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THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
VOLUME III.
Brj tfje game ^utfjot.
THE DIVINE TEACHER:
A LETTER TO A FRIEND.
With a Preface in Reply to No. 3 of the English Church Defence
Tracts, entitled " Papal Infallibility."
Fourth Edition. 2s. 6d.
MARY MAGNIFYING GOD.
MAY SERMONS.
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Is.
LONDON: BURNS AND OATES.
THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
A DIGEST
OF
THE DOCTRINE OF SUAREZ,
CONTAINED IN HIS TREATISE
li
DE STATU RELIGIONIS."
BY
f
WILLIAM HUMPHKEY
PRIEST OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS.
VOL. III.
?#3^$
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O^Lt°
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NEW YORK :
CATHOLIC PUBLICATION
SOCIETY CO.
ORCHARD STREET, W. BARCLAY STREET.
BOSTON COLLEGE L/BRARY
P.MFQTMI i-r
V
3>
1 3 0 b 6 3
CONTENTS OF VOL. III.
CHAPTER XVI.— (continued)
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS.
PAGK
VII. In what degree of perfection is the Society constituted 1 . i
VIII. It is prudently ordained in the Society that there should
not exist in it any ordinary exercise of Chant or Choir . 6
IX. Does the Society profess a strict or a lax Rule 1 . . . 1 1
CHAPTER XVII.
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY ; AND THE PROBATION
WHICH BOTH PRECEDES AND FOLLOWS ENTRANCE.
I. Have certain impediments been rightly instituted which sub-
stantially hinder entrance into the Society] and what are
these 1 20
II. The impediment from defect of origin ; and how far it
obtains in the Society 31
III. What probation should precede admission 1 and what con-
ditions are to be observed in order that a person should
be rightly received into the Society ? 32
IV. Is an entire period of two years rightly fixed for the novice-
ship in the Society ? and for what reason 1 . . . . 40
V. The observances, the experiments, and the place in which
the Novices of the Society should be exercised during the
time of their noviceship 45
VI CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS INTO THE SOCIETY BY
MEANS OF SIMPLE VOWS; AND THE DISMISSAL OF SCHO-
LASTICS FROM THE SOCIETY.
PAGE
I. The reasons for this peculiarity of the Society . . . 58
II. Does the admission of Scholastics into the Society constitute
them true religious 1 65
III. Is it to be called Profession ? 66
IV. What conditions are necessary on the part of the subject, in
order that the vows of Scholastics may be validly made? . 67
V. What conditions are necessary on the part of the Society for
the same end 1 68
VI. Can there be tacit profession or incorporation of the Scho-
lastics of the Society 1 69
VII. In what way can their vows be dissolved ? . 70
CHAPTER XIX.
THE VOWS OF CHASTITY, POVERTY, AND OBEDIENCE, AS
MADE IN THE SOCIETY.
I. Of what nature is the vow of chastity made by Scholas-
tics of the Society 1 and does it annul subsequent matri-
mony ? 75
II. Do simple vows in the Society dissolve matrimony which
has been contracted, but not consummated 1 . . . 77
III. By what means does the Society aid its subjects to the
observance of their vow of chastity 1 . . . . 77
IV. The vow of poverty of the Scholastics of the Society does
not render them incapable of dominion ; and capability
of dominion is nevertheless not incompatible with their
religious state 79
V. To whom can or ought the Scholastics of the Society,
according to the Rule, to distribute their goods ? . . 82
VI. This distribution, as regards their vow of poverty . . 85
VII. To what practice or exercise of poverty are individual reli-
gious of the Society bound, in virtue of the Rule? . . 88
VIII. To what are they bound in virtue of their vows ? . . . 97
IX. The poverty which is proper to Professed Houses of the
Society 99
CONTENTS. VI 1
PA GE
X. To what community poverty are the Colleges of the Society
and the Houses of Probation bound 1 . . . 101
XL Can the religious of the Society be bound in virtue of their
vow of obedience in every matter whatsoever which is
good in itself? 104
XII. The counsel of obedience in the Society, as regards per-
fection of execution 108
XIII. The same counsel as regards the will 109
XIV. The same counsel as regards the understanding . . . 118
XV. Is the promise to enter the Society, which is made by the
approved Scholastics when they make the three sub-
stantial vows, a true vow befitting their state ? . . 130
XVI. What are the effects of this promise 1 131
CHAPTER XX.
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY, AND THEIR STUDIES ;
AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE SOCIETY FOR
EXTERNS,
I. Is a religious state in the Society rightly destined for study ? 134
II. Is the study of and skill in the Classics, in languages, and in
liberal arts becoming to religious of the Society / . . 140
III. The method of study in the Society 144
IV. Does it become religious of the Society to have public schools
and universities, and to teach in them I . . .154
V. Has the Society fittingly undertaken the education of boys ? 161
VI. The means employed by the Society in the education of
Externs 169
CHAPTER XXI.
THE PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS, WHICH IS MADE IN THE
SOCIETY; THE PROBATION WHICH PRECEDES IT, AND
THE SIMPLE VOWS WHICH FOLLOW IT.
I. Is profession rightly deferred in the Society for a long
time ? 173
II. For what reason is a third year of probation required of
Scholastics of the Society before profession ? . . . 181
VOL. III. b
Viii CONTENTS.
PAGE
III. Does the special form of profession in the Society induce a
special obligation with regard to the teaching of chil-
dren ? 187
IV. Is the vow of obedience to the Supreme Pontiff, which is
made by the Professed in the Society, a solemn vow, and
distinct from the three substantial vows ? . . .192
V. Is profession made in a fitting manner in the Society ? . 206
VI. The simple vows which follow profession ; and, first, the
vow not to assent to relaxation of poverty . . . 207
VII. The vow which is made by the Professed of the Society not
to seek dignities 213
VIII. Is a vow not to accept the Episcopate without a precept
from the Superior fittingly made in the Society ? . . 217
IX. The vow which the Professed of the Society make to listen
to the counsels of the General, if they should happen to
be raised to the Episcopate 224
X. Their vow to manifest to the Superior those who procure
dignities 229
XL Why are these vows simple and not solemn ? 230
CHAPTEPv XXII.
THE PROFESSED OF THREE VOWS; AND THE FORMED COAD-
JUTORS OF THE SOCIETY.
The Spiritual Coadjutors of the Society .... 237
The Temporal Coadjutors of the Society .... 244
How many grades of persons are there in the Society ? and
how are they distinguished ? 250
CHAPTEE XXIII.
THE MEANS WHICH THE SOCIETY EMPLOYS FOR THE SPIRI-
TUAL PROGRESS AND PERFECTION OF ITS MEMBERS.
I. Ought the religious of the Society, in virtue of their Insti-
tute, to give themselves to mental exercises 1 and to
what extent 1 253
II. Are they bound, in virtue of their Institute, to any vocal
prayers ? 256
III. Are they specially bound to celebrate or communicate
frequently? 261
CONTENTS. ix
PAGE
IV. Frequency of confession, and general confession . . 265
V. The reservation of sins in the Society 266
VI. In what way does the Society aim at perfection of charity? 271
VII. The negative means by which fraternal charity and concord
is preserved in the Society 271
VIII. The positive means by which it is conciliated . . . 277
IX. By what means are the religious of the Society aided
towards the acquisition of solid virtues? . . .281
CHAPTEE XXIV.
THE MEANS, OR MINISTRIES WHICH THE SOCIETY EMPLOYS
FOR THE SALVATION OF EXTERNS.
I. What can and ought the religious of the Society to do
with regard to the ministry of preaching the Word of
God ? and what has been granted to them with regard
to this ministry by the Apostolic See ? 286
II. What can and ought they to do in the administration of
the Sacrament of Penance? . ... . . . 299
III. What can and ought they to do in the administration of the
Sacrament of the Eucharist ? 304
IV. What can they do as regards the administration of the other
Sacraments ? 306
V. The Spiritual Exercises which the Society employs in order
to the assistance of its neighbours ; what are they ? and
what is their doctrine ? 307
VI. The art or method of the Exercises 310
VII. The use of the Exercises, both by Ours and by Externs . 315
VIII. Ought the religious of the Society to aid their neighbours
by means of familiar conversation with them ? . . 317
IX. Ought the Society to have a special care in the aid of those
of its neighbours who are in danger of death ? . . 320
CHAPTER XXV.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY.
I. Is the Society fitly governed by way of monarchy ? . 321
II. Is it expedient that the appointment of the General should
be for life? 3^6
X CONTENTS.
PAGE
III. Are the other Prelates fitly instituted in the Society ? . 329
IV. The power of jurisdiction which exists in the Society . 340
V. This power of jurisdiction which exists in inferior Prelates
of the Society 343
VI. Do the Prelates of the Society rightly exact from their sub-
jects a manifestation of their consciences in order to
their individual government ? 345
VII. Is fraternal denunciation rightly made in accordance with
the Rule and particular government of the Society ? . 352
VIII. The general doctrine of denunciation ; and its application
to the practice of the Society 356
IX. The three modes of procedure in external judgment against
the offences of subjects ; and, first, Visitation, or General
Enquiry 361
X. The mode of proceeding by way of Special Enquiry ; by
way of Judicial Denunciation ; and by way of Accusa-
tion 365
XI. What form of judgment is observed in the Society ] . . 369
XII. Is the Rule of the Society well adapted and sufficient for
the fitting government and religious direction of the
Order ? 375
CHAPTER XXVI.
SEVERANCE FROM THE SOCIETY.
I. Can a Professed Father be expelled from the Society 1 and
for what causes ? 385
II. Can he be transferred to another Order ? and in what way ? 385
III. To what is a Professed Father of the Society bound who has
been expelled from it, or who has left it in any other way 1 387
,\\
THE RELIGIOUS STATE,
CHAPTER XVL— (continued.)
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS.
VII. — In what degree of perfection is the Society
CONSTITUTED ?
Every religious Order is not engaged in all the works
of counsel ; but some are engaged in higher works than
others ; and each is engaged in accordance with its own
proximate end at which it aims. In order therefore to
a perfect knowledge of the Society, we must enquire, so
far as this may be done without invidiousness and
arrogance, to what degree in the order of perfection the
Society attains. Some have accused it of great imper-
fection, both as regards the contemplative and as regards
the active life. As regards the contemplative life, because
it does not fulfil a chief function of this life, namely,
that of psalmody and chanting the divine praise. Psal-
mody was so regarded by the Founders of the more
ancient Orders ; and Mendicants, who in virtue of their
Institute are supported by the alms of the faithful, seem
bound by a special title publicly to chant the Divine
Office. A body which does not do this has been said
VOL. III. A
2 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
hardly to merit the name of religions, since it is shorn
of one of the chief splendours of religion. With regard
also to the active life, it has been urged as an imperfec-
tion in the Society, that it does not imitate the austerities
of the old Orders, which were regarded in them as so
necessary to perfection ; and that it professes scarcely
anything special beyond that which all by common
custom, or by the precept of the Church, are bound to
observe.
Nevertheless, we must maintain that the Society is
in virtue of its Institute most perfect ; and that it is
constituted in the highest order of religious states, and
that in that order it does not occupy the lowest place.
St. Thomas teaches that religious bodies which profess
the purely contemplative life are of their kind more
perfect than those which profess the purely active life ;
but that religious bodies which in virtue of their institutes
embrace both lives, are more perfect than those which
profess either the purely contemplative life, or the merely
active life. He says also that those hold the highest
place among religious bodies, which are ordained for
teaching and preaching. In this sense therefore we affirm
that the Society is constituted in the highest order of
religious perfection.
Again, the Society is a religious body of priests, and
a religious body of clerics is, of its kind, more perfect
than a religious body of monks. This is signified by
St. Jerome when he says — " So live in the monastery,
that you may deserve to be a cleric."
Further, since the highest in any genus gives measure
to all others who are comprehended within that genus,
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 3
and since, in the state of perfection, bishops hold the
highest place, a religious body which more nearly
approaches the episcopal state will be, of its kind, in a
higher state of perfection than are bodies which do not,
or which less nearly approach tbat state. Bishops are
said to be in the state of perfection chiefly because they
are in the state of those who communicate perfection ; and
because to this they are bound by their office, even to
the giving of their lives, if need be, for the sheep, and
because in this function they derive stability from the
obligation of their state. In all this the Society largely
shares. In virtue of its end it is ordained not only to
the acquiring but also to the exercising and communi-
cating of perfection ; and in virtue of its vows (and this
is proper to the Society), it is bound to do so, not-
withstanding any difficulty, journeying throughout the
entire world, begging if need be, and facing all perils,
even to bloodshed ; and in this function its stability is
sealed by the obligation of a vow. In this way there-
fore it approaches closely to the state of episcopal
perfection. It differs from that state inasmuch as its
office in perfecting its neighbours is not principal, but
ministerial ; and again because it does not extend to
the ministering of that sacrament which completes the
christian state, namely, Confirmation, or that other sac-
rament which creates ministers of perfection to others,
namely, the Sacrament of Order. In these ways all reli-
gious bodies are inferior to the bishops, to whom they
are coadjutors. But with regard to the Society it is
particularly to be noted that it was specially instituted
for the service of the Apostolic See, as appears from the
4 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Bulls of the Pontiffs ; and Clement VIII. deigned to call
it " the right arm of the Apostolic See ;■' and from that
See very many graces and faculties have flowed to the
Society for the exercise of its ministry in the salvation
of souls, and in order that it should be furnished with
due power for its work of the perfection of its
neighbours.
Further, in the highest order of religious states the
Society holds not the lowest place. This follows from
its end which, without doubt and by the confession of
all, is the highest, being the same as that of the Apos-
tolic Institute and closely approaching the end of the
Advent of Christ into the world. Although many
religious bodies may in a manner aim at the same end,
yet the Society in a perfect manner shews itself intent
upon this end ; for it seeks it by actions which are the
most perfect of their kind, and by all manner of actions ;
and St. Thomas teaches that, of religious bodies which
aim at the same end, that body is the most perfect which
attains its end by the most perfect action and, all else
being equal, by the greatest number of perfect actions.
The perfection of the Society as a religious state
follows also from the perfection of the three vows, in
which the substance of religion consists, and especially
from the vow of obedience which is the most excellent
of the three ; as well as from the other means which it
employs in order to its end, for these are very many,
very perfect, and exceedingly well proportioned to the
end at which it aims.
Its perfection as a state is manifest, moreover, from
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 5
the perfection of charity which it professes towards its
neighbours, whether friends or enemies, believers or un-
believers, labouring for their welfare without stipend *
or compensation, whether for sacrifices or education,
counsel or doctrine. With this is connected the perfec-
tion of its charity towards God, for one of the chief signs
of love of God is love of one's neighbour, and since, in
virtue of its Institute, it is bound not to seek in the
salvation of souls any temporal emolument or advan-
tage or honours or dignities, what remains save to seek
the divine glory for its own sake, as in the Constitu-
tions Ours are often admonished.
And finally, there is the singular grace of its vocation.
This grace of a special vocation God bestows on all reli-
gious bodies according to the measure of their office and
obligation ; and it is also increased according to the
dispositions of individual religious, in proportion as
they face greater difficulties for the love of God, and as
they the more thoroughly deny themselves. In both
ways does a singular excellence belong to the Society ;
for on the part of the Holy Ghost it has been instituted
as a means or instrument in order to the more excellent
effects of the divine grace, such as the propagation of
the Church, the defence of the faith, and the con-
version and perfection of souls ; while, on the part of
those who are called to the Society, there is demanded
of them a singular self-abnegation, so that they can have
neither place nor office nor anything else certain and
secure, but must remain always exposed to every chance
of change or difficulty. Add to this the singular provi-
* See vol. ii. p. 382, note.
THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
dence of the Society, in virtue of its Institute, over its
subjects, for the furtherance of their spiritual good, for
the avoidance of evil, and for the removal of all spiritual
hindrances.
VIII. — It is prudently ordained in the Society
THAT THERE SHOULD NOT EXIST IN IT ANY ORDI-
NARY EXERCISE OF CHANT OR CHOIR.
It does not belong to the perfection of a religious
body that it should embrace and profess all the counsels
collectively, or every counsel in particular ; and this for
an evident reason, because it is impossible that all the
counsels should be put in execution at once. Some
counsels are incompatible with others, such as preach-
ing and serving the sick at the same time, or as con-
tinuous duties ; and the very multitude of the counsels
would be too much for human nature, for the bodily
powers would fail and fervour of spirit would be
extinguished, and so by reason of an indiscreet burden
virtue would oftentimes not be persevered in. The
Apostles themselves said to their disciples — " It is not
meet that we should leave the Word of God and serve
tables."
When comparison is made between religious states,
and one state is seen to lack some religious observance
and the exercise of some work which falls under counsel,
it is not at once to be reckoned imperfect or absolutely
inferior to other religious states. Two things have to
be weighed ; first, the question whether such a work is
adapted to the end of that Order, or whether looking
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 7
to this end it may not be more expedient to exclude
that work ? and secondly, the farther question whether
the absence of this good work is counterbalanced by
the doing of a better work, with which the other is
morally incompatible.
It has been prudently ordained in the Society that
there should not be any ordinary exercise of choir and
ecclesiastical chant and psalmody ; for this, although in
itself most excellent, would not advance the end of the
Society, nor would it be a means in proportion with
that end. The reasons of St. Ignatius for not imposing
on the Society the burden of choir were all taken from
the point of view of the end. of seeking the greater
glory of God in the salvation of souls, and seeking this
by those means which should most contribute thereto.
He considered, in the first place, that the observance of
choir by the Society was not at that time necessary in
the Church in order to this end. He well understood
that the holy work of publicly praising God by chant-
ing the divine office was good in itself, both for the
praise of God, and in order to the holy contemplation
of those who are engaged in it, and also useful to
others by exciting their devotion, and attracting them
to the divine worship ; but he considered that this was
already provided in the Church in sufficient abundance.
Hence it is left to the prudence of the Society, whenever
it shall be judged expedient for the greater fruit of
souls, to take up some portion of this holy exercise, as
for instance, for the purpose of attracting the faithful to
come more frequently to hear sermons and to confession.
St. Ignatius also considered that the works to which
8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the Society gives itself for the salvation of souls are so
numerous and so important that, without great inter-
ference with these, it could not be occupied in chanting
the divine office.
The Houses of Probation, in the first place, are not
suited for the performance of this exercise as a duty,
for, if the older and graver members should not engage
in it, it could not be performed with dignity and due
splendour. Again, in every Order the novices should be
instructed and exercised in those acts and ministries in
which they are afterwards to be as a rule engaged. The
Society in the probation of its novices is so intent upon
their spiritual instruction, and exercise in daily medi-
tation and contemplation, and training in works and
actions in which humility, self-denial and charity to-
wards their neighbours is practised, that it could not
conveniently be distracted from this by public offices.
Add to this that a considerable portion of the novice-
ship is taken up by pilgrimages, service in the hospitals
and other trials outside the House and at a distance
from choir.
In the Houses of Study the case is still more evident.
In the Colleges specially devoted to studies, even in
those Orders which most sedulously profess this ministry
of choir, both masters and scholars are relieved from
this duty. Studies, and especially studies so grave and
manifold as are those which the Society professes, if
they are to be made seriously and with superlative
fruit, as the Society demands, require the whole man
and the whole of his time.
In the Houses also of the Professed the occupations
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 9
of the Fathers for the benefit of their neighbours are
most important, and of such a nature as will not permit
them to interrupt their studies in theology, in divine
things, and in cases of conscience. There is besides the
necessity of time for their own private duties of con-
sideration, meditation and contemplation, both long and
frequent so far as their occupations will permit, in order
that they may fulfil their functions with fruit to souls,
and to the increase of their own perfection, and avoid-
ance of the perils which mingle with their ministries ;
and this is much more useful than it would be for
them to be engaged in choir and chant. Since both
occupations could not be attempted without too great
a burden and the chance of both or either being done
imperfectly, St. Ignatius rightly and prudently judged
that the Society should be relieved from this duty, and
set free for those occupations of great moment which
are more proper to its Institute and vocation ; and his
judgment was confirmed by the approbation of the
Pontiffs.
But St. Ignatius was not the first whom the Holy
Ghost directed towards this idea. Pope Gregory declared
in a public allocution that in the Holy Eoman Church
a very reprehensible custom had sprung up, that certain
deacons were devoted to singing whom it became to
give themselves to the office of preaching and the ad-
ministration of alms ; and he ordained that henceforth
their place in singing should be taken by sub-deacons
or minor clerics. St. Thomas also teaches that it is a
more noble manner of exciting men to devotion to do
so by teaching and preaching than by chant, and
lO THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
therefore that deacons and prelates, to whom it belongs
to excite the souls of men towards God by teaching and
preaching, should not give themselves to chant, in order
that they may not be withdrawn from greater things.
The ministry of preaching, under which all ministries
are comprehended which directly procure the salvation
of souls, is to be preferred to that of psalmody or
ecclesiastical chant, when they cannot be exercised
together both perfectly and regularly. Moreover, there
is this difference between them, that preaching is an
action which is proper to priests or deacons, wdiile the
chant may be performed by any inferior clerics, or by
laymen, if necessary, and especially if the latter are
devoted to the divine service. Hence the religious
Orders of monks, which in themselves are not Orders
of priests but of laymen, profess the ministry of the
choir, which may be excellently fulfilled by them, and
which is adapted to their end, namely, to contemplation.
But this is not the case with regard to all Orders of
priests ; for it is not the only duty of a priest to give
himself to the divine office, and it is chiefly his duty to
procure the salvation of men.
Finally, Choir, or the recitation of the Canonical Office
in community, is certainly not of the substance of reli-
gion, or necessary either to acquire or to preserve the
perfection of charity ; or even as a means in order to
the general end of the contemplative life, for this life
was professed in its perfection by the hermits, who led
a solitary life. St. Thomas says that an Order which
professes extreme poverty ought not at once to glory in
itself as if it were absolutely more perfect than other
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. I I
Orders ; since it may at most be only relatively more
perfect, for by other Orders it may be excelled in other
matters, as for instance, in obedience ; and that which
excels in things better is in itself and absolutely better.
IX. — Does the Society profess a strict or a lax
Eule ?
Three things are to be distinguished, for they are
very distinct from each other, — Austerity, Penance and
a Strict Rule.
Austerity signifies a special roughness in the external,
ordinary and common treatment of the body ; as, for in-
stance, with regard to food, by abstinence from flesh or
even other meats, or by diminution of quantity, or more
frequent fasting ; with regard to clothing, by disuse of
linen, or coarseness of habit, or by going barefooted ; with
regard to repose, by hardness of bed or roughness of
covering, or by sleeping on the ground.
Penance is more extensive than Austerity, for it in-
cludes secret and hidden actions, such as private flagel-
lations, use of hair shirts, extraordinary watchings, great
labours undertaken for pious causes and the like.
Rigour or Strictness of Rule does not consist in
these things merely, or even principally in them, but
is more subtilely and more spiritually to be weighed.
Although a strict rule does not omit sufficient austerity
and penance, it consists principally in a rigorous ob-
servance of the three vows, and in all observances which
may in themselves be reduced to these, as means which
are of themselves necessary in order to a perfect observ-
12 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
ance of the vows, or as worthy fruits of them. For
instance, in the observance of chastity, a Rule is strict
which not only represses every evil act or motion, but
also vigilantly provides for mortification of all the
senses, and forbids and prevents not only all lascivious
words, but all words which are vain or which may even
remotely offend against purity. So also a Rule is strict
in the matter of poverty, when the one and only reason
for using temporal goods is necessity, and when this
use of them is common to all alike, and is in all things
dependent on the judgment and will of superiors. The
greatest rigour and strictness of Rule is that which is
possible in the case of obedience ; for since obedience is
more excellent than the matter of the other vows so also
is it more difficult, and demands greater self-abnegation
and abjuration of all private affections; for, as St. Gregory
says — abnegation of what one has is little, but abnega-
tion of what one is, is a great deal.
The Society does not profess any fixed mode of
austerity or penance, as of regular observance and
proposed to all ; as is declared in its Constitutions. Its
mode of life in external things is common, and it has
no ordinary penances or bodily afflictions which are of
obligation. In the Bull of Confirmation of Julius I IT.
the narrative of the Institute sets forth that as regards
food and clothing and other external matters the mem-
bers of the Society follow the common and approved
practice of respectable priests, and that whatsoever may
be subtracted, from desire of spiritual profit, is offered of
devotion, as a reasonable homage of the body to God,
and not as of obligation. This the Pontiff approves as
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 1 3
pious and holy, and as excellently in accordance with the
end of the Institute, for he adds that in the said Society
and in its laudable Institutes there is nothing found
which is not pious and holy, and that all things therein
contained tend to the salvation of the souls of its
members and of the souls of the faithful, and to the
exaltation of the faith.
The members of the Society, however, in virtue of its
Eule, ought to make use of penances and afflictions of
the body, in the manner prescribed by its Constitutions.
St. Ignatius indeed abstains from the use of the word
ought, lest he should seem to induce an obligation in
conscience ; but if this word is understood as indicating
not obligation under fault, but only a direction of the
Eule to that which is more perfect, and is counselled by
the Eule, it may be truly said that the members of
the Society ought in virtue of the Eule to make use of
penances and bodily afflictions. They ought, so far as
they are concerned, to desire and ask for these, and
according to the judgment of their superiors faithfully
to execute them. If any one should be negligent in
this matter, the superior ought, in accordance with his
office, whereby he is bound to aid his subjects to their
greater spiritual profit and not only to punish their
defects, to enjoin on them such penances ; and it is
manifest that subjects ought to perform them, since
they are bound, in virtue of their state, to aim at per-
fection. In this sense the Eule has been understood
by the whole Society, as the idea of greater perfection
demands ; and this understanding of the Eule has been
14 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
confirmed by perpetual custom, which is the best inter-
preter of a law. St. Ignatius seems solicitous in the
Eule to provide remedies rather against excess in this
matter than against shortcoming : and this because be
supposes a religious solicitude both in superiors and in
subjects, as spiritual men and given to prayer, to exer-
cise themselves in works of penance so far as these are
compatible with the other labours of the Society.
Were it otherwise, a great instrument of perfection
would be wanting to the Society, for although sanctity
does not consist in afflictions of the body, yet these aite
in no way to be neglected, since they are necessary for
purity of heart, by purification from past and prevention
of future sins, for humility, for imitation of Christ and
for many other spiritual fruits.
St. Ignatius would not prescribe one rule or mode of
penance for all, because of the great variety of persons
and circumstances in the Society ; and he therefore
left it to be measured in the case of each by the pru-
dent judgment of superiors. That his view was most
holy as well as prudent, is evidenced by its accordance
both with reason and with the counsels of the ancient
fathers and founders of Orders, such as St. Basil, St.
Augustine and St. Benedict. St. Chrysostom speaks of
the manner of life of a certain holy young man in terms
which exactly express the mind of St. Ignatius. He says
— " And what is still more admirable, he seemed in
external observance to differ in nothing from others, for
he was not made noticeable by rustic or uncultured man-
ners, by unkempt hair, or by being meanly clad, but all
was ordinary in habit, in speech, in appearance and in
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. I 5
all other things. Hence he could more easily &et greater
numbers of his comrades into his nets, and he had a
wonderful substructure of wisdom. Had one seen him
at home, he would have thought him one of those who
dwell in mountains and in deserts, for his house was so
ordered and furnished that it left nothing of a monastery
to be desired, and be had nothing more than what was
necessary." Equally to the mind and spirit of St.
Ignatius are the words of St. Basil — If we neglect by
immoderate want, that for the sake of which we choose
abstinence from food, we act contrary to our purpose ;
for, the instrument being broken and shattered, we can
neither cleave to God by our endeavours in prayer and
reading, nor perform the offices of humanity for the
welfare of our brethren. Care of the body is therefore
necessarily to be taken, not for its own sake, but in order
that we may use its services for the study of the true
wisdom. St. Thomas teaches that if one is bound to
any work, whether it is liberal, such as lecturing, preach-
ing, or chanting, or whether it is mechanical, such as
building, digging, or the like, an abstinence which should
hinder one's capability for such works would not be an
act of virtue.
Since therefore, in this matter, one and the same
measure would not be equally suitable for all persons,
the Society rightly would not ordain one and the same
rule for all its subjects, but committed the measure to
the Living Rule, namely, to the superior. St. Ignatius
did not hereby disparage the custom of other religious
Orders, in which austerities are prescribed by general
rules ; for in these Orders this may holily and prudently
1 6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
be done, for although those rules cannot equally be
observed by all, yet they may be observed by the greater
number, and so those who are dispensed may as a rule be
in the minority. In the Society this could not be so, and
if it had been absolutely necessary that one rule should
be prescribed for all, it would have been too moderate,
and therefore the matter was left as we have seen.
The special reason which moved St. Ignatius in this
matter, was the end of the Institute, which is the salva-
tion of souls. This end is so aimed at by the Society
that the whole weight of religion is, as far as may be,
thrown upon it ; and therefore the manner of life in the
Society, and even its mode of seeking personal perfec-
tion, is in every particular adapted to this special end.
In this St. Ignatius willed his companions to imi-
tate Christ their Leader, Who conversed familiarly with
men, and in external things, especially as regards meat
and drink, led the common life of other men, in order
that He might accomplish the end for which principally
He was made mortal flesh, that is to say, that He might
draw all men to Himself and gain all. So also His
Apostle — " I became all things to all men, that I might
save all" (i Cor. ix. 22).
Even the religious Orders of monks who, and espe-
cially since the times of St. Francis and St. Dominic,
have taken their share in the assistance of the bishops,
in their ministries to souls, have moderated the rigour
of the ancient monks who observed entire separation as
regards habitation; and they now erect their monasteries
in cities and dwell amongst their fellow-men. In pro-
portion as the Society lays herself out still more for this
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. I J
office so does she hold intercourse with men, not only
dwelling in cities and amicably receiving those who come
to her, but even seeking them in the streets and public
places, and journeying throughout the entire world,
to gain all for Christ ; and in this she imitates both
Him and His Apostles. She strives also, in their spirit,
after a right intention and prudence, in order that she
may accomplish so great a work, not only with fruit to
others, but also without loss to her own members. It
is most fitting that he who converses with others in
order to the gaining of their souls, should conform him-
self to them in His manner of life, for this helps in
no small degree to conciliate them, and to dispose them
so that his intercourse with them may be fruitful.
The journeyings of the Society being, as Gregory XIII.
says, a grace of its vocation, its members ought not, in
virtue of their Eule, to be bound to this or that kind of
food, but should keep the rule of the Gospel — " Eat
such things as are set before you" (St. Luke x. 8), for
it is not expedient either to be always having dispen-
sations, or to have one manner of living at home and
another abroad, or to be burdensome to others with
whom one must sojourn, and by whom one is boarded.
As the Society imitates Christ in His common life, so
also in His life of austerity she does not shrink from
following in His footsteps. In the first place, with this
kind of life she conjoins a perfect poverty. In the
Houses of the Professed she observes both individual
and community poverty ; and in the Houses of Study,
she retains that kind of poverty which is best suited to
the occupations of the inmates. Moreover, and this is
VOL. III. B
l8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the chief point, with regard to the poverty of indivi-
duals she observes the utmost rigour. In missions and
journeys for the salvation of souls, the members of the
Society should, as far as possible, live by begging. In
undertaking labours for the salvation of souls she closely
imitates Christ, since her members are bound to spare
no labour to attain that end, and should be prepared to
bear all injuries and sufferings, with entire self-abnega-
tion, and contempt of all things temporal, and a desire
of sufferino; with Christ,
St. Ignatius looked for several advantages to the
Society from this rule, and these his successors have by
the grace of God found in their experience. He desired
that the penance of the Society should be not penance
only, but obedience also and humility. These virtues
are exercised in no small degree when a religious lays bare
to his superior whatsoever he does and desires, and con-
forms himself to his judgment and will by way either of
moderation or of increase of penance. Secondly, the
saint considered that corporal and spiritual welfare is
better provided for, by reference to a living rather than
to an inanimate Kule. Thirdly, he reckoned that its
result would be a greater practice of penance than if
penance were prescribed by any definite rule, laid down
in accordance with the end of the Society and consider-
ing the very great variety of its members, since that
wrould of necessity have been exceedingly moderate.
From all this it follows that the Society serves God
under a Kule which is very strict and rigorous; for a
Kule is not to be reckoned strict or lax inasmuch merely
THE SOCIETY OF JESUS. 1 9
as its corporal afflictions are greater or less, but its strict-
ness is to be measured chiefly by its rigour and observ-
ance in all works of virtue and counsel. There is greater
strictness where there is greater observance in those
things which are of greater moment and perfection. The
Society would not be perfect or prudently instituted, if
its life were one of penance and austerity at variance
with its end.
Finally, the individual members of the Society will
be imperfect if, so far as lies in them, they do not use
bodily afflictions in accordance with their circumstances;
and it will not be sufficient excuse that they are
occupied in other labours, such as study or works of
piety, or that they exercise themselves in other self-
abnegations and interior mortifications, and have care
and vigilance in the custody of their senses ; for each is
bound by the Rule to some fitting external penance at
the will or by the command of the superior ; and the
superior will himself contravene the Rule if he does not
watch over his subjects in this matter.
( 20 )
CHAPTER XVII.
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY; AND THE PROBATION
WHICH BOTH PRECEDES AND FOLLOWS ENTRANCE.
I. — Have certain impediments been rightly insti-
tuted WHICH SUBSTANTIALLY HINDER ENTRANCE
into the Society ? and what are these ?
Among the ordinances or rules of the Society those
come first which regulate the manner of receiving the
members who are to be aggregated to it. They are
chiefly contained in a little work or treatise which is
called the General Examen-. because it is in accordance
with it that those who are to be received into the
Society are examined. The Examen is also to be set
before them, in order that they likewise may deliberate
with greater light on the subject of their entrance.
Five impediments are there laid down. The first is — to
have left the bosom of the Church by denying the faith,
or by running into errors contrary to faith so as to be
condemned for some heretical proposition, or declared
by public sentence suspected of heresy, or to be in-
famous by excommunication as a schismatic who has
spurned the authority of the Church.
There are in this .impediment four degrees, namely,
apostasy from the faith, error with regard to some
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 2 1
heretical proposition, suspicion of heresy, and schism
with spurning of the authority and providence of the
Church. In the second degree, it is manifestly de-
manded that a sentence should have intervened by
which the person has been condemned for such error.
In the Constitutions, however, it is laid down as suffi-
cient that the error should have been public, and that
there should be reason to fear the matter coming before
the Courts, and the case is therefore left to the judgment
of the General. It is not said that the person cannot
be received, but that he ought not ; and therefore public
knowledge alone without a sentence does not constitute
an impediment which invalidates, but only one which
hinders entrance. Again, it is not required that one
should be heretical and truly contumacious, but it is
enough that he should have propounded errors contrary
to catholic doctrine ; and therefore it is rightly demanded
that he should have been condemned by sentence of
error by reason of a heretical proposition, because, until
lie is so condemned, his heresy is not proved, and, as a
rule, there will not have been contracted an infamy so
grievous that by reason of it he should be altogether
excluded. The question of his admission is therefore
prudently left to the judgment of the Supreme Prelate.
It is the same with regard to the third case, in which
neither certain heresy nor clear proposition of error is
supposed, but only suspicion of heresy ; and therefore it
is expressly required that the person should have been
declared by public sentence suspected of heresy. It is
added however, in the declaration of the Examen, that
he who is suspected of any erroneous opinion in a
2 2 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
matter pertaining to faith, is not to be admitted so
long as the suspicion remains ; and thus a difference is
insinuated between him who has been declared by
sentence suspected, and him who is suspected in some
other way. In the first case the impediment is per-
petual and, so to speak, incurable, however much the
person might amend, and the suspicion be removed ;
while in the second case, although the suspicion hinders
entrance so long as it remains, if it is taken away
the impediment disappears with it. The suspicion
might be removed in two ways. The first is, when
it is publicly and sufficiently apparent that the sus-
picion was false, and that the person never really
held an erroneous opinion with regard to a doctrine of
faith. This is the best removal of suspicion, and un-
doubtedly in this case suffices. The second is when
there is no longer suspicion in the present that the
person now holds such an erroneous opinion, although
there remains a suspicion with regard to his having
held it in the past. This does not wholly purge the
person from the infamy which remains from his pre-
ceding fault even after amendment, yet nevertheless
the impediment is thereby removed, although there is
need for much prudence in determining whether it is
expedient that the person should be received. The
words of the declaration appear to be rather directive
and declarative of circumspection and the obligation of
the superior to whom the reception belongs, than con-
stitutive of a new invalidating impediment.
In the fourth degree or mode of this first impediment,
infamy is necessary, but it need not be founded in a
ON ENTKANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 23
public and juridical sentence, for it may be incurred by-
means of excommunication ipso facto as a schismatic.
The proper and precise reason of this impediment, as
regards these three heads, is to be found in the infamy
which has resulted ; for other inconveniences might be
averted, or would merely suggest a question for pru-
dence. Infamy springing from such sources would be
a great impediment to the efficiency of the Society,
not only for general reasons, but also specially because
the Society has been instituted for the defence of the
faith, and professes a special obedience to the Apostolic
See ; and he is therefore rightly considered to be un-
adapted for it who has been condemned for errors
contrary to the faith, or for suspicion of heresy, or
who has become infamous on the ground of public
schism.
The second substantial impediment to entrance into
the Society is to have perpetrated homicide, or to have
become publicly infamous for enormous crimes.
The impediment of homicide is more probably to be
restricted to homicide which is sinful ; but sinful homi-
cide, considered as an impediment to entrance into the
Society, comprehends not only homicide which is volun-
tary, but also homicide which although casual is sinful,
and homicide which is hidden, and instigation to homicide
actually perpetrated by another. In other crimes the
ground of the impediment is the infamy thence arising,
but in the impediment of homicide it is the crime itself ;
and in practice when one who is examinee^ confesses
that he has perpetrated homicide, there is no farther
24 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
interrogation with regard to infamy or publicity to be
made, but he is held as disabled for entrance into the
Society.
There is a difference between this impediment and
that of apostasy by denial of the faith, since the homicide
need neither be public nor capable of proof, while the
apostasy, although it need not be public in the sense of
notorious, must at least be capable of proof. There
must also be a concurrence of internal with external
heresy ; for if one were merely externally to deny the
faith from a motive of fear, or human love, while
internally he retained the faith, he would not incur the
impediment, for he did not absolutely deny the faith,
but pretended to deny it. Further, such a person must
have been for some time of the number of the faithful,
as an adult and sufficiently instructed in the Catholic
Church ; for if he was educated from infancy among
heretics even if he had been baptized, and when he came
to adult age had imbibed their errors, he could not be
said properly and strictly to have departed from the
bosom of the Church by denying the faith. So also
when the heresy is only generally that of a province or
nation, as in the case of the Greeks who are held to be
schismatics, the infamy attaches to the nation rather
than to the person, and so does not hinder entrance
into the Society. With regard to the impediment of
public infamy by reason of enormous crimes, it is com-
mitted by the Constitutions to the General to judge what
sins are to be reckoned enormous ; and this infamy forms
aiji impediment in that place only where it has arisen,
and not in remote regions, if the person has sufficiently
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 25
amended, and if there is no moral risk of the rumour
reaching those regions.
The third substantial impediment to entrance into
the Society is to have received the habit of any religious
Order of Friars or Clerics, to have lived some time with
them uuder obedience, whether with or without profes-
sion ; or to have been a hermit with a monastic habit.
To have worn the habit of a religious Order, even for
one day, if it was assumed with intention to embrace
the religious state, or to enter on its noviceship, is
sufficient to create this impediment.
By friars all monks are to be understood, but not the
Knights of military Orders.
With regard to those who have been actually pro-
fessed in other Orders, St. Thomas teaches that departure
from one Order to another is not in itself laudable, and
is justified only by reasons of great necessity or special
advantage ; and because the exception is rare and ex-
traordinary, it is not taken into account by the Society
in this law, which is therefore made absolutely. If, in
any particular case, it should be judged expedient, both
for the Society and for the person desiring entrance, to
admit him, recourse can be had to the Supreme Pontiff
for dispensation.
There is a greater difficulty at first sight with regard
to the grounds for the impediment in the case of those
who have worn the habit of novices in another Order
for some brief space of time. This impediment seems
hard and novel, since it does not exist in any other
2 6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Order, and since the time of noviceship is granted ex-
pressly for the sake of probation, and since therefore
not to persevere up to profession does not indicate in-
constancy or levity of mind. A person might by means
of his probation in another religious Order be led to
judge prudently that he was not adapted for that Order,
and that he was called by God to the Society, and why
should he be excluded? The difficulty seems even greater
in the case of a hermit with a monastic habit, since his
life is not a state, and is merely a private mode of life.
The first reason for the creation of this impediment
is, as St. Ignatius himself observes, because a good
christian should be firm in his first vocation, especially
since it is so holy, he having left the world and dedi-
cated himself wholly to the greater service and glory of
his Creator and Lord. Although therefore to change
his Order before profession is a less inconstancy, it does
nevertheless for the most part betray some inconstancy
and cliansjeableness of mind.
The second and chief reason is because St. Ignatius
would have all who are in the Society to be " of one
colour and likeness," for the promotion of union and
mutual love, and rest and peace ; and although a person
who has made trial of and left another Order, has not
made profession in it, there may nevertheless always
remain in him some traces of his sojourn in that Order,
or some conceptions or views which differ from those
which belong to the Institute of the Society ; and so
there is always to be dreaded some divergence which
might imperil peace, especially since the Society pro-
fesses a manner of life which differs in many points from
'HeST^UT HILL, MASS.
ON ENTEANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 2 J
that which is led in other religious Orders. Hence, if a
person who has once entered the Society leaves it, his
life in it does not disable him for reception if he should
again wish to enter the Society; for although he has
shewn inconstancy, the second reason for this impedi-
ment is absent, and therefore that reason appears to be
the principal one for disabling a religious of another
Order for entrance into the Society.
A third reason is greater edification, and this may be
twofold, namely, in the first place, as regards other
Orders, who ought to be gratified that those who leave
them may not be received into the Society ; and,
secondly, as regards the rest of the faithful, who always
consider it as a sort of stigma to have left an Order which
has once been entered. Since the Society exists wholly
in order to the gaining of the faithful, and the procuring
of the salvation of souls, it studies to avoid in everv
way whatever might diminish the esteem or benevolence
of its neighbours. Hence this perhaps has weighed with
the Society, that he who has not shewn himself constant,
and able to persevere in an Order which was instituted
principally for his own individual perfection, does not
seem adapted for an Order which gives itself to pro-
moting the perfection not only of its members but of its
neighbours.
The fourth substantial impediment to entrance into
the Society, is the bond of consummated matrimony, or
that of lawful servitude.
The first part of this impediment is founded in natural
reason, for a husband, after consummated matrimony,
28 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
is no longer master of his own body, and so cannot
freely bestow it on another, even if that other should
be a religious Order. This impediment is also founded
in Common Law, and obtains in other Orders, as
appears from the Eule of the Friars Minor, and the
Constitutions of the Order of Preachers, and St. Basil
also makes mention of it in his rules. According to the
Common LawT, however, the impediment ceases when
leave for entrance is granted by the wife, and when
those other circumstances are observed which according
to sound doctrine and the practice of the Church are wont
to be observed ; and these are that the wife should enter
a monastery if she is young, or that she should make a
vow of continence. But here is to be observed a differ-
ence between what is ordained in the Society, and what
is ordained at Common Law. According to the latter,
if a husband enters with consent of his wife, but with-
out the other circumstances required by the law being
observed, his entrance and profession are substantially
valid, although his practice of the religious life may be
hindered, if his wife should recall him. In the Society,
on the other hand, the reception of a husband will, in
virtue of this impediment, be null and void, even if
made with consent of his wife, if the other circum-
stances required by the law have not been observed.
Further, although when consent has been given and the
necessary circumstances have been duly observed, the
impediment ceases as it is an essential impediment ; it
nevertheless always remains an impediment, so that the
husband ought not to be received without the leave of
the General, and a Provincial has no power to dispense.
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 29
Matrimony, contracted but not consummated, does
not disable for reception into the Society. No person
so bound ought, however, to be received into the Society
without the consent of his wife, and due conversion of
her state as required by the Common Law in the case of
consummated matrimony ; unless perhaps by dispensation
of the General, and with the intention of admitting him
after his two years of probation to solemn profession if
he should be approved, or of at once dismissing him, if he
should not be approved.
With regard to the impediment of servitude or slavery,
although by Common Law it does not invalidate profes-
sion, but only induces an obligation to satisfy the master,
or to restore the slave, who nevertheless remains a reli-
giouSj yet in the Society his reception is, in virtue of
this substantial impediment, null and void. This is the
case however only so long as the state of slavery con-
tinues; for it is not — to have been but to be a slave, as it
is not — to have been but to be married, which constitutes
an impediment. If therefore the slave is manumitted
by his master, or if he in any other way truly redeems
himself from his bondage, the impediment is thereby
removed ; and it will belong to the prudence of supe-
riors to consider whether it is expedient to receive him,
since a certain dishonour or degradation always attaches
to such a person and, having regard to the end of the
Society, this might render him less wrell fitted for its
functions, although if he were admitted for temporal
ministrations only, there would not be the same ground
of objection.
30 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
The fifth and last substantial impediment to entrance
into the Society is any infirmity whereby the judgment
is wont to be obscured or rendered less sound, or any
notable disposition towards such infirmity. The reason
is manifest, for to receive such a person would be no
small damage to the Society, since he would be unfitted
for its ministries.
Every one of the foresaid five impediments renders a
person incapable of reception, and consequently incapable
of every other more intimate admission into the Society ;
and reception and admission with any such impediment
is null and void, and induces no obligation. It was
without doubt the mind of St. Ignatius to deprive the
Society of all power in this matter, and so to disable all
persons labouring under such impediments ; and neither
the General nor the Society itself, and consequently no
one except the Supreme Pontiff can dispense from any
one of them. Without voluntary acceptance on the part
of an Order, all reception into it is null, since it is a
mutual contract, and so must be voluntary on both sides,
and it would not be voluntary on the part of the Society
if the person who sought admission were to conceal any
one of those substantial impediments. So entirely null
is profession or vows made with a concealed substantial
impediment, that no obligation arises, even on the part
of the individual deceiving, either to observe his vows
if he is expelled from the Society, or to remain in the
Society and accept dispensation from the impediment,
even if the Society should be willing to retain him, and
to ask for dispensation. Such an one did not make the
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 3 1
three vows simply and absolutely, but made those vows as
annexed to the religious state in the Society, and to the
tradition or delivery of himself which he made to the
Society ; and this state and tradition being null, the
nullity of the vows necessarily follows. There was on
the part of the subject no other obligatory action be-
sides the tradition, and that was not voluntarily and
therefore not validly accepted by the Society ; and hence
there remains no obligation to perseverance, which would
be in reality a new donation of himself after he had
been rendered capable by means of dispensation.
II. — 'THE IMPEDIMENT FEOM DEFECT OF ORIGIN ; AND
HOW FAR IT OBTAINS IN THE SOCIETY.
The Fifth General Congregation added an impedi-
ment of defect of origin, namely, lineal descent from the
race of the Jews or Saracens. This impediment, although
primary, and to be taken into much account in admitting,
especially to profession, is nevertheless not an essential
impediment like the preceding impediments. It is
ordained not from hatred to any nation, or solely from
regard to human nobility and ignobility, but for reasons
which relate to the common good of the Church, and
the preservation of the faith. Such impediments, of
which there are not a few in the statutes of Cathedral
Churches, Colleges and other Orders, are sufficiently
justified by the fact that they have been created by so
many men who were illustrious both for learning and
sanctity, and, what is most to the point, that they have
been approved by several of the Supreme Pontiffs.
32 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Moreover, reception into an Order, as it relates to this
or to that person or class of persons, is not due, but is
voluntary on the part of the Order, which has power
therefore to lay down certain conditions which preclude
admission.
III. — What probation should precede admission ?
AND WHAT CONDITIONS ARE TO BE OBSERVED IN
ORDER THAT A PERSON SHOULD BE RIGHTLY RE-
CEIVED into the Society?
In order that the reception of a subject into the
Society should be duly accomplished, there must, in the
first place, be diligence and care to discover whether he
has the gifts both of nature and of grace which the
Institute of the Society requires, in accordance with
the grade therein which he is to occupy ; and conse-
quently, whether he has any defects which exclude such
gifts, or notably diminish them. This is agreeable to
reason, since nothing is more due to a religious Order,
or more necessary for its preservation, than that those
who are to be received into it, should be adapted and
fitted for the attainment of its end. St. Buonaventure
declares that to receive all persons indiscriminately is
not expedient either for an Order, or for the Church of
Christ ; and Nicholas III. gravely exhorted the prelates
of the Friars Minor, that they should not admit all
applicants indifferently to the Order, but those only who
by reason of learning, fitness and other circumstances
might be useful to the Order and to themselves by the
merit of their lives, and who should profit others by
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 33
their example. St. Ignatius also sa}7s that it very much
relates to the divine service to make fitting choice of
those who are admitted, and to use diligence to discover
their gifts and vocation, and that no one should be
received unless he is endowed with those gifts of God
which this Institute demands in order to His glory.
" We are," says he, " greatly persuaded in the Lord,
that, in order that the Divine and Supreme Majesty
should deign to use the ministry of this least Society, it
greatly contributes that those who are admitted there-
into should not only be long proved, before they are
aggregated to its body, but also that they should be
very well known before they are admitted to probation."
He would not have men received into the Society,
solely in order to its increase or propagation, since its
good consists not in the multitude of its members, but
in their probity and aptitude for its ministries. A
multitude collected without discrimination, which St.
Ignatius calls a mob, cannot be governed rightly and
with fruit to the whole body; and St. Buonaventure
numbers among the causes of the falling away of an
Order from its first fervour, and as a chief cause, the
multitude of its members, if they have not been selected
with great prudence.
When a person who desires to enter the Society, —
and this applies also to any other Order, — is sufficiently
known as regards all the necessary conditions and
qualities, all that remains is to observe the line of recti-
tude, so that, apart from any private affection, and
looking only to the greater good, first of the Society and
then of the individual, reception should be either granted
VOL. III. c
34 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
or refused. Here a grievous sin may be committed,
either against justice as regards the Society, or against
charity as regards the individual, if, by reason of any
depraved affection or notable negligence, a fit person is
rejected or an unworthy one is admitted. If the con-
dition and capacity of the person is not known, it would
be most imprudent straightway to admit him with-
out sufficient inquiry and examination. Either he is
admitted to be retained, whatever he may be, and this
is to the great prejudice of religion, and of the Society
especially, by reason of its end and the very weighty
matters to which it gives itself, and the damage done by
a useless member redounds also to the great detriment
of the Church ; or he is received to be at once rejected
if he should afterwards be found unfit, and this is in-
jurious to him. He would also be burdensome to the
Society, both by reason of the useless labour and the
money expended on him, and because rash reception and
frequent dismissal must beget scandal.
Two things are therefore most fittingly prescribed
in the Society before reception of a member. One is
examination, and the other is a probation which is called
his " first probation," because it should precede the
other probation, and be followed by further probations
before his profession. The examination which is pre-
scribed in the Society is transacted immediately with
the individual himself; for he it is who ought to be
interrogated, and who is compelled to manifest himself
by means of various interrogatories, all of which tend
towards the ascertaining of his capabilities, his natural
and habitual dispositions, and his actual vocation or
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 35
conversion ; for on these three points his worthiness or
fitness for the Institute chiefly depends.
The applicant is bound in conscience sincerely to lay
bare the truth, for, since he desires to enter into a cove-
nant with the Society, and therefore voluntarily sub-
jects himself to examination, he is justly interrogated;
he is consequently bound to tell the truth, and there
cannot be, as it were, a just conflict between the parties.
If he were by means of falsehood to deceive the Society
in matters of grave moment, and such as would render
him wholly useless in the Society, his reception would
be null and void; not because there existed in him
impediments which disabled him, but because the Society,
being deceived in a substantial matter, would not be a con-
senting party to his reception, its ignorance causing its
action to be involuntary. This examination is also very
useful for other reasons, because in the course of it the
person becomes known, and a judgment may be formed
of him from his manner of answering ; and the examiner
may not always be content with simple interrogation,
but may insist on further inquiry, and sometimes also
put to proof the truth of the answers.
Even when nothing results from the examination
which can in any way hinder reception, and the j^erson
appears therefrom to be a fit subject, the Society is not
content but desires further to prove him, and especially
as regards vocation and constancy, capacity for spiritual
exercises, and for progress in letters, or for corporal
labours, if he is to be exercised in these. It is ordained
therefore that those who are to be received should
remain as guests for twelve or fifteen days in some
^6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
o
separate place, in order that they may there he proved
before they are received.
The first act of probation during this time is for the
applicant to see and consider the apostolic diplomas of
the Institute of the Society, and the Constitutions and
Eules which every one must observe. This is ordained
in order that he who enters should have greater light
and knowledge of the state which he embraces ; and also
in order that the Society may more and more prove his
constancy, when he perseveres in his love and desire of
the Institute notwithstanding his consideration of the
perfection and difficulty which it presents.
The second act of probation and, at the same time,
of preparation, is to exercise him in the spiritual actions
of meditation and penance, and he will make a. general
confession and receive the Sacrament of the Eucharist.
The end of this is to prove his capacity and inclination
for spiritual exercises, and bodily austerity, and also at
the same time to dispose him for the reception of greater
grace and divine aid, so that he may with greater
fervour and purity of soul enter upon the state of per-
fection.
The third act of probation, if he who is to be re-
ceived is intended for the grade of a scholastic, is to
prove him in those things which may manifest his
talent and learning ; or, if he is intended for temporal
ministries, his bodily powers. In the latter case he will
ordinarily be proved for a longer time at the discretion
of the superior, and in accordance with the character of
the individual.
In the Temporal Coadjutors, besides other requisites
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 37
which ought to be common to all, it is specially de-
manded that they should be content with the lot of
Martha in the Society, and that they should be of an
age and strength of body fitted for the labours which
occur in the Society, and that they should not be men
of difficult temper.
In others who are admitted for spiritual ministries,
intellectual capacity, good judgment and sufficient tena-
city of memory is required; and, as regards the will,
that they should be studious of every kind of virtue and
perfection, quiet, constant and strenuous in all that per-
tains to the divine service ; and, what is special to the
Society, that they should have a zeal for the salvation of
souls, and for that reason be affected towards its Institute.
Finally, as regards the body, there should, in the first
place, be suitable age, and this, as concerns first en-
trance, should exceed fourteen years at least. There is
required also good health, and sufficient strength to
endure the labours of the Institute, and a respectable
external appearance adapted for edification ; while there
is much to be desired that graciousness of speech which
is so necessary in dealing with others. As regards other
external gifts of fortune, such as nobility and the like,
they will not of themselves suffice, nor are they neces-
sary ; but, if possessed along with other gifts, they are
by no means to be lightly esteemed.
There are, besides the foregoing, certain other impedi-
ments which are called secondary impediments, because
they do not wholly exclude, but only render a person
less well fitted for the Society ; and it is possible that so
^8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
o
many of these might be found multiplied in the person
of one applicant, as to render his admission in no wise
expedient.
Of these secondary impediments some belong to the
understanding, such as slowness of understanding, or
defect of memory or of judgment. These are impedi-
ments when they are notable, so that the person does
not attain even to mediocrity.
As regards the judgment, obduracy in one's own
opinion may also be a great impediment, since it is
wont to breed great disturbance in every congrega-
tion.
As regards the will, a nature which presents difficul-
ties to progress in virtue, by reason of vehement affections
which seem scarcely capable of being subdued, and habits
of sin which have become so confirmed by long practice
that no great hope of amendment can be indulged, are
impediments. Also indiscreet devotions which are wont
to be the cause of illusions and errors, when such devo-
tions have grown into an inveterate custom which cannot
without great difficulty be uprooted. Defect of actual
due disposition is an impediment, as when for instance
the intention is not sufficiently upright, or not sufficiently
firm and constant as regards change of state, and affec-
tion towards the Society. It does not suffice to have
a firm purpose or fervent affection towards religion in
general, if towards the Society in particular the mind is
remiss, or has but little firmness.
The impediments which concern the body are such
defects as are contrary to the perfections above mentioned,
such as debility, disease, notable deformity, and defect
OX ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 39
of integrity of body, and of legitimate age. The last
may occur by one's being either too young or too old,
under fifteen or over fifty as it is reckoned in the Eules
of Provincials. Excess of age is never an invalidating
impediment, if the judgment remains entire; and as
regards first entrance, it is certain that no fixed age is,
so to speak, substantial. It is essential only for second
entrance, that is, for incorporation by means of the three
substantial vows.
As regards external goods, debt and civil obligations
are impediments.
Among the interrogatories in the Examen one occurs
as to whether any of the applicant's progenitors were
declared or known to be guilty of any error contrary to
the Christian religion, and if so, in what way.
In order that reception into the Society may, as
regards the receiver, be lawfully transacted — supposing
the power to receive, which exists primarily in the
General, and through him in the Provincials, — no other
rule can be assigned except that of prudence. All the
conditions which have been explained are not always to
be demanded of the individuals who present themselves,
nor does every one of the foresaid defects always hinder
a j^erson from being lawfully received ; otherwise it
would be most difficult to admit any one lawfully, since
it is rare to find men who are endowed with all those
gifts of nature and grace together, and in whom there
are none of those defects. An excellent rule of prudence
is indicated in the Declarations, namely, that when there
occurs any one of the foresaid impediments, or a defect
40 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
in any of the above-mentioned gifts of soul or body, it
should be considered whether there is such an abun-
dance of other gifts as, according to right reason, to
counterbalance and compensate this ; for so, weighing
all things, the person might be accounted fit and worthy
to be admitted. This compensation has place only
when the defect is not in vocation as regards intention
and firmness, or in aptitude and docility as concerns
virtue. Defects in these cannot be counterbalanced, but
must first be corrected by the aid of divine grace along
with the co-operation of the individual's free will, by
the formation of a habit, or by perseverance.
IV. Is AN ENTIRE PERIOD OF TWO YEARS RIGHTLY
FIXED FOR THE NOVICESHIP IN THE SOCIETY ? AND
FOR WHAT REASON ?
An entire period of two years is required for probation
in the Society ; and this period may be extended, if at
the end of it the Society is not yet fully satisfied, so as
to make a satisfactory judgment with regard to either
dismissal or admission.
This is one of the objections which are commonly
made against the Society, on the ground of novelty, since
the most ancient Orders were content with one year of
noviceship, as appears from the Rule of St. Benedict
and from the Rules of other religious Orders. It
appears also, at first sight, to be singular, since one year
of noviceship is received by the common consent of
all religious Orders, and was approved not only by the
earlier law, but by the more modern law of the Council
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 4 1
of Trent. The objection seems also to have more force
when it is considered that even this lengthened pro-
bation is not considered by the Society sufficient for
profession, and that further probations are demanded.
But, in the first place, this extension of time is not a
novelty, but is derived from antiquity. No fixed period
of probation was prescribed by St. Basil, who left it
indefinite, and said that the novice was to be proved for
as long a time as should seem sufficient ; the old monks
of Egypt were proved by three years of noviceship ;
and Justinian required a term of two years before pro-
fession. Even if it is argued that this was necessary at
that time, by reason of the greater rigour of the Orders or
monks of those days, and that after this became mode-
rated the period of probation came to be shortened, and
that the longer period was ordained only for certain cases
or persons and for special reasons, the principle never-
theless remains that, where there occurs a special cause,
probation beyond a year can be exacted by a religious
Institute. Now, in the Society, looking to her end and
her ministries, a special reason does occur, and a much
greater necessity exists for a longer probation than is
found in other religious Orders. The Society professes
and embraces both the contemplative and the active life
in a perfect degree, and therefore holds it necessary to
instruct and ground and try her novices sufficiently in
both lives, and therefore she requires for this a longer
time than one year. She requires at least one year for
each of those parts of her life ; and, as that life is two-
fold, she rightly demands that the period of probation
should be doubled.
42 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Considering, moreover, in particular all the actions
and ministries by which she proves her novices, it will
be seen how a term of ]ess than two years would not
suffice. Further, the Society, since she deems it neces-
sary, by reason of her end, for her members immediately
after their probation to give themselves intently up to
study, or to be occupied in external actions, according to
their individual condition and capacity, it is necessary
that the novices should strike deeper root in the exercise
of virtues, and be more fully instructed in the exercise of
prayer, and as far as possible be habituated thereto and
experienced therein. This could not be done in the space
of one year, during which spiritual exercises scarcely
begin to be relished, and therefore there is rightly added
another }7ear, during which the principles which have
been laid down may mature. This has been found
necessary by experience, and for this reason it has also
been prudently ordained that, after the two years' pro-
bation and the taking of their vows by the scholastics,
the juniors should be kept for other two years at least
under considerable custody and discipline.
Finall}r, a reason for a lengthened period of probation
may be derived from an objection which has been made
against the Society, that she professes not an austere,
but a moderate life in externals. Although this does
not diminish her perfection, looking at it in the light
of her end, yet, all else being equal, that perfection
will be greater in proportion as this absence of external
austerity is counterbalanced by another kind of austerity.
This is effected by means of the manifold probation of
the Society which is, so to speak, among other austeri-
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 43
ties, her own proper austerity, and is exercised in great
part by the length of time given to noviceship.
This institution of two years' noviceship is further
confirmed by the authority of the Church, which has
specially established it in the Society, both by the Bulls
of Paul III. and Julius III., and especially by the
Council of Trent. The Council, when specially treating
of the year of probation, and ordaining generally that,
on its completion, novices should be either admitted to
profession or dismissed, specially excepts the Society.
This exception shews that her practice is not a repre-
hensible singularity, but a pious and holy speciality.
Since the Society has no particular habit, there is no
question of a reception of or change of habit as neces-
sary for the beginning of the period of probation, and it
suffices that he who has power to admit should have
here and now the will to receive the applicant to the
probation of the Society and that by means of any
words or external signs whatsoever he should sufficiently
declare this his will ; he who is received also consenting
and externally accepting it, so that he should then begin
to live under the obedience and government of the
Society. It is left to the judgment of the Superior
whether this probation of the applicant is to be made in
the same garments which he wore in the world, or in
others. It may sometimes contribute to greater humility
and mortification to perform the more menial ministries
of religion in his own garments, and to appear to others
to be a servant rather than a religious, and so also to
seem to tread under foot, as it were, in religion the
adornments of the world. It was for these reasons per-
44 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
haps that this was the practice of the ancient monks; as
well as to leave the novices more free, if they should
desire to leave the Order, since they had not yet put on
its habit.
If a prelate of the Society were to admit a novice to
profession, or to any degree of incorporation, after one
entire year of probation, and before the completion of
the two years, the admission and vows of the religious
would be valid, even if the prelate in so doing should have
acted wrongly ; and it is certain that the General could
for a just cause dispense in order to such admission.
It does not follow that the Society, in adding another
year of probation, added it under the same law and
necessity as the one year of noviceship which is required
by Common Law; and the law of the Society on this
point is older than the law of the Council of Trent,
before which not even one year of probation was so
necessary that it could not be renounced by consent
of parties, except in the case of the Mendicant Orders,
among which the Society was not then numbered.
Such dispensation is however most rare in the
Society.
Dispensation is sometimes granted for the novices
before the completion of the two years to give them-
selves to stud}x, especially after the first year ; and this
power is committed to the Provincials by concession of
the General.
In such case, however, there is no dispensation as
regards the period of probation, since there is no ad-
mission to vows ; nay, such novices are not wholly
exempted from the exercises of the novices, for they
OX ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 45
have a separate habitation, and are specially instructed
and exercised under their own master, and, what is the
chief point, they understand that they always remain
free to depart if they should desire to do so.
Yows made of devotion before completion of the two
years of probation, whatever they may be as private vows,
are not vows of the Society, or such as to constitute a
true religious. They are not made publicly, nor are
they admitted by the Society, and therefore they in no
way bind the Society, which can as freely dismiss the
novice as if he had made no vow. If so dismissed, his
vows will cease, unless his express intention in making
them was otherwise, which it might be especially as
regards his vow of chastity. Since young men may easily
be led by indiscreet fervour to make such vows, they are
not only not admitted or counselled by the Society, but
they are not even permitted to be made save after great
consideration and consultation, and with observance of
due form and subordination to the Suoerior.
V. — The observances, the experiments, and the
PLACE IN WHICH THE XoVICES OF THE SOCIETY
SHOULD BE EXERCISED DURIXG THE TIME OF THEIR
NOVICESHIP.
The period of probation is ordained for two ends ;
first, for trial and knowledge of the subject, and
secondly, for delivering the rudiments, or laying the
foundations of virtue which are necessary in this Insti-
tute. The first end has also two parts, namely, that
the Society should have sufficient knowledge of the
46 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
nature and genius of the novice, and that the novice
himself should have a greater knowledge of the Insti-
tute, so that he should with greater deliberation make
his choice to persevere in it.
One of the principal observances of the noviceship is
that the novice should, every six months, read that part
of the Institute which should impart to him a necessary
and sufficient knowledge of it, namely, the diplomas of
the Pontiffs, the General and Common Eules, and the
Constitutions, or at least the Compendium of the Con-
stitutions. This progress in knowledge of the Institute,
although it is in itself and primarily for the benefit of
the novice, redounds also to the Society's knowledge and
experience of its subject ; for, in his persevering in spite
of his increased knowledge, he affords a greater proof of
his constancy. This, although very important, and in
accordance with the practice of the ancient Fathers, is
nevertheless not of the substance of the noviceship, so
that the validity of future probations or admission into
any grade of the Society should depend upon it. St.
Benedict says in his Eule, that the hard and difficult
matters of religion are to be set before the novice before
he is admitted, and that after two months the Eule is
to be read to him, and again after six months, and once
more after four months, that is, at the end of his year of
noviceship ; and that he is to be admonished to consider
it as a law from which he is still free to deliver him-
self, but to which he will afterwards by his profession
subject himself, and so deprive himself of freedom from
that law.
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 47
This reiterated consideration of the Institute is or-
dained not only in order to deliberation with regard to
perseverance, but also in order that the novice may
dispose and prepare himself and, as far as possible,
clearly and distinctly foresee the difficulties and burdens
which he may afterwards encounter. By so doing these
will be lightened, and he will also more efficaciously
demand of God the grace to embrace them with greater
affection in the present, and to overcome them with
greater fortitude in the future.
Secondly, the novice is to be examined every six
months bv the Master of Novices, in order that the
Society may have a more full and certain knowledge of
him, and especially in order that it may know whether
any change worthy of consideration has taken place in
him, and with what fruit he has up to that time borne
the exercises and experiments of the noviceship, and
with what manner of purpose he is prepared to proceed,
and perpetually to persevere in the Society. After this
examination, he will also every six months make a
general confession beginning from the last, to any priest
who may be designated by the superior, and also give
an entire account of his conscience, so that in all things
he may be the better instructed and directed. This
also, like the foregoing, although most excellently
adapted for the end which is aimed at, and requisite for
the observance of due order and method in the probation,
is nevertheless not of the substance of noviceship.
Thirdly, besides these observances, by means of which
the novices are aided to deliberation with greater know-
ledge and freedom as regards their perseverance in the
48 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Society, other exercises are appointed for them by means
of which they are gradually and in accordance with their
capacities instructed and disposed towards virtue and
the spiritual ministries which are necessary in the
Society ; and by means of these greater trial is daily
made of them.
These experiments or trials are reduced to six heads.
The first is that they should be engaged for a month,
more or less, in spiritual exercises ; that is, in recogni-
tion of and sorrow for their sins, in meditation and con-
templation of the mysteries of the life of Jesus Christ,
and generally in mental or vocal prayer. This is of
itself most necessary in order both to the purification of
their past lives, and to a good beginning of another and
spiritual life. Although there is a daily exercise of prayer,
it is nevertheless of great assistance that some entire
days should be given up to prayer, free from every other
action, and apart from all intercourse with others, in
order that the whole mind should be more recollected,
and that a greater facility and a habit should be acquired
in this difficult exercise. This is also of great service
in proving the constancy and patience of the novice, and
in discovering his nature and aptitude for spiritual
occupations.
A second experiment is serving in one or more
hospitals for another month, as may be enjoined. The
reason given is that the novice may the more abase and
humble himself, and so demonstrate, as by way of argu-
ment, that he is taking an entire departure from this
world, and from its pomps and vanity. Although this
work in itself pertains to mercy, or to charity towards
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 49
one's neighbour, yet it is here considered chiefly as it is
an indication of humility and self- abjection. Cassian
relates that this practice was observed with regard to
their novices by the ancient monks.
A third experiment, for the same end, is a pilgrimage
for a month, made without money, and by begging on
the highway for the love of Christ. This is done, says
St. Ignatius, in order that the novices may become
accustomed to inconveniences in eating and sleeping,
and in order that, laying aside all reliance on money
and other created things, they may place their reliance
wholly and with true faith and ardent love in their
Creator.
It might appear at first sight that this third experi-
ment was less well adapted for novices in religion than
for more advanced religious ; inasmuch as their virtue is
less well rooted, and that therefore they require greater
custody and enclosure ; and that, in evidence of this,
this method of probation is not practised in any other
religious Order, by reason of the many spiritual perils
which beset pilgrimages. St. Jerome also for this
reason, and from the example of the ancient monks,
proves that it is not necessary for a monk to visit the
Holy Places by way of pilgrimage. But the same St.
Jerome himself distinguishes between an institute of
clerics and an institute of monks, and declares that he
speaks not of the former, but of the latter; and since
the Society is an Order of Clerics who are destined to
undertake any pilgrimage by obedience for the salvation
of souls, this trial of the novices is prudently adapted as
a means towards the end at which the Society aims.
vol. in. D
50 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
St. Jerome moreover does not say that a pilgrimage is
unbecoming a religious man, but only that it is not
necessary in order to sanctity, and that it is not much
to be sought after by those who profess a monastic and
solitary life. It is certain that pilgrimage is in itself
a very religious work, as the Council of Trent declares,
and one which was in use among the holy fathers. It
is not to be reckoned as disproportioned to the state of
novices, for it belongs to the prudence of superiors to
consider the condition, strength and age of individuals,
and to assign such companions that the pilgrimage may
be made without peril, and with the spiritual fruit which
is aimed at by the Society.
A fourth experiment is for the novice to be exercised
in various abject and humble offices, such as those which
belong to the kitchen and refectory, the care of the sick
and other similar domestic offices. For this no definite
time is fixed. During the whole of the two years this
example of humility and charity is to be afforded with
all diligence and solicitude. An entire month, however,
is to be given up, apart from other exercises, to some
humble office. This kind of experiment, as it is most
necessary, is also most ancient, and it has been practised
in nearly all religious Orders. St. Basil says that for
him especially who from some splendid manner of life
hastens to imitate the example of the most modest
humility of our Lord Jesus Christ, certain offices should
be prescribed of the kind which in civil life are accounted
sordid ; and that it is to be observed whether with all
alacrity of soul he shews himself in these a labourer
for God who is incapable of shame or confusion. This
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 5 1
kind of probation is, moreover, for a special reason
necessary in the Society, on account of its end. Since
spiritual ministries or the study of letters are to be
entered upon with great diligence after the noviceship,
a solid foundation of humility is necessary ; and, in his
Bull, Julius III. says that this Institute demands men
who are wholly humble. Again, not only spiritual
ministries but also corporal works of mercy have to be
performed in the Society towards its neighbours, and
in order that they may be spiritually profited, it is
often necessary to serve them corporally, and in this to
give an example of charity and humility ; and therefore
it is important that the novices of the Society should
from the first be well exercised in those more humble
ministries.
The fifth experiment is that the novices should be
exercised, each according to his capacity and as the cir-
cumstances of time and place permit, in teaching chris-
tian doctrine to children and the ruder classes.
This is, in the sixth experiment, extended to the
ministries of preaching and hearing confessions, after
the novices have given during their probation an example
of edification.
This last experiment belongs rather to the third year
of probation which is made at the end of the studies,
and before profession ; for, as a rule, novices are not in
that state in which they can be exercised in those
ministries of preaching and hearing confessions, and
during their noviceship they are not in the Society to
be promoted to the orders which are necessary for those
ministries, for as a rule they ought not to be promoted
52 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
to sacred orders during the course of their studies, and
until these are finished.
Nevertheless, if priests should be admitted as novices,
and if they have sufficient gifts for the exercise of those
functions, they are to be farther proved by means of
this sixth experiment, with special approbation of the
superior. Nearly all novices are in some way capable
of the fifth experiment, either by themselves teaching
christian doctrine, or by being the companions of others,
and helping them as far as they can ; and in this also
there is often occasion for the exercise of humility and
self- abjection.
Those fifth and sixth experiments are, like the third,
proper to the Society ; for in other religious Orders the
novices are not allowed to go by themselves outside the
bounds of the monastery, or to occupy themselves in
actions which concern their neighbours, and this is
the case not only with the monastic Orders, but even
with the Mendicants who have more to do with their
neighbours. Nevertheless in the Society these experi-
ments are approved, as are the other Constitutions, and
they have been practised with fruit; and they are in
accordance with the end of the Society, both in order
that the talent of the novice to aid and edify his neigh-
bours may begin to be known, as far as his age and
state permits, and in order that he also may begin to
learn by experience and practice in what works he is to
be occupied during the whole of his life, and so be the
more affected towards those works as he has been
educated in them from his tender years in the religious
life. In this the Society follows the example of Christ
OX ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 53
our Lord Who, while educating His disciples in order
that they might afterwards preach the Gospel through-
out the whole world, did not keep them always in, so
to speak, the noviceship and with Himself within the
cloister, but sometimes sent them to preach throughout
Judea.
Those six experiments are the principal experiments
for novices in the Society, but they are not the only
ones, and they may be postponed, or moderated, or ex-
changed for others according to circumstances of persons,
times and places, by the authority of the superior. They
are not, therefore, absolutely necessary, but they are in
accordance with regular observance, with subordination
to the due providence and direction of the superior.
The fourth and last circumstance of probation in the
Society is the place where it is to be made.
In this also there is something proper and peculiar
to the Society, namely, that it should have separate
and special Houses, destined solely for the proving
and instructing of its novices. This ordinance has been
approved by the Supreme Pontiffs ; and a Bull of Pius
IV. exempts the Houses of Probation from the obli-
gation of paying tithes. A reason for this observance
is to be found in the general principle of the Fathers,
that it is very expedient for the good education of the
novices, that they should have their dwelling separate
from the other religious. This was observed by the
ancient Fathers, and is now observed in all Orders, in a
manner accommodated to the conditions of each. That
the separation should be not only within the same
54 THE BELIGIOUS STATE.
house, but in distinct houses, is in itself very conform-
able to reason ; for if the reasons which the founders
of Orders have adduced for making a separation be con-
sidered, they all shew that the greater the separation,
within the bounds of religious unity, the better, all else
being equal.
St. Basil gives seven reasons for the separation of
novices. First, that by rarity of intercourse they may
retain a greater reverence for their elders. Secondly, to
remove occasion of elation, which might arise if they
were at once to be admitted with the others to common
life. Thirdly, lest, if any one of the elders either
really were or appeared to be less diligent in his office
or in religious observance, a proclivity to imitate him
might be engendered in the minds of the novices ; for
this kind of scandal is more easily begotten in them
since they are more weak and childish, and from their
freshness and inexperience often judge that there is
defect or negligence where in reality there is none.
Fourthly, lest they might begin to feel elated if they
were to see their elders fail in matters with regard to
which they themselves did rightly. Fifthly, it provides
against their indecorously desiring before the time such
things as are religiously and becomingly granted to
others on account of their age, and for other reasons.
Sixthly, in order that the other religious should not be
annoyed by the noise of the young. And finally, he
concludes that the separation is necessary for the preser-
vation of due order in religious discipline. All these
advantages will be better secured if the separation is
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 55
made in distinct houses, if this can conveniently be
arranged. Although there may be other advantages in
living in the same house, which St. Basil mentions, as,
for instance, that the younger members are drawn to
compunction by emulation of their elders, while those
who outstrip them in piety are aided not a little in
prayer by the young, yet these and similar advantages
are not lost by a separation of houses ; for the separation
can never be so great that some of the elders do not live
with the novices, and the more select and well-chosen
these are the better will be the example of their lives,
while, on the other hand, among the elders there will
always be found some who, although they are not novices,
retain the fervour and stamp of novices.
Besides these general reasons for the separation of the
noviceship, it has in the Society a special advantage or
even necessity, derived from the peculiar end and actions
of the Society. There are in the Society two kinds of
convents or domiciles for those who are already members
of it. Certain Houses are set aside principally for the
Scholastics and for the purpose of studies, and are called
Colleges ; while other Houses are given up to actions and
ministries towards neighbours, namely, the Houses of
the Professed. Now, in neither of these could a House
of Novices of the Society be conveniently established.
Professed Houses cannot possess any revenues, but must
live on alms, while the Houses of Probation should
possess sufficient revenues, as is ordained by the Consti-
tutions, both for the greater tranquillity and quiet of the
novices and the superiors by whom they are governed,
56 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
and in order that laying aside all solicitude for temporal
things they may give themselves to spiritual things
alone, and also in order that all occasions of distraction
may be removed. Again, there is the widest of diver-
sities between the ministries of a Professed House and
the occupations of novices ; for Professed Houses must
necessarily be frequented by numbers of secular persons,
and there must be much communication with, them, and
from this novices ought to be separated. Further,
• Houses of Probation are not the proximate and imme-
diate seminaries of Professed Houses, for this is what
the Colleges are ; and therefore since the Colleges should
be separated from the Professed Houses, much more
should the noviceships. If the noviceships lay under
any necessity of being united with other Houses, it
should be rather with the Colleges than with the Pro-
fessed Houses. As a rule, however, when it can be
done, it is much more advantageous that the Houses of
Probation should be distinct even from the Colleges,
since there is a great diversity between the exercises of
students and those of novices, and they cannot be kept
so separate within the same house that there should not
be at least some disturbance. When a House of Proba-
tion is dedicated solely and wholly to the spiritual
education of the novices, all belonging to it, its whole
government, order, actions and the dwelling itself is
accommodated and directed towards that one end, and
the care of the superior is more concentrated, and so
there is no doubt that this is the better arrangement.
This separation is not however of the substance of
noviceship, for novices may sometimes make their pro-
ON ENTRANCE INTO THE SOCIETY. 5 7
bation even in Professed Houses, especially when their
labours are necessary for the service of the House ; and
for the same reason they may sometimes be admitted
into the Colleges. In such cases their probation is
not interrupted, the circumstance of place not being
essential.
The substance of probation in the Society is that only
which is of the substance of noviceship in any other
religious Order, and is reduced to this, that the novice
should live under the obedience of the Society as a
member who is not yet united to it, and who has a
purpose of entering it, and of living and dying in it.
( 53 )
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS INTO THE SOCIETY BY
MEANS OF SIMPLE VOWS; AND THE DISMISSAL OF
SCHOLASTICS FROM THE SOCIETY.
I. — The reasons for this peculiarity of the
Society.
It is proper and peculiar to the Society to have, be-
tween reception and solemn profession, an intermediate
mode of admission, whereby he who is admitted is con-
stituted outside the grade of a novice, and is united to
the Order as a true member thereof, and becomes a true
religious ; and nevertheless is not constituted in that
last degree of perfect union with the body of the
Society which is possible to a member thereof, but
remains in a manner on probation with a view to that
final grade.
This mode of admission exists chiefly for the sake of
the Scholastics ; but it extends also to the temporal
coadjutors. It has been in many ways impugned as
novel, as unjust, and as insufficient to constitute a
religious.
In the Society it is necessary, for its welfare and
preservation, that young men should be received to
be well trained in letters before being occupied in the
ministries of the Societv ; since otherwise it would be
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 59
difficult if not impossible to secure a sufficient supply
of subjects who should possess at once both virtue and
learning.
The Society is an Order of Clerics, and as, in ancient
times and according to the observance of the primitive
Church, houses were specially set apart in the various
dioceses, or a place in the dwellings of the bishops was
reserved for young men to be trained in virtue and
letters, in order to secure a supply of good and useful
priests ; so in imitation of this holy custom the Society
introduced a grade of Scholastics, as a necessary seminary
for the training of the ministers by means of whom she
was to accomplish her end. Moreover, the more the
priests of the Society are, in virtue of their Institute
and profession, bound to sacerdotal perfection, the more
perfect is the education and training from their youth
upwards of which they stand in need.
It is also most becoming and morally necessary that
those Scholastics should be substantially united with the
Society by a true moral union, namely, by the three sub-
stantial vows of religion, along with a promise farther to
unite themselves to it, and to make profession when, and
in the manner in which they shall be bidden. This appears
from the Constitutions and from the Bulls of the Pontiffs
which approve this grade as an integral and most neces-
sary constituent part of the Society. It is necessary both
for the spiritual good of the religious themselves, and
for the end and preservation of the Society. It is neces-
sary for the perfection of the Scholastics, that from the
beginning they should be dedicated to God, and bound
to follow after perfection ; otherwise, and if this were
60 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
deferred to the end of their studies, they would be
deprived of great spiritual advantages and graces, and
would also be exposed to great peril of inconstancy.
Unless there were on their part an obligation to remain
in the Society, the end and labours of the Society would
be well nigh frustrated, since many might depart after
having made their studies, if this were left to their own
free will. There would also, on the other hand, be few
who, having a true desire of the religious state, would
be content to remain excluded from that state for so
long a time. Again, the Scholastics could scarcely be
properly governed, unless they had made vows of
obedience and poverty, while the expedience of the vow
of chastity is apparent. Finally, since such Approved
Scholastics must have intimate intercourse with the
other members of the Society, it would be unbecoming
and monstrous if all the members were not united in
the substantial union of the religious state.
We find examples of a similar state of things in
antiquity. The second Council of Toulouse declared
that when the minor clerics who were educated in the
Episcopal Seminary reached the age of eighteen years,
they were to be asked whether they would observe
celibacy, and if they wished to remain they promised
chastity, and so were, as it were, bound to the clerical
state by that bond. It was also ordained that the
clerics who had been brought up by one bishop in his
College or Seminaiy, should not be received by another
bishop into his Church. In the same way the Pontiffs
have ordained that the Approved Scholastics of the
Society cannot pass to any other Order, except that of
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 6 1
the Carthusians, an exception which is common also to
the Professed Fathers of the Society.
The vows of Scholastics in the Society are made
with the intention on their part of binding them-
selves perpetually to live and die in the Society, and
under its obedience. The Society however does not
bind itself to retain the Scholastics in perpetuity, or to
accept their vows as perpetual, but only so long as it
shall seem good to the General. The subject, so far
as he is concerned, delivers himself absolutely to the
Society ; but he is admitted, not absolutely, but with
an understood condition.
This kind of reception is holy and lawful on the
part of both. It suffices that it has been approved by
many of the Supreme Pontiffs, and that not only
generally and in the same way as the Constitutions are
approved, but in particular and among those things
which belong to the substance of the Institute. Looking
to the reasons, however, this contract or oblation is clearly
lawful on the part of the religious, for in making it he
does no injury to any one, nor does he act at variance
with charity or any other virtue, as regards either others
or even himself, since he is his own master and can
dispose of his liberty as he pleases. Even if his delivery
and oblation of himself may seem excessive in its libe-
rality, yet he makes it wholly in homage to God, and
in regard to God there can be no excess in liberality.
Nay, this oblation, so far from being unlawful, seems to
excel that other profession which is reciprocal. That
oblation is less liberal for which there is a corresponding
recompense. We do not mean to say that this mode of
62 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
"anion is to be preferred to solemn profession, for between
the two there is no comparison, but only to observe that
it does possess this singular excellence of liberality.
This manner of reception is certainly not contrary to
commutative justice, for there cannot be an injury to
him who wills it with full knowledge. The religious in
this case with fall knowledge wills so to contract, and
give himself; and to this end he has been examined
during so long a period and has had distinctly set
before him to what, and in what way he is to be bound,
and manifold consideration and reiterated reading of the
Institute and Diplomas has been enjoined upon him,
and therefore what injury can possibly be done to him
on the part of the Society by his reception in this
manner? In human and temporal affairs similar con-
tracts may be made with great equity of justice, and
therefore why not in spiritual matters ? Apart from
any law prohibiting it, a man can give himself to another
as his slave, and this donation made he cannot with-
draw from it, or exempt himself from his servitude,
while, on the other hand, his master remains free to
manumit him. So long as he retains him and uses
him for his own benefit, he is bound to support him, in
virtue either of implied contract, or of natural law ; but
if he should manumit him, as the one party is freed from
the obligation of serving, so is the other set free from
the obligation of supporting ; and in such a contract it is
evident that there is no injustice. So far as there seems
to be any inequality, namely, in this that the one party
is bound not to withdraw, while the other is not bound
to retain, there is not so much the idea of commutation
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 6^
0
as of simple donation on the part of him who volun-
tarily delivers himself into servitude. Moreover, even if
servitude were contracted by way of commutation, there
might be a concurrence of circumstances such as to cause
c5
a real equality in place of the apparent inequality ; for if
the servitude is for the greater advantage of the slave
than of the master, why should not this greater advan-
tage counterbalance the greater obligation of the slave ?
This is the case in the Society, for the delivery of himself
by the religious is not only an equal, but it is a greater
advantage to him personally than it is to the Society.
Finally, although the Society is not bound by a special
and absolute obligation perpetually to retain an Approved
Scholastic, it is nevertheless bound not to dismiss him
without lawful cause ; and this cause, morally speaking,
always depends on the will of the religious himself.
As this manner of reception is not against justice, so
neither also is it against charity. The order of charity
is that, observing the equality of justice, every one
should consult his own proper good rather than that of
another ; and especially in spiritual matters ; and still
more when his own proper good concerns also the com-
mon good. Now, the good which is aimed at by this
means is a spiritual good, namely, the perfection and
purity of religion, and greater aptitude and efficiency
for spiritual ministries for the benefit of souls. The
good, moreover, is not private but common ; not only
because the Society is a community, the good of which
as such is to be preferred to the private good of an
individual member, but also because this common good
redounds to the universal good of souls. To this it con-
64 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tributes not a little that the labourers of the Society
should be fit and faithful ministers of the Gospel, and
that the Society should be purged of every useless mem-
ber, for nothing is more necessary to the preservation
and increase of any religious body, and to the perform-
ance of all its actions with fruit.
When an Approved Scholastic is dismissed, he is
dismissed free from his vows, and hereby his welfare is
provided for. Besides the advantage of his having
received his education, and tasted of piety, it is much
more advantageous for him that he should be dismissed
free rather than bound ; for it would be a grievous
burden to retain the principal load of obligation to the
Society, and to lack the supports of the Society.
It cannot be argued that such a manner of life as that
of an Approved Scholastic in the Society has not the
moral stability which is necessary to a human state,
for in order to the religious state it suffices that it
should have such stability that without a grave cause
and the interposition of public authority, it cannot be
changed.
No doubt it follows as a consequence of this method
of dismissing Scholastics, that some persons who were
once dedicated to God, and admitted to His service,
should return to the world and be engaged in secular
affairs ; but as it is not unbecoming that a thing which
has once been dedicated to God should be turned to
profane uses after it has lost its consecration, so neither
is it unbecoming that those persons should live as
seculars, after their state has been changed. This
change moreover is not easily made, since it requires a
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 65
grave cause, and it is not made without Apostolic autho-
rity and mature deliberation. Father Claudius Aqua-
viva, who was General for more than thirty years, was
wont once and again to hold consultation over every
case of dismissal. Although dismissal may not appear
to be of rare occurrence, yet taking into consideration
human frailty and the number of the members of the
Society, it may be said really to be rare.
II. — Does the admission of Scholastics into the
Society constitute them true Eeligious?
By the reception and vows of Scholastics, they are
constituted in a true and proper religious state. This
is so certain that it cannot be denied without great
rashness and error, nay, it rests on the infallibility of
the Eoman Pontiff. Gregory XIII. defined and de-
clared that those who in the Society of Jesus have
made the three substantial vows, are truly and pro-
perly religious, no Jess than are the professed, whether
of the Society or of any other Order of Eegulars, even
although those vows are simple and not solemn. By
the words truly and properly is to be understood as
indicated whatever belongs to the substance and essence
of the religious state.
That the Scholastics of the Society, incorporated into
it by simple vows only, are truly and properly religious,
did not begin to be true from the date of the Consti-
tutions of Gregory XIII. which were, as regards this
matter, declarative and not constitutive ; but this was
so from the beginning, namely, from the approbation of
vol. in. E
66 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the Society, from which time such vows began to be
made in the Society as in an approved religious Order,
and to be received by Apostolic authority.
iii. — is the admission of approved scholastics into
the Society to be called " Profession ? "
If by the term " religious profession " is understood
a wholly absolute tradition or delivery of oneself to a
religious Order, confirmed by solemn vows, the admis-
sion and incorporation of Approved Scholastics into the
Society is not profession. In this sense the grade of
Scholastics is distinguished from that of the Professed,
and the admission of the one is called profession, while
admission of the other is not so called in the Institute
of the Society, and in the Bulls and Constitutions.
If by religious profession is to be* understood generally
any firm and stable union with an approved religious
Order, by means of the tradition or delivery of himself
by the religious, and the substantial vows of religion,
publicly admitted by lawful ecclesiastical authority,
then the admission of Scholastics into the Society is a
true profession.
"When in the vows of the Scholastics there is not dis-
tinctly expressed a promise made to the Prelates of the
Society, this is not as if the Scholastics did not bind
themselves to the Society and deliver to it their rights
over themselves, but only to distinguish their grade as
Scholastics from that of Formed Coadjutors. The latter,
although they do not make solemn vows, are constituted
in their final grade, beyond which they are not to
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 6 J
advance in the Society, and therefore they are united to
the Society by a greater moral bond, and are constituted
outside all kind of probation.
IV. — What conditions are necessary on the part
of the subject, in order that the vows of
Scholastics may be validly made?
The first condition is that second entrance should be
preceded by an entire year of noviceship. The second
condition is similar to this, namely, that profession should
not be made before the completion of sixteen years of
age. The third condition necessary to profession is that
it should not be made from fear such as would affect a
constant man. The fourth is that the consent should
not have been extorted by fraud, ignorance or deception
in grave matters. The fifth is freedom from lawful
servitude. The sixth is freedom from the bond of
matrimony. The seventh is that the person should not
be a bishop. The eighth is that he should not have
put on the habit of any other Order, or have in any
way been received or incorporated into it. A ninth
impediment, at least to the lawfulness of reception, is
obligation towards parents in grievous need. The tenth
condition is that the subject should not be in debt, or
liable to be called to account. Since, however, Scholas-
tics do not, in virtue of their vows, lose all dominion
over their goods, although they can no longer lawfully
use them as their own property, and since their vows do
not render them incapable of inheritance, their debts
may often not be such an impediment to their incorpora-
68 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tion into the Society as Scholastics, as they would be an
impediment to their profession.
V. — What conditions are required on the part of
the Society, in order that the Vows of Scho-
lastics MAY BE VALIDLY MADE ?
The Society, in the reception of Scholastics does not
absolutely bind itself, but reserves and retains the power
of dismissing them free from the bond of their vows, if
it should deem their dismissal expedient. Such vows,
however, cannot be made solitarily or secretly, for vows
so made are not vows of the Society, nor would they have
force to incorporate men into the Society, and conse-
quently to constitute a religious state.
The first condition which is necessary in an Order,
that the vows may constitute its members true reli-
gious, and which is found in the Society, is that the
Order should be approved by the Apostolic See.
The second condition is that the vows should be
made before one who has power to admit into the body
of the Society, in accordance with its Constitutions.
In the Society this power resides in the General, who
can communicate it to others. It is ordinarily com-
municated to the Provincials, and sometimes it may
be communicated to rectors or to superiors, or to other
persons of the Society, or even to any one outside the
Society, as for instance, a bishop or person of ecclesiastical
dignity, if it should happen that in any place there was
no member of the Society.
The third and last condition which is necessary, on
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 69
the part of the Society in admitting to this profession, is
that the prelate should in name of the Society give free
consent; since no delivery of oneself is consummated
unless it is accepted by the other side, and acceptance does
not consist in words only, but requires interior consent.
Besides the person who has power to admit, certain
other persons should be present, by whose testimony the
reception and incorporation may be proved.
VI. — Can there be " tacit " profession or incor-
poration of the Scholastics of the Society?
Looking to the special law of the Society, and to its
Institute, as it differs from the Institutes of other Orders,
and to its practice and mode of procedure, there is in
the Society no place for tacit profession and incorpora-
tion. In the first place, the term of noviceship is not
so limited to two years that immediately on their expiry
the novice should be incorporated by prescription, but
it is committed to the judgment of the superior whether
the term should be lengthened or not. Perseverance
therefore beyond the two years in any kind of action, is
not in itself a sufficient sign of incorporation. Secondly,
the power of admitting to the Society does not reside in
any particular convent or college, but is, as a rule, com-
mitted to the Provincial, and therefore until he expressly
gives consent, no one can be considered to be incor-
porated. Thirdly, there are in the Society various
grades after the noviceship, and therefore it has to be
determined to which of these grades the novice is to be
admitted. Although ordinarily a novice is first admitted
70 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
to the grade of a Scholastic, he might nevertheless be at
once admitted to another grade, and so an express deter-
mination of his grade is necessary on the part of him
who admits him.
It is a custom of the Society that the Approved
Scholastics should every six months expressly renew their
vows in the same form in which they first made them,
and to this act no one is admitted with them who has
not previously been expressly incorporated into the
Society. So long therefore as a novice is not admitted
with the Scholastics to public renovation of vows, he is
not considered as either tacitly or expressly admitted
into the body of the Society.
When there has been a previous express admission
which from defect of some condition was null, as for
instance, if it was made before sixteen years of age
complete, the defect may be supplied by tacit incorpora-
tion, perseverance in the same state of life being a
sufficient sign of consent. But although this may be
called tacit incorporation, it is not purely tacit, for it
partakes of the express from that which preceded it.
VII. — In what ways can the Vows of Scholastics
of the Society be dissolved?
The bond of the incorporation of Scholastics has all
the effects which follow from religious profession, those
only excepted which spring specially from the solemnity
of vows. This bond and the obligation of the vows
may be removed in three wa}^s, by commutation, — by
dispensation, — and by invalidation.
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 7 1
If commutation is made into something equal or
better, the bond of the religious state is not removed ;
but neither lawfully nor validly can such commutation
be made of this state and grade in the Society without
dispensation of the Pontiff.
No bishop, or other prelate inferior to the Pontiff can
dispense from the bond of the profession of Scholastics.
This is so, not only because it includes the reserved
vows of chastity and religion but, even if these were
not reserved, because it includes a true religious tradition,
or delivery of himself to the Order by the religious,
from which no one save the Pontiff can dispense.
The Society or its prelates cannot remove this bond
by way of dispensation, although they can do so by way
of invalidation, for these two powers are not convertible.
The power of invalidation exists in no one outside
the Society, except of course in the Supreme Pontiff;
but he is also Supreme Prelate of the Society, as he is of
every other religious Order. The Society possesses this
power of invalidation, as appears from the Bulls of the
Pontiffs in which it is declared that the vows of Scholas-
tics (and the same applies to those of Formed Coadjutors),
are made under the condition that, notwithstanding them,
the persons may be freely dismissed. This power of dis-
missal resides primarily in the Society as a whole, when
it is assembled in General Congregation, and otherwise
exists of ordinary right in the General, and in other
inferior superiors as it is communicated to them by him.
In the Society there exists the power to dismiss not only
its inferior members, but even those who have been
solemnly professed and, in a rare case, the General him-
72 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
self; with this difference, however, that the Professed
cannot be dismissed free from their obligations, and
therefore their dismissal does not contain an invalidation
of the religious bond, but only a separation from the
company and cohabitation of the Society.
By the Constitutions of the Society there is always
required a just cause for the dismissal of Scholastics.
Gregory XIII. declares that the vows cease in no other
way save by lawful dismissal from the Society, and that
dismissal cannot be called lawful which is made by mere
will, and that dismissal alone is lawful which is made
with lawful cause, or according to law, for that is said to
be lawful which is according to law. If the dismissal
therefore is not lawful, it will not hold good.
Again, the state of the Scholastics, and their delivery
of themselves, in accordance with the intention of the
Society and of the Apostolic See in approving its Insti-
tute, is ordained to this that their state should have all
the stability and perpetuity which without disadvantage
to the Order it can have, and therefore no power should
be left to the Order or to any person to destroy the bond
simply at his will. Although Scholastics know that they
can be dismissed if they behave badly, and although they
consent to this, yet they know at the same time, when
they deliver themselves to the Society, that they cannot
be dismissed if they behave well ; and they do not there-
fore consent to any greater power of dismissal by the
Society. Dismissal therefore without cause would be
subversive of the force and firmness of the religious
bond, and beyond the power reserved to the Society,
and would consequently not be valid.
THE ADMISSION OF SCHOLASTICS. 7$
This is the case not only when a Scholastic is dis-
missed against his will, but also when his dismissal is
with his own consent. The reason is because the con-
sent of the religious does not of itself afford a just
cause for his dismissal. There has to be considered not
only the right of the religious, which he might renounce,
but also the good of the Order, and principally the obli-
gation contracted to God; and unless as regards all these
there should be sufficient cause, the dismissal will not be
lawful.
It might happen, however, that there should be a suf-
ficient cause so far as the Society is concerned, and an
advantage to it in amputating a particular member;
and yet this cause might not be sufficient as regards the
religious in order that he should be dismissed against
his will. In such a case his consent mi^ht contribute
so that his dismissal should be valid and just, which
without his consent it would not be ; not because he
thereby absolutely affords a just cause, but because he
completes the cause, or removes an impediment to the
sufficiency of the cause. For instance, if a Scholastic
should, in consequence of his labours in study or his
services to the Society in other ministries, have lost his
health, so as to be a burden rather than a gain to the
Society, this would not be a sufficient cause for his being
dismissed against his will, while it would be sufficient
along with his consent.
The causes for dismissal may be either antecedent or
subsequent to admission into the Society. If ante-
cedent and known at the time of admission, they will
not be just causes for dismissal. If however a person
74 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
has been admitted conditionally, for the purpose of trial
whether in course of time his defects might disappear,
or not render him useless for the ministries of the
Society, and trial shews that they continue or render
him useless, those defects will form a just cause for his
dismissal. The cause of dismissal is in this case derived
not from the defect as it previously existed or was pre-
viously known, but from the defect as it has continued,
or as the grave character of it has become better known.
Among just causes for dismissal which arise after
entrance, there is the dread of a religious doing damage
by bad example in his life, his shewing himself restless,
or offending others by words or actions, his not being
able to settle down to a life under obedience and accord-
ing to the manner of the Society, or to correct himself
of faults which offend the Divine Majesty, even if they
should be hidden. In all these and similar instances
the rule is that the defect should be such that the
superior prudently judges that it is not well-pleasing to
God to retain him in the Society.
In the incorporation of Scholastics there is a quasi-
contract, from which an obligation arises on the part of
the Society, not absolutely and perpetually to retain the
subject, but — not to dismiss him without just cause. This
obligation is very reasonable, looking to the Scholastic's
delivery of himself which the Society has accepted, and
which of its nature demands at least this measure of
immutability that on neither side can there be disso-
lution of the religious bond at mere will.
( 75 )
CHAPTER XIX.
THE VOWS OF CHASTITY, POVERTY AND OBEDIENCE, AS
MADE IN THE SOCIETY.
I. — Of what nature is the Vow of Chastity which is
made by Scholastics of the Society ? and does
it annul subsequent Matrimony?
We suppose, in the first place, that this vow is entire
and perfect, as regards both the extent of its matter aud
the obligation which it induces, for it comprehends the
whole of the matter of chastity without any restriction,
and it binds to an observance of the whole with all the
rigour with which a vow of chastity has force to bind
him who makes it.
We suppose, secondly, that this vow is annexed to
the religious state, and absolutely inseparable therefrom,
so long as that state continues, so that although the
Society can remove this vow by annulling the bond of
incorporation, it cannot give power to marry on condi-
tion that this bond should remain, and on the death of
the wife revive as regards its practice.
If a Scholastic, however, should be dismissed free from
his vows, and so should be made from being a religious
to be not a religious, it is clear that he is not hindered by
his previous vow of chastity from lawfully and validly
contracting matrimony.
j6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
It is certain that before the Decree of Gregory XIII.
this vow hindered indeed, but did not invalidate subse-
quent matrimony; for such an impediment is not annexed
to a vow of chastity save by constitution of the Church,
and previous to his time the Church had never added this
impediment except to an entirely absolute vow. Look-
ing both to the intention of the subject, the acceptance
of the Society, and the approbation of the Apostolic See,
this vow in the case of Scholastics was, in the beginning
of the Society, wholly simple, and did not have annexed
to it any impediment which invalidated subsequent
matrimony.
It is as certain that after the Constitution of Gregory
this vow, so long as it lasts, renders a person incapable
of contracting matrimony.
There was in this way provided an expedient remedy
for the frauds and injuries which might easily occur,
against the divine honour, the common good and the
reverence due to the religious state, as well as to the
damage of the individual religious. To meet these evils
there was at first added to the obligation of the vow the
ecclesiastical penalty of excommunication, along with the
other penalties which are inflicted on apostates. It was
afterwards, however, found by experience that such is
the malice of men that those remedies were not suffi-
ciently efficacious since, matrimony once contracted, the
Society was compelled, whether it would or not, to dis-
miss the subject, and so to be deprived of labourers whom
with much toil and at great expense it had made able
ministers for the service of the Church. So long as
Scholastics were capable of validly contracting matri-
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. J J
mony, they might sometimes be vehemently urged to it
by their kinsfolk or friends, and they might also them-
selves be more inclined towards or easily tempted to a
fall, nay, might sometimes deceive the Society by per-
severing in it in bad faith for a long time solely in order
to their progress in learning, and in order that they
might, having received their education, more advan-
tageously embrace another state.
II. — Do SIMPLE YOWS IN THE SOCIETY DISSOLVE MATRI-
MONY WHICH HAS BEEN CONTRACTED BUT NOT CON-
SUMMATED ?
These vows do not dissolve matrimonium ixitum, or
matrimony which has been contracted but not yet con-
summated, for this effect belongs only to profession in
the strict sense, or to a solemn vow.
III. BY WHAT MEANS DOES THE SOCIETY AID ITS SUBJECTS
TO THE OBSERVANCE OF THEIR VOW OF CHASTITY?
The first and principal means is frequent prayer and
meditation on spiritual things. This is most necessary
in order to obtain the divine grace, without which this
vow cannot be observed. It is also very useful in
begetting the fear and love of God in the soul, by the
aid of which chastity is preserved, and vices which are
contrary to it are conquered.
The second means is that subjects should be aided
by their superiors to overcome all the difficulties and
perils which are wont to occur with regard to the
jS THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
observance of this vow. Next to the divine aid there
is no other aid which is more useful and efficacious. A
superior can assist his subject in this matter in two
ways ; first, by the vigilance and providence which he is
bound to exercise in virtue of his office ; and, secondly,
this he can hardly do efficaciously and graciously unless
he has a clear knowledge of the needs and difficulties
and temptations of individuals, and this knowledge he
can scarcely acquire unless his subject sincerely and
openly discloses it to him. The religious of the Society
are therefore admonished to hide nothing from their
superiors in this matter, but to manifest all their
temptations and perils in order that they may receive
aid from them.
The third means is maceration of the body, and labour
or occupation for the prevention of sloth, and modesty
and custody of the senses.
The fourth means is to avoid intercourse and conver-
sation or correspondence with women, save for reasons of
necessity or with hope of great fruit.
The fifth means is avoidance of familiarity and par-
ticular human friendships with the young.
Lastly, the most efficacious means of all is the frequent
practice of confession and communion which, while they
contribute towards every grace and virtue, contribute
specially towards the observance of chastity. By con-
fession, besides the sacramental and internal grace, there
is obtained the counsel and aid of the confessor, who if
he rightly fulfils his functions and the penitent opposes
no obstacle, is directed and enlightened by a special assist-
ance of God to help the penitent in the difficulties
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 79
which may occur with regard to the observance of
chastity. It is a property of the Eucharist, by means
of the most pure Body and Blood of Christ to "ger-
minate virgins/' as Zacharias says ; and St. Laurence
Justinian specially attributes to this Sacrament a miti-
gation of the fames.
IV. — The Vow of Poverty of the Scholastics of
the Society does not render them " incapable r
of dominion; and capability of dominion is
nevertheless not incompatible with their re-
ligious state.
It is certain that the Scholastics of the Society are
not in virtue of their vow of poverty rendered incap-
able of dominion, or of retaining or acquiring the
ownership of temporal goods ; for by common law it
is only a solemn vow of poverty which has this effect
annexed to it, and there is no special law of the Society
which adds this effect, as there is in the case of Formed
Coadjutors who, although their vows are simple, are
incapable of all hereditary succession, and cannot possess
any property whatsoever.
A Scholastic's vow of poverty in no way hinders his
lawfully retaining the ownership and dominion of tem-
poral goods for a time, and so long as he is not bidden
by his superior to renounce them ; for he vows poverty
according to the Constitutions of the Society, and these
declare the kind of poverty which belongs to him.
His vow however really concerns abdication of the
ownership of all things, since he is bound to this
SO THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
not only in virtue of a Constitution, which of itself
does not oblige under sin, but in virtue of his vow,
which obliges under mortal sin, whenever the superior
shall prescribe and fix a time for his renunciation of his
goods.
Hence it is not necessary that the superior should
impose this renunciation by way of precept in virtue of
obedience, since the obligation does not spring from the
vow of obedience but from the vow of poverty, a condi-
tion of which is fulfilled by the time being fixed by the
superior.
In this vow there is a difference between the retain-
ing and the acquiring of property ; and the reason of
it is because, although the vow does not oblige the
Scholastic not to possess property, it nevertheless does
oblige him not to make use of anything as if it were his
own. Now, of one's own authority and will and without
the knowledge of the superior to accept the dominion
of anything is a great act of ownership, and a use of a
thing as ones own, and is therefore contrary to the
vow. In order to retain dominion which had been
already acquired before the vow, no positive act or use
of the thing is necessary, and the absence of any act of
alienation or donation suffices. But in order to acquire
dominion there is required a new act which is in itself
contrary to poverty, unless it is made with dependence
on the superior; and this dependence is not observed
simply by the absence of a special prohibition, but it is
required that leave should positively be granted by the
superior, so that the thing should be acquired by his
authority and will.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 8 1
There is sometimes acquired a new dominion of things
or fruits without a new acceptance of dominion ; and as
the law of the Society permits or grants to Scholastics
the ownership of their former goods, it consequently
grants that, if these consist of real property, and are
fruitful and increase as time goes on, this should
extend to their fruits and increase ; and so no new posi-
tive leave of the superior is necessary, although it is
never lawful to Scholastics to make use of those fruits
as if they were their own.
Sometimes, however, the ownership is such that,
although acquired in virtue of an old right, a new
act of will and acceptance is necessary, as in the case
of succession to a paternal inheritance, and then the
knowledge and leave of the superior is necessary, in
order that the act should be done rightly and in accord-
ance with the vow of poverty. Although without this
the act is valid, yet it is not so stable that it cannot be
invalidated by the superior, by reason of the general
dependence of the will of his subject.
Incapability of ownership is not of the substance of
the religious state, for a solemn vow is not of the essence
of that state, and a simple vow does not necessarily
carry with it this incapability. Again, the whole of
that poverty which is necessary to perfection lies within
the power of the will of him who embraces it, but to
render himself incapable of ownership is not always in
the power of a man, however much he may desire to do
so, but depends on law. Incapability of ownership,
therefore, is not necessary to the state of perfection,
VOL. III. F
82 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
and capability of ownership is no obstacle to perfection,
if the capability is never reduced to actual ownership by
one's own free will.
Neither does capability of ownership prevent the reli-
gious being said to be dead to the world, for this death,
so far as it regards perfection, consists rather in internal
affection and renunciation than in absence of legal
capability.
Pius V. declared that the vows of Scholastics are suffi-
cient to constitute them not only truly evangelically
poor, but also mendicants.
v. — to whom can or ought the scholastics of the
Society, according to the Eule, to distribute
their goods ?
It is peculiar to the Society that a religious who is
truly united with it should of ordinary right have power
to distribute his goods. In other religious Orders this
is not lawful, save in a rare case, and for reasons which
regard both the religious and the Order. In other
Orders, it is only the professed who are true religious,^
while in the Society there are many who are true
religious and who are nevertheless not solemnly pro-
fessed, and who are therefore capable of dominion,
one act of which is distribution of goods. Again,
in other Orders, if a religious does not distribute
his goods before profession, the whole right to them
passes to the Order, if it is capable of the possession
of goods ; but in the Society, even if the Scholastics
* See vol. i. p. 152, note.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. $3
have not distributed their sroods before making their
vows, no right to them is transferred to the Society, or
to any College or House of Probation, and the right
of distribution therefore remains where it previously
existed.
Although this power of distribution of his goods exists
in the Scholastic, yet in virtue of his vow of poverty it
remains in a manner restrained, and by reason of the
religious state it is also in a manner determined to a
religious use ; and therefore in the Constitutions a mode
and order is rightly prescribed with regard to the dis-
tribution. It is ordained, in the first place, that the
goods should not be given to relatives, simply because
they are relatives, although they may sometimes be
rightly given to them, because they are poor ; for they
are not by the fact of their being relatives excluded from
the number of the poor; nay, all else being equal, they are
to be preferred to other poor persons, and this in accord-
ance with the order of charity. When relatives are rich,
there remains only blood relationship as a ground for the
distribution being made to them, and although this is
not evil yet it is foreign to the counsel of Christ. This
ordinance contributes towards the acquiring of perfec-
tion, at least by the removal of impediments. It pre-
vents the growth of an inordinate love of relatives, and
rather diminishes it, for love is increased not only by
receiving but also by giving. It prevents, secondly,
an inordinate distribution of the goods. Not only is
that distribution called inordinate which is contrary to
justice or charity, but that also in which the order of
charity, and not only that order which is absolutely
84 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
necessary of precept, but that also which is better and
more pleasing to God, is not observed ; and this order
cannot be observed by him who distributes his goods
from carnal affection, and not from pure love of God.
The ordinance further prevents all trust being placed
in the resources of parents, and transfers it to God.
The poverty thus becomes greater and purer, for he
who bestows goods on his parents or brethren, in a
manner bestows them on himself, since he is as it
were one with them by the bonds of flesh and blood,
and in a manner retains the goods, as it were, in
hope. The same objection applies to all who are con-
nected with him by the bonds of a human friendship,
and all in whose case there is no indigence or other
ground of necessity, but some other human reason.
Besides indigence, however, there may sometimes be
a reason which would render distribution of goods to
relatives expedient, namely, the avoidance of scandal,
or quarrels or enmities which would otherwise arise.
The business is to be transacted not by tbe judgment
of the religious, but by that of one or more persons
approved for their lives and learning, and chosen
by the religious himself with approbation of the
superior.
When the goods of a Scholastic are not to be distri-
buted to relatives, no other rule is prescribed except
this that they should be distributed to pious and
holy works according to his devotion. There is no
obligation to give anything to the Society, since it has
not acquired any right either in or to the goods of the
religious. The Society is not however excluded ; nay,
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 8
-
a donation to it will, on the contrary, all else being
equal, be more in accordance with the order of charity.
Every one ought to love those who are spiritually
united to him more than strangers, and between a
religious and his Order there is a strong and special
spiritual bond. How great moderation is observed
when the distribution is made for the benefit of the
Society is apparent from a rule of Provincials which
ordains that, when any goods are to be applied to the
Society with leave of the General, the Provincial shall
take great care that the goods are realised with edifica-
tion and charity and not with rigour, and if possible
by means of procurators rather than by Ours, and that
it is expedient that some alms should be given to the
poor of the town in which the property is situated.
VI. — The distribution by Scholastics of their goods,
as regards their Vow of Poverty.
Although the Constitutions do not of themselves
oblige under sin, yet by reason of the matter there
may arise an obligation of vow. The vow of poverty
obliges the religious not to use anything as his own,
and distribution of goods is a use of goods, and the
greatest use of them, and therefore, in virtue of the vow
of poverty, that use only should be assumed which is
granted by the Constitutions, since every other use is a
use of a thing as one's own.
It falls therefore under an obligation of precept and
vow, not to usurp any proprietary use of goods, that is,
any use which is wholly by one's own authority and
86 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
will, and not according to the Rule or to the will of the
superior.
He who, after making the three substantial vows,
distributes his goods or renounces them without leave
of the superior, acts contrary to his vow of poverty.
A testament made by a Scholastic without leave of
the superior is not null, although it is capable of in-
validation by the superior. To make a testament
secretly and without leave of the superior is not a sin
against poverty, if it is made with intention to submit
it to the superior when death approaches, since such
testament is as it were a manifestation of the subject's
will, and not an undue usurpation of right. But it
would be otherwise, if the testator intended that his
testament should be executed by his own will only.
A testament is no hindrance to the obligation of
renunciation and its observance, for in spite of it the
superior can enjoin that the subject should at once and
without delay make renunciation of all his goods, and
then the testament falls to the ground. Sometimes a
testament may be made in good faith, as for instance,
if a subject should on a journey or voyage find him-
self in danger of death, with no superior within reach
from whom to ask leave, he certainly would not sin by
making a testament, especially in favour of pious works,
lest he should die intestate and those who were not in
need should succeed to him. To do this, however, in
a religious way, he ought expressly in the testament
itself to subordinate it to the will of his superior ; and
he will do this in the most excellent way, if he leaves
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. S?
it to him to alter the testament as may be deemed most
expedient.
Further, in such cases of necessity, it will not be a grave
sin for a Scholastic to make a testament constituting rela-
tions or other similar persons his heirs, if this is done
solely to prevent intestate succession and to let the supe-
rior know the will of the deceased, so long as it is left
to him to change it into other pious works. But if the
testament should be made absolutely, leaving his rela-
tives his heirs, or bequeathing legacies other than for
pious purposes, he would sin grievously, as usurping a
use of goods which is not granted to him, and as con-
sequently using the goods as if they were his own.
The act would, moreover, be well nigh useless, for even
if the Scholastic were to die with such a testament,
which God forbid, the superior has power to invalidate
it in the same way as he can invalidate other donations.
The superior is not free, unless this has been expressly
granted to him in the testament, to change the desti-
nation to another heir, or to other even pious works,
he has right and power only to destroy the testament,
and it being out of the way, that person of necessity
succeeds to whom the inheritance is due by intestate
succession. The reason is, because the superior has no
right of his own to distribute the goods, but has only
the right to designate the matter, mode and time,
and to give leave that the subject may distribute his
goods and alienate them in accordance with his religious
obligations.
As regards a novice who, during the second year of
his noviceship, and before making his vows, should
S§ THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
make a testament without the knowledge of his superior,
he would he acting inordinately, because even a novice
should, so long as he remains in that state, observe due
subordination to his superior, especially as regards so
grave a matter. Novices promise to renounce all their
goods after the completion of one year from their
entrance, whenever this shall be enjoined upon them
during the remaining period of their probation. Al-
though this promise is not properly a vow, it is not
merely a purpose, but is a simple promise with the con-
dition understood — If I persevere, and if the superior
should enjoin it. The obligation is therefore, not of
vow, but springs from filial obedience, and the tacit con-
vention between the novice and the Order when he was
admitted to the common life of the religious brethren ;
and therefore the inordination will not on this ground
be a mortal sin, although it could scarcely be excused
from venial sin.
VII. — To WHAT PRACTICE OR EXERCISE OF POVERTY
ARE INDIVIDUAL KELIGIOUS OF THE SOCIETY BOUND,
in virtue of the Rule ?
The practice of poverty by individual religious maybe
twofold, one positive, and the other negative ; and each
may be in its manner the matter of a vow. The nega-
tive practice of poverty, or the absence of any use of goods
may fall directly and substantially under the obligation
of the vow of poverty; because since poverty consists
in lacking, the poverty will be the greater if it extends
to the lacking of certain uses, and so can fall directlv
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 89
under the vow. Positive use, as such, does not pertain
to poverty, but to other virtues by which a man is
bound to use temporal goods for the preservation of his
life and for other ends ; but it belongs to poverty to
moderate this use, and so far it may fall directly under
vow. There are also certain acts which are, morally
speaking, necessarily annexed to certain kinds of poverty,
such as begging in the case of community poverty,
that is, when not even communities in an Order can
possess property.
As regards the negative practice of poverty, which is
the more perfect of the two, the first observance in the
Society is that the religious cannot as individuals pos-
sess any of those things which belong to the support of
the body, and are included under meat and drink. Not
to have a proper and private ownership of such things
is common to all religious ; but not to have a private
possession of them, either in great or in small quantity,
with general leave to use them, is not common to all
religious. To many religious it is allowed either by
Eule, or b}^ custom which the Eule does not prohibit, to
keep such goods in their own cells and under their own
custody, and to use them at will, in virtue not of owner-
ship but of general leave. Other religious by Eule and
custom profess privation of such use and possession ;
and there is no doubt that as regards poverty this is
best, all else being equal. It is farther removed from
the sufficiency of riches, and there are fewer difficulties
to be overcome when either the necessity or appetite
of the body may be relieved only by means of those
common goods which are in the possession and custody
90 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
of the Order, and that always by the judgment and
will of a superior, and with leave asked, the asking
of which is the more burdensome in proportion as the
matter is more trivial and carnal, and is therefore cal-
culated, of its nature, to put to shame a religious person.
This kind of poverty removes also many occasions of
intemperance or of superfluous enjoyment, or of useless
and idle conversation. It is embraced and observed by
the Society, as appears from its custom and rules, and
it ought not without urgent necessity and great modera-
tion to be dispensed.
From this there follows a second observance, namely,
that if anything is sent to any individual religious, it
should not be allowed for his personal possession or use,
but should be received and applied for the common
use.
A third observance is not to have anything in the
way of clothing in one's cell, besides those things which
are necessary for actual use.
Fourthly, although from the necessities of study there
is granted to the religious a, so to speak, permanent use
of the books which he requires, so that he may keep
them by him privately so long as he remains in the
place, yet there is not granted to him any peculium of
those books, so that he can carry them away with him,
or have the use of them as long as he lives. This is an
observance of poverty which presents no little difficulty,
since it concerns things which are most necessary to
men who give themselves with so much diligence to
letters and study, and to which they are consequently
likely to be much attached. It may even seem that this
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 9 1
kind of poverty might be a great hindrance to progress in
letters ; and it is perhaps for this reason that many reli-
gious Orders, which are otherwise very perfect in poverty,
do not observe it. The Society however has deemed
that any advantages which might be derived from the
perpetual use of books, may be counterbalanced by other
means, or are in any case to be postponed to this perfec-
tion of poverty. Further, as no one can have books with-
out leave, so neither in those books which he is allowed
to use can he write anything, or make any note. No
one, when he goes from one place to another, can carry
anything with him without leave of the superior ; and
according to the received custom which is the best inter-
preter of a law, this leave is not granted except for very
small things and for some considerable cause. Among
such things are the books assigned to individuals with
a view to renovation of spirit, namely, the Constitutions
of the Society or a Summary of them, the Following of
Christ or some similar pious book, and in some instances
a Bible and a summary of moral cases.
The advantages of this observance are partly common
to all religious Orders, and partly peculiar to the Society.
It prevents solicitude in collecting books, which is some-
times done from curiosity or ostentation rather than
from necessity. It avoids also the infinite expense of
transporting them from place to place ; and it removes
the matter of an inordinate love and affection which
such things when possessed have a tendency to beget.
There exists in the Society a special necessity for this
observance, which arises from the end and peculiar pro-
fession of the Society, since all the religious should be
92 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
prepared to undertake any missions or journeys whatso-
ever, without excuse and even without provision for the
way, whenever they are ordered. Since the obligation
extends to all, and in a special manner to the more
learned of Ours, and to Doctors, they should be unfet-
tered and free, as far as may be, from all ties and
impediments.
Fifthly, it is in conformity with the poor appoint-
ments of a religious chamber that nothing contained in
it should be secured under lock and key ; and this is
a great sign that nothing is possessed as one's own,
but that everything is left to the free disposal of the
superior.
Sixthly, by the vow of poverty it is forbidden to a
religious to receive anything without the leave of his
superior — an observance which is common to all reli-
gious,— but it is specially prohibited in the Society to
receive anything by way of stipend for any spiritual
ministry, so that this is in no way lawful, nor can leave
be given for it. It is forbidden to accept for masses, or
sermons, or lectures, or the administration of any sacra-
ment, or for any other pious duty such as the Society
can perforin in accordance with its Institute, any stipend
or alms by way of compensation for sucli ministries.
What is lawful to others, as containing neither injustice
nor simony, is not lawful to religious of the Society.
This obligation arises not from a simple direction of the
Rule, but in virtue of the vow of poverty.^
This observance removes all appearance of avarice, and
diminishes the desire of temporal gain. In the Society,
* See vol. ii. p. 382, note.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 93
looking to its end and functions, it is almost necessary
both as regards its neighbours, for whose spiritual profit
and gain the whole Society is ordained, since the more
graciously and liberally all ministries are performed for
the benefit of our neighbours, the more gladly are they
received by them, and the greater the edification and,
all else being equal, the fruit ; while as regards the reli-
gious themselves, who are for the most part occupied in
such ministries, if they were to derive gain from them,
there would be a peril of the pursuit of gain, rather than
piety, becoming a motive of their lives. This observance
moreover increases confidence in God Who will not fail
to provide things necessary for His ministers, if they
faithfully and freely serve Him and their neighbours.
Although it is true that the whole body of the
Society is to depend for its support on the donations
or alms of the faithful, whether in its Houses or Col-
leges or on missions and journeys, yet the Society has
considered it as a counsel to be observed not to receive
those alms for masses, or in compensation for other
ministries, but either to accept them only when they are
freely offered and given as alms and not as recompense,
or, in case of need, to beg them from the faithful who
will give them in the same liberal manner. Although
this is more laborious and burdensome, yet the Society
does not shrink from this labour, in order that she may
the better arrive at the end at which she aims, namely,
the profit of souls.
As the Society endeavours to imitate St. Paul in her
ministry, so has she chosen to imitate him also in this
kind of perfection. The Apostle, after proving to the
94 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Corinthians that it was lawful, and that he had a right
to be supported from the substance of the faithful, since
the labourer is worthy of his hire, and since those who
minister at the altar should live of the altar, preferred
nevertheless personally not to avail himself of this right.
He observed this counsel, not in order to blame the cus-
tom of the other Apostles, or to shew himself better or
more perfect than his brethren, but because he prudently
deemed it more expedient for the better fulfilment of his
office, which was to preach the Gospel to the Gentiles.
The other Apostles preached principally to the Jews, and
so could without any offence accept from them the things
which were necessary for their support ; since, according
to the Jewish custom, as St. Jerome relates, holy women
were wont to minister to their masters of their substance ;
but among the Gentiles there was no such custom, and
they were less trained in divine things, and might have
been more easily disturbed if anything had been asked
of them. So greatly did the Apostle esteem this observ-
ance that he calls it his "glory," and says that he pre-
ferred it to his life. The same obstacle to the free course
of the Gospel might be dreaded in our own day, in
preaching to unbelievers, or controverting with heretics,
or in instructing and exhorting the faithful, if this should
appear to be done for the sake of any temporal gain, or
with any bargaining for stipend. Perchance also the
ministers of the Gospel would have less freedom in
rebuking vice, and less efficacy to persuade, if they were
to receive any recompense from those to whom they
ministered.
The Society is not entirely singular in this observ-
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 95
ance, for the Recollects among the Friars Minor do not
accept any alms, or pittances, as they call them, for
masses ; although in their case this is done solely for the
sake of greater purity in the observance of poverty.
Seventhly, it belongs also to the poverty of the
Society, that subjects should not have power to give
anything away without leave of the superior. This is
common to every perfect vow of poverty, but in the
Societ}r it is expressly extended to the smallest matters,
and not only to donation, but even to lending as well as
borrowing, and that not only among externs, but even
among: the religious themselves.
As regards the positive practice of poverty, as it is dis-
tinguished from the negative practice which we have
been considering, there are various Constitutions of the
Society in which special circumstances and certain acts
pertaining to the perfection of such positive practice are
commended. The food, clothing and beds are directed
to be such as become poor men, and each is to persuade
himself that the worst things in the house should be
given to him, and be prepared to receive them for his
greater self-abnegation and spiritual profit. All, more-
over, are to love poverty as a mother and, according
to the measure of a holy discretion, at times to experi-
ence some of its effects.
Only the necessary or becoming use of common
things is allowed, so that the rule should be, — that
superfluities are always to be cut down, that necessary
things are to be allowed, and that comforts and con-
veniences, although not ordinarily to be rejected, as
96 THE KELIGIOUS STATE.
coming to the relief of necessity, are nevertheless at
times to be so moderated and diminished that some
effects of poverty may be felt. The Council of Trent
declared that the appointments of religious should be
such that there should be nothing superfluous, while
nothing necessary should be wanting ; but this does not
negative the expedience of sometimes enduring incon-
venience for the exercise of virtue. St. Augustine says
that Our Lord in the Gospel shews that neither in absti-
nence nor in eating does justice consist, but that it does
consist in bearing want, when necessary, with equanimity,
with ease and serenity of soul, and so carrying into
practice the words of the Apostle to the Philippians —
" I know both how to abound, and how to suffer want."
To this positive practice of poverty there belongs also
the exercise of begging, which is practised in the Society
in various ways and under various circumstances. The
Professed should, in virtue of their profession, be pre-
pared to beg on the Missions, since, in virtue of their
vows, they are bound to undertake the Missions without
looking for provision for the way. In the Professed
Houses also, since in them neither individuals nor the
communities possess property for their support, begging
is often necessary; and sometimes even in the Colleges it
is to be resorted to, should necessity demand it. Since
the grade of the Professed is the last or highest grade
in the Society, the novices are from the beginning
trained towards it by being exercised in begging on the
pilgrimages for a month without money, which they
make as one of the experiments. Again, before pro-
fession the religious are to be sent to beg for three
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 97
days, as an exercise of self-abjection, and in order that
by means of this prelude they may understand the
nature of their profession, and may begin to be prepared
for it by use and exercise. Further, the Constitutions
declare that they should be prepared to beg on the high-
way, whenever either obedience or necessity demands it.
In this promptitude of spirit the perfection of poverty
in great measure consists ; and for this reason Pius V.
declared that all the religious of the Society, in whatso-
ever grade of it they may exist, are truly and properly
Mendicants.
VIII. — TO WHAT PRACTICE OF POVERTY ARE THE Be-
LIGIOUS OF THE SOCIETY BOUND " IN VIRTUE OF
THEIR VOWS?"
Hitherto we have been considering the practice of
poverty to be observed in the Society, in virtue of the
Rule. What in this attains to the character of a pre-
cept, and when by transgression sin, whether great or
small, is committed, is chiefly to be ascertained from the
general principle that by the vow of poverty all use of
a thing as one's own is forbidden, and also all owner-
ship or dominion, that only excepted which is specially
permitted to scholastics.
Although, therefore, none of the observances men-
tioned in the last chapter can be omitted without im-
perfection, yet if the omission of them does not attain
to this that it includes use along with some ownership,
or appropriation, it will not as a rule be a sin against
poverty; although, morally speaking, it is never done
VOL. III. G
98 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
without some sin, either against obedience or against
temperance or some other virtue, because as a rule it
proceeds from some inordinate affection ; unless in the
case of ignorance or absence of consideration when, if
there has been a good intention, it may easily be excused
from all sin. As to when the possession or use of a thing
is proprietary, the general rule is that it is proprietary
when it is possessed or used without the knowledge and
consent, either tacit or express, of the superior.
The first four of the observances mentioned in the
last chapter belong to the rigorous obligation of the
vow of poverty as regards this only that, without the
tacit or express leave of the superior, nothing can be
received or secretly possessed, or carried from one place
to another. If with leave of the superior any of these
things are done it will not properly be contrary to the
obligation of poverty, although there may sometimes
perhaps be less perfection in asking for, or making use
of this leave. It may happen, however, that there
should be no diminution of perfection by reason of the
necessities of office or health, or for other reasonable
causes. In obtaining such leave, all subreption must
of course be avoided, otherwise the religious will not
remain safe in conscience ; since the leave would be
invalid, as not really representing the will of the supe-
rior. Not only deceit and fraud, the causes of subreption,
but also any such moral violence as should cause the
leave to be involuntarv will invalidate it ; as for instance,
if the subject should either expressly or tacitly threaten
to excite disturbance, to give scandal, or to conceive
grievous enmity or hatred, if the leave is not granted
THE VOWS AS MADE IX THE SOCIETY. 99
to him. In such a case there would be a mere permis-
sion of the superior in order to avoid this evil, rather
than a leave ; and this will not render the subject safe
in conscience, even as regards violation of poverty. If
nothing, however, is hidden from the superior, and
nothing false is said to him, and no moral violence is
employed, although the leave may perhaps have been
granted without sufficient reason and obtained by im-
portunate petitions, or have issued from private benevo-
lence, it will suffice to prevent any sin against poverty,
or the guilt of ownership ; for if the sin does not suffice
to invalidate the leave, when that is given, there is no
sin against poverty. The rule is the same with regard
to the fifth observance, or the use of a key, — 'without
leave it is not lawful, and with leave it is lawful.
IX. — The poverty which is proper to Professed
Houses of the Society.
The Professed Society is incapable of the dominion
of real property, even as vested in communities, but
it is capable of some dominion or community owner-
ship of movable goods for actual use, and of the domi-
nion of the real property which consists in dwellings
for its own habitation or for purposes of necessary
recreation, although not of revenues or possessions
from which the religious should be supported. But,
although the Professed Houses have the dominion of
those goods, they have not the full administration of
them, which resides principally in the General. Con-
tracts, therefore, with regard to such goods in Professed
100 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Houses are made not by the convent, or in its name,
but by and in name of the General.
Not even for the service or expenses of the Sacristy,
or of the Divine Sacrifice, as for ornaments or for the
supply of oil, wax, wine or altar-breads, can the Pro-
fessed Society possess revenues in which it should have
a right of property.
Neither can it undertake obligations for the cure of
souls, or for the saying of masses ; and thus there are
excluded also all revenues arising from anniversaries
and chaplaincies. On this head the poverty of the
Professed of the Society exceeds even that of the
Friars Minor.
Looking to the Institute of the Society it is necessary
not only that the Professed Houses should be fewer in
number than the Colleges, but that, absolutely speak-
ing, they should be few in number. The number of the
Professed cannot be great, considering the perfection in
learning and spirit which is desired of them. Again,
many of the Professed, if they are to respond to their
vocation, must necessarily be occupied on the Missions,
and in journeying amongst infidels, and if they have a
House it is only by way of a camp. Further, great
part of the Professed must serve the Colleges, and
must therefore live in them. As a rule the Professed
are the most noted for learning and erudition, and
consequently they must be somewhat aged and well
proved. They ought not to be deprived of their pro-
fession because they are fit to teach, and the Colleges
ought not to be deprived of their services because they
are professed ; and if they live in the Colleges and serve
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 10 1
them, it is clearly only just and right, nay, also necessary
that they should be supported from the goods of the
Colleges.
In these various ways the number of persons who
could possibly be gathered together in Professed Houses
is rendered small ; and since it is well for the sake of
good government that the Professed Houses should be
large rather than small, and large houses could be sup-
ported only in the more populous and richer districts,
the multiplication of Professed Houses is hindered.
X. TO WHAT COMMUNITY POVERTY ARE THE COLLEGES
or the Society and the Houses of Probation
bound ?
Although the Colleges and the Houses of Probation
coalesce with the Professed Houses to form the one
body of the Society, yet they do not, like those Houses,
observe community poverty. They are, as it were,
heterogeneous members of one organic body.
The Colleges of the Society do not profess commu-
nity poverty, either as regards movable goods, or as
regards revenues and real property, but are capable of
possessing these ; nay, without them they ought not to
be allowed or founded. Every College should possess
as much as is necessary and sufficient for the moderate
support of the religious, according to the number of reli-
gious which is required for its ministries and discipline.
The reason of this diversity may be derived from the
doctrine of St. Thomas, that as there are three kinds of
religious Orders, namely, active Orders, which require
102 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
some resources for their external and corporal works of
mercy — the purely contemplative Orders — and the, so
to speak, fertile contemplative Orders, that is, the con-
templative Orders which are communicative of perfection
to their neighbours, so each kind has a poverty which
is adapted to its own manner of life. For Orders which
are purely contemplative, St. Thomas says that that
kind of poverty is best adapted which permits com-
munities to possess real property and revenues.
In the Houses of Probation of the Society the life is
contemplative, since they are wholly ordained for the
spiritual exercise of Ours, and the chief study in them
is prayer and contemplation, and spiritual reading and
communication of the Word of God for the instruction
and exhortation of the religious, along with so much of
external action as may contribute towards their spiritual
profit.
In the Colleges also the principal object is contem-
plation, since every knowledge of the truth, and every
enquiry which is ordained towards enlightenment re-
garding the truth is comprehended under contemplation.
The Colleges therefore, for the same cause, require the
same kind of poverty. In both cases quiet of soul, and
absence of solicitude and care with regard to temporal
things is imperatively necessary. Hugh of St. Victor
says that three things are wont to hinder study, namely,
negligence, imprudence, and misfortune; and that as
regards the first one is to be admonished, as regards
the second one is to be instructed, and as regards the
third (which includes poverty), one is to be aided. St.
Ignatius also learned by experience, while studying
THE VOWS AS MADE IX THE SOCIETY. 103
in Paris and elsewhere, the damage done to study by
mendicancy.
Although, absolutely speaking, the Colleges might
live on alms, yet it would not be fitting to throw so
great a burden on the faithful as that of supporting all
the Scholastics before they were occupied in their service.
The faithful also would not likely be so interested, or
come so readily to the relief of the necessities of Col-
leges and Houses of Probation, which are ordained for
the education, perfection and instruction of the religious
themselves, as they would be in the case of the Professed
Houses, the inmates of which are occupied for the benefit
of their neighbours.
The Colleges of the Society are bound to the observ-
ance of a special mode of poverty in the administration
of their goods. The administration of those goods is
not primarily and principally vested in the Colleges, but
in the Professed Society itself, or in the General. That
part of the Society which consists of the Colleges is
reckoned to be only as yet on the way, and it should
therefore be under the care of the Professed Society,
as a son is under his father, or rather as a minor is
under his guardian, who has the administration of his
goods, although the ownership of them remains with
the minor.
The Colleges of the Society are deprived of certain
modes of acquiring temporal revenues or goods; and
this also constitutes a kind of poverty. They are
incapable of inheritance, in so far at least that they
cannot succeed at law to the religious who make pro-
104 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
fession or take the vows of the Society in them, as is the
case in other religious Orders which are capable of the
possession of community property. The reason of this
is principally that in receiving religious to the Society
account should be taken not of their riches, but of their
personal aptitude and capacity for the end and ministries
of the Society ; also, as far as possible, to remove all
occasion of disturbance from their neighbours ; and
thirdly, lest the Society should be less free, in case of
need, to punish or dismiss the religious. The Colleges
moreover, cannot receive revenues or alms in view or by
occasion of, or with any special obligation to spiritual
labours, such as the cure of souls, or saying masses,
funerals, anniversaries, chaplaincies and the like. The
churches of Colleges, as well as those of Professed
Houses cannot have in them any public alms-boxes,
for the collection of alms, either for Ours or for others ;
nor can there be received in those churches the offerings
commonlv made in other churches at the kissing of
relics or the Cross, and the like, and this to avoid all
appearance of avarice.""
XI. — Can the Eeligious of the Society be bound
IN VIRTUE OF THEIR, VOW OF OBEDIENCE IN EVERY
MATTER WHATSOEVER WHICH IS GOOD IN ITSELF?
The prelates of the Society, like those of other reli-
gious Orders, have power by a twofold title to prescribe
to their subjects under sin in accordance with the
nature of the matter ; namely, by dominative power in
* With regard to the whole of this matter, see vol. ii. p. 382, note.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 05
virtue of the vows of the religious, and by the quasi-
Episcopal jurisdiction which they possess over their
subjects. Hence there arises an obligation of a twofold
character; an obligation of religion, and an obligation
of obedience.
The matter of the vow of obedience in the Society
is most extensive; nevertheless, as regards rigour of
precept, it has a certain rule and limit.
The power of prescribing is limited by the end which
the Society has proposed to herself, and at which all her
members profess to aim. This end is rightly to be taken
as a rule, and all things necessary to or befitting this
end are comprehended within the matter of the vow of
obedience, so that they may be prescribed, when expe-
dient. Other things, however, which are either contrary
to this end, or have no connection with it, are not com-
prehended within the matter of the vow of obedience,
although they may in themselves be good works; for
the religious of the Society do not profess to do every
good work whatsoever, or to observe every counsel, but
only to live and labour in accordance with the end set
before them. Again, not every good action is ordained
towards the spiritual aid of our neighbours, which is
the end of the Society, nor are all actions which concern
our neighbours ordained towards their spiritual aid ; for
the redemption of captives, for instance, is a most excel-
lent work and concerns neighbours, and yet it is not in
itself ordained to their spiritual aid, but to the recovery
of their personal liberty. The power of the General to
send Ours to any place, is limited by this only that it
must be with a view to actions such as are proper to
106 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the Society in aid of its neighbours. Hence one could
not be sent in virtue of the Constitutions, under the
obligation of a precept, among the Turks simply to
make a pilgrimage, or to visit the Holy Places, or to
transact business, or on an embassy which is simply for
the welfare of a commonwealth and not for the spiritual
profit or conversion of souls, since these are not actions
of the Society for the aid of souls. We are speaking,
however, as regards rigour of precept, for, as regards
counsel, there is no doubt that it is better to obey in all
things without dispute. Again, although some of these
actions do not appear proximately to pertain to the aid
of souls, yet remotely and on occasion they might often
contribute towards it. This is what may be in the mind
of him who prescribes them, and that it is so is in case
of doubt to be presumed, when the contrary does not
appear. This excuse therefore is not easily to be ad-
mitted in the Society with regard to such missions,
especially if they are prescribed under rigorous obli-
gation, although this is rarely if ever done.
With regard to actions which pertain to one's own
personal perfection, this end of one's own perfection is
in the Society aimed at by means which are proportioned
to the adequate end of the Society, and those means are
therefore in some way contained within its Institute and
Kule ; and therefore not all actions which may increase
charity or perfection are proportionate matter of the
vow of obedience which is made in the Society, so that
in virtue of that vow they could absolutely be pre-
scribed.
In this sense the universal expressions in the Consti-
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. IOJ
tutions are to be understood, namely, in accordance with
the subject matter, and in accordance with that matter
those expressions are to be limited.
In the same way the direction — -that the will of the
superior is to be taken as a rule, is to be interpreted ;
nam el}', the will of the superior whose intention it is
to rule truly as a superior of the Society, that is, in
accordance with the end and Institute of the Society.
His will is not limited by the written Eule, for he can
prescribe many things which lie outside it, as he may
judge expedient with a view to the end which lies within
his power ; although he never prescribes altogether be-
yond the Rule, since this is in the Constitutions declared
to be in his power, and looking to the end and character
of the Institute it is morally necessary. Under those
universal expressions, moreover, are comprehended not
only those things which can be rigorously prescribed, but
those also which may be enjoined as a trial or greater
exercise of obedience, and which ordinarily pertain to
counsel, and not to precept.
Actions which are very extraordinary or alien to the
Institute of the Society cannot be prescribed, but a
superior can certainly prescribe an action in which life
is exposed to manifest peril for the salvation of a neigh-
bour ; since the matter of such an obedience is not alien,
but is very conformable to the end of the Society.
It is certain that not only the Professed, but all the
religious of the Society can in virtue of holy obedience
be bound to the missions.
That which gives measure to the matter of obedience
is not its difficulty or easiness, but is its relation to the
108 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
end and Institute of the Society. Hence many things
are comprehended under the matter of the vow of obedi-
ence which are most difficult, while others which are
more easy are not comprehended.
XII. — The Counsel of Obedience in the Society,
AS REGARDS PERFECTION OF EXECUTION.
Besides those things which in the observance of
obedience are of necessity of precept, there are others
which belong to counsel only, even supposing the vow
of obedience.
In the observance of any law or precept, three things
may and ought to concur ; — namely, execution of that
which is commanded — the will to execute or observe the
thing prescribed — and a judgment of the understanding
which dictates such execution and will.
In the execution of that which is prescribed either to
be done or to be refrained from, consists the substance
of actual obedience ; for thereby the precept is sub-
stantially observed. This is the proper matter of a
precept of obedience, to which it directly obliges.
Besides execution, there are certain conditions which
concern the mode of execution ; as, for instance, when
without waiting for a precept, or any sign whatsoever
of the will of a superior to prescribe, execution at once
follows. Another condition of execution, in order to its
perfection, is promptitude. A third condition is that
before execution there should be no excuse.
Excuses may sometimes be contrary to the substance
of the vow of obedience, when a precept is given and
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 109
the excuse is either contrary to that which has been
promised, or is not true but feigned or coloured. If,
when a religious is ordered to go on a mission, he ex-
cuses himself only because provision for the way has
not been supplied to him, this is contrary to the promise
which he has made. If therefore he excuses himself
with the intention of not going, unless the provision
should be supplied, he sins grievously against obedience ;
but if he excuses himself only in order to extort some-
what, he will merely be imperfect in the manner of his
obedience. If he alleges a false cause by way of excuse,
even although he should be excused by his superior, lie
will not be excused before God from culpable trans-
gression of his vow. When a precept has not yet been
imposed, but only a simple obedience or signification of
the superior s will has been given, there may be in such
an excuse the guilt of falsehood, but as regards obedience
there is only great imperfection. The case is the same
when the excuse proceeds not from a reason, but from
some inordinate affection. When the excuse is founded
in a true reason, or in what at least is so considered or is
an object of reasonable doubt, there will be no imperfec-
tion in the subject's setting his reason before his superior.
Finally, the obedience, in order to perfection in the
manner of obedience, should be entire, constant and per-
severing.
XIII. — THE PERFECTION OF THE COUNSEL OF OBEDIENCE,
AS REGARDS THE WILL.
Some kind of will is necessary in order to the sub-
IIO THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
stance of obedience, and there is another kind of will
which belongs to the perfection of obedience. Obedi-
ence, as it is a moral human act, cannot exist apart
from will. It is not sufficient, moreover, that the act
should, as regards its substance, proceed from the will
of the agent, but it must also so proceed from that
will as it is subject to the will of the superior. If a
subject voluntarily prays or fasts, ignorant of or in no
way attending to this having been enjoined by the
superior, he cannot properly be said to obey, although
materially he does what has been enjoined. He does
not of his own intention and will obey a precept, but it
simply happens that his will concurs with the precept.
As regards his disposition, it is not borne more to
observance than to non-observance of the precept. It
is necessary therefore that the will should in some way
be borne towards the act, as it falls under the will of
the superior ; otherwise it cannot be strictly and pro-
perly called obedience, even as regards execution.
The will may in two ways be borne towards an act
as that act is enjoined by a superior ; it may be borne
towards the material object only, or towards the proper
motive also. The first suffices to satisfy the precept of
obedience, so that it should not be sinned against ; the
second is necessary in order to the exercise of a proper
and specific act of the virtue of obedience. In order to
such an act of obedience, the motive for doing the action
must be — because that action has been prescribed.
The superior, when he prescribes, simply exacts from
the subject the debt of his promise which he made to
God by his vow of obedience. Not to obey is conse-
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. I I I
quently to sin by non-fulfilment of his vow. It is
therefore, while materially a disobedience, at the same
time a sacrilege.
To satisfy the obligation of the vow of obedience, it
is not necessary to obey formally from a motive of
religion or of fulfilling the vow. If the religious does
what he has promised from an intrinsic motive of fear,
or love, or hope of reward, or affection towards the
virtue to which the act prescribed belongs, as for in-
stance temperance, this will suffice to fulfil the vow of
obedience, since by that vow he promised not to obey
for this or for that motive, but simply to obey.
Where the obligation of the vow is not present, the
act cannot possess that peculiar excellence which consists
in observance of the vow ; since these two, the obligation
and the observance, are correlatives, and there cannot be
the one without the other.
The vow of obedience in itself and immediately does
not oblige to any act, except through the intervention
of the precept of a superior. It obliges only to the
obeying of the superior, and therefore, until the precept
is given, the practice of the vow has no place. The
vow has for its matter the precept of a superior, and
therefore so long as that is not imposed, the vow cannot
properly be exercised, except in affection and preparation
of mind, and by manifesting a prompt will for its
observance, if matter should be supplied.
If it is argued that, this being so, it would be more
advantageous for the religious if they were always com-
manded by means of a proper precept, because then they
would act from vow, which is more meritorious, it is to be
I I 2 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
answered that in the first place this would not be expe-
dient by reason of the risk of failure ; and, moreover, that
the merit may be supplied by means of the will of him
who obeys. It is supplied both by reason of the more
free and spontaneous will which is manifested by anti-
cipation of the precept, and by reason of the intention
and preparation of mind gladly to fulfil the precept
if it should be enjoined; and because even this kind of
obedience can have reference in virtue of religion to the
worship of God, and it can moreover by the intention of
the person extend even to observance of the vow, so as
to participate in its excellence ; inasmuch as the subject
wills to obey even in those things which are not pre-
scribed, so as to remove himself very far distant from
transgression of his vow, and so as to accustom himself
to observance of it in the most perfect manner.
True and formal obedience has for its object a proper
precept ; and by a proper precept is to be understood
even a precept which obliges under venial sin only.
The reason is because obedience has reference to the
superior as he is superior, and not as he is a friend, or
prudent counsellor, or the like ; and he is constituted
in his character of superior by means of his dominative
power, or his power of jurisdiction, for, apart from these,
men are equal. Obedience therefore has reference to the
superior as exercising his dominative power or his juris-
diction ; and if he does not exercise either one or other
he is not acting as superior, and so actual obedience to
him has no place, although there may be a/ptitudinal
obedience, that is, readiness to obey.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. I I 3
When a superior wills something to be done by his
subject, but does not will in any way to bind him under
sin, as may be sufficiently manifest from either custom
or statute, then he does not really will, or move his
subject as he is superior, or as possessing either domi-
nion or jurisdiction over him, but only as he is a
moral cause, counselling and morally impelling his
subject to do something, not by precept, but by judg-
ment and simple will. In this case the subject who
wills to do the work from the precise motive that the
superior wills it, does not make a proper act of the
special virtue of obedience, but makes an act of charity
or of humility. He makes an act of charity if he does
the work simply for the sake of union with his head ;
and this may in a wide sense be called obedience, be-
cause it is a movement of the will at the will of
another, but it will not be an act of that obedience
which is a special virtue. It might be called an obedi-
ence of charity, in the same way as if one were to know
that it was the will of God that he should perform
some action, although God did not will to prescribe
that action, his willing to be conformed to the Divine
will would be not an act of the special virtue of obedi-
ence, but it would be an act of charity towards God.
In the same way to will works of counsel, on the
precise ground that they are more pleasing to God, is
an act of charity, not of obedience.
Nevertheless, a specific and formal character of obedi-
ence may be added to such an act, and that in two
ways. First, if it is done with the view of perfect dis-
position and preparation to obey precepts when these
VOL. III. H
I 1 4 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
may be given, and to remove every peril of resistance or
contradiction to formal obedience, sliould it occur. This
intention is not merely one which may be excogitated,
nor is it an extraordinary intention, but it is one which
is ordinary in the religious life ; for when subjects act
at the nod of their superior, without waiting for a proper
precept, they have regard to the first beginnings, so to
speak, or shadow of the precept, and so for the better
observance of their vow obey, as it were, by antici-
pation.
Secondly, when a superior simply commands, and
does not will to exercise his power of jurisdiction or
even his dominative power, he cannot nevertheless
divest himself of his authority as superior and head.
God, when He wills a thing to be done, without His at
the same time exercising His power to prescribe, cannot
separate His dignity and majesty from that will which,
of the nature of the case, obliges a man on another
ground to will to conform his will to the Divine will
efficaciously proposed to him ; so also the will of the
superior, who holds the place of God, and is the head of
the body, to wit, the Order, has necessarily annexed to
it a peculiar dignity and excellence from the personal
circumstance of his superiority ; by reason of which his
will has a special force of moral motion, which force is
greater and of a different character from that which is
possessed by the will of a friend. This may be observed
in the will of a parent in relation to his child, and in
that of a master in relation to his servant, even when
there is no intention of rigorously prescribing, and bind-
ing in conscience.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. I 1 5
From this there appears further to follow in the reli-
gious a natural obligation of conforming his will to the
will of his head and superior, because natural reason
demands that between these two wills there should be
conformity and subordination.
Of this we have an example in the rules of an Order
which, even if they do not bind under venial sin, never-
theless, existing as they do in a body-politic as the rule
of its operations, of the nature of the case oblige in
some way to their observance, inasmuch as that part is
unworthy which without reason is discordant from the
whole. A similar obligation arises from every simple
ordinance of a superior.
The matter of the virtue of obedience is wider than
that of the vow of obedience, since a man does not vow
to observe all precepts, natural and positive, divine and
human, but only to obey the precepts of certain prelates;
and therefore the virtue of obedience can elicit more acts,
especially internal acts, than are promised by the vow.
Since for the substance of obedience there suffices the
will to execute that which is prescribed, every affection
which goes beyond this, and contributes to the doing of
the work more carefully or promptly or gladly, belongs
to the perfection of obedience.
First, and principally there belongs to its perfec-
tion the pure and formal intention of obedience in
order to observance of a precept, and fulfilment of
the will of the superior or, higher still, the will of
God which in and by means of this will of the
superior is applied. Such obedience is exercised under
I I 6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the influence of higher virtues, and is more universal
by reason of the universality of its motive, and so
better disposes a man to obey in all matters of obedi-
ence. This perfection Christ taught when, praying to
His Father, He said,—" Not My will, but Thine be
done." And again, — " My meat and My drink is to do the
will of Him who sent Me." St. Ignatius also says that
that obedience is very imperfect and not worthy the name
of virtue, in which one does not make the will of the
superior one's own, and so agree with it that there is
not only execution in effect, but also consent in affection
of the will, so that the wills of both should be the same.
For this also chiefly St. Thomas sets obedience above all
other moral virtues, that it subjects and immolates one's
own will to the Divine will.
Secondly, it belongs to this perfection of obedience
that the will should not only be absolute, but also
entire. That will is absolute which is efficacious to
operate ; and this belongs not only to the perfection but
also to the necessity of obedience, because without this
there cannot be execution. That will is entire, in which
there is no conflict or contradiction, or contrary affection
or desire. An affection which is at variance with the
ordination of obedience may be merely natural, that is
to say, compatible with a well-ordered and regulated
nature ; and this affection does not in itself imply im-
perfection and, if it does not retard or diminish the
efficacious affection to obey, it will in no way diminish
the perfection of obedience. Thus we find that Christ
in His obedience unto death, permitted to Himself the
exercise of the natural affection of shrinking from death,
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. I I 7
and yet this in no way retarded Him from a prompt will
to obey. Again, one may have an affection which is
at variance with the thing prescribed, arising from
some inordination either of nature or of habit ; as for
instance when one desires something else from a vehe-
ment impulse of the sensitive appetite, or from the too
great love with which one is affected towards something
which is contrary to the thing prescribed. If, in this
case, and notwithstanding this contrary impulse ana affec-
tion, a man promptly and efficaciously obeys, although
the obedience is accompanied with some imperfection in
another kind of virtue or affection, it will nevertheless
in itself be perfect, nay, may sometimes be even more
perfect. Since however, as a rule and morally speaking,
the repugnance must in some way retard the will to
obey, that obedience is said to be imperfect which is
accompanied by such immoderate contrary affections,
and it will be the more imperfect the more voluntary
these are.
Thirdly, it also belongs to the perfection of obedience
that a man should, as far as possible, be affected towards
the thing which is prescribed, since in that case opera-
tion is more voluntary, and this belongs to the perfec-
tion of virtue. When the affection for a thing prescribed
is merely human and of a lower order, it may easily
incline the will to operate from a human motive, rather
than from that of perfection of obedience. Still, even
if such obedience has in it somewhat of self, as con-
cerning a thing to which a man is himself otherwise
inclined, it is nevertheless possible for it to be entirely
perfect, because the will can in its freedom, and along
I I 8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
with the Divine grace, operate from the pure motive of
obedience, notwithstanding that concomitant affection.
Fourthly, affection for the superior himself is also
a great aid towards the perfection of obedience; and
so St. Jerome counselled, — " Fear the superior of the
monastery as a master, and love him as a father ; ' and
St. Ignatius in the Constitutions exhorts us to regard
superiors with internal reverence and love, and that we
should proceed in the spirit of love, and not with the
disturbance of fear. Although true obedience does not
spring from friendship for a man, even if it is holy and
supernatural, it is nevertheless greatly aided by such an
affection as by a most excellent disposition. No dis-
position of the will, therefore, which inclines it to love
or gratitude towards a superior, and which is good in
itself, is to be rejected, since it is in itself an aid, and
since it does not exclude the true motive of obedience.
Among other perfections of obedience, as regards the
will, there is this that the act should be accompanied
with gladness and spiritual joy, and that it should be
done in humility, and with a constant and persevering
spirit.
XIV. — The perfection of the Counsel of Obedience,
as regards the understanding.
In the explanation of the perfection of obedience as
regards the understanding there seems at first sight to
be greater difficulty, since in this mode of obedience the
Society demands two things which appear to be contraiy,
the one to the other; the one seems to be in excess of
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 1 9
what is due in virtue, and the other seems to be con-
trary to the idea of virtue, and to be full of peril.
First, it is demanded that the subject should regard
the superior not as man, but as God, so as to receive his
precept not as human, but as Divine. The Constitutions
declare that it is very necessary that all should give
themselves to perfect obedience, recognising the superior,
whoever he may be, as in the place of Christ our Lord ;
and that we should be most prompt at his voice, as if it
proceeded from Christ our Lord, and that as Christ's voice
we should consider and weigh it, so as wholly to please the
Divine Majesty ; and that we should regard in the person
of the superior not a man liable to errors and miseries,
but Christ Himself, Who is Supreme Wisdom, Immense
Goodness and Infinite Charity, Who can neither be
deceived, nor can will to deceive us.
The other condition which the Society demands in
obedience is that it should be blind, and that we should
obey persuading ourselves that all things are just, and
denying with a blind obedience every contrary view and
judgment of our own. This mode of obedience is illus-
trated by the examples of a corpse and a staff, which
without any exercise of judgment permit themselves to
be moved at the judgment and will of another.
Still more difficult is the comparison, made by St.
Ignatius in his Epistle of Obedience, with the subjection
of the understanding which takes place in believing;
that as we at once with our whole endeavour and assent
set ourselves to believing what the Catholic faith pro-
poses, so should we also be borne to do what things soever
the superior shall say, with a certain blind impetus of
120 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the will which is covetous of obeying, and without any
discussion whatsoever.
Now, between those two conditions of obedience which
are demanded by the Society there seems to be a contra-
diction, for in order to behold God in a man, great clear-
ness of vision and much reasoning is necessary, and how
then can obedience be blind, if it requires the eyes of
the mind to be so lifted up and so keen ?
Again, it appears to be excessive and beyond the idea
of virtue, to demand such an apprehension and judg-
ment in him who obeys ; since perfection of virtue does
not require a false apprehension and judgment, and it is
false to apprehend and judge the precept of a man as
if it were that of God ; because neither in reality and
according to truth is it a Divine but a human precept,
nor ought it equivalently and by appreciation to be
esteemed as Divine.
Further, if the precept of a superior is to be so appre-
hended that we are to persuade ourselves that he neither
is deceived nor wills to deceive us, this seems to be either
very false, or humanly impossible. If the blindness of
obedience, moreover, requires that one should so judge
without examination and sufficient motive, it looks like
asking us to see without light.
Nevertheless both conditions, both as regards the
language in which they are expressed, and as regards
the reality which underlies the language, are taken from
the Holy Fathers, and have foundation also in the Sacred
Scriptures. Christ Himself said, — " He that heareth you,
heareth Me ; and he that despiseth you, despiseth Me/5
and so speaking He speaks to His Apostles who were in
THE VOWS AS MADE IX THE SOCIETY. 121
His place to exercise the pastoral care, and in them to all
pastors of souls, and St. Basil applies His words specially
to superiors of religious Orders. St. Paul also says to
the Colossians, — " Whatsoever you do, do it from the
heart, as to the Lord and not to men, knowing that you
shall receive of the Lord the reward of inheritance.
Serve ye the Lord Christ," and again to the Ephesians
he says, — " Servants, ohey your carnal masters as Christ,
with a good will doing service as to the Lord, and not
to men."
St. Bernard says, — " We ought to hear him whom we
have in the place of God, as God, in those things which
are not clearly against God;" and again, "Whether God
or a man who is the Vicar of God gives any command-
ment whatsoever, we must obey with equal care, and
defer to it with equal reverence." St. Buonaventure-
says, — " Whatsoever man in the place of God prescribes,
and which is not certainly displeasing to God, is to
be received as if God prescribed it;" and again, — "In
order that you may be the better able to be obedient,
think always when the voice of him who prescribes
sounds in your ears, that you hear that voice not as
from man, but as from God Himself."
So also with regard to the second condition of obedi-
ence which is demanded by the Society, there are innu-
merable passages of the Fathers which are so conformable
to the words of St. Ignatius that he must either have
taken his words from theirs, or have certainly spoken by
the same spirit.
St. Thomas discussing, Whether there can be election
122 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
with regard to a tiling which is impossible, because St.
Benedict has laid it clown in his Rule that, even if the
superior prescribes something which is impossible, the
subject should attempt to accomplish it ? answers that
this is so said because the subject ought not to discuss
with his judgment whether a thing is possible, or not,
but in everything to stand by the judgment of the
superior. This explains the meaning of the saints when
they counsel that even in things impossible we should
obey ; that is, either, when the impossibility is not evi-
dent, or, that we should certainly at least begin, and do
what lies within our power, until we can proceed no
farther, since sometimes God opens a way so that that
is accomplished which at first sight seemed to be im-
possible.
It is manifest, therefore, that the doctrine which the
Society professes on the perfection of obedience as
regards the understanding is not novel, but is most
ancient, and is not singular but is most common, and is
founded on the greatest authority. It remains that we
should explain its true sense and practice.
We suppose that obedience formally perfects the will,
since it is a moral virtue, and apart of justice. The will
is a power which moves all the other faculties to the free
exercise of their actions ; and proper obedience is found
only in free actions. Hence as the will depends on the
understanding in its actions, so does the perfection of
obedience depend on perfection of the understanding.
The will depends on the understanding as on that which
directs and enlightens it, or sets before it its object.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 23
The perfect moving and direction of the understand-
ing requires two things, namely, perfect attention or
consideration of the good to be pursued, and removal of
every cogitation which might avert or hinder the will
from its affection towards or pursuit of that good.
There is therefore rightly demanded in order to per-
fect obedience, contemplation of God in the superior,
and an apprehension of the precept of the superior, as if
it proceeded from God. By this there is not demanded
from the religious a false apprehension or esteem of the
superior or of his command, but only an elevation of the
mind to the consideration of the supreme reason and
motive for which obedience is given, which is the Divine
will and authority. This St. Ignatius declares when he
says that obedience is a holocaust by which the whole
man, without any diminution whatsoever, is immolated
to his Maker and Lord in the fire of charity, and by the
hands of His ministers.
He who so obeys does not judge that the superior is
God, but that he represents God, as God's vicegerent,
which is most true, for St. Paul said of all magistrates
that they are the ministers of God, and have their power
from Him. Neither does the subject judge that the pre-
cept of the superior is Divine, that is, given immediately
by God Himself, since it is evident that the superior is a
man ; but he judges that the reason or motive for obey-
ing is Divine, namely, the will of God which is fulfilled
when the will of the superior is fulfilled, and which
ought to be the primary reason or motive of obedience-
In a religious also there is another and a peculiar reason
for the Divine worship, which in his obedience he should
124 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
keep in view, namely, the special vow by which he lias
consecrated himself to Grod, and by reason of which the
precept of a superior is in a manner made equal to a
precept given immediately by God Himself; in a way
similar to that in which the same Divine worship is
given to Christ and to the image of Christ, for Christ is
adored in the image, and by reason of the same excellence
of Christ, His image is co-adored.
Similarly, he who so obeys does not judge or esteem
that his superior cannot be deceived or err, either from
ignorance or from malice, for it is expressly added that
obedience is to be given only where no sin is manifest.
This exception supposes that a superior can err by pre-
scribing something which is unlawful, and if he can do
so from invincible ignorance, he can do so also from
culpable negligence, or even from depraved affection ; for
as he has no special privilege to prevent him in the one
case so neither has he in the other.
But if a religious in his superior contemplates Christ,
while he does not suppose that the superior cannot err, he,
nevertheless, when no manifest evil is apparent in the
precept, holds it for certain and judges that the superior
does not err; and this is not a rash judgment, but one
which is founded in sufficient authority and reason.
The subject conforms his judgment to that of his supe-
rior by a human faith, which is however founded in
a manner on the hope of a Divine providence with
regard to the superior by reason of his superiority.
Notwithstanding this, reasons may occur which urge
a contrary line of action, and in that case perfection of
obedience does not prevent these reasons from being set
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 25
before the superior, with a pure intention in so doing,
and not from an affection of excusing one's self from
the burden of the precept, but from a desire that that
should be done which is most expedient for the end
aimed at by the superior. If, however, notwithstanding
these reasons, and even if the}^ appear evident to the
subject, the superior should still persist in his precept,
it is, since it is not evil in itself, to be fulfilled.
That this should be done to perfection, it is not neces-
sary to judge that the thing is useful, but it is necessary
only to judge that it is useful for the subject to undertake
it, and to do it as far as he can. This is the practical
certainty which is not incompatible with previous specula-
tive doubt. But in order that this practical certainty may
be more constant, and consequently that the obedience
may be more prompt, the best counsel is not to discuss
the fitness of the matter in itself, but, as far as may be,
to suspend the judgment with regard to this, and to
judge that what is prescribed is just.
It may be taken as a general rule that whenever it
is lawful to obey, it is always better and more perfect
to obey, even if the obligation of the precept could on
some ground be excused ; and this especially when the
absence of obligation does not arise from defect of power,
but from defect of will, that is, when the superior does
not intend to oblige, although it is in his power to
oblige.
Hence also we see the sense in which blind obedience is
to be given by perfect religious to their prelates. Since
blindness consists in privation of sight, and is trans-
ferred by metaphor to spiritual things, it is certain that
126 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
it is not so transferred in a sense to signify privation of
all knowledge and judgment. A man is to obey not
like a brute, or in a stolid way, but as a man of right
reason, for the Fathers who use this phrase require at
the same time lynx eyes in the perfectly obedient reli-
gious, by which he may discern God in his superiors, and
whereby he may also discover sin if it should exist in a
precept. Religious blindness should exclude the human
reasons by which we might be moved to obey a superior,
namely, because he is learned or prudent, or because he
commands things which are pleasing to us, rather than
solely by reason of the will of God. It should exclude
also the human reasonings by which the subject would
examine why the superior should so prescribe, or why
he should prescribe this or that to him rather than to
another.
In one word, this blindness excludes the prudence of
the flesh, but it does not exclude the prudence which is
spiritual and supernatural. Since obedience is a most
perfect virtue it no less requires, in order to a perfect
act of it, the guidance of prudence, than do other moral
virtues ; but this is proper to it that the prudential
judgment which directs it should be founded more in
an extrinsic principle, and in the judgment of the
superior than in one's own judgment. As it excludes
one's own judgment, it is called a blind obedience ; and
it excludes one's own judgment so far as that judgment
is vitiated or imperfect, but not so far as implies all use
of one's own understanding. As a blind man is led by
another, and sees, as it were, with another's eyes, so is it
with a subject in his relation to his superior.
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 27
An obedience of this nature is necessary in order to
all well-ordered government, whether it is political,
economic, military or otherwise ; for if a servant or a
soldier ought always to understand or perceive the
reasons and causes which move his leader or master to
command him, all government would be rendered diffi-
cult and morally impossible. Further, a superior is
often moved to prescribe by higher and more universal
reasons, which a subject either cannot perceive for
himself, or which it is not expedient for him to know.
In the process of building, the inferior masons are
moved and directed by the architect, and it is necessary
that they should obey although they do not understand
the cause and reason wherefore they are moved. The
greater the concord between superior and subject in
judgment and will the better, both as in itself desirable
and as useful for every work ; and this is to be procured
by the conformity of the subject to the superior, and
not by the conformity of the superior to the subject.
Obedience of judgment is also more perfect because
it is necessary in order to all the other perfections of
obedience, such as promptitude, alacrity, perseverance
and the like, which could scarcely co-exist with diver-
gence of judgment. It embraces in itself also the
exercise of many other virtues, to wit, of humility,
reverence and confidence in God ; and by it are also
prevented all cogitations and reasonings which might
hinder the perfection of obedience. Hence it appears
that this blindness is rightly counselled as a perfect
mode of obedience. St. Bernard gives a most excel-
lent rule when he distinguishes between things which
128 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
are wholly good, and therefore to be done, especially
if they are prescribed ; and other things which are
wholly evil, and therefore not to be done, by whomsoever
they may be prescribed ; and other things again which,
according to the circumstances of place, time, person and
mode, may be either good or evil. He concludes that
with regard to them there need be no discussion, and
that the only prudence which is necessary is that which
suffices to the discerning of the wholly evil ; and that for
that but little discussion is necessary, since the things
that are wholly evil are in themselves and at once
evident.
With regard to the example of faith, which is made use
of by the Fathers, namely, that as the understanding is
led captive to the obedience of faith, so also should the
understanding be, as it were, blinded in order to the grace
of obedience, this is to be understood by way of simili-
tude, and not as if the cases were precisely parallel.
The subjection of the mind which is made by obedience
is not founded on infallible authority, nor on the truth of
the thing proposed, as is the captivity of faith ; but only
on the power of him who prescribes, and on the practical
certainty which may arise therefrom, supposing no in-
compatibility as regards the matter. Even if the judg-
ment of the superior should be really false, the subject
will be excused by reason of his invincible ignorance,
and will at the same time merit by the virtue of obedi-
ence.
The extraordinary examples of obedience which we
read of in the lives of the saints, such as obeying a
command to walk on the water, or to capture a lioness
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 29
and bring her to the superior, or to plunge one's hand
into boiling water, are proposed only in order that
by means of them we may understand how much
the virtue and simplicity of obedience is pleasing to
God. This was the end of those actions which was
intended hy the Holy Ghost, as distinguished from
the actions themselves, or from the matter prescribed ;
and for this reason He, in nearly all these instances,
confirmed the command by miracle. We are not to
imitate those actions as regards all their particular
circumstances, but we are to imitate only the perfec-
tion and simplicity which was displayed in them,
and that in accordance with the common and ordinary
laws of obedience. Sometimes the Holy Ghost moves
just men to act in a marvellous manner, and outside the
common and ordinary course of virtue ; and this mode
of operation is set before us, not in order that we should
imitate it, but in order that moved by admiration we
should strive at least to attain to perfection of virtue.
So, for instance, Samson and Apollonia who, led by a
special instinct of the Holy Ghost, inflicted death upon
themselves, are proposed to us as examples of fortitude,
not that we should imitate them in their acts, but that
therefrom we should learn to despise death. In the
same way, in those cases of obedience in which peril of
life or grievous injury was imminent, there was a special
instinct of the Holy Ghost which influenced both the
superior and the subject.
VOL. III.
/.
u i f-: .
130 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
XV. IS THE PROMISE TO ENTER THE SOCIETY WHICH
IS MADE BY THE APPROVED SCHOLASTICS, WHEN
THEY MAKE THE THREE SUBSTANTIAL VOWS. A TRUE
VOW BEFITTING THEIR STATE ?
Id the incorporation of Approved Scholastics, after
the religious has made the three vows he adds — And I
promise that I will enter the same Society, perpetually
to live therein, understanding all things according to
the Constitutions of the Societv.
This promise is a true and proper vow, and is distinct
from the three vows which precede it. Although it is
expressed by the word promise, while they are expressed
by the word votv, yet this word -promise is coupled with
to the Divine Majesty, and hence the promise is a true
vow ; for what is a vow save a promise made to God ?
This vow is distinct from the three preceding vows,
for something different is promised by it. Although it
is the same Society in which these vows are taken, and
entrance into which is promised, yet in the two clauses
the word Society is used in a different sense. It means,
in the case of the three vows, the body of the Society
taken as a whole and absolutely, while in the case of
the promise, entrance is understood as to be made into
an inner part or farther grade of the same Society ; in
the same way as if one, standing inside a house but in
its outer chambers, should promise both to remain in
that house, and to enter farther in, there would be two
distinct promises.
Although the grade of a Scholastic in the Society
constitutes a true religious, yet any farther or higher
THE VOWS AS MADE IX THE SOCIETY. 1 3 1
grade is absolutely better and more perfect ; otherwise a
vow could not rightly be made to pass from the one to
the other, and the promise itself would not be a true
vow as not concerning a better good.
Although this promise is not properly a vow of reli-
gion, since it already supposes the religious state, yet it
is a vow of greater perfection within the same state.
The Scholastics of the Society are so constituted in the
religious state by the three substantial vows that they
are not constituted in the final term of that state ; and
so, although they are outside the condition of novices,
they are not wholly beyond probation and trial. Hence
they vow to pass to a farther grade, because they are
tending towards that grade, and it is most necessary
for the Society that they should attain it, since the
welfare of the Society would not be sufficiently provided
for if they, desiring to remain in the state which they
had embraced, would proceed no further ; and this strictly
speaking they might do without sin, unless they had
specially promised to proceed. Although a precept of
obedience might suffice to oblige them to proceed to a far-
ther grade, supposing this to be matter of obedience, yet
the obligation is induced in an easier and better manner
by their own promise, voluntarily made to God in their
entrance on their state, as it is made in the Society.
XVI. — What effects does this promise of Scho-
lastics TO ENTER THE SOCIETY PRODUCE ?
This vow does not oblige in any way to procure the
entrance which is promised, or to any diligence for that
132 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
end, but only to accept the entrance when it is enjoined.
Herein the vow differs from a vow to enter religion, or
to pass to a stricter Order, for here there is one Order,
one head, one Eule, and as the vow concerns a better
good, supposing the institution and providence of the
Order, it is better to leave this care and solicitude to
superiors, and to be prepared to execute what they may
enjoin, than to be solicitous about one's grade and state,
and to either petition for or procure it. Hence in the
Constitutions this is counselled as better adapted for the
preservation of humility, obedience and internal peace,
which might be in great measure hindered if leave to
petition or procure were given, and much more if this
formed any part of the obligation of the vow.
Looking to greater perfection in virtue of the Rule
and Institute, the indifference of an Approved Scholastic
should extend even to his being admitted only to the
grade of a Formed Temporal Coadjutor ; for both the
Eule and perfection of obedience demand that one should
accept an inferior ministry, in place of a higher or more
honourable ministry ; and therefore at least in virtue of
the Rule and of perfection one would be bound to accept
such a grade.
No change can be made from the grade of the Pro-
fessed to that of Coadjutors, for this would not be to
enter farther, but to go back; and the four solemn vows,
once made, cannot be diminished or made into simple
vows. A spiritual coadjutor, on the other hand, can be
admitted to solemn profession, and although this is
rarely done yet it is done, and it is not prohibited by
any law of the Society, and it may even sometimes be
THE VOWS AS MADE IN THE SOCIETY. 1 33
expedient ; since in the course of time either the reli-
gious himself may make greater progress in learning
and spirit, or his talent and capacities may become
better known, and he may be judged useful to the
Society in its highest grade ; and in such a case he will
be bound to accept the grade of the Professed.
( 134 )
CHAPTER XX.
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY, AND THEIR STUDIES ;
AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS OF THE SOCIETY FOR
EXTERNS.
I. — IS A RELIGIOUS STATE IN THE SOCIETY RIGHTLY
DESTINED FOR STUDY?
It was an error of some, and among others of Wicliff,
that the study of letters is foreign to the religious state.
The reasons alleged were that studies take up time, and
distract the mind from the proper duties of religious ;
that religious perfection does not number among its
goods those things which stand midway between vice
and virtue, since it does not consider it enough for a
thing not to be evil, unless it also makes a man good
and better; because religion flies from glory, and does
not display but exercises virtue, while science puffs up,
and ministers to ostentation rather than to virtue.
Nevertheless it is certain that the study at least of
Sacred Letters is most befitting to the religious state.
This is a truth of faith, which St. Thomas confirms from
the words of the Psalm, — " Teach me goodness and dis-
cipline and science," from which it appears that not only
goodness but also science belongs to the perfection of the
soul. But if science is useful, it is not to be looked for
from God by way of infusion, for that would be super-
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 135
stitious ; neither is it to be sought solely by one's own
genius and labour, for that would be presumptuous and
full of peril; and therefore it is most fitting that a reli-
gious should at an opportune time give himself to study
and learning.
Study, especially of Sacred Letters, is necessary in
order to the perfection both of the active and of the
contemplative life, and therefore it is most fitting for
the religious state. Science is in itself a perfection which
is in the greatest accordance with the nature of man, and
it can therefore for even the sake of its own perfection be
rightly desired. To desire a perfection which belongs to
and is an adornment of nature, is in itself good \ that
is to say, it is good apart from any bad end, or other
accidental moral peril, or impediment to necessary good,
and these are extrinsic, and can easily be avoided in the
religious state. If this is true of science generally, much
more is it true of the science of God and of the things
which belong to God, since the bliss of man consists in
this knowledge, or chiefly depends on it, as Jesus said
— " This is life eternal that they should know Thee, the
only true God."
Contemplation consists in consideration of divine
truth, and this cannot be acquired by natural means and
without risk of error, without previous reading and
study ; and therefore, all the Fathers who treat of the
contemplative life teach that, before all things else,
assiduous reading and study is necessary for that life,
of which they also reckon these to be parts.
In that religious state the end of which is not only to
contemplate divine things, but also to communicate to
1^6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
o
others what has been contemplated, it is necessary to pos-
sess no ordinary science, but a perfect science of all things
which belong to faith and morals ; and therefore it is
necessary that the religious should give themselves to the
perfect acquirement of such knowledge in their religious
state. No one can teach others if he himself is ignorant,
for how could he enlighten minds which are in darkness,
or confute heretics, or give a reason of the faith that is
in him, or solve the moral difficulties which occur, and
satisfy all, unless he has been sufficiently instructed in
theological doctrine both positive and scholastic, specu-
lative and moral? St. Paul therefore exhorts Timothy
to give heed to reading, as well as to exhortation and
doctrine ; and by reading is to be understood every study
of sacred doctrine which is necessary in order to any
ecclesiastical or religious function, or which is adapted
for the admonition or instruction of men in all things
which pertain to their faith and morals. In this way
only and not otherwise could a minister of the Gospel
fulfil in every matter the precept of the Apostle to Titus
— " Speak the things which become sound doctrine. "
All the members of the Society cannot be at their
reception men who are advanced and already sufficiently
instructed to be able to exhort and teach others ; and
the necessary doctrine or science is not to be sought or
expected from God by way of miracle, for such signs
and extraordinary works are not now necessary in the
Church ; the necessary learning must therefore be
acquired by means of labour and industry with the
aid of divine grace. St. Jerome says — Learn that
you may be able to teach, and offer to Christ a
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 37
reasonable sacrifice, lest you be a soldier before you
are a recruit, and a master before you are a disciple ;
and Innocent I. — It is wretched for him to be made a
master who was never a disciple ; and St. Chrysostom
speaks of St. Paul as admonishing all in the person
of Timothy, and asks, — If he who raised the dead
gave such admonitions, what shall we miserable men
say ? If therefore Timothy required a teacher, what
wonder that religious, and especially those who are to
be ministers of the Gospel, should stand in need of
teachers, study and learning?
Hence it is evident how excellent it is that young
religious should give themselves to the study of Sacred
Letters, since it is necessary for the purpose of every
end at which the Order aims, and is in no way contrary
to the perfection of the religious state. St. Thomas says
that such youths are the best fitted for progress in learn-
ing, since they are so far separated from carnal affections
and secular cares.
Most fittingly therefore has there been instituted in
the Society this first grade of religious, of which the
members give themselves to study. The grade of
Scholastics is ordained with a view to the grade of the
Professed, and its proximate and intrinsic end is to dis-
pose and render the members of it capable and apt for
the grade of the Professed. This disposition consists
chiefly in two things, namely, in virtue and in learning.
Instruction and exercise in virtue begin with entrance
on the noviceship ; while for further study and exercise
of virtue the Second Probation is specially ordained.
Study is pursued in religion with such moderation
138 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
that proper and sufficient time is reserved for the higher
works of religion ; for all things have their time, and the
state of religion so disposes and ordains all (hence the
name of Order) that there should be no confusion of
time. Neither is the time given to study spent without
spiritual profit, since the whole of the study is a great
service of God, both by reason of the end to which it is
ordained, and by reason of the charity and obedience
from which it proceeds. Again, study does not in itself
distract the mind from thinking of God or of some good
thing for the sake of God, but rather collects the mind,
and is a means for the hindrance of evil thoughts, and
consequently for the hindrance of the concupiscences
of the flesh, and the other lower desires. Even if during
the time of study the mind should be distracted from
the actual thought or contemplation of God, this is
simply because our mortal condition will not permit us
to be always actually thinking of God, and next to the
thought of Him nothing better can be imagined to
think of than that which pertains to sacred learning.
To think of other things for the sake of God is virtually
to think of God Himself; and the knowledge of things
in their own proper nature, when it is referred to the
praise of the Creator, partakes of the divine light ; and
finally, the religious mind is never so absorbed in literary
study, even at those times at which it gives itself thereto,
that it does not frequently recur to God by renewal
of the intention, by petition for aid and light, and by
thanksgiving for understanding of the truth.
The study of letters, regarded by itself or as embraced
for its own sake only, might be reckoned among inferior
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 39
goods, and so be not greatly esteemed by religious ; but
regarded as it is an instrument of virtue and of actions
which are ordained as means for the salvation of souls,
it is to be reckoned among the greater goods, since it
shares in the goodness of the end to which it is ordained.
It is not undertaken by religious men for the sake of
ostentation or vain reputation, and so it is in no way at
variance with religious modesty ; and if any contrary
motions arise they are accidental, and can be conquered
with the aid of the divine grace. Neither is it always
reprehensible in a religious occasionally to do somewhat
for the display of his erudition and progress in letters,
for this does not end in mere displa}7 to gain only the
opinion of others, which would be vain ostentation, but
is referred to the end of the salvation of souls. St.
Augustine says, — To us our life is necessary, to others our
fame, and again, — Thy conscience to thyself, thy fame to
thy neighbour. St. Paul also says to Timothy, — Medi-
tate on these things, be wholly in these things, that thy
proficiency may be manifest to all ; attend to thyself and
to doctrine, be earnest in them, for in doing this thou
shalt both save thyself and them that hear thee (i Tim.
iv. 15, 16). St. Chrysostom likewise would have our
progress, not only in rectitude and sanctity of life, but
also in sincerity and fulness of doctrine, made manifest
to all.
The study of letters is therefore and rightly appointed
as the proper function, and therefore as the proximate
end of this first grade in the Society.
i40 the religious state.
ii. — is the study of, and skill in the classics, in
Languages and in Liberal Arts becoming to
Religious of the Society?
The enemies of religion in the time of St. Thomas
greatly condemned the study by religious of inferior
arts, and said that it belonged to the preachers of Anti-
christ rather than to the preachers of Christ. Neverthe-
less it is clear and certain that erudition in languages
and the liberal arts is most necessary for labourers in the
Gospel, and is not at variance with the religious state.
It is right therefore that the Scholastics of the Society
should be diligently instructed in these, before they give
themselves to sacred learning in Scholastic Theology, or
to the interpretation and understanding of the Sacred
Scriptures.
St. Clement exhorts the religious, whom he calls in a
special manner his disciples or fellow-disciples, first to
poverty and obedience, and then to understanding of the
Scriptures, which he says are to be interpreted not in a
private sense, but according to the tradition of the
Fathers, and in agreement with other passages of the
same Scriptures ; and he adds that somewhat of the
common erudition and the liberal studies which were
pursued in boyhood may contribute towards the mainte-
nance of true doctrine. Hence also Eugenius ordained
that in all bishoprics there should be appointed Masters
and Doctors to teach assiduously letters and the liberal
arts ; and he gives the reason, — because in these divine
things are manifested, and the commandments are eluci-
dated. St. Paul did not disdain to make use of profane
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 141
authors, quoting to the Athenians a saying of their own
poets, — "For we also are his offspring" (Acts xvii. 28);
and in his Epistle to Titus, Bishop of Crete, lie adduces
the testimony of one of their own prophets, — "The
Cretans are always liars' (i. 12). St. Jerome speaks of
his own employment of secular wisdom as a means in
order to beauty of language and eloquence of speech ; and
he confirms it by the examples of Origen, Methodius,
Quadratus, Aristides and many others both Greeks and
Latins, and he says of them, — You know not which first
to admire in them, their worldly erudition or their know-
ledge of the Scriptures. St. Augustine also insists on the
necessity of these arts for the understanding of the Scrip-
tures, and sums up that three are necessary — an under-
standing of signs, a knowledge of things, and the method
of solving doubts and difficulties. To the first, he says,
a knowledge of languages contributes ; to the second,
philosophy and mathematics lend aid ; while to the third
dialectics supply method and great light. Besides these
three which are necessary in order to understanding, he
requires eloquence, not as absolutely necessary, but as very
useful in order to proposition ; all four being employed
of course with due moderation. Clement of Alexandria
also speaks of the Greek philosophy, and other branches
of learning, and liberal arts, and says that one ought to
take from each of them that which contributes towards the
truth. He adduces the example of Abraham, who was
skilled in astrology and astronomy, and made excellent
use of them in order to knowledge of the truth ; and of
Moses who, as St. Stephen declared, "was instructed in all
the wisdom of the Egyptians," and this not without a
142 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
special providence of God, in order that lie might confute
those by whom he had been instructed.
That human erudition, acquired with due intention
and moderation, which is evidently so very useful and
morally necessary for a preacher of the Gospel, is not at
variance with the religious state is evidenced by the cases
of St. Jerome and St. Augustine, who were both of them
religious, and who everywhere display the highest erudi-
tion in human learning. We may say the same of St.
Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory Nazianzen, and many
others. Eeason also confirms this, since such learning is
sought after as a means towards the highest end, and an
end which belongs to the most perfect religious state.
A sufficient knowledge at least of the Latin language
O (DO
is necessary, as well as mediocrity at any rate in dialec-
tics and philosophy, for without these one could not
save rashly and without the necessary skill approach
to Theology. To acquire the latter with exactness, a
knowledge of languages, and proficiency in all the liberal
arts, and especially an exact comprehension of dialectics,
philosophy and metaphysics is most useful. Hence
Clement V. among other ordinances for the improvement
of the Divine worship, ordained that in each of the
monasteries, the resources of which would admit of it,
there should be maintained an able master, who should
diligently instruct the monks in "primitive' sciences,
meaning thereby those which are the preambles to
Theology. Trithemius in his book of the illustrious men
of the Order of St. Benedict, relates that it was a most
ancient custom of that Order to instruct the }Tounger
brethren in the various branches of Scholastic learning,
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 43
such as rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, philosophy and
the like, so that being sufficiently instructed in these
they might be introduced to the study of the Sacred
Scriptures. If this was an approved custom in monastic
Orders, much more must it be commendable in those
Orders which have been instituted for spiritual ministries
to their neighbours, as St. Thomas rightly concludes.
In the Society, therefore, it is manifest that such
instruction is absolutely necessary. This is evident
from the end of the Society, for among all the Orders
which are ordained for the salvation of their neighbours,
the Society without doubt excels in its mode and princi-
pal intention of seeking the salvation of souls, to which
end it undertakes the three principal functions, — of
propagating the Church among infidels and the most
remote nations, — of defending it against heretics and
labouring for their conversion, — and of exhorting and
teaching catholics, and co-operating to their sanctifica-
tion and perfection. Hence it requires proficiency in lan-
guages and in the whole of philosophy and metaphysics,
not only in order to an understanding of Theology and
the Sacred Scriptures, but also in order that in other
ways it may use this proficiency for the service of the
faith. As the Holy Ghost bestowed upon the first
preachers of the Gospel the gift of tongues in order that
they might sow the faith in divers nations, so since
these signs ceased an Order which shares their office
must with all due diligence and industry prepare itself
to be a fit instrument therefor, and to become, as far as
may be, universal. Hence the necessity for a know-
144 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
ledge of languages : and apart from miracle or an extra-
ordinary providence of God, a preacher of the Gospel
could not with force and efficacy of reasons confute errors
which are contrary to the natural light, if he were not
accurately instructed and well versed in the various
branches of philosophical learning.
Although it would be difficult or morally impossible
that all these studies should in their perfection be
united with theological learning in the individual mem-
bers of the Society, yet eminence and excellence in all
of them may be and is to be procured in the whole body
of the Society. This may be easily done if in each
branch of learning there are one or more who give
themselves to special study for a longer time and with
greater diligence.
III. — The Method of Study in the Society.
St. Bernard expounding the words of St. Paul to the
Corinthians, — " If any man think that he knoweth any-
thing, he does not yet know how he ought to know '
(i Cor. viii. 2) says — The usefulness and fruit of know-
ledge is in the mode of knowing ; and the mode of
knowing is that you should know in what order, with
what study, and for what end you ought to know. To
these three points St. Ignatius has paid most dili-
gent attention. As regards order, he commands that
primarily and principally a due order should be ob-
served between the study of virtue and the study of
learning. In the Constitutions he says that, after a
fitting foundation of self-abnegation and progress in
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 45
necessary virtues appears to have been laid in those who
have been admitted to probation, the edifice of learning
is to be taken in hand. He prescribes also the order in
which the various branches of learning are to be pursued,
namely, that first there is to be a solid foundation in the
Latin language, before the study of the liberal arts ; and
in these before the study of Scholastic Theology ; and in
it before the study of Positive Theology ; and that the
Sacred Scriptures may be studied either at the same
time, or afterwards.
By Positive Theology he means the reading of the
Holy Fathers, the Councils, the Decrees of the Church,
and Ecclesiastical History. To all these the perfect
theologian should give himself with the greatest dili-
gence, but this after he has laid a solid foundation
in Scholastic Theology. There may also be compre-
hended under Positive learning all the erudition which
is necessary for preaching to the people. Those greatly
err who, before they have made great progress in
Scholastic Theology, distract themselves with that kind
of study, since they confuse all things, and do not learn
anything with solid foundation, while they study many
things not without peril of error. Some study of the
Scriptures in order to a literal understanding of them
is necessary for Scholastic learning itself, and therefore
certain principles or some elements of such study must
accompany Scholastic Theology. It is probably for this
reason that St. Ignatius distinguishes the understand-
ing of the Sacred Scriptures from Positive Theology,
under which it is commonly comprehended.
vol. in. K
I46 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
As regards the second point, St. Bernard asks — With
what study ? and answers that that is to be studied
the more ardently which more vehemently excites to
love. He refers to mystical science, which is in great
part practical, and is ordained towards love ; but his
words may be applied also to the speculative arts and
sciences of which we speak. These are ordained, so far
as the learner is concerned, towards Divine love, as their
end ; and therefore the more nearly they approach, and
the more they move towards Divine love, with the
greater affection and study are they to be embraced and
pursued.
But although, as regards the affection of the learner,
this is true, yet as regards the effect, and application of
labour, every branch of learning is to be pursued with the
greatest stud)', and that in proportion as the difficulty and
arduousness of it demands. The proximate measure of
study is not love, but the arduousness and necessity of
the work. Hence St. Ignatius says generally of all these
studies, that the religious should resolve seriously and
constantly to apply their minds to stud}r, and should per-
suade themselves that they will do nothing more well-
pleasing to God in the Colleges than with due intention
to expend themselves diligently on their studies. lie
says, Let the Scholastics be assiduous in the hearing of
lectures, and in diligently preparing for them, and, after
they have heard them, in repeating them, asking expla-
nations of those things which they have not understood,
and noting other things as may be necessary. He lays
it down as fundamental that this literary labour requires
the whole man, and he declares that, if it is done with
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 147
due intention, it is not less but more pleasing to God
than any other labour whatsoever, during the time of
studies. He adds that the labour of study undertaken
from obedience and charity is a work of great merit, and
that therefore the fruit of it is not lost, even if it should
never arrive at the effect aimed at, as for instance, by
reason of a premature death.
As regards the third point, or requisite for studying
rightly, St. Bernard asks, — For what end? and answers,
— Not for vain glory or curiosity, or the like, but only
for the edification of oneself, and of one's neighbour.
For there are some who desire to know with this end
only that they may know, and this is a base curiosity;
and some who desire to know that they may themselves
be known, and this is a base vanity ', and they cannot
escape the grinning satirist (Persius) who sings of such
men, — To know is nothing unless another know that
}tou know ; and some who desire to know that they may
sell their knowledge for money or for honours, and this
is a base quest of gain ; but there are some also who
desire to know that they may edify, and this is charity;
and some likewise who desire to know that they may
be edified, and this is prudence. Of all these it is only
the last two who abuse not knowledge, those namely
who desire to understand in order that they may do well.
All these words apply most excellently to our present
subject, and to begin with the last, the Society seeks
learning ch icily for this, that it may do well, that is to
say, that it may benefit first itself, and then its neigh-
bours. It procures its own perfection primarily, and
I48 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
then the perfection of its neighbours. Although in this
labour of learning, we may say that for the most part
the principal end or aim of the Society is the benefit of
its neighbours, since in order to its own perfection a
lesser erudition, and a smaller number of languages
and sciences would suffice, nevertheless the end of its
own perfection is never to be excluded even from the
labour of study ; not only because, since it is meritorious,
it always more and more sanctifies the soul, but also
because it in itself more and more enlightens a man with
regard to the knowledge of God and that moral perfec-
tion which is always and principally to be aimed at.
But although this is the general end to be kept in
view in sucli studies, yet in every branch of learning its
proximate and peculiar end is to be observed, in order
that, in accordance therewith, the measure and mode of
its study may be determined. The proximate end also
for which any particular study is undertaken should
be considered, for he who is to employ philosophy as
a proximate instrument for the conversion of infidels,
must study it in a far different manner from that in
which he studies it who enters on it only as it is a
disposition for Theology.
The same idea of the proximate end it is also most
necessary to keep in view with regard to the reading of
books. Every one is to read those books which are
useful or suitable for the office or end set specially before
him ; otherwise reading might rather be for the satisfac-
tion of curiosity than from a motive of religion. Tor some
the reading of pagan or infidel books will be necessary,
in order that they may confute their errors and answer
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 49
their arguments ; while for others such reading would
be useless or harmful. Similarly, for certain persons it
will be a religious work for them to give themselves,
for instance, to the study of astrology, while in the case
of others it would be useless and idle. St. Thomas
says that to study magic is good in order to refute it ;
but that if the person is so circumstanced that this
knowledge does not pertain to him the desire of it will
be inordinate.
From a consideration of these three ends in the pur-
suit of science we gather what St. Bernard condemns.
The first end is not evil in itself, but in a religious it is
inordinate by reason of his state and condition. Since
science is naturally desired by the highest inclination in
man, to seek it is in itself good ; for, as it relates to the
adornment and perfection of the mind, to seek science
for its own sake is not in itself evil, even if thereby
nothing else should be aimed at save knowledge of
natural truth. But in a religious man this will be
reprehensible, and for two reasons ; first, because by
reason of his state he is bound to be occupied in those
L
things chiefly which contribute towards perfection, and
science by itself contributes nothing ; secondly, because
those who with this intention only immerse themselves
in studies, seek, as a rule, not those studies which are
most useful, but those which are most pleasurable.
Eightly therefore may such study be called in a reli-
gious man, a base curiosity ; for although there may
not perhaps be always sin in an individual case, it will
always be very imperfect, and open to great and fre-
quent peril of sin.
150 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
The second end is in itself and intrinsically evil, and
although by reason of its object the malice is not mortal,
yet it may easily be the occasion of many grievous sins,
such as ambition and vain glory, as St. Thomas observes.
From this end there chiefly springs a desire to display
singular knowledge, and consequently to give utterance to
novelties, which are most of all to be avoided in theology.
Novelty, says St. Bernard, which presumes at variance
with the usage of the Church, is the mother of rashness,
the sister of superstition, and the daughter of levity.
The third end condemned by St. Bernard should be
very foreign to Scholastics of the Society. Although to
seek science for the sake of gain, whether in money or
in honour, is not in itself intrinsically evil, it is never-
theless inordinate in the Society, since it is contrary to
the Rule and Institute. No one of Ours is permitted
to receive any stipend or temporal gain for his mini-
stries, and by the Institute the way is closed to honours
and dignities through literary excellence. Degrees in
letters are permitted, but only in so far as they are
necessary for the sake of others, to the greater glory of
God, and fruit of souls. A certificate of knowledge, and
the honour which flows from it, is sometimes necessary
in order that the knowledge itself should be useful to
others, for, as the wise man says, — Wisdom which is
hidden, and a treasure which is unseen, what use is in
them ? Although therefore one should not learn in
order to be esteemed wise, it is nevertheless not wrong
in itself to display the learning which has been acquired,
and to desire to have a good reputation for learning,
not resting this desire in fame or honour, which would
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 151
be vain, but in order to be useful to others. Hence
Eabanus, treating of the parable of the talents, says that
those are blamable who from an immoderate humility
conceal their learning, and do not use it for the benefit
of their neighbours. For this end, therefore, to display
perfection of learning by means of Public Acts, and to
accept the insignia of the same or honours arising there-
from, is not wrong, nor is it contrary to due order or
intention. St. Thomas says that a man may laudably
seek his own glory for the advantage of others, even as
Christ said, — " Let your light so shine before men, that
they may see your good works ; ' and he proves that
religious may lawfully receive Degrees, even in secular
Universities. He explains the words of our Lord —
" Be not called Babbi," to mean neither a precept nor a
counsel not to exercise the office of a Doctor or a Master,
for this would be contrary to the office which Christ
Himself and His Apostles exercised, and for which there
is promised a special crown in Heaven ; and he proves
that by these words the title or other insignia of Doctor
or Master are not forbidden, for if the office is not evil
neither will its title be evil, nor the insignia of it, which
are ordained not in order to elation but for the mani-
festation of authority. Hence St. Paul, in both of his
Epistles to Timothy, calls himself a Doctor and a
Master. St. Thomas concludes that what Christ for-
bids is the ambition and elation which is in the desire
of those degrees or titles solely for the sake of one's
own honour or reputation.
As regards the means which are provided in the
152 THE BELIGIOUS STATE.
Society towards progress in learning, they are various ;
and of them some are corporal and others spiritual ; and
of the spiritual some belong to the understanding and
others to the will ; some are divine, and others human ;
some are positive, and others privative, or such as may
remove hindrances to progress.
■
Among the corporal means those may be called posi-
tive, which are necessary for the support of the Scholastics,
who in the Colleges Lave all that is necessary for their
fitting sustenance, in the way of food and clothing, and
also what is needful for purposes of study, so that they
are free from all care and solicitude on this head. The
privative means are those which remove or prevent
corporal hindrances to study. It is ordained in the
Constitutions that special care is to be taken that the
Scholastics should not study at times prejudicial to
health, that they should have as much time for sleep as
is necessary, and that they should observe moderation in
mental labours, so that they should be able to persevere
longer both in study, and in the fruit of study, the com-
munication of their learning for the glory of Cod. It
is also to this end provided that they should be freed
from the hindrances of external occupations and labours,
both in domestic duties and other ministries, that they
may have more time to give to study.
Among spiritual means, the principal and more divine
are those which preserve the soul in purity and peace,
and draw down aid and light from God ; for the know-
ledge which is chiefly aimed at by means of those studies,
is supernatural, and greatly depends on the aid of divine
grace. St. Athanasius says that without a pure mind,
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 53
and imitation of the saints no one will comprehend the
words of the saints; and St. Augustine says that study
should begin from faith, and should strive by good living
to arrive at that at which it aims ; and again, — It is faith
which first subjugates the soul to God, and then by
observance of the precepts of right living our hope is
confirmed and charity is nourished, and then that begins
to shine forth which before was only believed.
But since even in exercise of piety there may some-
times be excess which may hinder progress in letters,
St. Ignatius has provided a remed}^, by counselling due
moderation, and by enjoining on superiors great care
and vigilance with regard to this matter. He says that
as it has to be guarded against, that in the fervour of
study love of solid virtues and of the religious life should
not grow cold, so also during the time of study much place
is not to be given to mortifications and prolix prayers
and meditations.
Individual selection is specially committed and com-
mended to superiors and rectors, so that every one
may be set to that for which his nature and talent is
prudently considered to be sufficiently adapted. Fur-
ther, because it may sometimes seem hard and diffi-
cult to certain persons to apply themselves to this or
to that science, which is at variance perhaps with their
own inclination or will, those who are to be Approved
Scholastics in the Society are, at the outset, in the
Examen before their entrance, interrogated whether they
are willing" to allow themselves to be led with regard to
what they ought to study and the method and time of
study, as it shall seem good to their superiors.
154 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
On superiors there is enjoined solicitude, vigilance
and care that both teachers and Scholastics should fulfil
their respective functions with all diligence, and that
nothing should be wanting to them which is necessary
as a means in order to this end.
It may therefore not unreasonably be hoped that the
Scholastics of the Society should become conspicuous for
learning, if they use the means which are lawful to them
in accordance with their Institute, and which are with-
out doubt well-pleasing to God. They are bound also
by no slight obligation strenuously to labour in their
studies, both because they are supported from ecclesias-
tical goods for the sake of study, and because study is for
the time being their special function and their own
appropriate Divine service, to which they have been
deputed by God Himself through their pastors. As
Aristotle says, — A little error in the beginning is a
great one in the end ; and so he who is negligent in his
studies will afterwards be useless as an instrument for
the conversion or cure of souls and, what is still more
grievous, will frequently expose himself to peril of error.
IV. — Does it become Religious of the Society to
have Public Schools and Universities, and to
teach in them ?
By Public Schools, we mean those which are intended
not only for the instruction of the religious of the
Society, but for the instruction of all whether laymen,
seculars, or religious of any other Order. These Schools
are st}ded Universities when they are endowed with
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 55
Pontifical and Boyal privileges, so that the students may
proceed in them to literary degrees.
Such Schools and Universities have been condemned
by heretics, as for instance, by the Emperor Licinius, as
public pests ; and Julian the Apostate, who recognized
their efficacy, forbade the Galileans, as he called Chris-
tians, to learn poetry, rhetoric or philosophy, endeavour-
ing by this means with a diabolical malice to uproot
religion, so that the Holy Fathers accounted his perse-
cution more bitter than that of the tyrants who by force
and torments compelled men to deny the faith. Moved
by the same spirit, Wicliff declared Universities, Schools,
Colleges, graduations and masterships instituted by the
Pope and bishops to have been introduced by a vain
gentilism, and to profit the Church no more than does
the devil. Luther afterwards embraced the same error,
and called the Christian Schools Sodoms and Gromorrhas,
and sinks of all wickednesses.
This error is not only contrary to faith and the uni-
versal consent and tradition of the Church, but also con-
trary to all natural reason and the evidence of experience.
Schools and Universities are necessary not only for
the ecclesiastical, but also for the civil community and
its welfare, and therefore in all well-ordered kingdoms
and provinces they have flourished, as for instance, at
Eome and Paris, at Oxford in England, Salamanca in
Spain, and Coimbra in Portugal.
The function of teaching in Public Schools and Uni-
versities may be excellently adapted to the religious
state ; and it has been undertaken by the Society law-
fully and to the great advantage of the Church. In
156 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
proof of this it is sufficient to cite the approbations by
various Pontiffs of the Colleges and Universities of the
Society, such as those of Paul III. Julius III. Pius V.
and Gregory XIII. According to the common Pontifi-
cal Law, only Civil Law and Medicine are excluded from
the number of subjects which may be becomingly taught
by religious men ; and these are also prohibited by
the Constitutions of the Society from being taught in
its Universities, at least by the Society itself. To teach
Canon Law, or to study it, or to take degrees in it is
not forbidden to religious by common law ; and in the
Constitutions it is comprehended under Positive Theo-
logy which the professors of the Society may teach, so
far as it aids to the end of the salvation of souls. The
only restriction is with regard to that part of it which
refers to litigation, for this, though not forbidden to secu-
lar clerics, since it is not profane but ecclesiastical and
necessary for ecclesiastical government, is nevertheless
alien to the religious state, to which all forensic causes,
even those which are ecclesiastical, should be foreign.
The lawfulness of religious publicly teaching is con-
firmed by the practice of religious .men, notably in the
School of Alexandria, in which there was a continuous
succession of such teachers. The argument moreover is
the same whether the doctrine is delivered by word of
mouth or by writing, and certainly the bulk of theo-
logical writing, whether that of the Fathers or that of
the Scholastic Doctors, has been the fruit of the labours of
religious men. St. Athanasius, St. Gregory Nazianzen,
St. Basil and many other Greeks were religious and
monks ; among the Latins, St. Augustine, St. Jerome
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 57
and others were religious j and, among the Schoolmen,
St. Thomas and St. Buonaventure. Many Universities
owed their foundation to the efforts and erudition of
religious men, and among others the University of
Paris, which was founded by monks.
Hence a religious Order might well be instituted for
the purpose of publicly teaching any branches of learning
whatsoever the teaching of which should be becoming to
the religious state. Whatever there is in this ministry
is holy in itself and adapted to foster charity in oneself
and towards one's neighbours. Before teaching there is
required, on the part of the teacher, sacred reading and
assiduous meditation on Divine things, and on other
things which conduce to an understanding of Divine
things. This is not only good, but belongs to the Con-
templative life. Again, the act of teaching, especially
when it is done with religious intention, has in it many
excellences and advantages. It is, in the first place, useful
to one's neighbour, who is taught and enlightened, espe-
cially with regard to good morals and the life eternal ; and
so it is of its very nature a spiritual act of mercy, and an
act of charity, both to him to whom the benefit is done,
and to God for the sake of Whom it is done. It is also
an act of religion, because it is done for the service of
God and from zeal for souls, than which no sacrifice can
be more well-pleasing to God.
The religious state is also itself in a special manner
adapted for the office of teaching, both because religious
are free from the cares and solicitudes of the world, and
are therefore better disposed for reading and study and
consequently for teaching ; and also because teaching is
158 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
then more fruitful to disciples when it is conjoined with
good morals, and a religious in virtue of his state pro-
fesses not only good but also perfect morals, observing
not only the precepts but also the counsels.
It may also be rightly instituted in a religious Order,
as for instance in the Society, that it should have its
own Universities, under its own care and government and
teaching ; this being of course always done in a proper
manner, with due order, and not by its own but by
Pontifical authority. The whole work is one of piety
and public beneficence, and of itself has in it nothing
unbecoming or foreign to the religious state, and any
inconveniences which may occur are purely accidental,
and the religious state greatly serves to their avoidance ;
while any results of human frailty are counterbalanced
by the abundance of fruit. "They that explain Me
(that is, true wisdom) shall have life everlasting " (Eccles.
xxiv. 31) and in the Book of Daniel it is written, —
" They that are learned shall shine as the brightness of
the firmament ; and they that instruct many to justice,
as stars for all eternity ' (xii. 3). These words shew of
how great merit and esteem it is before God to teach
others in order to salvation ; and they may be specially
applied to the fruit of Universities.
Further, the more closely Universities are connected
with a well-instituted religious Order the more will
their erudition be to salvation. St. Thomas argues that
as a religious Order may be instituted to defend the
Church by corporal warfare, much more may an Order
be instituted to defend her with her own proper arms,
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 59
which, as St. Paul says, are spiritual rather than corporal,
and which in great part consist in learning. As more-
over it belongs to a military Order not only that the
members of it should severally fight, but also that
they should lead, assemble and direct armies, so also it
belongs to a spiritually military Order to do in like
manner. To this end Universities are instituted, in
which, and by means of general learning, public war is
waged against the devil, and many warriors and leaders
are trained who may in other places and in various ways
fight against him. Again just as a religious Order may
be instituted for the care of the sick, not only by the
private exertions of individuals, but also by the erection
of public Hospitals, the whole charge of which is under-
taken by the religious, so similarly may religious have
charge of institutions for the exercise of spiritual mercy,
such as public Schools and Universities.
Besides its own Universities and Colleges, in which
the Society publicly teaches both its own members and
externs, the Society is not in virtue of its Institute for-
bidden to exercise the same ministry in general Univer-
sities, should this be offered to it, provided the poverty
which it professes may be observed, and all occasion of
ambition and secular business be removed.
It was declared by the First General Congregation that
public Chairs in Universities or elsewhere, the appoint-
ment to which depends on votes or competition, should
not be allowed; but that if these should be spontaneously
offered by the Universities or their Rectors, and if the
teaching should be gratuitous, they might be accepted
on consulting the General.
l6o THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
For the same reason it is conformable to the Institute
of the Society that sometimes certain persons should be
promoted to the Degree of Master or Doctor, everything
being always observed to avoid damage to poverty and
humility, as for instance the prohibition to Doctors of
Ours of places reserved according to seniority or other
prerogatives. Professors of Ours may sometimes receive
degrees in Universities which do not belong to Ours,
since this is not at variance with the religious state, or
with the Institute of the Society, and it may be some-
times necessary in order to the exercise of their ministry
with profit. In those Universities it is necessary to
follow their order and custom with regard to places,
because it is not in our power to change it, since they
are not subject to our jurisdiction, and also because in a
matter which is otherwise and in itself indifferent, and
harmless to religion, it becomes a member to conform
to the custom of the whole body.
Another condition is that Ours should not incur ex-
penses which do not become poor men, in the obtaining
of such Degrees. A Doctor of the Society should also
neither hope for nor receive any temporal emolument or
stipend by reason of his Degree ; and a religious of
the Society cannot procure a Degree, for that could not
be permitted without great damage to humility. To
preserve humility it is also a custom in the Society that
Degrees should not be conferred as honours or personal
rewards, but only as the necessities of its ministries may
demand, and that Degrees should not be multiplied
amongst Ours more than these require.
To the Mendicants, in virtue of their institution and
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. l6l
state as approved by the Apostolic See, the office of
lecturing and teaching belongs, not by ordinary, bat
by delegated power. This delegation however is not per-
sonal, but is to the whole Order; and it proceeds not
from a private bishop, but from the Universal Pontiff,
and as it were from law, by reason of the Approbation
and Privileges of the Order. It therefore belongs to the
Order in virtue of its state and Institute.
The religious state never hindered Clerks Ee^ular
from teaching, as it at one time hindered monks except
by authority of the bishop ; and since the institution of
the Mendicants, many even of the monastic Orders share
in the power or delegation to teach.
V. — Has the Society fittingly undertaken the
EDUCATION OF BOYS?
The whole of the learning which is imparted by
Universities may be divided into three parts, — the
lowest, the intermediate and the highest. In the highest
division there is Sacred Learning and what intrinsically
belongs thereto, such as cases of conscience ; and this is
imparted not to boys, but to adults. In the intermediate
part there is the curriculum of Arts, which embraces
Mathematics, and to a certain extent Ethics ; and this
also does not belong to boys, for it demands a sufficient
development of the faculties and genius, and the per-
fect use of reason, and it has also a great affinity to
Theology. The learning which belongs to boys is that
of languages, beginning from the first elements of
grammar up to perfect eloquence, along with the aids
vol. in. L
1 62 THE EELTGIOUS STATE.
and ornaments of other languages, especially of Greek ;
and excepting only Hebrew, the study of which belongs
rather to adults.
We can, says Cicero, do no greater or better service to
the commonwealth than to teach and instruct youth ; and
Diogenes Laertius says that the education of the young
is the foundation of the whole commonwealth.
So far as the young are concerned, it is most expedient
that they should be instructed by religious, and that as
regards both their progress in learning, and their life
and morals ; for both depend in great measure on the
qualities and gifts of their masters. The first depends
chiefly on the master's learning and erudition, and so
far it little matters whether he is a religious or a secular,
a good or a wicked man, since a secular who is also
a wicked man can excel in erudition and learning.
Nevertheless, since the progress of a disciple depends
not only on the knowledge of his master in itself, but
on that knowledge as applied to the teaching of the
disciple, that is to say, on the master's care and solicitude
entirely and perfectly to fulfil his office, not for gain or
ostentation, but for the advantage of his disciple, the
life and good conscience of the master has much to do
with even the literary progress of the disciple. For
the same reason the religious state in a master can of
itself contribute much towards the better instruction of
his disciples, for in virtue of their state religious ought
to be more diligent and faithful in the fulfilment of
their office, and they are also likely to be more honest
and independent if they receive no stipend from those
whom they instruct. Since their office is undertaken
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 63
from a motive of charity they will also take care to profit
all and every one, according to the capacities of each ;
and since their lives are more free than are those of
seculars from solicitude and worldly cares, they can the
better give themselves to their work, besides imploring
the Divine aid for themselves and for their scholars.
Of still greater moment is progress in morals which
are most easily imprinted in those tender years, and to
this progress the religious life of a teacher greatly contri-
butes. First, there is the example of the religious, and
this is of the greatest efficacy, for as is the master so
are the disciples, especially at that age when they can
hardly discern between good and evil, and the conduct
of the master, if it is bad, is to the disciple a tacit
leave, or rather an inducement to follow him. Secondly,
there is the intention, and the industry which is be-
gotten of it; for a religious teacher aims more at the
good education of his pupil in morals than at his progress
in learning, and therefore strives diligently to prevent
whatever might teach him bad morals, whether in the
books which he reads or in his companionships or other-
wise, and omits nothing which may tend to train him in
good principles.
The Sacred Canons which frequently prescribe that
in every Church there should be a master to instruct
boys in grammar and the lower branches of learning, at
the same time exhort that with great care there should
be chosen for this office one who is likely to profit his
scholars by his life and morals.
But further, that religious should teach boys is ex-
pedient not only for the latter, but for the religious
164 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
themselves. The Society has been blamed for giving
itself to this ministry, on the ground that it is a ministry
which is mean and unbecoming religious men, and which
is also hurtful to them, both by reason of the distraction
and disquiet which a multitude of boys must necessarily
occasion ; and because of the labour and occupation
hindering not only their own spiritual progress, but
also ministries which are of greater moment, and which
might bring forth greater fruit to the Church ; and be-
cause of the many perils which surround this ministry.
There is also brought forward the example of other reli-
gious Orders, none of which occupy themselves in this
ministry for the benefit of seculars, and it is argued that
to depart from their footsteps and introduce a novelty
in a matter so grave, is not laudable.
Nevertheless, this ministry is not a novelty and it
is not foreign to the religious state, and looking to
the necessities of the times it is most conformable with
the end and institution of the Society. From ancient
history and the Fathers it is evident that the education
of boys was undertaken by religious men, as a work
which was both pious and very useful to the Church, and
how can that be reckoned unbecoming which was under-
taken and approved of by most grave and holy men ?
and why should it be considered a humble rather than
an honourable ministry ? It is on the contrary most
becoming to the religious state ; for otherwise it would
not be becoming for religious to take care of the sick,
to wash the feet of pilgrims or in charity to serve one
another, as St. Paul exhorts. If for other even abject
and laborious works of charity religious Orders are rightly
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 65
instituted, why not for this which, although very labo-
rious and not so honourable as are some other ministries,
is nevertheless and without doubt most serviceable to
the Church ? It is itself so useful and necessary to the
Church that it ought not to be set aside even if it should
seem in a measure to stand in the way of greater
ministries. Even if it appears small it is virtually
great, since on it both the moral life of the Church and
the higher branches of learning in great measure depend,
so that to it may be fittingly applied the parable of the
grain of mustard seed, which in size is of the smallest
but virtually is great. Further, while for the higher
sciences there are found many masters, both religious
and secular, few are inclined to devote themselves to
the education of children, and so a very great necessity
of the Church is supplied by those who undertake it ;
and even if it should seem among men to be of lesser
dignity, it may perchance be before God of greater merit.
Moreover, although this work may hinder individuals
from higher ministries, yet the whole body of the
Society is not thereby hindered from these ministries,
but is on the contrary aided, both as regards preparation
of the pupils for higher subjects, and as regards the
ministers themselves who ascend by degrees from lower
to more perfect ministries. "The body," says St.
Paul, " is not one member, but many. . . . And those
that seem to be the more feeble members of the body
are more necessary" (i Cor. xii. 14, 22.)
This labour and solicitude cannot hinder the increase
of substantial perfection, both because the work is one of
the highest charity and being undertaken by obedience
1 66 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
greatly increases and perfects charity itself, and also
because, the whole Order being ordained for this amongst
other functions, this function is not without a special
providence and approbation of God ; and therefore there
is ground for hope that there will not be wanting a
special aid from God for this function that it may be
fulfilled with fruit to others, and without damage, nay
with great profit to those who undertake it. What-
ever peril, therefore, may accompany it, it can generally
speaking without great difficulty be overcome by means
of divine grace and the vigilance of superiors, and the
other works of the religious life, and those especially
which belong to the contemplative life. Such perils,
moreover, are not in themselves connected with this
ministry, but are very accidental and extrinsic, aud one
can scarcely imagine any human actions in which similar
or greater perils may not be found.
In these times and in this Order (whatever may be
the case as regards other times and other Orders), this
means has proved very opportune for the Church, and
it has been established not without a special providence
of God ; for all the reasons and circumstances which
concern the constitution of the Society and its other
ministries to its neighbours may be applied to this
special ministry, and the experience which has ap-
proved the Institute no less approves and confirms this
ministry. The fruit is incredible which has redounded
from this ministry. In catholic provinces where the
faith has been preserved intact, the morals not only
of the young but of persons of all states and conditions
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 67
have been reformed by this means, for from the ranks
of the young who have been educated by the Society,
many religious, and many excellent priests, and many
just rulers of the commonwealth have sprung. When
at a tender age they conceive the fear of God, and are
accustomed to Divine things, they always, generally
speaking, retain the odour of them, for, as the Wise
Man says,= — " A young man according to his way, even
when he is old he will not depart from it " (Pro v. xxii.
6). In regions infected with heresy, not only the young
but also their parents have often by this means been
preserved from heresy, and have sometimes been recalled
from heresy to the faith. Heretical princes and other
patrons of heresies have, in order to the dissemination
and propagation of their errors, striven that the young
should imbibe them from the very beginning and along
with the first principles of learning ; and in more modern
times the Lutherans have written verses and elegant
compositions against the Pontiff and the Catholic Church,
in order that children reading them might drink in their
spirit ; and they have used the utmost diligence that the
teachers of the young should be infected with their
errors, and drawn towards themselves. It would there-
fore be absurd and scandalous if heretics were, for the
upholding of their falsehood, to busy themselves in pre-
occupying the minds of the young, and the Church were
to be found negligent in similar efforts for the truth and
the salvation of souls. Hence God raised up St. Igna-
tius, and gave to him this mind and counsel, without
the motive of the example of other religious Orders, and
it has been approved by the authority of His Vicar, and
1 63 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
by many manifestations of His grace. To these lias
been added the most weighty testimony of the Cardinals
of the Congregation of the Council of Trent, who, de-
daring that masters instructed in grammar and music
are to be sought to educate the boys in seminaries, add
— and if Jesuits can be got, they are to be preferred to
others.
So much had St. Ignatius at heart the education of
the young that he thought it not unworthy of or foreign
to his Institute to teach even reading and writing.
But although this is, as he says, a work of charity and,
being undertaken in order that from their earliest school
(lavs the young should know nothing save goodness and
religion, a really great and religious service of God,
vet by reason of our lack of numbers he would not
have it undertaken save rarely, and for some grave
cause and general necessity, lest the Society should be
overburdened by the multiplicity of its occupations.
Moreover, the results of this labour would be more
remote from the literary studies, and the higher sciences
would less depend upon it than in the case of grammar
or other liberal arts, and it would so far be less con-
nected with the Institute of the Colleges ; and seculars
might easily be found to teach what is more a mechani-
cal than a liberal art, and is therefore more frequently
taught by laymen than by clerics. There is the further
consideration that as a rule at that age children are not
yet fit for moral instruction, and so our ministry is less
necessary for them ; and what is necessary may be sup-
plied by sometimes visiting their external schools, and
instructing them in christian doctrine and morals accord-
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 69
ing to their capacities, a care which, as proper to Ours
when it can conveniently be carried out, the Society does
not lose sight of.
VI. — The means employed by the Society in the
EDUCATION OF ExTERNS.
Two things are aimed at by the Society in the schools,
namely, progress in learning and in morals ; and
although learning is as it were the proper matter of this
ministry, and the proximate effect of the Colleges, yet the
jmncipal end which is aimed at is goodness of morals.
The first means which is employed in our Colleges for
the preservation and promotion of the young in virtue, is
frequent confession, or at least confession once a month;
since a pure conscience is the seat of wisdom. This
means was approved by the Council of Trent for those
who are being educated in seminaries. By the words
at least it is insinuated that it would be better to con-
fess more frequently, and so this is to be counselled,
although it is not to be exacted, or laid down as a rule,
especially for the younger secular scholars. For the same
reason perhaps nothing is laid clown in the Constitu-
tions with regard to the communions of the extern
scholars ; but that is tacitly understood which the
Council expressly declared in the case of seminarists,
namely, that according to the judgment of the confessor
they should receive the Body of our Lord Jesus Christ.
This can be more easily observed in the seminaries
because in them the youths are kept under a more
severe ecclesiastical discipline.
I/O THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
The second means prescribed is the daily worship of
God, and since God is best worshipped in the Sacrifice
of the Mass, the students are daily to hear Mass, as the
Council of Trent ordered also in the seminaries.
Thirdly, since general sermons addressed to the mass of
the people are less suited to the capacities of the young,
and are therefore less useful to them, the care of in-
structing and exhorting their pupils to virtue in various
ways is commended to the preceptors of the Society.
The pupils are to be well trained in Christian doc-
trine, and are to have a lecture upon it once a week,
and they are themselves to learn and repeat it. There
is also once a week to be an exhortation, by which all
may be stirred up to increase of virtue ; and to precep-
tors it is commended that during their lectures they
should, when occasion offers, move their pupils to the
service and love of God and of virtue; and this also they
should do in private conversations.
The fourth means is the excellent custom of public
prayer at the beginning of schools or lectures. We
read of St. Thomas that he never gave himself to read-
ing or writing without previous prayer. The pupils are
to be taught in this brief prayer to do two things, —
first, to refer all their studies, and in particular the
present time and action to God, — and secondly, to beg
of God grace to make progress in study.
The fifth means is the avoidance by preceptors of
all books which contain anything hurtful to morals.
The reason is clear, because under the veil of eloquence,
and the sweetness of the Latin tongue, and through
the pleasantness of fables, evil thoughts are suggested
THE SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY. 1 71
and bad morals inculcated, and the mind is excited to the
incentives of lust. Origen compares such books to a
golden chalice in which poison is presented. St. Augus-
tine, speaking of Terence in particular, says, — I accuse
not the words, which are vessels elect and precious, but
the wine of error which is presented in them b)r drunken
doctors. St. Basil says that the books of the Gentiles are to
be read with the discretion of bees, — bees do not settle on
all flowers, nor from those which they approach do they
strive to take all away, but they take only so much as is
fitting, and they leave the rest ; so we, that we may be
sober and wise, should pursue in those books what is
fitting for us, and akin to truth, and pass by the rest ;
and as in gathering roses we avoid the thorns, so also
in such books let us take what is useful, and what is
hurtful let us avoid.
Since this selection cannot be made by boys, such
books are not to be read, either at all, or until they have
been purged from all evil expressions.
With no less prudence have the necessary and fitting
means for the promotion of the young in learning been
defined and ordained in the Society. The statutes in
which these means are contained form a part of the
Eule which is to be observed by the religious in order
to the acquiring of perfection ; and they are therefore
to be as accurately observed as is any other rule of per-
fection, because the divine good pleasure and counsel are
equally set forth thereby.
The first and principal means is the sufficiency and
diligence of the masters themselves. Without the appro-
172 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
bation and leave of the Provincial, no one can teach
publicly, save for a time, by reason of necessity, and in
the lower classes. The teachers must be in sufficient
number ; and according to the number of the pupils
the classes must be divided and arranged.
The second means is order and method, both in de-
livery of doctrine, and in disputations and all literary
exercises, and in the repetition of lectures and private
studv.
The third means is that general one which is most
necessary in every commonwealth in order to the pro-
motion of morals and arts, and the repression and extir-
pation of vices, namely, rewards and punishments ; and
these ought to be proportioned both to persons and to
actions. Corporal punishment is to be administered
not by the preceptors themselves but by a corrector
appointed for the purpose. If the correction does not
suffice, and there is risk of damage to the other scholars,
and but little chance of profit to the delinquent who
is incorrigible, he is to be expelled.
17
f
CHAPTER XXI.
THE PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS WHICH IS MADE IN
THE SOCIETY; THE PROBATION WHICH PRECEDES
IT; AND THE SIMPLE VOWS WHICH FOLLOW IT.
I. — is Profession rightly deferred in the Society
FOR A LONG TIME?
For just causes the date of solemn profession is not
defined by any law in the Institute of the Society. The
Constitutions require certain conditions in order to pro-
fession ; first, those who are to be professed of four
vows must be priests ; and with regard to this there is
no dispensation, for if, for any urgent cause, it should
be necessary to admit any one to profession before his
promotion to the priesthood, the solemn profession of
three vows will suffice ; and this the Society, although
rarely, allows.
Secondly, there is required age exceeding twenty-five
years, and therefore a greater age than that which is
required for the priesthood which, by ordinary law,
requires the twenty-fifth year to have been begun.
Thirdly, there is required more than mediocrity in
learning, and proof of a conspicuously good life and
morals. This necessitates the lapse of a considerable
time.
174 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
A religious may be admitted in two ways to solemn
profession in the Society, namely, either after having
passed through the grade of a Scholastic, or immediately
after the noviceship ; for, although this is rarely done,
because rarely are persons found who are immediately
capable of this grade, or causes for immediately grant-
in^ it, it is nevertheless in itself not at variance with
the Institute.
For solemn profession of three vows there are required
at least seven years of religious life in the Society, and
according to ordinary law no one is to be admitted to
this profession immediately after his noviceship, but
only after his probation in the grade of a Scholastic.
When a person, by reason of his condition and pecu-
liar gifts, is to be admitted to profession immediately
after his noviceship, he should be such that he may
worthily be admitted to the profession of four vows.
Although this profession is of greater dignity, yet the
passage to it immediately after the noviceship is easier
than is the passage to profession of three vows.
Two years are assigned as the shortest time necessary
for profession, in virtue of the Eule ; but this does not
hinder the General from abridging it by dispensation,
although it cannot be abridged for admission to the
grade of a Scholastic. To do this would be less expe-
dient than to abridge it for solemn profession ; for
although the latter is a more indissoluble bond, and is
proximately ordained to a higher end, and therefore of
itself requires greater probation, yet as a rule and nearly
always the vows of Scholastics are made immediately
after their noviceship, and their two years are required
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1/5
primarily by reason of the age at which they are
received, and the duties to which they are proximately
admitted. It is therefore expedient that for Scholastics
the door of dispensation in order to their incorporation
should be entirely closed, lest occasion should be given
for frequent dispensation, and because it is scarcely
230ssible to imagine a cause which should demand it.
But admission to profession immediately after the two
years is and must be most rare, since it is necessary
either that some extrinsic cause should demand it, and
this can scarcely ever oblige to shorten the two years ; or
that the person should be so mature and worthy that
a shorter time will suffice for satisfaction of all concerned.
For this rare case therefore dispensation is not forbidden,
lest thereby entrance into the Society should be rendered
more difficult for such grave persons.
Although the period of two years of noviceship can
be shortened for solemn profession, an entire year of
probation cannot be dispensed with by the Society ; since
not by the special law of the Order, but by the common
law of the Council of Trent, an entire year is necessary
in order to validity of profession even in the Society.
The term of two years is laid down as the minimum,
and therefore as of ordinary law to be held sufficient ; but
not as the maximum, for it may be prolonged. Although
many persons may be received to the noviceship who do
not need the discipline of Scholastics as regards learning,
they may nevertheless frequently need a longer time for
religious discipline and for greater and more exact pro-
bation of their morals, and talents for the exercise of
ministries to their neighbours. They may also need
I 76 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
greater instruction in the practice of the exercises and
actions of the Societ)r. Even in those who are already
advanced in age a longer probation, as regards learning
and even as regards morals, may often be desirable, by
reason of the to them special difficulty of accommodat-
ing themselves to the mode of procedure in the Society,
especially in humble obedience and subjection, and in
laying aside their own judgment, and in conforming it
to the dictates of superiors and of the Society.
The Council of Trent specially excepts the Society
from the rule which it prescribes for other Orders, that
on the completion of the term of probation, the person
should be admitted to profession ; and the Institute,
which the Council confirms, lays down no other term
save the full satisfaction of the Society or its General
in the Lord.
Having regard to the Institute of the Society, and
the variety of persons who may be received in it, no
fixed term could be conveniently assigned. Either it
would have been short, as for instance, seven or nine
years ; or lengthened, as twenty years or more. The
short period would not as a rule have been expedient,
since the Institute demands long and manifold proba-
tions. It ordinarily requires after the two years of
noviceship, at least the whole term of the studies, which
is wont to be nine, or ten or more years. After the
noviceship two or three years are commonly spent in the
study of humane letters and in acquiring a more perfect
knowledge of languages ; and to these are added three
or four years (according to the custom of the country)
for the course of philosophy. Then come the four years
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. I 77
of Scholastic theology ; and sometimes there is granted
to the more advanced one or two years for the repetition
of what they have learned, and for the reading of the
Fathers, and for giving some specimen of their learning
in public acts and disputations. It frequently happens
also that the course of study is interrupted by teaching
the lower branches to externs, for it is often necessary
for Scholastics thus to bear the burdens of the Order
and to satisfy its public duties. Hence it not rarely
happens that fifteen years or more are consumed, and
they should be followed by the third year of probation.
Now, since moral laws should be made in accordance
with that which is of most frequent occurrence, and
should have regard to the whole body of the Society,
and not to the convenience or custom of one or other
province, the period before profession, if it had been
necessary to fix it, could not have been prescribed as
much under twenty years ; and to fix so prolonged a
period was in those times and in this Order not expe-
dient, for although some of the old monks were proved
for thirty years, this would not be in accordance with
the spirit of modern times, especially if so long a period
should be assigned as fixed and necessarv. Moreover,
considering the very great variety of persons who are
received into the Society, and their great diversity of
age and condition, so great a delay would often be in-
congruous, burdensome to subjects, without lawful cause,
and useless and even hurtful to the Order. The period
therefore could not be conveniently limited, and was
rightly left to prudent judgment.
All the causes which have moved the Society to
VOL. III. M
178 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
ordain a long probation, apply equally to the satisfaction
of the Society, which is the end of that probation ; for
probation would be useless if, without its end of the
satisfaction of the Society having been attained, profes-
sion were nevertheless to be given. There cannot be
certain satisfaction as the result simply of the lapse of a
determinate time, and in the case of some persons a brief
space of time might suffice, while in the case of others, and
most frequently, a longer time would be required.
There are other advantages which arise from this
uncertainty or indeterminateness, for if the time of
profession were certain and determined by law, human
frailty might thence take occasion for remissness and
neHi^ence, as regards progress both in virtue and in
learning, and in application also to the ministries of the
Society, and in endurance of the labours which are
proper to the Professed. This occasion is removed by
the uncertainty of the time of profession ; nay, since
all understand that what merits profession is not seni-
ority, but those gifts and conditions which are demanded
for that grade in the Society, they will, morally speak-
ing and as a rule, be induced to greater care both in
observance of the Institute, and in the studies and other
exercises and ministries of the Society.
That a thing; should be novel would be but of little
consequence, if it was suitable for the convenient govern-
ment of a new Order, if it was instituted in a proper
and special manner for a special end, and if it should
have been deemed worthy of Apostolic approbation.
But, as matter of fact, this ordinance is not novel, espe-
cially as regards the spirit of it, and the end aimed at by
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1/9
it, namely, that the most important ecclesiastical minis-
tries and the sanctification of souls should not he com-
mitted save to worthy persons, of whom it might be
hoped that they would exercise their functions with
security to themselves and fruit to others, and in a
manner worthy of religious life. We learn from Cassian
that the probation of the juniors for the monastic pro-
fession was wont to be made by means of many trials,
without any determination of time. Again, in the old
times when the monks, as a rule, were not clerics, but
might be promoted to that state, no time was determined
for this, but the merits of individuals were kept in view ;
hence St. Jerome says, — So live in the monastery that
you may deserve to be a cleric. Pope Gelasius required
two conditions for the promotion of a monk to the priest-
hood, one, that he should appear worthy of it by the
merit of a venerable life, and the other, that the Abbot
under whose rule he waged war for Christ the King should
ask for his ordination. Since therefore the Society is an
Order not of any persons whomsoever, but of priests to
whom ministries with regard to souls are committed,
wThat wonder that the rale of profession should be not a
certain length of time but a certain degree of merit ?
Hence both for the priesthood and for profession the
time is indefinite in the Society, and is to be determined
by the judgment of the superior. A longer time is
required for profession than for simple priesthood, for
profession supposes the priesthood, and adds a greater
obligation, and requires a greater capability for all the
functions of the Society, and for the principal govern-
ment of it, which is committed to the Professed.
l8o THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Although certain times are assigned for the reception
of the various orders, no certain time is fixed for
elevation to the episcopate. The priesthood has not so
necessarily annexed to it the j^storal office, as has the
episcopate, and therefore although it requires innocence
of life, much more perfect virtue is demanded in a
bishop, who is therefore said to be in the state of the
perfect. His promotion, consequently, is to be measured
not by time but by merit. Now the Professed of the
Society, although they do not attain to the grade of
bishops, share it nevertheless so far as regards the preach-
ing of the Gospel, and procuring the salvation of souls,
and so no wonder that in the Professed life and doctrine
are required rather than a certain lapse of time.
If Ours are true and solid religious they will have but
little fear with regard to this matter, for they will not
desire profession as if it were a title of honour, or as
giving capacity for higher functions either within or
outside the Order, for that would be ambition. As
regards solemn profession constituting a closer bond
wTith God they need not be solicitous, since already they
are true religious, and have dedicated themselves wholly
to the divine service, and they are prepared to straiten
the bond if and when they are bidden. As regards
comparison of themselves with others, every one, if he
is truly religious, should account himself more unworthy
of this grade than is his neighbour. The Society should,
on its part, take care that all equity and due distribution
should be observed ; and it may reasonably be believed
that this is done, both because the matter is transacted
by those to whom is committed the government of the
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. l8l
whole Order, and because it is not determined without
diligent examination and the counsel of many, and these
prudent and religious and conscientious men. Even if
sometimes through error or human affection there should
be any lack of equity, that is a private disadvantage
which is not of such moment as that in order to avoid it
the public advantage which results from the arrangement
in force should be interfered with.
II. — For what reason is a third year of proba-
tion REQUIRED OF SCHOLASTICS OF THE SOCIETY
before Profession ?
The third year of probation is not demanded as of
the substance, or as wholly necessary to the validity of
profession, for neither the Constitutions nor the Bulls
require this. Hence it is certain that the General can
dispense, and he does sometimes for just causes dispense
from it ; although the Constitutions by their silence with
regard to such dispensation sufficiently indicate that it
ought not to be easily granted.
This third probation consists principally in abstaining
from studies and ministries to neighbours, so that the
Scholastics may give themselves during that time more
intently to God and their own personal perfection, with
that " holy leisure which the love of the truth delights
in.
When the numbers are small this probation may take
place in the same House with the novices. If there are
ten Scholastics they will be proved in a separate House,
under one instructor, who shall have authority to govern
1 82 THE BELIGIOUS STATE.
tliem. He will take care to form them in spirit, and
will explain to them the whole idea of the Institute of
the Society on certain stated days in every week, and
will expound to them the methods of promoting the
salvation of their neighbours. He will also enjoin
penances and mortifications, but privately among them-
selves, which he shall judge conducive to their progress;
and he will, if need be, absolve from reserved sins.
But he will not impose anything which regards external
discipline without consulting the Kector or Minister of
the College, if their separate habitation forms part of
a College. If any of them is not satisfactory in his
probation he will be dismissed, and his probation will
be deferred to another time. On the completion of the
year both the Instructor and the Provincial will fully
inform the General with regard to every individual
whether he has rightly made his probation or not.
The proper idea of this probation consists not so much
in formal probation, as in spiritual exercise, and the dis-
position necessary for profession, which is the primary
and in itself sufficient idea of the probation, even if
there were no other, although the idea of experiment
and probation is not to be lost sight of.
The Society is a perfectly mixed religious Order
which so aims at action for the benefit of its neighbours
that it also principally gives itself to contemplation so
far as is necessary that there should be no relaxation of
its own perfection, and that its ministries to its neigh-
bours should result in greater fruit. Although there-
fore ordinarily the life of the Society is mixed, yet
certain times are specially set apart for the exercise of
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 83
the purely contemplative life ; and among other times
there are principally these two, — the two years of novice-
ship and the third year of probation. This last is fixed
at a most fitting time, and it ought not to be shortened ;
and it cannot be shortened, if the effects which are desired
are, ordinarily speaking, to be obtained.
The first period of noviceship should be longer, because
in it the foundations of spirit are laid, and persons then
begin to exercise themselves in divine things who have
previously had no practice and almost no knowledge of
them. In the third year the religious have been already
instructed and exercised in spiritual things, of which
they have a larger knowledge and more ready practice
through their learning and acquaintance with the
Scriptures, and so for them a period of one year is
sufficient. That length of time is however necessary
because in the noviceship, as a rule, this mystical and
spiritual science can never be perfectly learned, nor the
degree of interior meditation, prayer and contemplation
be well attained to which is necessary for perfect or
advanced spiritual men. What was lacking in the
noviceship can rarely be acquired during the time of
studies, nay, it is rather to be feared that what has been
acquired in the noviceship, will during the time of
studies be in some measure lessened, or at least grow
tepid. Most fittingly therefore is the third year of
probation placed after the studies, not only in order that
any loss may be repaired, but also in order that the
actions of the contemplative life may be exercised in a
higher and more perfect manner. By this means he
who aforetime knew and thought and prayed and spoke
184 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
as a child may, after lie Las become a man, put away
the things of a child, and begin in a new manner to
cleave to God, to despise the world, and to contemn
himself and all temporal things ; and if learning has
led, as is its wont, to aught of elation or ambition, this
may be cast out by a higher knowledge and consideration
of divine things.
Besides the advantages or necessity of the third year
of probation as regards the time past, we see tliat they
are not less if we look towards the time to come. The
beginning or foundation of every good life, or reforma-
tion of life springs from internal cogitation and con-
sideration ; and so the mixed life is to be begun by acts
of the contemplative life, to which are at the same time
to be added those actions which are ordained for the
moderation of the affections and the purging of the
heart, by which a man is made more capable of acts of
perfection of the contemplative life ; and by these again
he gains strength and forces for the more perfect exercise
of acts of virtue, and so by degrees he makes progress in
both of these lives. Again, contemplation is necessary in
order to that perfect action which is spiritual, and which
consists in the enlightenment and sanctification of souls,
and which, says St. Thomas, is derived from the fulness
of contemplation, and of which the perfection consists
in this that by means of it that which has been con-
templated is delivered to others.
This order Christ Himself has commended to us by
the example of His life, for not only from the moment
of His conception did He engage in the highest con-
templation through union with God, but before His
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR, VOWS. 1S5
public preaching He retired to the desert for forty days,
to give Himself to God alone. He willed the same
order to be observed by His Apostles, not only teaching
them to pray before He sent them out to preach while
He was still with them, and often retiring with them
for the purpose of prayer, but also before His departure
commanding them to remain in the city till they were
endued with power from on high ; a command which
they fulfilled by assembling in the supper room and
there persevering in prayer before, being enlightened
and strengthened in the Holy Ghost, they began their
apostolic labours. St. John the Baptist also exercised
himself for thirty years in the contemplative life before
he began to preach, and of him St. Bernard says that he
first burned within himself before he began to shine forth
to others, as Christ also declared when He said, — "He was
a burning and a shining light." A man burns by con-
templation, and he shines forth by teaching, and it would
be very inordinate if he were to begin to teach before he
had himself learned. Finally, if contemplation were not
to precede a life of action, it could scarcely if at all be
acquired during a life of action, and much less could it
accompany, and continually pervade the life of action.
Hence we see the reasons and wonderful wisdom of
St. Ignatius in his education and instruction of his off-
spring. First he will have them sufficiently exercised
in the acts of both lives during their first noviceship,
and in this order that they should begin with the
foundations of the contemplative life by means of
spiritual exercises, along with that part principally of
the active life which contributes towards their mortifica-
1 86 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tion of themselves and the acquirement of virtue, so-
that the time of noviceship belongs wholly or almost
wholly to the contemplative life. This kind of life
continues throughout the whole time of their studies,
since learning is a species and part of contemplation.
This mode of contemplation however is not contempla-
tion in its perfect and highest degree, although it may
dispose thereto, and therefore he has ordained that
before the Scholastics go forth to labour in the vineyard
of the Lord, they should return to the school of the
contemplative life, in order that they should be, as far
as possible, made perfect. Although one year may
seem to be but a very short time for so great a work,
yet, looking to the frailty of humanity and to the short-
ness of life, it must be held sufficient. It is not allotted
as if within the limits of it the whole of perfection could
be acquired, but as in order that during it more solid and
sufficient foundations should be laid, and that, as Gregory
XIII. has said, the spirit should warm to the love and
pursuit of perfection.
Besides this proper and primary end, there is another
principal reason for the institution of the third year of
probation, namely, that it is of great service, and is
morally necessary in order to the perfect probation
and knowledge by experience of those to whom the
functions which belong; to the Professed are to be, as
it were, by office and special obligation, committed in
the Society.
Finally, this period of probation is called the Third
Year, because a year is the minimum ; but the period
may be prolonged, and all the rest of the time up to
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 87
profession, when it is delayed, belongs in fact to the
period of probation.
III. — Does the special form of Profession in the
Society induce a special obligation with re-
gard to the teaching of children ?
Besides the three vows which are of the substance of
profession generally and in other Orders, profession in
the Society adds two things ; — first, a special deter-
mination of the vow of obedience as regards the
teaching of children ; and secondly, a special vow of
obedience to the Supreme Pontiff as regards the
Missions.
There are two modes of solemn profession in the
Society. One, and the ordinary one, is the profession of
four vows. This is what is understood when "profession
is spoken of in the Society, since those who are pro-
fessed of four vows are the principal members of the
body, and the General Congregation which represents
the w7hole Society is composed of them, and to them
there belongs an active and passive vote in the election
of the General, and the government of the Society, as
regards its Provinces and Professed Houses, can ordi-
narily be committed to them alone.
The other mode of solemn profession is when three
solemn vows, namely, the three substantial vows of
religion, and these only are made, without the vow of
obedience to the Pontiff. In the mode of making the vow
of obedience as regards declaration of the function of
teaching christian doctrine, those who are professed of
1 88 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Three Vows are identified with the professed of Four
Vows : while, as regards the absence of the fourth vow
and of all its consequences, they are identified with the
Formed Spiritual Coadjutors, with whom they are almost
the same as regards the ministries to which they are
appointed, and the gifts or qualities which are required
in them. They are, in fact, Spiritual Coadjutors whom
the Society deems worthy of some special prerogative.
There are two kinds of instruction of children (and
under children are comprehended all uneducated and
ignorant persons), namely instruction in letters, and
instruction in the faith or christian doctrine. The
Society undertakes both, but the first is not so proper
to the Professed, and belongs to the Colleges of the
Society ; while the other, although common to all the
members of the Society, is in a peculiar manner annexed
to the profession of the Society, and is expressed in the
form of making profession.
This ministry has been rightly undertaken by the
Society as one of its principal ministries, and as one of
those which are to be exercised with the greatest care
and perfection. This is evident from the Constitutions,
which no one can lightly esteem, by reason both of the
sanctity and prudence of their author, and the practice
and consent of the whole Order, in which there have
been so many religious and wise and prudent men, and
chiefly also by reason of the Pontifical approbation, and
that not only in general, but in particular.
Although this ministry may not appear to be in itself
a very lofty one, it is nevertheless, as it is a seed and
virtually, very great, because on it in great measure
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 89
depends the good and holy life of the faithful; since faith
is the foundation of all justice, and the children are
taught not only what they ought to believe, but also
what they ought to do, and to what end they ought to
ordain their lives ; a knowledge which is most necessary
from the very beginning. Not only are they enlightened
with regard to these matters, but they are also stirred
up and by various means, proportioned to their age,
allured and induced to works of piety. Again, by
occasion of the instruction of children it often happens
that persons of greater age, and sometimes old men
who have never been sufficiently instructed in the
things of faith, are taught, while others also who have
forgotten them learn them anew. Many likewise who
will not come to graver discourses, or who do not suffi-
ciently understand them, are by this means of christian
doctrine moved to do penance and to follow after virtue.
Hence, since the majority of men are uneducated and
unlearned, it may be hoped that by this means more
persons may make progress in faith and virtue than by
means of other more excellent and higher ministries ;
and so Paul III. says with such asseveration in his
Bull, that no other occupation is more fruitful for the
edification of our neighbours, as well as for our own
charity and humility. This ministry may profit all who
can possibly be profited by other ministries, while other
ministries may not profit all who can be profited by this
ministry.
This ministry is also most efficacious against errors
and false doctrine ; and for this reason it commended
itself so greatly to St. Ignatius, by means of whom God
190 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
prepared the Society principally to wage war against
the heresies which arose in his time.
This ministry is rightly set forth in the vow of obedi-
ence which is contained in the form of profession which
is in rise in the Society ; although this is done not so
much in order to impose a new obligation, as specially
to commend the ministry itself, in order that it may be
devoutly cared for as a singular service to God, through
the aid which it affords to souls, and because it might
more easily be neglected and fall into desuetude than
other ministries which are more brilliant.
In the First General Congregation this ministry
was specially commended to the Professed ; and it is
recorded that our father Ignatius enjoined on each of
the Professed that he should perform it for the space of
forty days. The Congregation signified that this was
enjoined by St. Ignatius as a perpetual observance in
the Society ; but, lest this should not have been suffi-
ciently explained, the Second Congregation declared that
every one of the professed should be bound, after his
profession and within the year, to teach christian doc-
trine to children and uneducated persons, for forty days,
either continuously or with interruption.
This ordinance however is only a direction in order
to the better executing or beginning of that which is
expressed in the profession, and it is not a law which
obliges under sin ; neither is it a determination of the
matter of the vow. Not even of counsel are the Pro-
fessed bound absolutely to exercise this ministry for
forty days, unless it should be enjoined on them by the
superior ; or at least unless leave should be given, for it
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 191
is not the intention of the decree to exempt subjects
from the obedience of their superiors, but to render them
ready to execute this ministry, or even to procure it
from their superiors, and to admonish superiors that they
should not only permit it, but also take care that it
should be observed by the Professed. If superiors
therefore should either expressly or tacitly excuse any of
the Professed from this ministry, on the ground that they
are otherwise lawfully hindered, they will in no way sin.
To the same end of imprinting the importance of this
ministry more deeply on the mind, and causing it to be
held in greater esteem, St. Ignatius imposed a similar
charge on the Eectors of Colleges, that they should them-
selves teach christian doctrine for forty days. This they
ought to do within their first year of office ; and if any
impediment conies in the way, they are to communicate
with the Provincial in order that this duty may be ful-
filled by another. In so many ways, and by so many
signs has the usefulness and necessity of this ministry
been commended, in order that all of the Society may
be more and more warmly affected towards it.
In order to teach and explain the rudiments of the
faith no ordinary knowledge is often necessary, both in
the expounding of doctrine and especially in the expound-
ing of morals : and in such knowledge the Scholastics
of the Society are certainly not supposed to be yet suffi-
ciently instructed ; and therefore in this ministry the
industry, and solicitude and learning of our religious,
particularly of the more advanced, can greatly profit the
Church through the grace of God, as experience has
shewn. Eightly therefore in the Profession of the
192 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Society is there made special and express mention of
this work, in order that not only to the Scholastics but
to all the labourers in the Society it should be com-
mended, and in order that the Professed should under-
stand that in a special way it beloogs to their state
and office.
iv. is the vow of obedience to the supeeme pon-
tiff, which is made by the professed in the
Society, a solemn vow, and distinct from the
three substantial vows ?
The Professed of the Society who make a fourth vow
to obey the Supreme Pontiff, do a holy thing, and by so
doing they are bound in virtue of their vow to some-
thing to which religious of other Orders are not bound
in virtue of their profession. The matter of this vow is
not the whole of that which can be the matter of reli-
gious obedience, even according to the Eule of the
Society ; but is only the matter of the Missions. This
includes, however, not only proceeding to the Missions,
but also remaining in them in any part of the world,
according to the intention of him who prescribes.
The Professed are bound, in virtue of this vow, not
only to go to the Missions, but also faithfully and strenu-
ously to perform all the actions or functions to which or
for which they are sent ; for by Missions, according to
the true sense and common use of the word, are meant
not merely journeys to, and residence in certain places,
but the actions also and ministries for which those
journeys are ordained.
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 93
In practice the obligation will be in proportion to the
precept which is actually imposed. It may often be
prescribed to one of the Professed to go to India, while
the work which he is to do there is not prescribed, but is
left in accordance with the Institute ; and in this case, if
he obeys by going, even if afterwards he should be negli-
gent or should otherwise siu by ill performance of his
duty, he will not sin specially against this vow, because
a precept such as to cover the whole matter of his vow
was not imposed upon him.
The words — " for the profit of souls, and the propaga-
tion of the faith" — which declare the end of the vow, sub-
stantially limit its matter; for the Professed, for instance,
are not bound, in virtue of this vow, to visit the Holy
Places by way of pilgrimage. Under the end expressed
by these w^ords are comprehended all spiritual works
of mercy, such as the procuring of peace between
hostile princes, the relief of those who are in any peril
of soul, the sowing of the seeds of faith, the con-
futing of heretics, and the aid of catholics by means of
any spiritual ministry whatsoever, whether of doctrine
or sacraments. Works of corporal mercy, such as the
redemption of captives, or the like, although they are
not directly comprehended under this vow, are never-
theless, if they are such as become clerics, not ex-
cluded from it ; since all of these may be ordained
towards spiritual profit, and the Institute of the Society
embraces them. The defence of the Church, and the
resistance of infidels by force of arms and war, although
they are works of charity, do not nevertheless belong to
priests, and therefore it is clear that they are not com-
VOL. III. N
194 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
prehended ; although from the work of the Missions
those ministries on land or sea are not excluded which
are for the aid of christian soldiers or leaders who
are fighting for the Church, since they belong immedi-
ately to the spiritual end of assisting the souls of the
faithful, and are ordained ultimately to the peace and
universal spiritual good of the whole Church. Hence
under this vow are comprehended all the spiritual mini-
stries which the Society exercises for the benefit of its
neighbours, since for all of these the Pontiff can send Ours
whithersoever he wills ; while if we are already in a place
to which he might have sent us, he can prescribe to us
to remain there for the performance of any such ministry.
If there should be any doubt as to whether a ministry
belongs to the profit of souls, or only to the temporal
or civil advantage of our neighbours, such as, for in-
stance, the teaching in any particular place of grammar
or philosophy, the resolution of the doubt certainly
remains with the Pontiff.
To the matter of this vow belong also certain cir-
cumstances of great importance and no small difficulty.
The first is that, when the Professed are sent, they are
bound to go without waiting for or demanding viaticum
or provision for the way. This condition is connected
with the vow of poverty, but it also falls under the vow
of the Missions. Wherefore if a professed religious of
the Society should, by occasion of viaticum or from fear
of indigence, refuse a mission, he would sin directly
against this vow. He is bound not only to go but also
to remain, without looking for viaticum or relief from
the Pontiff, and relying on God alone and the alms of
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 95
the pious, from which to support himself in accordance
with the poverty which he professes.
Secondly, obedience without tergiversation or excuse
falls under this vow. This condition however, is to be
understood in accordance with the Constitutions and
with rioht reason. Perfection of obedience does not,
when a just excuse occurs, exclude its being set before
the superior in a proper manner and with due rever-
ence, for this is just and in conformity with right
reason. It is lawful not because it is permitted by
the Eule, but it is permitted by the Kule because
right reason demands it. Silence on the part of the
subject might sometimes be very contrary to the in-
tention of the Pontiff in prescribing, and to the end
which he has in view. In one word, there is excluded
by this vow all excuse of the will, but not excuse of the
reason; or, certainly, there is excluded every excuse which
includes an absolute purpose not to go, but not such an
excusing as consists solely in setting forth a reasonable
impediment. Even when the excuse seems reasonable,
it is not lawful absolutely to resolve not to obey and in
this sense to excuse oneself, for if, notwithstanding the
difficulty proposed, the Pontiff should insist on his
precept, it must be obeyed in virtue of the vow. If a
subject were by tergiversation arising from frailty, with-
out deceit and fraud, to insinuate his difficulty and beg
to be excused by removal of the precept, being pre-
pared at the same time to obey if the superior should
not condescend to his petition, then there would not be
grave sin, although there would be great imperfection,
and perhaps also venial sin.
19^ THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
The third circumstance which belongs to the matter
of this vow of obedience with regard to the Missions,
is that it should be universal and indifferent to all places
and peoples, whatsoever their religion or opinions, whe-
ther, as the Bull says, — to the Turks or to any other
infidels whatsoever, even in the parts which they call the
Indies, or to any heretics or schismatics whatsoever, or
to any of the faithful ; and, acid the Constitutions, the
Society has not understood any particular place, but
that Ours should be scattered throughout the world to
all its various regions and places. For this cause
chiefly has the whole body of Society decreed by this
vow to place itself specially in the power of the
Pontiff, because since it desires the greater service of
God and of the whole Church in the assistance of
souls, and since also it is ignorant where it can be
employed with the greatest fruit, it has judged that
this matter should be committed to the Vicar of Christ ;
both because he, as Head of the whole Church, will
have a greater knowledge of its affairs and necessi-
ties, and also because it is rightly to be hoped that his
distribution of the ministers of the Societ}^ will be the
best, and made with the most abundant aid of the Holy
Ghost.
Hence also in virtue of this vow, the Professed of the
Society are bound, if it should seem good to the Pontiff,
to have no fixed domicile, but to go hither and thither,
and, if need be, to live outside the houses of the Society
for a lengthened period, as may be expedient for the good
of souls. This mode of life is not accidental or foreign
to the Institute, as it would be in other religious Orders ;
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 197
but it is in itself comprehended within the limits of the
Institute, and has itself been chosen in order to the end
of the Society.
Under the matter of this vow is comprehended also
the returning from, as well as the £oin^ to the Missions,
and also the not going to certain places, the reason of
the prohibition being the advantage of souls ; since all
this belongs to the distribution of the Professed, which
should be wholly in the hands of the Pontiff.
This vow is pious and holy since it concerns an excel-
lent thing, and is made for an excellent end ; for what
ends can be more excellent than the common orood of
o
the Church, the salvation of souls, and the defence and
propagation of the faith ?
Certain persons have calumniated the Society as ambi-
tious of the special favour of the Apostolic See by reason
of this vow, since by it, as they say, the Society in reality
vows nothing new, and has only for the sake of adula-
tion and from human respect invented this singular
mode of profession. This calumny cannot have been
conceived by prudent men, but must have been hatched
by such as rashly judge others, since neither from the
matter nor from the end of the vow is such an intention
or any suspicion of it apparent, and since in the Consti-
tutions the right intention is frequently declared, and it
is also set forth by the Supreme Pontiff in the Bulls.
Such an ambitious intention could not morally have place
in individuals, as is evident, since by means of this vow
they are not made more known to the Pontiff, nor do they
expect any temporal gain from this vow ; while to in-
198 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tend that the whole body of the Order should be specially
under the protection of the Supreme Pontiff, and that it
should be defended and aided by him, would not be
ambitious, but would be very much in conformity with
reason and charity. St. Francis specially promised for
himself and his Order obedience to Honorius III. the
Supreme Pontiff and to his successors, and St. Buona-
venture says that by reason of its singular poverty the
Order of the Friars Minor is committed in a special
manner to the care of the Pontiff as to that of a parent,
and this is not ambition, but a holy intention ; and so
even if the Society had intended this, it would have
done right well. In reality, however, this is not the
intention of the vow, although it may be a fruit or
effect which is a consequence of the vow.
By no higher authority, and by no greater direction
of the Holy Ghost could the ministers of the Society be
sent, — " And how shall they preach unless they are
sent?" (Eom. x. 15) — than by the Supreme Pastor of
the Flock of Christ, to whom it belongs by his office to
watch over the spiritual welfare of the sheep. The most
excellent mode, moreover, in which they can be sent is by
obedience, which is a holocaust most pleasing unto God,
and especially when it has been consecrated by vow.
These Missions are made by the Supreme Pontiff,
either by his asking for religious, and leaving the selec-
tion of them to the General, or sometimes by his sending
particular persons and occasionally even the General
himself, as in the case of Laynes who was sent to France,
and Borgia who was sent to Portugal for the good of
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 1 99
the Church, and others of the first companions of St.
Ignatius. Even if individuals are not known to the
Pontiff, it is important for him to know that the whole
body of the Society is consecrated by a special vow to this
duty, and will be obedient to him at his nod in all things
which he may command for the good of souls. Since he
is Generalissimo of the whole ecclesiastical army, it may
be useful for him to have at hand auxiliary bands of
soldiers whom he can freely distribute, as he deems
expedient. For this reason our Father St. Ignatius has,
in the Constitutions, most wisely provided that the
General should, when a new Vicar of Christ has been
established in. the Apostolic See, be bound within a year
from his creation and coronation to declare, either in
person or through another, to His Holiness the profession
and express promise of obedience to which the Society
has bound itself by a special vow with regard to the Mis-
sions for the glory of God. Even if the Pontiff' cannot
know all the professed of the Society, he can easily have
knowledge of some of the more distinguished of them,
and of such as he might more conveniently use as his
instruments. • He must know such persons either by
reputation or personally, since they often come to Rome,
and many also live there, and from these he can as he
pleases gain sufficient knowledge of others ; and this is
enough and more than enough that the vow should not
be reckoned useless, but that it should rather on the
contrary be considered very serviceable.
The General is the principal minister whom the Pon-
tiff will necessarily ordinarily employ in arranging the
Missions ; and the General is bound in virtue of his
200 THE BELIGIOUS STATE.
office, and also in virtue of his own vow of the Missions,
faithfully to execute and ordain whatever His Holiness
may order, and in accordance with his intention.
This vow induces a special obligation which the
o-eneral vow of obedience of other religious Orders does
not include ; for a monk is not bound in virtue of his
vow of obedience to be ready to go to India, or to the
Turks, whenever he may be ordered by the Pontiff; for
in such a case he is no more bound to obey the Pontiff,
than is any secular, since this does not belong to his
profession.
A religious of another, and even of a mendicant Order
can only be obliged to migrate to distant regions, so far
as he can be transferred by his own General from one
province to another for his own greater good or for that
of the Order ; but a professed religious of the Society
can, in virtue of this vow, be sent by the Supreme Pon-
tiff simply for the sake of preaching, or of in some other
way ministering to his neighbours in spiritual matters,
and this even if it is necessary that he should go where
there is no House or Province of the Society. In virtue
of his vow he can be sent where he will have to live
in perpetuity outside the Houses and Colleges of the
Society ; and to this religious of other Orders cannot in
virtue of their vow of obedience be compelled. The
Professed of the Society are also bound to go, so to
speak, at their own expense, that is, without viaticum,
and begging if need be, whereas other religious, since
they do not profess this, cannot be bound to it with so
great rigour. Finally the Professed of the Society are
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 201
liable to such Missions, as it were, by office, so that
they can be sent without any special necessity, because
they have professed this mode of life ; whereas other
religious can be bound only accidentally, or by the
common law of charity, justice, or christian obedience,
or for the sake of some special service to their Order.
With regard to the alleged novelty of this vow, since
the Society in its Institute and mode of life was itself
new, what wonder that it should also have professed
something which was new? When the Order of St.
Francis began to profess community poverty this was
probably something new. To profess military service or
the redemption of captives was at one time a novelty.
Not every thing which is new is reprehensible, but only
that new thing which is at variance with antiquity, and
not that new tiling which, in accordance with the cir-
cumstances and necessities of the time, is introduced in
order to perfect those things which are old.
With regard, moreover, to the singularity of the vow, as
the Society is a special Order distinct from other Orders,
so it should have some special and proper mark by
which it may be distinguished from them ; and the dis-
tinguishing mark of the Society is its ministry for the
salvation of souls under the special obedience of the
Supreme Pontiff- This is its special scope or end and
aim to which it has been called and ordained by God.
This singularity therefore has been conceived not by
human reason merely but by a special grace of the Holy
Ghost, for the dissemination of the faith in so many of
the most remote regions, and for the defence of the
Church against so many assaults of heretics.
202 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Although this vow is of a thing which is very ardu-
ous and difficult, and which looking to human frailty
is encompassed with perils, yet it is not therefore im-
prudent or rash. In the first place, it is not by human
strength but by the grace of the Holy Ghost that the
vow is to be accomplished ; and He who has begun and
inspired the good work will Himself perfect it if we do
not stand in the way, for that is the special grace of this
vocation, which is more powerful than all perils and
difficulties. Again, by this vow we do not promise to
expose ourselves to perils, or to go to these or those
regions, or to perform these or those actions, but to
obey the Vicar of Christ ; and there cannot be any more
certain means of not erring in the way of God. There
has also to be taken into account the providence of the
Order, both in training and proving the persons sent,
and also in the selection of them. Besides, in the Consti-
tutions and Bulls we are frequently admonished that no
one should procure his being sent to this or to that place,
but that every one should permit himself to be moved,
al thou oh it will not be wrono- for him to shew his readi-
ness.
Such a vow adds a greater intensity of obligation,
even if it does not extend the sphere of obedience ; so
that a Friar Minor who should disobey the orders of the
Pontiff would sin more grievously than a religious of
another Order would sin by so doing ; and one of the
Professed of the Society would sin more grievously, by
refusing a mission which had been enjoined on him
by the Pontiff, than would a Coadjutor or Approved
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 203
Scholastic, although these also would sin against obedi-
ence by refusing a mission.
Approved Scholastics are not bound by the Constitu-
tions to proceed to the Missions without viaticum, or
without seeking or procuring it, and they have not,
moreover, professed this kind of poverty, except at most
in case of necessity and when their going is necessary.
Coadjutors are bound by reason of their vow of poverty
the obligation of which is greater than that of the vow
made by Scholastics. The Professed, on the other hand,
are bound not only by reason of poverty, but also by
reason of obedience. In comparison with Scholastics
therefore there is in the Professed a greater obligation
as regards the matter ; while in comparison with Coad-
jutors their obligation is greater in the same matter,
by reason of the bond of a new vow, or promise of
obedience.
Neither Scholastics nor Coadjutors are expressly bound
to obey as regards the Missions without excusing them-
selves ; and so in some cases they might without grave
sin make excuse, when the Professed could not excuse
themselves ; as for instance if the business should be too
arduous, or attended with imminent danger of death,
and if one of the Professed was at hand who could
equally well be sent. This we say that the Professed may
recognize the greatness of their obligation, since they are,
as it were, by office bound to expose themselves in this
special duty, and they have expressly vowed to go with-
out excusing themselves, so that their excusing them-
selves would neither be reasonable nor colourable ; and
not that the other religious should extenuate their
204 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
obligation, and take occasion to excuse themselves, for
besides this being never without great imperfection it
can hardly be excused in a particular case, since a
private religious cannot have knowledge of all the
reasons which move the Pontiff or General to send him
rather than another, and the hindrances which occur to
the sending of others, and chiefly because in one's own
case one is often deceived, either dreading where there
is no cause for fear, or judging that an injury is done to
oneself by one's being sent rather than another.
Finally, the Professed are, in virtue of their profession,
laid open to a greater number of affairs and missions
than are others because, since profession should not be
given save to men who are conspicuous for prudence,
learning and the religious spirit, from the fact of their
being admitted to profession, they are judged fit for
all the ministries for which such mfts are necessary.
Similarly, when they themselves accept profession they
offer themselves to all these ministries as the superior
may judge fitting, and so in them a lawful excusing of
themselves can scarcely find place.
The vow which is made by the Professed of the
Society of obedience to the Pontiff with regard to the
Missions, is made to the Pontiff, not only as he is
Supreme Prelate of the Society as of every religious Order,
in which sense the general vow of obedience to the
Society includes obedience to the Pontiff as its Supreme
Head ; but to the Pontiff himself and directly, and just
as if he were not a Prelate of any religious Order. Hence
there exists in this vow a special property, namely, that
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 205
when the General sends any one of the Professed in
virtue of this vow, the General is properly the vice-
gerent of the Pontiff, and by means of special power
bestowed by the Pontiff, exacts the promise made to the
Pontiff; whereas when he sends or prescribes by reason
of the general vow of obedience, he then acts in virtue
of his own right and his own acquired dominion. Hence
a precept of the first kind is graver, and of greater
obligation, in the same way as the same law, given by
the Pope and given by a bishop, is graver and demands
greater reverence when it is imposed by the Pope than
when it is imposed by a bishop.
The Supreme Pontiff thus acquires a proper aD(i
special right to the whole Society which is in a special
manner subjected to him. Although only the Professed
Society lies under this proper obligation, yet since all
the other grades of the Society are ordained, in order to
this its highest grade, either by co-operating with it, or
by preparing subjects for it, it follows that when it is
specially bound to the Pontiff, the whole Order becomes
also specially subject to him.
We believe that it was by a special providence of God
that this counsel was conceived and embraced, that at
the time when heretics were assailing the Apostolic See
with a special hatred, one religious family should ap-
proach that See with a special reverence, and devote
itself wholly to its service, and so specially recognize its
supreme authority.
This vow is solemn^ and its solemnity consists in the
irrevocable tradition attached to the promise, by which
206 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the Professed specially delivers himself to the dominion
and power of the Pontiff, as regards this effect of the
Missions; so that as regards this he remains not his own
master, and not even the property of his own Order, but
the servant of the Pontiff.
v. — is profession made in a fitting manner in the
Society ?
In the form of Profession as made in the Society, all
those things are most distinctly contained which are
of the substance of the religious state, so that in no
way could a more express profession possibly be made.
First, the tradition, or delivery of himself by the reli-
gious, is made expressly by the words, — i" make pro-
fession ; — and then the several vows are singly expressed,
declared, extended and limited ; and finally it is also
insinuated that all this is done in a religious Order
approved by the Apostolic See, when mention is made
of its Letters.
The Profession is to be made publicly before those of
the household and externs who are present at Mass.
The Mass is to be said publicly by him who is to receive
the profession. Having finished the sacrifice and hold-
ing in his hands the Blessed Sacrament he will turn
towards the religious to hear his profession. After the
general confession the religious will read with a loud
voice so as to be heard and understood by those around,
the form of profession, which will be in writing both for
greater solemnity and certainty, and in order that the
words may be more accurately and securely uttered.
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 20 7
This done he will receive the Holy Eucharist at the hands
of him who admits him. The priest afterwards receives
from him his written profession ; and there follows a
mutual embrace. The profession, with all its circum-
stances of persons, place and time, is to be recorded in
a book kept for the purpose, so that evidence of it may
remain to the glory of God.
VI. — The simple vows which follow Profession ; and
FIRST, THE VOW NOT TO ASSENT TO RELAXATION OF
POVERTY.
After Profession and the making of the four solemn
vows, other and simple vows are made, as prescribed in
the Constitutions ; not so publicly however or in the
church, but in the sacristy or some similar place, before
the same superior or other priest who has accepted the
profession, and in presence of certain of the household
and sometimes of externs.
These vows induce grave obligation, since the matter
of them is sufficiently grave, and they are truly and
most properly vows.
One of them is a vow not to admit any relaxation as
regards revenues or any possession for proprietary use,
either for the sacristy, or the fabric or for any other
purpose which is unconnected with the Colleges and
Houses of Probation.
St. Ignatius says that Poverty is the firm wall of reli-
gion, and is therefore to be preserved in its purity, and
he also calls it the bulwark of religious Orders, which
preserves them in their state and discipline, and pro-
208 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tects them from many enemies. St. Thomas says that
poverty is the first foundation for acquiring perfection.
The enemy of human nature will endeavour to weaken
this bulwark, and to change what has been well ordained
by the first founders of an Order ; for since his desire is
to destroy the whole Order, he strives to uproot its
foundations and to overthrow its wall, for if that is
demolished, he will easily be able to overcome the whole
Order. Although the vow of poverty is the lowest
amou£ the three substantial vows of religion, and
although also its observauce is the easiest, for it is easier
for us to abandon our goods than it is to abandon our-
selves whether in soul or body, yet violation of poverty
has done greater damage to religious Orders. The reason
may be, either because violation of poverty is of more
frequent occurrence on account of the greater assaults of
the devil in that direction, and its wickedness being
less apparent or more hidden, so that it is more easily
dissembled and permitted on the part of superiors (since
shame interferes on behalf of chastity, and the superior,
whose interest it is that he should be obeyed, on behalf
of obedience), or because by means of it may be pro-
cured the comforts of the body, or because ownership is
so much at variance with religious regularity.
Hence the end of this vow is that the foundation
should remain firm, and the wall entire and uninjured,
so that the edifice may be supported, and the city de-
fended. With the same end in view several Pontiffs
have imposed the most grievous penalties on the vio-
lators of religious poverty ; and the glorious Fathers St.
Francis and St. Dominic have left a special malediction
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 209
on such of their religious as should transgress the poverty
which was instituted by them.
There are two kinds of alteration of religious poverty,
of which one is intrinsically evil, and consists in a trans-
gression of the substantial vow, while the other is not
intrinsically evil or even evil as prohibited, since it is not
a violation of law but an alteration of the law made by
him who has the power to do so. Other founders or pro-
tectors of religious Orders have, by means of penalties
or maledictions, guarded against the first, but they
have not provided against the second. Consequently
many Orders, and perhaps without fault although not
without some relaxation of their first fervour, have
moderated the rigour of their first institution as re-
gards the observance of poverty, by procuring Apostolic
Indults. Of such an Indult, even although it was
spontaneously offered, St. Clare refused to avail herself.
St. Ignatius did not think fit to add as a means in
order to observance, so long as its obligation lasts, of
the poverty which is promised in the Society, any
special penalty or malediction ; but he has taken pains
to provide that no relaxation should ever be made in
that law of poverty itself which he laid down for the
Society. This he could not do by means of commina-
tion or malediction, because such an alteration would
not be in itself evil ; and therefore he has done it by
the addition of a new obligation through this vow, of
which the matter is — not to procure or consent to any
relaxation of poverty being made in the Society, even
in such a way as might, under other circumstances, be
without sin.
VOL. III. 0
2IO THE RELIGIOUS STATE,
This vow is distinct from the vow of poverty, for it
is one thing not to possess property, whether revenues,
chaplaincies and the like, which are the matter of the
vow of poverty in the Society, and it is another not
to admit relaxation in this institute of poverty. The
matter of this vow is most excellent, both because per-
severance in the first spirit of the Order is in itself a
greater good, and also because relaxation of poverty is
wont to be an occasion of falling away from the rest of
the rigorous observance of an Order.
o
The Professed alone make this vow, because to them
chiefly the government of the Society belongs, and it
is only the Professed who have votes in a General Con-
ereofation, in which alone such an alteration could be
made.
This vow is purely negative, for it does not oblige to
the doing of anything, but only to the not doing of a cer-
tain thin £. Those of the Professed therefore will not sin
against this vow who see others procuring a relaxation
of poverty, and do not oppose or dissuade them, although
they might do so. Although by this omission they may
sin against the charity which is due to the Society, in
the same way as one of Ours who is not professed might
sin in a similar case, yet they will not transgress this
particular vow, because by it they are not obliged to
resist or hinder, but are obliged only not to do anything
towards relaxation.
Two kinds of actions are prohibited in virtue of this
vow. The first and principal one is to give a decisive
vote foi the relaxation of poverty ; and the second is in
any way to procure that it should be made or allowed
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 2 I I
by the Society. This forbids all counsel, or any vote,
even if it is consultative only, and not decisive ; and
still more all positive favouring or procuring of such
relaxation, although simple permission of relaxation is
not excluded by the vow.
Since a vow can concern only a better good, and since
it cannot be a hindrance to a greater good, so this vow
will not oblige when the matter of it has from circum-
stances become so changed that it cannot be observed
without hindering a greater good ; but this change as
regards the matter must be certain and evident. In
case of doubt it does not seem that it would be against
the vow to agitate and discuss the matter, and to set
forth the reasons for and against, and to prefer that
which appears most likely or probable, for this seems
necessary to the common good, and to avoid peril of
any damage to the whole Society. In such an event
even if the truth and necessity of the matter could not
be known with certainty and evidence, it would not be
contrary to the vow to set the whole matter with all the
arguments before the Supreme Pontiff, in order that he
might ordain what he should judge to be best for the
whole body of the Society. This would be done with
the greater security if the Pontiff's leave should first be
asked that, notwithstanding this vow, each one might
freelv declare what he felt or thought.
"Without question the Supreme Pontiff would have to
be obeyed if he should ever prescribe a relaxation of
poverty ; for since he had it in his power at the first to
approve only a more moderate measure of poverty, so
is it also in his power to prescribe relaxation of poverty,
2 12 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
as he may judge expedient from the necessities of the
time and for the common good ; and his precept is
always to be presumed to be just, when the opposite is
not evident. He has power to do this, not only as he is
Supreme Pontiff, but also as he is Supreme Prelate of
the Order, in virtue of obedience ; because it would not
be contrary to the vow or to the Eule, but would be a
reasonable alteration of a particular rule ordained for
the better observance of the whole Eule.
If the Pontiff should not prescribe a relaxation of
poverty, but should grant it to the Professed Society
by way of indulgence, as the Council of Trent granted
to nearly all the religious Orders that they might
possess real property even if this was not previously
permitted to them, this vow not to assent to relaxa-
tion of poverty would not oblige the Professed of the
Society not to accept the grant of the Pontiff. When
the Fathers of the Second General Congregation re-
nounced the grant of the Council of Trent, they did so
not of necessity, or from the obligation of this vow, but
as it were voluntarily, and as spontaneously confirming
it anew. The Professed cannot now recall their renun-
ciation of that privilege; but if the Supreme Pontiff or
another General Council were in the future to make a
fresh grant of similar leave, the Professed Society would
have the same liberty as before either to accept or to
renounce it.
The obligation of this vow extends to the whole
matter of poverty as it falls under the vow made in
the Society, in whatever grade or state of the same it
may be made ; and it extends to the Colleges and
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 213
Houses of Probation as well as the Professed Houses.
The Professed promise not only for themselves or their
Houses, but for the whole body of the Society, the
principal care and government of which lies upon
them.
VII. — The vow which is made by the Professed
of the Society not to seek dignities.
The desire of prelature, as it regards honour, pre-emi-
nence and superior power, and every pretension which
proceeds therefrom, contains within it the evil of
ambition and vain presumption. A vow therefore
which restrains this vice and inordinate desire, is mani-
festly most excellent, and very expedient for a religious
Order. No vice could be more pernicious to a com-
munity, and particularly to a religious community, and
specially to the Society. From this vice spring the
envies, dissensions, contentions and calumnies which
are the pests of every community. In a religious com-
munity not only the salvation, but also the perfection
of individuals, depends in great measure on the life
and example of the superior, and the whole good of
the Order depends on obedience, and this is greatly
disturbed by ambition. A religious who, forgetful of
his profession, is ambitious of dignities begins to look
backwards. There is, in fact, nothing which so bars the
way to perfection, nay, to virtue, as does ambition. It
is, says St. Bernard, a subtle evil, a secret virus, a hidden
pest, a maker of guile, a parent of jealousy, a root of
vices, the fuel of crimes, the rust of virtues, the moth of
214 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
sanctity, a blinder of hearts, creating diseases out of
remedies and. engendering; languor out of medicine.
For this cause St. Ignatius has provided with so much
solicitude that the way should be entirely barred to
this vice in the Society by means of this special vow of
the Professed. It is especially adapted for the Pro-
fessed, both because inside the Society the principal
government belongs to them, and because they are
likely to be the best fitted for positions of dignity out-
side the Society. For this cause also such a vow may
be more necessary in this Order than in other Orders,
since the Society might be more easily assailed by this
vice from the fact that the Professed are to be, as far as
possible, men of learning, and fit for all ecclesiastical
ministries whatsoever, and well exercised in them ; and
so it might easily happen that they should be on familiar
terms with princes and the prelates of the Church, and
in the esteem and favour of these dignitaries. All these
and many other things might easily provoke and pro-
mote ambition, and so not only is this vow useful after
profession, but it is of service even to those who are being
instructed in the noviceship ; since by means of their
consideration of it, they are from the beginning imbued
with the spirit of it, and conceive that nothing is more
contrary to the end at which they aim in the Society
than is the inordinate affection of ambition. Hence also
in nothing is the providence of superiors more vigilant
than it is in the extermination of this vice, both by the
committing of all prelatures within the Society to the
General alone ; and also by procuring with due reve-
rence that the election of any one to a dignity outside
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 215
the Order, when it is contemplated by the Pontiff, should
not take effect ; and in this the Society has by the divine
grace been more than once successful. As regards the
Generalate itself, one amongst other reasons for its per-
petuity is declared by the Constitutions to be that all
thought and occasion of ambition, which is the pest of
such offices if there is an election at stated times, might
be farther removed.
But further, by this vow is prohibited not only that
which is in itself and of its nature evil, namely, to seek
prelature for the sake of pre-eminence and power, but also
that which is in itself indifferent, and which may be
justified. To seek prelature for the benefit of others,
and because of the watching and labours which are
attached to it, is not wrong in itself, nay, it has an
appearance of good, for as St. Paul said to Timothy —
He who desires the Episcopate desires a good work.
Hence to procure the Episcopate, if it is done with a
well-moderated affection and for the foresaid end, and
with other due circumstances, is not in itself evil, and it
might sometimes perhaps be meritorious, if a particular
bishopric or prelature were such as to entail great labour,
and bring with it but little honour or temporal advantage,
so that few if any, who were also worthy, would accept
it. But in the Society the Professed are bound by this
vow not only not to procure their prelature, either inside
or outside the Society, with any ambitious or base inten-
tion or pretension, but also not to procure it even if the
pretension should appear on any ground or title to be
justified. To desire prelature solely by affection and
interior desire, although otherwise evil and forbidden,
2l6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
is not contrary to this vow. Neither is the doing of
anything with this desire, such as studying diligently so
as to be more capable or worthy of prelature inside or
outside the Society, contrary to the vow, so long as there
is no negotiation or inducement of others : although he
who should do so would be accounted ambitious before
God, and his endeavour would be imputed to him as
sin.
Outside the Society there may be understood by 'pre-
lature the Episcopate, and by dignity the Cardinalate,
which is thus distinguished since it has not attached
to it in itself any ordinary power of jurisdiction ; but
besides these the vow extends to every prelature and
ecclesiastical dignity whatsoever. Inside the Society
these two words prelature and dignity signify one and
the same thing ; since in the Society there is no proper
dignity apart from a prelature, for all the other posts are
rather onerous offices, and if they have any honour at-
taching to them it is not so great as to suffice to the
idea of dignity, and arises rather by reason of the gifts
or qualities which are supposed in or manifested by the
persons, than by reason of the offices themselves. The
office of Assistant is not a dignity, and much less is that
of Consultor to the Provincial. By 'prelature in the
Society is signified the office of a superior who as such
has proper and spiritual jurisdiction over subjects, either
ordinary, as in the case of the General, the Provincials
and the Hectors of Colleges or Houses of Probation, or
delegated as in the case of a Vicar-General, Commissary
or Visitor. The other ministries of inferior govern-
ment under the Rectors or local superiors, such as the
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 21 J
offices of novice- master, minister and the like, are not
properly prelatures ; such persons being only officials of
the Eector, and not having ordinary jurisdiction, but
only so much as may have been committed to them by
the Eector.
One of Ours might sin against this vow by pretend-
ing to any extraordinary dignity in the Society, as for
instance to have, as of proper and personal right, a vote
in a General Congregation on any ground not prescribed
by the Constitutions; or by procuring any title or kind
of dignity, by reason of which he should have some share
in government, with certain special prerogatives, in a way
similar to that in which, according to the custom and
observance of some Orders, there are Masters of the
Order, Defmitors, and others who are distinguished and
privileged after having held the higher offices.
As regards the penalty for violation of this vow, none
is fixed for those who seek dignities outside the Society,
for this reason perhaps that that sin would be more a
private sin, and not so hurtful to the body of the Order.
But for those who directly or indirectly procure prelature
within the Society, the penalty is incapability and dis-
ability for any prelature whatsoever within the Society ;
not however ipso facto, but after conviction.
VIII. — Is A VOW NOT TO ACCEPT THE EPISCOPATE,
WITHOUT A PRECEPT FROM A SUPERIOR, FITTINGLY
MADE IN THE SOCIETY ?
The third simple vow which is made by the Pro-
fessed of the Society is not to consent to their election
2 I 8 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
to the Episcopate, so far as lies in them, unless com-
pelled by obedience to him who has power to prescribe
to them under pain of sin.
These. words widen the previous vow, and constitute
as it were a new vow, of which the matter comprehends
every prelature and dignity outside the Society. The
intention of the Founder was not that prelatures should
not be possessed inside the Society, for that would
be subversive of its government ; and so the promise
is not, as concerns these, not to accept them, but not to
pretend to them ; but his intention was that prelatures
should not be held outside the Society, and so he would
have the Professed bound as strictly as they can be .
bound, not to accept them. They could not be bound
simply and absolutely, because they could not lawfully
resist the precept of a superior, and a vow must always
concern that which is lawful ; but since, apart from a
case of precept, they are free not to accept, they could
also be bound not to accept in every case in which there
should be no precept.
A purpose not to accept the Episcopate, so long as
non-acceptance can be without sin, is, according to St.
Thomas, most excellent, and consequently may fittingly
be confirmed by vow ; or otherwise — not to accept the
Episcopate is an act which is of its nature better than
to accept the Episcopate, so long as both are lawful ;
and therefore it may be the becoming matter of a vow.
St. Augustine says that nothing in this life and especi-
ally in times such as his is more difficult, more laborious
and more perilous than is the office of a bishop ; and St.
Gregory praises the humility of him wdio from his heart
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 219
flees from the pinnacle of government, and who when it is
laid upon him obeys reluctantly. History also supplies
us with many examples of the saints who by flight, by
hiding themselves, by their prayers and in other ways
have resisted their election to the Episcopate, such as
for instance Saints Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Martin,
Cyprian, Ambrose, Augustine, Chrysostom, Gregory the
Great, Antoninus, Laurence Justinian, Malachy, and
others. St. Augustine says of himself — " I so dreaded
the Episcopate that, after my fame began to be of some
moment among the servants of God, when I knew that
in a certain place there was no bishop, I would not go
there. I was on my guard and did what I could to be
preserved in a humble sphere, lest in a high sphere I
should be placed in peril. But, as I have said, the
servant ought not to contradict his master." He then
only accepted the Episcopate wrhen he understood accept-
ance to be the will of God. St. Gregory also grieved
over the burden of the Episcopate which wTas laid upon
him ; and he complained of his friends that they con-
gratulated him as if it were a piece of good fortune. In
their endeavours to avoid the Episcopate, even when
invited to it by the Supreme Pontiffs, some have suc-
ceeded, as did St. Bernard, St. Thomas Aquinas, and
several members of the Society.
Although the Episcopate is the most perfect state, yet
it supposes and does not confer perfection, and since it
requires perfection in him who embraces it, lest it should
expose him to many perils, so long as a man can without
sin refuse it he will do better, morally speaking and for
the most part, by refusing than by accepting it ; for he
2 20 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
will act more securely for his own salvation, and his
attitude will be more humble and farther removed from
presumption. He, on the other hand, sufficiently provides
for the welfare of others, if he is prepared to accept the
burden, whenever either charity or obedience may oblige
him.
If the necessity of the Church or that of neighbours is
not so great that charity itself should oblige a religious
under sin to accept the Episcopate (a case which is cer-
tainly excepted from this vow, for a vow cannot oblige
to anything which is contrary to charity), every other
necessity or advantage is sufficiently provided for by
acceptance in obedience to the precept of a superior, by
which there are avoided the many and grave disadvan-
tages and perils which might otherwise arise. The care
of the common good belongs more to a superior than it
does to a subject, and what will conduce to the common
welfare is better known to him, as well as how far this
particular person may be necessary to promote it ; and
the superior can also more easily and without suspicion
or peril of inordinate affection come to a judgment in
the case.
There is a difference between prelature within and
prelature outside an Order ; for outside the Order the
prelature will have in it more of self, while inside the
Order it will have less of peril. This especially applies
to religious who ascend to the Episcopate, because they
not only gain honour and power, but they seem to flee
from the practice of subjection and poverty. Moreover,
it is necessary to an Order that some of its members
should be prelates within it for the purpose of its govern-
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 22 1
merit ; while it is not necessary to this that any of its
members should be prelates outside it, nor is it as a rule
to its advantage, since it may thereby be deprived of the
better and more learned religious, who are most fitted
for its own ministries as well as for the government of
the Order. Hence, as a rule, it is not expedient or
opportune that religious should not accept prelatures
within their own Orders unless they have been compelled
by rigorous precept, since this would impede ordinary
government. It suffices that they should shew them-
selves not easy but somewhat difficult with regard to
such ministries, always however with that moderation
which prudent reason and an intention of the greater
service of God dictates.
If it is true of the members of every religious Order
that they should not accept prelatures outside the Order,
apart from a precept of their superiors, with special
reason is it most certainly true as regards the Society.
In the first place, by reason of the Institute and
ministries of the Society, this Order stands most of all in
need of learned and religious labourers, and it would be
deprived of these if they, being invited to the Epis-
copate or other dignities, were easily, and without being
compelled by a precept, to accept them.
Secondly, in this Order the more peril there may be
of ambition, the more necessary it is wholly to preclude
all the occasions of it. And therefore it has been
well decreed that dignities should not only not be pro-
cured, but that they should not be of one's own accord
accepted.
222 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Thirdly, morally speaking and as a rule, the learned
and religious Professed of the Society will be more
useful to the Church by remaining in their own humble
state, and faithfully exercising the ministries of the
Society, than by their accepting bishoprics. It is related
of St. Dominic and St. Francis that, when it was set
before them by Cardinal Ugolino that it would be well
if the Episcopate were bestowed upon the more dis-
tinguished of their friars, both replied that they would
never consent to this. St. Dominic said that his
brethren had already a sufficiently exalted state as
preachers ; and St. Francis, — My friars have been called
Minors, in order that they may never desire to become
greater upon the earth, and that being content with the
submissiveness of their own vocation they may be better
able to serve to the welfare of the Church. St. Ignatius
also by means of these and similar reasons induced
Paul III. to preserve the Institute of the Society intact
on this point, and this Gregory XIII. afterwards con-
firmed.
It is most necessary for the spiritual welfare of the
whole Order, that there should be a definite law by
which it should sometimes be lawful to accept the
Episcopate, and not otherwise ; else every one would
according; to his own judgment and will conceive neces-
o Jo
sities of acceptance, and would easily be led to judge
acceptance to be better and a greater service to God.
To avoid this no better rule could be laid down than
that the precept of the superior is to be waited for ;
since thereby both the welfare of the Order is pro-
vided for, and every necessity which can arise in the
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 223
Church, is sufficiently met. So long therefore as the
Pontiff does not interpose his precept, and there is no
certain and evident obligation of charity, a professed
religious of the Society can securely judge that it is
not better for him to accept the Episcopate ; not only
because he may always fear peril to his own salvation,
but also because, in accordance with the due order of
charity, he, as a member of the Society, is bound to
have regard rather to its common good than to the
advantage of the faithful who are external to it. The
Professed of the Society can, moreover, remaining in
their own state, lend assistance to the bishops, and in
this way sufficiently relieve the necessities of the faith-
ful, or contribute towards their welfare.
After making this vow, the Professed not only may
lawfully judge, but they are bound to judge it to be a
greater service to God not to accept the Episcopate, so long
as it has not been prescribed. Even if in a particular
case there should appear to be doubt, the vow removes it,
its claim being in possession and therefore in doubt to be
preferred ; nay, even if, regarded apart from this vow, it
should appear clear and certain that it would be better to
accept the Episcopate, after making this vow it is not to
be accepted without a precept, for there is no necessity
of doing otherwise since it is easy for the Pontiff to
impose a precept if he should really desire acceptance.
Even the Patriarchate of Ethiopia or the Bishopric of
Japan, in which there is much labour and burden, but
little honour, and scarcely any temporal gain, and which
therefore it might seem a good work and an excellent
to. accept, are not to be accepted by a professed religious
224 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
of the Society without a precept ; and, so far as the
Society is concerned, such appointments are to he re-
sisted.
IX. — The vow which the Professed of the Society
make to listen to the counsels of the general,
if they should happen to be raised to the
Episcopate.
Since it may happen that a professed religious of the
Society should be compelled to accept the Episcopate,
St. Ignatius has provided a means for his spiritual wel-
fare, for his greater union with the Society, and for the
greater edification of his neighbours, in another vow
which the Professed make after profession.
They promise that, if it should happen that they
are promoted to the Episcopate, they will never refuse to
listen to the counsel of the General which either he him-
self or some other of the Society whom he may substitute
for the purpose, deigns to give ; and that they will
always comply with such counsels, if they shall judge
them to be better than those which occur to themselves.
A professed religious who is promoted to the Epis-
copate is thereby exempted from obedience to his own
Order. Although his solemn vow of obedience is not
removed, or invalidated or properly dispensed, its obli-
gation remains only with reference to the Supreme
Pontiff, and the religious bishop is exempted from sub-
jection to any of the prelates of his Order. Hence a
professed religious, even of the Society, who has be-
come a bishop, is not bound to obey the counsels of the
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 225
General, nor is this vow made in the sense that he should
have any one of the Society as his superior.
A person, however, who by reason of jurisdiction is
superior, can as regards his own actions voluntarily
submit himself to the direction and will of another.
He can also bind himself to this by vow, inasmuch as
it is a better good, at least in order to his own spiritual
good, because hereby religion and humility and obedi-
ence are exercised, without damage or injury to any
one. By ecclesiastical law, however, this is not lawful
without leave of the Pope, to whom the bishops are
immediately subjected ; and individuals cannot renounce
their right of exemption, and voluntarily promise or
retain an obligation of obedience to any inferior, from
which by law, or in virtue of their state, or by the
demands of their diguity they have been set free.
This especially applies to obedience with regard to
actions which concern the government of souls ; since
the care of these is committed to the bishop and not to
any extern, and therefore he cannot so place himself
under the will of another in this matter as to be
entirely dependent upon that other's will, for this would
be in a manner to alter the order and rule laid down
by the Pontiff. Hence St. Ignatius prudently not only
would not have the Professed of the Society who
become bishops, bound in virtue of this vow to obey the
General as their superior, but he would not have them
bound even to follow his judgment or counsel; since this
would be a virtual obedience by which their episcopal
government would be reduced, and in a manner sub-
jected to the General. He would have them bound then
VOL. III. P
2 26 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
only to follow the counsel of the General when they
themselves should judge it to be better than their own.
The first advantage of this vow is both counsel and
admonition, and that from a person of whom it is
morally certain that he will perform this duty with
charity and prudence.
Prudence, says Aristotle, is the virtue which is proper
to those who govern, and it almost suffices in order to right
government ; and St. Chrysostom says that nothing is so
necessary for the administration of affairs as is prudence.
But an upright and sound judgment of prudence chiefly
depends on wise counsel, for there is no man who
suffices for himself, and especially amid the variety and
difficulty of the matters which occur in public adminis-
tration.
If this is true of every government, much more is
it true of the government of souls, which is, says
Innocent III., the art of arts. All the wise, says St.
Bernard, are wont in matters which are doubtful to
trust to the judgment of others rather than to their
own ; and those who easily elucidate the difficulties of
others are accustomed more scrupulously to hesitate in
their own. St. Clement exhorts a bishop that he
should not by reason of his age or birth fail to accept
useful and salutary counsels, even from the meaner and
the less learned ; and St. Augustine declares, — I, an
old man and a bishop for so many years, am ready to
learn from a young fellow-bishop and from a colleague
of only a year. It is then a great part of prudence
to make use of the counsels of others, and, as Aris-
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 2 27
to tie says, it is easier to see with many eyes than with
two only.
The second advantage of this vow arises from its
being ordained not for the enlightening of the under-
standing, but for the confirmation of the will as regards
the doing of that wdiich the understanding sees to be
better and more pleasing to God ; and it serves also to
make the bishop dread becoming faithless or blinded by
private affection.
The bishop will be said to refuse to listen to counsel
when he either will in no way hear the counsel, or when
he takes it so bitterly as to signify great displeasure.
The counsel however must concern matter wdiich has
relation to the vow. The Professed does not promise
to listen to the General's counsel on temporal matters,
such as household affairs, or the administration of
temporal goods, or his literary studies, but only on such
matters as concern either the salvation of his own soul,
or the due administration of his Episcopal office.
Although the Professed of the Society when made
bishops are bound to hear the counsels of the Society,
the Society is not bound in its turn to admonish them,
or to take the charge of their souls and offices, by any
special obligation save that which belongs to the law of
charity, which may however be more binding on it as
regards them by reason of their greater union with it.
A bishop or cardinal of the Society will not sin
against his vows by procuring or accepting a still greater
dignity without the obligation of a precept ; nor will a
bishop be bound to renounce his episcopate, or to ask
leave to renounce it. He may however, be admonished
2 28 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
by the General not to seek another dignity or even to
renounce what he has, and he will be bound to listen to
this counsel, and to follow it if he shall judge it to be for
the greater service of God, and more for the salvation
of his soul.
The Supreme Pontificate is not comprehended within
the matter of this vow.
The obligation not to accept dignities without leave
belongs at common law to all religious, by reason of
their vow of obedience, but certain points are special to
the Society. First, the leave is reserved to the General,
while in other Orders it is not as a rule so reserved.
Secondly, the General himself cannot give leave unless
compelled by obedience to the Pontiff. Thirdly, not
only the inferior religious, but the General himself, if a
dignity is granted to him, cannot accept it without the
consent of the Society, and the Society is to wait for
such a precept of the Pontiff as will oblige under sin.
This is not demanded in other Orders, and in them it
suffices that the Pontiff alone should consent or give
leave.
If an Approved Scholastic should, through the favour
of some prince, be elected or nominated to the Epis-
copate, even he could not, in virtue of the Constitu-
tions, accept it without leave of the General. Since,
moreover, according to common law it is grievous pre-
sumption in a religious to accept election without the
consent of his prelate, and since in the Society and
by its Constitutions the General is declared to be the
one prelate to whom this belongs, therefore to accept
election without his leave will be a grievous transgres-
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF FOUR VOWS. 229
sion, not by reason of a vow, as in the case of the
Professed, for this the Scholastic has never made, or in
virtue of the Constitutions alone, for they do not oblige
under sin, but, supposing them, in virtue of common
law.
X. — The vow made by the Professed of the Society
TO MANIFEST TO THE SUPERIOR THOSE WHO PROCURE
DIGNITIES.
Still farther to prevent all ambition for dignities and
prelatures, whether within or outside the Society, St.
lonatius was not content with obligdnor the Professed
by a special vow not to procure them for themselves ;
but added another vow whereby they promise to mani-
fest to the Society or its superior the whole matter, if
they should come to know of any one who procured or
pretended to any dignity or prelature.
Although charity might of itself suffice to impose this
obligation, yet the peculiar obligation of religion arising
from a vow is more clear and express, and it more strongly
moves the conscience of a religious man. This vow,
moreover, obliges not only when it supposes an obliga-
tion of charity to manifestation, but absolutely, whenever
the manifestation can be made justly, even if it should
not have been otherwise prescribed. It may often happen
that one might rightly reveal the sin of a brother to
the superior, and yet that one's doing so should not be
under precept.
A vow therefore which so obliges not only when the
necessity of charity compels, but also when the prospect
23O THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
of greater good suggests and justifies the act, contributes
greatly to the welfare of the Order.
Such ambition as would be a mortal sin against the
vow not to procure dignities, either within or outside
the Society, is matter sufficient in order to the obli-
gation of this vow.
XL — Why are these vows simple and not solemn?
These vows, of the intention both of those who make
them and of the Society, are simple ; for although the
intention of him who makes a vow is not sufficient in
order to its solemnity, it is nevertheless necessary in
order to its solemnity.
These vows although, made before a Prelate and
witnesses, by reason of their importance and in order
that the Society may have evidence of them, are not
made publicly in the Church or with the other solem-
nities which accompany profession.
Finally, these vows have no moral effect added to
them by positive common law or by the special law of
the Society, but have only the obligation which they
themselves induce ; whereas a solemn vow always pro-
duces some such moral effect. Hence the Professed of
Four Vows have the first place in the Society, and they
alone have of ordinary right an active and passive voice
in the election of the General ; while the Professed who
do not make the fourth solemn vow, although they make
the five simple vows, are not constituted in that grade,
nor do they possess the said vote ; and so those vows
have no moral positive effect, and are altogether simple.
231
CHAPTER XXII.
THE PROFESSED OF THREE VOWS; AND THE FORMED
COADJUTORS OF THE SOCIETY.
Besides the Professed of Four Vows, there are in the
Society other religious priests who are received to aid
the Professed in their spiritual ministries, and who
are incorporated into the Society by another kind of
profession or union, and are constituted thereby in a
final religious oracle. These are the Professed of Three
Vows, and the Formed Spiritual Coadjutors.
In accordance with the Institute of the Society it was
very expedient that certain priests should be incorpo-
rated into it by means of three vows only, and so as
always to remain in that final grade of the Society
which such profession establishes. The expedience of
this rests in the first place on the authority of the
Pontiffs who have approved the Institute. Again, there
are demanded in the Professed of Four Vows many gifts
not only of grace, virtue and spirit, but also of sacred
learning and philosophy, and of all the erudition which
is necessary in order to teach, preach and explain
matters of faith, and to defend them against adversaries,
and to solve moral questions and cases. Such gifts
cannot be found in all or even in the many. And there-
232 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
fore those who are endowed with those gifts, or who
are above mediocrity in the possession of them, would
not by themselves suffice for the bearing of all the
burdens of the Society, even in its spiritual mini-
stries. Other well -proved religious priests are conse-
quently necessary to the Society, who, although less
conspicuously gifted, are nevertheless sufficiently capable
of aiding the Society in its spiritual ministries, or in
certain temporal ministries which may be more be-
comingly exercised by means of priests. Such persons
could give assistance in hearing confessions either of
externs or of Ours, in visiting the sick and prisoners,
and in exercising other works of mercy, or by fulfilling
the office of Minister, or that of Procurator cf a House
or College, or of the Province. They could also assist
in the Colleges, either in their government, as Eectors,
or in teaching humane letters or liberal arts, or in hear-
ing the confessions of the scholars and taking charge
of their spiritual progress. Further, in the Houses of
Probation they might hold the office of Rector, or that
of Master of Novices. Many priests are adapted for
certain ministries of the Society who are not fitted for
absolutely devoting themselves to the Pontifical Mis-
sions, or for being exposed to these by the Society, and
therefore they are rightly incorporated without the
fourth vow. There are many who, although they might
be sent to the Missions, should certainly not be sent as
heads of Missions, but as companions of the principal
ministers ; and therefore it is sufficient that those only
who are fit to be sent in principal positions should con-
secrate themselves to this duty by special vow, leaving
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF THREE VOWS. 233
the others as regards this matter to the obligation of the
general vow of obedience.
The expedience of this manner of institution may
also be cod firmed by ancient examples, for Christ our
Lord when about to send preachers into the world, chose
a few who were to be the principal heads or chiefs of
that ministry, and afterwards added many others who
should be their fellow- workers. He first called the
Twelve Apostles, and He afterwards added the Seventy-
two Disciples, to be their companions and coadjutors.
St. Paul says to the Pbilippians with regard to Timothy
— "I hope in the Lord Jesus to send Timothy to you
shortly, that I also may be of good comfort when I
know the things concerning you;' and again — "Now
know ye the proof of him, that as a son with the father
so hath he served with me in the Gospel." He also
speaks to them of Epaphroditus and says — "I thought
it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother
and fellow-labourer and fellow-soldier, but your apostle,
and the minister to my wants ; ' and finally he entreats
his sincere companion — "Help those women who have
laboured with me in the Gospel, with Clement and the
rest of my fellow-labourers, whose names are in the
Book of Life" (ii. 19, 22, 25; iv. 3). Of St. Luke "the
brother whose praise is in the Gospel through all the
churches," he writes to the Corinthians, — "he was also
ordained by the churches companion of our travels ; "
and of Titus also he speaks in like manner — " He is my
companion and fellow - labourer toward you or our
brethren, the Apostles of the churches, the glory of
Christ; wherefore shew ye to them, in the sight of the
234 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
churches, the evidence of your charity and of our
boasting on your behalf" (2 Cor. viii. 18, 19, 23, 24).
St. Mark is called by St. Jerome the " companion and
helper of Peter ; " and Popes John III. and Leo II. call
St. Clement the " coadjutor of Peter."
The Apostles could not by themselves accomplish all
things, and they could not always go together, and it
was neither becoming nor expedient that they should
travel alone, and so they required companions and coad-
jutors, and it became these to be in a manner inferior
to them in their ministry, and subordinate to them, that
all things might be done more fittingly and in order.
The Society, therefore, since it shares the function of
the Apostles as regards travelling throughout the world
to preach the Gospel, has certain men to whom this
ministry principally belongs, and that in virtue of their
profession, and whom therefore it is fitting to bind to
this ministry by special vow; while at the same time it
stands in need of certain others who should be only, as
it were, their companions and coadjutors, co-operating
with them either on the Missions or in the Houses and
Colleges.
Some of those coadjutors, however, or religious priests
who do not make the fourth vow, are rightly admitted
to a solemn profession of the Three Vows. It may not
be expedient for them to make the fourth vow, since they
do not have all the gifts which are necessary for the mini-
stry to which it relates; and yet they may be most worthy
to be received to solemn profession, by reason either of
their singular sanctity of life, or of distinguished deeds
or works by which they have merited well of the Society.
SOLEMN PROFESSION OF THREE VOWS. 235
Sometimes also it may be expedient in order that there
should exist in the Society a mode of dissolving wiatri-
monium ratum, or marriage which has been contracted
but not yet consummated, but without making the pro-
fession oifour vows ; or again, in certain cases, in order
that the bond of union with the Society should be
rendered absolutely perpetual on both sides.
This mode of Profession of Three Vows is not however
in itself and principally intended by the Society ; nor
does it constitute a grade distinct from that of spiritual
coadjutors. It is, within that grade, a special exception
or dispensation, ordained to meet special occasions and
causes which may occur.
The religious who is to be professed of Three Vows
must have lived for at least seven years in the Society,
and he must after lengthened probation of his talent and
religious life have mven no mediocre satisfaction to the
Society, and further there must be in every particular
case a concurrence of special causes of no small moment.
By this profession a religious is admitted to perpetual
union with the Society, and to its spiritual ministries ;
and the Society binds itself to him in a special manner,
and absolutely, and accepts him without any understood
condition. Hence on the first ground there are re-
quired in him at least all the gifts which are necessary in
Formed Coadjutors ; and on the second, there is required
some excellence, either by way of evidence of special
sanctity, or of spiritual services done to God, to the
Church or to the Society, or of some other cause which
seems to demand this kind of gratitude on the part of
the Society.
236 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
The Professed of Three Vows, however, cannot of
ordinary law become Provincials, or Superiors of Pro-
fessed Houses. This is in accordance with right and
reason, for as the prelate of an Order should he expressly
professed in the same Order, so also there should exist
a due proportion between him and those over whom he
is to preside. He ought therefore to be either in a
superior grade, or at least in an equal grade of profession,
and for this reason both the Provincial and the Superiors
of Professed Houses should be in the most perfect grade
of profession which can be attained to within the Order,
namelv, in the grade of the Professed of Four Vows.
For the same reason the Professed of Three Vows can
be superiors in the Colleges and Houses of Probation,
because in these they are in a higher grade than are
their subjects. Since in the Colleges both Formed Coad-
jutors and even Approved Scholastic Priests may be
Eectors, much more may the Professed of Three Vows
who are in a higher grade. Even if in the Colleges
there should be many who are professed of Four Vows,
this will present no incongruity, since they are there
only, as it were, accidentally.
The Professed of Three Vows have no suffrage, active
or passive, in the election of the General, neither are
they created assistants of the General, nor are they
called to the Provincial Congregations, or elected Pro-
curators for the whole Province to go to Eome for the
Triennial Congregations ; that is, in virtue of their
profession, for they may be called in virtue of their
office, as Eectors, Procurators of the Province and the
like.
spiritual coadjutors. 237
The Spiritual Coadjutors of the Society.
Some members are received into the Society to aid the
Professed in their spiritual ministries, although they are
not established in an equal grade with them. These
are called Spiritual Coadjutors, and they constitute a
special grade in the Society. They are finally incor-
porated into the Society by means of the three simple
voivs only. The reason why their vows are not solemn
is because they are not made as absolutely perpetual.
They are perpetual only on the part of him who makes
them, while on the part of the Society which accepts
them there is the condition understood that they endure
only so long as the superior judges it to be for the common
good that those religious should be retained. Hence in
the tradition, or delivery of themselves which is made by
the vows of Spiritual Coadjutors, there is not a mutual
obligation of the same nature on both sides : although
it is only in a rare case and for the gravest causes that
the Society remains free to dismiss them, and they are
in that case dismissed free from every obligation, and
not bound by any vow. This contract is just and holy,
and it has been expressly approved and confirmed by
Pontifical Bulls. The nature of it is however at vari-
ance with the solemnity of vows, for solemn vows must
be either wholly immutable, or mutable by dispensation
alone. Moreover, the vows of Spiritual Coadjutors do
not have force to dissolve previous matrimony which has
been contracted but not yet consummated, an effect
which is inseparable from the profession of solemn
vows.
2^8 THE KELIGIOUS STATE.
J
It was not without good cause that St. Ignatius
ordained and instituted this grade, and among other
reasons which moved him was this that he judged it to
be to the great advantage of the Order to retain power to
dismiss all who should not accommodate themselves to
its end and method ; so that it might be the better pre-
served in its purity, and might with greater security and
usefulness minister to its neighbours, which is its scope,
and that the religious might be preserved in greater care-
fulness, and live with greater vigilance. He considered
it also to be most convenient that those who were to be
dismissed, should be dismissed free from, and not bound
by their vows, for thus less inconvenience is caused to
both sides ; to the Society, for it would be always a
grave matter for an Order to expel one who should yet
remain truly a religious of the same ; and to the subject,
for it is a grievous thing to be deprived of the advantages
of religion, and yet remain beneath the burden of its
yoke.
There ought however to be in the Order certain
principal members who should be as it were its columns
and foundations, and in the persons of whom it should
be immovable, and who should therefore be bound to it
by an indissoluble bond ; while it should also in the
most perfect manner bind itself to them, and should
not be able to dismiss them free from their vows. Such
members exist in the Society, and they are the Professed
of Four Vows. Apart from these, it was the mind of
St. Ignatius that all others should remain always de-
pendent on the power of the Society ; and only by way
of dispensation did he permit certain of the Spiritual
SPIRITUAL COADJUTOKS. 239
Coadjutors to be admitted to profession of three vows ;
and that for certain grave causes which might occur,
and in so doing he had regard rather to their personal
devotion, than to the general idea of the Institute.
The Spiritual Coadjutors are not deprived of any
merit before God by this condition of their vows ; nay,
they in a manner increase in merit since they bind
themselves more liberally, without looking for a similar
obligation on the part of the Order. Moreover, so far
as lies in them, they equally with the Professed deliver
themselves to God and to the Society in perpetuity, nor
is there any risk of the perpetuity and stability of their
state, if they are determined to conduct themselves in a
proper manner. They are not deprived of any spiritual
good by not being admitted to solemn profession, but
are on the contrary aided by being thus admonished to
be faithful to religion, and fulfil their functions. For
the observance of due order throughout the body, it is
expedient also that every one should recognize his own
grade, and know to what ministry he has been called,
and because these Spiritual Coadjutors are not the
principal labourers, but their assistants, they should be
united to the Order in a different manner, and with
dependence and subordination to the higher grade of its
principal labourers.
The grade of Spiritual Coadjutors in the Society is
not to be argued against from the customs of other reli-
gious Orders, for the Holy Ghost is one and manifold, and
has distributed different institutes to different Orders, in
accordance with their various ends. In other Orders,
in the admission of persons who are fit for profession and
24O THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the religious state, there is considered only their aptitude
as regards their own perfection, or at most as regards
choir and the ministries of the divine worship, or the
exercises of the contemplative life ; but in the Society
there is considered, as a principal point, the aptitude of
its members for ministries towards their neighbours, and
therefore even if a religious should appear to be person-
ally excellent, he is not at once admitted to solemn
profession. By reason also of the peril which may
accompany such ministries, greater difficulty attaches
to an absolute and perpetual obligation on the part of
the Order, so that as a rule such an obligation is not
contracted except with those who are, as it were, its
foundations and principal members.
There is no reason however to dread from this any
division or diminution of concord, since in the same
body the various members have different offices and
therefore different places, and a different mode of union
with the whole, and yet all are perfectly united with
each other so as to constitute one body. As in the One
Mystical Body of the Church there are various grades
in the hierarchical order, which not only do not hinder
the unity of the body, but greatly preserve it, so in the
Society, which most closely imitates the ecclesiastical
hierarchy, this variety does not hinder union of souls,
but rather perfects it ; and this chiefly because it is
founded in humility and charity, for those who have
received greater gifts of God, and who have therefore
been established in a higher grade, do not despise others,
but on the contrary honour them, and love them as their
fellow soldiers and fellow-labourers, and venerate them as
SPIRITUAL COADJUTORS. 24 1
the ministers and servants of God. They also, who have
been called to the grade of Coadjutors, embracing their
own lot, serve God in purity and humility of life, and
esteem the others as their fathers. Neither in this dis-
tribution of grades should there enter ambition on the
part of subjects, or acceptance of persons on the part of
prelates, since there is to be considered not the honour,
but the burden, and the greater service of God, and the
assistance of neighbours.
Between the vows of Approved Scholastics and those
of Formed Coadjutors there can be no substantial dif-
ference, since there is no such difference even between
simple and solemn vows; but there is a moral difference
as regards certain effects, or conditions which belong to
the two states of life. Scholastics although they are true
religious are yet in a manner on the way and on proba-
tion, and their state, therefore, should not be perpetual,
but should have a term or end; while in Coadjutors
there is required a state which is final, and finally
approved. Again, as regards the vows, and their effects,
there is a difference in the vow of poverty which, in the
Society, renders Coadjutors incapable of dominion and
inheritance, an effect which it does not produce in
Scholastics, as declared with regard to both cases in the
Pontifical Bulls from which this effect of incapability
chiefly results. There is no difference of effect in
the vow of chastity, since the vows of both states oblige
to perfect chastity, and disable from contracting mat-
rimony, although the vows of neither state dissolve
previous matrimony contracted and not consummated,
VOL. III. Q
242 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
this being an effect which is proper to solemn profession.
So also as regards the vow of obedience, with this excep-
tion that the Coadjutors, -when they make that vow,
express specially their obligation to undertake the care
of the instruction of children in Christian doctrine, as
do the Professed. This expression, however, does not
add any special obligation to the vow.
A third and principal difference is in the greater
strictness of the obligation on the part of the Order.
The vows of Coadjutors are not solemn for this reason
only, that there is not a reciprocal obligation, and
perpetuity so far as the Order is concerned. The Order,
however, is not free from all obligation, but is only not
bound by an absolute obligation, for it is bound not to
dismiss a Coadjutor for every cause for which a Scho-
lastic might be justly dismissed, but only for some much
graver cause.
The vows of Spiritual Coadjutors therefore approach
much more nearly to the perfection of solemn vows
than do those of Scholastics. Hence it is far more
difficult to expel a Coadjutor than it is to expel a
Scholastic, since for many causes the latter may be ex-
pelled, sometimes against his will, and sometimes with
his consent and that of the Order ; while the causes
which would justify the expulsion of a Coadjutor are
fewer in number, and of a graver character, and in
practice the expulsion of a Coadjutor is of more rare
occurrence. It is reserved by the Constitutions to the
General.
The cause must be not temporal, but spiritual, and
positively and not merely negatively contrary to reli-
SPIRITUAL COADJUTORS. 243
gion. In the case of Scholastics corporal infirmity
often suffices, especially if they themselves should ask
for their dismissal ; but in that of Formed Coadjutors
such a cause is not to be admitted, even if they them-
selves should ask for their dismissal. In Scholastics
also it will be a sufficient cause for dismissal if they
appear to be useless for the ministries of the Society,
whereas in a Coadjutor this will not be sufficient unless
he is at the same time pernicious to the Society. In
a Scholastic it is not always necessary to wait until it
appears that he is incorrigible, but it suffices if he
shews himself to be of a difficult nature, while in a
Coadjutor every means of cure is to be employed
until he shews himself to be incorrigible. Further,
since a Scholastic is as yet on probation, not to amend or
improve will be a sufficient reason for dismissing him ;
but a Coadjutor has been admitted with his imperfec-
tions, which have not to be proved, but have been
already proved, and so even if he should continue in
them, he cannot be expelled.
There is a difference also with regard to the external
solemnity of the vows of Coadjutors, or the more solemn
way in which they are made, for they are to be made
publicly in a church or chapel, before the household and
externs, and in the hands of some one who admits them,
which is not prescribed as regards the vows of Scho-
lastics. This external solemnity is intended to signify
the greater union of the Coadjutors with the Society,
and the greater obligation of the Society towards them.
A longer trial and probation is also as a rule required
in the case of Formed Coadjutors, and although no cer-
244 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tain time is fixed for them by the Constitutions as it is
for the Professed of Three Vows, yet in the Ordinances
of the Generals in a.d. 1606 and 1616, which are
common to the whole Society, a term of seven years is
specified, beyond which the taking of the informations
at any rate is not to be delayed. It is also required
that they should have sufficient learning, and that they
should be already priests.
Besides the solemnity of the Vows, there is a difference
between Coadjutors and the Professed of Three Vows in
this that the latter cannot, according to the Constitu-
tions, be admitted before the lapse of seven years, whereas
the term for the former is left to the judgment of the
General. Again, although of ordinary law the Professed
of Three Vows cannot be admitted before their promo-
tion to the priesthood, yet for special reasons which may
occur in their case, and which have no place in that of
Spiritual Coadjutors, this may be done by way of dis-
pensation. A third difference is that Formed Coadjutors
do not make the other five simple vows, which are made
by the Professed of Three Vows.
The Temporal Coadjutors of the Society.
Besides those who are received for the performance of
spiritual ministries in the Society, certain persons are
admitted in order that they may be occupied in such
actions as are necessary for the support of the body, and
in other external and corporal exercises. These are
called Temporal Coadjutors. They are called Coadju-
tors, in order that by this name may be signified a reli-
TEMPORAL COADJUTORS. 245
gious equality and modesty, for they are not to be
reckoned as servants, but as brethren and associates and
assistants, in a sense similar to that in which Martha
said to Christ concerning her sister — " Speak to her,
that she help me ; " — and as we read in the Gospel that
Simon and the others beckoned to their partners who
were in the other ship, that they should come and help
them. This name of Coadjutor is used also in order
to signify that they are fellow-labourers in the same
work which is done by the others, for by this name
those are called in the Scriptures who co-operated with
the Apostles in their preaching of the Gospel. These
Coadjutors are called Temporal Coadjutors, to distin-
guish them from the Spiritual Coadjutors, whom they
leave free for their spiritual occupations, and in this
way they aid and share in their labours.
The necessity for such a grade in the Society is
reduced simply to this, that by means of the assistance
of the temporal Coadjutors, the priests of the Society,
and those who are preparing for the priesthood may
more freely and wholly occupy themselves in spiritual
actions for the service of God and their own benefit, and
in their studies and their ministries to their neighbours.
There are three things chiefly in which the labourers
of the Society are aided by the Temporal Coadjutors.
First, in those things wdiich are necessary for the sus-
tenance of the body, such as food, clothing, lodging and
the management of temporal affairs. Although with
these matters even priests and Spiritual Coadjutors are
sometimes occupied, it is only in directing and order-
ing and presiding over such of them as are more im-
246 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
portant, and require greater authority in the minister ;
but the execution of them could not conveniently be
accomplished without the aid of Temporal Coadjutors.
Secondly, the Society is greatly assisted by those brothers
in matters pertaining to the divine worship, in the
chapels and churches, by their taking most diligent
care of the sacred vestments and all that belongs to the
adornment of the temples and the becoming guardian-
ship of the Most Blessed Eucharist, and the offering of
the Divine Sacrifice. Thirdly, they lend aid also in mini-
stries to their neighbours, either in the House, by receiv-
ing them with charity and, as far as lies within their
power, ministering to their necessities, or outside the
House, by being the companions of the labourers, for
the priests cannot accompany each other, since this
would greatly hinder them in their ministries.
We find an example of a similar grade in the Acts of
the Apostles, who said, — " It is not fit that we should
leave the Word of God, and serve tables," and who
therefore ordained seven Deacons to whom they entrusted
this ministry. The likeness between the two grades is
not of course complete, for the Deacons were ordained
for the ministry of the altar, whereas our Coadjutors are
not raised to any clerical grade. Deacons are not or-
dained primarily for temporal ministry, but for spiritual
ministry, in solemnly and immediately ministering to
the priest in the Sacrifice of the Mass, and in the Word
of God, and in the administration of certain sacraments,
in cases of necessity. It was only secondarily that there
was committed to them the ministry of distributing the
common alms amongst the poor and widows, whereas
TEMPORAL COADJUTORS. 247
our Coadjutors are not assumed immediately to any
spiritual ministry, and so they do not require ordination.
The similarity therefore is simply iu this that as the
Apostles abstained from temporal ministries, even those
of charity and mercy, in order that they might give
themselves up to the Word of God, and assumed certain
persons to aid them in those corporal works, so the
Society exonerates her labourers and scholastics from
temporal ministries for the sake of higher works, and
assumes Coadjutors by whom they may be aided. As
the Coadjutors of the Apostles were taken from among
the clergy, so is it also most becoming that our Coadju-
tors should be religious, and taken from the same Order.
The number of Temporal Coadjutors to be received is
therefore to be determined by the necessity for their
services. No more are to be received than are needed
for the purposes already mentioned ; for otherwise the
Society would be burdened with more persons than it
could support, and so deprived of other labourers who
are necessary to it for spiritual ministries. Moreover,
a superabundant number of Temporal Coadjutors would
be to them individually an occasion of sloth.
The qualities which are required in Temporal Coadjutors
of the Society are determined and ascertained from the
end of their state. There is required health and strength of
body sufficient for their labours, and a disposition towards
devotion and virtue, and a good and easy nature, and
especially contentment with their lot of Martha. Hence
although capacity of judgment, and knowledge of some
art, or sufficient talent for acquiring it may be desired
in them, yet no learning is demanded of them, nor is it
248 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
permitted that they should learn in the Society more
than they knew at their entrance, and even if they did
not then know how to read or write, they are not to be
taught without leave of the General.
The perfection of this grade in the Society, as it is a
religious state, is apparent when we consider either the
vows of Temporal Coadjutors, their end, or their actions.
In the bond of their vows they do not differ from
Approved Scholastics or from Formed Spiritual Coadju-
tors, whom respectively they resemble according to the
length of time during which they have lived in the
Society. They twice make the vows of the Society, and
are twice incorporated into it. They are admitted at the
end of two years of noviceship, by means of simple vows
which are of entirely the same character as those of
Approved Scholastics. Hence they may at this stage
be called Approved Coadjutors. After more lengthened
trials (which, according to the custom of the Society,
continue for at least ten years, although in rigour
of law there is no fixed term, it being left to the pru-
dent judgment of the superior, according to which
in a Formula of Father Claudius Aquaviva, about ten
years in the Society and thirty years of age is deter-
mined as the time), they are incorporated more intimately
into the Society by means of the vows of Formed Coad-
jutors, which are of exactly the same character as those
of Spiritual Coadjutors. They are not admitted to
solemn profession, and that for the same reasons as in
the case of Spiritual Coadjutors ; and these reasons apply
with even still greater force to Temporal Coadjutors.
It suffices therefore that they should be consecrated to
TEMPORAL COADJUTORS. 249
God in holy humility, for, so far as concerns them, no
diminution of merit before God follows from their not
making solemn vows. If they live religiously, their
union with the Order will be as indissoluble as if they
had made solemn profession, and they are, as Gregory
XIII. declared them to be, truly and substantially and
perfectly religious ; and therefore there is, on this head,
nothing left for them to desire.
As regards the end and actions to which their state
is ordained, theirs is without doubt a grade which is
excellently adapted for the acquiring of great perfection,
and which is at the same time most secure, and in this
security it, in a manner, excels other grades. They
share in the wThole of that contemplative life which the
Society professes in all its members. They ought to be
devoted to spiritual and mental exercises, and to give
themselves up, at the times appointed, to prayer, exami-
nation of conscience, spiritual reading and meditation.
Although they do not say Mass or recite the Canonical
Office, yet they ought daily to hear Mass, and to say the
Eosary or the Office of the Blessed Virgin. This although
not of rule is nevertheless of pious custom. Their actions
being external and corporal, do not greatly distract their
minds, or hinder them from frequently turning towards
God, either by realizing His presence, or by referring
to Him all that they do, and imploring the divine
aid.
Their lot very much resembles that of the ancient
monks who were not clerics, and who, after at stated
times singing God's praises, laboured with their hands,
for the support of themselves or others of the poor.
2 50 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Our Temporal Coadjutors have also their times at which
they sing with their hearts to God, and pray with their
lips, and afterwards labour with their hands not for
temporal gain for the support of themselves or others,
but in order to aid and minister to the ministers of the
Gospel. Hence it follows that they share the lot of
Martha, not only corporally but spiritually. Although
proximately they are occupied with corporal things, yet
since these are means towards spiritually aiding their
neighbours, and are embraced with that intention, they
share in the fruit and merit of the spiritual actions of
the Society. They ought besides in their own way to
co-operate towards the salvation of their neighbours, by
means of conversations and chiefly by their example,
and especially by the patience and charity with which
they receive all with cheerful readiness, and with the
utmost diligence relieve their necessities, bearing if need
be all burdens.
Thus they are made partakers of all the good works
and merits of the Society, and enjoy its graces no less
than do the Professed, as is declared by the Bulls of
Paul III. Julius III. and Gregory XIII.
how many grades of persons are there in the
Society? and how are they distinguished?
A distinction of the members of the Society may be
made in two ways ; either as regards their bonds with
the Society which have been entered into by means of
vows which in some way differ ; or as regards the
ministries in order to which their states are proximately
TEMPORAL COADJUTORS. 25 I
ordained. From either point of view there are only
three orders of persons in the Society.
According to the first distinction there are in the
Society — the Approved Scholastics, the Formed Coadju-
tors, and the Professed. All these differ in the manner
of their vows, and consequently in the nature of their
bond with the Society. In other words it may be said
that there are in the Society some religious who are
Approved, others who are Formed, and others who are
Professed ; or some who are religious substantially, but
who are not yet established in their final grade ; others
who are constituted in their final grade, but without reli-
gious profession ; and others who are professed.
According to the second distinction, drawn from the
different character of the ministries, there are — Scholas-
tics, Labourers and Temporal Coadjutors.
Of those who enter the Society there are four classes
of persons, but this distinction regards rather the dis-
position and intention of the persons who enter, than
any grade.
Sometimes persons are received definitely for one or
other of the three grades above mentioned, and some-
times they are received indefinitely for that grade which
shall seem good to the superior. The latter form a
fourth class, which is called that of Indifferents. This
is a class of novices, for among novices only can there be
a class of Indifferents, since at the end of the two years of
probation, all are to be determined at least either to the
state of Scholastics or to that of Temporal Coadjutors.
Those who are received for spiritual ministries are
then admitted definitely to the grade of Scholastics, and
252 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
indefinitely to the grades either of the Professed or of
the Spiritual Coadjutors; for this distinction can rarely be
made from the first, until the persons have been proved
in their studies.
Sometimes however, when they are of advanced age
or learning, they may be destined from the beginning
when they are received, to the grades either of the
Professed or of Coadjutors.
o r i
J00
CHAPTER XXIIL
THE MEANS WHICH THE SOCIETY EMPLOYS FOR THE
SPIRITUAL PROGRESS AND PERFECTION OF ITS MEM-
BERS.
I. — Ought the Religious of the Society, in virtue
of their Institute, to give themselves to men-
tal EXERCISES ? AND TO WHAT EXTENT ?
Mental exercises, sucli as examination of conscience,
meditation, contemplation, and generally, mental prayer
do not fall under rigorous obligation, or obligation of
precept, as it is distinguished from the obligation of
religious Rule and perfection.
The religious of the Society are, in virtue of their
Rule, bound to such acts at their stated times ; and
from this obligation none are excepted, neither the Pro-
fessed, nor those who are occupied with other mini-
stries.
When it is said in the Constitutions that no rule is
prescribed to the Professed as regards those spiritual
exercises, inasmuch as it is taken for granted that they
will be spiritual men who have made such progress in
the way of the Lord that they can run therein, this is to
be understood in the sense that they are not prohibited
by Rule from adding somewhat to the times defined
for spiritual exercises for all ; nay, they are tacitly
254 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
admonished to do so, so far as a discreet charity shall
dictate to each, and with the counsel of their con-
fessors.
It is not to be understood as if they were not bound
by the General Eule, but only that they are not limited
by it, or forbidden to add to the prescribed times ; and
this it is desired and hoped that they will do. What is
to be added is not prescribed by Eule, because there
could not be uniformity, since the strength of all is not
the same, nor are the occupations of all the same.
There is therefore this difference between the Pro-
fessed and the Scholastics of the Society, that the
spiritual exercises of the latter, and the times for them,
are so defined that without leave of the superior nothing
can be added to them, while the Professed have, on the
contrary, a general leave for, nay, even an exhortation
to more frequent exercises, because their ministries and
state require it.
There are three kinds of spiritual exercises which are
of Eule, viz. examination of conscience, spiritual reading
and mental prayer, and under the latter are compre-
hended meditation and contemplation.
The examination of conscience is to be made twice a
day, at noon and at night, and at both times for the
space of a quarter of an hour.
Spiritual reading is in our state very necessary, both
for the sake of meditation, for, as St. Bernard says,
meditation without reading is exposed to error ; and
also for the sake of the spiritual fruit which the reading
is itself wont to produce, it being very useful both for
the enlightenment of the understanding, and for the
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 255
enkindling of the affections ; and finally, for the sake of
others. Since Ours should stir up their neighbours to
virtue, and instruct them, and sometimes also direct
them in spiritual matters, it is necessary that they
should peruse the writings of the sacred doctors, from
which they may receive the necessary light. Spiritual
reading is ordained sometimes for one's own profit, and
sometimes for the profit of others, and both ends are
necessary in our state. The first fruit, however, is that
which is here principally aimed at, spiritual reading-
being commended as it is an exercise of the contempla-
tive life ; but it pertains also to perfection to ordain it
towards both ends. This belongs to the more advanced,
and especially to the Professed of the Society, by reason
of their state, for they ought so to strive after their own
perfection as to compass that of others also, and so to
give themselves to the latter as to attain also to the
former. Hence, if the same action can be useful for
both ends, it will, all else being equal, be more perfect,
if it is referred to both ends. The space of time assigned
for Spiritual Reading is a quarter of an hour daily.
Frequent and assiduous mental prayer is also neces-
sary in our state, since not only is it a necessary means
towards the acquirement of our own perfection, and our
labouring with fruit in the vineyard of the Lord, but
it is also in part the end of our religious life, which is
not only active, but contemplative. Hence since this
exercise is most necessary for the whole Society, the
more perfect the grade of the Professed is held to be,
the more should it participate in the leisure of con-
256 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
templation, although not so as to hinder its ministries
to its neighbours, but rather in such a way as to aid and
promote them.
This obligation is not satisfied by one's not altogether
breaking off interior consideration and intention, and
recourse to God during one's works and spiritual mini-
stries. Although this is not to be omitted, and although
by means of it the precept or counsel of prayer is iu
great part fulfilled, yet no one should on this account
neglect the prescribed times for prayer or meditation,
since without the aid of these neither attention to God
nor the fervour of devotion can be preserved during
other employments.
The space of time assigned for this exercise is one
hour daily, and eight or ten entire days annually.
II. — Are the Religious of the Society bound, in
VIRTUE OF THEIR INSTITUTE, TO ANY VOCAL
PRAYERS ?
Neither by rigorous obligation of precept, nor by
obligation of Eule are the religious of the Society
specially bound to vocal prayer.
The practice and custom of the Society has declared
that the whole of the hour in the morning should be
given to mental prayer, or meditation and contemplation.
This is to be considered the ordinary law of the Society,
from which it is not lawful to depart without leave of
the superior or commutation of this duty made by him.
Hence, by a pious and almost general custom it has been
introduced that all, especially those who are not priests,
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 257
should, outside tins entire hour of mental prayer, recite
the Office or the Kosary of the Blessed Virgin, taking
their own time for this devotioD. Should anv one not
observe this custom, he would act imperfectly, but he
would not fail in an obligation which is properly of
Rule.
Besides these private prayers and personal obligations,
there is in the Society no obligation to public and
common prayer at certain times. The Society, as we
have seen, does not profess Choir. There is an ancient
custom that the Litanies should be said daily by
the whole community in our Houses and Colleges ; but
this exercise although pious and holy is not prescribed
by any Constitution or Rule. It is not so received by
custom as to induce the obligation of a precept, for no
custom of the Society has this proper and special force.
Nor can it be introduced under such an obligation, for
that would be contrary to an express Constitution which
declares — that no Constitution, Declaration or Order of
living can induce an obligation under either mortal or
venial sin. This custom, moreover, is not one which
induces obligation, or which has been introduced by
obligation, since it was begun by a special ordinance of
the General, and has been continued by the same, nor
is there in it any greater obligation than that of the
ordinance in which it is founded, and that obligation is
not of precept, but is one of simple obedience. So long
as the will of superiors continues, the Society will
be bound to recite the Litanies, in the same way as
it is bound to fulfil other simple obediences, but not
by any stricter obligation or for a longer time ; and
VOL. III. E,
258 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
if that will were to cease all obligation would cease
with it.
This exercise, inasmuch as it obliges the community,
obliges also its individual members with the same kind
of obligation, and no greater, to assist at it ; for other-
wise it could not, as public and common prayer, be ful-
filled by the community. Nevertheless, if any one
should be absent from it, he will not be obliged to say
the Litanies privately. This is certain if he has been
justly hindered, or if he was absent with leave of the
superior, for in that case there remains no ground of
obligation, since he was bound to say the Litanies not
by himself but along with the community, and from this
obligation he has been excused. Even if he should have
absented himself in a way contrary to the obligation of
obedience, although he will have acted imperfectly, he
will nevertheless, since the occasion and matter of the
obligation or obedience is already in the past, not
be bound to substitute anything in its place which
has in no way been prescribed ; as, similarly, one
who has omitted a fast prescribed on one day is not
bound to observe another fast in its place on another
day.
The case is not the same as that of one who has
omitted his daily hour of meditation in the nioruing
along with the others. The Eule simply ordains prayer
for an entire hour daily; hence in virtue of the Eule this
can be fulfilled at any hour of the clay ; and the hour in
the morning has been assigned by common custom, not
in order to extinguish the obligation if it is not then
fulfilled, but in order to appoint a certain and very
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 259
convenient time at which it is to be fulfilled, so that it
should not be deferred ; and therefore, if it is not then
fulfilled, the Kule continues to urge so that as soon as
possible it may be fulfilled.
The obligation of vocal prayers which are enjoined to
be said for the Society, or for the dead, or for founders,
or for other causes or necessities which may arise, does
not exceed the obligation of simple Kule or obedience,
and does not oblige with the force of precept ; unless such
vocal prayers should have been prescribed with some sign
of an obligation of precept, such as — In virtue of Obedi-
ence, or, In the name of the Lord.
Besides the obligation of the Professed, who must be
priests, to recite the Canonical Office, in virtue of their
ordination, there is no second obligation in virtue of
their profession ; and if any one should be professed who
was not in sacred orders, he would not be bound to say
the Office. The obligation in other Orders exists in
virtue not of profession only, but of profession with the
addition of custom ; and this seems to have arisen prin-
cipally from the obligation to recite the office with the
community in Choir. In the Society there is no such
custom, nor is there any foundation of such custom. A
religious is in virtue of his profession bound only to that
which he has vowed, and especially to obedience accord-
ing to the Eule ; but a religious does not vow to say the
Divine Office, and so if in the Eule this is not distinctly
prescribed under sin, there is no obligation of common
law, save by reason of custom. Hence only Choir reli-
gious can be so bound, and not lay brothers, although they
also are truly professed and are religious men. Neither
260 THE EELIGIOUS STATE.
does any obligation arise from the religious living on
alms, since this obligation is not annexed by any law to
alms, and neither are they begged for on this ground, nor
are they with this intention bestowed by the faithful.
This is especially true of the religious of the Society, who
are supported by the alms of the faithful for the sake of
very different ministries.
Our privilege of anticipating, and of accumulating the
Office, so that all the Hours and even Compline may be
said in the morning of the same day, if it is to mean
anything must be understood in the sense that in virtue
of it this may be done without fault, even if no special
cause should occur to excuse it. Such a dispensation
cannot be argued against as without cause, for even if in
a particular case there should be no special cause for
changing the time, there remains the general cause of
this dispensation or privilege, namely, the various and
frequent occupations of the Society as a body, and the
avoidance of scruples in individuals. There remains of
course the natural obligation to observe due order and
method in our actions, and so, although there is not
always required a cause which should be of itself suffi-
cient to excuse, there is required at least a reasonable
cause of action, and the best cause of all will be
that which is set forth by Pope Julius, when he says —
" That you may more quietly and devoutly in humility
of spirit render a service well pleasing to the Most
High."
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 26 1
III. — Are the Keligious of the Society specially
BOUND TO CELEBRATE OR COMMUNICATE FRE-
QUENTLY ?
With regard to frequency of celebration it is ordained
that the Sacrifice of the Mass should be offered oftener
than every eight days, and not more seldom without
causes which are lawful in the judgment of the superior.
The intention however was greatly to commend fre-
quency, for in the third rule of priests it is said that
they should strive so* to live that they may rightly cele-
brate daily. The reason for the frequency not being
determined and prescribed, is because it would not have
been well to define it as less than daily, while at the
same time, by reason of various causes and occasions
of interruption which might occur, it was deemed more
prudent not to ordain this by Rule, but only to indicate
it generally as a counsel. The result has been that
by received custom the observance in the Society is
that only on rare occasions, and by reason of extraordi-
nary causes, is the daily sacrifice omitted.
There is enjoined on Ours interior preparation by pro-
curing cleanness of heart, and other fitting dispositions,
in order to which it is said much to conduce that priests,
who are already bound by the Constitutions to confess
at least every eighth day, should confess oftener in the
week. With regard to externals it is ordained that in
saying Mass, Ours should have in addition to internal
devotion, a becoming external manner, as regards pro-
nunciation and otherwise ; and with regard to the space
of time occupied, that it should be such as to satisfy
262 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
their own devotion and yet not be burdensome to
others, but rather to their edification. The fourth rule
of priests ordains that Ours are in saying Mass not much
to exceed half-an-hour, and not to come short of it. In
the ceremonies of the Mass, Ours are accurately to observe
the rite which the Apostolic See has specially approved ;
along with uniformity, which is commended also as a
means towards the union of charity, for as the Order is
primarily one of priests, it should have a principal care
and diligence with regard to the greatest of priestly
functions.
All members of the Society who are not priests are
bound to assist daily at Mass.
With regard to communion, it is common to all reli-
gious that, in virtue of their state, they should com-
municate frequently, and they are bound to do so once
a month. But besides this common lawr, some Orders
observe a greater frequency. St. Jerome in his Eule for
nuns, ordained that they should communicate twice a
month or more frequently ; and in the Constitutions
of the Friars Minor it is laid down that the brethren
should communicate every fifteen days at the conventual
mass.
The Constitutions of the Society prescribe commu-
nion every eight days, unless it shall seem otherwise to
the confessor or superior, in which case the subject will
not by his omission transgress the Rule. With regard
to Scholastics it is ordained that they are not to be per-
mitted to communicate more frequently, unless for special
causes, and in giving permission regard is to be had rather
to necessity than to devotion. This is because of their
EXEECISES OF THE SOCIETY. 263
occupations or the distraction of their studies. Even
Scholastics however may be dispensed to communicate
on solemn feasts, such as those of the Apostles, and
other greater feasts. "With regard to others, coadjutors
and novices, who are not engaged in study, there is not
this limitation, and they are exhorted to approach the
sacraments at least every eight days. This is fixed for
them as the minimum, and it is insinuated that greater
frequency is not denied, but permitted, and it will be far
more easily allowed to them, than to Scho]astics, to
communicate within the week.
Communion every eighth day is received as an almost
inviolable custom in the Society, so that the exception,
'''unless the confessor or superior should judge other-
wise," is of most rare occurrence, except in case of
sickness ; and even then, it is if possible procured that
the communion of the sick should not be deferred
beyond eight days. This is laid down in the Rules for
the Infirmarian.
This custom is in accordance with that of the ancient
monks who, although they lived in separate cells,
assembled at least on Sundays in the church, where
they received the Eucharist at the hands of their presi-
dent. Cassian censures those monks who on the plea
of fear and reverence postponed their communions,
thinking, he says, that only the just and spotless should
presume, and not rather remembering that we are made
holy and clean by means of our partaking. He adds
that there is in these men greater presumption of arro-
gance than humiliation of themselves, for when they
do receive they judge themselves worthy of reception,
264 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
while it is much more just that, with the humility of
heart with which we believe and profess that we can
never merit these sacred mysteries, we should venture
to approach them every Sunday as a remedy for our
soul's sickness.
The custom is also received in the Cistercian Order,
and it was counselled by St. Augustine.
Although of old there was greater frequency of com-
munion on the part of the faithful, not only in the
times of the Apostles, but afterwards for many years,
yet in these frigid times this measure of frequency is
judged sufficient, especially in fixing it for a community
as a whole. St. Buonaventure says that there can
scarcely be found any religious, not a priest, who is so
holy that for him communion once a week is not suffi-
cient, unless for some special cause, or on some solemnity,
or by reason of extraordinary devotion. Not only to
permit therefore, but also to prescribe of Rule this
frequency for the whole of a religious community, is a
sufficiently ample concession. It is very fitting for our
Order, both for the general reason that this Sacrament
is the fountain of all sanctity and perfection, and because
of a special necessity of our state; for in order to greater
security in treating with our neighbours, greater fre-
quency of communion and greater union with Christ is
required ; and also since it is an institute of the Society
to induce its neighbours to the frequentation of the
sacraments, it is most fitting that it should lead them
by its example ; and finally it is an antidote to the
heresies of these times with regard to this Sacrament
and its frequentation.
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 265
IV. — Frequency of Confession; and General
Confessions.
Frequent confession is most useful in every state of
life, but most of all in the religious state, in which greater
purity of soul is demanded, and in that state frequency
of confession is more easy. In the Society all who are
not priests are bound, in virtue of the Institute, to con-
fess every eight days, while priests are counselled to
confess more often in the week. This, as a rule for
the whole of a community, is sufficient, and it is, in
accordance with prudence, necessary for our state of
life.
A general confession of the whole life is required at
entrance into the Society, and afterwards every six
months, beginning from the last ; and if any one should
at a time confess to another than his ordinary confessor,
he is on his return to coufess all his sins to the latter,
even if his confessions in the interval should have been
made with lawful leave. These constitutions are not
rigorous precepts, but are counsels of Rule, which con-
cern a greater good. Such regulations are not prescribed
as things necessary, but are counselled as useful ; and
the reason assigned for them is the manifold spiritual
advantage which is derived from such confessions.
Although, absolutely speaking, no one can be extrin-
sically compelled to reiterate a confession of sins which
has once been rightly made, yet supposing his previous
consent by vow, promise or covenant, by which he
voluntarily accepts the obligation of a Rule, and on
that condition is received, he falls under this obligation,
266 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
the force of which is that not of a precept but of a
simple Constitution.
This ordinance is most expedient for religious not
only in order to their greater repentance and satisfac-
tion for sins committed in the past, but also in order
to their better direction for the future, which greatly
depends on a knowledge of the past. An ordinary
confessor has, in virtue of his office, the care of the
spiritual government of his penitents, and he does not
" know their countenances ' unless from their confes-
sions, and therefore it is a most excellent counsel that
they should lay themselves wholly open to him in order
that they may be aided by him.
V. — The reservation of sins in the Society.
The prelates of religious Orders hold within their
Orders the place of bishops, and the more intimately
they govern and exercise their office of spiritual fathers,
and are bound to lead their subjects towards greater
perfection, the more is the reservation of sins adapted
to their state and, in a manner, due.
There are also special reasons which render it expe-
dient in the Society. The first and principal reason is
the peril which arises to Ours from their communication
with their neighbours, and reservation is, as it were, a
bridle which restrains a man. A second reason is the
number of young men who are being trained in the
Society, and whom it is most necessary to keep under
religious discipline. Thirdly, since in the Society there
are not so many corporal austerities prescribed of general
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 267
rule, the spiritual discipline and vigilance should be
more rigid, and it was in view of this that corporal
rigour was tempered by St. Ignatius. Fourthly, it is also
most necessary that the subjects should greatly confide
in their superiors, lest they should be exposed by them
to occasions of sin, and in order that in other ways they
may be paternally assisted by them.
The second General Congregation, in which was first
approved the reservation made by the second General,
Father James Laynez, laid it down, that the declaration,
and amplification or restriction of reserved cases belongs
to the General. No inferior prelate therefore and not
even Provincials can add or alter anything as regards
either themselves or the Hectors. A General Congrega-
tion has of course this power, since it is superior to the
General himself.
Only external sins which are manifestly mortal are
reserved in the Society, and of these, not all, but only
certain more grievous sins, which are as follows : — ■
mortal sin against any of the three vows, or against the
other vows which are made by the Professed ; perjury,
false witness, theft ; sedition against a superior, or
division from the head with grave damage to the Order;
detraction, and sowing of discord among brethren ;
furtively receiving or sending letters which contain
matter of mortal sin ; silence with regard to an impedi-
ment which would exclude from the Society ; lying in
the examination before entrance, to the grave disadvan-
tage of the Society ; and finally every sin which has
excommunication annexed to it in the Bulls or Decrees
of the Society. All these cases are grave in a religious
263 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
person, and may bring grievous scandal or dishonour on
the Order, and they are not too many in number, con-
sidering Our state and its obligations.
Eigorously speaking, it is certain by law that a supe-
rior can oblige his subject to confess to him reserved
sins, for this is the end of reservation ; and whatever of
this the superior remits, he does it of his own benignity or
prudence, and not because he has not the right to persist
in the rigour of the reservation.
The practice of the Society is contained in an instruc-
tion which declares that when a confessor, without
mentioning the name of the penitent, asks leave from
the superior to absolve from a reserved case, the superior
ought in no way to be difficult, but rather easy and
prompt in granting it. It adds that then only when there
is a necessity of avoiding scandal, or other grave damage
to the College or House, leave can be denied, until the
penitent himself, or through his confessor, should com-
municate such knowledge to the superior as is necessary
to prevent this. In such a case the penitent is bound
to give this information, and hence he is not safe, or
sufficiently disposed for absolution until he satisfies on
this head the just will and necessity of the superior, and
therefore the superior can rightly refuse leave. Even if
the obligation of the penitent to give such information to
the superior should, apart from the reservation, not be
entirely clear and certain, yet if it should be a deed of
greater virtue and charity to do so, that will be sufficient
for the superior justly to refuse leave, until the penitent
shall have manifested to him the whole matter, so far
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 269
as is necessary for the application of a remedy. The
superior has the right to hear the confession, and he is
not bound to delegate his power, and, having regard to
extrinsic causes, he is bound to look to the common
good rather than to condescend to the unreasonable or
imperfect will of the penitent. In moderation of this,
however, it is added that if the confessor urges that in
his judgment the severity of the superior will result in
spiritual damage rather than in good, and that having
tried all other means he has failed, and the penitent is
hardened, the superior should at last not refuse leave, but
condescend to the frailty of his subject, having regard
always to charity, the end of which is to do good by
means of correction or severity, and to temper severity
when there is no hope of its success. In this case how-
ever, although the superior gives leave, the confessor
ought to see that the penitent satisfies his obligation, in
applying a remedy for the common evil, or scandal ; for
unless he does this he cannot be absolved, not from
defect of jurisdiction, but because he is not sufficiently
disposed. In order to this however the obligation of
the penitent must be certain, and other remedies must
be impossible or useless.
When leave is asked not by the confessor but by
another priest, the practice of the Society is that it
should not be so easily granted ; and this is in accordance
with reason and law. It is not always to be refused, but
the circumstances of the matter aud of the person are to
be more attentively considered, and so either it may be
given, or the affair may be entrusted to another person who
is prudent, learned and religious, and to whom the penitent
2 JO THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
cannot reasonably object. Some difficulty and severity
should be shewn, for otherwise the reservation would be
almost of no value, but always with the prudent condition
understood that if at length the superior sees that he
himself can do no good, he should condesceud, and com-
mit the matter to a priest who is fit to be entrusted
with it, and this for the avoidance of greater peril.
The Society, for the greater security and freedom of
the penitent, and from reverence to the sacrament,
abstains even from a lawful use of knowledge acquired
through confession, as appears from an ordinance of
Father Claudius Aquaviva, which is as follows — Although
there are not wanting Doctors who hold that, preserving
the seal of sacramental confession, it is sometimes law-
ful, for just causes, to the confessor, when it can be done
without any suspicion of revelation of the confession, to
use outside confession knowledge acquired through con-
fession ; yet since this doctrine both demands a circum-
spection in so great a matter which it is most difficult
to observe, and might sometimes hinder that freedom of
subjects, which the sanctity of this forum and the Insti-
tute of Our Society requires, in opening themselves and
their affairs to their confessors ; therefore it has seemed
good to us to ordain in the Lord, as we do severely
ordain, for the reverence with which our Society has
always venerated the inviolable seal and freedom of this
sacrament, that all superiors should diligently take care
that neither they nor any of Ours should even introduce,
the foresaid doctrine, or teach it either publicly or
privately, or practise it in any way (unless perhaps with
leave of the penitent) ; but that in all cases our con-
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 27 1
fessors should so conduct themselves as if they had
heard absolutely nothing in confession, and persuade
themselves that as the government of human affairs is
very far removed from this sacrament, so it should in
no way depend upon it.
VI. In WHAT WAY DOES THE SOCIETY AIM AT PER-
FECTION OF CHARITY ?
The end of religion is the perfection of charity, and
consequently all the exercises of religion tend towards
this. There are two duties of charity, namely, love of
God, and love of our neighbours. The first operates in
us and increases chiefly by acts of interior meditation
and contemplation, and issues externally in acts of
religion and divine worship. It greatly contributes to
it if the acts of other virtues are done with an express
and frequently repeated intention of the greater glory of
God.
The love of our neighbours is chiefly exercised by
external acts ; and these may be divided into works of
charity towards externs, and acts of fraternal charity
towards Ours.
vii. — the " negative " means by which fraternal
charity and concord is preserved in the
Society.
Of these means many are due under the obligation of
justice, rather than under that of charity, such as, not to
injure another by thought, word or deed. But since
272 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
those specially offend against charity who sow dissen-
sions among brethren, it is declared by the Constitutions
that if any one is discerned to be an author of dissension
and division between those who live together, or be-
tween them and their head, he is most diligently to be
separated from that congregation as a pest, which might
soon infect it, if an instant remedy were not applied ;
and this offence is moreover included among the re-
served cases. The separation may be either by removal
of the person from one place to another, or by his
expulsion from the Society altogether, if it should be
necessary for the common good, as might be the case
when either the person is incorrigible, or the scandal
which has been caused by him is so grievous that it
cannot otherwise be allayed.
Another rule exhorts all to beware of that affection
which leads men to feel and speak about other nations
in a sinister manner ; and the reason is because this
greatly lessens charity, not only towards externs, but
among the religious themselves. Much more is the
vice of murmuring to be avoided, which is the fruitful
parent of discord.
The spirit of obeying and serving all in all things is
laudable, and greatly conciliates love, while the spirit
of prescribing and all semblance of the same is, on the
contrary, blameworthy and greatly alienates minds.
Again, it is one thing charitably to admonish, and it
is another to reprehend. The former may be a duty
incumbent not only on equals, but on an inferior wTith
regard to his superior ; the latter is to usurp the office
of a superior or judge. It supposes authority and the
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 273
use of some harshness of words, as it were in punish-
ment of the fault. In this sense the Kule declares that
no one is to reprehend or order his equal.
Even superiors are admonished to observe paternal
lenity and moderation in their reprehensions, so that if
possible they shall not so much reprehend persons, as
make manifest to them the reprehensible character of
the matter.
Another rule forbids not only external contradiction
or contention, but also internal dissension, not only in
practical judgments, but also in doctrine and speculative
science. Three things are to be avoided, — contrariety
of opinions, external and verbal contention and contra-
diction with regard to them, and dissension in judg-
ments with regard to action.
Diversity of opinions is not in itself contrary to
charity, for, as St. Thomas quoting Aristotle says, con-
cord in opinions does not belong to friendship. Never-
theless experience teaches that diversity of opinions and
frequent contradiction are no small hindrances to the
union of charity, and often beget discord, and at least
lessen the fervour of charity, and diminish its perfection.
Although opinions belong to the understanding, as St.
Thomas says, yet they greatly depend on the affection
of the will, and are so far not antecedent, but sub-
sequent to the action of the will. Hence it may be
feared that a variety of opinions proceeds from a want
of union of wills. Either a contradiction of opinion is
apprehended as a lessening of one's own esteem and
fame, and so is an occasion of diminution of affection ;
or the contrariety often arises from a jealousy with
VOL. III. s
2 74 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
regard to the estimation of one's doctrine. Human
nature however is such that in matters which are not
of faith or scientific demonstration, men of very diverse
character cannot wholly agree, and by the Rule we
are not forbidden to have any diversity of opinion,
but it is prescribed that diverse doctrines should not
be allowed. This is to be understood in the first place
as regards solid doctrine, and that doctrine which is
most approved in the Church, for with regard to it there
ought not to be any diversity amongst Ours, since novel
opinions at variance with such doctrine are not to be
allowed. Secondly, with regard to the opinions in which
catholic doctors differ, care is to be taken that as far
as possible there should be uniformity in the Society.
Thirdly, it is especially aimed at and necessary that
there should not be any diversity affecting the whole
body of doctrine, in such wise as that there should seem
to be contrary schools amongst Ours.
Most of all is the rule directed against that diversity
of doctrine which proceeds from the affection and will,
and therefore one must not oppose the doctrine of another
in an offensive manner in public lectures, sermons or
books, for this would not only irritate the individual,
but also beget great scandal.
Not only is unity of doctrine to be aimed at, but
diversity of judgment with regard to action is also to
be avoided. This is a still more frequent and fruitful
occasion of dissension and disturbance, since it arises
not only among the learned but among the unlearned,
and between both great and small, and may occur with
regard to nearly all matters. Such discords and bitterness
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 275
of soul are greatly augmented by verbal contention.
Diversity of judgment is only human, and if proposed
with meekness and modesty and moderation of words,
ought not to offend auy prudent man, but contention,
and rash contradiction and defence of one's own view
does great damage, and is most carefully to be avoided.
St. Augustine says that young, men should be trained
not to pertinaciously defend that which they have once
affirmed.
Those therefore, who are too tenacious in their opinions
and judgments, and who readily contradict others, should
beware lest they decline and by degrees fall away from
that bond of charity which the Society demands.
Another means for the promotion of charity is the
avoidance of the contrary extreme of private affections,
too great familiarities and particular friendships not only
for others, but also for individuals of Ours. The general
rule of the Society is that we should love no one save
with that love which well-ordered charity demands, and
all private friendships are forbidden which do not descend
from divine charity, for, if they are founded in that,
they are no longer private friendships.
The equality of charity does not exclude due order
and just distribution, nay, its perfection and preserva-
tion proceeds not less from this difference than from that
uniformity. As from private inordinate affections there
arise suspicions, envyings, jealousies and other vices
which injure charity, so by an undue equality order is
disturbed, and virtue is deprived of its due honour and
reward, and so men's efforts in pursuit of it are relaxed.
Hence in the judgment of all the prudent, just dis-
276 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
tribution is no less necessary than is common benevo-
lence, in order to foster charity. St. Paul wrote to
Timothy — Let the priests who rule well be esteemed
worthy of double honour, especially they who labour in
the word and doctrine ( 1 Tim. v. 1 7) ; and Christ our Lord
loved His disciple John with a special love. Not every
love therefore, which is greater towards one than towards
others, is blameworthy in religion, but only that love
which exceeds due measure, and which is therefore, to
distinguish it, called singular, or particular and private.
The signs of such a love are, first, if the ground of
greater love is not the greater glory and honour of God,
or greater usefulness to religion or to souls, or the greater
virtue and sanctity which is discernible in the person
loved ; for whatever is not reduced to this motive, is
alien to the order of religious charity. Secondly, if the
affection towards one person in some way withdraws
the soul from the love of others, so that one avoids or
ill endures that intercourse and conversation with others
which common charity demands, or does not so readily
relieve their necessities. This is a clear sign that the
excess of love towards that individual springs not
from well-ordered charity, but from private affection.
Thirdly, it is discovered also by means of other affec-
tions, for the love of charity is excellently ordered, and
it is not manifested save at due time and place, and
without offence of any one. If therefore the affection
inclines towards the idle wasting of time, or towards
anything else which is not in accordance with perfection
and the Rule, it is a private affection, and is not the due
love of charity.
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 277
Charity is most grievously wounded by superiors, when
they are led astray by private affections in the distribu-
tion both of labours and honours, instead of determining
these in accordance with the abilities and merits of indi-
viduals, and with regard to the common welfare.
VIII. — The "positive" means by which fraternal
CHARITY IS CONCILIATED IN THE SOCIETY.
Of the means towards the end of charity which con-
sist not in prohibition but in action, some are internal
and some are external. The former are more general,
and depend chiefly on internal spiritual progress. The
principal bond of union of the members, one w^ith
another and with their head, is the love of God and of
Our Lord Jesus Christ, with Whose divine and supreme
goodness if superior and inferiors are closely united, they
will very easily be united with each other. This bond is
strengthened principally by prayer and meditation; and
this is without doubt the most certain and solid way to
obtain the unity desired. In order that it may be re-
duced to practice, the Constitutions exhort that all should
mutually considering each other praise the Lord Whom
they should strive to recognize in each other as in His
image. This rule seems to be taken from one of St.
Augustine's. Nothing so conciliates the love of true
charity towards another as to behold in him singular
adornments of virtue, and the gifts of the Holy Ghost,
and to contemplate him as the image of God, embellished
with the most excellent shades of the divine grace.
If all therefore will strive to increase in these virtues
2j8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
and gifts, and frequently to consider and admire them in
others, and in their hearts to regard others as superior
to themselves, and to rejoice in their spiritual goods,
and to give thanks to God for them, mutual charity
will speedily increase, and that in a most marvellous
manner.
There are certain external means which are ordained
towards the end of charity which are also general, and
which belong to other virtues, such as obedience, of
which it is said in the Constitutions, that union is in
great part effected by the bond of obedience, while
poverty and humility and contempt of all temporal
things are similarly spoken of.
There are other means which are more special, such as
uniformity and conformity in external things, as, for in-
stance, dress, food and manner of living; for similarity is
a cause of love. The common table is in the Society so
common that no one however grave and ancient, whether
a superior or very learned, or of whatsoever condition
he may be, is excepted from it, save by reason of sick-
ness ; with the sole exception of the General, to whom,
on account of the heavy burden of his occupations and
for other causes, this singular concession was granted by
the Third General Congregation. The Seventh Con-
gregation greatly commended the desire of the then
General, which he had signified to it, to do away with
his private table. He did not obtain his desire, but as
matter of fact he deprived himself of his table. The
table is common not only as regards place and time, but
also as regards food ; for the same kind of food is to be
set before all without singularity, which is wont to
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 279
offend the souls of the weak, and so to disturb charity.
This ought not however to stand in the way of the relief
of the necessities of all according to their needs. Such
relief is not, says St. Benedict, acceptance of persons,
but is consideration for infirmities, and he who needs
less should give God thanks and not be distressed, while
he who needs more should be humbled by reason of his
infirmity, and so all will be in peace. St. Augustine
also says that if those who are weak by reason of their
previous manner of life are treated differently from the
others as regards food, this should not annoy or seem
unjust to those whom another manner of life has made
stronger ; nor should they regard those as more lucky
who receive what they do not themselves receive, but
they should rather congratulate themselves that they are
able to do what these are unable to do.
A second principal external means towards mutual
charity is that singular care of the sick and infirm which
the Society professes ; although this is not singular to
it, since all religious Orders are conspicuous for the
same, and it is greatly commended by all their Founders.
Eelief is not to be denied to any one because some from
illusion or malice sometimes deceive and pretend sick-
ness, but it is to be extended to all, lest perchance the
good and those who are really in need should suffer.
Another means similar to this is hospitality towards
all of Ours who sojourn at our Houses, with all tokens
and deeds of benevolence and charity, without any dis-
tinction of nations or provinces, and wuthout acceptance
or limitation of persons, whether professed or novices,
280 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
whether in health or sickness, whether known or un-
known. The reception of them ought to be with ex-
ternal signs of the greatest friendship, such as according
to the custom of the country pass between grave persons
who are friends or kinsmen ; and not with signs only
but also and much more with all deeds of mercy and
humility are they to be entertained, and no expense
is to be spared, so far as religious poverty permits, and
the necessity of a brother requires.
Another means towards charity is the custom of the
Society that every day all should meet together in the
same place, if possible, for familiar and friendly conver-
sation, for an hour after dinner, and again for another
hour or half an hour after supper. Although this custom
was introduced for the sake of health, it is nevertheless
retained principally for the fostering of charity, for, as
Aristotle observes, friendship increases by converse, and
it is loosened by taciturnity. Human nature will not
bear the perpetual strain of study and spiritual exer-
cises, and it requires some rest and relaxation, and the
hours assigned for recreation are those which are least
suited for mental labour. If this means is made use of
with due moderation and prudence, not only will it not
hinder, but it may greatly foster progress both in literary
work and in spiritual exercises. It is also useful to the
Society as a means towards its principal end of the
conversion of souls, which the Society in great measure
achieves by means of conversation.
Not content with this intercourse of those who live
in the same place, the Society counsels also communica-
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 23 1
tion by letter with absent brethren, as a means towards
the same end of fraternal charitv.
Finally, the end and the ministries of the Society not
only stand in great need of this union, but they also
themselves in no small measure promote it. It is the end
of the Society to procure the salvation of souls, and con-
sequently it requires those ministries which are adapted
to this end. Hence every one of its members ought first
of all and more ardently to desire and procure the salva-
tion of his brethren, than the salvation of externs, because
charity should be well ordered. As charity inclines
towards seeking one's own spiritual welfare before seek-
ing that of another, so as regards others it aims at and
strives after the spiritual welfare of spiritual brethren,
and of the whole body of the Society, before the spiri-
tual welfare of externs. Hence should spring that
supreme care and diligence which the prelates of the
Society ought to have for the spiritual progress of their
sons. Hence also the rule of the Society, — that all
should be prepared to be corrected by others, and with
due charity to aid in the correction of others.
ix. by what means are the eeligious of the
Society aided towards the acquisition of solid
VIRTUES ?
Besides charity and the other theological virtues and
the virtue of religion, possession of all the moral virtues
is necessary in order to exact perfection ; and perfection
will be more true and solid in proportion as these vir-
tues are more solid. Hence St. Ignatius frequently
282 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
admonishes Ours with regard to the acquisition of solid
virtues.
Those he calls true virtues which are exercised not in
outward appearance and in the opinion of men, but in
the sight of God, and solely with the intention of His
divine glory ; and those are solid virtues which are
founded in true humility of soul, and contempt of all
tenrporal things, and pure love of God.
The acquisition of such virtues is most necessary in
the Society by reason of the frequent perils which arise
from our intercourse with our neighbours in stirring
them up to the pursuit of virtue, and therefore we
ought to be greatly on our guard lest we should be
content with the appearance rather than with the reality
of virtue, and to dread lest vain glory which, as St.
Bernard savs, is the virus of virtue, should attenuate
or corrupt its reality. In our state, moreover, all the
virtues must necessarily be proved by various occasions,
and temptations and persecutions, and therefore unless
they are solid, a great downfall may be feared. Again,
in order to our end of the assistance and salvation of
souls, a most efficacious means is the probity and virtue
of the ministers who dispose them for being rightly
governed by the Divine hand, whose work it princi-
pally is ; and an example of virtue is a motive more
cogent than any words. In our external manner of life
there is nothing singular, to move our neighbours ol-
id o ' O
attract their admiration as in the case of other religious
Orders who with great praise and fruit profess a more
austere manner of life ; and therefore unless Ours are
conspicuous for the reality and solidity of their virtue,
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 283
and for the great prudence and moderation of their
actions, they will not shine before men, nor be able to
profit them; and unless along with true virtue, they
have also solidity, their spirit will be extinguished, and
they will easily be left with a mere semblance of virtue.
Solidity of virtue depends chiefly on two affections,
namely, contempt of honour, to which true humility cor-
responds, and self-denial of corporeal p>leasures, which
demands perfect mortification of all the senses.
For the moderation of the desire of honour and for the
fostering of humility there is ordained all that has been
said with regard to dignities and those offices which have
an appearance of honour, even if they should entail great
burdens and labours, and which it is not lawful to
procure within the Society, and much less outside the
Society. Hence Ours are not allowed to obtain chairs
in public universities through public competition or
votes, or to receive the degrees of Master or Doctor,
leave for which is not to be granted by superiors for
the sake of the dignity, but only when necessity or the
advantage of others demands it. Fixed places are also
forbidden, and no right is recognised of precedence or
pre-eminence by reason of seniority or office, or of privi-
lege or exemption from common observance. It is only
in the General and Provincial Congregations that the
order of seniority is observed with regard to seats, and
even then it is for the sake not of personal honour, but
of order, and chiefly that the votes may be given first
by the more advanced and experienced of the fathers.
To superiors a place of honour is always due, for this the
reverence due to their dignity demands ; but in other
284 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
matters which belong to personal comfort, they are on
the level with the rest.
These and similar observances for the removal of
every occasion of ambition and of every hindrance to
humility would not suffice without a frequent exercise of
humility, both internal and external ; and opportunities
for the exercise of both are found in the Society.
St. Benedict says that the first degree of humility is
the abnegation of one's own will, and Cassian declares
that no one can acquire true humility of heart who has
not first learned to renounce his own will. This degree
of humility is brought to an excellent perfection when
not only the will, but the judgment also is submitted
to the judgment of another. As the supreme excellence
of man is in his understanding, so the supreme degree
of humility is in the submission and subjection of the
understanding. This exercise of internal humility, as
commended and practised in the Society, we have al-
ready considered (seep. 118). Experience has shewn
that no one can live at rest in the Society or remain
long therein, who has not learned to moderate, to break
in and frequently to renounce his own will and judg-
ment.
Of the external actions of humility which are most neces-
sary for acquiring, nourishing, increasing and preserving-
humility itself, a foundation is laid during the novice-
ship. Although such external actions are necessarily less
frequent during the years of study, they are never wholly
laid aside, and at the end of the studies their exercise
is restored and renewed during the third year of pro-
bation, and it continues afterwards throughout the
EXERCISES OF THE SOCIETY. 285
whole of our religious life. No works of mercy in
hospitals, prisons and the like should be shunned, and
the instruction of children in Christian doctrine is so
commended in the Society as to be one of the principal
obligations of the Professed, and it includes no slight
exercise of humility, as it is also a work of great
charity ; two virtues of which the labourers of the
Society stand most of all in need. Humility, says St.
Bernard, is the foundation of the whole spiritual fabric,
and humiliation is the way towards humility, as patience
is the way towards peace, and reading is the way
towards learning.
Mortification is without doubt the mother of all
virtues, and it occupies a principal place in the Institute,
which greatly commends mortification of the senses and
desires, and in all matters of food, clothing, lodging and
the like, having regard always but only to the end of
the Society, and the necessities of human nature.
( 286 )
CHAPTER XXIV.
THE MEANS OR MINISTRIES WHICH THE SOCIETY
EMPLOYS FOR THE SALVATION OF EXTERNS.
I. — What can and ought the Religious of the
Society to do with regard to the ministry
of preaching the Word of God? and what
has been granted to them with regard to this
ministry by the apostolic see ?
Among the ministries of the Society for the salvation
of its neighbours, the preaching of the Word of God
holds the first place.
Among other things, says Innocent III., which belong
to the salvation of the christian people, the food of the
Word of God is acknowledged to be most of all neces-
sary, for as the body is nourished with material food, so
is the soul nourished with spiritual food. The Council
of Trent says that the preaching of the Gospel is not
less necessary to the christian commonwealth than is
reading, and that preaching is a principal function of the
bishops. In the Professed Society therefore, inasmuch as
it was instituted chiefly to aid the bishops in the salva-
tion of souls, the preaching of the Gospel is either its
principal, or one of its principal ministries. Preaching
is in its measure common to all the Mendicant Orders,
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETV. 28/
and especially to the Order of St. Dominic, which has
therefore its special name of — the Order of Preachers ;
but to the Society it belongs in virtue of its Institute
to share this ministry with the prelates of the Church,
and to exercise it in their place.
Faculty from a prelate of the Church is necessary for
the religious of the Society, as for others, in order that
they may lawfully exercise this function ; for as St. Paul
says, — "How can they preach, unless they be sent?'
(Rom. x. 15). To send them belongs to the pastors of
the Church, whose office it is to feed the flock of Christ,
and justice demands that no one should without their
authority usurp their office and jurisdiction. It is more-
over, absolutely necessary for the preservation of due
order in the Church, and the avoidance of schisms, and
for preventing the sowing of the seeds of error. Hence
all are excommunicated who without authority from the
Apostolic See or from the local bishop, presume publicly
or privately to usurp the office of preaching.
It is certain that faculty from the Apostolic See is
sufficient, since the Supreme Pontiff is the Suj)renie
and Universal Pastor, and he is independent of all
inferiors.
The Society holds its faculty for preaching from the
Apostolic See, 'by the Bull of Paul III. a.d. 1554 which
declares, — We have taken the Society under Our pro-
tection, and that of the Apostolic See, and to every one
of you who is found fit and has been deputed by the
superior of your Society for the time being, We by
these presents grant free faculty by Apostolic authority,
288 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
and at Our good pleasure and that of the Apostolic
See, to preach, propound and interpret to the clergy and
people the Word of God everywhere and in all churches
whatsoever, and common or public places and streets,
and to teach them the way of truth, and of a good and
holy life, so that in you by word as by example they
may be edified, and to exhort and admonish them in the
Lord.
Although this privilege is given absolutely and with-
out restriction, it is nevertheless to be understood as
limited by dependence on the consent of the bishops, and
by absence of objection on the part of the parish priests,
to whom it belongs in virtue of their office to preach and
teach the people. This is in accordance with reason, for
the avoidance of disputes and scandals. Although of the
plenitude of his power the Pontiff could give faculty to
preach everywhere without the leave of the bishops and
even against their will and that of the parish priests,
yet when this is not expressly declared, the grant is to
be understood with reservation of their ordinary rights.
The Council of Trent says generally with regard to
all regulars that, even although they may have been ap-
proved by their own prelates, they shall be bound, before
they begin to preach in the churches even of their own
Order, to present themselves to the bishop, and to ask
his benediction ; while in churches which do not belong:
to their own Order, they shall be bound to have, besides
the leave of their superiors, the leave also of the bishop.
It is also ordained that no one whether secular or regular
shall presume to preach even in the churches of his own
Order, if the bishop should object.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 2 89
Gregory XIII. granted to the religious of the Society
that, having been once approved by some ordinary and
deputed by their own superiors, they might while on a
journey freely preach everywhere, with two exceptions,
first, not in towns or places in which the ordinary is
living, save with his leave first obtained ; and secondly,
not in other places, from which the bishop is absent, if the
curates of the parochial churches should object. These
are, especially in the absence of the bishop, the ordinary
pastors, and although they are not equally to be deferred
to, by asking or waiting for their leave, yet for the sake
of peace and to avoid scandals, the Pontiff did not will
Ours to preach if they should object. This restriction
does not apply to our own churches in towns where
there is no bishop, but only parish priests ; nor to
preaching in streets or other places outside the proper
parish churches.
It has been argued that this privilege of Paul III.
confers nothing, for if the bishops give Ours leave to
preach in their dioceses, there is no need of the Pontiffs
faculty, because the bishop's faculty suffices, while on the
other hand, if the bishop refuses leave, the Pontifical
faculty is useless. But there is this difference created
by the Pontifical faculty, that, apart from that Privilege,
the bishop might solely by an act of his own will refuse
leave to Ours to preach, however worthy they might
be (because in that case the leave would be simply
a grace on his part and, as it were, a delegation and
liberal communication of jurisdiction ;) whereas, in face
of the Privilege, he cannot justly refuse leave, if the
person is fit to preach, because this would be contrary
VOL. III. T
29O THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
to the Pontiff's will and intention. The faculty ema-
nates from the Pontiff, and therefore an inferior cannot
without just cause hinder it, although of the benignity of
the Pontiff, the consent of the bishop is required as a
necessary condition.
Although this faculty was granted primarily in favour
of the Professed Society, it nevertheless extends to all
other members of the Society who are clerics, that is,
not only to those who are priests or deacons, but to all
Scholastics and even novices of Ours who have received
the tonsure.
The office of preacher requires fitness in the preacher,
that is, sufficient learning and virtue. It requires suffi-
cient learning, for " if the blind lead the blind, both will
fall into the ditch," and learning without virtue is ineffi-
cacious, for " if the salt lose its savour with what shall
it be salted ?" (St. Matt. v. 13). The degree of learn-
ing and of virtue which is required is not however the
same in all cases, and is to be determined according
to circumstances of place, time and persons. Some are
sent to preach to the common people, and to instruct
and exhort them to an ordinary mode of reputable life;
others are sent to enlighten the learned, to refute here-
tics, and to propound and illustrate in a higher style
the mysteries of the faith ; while others are sent to
unfold with greater refinement the state of perfection and
the spiritual life. In some therefore, greater learning
is required than in others, and similarly greater perfec-
tion of sanctity and efficacy of spirit. In all, so far as
doctrine is concerned, it is required that at least they
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 29 1
should know the dogmas of the faith, and the sound moral
doctrine with regard to virtues and vices, so as suffi-
ciently to explain them in public without risk of error.
As regards virtue, there is necessary at least the example
of a reputable life.
The superior in the Society by whom its preachers
are to be approved and destined to their office is, after
the General, the Provincial. This power in the Provin-
cials is not merely a delegated power, but is an ordinary
power, since they share it in virtue of their office, and
of law and privilege; and so there is nothing to prevent
them delegating it to a Kector or other person, if they
should judge this to be expedient. General delegation
would not, however, be allowable, because it is not
necessary, nor would it suffice to the Provincial's ful-
filment of his office ; but in a particular case by reason
of a special necessity, and especially with respect to a
determinate person, it would be both valid and lawful
to entrust or delegate this power.
That the approbation of the superior should be by
way of domestic examination is not of the essence of
the act, nor is it of rigorous precept, but is an obligation
of simple Eule, which it is very expedient to observe,
although in some cases, where the fitness of the subject
is well known and evident, it may be dispensed with.
This rule is in accordance with the decree of the Lateran
Council held under Leo X., which ordained that no one,
whether a secular cleric, or a regular of any even a
Mendicant Order, or any other whosoever to whom the
faculty of preaching belongs, whether by law, or custom
or privilege or otherwise, should be permitted to exercise
292 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
that office, without having been first diligently examined
by his superior (and with this the conscience of the supe-
rior is burdened), and found apt and fit for it by moral
respectability, age, learning, probity, prudence and exem-
plary life. Prudence can scarcely be separated from
learning and virtue, if these are found in union ; but in
a preacher as such, that prudence is required which is
necessary in order to speak becomingly and with dignity
of sacred things, and of those matters which belong to
the good of souls.
The question of age is to be left to the prudence of
the superior, since not in all persons or for all places
and sermons is the same maturity of age required,
and age may be in great measure supplied by other
endowments, especially by those of judgment and solid
virtue.
It has been objected to Ours preaching in streets and
public places, that this is not a decent manner of treat-
ing the Word of God, and that it belongs to the reverence
which is due to sacred things and actions that they
should be done not in profane and common but in sacred
places which have been specially set apart for them ;
that the Word of God is a very sacred thing, and so
sacred as to be compared by St. Augustine in a manner
to the Eucharist itself; and that the preaching of it is
one end among others for which sacred temples are
dedicated, and therefore that as it is not lawful outside
these to perform other sacred functions, so neither is it
lawful to preach sacred sermons ; and that finally this
mode of preaching is contrary to the custom of the
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 293
Church, and is moreover of no utility, because in streets
and public places the Word of God cannot be either
attentively or devoutly heard, and therefore that such
a practice ought neither to be introduced nor to be
permitted.
In answer to this, it is certain as of faith that it is
neither evil in itself nor unbecoming to preach to the
people in the streets and public places. This is evident
from the authority of the Pontiffs, for it would be an
intolerable error to grant a faculty for a thing which is
in itself evil or unbecoming. It may be confirmed
also by the example of Christ Himself, Who taught the
multitudes on the mountain, on the sea-shore, from the
ship, and everywhere as occasion offered. His Apostles
did the same and, as it appears, not without a precept
or counsel on the part of their Divine Master. In His
parable of the Supper, the master of the house says to
his servant, — " Go out quickly into the streets and
lanes of the city. ... Go out into the highways and
hedges, and compel them to come in, that my house
may be filled" (St. Luke xiv. 21, 23); and to His
Apostles when He sent them forth to preach He said, —
"That which I tell you in the dark, speak ye in the
light, and that which you hear in the ear, preach ye
upon the housetops" (St. Matt. x. 27), that is, in
any convenient and public place whatsoever, adapted
for public preaching. In those days the housetops
were level and adapted for conversation, and those
things were then done on them which are now wont
to be done in the market-place. Hence " preach
on the housetops " was the same as saying — preach
294 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
in the market-place and everywhere. St. John the
Baptist and before him .many of the prophets, and in
particular Esdras preached in public places; and since
the times of the Apostles, many saints have preached
on the highways and in the fields, such as St. Anthony
of Padua, St. Yincent Ferrer, St. Peter Martyr and
others. The custom is not forbidden by any positive
law, divine or ecclesiastical, for where is the decree or
canon which forbids it ?
If it is objected that, given the lawfulness of the prac-
tice, there is no need for a Privilege, supposing faculty
to preach, it is to be remembered that when a Privilege
is granted it is not always in order to dispense from some
law, but may be for other ends as well. In this particular
case the Privilege produces two principal effects. One
is that it is not only lawful to the Society, but that in
virtue of the grant the Society has a certain right to
preach in such places, so that it cannot be justly hindered
by any one without reasonable cause. A second effect
is to shut the mouths of gainsayers, and to compel them
to confess that so to jDreach is not only not evil, but is
also in itself very expedient, if it is done with due mode-
ration and prudence. For the truth of this we have
also, besides the authority of the Pontiffs, the examples
of the Saints ; and that not only in the beginning of the
Church, when the plea of necessity might be urged, but
also after the foundation and multiplication of temples,
as in the times of St. Bernard, St. Dominic and St.
Francis by whom it was done, as well as by many others
in later times. Keason, moreover, shews that the states
and conditions of men are very various, and great num-
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 295
bers of men do not come to the temples to hear the
Word of God, many because they cannot conveniently
do so, and others because from evil custom they will not,
arid so it is very useful that sometimes there should be
sermons outside the churches in the streets or other
public places; and this may result in the fulfilment of the
words of Isaias, quoted by St. Paul, — " I was found by
them that did not seek me, I appeared openly to them
that asked not after me" (Rom. x. 20). Theophylact
commenting on the words of St. Paul to Timothy —
"Preach the Word, be instant in season, out of season"
(2 Tim. iv. 2) refers opportunity of doctrine, or instancy
in season to preaching in the church, and importunity
of doctrine, or instancy out of season to the preaching
which takes place outside the church. St. Thomas also
expounds "in season" with reference to those who will
to hear, and "out of season" with reference to those who
do not will to hear, and this instancy should be such as
that those who will not may be compelled to hear. Such
preaching in public places may seem importunate to
those who do not sufficiently consider the importance of
the matter, and yet it is very opportune in order that
the Word of God may be better shed abroad so as to
reach all.
Again, preaching is not properly a sacred ministry,
and ministers are not specially consecrated for it, nor is
it ordained to any mystical signification, but only to the
moral and spiritual advantage of the faithful, and there-
fore it does not demand a sacred place for its exercise,
but only such a place as is adapted and suitable for the
convenience and edification of the faithful. Although
296 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
temples serve for the office of preaching, yet they are
not in themselves primarily instituted for this end, but
for the offering of sacrifice within them ; and therefore
they are blessed or consecrated, not properly for preach-
ing, but specially by reason of the Divine Eucharist, and
other sacraments. During the time of the Old Law
sacrifice could be offered at one place only, namely, in
the Temple at Jerusalem, while in the other cities and
towns there were synagogues set apart for prayer and
preaching. Churches are convenient for the ordinary
sermons to which the faithful at stated times flock of
their own accord, and they are set apart for prayer, and
yet this does not hinder either preaching or prayer in
other places, for the Apostle says — " I will that men
pray in every place " (1 Tim. ii. 8).
It is, as we have seen, manifestly untrue that preach-
ing in public places is contrary to the custom of the
Church, and if it is less frequently the custom in later
times it may be either because there is less necessity
for it as regards the hearers, or because the fervour of
charity has somewhat cooled in the preachers.
Simply to teach Christian doctrine for the instruction
of children or the common people is not properly in-
cluded under the name of preaching, since it is not in
itself ordained for the teaching and exhorting of the whole
Church, understood as comprehending clergy and people,
learned and unlearned; and so this may be done by Ours,
even if they have not received the tonsure, and that
not so much in virtue of the Privilege, since for this
a special privilege is not necessary, as in virtue of the
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 297
general Approbation of the Society which was specially
instituted, among other things, for the exercise of this
office.
The Pontiff indicates in his Privilege the mode which
the labourers of the Society should observe in their
preaching, and sets forth two things, the end of preach-
ing, and the actions or means to be employed in order
to that end. The end ought to be to exhort and build
up our neighbours to a good life ; and the doctrine and
the mode of preaching it should be such as is adapted
for that end. It is most of all necessary in order to a
due end that one should not seek his own praise or the
popular applause, as St. Paul says of himself and his
fellow-Apostles, — " We speak, not as pleasing men but
God who proveth our hearts, for neither have we used
at any time the speech of flattery, as you know, nor
taken an occasion of covetousness, God is witness ;
neither sought we glory of men, neither of you nor of
others" (i Thess. ii. 4-6).
In accordance with this end the Society, supposing a
pure intention of the Divine service, and a sincere zeal
for souls to the glory of the Divine Majesty, and demand-
ing also solid virtues, and especially charity and intimate
intercourse with God in spiritual exercises, lays down
two principal means. One is to set before the people
those things which will be alike serviceable and suited
to their comprehension, and to insist on those things
which will avail for their instruction as Christians, and
for the extirpation of vices and the sowing of the seeds
of virtues, abstaining from all curious treatment of
subtle matters. The other means is the use of prudence
298 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
in correction, for although it is necessary to reprehend
vice, yet in order that this may be done with profit,
there is need of the greatest prudence and moderation,
and especially that it should be done in a general
way, without indication and consequent irritation of
individuals. Especially is this true with regard to the
faults of the pastors of the Church, of priests and
men of position, as St. Ignatius observes, and the
preachers of the Society are specially admonished that
they should entirely abstain from the reprehension of
such persons.
As regards the obligation of the Society in the matter
of preaching, it is bound in virtue of its Rule frequently
and assiduously to exercise this office ; but this obliga-
tion does not rest on inferiors except when the superior
imposes it upon them. To inferiors it belongs to be pre-
pared and disposed, both as regards will and as regards
ability so far as the latter lies within their power.
The obligation to preach, as regards inferiors, does
not bind under sin, until the act has been prescribed in
virtue of obedience ; but is similar to other obligations of
Rule, or of obedience to a simple ordinance. In a superior
the obligation is more grave, not that he should himself
exercise the office of preaching, for on the contrary he
may be more easily excused, but that he should take
care that the office is exercised in the place or places
which are subject to him. There will rarely however
be a grievous transgression, save in case of scandalous
negligence or quasi- contempt of the obligation.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 299
II. — "What can and ought Eeligious of the Society
to do in the administration of the sacrament
of Penance?
Another principal ministry which belongs to the
Society in virtue of its Institute, is the administration
of the sacraments, and especially of the sacraments of
Penance and the Eucharist.
The administration of any sacrament cannot be law-
fully undertaken by Ours without faculty or privilege
from the Apostolic See, or from the local bishop. It
was becoming and most expedient that the faculty for
hearing confessions should emanate to the Society im-
mediately from the Apostolic See itself, although with
that subordination to the other prelates which right
reason and the Sacred Canons demand.
It is certain that since the date of the Council of
Trent it is not sufficient that a confessor should possess
all that is required by divine or natural law in order
to the exercise of this ministry, unless he has also the
special approbation of the Church, as decreed by that
Council. The Council lays down two ways in which a
priest maybe approved, or declared jit for the reception
of jurisdiction in order to the hearing of confessions ;
and either of those two ways will suffice, but one or
other of them is necessary, and no other approbation
will suffice. The one is appointment to a parochial
benefice, and the other is approbation by a bishop. The
first was not introduced but was simply retained by the
Council. Since to a parish priest there is committed the
cure of souls, by the very fact of his appointment to his
300 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
benefice there is sufficiently declared his fitness to hear
confessions ; and therefore, although he receives jurisdic-
tion over only his own sheep, he is nevertheless reckoned
as approved so that jurisdiction may be also delegated
to him elsewhere and in any otherwise lawful manner.
The second mode was introduced by the council. All
priests who have not a parochial benefice, of whatsoever
state, order or dignity they may be, require approba-
tion by the bishop in order to hear the confessions of
seculars, even if these are priests. A bishop may approve
a priest as fit to hear confessions, and at the same time
not delegate jurisdiction to him ; for a grant of jurisdic-
tion is a grace, which a bishop bestows of liberality,
while approbation is an act of justice, or a just judgment,
by which there is declared t\\Q fitness of a person to hear
confessions. Approbation is simply a public sentence,
or authoritative declaration of the sufficiency of a priest
to hear confessions ; and this the Council of Trent willed
to be, as it were, a necessary disposition in order that a
priest should be proximately capable of jurisdiction.
A bishop who has no jurisdiction cannot give appro-
bation, since it is an act of jurisdiction. Hence a bishop
who is consecrated, but has no bishopric, cannot give
approbation to any one, and neither can a bishop who is
only elected, because as yet he has no jurisdiction ; but one
who has been elected and confirmed, although he is not
yet consecrated, can give approbation, because he is a true
bishop, and can exercise acts of jurisdiction. The vicar
of a bishop is reckoned as one with him, and exercises his
jurisdiction ; and the Chapter can also approve through
its vicar, during a vacancy of the See ; approbation not
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 3OI
being an act of episcopal order, nor an act of jurisdic-
tion specialty delegated by the Pontiff, but an act of
ordinary jurisdiction, and one moreover which, is very
necessary in order to the care and administration of
the diocese, which is committed to the Chapter which
succeeds, for the time being, to the late bishop.
By ordinary law it is necessary to have obtained
approbation, and it is not sufficient to have applied for
it, even if it should have been unjustly refused. If a
bishop should approve unjustly and sin in so doing, the
sacrament is nevertheless valid so far as approbation is
concerned.
The moral reason why the Council willed to reserve
the approbation of confessors to the bishops, was because
they are ordinary pastors, and superior to parish priests,
although these are also ordinary pastors ; and because it
was to be presumed that, as a rule at any rate, they
would rightly exercise this power.
It does not suffice that a priest should be held and
judged fit to hear confessions, even by the bishop him-
self, for this belongs to the understanding ; unless he
also obtains from him approbation, or leave to hear
confessions, an act which depends on the will.
The bishops are bound of justice not to refuse appro-
bation to mendicant religious without just cause, and
they will sin grievously by doing otherwise.
The bishops can approve with limitation as regards
persons and places ; and this reasonably because they
might judge a priest fit for hearing the confessions of
certain classes of persons, or the inhabitants of certain
towns or places, and not fit to hear the confessions of
302 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
other persons, or fit to hear the confessions of men, but
not those of women.
Approbation once given continues, so long as it is not
recalled. It is not therefore extinguished by the death
of him who grants it; since it is not a mere grace, but
is & juridical declaration which is due of justice.
It can be recalled for a just cause, since the founda-
tion or ground of it is not immutable ; consisting as it
does in learning, morals and other necessary conditions
for the hearing of confessions, with regard to all of which
the priest may change ; and moreover, if it should turn
out that the approbation had proceeded on notable
error, it may be recalled.
A priest who has been approved by one bishop may
be judged unworthy on the new examination which his
successor has a right to institute; for he is a new pastor,
and assumes his own obligations, and he is not com-
pelled to ratify all the faculties granted by his prede-
cessor. It is in his power, therefore, for the satisfaction
of his own conscience, to call up all approved confessors
for examination and to reject those whom he finds
unworthy, and so to revoke the former approbations.
In rigour of law, and of his absolute power a bishop
might recall to examination those of his own subjects
whom he has already approved, although he ought not
to do this to the injury of any one, or without reasonable
cause. By a special privilege granted to Mendicants,
they can be examined once only by the same bishop ;
but if they have been approved without previous
examination, and it appears on examination that the
approbation was not rightly granted, it can be recalled.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 303
To regulars the bishop does not give jurisdiction,
or any grace or favour, but only " approbation," or a
juridical declaration of theiv fitness to hear confessions.
This approbation is simply a condition, albeit a necessary
condition, which renders them capable of receiving the
jurisdiction which flows to them from the Apostolic See,
by means of their Privileges.
The faculty in an approved priest of Ours to hear
confessions is dependent on the prelates of the Society,
not only so that, by reason of the subordination of
obedience, it should not be lawful for him to exercise
this function contrary to the will of his superior; but
also because the, so to speak, substantial faculty to hear
confessions, and the necessary jurisdiction is conferred
by the superior. All faculty and jurisdiction for this
ministry descends from the Supreme Pontiff to the
priests of the Society, to whom it is communicated
through the General, either immediately, or by means
of the Provincials or other superiors to whom, either of
ordinary right or by delegation, this power of creating
confessors is granted. It follows that a prelate of the
Society can withdraw from his subject all faculty and
jurisdiction for hearing confessions. He can also grant
the faculty in part and not in whole, for the hearing of
certain classes of persons, such as, for instance, men only
and not women.'"
* If, besides approbation, the bishop should also ex abundantid grant
jurisdiction to a regular, as he certainly can do, and as is very commonly
done at the present day, the regular will have two distinct grants of juris-
diction, or jurisdiction through two distinct channels. It follows as a
consequence that his absolutions of seculars will be valid, in virtue of the
jurisdiction delegated to him by the bishop, even if he should have been
304 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
III. — What can and ought Keligious of the Society
to do in the adxmlnistration of the sacrament
of the Eucharist?
No one can lawfully minister this sacrament to the
faithful unless he has for so doing either ordinary or
delegated jurisdiction, or the leave of an ordinary pastor,
since it is one of the principal acts of feeding the faith-
ful, and therefore belongs to their pastors, and cannot
lawfully be usurped by any one on his own authority.
The Pontiff can certainly grant this faculty indepen-
dently of inferior prelates or pastors. This is most
certain and of faith, and follows from his supreme
power which is absolutely independent of all inferiors.
It has been granted to Ours by Paul III. so that they
can administer, and the faithful can freely and lawfully
receive the Eucharist, at any time of the year, except
at Easter and the hour of death, and that without the
leave of the Eectors of the parochial churches being
forbidden to hear the confessions of seculars by his superior, that is to say,
by that superior who had power to communicate to him the pontifical
jurisdiction bestowed upon his Order. Besides sinning grievously against
obedience, the regular is, however, deprived of all power to avail himself
of the faculties which by Privilege of the Apostolic See belong to his
Order, such as those for absolving from certain cases and censures. His
absolutions, so far as these are concerned, will be absolutely invalid, since
he enjoys those special faculties of his Order only as communicated, and in
so far as they have been communicated to him through the superior who
has power to do so in accordance with the Institute, or with the terms of
the Privilege. These special faculties having been withdrawn by his
superior's prohibition, and consequent withdrawal of the jurisdiction which
he had previously communicated to him, the regular's faculties will be no
greater than those which the bishop had it in his power to bestow. See
Declaration of the Sacred Congregation of Bishops and Regulars, March
2, 1866 ; and Gury. Ed. Ballerini, 1866, vol. ii. p. 442.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 305
required. Of course Ours cannot minister the Eucharist
in the church of another, against the will of its Eector,
.since this would be to the prejudice of his rights.
It is to the ordinary pastors of souls that the care of
the sheep belongs, especially as regards observance of the
precepts ; and therefore they are held to have special
rights at the two times, namely at Easter and at the
hour of death, when the precept of communion obliges,
and it would be to their prejudice if without their leave
or consent the Eucharist were then to be administered
by others. This is not as if the Pontiff could not, if he
so willed, grant this farther privilege to religious, since
he could reserve this ministry to himself, and entrust it
to whomsoever he pleased ; but for the reason given he
has not done this, and does not judge it expedient to be
done. This limitation is always to be understood, even
when it is not expressed, in general Privileges of this
land. By Easter is to be understood the eight days
before and the eight days after Easter-day, because
accordiiio; to the more common custom of the Church,
the ecclesiastical precept of communicating within the
year can be fulfilled within that time. Where custom
extends this time, the extension of time is also to be
reckoned as Easter-tide. Those can be admitted to
communion in our churches who have already fulfilled
their parochial duties, and who desire again or more fre-
quently to communicate during those fifteen days.*
* The existing law, while it binds all the faithful to receive paschal
•communion in the parish church, permits regulars to administer the
Eucharist in their own churches to all the faithful on every day except
Easter Sunday, and, in the city of Eome, Thursday in Holy Week. See
•Gury, Ed. BaUerini, 1866, vol. ii. p. 125.
VOL. III. U
306 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
It is not forbidden to Ours to communicate a sick
person in Lis bed, when he communicates for the sake
of devotion, and not because of his peril of death;
and, even if he is in peril of death, so long as he
does not communicate in order to fulfil the divine
precept. That precept is fulfilled by one communion
made within the period of peril, and since it is an
affirmative precept it does not oblige on any particular
day, but its determination may be arbitrary. So long
therefore as the state of the sickness and peril is not
such as to oblige the sick man to communicate at once
and on the same day, it wTill be lawful to religious to
administer to him the Eucharist if he desires to com-
municate from devotion, and without intention thereby
to fulfil the precept, and with a purpose of asking viati-
cum on another clay from the parish priest, if his peril
should increase and his obligation appear to be more
urgent. Similarly, if he has already communicated
within the time of peril, so as to fulfil the divine pre-
cept, and with the intention of so fulfilling it, he can
afterwards again and again during the same sickness
receive the Eucharist from devotion at the hands of
religious.
IV. — What can the Religious of the Society do
as regards the administration of the other
Sacraments ?
It is not lawful for Ours to administer the other
sacraments to the faithful, except in certain cases, and
under certain circumstances. Power to do so is not
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 307
necessary in order to our fulfilment of the end of the
Society, and the possession and exercise of such power
would not tend towards peace and union with the ordi-
nary pastors, and would not be expedient for the well-
ordered government of souls.
As regards Baptism, it is certain that it is not lawful
for priests of Ours to minister it with solemnity to the
faithful in those regions where they have ordinary
pastors, to whom the administration of this sacrament
belongs in virtue of their office. The same is true
of the Sacrament of Extreme Unction, as regards its
administration to seculars who are not inmates of
our Houses. As regards Matrimony, Ours cannot, in
virtue of privilege, except in missionary countries, mini-
ster this sacrament either by way of presence as wit-
nesses approved by the Church in order to its validity,
or by way of solemn benediction.
V. — The Spiritual Exercises which the Society
EMPLOYS IN ORDER TO THE ASSISTANCE OF ITS
NEIGHBOURS ; WHAT ARE THEY ? AND WHAT IS
THEIR DOCTRINE?
The term Spiritual Exercises is not new, but is used
by, among others, St. Buonaventure, St. Bernard, Blosius
and St. Laurence Justinian, to signify not only interior
acts of contemplation or meditation, but also other acts
and exercises of various virtues, whereby the soul makes
progress towards purity and union with God.
St. Ignatius left to the Society, amongst other instru-
308 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
ments of virtue, a book which he compiled, not without
great aid from God, and as the fruit of long experience,
and which he called — The Spiritual Exercises.
In the beginning of this book he says — By the name of
Spiritual Exercises is understood every mode of examin-
ing one's conscience, and of meditating, contemplating
and praying with mind and voice, and of performing all
other spiritual operations whatsoever. For, as to walk,
to make a journey and to run are corporal exercises, so
likewise to prepare and dispose the soul for the removal
of all ill-ordered affections, and, these having been re-
moved, for seeking and finding the will of God with
regard to the arrangement of one's life, and the salvation
of one's soul, are called spiritual exercises.
This book St. Ignatius wrote not only for the profit
of his companions, but also in order that they, by means
of the exercises and instructions which it contains,
might strenuously labour for the spiritual welfare of all
christian people. A most grave man of the saintly
family of St. Bernard calls this book a " noviceship
instituted for the whole human race."
To certain persons, however, at the outset it seemed
to be a novelty, and it was regarded with sus}:)icion, and
calumniated, and so St. Francis Borgia, a singularly
eminent disciple of St. Ignatius, and an illustrious model
of the Society, besought Paul III. to have it examined
in order that it might be approved by his authority.
The examiners reported that the Exercises were full of
piety and sanctity, and that they were and would be
very useful and salutary for the edification and spiritual
profit of the faithful. The Pontiff thereupon approved
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 309
all and everything contained in them, and exhorted all
the faithful to the use of them.
As regards the doctrine of the Exercises, no one can
rightly call any point of it in question. It consists
either of certain and dogmatic principles, or of statements
of the received doctrine of theologians. The work is
not in itself and directly intended for the teaching of
theological doctrine, for it contains practical rather than
speculative doctrine ; and the doctrine is delivered by
way of an art rather than by way of a science, and so
has regard rather to practical truth or utility than to
speculative truth. Since, however, meditation, to be
useful, should suppose the truth of the matter medi-
tated, there is supposed in the exercises or meditations
the truth of the history, when they are founded on a
history, as in the exercises on the Life of Christ, and on
the sin of the Angels, and on the fall of the first man, and
the like. In the other exercises, such as those on the
reward of the good, and the punishments of the wicked,
on God, on His benefits, and on the love due to Him, there
is always laid a foundation of faith, and thereon they are
almost altogether based. If anything is added, it is drawn
either from certain experience, or from the teaching of
the Fathers. This may be noted also in the spiritual
instructions, for where it is necessary certain points are
premised, which contain moral or dogmatic doctrine, as
necessary foundations ; and, also where it is necessary,
a tacit objection is anticipated and met, lest a spiritual
counsel should seem to be at variance with the teachings
of theology. For instance, when a caution is given that
one should not, while carried away by the fervour of the
310 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Exercises, easily be induced to biud himself by any vow,
it is straightway added — Although a work is of greater
merit which is done under vow than if it were done
without a vow, yet nevertheless account is to be taken
of the peril or inconvenience which might occur in
making this particular vow.
VI. — The art, or method of the Exercises.
That the counsel of St. Ignatius with regard to the
direction and, so to speak, art of this mental exercise,
was most prudent and evidently divine, is proved most
efficaciously from the result ; for it appears from expe-
rience that many have hereby made progress in spiri-
tual life, as Paul III. recognizes in his Bull. This
is confirmed by the example of saints who have not
only moved men to mental prayer and consideration,
but have also endeavoured to teach them a method of
praying and ascending towards God, such as St. Diony-
sius, St. Augustine, St. Prosper, St. Bernard, Eichard
of St. Victor, St. Buonaventure, St. Laurence Justinian,
not to speak of Blosius, Tauler, Gerson, Dionysius the
Carthusian and others. These however proceed by way
rather of exhortation than of instruction, and therefore
write at greater length of the praises and effects of medi-
tation or contemplation, and do not so distinctly lay
down a special method of praying. St. Ignatius in very
brief rules and few words gives a wonderful instruction
on this point, and he seems to have drawn it not so
much from books, as from the unction of the Holy
Ghost and from his own great experience and practice.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 3 I I
There were two reasons for the brevity of the Book of
the Exercises ; first, that the instructions might be more
easily learned and practised, and that the exercises might
be made with greater ease and relish ; and secondly,
because general principles alone can be common to all,
while the particular application of them must be left to
the prudence of the spiritual master or instructor, whose
assistance is always supposed in the case of one who
is only beginning to exercise himself in spiritual things.
The spiritual life requires two things chiefly, cor-
rection of morals, and union with God. To the first
belongs purification from past sins, daily care of the
conscience, and frequent confession of sins. The second
is attained by frequent meditation and prayer, and by
exercise of the various virtues. In order to both a
right choice of a state of life is most necessary. But
since a due esteem and right intention with regard to
one's last end is the principle of all good actions, St.
Ignatius presents this at the outset, and before the
other exercises, as the foundation of the whole work of
spiritual reformation.
He divides the Exercises into four parts, to which he
gives the name of iveeks.not as if it were necessary to spend
seven days, neither more nor less, in each part, but because
as a rule that length of time seems sufficient and con-
venient. The First Week contains the Purgative Way,
and the matter of it is the grievousness of offending
God, and all considerations which contribute towards
the realization of this, and true repentance for sin.
There is added an examination of conscience twice a
312 THE UELIGIOUS STATE.
day, morning and evening, both to preserve purity of
conscience, and as most useful in order to confession.
St. Ignatius advises that this examination should begin
with thanksgiving for benefits received, either because
that is no less due at the end of the day than is the
remembrance and consideration of its sins, or certainly
because it lends no small aid towards greater sorrow for
having offended one's Benefactor.
There is also besides this general examination of
conscience, a particular examination which is directed
against some one special vice in order to its eradication.
The Second Week is ordained to this end that a man
may rightly choose and constitute a state of life for him-
self in the future. Since the foundation of a right choice
should in a christian man be the following and imitation
of Christ, there are in the beginning of this week pro-
posed certain considerations which should induce a man
to a firm purpose of such imitation ; especially those on
the Incarnation and Life of Christ, which is set forth as
the model on which our lives are to be moulded. There
are then laid down the means for the making of a right
election or choice, and all the instructions which are
necessary for this purpose.
Henceforward the exercitant begins to be instructed
in what is called the Illuminative Way, and he enters
on the state of the progressing, as it is called, to dis-
tinguish it from the state of beginners, with which the
Purgative Way is chiefly concerned.
But since perfection of christian life takes a long
time to attain, and is arrived at chiefly by virtue of the
passion and death of Christ, and through meditation
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 3 I 3.
thereon, these are proposed for meditation in the Third
Week. This week also belongs to the state of the pro-
gressing, and consequently to the Illuminative Way.
In the Fourth Week the resurrection and glory of the
Eisen Christ is meditated on, and the Unitive Way is
arrived at.
The matter of the meditations consists in that which
is proposed for consideration ; their form is the method
and direction which is given in order to due and fruitful
consideration. With this last St. Ignatius lias taken
greatest pains, and it was indeed a gift granted to him
by a special grace, and obtained through great experi-
ence and practice along with the grace of God. Nearly
all the instructions concern this, and they leave nothing
to be desired.
The matter of the meditation should be sufficient,.
and adapted to the scope or end which is proximately
aimed at, and to the way, or degree of the spiritual
life which is being procured ; but in the various weeks
all the matter, or everv meditation which might con-
ceivably belong to it, is not given, since this would
be a well-nigh infinite business, and every one can
easily discover it for himself. Having received the
points of the meditation briefly given, the exercitant
can then reason on them with his own understand-
ing or by aid of the divine enlightenment, and so with
greater relish and fruit he will occupy himself in prayer
and meditation.
At the end of the Fourth Week, which is ordained not
directly towards amendment of morals or progress, but
314 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
to excite hope and love of eternal things, and towards
participation in a manner of eternal joys even in this
life, there is added a contemplation for the purpose of
begetting in our souls a spiritual love. St. Ignatius
contents himself with putting the wise on the way, and
since the rest belongs to the government of the Holy
Ghost rather than to the operation of man, although
the co-operation of man is not excluded, he says but
little with regard to union with God, and the act of
simple contemplation with simple intuition of truth.
Those who are raised by a special grace to such union
with God should, on the cessation of that divine ope-
ration, immediately resume meditation lest, to borrow
the words of Blosius, they should fall into the sleep of
sloth.
Although the three ways — the purgative, the illumi-
native and the unitive, are distinct as regards their
principal acts, yet they are not necessarily, nay, they
ought not, as a rule, to be absolutely kept separate, but
each of them should partake somewhat of the others.
In the first week somewhat borrowed from the second
and third weeks is necessary, in order that the exer-
cises of that week may be made with greater relish and
fruit; for fear, and sorrow, and detestation of sins are
perfected and sweetened by the love of God and affec-
tions of virtue. In the third week it is frequently
expedient to retain somewhat of the first and second
weeks for the sake of greater security. The second week
CD J
also, for both reasons, and as standing midway between
the first and third weeks, should share somewhat of
both.
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 315
VII. — The use of the Exercises, both by Ours and
BY EXTERNS.
There is a twofold use of the Exercises in the Society ;
one, for the benefit of Oars, which may be called a
passive use, and the other, which may be called an
active use, for the aid of externs towards amendment of
life or spiritual progress.
The first use begins, among Ours, at their first
entrance into the Society, when in their first probation
they begin to be purified from past sins ; and this use is
repeated again and again in the course of the noviceship,
in order that they may be better proved, and principally
in order that they may be more fully instructed and
exercised. This use continues also throughout their lives,
and in two ways ; first, by daily meditation, prayer and
examination of conscience, and secondly, by their once or
twice a year leaving their studies and other external occu-
pations, and exercising themselves in these and similar
meditations, and giving themselves to the contemplative
life alone.
This custom is useful not only for novices or for the
progressing, but also for the perfect, for it cannot be
that their interior devotion should not be somewhat
relaxed by reason of their external actions and occupa-
tions, and moreover, the work is in itself very desirable
and perfect.
If any one thinks that afcer making the Exercises for
eight or fifteen days he has ascended to the summit of
contemplation, or even that he is perfectly purified and
enlightened, or that he has sufficiently perfected himself
11 6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
o
in the exercise of meditation, he most foully and child-
ishly errs ; for not only perfect union with God, but
even mediocre perfection in prayer or meditation requires
length of time and much practice, and it presupposes long-
continued exercise of oneself in the extirpation of vices
and the acquisition of virtues.
The Constitutions exhort all of Ours to train them-
selves so that they may have dexterity in the use of this
spiritual weapon for the benefit of others. The results of
the use of it supply abundant evidence of its excellence,
and of its fitness for men in every state of life; for expe_
rience has shewn that many have by means of it been
led to renounce the world, and others to amend their
morals in their own state of life, either by doing penance
for their sins, and entering on a good life, or if already
living a good life, by making progress towards a better.
This is only what we should reasonably expect, since the
Exercises are ordained in the first place to obtain grace
from God in order to such effects, and then to dispose
the soul, and remove, as much as may be, all hindrances
to the divine grace, and beget careful co-operation
therewith.
The Exercises are not however to be given equally and
indifferently to all; and to few of those from whom no
ordinary fruit cannot be hoped for to the greater glory of
God are they to be given in their fulness. Although
they are of service to all, not all are by means of them
made contemplatives or raised to the heights of prayer.
Again, although one of the principal ends of the Exer-
cises is the choice of a better state, yet they do not
aim at all persons choosing the religious state, because,
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 3 I 7
although that state is better in itself, it is nevertheless
sometimes not expedient as regards a particular person ;
and every one ought to choose that which is best in
his own particular case. Moreover, all have not the
grace of vocation, and still the Exercises are of value
in order to the choice either of some other state, or of
a manner of life which is better suited for their spiri-
tual welfare. A religious, although he may not any
longer deliberate with regard to the choice of a state,
does well to exercise himself so that in his own state he
may choose the best method of progress ; or, if he has
already sufficiently deliberated and resolved on this, that
he may renew his purpose and consider how he may
more diligently remove any hindrance to its fulfilment.
Seculars also who are to remain in the world are wise to
avail themselves of this aid, in order that they may be
better prepared for the perils by which they are sur-
rounded, and that they may obtain greater grace from
God. Finally, this remedy is to be supplied even to
great sinners, not that they may at once become perfect,
but rather because not only to be made perfect, but even
to change their previous manner of life is very difficult
for them, and they therefore stand in need of the most
efficacious remedies.
VIII. — Ought the Eeligious of the Society to aid
THEIR NEIGHBOURS BY MEANS OF FAMILIAR CON-
VERSATION WITH THEM ?
Familiar conversation with our neighbours is not in
itself foreign to the state of perfection, and it is much
3 18 THE 11EL1GI0US STATE.
in accordance with the special Institute of the Society.
We have the example of Christ, Who conversed with
men, and ate and drank with them, and yet not only did
He observe perfection, but His was the most perfect of all
states of life. In this He was imitated, by His Apostles,
who likewise embraced the religious state or the state of
perfection, and. who became "all things to all men," that
they might gain all. St. Thomas says that it is lawful
for religious to transact secular business for the relief of
the necessity of their neighbours, because in that case
it can no longer be called secular business, but a reli-
gious action, for as St. James says — " Pure religion and
undefiled before God and the Father is this, to visit the
fatherless and widows in their tribulation." If this is
true of a corporal work of mercy, much more is it true
of holy and religious conversation for the spiritual good
of a neighbour.
The primary and adequate end of the Society compre-
hends labouring for the salvation and sanctification not
only of its members but also of its neighbours, and it
is evident as well as proved by experience that familiar
conversation with them is a means which is well adapted,
nay, morally necessary in order to this end. In order
perfectly to fulfil the office of confessor, it is often neces-
sary to treat familiarly with penitents, even outside con-
fession, either for their better instruction, or for their
spiritual consolation, or to keep them to the practice of
frequent confession, and to the doing of the good works
which are begotten thereof. Again, although general ser-
mons or discourses are necessary for a congregation, yet
unless they are fostered and, as it were, digested by the
MINISTRIES OF THE SOCIETY. 319
warmth of familiar conversation, they are easily for-
gotten ; and besides this, it is often necessary to descend
from generalities to mode and measure and particular cir-
cumstances, in accordance with the needs of individuals,
and this can only for the most part be done in private
conversations. Further, since secular men are generally
animal rather than spiritual, it is necessary to conde-
scend to them a little, and by blameless familiar con-
versation to attract and gain them so that by degrees
they may be inclined to listen to spiritual discourse.
Even if sometimes indifferent matters may enter into
the conversation, yet if they are treated or rather
if they are tolerated with this intention, our words
will not be idle, but profitable and religious. For
these reasons the Society makes use of this means
as adapted for its work of the salvation of its neigh-
bours.
In the use of it, however, two things are required
namely, a right intention, which is that of its necessity
alone, and great moderation and circumspection. This
moderation again requires two things, of which one is
that this means should not be used to the loss or damage
of one's own personal perfection, and the other is that
it should be to the spiritual fruit of one's neighbour ;
since, according to the order of charity, God is to be
preferred to a neighbour, and one's own spiritual profit
to that of another. All conversation with seculars is
idle when no spiritual profit whatsoever can be in any
wray hoped for from it.
320 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
IX. — Ought the Society to have a special care in
THE AID OF THOSE OF ITS NEIGHBOURS WHO ARE
IN DANGER OF DEATH?
Besides its general solicitude for the salvation of all
its neighbours, the assistance of the sick and dying is
one of the ministries which are most proper to the
Society, and to which it is specially bound in virtue of
its Institute, with that obligation wherewith it is bound
to its other works.
321
CHAPTER XXV.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY.
I. — Is the Society fitly governed by way of
Monarchy ?
It is common to the Society with nearly all other reli-
gious Orders that its ordinary government should be
monarchical, with some admixture of the aristocratic
■element. Monarchical government is in itself the best,
but by reason of the frailty of men, and the danger of
their erring either in judgment or in affection, it should
be tempered with somewhat of an aristocrac}^. This is
ihe received opinion both of moral philosophers and of
theologians.
The monarchy of the Society is reduced to one
'General, beneath whose standard the whole Order is
enrolled ; and the Society in union with the General is
•ordinarily subject in spiritual matters to the Supreme
Pontiff alone. Immediately under the General there
are constituted the Provincials, and under each Provin-
cial the local superiors. In this the Society resembles
other Orders, for this manner of constitution is morally
necessary in every Order which, as one body politic, is
diffused throughout the whole world, and the members
of which are distant from each other in different places.
vol. III. x
32 2 THE RELTGIOUS STATE.
They therefore require one head, to act on all the mem-
bers, and to provide for the universal good of the whole
body, and to make the best use of individual members
for the general advantage.
By reason of the distance and extent and diversity of
the various regions or nations in which the Society finds
itself, there must necessarily be constituted, under the
General, Provincials, each of whom proximately admini-
sters and rules his own province. Further, since in
every province there are various places which possess
Houses or Colleges of the Society, each of these must
have some one to preside over it.
Hence also all these superiors possess ordinary and
spiritual jurisdiction, each in the manner in which it is
granted to him, and in accordance with his office. They
are, in all propriety and rigour of speech, ecclesiastical
prelates.
The government of the Society is aristocratic in several
ways ; and first, in this that it has its General Congre-
gations. These, although they have certain fixed times
for assembling, are also to be assembled on other fitting
occasions. They have of necessity to be assembled on
the death of a General, or when he is deprived or to
be deprived of his office for any cause, for the election
of his successor. To these Congregations aristocratic
government belongs properly and in all rigour, for those
who are assembled in them have a decisive suffrage ; and
sof. long as these Congregations continue the supreme
power of the whole body of the Society resides in them,,
and they are superior even to the General himself.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 323
A second way in which aristocratic government has
place in the Society is through other Congregations
which, although they are gathered from the whole
body of the Society are nevertheless not General Con-
gregations ; since neither the Provincials nor many who
have votes come from the various provinces, but only
one from each province comes in the name of that pro-
vince, and as its procurator. Such a Congregation is
called — a Congregation of Procurators.
It belongs to a Congregation of Procurators primarily
and principally to decree whether a General Congrega-
tion is to be called, or not ; and in the decision of this
question the members assembled have a decisive suffrage.
With regard to other matters which may be treated in
such a congregation, in virtue of the Institute and Con-
stitutions, the members of it have only a consultative
suffrage.
The aristocratic element appears in a third way in
the Provincial Congregations which ought to be held in
each province every three years. The purpose of these
Congregations is to elect a person who shall go to the
General in name of the whole province, and who shall
have a vote in the Congregation of Procurators. A Pro-
vincial Congregation has to be assembled in every pro-
vince whenever a General Congregation of the whole
CD O
Society is to be called ; for in the Provincial Congregation
there are to be elected those who, along with the Pro-
vincial, shall have a vote in the General Congregation.
In their election all have a proper active voice who may
lawfully come to the Provincial Congregation. Besides
these elections, no law or statute can be made in a Pro-
324 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
vincial Congregation ; nor with regard to any proposed
ordinance do those therein assembled have a decisive
vote, but they can only consult and discuss matters with
a view to. its being decreed in a General Congregation,
if that is to be called, or, if it is not to be called, to
the matter being laid before the General.
In a fourth way the government of the Society is
aristocratic from the number of prelates by whom it is
governed under one Supreme General ; namely, the Pro-
vincials and local superiors, who have the whole weight
of government distributed among them.
The aristocratic idea is completed in the Councils, of
whose advice and prudence the various prelates avail
themselves. The General has his Assistants, chosen
along with himself by the General Congregation ; while
to the Provincials Consultors are assigned, and also to
the inferior local prelates. All these have only a con-
sultative suffrage, while judgment remains with the
respective prelates.
St. Ignatius willed that every superior of the Society
should, according to the nature and measure of his
office, possess entire power, and have provided for him
counsellors only and not co-judges. This greatly con-
tributes towards perfection in the religious state, since
by this means a more pure and perfect obedience is exer-
cised, and there is a greater dependence of the members
on their head, and consequently a greater union, such as
ought to exist between father and sons. There is also
hereby removed an occasion of multiplying dignities in
the persons of many judges, and as it were prelatures in
the Order, and so the occasions of ambition are reduced
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 325
in number. Finally, if ordinances, judgments and settle-
ments of affairs were to depend on the opinions and
wills of man}r, the peril of schisms and divisions would
be multiplied.
The Society preserves in the character of its constitu-
tion its likeness to the Church, for although the Pontiff
ordains the more grave matters with the counsel of the
Cardinals, yet there always remains a perfect monarchy,
because the decision of such matters depends on him alone.
Although he very frequently, and in graver matters
does not decree in opposition to the suffrages of a
majority of the Cardinals, yet this is of his own prudence
and free will, and not from any dependence on their suf-
frages. Bishops also have monarchical government in
their dioceses, and they do not ordinarily require the
suffrages of others. A religious Order may therefore
very well share this mode of government, since in an
Order the obedience of subjects ought to be more prompt,
and the government of superiors more paternal.
The difference between the government of the Society
and that of the Church is this, that the latter is reduced
to one Supreme Prelate who is subject not only to no
other man upon earth, but also to no community of men,
and who is supreme over the whole Church, collectively as
well as individually; whereas in the Society the General
has not only a, personal superior to whom he is subject,
namely, the Pontiff (as follows necessarily from the
general idea of the christian religion, and from the special
idea of the religious state, and the yet more special idea
of the Society), but he is also subject to the Society itself,
^26 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
0
by which lie can be directed and corrected and, if need
be, punished and deposed. The reason of this difference
is clear, because the Pontiff holds his power not from
the Church, but immediately from Christ, while the
General holds his power from the Society. As the
Pontiff in a singular and more excellent manner has his
power from God, so he has also a special assistance of the
Holy Ghost, which may supply the place of the direction
or compulsion of a superior ; but other inferior prelates,
as they are chosen and constituted by men, so is it
fitting that they should be subject at least to the com-
munity as a whole, or to a General Congregation of the
same.
ii. — is it expedient that the appointment of the
General of the Society should be for life?
St. Ignatius, a man of singular prudence and sanctity,
and who had a great knowledge and comprehension of
the affairs of the Society, after much consideration and
lengthened prayer, ordained that the General should be
elected for life. This was also the unanimous judgment of
the First General Congregation, and it has been confirmed
by the authority of the Supreme Pontiffs. The Abbots
of old were perpetual, and this is in accordance with the
Canon Law, and with the Kule of St. Benedict. At the
present day, the Generals of many religious Orders are
perpetual, although the inferior prelates are removable,
as is the case among the Carthusians, the Dominicans,
the Carmelites and the Eremites of St. Augustine.
This perpetuity is found moreover in the ecclesiastical
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 327
monarchy, not only in the universal Pontificate, but also
in the particular bishops. Hence it is evident that it
is in itself better and, all things else being equal, to
be preferred, that monarchy should be perpetual, or for
life.
The government and influence of the General on the
whole body of the Society, is with great power on his
part, and with great dependence on the. part of the body
and of all its members ; and therefore it requires a
great knowledge of the whole Society, and of all the
persons who belong to it, and this knowledge could not
be acquired in a short space of time, and could be
acquired only through that long experience which is
most necessary in order to prudent government. It
would not have been expedient that the General's term
of office should end when he was just beginning to
•obtain this knowledge and experience ; as would be
"the case if he were appointed for a short time, such
as six or eight years, for within that time he could
scarcely have twice obtained information with regard to
the state of the Society throughout the world. No
time shorter than life could be assigned, especially since
.as a rule it is only men of age and Avho have already
borne the burden of labour who could be selected for
this office.
Again, the only mode of creating the General is by
election, and it is most expedient for the Society that
'General Congregations should not be frequently assem-
bled. The Society is always sufficiently occupied with
matters of great moment, and which concern the glory
of God, and so it ought not, as far as possible, to be
325 THE RELIGIOUS- .STATE'.
engaged and distracted with such Congregations ; especi-
ally when there are taken into account the long jour-
ne}'S, and the labours and distractions of Provincials,
prelates and other electors, who ought always to be-
among the chief men and principal labourers of the-
Society, as well as the many great inconveniences which
commonly attend Congregations which are assembled
for the election of Prelates.
A third advantage which is of great importance is
that this perpetuity gives very little or no occasion to-
ambition ; and finally, it cannot be doubted that per-
petuity of office secures much authority for the General,,
both amongst externs and amongst Ours. A perpetual
dignity is held in greater esteem by all than a tem-
porary one, and a perpetual prelate has a firmer juris-
diction, is less dependent on his subjects, and conse-
quently can have greater authority, and is more feared,,
while he himself is more free from human respects both
of fear and love.
The danger of evils arising from the abuse of this*
authority, as regards either charity or justice, if com-
pared with the advantages of perpetuity and the dis-
advantages and dangers of frequent elections and
changes, is scarcely to be taken into account. It
is moreover provided against by the diligence and
prudence of the Society, to which the General is sub-
jected in all matters pertaining to manner of life and
mode of government, and cases are laid down in which
the Society can depose him and, if need be, remove
him from the Society itself.
Again, in the Society the occasions of this danger arc
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 329
for the most part cut off, at least so far as it might
issue in grave damage. They are chiefly two in num-
ber, namely excess by way of sumptuousness, or in food
and bodily comforts and luxuries, or in expenditure, or
in donations of temporal goods ; and secondly, the desire
of a higher clignhVv or greater honour. The first is in
great measure cut off by the food, clothing and expenses
of the General being regulated by ordinance of the Society,
with which he must acquiesce ; and one of the causes for
deposition is his taking any part of the revenues of the
Colleges for his own expenses, or giving it to any one
outside the Society except by way of alms, or alienating
the real property of the Houses or Colleges. The other
occasion is obviated by the vow not to procure or accept
any dignity save under obedience to the Apostolic See.
There remain onlv the human defects of negligence and
j CD CD
precipitation, and human affection by reason of which
some are favoured more than others, and the like ; and
these are met by the counsel of the Assistants, and by
the appointment of a Monitor, who is to be elected by the
whole body of the Society. The Monitor, having first
commended the matter to God in prayer, is bound with
due modesty and humility to admonish the General of
anything which he perceives to be required in him, to
the greater service and glory of God.
III. — Are the other Prelates fitly instituted in
the Society?
According to the constitution of the Society, all inferior
prelates under the General are created, not by election,
330 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
or by the suffrages of subjects, but by the will or pro-
vision of the General.
It was not without a special providence of God and
an inspiration of the Holy Ghost that St. Ignatius left
this mode of government to the Society ; and it is one of
the things which are principally necessary for its pre-
servation and progress, and especially for its peace and
tranquillity. Besides the authority of the Pounder and
his companions, and the perpetual consent of the whole
Order, we have in confirmation of this the authority of
the Pontiffs Paul III. and Julius III. Long experi-
ence moreover has shewn that no inconveniences of any
moment have hitherto followed from this mode of govern-
ment ; nay rather, that by reason of it the Society has
been governed with great peace and tranquillity, and with
observance of the due order of justice and charity. It
is therefore well adapted for our Institute, in accordance
with its special mode of life, whatever may be the case
as regards other Orders or congregations, whose customs
we in no way condemn.
The reasons for the preference of this mode of govern-
ment are drawn chiefly from consideration of the greater
evils which would follow to the Society from any other
mode of creating its prelates, and which are avoided
by this mode. In three ways may inferior prelates be
created ; first, by election made by the whole community;
secondly, by some superior prelate with a definitive council
or by a majority of suffrages ; and thirdly, by one prelate
with whom alone resides this power, although he ought
in using it to have the prudent counsel of his ministers.
The first mode is attended with great danger of beget-
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 33 I
ting the spirit of ambition which, as the Constitutions
often declare, is the pest of a religious Order. The more
democratic an election is, the less perfect it is, and the
more is it exposed to this vice. In every state of men
the prudent and those who are free from private affec-
tions are in the minority, and so when the electors are a
whole people or congregation or a great multitude, many
of them will be either young, or not prudent, or with
their affections not under sufficient control, and so it is
eas}7 to corrupt or deceive many, or to suborn them in
other ways, and hence there arises a spirit of ambition in
those who hope that by these means they may gain the
prelature.
Such elections moreover are often fruitful in divisions
and schisms, and there is also a danger of the prelate
elected being offended with those who have not voted
for him, and of his conniving and winking at faults in
others whicli ought to be punished, and, what is far more
serious, of his promoting to offices and dignities in the
Order those who have not merited them, or who are
unworthy of them.
By reason of the many disadvantages which have been
discovered by experience to attach to this mode of elec-
tion, and in order to avoid them, many religious Orders
have abandoned it, while there are others who hold and
desire that it should be abandoned ; and in the Universal
Church we find that the elections of bishops which were
of old made by the people or by the clergy, have been
put a stop to, while the election of the Pontiff is made
by a few persons, and those select persons.
Against the second mode of election, namely, election
$ $2 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
by a Council of Definitors, there militate all the reasons
for which, as we have seen, the ordinary government of
the Society, as regards all matters which are transacted
outside a General Congregation, is carried on by its pre-
lates alone, with the consultative but not definitive suf-
frages of others. If the Provincials were to be created
by election, either the election would be made by the
whole province in a Provincial Congregation, which
would have the disad vantage of lending occasion to
negotiations and pretensions, and in some provinces
would be very difficult and inconvenient, as for in-
stance in India, both by reason of the distances to
be travelled, and the insufficient knowledge of the elec-
tors with regard to the fitness of persons residing in
remote parts, and especially because it may often be ex-
pedient to have new Provincials from Europe ; or on the
other hand the election might be made by a few select
persons of the same province, and in this latter case
greater difficulties would arise than those which would
be avoided. No less prudence and rectitude would be
necessary in electing the electors than that which is
required in electing the Provincial himself. Again, if
this function were committed, as it were by law, say, to
four of the most ancient of the Professed, or to persons
holding certain offices, the consequences would be absurd.
Seniority does not so ordinarily carry with it all the
gifts which are so necessary in those who conduct so
weighty a matter. Again, either the electors would
have power to elect one of themselves, or they would
not ; in the former case, and when the number of electors
is so small, it would be no slight inconvenience to be at
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $$$
once electors and eligible for election ; while the latter
case would be almost morally impossible, since if it is
difficult, as St. Basil says, in a whole province to find a
worthy ruler for one monastery, how could all the
electors be excluded from election, since they themselves
would be necessarily among the principal men of the
whole province ?
It was therefore morally necessary for the Society
that the providing of Provincials should be entrusted to
the General, since it was not expedient that it should be
done by a Provincial Congregation.
The same reasons apply for the most part to the
creation of local superiors or Hectors. If this is not done
by election, it must be done by provision on the part of
some superior prelate ; and for many very good reasons
it is committed of ordinary power not to the Provincials
but to the General. It is easily to be believed, in the
first place, that the General will be more free from
private affections by reason of the greater responsi-
bility of his office and his less dependence on others, as
well as his less familiarity with the individual members
of distant provinces. Secondly, perfect subordination
and the union of the whole body with its head, which
is so necessary in order to its wrelfare, is hereby better
preserved. Thirdly, so great is the unity of the Society,
that as concerns the mutual aid and affection of its
members it is to be regarded as if it were one province
and nation. Provinces are multiplied by reason only of
the necessity which arises from the distance of places,
while in all things else, so far as the idea of the Institute
demands, there is to be observed the greatest unity and
334 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
communication of all goods and mutual assistance, as
far as possible. Hence the Bectors and superiors of
one province are often provided from another province ;
while sometimes a father who in one province is a
superior, is sent to another province to preach or teach.
Fourthly, since the General is perpetual, he ought to have
a comprehensive view of the whole Society and to observe
from a higher standpoint what persons are necessary for
particular places, and from what places or provinces he
may provide Eectors for other places, if he should judge
this to be more expedient. Although the principal
power with regard to this matter resides in the General,
he should nevertheless make use of the assistance of the
Provincials in order that he may fitly and worthily pro-
vide superiors, and he can also often entrust this duty
to them. Hence there is not excluded any advantage
which might arise from committing the power of pro-
viding inferior superiors to the Provincials ; while a
greater advantage results from the General's thus watch-
ing over all, and being able either to confirm that which
has been rightly proposed or done by the Provincials
in accordance with the power granted to them, or
certainly from his being able to correct that which he
may judge to be inexpedient.
The perils which may accompany the informations with
regard to individuals which are taken by the General,
and which may arise from error, deception, ignorance,
inordinate affections or other human passions on the
part of his informants, to say nothing of false detrac-
tions, manifestations of hidden sins, and exaggerations
of the smallest defects, or on the other hand false praises
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 335
and commendations, — are common to every mode of
election or provision which is made by means of men.
It is evident by experience that neither the Supreme
Pontiff, nor the bishops, nor kings or other princes can
provide for offices and dignities otherwise than by taking
the informations of persons whom they believe to be
worthy of credit. Hence where there are many electors,
every one of them must necessarily be led to form his
judgment by means of informations, and there is less
risk of error when one person only has to be informed,
instead of many, and that one a person so grave that all
owe to him the greatest reverence and fidelity, and so
prudent and powerful that others cannot easily, or will
not dare to deceive him. As regards those also from
whom information is to be taken, there is less risk,
since they are not only religious men with the fear of
Grod before their eyes, but men who also specially pro-
fess that no kind of ambition or negotiation should be
found amongst Ours.
No doubt there is a certain human advantage in this
that a superior may be more acceptable to and better
liked by his subjects if he has been spontaneously elected
by their suffrages, instead of being imposed upon them
from without, and in this also that he can, from his
previous knowledge of them, begin from the outset to
treat and love them as sons ; but this advantage, in
comparison with the disadvantages which follow from
elections, is as nothing. If elections were always unani-
mous, and made with entire uprightness of intention,
these advantages might be taken into account ; but since
elections are often made with contention and envy, the
3^6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
oo
advantage to some is counterbalanced by the disturbance
to others who have not voted for the superior who is
ultimately elected ; for these can hardly love or even
patiently endure him, especially if they feel that he is
not well affected towards them by reason of their not
having voted for him. But in any case the advantage
would be merely human, for those who profess perfec-
tion of obedience should be content, and St. Ignatius
was most desirous to educate Ours in this spirit that
withdrawing themselves from all human respects and
affections, they should will to have that prelate who
should be best adapted to govern them in the Lord.
This is moreover necessary amongst Ours for a special
reason, because Ours have no fixed domicile, but in
virtue of the Institute should be prepared to travel, or
to dwell in various provinces and regions, and they
should therefore be accustomed to be governed by un-
known as well as by known superiors. In the Society
also there is less inconvenience in superiors being brought
from one House to another, or from one Province to
another ; both because there are in the Society no filia-
tions of Houses or Provinces, but all are, as regards love
and every beneficence reckoned as of the same House,
and the whole Society is regarded as one Province ; and
also by reason of the frequency of communication which
takes place in the Society by means of letters and the
various missions, from which it results that persons,
especially those of most weight, and those who might
be appointed to office, come to be sufficiently well
known, and can themselves easily arrive at a knowledge
of others in order to their government ; and finally
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. ?>37
because the government itself is very uniform, and, as it-
were, of the same character in all the Houses and Pro-
vinces, and therefore is easily adapted for the exigences
of all.
Nearly always, however, or, as a rule, superiors in the
Society are selected from the same nation, and frequently
from the same province ; and if sometimes this is not the
case, there is a cause, or an urgent necessity, or the
person appointed has been educated and as it were
naturalized in the province. The selection moreover is
never made without much consultation of the principal
persons of the province, or without the judgment and
assent of many of its members. The affections and
inclinations of subjects are also taken into account, and
it is endeavoured that, as far as possible, they should be
governed by persons who will be grateful and acceptable
to them. The selection being made by one head does
not exclude this kind of providence and prudence, nay,
this can be the more easily exercised by one who has the
greatest acquaintance with the whole Order.
The appointment of superiors other than the General
is not in perpetuity ; and rightly, because he alone is
dependent on no one within the Order, while all others
depend on him ; and there is not the same necessity for
perpetuity in their case as there is in his, his creation
being by election, the frequency of which is to be avoided,
as we have seen, while they, being created without elec-
tion, can be easily changed and instituted by the General
himself. Philosophy teaches that all things movable
should be founded and rest on something which is
VOL. III. Y
$$S THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
immovable, so that by their changes they may mutu-
ally aid and preserve each other. The changing of
inferior prelates in the Society is necessary for various
causes and occasions which may occur, and because but
few persons are fitted for perpetual government with
profit to themselves and others.
There is no term of office fixed by the Constitutions
for inferior prelates, but their continuance depends on
the will of the General. The Constitutions however
declare that Provincials are to be appointed for three
years, although that space of time may be shortened or
lengthened, as it may appear to be to the greater glory
of God. This term is fixed only in order that at the
end of it they might be more conveniently and without
any note of censure removed from office ; for if the time
is to be lengthened that can be done without any diffi-
culty, since it redounds to the commendation of the
person. Greater inconvenience might be felt if one had
to be removed before the expiry of that term, but this
can rarely be necessary, and it can be done prudently
so as to cause no loss of reputation. It can certainly
be permitted sometimes for a greater common good, and
it may also be inflicted as a punishment.
The Constitutions say nothing with regard to the
term of administration of other inferior prelates, but
only that the General can both constitute and remove
them.
The Fifth General Congregation, however, enjoins that
all, even local superiors (with the exception of the Rectors
of the Houses of Probation and of the Seminaries, with
regard to whom the former law remains in its entirety).
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 339
should continue only for three years, within which time
they may be removed or sent elsewhere by the General
for just causes or for the common good ; and that the
term of three years cannot be lengthened, and that at the
end of it such superiors should be free from office for at
least a year, unless it should be necessary to promote
any one of them to the post of Provincial.
With regard to Provincials also it is ordained that
after their three years they should again be subjects for
at least a year, and that they should not hold during
that time even any other inferior prelature. This
determination was made not in order that the dignity
of prelate might be communicated to many, for the
Society most vehemently desires to extirpate all affection
for prelature, and as matter of fact the offices in the
Society have in them much more of burden and soli-
citude than of dignity, honour or advantage ; but in
order that the burden of office might be more easily
borne, and that those who are fitted for it, and therefore
likely to be more frequently appointed to it, should not
forget humility and subjection, and that they might
learn from experience to sympathize with their subjects.
By this means also there arise in the Society many men
who are fitted for government, because the prudence
which is necessaiy in order to good government is
acquired chiefly by practice and experience. There is
also left unhindered the principal institute of the Society
as regards its ministries to souls, and the missions which
are undertaken for this end, since the General can always
send any one whomsoever, or apply him to another work
or ministry notwithstanding the triennial law; for m
340 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
reality and properly speaking, no right to their three
years is acquired hy persons who are appointed as pre-
lates in the Society.
IV. — The power of jurisdiction which exists in
the Society.
There exists in the Society ecclesiastical jurisdiction,
both in the forum of confession, and in the exterior or
contentions forum, with regard to all its own members,
arid the causes pertaining to their persons, even if
those causes are criminal, or of any other kind what-
soever.
This is evident both from common doctrine with regard
to the exempt religious state, and from the many Pon-
tifical Bulls, by which the Society has been exempted
from the jurisdiction of all Ordinaries, and that from the
outset at its confirmation. It is apparent from the first
and fifth Bulls of Paul III. the first Bull of Julius III.
the Constitution of Gregory XIIT. Ascendente Domino,
and his Bull Satis super que. From these Pontifical-
Letters it appears that the Society has <^<m'-episcopal
jurisdiction over its subjects, such as exempt religious
Orders have at common law ; and that it has such juris-
diction to the full extent and with all the perfection
with which it has been granted to other religious Orders,
by means of its communication with them in their
Privileges in virtue of the same Apostolic Indults, and
especially with the Mendicants, in virtue of the Bull of
Pius V. Dwn indefessce. From these, and from many
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 34 1
special grants made directly and properly to the Society
itself in various Pontifical Bulls, it also appears that this
jurisdiction is in the Society ordinary as regards its
subjects ; since it is given to be exercised in virtue of
office, and by the proper pastors, superiors and judges of
such souls.
It is peculiar to the Society that no community in it
possesses proper governing jurisdiction, with the single
exception of a General Congregation of the whole body
of the Society ; for Provincial Congregations do not
possess such jurisdiction. A General Congregation pos-
sesses it in the highest degree. In the first place,
it has power to elect a General to whom it consequently
communicates the whole of the jurisdiction which he
holds. Secondly, after the General is elected, the Gene-
ral Congregation remains superior to him. Hence
it can not only bind him by its laws and precepts,
but it can also punish him, and even depose him for
certain lawful causes. Thirdly, it has power to estab-
lish perpetual laws in the Society, and to change them.
Fourthly, it has power to alienate or to dissolve Colleges
or Houses already erected and accepted. These acts are
proper to a General Congregation to this extent that
jurisdiction for the exercise of them is not to be found
in any single individual of the Society.
To a General Congregation it belongs also to elect the
Assistants and the Admonitor of the General : although
this may sometimes be done by the General himself,
with the concurrence of the decisive suffrages of all the
Provincials of Europe, or of the majority of them, when
it is necessary to substitute another Assistant or Ad-
342 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
monitor in the place of one deceased or sufficiently
hindered from the exercise of his office.
Although the jurisdiction of a General Congregation
is ordinary, as ordinary is distinguished from delegated
jurisdiction, it may nevertheless be called extraordi-
nary, as it is distinguished from that jurisdiction by
which the Society is ordinarily ruled. It is undoubtedly
not delegated jurisdiction, because it belongs to the
Congregation by certain and established law confirmed
by the Pontiffs, and it is exercised in virtue of office
by the Congregation, and the Congregation can delegate
and commit it, nay, can even confer it as ordinary.
We call this jurisdiction extraordinary, because it
does not belong to the ordinary government of the
Society, or to its perfection and integrity, that a General
Congregation should be always actually in existence ;
or that ordinarily jurisdiction should immediately flow
from it to the Society, since it is to be assembled only
in necessary cases, which may be called extraordinary.
This jurisdiction moreover is not actual save for the
time during which the General Congregation actually
exists, and therefore again it may be called extraor-
dinary.
The supreme ordinary jurisdiction of the Society
exists in the General alone, both in virtue of his office,
and in virtue of law ; and the ordinary inflow of juris-
diction by which the Society is ruled springs either
immediately from him, or with dependence upon him.
Jurisdiction is committed by the Pontiff immediately
to the Society ; and through the Society, as existing in
a General Congregation, it is transferred to the General.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 343
The Pontiff did not confer this power on St. Ignatius,
as Christ conferred ecclesiastical power on Peter, but he
bestowed it on the Society,
V. — The power of jurisdiction which exists in
inferior Prelates of the Society.
The inferior prelates of the Society share its jurisdic-
tion and power in greater or less measure in accordance
with their respective offices, and with the distribution
or communication of it which is made by the General.
Provincials, and local superiors or rectors of the
Society possess ordinary and not merely delegated
jurisdiction, for they are ordinary pastors and true
prelates. To possess jurisdiction is intrinsic to their
offices, and this suffices to its character as ordinary.
Hence the General not only cannot absolutely take
away his jurisdiction from a Provincial or Rector, for
this would involve a contradiction, since to possess it is
of the intrinsic idea of their offices ; but he also cannot
cause the Society to be governed without proper Pro-
vincials and local prelates, because for it to be governed
by these belongs to its primary institution, and that the
General cannot change. Only as regards the measure
or extent of their jurisdiction do these prelates depend
on the General, and this is not at variance with the
idea of ordinary jurisdiction ; for it is almost in the
same way that the bishops and a fortiori the legates
of the Pope depend on the Pope, and yet they have
ordinary jurisdiction. Some measure of jurisdiction
344 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
is, of the nature of the case, necessarily annexed to
their offices, namely, that measure without which these
offices could not morally and in due manner be
fulfilled. Each of them has his own rules, and cer-
tain constitutions which affect him, and these declare
the power which belongs to his office. That power is
therefore to be regarded as ordinary, because it rests on
certain prescribed law, and is possessed and exercised
in virtue of office. Any farther powers which the
General may be pleased to grant either to all, or to any
inferior prelates, will be not ordinary, but delegated
only.
In ascertaining the faculties of a prelate in the Society,
the affirmative rather than the negative rule is to be
followed ; namely, that each can do whatever has been
granted to him ; and not — that he can do whatever has
not been prohibited to him.
This power of jurisdiction of the prelates of the Society
extends over all the religious thereof, and to all the acts
or matter to which religious jurisdiction whether at
common law or by privilege extends. It extends even
over the Scholastics, because they are true religious,
and true members incorporated into the Society ; but
with regard to novices there is a distinction. The
Society has not over them proper involuntary, or direc-
tive jurisdiction, by which it may specially bind them
in conscience, nor has it coercive jurisdiction by which
it may compel them ; and this because they have not
vowed obedience, nor has the Society accepted any
promise of obedience, or incorporated them into itself.
But as regards voluntary jurisdiction they are in a
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 345
manner subject to the Society, and are capable of the
reception of those spiritual graces which the General
has it in his power to bestow in accordance with the
grant of the Apostolic See ; and they are included in all
Privileges which are granted to all who live under the
obedience of the Society, and this novices do, although
not under the obligation of a vow.
VI. — Do THE PRELATES OF THE SOCIETY RIGHTLY
EXACT FROM THEIR SUBJECTS A MANIFESTATION OF
THEIR CONSCIENCES, IN ORDER TO THEIR INDIVIDUAL
GOVERNMENT ?
It is a rule of the Society that all its members should
from their entrance into it manifest the state of their
consciences to their superior in order that he may have
an intimate knowledge not only of their morals, but
of their affections and inclinations ; and this is to be
regarded as anions the substantiate of the Institute.
This is in accordance with the spirit of the ancient
Fathers, and of the Founders of religious Orders. St. Basil
recommends it, and especially to those who have been on
pilgrimage for some time outside the monastery. He
says that they should, as soon as they return, give a
perfect account to their prelate not only of their words
and actions, but even of their thoughts. St. Benedict
says that it is the fifth degree of humility. Cassian
says that besides the great humility of this exercise,
there is its utility for the instruction of the religious
and for arming them against the snares of the devil, and
n
46 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
lie concludes that it is a general and evident sign of
diabolical cogitation, if they are ashamed to manifest it
to an elder. Although these Fathers are speaking chiefly
of the younger religious, and it is true that a manifesta-
tion of their various temptations and the movements of
their souls is more necessary in their case than it is in
that of the more advanced, yet a faithful manifestation
of conscience proportioned to the individual subject
and to the will of the superior, has always been judged
necessary by the Fathers for all by reason of their state ;
because it is ordained not only for instruction towards
the overcoming of temptations, but in order to the whole
spiritual government of the soul, with perfect obedience
and humility, and in order to obtain greater grace from
■God, through the intervention of the superior. St.
Buonaventure says that it pertains to a prelate to know
the consciences of every one of his subjects, and he
gives as reasons, that he may unravel their perplexities,
foresee and guard against perils of sin, admonish the
brethren to progress, correct those who are to be cor-
rected, elucidate their doubts, inform each how he is
fittingly to administer the offices entrusted to him so
as to satisfy Lis brethren and not offend his own con-
science. He says that this is of the substance of the pas-
toral office ; and his doctrine confirms the declaration
■of the Society that manifestation of conscience is of the
substance of its Institute. If it is of the substance
of the office of a Eector to know the consciences of
his subjects, it certainly must be of the substance
of the duty of a subject to manifest his conscience
to him.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $47
Manifestation of conscience may be made under the
seal of confession, or of a secret, or in any way the sub-
ject pleases, and which will be for his greater consolation.
It may therefore be made in sacramental confession ; for
in no other way can it be made under the seal of con-
fession. However much one may premise that he says
a thing under the seal of confession, unless he truly
confesses sacramentally, and speaks in order thereto, he
will not bind under the seal the person to whom he
speaks.
There is a great difference between the matter of
manifestation of conscience and that of sacramental
confession, for the latter consists only of sins actually
committed, while the former includes much more, and
not sins and defects only, but penances, mortifications,
devotions and virtues ; and among evils, not only actual
sins, but also temptations, depraved habits and inclina-
tions ; and not only evil acts, but also imperfections, and
occasions of evil, and transgressions of Rule, even when
these are not in themselves sins. All these lie within
the limits of manifestation of conscience, and a know-
ledge of them is necessary in order to the spiritual
government of a religious person.
Manifestation of conscience differs also from sacra-
mental confession both in itself and in its intrinsic end.
Confession is in itself ordained solely towards obtaining
remission of sins, and worthily satisfying God for them,
and consequently towards amendment, inasmuch as a
purpose of amendment is a part of the necessary satis-
faction ; while every other end besides this, although it
may not be evil or at variance with the end and due
34-8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
circumstances of confession, is accidental to sacramental
confession as such. Manifestation of conscience, on the
other hand, is not in itself ordained for remission of sins,
although it may serve towards this by way of consul-
tation, and so may be made with a view to penance.
Manifestation of conscience is ordained chiefly in order
to direction of life for the future, and this requires
manifestation of past acts in so far as a knowledge of the
past is necessary in order to provision for the future.
Since this direction is ordained not only for the avoid-
ance of evil, but also towards progress in good, and not
only in necessary good, but in that which is better and
perfect, a manifestation not only of vices but also of
virtues is necessary. It greatly contributes towards
sound direction for the purpose both of progress and of
preservation, if the superior has a knowledge of his sub-
ject's inclinations and temptations and also of the divine
inspirations and aids with which he has been favoured,
and therefore all these are rightly comprehended under
the matter of this observance.
This direction moreover concerns not only the subject
but his superior, for by means of his knowledge of his
subject's conscience he should be greatly aided in his
government of him, not only by counsels and admoni-
tions, but also in his selection of ministries and occupa-
tions for him so that he should not place him in peril
of falling, but in a state which will be advantageous for
his spiritual welfare. This is most of all necessary
in Orders which give themselves to ministries to their
neighbours, for in these spiritual perils may more easily
occur, unless the superior can foresee and guard against
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 349
them, and, as St. Buona venture says, he can scarcely
foresee them unless he has a knowledge of the conscience
of his subject.
Hence, in order to these ends it is necessary that this
manifestation of such matters should be made outside
confession, or that leave should be given by the subject
to make use of the knowledge which has been acquired
through sacramental confession. Such a knowledge as
is not under the seal must therefore be given to the
superior, for a superior ought not and cannot compel a
subject to make sacramental confession to him. Hence
a subject can either make manifestation in confession
only, if that mode is more pleasing to him, and if there
is no necessitv for the other knowledge ; or he can
render an account of his conscience outside confession,
and to exact this, at least as regards matters of which
it is necessary that the superior should have knowledge,
the superior has a right.
Without the subject's consent nothing can be revealed
pertaining either to temptations which are not sins, or
to natural inclination towards any vice, or to any similar
matter revelation of which might be burdensome to the
penitent. Hence if any use of such knowledge is neces-
sary outside confession, the superior should exact from
the penitent that he should give it to him outside con-
fession, or that he should declare that he has given it
concomitantly only in confession, and not so as properly
to fall under the seal of confession ; and this the subject
will be bound to do in accordance with the Eule. This
necessity of exacting leave from the penitent exists
chiefly when the use to be made of the knowledge is
350 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
merely external or quasi-political, or carries with it some
suspicion of revelation ; for if the use of it should be
only in order to spiritual care and provision with regard
to the penitent himself, without any fear or suspicion
of revelation, and the matter did not directly and proxi-
mately belong to confession of sins, the use of such
knowledge might more easily be allowed, without re-
quiring the penitent's leave. #
When the account of conscience is given outside con-
fession there is and can be no secret of the seal, but
there arises the greatest obligation of the natural secret,
such as arises from a secret consultation with regard to
a matter of conscience. This is morally necessary in
order to render this burden or means endurable, and
charity and justice demand it, and it is in view of
this that the subject lays bare his conscience, not to
defame himself, but to provide for his spiritual neces-
sities, which he can and ought to do.
Hence in the Ordinances common to the whole
Society and authorized by the Seventh General Congre-
gation, this secret is commended in the strongest terms,
and a superior who should violate it is to be severely
punished and, if need be, with deposition from his office.
Superiors are also strictly enjoined to observe the secret
as regards defects of one subject which have been frater-
nally manifested to them by another, as well as regards
those which the delinquent himself manifests as his own.
No doubt manifestation is a difficult matter for one
who has not determined to profess the way of perfection,
* See note on page 352.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 35 1
or who does not faithfully persevere in his purpose of
perfection and make progress towards it ; but for one
who is rightly affected and disposed in the desire of
attaining to perfection, and of perfectly moderating all
his passions, and of avoiding all occasions and occupations
which might hinder his progress, as that man ought to
do who professes the religious life, and of seeking in all
things the greater service of God and of his Order, it
will not be difficult for him to avail himself of this means.
Love of the end renders easy a means which is necessary
or conducive to the attaining of the end, even if other-
wise that means should seem difficult ; and in this sense
Christ our Lord said that His yoke was sweet and His
burden was light. Plutarch says that the first founda-
tion of virtue is an immense love in the pursuit of it,
and he places this very means among the principles of
progress in virtue, and adds that, according to Diogenes,
if any one desires to arrive at good fruit, he has need of
a loving friend, or of a bitter and burning enemy, in
order that he may avoid sin either through being-
corrected, or through being gently cured. If therefore
this means did not appear to be so very difficult to a
philosopher, in comparison with the attainment of ordi-
nary virtue, why should it seem hard to a religious if it
is regarded from the point of view of the perfection of
charity, and the purity of heart to be obtained? The sub-
ject gains in the benevolence and esteem of his superior
by reason of his fidelity and his signs of repentance and
purpose of amendment, more than he can lose by reason
of the sins which he has committed ; for past sins, when
blotted out by penance, do not defame a man even
352 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
before God Himself, and hence they ought not to defame
him in the eyes of a spiritual father who should stead-
fastly strive to imitate God. Superiors ought to be
most cautious on this point lest they should come to
be regarded by their subjects as judges rather than as
fathers ; while subjects, on the other hand, ought not to
be too delicate so as to think that everything appointed
for them that does not please them is done unjustly,
or that if a particular prelate should happen at a time
to be imprudent all the others are to be regarded as
like him, or that, for this cause only, a necessary rule
and holy custom should be changed.
As matter of fact it is ascertained by use and prac-
tice that there is less difficulty in this observance than
might appear in speculation and apprehension, that is
to say, in the case of persons who have an upright will
to make progress in religion. #
VII. — IS FRATERNAL DENUNCIATION RIGHTLY MADE IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THE RULE, AND PARTICULAR
GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY ?
As spontaneous manifestation of conscience is neces-
sary in order to the private and voluntary direction of
* Father- General John Paul Oliva in his Epistle on this subject of
March 12, 1669, strictly prohibited superiors from acting otherwise with
regard to manifestation of conscience, than as they are bound to act with
regard to sacramental confession. Hence they cannot use knowledge
gained through manifestation, for the external government of the subject,
without his express and spontaneous leave ;, while all other knowledge so
gained they cannot in any way reveal to any one, neither Rectors to the
Provincial, nor Provincials or Visitors to the General himself.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 353
the individual religious, so also denunciation by others
is necessary in order to common correction of faults,
and chiefly in the case of persons who hide and excuse
their faults ; and it ought to obtain in every well-ordered
community.
This denunciation, which is called fraternal, is justly
prescribed, and ordained by the Constitutions, since it
is an act which is good in itself and necessary to the
common good, so loug as it is made to a lawful prelate,
and with due circumstances. The rule of the Society
is — that in order to greater progress in spirit, and prin-
cipally in order to greater submission and humility,
-every one should be content that all his errors aud
defects, and all things whatsoever, which have been
noted and observed in him, should be manifested to
superiors by any one whomsoever who has come to a
.-knowledge of them outside confession.
Hence all defects, even if they are grievous sins, and
wholly hidden, are to be manifested to the superior by
any one whomsoever who has certain knowledge of them,
and this without previous admonition of the delinquent,
and without regard had to amendment as the end, and
wTith the view only of greater perfection, subjection and
humility. The matter of fraternal denunciation is most
universal, and, with the exception of the knowledge of
confession and that knowledge which has been communi-
cated under secret for the purpose of obtaining spiritual
counsel, includes everything whatsoever, even the most
hidden, certain knowledge of which has been arrived at
* o
in any way.
This rule supposes the renunciation which all who
VOL. III. z
354 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
enter the Society expressly make of all their rights to
their own reputation ; and since to him who wills and
consents no injury is done, so no loss of reputation in
the eyes of a superior, which may result from fraternal
denunciation, can be an injustice.
Further, this renunciation of right to one's reputation
is made in the Society in order to greater progress in
spirit, as the Rule itself declares, and ordinarily there
will be greater progress when correction is made by
a superior than when it is made by a private person ;
and so the immediate manifestation to the superior of
another's defect, without any previous admonition of
him, cannot be contrary to charity. It seems, on the
contrary, to make for charity, since what is aimed at by
such denunciation, and results from it, as we suppose, is a
greater good. Nowhere in the Gospel, which never bars
the way of greater progress to any one, is there declared
or conferred any right on the erring to be admonished
by a brother before being admonished by a father.
The Kule only declares it to be lawful to manifest the
defects of others, and that even without interrogation
on the part of the superior. It does not bind to mani-
festation of the faults of others, and it certainly would
not be expedient to impose this burden upon all, or
even to permit it, because it would be most troublesome
to superiors, as well as odious to the brethren, and
might greatly lessen charity and fraternal union. It is
in the power of superiors to commit this charge to certain
persons, and these will be bound, according to the degree
of obligation imposed on them ; but this is less done in
the Society than it is in some other religious Orders. In
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $55
some Orders there are zelators or acclamators, as they
are called, who are bound under oath to proclaim what
they may have observed ; but in the Society there is no
obligation imposed by ordinary law, but only a simple
ordinance. Sometimes indeed, the matter may induce
a greater obligation of charity, and may even compel
the superior to strictly prescribe vigilance. Hence the
Sixth General Congregation ordains that in the case of
faults which are to the detriment of the common good,
or to the imminent damage of a third person, such as
those which are infectious to others, or hurtful to the
Order, every one not only can, but is also bound to
manifest these to the superior, as to a father, in order
that he may secretly and prudently provide for the good
both of the subject and of the Order.
The Seventh General Congregation declares that those
are to be severely punished who rashly and from inane
suspicions, or any cause which cannot be proved, falsely
impute crime to another, even if they do this only to
the superior, since this is in reality an injury. It adds
that superiors are to beware of lending an easy ear to
denouncers, and that they should closely examine into
all particulars until they shall have arrived at a know-
ledge of the matter denounced, so that they may either
set free the innocent, or punish the noxious and false
denouncer, in proportion to the magnitude of the case.
Even if a real fault has been committed, the Society
wills that it should be manifested with due charity.
A denouncer cannot use not only that knowledge
which proceeds either immediately or mediately from
sacramental confession, but also that which has been
356 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
communicated to him by way of secret and for the sake
of seeking counsel, direction and aid, for if that were
allowed men would be deterred from this spiritual
remedy. But apart from this, if the revelation has been
made merely from motives of friendship, or from any
other human motive, the Eule invalidates every promise
whatsoever, even if it has been made under oath, not to
reveal the matter to the superior.
VIII. — The general doctrine of Denunciation, and
ITS APPLICATION TO THE PRACTICE OF THE SOCIETY.
Denunciation — as it is distinguished from Accusation,
which in itself aims at, not the amendment of a brother,
but the securing of one's own interests, or satisfaction, or
the punishment of the offender, — is a lawful delation or
manifestation made to a superior, in order that in the
exercise of his office he may provide for the reparation
or hindrance of some damage or loss.
The sin of a brother may be either already committed,
or it may be in danger of being committed, or it may have
been already committed, and there is also danger of its
continuation or repetition. The proper matter of denun-
ciation is sin which has been already committed, because
correction concerns not a future act but an act already
committed. A future sin, however, if it is already morally
existing in a peril or occasion thereof, can be denounced
to the superior, in order that he may prevent or hinder
it. Even if in a particular case there should be no
place for fraternal correction, there may be room for
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 357
denunciation from the motive of fraternal charity ; and
so a rule of the Society ordains that if any one knows of
the grave temptation of another, he should inform the
superior, in order that he by his paternal care and pro-
vision may supply a fitting remedy.
Lesser faults are rightly manifested immediately to
the superior, without any previous admonition of the
offender. Grave faults are those which are either mortal
sins, or which are such as to beget suspicion of such
sins. All defects which are not of this nature may
be reckoned among lesser faults. Even grave faults
may be lawfully manifested to the superior without
previous admonition of the offender, for the reasons
already indicated, which apply to the religious state in
genera], and in a special manner to the Society, and
which render such denunciation not only lawful, but
expedient. Not only is paternal correction by the supe-
rior, to whom denunciation is made not as he is a judge
but as he is a father, more likely, as in other Orders,
to produce more fruit by way of amendment than may
be hoped for from fraternal correction by the admonition
of a fellow-subject, but in the Society the providence of
a prelate is specially necessary, and chiefly by reason of
its ministries towards its neighbours, and the various
occasions in which on account of such ministries Ours
may from time to time be placed by their prelates. There
is also the greater dependence which Ours have on their
prelates, not only in their offices and ministries, but also
in their works of penance, mortification and prayer.
There is further the special communion and fraternal
union which is professed by the Society, a result of which
1
58 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
is this, that the sin of one member might more easily
infect the others, if this were not hindered by a special
vigilance. Again, in accordance with the Institute of
the Society, the religious are educated and trained in this
observance from their youth, and the majority of them are
young, and at an age when they stand in need of the
providence and discipline of their prelates. Finally, the
more the Society is concerned with its neighbours, the more
does it stand in need of a good name and reputation, and
the more necessary it is that this should not be fictitious
and baseless, but founded in true and solid virtue ; and
this can scarcely be obtained and preserved unless supe-
riors have knowledge of the defects of their subjects, so
that they may appoint each to that which he can do
without damage to himself and without scandal to his
neighbours.
In particular cases it may have to be considered
whether there is not an absence of all reason for imme-
diate denunciation to the superior, for it may happen in
a particular case that, on weighing all the circumstances,
it is prudently judged that to acquaint the superior is
neither necessary nor will be useful for the amendment
of the delinquent, for the security of the Society or for
the other good ends which are aimed at by denunciation
(which, since it is a most rare case, is not provided for
by law or rule) ; and in this case one is to abstain from
denunciation, if the fall is hidden, and has given no
scandal to others, and if there is no fear of future scandal.
Although a lessening of reputation in the eyes of a
prudent prelate, who loves his subject as a son, and who
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 359
will keep his secret, may not seem to be a great loss,
nevertheless, if it is done without reasonable cause, it
cannot be excused from sin ; for whenever the hidden sin
of a brother is without just cause revealed to another,
whoever he may be, there is by common doctrine the
vice of detraction. Such sin is of its nature mortal,
although it may easily become venial when the denun-
ciation is made with a good intention, even if it is made
imprudently. .>
When the fault of a subject has become known to a
prelate by denunciation, he ought first of all secretly to
admonish and correct him : and if he acknowledges his
fault, and promises amendment, there is nothing further
to be done, by way of either public punishmeut or dis-
grace, although the superior may impose a secret penance
in proportion to the fault, either by way of satisfaction,
or as a remedy. He can also remove occasions of sin,
and he may with this end in view make some change
in his subject's occupation or habitation, but in such
wise as that no scandal or loss of reputation should
result. If such a change however is not necessary in
order to remove occasions of sin, he should not vex his
subject, nor remove him from his office or treat him
with less honour than before.
If the subject will not acknowledge his fault, or pro-
mise amendment, and the prelate is morally certain of
his fault, on the testimony of at least one unexceptionable
eye-witness, he may severely rebuke him, and this even
in the presence of two or three grave persons, if he
should judge this to be expedient in order to move him,
360 THE RELIGIOUS STATE. '
or for his greater confusion. He may also threaten him
that he will search into his life, that he has no confidence
in him, and the like ; and, according to the kind of
person he is, he can enjoin or inflict some religious
correction, penance or chastisement, if he considers it-
prudent in order to strike fear into him for the future.
The proof and knowledge which he possesses is sufficient
for all this, and to all this his paternal office apart from
his power of jurisdiction, extends ; for a father in the
natural order can in a similar case chastise his son, if he
is prudently persuaded that what has been said to him
about his son is true, even if he has no juridical or full
proof of the fault. Finally, he can prescribe to him with
all rigour and, if need be, under pain of excommuni-
cation ipso facto to be incurred, that he should avoid a
particular occasion, as for instance, that he should not
go to such and such a place, or that he should avoid
familiarity with such and such a person.
All these steps however depend on prudence, because
by no human law are they either prohibited or pre-
scribed, and they do not in themselves exceed the
dominative power of a father,* nor do they result in
notable disgrace to the subject.
If notwithstanding all this, the subject is pertinacious,
and will not receive any admonition, and his fault is
neither notorious nor capable of judicial proof, and it
does not tend directly to the damage of the community,
the prelate has nothing more that he can do with regard
to his subject, save to pray for him, to watch over him, and
* With the exception of an excommunication which requires jurisdic-
tion in the superior.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 36 1
to remove from him all occasions of sin, so far as lie
can do so without disgrace to him, or scandal.
IX. — The three modes of procedure in external
judgment against the offences of subjects j
and first, Visitation, or General Enquiry.
There are three modes in which prelates and judges
can proceed in external judgment, in order to know and
punish the sins of subjects, namely, by way of Accusa-
tion, by way of Judicial denunciation, and by way of
Enquiry.
General Enquiry or Visitation differs from the other
two modes in this that in it the judge himself takes the
initiative, and no one else compels him by bringing the
offence to his ears, and demanding his recognition of it.
He himself makes enquiry, and so this mode is called
the way of enquiry. It is made in two ways, namely,
in general or in particular. A general enquiry is made
in the visitations of religious Orders. The Council of
Trent ordained that exempt regular prelates should
visit the monasteries which are subject to them, and
that the bishops should visit the monasteries which are
not exempt. This is not only lawful, but is of official
obligation. In the Society, the Provincials ordinarily,
and Visitors delegated by the General extraordinarily
visit in his name, since he himself cannot by reason of
his innumerable other and most important occupations
visit the Society in person. To the General however this
function chiefly belongs, since he has supreme jurisdiction
362 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
over all the members of the Society, although as a rule
he does not exercise it in person, because as the Consti-
tutions declare, it contributes greatly to the free com-
munication of the head with its members, that he should
for the most part reside at Rome, where he may more
easily hold intercourse with all the places of the Society.
By reason of the great dependence of the Society on its
head, it is necessary that he should have a fixed abode,
and by reason of his special dependence on the Apos-
tolic See, he can have no more convenient abode than
Rome.
When there is no special reason for visitatiou, besides
the official obligation to make it, enquiry can be made
only in general, so far as persons are concerned. A
prelate can enquire in three ways with regard to faults.
In the first place, in general as regards both faults
and persons, as when the prelate in his visitation en-
quires whether there are any crimes in the community,
or whether the laws and statutes are observed, or
whether any one knows of another having committed
any crime, or the like. This mode of enquiry is in
itself just, and requires beforehand no other circumstance
besides the right and act of visitation, because by this
mode of interrogation no injury is done to any one, and
it is morally necessary in order to begin the visitation,
for such interrogation is not properly a judicial act, but
is an act of general government, and it is as it were a
preamble to judgment, should judgment be necessary.
Secondly, enquiry may be made by interrogation which
is special as regards a particular fault, but is general as
regards persons ; as for instance, if a prelate were to
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. ^6;
OwJ
enquire if one knows that any one in the house possesses
anything as his own property, or has left the monastery
at night, or the like. This again is without injury to any
one, since the interrogation is made with regard to no
one person in particular. It ought not however to be
adopted, especially in religious Orders, unless the special
sin which is enquired about has been committed, or
unless there is a common rumour and suspicion of its
having been committed, although there has been no
disgrace or knowledge of the culprit. The reason is
because, when there has been no previous rumour, some
injury seems to be done to the community by this mode
of interrogation, as appearing to beget suspicion that
something of the sort has been done, especially when
the sins enquired about are grievous and disgraceful to
religious.
Besides these two modes of Enquiry, which are general,
there is a third, which is particular with regard to such
and such a person ; and it may be made also in par-
ticular with regard to such and such a sin, as for
instance, whether Peter has stolen ? or whether he
has committed some grievous sin ? It is a common
rule wTith regard to this particular enquiry, that it is
not lawful to make it unless there has been a pre-
vious loss of that person's reputation in accordance with
the character of the sin. When the enouirv is not
made on occasion of some public sin, and in order to its
punishment, or to take away the scandal, or to redress
the injury resulting from it, but is made only on the
ground of official visitation, or of customary govern-
ment, there is then to be considered the person or
364 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
J
the community with regard to whom the visitation is
directly ordained and instituted. If it is directed to the
whole community, it is not lawful to interrogate with
regard to one more particularly than with regard to
others, unless there has been a previous loss of personal
reputation with regard to a particular vice, or with regard
to the person's life in general, that it has not been moral
or religious. But if the visitation is instituted with
regard to a particular person by reason of his special
office, then it will be lawful apart from any previous loss
of reputation on his part, to enquire in particular how he
conducts himself in his office, or whether anything has
been noted in him, without descending to particulars.
The reason is because, as in the visitation of a com-
munity general interrogation is necessary in order to
commence the visitation, so when a visitation is insti-
tuted with regard, for instance, to the Provincial, it
must necessarily be begun by an interrogation which is
particular as regards him, and which is at the same time
general as regards his life and office. No suspicion is
thus begotten, because it is evident that the particular
interrogation is made not because of any special sus-
picion, but because he is the proper and special object
of the visitation. With regard to any particular vice
of his there can be no interrogation, unless there
has been by reason of that vice a previous loss of his
reputation.
Hence it follows that in such visitations a subject,
even when interrogated upon oath, is not bound to mani-
fest a religious whom he knows to have sinned, when
the sin is so hidden that no disgrace attaches to him.
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 365
The judge cannot juridically interrogate with regard to
such a person, and therefore the subject is not bound to
auswer by manifesting the offender. If the judge interro-
gates absolutely, it is always understood that he is
enquiring whether his subjects know of the sin of any
one who is already defamed by reason of that sin.
There must be no confusion between the principles
which apply to judicial denunciation and juridical
visitation, and those which apply to paternal, secret and
private denunciation made to a prelate alone, and to that
prelate as he is a father and not a judge.
X. — The mode of procedure by way of Special
Enquiry ; by way of Judicial Denunciation ;
and by way of accusation.
Supposing sufficient loss of reputation or adequate
suspicion of a crime, a prelate can proceed to a special
enquiry concerning his subject; and this whether he
has or has not hopes of his amendment, for now he
aims principally not at the amendment but at the
punishment of his subject, and to provide a remedy for
the scandal which has arisen from his loss of reputation,
or from the suspicion of crime which attaches to him.
Although the mode of procedure in a religious Order
does not require all the niceties of law, it should never-
theless be sufficiently juridical so as to obtain public
credit; and therefore the witnesses should be examined
in presence of a notary, or a secretary appointed by the
prelate from amongst the religions, who will faithfully
2,66 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
commit to writing all the acts of the enquiry, and sub-
scribe his record along with the prelate, so as to provide
proof of the same.
The witnesses are to be interrogated distinctly and
clearly, according to articles and heads which have been
previously prepared by the prelate along with the
notary.
Although when the suspicion of a crime has been
noised abroad no proof of the fact of this is necessary,
since previous evidence is supposed in order to justify
entrance on the enquiry and to oblige the witnesses
to answer, it is nevertheless best to examine some
witnesses not only with regard to the crime, but also
with regard to the suspicion or report of it, in order
to the better conviction of the culprit.
The witnesses should be examined on oath, for other-
wise their evidence does not afford sufficient judicial
testimonv.
Further procedure will be in accordance with the
merits of the cause, as they emerge from the testimony
of the witnesses. If no witness condemns the accused
of the crime, so as at least to furnish a half- complete
proof thereof, the accused cannot personally be lawfully
interrogated ; and so either further enquiry is to be
made of other witnesses, or the case is no further to
he proceeded with. Suspicion of the crime sufficiently
proved amounts however to such a half-complete proof
of the crime itself as to justify the accused person being
cited and interrogated. He will be interrogated on oath,
but in order that he should be obliged to answer, he
must first be satisfied as to the lawfulness of the pro-
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 367
cedure against him, and the proof which has been already
led is to be read to him.
Judicial denunciation may be commenced in two ways,
either immediately, as when one begins a cause by assum-
ing the office of denouncer before a prelate or judge ; or
secondly, by passing from evangelical denunciation to
judicial denunciation.
It is not necessary that there should be previous
suspicion of the crime in order that one may justly
denounce it judicially. Previous suspicion is required
when the procedure is by way of enquiry, in order that
enquiry may take the place of an accuser ; but when
procedure is byway of denunciation the place of accuser
is taken by the denouncer, although he does not en-
tirely take the whole burden upon him, since he is not
bound to prove his case in the same way as an accuser.
Judicial denunciation, which cannot be made without
great and public loss of reputation, should be preceded
by secret fraternal admonition, when there is hope of
amendment therefrom. So necessary is this that, if the
denouncer has not done it and should fail in his proof,
he can scarcely be excused from calumny, and he will
have to prove his innocence of calumnious intention in
his denunciation. Eeligious are not exempt from this
obligation, for they have no privilege of exemption ; and
this is much in accordance not only with perfection but
also with the demands of charity. Hence even in the
Society there is, in the matter of judicial denunciation,
no renunciation of right to reputation.
Much less may denunciation be made after secret
368 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
admonition, if the latter has produced its effect ; for
in that case the end of judicial denunciation ceases,
and it would be no longer denunciation, but grievous
detraction.
When denunciation is from the outset made principally
for the sake of the common good, or to prevent loss to a
third party, previous secret admonition is not necessary,
since the common good or that of an innocent party is
to be preferred to the advantage and reputation of the
guilty party ; and the prelate may proceed at once
according to rigour of law to the examination of wit-
nesses, and to receiving the confession of the accused
and the like, having regard not principally to his
amendment, but to the indemnification of the common
good or innocent third party. Since however the good
of the subject, however guilty he may be, should never
be separated from the common good, as far as the pre-
late is concerned, since both fall under his care and
obligation, he is bound, if he has hope of being able
to correct his subject, and sufficiently to meet the evil
by means of charity and in the exercise of his pastoral
office, to endeavour in the first place secretly to correct
and amend him. If he succeeds, he can proceed no
farther to public judgment or punishment. He must
however be very certain with regard to the indemnifi-
cation of third parties, and the crime must not be one
of those grievous crimes which are at once to be brought
to judgment.
Procedure by way of Accusation is not common in
religious Orders, although it is not wholly excluded, for
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 369
a religious who has suffered an injury can accuse the
offender to his prelate. No previous suspicion, nor any
attempt at fraternal correction is necessary, since the end
of accusation is not the amendment of a brother, but the
just avenging of a wrong. One can accuse without in-
justice and without lack of charity, if the accusation is
made riot from hatred, but either from affection towards
the Order and desire that similar injuries should not be
introduced into it, or from affection towards one's own
advantage, such as for instance, one's due honour, good
name or the like.
To accuse for the sake of avenging oneself, or in
recompense for a wrong suffered, although not evil in
itself, is nevertheless perilous and as a rule foreign to
those who profess the religious state ; and therefore
this mode of procedure is not frequently resorted to
and should, if possible, and when denunciation will
serve all necessary purposes, be avoided in religious
Orders.
XT. — What form of judgment is observed in the
Society?
No judicial denunciation is prescribed in the Consti-
tutions or Pontifical Bulls, but whenever denunciation
or the correction of defects is spoken of, it is always
added that all things should be done to the greater glory
of God, or as charity demands ; or some equivalent
phrase is used which relates properly to fraternal denun-
ciation and paternal correction.
vol. in. 2 A
3/0 THE liELlGIOUS STATE.
Similarly, when they speak of enquiry or interroga-
tion, 'paternal enquiry or interrogation is understood,
as the correlative to the denunciation which is made
by a subject to the superior as to a father and not as to
a judge.
There is no rule, however, in the Society which gives
leave to a prelate to enquire even in this paternal
mauner into the life of a subject in particular, or with
regard to any crime of his, when there has been no
previous suspicion or rumour of such crime.
Much less is there any trace to be found in the Insti-
tute of procedure by way of accusation.
No mode of procedure which differs from the ordinary
judicial forms of common law, is prescribed as peculiar
to the Society by the Constitutions or Pontifical Bulls ;
but the Seventh General Congregation ordains that
in particular cases, which may require judicial forms,
recourse is to be had to the General.
It has been objected to the Society that it expels
certain of its members without the observance of
judicial forms, and on private information alone, and
sometimes, as they say, without the party having been
heard ; and that, as expulsion from an Order is the most
grievous of all the punishments which can be inflicted
by the Order, judicial forms should then of all times be
observed in the infliction of such a punishment ; and
that punishment is frequently imposed by the General
who lives far distant from the accused, and so cannot
himself examine into the case, or hear the excuses which
might be made.
To meet this objection, it is to be remembered that there
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 37 1
are two ways in which the Society can expel one of its
members, namely, either by way of punishment, or for
other reasons which render the subject useless for its
Institute, although they are not crimes, and cannot in
rigour of justice be punished. Expulsion by way of
punishment is involuntary as regards the person ex-
pelled, and it matters not whether he consents or objects,
if he merits expulsion. Expulsion for other reasons may
be sometimes effected against the will of the religious,
but it may often be with his consent, and as it were,
by covenant of the parties. When the expulsion is in-
flicted simply as a punishment, and apart from anything
which would of itself suffice to justify expulsion, it can
never be lawfully inflicted, unless after observance of
regular order in the judgment of the crime so punished.
In such a case expulsion is a judicial or legal punish-
ment, and in the infliction of such punishments it is
most of all necessary to observe at least substantial
judicial order. The Constitutions of the Society do not
ordain that such a punishment should be inflicted under
any other circumstances, and the Society has in this
matter no special privilege by means of Pontifical In-
dults ; and therefore it ought to observe the common
order which right reason requires before the infliction
of such punishments, even if it were not bound to
observe the rigour of common law.
This applies chiefly to the Professed, for as regards
the other members of the Society, their expulsion is never
so entirely penal or judicial that it may not be also con-
ventional, or of consent on their part ; and so in their
case judicial forms are not so necessary.
372 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
When a member is expelled, not by way of punish-
ment, or by reason of his incorrigibility, but for the sake
of other advantages to the Order, and not against his
will, but rather with his consent, no judicial order is
necessary, but any information or knowledge will suffice
which would in prudence be sufficient in the settlement
of other grave affairs. Juridical proof or knowledge is
not necessary in order to human contracts, and this is a
sort of contract, since it is done of common consent of
both parties, and all idea of injury or violence conse-
quently ceases.
This mode of dismissal has no place as regards the
Professed, since the Order has no power to dismiss them,
unless for a cause which is absolutely necessary for the
common good, or unless justice should demand it ; and
since they themselves cannot voluntarily depart, having
made an absolute promise to persevere. Neither in the
case of Formed Coadjutors is this mode of dismissal
to be allowed, since they are no longer in any way on
probation, but are already established in their final state ;
and therefore, although the Order has power to expel
them, and that free from their vows, yet this is not by
'reason of any convention or covenant with them, but
only for a cause so urgent that it could justly compel
them even against their will to departure.
Two things are required in order to the dismissal of
Scholastics of the Society ; first, that the cause of dis-
missal should be just and sufficiently justified; and
secondly, that the superior should have sufficient and
morally certain knowledge of it.
It belongs to the first that the subject should have
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $73
been once and again admonished of his fault in order
that he might amend, and that he should have shewn
himself incorrigible, or have given no moral hope of
amendment, and consequently of usefulness for the
ministries of the Society ; and in this way the cause is
said to be justified. Sometimes, however, the crime
may be so enormous as to suffice for immediate expul-
sion, either in order to avert dishonour from the Society,
or because no hope can be entertained with regard to
the reliability of such a person, or his fitness for the
Institute.
It belongs to the second requisite that denunciation
by one or two persons should not easily be credited. If
the fault is denounced to the superior as to a father,
even if it should be proved with the utmost certainty,
he is to proceed, not to expulsion, but to the amendment
of the subject, which is the end of such denunciation,
and because the knowledge has been given to him, as it
were, under this law or condition.
If however, some great and urgent reason for the
common good demands expulsion, any certain know-
ledge whatsoever of the cause (excepting always of
course knowledge derived through sacramental confes-
sion) suffices ; because the denouncer himself is in such
a case bound to manifest the matter in that way which
may be necessary and sufficient in order to the relief of
the common good. When, after paternal denunciation
all diligence has been used in order to the amendment
of the subject, and has failed, one may lawfully pass to
judicial denunciation, since this is merited by the con-
tumacy of the subject ; and therefore if the fault and
374 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
contumacy are morally certain, this will suffice. Even
when there has been no previous paternal denunciation,
but the superior himself, watching and observing the
morals of individuals, has noted in any one manifest signs
of certain defects, or these have been brought before him,
as he is a judge, by others, or the culprit himself has
confessed his fault outside sacramental confession, and
outside secret and paternal consultation, any one of these
means of information suffices so long as the superior
arrives at morally certain knowledge.
It is not only permitted to, but enjoined on the
superior that, before decreeing the expulsion of any one,
he should treat the matter with mature counsel of some
prudent men ; and he is also admonished to hear the
accused, and if he has any excuse or purgation of him-
self to make to give him the opportunity ; and thus all
natural equity will be observed.
Common and ordinary affairs are in the Society
settled by the immediate superiors, and those of a graver
character are settled by the Provincials, but the final
settlement of an affair which is so grave as the dis-
missal of one who has already made his vows is reserved
to the General. This, far from its being a grievance, is
in favour of the subject, since thus the punishment or
remedy, as the case may be, is resolved on with more
mature counsel and therefore with greater difficulty.
Neither are subjects hereby deprived of all aid in order
to their defence, not only through recourse to the
General by means of letters, but also by answering for
themselves before their more immediate prelates, and
by alleging all causes of excuse, or, what is wont to
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 375
be more efficacious, by promising amendment. If the
Provincial were himself to settle the affair, that would
be sufficient to satisfy the rights of the subject ; and
therefore when the whole affair with its final determina-
tion is carried to the Supreme Prelate, the subject has
an additional opportunity afforded to him.
XII. — Is the Rule of the Society well adapted
AND SUFFICIENT IN ORDER TO ITS ADEQUATE GOVERN-
MENT, AND RELIGIOUS DIRECTION ?
Every well instituted human government requires, in
addition to natural and divine law, some Rule or norm
which is proper to, and adapted for itself.
Besides the Constitutions, there are many other
ordinances in the Society which are comprehended under
the general name of Rules. If therefore we wish to
apply the distinction between a Rule and Constitutions
to the case of the Society, we may say that the Rule of
the Society is that compendious idea and sum of the
whole Institute which is contained in the Bulls of Paul
III. and Julius III. since they embrace the end and sub-
stantial means employed by the Society ; while all other
laws are comprehended under the name of Statutes or
Constitutions.
The Rule of the Society, so understood, and as gathered
from these Pontifical Indults, contains fifteen heads : —
1. That the end of the Society is to give itself to
its own perfection, and to the salvation of its
neighbours.
1
y6 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
2. That there ought to be in the Society various
grades of persons, so that every one may, ac-
cording to the grace ministered to him by the
Holy Ghost, co-operate towards the said end.
3. That there should be one General in the Society,
to whom it belongs to distribute those grades,
and all offices and ministries, and to govern the
whole Society.
4. That the whole Order is enrolled in a special and
proper manner under the obedience of the Pon-
tiff, and is therefore consecrated and bound to
him by a special vow of obedience.
5. That the Professed of the Society make a solemn
vow of poverty, chastity and obedience.
6. That the Society has commended to it in so many
words the instruction of children and the un-
learned in christian doctrine.
7. That the Professed Society should not only indi-
vidually but also in its various communities pro-
fess and observe poverty.
8. That the Society can have Colleges which possess
their own revenues for the support of its Scholas-
tics ; and that the government of those Colleges
and students, and the administration of the
snoods of the Colleges belongs to the Professed
Society, in such wise however that it cannot
convert those goods to its own emolument.
9. That the Scholastics of the Society should, after
sufficient probation therein, be admitted into the
Society by means of the substantial vows of reli-
gion made in accordance with its Constitutions;
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $77
that is, not by solemn but by simple vows, so that
it should remain in the power of the Society to
dismiss them free from their vows, should their
dismissal be expedient.
10. That the Society may admit Spiritual and Temporal
Coadjutors by means of vows which are also
simple, and which are to be made in accordance
with its Constitutions.
11. That in the Society there should be General Con-
gregations, to which it will belong to make, and
to explain and alter perpetual Constitutions, and
to transact its graver affairs.
1 2. That the General should be created by election of
a General Congregation ; and that as regards all
things else, and the providing of all inferior
prelates, the power should be with the General.
13. That even the Professed should not be bound to
sing or recite the Canonical Office in common or
in Choir, but only privately; and that those only
are so bound who are in sacred orders.
14. That in their external manner of life, in dress,
living and the like, Ours should follow the custom
of poor but respectable priests.
15. That Ours should not be received to solemn pro-
fession until after lengthened and most diligent
probations by which their life and doctrine may
be discerned.
This is the sum of the Institute and, as it were, the
Eule of the Society, which was expressly set forth as
regards all these heads by the Supreme Pontiffs in the
3/8 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
foresaid Indults, and confirmed by them, and afterwards
most exactly explained, apjDroved and defended by
Gregory XIII. Gregory XIV. and Paul V. in their Con-
stitutions.
After this Eule, the first place among the Laws or
Statutes of the Society is held by the Constitutions
which, with the very best counsel and not without great
light from God obtained by lengthened prayers, were
composed by St. Ignatius. Ribadaneira relates that
such was the modesty of the saint that he would not
hold the Constitutions composed by him as ratified and
confirmed until they had been approved b}^ the judg-
ment of the whole body of the Society. This was done
after his death in the First General Congregation.
The Declarations of the Constitutions are of the same
authority with the Constitutions themselves ; and both
together with the Examen, have the same author, namely,
St. Ignatius.
In every religious Order the utmost care and diligence
is necessary in the choice of persons to be received, for
unless their talents and condition are suited to the
particular Order which they enter, the multitude of
religious will increase, but the splendour and perfection
of the Order will be greatly diminished. This care is
greatly commended by the Fathers, and St. Ignatius
imitated them in this by making the preamble of the
Constitutions to be — an Examination of persons to be
received.
2. Since great caution and prudence is necessary not
only in receiving, but also in retaining the members of
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. 379
an Order, he has in the Constitutions ordained at length
all things that are to be observed in the dismissal of
those subjects of whom there cannot be entertained a
hope that they will be useful to the Society.
3. He teaches the manner of governing and of pro-
moting those who are on probation, that is, both the
Novices and the Scholastics ; and since the religious life
is nearly in the same way common to, and of the same
nature as regards all, he here sets forth generally what
belongs to the government of individual members of the
Society as regards both body and soul.
4. The fourth part contains what is necessary to pro-
gress in learning, and generally what relates to the
studies of the Society.
5. 6. In the fifth and sixth parts the various modes
in which the religious are united to the body of the
Society by means of their religious vows or profession,
are treated of, and what every one who is already estab-
lished in a special grade should observe. In the sixth part
especially, the perfection of the vows of the Society, and
the regular observance which is demanded of its religious
while they live, and the piety which is to be exercised
towards them when they are dead, is accurately set forth.
7. The seventh part treats of the Society's ministries
to its neighbours.
8. Since by reason of these ministries the Society must
necessarily be dispersed through the various quarters of
the globe, St. Ignatius has with exceeding providence pre-
scribed in the eighth part the way in which the members
are to preserve their union, both one with another and
with their head.
380 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
9. The ninth part relates entirely to the Head, or
General of the Society.
10. The tenth contains general counsels which may
greatly contribute towards the preservation and increase
of the Society.
Thus nothing seems to be omitted which could be of
service for the government of the Order, in accordance
with its own special end and institute.
Since, however, the observance, practice and compre-
hension of all the Constitutions does not belong to all
individuals of the Society, but to those to whom the
government of it has been committed, it is to these that
it chiefly belongs diligently to peruse the entire volume
of the Constitutions, and to have it at hand, so that
they may be prepared, when need arises, for the exe-
cution of the Constitutions, or to give an account of
them; while for the use of the others who are simple
religious a brief Summary of the Constitutions has been
extracted. This Summary is also known by the name of
the General Rules, because in it the general heads of per-
fection, which are to be observed by all who profess this
Institute, are set forth.
A religious Kule commonly declares first the end of
the particular state, and then the means towards that
end, which, according to St. Thomas, may be divided
into three parts, namely, those means which are purely
of counsel, simple ordinances, and proper precepts.
Besides these there are in the Society other rules
which are called the Common Rules, not so much from
THE GOVERNMENT' OF THE SOCIETY. 38 1
their object, like the preceding, as from their subject, or
the persons for whom they are made. They, like the
General Kules, are laid down for all the religious of the
Society, and in this they differ from the Rules for
special offices. No superior under the General can be
the author of either, as was decreed by the First General
Congregation. The Constitutions give certain gen em 1
principles of perfection, and such counsels as belong
to what we may call the substance of interior and
exterior perfection ; while the Common Rules descend
to particulars of external observance and of what
belongs to the order and fitting disposition of common
life.
Besides the General and Common Rules, there are in
the Society special rules for its different ministries and
offices. This should not be regarded as grievous or
burdensome, but as most useful in order that every one
may proceed with great clearness and light, and may
know in what way he should satisfy his obligation in
the fulfilment of his function.
The Rules of the General are the Constitutions them-
selves, together with the whole of the Institute, and so
for him no special Rules are provided.
There are Rules for Provincials, and for all inferior
prelates; and since these need counsel and aid and
admonition, there are Rules also for their Consultors,
Ministers, and Admonitors respectively. So also there
are special Rules for the Masters of Novices and Spiri-
tual Prefects, and generally for all who are in any office
or ministry, whether temporal, or literary, as in the
382 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
case of Scholastics, or spiritual as in the case of priests
and preachers.
Besides these, there are the Decrees or Canons of
General Congregations. Although these Councils are
more rarely assembled in the Society than they are in
other religious Orders, since the Society has a perpetual
General, and since all things pertaining to its Institute
have been most fully arranged and digested, yet their
existence is sometimes necessary. When a General Con-
gregation is assembled, it has authority to make Decrees
and perpetual laws, and to explain, and even, if need
be, to alter the Constitutions, in virtue of the first Bull
of Paul III. and another of Julius III. Ordinarily,
however, the Decrees of a General Congregation are for
the purpose of solving doubts which have emerged, or
of adding something which is necessary or fitting in
accordance with the change of times, or with the results
of observation or experience.
The Generals can also issue their own Ordinances ;
and these do not expire at the death of the General, or
until they are recalled. They differ from the Decrees of
General Congregations in this that a General can revoke
an Ordinance of his predecessors, while no General can
abrogate the Decrees or Canons of General Congregations,
since such a Congregation is superior to him ; and in this
sense the Bull of Julius III. says that it belongs to a
General Congregation to make or alter Constitutions.
In the same sense is to be understood what was
declared by the Fourth General Congregation that the
General can by his own ordinary authority explain the
THE GOVERNMENT OF THE SOCIETY. $8$
Constitutions, although his explanation has not the force
of a universal law, but avails only for the practice of
good government, because as it belongs to a General
CoDgregation to make laws, so does it also belong to the
same to explain them in the sense that the explanation
should have the force of a universal law. The General
can however ordain that his explanation should be ob-
served in practice and government, so long as a General
Congregation has not explained the matter otherwise ;
and this ordinance does not cease at his death.
It must therefore be evident that the Society has been
instituted and furnished with most excellent and suf-
ficient rules, and that so far nothing is left to be desired
in order to its government, and that all that is required
is vigilance and charity on the part of prelates, and
humility and obedience on the part of subjects, in order
that it may, with the aid of the divine grace, attain the
end at which it aims.
All those therefore should be suspected by us who
desire to introduce any alteration in the principal matters
of this Institute, for they are not moved by that spirit
wherewith the Society was founded, but by I know not
what alien spirit, if it be not the spirit of ambition which
is always endeavouring to disturb all things. Things
which have been established by such authority and with
so much consideration, and confirmed by long experience,
and which carry the weight of such names as, in addition
to that of St. Ignatius, those of James Laynez, Francis
Borgia, Everard Mercurian and Claudius Aquaviva, all
of whom were men illustrious for their life and doctrine
384 THE .RELIGIOUS STATE.
and gifts, and for their prudence and uprightness in
government, and who also availed themselves of the
counsel of great men, are not easily to be altered, and
not except at the dictation of experience, and by reason
of enormous evils which have resulted from them, and
there is no grave evil which can with the least appear-
ance of truth be shewn to have arisen from any principal
Constitution of this Institute. Any such unquiet spirit
is with every endeavour to be resisted, and should any
graceless sons of the Society desire any alteration, they
are either to be admonished to a change of affection,
and to clothe themselves, by the aid of the divine grace,
with the spirit of humility and obedience, and then their
inordinate affection will vanish on the instant, or, if they
will not accommodate themselves to the Institute, or
cannot be caused to do so, it is better that they should
be severed from the Society.
■5
85
CHAPTEK XXVI.
SEVERANCE FROM THE SOCIETY.
I. — Can a Professed Father be expelled from the
Society ? and for what causes ?
It is certain that there are cases in which the Pro-
fessed of Four Vows can be expelled from the Society ;
and this extends even to the General. Since the Pro-
fession and Vows are made in the Society in accordance
with its Constitutions, there can be nothing contrary to
justice, or to any covenant included in the Profession,
in the expulsion of a Professed Father for just causes
in accordance with the Constitutions.
The Society can expel its Professed Fathers not only
for excessive contumacy or incorrigibility, but also for
a grievous crime which might redound in scandal or
dishonour to the Society. It has, as regards this last
point, greater freedom and more ample power than that
which, as a rule, is possessed by other religious Orders.
II. — Can a Professed Father of the Society be
TRANSFERRED TO ANOTHER ORDER ? AND IN WHAT
WAY?
The General can give leave to a Professed Father of
the Society for a just cause to pass from it to any other
VOL. III. 2 B
386 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
religious Order, even if the cause should not include such
guilt or incorrigibility as would justify his expulsion.
It may often happen that although a subject has not
committed sins worthy of expulsion, he may hope for
greater spiritual profit by his departure to another
Order which, although in itself less strict, is nevertheless
better suited for him, as being less at variance with his
nature, or as requiring less external activity, or for other
reasons.
If departure from the Society is by way of expulsion
which is punitive and involuntary on the part of the
subject, it requires a proportionate cause, in accordance
with the demands of the Constitutions, to justify it ;
and in that case it is not necessary that expulsion
should be accompanied with leave to pass to another
Order, for no one can be compelled to pass to another
Order, nor would another Order receive such a person
against his will. But if the subject himself should
accept departure to another and less strict Order, the
Society has power to permit him. This is a special
privilege belonging to the Society, participation in
which by other religious Orders by way of general
communication of privileges, is expressly prohibited by
the Pontiff.
The Society can, without expelling a guilty Professed
Father, punish him within the Society, and conse-
quently it can give him his option either to remain under
certain penance in the Society, or to pass to another
and even more austere or solitary Order ; for in this
there is no injury or unjust compulsion, and in so doing
the Society acts benignly rather than witli severity.
SEVERANCE FROM THE SOCIETY. 387
When there are no causes for expelling a Professed
Father against his will, the Society can in no way expel
him so that he should remain in the world, even if he
himself should give his consent. It can only give leave
to him who desires to pass to another Order. This as
regards a stricter Order is easy, but the only Order
which is to be accounted as, with reference to this, more
strict, is that of the Carthusians. For leave to pass to any
other Order a great cause is necessary, and it should be
the greater in proportion as that Order is less perfect or
strict. There is to be considered in the first place
the Society, which suffers loss by deprivation of a full-
grown member after all the labour and expense which
has been bestowed upon him ; and then also the good
of the religious himself, lest occasion should be given to
him of living in a worse manner, or less perfectly. The
best, and almost only cause will be when he is judged to
be useless for the ministries of the Society, because he
is incapable of them, or because he cannot be employed
in them without great damage to himself.
In such a case, by consent of both parties a divorce
may be effected by his departure to another Order ; and
for this sufficient authority has been granted to the
Society by Gregory XIII.
III. — To what is a Professed Father of the Society
BOUND, WHO HAS BEEN EXPELLED FROM IT, OR WHO
HAS LEFT IT IN ANY OTHER WAY ?
A Professed Father can be expelled from the Society
in two ways, either under the burden of entering another
388 THE RELIGIOUS STATE.
Order, or, if he does not make profession therein, of
returning to the Society ; or secondly, without hope of
reception into the Society again, and without any special
obligation besides that which of the nature of the case
arises from profession.
The first case has no difficulty, for the sentence was
just, and it was accepted by the religious, and he
specially promised to fulfil it. If he does so and makes
profession in another Order, every higher obligation
of his previous profession ceases and he will be bound
only to observe that which he has last professed, and
this whether his new Order is stricter or less strict,
because the commutation was lawfully made. If how-
ever, he does not fulfil the condition, either by not
entering another Order or by leaving it after entrance
and before profession, he will be bound to return to
the Society. If he does not return, he is to be re-
garded not as expelled, but as an apostate and fugitive,
and consequently as bound by all the obligations of
his Order, and as lying under the censures inflicted on
apostates.
In the second case of a Professed Father who has
been not conditionally but absolutely expelled from the
Society, his obligations with regard to poverty, chastity
and obedience are the same as those of a professed reli-
gious who has been expelled from any other Order ; but
his obligations otherwise differ from those of an apostate
from the Society, who not only remains bound by all his
vows, but is in law actually subject to the Society, to
which he is bound to return. Every apostate is bound
also to observance of the Kule, and consequently to
SEVERANCE FROM THE SOCIETY. 389
observance of the special vows which he had made in
accordance with the Rule.
We may fittingly conclude this digest of the great
work of Father Suarez — On the Religious State, with
the pious hope of the holy author that, although it may
not be what the dignity and excellence of the subject
demands, it may yet be to the praise and glory of Jesus,
Who with the Father and the Holy Ghost liveth and
reigneth for ever and ever. Amen.
FINIS.
PRINTED BY BALLANTYNE, HANSON AND CO.
EDINBURGH AND LONDON.
130863 .
Date Due
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