Reminiscences of a Liverpool shipowner, 1850-1920

HI

REMINISCENCES

OF A

LIVERPOOL SHIPOWNER

REMINISCENCES

OF A

LIVERPOOL SHIPOWNER

1850-1920

BY

SIR WILLIAM B. FORWOOD, K.B.E., D.L.

Author of "Recollections of a Busy Life":
" Economics of War Finance " : etc.

ILLUSTRATED WITH 22 PLATES

LIVERPOOL

HENRY YOUNG & SONS, LIMITED

MIMXX.

VK
57

1105319

PREFACE

The following sketches were contributed to the Liverpool
Press (Liverpool Daily Post, Liverpool Courier, Journal of
Commerce), and they are now published at the request of many
friends. Advantage has been taken of the opportunity for
revision, and to add further reminiscences.

A chapter has also been added descriptive of the
part played by the British merchant seaman in the war ;
and another, published in 1917, portraying the attitude and
work of the British shipowner during the war.

To do adequate justice to the history of our shipping
during the past sixty years would occupy several volumes.
In the following pages all that has been attempted has been
to outline the principal events in the fewest possible words,
in the hope that they may serve for future reference ; and
also keep alive that interest in our mercantile fleet which
is so essential to the prosperity of our Country and the welfare
of our people.

BROMBOROUGH HALL, CHESHIRE,
August, 1920.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I PAGE

The Passing of the Sailing-Ship I

CHAPTER II
The Era of the Steamship 15

CHAPTER III
The Evolution of the Marine Engine 24

CHAPTER IV
The Makers of our Shipping Trade 29

CHAPTER V
Our Merchant Ships and the War 55

CHAPTER VI
Shipping and the War 69

CHAPTER VII
The " Red Jacket," 1857 87

CHAPTER VIII
The " Queen of the Avon," 1858 94

CHAPTER IX
The " Great Eastern," 1861 99

CHAPTER X
The Building of an East Indiaman 106

CHAPTER XI
Our Riddle of the Sands 113

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

i — The Port of Liverpool, 1873 ...Frontispiece.
2 — The Sailing-Ship " Princess

Charlotte " Facing page 8

3— The SS. " Savannah " „ „ 16

4— The SS. " Great Western " . „ „ 18

5— The SS. " President " „ „ 20

6— The SS. " Britannia " „ „ 22

7— The SS. " Great Britain " ... „ „ 24

8— The SS. "Scotia" „ „ 26

9 — Portraits — Charles Maclver,

William Inman, Thomas H.

Ismay, Sir Edward Harland... ,, ,, 30

10 — The SS. "Oregon" ,, ,, 34

ii— The SS. " Umbria " „ „ 38

12 — The SS. " Oceanic/' No. i ... ,, ,, 42

13— The SS. " Nile " „ „ 44

14 — Portraits — Sir Thomas Brockle-

bank, W. Miles Moss, F. R.

Leyland, Sir Alfred Jones ... ,, ,, 46

15 — The Sailing-Ship " Aracan " . ,, ,, 50

16— The SS. " Aquitania," with

Convoy ... ,, ,, 56

17— The SS. "Oceanic," No. 2 ... „ „ 60

18— The SS. "Mauretania" ... „ „ 66

19— The SS. " Olympic " „ „ 70

20— The Sailing-Ship " Red Jacket " „ „ 88

21 — The SS. " Great Eastern "... „ ,, 100

22— The SS. "Aquitania" „ 114

REMINISCENCES

OF A
LIVERPOOL SHIPOWNER

CHAPTER I

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP

The old sailing-ship, with all the romance
which surrounds it, must long linger in the affectionate
regard of all British people as the creator of our great
overseas trade and the builder-up of our commercial
prosperity. The sailing-ship was the mistress of
the seas for centuries. She founded our maritime
supremacy, was the conveyor of the first fruits of
our manufacturing industry to the ends of the
world, and enabled us to train a race of sailors
unequalled for their skill, courage, and patriotism,
who in times of national peril have protected our
homes and safeguarded the freedom of the world.

Liverpool owes her greatness as a city and
her position as the first port in the world to her
shipping. Possessing the only deep-water haven
on the West Coast, she naturally became the port
of shipment for the manufactures of Lancashire and
Yorkshire directly our export trade began to develop.
The beginnings of the shipping trade were small,
for in 1751 there were only 220 vessels belonging to
the port. The opening up of the American trade in

2 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

1756 gave a great impetus to shipping. It was
destined, however, to receive a serious check by the
world- wide war which started in 1756, and was waged
almost continuously for sixty years.

The first of this long series of wars known
as the Seven Years' War (1756-1761) was followed
by twelve years of peace, and it was during this
time that our trade with America made its greatest
headway. The War of Independence with America,
which broke out in 1773, proved most disastrous to
Liverpool. It paralysed our trade and there was
dire distress in the town. It is recorded : " Our
docks are a mournful sight, full of gallant ships laid
up and useless." This unhappy war lasted seven
years.

But perhaps the most terrible period for
our shipping was in 1810, when America, feeling
herself "crushed between the upper and the nether
millstone of Napoleon's mastery on land and
England's supremacy by sea," declared war and threw
her strength into privateering. The result to the trade
of Liverpool was most disastrous. The number of
ships entering the port fell from 6,729 in 1810 to 4,599
in 1812. When, in 1815, peace was again brought
about, there was a most rapid recovery in business
in every direction.

Our British arms which had been victorious
in the great war on the continent of Europe had also
made our country supreme at sea ; foreign shipping

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP 3

had almost disappeared, and our shipping trade
reaped an enormous advantage, our tonnage rapidly
increasing.

The period from 1815-1860 may be termed
the halcyon days of the British ship, and the period
from 1850-1880 witnessed the " passing " of the
sailing-ship. With the "passing" of the sailing-ship
we have lost many interesting and attractive features.
The attitude of the shipowner has entirely
changed. His quiet, leisurely occupation has gone,
and with it much that was picturesque and gave
pleasure and enjoyment. With the advent of the
steamer a new era opened up, characterised by the
hustle of increased activity. Speed is the criterion
aimed at, calling for constant and strenuous work.

The shipowner of the olden days had time to
take a deep personal interest in the upkeep of his
ship. He strolled down from his office almost daily
to the dock where she was lying. Of the sixty-four
sixty-fourth shares into which the ownership was
divided he probably owned at least one-half ; this
gave him a very real concern in his ship's welfare.
He watched and supervised her construction with
the same solicitude as he would the building of his
own house. And when completed and she took up
her loading berth in the Prince's or Salthouse Dock,
all fresh painted, the rigging tarred down, the
ratlines all taut and evenly spaced, every rope and
hawser carefully coiled down and in its place, it was

4 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

excusable if the owner viewed his ship with some
pride. A large poster displayed in the ship's rigging
announced the port for which she was taking cargo
and the date of sailing — a date which was never
kept. She remained in dock week after week while
her cargo gradually trickled down,

This long delay involved a loss of interest
and earning power, and also a serious loss of interest
to the owners of cargo shipped by her. Mr. Donald
Currie, when he left the Cunard Company, made up
an ownery for five or six ships for the Calcutta trade,
and was anxious that Jardine, Skilmer & Co., of
Calcutta, should take the agency at that port. But
they had suffered so much from the delay of their
cargoes that they made it a condition of their
acceptance that Mr. Currie should strictly adhere
to his advertised dates of sailing ; and certainly he
had no cause to regret it, for practically Jar dines
loaded his ships with their own goods, and Mr. Currie's
fleet rapidly increased. This was the beginning of
fixed days of sailing from Liverpool, which are now
almost universal.

Although the pleasure of a shipowner was
more personal and greater in the days gone by, it
was accompanied by much anxiety, and the risks
were greater than those of to-day. A wooden ship
was liable to decay, and the periodical surveys by
Lloyd's were times of much concern. They might
expose some defect which might involve the stripping

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP 5

and rebuilding of the part affected. The highest
class at Lloyd's Ai for thirteen years, soon ran out,
and the continuation of the class always involved
many repairs.

The preparation of a captain's instructions
prior to the commencement of a voyage entailed
much thought ; every contingency had to be pro-
vided for ; there were no " cables " by which
subsequent instructions could be sent, or the owner
consulted.

Cargoes at the loading ports were uncertain,
and the change of ports in ballast had to be provided
for. The most carefully- worded instructions often
failed to provide for the very contingency which
happened, or more frequently the captain did some
stupid thing. The owner was in dread lest his ship
should find no homeward cargo and have to shift
ports, or lest she be damaged or dismasted, and put
into some remote port not contemplated in his
instructions. He had visions of heavy repair bills
and bottomry bonds.

Sailing-ship owning was profitable to those
who possessed high-class ships, but I cannot recall
many fortunes made out of soft wood ships, the
cost of their maintenance and repair being so
heavy.

In a brief resume of the history of the
sailing-vessel it is not necessary to pass in review
the early steps taken in the evolution of a ship,

6 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

for shipowning did not assume a position of any
importance before the year 1600, when, during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, the East India Company
was founded.

The East India Company's first ships were
vessels of from 300 tons to 600 tons. They were
all heavily armed, and only conveyed the cargoes
belonging to the Company. The " John " Company
was highly successful, and at the close of the
eighteenth century had not only a large fleet of
ships, but also possessed a large portion of the
continent of India. The ships of the Company were
remarkable vessels ; they were frigate built, large
carriers, and stately looking, but badly designed,
very slow, required a large quantity of ballast,
and their cost was about £40 per ton. Improve-
ment in design and equipment was very slow ;
there existed no incentive to improvement ; the
profit made was derived mainly from the cargoes
they carried ; and it has been said that the improve-
ments made in British shipping from the reign of
Queen Elizabeth to the Victorian era were so gradual
as to be perceptible only when measured by centuries.

When we speak of the ships of the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, we cannot
but be surprised to find how slight were the improve-
ments made during these three hundred years.
During the latter half of the eighteenth century
the finest ships were constructed in France, and at

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP 7

that period the best ships in the British navy were
those captured from the French.

The treaty of peace between the United
States of America and Great Britain, signed in 1814,
marks the beginning of a new era in the history of
shipping. The progress, however, for some years
was slow ; design and construction were hindered
by our obsolete tonnage laws, which encouraged the
building of a very undesirable type of ship. Mean-
while America was going ahead. Not only did she
produce more ships, but they were well designed
and equipped, and it was the general opinion that
the American ship was superior to the British ship.
When, in 1832, the monopoly of the East India
Company came to an end, and the commerce of the
Orient was thrown open to all British ships, there
was at once an effort made to establish British
shipping on a broader and more substantial basis.
The opening of the China and East India trades
gave rise to that competition which had been so
long dormant, and without which there can be little
incentive to improvement.

The American trade gave the first and great
impetus to shipowning in Liverpool. The famous
New York packets, the pioneer Black Ball Line,
were established in 1816. This Line cons'sted at
first of vessels of from 300 to 500 tons register.
These little ships with their full bodies and bluff
bows made wonderful passages, averaging 23 days

8 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

outwards and 43 days homewards. They were for
many years the only means of communication
between this country and the United States. The
u Dramatic " Line was started in 1836, with vessels
of about 700 tons, and it is noteworthy that the
" Sheridan/' of 895 tons, built the following year
for this Line, was found to be too large for the
Liverpool trade ; but the trade rapidly grew and the
packet ships gradually increased in tonnage. In
1846 the " New World " was built, of 1,400 tons.
As a child I recollect being taken down to the dock
to see this ship, as being the largest sailing-ship
in the world ; and many still living will remember
the "Isaac Webb," the "Albert Gallatin," the
" Guy Mannering," and the "Dreadnought." The
ships of the " Black Ball " Line and the " Dramatic "
Line were grand ships, and made many wonderful
passages.

There are three outstanding events which
greatly contributed to the improvement of British
shipping, and may be said to mark the beginning
of our great maritime position — the establishment,
in 1834, °f Lloyd's Register ; the founding, in 1846,
of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade ;
and, in 1849, *ne repeal of the Navigation Laws.
These laws, devised originally for the protection of
British shipping, and to secure for it a certain
monopoly of the carrying trade, had become
antiquated, and a hindrance to its development.

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP Q

It was not, however, until we found the commerce
of the world was largely being carried by American
ships, which were faster and better built, that an '
agitation was started to abolish those laws.

There was considerable opposition to their
repeal, and the first result was not encouraging ;
there was a decrease in the tonnage of British ships
entering our ports, and a large increase in foreign
tonnage, especially of American ; and although this
created a feeling of despondency, and gave rise
to the fear that we had lost for ever our premier
position in the overseas carrying trade, it really
proved a great stimulus to enterprise, and renewed
exertion, and not many years elapsed before we had
regained, and more than regained, our position in
the shipping world.

To America belongs the credit of introducing
the clipper ship, which was specially designed to
make rapid passages. The discovery of gold in
California created a great rush, and there was a
gigantic movement of human beings by land and
by sea. The land journey across America was long
and hazardous, and this gave rise to a large
emigration by sea, and the necessity for providing
a class of ship which would be able to make rapid v
passages. This the old-fashioned frigate-built ship
was unable to do.

The era of the clipper ship may be said to
date from 1848, when gold was first discovered in

10 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

California. The building of these ships in America
proceeded rapidly, and in four years one hundred and
sixty were built. They were the swiftest ships the
world had ever seen, making the voyage from New
York to San Francisco in from 100 to 120 days.
They were remarkable for their fine lines, lofty spars,
and great sail-carrying capacity.

The discovery of gold in California in 1848 was
quickly followed by the discovery of gold in Australia :
in 1851, and a rush of emigration immediately set i
in, which had to be carried by sailing-ships.
The regular traders were small vessels with very
limited passenger accommodation ; so shipowners
very quickly turned their attention to the clipper
ships built in New England and in New Brunswick,
which had been so successful in the Californian
trade.

The first clipper ship constructed for the
Australian trade was the " Marco Polo/' of 1,622
tons. She was built in 1851, at St. John's, for
James Baines & Co., of Liverpool, and she was the
pioneer of the famous Australian Black Ball Line.
The " Marco Polo " was a handsome ship, built with
a considerable rise of floor and a very fine after end,
and carrying a large spread of canvas. She made
some remarkable passages under the command of
Captain Forbes, who did not hesitate to shorten the
distance his ship had to travel by sailing on the
great circle, and going very far south. The

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP II

" Marco Polo " may be said to have set the pace
in the Australian trade. She was quickly followed
by such renowned ships as the " Lightning/ the
" James Baines," the " Sovereign of the Seas," and
the passages of these ships created as much public
interest as those of our Atlantic greyhounds do
to-day. We had also the White Star Line of
Australian clippers, which owned the " Red Jacket,"
the "Blue Jacket," and the "Chariot of Fame."
The " Red Jacket " made the record passage of
64 days to Melbourne, and was one of the most
famous of the American built clippers.

Although America can claim to have
introduced the clipper ship, our English shipbuilders
were not much behindhand. The tea trade with
China offered great rewards for speed, and the ship
landing the first cargo of the new teas earned a
very handsome premium. The competition was,
therefore, very keen. These tea clippers were very
beautiful vessels of about 800 to 1,000 tons, of quite
an original type; and, unlike the American clipper^
they relied for their speed more upon the symmetry
of their lines than upon tfreir large sail area. They
had less beam and less freeboard than the American
clipper, and as their voyages necessitated a good
deal of windward work, this was made their strong
point of sailing, and probably they will never be
excelled in this. The names of the " Falcon," the
" Fiery Cross," the " Lord of the Isles," will still
dwell in the memory of many.

12 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

In 1865 a memorable race took place between
ten celebrated tea clippers, and the evenness of their
performances was remarkable. The times of the
passages of the first five, from the anchorage in China
to Deal, varied from 99 to 101 days, and the prize,
IGS per ton, was divided between the " Taeping " and
the " Ariel " —the one arriving first at Deal, and the
other being the first to dock in London. There
were similar races every year, which always aroused
great interest.

The greatest development in sailing-ships
was brought about by the substitution of iron for
wood in their construction. The iron ship, among
other advantages, could be of larger size, was more
durable, and less costly in maintenance ; and in
1863 a notable further improvement was made when,
in the Liverpool ship "Seaforth," steel lower masts,
topmasts, and topsail yards, and also standing
rigging of steel wire were introduced, and about the
same time double topsail yards were adopted.

We are apt to make light of the great increase
in American shipping since the late war, and think
that the competition of America will not last and will
not be serious. We should, however, not forget how
large a proportion of the world's carrying trade by
sea was done by America prior to her civil war in
1863, and the excellence of her ships. The tariffs
she imposed after this war killed her shipping and
made shipbuilding, except for her coastwise trade,

THE PASSING OF THE SAILING-SHIP 13

impossible. The result of the late war has been to
make the cost of shipbuilding nearly as great in this
country as in America, and she will certainly make
a serious bid for her share of the trade.

With the passing of the old sailing-ship we
have lost much that was picturesque and much that
appealed to sentiment. The river Mersey at the top
of high water filled with sailing craft of all kinds,
from the great Australian clipper down to the Dutch
galliot or the British sloop with her brown sails,
presented a panorama which has no equal to-day,
and called forth thoughts of adventure and perils
by the sea which a great Atlantic liner or even the
modest coasting steamer fail to suggest, although
they may speak to us in the spirit of the times — of
that security and speed which has brought the very
ends of the earth together.

This short sketch of the old sailing-ship days
would be incomplete without alluding to the position
of the sailor, which was far from satisfactory. His
life was hard and very rough. He usually lived in
the forecastle, which was close and damp. The
chain cables passed through it to the chain lockers
below, the hawse-pipes had often ill-fitting wooden
plugs, and when the ship plunged into a head sea
the forecastle was flooded. There was no place for
the men to dry their clothes, and no privacy. Their
food was salt tack, and it was no wonder that they
enjoyed their noggin of rum. These were, however,

14 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

days before we had the luxury of preserved provisions
or ice-houses. But the old British tar came of a
hardy, good humoured race. I have seen them
when off Cape Horn take marling-spikes aloft to
knock the ice off the topsail, and merrily singing
one of their chanties while they tied in a close reef.
The pay of a sailor was small — £3 a month
for an A.B. ; and when they returned home from a
voyage they were pounced upon by the boarding-
house keepers, who did not let them out of their
clutches while they had any money left. The
neighbourhood of our Sailors' Home was a perfect
hell, a scene of debauchery from morn to night.
The sailor had no chance, and when he sailed
again he had no money to buy any decent or
warm clothes. Thanks to such philanthropists
as the late Samuel Smith, Alexander Balfour, and
Monsignor Nugent, this reproach to Liverpool
was, after a great and long fight, removed, and the
interests of the sailor are to-day safeguarded in every
way by the Board of Trade, and greater interest is
exhibited in his welfare by the shipowner. While
thus recording the conditions of a seaman's life we
must not forget that the conditions of life generally
were much harder and rougher than those of to-day,
and the sailor had many compensating advantages
when at sea. It was while he was in port that he
required safeguarding.

CHAPTER II

THE ERA OF THE STEAMSHIP

With the " passing " of the sailing-ship much
of the poetry and romance of the sea disappeared.
The era of the steamship is more prosaic,
but it brought with it a recognition of the spirit
of the times that the expanding trade of the
world and the march of civilisation, demanded
speed and regularity in our sea services for their
development, and what we have lost in romance
we have more than made good by the wider
distribution of the world's products which the
facilities for travel and the rapid conveyance of our
merchandise have made available. All parts of the
world have been brought within easy reach of the
traveller, and our trade routes have been increased
and expanded. We have opened up new markets
for our exports, and new sources for the supply of
food. Our people are now largely fed by supplies
of perishable food which reach us from the far distant
Antipodes. It is, indeed, difficult to say what might
have happened if we were still dependent upon
the old sailing-ship. The advent of the steamship
was most fortuitous. Just as in our means
of conve}fance by land, new means and forms

15

1 6 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

of transport have been developed with our increasing
population, so it would appear that, as the growth
of our population and the spread of civilisation have
demanded it, improved facilities for travel by sea
have been opened up.

The passing of the sailing-ship made very
slow progress in the beginning, for although steamers
entered the Atlantic and the East India trades about
1840, the old-fashioned wooden paddle steamer was
not a serious competitor except in the conveyance
of passengers and mails. It took thirty or forty
years to develop improvements in the design of
steamers and to effect the evolution of the marine
engine, and the progress made was gradual. The
high-pressure engine, the compound engine, the
turbine, and now the geared turbine were all steps
in the direction of securing the economy and efficiency
necessary to make the steamer an effective com-
petitor in the conveyance of heavy or bulky cargoes ;
but once this point was reached, the sailing-vessel
was doomed except in the small coasting trades.
The opening of the Suez Canal also gave the steamer
a great advantage, and perhaps did more than
anything else to destroy the position of the sailing-
ship in the long trades. It will be interesting to watch
the effect which dear coals and cost of sailing may
have in reviving the fortunes of the sailing-ship.

Steamers are now mostly owned by public
companies, which we regret to say are largely centred

THE ERA OF THE STEAMSHIP 17

in London, and are represented in Liverpool by
managers. A steamer somehow fails to arouse the
same enthusiasm as the old sailing-ship ; much of
the old romance and sentiment has gone. The
managers have so many steamers to look after that
their work becomes more or less mechanical ; they
cannot take the same personal interest in them. The
manager of one large fleet boasted that he never went
down to the dock to see his steamers — this he
considered was the business ' of his marine
superintendent.

The shareholders in a limited liability
company in the same way have not the same close
touch with their property that the owner of a sixty-
fourth share had in the old sailing-ship. The one was
personal, the other is remote. The subscription lists
of our nautical charities prove this. The Bluecoat
School and the Seamen's Orphanage do not appeal
to them as they appealed to the Bryan Blundells,
the Maclvers, the Brocklebanks, Allans, Beazleys,
and Ismays and the general public of fifty years ago.

We cannot dwell upon the many early
efforts to apply the steam engine to the propulsion
of a ship. The first steam vessel to cross the Atlantic
was the " Savannah," a vessel 130 feet in length
and 26 feet broad. She was built in New York in
1818 ; she was an auxiliary vessel, her paddle wheels
being taken off and placed on deck when the wind
was fair. She sailed from Savannah on the 24th
May, 1819, and arrived at Liverpool on the 2oth

1 8 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

June. The first vessel to steam all the way across
the Atlantic was the " Royal William," built at
Quebec in 1831. She was 830 tons, with side-lever
engines of 200 horse power. She sailed from Quebec
to London on the 4th of August, 1833, and after a
stormy passage arrived in the Thames on the nth
September.

A more serious attempt to bridge the Atlantic
was made in June, 1838, when a second " Royal
William " of 720 tons was built at Liverpool, and
her paddle engines of 400 horse power were made
by Fawcett, Preston & Co., of Liverpool. She made
several successful passages, and was our first passenger
steamer. The Transatlantic Steamship Company,
which had chartered the " Royal William " after-
wards built the " Liverpool," of 1,150 tons, and
464 horse power. She made several voyages,
averaging 17 days out and 15 days home.

Mr. Maginnis in his very useful and excellent
work "The Atlantic Ferry," claims for the " Sirius "
the honour of inaugurating the Atlantic steamship
service. She was owned by the British & American
Steam Navigation Company, of which Mr. John Laird
was the Chairman. She was 703 tons, and sailed
on the 5th April, 1838, making the passage in
i6J da}?s, maintaining an average of 8| knots,
on a consumption of 24 tons. About the same time
the '" Great Western," of 1,340 tons, sailed from
Bristol, making the outward passage in 13! days.

THE ERA OF THE STEAMSHIP 19

The British & American Steamship Company
encouraged by the successful voyage made by the
" Sirius/' built, in 1839, two sister ships, the
" British Queen " and the " President." They were
1,863 tons gross register, and 700 horse power.
The " British Queen " sailed from Portsmouth,
July 1 2th, 1840, and the " President " on July I7th,
1840. The " President," after sailing from New
York, on March nth, 1841, with a small number of
passengers, was never again heard of, and in conse-
quence of this disaster the British & American
Steamship Company ceased to exist.

We cannot omit from our brief review of the
early history of the steamship, an allusion to the
" Great Britain," the first large iron steamer. She
was 3,270 tons, and was launched at Bristol in 1843.
For very many years she was our largest ship,
and considered to be one of the wonders of the day.
She was placed in the Liverpool and New York
trade, and sailed on the 26th July, 1845, on her
first voyage. I remember seeing her pass down
the Channel off Seaforth. Her six masts greatly
impressed my child intelligence. She was wrecked the
same night on the Irish Coast, but she was after-
wards got oft, and had a very varied and chequered
career, and underwent many changes. Her
six masts were reduced to four, then to three.
She had new engines, and was placed by Gibbs,
Bright & Co., in the Australian trade. Then she

20 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

was converted into a full rigged sailing-ship, and in
1883 was condemned at the Falkland Islands as
no longer seaworthy, and remained there for many
years as a coal hulk.

It cannot be said that these early endeavours
to establish a steamship trade were very encouraging,
and the great scientist of that day, Dr. Lardner,
stated that he had no hesitation in saying that the
project announced in the newspapers of making a
voyage directly from New York to Liverpool was
perfectly chimerical. They might as well talk of
making a voyage from New York to the moon.

All the more honour to those pioneers who
had the courage and the prescience to go ahead ;
and to Mr. Samuel Cunard and his partners the
steamship trade must be for ever deeply indebted,
for to them we owe the first serious and successful
effort to establish a steamship service across the
Atlantic. They built, in 1840, the " Britannia,"
"Acadia," "Columbia," and "Caledonia,"— the
first ships of the now celebrated Cunard Line.

The Inman Line was founded in 1850, the
Guion Line in 1866, and the White Star Line,
which now shares the great Atlantic trade with
the Cunard Company, was established in 1870.

The evolution from sail to steam involved
changes in the design of the hull of a ship. At first
it was considered that to turn a sailing-ship into a
steamer it was simply necessary to fit a hull designed

THE ERA OF THE STEAMSHIP 21

for a sailing-vessel with a steam engine. It was
soon, however, discovered that the fine lines and
deep keel required to carry sail were not required
in a steamship, and in course of time full-bodied
hulls with square bilges without keels were adopted.
An iron steamer is but a rectangular girder
or tank with the ends sharpened, the co-efficient
of fineness varying from 62 to 78 degrees, according
to the speed or deadweight capacity required.
In 1860 Sir Edward Harland, with a view to easy
propulsion, introduced steamers into the Mediter-
ranean trade with a length of ten times their beam.
These were so successful that when he built the
fleet for the White Star Line he carried out the
same principle, thereby also securing steady sea
boats. He also introduced central passenger saloons
and cabins, which speedily made the White Star
ships very popular. Cabin accommodation placed
in the centre of the ship has now become general.
Some further modifications in- design have taken
place ; ships have, relatively, now less length and
more beam, and the cabin accommodation is built
up citadel fashion in the middle of the ship.

The most notable evolution has, however,
been in size and speed. The " Britannia," built in
1840, was 1,200 tons, with 8J knots speed. She
was followed by the " Great Britain," in 1843,
3,270 tons ; she was, however, too large for the
times, and did no good. The " Great Eastern,"

22 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

built in 1855, was of 18,915 tons, and 12 knots speed,
and was also a failure, although if she had been
given sufficient power she would probably have
hastened the era of large and fast vessels.

The demand for speed was for some years
the governing feature in the design of steamers in
the Atlantic trade, and to a smaller extent in the
Eastern trades, in which the carrying of coal for
long voyages has also to be considered. The increase
in power required to obtain high speeds necessitated
the adoption of twin screws, and with the still higher
powers required by the " Mauretania," " Olympic,"
etc. (60,000 h.p.)/ four . propellers are found
necessary.

In the Atlantic trade, the " Arizona/' built
by John Elder & Co. for the Guion Line, was the
first of the " Atlantic greyhounds." She was quickly
followed by the " Alaska " and the " Oregon," the
latter being built in 1882, with a speed of 19 knots.
She was the fastest ship of her time, and became
the property of the Cunard Company. She was again
eclipsed by the Cunard ships " Umbria " and
" Etruria," in 1885, with a speed of 19 J knots.
In 1888 the " City of Paris " and " City of New York "
had attained a speed exceeding 20 knots. For some
years no improvement in speed was obtained until
the advent of the " Campania " and " Lucania,"
in 1893, with a tonnage of 12,900 and a speed of
22 knots.

THE ERA OF THE STEAMSHIP 23

Although steamers thus gradually increased
in size and power, the " Oceanic," built in 1899 for
the White Star Line, may, I think, claim to be the
pioneer of the great Atlantic liners. She was
16,900 tons and 704 feet long, and 21 knots speed.
She was quickly followed by the " Lusitania " and
" Mauretania," built for the Cunard in 1907, with
a tonnage of 33,000, and a speed of 24^ knots.
They were again eclipsed in size by the " Olympic,"
" Aquitania," and the " Imperator," all about
50,000 tons ; but the " Mauretania " still holds the
blue riband of the Atlantic for speed. It is scarcely
safe to say that the last big ship has been built ;
size is only limited by commercial considerations
and the depth of water available in our harbours,
,as an iron ship, being a girder, her length is limited
by the depth which can be given to the girder.
The cost of construction may, however, limit the
size of ships, at all events, for some years.

CHAPTER III

THE EVOLUTION OF THE MARINE ENGINE

The steamship as a practical proposition
developed slowly, being retarded by the dilatory
evolution of the marine engine. The first serious effort
to apply steam power to vessels of any size dates
back to only 1838-1840, years which witnessed the
establishment of the Royal Mail, the Peninsular and
Oriental, and the Cunard Steamship Companies.
Their first vessels were steamers of 1,200 tons,
having a speed of eight or nine knots. Such vessels
were not formidable competitors of the old packet
ships, except in the passenger trades ; their average
passage across the Atlantic, occupying from thirteen
to seventeen days, not being a great improvement
upon the passages of the sailing-packets. The ships
of the Dramatic Line averaged 20 J days, and those
of the Black Ball Line 21 days.

The advantage of the greater regularity in
the passages of the steamer was, however, obvious,
and greatly stimulated invention. The improve-
ments in the paddle engine were slow. We were a
long time getting away from the side -lever engine,
working at a low pressure. The " Britannia," built
in 1840, was 1,200 tons ; her engines indicated 740

24

EVOLUTION OF THE MARINE ENGINE 2$

horse-power, giving a speed of 8J knots. The
" Scotia/' the finest paddle steamer ever built,
and the last of the great paddle boats, was built
in 1860, and had the same type of side-lever engine,
but her tonnage was 3,871, with an indicated horse-
power of 4,800, giving her a speed of 13 knots.
The most rapid passage made by the " Britannia "
was 14 days 8 hours ; the most rapid made by the
" Scotia " was 8 days 15 hours.

The screw propeller was invented in 1836,
but for a long time it was thought to be inferior to
the paddle as a means of propulsion, and there was
some difficulty in applying the power to the screw
shaft. The side lever in various forms was tried, but
proved a failure. The " Great Britain," 3,270 tons,
launched in 1843, had engines which worked upward
on to a crank shaft, and the power was brought
down by endless chains to the screw shaft. This did
not prove satisfactory. Then we had oscillating
engines working a large geared wheel fitted with
wooden teeth to increase the revolutions of the
propeller. Then came the direct-acting engines with
inverted cylinders, which for years were almost the
universal type of engine, and were a very efficient
form of low pressure engine.

The compound engine revolutionised the
steamship trade, ensuring such economy of fuel as
to permit of long voyages being successfully under-
taken. The compound engine developed into the

26 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

triple expansion engine ; the object being to get the
last ounce of power out of the steam by first using
it in a high pressure cylinder at 180 Ibs., then passing
it into a larger cylinder, using it expansively, and
finally passing it into a still larger cylinder at about
8 Ibs. pressure, and again allowing it to expand.
The triple expansion engine came into general use in
1886.

The turbine, invented by Sir Charles Parsons
in 1897, has effected a revolution in the engines of
large size. The principle is simply to allow steam
at a high pressure to impinge upon blades fitted to
a rotor which it revolves on the principle of the
syren. The steam is afterwards used expansively
in a second rotor working directly upon the screw
shaft. The advantage of a turbine engine is its
simplicity — few working parts and a saving in weight
and space ; its disadvantage is that a separate
turbine has to be employed to obtain stern way.
Recently, geared turbines have been introduced
which are lighter, slightly more economical in fuel,
and are sweeter running machines.

It is noteworthy that whereas gears were
necessary in olden times with engines working at
a low pressure to speed up the propeller shaft,
with turbines gears are used to reduce the revolutions.
Meantime, greater boiler efficiency was being
obtained. The " Britannia " worked with a pressure
of 12 Ibs. This was gradually increased to 30 Ibs

EVOLUTION OF THE MARINE ENGINE 2J

in boilers constructed in 1868, and this was practically
the range of pressure during the period of single-
expansion engines. The salt water used in these
boilers caused them to become quickly salted up,
which not only diminished their efficiency but
shortened their lives, and it was not until the
compound engine was invented by John Elder that
cylindrical boilers, working at a pressure starting at
60 Ibs. and increasing to 190 Ibs., were introduced.
These proved a great success. By the use of fresh
feed water and replenishing it from the condensers,
salting was prevented and the life of a boiler greatly
increased.

No further great improvement in the boiler
has taken place. The water-tube boiler is still in an
experimental stage, and attention is now being
directed to oil fuel, which will reduce the engine-
room staff, ensure greater cleanliness and quicker
despatch.

The result of these improvements in marine
engines and boilers has been to reduce the consump-
tion of coal from 4 Ibs. per indicated horse-power
to 1.4 Ibs., which cannot be considered otherwise
than a great achievement. The future high cost of
coal is sure to stimulate invention, and we may at
no distant date expect developments in internal
combustion engines adapting them to high powers
which may open up a new and great era for
mechanically-propelled vessels, and again entirely

28 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

change the world's outlook. We have also always
before us the probability of further discoveries in
electricity; the recent developments in wireless
telegraphy teach us that we are only on the threshold
of discoveries which will bring this mighty but
mysterious power more and more into the service
of man.

CHAPTER IV

THE MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE

These sketches of the growth and develop-
ment of our shipping trade would be incomplete
without some reference to those who built
up its great prosperity — men who are entitled
not merely to our consideration but to our admira-
tion ; men whose memories should be treasured by
Liverpool people', because they afford to generations
yet to come examples of industry and perseverance
in the face of difficulties which should not be without
beneficial effect if kept in remembrance. Things
move so rapidly, and our memory is so limited
that we are apt to view the things of to-day as of
our own creation, and lose sight of the strenuous
spade work done by our forefathers.

Much as we must appreciate the enterprise
and ability of our shipowners of to-day, it is no
disparagement of them when we claim that the work
of those who have gone before was equally enter-
prising within its limits, and was even more
strenuous and anxious. They had to do with a
business world only just emerging from the chrysalis
state, and without those helps and facilities which
modern science has placed at our disposal. But

29

3O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

while claiming this, we must avoid considering those
who have passed before as " giants " of industry.
They were simply the men who, when placed in
circumstances of difficulty, always rise to the occasion
and develop those faculties of industry, resource and
imagination which are so happily characteristic of
our race.

That we may, therefore, appreciate the labours
of those who have built up our prosperity we must
consider shortly the circumstances in which they
worked and the tools they had to work with. We have
already alluded to the difficulties which a ship's
husband had to contend with owing to the absence
of " cables/' or any speedy means of communication
with distant places, and to the anxieties attending
the maintenance of the old wooden ships ; but these
did not entirely disappear when iron ships were
introduced. The early steamers were badly designed,
very short of freeboard, insufficient in strength and
short of engine power ; they were frequently loaded
too deeply, and we had many casualties. One of the
greatest improvements in the construction of an
iron ship was the introduction of iron decks, which
gave the constructional strength required, and when
water ballast tanks were also adopted a ship not only
gained additional strength, but also mobility and
seaworthiness.

The place of the old cargo boat was in course
of time taken by the so-called " tramp/' the modern

CHARLES MAC!VER

WILLIAM INMAN

THOMAS H. ISMAY

SIR EDWARD HARLAND

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 31

cargo carrier — a good wholesome ship, a large carrier,
with sufficient power to take care of herself in all
weathers. With modern machinery a tramp can go
to the ends of the earth without replenishing her coal
supply. One remarkable change has taken place
which would have shocked the shipowners of fifty
years ago ; steamers no longer carry sails and the
tendency is to do away with masts. The "standard "
ship has only one mast, which is only used for
signalling. The excellence of modern machinery and
the general adoption of the twin screw have rendered
breakdowns very rare, and the " wireless " is at hand
to summon assistance when required. If the cargo
steamer of to-day has improved, the design of the
passenger ship has made even greater progress.
Those who travelled across the Atlantic in the early
sixties will recall the stuffy passenger saloons, placed
right aft, with no seats except the long settees, and
lit only by candles suspended on trays, which swayed
to and fro sputtering grease right and left. The
state-rooms were placed below the saloon and were
lit by oil lamps, one between every two rooms.
These were religiously put out at ten o'clock every
night.

There was no ventilation, and no hot water
was obtainable. We have always thought that the
introduction of the electric light was a greater boon,
and more appreciated on board ship than anywhere
else. On a rough, wild night, when everything in

32 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

your state-room is flying about, and you begin to
conjure up thoughts of possible disaster, if you switch
on the electric light, all is at peace. The very waves
appear to be robbed of their fury. There were no
smoke-rooms in the olden days — the lee side of the
funnel in fine weather, the fiddlee at other times.
Here, seated on coils of rope, and ready to lift our feet
as the seas rolled in from the alleyways on either
side, we smoked and spun our yarns. There was an
abundance of food in the saloon in the shape of great
huge joints of meat and dishes of vegetables, which
were placed on the table, and it required some
gymnastic agility to be ready to seize them, when the
ship gave a lurch, to prevent their being deposited on
your lap. We had no serviettes, but there came the
enormous compensation for all deficiencies — it was
deftly whispered, " the Cunard never lost a life/' and
not another word was said.

The conditions of life in the steerage were
wretched. The sleeping berths were huddled together,
necessitating the occupants climbing over each
other ; there was no privacy, no washing accom-
modation except at the common tap, no saloon or
seating accommodation except on the hatchways.
The food was brought round in iron buckets, and
junks of beef and pork were forked out by the
steward, and placed in the passenger's pannikin,
and in a similar way potatoes and plum duff were
served out.

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 33

All this has been changed, and in place of
discomfort we have luxurious accommodation for
every class of traveller ; and this change has been
brought about by the men concerning whom we
propose to make some notes.

SIR EDWARD HARLAND

It is very difficult to give to any one man
the credit for the great improvements which have
been made, but I think ship designing owes much to
the late Sir Edward Harland, of Belfast. He was
the first to introduce the long ship with easy lines—
easily propelled and excellent sea boats.

In designing passenger ships, Sir Edward
Harland was the first to see the advantage of placing
the saloon passenger accommodation in the centre of
the ship (citadel fashion), thus adding greatly to the
comfort of ocean travel.

The modern cargo boat — the so-called
" tramp/' because she has no fixed trade, but
vagrant -like seeks her cargoes at any likely port—
owes much also to the genius of Sir Edward. The
old-fashioned wave line theory in design, with its
concave water ]ines and hollow sections, had pro-
duced bad sea boats and poor cargo carriers.
Sir Edward was the first to perceive that long, easy
convex water lines, with full sections, gave buoyancy
at every point, were more easily propelled, and had
large deadweight and measurement capacity. I think,

34 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

therefore, when considering who were the makers
of the shipping industry of to-day, his name must
ever occupy a foremost position.

We must also give credit to Messrs. Randolf
Elder & Co., for the introduction of the compound
engine, and to Sir William Pearse (who became the
head of the firm) for the ''Atlantic greyhounds," the
" Arizona," followed by the " Alaska " and the
" Oregon/' These ships were the first to make
speed one of the first considerations of Atlantic
travel.

THE SHIPBROKER

In the olden days we had not only shipowners
but shipbrokers, who had lines of ships to various
places, and who either chartered vessels or loaded
them upon commission. The loading brokers made
it their duty to call upon the forwarding agents every
morning to ascertain what goods they had for ship-
ment. This duty was never relegated to clerks, but
was always performed by one of the principals. We
have a very vivid recollection of the daily morning
visits of Mr. Mors, Mr. Astley, Mr. W. Imrie,
Mr. Thomas Moss, Mr. McDiarmid, and others.
This business of the shipbrokers eventually came to
an end when regular lines of steamers were established,
but they for long occupied a very influential position
in the shipping world.

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 35

CHARLES MAC!VER

The most outstanding figure among ship-
owners of 1850-1880 was Charles Maclver, of the
Cunard Line, a man of resolute courage and stern
discipline. Clean shaven with aquiline features, he
looked like a man born to command.

I remember when I was Mayor, in 1880, a
commission was given to Herkomer to paint his
portrait. He asked me what sort of man Mr. Maclver
was, and then proceeded to Calderstones to paint his
portrait. In a few days he returned, saying he was
going home, as he had not found the strong man I
had described. In a few months he returned and
called to tell me that he had found my Mr. Maclver
and painted him. It appears that on his first visit
Mr. Maclver was suffering from illness.

Mr. Maclver built up the Cunard Line, which
in the fifties paid one-third of our Liverpool dock
dues. I can visualise Colonel Maclver marching down
Water Street at the head of 1,000 of his men whom
he had drilled and trained. This was one of the first
Volunteer regiments raised in 1858, when we had
fears that Napoleon III intended to invade this
country. Many stories are told of Mr. Maclver's
stern discipline. It is said one of his captains asked
permission to take his wife to sea with him. Permission
was granted, but when the day of sailing arrived he
received passenger tickets for himself and his wife,
also an intimation that he had been superseded in

36 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

command of the ship. I remember doing some small
service for Mr. Maclver which required some prompti-
tude in its execution. In thanking me he added,
" Young man, always kill your chickens when young "
—and this was the. principle he acted upon when
threatened with opposition in any of his trades.

Mr. Maclver was very public-spirited, and a
liberal supporter of our seamen's charities.

It was a rule with the old Cunard Line not
to introduce improvements until they had been well
tried, and they continued to construct wooden paddle
steamers long after the iron screw steamer had proved
its efficiency. It was no doubt this policy which built
up the wonderful reputation the line has always
enjoyed for safety.

Although Charles Maclver was the master-
builder of the Cunard Company, he was not actually
one of the founders. These were Samuel Cunard,
George Burns, and David Maclver. David Maclver
died in 1845, and his brother Charles took his place.
I was staying at Castle Wemyss in 1890, when I
received a message that Sir George Burns wished
to see me. The old man was lying on what proved
to be his deathbed. His features, which were those
of a handsome, strong, and resolute man, were
thrown into striking relief by the halo of long,
flowing, silver-white locks, which fell on his pillow.
His mind (he was then ninety-five) evidently loved
to live in the distant past, and he told me with pride,

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE

37

not of the doings of the Cunard Company, with
which he had been so long and so honourably
associated, but of the old sailing brigs, which in the
days of his youth carried the mails between this
country and Halifax.

Several of the first Cunard ships were built
by John Wood at Port Glasgow. As a schoolboy
I spent my summer holidays at his house. He was
then building the wooden steamer " Lusitania "
for my father's firm. She was intended to trade
between Lisbon and Oporto. Old John Wood was
the father of shipbuilding on the Clyde, and a
brass plate inserted in the wall of Messrs. Duncan's
shipbuilding yard at Port Glasgow now marks the
site of his house.

I treasure these links of memory with those
olden days of the shipping industry ; they bridge
over a period of most remarkable achievement and
progress.

Sir George Burns was made a Baronet
by Queen Victoria on the occasion of her Golden
Jubilee, and his son was raised to the Peerage on
Her Majesty's Diamond Jubilee under the title
of Lord Inverclyde. Lord Inverclyde took a very
warm interest in shipping matters ; he was a keen
yachtsman, and dispensed at Castle Wemyss a
splendid hospitality. He was for many years
Chairman of the Cunard Company.

After the Cunard Company was formed

38 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

into a Limited Company, in 1882, Mr. John Burns
was the Chairman, but as he lived in Scotland,
the Deputy-Chairman (the late Mr. David Jar dine)
had the practical charge. His devotion to the
interests of the Company through difficult times
was most praiseworthy. He built the " Umbria "
and " Etruria," the two most successful and popular
ships ever owned by the Company. The Marine
Superintendent of the Cunard Line (Captain Watson)
was a remarkable man, a seaman of the olden
school, with great knowledge of a ship, but with a
very narrow outlook. Of those who have passed
away in connection with the Cunard Company, the
most conspicuous figure was the second Lord
Inverclyde, who succeeded Mr. Jardine as Chairman
in 1905, and remained so until his death, five years
later. Lord Inverclyde had a great grasp of affairs,
and was a thorough master of the management of a
steamer. He built the " Mauretania " and
" Lusitania," and had he lived he was destined to
take a leading position in the country. Lord
Inverclyde was succeeded as Chairman by Mr. William
Watson, who died in 1909.

THE INMAN LINE

Ten years after the Cunard Company was
established the late Mr. William Inman, in conjunction
with Richardson Brothers, of Belfast, founded a

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE

39

line of steamers to Philadelphia. Their first steamer
was the " City of Glasgow." They shortly after
made New York their headquarters in America.
Mr. Inman 's policy was to cultivate the emigration
trade, which had hitherto been carried by sailing
ships ; in this he was very successful, and the Inman
Line, which existed for nearly forty years, will be
remembered as containing some very fine and fast
ships. The last ship Mr. Inman built, the
" City of Rome," was certainly the handsomest ship
entering the Port. Mr. Inman died in 1881
comparatively young. He was an excellent public-
spirited citizen, always ready and willing to help
forward any good cause. We saw much of him at
Windermere, where he loved to spend his holidays,
.and owned quite a flotilla of craft on the lake.
Before he died the pride of place on the Atlantic
had, however, been wrested from his hands by the
more enterprising White Star Company. The Inman
steamers passed into the hands of the Inman and
International Steamship Company, under the
direction of the late Mr. James Spence and
Mr. Edmund Taylor, and eventually drifted to
Southampton, and the old Inman Line, loved by
Liverpool people for their handsome ships with
their overhanging stems and long graceful lines,
is now only a memory.

40 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

THE COLLINS LINE

In 1850 an American line called the Collins
Line started in the New York trade. It consisted
of wooden paddle steamers with a tonnage of 2,800.
They were for those times most luxuriously fitted.
They had straight stems, and were known by their
black funnels with red tops. The Company was
not a financial success, and the steamers were
withdrawn in 1858.

THE WHITE STAR LINE

The White Star Line was originally a line
of clipper ships trading to Australia, and owned
by Pilkington and Wilson. The Line was bought
by Mr. T. H. Ismay, who had formed a partnership
with Mr. Imrie. Mr. Schwabe, of Brought on Hall,
West Derby, was a large shareholder in Messrs.
Bibby's Mediterranean Line, and had, much to
his annoyance, been notified that he could not have
any further interest in their steamers, and the
story goes that over a game of billiards he asked
his friend, Mr. Imrie, to establish a new Line to
New York, and promised, if he would do so, and
would give the order to build the ships to Messrs.
Harland and Wolff, he and his friends would take
a substantial interest. Messrs. Ismay, Imrie & Co.
accepted the proposal, and in conjunction with the
late Mr. G. H. Fletcher founded, in 1870, the White

. MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 41

Star Line of steamers to New York, Mr. Fletcher
being associated with Mr. Ismay in the management.
In the design of the " Oceanic," " Baltic,"
" Atlantic," the first steamers built for the Line,
Mr. Harland adopted the novel features to
, which I have already alluded, and these, with the
personal interest which Mr. Ismay displayed in
making travellers by his Line comfortable, quickly
made the White Star Company very popular. It
was this personal touch which contributed largely
to the success of the Company, and built up its
great prosperity.

Mr. Ismay was a personal friend of whom
I saw much in private life. I did not consider
his prominent position was due so much to his
brilliance, although he was distinctly an able man,
as to his personality. He was also very thorough
in all he did, and had great initiative. He
had the happy gift of winning the confidence
of those with whom he was associated, and the power
of selecting excellent lieutenants and placing
responsibility upon them. He was ambitious—
not for honour, for he had refused a Baronetcy
—but that the White Star Line should be
pre-eminent. I was his guest on board the
" Teutonic," in 1897, on the occasion of the Queen's
Diamond Jubilee ; the ship was filled by the
leading people of the land. All that was great and
distinguished in politics, in literature, and art, etc.,

42 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

were represented. We had also the Kaiser Wilhelm II
as a visitor. I was struck by Mr. Ismay's composure
and the perfection of all his arrangements.

The occasion was also made memorable by
the appearance of the "Turbinia," Sir Charles
Parson's experimental ship. She rushed about at
headlong speed, but always under control, and it
was evident that the turbine was destined to become
—as it has — a great motive power with immense
possibilities. Mr. Ismay unfortunately did not live
to see the completion of his chef d'ceuvre, the
" Oceanic/'

S. B. GUION

The Guion Line occupied for many years
an important and distinct position. Founded in
1866, their steamers were specially constructed for
the emigration trade. After enjoying considerable
success, they were unfortunate in adopting new
designs which proved very costly experiments.
Upon the death of Mr. Guion, in 1885, the steamers
were transferred to a public company, which ceased
to exist in 1894. Mr. Guion was very highly
esteemed, he was a member of the City Council and
Chairman of the Watch Committee ; his pleasant,
genial smile and his little jokes still linger in my
memory.

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 43

We have not alluded to the National Line,
which was established in 1862, and which, after
enjoying a fluctuating career of prosperity and
adversity, came to an end in 1892.

THE MEDITERRANEAN TRADE

In the forties the Mediterranean trade was
conducted by sailing brigs and fore and aft schooners.
The late Mr. W. Miles Moss, of James Moss & Co.,
told the story that in 1849, feeling convinced that the
time had arrived to introduce steamers, he invited
those engaged in the trade to dinner at his house.
He gave them his opinion, and added that he had
contracted to build a steamer to cost £21,000, and
invited his guests to take an interest with him.
They responded to the extent of £12,000 only.
Mr. Moss significantly added, " I took the balance/'
This steamer was the " Nile," and was the beginning
of the Moss, Bibby, Viana, Chappie Lines. They all
rapidly grew to be enterprises of great importance,
and the sources of large wealth. James Moss &!Co.
were the pioneers in the steam trade to
Egypt and the Levant, their first steamer being
the " Nile."

THE BIBBY LINE

The Bibby Line to the Mediterranean was
established in 1850 by John and James Bibby, who

44 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

had for many years owned a Line of small sailing-
vessels trading to Italy.

The success of the Line was largely due to
the genius of a young man, Mr. F. R. Leyland, who
worked his way up from one of the lower rungs of the
ladder, and eventually became the owner of the
company. The career of Mr. Leyland is one of the
most remarkable in our annals ; receiving but a
scant education he became a great linguist, an
excellent musician, and as lover and connoisseur of art
he had few superiors. Mr. Leyland's dispute with
the great Whistler as to the decoration of his Peacock
room will be remembered by many.

The Bibby Line was revived by the nephews
of the Messrs. Bibby who built up the old Bibby Line.
The present Bibby Line has made for itself a very
leading position in the East Indian trade.

W. J. LAMPORT

The Liverpool shipping trade owes much
to the late Mr. W. J. Lamport, who for many years
was the Nestor of the trade, and also the founder, in
co-partnership with Mr. George Holt, of the firm of
Lamport & Holt. Mr. Lamport was a very able
man and was the author of the first Merchant
Shipping Bill.

T. AND J. HARRISON

Messrs. T. and J. Harrison, in the sixties,
owned a few iron ships in the Calcutta trade, and

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 45

some small steamers in the Charente wine trade.
The late Mr. James Harrison was a genius — some
thought he was a little eccentric, but he saw much
further than most men, and recognised that there was
an opening in the India trade for ships of moderate
power that could make their passages with some
regularity, and he boldly chartered the ships of
Messrs. Malcolmson, which were large carriers, and
with their engines of small power placed right aft,
they quickly made a great success. Mr. James
Harrison's mantle fell upon very worthy shoulders
in the late Mr. John Hughes, and under his direction
the little Charente Line developed into the important
Harrison Line of to-day. Mr. James Harrison's
sons are among the foremost of the supporters of
our charities, and have contributed largely to the
building of our Cathedral.

ALFRED HOLT

Mr. Holt claims a prominent niche in our
gallery. He was essentially an inventor and a
pioneer. In the early sixties he owned a line of
small steamers trading to the West Indies, and
afterwards he entered the China trade in
association with the Swires, and was the founder
of the prosperous Holt Line. Mr. Holt was for
long years the advocate of the single engine, which
he claimed to be the most economical, and also

46 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

of models having fine lines and a big rise of floor —
claiming that it was most economical in practice
to have an easily-driven vessel. Experience has,
however, demonstrated that ships with full bodies
can be more cheaply propelled at moderate speeds.
Mr. Holt was the Chairman of the Dock
Board, and was the inventor of the " plateway " ;
a scheme suggested to be adopted on our highways
in order to facilitate the conveyance of heavy goods
in competition with the railways, a scheme of which
we shall hear more.

SIR ALFRED JONES

The late Sir Alfred Jones was a remarkable
personality. He climbed up to the prominent position
he eventually occupied by the sheer force of his will
and character, backed by marvellous industry. I
once asked him why he did not take a partner. His
answer was, " I will do so as soon as I can find a man
as ' intense ' as myself." On my inquiry how he got
through his work he replied, " System. My day is
mapped out— a certain hour for my steamers,
another for my banana trade, another for coal, another
for my properties, another for my theatres in the
Canaries." With all this he spent several days each
week in London, taking his correspondence clerks
with him on the train and shedding them on the way
as he completed his letters. For sheer force of

SIR THOMAS BROCKLEBANK

W. MILES Moss

FREDERICK R. LEYLAND

SIR ALFRED JONES

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 47

character and power for work, Sir Alfred was the
most remarkable man Liverpool has produced in
my day.

MR. WALTER GLYNN

We had in Mr. Walter Glynn a successful
manager of the Leyland Line, and also a very useful
member of the Dock Board. Very blunt of speech,
his directness of purpose was a very useful quality
in public affairs.

MR. WILLIAM JOHNSTON

Mr. William Johnston, the founder of the
Johnston Line, devoted himself to the building
up of his own business, in which he was most
successful. He was the first to recognise and profit
by through freight arrangements in connection with
the great trunk lines of railwav in America.

RATHBONE BROTHERS

were among the first to form a Line of steamers
to Calcutta. The "Orion," "Pleiades," and others,
were handsome vessels, but the general impression
was that they were not sufficiently large carriers for
such a distant trade. Mr. William Rathbone's
memory will be long treasured by Liverpool as one
of our most useful public men. He represented the

48 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

town in Parliament for many years, and Liverpool
was never better represented. He had an office
at the rear of his private residence in London,
where he kept a staff of clerks for his Parliamentary
business. Those were days when a Member could
initiate and carry through legislation. Mr. Rathbone
took a leading position in the reform of the Poor Laws,
and in the promotion of the first Merchant Shipping
Bill. His brother, Mr. Samuel G. Rathbone, devoted
his remarkable ability to local affairs, and was a
very valuable and leading member of the Town
Council.

TURNER, MORRISON & Co.

the owners of the Asiatic Line, trading on the
coast of India, were represented by the late
Mr. Alfred Turner, who was one of our most large-
hearted citizens. When we failed in the eighties
to raise money to build a Cathedral on the St. John's
site, he defrayed the whole of the initial expenses.
He was for some years the President of the Seamen's
Orphanage.

Sir THOS. ROYDEN

was at one time one of our most prominent ship-
builders. He afterwards devoted his attention
entirely to ship owning, in which he was most
successful. Sir Thomas was a tower of strength
to the Tory party, his eloquence and his smile being

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 49

among their most valuable assets. Sir Thomas
lived to a good old age, and was always prominent
in Liverpool affairs.

Sir ARTHUR FORWOOD

founded, in 1865, the West India & Pacific Co.,
of which he was the Managing Director, until he
entered Parliament. He was a man of striking
ability and power of organisation, and was endowed
with enormous energy. As the leader of the Tory
party in Liverpool and in the County he did a great
work for Liverpool, and he became the Parliamentary
Secretary to the Admiralty.

THE BOOTH LINE

The Booth Line occupies a prominent
position, and has built up a large trade with the
Northern Brazilian ports. It was founded by the
Right Hon. Charles Booth, the philanthropist, and
the late Mr. Alfred Booth. The original Booth Line
amalgamated some years ago with Messrs.
Singlehurst & Co.

It is impossible to refer to the many wh'o
have been interested in our Atlantic steam trade who
valiantly bore their part in the struggles of the past.
In these days, which have been days of remarkable
prosperity, one is apt to forget the struggles of the
past, and in no trade were they more severe than
in the Atlantic.

5O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

SAILING-SHIP OWNERS

Among the sailing-ship owners of the day
Messrs. Brocklebank took the lead. Their ships,
distinguished by a white band, seemed to monopolise
the Albert and the Salthouse Docks. They were
not only our largest shipowners but our largest
merchants, their ships conveying mostly their own
cargoes. They were very slow in changing over
from sail to steam. Mr. Ralph Brocklebank took
an active interest in the affairs of our Dock Board,
and was for many years the Chairman. Sir Thos.
Brocklebank took a prominent position in politics
as a Unionist, and both were very public spirited.

Messrs. Rankin, Gilmour & Co., associated
with the old firm of Pollock & Gilmour, of
Glasgow, had a large fleet, mostly engaged in the
timber trade. Mr. Robert Rankin lived at
Bromborough Hall, and was for many years the
Chairman of the Dock Board. The firm is now
most worthily represented by Mr. John Rankin,
to whose widespread philanthropy Liverpool is so
greatly indebted.

Mr. Edward Bates was among our principal
shipowners. His ships traded with Bombay, were
built of iron, and bore family names. To the
surprise of most people, Mr. Bates entered Parlia-
ment. He won the reputation of being the most
regular member in his attendance, and was created
a Baronet.

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 51

Among other owners of sailing-ships we had
Mr. James Beazley, who will always live in our kindly
memory as the founder of the Seamen's Orphanage ;
Mr. F. A. Clint, Mr. David Fernie, and others.

THE AUSTRALIAN TRADE

Probably the most active trade in the
fifties was the Australian trade, the gold discoveries
attracting a large emigration trade. Mr. H. T.
Wilson (the Napoleon of the Tory party) was very
prominent and active in this trade. He founded the
White Star Line, which he afterwards sold to
Mr. Ismay. Mr. James Baines (who never appeared
to be able to buy a hat sufficiently large to contain
his big head), with his henchman, Mr. Graves,
was always active and pushing, and kept the Black
Ball Line of Australian packets well to the fore.
He owned quite a large fleet of clippers, including
the celebrated ship the " Marco Polo," the " James
Baines/' the " Donald M' Kay," and others. The
Australian trade did not make fortunes ; the
soft wooden ships were costly to maintain, and
competition became severe.

S. R. GRAVES, M.P.

was a prominent shipowner. He became one
of the Members of Parliament for Liverpool ; he

52 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

was very popular in the House, and his friends
expected he would have taken a high position had
he lived. He was the popular Commodore of the
Royal Mersey Yacht Club, and his schooner yacht
" lerne " will be remembered by many.

We must not forget the fruit schooners owned
by Messrs. Glynn & Co., which filled the old George's
Dock. They were the Witches of the Sea.

One of our most flourishing trades was the
West Coast trade of South America. It was worked
by small barques of 400-500 tons, always smart,
well-equipped vessels, as they needed to be to do
battle with the heavy westerly gales off Cape Horn.
Messrs. Balfour, Williamson & Co., who owned
many vessels in this trade, made a noteworthy
departure in providing a home in Duke Street for
their masters and apprentices when in port.

LEADERS IN SHIPPING

In bringing these sketches to a close, one
feels it may be considered presumptuous to attempt
to allot the position which each may claim in building
up our shipping prosperity, but we may point to
distinctive features in the work of each claiming
recognition. I think Mr. Charles Maclver stands
out prominently as the founder of our great Atlantic
trade. Mr. T. H. Ismay demands our appreciation
for the good work he did for the ocean traveller-
he made the comfort of the passenger his first

MAKERS OF OUR SHIPPING TRADE 53

consideration. The late Mr. W. Miles Moss can
claim to be the pioneer of the Mediterranean steam
trade. Mr. Inman was the friend of the Irish
emigrant. Sir Alfred Jones, the active minded and
energetic owner, whose ambition was boundless and
success great. And last, but not least, Sir Edward
Harland, the great master shipbuilder, whose genius
prevailed everywhere, and is still felt.

It is very gratifying to be able to record the
successful careers of many of our shipowners, who,
from small beginnings, have achieved not only
wealth, but positions of influence and importance.
We have already alluded to Mr. Ismay, Mr. F. R.
Leyland, and Sir Alfred Jones. The late Sir Donald
Currie was for many years head of a department in
the Cunard Co., and became in after years the
Chairman and principal owner of the Cape Mail Line
of steamers ; and Sir Charles Cayzer, while in the
service of the P. & O. Company, saved sufficient to
buy a small sailing-vessel, and afterwards associating
himselt with Messrs. Arthurs & Co., of Glasgow,
founded the important line of steamers bearing his
name.

It is a subject for sincere regret that the
recent craze for amalgamation has obliterated so
many landmarks in the history .of our shipping.
In a very few years names which were household
words with us will have disappeared. Ismay,
Imrie & Co., the Inman Company, the Guion Line,

54 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

the West India and Pacific, the Dominion Line,
the old Bibby Line have all already gone, and have
become absorbed in still larger companies. The
process is still making headway, and in a few years
very few of the old companies will be left, and the
headquarters of our great shipping industry will be
in London. This will not make for the general
prosperity of Liverpool, and we shall miss the old
Liverpool shipowner in many ways. It will, how-
ever, be always pleasant to think of how nobly he
did his duty. Messrs. Maclver, Inman, Ismay,
Allan,. Beazley, Sir Alfred Jones were all distinguished
by their public spirit and their generous support
of our charities, particularly those associated with
the welfare of the sailor, and no Port in the world
is so well equipped with institutions which care for
his welfare.

CHAPTER V
OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR

She walks the water like a thing of life
And seems to dare the elements to strife.

— BYRON.

The active part taken by our merchant ships
in the War, and the brave deeds of our seamen are
perhaps too recent to be considered " reminiscent,"
yet we cannot but feel that any story of the
doings of our merchant navy during the past
fifty years would be very incomplete without
some reference to the noble part it played
in the stirring events of the last five years, and
how largely it contributed to the glorious and
victorious result. The task of giving even a
fragmentary account of the part which the Mercantile
Marine took in the mighty conflict is rendered
difficult in consequence of the lack of authoritative
information, owing to the severe (but very proper)
censorship exercised over the press during the War,
and we shall have to await the official accounts to
enable us to appreciate fully its work. But we know,
however, sufficient of the arduous work of our
seamen during this period, their courage and
endurance in times of stress and peril, and their
indomitable pluck in going to sea without any

E 55

56 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

hesitation, knowing by experience the dangers they
would encounter, to rank their services among the
most valorous in the history of our Country.

War was declared on the 4th August, 1914.
This country was slow in realising the gravity of
the situation. " Business as usual " expressed the
light heart with which we entered upon a campaign
which was destined to become a world war,
involving us in immense sacrifices, and in responsi-
bilities of which even now we cannot see the end.
Warlike operations during the first few months were
mostly on land. The seas appeared to be well under
the control of the Navy, and therefore when sailing
from Liverpool early in December for the Canaries,
on the " Anchises " we did not take seriously into
account any danger from a submarine attack, and
the only special precaution taken during the voyage
out was to summon all hands to their boat -stations
with their lifebelts on. When we arrived at Las
Palmas, we saw fourteen German steamers anchored
within territorial waters, while their crews had been
interned, a British cruiser paying an occasional
visit to see that the ships were all still there.

The sympathy of the people of the Canary
Islands was entirely with Germany, which for
some time had been carrying on a carefully prepared
propaganda. When the time arrived to return
home, in April, 1915, the conditions had changed.
The Germans had declared a submarine blockade on

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 57

the 1 8th February. The submarine warfare had
become active, and special precautions had to
be taken. When passing Ushant a destroyer dashed
up alongside, and gave the sailing directions upon
which we were to proceed going up channel ; but
even these would not have protected us if we had
been a few hours earlier, for a steamer preceding
us had been attacked and sunk while following the
course we were sailing upon.

Our ship, the White Star steamer "Corinthic,"
was bound from New Zealand to London, with a
cargo of frozen meat, and also carried many
passengers. She was armed with two four-inch guns,
manned by a complement of naval gunners.

At Dover we had to pass through a narrow
passage protected by mines on either side ; off
Margate we brought up for the night guarded by
-a destroyer, while ships of war were continually
dashing past. There were evident signs of anxiety
and activity, and we began to realise that we were
at war, and to consider what could be done to counter
the attack of a U boat. We had guns, but when
a U boat showed herself, it would be almost too
late to fire with effect. We remembered when on
board the " Mauretania " on a voyage to New York,
hearing at a distance of fourteen miles a fog bell
ringing under water at the Nantucket lightship,
and we thought the same principle might be utilized
to detect a submarine at some distance by the

58 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

thud made by the propeller. We also thought of
the long distance coming up the Channel which our
ship had sailed without any protection, and the idea
of reverting to the old system of "convoys" suggested
itself, and we ventured, on reaching London, to write
a letter to the Times, embodying these ideas, but
they were censored by the Admiralty, although
both were subsequently, after the lapse of three
years, introduced, the " convoy " being found the
best means of protecting our merchant fleet.

When the war broke out suddenly, like
a bolt from the blue, we were probably better
prepared by sea than by land to meet the onslaught
which had been so cunningly devised to take us
unawares, for it was undoubtedly the intention of
Germany to crush us and bring us under her heel
within a few months.

The fleet had been summoned for a review
by His Majesty the King, it was, therefore, practically
mobilized, and ready at once to take up such
positions as would paralyze the movements of the
German fleet, but much more than this had to be
done, our army had to be transported across the
Channel, with all its stores and equipment ; the
forces so nobly supplied by our Dominions beyond
the seas had to be brought over, and this had to be
done by our merchant ships. The seas had to be
policed, our commerce had to be carried on and to
be protected, and all this with the knowledge that

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 59

German fleets still existed in the Pacific and South
Atlantic, and also that many armed raiders were
about. The rapidity with which all this was
organised and carried out reflects the greatest credit
upon our Navy and Merchant Service.

We managed to land our " contemptible "
little army (as the Kaiser was pleased to term it)
of 170,000 men, and place it in battle array on the
Belgian soil without our enemy knowing when it
arrived or where it was placed, and it was this
ignorance of the whereabouts of our forces which
we are now told enabled us to turn the defeat of the
Marne into a victory.

On the seas our fleet was able to dispose of
the German Pacific fleet by sinking it in the battle
off the Falkland Islands. The raiders were, however,
successful in destroying much shipping before they
were run to earth by our navy, which in the end
destroyed or captured them. The credit of destroying
the " Cap Trafalgar " after a severe fight belongs
to a Liverpool merchant ship, the " Carmania."

The war, however, developed new engines of
maritime warfare — the submarine, the mine, and the
seaplane — and our enemies speedily let it be known
that they intended to carry out the traditions of
their Hun forbears, and pursue a ruthless war, in
which they would slay every man, woman and child,
however peaceful might be their occupations, if
they stood in their way — a policy which they carried

6O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

out with the greatest cruelty, outraging every dictate
of humanity.

The U boats, whose legitimate sphere was
only to attack warships or those carrying troops or
munitions, broke the laws of nations, and attacked
Hospital ships, sinking them with their freight of
suffering humanity, passenger steamers, and mer-
chantmen of every kind, not merely sinking them,
leaving their people to drown or perish, but in many
cases adding to their death struggles by firing upon
them while in the water, or turning them adrift
in their boats hundreds of miles away from the
land.

Germany had realised at an early date
in the war that she had no chance of defeating our
Navy in regular warfare, and that the submarine
was not a very effective weapon against a battle-
ship/ and therefore, after declaring a submarine
blockade of British commerce, entered upon a
submarine campaign against our merchant shipping,
in which she met with varying success. Between
the 24th February and the I3th October, 1916,
she sank 183 ships and 144 fishing vessels, the
highest number in one week being 35 ; and in the
following year, between February 26th and November
1 8th (in nine months) the German submarine sank
661 vessels of over 1,600 tons, 247 under 1,600 tons,
and 161 fishing craft ; the number of ships unsuccess-
fully attacked being 550. During the war upwards

IIMI

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 6l

of 8,000 British sailors lost their lives through
submarine attacks.

Submarines which at first were limited in the
range of their operations by the amount of fuel they
could carry, and could only conduct their nefarious
warfare within the waters immediately surrounding
Great Britain, were eventually built of sufficient size
to be able to destroy our shipping when two or three
hundred miles to the west of Ireland, and two or
three U boats were constructed large enough to
cross the Atlantic and destroy some shipping on
the American coast ; they were also armed with
guns, which they freely used. Various estimates
were put out as to the number of submarines afloat.
They seemed to ever increase in numbers, and in
their boldness and unscrupulous mode of warfare.
Sometimes their attacks slacked off, as we are now
told, while the Kaiser had passing qualms of
conscience. Their movements were directed by
wireless, and there is little doubt that they had
sympathizers on the British coast, from whom they
received information. The sinking of our shipping
became alarming, sometimes, at the week-ends, the
total reaching twenty and more steamers for the
two days.

This was the condition of things with which
our merchant fleet had to contend. Traversing day
by day and hour by hour waters reeking with death
and destruction, thev knew that a submarine attack

62 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

probably meant death to a large number of the
people on board, perhaps all ; but the British sailors
heeded it not, their country's call sounded in their
ears, and without hesitation they went to sea,
not only in ships engaged in commerce, but also
in vessels acting as armed cruisers and as patrol
ships, sweeping the seas in search of the enemy's
raiders ; or as transports, in which they conveyed
nearly a million of British troops from the most
distant parts of the world, and two millions of
American troops across the Atlantic, with all
their munitions of war and all their impedimenta.
Such a brilliant performance must for all time
stand forth as one of the greatest achievements
in the world's history. Nor was the great
and heroic work of our sailors limited to merchant
ships. Our fishing fleets, fitted as minesweepers,
carried on without flinching, the highly dangerous
task of sweeping the seas to find and destroy the
mines which the enemy had strewn in all its path-
ways. Even their mines were diabolically constructed
to destroy innocent life, for contrary to international
law, they remained active even after they were
detached from their moorings, and were floating
about. They were also sown by night, in the busy
channels frequented by cross channel steamers and
our fishing fleets. That all this was carefully
thought out and " according to plan," is proved
by the fact they could and did discriminate

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 63

where and what their submarines attacked, for
the Isle of Man boats were immune from attack,
because it was known that they regularly
carried large numbers of German prisoners
of war. The patrol and mine-sweeping services
conducted by our fishermen and many yachtsmen
were most arduous, exposed not only to submarines
and mines, but to the cruel, cold winter weather
and heavy seas ; yet they never faltered in their duty.

The sea along the east coast of England is
sown with wreckage of steamers and fishing craft
destroyed while pursuing their ordinary and innocent
trades. The Irish Sea and the North Channel are
also strewn with the remains of British shipping.
For four years or more British ships followed their
calling, passing through seas bristling with dangers,
and the people of this country, which depends upon
its overseas traffic for their daily bread, went about
as usual, and suffered no actual privation from the
shortage of food.

Such was the position of things — the
dangers which our merchant ships had to encounter,
and the problems which our Navy had to attack and
to conquer. The versatility of our Navy is proverbial.
It has been well said " A sailor is a jack of all trades."

A distinguished officer recently stated that
when he retired from the Navy, he bought a brewery,
which he worked for some years, and brewed the best
beer in the district. He then laid a submarine cable

64 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

for the American Government, and ended up by
managing a foreign coal-mine. Such is the remark-
able adaptability of our naval men. It is not,
therefore, surprising that when the submarine menace
developed itself our navy was not slow in devising
means of counter-attack, and of destroying the
U boats. Destroyers and even submarines chased
them, dropping depth charges containing high
explosives, which were fatal if they struck the
submarine, and even the concussion of the explosion
at a considerable distance placed their electric
batteries hors de combat. Wire netting protected
our ships while at anchor, and was used to form
a barrier across the Channel and to protect our ports.

It was found that U boats could be seen
from an aeroplane when they were some depth under
the water. Aeroplanes were, therefore, used to hunt
the submarine, and indicate its position to an
accompanying destroyer, or the aeroplane itself
dropped a depth charge.

Underwater listening apparatus was invented,
by which the thud of the propeller of a submarine
could be distinctly heard, and the position of the
submarine approximately ascertained.

Mystery-ships, fully armed, but having the
appearance of an innocent coasting vessel, traversed
the adjacent seas, but the most successful protection
afforded to our transports and to our commerce was
the adoption of the old system of " convoys/'

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 65

Convoys were seldom very successfully attacked, and
ships lost while being convoyed did not exceed
3 per cent. The convoy system required very
careful organisation. Ships have different speeds
and different destinations, so we had convoys for
ships of varying swiftness. We had not sufficient war
ships or destroyers to act as convoys from shore to
shore in the Atlantic, therefore the convoys crossing
the ocean were only under the protection of a ship of
war, and only met their escort fleet of destroyers
when they reached the danger zone. At a given
point the convoy broke up, some ships going up
the St. George's Channel to Liverpool, the others
proceeding to London and the Channel ports.
The convoy system in the later stages of the war
became very perfect, and although some enemy
submarines boldly penetrated the protecting line of
destroyers, and sank a few ships, they seldom got
away again, and the knowledge of this had a very
wholesome and a very deterrent effect. The valuable
services performed by both English and American
destroyers to our Mercantile Marine deserves the
highest praise.

The appearance of the River Mersey upon
the arrival of a Convoy was something to be
remembered. Sometimes a convoy would consist
of twenty or thirty large merchantmen, all dazzle-
painted, stretching out in a long line from New
Brighton to the Sloyne, while their escort of British

66 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

and American destroyers made their rendezvous at
the Birkenhead floating stage.

Admiral Scheer, in his book, allows that the
Germans lost half of their submarines, a considerable
number he says were always under repair, and the
difficulty of obtaining crews was an increasing one.
Therefore, we think that it can be claimed that our
navy had already mastered the U boat menace when
the war ended.

To make it difficult for a submarine to find
the range at which to fire their torpedos, our ships
were carefully camouflaged or dazzle-painted, and
presented a very grotesque and strange appearance,
no two ships being alike. The painting was care-
fully designed, in many cases by an artist of
eminence, the object being to confuse the eyes of a
spectator at a distance. In some cases the ship was
made to appear as if going the opposite way to that
upon which she was actually proceeding. In others
the ship gave the appearance of going at a much
greater speed than that at which she was actually
steaming. In others the ship at a distance had the
appearance of being much shorter than she really
was. In all these cases the submarine would have
difficulty in ascertaining how far his quarry was
away from him, which way she was proceeding, and
how fast she was going. In order to render a
submarine attack still more ineffective, our ships
during the day time followed a zig-zag course,

I*

M

OUR MERCHANT SHIPS AND THE WAR 67

proceeding for a given period on a certain course,
then suddenly changing it by several degrees,
thus rendering it difficult for a submarine to get
into a position to fire a torpedo.

Another device adopted by our ships when
pursued by a submarine was to throw out a smoke
screen, which for some minutes entirely hid them
from the enemy, enabling them to alter their course
and steal away from their pursuers.

The promiscuous mine-laying was a source
of many disasters, but fortunately the invention
of the " paravane " by a naval officer, proved an
excellent protection. It consisted of two long steel
bars, one on either side of the ship, attached at one
end to the bows a few feet below the water, and
at the other to an " otter," which, as the ship
proceeded, spread the bars out and kept them away
from the ship's side. When a mine was struck, the
buoy-rope of the mine slid down and along the bar,
and when it reached the " otter " the rope was
caught and cut by a steel knife, and the mine was
sunk.

Sufficient has been said to prove the very
active and noble part taken by our Mercantile
Marine during the war. Although we do not claim
that they won the war, we can, at least, say that
the war could not have been won without them.

We would also wish to bear testimony to
the excellent spirit displayed by the Royal Navy

68 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

to the Merchant Navy. They were in the highest
and best sense " comrades-in-arms/' and we in
Liverpool also gratefully recognize our debt to the
United States. American destroyers were contin-
ually in the Mersey. We admired their seamanlike
trim, and the smartness of the officers and crews,
and we appreciate the excellent and arduous work
they did in safeguarding our convoys, which not only
demanded the exercise of great skill, but called forth
courage and endurance.

CHAPTER VI

SHIPPING AND THE WAR

i. — Now AND AFTER

The following Chapter was published during the War,

and fairly describes the attitude taken by shipowners

towards the War, and the great work they successfully

performed.

It is unfortunate that no adequate statement
has been forthcoming setting before the public the
important services shipowners are performing for
the country, and the serious position of the shipping
industry. Even in the House of Commons the voice
of the shipowner has never been effectively raised.

It is no exaggeration to say that the shipping
interest of Great Britain has sacrificed more than
any other leading industry: — and the country does
not realise the serious difficulties which are in front
of shipowners if they are to " carry on " after the
war and maintain our maritime position. Indeed,
so far from the true position of the shipowner being
realised, there appears to be a general impression
that he has made undue profits out of the war,
and is still in a privileged position, and is gathering
in exceptional riches.

It will scarcely be disputed that the material
prosperity of the country depends upon the existence
of a great mercantile marine, and that our shipping

7O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

industry is vital to the existence of the nation.
In times of peace we depend upon it to feed and
clothe our people, and to bring us the necessary
raw products, the manufacturing of which gives
employment to our industrial population. We are
apt to forget that we live upon an island, and with
the exception of coal and iron, we depend almost
entirely upon our shipping to supply the wants of
our forty-five millions of people and to maintain
our industries.

Were it not for our merchant ships the
present war could not have been carried on. It
would, ere now, have been lost, and the people of
this country would be in the grip of famine. Nor
have our shipowners merely supplied our commercial
wants ; our merchant ships have been turned into
armed cruisers, patrol ships, hospital ships, and
transports, and have thus rendered the most effective
assistance in the conduct of the war.

Anyone who realises these facts will see how
important it is that our shipping interest should be
supported, so that it may be in a position to resume
its activities ; and that its individuality should not
be crushed and extinguished by Government control
and bureaucracy. As a proof of the successful
enterprise of our shipowners in the twenty years
prior to the war, our tonnage increased from
8,653,543 tons to 19,145,140 tons, and we owned
43 per cent, of the world's shipping.

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 71

It may be well to deal at once with the
allegation that shipowners have made excessive
profits. There is no doubt that during the first
two years of the war ships earned large freights,
not, however, due to what is commonly called
" profiteering," but simply because the Government
hesitated to check the imports of merchandise of a
bulky character. After the Government had taken
up the tonnage necessary for their transport purposes,
what remained was not sufficient to convey the
produce pressing for shipment. If imports had been
regulated as they are now, the pressure for freight
room would have been reduced and freights kept
within moderate limits.

The urgent need for checking imports of
a bulky character was, I know, urged upon the
Government by shipowners who foresaw the
scramble for freight space, but the Government
failed to respond to these representations. Their
hands were very full, the tonnage problem was a new
and difficult one, opening up many embarrassing
questions, viz., as to what imports should be
checked, the effect of this upon our manufacturers,
and what would be the result of checking trade in
one direction, in causing its dislocation in another,
and the consequent disturbance of our foreign
exchanges. All these and others were points upon
which we had little or no experience to guide us,

72 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

and the position was aggravated by the loss of
tonnage due to the ravages of the submarine.

Taking a calm view of the retrospect, and
the gigantic and unique task with which the
Government has been faced, they have accomplished
their work with fewer blunders than might have
been expected. After all, freights have not bulked
largely in the increased cost of produce ; a freight
of £10 per ton is only id per pound. If we are to
find the true cause of our high cost of living we must
look at the inflation and consequent depreciation
of our currency, the high rate of wages, and increased
spending power of our working classes, and the
indifferent harvests of last year in all parts of the world.

The high freights earned by our shipping
in 1914, 1915, and part of 1916 naturally caused the
value of shipping to rapidly advance. Very few new
merchant ships were being constructed ; ships were
being destroyed, and shipowners possessing estab-
lished lines were forced to buy to maintain their
services, and thus the value of secondhand steamers
advanced to two, three, and even four times their
pre-war values. Many holders, especially of tramp
steamers, sold out and realised great fortunes, and
these unexpected and unprecedented profits
unfortunately escaped taxation, on the ground that
they represented a return of capital ; and it is these
profits that have appeared unduly large in the
public eye.

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 73

The shipowners who remained in business,
and this comprised the great majority, were deprived
of 80 per cent, of all their profits above their pre-war
datum, and afterwards this tax on their excess
profits was relinquished, and the Government
requisitioned all tonnage on what are known as
Blue Book rates — which on the basis of the present
value of shipping yield only a poor return.

It is difficult to understand why the Govern-
ment should have placed shipping on a basis of
taxation differing from all other industries — it is
the industry which beyond all others is essential
to the conduct of the war, and which is exceptionally
subject to depreciation. The Chancellor of the
Exchequer (The Right Hon. A. Bonar Law) was
undoubtedly carried away by his own amateur
experience as a shipowner, and thought there
was no limit to the extent he might filch away
the shipowner's earnings, little recking that if the
shipowner is unable to put on one side a reserve to
replace the tonnage he loses, he is forced to go
out of the trade ; and also utterly disregarding the
rapid headway being made by neutral countries, who
are profiting by the high freights and using their
profits to greatly extend their mercantile fleets.

In estimating the financial results of our
shipowning industry during the early period of the
war, allowance must be made for the increased
cost of working a steamer. Coals, wages, insurance,

74 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

port charges, and cost of repairs, and upkeep were
all very high ; indeed, it may be said that the nett
results to the shipowner of the high freights which
prevailed in 1915 and 1916 were not very excessive
when all these things are considered, for in addition
to the increased cost of working, there was heavy
depreciation to provide for, the shipowner suffered
a complete dislocation of his trade, and in many
cases lost his entire fleet, the creation of long years
of toil, and with this his means of making a
livelihood.

2. — DIFFICULTIES OF RESTORATION

We have considered the position of shipping
as the paramount industry of the country — its
great services in the conduct of the war, and what it
is suffering in consequence of the diffusion of fairy
tales of the excessive profits made by shipowners.
We can now turn our attention to the extraordinary
difficulties which stand in the way of the restoration
of the shipping industry, which are fraught with
considerable peril to the future of our Empire.

Shipping may be divided into two classes, both
of which are of national importance. The liners,
which comprise fixed services of passenger and cargo

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 75

ships. These services must be maintained, and new
tonnage built at whatever cost to replace lost ships.
The other class is our cargo ships. Many of these
conduct regular services ; others are what are known
as " tramps," and go where the best freights offer.
It is the owners of the tramp steamers who have
realised large profits by selling their ships. The
Government in their shipping policy have entirely
failed to discriminate between these classes, not
recognising that the liner services involve a complete
and costly system of organisation both at home and
abroad, which, once dislocated, is difficult to restore.
The urgency for additional cargo ships prevents the
building of liners, and there must be a considerable
shortage of this description of vessel when the war
ends.

Probably the cause which has been most
detrimental and disastrous to shipping was the
obstinacy of the Admiralty^ in declining to recognise
the urgent necessity for building more merchant
ships. They filled all the yards with Admiralty
work, and when the violence of the submarine
attack aroused the nation to a sense of the danger
before it, an.i the cry went up throughout the land
" Ships, ships, and still more ships/' the Government
then only then - responded, and decided that
further merchant ships must be built at once. There
was great delay in giving effect to their decision to
build "standard" ships — plans had to be submitted

76 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

and obtain the approval of so many officials that
many months elapsed before the keel of the first
standard ship was laid, and in the meanwhile the
losses through the submarine attack continued.

The destruction of tonnage by submarine
attack in 1917 assumed very serious proportions,
but latterly the number of vessels sunk has been
gradually reduced, and we have the recent assurance
of the Secretary to the Admiralty that our methods
of dealing with submarines have improved, and
that we are now achieving considerable success in
destroying them. The following statement gives
the position to-day in gross tonnage : —

1917.

U.K. World.

Sunk 4,009,537 6,623,623

Built 1,163,474 2,937,785

Nettloss 2,846,063 3,685,838

JANUARY-MARCH, 1918.

Sunk 687,576 1,123,510

Built 320,280 864,607

Nettloss 367,296 258,903

The nett loss of British tonnage of 367,296
tons during the first three months of 1918 was still
very serious, but we were told that we were making
distinct progress in our rate of shipbuilding, and
the following returns seem to bear this out.

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 77

The United Kingdom monthly output of
new ships from May, 1917, was in tons :—

May 69,773

• June 109,847

July 83,073

August 102,060

September 63,150

October 148,309

November 158,826

December 112,486

January 58,568

February 100,038

March 161,674

April 111,533

In the year ended April, 1917, new U.K.
ships totalled 749,314 tons, and for the year ended
April, 1918, 1,279,337 tons.

The growing scarcity of shipping, the urgent
need of providing tonnage for the food supplies,
not only for this country, but also for our Allies,
forced the Government to consider in what way
they could make the most economical use of the
tonnage available. The position was rendered more
acute by the entry of America into the war, and the
adoption of the " convoy " system as a protection
against submarine attack.

There were two policies open for adoption by
the Government. One was to marshal and organise
shipowners, and place in their hands the provision

78 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

of the necessary tonnage, thus securing the co-
operation and assistance of trained specialists.
The other policy was to " control " the trade,
requisition the whole of our shipping, and to work
it themselves. They unfortunately adopted the
latter policy, and by so doing they not only
lost the individual enterprise and supervision of
the trained shipowners, but practically placed
shipowners out of business, and this at a time when
" neutrals," who continue to benefit by the high
freights, are making rapid strides as shipowners.

The shipping control, under the able direction
of Sir Alexander Maclay, is doing its work on the
whole better than might have been expected — thanks
to the voluntary assistance of many of our younger
shipowners. Under the control, the shipowner
is paid at rates laid down in the Blue Book, and
without going into figures it may be roughly stated
that on the pre-war values of steamers these rates
leave him 6 per cent, or 7 per cent, on his
capital, and 6 per cent, for depreciation, but on
to-day's values the return upon his capital is very poor.
A steamer now costs to build at least three times
its pre-war cost. Therefore, it is obvious a
provision of 15 per cent, for interest and depreciation
on pre-war cost is only 5 per cent, on to-day's values.
This affords no inducement to enterprise, and it is
not surprising that many shipowners have gone
out of business.

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 79

The Government control has taken ships
out of the long voyage trades and placed them in
the Atlantic trade, where they are required as
transports and for the conveyance of food. This
policy, which was perhaps inevitable, may involve
far-reaching consequences. The long voyage trades
have been built up by shipowners at a heavy cost,
and are also the creation of generations. These
services involve costly adjuncts in the shape of
docks, piers, barges, repairing shops, branch
steamers, and through traffic arrangements. It may
be said all this will be recovered after the war ;
but this loses sight of the difficulty of regaining a
trade once its associations and connections are
severed ; and also of the probable competition of
America and neutral countries. Certainly, the Blue
Book rates give no compensation for such a
disturbance.

The Government are making huge profits
out of shipping, but what becomes of these profits
we have been unable to discover ; they do not appear
in any returns we have seen. But the time has
arrived when the " Blue Book " rates require to
be revised — this, in view of the heavy cost of the
repairs which will be necessary when the war is
over, and the necessity of placing the shipowner in
a position to replace his tonnage at the enhanced
prices which will prevail.

80 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

3. — PROBLEMS TO COME WITH PEACE

We can now proceed to consider what will
be the position of shipping after the war. This
involves much clear thinking, and the discussion of
several questions upon which no definite statement
can be at present made.

We start with a tonnage deficit as compared
with 1914 of approximately 3,000,000 tons. The
out-put of new tonnage at present falls short of our
losses ; last quarter to the extent of 367,296 tons.
This is serious, but we are gradually overtaking it.
We built last quarter 320,280 tons, and other countries
did still better, turning out 864,607 tons, and it
would appear as if we might now claim with some
confidence that while the curve of the destruction
by submarines is decreasing, the curve of the output
of tonnage is increasing, and we may reasonably
hope that at the end of the 3^ear our gains and losses
of tonnage will balance. This will leave us still to
make good the losses by submarine prior to this year.
We have also to keep in mind that our shipbuilding
yards are still much occupied with Admiralty work
and with the repair of ships damaged by submarine
attack.

After the war the Government will have to
demobilise, and the repatriation of armies comprising
5,000,000 men, with their munitions and impedi-
menta, can scarcely occupy less than two years,

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 8 1

and will engage probably one-third of our available
tonnage.

Europe will be very short of raw materials
of every kind ; the importation of them will be very
urgent, and food will also be short for some time.

With the heavy weight of taxation which
we shall have to bear, an increased output of
manufactures will be necessary if the prosperity
of the country is to be restored. This will not be
possible without an abundant supply of raw materials.

The repatriation of our armies and the
urgent need for raw produce would indicate that the
Government will retain their control of shipping
for some time after the war.

The British and American Governments are
building standard and wooden merchant ships, but
they will not last long, and will have to be replaced
by more substantial and suitable vessels.

The prospect before shipowners, therefore,
is that there will be a prolonged period of Govern-
ment control and of high freights, which will greatly
benefit neutral shipowners. And the serious question
arises, how is the British merchant service to be
built up again ? The position is one full of difficulty.
Prices of new ships will probably rule very high,
and the Blue Book rates afford no encouragement to
build. In America, France, and Germany the
difficulty will probably be solved by the granting of
subventions ; but in this country we have a profound

82 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

distrust of subventions, as they are invariably
associated with Government control, which has
always been destructive of enterprise.

Nothing could be more unfortunate than
the prolongation of the shipping control one day
longer than is necessary. It is undoubtedly
paralysing the industry, and any attempt, such as
has been fore-shadowed, to nationalise shipping
would be most disastrous. How could a State
department administer the shipping industry of
this country in competition with foreign private
enterprise ?

The national control of our shipping and
other leading industries may be expedient in the
present war crisis, but it has taught us that the
nationalisation of any industry penalises it with
so many restrictions, and surrounds it with so many
unnecessary difficulties that it is foredoomed to
failure, and would inflict infinite damage to the
prosperity of the country.

Advances of money by the Government at
a low rate of interest would no doubt be an encourage-
ment— and those shipowners who can afford to b?
bold and accept the position will probably be
rewarded ; but to go on building ships at the very
high prices may be beyond the prudent reach of
the average private shipowner. This rather points
to the creation of large companies.

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 83

In shipowning, as in every other depart-
ment of industrial life, " scale " may be the
dominant factor, and the shipowning companies who,
during the war, have been able to lay by large
reserves, will find themselves in a position of
great advantage. In view of the necessity for
strengthening the hands of shipowners and enabling
them to carry on in the difficult times before them,
the Government is making a mistake in not giving
more encouragement to shipowners.

Experience teaches us that shipowners may
be trusted to quickly adopt every modern means to
work their ships economically, and to adapt them to
the trades they serve ; but do our port authorities
equally recognise their duties to provide the most
up-to-date methods and machinery for the handling
of our cargoes ? We may economise in the wrorking
of our ships at sea, but if on their arrival in port
they have to wait for berths to discharge and load,
and if these operations are hampered by the lack of
mechanical appliances or labour, the shipowners'
exertions are in vain. Nor does the difficulty end
here : docks lose their value and attractiveness if
the cost of moving cargoes from the ship's side to
the warehouse, or to the manufacturing districts,
forms a heavy addition to the freight. In Liverpool
we have, unfortunately, the costly, cumbrous, and
old-fashioned system of cartage still per vailing.
There is a lack of good road approaches to the docks

84 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

and railway termini — a wholly inadequate means of
conducting the cross-river traffic. Our trade has
out-grown our railway communications with the
interior, and our railways continue, as they have
always done, to strangle our trade by their excessive
charges, and thus to deprive our port of the
advantage of its unique geographical position.
We want cheap and abundant water, and
cheap electrical energy to extend our local
manufacturing industries. All these things point
to a quickening of Dock Board methods, but
still more to the awakening of the City Council to
its responsible duties as the custodians of a great
seaport, and the urgent necessity that they should
do their part in its restoration and development,
and make it ready to do its share in the revival of
trade after the war.

Our City Fathers cannot rest content with
carrying out what Disraeli, in one of his ironical
moods, called "a policy of sewage/' We want a
wider outlook, and a more generous appreciation of
the fact that Liverpool depends upon her commerce.
Every expenditure which the city has made in the
past upon its development has resulted not only in
its growth and prosperity, but in the well-being of
her people.

The British mercantile marine has for long
been the envy of neighbouring nations, who are
watching the opportunity to seize the business

SHIPPING AND THE WAR 85

which our ships have been compelled to abandon.
We have lost a large proportion of our tonnage,
and what is left is taken out of the control of the
shipowner. The situation constitutes a serious
national danger, and we may some day awake to
the fact that we have lost beyond recovery the
industry which is above and beyond all others,
the great national asset, and shall rue the day when
our Chancellor of the Exchequer became interested
in four small vessels and drew conclusions from his
experience which are not supported by the wider and
more expert knowledge of the shipowner.

Such is the present position of shipping
and its future outlook—

A considerable reduction in the available
tonnage.

Government control for a lengthened period.

High freights and high cost of new ships.

The probability of a great increase in American

and neutral shipping.

We cannot leave the subject without
indicating that everything may be greatly changed
by the attitude of labour. If the present " ca-canny "
and " down tool " policies are to continue it is difficult
to see how we can recover our prosperity. Labour
will have to realise that it has its value, and that
the receipt of wages carries with it the obligation to
give an honest day's work. And equally employers
will have to recognise that labour must have a

86 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

fuller share of the fruits of their labour and better
conditions of life. Strikes will not settle these
matters ; they only serve to intensify distrust and
ill-feeling. We must hope that our men returning
from the front will have a wider outlook and altered
views of life, and that employers will also generously
recognise the changed conditions. We trust also
that the Whitley report may be quickly followed by
the establishment of Industrial Councils, and that
these Councils will be able to promote confidence
and good feeling and remove the friction and distrust
which has too long existed between capital and
labour. Meanwhile a propaganda might be started
to instruct our people in those elementary principles
of economic science which govern their labour, and
about which so much ignorance unhappily prevails.

CHAPTER VII

THE "RED JACKET"

A REMINISCENCE OF 1857

We are justly proud of the development
of our steamships — their size, speed, and magnificent
equipment — and we are apt to forget that
this has always been characteristic of British
shipping. In the old sailing-ship days, about 1850-
1860, a walk round the Prince's Dock, crowded with
clipper ships, was something to fill an Englishman
with pride. The beautiful symmetry of the hull,
the graceful sweep of the sheer fore and aft, the
tautness of the spars, the smartness of the gear and
equipment attracted the eye; but, perhaps, above all,
the romance of the sea attached itself to the sailing-
ship and appealed to the imagination in a way
which does not gather round a steamer, however
large and magnificent. We realised that the sailing-
ship had to do battle with wind and waves in far
distant seas single-handed, relying entirely upon
her sails and equipment and the skill of her crew ;
whereas a steamer tells us at once of her unseen
power which makes her independent of winds and
weather, and enables her to make her voyages
with almost the regularity of the railway train.
All this, the achievement of the steam engine and
the development of the screw propeller, is very

G 87

88 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

splendid to think upon, but the old romance of the
sea has gone.

The inspiring and wonderful sight of the
Liverpool docks, a forest of the masts of English
and American clippers ; the river Mersey at high
water, alive with splendid sailing vessels leaving
or entering our docks, and at anchor in a line
extending from the Sloyne to New Brighton, or
towing out to sea, or may be sailing in from sea
under their own canvas — all was activity and full
of life and motion. I remember seeing one of
Brocklebank's ships — the " Martaban," of 600 tons-
sailing into the George's Dock Basin under full
canvas ; her halliards were let go, and sails were clewed
up so smartly that the ship as she passed the Pierhead
was able to throw a line on shore and make fast.
It is difficult in these days to realise such a thing
being possible. It was skill supported by discipline.

When I was young I was a keen yachtsman,
and had the good fortune to make a voyage to
Australia in one of the most famous of our clipper
ships, the " Red Jacket." Some account of the
first few days of my voyage may be of interest,
and bring into contrast the ease and luxury
enjoyed on board an Atlantic liner, with the
hard life on board a first-class clipper ship. It is
not too much to say that on board an Atlantic liner
the weather does not count ; on board an old sailing-
ship the weather meant everything.

THE "RED JACKET" 89

The " Red Jacket " was built in Maine,
in 1854. She was 2,006 tons. Her length was
260 feet, and her beam 44 feet. She was an extremely
good-looking ship. Her figurehead was a full-
length representation of " Red Jacket," a noted
Indian chieftain. She had been purchased by
Pilkington & Wilson for £30,000, for their White
Star Line of Australian packets. On her voyage
from New York she had made the passage in thirteen
days one hour — on one day she logged 415 miles.

On the morning of the 2Oth November, 1857,
I embarked by a tender from the Liverpool Pierhead.
It was nearly the top of high water. The crew
were mustered on the forecastle, under the ist Mate,
Mr. Taylor. An order comes from the quarter-deck,
" Heave up the anchor and get under way." " Aye,
aye, sir." '"Now then, my boys, man the windlass,"
shouts the Mate, and to a merry chantie :

In 1847 Paddy Murphy went to heaven

To work upon the railway,

A-working on the railway, the railway, the railway,

Oh, poor Paddy works upon the railway.

A good chantie man is a great help in a
ship's crew. A song with a bright topical chorus
takes half the weight off a long or a heavy haul.
The chain cable comes in with a click, click of the
windlass falls. " The anchor is away, sir," shouts
the Chief Officer. " Heave it a-peak and cathead it,"
comes from the quarter-deck, and the tug
" Retriever " forges ahead, and tightens the towrope

9O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

as we gather way. Bang, bang, went the guns,
and twice more, for we were carrying the mails,
and good-bye to old Liverpool, and the crowds which
lined the pierhead cheered, for the " Red Jacket "
was already a famous ship, and it was hoped she
would make a record passage.

Next morning we were off Holyhead, with
a fresh westerly breeze and southerly swell. We
were making but poor headway, and shortly the
hawser parted. " All hands on deck " was shouted
by Captain O'Halloran, and a crew of eighty men
promptly appeared on deck, for we carried a double
crew. " Loose sails fore and aft ; hands in the tops
and cross-trees to see that all is clear and to overhaul
gear ; let royals and skysails alone."

The boatswain's whistle sounded fore and aft
as the men quickly took their positions and laid
hold of the halyards and braces. "Mr. Taylor,
loose the head-sails." " Aye, aye, sir." The top-
sails, courses, and top-gallant sails were all loose
and gaskets made up. " Sheet home your topsails."
" Aye, aye, sir." " Now, then, my men, lead your
topsail halyards fore and aft, and up with them."
Away the crew walk along with the halyards, and
then with a long pull and a pull all together the
topsail yards are mastheaded to the chantie :—

Then up the yard must go,

Whiskey for my Johnny,
Oh, whiskey for the life of man,

Whiskey, Johnny.

THE "RED JACKET" 9!

'Vast heaving — Belay there. Now brace
up the yards, all hands on the lee fore braces."

So handy my boys, so handy,

sang the chantie man. " Pass along the watch tackle,
and have another pull. That will do. Belay there,
and man the main braces. Down tacks." The jibs are
run up and the spanker hauled out, and the good ship
" Red Jacket " like a hound released from the leash,
bounds forward, and runs the knots off the log reel.
Captain O'Halloran was hanging on to the
rail to windward, munching, not smoking, his cigar,
with an anxious eye to windward, asking himself,
" Dare I do it ? Will she carry them ? Yes, I
think she will. Mr. Taylor, stand by the royals,
haul on the weather braces, steady the yard while
the youngsters lay aloft — up boys"; and half a dozen
or so youngsters scampered up the rigging, over the
tops, and through the cross-trees, and quickly were
the royals loosed and sheeted home. " Well done
lads — tie up the gaskets — clear the clew lines and
come down." But we not only wanted all sails,
but every sail well set, for we were close on the wind.
Jibs and staysails, courses and topsails, topgallant
sails and royals must be braced sharp up at the
same angle to the wind, and every tack and sheet
pulling doing its work. The good ship felt that she
had the bit in her mouth, and bounded along,
throwing the seas in sparkling cascades to port and
starboard. The man at the wheel kept his eyes upon

92 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

the weather-luff of the fore royal, and kept the sail
just on the tremble, so as not to lose an inch to
windward.

As evening approached, the wind increased
with squalls, the Captain looked anxious, and
shouted to Mr. Taylor, " See that all the halyards
are clear, run life-lines fore and aft, sand the decks,
and see that the lee scuppers are free." So the good
ship plunged along, occasionally taking a sea over
the bows, and in some of her lurches pushing her
lee rail under water and throwing spray fore and aft ;
she was just flirting with the weather, romping along,
seemingly enjoying every moment, and revelling in
her element. :t Keep her going/' shouted the
Captain to the man at the wheel, " full and bye ;
just ease her a few spokes when the squall strikes her."
A loud report like a cannon — the second jib is blown
clear out of the bolt ropes. " Hands forward — bend a
new jib " —not an easy matter with seas coming
over the forecastle ; but with

Haul in the bowline, the bowline haul

the sail was mastheaded.

"Mr. Taylor, heave the log." " Aye, aye,
sir." " What is she doing ? " " Eighteen knots,
sir, on the taifrail." " Good, we shall make over
400 knots by noon to-morrow." And we did.

We need not say that passengers under these
conditions were not at home, or, indeed, wanted
on deck, and the fifty saloon passengers and 600

THE "RED JACKET" 93

steerage were on such days kept below in an
atmosphere which was stifling ; but this was rather
an exceptional day. We had also soft, bright,
sunny days, when life was a delight, a luxury, a
dream, and the sea heavenly, but we had something
exciting almost every day — sail splits, spars and gear
carried away, albatross circling overhead, Cape
pigeons, icebergs off Kerguelen Land, and finally we
made Port Philip Heads in sixty-four days — the
record passage. Bravo, " Red Jacket."

I leave my readers to mentally compare a
passenger's life on the "Red Jacket " —with its spirit
of sport and adventure, its romance, its daily happen-
ings, and its hardships — with the luxury on such
a ship as the " Aquitania " or " Olympic " with all
their attractions of a first-class hotel, bridge parties,
dancing, and entertainment of every kind, regardless
of weather — with everything, in fact, but that spirit
of adventure which appeals so strongly to the
imagination of the Britisher, and which, after all,
has built up his character and made him the doughty
man he is either on land or at sea.

CHAPTER VIII

THE " QUEEN OF THE AVON "
A REMINISCENCE OF 1858

The old-fashioned sailing-ship was handi-
capped by her inability to contend successfully
with strong head winds. After the continuance
of a succession of north-west gales the river Mersey
and our docks became crowded and congested
with outward-bound ships waiting for a shift of
wind to enable them to get away, and when this
took place the river was a wonderful sight. I
remember, as a boy, standing on the shore at Seaf orth
and counting over three hundred sailing vessels
of all sorts and sizes working their way out to sea
on the ebb tide between the Rock Light and the
Formby Light ship, and interspersed among them
were also a number of sailing-ships towing out to sea.
This crowd of shipping was not only very picturesque,
with their divers rigs and tanned sails, but was
interesting, as it contained many types of vessel
now extinct. The " brig/' square-rigged on both
masts, was a good-looking, weatherly craft ; the
" billie boy/' carrying a square sail forward and a
jigger aft ; the sloop, which did most of our coasting
work, had a big square-cut mainsail and jib ; and

94

THE "QUEEN OF THE AVON" 95

the old Dutch galliot, with her bluff bows and paint
of many colours ; all these have now practically
disappeared.

The most trying winds, however, were the
easterly gales, which prevailed in November and
December, and also in the spring. With easterly
gales blowing I have known Liverpool to be a
closed port for weeks together, few or no vessels
entering it ; and more than once this blockade of
our port by easterly gales had a serious effect upon
our stocks of cotton and produce. The inward-
bound fleet was caught in the chops of the
Channel, and was there detained until the wind
changed. It is of such an experience I wish to
write.

I had gone out to Australia in the celebrated
clipper ''Red Jacket." At Sydney I took my passage
home in a small barque of 400 tons, called " Queen
of the Avon." I was the only passenger, and
selected this little ship purposely that I might learn
something of the practical working of a ship at sea.
I told the Captain of my wish, and found him quite
sympathetic, and he offered to teach me navigation ;
but when I showed him the log I had kept on the
" Red Jacket," and the many observations I had
taken and worked out, he said he felt he could not
teach me much. He, however, agreed to my taking
my trick at the wheel, and going aloft when reefing
or making sail.

96 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

When the ship was ready for sea the police
brought off our crew, for, in consequence of the lure
of the goldfields, it was only possible for a ship to keep
her crew by interning them with the police while
she was in port — in other words, placing them in
gaol. The police and the crew soon set our topsails
and foresail, and with a fair wind we quickly passed
down Sydney's beautiful harbour. When we reached
the entrance the police, getting into their boat, left us,
and we started upon our long voyage to Valparaiso.
From Valparaiso we proceeded to Guayaquil,
where we loaded a cargo of cocoa for Falmouth
for orders.

Our voyage was uneventful. I obtained
the knowledge of seamanship I desired, for we were
fortunate in having in our small crew an old man-of-
war's man named Amos. Amos was a splendid man,
a stalwart in physique, and most estimable in
character. He quickly took the lead in the forecastle,
and exercised great moral influence. No " swear
word " was heard when old Amos was present.
When reefing he had the post of honour at the weather
earing, and when he got astride the yardarm the
weather earing was bound to come home. He taught
me my knots, bends, and splices, and looked after
me when aloft.

At the end of ninety days we sighted the
Wolf Rock off the Land's End. In the afternoon we
were off the Lizard, and stood off shore to clear the

THE "QUEEN OF THE AVON" 97

Manacle Rocks. The crew were busy hauling up
the cables from the chain locker, for we expected
to be in Falmouth before sunset, and all hands were
bright and gay at the early prospect of being on
shore once more. The wind, however, became more
easterly, and when we again tacked we failed to
clear the Manacles. Standing out again we were
blown off the land, and thirty days elapsed before
we again made the Manacles, during which time we
battled day after day with a succession of easterly
gales. We were blown off as far west as the meridian
of the Fast net ; then we got a slant, and crawled
up as far as the Scillies, only to be blown off again.
It was monotonous and weary work ;
standing inshore during the day and off-shore at
night, mostly under double-reefed or close-reefed
topsails, or hove to with a heavy sea running.
Indeed, we met many ships which apparently had
given up the contest, and remained hove-to waiting
for a change of wind. We had some bright sunny
days, but mostly drab grey Atlantic days, and an
easterly wind always. At the end of ten days
H.M.S. " Valorus," a paddle sloop, came within
hailing distance, and offered to supply us with fresh
provisions. This offer our skipper declined, much
to the disappointment of his crew, for our hencoops
had been empty for weeks, and our one sheep and
two pigs had been consumed long ago, and we were
living upon hard biscuit and salt tack, boiled salt

98 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

beef and plum duff one day and roast pork and pea
soup the next. There was no variation ; our food
had become distinctly monotonous.

The crowd of ships thus weather-bound
increased day by day — ships from Calcutta and
Bombay, deeply-laden rice ships from Rangoon,
and large heavily-laden American ships with guano
from the Chinchas. Some we met almost daily ;
others came upon the scene now and again, and we
welcomed them as old friends. The only vessels
that got through to their port of destination in spite
of the easterly gales were the fruit schooners
conveying cargoes of oranges from the Azores.
They were smart brigantines perfect witches of the
sea — well handled, and they never missed a chance.
They seemed to have the power of sailing right into
the teeth of the wind. At the end of a further ten
days another relief ship hailed us, but our Captain
again declined any supplies, arguing with himself
that the east winds could not last much longer ;
but another ten days had to pass before a gentle
westerly swell told us that westerly winds were not
far away, and before twenty-four hours had elapsed
we squared away before a westerly breeze. We soon
passed the Lizard, and the Manacles, and dropped our
anchor in Falmouth, making the passage in 120 days,
of which we had spent thirty in the chops of the
Channel.

CHAPTER IX

THE "GREAT EASTERN"

A REMINISCENCE OF 1861

Some account of the memorable voyage of
the " Great Eastern," when she broke down in the
middle of the Atlantic, may be of interest. It is an
old story, but it is memorable as marking an epoch
in the history of the Atlantic trade, which owes not
a little of its progress to its failures. The enterprise
which produced these failures is entitled to our
admiration for its boldness and courage.

The " Great Eastern " was a remarkable
ship. She was, in a sense, twenty years ahead of
her time. On the other hand, if she had possessed
sufficient engine power for her displacement, she
would have revolutionized steamship travel across
the Atlantic and hastened the era of large and swift
Atlantic liners.

The " Great Eastern " was designed by
Brunei, and built in 1858 for the East India and
Australian trades, for which routes a large coal
carrying capacity was necessary. But she never
entered those trades. Her speed in smooth water

99

IOO A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

was twelve to thirteen knots, but in a head sea she
could do little more than hold her own, hence the
cause of her troubles.

The following figures give her dimensions,
contrasted with the largest vessel of her time —the
" Scotia " —and the ships of to-day :—

Built. Length. Beam. Depth. Tonnage.
" Great Eastern " ... 1858 ... 691 ... 82 ... 48.2 ... 18,915

"Scotia" 1861 ... 400 ... 47 ... 30.3 ... 3,871

"Campania" 1893 ... 620 ... 65 ... 43.0 ... 12,950

"Aquitania" 1914 ... 868.7... 97 ... 49.7 ... 45,647

It will be seen from these figures how great
was the departure of the " Great Eastern " from the
largest vessel of her period, and how small she would
appear to-day by the side of the " Aquitania/'
Not only was she a great advance in size, but she
had many other novel points. She was propelled
by two sets of engines, oscillating paddle engines
and horizontal screw engines, which together
developed 11,000 horse-power. She was fitted with
six masts and four funnels. Her cabin accommoda-
tion was unusually capacious and lofty. Speaking
from memory, her saloon was 18 to 20 feet high.
She had a smoking room, while in the " Scotia "
smokers had still to be content with the fiddlee,
sitting upon coils of rope. The " Great Eastern "
had but few deck houses, so that her decks were
magnificently spacious.

She sailed from Liverpool for New York
on a beautiful afternoon in the early autumn of 1861.

THE "GREAT EASTERN" 101

We had on board about four hundred saloon
passengers, and a considerable number in the second
cabin. She was commanded by an ex-Cunarder,
Captain Walker. The dock quays in Liverpool,
margining the river, were lined with a vast concourse
of people to see the great ship depart.

We had a splendid run down the Channel,
and on the following evening we passed the Fastnet.
Our people were having a gay time, singing and
dancing on deck, and greatly enjoying themselves.
In the middle of this revelry we passed the
''' Underwriter/' one of the Black Ball sailing-packets,
also bound for New York. She was under whole
topsails, plunging into a head sea and throwing the
spray fore and aft.

We looked upon her with admiration, but
with feelings of immense superiority. The old order
had passed away, and the new had arrived in the
" Great Eastern." Many were the congratulations
expressed upon the advance in naval architecture, and
many indeed fancied that the perils and discomforts
of the sea were things of the past. The next day
was one of those drab grey days so frequent upon
the Atlantic. The wind was increasing in force,
and more northerly. The sea was getting up, but
the great ship, meeting it almost dead ahead, scarcely
heeded it. " She is as steady as a rock."
" Wonderful ! " were some of the remarks passed
around as we took our morning constitutional.

IO2 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

By noon the scene had changed. The wind
had veered round to the north, bringing up a heavy
beam sea. The big ship began to lurch and roll
heavily, taking heavy spray overall. Some of her
movements were significant of danger — she hung
when thrown over by a sea, and recovered very
slowly. A huge sea striking her on the starboard
bow swept her fore and aft, and carried away one of
our paddle wheels and several boats. An ominous
silence shortly prevailed, and it was whispered that
the rudder had been carried away. The great ship
fell into the trough of the sea and became unmanage-
able, lurching and rolling heavily and deeply. The
seas, from time to time, striking her with great force,
made her quiver fore and aft. The second paddle
wheel was soon swept away, and boat after boat
was torn from the davits, the wrecks in many
instances being suspended by the falls. While
destruction was being wrought on deck, the damage
in the saloons and state-rooms was appalling. They
were simply wrecked by the furniture getting loose
and flying about, breaking the large mirrors which
adorned the saloon, and adding broken glass to the
dangerous mass of debris. Many of our passengeis
were badly wounded.

The engineers were trying to repair the
broken rudder-stock by coiling round it iron chains
to form a drum, so as to be able to get a purchase
upon it. That night was a night of much anxiety,

THE "GREAT EASTERN" IO3

but the behaviour of the passengers was exemplary.
The ladies found a part of the saloon where they
could sit on the deck in comparative safety, and
here they knitted and sang hymns. There was a
general effort to make the best of things.

The following morning the weather had
slightly moderated, but the sea was still mountainous,
and we rolled heavily. The chain cable stowed in
one of the forward lower decks broke loose, and
burst through the outer plating and hung in a festoon
overboard. The cow-house had been destroyed, and
one of the cows was suspended head downwards
in the skylight of the forward saloon, and a swan
which had been in the cow-house was found in the
saloon.

The Captain sent for some of the passengers
he knew, and told them that, as the crew had broken
into the liquor store, he wished to form special
guards to patrol the ship. Some twenty or thirty
volunteered, and for four hours each day we
patrolled the ship, having a white handkerchief
tied round our left arm as our badge of office.

Food had become a difficulty. All the
crockery had been smashed, so the victuals were
brought down in large stew pans, and taking pieces
of broken dishes, we helped ourselves as best we
could.

In the afternoon the " Scotia," outward
bound for New York, hove in sight. The great

104 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

Cunarder looked stately and magnificent, and as
she gracefully rode over the big seas without any
effort, simply playing with them, she told us what
design, knowledge and equipment could do. After
sailing round us, she bore away on her voyage.
Another miserable night followed, and it was obvious
that the mental strain was beginning to tell upon
some of our people.

The following day the weather was much
finer and the sea moderate, but we were still helpless,
a derelict on the wide Atlantic. No success had
attended the effort to repair the rudder-stock ;
nothing would hold it. In the afternoon a small
Nova Scotian brig hove in sight, and sailed round
us, as we thought, within hailing distance. One of
our passengers offered the Captain £100 per day
if he would stand by us. No answer coming, an
offer to buy both his ship and her cargo was conveyed
to him, but still no answer came, and in the evening
she sailed away. The Captain of the brig was
apparently some time afterwards informed of what
had taken place, and promptly claimed one day's
demurrage, and was suitably rewarded.

It was now evident that our only hope was
to hasten the repair of the rudder-stock. In our
dire emergency a young American engineer, Mr.
Towle, offered a new suggestion, to build a cross
head on to the broken stock, and to steer the ship
with tackles attached to it. After some hours' work

THE "GREAT EASTERN" IO5

and the exercise of much ingenuity, he succeeded,
to the great joy of everyone.

The screw engines were still in good order,
and the big ship was soon on her way back to
Queenstown, where we arrived five days after passing
it on our outward voyage. The damage done to
the ship was considerable, and some idea of the
violence with which she had rolled can be formed from
the fact that when the baggage room was opened,
it was found that water having got into it, the
baggage had been churned into a pulp, and was
taken out in buckets.

The " Great Eastern " ended her somewhat
inglorious career by laying cables across the Atlantic,
and finally was broken up on the New Ferry shore
at Birkenhead. She had served, however, one great
purpose which had borne good fruit — she taught us
that to successfully fight the Atlantic on its days
of storm and tempest, which are many, the design
of the engine and its power should receive as much
consideration as the design of the ship's hull.

CHAPTER X

BUILDING AN EAST INDIAMAN
A REMINISCENCE OF 1856

Build me straight, 0 worthy Master,
Staunch and strong, a goodly vessel

That shall laugh at all disaster,
And with wave and whirlwind wrestle. —

LONGFELLOW.

The building of a wooden East Indiaman
recalls much of what was romantic in the history
of British shipping — much of what was essentially
British in the art of the craftsman. The old ship-
wright with his black wooden toolbox slung over
his shoulder, or plying his adze or the caulking iron,
is a type of a British artisan unhappily now
becoming extinct. He was no ordinary workman
following day after day the same monotonous job,
for his work called for the constant exercise of his
own individuality, of his powers of observation,
and his ingenuity in the application of the teachings
of experience ; the selection of suitable timber,
of proper scantling, oak crooks for the floors, aprons
and knees, the curved timber for the futtocks,
all called for skill and knowledge, and he had to
keep constantly in view, when building, the necessity
for giving proper shifts to the scarfs and the butting

1 06

BUILDING AN EAST INDIAMAN 107

of the planks — all demanding not only thought,
but daily presenting new problems which only a
trained eye and experience could solve.

The rhythm of the old shipbuilding yard had
a peculiar charm and attraction ; it was not the
monotonous deafening roar of the hydraulic riveter
heard in the modern yard, but the music of the adze
and the humming of the caulking chisel made a
sort *of harmony not unpleasant to the ear ; while
the all-prevailing smell of tar imported a nautical
flavour which is entirely absent from the iron
shipbuilding yard. We now only think in terms
of angle iron, plates, butt straps, and rivets which
follow one orthodox pattern. The iron ship is but
a tank with shaped ends, or a girder, or a series of
box girders, for every deck, and every row of
pillaring constitutes a girder ; their size and shape
are all set out by the draftsman in the drawing office,
the work in the yard is purely mechanical ; the old
skill of the craftsman is not called into play.

It was my good fortune, when I left school
in 1856, to spend some time in the shipbuilding yard
of George Cox & Son, of Bideford, in order that I
might obtain some knowledge of the craft. The firm
were engaged building the " Bucton Castle," of
1,200 tons register, for the Calcutta trade, to class
thirteen years Ai, the highest class at Lloyd's.
It is of my experience in building that ship of which
I purpose writing.

IO8 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

It will occur to many that Bideford was a
strange out-of-the-way place for a shipyard. Bideford
we only associate with Charles Kingsley and
' Westward Ho ! " with its long bridge of twenty-
three arches, a bridge which has the repute of being
a soul-saving bridge, an alms-giving bridge, a
dinner-giving bridge, a bridge which owns lands in
many parishes; but Bideford, with its wide expanse
of sands and tidal bores, is about the last place to
suggest shipbuilding. But Bideford, like Plymouth
and Devonport in olden days, was in close proximity
to large forests of oak and other woods essential
to wooden shipbuilding.

The first thought of the builder of a wooden
ship was to secure his timber, good natural oak
crooks for the floor timbers, knees and aprons, and
the futtocks forming the turn of the bilge, and good
square timber for the frames, beams, etc. Not only
had this to be carefully selected free from rends
and shakes, but it had to be piled up in the yard
and seasoned. In the same way elm timber required
for the sheathing, and the pine necessary for the
decks and inside ceiling, all required seasoning
before being worked up.

The plans of the proposed ship having been
prepared and duly laid off in the drawing loft, the
first step was to provide the blocks upon which she
was to be built, and the ways from which, when com-
pleted, she would be launched. Upon these blocks

BUILDING AN EAST INDIAMAN

the keel was laid, usually constructed of elm, which
is tough and does not split. The keel was in several
lengths, fastened together with long scarfs, bolted
through. On each side a rabbit or groove was cut
to receive the garboard strake (the first strake of
planking). On the top of the keel the floor timbers
were laid across alternately, long and short, and
on the top of the floors the keelson was bolted.
The keelson ran the full length of the ship. There
were also sister keelsons on either side, covering the
ends of the floors. To the end of the floors the
first futtocks were scarped and bolted, and these
formed the turn of the bilge, and above came the
timbers forming the frame. The selection of the
timber required for the floors and futtocks needed a
very skilled eye ; pieces of timber which would require
the least dressing must be chosen, and the piles
of timber were examined over and over again to find
the piece which would give the nearest approach
to the curve required when the ship was in frame.
Then came the planking or sheathing. This had to
be carefully worked in proper shifts, to prevent the
butts of the planking coming into close proximity.
The upper strakes or sheer strakes and the bilge
strakes were always doubled. In a similar way the
interior of the ship was lined or ceiled, all with a view
to strength. Tween deck beams and main deck
beams were thrown across and rounded up, to give

110 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

strength and camber to the decks. They were
fastened to longitudinal timbers running along the
sides of the ship, called shelfs, and these shelfs were
secured to the framing of the ship by wooden knees
reinforced in high-class ships by iron knees. The
structure was fastened by wooden treenails and
metal through-bolts of copper or yellow metal.
The butt end of every plank was secured by a metal
bolt, in addition to treenails securing it to every
timber.

I have said enough to prove that the
shipwright of the olden time had to exercise
more individuality and skill than is necessary
to-day.

The shipbuilder's work was not completed
when he had launched his ship ; she had to be rigged
and fitted out, and copper-sheathed to prevent the
ravages of worms and marine insects ; and in course
of time the ship had to be salted, the spaces between
the frames being filled with rock salt to preserve the
timber from decay.

American ships, which were very numerous
and handsome in design, were usually built with
hacmatac frames and pine sheathing, and Canadian
vessels were built entirely of soft wood with iron
fastenings, and rarely received a higher class than
nine years Ai.

Although the reminiscences of the old
wooden shipbuilding days are pleasant and interesting,

BUILDING AN EAST INDIAMAN III

if we had been limited to wooden ships the progress
of commerce and the spread of civilisation would
have been greatly hindered. It was not possible to
build a wooden ship of over 4,000 tons — I think this
was the size of the " Great Republic " — and the
number of vessels required to lift the merchandise
now requiring to be carried by sea would have
exhausted our available forests of timber. The iron
and steel ships have saved the situation, not only
enabling us to move the cargoes the world requires,
but enabling us to construct steamers of large size
and great speed which have built up a passenger
trade which, even sixty years ago, was never
dreamed of.

It is remarkable that in land travel, just
as the growth of the population demanded it, we
have had improvements in the means- of locomotion
—the pack-horse, the wheel, the steam engine, the
railway, and electric traction have followed each
other. So at sea — from the ancient galley to the
wooden sailing ship, the clipper ship, the paddle
steamer, the screw steamer, the high-pressure
engine, the condensing engine, the double and triple
expansion engine, the turbine, and we have in front-
of us looming largely oil fuel, to be followed probably
by some form of electric propulsion. From this it
would almost seem as if a Providence provided for
us transport facilities in proportion to our needs
for the conveyance of our products and for travel.

112 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

I was interested in recently visiting
Bideford to find that the old shipbuilding slips still
exist — although unused for nearly fifty years.
They have this year been bought by the firm of
Hanson & Co., who have a small ship under
construction.

CHAPTER XI

OUR RIDDLE OF THE SANDS

Shortly before the late war a small volume
entitled " The Riddle of the Sands " had a large
circulation. It described the adventures of two
friends, who, in a small yacht, spent their summer
vacation in cruising on the Friesland Coast of
Germany, and it gave a graphic account of their
discovery of a wonderful network of canals and
waterways which had been made through the sands,
connecting the ports of Emden, Wilhelmshaven and
Cuxhaven. Mysterious craft flitted about, and their
own movements were carefully watched. What is
this " riddle of the sands " they asked ? The war
gave the answer. It was a great submarine base
for an attack upon England.

We in Liverpool have our riddle of the
sands, which, although very different in character,
has proved equally elusive. It has defied scientific
solution, the teaching of hydrodynamics, and has
from time to time almost threatened the existence
of the port of Liverpool, and with it the prosperity
of our manufacturing districts.

"3

114 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

The approaches to the port have not been
maintained (although assisted) by the use of
mechanical or scientific means, but by encouraging
the natural forces to do the work necessary to
maintain the deep water entrances clear and
serviceable. There are many now living who
remember that the deep water approach to Liverpool
was through the Rock Channel only with three feet
of water at low water, with dangerous and shifting
shoals off the Spencer Spit, and the long lee shore
off the West Hoyle Bank. If these conditions had
continued the Liverpool of to-day would not have
existed. The development of the northern deep
water approaches is an interesting study. Liverpool
has solved her own " Riddle of the Sands," not by
colossal ambitious engineering schemes which might
have been fatal, but by patient watchfulness of what
nature was doing, or trying to do, and judiciously
assisting her efforts. Nature has • practically closed
the Rock Channel and the old Victoria Channel,
and concentrated her forces and opened up the
Queen's Channel with over 20 feet of water at low
tide in the dredged cut at the Bar, thus making the
port open for ordinary vessels during twelve hours
out of the twenty-four, and making Liverpool
the great port she is the only deep water port
on the West Coast capable of taking such great
ships as the " Aquitania " and " Olympic."

j •

OUR RIDDLE OF THE SANDS

The Riddle of the Sands as it presents itself
to us, divides itself into two portions :—

The sands of the upper estuary ;

The sands of the sea channels ;
each forming a very interesting and entertaining
subject of inquiry.

THE RIDDLE OF THE UPPER ESTUARY

We have an upper estuary of the Mersey
formed like a huge bottle with a narrow neck entrance
at Seacombe, through which the tide rushes at springs
at the rate of five or six knots. At Rock Ferry this
estuary, like a fan, spreads out to Widnes, Runcorn,
Ellesmere Port, and Garston. This vast basin is
filled by the tidal waters twice in each day, forming
a great lake ; at low water we have a vista of sand-
banks and water, very beautiful in their colour and
light effects, the favourite haunt of wildfowl, which
in olden time filled the decoys at Hale and Widnes.
During the Parliamentary Inquiry into the
proposal to construct the Manchester Ship Canal,
*it was given in evidence that each tide brought into
this bottle-necked estuary 100,000 tons of sand,
which was held by the water in mechanical
suspension and deposited on the banks at slack water,
which takes place at the top of high water. The
ebb tide carries this sand out again. About half ebb
a process of erosion takes place. Tidal streams

Il6 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

form through the sand banks, and gradually underpin
the sand, which falls into these streams and is
carried out to sea. On a quiet summer evening
the process of erosion going on can be heard at
Bromborough, the loud reports caused by the
falling sands being distinctly audible.

This Riddle of the Sands makes quite
a fairy tale, so full of surprises, so wayward and
erratic. Craft and even ships which have dis-
appeared long since suddenly come into view.
The coals which fall overboard when coaling our
great liners in the Sloyne creep along the bottom
and pile themselves on to the sandbanks, and form
a welcome supply of fuel to the villagers. Wells of
beautiful fresh spring water bubble up on the shore
at Shodwell, and formerly supplied the Runcorn
coasters with water.

At the mouth of the Alt, and also at Hoylake,
the low tides expose the remains of two remarkable
primeval forests, from which have been gathered
many tokens of long bygone generations.

There is one thing these sands will not do.
They will not obey the dictates of man unless they
conform to their moods and methods.

The original scheme for the construction of
the Manchester Ship Canal proposed to cut a channel
through the sands from Runcorn to deep water at
Garston, a distance of about ten miles, protected
on either side by training walls of stone. The

OUR RIDDLE OF THE SANDS II 7

Mersey Docks and Harbour Board very strongly
and successfully opposed this part of the scheme,
maintaining that by thus stereotyping the channel,
the process of erosion would be destroyed and
the estuary would become permanently silted up
with sand. There would not be a sufficient head
of water impounded each tide to keep the sea
channels and approaches to the Mersey scoured and
fit for navigation.

The magnitude of the reservoir of water
gathered at high water in the upper estuary may be
gauged by the fact that spring tides rise 30 feet
and neap tides 20 feet, and form the mighty power
for scouring the sea channels. The riddle of how
to treat the upper estuary has therefore been solved
by leaving nature severely alone and permitting no
interference.

THE RIDDLE OF THE OUTER ESTUARY

When we come to consider the conditions
affecting the outward estuary, which extends from
the Rock Light to the Bar, we have to take into
account not only the scouring power of the ebb tide,
and its capacity as a sand carrier depending upon
the force of the current and the volume of water,
but also the action of waves which is very powerful
in preventing the undue accumulation of sand upon

Il8 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

our shores and upon the great sandbanks lying off
the entrance to the port.

Standing on the shore at Blundellsands at
low tide and during a westerly gale, I have seen
the shore from Hightown to Seaforth a moving mass
of sand, spreading itself over the surface like a sheet.
Placing a stick into the ground, in a few moments
a heap of sand would accumulate on the windward
side. These sand storms fill up all the mouths of
the Alt, and pile the sand up in big banks. If there
was no correcting force these sand storms would
quickly fill up the shallow shores and destroy their
capacity to impound the tidal water which assists
the scouring power of the main stream ; but at high
water with a westerly gale the waves churn up these
deposits of sand, and the ebb tide carries them out
to sea. After a westerly gale I have seen the shores
swept of loose sand down to the hard shore beneath,
and the many outlets of the Alt washed clean,
and the black marl which forms their banks exposed.
I do not think that this wave action has been
sufficiently considered in selecting the shallow flats
on the west side of the Burbo Bank as the place of
deposit for the sand dredged from the Bar. They
are frequently violently disturbed by the action of
the waves, and the sand is carried by the flood tide
back again to the Bar.

There is another action of which we must
take notice ; every stream creates an eddy of slack

OUR RIDDLE OF THE SANDS IIQ

water, or, it may be, a counter current of much
reduced velocity, in a stream heavily charged with
sand such as our tidal streams, and these eddies
may create inconvenient deposits of sand and
accretions to the banks which have to be watched.

THE OLD SEA APPROACHES

Having set out the natural forces we
have to deal with, we will proceed to consider
their effect upon the outer approaches to
the River Mersey. These approaches twenty-five
years ago were very indifferent. The Bar
only carried eight feet of water at low tide,
and practically for vessels of any size Liverpool
was a closed port for eighteen hours out of the
twenty-four. By the employment of sand dredgers,
which have removed millions of tons of sand, this
difficulty has been overcome, but in deepening the
Bar the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board
have greatly added to the work which the ebb tide
has to do. That work has to be supplemented
by the almost continuous use of sand dredgers,
and has been also assisted by the construction
of the Revetment on the Taylor Bank.
This has prevented the flood tide frittering its
strength away over the Taylor Bank, and confines
and concentrates the strength of the ebb stream ;

I2O A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

but still the formation of inconvenient lumps in
the Crosby Channel suggests that the ebb tide has
more than it can do. It has been suggested that by
confining this channel with training walls constructed
along the Burbo Bank and the Crosby shore the
power of the ebb tide would be increased. It is,
however, forgotten that the effect of training walls
would be to diminish the volume of water, and
therefore its sand-carrying capacity, and also that
training walls along the Lancashire shore would rob
the channel of the large amount of water now
impounded at high water on the shore, which forms
a valuable addition to the first part of the ebb.

The changes in the outer estuary during
the past fifty years have been quite remarkable.

The old sea channel was the Rock Channel
striking off to the west at the Rock Light, and the
fairway was marked by two land marks which were
prominent objects upon the Bootle shore ; while
the Hoylake and Leasowe Lighthouses indicated
the fairway through the Horse Channel. The Rock
Channel has shoaled, and is no longer used. The
old Victoria Channel took its seaward course between
the Great and Little Burbo Banks. This in process
of time has shoaled and narrowed, and is no longer
of any service, and the main channel pursues a
north-west direction between the Little Burbo Bank
and the Taylor Bank, and crosses the Bar through
the new Queen's Channel.

OUR RIDDLE OF THE SANDS 121

The Taylor Bank, which now stretches from
the Crosby Lightship almost to the Bar is of recent
formation, and takes the place of the Jordan Flats.
The rapid growth of the Taylor Bank no doubt
induced the Dock Board to construct the Revetment,
and it has proved an effective bulwark against the
rebound of the stream round Askew Spit, and its
extension to the north seems to be desirable. The
strong flood coming through the Crosby Channel
is no doubt mainly accountable for the erosion
which has taken place at Hightown, and which is
now taking place at Hall Road. The latter can be
prevented by the erection of a timber groin to give
a south-west direction to the flood stream.

I have made these sands and sand banks
a long study. The late Rev. Nevison Loraine and I
explored, in our canoes, every nook and cranny of
the sand banks, and loved to bathe in the pools
which formed at low water on the Burbo Bank ;
but this long experience of the riddle of the sands
makes me afraid to dogmatise — nature so often
rebels and does the very opposite to what you
expect, and the teaching of the past tells us that
she has been a good friend to Liverpool, and had
better be left alone, only helping her, as by the
Revetment, to concentrate her energy in the direction
she wishes to go. A step in the same direction might
be taken by closing the channel which has formed
across the Burbo Bank. In my canoeing days this

122 A SHIPOWNER'S REMINISCENCES

channel was a mere gutter, but now it is sufficiently
large to abstract much water from the main stream.
It has also often occurred to me that the old Formby
Channel might also be diverted. It serves no useful
purpose for navigation, and if the ebb tide which
now flows through it could be turned into the
present Formby Channel it would increase the
scour ; but experience may have demonstrated that
the flood tide demands the old channel, and if so
it has been wisely left open. I think it is probable
that the flood tide making through this old
Formby Channel strikes the main stream of the
flood coming through the Crosby Channel and
rebounds on to the Hightown and Hall Road
shores, causing the erosion at these points.

Great credit is due to the Conservators, the
Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, and to Captain
Mace, R.N., for the care and wisdom with which
they have watched over the approaches to our
port, and to the successful way they have handled
our " Riddle of the Sands."

LIVERPOOL :
LEE AND NIGHTINGALE, PRINTERS, 15, NORTH JOHN STREET

1920.

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