  Aquileia.  But  the  emperor 
preferred  to  hold  the  coiuicil  at  his  own  residence, 
under  the  direct  influence  of  the  court;  and  at 
the  synod  of  Aries  the  whole  orthodox  party,  with 
the  exception  of  PauHnus  of  Treves,  gave  its 
assent  to  the  verdict  of  the  Oriental  bishops 
against  Athanasius.  Paulinus  was  banished.  A 
second  time  Liberius  addressed  the  emperor,  and 
sent  Bishop  Lucifer  of  Calaris,  the  priest  Pancra- 
tius,  and  the  deacon  Hilarius,  to  him.  Bishop 
Eusebius  of  Vercelli  also  remonstrated.  But  the 
synod  of  Milan  in  355  only  completed  the  defeat 
of  Athanasius.  Eusebius  of  Vercelli,  Lucifer  of 
Calaris,  and  Dionysius  of  Milan  were  banished. 
The  subscription  of  Liberius  to  the  condemnation 
of  Athanasius  was  now  peremptorily  demanded, 
but  he  refused  to  give  it.  From  fear  of  the 
strongly  pronounced  sympathy  of  the  Romans, 
he  was  secretly  arrested,  and  then  banished  to 
Beroea  in  Thrace.  The  deacon  Felix  was  ap- 
pointed bishop  in  his  stead,  and  installed  in  spite 
of  violent  opposition.  Two  years  later  on,  how- 
ever, when  Constantius  visited  Rome,  and  the 
Roman  ladies  petitioned  him  for  the  return  of 
Liberius,  he  graciously  granted  the  petition,  add- 
ing that  the  bishop  would  return  "a  better  man." 
And,  indeed,  a  great  change  had  taken  place  W'ith 
Liberius  during  his  exile.  "  Better  instructed  by 
the  Oriental  bishops,"  he  laid  a  declaration  before 
the  emperor,  that  lie  now  agreed  in  the  condem- 
nation of  Athanasius ;  he  supplicated  the  court 
theologians,  Ursacius,  Valens,  and  Germinius,  as 
men  of  jieace ;  he  renewed  communion  with  Epic- 
tetus  and  Auxentius,  the  most  decided  enemies  of 
Athanasius,  and  asserted  that  the  latter  had  long 
ago  been  excluded  from  communion  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  as  the  Roman  presbytery  could 
testify.  Summoned  before  the  synod  of  Sirmium 
(358),  he  entirely  abandoned  the  cause  of  Atha- 
nasius, condemned  the  expression  ojxoovaio^,  and 
was  allowed  to  return  to  Rome,  where,  according 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  emperor  and  the  synod, 
he  and  Felix  should  reign  in  common.  But  the 
Romans,  indignant  at  this  arrangement,  drove 
Felix  out  of  the  city  under  the  cry,  "  One  God, 
one  Christ,  one  bi.shop !  "  and  he  was  compelled 
to  live  in  retirement  at  his  country-seat  for  the 
rest  of  his  life.  Felix  died  Nov.  22,  365.  Once 
more  in  quiet  possession  of  his  chair,  Liberius 
returned  to  his  original  orthodox  stand-point; 
and,  though  he  had  returned  by  the  aid  of  the 
Semi-Arians,  he  received  the  emissaries  of  the 
•'Macedonians"  as  true  brethren,  because  of  their 
firm  adherence  to  the  confession  of  Niofea.  Nev- 
ertheless, when,  after  his  death,  a  severe  struggle 
ensued  between  his  party,  represented  by  L'rsinus, 
and  that  of  Felix,  represented  by  Damasus,  and 
■when  the  latter  came  out  victorious,  a  tradition 
gradually  grew  up  in  Rome,  representing  Con- 
stantius and  Liberius  as  furious  persecutors  of 
orthodoxy,  and  Felix  as  a  martyr,  —  a  circum- 
stance which  has  caused  much  inconvenience  to 
the  Roman  Catholics. 

Lit.  —  The  letters  of  Liberius  are  found  in 
COUSTANT :  Epifl.  Rom.  Pont,  i.  422-468.  The 
attempt  of  Hefele  to  impugn  their  authenticity 
is  a  piece  of  rather  frivolous  criticism.      Other 


sources  are,  Rufinus,  10,  22,  27 ;  Socrates,  ii. 
37,  iv.  12;  Sozomkn,  iv.  11,15;  Piiilostougius, 
iv.  3 ;  TiiEODonicT,  ii.  16 ;  Athanasius  :  Hist. 
Ar.  ad  Monach.  c.  35-41,  75,  and  Apol.  c.  Arianos, 
c.  89.  w.  MOLLEU. 

LIB'ERTINES.  I.  In  Acts  vi.  9,  members  of 
the  .synagogue  of  the  Libertines  are  mentioned 
among  the  opponents  disputing  with  Stephen. 
Attempts  have  been  made  of  explaining  the  name 
as  designating  some  country  or  city  in  Africa,  like 
the  two  other  names  connected  with  it,  —  Cyreni- 
ans  and  Alexandrians ;  but  the  attempts  have 
failed.  It  seems  necessary  to  retain  the  plain 
meaning  of  the  Latin  word  Libertini  ("freemen," 
descendants  of  emancipated  slaves)  ;  the  more  so 
as  it  gives  a  satisfactory  explanation.  During 
the  wars  of  Pompey,  numerous  Jews  were  carried 
to  Rome,  and  sold  there  as  slaves.  They  were 
soon  emancipated,  however ;  and  though  most  of 
them  remained  in  Rome,  settled  in  the  regio 
Tranfliberina,  many  of  them  or  of  their  descend- 
ants returned  to  Jerusalem,  where,  mider  the 
name  of  Libertines,  they  maintained  a  synagogue 
of  their  own.  F.  sieffert. 

II.  Libertines,  or,  as  they  called  themselves, 
Spirituals,  is  the  name  of  a  pantheistic-rational- 
istic party  which  arose  in  the  Netherlands  during 
the  Reformation,  thence  spread  into  France,  and 
finally  attempted  to  gain  a  foothold  at  Geneva. 
Nothing  is  known  with  certainty  of  the  origin  of 
the  party,  nor  of  its  internal  development.  One 
Coppin  of  Lille  seems  to  have  been  the  first  to 
promulgate  its  doctrines  (about  15'_'9);  but  he  waa 
soon  eclipsed  by  Quintin  from  Hainault,  who  again 
was  followed  by  Bertram  des  !Moulins,  Claude 
Perseval,  Antoine  Pocquet,  or  Pocques,  and  others. 
They  seem  to  have  had  an  exoteric  and  an  eso- 
teric teaching.  In  public  they  admonished  people 
to  refrain  from  finding  any  thing  to  blame  or 
condemn  with  one  another.  In  private  they  added, 
because  there  is,  indeed,  nothing  which  is  bad  by 
itself,  except  the  very  distinction  between  good 
and  bad ;  and  privatissime  they  explained  how 
God  is  all,  and  all  is  God,  so  that  the  natural 
passions  are  in  reality  the  voices  of  the  spirit,  — 
impulses  from  God.  In  France  they  found  many 
adherents.  They  were  at  home  at  the  court  of 
JSIarguerite  of  Valois  at  Nerac.  In  Strassburg 
they  obtained  a  cordial  acknowledgment  of  com- 
munion from  Butzer ;  but  when,  in  Geneva,  they 
solicited  a  similar  favor  from  Calvin,  they  sud- 
denly struck  a  rock.  In  1534  Calvin  met  with 
Quintin  in  Paris  at  a  public  disputation,  and 
pursued  him  hotly.  Later  on  he  became  thor- 
oughly acquainted  with  Pocquet  in  Geneva;  and 
in  1545  he  completely  unmasked  the  party  by  his 
Contre  la  Secle  phanlasiiquc  et  furieuse  des  Libertins, 
which  in  1547  was  followed  by  the  Epislre  contre  ' 
un  certain  cordelier  suppost  de  la  secle  des  Lihertins. 
After  that  the  sect  disappeared. 

III.  Libertines  is  the  name  of  the  party  in 
Geneva,  which,  mostly  consisting  of  native  bur- 
ghers of  the  city,  first  arose  against  the  rule  of 
the  bishop  and  tlie  Duke  of  Savoy,  and,  having 
established  the  independence  of  the  city,  invited 
Calvin  to  consolidate  their  new  constitution  by 
introducing  the  Reformation,  but  which,  when 
the  Ordinances  Eccle'siastiques  came  into  operation, 
and  the  moral  reforms  were  carried  through  with 
great  .severity,  turned  around  against  Calvin,  bit- 


LIBERTY. 


131(3 


LIBERTY. 


terly  complaiuiug  of  the  new  tyranny.  It  is  pos- 
sible, tliough  it  cannot  be  proved,  that  they  were 
directly  influenced  by  the  Libertines  II.  See 
Stahelix:  Cah'in,  i.  pp.  382  sqq.      TEIECHSEL. 

LIBERTY,  Religious.  Religious  liberty  con- 
sists in  the  right  guaranteed  by  the  laws  of  a 
country  to  each  one  of  its  citizens  to  maintain 
and  propagate  any  religious  opinion,  and  to  cele- 
brate any  form  of  worship,  he  may  think  proper, 
provided  those  opinions  and  that  worship  do  not 
conflict  with  the  fundamental  ideas  upon  which 
the  civil  community  is  based.  It  includes  pro- 
tection of  worship,  and  of  property  devoted  to 
religious  purposes,  and  recognizes  the  principle  of 
religious  association.  It  has  been  called  a  natural 
right,  but  a  man  can  have  no  natural  rights  in 
opposition  to  his  social  duties.  In  its  principle 
it  is  only  an  extension  of  the  maxim  of  the  Roman 
Code,  i'i'f  ute7'e  tuo  ut  non  alienum  Icedas. 

The  latest  authority  on  this  subject,  that  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  L^nited  States  (Reynolds  m. 
the  United  States,  98  Sup.  Co.  Rep.,  the  Mormon 
marriage  case),  thus  lays  down  the  general  prin- 
ciple :  "  Laws  are  made  for  the  government  of  ac- 
tions ;  and,  wliile  they  cannot  interfere  with  mere 
religious  belief  and  opinions,  they  may  with  the 
practices.  Suppose  one  religiously  believed  that 
human  sacrifices  were  a  necessary  part  of  religious 
worship,  would  it  be  seriously  contended  that  the 
civil  government  under  which  he  lived  could  not 
interfere  to  prevent  a  sacrifice?  To  permit  this 
would  be  to  make  the  professed  doctrines  of  reli 
gious  belief  superior  to  the  law  of  the  laud. 
Government  could  exist  only  in  name  imder  such 
circumstances." 

The  practice  of  religious  toleration,  based  on 
the  doctrine  of  religious  liberty,  is  one  of  recent 
giowth.  It  has  been  called  "  the  noblest  innova- 
tion of  modern  times."  In  primitive  antiquity 
the  laws  of  all  connnuuilies,  at  least  of  the  Aryan 
race,  derived  authority  from  two  religious  ideas : 
either  these  laws  were  supposed  to  come  direct 
from  the  gods  themselves,  or  they  conformed  to 
the  customs  of  the  ancestors  of  those  who  observed 
them.  Religion  was  wliolly  tribal  or  ethnic.  The 
family  was  the  unit  under  this  .system.  Its  head 
was  not  only  patrrfamilias,  but  king  and  pontiff 
also.  Religmn  was  wholly  a  family  concern.  It 
had  no  relations  whatever  to  persons  outside. 
Religion  and  civil  law  were  convertible  terms ; 
and  no  act  of  human  life  was  performed,  and  no 
relations  between  the  different  members  of  the 
same  .society  established,  without  the  supposed 
religious  sanction  of  the  household  divinities. 
This  type  of  the  relatio]is  of  religion  to  civil  law 
was  retained  for  ages,  amidst  all  the  revolutions 
and  conquests  of  history,  and  until  it  came  into 
conflict  with  the  Christian  .system.  Althougli,  in 
the  course  of  time,  the  family  was  developed  into 
the  ])ltratria,  or  curia,  and  from  this  came  the 
tribe,  and  out  of  a  confederation  of  tribes  grew 
the  cinitaSjOT  poli.1,  still  each  one  of  these  political 
divisions  always  preserved  its  own  siiecial  tli- 
vinities,  and  the  iiriniaplo  was  constantly  main- 
tained, that  no  one  who  was  not  bound  to  one  of 
these  divisions  l)y  a  blood  tie,  or,  in  other  wor<ls, 
wlio  had  not  a  l)irtliright  tiierein,  could  offer 
.sacrifice  or  acc(']itabl(;  worship,  either  to  the  gods 
of  the  particular  family  or  tribe  of  which  the 
civilaa  was  comi«o.sed,  or  to  the  divinities  which 


guarded  the  civilas  itself.  All  outside  the  com- 
nmnity  thus  made  up  were  strangers.  They  had 
not  a  common  religion,  and  therefore  they  had 
no  connnon  civil  rights.  They  were  regarded,  for 
the  most  part,  as  enemies,  and  were  called  by  the 
Greeks  Barbaroi,  or  Ar/lossoi. 

In  this  strange  system  there  was  a  certain  reli- 
gious liberty  with  well-defined  bounds.  In  regard 
to  the  worship  of  the  household  divinities  there 
was  no  uniform  rule  nor  common  ritual.  The 
father  of  the  family  was  the  only  priest,  and  the 
family  ritual  or  worship  was  such  as  he  made  it. 
The  Pontiff  of  Rome,  or  the  Archoii  of  Athens, 
might,  it  is  true,  ascertain  whether  the  father  of 
a  family  performed  the  household  religious  rites ; 
but  they  had  no  authority  to  modify  them  in  the 
slightest  degree.  6'ho  quisijue  ritu  sacrificia  facial 
was  the  absolute  rule.  So,  in  regard  to  the  gods 
of  the  city,  the  ritual  of  their  worship  was  pre- 
scribed solely  by  those  over  whose  safety  they 
watched,  and  wliose  indepiendence  that  worship 
was  supposed  to  secure.  In  this  worship  the 
minute  observance  of  the  ritual  was  the  impor- 
tant thing.  The  expression  of  religious  opinion, 
so  long  as  there  was  outward  conformity,  was  in 
many  respects  unchecked.  A  man  might  speak 
with  contempt  of  the  gods  of  a  neighboring  city ; 
as  to  those  of  a  more  general  jurisdiction,  such 
as  Jupiter,  Juno,  or  Cybele,  he  might  believe  in 
them  or  not,  as  he  thought  proper:  but  it  was 
dangerous  to  treat  disrespectfully  the  city  gods, 
such  as  Athene,  or  Erectheus,  or  Cecrops.  For 
such  an  offence,  indeed,  it  is  well  known  Socrates 
was  condemned  to  death  :  and  a  law  existed  at 
Athens,  punishing  severely  any  one  who  did  not 
obser\e  with  the  prescribed  forms  the  national 
festivals;  for  such  an  act  was  an  offence  not  only 
against  religion,  but  against  the  State,  whose 
safety  and  independence  wei'c  supjiosed  to  be 
dependent  upon  it.  The  Romans  and  the  Greeks, 
in  their  early  conquests  at  least,  always  measured 
the  power  of  resistance  of  an  invaded  district 
by  the  supposed  power  of  its  city  gods  ;  hence, 
when  they  conquered,  they  dethroned  the  gods,  and 
by  that  means  destroyed  the  political  existence  of 
the  city.  Although,  of  course,  as  time  went  on, 
religious  opinions,  especially  among  the  educated 
classes,  became  more  rational  and  comprehensive, 
yet  the  old  beliefs  in  regard  to  the  power  of  the 
divinities,  both  of  the  household  and  of  the  city, 
and  the  necessity  of  propitiating  them  by  means 
of  the  ancient  ritual,  remained  among  the  masses 
a  very  active  jvrinciplc  of  action,  not  only  to  the 
time  of  Christ,  but  lor  three  hundred  years  after- 
wards. Whatever,  during  this  time,  nuiy  have 
been  tlie  private  opinions  of  the  governing  class, 
all  ancient  writers  show,  that,  in  their  conduct  of 
affairs,  it  w  as  found  necessary  to  respect  the  popu- 
lar superstitions  in  regard  to  the  close  relation 
between  the  observance  of  the  rites  of  the  primitive 
religion  and  the  safety  of  the  State.  This  nuist 
be  borne  in  mind,  so  that  we  may  understand 
why  Christianity  alone,  of  all  the  innumerable 
forms  of  religious  belief  aiul  worship  introduced 
into  tlie  Roman  Empire  during  the  first  tlirec 
centuries  of  our  era,  was  persecut^'d  by  the  State, 
aiul  especially  why  the  best  eniiu'rors  in  the 
Roman  sense  —  the  Antonines,  Decius,  and  even 
Diocletian  —  appear  in  history  as  the  most  bitter 
persecutors,  while  the  worst,  Thracian  peasants 


LIBERTY. 


1317 


LIBERTY. 


and  Oriental  sun-worshippers,  are  not  found 
among  its  most  active  enemies,  simply  because 
tlie  lioman  traditions  formed  no  part  of  their 
religious  belief. 

Christianity  brought  into  the  Roman  world 
totally  different  ideas.  It  was  not  the  domestic 
religion  of  any  one  family,  nor  the  national  reli- 
gion of  any  city  or  race.  The  other  religions 
had  taught  hatred  of  the  stranger.  Christianity 
tauglit,  with  the  unity  of  (iod,  the  unit  of  the 
human  race:  justice,  and  even  kindness  towards 
both  strangers  and  enemies,  formed  the  very  basis 
of  its  system.  Christianity  was  a  universal  reli- 
gion, asserting  not  only  supreme,  but  exclusive 
sway;  and  therefore  the  barriers  between  different 
peoples  were  broken  down,  and  the  pomcerium 
disappeared.  These  principles  were  so  novel  and 
unexpected,  that  we  are  rot  surprised  to  find 
those  whose  conceptions  of  religion  were  wholly 
limited  to  the  exclusive  tribal  or  ethnic  form 
shocked  when  it  was  proposed  to  give  up  deities 
with  whose  worship  the  prosperity  and  safety  of 
the  State  were  inseparably  associated  in  the  minds 
of  the  Romans.  Hence  the  Ten  Persecutions  (so 
called)  under  the  Roman  rule  were  probably  due 
as  much  to  the  novel  claims  of  a  religion  which 
aimed  to  destroy  the  old  gods,  as  to  the  revolt 
-against  the  pure  morality  and  lofty  self-denial 
taught  by  the  Christians. 

The  conflict  between  the  two  systems  was  in- 
■evitable ;  and  it  was  not  brought  to  a  close,  so 
far  as  the  legal  sanction  of  persecution  was  con- 
cerned, until  A.D.  313,  when  the  celebrated 
Edict  of  Toleration  was  issued  at  Milan  by  Con- 
stantine  and  Licinius.  This  has  been  called  the 
"  Magna  Charta"  of  the  liberties  of  Christianity; 
but,  strictly,  it  gave  only  toleration  to  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Christians,  and  not  exclusive  domi- 
nation, or  even  liberty.  The  Ariau  disputes,  the 
meeting  of  tlie  Council  of  Nica'a  (A.D.  32.5), 
and  the  adoption  of  the  creed  at  that  council, 
since  known  as  the  "  Nicene  Creed,"  form  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  religious  liberty.  At  this  time 
were  introduced  into  the  Church  two  principles, 
which,  whatever  other  results  they  may  have 
produced,  were  the  prolific  sources,  for  many  cen- 
turies, of  persecution  and  intolerance  of  the  reli- 
gious opinions  of  those  who  differed  from  the 
dogmas  of  the  Church  as  by  law  established. 
These  were  the  union  of  Church  and  State,  as 
witnessed  by  the  participation  of  the  emperor  as 
president  of  a  council  which  settled  fundamental 
Christian  dogmas  ;  and  the  other,  the  punisliment 
by  the  civil  power  of  those  convicted  of  the  eccle- 
siastical crime  of  heresy.  Heretics  are  defined 
in  tlie  Theodosian  Code  to  be  those  "  Qui  a  Catho- 
licce  religionis  diKjjnate  deriare  conlentlunt."  Their 
punishment  was  intended  to  enforce  uniformity 
of  belief;  mere  disbelief  having  previously  been, 
under  the  Pagan  system,  not  punishable.  The 
first  civil  proceeding  against  heretics  began  with 
Constantine's  edict  against  the  Donatists  (A.D. 
316) ;  and,  before  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
the  edicts  against  heresy  formed  an  important 
part  of  the  jurisprudence  of  the  empire.  By  these 
edicts,  heretics  were  deprived  of  all  offices  of 
profit  or  dignity  in  the  State ;  they  could  neither 
receive  nor  bequeath  property ;  no  contract  with 
them  was  binding  ;  and  they  were  fined,  banished, 
and   even   sentenced   to  death.     See   Theodosian 


Code,  published  Feb.  15,  438,  bk.  xvi.  tit.  5,  De 
Hccreticis. 

From  the  time  of  Constantine  to  a  period  long 
after  the  Reformation,  the  principle  that  heresy 
was  a  crime  to  be  punished  by  the  civil  magis- 
trate, as  well  as  an  ecclesiastical  offence  to  be 
visited  by  church  disciiiline,  is  found  embodied 
in  the  codes  of  all  the  nations  of  Western  Kurope. 
During  the  middle  age,  liowever  great  may  have 
been  the  jealousy  of  many  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe  of  encroachments  on  their  authority  by 
the  Pope,  yet  all  of  them  were  obedient  sons  of 
the  Church,  so  far  as  to  profess  the  utmost  zeal 
for  the  extirpation  of  heresy  within  their  domin- 
ions. Persecution  of  heresy  rested  on  the  same 
principle  as  crusades  against  the  infidel,  and 
these  gTew  out  of  the  one  common  impulse  which 
moved  Europe  in  those  days.  The  civil  disabili- 
ties attaching  to  heresy  were  inflicted,  as  time 
went  on,  upon  vast  masses  of  people  in  different 
parts  of  Europe.  The  great  anti-sacerdotal  move- 
ment of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
in  which  the  actors  were  variously  called  Albi- 
genses,  Waldenses,  Cathari,  Lollards,  Hussites, 
etc.,  was  repressed,  for  the  most  part,  by  an 
armed  force,  whose  proceedings  were  character- 
ized by  the  most  savage  cruelties  and  wholesale 
confiscations.  Such,  indeed,  was  the  horror  of 
heresy  felt  by  Innocent  HI.,  and  his  zeal  to 
extirpate  it,  that,  supported  doubtless  by  the 
church  opinion  of  Europe  at  the  time,  he  estab- 
lished during  the  Albigensian  crusade  an  order 
of  monks  (the  Dominicans),  whose  twofold  duty 
it  was  to  instruct  the  people  in  the  true  doctrine, 
and  to  seek  out  and  punish  heretics  by  means  of 
a  tribunal  called  the  "  Inquisition,"  of  which  these 
monks  were  the  judges,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
ancient  and  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop 
of  the  diocese.     (See  Inquisition.) 

Vast  as  were  the  changes  made  by  the  Refor- 
mation, it  did  not  introduce  into  any  Protestant 
country  in  Europe  the  principle  of  religious  lib- 
erty, or  even  of  toleration.  Dissenters  from  the 
religion  established  by  law  suffered  from  griev- 
ous civil  disabilities  in  England  and  Scotland, 
in  Germany,  Holland,  and  Switzerland ;  while  in 
Spain  the  Inquisition,  and  in  France  the  League, 
during  the  civil  wars  of  the  sixteenth  century  and 
the  policy  of  Louis  XIV.  during  the  seventeenth, 
were  directed  to  the  advancement  of  the  orthodox 
belief  by  exterminating  in  those  countries  obsti- 
nate heretics.  In  England  heresy  was  an  offence 
punishable  by  death  before  the  Reformation,  and 
it  continued  to  be  so  for  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
five  years  afterwards.  It  was  not  until  1677 
that  an  act  was  passed  (29  Car.  ii.)  abolishing 
the  use  of  the  writ  De  heretico  comhurendo  by  the 
civil  authority.  Two  things,  liowever,  are  to  be 
noted :  1st,  That,  as  time  went  on,  penalties  for 
heresy  were  not  so  strictly  nor  so  often  enforced  as 
the}'  had  been  ;  and,  2d,  That  penal  laws  against 
dissenters  in  England  were  maintained,  not  so 
much  from  zeal  for  orthodoxy  as  from  a  fear  lest 
the  Catholics  should  gain  the  control  of  the  gov- 
ernment. This  is  admirably  illustrated  by  the 
terms  of  the  "  Act  of  Toleration,"  so  called, 
passed  in  1689,  from  which  it  clearly  appears, 
that,  in  the  persecution  of  dissenters,  political 
objects  and  motives  had  at  that  time  usurped  the 
place  held  by  blind  zeal  for  the  Church  in  the 


LIBERTY. 


1318 


LICENSE. 


middle  age.  (See  Macaulay's  Histonj  of  England, 
chap,  xi.,  for  an  excellent  illustration  of  this 
change.) 

In  Germany  the  Reformation  was  followed  by 
wars  between  the  Imperial  Catholic  authority  and 
that  of  many  of  the  rulers  of  different  portions 
of  the  country  who  had  long  been  practically 
independent  of  the  emperor,  and  had  become 
Lutheran  Protestants.  In  these  wars  the  princi- 
ple contended  for  on  both  sides  was  cujus  i-egin, 
illiits  religio.  The  question  was,  to  which  regio  the 
people  of  Germany,  for  tlie  purposes  of  religious 
legislation,  belonged.  This  principle  was  settled 
at  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  (1555),  by  giving  to  each 
prince  the  power  of  establishing  within  his  own 
dominions  his  own  religion.  The  Protestant  dis- 
senters from  Lutherauisra — that  is,  the  Calvinists, 
Zwinglians,  and  Anabaptists  —  were  not  included 
in  this  peace,  because  no  sovereign  in  Germany 
then  held  to  their  form  of  belief.  By  the  Peace 
of  Westphalia  (1648),  which  closed  the  terrible 
Thirty- Years'  War,  free  exercise  of  their  religion, 
and  civil  rights,  were  accorded  in  each  of  the 
states  of  Germany  to  Catholics,  as  well  as  to 
Protestants,  both  Lutherans  and  Calvinists,  but 
to  no  others. 

Up  to  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution,  the 
principle  established  by  the  Peace  of  Westphalia, 
although  it  was  never  formally  adopted  by  the 
other  powers,  gradually  acquired  throughout  Eu- 
rope almost  the  force  of  an  international  code. 
There  were  no  more  religious  wars,  and  very 
little  of  the  old  forms  of  persecution  of  heresy ; 
yet  the  civil  disabilities  of  di.ssenters.  Catholic 
or  Protestant,  as  they  happened  to  be,  consisting 
generally  in  exclusion  fi-om  public  office  and  em- 
ployment, were  everywhere  jealously  maintained. 

Since  the  French  Revolution  there  has  been 
throughout  Europe  a  vast  change  in  opinion,  not 
only  as  to  the  true  relation  of  religion  to  govern- 
ment, but  also  as  to  tlie  policy  of  the  exclusion 
of  any  one  from  public  employment  in  con.se- 
quence  of  his  religious  belief.  In  England,  one 
after  another  of  the  old  strongliohls  of  intoler- 
ance has  fallen,  until  the  Catholic,  tlie  Protestant 
dis-senter,  and  even  the  Jew,  now  stand  upon  a 
footing  of  perfect  equality  with  tlie  members  of 
the  Established  Church,  so  far  as  their  political 
and  civil  rights,  and  their  admission  to  {)ublic 
office,  are  concerned.  In  France,  tliis  principle  of 
equality  has  been  carried  so  far,  tliat  each  form 
of  what  is  called  a  '•  recognized  religion  "  is  siq)- 
ported  from  the  funds  of  the  State.  Even  in 
.Spain  and  in  Italy,  Protestant  sects  are  now  per- 
mitted to  worship  publicly,  and  their  church  prop- 
erty is  secured  to  them.  Denmark  and  Sweden 
still  require  that  all  |iiililie  officers  sliall  conform 
to  the  established  Lutheran  religion.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  at  present  is  towai'ds  the  absolute 
separation  of  the  exercise  of  religious  liberty  from 
the  restraint  of  State  legislation.  Tlie  ideal  seems 
now  to  be  "a  free  C'hiircli  in  a  free  State;"  the 
two  .spheres  being  kept  as  wholly  distinct  from 
each  other  as  the  general  well  Ixfiiig  will  permit. 
The  present  attitude  of  Germany  towards  tlie 
Catholic  Church  is  thought  by  many  not  to  be  in 
the  direction  of  modern  thought  and  modern 
practice  in  thi.s  matter.  Shockecl  by  the  decree 
of  the  Vatican  Council  of  1S70,  declaring  the 
infallibility  of  the  Poi)e,  and  by  the  condemna- 


tion of  the  most  deeply  cherished  principles  of 
modern  society  as  errors,  by  the  syllabus  of  1864, 
the  Pru.ssian  Government  adopted  in  1873  a  series 
of  laws  known  as  the  "  Falk  Laws."  By  these 
laws  it  is  provided,  among  other  things,  "that  no 
1  man  shall  be  allowed  to  become  a  minister  of 
I  worship  in  Prussia,  unless  he  shall  receive  his 
education  in  a  public  school  and  State  university. 
Ecclesiastical  discipline,  where  it  involves  fine, 
imprisonment,  or  corporal  punishment,  is  made 
subject,  also,  to  revision  on  an  appeal  to  judges 
appointed  by  the  State. 

The  English  .sectaries  who  founded  colonies  on 
this  continent  brought  with  them  a  no  larger 
spirit  of  toleration  than  they  had  professed  at 
home.  They  came,  as  Banci'oft  says,  "  to  plant 
a  church  in  the  wilderness."  Dissent  from  the 
doctrines  and  worship  of  that  church  was  pun- 
ished, in  all  but  one  of  the  New-England  Colo- 
nies, as  heresy ;  while  in  Penn.sylvania  no  man 
could  hold  otKce  who  did  not  acknowledge  the 
divinity  of  Christ;  and  in  Maryland,  as  early  as 
1659,  Quakers  were  fined,  and  otherwise  punished, 
because  they  conscientiously  refused  to  bear  arms 
in  the  service  of  the  Colony.  But  the  principle 
of  perfect  toleration  grew  rapidly  in  this  country, 
side  by  side,  strange  to  say,  with  a  practice,  which 
had  become  almost  universal  at  the  time  of  the 
adoption  of  the  Constitution,  of  encouraging,  in 
various  ways,  the  maintenance  of  Christianity,  so- 
far  as  it  was  possible  to  do  so  without  infringing 
the  rights  of  conscience  and  the  freedom  of  reli- 
'  gious  worship.  The  Constitution  provides  that 
'  "  no  religious  test  shall  be  required  as  a  qualifica- 
tion for  office;  "  and  the  very  first  amendment  to 
that  instrument  which  was  demanded  by  public 
opinion  in  order  to  set  at  rest  forever  the  rela- 
tions of  the  national  government  to  religion,  was 
in  these  words :  "  Congress  shall  make  no  law 
respecting  an  establishment  of  religion,  or  pro- 
hibiting the  free  exercise  thereof."  This  is  one 
of  the  very  few  provisions  of  the  Constitution 
which  no  one  has  ever  sought  to  change ;  and  its 
adoption  forms,  not  only  an  epoch  in  the  iiistory 
of  religious  liberty,  but  an  example,  also,  which, 
during  the  last  hundred  years,  all  civilized  na- 
tions have  striven  to  imitate. 

Lit.  —  Gihuon:  Der/hie.  am!  Fall.  JMir.MAN 
C'hrislinnitij  and  Lntin  <'/iiis-ii<iiilli/;  .Mac.\im.ay  : 
llisl.  nfEnyl(iiiil,ch»yi.  xi.;  BiCKi.K  :  //ixl.n/  Civil- 
ization; Guizot:  Ilislori)  of  Cieilizntion  in  Europe; 
Voltaire:  Esmiy on  Tiderance ,  Lockk:  E.isai/s; 
Lecky:  Ilislori/  of  Jialionaltsin,  and  llislori/  of 
European  Morals ,  Col'Langes:  La  Cite  Antique, 
CouLANGEs:  Institutions  jmlitiques  ile  la  France; 
Ba.vcuoft:  Ilistorijofthe  United  States ;  Story: 
On  till    Ciinsliliiliiin.      '  C.  J.  STII.Lfc. 

LIBRI  CAROLINI.  See  Cauoi.ink  Books. 
LICENSE,  applied  to  preacliiiig,  means  the  right 
to  pii'aeh,  given  by  a  regularly  constituted  body, 
siieli  as  a  jiresljytery,  a  cimference,  or  a  council. 
The  candidate  is  examined  ujjoii  his  theological 
studies,  and,  if  thought  worthy,  is  licensed  to 
preach  as  an  accredited  teacher  of  the  denomina- 
tion. But  the  licentiate  has  no  authority  to  dis- 
pense the  sacraments,  nor  to  sit  as  member  of  an 
ecclesiastical  court  :  these  are  conseiiuent  upon 
ordination.  In  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  the  word 
"license"  is  applied  to  the  jiermission  to  preach 


LICHFIELD. 


1319 


LIGHTFOOT. 


given  by  a  bishop  to  a  deacon,  or  to  read  sermons 
given  to  a  candidate. 

LICHFIELD,  the  seat  of  the  episcopal  see  of  that 
name,  is  a  city  of  8,300  inhabitants  (1881),  sixteen 
miles  north  of  Birmingham,  Staffordshire,  Eng. 
The  name  is  taken  to  mean  "  field  of  the  dead,"  and 
to  have  been  given  to  tlie  locality  in  consequence  of 
the  massacre  there,  in  the  reign  of  Diocletian  (A.l). 
303),  of  several  hundred  Christians.  Lichfield 
Cathedral  is  in  the  early  English  style,  is  four 
hundred  and  three  feet  long,  dates  from  the  twelfth 
centm'y,  and  has  recently  been  extensively  re- 
stored. The  see  dates  fi'om  GG9.  St.  Chad  was 
its  first  bishop.  From  785,  in  the  reign  of  Offa, 
to  799,  it  was  made  an  archbishopric  ;  in  1078  the 
see  was  removed  to  Cliester,  and  again  to  Coven- 
try in  1102,  but  restored  to  I>ichfield  in  1129. 
Lichfield  was  made  a  city  by  Edward  VL  in  1549. 
The  famous  Dr.  Samuel  .Johnson  was  Ijorn  there 
Sept.  18,  1709.  The  episcopal  stipend  is  forty- 
five  hundred  pounds.  See  W.  Beresford  :  Lich- 
Jield,  London,  1883. 

LIEBNER,  Karl  Theodor  Albert,  a  distinguished 
evangelical  theologian,  and  preacher  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church  of  Germany  ;  b.  March  3,  1806,  in 
Schkolen,  near  Naumburg;  d.  June  24,  1871,  of 
apoplexy,  in  Switzerland.  He  entered  the  uni- 
versity of  Leipzig,  where  he  spent  four  years,  then 
passed  to  Berlin,  and  from  there  to  the  seminary 
at  Wittenberg,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Prussian 
ministry  of  education  to  arrange  the  Wittenberg 
library,  and  during  iiis  residence  in  that  city  put 
forth  his  first  important  work,  on  Hugo  de  St. 
Victor  and  tlie  theological  tendencies  of  his  day 
(Hitr/o  fon  St.  Victor  unci  il.  theot.  Richtungen  seiner 
Zeit,  1831).  This  work  was  received  very  kindly 
by  the  theological  public;  and  its  author  was  called 
in  1832  to  the  church  in  Kreisfeld,  near  Eisleben. 
In  1835  he  accepted  an  invitation  from  Gottingeu 
to  become  the  successor  of  Julius  Aliiller,  as  pro- 
fessor of  theology,  and  university  preacher.  Two 
of  the  results  of  his  study  tliere  were  a  volume  of 
sermons  (1841,  2d  ed.,  1855),  which  Palmer,  Baur, 
and  others  characterized  as  models,  and  another 
on  Richard  de  St.  Victor  {Rich,  a  St.  Victore  de 
contemplatione  doctrina).  Refusing  a  call  to  Mar- 
burg, lie  became  Dorner's  successor  in  the  chair 
of  theology  in  Kiel.  Here  Leibner  published  his 
system  of  theology  (D.  chrisll.  Dnr/mali/c  aus  deni 
christolof/ischen  Prinzip  dargesteltt,  1849).  Miicke, 
in  his  Dogmatik  des  19.  Jahrhunderts,  places  this 
work  at  the  side  of  Dorner's. 

The  calls  to  Heidelberg  and  other  universities, 
which  this  volume  secured  for  him,  Liebner  de- 
clined in  favor  of  an  invitation  to  a  professorship 
in  Leipzig  in  1851,  where  he  soon  added  the  duties 
of  university  preacher  to  those  of  professor.  In 
1855  he  made  his  last  change,  going  to  Dresden 
in  the  capacity  of  first  court^preacher,  and  vice- 
president  of  the  Supreme  Church  Council,  where 
he  continued  to  labor,  in  spite  of  calls  to  Berlin 
(1861)  and  Giittingen  (1862).  Amongst  his  other 
published  works  were  two  volumes  of  sermons 
(Dresden,  1861).  MICHAEL. 

LIGHTFOOT,  John,  one  of  the  greatest  He- 
brew scholars  in  history;  b.  at  Stoke-upon-Trent, 
Staffordshire,  March  19  (29),  1602 ;  d.  at  Ely,  Dec. 
(i,  1675.  He  was  educated  at  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  greatly  distinguished  him.self 
\)y  his  oratory  and  classical  attainments,  but  where 


he  learned  no  Hebrew.  On  taking  his  bachelor's 
degree  (1621),  lie  became  assistant  master  at  Rep- 
ton,  Derbyshire.  Two  years  .afterwards  he  was 
ordained,  and  obtained  tlie  curacy  at  Norton-nnder- 
Hales,  Shropshire.  There  Sir  Rowland  Cotton 
heard  him  preach,  and  llius  he  liecanie  a  domestic 
chaplain  at  liellaport.  Sir  Rowland's  home.  His 
patron  was  an  amateur  Hebraist  of  some  attain- 
ments ;  while  he,  the  chaplain,  knew  notliing  of 
the  Language.  Shame  .at  this  .state  of  tilings  fair- 
ly drove  him  to  study  Hebrew  ;  an<l  so  ze.alous  was 
his  toil,  and  so  great  aptitude  did  he  evince,  that 
he  quickly  made  himself  the  greatest  Hebraist  in 
England,  and  was  only  excelled  in  Europe  by  the 
younger  Buxtorf .  For  some  reason  he  ultimately 
left  his  patron,  and  was  for  two  years  in  a  charge 
at  Stone  in  Staffordshire;  then,  for  the  sake  of 
nearness  to  Sion  College,  London,  he  removed  to 
Ilornsey,  .and  in  1629  published  his  first  work. 
In  1630  Sir  llowl.and  Cotton  presented  him  to 
the  rectory  of  Ashley,  Staffordshire.  In  1642  he 
left  it  for  London,  where  he  became  minister  of 
St.  Bartholomew's.  He  sat  in  the  Westminster 
Assembly  of  Divines  ;  and  although  an  Erastian, 
and  therefore  in  the  minority,  along  with  Sel- 
den  and  Coleman,  he  yet  exerted,  by  his  philologi- 
cal and  arcliKological  learning,  a  decided  influence, 
especially  in  the  recognition  of  the  laity,  tlie  order 
of  deaconesses,  and  the  right  of  the  congregations 
to  choose  their  ministers.  He  had  the  honor  of 
preaching  twice  before  the  Assembly,  —  on  two 
fiist  d.ays,  March  29,  1643,  and  Aug.  26,  1645.  In 
the  latter  discourse  he  urged  the  thorough  revision 
of  the  Authorized  Version.  In  1643  he  was  made 
master  of  Catherine's  Hall,  Cambridge,  and  rector 
of  Much  Munden,  Hertfordshire.  In  1652  betook 
his  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity ;  in  1655  he  was 
chosen  vice-chancellor  of  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, retaining,  however,  his  other  positions,  and 
living  at  Much  Munden.  The  Restoration  did 
not  affect  his  official  relations.  He  was  one  of  the 
Presbyterian  commissioners  at  the  Savoy  Confer- 
ence, 1661,  but  conformed,  1662.  In  1675  he 
was  made  a  prebend  of  Ely.  He  took  part  upon 
Poole's  Synop.-iis,  Walton's  Pobjglvit  (especially  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch),  and  Castell's  Lexicon.  He 
was  twice  married,  and  had  six  children  by  his 
first  wife. 

Lightfoot  enjoys  to-day  a  universal  fame,  iluch 
of  his  laborious  writing  is  now  antiquated,  much, 
indeed,  useless ;  but  enough  remains  of  useful 
matter  to  m.ake  his  books  imperishable.  Few 
Christian  scholars  now  study  the  Talmud ;  and  all 
are  satisfied  that  Lightfoot,  Selden,  and  Schottgen 
have  ransacked  that  great  garret,  and  brought  all 
its  valuables  to  light.  Lightfoot's  repute  as  a 
scholar  lias  overshadowed  his  other  titles  to  fame  ; 
so  that  his  conf  eiuporary  reputation  for  eloquence, 
fidelity,  .and  .spirituality,  for  his  ardent  defence  of 
Erastianism,  and  for  his  nianj'  admirable  ijualities 
in  private  life,  which  rendered  him  a  beloved  pas- 
tor and  friend,  has  been  well-nigh  forgotten. 

His  principal  works  appeared  in  the  following 
order,  Eruhldn,  or  Miscellanies,  Christian  and  Ju- 
daical,  ami  others ;  penned  for  recreation  at  vaccmt 
hours,  London,  1629 ;  A  few  and  new  Observations 
upon  the  Book  of  Genesis ;  the  most  of  them,  certain; 
the  rest,  probable ;  all,  harmless,  .itranye.  and  rarely 
heard  of  before,  1642;  A  Handful  of  Gleanings  out 
of  the  Book  of  Exodus,  1643;   The  llarinony  of  the 


LIGHTS. 


1320 


LIGUORI, 


Four  Evanijelutls  among  themsehes,  and  with  the  Old 
Testament :  icillt  an  explanation  of  the  chiefest  diffi- 
culties both  in  language  and  sense.  Part  I.  from  the 
ber/innlni/  of  the  Gospels  to  the  baptism  of  our  Sac- 
iour ;  1644.  Part  II.  from  the  baptism  of  our  Sar- 
iour  to  the  first  Passover  after  ;  1647.  Part  III.  from 
the  First  Piissorcr  after  our  Sarionr's  bajilism  to  the 
second ;  1050  (so  this  laborious  work  remains  un- 
finished) ;  A  Cominentarij  jipon  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, Chronical  and  Critical;  the  Difficulties  of  the 
Text  explained,  and  the  Times  of  the  story  cast  into 
Annals.  From  the  beginning  of  the  Book  to  the  end 
of  the  Twelfth  Chapter.  With  a  brief  Surrei/ of  the 
contempornrg  Storg  of  the  Jews  and  Romans  (down 
to  A.D.  44),  1645;  The  Harmony,  Chronicle,  and 
Order  of  the  Old  Testament,  IQil ;  The  Harmony, 
Chronicle,  and  Order  nf  the  New  Testament,  1(555 ; 
The  Temple,  especially  as  it  stood  in  the  Days  of  our 
Sarlour,  1650  ;  but  the  work  by  which  he  immortal- 
ized himself  ^\as,  Horee  Hebraicce  el  Talmudicce ; 
Hebrew  and  Talmudical  exercitations  upon  Mat- 
thew, 1658.  Mark,  1663,  Luke,  1674,  John,  1671, 
Acts,  and  some  few  chapters  of  Romans,  1676,  and 
First  Corinthians,  1664.  This  last  work  appeared 
first  in  Latin,  and  was  reprinted  in  Leipzig  under 
the  editorial  care  of  C'arpzov,  1675-79,2  vols.,  but 
has  been  translated  into  English,  and  in  this  lan- 
guage is  found  in  vols,  xi.-xii.  of  the  Pitman  edi- 
tion mentioned  below,  also  separately,  edited  by 
K.  Gandel,  Oxford,  1859,  4  vols.  Lightfoot's 
JFoc^v*  have  been  four  times  published,  7^V.</,  edit- 
ed by  Bright  and  Strype,  London,  1684,  2  vols, 
folio,  second,  by  Texelius,  Rotterdam,  1686,  2 
vols,  folio,  third  (first  2  vols.,  reprint  of  the  sec- 
ond), edited  by  J.  Leusden,  Franeker,  1699,  3  vols, 
folio,  fourth  and  by  far  the  be.st  edition,  by  J. 
R.  Pitman,  London,  1822-25,  13  vols.  8vo.  This 
last  edition  incorporates  the  volume  of  Remains, 
1700,  contains  a  Life  l>y  the  editor,  and  the  emen- 
dations of  former  editions. 

LIGHTS,  The  Ceremonial  Use  of,  in  the  Chris- 
tian service,  is  of  very  old  date.  In  spite,  how- 
ever, of  the  "many  lights"  of  the  "upper  chamber" 
at  Troas  (Acts  xx.  8),  the  Christian  custom  does 
not  seem  to  be  a  simple  continuation  of  a  similar 
Jewish  custom;  nor  is  it  likely  that  the  Christians 
first  adopted  the  practice  from  Pa"anisni :  on  the 
contrary,  Terttillian  and  other  Fathers  often  ridi- 
cule the  heathens  for  their  superstitious  and 
idolatrous  use  of  lights  at  daytime.  When,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  the  custom 
iecame  a  generally  adopted  part  of  the  Christian 
ritual,  —  such  as  it  appears,  according  to  Vigilan- 
tius,  who  attacked  it,  and  according  to  Jerome, 
who  excused  it,  if  he  did  not  defend  it,  —  it  looks 
most  like  a  reminiscence  from  a  former  period  of 
the  history  of  the  Church,  when  it  had  been,  not 
a  sacred  rite,  but  a  practical  necessity.  In  the 
first  three  centuries  ihc  Christians  were  often,  not 
to  say  always,  compidled  to  worsliip  in  secrecy, 
in  the  darkness  of  night,  or  in  some  hidden  place  ; 
as,  for  in.stance,  the  catacondis.  And,  under  such 
circumstances,  lights  —  candles  or  lamps  — were 
indispensable,  lint  what  are  the  .so-called  "go.s- 
pel-lights,"  which  are  first  .spoken  of  by  Jerome 
in  378?  —  the  bishop  entering  the  church  pre- 
ceded by  seven  ceroferarii,  each  of  them  carrying 
a  lighted  wax  taper  in  his  hand,  and  two  of  them 
taking  up  llieir  position  beside  the  ambo,  while 
-he  gospel  i,s  read  aloud,  —  what  are  those  lights 


but  a  reminiscence  from  the  catacombs?  And 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  paschal  lights,  the 
baptismal  lights,  etc. ;  only  that,  in  each  individ- 
ual case,  the  custom  received  a  special  symbolical 
explanation  of  its  own.  Especiallj-  at  funerals, 
lights  of  all  kinds  viere  profusely  used  tlirough- 
out  Christendom.  Innumerable  candles  on  golden 
stands  were  lighted  all  around  the  body  of  Con- 
stantine  when  it  lay  in  state.  AVhen  the  remains 
of  Chrysostom  were  brought  to  Constantinople 
from  Comana,  the  waters  of  the  Bosphorus  were 
covered  with  the  lamps  of  the  faithful.  When 
Queen  Radegund  was  buried  at  Poictiers,  all  the 
free-women  of  the  country  stood  around  the  grave 
with  lighted  tapers  in  their  hands.  From  such 
customs  the  transition  was  very  easy  to  keeping 
the  lights  always  lighted  in  the  sepulchre,  or  before 
the  relic  and  the  image,  and  to  presenting  them 
as  a  sacrifice  to  the  saint.  But,  with  the  Refor- 
mation, the  whole  custom,  in  all  its  various  forms, 
was  completely  broken  up ;  only  one  small  rem- 
nant of  it,  the  Eucharistic  light,  still  remaining  in 
the  Lutheran  churches  and  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. The  injunction  of  Edward  A'L,  of  1547, 
allowed  two  lights  to  be  lighted  on  the  high  altar 
during  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  to 
signify  that  Clirist  is  the  true  light  of  the  world 
LICUORI,  Alfonso  Maria  da,  the  most  popular 
and  influential  author  of  devotional  works  and 
ethical  theologian  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church 
of  the  last  century;  was  b.  Sept.  27,  1696,  at 
Marianella,  a  suburb  of  Naples ;  d.  at  Nocera, 
Aug.  1,  1787.  llis  jiarents  were  of  noble  antece- 
dents and  pious  inclinations  ;  his  father,  an  officer 
in  the  Neapolitan  army.  He  was  educated  by 
the  priests  of  the  oratory  of  Philip  Neri ;  studied 
law,  and  took  his  doctor's  degree  in  his  seven- 
teenth year.  The  loss  of  a  case  determined  him 
to  enter  the  church,  and  he  was  consecrated  priest 
in  1726.  He  became  an  earnest  preacher,  and 
devoted  much  time  to  the  relief  of  the  poor.  In 
1731,  while  in  Foggia,  Apulia,  he  had  the  first  of 
his  visions.  As  he  was  kneeling  before  a  picture 
of  the  Virgin,  she  appeared  to  him  in  all  her 
beauty.  During  a  sojourn  at  Scala,  where  he 
was  holding  religious  services  with  the  nuns,  one 
of  the  sisters,  Maria  Celeste  Costai'osa,  revealed 
to  him  at  the  confessional  that  the  Saviour  had 
chosen  him  to  organize  a  new-  ecclesiastical  ordei-. 
Following  this  revelation,  he  founded  in  1732 
the  Congregation  of  our  Most  Blessed  Redeemer. 
(.See  REDKMrToHiSTS.)  The  Cardinal  Archbishop 
of  Naples  disapproved  of  the  movement,  which 
also  met  with  opposition  from  other  qiuirters. 
But  the  order  grew;  and  in  1742  Ligiuiri  was 
chosen  general  superior  (rector  major)  for  life,  and 
the  order  was  ai>proved  in  1749  by  a  papal  brief 
In  1762  Liguori  was  elevated,  against  his  will,  by 
Clement  Xlll.,  to  the  Viishopric  of  St.  Agatha  of 
the  (ioths  in  Naples,  from  which,  in  177.5,  he  was 
allowed  to  retire,  at  his  own  recjuest,  by  Pius  VL 
He  retired  to  a  house  of  the  Redemptorists  at 
Nocera.  His  latter  years  were  imbittercd  by 
physical  suflVrings,  and  a  division  in  his  order  in 
consequence  of  a  breach  between  the  I'ope  and 
the  Neapolitan  administration.  Nine  years  after 
his  death,  he  was  pronounced  Venerable  by  Pius 
VI.;  was  beatilied  by  Pius  VII.  Sept.  15,'l81C; 
and  on  May  20,  1839,  was  canonized  by  (iregory 
XVL      Pius  IX.  achled,  duly  7,  187l",  to  tliesa 


LIGUORI. 


1321 


LIMBORCH. 


honors  the  dignity  of  Doctor  of  the  Churcli ;  Ihiis 
jilacing  him  beside  Thomas  Aquinas,  Hernard  of 
Clairvanx,  etc.  The  decree  was  basoil  upon  the 
"scholarly  and  devotional  character  "of  his  works, 
and  especially  the  circumstance  that  they  "teach 
in  the  most  excellent  manner  the  truths  relating 
to  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  blessed 
mother  of  God,  and  the  infallibility  of  the  Roman 
bishop  speaking  from  his  throne."  It  ordained 
that  "his  works  should  be  cited  as  of  equal 
authority  with  those  of  the  other  doctors  of  the 
church,  and  should  be  used  in  schools,  colleges, 
controversies,  sermons,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  pri- 
vate." 

No  complete  edition  of  Liguori's  writings  has 
been  published.  The  most  of  them  appeared  in 
Italian,  at  Naples  and  Bassano,  and  have  been 
translated  into  Latin,  French,  German,  and  other 
languages.  His  more  important  works  are.  Theo- 
logia  Moralh,  Naples,  1753,  2  vols.,  with  additions, 
Bologna,  1763,  3  vols. ;  History  and  Refulalion  of  Ihe 
Hei-esies,  Venice,  1773,  3  vols.  ;  T/ie  Truth  of  the 
Faith,  or  Refutation  of  the  Materialists,  Deifts,  and 
Sectaries,  Venice,  1781,  2  vols.  ;  La  vera  sposa  di 
Gesu  Crista,  Venice,  1781,  2  vols.,  last  ed.,  Naples, 
1876;  Le  glorie  di  Maria,  Venice,  1784,  2  vols.,  last 
ed.,  Rome,  1878;  [Eng.  trans..  The  Glories  of  Mary, 
New  York,  3d  ed.,  1852.  The  last  is  the  best 
known  of  Liguori's  works.  It  breathes  an  intense 
devotion  to  Mary,  and  indulges  in  the  most  ex- 
aggerated praises  of  her  beauty,  moral  innocency, 
power  of  representing  the  sinner's  cause  to  the 
Saviour,  if  not  directly  of  saving  him.  "Mary- 
is  truly  our  mother,  not  according  to  the  flesh, 
but  the  spiritual  mother  of  our  souls  and  of  our 
salvation  "  (i.  2).  "  She  is  omnipotent  .  .  .  because 
she  obtains  in  her  prayers  whatever  she  wishes  " 
(vi.  1).  "I  invoke  thy  aid,  O  my  great  advocate, 
my  refuge,  my  hope,  my  mother  Mary  I  To  thy 
hands  I  commit  the  cause  of  my  eternal  salvation. 
To  thee  1  consign  my  soul.  It  was  lost,  but  thou 
must  save  it,"  etc.  (vi.  3).  These  passages  fairly 
represent  the  exaggerated  Mariolatry  of  the  work, 
and  the  distance  to  which  the  sinner  is  removed 
from  Christ.  Mary  is  addressed  as  the  "refuge 
of  sinners,"  "  our  life  and  hope,"  "  queen  of  an- 
gels," "queen  of  heaven,"  "queen  of  the  whole 
world,"  "  queen  of  mercy,  as  Christ  is  King  of 
justice,"  etc.  Well  might  Keble  exclaim,  when 
the  decree  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  was 
pronmlged  in  1854,  that  it  made  the  ecclesiastical 
union  of  Christendom  impossible  so  long  as  it 
continued  to  be  enforced.  Liguori  appeals  to 
ecclesiastical  writers,  especially  John  of  Damas- 
cus, Peter  Damiani,  and  Abelard.  His  quotations 
from  Scripture  are  confined  almost  entirely  to 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  the  Shulamite  of  which 
he  looks  upon  as  the  type  of  Mary,  and  the 
apocryphal  book  Ecclesiasticus.] 

Lit.  —  Lives  of  Liguori  by  Gi.\tini,  Rome, 
1815;  Je.\.\-cai!D  (French),  Louvaine,  1829,  Ris- 
POLi,  Naples,  1834.  [English  biographies,  edited 
by  F.  W.  Faber,  Loudon,  1848-49,  4  vols.,  and 
by  one  of  the  Redemptorist  Fathers,  Baltimore, 
1855.  EnglLsh  translation  of  his  Itefledions  on 
Spiritual  Subjects  and  on  the  Passion  of  Jesus  Christ, 
London,  1849,  and  of  his  Novena  in  Honor  of  St. 
Theresa,  Baltimore,  1882.  A  second  edition  of  his 
Theologia  Moralis,  edited  by  J.  Ninzatti,  appeared 
in  ^'ienua,  1882,  in  2  vols.     See  also  Meykick  : 


Moral  and  Devotional  Theology  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  according  to  the  Teaching  of  S.  Alfonso  da 
Liguori.  Loiulim,  18.'j7.]  '  ZOCKLER. 

LICURE,  one  of  the  stones  in  the  lireastplate 
of  the  higli  priest  (Exod.  xxviii.  19;,  perhaps  the 
red  tourmaline  or  rubellite ;  but  the  rendering  is 
very  uncertain. 

LILLIE,  John,  D.D.,  b.  at  Kelso,  Scotland,  Dec. 
16,  1812;  d.  at  Kingston,  N.Y.,  Feb.  23,  1867. 
He  was  graduated  with  the  first  honors  at  the 
University  of  Edinburgh,  1831 ;  studied  theology, 
and  taught,  until  1834,  when  he  emigrated  to 
America.  He  then  finished  his  theological  studies 
at  New  Brunswick,  and  was  ordained,  and  in- 
stalled minister  of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  at 
Kingston,  N.Y.,  where  he  labored  ably  and  faith- 
fully until  August,  1841,  when  he  accepted  the 
presidency  of  the  grammar-school  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  the  City  of  New  York.  From  1843  to 
1848  he  had  charge  of  the  Bi-oadway,  afterward 
Stanton-street,  Dutch  Church,  and,  in  addition, 
edited  the  Jewish  Chronicle  on  behalf  of  missions 
among  the  Jews  from  1844  to  1848.  From  1851 
to  1857  he  labored  upon  the  Revised  Version  of 
the  American  Bible  Union;  but  in  the  latter  year 
he  re-entered  the  pastorate,  being  installed  over 
the  Presbyterian  Church  of  Kingston,  N.Y.,  and 
in  that  relation  he  died  after  a  four-days'  illness. 
Dr.  Lillie  was  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the 
best  biblical  scholars  in  tlie  LTnited  States.  He 
has  left  permanent  evidence  of  his  learning,  not 
only  in  his  individual  publications,  but  in  the 
new  versions  and  philological  commentaries  upon 
Thessalonians,  John's  Epistles,  2  Peter,  Jude,  and 
the  Revelation  (also  on  1  Peter  and  James;  but 
these  were  never  printed),  prepared  for  tlie  Ameri- 
can Bible  Union.  He  was  a  spiritually  minded 
and  edifying  preacher  and  a  faithful  pastor.  His 
works,  all  printed  in  New  York,  were.  Perpetuity 
of  the  Earth  (1842),  Lectures  on  the  Epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians  (18G0),  Translation,  with  additions, 
of  Auberlen  aird  Riggenbacli  upon  Thessalonians 
(in  the  Lange  Series,  1868),  also  posthumous  Lec- 
tures on  the  First  and  Second  Ejiistles  of  Peter,  with 
a  Biographical  Sketch  by  Dr.  Schaff  and  James 
Inglis  (1869). 

LILY.  The  only  true  lily  now  found  in  Pales- 
tine is  the  scarlet  martagon  ;  but  it  is  likely,  that 
by  the  term  in  Scripture  is  meant  the  scarlet 
anemone,  which  in  color  and  abundance  fills  the 
requirements  (Cant.  v.  13;  Matt.  vi.  28-30). 
But,  as  the  Arabs  now  use  the  word  of  many 
flowers,  it  may  be  that  in  Scripture  sunilar  laxity 
prevails. 

LIMBORCH,  Phlhpp  van,  b.  in  Amsterdam, 
June  19,  1633  ;  d.  there  April  13,  1712.  He  stud- 
ied theology,  philosophy,  philologfy,  and  mathe- 
matics in  his  native  city,  Leydeu,  and  Utrecht, 
and  was  appointed  pastor  at  Gouda  in  1657,  pas- 
tor in  Amsterdam  in  1667,  and  in  the  next  year 
professor  of  theology  at  the  Remonstrant  college 
in  Amsterdam.  VVhat  Epi.^copius  began,  and 
Curcellaus  continued,  he  completed.  His  Institu- 
tioiies  Tlieologiw  Christians  (1686)  was  translated 
into  Engli.sh  by  William  Jones,  Loudon,  1702. 
Prominent  among  his  other  works  are  De  Veritaie 
Religionis  Christiante  (1687)  and  Historia  Inquisi- 
tionis  (1692),  translated  into  English  by  Samuel 
Chandler,  Loudon,  1731.  See  A.  des  Ahmorie 
^•A^'  i)EU  Hoe  YEN  •  De  J.  Clerico  el  P.  a  Limborch, 


LIMBUS. 


132i 


LINGARD. 


Amsterdam,  1845,  and  the  Letters  of  Locke,  Lon- 
don. 17i!7. 

LIMBUS,  or  LIMBO,  The  Roman-Catholic 
Church  tixps  the  eternal  end  of  human  life  in  a 
double  existence  in  heaven  and  hell,  and  so  far 
she  is  in  full  accord  with  the  Greek  and  Protes- 
tant churches ;  l_>ut.  in  her  farther  development  of 
these  fiuidamental  ideas,  slie  pursues  a  course  of 
her  own.  The  Roman  Catechism  teaches  that 
there  are  a  hell,  in  -.vhich  infidels  and  such  as  die 
in  a  state  of  reprobation  are  shut  up  forever  under 
unspeakable  sutferings ;  a  purgatory,  in  which 
the  souls  of  the  faithful  go  through  a  certain 
amount  of  pain  in  order  to  be  tlioroughly  purified 
from  sin  :  and,  finally,  a  third  place,  —  the  bosom 
of  Abraham,  or,  as  it  is  generally  called  in  com- 
mon ecclesiastical  parlance,  the  limhus  palrum,  — 
in  which  the  pre-Christian  saints,  the  saints  of 
the  Old  Testament,  were  retained  in  an  interme- 
diate state  between  blessedness  and  punishment 
until  the  descent  of  Christ  into  Hades.  To  these 
three  ahilita  receptacuki  taught  by  the  symbolical 
books  of  the  Church,  her  theologians,  the  school- 
men, have  added  a  fourth  one  for  children  who 
die  without  h.-iptism, —  the  liinbin;  infantum.  The 
chorography  of  the  infernal  region  then  becomes 
as  follows  :  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  hell ;  in 
the  sphere  around  hell,  purgatory ;  in  the  sphere 
around  purgatory,  limhus  infantum ,  and  then, 
somewhere  between  heaven  and  hell,  the  bosom 
of  .\braham.  With  respect  to  the  detailed  de- 
.scription  of  these  localities,  most  poets  and  theo- 
logians agree  as  to  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  ; 
while  the  third,  the  limhus  infantum,  has  given 
rise  to  very  diverse  opinions.  [See  the  art.  on 
Inf.\n-t  Salvation-.]  The  word  limhus  is  Latin, 
means  "  border,"  and  was  probably  first  employed 
by  Thomas  Aquinas,  who  rapidly  brought  it  into 
common  use.  gUder. 

LINCOLN  (Lindum,  "hill  fort  by  the  pool,"  and 
Colonia),  the  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  Witham,  a  hundred  and 
thirty-two  miles  north-west  from  London,  and  is 
one  of  the  oldest  and  most  interesting  of  English 
cities:  present  population,  ;!7,312.  The  glory  of 
the  place  is  the  minster,  of  which  Mr.  C.  H. 
Coote,  in  the  Enojclopiedia  Brilannicii,  says,  "  As 
a  study  to  the  architect  and  anticpiary,  it  .stands 
unrivalled,  not  only  as  the  earliest  purely  (iothic 
building  in  Europe,  but  as  containing  within  its 
compa.ss  every  variety  of  style,  from  the  simple 
massive  Norman  of  the  west  front  to  the  Late 
Decorated  of  the  east  portion.  The  building  ma- 
terial is  the  volite  and  calcareous  stone  of  Lincoln 
lleatli  and  Haydor,  which  has  the  peculiarity  of 
becoming  lianhiued  on  the  surface  when  tooled. 
In  former  days  the  cathedral  had  three  spires,  all 
of  wood,  or  leaded  timber.  The  spire  on  the 
central  tower  was  blown  down  in  1517.  Those 
on  tlie  two  western  towers  were  removed  in  1818. 
The  ground  plan  of  the  first  chui'ch  was  laid  by 
Hishoji  Romigius  in  1080,  and  the  church  was 
con.secrated  .May  2,  1092."  The  cathedral,  as  at 
present  standing,  dates  from  1450.  Tlie  see  of 
Lincoln  is  said  to  have  been  established  in  1078. 
The  dimensions  of  the  cathedral  internally  are : 
nave,  250  x  79.0  x  80  feet;  choir,  1.58  x  82  x  72 
feet;  main  Cran.sept,  220x03x74  feet;  ciioir 
transept,  100  x  44  x  72  feet.  From  the  central 
tower  booms  tho  new  "Great  Tom  of  Lincoln," 


which  weighs  five  tons,  eight  hundred- weight. 
Among  the  famous  bishops  of  Lincoln  are  St.  Hugo 
(d.  1200)  ;  Grosseteste  (d.  1253) ;  William  Wake, 
afterwards  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (d.  1737) ; 
and  Edmund  Gibson  (d.  174S).  The  present  in- 
cumbent is  Christopher  Wordsworth,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
who  was  consecrated  in  1809  ;  and  the  yearly  in- 
come is  five  thousand  pounds. 

LINDSEY,Theophilus,b.  in  Middlewich, Chesh- 
ire, June  20.  1723 ;  d.  in  London,  Nov.  3,  1808. 
He  became  fellow  of  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge, 1747 ;  and  vicar  of  Catterick,  1704 ;  but, 
leaning  towards  antitrinitarian  views,  he  was 
confirmed  in  theTu  bj'  Priestlej" :  so  he  resigned 
his  living  in  1773,  and  on  April  17,  1774,  began 
Unitarian  services  in  London,  and  continued  them 
until  1793.  wlien  he  gave  up  his  charge.  His 
chief  work  is  An  Historical  Vien^  (f  the  State  of  the 
Unitarian  Doctrine  and  Worship  from  the  Reforma- 
tion to  our  Own  Times,  London,  1783.  His  Ser- 
mons appeared  in  1810,  and  Memoirs,  by  Thomas 
Belshaiii,  in  1812. 

LINDSLEY,  Philip,  D.D.,  b.  at  Morristown, 
N.J.,  Dec.  21,  1780;  d.  at  Na.shville,  Tenn.,  May 
25,  1855.  He  was  graduated  at  the  College  of 
New  Jersey,  1804 ;  was  tutor  there,  1807-09,  1812  ; 
professor,  1813;  vice-pi'esident,  1817;  declined  the 
presidency,  1823 ;  in  1824  became  president  of 
the  University  of  Nashville;  resigned,  1850;  for 
the  next  two  years  piofessor  of  ecclesiastical  polity 
and  biblical  archaeology  in  the  New  Albany  Semi- 
nary, Indiana.  He  was  moderator  of  the  General 
Assemlily,  1834.  His  Work's  were  edited,  with  a 
memoir.  I'hiladelphia,  1805,  3  vols. 

LINEN.  As  the  finest  flax  was  grown  in  Egypt, 
the  finest  linen  of  antiquity  came  from  there ; 
and  linen  was  there  the  material  of  which  the 
priestly  and  state  robes  wei'e  made  ((Jen.  xli.  42), 
and  in  which  mummies  were  wrapped.  Among 
the  Hebrews,  linen  was  similarly  used  ;  thus  the 
veil  of  the  temple  and  the  curtain  for  the  entrance 
were  made  of  it  (Exod.  xxvi.  31,  30),  and  priestly 
and  royal  persons  wore  it  (Exod.  xxviii.  6.  8,  15, 
39,  xxxix.  27;  1  Chron.  xv.  27).  .Several  Hebrew 
words  are  interpreted  "linen."  See  Smith's  Dic- 
tiiinani  of  the  Bible,  sub  voce. 

LINGARD,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  Koman- 
Catholic  historian,  I),  at  Winchester,  Feb.  5,  1771 ; 
d.  at  Hornby,  near  Lanca.ster,  .luly  13,  1851.  He 
studied  at  the  English  College,  Douai,  France, 
from  1782  to  1793;  but,  anticipating  the  break- 
ing-up  of  the  college  in  the  spring  of  that  year, 
went  to  England  as  tutor  in  the  family  of  Lord 
.Stonrton,  and  remained  in  this  capacity  until,  in 
October,  1791,  he  went  to  Crook  Ilall,  near  Dur- 
ham, where  some  of  those  driven  from  Douai  had 
gathered,  and  comjili'ted  his  theological  studies. 
He  was  ordained  priest  in  1795;  aiul.  having  de- 
clined a  flattering  call  to  London,  taught  natural 
and  moral  philosophy  in  Crook  Hall,  and  was  vice- 
president  and  general  director  of  the  studies.  In 
1808  the  college  was  removed  to  Ushaw,  Durham, 
and  he  accompanied  it,  and  in  1810  was  chosen 
president;  but  in  1811  he  retired  to  Hornby,  a 
very  snuiU  charge,  in  order  that  he  might  give 
himself  up  to  historical  studies  undislracted. 
There  he  spent  his  life  in  laborious  research.  la 
1817  he  visited  Rome,  partly  on  business  con- 
nected with  the  English  college,  and  partly  to 
study  in  the  Vatican  Library;  again,  he  wius  there 


LINUS. 


1323 


LITANY. 


in  1821,  and  was  received  with  great  distinction. 
Tlie  Pope,  Pius  VII.,  conferred  upon  him  the 
degrees  of  doctor  of  divinity  and  doctor  of  laws. 
In  1824  he  was  elected  a  member  of  tlie  Royal 
Society.  In  1825  Leo  XII.  offered  liini  a  cardi- 
nal's hat;  hut  he  declined,  preferring,  characteris- 
tically, ([uiet  and  study,  to  cares  and  authority. 
For  some  little  time  prior  to  his  death  he  received 
a  pension  from  tlie  government,  of  three  hundred 
pounds.  Liugard  was  an  "  able  and  intense " 
Koman  Catholic,  ever  ready  to  defend  his  church. 
His  principal  controversial  writings  will  be  found 
collected  under  the  title,  .1  Collection  of  Tracts, 
or  Several  Subjects  connected  with  the  Cicil  and 
Eeliyious  Principles  of  Catholics  (London,  1820): 
besides  these  may  be  mentioned  his  oft-published 
Catechetical  Instru('t'ons  on  the  Doctrines  and  ]Vor- 
.<hip  of  the  Catholic  Church  (1840),  and  his  scholarly 
New  Version  of  the  Four  Gospels  (1836).  lint  it 
is  as  an  historical  writer  that  he  lives.  lie  wrote. 
The  Antiquities  of  the  Anylo-Saxon  Church,  1806 
i3d  ed.  greatly  enlarged,  under  the  title,  The  His- 
torij  and  Antii/uilies  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Church, 
1845),  and  the  really  great  History  of  England, 
from  the  First  Inrasion  hij  the  Romans  to  the  Com- 
uiencement  of  the  Ileiyn  of  William  III.,  London, 
1819-.30,  8  Vols.  ;  5th  and  best  ed.,  revised  thor- 
oughly by  the  author,  1849,  10  vols. ;  6th  ed. 
(reprint),  1854-55.  It  has  been  translated  into 
<jerman,  French,  and  Italian.  It  should  always 
be  consulted  for  the  Roman-Catholic  view  of  its 
period,  but  cannot  be  relied  upon  implicitly ;  for 
the  author  keeps  back,  sometimes,  part  of  the 
truth.  (Compare  Adams:  Manual  of  Historical 
Literature,  pp.  440,  441.)  A  Life  of  Lingard  is 
jirefixed  to  the  sixth  edition  of  his  history. 

LINUS  is,  by  all  lists  of  Roman  bishops,  placed 
as  the  immediate  successor  of  St.  Peter  (Iren.eus  : 
Adv.  omn.  hwr..  III.,  3,  3;  Catalogus  Liberii,  ed. 
MoMMSEN,  in  his  Uber  den  Chronor/rnphen  von  3S4, 
EuSEBius :  Hist.  Eccl.,  III.,  2,  13,  and  Chronicle, 
p.  156,  ed.  Schbne ;  Augustine  •  Epist.  53 ;  Opta- 
TUS  :  De  schis.  Donat.,  II.,  3).  The  length  of  his 
reign  is  differently  determined.  Eusebius  counts 
twelve  years  in  his  church  history,  but  fourteen  in 
his  chronicle  ;  the  Catalor/us  Liberii  counts  twelve 
years,  four  months,  and  twelve  days  ;  Jerome, 
eleven  years.  The  date  of  the  beginning  of  his 
reign  is  also  differently  fixed  according  to  the 
different  calculations  of  the  death  of  St.  Peter. 
As  the  Roman  congregation  knew  nothing  about 
an  episcopal  constitution  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century,  Linus  was  consequently  simply  a 
presbyter  of  the  church  ;  but  when  it  afterwards 
became  of  interest  to  present  a  continuous  suc- 
cession of  bishops  from  the  apostle  Peter,  he  was 
made  a  bishop,  and  identified  with  the  Linus  of 
2  Tim.  iv.  21.  His  alleged  epitaph  has  no  intei'est 
whatever  (comp.  Kr.\us:  Roma  sutteranea,  2d  ed., 
p.  69).  .Si.p  Lh'sius  :  Chronologic  d.-  rthnischen 
Biscliife,  Kid,  1S()!1,  p.  146.  HAUCK. 

LINZ,  The  Peace  of,  was  concluded,  Dec.  13, 
1645,  between  Georg  Rakoczy.  Prince  of  Transyl- 
vania, and  the  Emperor  Ferdinand  III.  as  King 
of  Hungary,  and  forms  the  foundation  of  the 
constitution  of  the  evangelical  church  in  Hun- 
gary. The  Protestants  obtained  freedom  of  wor- 
ship; the  churclies  which  the  Roman  Catholics 
Iiad  taken  from  them  were  restored  to  them  ;  and 
a  punishment  was  fixed  for  any  one  who  inter- 


fered with  tlieir  service,  or  annoyed  them  on 
account  of  their  religion. 

LIONS  of  the  Asiatic  species,  smaller,  with  a 
shorter  mane,  and  less  formidable,  than  the  Afri- 
can species,  were  found  in  Palestine  down  to  the 
twelfth  century,  but  have  disapjieared,  together 
with  the  forests.  Towns  deriv(Ml  their  names 
from  the  lion,  e.g.,  Arieh  and  Laisli ;  while  Leba- 
oth  means  "  lioness.''  The  lion's  favorite  abode 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  jungles  of  the  .Jordan 
(Jer.  xlix.  19,  1.  44).  It  was  sometimes  attacked 
by  the  shephei-ds  single-handed  (1  Sam.  xvii.  36); 
but  generally  it  was  itself  the  attacking  party, 
devoured  men,  and  even  ravaged  villages.  How 
deep  an  impre-ssion  the  Hebrews  had  received 
from  this  animal,  the  "king  of  beasts,"  may  be 
judged,  not  only  from  the  characteristic  descrip- 
tions which  the  Bible  contains  of  its  habits  and 
appearance,  its  roar  and  movements,  but  also 
from  the  innumerable  symbolical  and  metaphori- 
cal expressions  derived  from  it  (Gen.  xlix.  9 ; 
1  Chron.  xii.  8;  Isa.  xxix.  1,  marg. ;  Rev.  v.  5). 

LIPTINES.     See  Lestines. 

LITANY  (^(TOwa)  The  term  originally  meant 
a  prayer  for  protection  (comp.  haaopai),  but  later 
was  used  of  the  processions  in  which  sucli  praj'ers 
were  offered  (comp.  Sophokles,  Glossary  of  later 
and  Byzantine  Greet;  in  Blemoirs  of  the  American 
Academy,  vii.  407),  or  of  the  Kyrie  Eleyson. 
Since  the  Reformation,  it  is  usually  employed  to 
designate  a  special  form  of  prayer  in  which  the 
minister  announces  the  objects  of  petition,  and 
the  congregation  responds  with  an  appropriate 
supplicatory  ejaculation.  From  of  old  the  min- 
isterial announcement  has  been  called  the  pros- 
phonesis.  There  are  proofs,  that,  at  a  very  early 
period,  the  congregation  at  public  service  not  only 
gave  the  response  "  Amen "  to  the  eucharistic 
prayers  (.Justin:  Ap.,  i.  65;  comp.  Apost.  Constt., 
viii.  12),  but  also  other  responses  in  the  general 
prayer  of  the  church.  When,  for  example,  the 
prosphonesis  for  the  emperor  was  recited,  all  re- 
sponded, "Christ,  help!"  {XptGTi  j3oridH.  See 
Daniel:  Cod.  liturg.,  iv.  1,71).  The  call  to  re- 
peat a  Kyrie  Eleyson  ("  Lord,  have  mercy  upon 
us  ")  first  occurs  in  the  special  prayers  for  peni- 
tents {Ap.  Constt.,  viii.  8).  In  the  so-called  lit- 
urgies of  .James  and  ]\Iark,  —  the  oldest  of  the 
Oriental  liturgies, — provision  is  made  for  respon- 
sive worship,  as  when  the  prayer  was  opened  on 
the  part  of  the  minister  with  the  words,  "  Let  us 
all  say,  Kyrie  Eleyson."  The  other  Oriental  litur- 
gies, those  of  Chrysostom  and  Basil,  the  Armen- 
ian, etc.,  referred  their  responses  to  the  deacon  or 
the  choir.  The  Greek  expression,  Kyrie  Eleyson, 
was  introduced  in  the  churches  of  the  West  by  a 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Vaison,  in  529.  at  the  side 
of  the  Latin  Domine  miserere  ("  Lord,  have  mercy 
upon  us");  and,  by  the  rule  of  Benedict,  Kyrie 
became  another  designation  for  "litany." 

JIamertus,  Archbishop  of  Vienne  (460),  influ- 
enced by  earthquakes  and  other  calamities,  insti- 
tuted rogntiones,  or  processional  litanies,  for  the 
three  days  preceding  Ascension  Day.  The  Council 
of  Orleans  (511)  called  these  processionals  "lita- 
nies" (litania;),  and  prescribed  them  for  all  Gaul. 
Avitus  of  Vienne  (d.  about  .V2.5)  describes  them 
in  a  homily.  Leo  III.  (795-816)  introduced  these 
processionals  on  the  same  days  in  Rome  (Mura- 
tori:    Liturgia  Rom.,  i.   78).      Notices   of   these 


LITANY. 


1324 


LITURGY. 


processionals  go  back  no  farther  than  !Mainertiis ; 
but  it  is  related  that  Pelagius  I.  in  555,  after  the 
litany  was  said  in  a  certain  church  in  Rome,  had 
a  processional  from  there  to  St.  Peter's  (Muratori : 
Rer.  Ital.  script.,  iii.  1323).  This  was  probably  a 
development  of  the  usual  processionals  at  Easter, 
at  which  the  litany  was  repeated  thrice.  The 
prayers  of  the  litany  wei'e  already  at  this  time 
concluded  with  the  words,  "  Lamb  of  God,  have 
mercy  upon  us"  (Muratori,  i.  564).  In  addition 
to  these  processionals,  the  25th  of  April  was  fixed 
in  Rome  as  the  day  for  a  public  processional  with 
the  litany  This  —  the  so-called  litania  nwjor  — 
Gregory  the  Great  found  in  use.  In  its  observ- 
ance, it  was  the  custom  to  march  from  one  of  the 
churches  to  St  Peter's  in  order  to  say  the  "litany 
which  is  called  by  all  the  'larger' ""(comp.  Mar- 
tene :  De  antiq.  eccl.  ril.,  i.  514  sq.).  The  litania 
septi/ormis,  —  so  called  because  it  was  performed 
by  seven  choirs,  —  which  Gregory  established,  is 
not  to  be  confounded  with  this  one.  It  was  occa- 
sioned by  a  desolating  pestilence  which  followed 
upon  an  inundation  of  the  Tiber  in  590,  and 
became  the  model  of  the  Gallic  rogationes,  which 
were  called  titanice  minnres. 

The  ■'  larger  litany,"  as  it  is  found  in  the  Gre- 
gorian ^Missal,  appealed  to  the  saints;  but  such 
petitions  had  grown  very  much  by  887,  at  which 
date  the  Paris  form  was  certainly  in  use.  After 
the  Kijne  Eleijson  and  "  Christ,  hear  us  "  had  been 
repeated  three  times,  a  hundred  petitions  were 
offered,  containing  appeals  to  Mary,  the  angels, 
and  the  apostles.  These  were  closed  with  the 
petition,  "All  ye  saints,  pray  for  us."  In  the 
middle  ages,  litanies  were  also  said  at  the  dedica- 
tion of  churches,  the  coronation  of  the  Roman 
emjierors,  etc. 

By  the  rule  of  Benedict,  the  litany  came  to  be 
frequently  used  in  the  convents;  and  a  short  litany 
was  said  every  Saturday  at  the  celebration  of  the 
mass.  The  frequent  use  of  the  Kyrie  in  song  and 
on  all  festal  occasions,  by  tlie  Germans  in  the 
middle  ages,  is  a  proof  of  the  frequent  use  of 
the  litany  by  the  prie.sts 

The  number  of  litanies  increased  to  such  an 
extent,  that  Clement  VIII.  saw  fit  to  limit  it.  Of 
those  originating  in  the  latter  part  of  the  middle 
a^'es  he  chose  only  the  Litany  of  our  Lady  of 
Loretto.  It  belongs  to  the  thirteenth  or  ff)urteenth 
century,  and  praises  Mary  witli  every  conceivable 
title  of  honor.  By  papal  decree  in  1646,  the  Litany 
of  the  Name  of  .^esus  was  also  sanctioned.  This 
does  not  date,  even  by  the  confession  of  Roman- 
Catholic  scholars,  beyond  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  is,  however,  the  Litany  of  All  the  Saints  which 
ranks  Inghest  in  the  Roman-Catholic  Church. 
'I'he  l{eformation  was  a  fresh  occasion  for  new 
litanies  again.st  the  Reformers;  and  of  these  we 
will  only  mention  the  Litaniw  ct  jireres  ad  opem 
(I'lv.  /iwri>lico.<!  .  .  jussu  P.  Oregorii  XI II.  di- 
ceruhc  ("  [..itanies  and  Prayers  against  the  Here- 
tics," etc.). 

Luther  compiled  both  a  Latin  and  a  German 
litany,  which  were  in  use  at  Witti'iiberg,  at  any 
rate,  in  1529,  as  a  letter  of  Nieolaus  Ilausmanii 
])-/oves  (Ue  Wette,  iii.  423).  The  old  chords 
fc-r  the  l>atin  litany  may  be  found  in  the  old 
Lutheran  hymn-books  of  Keuchenlhal  and  Los- 
siii.s.  Amongst  the  other  petitions  which  Luther 
incroduced  was  that  against  the  'I'urks  and  the 


Pope  (  Wider  de.i  Ttirlcen  tmd  des  Papstes  Mord  u. 
Ld.'iterung),  inserted  in  1546.  Luther  declared 
this  congregational  form  of  prayer  to  be  "most 
useful  and  salutaiy."  The  Sloravians,  also,  use 
the  litany  with  some  special  petitions. 

[.\ugustine  and  the  monks  that  were  with  him, 
according  to  Bede,  entered  Canterbury  chanting 
a  litany.  The  litany  of  the  English  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  was  originally  intended  to  be  a. 
distinct  office.  A  rubric  in  the  first  prayer-book 
(1549)  ordered  it  to  be  said  on  Wednesdays  and 
Fridays,  before  the  communion-office.  It  was 
then  placed  after  the  connnunion-oflice,  and  in 
1552  put  in  the  place  it  now  occupies,  with  the 
direction  that  it  was  to  be  "used  upon  Sundays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  and  at  other  times 
when  it  shall  be  commanded  by  the  ordinary."' 
The  clause  in  Edward's  Prayer-Book,  "  From  the 
tyranny  of  the  Bishop  of  Rome  and  all  his  de- 
testable enormities,"  was  omitted  in  the  copy 
printed  by  royal  sanction,  1559.  See  Bingham  i 
Antiquities;  Martexe  :  De  Antiquis  ritibits,  etc.; 
Blunt:  Annotated  Prayer-Book,  6th  ed.,  London, 
1875;  Procter:  Histor;/  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  pp.  249  sqq..  lltli  ed.,  Lond.,  1874;  Stan- 
ley: Christ.  Inst.,  xn.'].  VON  ZEZSCHWITi* 

LITER/E  FORMAT/E.  The  custom  of  furnif..!- 
ing  travelling  Christian  brethren  and  sisters  with 
letters  of  introduction  is  very  old  in  the  Church 
(Acts  xviii.  27;  Rom.  xvi.  1;  2  Cor.  iii.  1),  and 
originated  naturally  from  the  lively  intercommu- 
nication between  the  congregations,  and  their 
great  hospitality.  In  2  John  10  it  was  even  for- 
bidden to  receive  a  person  who  did  not  hold  the 
true  doctrine ;  so  that  it  soon  became  necessary 
for  a  traveller  to  legitimatize  himself  on  that 
point  by  a  letter  from  the  head  of  the  congrega- 
tion to  which  he  belonged.  Such  letters  were 
called  literce  communicatoria:,  and  must  not  be 
confounded  with  the  official  epistles  by  which  one 
congregation  commonly  connnunicated  with  an- 
other, or  with  the  so-called  literce.  pads,  testifying 
to  the  legitimacy  of  the  purpose  for  which  the 
bearer  was  travelling. 

Already  Dionysius  of  Corinth,  at  the  time  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  complains  that  literce  C07mnuni~ 
caloi-ia:  whicli  he  had  issued  had  been  counter- 
feited (Eusebins  :  Hist.  Eccl.,  iv.  23) ;  and  Cyprian 
says  in  his  ninth  epistle  (ed.  Hartel)  that  he  had 
received  a  letter  from  Rome  which  looked  very 
suspicious.  In  the  period  of  the  great  councils, 
from  the  fourth  to  the  seventh  century,  numerous 
instances  occurred  of  forgeries  of  this  description  ; 
and,  in  order  to  counteract  that  vicious  tendency, 
it  was  prescribed  that  the  letters  sliould  be  issued 
according  to  certain  rules.  Thus  the  old  literce 
commnnicalorict:  became  literce  formatce,  or  Uteres 
canoniccc,  or  simijly  formatce.  But  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  nanm  formala  was  derived  from  a 
certain  fixed  form  prescribed  for  the  letters, 
or  from  the  seal  (/'«/-»»;)  wilh_which  they  were 
furnished.  See  Rockincer:  Uber  I'ormulbilcher, 
Munich,  1855;  E.  Die  Rozikre:  liecueil  general  d. 
formrihs.  etc.,  ii.  p.  909.  ADOLF  HARNACK. 

LITHUANIA.     See  Russia. 

LITURCICS,  the  science  of  worship.  See 
WdKsiiir. 

LITURCr.  The  authority  of  Christ  as  dis- 
tinctly requires  common  prayer  as  it  requires 
]>iaye"r  in  secret.     If  he  said,  "  Thou,  when  thou 


LITURGY. 


1325 


LITURGY. 


prayest,  enter  into  thy  closet,"  he  also  said,  "  After 
this  manner  pray  ye,  Our  Father  wlio  art  in  heav- 
en.'' The  last  as  clearly  implies  a  social  act  as 
the  first  implies  a  solitary  act;  and,  in  enjoining 
the  duty,  he  also  gave  the  form  of  words  to  be 
made  use  of.  The  liberty  which  is  often  usurped, 
of  interpreting  this  as  merely  or  chiefly  the  model 
on  whicli  prayer  is  to  be  formed,  and  discarding 
the  use  of  the  very  form  itself  in  social  prayer, 
must  be  regarded  as  due  to  a  purely  subjective 
interest.  The  command,  "  Go  ye  and  teach  all 
nations,'  is  not  more  peremptory  than  the  com- 
mand, '•  When  ye  pray,  say.  Our  Father  who  art 
in  heaven."  The  first  devotional  utterance,  there- 
fore, of  the  disciples,  was  common  prayer.  Their 
voices  blended  together  in  that  divine  oration 
which  in  all  ages  since  has  been  found  equally 
suited  to  express  the  adoring  sentiment  of  the 
great  congregation  and  the  simple  aspiration  of 
the  child  at  its  mother's  knee.  With  this  exam- 
ple and  lesson  of  Jesus  himself  before  them,  it 
is  natural  that  the  early  church  should  have  in- 
corporated in  all  their  public  and  all  their  private 
worship  the  Lord's  Prayer  as  the  leg'dima  et  ordi- 
naria  oralio.  The  illustrations  of  this  fact  lie  so 
plain  on  the  face  of  Christian  archaeology,  that 
we  shall  waste  no  space  in  citing  them.  It  was 
also  equally  natural,  that,  regarding  the  Lord's 
Prayer  as  a  warrant  for  that  method  of  praying, 
the  early  church  teachers  should  so  far  consult 
for  the  edification  of  the  simple  and  untaught 
disciples,  as  to  add  also  other  forms,  repeating 
the  same  prayers,  for  example,  again  and  again, 
till  they  became  fixed  in  the  memory  of  the 
people,  who  thus  learned  when  to  ejaculate  the 
"  Amen  "  which  had  been  handed  down  to  them 
from  the  practice  of  the  apostolic  churches.  In 
this  way  a  simple  but  continually  augmenting 
service  of  prayer  would  be  growing  up  in  the 
Church,  varying,  in  various  parts,  according  to 
the  taste  and  the  devotional  gifts  of  the  several 
bishops.  These  would  soon  become  so  familiar, 
that  the  people  would  be  able  to  join  in  every 
prayer  without  waiting  for  the  prompting  voice 
of  a  "monitor."  As  these  forms,  from  including 
at  first  only  the  Leydima  et  quotidiana  oratio  and 
certain  familiar  ejaculations,  became  enlarged  to 
embrace  a  more  complex  sacramental  service,  it 
would  be  found  convenient  to  reduce  them  to 
writing.  The  construction  of  these  liturgies 
would  be  a  gradual  process.  Neither  Chrysostom, 
nor  Leo,  nor  any  other  of  the  Fathers,  sat  down  to 
compose  a  form  of  public  prayer.  They  compiled 
it  from  existing  sources,  adding  something  of 
their  own,  and  arranging  the  whole  according  to 
their  discretion.  A  complete  service  of  pi-ayer 
as  certainly  implies  long  previous  tentative  essays 
towards  it  as  a  complete  modern  dictionary  im- 
plies numberless  imperfect  attempts  at  lexicog- 
raphy. A  Webster  or  a  '\^'orcester  adopts  the 
body  of  English  words  he  finds  already  catalogued, 
and  adds  new  ones.  The  dictionary,  however, 
exists  in  the  language  before  the  vocabulary  is 
arranged  ana  defined  ;  and  a  liturgy  exists  as 
soor.  as  forms  of  prayer  are  employed,  whether 
they  are  written  down  or  not.  The  two  great 
families  of  the  early  liturgies  are  the  Eastern  and 
the  Western.  In  general  it  will  be  admitted  that 
the  Oriental  Church,  which  took  the  lead  in  every 
thing  relating   to   worship,   possessed   forms   of 


prayer  sooner  than  the  Latin,  and  that  some  of 
the  Greek  liturgies  date  back,  in  their  elements, 
to  a  very  early  ])eriod.  The  most  primitive  of 
these,  by  the  univei'sal  consent  of  critics,  is  that 
body  of  prayer  found  in  the  eighth  book  of  the 
pseudo-Clementine  Apostolical  Constitutions.  It 
does  not,  indeed,  amount,  in  the  strict  sense,  to 
a  liturgy ;  since  its  forms  are  designed,  not  so 
much  for  the  people  as  for  the  officiating  minister. 
They  were  never  used  in  any  church.  Probably 
they  were  never  "  published,"  but  only  privately 
circulated ;  but,  viewed  even  in  this  light,  tliey 
possess,  for  their  character  and  the  indications  in 
them  of  a  high  antiquity,  a  marked  value  of  their 
own.' 

Tlie  clumsy  device  by  which  the  various  parts 
of  the  diataifeis  ("Constitutions")  are  ascribed 
to  the  several  apostles  is  not  to  be  understood  as 
seriously  meant  to  deceive.  It  was  merely  a 
rhetorical  contrivance  for  giving  authority  and 
emphasis  to  the  instructions,  like  the  speeches  in 
Thucydides  and  Sallust.  But  this  apparent  fraud, 
and  the  pseudo-epigraphic  title,  have  thrown,  upon 
the  eighth  book  at  least,  an  unmerited  degTee  of 
discredit.  It  is  the  oldest  body  of  prayer  we  have 
inherited  from  the  primitive  church,  and  exhibits 
the  simplicity,  the  tenderness,  the  adoring  rever- 
ence, with  which  believers  in  the  earliest  ages 
drew  near  the  mercy-seat  of  God. 

A  few  characteristic  features  of  this  liturgy 
may  here  be  mentioned  .  — 

1.  The  prayers  extend  continuously  to  a  great 
length.  They  are  not  broken  up  into  parts,  with 
an  intermediate  "  amen ;  "  and  there  is  no  appear- 
ance yet  of  the  "collect." 

2.  The  length  of  the  prayers  consists  mostly 
in  their  taking  the  character  of  historical  reviews 
of  God's  providence  towards  his  church  under 
the  old  dispensations.  From  this  is  drawn  an 
argument  for  his  continued  watchful  care  over 
his  people  in  all  times. 

3.  Whoever  may  have  been  the  author  or  au- 
thors of  these  prayers,  they  include  passages  of  as 
great  sublimity  and  beauty  as  have  ever  entered 
into  public  devotion  in  any  later  times. 

4.  The  fact  of  an  elaborate  hierarchy  being 
implied,  with  ascertained  rules  for  their  ordina- 
tion, the  appointment  of  tithes  for  their  support, 
tlie  use  of  a  certain  apparatus  in  the  sacramental 
service,  the  lighting  of  candles  on  the  altar,  prayers 
for  the  pious  dead,  etc.,  are  no  disproof  of  the 
ante-Nicene  origin  of  these  Constitutions.  Con- 
trariwise they  only  illustrate  the  early  period  at 
which  such  usages  found  their  way  into  Christian 
worship.  Two  hundred  years  are  a  long  period 
in  human  history,  and  afford  room  for  great 
changes  in  human  institutions,  for  the  better  or 
the  worse ;  and  there  is  evidence  enough  that 
changes  of  various  kinds  went  on  somewhat  rap- 
idly in  the  obscure  twilight  of  the  first  centuries. 

5.  This  early  origin  of  the  "  Constitutions  "  is 


1  [The  oldest  post-apostolic  prayer  ie  found  iu  the  portiott 
of  the  lirst  or  gemiine  Epistle  of  Clement,  discovered  by  Bry- 
cnnioa,  and  published  in  Constantinople  ISTo.  It  is  quite 
elaborate,  and  extends  over  three  long  cliapters  (lix..  Is.,  Isi.). 
It  would  appear  that  it  was  in  general  such  a  prayer  as  Clem- 
ent was  in  the  habi,,  of  oifering  up  in  the  church  at  Rome 
where  he  was  chief  pastor.  It  ie,  therefore,  in  its  prominent 
features,  a  form  of  prayer,  and  as  such  was  used  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the  liturgy  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  See  Bishopi 
LiGHTFOOT :   .S".  CUment  of  Bome^  Appendix^  London,  1877, 


pp. 


-Ed.) 


LITURGY. 


1326 


LITURGY. 


confirmed  by  various  allusions  to  a  condition  of 
things  prevailing  in  the  church  before  the  time 
of  Constantine  the  Great;  as,  e.g.,  the  still  for- 
midable power  of  heathenism,  and  the  sufferings 
of  Christians  in  mines  and  prisons. 

6.  The  attribute  of  (pihivVpuire,  by  which  God 
is  apostrophized  as  the  "  lover  of  human  kind," 
jind  which  is  so  characteristic  of  the  Greek  litur- 
gies, appears  first  in  these  "  Constitutions,"  re- 
minding us  of  the  invocation  in  the  familiar 
hymn.  "Jesus,  lover  of  my  soul." 

7.  The  conclusion  is,  that  these  "Constitutions" 
exhibit  the  devotional  spirit  and  method  of  the 
Oriental  Church  not  later  than  the  end  of  the 
third  or  begiiming  of  the  fourth  century,  with 
elements  derived  from  the  second  and  first. 

In  proceeding  now  to  describe  the  early  Chris- 
tian liturgies,  properly  so  called,  we  may  notice 
(1)  Tliat  the  number  of  them  is  very  large,  the 
far  greater  part  Oriental :  ("J)  That  they  are  found 
alike  in  all  parts  of  the  church,  from  the  JIalabar 
coast  to  tlie  Spanish  peninsula  ;  (:i)  That  through 
all  this  broad  extent  of  Christendom,  Eastei-n  and 
Western,  in  the  various  languages  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  Xorthern  Africa,  the  liturgies  show  a  suffi- 
ciently close  resemblance  to  indicate  a  common 
origin. 

This  resemblance  appears  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars: viz.,  — 

1.  They  are  all  "sacramentaries."  The  Chris- 
tian sacrifice  is  the  central  object  about  which 
all  the  parts  of  the  .sen'ice  are  gathered.  In  this 
respect  the  Protestant  liturgies  differ  from  them, 
since  these  may  be  said  rather  to  be  gathered 
about  the  sermon,  and  to  relate  to  the  whole  wor- 
ship of  God,  both  regular  and  special ;  while  the 
early  liturgies  neither  include  any  forms  for  spe- 
cial occasions,  nor  make  any  reference  to  the 
preaching  of  the  gospel. 

2.  They  all  include  the  element  of  prayer  for 
the  dead.  This  practice  is  so  irreconcilable  with 
tlie  Protestant  doctrine  of  probation  as  to  be 
generally  classed  among  the  characteristic  corrup- 
tions of  the  Church  of  Home.  It  mu.st  therefore 
be  with  a  certain  sensation  of  surprise  that  the 
Protestant  finds  this  usage,  not  merely  in  a  few 
of  the  early  liturgies,  but  in  all  of  them  without 
exception;  from  which  it  would  follow  that  we 
have  to  take  our  choice  between  admitting  that 
the  practice  is  so  in  harmony'  with  the  yearnings 
of  our  nature  as  to  spring  uji  sporadic;illy  wher- 
ever there  were  Christian  worshi]>pers,  or  else  that 
it  was  the  common  inlieritance  of  the  churches 
derived  from  the  earliest  times,  before  they  were 
.separated  from  each  other.  The  Protestant  finds 
a  considerable  relief,  however,  in  discovering  that 
these  prayers  imply  no  belief  in  the  existence  of 
a  purgatory.  Not  the  fainte.st  allusion  to  any 
such  place  or  state  occurs  in  the  early  liturgies. 
The  prayers  "for  the  whole  Catholic  Church" 
include  the  departed  saints  as  being  in  a  .state, 
not  of  purgatorial  suffering,  but  of  incomplete 
liappiness;  as  being  in  paradise,  and  not  yet  in 
heaven. 

•i.  There  are  many  minor  features,  not  requir- 
ing to  be  particularly  dwelt  upon,  found  alike  in 
all  these  liturgies;  such  as  llie  division  of  the 
service  into  two  parts,  —  that  preceding  the  con- 
secration of  the  elements  (pre-anaphoral)  and  the 
anaphora,  or  sacramental   seryice,  —  the   use   of 


the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  secret  prayer  of  the  min- 
ister (oratorio  rcli).  the  mingling  of  water  with 
the  wine,  the  invocation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
various  rubrical  directions,  everywhere  substan- 
tially the  same. 

4.  It  remains  to  be  added  that  these  were  all 
true  liturgies  :  they  were  adapted  to  the  use  of 
the  congregation.  The  service  is  not  all  per- 
formed by  the  minister,  but  the  people  have 
their  vocal  share.  The  worship  was  responsive 
throughout :  the  people  reply  at  all  the  appro- 
priate places,  —  Habemus  aii  Dominum,  Domine 
Miserere,  Miserere  Noslri,  Deus  Salrator  Noster, 
etc.  They  repeat  aloud  the  oratio  i/ominica  (the 
Lord's  Prayer),  they  resound  the  creed  and  the 
doxology,  and,  at  the  end  of  all  the  prayers,  sw-ell 
the  chorus  of  "the  Amen."  This  made  a  true 
service  for  the  people  (a  Aeirovpyia),  and  justified 
the  concluding  prayer  of  thanksgiving.  "O  God, 
viho  hast  given  us  grace  with  one  accord  to  make 
these  our  common  supplications  unto  thee,"  etc. 

These  remarks  premised  as  to  the  harmony  of 
the  whole  body  of  the  liturgies,  we  proceed  to  a 
more  particular  description  of  the  details  of  the 
service.  We  suppose  ourselves  to  be  writing,  not 
for  professional  scholars,  who  will  go  to  the  ori- 
ginal sources  themselves,  but  for  the  benefit  of 
popular  readers.  We  shall  take,  therefore,  a  single 
representative  Oriental  liturgy  to  furnish  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  mode  in  which  the  church  of  the 
fifth  and  sixth  centuries  conducted  its  sacramental 
service.  Leaving  out  the  Clementine  Liturgy,  — 
improperly  so  called,  which,  as  already  observed, 
was  never  employed  in  any  church,  —  there  were 
three  principal  and  most  venerable  forms  in  use 
in  the  Syrian  and  Egyptian  churches;  viz.,  those 
of  Basil  of  Civsarea,  Gregory  "  Theologos,"  and 
CvTil  of  Alexandria.  Of  these  we  may  take  the 
first  as  a  pattern  liturgy,  an  analysis  of  which 
will  set  the  whole  sacramental  worship  of  the 
early  Eastern  Church  before  us.  Under  it  we 
include  the  Basilian  Liturgy  of  the  Alexandrian 
Church,  and  the  liturgy  of  Chrysostom,  whicli  are 
only  variations  of  it.  It  was  the  original  type 
on  which  the  others  were  formed,  and  was  more 
widely  in  use  throughout  the  East  than  any  other; 
everywhere,  indeed,  except  in  Jerusalem,  where 
the  so-called  "  Liturgv  of  St.  .lames  "  was  u.sed, 
and  in  Alexandria,  which  naturally  clung  to  the 
pretended  liturgy  of  St.  Mark.  .\t  this  day,  after 
the  lapse  of  near  fifteen  hundred  years,  the  liturgy 
of  Hasil  jirevails,  without  any  substantial  variety, 
from  the  northern  shore  of  Russia  to  the  ex- 
tremities of  Abyssinia,  and  from  the  Adriatic  and 
Baltic  .Seas  to  the  farthest  coast  of  Asia.  Hasil 
w;is  Bishop  of  Ca^sarea  from  A.l).  1570  to  A.I). 
:!79,  — the  time  of  his  death.  His  title  of  "The 
Great"  indicates  the  admiration  of  his  own  age, 
and  explains  the  readiness  with  which  the  E.astern 
churches  in  subsequent  times  all  adopted  a  form 
of  worship  which  he  w.as  believed  to  have  sanc- 
tioned. Following,  then,  the  order  of  Basil's 
liturgy,  we  find,  first,  that  the  priest  begins  with 
the  apostolic  benediction,  to  wh.ich  the  people 
respond,  "  Aiul  with  thy  spirit,"  followed  by  other 
responsive  sentences.  Second,  then  follows  a 
prayer  of  pr.aise  and  ailnration  to  God  as  Creator, 
HuliM',  .Saviour,  and  Spirit  of  truth,  ending  with 
the  trisagion,  "  Eor  all  things  ilo  serve  thee, — 
angels,  archangels,  thrones,  dominions,  principali- 


LITURGY. 


1327 


LITURGY. 


ties,  powers,  the  many-eyed  clienibiin  and  sera- 
phim, crying,  one  to  another  incessantly  and  with 
uninterrupted  praises,  saying"  [here  the  people 
all  jiin  tlie  acclaim],  "Holy,  holy,  holy  Lord  God 
of  Sabaoth,  heaven  and  earth  are  full  of  thy  glory. 
Ilosanna  in  the  highest  1  Blessed  be  he  that 
Cometh  in  the  name  of  the  Lord!  " 

Tlie  deacon  then  arranges  the  sacramental  ves- 
sels ;  and  the  minister  proceeds  w'ith  a  prayer 
adoring  the  justice  of  God  as  illustrated  in  the 
creation  and  the  fall  of  man,  and  his  mercy  as 
shown  in  the  incarnation,  life,  ministry,  atoning 
death,  resurrection,  ascension,  mediatorial  reign, 
and  second  coming,  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
This  constitutes  the  pre-anaphoral  service.  The 
prayer  ends  with  the  words,  "  lint  he  has  left  us 
a  memorial  of  his  saving  passion;  for  when  he 
was  just  going  out  to  his  voluntary,  glorious,  and 
life-giving  death,  in  the  same  night  wherein  he 
gave  himself  up  for  the  life  of  the  world,  taking 
bread  into  his  holy  and  inunaculate  hands,  and 
presenting  it  to  thee,  his  God  and  Father,  he  gave 
thanks,  blessed,  sanctified,  and  In-ake  it,  and  gave 
it  to  I;is  holy  apostles,  saying  "  [and  here  begins 
the  anapliora'],  "  This  is  my  body  which  is  broken 
for  you  for  the  remission  of  sins."  The  consecra- 
tion of  the  cup  immediately  follows  in  the  same 
scriptural  terms,  concluding  with  "  For  as  often 
as  ye  eat  this  bread,  and  drink  this  cup,  ye  do 
show  forth  my  death,  and  confess  my  resurrec- 
tion." To  the  various  parts  of  tliis  service  the 
people  respond,  "  .Xmen.  AVe  praise  thee,  we  bless 
thee,  we  give  thanks  to  tliee,  O  Lord,  we  make 
our  supplications  unto  thee,  O  our  God."  An 
invocation  to  the  Holy  Spirit  follows,  and  then 
a  commemoration  of  the  pious  dead.  A  full 
prayer  is  then  offered  for  all  sorts  and  conditions 
of  men,  —  for  "  our  most  religious  emperors  ;  " 
for  "  enemies  and  persecutors ;  "  for  the  "  afflicted 
and  persecuted  in  deserts,  mountains,  dens,  and 
caves  of  the  earth;"  for  "our  brethren  in  court 
and  camp;"  for  "those  absent  on  just  occasions," 
and  a  great  lumber  of  other  classes  of  persons. 
This  long  p?  lye  r  is  followed  by  a  brief  litany, 
in  which  the  people  continually  respond  to  the 
various  suffrages,  "  Lord,  liave  mercy  upon  us," 
etc.  At  the  close  of  all  this,  the  sacramental 
emblems,  the  bread  and  the  wine,  are  distributed 
at  once  to  the  people  without  further  words.  It 
is  to  be  remembered  that  all  this  was  the  sacra- 
mental part  of  the  service,  at  which  none  but  the 
initiated  or  believers  were  permitted  to  attend, 
and  that  the  missa  catechumenorum ,  including  the 
reading  of  the  Scriptures  and  the  bishop's  sernion, 
at  which  all  might  be  present,  had  preceded  it. 

The  question  now  recurs  as  to  the  age  to  which 
this  form  of  pi-ayer  belongs.  Was  it  "the  compo- 
sition of  the  great  bishop  of  Csesarea  ?  or  was  it 
merely  compiled  by  him  from  earlier  sources  ?  Or, 
again,  was  it  the  production,  as  some  of  its  contents 
might  seem  to  indicate,  of  a  considerably  later 
time,  sought  to  be  passed  off  under  so  illustrious 
a  name  ? 

AVe  begin  with  the  testimony  of  Basil  himself. 
He  was  the  most  illustrious  light  among  the  con- 
stellation of  brilliant  men  that  adorned  the  church 
of  the  fourth  century,  eminent  alike  as  theologian, 
pulpit  orator,  church  leader,  and  saint.  No  one 
could  have  known  better  than  he  the  history  and 
usages  of  the  church.  In  the  twenty-seventh  chap- 
32  —  11 


ter  of  his  work  De  Spiritu  Sancto,  he  is  arguing,  in 
defence  of  a  certain  form  of  trinitarian  confession, 
against  the  objection  that  no  such  precise  form 
was  found  in  the  Scriptures.  Many  things  are 
lawfully  practised  in  the  church,  he  says,  for  which 
no  written  authority  can  be  found  in  tjie  "  saints  ;  " 
such  as  making  the  sign  of  the  cross,  worshipping 
towards  the  east,  standing  in  prayer  on  Sundays, 
trine  immersion,  etc.  But  these  are  all  warranted 
by  tradition.  So,  he  adds,  the  method  of  conse- 
crating the  elements  at  the  Eucharist  is  nowhere 
found  set  down  in  the  writings  of  "  the  .saints,"  but 
is  regulated  in  accordance  with  the  traditionary 
doctrine  of  the  church.  This  implies  that  there 
was  a  well-known  and  fixed  form  of  sacramental 
liturgy  sanctioned  by  long  usage.  It  was  not  new, 
any  more  than  the  practice  of  making  the  sign 
of  the  cross,  which  we  know  was  universal  in  the 
time  of  Tertullian,  nearly  two  hundred  years 
earlier,  and  therefore  presumptively  had  been  in 
use  for  a  long  period  before  him. 

But  it  has  been  generally  argued  from  the  phrase 
employed  in  this  passage,  "  the  saints,"  that  no 
forms  for  the  sacramental  service  had  ever  been 
reduced  to  writing  before  Basil's  own  time,  regard- 
ing "  saints  "  as  equivalent  to  "  fathers."  Bingham 
and  others  of  the  earlier  writers,  and  even  so  care- 
ful a  scholar  as  the  author  of  the  article  Liturgie, 
in  the  new  Herzog's  Heal  Enci/klopddie  (von  Zezsch- 
witz),  have  too  hastily  admitted  this;  whereas  the 
whole  extent  of  Basil's  dictum  is,  that  no  such 
forms  are  found  in  the  writings  of  the  apostles. 
The  context  shows  that  he  is  referring  only  to  the 
absence  of  scriptural  authority  for  certain  usages, 
which  lie  maintains  were  notwithstanding  law- 
ful, anticipating  in  this  the  argument  of  Richard 
Hooker  in  his  Ecclesiastical  Polity.  For  aught  that 
appears  in  this  jiassage,  therefore,  there  may  have 
been  already  extant  various  less  perfect  sacra- 
mental liturgies,  differing  in  different  churches. 
What  Basil  effected  was  to  reduce  them  all  to  one 
common  form,  to  which  his  great  name  gave  a  cur- 
rency that  enabled  it  soon  to  swallow  up  the  rest. 

This  is  the  meaning  of  a  pa.ssage  in  the  funeral 
oration  of  Gregory  Nazianzen  for  his  illustrious 
friend  (/»  laudem  Basilii,  Orat.  43).  Recounting 
the  manifold  activities  of  the  Bishop  of  Cajsarea, 
he  says,  that  besides  the  erection  and  care  of  his 
almshouse  and  hospital,  his  unsleeping  vigilance 
over  his  flock,  his  codes  for  the  government  of 
convents  and  monasteries,  and  liis  general  regula- 
tion of  the  lives  and  duties  of  the  clergy,  he  had 
also  effected  a  compilation  of  the  prayers  of  the 
church  into  a  regular  service  (descrijitiones  pre- 
cum).  This  descriptio  precmn  ("order  of  prayer") 
was  merely  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  the  sac-  . 
ramental  service  already  in  use,  just  as  the  si/iubo- 
lum  Romanum  was  not  an  original  creed,  but  only 
an  accurate  and  perfected  summary  of  the  various 
regula  Jidei  current  among  the  churches.  In  both 
cases  a  competent  authority  sanctioned  the  new 
form,  to  which  the  others  soon  gave  place.  That 
this  Basilian  Liturgy  was  afterwards  successively 
enlarged,  modified, "  interpolated,"  etc.,  is  unques- 
tionable ;  but  these  later  "  intei-polations "  are 
merely  signs  of  its  greater  relative  antiquity.  . 
They  are  not  properly  interpolations  at  all,  since 
they  merely  record  the  successive  changes  in  the 
doctrinal  or  the  devotional  system  of  the  church. 

Beginning,  then,  from  this  work  of  Basil's,  and 


LITURGY. 


1328 


LITURGY. 


following  the  footprints  backward,  we  may  find 
some  ground  for  an  opinion  as  to  the  period  from 
which  a  liturgy  was  actually  in  use  in  the  church. 

About  the  year  347,  Cyril,  Bishop  of  Jerusalem, 
preached  at  the  Easter  festival  those  discourses 
which  are  known  under  the  name  of  Catecheses 
wi^.vfof/or/icrc,  or  instructions  to  candidates  prepara- 
tory to  communion.  The  fifth  of  these  lectures 
includes  a  commentary  on  the  Lord's  Prayer.  It 
is  directed  to  explaining  to  the  catechumens  the 
reasons  for  the  various  parts  of  the  service,  —  the 
•washing  of  hands,  the  kiss  of  peace,  the  prayers, 
the  responses  of  tlie  people,  and  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist. 

Now,  it  is  to  be  observed  here  that  Cyril  is  not 
proposing  any  new  forms  or  rites,  but  takes  the 
whole  routine  of  the  service  for  granted,  and  is 
merely  giving  to  the  catechumens,  in  a  plain  and 
simple  way  suited  to  the  stage  of  their  religious 
education,  the  reasons  for  the  various  parts.  It 
is  not  diiferent  from  a  short  sermon  to  Sunday- 
school  children  at  the  present  day,  explaining  the 
nature  of  the  church  service.  It  may  be  safely 
assumed,  then,  that  the  forms  thus  expounded  had 
been  in  use  for  a  length  of  time ;  that  they  were 
the  same  in  which  Cyril  him.self  had  been  trained 
in  his  childhood  before  the  Council  of  Nice,  and 
the  same  in  which  his  parents  and  teachers  had 
been  educated  during  the  long  peace  preceding 
the  last  persecution. 

When  we  have  reached  this  point,  we  come 
upon  the  trail  of  the  pseudo-Clementine  Liturgy  ; 
and  this,  in  the  same  way,  may  be  believed  to  ex- 
liibit  the  worship  of  the  church  as  it  was  in  the 
first  half  of  the  third  centuiT,  reaching  back,  quite 
probably,  to  the  time  of  Tertullian.  That  the 
worship  of  the  churcli  in  his  day  was,  to  a  consid- 
erable degree,  simple  and  spontaneous,  may  be 
ea.sily  admitted  ;  but  that  it  may  not  have  been,  to 
some  extent,  conducted  according  to  an  ascertained 
ritual,  is  far  from  being  decided,  as  is  often  as- 
sumed by  his  well-known  phrase  sine  monilore 
quia  de  pectore  (^Apolor/eliciis,  29).  If  the  prayer 
was  extemporaneous,  tlie  people  certainly  did  not 
pray  sitir  monitors,  since  the  minister  went  before 
them,  and  dictated  tlie  words  they  were  to  adopt ; 
and  if  an  accustomed  form  was  used,  as  would 
eeeni  far  the  most  likely  in  regular  prayer  for 
magistrates,  it  might  still  be  equally  '/<■  pectore. 
The  natural  meaning  of  this  much-buffeted  phrase 
would  .seem  to  be  that  (Christians  prayed  for  their 
rulers,  as  for  others,  without  needing  any  com- 
mand or  summons,  because  they  prayed  cheer- 
fully, and  from  the  impul.ses  of  tlieir  own  hearts. 

We  are  not  concerned  to  attempt  tracing  the 
growtli  of  liturgical  forms  amid  the  dim  twilight 
of  the  .second  century.  The  conclusion  will  be, 
that  in  the  simple  worship  described  by  .Justin 
Martyr,  in  which  nothing  more  appears  of  a  li- 
turgical nature  than  a  certain  order  of  service, 
with  common  i)rayers,  the  regular  administration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper  on  "the  day  called  Sunday," 
the  kiss  of  charity,  tin-  vocal  amen,  etc.,  we  have 
the  germs  that  were  gradually  develojx'd  into  tlie 
full  liturgies  of  (lie  fourth  and  fifth  centuries. 

To  this  must  be  addcil  the  positive  conclusion, 
drawn  from  all  experience,  that  no  great  change 
in  the  religious  usages  of  a  people  is  made  in  a 
day,  or  by  the  authority  of  any  individual.  Ile- 
ligious  u.sages  are  above  all  others  persistent,  and 


while  admitting,  without  serious  difficulty,  of  im- 
material modifications,  remain  for  substance  the 
same  from  generation  to  generation.  We  infer, 
therefore,  that,  when  Basil  compiled  his  descrip- 
tioties  precum,  he  presented  nothing  to  startle  the 
church  of  his  time  as  new,  but  only  an  arrange- 
ment of  their  old  familiar  liturgy,  with  such  new 
prayers  as  any  bishop  was  at  liberty  to  add.  We 
infer  the  same  thing  of  the  form  of  worship  illus- 
trated by  Cyril,  and  of  the  Clementine  Liturgy. 
When  we  have  reached  that  far,  we  have  no  doubt 
got  back  among  the  oy-iijities  liturgicce  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  and  may  well  be  excused  from  grop- 
ing any  farther  in  the  dark. 

The  other  great  family  of  liturgies,  though 
much  smaller  in  numbers,  is  the  Western.  In 
tracing  the  process  of  their  development,  the  base- 
line from  which  to  work  backward  would  be  the 
Gregorian  rite  of  the  year  600  A.D.  In  the  same 
way  as  before,  it  might  be  shown  that  this  was 
only  a  new  and  improved  edition  of  the  sacra- 
mentary  of  Gelasius  of  A.D.  492,  as  that  was  of 
the  Leonian  Liturgy  of  A.D.  451;  and  that  the 
descriptions  left  us  by  Innocent  I.  (A.D.  404)  and 
other  of  the  Fathers,  imply  regular  forms  of 
prayer  in  the  Church  of  Rome  at  still  earlier 
periods.  This  deduction,  as  well  as  a  particular 
account  of  the  Roman  service,  our  limits  oblige 
us  to  dispense  with. 

We  only  add,  that,  omitting  certain  supersti- 
tious usages  which  had  grown  up  in  the  church, 
these  liturgies,  containing  as  they  do  all  the  ele- 
ments of  the  evangelical  doctrine,  and  embodying 
a  large  part  of  the  divine  word,  were  admirably 
adapted  to  nurse  the  sentiment  of  religion  among 
the  people,  and  prove  the  vehicle  for  Christ's, 
promise  that  the  gates  of  hell  should  never  pre- 
vail against  his  church.  It  must  be  regarded  as 
luifortunate  that  their  prejudice  against  popeiy 
and  prelacy  should  have  led  Presbyterians  so 
generally  to  cut  themselves  off  from  tliese  rich 
sources  of  devotional  culture,  which  have  no 
necessary  connection  with  either  the  one  system 
or  the  other. 

Protestant  Liturgies.  —  Luther,  Calvin,  and 
the  other  Protestant  leaders,  who  eliminated  out 
of  the  worship  of  (!od  the  corrupt  usages  of  the 
Church  of  Rome,  found  nothing  objectionable  in 
the  mere  fact  of  a  reguhir  form  of  prayer.  They 
lost  no  time  in  providing  suitable  liturgies  for 
the  various  countries  that  embraced  the  Reforma- 
tion, each  having  its  own  national  .service.  In 
1523  Luther  published  liis  Laleinisclie  Messe,!i.wA 
in  1.52(>  the  same,  with  improvements,  in  German. 
In  1538  Calvin  issued  liis  liturgy  for  the  church 
of  Strassliurg,  and  in  1541  that  for  the  church 
in  Geneva,  containing  both  ordinary  aiul  .special 
services.  In  15.51  .hilni  Knox  iiulilished  a  form 
of  worship  for  the  Scottish  kirk,  modelled  on  that 
of  (ieneva.  These  liturgies  all  left  room,  in  some 
|iart  of  the  service,  for  the  exerci.se  of  free  prayer. 
'I'lie  English  Book  of  Common  Prayer  was  eom- 
jiIIimI  in  1.549,  by  Craniner  and  Ridley,  from  sev- 
eral Roman  missals  in  use  in  various  parts  of 
England,  portions  of  it  being  adoiited  IVoni  But- 
zer's  liturgy,  particularly  the  forms  of  confession 
and  alisolution.  'I'lie  noble  simplicity  of  this  ser- 
vice is  due  to  its  having  been  comjiiled,  to  a  great 
extent,  from  tlie  Latin  sacranientaries  of  Leo 
and  Gelasius,  with  additions  made  in  the  devout 


LITURGY. 


1329 


LIUDGERUS. 


spirit  and  refined  taste  of  Cranmer.  A  hundred 
years  later,  the  growing  alienation  between  the 
adherents  of  episcopacy  and  of  presbytery  in 
England  caused  the  latter  to  discard  liturgical 
services  altogether,  and  to  depend  on  the  gift 
of  extemporaneous  prayer  in  their  ministers. 
Eventually  the  two  usages  came  to  be  character- 
istic of  the  two  forms  of  church  government ; 
the  Episcopalians  all  worshipping  by  means  of 
a  liturgy,  and  the  Presbyterians  by  means  of  free 
prayer,  though  there  is  no  reason  in  tlie  nature  of 
things  wliy  they  might  not  both  worship  in  the  one 
way  or  the  other ;  or,  better  still,  why  both  meth- 
ods should  not  be  united  in  all  public  worship. 

In  the  progress  of  the  nineteenth  century  a 
general  liturgical  revival  took  place  in  various 
non-Episcopal  churches  in  Germany,  where  a  new 
form  of  service  —  the  Ayende  —  was  drawn  for 
the  Evangelical  Union,  under  the  patronage  of 
the  king  of  Prussia.  In  1S.")8  a  committee  of  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Scottish  kirk  reported 
a  collection  of  forms  of  worship  for  the  use  of 
soldiers,  sailors,  etc.,  which  received  the  unani- 
mous sanction  of  the  Assembly.  A  few  years 
since,  the  Church  Service  Society  issued  their 
E»,t;oA6jwi',  or  Book  of  Common  Order,  which  has 
reached  a  fourth  edition,  and  is  working  a  marked 
but  silent  change  in  the  public  Presbyterian  wor- 
ship of  Scotland.  The  Liturgy  of  the  Catholic 
Apostolic  Church  (Irvingite),  based  on  the  Angli- 
can Book  of  Common  Prayer,  is  of  a  highly  rich 
and  elal.iorate  character,  corresponding  with  the 
hierarchical  development  in  that  enthusiastic 
communion.  The  daily  prayer  offered  in  every 
Irvingite  Church  gives  thanks  for  the  restoration 
of  the  order  of  the  apostles,  and  for  the  warning. 
announced  through  them,  of  the  nearness  of  Die 
day  of  Chri.st's  appearing.  It  contains,  also,  in 
the  sense  of  the  early  liturgies,  an  intercession 
for  the  pious  dead. 

In  the  United  States,  except  in  the  Episcopa- 
lian, Lutheran,  German  and  Dutch  I'eformed,  and 
Moravian  churches,  liturgical  prayer  has  been 
almost  wholly  disused ;  but  from  the  middle  of 
the  present  century  a  marked  tendency  has  devel- 
oped itself  in  favor  of  increased  dignity  and  vari- 
ety in  Presbyterian  public  worship.  In  185.5  Dr. 
Baird  published  anonymously  his  Eutaxia,  or  the 
Presbyterian  liturgies.  The  Pres^bytertan  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  by  Professor  Shields  of  Prince- 
ton, is  merely  a  republication  of  the  Anglican 
Prayer-Book,  with  the  exceptions  offered  by  the 
Presbyterians  at  the  Savoy  Conference.  The 
litany  and  the  ancient  prayers  are  freely  but 
judiciously  altered,  and  many  excellent  new 
prayers  are  added.  In  1857  the  German  Reformed 
Church  issued  a  new  Order  of  Worship,  which  is 
based  upon  a  careful  study  of  the  liturgies  of  the 
ancient  Church  and  the  Reformation  period,  and 
resembles  in  many  respects  the  Anglican  liturgy. 
Its  use  is  left  optional  with  the  ministers  and 
congregations.  The  Dutch  Reformed  Church 
follows  the  old  Palatinate  Liturgy.  The  Luther- 
ans in  America  use  partly  the  German  Lutheran 
Agenda,  or  new  church  books  based  upon  them. 
The  Moravians  have  a  very  rich  evangelical  lit- 
urgy in  German  and  English,  with  responses  and 
congregational  singing. 

We  are  led  naturally,  in  conclusion,  to  a  brief 
view  of  the  respective  advantages  of  liturgical 


and  of  free  prayer.  In  favor  of  the  latter  it  is 
claimed  that  this  is  the  natural  method,  and 
alone  corresponds  to  the  impulses  of  the  devout 
mind ;  that  prayer  by  means  of  prescribed  forms 
cramps  the  free  expression  of  the  desires  to  (iod, 
and  tends  to  spiritual  torpor  and  poverty.  To 
this  it  is  replied,  that  the  objection  is  urged  only 
by  such  as  are  unaccustomed  to  liturgical  wor- 
ship ;  that  those  familiar  with  it  find  it  promotes 
attention  and  devotion  in  prayer ;  tliat  it  corrobo- 
rates the  sentiment  of  the  conununion  of  saints 
in  all  times  and  all  ages,  since  the  church,  from 
a  very  early  period  till  now,  and  throughout  the 
larger  part  of  Christendom,  has  worshipped,  and 
continues  to  worship,  by  means  of  the  same  forms ; 
that  it  would  be  as  i-easonable  to  insist  that  the 
minister  should  make  his  own  hymns  as  his  own 
prayers  ;  and  that,  if  a  prayer-book  in  the  liands 
of  a  worshipper  is  unfavorable  to  spirituality  of 
worship,  a  hymn-book  should  be  eijually  so  ;  that 
David's  written  prayers  are  used  with  eminent 
profit  by  Christians  as  the  expression  of  their 
religious  sentiments ;  that  worship,  being  the  com- 
mon act  of  the  whole  congregation,  may  prop- 
erly be  conducted  by  forms  common  to  all;  while 
preaching,  being  the  work  of  the  minister  for  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  is  necessarily  the  act  of 
one ;  and  other  similar  arguments.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  admitted  that  occasions  may  frequently 
arise  in  the  history  of  every  congregation,  calling 
for  mention  in  public  prayer,  —  as  dangers,  afflic- 
tions, spiritual  prosperity,  or  decay,  —  for  which 
a  liturgy  cannot  provide.  The  conclusion  reached 
by  eminent  members  of  both  liturgical  and  non- 
liturgical  churches  is,  that  a  system  which  should 
unite  the  propriety  and  dignity  of  venerable 
forms  with  the  flexibility  and  adaptation  to  oc- 
casions of  free  prayer,  would  be  superior  to  any 
existing  method. 

Lit.  —  The  authorities  chiefly  consulted  during 
the  preparation  of  this  article  have  been  the  ori- 
ginal liturgies  in  the  Abbe  jMigne's  Patrologia, 
with  the  learned  historical  essays  of  ^Iabillon, 
IMuu.iTORi,  MoNE,  and  others;  the  Lituryiarum 
Orientalium  Collectio,  by  Rexaudot  ;  Brett  : 
Eaxtern  Liturgies ,  Pamelius:  Lihirgicon  ;  Neale: 
Liturgies  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church :  Palmer  : 
Oriyines  TJlurgicte ;  Hammond:  Aniient  Litur- 
gies, and  many  other  modern  sources.  For  the 
English  Prayer-Book  see  especially  Proctor, 
Blunt,  Butler,  and  Luckock.  See  Lee  :  Glos- 
sary of  Liturgical  Terms,  London,  1876;  also  art. 
Liturgy,  in  Encyclopcedia  Britannica,  9th  ed.,  vol. 
xiv.     See  Prayeu-Book.  s.  m.  Hopkins. 

LIUDGERUS,  or  LUDGERUS,  St.,  b.  about 
744  ;  d.  March  26,  809.  He  descended  from  a 
Frisian  but  Christian  family ;  was  educated  in 
the  school  of  Utrecht;  studied  at  York,  under 
Alcuin ;  labored  for  seven  years  as  a  missionary 
among  the  Frisians  ;  visited  Rome,  and  was  by 
Charlemagne,  to  whom  he  was  recommended  by 
Alcuin,  first  sent  as  missionary  among  the  Fri- 
sians ;  and  then,  after  the  subjugation  of  the 
Saxons,  bishop  of  the  newly  foimded  see  of  Miin- 
ster.  Of  his  activity  as  bishop  very  little  is  known. 
He  founded  the  monastery  of  Werden,  and  wi-ote 
a  life  of  Gregory,  his  teacher  at  Utrecht.  The 
sources  for  his  Ufe  have  been  collected  by  W. 
Diekamp,  in  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Geschichls- 
quellen  d.  Bistums  Miinster  (Munster,  1881),  who 


LIUDPRAND. 


1330 


LIVINGSTONE. 


Ijas  separately  publisherl,  in  the  same  place  and 
year,  Die  V'ilce  sancti  Liuil;/eri.  His  biography 
has  been  written  by  Behi:exd3,  Neuhaldeusleben, 
1843;  [HusixG,  Mtinster,  ISTS];  and  Pixgsmaxx, 
Freiburc;,  1879.  6.  UHLHORN. 

LIUDPRAND,  (ir  LUITPRAND,  whose  works 
form  one  of  the  principal  sources  for  the  historj' 
of  the  tenth  century,  was  born  in  Italy,  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Lomliard  family,  and  was  educated  at 
the  court  of  Pavia.  He  served  first  King  Be- 
rengar,  and  then  Otho  I.,  who  made  him  bishop 
of  Cremona.  His  works  are,  Anlapocloxis  (887- 
949),  Liber  de  rebus  gestis  Ottonis  (9f)0-fiG4),  and 
Relaiio  de  legalione  Constcmtinojiotilana  (968-969). 
They  were  edited  by  Pertz,  in  ^fon.  Germ.  iii. 
264-363:  new  ed.  by  Diiminler,  1877. 

LIVERPOOL,  tlie  famous  commercial  city  on 
the  ^Mersey,  with  a  population  of  5.52,425,  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  ISSO;  and  >Iohn 
Charles  Ryle,  D.D.,  was  made  first  incumbent. 
The  income  of  the  see  is  thirty-five  hundred 
pounds;  and  St.  Peter's  was  constituted  the  pro- 
cathedral,  pending  the  construction  of  a  more 
suitable  building. 

LIVINGSTON,  John  Henry,  D.D.,  "the  father 
of  the  Kefurmi'd  Dutcli  Church  in  America;"  b. 
at  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y.,  May  30,  1746  ;  d.  in  New 
Brunswick.  N.J.,  Jan.  20.  1825.  He  was  gradu- 
ated at  Yale  College,  1762;  studied  law  for  two 
years;  was  converted,  and,  on  advice  of  Archibald 
Laidlie  (see  art.),  sailed  for  Utrecht,  Holland, 
May  12,  1766,  there  to  study  theology.  He  was 
'■  the  last  of  the  American  youth  who  went  thither 
for  education  and  ordination."  He  was  licensed 
by  the  Classis  of  .\msterdam,  1709;  was  called 
by  the  Xew-York  Consistory.  May  30,  1709;  took 
the  degree  of  doctor  of  divinity  the  next  3'ear ; 
and  on  Sept.  3.  1770,  arrived,  and  took  his  place 
as  second  English  preacher  in  the  Reformed  l)utch 
Church  in  New  York.  The  Revolution  drove 
him  from  the  city.  He  settled  first  at  Kingston 
(1776),  then  at  Albany  (November,  1776-79),  at 
Livingston  Manor  (1779-81),  Poughkeepsie  (1781- 
83).  Hut  on  tlie  clo.se  of  hostilities  (1783)  he  re- 
turned to  the  city.  In  1781  he  was  appointed  by 
the  general  synod  professor  of  didactic  and  po- 
lemic theology;  and  in  1810  the  synod  called  him 
to  New  Brunswick  to  open  a  theological  seminary 
there,  and  at  tlie  sanui  time  he  was  elected  presi- 
dent of  Queen's  (now  Rutger's)  College.  These 
two  offices  he  held  until  his  death.  It  is  said 
that  his  reason  in  entering  the  Dutch  Church 
ministry  was  his  desire  to  heal  its  sad  dissensions. 
(.See  Ri:r()KMi:i)  (Dcrcii)  Ciiuiicii.)  Ably  he 
fulfilled  Ids  design.  By  his  education,  his  learn- 
ing, his  piety,  and  his  dignity,  he  won  tlie  respect 
of  both  parties  in  the  church;  and  under  his 
skilful  management  ''the  Conferentie  "  and  "  the 
Coetus  "  were  united  (1771)  ;  and  thus  tlie  credit 
of  forming  the  independent  organization  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Cliurcli  in  Amc;rica  must  be 
given  to  him.  It  was  he,  also,  who  principally 
sliaped  the  constitution  of  this  church,  and  pre- 
])ared  its  fir.st  psalm  and  hymn  book  (1787).  As 
a  preacher  he  wa.s  much  admired.  Notice  is  par- 
ticularly taken  of  his  animation  and  of  his  collo- 
quial style.  "  His  gesticulation  would  have  bc^en 
extravagant  in  any  one  but  him.self."  "  His 
theological  lectures  still  form  th(!  basis  of  didactic 
and  polemic  instruction  in  the  theological  .semi- 


nary of  which  he  was  the  founder  and  father." 
They  are  preserved  in  manuscript  in  the  Sage 
Library,  New  Brunswick :  an  abstract  of  them 
was  published  in  1832.  See  Guxx'.s  Meiiujirs  of. 
Rev.  John  H.  Livingston,  D.D.,  S.T.P.,  New  York, 
1829,  condensed  by  Dr.  T.  AV.  Chambers,  New 
York,  1856:  also  SrR.\GrK's  Annnlf,  vol.  ix. 

LIVINGSTONE,  David,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
F.R.G.S.,  missionary  and  explorer  in  Southern 
and  Central  Africa ;  b.  at  Blantyre,  seven  miles 
from  Glasgow,  in  Scotland,  March  19,  1813  ;  d. 
April  30,  1873,  in  Bala,  Africa.  His  father  and 
mother  were  of  the  working-class,  but  of  the 
highest  moral  and  Christian  worth.  The  father 
was  a  great  reader,  and  deeply  interested  in  the 
cause  of  Christian  missions,  then  just  beginning 
to  attract  attention.  After  a  very  short  time  at 
school,  David  was  sent,  at  the  age  of  ten,  to  a 
cotton-mill,  where  he  spent  the  next  twelve 
years  of  his  life.  The  reading  of  Dick's  Phi- 
losnpliy  of  a  Future  Stale  led  to  his  conversion ; 
an<l  an  appeal  from  Gutzlaff,  for  missionaries  to 
China,  determined  him  to  be  a  medical  mission- 
ary. After  attending  theological  and  medical 
classes  for  two  sessions  at  (jlasgow,  he  offered 
his  services  to  the  London  Missionary  Societj' ; 
and,  being  provisionally  approved,  he  spent  a 
further  period  in  study  at  Ongar  in  Essex,  and 
at  London.  In  1840  lie  passed  at  Glasgow  as 
Licentiate  of  the  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, and  in  November  of  the  same  3'ear  was 
ordained  a  missionary,  under  the  London  ]Mis- 
sionary  Society.  His  desire  had  been  to  go  to 
China;  but  the  opium  war,  in  which,  unhappily, 
England  was  then  engaged,  put  a  sto]i  to  that 
project.  In  London  he  had  nist  with  the  Rev. 
Robert  Moffat,  who  was  then  on  furlough  in  Eng- 
land ;  and,  having  become  greatly  interested  in. 
what  he  told  him  of  Africa,  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment as  a  missionary  there. 

For  a  time  he  was  occupied  in  work  at  Kuru- 
man  (Dr.  Moffat's  station)  and  in  missionary 
tours  to  the  nortli,  undertaken  to  gain  knowledge 
of  the  state  of  the  people,  and  to  find  out  a  suita- 
ble locality  for  a  new  station.  Already  Living- 
stone had  shown  a  fixed  determination  not  to 
labor  in  the  more  accessible  regions,  but  to  strike 
out  beyond.  He  early  acquired  a  great  liking 
for  the  plan  of  native  agency;  and  his  ambition 
was  to  scatter  native  agents  far  and  near.  He 
was  remarkable  for  the  influence  he  obtained 
from  the  very  first,  —  partly  through  medical 
practice,  and  partly  by  his  tact,  and  the  charm  of 
his  m:inner  over  both  chiefs  and  peojile.  He  also, 
from  the  first,  took  a  lively  intiu-est  in  the  natural 
])roductions  of  the  country  and  in  its  structure 
and  scientific  history.  After  a  time  he  settled  at 
Mabotsa  (in  1843)  among  the  Bakhatla.  While 
there,  he  had  a  wonilerful  escape  from  being  killed 
bv  a  lion;  and  while  tliere,  likewise,  he  married 
iN'hiry  Moffat,  eldest  dauglitcr  of  Dr.  Moffat  of 
Kurunian.  From  Mabotsa,  circumstances  l(>d  him 
to  remove  to  Chonuaue,  and  from  that  again  to 
Kolobeng,  where  he  lived  till  18.52.  His  people 
W'ere  a  tribe  of  Bakwains,  whose  chief,  Scchele, 
bec;ime  a  convert  to  Christianity.  In  his  desire  to 
plant  native  missionaries,  lu^  h;id  oftener  than  once 
made  an  excursion  into  the  Transvaal  Republic, 
—  a  large  territory  that  had  been  taken  possession 
of  by  Boer  emigrants  from  the  Cape  of  Good 


LIVINGSTONE. 


1331 


LIVINGSTONE. 


Hope  ;  but  the  Roers  were  no  friends  of  missions, 
and,  instead  of  encouraging  him,  did  tlieir  utmost 
to  thwart  his  plans. 

Baffled  in  this  direction,  Livingstone  deter- 
mine<l  to  make  explorations  on  the  north  ;  but  a 
serious  obstacle  was  the  great  Kalahari  Desert, 
which  at  times  could  not  be  traversed  for  want 
of  water.  Three  times  Livingstone  got  to  the 
north  of  it.  On  the  first  of  these  occasions  he 
discovered  Lake  'Ngami  and  the  Rivers  Zouga 
and  Tanmnak'le.  His  great  desire  was  to  find  a 
suitable  spot  for  a  mission-station  in  the  territo- 
ries of  a  great  chief,  Sebituane.  who  received  liim 
witli  great  cordiality,  but  died  a  few  days  after 
his  arrival.  The  locality  was  infested  by  an  in- 
sect called  the  tsetse-fly,  fatal  to  cattle,  and  was, 
moreover,  unwholesome  from  the  prevalence  of 
fever.  It  seemed  to  Livingstone  that  it  would 
be  of  great  importance  for  Sebituane's  people  to 
have  a  way  to  the  sea,  by  which  means  legiti- 
mate commerce  and  Christianity  would  both  be 
greatly  advanced. 

Livingstone  sent  his  wife  and  four  children 
home  to  England,  and  prepared  for  a  great  jour- 
ney in  fulfilment  of  this  object.  Before  he  set 
out,  his  house  at  Kolobeng  was  attacked  by  the 
Boers,  and,  along  with  all  his  property,  utterly 
destroyed.  Livingstone  set  out  from  Linyanti 
toward  the  western  coast,  with  twenty-seven  at- 
tendants, and  after  incredible  hardships,  including 
twenty-seven  attacks  of  fever,  at  length  reached 
the  abodes  of  civilization  at  Loanda.  Instead  of 
making  for  Britain,  Livingstone  resolved  to  go 
back  with  his  attendants  to  Linyanti,  and  then 
cro.ss  to  the  opposite  shore  of  the  continent,  .\fter 
a  long  time  of  labor  and  difficulty,  in  which  his 
tact,  his  patience,  and  his  faith  were  exposed  to 
the  severest  strain,  he  reached  (^uilimane  on  May 
26,  ISod;  the  whole  time  of  his  journey  since  he 
left  the  Cape,  in  1852,  being  almost  four  years. 
Livingstone  made  many  important  discoveries 
during  these  years ;  the  most  important  being  the 
existence  of  a  tableland  in  Central  Africa,  de- 
pressed in  the  centre,  with  two  ridges  flanking  it, 
which  were  free  from  the  unhealthy  influences 
prevalent  in  the  lower-lying  localities. 

Dr.  Livingstone  now  visited  his  native  land, 
and  showers  of  honors  were  poured  upon  him. 
Everywhere  he  was  received  with  enthusiasm  ; 
and  an  extraordinary  interest  began  to  prevail 
on  Africa,  hitherto  an  unpopular  continent.  He 
wrote  and  published  his  first  book,  Mis.<<ionary 
Travels.  He  saw  it  his  duty  to  sever  his  con- 
nection with  the  London  Missionary  Society,  be- 
lieving that  he  could  be  more  useful,  alike  for 
exploring,  civilizing,  and  missionary  purposes,  in 
another  capacity.  He  accepted  an  appointment 
as  commander  of  an  expedition  sent  by  govern- 
ment to  explore  the  River  Zambesi,  and  to  report 
on  the  products  and  capabilities  of  the  region. 
This  expedition  was  attended  by  extraordinary 
difficulties.  The  greatest  of  them  lay  in  the 
conduct  of  the  Portuguese  traders,  who  had  vari- 
ous settlements  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Zam- 
besi. These  traders  carried  on  an  iniquitous 
traffic  in  slaves,  encouraging  chiefs  to  seize  slaves 
from  rival  tribes  in  order  to  send  them  to  the 
coast  for  sale.  This  expedition  was  signalized 
by  the  discovery  of  the  Lake  Nyassa,  and  much 
important  territory  in  its  neighborhood.    Living- 


stone was  very  desirous  to  see  missions  and  colo- 
nies planted  in  this  neighborhood,  which  he 
rightly  deemed  to  be  the  key  of  Central  Africa. 
A  Universities'  Mission,  manned  by  missionaries 
from  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  was  planted  near 
Xyassa.  But  it  was  very  unfortunate  ;  the  bishop 
who  was  its  head,  and  several  of  the  missiona- 
ries, being  cut  off  very  early.  The  death  of  Mrs. 
Livingstone  was  another  great  trial  and  discour- 
agement. •  At  last  the  expedition  was  recalled  ; 
but  Livingstone,  who  had  spent  most  of  the  prof- 
its of  his  book  on  a  steamer  of  his  own,  re- 
mained for  a  time,  trying  to  explore  the  country 
more  fully.  At  last  he,  too,  saw  it  desirable  to 
return.  He  wished  to  expose  the  atrocious  pro- 
ceedings of  the  Portuguese  in  the  matter  of  the 
slave-trade,  and  to  find  means  of  establishing  a 
settlement  at  the  head  of  the  River  Rovuma,  be- 
yond the  Portuguese  lines.  Writing  a  short  book 
might  help  both  projects. 

Home  he  accordingly  went,  via  Bombay,  in 
1864  ;  spending  a  great  part  of  his  time  at  New- 
stead  Abbey,  where  he  wrote  IVie  Zambesi  and 
ils  Tributaries.  While  in  England,  it  was  sug- 
gested to  him  by  an  old  friend.  Sir  Roderick 
Murchison,  that  it  would  be  a  great  geographical 
feat  to  ascertain  the  watershed  of  Central  Africa, 
and  fix  on  the  true  sources  of  the  Nile.  Liv- 
ingstone refused  to  make  geography  his  chief 
object,  but  was  willing  to  take  up  the  inquiry  as 
subordinate  to  his  other  aims,  which  were  making 
known  Christ  to  the  natives,  and  promoting  law- 
ful commerce  in  place  of  the  atrocious  slave-trade. 
In  the  early  years  of  this  expedition,  Livingstone 
was  most  unfortunate  in  the  men  he  had  for  attend- 
ants. This,  added  to  the  difficulties  thrown  in  his 
way  by  natives,  who  would  not  believe  that  he  was 
not  connected  with  the  slave-trade,  baffled  and 
hindered  him  in  every  way.  The  loss  of  his  medi- 
cine-chest, starvation,  poverty,  and  very  distress- 
ing attacks  of  sickness,  brought  him  to  the  lowest 
ebb.  The  discoveries  he  made  were  very  impor- 
tant :  Lakes  Moero  and  Bangweolo  were  added  to 
the  list.  But  his  revelations  of  the  unparalleled 
horrors  of  the  slave-trade  thrilled  every  humane 
heart.  For  a  long  time  he  was  unheard  of,  and 
the  utmost  anxiety  was  felt  concerning  him.  At 
LTjiji,  on  Lake  Tanganyika,  Henry  M.  Stanley, 
of  The  New-Yurk  HeraU'l,  came  upon  him,  in  1S71, 
in  a  state  of  great  destitution,  caused  by  the 
rascality  of  the  men  who  had  been  sent  up  with 
stores  for  his  relief.  As  he  was  believed  to  be 
dead,  the  business  was  attended  to  very  negli- 
gently, and  the  stores  were  actually  stolen  by 
those  in  charge.  Stanley  amply  relieved  hi& 
wants.  On  parting,  Livingstone  determined  to 
make  a  concluding  effort  to  find  out  the  water- 
shed, and  was  encouraged  to  do  this  by  the  much 
better  quality  of  the  men  whom  Stanley  had 
sent  to  attend  him.  But  illness  came  on  him, 
and  at  last,  in  Ilala.  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Bang- 
weolo, overcame  him.  On  the  morning  of  May 
1,  1873,  he  was  found  dead,  kneeling  at  his  bed- 
side, in  the  attitude  of  pra^'er.  His  faithful  and 
loving  attendants,  having  buried  the  heart  and 
other  viscera,  brought  his  remains  to  the  seaside, 
at  an  incredible  cost  of  danger  and  exertion. 
Borne  to  England,  these  remains  were  buried  in 
Westminster  .\bbey,  on  April  18,  1S74.  amid  the 
profound  grief  and  reverence  of  the  nation. 


LLORENTB. 


1332 


LOCI  THBOLOGICI. 


Amid  all  the  vicissitudes  of  his  career,  Living- 
stone remained  faithful  to  his  missionary  charac- 
ter. Mis  warmth  and  purity  of  heart,  his  intense 
devotion  to  his  Master  and  to  the  African  people 
for  his  Master's  sake,  his  patience,  endurance, 
trustfulness,  and  prayerfulness,  his  love  of  sci- 
ence, his  wide  humanity,  his  intense  charity, 
have  given  to  his  name  and  memory  an  undj-ing' 
fragrance.  After  his  death,  church  after  churcli 
hastened  to  send  missionaries  to  Africa;  and  it 
would  take  a  long  space,  even  to  enumerate  all 
the  agencies  that  are  now  at  work  there.  Ilis 
death,  that  seemed  the  death-blow  to  his  plans, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  cause  of  African  evan- 
gelization and  civilization,  which  bids  fair,  with 
God's  help,  to  accomplish  great  results. , 

Lit. — D.\viD  Livingstone,  LL.D.,  D.C.L.  : 
Alissionari/  Travels  and  Researches  in  South  Af- 
rica ,  The  Zambesi  and  its  Tributaries  ;  Rev. 
Horace  \V.\lleu,  F.R.G.S.  :  Last  Journals  of 
Dr.  Livingstone,  W.  G.  Blaikie,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
Personal  Life  of  David  Livingstone,  LL.D.,  D.C.L. 
F.R.S.  W.  G.  BLAIKIE. 

LLORENTE,  Don  Juan  Antonio,  b.  at  Rincon- 
del  Soto,  .\ragonia,  March  30,  175G ;  d.  in  Madrid, 
Feb.  5,  18'23.  He  studied  canon  law  at  Saragossa, 
was  ordained  a  priest  in  1779,  and  was  in  1782 
appointed  vicar-general  to  the  bishop  of  Calahorra. 
In  literature  he  first  made  himself  known  as  a 
successful  play-writer,  but  he  was  soon  drawn 
towards  more  serious  occupations.  His  decided 
■opposition  to  the  policy  of  the  Roman  curia,  and, 
indeed,  to  all  sacerdotal  authority,  he  himself  dates 
back  to  the  year  1784.  Nevertheless,  in  1789  he 
was  made  secretary-general  to  the  Inquisition  in 
Madrid.  His  exertions  for  the  re-organization  of 
that  institution,  especially  for  the  introduction 
■of  pul)lic  procedure,  failed ;  and  he  was  dismissed 
in  1801.  lu  180.J  he  obtained  a  canonry ;  and 
in  1806  he  published  Noticias  historicas  siilire  las 
Ires  provincias  vasconi/adas,  5  vols.  During  the 
revolution  he  sided  with  King  Joseph,  and  was 
in  180S  made  a  membei'  of  the  council  of  state, 
and  head  of  the  committee  on  the  abolishment  of 
the  monasteries  in  Spain.  When,  in  1809,  the 
inquisition  was  abolished  in  Spain,  he  was  charged 
with  wilting  the  liistory  of  the  Spanish  Liquisi- 
tion ;  but  the  work,  Histoire  critii/ue  tie  t'liu/uisi- 
iion  d'Espagne,  was  not  published  until  1817,  in 
French,  and  at  Paris,  whither  he  in  1814  h.ad 
followed  King  Joseph.  It  made  a  great  sensa- 
tion, and  was  immediately  translated  into  Eng- 
lish, Dutch,  German,  and  Italian;  but  it  also 
raised  severe  persecutions  against  its  author ;  and 
when,  in  \S'2'2,  he  pulilished  Portraits politiques tics 
Ptipes,  he  ■n'as  ordered  to  leave  France  within 
three  days.  He  returned  to  Madrid,  but  died 
soon  after.  See  Revue  EncycL,  xviii.,  where  is  also 
found  a  cciiiqili'tr  list  of  his  works.     BKNUATU. 

LLOYD,  William,  Bishop  of  Worcester,  b.  at 
Tilehurst,  B(?rkshiro,  1G27;  d.  at  Ilartkbury 
Castle,  Aug.  30,  1717.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford,  and  became  fellow  of  Jesus  College.  He 
was  succes.sively  prebend  of  Saruni  (1667)  ;  vicar 
of  St.  Mary's,  Reading,  and  archdeacon  of  Meri- 
oneth (1068);  dean  of  Bangor  (1672);  vicar  of 
St.  Martin-m-tho-Field  (1676);  bishop  of  St. 
Asaph  (1680);  lord-almoner  (1089);  bisliop  of 
Lichfield  and  Coventry  (1692);  and  bishop  of 
Worcester  (1699).     lie  ia  memorable  in  English 


ecclesiastical  history  as  one  of  the  mo.st  indefati- 
gable opponents  of  Romanism  under  James  II. 
When  this  king  renewed  his  Declaration  of  Indul- 
gence of  16S7,  in  April,  1688,  and  ordered  it  to 
be  read  in  all  the  churches,  making  the  bishops 
responsible  for  the  obedience  to  the  order,  he, 
with  six  other  bishops  and  the  archbishop,  re- 
fused to  obey.  For  this  conduct  the  seven  were 
imprisoned  in  the  Tower  of  London  (June  8-15), 
and  tried  for  sedition,  but  acquitted.  Bishop 
Lloyd  was  the  author  of  many  jiamphlets,  and  of 
one  valuable  production,  An  Hi.Htorical  Accou)it 
t)f  Church  Government  as  it  was  in  Great  Britain 
tind  Irelanil  ivhen  the;/  frst  received  the  Christian 
Religion,  London,  1684,  reprinted,  Oxford,  1842. 

LOBO,  Jeronimo,  b.  in  Lisbon,  1593;  d.  there 
1078.  After  entering  the  order  of  the  Jesuits, 
he  taught  for  some  time  in  their  college  at  Coim- 
bra,  but  went  in  1624  to  Abyssinia  as  a  mis- 
sionary. After  staying  there  for  several  years, 
he  returned  to  Portugal  in  1634.  In  1640  he 
went  to  Goa  as  a  missionary,  and  staid  till  1656. 
After  his  second  return  to  Portugal,  he  published, 
in  1659,  a  History  of  Abi/ssinia,  which,  together 
witli  the  continuation  by  Legrand,  and  other 
additions,  was  translated  into  English  by  Samuel 
Johnson,  in  1735. 

LOBWASSER,  Ambrosius,  b.  at  Schneeberg, 
Misnia,  April  4,  1515;  d.  at  Konigsberg,  Nov.  27, 
1585.  He  studied  law  at  Leipzig;  visited  the 
universities  of  Louvain,  Paris,  and  Bologna ; 
and  was  in  1558  appointed  chancellor  of  Misnia, 
and  in  1563  professor  of  jurisprudence  in  Konigs- 
berg. In  1573  he  published  at  Leipzig  a  German 
translation  of  Beza  and  ]\Iarofs  French  transla- 
tion of  the  Psalms.  The  work  was,  in  literary 
respects,  quite  mediocre :  but  the  translation  was 
made  to  fit  the  tunes  of  Goudimel ;  and  thereby 
the  book  became  the  generally  accepted  hymu- 
book  of  the  Reformed  Congregations  in  Ger- 
many, and  continued  so  for  nearly  two  centuries. 
The  library  of  Stuttgart  contains  no  less  than 
sixty  editions  of  the  book.  It  was  translated 
into  Latin,  Danish,  and  Italian.  See  Fttix 
BovET :  Histoire  du  Psautier  des  c'glkes  rcforme'es, 
Paris,  1872  ;  Webeu  :  Geschichte  des  Kirchenge- 
sangs  in  tier  deut.ich-reform.  ,Schwci:,  Zurich,  1876; 
O.  liONEN  :  Clement  Marot  et  le  Psautier  huguenot, 
Paris,  1878-79,  2  vols.      iiionARD  i.au.xmann. 

LOCAL  PREACHERS  arc  laymen,  members 
of  the  Methiidist  Church  and  of  the  district  and 
quarterly  conferences,  by  which  bodies  they  are 
licensed  to  preach,  and  to  which  they  are  amena- 
ble. As  a  class  they  stand  opposite  to  the 
"  travelling  "prcacliers,  who  are  meinbcr.s,  also,  of 
the  annual  conferences.  They  are  independent 
of  episcopal  appointment,  or  of  appointment  by 
stationing  committees.  They  are  required  an- 
nually to  make  a  report,  and  have  their  licenses 
renewed.  After  four  consecutive  years'  .service, 
they  are  eligible  to  the  oilico  of  local  deacon,  and 
then,  after  four  years  more  of  .service,  to  tlie  office 
of  local  elder.  They  may  have  a  regular  pas- 
toral charge.  The  Metliodist  Church  owes  much 
to  (he  lidrlilN^  and  zi'al  of  her  local  pre.achers. 

LOCI  THEOLOGICI  is  the  name  which  Me- 
lanchllion  gave  lo  his  representation  of  evangeli- 
cal dogmatics,  in  opposition  to  the  senlcntitc  of 
tlie  schoolmen.  In  classical  language,  hci  means 
the  fundamoutal  conceptions  of  any  departmuut 


LOCKE. 


1333 


LOCKE. 


of  knowledge.  The  name  was  thus  very  appro- 
priate, anil  was  retahied  by  the  theologians  of 
tlie  Liitlieran  C'hurcli  down  to  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  Tt  was  also  adopted  by 
some  theologians  of  the  Reformed  faith,  such  as 
jNIuscuhis,  Peter  Martyr,  J.  Maccov,  and  Daniel 
C'hainicr.  E.  SCHWAKZ. 

LOCKE,  John,  was  born  at  Wrington,  Somer- 
.setsliire,  Aug.  29,  1632.  His  father  was  a  lawyer, 
possessed  of  moderate  landed  proj-Wrty,  and  a  firm 
adherent  of  the  parliamentary  and  nonconformist 
party.  His  father  exacted  great  respect  from 
him  when  a  child,  but,  as  he  grew  up,  allowed 
him  greater  familiarity, — a  practice  which  the 
son  recommends.  He  was  educated  at  the  fa- 
mous Westminster  school ;  and  1651  he  entered 
Christ  Church,  Oxford  (in  the  grounds  of  which 
is  still  shown  the  mulberry-tree  which  he  planted), 
where  he  was  a  diligent  student,  and  devot- 
ed himself  specially  to  the  branches  requiring 
thought.  He  did  not  follow  any  profession  ;  but 
he  was  particularly  addicted  to  the  study  of  medi- 
cine, in  which  Sydenham  declares  that  he  acquired 
great  knowledge  and  skill.  He  gave  himself,  by 
turns,  to  politics  and  philosophy.  In  1G64,  during 
the  Dutch  war,  he  accompanied,  as  secretary.  Sir 
W.  Vane,  the  king's  envoy,  to  the  elector  of 
Brandenburgh ;  and  there  is  much  humor  in  the 
account  he  gives  of  his  journey.  In  1866  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  the  statesman  Lord  Ashley, 
afterwards  Lord  Shaftesbury,  and  became  his 
medical  adviser,  counsellor,  and  friend.  Hence- 
forth his  life  is  partly  in  Oxford,  and  partly  with 
Shaftesbury,  who  appointed  him  to  various  pub- 
lic offices.  Though  very  prudent,  he  became  an 
object  of  suspicion  to  tne  royal  party.  Sunder- 
land, by  the  king's  command,  ordered  his  expul- 
sion. He  was  not  expelled  from  Oxford,  but 
deprived  of  his  studentship  by  the  dean  and  chap- 
ter of  the  college.  He  retreated  to  Holland,  and 
lived  in  Amsterdam  and  Utrecht,  where  he  had 
close  intercourse  with  a  number  of  eminent  men, 
wdio  met  in  each  other's  houses  for  discussion,  — 
with  Le  Clerc,  Guenilon  the  physician,  with  Lim- 
borch,  and  with  the  Remonstrant  or  Arminian 
party.  The  revolution  of  1688  enabled  him  to 
return  to  his  own  country,  bringing  with  him  his 
Esaai/vii  Human  Understandinri,  which  he  had  been 
engaged  in  writing  since  1671,  and  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1690.  Henceforth  his  literary  activity 
was  very  great.  He  carried  on  an  extensive  corre- 
spondence (afterwards  published)  on  philosophic 
subjects  with  his  admirer,  William  Jlolyneux  of 
Dublin,  who  introduced  liis  essay  into  Dublin  uni- 
versity, where  it  held  sway  down  to  the  second 
quarter  of  this  century.  He  carried  on  a  keen 
controversy  with  Stilliug-fleet,  bishop  of  Worces- 
ter, who  objected  to  his  doctrine  of  substance  as 
undei-niining  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  He 
wrote  three  letters  on  Toleration,  on  which  his 
views,  perhaps  derived  in  part  from  John  Owen 
at  Oxford,  were  very  liberal  for  his  day,  though 
much  behind  the  opinions  now  entertained.  He 
would  give  no  toleration  to  atheists  or  papists. 
In  a  constitution  he  drew  out  for  the  Carolinas, 
he  allowed  slavery  to  exist.  He  wrote  very  valua- 
ble papers  on  Currencij  and  Coin,  which  saved  the 
counti-y  from  very  serious  evils. 

He  had  all  along  an  implicit  faith  in  the  Bible 
and  in  Christianity.     He  published  in  1695  the 


Essay  on  lite  Ileasonahleness  of  Christianity  as  deliv- 
ered in  the  Scriptures.  He  wrote  a  Commentary 
consisting  of  paraphrases  .and  notes  on  the  Ejiistles 
to  the  Galatians,  Corinthians,  Konums,  and  Ephes- 
ians,  together  with  .-1  n  Essay  for  the  Understand- 
ing of  St.  Patd's  Epistles  by  consulting  St.  Paul 
himself  His  expositions  are  clear,  but  are 
throughout  strongly  i-ationalist,  and  opposed  to 
the  atonement  and  to  what  is  usually  character- 
ized as  evangelistic. 

His  health  had  never  been  good,  a)id  latterly 
became  worse.  From  1691  he  resided  with  Sir 
Francis  and  Ladv  I^Iasham  (daughter  of  Ralph 
Cudworth)  at  Oa'tes.  On  Oct.  27,  1704,  he  told 
Lady  Mashani  that  he  never  expected  to  rise 
again  from  his  bed.  "  He  thanked  God  he  had 
passed  a  happy  life ;  but  that  now  he  found  that 
all  was  vanity,  and  exhorted  her  to  consider  this 
world  as  a  preparation  for  a  better  state  here- 
after." Next  day  he  heard  Lady  Masham  read 
tlie  Psalms,  apparently  with  great  attention,  until, 
perceiving  his  end  to  draw  near,  he  stopped  her, 
and  expired  a  few  nduutes  after,  about  three 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon  of  Oct.  28,  1704,  in  his 
seventy-third  year. 

He  tells  us  what  was  the  occasion  of  the  pro- 
duction of  the  Essay  on  Human  Understanding. 
"  Five  or  six  friends  meeting  at  ray  chamber,  and 
discoursing  on  a  subject  very  remote  from  this, 
found  themselves  quickly  at  a  stand  by  the  diffi- 
culties that  rose  on  every  side.  After  we  had 
a  while  puzzled  ourselves,  without  coming  any 
nearer  a  resolution  of  those  doubts  wliich  per- 
plexed us,  it  came  into  my  thoughts  that  we  took 
a  wrong  coui'se,  and  that,  before  we  set  ourselves 
upon  inquiries  of  that  nature,  it  was  necessary  to 
examine  our  own  abilities,  and  see  what  objects 
our  understandings  were  or  were  not  fitted  to  deal 
with,"  He  defines  idea,  "  whatsoever  is  the  object 
of  the  understanding  when  a  man  thinks,"  "what- 
ever is  meant  by  phantasm,  notion,  species."  But 
surely  external  things  may  be  the  object  of  the 
understanding  when  it  thinks ;  .and  yet  they  seem 
to  be  excluded  by  the  definition,  which  lauds  him 
logically  in  idealism.  He  maintains  that  we  get 
all  our  ideas  from  experience,  through  the  two 
inlets,  or  windows,  sensation  and  reflection. 

The  Essay  is  divided  into  four  books.  In  the 
first  he  shows  that  we  have  no  innate  ideas,  specu- 
lative (such  as  it  is  impossible  for  the  same  thing 
to  be  and  not  to  be  at  the  same  time)  or  practical 
(moral)  maxims;  and  that  the  ideas  (such  as  that 
of  God)  often  supposed  to  be  innate  are  not  so. 
I  believe  he  is  right  in  saying  that  there  are  not 
in  the  mind  any  innate  mental  images,  or  abstract 
or  general  notions,  or  a  priori  forms  as  is  main- 
tained by  Kant;  but  he  has  not  thereby  shown 
that  there  are  not  in  the  mind  native  fundamental 
laws,  such  as  that  of  cause  and  effect,  which  regu- 
late our  thinking. 

In  the  second  book  he  makes  an  elaborate  at- 
tempt to  show  that  all  our  ideas  are  derived  from 
the  inaterials  supplied  by  sensation  and  reflection, 
always  by  the  faculties  which  the  mind  possesses; 
viz.,  perception,  retention,  discernment,  compari- 
son, composition,  abstraction,  to  which  he  adds 
volition.  He  divides  the  qualities  of  matter  into 
primaiy  and  secondary ;  the  former  being  those 
in  all  matter,  in  whatever  state  it  be,  and  the 
latter  resulting  from  the  operation  of  the  others. 


LOCKE. 


1334 


LOCUST. 


He  divides  ideas  into  simple  and  complex.  Tlie 
former  are  perceived  at  once.  Among  these,  the 
idea  of  space  is  given  by  sight  and  touch  ;  of 
time,  from  the  reflection  on  the  succession  of  our 
ideas,  —  as  if  succession  did  not  imply  the  idea 
of  time.  Complex  ideas  are  divided  into  modes 
(such  as  gi-atitude),  substances,  and  relations. 
He  holds  that  substance  exists  as  an  unknown 
thing,  standing  under  qualities.  From  his  two 
sources  he  derives  our  idea  of  infinity,  making  it 
simply  negative,  and  our  very  idea  of  moral  good, 
deriving  it  from  the  sensation  of  pleasure  and 
pain,  with  the  law  of  God  rewarding  certain 
actions,  and  punisiiing  others.  It  was  in  regard 
to  this  latter  idea  that  the  defects  of  his  system 
were  first  seen  by  British  thinkers. 

In  the  third  book  he  treats  of  the  relation  of 
words  to  ideas,  and  has  very  shrewd  but  often 
extreme  remarks  on  tlie  evU  influence  exercised 
by  language  on  thouglit. 

In  the  fourth  book  he  treats  of  knowledge, 
which  he  defines  as  "  the  perception  of  the  con- 
nection, and  agreement  or  disagTeement,  and 
ie|:iugnaucy,  of  any  of  our  ideas;  holding  that  the 
mind  hath  no  other  immediate  objects  in  all  its 
thoughts  and  reasonings  but  its  own  ideas." 
Knowledge  is  usually  represented  as  consisting 
in  the  agreement  of  our  ideas  with  things. 
Locke's  definition  keeps  us  away  from  things, 
and  issues  logically  in  idealism.  In  the  same 
book  he  treats  of  such  subjects  as  intuitions, 
faith,  and  reason.  He  believes  in  intuition,  but 
confines  it  to  judgment,  or  the  comparison  of  ideas, 
thus  still  keeping  us  away  from  things.  Under 
reason  he  examines  and  condemns  the  syllogism, 
which  he  regards  as  a  new  mode  of  reasoning, 
whereas  it  is  merely  an  analysis  of  the  process 
which  passes  through  the  mind  in  all  valid  rea- 
soning. 

The  publication  of  the  Essay  was  hailed  with 
acclamation  by  the  rising  generation.  Written 
in  a  clear,  somewhat  loose,  and  conversational 
style,  characterized  throughout  by  profound  sense, 
free  from  all  technicalities,  and  appealing,  as  the 
rising  physical  .science  of  the  day  did,  to  observa- 
tion, it  was  felt  to  be  novel  and  fresh  by  all  who 
were  wearied  of  the  scholastic  distinctions  of  the 
middle  ages  and  of  the  abstract  metaphysical 
discussions  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Locke's 
system  continued  to  be  the  most  influential  phi- 
losojihy  in  England,  Ireland,  France,  and  America, 
the  whole  of  the  last  century  and  the  first  quarter 
of  this,  being  modified,  however,  so  far  by  the 
Scottish  school. 

His  principles,  however,  were  soon  followed 
out  to  consetjuences  which  lie  would  have  repudi- 
ated. His  essay  was  introduced  into  France  by 
Voltaire,  and  was  pi'ofessedly  carrietl  out  to  its 
consequences  by  Coiidillae,  who  reduced  the  ori- 
ginal inlets  of  ideas  to  one,  sensation  ;  urging  that 
Locke's  reflection  looked  merely  to  the  sensation.s, 
and  could  produce  nothing  new.  For  ages  Locke 
was  s])oken  of  in  France  and  Gennany  as  a  sen- 
sationalist. He  is  certainly  not  liable  to  this 
charge,  as  he  everywhere  insists  on  reflection  as 
Ji  source  of  ideas. 

IJishoi)  Herkeley  drove  liis  philosophy  to  a 
different  issue.  As  Locke  represt'iittMl  the  mind 
as  percipient  only  of  ideas,  we  have  no  proof  that 
any  thing  else  exists.     1  believe  lliis  to  be  a  con- 


sequence which  might  be  drawn  from  his  princi- 
pies.  But  Locke  was  a  determined  realist.  Reid 
and  the  Scottish  school  acted  wisely  in  correcting 
his  idealism,  and  in  maintaining  that  we  prima- 
rily know  things,  and  not  mere  ideas. 

The  grand  objection  taken  to  Locke  by  our 
higher  philosophers,  is,  that,  by  deriving  all  our 
ideas  from  experience,  he  has  undermined  the 
defences  of  truth.  He  is  charged  by  Kant  and 
his  school  with  starting  with  principles  which 
issued  historically  and  logically  in  the  scepticism 
of  Hume.  First,  Berkeley  proved,  that,  accord- 
ing to  his  philosojihy,  we  have  only  ideas;  and 
then  Hume  showed  that  these  can  be  reduced  to 
impressions  and  the  faint  copies  of  these  in  ideas. 
Locke's  fundamental  and  most  injurious  error  is 
the  account  which  he  gives  of  moral  good  and 
evil,  which  he  represents  as  nothing  but  pleasure 
and  pain  drawn  on  us  as  a  reward  and  punishment 
by  the  Lawgiver.  He  was  met  on  this  point  by 
the  third  Lord  Shaftesbury,  the  grandson  of  his 
friend  and  piatron.  His  omissions  on  these  points 
have  been  supplied  in  one  way  by  the  Scottish 
school,  who  bring  in  piriinary  reason,  common 
sense,  and  intuition,  and  in  another  by  Kant,  who 
calls  in  a  priori  principles  in  the  shape  of  forms 
of  sense,  understanding,  and  reason. 

Leibnitz  wrote  a  review  of  Locke's  essay,  book 
by  book,  and  chapter  by  chapter,  in  his  iSur  I'En- 
lendemerit  Htimain,  which,  in  consequence  of  Locke 
dying  when  he  was  writing  it,  was  not  published 
till  1761.  Cousin  also  wrote  a  criticism  in  his 
Sysleme  de  Locke.  Professor  Green  has  a  sharph' 
critical  examination  on  Hegelian  principles,  in 
his  Introduction  to  Hume's  Treatise.  See  Lori> 
KiNCi :  Life  of  Locke ;  H.  R.  Fox  Boiirne  :  Life 
of  Lorke,'\.ond.,  1876,  2  vols.      JAMES  McCOSH." 

LOCUST,  an  insect  belonging  to  the  order 
Orlhoplera,  the  group  SalKitoria,  the  family  Acri- 
(liles,  and  living,  in  several  species,  in  Egyi^t,  Ara- 
bia, Syria,  Persia,  and  other  Eastern  countries. 
The  common  Syrian  locust  looks  very  much  like 
the  grasshopper.  It  is  two  inches  and  a  half  long, 
and  grayish-green  witli  black  spots.  These  insects 
live  in  iuiinense  swarms,  and  are  extremely  vora- 
ciou.s.  Darkening  the  sky  with  their  multitude, 
they  suddenly  sweep  down  on  the  country  with  a 
noise  as  of  rain  or  hail;  and  in  an  extremely  short 
time  they  completely  denude  it,  eating  up  every 
flower  and  fruit,  every  grass  and  leaf.  As  always 
they  move  with  the  wind,  they  arc  often  carried 
to  the  ocean,  and  drowned  by  the  ton.  In  .some 
regions  they  are  gathered,  and  used  for  food,  being 
prepared  in  various  ways,  —  boiled  with  butter,  pre- 
served with  salt,  dried, and  ground  to  a  powder,  etc. 

The  Bible  has  no  less  than  ten  diffta-ent  Hebrew 
names  for  locust,  which  are  rendered  by  "locust," 
"  grasshopper,"  "  palmer-worm,"  "  beetle,''  v.te.  It 
may  be  that  some  of  those  ten  names  designate 
various  stages  in  the  development  of  the  locust; 
but  it  seems  more  probable  that  they  simply  des- 
ignate various  species.  As  the  locusts  actually 
form  one  of  the  greatest  scourges  of  the  East, 
they  are  very  graphically  de.scribed  in  the  Bible. 
Their  multitude, —  Exod.  x.  1.');  Judg.  vi.  5; 
Jer.  xlvi.  2;5;  Joel  ii.  10;  their  voracity,  —  Joel  i. 
4,7,12;  I's.  Ixxviii.  16;  Isa.  xxxiii.  4 ;  the  noiso 
of  their  fliglit,  — Joel  ii.  .');  Rev.  ix.  9.  Their 
being  used  as  food  is  also  mentioned :  Lev.  xi. 
22;  Alatt.  iii.  4;  Mark  i.  6. 


LODBNSTEIN. 


1335 


LOGOS. 


LODENSTEIN,  Jodokus  von,  b.  at  Delfft,  in 
Holland,  lfi20;  <1.  at  Utrecht,  1677.  He  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  Zoetmer,  in  Holland,  1644,  of 
Sluys,  in  Flanders,  1650,  and  at  Utrecht  in  16.52 ; 
and  he  occ-upies  in  the  church  history  of  the 
Netherlands  a  position  .somewhat  similar  to  that 
which  Spener  occupies  in  the  church  history  of 
Germany  •.  he  was  a  reformer  of  practical  life,  not 
of  doctrine.  The  Netherlands  had  at  that  time 
reached  the  culminating  point  of  its  prosperity, 
and  the  popular  mind  seemed  to  be  entirely  ab- 
sorbed by  secular  pursuits.  Lodenstein,  however, 
made  a  deep  and  widespread  impression,  both  by 
his  preaching-,  by  his  writings  {Verfallenes  Cliris- 
ienthum,  Ileformntionsi'pieijel,  etc.),  and  by  his 
beautiful  .spiritual  songs.  M.  GOEBEL. 

LOEN,  Johann  Michael  von,  b.  at  Francfort, 
Dec.  21,  1691;  d.  July  2(i,  1776.  He  studied  law 
at  Marbui-g  and  Halle;  travelled  in  Holland, 
France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy;  and  lived  for 
many  years  as  a  private  gentleman  in  his  native 
city,  until,  in  1753,  he  accepted  a  position  in  the 
Prussian  civil  service  as  pre.sident  of  the  counts 
ship  of  Lingen  and  Teklenburg.  The  reconcilia- 
tion of  all  the  various  denominations  into  which 
Christendom  is  split  up,  and  the  establishment  of 
a  united  Christian  Church,  one  and  undivided, 
was  the  great  idea  of  his  life,  in  behalf  of  which 
he  wrote,  Evanyelischer  Friedenstempel ,  1724 ; 
Hbchsl  hedenkliche  Ursacken,  etc.,  1727;  Bedenken 
von  Separatislen,  1737  ;  Vereinigung  der  Protestan- 
ten,  1748.  His  principal  work.  Die  einzige  wuhre 
Religion  (1750),  has  the  same  tendency.  It  is  a 
singular  l)lending  of  rationalism  and  pietism, 
reducing  Christianity  to  a  religion  among  other 
religions,  and  its  essential  truth  to  that  which  it 
has  in  common  with  all  religions.  It  made  a 
great  sensation,  however,  and  was  translated  into 
foreign  languages.  WAGENMAJ«J. 

LOGAN,  John,  b.  at  Soutra,  East  Lothian,  Scot- 
land, 1748;  d.  in  London,  Dec.  28,  1788.  He  was 
educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  licensed  in 
1770,  and  ordained  and  installed  in  South  Leith, 
1773.  He  had  already  evinced  considerable  poeti- 
cal talent  by  the  publication  of  original  poems 
in  connection  with  those  of  Michael  Bruce,  whose 
poems  he  edited  1770.  In  1775  he  served  on  the 
committee  of  the  general  assend?ly  to  revise  the 
Translaliotis  and  Paraphrases,  and  adapt  them  for 
public  worship.  The  collection  is  still  in  use. 
Eleven  of  the  paraphrases  are  his.  In  1781  he 
published  a  collected  edition  of  his  poems,  and  a 
tragedy  (Runnamede)  in  1783.  In  1786  he  re- 
signed in  consequence  of  his  theatrical  labors, 
and  went  to  London,  where  he  led  a  literary  life. 
His  View  of  Ancient  Histnrtj  (1788),  attributed  to  a 
Dr.  Rutherford,  and  two  volumes  of  his  Sermons 
(1790-91),  which  are  nmch  admired,  were  posthu- 
mously published.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
poems,  and  a  memoir,  appeared  in  1812.  His 
most  famous  poem  was  Ode  lo  the  Cuckoo. 

LOGOS  (from  the  Greek  Aoyof,  which  means 
"reason"  and  "word,"  ratio  and  oratio;  both  being 
intimately  connected)  has  a  peculiar  significance 
in  I'hilo,  St.  John,  and  the  early  Greek  Fatliers, 
and  is  an  important  term  in  the  history  of  Chris- 
tology. 

I.  The  Doctrine  of  Philo.  —  Philo,  a  Jewish 
philosopher  of  Alexandria  (d.  about  A.D.  40), 
wlio  endeavored  to  harmonize  the  Mosaic  religion 


with  Platonisra,  derived  his  Logos  view  from  the 
Solomonic  and  later  Jewish  doctrine  of  the  per- 
sonified Wisdam  anil  Word  of  (!od,  anil  combined 
it  with  the  Platonic  idea  of  A'oiis.  The  Logos  i.s 
to  him  the  enibo<liraent  of  all  divine  powers  and 
ideas,  —  the  uyyr'Aoi  of  the  Old  Testament,  the 
(5w(i/x«f  and  (AVu  of  Plato.  He  distinguished  be- 
tween the  r^ogos  inherent  in  God  (/Itij-oj  hiiutlcToi;}, 
corresponding  to  reason  in  man,  and  tlie  Logos 
emanating  from  God  {'/.oyas  ■Kpu(fopiKuQ)^  correspond- 
ing to  the  spoken  word  which  reveals  the  thought. 
The  former  contains  the  ideal  world  (the  Kun/wc 
voriTOi)  ■■  the  latter  is  the  first-begatten  Son  of  God, 
the  image  of  God,  the  Creator  and  Preserve)-,  the 
Giver  of  light  and  life,  the  Mediator  between  God 
and  the  world,  also  the  Messiah  (though  only  in 
an  ideal  sense,  as  a  theophany,  not  as  a  concrete 
historical  person).  Philo  wavers  between  a  per- 
sonal and  an  impersonal  conception  of  the  Logos, 
but  leans  more  to  the  impersonal  conception.  He 
has  no  room  for  an  incarnation  of  the  Logos  and 
his  real  union  with  humanity.  Nevertheless,  Ins 
view  has  a  striking-  resemblance  to  the  Logos  doc- 
trine of  John,  and  preceded  it,  as  a  shadow  pre- 
cedes the  substance.  It  was  a  prophetic  dream 
of  the  coming  reality.  It  prepared  the  minds  of 
many  for  the  reception  of  tlie  truth,  but  misled 
others  into  Gnostic  errors. 

Lit. — Gfrorer:  Philo  u.  d.  alexandrin.  The- 
osophie,  1831;  Dahne  :  Jiidisch-alexandrin .  Reli- 
gionsphdosophie ,  1834  ;  Grossmann  :  Qucestiones 
Phil.,  1829  and  1841;  Keferstein:  Philo's  Lehre 
von  d.  gotllichen  Mittelwesen,  1846;  Langen:  D. 
JudeiUhum  zur  Zeit  Christi,  1867;  Dorneu  :  Ent- 
wicktungsgesch.  der  L.  v.  d.  Person  Christi,  vol.  i. 
29-.57;  Heinze  :  D.  Lehre  vom  Logos  in  der  griech. 
Phdosophie,  1872;  E.  SciiI'REr  :  Lehrbuch  d.  N. 
Testamentlichen  Zeilgeschiclite,  1874,  pp.  648  sqq.  ; 
Siegfried:  PliUo  con  Alexandria,  1875;  Souliek: 
La  doctrine  du  Logos  chez  Philon  d'Alexam/rie, 
1876 ;  Constant  Paiiud:  Le  Logos  de  Philon  et  ses 
rajiports  arec  la  doctr.  chrct.,  1876  ;  Klasen  (R.C): 
Die  alttcsl.  Weisheil  und  d.  Logos,  d.  jiidisch-alex. 
Philon,  1879 ;  also  Zeller  :  Die  Philo.'^ophie  der 
Gricchen  (vol.  iii.,  pt.  ii.  208-233,  293-367) ;  and 
Ueberweg  :  History  of  Philosophy  (Eng.  trans., 
vol.  i.,  222-232). 

II.  The  Doctrine  of  St.  John. — John  uses 
Logos  (translated  "  word  ")  six  times  as  a  desig- 
nation of  the  divine  pre-existent  person  of  Christ, 
through  whom  the  world  was  made,  and  who  be- 
came incarnate  for  our  salvation,  John  i.  1,  14 ; 
1  John  i.  1  (v.  7  is  spurious) ;  Kev.  xix.  13 ;  but 
he  never  puts  it  into  the  mouth  of  Christ.  Philo 
may  possibly  have  suggested  the  use  of  the  term 
(although  there  is  no  evidence  of  John's  having 
read  a  single  line  of  Philo)  ;  but  tlie  idea  was  de- 
rived from  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  from  the 
Old  Testament,  "nhicli  makes  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  hidden  and  the  revealed  being  of  God, 
which  personifies  the  wisdom  of  God  and  the  word 
of  God,  and  ascribes  the  creation  of  the  world  to 
the  same  (Ps.  xxxiii.  6,  Sept.).  There  is  an 
inherent  propriety  of  this  usage  in  the  Greek 
language,  where  Logos  is  masculine,  and  has  the 
double  meaning  of  thought  and  speech.  Christ 
as  to  his  divine  natui'e  bears  the  same  relation 
to  God  as  the  word  does  to  the  idea.  The  word 
gives  form  and  shape  to  the  idea,  and  reveals  it 
to  others.     The  word  is  thought  expressed  Q.6}o^ 


LOGOS. 


1336 


LOHE. 


TTpooopmoc)  :  thought  is  the  inward  word  (Xoyof 
iviiuSiTOi).  We  cannot  speak  without  the  faculty 
of  reason,  nor  think  without  words,  whether  ut- 
tered or  not.  Compare  the  Hebrew  expression 
"  I  speak  in  my  heart "  for  "  I  tliink."  The  Christ- 
Logos  is  the  Revealer  and  Interpreter  of  the  Iiid- 
den  being  of  God,  the  utterance,  the  retiection, 
the  visil)le  image,  of  God,  and  the  organ  of  all  his 
manifestations  to  the  world  (John  i.  18;  comp. 
^Nlatt.  xi.  27).  The  Logos  was  one  in  essence  or 
nature  with  God  (dcdc  h",  John  i.  1),  yet  personally 
distinct  from  liini,  and  in  closest  communion  with 
him  (j^pof  Tov  ecov,  John  i.  1,  18).  In  the  fulness 
of  time  he  assumed  human  nature,  and  wrought 
out  in  it  the  salvation  of  the  race  which  was 
created  through  him  (.lohn  i.  14).  The  incarna- 
tion of  the  eternal,  divine  Logos  is  the  centi'al 
idea  of  the  theology  of  John,  who  was  for  this 
rea.son  emphatically  called  "  the  theologian  ;  "  and 
the  confession  or  denial  of  this  truth  is  to  liim  the 
criterion  of  genuine  Christianity  or  Antichrist 
(comp.  1  John  iv.  2,  3). 

Lit.  — •  See  the  Commentaries  of  LiJCKE,  De 
AVette,  Olshausex,  Hengstenberg,  Ew.\ld, 
LuTH.\i!DT,  Godet,  Lange  (Schaff's  English 
edition  with  notes),  Meyer  (6th  ed.  by  AVeiss), 
AVestcott  (in  the  Spealer's  Coiinnenlari/):  On  the 
Prologue  to  Juhn's  Gospel;  also  M.  Sti'akt:  Exam- 
ination of  John  I.  1-18,  in  Bibliotk.  Sacra  for  18.50, 
pp.  '281-327;  AVeizsacker  :  Abhandl.  iiber  die 
johann.  Loijodehre,  in  the  Jahrh.  f.  d.  llieol.,  1862, 
pp.  619.sqq. ;  RoHRICIIt:  Z  ur  Johanneisch.  Lor/os- 
lelire,  in  Theot.  Studien  und  Kritiken  for  1868, 
pp.  299-315;  II.  P.  Liddox  :  Bamplon  Lecls.  on 
the  Dirinitii  of  Christ,  Lond.,  18G8,  sect.  v.  pp.  310- 
411;  J.  Kevili.e  :  La  doctrine  du  Logos  dans  le 
quatriume  u'canyile  et  dans  les  ccucres  de  L'hiton, 
1881,  also  his  article  in  Lichtenberger's  Encycto- 
pedie,  torn.  viii.  pp.  334-339. 

III.  The  PATRi.'iTic  Doctrine.  —  The  Johan- 
nean  Logos  doctrine  was  the  fruitful  germ  of 
most  (i{  the  patristic  and  Gnostic  speculations  on 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ.  Justin  Alartyr  (d.  166) 
started  the  jiatristic  development  which  culminat- 
ed in  the  homoousion  of  the  Micene  Creed.  lie, 
first  among  the  Fathers,  used  the  term  "Logos" 
as  applied  to  the  prehistoric  Christ  in  the  double 
seu.se  ot  divine  reason  and  creative  word.  Chri.st 
is  to  him  the  primitive  reason  or  wisdom  of  divine 
<;.sseiice,  yet  distinct  from  tln'  Father,  begotten  of 
the  will  of  the  Father  before  all  creatures,  the 
first-begotten  and  only-begotten  of  (Jod  {-puroroxof 
iieoii,  o  fiovoytvi/f;,  u  fiovo^  w'cif,  h  ^6)0c  Trp;)  tuv  Trtiiiijiaiuv 
aal  omuv  koI  yevvu/isvo!:).  Through  him  tlie  world 
wa.s  made.  lie  is  tlie  organ  of  all  nnelations  in 
history  which  are  not  confined  to  tlii^  Jewish  peo- 
ple. I  le  scattered  .seeds  of  truth  and  virt  ue  among 
the  nobler  heathen  (/Wjoc  oTrp/zanxof).  All  that 
is  true  and  beautiful  in  Socrates,  I'lato,  Homer, 
must  be  traced  to  the  activity  of  the  Logos  befoie 
his  incarnation  (the  Xo/oc  daapKoc).  'J'his  Logos 
was  incarnat<!  in  Jesus  of  Nazareth,  was  born, 
baptizes],  sutt'ered,  died,  and  I'ose  for  us  men  and 
our  salvation.  Then;  is  no  doubt  that  .lustin 
Martyr  considered  Jesus  Christ  as  a  single  person, 
in  whom  the  pre-existent  divine  Logos  and  hu- 
manity were  blended  in  the  unity  of  life.  Tatian 
and  Theophilus  of  Antioch  teach  essentially  the 
same  Logos  theory,  but  Tatian  with  a  leaning  to 
Oiiosticisiii,  which  separated  the  ideal  Christ  from 


the  historical.  Athenagoras  very  clearly  ascribes 
to  the  Logos  the  creation  of  all  things,  and  like- 
wise takes  the  word  in  the  double  sense  of  the 
innnanent  rea.son  of  God  and  the  creative  word 
of  God.  Irenaeus  of  Lyons  (d.  202),  the  pro- 
foundest  and  soundest  among  the  ante-Xicene 
Fathers,  views  the  Son  of  God  as  the  essential, 
hypostatic  AVord,  eternally  spoken  or  begotten  by 
the  Fathei-,  uncreated,  the  Creator  of  the  world, 
the  Interpreter  of  God.  As  regards  the  essential 
unity  of  the  Son  and  Father,  the  lunnan  nature 
of  Christ,  and  its  relation  to  the  divine  nature, 
he  comes  nearest  to  the  Nicene  standard  of  ortho- 
doxy. The  Alexandrian  school  was  alike  affected 
by  Johannean,  Philonic,  and  Platonic  ideas.  Clem- 
ent of  Alexandria  views  tlie  Son  as  the  Logos  of 
the  Father,  the  eternal  Intelligence  and  AVisdom, 
the  Fountain  of  all  truth  and  knowledge,  the 
Revealer  of  the  Divine  Being,  the  Creator  of  the 
world,  the  Educator  of  men.  lie  removes  all  idea 
of  subordination,  and  hence  dislikes  the  term 
Aojoc  7rpo(fiopM6c,  as  he  regards  the  Logos  as  the 
creative  and  speaking,  not  the  spoken,  A\'ord.  Ori- 
gen  (d.  252)  emphasizes  on  the  one  hand  the  eter- 
nity (eternal  generation)  of  the  Logos,  and  on  the 
other  his  subordination  to  the  Father ;  so  that  he 
gave  aid  and  comfort  both  to  the  orthodox  and 
the  Arian  schools  in  the  Nicene  age,  and  was 
quoted  by  both.  He  even  ajiplies  the  term  6fioov- 
oioi  to  the  Son,  declaring  him  equal  in  substance 
with  the  Father;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  speaks 
of  a  difference  of  essence  (ireportir  7^f  ovuia^,  or  tov 
i'TToiicifievov),  and  calls  the  Logos  "  a  second  God  "' 
((5fi'-f/)oc  flsof),  and  "God"  (Bfof  without  the  arti- 
cle) ;  while  the  Father  is  "  the  God  (6  6e6()  and 
'•God  himself"  (aiTofleof).  In  the  Nicene  age, 
through  the  influence  chiefly  of  the  great  Athana- 
sius,  Basil,  and  the  two  Gregories  (of  Nazianzus 
and  of  Nyssa),  the  development  of  the  Logos- 
doctrine  ended  in  the  triumph  of  the  homoousian 
or  Nicene  view  of  the  essential  unity  and  per- 
sonal distinction  of  the  Son  and  the  Father, 
(iregorj'  of  Nazianzus  was  called  "the  theolo- 
gian "  in  the  narrowest  sense  of  that  word,  as  the 
defender  of  the  divinity  of  the  Logos  (o  /tojoj-  = 
"fof,  John  i.  1),  on  account  of  the  famous  sermons 
which  he  pre;iclied  in  the  Church  of  the  Resur- 
rection at  Constantino] lie.  (Comp.CiiRisToi.oGY.) 

Lit.  —  On  the  jKitristic  and  ecclesiastical  de- 
velopment of  the  Logos  doctrine,  sec;  especially 
Petavius:  De  Iheoloyicis  do<iin.  ,  Bull:  Dcfensio 
Jiilei  Nica;na:  i  Martini:  Gcsch.  d.  Dogmas  von 
d.  Gottheit  Chrisli  m  d.  erstcn  4  Jahrhunderten 
(rationalistic)  ;  Burton  :  Testimonies  of  the  ante- 
Aiccne  Fathers  to  the  Dirinitij  of  Christ,  2d  ed., 
Oxford,  1829;  Baur  :  D.  christl.  Lehre  von  d. 
Dreieinigkcit  u.  3Ienschtvcrdung  Gottes,  1841-43 
(first  volume);  Dorner:  EnltvicUungsr/eschichte 
(I.  Lehre  von  d.  I^crson  Christi,  2d  ed.,  1845  .sqq., 
vol.  i.  pp.  122-747;  R.  I.  AVilhereorce  :  The 
Doctrine  of  the  Incarnation,  1852;  H.  P.  Liddon: 
The  Divinitg  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
1808;  L.  Atzherger:  Die  Logoslehre  d.  hi.  Atha- 
nasitis.  IS.SO.  'rilll.Il-  SCIIAFK. 

LOHE,  Johann  Konrad  Wilhelm,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  the  workers  in  the  depart- 
nu»iil  of  practical  Christianity  in  our  century: 
was  b.  Feb.  21,  1808,  in  Fiirth,  near  Niirnberg; 
d.  Jan.  2,  1872,  in  Neuendettelsau.'    He  studied 

['  So  IlERZOU.    UhuiiII.v  Bpt'llftl  Nemiettetsatt,  —  Kd. ) 


LOHE. 


1337 


LOLLARDS. 


at  the  University  of  Erlangen,  where  he  was 
much  iiifliicnepd  by  the  pious  professor,  Krafft, 
and  spent  a  tiTiii  in  Berlin.  In  1831  lie  became 
vicar  at  Kiiehenlamitz,  and  attracted  large  con- 
gregations from  the  sun-oimdiiig  country  by  his 
original  and  fervent  preaching.  The  ecclesi- 
astical authorities,  regarding  his  fervor  as  reli- 
gious mysticism,  removed  him  from  his  jsosition. 
Shortly  afterwards  he  was  appointed  assistant 
pastor  of  St.  Egidia  in  Niirnberg.  Here  lie  had 
a  brilliant  career  as  preacher,  and,  like  a  prophet 
of  old,  denounced  sin  without  fear.  In  1837  he 
was  made  pastor  in  Neuendettelsau,  an  inconsid- 
erable and  unattractive  place.  Lohe,  however, 
learned  to  admire  it,  and  transformed  the  town 
into  a  busy  Christian  colony,  —  a  city  set  on 
a  hill,  the  rays  of  whose  Christian  and  philan- 
thropic fervor  have  gone  out  over  two  hemispheres. 
At  this  period  his  mind  was  much  concerned 
about  his  relations  with  the  Bavarian  Church, 
which  he  felt  did  not  understand,  much  less 
care  for,  tlie  religious  wants  of  the  people.  He 
thought  seriously  of  separating  himself  from  its 
communion ;  but  other  counsels  prevailed,  and 
he  became  a  strict  Lutheran.  His  Drei  Biicher 
fon  rfer  A'iVc/ig  (" Three  Books  on  the  Church"), 
which  were  published  in  1845,  represent  the 
severest  Lutheran  orthodoxy. 

Lohe  was  a  philanthropist  of  remarkably  fer- 
tile and  creative  talent.  His  special  work  he 
began  about  the  year  1840,  by  interesting  him- 
self in  the  condition  of  the  Germans  in  the 
United  States.  He  helped  to  found  the  Missouri 
synod,  and  afterwards  organized  the  Iowa  synod  on 
a  different  basis.  He  erected  in  Neuendettelsau  two 
spacious  buildings  for  the  training  of  missionaries 
for  the  Germans  in  foreign  lands.  In  1849  lie 
founded  the  Lutheran  Society  of  Home  Missions, 
and  in  1853  an  institution  of  deaconesses,  which 
was  the  eighteenth  in  point  of  date,  but  has  the 
third  position  in  regard  to  numbers,  in  Germany. 
The  following  year  the  building  for  the  deacon- 
esses was  dedicated.  Around  this  centre  there 
grew  up  with  wonderful  rapidity  a  number  of 
institutions,  such  as  an  asylum  for  idiots,  a  Mag- 
dalen asylum,  hospitals  for  men  and  women,  etc. 
These  institutions  are  all  accomplishing  a  good 
work.  Lohe  rejiresented  a  most  genial  tj'pe  of 
jiiety.  Sin  and  grace,  justification  and  sanctifi- 
cation,  were  the  central  points  of  his  theology. 
As  a  preacher,  he  was  among  the  greatest  of  the 
century.  Originality  of  conception,  vivid  imagi- 
nation, and  prophetic  fervor,  were  his  chief  char- 
acteristics in  the  pulpit;  to  which  he  added  in  his 
later  years  a  profound  knowledge  of,  and  a  rare 
fertility  in,  the  application  of  Scripture.  Per- 
haps his  best  collections  of  sermons  are  Siebcn 
Predigten  (1836),  Predir/lcii  ii.  d.  ^^aterunser  (IS^l), 
Sieben  Vorlrdye  it.  d.  Worle  Jesu  am  Krcuze  (1859, 
2d  edition,  1868).  Lohe  was  a  man  of  striking 
appearance.  His  head  was  large,  his  forehead 
high  ;  his  mouth  made  the  impression  of  great 
decision  of  character;  liis  voice  was  powerful, 
and  his  eye  bright  and  searching.  He  was  a 
diligent  author,  and  wrote  some  liturgical  and 
other  works,  one  of  which,  Samenkorner,  has  seen 
twenty-nine  editions.  See  Wilhehn  Lohe's  Leben, 
Gutersloh,  1S73  .sqq.,  by  Dkinzer  (the  ins]iector 
of  the  missionary  institution  in  XeueudettelsMu), 
ill  three  volmii's.  aiioi.k  staiii.ix. 


LOLLARDS,  a  title  applied  to  the  follower.s  of 
Wiclif  in  England,  though  the  term  was  pre- 
viously used  of  sectaries  in  (iermany.  Ilocsem 
of  Liege  (1318)  .speaks  of  "quidam  hypocritiie 
gyrovagi  qui  Lollardi  sive  Detail  lauilitnles  viica- 
bantur."  His  derivation,  which  would  connect 
the  word  with  the  root  which  we  have  in  liilUihi/, 
and  makes  the  term  equivalent  to  canfcrs,  is 
probaldy  correct.  Wiclif  during  his  lifetime  sent 
out  itinerant  preachers,  who  met  with  considera- 
ble acceptance  among  the  people.  The  chief 
centre  of  VViclif's  teaching  was  the  University  of 
Oxford  ;  and,  after  the  condemnation  of  Wiclif's 
doctrine  of  the  sacraments  in  1382,  Archbishop 
Courtenay  proceeded  to  silence  the  Wiclifite 
teachers  m  the  university.  A  strong  academical 
party  resisted  the  archbishop's  interference,  but 
the  crown  supported  the  archbishop.  The  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  was  forced  to  submit  to 
the  publication  by  the  archbishop's  commissary 
of  the  condemnation  of  Wiclif's  doctrines.  The 
chief  Lollard  teachers  —  Lawrence  Bedemax, 
Philip  Repington,  and  John  Aston — were 
driven  to  recant.  The  more  famous  Nicolas 
Hereford,  who  worked  with  Wiclif  in  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  made  his  escape  from  Eng- 
land. Archbishop  Courtenay  in  the  .space  of 
five  months  reduced  to  silence  the  Lollard  party 
in  Oxford,  and  secured  the  orthodoxy  of  the  uni- 
versity. 

This  result  was  largely  due  to  the  re-action 
against  novelties  which  was  produced  by  the 
Peasants'  Rising,  under  Wat  Tyler,  in  1381. 
Wiclif's  political  opinions  were  expre.ssed  .some- 
what crudely,  and  lent  themselves  to  a  socialistic 
interpretation,  though  Wiclif  himself  had  no  such 
views.  Moreover,  John  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lan- 
caster, patronized  Wiclif  through  political  an- 
tagonism to  William  of  Wykeham,  Bishop  of 
Winchester,  and  other  prelates  who  acted  as  min- 
isters of  Edward  III.  Hence  the  Lollard  move- 
ment wore  at  the  beginning  a  political  aspect, 
which  it  never  lost,  and  which  weakened  its  re- 
ligious significance.  After  Wiclif's  death,  Here- 
ford resumed  his  office  as  itinerant  preacher, 
and  was  a.ssisted  by  Aston  and  John  Purvey. 
The  party  of  the  Lollards  grew  in  numbers  and 
in  boldness.  In  1387  one  Peter  Pateshull,  an 
Augustinian  monk,  abandoned  his  order,  joined 
the  Lollards,  and  openly  preached  in  London 
against  monasticism. 

Still  the  Lollard  party  owed  much  of  its  strength 
to  powerful  courtiers  who  were  willing  to  use  it 
as  a  means  of  striking  at  the  political  power  of 
the  prelates;  and  during  the  absence  of  Richard 
II.  in  Ireland,  in  1394,  a  petition  of  the  Lollards, 
attacking  the  Church,  was  presented  to  Parlia- 
ment. This  document  must  be  regarded  as  the 
exposition  of  their  opinions  (cf.  Fasciculi  Zizani- 
orum,  3G(;)-369).  Its  twelve  articles  set  forth  that 
the  Church  of  England,  following  its  stepmother, 
the  Church  of  Rome,  was  eaten  up  by  temporal 
pride ;  that  its  clergy  had  deviated  from  the  ex- 
ample of  Christ  and  the  apostles;  that  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy  occasioned  moral  disorder,  and 
that  the  belief  in  transubstantiation  caused  idola- 
try. It  protested  against  exorcisms  and  bene- 
dictions of  lifeless  objects,  against  the  holding  of 
secular  office  by  priests,  against  special  prayers 
for  the  dead,  pilgrimages,   auricular  confession, 


LOLLARDS. 


1338 


LOLLARDS. 


and  vows  of  cliastitv-  To  these  points  concern- 
ing ecclesiastical  polity  were  added  a  protest 
against  war  as  contrary  to  the  gospel,  and  against 
unnecessary  trades  which  were  exercised  only  for 
the  satisfaction  of  luxury.  There  is  in  these  pro- 
posals a  crude  scheme  for  the  reform  of  Church 
and  State;  but  no  deiinite  basis  is  laid  down, 
and  the  points  insisted  on  are  arbitrarily  chosen. 
Kichard  II*  considered  the  petition  as  dangerous  : 
he  returned  from  Ireland,  and  exacted  from  the 
chief  men  of  the  LoUard  party  an  oath  of  abjura- 
tion of  their  opinions.  Again  there  was  no  basis 
of  belief  strong  enough  to  resist,  and  the  move- 
ment collapsed  as  suddenly  as  it  began. 

This  was  the  highest  point  of  LoUardism  in 
England ;  and  its  infiuence  is  seen  in  such  literary 
productions  as  The  Plowman's  Tale,  and  Pierce  the 
Plowman's  Crede,  both  of  which  were  written  about 
this  time.  It  was,  however,  only  natural  that  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities,  who  had  been  so  openly 
menaced  by  the  petition  to  Parliament,  should 
think  of  retaliation  and  repression.  Thomas 
Arundel,  who  succeeded  Courtenay  as  archbishop 
of  Canterbury  in  1396,  showed  himself  a  decided 
opponent  of  the  Lollards.  In  1397  he  laid  before 
a  provincial  spiod  eighteen  articles  taken  out  of 
the  writings  of  Wiclif,  and  they  were  all  formally 
condemned.  The  condemnation  of  the  council 
was  further  supported  from  a  literary  side  by  a 
polemical  tractate  {Contra  errores  Wiclefi  in  Tria- 
tni/o)  from  the  pen  of  a  learned  Franciscan,  Wil- 
liam AVoodford.  But  tlie  political  troubles  of  the 
end  of  the  reigii  of  Richard  II.  threw  religious 
controversy  into  the  background.  In  1398  Arch- 
bi.shop  Arundel  had  to  flee  from  England ;  and 
when  he  retm-ned  it  was  as  the  chief  adviser  of 
Henry  of  Lancaster,  who  came  to  the  throne  under 
many  obligations  to  Arundel  and  to  the  Church. 

Accordingly  the  convocation  of  1399  ]>etitioned 
Henry  IV.  to  proceed  against  the  Lollards.  Arch- 
lii.shop  Arundel  had  not  much  difficulty  in  raising 
feeling  against  them.  The  popular  hatred  of 
Kichard  II. "s  rule  was  still  strong,  and  the  cliief 
favorers  of  the  Lollards  had  lieen  amongst  Rich- 
ard's courtiers.  IleniT  IV.  was  fervently  ortho- 
dox, and  was  bound  by  many  ties  to  the  clerical 
party  :  he  probably  was  not  sorry  to  dissociate 
hiuLSelf  from  his  father's  intrigues  with  the  Lol- 
lard party.  The  convocation  of  MOl  framed  a 
.strong  petition  against  the  Lollards.  It  pointed 
out  that  the  episco])al  jurisdiction  was  power- 
less to  sujipress  the  itinerant  preachers,  unless 
supported  by  the  royal  power.  It  besought  the 
royal  assistance  against  all  who  preached,  held 
meetings,  taught  schools,  or,  without  ejiiscopal 
licen.se,  disseminated  books  contrary  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church.  The  petition  was  granted 
by  the  king  with  the  as.sent  of  the  lords,  and  a 
.short  iK'tition  of  the  Commons  declared  also  their 
a.s.sent.  \  clause  ("<le  heretico  comhurendo")  was 
iuserte<l  in  the  statute  for  the  year  :  it  empowered 
the  bislio2)S  to  arrest  any  unlicensed  ]>reacher  or 
lieretic.  and  imprison  him  for  three  months, 
during  which  time  proceedings  were  to  be  taken 
against  him.  If  he  were  convicted,  lie  might  be 
imprisoned  further,  or  fined  for  his  offence  :  if  he 
refused  to  abjure,  he  was  to  be  given  over  to  the 
Bheriff  tft  be  burned. 

Thus  the  puiiislunent  of  deatli  for  matters  of 
opinion  was  for  tlie  first  time  introduced  into  the 


laws  of  England.  But,  while  this  statute  wa» 
being  passed,  William  Sautre,  a  priest  of  th^ 
city  of  Loudon,  who  had  previously  abjured  Lol- 
lardy,  but  relapsed,  was  brought  to  trial  before 
convocation,  and  was  condemned.  As  the  statute 
was  not  yet  law,  Sautre  was  put  to  death  under 
the  king's  writ,  which  was  issued  on  Feb.  26,  1401. 
Sautre  was  the  first  Lollard  martyr.  John  Pur- 
vey was  brought  to  trial  about  the  same  time ;  but 
he  recanted,  and  read  a  public  confession  of  his 
errors  at  St.  Paul's  Cross. 

Public  opinion  had  now  turned  against  the 
Lollards,  and  the  bishops  proceeded  with  their 
inquisitions  against  them.  But  little  results  fol- 
lowed; and  tlie  growing  discontent  against  Henry 
IV.  gave  the  Lollards  again  a  political  color,  and 
brought  their  social  opinions  into  greater  promi- 
nence. In  the  Parliament  of  1406  a  petition  was 
presented  by  the  Commons,  and  was  supported  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales.  It  set  forth  that  the  Lol- 
lards were  threatening  the  foundations  of  society 
by  attacking  the  rights  of  property,  while  they 
stirred  up  political  discontent  by  spreading  stories 
that  Richard  II.  was  still  alive :  it  asked  that  all 
officers  possessing  jurisdiction  should  arrest  Lol- 
lards, and  present  them  to  Parliament  for  punish- 
ment. The  king  assented ;  but,  for  some  unknown 
reason,  the  petition  never  became  a  statute,  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  jealousy  existing  between  spirit- 
ual and  "secular  courts.  The  bishops  do  not  seem 
to  have  exercised  their  statutory  powers  with 
harshness.  'William  TiiourE  was  arrested  by 
Archbishop  Arundel  in  1407,  and  was  several 
times  examined  by  him;  but  we  do  not  find  that 
he  was  condemned  to  death.  Thorpe  wrote  ac- 
counts of  his  examinations ;  which  were  collected 
by  his  friends,  and  form  an  interesting  record  of 
this  phase  of  English  ecclesiastical  history  (print- 
ed in  Foxe's  Acts  and  Monuments). 

In  1409  Archbishop  Arundel  issued  a  series  of 
constitutions  against  the  Lollards,  with  the  object 
of  enforcing  in  detail  the  provisions  of  the  statute 
of  1401 :  still  the  Lollards  seem  to  have  had  some 
influence.  In  the  Parliament  of  1410  a  petition 
was  presented  by  the  Commons,  which,  however, 
they  afterwards  asked  to  withdraw,  praying  for  a 
modification  of  the  statute  of  1401,  and  asking 
that  persons  arrested  under  it  should  be  admit- 
ted to  bail.  In  the  same  Parliament  the  Lollard 
party  submitted  a  wild  jiroiiosal  for  the  confisca- 
tion of  the  lands  c)f  bishops  and  ecclesiastical 
corporations,  and  the  endowment  out  of  them 
of  new  eails,  knights,  esquires,  and  hospitals. 
AVhenever  the  Lollards  had  an  opportunity  of 
raising  their  voice  publicly,  they  gave  their  ene- 
mies a  handle  against  f  lu'iii  by  the  extravagance 
of  their  political  jiroposals. 

During  the  session  of  tliis  Parliament  the  first 
execution  of  a  Lollard,  under  the  statute  of  1401, 
took  place.  John  Hadhv,  a  tailor  of  Evesham, 
was  examined  by  the  Bishop  of  Worcester  for 
erroneous  iloctrine  concerning  the  Eucharist.  He 
was  brouglit  to  London,  and  was  further  exam- 
ined by  the  archbishop  and  several  sulVragans. 
Ill  spite  of  all  their  persuasions,  he  remained  firm 
in  his  statement  that  the  bread  and  wine  of  the 
sacrament  of  the  altar  remained  bread  and  wine 
after  consecration,  tliougli  they  became  a  sign  of 
the  living  God.  On  March  5,  1410,  lie  was  con- 
demued  as  a  lieretic,  and  was  led  to  Smithfield 


LOLLARDS. 


1339 


LOLLARDS. 


for  execution.  The  Prince  of  Wales,  who  was 
present,  tried  at  the  last  moment  to  induce  Badby 
to  recant :  his  efforts  were  in  vain.  But  it  would 
seem  tliat  this  first  execution  under  the  act  was 
regarded  with  regret  even  by  those  who  thought 
it  absolutely  necessary. 

Meanwhile  the  triumph  of  orthodoxy  in  the 
University  of  Oxford  was  complete.  Its  theolo- 
gians exercised  their  ingenuity  by  a  close  exami- 
nation of  Wiclif's  writings;  and  in  1412  no  fewer 
than  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  conclusions 
drawn  from  his  works  were  condemned  as  errone- 
ous. This  condemnation  was  important;  as  it 
provided  materials  ready  t(j  hand  for  the  theolo- 
gians of  the  Council  of  Constance,  who  struck  at 
AViclif  as  the  first  step  towards  striking  at  IIus. 

On  the  accession  of  Henry  V.  (1413),  Arch- 
bishop Arundel  was  relieved  of  his  office  of 
chancellor,  and  had  more  time  to  proceed  against 
the  Lollards.  Before  the  convocation  of  1-113  he 
laid  a  proposal  to  root  out  Lollardy  from  high 
places,  and  it  was  resolved  that  measures  he 
taken  to  reduce  to  obedience  the  chief  favorers  of 
heresy.  As  the  first  victim  of  this  new  policy,  a 
Herefordshire  knight,  Sir  John  Oldcastle,  was 
selected.  Oldcastle  had  considerable  possessions, 
which  he  increased  by  marriage  with  the  heiress 
of  the  barony  of  Cobham,  who  held  large  lands 
in  Kent.  After  his  marriage,  Oldcastle  was  sum- 
moned to  the  House  of  Lords  as  Lord  Cobham. 
Oldcastle  was  an  earnest  Lollard.  lie  sheltered 
itinerant  preachers,  attended  their  services,  and 
openly  spoke  against  some  of  the  church  ritual. 
In  1-110  his  chaplain  was  suspended  by  Arundel 
for  irregularities  in  the  conduct  of  church  ser- 
vices. Oldcastle  was  formally  presented  by  con- 
vocation to  the  king  as  a  heretic ;  and  Henry  V. 
fii-st  tried  by  personal  solicitations  to  win  back 
Oldcastle  to  orthodoxy.  When  this  failed,  he  was 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  archbishop.  He 
refused  to  do  so,  and  fortified  his  castle  of  Cow- 
ling. After  disobeying  a  second  citation,  he  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  brought  before  the  archbishop 
on  Sept.  23,  1413.  He  read  a  confession  of  faith, 
with  much  of  which  the  arclibishop  expressed 
himself  well  pleased;  but  he  pressed  Oldcastle 
for  his  opinions  on  transubstantiation  and  auri- 
•cular  confession.  When  Oldcastle  declhied  to  be 
explicit,  he  was  given  two  days  during  which  he 
might  consider  the  orthodox  opinions,  which 
were  given  him  in  writing.  In  liis  second  audi- 
ence he  refused  to  sign  these  declarations,  and 
openly  avowed  Lollard  opinions.  He  was  con- 
denmed  as  a  heretic,  but  was  allowed  a  respite 
of  forty  days  in  hopes  of  a  recantation.  During 
this  period  he  made  his  escape  from  the  Tower, 
and  thereby  caused  a  panic.  It  was  believed  that 
a  himdred  thousand  Lollards  were  ready  for  a 
rising ;  and  a  scheme  seems  to  have  been  set  on 
foot  to  seize  the  king  at  Eltham  during  the  fes- 
tivities of  Christmas,  1413.  Henry  V.  returned  to 
Loudon,  and  obtaining  information  of  a  noctur- 
nal meeting  of  conspirators,  which  was  to  be  held 
on  Jan.  12,  1414,  resolved  to  put  them  down  at 
once.  Closing  the  city  gates  to  prevent  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Londoners,  he  went  to  the  gTound, 
made  many  prisoners  in  the  darkness,  and  crushed 
the  conspiracy  at  once.  Some  thirty-seven  of  the 
prisoners  were  afterwards  executed  on  the  charge 
of    heresy.     Oldcastle  himself  escaped,  and  was 


declared  an  outlaw.  He  is  said  to  have  tried  to 
raise  a  rebellion  in  1415,  and  his  machinations 
certainly  emliarrassed  Heiu'y  V.  in  liis  French 
campaigns.  At  last,  in  1417,  Oldcastle  was  cap- 
tured on  the  Welsh  marches,  was  brought  to 
London,  tried  for  treason  before  Parliament,  and 
condenmed  to  death  as  a  traitor.  The  history  of 
Oldcastle  is  somewhat  obscure,  and  his  character 
is  the  source  of  much  controversy.  He  .seems  to 
have  been  a  man  of  genuine  piety,  but  without 
much  discretion.  His  fate  is  typical  of  that  of 
the  Lollard  party.  Beginning  from  high  enthusi- 
asm and  lofty  moral  aims,  they  went  astray  in  the 
by-paths  of  political  intrigues  till  the  religious 
significance  of  the  movement  is  lost  in  its  tenden- 
cies towards  anarchy.  Instead  of  continuing  to 
struggle  for  ecclesiastical  reform,  Lollardy  became 
an  expression  of  the  passing  phases  of  political 
discontent. 

The  attempt  at  revolution  in  which  Oldcastle 
was  involved  decided  Henry  V.  to  take  stronger 
measures  against  the  Lollards.  In  the  Parliament 
of  1414  an  act  was  passed  which  went  far  beyond 
that  of  1401 ;  for  it  laid  down  the  principle,  that 
heresy  was  an  offence  against  the  conmion  law,  as 
well  as  an  offence  against  the  canon  law.  Besides 
re-enacting  with  greater  severity  the  provisions  of 
the  statute  of  1401,  it  ordered  all  justices  to  in- 
quire after  heretics,  and  hand  them  over  for  trial 
to  the  spiritual  courts.  This  was  the  final  statute 
against  the  Lollards,  and  under  it  the  religious 
persecutions  of  the  next  century  were  carried  out. 
From  this  time  forward,  we  find  the  Lollards 
deprived  of  any  influential  leaders.  The  French 
war  of  Henry  V.  provided  occupation  for  the 
classes  who  were  willing  to  use  the  help  of  the 
Lollards  in  attacking  the  prelates,  and  the  uni- 
versities w'ere  peaceful.  The  Lollards  could  no 
longer  claim  to  be  a  party  within  the  English 
Church  :  they  had  become  a  sect  outside  it. 

The  teaching  of  Wiclif,  meanwhile,  had  taken 
deeper  root  in  Bohemia  than  in  England;  and 
the  sturdine.ss  of  the  party  that  gathered  round 
IIus  contrasts  markedly  with  the  indecision  of 
the  English  Lollards.  From  Oxford  went  Lol- 
lards to  Bohemia ;  some  bearing  a  letter  which 
purported  to  be  a  defence  of  Wiclif,  signed  by 
the  chancellor  and  an  assembly  of  masters.  There 
can  be  little  doubt  that  the  letter  was  a  forgery. 
Jlost  famous  amongst  the.se  Hussite-Lollards  was 
Peter  Payne,  who  also  bore  many  other  names. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  French  father,  had  some 
reputation  in  Oxford,  and  rose  to  eminence 
amongst  the  Bohemians.  He  was  one  of  the 
disputants  on  the  Hussite  side  at  the  Council  of 
Basel  in  1433,  and  his  polemical  cleverness  often 
degenerated  into  sophistry.  He  died  in  Prague 
in  1455. 

The  statute  of  1414  seems  to  have  answered  its 
purpose  of  checking  the  open  dissemination  of 
Lollard  doctrines.  The  itmerant  priests  no  longer 
preached  openly ;  though  conventicles  were  some- 
tunes  held  secretly,  and  Lollard  books  were  circu- 
lated. Persecutions  were  frequent,  but  executions 
were  rare.  Besides  the  thirty-eight  who  were  put 
to  death  after  Oldcastle's  rising  in  1414,  we  only 
know  the  names  of  twenty-eight  others  who  suf- 
fered death.  The  great  majority  of  the  accused 
made  a  recantation,  'and  submitted  to  penance. 
In  1427  Pope  Martin  V.  ordered  the  Bishop  of 


LOLLARDS. 


1340 


LOLLARDS. 


Lincoln  to  carrj-  out  the  decree  of  the  Council  of 
Coustaiice  against  ^^"iclif's  remains  as  those  of 
a  condemned  heretic.  They  were  accordingly 
dug  out  of  the  churchyard  at  Lutterworth,  and 
thrown  into  the  Avon.  In  1431  an  attempted 
rebellion  of  the  political  Lollards  was  made  under 
a  leader  called  Jack  Sharp,  who  revived  the 
petition  of  lilO  for  the  confiscation  of  the  tem- 
poralities of  the  Church.  Sharp  was  captured, 
and  put  to  death  at  Oxford.  This  was  the  last 
attempt  to  enforce  the  Lollard  principles  in  poli- 
tics, and  the  disturbed  state  of  England  in  the 
djniastic  struggle  between  the  rival  houses  of 
York  and  Lancaster  diverted  political  discontent 
to  other  objects.  After  1431  we  hear  less  of  the 
Lollards,  and  the  prosecutions  against  them  be- 
came rarer. 

It  is  not  verj'  easy  to  determine  with  precision 
what  were  the  religious  tenets  of  the  Lollards. 
The  results  of  their  examinations  before  the 
bishops  show  us  a  number  of  men  discontented 
with  the  existing  ecclesiastical  system,  but  the 
points  to  which  each  attaches  importance  tend  to 
differ  in  individual  cases.  AVe  find,  however,  in 
all  of  them,  a  reverence  for  the  Bible  as  superior 
to  the  traditions  of  the  Church  and  all  other  au- 
thorities. They  object  to  many  points  in  the 
ritual  or  practice  of  the  Church  as  unnecessary  or 
misleading;  they  deny  transubstantiation,  protest 
against  the  worship  of  saints,  pilgrimages,  and 
other  usages;  they  object  to  the  temporal  lord- 
ship of  the  clergy,  to  the  monastic  orders,  and  to 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  Pope.  Some  of 
them  wish  to  approximate  as  closely  as  possible 
to  the  church  doctrine,  laying  aside  only  super- 
fluities: others  dream  of  a  plan  of  reconstituting 
Church  and  State  alike  on  a  scriptural  basis. 

The  chief  polemical  writer  against  the  Lollards 
was  Thomas  Xettku  of  AValdkn,  a  learned 
divine  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  who  was  con- 
fes.sor  of  Henry  V.,  and  died  in  1430.  His  chief 
work  (Doctrinale  nnliijuilatnni  fiilei  ecclesicE  Catkoli- 
c(e)  is  a  storehouse  of  polemical  learning,  which 
was  largely  used  in  the  next  century  by  Itomish 
writers  against  the  Lutherans.  Another  con- 
troversialist against  the  Lollards  was  somewliat 
unfortunate  in  his  zeal.  Heginai.d  I'kcock, 
Bishop  of  Chichester,  distinguished  himself  in 
1447  by  a  sermon  preached  at  St.  I'aul's  Cross,  in 
which  he  maintained  that  the  duty  of  bishops  was 
to  rule  their  sees,  to  acipiaint  themselves  with  the 
more  abstruse  parts  of  theology,  and  to  imdertake 
public  business:  they  were  not  bound  to  preach, 
or  them.selves  discharge  spiritual  functions.  This 
defence  of  episcopacy  was  somewliat  too  sophisti- 
cal for  the  ordinary  understanding,  and  i'ecock 
had  to  soften  it  by  explanations,  liut  a  few  years 
later  lie  published  a  work  against  the  Lollards, 
called  The  Rcjirexsor  of  over  much  BUiminij  of  t/ic 
Clergy.  In  it  he  attacked  the  Lollards  for  their 
exclusive  attention  to  the  Scriptures,  but  he  <li<l 
80  in  a  way  that  created  alarm  by  its  rationalis- 
tic .spirit.  He  set  up  "the  doom  of  reason"  as 
supreme;  he  criticised  the  Fathers,  besides  quot- 
ing them ;  lie  doubted  the  apostolic  origin  of  the 
Apo-stles'  Creed,  and  questioned  the  article  of 
Christ's  descent  into  hell.  Many  accused  him  of 
setting  tlie  law  of  nature  above  the  law  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  probably  i)olitic;tl  motives  coiilribntcd 
to  his  ovcrllu-ow.     lu  1407  recock  was  degraded 


from  his  office,  his  books  w'ere  burned,  and  he 
retired  to  a  monastery,  \shere  he  ended  his  days. 
He  is  an  example  that  repressive  measures  tend 
to  spread  on  all  sides.  The  re-action  against  the 
LoUards  created  a  new  standard  of  orthodoxy, 
and  Peoock  is  the  first  man  in  English  history 
who  was  persecuted  by  the  clergy  for  free  thought. 

The  activity  of  the  LoUards  during  the  succeed- 
ing period  can  only  be  slightly  traced  in  isolated 
cases  of  protest  against  the  system  of  the  Church. 
Conventicles  of  "  Bible  men  "  were  still  held  in 
secret,  the  Wicliflte  translation  of  the  Scriptures 
was  still  read  by  some,  and  Wiclif's  works  were 
circulated.  There  were  still  persecutions,  and 
from  time  to  time  a  victim  displayed  by  his  death 
a  testunony  of  England's  orthodoxy.  The  spirit 
of  LoUardy  survived,  to  some  extent,  amongst  the 
people ;  and  the  spark  was  readily  kindled  by  the 
flame  of  Luther's  rising  against  the  Pope.  Yet 
the  absence  of  any  definite  system  amongst  the 
Lollards  is  clearly  seen  by  the  fact  that  the  re- 
formed doctrines  took  their  shape,  even  in  Eng- 
land, from  Luther  and  Calvin,  and  that  there 
was  no  recurrence  to  AViclif  or  his  followers  for 
a  basis  of  belief.  Even  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  was  begun  anew ;  and  the  version  of 
Tyndale  (1526),  not  that  of  Wiclif,  was  the  foun- 
dation of  the  English  Bible. 

Lit.  — Contemporary  chronicles  are  Walsisg- 
HAM  {Hisloria  Ant/licana,  1272-142 J;  ed.  Riley, 
London,  1SG3-64,  2  vols.),  JIonk  ok  S.  Albans 
(Chronicon  Anf/lke,  1328-88;  ed.  Thompson,  Lon- 
don, 1874),  K.NiGHTON  (De  eventibus  Angtios,  in 
Twysden's  HisloritB  Anglicanm  Scriplorcs  Decern, 
London,  1652).  Still  more  important  is  the  collec- 
tion of  documents  concerning  the  Lollards  entitled 
Fasciculi  Zizaniorum  Magistri  Johannis  Wyctij'ciim 
Tritres,  ascribed  to  Thomas  Nettek  of  Wal- 
DEN,  ed.  Shirley,  London,  1858.  The  documents 
relating  to  ecclesiastical  action  against  the  Lol- 
lards are  to  be  found  in  Wilkins  :  Concilia 
MagncE  Brilannice,  vol.  3,  London,  1737.  The  par- 
liamentary proceedings  are  given  in  Rotuli  Par- 
liamentorum,  vols.  3  and  4,  London,  1808-34.  Ac- 
counts of  the  Lollard  martyrs  are  given  by  FoxE  : 
Acts  and  Monuute/Us  of  the  Clirislian  Mai-li/rs,  best 
edited  by  Cattlcy  and  Townsend,  London,  1841, 
revised,  1843-49,  8  vols.  Other  interesting  infor- 
mation is  to  be  found  in  (JAscoKiNE:  Lilier  V'eri- 
tatum,  written  from  1433  to  1457,  a  vast  theologi- 
cal encyclopa'dia,  of  which  extracts  have  been 
published  under  the  title  of  Loci  e  Libra  I'crita- 
/«m,  ed.  Rogers,  Oxford,  1881.  Of  literature  illus- 
trating the  ojiinions  of  the  Lollards  may  be  men- 
tioned The  Complaint  of  the  I'loirman  in  Wright, 
Political  Poems  and  Songs  relating  In  ICnglish  His- 
tori/  (vol.  i.,  London,  1859),  also  Pierce  the  Plnio- 
man's  Crede  (first  printed,  London,  1533,  edited 
by  Skeat,  London,  186S).  Polemical  writings 
against  the  i^ollaiils  are  AVoodfojui  :  Contra 
Jiihannem  Wiclefitm  JJecerlationes,  in  Brown's /'as- 
ciculus  llermii  expetcnihiruin  et  fugiendarum,  i.,  101, 
I^ondon,  1690;  Netter:  Doctrinale  Antiiiuitatum 
Fidei  ecclcsice  Catholica:,  3  vols.,  A'enice,  1571  and 
1757;  Pecock  ;  Repressor  of  orcnnitch  Blaming  of 
the  Ctergij,  ed.  Babington,  London,  1860,  2  vols. 
In  modern  times  tiie  i^ollards  iiave  not  been  spe- 
cially treated  by  any  wriliM-,  though  they  occupy 
a  jilace  in  all  political  or  ecclesiastical  histories  of 
England  and  in  works  on  Wiclif.      The  fuUeat 


LOMBARDS. 


1341 


LOMBARDUS. 


account  from  the  ecclesiastical  side  is  to  be  foiiufl 
in  Lechler  :  Jnhann  i-on  Wiclif  unrl  die  Vortje- 
schichte  der  Reformation,  2  Bde.,  J^eijizis^^  1873. 
The  first  vohmie  has  been  translated  with  addi- 
tional notes  by  I^oiumkr  :  John  Wiclif  and  his 
Enr/lisk  PrecursorK,  London,  1878,  2  vols.,  new 
edition,  1882,  1  vol.  The  fullest  account  from 
the  political  side  is  given  by  Stubbs  :  Tke  Conxti- 
lutionat  Hislorij  of  England,  vols.  2  and  .'J,  Oxford, 
1875-80.  M.   CKERillTON 

(Chnthill,  Northumbc'fhind,  Eiig.). 

LOMBARDS  (Lonr/obardi,  or  Lanr/ohardi,  "the 
long-boarded  "),  The,  a  Teutonic  tribe,  seem  to 
have  come  from  the  northern  part  of  Jutland, 
and  were  settled  on  the  left  shore  of  the  Lower 
Elb,  when,  in  5  A.I).,  they  were  attacked  by  the 
Romans.  They  were  reputed  brave,  Ijut  the  tribe 
was  small.  Towards  the  close  of  the  fom'th  cen- 
tury they  moved  through  LTpper  Silesia,  Bohemia, 
and  Moravia;  and  towards  the  close  of  the  fifth 
century  they  were  settled  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  from  the  month  of  the  Em  to  Vienna. 
In  526  they  crossed  the  Danube,  and  penetrated 
into  Pannonia;  and  in  5(38  they  entered  Italy.  The 
conquest  of  the  country  took  many  years,  and  was 
carried  out  in  a  most  cruel  and  merciless  manner. 
It  was  never  completed,  however.  The  regions 
around  Rome  and  Naples,  Sicily  and  the  southern 
part  of  the  peninsula,  the  Venetian  islands,  and 
the  coast  from  the  mouth  of  the  Po  to  Ancona, 
remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Byzairtines. 
The  advance  was  repeatedly  checked  by  the  in- 
trigues of  the  Pope,  whose  policy  during  that 
period  it  was  to  keep  Italy  weak  and  divided  in 
order  to  increase  his  ow'n  power.  The  Lombard 
Empire  was  finally  destroyed  by  Charlemagne  in 
774,  and  all  its  dominions  incorporated  with  the 
Prankish  Empire. 

When  the  Lombards  entered  Italy,  they  were, 
to  some  extent,  Pagans.  The  Christians  among 
them  were  Arians.  It  seems,  however,  that  the 
Catholic  Church  did  not  suffer  any  thing  from 
them ;  and  very  soon  her  successful  exertions  for 
their  conversion  began.  Theodolinde,  a  Bavarian 
princess,  —  married  first  to  King  Autharis,  and 
then  to  King  Agilulf,  —  belonged  to  the  Catholic 
Church,  and  maintained  an  intimate  friendship 
with  Gregory  the  Great.  She  built  the  nuignifi- 
cent  basilica  at  Monza,  and  dedicated  it  to  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  who  afterwards  became  the 
patron  saint  of  the  Lombards.  In  612,  still  in 
the  reign  of  Agilulf,  the  monastery  of  Bobbio 
■was  founded  in  the  Cottian  Alps  by  Columbanus, 
and  munificently  endowed  by  tlie  king  and  his 
son  Adoloald.  Under  Gundeberge,  the  daughter 
of  Theodolinde,  and,  like  her,  married  successively 
to  two  Lombard  kings,  —  Ariowald,  who  died  in 
636;  and  Rothai-i,  who  died  in  6.52,  —  all  traces 
of  Paganism  and  Arianism  disappeared  from 
among  the  people ;  and  the  Lombards  now  showed 
themselves  as  energetic  in  their  religions  faith  as 
formerly  in  their  warlike  enthusiasm.  In  the 
eighth  century  numerous  churches  and  monas- 
teries were  built,  and  all  ecclesiastical  institutions 
were  magnificently  provided  for. 

Meanwhile  the  political  relations  between  the 
Lombard  kings  and  the  Roman  popes  became 
more  and  more  strained.  Gregory  III.  (731-741) 
addressed  himself  to  Charles  Martell,  major  do7nus 
at  the   Merovingian   Court,  and   asked   for  aid 


against  Liutjirand  ;  but  at  that  moment  the  rela- 
tions between  the  pranks  and  the  Lombards  were 
very  friendly.  Stephen  III.  (753-757)  went  in 
person  to  Gaul,  anointed  Pepin,  and  his  sons 
Charles  and  (Jarloman,  kings  of  the  Franks;  and 
in  754  and  755  P('j)in  made  two  campaigns  in 
Italy,  and  compelled  Aistulf  to  surrender  his 
conquests.  Under  Desiderius  an  alliance  was 
formed  between  the  Franks  and  the  Lombards, 
which  seemed  likely  to  prove  fatal  to  the  plans 
of  the  Pope.  But  when  Charlemagne  repudiated 
the  daughter  of  Desiderius,  and  the  latter  gave 
support  to  Carloman's  widow  and  children,  the 
alliance  turned  into  a  bitter  feud  ;  and  in  773 
Adrian  I.  found  a  willing  ear  when  he  asked 
Charlemagne  for  aid.  See  Monumenta  Germanim 
/list,  srriptores  rerum  Langohardicorum  el  Ilal.  s(ec, 
6-0,  Hanover,  1878. 

LOMBARDUS,  Petrus,  called  Magisirr  Senten- 
tiarum  ("  Master  of  Sentences  "),  from  being  the 
author  of  the  Books  of  Sentences,  was  b.  in  the 
early  part  of  the  twelfth  century,  in  Novara, 
Lombardy;  d.  in  Paris,  July  20,  1160.  lie  was 
of  obscure  birth.  After  studying  at  Bologna,  h& 
went  to  Rheims,  where  he  continued  his  stuilies, 
his  maintenance  being  provided  for  by  Bernard 
of  Clairvaux.  From  there  he  went  to  Paris,  with 
letters  from  Bernard  to  the  convent  of  St.  Victor. 
He  became  a  distinguished  teacher,  and  most 
probably  a  canon  of  St.  Victor.  In  1159  he  was 
elevated  to  tlie  see  of  Paris,  which  he  lived  ta 
administer  only  a  single  year.  Of  the  facts  of 
his  life  nothing  further  is  known.  An  incident 
is  told  to  illustrate  his  humility,  to  the  effect,  that, 
on  the  day  of  his  consecration  as  bishop,  his 
mother  was  induced  by  some  noblemen  to  ajipeai-, 
against  her  wishes,  in  finer  attire  than  .she  was 
accustomed  to  wear  at  Novara ;  but  her  son  re- 
fused to  recognize  her  till  she  liad  exchanged  it 
for  her  usual  I'ustic  dress. 

Peter's  fame  rests  upon  his  literary  works,  and 
more  particularly  upon  his  Four  Books  of  Sen- 
tences (Lihri  quatuor  sentenllarutn).  In  this  work 
he  places  himself  in  sympathy  with  the  ruling 
tendencies  of  the  time,  —  the  ecclesiastical  and 
positive,  and  the  .speculative.  The  former  was 
concerned  with  the  teachings  of  the  Church  and 
the  Fathers:  the  latter  —  represented  by  Anselm, 
Abelard,  and  others  —  sought  to  justify  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Church  liy  sulitle  processes  of  reason- 
ing, and  refinement  of  argument.  Peter  wished 
to  represent  both  tendencies,  —  to  make  known  the 
teachings  of  the  Fathers,  and  to  establish  their 
truth  against  error.  He  presents  a  contra,st  to 
Abelard,  who,  in  his  work  Sic  et  non,  placed  side 
by  side  contradictoiy  statements  of  the  Fathers, 
not  with  the  purpose  of  reconciling  them,  as  did 
Peter,  nor  of  confirming  the  authority  of  the 
Fathers,  which  was  one  of  the  principal  objects 
of  Peter's  work.  Peter's  main  authority  is  Au- 
gustine. He  differs  from  Abelard,  likewise,  in 
seeking  to  arrange  his  matter  systematically.  His 
was  not  the  fii'st  collection  of  sentences.  Hugo  of 
St.  Victor  (d.  113.5),  Robert  Pulleyn  (d.  11.50), 
and  others  had  preceded  him  in  this  department. 
Nor  can  his  work  be  regarded  as  the  most  valuable 
of  its  kind. 

The  first  book  of  the  Sentences  treats  (in  fortj'- 
eight  distinctioties,  or  chapters)  of  God.  The 
author's  definition  of  the  Trinity  exposed  him  to 


LOMBARDUS. 


1342 


LORD. 


the  charge  of  lieresy.  Joachim  of  Fiore  (d. 
1202)  declares  he  had  taught  a  quaternity.  The 
matter  was  brought  before  the  Lateran  Council 
of  1215;  and  Lombard  was  acquitted,  it  being 
shown  that  he  had  simply  distinguished  between 
the  divine  essence  and  the  three  persons,  but  had 
in  nowise  constituted  a  fourth  person  in  the  God- 
head. The  second  book  discusses  (in  forty-four 
■chapters)  created  things.  Of  man's  original  state 
((/ist.  24),  Peter  teaches  that  the  gift  of  eternal 
life  was  a  superadded  gift;  and  that,  by  the 
apostasy,  man  not  only  lost  this,  but  suffered  an 
injury  (not  a  deprivation)  of  his  good  gifts  re- 
<;eived  at  creation  (naliiralia  bona).  In  the  third 
book  (forty  chapters)  the  author  discusses  the 
incarnation,  redemption,  and  the  virtues  of  hu- 
man cliaracter.  In  the  doctrine  of  the  work  of 
Christ  he  contents  himself  with  presenting  the 
different  views,  but  shows  a  leaning  to  the  theory 
of  Abelard,  according  to  which  we  are  made  free 
from  sin  by  the  love  to  God  which  the  manifesta- 
tion of  God's  love  in  the  death  of  Christ  excites. 
In  the  fourth  book  (fifty  chapters)  he  takes  up 
eschatological  subjects  and  the  sacraments,  de- 
claring for  seven  as  the  proper  number. 

The  Books  of  Sentences  of  Petrus  Lombardus 
belongs  to  that  class  of  useful  writings  whose 
continued  circulalion  depends  not  so  much  upon 
their  absolute  merit  as  upon  their  adaptation  to 
give  information  in  an  accessible  form,  which  the 
reader  otherwise  would  be  obliged  to  search  for 
witk  much  pains.  It  contains  no  profound  origi- 
xial  thoughts,  and  many  difficult  problems  are 
.suggested  which  the  author  does  not  solve  A 
comparison,  liowever,  of  the  Sentences  with  the 
works  of  his  successors,  as  well  as  predecessors, 
reveals  the  fact  that  Peter  is  more  moderate  in 
his  scholastic  casuistry  than  they.  The  work 
did  not  at  first  meet  with  a  universall}'  favorable 
reception.  Parts  were  attacked  as  heretical ;  and 
in  1300  the  professors  of  theology  at  Paris  an- 
nounced sixteen  articles  derived  from  it  which 
-contained  error.  Xotwithstanding  this  opposition, 
the  work  was  used  for  many  j'ears  as  a  text-book 
at  the  universities,  and  was  extensively  com- 
mented upon.  Connnentaries  continued  to  be 
■written  upon  it  after  the  Reformation,  especially 
in  Spain.  The  most  celebrated  is  by  Dominicus 
Soto  (d.  I.jGO)  ;  tlie  most  scholarly,  by  the  Dutch 
theologian  Est  ins  (d.  1613),  the  distinguished 
connnentator  of  the  I'auline  Epistles. 

Two  other  works  have  been  publi.shed  under 
the  Lombard's  name,  and  are  regard<'d  as  genuine, 
—  a  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  (first  ]irinted  at 
Paris  in  1533,  and  most  recently  in  Migne),  and 
Commentaries  upon  All  the  Pauline  Kjiistles,  first 
printed  in  Paris,  1.535,  and  by  Migne,  1851. 

Lit.  —  The  editions  of  the  Sentences  are  ex- 
ceedingly numerous:  the  oldest  appeared  at  Niirn- 
berg,  1474  ;  an  improved  text,  under  the  edilor.ship 
of  Aleaume,  Loewen,  1546,  of  wliich  Migne's 
edition  is  a  reprint.  On  his  life  and  work,  .see 
('.  E.  Bui.AKU.s:  ///.>.■(.  uniiwrs.  Parisien.,  Paris, 
1665,  toni.  ii.  ;  Duiiois:  Ilist.  eccles.  J'arisiens., 
J'aris,  1690,  torn.  ii. ;  Hist.  lit.  tie  la  France,  Paris, 
1763,  torn.  xii.  :  STiicKi, ;  Geschichle  il.  Philos.  il. 
Afitlclallers,  MnuvA,  1864,  i.  pp.  390-411;  Haoii  : 
J)or/mcn{/eschichli'  i'.  Millelalters,  AVien,  1875,  ii. 
ri]>.  104-307  ;  [F.  Puorc^is  :  Pierre  Lomhard,  Paris, 
1881].  M.  A.  LANDEREK.     (F.  NITZ8CU.) 


LONGFELLOW,  Henry  Wadsworth,  the  poet, 
b.  at  Portland,  Me.,  Feb.  27,  1807;  d.  at  Cam- 
bridge, Mass.,  March  24,  1S82.  After  graduating 
at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825,  he  became  a  law- 
student  in  the  office  of  his  father,  an  eminent 
jurist,  but  soon  gave  up  law  for  letters.  In  1826 
he  went  abroad,  and  spent  three  years  in  France, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  Germany,  preparing  himself  for 
the  chair  of  modern  languages  at  Bowdoin.  From 
Bowdoin  he  was  called  in  1835  to  succeed  George 
Ticknor  as  professor  of  modern  languages  and 
literature  at  Harvard  L^niversity.  After  another 
year  passed  in  study  and  travel  abroad,  he  en- 
tered upon  his  duties  at  Cambridge.  From  this 
time  his  career  was  as  the  shining  light  that 
shineth  more  and  more  unto  the  perfect  day. 
Voices  of  the  Night  (1839),  especially  the  Psahn 
of  Life,  may  be  said  to  have  struck  the  keynote 
of  his  poetical  fame,  and  at  once  made  him  known 
wherever  the  English  tongue  was  spoken.  Hype- 
rion, a  prose  romance,  appeared  in  the  same  year, 
ilmong  his  principal  works  that  followed  are  Bal- 
lads and  other  Poems,  and  Poems  on  Slavery  (1842), 
The  Sjianish  Stuilent  (1843),  Evangeline,  a  Tale  of 
Acadie  (1847),  The  Seaside  and  the  Fireside  (1850), 
The  Golden  Leijend  (1851),  The  Sonr;  of  Hiawatha 
(1855),  The  Courtship  of  Uliles  Standi.-.-h  (1858), 
Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn  (1863),  a  translation  of 
The  Divine  Comedy,  and  New-EiK/land  Tragedies 
(1869),  The  Divine  Tragedy  (187i),  The  Hanging 
of  the  Crane  (1874),  and  Moriluri  Salutamus,  a 
very  touching  poem  read  at  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary of  his  college  class.  Xot  long  after  settling 
at  Cambridge,  he  purchased  the  Craigie  house, 
celebrated  as  the  headquarters  of  Washington  ; 
and  here  he  continued  to  reside  until  his  death, 
the  centre  of  a  domestic  and  social  circle  known 
far  and  wide  for  its  virtues,  refinement,  and  litera- 
ry attractions.  In  1854  he  resigned  his  professor- 
ship, and  in  1868-69  travelled  again  in  Europe, 
everywhere  meeting  with  friends  and  admirers. 
The  University  of  Oxford  conferred  upon  him  at 
this  time  the  degree  of  D.C.L. 

Longfellow's  poetical  works  have  had  a  very 
wide  circulation  in  (treat  Britain,  as  well  as  at 
home:  numerous  translations  of  them  liave  also 
been  made  into  other  languages.  He  endeared 
himself  to  the  public  not  less  by  his  character 
than  by  his  genius.  Tlie  man  was  quite  as  nmch 
lionored  and  beloved  as  the  poet.  Nor  is  this 
■strange.  He  touches  the  chords  of  human  feel- 
ing and  .sympathy  with  such  skill,  because  he 
touches  them  with  the  liand  of  a  brotlier.  Hav- 
ing hiuLself  taken  deep  lessons  in  the  school  of 
life, —  lessons  of  great  sorrow  anil  suffering,  as 
well  as  of  joy,  —  he  knows  how  to  help  and  cheer 
others  who  are  learning  the  same  lessons. 

"  Such  songs  have  power  to  quiet 
The  restless  jiulse  of  care, 
And  come  lilii'  tlie  TieiK'dietion 
Whicli  follows  after  prayer." 

G.  L.  PRENTISB. 
LONGOBARDS.  See  LoMUAuns. 
LORD,  :is  a  term  of  address  to  a  divinity,  is 
(he  rendering  of  tlie  Authorized  Version  for  four 
Ilelirew  and  two  Greek  words.  (1)  nin'  and  ri\ 
("Jehovah");  wliich  see.  (2)  piN  ("  Adon  "). 
The  term  is  exactly  translated  "  lord,"  and  is  only 
rarely  applied  to  God  (Ps.  viii.  1);  usually  to  an 
eartlily  master,  as  a  husband   (Gen.  xviii.  12), 


LORD. 


lJJ4i5 


LORD'S  PRAYER. 


ruler  of  slaves  (Gen.  xxiv.  14),  or  a  king  (Gen. 
xlv.  8).  It  i.s  often  used  with  the  po.s.sessive  pro- 
noun, "  my  lord."  (3)  'Jll*^  ("  Adonai,"  plural  of 
"  Aden  ");  not  usually  applied  to  God  in  the  his- 
torical books,  for  it  is  used  therein  only  fourteen 
times  alone  (e.g.,  Gen.  xviii.  3),  and  thirteen  times 
in  connection  with  "Jehovah  "  (e.g..  Gen.  xv.  8); 
nor  used  at  all  in  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canti- 
cles. (4)  NI9  ("Mare"),  used  only  in  the  Book 
of  Daniel,  addressed  to  a  king,  but  also  to  God 
(ii.  47,  V.  23).  (5)  Kvpio;  ("Kurios"),  is  the  Septua- 
gint  and  New-Testament  translation  of  Jehovah, 
also  applied  to  Christ.  (6)  AfrrTroDjf  ("  Desjiotes  "), 
a  master  (Luke  ii.  29).  In  regard  to  these  it 
should  be  remarked  that  they  differ  too  widely 
to  admit  of  one  translation  in  common.  Espe- 
cially should  Jehovah  be  uniforndy  used  of  the 
Supreme  Being  wherever  sucli  term  occurs  in 
the  original.  Mr.  Wright  (art.  Lord,  in  Smith's 
Diclionwy  of  ike  Bible)  thus  speaks  of  the  typo- 
graphical arrangement  in  the  English  Bible  : 
"The  difference  between  'Jehovah'  and  'Ado- 
nai '  (or  '  Adon ')  is  generally  marked  in  the 
Authorized  Version  by  printing  the  word  in  small 
capitals  (Lord)  when  it  represents  the  former 
{Gen.  XV.  4,  etc.),  and  with  an  initial  capital 
only  when  it  is  the  translation  of  the  latter  (Ps. 
jLCvii.  5,  etc),  except  in  Exod.  xxiii.  17,  xxxiv.  23, 
where  '  the  Lord  God  '  should  be  more  consis- 
tently 'the  Lord  Jehovah.'  A  similar  distinction 
prevails  between  nin',  (the  letters  of  'Jehovah,' 
with  the  vowel-points  of  '  Elohim  ')  and  0"^* '?? 
('  Elohim');  the  former  being  represented  in  the 
Authorized  Ver.sion  by 'God'  in  small  capitals 
(Cien.  XV.  2,  etc.),  while  'Elohim'  is  '  God  '  with 
an  initial  capital  only.  And  generally,  when 
the  name  of  the  deity  is  printed  in  capitals,  it 
indicates  that  the  corresponding  Hebrew  is  ruiT, 
which  is  translated  '  Lokd.'  or  '  God,'  according 
to  the  vowel-points  by  which  it  is  accompanied." 

LORD,  Nathan,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Berwick, 
Me.,  Nov.  28,  1793;  d.  at  Hanover,  N.H.,  Sept. 
8,  1870.  He  was  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College, 
1809,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  1815; 
entered  the  Congregational  ministry ;  and  after 
twelve  years  of  pastoral  labor  at  Amherst,  N.H., 
was  president  of  Dartmouth  College  from  Oct.  2.j, 
1828,  to  July,  1SG3.  His  presidency  was  able, 
dignified,  and  successful.  His  publications  were 
mostly  articles  in  periodicals.  Two  published 
Letters  to  ^tinisters  of  the  Gospel  of  all  Denomina- 
tions,  on  Slavery  (1854-55)  deserve  mention  for 
their  defence  of  slavery  on  biblical  grounds. 
They  occasioned  much  debate. 

LORD'S  DAY,  the  oldest  and  best  designation 
of  the  Christian  Sabbath ;  tirst  used  by  .St.  John, 
llev.  i.  10  (')  KvpmKii  y/iepa).  See  Sabisath,  Sun- 
day. 

LORD'S  PRAYER,  The.  Our  Lord,  at  the  re- 
quest of  his  disciples,  imitated  the  Baptist,  and 
taught  them  a  prayer,  which  was  to  be  the  pattern 
of  all  prayer  in  his  name.  Tliis  prayer  sliould 
not  be  allowed  to  degenerate  into  a  mere  formula, 
nor  be  frequently  repeated  in  service,  — ■  a  practice 
contradictory  to  tlie  substance  and  object  of  the 
prayer.  The  Lord's  Prayer  is  twice  given  in  the 
New  Testament  (Matt.  vi.  9-13 ;  Luke  xi.  2-4), 
in  slightly  differing  words. 

It  has  frequently  been  discussed  whether  Mat- 
thew or  Luke  has  the  correct  form,  or  whether 

?3— n 


Jesus  did  not  really  teach  it  twice.  The  la.st  sui> 
position  is  improbable.  It  is,  however,  likely  that 
Matthew  inserted  the  prayer  in  his  report  of  tlie 
Sermon  on  the  i\Iount.  Equally  profitle.ss  are  the 
discussions  relative  to  the  sources  of  the  pirayer. 
John  Lightfoot  and  otliers  maintain  that  it  was 
extracted,  petition  for  petition,  from  rabbinical 
prayers.  But  the  proof  adduced  reduces  itself  to 
this,  that,  in  these  latter  prayers,  God  is  some- 
times called  "Father"  (as  lie  is,  indeed,  in  the  Old 
Testament:  cf.  Deut.  xxxii.  5;  Job  xxxiv.  30, 
marg.  ;  Isa.  Ixiii.  10;  Jer.  iii.  4,  39;  INIal.  i.  6); 
the  restoration  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  is  plead- 
ed for  ;  and  the  petition  occurs,  "  Hallowed  be  thy 
name  through  our  works."  The  remaining  peti- 
tions have  Deen  found  in  a  prayer-book  in  use 
among  Portuguese  Jews  of  the  middle  ages,  and 
in  another  composed  by  a  rabbi,  Klafz,  about  1500 
A.D.  Surely  our  Lord  did  not  borrow  from  these. 
The  best  refutation  of  the  idea  of  compilation  is 
the  Lord's  Praj'er  itself,  so  symmetrical  in  arrange- 
ment, so  progressive  in  its  thought,  and  .so  inex- 
haustible in  its  depth. 

"  Our  Father  who  art  in  heaven,"  so  the  prayer 
begins.  For  the  first  time  is  God  called  the  Fa- 
ther of  particular  persons.  In  the  Old-Testament 
parallels  he  is  the  Father  of  tlie  people  of  Israel ; 
and  Elihu  alone  (Job  xxxiv.  30,  marg.)  calls  him 
"  Father "  in  the  personal  sense.  In  the  New 
Testament,  God  appears  as  our  Father  in  Christ; 
for,  since  he  is  tlie  Father  of  Christ,  he  is  the 
Father  of  those  who  are  in  Christ  (John  i.  12). 
"Our  Father"  is  thus  the  express  opposite  to  the 
heathen  idea  of  "  the  father  of  gods  and  men," 
an  epithet  fi-equently  applied  ;  e.g.,  by  Homer  to 
Zeus.  "  Heaven  "  is  the  residence  of  God,  that 
part  of  his  creation  wherein  neither  sin  nor  death 
is  found,  wherein  his  will  is  perfectly  fulfilled : 
in  short,  where  live  the  unfallen  angels  and  the 
perfectly  holy,  in  sight  of  the  uncovered  glory  of 
God.  The  clause  "  in  heaven  "  reminds  us  of  the 
holiness  of  God  to  whom  we  pray  ;  the  epithet 
"  Father,"  of  his  condescending  grace. 

The  first  petition  is,  "  Hallowed  be  thy  name." 
This  properly  comes  first,  because  to  give  God  the 
gloiy  which  is  his  due  is  the  first  and  supreme 
desire  of  the  Christian.  God  does  not  exist  for 
H.S-,  but  for  himself :  we  are  the  creatures  of  his 
bounty.  His  "name"  is  Jehovali,  —  the  sacred 
name  by  which  he  revealed  himself.  This  name 
expres.ses  his  Godliead.  To  "hallow  "it  means 
to  declare  that  he  is  God  from  all  eternity,  that 
he  is  holy,  and  demands  holiness  in  his  creatures, 
and  that  we  are  what  we  are  in  consequence  of  his 
grace.  The  Christian  prays,  not  onljf  for  power 
himself  to  glorify  God,  but  that  the  glory  of  God 
may  be  acknowledged  by  the  whole  world. 

The  second  petition  is,  "  Tliy  kingdom  come." 
The  "  kingdom  "  is  that  which  the  Lord  will  set 
up  on  his  return.  The  petition  is,  therefore,  not 
for  personal  fitness  to  enter  the  kingdom,  but  for 
the  completion  of  tlie  work  of  redempition.  Im- 
plied is,  of  coui'se,  the  request  that  the  kingdoms 
of  this  world  may  not  hinder  the  progress  of  Mes- 
siah's kingdom.  It  is  true  they  cannot,  yet  God 
means  that  we  should  pray  that  they  may  not. 

The  third  petition  is,  "  Thy  will  be  done,  as  in 
heaven,  so  on  earth."  It  brings  us  face  to  face 
with  tlie  contrast  between  tlie  perfect  obedience 
of  heaven  and  the  repeated  rebellion  of   earth. 


LORD'S  PRAYER. 


1344 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


That  the  latter  may  cease,  the  Christian  desires. 
In  this  petition  he  repents  sincerely,  fii-st  his  own 
disobedience,  and  then  that  of  the  whole  earth, 
and  implores  (!od  to  give  strength  to  him,  and 
grace  to  his  fellows,  to  do  the  will  of  God. 

These  first  three  petitions  contain  a  reference  to 
the  triune  nature  of  God.  God,  whose  name  is 
to  be  hallowed,  is  the  Father  of  Jesus  Christ,  the 
Lord  and  Creator  of  all  things.  His  future  king- 
dom is  also  the  kingdom  of  the  Father,  but  set  up 
through  the  instrumentality  of  the  Son.  And, 
tliat  God's  will  may  be  done,  the  Father  and  Son 
work  together  through  the  Holy  Ghost. 

Parallel  with  the  first  three  are  the  last  three 
pititions.  Tlie  present  is  a  time  of  waiting  for  the 
children  of  God,  through  which  they  must  needs 
be  maintained.  The  latter  petitions  recognize  this. 
The  fourth  is,  "  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread." 
For,  first  of  all  in  this  present  state,  we  need  bodi- 
I5  sustenance.  The  word  cKiovaioc  ("  daily  ")  occurs 
oiih'  in  this  prayer.  Three  derivations  have  been 
proposed,  —  that  from  fmiiv  (sc.  wwof),  or  from 
emoiiaa  (sc.  n/iipay,  i.e.,  "  bread  for  the  coming  time 
or  day,"  which  would  not  necessarily  imply  im- 
patience, as  the  request  might  he  made  without 
the  forbidden  "  anxious  thought ;  "  yet  the  words 
"this  day"  seem  to  indicate  that  the  petition 
refers  to  the  present,  and  therefore  it  is  better  to 
derive  it  from  oiaca,  i.e.,  the  "necessary"  bread, 
and  give  the  phrase  the  meaning,  the  bread  that 
is  necessary  for  us  to  live  upon.  There  is  here  no 
reference  to  spiritual  sustenance,  such  as  the  word 
of  God,  or  tlie  Lord's  Supper,  as,  e.g.,  the  Fathers 
maintained.  [Compare  the  elaborate  Appendix 
by  Bishop  Liglitfoot,  "On  the  words  sirioiawc,  nepi- 
oi'oioc,"  attached  to  liis  treatise,  On  a  Fresh  Revis- 
ion of  the  Eni/iish  New  Testament,  London,  1871, 
reprint  by  Dr.  Schaff,  New  York,  1873.  In  the 
Fevised  I?ew  Testament  "our daily  bread  "is  kept 
in  the  text;  but  the  English  Committee  put  in  the 
margin  "  Gr.  our  bread  for  the  coniiny  dny,"  while 
the  American  Committee  present,  as  an  alterna- 
tive reading,  "our  needful  bread."] 

The  fifth  petition  is,  "  And  forgive  us  our  debts, 
as  we  also  have  forgiven  our  debtors,"  —  another 
recognition  of  our  condition.  As  the  fourth  ap- 
pealed to  (lod  as  the  Creator,  this  appeals  to  him 
as  the  .Saviour  in  Jesus  Christ.  The  second  re- 
ferred to  the  future  completion  of  the  kingdom; 
this  to  the  riches  of  grace  in  the  kingdom  as  at 
present  constituted,  viz.,  to  the  present  deliver- 
ance from  guilt,  the  forgiveness  of  sins.  Wliat 
sej)arat<^s  us  from  the  kingdom  of  Christ  is  our 
sins:  this  wall  of  partition  must  be  daily  removed 
by  renewed  supplication  for  the  forgiveness  once 
for  all  effected  by  Christ.  The  "  as  "  in  the  peti- 
tion is  not  "  because  :  "  our  forgiveness  of  others 
does  not  merit  God's  forgiveness  of  us ;  ratlier  it 
points  to  the  conduct  we  must  show,  if  we  really 
would  enjoy  God's  grace. 

The  sixth  petition  is,  "  And  bring  us  not  into 
temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  tlie  evil  one." 
Augustine  and  the  Lutheran  divines  divide  this 
petition  into  two :  Chrysostoni  and  the  Heformcd 
divines  consider  it  a  unit.  The  fir.st  clau.se  does 
indeed  express  positively  what  the  second  does 
negatively:  so  one  is  at  liberty  to  consider  tlicm 
separately,  but  they  are  closely  connected.  'O 
jTovijpuf  is  in  Scripture  the  Evil  One,  Satan.  'I'he 
adjective  wowypof  never  means  simple  sinfulness  as 


such,  Tnuch  less  "  evil "  generally,  but  always  that 
wickedness  which  is  Antichrist,  working  directly 
against  the  salvation  which  is  in  Christ  Je.sus. 
The  adjective  is  either  always  connected  with 
some  substantive,  or  else,  if  absolute,  is  the  mas- 
culine, and  specifies  a  person,  namely.  Satan  (of. 
Matt.  V.  37).  The  word  "  temptation  "  means  both 
trial,  and  also  actual  temptation  to  sin.  But  God 
tempts  no  one  to  sin.  Yet  he  does  place  his  chil- 
dren in  circumstances  of  trial ;  and  these  trials  are 
wholesome,  and  no  Christian  seeks  deliverance 
from  them.  The  temptation  in  them  arises  from 
our  sinful  hearts.  The  petition  thei'efore  means, 
from  such  temptations  above  that  we  "  are  able  " 
may  God  deliver  us.  He  surely  will  (1  Cor.  x. 
13)  ;  but  he  wants  to  be  asked  to  do  so.  The  pe- 
tition is  a  recognition  that  we  contend,  not  against 
flesh  and  blood,  but  against  the  Evil  One,  and 
therefore  .stand  in  dire  need  of  the  divine  helji. 
We  praj'  to  be  delivered  from  all  temptations  to 
leave  our  Saviour,  or  to  decline  in  our  faith  and 
love  (in  this  waj' the  sixth  is  parallel  to  the  third 
petition),  and  also  that  the  church  may  be  finally 
delivered,  and  the  victor}-  of  Christ  be  made  com- 
plete. 

The  doxology  is  decidedly  spurious;  yet  it  is 
beautiful  and  fitting :  it  would  even  better  corre- 
spond to  the  double  triadic  arrangement  of  the 
prayer,  if  the  "power"  were  made  to  precede  the 
"  kingdom." 

Liturgical  use  of  the  prayer  can  be  traced  as 
eai"ly  as  the  end  of  the  third  century,  in  Tertidliau 
and  Cyprian  ;  and  then  the  doxology  was  in  use, 
giving  it  a  better  liturgical  close. 

Lit.  —  Noteworthy  expositions  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  are  given  by  Origkn:  0pp.,  torn.  i.  pp. 
126  sqq. ;  Chrysostom  :  Horn.  19  in  Mall.,  and 
Horn,  de  instit.  secundum  Deiim  vila ,  Gukgoky 
Nyssa  : />e  oral i one ;  Cyprianus:  De  orat.  dom. 
Among  moderns,  by  Luther,  in  liis  Small  Cate- 
chism, by  Tholuck  :  Bergpredic/t,  pp.  372-44!)  v 
[MoSF.s  Margolioi'TH  :  The  Lord's  Prayer  no 
Adaptation  of  existintj  Jewish  I'etitions,  London, 
187ti].  "  '  EI!U.\UD. 

LORD'S  SUPPER.  I.  Roman  and  Greek 
Catholic  View.  —  See  Tkansui!stanti.\tion. 

II.  The  Lutheran  View. — The  four  times  re- 
peated account  of  the  institution  of  the  Lord'a 
Sujiper  (Matt.  xxvi. 26-28;  Mark  xiv.  22-24  ;  Luke 
xxii.  19,20;  1  Cor.  xi.  23-25)  is  the  basis  of  the 
doctrine ;  and  the  Lutheran  Church  insi.sts  that 
the  words  shall  be  taken  in  their  simple,  primitive 
meaning,  and  not  figuratively.  Nor  n)ust  the  jxis- 
sage  on  the  bread  from  heaven  (.lohn  vi.  "i.'j  sii.) 
bo  consi<lered  explanatory  by  aMtii'i]iatiiui ;  for. 
although  our  Lord  may  well  have  had  in  mind 
the  supper  he  knew  he  should  institute  (coMip.  vi. 
.W-fiti),  he  di<l  not  speak  of  it.  and  could  not  have 
spoken  of  it,  if,  as  is  evident,  he  di'sired  to  present 
something  which  faith,  if  not  rea.son,  could  grasp. 

The  four  accounts  reduce  themselves  substan- 
tially to  two;  for  Mattiiew's  and  Mark's  stand 
together  opjiosite  to  Luke's  and  Paul's,  yet  their 
dili'erences  do  not  affect  the  doctrine.  We  take 
by  jireference  Paul's  account,  because  he  received 
it  fi-oni  Christ  (1  Cor.  xi.  23)  :  "  The  Lord  Jesus 
in  the  night  in  which  he  was  betrayed  took  bread; 
and  when  h(^  ha<l  given  Ibanks,  he  brake  it,  and 
said,  This  is  my  body,  wliich  is  for  you  [i.e.,  is 
given  to  death  for  yo>i]  :  this  do  in  remembrance 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


1345 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


of  me.  In  like  manner  also  [he  took]  the  cup, 
ufter  Slipper,  saying.  This  cup  is  the  new  cove- 
nant in  my  Mood:  this  do,  as  often  as  ye  drink 
it,  in  remembrance  of  nie."  The  first  question 
concerns  the  words,  "in  my  blood."  L)o  they 
refer  to  the  "  cup,"  or  the  "  covenant  "  ?  Should 
■we  read,  The  new  covenant  in  (by  means  of)  my 
blood?  or.  This  cup  is  in  my  blood  the  new 
covenant?  Plainly  the  latter.  The  cup  is  the 
new  covenant,  because  it  contains  the  blood  of 
Christ  poured  out  for  us.  It  is  further  to  be  boi'ne 
in  mind,  that  the  cup  was  given  after  the  Passover 
meal  (so  Luke  and  Paul) ;  so  that  it  was  not  a 
part  of  the  Jewish  ceremony,  but  a  new  institu- 
tion. It  is  an  open  question  whether  the  giving 
of  the  bread  and  that  of  the  wine  were  separated 
by  an  interval  :  at  all  events,  the  two  actions  are 
parts  of  one  ordinance.  —  The  words,  "This  do  in 
remembrance  of  me,"  do  not  express  the  object  of 
the  .sacrament,  but  the  meaning:  it  is  a  memorial 
of  the  death  of  Jesus,  as  Paul  himself  says  :  "  For 
as  often  as  ye  eat  this  bread,  and  drink  the  cup, 
ye  proclaim  the  Lord's  death  till  he  come." 

The  accounts  of  Matthew  and  Mark  add  little. 
Peculiar  to  Matthew  is  the  connection  between 
the  sliedding  of  the  blood  and  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  (xxvi.  L'8).  Matthew  and  Mark  relate  that 
all  present  drank  of  the  cup;  the  first,  that  it  was 
done  at  the  request  of  Jesus.  All  four  unite  in 
declaring,  that,  through  the  blood  of  Christ,  a  new 
covenant  has  been  made.  This  blood  was  not, 
however,  shed  for  all,  but  "  for  many "  (Trtpi 
■KuTAuv^ ;  although  the  expression  implies  that  the 
number  thereby  blessed  is  very  large. 

The  decisive  question,  after  all,  is,  Are  the 
■words,  "  This  is  my  body,"  "  This  is  my  blood," 
literal,  or  symbolical  V  AVas  there  an  actual  pres- 
entation of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ?  or  was 
there  only  one  in  simile  ?  The  decision  rests  upon 
the  parallel  position  of  subject  and  predicate.  No 
emphasis  should  be  put  upon  "  is,"  for  Luke  omits 
it  in  respect  to  the  cup,  without  thereby  altering 
the  sense ;  nor  is  it  appropriate  to  quote  passages 
in  which  such  a  parallelism  exists,  and  where  pred- 
icate or  subject  is  figurative  (e.g..  Matt.  xiii.  38, 
39;  John  xv.  1,  5);  because  for  the  Lord  to  intro- 
duce illustrations  and  similes  into  his  instruction 
or  discourses  is  one  thing,  and  quite  another  to  use 
them  in  a  solemn  hour  when  he  established  a  new 
ordinance  through  the  presentation  of  gifts  which 
he  named.  In  the  latter  case  there  was  no  in- 
struction, or  explanation  of  a  subject,  through  an 
illustration,  but  a  description  of  what  the  disci- 
ples took  from  his  hand,  and  should  eat  and  drink. 
To  suppose  that  our  Lord  at  such  a  time  spoke 
in  metaphor  is  contrary  to  the  solemnity  of  the 
occasion,  the  meaning  of  the  institution,  and  the 
short,  precise  phrases  employed.  Problematical 
and  mysterious  the  words  were,  doubtless ;  but 
the  disciples  were  used  to  this,  and  their  faith 
■would  not  be  shaken  thereby,  but  rather  deep- 
ened and  strengthened  through  the  expectation 
of  a  fi'esh  experience  of  his  might.  Nay,  our 
Lord  called  "what  he  gave  them  his  body  aiul  his 
blood ;  and  no  circumstance  leads  us  to  suppose 
they  were  any  thing  else.  The  question  now  arises, 
whether,  upon  the  utterance  of  these  words,  the 
bread  and  the  ■wine  were  changed  into  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  The  answer  is  found  in 
1  Cor.  X.  10:    "The  cup  of   blessing  which  we 


ble.ss,  is  it  not  a  commuiuon  of  the  blood  of 
Christ?  The  bread  which  we  break,  is  it  not  a 
connnunion  of  the  body  of  Chri.st?"  Paul  plainly 
says  these  three  things;  (1)  'J'he  bread  and  wine 
are  not  changed  into  other  substances,  but  they 
are  a  veritable  communion  of  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ;  {2)  This  connnunion  is  given  with  the 
bread  and  wine,  and  is  in.separable  from  it;  (3)  The 
means  of  enjoying  this  communion  is  the  par- 
taking of  the  elements;  so  that  the  connnunion 
follows  whatever  may  be  the  state  of  mind  or 
intention  on  the  part  of  the  recipient.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  same  with  the  Lord's  table  as  with 
the  table  of  demons :  if  one  sits  at  an  idolatrous, 
sacrificial  feast,  lie  partakes  of  the  table  of  the 
idol,  whatever  may  be  one's  opinion  of  the  idol. 
By  reason  of  our  eating  one  bread,  "  we  who  are 
many  are  one  bread,  one  body."  Hut  the  bread 
which  possesses  this  unifying  effect  is  that  de- 
scribed in  the  sixteenth  ver.se;  namely,  that  which 
is  the  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ  for  all 
who  partake  of  it:  therefore  the  unifying  band 
of  the  communicants  with  one  another  is  the 
equal  share  of  all  in  the  bread  in  and  by  means 
of  which  the  Lord  shares  his  body  with  them. 

But  the  Lutheran  Church  rejects  transubstan- 
tiation,  while  insisting  that  the  body  and  blood 
of  Christ  are  mysteriously  and  supernaturally 
united  with  the  bread  and  wine,  so  that  they  are 
received  when  the  latter  are.  This  union  of  the 
earthly  and  heavenly  elements  is  called  unio  sacra- 
mentalis,  is  essential  to  the  sacrament,  and  not 
present  when  the  ordinance  is  not  observed  ac- 
cording to  Christ's  appointment.  The  elements 
are  not  to  be  adored ;  for  they  are  for  use,  not  for 
worship.  The  question  how  tlie  mysterious  union 
is  accomplished  is  answered  by  saying,  Purely  by 
the  continuing  power  of  the  first  ordinance  by 
Christ  himself.  The  command  "  Do  this  "  insures, 
that,  as  often  as  the  sacrament  is  administered, 
the  union  takes  place :  hence  the  union  does  not 
depend  upon  the  consecration  of  a  priest.  But 
Christ's  words  of  institution  should  always  be 
clearly  spoken  or  sung,  (1)  out  of  obedience  to 
Christ's  connnand  to  make  every  celebration  a 
repetition  of  the  first ;  ("J)  in  order  that  the  faith 
of  the  hearer  in  the  existence  and  importance  of 
the  sacrament  may  be  awakened,  strengthened, 
and  confirmed;  (3)  and  in  order  that  the  elements 
may  be  blessed  and  consecrated  to  the  holy  use. 
The  further  question  respecting  the  moment  when 
the  union  takes  place  may  be  dismissed  as  un- 
profitable to  discuss.  It  is  essential  to  a  right 
administration  of  the  sacrament,  that  its  three 
parts,  consecration,  distribution,  and  reception,  be 
all  present.  The  Lutheran  Church  emphasizes 
the  reception  by  the  mouth  {manducatiu  orulk), 
and  of  both  kinds  by  all  the  communicants 
(manducatio  indiyiuirum).  It  emphasizes  the  first 
in  contradistinction  to  the  Calvinistic  view  of 
spiritual  participation  through  faith.  This  it 
considers  contradictory  to  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, which  refer  to  oral  communion,  —  "Take," 
"eat,"  "drink."  Similarly  Paul  calls  the  cup, 
which  we  bless,  and  the  bread,  which  we  break, 
the  communion  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
But  these  are  actually  taken  by  the  month.  When, 
therefore,  the  Lutheran  Confession  uses  the  ex- 
pression, that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are 
received  in,  loith,  aud  under  the  bread  aud  uiiie 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


134C. 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


of  the  sacrament,  it  means  that  no  one  can  enjoy 
in  this  sacrament  the  bread  and  wine  unless  he 
does  at  the  same  time  actually  receive  them  by 
his  mouth.  But  the  meaning  is  not  that  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  are  corporeally  present  (hn- 
panatio)  in  the  bread  and  wine,  nor  in  such  a 
manner  connected  with  them  that  they  are  par- 
taken of  as  so  much  material  food,  and  enter  the 
system.  On  the  contrary,  the  Lutheran  Church 
asserts  the  spiritual  partaking  of  the  heavenly 
elements,  but  not  as  if  this  spiritual  partaking 
were  something  different  and  distinct  from  the 
oral  partaking,  rather  as  proceeding  at  the  same 
time,  the  two  being  supernaturally  and  spiritually 
connected.  Nothing  depends  upon  the  spiritual 
condition  of  the  recipient.  He  may  receive  the 
body  and  blood  unworthily;  and  then  he  eats 
them  to  his  own  judgment  (1  Cor.  xi.  29),  for  he 
becomes  "guilty  of  the  body  and  blood  of  the 
Lord"  (xi.  27),  not  discerning  the  Lord's  body; 
i.e.,  not  considering,  that,  in  taking  the  material 
elements,  he  is  at  the  same  time  receiving  the 
body  of  the  Lord.  But  this  effect  would  not 
happen  if  the  unworthy  recipient  partook  only 
of  bread  and  wine.  The  unworthy  are  all  those 
who  do  not  believe,  who  go  to  this  sacrament 
without  any  repentance  of  their  past  sins,  and 
sincere  desire  to  improve  their  lives  {Form.  Cone., 
Epit.,  §  18;  Sol.  (led.,  vii.  §§  69-71). 

In  regard  to  the  blessing  attached  to  tlie  right 
use  of  the  sacrament,  the  Confession  says,  in  brief, 
"  These  words,  '  Given  and  shed  for  you  for  the 
forgiveness  of  sins,'  show,  that,  in  the  sacrament, 
forgiveness  of  sins,  life,  and  salvation  are  given ; 
for,  where  forgiveness  of  sin  is,  there  is  also  life 
and  salvation." 

AVhat  has  been  previously  said  may  be  embraced 
in  the  following  propositions.  (1)  The  words  of 
institution  are  to  be  understood  in  their  ordinary 
acceptation.  Since  our  Lord  said,  "Take,  eat, 
drink,  this  is  my  body,  my  blood,"  his  body  and 
blood  are  really  and  truly  present,  and  are  dis- 
tributed and  received.  (2)  This  reception  is  by 
the  mouth,  agreeal)ly  to  the  words  of  institution, 
because  the  Lord  has  determined  no  other  way, 
but  at  the  same  time  spiritually,  because  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  is  a  spiritual,  heavenly 
food,  which  is  not  assimilated  by  the  body,  as 
earthly  food  would  be.  (3)  Because  the  reception 
of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  joined  to  the  earthly  signs,  so  both 
are  received  by  all  those  who  participate  in  the 
sacrament,  held  agreeably  to  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, irrespective  of  their  worthiness  or  unworthi- 
ness,  but  to  the  V)lessing  of  the  worthy,  and  to 
the  judgment  of  the  unworthy. 

It  remains  now  to  answer  certain  questions. 
I'irst,  Is  not  the  Roman  Church  right  in  giving 
the  laity  the  bread  only,  inasmuch  as  in  the  bread 
(i.e.,  the  body)  the  blood  is  of  course  contained? 
In  regard  to  this  it  is  sufficient  to  remark,  that 
such  action  is  plainly  in  flat  contradiction  to  the 
words  of  institution,  "  Drink  ye  all  of  it,"  and  also 
to  the  action  of  our  Lord  in  giving  the  cup.  But 
next  it  may  ho  a.sked,  What  kind  of  body  and 
blood  is  that  we  partake  of  in  the  Lord's  SupjierV 
The  glorified.  'I'o  this  it  may  be  objected,  that 
the  primaiy  reference  must  have  been  to  the  mor- 
tal body.  True;  and  it  is  the  same  body,  but  it 
is  differently  conditioned.     It  is  not  now  mortal, 


but  immortal,  glorified.  But,  if  that  is  the  case, 
one  may  further  object :  Then  those  who  received 
the  bread  and  wine  directly  from  the  Lord's  hands 
did  not  receive  the  sacrament  as  we  do.  for  Christ 
was  not  yet  glorified.  The  objection  is  aimed  at 
the  power  of  Christ.  The  Lord,  who  had  powei- 
to  lay  down  his  life,  and  power  to  take  it  again 
(.John  X.  18),  is  not  restricted  by  laws  of  our 
human  nature.  When  he  said,  "  Take,  eat.  this 
is  my  body,"  he  had  perfect  ability  to  give  his 
body  to  the  disciples.  Wonderful,  surely,  mj^ste- 
rious,  supernatural,  but  not  impossible,  is  this 
proceeding.  The  power  thus  to  be  present  wher- 
ever the  Lord's  Supper  is  administered,  comes 
from  the  union  in  him  of  the  human  nature  with 
the  divine  or  divine-human  person  {communicatio 
idiomalum). 

See  Fr.4NK  :  Theologie  der  Concordienformel , 
Abt.  iii.  ;  v.  Hofmann  :  Schriflheu-eis,  ii.  2,  pp. 
223  sqq.  von   BURGER  (Lutheran). 

III.  The  Reforntied  View.  —  This,  like  the 
Catholic  and  the  Lutheran,  underwent  certain 
changes  ere  it  reached  its  present  form,  and  is 
even  now  differently  expressed,  as  the  opposition 
to  the  Lutheran  view  is  more  or  less  strongly  put. 
The  battle  was,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Reforma- 
tion, over  the  question  whether  the  words  of  insti- 
tution were  to  be  taken  literally  or  figuratively. 
Zwingli  laid  the  stress  upon  ''is,"  in  the  sense  of 
"means ; "  Qicolampadius,  upon  "  body  and  blood." 
which  he  declared  means  "represents  body  and 
blood,"  —  a  more  correct  point  to  emphasize,  since 
the  copulative  fails  in  Aramaic,  the  speech  our 
Lord  employed.  This,  however,  Zwingli  knew. 
Lutheran  theologians  are  now  not  so  much  inclined 
to  oppose  the  tropical  interpretation,  bearing  in 
mind  that  it  was  accepted  by  such  men  as  Augu.s- 
tine  and  Athanasius,  and,  moreover,  that  figura- 
tive expressions  occur  too  frequently  in  the  Bible 
to  make  it  impossible  for  our  Lord  to  have  used 
such  in  the  institution  of  the  Last  Supper.  But 
the  advocates  of  the  literal  interjiretation  insist 
that  he  would  not  speak  figuratively  at  so  solemn 
and  momentous  a  time.  In  reply,  it  should  be 
said,  it  is  not  for  us  to  say  so.  We  know  he  did 
speak  so  on  other  occasions,  and  from  misunder- 
standing him  sad  events  have  happened  (Matt. 
xix.  12).  \\'i?  dare  not  prescribe  how  Christ  must 
speak.  But  the  opponents  say.  it  cannot  be  sup- 
posed he  would  give  his  disciples  a  mere  figure, 
since  the  words  he  n.sed  imply  that  he  gave  them 
something  real.  This  argument  is,  of  course,  not 
to  be  so  understood  as  begging  the  (piestion :  what 
he  did  give  tliem  being  the  very  thing  to  be  doter- 
miiu'd ;  for.  it'  he  really  did  give  lliem  his  veritable 
body,  then  it  would  be  an  emptying  of  the  sacra- 
ment to  understand  the  w'ord  "body  "  flg\n-atively. 
Lutheran  tlieologians  do  not  so  insist  upon  the 
strictly  literal  meaning  of  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, that  thereby  an  absolute  equality  between 
subject  and  predicate  is  established.  Luther  saw 
that  such  an  interpretation  led  directly  to  the 
Roman  view:  therefore,  for  a  time,  he  also  inclined 
to  the  figurative  interjiretation.  The  Lutherans 
avoid  the  dilemma,  Rome,  or  the  Reformed 
Church,  by  saying.  In,  with,  and  under  the  bread, 
the  body  of  Clirist  is  given.  But  this  expression 
proves  that  the  Lutherans  are  not  yet  completely 
emancipated  from  Romanism.  At  the  same  time, 
it  is  freely  granted  that  the  ^winglian  theologians. 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


1347 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


in  their  zeal  against  the  Roman  Churcli,  went  too 
far  on  the  other  side. 

The  institution  of  tlie  Lord's  Supper  was  pre- 
ceded by  the  speech  of  Jesus  in  the  synagogue 
at  Capernaum  (John  vi.  48-G3)  ;  and  the  latter, 
though  in  no  way  directly  connected  with  the 
former,  throws  considerable  light  upon  it,  in  that 
it  presents  an  instance  of  figurative  speaking. 
On  both  occasions  is  there  mention  made  of  an 
eating  and  drinking  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  But  in  his  Capernaum  speech,  there 
surely  was  a  most  emi^hatic  rejection  of  the  literal 
acceptation  of  those  words;  for  this  was  just  the 
sense  the  people  at  Capernaum  took  them  in. 
Hence  the  way  was,  to  say  the  least,  prepared 
for  the  acceptation  of  the  figurative  interpretation 
of  the  words  of  institution  on  the  part  of  his 
di,sciples. 

The  Lord's  Supper  is  no  exception  to  the 
general  statement  that  every  thing  in  the  New 
Testament  links  on  to  the  ( )ld,  for  it  is  directly 
connected  with  the  Paschal  Supper.  The  Lord 
took  his  farewell  supper,  and  at  the  same  time 
his  Paschal  Supper.  But,  in  order  to  free  his 
church  from  the  ordinances  of  the  .Jewish  dispen- 
sation, he  set  before  his  disciples  bread  and  wine. 

If  the  partaking  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ  is  to  be  spiritual,  we  should  naturally  ex- 
pect, that,  in  the  words  of  institution,  there  will 
be  sometliing  which  cannot  be  taken  other  than 
figuratively.  And  this  is  the  case.  The  four 
accounts  are  divisible  into  two  groups,  —  Matthew 
and  Mark,  Luke  and  Paul  (1  Cor.  xi.  23-26); 
and  it  is  precisely  in  the  second  group,  presuma- 
bly the  more  authentic,  if  any  thing,  that  some 
points  present  themselves  which  cannot  be  under- 
stood literally.  (1)  Luke's  phrase,  "This  cup, 
the  new  covenant  in  my  blood,  that  which  is 
poured  out  for  you ; "  and  Paul's,  "  This  cup  is 
the  new  covenant  in  my  blood."  Some  would 
draw  "  in  my  blood  "  to  cup,  and  read,  "  This  cup 
is,  in  consequence  of  my  blood,  symbol  or  pledge 
of  the  new  covenant : "  others,  and  better,  with 
Calvin,  connect  the  clause  with  "  new  covenant," 
and  read  "This  cup,  i.e.,  that  which  it  contains, 
sets  forth  the  new  covenant,  which  has  been 
formed  and  sealed  by  my  blood."  But  in  either 
case  we  have  a  strongly  figurative  expression. 
The  Lord,  under  the  affecting  excitement  of  the 
hour,  heaps  figure  upon  figure.  (2)  The  phrase, 
"  This  do  in  remembrance  of  me  "  (Paul  gives  it 
twice,  after  the  distribution  of  the  bread  and  of 
the  wine;  Luke  only  once).  How  can  any  one 
resist  the  impression  that  the  phrase  points 
directly  to  a  figurative  meaning  of  the  supper  ? 
For  "  remembrance  "  implies  absence.  "  To  re- 
member" a  present  Lord  is  a  solecism.  And  the 
argument  loses  nothing  of  its  force  when  we  sup- 
pose the  words  were  never  spoken  (as  a  matter  of 
fact,  they  are  not  given  in  Matthew  and  Mark) ; 
for  they  prove  the  understanding  Luke  and  Paul 
had  of  the  supper,  —  that  it  was  a  parallel  to  the 
Paschal  Supper,  in  which  there  was  a  remembrance 
made  every  year  of  pasl  events.  The  Lutherans 
.strive  to  break  the  force  of  the  argument  by  em- 
phasizing Paul's  warning  (1  Cor.  xi.  27-20)  against 
eating  and  drinking  unworthily,  saying, that,  since 
one  cannot  sin  against  an  absent  object,  therefore 
the  body  and  blood  of  Christ  must  be  present. 
But  the  premise  is  false,  and  the  conclusion  in- 


valid. One  can,  for  example,  commit  an  offence- 
against  a  country  while  not  in  the  country,  as 
by  insidting  the  flag  of  that  country.  Again :  the 
Lutherans  call  attention  to  the  clau.se,  "not  dis- 
cerning the  body,"  as  if  it  implied  the  actual 
presence  of  the  body.  But  it  does  not  at  all 
necessarily  do  this.  Another  proof  passage  with 
the  Lutherans  is  1  Cor.  x.  lG-22.  Here  Paul 
parallels  the  comn)union  of  the  body  and  blooil 
of  Christ  with  that  between  the  participants  in 
the  Jewish  sacrifices,  and  with  that  between  idola- 
trous sacrificers.  But  the  communion  in  all  three 
cases  is,  after  all,  not  ba.sed  upon  the  material 
contact,  but  upon  the  common  frame  of  mind. 
So  there  is  communion  in  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  because  there  is  common  belief  in  Christ 
as  the  Saviour  from  sin  and  guilt  through  death, 
of  which  the  pledge  has  been  given  us  in  the  Last 
Supper. 

We  are  now  in  condition  to  take  a  comprehen- 
sive view  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  feet-wash- 
ing which  preceded  its  institution  was  a  fitting 
prelude.  It  revealed  the  ministering  love  of  the 
Lord ;  the  supper,  his  yielding,  sacrificing  love. 
Love  is  the  secret  of  the  supper.  The  Lord  is 
about  to  give  up  his  life  into  the  hands  of  sinners, 
but  in  truth  he  gives  himself  up  into  the  hands 
of  his  own ;  for  them  he  dies  in  order  that  they 
may  live.  Love  is  the  motive  in  the  sacrifice. 
Of  this  the  supper  is  the  pledge  and  the  confirma- 
tion. It  is  in  itself  a  condescension  of  the  divine 
love  to  our  human  nature,  sjiirit  and  body.  To- 
this  fact  the  Fathers,  the  Schoolmen,  and  the 
Reformers  alike  call  attention.  On  formei-  occa- 
sions the  Lord  had  likened  participation  in  the 
kmgdom  of  God  to  a  meal  to  which  they  were 
invited :  here  is  a  meal,  and  one,  too,  in  which, 
the  host  offers  himself  as  food  and  drink. 

Thus  the  Lord's  Supper  stands  upon  the  same 
plane  with  baptism.  Both  are  symbolical.  The 
latter  symbolizes  the  grace  needful  to  reception 
into  the  covenant  of  grace ;  the  former,  that  for 
maintenance  and  progress  in  the  covenant.  The 
supper  offers  us  nothing  else  than  what  is  already 
offered  us  in  the  AVord, — confirmation  in  com- 
munion with  Christ,  with  its  fruit,  strengthening 
of  faith,  forgiveness  of  sin,  and  power  of  sanctifi- 
cation.  But  in  the  supper  these  are  tenderly 
pressed  upon  us.  By  the  eating  and  drinking 
we  are  admonished  that  he  gave  his  body  for  us, 
for  us  shed  his  blood.  Without  the  supper,  we 
can  surely  have  our  strength  increased,  and  obtain 
forgiveness  of  sin ;  but  in  the  .supper  we  receive 
the  most  soLenui  assurances  that  these  mercies 
are  ours.  And  the  supper  gives  us  also  direct 
encouragement  to  continue  in  grace,  and  the 
strength  so  to  do  ;  so  that  Zwingli  expressed  the 
exact  truth  when  he  said  that  the  supper  was 
given  to  us  in  order  that  we  might  have  heart  to 
overcome  the  world,  through  faith  in  Him  who 
overcame  the  world  for  us.  The  supper,  is,  there- 
fore, no  empty,  meaningless  sign ;  although  it, 
does  not  in  itself  confer  grace. 

But  it  is  one  thing  to  say  that  Christ  is  pres- 
ent in  the  supper,  and  another  to  say  that  he  is 
present  in  the  bread.  There  is  in  it  a  true  and 
real  presence  of  Christ ;  but  it  is  a  sacramental 
presence,  not  local  nor  corporal.  It  is  this  pres- 
ence which  makes  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  the  crown  of   Christian  worship.     In  it 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


1348 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


God  meets  man,  and  comes  laden  with  ricliest 
gifts.  See  what  a  part  faith  plays  in  the  .supper. 
"Christ  is  with  the  mouth  of  faith  received." 
Without  faith  the  sign  is  empty,  meaningless : 
there  is  no  spiritual  presence,  only  the  presence 
of  a  symbol.  In  the  faithful  the  supper  has  a 
blessed  etfect.  But  no  miracle  is  necessary,  sim- 
ply a  working  of  grace  according  to  the  measure 
of  faith  in  the  participants.  And  where  there  is 
no  faith,  there  is  no  effect  except  punishment. 
The  unworthy  participant  eats  and  drinks  judg- 
ment :  he  does  not  and  can  not  receive  Christ. 

There  remains  a  word  of  historical  criticism. 
Zwingli  and  CEcolampadius,  driven  by  their  po- 
lemic against  Rome,  surely  went  to  extremes  in 
reducing  the  sacraments  to  mere  signs.  The  First 
Helvetic  Confession  (XXIII.),  however,  more  cor- 
rectly teaches,  that,  in  the  "  mystical  supper,"  the 
Lord  gives  to  his  own  his  body  and  blood,  i.e.,  him- 
self, in  order  that  he  may  live  in  them  through 
faith,  and  they  in  him.  Calvin  advances  beyond 
Zwingli,  and  approaches  the  Lutheran  view,  with- 
out, however,  giving  up  the  Reformed  idea.  He 
teaches  that  the  flesh  of  Christ  has  a  perpetual 
life-giving  power ;  and  in  the  Lord's  Supper  the 
believers,  through  the  Holy  Spirit,  share  in  this 
power  through  their  participation  in  the  substance 
of  the  glorified  body  of  Christ.  This  idea  was 
expressed  in  the  Genevai\  Catechism,  and  in  the 
French,  Belgian,  and  Fir,st  Scotch  Confessions. 
Here  we  see  a  tinge  of  the  Roman-Catholic  doc- 
trine :  yet  the  underlying  idea  is  correct ;  we  must 
hold  fast  upon  the  human  in  Christ,  if  we  would  ' 
come  to  the  divine.  In  the  fleih  of  Christ  lies  the 
power  of  life,  —  in  the  Word  made  flesh,  as  it  is 
embodied  and  lives  in  the  word  of  the  everlasting 
gospel.  And  in  the  Lord's  Supper  are  we,  besides, 
pointed  to  the  death  of  Clirist  and  its  saving 
power;  and  thus  by  it,  as  Paul  says,  we  show 
forth  the  Lord's  death  until  he  come.  This  is  the 
doctrine  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism,  and  the 
Second  Helvetic  Confession,  and  wherever  else  it 
is  taught,  that,  in  the  Supper,  the  body  of  Christ 
is  through  faith  spiritually  received. 

To  conclude :  the  participation  in  the  supper 
in  faith  strengthens  our  unity  of  life  with  ('hrist 
and  with  our  fellow-believers,  since  this  luiion  is 
founded  upon  Christ.  The  Lutheran  and  Re- 
formed Confe.ssions,  in  .spite  of  their  differences, 
have  much  and  e.ssential  matter  in  common,  not 
only  in  the  rejection  of  Roman-Catholic  errors, 
but  in  the  conception  of  the  supper  as  a  true 
means  of  grace,  a.ssuring  our  salvation,  strength- 
ening our  faith,  and  increasing  our  union  with 
Christ. 

Lit.  —  A.  Sciiwf.izkk  :  Die  Glauhenslehre  d. 
evang.  reform.  Kirche,  1841-47,2  vols.;  Euisard: 
Das Do'jm.  v.  heilig.  Aljoi/hnal  u.  seine  Gesrii.,  1845; 
the  same  :  ChristUehe  Doijiuatik,  2d  ed  ,  1SG2,  18f)3, 
2  vols.;  IIkm'K  :  Die  iMr/m.  d.  evanrj.  reform.  Kirche, 
1861;  also  Hit.  I  iiUiunv.     IIF.KZOO  (Kifoim.-<l). 

[The  High  Anglican  View  is,  that  "the  bread 
and  wine  become  by  con.secration  really  and  sacra- 
mentally  (though  in  an  inconceivable  manner, 
which  cannot  be  explained  by  earthly  similitudes 
or  illustrations)  the  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord." 
This  is  the  doctrine  of  the  reed  presence,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  that  of  the  fiyiirtilive  presence, 
according  to  wliich  the  bread  and  the  wine  are 
"only  memorials  of   Christ's  body  and  blood," 


and  to  that  of  the  virtual  presence,  "  as  if  our  Lord 
only  bestowed  in  the  Eucharist  the  gi-aces  and 
blessings  derived  from  his  atoning  sacrifice."  In 
proof  are  quoted  our  Lord's  address  at  Caper- 
naum (John  vi.),  his  intercessory  prayer  (John 
xvii.),  the  words  of  institution  in  the  Synoptists 
and  Paul,  the  Fathers,  and  the  ancient  liturgies. 
The  Eucharist  is  also  a  sacrifice  ;  for  when  our 
Lord  said,  "  Do  this  in  remembrance  of  me,"  he  . 
meant,  "offer  this  as  a  memorial  sacrifice." 
Hence  the  Eucharist  is  called  the  "  unbloody  sac- 
rifice "  by  the  Fathers  and  the  ancient  liturgies. 
See  J.  II.  Blunt  :  Did.  of  Doctr.  and  Hist.  The- 
ology, arts.  "  Eucharist,"  "  Real  Presence."  The 
original  view  of  the  Church  of  England,  as  ex- 
pressed in  the  Thirty-Xine  Articles,  Art.  XXVIII. , 
is  the  Reformed  or  Calvinistic  view.  See  below. 
IV.  The  Confessional  Statements  respecting 
the  Lord's  Supper.' 

Tlie  Roman-Catholic  doctrine  is  officially 
given  in  the  Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  Council  of 
Trent,  Sess.  XIII.,  Oct.  11,  1551.  See  Creeds,  ii. 
126-139.     The  principial  points  are:  — 

"  In  the  Eucliarist  are  contained  truly,  really  and 
substantially,  the  boily  and  blood,  together  with  the 
soul  and  divinity  ot  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  con- 
sequently the  whole  Christ."  —  C'lm.  1. 

"  The  whole  substance  of  tlie  bread  [is  converted] 
into  the  body,"  and,  "the  whole  substance  of  the 
wine  into  the  blood."  —  (Jan.  2. 

"  The  whole  Christ  is  contained  under  each  spe- 
cies, and  under  every  part  o{  each  species,  when 
separated."—  Can.  3. 

"  Tlie  principal  fruit  of  the  most  holy  Eucharist 
is  the  remission  of  sins." —  Van.  5. 

"In  the  Eucharist,  Christ  is  to  be  adored."  — 
Can.  6. 

"All  and  each  of  Christ's  faithful  are  bound  to 
communicate  every  year."  —  Can.  9. 

"  Sacramental  confession  is  to  be  ma<le  before- 
hand, by  those  whose  conscience  is  burdened  with 
mortal  sin."  —  Can.  11. 

The  same  view  is  taught,  though  less  distinctly, 
in  the  Greek  Church  in  the  Orthodox  Confession 
of  the  Eastern  Church,  Ques.  CVl.,  CVII.  (i'i.  380- 
385)  ;  in  the  Confession  of  Dositheus  (ii.  427-432); 
in  the  Longer  Catechism  of  the  Eastern  Church,  qu. 
315:  — 

"What  is  the  Communion?  A  sacrament,  in 
which  the  beli(n-er,  under  the  forms  of  bread  and 
wine,  partakes  of  the  very  Body  and  Blood  of  Christ, 
to  everlasting  life  "  (ii.  4U5). 

The  authoritative  teacliing  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  is  thus  given,  Aut/shurg  Confession  (A.D. 
1530),  Art.  X.:  — 

"The  true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  trujy 
present  under  the  form  of  bread  and  wine,  and  are 
there  counnunicated  to  and  received  l>y  those  thftt 
eat  in  the  Lord's  Supper"  (iii.  Vi). 

Afterwards  JMelanchthon  changed  this  article  in 
the  edition  of  1.j40,  substituting  ior  distribuantur 
("  conununicaled)  "  cxhibeantur  ("  shown  ").  This 
departure  occasioned  much  controversy.  The 
Lutheran  doctrine  is  thus  given  in  the  Formula  of 
Concord  (A.I).  l.")70).  Art.  VII.,  Aj/innalive:  — 

"  We  believe,  teach,  and  confess  that  in  the  Lord's 
Supper  llie  body  and  blood  of  Christ  are  truly  and 
substantially  in'csent,  and  that  lliey  are  Irnly  dis- 
tributed and  taken  together  with  the  bread  and 
wino  "  (iii.  i;i7). 

The  authoritative  teaching  of  the  Reformed 


>  The  references  in  i)uienthese»  are  to  ScbaffB  Cretd*. 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


1349 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


•Churches  is  thus  given  :  First  Helvetic  Confession 
(A.D.  1536),  XXIII.:  — 

"  The  bread  and  wine  [of  the  Supper]  are  holy,  true 
symbols,  through  which  the  Lord  offers  and  presents 
the  true  communion  of  the  body,  and  blood  of  Christ 
for  the  feeding  and  nourishing  of  the  spiritual  and 
eternal  lite  "  (iii.  225). 

So  also  in  the  Second  Helvetic  Confession,  Cap. 
XXI.  (iii.  291-295). 

The  French  Confession  of  Faith  (A.D.  1559), 
XXXVI.,  XXXVill.  :  — 

"The  Lord's  Supper  is  a  witness  of  the  union 
which  we  have  with  Christ,  inasmuch  as  he  not  only 
■died  and  rose  again  for  us  once,  but  also  feeds  and 
nourishes  us  truly  with  his  tlesh  and  blood,  so  that 
we  tuay  be  one  in  him,  and  that  our  life  may  be  in 
<;ommon." 

"The  bread  and  wine  in  the  sacrament  serve  to 
our  spiritual  nourishment,  in  as  much  as  they  show, 
as  to  our  sight,  that  the  body  of  Christ  is  our  meat, 
and  his  blood  our  drink  "  (iii.  380,  381). 

The  Scotch  Confession  of  Faith  (A.D.  1560), 
Art.  XXI.:  — 

"  The  faithful  in  the  richt  use  of  the  Lords  Table 
do  so  eat  the  bodie  and  drinke  the  blude  of  the  Lord 
■Jesus  that  he  remains  in  them  and  they  in  him" 
.(iii.  4C7-474). 

The  Belgic  Confession  (A.D.  1561),  Art. 
XXXV. :  — 

"  Christ  that  he  might  rei^resent  unto  us  this  spir- 
itual and  heavenly  bread  hath  instituted  an  eartuly 
and  visible  bread  as  a  Sacrament  of  his  body,  and 
wine  as  a  Sacrament  of  his  blood,  to  testify  l)y  them 
unto  us,  that,  as  certainly  as  we  receive  and  hold 
this  Sacrament  in  our  hands,  and  eat  and  drink  the 
same  with  our  mouths,  by  which  our  life  is  after- 
wards nourished,  we  also  do  as  certainly  receive  by 
faith  (which  is  the  hand  and  mouth  of  our  .soul)  the 
true  body  and  blood  of  Christ  our  only  Saviour  in 
our  souls,  for  the  support  of  our  spiritual  life"  (iii. 
428-431). 

Tlie  Heidelberg  Catechism  (A.D.  1563),  rju.  76  :  — 

"  \Vhat  is  it  to  eat  of  the  crucified  body  and  drink 
the  shed  blood  of  Christ  ?  It  is  not  only  to  embrace 
with  a  believing  heart  all  the  sufferings  and  death 
of  Christ,  and  thereby  to  obtain  the  forgiveness  of 
sins  and  life  eternal,  but  moreover,  also,  to  be  so 
united  more  and  more  to  his  sacred  body  bj'  the 
Holy  Ghost,  who  dwells  both  in  ChrLst  aiid  in  us, 
that  although  he  is  in  heaven,  and  we  are  upon  the 
earth,  we  are  nevertheless  flesh  of  his  flesh,  and  bone 
of  his  bones,  and  live  and  are  governed  forever  by 
one  Spirit,  as  members  of  the  same  body  are  by  the 
one  soul  "  (iii.  332,  333). 

The  Thirty-Nine  Articles  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land (A.D.  1562),  Art.  XXVIII.  :  — 

"  The  Supper  of  the  Lord  is  not  only  a  sign  of  the 
love  that  Christians  ought  to  have  among  themselves 
one  to  another;  but  rather  it  is  a  Sacrament  of  our 
Redemption  by  Christ's  death:  insomuch  that  to 
such  as  rightly,  worthily,  and  with  faith,  receive  the 
same,  the  Bread  which  we  break  is  a  [heavenly  and 
spiritual]  partaking  of  the  Body  of  Christ;  and  like- 
wise the  Cup  of  Blessing  is  a  partaking  of  the  Blood 
of  Christ"  (iii.  505). 

So  the  Irish  Articles  of  Religion  (A.D.  1615, 
iii.  542,  543). 

The  Westminster  Confession  of  Faith  (k.V).  1647), 
Chap.  XXIX. :  — 

"  The  Lord's  Supper  [is]  to  be  observed  for  the 
perpetual  remembrance  of  the  sacrifice  of  himself  in 
his  death,  the  sealing  of  all  benefits  thereof  with  true 
believers,  their  spiritual  nourishment  and  growth  in 
him,  their  further  engagement  in,  and  to  all  duties 
which  they  owe  unto  him;  and  to  be  a  bond  and 
pledge  of  their  communion  with  him,  and  with  each 
other,  aii  members  of  his  mystical  body." 


"Worthy  believers  do  inwardly  by  faitli,  really 
and  indeed,  yet  not  carnally  and  corporally,  hut 
spiritually  receive  and  feed  upon  Christ  criicihed, 
and  all  the  benefits  of  his  death  "  (iii.  WA-iXTi). 

The  Westminster  Shorter  Catechism  (A.D.  1617), 
qu.  96 :  — 

"What  is  the  Lord's  Supper?  A  sacrament 
wherein  by  the  giving  and  receiving  bread  and 
wine,  according  to  Christ's  a]>T)ointment,  his  death 
is  showed  forth,  and  the  worthy  receivers  are,  not 
after  a  corporal  and  carnal  manner,  but  by  faith, 
made  partakers  of  his  body  and  blood,  with  all  its 
benefits,  to  their  spiritual  nourishment  and  growth 
in  grace  "  (iii.  697). 

The  Confession  of  the  Society  of  Friends  (A.D. 
1675),  Thirteenth  Proposition :  — 

"  The  communion  of  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
is  inward  and  spiritual,  which  is  the  participation  of 
his  tlesh  anil  blood,  by  which  the  inward  man  is 
daily  nourished  in  the  hearts  of  those  iu  whom  Christ 
dwells;  of  which  things  the  breaking  of  bread  by 
Christ  with  his  disciples  was  a  figure,  which  they 
even  used  in  the  Church  for  a  time,  who  had  received 
the  substance,  for  the  cause  of  the  weak;  even  as 
'  abstaining  from  things  strangled,  and  from  blood; ' 
the  washing  one  another's  feet,  and  the  anointing  of 
the  sick  with  oil;  all  which  are  commanded  with  no 
less  authority  and  solemnity  than  the  former;  yet 
seeing  they  are  but  the  shadow  of  better  things,  they 
cease  in  such  as  have  obtained  the  substance  "  (iii. 
797). 

Reformed  Episcopal  Articles  of  Religion  (A.D. 
1875),  Art.  XXVII.:  — 

"The  Supper  of  the  Lord  is  a  memorial  of  our 
Redemption  by  Christ's  death,  for  thereby  we  do 
show  forth  the  Lord's  death  till  he  come.  It  is  alijp 
a  symbol  of  the  soul's  feeding  upon  Christ.  And  it 
is  a  sign  of  the  comnuinion  that  we  shoidd  have  with 
one  another  "  (iii.  823).] 

V.  Forms  of  Celebration.  [The  original  insti- 
tution of  the  Lord's  Supper  took  place  upon  the 
night  preceding  the  crucifixion ;  that  is,  it  was 
upon  Thursday,  the  14th  of  Nisan,  corresponding 
to  our  April  6,  A.D.  30.  The  place  of  meeting 
was  the  large  upper  room  of  a  Jerusalem  house. 
The  company  consisted  of  our  Lord  and  eleven 
of  his  disciples ;  for,  although  Judas  Iscariot  was 
undoubtedly  present  at  the  Paschal  Supper,  it  is 
unlikely  that  he  staid  to  the  after-celebration. 
(Compare  John  xiii.  30.)  The  so-called  "  Lord's 
Supper"  directly  followed  the  ordinary  paschal 
meal.  The  articles  used  were  tlie  bread  and  wine 
upon  the  table  at  the  time.  The  position  of  tlie 
first  communicants  was  reclining,  according  to 
custom  (John  xiii.  23,  25,  and  art.  Meals).] 

From  the  New  Testament  it  appears,  that  in 
the  first  Christian  congregations,  more  especially 
in  that  of  Jerusalem,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  cele- 
brated with  exactly  the  same  plainness  and  sim- 
plicity wliich  characterized  its  institution.  Be- 
tween worship  and  any  other  act  of  daily  life,  no 
distinction  had  as  yet  developed  ;  no  ceremonies, 
no  ritual,  existed.  The  members  of  the  congre- 
gation lived  with  each  other  like  members  of  one 
large  family,  but  a  family  of  a  new  and  higher 
type.  Every  day  tliey  gathered  in  the  houses 
for  the  sake  of  common  devotion.  Tliey  ate  to- 
gether; and,  when  the  meal  was  finished,  one  of 
tliem  would  arise,  take  the  bread  and  break  it, 
and  pass  the  pieces  around,  together  with  the  cup, 
in  exactly  the  way  in  which  the  Lord  had  ordered 
it  to  be  done.  'There  was  a  danger,  however,  in 
administering  the  communion  in  this  way.  It 
might  happen  that  the  sacrament  would  gradu- 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


1350 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


ally  lose  its  character  of  being  a  separate  institu- 
tion, and  sink  down  to  a  conventional  part  of  a 
meal :  and  this  did,  indeed,  happen  (1  Cor.  si. 
20,  33). 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  in  detail  the  relation 
between  the  Lord's  Supper  and  the  agape:  it 
was,  no  doubt,  different  in  the  different  countries. 
Thus  while,  according  to  the  descriptions  of  di- 
vine service  given  by  Justin  (in  his  Apolog.,  1,  65) 
and  by  Pliny  (m  his  famous  Letter  to  Trajan,  X. 
9B),  the  agape  and  the  communion  were  treated 
in  .\sia  Minor,  in  the  beginning  of  the  second 
century,  as  two  distinct  acts,  other  Christian 
writers,  and  especially  a  number  of  canonical 
decrees,  show  that  in  the  West,  and  also  in  Afri- 
ca, they  were  at  the  same  time  celebrated  in 
connection  with  each  other;  and  from  Socrates 
(Hisl.  EccL,  V.  22)  and  Sozomen  (Hist.  EccL,  vii. 
19)  it  is  evident,  that,  in  Egypt,  the  connection 
was  continued  even  down  to  the  fourth  century. 
The  steadily  increasing  danger,  however,  of  the 
desecration  of  the  sacrament,  made  a  separation 
necessary.  First  it  was  ordered  that  the  celebra- 
tion of  tlie  Eucharist  should  take  place,  not  at  the 
end,  but  at  tlie  beginning,  of  the  meal.  Only  on 
one  day,  the  anniversary  of  the  institution,  the 
celebration  was  allowed  by  the  Council  of  Car- 
thage (392)  to  take  place  at  the  end  of  the  meal, 
in  order  to  make  the  imitation  of  the  last  meet- 
ing between  Christ  and  the  apostles  as  close  as 
possible.  Next  it  was  decided  that  the  agape 
should  be  celebrated  in  the  evening,  while  the 
communion  should  be  administered  in  the  morn- 
ing, before  sunrise;  and  finally  the  councils  of 
Laodicea  (363),  Carthage  (392),  and  Orleans 
(533),  forbade  altogether  to  celebrate  the  agape 
in  the  churches ;  while  the  church,  of  course,  con- 
tinued to  be  the  usual  place  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Thus  the  separation  was 
completed.  The  first  description  of  a  commun- 
ion administered  independently  of  the  agape  is 
that  above  mentioned  by  Justin.  "  After  a 
prayer,"  he  says,  "we  greet  each  other  with  a 
kiss.  Tlien  the  leader  of  the  meeting  brings 
forwards  bread  and  wine,  and  makes  a  prayer, 
to  which  the  whole  congregation  answer,  Amen. 
Finally  the  deacons  distribute  the  bread  and 
wine  over  which  the  prayer  has  been  said,  to  all 
present,  and  something  is  also  carried  to  the 
houses  of  those  who  are  absent." 

It  must  be  noticed,  that,  in  this  description, 
the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  is  in  no  wise 
represented  as  a  mystery,  but  as  a  simple  public 
act ;  and  exactly  the  same  character  it  lias  in  the 
de.scriptions  of  Ignatius,  TertuUian,  Januarius, 
etc.  The  Apostolical  Constitutions  were,  indeed, 
the  first  to  represent  the  administration  of  the 
comnmnion  as  an  act  from  which  not  only  all 
profane  persons,  infidels,  Jews,  and  Pagans,  but 
al.so  the  catechumens,  the  penitent,  and  the  ex- 
communicated, should  be  excluded,  —  an  act  per- 
formed by  the  faithful  alone,  within  closed  doors, 
with  certain  ceremonies,  and  aft<'r  certain  prepa- 
rations. Tlie  rules  of  the  Lilurgia  Sancli  Jacohi 
Minoris,  the  oldest  church  constitution  existing, 
gives  a  picture  of  the  act  such  as  it  was  performed 
during  the  third  and  fourth  centuries.  After  the 
common  service  was  finished,  the  deacon  began 
the  "mass  of  the  faithful,"  with  the  words,  "Lot 
no  one  go  away  w)io  ia  allowed  to  6t»y  1  "    L>uring 


a  silent  prayer,  the  deacon  and  his  assistants  gath- 
ered the  bread  and  wine  which  the  congregation 
had  brought  along  for  the  celebration  ;  and  when 
all  was  collected,  and  one  single  loaf,  the  Iwstia, 
the  sacrificial  lamb,  selected,  the  celebration  prop- 
er began.  The  faithful  gave  each  other  the  kiss^ 
the  profane,  the  catechumens,  etc.,  were  admon- 
ished to  retire  ;  the  clergy  washed  their  hands ; 
the  bread  and  wine  were  placed  on  the  altar,  at 
who.se  two  ends  two  subdeacons  took  their  stand, 
with  fans  in  their  hands  to  keep  off  the  flies; 
while  from  behind,  the  bishop  approached  the 
table,  clad  in  a  magnificent  robe,  and  accompa- 
nied by  the  priests.  Then  followed  a  general 
prayer,  lasting  half  an  hour,  and  winding  up  with 
special  praj*ers  for  the  clerical  office  of  Christen- 
dom, for  the  secular  authorities,  for  the  people, 
the  pious  women,  parent  and  children,  slaves, 
emigrants  and  exiles,  travellers,  etc.  The  sacri- 
fice thus  blessed,  the  Thirty-fourth  Psalm,  the 
usual  comnmnion-hymn,  was  sung;  after  which 
first  the  clergy,  and  then  the  congregation,  par- 
took of  the  Eucharist.  The  bishoi)  presented 
the  bread  to  the  communicants  with  the  words, 
"  The  body  of  Christ ;  "  the  deacon,  the  cup.  with, 
the  words,  "  The  blood  of  Christ ;  "  to  which  the 
communicant  answered  with  a  loud  "  Amen." 

How  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  fur- 
ther developed  in  the  Western  Church,  until,  in 
the  course  of  the  sixth  century,  it  assumed  the 
form  of  the  Roman-Catholic  mass,  will  be  told  in 
the  article  Mass.  There  are  some  details,  liow- 
ever,  which  need  mentioning  in  order  to  com- 
plete the  picture.  As  above  mentioned,  in  early 
times  the  celebration  generally  took  place  early 
in  the  morning.  Only  the  Easter  and  Christ- 
mas communion  continued,  down  to  the  twelfth 
or  thirteenth  century,  to  be  administered  at 
midnight.  As  a  reminiscence  of  the  midnight 
celebration,  the  candles  on  the  communion-table 
were  lighted,  even  in  a  celebration  by  day. 
Originally  the  coninumion  was  administered 
every  day,  tlien  every  Sunday ;  but  from  the 
fifth  century  it  was  restricted  to  the  three  great 
festivals,  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost.  In 
the  earliest  times,  onl}'  the  bishop  or  the  leader 
of  the  congregation  had  the  right  of  administer- 
ing the  Eucharist.  The  presbyter  coidd  conse- 
crate the  elements  only  on  his  authority,  and  the 
deacons  served  only  m  the  mechanical  part  of 
the  act.  Kuring  the  middle  ages,  however,  when 
the  bishops  became  great  lords,  who  had  many 
other  things  to  do  besides  caring  for  the  church, 
the  administration  of  the  sacrament  came  to  de- 
volve entirely  upon  the  priests,  nut  as  a  right,  but 
as  a  duty.  The  comnuinicants  prepared  them- 
.selves  by  fasting,  by  ablution,  by  dressing  in  clean 
clothes  (the  women  wearing  a  peculiar  head-dress 
of  white  linen,  —  the  dominicalc),  and  by  the  kiss 
of  peace.  In  earlier  times  they  ajijiroached  the 
altar  two  and  two,  and  received  the  elenients  stand- 
ing (Cnnsl.  AposloL,  8,  12).  Afterwards  the  laity, 
first  the  women,  were  excluded  from  the  altar  and 
the  choir;  and  the  elements  were  handed  to  them 
over  the  rails  which  separad'd  \\\,-  ilniir  from  the 
nave.  Down  to  the  ninth  i-iiiliiry  tin-  liread  was 
given  th('  connnunicant  in  his  liand;  then  it  was 
put  into  liis  mouth,  in  order  to  jirevent  him  from 
taking  it  home.  Kneeling  during  the  jiarticipa- 
tiou  in  the  Eucharist  does  uut  occur  until  tlie 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


1351 


LORD'S   SUPPER. 


twelfth  or  tliirteenth  century,  though  it  was  an 
old  custom  to  receive  the  blessing  with  which  the 
communion  cniled  in  a  kneeling  position.  With 
respect  to  the  elements,  the  Eastern  Church  con- 
tinued to  use  leavened  bread :  while  in  the  ninth 
century  unleavened  liread  came  into  use  in  the 
Western  Church,  from  a  regard  to  the  circum- 
stance that  the  institution  of  the  sacrament  had 
taken  place  on  the  "day  of  unleavened  bread." 
The  question,  however,  was  left  standing,  as  an 
adinphoron.  The  bread  was  in  round,  thin  cakes 
stamped  with  some  figure,  —  the  cross,  or  A  .and  S2, 
etc. ;  or  some  word, — Jesus,  Deus,  etc.  The  .Syrian 
Jacobites  added  salt  and  oil  to  the  bread ;  the 
Artotyi'ites  (a  Montanist  sect  of  the  second  cen- 
tury), even  cheese.  The  wine  was  in  antiquity 
always  mixed  with  water,  and  no  distinction  was 
made  between  red  and  white  wine.  By  heretical 
sects,  various  substitutes  were  used  for  wine  ;  such 
as  water,  milk,  honey,  uni'ermented  grape-juice, 
etc.  The  breaking  of  the  bread,  referring  to  the 
breaking  of  the  body  of  Christ,  was  tlie  general 
custom  in  antiquity,  and  has  been  retained  by  all 
churches  except  the  Lutheran.  With  this  feature 
of  the  administration  was  connected  another,  of 
blending  the  bread  and  the  wine  together,  refer- 
ring to  the  close  union  between  the  body  and  the 
blood ;  and  the  Greek  lay  so  strong  an  emphasis 
on  this  blending,  that  they  drop  the  jiieces  of  the 
broken  bread  into  the  wine,  and  present  them  to 
the  comnumicants  by  means  of  a  spoon  The  for- 
nmla  of  distribution  was,  up  to  the  time  of  Greg- 
ory the  Great,  the  above-mentioned :  aufia  xpi-<yToi 
("  body  of  Christ"),  ai/ja  xP'-otov  ("  blood  of  Christ "), 
■nnTTjpiov  fui?f  ("  cup  of  life  ").  But  after  that  time 
more  elaborate  formulas  occur;  such  as.  Corpus 
(sanguis)  Domini  iiostriJesu  Christi  coiiservel  animam 
tuam  ("  May  the  body  [blood]  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ  preserve  thy  soul  ");  or,  Coiyjus  .  .  .  custo- 
dial te  in  mtam  (Bternam  ("  body  .  ,  preserve  thee 
unto  eternal  life  ")  ;  or.  Corpus  el  sanc/uis  Agni  Dei, 
quod  tihi  dalur  in  remissioneinpeccatorum  ("  body  and 
blood  of  the  Lamb  of  God,  which  was  given  for 
thee  to  the  remission  of  sins  ")  ;  or,  Corpus  .  .  . 
sit  tibi  satxts  animfe  ft  corporis  (^"  ^lay  the  body  .  .  . 
be  to  thee  salvation  in  body  and  soul ")  ;  or,  in 
the  Orient,  Corpus  sanctum,  pretiosum,  verwn,  Im- 
manuelisjilii  Dei  hoc  est  vere  ("  This  is  truly  the 
holy,  precious,  true  body  of  Immanuel,  the  Son 
of  God  ")  ;  Sanguis  pretiosus,  verus,  Immanuelis  Jilii 
Dei  hoc  est  vere  ("  This  is  truly  the  precious,  true 
l)lood  of  Immanuel,  the  .Son  of  God  "). 

The  form  which  the  Greek  Church  developed 
for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  entire- 
ly different  from  that  developed  by  the  Roman- 
Catholic  Church.  It  is  symbolical  throughout. 
Not  only  does  one  of  the  antiphonal  choirs  which 
perform  during  the  act  represent  in  some  mysti- 
cal way  the  cherubim,  but  the  whole  act  is,  in 
its  every  feature,  a  symbolical  representation  of 
the  passion.  Five  loaves  are  laid  on  the  altar, 
each  stamped  with  the  sign  of  the  cross  and  the 
inscription,  'Ir/aovi  xp"'''^C.  rma.  The  officiating 
priest  .selects  one  of  them  for  the  sacrificial  lamb  ; 
and  with  a  symbolical  reference  to  the  soldier 
who  pierced  the  side  of  Jesus  witli  a  spear,  so 
that  blood  and  water  flowed  from  the  wound,  he 
cuts  the  loaf,  by  thrusting  the  holy  lance  —  a 
knife  in  the  form  of  a  lance  —  into  it,  while  at 
the  same  time  the  deacon  pours  the  wine  and  the 


water  into  the  cup.  Under  sombre  dirges  the 
elements  are  then  carried  in  a  solemn  procession, 
headed  with  many  lighted  candles  and  much  in- 
cense-burning, through  the  whole  church,  and  hack 
again  to  the  altar,  where  th('v  arc  deposited,  like 
the  body  of  Christ  in  the  tomb.  A  curtain  is  low- 
ered before  the  altar ;  and,  unseen  by  the  con- 
gregation, the  elements  are  consecrated  by  the 
bishop  while  the  choir  is  chanting  tlie  Loi-d's 
Prayer.  When  the  curtain  is  drawn,  tlie  altar 
represents  the  tomb  from  which  Christ  has  risen ; 
and,  while  the  cliciir  sings  a  hymn  of  praise,  the 
elements  are  presented  to  the  communicants  with- 
out any  special  formula  of  distribution. 

All  the  various  forms  under  which  the  Lord's 
Supper  is  celebrated  in  the  various  Protestant 
churches  may  be  referred  to  two  types,  —  the 
one  established  by  Luther,  and  the  other  by 
Calvin.  Luther  issued  two  liturgies,  —  one  of 
1523,  in  which  the  whole  Latin  mass,  even  the 
language,  is  retained,  so  far  as  it  does  not  openly 
contradict  Scripture;  and  one  of  l.'i2G,  the  so- 
called  Deutsche  Messe.  It  is  the  latter,  which,  witli 
various  modifications,  has  been  adopted  by  all 
Lutheran  churches.  Its  principal  characteristics 
are,  the  consecration  of  the  elements  by  the  sign 
of  the  cross ;  the  use  of  the  wafer,  that  is,  of  un- 
leavened bread  which  is  not  broken  ;  the  use  of 
white  instead  of  red  wine ;  and  the  kneeling 
position  of  the  coniniunicants,  who  receive  the 
elements  in  the  mouth,  and  not  in  the  hand.  The 
Calvinist  type  has  generally  retained  the  charac- 
ter of  a  common  meal ;  the  whole  arrangement  is 
freer  and  more  simple ;  the  .solemn  ceremonies 
are  reduced  to  the  least  possible ;  while  the  holy 
earnest  of  the  act  itself  is  emphasized  as  strongly 
as  possible.  In  the  French  Reformed  Chin-ch 
the  elements  are  placed  —  the  bread  in  two  silver 
dishes,  and  the  wine  in  two  silver  cups  —  on  a 
table  spread  with  a  white  linen  cloth.  From 
twenty-five  to  thirty  coniniunicants  approach  the 
table  at  a  time.  The  officiating  minister  makes 
a  free  prayer,  and  tlien,  while  repeating  tlie  words 
of  institution,  presents  the  elements  to  his  neigh- 
bors on  the  left  and  on  the  right,  after  which  the 
dish  and  the  cup  pass  from  hand  to  hand.  With 
various  modifications  this  type  has  been  adopted 
by  all  the  Reformed  churches.  In  no  church, 
however,  is  the  imitation  of  the  ancient  form  of 
the  communion  so  close  as  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. In  the  United  Church  of  Prussia  the  form 
adopted  is  a  combination  of  the  Lutheran  and 
the  Calvinistic  type.  The  Quakers  do  not  cele- 
brate the  Lord's  Supper  at  all. 

Lit.  —  Ebrard  :  Das  Dogma  vom  heilig.  Abend- 
mahl  und  seine  Geschichte,  184.'5-4G,  2  vols.:  Alt  : 
Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  Berlin,  1851 ;  [K.iHxis  : 
Die  Lehre  vom  Aliendmahle,  Leipzig,  1851];  Rl'cK- 
ert:  Das  Abendmuhl,  sein  Wesen  und  seine  Ge- 
schichte, 1856.  E.  STAHELIX. 

The  mode  of  administration  in  non-Episcopal 
churches  in  America  is  almost  uniform.  The 
elements  are  consecrated  by  prayer  liy  the  minis- 
ter, who  breaks  as  much  bread,  and  pours  out  as 
much  wine,  as  he  deems  sufficient.  He  repeats 
in  the  vernacular  the  words  of  institution  used 
by  our  Lord,  and  then  hands  the  elements  for 
distribution  to  the  proper  persons,  who  serve  him 
first.  The  communicants  sit  in  pews.  It  is 
usual  to  make  an  address  between  the  distribution 


LORD'S  SUPPER. 


1352 


LORIMER. 


of  the  bread  and  the  wine.  As  in  the  Church  of 
England,  so  in  her  daughter  the  Episcopal  Church 
in  America,  in  the  Methodist-Episcopal  Church, 
and  also  in  many  Lutheran  churches,  the  commu- 
nicants kneel  at  the  chancel-railing  in  little  cnui- 
pauies ;  and  to  each  one,  in  turn,  a  certain  formula 
is  spoken,  as  fii'st  the  bread,  and  then  the  wine,  is 
dispensed.  In  the  German  Reformed  Church  they 
stand.  The  Friends  spiritualize  botli  baptism  and 
the  Lord's  Supper,  and  therefore  have  no  such  out- 
ward ordinances.  Various  terms  are  used  to  des- 
ignate the  Lord's  Supper,  such  as  Eucharist,  Com- 
munion, Holy  Communion,  Blessed  Sacrament,  etc. 
Lit.  —  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  more 
important  works  in  English  referring  to  the  Lord's 
Supper.  Besides  the  appropriate  sections  in 
•Calvix'6  Iitslitules,  bk.  iv.  c.  xvii.,  xviii,  for  the 
'Calvinistic  view,  see  Hodge's  Si/slemalic  Theology, 
vol.  iii.  pt.  iii.  chap.  xx.  §§  15-19,  pp.  611-692, 
and  Van  Oosterzee's  Christian  Dogmatics,  chap. 
vi.  §  139 ;  for  an  independent  view,  Dorxer's 
System  of  Christian  Doctrine,  vol.  iv.  pp.  305-333 ; 
for  the  Lutheran  view,  Schmid's  Doctrinal  Tlieul- 
ogy  of  the  Ecangelical  Lutheran  Church,  translated 
by  Hay  and  Jacobs,  §  55,  pp.  571-598 ;  for  tlie 
Arminian  ^^ew,  Watson's  Theological  Institutes, 
vol.  2,  pt.  iv.  ii.  (3),  pp.  660-671 ;  for  the  Roman- 
Catholic  view.  Gibbon's  Faith  of  our  Fathers,  chaps. 
xxi.-xxiii.;fortheChurch-of-Eugland  view.  Bishop 
Burnett's  On  the  XXXIX  Articles,  arts,  xxvii.- 
XXX.  For  special  works  upon  the  Lord's  Supper, 
see  J.  W.  \evin  :  The  Mystical  Presence,  Phila- 
delphia, 1846  (Reformed);  R.  Wilberkorce: 
The  Doctrine  of  the  Holy  Eucharist,  London,  1853 
(Tractarian) ;  E.  B.  Pusey,  The  Doctrine  of  the 
Real  Presence,  Oxford,  1855  (Anglo-Catholic) ; 
J.  Harrison,  Answer  to  Dr.  Pusey,  London,  1871, 
2  vols.  (Low  Chuich);  W.  E.  Scudamore  :  Notitia 
Eucharistira,  London,  1872-75  (patristic  and 
arch;eologicaI)  ;  G.  D.  .\k.mstrong  :  Tlie  Sacra- 
ments of  the  Nctc  Testament.  New  York,  1880 
(Presbyterian);  also  the  Works  by  Charles 
Herbert  (London,  1880,  2  vols.);  (i.  A.  Jacob 
(1884);    E    S.   Kfoi-i.kes  (1885):    F.   Meyrick 

(lSS-,1  S.XMl'Kl.    M.   .lAC'KSON. 

LORD'S  SUPPER,  Controversies  respecting. 
See   Bkkengar,  Laxfranc,  Paschasius   Rad- 

BERTIS,   LUTUEK,  ZwiNGLI,  Otc. 

LORETO,  or  LORETTO  (Lauretum),  a  town  to 
the  south-east  (if  .Vncona,  the  chief  seat  of  the  Ital- 
ian Mary-worship,  and  not  inappropriately  calle<l 
the  "Mecca  of  mediicval  Christendom."  The 
legend  referred  to  below  seems  to  have  origiiuited 
towards  the  close  of  the  juMiod  of  the  crusades, 
and  in  close  connection  with  the  final  destruction 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  by  tlie  Turks.  It 
first  occurs  in  Italia  illuslrala,  by  l-'lavius  Blondus, 
papal  .secretary  (d.  in  1464) ;  but  in  its  fully 
developed  form  it  is  not  found  until  about  a 
century  later  on,  in  Baptista  Mantuanus  :  Itedemp- 
loris  mundi  Matrix  Erclesite  Lauretanie  historia,  in 
liis  Ofi.  omnia,  Antwerp,  1.570,  iv.  216.  Properly 
speaking,  tlie  casa  santa  is  not  the  wliole  hou.se  of 
Mary,  but  only  tliat  room  in  the  house  in  Naza- 
reth in  which  she  was  born  herself,  and  in  which 
Jesus  was  educated.  By  the  apostles  the  room 
was  transformed  into  a  churcli,  and  St.  Luke 
adorned  it  with  a  woodc^n  statue  representing  tlie 
Virgin  with  the  child.  As  long  as  the  kingdom 
of  Jerusalem  existed,  service  was  regularly  cele- 


brated in  the  church  every  Sunday ;  but,  after  its 
overthrow  by  the  Turks,  the  augels  carried  away 
the  church  through  the  air,  and  deposited  it 
(1291)  at  Tersato,  in  Northern  Dalmatia.  Three 
years  later  on  (1294)  it  was  again  moved  by  the 
angels  across  the  Adriatic,  and  placed  where  it 
now  stands,  in  a  wood  belonging  to  a  noble  and 
pious  lady,  Laureta.  It  did  not  become  the 
noted  place  of  pilgrimage,  howevei-,  until  the 
second  half  of  the  fifteenth  centurj-.  Sixtus  IV. 
confirmed  the  truth  of  the  legend  by  a  bull  of 
1471 ;  Clement  VII.  built  the  church  over  the 
casa  santa;  and  Innocent  XIII.  instituted  a  spe- 
cial officium  cum  missa,  in  honor  of  the  holy 
Vii-giu  of  Loreto.  Innumerable  and  often  im- 
mensely costly  presents  were  offered  by  pious 
pilgi-ims.  Wlieu  Louis  XIV.  was  born,  his  father, 
Louis  XIII.,  presented  the  church  with  an  angel 
of  silver  weighing  three  hundred  and  fifty-one 
pounds,  and  holding  a  child  of  gold  w'eighing 
twenty-four  pounds.  On  the  occasion  of  the 
birth  of  the  Pretender,  James  II.  presented  a 
still  more  costly  statue,  —  a  kneeling  angel  of 
gold.  In  1798,  however,  the  French  plundered  the 
church,  and  carried  away  the  spoils  ;  and  Napoleon 
returned  only  a  part  of  them  in  1800.  The  first 
opposition  to  the  legend  and  its  practical  conse- 
quences came  from  Vergerius,  w  hose  Delia  Camera 
e  Statua  della  Madonna  (Bologna,  1554)  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  under  the  characteristic  title, 
De  idulo  Lauretano  (Rome,  1556).  An  exhaustive 
criticism  is  found  in  Casauboxis  :  Exercitat. 
VII.  ad  Baronii  Annales,  1615;  [P.  R.  Kendrick  ■. 
The  Iloh/  Hou.-ie  of  Loretto,  Phila.].      ZdCKLEK. 

LORIMER,  Peter,  D.D.,  an  English  Presbyte- 
rian divine  ;  was  b.  in  Edinburgh,  June  27,  1812, 
and  d.  at  Whitehaven,  July  28,  1879.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  master-builder  who  occupied  a  good 
position  in  that  business  in  his  native  city-  He 
received  the  elements  of  his  education  at  George 
Heriot's  Hospital,  an  institution  originally  found- 
ed, in  the  reign  of  James  VI.,  for  the  mainte- 
nance and  "  upbringing  "  of  the  sons  of  decayed 
burgesses,  but  in  more  recent  times,  with  largely 
increased  revenues,  placed,  in  many  ways,  on  a 
much  wider  basis  than  was  contemplated  by  its 
founder.  With  a  bursary  of  thirty  pounds  per 
annum,  he  proceeded  from  the  hospital  to  Edin- 
burgh University.  Here  he  jjassed  through  the 
classes  of  the  art's  curriculum  with  much  credit, 
and  also  took  his  theological  course  ;is  a  student 
of  divinity ;  the  professor  of  divinity  at  the  time 
being  the  celebrated  Ur.  Thomas  Chalmers,  to 
whom,  as  a  teacher,  Dr.  Lorimer  alw.ays  acknowl- 
edged the  highest  obligations.  In  the  year  1836 
he  was  ordained  as  minister  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  Prince's  Terrace,  London,  in  connection 
with  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland.  In 
1843,  he,  along  with  his  congregation,  broke  up 
his  connection  with  the  Scottish  Cliurch,  casting 
in  his  lot  with  the  large  and  important  body 
which  has  been  since  known  as  the  "  Free  Church 
of  Scotland,"  and  to  which  lie  ever  afterwards 
continued  to  be  warmly  attached.  In  tlie  year 
1845,  a  theological  collrge  having  been  establislied 
in  London  by  the  I'lnglish  Presbyterian  Church, 
Dr.  Lorimer  was  appointed  one  of  its  jirofe.ssors, 

:  the  chair  assigned  to  him  being  that  of  Hebrew, 
and  biblical  criticism;  and  in  1878  he  was  made 

'  principal   of    the  college.     lu   1857  he   bud    the 


LOSCHER. 


1353 


LOT. 


honor  to  receive  the  degree  of  D.D.  from  Prince- 
ton College,  United  States.  To  the  world  gener- 
ally, Dr.  Lorimer  is  chiefly  known  by  works  in 
connection  with  church  history,  a  branch  of  study 
which  had  always  possessed  for  him  peculiar  at- 
tractions, and  in  which,  by  his  original  researches, 
combined  with  his  power  of  popular  exposition, 
he  has  gained  an  honorable  name  in  English 
literature. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  of  Dr. 
Lorinier's  writings  liitlierto  published ;  an  addi- 
tional bnt  posthumous  work.  The  Precursors  of' 
Knox,  being,  however,  now  [1882]  in  the  press: 
Life  of  Pairick-  Hamillon,  Kdni.,  18.57;  The  Scot- 
tish Reformation,  an  Historical  Sketch,  Lond.,  1860; 
John  Knox  and  the  Church  of  England,  Lond., 
1875;  and  a  translation,  with  valuable  notes,  of 
the  first  volume  (the  personal  history  of  Wiclif) 
of  G.  Lechi.er's  John  Wiclif,  Lond.,  1878,  2  vols. ; 
new  edition,  1882,  in  1  vol."         WILLIAM  LEE. 

LOSCHER,  Valentin  Ernst,  b.  at  Sonders- 
han.sen,  Dec.  29,  167:) ;  d.  in  Dresden,  1749.  He 
studied  theology  at  Wittenberg;  visited  Holland 
and  Denmark,  and  was  appointed  superintendent 
of  Jiiterbog  in  1698,  superintendent  of  Delitzsch 
in  1701,  professor  at  Wittenberg  in  17(17,  and 
pastor  at  the  Kreuzkirche  in  Dresden,  in  1709.  In 
1701  he  founded  the  first  theological  periodical, 
Unschuldige  Nachrichten  von  alten  und  neuen  theo- 
logischen  Sachen,  which  succeeded  so  well,  that, 
after  the  lapse  of  a  few  years,  he  became  the 
acknowledged  leader  of  the  orthodox  party  in  its 
contest  with  the  Pietists.  The  first  conflict  arose 
from  the  favor  with  which  the  Pietists  met  the 
attempts  of  the  Prussian  Government  to  imite 
the  Lutherans  and  the  Reformed  into  a  common 
church,  with  a  common  confession.  Lbscher  made 
the  attack  in  his  Adresse  (1703),  which  he  fol- 
lowed up  with  his  Historie  der  ersten  Re/igions- 
motuum  (170't),  and  Ausfixhrliche  Historia  motiium 
(1708).  In  1706,  however,  the  Pietists  gave  up 
their  merely  defensive  attitude ;  and  Joachim 
Lange  attacked  the  orthodox  in  his  Aufrichtigc 
Nachrichten.  Loscher  answered  with  his  Prmno- 
tiones  et  Notiones  Theologicm  (1707)  and  Timotheus 
Verinus,  his  chief  work,  of  which  the  first  part  ap- 
peared in  1718,  and  the  second  in  1722.  The  con- 
troversy was  not  only  protracted,  but  also,  at  least 
from  the  side  of  the  Pietists,  exceedingly  bitter 
and  coarse.  A  disputation  arranged  at  IMerseburg, 
May  10,  1719,  led  to  nothing;  but  peace  finally 
resulted  from  the  growing  power  of  rationalism, 
which  weakened  Pietism,  and  almost  obliterated 
orthodoxy.  Loscher  was  its  last  prominent  rep- 
resentative. See  his  biography  by  Enqelhardt, 
Stuttgart,  1856.  M.  von  engelhardt. 

LOT  (a  covering),  the  son  of  Haran,  and  nephew 
of  Abraham ;  accompanied  his  uncle  from  Ur  to 
Canaan  and  Egypt,  and  back  to  Canaan.  There 
the  size  of  their  respective  flocks  and  herds  gave 
rise  to  constant  strife  among  their  herdsmen  ;  and 
so  Abraham  and  Lot,  on  the  suggestion  of  the 
former,  peacefully  parted.  Lot  went  forth  in  the 
Jordan  valley,  attracted  by  the  apparent  richness 
of  the  country.  He  lived  in  Sodom,  there  brought 
up  his  family,  and  allowed  his  daughters  to  marry 
among  the  inhabitants.  On  one  occasion  the  city 
was  attacked  by  Chedorlaomer ;  and  Lot  was  car- 
ried away  captive,  but  rescued  and  restored  by 
Abraham.     The  moral  status  of  the  Sodomites 


is  amply  illustrated  by  the  story  of  the  visit  of 
the  angels  thither,  and  our  word  "  .Sodomy."  Lot 
was  personally  pure  (2  Pet.  ii.  7,  8).  At  length 
the  wrath  of  (iod  against  the  cities  of  the  plain 
could  no  longer  be  repressed.  Abraham,  on  being 
warned  of  the  apjiroaching  disaster,  pleaded  with 
(jod  for  them;  but  they  did  not  contain  the  requi- 
.site  ten  righteous  persons  (Gen.  xviii.  32).  Two 
angels  warned  Lot  also,  who  obeyed,  but  was 
unable  to  induce  his  sons-in-law  to  flee.  'I'he 
Lord  rained  brimstone  and  fire  upon  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah  and  all  the  cities  of  the  plain.  Lot's 
wife,  on  looking  back,  contrary  to  the  expres.s 
connnand  of  the  angels,  became  "  a  pillar  of  .salt.'' 
(No  faith  is  to  be  put  in  the  identifications.) 
From  Sodom,  Lot  fled  to  Zoar,  and  thence  to  a 
cave  in  "the  mountain. *'  Anxiety  to  preserve 
seed  of  their  father  was  the  excuse  for  the  incest 
whicli  his  two  daughters  committed  with  Lot 
while  overcome  by  wine.  In  this  way  the  ances- 
tors of  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites  respectively 
were  born. 

In  the  narrative  we  have  not  legend,  but  family 
traditional  history.  The  picture  presented  is  true 
to  life  and  to  the  times.  The  destruction  of  the 
cities  of  the  plain  was  due  to  natural  causes,  and 
made  so  profound  an  impression,  that  not  only  do 
the  Bible  writers  often  allude  to  it  (Deut.  xxix. 
23;  Isa.  i.  9;  Jer.  xx.  16;  Lam.  iv.  6;  Hos.  xi. 
8;  Amos  iv.  11),  but  also  Strabo  and  Tacitus 
(Hist.,  V  7).  The  Dead  Sea  is  called  by  the  Arabs 
to-day  Bahr  Lut  ("the  Sea  of  Lot").  For  further 
particulars  of  the  event  and  the  region,  see  Pal- 
t;sTiNE,  Salt  Sea,  Sodom.  von  orelli. 

LOT,  The  Use  of  the,  among  the  Hebrews. 
The  name  for  "  lot"  is  S'lU,  which  literally  means 
"  little  stone,"  in  reference  to  the  different  colored 
stones  one  used  to  tVu'ow  to  obtain  the  divine 
decision  of  the  question.  Faith  in  a  special 
providence  underlay  the  practice.  The  decision 
of  the  lot  was  ordered  of  (iod.  The  following 
classes  of  cases  in  which  it  was  resorted  to  are 
recorded  in  the  Bible  :  1.  Partitions.  —  (a")  'I'hat 
of  the  land  of  Israel  (Num.  xxvi.  55  ;  Josh,  xviii. 
10).  According  to  Jewish  tradition,  the  process 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  two  urns,  in  one  of 
which  were  the  names  of  the  different  families 
of  the  Israelites,  in  the  other  the  lots,  upon  which 
the  portions  of  tierritory  were  described.  Presid- 
ing over  the  drawing  was  the  high  priest,  with 
urim  and  thummin.  (ft)  That  of  the  cities  lor 
the  Levites  (Josh.  xxi.  4  sqq.)  (c)  That  of  the 
families  returned  from  the  exile,  so  that  one  in 
ten  might  dwell  in  Jerusalem  (Neh.  xi.  1)  ('/) 
That  of  the  spoil,  also  of  the  prisoners,  and  of 
the  clothing  of  condemned  persons  among  the 
executioners  (Joel  iii.  3;  Obad.  11  ;  Nah.  iii.  10; 
Matt,  xxvii.  35;  John  xix.  23).  2.  Selection  of 
Persons.  — (a)  The  choice  of  men  for  an  invading 
force  (Judg.  xx.  9).  (J)  The  choice  of  a  person 
to  fill  an  office,—  Saul  (1  Sam.,  x.  19-21).  Matthias 
(Acts  i.  26);  but  these  were  quite  exceptional 
cases,  (c)  The  choice  of  priests  to  fill  the  twenty- 
four  courses,  and  perform  various  duties  (1  Chron. 
xxiv.  5;  Luke  i.  9;  Neh.  x.  34  sqq.).  ('/) 
The  choice  of  the  scapegoat  on  the  Day  of 
Atonement  (Lev.  xvi.  8).  3.  The  Decision  of 
Doiihtful  Questions  (Josh.  vii.  14  sqq. ;  1  Sam.  xiv. 
41  sq. ;  Prov.  xvi.  33,  xviii.  18).     The  lot  was 


LOTZE. 


1354 


LOUIS. 


either  thrown  from  an  urn,  or  from  the  bosom  of 
the  outer  upper  garment. 

The  Bible  also  records  the  use  of  the  lot  among 
non-Jewish  persons;  e.g.,  Haman,  to  decide  the 
best  day  for  the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (Esth. 
iii.  7).  and  the  sailors  of  Jonah's  vessel,  to  deter- 
mine wlio  was  responsible  for  the  storm  (Jon.  i.  7). 
See  Urim  .\xd  Thummim.  leyrer. 

LOTZE,  Hermann  Rudolf,  a  prominent  leader 
in  the  battle  against  modern  materialism  ;  was  b. 
at  Bautzen.  Mav  21.  1817  ;  devoted  himself  at 
Leipzig  University  to  medical  science,  natural 
philosophy,  and  metaphysics ;  was  there,  in  18-to, 
appointed  professor  of  mental  philosophy ;  fol- 
lowed in  1844,  in  the  same  capacity,  a  call  to 
Gbttingen,  and  in  the  spring  of  188i  to  Berlin, 
where  he  died  July  1  of  the  same  year.  When 
Lotze  began  his  public  career,  the  enthusiasm  in 
favor  of  Hegelian  ideological  Pantheism,  which 
held  sway  over  the  educated  minds  in  Germany 
for  a  long-  series  of  years,  had  passed  its  acme, 
and  Materialism  (Charles  Vogt,  Moleschott,  Biich- 
ner)  began  to  have  controlling  influence  with 
scientists.  There  were  some  eminent  representa- 
tives of  theistic  views  (e.g.,  Charles  Philip  Fisch- 
er, J.  II.  Fichte,  jun.,  H.  Wei,sse,  Ulrici;,  whose 
critical  attacks  against  Hegel  were  not  without 
some  influence,  especially  since  Neo-Schellingian- 
ism  on  the  one  hand,  and  Ilerbart's  sober  realism 
on  the  other,  gave  them  support.  Of  these  theists 
Weisse  met,  more  than  others,  with  the  sympa- 
thies of  Lotze,  who  emphatically  declared  himself 
against  Hegel's  Pantheism,  and  no  less  against 
Materialism,  then  becoming  rampant  in  Germany. 
Xo  one  was  better  equipped  than  Lotze  to  demon- 
strate the  lack  of  sober,  solid  reasoning  in  the 
positions  of  Materialism  ;  since  no  one  German 
scientist  mastered  better  than  he  did  the  whole 
domain  of  natural  science,  and  no  one  surpassed 
his  critical  acumen  and  the  imperturbable  equili- 
brium of  his  judgment.  No  jihilosopher  had  a 
clearer  conc(?ption,  and  spoke  witli  more  modesty, 
of  the  limits  of  our  mental  faculties  and  knowl- 
edge. Acknowledging  the  inqiossibility  of  a 
demonstrative  proof  ot  the  existence  of  God,  he 
humlily  professes  his  belief  in  God  as  the  living 
centre  of  the  universe,  whose  life-functions  jiro- 
duce  continually  all  the  phenomena  of  the  visible 
and  invisible,  physical  and  psychical  world.  To 
think  that  this  cosmos  should  be  a  purposeless 
existence  without  a  great  aim,  amoral  end,  —  viz., 
to  actualize  that  which  is  absolutely  f/oad  and  ra- 
linnal,  —  is,  according  to  Lotze,  perfectly  irrational. 
This  he  holds  fa.st,  though  he  confesses  that  we 
do  not  know  what  God's  own  nature  is ;  how  those 
two  forms  of  exisb.'uce,  the  material  and  the 
psychical  (mental,  spiritual,  feeling  and  conscious 
personality),  proceed  from  one  and  the  same 
source ;  w'lerein  the  real  difference  exists  be- 
tween those  two  diverging  sides  of  the  cosmos; 
why  there  is  in  this  world  moral  evil  and  suffer- 
ing, which,  as  it  seem.s,  is  the  indispensable  con- 
comitant of  life.  To  bo  enabled  to  solve  tlic.se 
problems  we  ouglit  to  be  in  the  very  centre  of 
the  cosmos,  so  as  fully  to  understand  its  universal 
plan.  This  is,  however,  not  oiir  position.  We 
can,  consequently,  not  pretend  to  establish  a  phi- 
losophic .sy.stem  which  would  totally,  ami  in  an 
all-comprehensive  manner,  .square  with  the  whole 
J'ian  and  all  the  facts  and  piienonieua  of  the  uni- 


verse. It  is  apparent  that  this  modest  and  honest 
"  agnostici.sm  "  of  Lotze  has  nothing  in  common 
with  the  atheistic  and  materialistic  system  of 
this  name  now  prevailing  in  some  parts  of  the 
civilized  world.  Lotze's  whole  conception  of  the 
univer.se  is  essentially  ethical.  The  ethical  princi- 
ple is  to  him  the  starting-point,  also,  for  all  meta- 
physics ;  and  he  fully  acknowledges  it  as  the 
excellency  of  Christianity  {Microcosmos,  vol.  iii.). 
The  catalogue  of  his  most  prominent  (as  yet  un- 
translated) publications  shows  the  wide  range  of 
his  investigations.  Metaphysics,  1841  (again,  as 
the  .second  part  of  the  System  of  Philosophy,  1879); 
General  Pathology  and  Therapy  as  Mechanical 
Natural  Sciences,  1842;  Logic,  1843  (and  again,  as 
first  part  of  the  System  of  Philosophy,  1874)  ; 
Essay  on  the  Idea  of  the  Beautiful  in  Art,  1846; 
On  the  Conditions  of  Artistic  Beauty,  1848;  Genr 
eral  Physiology  of  Corporeal  Life,  1 851 ,  Medical 
Psychology,  1852 ;  Microcosmos,  Thoughts  bearing 
upon  iV«(.  Phil,  and  the  Hist,  of  the  Human  Race, 
3  vols.,  1856-64 ;  Hist,  of  ^Esthetics  iti  Germany, 
1808.  See  E.  Pfleidereu;  Lotze's  philosoph.  Welt- 
anschauung nach  ihren  Grundziigen  z.  Erinnertmg 
an  d.  ]'erstorhcnen,  Berlin,  1882,  81  pp.  Lotze's 
Gruudziige  der  Religions-philosophie  was  posthu- 
mously published  (1882).  W.  J.  MANN. 

LOUIS,  ST.,  Louis  IX.,  King  of  France  (Nov. 
15,  1226-Aug.  25,  1270),  was  only  eleven  years 
old  when  his  father  died.  During  his  minority, 
his  mother,  Blanche  of  Castile,  governed  the 
realm.  AVhen  he  was  twenty  years  old,  he  as- 
sumed the  government  himself;  and  as  he  opened 
his  reign  with  a  crusade,  —  the  unfortunate  cam- 
paign in  Egj-pt,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner,  — 
so  he  also  closed  it  with  a  crusade,  —  the  still 
more  unfortunate  campaign  in  Tunis,  where  he 
died  of  the  plague.  He  was  a  man  of  genuine 
piety;  though  his  piety  was  of  a  strongly  pro- 
nounced medieval  type,  ascetic  and  intolerant. 
His  daily  devotions  were  frequent,  long,  and 
strictly  observed  :  on  the  days  of  the  great  Chris- 
tian festivals  he  wore  hair-cloth,  and  went  bare- 
footed;  Wednesday  and  Friday  he  refrained  from 
laughing;  when  he  adored  the  cro.ss,  he  prostrated 
himself  on  the  ground  before  it,  etc.,  but  he 
lookcil  on  with  composure  Mhile  the  Cathari  were 
tortured.  In  the  Elahlisscments  de  Si.  Louis  he 
acknowledged  that  hcn-etics  ought  to  be  punislied 
with  death.  By  an  ordinance  he  cancelled  one- 
third  of  the  debt  which  his  Christian  subjects 
owed  to  the  Jews,  etc.  He  was  .also  credulous 
and  superstitious.  At  one  time  he  boiiglit  the 
crown  of  thorns  for  a  million  and  a  half  francs  ;  at 
another,  he  bought  the  true  cross,  and  placed  it, 
with  many  singul.ar  ceremonies,  in  the  Church 
of  Notre  l)anie,  in  Paris.  Nevertheless,  he  was 
not  the  slave  of  the  Pope  or  of  the  clergy.  The 
authenticity  of  the  famous  I'ragmatic  Sanction 
of  1209  is  questionable;  but.  whether  or  not  he 
ever  formulated  tliose  articles,  he  certainly  carried 
them  out  in  jiractice.  Tlie  lil)erlies  and  |irivileges 
of  the  Gallican  Church  he  vindicated  against  the 
encroachments  of  (he  I'ope  with  great  vigor  and 
unswerving  decision  ;  aiul  he  forliade  the  Komau 
curia  to  levy  money  in  France,  under  any  pre- 
tence, withinit  his  consent.  In  the  same  spirit  lie 
defeiuled  the  laity  against  the  clergy.  He  wholly 
exenqited  laymen  from  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
in  civil  affairs;  and  such  ecclesiastical  judges  as 


LOVE. 


1355 


LOVE. 


attempted,  by  means  of  excommunication,  to 
compel  laymen  to  bring  also  their  civil  suits 
before  the  ecclesiastical  court,  he  conipelled  to 
cancel  the  excommunication  by  confiscating  their 
revenues.  A  petition  from  the  French  bishop,  to 
give  their  excommunications  more  effect  by  con- 
fiscating the  property  of  the  excommunicated,  he 
absolutely  refused  to  listen  to.  In  general,  it 
may  be  said,  that,  however  narrow  and  unsound 
his  piety  was  in  many  of  its  more  personal  utter- 
ances, its  influence  on  his  policy  was,  in  all  its 
great  traits,  most  beneficent ;  and  he  is  one  of  the 
very  few  truly  Christian  ciiaracters  who  have 
ever  sat  on  a  throne.  He  was  canonized  by  Boni- 
face VIII.  in  1'297.  See  Le  Nain  de  Tille- 
moxt:  Hisloire  de  Si.  Louis,  which  also  gives  a 
list  of  the  very  rich  contemporary  sources  to  his 
life  ;  and  Guizot:  Hisloire  iles  ijuatres  yrands  Ckrc- 
tiens  Fran^ais,  Paris,  1873,2  vols.;  VERDii^RE:  La 
monarchie  chrelienne  de  Si.  Louis  entre  la  papaute 
etlece'sarisine,  Lyon,  1876;  H.  Wallon  :  St.  Louis, 
Tours,  187S;  V.  Verlaque  :  St.  Louis,  Paris,  1885. 
LOVE,  one  of  the  most  weighty,  comprehen- 
sive, and  universal  of  conceptions,  having  basal 
value  in  philosophy,  ethics,  and  theology,  and  ex- 
tending through  all  lands  and  times.  It  is  tliat 
relation  between  persons,  in  which  the  personality 
of  the  one  is  lost  in  the  other,  in  which  eacli 
esteems  the  other  better  than  himself  (Phil.  ii.  3), 
and  all  selfishness  vanishes.  Love  is,  therefore, 
much  more  than  inclination  or  liking :  it  is,  how- 
ever, rarely  found  in  completion.  In  this  article 
we  consider,  — 

1.  Love  as  the  Essence  of  God. — John  says, 
"  God  is  love  "  (1  John  iv.  16),  a  sentence  which 
is  not  a  definition  of  the  essence  of  God,  but  a 
statement  of  his  feelings  toward  us.  At  the  same 
time,  the  words  open  a  profitable  field  of  specula- 
tion in  regard  to  the  part  love  holds  in  the  divine 
constitution.  Augustine  first,  Richard  of  St.  Vic- 
tor next,  and,  after  him,  others,  have  endeavored 
to  reconstruct  the  Trinity  by  the  principle  of 
love  :  thus,  the  Father  loves  the  Son,  and  the  Son 
loves  the  Father  (redamando) ;  both  loves  are 
united  in  love  for  an  object  of  common  affection 
(condilectio),  that  is,  in  the  Holy  Spirit.  Rut  the 
attempt  has  been  unsuccessful ;  for  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  more  than  a  product,  it  is  a  factor  of  tlie  divine 
love ;  and  besides,  in  the  proposed  scheme,  the 
persons  of  the  Godhead  are  not  sufficiently  dis- 
tinguished. But  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  love 
is  a  large  element  of  the  divine  essence ;  and  the 
later  theologians,  as,  for  instance,  Dorner,  in  dis- 
cussing the  problem  of  the  Trinity,  give  it  much 
space. 

2.  Love  as  Principle  in  Creation.  —  God  created 
the  world  in  order  that  he  might  have  a  field  for 
the  exercise  of  his  love ;  not  that  the  world  was 
necessary  in  any  way ;  but  it  delighted  him  to 
make  the  world,  and  fill  it  with  creatures  whom 
he  could  love. 

3.  Love  as  Principle  in  Redemption.  —  God  so 
loved  the  world,  that  he  sent  his  Son  to  die  for  it 
(John  iii.  16).  The  Son,  out  of  his  free,  divine 
love,  laid  down  his  life  for  our  salvation  (Matt. 
XX.  28).  God  was  in  Christ,  reconciling  the  world 
unto  himself  (2  Cor.  v.  19) ;  and  this  love  of  God 
in  Christ  is  the  only  and  exclusive  ground  of  our 
salvation  and  of  our  sanctification  (Acts  iv.  12). 

4.  Love  as  Principle  in   Virtue.  —  Love  is  the 


source  and  centre  of  the  development  of  the  new 
life  in  Christ.  Our  Lord  set  his  approval  upon 
the  Mosaic  summary  of  the  law  in  the  form  of 
love  to  God  and  man  (Matt.  xxii.  37  sq.;  comp. 
Deut.  vi.  5;  Lev.  xix.  18),  and  gave  his  followers 
the  "new  commandment,"  that  they  should  love 
one  another  (John  xiii.  34).  Paul  calls  love  "the 
fulfilling  of  the  law"  (Rom.  xiii.  10),  and  "the 
end  of  the  commandment"  (1  Tim.  i.  5);  Peter 
exhorts  to  love  as  the  fruit  of  the  holy  living 
(1  Pet.  i.  22;  2  Pet  i.  8)  ;  John  is  particularly 
full  upon  love  (1  John  ii.  tj,  iv.  7,  8);  and  James 
calls  love  of  -our  neighbors  "  the  royal  law  "  (ii. 
5,8). 

5.  Phenomena  of  Love.  Love  manifests  itself 
in  the  two  great  directions, — toward  God  and 
toward  our  neighbor,  or  in  the  contemplative  and 
in  the  practical  form  ;  the  former  seen  in  Mary 
of  Bethany,  the  latter  in  her  sister  Martha  (Luke 
X.  38-42).  Our  Lord  gave  his  preference  to  the 
former.  It  shows  itself  in  prayer,  meditation, 
worship,  and  in  the  communion.  The  practical, 
on  the  other  hand,  shows  itself  in  all  works  of 
benevolence  and  beneficence,  far  and  near.  It  is 
incumbent  upon  the  Christian  to  unite  the  two. 
The  hardest  burden  our  Lord  lays  upon  his  disci- 
ples is  to  love  their  enemies  (Matt.  v.  44).  Among 
human  relationships  controlled  by  love,  marriage 
occupies  the  first  place  (Eph.  v.  21  sqq.).  It  is 
noticeable  that  the  apostle  who  put  conjugal  love 
in  the  closest  parallel  to  the  "great  mystery"  of 
the  love  between  Christ  and  the  Church  spoke 
slightingly  of  conjugal  life  (1  Cor.  vii.  1,  40). 

6.  Mockeries  of  Love.  —  True  love  can  only 
exist  between  human  beings  :  therefore,  to  speak 
of  love  for  animals,  or  of  love  for  a  thing,  is  to 
use  improper  language.  Self-love  is  an  inaccurate 
but  indispensable  term.  To  love  oui'selves  some- 
what is  indeed  necessary :  it  is  the  measure  of  our 
love  for  our  neighbors.  What  passes  for  love  in 
literature,  novels,  and  on  the  stage,  is  too  com- 
monly mere  sexual  longing.  Even  in  religious 
talk  and  pictures  do  we  find  this  debasement  of 
the  word  [as  in  the  really  sensual  expressions  of 
affection  for  Jesus,  and  in  those  representations 
which  are  so  derogatory  to  tlie  Saviour  of  the 
World].  That  so-called  "  love  "  which  leads  a 
parent  or  guardian  to  refrain  from  puiiisliing  a 
child  because  it  would  give  pain,  and  all  such  like 
indulgences,  does  not  deserve  the  name.  Love 
for  gold,  and  love  for  the  world,  are  pei'versions 
of  love,  to  its  destruction.  karl  burger. 

LOVE,  Family  of.     See  Familists. 

LOVE-FEASTS.     See  Agape. 

LOVE,  Christopher,  b.  Cardiff,  in  Glamorgan- 
shire, 1018;  educated  at  New  Inn  Hall,  Oxford, 
1635.  After  taking  the  master's  degree  he  was 
obliged  to  leave  Oxford  for  refusing  to  subscribe 
Archbishop  Laud's  canons.  He  went  to  London, 
and  became  domestic  chaplain  to  the  sheriff,  and 
took  a  bold  stand  against  the  errors  of  the  Book 
of  Common  Prayer  and  the  religious  tyranny  of 
the  times.  He  was  cast  into  prison  on  account 
of  an  aggressive  sermon  at  Newcastle,  and  in 
various  ways  persecuted  in  London.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  civil  war  he  was  made  preacher  to 
the  garrison  of  '\\'indsor  Castle,  where  he  gave 
great  offence  to  the  prelatical  party  by  his  point- 
ed utterances.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  receive 
presbyterial  ordination  under  the  new  organiza- 


LOW  CHURCH. 


1356 


LOWDBR. 


tion  in  Jan.  23,  1644,  at  Aldennanbury,  London  ; 
and  became  pastor  of  St.  Laurence  Jewry  in 
London,  where  he  was  highly  esteemed  for  tlie 
eloquence  and  vigor  of  his  preaching.  He  was  a 
strong  Presbyterian,  the  leader  of  the  younger 
men  of  that  party.  In  this  way  he  became  in- 
volved in  treasonable  correspondence  with  the 
Presbyterians  of  Scotland  to  restore  Charles  IL  ; 
and,  with  many  others,  was  arrested  May  7,  1651, 
and  chosen  to  make  an  example  of,  to  check  the 
Presbyterian  agitation  against  Cromwell  and  in 
favor  of  Charles  II.  He  was  condenmed,  and 
beheaded  on  Tower  Hill,  Aug.  22,  1651.  This 
excited  the  indignation  and  wrath  of  the  entire 
Presbyterian  party,  which  had  petitioned,  by 
ministerial  bodies  and  parishes,  in  vain  for  his 
pardon.  He  went  to  his  death  as  their  hero  and 
niartjT.  His  funeral  sermon  was  preached  by 
Thomas  Manton  to  an  immense  sympathizing 
audience.  His  sermons  were  published,  after  his 
death,  under  the  auspices  of  the  leading  Presby- 
terians of  London.  The  most  important  of  his 
works  are  Grace,  the  Truth  and  Growth,  and  dif- 
ferent Degrees  thereof,  226  pp.,  London,  1652; 
Heaven's  Glory,  HeWs  Terror,  350  pp.,  1653  ;  Com- 
hate  between  the  Flesh  and  the  Spirit,  292  pp., 
16.54  ;  Treatise  of  Effectual  Calling,  218  pp.,  165S  ; 
The  Naturall  Man's  Case  stated,  8vo,  280  pp., 
1658;    Select   Works,  8vo,  Glasgow,    1806-07,    2 

vols.  C.   A.   BRIGGS. 

LOW  CHURCH  is  a  designation  of  a  sciiool 
and  party  in  the  Church  of  England  and  the 
Episcopal  Church  of  the  United  States,  which 
in  the  departments  of  the  sacraments,  church 
government,  and  ecclesiastical  ritual,  clings  firmly 
to  the  principles  for  which  the  Engli.sli  Reform- 
ers contended.  In  contra-st  to  the  school  known 
as  the  "  High  Church,"  it  emphasizes  justification 
by  faith,  denies  the  doctrine  of  baptismal  regen- 
eration, and  holds  the  Calviuistic  (or  Zwinglian) 
doctrine  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  deprecating  all 
approach  to  the  so-called  "  Catholic,"  or  high  sac- 
ramentarian  view.  In  the  department  of  ecclesias- 
tical polity  it  disregards  the  doctrine  of  apostolical 
succession,  and,  while  it  insists  upon  the  Epis- 
copal as  the  best  form  of  government,  denies 
that  episcopacy  is  necessary  to  the  being  of  the 
Church.  In  matters  of  ritual  it  is  more  moder- 
ate, and  excludes  as  innovations  those  advanced 
practices  —  such  as  elevating  the  host,  facing  the 
east  iu  prayer,  thi^  u.se  of  candles,  etc.  —  which 
come  under  the  general  designation  of  ritualistic. 

The  views  of  the  Low-Church  school  are  the 
views  of  the  English  Reformers  and  the  bisliops, 
almost  without  an  exception,  of  the  Elizabethan 
period,  —  Jewel,  Grindal,  Parkhurst,  etc.  In  the 
seventeenth  centiu'y  it  was  repiesented  by  such 
men  as  IJishop  Stillingfleet  (d.  1699),  and  in  the 
eighteenth  by  Hishoj)  Iloadly  (d.  1761),  and  in- 
cluded the  evangelicals,  led  by  Wilberforce,  whose 
eminent  and  devout  labors  contributed  .so  much 
to  the  revival  of  piety  in  England,  the  estub- 
lisliment  of  missionary  organizations,  and  the 
promotion  of  moral  reforms.  The  extreme  High 
Church  and  ritualistic  tendencies  were  first  advo- 
cated by  .\bp.  Laud  (1633-4.5).  In  the  present 
century,  the  same  opinions  have  spread  rap- 
idly, and  jissumed  an  extreme  form  in  the  so- 
called  Oxford  or  Tractarian  movement,  led  by 
Keble,  Pusey,  and  John   Henry  Newman.     ]5nt 


the  Low-Church  party  has  included  such  men 
as  the  brothers  Hare,  Dr.  Arnold,  Dean  Alford, 
Dr.  Lightfoot  (bishop  of  Durham),  Dean  Payne 
Smith  of  Canterbury,  Canon  F.  W.  Farrar, 
Canon  Westcott,  Dean  Howson,  etc.  But  some 
of  these  are  also  counted  as  Broad-Churchmen. 
The  late  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Dr.  Tait,  was 
generally  accounted  a  liberal  Low-Churchman. 
In  the  Episcopal  Cliurch  of  the  United  States  the 
relative  influence  of  the  Low-Church  party  has 
declined  since  the  death  of  Bishops  Johns  of  Vir- 
ginia, Mcllvaine  of  Ohio,  and  other  prominent 
leaders.  See  High  Ciilhch,  Latitudixarians, 
and  Blunt  :  Dictionary  of  Sects,  etc. 

LOWDER,  Charles  Fuge,  vicar  of  St.  Peter's, 
London  Docks;  b.  at  Bath,  June  22,  1820;  d.  at 
Zell-am-See,  Austria,  Sept.  9.  1880.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  King's  College,  London,  and  at  Oxford, 
where  he  took  his  degree,  1843.  He  was  or- 
dained deacon,  Sept.  24,  1843,  and  became  a 
curate  at  A\'alton-cum-Street,  near  Glastonbury ; 
was  ordained  priest,  Dec.  22,  1844 ;  resigned  his 
curacy,  and  became  chaplain  to  the  Axbridge 
Workhouse ;  then  moved  to  Tetbury  as  senior 
curate,  autumn  of  1845.  In  1851  he  came  to 
London  as  curate  at  St.  Barnabas.  There  he 
was  called  upon  to  fight  in  behalf  of  certain  ritu- 
alistic changes.  In  1856  he  began,  not  only  the 
most  injportant  work  of  his  life,  but  what  was- 
really  his  life-work,  for  which  all  his  previous 
exj^eriences  were  preparatory,  —  he  headed  the 
ndssion  to  St.  George's-in-the-East.  On  June  30, 
1866,  St.  Peter's  Church,  London  Docks,  was  con- 
secrated ;  and  he  became  first  vicar  of  the  new 
parish  of  St.  Peter's-in-the-East,  constructed  out 
of  his  former  one,  and  until  his  death  he  labored 
faithfully  at  this  post. 

The  .scene  of  ^Ir.  Lowder's  labors  was  in  East 
London,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Docks. 
The  people  living  there  were  the  worst  imagina- 
ble. He  deliberately  put  himself  in  direct  con- 
tact w  ith  their  far  worse  than  heathen  darkness 
and  degradation  ;  for  he  yearned  over  those  poor, 
besotted  souls,  and  did  his  utmost,  during  four 
and  twenty  years,  to  carry  to  them  the  pure  and 
elevating  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  measures 
he  adopted  were  severely  criticised.  The  very 
people  for  whom  he  would  have  gladly  died, 
rose  in  rebellion  against  the  "  popery,"  as  they 
called  it,  of  his  ritualistic  services.  It  is  true 
he  was  a  ritualist.  He  called  himself  a  "priest 
of  the  Catholic  Church."  He  conducted  services 
with  ritualistic  additions  of  crosses,  colored  vest- 
ments, lights,  etc. ;  he  heard  confessions,  granted 
absolution,  and  was  generally  addressed  and 
spoken  of  as  "  Father  Lowder."  In  dress,  mode 
of  living,  general  style  of  theologio  thought,  he 
resembled  a  Roman-Catholic  priest.  He  had 
bound  him.self  by  vows  of  celibacy  and  poverty. 
He  centred  his  attention  njion  the  church;  but 
he  was  not  a  Roman  Catholic,  for  Ik^  yieldecl  no- 
allegiance  to  the  Pope,  nor  adored  llie  Mrgin 
Mary.  Ho  strained  every  nerve  to  lienelit  his  par- 
ishioners, to  educate  them,  to  cui'<'  them  of  their 
vices;  and  lie  succeeded.  Like  tlu'  river  in  Ezck- 
iel's  vision,  everywliere  his  inlluence  went,  life 
sprang  uj).  He  lived  among  blackguards  of  every 
description,  —  thieves,  drunkards,  ]>idstitutes,  — 
the  very  scum  of  London,  the  most  deba.'^ed  ]iopu- 
lation  in  the  world.     But  he  was  there  to  do  them 


1 


LOWELL. 


1357 


LUCIAN  THE  MARTYR. 


good,  to  teach  them  the  way  to  God;  and  the 
numbers  whom  he  reclaimed,  and  the  even  greater 
numbers,  probably,  whom  he  restrained  from  sin, 
testify  to  the  power  of  his  influence.  His  "ritu- 
alism "  becomes  a  matter  of  small  consequence  in 
view  of  the  results  of  his  work,  for  he  saved  a  mul- 
titude of  souls.  AVhen  his  remains  were  brought 
to  London,  they  were  received  with  extraordinary 
marks  of  respect.  His  funeral  was  attended  by 
three  thousand  persons  who  mourned  him  as  a 
faithful  and  beloved  friend.  "No  such  funeral 
has  been  seen  in  London  in  modem  times."  See 
Charle.i  Loivder :  a  Jiiuyraphi/  (anonymous),  Lond., 
1882 ;  .3d  ed.,  same  year,     samuel  m.  jackson. 

LOWELL,  John,  founder  of  the  Lowell  Insti- 
tute;  b.  in  Boston,  May  11,  1799;  d.  in  Bombay, 
India,  March  4,  1836.  He  studied  for  two  years 
at  Harvard  College;  but  ill  health  prevented  his 
graduation,  and  the  greater  pai"t  of  his  mature 
life  was  spent  in  travel.  He  left  two  hundred 
and  fifty  thousand  dollars  for  the  maintenance  in 
Boston  of  annual  courses  of  free  public  lectures 
upon  religion,  science,  literature,  and  the  arts. 
The  Lowell  Institute,  as  it  is  called,  went  into 
operation  in  the  winter  of  1839-40. 

LOWMAN,  Moses,  a  dissenting  divine  ;  b.  in 
London,  1(580;  d.  there  (in  Clapham,  Surrey) 
May  3,  1752.  He  published  several  estimable 
works,  —  An  Arcjumenl  frmn  Prophecy  in  Proof 
that  Jesus  is  the  Messiah,  1733 ;  A  Paraphrase  and 
Notes  on  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  1737,  2d  ed., 
1745,  new  edition,  18o7  (this  work  is  now  incor- 
porated with  Patrick,  Lowth,  and  Whitby's  Com- 
mentary) ;  A  Dissertation  on  the  Civil  Government 
of  the  Hebrews,  1740 ;  A  Rational  of  the  Ritual  of 
the  Hebrew  Worship,  1748  (new  edition,  1818). 

LOW-SUNDAY,  the  first  Sunday  after  Easter, 
so  called  because  formerly  some  portion  of  the 
great  festival  of  Easter  was  repeated  upon  it : 
hence  it  was  a  feast  of  a  lower  degree  than  Easter. 

LOWTH,  Robert,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  b.  at  Winches- 
ter, Nov.  27,  1710;  d.  at  Fulham,  Nov.  3,  1787. 
He  was  graduated  at  Oxford,  1734 ;  took  orders ; 
was  successively  fellow  of  New  College,  profes- 
sor of  poetry  (1741),  archdeacon  of  Winchester 
(1750),  rector  of  Woo<lhay  (1753),  prebendary  of 
Durham,  and  rector  of  Sedgefield  (1755),  bishop 
of  St.  David's  (1766),  of  Oxford  (1766),  and  of 
London  (1777).  In  1783,  on  the  death  of  Dr. 
Cornvvallis,  George  III.  offered  him  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Canterbury ;  but  he  declined  it  on 
account  of  his  years  and  family  afflictions,  he 
having  just  lost  his  second  daughter.  Bishop 
Lowth  attained  permanent  fame  by  two  works. 
(1)  De  sacra  poesi  Hehrmorum  prcelectiones  nca- 
demicce  Oxonii  habilw,  Oxford,  1753,  2d  ed.,  1763, 
3d  ed.,  1775,  4th  ed.,  1787  ;  edited  with  notes  by 
J.  D.  Miohaelis,  Gbttingen,  1758-62,  2d  ed.,  1760- 
70,  2  vols. ;  reprinted  edition  with  additional  notes 
by  E.  F.  K.  Rosenmiiller,  and  excursus  by  K.  F. 
Richter  and  Ch.  Weiss,  Leipzig,  1815  (the  notes 
of  Michaelis  were  printed  as  a  supplementary 
volume  by  the  second  and  subsequent  editions  of 
the  original ;  Rosenmiiller's  edition  was  reprinted, 
Oxford,  1821) ;  English  translation  by  G.  Grego- 
ry, Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews 
(with  the  principal  notes  of  Michaelis),  London, 
1787,  2d  ed.,  1816,  2  vols.,  3d  ed.,  1835,  1  vol., 
5th  ed.,  1847;  American  edition  by  Calvin  E. 
Stowe,  Andover,  1829  ;  French  translations,  Le- 


(;ons  de  la  pocsie  sacrc'e  des  He'breux,  Lyons,  1812, 
2  vols.  ;  Cours  de  pocsie  sacrc'e  (abridged),  Paris,. 
1812,  2  vols.  These  bililiographical  details  sufTice 
to  show  the  popularity  of  the  work.  It  is,  indeed, 
the  most  conipletf;  work  upon  the  subject.  The 
most  damaging  criticism  brought  against  it  is 
that  Lowth  attempts  the  impossible,  —  to  bring 
Hebrew  poeti-y  under  the  categories  of  the  cla.ssi- 
cal  variety.  (See  art.  Hebrkw  Poetry).  (2)  Isa- 
iah: A  NeiK  fmetricaQ  Translation,  tvith  a  Prelimi- 
nary Dissertation,  Notex,  Critical,  Philobxjical,  and 
Explanatory,  London,  1778,  13th  ed.,  1842;  Ameri- 
can edition  from  tenth  English  edition,  Boston, 
1834  ;  German  translation  by  Professor  J.  B. 
Koppe,  Leipzig,  1779.  Lowth's  translation  is 
generally  much  admired,  but  in  the  judgment  of 
.some  critics  he  alters  the  Hebrew  text  unduly. 
Besides  these  two  great  works,  he  wrote  a  Life  of 
William  of  Wykeham  (London,  1758,  2d  ed.,  1759), 
and  several  pamphlets.  His  Sermons  and  other 
Remains  were  first  collected  and  edited,  with  an 
introductory  memoir,  by  Rev.  Peter  Hall,  London, 
1834.  Previously  there  had  appeared  anony- 
mously Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writinr/s  of  the 
late  Bishop  Lowth,  London  and  Gbttingen,  1787. 

LOWTH,  William,  D.D.,  father  of  the  preced- 
ing; b.  at  London,  .Sept.  11,  1661;  d.  at  Buriton, 
Hampshire,  May  17,  1732.  He  was  graduated  at 
Oxford,  1683 ;  and  became  chaplain  to  Dr.  Mew, 
bishop  of  Winchester,  who  made  him  a  prebend- 
ary of  Winchester,  1690,  and  rector  of  Buriton 
and  Petersfield,  1699.  His  own  works  were  iew 
in  number,  but  weighty  in  value :  A  Vindication 
of  the  Divine  Authority  and  Inspnration  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  in  Answer  to  \_Le  Clerc's']  Five 
Letters,  Oxford,  1692,  3d  ed.,  1821  (this  brought 
him  into  notice);  Directions  for  the  Prof  table  Read- 
inf]  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  London,  1708,  7th  ed.. 
1799 ;  but  his  principal  work  was  a  Commentary 
on  the  Prophets,  London,  1714-23,  4  vols.,  after- 
wards collected  in  one  folio  volume,  and  incor- 
porate<l  with  Bishop  Patrick's  Commentary,  and 
frequently  reprinted,  in  that  connection,  under  the 
caption,  Patrick,  Lowth,  and  Whitby's  Commen- 
tary. Dr.  Lowth  w'as  the  efficient  assistant  upon 
several  works  which  pass  under  other  names,  such 
as  Dr.  Potter's  edition  of  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
Oxford,  1715,  2  vols.,  enlarged  edition,  Venice, 
17.57,  2  vols.  ;  Hudson's  Josephus,  Oxford,  1720, 
2  vols. ;  Reading's  Histories  Ecclesia.sticce,  Cam- 
bridge, 1720,  3  vols,  (reprinted  Turin,  1748).  A 
Ijife  of  Dr.  Lowth  will  be  found  in  tlie  seventh 
edition  of  his  Directions,  etc. 

LOYOLA.     See  Ignatius  Loyola. 

LUCIAN  THE  MARTYR  was  born  at  Samosata 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  and  edu- 
cated at  Edessa,  whose  school,  next  to  that  of 
.Alexandria,  was  the  most  flourishing  one  in  Chris- 
tendom, and  numbered  such  men  as  Macarius  and 
Bardesanes  among  its  teachers.  He  aftei-wards 
settled  at  Antioch,  and  became  the  founder  of  a 
celebrated  .school  of  exegetes.  Eusebius  of  Xico- 
media.  Maris  of  Chalcedon,  Theognis  of  Nicsea, 
Leontius  of  Antioch,  .\ntonius  of  Tarsus,  A.sterius 
of  Cappadocia,  and  .\rius,  were  among  his  pupils. 
Forming  a  transition  between  Paul  of  Samosata 
and  Arius,  he  lived  for  a  long  time  (275-303) 
without  communion  with  the  orthodox  church  of 
Antioch.  Late  in  his  life,  however,  he  seems  to 
have  been  reconciled  with  the  church ;  and  he  died 


LUCIAN   OF   SAMOSATA. 


1358 


LUCIFER. 


1  martyr  during  the  persecution  of  Maxiniinus. 
Of  his  works,  Eusebius  mentions  none ;  but  liis 
peculiar  position  as  father  of  Arianism  was,  of 
course,  sufficient  reason  for  Eusebius  to  tiirow  a 
veil  of  obscurity  around  him.  Jerome  mentions 
liis  recension  of  the  Bible-test,  his  De  Fide,  and 
some  letters,  to  which  must  be  added  the  apolo- 
getical  oration  communicated  by  Rufinus.  His 
recension  of  the  Bible-text  was  used  in  the  whole 
western  part  of  the  Byzantine  Empire,  from  An- 
tioch  to  Constantinople;  while  that  of  Hesychius 
was  used  in  Alexandria  and  Egj-pt ;  and  that  of 
Origen,  in  Syria  and  Palestine.  Of  his  recension 
of  the  New-Testament  text,  Jerome  speaks  dis- 
paragingly, and  it  was  forbidden  by  the  Decrelum 
Gelasianum.  Of  that  of  the  Septuagint,  Jerome 
speaks  in  better  terms ;  and  a  tolerably  distinct 
idea  may  be  formed  of  its  character  and  method. 
Of  the  De  Fide  and  the  letters,  some  very  slight 
traces  are  left,  but  nothing  of  his  exegetical  labors. 
In  the  apologetical  oration  the  doctrinal  system  of 
Arianism  is  visible.  ADOLF  HAKNACK. 

LUCIAN  OF  SAMOSATA  flourished  during  the 
second  half  of  the  second  century,  but  the  exact 
dates  of  his  birth  and  death  are  not  known.  He 
was  born  at  Samosata  on  the  Euphrates;  studied 
first  law,  and  began  to  practise  at  Antioch,  then 
rhetoric,  after  whicli  he  made  a  professional  tour 
through  the  empire,  visiting  Rome  several  times. 
Southern  Gaul,  Thessalonica,  Olympia,  etc.,  and 
returned  to  .Syria  in  middle  life  rich  and  famous. 
Later  on,  probably  because  his  money  was  gone, 
he  made  a  second  starring-tour  as  rhetorician ; 
and  finally  lie  obtained  an  office  in  the  civil  ser- 
vice in  Egypt,  where  he  died.  The  period  of 
Ids  authorship  falls  principally  between  his  two 
great  travels  and  after  his  acquaintance  with  the 
Athenian  pliilosopher  Demonax  (about  105), 
which  led  him  into  a  systematic  opposition  to  all 
religion  and  philosophy.  That  of  his  works 
wliicii  alone  interests  us  here  is  his  Peregrinus 
I'roleus,  m  which  he  represents  his  hero  as  having 
been  a  Christian  for  some  time  of  his  life. 

It  is  apparent,  that,  during  the  second  part 
of  the  second  century,  the  educated  part  of  the 
Roman  society  took  only  a  very  slight  interest  in 
Christianity.  Celsus  wrote  against  it ;  Fronto  is 
also  said  to  liave  written  against  it ;  but  Marcus 
Aurelius,  Epictetus,  Galen,  the  rhetorician  Aris- 
tides,  only  mention  it  passingly.  To  tliis  rule 
Lucian  is  no  exception.  Though  the  criticism  of 
the  respective  chapter  of  his  Pereyrmus  I'roleus 
has  run  through  the  whole  scale  of  possible  judg- 
ments, from  the  Tridentine  Council,  which  put  the 
book  on  its  Judex  as  the  work  of  a  Satanic  fiend, 
to  Mr.  Kestner,  who  believed  he  had  discovered 
a  secret  Clu'istian  in  the  author,  the  chapter, 
when  allowed  to  speak  for  itself,  is  neither  more 
nor  less  than  a  simple  historical  testimony  to  a 
simple  historical  fact,  representing  the  Christians, 
not  as  impostors,  or  criminals,  or  revolutionists, 
but  as  blindly  believing  enthusiasts,  ready  to 
make  any  sacrifice  for  the  weal  of  their  cominu- 
iiity;  that  is,  just  such  a.s  they  at  that  moment 
appeared  to  the  eyes  of  the  indiffennit. 

Conijilete  Eng.  trans,  of  Lucian  by  I)kvi>i-.n, 
London,  1711,  4  vols.  [German  trans.  l)y  Eisclier, 
'_'d  ed.,  J5eriin.  1S84  sqii.]  Sec  lii-.u.SAV:  Lucian 
u.  d.  Ki/uikcr,  ISTt);  J.  .NL  CorrKitii.r. :  J'erei/iinun 
I'ruleuf,  Ediiil)urgli,  1879.       adoi.f  ii.\u.\.\'rK. 


LUCIDUS,  a  presbyter  who  played  a  prominent 
part  in  that  controversy  between  Augustiuism  and 
semi-Pelagianism  which  in  the  fifth  century  took 
place  in  Gaul.  The  semi-Pelagians  were  in  the 
ascendency,  both  on  account  of  their  number, 
and  because  their  doctrines  were  recognized  by 
the  Church ;  and  their  representative,  Faustus 
Rejensis,  compelled  Lucidus  to  recant  (about 
475).  Both  Fausli  Rejenfii  epistola  ad  Lucidum 
and  Lucidi  errorem  emendanlis  tibellus  are  found 
in  Mansi,  Conciliorum  Colleclio,  vii.,  and  in  Bib'. 
Pair.,  iv. ;  and  it  is  evident  that  Lucidus  actually 
carried  the  ideas  of  Augustine  to  a  dangerous 
extreme. 

LU'CIFER  (light-giver),  a  term  applied  by  Isaiah 
to  the  king  of  Babylon  (Isa.  xiv.  12),  and  not 
occurring  elsewhere  in  the  Bible.  It  indicates 
the  king's  glory  as  that  of  ''a  sun  of  the  morn- 
ing," a  morning-star.  TertuUian  and  others  have, 
it  would  seem  without  sufficient  warrant,  applied 
the  term  to  Satan ;  and  this  is  now  the  common 
acceptation. 

LUCIFER  and  the  LUCIFERIANS.  'When  Con- 
stantius,  at  the  synod  of  Aries  (353),  succeeded  in 
carrying  through  the  condemnation  of  Athana- 
sius,  Bishop  Lucifer  of  Cagliari  in  Sardmia  {Cara- 
lis,  or  Caraliianus,  or  Calaris),  one  of  the  most 
ardent  champions  of  the  Confession  of  Nicsa  and 
the  cause  of  Athanasius,  immediatelj'  repaired  to 
Rome,  and  was  thence  sent  to  the  imperial  court 
at  Aries,  together  with  the  presbyter  Pancratius 
and  the  deacon  Ililarius,  in  order  to  demand  the 
convention  of  an  impartial  council.  But  the 
Council  of  Milan  (355)  was  far  from  being  impar- 
tial. The  condemnation  of  Athanasius  was  con- 
firmed, and  Lucifer  was  banished.  He  lived  first 
at  Germanicia  in  Conimagene,  then  at  P^leuthe- 
ropolis  in  Palestine,  and  finally  at  Thebais;  and 
during  those  years  of  exile  (355-301)  he  wrote  a 
number  of  books  full  of  the  most  violent  invec- 
tives against  the  emperor,  —  De  nun  parcendis  in 
deutn  deiinquenlibus ;  De  regibus  aposlaticis ;  Pro 
Athanasio;  De  non  cnnvenicndo  cum  hceret. ;  Mori- 
cnduin  esse  pro  deijilio.  After  the  death  of  Con- 
stantius  and  the  accession  of  Julian,  he  was  al- 
lowed to  return  to  his  see.  He  did  not  adopt, 
however,  those  milder  views  which  the  Council  of 
Alexandria,  under  the  presidency  of  Athanasius, 
decided  upon,  and  according  to  which  the  bisliops 
who  had  not  openly  sided  with  tlie  Arians,  but 
only  yielded  under  the  pressure  of  Constantius, 
should  be  forgiven  and  re-admitted.  On  the  con- 
trary, he  demanded  that  all  such  bishojis  should 
be  deposed  and  excommunicated,  and  all  ecclesi- 
astical acts  performed  by  them  —  ordinations,  con- 
secrations, baptism,  etc. — should  be  declared 
null  and  void.  He  found  many  adiierents,  not 
only  in  his  own  diocese,  but  everywhere  in  the 
church :  Bishop  Gregory  of  Elvira  in  Spain,  the 
presbyter  Bonosus  in  Treves,  tiie  schismatic  liish- 
01)  Ephcsius  in  Rome.  Bishop  Hcrai'lides  of  Oxy- 
nncl-.us  in  Egypt,  and  others.  As  the  I>uciferians 
considered  themselves  the  true  and  pure  church, 
tlicy  utterly  re]iudiated  the  name  ot  a  .sect;  but 
they  separated  from  the  general  church,  and  in 
some  places,  as,  for  instance,  in  lionii-,  they  caused 
considerable  trouble.  They  disappeared,  however, 
in  the  cour.se  of  half  a  century.  Lucil'ei- died  at 
Cagliari,  in  371.  Ilis  works  were  first  edited  by 
I.  Tilius,  Paris,  158C,  and  afterwards  often.    They 


LUCIUS. 


1359 


LUKE. 


are  found  in  IVEigne  •    Patrol.  Latin,  xiii.      See 
TiLi.F.MovT  ■  Mcmoires,  vn.  \v.  MOLLER. 

LUCIUS  is  tlie  name  of  tiiree  popes.  —  Lucius  I. 
(June  25,  'J5:3-Marcli  5,  'l.A),  tlie  successor  of  Cor- 
nelius. The  lengtli  of  his  reign  varies,  in  the 
•different  sources,  lietween  eight  months,  ten  days, 
and  three  years,  eiglit  months,  ten  days ;  but  the 
forniet  account  is  by  far  the  more  preferable  (see 
Lipsius  :  Chronologic  der  riimixcken  Bischofe,  Kiel, 
1869).  From  a  letter  by  Cyprian  (61,  ed.  Ilartel), 
it  appears  that  Lucius  was  banished  for  a  short 
time ;  from  another  (08),  that  he  wrote  some  let- 
ters concerning  the  reconciliation  of  the  lapxi.  — 
Lucius  II.  (March  12,  1144-Feb.  15,  1145).  His 
short  reign  was  much  disturbed.  A  revolt  took 
place  in  Rome  under  the  leadership  of  Giordano 
Pierleone,  who  was  declared  patricius.  A  new 
.senate  was  elected ;  and  the  Pope  was  asked  to  re- 
nounce all  power  and  rights  and  pi'ivileges,  except 
those  belonging  to  a  bishop  of  the  primitive 
■church.  Lucius  addres.sed  himself  to  Conrad  III. 
for  aid,  but  in  vain.  He  succeeded,  however,  in 
enlisting  the  Frangipani,  the  bitter  enemies  of 
the  Pierleones,  on  his  side ;  but  he  died  before  the 
issue  of  the  contest  was  arrived  at.  See  Wat- 
TERICH :  Vitce  Pont.  Rom.,  ii.  278-281;  J.\ff6  : 
Refjexl.  Pont.,  610-615.  —  Lucius  III.  (.Sept.  1, 
1181-Nov.  25, 1185).  He  inherited  from  his  prede- 
cessor, Alexander  HL,  the  bitter  controversy  with 
the  Emperor  Frederic  I.  concerning  the  estates 
■of  the  Countess  Mathilde.  A  compromise  was 
proposed  by  the  emperor,  who  offered  to  pay  ten 
per  cent  of  the  revenues  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy 
■to  the  Pope,  and  other  ten  per  cent  to  the  cardi- 
nals, if  the  curia  would  renounce  its  claim  on 
the  estates.  But  the  offer  was  not  accepted. 
On  the  contrary,  the  Pope  demanded  the  imme- 
diate surrender  of  the  estates ;  which  the  em- 
peror could  not  comply  with,  without  endangering 
the  position  of  the  emigre  in  Central  Italy.  A 
per.sonal  interview  was  finally  arranged,  in  1184, 
tietween  the  emperor  and  the  Pope,  at  Verona, 
where  Lucius  generally  resided.  But  nothing 
came  oijt  of  the  interview,  except  a  deeper  irrita- 
tion on  both  sides.  Shortly  before  he  died,  Lu- 
cius solemnly  forbade  his  successor  ever  to  crown 
Frederic's  son,  Henry  VI.  See  Watterich  /.  c, 
ii.  6.50-662;  Jaffe  I.e.,  835-8.54;  Sciieffer- 
BoiCHORST  :  Kaiser  Friedrich  I  iind  d.  Kurie, 
1866.  KARL  MULLER. 

LUCKE,  Gottfried  Christian  Friedrich,  b.  at 
Egeln,  near  Magdeburg,  Aug.  24,  1791  ;  b.  at 
Gottingen,  Feb.  14,  18.55.  He  studied  theology 
At  Halle  and  Gottingen,  began  to  lecture  in  the 
university  of  Berlin  in  1816,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  theology  at  Bonn  in  1818,  and  at 
Gottingen  in  1827.  He  was  a  pupil  and  friend 
of  Schleiermacher,  and  one  of  the  ablest,  com- 
mentators. He  tried  to  occupy  a  middle  position, 
avoiding-  all  extremes ;  and,  though  he  did  not 
escape  the  difficulty  inherent  in  his  very  position, 
—  that  of  dissatisfying  all  extremists,  radical  as 
well  as  orthodox,  —  he  vindicated  himself  with 
great  personal  gifts,  and  exercised  considerable 
influence  on  the  theology  of  his  time.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  his  Commentary  on  the  WTitings 
of  St.  John  (Gospel,  Epistles,  and  Apocal_\iise), 
4  vols.,  1820-32;  twice  revised  and  reprinted, 
1840-56 ;  [partly  translated  into  English,  Edin- 
•burgh,  1837].  He  also  wrote,  Grundriss  der 
o4— U 


neute.ft.  Hermeneutik,  Gottingen,  1816:  Uher  d. 
neulest.  Kanon  d.  Ku.iebiti.i,  Berlin,  1817;  besides 
a  numlier  of  valnalile  monographs  in  theological 
periodicals.  WAOEbfMANN. 

LUD  appears  in  the  genealogical  table  of  Gen. 
X.  22,  as  the  fourth  .son  of  Shem,  and  was  already 
(by  Josephus:  Arcli.  1,6,  4)  identified  with  the 
ancestor  of  the  Lydians  of  Asia  Minor.  Though 
the  Lydian  language  did  not  belong  to  the  She- 
mitic  group,  it  must  be  remembered  that  language 
is  not  the  principle  on  which  the  genealogical 
table  of  Genesis  proceeds ;  and  from  other  sides 
it  appears  probable  that  there  originally  existed 
a  close  connection  l)Ptween  the  Lydians  and  the 
Assyrians,  as  Herodotus  tells  us  (i.  7)  that  the 
first  king  of  the  Lydians  was  Agros,  a  son  of 
Ninus,  a  son  of  Belus. 

Different  from  the  Shemitic  Lud  is  the  African 
Lud,  who,  in  Gen.  x.  13,  appears  as  the  first  son 
of  Mizraim.  With  this  account  agree  the  proph- 
ets. The  Ludim  are  spoken  of  in  .Jer.  xlvi.  9, 
as  Egyptian  mercenaries,  together  with  Cush  and 
Put ;  in  Ezek.  xxvii.  10,  as  mercenaries  before 
Tyre,  together  with  the  Persians  and  Put;  and 
in  Isa.  Ixvi.  19,  as  archers  from  the  most  distant 
country.  RiJETSCHI. 

LUDGERUS.     See  Liudgerus. 

LUDIM.     See  Lud. 

LUDLOW,  John,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  b.  at  Aquacka- 
uonck  (now  Passaic),  N.J.,  Dec.  13,  1793,  d. 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  8,  18.57.  He  entered  the  min- 
istry of  the  Reformed  Dutch  Church  in  1817; 
to  1823  he  was  pastor  in  New  Brunswick,  N..I., 
and  professor  in  the  theological  seminarv  there ; 
from  1823  to  1834,  paste-  in  Albany;  from  1834 
to  1852,  provost  of  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia; from  1852  to  his  death,  he  was  profes.sor  in 
the  New  Brunswick  Seminar^',  and  professor  of 
philosophy  in  Rutgers  College. 

LUDOLF,  Hiob,  b.  at  Erfurt,  June  15,  1624; 
d.  at  Frankfurt-aiu-Main,  April  8,  1704.  He  is 
noted  as  an  Ethiopian  scholar,  and  author  of  an 
Ethiopian  grammar.  Commentaries  on  Ethiopian 
history,  and  particularly  of  the  great  Ethiopian 
Lexicon  (1661).  He  was  aulic  coimcillor  to  the 
Duke  of  Saxe-Gotha,  and  president  of  the  Acade- 
my of  History  in  Frankfurt.  See  C.  Juxckeu  : 
C'ommentarius  de  vita  J.  Ludolfi  (Niirnberg,  1710), 
and  Nouvelle  biof/raphie  generale. 

LUITPRAND.'     See  Liuti'raxd. 

LUKAS  OF  TUY  (Tudensis),  b.  at  Leon  in 
Spain  ;  was  educated  for  the  church  ;  made  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem  in  1227 ;  and  was  in  1239 
appointed  bishop  of  Tuy  in  Galicia,  where  he 
died  in  1250.  He  wTote  a  Chronicle  of  Spain 
from  670  to  1236,  edited  by  Schott  {Hisp.  III., 
Francfort,  1603,  4  vols,  folio),  and  a  Vita  et  His- 
toria  Trandationis  S.  hidori.  of  which  the  first 
part,  treating  the  life  of  the  saint,  is  found  in 
Act.  Sand.,  April  4;  and  the  .second,  contain- 
ing polemics  against  the  Cathari,  was  separately 
edited  by  Mariana  (/./in  tres  contra  Albigensium 
errore.n,  Ingolstadt,  1613),  and  is  found  in  Bib. 
Patr.  Max.,  xxv.  The  polemics  is  passionate 
and  supercilious,  but  not  without  historical  and 
archa'ological  interest.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

LUKE  the  evangelist,  and  author  of  the  .\cts 
of  the  Apostles.  —  I.  The  Man.  The  name 
Luke  occurs  only  three  times  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  its  bearer  is  spoken  of  by  Paul  as  his 


LUKE. 


1360 


LUKE. 


"fellow-worker"  (Philem.  24),  his  "companion" 
(2  Tim.  iv.  11).  and  the  "beloved  physician" 
(Col.  iv.  14).  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  one 
and  the  same  person  is  alluded  to  in  these  pas- 
sages. From  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  whose 
author  this  Luke  was,  we  learn  further,  that  he 
was  with  Paul  at  Troas  on  his  second  missionary 
tour  (5"2  A.D.),  and  accompanied  him  as  far  as 
Philippi  (Acts  xvi.  10  sqq.).  Here  he  seems  to 
have  tarried  till  Paul  met  him  again  on  his  third 
missionary  tour  (58  A.D.),  and  took  him  with 
him  to  C'icsarea  and  Jerusalem.  Luke  also  ac- 
companied Paul  on  his  journey  as  a  prisoner  to 
Rome.  With  this  circumstance  the  notices  of 
his  life  in  the  New  Testament  conclude.  Euse- 
bius  (H.E.,  3,  4),  Jerome  (De  vh:  ill.,  7),  Theophy- 
lact,  and  others,  speak  of  Antioch  in  Syria  as  his 
place  of  residence.  The  notices  that  he  was  one 
of  the  seventy  disciples,  or  one  of  the  two  disci- 
ples whom  Jesus  met  on  the  way  to  Emmaus,  are 
at  variance  with  the  prologue  of  Luke's  Gospel 
(i.  1-4).  It  cannot  with  certainty  be  determined 
whether  he  was  a  Jew  or  a  Gentile ;  but  the 
latter  seems  probable,  as  he  seems  to  be  distin- 
guished by  Paul  from  those  who  were  of  the 
circumcision  (Col.  iv.  11,  14).  Jerome  says 
he  died  at  the  age  of  eighty,  at  Patrre  in  Achaia, 
"  and  was  buried  at  Constantinople,  to  which  city 
his  bones,  and  those  of  the  apostle  Andrew,  were 
transferred  in  the  twentieth  year  of  Constantine" 
(De  vir.  ill.,  7).  Gregory  Nazianzen  (Oral.  3, 
adv.  Jul.,  1,  73)  affirms  that  he  died  a  martjT. 

II.  His  Writings.  —  The  early  Christian 
Church  was  unanimous  in  ascribing  the  third 
Gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  to  Luke  as 
their  author.  Irena^us  (Hcer.  3,  1)  testifies,  with 
reference  to  tlie  (iospel,  that  Luke,  as  the  compan- 
ion of  Paul,  committed  to  writing  the  Gospel 
Paul  communicated  to  him.  Origen  and  Euse- 
bius  also  agree  in  ascribing  the  Gospel  to  Luke  ; 
and  Eusebius  mentions  that  some  thought  Paul 
refers  to  Luke's  Gospel  when  he  speaks  of  "  my 
gospel"  (Rom.  xvi.  25;  2  Tim.  ii.  8).  The 
Muratorian  canon,  in  giving  Luke,  records  the 
testimony  of  T  ^rtullian  and  others,  according  to 
which  Marcion  made  selections  from  Luke's  Gos- 
pel, which  he  put  together  to  form  a  new  Gospel 
of  his  own.  Luke's  Gospel  is  also  quoted  by 
Justin  Martyr  and  the  Clementine  Homilies. 
Papias,  it  is  true,  does  not  quote  it;  but  this  neg- 
lect cannot  be  regarded  as  a  witness  against  the 
existence  of  the  (iospel,  especially  when  we  re- 
member that  only  a  fragment  of  Papias  remains. 

The  testimonies  for  the  genuineness  of  the 
Acts  are  equally  strong.  It  is  first  quoted  in  a 
letter  of  the  congregation  of  Vienne  and  Lyons 
(Euseb.,  5,  2).  There  are  express  references  to 
it  as  the  work  of  Luke,  in  Irenaeus,  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian,  Jerome,  and  others.  We 
have  evidence  that  it  was  used  in  the  year  170, 
and  tliat,  at  the  close  of  the  century,  it  was  regard- 
ed as  canonical  in  Asia  Minor,  Gaul,  Italy,  Egypt, 
and  North  Africa. 

Luke  <lefines  the  purpcse  of  his  Go.spel,  in  the 
prologue,  to  be,  to  confirm  a  certain  Theophilus 
in  the  assurance  of  the  trustworthiness  of  the 
things  he  had  been  instructed  in.  Was  this  pro- 
logue meant  to  include  tlie  Acts  of  the  .Apostles, 
as  well  as  the  Gospel?  and  had  the  author  the  defi- 
nite plan  of  writing  both  works  when  he  put  his 


pen  to  the  Gospel  ?  This  cannot  by  any  means 
be  affirmed  with  certainty.  Luther  thought  the 
object  of  the  Acts  was  to  hold  up  before  the 
world  the  great  doctrine  that  we  are  all  justified 
by  faith,  without  the  works  of  the  law.  Towards 
the  end  of  the  last  century,  Griesbach  affirmed  its 
purpose  to  be  apologetic,  —  to  vindicate  Paul  over 
against  the  Judaizing  party.  Schneckenburger, 
with  his  customary  acuteness  {Ueher  d.  Ziceck  d. 
Apf/.,  1841),  carried  this  theory  farther  by  empha- 
sizing the  diiference  between  Peter  and  Paul. 
According  to  Baur  and  the  Tiibiugen  school, 
however,  the  Acts  has  a  concilialori/  aim.  It  was 
written  by  a  representative  of  the  Pauline  school 
for  the  purpose  of  reconciling  Pauline  and  Judaic- 
Christianity.  Both  of  these  theories  lack  founda- 
tion. If  the  aim  of  the  writer  w,as  to  vindicate- 
Paul,  why  did  he  direct  his  work  to  a  Gentile- 
(Theophilus),  and  to  Gentile  readers?  Or.  if  it 
was  to  reconcile  the  Pauline  and  Judaic  types  of 
Christianity,  how  did  the  author  come  to  lay  so- 
much  stress  upon  the  guilt  of  the  Jews  in  reject- 
ing Christ  (Acts  ii.  23),  and  the  universal  char- 
acter of  Chri-stianity?  Lekebusch  (D.  Composition 
u.  Entstehung  d.  Apr/.),  and  Meyer  in  his  Connnen- 
tary,  have  fully  shown  up  the  untenableness  of 
these  theories. 

The  accepted  view  is  the  true  one,  that  the 
author  intended  to  write  a  history,  and  not  an 
apologetical  tract.  He,  no  doubt,  had  a  definite 
plan  ;  but  that  he  set  out  to  write  a  party  docu- 
ment cannot  be  made  out.  In  the  Gospel,  Luke 
makes  prominent,  as  none  of  the  other  Gospels 
do,  the  universal  aim  of  Christianity  ;  and  in  the- 
Acts  he  confirms  this  idea  from  the  historical 
progress  of  Christianity.  The  object  of  the  Acts 
is  to  show  how  Christianity  passed  beyond  the 
circle  of  the  apostles,  and  became  firmly  estab- 
lished among  the  Gentile  nations. 

According  to  Luke's  prologue,  many  had  already 
written  accounts  of  Christ's  life.  It  also  appears 
there,  that  Luke  had  examined  these,  and  stood 
in  a  personal  relation  to  the  "  eye-witnesses  and 
ministers  of  the  word"  (Luke  i.  2).  Thus  his 
sources  were  twofold,  —  the  apostles  and  docu- 
mentary records.  In  regard  to  the  records,  some 
have  hold  (hat  Luke  had  befoie  him  tlie  present 
Gospel  (or  a  prior  (iosiiel)  of  Mark;  others,  tlie 
original  Matthew,  or  both.  \\'eiss,  in  his  thorough 
and  acute  works  on  the  (iospcls,  holds  that  an 
original  Matthew  (the  Aojin)  existed  before  Mark; 
that  our  present  Matthew  followed,  and  finally 
lyiike.  Godet,  in  the  course  of  iiis  Cuninientary  on 
Luke,  tries  to  show  its  comjilete  independence  of 
both  Matthew  and  Mark.  But  the  notice  in  the 
prologue  of  Luke  does. not  indicate  what  the  rec- 
ords were  which  he  used ;  and  it  would,  at  any 
rate,  seem  (Luke  i.  1)  thai  he  had  in  niin<l  more 
than  two.  The  results  of  modern  criticism  go 
rather  to  confirm  the  old  view,  that  the  Go.spel  of 
Luke  is  older  than  Matthew  and  M.ark. 

The  sources  from  which  Luke  drew  for  the 
Acts  were,  without  doubt,  (1)  the  personal  remi- 
niscences he  got  from  Paul,  Mark  (Col.  iv.  Ill,  14). 
Philip  (Acts  xxi.  8),  and  others  (xxi.  17  scjq.). 
(2)  personal  ob,servation  of  his  own  (the  latter 
portion  of  tli(^  Acts),  and  (3)  (lociiinents. 

In  th(^  concluding  ohajiter  of  the  Acts,  Luke 
records  that  Paul  continued  to  labor  for  twoyeare 
as  a  prisoner  in    Home.     This  book,  therefore. 


LUKE. 


15561 


LUKE. 


•could  not  have  been  written  before  6i.  The 
opinion  was  almost  unanimous,  before  Kaiser,  De 
Wette,  and  Credner,  that  the  Acts,  as  well  as  the 
Gospel,  were  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  This  view,  which  is  still  held  by 
Lange.  Ebrard,  Godet,  Van  Oosterzee,  [Alford, 
Pluniptre,  Farrar,  Schaff,  Kiddle,  etc.],  is  denied 
by  Bleek,  Reuss,  Meyer,  Keim,  Holtzniann,  and 
■others,  who  hold  that  the  description  in  Luke 
xxi.  2u  sqq.  presupposes  the  catastrophe  of  the 
•destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

It  has  been  taken  for  granted  in  the  preceding 
paragraphs  that  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  third 
Gospel  and  the  Acts,  and  this  must  be  regarded 
as  the  only  tenable  opinion.  There  can  be  little 
room  for  doubting  that  both  the  third  Gospel  and 
the  Acts  are  by  the  same  author.  The  style,  both 
in  the  construction  of  the  sentences  and  the  use 
of  words,  as  well  as  the  agreement  in  doctrine, 
■go  to  prove  this.  Schleierniacher  originated  the 
hypothesis,  which  Bleek  and  De  Wette  followed, 
that  the  passages  in  Acts  in  which  the  author 
places  himself  among  the  eye-witnesses  of  the 
events  narrated,  using  the  pronoun  "we"(Actsxvi. 
10-17,  XX.  5-15,  xxi.  1-lS,  xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16),  are 
by  Timothy.  But  this  view  lacks  all  foundation, 
and  is  directly  contradicted  by  such  passages  as 
Acts.  XX.  4  sq.  The  Tubingen  school  has  denied 
that  Luke  is  the  author  of  Acts,  on  the  ground 
of  alleged  inaccuracies  of  statement,  which  are 
ihown  up  by  a  comparison  with  the  Epistles  of 
Paul  and  the  subsequent  course  of  liistoiy  (see 
Acts  XV.,  xxi.  25),  and  of  the  whole  relation  which 
the  author  represents  Paul  as  liolding  to  the 
Jews,  and  which  a  companion  of  Paul  could  not 
liave  done.  Many  passages  have  been  declared 
unhistorical,  but  simply  on  the  ground  that  they 
relate  miraculous  cures ;  or  because  Paul  could 
Bot  have  given  the  account  of  the  vision  on  the 
Bay  to  Damascus,  or  have  accommodated  himself 
\o  the  Xazarite's  vow  (Acts  xxi.  24-27).  But 
tU  such  criticism  is  assumption.  Why  did  the 
^■riter,  if  lie  belonged  to  a  later  age,  break  off 
^o  abruptly  with  Paul  as  a  prisoner  in  Rome  ? 
There  is  no  other  tenable  view  than  that  held  by 
the  early  Church,  that  Luke  was  the  author  of  the 
Acts  as  well  as  of  the  third  Gospel.  The  modern 
hypotheses  have  furnished  by  their  inconclusive- 
ness  a  negative  argument  in  confirmation  of  this 
view. 

Writers  of  tho  early  chm-ch  were  inclined  to 
ascribe  a  part  of  the  Gospel  to  Paul.  Irenaeus 
(i/fer.  iii.  1)  and  Eusebiiis  expressly  affirm  that 
Luke  put  down  the  Gospel  he  received  from  Paul. 
Origen  held  the  same  view  (fi.iseb.  vi.  25).  From 
these  testimonies  it  seems  to  be  beyond  dispute 
that  Paul  exerted  a  decisive  Influence  upon  the 
theological  views  of  Luke.  'ilie  third  Gospel 
is  the  only  one  of  the  four  whith  bears  the  un- 
ndstakable  impress  of  the  Pauline  spirit.  Besides 
special  coincidences  (e.g.,  Luke  xxii.  19,  20 ;  1  Cor. 
xi.  13  sqq.),  it  is  the  freedom  of  divine  grace,  and 
the  universality  of  the  plan  of  salvation,  which 
characterize  the  Gospel.  As  illustrations  may 
be  mentioned  Luke  iii.  23-38  (which  derives  the 
descent  of  Jesus  from  Adam  and  God),  ii.  31,  32, 
iv.  25-27,  ix.  52-56,  x.  1-24  (the  mission  of  the 
seventy),  30-37,  xvii.  11-19,  etc. 

I'lie  Acts  has  not  such  a  decided  Pauline  cast, 
or,  at  least,  it  is  not  made  so  prominent.     Com- 


paratively few  of  the  characteristic  ideas  of  Chris- 
tianity are  brought  out.  The  ever-n^curring  ideas 
are  the  necessity  of  repentance,  faith  in  Clii'ist  as 
the  crucified  (according  to  God's  plan)  and  risen 
Saviour,  and  bajitism  in  his  name.  Xowhere  do 
we  find  the  autlior  directly  combating  the  views 
of  the  Judaic  party,  as  Paul  does  in  his  Epistles 
(Galatians,  etc.).  Tlie  work  appears  as  an  histori- 
cal commentary  upon  Paul's  fundamental  princi- 
ple,—  the  gospel  for  the  Jews  first,  but  none  the 
less  for  the  Gentiles.  In  general,  it  refutes,  by 
the  succession  of  events  it  details,  the  Judaistic 
attacks  upon  Paul. 

It  may  be  said  to  be  generally  acknowledged 
that  Luke  follows  a  definite  method.  He  is  the 
first  of  the  evangelists  who  proceeds  on  an  histori- 
cal plan.  The  words  of  the  prologue  of  the  Gospel 
(Luke  i.  3),  "  It  seemed  good  to  me  ...  to  write 
unto  thee  in  order,"  at  first  make  the  impression 
that  Luke  followed  a  chronological  arrangement; 
but  a  perusal  of  the  Gospel  shows  that  he  was  as 
much  influenced  by  considerations  of  the  matter  as 
of  time.  After  detailing  the  events  of  the  infancy 
of  Jesus,  he  divides  his  healing  activity  into  three 
periods:  (1)  Galilean  ministry  (iv.  14-ix.  50); 
(2)  Journeying  towards  Jerusalem  (ix.  51-xix. 
27,  or  xviii.  30 'r'),  a  section  which,  for  the  most 
jiart,  is  peculiar  to  Luke;  (3)  Arrival,  activity, 
and  death  in  Jerusalem,  and  the  resurrection 
(xix.  28-xxiv.  53). 

The  arrangement  of  the  Acts  surprises  us  by- 
its  correspondence  with  the  arrangement  of  the 
Gospel.  We  may  look  iqion  it  as  an  historical 
demonstration  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  Lord's 
command  to  his  disciples  (Acts  i.  8)  to  be  his 
witnesses  (1)  in  Jerusalem,  (2)  in  all  Judaea  and 
Samaria,  and  (3)  to  the  uttermost  part  of  the 
earth.  The  current  division  into  two  parts  — 
(1)  i.-xii.,  in  which  Peter  is  the  central  figure, 
and  (2)  xiii.-xxviii.,  in  which  Paul  is  the  central 
figure  —  must  be  given  up.  As  in  the  Gospel,  so 
here,  we  find  an  introduction  (Acts  i.),  giving  an 
account  of  the  ascension,  and  completion  of  the 
number  of  the  apostles.  The  rest  of  the  book 
falls  into  three  parts :  (1)  Establishment  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  (ii.-vi.  7);  (2)  Transition  to 
labors  among  tlie  Gentiles  (vi.  8-xii.) ;  (3)  Found- 
ing and  confirmation  of  the  churches  in  Asia  and 
Europe,  and  tlie  last  labors  of  Paul  (xiii.-xxviii.). 

Lit.  —  [Commentaries  on  the  Gospel  of  Luke. 
Origen:  HomUies:  Eusebius  (fragments);  Cyiul 
OF  Alexandri.\  :  Syriac  version  and  an  English 
translation  in  2  vols.,  ed.  by  R.  P.  Smith,  Oxford, 
1858-59;  Euthemius  Zigabexus  ;  Theophy- 
lact;  (of  modern  times)  Bornemanx:  Schilia 
ill  Luc,  Leipzig,  1830;  De  Wette,  3d  ed.,  1846; 
Alford  ;  Meyer  (6th  ed.  by  B.  Weiss,  1878)  ; 
J.\mes  Thomsox,  Edinburgh,  1851,  3  vols. ; 
Wordsworth;  Godet  (one  of  the  best),  English 
translation,  Edinburgh,  1875,  2  vols.,  and  New 
York,  1881;  Van  Oosterzee,  3d  ed.,  Bielefeld. 
1877  (English  translation  by  Schaff  and  Star- 
buck,  in  Lange  Series,  New  York,  1866);  Bishop 
JoxES,  in  Speaker's  Commenlari/,  London,  1878: 
J.  Chr.  K.  v.  Hofmaxx,  Nordlingen,  1878;  C.  F. 
Keil,  Leipzig,  1879;  M.\cEvilly,  Dublin,  1879; 
Plumptre,  in  Ellicott's  Commentary  for  Enijlish 
Readers,  London,  1879;  F.  W.  Farrar,  Cam- 
bridge, 1880;  Riddle,  in  Intemalionat  Commen- 
tary, New  York,  1882.  —  Other  works.    Schleier- 


LUKE   OF  PRAGUE. 


1361 


LULLUS. 


MACHEK :  Ueber  die  Schiriften  des  Lulcas,  Berlin, 
1S17  (Eug.  trans,  by  Bishop  Thirlwall,  London, 
1825) ;  James  Smith  :  Dissertation  on  the  Life  and 
Writings  of  St.  Luke,  in  his  Voyage  and  Shijncrecl: 
of  St.  Paul,  1848,  4th  ed.,  London,  1880;  Rexax: 
Les  Evangiles,  Paris,  1877;  George  P.  Fisher: 
Beginnings  of  Christianity,  New  York,  1877,  pp. 
286-320;  Scholten:  Das  Paulin.  Evangelium. 
Kritische  U ntersuchungen  des  Evangeliums  nach 
Lukas  u.  .•'eines  ]''erhdltnisses  zu  Marcits,  Matlhdus 
u.  der  Apostelgesch.  (from  the  Dutch),  Elberfeld, 
1881;  Schaff  :  History  of  the  Christian  Church, 
Rev.  ed.,  vol.  i.  pp.  648-675,  and  the  Introductions 
to  the  New  Testament  of  De  Wette,  Bleek,  Reuss, 
Davidson,  etc.  For  literature  on  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  see  that  art.,  to  which  add  The  Com- 
mentary of  C.  F.  NosGE.v,  Leipzig,  1882;  and 
Karl  Schmidt  :  Die  Glaubwiirdigkeit  der  Apostel- 
geschichte,  Erlangen,  1882.]  GiJDER. 

LUKE  OF  PRAGUE,  b.  about  1460:  d.  <at 
Zungbunzlau,  Dec.  11,  1528;  studied  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Prague  ;  joined  the  Moravian  Brethren 
(which  article  see)  in  1480;  was  elected  bishop 
in  1500 ;  and  became  in  1518  president  of  their 
ecclesiastical  council.  In  1491  he  was  sent  by 
the  Unitfut  Fratrum  on  a  mission  to  Greece  and 
the  Orient,  in  order  to  discover  some  body  of 
Christians  whose  organization  the  Unitas  could 
use  as  a  model.  In  1497  he  w  as  sent  on  a  similar 
errand  to  the  AValdenses  in  France  and  Italy ; 
and  in  1522  he  opened  negotiations  with  Luther. 
But  no  palpable  results  ensued  from  those  en- 
deavors. He  was  also  a  prolific  writer,  of  a  more 
practical  than  theoretical  turn;  but  most  of  what 
he  has  written  is  lost.  His  moderation,  however, 
connected  with  great  firmness,  contributed  much 
to  the  development,  not  only  of  the  Unitas  Fra- 
trum in  particular,  but,  generally,  of  ecclesiastical 
affairs  in  Bohemia. 

LULLUS,  an  Anglo-Saxon  by  birth,  was  for 
many  years  the  friend  and  assistant  of  Boniface, 
and  was  by  him  ordained  a  bishop,  and  nominated 
his  successor  in  the  see  of  Mayence.  His  ambi- 
tion, it  would  seem,  implicated  him  in  a  long 
controversy  with  Abbot  Sturm  of  Fulda,  another 
disciple  of  Boniface,  who  endeavored  to  vindicate 
the  independence  of  his  monastery  against  en- 
croacliments  of  the  episcopal  authority.  Proba- 
bly at  the  instance  of  Lullus,  Sturm  was  banished, 
in  76.3,  by  King  Pepin,  to  the  monastery  of 
Jumieges;  but  Lullus  experienced  the  humilia- 
tion of  seeing  him  return  to  Fulda.  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  monastery  confirmed  by  the  king. 
As  an  offset  to  tliis  disappointment,  hi-  fminded  the 
monastery  of  Hensfi-ld,  where  he  died  in  l^G.  See 
IIahn:  J'oiiifdz  u.  LuI.  Ihre  angelsdchsisr/ien  Kor- 
resjiondi  III,  II.  /Crzliisrhof  Luis  Leben,  Leipzig,  1883. 

LULLUS,  Raymundus  {Don  Ramon  Lull  doctor 
illuminatus) ;  b.  at  Palma,  Majorca,  about  1235 ; 
descended  from  a  rich  and  noble  Spanish  family, 
and  was  educated  at  the  royal  court  of  Aragon, 
where  lie  lield  the  office  of  gran  senescal,  and  en- 
joyed great  reimtation  as  a  poet  and  a  man  of 
the  world.  But  suddenly  some  ext<'rnal  event 
or  inner  vision  struck  him  witli  the  nothingness 
of  the  life  he  led  ;  and  a  sermon  he  heard  on  the 
memorial  day  of  St.  Francis  (Oct.  4,  12(15)  gave 
that  new  movement  of  liis  mind  a  definite  direc- 
tion. He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  St.  Jago  di  Com- 
JiOBtflla,  gave  his  wealth  —  with  the  exception  of 


what  was  necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  his 
family  —  to  the  poor,  and  retired  as  a  hermit  to 
the  mountain  of  Randa  in  ^Majorca.  In  1271  he 
was  visited  by  new  visions,  and  from  that  mo- 
ment the  conversion  of  the  Saracens  and  heathens 
stood  before  his  eyes  as  the  great  goal  of  his  life. 
The  best  means  of  reaching  that  goal  seemed  to 
him  to  be  the  construction  of  a  universal  science, 
which,  by  its  irresistible  argumentation,  should 
convince  even  the  hostile  of  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity; and  with  inexhaustible  energy  he  con- 
centrated the  whole  fantastic  exuberance  of  liis 
mind  on  the  representation  of  that  science  in  an 
appropriate  form,  and  on  the  establishment  of 
schools  in  which  missionaries  could  be  tauglit  the 
science,  and  provided  with  sufficient  knowledge, 
of  the  Oriental  languages,  in  order  to  apply  it 
according  to  its  chief  purpose. 

From  the  church  and  the  popes,  whom  he  never 
grew  tired  of  soliciting,  he  received  no  aid.  At 
the  Council  of  Vieune  (1311)  he  barely  succeeded 
in  having  chairs  of  Oriental  languages  established 
at  Paris,  Oxford,  and  Salamanca.  A  little  more 
encouragement  he  obtained  from  the  kings  of 
France  and  Aragon,  and  from  the  universities ; 
he  having  taught  his  science  at  various  times  and 
places  with  great  success.  What  he  did  he  had 
to  do  unaided.  He  learned  .\rabic,  and  made 
tliree  missionary  tours  himself  among  the  Sara- 
cens. The  first  time,  he  went  from  Genoa  to 
Bugia,  the  capital  of  Tunis  (1292) ;  challenged 
the  Arab  scholars  to  a  formal  disputation ;  made, 
as  it  would  seem,  considerable  impression,  but 
was,  for  that  very  reason,  ordered  to  lea\'e  the 
country.  The  second  time,  he  went  from  Spain 
to  Bona  (1309);  visited  Algiers  and  Tunis,  Imt 
was  in  Bugia  rescued  from  the  fury  of  thi>  mob 
only  by  the  aid  of  an  Arab  philosopher.  Homer. 
The  third  time,  he  went  again  directly  to  Bugia 
(1314),  and  kept,  for  some  time,  quiet  among 
the  Christian  merchants ;  but,  when  he  began  to 
preach  publicly  against  Islam,  he  was  stoned  out 
of  the  city,  and  left  dying  on  the  seashore.  A 
Christian  sea-captain  found  liim,  and  brought 
him  on  board  his  vessel ;  but  he  exjnred  shortly 
after  (June  30,  1315),  thus  sealing  by  his  death 
the  great  idea  of  his  life,  —  to  conquer  Islam,  not 
by  the  sword,  but  by  preaching. 

The  writings  of  l^ullus,  in  Latin,  Araliic,  and 
Spanish,  are  very  numerous.  A  catalogue  in  the 
Library  of  the  Kscurial  enumerates  four  hnudred 
and  thn'ty,  and  the  number  agrees  w  ith  tliat  given 
by  Waililing  (Scrijitorcs  Min.)  and  X.  .Vutonio 
(hibliolh.  Ilisp.  Vet.,  ii.  122).  Most  of  these  writ- 
ing.s,  liow'cver,  remain  unpublished  in  Spanisli, 
French,  and  German  lilirarii!s.  Published  are 
tliose  of  Ins  works  wliich  pertain  to  liis  new  sci- 
ence, Ojicra  ijua:  oil  artciii  iinicersalem  iiertinent, 
Strassburg,  1598,  and  often  afterwards.  His 
Mai/na  ars  a  curious  development  of  scholasticism, 
matle,  indeed,  a  kind  of  sen.sation  in  its  time, 
and  exercises  still  a  kind  of  fascination  on  the 
student.  Of  great  interest  are  also  his  works 
against  Averroes  and  the  Avorroists,  Duodecint 
principia  ]>hilosophi(r  contra  A  rrrroislos;  De  rejiro- 
hatione  Averrois ;  Liber  contradietioniiin  inter  K.  et 
Acerroistam,  etc.  His  Ohras  rimadas  were  ]iub- 
lished  at  I'ahna,  18,59.  A  collected  edition  of  liis 
works,  by  Ivo  Salzinger  (Mayence,  1721-42,  in  10 
vols.),  was  never  completed. 


LUNA. 


1363 


LUTHER. 


The  church  long  hesitatPtl,  not  knowing  wheth- 
er she  shouhi  recognize  LuUus  as  a  martyr  and 
saint,  or  condemn  liim  as  a  heretic.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  the  inquisitor  of  Aragon  formally 
accused  him  of  heresy ;  and  some  of  his  works 
^were  actually  forbidden  by  Pope  Gregory  XI. 
Afterwards  the  Jesuits  proved  very  hostile  to 
him ;  but  he  was  warmly  defended  by  the  Fran- 
ciscans, Antonio,  Wadding,  and  others,  and,  among 
Protestant  church  historians,  by  Neander.  See 
Peukoquet  :  Vie  de  li.  L.,  Vendome,  1667  ;  LiJw  : 
De  vita  R.  L.,  Halle,  1830;  Helffeuich  :  R.  L., 
Berlin,  1858.  WAGENMAbfN. 

LUNA,  Peter  de.     See  Benedict  XIII. 

LUPUS,  Seryatus,  b.  about  SO.o;  was  educated 
in  the  mona.stery  of  Ferrieres,  in  the  diocese  of 
Sens ;  studied  afterwards-  at  Fulda,  under  Kaba- 
nus  Maurus,  827-837 ;  lived  for  some  time  at  the 
court  of  Louis  the  Pious ;  and  was  by  Charles 
the  Bald  made  abbot  of  Ferrieres,  instead  of 
Odo,  842.  He  died  after  862,  but  the  exact  date 
is  unknown.  From  his  letters  it  appears  that  he 
was  well  acquainted  with  all  the  more  pronnnent 
churchmen,  and  took  a  lively  part  in  all  church 
affairs.  In  the  controversy  between  Gottschalck 
and  Hincmar  he  sided  with  the  former,  and  de- 
fended him  by  letters,  by  larger  woi'ks  {De  tribus 
(jiifeslionibus  and  Collectaneum),  and  at  tlie  synods. 
His  works  were  first  edited  by  Baluze.  Paris, 
1664,  afterwards  often,  as,  for  instance,  in  Mignj;  : 
Patrol,  cxix.  See  Nicolas  :  iSludes  sur  les  letlres 
de  Servat-Loup,  Paris,  1861 ;  F.  Sprotte  :  Ser- 
vatus  Lupus,  Ratisbon,  1880.  W.  MOLLER. 

LUTHER,  Martin,  the  German  Reformer,  was 
b.  at  Eisleben,  [a  town  in  Saxony,  not  far  from 
Wittenberg],  Nov.  10,  1483;  d.  at  the  same 
place,  Feb.  18,  1546.  His  father  was  a  miner, 
but  had  been  a  "genuine  peasant  "  (rechter  Bauer), 
as  his  son  himself  once  said.  His  mother  is 
specially  praised  by  ISIelanchthon  for  her  "  mod- 
esty, fear  of  God,  and  habits  of  prayer."  They 
brought  up  Martin  very  strictly,  but  left  upon 
his  mind  an  indelible  impression  of  moral  ear- 
nestness and  honesty.  He  was  sent  to  the  Latin 
school  of  Mansfeld,  from  which  he  passed  in 
1497  to  Magdeburg,  and  1498  to  Eisenach,  where 
he  had  relatives.  With  others  of  the  poorer 
boys,  he  sang  in  front  of  the  houses,  asking  for 
bread  for  God's  sake  (panem  propter  Deum)\  and 
attracting  the  notice  of  Ursula,  the  wife  of  Kunz 
Cotta,  he  was  taken  in  and  kindly  treated  by 
her.  Trebonius  was  then  teaching  at  Eisenach  ; 
and  Melanchthon  says  that  the  scholar  from 
Eisleben  manifested  "  a  keen  power  of  intellect, 
and  was,  above  all,  gifted  for  eloquence."  In 
1501  he  entered  the  university  of  Erfurt,  took 
the  bachelor's  degree  in  1502,  and  the  master's 
in  1505.  He  was  set  apart  by  his  parents  for 
the  career  of  a  lawyer.  Up  to  this  time  he  had 
had  no  acquaintance  with  the  Scriptures.  Terri- 
ble fears  now  began  to  oppress  his  mind.  The 
death  of  a  dear  friend,  perhaps,  contributed  to 
produce  this  experience ;  and  inward  anxiety, 
which  would  not  be  quieted,  induced  him  to 
form  the  sudden  resolution  of  becoming  a  monk. 
Terrified  by  a  storm,  he  entered  the  Augustine 
convent  at  Erfurt,  July  17,  1505,  and  in  1507  was 
ordained  priest.  He  was  zealous  in  the  practice 
of  the  monastic  rules,  but  no  less  so  in  the  study 
of  theology,  and  almost  committed  to  memory 


the  works  of  Gabriel  Biel  and  D'Ailly,  while  he 
sedulously  read  Occam  and  Gerson.  But  the 
conflict  going  on  in  his  .soul,  and  the  doubts  of 
his  own  salvation,  pious  exercises  failed  to  put 
to  rest.  In  spite  of  them,  these  doubts  grew 
more  clamorous;  but  he  eagerly  caught  at  the 
advice  of  an  old  teacher  of  tlie  convent,  who 
directed  him  to  the  article  on  the  forgiveness  of 
sins.  It  was,  however,  the  vicar  of  the  order, 
John  of  Staupitz,  who  became  his  most  influen- 
tial human  guide.  But  that  which  was  decisive 
in  this  stage  of  his  exjierience  was  the  Bible,  in 
the  study  of  which  he  immer.sed  him.self. 

In  1508  Luther  was  called  to  the  chair  of  phi- 
losophy at  the  university  of  Wittenberg.  He  was 
subsequently,  for  some  unknown  cause,  called 
back  to  Erfurt,  remaining  there  three  terms 
(Semester),  and  was  despatched  in  1511  to  Rome, 
in  the  interests  of  his  order.  The  exhibitions  of 
ecclesiastical  corruption  which  came  under  his 
observation  did  not  at  tlie  time  occasion  any  re- 
volt in  his  mind.  At  a  later  period  he  voluntar 
rily  became  the  assistant  of  the  city  preacher  of 
Wittenberg,  and  preached  with  great  vigor  and 
earnestness.  His  mind  turning  away  from  phi- 
losophy, he  earnestly  sought  for  the  kernel  of  the 
nut  and  the  marrow  of  the  bones  (nucleimi  nucis, 
meduUam  ossium,  Ep.  i.  6).  He  sought  to  pre- 
sent to  his  hearers  the  saving  truth,  especially 
from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  and  the  Psalms ; 
and  it  was  in  the  study  of  these  books,  that,  as 
Melanchthon  has  said,  the  light  of  the  gospel 
first  dawned  on  him.  We  possess  a  manuscript 
of  his  lectures  upon  the  Psalms,  delivered  Ijetween 
1513  and  1516.  Amongst  the  human  instruments 
who  influenced  his  opinions,  Augustine  w'as  the 
chief.  And  at  this  period  Luther  taught  of  the 
righteousness  which  is  God-given ;  and  he  even 
had  a  deeper  understanding  of  the  meaning  of 
faith,  the  "  short  way  "  to  that  righteousness,  than 
Augustine  himself.  In  1516  he  became  acquaint- 
ed with,  and  was  strongly  influenced  by,  the 
mysticism  of  Tauler  and  the  Oerinan  Tlie<il(i(iii.  of 
which  he  published  editions  in  1516  and  1518. 
Although  he  had  not  yet  broken  with  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  he  had  already  come  substantially  to 
his  later  views  on  the  plan  of  salvation.  In 
agreement  with  the  teaching  of  the  mystics,  he 
regarded  as  fundamental  the  personal  relation  of 
the  individual  to  Christ  by  faith.  Faith  he  iden- 
tified with  pure  and  unselfish  devotion.  It  re- 
quires the  renunciation  of  the  selfish  will,  which 
comes  from  the  devil,  and  is  the  fundamental  sin. 
Faith  and  hope  go  out  to  Christ,  who  alone  has 
fulfilled  the  lave,  and  was  crucified  for  us;  so 
that  we  can  say,  "  Thou  art  my  righteousness, 
but  I  am  thy  sin  "  (es  Justitia  mea,  ego  autem  sum 
peccaium  tuum). 

Luther  was  not  aware  that  his  beliefs  were 
in  conflict  with  the  opinions  which  at  that  time 
prevailed  in  the  Church.  In  opposition  to  the 
then  custom,  he  called  upon  the  bishops  to  rec- 
ognize preaching  as  the  principal  duty  of  their 
office  ;  and  heldthatthe  .sermon  ought  to  be  free 
from  expressions  of  human  opinion,  legendary 
stories,  and  the  like,  and  should  go  beyond  the 
department  of  morals  and  works,  to  that  of  faith 
and  imputed  righteousness.  The  thought  never 
occurred  to  him  that  his  views  were  out  of 
accord  with  those  of  the  Church ;  and  the  idea 


LUTHER. 


1364 


LUTHER. 


liad  not  yet  crossed  his  mind  of  doubting  its 
supreme  autliority.  Nothing  is  more  striking 
than  his  utter  failure  to  observe  that  he  was 
liolding  views  contrary  to  those  of  the  Clmrch, 
and  even  of  Augustine  and  the  mystics.  Tliis 
fact  is  a  remarkable  evidence  that  it  was  not  the 
-spirit  of  negation  and  simple  critical  reflection, 
but  a  spirit  of  positive  and  private  thought, 
which  produced  his  views. 

Luther's  writings  of  this  period,  in  which  these 
views  are  expressed,  are  a  volume  of  Sermo/is 
(1515),  which  the  author  wrote  down  in  Latin, 
an  Introduction  to  the  German  Theology  (151 G).  an 
Exposition  of  the  Seven  Penitential  Psahns  (his 
first  German  work),  the  Our  Father  (1517),  and 
Sen/wns  on  the  Decalogue  (1518).  His  Letters  also 
admit  us  into  the  state  of  his  mind.  Compare 
Hering:  D.  Mystik  Luthers,  1879. 

It  was  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  the  vicinity 
of  'Wittenberg,  by  Tetzel,  under  the  commission 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  whicli  formed  the 
occasion  for  Luther's  first  conflict  with  the 
Church;  not,  as  he  thought,  n^a('«s<  the  Church, 
but  for  its  honor.  He  began  by  warning  against 
the  abuse  of  indulgences,  at  the  confessional  and 
from  the  pulpit.  He  next  embodied  his  oppo- 
sition in  Letters  to  the  Magnates  of  the  Church, 
at  least  to  the  Bishop  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
Archbishop  of  Mainz.  With  the  letter  to  the 
latter,  he  sent  the  ninety-five  theses  with  which 
he  opened  the  battle  with  Tetzel,  nailing  them, 
on  Oct.  31,  1517,  to  the  door  of  the  Schtosskirche 
(Castle  Church)  at  AVittenberg.  They  contained 
what  his  sermons  had  already  taught ;  tiamely, 
that  Jesus'  call  to  repentance  demands  that  the 
whole  life  shall  be  an  act  of  repentance,  and 
<loes  not  refer  to  priestly  confession  and  penance. 
The  Pope's  indulgence  cannot  remove  the  guilt 
of  the  smallest  transgression  :  it  can  only  pardon 
guilt  in  the  sen.se  of  announcing  what  God  has 
already  done.  The  gospel  is  the  real  treasui'e 
of  the  church.  Luther  also  allowed  a  sermon 
(Von  Ablass  und  Gnaile)  to  appear,  in  which  he 
warned  against  the  use  of  indulgences. 

What  I^utlier  was  led  by  an  irrepressible  con- 
viction to  speak  out,  met  with  a  favor  in  Ger- 
many of  which  he  had  not  had  the  slightest 
presentiment.  The  "  theses  went  through  the 
■entire  land  in  fourteen  days,  for  everybody  com- 
plained about  the  indulgences ;  and  while  all 
the  bishops  and  doctors  were  silent,  and  no  one 
was  found  to  bell  the  cat,  it  was  noised  about 
that  (jne  Luther  had  at  last  attempted  the  task." 
Luther  was  driven  to  further  utterances  by  the 
attacks  of  'i'etzel,  the  Dominican  Priei-ias,  the 
Ingolstadt  chancellor  .John  Eck,  and  lloogstra- 
teu.  He  answered  all  four  in  tracts,  of  which 
the  most  celebrated  is  the  one  against  Eck,  — 
Asterisci  aili).  ohelisc.  Eccii.  His  most  important 
work  on  the  question  of  the  indulgences  wa-s  his 
liesoluliones  ilisputationum  tie  indulgenliarum  rir- 
tute,  1518.  Two  new  questions  were  suggested 
to  him  in  this  controversy;  namely,  that  the  cHi- 
cacv  of  the  sacrament  depended  wholly  upon  the 
recipient,  and  that  the  Pope  did  not  ]>ossess 
supreme  authority.  He  was  branded  as  a  heretic 
by  lii.s  opponents,  and  cited  to  ai>pear  at  Rome; 
and  the  canlinal  legate  Cajetan  was  .appointed, 
for  the  time  being,  to  bring  him  into  submission. 
With  this  hist  purpose  in  view,  a  conference  was 


held  at  Augsburg  (October,  1518)  ;  but  Luther 
insisted  that  he  was  a  true  son  of  the  Church, 
and,  refusing  to  recall  his  utterances  regarding 
the  Pope's  authority  and  the  efficacy  of  the  sac- 
rament, appealed  finallj'  from  the  Pope  to  a 
general  council.  He  already  affirmed  that  there 
had  been  a  time  in  tlie  history  of  the  Church 
when  there  was  no  papal  primate,  and  this  pri- 
macy did  not  belong  to  the  essence  of  the  true 
Church. 

The  Pope  still  hesitated  to  break  ■with  the  Elec- 
tor of  Saxony,  who  was  unwilling  to  deliver  Luther 
up,  and  despatched  his  chamberlain,  Miltitz.  who 
succeeded  (January,  1519)  in  inducing  Luther  to 
promise  silence  for  the  time  being,  and  to  write 
a  letter  to  the  Pope,  expressing  his  veneration 
for  the  Roman  Church.  But  in  this  very  letter, 
while  he  allow's  the  doctrines  of  the  invocation  of 
saints  and  purgatory,  lie  boldly  asserts  that  he 
cannot  believe  that  an  indulgence  affects  the  con- 
dition of  the  soul  in  jiurgatory.  He,  however, 
felt  no  longer  bound  by  his  piromise  of  silence, 
when  Eck  challenged  his  colleague,  Karlstadt,  to 
a  disputation  to  be  held  in  Leipzig.  Espousing 
the  part  of  his  friend,  he  disputed  against  Eck 
from  June  27  to  July  16,  1519.  (Compare  Seide- 
mann  :  D.  Leipziger  Disputation,  1843,  and  art. 
Eck.)  Eck  sought  to  pirove,  from  Luther's  own 
confession,  that  he  had  fallen  away  from  the 
church.  Luther,  on  the  other  hand,  expressed 
himself  w-ith  boldness,  denying  the  divine  right 
of  the  Pope  as  primate,  and  affirming  that  the 
power  of  the  keys  was  intrusted,  not  to  an  indi- 
vidual, but  to  the  Church  ;  that  is,  the  body  ofhe- 
lieoers.  Hus's,  or  rather  Augustine's,  words  were 
true,  that  there  is  one  holy  and  universal  Church, 
which  is  the  totality  of  the  elect  {prcedestinatorum 
unicersitas) :  hence  the  Greek  Clnu'ch  was  not 
heretical.  Eurther:  he  affirmed,  that  among  the 
clauses  which  the  Council  of  Constance  at  the 
trial  of  Hus  condemned  as  heretical  were  those 
that  were  genuinely  evangelical.  Thus  he  denied 
the  infallibility  of  general  councils. 

Tlie  Reformer  is  described  at  this  time  as  hav- 
ing been  very  thin,  on  account  of  study,  fertile  in 
words  and  illustrations  in  his  sermons,  and  cheer- 
ful and  friendly  in  his  intercourse.  In  debate  he 
displayed  a  wonderful  freslmess  and  vigor,  fear- 
less boldness,  and  also  a  rude  vehemence,  which 
he  did  not  succeed  in  suppressing.  In  1519  he 
published  his  university  lectures  on  Galatians,  in 
his  snudler  Commentary,  and  a  work  on  the  Psalms 
(Ojieratioiu's  in  Psahnos). 

Ilis  fame  had  grown  wonderfully,  and  multi- 
tudes of  students  Hocked  to  Wittenberg  to  hear 
him.  He  entered  into  correspondence  with,  and 
received  de|)ufations  from,  the  Utraciuisls  of 
Bohemia,  and  from  Italy.  The  Humanists,  too, 
began  to  show  liim  their  sympathy.  Melanchtlion, 
a  young  representative  of  this  tendency,  stood  at 
his  side  from  1518  on.  I^uther  wrote  to  Reuch- 
lin  ;  and  in  a  letter  to  Erasmus,  under  dale  of 
March  28,  1519,  he  expressed  his  esteem  for  that 
scholar.  Princes  also  began  to  exteiul  to  him 
their  protection;  and  Franz  of  .Sickingen  and 
.Silvester  of  Schauenberg  offered  him  a  place 
of  .safety  in  their  castles.  In  this  condition  of 
affairs  Luther  sent  forth  an  appeal  to  the  Chris- 
tian noblemen  of  (Jermanv,  August,  l.'')2()  (An 
den  christl.  Adei  deutschur  Nalio)i),  urging  them 


LUTHER. 


1365 


LUTHER, 


as  laymen  to  take  up  the  work  of  ecclesiastical 
reformation,  which  the  Pope  had  refused,  and 
advocating'  the  suppression  of  conventual  estab- 
lishments for  nuns,  the  abolition  of  the  interdict 
and  the  ban,  the  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
the  temporal  power,  tlie  denial  of  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation,  etc.  The  tract  De  Captivitale 
Bahi/lon.  ("The  Babylonish  Captivity,"  that  is, 
under  the  Papacy),  which  appeared  about  this 
time,  expressed  the  Reformer's  views  on  the  sacra- 
ments, only  three  of  which  he  retained,  —  the 
Lord's  Supper,  baptism,  and  repentance,  —  and  in 
the  strict  sense  only  two.  He  denied  transub- 
stantiation, and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  and 
baptismal  regeneration.  The  prominent  features 
of  the  plan  of  salvation  and  the  Christian  life 
were  brought  out  in  the  work.  Von  Jer  Freikeit  e. 
ChrUte.nviannes  ("  The  Freedom  of  a  Christian 
Man ").  He  emphasized  personal  union  with 
Christ,  in  whom  we  are  justified  by  the  instru- 
mentality of  the  Word  and  faith.  The.se  three 
works  may  be  fitly  denominated  as  the  most  im- 
portant ones  for  the  progress  of  the  Reformation, 
from  his  pen. 

On  .Sept.  ;21  Eck  appeared  in  Meissen,  with  the 
papal  ban ;  but  Luther  retorted  by  burning  (Dec. 
12)  the  papal  bull  and  decretals  at  Wittenberg. 
He  justified  this  action  in  the  tracts,  Warum  lies 
Papslcs  u.  seiner  Jiinr/er  Biicher  rerhrannt  sind 
("  Why  the  Books  of  the  Pope  and  his  Disciples 
■were  burned"),  and  .'l.s'.s-ert/o  nmninm  arlicnlnrnm, 
etc.  The  ban  was  the  last  resort  of  the  papal  court ; 
but  the  emperor  (Charles  V.)  did  not  feel  free  to 
execute  it,  and  Luther  was  invited  to  appear  be- 
fore the  princes  of  tlie  empire  at  Worms.  He 
awaited  the  result  of  the  diet  with  composure  of 
mind,  carrying  on  in  the  interval  controversies 
with  Emser  ["  the  scribbler  of  Dresden  "]  and 
others.  He  journeyed  towards  the  city,  trusting 
in  God,  and  defying  the  Devil.  The  only  matter 
■which  concerned  him  was  the  victory  of  the  truth, 
refusing  any  compromise  with  the  princes,  who 
would  gladly  have  taken  this  occasion  to  get 
redress  for  some  of  their  grievances  against  the 
papal  see.  The  first  (April  17,  1521)  and  last 
question  put  to  hiui  was  whether  he  was  willing 
to  renounce  his  writings.  After  a  day's  consid- 
eration, he  answered  in  the  negative,  but  ex- 
pressed his  willingness  to  renounce  them  if  they 
were  shown  to  contain  errors.  His  final  answer 
to  their  reiterated  demands  was,  "  I  shall  not  be 
convinced,  except  by  the  testimony  of  the 
Scriptures,  or  plain  reason  ;  for  I  believe  nei- 
ther the  pope  nor  councils  alone,  as  it  is  manifest 
that  they  have  often  erred  and  contradicted  them- 
selves. ...  I  am  not  able  to  recall,  nor  do  I  wish 
to  recall,  any  thing  ;  for  it  is  neither  safe  nor  hon- 
est to  do  any  thing  against  conscience.  Here 
I  stand,  I  cannot  do  otherwise.  God  help  me. 
Amen  !  "  (UicrMehe  ich,  ich  kann  nicht  cinders ;  Gott 
helfmir.  Amen!)  In  vain  were  all  endeavors,  in 
public  and  by  a  private  commission  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Treves,  to  move  him;  and  his  insistance 
upon  the  article  condemned  by  the  council  was 
decisive,  which  spoke  of  the  "  universal  Church, 
which  is  the  body  of  the  elect  "  (numerus  prcedesli- 
natormn).  On  May  25  the  ban  was  pronounced 
against  him  in  its  severest  form.  But  Luther  left 
AVorms  the  next  day,  composed  in  mind.  On  his 
journey  he  was  seized,  by  the  order  of  his  elector 


(but  not  without  his  own  knowledge),  and  carried 
oif  to  the  Wartburg,  [a  romantically  situated  old 
castle  near  Eisenach].  This  was  done  to  protect 
his  person  from  harm. 

Luther's  residence  at  the  Wartburg  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  second  period  of  his  Reforma- 
tory activity, —  the  period  of  construction,  not  only 
in  opposition  to  the  activity  of  pulling  down,  but 
also  to  that  of  laying  foundations.  In  the  retire- 
ment of  the  castle,  which  he  called  his  I'atnios, 
he  had  time  for  quiet  reflection  and  for  the  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  into  German,  which 
contributed  more  than  any  thing  else  to  make 
the  Reformation  permanent.  It  was  printed  in 
September,  1522,  [and  has  continued  ever  since  to 
be  the  model  of  German  style.  See  the  excellent 
article,  German  Bible  Translations,  in  this 
volume].  He  also  wrote  the  first  part  of  his  Ger- 
man Postilla  here,  and  a  luimbei-  of  tracts  and  let- 
ters. Outside  the  Wartburg,  changes  were  going 
forward.  Melanchthon  denied  the  validity  of 
monkish  vows.  Changes  were  made  in  the  pub- 
lic services  at  Wittenberg,  and  the  celebration  of 
the  mass  abolished.  Luther  uttered  his  views  upon 
these  subjects  in  his  De  volts  monasticis  and  De  abro- 
ijanda  missa  privata.  But  he  was  conservative,  and 
strongly  opposed  the  tumultuous  interference  with 
the  celebration  of  the  mass,  and  other  old  customs. 
Karlstadt  (at  Wittenberg)  denounced  the  use  of 
pictures  in  the  churches  ,  and  three  fanatics 
arrived  from  Zwickau,  who  professed  to  be  the 
subjects  of  visions,  denounced  infant  baptism,  and 
advocated  a  wholesale  destruction  of  the  ungodly. 
Even  Melanchthon  was  at  first  carried  away  by 
them.  But  Luther  spoke  out  with  his  accustomed 
clearness  and  positiveness  against  all  such  errors. 
The  Zwickau  prophets,  he  declared,  ought  to 
show  their  credentials :  for  God  never  sent  an 
agent  without  them.  As  for  infant  baptism,  chil- 
dren, it  is  true,  could  not  believe  ;  but  faith  might 
be  given  to  them  in  answer  to  the  prayers  of  their 
sponsors,  and  a  positive  warrant  for  it  is  given  in 
Matt.  xix. 

Luther  left  the  Wartbiu-g  in  March,  unable 
longer  to  bear  the  retirement.  Arriving  at  Wit- 
tenberg on  the  7th,  he  preached  eight  sermons  in 
succession  on  the  duties  of  love,  order,  and  mod- 
eration ;  and  the  Zwickauer  prophets  shook  the 
dust  from  off  their  feet  as  they  left  the  city. 
Luther  made  public  in  1523  a  new  order  of  ser- 
vice {Formula  missce  et  communionis),  in  which  he 
took  notice  of  the  scruples  of  the  weaker  breth- 
ren. A  subject  in  which  he  took  a  great  interest 
was  the  revival  of  German  devotional  song ;  and 
in  1521  the  first  Wittenberg  hymn-book  appeared, 
with  four  hymns  by  Luther  himself.  About  this 
time  Duke  George  of  Saxony  forbade  the  circu- 
lation of  Luther's  writings.  This  formed  the 
occasion  for  the  Reformer's  work  upon  the  extent 
to  which  obedience  is  due  to  the  civil  authorities 
(Schrifl  itber  d.  weUliche  Obriykeit,  trie  iceil  man  ihr 
Gehorsam  schuldig  sei).  He  admits  their  supreme 
jurisdiction  over  the  temporal  affairs  of  men,  and 
counsels  authors  and  readers  to  bear  patiently 
the  punishment  of  the  laws  forbidding  the  circu- 
lation of  evangelical  writings,  but  to  disobej' 
them.  He  denied  to  them  the  right  of  making 
laws  for  the  spiritual  concerns  of  man,  or  to  com- 
pel conformity  in  matters  of  faith.  At  a  later 
period   he  advocated  the  protection  of    the   re- 


LUTHER. 


1366 


LUTHER. 


formed  Church  by  the  civil  power.  He  also 
entered  into  a  controversy  with  Henry  VHI.  of 
England,  who  had  answered  his  book  on  the  sac- 
raments (De  Capth'ilate  BahijL).  and  wrote  a  work 
(Contra  Henricum  Reqem)  in  which  he  displays  all 
his  rudeness  of  temper.  But  in  15'25  he  showed 
his  kindliness  of  disposition  by  a  request  to  the 
king  for  forgiveness,  which  was  as  humble  as  it 
was  unsuccessful. 

The  most  important  event  in  Luther's  conflict 
with  Catholicism,  his  difference  with  Krasmus, 
now  occurred.  They  had  been  on  intimate  terms; 
but  Erasmus  had  long  since  taken  offence  at 
Luther's  bluntness,  as  Luther  had  taken  offence 
at  his  ignorance  of  the  method  of  divine  grace, 
and  lack  of  positiveness  and  courage.  In  1525 
Erasmus  put  forward  against  Luther  a  work 
advocating  the  freedom  of  the  will  {De  lihero 
arbilrio).  which,  after  long  delay,  Luther  answered 
(15"25)  in  his  De  servo  arbilrin,  in  which  he  insists 
upon  the  impotence  of  the  will.  He  teaches  that 
God,  who  knows  all  things,  has  predestinated  all 
things,  and  those  who  are  lost  are  lost  in  con- 
formity with  his  predestination.  If  it  be  objects 
ed  that  he  is  able  to,  and  yet  does  not,  change 
the  will  of  the  wicked,  it  must  be  answered  that 
what  he  does  is  right,  and  the  reasons  for  his  act- 
ing or  not  acting  belong  to  the  mysteries  of  his 
majesty.  This  is  the  highest  stage  of  faith,  to 
believe  that  he  is  clement  who  saves  so  few,  and 
just,  who  makes  us  damnable  (capable  of  con- 
demnation) of  his  own  will  (sua  roluntate  nos  ilam- 
nahiles  facit) .  Free-will  can  be  predicated  of  God 
alone,  and  man's  will  is  in  all  things  subject  to 
and  ruled  by  the  will  of  God.  Luther  <iesired 
to  have  these  hard-sounding  doctrines  made  pub- 
lic, but  warned  against  attempts  to  scrutinize  the 
hidden  will  of  God,  and  urged  implicit  trust  in 
his  revealed  Word. 

Luther  now  had  to  contend  principally  against 
the  spirit  of  false  freedom,  a  foe  which  was  mak- 
ing itself  felt  more  and  more  in  the  Church. 
Karlstadt  represented  this  spirit,  and  denied  the 
presence  of  Christ's  body  in  the  Lord's  Supjier, 
professed  an  intense  spiritualism,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  regarded  polyganij'  as  admissible, 
etc.  In  the  mean  time,  other  ecclesiastical  and 
social  changes  were  proposed,  such  as  the  ri^vival 
of  the  Mosaic  jubilee  year,  in  which  all  jiroperty 
should  revert  to  its  original  possessors.  Miinzer, 
the  leader  of  the  Zwickau  fanatics,  labored  to 
bring  about  a  revolution  for  the  establishment  of 
a  kingdom  of  .saints,  as  he  understood  it.  Luther 
opposed  Karlstadt's  tendency  in  the  larger  work 
against  tlie  heavenly  prophets  (  Wider  die  /lunm- 
Hsclifn  Prii/iln  Icii),  and  answered  the  argument 
from  the  Mi)saic  law,  that  Christ  had  abolished  it, 
and  had  himself  become  a  law  to  us.  IJut  he 
admitted  that  many  excellent  models  were  to  be 
derived  from  Moses  in  the  department  of  civil 
government ;  but  such  commands  derive  their 
power  amongst  Christians,  not  because  they  origi- 
nated with  .Moses,  but  because  they  are  enjoined 
by  the  civil  authority.  The  fire,  however,  was 
spreading,  and  the  long-feared  revolution  threat^ 
ened  to  break  o\it  in  the  Peasants'  War.  Luther 
openly  detiounci'd  .\linizer  as  a  falai^  i>rophet,  but 
tne  peaBant.s  of  Southern  (Jermany  he  sought  to 
conTincc!  th;it  the  freedom  of  Uk-  Christian  was 
not  a  oarnul   freedom.     The  strongest  words  he 


directed  to  the  princes ;  and,  inasmuch  as  the  mur- 
derous and  looting  gangs  continued  to  spread 
dismay,  he  called  upon  them  in  God's  name  to 
strike  down  the  devilish  opposition  with  stabbing, 
striking,  and  throttling  (Ktlechen,  !<chla(/en,  und 
Wiiryen).  See  the  tracts  Ermahniing  ziim  Frie- 
den,  etc.  ("Exhortation  to  Peace"),  and  .Sendbrief 
von  d.  Iiarten  Biic/ilein  ("The  Severe  Tracts"),  1525. 
In  this  period  of  trial,  hearing  of  intended  at- 
tempts upon  his  own  life,  and  feeling  himself 
about  to  die.  he  married  (June  18,  1525),  without 
experiencing  the  passion  of  love.  Catharina  von 
Bora,  who  had  been  a  nun.  He  did  it  in  a  spirit 
of  noble  defiance  against  his  enemies,  in  order 
before  his  death  to  give  another  testimony  of  his 
esteem  for  the  marriage-relation,  as  well  as  in  the 
hope  that  the  angels  would  laugh,  and  the  devils 
weep,  at  the  contempt  he  would  thereby  show  for 
the  papal  rule  of  celibacy. 

Luther's  attention  continued  to  be  given  to 
matters  of  church  organization  and  worship. 
In  1526  he  wrote  his  book,  Deutsche  Messe,  etc. 
("  The  German  IMass "),  in  which  he  advocates 
weekly  services  and  the  study  of  the  books  of  the 
Bible.  He  also  urged  catechetical  instruction, 
but  warned  against  making  a  new  law  out  of 
fonns  and  formularies.  The  alteration  of  the 
service  of  baptism  is  noticed  in  the  Tnu/hiichlein 
(1523,  1527).  The  first  evangelical  ordination 
occurred  at  Wittenberg,  in  May,  1525  The  dis- 
cipline of  the  church  was  now  perfected,  and  the 
rights  and  duties  of  the  church  authorities  de- 
fined. They  were  not  to  compel  any  one  to  accept 
the  faith,  or  frequent  the  services  of  religion,  Init 
to  put  down  external  offences.  He  advocated  a 
spiritual  supervision  or  episcopacy,  which  was  to 
reside  in  a  higher  class  of  officers.  The  princes 
were  to  appoint  them,  and  they  were  to  institute 
a  system  of  visitation  for  the  churches.  Such 
visitation  was  made  between  1527  and  l.'vjf) ,  and, 
as  one  of  the  results  of  Luther's  personal  observa- 
tion, he  wrote  his  two  catechisms  (1529). 

The  meaning  and  nature  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
had  become  the  occasion  of  much  discussion  and 
extensive  differences  between  the  Iteforniers  and 
their  followers.  Luther  had  already  written 
again.st  Karlstadt;  and  he  now  discovered  that 
Zwingli,  Leo  Jude,  and  (Ecolatnpadius  also  de- 
nied the  real  presence  of  the  body  of  Christ. 
He  hastily  identified  the  views  of  the  latter  with 
those  of  the  former,  and  opposed  them  with  ]ias- 
sionate  warmth,  which  rose  to  vehemence ;  and 
imagined  he  detected  in  the.se  "sacramentarian 
fanatics"  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  Munzei.  In 
152')  he  wrote  .against  (Ecolampadius,  in  his 
Preface  to  tlie  Stjmjranwia  Smvicini),  and  also  put 
forth  a  sermon  against  the  "fanatics,''  a  hiiger 
work,  \n  l^)'27  {Dnss  dii'sr  ]Vorte  .  .  .  nncli  feslxlelieii), 
and,  in  answer  to  the  friendly  letters  of  Zwingll 
and  (Eeolam]iadius,  another  in  lij28  (  ]'o>ii  Ahctid- 
maid  Christi,  llelL-eimttiiss).  He  met  Zwingli  and 
(Ecolampadius  at  Marburg,  at  the  .suggestion  of 
Philip  of  Hesse,  Oct.  l-I!,  152!),  came  to  an  unex- 
])ected  agreement  with  them  on  all  points  except 
the  Lord's  Sn]i]ii'r,  and  departed,  refusing  the  right 
hand  of  fellowsliip,  although  he  promised  them 
love  and  peace.  He  helil,  that,  although  the  bread 
and  wini-  wi're  not  changed  into  tlie  body  and 
blood  of  Christ,  (Ihrist's  body  was  veritably  jires- 
ent;    and   lie    appealed   to   the   simple  wonls  of 


LUTHER. 


]?,C,7 


LUTHER. 


institution,  "  Tliis  is  my  body."  He,  howevpr, 
constantly  affirmed  that  the  mere  bread  had  no 
virtue,  and  that  it  is  only  by  faith  that  we  get  a 
blessing. 

This  disagreement  with  the  two  Swiss  Reform- 
ers was  permanent,  and  endangered  the  future 
of  the  whole  movement  of  the  Reformation.  It 
was  in  this  anxious  condition  of  affairs  that  the 
princes  of  the  empire  met  the  emjieror  in  15:!0  at 
Augsburg.  This  conference  was  to  define  finally 
the  attitude  of  the  empire  to  Protestantism. 
Luther,  left  behind  by  his  elector,  watched  the 
progress  of  the  a.ssembly  from  Cobnrg.  The  Con- 
fession, liowever,  which  was  presented  at  Augs- 
burg, was  written  out  by  Melanchthon,  but  was 
the  result  of  previous  labors,  in  which  Luther  took 
part.  Its  articles,  however,  were  not  strong  and 
positive  enough  to  suit  him ;  and,  when  the  pur- 
pose of  the  moderate  party  (Melanclithon)  was 
defeated,  he  could  not  suppress  the  remark  that 
"  Satan  felt  that  your  apology,  Leiselrcterin  ('soft- 
stepper '),  misrepresented  (dissiinulasse)  the  articles 
on  purgatory,  the  worship  of  saints,  and,  espe- 
cially .-Vutichrist  the  Tope."  He  suspected  Me- 
lanchthon  of  the  spirit  of  over-compromise,  and 
became  impatient  at  his  delays  to  write,  but  did 
not  obtrude  his  own  opinions.  On  the  other  hand, 
he  gave  up  all  hope  and  desire  of  a  reconciliation, 
which  w'as  impossible  "unless  the  Pope  was  will- 
ing that  the  Papacy  should  lie  abolislied."  In  this 
whole  nuitter  of  the  doctrinal  dissent  oi  the  Ref- 
ormation and  the  Papacy,  Luther  saw  far  deepei- 
than  Melauchthon.  The  emperor,  threatened  liy 
the  Turks  from  without,  and  for  other  reasons. 
did  not  proceed  against  the  Protestants,  who  had 
entered,  for  mutual  protection,  into  the  Smalcakl 
League.  It  had  been  Luther's  principle  that  all 
disobedience  to  the  imperial  power  in  civil  con-  ' 
cerns  was  unjustifiable.  From  this  position  he 
did  not,  even  in  this  emergency,  retreat,  but  had  \ 
recourse  to  the  jurists,  who  held  that  the  emperor 
was  to  be  obeyed  only  as  he  followed  the  jjrece- 
dent  of  law,  or,  as  they  expressed  it,  the  '-emperor 
in  his  laws  "  was  to  be  obeyed.  This  satisfied 
Luther's  mind;  and  in  L531  he  preached  and  pub- 
lished a  sermon  (^Warmmij  an  d.  lielicn  Deutschen) 
advocating  resistance  under  certain  circumstances, 
and  appealing  to  the  authorities  in  tlie  depart- 
ment of  jurisprudence. 

The  Pope  still  expressed  himself  as  willing  to 
convene  a  general  council,  and  despatched  the 
legate  Vergerius,  who  met  with  Luther  at  Witten- 
berg. The  Reformer  doubted  the  Pope's  sinceri- 
ty; but,  commissioned  by  the  elector,  he  wrote 
out  articles  for  the  council,  affirming  that  the 
Pope  was  the  "  veritable  Endchrist  {EndechrisI), 
or  Antichrist,"  and  demanding  that  he  should 
renounce  his  pretensions.  The  council  was,  of 
course,  never  held.  Luther  expressed  his  general 
judgment  of  councils  in  his  book  Von  d.  Conciliis 
H  Kirchen  (1539).  He  here  denied  their  infalli- 
bility, and  affirmed  that  their  business  was  alone 
to  defend  plain,  fundamental  doctrines  of  Scrip- 
ture. 

In  the  mean  time,  efforts  were  not  wanting  to 
bring  about  a  union  of  the  Protestants ;  and 
Luther  expressed  himself  heartily  in  favor  of  it, 
and  in  1537  wrote  a  friendly  letter  to  the  mayor 
of  Basel,  expressing  the  hope  that  the  disturbed 
waters  might  settle  themseWes.   lu  a  letter  (1538) 


to  Hullinger  he  affirmed,  that,  ever  since  the  Mar- 
burg Conference,  ho  had  looked  upon  Zwingli  as 
a  most  excellent  man  (yirnni  oplitnmn).  Luther 
showed  his  conciliatory  temper  more  conspicuous- 
ly in  his  recognition  of  the  Bohemian  Brethren, 
writing  a  Preface  for  the  Defence  of  their  faith, 
which  they  presented  to  (Jeorge  of  Brandenlmrg 
in  1533,  and  another  Preface,  in  1538,  for  the  Con- 
fession wViich  tliey  presented  to  King  Ferdinand. 

Within  the  limits  of  his  own  church,  Luther's 
chief  activity  never  lay  in  organization,  but  in 
the  preaching  and  expositiori  of  the  Word.  L'luler 
the  head  of  expository  writings  we  may  mention 
his  St'rinons  on  Genesis  (1523-'J4)  iim/  Levilirus, 
Lectures  on  Denleronomi/  (1525),  Coinnienlari/  on 
llie  Psalms,  Lectures  on  Ilosea,  Joel,  Amos.  Olia- 
diah,  Nahuni,  Malachi,  Isaiah  (1.527).  all  in  Latin; 
and  on  Ilabakkuk,  Jonali  (1.520),  Zechariah  (1528j, 
Ezekiel  xxxviii.,  xxxix.,  and  Daniel  (1530),  in 
German  ;  again  on  Hosea,  Micah,  and  Joel  (after 
1.530),  in  Latin;  and  on  Ecclesiastes  and  the  Song 
of  Solomon  (152G-27).  In  the  department  of  the 
New  Testament  we  may  mention  his  Sermons  on 
1  Peter  (1523),  2  Peter  and  Jude  (1524),  Acts  xv., 
xvi  (152());  Lectures  on  1  John,  Titus,  and  1  Tim- 
othy and  2  Timothy  (1.527);  .Sermons  on  John 
xvii.  sqq.  (1.528,  1.529);  .again  on  1  John  (1-530), 
on  Matthew  v.-vii.  and  John  vi.-viii.  (1530-32); 
Latin  Lectures  on  (jalati.ans  (1531);  and  large 
Commentary  (1535),  etc.  Luther  continued  to 
preach  in  the  city  clmrch  at  Wittenberg,  even 
after  Bugenhagen  had  become  pastor. 

We  would  be  mistaken  if  we  were  to  imagine, 
tliat,  as  Luther's  end  drew  nigh,  he  looked  back 
with  complete  satisfaction  upon  the  previous 
years  of  liis  life  as  a  period  which  had  witnessed 
"the  restoration  of  a  perfect  church  fabric.  On  the 
contrary,  while  lie  thanked  God  for  grace  in  the 
past,  he  felt  very  deeply  the  inveterate  hostility 
of  the  world  to  the  gospel,  and  looked  forward,  in 
anticipation,  to  severe  trials  and  judgments  for  the 
church.  The  state  of  the  world  seemed  to  him 
to  resemble  its  condition  before  the  flood,  or  just 
before  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  indignant 
at  the  inmiorality  of  Wittenberg ;  and  while  on 
a  journey,  in  the  snnnner  of  1545,  he  threatened 
not  to  return  to  "that  Sodom."  He  complained 
both  of  the  peasants  and  of  the  nobility,  and  savs 
of  the  latter  (1541,  £;>.,  5,  399),  "It  is  true  that 
they  who  are  in  authority  {in  politia)  have  always 
been  and  will  always  be  hostile  to  the  church." 
In  1535  {Ep.  4,  602)  he  had  exclaimed  that  the 
Papacy  was,  after  all,  better  suited  to  the  world ; 
for  the  world  wanted  to  have  the  Devil  for  its  god. 
Here  we  may  mention  his  attitude  towards  the 
second  marriage  of  Philip  of  Hesse.  This  prince, 
loving  anotlier  woman  than  his  wife,  secured  the 
opinion  from  the  Reformer,  that,  while  monogamy 
was  the  original  institution  of  God,  cases  might 
ai-ise  to  justify  bigamy ;  but  the  second  marriage 
should,  for  prudential  reasons,  be  kept  secret. 
The  marriage  took  place,  March  3,  1540,  in  the 
presence  of  Melauchthon.  When  the  matter  be- 
came known,  Melauchthon  was  so  troubled  by 
the  criticisms,  that  he  sickened  unto  death  ;  while 
Luther  prayed  earnestly  for  his  life,  and  com- 
forted him,  believing  he  could  defend  himself 
satisfactorily  before  God,  though  he  could  not  do 
it  before  man. 

Fresh  efforts  wer«  made  for  the  union  of  tho 


LUTHER. 


1368 


LUTHER. 


Catholic  and  Protestant  cliurche?  in  1540.  But 
Luther  doubted  whether  tliey  enjoyed  the  favor  of 
God ;  nor  could  he  sympathize  with  Jlelanchthon 
in  his  endeavors  to  unite  the  different  Protestant 
churches  by  a  skilful  tempering  of  words,  and  he 
never  ceased  to  warn  against  the  doctrines  of 
Zwingli.  He  was  again  incited,  by  what  he  con- 
sidered compromises  of  the  truth,  to  speak  out  in 
a  S/iort  Conjession  of  the  Sacrament  {XH^-i),  in  which 
he  utters  himself  more  warmly  than  ever  befoi'e 
against  the  "Siicramentariau  fanatics."  Notwith- 
standing this  vehemence,  he  did  have  the  feeling 
of  the  unity  of  Christian  brotherhood. 

On  Jan.  23,  1546,  he  went  by  invitation  to  his 
birthplace,  Eislebeu,  to  arbitrate  a  dispute  be- 
tween some  counts.  His  mission  was  successful ; 
but  as  he  retired,  on  Feb.  17,  he  felt  a  pressure 
on  his  chest.  Surrounded  by  friends,  he  repeated 
the  words  of  I's.  xx.xi.  5  ("  Into  thy  hand  I  connnit 
my  spirit"),  and  died  peacefully.  His  remains 
were  interred  in  the  Schlosskirche  at  \Vittenberg. 

Luther's  doctrinal  views  have  alre.ady  been  in- 
dicated. But  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he 
does  not  write  as  a  tlieologian,  in  the  strict  sense; 
in  any  of  his  works.  It  was  his  to  discern  with 
a  lifelike  vision,  and  to  bear  witness,  rather  than 
to  formulate  and  systematize.  He  did  not  lack 
the  talent  for  scholastic  treatment,  but  his  utter- 
ances always  depended  upon  personal  experi- 
ences. It  was  this  general  consideration  which 
explains  the  vigoi'  of  his  preaching.  A  distinc- 
tion has  been  made  between  the  Luther  of  an 
earlier  and  of  a  later  period.  In  regard  to  his 
main  doctrines,  it  can  only  be  said  that  he  now 
emphasized  one,  now  another,  phase,  and  some- 
times, at  the  same  period,  seemed  to  contradict 
Jiimself,  simply  because  he  made  the  one  or  the 
other  aspect  more  pronnnent.  The  greatest 
change  in  the  general  attitude  of  the  Reformer 
took  place  between  15L'()  and  1.525.  He  never  re- 
called his  utterances  about  the  divine  predestina- 
tion expressed  in  the  work  De  sercn  arbilrio ;  but 
in  his  later  period  he  directed  his  vision  to  God, 
as  the  God  of  love,  revealing  himself  in  Christ  as 
the  central  point  in  theology. 

Luther's  style  preserved  to  the  end  the  fresh- 
ness and  \igor  which  characterized  it  at  the  be- 
ginning. His  language  was  pu)igent,  simple,  and 
clear;  and  he  kept  equally  free  from  exuberance 
of  feeling  or  fancy,  and  ilialectic  subtlety.  The 
fundamental  notion  of  salvation  he  always  brought 
to  the  foreground,  both  in  his  writings  and  ser- 
mons. He  often  condennied  the  allegorical  meth- 
od of  interpretation,  yet  he  himself  uses  it  in 
many  a  passage.  Cliaracteristic  were  his  popular 
wisdom  and  wit,  which  he  was  so  skilful  in  em- 
ploying in  proverbs,  fables,  verses,  etc.  In  1530, 
tarrving  at  Coburg,  he  passed  away  the  time  in 
working  over  tlie  fables  (jf  jlisop. 

His  family  life  w;is  tilled  up  with  cheerful  and 
patient  experiences.  It  was  very  human ;  and 
his  letters  and  table-talk  present  us  a  charming 
picture  of  his  love  for  liis  wife  and  children,  and 
ins  thought  for  their  wants.  ["He  was  eminently 
.social  in  his  disposition,"  says  Dr.  .Schaff,  in  the 
American  Cyclopfcilia," a,  great  lover  of  music  and 
poetry,  an  affectionate  husband  and  f.ither.  He 
liked"  to  play  with  his  children,  and  to  gather 
wit.'  them  in  childlike  joy  around  the  Christmas- 
itee.    In  his  letters  to  his  wife  and  friends,  he  lays 


open  his  whole  heart,  and  gives  free  vent  to  his 
native  wit,  harmless  humor,  and  childlike  play- 
fulness and  drollery."]  In  the  company  of  others 
he  shared  heartily  in  festivity ;  but  his  modera- 
tion in  eating  was  a  source  of  constant  surprise  to 
Melanchthon,  who  was  not  able  to  reconcile  it  with 
the  large  ju'oportions  of  his  body.  His  conversa- 
tion was  always  full  of  salt,  perhaps  sometimes 
seeming  vulgar  to  a  delicate  ear.  Melanchthon, 
in  his  funeral  oration,  eulogized  his  dignified  tear- 
ing under  all  circumstances,  his  sincerity  of  heart, 
his  honesty  of  speech.  He  was  always  honorable, 
just,  pure,  and  amiable. 

So  far  as  liis  religious  experience  is  concerned, 
Luther  always  felt  himself  to  be  in  the  midst  of 
an  intense  spiritual  conflict,  and  yet  was  always 
assured  of  the  plan  of  salvation,  and  stood  un- 
daunted and  unanxious  in  the  midst  of  external 
perils.  He  felt  that  he  was  in  a  constant  hand- 
to-hand  struggle  with  the  Devil ;  yet  he  was  always 
confident  that  the  De^■il  could  not  harm  him,  for 
he  whom  the  Devil  and  the  world  hated  so  in- 
tensely, he  used  to  say,  must  surely  please  Christ. 
Ambitious  motives  never  prevail  with  him.  From 
the  beginning  to  the  end,  it  is  the  consciousness 
of  a  vocation  revealed  to  him  from  above  which 
determines  him  to  work  and  to  struggle;  and  into 
the  carrying-out  of  that  vocation  he  threw  his 
whole  being.  He  could  leave  the  results  of  his 
work  to  prove  to  the  credidous  that  it  was  really 
of  (iod.  He  himself  was  confident  of  it  before 
the  results  appeared. 

[Luther  stands  forth  as  the  great  national  hero 
of  the  German  people,  and  the  ideal  of  German 
life.  Perhaps  no  other  cultivated  nation  has  a 
hero  who  so  completely  expresses  the  national 
ideal.  King  Arthur  comes,  perhaps,  nearest  to 
Luther  amongst  the  English-speaking  race.  He 
was  great  in  his  private  life,  as  well  as  in  his 
public  career.  His  home  is  the  ideal  of  cheei"- 
fulness  and  song.  He  was  great  in  thought,  and 
great  in  action.  He  was  a  severe  student,  and 
yet  .skilled  in  the  knowledge  of  men'.  He  was 
humble  in  the  recollection  of  the  designs  and 
power  of  a  personal  .Satan,  yet  bold  and  defiant 
in  the  mid.st  of  all  perils.  lie  could  beard  the 
Papacy  and  imperial  councils,  yet  he  fell  tru.st- 
iugly  before  the  cross.  He  was  never  weary,  and 
there  seemed  to  be  no  limit  to  his  creative 
energy.  Thus  Luther  stands  before  the  German 
people  as  the  type  of  (iermau  cliaracter.  Goethe. 
Frederick  the  tireat,  and  all  others,  in  tliis  regard, 
pale  before  the  (Jerman  Iteformcr.  He  embodies 
in  his  .single  person  the  boldness  of  the  battle- 
field, the  song  of  the  musician,  the  joy  and  care 
of  the  parent,  the  skill  of  the  writer,  the  force 
of  the  orator,  and  the  sincerity  of  rugged  man- 
hood with  the  humility  of  the  Christian. 

.\s  there  is  a  constant  danger  that  the  Ger- 
mans will  deify  Luther,  so,  on  (he  other  hand, 
for  a  long  time,  the  English  race  failed  to  recog- 
nize Ills  true  worth,  and  to  appreciate  the  nuanli- 
ness  of  his  character.  .Such  wi'itM's  as  Coleridge, 
.lulius  Hare,  and  Carlyl<',  have  given  to  us  a 
better  and  truer  conception  and  admiration  of 
liim.  The  latti^r  says  of  him,  "  1  will  call  this 
Luther  a  triu;  great  man,  —  great  in  intellect,  in 
courage,  affection,  and  integrity;  one  of  our  most 
lovable  and  precious  men.  ...  A  right  spiritual 
hero  and  prophet,  and,  more,  a  true  .>iiin  of  na- 


LUTHER. 


1369  LUTHER'S  TWO  CATECHISMS. 


ture  and  fact,  for  whom  these  centuries,  and 
many  that  are  to  come  yet,  will  be  thankful  to 
Heaven." 

Luther's  hymns  deserve  a  special  mention. 
He  not  only  restored  sacred  song  to  the  church, 
but  was  himself  a  hymn-writer.  The  greatest 
of  his  hymns  is  Bin'  feste  Burg  ist  unser  O'oll, 
written  in  1529,  upon  the  basis  of  P.s.  xlvi. 
Miss  Catherine  Winkworth.  Carlyle,  and  others, 
have  rendered  it  into  English.  Carlyle's  transla- 
tion — "  A  safe  stronghold  our  God  is  still  "  — 
has  succeeded  best  in  retaining  the  tone  of  the 
original.  This  hymn  is  Luther  in  song.  It  is 
pitched  in  the  very  key  of  the  man.  Rugged 
and  majestic,  trustful  in  God,  and  confident,  it 
was  the  defiant  trumpet-blast  of  the  Reformation, 
speaking  out,  to  the  powers  in  the  eartli  and 
under  the  earth,  an  all-conquering  conviction  of 
divine  vocation  and  empowerment.  The  world 
has  many  sacred  songs  of  exquisite  tenderness 
and  unalterable  trust,  and  also  some  bold  and 
awe-inspiring  lyrics,  like  Dies  irae ,  but  this  one 
of  Luther's  is  matchless  for  its  warlike  tone,  its 
rugged  strength,  and  martial-inspiring  ring.] 

Lit.  —  Luther's  Collected  Woris  have  appeared 
in  si-^c  editions,  —  at  Wittenberg  (15.58),  in  12 
German  and  .S  Latin  vols. ;  Jena  (1555-58),  in  8 
German  and  5  Latin  vols.  (2  additional  vols,  ap- 
pearing in  Eisleben,  1564-65) ;  Altenburg  (1661- 
64),  in  10  German  vols.  (1  additional  vol.,  Halle, 
1702);  Leipzig  (1729-40),  in  2:!  German  vols.; 
Halle  (1740-53),  in  24  German  vols.  ;  Erlan- 
gen  and  Erfurt  (1826-73),  in  67  German  (com- 
plete) and  33  Latin  vols.  In  this  edition  the 
oldest  texts  have  been  consulted.  It  is  the  best. 
De  Wette  and  Seidemann  have  edited  Luther's 
Lettera,  in  6  vols.  (1825-56) ;  Fbrstemann  and 
Bindseil,  his  Table-Talk,  in  4  vols.  (1844-48); 
and  Bindseil,  his  Colloquia,  in  3  vols.  (1863-66). 
A  woi'thy  edition  of  Luther's  complete  works  has 
just  been  made  possible  by  the  munificent  liber- 
ality of  the  Prussian  Government.  For  the  rich 
literature  on  Luther's  life,  see  Vogel:  BihUotli. 
biograph.  Lutherana,  1851.  Amongst  the  many 
biographies,  that  of  JIeurer  (3d  ed.,  Dresden, 
1870)  has  the  advantage  that  it  draws  directly 
from  Luther's  letters.  That  of  Jlirgens,  reach- 
ing down  to  1517  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1846-47),  is 
very  rich  and  full,  but  lacks  definiteness  and 
point.  The  work  of  J.  KiisTUX  —  Martin  Luther's. 
Leben.  u.  s.  Schriften,  Elberfeld,  1875,2  vols,  [and 
by  the  same,  Luther's  Lehen,  Leipzig,  1882,  1  vol.] 
—  may  be  termed  the  first  attempt  to  use  the  exist- 
ing material  [and  is  the  best  biography].  See  also 
KiJSTLiN  :  Luther's  Theolorjie,  etc.,  Stuttgart,  18G3, 
2  vols.  ;  LoMMATzscH  :  Lather's  Lehre  v.  ethisch 
religidsem  Standpunkt  aus,  Beilin,  1879.  [Other 
lives  of  Luther,  by  Melanchthon  (Latin,  1546), 
Matiiesius  (1565),  Selneckeu  (1575),  Keil 
(1746),  Ukekt  (1817),  Stange  (1835),  Pfizer 
(1836;  Eng.  trans.,  London,  1840),  Konig  and 
Gelzer  (1851;  Eng.  trans,  by  Hare  and  Miss 
Winkworth,  Xew  York,  18.5'7),  Audi.n-  (Paris, 
1839.  3  vols. :  Eng.  trans.,  1841),  Baunas  Sears 
(Phila.,  1850),  Tullocii  (in  his  Leaders  of  the 
Refoi-mation),  Peitt  u.  Petersen  (Leipzig,  1883). 
See  also  Carlyle:  ]\f<irtin  Luther,  in  Here)es  and 
Hero  Worship:  Froude:  Erasmus  and  Luther,  in 
Short  Essays  on  Oreat  .Subjects;  August  Baur: 
1/.  Lather,  Tiibingen,  1878 ;  Herixg  :  D.  Mi/stik 


Luthers,  Leipzig,  1879;  Rietschel:  M.  Luther  u. 
Ignatius  v.  Loijoki,  Wittenberg,  1879 ;  Fasten- 
RATH  :  Luther  im  Hjjiegel  spanischer  T^oesie,  Leipzig, 
2d  edition,  1881;  IIasack:  Dr  M.  Luther  u.  d. 
reiigiiise  Literatur  seiner  Zeii  bis  zum  J  ,  1620,  Re- 
gensburg,  1881.  The  best  vindication  of  Luther 
in  the  English  language  is  by  Archdeacon  Hare, 
in  a  long  note  to  his  Mission  of  the  Comforter  (1846), 
afterwards  separately  printed  (1854)  —  English 
translations  of  Luther's  Works  :  The  Bondage  of 
the  Will,  etc.,  London,  1823 ;  Commentary  on  Ihe 
First  Tioenty-tivo  Psalms,  London,  1820,  2  vols.; 
Sermons,  New  York,  1829 ;  Commentary  on  Gala- 
tians,  London,  1838;  Select  Treatises  (liy  B.\rnas 
Sears),  Andover,  1846,  Tahle-Talk  (liy'WiLLiAM 
Hazlitt),  London,  1857;  The  Epistles  of  St.  Petet 
and  St.  Jude  (by  E.  II.  Gillett),  ^ew  York, 
18.59.]  .T.  KOSTLrN. 

LUTHER'S  TWO  CATECHISMS —  the  larger 
one  in  the  form  of  a  continuous  exposition,  anJ 
the  smaller  one  arranged  in  questions  and  answers 
—  both  appeared  in  1529;  but  the  author's  prepa- 
rations for  them  date  back  to  the  very  beginning 
of  his  reformatory  activity.  In  1518  Johanu 
Schneider  collected  and  publi-shed  the  various  ex- 
positions of  the  Lord's  Prayer  which  Luther  ha(f 
given  in  his  sermons  and  lectures ;  and  Luthei 
himself  was  thereby  led  to  publish  his  exposition 
in  an  authentic  edition.  In  the  same  year  he 
published  his  Latin  exposition  of  the  Decalogue, 
and  in  1520  these  sjjoradic  efforts  came  to  a  pre- 
liminary consummation  in  his  Eyn  kurczform  tier 
zehnen  gepoth  .  Eyn  kurcz  form  des  Glaubens  ,  Eyn 
kurczformdes  Vatter  U users.  After  1524  Luther's 
attention  was  very  strongly  drawn  to  the  school. 
His  An  die  Radherrn  alter  stedte  deutsches  lands: 
dass  sie  christliche  .<!chulen  auffrichten  und  halten 
sollen  caused  many  evangelical  schools  to  be 
founded;  and  those  schools  could  not  fail  to  incul- 
cate the  expediency,  not  to  say  the  indispensable- 
ness,  of  a  short  but  sound  and  thoroughly  reliable 
handbook  in  the  elements  of  true  Christianity. 
Finally  his  tour  of  visitation  through  Saxony,  in 
1528,  brought  the  matter  to  its  consummation,  by 
showing  him  how  sorely,  in  many  cases,  both  the 
ministers  and  the  congregations  stood  in  need  of 
such  a  book  ;  and  in  March,  next  year,  the  large 
Catechism  ajipeared ;  in  July,  the  small, — both 
in  German. 

The  Catechisms  of  Luther,  however,  are  not  the 
first  attempts  of  the  kind.  On  the  contrary,  they 
had  many  predecessors, — by  Brenz,  Althammer, 
Lachmann,  and  others;  but  they  soon  took  the 
lead.  They  were  immediately  translated  into 
Latin  (the  large,  by  Lonicer  in  ^lay,  and  by  Ob- 
sopous  in  July ;  the  small,  by  Sauromannus  in 
September) ;  and  the  latter  soon  became  an  al- 
most symbolical  book  in  the  Lutheran  churches. 
It  was  written  after  the  large  one,  and  is,  indeed, 
the  ripe  fruit  of  many  exertions,  the  full  expres- 
sion after  many  trials.  It  is  said  to  be,  next  to 
the  Bible,  the  most  extensively  used  book  ever 
written.  It  consists  of  (I.)  The  Ten  Connnand- 
nients,  (II.)  The  Creed,  (III.)  The  Lord's  Prayer, 
(IV.)  The  Sacrament  of  Holy  Baptism,  and  (V.) 
The  Sacrament  of  the  Altar,  to  which  is  added, 
m  the  editions  since  1564,  a  sixth  part.  Confession 
,  ;iiid  Absolution,  or  the  Power  of  the  Keys,  whose 
'  precise  authorship  is  a  little  uncertain,  though 
•  substantially  it  dates  from  Luther  himself,  and  is 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


1:370 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


found  in  the  edition  of  1531.  There  are,  indeed, 
■with  respect  to  the  relation  between  the  editio 
princeps  and  tlie  next  revised  and  augmented 
editions,  several  nice  questions  of  details  not  yet 
fully  answered ;  for  which  see  C.  A.  G.  v.  Zez- 
sciiwiTz:  St/sfem  d.  chrht.  kirch.  Kateclt.,  Leipzig, 
]s6:i-6f).  -2  vol-;.  r.  a.  G.  von  ZEZSCinVITZ. 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH.     In  Europe.     It  is  the 

oldest,  and  probably  the  largest  also,  of  the  evan- 
gelical denominations  which  sprang  from  the  Ref- 
ormation of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  was  called 
after  the  great  leader  of  the  German  Reforma- 
tion (first,  in  derision,  by  Roman  Catholics,  then 
by  the  followers  of  Luther,  although  he  himself 
protested  against  a  sectarian  use  of  his  name). 
Its  usual  title  is  '•  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  ; " 
"  evangelical  "  being  the  name;  •' Lutheran,"  the 
surname.  In  Prussia,  and  other  countries  of  Ger- 
many where  the  union  between  Lutherans  and 
Reformed  has  been  introduced  (since  1817),  the 
name  "  Lutheran "  has  been  abandoned,  as  a 
church  title,  for  "  Evangelical,"  or  "  Evangelical 
United "  (evaiKjidi.-ich-rmirl).  It  has  its  home  in 
Germany  (where  it  outnumbers  all  other  Pi'otestant 
denominations),  and  in  Scandinavia  (Denmark, 
Sweden,  Norway),  where  it  is  the  established,  or 
national  church :  it  extends  to  the  Baltic  Prov- 
inces of  Russia,  and  follows  the  German  emigTa- 
tion  and  the  German  language  to  other  countries, 
especially  to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  now 
one  of  the  most  numerous  denominations.  (See 
next  article.)  Its  total  (nominal)  membership, 
including  the  Lutherans  in  the  union  churches,  is 
variously  put  down  at  thirty  millions  (by  Iloltz- 
mann  and  Zopffel,  in  Lexicon  fur  Theol.  nnd 
Kirchenwesen,  1882,  p.  458)  and  at  forty  millions 
(by  Ur.  Krauth,  in  Johnson's  Cijclopcedia,  iii.  158). 
I.  lIisioKV.  —  It  may  be  divided  into  five  pe- 
riods. (1)  The  penti'costal  or  formative  period 
of  the  Reformation,  from  the  promulgation  of 
Luther's  ninety-iive  theses,  in  1517,  to  the  pub- 
lication of  the  Book  of  Concord,  1580.  (2)  The 
period  of  polemical  orthodoxy,  in  which  the  doc- 
trinal system  of  the  church  was  .scholastically 
defined  and  analyzed  in  opposition  to  Romanism, 
Calvinism,  and  the  milder  and  more  liberal  Me- 
lanchthonian  tyi>e  of  Lutheraiiism  (as  represented 
by  Calixtus),  from  1580  to  about  1700.  (;5)  The 
period  of  pietism  (.Spener,  d.  1705;  and  Francko, 
d.  1727),  or  a  revival  of  practical  piety  in  conflict 
with  dead  orthodoxy,  from  1089  (when  Francke 
began  his  Cullcijia  ji/nhbihlira  in  Halle)  to  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  centm-y.  The  Pietistic 
movement  is  analogous  to  the  Methodist  revival 
in  the  Church  of  England,  but  kept  within  the 
limits  of  the  Lutheran  state  churches,  ami  did 
not  result  in  a  secession.  (4)  The  [u'riod  of 
rationalism,  which  gradually  invaded  the  uni- 
versities, pulpits,  and  highest  judicatories,  and 
effected  a  complete  revolution  in  theology  and 
cliurcl)  life,  to  sucli  an  extent  tliat  llie  few  Mo- 
ravian communities  were  for  some  time  almost 
the  only  places  of  refuge  for  genuine  piety  in 
Germany.  (5)  The  period  of  revival  of  evangeli- 
cal theologj'  and  religion  at  the  third  centennial 
celebration  of  the  Reformation,  aiul  the  publica- 
tion of  Clans  Harms'  ninety-five  theses  against 
the  rationalistic  apostasy,  A.l>.  1817.  In  the  .same 
year  Prussia  took  tli(!  lead  in  the  union  movi-- 
ment  which  brought  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 


confessions  under  one  system  of  government,  but 
called  forth  the  "  Old  Lutheran "  re-action  and 
secession.  Since  then  there  has  been  a  constant 
conflict  between  evangelical  and  rationalistic  ten- 
dencies in  the  Lutheran  and  the  United  Evangeli- 
cal churches  of  Germany. 

On  the  history  of  the  Lutheran  Reformation, 
see  the  third  volume  of  Gieseler  (the  fourth  in 
the  English  translation  of  II  B.  Smith)  and  the 
special  works  of  Marheineke  and  Kahnis ;  on 
the  doctrinal  controversies  which  led  to  the 
formation  of  the  Formula  of  Concord,  Plauck, 
Heppe,  Dorner;  on  the  Lutheran  divines  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  Tholuck ;  on  the  whole  his- 
tory, the  respective  sections  in  the  compendious 
church  histories  of  Ilase.  Guericke,  Kurtz,  and  H. 
Schmid;  also  the  arts.  Luther,  Melanxhthon, 
etc. 

II.  The  Lutheran  Creed  .\xd  Theology. 
—  The  Lutheran  Church  acknowledges  the  three 
oecumenical  creeds  (the  Apostles',  the  Xicene,  and 
the  Athanasian),  which  it  holds  in  common  with 
other  orthodox  churches,  and,  besides,  six  specific 
confessions,  which  separate  it  from  other  churches; 
namely:  (1)  The  Augsburg  Confession,  drawn 
up  by  Melanchthon,  and  presented  to  the  Augs- 
burg Diet  in  15.30  (afterwards  altered  by  the 
author  in  the  tenth  article,  on  the  Lord's  Supper, 
1540).  This  is  the  fundamental  and  most  widely 
accepted  confession  of  that  church  .  some  branches 
acknowledge  no  other  as  binding.  (2)  The  Apolo- 
gy of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  also  by  jNlelanch- 
thon  (1530).  (3)  and  (4)  Two  Catechisms  of 
Luther  (1529),  a  Larger  and  Smaller-  the  latter, 
for  children  and  catechumens,  is,  next  to  Luther's 
German  version  of  the  Bible,  his  most  useful  and 
best  known  book.  (5)  The  Articles  of  Smalcald, 
by  Luther,  1537  (strongly  anti-papal).  (0)  The 
Formula  of  Concord,  prepared  by  six  Lutheran 
divines  (1577)  for  the  settlement  of  the  Melanch- 
thonian  or  synergistic,  the  Crypto-Cah'inistic  or 
sacramentarian,  and  other  doctrinal  controversies 
which  agitated  the  Lutheran  Church  after  the 
death  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon.  These  nine 
symbolical  books  (including  the  three  oeeumenical 
creeds)  were  ofiicially  j>id)lisned  by  order  of  lOlector 
Augustus  of  Saxony,  in  Latin  and  German,  at 
Leipzig  and  Dresden,  in  1580,  under  the  title 
Concordia,  usually  called  The  Book  of  Concord. 
The  best  editions,  next  to  the  rditio  jirincrjKs,  are 
by  J.  G.  Walch  (17.50),  d-  F.  Muiler  (1847,  3d  ed. 
18!)9)  ;  and  the  best  English  translation  by  Pro- 
fessor liemy  E.  Jacobs  (of  Pennsylvania  College, 
Gettysburg,  Penn.),  under  the  title  Tlie  Book  of 
Concord ;  or,  the  Si/inljolical  Books  of  the  Einngcli- 
cnl  Lutheran  Church.  Translated  from  the  Origi- 
nal Lanyuaqes,  ivith  Notes.  Philadelphia  (G.  W. 
Frederick),"  1882  (071  pages). 

Compare,  on  the  Lutheian  symbols,  J.  B.  Caup- 
zov :  Isayoge  in  libros  Eccl.  Luth.  si/mh.,  Lips., 
1005,  etc.  ;  J.  G.  Walch  :  Introduclio  in  I.  Eccl. 
Luth.  itijmh.,  Acnii,  1732;  Kollner:  Si/mLolik  der 
ccang.  luth.  Kirche,  Hamburg,  1837;  Ch.  P. 
KuAUTH  :  7'he  Conservatire  Ueformation  and  its 
Theologi/,  as  represented  in  the  A  ugsbnrg  Cotfession, 
etc.,  Pliiladelphia,  1871  ;  Samuel  Spreciier  (of 
the  General  Synod)  •  The  O'round-icork  of  a  Si/stcm 
of  Evangelical  Luth.  Theologi/,  Philadelphia,  1879 
(pp.  28-40);  also  SciiaeI'- :  Creeds  of  Christendom 
(3d  ed.,  1881),  vol.  i.  220-353,  and  vol.  ii.  1-189. 


1 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


1371 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH, 


On  tlie  three  diiferent  bi-aiidies  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  ill  the  United  States,  as  regards  tlie  bind- 
ing authoritj'  of  the  symbolical  books,  see  next 
Virticle. 

III.  Relation  to  tiik  Reformkd  Cnuitcii. 
—  There  have  always  been  two  tendencies  in  tlie 
Lutheran  Church  in  its  relation  to  the  lleforined 
or  Calviiiistic  churches,  —  one  rigid  and  exclusive, 
wliich  is  represented  by  the  Formula  Concordia', 
the  Lutheran  scholastics  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  "new  Lutheran"  school  in  Germany; 
the  other  moderate  and  conciliatory,  represented 
by  the  altered  Augsburg  Confession  of  1540,  by 
Rlelanchthon  (in  liis  later  period,  after  the  death 
of  Luther),  Calixtus,  John  Ariidt,  Spener,  Francke, 
Arnold,  Mosheim,  Hengel,  the  Suabian  Lutherans, 
and  those  modern  Lutheran  divines  who  sym- 
pathize with  the  Union,  and  regard  the  differences 
between  the  two  confessions  as  unessential,  and 
insufficient  to  justify  separation,  and  exclusion 
from  comniunion  at  the  Lord's  table.  The  Luther- 
an Church  is,  next  to  the  Church  of  England,  the 
most  conservative  of  the  Protestant  denomina 
tions,  and  retained  many  usages  and  ceremonies 
of  the  middle  ages  which  the  more  radical  zeal 
of  Zwingli,  Calvin,  and  Knox  threw  overboard  as 
unscriptural  corruptions. 

The  strict  Lutheran  creed  differs  from  the  Re- 
formed, or  Calviiiistic,  in  four  points  (as  detailed 
in  the  semi-.synibolical  Saxon  Visitation  Articles 
of  1592)  ;  namely,  (1)  Bapti.smal  regeneration,  and 
the  ordinary  necessity  of  baptism  for  salvation ; 
(2)  The  real  presence  of  Christ's  body  and  blood 
"in,  with,  and  under,"  the  bread  and  w-ine  (during 
the  sacramental  fruition),  usually  called  by  Eng- 
lish writers  "consubstantiation,"  in  distinction 
from  the  Roman-Catholic  "  transubstantiation ; " 
but  the  term  is  not  used  in  the  Lutheran  symbols, 
and  is  rejected  by  the  Lutheran  divines,  as  well  as 
the  term  "impanation;"  body  and  blood  are  not 
mixed  with,  nor  locally  included  in,  but  sacra- 
mentally  and  mysteriously  united  with  the  ele- 
ments; (3)  The  communicatio  idiomatum  in  the 
doctrine  of  Christ's  person,  whereby  the  attributes 
of  the  divine  nature  are  attributed  to  his  human 
nature,  so  that  ubiquilij  (a  conditional  omnipres- 
ence) is  ascribed  to  the  body  of  Christ,  enabling 
it  to  be  really  and  truly  (though  not  locally  and 
carnally)  present  wlierever  the  communion  is  cele- 
brated ;  (4)  The  unicersal  vocation  of  all  men  to 
salvation,  with  the  possibility  of  a  total  and  final 
fall  from  grace ;  yet  the  Formula  Concordiiie 
teaches  at  the  same  time,  with  Luther  (/>e  serco 
firbitrio)  the  total  depravity  and  slavery  of  tlie 
human  will,  and  an  unconditional  predestination 
of  the  elect  to  everlasting  life.  It  is,  therefore, 
a  great  mistake  to  identify  the  Lutlieran  system 
with  the  later  Arminian  theory.  Melanchthon's 
synergism  may  be  said  to  have  anticipated  Ar- 
ininianisin,  but  it  was  condemned  by  the  Formula 
•of  Concord. 

Lit.  —  (1)  Lutheran  theologians  of  the  strict 
and  exclusive  type.  Chemnitz  {Loci  Theologici, 
1591),  John  Gerhard  (Loci  Tkeolot/ici,  ed.  Cotta, 
1762-81),  IIutter  (1610),  IIafenreffer  (1609), 
Calov  (165.5-77),  Konig  (1665),  Quenstedt 
(1685),  Baier  (1686),  Hollaz  (1750),  Philippi 
<of  Rostock,  2d  ed.,  1864-82,  6  vols.),  Luthardt 
{Kompendium  der  Dogmatik;  1865,  6th  ed.,  1882), 
Thomasius    (a    Keuoticist,    Christi  Person    und 


Werk,  1853-61,  3  vols.),  IIeinkich  Sciimid  (trans- 
lated from  the  5th  ed.  by  Charles  A.  Hay  and 
Henry  E.  Jacobs,  Philadeljihia,  1876),  Kaiinis 
(Lulh.  Dof/malit,  lSUl-68,  3  vols.,  new  ed.,  some- 
what iiKiditieil,  1874,  1875,  in  2  vols.).  It  should 
be  noted,  however,  that  Tliomasius  (in  his  Chris- 
tology),  \'on  Hofmaiin  (in  the  doctrine  of  atone- 
ment), and  Kahilis  (on  the  Lord's  Supper),  are  not 
strictly  orthodox,  and  depart  from  the  Formula 
of  Concord. 

Compare  also,  for  a  merely  liistorical  statement 
of  the  system  of  Lutheran  orthodoxv,  IIask's 
Ilutterus  Redivivus  (Leipzig,  1821),  11th  ed.,  1868), 
an  excellent  compendium  for  students.  Hase 
himself  is  a  moderate  rationalist,  and  gives  his 
own  views  in  his  Lehrbuch  der  eo.  Doymatik,  1826, 
6th  ed.,  1870. 

(2)  Lutheran  divines  friendly  to  union  with 
the  Reformed,  and  iraluied  more  or  less  with  tlio 
spirit  of  Melanchthon.  Twesten  (Dor/tiiatik  der 
cv.  luth.  Kirche,  1826-29,  4th  ed.,  1837,  not  com- 
pleted), Knapp  (1827,  etc.,  2  vols.,  English  tran.s- 
lationby  L.  Woods,  Andover,  1831),  K.  J.  Nitzsch 
(System  der  christi.  Lehre,  1829,  6tli  ed.,  1851), 
Martensen  (Christian  Doymatics,  very  fresh  and 
genial,  1849,  English  trans.,  Edinburgh,  1866). 

The  great  dogmatic  works  of  Rothe,  Jul.  Miiller 
(on  the  doctrine  of  sin),  and  Dorner,  are  not  con- 
fessional. The  Lutheran  Church  of  the  present 
century  is  exceedingly  fertile  in  all  deiiartments 
of  theological  science,  but  only  a  small  number 
of  modern  divines  adhere  to  the  old  Lutheran 
system. 

(3)  On  the  general  difference  between  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Confessions,  see  Gobel  : 
Die  reliyiiise  Eiyenthiimlickkeit  der  luth.  und  reform. 
Kirche,  1837  ;  Schneckenburger  :  Ver/jliichende 
Darstelluny  des  luther.  und  reform.  Lchrbey riffs  (very 
acute  and  discriminating),  1855;  Jul.  Mijller: 
Lutheri  et  Caloini  sentenlice  de  Sacra  Coena  inter  se 
comparatce,  1870,  and  other  works  quoted  in  Schaff's 
Creeds  of  Christendom,  i.  211. 

IV.  Ritual  and  Worship. —  The  foundation 
of  the  ritual  of  the  Lutheran  Church  was  laid  in 
Lnther's  work.  Von  onlenuny  goltis  dienst  ynn  der 
yemeyne  ("  The  Order  of  Service  in  the  Church," 
Wittenberg,  1523),  and  his  Latin  (Formula  missce, 
1523)  and  German  missals  (1526).  It  was  his 
intention  to  retain  all  that  was  good  in  the  service 
of  the  Catholic  Church,  while  discarding  all  uii- 
evangelical  doctrines  and  practices.  Thus,  m  his 
Latin  and  German  litanies  (Latina  litania  cor- 
rccta;  Die  verdeutschte  Lilaney),  which  were  in  use 
in  1529  at  Wittenberg,  he  made  certain  correc- 
tions and  additions.  'The  Lutheran  Church  uses 
a  liturgy.  The  lirst  complete  form,  or  Ayende, 
was  that  of  the  Duchy  of  Prussia,  1525.  There  is 
no  authoritative  form  for  the  whole  church.  A 
movement  was  set  on  foot  in  1817,  by  Frederick 
William  III.  of  Prussia,  to  introduce  a  uniform 
Ayende;  but  it  created  intense  excitement,  and 
caused  the  Old  Lutlieran  secession.  The  various 
states  of  Germany  have  their  own  Ayenden,  which 
differ,  however,  only  in  minor  particulars.  Luther 
introduced  the  use  of  the  vernacular  into  the 
public  services,  restored  preaching  to  its  proper 
place,  and  insisted  upon  the  participation  of  the 
congregation  in  the  services,  declaring  "  common 
prayer  exceedingly  useful  and  healthful "  (valde 
ulilis  et  salularis).    lie  rejected  auricular  confession, 


LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 


1372 


LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 


as  practiserl  and  required  in  the  Catholic  Church, 
but  advocated  private  and  vohmtary  confession. 
This  practice  lias  been  piostly  given  up.  The 
rite  of  exorcism,  ■which  the  Reformed  churches 
abandoned,  was  retained  and  recommended  by 
Luther  and  iMelanchthon.  Hesshusius,  in  1583,  was 
the  first  to  propose  its  omission  :  and  it  has  since 
fallen  into  oblivion  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  The 
popular  use  of  hymns  was  introduced  by  Luther, 
who  was  himself  an  enthusiastic  singer,  and  by 
his  o^ni  Inmms  became  the  father  of  German 
church  hymuody,  which  is  richer  than  any  other. 
(See  Hymxology,)  Congi'egational  singing  con- 
tinues to  form  one  of  the  principal  features  in  tlie 
public  services.  The  gi'eat  festivals  of  the  church 
year — such  as  Christmas,  Easter,  Pentecost,  the 
Days  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  etc.  —  are  observed 
witli  religious  sen-ices.  The  Reformation  is  com- 
memorated on  the  31st  of  October.  Pictures  are 
admitted  into  the  churches. 

_V.  GovEHNMEXT.  —  The  doctrinal  develop- 
ment of  the  Lutheran  Church  was  matured  much 
sooner  than  its  organization  and  polity.  Luther 
was  not  an  organizer,  like  Calvin,  or,  at  a  later 
time,  John  Wesley.  The  necessity  of  organiza- 
tion, however,  was  deeply  felt;  and  in  1529  a 
visitation  of  the  churches  of  Saxony  was  prose- 
cuted, and  "  superintendents  "  appointed  for  the 
oversight  of  the  congregations  and  schools.  The 
Ordei'  of  Discipline  of  the  church  in  Saxony  be- 
came the  model  for  other  books  of  discipline.  The 
priesthood  of  all  believers  is  a  fundamental  doc- 
trine, and  the  parity  of  the  clergy  is  recognized. 
In  Sweden,  when  the  whole  country  passed  over 
to  the  Lutheran  comnnniion,  the  Catholic  bishops 
retained  their  titles  (including  that  of  archbishop). 
The  validity  of  the  Swedish  orders,  from  the 
stand-point  of  the  Cliurch  of  England,  is  a  matter 
in  dispute.  The  Danish  Church  likewise  retains 
the  title  of  "bishops."  They  have  no  claim, 
liowever,  to  apostolical  succession.  The  first 
bishops  under  the  new  Danish  regime  were  called 
"superintendents"  (1536),  and  were  consecrated 
by  Bugenhagen.  In  Germany,  church  govern- 
ment is  executed  by  consistories  (composed  of 
ministers  and  laymen)  and  superintendents. 
These  officers  are  appointed  by  the  government, 
examine  candidates  for  the  ministry,  appoint  and 
remove  ]ia.stors,  fix  salaries,  etc.  Li  tii-rniany,  as 
in  Denmark  and  .Sweden,  the  Lutheran  Church 
is  under  the  governmental  patronage  of  the  vari- 
ous states ;  and  the  sujiport  of  the  congregations, 
and  the  construction  of  church  edifices,  are  pro- 
vided for  out  of  the  national  revenues.  The 
supi'eme  consistory  of  Prussia  since  1852  has 
been  composed,  in  part  of  Lutheran,  and  in  part 
of  Reformed  members.  See  Riciiter  :  D.  ev(m<j. 
Kirche.uordiiniKjen  lies  16ten  Jnhrhunderls,  2  vols., 
Weimar,  1810;  Oesch.  d.  eeang.  Kirchenverfassmig 
in  DeulxchUtnd,  Leipzig,  1851.;  Lehrhuch  d.  knihol. 
u  evany.  Kirchenrechls  (re\-ised  liy  Do^■E),  Leip- 
zig, 8tli  ed.,  1877 ;  Leciilek  :  Gesch.  d.  presli;/!. 
u.  synodal.  Verfassunij,  Leiden,  18.54;  HlNSClnus : 
Kirchenrecht  d.  Kalholiken  und  Protestanlcn  in 
Deulscldand,  3  vols.,  Rerlin,  180.0-80;  TilUDi- 
ciiUM :  Deulsche.i  KirchcnrcchI,  2  vols.,  Leipzig, 
1877-78;  Fhiedberg:  Lehrhuch  d.  kalhol.  und 
cvanij.  Kirchenrechls,  Leipzig,  1879. — On  the  gen- 
eral subject,  see  the  arts.  Lutheran  Church  by  C. 
P.  Khauth,  in  Johnson's  Cyclopedia,  Appletons' 


Cyclopedia,  and   in   M'Clintock  and    Strong, 
V.  573  sqq.  PHILIP  SCHAFF. 

LUTHERAN  CHURCH  (the  Evangelical).  In 
the  United  States.  —  Early  History'.  Lutherans 
were  among  the  first  European  settlers  on  this 
continent.  They  multiplied  in  a  variable  ratio 
for  two  centuries;  but  for  the  last  fifty  years  the 
progress  of  this  church  has  been  remarkably  rapid, 
being  promoted  both  by  tlie  ordinary  and  natural 
gi'owth,  and  by  the  large  and  constant  influx  of 
Lutherans  from  Germany  and  Scandinavia.  It 
now  ranks  third  or  fourth  in  ninnbers  among 
the  Protestant  commimities,  although  in  national 
jiosition  and  public  influence  it  has  not  attained 
the  eminence  occupied  by  other  denominations 
which  in  numerical  strength  fall  much  below  it. 
This  fact  is  due,  among  other  causes,  to  the  want 
of  efficient  organization,  to  the  extreme  conserva- 
tism of  the  German  mind,  and  especially  to  the 
continued  dominance  of  foreign  languages,  but 
few  exclusively  English  Lutheran  churches  hav- 
ing been  thus  far  established  in  the  principal 
cities. 

The  earliest  representatives  of  Lutheranism  in 
this  country  came  from  Holland.  They  formed 
a  portion  of  the  first  Dutch  colony,  which  in  1621 
took  possession  of  the  territory  now  comprised 
in  the  city  of  New  York.  Holding  to  a  confes- 
sion that  was  at  variance  with  that  of  the  Nether- 
land  Reformed  Church  ('although  never  sympa- 
thizing with  the  Arminians),  these  Lutherans 
suffered  persecution  from  religious  intolerance, 
which  was  inflicted  by  the  local  colonial  govern- 
ment, but  instigated  by  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties of  Amsterdam.  They  never  enjoyed  the 
liberty  of  having  their  own  worship,  or  a  pastor 
of  their  faith,  until  the  establishment  of  British 
authority  in  1604.  The  first  clergyman  permit- 
ted to  serve  them  was  the  Rev.  Jacobus  Fabri- 
cius,  who  arrived  in  1669.  Their  fir.st  house  of 
worship  was  erected  in  1671,  a  rude  structure, 
which  was  subsequently  replaced  by  a  more  sub- 
stantial edifice  at  the  corner  of  Broadway  and 
Rector  Streets,  where  worship  was  for  a  long 
time  conducted  "exclusively  in  the  Holland  and 
English  languages,"  although  in  cour,se  of  time 
(here  were  considerable  accessions  of  German  and 
French  Lutheran  colonists. 

The  second  distinct  body  of  Lutherans  arrived 
upon  these  shores  from  Sweden,  in  1630,  the  re- 
sult of  a  jiroject  long  and  earnestly  contemplated 
by  tliat  illustrious  Lutheran  .sovereign,  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  The  colony  .settled  along  the  Dela- 
war(;.  It  was  accompanied  by  a  preacher  luimed 
Reorns  Torkillus.  He  was  succeeded  by  Rev. 
John  Campanius,  who  was  the  first  Protestant 
missionary  among  the  American  aborigines,  and 
who  translated  Luther's  Catecliism  into  their  lan- 
guage. It  was  printed  in  Stockholm,  1096-98, 
and  was  the  first  ]niblicat ion  in  an  Indian  tongue, 
except  .lohn  Kliofs  Indian  Bililc  1061   63. 

Somewhat  later  in  the  same  century  an  incon- 
siderable wave  of  emigration  came  from  Lutheran 
Germany,  and  gradually  sjiread  over  the  fertile 
agricultural  districts  of  Pennsylvania,  !\Iaryland, 
Virginia,  Ceiilral  New  Ycn-k,  and  afterwards  as- 
far  as  Nortli  Carolina.  These  Gcrnuin  Luther- 
ans proved  to  be  but  "pioneers  of  the  ma.sses 
that  soon  rolled  in  after  them."  In  the  year 
1710,  thousands,  whom   tlio  devastations  of  war 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


1373 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


and  the  religious  oppressions  under  Louis  XIV. 
compelled  to  flee  from  the  Palatinate,  and  to  seek 
refuge  in  Protestant  England,  were  immediately, 
through  the  beneficent  patronage  of  Queen  Anne, 
forwarded  to  America,  and  settled  along  the  Hud- 
son, some  sixty  miles  north  of  New  York.  Large 
tracts  pf  land  were  allotted  to  them  for  the  sup- 
port of  Lutheran  ministers  and  parish  schools, — 
princely  domains,  from  which  they  were  subse- 
quently cruelly  defrauded  by  another  denomina- 
tion. 

The  Colonial  Records  of  Pennsylvania  in  1717 
contain  an  official  statement,  that  "great  numbers 
of  foreigners  from  Germany,  strangers  to  our 
language  and  constitution,  have  lately  been  im- 
ported into  the  province."  Most  of  these  were 
Lutherans;  and  the  same  province  received  in 
1727  another  large  accession  of  these  people  from 
WUrtemberg,  the  Palatinate,  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
and  other  German  principalities.  Another  con- 
siderable colony  of  Lutherans,  driven  by  remorse- 
less persecution  from  Saltzburg,  crossed  the 
Atlantic  in  1734,  and,  through  the  liberality  of 
the  British  Parliament  and  the  friendly  interest 
of  the  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Christian 
Knowledge,  established  themselves  in  Georgia 
just  after  the  first  English  settlers  had  taken  pos- 
session there  under  Gen.  Oglethorpe.  Their  first 
resting-place  in  the  New  World  they  piously 
named  "Ebenezer."  Their  descendants  consti- 
tute chiefly  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  churches  of 
Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 

The  great  mass  of  Lutherans  who  emigrated 
hither  from  Germany  were,  for  the  most  part, 
unattended  by  clergymen.  They  remained,  for 
years,  destitute  of  the  ministrations  of  the  word 
.  and  the  sacraments,  and  the  churcli  could  for  a 
long  time  assume  no  organic  form.  The  peo- 
ple, however,  continued  devoted  to  the  religious 
principles  imder  which  they  had  been  reared ; 
and  having  brought  with  them  their  Bibles, 
hynm-books,  and  other  popular  manuals  of  de- 
votion, and  having  among  their  number  school- 
teachers and  others  who  were  capable  of  con- 
ducting religious  meetings,  they  were  wont  to 
assemble  in  private  houses  and  in  barns  to  cele- 
brate the  worship  of  their  church,  and  to  nourish 
themselves  in  the  faith  of  their  fathers  by  obser- 
vations on  the  Catechism,  or  by  reading  from 
Arndt's  True  Chrislianili/,  or  some  other  deeply 
spiritual  work  of  Lutheran  authorship.  The 
pastors  of  the  Swedish  churches  likewise  gave 
them  some  assistance,  instructing  the  young',  and 
administering  confirmation  and  the  sacraments. 

Thus  Lutheranisni  in  this  country  was  for  a 
century,  if  not  "void,"  yet  "without  form,"  and 
"  darkness  "  brooded  over  its  chaotic  state.  The 
people  being  widely  scattered,  wofully  straitened 
in  their  circumstances,  without  houses  of  wor.shiji, 
pastoral  oversight,  or  any  church  order,  with  no 
bond  of  union  among  themselves,  nor  any  ecclesi- 
astical connection  with  the  fatherland,  surround- 
ed by  fierce  Indians  and  by  more  inhuman  savages 
from  Europe,  preyed  upon  by  crafty  impostors, 
worthless  adventurers,  deposed  clergymen,  and 
other  false  brethren  and  fanatics,  the  Lutheran 
Church  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  having  a  proper 
history  till  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tui-y.  There  was  no  organism.  Lutherans  were 
here,  but  hardly  a  Lutheran  Church.     They  were 


like  scattered  sheep  surrounded  by  wolves, — a 
church  in  the  wilderness.  Yet  .so  far  from  losing 
their  ancestral  faith,  or  being  alienated  from  the 
religion  of  their  youth,  these  people  were  ani- 
mated with  earnest  longings  for  "the  order  and 
fellowship  of  their  own  clnirch."  They  bewailed 
the  moral  devastation  in  the  midst  of  which  they 
were  dwelling,  and  ".sent  imploring  letters  to 
Holland  and  to  Germany"  for  spiritual  guides, 
for  teachers  to  instruct  their  children,  for  books, 
and  pecuniary  contributions  toward  the  erection 
of  houses  of  wor.ship  and  the  maintenance  of 
churches  and  schools,  —  appeals  which  were  not 
without  avail.  At  lengtli  those  Lutherans  who 
had  organized  congregations  in  l^hiladelphia. 
New  Ilanovei",  and  New  Providence  (the  Trappe),. 
sent  a  delegation  of  their  brethren  to  Europe  ta 
represent  their  spiritual  distress,  to  collect  funds, 
and  especially  to  secure  proper  men  for  the  pas- 
toral oflice.  They  were  most  cordially  received 
in  London  by  Rev.  Dr.  Ziegenhagen,  the  Luther- 
an chaplain  of  the  English  court;  and  in  Ger- 
many, then  aglow  with  the  fervor  of  the  earlier 
pietism,  "  they  met  with  warm  hearts,  and  fervent 
prayers,  and  material  aid  every w'here."  This  was 
in  1733.  Earnest  and  judicious  search  was  made 
for  a  man  who  combined  the  peculiar  qualifica- 
tions of  spirit,  mind,  and  body,  indispensable  for 
the  arduous  work  and  the  appalling  obstacles  that 
must  be  encountered  in  planting  the  Lutheran 
Church  on  American  soil.  After  the  efforts  of 
years,  the  very  man  was  found  whom  Providence 
had  singled  out  and  fitted  for  this  great  under- 
taking; and  in  the  year  17-12  he  came  to  this, 
country,  —  an  answer  to  the  supplications  long 
sent  up  to  Heaven,  as  well  as  to  those  carried 
beyond  the  sea.  This  was  Henry  Melchior 
Muhlenberg,  a  man  of  marvellous  intellectual 
and  moral  power,  a  born  leader  and  apostle,  a 
heaven-ordained  bishop.  His  arri^-al  on  these 
shores  marks  an  epoch  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 
His  herculean  and  far-seeing  labors  constitute  the 
era  of  its  foundation.  His  immortal  services  merit 
for  him  the  title  of  "  Patriarch  of  the  American 
Lutheran  Church."    (See  II.  M.  Muhlenberg.) 

Contemporaneous  with  Wesley,  Whitefield,  and 
Edwards,  and  imbued  with  the  spirit  of  churchly 
pietism  which  he  had  imbibed  at  the  university 
of  Halle,  Muhlenberg  entered  upon  the  stupen- 
dous task  providentially  assigned  to  him.  His- 
whole  course  w-as  marked  by  apostolical  wisdom 
and  zeal,  and  by  an  almost  superhuman  resolu- 
tion and  fortitude.  He  fought  his  great  battla 
for  several  years  absolutely  alone,  without  a  col- 
league, without  a  friend,  indefatigably  occupied 
on  the  Lord's  Day  in  preaching,  and  during  the 
week  in  teaching  school,  catechising  publicly  and 
in  families,  visiting  from  house  to  house,  anxious- 
ly solicitous  for  the  spiritual  condition  of  all  his 
parishioners,  and  exercising  a  paternal  supervisioa 
and  a  powerful  influence  over  the  whole  Lutheran 
population  in  this  country.  His  labors  were  fol- 
lowed by  genuine  and  extraordinar)'  success.  A 
worthy  colleague  and  two  assistants  from  the 
fatherland  in  a  little  while  joined  him,  and  soon 
there  prevailed  a  general  awakening  through  all 
the  region  surrounding  their  labors.  Men  were 
everywhere  hungering  for  the  gospel  in  their 
native  tongue.  Importunate  and  availing  en- 
treaties were  sent  abroad  for  more  ministers  o£ 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


1374 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


the  Word ;  new  congregations  were  organized, 
churches  and  schoolhouses  erected ;  strict  ecclesi- 
<istical  discipline  was  enforced ;  and  the  earnest- 
ness and  abounding  prayer  of  pious  and  learned 
pastors  were  reflected  in  tlie  active  zeal  and  the 
gentle  Christian  virtues  of  a  devout  people. 
Twenty  congregations  were  reported  in  1743. 
"  There  was  apparent  a  steady  increase  in  num- 
bers, efficiency,  and  influence."  "The  compara- 
tive numerical  streugth  of  the  church,  the  purity 
of  its  spirit,  and  the  fidelity  of  its  discipline,  held 
out  a  most  promising  future." 

This  prosperity  was  not  maintained :  these 
bright  prospects  were  not  realized.  A  period  of 
declension  followed  the  general  awakening  which 
had  taken  place  in  the  days  of  Miihlenberg.  The 
Lutheran  population  was  indeed  constantly  in- 
creasing through  the  channel  of  immigration.  In 
the  autumn  of  1750  twenty  vessels  arrived  in 
Philadelphia  with  twelve  thousand  Germans. 
Similar  numbers  followed  in  succeeding  years. 
About  that  period  the  Lutheran  inhabitants  of 
Penn.sylvania  alone  are  estimated  at  sixty  thou- 
sand A  force  of  nnnisters  adequate  to  the  care 
of  a  community  so  large  and  so  scattered  was 
unfortunately  wanting,  and  their  increase  was 
deplorably  slow.  In  1748  there  were  but  eleven 
Lutheran  ministers  in  all  the  Colonies  now  em- 
braced in  the  United  States;  in  1750,  but  sixteen; 
and  in  1708  the  entire  clergy  did  not  comprise 
more  than  twenty-four  names.  Re-enforcements 
-of  excellent  men  continued  to  arrive  at  different 
periods  from  Halle ;  but  the  influx  from  abroad 
gradually  abated,  and  no  theological  seminary 
had  as  yet  been  provided  here  for  tlie  training  of 
ministers.  This  great  want  of  laborers  accounts 
largely  for  the  long  dearth  and  the  sad  declen- 
sion which  now  came  over  the  Lutheran  Church. 
Other  causes  contributed  to  this  unhappy  condi- 
tion, which  lasted  till  near  the  close  of  the  first 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Among  them 
may  be  mentioned  the  moral  ravages  incident  to 
the  protracted  war  for  independence ;  the  great 
poverty  of  the  German  masses,  leaving  tliem  with 
the  most  meagre  provisions  for  public  worship 
and  with  an  utter  lack  of  educational  facilities ; 
their  infatuated  and  persistent  oppositiiMi  to  the 
introduction  of  the  English  language  into  their 
churches,  when  this  had  become  an  absolute  neces- 
sity if  the  young,  the  educated  and  the  j)rogres- 
sive  elements,  were  to  be  retained  in  liu^  Lutlicr- 
an  fold,  and  an  impression  made  by  Lutlieranism 
upon  the  gemn-al  jjublic ;  the  ingress  of  doc- 
trinal and  spiritual  laxity  following  tlie  rise  of 
rationalism  and  the  decay  of  ortluxlox  pietism  in 
Eui'o|ie;  th(^  havoc  made  by  false  brethren  who 
doffed  the  livery  of  the  shepherd  only  to  bring 
ruin  and  odium  upon  the  fold ;  the  almost  uni- 
versal prevalence  of  "  contention,  disorder,  and 
divisions;"  and  the  readiness  of  the  young  and 
worldly-minded  to  be  drawn  into  deiioniiiiations 
of  greater  prominence  and  external  attractions. 

Thus  it  h.appened  that  a  church  wlio.se  morning 
in  this  country  w:us  so  l)rigiit  in  the  time  of  Miihl- 
enberg, and  wiiicli  then  gave  "  a  prosiject  of  emi- 
nent di.slinction  and  extensive  usefulness  among 
the  churclie.'j  of  the  land,"  experienced  a  long  era 
of  retrogression  and  gloom,  iluring  which  the 
faithful  few  who  still  ujiliehl  the  banner  of  Lu- 
theranisni.  instead  of  rejoicing  over  steady  prog- 


ress and  development,  had  to  bewail  melancholy 
disasters,  the  alienation  of  the  best  elements,  the 
general  discouragement  of  those  who  remained, 
and  "the  abnost  total  ruin  of  the  church." 

Ecclesiastical  Ougasiz.\tioxs.  —  The  first 
association  of  Lutheran  ministers  and  churches 
was  organized  in  Philadelphia,  in  the  year  1748, 
under  the  title  of  the  "  German  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran iSIinisterium  of  Pennsylvania."  It  consist- 
ed of  six  ordained  ministers,  and  an  almost  equal 
number  of  lay  representatives  from  the  congrega- 
tions. Its  meetings  were  annual,  and  "  were  at- 
tended with  the  most  beneficial  results."  Similar 
bodies  were  subsequently  formed,  —  the  Ministe- 
riiun  of  New  York  in  1785,  the  Synod  of  North 
Carolina  in  1803,  the  Synod  of  Ohio  and  Adja- 
cent States  in  1803,  and  the  Synod  of  Maryland 
and  Virginia  in  1819.  These  associations,  which 
greatly  promoted  ecclesiastical  prosperity  in  their 
respective  territories,  were  geographically  remote 
from  each  other,  destitute  of  any  bond  of  union 
or  fellowship  connecting  them  together,  and  with- 
out that  mutual  consultation,  co-operation,  and 
intercourse,  so  necessary  to  the  general  vocation 
and  work  of  the  churcli. 

At  length  a  spkit  of  enlightened  activity  was 
awakened;  and  an  agitation  for  bringing  these  dis- 
connected bodies  into  closer  fellowship  and  greater 
efficiency  resulted,  in  1820,  in  the  establishment  of 
the  General  Synod.  —  an  association  with  which 
all  the  synods,  except  that  of  Ohio,  united,  and 
which  represented  at  the  time  a  hundred  and  thir- 
ty-five preachers  and  thirty-three  thousand  com- 
municants. The  formation  of  the  General  Synod 
marks  a  second  epoch  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 
Although  but  ad^'isory  in  its  functions,  and  purety 
negative  on  doctrinal  tests,  it  became  at  once  a 
rallying  and  a  radiating  centre,  and  gave  a  power- 
ful impulse  to  ecclesiiistical  enterprise,  organiza- 
tion, and  development,  not  only  among  the  Luther- 
ans embraced  within  its  bounds,  but  also  among 
those  who  declined  to  unite  with  it.  From  this 
time,  dates  the  successful  establishment  of  theo- 
logical seminaries,  the  founding  of  colleges,  the 
formation  of  missionary  societies  and  otlier  be- 
nevolent agencies  for  the  extension  of  Christ's 
kingdom.  Remarkable  prosjierity  and  growth 
succeeded;  so  that  the  denomination,  wliich  in 
1820  numbered  less  than  150  ministers,  reached 
in  18G3  a  total  of  1,365  ministers,  2.575  congre- 
gations, and  about  300,000  comninnicants.  At 
the  time  of  its  organization  the  constitution  of 
the  General  Synod  was  absolutely  silent  on  con- 
fessional subscription.  It  suli.se<iuently  adojited 
a  sulistantial  recognition  of  tlie  .Vug.sburg  Con- 
fession by  requiring  of  the  synods  a.]iplying  for 
admission  adhen-nce  to  the  "  fundamental  doc- 
trines of  .Scripture  as  taught,  in  a  manner  sub- 
stantially correct,  in  the  doctrinal  articles  of  the 
.Vugsburg  Confession,"  "witli  acknowledged  devi- 
ation in  minor  or  non-fundamental  points."  At 
the  session  of  the  General  Synod  at  York,  Penn., 
in  1804,  this  was  changed  into  an  unequivocal 
recognition  of  "the  Augsburg  Confession  as  a 
correct  exhibition  of  the  fundamental  doctrines 
of  the  divine  word,  and  of  tlie  faith  of  our  church 
founded  upon  that  word."  The  earlier  .attitude 
of  tliis  body  towards  the  symbols  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  was  always  regarded  by  somi^  as  too  "iideli- 
nite,  and  as  altogether  inadequate  for  a  Lu^^heran 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


1375 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


association.  It  proved  one  of  the  main  causes 
whicli  Ivppt  a  iiuMiber  of  synods  aloof  from  the 
General  Synod,  and  inspired  their  assaults  upon 
it  for  disloyalty  to  the  distinguishing  doctrines  of 
the  chureh;  and  it  confessedly  tolerated  teachings 
and  practices  wliich  were  at  variance  with  lustoric 
Lutheranism,  and  which  assimilated  the  chnrcli  of 
the  Reformation  to  denominations  against  which 
it  had  contended  for  centuries. 

AVith  a  growing  conservatism  in  the  heart  of 
the  General  Synod,  a  strong  re-action  against 
measures  and  worship  not  deemed  in  accordance 
with  the  confessions  of  the  Church,  and  a  fuller 
acquaintance  among  the  Englisli  portion  with 
its  history  and  doctrines,  there  gradually  arose  a 
decided  tendency  to  a  stricter  avowal  of  the 
Lutheran  faith,  and  a  fuller  conformity  to  Luther- 
an principles  and  usages.  A  spirit  of  restless 
agitation  and  ecclesiastical  discussion  nurtured  by 
personal  and  partisan  contentions  and  by  national 
jealousies,  helped  to  develop  this  tendency  into  a 
party,  many  of  whose  representatives  were  ani- 
mated witli  the  hope,  that,  by  the  pronounced 
adoption  of  all  the  Lutheran  symbols,  all  those 
independent  .synods  whose  one  common  trait  was 
the  cry  for  pure  Lutheranism  and  the  condennia- 
tion  of  the  General  .Synod,  might  be  gathered  into 
■one  large,  homogeneous,  and  powerful  organiza- 
tion, which  should  realize  the  prospects,  and  fulfil 
the  mission,  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America. 
A  crisis  arrived  in  1S64,  when  tlie  Franckean 
Synod  of  New  York,  a  body  charged  with  grave 
unsoundness  in  Lutheran  doctrine,  was  admitted 
into  the  General  Synod,  then  assembled  at  York, 
Penn.  A  protest  was  presented  against  this  ac- 
tion. The  delegation  of  the  Pennsylvania  IMinis- 
terium  withdrew.  Violent  controversies  ensued. 
Other  synods  seceded  from  the  general  body,  and 
several  more  were  dismembered  when  the  issue 
came  before  them  of  adhering  to  or  separating 
from  it. 

This  partial  disruption  of  the  General  Synod, 
which,  however,  did  not  alienate  from  it  all  who 
heartily  held  the  doctrines  peculiar  to  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  was  followed  by  the  organization 
of  the  General  Council  in  1866.  This  body  adoptr 
ed  as  its  confessional  basis  "  the  doctrines  of 
the  unaltered  Augsburg  Confession  in  its  original 
sense,  as  throughout  in  conformity  with  the  pure 
truth  of  which  God's  word  is  the  only  rule ; " 
adding,  that,  "in  this  formal  reception  of  the  Augs- 
burg Confession,  we  declare  our  conviction  that 
the  other  confessions  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  .  .  .  are  of  necessity  pure  and  scriptural." 
The  council  was  originally  composed  of  twelve 
synods,  representing  a  hundred  and  forty  thousand 
communicants.  Tts  annual  conventions  have  been 
mainly  occupied  with  discussions  of  doctrine,  cul- 
tus,  a  constitution  for  congregations,  and  espe- 
cially the  question  of  pulpit  and  altar  fellowship 
with  those  outside  the  bounds  of  true  Lutheran- 
ism ;  while  missionary  and  educational  agencies 
have  been  left  mostly  to  the  individual  synods 
connected  with  the  council. 

Notwithstanding  the  absolute  declaration  of  its 
Lutheran  faith  by  the  General  Council,  several  of 
the  largest  synods,  composed  almost  entirely  of 
Europeans,  refused  an  alliance  with  it ;  and  four 
synods  which  took  part  in  its  formation  withdrew 
from  it  at  an  early  period.  This  unfriendly  atti- 
35-11 


tude  toward  the  council  was,  doulitless,  in  a  great 
measure,  due  to  the  prejudices  and  jc^alousies  grow- 
ing out  of  the  differences  of  language  and  nation- 
ality, to  a  rigid  and  cherished  exclusiveues.s,  and 
to  an  undisguised  distrust  of  the  perfect  Luthei-an 
orthodoxy  of  some  of  its  lea<ii!rs,  who  had  long 
been  identified  with  the  General  Synod,  \xiio  had 
even  distinguished  them.selves  as  its  ardent  cham- 
pions, and  who,  it  was  feared,  could  not  fail,  in 
.spite  of  their  new  position,  to  be  tinctured  with 
the  liberalism  of  the  General  Synod  and  of  the 
other  denonunations  with  whom  they  had  always 
fraternized.  These  independent  and  exclusive 
synods,  whicli  were  chai-acterized  both  by  the 
stiffest  adherence  to  the  Lutheran  .syndjols  and 
by  the  most  active  and  liberal  endeavors  for  the 
extension  of  the  church,  felt,  likewise,  the  neces- 
sity of  closer  union  and  co-operation  among  them- 
selves ;  and,  yielding  to  the  general  tendency 
towards  unification,  they  formed  in  1872  The 
Evangelical  Lutheran  Synodical  Conference  of 
North  America.  This  body  renders,  if  possible, 
still  more  complete  submission  to  the  Lutheran 
symbolical  books  than  the  General  Council,  and 
it  professedly  and  actually  denies  altar  and  pulpit 
fellow.ship  to  all  outside  of  its  bounds. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  the  Lutherans 
south  of  the  Potomac,  like  all  the  otlier  Protestant 
denominations,  withdrew  from  the  fellowship  of 
their  Northern  brethren,  and  in  1863  organized 
The  General  Synod  of  the  Confederate  States,  a 
title  since  changed  to  The  General  Si/nod  of  North 
America.  The  close  of  the  war  and  the  re-union 
of  tlie  States  witnessed  tiie  restoration  of  fra- 
ternal feeling;  but  as  the  General  Synod,  from 
which  the  Southern  synods  withdrew,  had  in  the 
mean  while  been  sinidered,  and  two  rival  bodies 
were  in  existence  in  the  North,  the  question  of 
re-union  is  complicated  with  tlie  choice  between 
these  two  bodies  ;  and,  as  there  are  embraced  in 
the  chm'ch  South  diverse  elements  allied  respec- 
tively to  both,  decisive  action  in  the  case  is,  for 
the  present,  unhapiiily  deferred. 

Thus  the  Lutheran  Cliurch,  which  enjoy.s  the 
honor  of  never  having  sent  forth  any  sects,  finds 
itself,  in  the  United  States,  the  subject  of  nunifer- 
ous  divisions,  each  claiming  to  be  a  purer  repre- 
sentative of  true  Lutheranism  than  the  others. 
There  are,  besides  the  four  general  bodies,  a  num- 
ber of  synods  that  have  never  united  witli  either 
of  them.  The  main  wall  of  partition  which  sepa- 
rates one  body  from  another  is  that  of  doctrinal 
rigor  or  freedom,  a  stricter  or  a  laxer  subscription 
to  the  confessions,  although,  besides  this,  national 
antagonisms  and  jealousies  are  likewise  powerful 
factors  in  perpetuating  these  divisions  ;  the  Gen- 
eral Synod  being  composed  almost  entirely  of 
Americans ;  the  Spiodical  Conference,  of  Euro- 
peans ;  and  the  General  Council,  of  an  unequal  pro- 
portion of  both.  Deplorable  as  is  this  spectacle 
of  numerous  di^sions  in  the  same  household  of 
faith,  they  at  the  same  time  serve  to  stimulate  the 
different  bodies  to  greater  activity,  and  to  pro- 
duce a  desirable  rivalry,  especially  in  the  sphere  of 
home  missions,  which,  by  the  increasing  myriads 
of  foreigners  who  come  from  Lutheran  lands,  and 
by  the  ability  of  the  Lutheran  Church  to  preach 
to  them  in  every  needed  tongue,  requires  emphati- 
cally the  devotion  and  activity  of  all  these  organi- 
zations. 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


187fi 


LUTHERANS. 


Worship.  —  In  cultus  the  Lutheran  Church  of 
the  United  States,  as  throughout  the  -n'orki,  holds 
it  to  be  unnecessary  "  that  the  same  human  tradi- 
tions —  that  is,  rites  and  ceremonies  instituted  by 
men  —  sliould  be  everywhere  observed;"'  and  en- 
tire liberty  is  allowed  in  the  ordering  of  pid->lic 
worship.  The  earlier  congregations  continued  the 
usage,  universal  in  the  European  Lutheran  church- 
es, of  a  moderate  liturgical  service  combined  with 
extemporaneous  prayers.  At  a  later  period,  and 
especially  within  the  pale  of  the  General  Synod, 
the  use  of  prescribed  forms  disappeared  almost 
entirely ;  and  for  a  long  time  the  services  in  the 
Lutheran  Church  conformed  to  the  prevalent  ex- 
temporaneous practices  of  the  dominant  churches 
around  it.  But,  with  the  growing  tendency  toward 
a  Lutheran  self-consciousness,  there  iias  likewise 
arisen  a  wide-spread  and  increasing  desire  for  tlie 
inspiring  formulas  of  prayer  and  praise  which  are 
interwoven  with  the  best  period  of  Lutheran 
c'nu-ch-life,  and  which  conduce  to  the  highest  spir- 
it'.ial  worship  of  the  congregation.  The  sacred 
forms  of  the  ancient  liturgies  are  regularly  em- 
jiloyed  in  nearly  all  the  churches  outside  of  the 
General  .Synod ;  and  the  latter  body  recently 
adopted,  along  with  the  other  general  bodies,  a 
common  oi-der  of  English  service,  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  consensus  of  the  pure  Lutheran 
liturgies  of  the  IGth  centuiT.  The  general  prayer 
is,  as  a  rule,  extemporaneous ;  and  the  sermon,  in 
all  Lutheran  churches,  holds  the  central  place. 

Polity.  —  The  American  Lutherans  claim,  in 
accordance  with  Apol.  Con/.,  art.  XIV.,  that  the 
Scriptures  prescribe  "  no  specific  form  of  govern- 
ment and  discipline  for  Christ's  Church."  Or- 
ganization has  never  been  a  distinguishing  glory 
of  Lutheranism.  The  government  that  has  gen- 
erally prevailed  in  this  country  is  a  blending  of 
certain  princijiles  adopted  by  the  Congregational- 
ists,  with  others  tliat  are  recognized  as  Presbyte- 
rian. Three  judicatories  are  acknowledged,  —  the 
covuicil  of  each  individual  congregation  ;  the  dis- 
trict synod,  composed  of  all  the  ministers,  and 
one  lay  representative  from  each  congregation 
within  its  bounds ;  and  the  general  body,  whose 
powers  are  mostly  of  an  advisory  nature,  the  final 
decision  resting  in  all  cases  with  the  congi-ega- 
tion.  In  the  Synodical  Conference  the  r;overn- 
nient  is,  on.  the  one  hand,  strictly  congregational 
in  theory,  on  the  other  liand,  really  despotic  in 
fact.  When  the  congregation  has  chosen  its  pas- 
tor, lie  wields  solely  in  his  own  hands  the  power 
of  the  keys. 

Statistics  fou  1885. 


is 

i 
1 

B 

1 

S 

"5 
u 

Gcneml  Synod  .... 
General  ('uiineil      .     .     . 
CffniTiil  Synod,  South     , 
Synodirjil  ( 'onfiTcnce     . 
Indcpcndenl  Synodi*  .     . 
Ifidcpendent  I'uHlora  and 
ChurcbeM 

23 
12 
6 
6 
12 

866 
969 
139 
875 
768 

35 

1,424 
2,106 
235 
1,481 
1,791 

40 

135,110 
251,025 
18,269 
273,259 
215,539 

10,000 

- 

3,762 

7,077 

003,202 

Periodicals:    English,   ■'!!);    German,    5.");    X( 


wegian.  21;  Swedish,  8;  Danish,  4;  Finnish,  1; 
Icelandic,  1.  Tlieolo(/ical  Institutions,  I'.).  Colleges, 
24.  Eleemosynarij  Institution!',  45.  Missions  in 
India,  Africa,  and'  among  the  Southern  Freedinen. 

Lit.  —  Hallische  Nachrichlen  {Halle  Reports), 
new  edition  by  Drs.  M.\XN,  .ScinrucKKR,  and 
CiERMAXN,  Allentown,  Penn.,and  Ilalle-a-S.,  1881, 
English  edition  by  C.  W  Sciiaeffer,  Reading, 
1882;  Evangelical  Rerieu;  vols,  i.,  ii..  iii.,  vi.,  xi., 
xvii.,  XX.  ;  Schaeffer  :  Early  Histor;/  of  tlie 
Lutheran  Church  in  America,  Philadelphia,  1857 ; 
SciiMUCKER  :  American  Lutheran  Church,  5th  ed., 
Philadelphia,  1852 ;  W.  J.  Mann  :  Lutheranism  in 
.4  menVa,  Philadelphia,  18.57;  Lutheran  Quarlerly, 
vols,  iii.,  ix.,  X.,  xi.  ;  Berniieim  :  German  Settle- 
ment and  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  Carolinas, 
1872 ;  Strobel  :  The  Salzhttryers  and  their  De- 
scendants, Baltimore,  1855;  Hazelius:  Histortf 
of  the  American  Lutheran  Church,  Zanes^^lle,  1846; 
Lixtxer  :  Early  History  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
in  the  Stale  of  A^ew  Yoric ,  SlORRis  ;  Fifty  Years  in 
the  Lutheran  Ministry,  Baltimore,  1878 ;  cf.  pp. 
316-319  for  a  list  of  works  on  Lutheran  church 
history  in  America.  E.  J.  WOLF  (Gettysburg). 

LUtHERANS,  Separate.  When,  in  1817,  the 
union  between  the  Lutheran  and  the  Reformed 
churches  wa.s  established  in  Prussia,  the  protest 
of  J.  G.  Scheibel,  professor  of  theology  at  Breslau, 
found  much  sympathy  among  the  Lutherans. 
For  several  years,  however,  the  movement  was 
confined  within  the  boundaries  of  simple  literary 
polemics :  but  when  the  breaking  of  the  bread 
was  introduced  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper,  by  a  cabinet  order  of  1830,  Scheibel  re- 
fused to  obey ;  and,  at  the  head  of  a  body  consist- 
ing of  between  two  and  three  hundred  families, 
he  asked  permission  to  continue  administering 
the  Lord's  Sujiper  after  the  old  AVittenberg  at/enda. 
The  periuissiou  was  not  granted,  and  Scheibel 
left  the  country.  In  1834,  however,  the  govern- 
ment relented.  But  in  the  mean  time  tiie  party 
had  progressed  very  rapidly  under  the  leadership 
of  Iluschke;  and  the  synod  convened  at  Breslau 
in  the  same  year  declared  that  nothing  would 
satisfy  them  but  complete  separation  from  the 
State  "church,  and  the  formation  of  an  independ- 
ent organization.  Persecutions  then  began.  Sev- 
eral ministers  were  kept  in  prison  for  many  years. 
A  number  of  well-to-do  laymen  were  reduced  to- 
poverty  by  money-fines.  Not  a  few  emigrated. 
The  ministers  {Jrabau  and  Von  Ruhr  formed  in 
America  the  Bull'alo  .Synod.  With  the  act^'ssion, 
however,  of  Friedrich  Wilhelm  W'.,  in  1840,  a 
change  took  ]>lace;  and  duly  23,  1845,  the  conces- 
sion for  the  foundation  of  a  free  church  was  given, 
and  in  18.50  the  church  numbered  fifty  pastors 
and  about  fifty  thousand  members. 

Similar  movements  took  place  also  outside  of 
Prussia,  in  .Saxony,  Ilesse,  Baden.  Perhaps  no 
separation  from  the  Slate  church  made  a  deeper 
imiiression  than  that  of  Theodor  Harms  at  Iler- 
mannsburg,  a  brother  of  Ludwig  Harms.  The 
reason  was  neither  dogmatical  nor  constitution.al. 
.Some  changes  were  introduced  by  the  government 
in  the  wedding  formularies.  Harms  refused  to 
accept  tho.se  changes,  and  was  susjiended  Jan.  22, 
1878.  IIi^  imiuediately  formed  an  independent 
congregation,  which  in  a  short  lime  numbered 
thirtv-<me  himdred  members.  Mtianvvhile  the 
relations   lietween   the   Separate   Lutherans   and 


LUTZ. 


1377 


LYON. 


ihose  Lutherans  who  had  remained  in  the  State 
Ciiurch  was  often  very  unpleasant,  and  bitter  con- 
troversies arose.  Finally  dissensions  broke  out, 
even  within  the  party  itself.  In  1S58  Diedrich, 
pastor  of  Jabel,  suddenly  directed  a  violent  attack 
against  Ilusclike;  and  in  July,  18(J2,  his  partisans 
convened  a  synod  at  Magdeburg  (the  so-called 
Inmianuel  Synod),  which  condemned  the  synod 
of  Breslau,  and  would  have  no  community  with 
its  members.  A  sindlar  split  was  caused  in  Sax- 
ony by  the  Missouri  Synod.  In  1817  Professor 
Walther  from  Saxony  formed  the  synod  of  Mis- 
souri, Ohio,  and  other  .States,  which  proved  very 
successful,  in  the  United  States  of  America.  Some 
members  of  that  synod  returned  to  Saxony,  and 
formed  in  Dresden  a  Lutheranerverein,  which  soon 
occupied  a  prominent  position.  But  the  contro- 
versy between  Ruhland  and  Grosse  caused  great 
disturbances  and  much  confusion.  In  Francfort 
there  are  now  four,  and  in  Hesse-Darmstadt  five, 
congregations  of  Separate  Lutherans,  holding  no 
comnmnion  with  each  other,  besides  several  "  Free 

churches."  Dr.  WANGEMANN  (Berlin). 

LUTZ,  Johann  Ludwig  Samuel,  b.  in  Bern, 
1785 ;  d.  there  Sept.  21,  1841.  He  studied  at 
Bern,  Tubingen,  and  Gottingen  ;  entered  the 
ministry  ;  in  1812  was  professor  in  the  gymnasium, 
and  rector  of  the  literary  school  of  Beru  ;  in  1824 
lie  took  a  pastorship,  but  in  1833  he  resumed 
teaching  as  ordinary  professor  in  the  university 
of  Bern.  He  held  various  other  scholastic  and 
ecclesiastical  positions ;  and  in  every  relation  of 
life  he  proved  himself  active,  useful,  worthy. 
He  was  a  very  superior  teacher,  a  humble  Chris- 
tian, a  wise  and  patriotic  citizen.  After  his  death 
two  volumes  of  his  lectures  were  issued  upon 
BiUische  Dogmalik  and  Biblische  HermeneuUk, 
Pforzheim,  1847  and  1840.  guder. 

LUTZ,  Samuel,  b.  at  Bern,  Switzeiland,  1()74; 
•was  appointed  pastor  of  Yverdon  in  1703,  of 
Amsoldingen  in  1726,  and  in  1738  of  Diessbach, 
■where  he  died  May  28, 1750.  He  is  the  represen- 
tative of  the  elder  Swiss  pietism,  which  showed 
traces  of  a  peculiar  Lutheran  coloring,  just  as  the 
Lutheran  pietism  evidently  was  influenced  by  the 
Swiss  reformers.  His  works,  mostly  of  ascetic 
tendency,  appeared  in  two  collections,  —  Ein 
wohlriec/iender  Straitss,  Basel,  1736,  and  Ein  neuer 
Stratus,  Basel,  1756.  GUDER. 

LUZ  (almond-tree),  I.,  a  Canaauitish  city  on 
the  border  of  Benjamin  (Josh,  xviii.  13),  and 
near  the  site  of  Bethel  (Gen.  xxviii.  19,  xxxv.  6, 
xlviii.  3)  ;  was  taken  by  the  descendants  of 
Joseph  (Judg.  i.  23),  and  destroyed,  with  all 
its  inhabitants,  except  one  family,  which  had 
acted  as  spies,  and  emigrated  into  the  district  of 
the  Hittites,  where  (II.)  they  founded  another 
Luz. 

LYCAO'NIA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded 
north  by  Galatia,  east  by  Cappadocia,  south  by 
Cilicia,  and  west  by  Phrygia,  and  consisting  of 
an  elevated  plateau,  sxu'rounded  with  high  moun- 
tains, and  noted  for  its  wild  asses  and  its  sheep. 
It  was  a  Roman  province  at  the  time  Paul  visited 
it  (Acts  xiv.  1-23,  xvi.  1-6,  xviii.  23,  xix.  1).  Its 
language  seems  to  have  been  a  corrupted  Greek 
mixed  up  with  many  Syrian  words,  and  was  un- 
intelligible to  the  apostles  (Acts  xiv.  14). 

LY'CIA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor,  stretching 
along  the  Mediterranean  coaat,  from  Caria  in  the 


west  to  Pamphylia  in  the  east,  ojiposite  the  Island 
of  Rhodes.  After  the  fall  of  the  Seleucida;,  it 
made  itself  independent,  became  very  prosperous 
(as  the  ruins  of  its  cities,  I'atara  and  Myra,  tes- 
tify), and  exercised  no  small  influence  on  Eastern 
politics  (1  Mace.  xv.  23).  Under  the  reign  of 
Claudius  it  was  conquered  by  t,he  Romans,  and  it 
was  a  Roman  province  when  Paul  visited  it  (Acts 
xxi.  1,  xxvii.  5). 

LYD'DA,  the  Greek  name  of  the  Hebrew  Lod, 
a  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and 
situated  in  tlxe  plain  of  Sharon,  on  the  road  from 
Joppa  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  (Acts  ix.  32)  as  the  place  in  which 
St.  Peter  healed  the  paralytic  iEneas.  Undei- 
Vespasian  its  name  was  changed  to  Diospolis  (the 
"city  of  Zeus"),  but  the  old  name  seems  to  have 
prevailed.  Among  the  bishops  present  at  Nicaea 
was  also  one  from  Lydda  or  Diospolis.  But  in  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century  the  see  seems  to  have 
been  removed  or  abolished.  According  to  legend, 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  St.  George;  and  Justinian 
built  a  church  there  in  his  honor.  The  churcli 
was  afterwards  burnt  by  the  Moslems,  then  re- 
built by  the  crusaders,  and  finally  destroyed  by 
Saladin  in  1196. 

LYDIA.     See  Lud. 

LYDIUS  is  the  name  of  a  Dutch  family,  which, 
in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  pro- 
duced several  prominent  theologians.  —  Martin 
Lydius,  b.  in  LUbeck,  1539  or  1.540  ;  d.  at  Franeker, 
June  27,  1601 ;  studied  at  Tubingen,  and  obtained 
in  1566  an  appointment  at  the  Collegium  Sapien- 
tial in  Heidelberg,  but  gave  up  that  position  after 
the  accession  of  the  strictly  Lutheran  Ludwig  VI., 
1576,  and  was  appointed  pastor  in  Amsterdam  in 
1580,  and  professor  at  Franeker  in  1585.  He  wrote 
Apoluyiu  pro  Erasmo,  several  oi'ations,  and  poems. 
—  Balthasar  Lydius,  b.  at  Umstadt,  Hesse,  1.576 
or  1577;  d.  at  Dort,  Jan.  20,  1629;  studied  at 
Leyden,  and  was  appointed  pastor  of  Streefkerk 
in  1602,  and  of  Dort  in  1608.  He  wrote,  besides 
other  works,  a  book  on  the  Waldenses  (PFa/rfensi'a), 
of  which  the  first  volume  appeared  at  Rotterdam, 
1616,  and  the  second  at  Dort,  1617.  See  Bayle  : 
Dk-l.,  iii.  114. 

LYON,  Mary,  founder  of  Mount  Holyoke  Female 
Seminary ;  b.  in  Bucklaud,  Franklin  County, 
Mass.,  Feb.  28,  1797;  d.  at  South  Iladley,  Mass., 
March  5,  1849.  After  her  education  at  Bylield, 
near  JJewburyport,  Mass.,  and  teaching  at  Ash- 
fleld,  she  joined  Miss  Z.  P.  Grant  (afterwards 
Mrs.  Banister)  in  the  Adams  Female  Academy  at 
Londonderry  (now  Derry),  N.H,  1824-28;  went 
with  her  wiien  she  removed  to  Ipswich  in  the 
latter  year,  and  remained  with  her  until  1834, 
when  she  seriously  set  out  upon  the  establishment 
of  a  female  seminary  of  higli  standard,  decidedly 
and  professedly  Christian  in  character,  and  with 
such  charges  that  those  of  moderate  means  could 
avail  themselves  of  its  advantages.  The  scheme 
seemed  chimerical  to  many,  particularly  since  one 
element  of  it  was,  that  the  domestic  work  was  to 
be  done  by  the  pupils  themselves,  and  another, 
that  the  teachers  were  to  be  paid  very  low  salaries, 
and  were  to  consider  their  work  as  essentiaUy 
missionary.  Enough  money  was  finally  collected 
to  insure  the  work.  On  Oct.  3,  1836,  the  cor- 
ner-stone of  the  building  was  laid  at  South 
Hadley  ;  and  Nov.  8,  1837,  although  the  building 


I.YRA. 


1378 


LYTTLETON. 


was  hardly  completed,  the  seminary  was  opened. 
She  brought  to  the  idealization  of  her  cherished 
scheme,  liealth,  enthusiasm,  sound  common  sense, 
a  noble  intellect,  definite  intentions,  indifference 
to  worldly  things,  and  eminent  piety.  For  twelve 
years,  till  her  death,  she  was  principal  of  the 
institution,  and  thus  moulded  liundreds  accord- 
ing to  a  noble  and  Christian  plan.  The  semi- 
nary has  ever  been  a  nursery  of  missionaries,  and 
today  maintains  its  reputation  for  piety  and 
etficiency,  and  is  her  fitting  monument.  See  her 
Life  by  President  Edward  Hitchcock,  Northamp- 
ton, 18.51 :  new  ed.,  abridged  and  in  some  parts 
enlarged.  New  York  [1858], 

LYRA,  Nicolaus  de,  b.  at  Lyre,  a  village  in  the 
diocese  of  E\Teux,  Normandv,  at  an  unknown 
date;  d.  in  Paris,  Oct.  23,  1340.  In  1291  he  en- 
tered the  Franciscan  order  at  Verneuil,  and  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  study.  After  taking  his  degree 
as  D.D..  lie  taught  there  with  great  distinction, 
and  was  in  1325  made  provincial  of  his  order  in 
Burgundy.  Among  his  works  are  De  Mexsia  (a 
defence  of  Christianity  against  Judaism),  Traclii- 
tus  de  ,  .  .  sacramentum,  etc.  But  tlie  %\  ork  which 
made  his  fame  was  his  Postilla:  perjietuce  in  V.  el 
JV.  Teslamerilum,  fir.st  printed  in  Rome  (1471-72, 
i)  vols,  fol.),  next  in  Venice  under  the  title  Biblia 
iocra  Lalina  cum  poMiUis  (1540,  4  vols,  fob),  after- 
wards often.  It  is  the  most,  if  not  the  only,  im- 
portant monument  of  mediasval  exegesis  before 
the  revival  of  classical  learning.  In  contradis- 
tinction to  most  theologians  among  the  school- 
men, Lyra  understood  both  Greek  and  Hebrew 
(on  account  of  iiis  thorough  knowledge  of  Hebrew 
many  have  supposed  him  to  be  a  converted  Jew, 
though  without  sutflcient  reason);  and  his  lin- 
guistic knowledge  otl'ered  him  a  sounder  basis 
for  exegesis,  and  raised  liini  above  many  preju- 
dices and  fancies.  He  made  a  deep  impre.ssion 
upon  Luther:  nevertheless,  the  well-known  say- 
ing, .Si  Lyra  non  lyrasscl,  Lulherus  ncm  sallasset 
(•'if  Lyra  had  not  played,  Luther  had  not 
(lanced  "),  iiscribes  a  much  too  great  influence  to 
the  work.  C.  SCHMIDT. 

LYSANIAS.     See  Anii.KNE. 

LYS'TRA,  a  city  of  Lyciwnia,  probably  the 
present  Jlin-lidr-Kilislieh ;  was  visit<'d  twice  liy 
Paul,  the  first  time  in  company  with  Barnabas 
(Acts  xiv.),  the  second  time  in  company  with 
Sil.is  (Actt;  xvi.).  It  was  probably  the  birthplace 
of  Timothy  (2  Tim.  iii.  11). 

LYTE,  Henry  Francis,  the  author  of  "Abide 
with  me,  fast  falls  the  eventide;"  b.  at  Kelso, 
Ireland,  June  1,  17!)3;  <1.  at  Nice,  November  20, 
1847.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Dub- 
lin; ordained  in  1815;  and  after  .serving  ;is  curate 
near  Wexford  in  Mar.izion,  and  Lymington,  Hants, 
in  1823,  he  entered  upon  the  perpetual  curacy  of 


Lower  Brixham,  Devon,  a  place  on  the  channel- 
coast  of  England,  and  held  the  position  till  death. 
Up  to  1818  he  was  unconverted;  but,  having  been 
sent  for  by  a  brother-clergyman  who  w.as  dying 
in  a  similarly  unhappy  state,  he  realized  the  wick- 
edness and  anomaly  of  his  situation.  The  two 
instituted  an  earnest  study  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
were  changed  in  the  spirit  of  their  minds.  Lyte- 
began  a  life  of  devotion  and  spiritual  fervor.  His 
parish  at  Brixham  was  composed  of  sailors  and 
fishermen,  but  he  wrought  very  successfully  among 
them.  It  is,  however,  as  a  hymn-writer  tliat  he  is 
famous.  He  showed  his  poetical  gifts  in  boyhood. 
In  1826  he  published  Tales  upon  the  Lord's  Prayer; 
in  1833,  Poems  chiefly  Religious;  in  1834,  The  Spirit 
of  the  Psalms,  a  metrical  version;  in  1846  edited 
Poems  of  Henry  Vaughan,  leilh  a  Memoir.  Some  of 
his  hymns  have  attained  a  wide  currency,  such  as 
•'  My  trust  is  in  the  Lord,"  '•  Praise,  Lord,  for  thee 
in  Zion  waits,"  "  God  of  mercy,  God  of  grace." 
But  his  best-known  hymn  is  "  Abide  with  me,  fast 
falls  the  eventide."  This  was  composed,  it  is  said, 
on  the  evening  of  his  last  Sund.iy  with  his  beloved 
flock  at  Lower  Brixham,  to  whom  he  liad,  in  gi-eat 
bodily  weakness,  addi'essed  solemn  words  of  part- 
ing, and  administered  the  Lord's  Supper.  He 
gave  the  hymn,  with  the  music  he  had  adapted  to 
it,  to  a  dear  relative,  immediately  upon  its  com- 
pletion. See  J.  Millek:  Singers  and  Songs  of  the 
Church,  pp.  431-433. 

LYTTLETON,  George,  Baron;  b.  at  Hagley, 
AVorcester.shiiv,  Jan.  17.  17(1.');  d.  there  Aug.  22, 
1773.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  Oxford ; 
in  1744  was  a  lord-commissioner  of  the  treasury; 
in  1754,  a  member  of  the  privy  council;  in  17.55, 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer ;  raised  to  the  peerage 
Nov.  19,  1756,  as  Baron  Lyttleton  of  Frankley. 
He  is  well  known  as  the  author  of  Observations  on 
the  Conversion  anil  Ajiostlcshij)  of  St.  Paul  (London, 
1747,  frequently  reprinted)  and  Dialogues  of  the 
Dead  (1760).  The  first  treatise  is  called  by  Leland 
(Deuitical  Writers)  "a  demonstration  sufficient  to- 
prove  Christianity  to  be  a  divine  revelation;" 
ami  by  John.son,  "a  treatise  to  which  infidelity 
has  never  been  able  to  fabricate  a  specious  an- 
swer." It  is  based  upon  the  proposition  that 
"the  conversion  and  ajiostleship  of  Paul,  alone, 
duly  considered,  is  of  it.self  a  demonstration  suf- 
ficient to  prove  the  truth  of  Christianity."  The 
proof  of  it  is  deri^■ed  "  from  the  history,  circum- 
stances, station,  and  hojies  of  Paul  as  a  Jew,  ai» 
enemy,  a  persecutor.  No  motives  can  seriously 
be  assigned  for  his  com'crsion  to  a  desjiised  faith, 
save  an  irresistible  conviction  of  tlic  truth  of  the 
miraculous  history  which  he  has  recorded."  He 
published  a  Jlistory  of  Henry  IL,  17U-4-71.  His- 
Memoirs  and  Correspondence  appeared  London, 
1845,  2  vols. 


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