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I 


*-' 


Vw 


REPORT 


Of  THE 


TWENTY-SIXTH    MEETING 


OF  THK 


BRITISH    ASSOCIATION 


FOR  THE 


ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE; 


HELD  AT  CHELTENHAM  IN  AUGUST  1866. 


\ 


LONDON: 
JOHN   MURRAY,   ALBEMARLE   STREET 
1857. 


a*1 


I'-'    S\f 


PRINTED  BY 

RICHARD   TAYLOR   AND   WILLIAM    FRANCIS, 

RED  LION  COURT,  FLEET  STREET. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

Objects  and  Rules  of  the  Association xvii 

Places  of  Meeting  and  Officers  from  commencement   xx 

Treasurers  Account    xxiii 

Table  of  Council  from  commencement  xxiv 

Officers  and  Council    xxvi 

Officers  of  Sectional  Committees    xxvii 

Corresponding  Members xxviii 

Report  of  the  Council  to  the  General  Committee xxviii 

Report  of  the  Kew  Committee    xxx 

Report  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee    xxxviii 

Recommendations  for  Additional  Reports  and  Researches  in  Science  xxxix 

Synopsis  of  Money  Grants xlii 

General  Statement  of  Sums  paid  for  Scientific  Purposes xliii 

Extracts  from  Resolutions  of  the  General  Committee  xlvi 

Arrangement  of  the  General  Meetings  xlvii 

Address  of  the  President xlviii 


REPORTS  OF  RESEARCHES  IN  SCIENCE. 

Report  from  the  Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,  at  the  Meeting  in  Liverpool,  in  September 
1854,  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  effects  produced  upon  the 
Channels  of  the  Mersey  by  the  alterations  which  within  the  last  fifty 
years  have  been  made  in  its  Banks 1 

Interim  Report  to  the  British  Association,  on  Progress  in  Researches 
on  the  Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards.  By  Jambs 
Thomson,  C.E 46 

Dredging  Report— Frith  of  Clyde.  1856 47 

Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1855-56.  By  the  Rev. 
Baden  Powell,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  &c,  Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry 
in  the  University  of  Oxford 58 

Photochemical  Researches.  By  Professor  Buns  en,  of  Heidelberg,  and 
Dr.  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  of  London    62 


IV  CONTENTS. 

On  the  Trigonometry  of  the  Parabola,  and  the  Geometrical  Origin  of 
Logarithms.    By  the  Rev.  James  Booth,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  &c 68 

Report  on  the  Marine  Testaceous  Mollusca  of  the  North-east  Atlantic 
and  neighbouring  Seas,  and  the  physical  conditions  affecting  their 
development.     By  Robert  MacAndrew,  F.R.S 101 

Report  on  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  with  regard  to  the 
Mollusca  of  the  West  Coast  of  North  America.  By  Philip  P. 
Carpenter.     (With  Four  Plates)  159 

Abstract  of  First  Report  on  the  Oyster  Beds  and  Oysters  of  the  British 
Shores.     By  T.  C.  Eyton,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S 368 

Report  on  Cleavage  and  Foliation  in  Rocks,  and  on  the  Theoretical 
Explanations  of  these  Phenomena. — Part  I.  By  John  Phillips, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  G.S.,  Reader  in  Geology  in  the  University  of  Oxford. .  869 

On  the  Stratigraphical  Distribution  of  the  Oolitic  Echinodermata.  By 
Thomas  Wright,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E S96 

On  the  Tensile  Strength  of  Wrought  Iron  at  various  Temperatures. 
By  William  Fairbairn,  F.R.S.  &c 405 

Mercantile  Steam  Transport  Economy.  By  Charles  Atherton, 
Chief  Engineer  of  Her  Majesty's  Dockyard,  Woolwich   423 

On  the  Vital  Powers  of  the  Spongiadse.  By  J.  S.  Bowerbank,  F.R.S., 
F.G.S.  &c 438 

Report  of  a  Committee,  consisting  of  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Bart,  Dr. 
Fleming,  and  Mr.  E.  Ash  worth,  upon  the  Experiments  conducted 
at  Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  for  the  artificial  propagation  of  Salmon  451 

Provisional  Report  on  the  progress  of  a  Committee  appointed  at  the 
Meeting  in  Glasgow,  September  1855,  to  consider  the  question  of  the 
Measurement  of  Ships  for  Tonnage,  consisting  of  the  following 
Gentlemen :— Mr.  J.  R.  Napier,  Mr.  John  Wood,  Mr.  Allan 
Gilmorb,  Mr.  Charles  Atherton,  Mr.  James  Peake,  and  Mr. 
Andrew  Henderson  (Reporter) 458 

On  Typical  Forms  of  Minerals,  Plants  and  Animals  for  Museums 461 

Interim  Report  to  the  British  Association  on  Progress  in  Researches 
on  the  Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards.  By  James 
Thomson,  C.E 462 

On  Observations  with  the  Seismometer.  By  R.  Mallet,  C.E.,  M.R.LA.  468 

On  the  Progress  of  Theoretical  Dynamics.  By  A.  Catlet,  M.A., 
F.R.S 463 

Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  by  "  The  British  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science,"  to  consider  the  formation  of  a  Catalogue 
of  Philosophical  Memoirs    463 


CONTENTS. 


NOTICES  AND  ABSTRACTS 

or 

MISCELLANEOUS  COMMUNICATIONS  TO  THE  SECTIONS. 


MATHEMATICS  AND  PHYSICS. 

Mathematics. 

Mr.  J.  T.  Gbavbs  on  the  Polyhedron  of  Forces 1 

on  the  Congruence  fwr==n+l  (mod  p)    1 

Mr.  a  ML  Jefpbby'b  Two  Memoirs.  —I.  On  a  Theorem  in  Combinations. 

II.  On  a  particular  Class  of  Congruences 3 

Professor  Stbvelly  on  a  New  Method  of  Treating  the  Doctrine  of  Parallel 

lines 8 

Mr.  EL  R.  Twtntng's  Models   to  illustrate  a  New  Method  of  teaching 

Perspective  9 

Light,  Heat,  Electricity,  Magnetism. 

Mr.  A.  Clattdet  on  various  Phenomena  of  Refraction  through  Semi-Lenses 
producing  Anomalies  in  the  Illusion  of  Stereoscopic  Images    9 

Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone  on  some  Dichromatic  Phenomena  among  Solutions,  and 
the  means  of  representing  them 10 

Mr.  W.  R.  Gbove  on  the  Stratified  Appearance  of  the  Electrical  Discharge. .     10 

Sir  W.  S.  Harris  on  the  Law  of  Electrical  and  Magnetic  Force 11 

Mr.  J.  C.  Maxwell  on  the  Unequal  Sensibility  of  the  Foramen  Centrale  to 
Light  of  different  Colours 12 

: on  a  Method  of  Drawing  the  Theoretical  Forms  of  Faraday's 

Lines  of  Force  without  Calculation 13 

on  the  Theory  of  Compound  Colours  with  reference  to 

Mixtures  of  Blue  and  Yellow  Light 12 

Mr.  James  Nasvyth  on  the  Form  of  Lightning    14 

Rev.  Baden  Powell  on  Fresnel's  Formulae  for  Reflected  and  Refracted 

Light 15 

Mr.  W.  Symons  on  a  Modification  of  the  Maynooth  Cast  Iron  Battery 16 

Professor  William  Thomson  on  Dellman's  Method  of  observing  Atmospheric 

Electricity 17 

Mr.  E.  Vivian  on  Printing  Photographs,  with  suggestions  for  introducing 
Clouds  and  Artistic  Effects    18 

Mr.  Wildman  Whttehouse  on  the  Construction  and  Use  of  an  Instrument 
for  determining  the  Value  of  Intermittent  or  Alternating  Electric  Currents 
for  purposes  of  Practical  Telegraphy 19 

— on  the  Law  of  the  Squares — is  it  applicable  or  not 

to  the  Transmission  of  Signals  in  Submarine  Circuits  P 21 


VI  CONTENTS. 

A8TBONOMT,  METEOB8,  WAVES. 

Professor  Chevallibb  on  the  Tides  of  Nova  Scotia 

Mr.  Richabd  Greene's  Working  Model  of  a  Machine  for  polishing  Specula 
for  Reflecting  Telescopes  and  Lenses    24 

Professor  Hennessy  on  the  Physical  Structure  of  the  Earth  26 

Dr.  Edwabd  Horcxs  on  the  Eclipse  of  the  Sun  mentioned  in  the  First  Book 
of  Herodotus 27 

Mr.  J.  C.  Maxwell  on  an  Instrument  to  illustrate  PoinsAt's  Theory  of 
Rotation   27 

Professor  Piazzi  Smyth  on  the  Constancy  of  Solar  Radiation    28 

Professor  G.  Johnstone  Stoney  on  a  Collimator  for  completing  the  Adjust- 
ments of  Reflecting  Telescopes 90 

Mr.  J.  Symons  on  Phenomena  recently  discovered  in  the  Moon 31 

Rev.  W.  Whewell  on  the  reasons  for  describing  the  Moon's  Motion  as  a 
Motion  about  her  axis 31 

Meteorology. 
Mr.  Thomas  Dobson  on  the  Causes  of  Great  Inundations    81 

on  the  Balaklava  Tempest,  and  the  Mode  of  Interpreting 

Barometrical  Fluctuations 86 

Mr.  Welsh  on  a  Model  of  a  Self-Registering  Anemometer.  Designed  and 
Constructed  by  R.  Beckley,  of  Kew  Observatory    88 

Mr.  R.  Gabneb  on  a  remarkable  Hail-Storm  in  North  Staffordshire.  With 
some  Casts  of  the  Hailstones 39 

Professor  Hennessy  on  Isothermal  Lines   39 

= on  an  Instrument  for  observing  Vertical  Currents  in  the 

Atmosphere 40 

Dr.  John  Lee  on  Negretti  and  Zambra's  Mercurial  Minimum  Thermometer. .     40 

Mr.  John  Phillips  on  a  New  Method  of  making  Maximum  Self-Registering 
Thermometers 41 

Mt^Henby  Poole's  Observations  with  the  Aneroid  Me*tallique  and  Thermo- 
meter, during  a  Tour  through  Palestine,  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  October  and  November  1855 41 

Rev.  C.  Pbttchabd  on  a  Meteor  seen  at  Cheltenham  on  Friday,  August  8th . .     47 

Rev.  T.  Rankin's  Continuation  of  Meteorological  Observations  for  1855,  at 
Huggate,  Yorkshire 47 

Mr.  B.  Stewabt  on  a  Thermometer  for  Measuring  Fluctuations  of  Tempera- 
ture.   Communicated  and  described  by  Mr.  Welsh 47 

Mr.  E.  Vivian  on  the  Climate  of  Torquay  and  South  Devon   48 

%>.   Mr.  J.  Welsh's  Instructions  for  the  Graduation  of  Boiling-point  Thermo- 
S*       meters,  intended  for  the  Measurement  of  Heights 49 

Captain  Woodall  on  Barometrical  and  Thermometrical  Observations  at  Scar- 
borough   » 49 

CHEMISTRY. 

Dr.  Thomas  Andebson  on  the  Composition  of  Paraffine  from  different  sources    49 
Professor  Bbodee  on  a  new  combination  of  Carbon,  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen, 
formed  by  the  Oxidation  of  Graphite ;  and  on  the  Appearance  of  Carbon 
under  the  Microscope 60 


CONTENTS.  VU 

Professor  F.  Caa.cs  Caltkbt  on  the  Incrustations  of  Blast  Furnaces    60 

Dr.  J.  H.  Gladstone  on  the  Salts  actually  present  in  the  Cheltenham  and 

other  Mineral  Waters 51 

— — — — — -  on  Nitroglycerine 52 

Mr.  John  Horsley  on  the  Conversion  of  Tannin  into  Gallic  Acid 52 

on  a  New  Method  of  instituting  Post-mortem  researches 

for  Strychnia 53 

on  Testing  for  Strychnia,  Brucia,  &c 58 

on  a  New  Method  of  extracting  the  Alkaloids  Strychnia 

and  Brucia  from  Nuz  Vomica  without  Alcohol 54 

's  Experiments  on  Animals  with  Strychnia,  and  probable 

Reasons  for  the  Non-detection  of  the  Poison  in  certain  cases   55 

Mr.  J.  B.  La wes  and  Dr.  Gilbert  on  the  Products  and  Composition  of 

Wheat-Grain    65 

Dr.  Stevenson  Macadam  on  the  Detection  of  Strychnine 55 

Rev.  W.  Mitchell  and  Prof.  J.  Tbnnant  on  a  Series  of  Descriptive  Labels 

for  Mineral  Collections  in  Public  Institutions 57 

Mr.  William  Odllng  on  the  Alkaline  Emanations  from  Sewers  and  Cess- 
pools    57 

on  the  Detection  of  Antimony  for  Medico-Legal 

Purposes 57 

Mr.  W.  R.  Pbabbon  on  the  Compounds  of  Chromium  and  Bismuth  58 

Mr.  Charles  Poolet  on  Engraving  Collodion  Photographs  by  means  of 

fluoric  Acid  Gas 58 

Rev.  C.  Prttchabd  on  the  Gases  of  the  Grotto  del  Cane 58 

Professor  A.  Voelckeb  on  the  Corrosive  Action  of  Smoke  on  Building  Stones  58 

on  the  Composition  of  American  Phosphate  of  Lime. .  58 

on  Basic  Phosphates  of  Lime    68 

Mr.  W.  Sykes  Ward  on  Albuminized  Collodion  58 

Mr.  P.  J.  Worsley  on  a  New  Process  for  Making  and  Melting  Steel 59 

Mr.  Henry  Wright  on  the  Use  of  the  Gramme  in  Chemistry   60 

GEOLOGY. 

lieutenant  Ayton  on  Gold  in  India 60 

Mr.  William  H.  Baily  on  Fossils  from  the  Crimea 60 

Mr.  J.  S.  Bowbrbank  on  the  Origin  of  Siliceous  Deposits,  in  the  Chalk  For- 
mation   63 

Rev.  P.  B.  Brodtjb  on  some  New  Species  of  Corals  in  the  Lias  of  Gloucester- 
shire, Worcestershire,  and  Warwickshire    64 

on  a  New  Species  of  PoWcipe*  in  the  Inferior  Oolite  near 

Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire 64 

Professor  James  Btjckman  on  the  Basement  Beds  of  the  Oolite 64 

■ on  the  Oolite  Rocks  of  the  Cotteswold  Hills   65 

Mr.  R.  Ethebidgx  on  the  Igneous  Rocks  of  Lundy  and  the  Bristol  District. .  65 

Professor  Habkitcbs  on  some  New  Fossils  from  the  ancient  Sedimentary  Rocks 

of  Ireland  and  Scotland 65 

on  the  Jointing  of  Rocks 65 

on  the  Lignites  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  the  Isle  of  Mull  66 


▼Ill  CONTENTS. 

Professor  Hbnnsbst  on  the  Relative  Distribution  of  Land  and  Water  as  affect- 
ing Climate  at  different  Geological  Epochs 00 

Br.  H.  B.  Hornbkck  on  some  Minerals  from  the  Isle  of  St  Thomas 6(3 

Mr.  Edward  Hull  on  the  South-easterly  Attenuation  of  the  Oolitic,  Liassic, 
Triassic,  and  Permian  Formations 67 

Mr.  J.  Beete  Jukes  on  the  Alteration  of  Clay-elate  and  Gritstone  into  Mica- 
schist  and  Gneiss  by  the  Granite  of  Wicklow,  && 68 

Mr.  J.  E.  Lee  on  some  Fossil  Fishes  from  the  Strata  of  the  Moselle  69 

on  an  Elephant's  Grinder  from  the  Cerithium  Limestone    69 

Mr.  M.  Moggbidge  on  the  Time  required  for  the  formation  of  "  Rolled  Stones"  69 

Mr.  Chablbs  Moobb  on  the  Skin  and  Food  of  Ichthyosauri  and  Teleosauri. .     69 

on  the  Middle  and  Upper  Lias  of  the  West  of  England    70 

Sir  R.  I.  Mubchison  on  the  Bone  Beds  of  the  Upper  Ludlow  Rock,  and  base 
of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 70 

Mr.  Robert  Mushet  on  an  ancient  Miner's  Axe  recently  discovered  in  the 
Forest  of  Dean.    In  a  letter  to  Richabd  Beamish,  Esq. 71 

Professor  Owen  on  the  Dichodon  cuspidatus,  from  the  Upper  Eocene  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight  and  Hordwell,  Hants 72 

■                on  some  Additional  Evidence  of  the  Fossil  Musk-Ox  (Bubahi* 
moschatus)  from  the  Wiltshire  Drift 72 

•  on  a  New  Species  of  Anoplotherioid  Mammal  (Dichobtme 

Ovinum,  Ow.)  from  the  Upper  Eocene  of  Hordwell,  Hants,  with  Remarks 

on  the  Genera  Dichobune,  Xiphodon,  and  Microtherium 72 

— — — —  on  a  Fossil  Mammal  (Stereognathus  OoUUcm)  from  the  Stones- 
field  Slate 73 

—————  on  the  Scekdotherium  kptocephalum,  a  Megatherioid  Qua- 
druped from  La  Plata 73 

Mr.  W.  Pengelly  on  the  Beekites  found  in  the  Red  Conglomerates  of  Torbay    74 

Professor  H.  D.  Rogers  on  the  Correlation  of  the  North  American  and  British 
Palaeozoic  Strata 75 

on  the  Origin  of  Saliferous  Deposits    75 

Mr.  J.  W.  Salteb  on  the  Great  Pterygotus  (Seraphim)  of  Scotland,  and  other 
Species 75 

on  some  New  Palaeozoic  Star-fishes,  compared  with  living 

Forms    76 

Mr.  H.  C.  Sobby's  Description  of  a  Working  Model  to  illustrate  the  formation 
of  "Drift-bedding"  (a  kind  of  false  stratification) 77 

on  the  Magneaian  Limestone  having  been  formed  by  the 

alteration  of  an  ordinary  calcareous  deposit 77 

on  the  Microscopical  Structure  of  Mica-Schist 78 

Rev.  W.  SymonDs  on  some  Phenomena  in  the  Malvern  District    78 

on  the  Rocks  of  Dean  Forest 78 

Mr.  E.  Vivian's  Researches  in  Kent's  Cavern,  Torauay,  with  the  original  MS. 
Memoir  of  its  first  opening,  by  the  late  Rev.  J.  MacEneby  (Long  supposed 
to  have  been  lost),  and  the  Report  of  the  Sub-Committee  of  the  Torquay 
Natural  History  Society 78 

Captain  Woodall  on  the  Evidence  of  a  Reef  of  Lower  Lias  Rook,  extending 
from  Robin  Hood's  Bay  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Flamborough  Head 80 

Dr.  Thomas  Weight  on  the  Occurrence  of  Upper  Lias  Ammonites  in  the 
(so-called)  Basement  Beds  of  the  Inferior  Oolite    80 


CONTENTS.  IX 

BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY,  including  PHYSIOLOGY. 

Botany. 

Mr.  C.  C.  Babington  on  a  supposed  Fossil  Fucus  found  at  Aust  Cliff)  Glou- 
cestershire      88 

Professor  Buckman's  Notes  on  Experiments  in  the  Botanical  Garden  of  the 
Rojal  Agricultural  College    83 

Professor  Gbegoby  on  New  Forms  of  DiatomacesB  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde. .     83 

Professor  Abthttb  Henfbey  on  the  Development  of  the  Embryo  of  Flowering 

Her.  Professor  Henslow  on  the  Triticoidal  Forms  of  JEgilop$9  and  on  the 
Specific  Identity  of  Centaurea  nigra  and  C.  nigrescent    87 

Professor  G.  B.  Knowlbs  on  the  Movements  of  Oscillatorias   88 

Br.  W.  Laudeb  Lindsay  on  the  genus  AbrothaHus,  De  Nrs 88 

Dr.  Michblskn  on  the  Flora  of  the  Crimea    90 

on  the  Geography  of  Breadstuff 90 

Mr.  Charles  W.  Peach  on  the  Natural  Printing  of  Sea-Weeds  on  the  Rocks 
in  the  vicinity  of  Stromness,  Orkney    90 

Zoology. 

Mr.  Joshua  Aldeb  on  some  New  Genera  and  Species  of  British  Zoophytes    90 

Mr.  Sfencb  Bate  on  a  New  Crustacean,  Monimia  Whiteana 91 

Professor  J.  H.  Cobbett  on  the  AcalephtB,  with  respect  to  Organs  of  Cir- 
culation and  Respiration    91 

Mr.  Robert  Gabnsb  on  the  Pearls  of  the  Conway  River,  North  Wales,  with 

some  Observations  on  the  Natural  Productions  of  the  neighbouring  Coast . .     92 
Professor  Goodsib  on  the  Morphological  Constitution  of  Limbs 93 

on  the  Morphological  Constitution  of  the  Skeleton  of  the 

Vertebrate  Head 93 

on  the  Morphological  Relations  of  the  Nervous  System  in 

the  Annuloee  and  Vertebrate  Types  of  Organization 93 

Mr.  Albany  Hancock  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brachiopoda    94 

Mr.  W.  E.  C.  Noubsb's  Suggestions  for  ascertaining  the  Causes  of  Death  in 
Birds  and  Animals 97 

— — — — ^—  on  the  Medical  Indications  of  Poisoning 97 

Sir  Thomas  Fhxlltpps  on  an  instance  of  Instinct  in  a  Caterpillar 97 

Mr.  B  W.  Richabd80n's  Recent  Researches  on  the  Cause  of  the  Fluidity  of 
the  Blood 98 

Mr.  J.  Samuelson's  Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Development  of 
Infusorial  Animalcules    98 

Dr.  Shaw's  description  of  the  Ajuh,  a  kind  of  Whale,  found  by  Dr.  Vogel  in 
the  River  Benue  (Central  Africa)  in  September  1855   98 

Dr.  Augustus  Walleb's  Experimental  Researches  on  the  Eye,  and  Obser- 
vations on  the  Circulation  of  the  Blood  in  the  Vessels  of  the  Conjunctiva, 
of  the  Iris,  of  the  Ciliary  Ligament;  and  of  the  Choroid  Membrane,  during 
life,  as  seen  under  the  Compound  Microscope 100 

Dr.  Thomas  Williams  on  the  Mechanism  of  Respiration  in  the  Family  of 
Echinid® 101 

■  on  the  Fluid  System  of  the  Nematoid  Entozoa   ....  101 


CONTENTS. 

Miscellaneous. 


Rev.  L.  Jenyns  on  the  Variation  of  Species 


fflr 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


Mr.  Robebt  Austin's  Report  of  an  Expedition  to  explore  the  Interior  of 
Western  Australia 106 

Br.  W.  B.  Baikie  on  recent  Discovery  in  Central  Africa,  and  the  reasons 
which  exist  for  continued  and  renewed  Research  105 

Professor  Bucem an  on  some  Antiques  found  at  Cirencester  as  Evidence  of  the 
Domestic  Manners  of  the  Romans    106 

The  Archdeacon  of  Cabdigan  on  the  Site  of  Echatana 106 

Mr.  R.  Cull  on  a  more  positive  Knowledge  of  the  Changes,  both  Physical  and 
Mental,  in  Man,  with  a  view  to  ascertain  their  Causes 106 

Dr.  L.  K.  Daa  on  the  Varanger  Fiord 106 

— — — — —  on  the  Torenic  System  of  the  Ugrians  (Finns),  Albanians,  and 
other  Populations 106 

■  on  the  Relation  of  the  Siberian  and  Armenian  Languages  ....  106 

Mr.  J.  Babnabd  Davis  on  the  Forms  of  the  Crania  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 106 

Mr.  A.  G.  Findlay  on  some  Volcanic  Islets  to  the  South-East  of  Japan,  in- 
cluding the  Bonin  Islands 110 

Mr.  F.  D.  Haetland  on  Vesuvius  and  its  Eruptions;  illustrated  by  a  Col- 
lection of  Drawings  by  W.  Baylis , .  Ill 

■  on  the  most  Ancient  Map  of  the  World,  from  the  Propa- 
ganda, Rome    Ill 

■  on  Vesuvius  and  its  Eruptions Ill 

Professor  Hennbsst  on  the  Homolographical  Maps  of  M.  Babinet 112 

Captain  I&mtngeb  on  the  Arctic  Current  around  Greenland   112 

Dr.  E.  K.  Kane's  Report  on  his  Expedition  up  Smith's  Sound  in  Search  of 

Sir  John  Franklin   113 

Colonel  A.  Lake,  an  Original  Letter  from  General  Mouravieff. 113 

Rev.  Dr.  D.  Livingston's  Return  Journey  across  Southern  Africa 113 

Mr.  John  Locke  on  a  New  Route  to  India — the  Syro- Arabian  Railway  ....  114 

Dr.  D.  Macphebson's  Researches  in  the  Crimean  Bosphorus,  and  on  the  site 
of  the  Ancient  Greek  City  of  Panticap»um  (Kertch)    115 

Mr.  James  Nasmyth  on  the  Plastic  Origin  of  the  Cuneiform  Characters,  and 
its  Relation  to  our  own  Alphabet 118 

Dr.  John  Rae  on  the  Esquimaux 119 

Captain  Spbatt  on  the  Route  between  Kustenjeh  and  the  Danube  119 

Captain  Chables  Stuet  on  recent  Discoveries  in  Australia   119 

Mr.  E.  Vivian  on  the  earliest  traces  of  Human  Remains  in  Kent's  Cavern 119 


STATISTICS. 

Lobd  Stanley's  Opening  Address 122 

Mr.  T.  Babwick  Lloyd  Basse's  Statistics  and  Suggestions  connected  with 
the  Reformation  of  Juvenile  Offenders 128 


CONTENTS.  XI 

Mr.  Richard  Beamish's  Statistics  of  Cheltenham   129 

Her.  C.  H.  Bromby's  Suggestions  on  the  People's  Education ISO 

Mr.  Samuel  Brown  on  the  Advantages  to  Statistical  Science  of  a  Uniform 
Decimal  System  of  Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  throughout  the  World  . .   183 

Mary  Carpenter  (of  Bristol)  on  the  Position  of  Reformatory  Schools 
in  reference  to  the  State,  and  the  General  Principles  of  their  Management^ 
especially  as  regards  Female  Reformatories 184 

Mr.  Edward  Cltbborn  on  the  Tendency  of  European  Races  to  become  extinct 
in  the  United  States    <. 136 

Mr.  J.  Townk  Dansoh  on  the  Diversity  of  Measures  in  the  Corn-Markets  of 
the  United  Kingdom  137 

on  the  Connexion  between  Slavery  in  the  United  States 

of  America  and  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  the  United  Kingdom 137 

Dr.  Louis  Kb.  Daa'b  Table  of  the  Lapps  and  Finns  in  Norway,  according  to 
the  Census  Returns  of  1846  and  1855 138 

Mr.  Vincent  Scully's  Table  showing  the  Population  of  Ireland  at  different 
intervals  from  1008  to  1856,  with  Causes  for  Periodical  Increase  or  Decrease  142 

Mr.  J.  Towns  Dakson  on  the  Wirral  Peninsula,  and  the  Growth  of  its  Popu- 
lation during  the  last  fifty  years  in  connexion  with  Liverpool  and  the  Man- 
chester District 143 

Mr.  Jamrs  William  Gilbart  on  the  Family  Principle  in  London  Banking. .  143 

Dr.  W.  Neilson  Hancock's  Definition  of  Income  in  Economic  Science  com- 
pared with  the  existing  Taxes  on  Income 144 

Mr.  R.  Thompson  Jopling  on  the  Mortality  among  Officers  of  the  British 
Army  in  the  East 144 

Mr.  R,  G.  Latham  on  the  Distribution  of  the  Albanians,  politically 145 

Mr.  William  Newmarch  on  the  Former  and  Present  Plans  of  disposing  of 
the  Waste  Lands  in  the  Australian  Colonies 146 

on  the  Credit  Mobilier  and  other  recent  Credit 

Institutions  in  France 146 

Lieut-General  Sir  C.  W»  Pasley's  Plan  for  Simplifying  and  Improving  the 
Measures,  Weights,  and  Money  of  this  Country,  without  materially  altering 
the  present  Standards 146 

Dr.  M.  Roth's  Aphoristic  Notes  on  Sanitary  Statistics  of  Workhouses  and 
Charitable  Institutions 149 

Mr.  H.  W.  Rumsey  on  the  Territorial  Distribution  of  the  Population,  for  pur- 
poses of  Sanitary  Inquiry  and  Social  Economy   151 

Dr.  John  Strang  on  the  Progress,  Extent,  and  Value  of  the  Porcelain,  Earth- 
enware, and  Glass  Manufacture  of  Glasgow 153 

on  the  Money-rate  of  Wages  of  Labour  in  Glasgow  and  the 

West  of  Scotland 155 

Mr.W.  M.Tartt  on  some  Statistics  bearing  upon  the  Relations  existing 
between  Poverty  and  Crime  159 

Professor  R.  H.  Walsh's  Deduction  from  the  Statistics  of  Crime  for  the  last 

Ten  Years 169 

on  the  Present  Export  of  Silver  to  the  East 161 

Mr.  R.  Monckton  Mtlnes's  Concluding  Address 161 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

MECHANICAL  SCIENCE. 

Mr.  H.  Bessemer  on  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  without  Fuel 162 

Mr.  W.  Clay  on  the  Manufacture  of  the  large  Wrought-Iron  Gun,  and  other 
Masses  of  Iron  made  at  the  Mersey  Iron  Works,  Liverpool 162 

Majot  V.  Eybb  on  the  Application  of  Corrugated  Metal  to  Ships,  Boats,  and 
other  Floating  Bodies , 162 

Br.  Greene  on  a  Method  of  uniting  Iron  with  Iron  or  other  Metals  without 
welding,  invented  by  M.  Sisco  of  Paris 162 

on  a  New  Railway  Break,  invented  by  M.  Sisco  of  Paris 162 

Professor  Hennessy  on  the  Inundation  of  Rivers 162 

Mr.  F.  M.  Eelley's  Explorations  through  the  Valley  of  the  Atrato  to  the 
Pacific  in  search  of  a  Route  for  a  Ship-canal 162 

Mr.  W.  A.  Mackfie  on  the  Patent  Laws 164 

Mr.  R.  Methuen  on  the  Management  of  Mercantile  Vessels 164 

Br.  Sibbjlld  (Liverpool)  on  a  New  Plan  for  a  Ship  Communicator    164 

Mr.  W.  Smith  on  Improved  Mechanical  Means  for  the  Extraction  of  Oil,  and 
the  Economical  Manufacture  of  Manures  from  fish  and  Fishy  Matter  ....   164 

Mr.  George  Rbnnie  on  the  Quantity  of  Heat  developed  by  Water  when 
violently  agitated 166 

*s  Experiments  to  determine  the  Resistance  of  a  Screw 

when  revolving  in  Water  at  different  Depths  and  Velocities 169 

APPENBIX. 

Mr.  Samuel  Highley  on  Crystallogenesis,  and  the  Equivalent  in  the  Mineral 
Kingdom  corresponding  to  Geographical  Distribution  in  the  Animal  and 
Vegetable  Kingdoms   172 

Mr.  J.  B.  Lawes  and  Dr.  J.  H.  Gilbert  on  some  points  connected  with  Agri- 
cultural Chemistry  172 

on  the  Composition  of  Wheat-Grain, 

and  its  Products 178 

Mr.  Henry  Darwin  Rogers  on  the  Correlation  of  the  North  American  and 
British  Palaeozoic  Strata 176 

Index    .* 187 


OBJECTS    AND    RUL 


THE  ASSOCIATION,  fa  j.  x  y  ;  ;[  ...  I  t  7 


OF  X    V 


OBJECTS. 

The  Association  contemplates  no  interference  with  the  ground  occupied  by 
other  Institutions.  Its  objects  are, — To  give  a  stronger  impulse  and  a  more 
systematic  direction  to  scientific  inquiry, — to  promote  the  intercourse  of  those 
who  cultivate  Science  in  different  parts  of  the  British  Empire,  with  one  n- 
other,  and  with,  foreign  philosophers, — to  obtain  a  more  general  attention  to 
the  objects  of  Science,  and  a  removal  of  any  disadvantages  of  a  public  kind 
which  impede  its  progress, 

RULES. 

ADMISSION  OF  MEMBER8  AND  ASSOCIATES. 

All  Persons  who  have  attended  the  first  Meeting  shall  be  entitled  to  be- 
come Members  of  the  Association,  upon  subscribing  an  obligation  to  con- 
form to  its  Rules. 

The  Fellows  and  Members  of  Chartered  Literary  and  Philosophical  So- 
cieties publishing  Transactions,  in  the  British  Empire,  shall  be  entitled,  in 
like  manner,  to  become  Members  of  the  Association. 

The  Officers  and  Members  of  the  Councils,  or  Managing  Committees,  of 
Philosophical  Institutions,  shall  be  entitled,  in  like  manner,  to  become  Mem- 
bers of  the  Association. 

All  Members  of  a  Philosophical  Institution  recommended  by  its  Council 
or  Managing  Committee,  shall  be  entitled,  in  like  manner,  to  become  Mem- 
bers of  the  Association. 

Persons  not  belonging  to  such  Institutions  shall  be  elected  by  the  General 
Committee  or  Council,  to  become  Life  Members  of  the  Association,  Annual 
Subscribers,  or  Associates  for  the  year,  subject  to  the  approval  of  a  General 
Meeting. 

COMPOSITIONS,  SUBSCRIPTIONS,  AND  PRIVILEGES. 

Live  Members  shall  pay,  on  admission,  the  sum  of  Ten  Pounds.  They 
shall  receive  gratuitously  the  Reports  of  the  Association  which  may  be  pub- 
lished after  the  date  of  such  payment.  They  are  eligible  to  all  the  offices 
of  the  Association. 

Annual  Subscribers  shall  pay,  on  admission,  the  sum  of  Two  Pounds, 
and  in  each  following  year  the  sum  of  One  Pound.  They  shall  receive 
gratuitously  the  Reports  of  the  Association  for  the  year  of  their  admission 
and  for  the  years  in  which  they  continue  to  pay  without  intermission  their 
Annual  Subscription.  By  omitting  to  pay  this  Subscription  in  any  particu- 
lar year,  Members  of  this  class  (Annual  Subscribers)  lose  for  that  and  all 
future  years  the  privilege  of  receiving  the  volumes  of  the  Association  gratis : 
but  they  may  resume  their  Membership  and  other  privileges  at  any  sub- 
sequent Meeting  of  the  Association,  paying  on  each  such  occasion  the  sum  of 
One  Pound.     They  are  eligible  to  all  the  Offices  of  the  Association. 

Associates  for  the  year  shall  pay  on  admission  the  sum  of  One  Pound. 
They  shall  not  receive  gratuitously  the  Reports  of  the  Association,  nor  be 
eligible  to  serve  on  Committees,  or  to  hold  any  office. 

1856.  b 


XVU1  RULES  OF  THE  ASSOCIATION. 

The  Association  consists  of  the  following  classes  :— 

1.  Life  Members  admitted  from  18S1  to  1845  inclusive,  who  have  paid 
on  admission  Five  Pounds  as  a  composition. 

2.  Life  Members  who  in  1846,  or  in  subsequent  years,  have  paid  on  ad* 
mission  Ten  Pounds  as  a  composition, 

3.  Annual  Members  admitted  from  1831  to  1839  inclusive,  subject  to  the 
payment  of  One  Pound  annually.  [May  resume  their  Membership  after  in- 
termission of  Annual  Payment/) 

4.  Annual  Members  admitted  in  any  year  since  1839,  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  Two  Pounds  for  the  first  year,  and  One  Pound  in  each  following 
year.  [May  resume  their  Membership  after  intermission  of  Annual  Pay- 
ment.] 

$,  Associates  for  the  year,  subject  to  the  payment  of  One  Pound. 
6,  Corresponding  Members  nominated  by  the  Council. 
And  the  Members  and  Associates  will  be  entitled  to  receive  the  annual 
volume  of  Reports,  gratis,  or  to  purchase  it  at  reduced  (or  Members')  price, 
according  to  the  following  specification,  vis. : — 

1.  Gratis. — Old  Life  Members  who  have  paid  Five  Pounds  as  a  compo- 
sition for  Annual  Paymepts,  and  previous  to  1845  a  further 
sum  of  Two  Pounds  as  a  Book  Subscription,  or,  since  1845,  a 
further  sum  of  Five  Pounds. 
New  Life  Members  who  have  paid  Ten  Pounds  as  a  com- 
position. 
Annual  Members  who  have  not  intermitted  their  Annual  Sub- 
scription. 
%.  At  reduced  or  Members9  Prices,  viz.  two-thirds  of  the  Publication 
Price. — Old  Life  Members  who  have  paid  Five  Pounds  as  a 
composition  for  Annual  Payments,  but  no  further  sum  as  a 
Book  Subscription. 
Annual  Members,  who  have  intermitted  their  Annual  Subscrip- 
tion. 
Associates  for  the  yean     [Privilege  confined  to  the  volume  for 
that  year  only.] 
3.  Members  may  purchase  (for  the  purpose  of  completing  their  sets)  any 
of  the  first  seventeen  volumes  of  Transactions  of  the  Associa- 
tion, and  of  which  more  than  100  copies  remain,  at  one-third  of 
the  Publication  Price.    Application  to  be  made  (by  letter)  to 
Messrs.  Taylor  &  Francis,  Red  Lion  Court,  Fleet  St.,  London. 
Subscriptions  shall  be  received  by  the  Treasurer  or  Secretaries. 

MEETINGS. 

The  Association  shall  meet  annually,  for  one  week,  or  longer.  The  place 
of  each  Meeting  shall  be  appointed  by  the  General  Committee  at  the  pre- 
vious Meeting ;  and  the  Arrangements'  for  it  shall  be  entrusted  to  the  Offi- 
cers of  the  Association. 

GENERAL  COMMITTEE. 

The  General  Committee  shall  sit  during  the  week  of  the  Meeting,  or 
longer,  to  transact  the  business  of  the  Association.  It  shall  consist  of  the 
following  persons : — 

1.  Presidents  and  Officers  for  the  present  and  preceding  years,  with  au<< 
thors  of  Reports  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Association. 

2,  Members  who  have  communicated  any  Paper  to  a  Philosophical  Society, 
which  has  been  printed  in  its  Transactions,  and  which  relates  to  such  subjects 
as  are  taken  into  consideration  at  the  Sectional  Meetings  of  the  Association, 


BULKS  OF  THK  ASSOCIATION.  xix 

3.  Office-bearerf  for  the  time  being,  or  Delegates,  altogether,  not  exceed- 
ing three  in  number,  from  any  Philosophical  Society  publishing  Transactions. 

4.  Office-bearers  for  the  time  being,  or  Delegates,  not  exceeding  three, 
from  Philosophical  Institutions  established  in  the  place  of  Meeting,  or  in  any 
place  where  the  Association  has  formerly  met. 

5.  Foreigners  and  other  individuals  whose  assistance  is  desired,  and  who 
are  specially  nominated  in  writing  for  the  Meeting  of  the  year  by  the  Presi- 
dent and  General  Secretaries. 

6.  The  Presidents,  Vice-Presidents,  and  Secretaries  of  the  Sections  are 
u*ffido  members  of  the  General  Committee  for  the  time  being. 

SECTIONAL  COMMITTEES. 

The  General  Committee  shall  appoint,  at  each  Meeting,  Committees,  con- 
sifting  severally  of  the  Members  most  conversant  with  the  several  branches 
of  Science,  to  advise  together  for  the  advancement  thereof. 

The  Committees  shall  report  what  subjects  of  investigation  they  would 
particularly  recommend  to  be  prosecuted  during  the  ensuing  year,  and 
brought  under  consideration  at  the  next  Meeting. 

The  Committees  shall  recommend  Reports  on  the  Mate  and  progress  pf 

rticular  Sciences,  to  be  drawn  up  from  time  to  time  by  competent  persons, 
the  information  of  the  Annual  Meetings. 

COMMITTEE  OF  RECOMMENDATIONS. 

The  General  Committee  shall  appoint  at  each  Meeting  a  Committee,  which 
shall  receive  and  consider  the  Recommendations  of  the  Sectional  Committee!, 
and  report  to  the  General  Committee  the  measures  which  they  would  advise 
to  be  adopted  for  the  advancement  of  Science. 

All  Recommendations  of  Grants  of  Money,  Requests  for  Special  Re- 
searches, and  Reports  on  Scientific  Subjects,  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Com- 
mittee of  Recommendations,  and  not  taken  into  consideration  by  the  General 
Committee,  unless  previously  recommended  by  the  Committee  of  Recom- 
mendations. 

LOCAL  COMMITTEES. 

Loca)  Committees  shall  be  formed  by  the  Officers  of  the  Association  to 
assist  in  making  arrangements  for  the  Meetings. 

Local  Committees  shall  have  the  power  of  adding  to  their  numbers  those 
Members  of  the  Association  whose  assistance  they  may  desire. 

OFFICERS. 

!  A  President,  two  or  more  Vice-Presidents,  one  or  more  Secretaries,  and  a 
Treasurer,  skatl  be  annually  appointed  by  the  General  Committee. 

council. 
In  the  intervals  pf  the  Meetings,  the  affairs  of  the  Association  shall  be 
managed  by  a  Council  appointed  by  the  General  Committee.     The  Council 
may  also  assemble  for  the  despatch  of  business  during  the  week  of  the 
Meeting. 

PAPERS  AND  COMMUNICATIONS. 

The  Author  of  any  paper  or  communication  shall  be  at  liberty  to  reserve 
his  right  pf  property  therein. 

ACCOUNTS. 

The  Accounts  of  the  Association  shall  he  audited  annually,  by  Auditors 
appoint^  by  fee  Meeting. 


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II.  Table  showing  the  Names  of  Members  of  the  British  Association  who 
have  served  on  the  Council  in  former  years. 

Dillwyn,  Lewis  W.,  Esq.,  F.R.8.   (deceased). 

Drinkwater,  J.  E.,  Esq.  (deceased). 

Duciet  The  Earl,  F.R.S. 

Dunraven,  the  Earl  of,  F.R.S. 

Egerton,  Sir  P.  de  M.  Grey,  Bart,  M.P.,F.R.S. 

Eliot,  Lord,  M.P. 

Ellesmere,  Francis,  Earl  of,  F.6.S.  (deceased). 

Enniskillen,  William,  Earl  of,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Estcourt,  T.  O.  B.t  D.C.L.  (deceased). 

Faraday,  Professor,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Fitzwilliain,  The  Earl,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Fleming,  W.,  M.D. 

Fletcher,  Bell,  M.D. 

Forbes,  Charles,  Esq.  (deceased). 

Forbes,  Professor  Edward,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Forbes,  Professor  J.  D.,  F.R.S.,  Sec  R.S.E, 

Fox,  Robert  Were,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Frost,  Charles,  F.S.A. 

Gassiot,  John  P.,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Gilbert,  Davies,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Graham,  T.,  M.  A.,  F.R.S.,  Master  of  the  Mint. 

Gray,  John  E.,  Esq.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

Gray,  Jonathan,  Esq.   (deceased). 

Gray,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

Green,  Professor  Joseph  Henry,  F.R.S. 

Greenough,  G.  B.,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Grove,  W.  R.,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Hallsm,  Henry,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Hamilton,  W.  J.,  Esq.,  For.  Sec  G.S. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  R.,  LL.D.,  Astronomer 

Royal  of  Ireland,  M.R.I.  A.,  F.R.A.S. 
Harcourt,  Rev.  William  Vernon,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Hardwicke,  Charles  Philip,  Earl  of,  F.R.S. 
Harford,  J.  S.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
Harris,  Sir  W.  Snow,  F.R.S. 
Harrowby,  the  Earl  of,  F.R.S. 
Hatfeild,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S.   (deceased). 
Henry,  W.  C,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 
Henry,  Rev.  P.  S.,  D.D.,  President  of  Queen's 

College,  Belfast. 
Henslow,  Rev.  Professor,  M.A.,  F.L.S. 
Herbert,  Hon.  and  Very  Rev.  William,  LL.D., 
F.L.S.,  Dean  of  Manchester,  (deceased). 
Herschel,  Sir  John  F.  W.,  Bart.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
Hey  wood,  Sir  Benjamin,  Bart.,  F.R.S. 
Heywood,  James,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Hill,  Rev.  Edward,  M.A.,  F.G.S. 
Hincks,  Rev.  Edward,  D.D.,  M.R.I.A.(dec*). 
Hinds,  S.,  D.D.,  late  Lord  Bishop  of  Norwich. 
Hodgkin,  Thomas,  M.D. 
llodgkinson,  Professor  Eaton,  F.R.S. 
Hodgson,  Joseph,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Hooker,  Sir  William  J.,  LL.D.,  F.rUS. 
Hope,  Rev.  F.  W.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Hopkins,  William,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Homer,  Leonard,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. 
Hovenden,  V.  F.,  Esq.,  M.A. 
Hutton,  Robert,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
Hutton,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
Ibbetson,Capt  L.L.  Boscawen,  K.R.E..F.G.S. 
Inglis,SirR.H.,Bart.,D.C.L.,M.PMF.R.S.(dec) 
Jameson,  Professor  R.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Jardine,  Sir  William,  Bart.,  F.R.S.E.      * 
Jeffreys,  John  Gwyn,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Jenyns,  Rev.  Leonard,  F.L.S. 
Jerrard,  H.  B.,  Esq. 
Johnston,   Right  Hon.  William,  late  Lord 

Provost  of  Edinburgh. 
Johnston,  Prof.  J.  F.  W.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  (dec'). 


Acland,  Sir  Thomas  D.,  Bart.,F.R.S. 

Acland,  Professor  H.  W.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Adams,  J.  Couch,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Adamson,  John,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 

Ainslie,  Rev.  Gilbert,  D.D.,  Master  of  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge. 

Airy,G.  B.,  D.C.L.,F.R.S.,  Astronomer  Royal. 

Alison,  Professor  W.  P.,  M.D.,  F. R.S.E. 

Ansted,  Professor  D.  T.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
*  Argyll,  George  Douglas,  Duke  of,  F.lt.S. 

Arnott,  Neil,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Ashburton,  William  Bingham,  Lord,  D.C.L. 

Babbage,  Charles,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Babington,  C.  C,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Baily,  Francis,  Esq.,  F.R.S.    (deceased). 

Baker,  Thomas  Barwick  Lloyd,  Esq. 

Balfour,  Professor  John  H.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Barker,  George,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Bell,  Professor  Thomas,  Pres.L.S.,  F.R.S. 

Beechey,  Rear-Admiral,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Bengough,  George,  Esq. 

Bentham,  George,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 

Bigge,  Charles,  Esq. 

Blakiston,  Peyton,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Boileau,  Sir  John  P.,  Bart,  F.R.S. 

Boyle,  Rt.  Hon.D.,  Lord  Justice- Gen1.  (decd). 

Brand,  William,  Esq. 

Breadalbane,  John,  Marquis  of,  K.T.,  F.R.S. 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  K.H.,  D.C.L.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  Principal  of  the  United  College  of 
St  Salvator  and  St  Leonard,  St.  Andrews. 

Brisbane,  General  Sir  Thomas  M.,  Bart.,' 
K.C.B.,  G.C.H.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Brooke,  Charles,  B.A.,  F.R.S. 

Brown,  Robert,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Brunei,  Sir  M.  I.,  F.R.S.   (deceased.) 

Buckland,  Very  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  F.R.S., 
Dean  of  Westminster,  (deceased). 

Burlington,  William,  Earl  of,  M. A.,  F.R.S. 

Bute,  John,  Marquis  of,  K.T.  (deceased). 

Carlisle,  George  Will.  Fred.,  Earl  of,  F.R.S. 
Carson,  Rev.  Joseph,  F.T.C.D. 
Cathcart,  Lt-Gen.,  Earl  of,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.E. 
Chalmers,  Rev.  T„  D.D.,  Professor  of  Di- 
vinity, Edinburgh,  (deceased). 
Chance,  James,  Esq. 

Chester,  John  Graham,  D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of. 
Christie,  Professor  S.  H.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Clare,  Peter,  Esq.,  F.R.A.S.  (deceased). 
Clark,  Rev.  Prof.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (Cambridge). 
Clark,  Henry,  M.D. 
Clark,  G.  T.,  Esq. 
Clear,  William,  Esq.  (deceased). 
Clerke,  Maj.  S.,  K.H.,R.E.,  F.R.S.(deceased). 
Clift,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Close,  Very  Rev.  Francis,M.A.,  Dean  ofCarlisle. 
Cobbold,  John  Chevalier,  Esq.,  M.P. 
Colquhoun,  J.  C,  Esq.,  M.P.  (deceased). 
Conybeare,  Very  Rev.  W.  D.,Dean  of  Llandaff. 
Corrie,  John,  Esq.,  F.R.S.   (deceased). 
Crum,  Walter,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Currie,  William  Wallace,  Esq.  (deceased). 
Dalton,  John,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Daniell,  Professor  J.  F.,  F.R.S.   (deceased). 
Dartmouth,  William,  Earl  of,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
Darwin,  Charles,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Daubeny, Professor  Charles G.B.,M.D.,  F.R.S. 
DelaBeche,  Sir  Henry  T.,  C.B.,  F.R.S.,  Di- 
rector-General  of  the  Geological  Survey 


-r*k„  it_:»,w1  i 


nM|AM      tA—. 


Keiknd,  Rev.  Professor  P.,  M.A. 

Lankester,  Edwin,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Lansdowne,  Henry,  Marquis  of,  D.C.L.,F.R.S. 
Lardner,  Rev.  Dr. 

Lassell,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  L.&E. 

Latham,  R.  G.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Lee,  Very  Rev.  John,  D.D.,  F.R.S.E.,  Prin- 
cipal of  the  University  of  Edinburgh. 

Lee,  Robert,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Lefcvre,  Right  Hon.  Charles  Shaw,  late 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

Lemon,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  F.R.S. 

Liddell,  Andrew,  Esq.  (deceased). 

Lindley,  Professor  John,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

Listowel,  The  Earl  of. 

Lloyd,  Rev.  B.,  D.D.,  Provost  of  Trin.  Coll. 
Dublin,  (deceased). 

Lloyd,  Rev.  H.,D.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.L.  fie  E. 
V.P.R.I.A.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Londesborough,  Lord,  F.R.S. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John  W.,  Bart.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Luby,  Rev.  Thomas. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

MacCullagh,  Prof.,  D.C.L.,  M.R.I.A.  (dec*). 

Macnrlane,  The  Very  Rev.  Principal. 

MacLeay,  William  Sharp,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 

HacNeUl,  Professor  Sir  John,  F.R.S. 

Malcolm,  Vice-Ad.  Sir  Charles,  K.C.B.  (dec4). 

Maltby,  Edward,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  late  Lord 
Bishop  of  Durham. 

Manchester,  J.  P.  Lee,  D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of. 

Meynell,  Thomas,  Esq.,  F.L.S. 

Middleton,  Sir  William  F.  F.,  Bart 

Miller,  Professor  W.  A  ,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Miller,  Professor  W.  H.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Moillet,  J.  D.y  Esq.  (deceased). 

MUnes,  R.  Monckton,  Esq.,  M.P. 

Moggridge,  Matthew,  Esq. 

Moody,  J.  Sadleir,  Esq. 

Moody,  T.  H.  C,  Esq. 

Moody,  T.  F.,  Esq. 

Morley,  The  Earl  of. 

Moseley,  Rev.  Henry,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

MoonUEdgecnmbe,  Ernest  Augustus,  Earl  of. 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick  I.,  G.C.St.S.,  F.R.S. 

Nefll,  Patrick,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E. 

Nkol,  D.,  M.D. 

Nicol,  Rev.  J.  P.,  LL.D. 

Northampton,  Spencer  Joshua  Alwyne,  Mar- 
quis of,  V.P.R.S.  (deceased). 

Northumberland, Hugh,  Duke  of,  K.G.,  M.A., 
F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Ormerod,  G.  W.,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.G.S. 

Orpen,  Thomas  Herbert,  M.D.  (deceased). 

Orpen,  John  H.,  LL.D. 

Osier,  Follett,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Owen,  Professor  Richard,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Oxford,  Samuel  Wilberforce,  D.D.,  Lord 
Bishop  of,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S. 

Pabnerston,  Viscount,  G.C.B.,  M.P. 

Peacock,  Very  Rev.G.,D.D.,DeanofEly,F.R.S. 

Peel,Rt.  Hon.Sir  R.,Bart.,M.  P.,D.C.  L.  (dec4). 

Pendarves,  E.,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Phillips,  Professor  John,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Porter,  G.  R.,  Esq.   (deceased). 

Powell,  Rev.  Professor,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Prichard,  J.  C,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Ramsay,  Professor  William,  M.A. 

Reid,Maj.-GeneralSiaW.,K.C.B.,R.E.,F.R.S. 

Rendlesham,  Rt.  Hon.  Lord,  M.P. 

Rennie,  George,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Retmie,  Sir  John,  F.R.S. 


Ritchie,  Rev.  Prof.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Robinson,  Rev.  J.,  D.D. 

Robinson,  Rev.  T.  R.,  D.D.,  F.R.A.S. 

Robison,  Sir  John,  Sec.R.S.Edin,  (deceased). 

Roche,  James,  Esq. 

Roget,  Peter  Mark,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Ronalds,  Francis,  F.R.S. 

Rosebery,  The  Earl  of,  K.T.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Ross,  Rear- Ad.  Sir  J.  C,  R.N.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 

Rosse,  William,  Earl  of,  M.A.,F.R.S.,M.R.I.A, 

Royle,  Professor  John  F.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Russell,  James,  Esq.  (deceased). 

Russell,  J.  Scott,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Sabine,  Maj.-General,R.A.,Treas.  &V.P.R.S. 

Sanders,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 

Scoresby,  Rev.  W.,  D.D.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 

Sedgwick,  Rev.  Professor  Adam,  M.A.,F.R.S. 

Selby,  Prideaux  John,  Esq.,  F.R.S.E. 

Sharpey,  Professor,  M.D.,  Sec.R.S. 

Smith,  Lieut-Colonel  C.  Hamilton,  F.R.S. 

Smith,  James,  F.R.S.  L.  &  E. 

Spence,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 

Stanley,  Edward,   D.D.,  F.R.S.,  late  Lord 

Bishop  of  Norwich,  (deceased). 
Staunton,  Sir  G.  T.,  Bt.,M.P„  D.C.L.,  F.R.S. 
St.  David's, C.Thirlwall,  D.D.,Lord  Bishopof. 
Stevelly,  Professor  John,  LL.D. 
Stokes,  Professor  G.  G.,  Sec.R.S. 
Strang,  John,  Esq.,  LL.D. 
Strickland,  Hugh  E.,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Sykes,  Colonel  W.  H.,  M.P.,  F.R.S. 
Symonds,   B.  P.,  D.D.,  Vice- Chancellor  of 

the  University  of  Oxford. 
Talbot,  W.  H.  Fox,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Tayler,  Rev.  John  James,  B.A. 
Taylor,  John,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Taylor,  Richard,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
Thompson,  William,  Esq.,  F.L.S.  (deceased). 
Thomson,  Professor  William,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Tindal,  Captain,  R.N. 
Tite,  William,  Esq.,  M.P.,  F.R.S. 
Tod,  James,  Esq.,  F.R.S.E. 
Tooke,  Thomas,  F.R.S. 
Traill,  J.  S.,  M.D.  (deceased). 
Turner,  Edward,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Turner,  Samuel,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.  (decd.) 
Turner,  Rev.  W. 
Tyndall,  Professor,  F.R.S. 
Vigors,  N.  A.,  D.C.L.,  F.L.S.   (deceased). 
Vivian,  J.  H.,  M.P.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Walker,  James,  Esq.,  F.R.S. 
Walker,  Joseph  N.,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
Walker,  Rev.  Professor  Robert,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Warburton,  Henry,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Washington,  Captain,  R.N.,  F.R.S. 
Webster,  Thomas,  M.A,,  F.RS. 
West,  William,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  (deceased). 
Western,  Thomas  Burch,  Esq. 
Wharncliffe,  John  Stuart,  Lord,  F.R.S. 
WheaUtone,  Professor  Charles,  F.R.S. 
Whewell,  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  Master 

of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge. 
Williams,  Professor  Charles  J.B.,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 
Willis,  Rev.  Professor  Robert,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Wills,  William,  Esq.,  F.G.S. 
Winchester,  John,  Marquis  of. 
Woollcombe,  Henry,  Esq.,  F.S.A.  (deceased). 
Wrottesley,  John,  Lord,  M.A.,  Pres.  R.S. 
Yarborough,  The  Earl  of,  D.C.L. 
Yarrell,  William,  Esq.,  F.L.S.  (deceased). 
Yates,  James,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Yates,  J.  B.,  Esq.,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S.(deceased). 


OFFICERS  AND  COUNCIL,  1856-57. 

TRUSTEES  (PERMANENT). 
SiBBoDBBiOKLMuBCHisoN,G.C.St.S.,F.R.S.    The  Very  Rev.GEORGEpEAoocK,D.D.,Deeji 
John  Taylob,  Esq.,  F.R.S.  of  Ely,  F.R.S. 

PRESIDENT. 

CHARLES  0.  B.  DAUBENY,  M.D.,  F.R.8.,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S.,  Hon.  M.R.UL, 

Regius  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

VICE-PRESIDENTS. 
The  Eabl  Ducie,  F.R.S.,  F.O.S.  Soa,  Director-General  of  the  Geological 

Sir   Roderick    I.  Murchison,  G.C.S'.S.,   '    Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S., F.G.S.,F.L.S.,V.P.  R. Geogr.    Thomas  B arwick  Lloyd  Baker,  Esq. 
The  Rev.  Francis  Closb,  M.A. 

PRESIDENT  ELECT. 
The  REV.  HUMPHREY  LLOYD,  D.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.8.  L.  &  E.y  V.P.R.I.A., 
Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
VICE-PRESIDENTS  ELECT. 
The  Rt.  Hon.  the  Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin.       Sir  William  R.  Hamilton,  LL.D.,  F.R.A.S., 
The  Provost  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  Astronomer  Royal  of  Ireland. 

The  Marquis  of  Ktldarb.  Lt.-Colonel  Larcom,  R.E.,  LL.D.,  F.R.S. 

The  Lord  Talbot  db  Malahidb.  Richard  J.  Griffith,   LL.D.,  M.R.IX, 

The  Lord  Chief  Baron,  Dublin.  F.R.S.E.,  F.G.S. 

LOCAL  SECRETARIES  FOR  THE  MEETING  AT  DUBLIN. 
Lundy  E.  Foots*  Esq.,  Secretary  to  Royal  Dublin  Society. 
Rev.  Professor  Jbllbtt,  Secretary  to  Royal  Irish  Academy. 
W.  Nbilson  Hancock,  LL.D.,  Secretary  to  Statistical  Society,  Dublin. 
LOCAL  TREASURER  FOR  THE  MEETING  AT  DUBLIN. 
John  H.  Orpen,  LL.D. 
ORDINARY  MEMBERS  OF  THE  COUNCIL. 
Bbll,  Prof.,  Pres.L.S.,  F.R.S.    Lybll,  Sir  C,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.    Sh arpby, Professor,  SecR.S. 
Darwin,  Charles,  F.R.S.       Miller,  Prof.  W.  A.,  M.D.,    Stanley,  Lord. 
Gassiot,  John  P.,  F.R.S.  F.R.S.  Stokes,  Professor,  F.R.S. 

Gray,  J.  E.,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.        Owen,  Professor,  F.R.S.  Tite, W.,  M.P.,  F.S.A.,F.R.S. 

Grove,  William  R.,  F.R.S.     Price,  Rev.  Prof.,  F.R.S.  Walker,  Rev.  Prof.,  F.R.S. 

Heywood,  James,  Esq.  RAWLiNSON,ColonelSirH.C,    Webster,  Thomas,  F.R.S. 

Hutton,  Robert,  F.G.S.  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  WROTTESLEY,Lord,Pres.R.&. 

Latham,  R.  G.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.    Rennib,  George,  F.R.S.  Yates,  Jambs,  F.R.S. 

EX-OFFICIO  MEMBERS  OF  THE  COUNCIL. 
The  President  and  President  Elect,  the  Vice-Presidents  and  Vice-Presidents  Elect,  the  Ge- 
neral and  Assistant-General  Secretaries,  the  General  Treasurer,  the  Trustees,  and  the  Presi- 
dents of  former  years,  viz.  The  Earl  Fitzwilliam.  Rev.  Professor  Sedgwick.  Sir  Thomas  M. 
Brisbane.  The  Marquis  of  Lansdowne.  The  Earl  of  Burlington.  Rev.  W.  V.  Harcourt 
The  Marquis  of  Breadalbane.  Rev.  Dr.  Whewell.  The  Earl  of  Ellesmere.  The  Earl  of 
Rosse.  The  Dean  of  Ely.  Sir  John  F.  W.  Herschel,  Bart.  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison.  The 
Rev.  Dr.  Robinson.  Sir  David  Brewster.  G.  B.  Airy,  Esq.,  the  Astronomer  Royal.  General 
Sabine.    William  Hopkins,  Esq.,  F.R.S.    The  Earl  of  Harrowby.    The  Duke  of  Argyll. 

GENERAL  SECRETARY. 

Major-General  Edward  Sabine,  R.A.,  Treas.  &  V.P.R.S.,  F.1LA.S., 

13  Ashley  Place,  Westminster. 

ASSISTANT  GENERAL  SECRETARY. 

John  Phillips,  Esq.,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  Reader  in  Geology  in  the  University  of 

Oxford;  Magdalen  Bridge, Oxford. 

GENERAL  TREASURER. 
John  Taylob,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  6  Queen  Street  Place,  Upper  Thames  Street,  London. 

LOCAL  TREASURERS. 
William  Gray,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  York.  Professor  Ramsay,  MX,  Glasgow. 

C.C.Babtagton,Esq.,M.A.,F.R.S.,Cfam*Wd^.    Robert  P.  Greg,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  Manchester. 
William  Brand,  Esq.,  Edinburgh.  John  Gwyn  Jeffreys,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Amis***. 

John  H.  Orpen,  LL.D.,  Dublin.  J.  B.  Alexander,  Esq.,  Ipswich. 

William  Sanders,  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  Bristol  Robert  Patterson,  Esq.,  M.R.I.A.,  Bsfflut. 

Robert  M' Andrew,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  Liverpool.       Edmund  Smith,  Esq.,  Hull 
W.  R.  Wills,  Esq.,  Birmingham.  James  Agg  Gardner,  Esq.,  Cheltenham. 

AUDITORS. 
William  Tite,  Esq.,  M.P.        Edwin  Lankester,  MJD.        Jades  Yates,  Eaq. 


OFFICERS  OF  SECTIONAL  COMMITTEES.  XXVU 

OFFICERS  OF  SECTIONAL  COMMITTEES  PRESENT  AT  THE 
CHELTENHAM  MEETING. 

SECTION  A.— MATHEMATICS  AND  PHYSICS. 

President. — Rev.  R.  Walker,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Reader  in  Experimental  Philosophy, 
Oxford. 

Vice-Presidents.— Sir  William  Snow  Harris,  F.R.S. ;  Rev.  H.  Lloyd,  D.D., 
F.R.S.,  M.RJ.A. ;  Rev.  B.  Price,  M.A.,  Sedleian  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
Oxford;  Rev.  W.  Whewell,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge; 
Lord  Wrottesley,  M.A.,  President  of  the  Royal  Society. 

Secretaries.— Prof.  Stevelly,  LL.D. ;  C.Brooke,  B.A.,  F.R.S. ;  Rev.  T.  A.  South- 
wood,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  Head  Master  of  Civil  and  Military  Department,  Cheltenham 
College;  Rev.  J.  C.  Turnbull,  M.A.,  Head  Mathematical  Master,  Cheltenham  College. 

SECTION  B. CHEMISTRY  AND  MINERALOGY,  INCLUDING  THEIR  APPLICATIONS 

TO  AGRICULTUREAND  THE  ARTS. 

President.^— &.  C.  Brodie,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Oxford. 

Vice-Presidents.— N.  S.  Maskelyne,  F.G.S.,  Reader  in  Mineralogy,  Oxford;  W. 
Gregory,  F.R.S.E.  j  Thomas  Graham,  F.R.S.,  the  Master  of  the  Mint;  Thomas 
Anderson,  M.D.,  F.R.S. E.,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

Secretaries. — Philip  J.  Worsley,  B.A. ;  Professor  Voelcker,  Royal  Agricultural 
College,  Cirencester ;  J.  Horsley,  Esq. 

SECTION  C. GEOLOGY. 

President. — Professor  A.  C.  Ramsay,  F.R.S.,  and  Local  Director  of  the  Geological 
Survey  of  Great  Britain. 

Vice-Presidents. — Rev.  Adam  Sedgwick,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Woodwardian  Professor 
of  Geology  in  the  University  of  Cambridge ;  J.  Beete  Jukes,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Local 
Director  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Ireland ;  The  Earl  Ducie,  F.R.S. 

Secretaries.— Rev.  P.  B.  Brodie,  M.A.,  F.G.S.;  Thomas  Wright,  M.D.,  F.R.S.E.; 
J.  Scougall,  F.E.I.S.,  M.C.P.,  Master,  Modern  Department  of  the  Cheltenham 
Grammar  School;  Edward  Hull,  F.G.S. ;  Rev.  R.  Hepworth,  B.A. 

SECTION  D. — ZOOLOGY  AND  BOTANY,  INCLUDING  PHYSIOLOGY. 

President.— Thomas  Bell,  F.R.S.,  President  of  the  Linnean  Society. 

Vice-Presidents.— Rev.  L.  Jenyns,  M.A.,  F.L.S. ;  Robert  Ball,  LL.D.,  Treasurer 
of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  Director  of  the  Museum  in  University  of  Dublin ;  J.  E. 
Gray,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. ;  John  H.  Balfour,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  Professor  of  Botany 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh ;  Rev.  J.  S.  Henslow,  M.A.,  Prof,  of  Botany  in  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge;  George  Busk,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S.,  Professor  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  to  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England. 

Seere/ories.— E.  Lankester,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S. ;  J.  Buckman,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S., 
Professor  of  Botany,  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester ;  J.  Abercrombie,  M.D. 

SECTION  E. GEOGRAPHY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 

President.— Colonel  Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  K.C.B.,  F.R.S.  &c. 

Vice-Presidents.— Sir  John  F.  Davis,  Bart.,  F.R.S. ;  Sir  Roderick  Impey  Mur- 
cfciion,  F.R.S.,  Director-General  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  the  United  Kingdom ; 
Sir  Thomas  PhiUipps,  Bart.,  MA.,  F.R.S. ;  General  Sir  George  Pollock,  Bart*, 
G.C.B.,  F.R.G.S. ;  Colonel  Philip  Yorke,  F.R.S. 

Secretaries.— Norton  Shaw,  M.D.,  Sec.  Roy.  Geogr.  Soc. ;  R.  Cull,  F.S.A.,  Hon. 
Sec.  Ethnol.  Soc. ;  F.  D.  Hartland,  F.S.A.,  F.R.G.S. ;  W.  H.  Rumsey,  F.R.C.S. 

SECTION  F. — ECONOMIC  SCIENCE  AND  STATISTICS. 

President.— Lord  Stanley,  M.P. 

Vice-Presidents.— T.  Tooke,  F.R.S. ;  John  Strang,  LL.D. ;  W.  Tite,  M.P.,  F.R.S. ; 
J.Towne  Danson,  F.S.S. ;  James  Heywood,  F.R.S. ;  W.  Farr,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 

Secretaries. — William  Newmarch,  Hon.  Sec.  Statistical  Society,  London ;  W. 
Neflson  Hancock,  LL.D. ;  Edward  Cheshire,  F.R.G.S.  *  Rev.  C.  H.  Bromby,  M.A.; 
W.  M.  Tartt,  M.S.A. 

SECTION  O. — MECHANICAL  SCIBNCB. 

President.— George  Rennie,  F.RS. 

Vice-Presidents. — John  Taylor,  F.R.S. ;  Andrew  Henderson,  Esq. ;  J*  G.  Appold, 
'  FJLS. ;  James  Nasmyth,  C.E. ;  William  Fairbairn,  F.R.S. 

Secreteries.— Charles  Atherton,  C.E. ;  B.  Jones,  Jun. ;  H.  M.  Jeffery,  M.A. 


XXVUl 


REPORT— 1856. 


CORRESPONDING  MEMBERS. 


Professor  Agassiz,    Cambridge,   Massa- 
chusetts. 
M.  Babinet,  Paris. 
Dr.  A.  D.  Bache,  Washington. 
Prince  Charles  Bonaparte,  Paris. 
Mr.  P.  G.  Bond,  Cambridge,  U.S. 
M.  Boutigny  (d'Evreux). 
Professor  Braschmann,  Moscow. 
Chevalier  Bunsen,  Heidelberg. 
Dr.  Ferdinand  Conn,  Breslau. 
M.  De  la  Rive,  Geneva. 
Professor  Dove,  Berlin. 
Professor  Dumas,  Paris. 
Dr.  J.  Milne-Edwards,  Paris. 
Professor  Ehrenberg,  Berlin. 
Dr.  Eisenlohr,  Carlsruhe. 
Professor  Encke,  Berlin. 
Dr.  A.  Erman,  Berlin. 
Professor  Esmark,  Christiania. 
Professor  G.  Forchhammer,  Copenhagen. 
M.  Lexm  Foucault,  Paris. 
Prof.  E.  Fremy,  Paw. 
M.  Frisiani,  Milan. 
Professor  Asa  Gray,  Cambridge,  U.S. 
Professor  Henry,  Washington,  U.S. 
Baron  Alexander  von  Humboldt,  Berlin. 
M.  Jacobi,  St.  Petersburg. 
Prof.  A.  Kolliker,  Wurzburg. 
Prof.  De  Koninck,  I&ge. 
Professor  Kreil,  Vienna. 
Dr.  A.  Kupffer,  St.  Petersburg. 


"Dr.  Lamont,  Munich. 

Prof.  F.  Lanza,  Spoleto. 

M.  Le  Verrier,  Paris. 

Baron  von  Liebig,  Munich. 

Baron  de  Selys-Longchamps,  Ltige. 

Professor  Gustav  Magnus,  Berlin. 

Professor  Matteucci,  Pisa. 

Professor  von  Middendorff,  St. Petersburg. 

M.  l'Abbe'  Moigno,  Paris. 

M.  Morren,  Likge. 

Professor  Nilsson,  Sweden. 

Dr.  N.  Nordengsciold,  Finland. 

M.  E.  Peligot,  Paris. 

Chevalier  Plana,  Turin. 

Professor  Plucker,  Bonn. 

M.  Constant  Prevost,  Paris. 

M.  Quetelet,  Brussels. 

Prof.  Retzius,  Stockholm. 

Professor  C.  Ritter,  Berlin. 

Professor  H.  D.  Rogers,  Boston,  U.S. 

Professor  W.  B.  Rogers,  Boston,  U.S. 

Professor  H.  Rose,  Berlin. 

Baron  Senftenberg,  Bohemia. 

Dr.  Siljestrom,  Stockholm. 

M.  Strove,  Pulkowa. 

Dr.  Svanberg,  Stockholm. 

M.  Pierre  Tchihatchef. 

Dr.  Van  der  Hoeven,  Leyden. 

Baron  Sartorius  von  Waltershausen, 

Gottingen. 
Professor  Wartmann,  Geneva. 


Report  of  the  Council  of  the  British  Association  as  presented 
to  the  General  Committee  at  Cheltenham,  August  6th,  1856. 

a.  The  Council  have  the  satisfaction  of  reporting  the  continued  efficiency 
and  progress  toward  higher  usefulness  of  the  Observatory  at  Kew,  which, 
while  it  fulfils  the  original  object  of  its  foundation,  and  readily  takes  up 
original  research,  is  now  a  point  of  reference  for  Standard  Instruments  in 
meteorology,  and  auxiliary  to  the  national  service. 

b.  In  conducting  this  establishment,  the  Council  have  in  previous  years 
bad  the  great  benefit  of  the  cooperation  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  the  Re- 
port of  the  Committee  of  the  Observatory,  which  is  now  laid  on  the  table, 
will  show  that  this  highly  valued  cooperation  is  continued.  The  Members 
will  learn  from  the  Report  the  final  result  of  the  Correspondence  between 
the  Committee  of  the  Observatory  and  the  Authorities  of  the  Board  of 
Public  Works,  concerning  the  repairs  of  the  building  and  the  laying-on  of 
gas.  The  disadvantages  which  might  have  resulted  from  the  unexpected 
issue  of  this  correspondence  have  been  removed  by  the  prompt  liberality  of 
the  Council  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  have  advanced  the  necessary  funds 
for  immediately  supplying  the  Observatory  with  gas. 

c.  The  Council  suggest  to  the  General  Committee  to  tender  its  cordial 
thanks  to  the  Royal  Society  for  the  effective  assistance  thus  given  to  an  In- 
stitution in  which  both  the  Royal  Society  and  the  British  Association  recog- 
nize a  powerful  instrument  of  philosophical  research. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COUNCIL.  XXk 

A  The  Council  have  the  pleasure  to  forward  another  Keport  from  the 
vigilant  Committee  which  asserts  the  interests  of  Science  in  Parliament 
By  what  means  of  a  public  nature  the  Progress  of  Science  can  be  accelerated 
and  assured ; — the  Benefits  of  Science  applied  and  extended ; — the  Position 
of  ike  Cultivators  of  Science  amended; — these  questions  must  strongly  interest 
tiie  Association,  which,  at  the  outset,  declared  its  purpose  to  strive  for  the 
removal  of  all  impediments  of  a  public  nature  by  which  Science  is  retarded* 
Recommending  this  Report  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee  to  the  approba- 
tion of  the  General  Committee,  and  the  important  subjects  which  it  opens 
to  the  serious  deliberation  of  the  Members,  the  Council  beg  to  express  their 
readiness  to  be  instrumental  in  maturing  and  putting  into  action  any  mea- 
sure which  the  Association  may  deem  suitable,  and  in  obtaining  the  coope- 
ration of  other  scientific  bodies  to  bring  it  to  a  good  issue. 

e.  The  Council  may  congratulate  the  Association  on  the  progress  made 
toward  the  fulfilment  of  the  7th  Recommendation  in  the  Report  of  their 
Parliamentary  Committee  for  1854-5 — "  That  an  appropriate  building,  in 
some  central  situation  in  London,  should  be  provided,  at  the  expense  of  the 
nation,  in  which  the  principal  scientific  societies  maybe  located  together:"— 
Burlington  House  is  now  devoted  to  the  use  of  the  Royal,  Linnean,  and 
Chemical  Societies — a  result  due  in  a  great  degree  to  the  prudent  and  per- 
severing efforts  of  the  Royal  Society. 

f.  The  General  Committee  will  learn  with  satisfaction  that,  according  to 
the  Report  of  the  General  Treasurer,  the  Funds  belonging  to  the  Associa- 
tion, and  invested  in  the  names  of  the  Trustees,  amount  to  £5000.  The 
Council  suggest  that  it  is  desirable,  for  many  reasons,  to  maintain  a  reserve 
of  this  kind,  sufficient  to  meet  unexpected  contingencies,  which  may  arise  in 
consequence  of  efforts  for  the  advancement  of  science. 

g.  The  Council  have  added  to  the  List  of  Corresponding  Members  the 
following  Foreign  men  of  Science : — 

Dr.  F.  Cohn,  Breslau. 
Prof.  E.  Fremy,  Paris. 
Prof.  A.  Kolliker,  Wurzburg. 
Prof.  F.  Lanza,  Spoleto. 
M.  Morren,  Liege. 
M.  £.  Peligot,  Paris. 
Prof.  Retzius,  Stockholm. 

A.  The  Council  have  received  Letters  of  Invitation  to  the  Association  to 
hold  its  next  Meeting  in  Dublin ;  from 

The  Board  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin; 

The  Royal  Dublin  Society  ; 

The  Royal  Irish  Academy ; 

The  King  and  Queen's  College  of  Physicians  in  Ireland; 

The  Geological  Society  of  Dublin  ; 

The  Lord  Mayor  and  Municipal  Council  of  Dublin. 

^  t.  The  Council  has  this  day  received  Letters  of  Invitation  to  the  Associa- 
tion to  hold  its  next  Meeting  in  Manchester;  from 

The  Manchester  Geological  Society ; 
The  Statistical  Society  of  Manchester; 
The  Manchester  Athenaeum ; 
The  Town  Clerk  of  Manchester. 


m  a»poiiT~l856. 

k.  It  was  resolved— 

That  the  cordial  thanks  of  the  Council  be  tendered  to  the  Lord  Wrottealey 
and  the  Officers  and  Council  of  the  Royal  Society,  for  the  promptitude 
with  which  they  have  responded  to  the  request  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, in  granting  the  sum  of  £250  for  the  purpose  of  lighting  the  Kew 
Observatory  with  gas. 

Report  of  the  Kew  Committee,  presented  to  the  Council  of  the  British 
Association,  August  6,  1856. 

The  Committee  beg  to  submit  the  following  Report  of  their  proceedings 
since  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Glasgow : — 

The  instruments  and  apparatus  sent  by  the  Committee  to  the  Paris  Exhi- 
bition were  returned  to  the  Observatory  in  December  last.  The  total  expense 
incurred  by  the  Committee  in  connexion  with  the  Exhibition  amounted  to 
£202 :  7s.  1  Id.,  exceeding  by  £62 :  7s.  1  Id.  the  sum  of  £140  granted  by  the 
Board  of  Trade.     This  balance  has  since  been  repaid  by  the  Board. 

At  the  last  Meeting  of  the  Association,  your  Committee  presented  a  Special 
Report  relative  to  their  application  to  Her  Majesty's  Government  for  the  use 
of  two  acres  of  land  contiguous  to  the  Observatory,  and  the  lighting  of  the 
building  with  gas, — such  applications  having  been  made  in  consequence  of 
the  recommendation  of  the  General  Committee  at  the  Liverpool  Meeting, 
The  Association  is  still  compelled  to  pay  the  high  rent  of  ten  guineas  per 
acre  for  the  land.  The  Committee  fully  expected  that  this  year  they  should 
have  been  enabled  to  report  that  the  expense  of  lighting  the  Observatory 
with  gas  would  have  been  defrayed  by  the  Government  The  President  of 
the  Board  of  Works  at  first  intimated  to  the  Committee  that  the  subject 
would  receive  consideration,  and  subsequently  that  he  would  consider  the 
propriety  of  including  the  amount  in  the  estimates  for  the  present  year.  On 
further  application,  however,  this  has  been  refused*  A  copy  of  the  corre- 
spondence is  annexed  to  this  Report 

Your  Committee  have,  however,  the  gratification  of  reporting,  that  on  a 
representation  of  the  circumstances  being  submitted  by  the  Council  of  the 
Association  to  the  President  and  Council  of  the  Royal  Society,  the  sum  of 
£250  from  the  Wollaston  Fund  was  immediately  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  Committee,  in  order  that  no  further  delay  from  the  want  of  funds  should 
take  place  in  effecting  the  long-desired  object 

Much  as  the  Committee  may  regret  the  refusal  of  the  Board  of  World  to 
grant  their  request,  they  gladly  avail  themselves  of  this  opportunity  to  express 
to  Lord  Wrottesley  and  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Society  their  thanks  for 
the  prompt  manner  in  which  the  intimation  was  made  to  them  that  the  money 
had  been  voted.  It  affords  another  proof  how  ready  the  Royal  Society  has 
ever  been  to  forward  and  assist  scientific  investigations. 

Mr.  De  la  Rue  has  made  a  preliminary  examination  of  one  of  the  Huy- 
genian  object-glasses,  namely,  that  of  122  feet  focal  length,  and,  so  far  as 
he  has  hitherto  been  enabled  to  judge,  it  would  appear  that  this  object-glass 
defines  with  tolerable  precision ;  but  he  is  not  yet  able  to  say  whether  it 
will  be  desirable  to  go  to  the  expense  of  erecting  the  tower  for  celestial 
observations. 

A  paper  by  Mr.  Welsh,  descriptive  of  the  Kew  Standard  Barometer,  and 
of  the  apparatus  and  processes  employed  in  the  verification  of  barometers, 
has  been  communicated  to  the  Royal  Society  by  the  Chairman,  and  is  now 
being  printed  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society* 


REPORT  OW  THB  EBW  COMMITTEE*  XXrf 

Hie  following  statement  shows  the  number  of  meteorological  instruments 
which  have  been  verified  at  Kew  during  the  past  year  :•— 

Thermo-    Bsro.      Hydro- 
meters,   meters,     meters. 

For  the  Admiralty  and  Board  of  Trade ....     360        90        100 

For  the  Portuguese  Government    12 

For  Opticians  and  others     170        35 

Total 530      137        100 

On  February  5,  the  Committee  resolved,—"  That,  in  consideration  of  the 
number  of  Barometers  already  verified  at  Kew  having  been  sufficient  to 
defray  the  preliminary  expense  of  apparatus,  the  charge  for  verification  shall 
in  future  be  reduced  to  five  shillings  each  instrument." 

Arrangements  have  been  made  with  Messrs.  Adie,  Casella,  and  Negretti 
and  Zambra,  to  have  on  hand  a  constant  supply  of  verified  marine  meteoro- 
logical instruments,  and  the  Public  may  be  supplied  through  any  respectable 
Optician  in  London  or  the  country  at  the  following  prices : — 

For  a  Marine  Barometer £4    4    0 

For  a  Set  of  Six  Thermometers    2    2    0 

Since  the  last  Report,  the  Committee  have  disposed  of  60  standard  ther- 
mometers, graduated  at  the  Observatory.  Of  these,  14  have  been  made  for 
Mr.  Hopkins,  to  be  employed  in  his  experiments  on  the  effect  of  pressure 
upon  the  melting-points  of  solids.  The  charge  on  account  of  the  graduation 
and  distribution  of  these  thermometers  is  arranged  with  the  Government 
Grant  Committee  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  consequently  does  not  appear  in 
the  financial  accounts  of  the  Kew  Committee. 

A  self-recording  Anemometer,  for  measuring  the  velocity  of  the  wind  oa 
the  plan  of  Dr.  Robinson,  has  been  completed  at  the  Observatory  by  Mr. 
Beckley :  it  is  erected  upon  the  dome,  and  has  been  in  regular  operation  since 
the  1st  of  January.  Its  performance  is  most  satisfactory,  the  delicacy  of  its 
indications  being  so  great,  that  during  the  last  six  months  the  whole  period 
of  "calm,"  as  shown  by  the  registrations,  has  been  only  four  hours.  It  has 
not  yet  been  possible  to  erect  an  apparatus  for  registering  the  direction  of 
the  wind,  on  account  of  difficulties  arising  from  the  anticipated  use  of  the 
dome  for  the  solar  photographic  telescope.  The  direction  of  the  wind  has, 
however,  been  observed  five  times  daily  from  an  ordinary  vane. 

Mr.  Beckley  has  since  submitted  to  the  Committee  a  model  of  a  new 
arrangement  for  a  self-recording  Anemometer,  in  which  the  registration  of 
both  the  direction  and  velocity  of  the  wind  (and  also  the  fall  of  rain  if 
desired)  is  obtained  upon  a  single  sheet  of  paper.  This  arrangement  is  much 
more  compact  in  its  design  and  less  costly  in  construction  than  any  other 
with  which  the  Committee  are  acquainted.  Mr.  Beckley's  model  will  be 
exhibited,  and  a  description  of  it  communicated  to  this  Meeting. 

A  series  of  monthly  determinations  of  the  absolute  horizontal  force  and 
of  the  magnetic  dip  was  commenced  in  January,  with  instruments  provided 
by  General  Sabine  from  his  department  at  Woolwich.  Some  difficulties 
have  been  experienced  by  Mr.  Webb  in  the  observations  of  the  absolute 
horizontal  force,  owing  to  imperfections  in  the  usual  mode  of  suspension  of 
the  magnets  during  the  observations  of  vibration.  These  difficulties  he 
hopes  soon  to  overcome  by  employing  reversible  collimator  magnets,  and  by 
in  improved  mode  of  suspension. 


xxxii  REPORT— 1856. 

A  convenient  apparatus  has  been  constructed  at  the  Observatory  for  the 
determination  of  the  effect  of  temperature  on  magnets :  with  this  apparatus 
the  temperature  coefficients  of  the  magnets  employed  at  the  Toronto  Obser- 
vatory have  been  obtained.  The  scale  of  the  unifilar,  and  the  dimensions 
and  weights  of  the  inertia  rings  employed  at  the  same  Observatory,  have 
been  determined  with  reference  to  the  Kew  standards  of  length  and  weight. 

Two  dip  circles,  one  for  M.  Hans  teen  of  Christiania,  and  the  other  for 
Dr.  Pegado  of  the  Meteorological  Observatory  of  Lisbon,  have  been  ex- 
amined and  compared  with  the  Kew  instrument  before  being  sent  to  those 
gentlemen.  A  30-inch  transit  instrument,  lent  by  General  Sabine's  depart- 
ment, has  been  erected  in  the  south  window  of  the  old  transit  room.  A 
clock  by  Shelton,  the  property  of  the  Royal  Society,  is  used  with  it 

Owing  to  alterations  required  in  the  dome  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  the  use 
of  the  solar  photographic  telescope,  it  has  been  necessary  to  remove  the  large 
electrical  apparatus  of  Mr.  Ronalds.  An  apparatus  of  smaller  size,  but  on 
the  same  plan,  has  been  erected  on  the  side  of  the  dome,  by  which  atmo- 
spheric electrical  phenomena  can  be  determined  in  the  same  manner  as 
heretofore.  A  new  vane  has  also  been  constructed,  having  an  indicating  dial 
within  the  dome. 

Dr.  Halleur,  who  had  for  about  six  months  assisted  Mr.  Welsh  in  the 
Observatory,  having  been  appointed  to  a  professorship  in  the  New  College 
of  Engineering  at  Calcutta,  left  the  Observatory  in  September  last 

In  February,  the  Committee,  on  the  recommendation  of  Professor  J.  D. 
Forbes,  engaged  Mr.  Balfour  Stewart  of  the  Edinburgh  University,  as 
Assistant  Observer,  at  a  yearly  salary  of  £80,  with  residence  in  the  Obser- 
vatory. Mr.  Stewart  commenced  his  duties  on  March  1.  The  Committee 
regret  having  to  report  that  the  Observatory  will  shortly  lose  the  services 
of  this  gentleman,  who  has  recently  been  appointed  an  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor Forbes:  he  will  leave  the  Observatory  on  October  1,  previous  to 
which  the  Committee  hope  to  be  able  to  appoint  a  successor. 

The  Committee  refer  with  pleasure  to  an  ingenious  thermometer  devised 
by  Mr.  Stewart,  in  which  advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  difference  of  ca- 
pillary force  and  friction  in  two  tubes  of  different  capacity  connected  with  the 
same  bulb,  to  measure  the  sum  of  the  fluctuations  of  temperature.  The  in- 
strument has  been  made  at  the  expense  of  the  Committee ;  a  description  of  it 
has  been  communicated  by  Mr.  Stewart  to  the  Royal  Society,  and  is  printed 
in  its  "  Proceedings." 

Mr.  Welsh  reports  most  favourably  as  to  the  general  attention  evinced  by 
Mr.  Beckley  and  Mr.  Macgrath  in  the  discharge  of  their  respective  duties. 
Mr.  Beckley '8  talent  as  a  mechanical  engineer  renders  his  services  of  great 
value  in  an  establishment  where  instances  constantly  occur  of  work  requiring 
the  highest  skill  being  promptly  and  correctly  executed :  the  assiduity  of 
Mr.  Macgrath  has  been  such  as  to  merit  the  entire  approbation  of  Mr.  Welsh. 

Your  Committee  cannot  close  this  Report  without  again  recording  their 
high  opinion  of  the  unremitting  care  and  attention,  as  well  as  of  the  ability 
which  has  ever  been  displayed  by  Mr.  Welsh,  as  the  Superintendent  of  the 
Observatory ;  during  the  past  year  he  was  compelled  for  upwards  of  six  weeks 
to  be  in  Paris,  in  order  to  arrange  the  delivery  of  the  valuable  scientific  appa- 
ratus forwarded  at  the  request  of  Her  Majesty's  Government  by  the  Committee 
to  the  Paris  Exhibition ;  but  his  arrangements  were  such,  that  the  general 
business  of  the  Observatory  was  not  in  any  way  suspended  during  his  absence. 

Your  Committee  have  finally  to  report,  that  the  total  expenses  of  the  Ob- 
servatory during  the  past  year  amount  to  £557  :  1*.  9rf.  In  consequence  of 
the  Committee  having  received  during  the  year  the  sum  of  £221 :  7*«  8d*  for 


REPORT  OF  THE  KBW  COMMITTEE.  XXxii* 

the  verification  of  meteorological  instruments,  they  have  in  hand  a  balance 
■mounting  to  £260  :  4*.  6d. ;  they  do  not  consider  it  therefore  necessary 
to  apply  to  the  Association  for  a  larger  sum  than  £350,  to  enable  them  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  the  ensuing  year. 

By  order  of  the  Committee, 

John  P.  Gassiot,  Chairman* 

S3  Julj,  18*6. 

Correspondence. 

"Clapham  Common,  December  18th,  1855. 
"Sir, — In  the  interview  with  which  you  favoured  the  deputation  from  the 
British  Association  this  day,  you  kindly  explained  that  you  had  no  power  to 
order  the  Works  such  as  we  required  to  be  executed  for  the  Observatory  in 
the  Old  Deer  Park,  Richmond,  without  the  sanction  of  the  Lords  of  the 
Treasury,  and  you  suggested  the  advisability  of  my  briefly  explaining  to  you 
by  letter  the  position  in  which  the  Association  stands  as  regards  the  Building, 
as  also  of  defining  the  exact  object  of  our  application  previously  to  your 
submitting  the  same  to  their  Lordships. 

"  The  Building  was  placed  at  the  disposition  of  the  British  Association 
by  Her  Majesty  in  1842  for  scientific  purposes ;  it  has  ever  since  been  used 
for  those  objects,  the  entire  expense  of  the  Establishment  being  paid  by  the 
Association,  without  receiving  any  assistance,  pecuniary  or  otherwise,  from 
Government* 

"  The  Committee  has  obtained  permission  from  the  Hon.  Charles  Gore, 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests  and  Land  Revenues  Department, 
to  have  gas-pipes  laid  along  the  pathway  through  the  Park  to  the  Observatory 
without  any  cost  or  indemnification  being  required  by  his  department,  pro- 
vided the  work  is  done  in  the  winter  months ;  and  the  more  immediate  object 
of  the  application  of  Colonel  Sabine  and  myself  was  to  request  you  would 
order  at  the  present  time  the  gas-pipes  to  be  laid  on  to  the  Observatory  in 
order  that  the  Building  may  be  properly  lighted,  such  lighting  being  indis- 
pensable for  the  carrying  out  various  scientific  investigations,  and  thus 
enabling  the  Committee  to  fulfil  with  greater  efficacy  the  purposes  for  which 
the  Building  was  originally  granted  by  Her  Majesty  to  the  Association. 

"  I  may  add,  that  the  funds  of  the  British  Association  consist  of  the  con- 
tributions of  its  members ;  from  these  limited  means  the  Council  have  most 
liberally  expended  of  late  years  an  annual  sum  of  £500  for  the  Observatory, 
but  it  being  unable  to  meet  this  increased  expenditure,  which  would  not  ex- 
ceed £250  (the  estimate  is  £200),  the  Committee  has  been  induced  to  make 
this  application,  which  we  hope  will  not  be  refused. 

"In  respect  to  the  repairs  ajluded  to  by  us,  we  merely  desired  to  explain 
that  some  repairs  were  indispensable. to  preserve  the  Building,  which,  if 
promptly  attended  to,  would  probably  save  a  much  larger  outlay  at  a  future 
period. 

"  The  Building  could  perhaps  remain  in  its  present  state  for  a  short  period, 
bat  a  trifling  outlay,  the  extent  of  which  could  be  easily  ascertained  by  the 
Government  Surveyor,  would  be  all  that  at  present  is  required.    The  Com- 
mittee considered  it  their  duty  to  point  this  out  for  your  consideration. 
"  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

"  Your  obedient  Servant, 

(Signed)  "J.  P.  Gassiot, 

Chairman  of  the  Kew  Committee, 
British  Association.19 
"The Right  Hon.  Sir  Benjamin  Hall,  Bart.,  M.P., 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Works,  Public  Buildings,  fcc.  &c" 
1856.  c 


todrfv  bbport— 1850. 

«  Odlee  of  Works,  Ac,  Deo.  SO, 1M3.  " 
"  Sir,— I  am  directed  by  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Her  Majesty's  Work*, 
Ac,  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter,  dated  the  18th  inst.,  relative 
to  certain  works  considered  to  be  necessary  by  the  British  Association  at  the 
Observatory  at  Kew,  and  to  inform  you  that  the  subject  will  receive  consi- 
deration. "I  am,  Sir,    . 

"  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 
(Signed)  w  Alfred  Austin,  Secretary." 

"J.  GaMiot,  Raq." 

"  Office  of  Works,  &c,  Jan.  5,  1856. 

"  Sir,— With  reference  to  your  letter  dated  the  18th  December  last,  request* 
ing  on  behalf  of  the  Kew  Committee  of  the  British  Association  that  gas-pipes 
may  be  laid  on  to  the  Observatory  at  Kew,  and  that  certain  repairs  may  be 
also  done  to  that  Building  at  the  expense  of  this  Department,  I  am  directed 
by  the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Her  Majesty's  Works,  &o^  to  acquaint  you 
that  he  has  caused  an  estimate  to  be  made  of  the  cost  of  the  Works  required 
by  the  Society,  which  amounts  to  a  large  sum,  and  that  there  are  not  any 
funds  voted  by  Parliament  out  of  which  such  cost  can  be  defrayed. 

"  I  am  however  directed  to  add,  that  the  Chief  Commissioner  will  consider 
the  propriety  of  including  the  amount  in  the  estimates  of  the  ensuing  year. 

"  I  am,  Sir, 

"  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 
(Signed)  "  Alfred  Austin,  Secretary" 

"J.GMiiot,Esq." 

"Clapham  Common,  Hay  19th,  1850. 
"  Sir,— I  duly  received  the  communication  from  your  office,  of  5th  of  last 
January,  stating  that  you  had  caused  an  estimate  to  be  made  of  the  cost  of 
the  Works  required  at  the  Observatory  in  the  Old  Deer  Park,  Richmond, 
and  that  you  would  consider  the  propriety  of  including  the  amount  in  the 
annual  estimates. 

"  I  have  been  informed  that  the  usual  estimates  have  been  voted  by  the 
House  of  Commons : — may  I  therefore  beg  the  favour  of  your  acquainting 
me,  for  the  information  of  the  Kew  Committee  of  the  British  Association, 
whether  it  is  arranged  that  the  laving  on  of  the  gas  to  the  Building,  and 
effecting  the  necessary  repairs  should  now  be  commenced  ? 

"  Permit  me  also  to  explain  that  it  would  be  very  advisable,  in  order  to 
prevent  additional  outlay,  that  no  further  time  should  elapse  as  to  the  repairs 
of  the  Building.  "  I  have  the  honour  to  remain,  Sir, 

"  Your  obedient  Servant, 
(Signed)  "  J.  P.  Gassiot, 

Chairman  of  the  Kew  Committee? 
«  The  Right  Hod.  Sir  Benjamin  Hall,  Bart,  M.P., 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Parks,  Palaces,  &c.  &c." 

"  Office  of  Works,  &c,  May  27,  1850. 

"  Sir, — I  am  directed  by  the  First  Commissioner  of  Her  Majesty's  Works, 
&c,  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter,  dated  the  19th  inst.,  request- 
ing that  you  may  be  informed  whether  it  is  arranged  that  the  works  for 
laying  on  gas  at  the  Observatory  at  Kew,  and  for  the  necessary  repairs, 
should  now  be  commenced. 

"In  reply,  I  am  directed  to  call  your  attention  to  a  letter  addressed  to  you 
by  this  Board  on  the  2nd  of  June  last,  to  the  effect  that  there  would  be  no 
objection  to  the  use  of  gas  at  the  Observatory,  but  that  the  whole  of  the  work 


BKPOBT  OF  TM  KBW  COMMITTEE. 

connected  therewith  mutt  be  done  by,  and  at  the  expense  of,  the  Kew  Com- 
mittee of  the  British  Association,  and  to  the  satisfaction  of  this  Board's 
Officer  in  charge  of  the  district. 

"I  am  to  add,  that  this  communication  was  made  to  you  before  the  First 
Commissioner  came  to  this  Office,  and  that  he  was  not  made  aware  of  it 
when  he  gave  directions  for  the  letter  of  the  5th  January  last  to  be  written 
to  yon,  in  which  he  informed  you  that  he  would  consider  the  propriety  of 
including  the  cost  attending  the  laying  on  gas  and  performing  the  repairs 
therein  referred  to,  in  the  Estimates  of  the  ensuing  year.  His  attention 
having  now  been  directed  to  that  communication  of  the  2nd  June  last,  he 
is  of  opinion  that  the  decision  of  the  Board  thereby  conveyed  must  be  ad- 
hered to,  and  that  he  is  unable  consequently  to  undertake  the  laving  on  gas 
at  the  Observatory,  or  to  incur  any  portion  of  the  expense  attending  it. 

u  With  regard  to  the  repairs  referred  to  in  your  letter,  the  First  Com- 
missioner desires  me  to  state  that  he  will  shortly  communicate  with  you  upon 
the  subject.  "lam,  Sir, 

"  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 
"  Alfred  Austin,  Secretary." 

»J.Qwriot,Kiq." 

"  CUpham  Common,  June  3,  1856. 

"  My  Lord  Duke,— At  the  suggestion  of  Col.  Sabine,  I  forward  your 
Grace  a  copy  of  a  correspondence  I  have  recently  had  with  the  Board  of 
Works  relative  to  the  lighting  of  Kew  Observatory  with  gas. 

"  The  letter  alluded  to  of  2nd  June  1855,  and  a  copy  of  which  I  enclose, 
is  printed  in  the  Report  of  the  Kew  Committee.  I  may  also  state  that 
in  an  interview  with  Sir  B.  Hall,  on  18th  last  December,  both  Colonel  Sabine 
and  myself  explained  the  particulars  of  my  former  correspondence  with  the 
Board  of  Works ;  this  has  possibly  escaped  Sir  B.  Hall's  recollection,  for  we 
left  him  with  the  impression  that  he  would  grant  our  request;  and  this  was 
further  confirmed  by  a  letter  received  from  Mr.  Austin,  on  January  5th,  who 
in  reference  to  our  application  says,  *  the  Chief  Commissioner  will  consider 
the  propriety  of  including  the  amount  in  the  Estimates  of  the  ensuing  year.' 

u  I  cannot  therefore  but  feel  much  disappointed  at  the  result,  which,  if 
confirmed,  will  prevent  the  Committee  from  carrying  out  those  scientific 
researches  they  have  in  contemplation. 

«  Hoping  your  Grace  may  induce  Sir  B.  Hall  to  reconsider  the  applica- 
tion, "  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  My  Lord  Duke, 

"Your  obedient  Servant, 

"J.P.  Gassiot, 

*  Hit  Grace  the  Dnke  of  Argyll,  Chairman  of  the  Kew  Committee!  * 

President  of  the  British  Association." 

11  Clapham  Common,  July  17, 1856. 

"  Sir,— I  duly  received  your  reply  to  my  last  letter  of  19th  May,  and 
having  communicated  to  the  President  and  Council  of  the  British  Association 
jour  final  determination  not  to  incur  any  portion  of  the  expense  of  laying  on 
gas  to  the  Observatory,  I  have  now  the  pleasure  of  informing  you  that  the 
Royal  Society  has,  from  a  small  fund  bequeathed  for  scientific  purposes, 
most  liberally  placed  the  sum  of  £250  at  the  disposal  of  the  Kew  Committee, 
in  order  that  the  work  may  be  no  longer  delayed. 

u  I  have  respectfully  to  request  you  will  be  pleased  to  give  the  necessary 
directions  to  the  Officer  in  charge  of  the  district,  referred  to  in  Mr.  Austin  s 
letter  of  27th  May  (but  whose  name,  designation,  or  address  I  have  no 

c2 


XXXVi  BKPOBT— 1856. 

means  of  ascertaining),  in  order  that  the  Committee  may  be  Informed  by 
him  in  what  manner  the  work  must  be  done  to  his  satisfaction. 

"  From  what  took  place  at  the  interview  with  which  you  favoured  General 
Sabine,  Mr.  Welsh,  and  myself  on  18th  of  last  December,  as  well  as  from 
the  tenor  of  the  letter  addressed  to  me  by  Mr.  Austin  on  5th  last  January, 
the  Committee  fully  relied  on  the  necessary  amount  for  the  proposed  work 
being  included  in  the  Estimates ;  they  regret  that  any  circumstance  should 
have  arisen  to  prevent  your  carrying  your  intentions  into  effect,  for  although 
the  amount  may  appear  trifling,  in  comparison  to  many  sums  voted  on  such 
occasions,  it  is  nevertheless  a  large  item  in  the  income  of  any  scientific 
Society  supported  entirely  by  voluntary  subscriptions ;  and  considering  that 
the  British  Association  already  devotes  the  large  sum  of  £500  per  annum 
for  the  support  of  the  Observatory,  the  Committee  could  not  anticipate  thai 
the  cost  of  laying  on  gas  to  a  building  the  property  of  the  Crown,  would 
have  been  refused  by  your  Board. 

"  I  have  only  to  add,  that,  although  nearly  two  months  have  elapsed  since 
the  date  of  Mr.  Austin's  last  letter,  and  upwards  of  sixteen  months  since  the 
subject  was  first  communicated  to  your  Board,  I  have  not  received  any  com- 
munication relative  to  the  repairs,  some  of  which  are  absolutely  necessary 
for  the  preservation  of  the  building. 

"  Regretting  that  you  should  have  been  troubled  with  so  long  a  corre- 
spondence on  this  subject,  "  I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

"  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 

"J.P.Gassiot, 
Chairman  of  the  Kew  Committee, 
British  Association" 
11  The  Right  Hon.  Sir  fcenjamin  Hall,  Bart,  M.P., 

First  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  &c.  &c." 

"  Office  of  Works,  &c,  25th  July,  1856. 

"  Sir,— I  am  directed  by  the  First  Commissioner  of  Her  Majesty's  Works, 
&c,  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  your  letter  of  the  17th  instant,  stating  that 
the  British  Association  will,  out  of  a  grant  of  money  made  to  them  by  the 
Royal  Society,  lay  on  gas  to  the  Observatory  at  Kew,  and  requesting  that 
the  necessary  orders  may  be  given  to  the  proper  officer  of  this  department 
on  the  subject,  and  also  calling  attention  to  the  state  of  repair  of  the  Building ; 
and  I  am  to  inform  you,  in  regard  to  the  laying  on  of  the  gas,  that  the  Board 
request  that  the  Committee  of  the  Association  will,  as  soon  as  they  shall  be 
prepared  to  commence  the  works,  communicate  with  Mr.  Starie,  the  Officer 
of  this  Department,  who  has  the  charge  of  the  Kew  District,  and  who  is  in- 
structed to  attend  from  time  to  time  to  see  that  the  works  are  performed  to 
his  satisfaction. 

"  With  regard  to  the  repairs  I  am  directed  to  state  that,  upon  further  con- 
sideration, a  question  has  arisen  which  renders  it  necessary  for  the  First 
Commissioner  to  submit  that  subject  to  the  Treasury,  and  that  upon  recei- 
ving their  reply,  the  First  Commissioner  will  communicate  further  with  the 
Committee. 

« I  am,  Sir, 

"  Your  most  obedient  Servant, 

.    "Alfred  Austin,  Secretary." 

"J.P.GMsi©t,Eiq." 


BKPORT  OF  THE  KSW  COMMITTEE. 


XXXVll 


xxxviii  rbpobt — 1856. 


Report  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee  of  the  British  Association  to 
the  Meeting  at  Cheltenham  in  August  1856. 

The  Parliamentary  Committee  have  the  honour  to  report  as  follows  :— 

We  have  the  pleasure  of  announcing  that  one  very  important  subject  to 
which  our  labours  have  been  directed  has  been  materially  advanced  since 
the  date  of  our  last  Report;  we  allude  to  the  juxtaposition  of  the  Scientific 
Societies  of  London  in  a  convenient  and  central  locality. 

The  main  building  at  Burlington  House  has  been  placed  by  the  Govern- 
ment at  the  disposal  of  the  Royal  Society,  on  the  understanding  that  they 
accommodate  the  Linnean  and  Chemical  Societies  with  rooms  therein ;  and  the 
West  Wing  will  be  converted  into  a  capacious  Hall,  which  is  to  be  occu- 
pied by  the  Royal  Society  at  all  times  when  it  it  not  required  for  the 
examinations  and  public  meetings  of  the  University  of  London. 

We  trust  that  the  period  is  not  far  distant  in  which  permanent  accommo- 
dation will  be  afforded  to  all  the  principal  Scientific  Societies  in  buildings  to 
be  erected  near  the  same  site,  and  in  pursuance  of  some  general  plan. 

Your  Committee,  however,  anticipate  most  important  advantages  to  Science 
from  the  present  partial  adoption  by  the  Government  of  the  principle  of 
juxtaposition ;  and  our  Chairman  has  in  his  address  to  the  Royal  Society  on 
the  occasion  of  their  last  Anniversary,  alluded  to  the  benefits  likely  to  accrue 
from  this  salutary  measure. 

In  the  same  Address  also  will  be  found  a  Summary  of  our  labours  since 
our  complete  organization  in  1851,  a  perusal  of  which  will  show  to  what 
extent  the  proceedings  of  our  Committee  have  justified  the  anticipations  of 
those  who  promoted  its  formation. 

During  the  past  year  two  subjects  have  been  referred  to  us,  viz. :  — 

1st  The  question  of  the  expenses  incurred  by  Scientific  Institutions  not 
incorporated  in  appointing  new  trustees  of  their  property,  when  vacancies 
occur.  And,  2ndly.  We  were  requested  by  your  Council  in  January  last 
to  support  an  application  to  Parliament,  in  reference  to  lighting  Kew  Ob- 
servatory with  gas,  when  made  by  the  Chief  Commissioner,  of  Woods. 

The  first  subject  above  adverted  to  has  been  considered  by  us,  and  we 
shall  resume  its  discussion  when  an  opportunity  offers  for  remedying  the 
evil. 

With  respect  to  the  second,  we  must  refer  to  the  Report  of  the  Kew 
Committee  for  an  explanation  of  the  reasons  which  have  made  it  impossible 
for  us  to  render  that  species  of  assistance,  which  was  contemplated  at  the 
time  when  the  reference  was  made  to  us. 

The  most  important  subject  of  our  last  Report,  viz.  the  question  "  whether 
any  measures  could  be  adopted  by  the  Government  or  Parliament  that  would 
improve  the  position  of  Science  or  its  Cultivators  ?  "  has  since  its  discussion 
at  Glasgow  been  again  considered  by  us ;  and  during  the  last  Session  of 
Parliament  it  was  brought  before  the  House  of  Commons  by  Mr.  Hey  wood, 
as  an  individual  Member  of  the  House,  and  not  as  representing  your 
Committee. 

The  discussion  of  our  Report  by  the  Committee  of  Recommendations  at 
Glasgow  in  September  last,  the  result  of  the  debate  which  took  place  in 
the  House  of  Commons  on  the  occasion  last  referred  to,  and  subsequent 
communications  with  Members  of  the  Legislature,  have  combined  to 
convince  us — 

1st  That  men  of  science  have  as  yet  formed  no  definite  opinion 
on  the  important  question  raised  in  the  Report. 


BBOOMlf  KNDATIONS  Of  THB  GBIfVRAL  COMMITTEE.     XXXfa( 

And  Sudly.  That  until  such  a  result  be  attained,  it  if  improbable 

that  any  important  improvement  will  be  effected  in  the  position  of 

Science  or  its  Cultivators  either  through  the  agency  of  the  Government 

or  Parliament. 

It  is  desirable  therefore  that  some  measures  should  be  adopted,  which 

may  be  instrumental  in  inducing  scientific  men  generally  to  apply  their  minds 

to  the  consideration  of  these  questions,  and  to  agree  upon  some  definite 

proposals : — We  therefore   recommend   that  the  subject  should  be  again 

brought  before  the  Committee  of  Recommendations,    Meanwhile  the  General 

Committee  will  be  gratified  on  learning  that  the  importance  of  the  question 

has  been  recognized  by  the  Council  of  the  Royal  Society,  who  have  referred 

iti  consideration  to  the  Government  Grant  Committee.     That  Committee 

have  appointed  a  Sub-Committee,  consisting  of  the  President  and  Officers 

of  the  Royal  Society  and  seven  other  Members,  who  will  meet  on  the  7th 

of  October  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  subject  prior  to  the  reassembling 

of  the  Society  after  the  recess. 

Your  Committee  recommend  for  the  consideration  of  the  General  Com- 
mittee,  whether  it  would  be  expedient  to  relax  the  rule  by  which  vacancies 
in  oar  Committee  must  be  filled  up  exclusively  from  Members  of  the  British 
Association,  so  far  as  to  admit  Members  of  either  House  of  Parliament,  who 
have  advanced  the  interests  of  Science. 

Your  Committee  also  recommend  that  two  vacancies  in  our  body,  caused 
by  the  non-attendance  of  the  Earl  Cathcart  and  Sir  J.  V.  B.  Johnstone, 
Bart,  during  two  consecutive  years,  be  filled  by  the  election  of  the  Earl  of 
Burlington  and  Lord  Stanley,  Member  of  Parliament  for  King's  Lynn. 

25  July,  1856.  Wrottesley,  Chairman. 


Recommendations   adopted  by  the  General  Committee  at  the 
Cheltenham  Meeting  in  August  1856. 

[Who  Coaamitteei  are  appointed,  the  Member  ant  naaed  it  regarded  as  the  Secretary  of 
the  Committee,  except  there  be  a  specific  nominatioa.] 

Invoking  Grants  of  Money. 

That  the  sum  of  £350  be  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  Council  for  main- 
taining the  Establishment  and  providing  for  the  continuance  of  Special  Re- 
searches at  Kew. 

That  Mr.  F.  Osier  be  requested  to  continue  his  reduction  of  Anemome- 
trical  Observations ;  with  £20  at  his  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Mr.  R.  W.  Fox  be  requested  to  make  further  Experiments  on  the 
Temperature  of  deep  Mines  in  Cornwall ;  with  £10  at  his  disposal  for  the 
purpose. 

That  Professor  N.  S.  Maskelyne,  T.  F.  Hardwich,  and  Mr.  J.  D.  Lie- 
weflyn,  be  a  Committee,  with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  for  the  purpose 
of  drawing  np  a  Report  on  the  chemical  nature  of  the  image  formed  in  pho- 
tographic processes ;  with  £1(3  at  their  disposal. 

That  Professor  Anderson  be  requested  to  complete  his  Report  on  the  com- 
pounds of  Platinum  and  the  allied  metals  with  Ammonia;  with  £10  at  his 
disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Mr.  Mallet  be  requested  to  continue  his  Investigations  on  Earth- 
quake Waves ;  with  £50  at  bis  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Professor  Phillips  and  Professor  Ramsay  be  requested  to  construct  a 
Vertical  Column  of  British  Strata,  to  accompany  the  Map  which  has  been 
prepared  for  i&e  Geological  Section;  with£15  at  theirdisposal  for  the  purpose. 

Thai  Mr.  Patterson,  Professor  Dickie,  and  Mr.  Hyndman,  be  a  Committee^ 


Xl  EBPORT — 1856. 

with  power  to  add  to  their  number,  for  the  purpose  of  Dredging  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Belfast ;  with  £10  at  their  disposal. 

That  the  Rev.  C.  P.  Miles,  Professor  Balfour,  Dr.  Greville,  and  Mr.  C. 
Eyton,  be  a  Committee  to  report  on  the  Dredging  of  the  West  Coast  of  Scot* 
land ;  with  £25  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Dr.  Williams,  Professor  Bell,  and  Dr.  Lankester,  be  a  Committee 
for  the  purpose  of  completing  a  Report  on  the  British  Annelida,  with  £25  at 
their  disposal. 

That  Mr.  Archer  and  Dr.  Dickinson  be  requested  to  report  on  the  Vege- 
table Imports  of  Liverpool ;  with  £10  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Mr.  W.  Keddie  and  Mr.  Michael  Connal  be  requested  to  report  on 
the  Vegetable  Imports  of  Liverpool;  with  £10  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Professor  Henslow,  Processor  Phillips,  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Mr.  C.  C. 
Babington,  Professor  Balfour,  Professor  Owen,  Dr.  Hooker,  Mr.  J.  S.  Bower- 
bank,  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley,  Professor  Huxley,  and  Dr.  Lankester,  be  a  Com- 
mittee to  report  on  the  best  manner  of  selecting  and  arranging  a  series  of 
Typical  Objects  illustrative  of  the  three  Kingdoms  of  Nature,  for  Provincial 
Museums ;  with  £10  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Bart.,  and  Mr.  Ashworth,  be  requested  to  continue 
their  observations  on  the  Growth  of  Salmon ;  with  £10  at  their  disposal  for 
the  purpose. 

That  the  Rev.  P.  Carpenter,  Dr.  Gray,  and  Mr.  C.  C.  Babington,  be  a 
Committee  to  complete  the  Report  on  the  Mollusca  of  California;  with  £10 
at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Madame  Ida  Pfeitfer  be  requested  to  report  on  the  Natural  History 
of  Madagascar ;  with  £20  at  her  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  Mr.  G.  Rennie  be  requested  to  continue  his  experiments  on  the  pro- 
duction of  Heat  by  motion  in  fluids ;  with  £20  at  his  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

That  a  Committee,  consisting  of  Mr.  A.  Henderson,  Mr.  A.  Anderson, 
Captain  Sir  E.  Belcher,  Mr.  J.  R.  Napier,  Mr.  J.  Thomson,  C.E.,  Mr.  W. 
Ramsay,  C.E.,  Captain  J.  O.  Owen,  and  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Bart,  be  requested 
to  continue  the  investigation  as  to  the  statistics  and  condition  of  Life-Boats 
and  Fishing-Boats ;  as  to  the  principles  on  which  such  boats  should  be  con- 
structed ;  the  essential  conditions  of  their  successful  use;  and  the  manner  of 
establishing  them  round  the  coasts ;  with  £5  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose. 

Not  Involving  Grants  of  Money. 
Parliamentary  Committee. 

That  copies  of  the  two  last  Reports  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee  be 
transmitted  to  each  Member  of  the  General  Committee,  with  a  request  that 
opinions  may  be  expressed  as  to  the  important  subject  "whether  any 
measures  could  be  adopted  by  the  Government  or  Parliament  that  would 
improve  the  position  of  Science  and  its  Cultivators,"  and  that  such  opinion  be 
forwarded  for  the  consideration  of  the  Council  before  the  20th  of  September* 

That  the  Rule  by  which  vacancies  in  the  Parliamentary  Committee  must 
be  filled  up  exclusively  from  Members  of  the  British  Association,  be  so  far 
relaxed,  as  to  admit  Members  of  either  House  of  Parliament  who  have 
advanced  the  interests  of  Science. 

That  two  vacancies  in  the  Parliamentary  Committee,  caused  by  the  non- 
attendance  of  the  Earl  Cathcart  and  Sir  J.  V.  B.  Johnstone,  Bart,  during 
two  consecutive  years,  be  filled  by  the  election  of  the  Earl  of  Burlington, 
and  Lord  Stanley,  M.P.  for  King's  Lynn. 

Title  of  Section  F. 
That  the '  Section  of  Statistics '  shall  in  future  be  entitled  '  The  Section  of 
lomic  Science  and  Statistics.' 


RECOMMENDATIONS  O*  THE  GENKRAL  COMMITTEE.  xll 

Involving  Applications  to  Government  or  Public  Institution*. 

That  the  application  to  Government  for  an  Expedition  to  complete  our 
knowledge  of  the  Tides  be  renewed. 

That  the  application  which  was  made  to  the  Government  in  September 
185%  concerning  the  great  Southern  Telescope,  be  renewed. 

That  a  deputation,  consisting  of  Sir  It.  L  Murchison,  Sir  H.  Rawtinson, 
General  Sabine,  Professor  Owen,  Professor  Bell,  Dr.  Gray,  Mr.  Macgregor 
Laird,  Dr.  It.  Latham,  and  Dr.  N.  Shaw,  be  requested  to  wait  upon  Her 
Majesty's  Secretary  for  Foreign  Affairs,  to  urge  the  desirableness  of  sending 
out  an  annual  expedition  to  the  Niger,  at  the  period  of  the  rising  waters  of 
that  river  (which  has  been  proved  to  be  the  most  healthy  season),  as  proposed 
by  Dr.  Baikie,  supported  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  and  advocated 
by  persons  deeply  interested  in  establishing  a  regular  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  inhabitants  of  that  portion  of  Africa. 

That  a  Memorial  be  presented  to  the  Admiralty,  praying  for  the  publica- 
tion in  a  simple,  uniform  and  complete  shape,  tabular  and  descriptive,  of  the 
results  of  the  Trials  of  Her  Majesty's  Steam  Ships. 

That  the  Committee,  consisting  of  Mr.  Andrew  Henderson,  Mr.  John  Scott 
Russell,  Mr.  James  R.  Napier,  and  Mr.  Charles  Atherton,  appointed  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  the  Measurement  of  Ships  for  Tonnage,  be  requested 
to  continue  their  investigations ;  that  the  following  names  be  added  to  the 
Committee,  The  Right  Hon.  the  Earl  of  Hardwicke,  Mr.  Arthur  Anderson, 
Rev.  Dr.  Woolley,  Mr.  Wm.  Mann,  Mr.  George  Frederic  Young,  Captain 
J.  O.  Owen,  Professor  Woodcroft,  and  Mr.  James  Perry ;  and  that  they  be 
requested  to  inquire  into  the  defects  of  the  present  methods,  and  to  frame 
more  perfect  rules  for  the  measurement  and  registration  of  ships ;  and  also 
as  to  the  adoption  of  a  standard  unit  for  estimating  the  working  power  of 
engines,  instead  of  the  present  nominal  horse-power,  in  order  that  a  correct 
and  uniform  principle  of  estimating  the  actual  carrying  capacity  and  working 
power  of  steam-ships  may  be  adopted  in  their  future  registration. 

(N.B.  In  this  Recommendation  the  Committees  of  Section  F.  and  Section 
G.  concurred.) 

That  the  Earl  of  Harrowby,  Lord  Stanley,  Mr.  William  Fairbairn, 
Mr.  Thomas  Graham  (Master  of  the  Mint),  Mr.  James  Heywood,  Mr. 
Commissioner  Hill,  General  Sabine,  and  Mr.  Thomas  Webster,  be  a  Com- 
mittee for  the  purpose  of  taking  such  steps  as  may  be  necessary  to  render 
the  Patent  system  of  this  country,  and  the  funds  derived  from  inventors,  more 
efficient  and  available  for  (he  reward  of  meritorious  inventors,  and  the  ad- 
vancement of  practical  science* 

Applications  for  Reports  and  Researches* 

That  Mr.  Cayley  be  requested  to  complete  his  Report  on  the  Progress  of 
Theoretical  Dynamics. 

That  a  Committee,  consisting  of  General  Sabine,  Professor  Phillips,  Sir 
James  C.  Roes,  Mr.  Robert  W.  Fox,  and  Rev.  Dr.  Lloyd,  be  requested  to 
undertake  the  repetition  of  the  Magnetic  Survey  of  the  British  Islands. 

That  Dr.  Miller  be  requested  to  complete  his  Report  on  Electro-chemistry. 

That  Dr.  Price  be  requested  to  complete  his  Report  on  Commercial 
Varieties  of  Iron. 

That  Professor  Bnckman  and  Professor  Voelcker  be  requested  to  continue 
their  researches  into  the  Effects  of  External  Agents  in  the  Growth  of  Plants. 

That  Mr.  Rennie  be  requested  to  prosecute  his  experiments  on  the  Veto* 
city  of  the  Screw-propeller,  and  report  on  them  next  year. 


XlH  RBPOBT-^1856. 

That  Mr.  Win,  Fairbairo,  C.E.,  be  requested  to  continue  his  Report  on 
Boiler  Explosions. 

That  a  Committee,  consisting  of  Mr*  James  Thomson,  C.E.,  and  Mr.  Wil- 
liam Fairhairn,  C.E.,  F.R.S.,  be  requested  to  continue  their  investigations  on. 
the  Friction  of  Discs  in  water  and  on  Centrifugal  Pumps. 

That  Mr.  James  Thomson,  C.E.,  be  requested  to  report  further  on  the 
Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards. 

Communications  to  be  printed  entire  among  the  Reports* 

That  Dr.  Booth's  Memoir  on  the  Geometrical  origin  of  Logarithms  be 
printed  entire  in  the  Reports  of  the  Association. 

That  Mr.  Etheridge's  List  of  the  Fossils  from  the  Lias  Bone  Bed  be 
printed  entire  in  the  Report  of  the  Association's  Proceeding*. 

That  the  Communication  of  Dr.  Wright,  on  the  Echinodermata  of  the 
Oolite,  be  printed  entire  in  the  Reports  of  the  British  Association. 

That  Professor  Goodsir's  Paper  on  the  Morphological  Constitution  of  the 
Skeleton  of  the  Vertebrate  Head  be  printed  entire  in  the  Reports  of  the 
Association,  with  such  Illustrations  as  may  be  necessary. 


Synopsis  of  Grants  of  Money  appropriated  to  Scientific  Objects  by  the 
General  Committee  at  the  Cheltenham  Meeting  in  Aug.  1856,  with  the 
name  of  the  Member,  who  alone,  or  as  the  First  qf  a  Committee,  is 
entitled  to  draw  for  the  Money. 

Kew  Observatory.  £     c    tL 

At  the  disposal  of  the  Council  for  defraying  expenses    350    0    0 

Mathematics  and  Physics. 

Oslbr,  F. — Reduction  of  Anemometrical  Observations 20    0    0 

Fox,  R.  W. — Observations  on  Subterranean  Temperature. ...  1000 

Chemical  Science 

Maskelyne,  Prof. — Chemical  Nature  of  Photographic  Image  10    0    (X 
Anderson,  Prof.— Compounds  of  Platinum  and  other  metals 

with  Ammonia    10    0    0 

Geology. 

Mallet,  R«— Earthquake  Wave  Experiments 50    0    0 

Phillips,  Prof. — Section  of  British  Strata 15    0    0 

Zoology  and  Botany. 

Patterson,  R. — Dredging  near  Belfast 10    0    0 

Miles,  Rev.  C.  P.— Dredging  on  the  West  Coast  of  Scotland.  25    0    0 

Williams,  Dr. — British  Annelida 25    0    0 

Archer,  T.  C— -Natural  Products  imported  into  Liverpool  . .  10    0    0 

Keddie,  W. — Natural  Products  imported  into  Glasgow 10    0    0 

Henslow,  Prof.— Typical  Forms  for  Museums 10    0    0 

Jardine,  Sir  W.— Propagation  of  Salmon 10    0    0 

Carpenter,  Rev.  P.— M ollusca  of  California    10    0    a 

Pfeiffbr,  Madame  Ida.— Natural  History  of  Madagascar    . .  WOO 

Mechanics. 

Rennije,  G.— Production  of  Heat  in  Fluids    20    0    0 

Henderson,  Andrew* — Life-Boats 5    0    0 

Giants....  ^620    O    0 


GBNlstAL  0TATBMENT. 


xim 


General  Statement  of  Sums  which  have  been  paid  on  Account  qf  Grants  for 

Scientific  Purposes. 
£   t.  d. 


1834. 
Tide  Discussions 20    0    0 

1836. 

Tide  Discussions  61    0    0 

British  Fossil  Ichthyology    105    0    0 


£167    0    0 


1836. 

Tide  Discussions «...  168 

British  Fossil  Ichthyology    105 

Thennometric  Observations,  &c.    60 
Experiments  on  long-continued 

Heat  

Rain  Ganges..... 

Refraction  Experiments 

Lunar  Nutation 

Thermometers 


17  1 
9  13 
15  0 
60  0 
15     6 


£434     14     0 


1837. 

Tide  Discussions   284  1 

Chemical  Constants 24  18 

Lunar  Nutation 70  0 

Observations  on  Waves 100  12 

Tides  at  Bristol..... 150  0 

Meteorology  and    Subterranean  ^ 

Temperature 69  5 

Vitrification  Experiments 150  0 

Heart  Experiments  8  4 

Barometric  Observations  30  0 


Barometers 


11  18 


£918  14    6 


1838. 

Tide  Discussions   . 29 

British  Fossil  Fishes     100 

Meteorological  Observations  and 

Anemometer  (construction) ...  TOO 

Cast  Iron  (Strength  of)    60 

Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances 

(Preservation  of) 19 


1  10 


Railway  Constants 41  12  10 

Bristol  Tides 50  0  0 

Growth  of  Plants  75  0  0 

Mad  in  Rivera  3  6  6 

Education  Committee   50  0  0 

Heart  Experiments  5  3  0 

Land  and  Sea  Level 267  8  7 

Subterranean  Temperature  8  6  0 

Steam-vessels 100  0  0 

Meteorological  Committee    31  9  5 

Thermometers  16  4  0 


£956  12     2 


1839. 


Fossil  Ichthyology. 110  0  0 

Meteorological    Observations    at 

Plymouth 63  10  0 

Mechanism  of  Waves    144  2  0 

Bristol  rides... 35  18  6 


£  s. 
Meteorology  and    Subterranean 

Temperature 21  11 

Vitrification  Experiments 9  4 

Cast  Iron  Experiments 100  0 

Railway  Constants    28  7 

Land  and  Sea  Level 274  1 

Steam-vessels' Engines 100  0 

Stars  in  Histoire  Celeste  331  18 

Stars  in  Lacaille    11  0 

Stars  in  R.A.S.  Catalogue 6  16 

Animal  Secretions 10  10 

Steam-engines  in  Cornwall 50  0 

Atmospheric  Air   16  1 

Cast  and  Wrought  Iron 40  0 

Heat  on  Organic  Bodies   3  0 

Oases  on  Solar  Spectrum 22  0 

Hourly  Meteorological  Observa- 
tions, Inverness  and  Kingussie    49  7 

Fossil  Reptiles  118  2 

Mining  Statistics 50  0 


£1595  11     0 


1840. 


Bristol  Tides 100    0  0 

Subterranean  Temperature 13  13  6 

Heart  Experiments 18  19  0 

Lungs  Experiments 8  13  0 

Tide  Discussions   50    0  0 

Land  and  Sea  Level 6  11  1 

Stars  (Histoire  Celeste)    242  10  0 

Stars  (Lacaille) 4  15  0 

Stars  (Catalogue) 264    0  0 

Atmospheric  Air   15  15  0 

Water  on  Iron  10.   0  0 

Heat  on  Organic  Bodies   7     0  0 

Meteorological  Observations 52  17  6 

Foreign  Scientific  Memoir 112     16 

Working  Population 100     0  0 

School  Statistics 50     0  0 

Forms  of  Vessels  184    7  0 

Chemical  and  Electrical  Pheno- 
mena   40    0  0 

Meteorological  Observations    at 

Plymouth 80     0  0 

Magnetical  Observations  185  13  9 


£1546  16    4 


1841. 

Observations  on  Waves 30  0  0 

Meteorology  and    Subterranean 

Temperature *...  8  8  0 

Actinometers 10  0  0 

Earthquake  Shocks  17  7  0 

Acrid  Poisons 6  0  0 

Veins  and  Absorbents  3  0  0 

Mud  in  Rivers 5  0  0 

Marine  Zoology • 15  12  6 

Skeleton  Maps  20  0  0 

Mountain  Barometers 6  18  6 

Stars  (Histoire  Celeste) 185  0  0 


aiv 


REPORT — 1856. 


£    8.  d. 

Stars  (Lacaille) 79    5    0 

Stan  (Nomenclature  of)   17  19    6 

Stars  (Catalogue  of) * 40    0    0 

Water  on  Iron  50    0    0 

Meteorological    Observations   at 

Inverness   20    0    0 

Meteorological  Observations  (re- 
duction of )    25     0     0 

Fossil  Reptiles  50    0     0 

Foreign  Memoirs  62     0     0 

Railway  Sections  38     1     6 

Forms  of  Vessels   193  12    0 

Meteorological    Observations    at 

Plymouth  55     0     0 

Magnelical  Observations  61  18     8 

Fishes  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  100    0    0 

Tides  at  Leith   50    0    0 

Anemometer  at  Edinburgh  69     1  10 

Tabulating  Observations   9    6    3 

Races  of  Men 5    0     0 

Radiate  Animals 2    0    0 

£1235  10  11 

1842. 

Dynamometric  Instruments 113  11     2 

Anoplura  Britannia) 52  12     0 

Tides  at  Bristol 59     8 

Oases  on  Light 30  14 

Chronometers 26  17 

Marine  Zoology 1     5 

British  Fossil  Mammalia 100    0 

Statistics  of  Education  .'. 20    0 

Marine  Steam-vessels'  Engines...  28    0 

Stars  (Histoire  Celeste) 59    0 

Stars  (Brit.  Assoc.  Cat.  of )  110     0 

Railway  Sections   161  10 

British  Belemnltes 50    0 

Fossil  Reptiles    (publication    of 

Report) 210     0     0 

Forms  of  Vessels  180    0    0 

Galvanic  Experiments  on  Rocks  5     8     6 
Meteorological    Experiments    at 

Plymouth  68    0     0 

Constant  Indicator  and  Dynamo- 
metric  Instruments 90     0     0 

Force  of  Wind  10    0     0 

Light  on  Growth  of  Seeds    8    0    0 

Vital  Statistics  50    0     0 

Vegetative  Power  of  Seeds  8     1   11 

Questions  on  Human  Race  7    9    0 

£1449  17     8 


1843. 

Revision  of  the  Nomenclature  of 

Stars  2     0     0 

Reduction  of  Stars,  British  Asso- 
ciation Catalogue  25    0    0 

Anomalous  Tides,  Frith  of  Forth  120    0    0 

Hourly  Meteorological  Observa- 
tions at  Kingussie  and  Inverness    77  12    8 

Meteorological    Observations    at 

Plymouth 55     0     0 

Whewell's  Meteorological  Ane- 
mometer at  Plymouth  10    0    0 


£    s.  4. 

Meteorological  Observations,  Os- 
ier's Anemometer  at  Plymouth    20    0    0 

Reduction  of  Meteorological  Ob- 
servations       30    0     0 

Meteorological  Instruments  and 
Gratuities 39     6    0 

Construction  of  Anemometer  at 

Inverness  56  12     2 

Magnetic  Co-operation 10    8  10 

Meteorological  Recorder  for  Kew 

Observatory  50     0     0 

Action  of  Gases  on  Light 18  16     1 

Establishment  at  Kew  Observa- 
tory, Wages,  Repairs,  Furni- 
ture and  Sundries 133     4 

Experiments  by  Captive  Balloons    81     8 

Oxidation  of  the  Rails  of  Railways    20    0 

Publication  of  Report  on  Fossil 

Reptiles 40     0 

Coloured  Drawings  of  Railway 

Sections 147  18 

Registration  of  Earthquake 
Shocks   30     0 

Report  on  Zoological  Nomencla- 
ture         10     0    0 

Uncovering  Lower  Red  Sand* 
stone  near  Manchester 4     4    6 

Vegetative  Power  of  Seeds  5     3     8 

Marine  Testacea  (Habits  of )    ...     10    0    0 

Marine  Zoology 10    0    0 

Marine  Zoology 2  14  11 

Preparation  of  Report  on  British 

Fossil  Mammalia  100    0    0 

Physiological  Operations  of  Me- 
dicinal Agents  20    0    0 

Vital  Statistics 36     5    8 

Additional  Experiments  on  the 

Forms  of  Vessels  70    0    0 

Additional  Experiments  on  the 

Forms  of  Vessels  100    0    0 

Reduction  of  Experiments  on  the 

Forms  df  Vessels 100    0    0 

Morin's  Instrument  and  Constant 

Indicator    69  14  10 

Experiments  on  the  Strength  of 

Materials 60    0    0 

£1565  10    2 


1844. 

Meteorological  Observations  at 
Kingussie  and  Inverness  12    0    0 

Completing  Observations  at  Ply- 
mouth      35    0    0 

Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Co- 
operation       25     8    4 

Publication  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation Catalogue  of  Stars 85    0    0 

Observations  on  Tides  on    the 

East  coast  of  Scotland 100    0    0 

Revision  of  the  Nomenclature  of 
Stars  1842      2    9    6 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  in 
Kew  Observatory    ,.  117  17    3 

Instruments  for  Kew  Observatory    56    7    3 


GENERAL  STATEMENT. 


'*lY 


£    f .   d. 

r  Inaneaee  of  Light  on  Plants 10    0    0 

Subterraneous   Temperature    in 

Ireland  5     0    0 

Coloured   Drawings  of  Railway 

Sections 15  17    6 

Investigation  of  Fossil  Fishes  of 

the  Lower  Tertiary  Strata  ...  100  0  0 
Registering  the  Shocks  of  Earth. 

quakes   1842     23  U  10 

Structure  of  Fossil  Shells 20    0    0 

Radiata   and    Mollnsca    of  the 

£gean  and  Red  Seas .....  1842  100  0  0 
Geographical     Distributions     of 

Marine  Zoology 1842      0  10    0 

Marine  Zoology  of  Devon  and 

Cornwall     10     0     0 

Marine  Zoology  of  Corfu 10     0    0 

Experiments  on  the  Vitality  of 

Seeds 9    0    8 

Experiments  on  the  Vitality  of 

Seeds 1842      8    7     8 

Exotic  Anoplura   15     0    0 

Strength  of  Materials    100    0    0 

Completing  Experiments  on  the 

Forms  of  Ships 100     0    0 

Inquiries  into  Asphyxia    10    0    0 

Investigations    on    the  Internal 

Constitution  of  Metals  50    0    0 

Constant  Indicator  and  Morin's 

Instrument,  1842 10     3     6 

£981   12     8 

1845. 
Publication  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion Catalogue  of  Stars 351 

Meteorological    Observations    at 

Inverness 30 

Magnetic  and  Meteorological  Co* 

operation 16 

Meteorological     Instruments    at 

Edinburgh 18 

Reduction  of  Anemometrical  Ob- 
servations at  Plymouth 25 

Electrical  Experiments  at  Kew 

Observatory 43 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  in 

Kew  Observatory  149  15     0 

For  Kreil's  Barometrograph 25     0     0 

Gases  from  Iron  Furnaces 50     0     0 

The  Actinograph  15    0    0 

Microscopic  Structure  of  Shells...  20     0     0 

Exotic  Anoplura    1843  10     0 

Vitality  of  Seeds 1843  2     0 

Vitality  of  Seeds    1844  7     0 

Marine  Zoology  of  Cornwall 10    0 

Physiological  Action  of  Medicines  20     0 
fitstifftfrff  of  Sickness  and  Mor- 
tality in  York    20     0     0 

Earthquake  Shocks  1843  15  14    8 

£830     9    9 


14    6 
18  11 

16  8 
11     9 

0    0 

17  8 


1846. 
British  Association  Catalogue  of 
Start • 18*4  211  15    0 


£ 

Fossil  Fishes  of  the  London  Clay  100 
Computation    of    the    Gaussian 

Constants  for  1839 50 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory  146 

Strength  of  Materials 60 

Researches  in  Asphyxia 6 

Examination  of  Fossil  Shells 10 

Vitality  of  Seeds    1844  2 

Vitality  of  Seeds   1845  7 

Marine  Zoology  of  Corn  wall 10 

Marine  Zoology  of  Britain  10 

Exotic  Anoplura 1844  25 

Expenses  attending  Anemometers  1 1 

Anemometers' Repairs 2 

Atmospheric  Waves 3 

Captive  Balloons  1844  8 

Varieties  of  the  Human  Race 

1844  7 
Statistics  of  Sickness  and  Mor- 
tality in  York 12 

£685 


«• 

d. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

16 

7 

0 

0 

16 

S 

0 

0 

15 

10 

12 

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0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

7 

6 

3 

6 

8 

3 

19 

3 

6 

8 

0 

0 

16     0 


1847. 
Computation    of    the   Gaussian 

Constants  for  1839    50  0 

Habits  of  Marine  Animals    10  0 

Physiological  Action  of  Medicines  20  0 

Marine  Zoology  of  Cornwall    ...  10  0 

Atmospheric  Waves 6  9 

Vitality  of  Seeds   , 4  7 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory 107  8 

£208  5 


1848. 
Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory 171  15  11 

Atmospheric  Waves 3  10  9 

Vitality  of  Seeds    ..* 9  15  0 

Completion  of  Catalogues  of  Stars  70  0  0 

On  Colouring  Matters  5  0  0 

On  Growth  of  Plants 15  0  0 

£275  1  8 

1849. 

Electrical  Observations  at  Kew 

Observatory 50  0  0 

Maintaining    Establishment    at 

ditto   76  2  5 

Vitality  of  Seeds    5  8  1 

On  Growth  of  Plants 5  0  0 

Registration  of  Periodical  Phe- 
nomena   10  0  0 

Bill  on  account  of  Anemometrical 

Observations 13  9  0 

£159  19  6 


1850. 
Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory 255  18    0 

Transit  of  Earthquake  Waves  ...     50    0    0 


tlvi 


ftXPOBT— 1856. 


Periodical  Phenomena 

Meteorological    Instrument, 
Azores   .* • 


£   #.  d. 
..     15     0    0 

..     MOO 
£349   18     0 


1891. 
Maintainingthe  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory  (includes  part 

of  grant  in  1849)  309    9    2 

Theory  of  Heat 20     1     1 

Periodical  Phenomena  of  Animals 

and  Plants 5     0    0 

Vitality  of  Seeds 5     6     4 

Influence  of  Solar  Radiation 80     0     0 

Ethnological  Inquiries 12     0     0 

Researches  on  Annelida 10    0     0 


£391     9     7 


1852. 
Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew    Observatory    (including 

balance  of  grant  for  1850)    ...  233  17     8 
Experiments  on  the  Conduction 

of  Heat  5     2     9 

Influence  of  Solar  Radiations  ...    20    0    0 

Geological  Map  of  Ireland    15     0     0 

Researches  j>n  Xhe  British  Anne* 

lida 10    0     0 

Vitality  of  Seeds   10    6    2 

Strength  of  Boiler  Plates 10    0    0 


£304     6     7 


1858. 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory 165     0     0 

Experiments  on  the  Influence  of 

Solar  Radiation 15     0     0 

Researches  on  the  British  Anne- 
lida      10     0     0 

Dredging  on  the  East  Coast  of 

Scotland .' 10     0     0 

Ethnological  Queries    5    0     0 


^  £    9.  d. 

1854.     . 

Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 
Kew  Observatory  (including 
balance  of  former  grant)  330  15     4 

Investigations  on  Flax ............     11     0     O 

Effects  of  Temperature  on 
Wrought  Iron    10    0     O 

Registration  of  Periodical  Phe- 
nomena       10    0     O 

British  Annelida 10     0     O 

Vitality  of  Seeds   5     2     3 

Conduction  of  Heat  4    2     0 


£380  19     7 


1855. 
Maintaining  the  Establishment  at 

Kew  Observatory 425  0  0 

Earthquake  Movements   10  0  0 

Physical  Aspect  of  the  Moon 11  8  5 

Vitality  of  Seeds 10  7  11 

Map  of  the  World 15  0  0 

Ethnological  Queries 5  0  0 

Dredging  near  Belfast  ,.r  4  0  0 


£205     0     0 


£480  16  4 

1856. 
Maintaining. the  Establishment  at 
Kew  Observatory  :— 

1854 k  75    0    01    H,  fl  ft 

1855 £500     0     0/   8"  °  ° 

Strickland's  Ornithological  Syno- 
nyms   100  0  O 

Dredging  and  Dredging  Forms...       9  13  9 

Chemical  Action  of  Light 20  0  0 

Strength  of  Iron  Plates 10  0  0 

Registration  of  Periodical  Pheno- 
mena      10    0  0 

Propagation  of  Salmon ............     10  0  0 

£734  13  9 


Extracts  from  Resolutions  of  the  General  Committee. 

Committees  and  individuals,  to  whom  grants  of  money  for  scientific  pur- 
poses have  been  entrusted,  are  required  to  present  to  each  following  meeting 
of  the  Association  a  Report  of  the  progress  which  has  been  made;  with  a 
statement  of  the  sums  which  have  been  expended,  and  the  balance  which  re- 
mains disposable  on  each  grant 

Grants  of  pecuniary  aid  for  scientific  purposes  from  the  funds  of  the  Asso- 
ciation expire  at  the  ensuing  meeting,  unless  it  shall  appear  by  a  Report  that 
the  Recommendations  have  been  acted  on,  or  a  continuation  of  them  be 
ordered  by  the  General  Committee. 

In  each  Committee,  the  Member  first  named  is  the  person  entitled  to  call 
on  the  Treasurer,  John  Taylor,  Esq.,  6  Queen  Street  Piaoe,  Upper  Thames 
IStreet,  London,  for  such  portion  of  the  sum  granted  as  may  from  time  to 
time  be  required. 


GENERAL  MEETINGS.  xlvil 

In  giants  of  money  to  Committees,  the  Association  does  not  contemplate 
the  payment  of  personal  expenses  to  the  Members. 

In  all  cases  where  additional  grants  of  money  are  made  for  the  continua- 
tion of  Researches  at  the  cost  of  the  Association,  the  sum  named  shall  be 
deemed  to  include,  as  a  part  of  the  amount,  the  specified  balance  which  may 
remain  unpaid  on  the  former  grant  for  the  same  object. 


General  Meetings. 

On  Wednesday,  Aug.  6th,  at  8  p.m.,  in  the  College,  the  Duke  of  Argyll 
resigned  the  office  of  President  to  C.  O.  B.  Daubeny,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor 
of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Oxford,  who  took  the  Chair  at  the  General 
Meeting,  and  delivered  an  Address,  for  which  see  p.  xlviii* 

On  Thursday  Evening,  Aug.  7th,  a  Conversazione  and  Musical  Promenade 
took  place  at  the  Pittville  Spa. 

On  Friday,  Aug.  8th,  at  8£  p.m.,  in  the  College,  Col.  Sir  H.  Rawlinson, 
FJL&,  delivered  a  Discourse  on  Recent  Discoveries  in  Assyria  and  Baby- 
lonia, with  the  results  of  Cuneiform  Research  up  to  the  present  time. 

*    On  Saturday  Evening,  Aug.  9th,  a  Conversazione  was  held  in  the  College. 

On  Monday,  Aug.  11th,  at  8f  foc,  in  the  College,  W.  R.  Grove,  Esq., 
M.A~,  F.R.S.,  delivered  a  Discourse  on  the  Correlation  of  Physical  Forces. 

On  Tuesday,  Aug.  12th,  at  5\  p.m.,  the  Members  dined  together  in  the 
Music  Hall  of  the  Royal  Old  Well,  the  President,  Prof.  Daubeny,  in  the      ', 
Chair.  f 

On  Wednesday,  Aug.  ISth,  at  S  p.m.,  the  concluding  General  Meeting 
took  place  in  the  College,  when  the  Proceedings  of  the  General  Committee, 
and  the  Grants  of  Money  for  scientific  purposes,  were  explained  to  the 
Members. 

The  Meeting  was  then  adjourned  to  Dublin*. 

*  The  Meeting  is  appointed  to  take  place  on  Wednesday,  the  ttta  of  August,  1867. 


ADDRESS 


BT 


CHARLES  DAUBENY,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 

Paonsso*  op  Botany  in  thb  Univxuity  or  Oxford. 


Gentlemen  of  the  British  Association, 

Exactly  twenty  years  have  elapsed  since  the  time  when,  as  one  of  the  Local 
Secretaries  of  this  Institution,  at  the  Meeting  held  in  Bristol,  it  became  my 
province  to  lay  before  the  Members  present  a  Report  on  the  progress  of 
Physical  Science,  more  especially  with  reference  to  the  subjects  that  had 
been  treated  of  in  the  last  volume  of  our  Transactions. 

And  it  was  with  no  assumed  feeling  of  humility  that  I  expressed  on  that 
occasion  my  lively  sense  of  the  responsibility  of  the  task  imposed  upon  me, 
and  of  my  own  feeble  qualifications  for  its  execution. 

It  is,  however,  with  a  much  more  pervading  consciousness  of  my  defi- 
ciencies that  I  appear  at  the  present  time,  when,  addressing  you  as  the  Pre- 
sident of  this  great  Body,  I  see  before  me  similar  duties  committed  to  me  to 
discharge. 

On  the  former  occasion,  indeed,  I  was  at  least  encouraged  by  the  reflection, 
that  however  eminent  those  who  had  preceded  me  in  the  drawing  up  of  such 
reports  might  have  been, — and  doubtless  there  were  amongst  them  some  of 
our  most  valued  associates,— still,  as  the  task  had  up  to  that  time  been  con- 
fided to  the  Local  Secretaries^  it  was  one  to  which  persons  of  humbler  preten- 
sions might  aspire ;  nor  was  the  general  Body  likely  itself  to  be  compromised 
by  any  remarks  that  emanated  from  one  of  its  subordinate  Officers. 

But  I  now  stand  before  you  in  quite  a  different  capacity,  following  as  I  do 
In  the  wake  of  a  long  train  of  distinguished  individuals,  several  of  whom, 
indeed,  as  was  the  case  with  ray  own  immediate  predecessor,  added  to  the 
recommendation  of  extensive  scientific  and  literary  attainments,  the  prestige 
of  exalted  rank  and  eminent  social  position ;  whilst  of  the  remainder  many 
had  been  peculiarly  marked  out  for  such  a  post,  either  on  the  ground  of 
their  own  contributions  to  Science,  or  on  that  of  the  depth  and  range  of 
their  information  in  some  of  its  highest  departments. 

In  my  own  case,  on  the  contrary,  I  cannot  but  feel,  that  this  important 
office  has  been  imposed  upon  me,  chiefly  on  account  of  my  position  as  the 
Senior  amongst  the  Professors  of  Physical  Science  in  a  neighbouring  Uni- 


ADDRESS.  xllX 

versity,  which  doubtless  deserves  the  gratitude  of  this  Association,  for  the 
support  rendered  to  it,  when  such  fostering  care  was  most  needed,  in  the 
infancy  of  its  existence. 

And  if  other  reasons  for  the  selection  are  sought  for,  I  would  refer  it  also 
to  the  accident  of  my  birth,  and  to  the  partiality  of  my  friends  in  the  County 
where  we  are  now  assembled,  to  whom  I  flatter  myself  it  may  be  a  matter 
of  satisfaction,  to  see  thus  distinguished,  an  individual  whom  they  regard 
as  one  of  themselves,  and  one  too  who  owes  his  position  in  life,  and  his  capa- 
bility of  indulging  in  those  studies  which  here  engage  us,  mainly  to  the  good 
fortune  of  attaining,  in  the  University  alluded  to,  a  Gloucestershire  Fellow- 
ship. 

With  respect  indeed  to  any  personal  claims  I  have  to  prefer  for  occupying 
so  distinguished  a  post,  the  most  that  could  be  alleged  in  my  behalf  is  the 
having  from  the  commencement  of  this  Association  done  what  I  could  to  pro- 
mote its  success,  and  to  enlist  others  in  its  service ;  persuaded,  as  I  have  ever 
been,  that  it  could  not  fail  to  prove  a  most  efficient  instrument  for  the  further- 
ance of  scientific  objects,  not  only  through  the  direct  influence  of  its  Meetings 
in  promoting  a  friendly  intercourse  and  a  free  interchange  of  opinions  amongst 
those  devoted  to  kindred  pursuits,  but  also  indirectly,  by  engaging  the  Public 
io  various  useful  undertakings,  which  Science  indeed  might  have  suggested, 
but  which  the  Nation  alone  was  capable  of  carrying  into  effect. 

And  that  these  anticipations  have  been  borne  out  by  the  result,  would 
now  seem  to  be  generally  admitted  from  the  fact,  that  other  Societies,  since 
organized  in  this  country  with  a  view  to  similar  objects,  have  been  uniformly 
framed  after  its  model,  and  conducted  upon  principles  which  they  have 
borrowed  from  this  Institution. 

It  is  indeed  rather  remarkable,  that  the  first  idea  of  an  Association  of  such 
a  kind  should  have  suggested  itself  only  a  year  after  death  had  deprived  us  of 
our  three  most  distinguished  philosophers,-*— for  who  had  we  then  left  to  com- 
pare, with  Davy  for  the  brilliancy  and  importance  of  his  discoveries ;  with 
Young  for  the  singular  union  of  almost  universal  acquirements  with  ad- 
mirable powers  of  invention ;  and  with  Wollaston  for  an  acuteness  of  mental 
vision,  which  gave  him  the  same  advantage  in  the  pursuits  of  science,  which 
the  Naturalist  armed  with  a  microscope  has  over  the  unassisted  observer  ? 
Just  as  in  the  animal  oeconomy  the  vis  medicatrix  naturce  sometimes  makes 
an  extraordinary  effort  to  repair  the  damage  inflicted  by  injury  or  disease ; 
so  it  would  seem,  as  if  Science,  conscious  of  the  loss  she  had  sustained  in  the 
almost  simultaneous  extinction  of  her  three  brightest  luminaries,  endeavoured 
to  make  good  the  deficiency,  by  concentrating  into  one  focus  those  that  yet 
remained,  to  light  her  onwards  on  her  path. 

At  any  rate,  the  progress  which  the  Natural  Sciences  have  made  since 
that  period,  although  doubtless  attributable  to  several  concurrent  causes,  is 
a  fact  which  must  not  be  overlooked  in  estimating  the  services  rendered 
by  this  Association  to  the  cause  of  human  advancement ;  nor  can  I  in 
any  better  manner  point  out  its  value,  than  by  bringing  before  your  notice 
some  of  the  additions  to  our  knowledge  which  have  been  made  since  I  last 
addressed  you,  especially  considering,  that  not  a  few  of  the  discoveries  to 
which  I  shall  allude  were  either  first  announced,  or  have  been  made  the 
subjects  of  discussion,  at  our  several  Meetings. 

Beginning  then  with  Chemistry,  as  the  subject  with  which  I  am  most 
familiar,  let  me  remind  you,  that  at  a  period  not  much  more  remote  than 
the  one  alluded  to,  all  of  it  that  could  be  quoted  as  really  worthy  the  name 
of  a  Science  was  comprehended  within  the  limits  of  the  mineral  kingdom. 

1856.  d 


I  REPORT— X856. 

Here  at  least  the  outline  bad  been  traced  out  with  sufficient  precision— 
the  general  laws  established  on  a  firm  basis — the  nomenclature  framed  with 
logical  exactness — the  facts  consistent  with  each  other,  and  presented  in  a 
scientific  and  luminous  form.  Thus  a  philosopher,  like  Sir  Humphry  Davy, 
who  had  contributed  in  so  eminent  a  degree  to  bring  the  science  into  this 
satisfactory  condition,  might,  at  the  close  of  his  career,  have  despaired  of 
adding  anything  worthy  of  his  name  to  the  domain  of  chemistry,  and  have 
sighed  for  other  worlds  to  subdue. 

But  there  was  a  World  almost  as  little  known  to  the  chemists  of  that 
period  as  was  the  Western  Hemisphere  to  the  Macedonian  Conqueror, — 
one  comprising  an  infinite  variety  of  important  products,  called  into  exist- 
ence by  the  mysterious  operation  of  the  vital  principle,  and  therefore  placed, 
as  was  imagined,  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  experimental  research. 

This  is  the  new  World  of  Chemistry,  which  the  continental  philosophers  in 
the  first  instance,  and  subsequently  those  of  our  own  country,  have  during  the 
last  twenty  years  been  busy  in  exploring,  and  by  so  doing  have  not  only 
bridged  over  the  gulf  which  had  before  separated  by  an  impassable  barrier 
the  kingdoms  of  inorganic  and  of  organic  nature,  but  also  have  added  pro- 
vinces as  extensive  and  as  fertile  as  those  we  were  in  possession  of  before,  to 
the  patrimony  of  Science. 

It  is  indeed  singular,  that  whilst  the  supposed  elements  of  mineral  bodies 
are  very  numerous,  the  combinations  between  them  should  be  comparatively 
few ;  whereas  amongst  those  of  vegetable  and  animal  origin,  where  the  ulti- 
mate elements  are  so  limited  in  point  of  number,  the  combinations  which 
they  form  appear  almost  infinite.  Carbon  and  hydrogen,  for  instance,  con- 
stitute, as  it  were,  the  keystone  of  every  organic  fabric ;  whilst  oxygen,  nitro- 
gen, and  less  frequently  sulphur  and  phosphorus,  serve  almost  alone  to  build 
up  their  superstructure. 

And  yet  what  an  infinity  of  products  is  brought  about  by  ringing  the 
changes  upon  this  scanty  alphabet  I  Even  one  series  of  bodies  alone,  that 
known  by  the  name  of  the  fatty  Acids,  comprises  several  hundred  well- 
ascertained  combinations,  founded  however  upon  a  single  class  of  hydro- 
carbons or  compound  radicals,  in  which  the  carbon  and  hydrogen  stand  to 
each  other  in  equal  atomic  proportions,  and  are  in  each  case  acidified  by 
the  same  number  of  equivalents  of  oxygen. 

These  acids  are  all  monobasic,  or  combine  with  only  one  proportion  of 
base ;  but  add  to  any  one  of  them  two  equivalents  of  carbonic  acid,  and 
you  obtain  a  member  of  a  second  series,  which  is  bibasic,  or  is  capable  of 
forming  two  classes  of  salt?. 

The  above  therefore  constitute  a  double  series,  as  it  were,  of  organic  acids, 
the  members  of  which  are  mutually  related  in  the  manner  pointed  out,  and 
differ  from  each  other  in  their  mode  of  combining  according  to  the  relation 
between  their  respective  elements.  But  already,  by  the  labours  of  Hofmann 
and  of  other  chemists,  two  other  double  series  of  acids,  the  one  monobasic 
the  other  bibasic,  mutually  related  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  those  above, 
have  been  brought  to  light ;  each  series  uo  doubt  characterized  by  an  equally 
numerous  appendage  of  alcohols,  of  aethers,  and  of  aldehydes,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  secondary  compounds  resulting  from  the  union  of  each  of  these  bodies 
with  others. 

Hence  the  more  insight  we  obtain  into  the  chemistry  of  organic  substances, 
the  more  we  become  bewildered  with  their  complexity,  and  in  investigating 
these  phenomena,  find  ourselves  in  the  condition  of  the  explorer  of  a  new 
continent,  who,  although  he  might  see  the  same  sun  over  his  head,  the 
same  ocean  rolling  at  his  feet,  the  same  geological  structure  in  the  rocks 


that  Wife  pita}  arocind  feim,  and  was  thus  assured  thai  ' 

denizen  of  hjs  own  planet,  aod  subject  to  those  physical^ 

kid  been  before  amenable,  yet  at  every  step  he  took  was  meTby  sume 

novel  object,  and  startled  with  some  strange  and  portentous  production  of 

Nanus's  feeundity. 

Even  so  the  chemist  of  the  present  day,  whilst  he  recognizes  in  the  world 
of  organic  lib  the  same  general  laws  which  prevail  throughout  the  mineral 
kingdom,  is  nevertheless  astonished  and  perplexed  by  the  multiplicity  of  new 
bodies  thai  present  themselves,  the  wondrous  changes  in  them  resulting  from 
slight  differences  in  molecular  arrangement,  and  the  simple  nature  of  the 
machinery  by  which  such  complicated  effects  are  brought  about. 

And  as  the  New  World  might  never  have  been  discovered,  or,  at  all  events, 
would  not  have  been  brought  under,  our  subjection,  without  those  improve- 
aients  in  naval  architecture  which  had  taken  place  prior  to  the  age  of 
Columbus,  so  the  secrets  of  organic  chemistry  would  have  long  remained 
aneiicited,  but  for  the  facilities  in  the  methods  of  analysis  .which  were 
introduced  by  Liebig, 

Before  his  time  the  determination  of  the  component  elements  of  an  organic 
sabstaooe  was  a  task  of  so  much  skill  as  well  as  labour,  that  only  the  most 
aoaomplisbed  analysts — such  men,  for  instance,  as  my  lamented  friend  Dr. 
Prou*  in  this  country,  or  as  the  great  Rerzelius  in  Sweden — could  be  de- 
pended upon  for  such  a  work ;  and  hence  the  data  upon  which  we  could  rely 
for  deducing  any  general  conclusions  went  on  accumulating  with  extreme 
slowness. 

But  the  new  methods  of  analysis  invented  by  Liebig  have  so  simplified 
and  so  facilitated  the  processes,  that  a  student,  after  a  few  months'  practical 
instruction  in  a  laboratory,  can,  in  many  instances,  arrive  at  results  sufficiently 
precise  to  be  made  the  basis  of  calculation,  and  thus  to  enable  the  master 
mind,  which  is  capable  of  availing  itself  of  the  facts  before  it,  to  breathe  life 
into  these  dry  numerical  details,— just  as  the  scnlptor,  by  a  few  finishing 
strokes,  brings  out  the  expression  of  the  statue,  which  has  been  prepared  for 
him  by  the  laborious  chiseling  of  a  number  of  subordinate  workmen. 

And  as  the  established  laws  and  institutions  of  the  Old  World  have  been 
njodifieoWinay  I  not  say  in  some  instances  rectified  ? — by  the  insensible  influ- 
ence of  those  of  the  New,  so  have  the  principles  that  had  been  deduced  from 
the  phssnomena  of  the  mineral  kingdom  undergone  in  many  instances  a  cor- 
rection from  the  new  discoveries  made  in  the  chemistry  of  the  animal  and 
vegetable  creation. 

It  was  a  great  step  indeed  in  the  progress  of  the  Science,  when  Lavoisier 
set  the  example  of  an  appeal  to  the  balance  in  all  our  experimental  re- 
searches, and  the  Atomic  Theory  of  Dalton  may  be  regarded  as  the  necessary, 
although  somewhat  tardy,  result  of  the  greater  numerical  precision  thus  in* 
troduoed. 

But  no  leas  important  was  the  advance  achieved,  when  structure  and 
polarity  were  recognized  as  influencing  the  condition  of  matter,  and  when 
the  nature  of  a  body  was  felt  to  be  determined,  not  only  by  the  proportions  of 
its  component  elements,  but  also  by  their  mutual  arrangement  and  colloca- 
tion— a  principle,  whicht  first  illustrated  amongst  the  products  of  organic 
life,  has  since  been  found  to  extend  alike  to  all  chemical  substances  what- 
•sever. 

Formerly  it  had  been  the  rule  to  set  down  the  bodies  which  form  the  con- 
stituents of  the  substance*  we  analysed,  and  which  had  never  yet  under  our 
tends  undergone  decomposition,  as  elementary;  but  the  discovery  of 
°J»ng*n.  in  tfr?  fr*t  insiance,  and  the  recognition  of  several  other  com* 

d2 


lii  REPORT— 1856. 

pound  radicals  in  organic  chemistry  more  lately,  naturally  suggest  the  idea, 
that  many  of  the  so-called  elements  of  inorganic  matter  may  likewise  be 
compounds,  differing  from  the  organic  radicals  above  mentioned  merely  in 
their  constituents  being  bound  together  by  a  closer  affinity. 

And  this  conjecture  is  confirmed  by  the  curious  numerical  relations  sub- 
sisting between  the  atomic  weights  of  several  of  these  supposed  elements ; 
as,  for  example,  between  chlorine,  bromine  and  iodine ;  an  extension  of  the 
grand  generalization  of  Dalton,  which,  although  it  was  unforeseen  by  the 
Founder  of  the  system,  and  therefore,  like  Gay-Lussac's  theory  of  volumes, 
might  very  possibly  have  been  repudiated  by  him,  had  it  been  proposed  for 
his  acceptance,  will  be  regarded  by  others  as  establishing,  in  a  manner  more 
conclusive  than  before,  the  soundness  of  his  antecedent  deductions. 

What,  indeed,  can  be  a  greater  triumph  for  the  theorist,  than  to  find  that 
a  law  of  nature  which  he  has  had  the  glory  of  establishing  by  a  long  and 
painful  process  of  induction,  not  only  accommodates  itself  to  all  the  new 
facts  which  the  progress  of  discovery  has  since  brought  to  light,  but  is  itself 
the  consequence  of  a  still  more  general  and  comprehensive  principle,  which 
philosophers,  even  at  this  distance  of  time,  are  still  engaged  in  unfolding? 

It  is  also  curious  to  reflect,  that  whilst  the  bold  speculations  of  Democritus 
have  been  realized  by  the  Manchester  philosopher,  the  reveries  of  the 
alchemists  derive  something  like  solid  support  from  the  minute  investigations 
of  his  successors. 

We  may  remark  indeed  as  not  a  little  remarkable,  how  frequently  the 
discoveries  of  modern  days  have  served  to  redeem  the  fancies  of  medieval 
times  from  the  charge  of  absurdity. 

If  the  direction  of  a  bit  of  steel  suspended  near  the  earth  can,  as  General 
Sabine  has  proved,  be  influenced  by  the  position  of  a  body  like  the  moon, 
situated  at  a  distance  from  it  of  more  than  200,000  miles,  who  shall  say  that 
there  was  anything  preposterously  extravagant  in  the  conception,  however 
little  support  it  may  derive  from  experience,  that  the  stars  might  exert  an 
influence  over  the  destinies  of  man  ?  and  when  we  observe  a  series  of  bodies, 
exhibiting,  as  it  would  seem,  a  gradation  of  properties,  and,  although  as  yet 
undecompounded,  possessing  a  common  numerical  relation  one  to  the  other, 
who  will  deny  the  probability,  that  they  are  composed  of  the  same  consti- 
tuents, however  little  approach  we  may  have  as  yet  made  towards  the  art  of 
resolving  them  into  their  elements,  or  of  forming  them  anew  ? 

Organic  chemistry  has  also  considerably  modified  our  views  with  respect 
to  chemical  affinity.  > 

-  According  to  one  view,  indeed,  which  has  been  supported  of  late  with  con- 
siderable talent  and  ingenuity,  the  law  of  elective  attraction,  to  which  we 
have  been  in  the  habit  of  referring  all  the  changes  that  are  brought  about 
by  chemical  means,  is  a  mere  figment  of  the  imagination ;  and  decomposition 
may  be  accounted  for,  without  the  interference  of  any  such  force,  by  re- 
garding it  simply  as  the  result  of  that  constant  interchange  which  is  supposed 
to  be  going  on  between  the  particles  of  matter, — the  atoms  even  of  a  solid 
body  being,  according  to  this  hypothesis,  in  a  state  of  incessant  motion. 

But  passing  over  these  and  other  speculations  which  have  not  as  yet  re- 
ceived the  general  assent  of  chemists,  let  me  advert  to  others  of  an  older  date, 
possessing,  as  I  conceive,  the  strongest  internal  evidence  in  their  favour,  which 
the  case  admits,  from  the  harmony  they  tend  to  introduce  into  the  chaos  of 
facts  which  the  late  discoveries  in  organic  chemistry  have  brought  to  light 

Amongst  these,  one  of  the  most  generally  received,  and  at  the  same  time 
one  of  the  most  universal  application,  is  that  which  represents  the  several 
combinations  resulting  from  organic  forces,  as  being  put  together  according 


ADDRESS.  liil 

to  a  particular  model  or  type,  which  impresses  upon  the  aggregate  formed 
certain  common  properties,  and  also  causes  it  to  undergo  change  most 
readily,  through  the  substitution  of  some  other  element  in  the  place  of  one  of 
those  which  already  entere  into  its  constitution. 

And  this  principle,  having  been  established  with  regard  to  one  class  of 
bodies,  has  since  been  extended  to  the  rest;  for  it  now  begins  to  be  main- 
tained, that  in  every  case  of  chemical  decomposition  a  new  element  is  intro- 
duced in  the  place  of  one  of  those  which  constituted  a  part  of  the  original 
compound,  so  that  the  addition  of  a  fresh  ingredient  is  necessarily  accom- 
panied by  the  elimination  of  an  old  one. 

The  same  doctrine,  too,  has  even  been  extended  to  the  case  of  combination 
with  a  body  regarded  as  elementary,  for  here  also  the  particles  are  considered 
is  being  in  a  state  of  binary  combination  one  with  the  other,  owing  perhaps 
to  their  existing  in  opposite  electrical  conditions,  and  therefore  possessing  for 
each  other  a  certain  degree  of  chemical  affinity. 

Thai,  when  we  unite  hydrogen  with  oxygen,  we  substitute  an  atom  of  the 
latter  for  one  of  the  former,  previously  combined  with  the  same  element 
The  type  therefore  remains,  although  the  constituents  are  different 

When,  in  the  formation  of  alcohol,  we  combine  the  oxide  of  the  compound 
radical  sethyle  with  water,  there  is  still  only  a  substitution  of  the  former  for 
one  of  the  atoms  of  water  previously  united  together,  two  and  two ;  and 
when  we  form  aether,  we  eliminate  the  second  atom  of  water,  and  replace  it 
by  another  atom  of  the  same  compound  radical.  Thus  the  type  of  water 
still  remains,  although  none  of  the  materials  of  the  original  fabric  continue ; 
or,  if  I  may  adopt  the  metaphor  of  a  building,  although  the  original  bricks 
which  composed  the  structure  may  have  been  all  replaced  by  other  materials, 
the  latter,  however  differing  in  their  nature,  always  correspond,  in  point  of 
shape,  dimensions,  and  number,  with  the  parts  of  the  edifice  which  have  been 
removed  to  make  way  for  them. 

It  is  on  this  principle  that  Professor  Williamson  has  propounded  a  new 
theory  of  setherincation,  regarding  the  process  as  resulting  from  the  alternate 
replacement  of  hydrogen  by  aethyle,  and  of  sethyle  by  hydrogen,  in  the 
sulphuric  acid  concerned, — a  view,  which  best  harmonises  with  the  composi- 
tion of  the  new  aether  he  hit  upon  in  the  course  of  his  investigations. 

The  same  principle  may  even  be  extended  to  bodies  of  the  same  type  as 
ammonia ;  for  inasmuch  as  this  body  is  made  up  of  a  union  of  an  atom  of 
nitrogen  with  three  of  hydrogen,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  a  variety  of 
different  compounds  might  be  formed  by  the  substitution  of  one,  two,  or  three 
atoms  of  other  radicals  for  the  same  number  of  atoms  of  the  original 
hydrogen.  How  beautifully  this  idea  has  been  carried  out  in  the  recent 
researches  of  Hofmann,  and  how  happily  it  serves  to  elucidate  the  formation 
of  the  various  vegetable  alkaloids,  which,  from  their  energetic  action  upon 
the  animal  ceconomy,  have  of  late  excited  so  much  interest  in  the  public 
mind,  is  sufficiently  known  to  those  who  are  chemists,  and  could  not  be 
rendered  intelligible  to  those  who  are  not,  without  entering  into  details  which 
would  be  out  of  place  on  the  present  occasion. 

I  must  not,  however,  pass  over  this  part  of  the  subject  without  remarking, 
that  the  adoption  of  Professor  Williamson's  othyle  theory  would  establish  a 
■till  nearer  analogy  between  the  constitution  of  organic  and  of  mineral  com- 
pounds than  is  at  present  recognized,  since  in  that  case  alcohol  and  aether 
would  stand  in  the  same  relation  one  to  the  other,  and  belong  to  the  same 
class  or  series,  as  the  acids  and  their  salts. 

These  views,  however,  and  others  having  reference  to  the  same  subject, 
are  now  under  discussion,  and  I  hope  in  progress  of  being  worked  out  by 


ilV  RBt»OfrT— 1856. 

the  able  chemist  above  alluded  to,  whose  promised  Report  on  this  subject, 
had  it  been  ready  for  this  Meeting,  would  have  superceded  the  necessity  of 
the  above  Remarks.  They  have  also  engaged  the  attention  of  toy  distin- 
guished successor  in  the  chair  of  Chemistry  at  Oxford,  who  has  published 
some  elaborate  researches  bearing  upon  the  questions  here  mooted,  whilst  on 
the  Continent  they  have  been  taken  up  by  several  of  the  most  eminent 
chemists  of  the  day,  such  as  Gerhardt,  Wurtz,  and  Cahours. 

Should  they  ultimately  win  their  way  to  general  reception,  they  must  tend 
to  bring  about  an  entire  remodeling  of  our  views,  both  with  respect  to 
organic  and  inorganic  compounds,  and  render  that  reform  in  our  nomen- 
clature which  I  pressed  upon  the  attention  of  the  Chemical  Section  at  our 
meeting  in  Ipswich,  more  than  ever  a  matter  of  urgent  necessity. 

Many,  however,  perhaps  of  my  present  audience  may  not  have  advanced  be- 
yond that  initial  stage  of  all  speculation,  which  contemplates  external  objects 
solely  as  they  affeot  themselves,  and  not  abstractedly  in  their  relations  to 
each  other;  and  to  such  it  may  be  more  interesting  to  consider  those 
practical  results  bearing  upon  the  arts  of  life,  which  have  either  been  actually 
deduced,  or  may  be  anticipated  as  likely  to  accrue,  from  the  discoveries  in 
question* 

Of  these  perhaps  the  most  important  is  the  possibility  of  forming  by  art 
those  compounds,  which  had  been  formerly  supposed  to  be  only  producible 
by  natural  processes,  under  tba  influence  of  the  vital  principle.  The  last 
two  years  have  added  materially  to  the  catalogue  of  such  bodies  artificially 
produced,  as  in  the  formation  of  several  Jpeoies  of  alcohol  from  coal  gas  by 
Berthelot,  that  of  oil  of  mustard  by  the  same  chemist,  and  the  generation  of 
taurine,  a  principle  elaborated  in  the  liver,  by  Strecker. 

And  if  the  above  discoveries  should  strike  you  at  first  sight  rather  a* 
curious  than  practically  useful,  I  would  remark,  that  they  afford  reasonable 
ground  for  hope,  that  the  production  of  some  of  those  principles  of  high 
medicinal  or  oeconomical  value,  which  nature  has  sparingly  provided,  or  at 
least  limited  to  certain  districts  or  climates,  may  lie  within  the  compass  of 
the  chemist's  skill. 

If  Quinine,  for  instance,  to  which  the  Peruvian  bark  owes  its  efficacy,  be, 
as  would  appear  from  recent  researches,  a  modified  condition  of  ammonia, 
why  may  not  a  Hofmann  be  able  to  produce  it  for  us  from  its  elements,  a* 
he  has  already  done  so  many  other  alkaloids  of  similar  constitution  ? 

And  thus,  whilst  the  progress  of  civilization,  and  the  development  of  the 
chemical  arts,  are  accelerating  the  consumption  of  those  articles,  which 
kind  Nature  has  either  been  storing  up  for  the  uses  of  man  during  a  vast 
suocession  of  antecedent  ages,  or  else  is  at  present  elaborating  for  us  in  that 
limited  area,  within  which  alone  the  conditions  would  seem  to  be  such  as  to 
admit  of  their  production,  we  are  encouraged  to  hope  that  Science  may 
make  good  the  loss  she  has  contributed  to  create,  by  herself  inventing  arti- 
ficial modes  of  obtaining  these  necessary  materials. 

In  this  case  we  need  not  so  much  regard  the  exhaustion  of  our  collieries, 
although  Nature  appears  to  have  provided  no  means  for  replenishing  them ; 
nor  even  be  concerned  at  the  rapid  destruction  of  the  trees  which  yield  the 
Peruvian  bark,  limited  though  they  be  to  a  very  narrow  aone,  and  to  a 
certain  definite  elevation  on  either  side  of  the  equator. 

Already,  indeed,  chemistry  has  given  token  of  her  powers,  by  threatening 
to  alter  the  course  of  commerce,  and  to  reverse  the  tide  of  human  industry. 

Thus  she  has  discovered,  it  is  said,  a  substitute  for  the  cochineal  insect, 
in  a  beautiful  dye  producible  from  guano. 


ADDRESS.  IT 

She  has  shown,  that  our  supply  of  animal  food  might  be  obtained  at  a 
cheaper  rate  from  the  Antipodes,  by  simply  boiling  down  the  juices  of  the 
flesh  of  cattle  now  wasted  and  thrown  aside  in  those  countries,  and  importing 
the  extract  in  a  state  of  concentration. 

She  has  pointed  out,  that  one  of  the  earths  which  constitute  the  principal 
material  of  our  globe  contains  a  metal,  as  light  as  glass,  as  malleable  and 
ductile  as  copper,  and  as  little  liable  to  rust  as  silver ;  thus  possessing  pro- 
perties so  valuable,  that  when  means  have  been  found  of  separating  it  eco- 
nomically from  its  ore,  it  will  be  capable  of  superseding  the  metals  in  com- 
mon use,  and  thus  of  rendering  metallurgy  an  employment,  not  of  certain 
districts  only,  but  of  every  part  of  the  earth  to  which  Science  and  Civilization 
have  penetrated. 

And  may  I  not  also  say,  that  she  has  contributed  materially  towards  the 
advancement  of  those  arts  in  which  an  agricultural  county  like  this  is  espe- 
cially interested  ? 

Who  haws  not  heard  of  the  work  of  Baron  Liebig,  which,  at  the  time  of  its 
first  appearance,  made  such  a  sensation  throughout  the  country ;  and  stirred 
up  the  dormant  energies  of  the  agricultural  public,  not  less  thoroughly,  than 
the  subsoil  plough,  of  which  he  explained  the  advantages,  elicited  the  latent 
treasures  of  the  land? 

It  is  not  often  that  the  same  individual  has  reaped  a  high  reputation,  at 
once  by  establishing  general  principles  in  Science,  and  by  rendering  popular 
their  application  to  practice. 

Oersted,  the  father  of  the  science  of  Electro-chemistry,  and  our  own 
Faraday,  who  has  done  so  much  to  develope  its  principles,  left  to  Wheatstone 
the  invention  of  the  telegraph ;  Dalton,  the  propounder  of  the  Atomic  Theory, 
did  nothing  to  improve  the  manufactured  of  the  city  in  which  he  resided ; 
and  the  contrivances  which  have  rendered  the  steam-engine  generally  appli- 
cable to  practice  required  a  combination  of  the  distinct  talents  of  a  Black 
and  a  Watt,  the  one  to  explain  the  theory  of  latent  heat,  the  other  to  apply 
it  to  the  (economical  generation  of  steam. 

But  Baron  Liebig  stands  equally  distinguished  for  his  ingenuity  in  de- 
vising new  methods  of  analysis,  for  his  originality  in  propounding  great 
theoretical  principles  in  Science,  and  for  his  happy  talent  in  applying  these 
principles  to  purposes  of  practical  utility. 

Like  his  countryman  Goethe,  his  mind  seems  to  have  passed  through 
three  phases ;  for  his  ingenious  methods  of  analysis  were  appreciated,  before 
his  views  on  the  relation  between  organic  substances,  his  doctrine  of  com- 
pound radicals,  and  the  consequences  flowing  from  his  researches  in  vege- 
table chemistry,  came  to  be  generally  admitted  ;  and  the  latter  had  already 
taken  root  in  the  minds  of  chemists,  and  had  established  for  him  a  very  high 
reputation  among  his  fellow-labourers  in  Science,  before  his  attempts  to 
apply  his  principles  to  agriculture  and  to  physiology  made  his  name  so 
celebrated,  as  it  has  since  been,  amongst  the  public  in  general. 

It  is  well  known,  that  a  controversy  has  been  going  on  for  some  time  past 
between  this  distinguished  foreigner,  and  certain  experimental  agriculturists 
of  our  own  country,  with  regard  to  the  principles  upon  which  the  manuring 
of  our  land  ought  to  be  regulated.  In  this  dispute,  however,  you  will  not 
expect  me  to  take  part;  for  it  would  be  obviously  improper  on  the  present 
occasion,  that  I  should  avail  myself  of  a  little  brief  authority  to  influence  the 
public  on  either  side  of  a  much-debated  question ;  and,  indeed,  on  any  other, 
it  might  be  deemed  an  act  of  presumption  in  an  individual,  who  can  prefer 
no  claim  either  to  the  extensive  practical  experience  of  the  one,  or  to  the  high 
scientific  eminence  of  the  other,  to  take  upon  himself  to  adjudicate  between 
two  such  conflicting  parties. 


lvi  REPORT — 1856. 

But  I  may  be  permitted  to  remark,  that  whilst  some  points  of  difference 
between  them  still  remain  open  for  further  investigation,  a  much  nearer 
correspondence  of  opinion  exists  with  respect  to  others,  than  the  public  in 
general,  or  even  perhaps  the  disputants  themselves,  are  inclined  to  allow. 

In  so  far,  indeed,  as  concerns  the  relative  advantages  of  mineral  and 
ammoniacal  manures,  I  presume  there  is  little  room  for  controversy;  for 
although. most  soils  may  contain  a  sufficiency  of  the  inorganic  constituents 
required  by  the  crop,  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  latter  are  always  in  an 
available  condition ;  and  hence  it  may  well  happen  that  in  most  cases  in 
which  land  has  been  long  under  cultivation,  the  former  class  of  manures 
becomes,  as  Baron  Liebig  asserts,  a  matter  of  paramount  necessity.  Now 
that  the  same  necessity  exists  for  the  addition  of  ammoniacal  manures  can 
hardly  be  contended,  when  we  reflect,  that  at  the  first  commencement  of 
vegetable  life,  every  existing  species  of  plant  must  have  obtained  its  nourish- 
ment, solely  from  the  gaseous  constituents  of  the  atmosphere,  and  from  the 
mineral  contents  of  the  rock  in  which  it  vegetated. 

The  only  divergence  of  opinion  therefore  that  can  arise,  relates  to  the 
degree  of  their  respective  utility  in  the  existing  state  of  our  agriculture,  and 
to  the  soundness  of  Baron  Liebig's  position,  that  a  plant  rooted  in  a  soil  well* 
charged  with  all  the  requisite  mineral  ingredients,  and  in  all  other  respects 
in  a  condition  calculated  to  allow  of  healthy  vegetation,  may  sooner  or  later 
be  able  to  draw  from  the  atmosphere  whatever  else  is  required  for  its  full 
development. 

And  does  not,  I  would  ask,  this  latter  position  derive  some  support  from 
the  luxuriant  vegetation  of  the  tropics,  where  art  certainly  contributes  nothing 
towards  the  result?  and  is  it  not  also  favoured  by  such  experiments  as  those 
carried  on  at  Lois  Weedon  in  Northamptonshire,  where  the  most  luxuriant 
wheat  crops  have  been  obtained  for  a  number  of  consecutive  years  without 
manure  of  any  kind,  simply  by  following  out  the  Tullian  system  of  stirring 
up  and  pulverizing  the  soil  ? 

How,  too,  are  we  to  explain  that  capacity  of  subsisting  without  any  artificial 
supply  of  ammonia,  which  Mr.  Lawes  is  led  by  his  experiments  to  attribute 
to  turnips,  and  other  plants  of  similar  organization,  unless  we  assume  that 
the  power  residing  in  the  leaves  of  absorbing  ammonia  from  the  air  may 
render  plants,  in  some  cases  at  least,  independent  of  any  extraneous  aid  ? 

Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  there  is  at  least  a  wide  distinction  between 
this  opinion,  and  the  one  attributed  to  Baron  Liebig  by  many,  who  would 
seem  to  imagine,  that  according  to  his  views,  ammonia,  if  derived  from  arti- 
ficial sources,  was  in  a  manner  useless  to  vegetation. 

As  if  it  could  be  a  matter  of  any  moment,  whether  the  substance  which 
in  both  cases  afforded  the  supply  of  nitrogen,  and  which  in  both  cases  also 
was  primarily  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  organic  substances,  had 
been  assimilated  by  plants  directly  upon  its  being  thus  generated,  or  had 
been  received  into  their  system  at  a  later  period,  after  having  been  diffused 
through  the  atmosphere  I  To  suppose  that  Baron  Liebig  should  have  attached 
any  moment  to  this  distinction  seems  inconsistent  with  many  passages  in 
his  work,  in  which,  although  the  paramount  importance  of  mineral  manures 
may  be  insisted  upon,  and  the  success  which  had  in  certain  cases  attended 
the  use  of  one  compounded  only  of  mineral  ingredients  may  be  put  forward 
as  a  motive  for  further  trials,  the  utility  of  ammoniacal  substances  in  all  their 
several  forms  is  at  the  same  time  distinctly  admitted. 

Still  the  practical  question  remains,  whether,  admitting  the  theoretical 
truth  of  Baron  Liebig  s  position,  a  larger  expenditure  of  capital  will  not  be 
required  for  bringing  a  given  farm  into  a  condition  to  dispense  with  ammo- 
niacal manures,  than  for  procuring  those  materials  which  contain  that  ingre- 


ADDBB88.  lvH 

dicot  ready  for  use.  And  here  experimental  researches,  such  as  those  con- 
ducted on  so  extended  and  liberal  a  scale  by  Mr.  Lawes  and  Dr.  Gilbert, 
come  in  aid  of  theory.  They  stand,  as  it  were,  midway  between  the  abstract 
principles  which  Science  points  out  to  the  farmer,  and  the  traditional  usages 
with  respect  to  his  art,  which  have  been  handed  down  to  him  from  one  gene- 
ration to  another.  They  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  farmer,  which  the 
records  of  the  clinical  practice  in  a  large  infirmary  do,  to  the  general  princi- 
ples of  medicine  expounded  by  the  modern  physiologist. 

It  is  true,  that  the  experience  of  a  particular  hospital  may  not  at  all  times 
coincide  with  the  anticipations  which  science  holds  out;  but  this  discrepancy 
only  suggests  to  us  the  imperfection  of  our  present  knowledge,  and  is  not 
allowed  to  disturb  the  confidence  of  the  physician  in  principles  already  esta- 
blished on  incontrovertible  evidence.  On  the  contrary,  whilst  he  modifies 
his  practice  from  time  to  time  by  the  experience  he  has  gained  by  actual  ob- 
servation, he  feels  at  the  same  time  the  fullest  conviction,  that  these  results 
will  be  found  eventually  reconcileable  with  the  general  principles,  which  a 
soil  more  extended  series  of  induction  may  have  established. 

I  need  not  occupy  your  time  by  applying  the  same  method  of  proceeding 
to  the  recent  researches  alluded  to,  but  I  will  carry  the  analogy  between  the 
science  of  Agriculture  and  of  Therapeutics  one  step  further.  You  may  recol- 
lect, that  in  a  Report  on  the  progress  of  husbandry,  drawn  up  some  years  ago 
by  one  of  the  most  enlightened  and  zealous  promoters  of  the  agricultural 
interest  in  Great  Britain,  now,  alas  I  deceased,  it  was  asserted,  that  chemistry 
bad  done  nothing  for  the  farmer,  except  in  teaching  him  to  use  sulphuric 
acid  with  his  bones,  and  to  take  advantage  of  the  refuse  flax  liquor,  formerly 
thrown  away  and  wasted. 

Now  a  statement  of  this  kind,  although  it  might  be  literally  true  in  the 
narrow  sense  in  which  the  author  doubtless  intended  it,  namely,  as  referring 
merely  to  the  introduction  of  new  specifics  or  recipes  into  farming,  was 
calculated,  when  put  forth  on  such  high  authority,  to  foster  that  tendency  in 
the  human  mind  to  which  we  are  all  more  or  less  prone,  that  of  sparing  our- 
selves the  trouble  of  thought  and  reflection  in  shaping  the  course  of  our  con- 
duct, by  leaning  blindly  upon  certain  rigid  and  unvarying  rules  already 
chalked  out  to  us  by  others. 

It  was  this  propensity  exercised  upon  moral  subjects  which  has  encumbered 
our  libraries  with  those  vast  tomes  on  casuistry,  in  which  the  conduct  to  be 
pursued  in  each  imaginable  case  of  conscience  was  attempted  to  be  pre- 
scribed; it  was  this  which  has  driven  many  a  patient  to  fly  from  the  regular 
practitioner  into  the  arms  of  the  homoeopathist,  who  professes  to  have  a  glo- 
bule  ready  to  meet  every  possible  symptom. 

Grant  that  Science  has  as  yet  supplied  us  with  only  two  infallible  receipts 
for  the  improvement  of  our  land,  the  agricultural  chemist  may  derive  courage 
from  the  reflection,  that  medicine  too,  since  the  days  of  Hippocrates,  has 
lighted  only  upon  two  or  three  specifics  for  the  cure  of  disease ;  and  that  the 
most  enlightened  physicians  of  the  present  day,  in  the  spirit  which  we  would 
fain  see  actuating  the  leaders  of  the  agricultural  body,  depend  not  upon  the 
efficacy  of  nostrums,  but  upon  their  sagacity  in  referring  the  varying  condi- 
tion* of  each  case  which  comes  before  them  to  those  principles  of  physiology 
which  modern  Science  has  established. 

And  has  not  Science  also  unfolded  principles  which  may  be  called  in  to 
aid  and  direct  the  practical  labours  of  the  agriculturist? 

I  need  not  go  further  than  the  works  of  Baron  Liebig  for  an  answer  to 
tins  question.  I  may  appeal,  for  instance,  to  the  extensive  employment  of 
gw&o  at  the  present  time,  first  introduced  in  England  in  consequence  of  his 


ft 


lviii  REPORT — 1856. 

suggestions :  I  may  refer  to  the  substitution  of  mineral  phosphates  for  bones, 
founded  upon  his  explanation  of  the  sources  from  which  the  latter  substance 
derives  its  efficacy  as  a  manure :  and  I  may  allude  more  especially  to  his 
refutation  of  the  humus  theory,  to  which  even  the  great  Saussure  gave  bis 
adhesion,  and  the  reception  of  which  was  calculated  to  vitiate,  not  a  few  pro* 
cesses  only,  but  the  entire  system  of  our  husbandry. 

But  whilst  we  do  justice  to  those  comprehensive  views  on  agricultural 
science  which  have  shed  a  new  lustre  upon  the  name  of  Liebig,  let  us  not 
forget  the  practical  researches  which  have  been  carried  on  in  our  own 
country ;  and  especially  those  conducted  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highland 
Society  by  Dr.  Anderson;  at  our  own  Agricultural  College  by  Prof.  Voelcker; 
and,  through  the  aid  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  by  their  consulting 
Chemist,  Mr.  Way.  And,  although  in  alluding  to  the  labours  of  the  latter,  we 
may  be  bound  to  confess,  that  in  one  of  the  latest  and  probably  the  most 
important  investigations  undertaken  by  him,  that  namely  on  the  absorptive 
qualities  of  clay  with  reference  to  ammouiacal  salts,  he  had  been  anticipated, 
so  far  as  the  principle  goes,  by  the  German  Professor,  who  announced  the 
fact  many  years  before  in  his  work  *  On  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture*,' 
pet  experience  has  often  shown  that  a  principle  may  lie  dormant  long  after 
it  was  enunciated,  until  its  truth  is  rendered  palpable  to  the  senses  by  a 
series  of  practical  researches  expressly  directed  with  a  view  to  demonstrate 
its  general  applicability. 

Baron  Liebig  has  himself  remarked,  that  as  a  plant,  in  order  to  thrive, 
must  receive  its  food,  not  in  a  concentrated  form,  but  reduced  to  a  certain 
state  of  tenuity  by  being  diffused  through  water ;  so  an  abstract  truth  only 
makes  an  impression  upon  the  mind  and  feelings,  when  presented  to  it 
properly  diluted,  turned,  as  it  were,  inside  out,  examined  under  every 
aspect,  and  decked  out  with  all  the  accompaniments  of  dress,  ornament,  and 
colour. 

Then,  indeed,  as  the  seed,  when  implanted  in  the  ground  and  taken  root, 
is  able  to  cleave  asunder  the  hardest  rocks,  and  that,  as  the  old  proverb  says, 
all  without  noise ;  so  likewise  the  truth  will  at  length  in  its  own  good  time 
begin  to  germinate,  and  gradually  conquering  all  obstacles,  establish  for  itself 
a  footing  in  the  mind  of  the  public.  Let  us  not  therefore  withhold  our  meed 
of  approbation  from  those  who  have  worked  out  for  us  any  useful  scientific 
principle,  even  though  the  germ  may  be  traceable  to  some  other  quarter ; 
conscious  that  it  is  to  its  being  brought  thus  prominently  forward,  and,  as 
it  were,  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the  public,  that  we  owe  its  general 
reception  and  its  reduction  to  practice. 

But  it  is  time  to  hasten  on  to  certain  other  departments  of  Natural  Science. 

In  Botany  and  Vegetable  Physiology  it  cannot  perhaps  be  said,  that  whole 
provinces  have  been  added  to  the  domain  of  the  Science  since  the  period 
alluded  to,  as  we  have  seen  to  be  the  case  in  out  review  of  the  progress  of 
chemistry. 

Even  so  long  ago  as  the  year  1832,  the  elder  DeCandolle,  who,  if  not  the 
most  original  or  the  most  profound  of  the  botanists  of  his  day,  was  at  least 
the  most  conspicuous  for  the  wide  range  of  his  information,  and  for  his 
happy  talent  of  imparting  it  to  others,  published  that  admirable  work  on 
vegetable  physiology,  which  even  at  the  present  time  is  capable  of  serving 
as  a  most  useful  guide  in  many  branches  of  the  subject. 

And  yet  what  a  mass  of  important  information  has  been  brought  together 
since  that  period  I 

*  P.  57,  Bog.  Trans. 


ADDftftftfl.  Hi 

TIM  Improvements  In  the  microscope  which  have  since  taken  place,  fender 
oi  familiar  with  particulars  relating  to  the  structure  and  functions  of  the 
tegetable  creation,  which  the  ruder  methods  of  instigation  before  resorted 
lo  would  never  have  revealed  to  us* 

We  owe  to  them  the  interesting  discoveries  of  Brown  and  Adolphe  Brong- 
niait*  as  to  the  mode  in  which  the  pollen  is  brought  into  immediate  contact 
with  the  ovules,  by  means  of  the  tubes  which  it  protrudes  by  a  prolongation 
of  the  innermost  of  its  two  investing  membranes.  Thus  much  at  least  appears 
to  be  fully  ascertained ;  but  in  alluding  to  the  observations  of  others  who 
have  endeavoured  to  push  their  scrutiny  still  further,  it  becomes  me  to  speak 
with  more  diffidence,  inasmuch  as  the  office  which  the  pollen  discharges  in 
the  act  of  fecundation  is  still  a  matter  of  dispute,  between  such  men  as 
8ehleiden  and  Sebaoht  on  the  one  side,  and  Hofnieister,  Moll,  Ac.  on  the  other. 

Whilst,  however,  this  controversy  continues,  it  is  something  at  least  to 
know,  that  the  vivifying  principle,  whatever  it  may  be,  is  actually  transmitted 
to  the  part  where  its  influence  is  to  be  exerted,  and  not  kept  apart  from  it, 
as  we  were  formerly  compelled  to  assume,  by  that  long  intervening  plexus 
of  fibres  or  tubes  which  constitutes  the  style. 

To  the  microscope  also  we  owe  all  that  is  as  yet  known  with  respect  to  the 
reproductive  process  in  eryptogamous  plants,  which  are  now  shown  to  possess 
a  structure  analogous  to  that  of  {lowering  ones  in  respect  to  their  organs  of 
reproduction  \  not,  indeed,  as  Hedwig  supposed,  that  parts  corresponding  to 
stamens  and  pistils  in  appearance  and  structure  can  be  discovered  in  them, 
hut  that,  as  the  primary  distinction  of  sexes  seems  to  run  throughout  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  new  parts  are  superadded  to  a  structure  common  to  all 
as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  of  creation,  until  from  the  simple  cell,  which,  in 
consequence  of  some  differences  of  structure  to  our  eyes  inappreciable,  ap- 
pear* to  exercise  in  one  caae  the  function  of  the  male,  in  another  of  the  female, 
as  is  found  the  case  in  certain  of  the  Confervas,  we  arrive  at  length  at  the  com- 
plicated machinery  exhibited  in  flowering  plants,  in  which  the  cell  containing 
the  fecundating  principle  is  first  matured  in  the  stamen,  and  afterwards  trans- 
mitted through  an  elaborate  apparatus  to  the  cells  of  the  ovule,  which  is  in 
like  manner  enveloped  in  iu  matrix,  and  protected  by  the  series  of  investing 
membranes  whioh  constitutes  the  seed-vessel.  Thus,  as  Goethe  long  ago 
observed,  and  as  modern  Physiologists  have  since  shown  to  be  the  case,  the 
more  imperfect  a  being  is,  the  more  its  individual  parts  resemble  each  other 
—the  progress  of  development,  both  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdom, 
siwaya  proeeediug  from  the  like  to  the  unlike,  from  the  general  to  the 
particular* 

But  whilst  the  researches  of  Brown  and  others  have  proved,  that  there  is  no 
abrupt  line  of  division  in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  that  one  common  struc- 
ture pervades  the  whole ;  the  later  inquiries  of  Suminski,  Hofmeister,  Unger, 
Griffith,  and  Henfrey,  have  pointed  out  several  curious  and  unlooked-for 
analogies  between  plants  and  animals. 

t  may  mention,  in  the  first  place,  as  an  instance  of  this  analogy,  the  ex- 
istence of  moving  molecules  or  phytosperms  in  the  antheridia  of  Ferns  and 
other  Cryptogams,  borne  out,  as  it  has  been  in  so  remarkable  a  manner,  by 
the  almost  simultaneous  observations  of  Bischoff  and  Meissner  on  the  egg9 
confirmatory  of  those  formerly  announced  by  Barry  and  Newport ;  and  by 
the  researches  of  Suminski,  Thuret,  and  Pringsheim,  with  respect  to  the 
ovule  of  plants.  I  may  refer  you  ulso  to  a  paper  read  at  the  last  Meeting  of 
the  Association,  by  Dr.  Colin  of  Breslau,  who,  in  bringing  this  subject  before 
the  Natural  History  Section,  adduced  instances  of  a  distinction  of  sexes  which 
had  oome  under  bis  observation  in  the  lower  Alga. 


lx  REPORT — 1856. 

In  like  manner  a  carious  correspondence  has  been  traced  between  the 
lower  tribes  of  animals  and  plants,  in  the  circumstance  of  both  being  subject 
to  the  law  of  what  is  called  alternate  generation.  This  consists  in  a  sort  of 
cycle  of  changes  from  one  kind  of  being  to  another,  which  was  first  detected 
in  some  of  the  lower  tribes  of  animals,  a  pair  of  insects,  for  example,  producing 
a  progeny  differing  from  themselves  in  outward  appearance  and  internal 
structure,  and  these  reproducing  their  kind  without  any  renewed  sexual  union, 
the  progeny  in  these  cases  consisting  of  females  only.  At  length,  after  a 
succession  of  such  generations,  the  offspring  reverts  to  its  primaeval  type,  and 
pairs  of  male  and  female  insects  of  the  original  form  are  reproduced,  which 
complete  the  cycle,  by  giving  rise  in  their  turn  to  a  breed  presenting  the 
same  characters  as  those  which  belong  to  their  own  progenitors. 

An  ingenious  comparison  had  been  instituted  by  Owen  and  others  between 
this  alternation  of  generations  in  the  animal,  and  the  alternate  production  of 
leaves  and  blossoms  in  the  plant ;  but  the  researches  to  which  1  especially 
allude  have  rendered  this  no  longer  a  matter  of  mere  speculation  or  inference, 
inasmuch  as  they  have  shown  the  6ame  thing  to  occur  in  Ferns,  in  Lyco- 
podia,  in  Mosses,  nay,  even  in  the  Confervas. 

We  are  indebted  to  Professor  Henfrey  for  a  valuable  contribution  to  our 
Transactions  in  1851  on  these  subjects,  given  in  the  form  of  a  Report  on 
the  Higher  Cryptogamous  Plants ;  from  which  it  at  least  appears,  that  the 
proofs  of  sexuality  in  the  Cryptogamia  rank  in  the  same  scale  as  to  com- 
pleteness, as  those  regarding  flowering  plants  did  before  the  access  of  the 
pollen  tubes  to  the  ovule  had  been  demonstrated.  Indeed,  if  the  observations 
of  Pringsheim  with  respect  to  certain  of  the  Algae  are  to  be  relied  upon, 
the  analogy  between  the  reproductive  process  in  plants  and  animals  is  even 
more  clearly  made  out  in  these  lower  tribes,  than  it  is  in  those  of  higher 
organization. 

It  also  appears,  that  the  production  in  Ferns  and  other  Acrogens  of 
what  has  bepn  called  a  pro-embryo ;  the  evolution  of  antheridia  and  orche- 
gonia,  or  of  male  and  female  organs,  from  the  former;  and  the  generation 
from  the  archegonia  of  a  frond  bearing  spores  upon  its  under  surface,  is 
analogous  to  what  takes  place  in  flowering  plants  in  general ;  where  the  seed, 
when  it  germinates,  produces  stem,  roots  and  leaves ;  the  stem  for  many  gene- 
rations gives  rise  to  nothing  but  shoots  like  itself;  until  at  length  a  flower 
springs  from  it,  which  contains  within  itself  for  the  most  part  the  organs  of 
both  sexes  united,  and  therefore  occasions  the  reproduction  of  the  same  seed 
with  which  the  chain  of  phenomena  commenced.  This  is  the  principle 
which  a  learned  Professor  at  Berlin  has  rather  obscurely  shadowed  out  in 
his  Treatise  on  the  Rejuvenescence  of  Plants,  and  which  may  perhaps  be  re- 
garded as  one  at  least  of  the  means,  by  which  Nature  provides  for  the  stabi- 
lity  of  the  forms  of  organic  life  she  has  created,  by  imparting  to  each  plant  a 
tendency  to  revert  to  the  primaeval  type. 

To*  the  elder  DeCandolle  we  are  also  indebted  for  some  of  our  most  philo- 
sophical views  with  respect  to  the  laws  which  regulate  the  distribution  of 
plants  over  the  globe, — views  which  have  been  developed  and  extended,  bat 
by  no  means  subverted,  by  the  investigations  of  subsequent  writers ;  amongst 
whom  Sir  Charles  Lyeli,  in  his  '  Principles  of  Geology,'  and  the  younger 
DeCandolle,  a  worthy  inheritor  of  his  father's  reputation,  in  his  recently 
published  work  on  Botanical  Geography,  have  especially  signalized  them- 
selves. But  it  is  to  the  late  Professor  Edward  Forbes,  and  to  Dr.  Joseph 
Hooker,  that  we  have  principally  to  attribute  the  removal  of  those  anomalies, 
which  threw  a  certain  degree  of  doubt  upon  the  principles  laid  down  by 


ADDRESS.  bd 

DeCandolle  in  1890,  in  his  celebrated  article  on  the  Geography  of  Plants, 
contained  in  the  '  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Naturelles,'  where  the  derivation 
of  each  species  from  an  individual,  or  a  pair  of  individuals,  created  in  one 
particular  locality,  was  made  the  starting-point  of  all  our  inquiries. 

These  anomalies  were  of  two  different  kinds,  and  pointed  in  two  opposite 
directions :  for  we  had  in  some  cases  to  explain  the  occurrence  of  a  peculiar 
flora  in  islands  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  except  through  the  medium 
of  a  wide  intervening  ocean  ;  and  in  other  cases  to  reconcile  the  fact  of  the 
same  or  of  allied  species  being  diffused  over  vast  areas,  the  several  portions  of 
which  are  at  the  present  time  separated  from  each  other  in  such  a  manner,  as 
to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  migration  of  plants  from  one  to  the  other. 
Indeed,  after  making  due  allowances  for  those  curious  contrivances  by  which 
Nature  has  in  many  instances  provided  for  the  transmission  of  species 
over  different  parts  of  the  same  continent,  and  even  across  the  ocean,  and 
which  are  so  well  pointed  out  in  DeCandolle's  original  essay,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  admit  the  apparent  inefficiency  of  existing  causes  to  account  for  the 
distribution  of  the  larger  number  of  species ;  and  must  confess  that  the 
explanation  fails  us  often  where  it  is  most  needed ;  for  the  Composite,  in 
spite  of  those  feathery  appendages  they  possess,  which  are  so  favourable  to 
the  wide  dissemination  of  their  seeds,  might  be  inferred,  by  their  general 
absence  from  the  fossil  flora,  to  have  diffused  themselves  in  a  less  degree  than 
many  other  families  have  done.  And  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  found,  that 
under  existing  circumstances,  those  Composite,  which  are  disseminated 
throughout  the  area  of  the  Great  Pacific,  belong  in  many  cases  to  species 
destitute  of  these  auxiliaries  to  transmission. 

But  here  Geology  comes  to  our  aid ;  for  by  pointing  out  the  probability  of 
the  submergence  of  continents  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  elevation  of  tracts 
of  land  on  the  other,  it  enables  us  to  explain,  the  occurrence  of  the  same 
plants  in  some  islands  or  continents  now  wholly  unconnected,  and  the  exist- 
ence of  a  distinct  flora  in  others  too  isolated  to  obtain  it  under  present  cir- 
cumstances from  without  In  the  one  vase  we  may  suppose  the  plants  to 
have  been  distributed  over  the  whole  area  before  its  several  parts  became 
disunited  by  the  catastrophes  which  supervened ;  in  the  other,  we  may  re- 
gard the  peculiar  flora  now  existing  as  merely  the  wreck,  as  it  were,  of  one 
which  once  overspread  a  large  tract  of  land,  of  which  all  but  the  little  patch 
upon  which  it  is  now  found  had  since  been  submerged. 

Upon  this  subject,  however,  our  opinions  may  in  some  measure  be  swayed 
by  the  nature  of  the  conclusions  we  arrive  at  with  respect  to  the  length  of 
time  during  which  seeds  are  capable  of  maintaining  their  vitality;  for  if  after 
remaining  for  an  indefinite  period  in  the  earth  they  were  capable  of  germi- 
nating, it  would  doubtless  be  easier  to  understand  the  revival,  under  favour- 
able circumstances,  of  plants  which  had  existed  before  the  severance  of  a 
tract  of  land  from  the  continent  in  which  they  are  indigenous.  An  inquiry 
has  accordingly  been  carried  on  for  the  last  fifteen  years  under  the  auspices  of, 
and  with  the  aid  of  funds  supplied  by,  this  Association,  the  results  of  which, 
it  is  but  fair  to  say,  by  no  means  corroborate  the  reports  that  had  been 
from  time  to  time  given  us  with  respect  to  the  extreme  longevity  of  certain 
seeds,  exemplified,  as  it  was  said,  in  the  case  of  the  mummy- wheat  and  other 
somewhat  dubious  instances ;  inasmuch  as  they  tend  to  show,  that  none  of 
the  seeds  which  were  tested,  although  they  had  been  placed  under  the  most 
favourable  artificial  conditions  that  could  be  devised,  vegetated  beyond  a 
period  of  forty-nine  years ;  that  only  twenty  out  of  288  species  did  so  after 
twenty  years;  whilst" by  far  the  larger  number  had  lost  their  germinating 
power  in  the  course  of  ten. 


Jxji  RBPQB?~*1856. 

These  results,  indeed,  beipg  merely  negative,  ought  not  to  outweigh  each 
positive  statements  on  the  contrary  side  as  come  before  us  recommended  by 
respectable  authority!  such,  for  instance,  as  that  respecting  a  Nelumbiuoa 
seed,  which  germinated  after  having  been  preserved  in  Sir  Hans  Sloane'a 
Herbarium  for  150  yearn  i  still,  however,  they  throw  suspicion  as  to  the 
existence  in  seeds  of  that  capacity  of  preserving  their  vitality  almost  indefi- 
nitely, which  alone  would  warrant  us  in  calling  to  our  aid  this  principle  in 
explaining  the  wide  geographical  range  which  certain  species  of  plants  affect. 

Let  us  then  be  content  to  appeal  to  those  ingenious  views  whieh  were  first 
put  forth  at  one  of  our  meetings  by  the  late  Professor  Forbes,  and  which 
have  since  been  promulgated  in  a  more  detailed  and  systematic  form  by  tha 
same  distinguished  naturalist.  By  the  aid  of  the  principles  therein  laid  down, 
he  was  enabled  to  trace  the  flora  of  Great  Britain  principally  to  four  distinct 
sources,  owing  to  the  geological  connexion  of  these  islands  at  one  period  or 
other  with  Scandinavia,  with  Germany,  with  France,  and  with  Spain  I  And 
it  was  by  a  similar  assumption  that  Dr.  Joseph  Hooker  explained  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  same  species  throughout  the  islands  of  the  Great  Pacific, 
and  the  contiguous  continents,  tracts  which,  as  Darwin  had  shown,  were) 
formerly  united.  Nor  is  this  mode  of  explanation  limited  to  the  ease  of  tha 
above  regions ;  for  in  the  '  Flora  Indica,'  which  important  work  I  regret  to  find 
has  been  suspended  after  the  appearance  of  the  first  volume,  Dr,  Hooker,  in 
conjunction  with  his  fellow  traveller,  Dr.  Thomson,  has  discussed  the  same 
problem  with  regard  to  the  whole  of  India,  extending  from  Afghanistan  to 
the  Malayan  peninsula. 

And  amongst  the  many  services  rendered  to  the  Natural  Sciences  by  these 
indefatigable  botanists,  one  of  the  greatest  I  conceive  to  be,  that  they  have 
not  only  protested  against  that  undue  multiplication,  of  species,  which  had 
taken  place  by  exalting  minute  points  of  difference  into  grounds  of  radical 
and  primary  distinction,  but  that  they  have  also  practically  illustrated  their 
views  with  respect  to  the  natural  families  which  have  been  described  by 
them  in  the  volume  alluded  to.  They  have  thus  contributed  materially  to 
remove  another  difficulty  which  stood  in  the  way  of  the  adoption  of  tha 
theory  of  specific  centres, — I  mean  the  replacement  of  forms  of  vegetation  in 
adjoining  countries  by  others,  not  identical,  but  only  us  it  should  aeeoi  allied ; 
for  it  follows  from  the  principles  laid  down  by  these  authors,  that  such  ap- 
parently distinct  species  may  after  all  have  beeu  only  varieties,  produced  by 
the  operation  of  external  causes  acting  upon  the  same  species  during  long 
periods  of  time. 

But  if  this  be  allowed,  what  limits,  it  may  be  asked*  are  we  to  assign  to 
the  changes  which  a  plant  is  capable  of  undergoing,  and  in  what  way  can  wo 
oppose  the  principle  of  the  transmutation  of  species,  which  has  of  late  ex- 
cited so  much  attention,  and  the  admission  of  which  is  considered  to  involve 
such  startling  consequences? 

I  must  refer  you  to  the  writings  of  modern  physiologists  for  a  full  discus- 
sion of  this  question,  and  may  appeal  in  particular  to  the  lecture  delivered 
before  this  Association  by  Dr,  Carpenter  at  our  last  meeting.  All  that  I 
shall  venture  to  remark  on  the  subject  is,  that  bad  not  Nature  herself  assigned 
certain  boundaries  to  the  changes  which  plants  are  capable  of  undergoing, 
there  would  seem  no  reason  why  any  species  at  all  should  be  restricted  within 
a  definite  area,  since  the  unlimited  power  of  adaptation  to  external  conditions 
which  it  would  then  possess  might  enable  it  to  diffuse  itself  throughout  the 
world,  as  easily  as  it  has  done  over  that  portion  of  space  within  which  it  is 
actually  circumscribed. 


ADDRKS*.  1»M 

Dr.  Hooker  instance*  certain  species  of  Coprosma,  of  Cthnwa,  and  a  kind 
of  Australian  Fern,  the  Lomariaproceroy  which  have  undergone  such  striking 
changes  in  their  passage  from  one  portion  of  the  Great  Pacific  to  another, 
that  the?  are  scarcely  recognizable  as  the  same,  and  have  actually  been  re- 
garded by  preceding  botanists  as  distinct  species.  But  he  does  not  state 
that  any  of  these  plants  have  ever  been  seen  beyond  the  above-mentioned 
precincts ;  and  yet  if  Nature  bad  not  imposed  some  limits  to  their  suscepti* 
bilitv  of  change,  one  does  not  see  why  they  might  not  have  spread  over  a 
much  larger  portion  of  the  earth,  in  a  form  more  or  less  modified  by  external 
circumstances. 

The  younger  DeCandolle,  in  his  late  admirable  treatise  already  referred 
to,  has  enumerated  about  117  species  of  plants  which  have  been  thus  dif- 
fused over  at  least  a  third  of  the  surface  ot  the  globe ;  but  these  apparently 
owed  their  power  of  transmigration  to  their  insusceptibility  of  change,  for 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  have  been  much  modified  by  the  effect  of  climate 
or  locality,  notwithstanding  the  extreme  difference  in  the  external  conditions 
to  which  they  were  subjected. 

On  the  other  band,  it  seems  to  be  a  general  law,  that  plants,  whose  organi- 
zation is  more  easily  affected  by  external  agencies,  become,  from  that  very 
cause,  more  circumscribed  in  their  range  of  distribution ;  simply  because  a 
greater  difference  in  the  circumstances  under  which  they  would  be  placed 
brought  with  it  an  amount  of  change  in  their  structure,  which  exceeded  the 
limits  prescribed  to  it  by  Nature. 

In  short,  without  pretending  to  do  more  than  to  divine  the  character  of 
those  impediments,  which  appear  ever  to  prevent  the  changes  of  which  a 
plant  is  susceptible  from  proceeding  beyond  a  certain  limit,  we  seem  to  catch 
a  glimpse  of  a  general  law  of  Nature,  not  limited  to  one  of  her  kingdoms,  but 
extending  everywhere  throughout  her  jurisdiction, — a  law,  the  aim  of  which 
may  be  inferred  to  be,  that  of  maintaining  the  existing  order  of  the  universe, 
without  any  material  or  permanent  alteration,  throughout  all  time,  until  the 
fiat  of  Omnipotence  has  gone  forth  for  its  destruction. 

The  will,  which  confines  the  variations  in  the  vegetable  structure  within  a 
certain  range,  lest  the  order  of  creation  should  be  disturbed  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  an  indefinite  number  of  intermediate  forms,  is  apparently  the  same  in 
its  motive,  as  that  which  brings  back  the  celestial  Luminaries  to  their  ori- 
ginal orbits,  after  the  completion  of  a  cycle  of  changes  induced  by  their 
mutual  perturbations;  it  is  the  same  which  says  to  the  Ocean,  Thus  far 
shalt  thou  go,  and  no  further;  and  to  the  Winds,  Your  violence,  however 
apparently  capricious  and  abnormal,  shall  nevertheless  be  constrained  within 
certain  prescribed  limits — 

Mi  faciat,  maria  et  terras  ccelumque  prorandam, 
Quippe  ferant  rapidi  secum,  verrantque  per  auras. 

The  whole  indeed  resolves  itself  into,  or  at  least  is  intimately  connected 
with,  that  law  of  symmetry  to  whieh  Nature  seems  ever  striving  to  confirm, 
and  whieh  possesses  the  same  significance  in  the  organic  world,  which  the  law 
of  definite  proportions  does  in  the  inorganic. 

It  is  the  principle  whieh  the  prophetic  genius  of  Goethe  had  divined,  long 
before  it  had  been  proved  by  the  labours  of  physiologists  to  be  a  reality,  and 
to  whieh  the  poet  attached  such  importance,  that  the  celebrated  discussion 
as  to  its  merit*  which  took  place  in  1880  between  Cuvier  and  Geoffrey  St, 
Hilaire  so  engrossed  his  mind,  as  to  deprive  him,  as  his  biographer  informs 
us*,  of  all  interest  in  one  of  the  most  portentous  political  events  of  modern  days 

*  Lewes'  Life  of  Goethe,  vol  ii. 


lziv  REPORT— 1856. 

which  was  enacting  at  the  very  same  epoch, — I  mean  the  subversion  of  the 
Bourbon  dynasty. 

It  is  indeed  not  less  calculated  to  subserve  to  the  gratification  of  our 
sense  of  the  beautiful,  than  to  provide  against  too  wide  a  departure  from 
that  order  of  creation  which  its  great  Author  has  from  the  beginning  in- 
stituted ;  and,  as  two  learned  Professors  of  a  sister  kingdom  have  pointed 
out  in  memoirs  laid  before  this  Association,  and  have  since  embodied  in  a 
distinct  treatise*,  manifests  itself  not  less  in  the  geometrical  adjustment  of 
the  branches  of  a  plant,  and  of  the  scales  of  a  fir-apple — nay  even,  as  they 
have  wished  to  prove,  in  the  correspondence  between  the  form  of  the  fruit 
and  that  of  the  tree  on  which  it  grows — than  in  the  frequent  juxtaposition  of 
the  complementary  rays  of  the  spectrum,  by  which  that  harmony  of  colour 
is  produced  in  Nature,  which  we  are  always  striving,  however  unsuccessfully, 
to  imitate  in  Art. 

The  law,  indeed,  seems  to  be  nothing  else  than  a  direct  consequence  of  that 
unity  of  design  pervading  the  universe,  which  so  bespeaks  a  common  Creator — 
of  the  existence  in  the  mind  of  the  Deity  of  a  sort  of  archetype,  to  which  His 
various  works  have  all  to  a  certain  extent  been  accommodated ;  so  that  the 
earlier  forms  of  life  may  be  regarded  as  types  of  those  of  later  creation,  and 
the  more  complex  ones  but  as  developments  of  rudimentary  parts  existing  in 
the  more  simple.  Here  too  we  may  perhaps  trace  an  analogy  with  His  dealings 
with  mankind,  as  unfolded  in  His  Revealed  Word ;  from  which  we  find,  that 
the  earlier  events  recorded  are  often  typical  of  those  more  modern,  and  that 
Christianity  itself  is  in  some  sense  a  development  of  the  Jewish  dispensation 
which  preceded  it. 

I  should  apologize  for  dwelling  so  long  upon  the  two  departments  of  natu- 
ral knowledge  to  which  I  have  hitherto  confined  myself,  were  it  not  that 
other  sciences  of  a  still  higher  rank  than  those  treated  of  had  been  discussed 
so  fully  in  the  Discourses  of  former  Presidents. 

Whilst  indeed  this  is  the  first  occasion,  save  one,  in  which  a  Chemist  has 
had  the  honour  of  occupying  the  Chair  of  the  British  Association,  it  has  on 
no  former  occasion  fallen  to  the  lot  of  a  professed  Botanist  to  be  thus  distin- 
guished. I  have  therefore  consulted  alike  my  own  ease,  and  what  was  due  to 
the  Sciences  themselves,  in  making  Chemistry  and  Botany  the  principal  themes 
of  my  discourse.  Leaving,  then,  to  the  gifted  friend  who  will  discourse 
before  you  next  Monday  evening  "  On  the  Correlation  of  Physical  Forces," 
the  task  of  connecting  with  those  Powers  of  Nature  that  manifest  themselves 
in  the  phsenomena  of  chemical  attraction  or  of  cell-development,  the  im- 
ponderable agents  which  form  the  proper  subjects  of  branches  of  Physics  not 
here  dwelt  upon,  and  thus  establishing  the  existence  of  that  common  brother- 
hood among  the  Sciences,  which  furnishes  the  best  plea  for  such  Meetings 
as  the  present,  I  will  only  further  detain  you  by  noticing  one  other  field 
of  inquiry,  in  which  I  have  ever  felt  a  lively  interest,  although  it  has  only 
been  in  my  power  to  bestow  on  it  a  casual  attention,  or  to  cultivate  one 
limited  portion  of  the  wide  range  which  it  embraces. 

Indeed  Geology,  the  Science  to  which  I  now  allude,  has,  during  the  last 
twenty  years,  made  such  rapid  strides,  that  those  who  endeavoured  from  an 
early  period  of  life  to  follow  at  a  humble  distance  the  footsteps  of  the  great 
leaders  in  that  Science,  obeying  the  impulse  of  such  zealous  and  ardent 
spirits,  as  the  one — now,  alas!  by  the  inscrutable  decrees  of  Providence,  lost 
to  his  friends  and  to  Science, — who  constituted  the  Head  of  what  was  once 

*  Typical  Forms,  by  M'Cosh  and  Dickie. 


ADDRESS.  IXV 

called,  I  hope  not  too  grandiloquently,  the  Oxford  School  of  Geology,— have, 
if  I  may  judge  of  others  by  myself,  been  often  distanced  in  the  race,  and 
when  they  endeavoured  to  make  good  their  lost  ground,  found  themselves 
transported  into  a  new,  and  to  them  an  almost  unknown  region. 

Thus  the  thorough  'exploration  which  has  taken  place  of  the  Silurian  and 
Cambrian  systems,  through  the  exertions  of  two  of  our  oldest  and  most 
valued  Associates,  has  added  a  new  province — ought  I  not  rather  to  say,  a 
new  kingdom  ? — to  the  domain  of  Geology,  and  has  earned  back  the  records  of 
tie  creation  to  a  period  previously  as  much  unknown  to  us  as  were  the  annals 
of  the  Assyrian  dynasties  before  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Henry  Rawlinson. 

I  might  also  be  disposed  to  claim  for  the  recent  investigations  of  Botanists 
tome  share  in  fixing  the  relative  antiquity  of  particular  portions  of  the  globe, 
for,  from  the  floras  they  have  given  us  of  different  islands  in  the  Great  Pacific, 
it  would  appear,  that  the  families  of  plants  which  characterize  some  groups 
are  of  a  more  complicated  organization  than  those  of  another.  Thus  whilst 
Otaheite  chiefly  contains  Orchids,  Apocyneae,  Asclepiadese  and  Urticem ;  the 
Sandwich  Islands  possess  Lobeliacese  and  Goodenovis ;  and  the  Galapagos 
Islands,  New  Zealand  and  Juan  Fernandez,  Composite,  the  highest  form 
perhaps  of  dicotyledonous  plants. 

In  deducing  this  consequence,  however,  1  am  proceeding  upon  a  principle 
which  has  lately  met  with  opposition,  although  it  was  formerly  regarded  as 
one  of  the  axioms  in  geology. 

Amongst  these,  indeed,  there  was  none  which  a  few  years  ago  seemed  so 
little  likely  to  he  disputed,  as  that  the  classes  of  animals  and  vegetables  which 
possessed  the  most  complicated  structure  were  preceded  by  others  of  a  more 
simple  one ;  and  that  when  we  traced  back  the  succession  of  beings  to  the 
lowest  and  the  earliest  of  the  sedimentary  formations,  we  arrived  at  length 
at  a  elass  of  rocks,  the  deposition  of  which  must  be  inferred,  from  the 
almost  entire  absence  of  organic  remains,  to  have  followed  very  soon  after 
the  first  dawn  of  creation.  But  the  recognition  of  the  footsteps  and  remains 
of  reptiles  in  beds  of  an  earlier  date  than  was  before  assigned  to  them, 
tended  to  corroborate  the  inferences  which  had  been  previously  deduced 
from  the  discovery,  in  a  few  rare  instances,  in  rocks  of  the  secondary  age,  of 
mammalian  remains ;  and  thus  has  induced  certain  eminent'geoiogists  boldly 
to  dispute,  whether  from  the  earliest  to  the  latest  period  of  the  earth's  history 
any  gradation  of  beings  can  in  reality  be  detected. 

Into  this  controversy  I  shall  only  enter  at  present,  so  far  as  to  point  out 
an  easy  method  of  determining  the  fact,  that  organic  remains  never  can 
have  existed  in  a  particular  rock,  even  although  it  may  have  been  subjected 
to  such  metamorphic  action  as  would  have  obliterated  all  traces  of  their  pre- 
sence. This  is  simply  to  ascertain,  that  the  material  in  question  is  utterly 
destitute  of  phosphoric  acid ;  for  inasmuch  as  every  form  of  life  appears  to 
be  essentially  associated  with  this  principle,  and  as  no  amount  of  heat  would 
be  sufficient  to  dissipate  it  when  in  a  state  of  combination,  whatever  quantity 
of  phosphoric  aeid  had  in  this  manner  been  introduced  into  the  rock,  must 
have  continued  there  till  the  end  of  time,  notwithstanding  any  igneous  ope- 
rations which  the  materials  might  have  afterwards  undergone.  But  as  the 
discovery  of  very  minute  traces  of  phosphoric  acid,  when  mixed  with  the 
other  ingredients  of  a  rock,  is  a  problem  of  no  small  difficulty,  an  indirr/H 
method  of  ascertaining  its  presence  suggested  itself  to  me  in  some  experi- 
ments of  the  kind  which  I  have  instituted,  namely,  that  of  sowing  some  kind 
of  seed,  such  for  instance  as  barley,  in  a  sample  of  the  pulverized  rock,  and 
detenmning  whether  the  crop  obtained  yielded  more  phosphoric  acid  than 
1856.  e 


Ixvi  REPORT— 1856. 

was  present  in  the  grain,  it  being  evident  that  any  excess  must  have  been 
derived  from  the  rock  from  which  it  drew  its  nourishment. 

Should  it  appear  by  an  extensive  induction  of  particulars,  that  none  of 
the  rocks  lying  at  the  base  of  the  Silurian  formation,  which  have  come  before 
us,  contain  more  phosphoric  acid  than  the  minute  quantity  I  detected  in  the 
slates  of  Bangor  and  Llanberris,  which  were  tested  in  the  above  manner,  it 
might  perhaps  be  warrantable  hereafter  to  infer,  that  we  had  really  touched 
upon  those  formations  that  had  been  deposited  at  a  time  when  organic  beings 
were  only  just  beginning  to  start  into  existence,  and  to  which,  therefore,  the 
term  Azoic,  assigned  to  these  rocks  by  some  of  the  most  eminent  of  our  geo- 
logists, might  not  be  inappropriate. 

The  proofs  of  the  former  extension  of  glaciers  in  the  northern  hemisphere, 
far  beyond  their  actual  limits,  tend  also  to  complicate  the  question  which  has 
at  all  times  so  much  engaged  the  attention  of  cosmogonists  with  respect  to 
the  ancient  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface ;  compelling  us  to  admit,  that 
at  least  during  the  later  of  its  epochs,  oscillations  of  heat  and  cold  must  have 
occurred,  to  interfere  with  the  progress  of  refrigeration  which  was  taking 
place  in  the  crust. 

On  the  other  hand,  facts  of  an  opposite  tendency,  such  as  the  discovery 
announced  at  our  last  Meeting  by  Captain  Belcher,  of  the  skeleton  of  an 
Ichthyosaurus  in  lat.  77°,  have  been  multiplying  upon  us  within  the  same 
period ;  inasmuch  as  they  appear  to  imply,'  that  a  much  higher  temperature 
in  former  times  pervaded  the  Arctic  regions  than  can  be  referred  to  local 
causes,  and  therefore  force  upon  us  the  admission,  that  the  internal  heat  of 
the  nucleus  of  our  globe  must  at  one  time  have  influenced  in  a  more  marked 
manner  than  at  present  the  temperature  of  its  crust 

On  the  causes  of  this  increased  temperature,  whether  local  or  cosmical, 
much  elaborate  research  has  been  brought  to  bear,  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  in 
his  celebrated  *  Principles  of  Geology/  and  by  Mr.  Hopkins  in  his  Address  to 
the  Geological  Society. 

The  most  extensive  collection  of  facts,  however,  having  reference  to  this 
subject,  is  contained  in  the  Reports  on  Earthquake  Phenomena,  published 
by  Mr.  Mallet  in  our  Transactions,  supplying,  as  they  do,  data  of  the  highest 
importance  to  the  full  elucidation  of  the  subject.  For  although  the  evidence 
I  have  myself  brought  together  in  my  work  on  Volcanos  might  be  sufficient 
to  establish  in  a  general  way  the  connexion  of  earthquakes  with  that  deep- 
seated  cause  which  gives  rise  to  the  eruptions  of  a  volcano,  yet  our  interest 
is  thereby  only  the  more  awakened  in  the  phenomena  they  present, — just  as 
Dr.  Whewell's  inquiries  into  the  local  variations  of  the  Tides  were  valued  all 
the  more  in  consequence  of  the  persuasion  already  felt,  that  lunar  attraction 
was  their  principal  cause* 

But  if  earthquakes  bring  under  our  notice  chiefly  the  dynajnjcal  effects  of 
this  hidden  cause  of  movement  and  of  change,  those  of  volcanos  serve  to 
reveal  to  us  more  especially  their- chemical  ones;  and  it  is  only  by  com- 
bining the  information  obtained  from  theselwo  sources,  together  with  those 
from  hot  springs,  especially  as  regards  the  gaseous  products  of  each,  that  we 
can  ever  hope  to  penetrate  the  veil  which  shrouds  the  operations  of  this 
mysterious  agent;  so  as  to  pronounce,  with  any  confidence,  whether  the 
effects  we  witness  are  due,  simply  to  that  incandescent  state  in  which  our 
planet  was  first  launched  into  space,  or  to  the  exertion  of  those  elective  at- 
tractions which  operate  between  its  component  elements, — attractions  which 
'  might  be  supposed  to  have  given  rise,  in  the  first  instance,  to  a  more  ener- 
getic action  and  consequently  to  a  greater  evolution  of  heat,  than  is  taking 


ADDRESS,  kvii 

place  at  present,  when  their  mutual  affinities  are  in  a  greater  measure 
assuaged. 

Within  the  last  twenty  year*  much  has  been  done  towards  the  elucidation 
of  this  problem,  through  the  united  investigations  of  Boussingault,  of  Deville, 
and  above  all  of  Bunsen,  with  respect  to  the  gases  and  other  bodies  evolved 
from  volcanos  in  their  various  phases  of  activity ;  the  results  of  which,  how- 
ever, do  not  appear  to  me  to  present  anything  irreconcileable  with  that  view 
of  their  causes  which  was  put  forth  many  years  ago  in  the  work  I  published. 

Whilst,  however,  the  latter  is  offered  as  nothing  more  than  as  a  conjectural 
explanation  of  the  phenomena  in  question,  I  may  remind  those,  who  prefer  the 
contrary  hypothesis  on  the  ground  that  the  oblate  figure  of  the  earth  is  in 
itself  a  sufficient  proof  of  its  primaeval  fluidity,  that  this  condition  of  things 
could  only  have  been  brought  about  in  such  materials  by  heat  of  an  intensity, 
sufficient,  whilst  it  lasted,  to  annul  all  those  combinations  amongst  the 
elements  which  chemical  affinity  would  have  a  tendency  to  induce,  and  thus 
to  render  those  actions  to  which  1  have  ascribed  the  phenomena,  not  only 
conceivable,  but  even  necessary  consequences,  of  the  cooling  down  of  our 
planet  from  its  original  melted  condition. 

In  the  nearly  allied  Science  of  Geography,  several  important  undertakings 
have  been  set  on  foot,  and  some  interesting  discoveries  made  since  the  period 
of  our  last  Meeting. 

1.  Dr.  Kane  has  extended  Arctic  discovery,  through  Smith  Strait,  at  the 
head  of  Baffin  Bay,  to  about  S  degrees  nearer  the  Pole. 

2.  Mr.  Kelley  has  announced  the  result  of  several  independent  surveying 
expeditions  despatched  by  him  to  the  Valley  of  the  Atrato,  with  a  view  to  the 
formation  of  a  great  navigable  channel  through  Central  America,  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans.  When  Humboldt  directed  attention  to  this  region 
fifty  years  since,  he  had  only  uncertain  reports  to  guide  his  anticipations ;  and 
these  surveys  have  been  the  first  to  throw  actual  light  upon  this  region. 

3.  An  expedition  has  been  despatched  to  North  Australia,  for  the  purpose 
of  exploring  the  interior  and  tracing  the  extent  of  the  northern  watershed. 
Its  arrival  at  the  mouth  of  the  Victoria  River  has  already  been  announced. 

4.  It  is  proiiosed,  by  the  Geographical  Society,  to  despatch  an  expedition 
to  Eastern  Africa,  to  explore  the  extent  of  the  inland  waters  known  to  exist 
there,  and  if  possible  to  discover  the  long-sought  sources  of  the  Nile. 

5.  Explorations  have  been  undertaken  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  by  several 
parties  in  South  America,  in  the  Pacific,  and  elsewhere :  these,  however,  are 
far  too  numerous  to  be  particularly  alluded  to. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  additions  to  our  knowledge  which  have  been  made 
in  the  course  of  the  last  twenty  years  in  those  sciences  with  which  I  am 
most  familiar. 

Whilst,  however,  the  actual  progress  which  has  taken  place  in  them  is  in 
itself  so  satisfactory,  the  change  which  the  sentiments  of  the  public  have 
undergone,  with  respect  to  their  claims  to  respect,  affords  no  less  room  for 
congratulation. 

If  onr  attention  is  turned  to  the  metropolis,  we  see  rising  up  around  us 
establishments  for  the  advancement  of  Physical  Science,  of  which  our  ances- 
tors would  scarcely  have  dreamed  the  possibility. 

I  may  instance  the  School  of  Mines,  first  placed  under  the  management  of 
oar  late  Associate,  Sir  Henry  De  la  Beche,  and  now  presided  over  by  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison,  as  a  convincing  proof  of  the  improved  feeling  on  such 
subjects  entertained  by  the  Government  of  this  country. 

e2 


lxviii  report — 1856. 

I  may  mention  also  another  proof  of  a  greater  appreciation  .of  the  claim* 
of  Science,  in  their  having  departed  from  the  practice  which  had  prevailed 
ever  since  the  death  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  of  regarding  the  Mastership  of  Her 
Majesty's  Mint  a  purely  political  appointment,  and  in  conferring  it,  as  thej- 
have  done  on  the  two  last  occasions,  as  a  reward  for  scientific  erafnetftir. 

It  is  also  gratifying  to  find,  that  the  attention  of  the  Legislature  has  at 
length  been  seriously  called  to  consider  what  measures  of  a  public  nature 
might  be  adopted  for  improving  the  position  of  Science  and  its  cultivators, 
and  that  the  Royal  Society  has  appointed  a  Body  of  its  Members  to  receive 
suggestions  on  that  subject,  and  to  report  upon  it,  in  order  that  a  matured 
plan  may  be  presented  to  Parliament  to  meet  this  object  at  its  next  Session. 

Nor,  if  we  extend  our  glance  to  the  Provinces,  need  I  go  further  thaa 
the  neighbourhood  of  our  present  place  of  meeting,  in  order  to  point  out  ai 
many  as  four  active  clubs  of  naturalists,  who  sustain  as  well  as  diffuse  an 
interest  in  our  pursuits,  by  frequrnt  meetings,  and  by  investigating,  in  com- 
mon, the  physical  peculiarities  of  their  respective  neighbourhoods. 

In  this  very  county,  too,  we  have  lately  witnessed  the  first  example  of  an 
Institution  founded  for  the  express  purpose  of  communicating  to  the  rising 
generation  of  farmers,  that  scientific  as  well  as  practical  instruction,  the  union 
of  which  is  admitted  by  every  enlightened  agriculturist  to  be  essential,  for  the 
purpose  of  deriving  the  fullest  advantage  from  the  natural  resources  of  our 
soil.  Nor  can  I  help  feeling  an  honest  pride  when  I  reflect,  that  this  Esta- 
blishment, which  has  since  risen  to  such  importance,  and  is  celebrated 
throughout  the  land  as  the  best  training  school  for  youths  destined  to  hus- 
bandry which  England  affords,  should  have  emanated  from  the  members  of 
a  little  club  existing  in  a  neighbouring  county-town,  endeared  to  me  by 
long  associations,  from  its  near  proximity  to  the  place  of  my  birth,  and  the 
home  of  my  earliest  years. 

Turning,  too,  to  the  University  to  which  I  belong,  in  which  a  few  years  ago 
our  pursuits  were  hardly  regarded  as  integral  parts  of  academical  instruction, 
we  now  find  in  it  at  least  a  recognition  of  their  importance  to  have  taken  place, 
and  Classical  Literature  no  longer  disdaining  to  own  as  her  Sisters,  the  Studies 
which  engross  so  large  a  part  of  the  attention  of  the  public  in  general. 

Nay,  the  Academic  Body  has  lately  devoted  no  small  portion  of  its 
revenues  towards  the  erection  of  a  Museum,  intended  to  comprehend  under 
one  roof  all  the  appliances  for  research,  as  well  as  all  the  means  of  instruction 
which  can  be  required  in  the  several  branches  of  Natural  Philosophy. 

The  extension,  indeed,  which  is  now  given  to  the  name  in  the  language  ef 
naturalists,  and  even  by  the  public  at  large,  is  in  itself  an  indication  of 
correcter  views  than  were  formerly  entertained  with  regard  to  the  uses  of 
such  Establishments. 

Few,  for  instance,  have  such  a  notion  of  a  Museum  as  Horace  Walpole 
gave  utterance  to  at  the  close  of  the  last  century*,  when  he  defined  it  "a 
"  hospital  for  everything  that  is  singular — whether  the  thing  has  acquired 
"  singularity  from  having  escaped  the  rage,  of  time — from  any  natural  odd n ess, 
"  — or  from  being  so  insignificant  that  nobody  thought  it  worth  while  to  pro- 
44  duce  any  more  of  the  same." 

Nor  will  it  be  possible  to  ridicule  these  Institutions,  as  an  eminent  member 
of  my  own  University,  even  within  my  recollection,  was  tempted  to  do,  in 
alluding  to  the  little  Institutions  of  the  kind  set  up  in  some  of  our  pro- 
vincial towns  f. 

44  The  stuffed  ducks,  the  skeleton  in  the  mahogany  case,  the  starved  cat  and 

•  Fugitive  Pieces.  t  Sewell's  Letter  to  a  Disaenter,  1834. 


ADDRESS,  lxxi 

"rat  which  were  found  behind  a  wainscot,  the  broken  potsherd  from  an  old 
u  barrow,  the  tattooed  head  of  the  New  Zealand  chief,  the  very  unpleasant- 
tt  looking  lizards  and  snakes  coiled  up  in  the  spirits  of  wine,  the  flint-stones 
*  and  cockle  shells,"  &c,  will  no  longer  be  seen  jumbled  together  in  hetero- 
geneous confusion,  as  might  bare  been  the  case  at  the  period  alluded  to. 

The  Ipswich  Museum  has  set  an  example,  which  I  have  no  doubt  will  be 
generally  followed,  of  selecting  for  such  Institutions  a  series  of  types  illus- 
trative of  the  mineral,  vegetable,  and  animal  kingdoms ;  and  a  Committee  of 
this  Association  is  now  employed  in  the  useful  undertaking  of  preparing  a 
list  of  objects  calculated  to  illustrate  the  different  forms  in  nature,  and  thus 
rendering  our  provincial  Museums  no  longer  mere  rareeshows,  but  places 
where  the  masses  may  receive  instruction  in  all  branches  of  Natural  History. 
But  the  Oxford  Museum  aims  at  much  more  than  is  usually  understood 
by  that  title.  Its  central  area,  indeed,  may  be  regarded  as  the  Sanctuary  of 
the  Temple  of  Science,  intended  to  include  all  those  wonderful  contrivances 
by  which  the  Author  of  the  Universe  manifests  himself  to  His  creatures ; 
whilst  the  apartments  which  surround  it,  dedicated  as  they  will  be  to  lectures 
and  researches  connected  with  all  branches  of  Physical  Science,  may  repre- 
sent the  chambers  of  the  ministering  Priests,  engaged  in  worshiping  at  her 
altar,  and  in  expounding  her  mysteries. 

In  turning  too  to  this  Association,  the  reception  with  which  it  is  now 
greeted  in  the  course  of  its  migrations  through  the  various  portions  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  is  not  less  encouraging  as  an  augury  of  the  future  pro- 
spects of  Science. 

Our  Body,  indeed,  may  now  be  said  to  have  passed  unscathed  through 
that  ordeal  to  which  all  infant  undertakings  are  exposed,  and  which  even  its 
great  prototype,  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  at  its  commencement,  did  not 
altogether  escape.  And  the  best  proof  that  such  is  the  case,  will  be  found  in 
the  different  manner  in  which  it  is  received  by  the  public  in  general. 

Twenty  years  ago  the  invitations  sent  us  proceeded,  either  from  places  like 
the  Universities  expressly  dedicated  to  learning,  and  therefore  peculiarly 
called  upon  to  lend  a  helping  hand  to  Science ;  or  else  from  Cities,  in  which 
the  predominant  occupations  brought  the  mass  of  the  population  into  im- 
mediate and  constant  connexion  with  scientific  processes. 

Now,  on  the  contrary,  we  have  seen  the  two  principal  Centres  of  fashion- 
able resort — the  favourite  retreats  of  the  wealthy  and  noble  of  the  land — 
vieing  with  each  other  in  their  eagerness  to  receive  us ;  and  an  almost  purely 
agricultural  County  greeting  us  with  the  same  hearty  welcome  as  that  which  we 
had  heretofore  received  from  the  commercial  and  manufacturing  Communities. 
Twenty  years  ago  it  was  thought  necessary  to  explain  at  our  meetings  the 
character  and  objects  of  this  Association,  and  to  vindicate  it  from  the  denun- 
ciations fulminated  against  it  by  individuals,  and  even  by  parties  of  men, 
who  held  it  up  as  dangerous  to  religion,  and  subversive  of  sound  principles 
in  theology. 

Now,  so  marked  is  the  change  in  public  feeling,  that  we  are  solicited  by 
the  clergy,  no  less  than  by  the  laity,  to  hold  our  meetings  within  their  pre- 
cincts ;  and  have  never  received  a  heartier  welcome  than  in  the  city  in  which 
we  are  now  assembled,  which  values  itself  so  especially,  and  with  such  good 
reason,  on  the  extent  and  excellence  of  its  educational  establishments. 

It  begins,  indeed,  to  be  generally  felt,  that  amongst  the  faculties  of  mind, 
upon  the  development  of  which  in  youth  success  in  after  life  mainly  depends, 
there  are  some  which  are  best  improved  through  the  cultivation  of  the 
Physical  Sciences,  and  that  the  rudiments  of  those  Sciences  are  most  easily 
acquired  at  an  early  period  of  life. 


1XX  REPORT — 1856. 

That  power  of  minute  observation — those  habits  of  method  and  arrange- 
ment— that  aptitude  for  patient  and  laborious  inquiry — that  tact  and  sagacity 
in  deducing  inferences  from  evidence  short  of  demonstration,  which  the 
Natural  Sciences  more  particularly  promote,  are  the  fruits  of  early  education, 
and  acquired  with  difficulty  at  a  later  period. 

It  is  during  childhood,  also,  that  the  memory  is  most  fresh  and  retentive ; 
and  that  the  nomenclature  of  the  sciences,  which,  from  its  crabbedness  and 
technicality,  often  repels  us  at  a  more  advanced  age,  is  acquired  almost 
without  an  effort. 

Although,  therefore,  it  can  hardly  be  expected,  that  the  great  schools  in 
the  country  will  assign  to  the  Natural  Sciences  any  important  place  in  their 
systems  of  instruction,  until  the  Universities  for  which  they  are  the  seminaries 
set  them  the  example,  yet  I  cannot  doubt,  but  that  the  signal  once  given,  both 
masters  and  scholars  will  eagerly  embrace  a  change  so  congenial  to  the  tastes 
of  youth,  and  so  favourable  to  the  development  of  their  intellectual  faculties. 

And  has  not,  it  may  be  asked,  the  signal  been  given  by  the  admission  of 
the  Physical  Sciences  into  the  curriculum  of  our  academical  education  7 

I  trust  that  this  question  may  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  if  we  are 
entitled  to  assume,  that  the  recognition  of  them  which  has  already  taken 
place  will  be  consistently  followed  up,  by  according  to  them  some  such  sub- 
stantial encouragement,  as  that  which  has  been  afforded  hitherto  almost 
exclusively  to  classical  literature. 

Our  ability  to  accomplish  this,  with  the  means  and  appliances  at  our  com- 
mand, does  not,  I  think,  admit  of  dispute. 

Happily  for  this  country,  the  conservative  feeling  which  has  ever  prevailed 
amongst  us,  and  the  immunity  we  have  enjoyed  from  such  political  con- 
vulsions as  have  affected  most  other  European  nations,  maintain  in  their 
integrity  those  Academical  Establishments,  which,  as  Monsieur  Montalembert 
has  remarked,  are,  like  our  Government  and  our  other  Institutions,  a  magni- 
ficent specimen  of  the  social  condition  of  the  middle  ages,  as  it  at  one  time 
existed  throughout  the  whole  of  Western  Europe. 

They  are  Institutions,  indeed,  which  foreigners  may  well  look  upon  with 
envy,  but  which  when  once  destroyed,  it  is  hopeless  to  expect  that  Govern- 
ments, engrossed  as  they  are  with  the  interests  and  politics  of  the  day,  will 
ever  think  of  restoring. 

Thanks  to  their  existence,  it  rarely  happens,  that  a  student,  in  Oxford  at 
least,  who  has  distinguished  himself  in  his  classical  examinations,  fails  to  obtain 
some  reward  for  his  past  exertions,  and,  if  he  require  it,  some  assistance  to 
enable  him  to  continue  them  in  future. 

And  this,  too,  be  it  observed,  has  been  the  case,  even  whilst  the  natural, 
although  perhaps  mistaken  partiality  of  our  founders,  for  their  native  counties, 
for  the  parishes  in  which  their  estates  lay,  or  for  their  own  collateral  descend- 
ants, greatly  curtailed  the  number  of  fellowships  which  could  be  bestowed 
on  merit 

All,  therefore,  that  seems  wanted,  now  that  local  preferences  seem  on  the 
point  of  being  removed,  is,  on  the  one  hand,  a  more  equal  distribution  of  the 
existing  emoluments  between  the  several  professions,  and,  on  the  other,  the 
admission  of  the  claims  of  the  sciences  received  into  our  educational  system, 
to  share  in  the  emoluments  which,  up  to  this  time,  have  been  monopolized 
by  the  Classics. 

And  as  it  is  far  from  my  wish  to  curtail  the  older  studies  of  the  University 
of  their  proper  share  of  support — for  who  that  has  passed  through  a 
course  of  them  can  be  insensible  of  the  advantages  he  has  derived  from 
that  early  discipline  of  the  mind  which  flows  from  their  cultivation? — I 


ADDRE88.  lxxi 

rejoice  to  think,  that  when  the  Legislature  shall  have  completed  the  removal 
of  those  restrictions  which  have  hitherto  prevented  us  in  many  instances 
from  consulting  the  claims  of  merit  in  the  distribution  of  our  emolu- 
ments, there  will  be  ample  means  afforded  for  giving  ail  needful  encourage- 
ment to  the  newly  recognized  studies,  without  trenching  unduly  upon  that 
amount  of  pecuniary  aid  which  has  been  hitherto  accorded  to  the  Classics. 

Id  anticipation  of  which  change,  I  look  forward  with  confidence  to  the  day, 
when  the  requirements  at  Oxford,  in  the  department  of  Physical  Science,  will 
become  so  general  and  so  pressing,  that  no  Institution  which  professes  to 
prepare  the  youth  it  instructs  for  academical  competition  will  venture  to  risk 
its  reputation  by  declining  to  admit  these  branches  of  study  into  its  educa- 
tional courses. 

Indeed  the  example  has  already  been  set  in  many,  as  I  understand  to  be 
the  case  with  the  noble  Seminary  within  whose  walls  we  are  now  assembled, 
as  well  as  with  that  older  Establishment,  which,  under  the  energetic  manage- 
ment of  its  present  head  master,  has  become  its  worthy  rival  as  a  training 
school  for  the  Universities. 

At  any  rate,  I  trust  the  time  has  now  passed  away,  when  studies  such  as 
those  we  recommend  lie  under  the  imputation  of  fostering  sentiments 
inimical  to  religion. 

In  countries,  and  in  an  age  in  which  men  of  Letters  were  generally  tine* 
tured  with  infidelity,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  Natural  Philosophy  would 
altogether  escape  the  contagion ;  but  the  contemplation  of  the  works  of  crea- 
tion is  surely  in  itself  far  more  calculated  to  induce  the  humility  that  paves 
the  way  to  belief,  than  the  presumption  which  disdains  to  lean  upon  the 
supernatural. 

it  is  not,  indeed,  without  an  excusable  feeling  of  exultation  that  in  sur- 
veying the  triumphs  of  modern  science,  we  see 

"  An  intellectual  mastery  exercised 
O'er  the  blind  elements ;  a  purpose  given ; 
A  perseverance  fed ;  almost  a  soul 
Imparted  to  brute  matter ;" 

or  that  we  repeat  to  ourselves  the  words  in  which  the  poet  apostrophizes  the 
philosopher,— 

"  Go,  wondrous  creature  1  mount  where  Science  guides,— 
Go,  measure  earth,  weigh  air,  and  state  the  tides ; 
Instruct  the  planets  in  what  orbs  to  ran, 
Correct  old  Time,  and  regulate  the  Sun." 

Nevertheless,  if  we  pursue  the  line  of  thought  in  which  the  same  author 
indulges,  we  shall  be  compelled  to  ask  ourselves,  not  without  a  deep  sentiment 
of  humiliation,  even  whilst  contemplating  the  highest  order  of  intellect  which 
the  human  race  has  ever  exhibited,— 

"  Could  he,  whose  rules  the  rapid  Comet  bind, 
Describe  or  fix  one  movement  of  the  mind  ? 
Who  saw  its  fires  here  rise,  and  there  descend, 
Explain  his  own  beginning,  or  his  end  ?" 

When  indeed  we  reflect  within  what  a  narrow  area  our  researches  are 
of  necessity  circumscribed,  when  we  perceive  that  we  are  bounded  in  space 
almost  to  the  surface  of  the  planet  in  which  we  reside, — itself  merely  a  speck 
in  the  universe,  one  of  innumerable  worlds  invisible  from  the  nearest  of  the 
fixed  stars — when  we  recollect,  too,  that  we  are  limited  in  point  of  time  to  a 
few  short  years  of  life  and  activity — that  our  records  of  the  past  history  of 
the  globe  and  of  its  inhabitants  are  comprised  within  a  minute  portion  of  the 


lxxii  REPORT — 1856. 

latest  of  the  many  epochs  which  the  earth  has  gone  through — and  that  with 
regard  to  the  future,  the  most  durable  monuments  we  can  raise  to  hand 
down  our  names  to  posterity  are  liable  at  any  time  to  be  overthrown  by  ao 
earthquake,  and  would  be  obliterated,  as  if  they  had  never  been,  by  any  of 
those  processes  of  metamorphic  action  which  geology  tells  us  form  a  part  of 
the  cycle  of  changes  which  the  globe  is  destined  to  undergo, — the  more  lost 
in  wonder  we  may  be  at  the  vast  fecundity  of  Nature,  which  within  so  narrow 
a  sphere  can  crowd  together  phenomena  so  various  and  so  imposing,  the 
more  sensible  shall  we  become  of  the  small  proportion,  which  our  highest 
powers  and  their  happiest  results  bear,  not  only  to  the  Cause  of  all  causation, 
but  even  to  other  created  beings,  higher  in  the  scale  than  ourselves,  which 
we  may  conceive  to  exist. 

"  Think  thou  this  world  of  hopes  and  fears 

Could  find  no  statelier  than  his  peers 

In  yonder  hundred  million  spheres  ? " 

It  is  believed,  that  every  one  of  the 'molecules  whieh  make  up  the  mass  of 
a  compound  body  is  an  aggregate  of  a  number  of  atoms,  which,  by  their 
arrangement  and  mutual  relation,  impart  to  the  whole  its  peculiar  properties ; 
and,  according  to  another  speculation^  which  has  been  already  alluded  to, 
these  atoms  are  not  absolutely  motionless,  but  are  ever  shifting  their  position 
within  certain  limits,  so  as  to  induce  corresponding  changes  in  the  properties 
of  the  mass. 

Indeed  it  has  been  imagined,  that  the  production  of  different  compounds 
from  the  same  elements  united  in  the  same  proportions,  may  be  one  of  the 
consequences  resulting  from  the  different  arrangement  of  particles  thereby 
jnduced. 

If  this  hypothesis  have  any  foundation  in  fact,  what  an  example  does  it 
set  before  us  of  great  effects  brought  about  by  movements  which,  to  our 
senses,  are  too  minute  to  be  appreciable ;  and  what  an  illustration  does  it 
afford  us  of  the  limited  powers  inherent  in  the  human  race,  which  are  never- 
theless capable  of  bringing  about  effects  so  varied,  and  to  us  so  important ; 
although,  as  compared  with  the  universe,  so  insignificant  I 

We  also  are  atoms,  chained  down  to  the  little  globe  in  which  our  lot  is 
cast;  allowed  a  small  field  of  action,  and  confined  within  definite  limits,  both 
as  to  space  and  as  to  time. 

We,  too,  can  only  bring  about  such  changes  in  nature,  as  are  the  resultants 
of  those  few  laws  which  it  lies  within  the  compass  of  our  powers  to  investigate 
and  to  take  advantage  of. 

We,  too,  can  only  run  through  a  certain  round  of  operations,  as  limited  in 
their  extent,  in  comparison  with  those  which  lie  within  the  bounds  of  our 
conception,  as  the  movements  of  the  atoms,  which  serve  to  make  up  a  com- 
pound molecule  of  any  of  the  substances  around  us,  are  to  the  revolutions  of 
the  heavenly  Luminaries. 

And  as,  according  to  Professor  Owen,  the  conceivable  modifications  of 
the  vertebral  archetype  are  very  far  from  being  exhausted  by  any  of  the 
forms  which  now  inhabit  the  earth,  or  that  are  known  to  have  existed  here 
at  any  former  period ;  so  likewise  the  properties  of  matter  with  which  we  .are 
permitted  to  become  cognizant,  may  form  but  a  small  portion  of  those  of 
which  it  is  susceptible,  or  with  which  the  Creator  may  have  endowed  it  in 
other  portions  of  the  Universe. 

We  are  told,  that  in  a  future  and  a  higher  state  of  existence,  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  blessed  is  that  of  praising  and  worshiping  the  Almighty. 
But  is  not  the  contemplation  of  the  works  of  the  Creator,  and  the  study  of 
the  ordinances  of  the  Great  Lawgiver  of  the  universe,  in  itself  an  act  of 


ADDRR88. 


Ixxiii 


pnise  and  adoration ;  and,  if  so,  may  not  one  at  least  of  the  sources  of 
happiness  which  we  are  promised  in  a  future  state  of  existence,  one  of  the 
rewards  for  a  single-minded  and  reverential  pursuit  after  truth  in  our  present 
state  of  trial,  consist  in  a  development  of  our  faculties,  and  in  the  power  of 
comprehending  those  laws  and  provisions  of  Nature  with  which  our  finite 
reason  prevents  us  at  present  from  becoming  cognizant  ? 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  reflections  which  the  study  of  Physical  Science,  cul- 
tivated in  a  right  spirit,  naturally  suggests ;  and  I  ask  you,  whether  they  are 
not  more  calculated  to  inspire  humility  than  to  induce  conceit ;  to  render 
us  more  deeply  conscious  how  much  of  the  vast  field  of  knowledge  must  ever 
lie  concealed  from  our  view — how  small  a  portion  of  the  veil  of  Isis  it  is 
given  us  to  lift  up — and  therefore  to  dispose  us  to  accept,  with  a  more 
unhesitating  faith,  the  knowledge  vouchsafed  from  on  high,  on  subjects 
which  oar  own  unassisted  reason  is  incapable  of  fathoming. 

"  Let  us  not,  therefore,"  to  use  the  language  of  a  living  prelate,  "  think 
scorn  of  the  pleasant  land.  That  land  is  the  field  of  antient  and  modern 
Literature — of  Philosophy  in  almost  all  its  Departments — of  the  Arts  of 
Reasoning  and  Persuasion.  Every  part  of  it  may  be  cultivated  with  advan- 
tage, as  the  Land  of  Canaan  when  bestowed  upon  God's  peculiar  people. 
Thej  were  not  commanded  to  let  it  lie  waste,  as  incurably  polluted  by  the 
abominations  of  its  first  inhabitants;  but  to  cultivate  it  and  to  dwell  in  it, 
living  in  obedience  to  the  Divine  laws,  and  dedicating  its  choicest  fruits  to 
the  Lord  their  God." 


1856.  / 


REPORTS 


ON 


THE  STATE  OF  SCIENCE. 


. 


i- 


REPORTS 


ON 


£HE 


STATE  OF  SCIENCE. 


Report  from  the  Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  for 
the  Advancement  of  Science,  at  the  Meeting  in  Liverpool,  in  Sep- 
tember 1854,  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  effects  produced 
upon  tlte  Channels  of  the  Mersey  by  the  alterations  which  within  the 
last  fifty  years  have  been  made  in  its  Banks. 

Your  Committee  have  to  report,  that  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  satis- 
factory solution  of  the  questions  submitted  to  their  investigation,  they  deemed 
it  expedient  to  refer  different  portions  of  the  inquiry  to  individual  members 
of  their  body,  in  the  following  manner : — 

1 .  Mr.  George  Rennie,  to  trace  historically  the  important  projections  into 
the  river,  and  reclamation  of  large  areas  of  land  which  would  exclude  the 
entry  of  water. 

2.  Mr.  Joseph  Boult,  to  show  important  changes  in  the  bottom,  including 
the  channels  and  outlets  of  the  river,  so  dividing  the  work  that  it  may  illus- 
trate the  effects  of  the  above-named  encroachments. 

3.  Mr.  Henderson,  to  compare  the  tides  of  the  present  period  with  the 
tides  registered  by  Mr.  Rendell. 

It  has  been  thought  desirable  to  present  the  reports  of  these  gentlemen  to 
the  Association  unabridged,  as  affording  the  best  solution  of  the  subject 
which  has  yet  been  prepared,  and  your  Committee  will  therefore  only  refer 
to  the  more  salient  points  of  the  inquiry,  and  to  the  conclusions  to  be  drawn 
from  the  information  laid  before  them. 

Mr.  Rennie's  report  is  accompanied  by  copiesNof  the  following  valuable 
documents :— - 

1 .  Report  of  Messrs.  Wilkin  relative  to  the  navigation  and  conservancy  of 
the  River  Mersey,  28th  April  1840. 

2.  Area  and  content  of  water  in  the  River  Mersey,  from  Blackrock  to 
Woolston  Weir,  above  Warrington,  at  certain  tides,  below  and  above  Liver- 
pool Old  Dock  sill,  by  George  Rennie,  18th  May  1838. 

3.  Index  of  the  engineers'  and  surveyors'  reports  who  have  reported  on  the 
estuary  and  River  Mersey. 

4.  First  and  second  Memorial  of  the  Mayor,  Aldermen  and  Burgesses  of 
the  Borough  of  Liverpool,  April  and  September  1839. 

5.  Letter  from  H.  M.  Denham,  R.N.,  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool, 
27th  September  1836. 

6.  Statement  of  the  Town-clerk  as  to  the  rights  of  the  Mayor,  Aldermen, 
and  Burgesses  of  Liverpool  to  the  lordship  of  Liverpool,  comprising  the 
Hirer  Mersey  up  to  the  bridges  and  strand  at  Liverpool,  Toxteth  Park,  Bir- 
kenhead, and  Wallasey. 

1856.  '  » 


2  REPORT — 1856. 

7.  Letter  from  William  Lord,  R.N.,  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Conservancy 
Committee,  23rd  March  1840. 

8.  Letter  from  William  Lord,  R.N.,  to  R.  Radcliffe,  Esq.,  3rd  April  1840. 
The  history  of  the  Mersey  is  well  detailed  by  Messrs.  Wilkiu  down  to  the 

date  of  their  inquiry.  From  their  report  it  appears  that  until  1818  there 
was  no  Check  or  control  exercised  by  any  authority  over  encroachments  upon 
the  tidal  area  of  the  river.  In  that  year  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  whose 
jurisdiction  extended  from  Hoylake  to  Hesketh  Bank  on  the  Ribble,  and  all 
over  the  River  Mersey  to  Warrington  and  Frodsham  Bridges,  and  who  had 
authority  to  remove  any  obstructions  to  the  navigation,  "  be  it  the  ground 
or  soil  of  the  King's  most  excellent  Majesty,  or  any  other  person  or  persons, 
bodies  politic  or  corporate  whatsoever,"  called  in  Mr.  Whidbey,  of  Plymouth 
Breakwater,  to  examine  the  encroachments  which  had  been  made  on  the  estuary 
at  different  parts,  and  to  lay  down  some  general  principles  as  to  its  future 
preservation.  Subsequently  Mr.  Rennie,  Sen.,  and  Messrs.  Chapman,  Giles, 
Walker,  Mylne,  Stevenson,  and  George  and  John  Rennie,  reported  in  con- 
firmation of  the  general  principles  laid  down  by  Mr.  Whidbey.  They  may 
be  briefly  stated  as  follows :— -"  That  tide  harbours  are  deep  or  otherwise  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  which  flows  and  ebbs  through  their 
channels,  and  that  to  embank  portions  of  the  tidal  area  is  to  diminish  that 
quantity  of  water  and  consequently  to  injure  the  harbour.'*  So  completely 
had  these  principles  been  contravened  in  former  days,  that  it  appears  from 
Mr.  Rennie's  calculation  of  the  area  and  content  of  water  in  the  River 
Mersey  (No.  2),  that  the  original  tidal  area  was  36,500  acres,  of  which 
13,440  acres  were  then  (1838)  lost  to  the  tideway,  being  enclosed  marshes. 

The  very  elaborate  survey  of  the  Mersey,  from  the  Blackrock  to  Woolston 
Weir,  which  was  prepared  about  thirty  years  since  by  the  late  Mr.  Giles, 
C.E.,  for  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  is  an  invaluable  and  unique  docu- 
ment As  it  is  plotted  to  an  adequate  scale,  and  furnishes  data  for  determining 
the  extent  of  any  changes,  either  in  the  area  or  depth  of  the  river,  since  that 
date.  As,  however,  the  survey  has  not  yet  been  repeated,  your  Committee 
have  been  unable  to  investigate  the  changes  in  that  part  of  the  Mersey : 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  of  them  have  important  relations  to  the 
well-being  of  the  river,  and  the  great  interests  in  either  shore.  Amongst 
others,  the  mutations  in  the  Devil  and  Pluckington  Banks,  and  the  waste  of 
various  portions  of  the  shore  are  the  most  remarkable. 

Unfortunately,  Mr.  Giles's  survey  did  not  include  the  outer  estuary  or 
Liverpool  Bay ;  of  this  frequent  and  excellent  surveys  have  been  made 
during  the  last  twenty-three  years  by  Capt.  Denham,  and  his  successor  Lieut* 
Lord,  who,  as  marine  surveyors  to  the  port,  exercised  unceasing  vigilance  on 
the  changes  within  the  sphere  of  their  observations.  Mr.  Boult's  attention 
has  been  especially  directed  to  the  alterations  recorded  by  these  surveys, 
and  to  the  influence  which  may  have  been  exercised  upon  those  alterations 
by  the  dock- works  of  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,  and  by  meteorological  phe- 
nomena. The  changes  in  the  areas  and  positions  of  the  several  banks  nave 
been  laid  down  in  coloured  outlines,  upon  the  accompanying  charts*  A,  B, 
and  C,  and  the  alterations  in  their  cubical  contents  and  in  the  average  areas 
of  the  sea  channels,  as  far  as  they  can  be  approximately  ascertained  from  the 
surveys,  are  recorded  in  the  tables  D,  £,  F,  and  G. 

From  these  it  appears  that  there  has  been  a  progressive,  though  irregular, 

*  Of  these  charts  it  has  been  found  desirable  to  publish  Chart  A.  only  j  at  the  scale  to 
which  the  illustrations  are  necessarily*  restricted  is  too  small  to  permit  distinctness  in  the) 
several  contours. 


TH1  RIVE*  MEBSEY.  O 

ill  the  sixes  of  the  banks,  the  growth  having  been  both  lateral  and 
wtical;  tome  of  the  fluctuations  are  very  remarkable;  that  the  average 
area  of  the  northern  channel  remains  very  stationary,  though  in  places  the 
mutations  have  been  considerable ;  and  that  there  has  been  a  diminution  of 
average  area  in  the  Rock  Channel,  arising  from  a  deposit  of  silt  at  the 
eastern  end.  This  channel  is  the  oldest  known  entrance  into  the  Mersey ; 
it  is  laid  down  by  Captain  Collins  in  his  survey  of  1689,  who  says  of  the 
northern  channel  (by  way  of  Crosby  and  Formby)  that  it  is  not  buoyed  or 
beaconed,  and  so  not  known.  There  appear  to  be  grounds  for  serious  ap- 
prehensions that  the  Rock  Channel  may  be  irreooverably  lost,  if  due  pre- 
cautions are  not  adopted  in  good  time. 

There  have  been  extraordinary  fluctuations  in  the  seaward  entrance  of  the 
Borthern  channel  within  the  period  embraced  in  this  inquiry,  and  at  this 
present  time  another  great  change  is  being  accomplished,  namely,  the  sub- 
stitution of  the  Queen  •  Channel  for  the  Victoria  Channel,  intermediate 
between  the  latter  and  the  Zebra  Channel. 

There  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  growth  of  the  banks  and  the  silting  up 
of  part  of  the  Rock  Channel  have  been  much  promoted  by  the  abstraction 
of  area  which  has  taken  place  for  dock  purposes ;  nor  is  this  surprising  when 
we  find  the  extent  of  this  abstraction,  and  the  important  part  of  the  river, 
eipeeially  in  relation  to  the  Rock  Channel,  where  it  has  been  made* 

Between  1846  and  1852,  or  in  six  years,  it  seems  that  as  much  as  500 
acres  have  been  enclosed  for  the  dock-works  of  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead, 
and  the  result  apparently  confirms  the  correctness  of  the  principle  laid  down 
by  Mr.  W hid  bey  and  other  eminent  engineers  who  have  reported  upon  the 
river,  as  indicating  the  consequence  of  diminishing  the  scouring  power  of 
the  last  of  the  flood  and  the  first  of  the  ebb,  the  situations  of  the  abstractions 
'  referred  to  being  in  parts  of  the  river  which  are  occupied  by  those  portions 
of  the  tidal  waters. 

It  appears  from  Mr.  Boult's  researches,  that  the  change  of  direction  in  the 
channels  is  not  so  much  the  result  of  the  direction  of  the  dock  walls  as  of 
alterations  in  the  size  and  position  of  the  sand-banks ;  alterations  which  seem 
to  be  due  to  the  permanent  loss  of  scouring  power,  by  abstraction  of  tidal 
area ;  to  the  temporary  increase  of  that  loss  from  drought ;  to  the  temporary 
accession  of  scouring  power  from  freshes ;  and  to  the  drifts  of  sand  by  the 
winds  to  which  the  bay  is  peculiarly  exposed,  and  which  are  the  prevailing 
winds  on  this  part  of  the  coast.  The  extent  of  this  sand-drift  is  so  great, 
that,  since  Collins's  survey,  the  eastern  shore  of  the  estuary  appears  to  have 
advanced  westward  as  much  as  one-half  the  width  of  the  northern  channel, 
or  about  1000  yards. 

It  b  possible  that  the  deterioration  of  the  Rock  Channel  is  to  be  ascribed, 
in  part,  to  the  erection  of  the  new  north  wall  at  Liverpool.  It  is  built  on 
the  Bootle  shore,  almost  immediately  opposite  the  junction  of  that  channel 
with  the  northern  channel,  and  directly  across  the  direction  of  the  tidal 
stream  in  the  Rock  Channel.  Therefore,  the  flood-stream  entering  the  river 
by  that  channel  is  suddenly  checked  by  this  upright  wall,  and  is  deprived  of 
the  space  formerly  allowed  by  the  sloping  Bootle  shore  for  gradually  changing 
hi  direction  into  that  of  the  main  course  of  the  river  and  the  northern 
ehanneL 

It  was  observed  by  Messrs.  Whidbey,  Chapman,  and  Rennie,  in  their 
Report  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool  in  1822,  that  "  all  channels  through 
which  water  flows  must  be  of  a  magnitude  proportionate  to  the  quantity 
which  passes  them,  and  any  increase  or  diminution  of  that  quantity  will 

b2 


4  REPORT — 1856. 

enlarge  or  diminish  tbe  channel,  unless  when  formed  of  materials  so  hard  that 
the  strength  of  tbe  current  is  not  able  to  remove  them."  The  truth  of  this 
observation  is  strikingly  confirmed  by  the  remarkable  waste  of  the  clay  cliffe 
of  the  Cheshire  shore  of  the  river  at  Seacombe  and  Egremont.  This  has 
been  observed  for  many  years. past;  but,  according  to  the  evidence  which 
accompanies  the  report  of  Mr.  Walker,  C.E.,  printed  by  order  of  the  House 
of  Commons,  2Srd  June  1856,  it  has  greatly  increased  within  the  last  ten 
years,  or  since  so  much  of  the  tideway  on  the  opposite  shore  has  been 
abstracted  for  the  north  dock-works. 

The  result  of  the  inquiry,  so  far  as  your  Committee  have  been  able  to 
prosecute  it,  shows  the  vital  importance  of  a  strict  conservancy  of  the  River 
Mersey  in  all  its  tidal  area,  in  order  that  it  may  be  preserved  for  the  vast 
commerce  centered  on  its  shores.  There  is  no  doubt  that  injury — to  a  great 
extent  irremediable — has  been  already  inflicted,  not  only  upon  some  of  the 
owners  of  property  on  its  margin,  but  also  upon  the  river  itself,  more  espe- 
cially upon  its  approaches.  Your  Committee  conceive  that  the  nature  and 
extent  of  this  injury  should  be  determined  as  accurately  and  as  speedily  as 
possible ;  that  the  trade  on  this  river  is  vastly  too  important  in  its  relation  to 
the  national  prosperity,  for  the  subject  of  this  inquiry  to  be  left  to  a  committee, 
however  zealous,  which  is  unendowed  with  pecuniary  resources,  and  dependent 
for  information  upon  the  researches  of  gentlemen  actively  engaged  in  official 
and  professional  occupations ;  and  that  the  result  of  such  an  investigation 
would  be  highly  beneficial  to  the  science  of  harbour  engineering.  The 
scientific  value  of  the  information  so  acquired  would  be  greatly  enhanced 
were  the  phenomena  of  all  our  tidal  harbours  subjected  to  similar  research. 
It  is  not  unreasonable  to  expect  that  the  ultimate  result  would  give  greater 
certainty  as  to  the  influence  of  projected  works  upon  the  well-being  of  the 
harbours  with  which  they  are  associated  ;  and  relieve  the  Legislature  from  " 
the  responsibility  of  sanctioning  undertakings  the  destructive  or  conservative 
effects  of  which,  at  present,  are  often  very  speculative. 

Harrowby,  Chairman*  George  Rennie. 

P.  M.  Grey  Egerton.  Andrew  Henderson. 

R.  I.  Murchison.  Joseph:  Boult,  Secretary. 
F.  W.  Bbechet. 


Report  on  the  past  and  present  state  of  the  Estuary  of  the  Mersey  within  the 
last  seventy  years,  as  derived  from  historical  records,  and  according  to  the 
maps,  charts^  and  reports  of  different  Engineers,  and  which  have  been  laid 
before  the  Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  at  its  meeting  at 
Liverpool,  September  1854,  to  investigate  and  report  upon  the  same.  By 
George  Rennie,  F.R.S. 

The  early  history  of  the  Mersey,  previous  to  the  beginning  of  tbe  present 
century,  is  confined  to  the  uncertain  statements  of  topographical  writers  such 
as  Leland,  Gough,  King,  Ormerod,  Mortimer,  and  others;  and  the  charts  of 
Captain  Collins  in  1689,  and  by  M'Kenzie  in  1760. 

According  to  the  original  constitution  of  the  charters  and  grants  made 
from  time  to  time  to  the  borough  of  Liverpool,  the  boundaries  of  that  port 
were  adopted  by  a  commission  issued  19th  July,  32  Charles  II.,  which  recited 
an  Act  passed  in  the  14th  year  of  the  then  king's  reign,  for  li  preventing 
frauds  and  regulating  abuses  in  the  Customs  ;"  and  also  an  Act  of  the  1st  of 
Elizabeth.    It  was  settled  in  November  1680,  that  the  boundaries  of  the  port 


THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  5 

of  Liverpool  should  be  "from  the  Red  Stones  on  the  point  of  Wirrall  south- 
erly, to  the  foot  of  the  Rihble  water  in  a  direct  line  northerly,  and  so  upon 
the  south  side  of  the  said  river  to  Hesketh  Bank  easterly/'  These  limits 
were  adopted  in  the  Dock  Act  of  Anne,  and  subsequent  dock  acts,  as  the 
limits  of  the  crown  revenues,  and  have  been  adhered  to  down  to  the  present 
time.  The  limiU  of  the  old  borough  and  parish  of  Liverpool  bordering  on 
the  Mersey  are  thus  denned,  viz. — "  The  western  boundary  commences  at 
low-water  mark  of  the  River  Mersey,  where  a  brook,  called  Beacon's  Gutter, 
enters  the  river,  and  continues  thence  southward  along  the  low-water  mark 
of  the  said  river,  to  the  centre  of  a  certain  slip  or  basin  called  Etna  Slip. 
The  southern  boundary  commences  from  the  centre  of  Etna  Slip,  and  runs 
from  thence  to  the  eastward,  across  the  southernmost  end  of  the  Queen's 
Dock.  The  northern  boundary  returns  along  the  Beacon's  Gutter,  to  the 
beforementioned  low-water  mark  of  the  river."  The  8th  of  Anne,  1709, 
defined  the  limits  of  the  port  of  Liverpool  to  extend  as  far  as  "  a  certain  place 
in  Hoylake  called  the  Red  Stones,  and  from  thence  all  over  the  River  Mersey 
to  Warrington  and  Frodsham  Bridges."  These  boundaries  and  rights  of  the 
Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  to  the  lordships  of  Liverpool,  comprising  the 
River  Mersey  up  to  the  bridges  and  to  the  strand  at  Liverpool,  Toxteth  Park, 
Birkenhead,  and  Wallasey,  are  fully  explained  in  the  accompanying  statement, 
No.  6,  as  also  in  the  second  memorial  of  the  Liverpool  Corporation  to  the 
Admiralty,  No.  4.  According  to  a  statement  made  by  Mr.  Rollet,  surveyor 
of  Wallasey  embankment,  at  the  fifth  meeting  of  the  Architectural  and 
Archaeological  Society  of  Liverpool,  in  1854,  the  sea  had  formerly  effected 
a  direct  entrance  into  the  valley  of  the  Mersey  through  its  present  channel, 
from  which,  he  believed,  it  had  been  separated  previously  by  a  diluvial  deposit 
of  clay,  boulders,  and  sand,  and  that  after  it  had  so  effected  its  entrance,  its 
progress,  in  forming  a  deep  channel,  would  be  gradual.  In  proof  of  which 
he  cited  the  authority  of  Captain  Collins,  "  That  great  ships  belonging  to 
Liverpool  put  out  at  Hyle,  or  Hoylake,  part  of  their  lading  until  they  are 
light  enough  to  sail  over  the  flats  of  Liverpool." 

The  charts  of  Collins  and  M'Kenzie,  although  valuable  as  records,  can 
scarcely  be  depended  upon.  The  first  authentic  survey  of  the  port  of  Liver- 
pool, by  Captain  George  Thomas,  in  1813,  and  published  in  1815,  and  the 
subsequent  and  more  accurate  surveys  of  Denham,  in  1833  and  1837,  and  of 
Lord,  in  1840,  1841  and  1852,  are  proofs  of  the  anxiety  evinced  by  the 
Corporation  of  Liverpool  to  employ  officers  of  the  Admiralty  in  recording 
accurately  the  actual  state  of  the  banks  and  channels,  and  the  changes  which 
have  taken  place  between  those  periods.  These  are  very  fully  detailed  in 
the  accompanying  report  of  Mr.  Boult,  who  has  taken  more  than  usual  pains 
to  compare  the  different  plans  with  one  another  and  with  Captain  Thomas's, 
and  has  shown  in  contour  and  coloured  lines  the  remarkable  changes  which* 
have  taken  place  in  the  sea  banks  and  channels  at  the  entrance  of  the  Mersey. 
These  changes  show  the  necessity  of  causing  annual  surveys  to  be  made,  as 
set  forth  in  the  report  of  Messrs.  Mylne  and  Rennie,  in  1837. 

The  history  of  the  Mersey  is  also  well  detailed  in  the  accompanying  report 
of  Messrs.  John  and  George  Wilkin.  Those  gentlemen  show  that,  in  1818, 
Mr.  Whidbey,  of  Plymouth,  was  the  first  whose  assistance  was  called  in  by 
the  Mayor  and  Corporation  to  examine  the  encroachments  which  had  been 
made  on  the  estuary  in  different  parts,  and  to  lay  down  some  general  princi- 
ples as  to  its  future  preservation.  Subsequently,  Mr.  Rennie,  sen.,  Messrs. 
Chapman,  Giles,  Walker,  Mylne,  Stevenson,  and  George  and  John  Rennie, 
reported  in  confirmation.    Extracts  from  the  reports  of  some  of  these  engi- 


6  MPORtf— 1856. 

neers  will  show  how  their  predictions  have  been  corroborated,  and  how 
necessary  it  was  to  frame  and  constitute  a  Commission  of  Conservancy.  This 
was  done  upon  the  principles  laid  down  by  Messrs.  W.  C.  M vine  and  George 
Rennie,  in  their  report  of  1837,  as  also  from  the  assistance  of  the  marine 
surveyor,  Lieutenant  Lord. 

The  general  principles  laid  down  by  Messrs.  Whidbey,  Chapman  and 
Rennie,  in  their  report  of  1822,  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  were — 

"  That  all  channels  through  which  water  flows  must  be  of  a  magnitude 
proportional  to  the  quantity  which  passes  them ;  and  any  increase  or  dimi- 
nution of  that  quantity  will  enlarge  or  diminish  the  channel,  unlets  where 
formed  of  material  so  hard  that  the  strength  of  the  current  is  not  able  to 
remove  them.'* 

Mr.  Whidbey  says,  in  his  report  of  1818,  "Tide  harbours  are  deep  or 
otherwise,  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  flows  into  them  from 
the  esa,  and  the  fresh  water  that  oomes  down  from  the  interior.  The  greater 
the  quantity  of  water,  the  greater  will  be  the  depth,  from  the  effect  which 
the  increased  body  of  water  will  have  in  scouring  the  bottom  at  the  time  of 
the  ebb  tide,  and  carrying  out  the  sullage." 

Again,  with  reference  to  embankments,  Mr.  Whidbey  says,— 

"  It  is  evident  that  if  a  certain  portion  of  either  side  of  a  river  or  harbour 
be  embanked,  and  the  tide  be  prevented  from  flowing  over  it  in  its  usual 
way,  a  diminished  quantity  of  water  will  flow  in  from  the  sea  equal  to  the 
cubic  contents  of  what  has  been  embanked,  and  consequently  there  will  be  a 
less  quantity  to  ebb  out ;  and  the  scouring  effect  being  thereby  lessened,  it 
will  be  rendered  incapable  of  carrying  out  to  sea  the  sullage  and  alluvions 
matter  washed  down  from  the  country,  with  the  same  force  as  before  the 
embankment  was  made." 

The  same  principle  was  advocated  by  Messrs.  Chapman,  Rennie,  Walker, 
Giles  and  Stevenson,  in  all  their  subsequent  reports  relative  to  encroachments, 
and  to  obstructions  made  to  the  free  flow  of  the  tide  by  piers  and  jetties. 

The  very  accurate  survey  and  maps  of  the  estuary  made  by  Mr.  Giles  for 
the  Corporation,  by  the  recommendation  of  the  late  Mr.  Rennie,  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  records  of  any  harbour  in  existence.  It  forms,  in  faot,  the 
standard  for  all  future  surveys,  with  reference  to  any  changes  which  may 
take  place. 

The  annexed  is  a  catalogue  of  the  reports  which  have  been  made  by  the 
engineers  and  surveyors  of  the  Mersey.  The  calculation  of  the  area  and 
contents  of  the  estuary  of  the  Mersey  between  the  Blackrock  at  entrance, 
and  Woolston  Weir  above  Warrington,  as  shown  by  the  annexed  tables, 
No,  2,  are  taken  from  Mr.  G.  Rennie's  report  of  1838. 

Captain  Denham,  the  surveyor  to  the  port,  in  his  report  of  18S6,  gives  his 
opinions  on  the  causes  of  variations  of  the  Devil  and  Pluckington  Banks,  and 
expresses  considerable  doubt  how  for  their  removal  could  be  effected  by 
jetties  projected  from  the  Cheshire  shore. 

Lieutenant  Lord,  who  succeeded  him  as  surveyor,  in  his  report  of  3rd  April, 
1840,  proposed  a  similar  remedy.  The  question  had  been  previously  dis- 
cussed, and  remedies  proposed,  by  former  engineers.  Lieutenant  Lord's 
report  of  the  23rd  March,  1840,  entirely  ooinoides  with  the  opinion  of  former 
engineers  in  the  necessity  of  preserving  the  whole  of  the  estuary  and  its 
tributary  streams  from  encroachments,  and  the  necessity  of  guarding  the 
shores  from  the  action  of  the  winds  and  waves  by  defences  of  stone,  and  that 
the  limits  of  high-water  margin  should  be  accurately  defined. 

At  regards  the  tides,  these  have  been  accurately  defined  for  a  long  period 


THJB  RIVHB  MBR8BY.  J 

by  Mr.  Giles,  in  his  great  surrey ;  and  the  very  valuable  observations  on  the 
ri*  and  fall  of  the  tides  in  the  Mersey,  from  Formby  Point  to  Warrington 
Bridge,  taken  daring  the  years  1840, 1841, 1842,  and  1843,  by  Mr.  Rendell— 
at  shown  by  the  diagrams  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  Mr.  Thomas 
Webster's  work,  1848,  1853 — leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in  point  of 
excellence. 

With  such  records,  the  Commissioners  of  Conservancy  have  only  to 
impress  upon  their  surveyors  the  necessity  of  making  frequent  inspec- 
tions of  the  whole  of  the  estuary,  and  annual  surveys  of  its  banks  and 
channels,  so  that  this  invaluable  port  shall  be  maintained,  in  future,  in  its 
full  integrity. 

Mr.  Bouft's  report,  which  accompanies  this,  enters  most  fully  into  the 
details  of  the  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the  direction  and  depths  of 
the  sea  channels.  The  increase  or  diminution  of  the  sand-banks,  from  the 
first  publication  of  Captain  George  Thomas's  map,  in  1815,  down  to  1854, 
accompanied  by  an  elaborate  table,  showing  the  average  cubical  contents  of 
the  Great  Burbo,  Brazil,  and  North  Bank,  and  the  banks  of  Formby,  Taylor, 
Jordan,  Mud-wharf,  Middle,  Little  Burbo,  and  Outlying,  and  East  Hoyle, 
from  which  it  will  be  seen  that  in  1840  there  is  a  slight  decrease  from  1837; 
for  the  years  1846  and  1852  a  considerable  increase ;  and  a  slight  diminution 
in  1854.  These  tables  are  analysed  with  great  minuteness  by  Mr.  Boult ; 
and  the  accompanying  charts,  in  colours,  illustrate  distinctly  the  variations*. 
The  valuable  meteorological  and  historical  information  which  Mr.  Boult  has 
wrought  forward,  entitle  him  to  the  best  thanks  of  the  Committee. 
hoodon,  July  18, 1856.  GEORGE  KENNIE. 

No.  1. — Report  of  the  Messrs.  Wilkin  relative  to  the  Navigation  and  Con- 
servancy of  the  River  Mersey. 

Spring  Gardens,  28th  April,  1840. 

Sir, — We  have  the  honour  of  referring,  to  our  letter  of  the  18th  April, 
1839,.  in  which  we  observed,  that  much  more  information  than  we  at  that 
time  possessed  would  be  wanting  to  enable  us  to  make  a  final  report  on  the 
state  of  the  River  Mersey,  and  for  recommending  such  measures  for  the 
improvement  of  the  navigation,  and  for  preventing  further  encroachments  on 
its  shores. 

This  inquiry  has  caused  much  labour  and  attention  on  our  parts, 
Mr.  George  Wilkin  having  been  almost  entirely  occupied  in  this  business 
from  the  beginning  of  the  month  of  March  18S9,  and  having  spent  nearly 
three  months  in  Liverpool  for  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  those 
most  competent  to  render  us  assistance.  We  were  unable  to  proceed  without 
a  regular  survey,  and  for  that  purpose,  at  our  recommendation,  the  Corpora- 
tion employed  Mr.  Eyes  to  make  an  accurate  report  and  survey  of  the  shore 
within  the  port  of  Liverpool  (No.  lf)t  which  contains  the  description  and 
customs  in  each  township,  showing  whether  the  same  is  a  manor,  or  reputed 
manor,  and  whether  courts  are  held,  and  whether  any,  and  what,  claims  are 
made  to  the  shore,  or  any  privileges  exercised  therein.  The  names  of  the 
proprietors  of  land  adjoining  the  beach,  the  encroachments  made  thereon, 
sod  the  enclosures  of  marshes  over  which  the  tide  formerly  flowed  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  river,  which  exceed  13,000  acres. 

We  beg  leave  to  represent,  that  the  obstructions  to  the  navigation  of  the 

*  See  note,  page  2. 

t  The  figures  in  Messrs.  Whidbey's  report  refer  to  document!  which  are  not  printed 
tbntt. 


§  REPORT — 1856. 

Mersey  having  of  late  years  been  the  subject  of  much  complaint,  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  who  have,  from  the  year  1818 
to  the  present  time,  in  their  anxiety  to  improve  the  navigation  of  the  river, 
expended  large  sums  of  money  in  consulting  the  most  eminent  engineers, 
and  in  obtaining  their  reports,  opinions  and  surveys  on  the  state  of  the  river; 
viz.  in  the  year  181S,  the  late  Mr.  Whidbey,  the  contractor  of  the  Break* 
water  at  Plymouth  ;  in  1832,  a  second  report  from  him,  in  conjunction  with 
Messrs.  Chapman  and  John  Rennie ;  in  1823,  by  Mr.  Chapman ;  in  1826,  by 
Mr.  Whidbey,  and  Messrs.  George  Rennie  and  Giles ;  in  1826,  a  second 
report  from  Mr.  Giles ;  in  J  827,  by  Mr.  Robert  Stevenson,  also  by  Messrs. 
Walker  and  Mylne;  in  1826,  by  Captain  Denham,  R.N.,  and  in  1837,  by 
Messrs.  Mylne  and  G.  Rennie.  The  late  Mr.  Telford,  Messrs.  Nimmo  and 
Fowls  have  also  been  consulted  by  the  Corporation  and  reported  thereon 
(No.  2). 

It  appears  from  the  evidence  (No.  3)  taken  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  the  session  of  1838,  on  a  bill  of  the  Grand  Junction 
Railway  Company,  in  which  they  proposed  to  erect  a  bridge  over  the 
Mersey  at  Runcorn,  and  to  take  a  branch  of  the  railway  over  it  (which  was 
rejected),  that  the  area  of  the  Mersey  from  Black  Rock  at  the  Mouth  to 
Woolston  Weir  above  Warrington  Bridge  (where  the  tide  ceases),  is  23,062 
acres,  over  which,  at  a  22-feet  tide,  736,945,215  tons  of  water  flow,  and 
that  no  less  than  13,440  acres  of  marshes  have  been  abstracted  from  the 
tideway,  equal  to  about  25  millions  of  tons  of  water,  calculated  at  the  same 
tide. 

<  For  the  purpose  of  more  clearly  showing  the  want  of  a  proper  authority  to 
control  and  improve  the  navigation  of  the  Mersey,  we  have  thought  it  de- 
sirable to  make  extracts  from  the  Reports  of  the  engineers;  all  of  whom 
are  of  opinion  that  the  principal  causes  for  obstructing  the  navigation  of  the 
river  are  the  embankments  made  for  enclosing  large  tracts  of  marsh  lands 
over  which  the  tide  formerly  flowed ;  the  numerous  piers,  jetties  and  che- 
vrons which  impede  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide,  and  decrease  the  water 
space.  They  observe,  that  all  the  channels  through  which  water  flows  must 
be  of  a  magnitude  proportional  to  the  quantity  passing  through  them ;  that 
if  a  certain  portion  of  cither  side  of  a  river  or  harbour  be  embanked,  and  the 
tide  be  prevented  from  flowing  over  it  in  its  usual  way,  a  diminished  quan- 
tity of  water  will  flow  in  from  the  sea  equal  to  the  cubic  contents  of  what 
has  been  embanked,  consequently  there  will  be  a  less  quantity  to  ebb  out, 
thereby  decreasing  the  scouring  effect,  and  preventing  the  sullage  and  allu- 
vial matter  being  washed  down  with  sufficient  force  to  prevent  the  old  chan- 
nels becoming  choked  up. 

They  further  state,  that  the  preservation  and  improvement  of  navigable 
channels  depend  entirely  upon  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide  and  the  dis- 
charge of  fresh  waters,  which  cause  an  effectual  scour.  That  in  no  case  can 
there  be  too  much  backwater,  it  being  well  known  that  a  number  of  rivers 
and  harbours  have  been  ruined  from  the  want  of  preserving  the  backwater. 
Two  harbours  are  noticed  by  Mr.  Whidbey,  viz.  Portsmouth,  as  having 
been  seriously  injured,  and  Rye,  as  having  been  entirely  ruined  by  encroach- 
ments on  the  mud  land. 

Report  dated  HthJuly,  1818  (No.  2).— Mr.  Whidbey  says,  the  Mersey  is 
an  inlet  of  the  sea,  rather  than  a  river,  being  kept  open  entirely  by  the 
quantity  of  water  that  flows  into  it,  and  not  by  the  trifling  streams  which  it 
receives  at  Warrington  and  Frodsham  Bridges;  that  tidal  harbours  are  deep 
or  otherwise  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  flows  into  them  from 


.    THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  9 

the.sea,  and  the  fresh  water  that  comes  down  from  the  interior ;  the  greater 
the  quantity  of  water,  the  greater  will  be  the  depth  from  the  effect  which 
the  increased  body  of  water  will  have  in  scouring  the  bottom  at  the  time  of 
the  ebb  tide  in  carrying  out  the  sullage. 

He  observes,  that  if  all  the  mud  lands  above  and  below  Ince,  and  above 
and  below  Runcorn,  were  embanked,  leaving  a  channel  only  for  the  waters 
that  come  from  the  country  to  discharge  themselves,  the  total  ruin  of  Liver- 
pool would  be  the  consequence.  The  backwater  would  be  so  much  dimi- 
nished that  the  scouring  effect  would  be  destroyed,  and  the  sand  driven  in 
towards  the  entrance  of  the  Mersey  by  the  violence  of  the  north-west  and 
western  gales,  would  in  time  accumulate  beyond  the  possibility  of  removal. 

He  alludes  to  an  Act  passed  in  the  46  Geo.  III.  cap.  153,  for  protecting 
harbours  and  navigable  rivers,  but  considers  it  does  not  go  far  enough,  and 
thinks  the  Corporation  should  lose  no  time  in  obtaining  an  Act  giving  them 
the  necessary  powers  for  the  preservation  of  the  harbour  of  Liverpool,  re- 
serving to  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  Company  all  powers  granted  to  them 
under  their  Acts. 

He  further  observes,  that  it  is  a  prevailing  opinion,  that  if  water-courses 
be  narrowed,  the  channels  through  which  the  water  has  to  run  will  become 
deeper ;  which  would  be  the  case  if  the  water  always  ran  one  way,  being  pro- 
duced from  springs  in  the  country ;  it  must  be  discharged  into  the  sea  some- 
where, therefore  the  more  it  is  confined  the  deeper  will  be  the  channel 
through  which  it  runs,  but  the  contrary  will  be  the  case  where  the  tide  runs 
in  and  out  ever}'  twelve  hours. 

Report  dated  25th  May,  1822  (No.  2). — Messrs.  W  hid  bey,  Chapman^and 
John  Rennie  state,  that  on  a  careful  examination  between  Runcorn  and 
Fidler  s  Ferry  at  high  and  low  water  they  found  large  tracts  of  marsh  land 
without  the  present  line  of  banks,  and  serving  as  important  receptacles  for 
backwater.  On  the  banks  and  shores  they  observed  numerous  jetties,  erected 
for  the  protection  of  the. land  against  the  violence  of  the  current,  extending 
in  many  instances  much  further  than  necessary,  and  for  the  most  part  ope- 
rating as  injurious  impediments  to  the  tideway,  which,  by  obstructing  its 
course,  diminish  its  velocity,  and  allow  time  for  the  alluvial  matter  with 
which  it  is  impregnated  to  be  deposited  and  form  banks  and  shoals  highly 
injurious  to  the  navigation,  particularly  mentioning  one  at  Hal  ton,  and 
another  near  the  old  Quay  Canal  entrance.  The  Ince  Ferry  Quay  has  also 
an  injurious  effect,  but  they  do  not  recommend  its  removal,  on  account  of  its 
absolute  necessity  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  but  that  openings  should 
be  made  through  it  in  various  places,  and  arching  them  over.  Several  other 
jetties  are  detrimental,  and  should  be  removed. 

They  also  recommend  that  no  time  should  be  lost  in  obtaining  sufficient 
powers  to  enable  the  Corporation  to  have  the  complete  conservatorship  or 
control  of  the  river  Mersey  and  all  its  branches,  to  the  end  that  when  any 
encroachments  are  making  by  jetties,  embankments  or  otherwise,  they  may 
have  full  power  to  cause  them  to  be  removed. 

In  obtaining  the  powers  here  recommended,  they  conceive  there  can  be 
little  or  no  difficulty,  for  all  the  leading  interests  of  the  country  are  combined 
in  the  necessity  of  maintaining  and  improving  the  navigation  of  the  port  of 
Liverpool,  and  none  more  so  than  the  adjacent  landholders,  the  value  of 
whose  estates  mast  necessarily  rise  and  fall  with  the  population  of  this  great 
commercial  emporium,  which  is  certainly  of  far  greater  importance  to  them 
than  any  advantage  that  can  be  derived  from  the  acquisition  of  any  land 
over  which  the  tide  flows. 


-  i 


10  BKPORT — 1856. 

Report  dated  26th  June,  1826  (No.  2>— Messrs.  Whidbey,  6.  Rennie  and 
Giles  make  strong  observations  on  the  jetties,  piers  and  chevrons  from  Fid- 
ler's  Ferry  to  HaJton  Point,  which  they  think  should  be  removed.  They 
also  notice  the  land  embanked  by  Sir  R.  Brooke,  and  the  encroachments 
made  by  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  Company,  also  at  Ince  Quay,  Tranmere  Bay, 
Wallasey  Pool,  and  Seacombe. 

They  recommend  that  a  quay  or  other  boundary-line  along  the  whole  of 
the  shores  of  the  river  Mersey  and  its  inlets  within  the  influence  of  the  tide, 
should  be  accurately  defined  upon  plans  confirmed  by  Parliament.  In  order 
also  that  this  important  object  may  be  effected  in  the  most  conciliatory  and 
equitable  manner,  it  should  as  far  as  possible  be  concerted  with  the  land- 
owners upon  the  principle  of  compensation  for  such  lands  as  may  be  required 
for  that  purpose. 

Report  dated  44h  October,  1826  (No.  2) Mr.  Giles  is  of  opinion,  that  by 

the  means  of  a  shore  and  river- wall  such  a  uniformity  of  flood  and  ebb  cur- 
rent will  be  established  up  and  down  the  river  as  to  produce  the  best  scouring 
effect  of  the  tide  and  land  waters,  and  particularly  upon  the  ebb  tide,  which 
will  be  directed  more  forcibly  upon  the  south-east  end  of  the  Liverpool 
shore  than  at  present,  bo  as  not  only  to  prevent  a  further  accumulation  of 
bank,  but  most  probably  to  lessen  the  present  extent  and  height  of  it  That 
the  further  result  of  forming  such  uniform  lines  of  shore  and  river-wall  will 
equalize  and  distribute  the  currents  more  over  the  river  above  Liverpool  in 
particular,  so  as  to  prevent  in  a  great  degree  the  accumulation  of  mud  and 
other  sediment  under  the  river- wails,  and  at  the  entrance  to  the  docks  gene- 
rally, and  at  the  same  time  render  the  navigation  of  vessels  more  direct  and 
easy  than  can  be  the  case  through  the  various  partial  forces  of  currents  and 
eddies  of  the  present  tideway. 

Report  dated  December  1826  (No.  2). — Messrs.  Rennie  and  Giles  have 
given  particular  consideration  to  the  sea  channels,  and  to  the  river  from  Black 
Rock  to  Runcorn,  and  from  thence  to  Woolston  Weir,  where  the  tide  ceases. 
They  say  it  is  admitted  by  all  intelligent  and  impartial  men,  that  the  pre- 
servation and  improvement  of  the  navigable  channels  of  a  river  depend  en- 
tirely upon  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tidal  waters,  and  the  discharge  of 
fresh  waters,  and  that  these  have  the  most  powerful  effect  during  high  spring 
tides  and  rainy  seasons  in  scouring  and  deepening  the  channels  through 
which  such  waters  must  flow.  It  is  scarcely  possible  that  a  case  can  exist 
where  a  port  or  river  can  have  too  much  backwater.  There  is  a  material 
tendency  of  the  flood  tide  to  drive  in  from  the  sea  portions  of  sand,  and  a 
similar  tendency  of  the  inland  waters  to  bring  down  sand  and  alluvial  matter, 
and  these  find  upon  some  parts  of  the  shore  of  a  river  places  and  eddies 
where  certain  depositions  of  them  will  take  place,  and  thus  diminish  the 
capacity  of  the  river  to  that  degree  as  will  nearly  balance  or  bring  into 
equilibrium  the  content  of  water  in  the  river  with  the  power  or  force  of 
currents  which  that  content  will  produce  both  in  its  flowing  into  and  ebbing 
out  of  the  river.  Taking  it  therefore  as  an  axiom  that  no  such  thing  can 
occur  as  a  harbour  having  too  much  backwater,  except  what  may  be  pro- 
duced occasionally  by  mountain  torrents,  but  not  by  the  reflow  of  tidal  waters, 
the  general  principle  that  the  tide  of  a  river,  particularly  in  the  upper  parte 
of  it,  should  be  carefully  protected  by  all  possible  means,  is  applicable  in  its 
fullest  extent  in  the  case  of  the  Mersey,  the  fact  of  there  being  no  excess 
of  backwater  in  the  Mersey  having  been  fully  ascertained. 

It  is  too  obvious  to  need  argument,  that  water  ebbing  from  the  higher 
parts  of  the  Mersey  is  infinitely  more  valuable  than  from  the  lower  parts  fot> 


THE  RIVBE  MBBSEY.  11 

the  purpose  of  effecting  a  scour ;  the  water  from  the  highest  parts  having 
to  ran  through  the  greatest  length  of  the  navigable  channels  in  its  passage 
to  Liverpool,  and  afterwards  through  the  sea  channels  at  a  period  when  the 
tidal  waters  have  considerably  ebbed,  and  when  those  channels  are  narrowed 
within  the  banks  that  enclose  them. 

The  centre  of  Liverpool  is  about  three  and  a  half  miles  above  the  mouth 
of  the  river,  while  Runcorn  is  nearly  twenty  miles ;  the  value,  therefore,  of 
the  tide  at  Runcorn  compared  with  that  at  Liverpool  (taking  it  only  at  the 
relative  distance  between  those  places),  is  nearly  as  5  to  1 ;  but  it  i*  also 
beneficial  in  a  manifold  degree  in  consequence  of  its  operating  so  much 
more  powerfully  to  scour  the  bed  of  the  channels  at  Liverpool  and  the  sea 
channels  than  any  water  can  do  which  is  discharged  from  situations  nearer 
the  mouth  of  the  river  in  the  early  parts  of  the  ebb  tide.  Another  circum- 
stance may  be  cited  in  favour  of  preserving  the  tidal  waters  at  Runcorn, 
and  particularly  upon  the  flat  stones  near  to  the  level  of  high  water.  The 
fret  has  been  proved  by  Mr.  Giles,  that  the  spring  tides  actually  rise  one  foot 
and  a  half  higher  at  Runcorn  than  at  Liverpool,  consequently  any  enclosure 
of  such  shores  at  Runcorn  must  be  exceedingly  injurious. 

Too  much  vigilance  therefore  cannot  be  exercised  in  preserving  the  tidal 
waters  at  Runcorn,  and  also  in  having  it  discharged  by  the  natural  ebb  of 
the  tide. 

Report  dated  30th  January  >  1827  (No.  2).— Mr.  R.  Stevenson  states,  as  a 
principle  which  ought  to  regulate  all  operations  upon  the  banks  of  rivers, 
that  backwaters  are  essential  to  the  preservation  of  such  rivers  in  a  navi- 
gable state ;  and  with  regard  to  the  Mersey,  be  is  of  opinion  that  the  great 
influx  and  reflux  of  tides  into  this  estuary  every  twelve  hours  is  what  alone 
preserves  the  Horse  and  Formby  Channels  in  their  present  navigable  state. 
To  the  preservation  of  these  channels  all  the  arguments  relating  to  the  back- 
water resolve  themselves.  An  alteration  in  the  depth  or  direction  of  these 
channels  might  be  attended  with  consequences  most  serious  to  Liverpool, 
encumbered  as  its  entrance  is  with  sand-banks  of  a  great  extent 

He  also  recommends  that  the  jurisdiction  of  the  conservators  should 
follow  the  high-water  mark  in  all  its  gambols,  though  trenching  sometimes 
upon  one  side  of  the  estuary  and  sometimes  upon  the  other,  and  that  they 
should  take  the  most  prompt  cognizance  of  all  works  undertaken  upon  the 
ebb,  or  between  the  points  of  high  and  low  water.  He  conceives  that  a 
distinction  should  be  made  between  works  intended  for  the  legitimate  pur- 
pose of  navigation,  and  those  which  have  foe  their  object  the  acquirement 
of  firm  ground  at  the  expense  of  the  backwaters  of  the  river. 

Report  dated  S\st  January,  1827  (No.  2). — Messrs.  Walker  and  Mylne 
state  that  the  Meftey  is  only  deeper  at  Liverpool  than  at  Warrington,  be- 
cause the  greater  quantity  of  water  at  Liverpool  requires  a  greater  area  to 
pass  it.  If  the  tide  was  excluded,  the  Mersey  at  Liverpool  would ^by  the  de- 
posit of  matter  brought  down  from  the  interior  soon  diminish  to  the  same  size 
at  at  Warrington,  and  the  entrance  from  the  sea  would  soon  sand  up,  leaving 
space  sufficient  only  to  pass  the  water  of  the  river  in  this  diminished  state. 

Report  dated  27th  September,  1836  (No.  2*) — Captain  Denham  says,  the 
progress  of  Pluckington  Bank,  since  1828,  has  been  a  horizontal  increase 
of  210  yards -abreast  of  Brunswick  Basin,  abreast  of  King's  Dock  123  yards, 
and  abreast  of  Duke's  Dock  only  40  yards.  Its  respective  elevations  he 
cannot  quote  between  these  dates,  but  since  1834  he  finds  it  grown  up  one 
foot  off  Brunawick  Dock,  two  feet  off  Brunswick  Basin,  three  feet  off  Duke's 
*  Reprinted  at  length  in  No.  5  herewith. 


12  REPORT — 1856. 

Dock,  and  one  foot  off  Canning  Dock,  during  which  its  low-water  margin 
has  yielded  50  yards  directly  off  Brunswick  Basin.  Simultaneous  with  this 
two  years'  fluctuation,  the  Devil's  Bank  has  warped  143  yards  towards  the 
eastern  shore,  lowered  in  altitude  four  feet,  but  elongated  towards  Plucking- 
ton  Shelf  250  yards,  so  that  the  spit  of  the  Devils  Bank  and  Pluckington 
Shelf  is  within  one-fourth  of  a  mile  of  uniting  with  each  other, — an  event  to 
be  feared,  seeing  that  the  Devil's  Spit  has  elongated  two-thirds  of  a  mile  in 
eight  years,  but  which  should  be  averted  with  all  anxiety,  for  in  the  space 
between  them  being  shoaled  up  to  a  bar  of  six  feet  instead  of  fifteen,  the 
Garston  branch  of  the  Mersey  will  scour  its  way  through  the  Swatch  way 
just  above  Otter's  Pool,  dividing  the  Devil's  Bank  from  Eastham  Sands,  and 
join  the  main  column  of  ebb  stream  down  the  Cheshire  side  of  the  river. 

Report  dated  March  1^837  (No.  2). — Messrs.  Mylne  and  G.  Rennie  state, 
that  from  a  rough  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  land  which  has  been  em- 
banked out  of  the  river  above  Runcorn,  and  which  is  still  under  the  level 
of  ordinary  spring  tides  (or  22  feet  on  the  Old  Dock  Sill),  the  present  water 
surface  only  amounts  to  one-fifth  of  the  whole.  Below  Runcorn  the  marshes 
•f  Widness,  Ditton,  Frodsham,  Stanlow,  and  Wallasey,  amount  to  nearly 
one-half  the  whole ;  or  in  other  words,  the  total  quantity  of  land  embanked 
out  of  the  Mersey  exceeds  the  total  quantity  of  water  surface.  In  laying 
down  quay  lines  in  the  Mersey,  the  following  principles  should  be  ad- 
hered  to : — 

1st.  To  preserve  to  the  fullest  extent  the  receptacles  for  the  tide  water. 

2nd.  To  designate  the  boundaries  by  mere  stones  placed  at  intervals. 

3rd.  To  have  power  to  excavate  and  improve  the  bed  of  the  river. 

4th.  To  prevent  encroachments,  whether  by  embanking  lands  or  accumu- 
lating matter  by  means  of  jetties. 

5th.  To  prevent  jetties,  or  other  open  or  solid  works  of  any  kind,  from 
being  projected  into  the  river  without  the  consent  of  the  Conservators. 

6th.  To  prevent  ballast  or  other  solid  matter  from  being  thrown  into  the 
river, 

7th.  To  raise  and  remove  wrecks  or  other  obstructions. 

8th.  To  cut  off  or  remove  projecting  points  of  rocks,  without  prejudice  to 
existing  interests,  buildings  or  jetties  which  may  tend  to  obstruct  the 
free  effect  of  the  current  of  the  tides ;  and  to  erect  quay  walls  or  other 
works  which  may  assist  the  operation  or  diversion  of  the  tide  for  the 
general  benefit  of  the  port. 

They  conclude  by  recommending  a  Commission  of  Conservancy,  not  only 
for  the  benefit  of  the  port,  but  the  public  in  general. 

For  the  remedy  of  the  evils  mentioned  in  their  reports,  the  engineers  all 
recommend  that  the  conservancy  should  be  vested  in  the  Corporation  of 
Liverpool  by  Act  of  Parliament,  with  powers  to  remedy  these  evils,  and  to 
render  the  navigation  as  perfect  as  circumstances  will  admit. 

We  have  been  induced  to  make  these  copious  extracts  from  the  reports, 
as  they  so  clearly  point  out  the  difficulties  attending  the  navigation  of  the 
river,  and  the  probability  of  the  most  serious  consequences  following,  if 
powers  are  not  given  to  the  Corporation  by  Act  of  Parliament,  to  improve 
the  navigation.  We  have  personally  inspected  the  state  of  the  river,  and 
are  perfectly  satisfied  with  the  correctness  of  their  reports  and  observations 
thereon,  and  are  convinced  that  the  navigation  is  yearly  becoming  more 
difficult,  and  that  the  obstructions  will  continue  to  increase  if  Parliamentary 
provision  is  not  made  for  its  improvement,  perhaps  to  the  ultimate  ruin  of 
the  port 


THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  IS 

Tbe  Corporation  of  Liverpool  brought  the  state  of  the  river  under  the 
special  consideration  of  the  late  Mr.  Huskisson  in  the  year  1828  ;  that  emi- 
nent statesman  gave  the  subject  his  most  serious  consideration :  he  viewed 
with  alarm  the  numerous  encroachments  making,  which  he  considered  would, 
if  allowed  to  go  on,  at  no  very  remote  period  in  all  probability  prove  highly 
prejudicial  to  the  navigation,  and  was  persuaded  that  a  Commission  of  Con- 
servancy should  be  without  delay*  appointed,  consisting  of  not  more  than 
three  Commissioners,  including  the  Mayor  of  Liverpool,  to  be  constituted 
by  Act  of  Parliament,  or  by  the  Crown,  reserving  to  His  Majesty  the  power 
of  appointing  additional  Commissioners  if  it  should  hereafter  be  found  ne- 
cessary. That  his  suggestions  were  fully  approved  by  Lord  Lowther,  then 
Chief  Commissioner  of  Woods  and  Forests,  and  by  Mr.  Arbuthnot,  the 
Chancellor  of  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  appears  from  the  Correspondence 
(No.  4).  His  melancholy  death  occurred  before  the  business  was  finally 
arranged.  And  by  the  reform  of  corporate  bodies,  and  from  other  causes, 
no  effectual  measure  was  taken  till  the  session  of  the  year  1837,  when  a  bill 
was  brought  into  Parliament  by  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  which  was 
objected  to  by  Government  in  consequence  of  the  extensive  powers  sought 
for,  and  was  consequently  withdrawn  on  the  understanding  that  the  subject 
should  be  hereafter  taken  up  by  the  Board  of  Trade. 

The  public  bodies  most  materially  interested  in  the  navigation  of  the 
Mersey,  are  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  Navigation,  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater's 
Canal,  the  River  Weaver  Navigation,  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  and  the  Sankey 
Canal  Companies.  We  have  understood  that  objections  have  been  raised 
by  some  of  these  companies  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool  having  a  pre- 
vailing interest  in  the  conservancy.  For  the  purpose  of  meeting  the  wishes 
of  these  most  important  and  highly  respectable  bodies,  and  also  those 
of  the  influential,  commercial,  and  agricultural  interests  connected  with  the 
Port  of  Liverpool,  or  the  River  Mersey,  we  have  personally  waited  on  the 
Mayor  of  Manchester  and  the  town  authorities  of  Warrington,  and  the 
gentlemen  taking  the  most  prominent  part  in  the  management  of  the  Canal 
and  Navigation  Companies.  We  have  also  seen  the  Earl  of  Sefton,  the 
auditor  of  the  Earl  of  Derby's  estates  (both  of  these  noble  lords  having 
considerable  estates  adjoining  the  river),  Mr.  Potts  of  Chester,  on  the  part 
of  several  landowners  on  the  Cheshire  shore,  as  well  as  for  the  Ellesmere 
Canal  Company,  for  whom  he  acts,  and  other  landed  proprietors  having 
property  adjoining  the  Mersey.  We  think  it  proper  to  annex  notes  of  the 
observations  made  (No.  5),  from  which  it  will  appear  that  they  all  concur 
in  the  propriety  of  au  effective  Conservancy  being  appointed,  but  some  of 
them  express  a  strong  feeling  against  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool  being 
invested  with  more  power  than  what  is  given  to  other  public  bodies,  and  the 
Mersey  and  Irwell  Company  only  seemed  inclined  to  contribute  to  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Conservancy. 

It  is  our  desire  to  pay  every  respect  to  the  opinions  of  these  highly  re- 
spectable and  important  companies,  and  to  meet  their  wishes  if  possible ; 
but  we  cannot  lose  sight  of  the  correct  view  taken  by  the  late  Mr.  Huskis- 
son,  that  if  the  Conservancy  was  too  numerous  it  would  probably  be  ineffec- 
tive; and  we  cannot  therefore  recommend  that  the  Commission  should,  in 
the  first  instance,  exceed  four,  though  we  should  much  prefer  its  being 
limited  to  three  only,  viz.  the  Mayor  of  Liverpool  for  the  time  being,  with 
power  to  nominate  one  of  the  Aldermen  to  act  for  him  in  case  his  public 
duties  should  engage  too  much  of  his  time;  one  of  the  Dock  Trustees, 
and  one  on  the  part  of  the  public  conversant  with  the  state  of  the  river ; 


14  REPORT— 1856. 

to  communicate  with  the  Board   of  Trade  on   all   point*  affecting  the 
navigation. 

If  it  should  be  considered  advisable,  a  fourth  Commissioner  may  be 
appointed,— the  Canal  and  Navigation  Companies  to  make  this  appoint- 
ment from  one  of  their  body. 

The  Corporation  of  Liverpool  propose  to  bear  two-thirds  of  the  expense, 
and  the  Dock  Trustees  the  other  third.  The  Conservancy  can,  in  our 
opinion,  only  be  efficiently  formed  by  a  public  Act,  in  which  powers  may 
be  given  to  the  Board  of  Trade  for  increasing  the  number  of  Commissioners, 
if  hereafter  found  necessary ; — or  to  commence  by  a  Commission  from  the 
Crown,  as  suggested  by  Lord  Lowther  to  Mr.  Huskisson,  obtaining  when 
necessary  increased  powers  from  Parliament. 

The  Conservancy  of  the  River  Thames  appears  to  have  been  first  ap- 
pointed by  charter  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  James  L,  and  after* 
wards  extended  by  several  Acts  of  Parliament  from  the  reign  of  George  III. 
We  would  take  the  liberty  of  recommending  that  the  powers  of  the  Con* 
servators  of  the  Mersey  should  assimilate,  as  nearly  as  circumstances  will 
admit,  to  those  of  the  Thames ;  and  that  the  shore  of  the  river  or  of  the 
sea  within  the  Port  of  Liverpool  should  not  be  vested  in  them,  but  should 
remain  in  the  Crown,  or  in  other  persons  legally  holding  the  same,  and 
should  not  be  taken  or  used  by  the  Conservators  without  permission  or 
purchase*  Nor  should  the  Conservators  be  authorized  to  interfere  with  the 
extensive  enclosures  of  the  marshes  above  Runcorn,  or  in  the  River  Weaver, 
which  are  of  a  very  ancient  date ;  nor  with  the  numerous  jetties,  chevrons 
(unless  they  are  longer  than  necessary,  and  obstruct  the  navigation  of  the 
river),  or  other  encroachments;  but  that  their  operations  should,  in  the 
first  instance,  be  confined  entirely  to  the  bed  of  the  river,  in  scouring  the 
same  with  proper  machinery,  and  in  making  new  channels  and  removing 
obstructions. 

It  is  not  for  Liverpool  alone  that  a  Conservancy  is  wanting,  nor  for  the 
Navigation  Companies  connected  with  the  Mersey :  it  is  of  equal  importance 
to  Manchester,  and  all  the  other  manufacturing  towns  in  Lancashire, 
Cheshire,  Yorkshire  and  Staffordshire,  and  to  the  general  commercial  and 
shipping  interests  of  the  kingdom.  If  the  measure  is  properly  carried  into 
effect,  it  will  be  beneficial  to  the  interests  of  the  community  at  large. 

We  have  thought  it  advisable  to  request  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool  to 
state  their  views  as  to  the  plan  of  operations  in  the  event  of  Conservancy 
being  granted. 

The  Town  Clerk  has  favoured  us  with  two  letters  from  Lieutenant  Lord, 
R.N.  (No.  2)+,  the  marine  surveyor  of  the  port,  to  the  chairman  of  the  Con- 
servancy  Committee.  He  recommends  that  the  lines  of  high  water  should 
be  accurately  marked  and  defined,  and  that  no  future  encroachments  should 
be  allowed  without  authority.  That  the  edges  of  the  banks,  which  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  river  are  composed  of  earthy  sward,  should  be  protected 
by  a  facing  of  stone  or  other  suitable  material,  to  prevent  any  part  from 
being  carried  away  by  the  tide.  This,  he  says,  would  render  permanent  a 
scouring  force  of  water,  which  would  maintain  the  sea-approaches  in  an 
effective  state,  and  it  would  then  remain  to  watch  the  changes  that  might 
arise  in  the  sand-banks  in  the  river  and  its  approaches,  and  to  adopt  such 
timely  remedies  as  might  be  necessary.  He  refers  particularly  to  the  dredg- 
ing operations  which  were  so  successfully  carried  on  for  a  period  of  ten 
months  during  the  last  year,  by  which  means  a  most  valuable  channel  was 

*  Nos.  7  sad  8  herewith. 


r 


THB  RIVER  MERSEY.  /  TT  rTtfTi    IX  T 

opened  at  a   small  expense; — tbat  its  success  depende^ntisely  dd  %ec^  Va  / 
column  of  water  running  out  of  the  Mersey  on  the  ebb  tit  T~'  ' 

nate  attention  to  what  was  taking  place  in  that  region. 
v  He  considers  the  natural  formation  of  the  Mersey  admirably  adapted  for 

\  scouring  and  keeping  open  the  sea-channels,  if  encroachments  are  not 
I  allowed  to  be  made  on  its  banks ;  but  he  doubts  the  propriety  of  scarping 
i       or  removing  rocks. 

We  cannot  venture  to  give  an  opinion  as  to  the  most  practicable  mode  of 
improving  the  navigation.  The  Conservators  will  (if  appointed),  as  a  matter 
of  course,  consult  the  most  eminent  engineers  as  to  the  best  means  of 
/  proceeding ;  but  we  think  the  navigation  would  be  much  improved  if  the 
|  plan  of  dredging  with  machinery,  so  successfully  adopted  in  the  Victoria 
Channel,  was  followed  up  io  the  river.  It  is  most  desirable  to  make  it  ap- 
parent to  the  Navigation  Companies,  to  the  landowners,  and  to  all  other 
parties  interested,  that  in  appointing  a  Conservancy  the  public  good  only  is 
looked  to,  and  that  there  is  no  intention  whatever  to  interfere  with  private 
interests,  which  will  be  duly  preserved  and  protected. 

If  the  President  and  Lords  of  the  Board  of  Trade  be  pleased  to  approve 
of  a  Conservancy  being  established  by  Act  of  Parliament,  we  will  prepare 
a  bill  founded  on  the  practice  in  the  River  Thames  for  their  Lordships' 
approval,  making  special  provisions  for  preserving  the  rights  of  the  Mersey 
and  Irwell  Company,  and  those  of  all  other  Companies  connected  with  the 
River  Mersey. 

We  also  beg  to  send  a  statement  delivered  to  us  by  the  Town  Clerk  of 
Liverpool,  with  a  map  of  the  river  (Nos.  6  and  7),  showing  the  rights  of  the 
Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  to  the  Lordship  of  Liverpool,  comprising  , 
the  River  Mersey  up  to  Warrington  and  Frodsham  Bridges,  and  the  Strand 
at  Liverpool,  Toxteth  Park,  Birkenhead,  and  Wallasey,  which  the  Corpora- 
tion wish  to  be  noticed  in  our  Report;  from  which  it  appears  that  the 
18th  Section  of  the  Act  of  the  2nd  George  III.  cap.  86,  authorizes  them  as 
Trustees  of  the  Docks,  by  authority  from  twenty- five  of  their  body,  to  re- 
move such  nuisances  as  may  be  necessary  for  improving,  scouring,  and 
keeping  open  the  navigation  from  the  sea  as  far  southwards  as  the  Lordship 
extends;  and  by  the  Dock  Acts  of  the  39th  George  III.  cap.  59.  sec.  29, 
and  57  George  III.  cap.  143.  sec.  80,  their  water-bailiff  and  harbour-master 
have  special  powers  over  vessels,  wrecks,  and  obstructions.  It  would  there- 
fore seem  that  Parliament  intended  to  give  powers  to  the  Corporation 
which  are  not  considered  sufficient  to  constitute  an  efficient  Conservancy. 
We  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  most  obedient  Servants, 

(Signed)        John  Wilkin. 
Dexms  Le  Merchant,  Esq.  George  Wilkin. 


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THB  RIVER  MERSEY.  17 


No.  3.— Index  of  the  Engineers*  and  Surveyors'  Reports  who  have  reported 
on  the  Estuary  and  River  Mersey. 

Extract  of  Mr.  Rennie's  report  as  to  any  one  dock,  1 809. 

Mr.  Whidbey,  ditto,  1818. 

Late  Mr.  Rennie's  ditto,  on  Ditton  Embankment,  11th  October,  1819. 

Ditto,  Messrs.  Whidbey,  Chapman  and  Rennie,  upon  the  lines  of  wharf 
walls  at  the  south  and  north  ends  of  the  docks  upon  Pluckington  Bank,  1822. 

Mr.  Telford  on  Mersey  and  Irwell  Works,  29th  January,  1823. 

Messrs.  Telford  and  tf  immo  on  same  subject,  1 823, 

Ditto,  on  Mersey  and  Irwell  Navigation,  June  1823. 

Mr.  John  Rennie,  jun.,  in  reply  to  above  Report,  July  26,  1823. 

Mr.  Whidbey  on  ditto,  July  14,  1823. 

Mr.  Chapman  on  ditto,  July  18,  1823. 

Messrs.  Whidbey,  Rennie  and  Giles,  1826. 

Mr.  Giles  proposed  Conservancy  line,  1826. 

Messrs.  Rennie  and  Giles  on  Conservancy  of  River  generally,  1826* 

Messrs.  Whidbey  and  Giles,  afterwards  J.  Walker,  on  Embankments, 
14th  August,  1826. 

Messrs.  Stevenson,  ditto,  ditto,  1827* 

Messrs.  Walker  and  Mylne,  ditto,  1827. 

Messrs.  G.  Rennie,  James  Walker,  11.  Stevenson,  F.  Giles,  and  W.  C. 
Mylne  on  Viner's  Embankment  and  Ince's  Quay,  1827. 

Messrs.  Telford,  Stevenson  and  Nimmo,  on  new  sea-ports  in  Rivers  Dee 
and  Mersey,  with  a  ship  channel,  1828. 

Mr.  Chapman's  Report  on  the  effect  on  the  navigation  of  River  likely  to 
result  from  works,  1823. 

Mr.  George  Rennie  on  the  effect  of  New  Brighton  Pier.  8th  December, 
1834. 

Captain  Denham  on  Mr.  Lace's  projection,  and  Pluckington  Bank  and 
Devil's  projection,  and  proposing  a  river  wall,  1836. 

Report  of  Messrs.  Mylne  and  Rennie  on  Mersey,  1837. 

Letter  from  Lieut  Lord,  recommending  mode  in  which  the  Conservancy 
should  be  effected,  1840. 

Second  letter  ditto,  1840. 

Captain  Evans  on  River  Mersey,  May  29,  1844. 

Mr.  George  Rennie  on  Seacombe  Pier  and  Pluckington  Bank,  17th  No* 
vember,  1844. 

No.  4. — Conservancy.    First  and  Second  Memorial. 
To  the  Right  Honourable  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  and  to 
the  Right  Honourable  the  Lords  Commissioners  for  the  Affairs  of  Trade. 

The  Memorial  of  the  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  of  the  Borough 

of  Liverpool, 

Shewetb, — That  your  Memorialists,  as  representing  the  town  and  being 
the  owners  of  the  Lordship  of  Liverpool,  comprising  the  Port,  are  most 
materially  interested  in  the  maintenance,  preservation,  and  improvement  of 
navigation  of  the  River  Mersey. 

That  the  entrance  to  the  River  Mersey  is  by  three  principal  "channels, 
formed  in  the  midst  of  numerous  sand-banks  and  shoals,  frequently  shifting 
and  increasing. 

That  in  other  farts  of  the  river  there  are  dangerous  banks  and  shoals, 
and  that  in  particular  extensive  banks  have  formed  opposite  the  entrance  of 
the  docks,  threatening  the  most  dangerous  consequences. 

1856.  c 


18  REPORT — 1856. 

That  for  jean  past  the  general  state  of  the  river  has  been  most  critical 
and  alarming. 

That  the  principal  causes  of  this  state  of  the  river  are,  as  your  Memorialists 
believe,  the  impediments  offered  to  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tidal  waters 
and  the  diminution  of  water  space  above  the  town,  by  the  enclosure  from  the 
river  of  large  tracts  of  land. 

That  your  Memorialists  have  for  many  years  vainly  endeavoured  to  obtain 
some  efficient  protection  for  their  own  and  the  public  interests  in  the  vesting 
of  the  conservancy  of  the  river  in  commissioners  with  adequate  powers,  your 
Memorialists  fearing  that  unless  vigorous  measures  were  adopted,  the  Mersey 
would  become,  like  the  Dee,  the  Lune,  the  Exe,  and  many  other  rivers,  no 
longer  navigable  for  vessels  of  burden. 

That  your  Memorialists,  from  the  year  1818  to  the  present  time,  have,  at  a 
very  heavy  expense,  caused  frequent  surveys  and  reports  upon  the  state  of 
the  river  to  be  made,  namely,  in  1818  by  the  late  Mr.  Whidbey,  the  con- 
structor of  the  breakwater  at  Plymouth  (whose  Report  contains  a  concise 
and  clear  view  of  the  then  state  of  the  river,  and  of  the  deterioration  to  be 
anticipated  from  the  causes  before  mentioned) ;  in  1 822  by  the  same  gen- 
tleman in  conjunction  with  the  late  Messrs.  Chapman  and  John  Rennie;  in 
1823  by  Messrs.  Telford,  Niranio,  Whidbey,  Chapman,  Rennie,  and  Fowler; 
in  1826  by  Mr.  Whidbey  and  Messrs.  George  Rennie  and  Giles;  in  1827  by 
Messrs.  George  Rennie  and  Giles,  and  afterwards  by  Messrs.  James  Walker 
and  W.  C.  Mylne;  in  1828  by  Messrs.  Telford,  Stevenson,  and  Nimmo;  in 
1835  by  Mr.  George  Rennie;  in  1836  by  Commander  Denham,  R.N.;  and 
in  1837  by  Messrs.  Mylne  and  George  Rennie  and  Walker. 

That  these  Reports  prove  in  the  most  unquestionable  manner  the 
absolute  necessity  for  active  and  incessant  superintendence,  and  they  also 
incontestably  prove  the  changeable  character  of  the  river  and  its  ap- 
proaches. 

That  in  the  beginning  of  the  Session  of  last  year  a  Bill  was  brought  into 
the  House  of  Commons  to  empower  the  proprietors  of  the  Grand  Junction 
Railway  to  amend  their  present  line,  by  forming  a  new  line  of  railway  by 
crossing  the  River  Mersey  three  to  four  miles  below  the  town  of  Warrington, 
by  a  bridge  at  a  place  called  Fidler's  Ferry. 

That  your  Memorialists,  fully  sensible  of  the  importance  of  the  proposed 
measure,  were  with  great  reluctance  compelled  to  offer  to  it  all  the  oppo- 
sition in  their  power,  inasmuch  as  the  proposed  bridge  would  have  been 
injurious  to  the  trade  and  navigation  on  the  river,  and  would  have  interfered 
with  the  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tide. 

That  this  Bill  was  rejected  in  committee  so  far  as  related  to  the  intended 
bridge. 

That  your  Memorialists  on  this  occasion  offered  evidence  as  to  the  past 
and  present  state  of  the  river. 

That  from  the  evidence  thus  given,  your  Memorialists  have  extracted 
portions  comprising  part  of  the  Reports  already  referred  to,  which  they  lay 
before  your  Lordships,  and  to  which  they  earnestly  and  respectfully  solicit 
your  attention. 

That  one  statement  in  particular  proved  before  the  committee  was  as 
follows : —    • 

"  The  present  area  of  the  River  Mersey,  from  the  Black  Rock  at  the  mouth 
to  Woolston  WTeir  above  Warrington  Bridge,  is  23,062  acres,  over  which,  at 
a  22-feet  tide,  736,945,215  tons  of  water  flow,  and  that  no  less  than  13,440 
acres  of  marshes  have  been  abstracted  from  the  tideway,  equal  to  about 
25,000,000  tons  of  water,  calculated  at  the  same  tide.    That  the  remaining 


THE  RIVER  MBBSEY.  19 

ah  marshes  were,  about  the  year  1822,  only  1897  acres,  from  which  farther 
attractions  have  since  been  made." 

That  in  further  corroboration  of  your  Memorialists'  representation,  they 
lay  before  your  Lordships  the  following  Report  of  Lieutenant  Lord,  R.N* 
the  Marine  Surveyor  of  the  Dock  Trustees  :•—> 

"  Marine  Surveyor's  Office,  February  1839. 

"  My  attention  having  been  called  to  the  fluctuations  going  on  from  time 
to  time  on  the  banks  and  shores  of  the  Mersey  and  its  embouchure,  I  beg  to 
state  that  all  those  conversant  with  the  navigable  channels  of  the  river  are 
aware  that  frequent  and  sometimes  very  sudden  changes  take  place  in  the 
sand-banks  and  navigable  waters  of  the  same.  That  such  fluctuations  are 
going  on  continually  is  strongly  evidenced  by  the  Marine  Surveyor's  Report 
in  1836,  by  which  it  appears  that  between  the  years  1828  and  1856  the 
horizontal  increase  of  Piuckington  Bank  was  210  yards  abreast  of  Brunswick 
Basin,  123  abreast  of  King's  Dock,  and  40  abreast  of  Duke's  Dock ;  and  that 
between  the  years  1834  and  1836  it  had  grown  up  one  foot  at  Brunswick 
Dock,  two  feet  off  Brunswick  Basin,  three  feet  off  King's  Dock,  three  feet 
off  Duke's  Dock,  and  one  foot  off  Canning  Dock ;  whilst  its  lower  water 
margin  yielded  50  yards  during  the  same  period.  Thus  threatening  to  be- 
come a  serious  obstruction  to  the  entrance  of  Brunswick,  King's,  and  Duke's 
Dock. 

"  It  also  appears  from  the  same  statements,  that  the  Devil's  Bank  and  Spit 
had  considerably  elongated  during  the  above  period. 

"  In  a  remoter  region,  namely,  the  sand-banks  at  the  entrance  of  the  port, 
such  as  the  Great  and  Little  Burbo,  Jordan  Flats,  &c,  the  changes  have  been 
still  greater,  as  was  fully  evinced  in  the  survey  carried  on  last  summer,  as 
compared  with  that  of  1835. 

"  In  no  part  is  this  more  strongly  exemplified  than  in  the  Half-tide  Swash- 
way  and  the  New  Channel. 

"  In  the  former  the  Old  Channel  has  filled,  leaving  a  dry  bank  at  low  water, 
and  another  channel  has  scoured  itself  where  we  had  formerly  a  dry  bank; 
whilst  in  the  New  Channel  there  has  been  a  gradual  warping  and  filling 
op  for  the  last  four  years,  leaving  now  a  navigable  channel  of  only  130 
fathoms  wide,  with  11  feet  at  low  water,  where  we  formerly  had  a  channel 
half  a  mile  wide  with  12  and  13  feet 

"  Taylor  s  Bank  has  also  considerably  spread  to  the  north-west  during  the 
above  interval,  and  various  other  alterations  have  taken  place  in  the  contour 
and  altitude  of  the  banks. 

"  In  conclusion,  I  would  state  it  to  be  my  conviction  that  the  encroachment 
on  the  bed  of  the  river,  by  the  reclaiming  of  land,  &c.  at  its  upper  part,  cannot 
be  too  strongly  deprecated,  as  it  must  evidently  diminish  the  backwater,  on 
the  scouring  effects  of  which  the  very  vitality  of  the  entrances  to  the  port 
depends,  besides  altering  aud  diverting  the  stream  of  the  river  into  new  and 
often  injurious  channels. 

"  I  have  the  honour,  &c,  w  W.  Lord," 

That  your  Memorialists,  in  the  language  of  their  late  lamented  representa- 
tive the  Right  Honourable  William  Huskisson,  "  feel  convinced,  from  facts 
and  personal  observation,  that  if  the  system  of  encroachment  and  nuisance 
which  has  prevailed  for  many  years  in  the  Mersey  is  not  effectually  checked, 
so  at  to  give  full  scope  for  the  natural  flux  and  reflux  of  the  tidal  waters, 
the  Port  of  Liverpool  will,  in  the  course  of  no  very  long  time,  be  as  much 
choked  up  as  those  of  Chester  and  Lancaster  now  are." 

Your  Memorialists  therefore,  in  conclusion,  earnestly  urge  on  the  attention 

c2 


20  .    REPORT — 1856. 

of  your  Lordships  the  necessity  for  immediate  measures  for  the  future  pro- 
tection of  the  navigation  of  the  River  Mersey,  an  object  of  increasing  and 
anxious  interest  to  your  Memorialists,  and  one  in  which  the  country  at  large 
is  deeply  concerned. 

And  your  Memorialists  will  ever  pray,  &c. 
Liverpool,  April  1839. 

Second  Memorial,  September  1839. 

To  the  Honourable  the  Lords  Commissioners  of  the  Admiralty,  and  to  the 
Right  Honourable  the  Lords  Commissioners  for  the  Affairs  of  Trade. 

The  Memorial  of  the  Mayor,  Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  of  the  Borough 

of  Liverpool, 

Sheweth, — That  your  Memorialists  presented  in  May  last,  through  the 
members  of  the  borough,  a  Memorial  to  your  Lordships,  setting  forth  the  dan- 
gerous state  of  the  River  Mersey,  from  the  numerous  and  shifting  banks  and 
shoals,  the  causes  for  this  state,  the  endeavours  hitherto  ineffectually  made  to 
obtain  efficient  protection,  the  necessity  for  incessant  superintendence,*  the 
immense  area  already  abstracted  from  the  tideway,  and  other  grounds,  as 
inducements  for  the  interference  of  your  Lordships,  in  order  to  the  establish- 
ment of  a  Commission  of  Conservancy ;  which  Memorial  was  accompanied  by 
extracts  of  evidence  taken  before  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Commons  in 
the  session  of  18S8,  in  the  Grand  Junction  Railway  Bill,  as  to  the  past  and 
present  state  of  the  river. 

That  your  Memorialists  are  anxious  to  receive  the  opinion  of  your  Lord- 
ships upon  the  prayer  of  their  Memorial,  and  (venturing  to  assume  that  a 
Bill  to  be  brought  into  Parliament  in  the  ensuing  session  will  be  directed  or 
sanctioned  by  your  Lordships)  more  particularly  as  to  the  preliminary  ques- 
tion, whether  such  Bill  ought  to  be  public  or  private,  inasmuch  as  in  case 
the  latter  be  deemed  by  your  Lordships  to  be  preferable,  the  necessary  notices 
must  be  forthwith  given,  and  other  parliamentary  proceedings  be  taken  in 
conformity  to  the  standing  orders ;  and,  as  whatever  course  of  proceeding 
your  Lordships  may  recommend,  immediate  meetings  with  parties  concerned, 
proprietors  along  the  banks  of  the  river,  ought  to  be  held,  in  order  as  much 
as  possible  to  remove  misunderstanding  and  consequent  hostility  on  their 
parts. 

That  your  Memorialists  would  respectfully  urge  on  your  Lordships'  con- 
sideration, that  the  plan  of  a  public  bill  would  be  the  preferable  course ;  for 
even  the  notice  of  a  private  bill,  and  the  deposit  of  maps  showing  a  line  of 
causeway  along,  or,  as  many  would  suppose,  over  estates  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mersey,  creates  such  alarm  in  the  minds  of  the  proprietors  interested,  as  to 
make  it  exceedingly  difficult  and  almost  impossible  afterwards  to  explain 
that  the  proposed  measure  is  one  for  the  public  good,  and  for  the  benefit 
rather  than  to  the  injury  of  individuals. 

That  your  Memorialists  have,  through  their  officers,  lately  had  the  advan- 
tage of  conferences  with  Mr.  Wilkin,  one  of  the  officers  of  the  Woods  and 
Forests,  and  with  Mr.  Wilkin,  junior,  both  lately  dispatched  by  that  Board 
to  Liverpool,  at  the  instance  of  your  Lordships,  to  take  preliminary  steps  on 
the  subject  of  the  Conservancy ;  and  your  Memorialists  believe  that  these 
gentlemen,  who  have  given  considerable  attention  to  the  subject,  and  have 
taken  great  interest  therein,  concur  in  opinion  with  your  Memorialists  and 
their  officers,  that  a  public  bill  is  the  proper  measure  to  be  recommended, 
but  that,  however  that  point  may  be  determined,  another  session  ought  not 


THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  21 

to  pass  over  without  a  bill,  public  or  private,  being  brought  into  Par- 
liament. 

Your  Memorialists  therefore  pray  the  immediate  consideration  and  direc- 
tion of  your  Lordships  on  the  matters  submitted. 

(Copy.) 

No.  5. — Letter  from  H.  M.  Denham,  R.N.,  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool, 
27th  September,  1836. 

Marine  Surveyor's  Office,  Liverpool,  Sept.  27, 1836, 
Sib, — Pursuant  to  a  request  to  the  following  effect, — "  That  I  would 
furnish  a  plan  of  that  part  of  the  river  opposite  the  property  of  Mr.  Lace 
and  others,  and  a  report  and  statement  of  the  variation  in  Pluckington 
Bank  and  the  adjacent  parts," — I  took  every  opportunity  afforded  by  the 
tides  and  weather  to  produce  the  results  set  forth  in  this  report  and  the  ac- 
companying plans,  which  will  evidence  how  necessarily  the  question  involved 
an  actual  re-survey  of  the  whole  region  between  the  Rock  Lighthouse  and 
where  the  river  ceases  to  be  navigable  at  low  water,  viz.  Gars  ton  and 
Eastham  ;  for  on  no  less  datum  than  the  most  recent  tests  as  to  the  causes 
and  effects  of  the  river's  deflection  could  I  presume  to  give  an  opinion,  which, 
on  the  one  hand,  might  involve  capital  already  embarked  in  projections,  or, 
on  the  other,  incite  the  sanction  of  its  conservators  as  respects  those  projec- 
tions. I  can,  however,  now  assert,  that  so  distant  is  the  primary  cause  and 
impetus  of  the  river's  deflection  (on  its  eastern  margin)  from  those  projections 
between  Knott's  Hole  or  Dingle  Point  and  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Dock  Estate,  as  to  entirely  absolve  the  works  of  Messrs.  Lace  and  others 
from  any  ill  effects. 

Provided,  that  it  be  a  sine  qud  non  such  jetties  shall  be  subject  to  a 
boundary-line  on  the  strand,  laterally  with  the  low-water  margin  as  deline- 
ated on  the  Plan,  such  line  to  constitute  the  face  of  all  projections,  and 
(until  connected  with  the  shelving  rocks  at  Dingle  Point)  to  have  100  yards 
of  face  wall  always  at  right  angles  to  the  southward  of  the  southernmost 


In  this  stipulation  it  will  appear  that  I  admit  the  deflecting  effect  of  any 
onsets  upon  the  ebb  stream,  although  north  of  Dingle  Point.  So  I  do  ;  but 
it  is  so  slight,  in  comparison  with  the  position  and  continuous  diversion  of 
that  point,  that  if  we  abstain  from  interrupting  the  downset  of  the  recover- 
ing water-level  (feeble  as  it  is)  after  rounding  Dingle  Point,  by  direct  off- 
sets, then  we  shall  direct  that  feeble  portion  of  stream  fairly  and  beneficially 
down  the  face  of  the  docks. 

Thus  much,  Sir,  applies  to  the  question  of  Mr.  Lace's  projection,  or  any 
others  in  the  limits  quoted. 

I  now  beg  to  report  on  the  nature  of  Pluckington  and  Devil's  Banks  ;  to 
elucidate  which,  I  submit  a  plan  of  the  features  of  the  river  between  the 
Rock  Lighthouse  and  Garston,  upon  four  inches  to  the  mile,  whereon  the 
course  and  velocity  of  the  flood  and  ebb  stream  are  portrayed,  the  former 
in  red  and  the  latter  in  blue  ink,  showing  that  Pluckington  owes  nothing  to 
the  flood-tide  deposit,  but  that  on  the  course  of  the  eastern  column  of  the 
ebb  does  that  deposit  depend,  and  that  course  depends  on  Dingle  Point ;  for 
by  practical  tests  on  each  half-hour  of  ebb  from  high  to  low  water,  we 
perceive  its  inclination  to  follow  the  trend  of  shore  until  within  100  yards 
of  Dingle  Point,  which  becomes  so  decidedly  the  point  of  deflection,  as  to 
bony  it  into  the  deep-water  column  with  such  impetus  as  to  blend  with  it, 
sod  divert  the  whole  obliquely  towards  Birkenhead,  whereby  the  tidal  stream 


9£  report— 1856. 

off  the  southern  portion  of  docks,  especially  King's,  Queen's,  and  Brunswick 
Docks,  becomes  so  weakened  as  to  permit  the  sand  held  in  solution  to  deposit 
thereat,  besides  being  too  weak  to  bear  away  the  silt  driven  forth  from  the 
several  dock  sluices.  The  first  effect  of  this  diversion  manifests  itself  in 
the  formation  of  a  shelf  of  sand  varying  from  three  to  ten  feet  under  water, 
that  springs  from  abreast  of  the  rocks  under  Mr.  Lawrence's  wall  one-third 
of  a  mile  southward  of  the  Potteries,  trending  obliquely  towards  Birkenhead 
until  abreast  of  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dock  Estate,  where  it  forms  an 
elbow  one-third  of  a  mile  towards  the  centre  of  the  river,  and  then  trends 
to  St  George's  Dock.  This  shelf,  therefore,  narrows  the  river  capacity  at 
low  water  to  nearly  one-half  what  it  appears  to  be  at  Rock  Ferry  and 
Brunswick  Dock,  and  then  the  visible  Pluckington  springing  obliquely  from 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dock  Estate,  and  forming  an  entrance  off 
Brunswick  off- tide  entrance  at  an  offset  of  270  yards  into  the  river,  whence 
it  trends  into  St  George's  Dock,  lateral  to  and  within  thirty  yards  of  the 
margin  of  the  shelf. 

This  bank  outlays  King's  Dock  Basin  also  270  yards,  varying  from  six 
feet  to  one  foot  in  height  above  low-water  level.  Its  highest  part  is  off 
Duke's  Dock,  where  it  outlays  fifty  yards  less,  but  drives  up  ten  feet ;  off 
Canning  Dock  it  outlays  above  120  yards,  and  drives  up  to  six  feet  four 
inches,  then  gradually  narrows  at  an  elevation  of  two  feet,  until  uniting  with 
the  base  of  George's  Pier-head. 

Taking  the  progress  of  this  bank  since  1828,  which  is  marked  by  a  green 
shade  on  Plan,  we  have  a  horizontal  increase  of  210  yards  abreast  of  Brans- 
wick  Basin,  abreast  of  King's  Dock  123  yards,  and  abreast  of  Duke's  Dock 
only  40  yards.    Its  respective  elevations  I  cannot  quote  between  those  dates, 
but  since  1834, 1  find  it  grown  up  one  foot  off  Brunswick  Dock,  two  feet 
off  Brunswick  Basin,  three  feet  off  King's  Dock,  three  feet  off  Duke's  Dock, 
and  one  foot  off  Canning  Dock,  during  which  its  low-water  margin  hat 
yielded  fifty  yards  directly  off  Brunswick  Basin.     Simultaneous  with  this 
two  years'  fluctuation,  I  find  the  Devil's  Bank  to  have  warped  143  yards 
towards  the  eastern  shore,  lowered   in  altitude  four  feet,  but  elongated 
towards  Pluckington  Shelf  250  yards,  so  that  the  spit  of  Devil's  Bank  and 
Pluckington  Shelf  are  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  uniting  with  each  other, — 
an  event  to  be  feared,  seeing  that  the  Devil's  Spit  has  elongated  two-thirds  of 
a  mile  in  eight  years,  but  which  should  be  averted  with  all  anxiety ;  for  on 
the  space  between  them  being  shoaled  up  to  a  bar  of  six  feet  instead  of 
fifteen,  the  Garston  branch  of  the  Mersey  will  scour  its  way  through  the 
Swatchway  just  above  Otterspool,  dividing  the  Devil's  Bank  from  Eastham 
Sands,  and  join  the  main  column  of  ebb  stream  down  the  Cheshire  side  of 
the  river.     I  therefore  earnestly  propose,  that,  with  reference  to  the  curvi- 
lineal  boundary  set  forth  for  the  future  projections  between  the  Dock  Estate 
and  Dingle  Point,  a  river-wall  should  be  extended  in  connexion  from  forty 
yards  within  the  low-water  edge  of  the  Knott's  Hole  rocks,  scraping  the 
edge  of  those  rocks,  and  preserving  a  gentle  concave  along  the  low-water 
margin  of  the  shore.     This  wall  would  produce  a  most  sensible  effect  on 
the  first  400  yards'  advance,  by  presenting  a  cutwater  edge  to  the  down 
stream,  instead  of  allowing  the  whole  body  of  water  to  drive  against  the 
north  cliffs  and  rocks  of  Dingle  Point,  and  then  jerked  off  with  an  impo- 
verished impetus  at  nearly  right  angles  to  its  wonted  and  natural  course. 

Its  further  extension  might  be  subject  of  convenience  of  funds,  &c,  under- 
standing that  as  it  progressed  south-eastward,  more  decided  guidance  and 
impetus  on  the  ebb  stream  would  be  afforded,  the  destructive  undermining 
of  the  cliffs  and  consequent  dissemination  thereof  on  the  banks  obviated* 


THE  RIVER  MBRSBY.  83 

&d  much  valuable  frontage  redeemed;  for,  supposing  it  carried  up  to 
Otterspool,  an  area  of  616  acres  would  be  produced ;  and  if  up  to  Garston, 
1590  acres. 

The  filling  up  would  not  concern  our  tidal  object;  on  the  contrary,  the 
circulation  of  water  within  would  avoid  the  displacement  of  2,702,018  cubic 
yards  of  tidal  water  in  first  enclosure  to  Otterspool,  and  72,000,000  in  the 
whole  enclosure.  The  contemplated  enclosure  between  the  Dock  Estate  and 
Dingle  Point  will  embrace  346  acres  area,  and  11,024,444  cubic  yards  of 
water,  for  the  total  of  which  displacement  I  should  not  be  tenacious  of  per- 
mitting of  a  close  wall  and  filling  up  the  strand  within  it,  notwithstanding 
the  assumed  obvious  advantage  to  property. 

1  will  conclude  this  Report,  Sir,  by  begging  it  may  go  hand  in  hand  with 
the  local  and  general  Plans  herewith  submitted  for  elucidation  to  the  mind's 
eye  of  those  gentlemen  concerned  in  the  conservation  of  the  Mersey  and 
Dock  approaches.  Of  the  latter  it  need  only  be  said,  that,  whilst  placing 
dock  sills  between  four  and  nine  feet  of  low-water  level,  a  bank  should  be 
contemplated  with  much  jealousy  that  not  only  precludes  taking  up  early 
anchorage  near  the  Southern  Docks,  but  that  threatens  to  elevate  itself 
above  the  level  of  those  sills,  except  in  the  guttering  course  of  the  gate 
sluices. 

1  ought  to  add,  that  we  need  not  wait  the  connexion  of  a  boundary  wall 
from  the  Docks  to  Dingle  Point  before  striking  out  the  cutwater  wall  south* 
ward,  but  act  independently  and  effectively  by  Dingle  Point,  by  first  project- 
ing on  the  rocks  100  yards  in  a  south-west  direction,  and  then  vigorously 
working  towards  Otterspool. 

I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir, 

Your  obedient  Servant, 

H.  M.  Denham,  R.N., 
Marine  Surveyor  to  the  Dock  Trustees 

To  the  Worshipful  the  Mayor  of  Liverpool. 

No.  6 Statement  of  the  Town  Clerk  as  to  the  Rights  of  the  Mayor, 

Aldermen,  and  Burgesses  of  Liverpool  to  the  Lordship  of  Liverpool,  com- 
prising the  River  Mersey  up  to  the  Bridges  and  to  the  Strand  at  Liver- 
pool, Toxteth  Park,  Birkenhead,  and  Wallasey. 

1.  The  title  of  the  Corporation  to  the  Lordship  of  Liverpool,  comprising 
the  Itiver  Mersey  up  to  the  Bridges. 

The  Corporation,  as  purchasers  from  the  grantees  of  King  Charles  the 
First,  are  seized  in  fee  of  the  town  and  lordship  of  Liverpool,  and  all  the 
customs,  anchorage,  and  key  or  keel  towl  of  the  water  of  the  Mersey,  of 
which  over  the  whole  of  the  river  up  to  the  Warrington  and  Frodsham 
Bridges  the  Corporation  are,  and  ever  since  their  purchase  have  been,  in  the 
receipt  and  enjoyment.    The  lordship  comprises  the  river  up  to  the  bridges. 

By  the  Liverpool  Dock  Act,  2  Geo.  III.  c.  86.  s.  18,  the  Corporation,  as 
"  the  Trustees  of  the  Liverpool  Docks,'1  have  the  following  express  powers : — 

"  And  be  it  further  enacted  by  the  authority  aforesaid,  that  it  shall  and 
may  be  lawful  to  and  for  the  said  trustees,  their  agents,  servants  or  work- 
men, when  and  as  often  as  occasion  shall  require,  well  and  sufficiently  to 
cleanse,  scour,  open,  deepen,  widen  or  straighten,  rake  up  or  cut  through 
any  banks,  shoals,  flats,  shallows,  dock  sluices  or  guts  in  the  said  harbour  of 
Liverpool,  or  leading  into  the  same  from  the  sea,  as  the  same  trustees,  or 
any  twenty-five  or  more  of  them,  shall  think  proper  and  necessary  for  the 


24  report — 1856* 

belter  securing,  maintaining,  and  preserving  a  free,  open  and  perfect  navi- 
gation into  and  through  the  said  harbour  of  Liverpool,  and  to  dig,  cut,  re- 
move and  take  away  any  sand,  gravel,  rocks,  stones,  anchors,  cables,  timber 
and  other  things,  wrecks  of  ships,  or  other  vessels,  or  any  other  obstructions 
or  impediments  to  the  navigation  leading  into  and  being  within  the  said 
harbour  of  Liverpool  from  the  sea  or  mouth  of  the  said  harbour,  and  so  far 
southwards  as  the  liberties  or  lordship  of  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool  ex- 
tend, be  it  the  ground  or  soil  of  the  King's  Most  Excellent  Majesty  or  any 
other  person  or  persons,  bodies  politic  or  corporate,  whatsoever." 

2.  The  property  of  the  Corporation  in  the  Strand  at  Liverpool  and  part  of 

Toxteth  Park. 

The  Corporation  of  Liverpool  are  the  owners  of  the  freehold  of  the  whole 
of  the  strand,  forming  the  river  front  of  the  ancient  borough,  such  owner- 
ship so  far  as  respects  the  docks  now  standing  vested  in  them  in  their 
capacity  of  "  the  Trustees  of  the  Liverpool  Docks,"  by  virtue  of  appropria- 
tions under  the  Dock  Acts.  As  to  the  small  dock  of  the  Trustees  of  the  late 
Duke  of  Bridgewater,  that  property,  with  certain  limited  privileges  over  the 
strand,  is  leasehold  for  lives,  with  a  right  of  perpetual  renewal  on  payment 
of  a  small  fixed  fine,  the  Corporation  Etill  owning  the  freehold  in  reversion. 
Of  the  title  of  the  Corporation  there  is,  from  1670  downwards,  the  strongest 
proofs,  by  grants,  leases,  and  various  other  acts  of  ownership,  as  in  1828 
was  fully  admitted  by  the  Duchy  of  Lancaster,  Mr.  Wyndham  then  being  the 
Duchy  Solicitor.  Upon  this  occasion  extracts  from  the  Corporation  Records, 
with  three  explanatory  maps,  were  laid  before  the  Duchy. 

Of  the  strand  in  Toxteth  Park,  so  far  as  the  Liverpool  Docks  extend  into 
that  township  or  extra-parochial  place,  the  Corporation,  principally  in  their 
capacity  of  "  the  Trustees  of  the  Liverpool  Docks,"  are  also  the  owners  of 
the  freehold  by  purchases  from  Lord  Sefton  and  others  under  the  Dock 
Acts. 

The  docks  of  the  trustees  and  the  river-walls  were  all  made  under  acts  of 
Parliament 

3.  The  property  of  the  Corporation  in  Birkenhead  and  Wallasey. 

The  Corporation  by  purchases  are  entitled  to  their  land  at  Birkenhead 
and  Wallasey  in  fee,  with  the  rights  of  the  lords  of  the  manors  to  the  shore 
of  the  Mersey.  The  only  erections  (called  by  Mr.  Eyes  encroachments) 
made  since  the  purchases  of  the  Corporation  are  parts  of  the  public  road, 
viz.  where  that  road  crosses  Gill  Brook,  and  where  it  crosses  Bridge  End, 
and  one  other  erection,  the  unauthorized  act  of  a  tenant.  All  the  other 
erections  on  the  shore  were  made  by  prior  owners. 

(Copy.) 

No.  7. — Letter  from  Lieut.  Wm.Lord  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Conservancy 

Committee. 

Marine  Surveyor's  Office,  Liverpool, 
March  23rd,  1840. 

Sir, — Referring  to  those  points  to  which  it  is  most  desirable  the  attention 
of  the  Conservative  Commissioners  of  the  River  Mersey  should  be  primarily 
directed  in  the  event  of  conservative  powers  being  obtained  from  Parlia- 
ment, I  would  premise,  that  the  existence  and  maintenance  of  the  sea  chan- 
nels leading  to  the  port,  vitally  depend  on  the  preservation  of  the  back- 
water which  the  Mersey  and  its  tributary  streams  afford ;  that  this  body  of 


THH  EIVER  MERSEY.  25 

vater  is  liable  to  daily  diminution  by  various  encroachments,  and,  if  not 
protected,  will  be  materially  lessened,  the  effect  of  which  would  undoubtedly 
be,  the  sanding  and  filling  up  of  the  sea  channels,  leading  ultimately  to  the 
rain  of  the  port. 

The  first  object  therefore  worthy  the  attention  of  the  conservators,  would, 
in  my  opinion,  be  the  preservation  of  the  backwater  as  it  at  present  exists, 
and  to  take  care  that  for  the  future  it  was  not  trenched  on  or  diminished. 

To  effect  this  object,  it  would,  I  think,  be  desirable  that  the  limits  of  the 
high-water  margin  of  the  river  should  be  accurately  marked  and  defined, 
and  that  no  subsequent  encroachment  should  be  allowed  on  the  bed  of  the 
river,  either  in  the  shape  of  reclaiming  land  from  its  banks,  or  by  allow- 
ing any  projections  into  the  stream  of  the  river  without  the  sanction  of  the 
Commissioners. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact,  that  considerable  encroachments  have  in  former 
times  been  made  on  the  bed  of  the  Mersey  by  the  reclaiming  of  land  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  river,  and  such  operations  cannot,  in  my  opinion,  be  too 
strongly  deprecated ;  and  I  may  here  add,  that  it  is  to  this  very  cause,  viz. 
the  enclosure  of  land  in  its  upper  part,  that  the  filling  up  of  the  channels  in 
the  estuary  of  tbe  Dee  is  very  generally  attributed. 

Having  defined  the  high-water  limits,  it  would,  I  think,  be  very  desirable 
that  the  edges  of  the  banks  (which  in  the  upper  part  of  the  river  are  com- 
posed of  an  earthy  sward)  should  be  protected  by  a  facing  of  stone  or  other 
suitable  material ;  the  destructive  fretting  away  and  undermining  of  their 
margins  and  consequent  dissemination  thereof  on  the  banks  in  the  river,  and 
its  embouchure,  would  thus  be  obviated. 

Having  thus  secured  and  rendered  permanent  a  scouring  force  of  water 
equal  to  that  we  now  possess,  and  which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  is 
capable  of  maintaining  the  sea-approaches  of  the  port  in  as  effective  a  state 
as  they  now  exist,  it  would  only  remain  to  carefully  and  vigilantly  watch  the 
changes  that  might  arise  from  time  to  time  in  the  sand-banks  in  the  river  and 
its  approaches,  and  should  circumstances  render  it  necessary,  adopt  such 
timely  remedial  measures  as  the  urgency  of  the  case  or  the  operations  of 
nature  might  suggest  I  may  here  remark,  that  the  dredging  operations 
which  were  so  successfully  carried  on  during  a  period  of  ten  months  last 
year  in  the  Victoria  Channel,  and  by  means  of  which  a  most  valuable  chan- 
nel was  opened  to  the  port,  depended  for  their  success  entirely  on  the  column 
of  water  running  out  of  the  Mersey  on  the  ebb  tide,  and  a  minute  attention 
to  the  changes  which  were  naturally  taking  place  in  that  region;  and  should 
any  future  fluctuations  take  place  in  that  or  other  quarters,  it  may  again 
become  requisite  to  adopt  artificial  measures  to  improve  or  preserve  the 
approaches  to  the  port. 

The  natural  formation  of  the  River  Mersey  is,  I  think,  admirably  adapted 
for  the  purpose  of  scouring  and  keeping  open  the  sea  channels,  provided 
that  formation  is  not  altered  and  distorted  by  encroachments  on  its  banks. 
The  upper  part  of  the  river,  between  the  Dingle  Point  and  Weston  Point, 
forms  as  it  were  an  immense  inland  lake  of  eleven  miles  long  by  two  and  a 
half  broad,  the  latter  being  the  average  width  between  Eastham  and  Garston, 
and  Dungeon  Point  and  the  Cheshire  shore.  At  the  Dingle  Point  the  river 
contracts,  and  between  the  Cheshire  shore  and  Liverpool,  from  the  south  to 
the  north  end  of  the  docks,  it  constitutes  a  narrow  gorge  of  only  half  a  mile 
width  and  considerable  depth,  through  which  the  calculated  waters  of  the 
upper  lake  are  disgorged  with  a  velocity  of  as  much  as  seven  miles  per  hour 
on  the  ebb  tide ;  and  though  it  is  true  that  this  impetus  is  materially  dimi- 
nished by  the  time  it  reaches  the  sea  at  the  outer  bars  of  the  shallows,  still 


t6  REPORT— 1856. 

if  we  can  preserve  the  same  column  of  water  and  strength  of  current  whiclt 
we  now  possess,  I  see  no  reason  to  apprehend  the  outer  approaches  of  the 
port  sanding  or  filling  up. 

The  scarping,  or  removal  of  rocks,  in  the  river  should  not,  I  think,  be 
undertaken  without  due  consideration  of  the  effects  likely  to  be  produced 
by  so  doing,  and  should,  in  my  opinion,  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible. 

In  conclusion,  I  would  beg  to  remark,  that  I  think  the  new  dock  proposed 
to  be  formed  to  the  westward  of  the  Salthouse  Dock,  and  the  carrying  out 
of  the  river- wall  in  that  quarter,  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  line  with  the 
other  docks,  will  be  a  great  and  decided  improvement  to  the  navigation  of 
the  river. 

I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  Servant, 

(Signed)  Wm.  Lord, 

Marine  Surveyor  to  the  Port. 
To  the  Chairman  of  the  Conservancy  Committee. 

(Copy.) 

No.  8.— Letter  from  Lieut.  Wm.  Lord  to  R.  Radcliffe,  Esq. 

Marine  Surveyor's  Office,  April  3, 1840. 
Dear  Sir, — Since  I  last  wrote  to  you  on  the  Conservancy  affairs,  it  has 
occurred  to  me  that  two  or  three  piers  judiciously  run  out  between  Garston 
and  the  Dingle  Point,  might  produce  a  good  effect  in  preventing  the  great 
offset  of  the  tide  from  the  Dingle  Point,  and  conducting  it  along  the  line 
of  the  docks,  by  which  some  portion  of  Pluckiagton  Bank  would  doubtless 
be  got  rid  of. 

Having  had  some  conversation  with  the  Dock  Surveyor  on  the  subject, 
I  may  add  that  he  fully  concurs  with  me  on  this  matter,  which  may  be 
worthy  the  attention  of  the  Conservancy  Commissioners,  should  such  be 
appointed. 

The  expense  of  the  erection  of  such  piers  would  not,  I  apprehend,  be 
very  great 

I  am,  dear  Sir, 

Yours  very  truly, 
(Signed)  Wm.  Lord. 

R.  Radcliffe,  Esq.,  Town  Rail. 


Report  upon  the  changes  in  the  Sea  Channels  of  the  Mersey,  as  recorded  by 
the  Surveys  taken  and  published  within  the  last  fifty  years  ;  and  which 
surveys  have  been  laid  before  the  Committee  appointed  to  investigate  and 
report  upon  the  same,  by  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  at  its  meeting  in  Liverpool,  September  1 854.    By  Joseph  Boult. 

The  charts  of  the  Mersey  having  been  usually  prepared  when  important 
ahanges  had  taken  place  in  the  channels,  the  investigations  of  those  changes 
oould  not  be  arranged  by  epochs  of  time,  and  therefore  the  periods  which 
the  charts  themselves  prescribe  have  been  adopted. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  inquiry  it  may  be  conveniently  assumed  that  the 
true' mouths  of  the  river  are  at  the  outward  extremities  of  the  sea  channels. 
The  streams  of  tide  running  inland  through  these  sea  channels  unite  into  one 
great  stream  between  the  north  dock-works  of  Liverpool  and  New  Brighton. 
After  passing  the  towns  of  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,  through  a  narrow 
gorge— which  in  places  is  as  much  as  10  or  12  fathoms  deep,  at  low  water. 


THE  RIVBR  MBR8XT.  27 

of  ordinary  spring  tides — the  river  rapidly  widens  into  a  very  extensive  reach 
or  reservoir,  sometimes  called  the  upper  estuary ;  from  which  the  tide,  after 
sending  an  offshoot  into  the  Weaver,  passes  into  the  upper  reaches  of  the 
river  through  the  smaller  gorge  of  Runcorn-gap.  After  traversing  a  series 
of  reaches  and  gorges  of  less  and  less  importance,  and  surmounting  a  low 
weir  at  Howley-locks  (Warrington),  its  further  progress  is  finally  barred  by 
the  Woolston-weir  of  the  Mersey  and  Irwell  navigation.  This  weir  is  about 
/bar  miles  above  Warrington  ;  twenty-two  miles  above  the  Rock  Point,  New 
Brighton ;  and  thirty- four  miles  above  the  bar  of  the  Victoria  Channel. 

In  the  first  instance,  the  phenomena  of  the  upper  estuary,  and  those  of  the 
outer  estuary  or  Liverpool  Bay,  may  be  most  conveniently  considered  apart; 
the  results  of  their  investigation  can  afterwards  be  combined. 

Liverpool  Bay. — The  earliest  authentic  survey  of  Liverpool  Bay,  published 
within  the  period  assigned  to  this  inquiry,  is  that  of  Captain  George  Thomas, 
R.N.,  which  was  taken  in  1813,  and  published  in  May  1815.  The  next 
authentic  survey  is  that  of  Captain  H.  M.  Denham,  R.N.,  in  1833.  Both 
these  surveys  were  made  by  order  of  the  Admiralty,  in  consequence  of  the 
great  anxiety  and  alarm  experienced  by  the  local  authorities,  arising  from 
2ie  important  changes  which  took  place  in  the  channels  prior  to  each  of  the 
above  dates. 

The  changes  of  the  later  period  continuing, — they  were  in  fact  the  precur- 
sors of  the  substitution  of  new  outlets  for  the  old  ones,-— the  surveys  were 
repeated  by  Captain  Denham,  in  1835  and  1837. 

North  Channel. — On  comparing  the  charts  of  1813  and  1833,  it  appears 
that  at  the  former  date  the  Northern  Channel,  which  was  previously  divided 
into  two  portions,  called  the  Crosby  and  the  Formby  Channels,  maintained 
an  even  course  until  it  had  passed  Crosby  Point,  where  it  separated  into  two 
outlets ;  one  over  a  bar,  with  from  one  to  eight  feet  'of  water,  into  the  old 
Formby  Channel,  in  which  were  from  one  and  three-quarters  to  six  fathoms ; 
and  thence  over  another  bar  seaward  with  from  one  to  eight  feet  of  water. 
The  other  outlet,  called  the  South  Channel,  was  to  the  southward  and  west- 
ward, and  passed  between  the  Jordan  and  Great  Burbo  Banks,  having  from 
two  to  six  fathoms,  diminishing  on  a  seaward  bar  to  7  feet.  In  this  survey 
Formby  Bank  is  insulated  and  covered  at  four  hours'  flood. 

Formby  Bank. — In  1833,  twenty  years  later,  Formby  Bank  had  attached 
itself  to  the  main  shore ;  and  the  old  Formby  Channel  was  almost  land-locked, 
and  had  no  communication  with  the  Crosby  Channel,  except  over  a  6*foot 
bar,  between  Jordan  and  Formby  Banks.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  seaward 
bar  of  this  channel  had  increased  in  places  to  1 3  feet. 

New  Channel.— -The  South  Channel  of  Thomas's  survey  appears  to  have 
shifted  upwards  of  a  mile  to  the  southward,  and  acquired  nearly  a  true  east 
and  west  bearing ;  and  had  a  bar  with  10  or  1 1  feet  of  water.  It  was  called 
by  Denham  the  New  Channel. 

Zebra  Channel— Between  the  Formby  Channel  and  the  New  Channel 
another  outlet  was  opened,  having  a  minimum  depth  of  2  feet,  and  called  the 
Half-tide  Swatchway,  or  Zebra  Channel. 

Mad  Wharf. — Mad  Wharf,  a  large  bank  adjoining  Formby  Point  to  the 
northward,  had  elongated  upwards  of  2200  yards  in  that  direction,  and  its 
area  considerably  enlarged. 

Many  changes  took  place  in  the  position  and  magnitude  of  the  minor 

banks  adjoining  the  seaward  entrance  of  the  Northern  Channel ;  some  of 

which,  as  the  "  middle  patch,"  nearly  disappeared ;  whilst  others  enlarged 

their  area,  or  sprang  altogether  into  existence. 

Victoria  ChartneL—Between  the  survey  of  1833  and  those  of  1835  and 


28  REPORT — 1856. 

1837,  the  differences  chiefly  consist  of  the  changes  which  accompanied  the 
partly  natural  and  partly  artificial  formation  or  readjustment  of  the  new- 
channels  ;  they  found  their  issue  in  the  formation  of  that  which  is  known  as 
the  Victoria  Channel. 

West  Channel. — A  similar  examination  of  the  Western  Channel,  divided 
into  two  portions  called  the  Rock  and  the  Horse  Channels,  will  show  the 
following  changes. 

Rock  Channel, — In  the  above-named  period  of  twenty  years  the  banks 
north  of  the  Rock  Channel  were  enlarged  and  consolidated ;  the  Brazil  Bank 
and  Burbo  Sand  were  united  to  the  Great  Burbo  Bank,  and  the  patch,  which 
at  the  earlier  date  divided  the  Rock  Channel  at  its  junction  with  the  river 
into  two  portions,  was  itself  divided,  and  one  piece  added  to  Burbo  Sand,  the 
other  to  the  main  shore. 

At  the  western  extremity  of  the  Rock  Channel,  near  its  junction  with  the 
Horse  Channel,  its  width  has  been  contracted  about  400  yards ;  the  accretions 
are  partially  on  Dove  Spit,  but  chiefly  on  the  western  point  of  Great  Burbo, 
now  called  the  North  Spit  At  the  bar  of  the  Rock  Channel,  Thomas  gives 
soundings  of  one-third  fathom  (or  2  feet)  seaward,  and  of  one  and  two-third 
fathom  (or  10  feet)  on  the  Liverpool  side.  In  1833  Den  ham  gives  2  feet 
on  the  bar,  and  3  feet  on  the  Liverpool  side,  showing  a  diminution  of  7  feet 
in  the  latter. 

Penham's  soundings  are  unaltered  in  1837. 

Hot/lake. — In  1689,  the  date  of  Captain  Collins'*  survey,  the  big  ships  put 
out  part  of  their  lading  in  Hoylake,  that  they  might  sail  over  the  flats  into 
Liverpool ;  at  that  time  the  depth  of  water  in  the  lake  ranged  from  two  and 
a  half  fathoms  to  seven  fathoms,  and  William  III.  was  able  to  embark  his 
army  for  Ireland.  1 24  years  afterwards,  Thomas  records  the  range  as  reduced 
from  one  fathom  to  four  fathoms ;  and  twenty  years  later  it  appears  upon 
Denham's  first  chart  as  closed  by  a  bar,  the  pools  on  either  side  of  the  bar 
having  been  reduced  in  width  to  about  one-half  of  that  of  the  lake  in 
1813. 

Hoylake  joined  the  Western  Channel  at  the  junction  of  the  Horse  and 
Rock  Channels. 

Horse  Channel. — Whilst  these  changes  have  taken  place,  the  direction  of 
the  Horse  Channel  has  been  slightly  varied  by  additions  to  the  north-eastern 
extremity  of  East  Hoyle  Bank. 

Dock  Extensions.  1803  to  1836. — According  to  information  obligingly 
furnished  by  Mr.  J.  B.  Hartley,  one  of  the  engineers  to  the  Committee  of  the 
Liverpool  Docks,  the  works  constructed  between  1803  and  1836  comprised 
the  Prince's  Dock  and  Basin ;  the  Waterloo,  Victoria,  and  Trafalgar  Docks ; 
the  Clarence  Dock;  the  Clarence  Graving  Dock  and  Clarence  Half-tide 
Dock,  and  the  Salisbury  Dock,  northwardly ;  the  widening  of  the  George's 
and  King's  Piers,  and  the  construction  of  the  Manchester  Basin,  Canning 
Half-tide  Dock,  and  Albert  Dock,  centrally ;  and  the  widening  of  the  Queen's 
Pier  and  the  construction  of  the  Eagle  Basin  and  river  craft  dock,  the  Union, 
Coburg,  and  Brunswick  Docks,  the  Brunswick  Graving  Docks,  the  Brunswick 
Half-tide  Dock,  and  the  Dockyard,  southwardly ;  and  the  space  abstracted 
from  the  river  by  these  works  comprised  an  area  of  about  156  acres. 

These  works  have  been  almost  entirely  constructed  since  1813. 

Meteorological  Phcenomena. — There  are  no  reliable  meteorological  obser- 
vations of  the  period  1813  to  1837.  The  following  notices  of  storms  of 
wind  and  rain  are  compiled  from  the  annals  appended  to  Gore's  Directory 
of  Liverpool : — 

1802. — A  dreadful  hurricane ;  considerable  damage  done  by  sea  and  land ; 


THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  29 

the  tide  rose  6  feet  higher  than  the  calculation  in  the  time-table.    Sefton 
Church  lost  about  5  feet  of  its  spire.    January  21 . 

There  appears  to  be  a  lapse  in  this  portion  of  the  chronicle,  as  the  next 
record  is  in 

1818- — A  continuance  of  stormy  and  boisterous  weather  during  February 
and  March. 

1821. — A  most  dreadful  storm  experienced  in  the  town.    November  SO. 
1822*—  The  pilot-boat  No.  4  lost  on  Salisbury  Bank  (in  the  Dee  estuary), 
in  a  dreadful  storm.    December  5. 

1823. — A  very  violent  hurricane ;  several  chimneys  blown  down  ;  several 
Teasels  blown  on  shore  in  fiootle  Bay  and  other  parts  of  the  river.  Decem- 
ber 3rd.  More  serious  accidents  happened  from  this  storm  than  from  any 
other  since  the  memorable  one  in  the  year  1560. 

1824*. — The  equinoctial  gales  set  in  with  such  violence  that  many  of  the 
steam-boats  from  the  opposite  ferries,  which  usually  cross  in  six  or  seven 
minutes,  were  more  than  two  hours  on  their  passage.    March  4. 

A  dreadful  storm ;  much  damage  done  in  the  Prince's  Dock  by  the  vessels 
driving  against  each  other.    October  26. 

1829.—  A  dreadful  storm  of  thunder  and  lightning  and  rain;  continue 
from  3  p.m.  to  8  p.m.    July  24. 

A. very  violent  storm  of  wind  and  rain,  which  flooded  Whitechapel  and 
the  neighbourhood  (the  site  of  the  old  pool)  to  a  much  greater  extent  than 
had  been  experienced  for  many  years.  The  sewer  in  the  Old  Dock  burst, 
and  carried  several  yards  of  wall  into  the  dock.     August. 

1830. — Alarming  thunder-storm,  with  heavy  rain ;  much  damage  in  White- 
chapel, &c. ;  many  houses  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  town  flooded.    July  SO. 
1831. — Liverpool  visited  with  one  of  the  most  tremendous  falls  of  rain 
recorded  in  its  annals.    The  consequences  were  very  disastrous. 

1832. — Tremendous  storm  of  wind ;  several  vessels  were  wrecked,  and 
many  lives  lost.    October  8. 

1833. — Dreadful  storm  of  wind  and  rain  for  two  days,  which  produced 
great  mischief  on  shore,  and  a  very  melancholy  loss  of  life  at  sea. 
November  29. 

A  storm  more  severe  than  that  of  November  29th,  much  more  property 
being  destroyed.  The  tide  rose  from  the  proper  height  of  17  feet  5  inches 
to  26  feet ;  the  piers  and  wharves  were  overflowed,  and  much  damage  was 
done  to  the  public  works,  north  and  south.  December  31. 
1834. — Violent  gale  on  the  night  of  Sunday,  December  7. 
1855- — A  very  violent  storm,  in  which  many  vessels  were  driven  on  shore 
and  wrecked.    February  22. 

1836. — The  '  John  Welsh/  Captain  Woodhouse,  from  Sa vanilla,  lost  in  a 
hurricane,  on  West  Hoyle,  July  29. 

During  a  severe  gale,  the  'Heyes,'  for  Barbadoes,  and  the  'Febo,'  for 
Palermo,  were  lost ;  and  the  '  Sandbach'  and  several  other  vessels  got  on 
shore ;  several  pilots  were  taken  to  sea.    December  22nd  and  23rd. 

Since  1837  the  surveys  of  Liverpool  Bay  have  been  conducted  by  Lieu- 
tenant Lord,  R.N.,  lately  marine  surveyor  to  the  Dock  Committee;  they 
Were  published  in  the  years  1840,  1846,  1849,  1852,  1853,  and  1854. 

Northern  Channel.  1840. — On  comparing  the  survey  of  1840  with  that 
of  its  immediate  predecessor  of  1837,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Northern 
Channel  had  undergone  important  changes.    They  were  as  follows : — 

Crosby  Channel. — The  length  and  direction  of  that  portion  of  the  Crosby 
Channel  which  lies  between  the  Rock  Lighthouse  and  the  Crosby  Light- 
Tewel  had  been  very  slightly  altered ;  and  its  area  had  remained  very  much 


80  REPORT — 1856. 

the  same  at  in  18S7 ;  but  the  average  depth  had  been  reduced  from  31  feet 
to  30  feet. 

Between  the  Crosby  and  Formby  Light-vessels  the  direction  of  the  channel 
had  undergone  considerable  alteration,  the  Formby  vessel,  in  1840,  having 
been  moved  nearly  600  yards  westward  ;  the  area  and  depth  increased,  the 
former  from  15,600  yards  to  17,500  yards,  and  the  latter  from  264*  feet  to 
27  feet  The  average  of  the  whole  channel  from  the  Rock  Lighthouse  to 
Formby  Light- vessel  being  an  area  slightly  increased,  and  a  depth  sta- 
tionary. 

Victoria  Channel. — The  change  in  the  direction  of  this*  channel  had  been 
very  great ;  the  Bell  Buoy,  which  indicates  its  entrance  from  the  sea,  having 
been  moved,  in  1840,  nearly  2000  yards  to  the  north  of  its  position  in  1837- 
The  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  had  been  reduced  from  12  feet  and  13  feet 
to  10  feet  and  11  feet. 

Zebra  Channel. — This  channel  had  been  advanced  to  the  westward  of  its 
former  position,  and  had  increased  its  minimum  depth  from  2  feet  to  S  feet 
on  the  fairway  track. 

Formby  Bank. — This  bank  had  been  slightly  moved  to  the  eastward,  and 
considerably  elongated  to  the  northward,  the  elevation  of  its  surface  much 
more  varied,  some  portions  having  been  considerably  higher  and  others 
lower  than  they  were  in  1837 ;  the  elongated  portion  may  be  specially  noted 
as  having  been  entirely  "  wash."  On  the  whole,  however,  the  volume  of  the 
bank  appears  to  have  been  diminished  nearly  one-third ;  the  cubic  contents 
of  the  bank,  in  1837,  having  been  nearly  10,000,000  yards,  and  in  1840 
rather  more  than  6,500,000  yards. 

Mad  Wharf. — In  this  bank  there  had  been  little  change. 

Great  Burbo. — The  area  of  this  bank  had  been  enlarged,  and  its  volume 
increased  from  about  58,500,000  yards  to  about  62,000,000  yards. 

Western  Channel. — The  eastern  portion  of  this  channel,  called  the  Rock 
Channel,  had  been  reduced  in  length  about  500. yards,  and  in  average  depth 
1  foot ;  its  area  had  been  reduced  about  580  yards,  making  the  average  loss 
on  the  three  years  equal  to  6  per  cent  per  annum. 

The  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  reduced  from  2  feet  to  1  foot ;  and  the  first 
sounding  on  the  Liverpool  side  of  the  bar  from  3  feet  to  2  feet 

The  sailing  direction  of  the  Horse  Channel  remained  unaltered  ;  but  the 
North-west  Light-vessel  at  the  seaward  entrance  of  the  channel  had  been 
removed  in  1840  about  250  yards  north  of  its  position  in  1837. 

East  Boyle. — The  bar  in  Hoylake,  forming  part  of  this  bank,  had  in- 
creased in  area,  and  grown  up  to  2  feet  and  3  feet  above  low-water  level ; 
but,  notwithstanding  this  accession,  the  area  and  altitude  of  this  bank  had 
been  diminished;  and  its  volume  reduced  from  nearly  81,250,000  yards 
to  rather  more  than  73,500,000  yards. 

Dock  Extension. — No  works  of  importance  were  constructed  during  the 
period  under  investigation. 

Meteorological  Phenomena* — In  the  continued  absence  of  recorded  §ci« 
entific  observations,  reference  is  again  made  to  the  precarious  information 
in  '  Gore's  Annals,'  from  which  the  following  notices  are  compiled  :— 

1838.— The  British  ship  (Athabaska,'  bound  to  Quebec,  totally  lost  on 
West  Hoyle  during  a  gale;  all  on  board  perished.    April  17. 

1839* — A  terrific  and  most  destructive  hurricane  visited  Liverpool  on  the 
evening  of  January  6,  and  continued  with  little  intermission  till  the  following 
afternoon.  The  destruction  of  life  and  property  was  very  great ;  and  there 
was  scarcely  a  part  of  the  town  in  which  some  fatal  accident  did  not  occur. 
The  loss  of  life  amongst  the  shipping  was  awful.    The  North-west  Lightship 


THE  BIVBR  MBBSBY.  31 

was  driven  from  her  moorings  and  brought  into  port.  Two  New  York 
packets,  outward  bound,  were  lost  upon  the  North  Bank  (part  of  the  Great 
Burbo,  in  the  Rock  Channel).  The  *  Brighton/  from  Bombay,  was  wrecked 
near  the  Middle  Patch  Buoy,  in  the  same  channel.  The  *  Harvest  Home/ 
from  St.  Thomas,  was  lost  on  Mad  Wharf. 

Northern  ChanneL  1846.— Between  the  years  1840  and  1846  consider- 
able changes  bad  occurred,  though,  on  the  whole,  less  remarkable  than  those 
which  took  place  between  the  years  1837  and  1840. 

Crosby  Channel* — That  portion  between  the  Rock  Lighthouse  and  the 
Crosby  Light-vessel  had  not  undergone  much  change ;  its  direction  bad  been 
altered  by  removing  the  light- vessel  nearly  200  yards  to  the  eastward ;  the 
average  depth  had  remained  nearly  stationary  at  SO  feet.  The  average  area 
had  slightly  increased  from  18,000  yards  in  1840  to  18,840  yards  in  1846. 

That  portion  between  the  light-vessels  had  undergone  greater  change. 
Its  length  had  been  increased  about  400  yards,  the  average  depth  reduced 
to  96  feet ;  the  average  area  increased  about  1000  yards. 

Notwithstanding  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  Crosby  Light-vessel 
above-mentioned,  and  the  removal  of  the  Formby  Light-vessel  nearly  400 
yards  to  the  northward,  the  direction  of  the  channel  in  1846  was  parallel  to 
its  direction  in  1840. 

The  average  of  the  whole  channel  from  the  Rock  Lighthouse  to  Formby 
light-vessel  is  a  depth  diminished  from  29  feet  to  28}  feet,  and  an  area  in* 
creased  nearly  700  yards. 

Victoria  ChanneL — The  direction  of  this  channel  had  been  altered  by  the 
change  in  the  position  of  the  Formby  Light-vessel  above-mentioned,  and  by 
removing  the  Bell  Buoy  about  500  yards  westward.  The  average  depth  of 
water  on  the  bar  had  slightly  increased,  the  various  soundings  having  been 
10  feet,  11  feet,  and  12  feet 

Zebra  ChanneL — The  minimum  depth  on  the  fairway  track  through  this 
channel  had  been  increased  from  3  feet  to  6  feet. 

Formby  Bank. — The  area  of  this  bank  had  been  slightly  enlarged,  and 
the  elevation  very  considerably  increased,  the  volume  having  been  nearly 
13,000/XX)  yards  in  1846,  against  rather  more  than  6,500,000  yards  in  1840. 
The  position  had  been  nearly  stationary ;  there  had  been  a  slight  elongation 
northwards  and  a  slight  movement  eastwards. 

Mad  Wharf.— This  bank  had  sustained  considerable  loss  of  area  by 
abrasion  on  the  north-western  margin ;  but  this  loss  had  been  partially  com- 
pensated by  increase  of  elevation,  the  change  in  which  had  been  very  great 
The  volume  in  1846  had  been  nearly  5,750,000  yards,  against  6,500,000 
yards  in  1840. 

Great  Burbo. — The  area  of  this  bank  appears  to  have  been  unaltered, 
taken  as  a  whole,  though  there  had  been  considerable  local  changes.  The 
elevation  had  been  a  good  deal  reduced,  and,  consequently,  the  volume ;  the 
difference  is  represented  by  59,750,000  yards  in  1846,  instead  of  62,000,000 
yards  in  1840. 

Western  Channel. — The  eastern  portion,  or  Rock  Channel,  had  recovered 
800  yards  of  its  length  in  1837 ;  the  average  depth  had  been  stationary,  and 
tke  average  area  slightly  increased.  The  soundings  at  the  bar  had  been  un- 
altered. In  the  Horse  Channel  East  Hoyle  Bank  had  advanced  towards  the 
north-east,  and  the  North-west  Light-vessel  had  been  moored  about  300 
yards  to  the  westward. 

East  Hoyle. — In  area  this  bank  had  remained  pretty  stationary,  but  the 
loa  in  elevation  had  reduced  the  volume  from  upwards  of  73,500,000  yards 
to  under  72,000,000  yards, 


32  report — 1856. 

Liverpool  Dock  Extension*— These  dock- works  comprehended  the  Nelaon, 
Bramley-Moore,  and  Wellington  Docks;  the  Wellington  Half-tide  Dock,  the 
Sandon  Dock,  the  Sandon  Graving  Dock,  and  the  Sandon  Basin ;  altogether 
a  tidal  area  of  about  117  acres. 

Meteorological  Phenomena. — From  observations  recorded  in  the  War- 
rington Museum  and  Library,  for  the  use  of  which  the  Committee  is  indebted 
to  Mr.  Glazebrook  Ry  lands  of  that  town,  it  appears  that  the  fall  of  rain  in 
1844  (the  earliest  year  perfectly  recorded)  was  23*73  inches;  in  1845,  30*12 
inches ;  and  in  1846,  the  year  of  the  survey,  30*29  inches. 

In  '  Gore's  Annals '  the  following  facts  are  noted : — 

2841. — Terrific  thunder-storm.  The  spires  of  the  churches  of  St.  Michael's 
and  St.  Martin's-in- the- Fields  struck.    August  24. 

1843. — A  great  storm  during  the  night  of  January  13.  Houses  and 
buildings  were  unroofed.  The  damage  done  to  the  shipping  in  the  river 
and  outside  the  harbour  was  very  great,  and  many  lives  were  lost. 

1844. — The  dock  receipts  for  the  last  week  were  much  greater  than  were 
ever  received  in  any  one  week,  and  considerably  more  than  double  the 
receipts  of  the  corresponding  week  of  last  year.  The  long  prevalence  of 
easterly  winds  in  some  measure  contributed  to  produce  so  large  an  item. 
June  13. 

Northern  Channel.  1849. — The  survey  of  1849  does  not  exhibit  any 
marked  changes  beyond  the  consolidation  of  some  of  the  outlying  banks 
near  the  junction  of  the  Victoria  and  Zebra  Channels;  as,  for  example,  that 
of  the  Taylor's  Bank  and  Jordan  Flats.  It  appears  to  have  been  prepared 
to  show  an  alteration  in  the  fairway  track  through  the  Victoria  Channel,  in 
consequence  of  a  shift  westward  of  Little  Burbo  Bank.  The- positions  of  the 
Bell  Buoy  and  of  the  Formby  and  Crosby  Light-vessels  remained  unaltered. 

The  average  depth  of  water  on  the  Victoria  Bar  had  been  slightly  re- 
duced. 

Dock  Extension. — The  Huskisson  Dock,  the  most  northernly  of  the 
Liverpool  Docks,  and  the  Birkenhead  Docks,  had  made  considerable  progress 
since  the  survey  of  1 846. 

Meteorological  Phenomena. — The  Warrington  tables  record  the  rain-fall 
during  the  interval  between  the  two  surveys,  as  follows: — In  1846,  30*29 
inches;  in  1847,  36*71  inches;  in  1848,  33*75  inches;  and  in  1849,  83*98 
inches. 

In  Swineshaw  Brook,  a  feeder  of  the  Tame,  which  is  a  branch  of  the 
Mersey,  the  rain-fall  recorded  by  Messrs.  Peter  Clark,  F.R.A.S.,  and  J.  F. 
Bateman,  F.G.S.,  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.  (Memoirs  of  the  Literary  and  Philoso-  * 
phical  Society  of  Manchester,  page  17,  vol.  ix.  second  series),  was  as 
follows : — 1845,  59*8  inches,  "  possibly  registered  too  high;  in  other  places 
the  fall  just  an  average;"  1845,  42^ inches,  "and  this  year  was  consider- 
ably below  the  average;"  1847,  49*35  inches,  "this  year  was  about  the^ 
average,  in  some  places  above." 

Survey,  1852. — The  chart  of  1852  shows  that  considerable  and  important 
changes  had  taken  place  since  the  survey  of  1846,  with  which  that  of  1849 
may  be  considered  in  the  main  identical.  The  re-survey  of  the  bay  at  the 
latter  period,  as  before  observed,  seems  to  have  been  confined  to  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  Victoria  Channel. 

The  following  comparison,  therefore,  is  instituted  between  the  surveys  of 
1846  and  1852,  a  period  of  six  years. 

Northern  Channel — Crosby  Channel. — The  principal  changes  which  had 
taken  place  in  that  portion  of  the  Crosby  Channel  between  the  Rock  Light- 
house and  the  Crosby  Light-vessel,  were  its  elongation,  and  the  consequent 


THE  EtVEE  MERSEY.  S3 

removal  of  the  Light- vessel  about  2000  yards  north-west  wardly  of  its  position 
io  1846;  the  diminution  of  its  average  depth  from  30  feet  to  29  feet ;  and 
the  diminution  of  its  average  area  from  18,840" yards  to  17,500  yards. 

The  direction  of  this  portion  of  the  channel  had  beeu  slightly  altered,  as 
indicated  by  the  change  in  the  position  of  the  Light-vessel. 

In  that  portion  of  this  channel  between  the  two  Light-vessels,  the  changes 
sad  consisted  of  the  removal  of  the  Formby  Light-vessel  about  750  yards 
DOtth-westwardly ;  an  increase  of  the  average  depth  from  26  feet,  in  1846, 
to  28  feet  in  1852 ;  and  a  diminution  of  the  average  area  from  18,600  yards, 
in  1845,  to  16,450  yards  in  1852. 

In  its  whole  length,  the  Crosby  Channel  during  this  period  had  been 
elongated  about  500  yards ;  its  average  area  diminished  from  18,443  yards  to 
17,126  yards ;  and  its  average  depth  nearly  stationary,  but  slightly  increased. 
The  change  in  the  position  of  the  Crosby  Light-vessel  appears  to  have  been 
occasioned  by  the  growth  of  a  large  elbow  upon  Great  Burbo.  The  Formby 
vessel  appears  to  have  been  moved  partly  for  the  same  reason,  and  partly 
from  a  change  in  the  position  of  Little  Burbo,  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
Victoria  Channel. 

Victoria  Channel. — The  position  of  this  channel  had  again  undergone 
very  great  change,  the  Bell  Buoy  having  been  removed  about  1000  yards  to 
the  southward,  or  nearly  midway  between  its  positions  in  1840  and  1837* 
The  average  depth  of  water  on  the  bar  had  been  very  much  the  same  in 
1852  as  in  1849,  that  is,  rather  less  than  in  1846. 

Zebra  Channel. — The  minimum  depth  of  water  in  this  channel  had 
increased  from  6  feet,  in  1846,  to  7  feet  in  1852;  in  other  respects  it  had 
remained  without  material  alteration. 

Formby  Bank. — This  bank  had  been  enlarged  by  the  accession  of  the 
Jordan  Bank,  and  by  its  own  increased  elevation :  in  1846  the  volume  of 
Formby  Bank  -was  nearly  13,000,000  yards;  and  that  of  Jordan  Bank 
1,500,000  yards,  making  a  total  of  14,500,000  yards ;  in  1 852  these  quantities 
were  respectively 1 1,000,000  yards  and  4,750,000  yards,  or  a  total  of  15,750,000 
yards.    Its  position  had  been  stationary. 

Mad  Wharf.— This  bank  had  sustained  a  slight  loss  of  elevation ;  but  this 
had  been  compensated  in  volume  by  an  extension  westward,  the  entire  con- 
tents having  been  nearly  6,500,000  yards  in  1852,  against  nearly  5,750,000 
yards  in  1846,  the  former  quantity  being  very  nearly  identical  with  that  of  the 
•ame  bank  in  1840. 

Taylor  Bank, — Taylor  Bank  and  Jordan  Flats,  the  former  of  which  in 
1833  had  no  existence,  and  the  latter  at  that  date  of  very  minor  importance, 
had  not  only  united  in  1849,  but  in  1852  had  largely  increased  in  volume; 
and  in  the  same  period  had  moved  into  close  proximity  with  the  united 
Formby  and  Jordan  Banks.  During  the  period  since  1833,  Little  Burbo,  the 
Middle,  the  West  Middle,  and  other  outlying  banks  had  either  been  depressed 
below  low-water  level,  or  had  disappeared  altogether. 

Great  Burbo. — This  bank  had  undergone  material  alterations  since  1 846, 
one  of  which  was  the  extraordinary  growth  of  the  north-east  angle  in  Crosby 
Channel  before-mentioned;  other  important  changes  of  outline  may  be 
noticed  on  inspection  of  the  charts ;  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  alteration 
is  the  increase  of  bulk,  arising  partially  from  enlarged  area,  but  principally 
from  increased  elevation  ;  and  it  is  to  be  observed  that  this  additional  eleva- 
tion is  generally  diffused  over  the  whole  bank.  In  1846  the  volume  of  this 
bank  had  been  calculated  to  be  about  59,750,000  yards;  in  1852  it  had  in- 
creased to  69,500,000  yards. 

Western  Channel— In  1852  the  Rock  Channel  had  again  undergone  a 
1856.  d 


34  REPORT— 1856. 

slight  elongation ;  the  average  depth  had  been  reduced  to  IS  feet  instead  of 
14  feet)  as  in  1846 ;  but  the  average  area  bad  been  nearly  stationary.  The 
entrance  from  the  Horse  Channel  had  been  slightly  contracted.  The  flailing 
direction  for  the  Horse  Channel  had  been  altered  a  quarter  of  a  pointy 
in  consequence  of  a  movement  of  East  Hoyle  Bank  towards  the  north* 
east 

East  Hoyle. — This  bank  had  also  acquired  a  considerable  increase  of  bulk, 
arising  from  additional  elevation.  Its  volume  in  1846  had  been  nearly 
72,000,000  yards,  in  1852  about  84,500,000  yards. 

Dock  Extension. — Since  1846  the  Huskisson  Dock,  Liverpool,  had  been 
completed,  and  the  north  wall  so  far  advanced  as  practically  to  exclude  the 
tidal  water ;  by  these  combined  works  about  355  acres  have  been  abstracted 
from  the  river. 

In  the  same  period  the  works  at  Birkenhead  had  made  great  progress ; 
and  the  stank  or  dam  across  the  Great  Float,  and  the  walls  of  the  north,  and 
south  reserves  constructed ;  by  these  an  additional  area  of  150  acres  had  been 
taken  from  the  tidal  area  of  the  river, — making  a  total  abstraction  of 
upwards  of  500  acres. 

Waste  of  River  Margin. — On  the  Cheshire  side  of  the  river,  between 
Seacombe  Point  and  Sea  Bank  (Liscard),  the  waters  of  the  river  within 
eight  years  have  encroached  upon  the  land  to  an  extent,  estimated  by  Mr. 
Macpherson,  the  late  surveyor  to  the  Wallasey  Board  of  Health,  now  of 
Edinburgh,  at  1 1 ,350,810  cubic  feet ;  which,  at  an  average  height  of  40  feet, 
represent  6\  acres. 

Meteorological  Phcenomena. — From  the  Warrington  tables,  it  appears  that 
the  rain-fall,  between  1846  and  1852,  was  as  follows:—- 


1846=30-29  inches. 
1847=36-71      „ 
1848=33-75      „ 
1849=33*98      „ 


1850=27-79  inches. 
1851=31-48      „ 
1852=41-46      „ 


In  *  Gore's  Annals '  the  following  only  are  recorded: — 

1846. — Dreadful  storm  in  the  town  and  neighbourhood,  great  damage 
done.    November  20. 

1850. — Ship  *  Providence,'  bound  for  Africa,  lost  in  the  channel  during  a 
severe  gale  of  wind.    October  7. 

Survey,  1853. — This  survey  appears  to  have  been  confined  to  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  Victoria  Channel,  to  show  the  alterations  in  the  fairway 
track,  occasioned  by  changes  intermediate  between  the  surveys  of  1852  and 
1854. 

Survey,  1854.— Northern  Channel.- -The  survey  of  J  854,  like  those  of 
1849  and  1853,  appears  to  have  been  very  partial,  and  has  been  confined 
to  the  vicinities  of  the  Victoria  Channel  and  of  the  Rock  Channel ;  the 
leading  line  through  the  former  had  become  more  tortuous,  though  the  posi* 
tion  of  the  Bell  Buoy  and  the  Formby  Light-vessel  had  been  unaltered.  The 
depths  of  water  on  the  bar  had  slightly  increased,  the  soundings  being 
11  feet,  12  feet,  and  13  feet. 

The  average  area  and  average  depth  of  the  Crosby  and  Formby  Channels 
had  not  undergone  any  important  change. 

Zebra  Channel— The  direction  of  the  Zebra  Channel  had  been  slightly 
altered,  having  acquired  a  more  westwardly  bearing,  and  the  average  depth 
of  water  considerably  reduced ;  the  minimum  sounding  was  6  feet  in  1854, 
against  7  feet  in  1852. 

New  Channel— A  new  swatchway,  now  known  as  the  Queen's  Channel, 


THB  EIVBB  MBRSEY.  S5 

kd  been  opened  through  the  shoals,  intermediate  between  the  Zebra  and 
Victoria  Channels,  having  a  minimum  depth  of  9  feet 

The  Banks.— No  material  change  had  taken  place  in  any  of  the  banks, 
except  that  Little  Burbo  had  been  sunk  below  low- water  level,  with  sound- 
iaga  of  from  2  feet  to  5  feet,  and  that  the  balk  of  Taylor's  Bank  and  Jordan 
Flats  had  been  slightly  reduced. 

JPesfer*  ChcmneL — The  eastern  portion  of  the  Rock  Channel  had  been  a 
good  deal  contracted,  principally  by  enlargement  of  the  foreshore  at  New 
Brighton.  The  average  area  in  1854  had  been  reduced  £00  yards,  or  about 
lour  per  cent  per  annum.    The  average  depth  had  remained  pretty  stationary. 

Meteorological  Phenomena* — From  the  Warrington  tables,  it  appears  that 
the  rain-fall  at  Warrington  had  been — 

In  1852=41*46  inches. 
1853=28-25      „ 
1854=27-18      „ 

From  the  tables  printed  with  Mr.  Osier's  paper  "  On  the  Self-registering 
Anemometer  and  Rain-Gauge  in  the  Liverpool  Observatory,"  published  in 
the  Reports  of  the  Association  for  1855,  p.  128,  it  appears  that  the  rain-fall 
at  Liverpool  had  been — 

In  1852=31*53  inches. 
1853=22-42      „ 
1853=2211      n 

It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  very  great  difference  between  the 
leeords  for  Liverpool  and  Warrington,  the  proportionate  difference  for  each 
year  being  very  similar ;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  it  is  the  fall  in  the  up- 
country  which  is  moat  likely  to  produce  changes  in  the  channels  of  the  river! 
through  the  agency  of  freshes. 

The  Liverpool  tables  for  the  first  time  furnish  definite  information  upon 
the  phenomena  of  wind.  From  them  it  appears  that  the  point  out  of  the 
whole  sixteen  from  which  the  wind  blows  for  the  greatest  number  of  days 
throughout  the  year  is  S.S.E.,  and  therefore  it  has  been  said  by  Mr.  Osier 
that  in  Liverpool  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  that  point  In  the  absence 
of  explanation,  or  without  very  careful  explanation  of  the  tables,  this  state- 
ment is  likely  to  convey  an  erroneous  impression  :  if,  instead  of  comparing 
point  with  point,  we  take  the  five  points  from  N.  to  W.  both  included,  we 
find  that  in  1854  the  winds  from  this  quadrant  blew  for  as  much  as  half 
the  year,  or  for  as  many  days  as  the  winds  from  all  the  other  points  taken 
together.  In  the  other  years  there  is  a  preponderance  of  the  same  points, 
though  not  to  the  same  extent  The  relative  hourly  velocity  for  the  winds 
from  this  quadrant  is  also  greater  than  for  those  from  other  points. 

If  reference  be  made  to  the  table  (p.  142,  vol.  1 855)  which  exhibits  the  ex- 
treme pressure  of  the  wind  in  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  the  greatest  horizontal 
motion  of  the  air  between  any  one  hour  and  the  next  following  hour,  for  all 
the  gales  during  the  four  years  of  which  observations  are  recorded,  in  which 
the  pressure  has  reached  15  pounds  per  square  foot,  it  will  be  observed  that 
in  thirteen  cases  in  which  the  velocity  has  exceeded  fifty  miles  per  hour,  four 
of  them  were  from  S.  of  W.,  attaining  velocities  respectively  of  71,  70,  53, 
and  51  miles  per  hour ;  the  remainder  being  from  W.  to  N.W.,  having 
velocities  varying  from  51  to  56  miles  per  hour.  It  may  also  be  observed 
that  of  eighteen  cases  in  which  the  pressure  exceeded  twenty  pounds  on  the 
square  foot,  four  of  them  were  from  the  8.  of  W.,  the  pressure  being  respect- 
ively 42  lbs.,  48  lbs.,  2S  lbs.,  and  22  lbs. ;  the  remainder  ranged  from  W.  to 
N.W.,  and  had  pressures  varying  from  21  lbs.  to  48  lbs. 

d2 


36*  REPORT — 1856. 

On  refereuce  to  *  Gore's  Annals,'  we  find  in  1852  the  town  and  neighbour- 
hood visited  by  a  severe  storm.     December  25th. 

1854. — Violent  hurricane  visited  Liverpool  Feb.  7th  and  8th.  On  refer- 
ring to  the  last-mentioned  table  we  find  that  the  "  severe  storm,"  December 
25th,  1852,  was  from  W.S.W.,  the  greatest  velocity  seventy  miles  per  hour, 
and  the  extreme  pressure  42  lbs.  per  square  foot ;  and  that  it  was  repeated 
on  the  27th  of  the  same  month,  blowing  from  S.W.,  the  greatest  velocity 
seventy-one  miles,  and  the  extreme  pressure  42  lbs.  We  also  find  that  the 
"violent  hurricane,"  Feb.  17th  and  18th,  1854,  was,  on  the  first  day,  from 
N.W.,  the  velocity  fifty-six  miles,  the  pressure  27 lbs.;  on  the  18th,  from 
W.N.W.,  the  velocity  also  fifty-six  miles,  the  pressure  SI  lbs.  The  same 
table  shows  that  during  the  years  1852  to  1854  there  were  several  other 
storms,  of  which  ( Gore's  Annals '  have  no  mention ;  as,  for  example,  Feb. 
26th,  1853,  from  N.N.W.,  the  velocity  sixty  miles,  the  pressure  33  lbs.; 
and  Jan.  26th,  1854,  from  W.,  the  velocity  fifty-three  miles,  the  pressure 
43  lbs. 

In  estimating  the  influence  of  the  wind  in  producing  changes  in  the  sea 
channels,  it  must  be  recollected  that  Liverpool  Bay  is  peculiarly  exposed  to 
winds  ranging  from  W.  to  N.,  and  sheltered  from  all  other  winds. 

It  is  not  intended  in  this  Report  to  lay  down  any  precise  theory  for  the 
solution  of  all  the  observed  phenomena  of  Liverpool  Bay ;  the  collection  of 
the  facts  recorded  in  the  preceding  portion  of  this  Report,  and  in  the  charts 
and  tables  by  which  it  is  accompanied,  has  been  so  recently  completed  as 
entirely  to  preclude  their  satisfactory  digest  into  any  such  hypothesis.  In- 
deed these  researches,  so  far  from  furnishing  a  complete  analysis  of  the  data 
upon  which  any  trustworthy  theory  can  be  founded,  give  occasion  to  regret 
that  the  various  changes  which  the  estuary  has  undergone  were  not  more 
fully  recorded  than  they  have  been  prior  to  1833;  and  it  is  especially  to  be 
regretted  that  the  phenomena  of  meteorology  should  have  beeu  so  much 
neglected  in  this  district.  The  valuable  records  of  the  Liverpool  Obser- 
vatory, as  well  as  those  of  the  Warrington  Museum  and  Library,  it  is  to  be 
hoped,  will  supply  the  requisite  information  to  future  inquirers. 

In  recording  the  previous  observations  on  the  changes  in  the  bay,  the 
earliest  survey  within  the  period  of  inquiry  has  been  assumed  as  the  starting- 
point,  and  succeeding  phenomena  are  noted  in  chronological  sequence;  it  is 
now  proposed  to  retrace  the  inquiry,  in  order,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  reduce 
effects  to  their  proximate  causes,  important  facilities  being  derived  from  the 
less  imperfect  data  of  the  more  recent  periods. 

On  comparing  the  surveys  of  1 854  and  1 852,  it  was  observed  that  the 
changes  were  almost  entirely  confined  to  the  increased  tortuousness  of  the 
Victoria  Channel,  the  continued  silting  up  of  the  Zebra  Channel,  the  opening 
of  the  Queen's  Channel,  intermediate  between  the  Zebra  and  the  Victoria, 
and  the  contraction  of  the  eastern  portion  of  the  Rock  Channel  with  a  con* 
sequent  diminution  of  its  average  area.  During  this  period  there  was  no 
abstraction  of  tidal  water  space  for  dock  purposes,  and  consequently  no  re- 
duction from  that  cause  of  the  scour.  In  1852  the  rain-fall  was  about  50  per 
cent,  above  the  average.  In  1 853  and  1 854  the  fall  was  about  an  average 
in  each  year.  In  the  latter  year,  1 854,  the  wind  was  more  than  usually  in 
the  range  from  W.  to  N. 

It  may  be  observed  that  as  the  influence  of  freshes  in  a  tidal  river  is 
greatest  when  the  ebb  tide  is  low,  their  effects  in  the  Mersey  will  be  more 
apparent  in  the  northern  channel  and  its  branches  than  in  the  western  chan- 
nel, because  the  direction  of  the  latter  is  almost  at  right  angles  to  the  course 
of  the  river,  whilst  that  of  the  former  is  continuous;  the  bar  which  crosses 


THE  RIVER  MERSEY.  37 

the  western  channel  at  its  junction  with  the  river  will  also  tend  to  weaken 
the  scour  of  the  water  when  the  tide  is  low. 

It  appears  then  that  the  freshes  of  1852,  in  passing  down  the  northern 
channel,  were  deflected  by  the  bank  called  Taylor's  Bank  and  Jordan  Flats, 
on  to  the  N.E.  elbow  of  Great  Burbo,  itself  of  recent  formation ;  after 
passing  that  elbow  the  ebb  took  the  direction  due  to  the  impetus  down 
Crosby  Channel,  modified  by  the  influence  of  Taylor-Jordan  Bank  combined 
with  Great  Burbo,  passed  over  the  shoals  between  the  Zebra  and  Victoria 
Channels,  and  opened  up  the  swatchway  now  known  as  the  Queen's  Channel. 
The  channel  thus  initiated  by  the  freshes  of  1852  was  deepened  by  the  con- 
tinued action  of  the  ebb  tide  throughout  that  year  and  the  following,  until 
in  1854  we  find  the  Queen's  Channel  formed,  the  Zebra  silting  up  from  the 
loss  of  the  water  which  then  passed  by  the  new  channel.  On  the  Victoria 
Bar,  again,  these  freshes  had  won  a  slightly  increased  depth  of  water. 

The  contraction  of  the  Rock  Channel  may  be  due  to  the  drift  of  sand 
promoted  by  the  N.W.  wind. 

The  most  remarkable  gales  of  the  period  1852  and  1854  are  those  of  De- 
cember 25  and  27, 1852,  from  the  W.S.W.  and  S.W.,  from  denudation  by 
which  the  Cheshire  land  would  protect  the  sand-banks;  February  26,  185S, 
from  N.N.W.;  January  26, 1854,  from  W.;  and  February  17  and  18  of  the 
same  year,  from  N.W.  and  W.N.W. 

Very  important  changes  have  been  recorded  as  haying  taken  place  between 
the  years  1846  and  1852.  They  may  be  briefly  described  as  consisting  of 
the  enlargement  and  consolidation  of  all  the  banks,  with  the  bare  exception 
of  Mad  Wharf,  the  increased  size  being  in  great  measure  due  to  increased 
elevation;  the  elongation  of  the  Crosby  Channel,  chiefly  in  that  part  between 
the  Rock  Light  and  the  Crosby  Light-vessel ;  and  the  diminution  of  the 
average  depth  and  area  of  this  portion  of  the  channel,  accompanied  by  a 
slight  alteration  in  its  direction ;  in  that  part  of  this  channel,  between  the 
Crosby  and  Formby  Light-vessels,  the  depth  was  considerably  increased,  but 
the  area  diminished;  the  changes  in  the'  channel  were  occasioned  by  the 
growth  of  the  north-east  elbow  of  Great  Burbo,  and  an  accretion  on  the 
western  side  of*  the  Taylor-Jordan  Bank,  both  of  which  had  taken  place 
principally  after  the  1849  survey. 

On  reference  to  the  Warrington  tables,  we  find  that,  in  1846,  the  rain-fall 
was  slightly,  but  very  slightly,  below  the  average  of  twelve  years ;  in  the 
three  following  years  it  was  above  the  same  average,  particularly  in  1847, 
when  the  excess  was  about  16  per  cent ;  in  1850  the  fall  was  10  per  cent, 
below  the  average,  and  in  1851  slightly  above.  It  appears  then,  that  during 
the  years  1848  and  1849,  and  particularly  in  1850,  the  banks  had  grown  in 
directions  to  produce,  in  1851,  those  changes  which  rendered  necessary  the 
survey  of  1852.  The  increased  depth  of  the  channel  between  the  lightships 
above  mentioned,  seems  due  to  the  contracted  width  of  that  part,  consequent 
upon  the  enlargement  of  the  banks. 

We  have  no  record  of  the  phenomena  of  wind  during  this  period,  and 

therefore  can  only  conjecture  that  the  horizontal  and  vertical  growth  of  the 

banks  are  effects  to  which  the  prevailing  winds  may  have  been  accessory, 

*    assisted  by  the  loss  of  scour  caused  by  the  extensive  dock-works  of  Liver* 

pool  and  Birkenhead. 

The  change  in  the  positions  of  the  light-vessels  and  of  the  Bell  Buoy  was 
made  after  1849.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  Victoria  Bar  remained  sta* 
nonary. 

In  the  Zebra  Channel  the  depth  of  water  had  increased  between  1846  and 
1849,  when  the  rain-fall  was  rather  above  the  average;  and  between  1849 
and  1858  the  depth  had  diminished  again* 


88  bipobt— 1856. 

In  the  Rock  Channel  the  average  depth  had  been  diminished,  and  the 
average  area  stationary. 

As  it  was  during  this  period  that  the  greatest  amount  of  tidal  area  taken 
between  two  surveys  was  abstracted,  the  occasion  is  favourable  for  consider* 
ing  the  influence  of  works  of  that  kiad  upon  the  sea  channels.  According 
to  the  evidence  of  Mr.  Rendel,  C.E.,  House  of  Commons,  1844  (see  c  Porta 
and  Docks  of  Birkenhead,'  by  Thomas  Webster,  MA.,  F.R.&,  Barrister-at- 
Law,  1848,  p.  77),  high  water  of  an  18-foot  tide  is  lh  25m  later  at  Warring- 
ton Bridge  than  it  is  at  the  Prince's  Pier,  Liverpool,  where  it  is  35m  later 
than  at  the  Formby  Light-vessel.  And  from  Mr.  Joseph  Boult's  observa- 
tions at  Woolston  Weir,  four  miles  above  Warrington,  that  on  8th  March 
last,  in  a  21-foot  tide,  high  water  was  lh  5GP  later  than  was  recorded  by  the 
tide-gauge  at  George's  Pier,  Liverpool.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  water 
which  formerly  covered  the  space  now  enclosed  must  have  passed  out  to  sea 
on  the  top  of  the  ebb  tide,  whilst  the  flood  tide  was  yet  rising  in  the  upper 
reaches  of  the  river. 

The  loss  of  depth  in  the  Rock  Channel  appears  to  indicate  that  the  abs- 
traction of  the  tidal  area  has  been  prejudicial.  The  surveys  since  1883 
indicate  a  progressive,  though  irregular,  tendency  towards  the  silting  up  of 
this  channel ;  and  there  are  facts  which  render  it  probable  that  the  effects  of 
diminished  scour  should  first  be  manifested  here. 

The  tidal  establishment  is  earlier  at  the  North-west  Lightship,  or  entrance  of 
the  western  channel,  than  it  is  at  the  Bell  Buoy,  or  entrance  of  the  northern 
channel ;  though  the  difference  is  very  slight,  it  is  sufficient  to  give  a  bias  to 
the  stream  of  tide,  as  is  shown  by  the  experience  of  bathers  on  the  shore  just 
above  the  junction  of  the  Rock  Channel  with  the  river,  who  find  that  with 
a  young  flood  there  is  a  current  out  again  to  sea  by  the  northern  channel. 

The  same  also  appears  from  the  experiments  of  Mr.  Enfield  Fletcher,  C.E., 
and  others  with  floats.  These  were  liberated  at  Wallasey  Pool,  on  the  ebb 
tide,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  in  what  time  the  water  from  the  pool 
would  reach  the  Victoria  Bar;  but  all  the  floats,  without  exception,  went 
down  the  Rock  Channel  and  grounded  upon  Dove  Spit. 

This  result  may,  in  part,  be  due  to  the  attraction  of  the  Cheshire  shore. 
The  bias  with  the  ebb  would,  however,  be  confined  to  the  upper  stratum  of 
the  water;  the  impetus  of  the  current  to  sea  naturally  giving  to  the  main 
bulk  the  more  direct  course  by  the  northern  channel,  in  preference  to  the 
almost  right-angled  deflection  down  the  western  channel. 

Whilst  the  Rock  Channel  has  been  losing  depth,  the  depth  of  water  in  the 
northern  channel,  considered  in  its  whole  length  from  the  Rock  Lighthouse 
to  the  Bell  Buoy,  is  almost  undiminished  since  1838.  The  loss  on  the  Vic- 
toria Bar  may  be  due  to  the  diversion  to  the  part  of  the  stream  formerly  by 
the  Zebra,  now  by  the  Queen's  Channel.  But  for  the  elevation  of  the  banks 
and  of  the  bottom  of  the  Rock  Channel,  and  of  the  south  part  of  the  Crosby 
Channel,  it  is  difficult  to  assign  any  other  cause  than  the  loss  of  scour  at  the 
first  of  the  ebb,  and  the  influeuce  of  the  prevailing  winds  in  drifting  sand 
from  the  coast. 

As  respects  the  Rock  Channel,  the  influence  of  the  new  north  wall  in 
Bootle  Bay  is  very  likely  to  aggravate  the  tendency  to  silt  up,  as  it  tends  to 
impede  the  advance  of  the  flood  tide  through  that  channel  by  substituting 
for  a  shelving  shore  a  nearly  perpeudicular  face  almost  at  right  angles  to  the 
course  of  the  flood. 

The  influence  which  the  direction  of  the  enclosure  walls  may  have  upon 
the  course  of  tide  has  yet  to  be  considered. 

.    It  appears  that  between  1846  and  1849,  during  which  these  works  were 
in  progress,  there  was  no  alteration  in  the  direction  of.  any. of  the  channels; 


THB  RIVER  MKB8BY.  99 

and  that  between  1849  and  1852,  these  works  being  still  in  progress,  the 
direction  of  the  Victoria  Channel  was  so  altered  that  the  Bell  Buoy  was 
removed  about  1000  yards  westward  of  its  position  in  1846  ;  and  that  in  the 
upper  or  southern  portion  of  the  northern  channel  there  bad  been  no 
changes  in  the  fairway  track  beyond  those  consequent  upon  the  elongation 
of  the  part  between  the  Rock  Lighthouse  and  Crosby  Light-vessel. 

The  change  in  the  Victoria  Channel  is  probably  due  to  the  lengthening  of 
the  Crosby  Channel,  which  has  been  attributed  to  the  growth  of  the  sand- 
banks; and  it  does  not  appear  that  the  extension  of  the  dock  walk  had  yet 
been  productive  of  much  effect  on  the  direction  of  the  sea  channels. 

Between  1840  and  1846  the  most  remarkable  of  the  recorded  changes  are, 
a  large  increase  in  the  size  of  the  Formby  Bank ;  a  slight  diminution  in  those 
of  Great  Burbo  and  East  Hoyle,  principally  in  elevation ;  and  a  slight  dimi- 
nution in  the  depth  of  the  Crosby  Channel,  principally  in  its  northern  part 

There  was  a  remarkable  drought  in  1844,  the  rain-fall  at  Warrington 
having  been  about  S3  per  cent,  below  the  average  of  twelve  years.  There 
was  also  an  extraordinary  continuance  of  easterly  winds  in  this  year.  No 
remarkable  meteorological  phenomena  are  recorded  for  the  preceding  year* 
The  large  increase  in  the  size  of  Formby  Bank,  and  the  loss  of  elevation  in 
East  Hoyle  and  Great  Burbo,  are  possibly  to  be  ascribed  to  the  influence  of 
the  wind. 

In  1840  to  1846  the  Liverpool  dock-works  abstracted  about  117  acres  of 
tidal  area  in  northern  works. 

Between  18S7  and  1840  the  most  remarkable  change  in  the  northern 
channel  is  in  the  direction  of  the  Victoria  Channel,  as  indicated  by  the 
removal  of  the  Bell  Buoy  about  2000  yards  northwards,  accompanied  by  a 
loss  of  2  feet  of  water  on  the  bar.  According  to  a  letter  of  Lieut  Lord's 
of  October  8th,  1839*,  the  dredging  operations  had  deepened  the  water  on 
the  Victoria  Bar  to  15  feet  On  the  survey  of  1840,  that  depth  was  reduced 
to  10  feet  and  11  feet  In  the  period  of  1837  to  1840  there  had  been  a  loss 
of  depth  in  the  southern  portion  of  the  Crosby  Channel,  and  a  similar  gain 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  same ;  a  considerable  reduction  in  the  size  of 
Formby  Bank,  equal  to  30  per  cent. ;  an  increase  in  the  Great  Burbo ;  a  loss 
of  half  the  depth  on  the  bar  of  the  Rock  Channel,  and  a  loss  of  average 
area  in  the  same  channel  equal  to  6  per  cent,  per  annum ;  and  a  diminution 
ia  the  area  and  elevation  of  East  Hoyle. 

There  were  no  important  dock-works  during  this  period. 

There  are  no  meteorological  observations  which  throw  light  upon  the 
cause  of  these  changes  beyond, — 1st,  the  fact  that  there  were  great  floods 
in  1839  in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  by  which  much  injury  was  occa- 
sioned to  the  hay  and  other  crops ;  and  though  the  local  '  Mercury '  of  the 
date  has  no  record  of  floods  in  the  Mersey,  there  may  have  been  freshets ; 
sad,  2nd,  the  vivid  recollection  of  the  terrific  and  destructive  hurricane  from 
the  S.W.,  which  visited  the  town  and  port  on  the  6th  and  7th  of  January, 
1839,  during  which  the  North-west  Lightship  and  many  of  the  buoys  in  the 
channel  were  washed  from  their  moorings,  and  several  vessels  were  wrecked. 

The  following  curious  sequence  is  deduced  from  the  foregoing  obser- 
vations:—- Phenomena  sad      Productive  Date  of 
date  thereof.            interval.  survey. 

Gale,  January 1839 1839 1840 

Drought 1844 1845 1846 

Freshes    1847......    1848 1849 

Drought 1850 1851 1852 

Freshes    1852 1853 1854 

•  In  the  *  Liverpool  Mercury'  of  mat  month. 


40  REPORT — 1856. 

'  Between  1833  and  1837  was  perfected  that  remarkable  change  in  the 
northern  outlet  of  the  Mersey,  of  which  Capt  Denham  has  recorded  so  many 
important  particulars  in  his '  Sailing  Directions,'  and  in  communications  to  the 
Association.  But  there  is  such  a  complete  dearth  of  observations  upon  the 
changes  which  preceded  the  opening  of  this  new  outlet  in  1833,  and  upon 
the  meteorological  phenomena  by  which  they  were  preceded,  or  accom- 
panied, that  the  result  of  any  detailed  inquiry  must  necessarily  be  extremely 
precarious.  The  same  observations  apply  to  periods  immediately  subse- 
quent and  precedent  to  Capt.  Thomas's  survey  in,  1813.  The  general 
features  of  the  consolidation  and  enlargement  of  the  principal  sand-banks, 
and  also  of  the  eastern  shore  of  the  estuary,  may  be  observed  upon  this 
survey,  and  also  upon  all  the  authentic  surveys  since  that  of  Capt.  Collins  in 
1689.  It  is  also  remarkable  that  the  low-water  margin  of  the  eastern  shore 
appears  to  have  advanced  westward  to  an  extent  fully  equal  to  one-half  the 
width  of  the  northern  channel  as  laid  down  by  Collins,  or  1000  yards. 

From  a  report  of  Mr.  George  Rennie,  C.E.,  to  the  Corporation  of  Liver- 
pool, in  1838,  it  appears  that  at  that  time  upwards  of  13,000  acres  had  been 
abstracted  from  the  tidal  area  of  the  river,  the  original  extent  of  which  is 
estimated  at  about  35,000  acres,  and  these  abstractions  were  principally  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  river.  Since  then  no  important  abstractions  have  been 
made  without  the  sanction  of  Parliament. 

The  tidal  area  appropriated  to  the  dock  purposes  of  Liverpool  alone  since 
1650  amounts  to  784  acres,  exclusive  of  the  open  basins ;  of  these,  470  acres 
have  been  appropriated  within  the  last  fifteen  years. 

From  the  foregoing  remarks  it  appears  that  the  changes  in  Liverpool  Bay 
are  to  be  attributed  principally  to  the  influence  of  freshes,  droughts,  wind, 
and  the  reduction  of  tidal  area;  and  that  remedial  measures  adopted  for  the 
maintenance  or  improvement  of  the  approaches  should  be  specially  designed 
to  cooperate  with  these  forces. 

It  may  perhaps  be  thought  that  sufficient  consideration  has  not  been  given 
to  the  very  large  amount  of  silt,  which,  according  to  Capt  Denham,  in  hir 
paper  in  the  '  Reports'  of  the  Association  (1837),  is  being  constantly 
washed  down  by  the  river  and  deposited  in  the  bay. 

The  attention  of  the  Committee  has  so  far  been  confined  principally  to  the  ' 
phenomena  of  the  bay.  Captain  Denham  supposed  the  silt  to  be  derived 
from  the  shores  of  the  upper  part  of  the  river,  where  there  is  no  doubt  that 
the  tidal  water  continues  to  encroach  upon  the  land.  From  the  geological 
formation  of  this  land,  a  large  proportion  of  the  silt  must  consist  of  clay  and 
mud,  with  but  a  very  small  proportion  of  sand.  The  former,  from  its  levity, 
is  mostly  conveyed  away  by  the  ebb  tide,  a  thin  deposit  being  only  temporarily 
left  upon  the  sandy  shores  and  banks  of  the  upper  and  lower  estuaries,  which 
is  either  dried  up  and  dissipated  by  the  wind,  or  removed  by  those  neap  tides 
which  are  too  low  to  be  able  to  continue  the  encroachments  of  the  spring  tides* 

Two  local  changes  seem  to  require  special  notice  before  concluding  this 
Report: — 

1st.  The  waste  of  the  clay  cliffs  in  Cheshire,  from  Seacombe  Point  to 
North  Egremont,  which  has  now  been  going  on  to  a  considerable  extent  and 
for  some  years.  This,  there  can  be  little  doubt,  is  a  consequence  of  the  North 
Dock-works  of  Liverpool,  by  which  the  river  has  had  its  channel  much  con- 
tracted, and  has  naturally  sought  its  equivalent  from  the  opposite  and  weaker 
side. 

2nd.  The  waste  on  the  Cheshire  shore,  adjacent  to  Leasowe  Castle,  west- 
wardly.  According  to  Mr.  Rollett,  the  acting-surveyor  of  the  Wallasey  Em- 
bankment, under  the  surveyor  to  the  Corporation  of  Liverpool,  this  waste  has 
averaged  6  yards  per  annum  for  nearly  thirty  years  past.   It  is,  however,  con- 


THIS  BIVBR  MERBEY.  41 

fined  to  a  small  lioeal  extent  of  the  coast,  about  two  miles.  The  situation  is 
one  that  is  now  very  much  exposed  to  the  flood  tide  through  the  Horse  Chan- 
nel, especially  in  N.W.  winds.  The  geological  formation  is  entirely  alluvial, 
consisting  of  sand,  peat,  and  clay.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  site  of  part  of  the  so- 
called  submarine  forest  of  Wirral. 

When  Hoyle  Lake  was  in  existence,  the  flood  tide  advancing  in  two 
streams — one  through  the  lake,  the  other  through  the  Horse  Channel — met 
at  this  place,  and  their  united  stream  ran  up  the  Rock  Channel.  It  may  be 
assumed  that  the  influence  on  the  beach  of  the  stream  through  the  Horse 
Channel  was  mitigated  by  the  stream  through  Hoyle  Lake,  by  which  it 
was  deflected  into  the  Rock  Channel.  As  the  lake  was  silted  up  the  influ- 
ence of  the  stream  was  gradually  weakened,  until  it  was  entirely  lost  by  the 
dosing  up  of  the  lake.  The  enlargement  of  the  west  spit  of  Great  Burbo 
has  also  assisted  to  give  to  the  stream  through  the  Horse  Channel,  a  more 
direct  set  upon  the  beach.  About  thirty  years  ago  the  late  Mr.  Giles,  C.E., 
constructed  an  embankment  upwards  of  100  yards  above  high  water  spring 
tides.  The  seaward  slope  is  now  submerged  every  tide ;  and  as  it  was  not 
designed  for  such  a  situation,  it  has  been  occasionally  broken  through,  almost 
entirely  reconstructed  and  considerably  raised. 

Great  watchfulness  is  exercised  by  those  who  have  charge  of  the  embank- 
ment; for  if  the  sea  were  to  make  good  its  entrance  through  any  breach, 
a  large  tract  of  meadow  country,  nearly  3000  statute  acres,  would  be  sub- 
merged in  their  whole  extent  to  the  docks  at  Birkenhead. 

These  meadows  are  part  of  the  tidal  area  which  had  been  reclaimed,  and 
was  formerly  submerged  through  Wallasey  Pooh 

Iiveipool,  August  1856.  Joseph  Boult. 

[With  respect  to  the  tables  D,  £,  F,  and  G,  by  which  this  Report  is  ac- 
companied, it  should,  perhaps,  be  observed  that  they  are  to  be  regarded  as 
only  approximations  to  the  truth,  and  not  as  representing  the  absolute  areas 
of  the  channels,  or  volumes  of  the  banks;  and  they  are  merely  intended  as 
gauges  for  comparing  the  growth  or  decline  of  the  various  features  included 
in  them.  The  truth  of  the  observation  would  be  apparent  to  all  who  had 
inspected  the  surreys ;  it  is  recorded  here  for  those  who  have  not  had  the 
opportunity  of  doing  so.] 

The  Report  was  illustrated  by  the  following  charts  and  tables : — 

A.— Plate  I.  Admiralty  Chart  of  Liverpool  Bay,  corrected  to  1847,  with 
Contours  from  Surveys  by  Collins,  1689 ;  Eyes  and  Fearon,  1756 ;  Thomas, 
1813. 

B. — A  Chart  of  the  Approaches  to  Liverpool,  by  Lieut.  Lord,  R.N.,  1852, 
with  Contours  from  Denham,  1837;  Lord,  1840;  and  Lord,  1846. 

Cv— A  Chart  of  the  Approaches  to  Liverpool,  by  Lieut  Lord,  R.N.,  1854 ; 
with  Contours  from  Lord,  1852. 

D,  E,  F. — Tables,  showing  the  average  depth  below  low  water  of  ordi- 
nary Spring  Tides,  and  the  average  sectional  Area  of  the  Crosby  and  Rock 
Channels,  computed  from  the  Surveys  of  1837, 1840, 1846, 1852,  and  1854. 

G. — A  Table,  showing  the  average  Volume  of  the  Banks  above  Low 
Water  of  ordinary  Spring  Tides,  computed  from  the  Surveys  of  1837,  1840, 
1846, 1852,  and  1854. 

H.— A  Plan  exhibiting  the  space  abstracted  by  the  Corporation  of  Liver- 
pool from  the  Tidal  Water  of  the  River  Mersey  during  five  successive 
Periods,  comprised  between  the  years  1650  and  1843,  compiled  from  authen- 
tic Documents  and  actual  Survey. 

J.— Sections  of  Part  of  Great  Burbo  Bank,  on  Planes  parallel  to  a  Plane 
?a«ing  through  the  Leasowe  and  Formby  Lighthouses. 


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THB  BIYBB  MBMBT. 


43 


44  REPORT — 1856. 

.  Report  upon  the  effects  produced  upon  the  Channels  of  the  Mersey  by  Ae 

alterations  which,  during  the  last  fifty  years,  have  been  made  in  Us  Banks, 

on  the  Tides  of  the  present  period  compared  with  the  Tides  registered  by 

Mr.  Rendel  in  June  1844.    By  Andrew  Henderson. 

It  may  be  premised  that  the  discussion  on  the  subject,  in  June  1844, ' 

with  reference  to  the  proposed  bill  for  establishing  docks  at  Birkenhead ;  it  i 

urged  by  Liverpool  authorities  that  this  would  reduce  the  level  of  the  river 

by  abstracting  so  large  an  area  as  150  acres.    The  state  of  the  river,  then, 

may  be  based  on  the  tidal  observations  of  Mr.  Rendel  at  six  stations,  giving 

diagrams  of  height  of  tide  from  Victoria  Bar  to  Warrington  Bridge,  as 

follows : — 

TIME  AND  HEIGHT  OP  HIGH  WATER. 
Datum,  Prince's  Dock  Sill  {six  feet  below  the  Old  Dock  Silt),  taken  from  Mr.  Renders 

Diagrams. 
Spring  Tide,  June  3, 1846.  June  10, 1844,  Neap  Tide. 

Time.  Height.  Time.         Height, 

h    m  ft.    in.  h  m  ft.    in.        No. 

1.  Formby  Point 12  20  ..    23    4 6  SO  ..    17     9  ..    1. 

2.  New  Brighton    12  30  ..   23    0 7    0  ..    17     7  ..    2. 

3.  Princes  Dock 12  50..    23    8 7  10..    18    2..   S. 

4.  Ellesmere  Point 1  10  ..    24    7  ....   7  40  ..    18    7  ..    4. 

5.  Runcorn 1  25  ..    25    4  ....    8    0  ..    19    0  ..    5* 

6.  Fidler's  Ferry 1  50  ..   25    2 8  55  . .    18  10  ..    6. 

7.  Warrington  Bridge. .     2  30..    2510....   940..    18    8..    7. 
These  observations  were  taken  simultaneously ;  and  it  may  be  seen  that, 

at  the  Prince's  Pier,  which  is  in  the  narrowest  gorge  of  the  estuary,  the  tide 
heaps  up  8  inches  and  7  inches  in  the  two  miles  from  New  Brighton.  The 
velocity  of  the  flood  tide  at  Seacombe  is  recorded  as  721 1  feet  per  second, 
the  width  of  the  Mersey  being  there  reduced  to  3060  feet,  and  the  sectional 
area  184,622  feet,  it  being  altogether  a  gorge  at  that  point  defined  by  the 
Prince's  Dock  wall  on  the  one  side,  and  the  natural  rock  of  Seacombe  on 
the  other. 

This  has  been  aptly  designated  the  neck  of  the  bottle,  extending  one  mile 
from  Egremont  Ferry  to  Seacombe  Ferry,  where  the  Mersey  is  half  a  mile 
broad  to  Prince's  Pier,  extending  about  one  mile  to  the  old  fort  before  the 
Stanley  Dock  was  begun  in  1844,  at  which  time  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey 
bottle  was  between  Egremont  and  the  old  fort,  from  whence  a  curved  wall 
half  a  mile  east  to  Beacon's  Gutter  was  built  in  1833,  the  north  shore  to 
Rimrose  Brook  (some  three  and  a  half  miles)  forming  with  the  shore  from 
Seacombe  to  New  Brighton  what  may  be  termed  the  funnel  for  filling  the 
bottle  of  the  Mersey. 

These  positions  are  exhibited  on  the  map  appended  to  the  Report  of  Mr. 
James  Walker,  C.E.,  to  the  conservators  of  the  River  Mersey,  on  the  effects 
of  the  new  north  river-line  of  the  Liverpool  docks  on  the  Cheshire  shore, 
published  June  1856,  pp.  306,  with  abstract  notes  of  evidence. 

As  these  documents  contain  much  valuable  information  bearing  on  the 
effects  produced  on  the  channels  of  the  Mersey  by  the  alteration  made  in 
its  banks,  the  following  extracts  are  given,  premising  that  the  complaint  was 
the  waste  of  the  Cheshire  shore  about  Egremont  The  Report  states,  there 
is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  an  increase  of  damage  has  taken  place  and  is  con- 
tinuing, and  that  the  Liverpool  dock  walls  are  the  principal  cause. 

"  One  thing  is  certain,  that  the  Liverpool  dock  trustees  have  acquired  since 
1844  an  area  of  not  less  than  500  acres  of  land  from  the  river ;  upon  this 
they  have  made  splendid  docks,  and  are  now  proceeding  to  add  to  them  for 
the  benefit  of  the  country,  on  a  greater  scale  than  they  have  hitherto  done* 


THE  BIVBB  MBBSEY.  45 

*  That  the  proper  remedy  for  the  prevention  of  farther  waste  is  a  river 
wall  or  other  similar  protection,  from  Seacombe  to  New  Brighton ;  and  that 
the  dock  trustees,  in  consideration  of  the  damage  done  and  of  their  having 
already  occupied  500  acres  of  the  Mersey,  and  proposing  to  occupy  in  a  few 
years  150  acres  more,  which  will  increase  the  waste  on  the  Cheshire  shore, 
may  be  reasonably  expected  to  take  the  protection  into  their  consideration. 

u  That  the  effect  which  dock  walls  on  the  Liverpool  side  have  had,  or 
are  likely  to  have,  in  deepening  the  navigation  of  the  Mersey  or  its  entrance 
channels,  does  not  amount  to  much  more  than  a  tendency." 

The  evidence  of  Capt.  Cook,  Superintendent  of  Pilots,  states,  "  There  are 
now  four  channels,  viz.  the  Rock  or  Horse,  Victoria,  Queen's,  Zebra  or 
Eastern  Channels.  Large  vessels  enter  by  the  Victoria  Channel.  The 
Queen's  improves,  but  not  yet  log-lined.  Not  very  important  to  have  very 
deep  entrances  into  Liverpool,  as  the  heavy  ships  enter  the  docks. 

ft.    in. 

Depth  on  Victoria  Bar  at  lowest  tide 10    0 

Lift  of  tide    31     0 

High  water,  spring  tide 41     0 

Depth  of  water  upon  Bar,  neap  tide   18    6 

Of  tide 15    0 

Depth  on  the  Bar,  high  water  neaps 33    6 

West  wind  raises  the  tide  5  or  6  feet,  east  wind  cuts  the  tide  as  much.  As 
regards  the  effects  of  the  dock  walls  already  built  upon  the  navigation  of 
the  river,  Mr.  J.  Hartley,  Lieut.  Lord,  and  the  dock-masters  assert  that 
there  has  been  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  height  of  the  tides  for  many 
years,  the  old  tables  of  depth  upon  the  sills  of  the  docks  being  still  found  to 
be  the  correct  guide,  and  the  velocity,  so  far  as  they  can  observe,  being  un- 
altered.*9 

Some  witnesses  considered  that  the  tides  rose  vertically  2  feet  higher  at  Sea- 
combe, but  no  gauge  having  been  kept,  the  impression  may  have  arisen  from 
the  greater  effect,  or  in  "  consequence  of  the  lash  of  the  waves  upon  the 
Cheshire  side  being  heavier,"  since  the  last  built  portion  of  the  "  dock  wall 
is  placed  so  as  to  meet  the  waves  that  are  brought  by  the  westerly  gales 
through  the  Rock  Channel." 

This  is  shown  on  the  Plan  attached  to  the  Report ;  and  the  Report  states, 
*  It  is  also  to  be  expected  that  the  rebound  will  be  increased  when  the  gap 
which  at  present  leaves  a  portion  of  Bootle  Bay  open  to  receive  the  seas,  shall 
be  filled  up  by  a  wall,  as  I  presume  is  intended." 

A  reference  to  the  Plan  will  show  that  the  filling  up  of  this  gap  would 
not  only  greatly  increase  the  evils  complained  of  at  Seacombe,  but  cause  the 
Rock  Channel  to  silt  up  in  a  few  years,  as  Hoylake  has  done ;  and  should 
the  wall  be  extended  to  Rimrose  Brook,  as  proposed  in  1858,  enclosing 
150  acres,  it  will  greatly  reduce  the  flow  of  water  into  the  Mersey  by  con- 
tracting the  entrance  between  the  fort  on  the  Rock  Point  and  high  water 
at  Bootle  Bay,  distant  l\  mile  or  2700  yards.  The  map  shows  the  present 
end  of  wall  to  extend  900  yards  across  the  entrance  to  a  river  wall  of  250 
yards  towards  a  gap  of  700  yards,  thus  reducing  the  entrance  between  the 
river  wall  and  the  Fort  on  Rock  Point  to  1800  yards,  with  a  bulb  between 
Seacombe  and  New  Brighton,  where  the  sea  and  tide  through  the  Rock 
Channel  deflected  from  the  Liverpool  wall  are  wasting  the  shore.  The  only 
remedy  for  this  being,  as  stated  in  the  Report,  "  the  construction  of  a  wall 
4000  yards  long  from  Seacombe  to  New  Brighton." 


4&  EBPORT— 1856. 

From  opposite  Seacombe  the  Liverpool  dock  wall  extends  4000  yards  to 
the  gap  in  Bootle  Bay:  by  ending  it  there,  only  a  curved  line,  similar  to  that 
in  183S,  shown  in  the  Plan,  with  a  sloping  sea-wall,  would  allow  the  sea  to 
expend  itself  in  Bootle  Bay  as  heretofore,  and  act  as  the  eastern  side  of  the 
funnel  of  the  Mersey,  the  Rock  Channel  forming  the  western. 

The  effects  these  alterations  may  have  had  on  the  levels  of  the  tides  in 
the  Mersey,  since  they  were  recorded  by  Mr.  Rendel  in  1844,  we  have  no 
means  of  comparing,  as  it  will  be  seen  by  the  before-mentioned  table ;  they 
only  relate  to  two  tides  of  that  year,  which  are  so  much  affected  by  the 
wind  as  to  form  no  oriterion,  it  requiring  the  average  of  a  long  period  to 
establish  any  change  in  the  mean  height  and  flow  of  the  tide. 

We  are  indebted  to  Lieut  Lord  for  the  only  reliable  results  derived  from 
the  observations  of  the  self-registering  tide-gauge  at  George's  Pier,  Liver- 
pool. The  discussion  of  two  yean  of  these  tidal  observations,  18£4*-55.  by- 
Mr.  Burdwood,  of  the  Hydrographer's  Office,  Admiralty,  gives  the  following 
mean : — 

Datum,  Old  Dock  Sill.     Establishment  (High  Water,  full  and  change) 
llh  35m  Greenwich  time. 

High  water : —  ft.    in. 

Springs.— Average  height  above  the  sill  ....   18    0 
Neaps    12    2 

Low  waiter  i — 

Springs. — Average  height  below  the  sill  ....     8    0 
Neaps    2    4 

Admiralty,  2nd  June  1856.  J.  Burdwood. 

Lieut.  Lord's  diagrams  furnish  the  levels  of  high  and  low  water,  direction 
and  force  of  the  wind,  and  height  of  the  barometer  every  day  in  the  year,  as 
well  as  an  intermediate  line  indicating  the  ordinary  sea-level  as  averaging 
6  feet  above  the  old  dock  sill. 

As  these  observations  are  to  be  continued  at  several  stations  on  the  Mersey, 
we  may  look  upon  them  as  the  basis  of  future  observations  on  the  changes 
in  the  level  and  flow  of  the  tides  in  that  river. 

Mr.  Rendel's  diagrams  are  very  useful,  as  recording  the  tidal  wave  in  1844 
as  well  as  the  relative  time  of  high  water  at  the  Bar,  New  Brighton,  Prince's 
Dock,  Runcorn,  Fidler's  Ferry,  and  Warrington  Bridge. 

From  information  obligingly  furnished  to  the  Committee  by  Mr.  Fereday 
Smith,  Mr.  R.  Skay,  and  Mr.  Edward  Johnes  and  other  sources,  we  may 
confidently  contemplate  the  establishment  of  a  record  of  the  tides  of  the 
Mersey,  both  at  Ellesmere  and  other  points,  with  reliable  data  and  informa- 
tion on  the  important  subject 

Cheltenham,  12th  August  1856.  Andrew  Henderson. 


Interim  Report  to  the  British  Association,  on  Progress  in  Researches 
on  the  Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards.  By  Jambs 
Thomson,  C.B. 

Belfast,  August  6, 1856. 
Having  at  last  year's  meeting  of  the  Association  read  in  the  Mechanical 
Section  a  short  paper  on  the  Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards,  and 
having  been  requested  by  the  General  Committee  to  prepare  a  Report  on 
the  same  subject,  I  beg  now  to  state  that  1  have  in  the  meantime  been  ool» 


WHIR  BOARDS.— FRITH  OF  CLYDE.  4% 

leering  information  for  the  purposes  of  that  Report.  My  professional  en. 
gagements  have  occupied  me  necessarily  so  much  as  to  oblige  me  to  defer 
for  this  year  the  detailed  prosecution  of  the  subject  and  the  preparation  of 
the  Report  in  full.  I  have,  however,  the  gratification  of  stating,  that,  with 
special  reference  to  the  researches  entrusted  to  me  by  the  Association,  the 
President  of  the  Athenaeum  of  Boston,  United  States,  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Cary, 
has  generously  sent  to  me,  with  the  request  that  it  be  presented  to  the 
British  Association  on  his  behalf,  a  valuable  book,  containing  accounts  of 
experiments  recently  carried  out  on  a  very  grand  scale  in  America  on  the 
measurement  of  large  bodies  of  flowing  water  by  means  of  Weir  boards  and 
by  other  methods. 

The  work  is  entitled  'Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiment*,1  by  James  B.Francis. 
Id  reference  to  the  experiments,  Mr.  Cary,  the  donor  of  the  book,  states  in 
bis  letter  to  me,  "  These  experiments,  made  under  the  direction  and  at  the 
expense  of  the  associated  companies  of  Lowell,  near  Boston,  who  employ 
Mr.  Francis  as  the  engineer  for  their  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  have  cost 
about  £4000  sterling ;  and  they  make  part  in  a  series  of  investigations  which 
have  cost  those  companies  £15,000." 

In  the  Report  which  I  hope  to  submit  to  the  British  Association,  I  shall 
have  much  occasion  for  reference  to  these  important  experiments,  and  for 
this  purpose  I  think  it  right  to  retain  the  book  in  my  hands  at  present. 

As  the  expenses  incurred  in  reference  to  the  researches  have  been  but 
small,  and  chiefly  for  the  procuring  of  books,  I  do  not  desire  to  draw  for 
them  on  the  fund  of  £10  liberally  placed  at  my  disposal  by  the  Association; 
■ad  as  my  intention  is,  not  to  conduct  experiments  on  the  subject  myself, 
bat  chiefly  to  give  a  review  of  the  most  important  experiments  and  deduc- 
tions which  have  been  made  by  others,  I  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  ask 
for  a  renewal  of  the  grant. 


Dredging  Report.— Frith  qf  Clyde.  1856. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science,  held  in  Glasgow,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted : — 

"  That  a  Committee,  consisting  of  the  Rev.  C.  P.  Miles,  M.D.,  Professor 
Balfour,  Dr.  Greville,  and  Mr.  Eyton,  be  requested  to  report  on  the 
dredging  of  the  West  coast  of.  Scotland,  and  that  the  sum  of  £10  be 
placed  at  their  disposal  for  the  purpose." 

Of  the  Committee  only  two  members  have  been  able  to  devote  any 
time  to  the  object  contemplated,  viz.  Dr.  Greville,  and  the  Rev.  C.  P.  Miles* 
The  latter,  having  engaged  a  residence  on  Holy  Island,  Lamlash  Bay,  was 
joined  by  the  former  on  June  9th,  when  both  were  prepared  to  commenoe  a 
systematic  course  of  dredging,  and  to  give  up  their  whole  time,  for  several 
weeks,  to  the  work.  They  had  provided  themselves  with  the  Government 
charts,  and  with  such  books  on  the  different  departments  of  marine  zoology 
as  were  likely  to  be  of  service ;  they  had  also  everything  requisite  for  the 
preservation  of  specimens ;  and  they  had  at  their  command  a  small  yacht*, 
and  a  stout  four-oared  cutter  f.  So  far,  therefore,  as  material  was  concerned, 
the  Committee  had  armed  themselves  for  a  vigorous  campaign. 

In  the  arrangement  for  their  plan  of  proceeding,  the  Committee  took  into 

*  This  vessel  was  lent  to  the  Rev.  Mr.  Miles  (on  the  condition  of  his  paying  the  expenses 
«f  fitting  her  out)  by  Alexander  Melville,  Esq.,  Glasgow, 
t  The  property  of  Dr.  Carpenter,  Holy  Island,  Anan. 


48  REPORT — 1856. 

consideration  the  terms  of  their  instructions;  and  they  came  to  the  conclusion, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  draw  up  a  satisfactory  Report  in  the  coarse 
of  a  single  season.  They  do  not  regard  a  mere  enumeration  of  the  forms  of 
animal  life,  as  observed  from  time  to  time  by  different  individuals,  as  the 
object  contemplated  by  the  Association,  but  rather  some  account  of  the 
distribution  of  those  forms  in  the  estuary  and  Lochs  of  the  Clyde,  coupled 
with  some  efforts  to  render  our  knowledge  of  the  Fauna  more  complete.  It 
appeared  to  them  that  the  most  proper  course  would  be  for  the  Committee, 
not  to  aim  too  suddenly  at  issuing  a  general  Report,  but  rather  to  present, 
for  some  time  to  come,  an  annual  statement  of  their  labours.  By  a  judicious 
change  of  head-quarters,  they  would  be  enabled,  in  successive  seasons,  to 
pursue  their  investigations  in  a  way  best  calculated  to  promote  the  ultimate 
views  of  the  Association. 

The  naturalist's  dredge  has  been  used  in  the  Clyde  for  some  years  by 
various  persons,  but,  as  far  as  is  ascertained,  without  any  special  plan  ;  and 
although  in  many  instances  notes  have  been  preserved,  the  existing  materials 
for  a  full  Report  are  utterly  insufficient  Of  the  different  localities,  Lamlash 
Bay  has,  perhaps,  acquired  the  greatest  reputation.  It  occurred  therefore 
to  the  Committee  that  it  would  be  peculiarly  desirable  to  ascertain,  with 
some  precision,  the  extent  and  distribution  of  the  forms  existing  in  this  sec- 
tion of  the  Clyde — stating  whether  they  are  rare  or  frequent  in  these  parte. 
They  hoped  to  accomplish  this  end  with  comparatively  little  trouble,  as  they 
had  repeatedly  dredged  over  portions  of  the  same  ground  on  former  occa- 
sions ;  and,  further,  they  had  the  experience  of  Major  Martin  and  of  the  late 
Rev,  Dr.  Landsborough  to  assbt  them.  Other  places  in  the  vicinity  of 
Lamlash  Bay  were  marked  out  for  examination,  with  special  reference  to 
Kilbrennan  Sound,  on  the  west  side  of  Arran,  which,  it  is  believed,  has  been 
unexplored  by  the  scientific  dredger. 

To  their  exceeding  regret  the  Committee  have  to  state  that  they  had 
scarcely  made  their  arrangements  before  the  weather  became  adverse.  Rain 
and  wind — the  latter  often  rising  to  a  gale — set  in,  and  continued,  with  a 
few  exceptional  days,  throughout  the  months  of  June  and  July,  that  is,  from 
the  moment  they  were  prepared  to  commence  operations  until  the  last  day 
at  their  disposal  previous  to  the  Meeting  of  the  Association.  The  precarious 
position  of  the  dredger  could  not  be  more  forcibly  illustrated.  During  the 
first  month  scarcely  more  than  one  day -in  each  week  would  admit  of  the 
dredge  being  used,  and,  altogether,  there  were  only  fifteen  days  available  for 
the  prosecution  of  the  work,  which  was  sometimes  attempted  when  the  seve- 
rity of  the  weather  made  it  all  but  impracticable  to  sail  the  yacht,  and  when 
the  employment  of  the  four-oared  cutter  would  have  been  impossible.  The 
intended  visit  to  the  west  of  Arran  has  consequently  been  postponed  ;  and, 
under  these  disastrous  circumstances,  the  unfortunate  Committee  found 
occupation,  in  spite  of  rain  and  wind,  in  searching  the  pools  and  coast  at  low 
tide,  and  in  collecting  the  littoral  nudibranchs,  echinoderms,  crustaceans,  &c 

The  ground  explored  by  the  dredge  embraces,  as  marked  in  the  accom- 
panying map*  (Plate  II.),  the  folio  wing*  well-defined  localities: — The  south 
side  of  Brodick  Bay,  from  Invercloy  to  Corriegills,  in  depths  varying  from  7 
to  25  fathoms ;  the  entire  area  of  Lamlash  Bay,  from  Clachland  Point  to  the 
north  end  of  Holy  Island,  and  from  the  south  end  of  Holy  Island  to  Kings* 
cross  Point ;  the  eastern,  or  outer  side  of  Holy  Island,  from  Hamilton's  Rock, 
near  Clachland  Point,  to  the  most  southern  point  of  the  island,  in  from  30  to 
6  fathoms ;  and  from  Fullarton's  Rock  to  Whiting  Bay. 

The  subjoined  Tables  give  the  results  of  the  labours  of  the  Committee:-— 
*  The  map  is  an  exact  copy  of  the  Government  Chart. 


DREDGING. — FBITH  OP  CLYDE*  TT  x-  :  "     '        4i[ 

i\  ^  .'  * 

Table  L — Mollusca.  V  c\*  r  ■*  -  -  ~  *** 

Species.  Station.  ^*JbnJLti*> 

Aemaet  testudinalis Littoral — Holy  Island,  &c. . .     Abundant. 

—  virginea % Latninarian  zone. 

Anomia  ephippium Generally  diffused. 

Aplysia  hybrida Rock-pools,  Holy  Island,  &c    Not  uncommon. 

Aporrhais  pes-pelecani   ....  Generally    diffused — Deep       Only  dead  shells  obtained. 

water. 

Artemis  exoleta Ditto. 

lincta. Ditto. 

Astarte  sulcata    Ditto.  ' 

Bnccinum  undatum    Ditto. 

Cardinm  ednle Lamlash  sands. 

—  echinatom Lamlash  Bay. 

—  Norvegicum   Deep  water  between  Holy  Is-    Adult  specimens  rare* 

land  and  Clachland  Point. 
Caithiam  reticulatum    ....     Generally  diffused. 
Chiton  asellus Ditto. 

—  ruber Ditto. 

Circe  minima Between   Holy  Island   and 

Clachland  Point. 

Corbula  nucleus Ditto. 

Crania  anomala  *  Ditto    Not  uncommon. 

Cyhchna  cylindracea  ......    Ditto. 

Cyprssa  Buropsea Ditto. 

Cjprina  Islandica    Lamlash  Bay Only  dead  shells. 

Dentalium  entalis   Between   Holy   Island   and    Common. 

Clachland  Point. 

Emarginula  reticulata Ditto  1  f  Near  the  north  end  of  Holy 

Bulima  polita Ditto  V     <      Island  in  from  10  to  30 

distort* Ditto  J  (.     fathoms. 

Fissurella  reticulata Ditto. 

Itasus antiquus  1  /Near   Fullarton's   Bock,   in 

klandicus  J    \     about  20  fathoms. 

KeDia  rubra Littoral    Attached  to  Uchmapygmaa. 

—  suborbicularis Lamlash  Bay   Found  inside  dead  shells  of 

'  Jrtemii  exoleta. 

LameUaria ?    Littoral—Holy  Island. 

lima  hians         1  f  North  end  of  Holy  Island  in    The  nests  of  L.  Man*  in  this 

— —  Loacombii  J    \     about  10  and  15  fathoms.         locality  are  very  abundant. 

subauriculata Near  Fullarton's  Rock Only  single  valves  found. 

littorina  Neritoides  1 

—  littoralis  V    . . . .     Holy  Island,  &c. 
littorea             J 

Lyonsja  Norvegica Between    Holy  Island   and 

Clachland  Point, 
kfactra  solida       1  f  Lamlash  Bay  and  off  Holy 

-  suhtruncata  J      \     Island. 

Mangelia  Leufiroyi  1  J  Between    Holy   Island   and    Scarce. 

linearis  /   \  Clachland  Point. 

rofa,  var.  Ulideana    . .     Between  Fullarton's  Rock  and    Only  one  specimen  obtained. 

King's  Cross  Point, 
teres    Between   Holy    Island   and    Three  specimens  obtained  in 

Clachland  Point.  from  15  to  25  fathoms. 

Modiola  Modiolus   Lamlash  Bay. 

Ifontacuta  substriata North  end  of  Holy  Island  . .     On  the  spines  of  Spatangv$ 

purpureus. 

Mytflus  eduhs Round  the  coast Immature  and  scarce. 

Nassa  incrassata. 

reticulata    Generally  diffused. 

y>tiCm^aifcraI  /Between   Holy  Island   and    N.  monUifera  scarce. 

Montagu!  j     I     Clachland  Point. 

Ostrea  edulis   Lamlash  Bay  by  Holy  Island. 

Patella  at  hletical 

peUndda    > Holy  Island,  &c. 

— -vulgata      J 
1856.  B 


"**,       \ 


A    I 


50 


feBPOBV— 1856. 


Pecten  maximus . 


opcrcularis 

— -  striatus  1 

tigrinus  j     

Pectunculus  glycimeris 

Philine  aperta 

Pholas  crispata    

Pileopsis  Hungarica    

Pleurobranchus ? 

Pilidium  fulvum  1 

Psammobia  Ferroensis  >  . . . . 
Puncturella  Noachina  J 

Purpura  lapillus 

Rissoa  striata  

Scaphander  lignarius 

Tapes  decussata 

Tellina  donacina 

Terebratula  caput-serpentis 

Teredo  Norvegica    

Thracia  phaseolina 

Trichotropis  borealis 


Trochus  alabaatrum . 
cinerariiis    . . . 

—  Magus 

—  millemnus. . . 

— —  tumidua 

umbilicatus . . . 


Table  I.  (continued.) 

Station. 
North  endof  Holy  Island;  also 

near  Fullarton's  Rock. 
Throughout  the  district  .... 

(Between    Holy  Island   and 
Clachland  Point. 
North  end  of  Holy  Island. 
Throughout  Lamlash  Bay  . . 
Near  Lamlash  Pier. 
North  end  of  Holy  Island. 
Holy  Island  at  low  water  .. 

North  end  of  Holy  Island. 

Littoral.    Holy  Island,  &c. 
Generally  diffused. 
North  end  of  Holy  Island. 
Holy  Island,  &c. 
North  end  of  Holy  Island. 
Ditto. 

Holy  Island 

North  end  of  Holy  Island. 
Between    Holy   Island   and 
Clachland  Point. 

Lamlash  Bay  

North  end  of  Holy  Island. 

Near  the  pier,  Holy  Island. 

North  end  of  Holy  Island. 

Ditto. 

Holy  Island,  &c,  littoral    . . 


Remark. 
Scarce. 

Abundant  in  certain  localities. 

Scarce;    dead  shells  of  P. 

tigrinus  not  uncommon. 

Not  uncommon  in  any  part 


Found  four  individuals  under 
stones:  probably  they  are 
P.  membranaceus. 


Fine  specimens  of  the  tubes 
obtained  from  the  wreck  of 
the  old  pier. 

Dredged  by  Mr.  Eyton. 


71  umbilicahu  is  the  common 

shell  of  these  shores. 
T.  zizyphmut  is  scarce. 


—  zizyphinus North  end  of  Holy  Island 

Turritellk  communis    Ditto. 

Venus  casina    Ditto. 

—  fasciata    Ditto. 

ovata  Ditto. 

striatula Ditto. 

Table  IL— Nudibranchiate  Mollusca. 

SpfCtot*  HtmarMt. 

Doris  bilamellata  \  f  Found  under  stones  at  low  water  on  Holy 

tuberculata  J \     Island,  Ac.    Common. 

Eolis  Drummondi    Ditto.    Not  uncommon. 

Goniodoris  nodosa  Ditto.    One  example  found  on  Holy  Island. 

f  Dredged  (probably  a  new  species)  in  about  15 
Lomanotus ?    «      fathoms  between  Macdonald's  Hotel,  In- 

l     vercloy,  and  Corriegills. 

Polycera  quadrilineatal ^  Mh  ^^ 

Triopa  daviger  J  ^^ 

Table  III.— Crustacea. 
Specu*.  Station.  Remark*. 

Cardnus  Msenas Holy  Island*  &c Abundant  round  these  shores. 

Cancer  Pagurus  Ditto    Ditto. 

Ebalia  Pennaniii North  end  of  Holy  Island  . .     Not  very  uncommon. 

Eurynome  aspera    Ditto    3  or  4  specimens  obtained. 

Galathea Generally  diffused    All  immature  examples. 

Hippolyte  varians    Lamlash  Bay. 

Homarus  vulgaris    Everywhere  round  shore ....     Tolerably  abundant. 

Hyas  araneus  Generally  diffused. 

Inachus  Dorsettensis  Ditto. 

Pagurus  Bernhardus   Ditto. 

-—  Prideauxii  Ditto Always  accompanied   by 

Adamtia  pafOatm. 

Palsemon  Squilla Rock  Pools Common  round  the  < 

Pandalus  annulicomis Lamlash  Bay. 


DBRDGING. — FRITH  OF  CLYDE.  5aV 

Table  II.  (continued.) 
Specie*.  Station.  Remark*. 

ParoeUana  longicornis North  end  of  Holy  Island. 

platycheles Littoral.   Holy  Island,  &c . .     Abundant  round  the  coast. 

Sienorhynchas  Phalangium. .     Generally  diffused   Not  common. 

Table  IV. — Echinodermata. 

Amphidotus  cordatus Generally  diffused    Common. 

Asterias  aurantiaca Near  Fullarton's  Rock Only  two  specimens  obtained. 

Asterina  gibbota  . . .  > Littoral.    North  end  of  Holy    Under  stones  in  a  pool. 

Island. 
Qurodocadigiteta Near  the  Pier  (south  side),    Infroml5toabont6fathoma. 

Holy  Island. 
Comttnla  rosacea    Pier,  Holy  Island,  and  Fullar-    Abundant  in  about  8  to  15  fine. 

ton's  Rock. 

(Mbe&a  oeulata North  end,  Holy  Island. 

rosea  Ditto    Rare. 

Ecanoeyamue  ptuUlua   .  • .  •    Generally  diffused. 

Echinus  miliaria Ditto. 

sphere    Ditto. 

Gemaster  Templetoni Ditto. 

Lufchafrapllissiina Ditto. 

OpibMoaabeUli Ditto. 

—  granulate    Ditto. 

rosula Ditto. 

Opfamra  textmrata    Ditto. 

Pshaipeamembraaaceaa....     Between    Holy  Island   and    Rare. 

Claehland  Point  in  25fms. 
SipaBcolBB ? Lamlash  Bay. 


S^ffiT"*}   •-    ■■*.*■*  HI 


•  papposa        J 


^fy*?*}    Genenll,  dUfc**!. 


Tabu  V,— Zoopbytm. 

^ ■*  -  -  ** *-- 

dSWCSte*  tuwmrm*. 

Actinia  beOia,  (Gaertner)!  f  Common  ia  the  pools  and  round  the  whole 

coriacea  J     \     coast. 

• —  crassicornis Dredged  in  about  25  fathoms  north  of  Holy 

Island. 

—  metembryaathemum Common  everywhere, 

Adams*  pattiaU Frequent— always  with  Papunu  PridttmmL 

Anthea  cereus On  Zostera  marina,  Lamlash  Bay. 

Antenanlaria  antennina Near  Fullarton's  Rock. 

Csflepora  pumieosa  1  [  The  corals  are  generally  diffused  in  deep  wa- 

raaioloaa         V <     ter  (from  about  20  mtboms)  outside  of 

— -Skeaei  J  [     Unriash  Bay. 

*Vnpamilnria  dumosa. 

Ffostra  foHacea. 

Halechrai  haleciauzo. 

**t*sseese  geniewata  ..••».........»...    On  stones  and  dead  aheHs. 

Tayslkannnsata    Ditto. 

hyaline    Ditto. 

Mains*    Ditto. 

Peachii    Ditto. 

tritpinosa    Ditto. 

- — rioiaeea,  w.  eraenttu Onstoaeaand  deed  sheila  in  deep  water,  be* 

tween  Holy  Island  and  Claehland  Point. 

Also  between  the  south  end  of  Holy  Island 

and  Fullarton's  Rock :  several  specimens. 

nwdtria  phrnata Lamlash  Bay. 

Mearsniiainvein^noidee  Common,  outside  of  Lamlash  Bay. 


The  Committee  have  deemed  it  advisable,  for  the  present,  to  omit  the 

following  classes — Cirripedia,  Annelida,  Acalepba,  and  Poriphora ;  also  the 
Senile-eyed  Cruataoeaju ;  nor  have  they  even  attempted  to  search  for  the 
microscopic  £ksw  iaKsUbd  » the  Iniaaoria  and  EUiopods. 

b2 


52  report — 1856. 

Among  the  Nudibranchiata,  a  species  of  rare  beauty  was  obtained  when 
dredging  in  Brodick  Bay,  between  Invercloy  and  Corriegills,  in  from  10  to 
15  fathoms.  As  it  could  not  be  identified  by  the  Committee,  a  sketch  taken 
by  Dr.  Greville  was  forwarded  to  Mr.  Alder,  who  replied, — "  The  beautiful 
Nudibranch  you  have  found  is  a  Lomanotus,  and  probably  new ;  but  of  this 
we  could  not  be  certain  without  a  careful  examination,  and  I  shall  therefore 
be  glad  to  avail  myself  of  your  kind  offer  to  send  the  animal  alive.  I  dredged 
a  minute  Lomanotus  (only  quarter  of  an  inch  long)  in  Lamlash  Bay  in  1846, 
which  is  figured  in  the  6th  Part  of  our  Monograph,  under  the  name  of 
L.flavidus.  I  thiuk  it  can  scarcely  be  the  young  of  this  large  species*. 
Since  the  completion  of  our  work,  we  have  received  from  Mr.  Thompson  of 
Weymouth,  a  somewhat  similar  Lomanotus,  white,  with  orange  processes, 
and  about  an  inch  long.  Yours  differs  from  them  in  the  length  of  the  vela- 
filaments  and  the  expansion  at  the  posterior  extremity,  and  also  from  the 
latter  in  the  large  size  of  the  tentacular  sheaths.  The  only  British  specimens 
of  this  new  genus  we  have  yet  seen  have  been  in  a  sickly  state,  and  only  one 
of  each  kind,  so  that  any  additional  information  concerning  them  is  desirable* 
Perhaps  if  you  should  be  dredging  again  in  Lamlash  Bay  after  the  receipt 
of  this  you  will  be  so  good  as  to  keep  a  look  out  for  the  small  L.Jlavidus* 
It  was  dredged  in  shallow  water  among  scallops,  very  near  to  the  Holy 
Island,     The  only  specimen  of  Doris  planata  yet  found  I  also  got  there." 

The  Committee  have  to  add,  with  deep  regret,  that  this  apparently  new 
form  of  Lomanotus,  having  been  placed  for  safety  in  the  vivarium,  has  disap- 
peared, and,  although  the  tank  was  emptied  for  a  thorough  search,  no  trace 
whatever  could  be  found.  Two  unsuccessful  attempts  have  since  been  made 
to  secure  another  specimen  by  dredging  in  Brodick  Bay. 

To  conclude : — The  result,  in  a  general  point  of  view,  of  the  Committee's 
present  and  previous  researches,  added  to  those  of  other  parties,  as  far  as  they 
are  known,  is,  that  although  Lamlash  Bay  contains  many  interesting  forms,  most 
of  the  rarer  ones  are  so  exceedingly  scarce  as  to  cause  considerable  disappoint- 
ment to  the  collector.  The  naturalist  who  wishes  to  secure  a  series  of  cabinet 
specimens,  especially  of  shells,  and  to  obtain  a  store  of  duplicates  in  return 
for  his  expenditure  of  time  and  money,  must  seek  other  localities.  For 
example,  with  regard  to  the  more  interesting  Mollusca  inhabiting  the  Lami- 
narian  zone  and  deeper  water,  Lima  hians,  with  its  curious  nests,  can  alone 
be  pronounced  abundant.  It  may  be  obtained  in  any  quantity.  JPectea 
tigrinus  comes  next  in  order,  but  an  entire  day's  dredging,  in  the  most 
favourable  ground,  would  scarcely  produce  more  than  half-a-dozen  good 
full-sized  specimens.  In  the  course  of  several  days'  dredging  this  season, 
single  specimens  only  of  Lyonsia  Norcegica  and  Pilidium  fulvum  were 
secured;  of  the  Eulimse,  only,  two  of  Eulima  polita  and  a  solitary  specimen 
of  E.  distorta ;  of  Chemnitzia  none ;  of  Trichotropis  borealis  one ;  of  Odos- 
tomicB  none ;  of  Rissoce  only  the  common  species ;  of  Mangelice,  one  of 
M.  Leufroyi,  three  of  the  rare  M.  teres,  a  few  of  the  common  M.  linearis, 
and  one  of  3/.  rufa,  var.  Ulideana ;  of  Cylichna:  none,  except  two  or  three 
poor  specimens  of  C.  cyUndracea ;  ofPhiline  none,  except  P.  aperta.  It  is 
remarkable  that  species,  which  usually  are  not  accounted  at  all  scarce,  are 
represented  sparingly  in  this  part  of  the  Clyde  district.  Mr.  Barlee,  well 
known  as  one  of  the  most  practical  couchologists  and  indefatigable  dredgers 
in  Great  Britain,  visited  the  Committee,  and,  having  dredged  over  the  best 
ground  f  for  two  days,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  Lamlash  Bay  is  remark- 
ably deficient  both  in  Molluscan  forms  generally  and  in  the  number  of  indi- 

*  The  species  dredged  by  the  Committee  was  2  inches  in  length, 
f  That  is,  from  Hamilton's  Rock,  near  Clachland  Point,  to  the  North  and  NJS.  end  of 
Holy  Island,  in  from  35  to  15  fathoms.    Also  in  the  vicinity  of  Fullarton's  Bock. 


DREDGING. — FAITH  OF  CLYDE.  53 

viduals  which  actually  exist  there.  Among  the  Echinodermata,  the  only 
species  of  any  interest  that  is  really  abundant,  in  certain  defined  localities, 
is  Comatula  rosacea.  Nor  is  Goniaster  Templetoni  (infrequent,  that  is,  half- 
a-dozen  examples  may  be  procured  in  a  successful  day's  dredging.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  (/raster  glacialis.  More  rarely  brought  up  is  Luidia 
fragiUissima,  especially  of  full  size.  Professor  All  man  and  his  party  did 
not  succeed  in  finding  more  than  one  adult  individual  during  two  days9 
dredging  with  the  Committee.  At  the  same  time  specimens  measuring  from 
4  to  6  inches  across  are  often  seen  at  low  water  both  at  Lamlash  and  in 
Holy  Island.  Only  one  specimen  of  Palmipes  membranaceus  (immature)  has 
been  taken  this  season.  And  of  the  Holothuriadee  not  one  has  occurred 
except  Chirodota  digitata,  of  which  two  examples  came  up  in  the  dredge, 
in  from  15  to  6  fathoms,  near  the  house  on  Holy  Island.  With  respect 
to  the  Crustaceans,  the  rarer  forms  of  Podophthalma  are  poorly  repre- 
sented. Nor  is  there  much  to  report  of  Zoophytes,  for  both  Anthozoa  and 
Polyzoa  are  remarkably  deficient  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  the  com- 
monest kinds,  and  even  some  of  those  most  generally  distributed  appear  to 
be  wanting  altogether. 

In  closing  this  necessarily  meagre  Report,  the  Committee  take  the  oppor? 
tunity  to  make  some  observations  on  the  expenditure  connected  with  dredg- 
ing operations'.  Boats  must  of  course  be  hired,  with  crews,  according  to 
circumstances.  In  some  localities,  a  stout  boat,  with  a  couple  of  men,  may 
get  through  some  work  in  fine  weather,  and  with  a  depth  of  water  not  ex- 
ceeding 10  or  12  fathoms.  But  if  the  dredge  be  constantly  down  the  labour 
is  severe,  and  the  occasional  assistance  of  the  gentlemen,  whose  time  ought 
to  be  otherwise  employed,  will  be  required.  Four  men  are  not  too  many, 
and,  in  some  states  of  the  weather,  they  are  necessary.  The  charge  for  a 
boat  and  two  men  cannot  be  set  down  at  less  than  from  5s.  to  6s.  a  day. 
At  Lamlash  the  usual  charge  is  7*.  6d.  For  deep-sea  dredging,  and  indeed 
for  the  examination  generally  of  the  more  exposed  parts  of  the  Clyde, 
whether  in  shore  or  at  a  distance,  a  small  sailing  craft  is  indispensable — such 
as  a  common  herring  boat — with  a  crew  of  four  men,  the  cost  of  which 
would  be  about  £4  a  week.  This,  Mr.  Barlee — the  Committee  could  not 
quote  higher  authority — has  found  to  be  quite  efficient.  With  such  a  vessel 
having  a  boat  in  tow,  dredging  may  be  carried  on  when  oars  would  be  use* 
less.  From  the  above  statement  of  the  absolute  outlay  inseparable  from 
dredging  operations  when  conducted  on  a  useful  scale  (omitting  altogether 
the  cost  of  material,  its  wear  and  tear,  and  various  contingent  expenses),  it 
will  be  evident  that  a  grant  of  £10  will  go  but  a  short  way  in  the  hands  of 
an  active  Committee. 

On  behalf  of  the  Committee, 

Charles  Popham  Miles 
(Incumbent  of  St.  Jude's  English  Church, 
Holy  Island,  Lamlash  Bay.    Arran,  N.B.  Glasgow). 

August  1st,  1856. 

Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1855-56.     By  the  Rev, 
Baden  Powell,  M.A.,  F.R.S.  fyc,  Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry 
in  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Sikce  my  last  report  to  the  British  Association  I  have  received  but  a  very 
small  number  of  communications  of  meteor  observations,  but  among  these 
will  be  found  one  or  two  of  remarkable  interest  as  presenting  very  peculiar 
features. 
I  am  chiefly  indebted,  as  hitherto,  to  Mr.  E.  J.  Lowe. 


54 


REPORT— 1856. 


Date. 

Hour. 

Appearance  and 
magnitude. 

Brightness 
and  colour. 

Train  or  sparks. 

Velocity  of 
duration. 

1853. 
Sept.  30 

1855. 

Feb.  21 

Aug.  11 

Dec  11 

1856. 
Jan.     7 

h  m 
11  15  

(QM.T.) 
11    15  

10  15  p.m. 

(g.m.t.) 

11  30  p.m. 

8  10  p.m. 
(Commence- 
ment not  ob- 
served :  only 
noticed  by 
reflexion  on 
snow  which 
covered  the 
ground.) 

4  55  p.m. 

4  55  p.m. 

4  65  p.m. 
4  55  p.m. 

Round,  =■  #lst  mas;., 
magnitude  dimisn- 
ed  and  disappeared 
as  if  merely  from 
distance. 

Pear-shaped,   —f  of 
moon.    Afterwards 
burst  at  the  lower 
part  into  a  number 
of  fragments  which 
disappeared. 

About  double  of  <J. 
Form  doubtful. 

A  bright  light  behind 
the  hills  preceded 
the  rising  of  a  bright 
body  like  the  full 
moon.      Gradually 
diminished    to     a 
small  star. 

Round,  well-defined, 
diam.»30/. 

Clear     round     disk, 
somewhat  lets  than 
the  moon. 

White  

Continued  about  I 

Lustre       like 
quicksilver. 

White  

sec  (not  observed 
at      commence* 
ment). 

2  or  3  sees* 

None  observed    ■ 

About  14  second... 
Continued    tffl   1 

aun.,  rising  slow- 
ly. 

Disappeared    verj 
suddenly  after  1 
sees. 

i 
i 
1 

Rays  proceed* 
ing  from  it 
on  all  sides, 
not  shooting 
out  but  stati- 
onary. More 
red  than  *. 
Brightness 
obscured  the 
stars,  "  like 
a     crimson 
moon/' 

Intensely 
bright,  pale 
violet. 

Tail  of  red  •parl^i  ,,tl.Tt.t 

Left  behind  a  "  column  of 
vapour." 

A  bright  vertical  line  emit- 
ting sparks  brighter  than 
4, 

Exploded  at  the  end  of  a 
long  slanting  fiery  train, 
which  remained,  length 
5'. 

A  small  white  cloud,  re- 
mained about  4  hour, 
then  vanished. 

i 
After    5    minutas 

curved  and  wariaj 
for    10    minutsj 
then      horizons! 
and  vanished. 

A  bail  of  fire,  burst 
without  noise. 

With   a  flash 
like     light- 
ning. 

„ %tj 

A  CATALOGUE  OF  OBSERVATIONS  OF  LUMINOUS  METEORS.     55 


Direction  or  altitude. 


General  remark*. 


Place. 


Observer. 


Reference* 


Moving  rapidly  upward*    to- 
wards 


i  zenith. 


Iron  N.E.  to  S.W.  Altitude 
smooth  determined  after 
wsids. 


Atmosphere   clear, 
daytime. 


No  sound  or  explo- 
sion. 


appened 
Disappeared 


Apparent  senifth 


7<T37'N. 
67°  40" 
47°  3C 


Admuth. 


20°59/B. 

P48' 
10°  49' 


At  middle  of  course  azimuth  S. 
AH.  45°  (estimated  by  eye), 
Course  B.  to  W.9  nearly  ho- 
risnatal,  wavering  about  15r 

Lnw  altitude,  nearly  S.W 


K.  20s.    W.  alt.  30°.     MoyingJAir  calm.     Below 
almost  horizontally  from  £.     the  clouds.    See 
to  W.,  slightly  descending  in-     App.  No.  1 
efinatkm  about  7°,  for  about 


horn  25°  to  30°.  5°  W.  of  S.. 
hnnrdiatery  under  h 


about  30° 


Atmosphere  heavy, 
so  as  to  conceal 
stars,  and  give 
the  meteors  a  ne- 
bulous aspect, 

Many  shootii  _ 
stars  during  the 
time. 


tooting  Tillington. 


Sky  very  clear.* 


Ditto 


Balgrummo.near 
Leven,  Fife- 
shire. 


W.  Swan,  Esq. 


Ditto    , 

lat-56°13'5"N., 
long.  12m2*-6W. 


Near  Bellahous- 
ton,  2\  miles 
S.S.W      from 
Observatory, 
Glasgo 

near 
Pet  worth 


W.  J.  Macquorn 

Rankine. 


Mrs.  Ayling,  and 
friends. 


1  mile  S.  of  Edin- 
burgh. 


Redhiil,  Reigate 

St.Thoroas'sHill 
near  Canter- 
bury. 

Stone  near  Ayles- 


Bonchurch  , 


Mr.  D.  Wallace . 


Proceedings  of  the 
Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh.  Mar. 
5. 1854. 

Ibid. 


Professor         C. 
Piazzi  Smyth. 


Mr.    Carrington 
and  Mr.  Good. 

Mr.  Masters    ... 


Mrs.  Smyth. 


MiasSewelL. 


MS.  communica- 
tion. 


MS.  letter  to  Lord 
Wrottesley. 


MS.  communica- 
tion. 

See  Appendix,  No. 
1. 


Letter  from  Mr. 
Carrington. 

Kentish  Gazette. 
See  Appendix. 
No.  2. 


MS.  See  Appendix. 
No.  4. 


MS. 


56 


REPORT — 1856. 


Date. 


Hour. 


Appearance 
and  magnitude. 


Brightness 
and  colour. 


Train  or  sparks. 


Velocity  or 
duration. 


1856, 
Jan.      7 


1855. 


Oct     7 
14 


h  m 
4  55  p.m. 


4  55  p.m. 


A  ball  of  fire  darted 
down  and  suddenly 
disappeared. 


Shot  downward  a  lit- 
tle obliquely  and 
exploded. 


Through  about  8C 
of  space* 


Extremely        Leaving  a   brilliant  fiery 
brilliant.  train,  gradually  became 

faint,  and  expanded  in 
5  minutes;  appeared  like 
a  thin  fleecy  white  cloud 
Left  a  band  of  light  changed 
through  various  forms 
(see  diagram,  Appendix, 
No.  3.)  for  10  minutes. 
Also  a  progressive  mo- 
tion through  about  4( 
towards  £. 


Luminous  Meteors  observed  in  1855-56, 


8  30  p.m 
8  32  

8  50  

9  13  

7  55  

8  27  


=  1st  mag.*. 
=3rd  mag.* 

=  1st  mag.*. 


For  first  half  path  = 
3rd  mag.*,  then  gra- 
dually increased  till 
=2nd  mag.* 

2nd  mag.*   

About  four  times  ap- 
parent size  of  S, 
oval  in  form. 


Nor.  8 
30 
Dec.     6 

19 
21 


8  53 


6  56  

5  35  p.m 

6  13  a.m, 
4  50  


Red 

Colourless 


Colourless   ... 


Red ... 

Yellow 
Bluish 


Train   , 

Streak 

Train 

Tail 

Train   

Narrow  streak,  visible  after 
meteor  vanished.  The 
streak  was  visible  both 
sides,  the  break  at  the 
same  time. 


Instantaneous . 


Rapid,  duration  0**2 
instantaneous ... 


Slowly,  duration  1 
sec. 


Rapid  

Motion  rather  slow, 
duration  3 


2nd  mag.* 


Very  large,  somewhat  As  light 
like  a  flash  of  light- 
ning. 


Yellow. 


_  "day, 
long  sha- 
dows cast. 

Colourless,  in- 
creased    in 
brightness 
as   it    pro- 
gressed. 

Light  as  noon- 
day. 

Blue    


Train 


Leaving  a  long  streak  o: 
light. 


if|Very  rapid,   dura- 
tion 0*5  sec. 


Streak  left  for  a  consider- 
able time. 

A  single  ball  with  well-de- 
fined edges,  no  stream- 
ers. 


Rapid 


Lingered  2  sees. .. 


Duration  fully  10 

minutes. 
Slow,    duration.  4 

sees. 


A  CATALOGUE  OF  OBSERVATIONS  OF  LUMINOUS  METEORS.      57 


Direction  or  altitude. 


General  remarks. 


Place. 


Observer. 


Reference. 


Stole  W.  of  S.,  point  of  ex- 
i  about  2&  all 


In     daylight,    sky 
clear. 


Hartley  Rectory, 
Hants. 


Oxford . 


Rev.  J.  T.  Plum- 
mer. 


A  friend  of  Mr. 
G.  A.  Rowell. 


MS.  letter  to  Mrs. 
Bell. 


Letter  from  Mr. 
Rowell.  SeeAp- 
pendix,  No.  3. 


»  E.  J.  Lowe,  Esq.,  F.R. A.S.,  F.G.S. 


m  Polaris  perpendic  down  . 
feted  on  W.  edge  of  Galaxy, 
■Sing  perpendic.  down  from 
1°  below  the  altitude  of  Atair. 
B  perpendic  down  from  cen- 
tre of  Ursa  Ma  jor. 

feted  S.  of  Galaxy,  15°  below 
atair,  moved  downwards. 


iwq  through  the  Pleiades 
feted  si  altitude  of  80°,  fall- 
ing perpendic  down  to  with- 
in 10'  of  W.S.W.  horizon. 


m  below  Polaris  towards  the 
Bast,  downwards  at  an  angle 
of  50°. 

H  downwards,  bursting  due 
8JS.at  an  altitude  of  45°. 

•m  0  Andromeds,  passing  1' 
bekw  y  Pegasi,  vanished  in- 


■1  down  in  N.W.  from 
I  of  40°. 


Obser7,  Beeston 
Ibid. 

Ibid 

Ibid 


Star-like  on  the 
edges,  when  it 
passed  over  half 
its  track,  it  sud- 
denly disappear' 
ed,  and  almost 
immediately  re- 
appeared 0}c 
lower.  Thisbreak 
was  devoid  of  the 
streak,  which  re- 
mained after  the 
meteor  had  va- 
nished. 


Obser7,  Beeston 
Nottingham  Fo- 
rest. 


Very  bright . 


Ibid.., 


Ibid.. 


Obser7,  Beeston 


Highfield  House 

Observatory. 
Bulwell    


E.  J.  Lowe,  Esq, 
Id.    


I 


Id. 


Id. 


Mr.  Lowe's  MS. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 


E.  J.  Lowe,  Esq. 
F.E.Swann,Esq. 


Id. 


An  assistant   to 
E.  J.  Lowe. 


Id. 


E.  J.  Lowe,  Esq. 

6.  Allcock,  Jun. 
Esq. 


Ibid. 


Ibid. 
Ibid. 


Ibid. 


Ibid. 


Ibid. 


Ibid.  SeeAppendiz, 

No.  5. 
Ibid. 


58 


RBPOET— 1856. 


Date. 


Hour. 


Appearance  and 
magnitude. 


Brightness 
and  colour. 


Train  or  sparks. 


Velocity  01 
duration. 


1855, 
Dee.     5 
6 


12 

13 

1856, 
Jan.      2 


h  m 
A  large  met 
5  40  p.m. 
11  p.m.  tilT 
11  30 
Many  meteo 

11  22  p.m. 

12  40  a.m. 
12  45  a.m. 

10  10  a.m. 


eor  seen. 

=2nd  mag.*  

Several  small  with 


Bluish 

Colourless 


Streak. 
Train    . 


Rapid 
Rapid 


=2nd  mag.* 
»  2nd  mag.* 
=  2nd  mag.* 


Colourless    ... 

Colourless 

Colourless 


Long  streak . 
Long  streak . 
Long  streak. 


Rapid 
Rapid 
Rapid 


7 
11 

12 

27 

Feb.      2 


A  large  met 
7  15  p.m. 

11  16  p.m. 

7  p.m.  till 
9  p.m. 

12  3  a.m. 

7  45  p.m. 


eor  seen  at  Chelmsfor 
Small  , 


d,  cloudy  here. 
Colourless 


= 2nd  mag.* 


Red 


Streak. 


Rapid   ., 
Slowly, 


7  55  p.m. 
7  55  p.m. 


13 

Mar.     8 
April    3 


May   30 


1    7  30 
a.m. 

12  60  a.m. 
1  23  a.m. 

1  27  a.m. 

12  51  a.m. 


» 1st  mag.*... 
= 2nd  mag.* 


A  splendid  meteor  . 
i  size  of  moon 


-2nd  mag.* 


=3rd  mag.* 
=  lst  mag.*.. 


■2nd  mag.* 
=3rd  mag.* 


Rich  scarlet.., 

Colourless   .., 
=3rd  mag.* 


Train 
Train 


2  sees.,  slowly.. 
Rapid 


Green,  orange 
and  red, 
brilliant. 


Blue. 


Streak. 


Colourless    ... 
Yellow 


Streak. 
Streak. 


Blue.... 
Bluish. 


Streak  ... 
No  train 


Duration    2    set 
rapid. 


Instantaneous  .- 


Rapid  

Duration  1  i 


Duration  1  see. 
Rapid,  dontiosH 


A  CATALOGUE  OF  OBSERVATIONS  OF  LUMINOUS  METEORS.       59 

Direction  ox  altitude. 

General  remarks. 

Place. 

Observer. 

Reference. 

From  «•  Herculis  to  t*  Herculis. 
About  Polaris 

Obser7,  Beeston 

E.  J.  Lowe,  Esq. 
Id 

Mr.  Lowe's  MS. 
Ibid. 

Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 
Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 
Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 
Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 
Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Ibid. 

Id.    

Prom  Castor  down  towards  £. . 

Ibid 

Id 

Perpendic.  down  from  0  Cygni 
Perpendic.  down  from  Dragon's 
head. 



Ibid. 

Id 

Ibid 

Id 

A  loud  report  in  S. 
lasting   3   sees., 
somewhat  differ- 
ent to  thunder: 
could  it  be  the 
bursting  of  a  me- 
teor? 

Ibid 

Id.    

Ibid. 

Id, 

Perpendic  down  to  1°  above 

Saturn, 
horn  y  Andromeda?  to  within 

r.andtoN.  of/3  ArietU. 

Ibid 

Id.    

Id 

Many  small  meteors 

Ibid..... 

Id. 

#- # 9 

nooeroa* 
Moved   through    Pegasus   to- 
wards the  zodiacalligbt  (which 
was  brilliant),  near  y  Pegasi, 
fading  near  the  edge  of  zo- 
diacal light;  on  bursting  sud- 
denly increased  considerably 
in  size  but  not  in  brightness. 

Ibid 

Id 

Ibid 

Id 

Ibid. 

Id.    ...., 

Downwards  at  an  angle  of  45°, 
passed  5°  S.  of  Orion's  belt. 
This  meteor,  when  first  seen, 
was  £ree*,  then  changed  to 
orange,  and   then    to   red. 
These  changes   took   place 
suddenly  without  altering  the 
siae  of  the  meteor. 

Paased   through    Saturn,   fell 
down  at  an  angle  of  50°  to- 
ward* W. 

Perpendic.  down  in  Cassiopeia. 

Horizontally  towards  N.,  passed 

Down   towards   N.W.,  passed 
1    through  Gemini, 
horn  m  Corona,  passing  5°  be- 
I   low  Arcturua.    Like  a  spark. 
I  Apparently  very  low. 

Ibid 

Id.    

Ibid 

Id 

Ibid. 

Id 

Ibid 

Id 

Ibid. 

Id 

Ibid 

Id 

60  REPORT — 1856. 

APPENDIX. 

No.  1. — Extract  from  Prof.  C.  P.  Smyth's  communication.  (Meteor,  Dec. 
11,  1855.) 

"  It  was  apparently  below  the  clouds,  for  they  were  thick  and  compact 
cirrostrati  in  all  that  part  of  the  sky,  shutting  out  all  the  stars  and  reflecting 
the  glare  of  distant  iron-works;  and  the  meteor  showed  no  symptoms  of  shining 
through  the  cloudy  medium,  for  it  was  well*  defined.  The  clouds  were  such 
as  have  an  altitude  of  four  to  five  miles  attributed  to  them,  and  have  a  very 
scattering  effect  on  rays  of  light  passing  through  them,  and  must  have  been 
composed  of  frozen  particles  ;  one  or  two  stars  were  hazily  seen  through  the 
clouds  in  the  S.  and  S.W." 

No.  2.— Meteor,  Jan.  7,  1856. 

"  To  the  Editor  of  the  Kentish  Gazette. 

«  Sir, — This  evening,  at  a  quarter  before  five  o'clock,  being  at  St  Thomas's 
Hill,  near  Canterbury,  I  was  struck  by  what  appeared  a  rocket  in  brilliancy, 
but  with  sparks  more  compacted  than  usual.  I  ran  to  a  position  where  no 
trees  intercepted  my  sight,  and  was  astonished  to  find  a  bright  vertical  line — 
[to  appearance  about  6  ft.  long  and  2  in.  wide]  * — in  the  south,  immediately 
under  Saturn. 

"  There  was  no  cloud  near  it,  or  indeed,  on  the  whole  hemisphere  at  the 
time.  Its  brilliancy  exceeded  that  of  the  planet,  and  it  seemed  to  emit  light 
in  the  manner  of  a  gilded  snake. 

"  It  continued  about  five  minutes  with  this  aspect,  when  its  form  began  to 
change,  and  showed  a  bold  curve  in  its  centre,  with  a  deflection  at  each  ex- 
tremity ;  at  this  time,  a  bright,  waving,  thread-like  tail  became  visible,  and 
very  soon  after  a  similar  vermiform  appearance  in  the  opposite  direction  was 
to  be  seen  at  the  top.  As  the  body,  so  to  speak,  curved,  so  it  appeared  to 
become  broader,  and  in  about  10  minutes  the  general  direction  was  changed, 
for  it  had  lost  its  vertical  direction,  and  was  just  acquiring  a  horizontal  one. 

"  It  was  not  till  this  time  that  its  nature  could  be  defined ;  but  now  it 
showed  that  it  was  a  thin  cloud,  and  it  finally  passed  away  without  leaving 
a  trace  behind. 

"  I  am,  Sir,  yours  truly, 
7th  January,  1856.  "  William  Masters." 

No.  3. — Diagram  of  meteor,  January  7, 1855,  accompanying  Mr.  Rowcll's 
letter. 


No.  4.— Extract  of  a  letter  from  Mrs.  Smyth. 

«  January  1855. 

"  On  Monday  the  7th  instant,  as  I  was  returning  homeward  from  the 
northward  with  a  friend  about  a  quarter  before  five  o'clock  p.m.,  my  friend 
suddenly  exclaimed, '  There  is  a  rocket !'  pointing  to  the  southward  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  Chiltern  Hills.  She  saw  it  explode  at  the  lower  end  of  a  long 
and  rather  slanting  fiery  train. 

*  The  part  in  brackets  is  given  as  communicated. 


A  CATALOGUE  OP  OBSERVATIONS  OF  LUMINOUS  METEORS.      61 

u  The  sky  being  very  clear,  it  was  still  bright  day-light.  Supposing  it  only 
a  rocket,  although  a  gigantic  one,  we  resumed  our  conversation,  but  the  sta- 
tionary character  of  the  train  again  attracted  our  attention,  though  we  ascribed 
it  chiefly  to  the  stillness  of  the  air,  or  not  quite  so  oblique.  After 
upwards  of  five  minutes  it  gradually  became  less  dense,  as  if  the 
fiery  flakes  or  atoms  receded  from  each  other.  Then  it  gradually 
assumed  the  appearance  of  a  series  of  very  bright  small  clouds 
at  sun-Bet,  only  the  brightest  side  was  turned  to  the  eastward. 
Elevation  of  the  phenomenon  above  the  horizon  at  first  about 
35°.  Length  of  the  train  about  6°.  When  the  train  became  dis- 
membered it  seemed  to  have  risen  higher  in  the  atmosphere,  by 
some  10°. 

I  regret  much  from  the  wrong  impression,  that  I  did  not  take 
more  accurate  notes  of  this  very  bright  meteor,  as  it  proved  to  be. 

No.  5. — Extract,  of  a  note  from  Mr.  Lowe. 

"  I  beg  to  enclose  you  sketches  and  description  of  the  remarkable  meteor 
(No.  10  of  the  foregoing  Catalogue)  which  was  seen  here  on  the  19th  of  De- 
cember 1855,  at  6b  13m  a.m. 


Fig.  1. 


u  The  meteor  was  first  seen  in  N.N.W.,  moving  towards  the  W.  Fig.  1 
represents  the  appearance  when  at  the  brightest,  at  which  time  it  more  closely 
resembled  a  brilliant  flash  of  lightning  than  a  meteor  ;  the  light,  for  the  mo- 
ment it  lasted,  equaling  that  of  day.  When  first  seen  it  was  not  far  distant 
from  the  position  of  H  17  Camelopardi,  and  moving  downwards  to  midway  be- 
tween Capella  and  p  Persei.  The  size  was  about  that  of  the  apparent  diameter 
of  the  moon.  There  was  no  noise  of  explosion  heard.  After  the  meteor 
itself  had  vanished,  a  belt  of  light,  similar  to  that  of  a  comet's  tail,  was  visible 
along  the  whole  path  of  the  meteor ;  this  gradually  became  less  bright,  and 
after  a  short  time  the  lower  portion  was  curved  towards  the  east.  Fig.  2 
shows  its  first  appearance,  and  fig.  3  when  curved ;  later  it  assumed  the  form 
of  fig.  4,  and  afterwards  of  fig.  5  ;  when  it  nearly  approached  that  of  a  cir- 
cular band  ;  the  upper  portion  never  moved  its  position  in  the  heavens.  Fi- 
nally, on  breaking  up  the  base  of  the  circle  disappeared  first.  It  was  visible 
fully  ten  minutes.  A  falling  star  of  about  the  1st  magnitude  crossed  over 
the  band  horizontally  from  W.  to  £.,  starting  near  Capella  and  moving 
towards  e  Cassiopeise. 

"  The  night  was  cloudless  with  a  cutting  E.S.E.  wind. 

"  E.  J.  Lowe." 

No.  6. — Extract  of  a  note  from  Mr.  Lowe. 

11  Observatory,  Beeston  near  Nottingham, 
July  25,  1856. 
"  From  the  appearances  presented  in  the  several  large  meteors  seen  at  the 
tad  of  last  and  at  the  beginning  of  this  year,  it  appears  evident  to  me  that 


69  report — 1856. 

these  bodies  are  not  self-luminous.  The  light  seems  to  be  owing  to  the  i 
teor,  instead  of  the  light  of  the  meteor ;  probably  the  great  speed  causes  a  pe- 
ouliar  property  of  the  upper  regions  to  ignite,  at  the  instant  of  ignition  being 
an  intense  blaze,  aud  then  subsiding  into  a  phosphorescent  flame,  which  may 
linger  for  a  length  of  time  and  be  wafted  along  by  currents  of  air,  as  was  the 
case  in  several  instances.  In  the  case  of  the  meteor  of  Dec.  19, 1855,  it  moved 
over  18£-°  in  less  than  a  second  of  time ;  it  cannot  therefore  be  supposed  that 
the  meteor  itself  could  be  within  5°  of  this  path  10  minutes  afterwards.  Now 
if  we  suppose  the  meteor  burst  at  this  point  (which  to  me  seems  improbable), 
it  must  have  burst  in  a  medium  where  light  could  shine,  and  if  so  it  is  as  easy 
to  suppose  some  substance  should  be  ignited,  as  the  meteor  itself  should  blaze. 
The  intense  brightness  is  too  great  for  reflected  lighL  «  e  J  Lowe  " 


Fig.  3.  Fig.  4.  •  Fig.  5. 


Photochemical  Researches.    By  Professor  Bunsen,  of  Heidelberg, 
and  Dr.  Henry  E.  Roscoe,  qf  London. 

We  had  the  honour  of  laying  before  the  Chemical  Section  of  the  British 
Association  at  the  Glasgow  Meeting,  a  short  account  of  a  series  of  experi- 
ments which  we  had  undertaken  with  the  view  of  becoming  more  nearly 
acquainted  with  the  laws  which  regulate  the  chemical  action  of  light,  and  of 
obtaining,  if  possible,  a  measure  for  this  action. 

These  experiments,  the  continuation  of  which  has  been  assisted  by  a 
grant  from  the  Association,  have  been  extended  during  the  present  summer 
months,  and  we  beg  to  lay  before  the  meeting,  in  a  short  report,  the  chief 
results  as  yet  obtained. 

The  method  employed  by  us  for  measuring  the  chemical  action  of  light  is 
founded  upon  the  well-known  fact  that  chlorine  and  hydrogen  combine  when 
exposed  to  light  The  employment  of  this  reaction  as  a  measure  of  the 
chemical  action  of  light  was  proposed  and  practically  carried  out  by  Dr. 
Draper  of  New  York  in  1844,  to  whom  belongs  the  great  credit  of  first 
having  attempted  to  obtain  a  measure  for  this  action.  A  number  of  experi- 
ments instituted  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument 
proposed  by  Draper,  assured  us,  however,  that  not  only  for  observations 
extending  over  a  Considerable  period  of  time,  but  even  for  those  of  short 
duration  the  indications  of  the  instrument  were  not  reliable.  The  possibility 
of  obtaining  exact  photonietrical  results  with  a  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hy- 
drogen, depends  upon  the  fulfilment  of  various  conditions  which  in  Draper's 
tithonometer  have  not  been  regarded.  Of  these  conditions  the  two  most 
essential  are — 

1.  The  constant  composition  and  purity  of  the  gaseous  mixture. 

2.  Constant  pressure  exerted  upon  the  gas. 

It  is  easy  to  show  from  the  laws  of  gas  absorption  that  the  method  em* 


PHOTOCHEMICAL  Bl  SEARCHES.  6S 

ployed  by  Draper  for  evolving  the  sensitive  gas  never  could  have  furnished 
it  of  constant  composition.  * 

Draper's  instrument  consists  of  a  siphon  tube,  of  which  one  limb  is  short 
and  closed,  and  the  other  longer,  narrow  and  open  at  top.  The  long  limb  is 
famished  with  a  scale,  the  shorter  one  has  two  platinum  wires  melted  into 
the  glass  near  the  bend.  The  whole  of  the  short,  and  part  of  the  long  limb, 
is  filled  with  hydrochloric  acid  saturated  with  chlorine,  and  by  means  of  an 
electric  current  the  acid  can  be  decomposed  and  the  gases  collected  in  the 
short  limb.  According  to  Draper  no  gaseous  chlorine  is  evolved  during  the 
electrolysis  of  hydrochloric  acid ;  the  hydrogen,  however,  set  free  at  the 
negative  pole  passing  through  the  liquid  displaces  some  of  the  chlorine  held 
in  solution,  and  thus  a  sensitive  gas  is  obtained  and  collected  in  the  shorter 
siphon  limb.  The  composition  of  this  gas  cannot,  however,  be  constant,  for 
according  to  the  law  of  gas  absorption,  when  a  mixture  of  gases  is  collected 
over  water,  the  free  gas  cannot  possess  a  fixed  composition  before  a  certain 
relation  between  the  volumes  of  the  dissolved  gases  has  been  attained.  Until 
this  equilibrium  baa  ensued,  a  continuous  interchange  between  the  volumes 
of  free  and  dissolved  gases  must  take  place,  and  in  the  case  of  the  tithono- 
meter  this  equilibrium  is  not  even  approached.  Another  more  considerable 
source  of  error  in  Draper's  instrument  lies  in  the  difference  of  pressure  to 
which  the  gas  is  subjected  during  the  experiments,  arising  from  the  gradual 
fell  of  the  liquid  in  the  longer  limb  in  proportion  as  the  sensitive  gas  is 
acted  upon  by  the  light 

Having  assured  ourselves  that  the  indications  of  the  tithonometer  cannot  be 
relied  on,  the  necessity  of  obtaining  an  instrument  in  which  the  foregoing 
and  many  other  essential  conditions  are  fulfilled,  became  apparent  The 
first  object  therefore  was  to  obtain  a  gas  consisting  of  equal  volumes  of 
chlorine  and  hydrogen  of  constant  composition.  This  object  we  attained 
(contrary  to  Draper's  express  statement)  by  the  electrolysis  of  aqueous 
hydrochloric  acid.  Exact  volumetric  analysis  convinced  us  that  as  soon  as 
the  acid  is  saturated  with  the  two  gases,  in  accordance  with  the  laws  of  ab- 
sorption, the  evolved  gas  consists  exactly  of  equal  volumes  of  chlorine  and 
hydrogen,  unaccompanied  by  oxides  of  chlorine,  or  hydrogen  or  other  im- 
parities. After  many  fruitless  attempts,  we  have  at  length  constructed  an 
apparatus  in  which  the  second,  and  all  other  required  conditions  are  satisfied, 
and  by  means  of  which  we  have  been  enabled  not  only  to  obtain  a  relative, 
but  even  an  absolute  measure  for  the  chemical  action  of  light 

This  apparatus,  represented  in  PL  III.,  is  constructed  entirely  of  glass, 
and  consists  essentially  of  four  parts :  firstly,  a  tube  (a)  containing  carbon 
or  platinum  poles  fastened  on  platinum  wires  melted  through  the  glass, 
■erring  for  the  electrolytic  decomposition  of  the  aqueous  hydrochloric  add ; 
secondly,  a  set  of  bulbs  for  washing  the  gas,  furnished  with  a  glass  stopcock 
for  shutting  off  the  supply  of  gas ;  thirdly,  a  small  flattened  glass  bulb  (c) 
containing  water,  in  which  the  gas  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  light;  and 
fourthly,  a  capillary  tube  (d)  furnished  with  a  millimetre  scale,  on  which  the 
diminution  of  volume  caused  by  the  absorption  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  is 
accurately  observed  by  the  advancing  column  of  water.  Each  of  these 
pieces  U  fitted  air-tight  into  its  place  by  ground-glass  joints,  so  that  no 
caoutchouc  or  other  organic  substance  comes  in  contact  with  the  sensitive  gas. 

In  this  arrangement  the  pressure  is  rendered  constant  throughout  the 
whole  apparatus  by  raising  or  depressing  the  exit  tube  dipping  into  the 
tattle  (e)  filled  with  water,  and  by  means  of  the  horizontal  absorption  tube 
00  the  pressures  before  and  after  the  experiment  do  not  differ  by  two  milli- 
metres of  water. 


64  REPORT— 1856. 

A  series  of  experiments  conducted  with  lamp-light  for  the  purpose  of 
testing  the  accuracy  of  the  instrument,  gave  the  following  results : — 

As  soon  as  the  atmospheric  air  has  been  completely  expelled  from  the  ap- 
paratus by  the  electrolytic  gas,  and  the  equilibrium  between  the  amounts  qf 
gas  absorbed  by  the  water,  and  the  free  gas  established,  an  action  is  observed 
on  exposing  the  gas  to  the  light.  This  action,  however,  does  not  commence 
immediately  on  exposure  to  the  light ;  a  short  time  elapses  before  the  absorp- 
tion of  the  water  in  the  tube  (d)  begins,  but  this  soon  takes  place,  showing 
that  the  combination  effected  by  the  light  in  the  vessel  fc)  has  commenced. 
This  absorption  becomes  gradually  quicker  until  a  certain  rapidity  ft  at- 
tained, after  which  the  action  continues  regular  as  long  as  the  source  of 
light  remains  constant.  This  peculiar  phenomenon,  to  which  we  have  given 
the  name  of  Photochemical  Induction,  is  one  of  great  interest  and  import- 
ance, and  as  the  study  of  this  branch  of  the  subject  has  occupied  our  par- 
ticular attentiou,  the  results  obtained  will  be  subsequently  detailed. 

On  passing  more  gas  through  the  apparatus  and  again  isolating  the 
mixture,  the  same  phenomenon  is  observed,  with  the  difference,  that  the 
constant  action  is  larger  than  in  the  former  case,  that  is,  the  gaseous  mixture 
has  become  more  sensitive.  In  this  way,  by  continuing  to  lead  the  gas 
evolved  from  successive  portions  of  hydrochloric  acid  through  the  apparatus, 
the  action  brought  about  by  a  gas  flame  of  the  same  dimensions  increases 
regularly,  until,  after  having  continued  the  operation  for  several  (from  12  to 
18)  hours,  the  amount  of  action  effected  by  the  flame  remains  constant 
The  apparatus  has  then  attained  its  maximum  degree  of  sensibility,  and,  as 
we  shall  show,  always  gives  comparable  results.  Before  this  mawnum 
action  is  attained,  upwards  of  5000  cub.  cent,  of  gas  must  be  passed  through 
the  apparatus,  which  contains  only  about  2  cub.  cent  of  water  requiring 
saturation.  Observations  made  with  the  apparatus  thus  prepared,  showed 
that  the  light  from  a  gas  lamp  concentrated  by  a  lens  produced  always 
exactly  the  same  amount  of  action  on  various  days  and  with  fresh  gaseous 
mixtures  evolved  from  different  portions  of  acid.  These  experiments  sufficed 
to  show  that  our  apparatus  was  capable  of  produciug  reliable  and  accurate 
results.  We  next  determined  the  limits  of  concentration  between  which  the 
hydrochloric  acid  can  be  used,  and  experiment  showed  that  the  amount  of  an- 
hydrous acid  contained  in  solution  must  not  diminish  to  20  per  cent,  as  the  gas 
evolved  from  an  acid  of  that  concentration  no  longer  gives  the  maximum  action. 

Having  assured  ourselves  that  the  apparatus  gave,  under  these  circum- 
stances, comparable  results,  it  became  necessary  to  examine  whether  the 
heat  evolved  from  the  combination  of  the  gases,  and  more  especially  the 
heat  radiated  from  the  source  of  light,  had  any  appreciable  effect  upon  the 
indications.  By  comparing  the  relative  volumes  of  the  vessel,  in  which  the 
insolation  takes  place,  and  the  absorption  tube,  it  was  found  that  a  rise  of 
less  than  0°*04  Cent  in  the'  mass  of  the  gas  would  cause  an  expansion  of 
1  millimetre  on  the  absorption  tube.  Hence  the  apparatus  is  not  only  a 
photometer,  but  also  a  very  delicate  air-thermometer.  In  order  to  prevent 
any  of  the  rays  of  radiant  heat  from  expanding  the  gas,  the  insolation- vessel 
was  placed  behind  a  double  metallic  screen  furnished  with  a  metallic  cap 
fitting  over  the  vessel.  The  rays  of  light  fell  on  the  gas  through  an  opening 
in  the  screen  filled  by  a  layer  of  water  contained  between  two  plate-glass 
surfaces.  By  filling  the  apparatus  with  atmospheric  air,  it  was  proved  that 
with  this  arrangement  the  source  of  light  may  be  placed  within  a  few  inches 
of  the  gaseous  mixture,  without  the  radiant  heat  interfering  in  the  least  with 
the  indications.  The  sources  of  exterior  error  arising  from  radiant  heat 
having  been  thus  removed,  it  only  remained  to  determine  whether  the  heat 


PHOTOCHEMICAL  RESEARCHES.  65 

evolved  from  the  slow  combustion  of  the  chlorine  and  hydrogen  exerted  any 
perceptible  action  upon  the  instrument 

On  suddenly  cutting  off  the  light  from  the  sensitive  gas,  the  action  is 
found  not  to  cease  immediately.  This  absorption,  after  the  exclusion  of  the 
light,  may  be  owing  to  three  causes. 

1.  The  combination  of  the  gases  may  continue  for  a  short  time  after  the 
removal  of  the  light 

2.  The  hydrochloric  acid  formed  may  not  be  instantaneously  removed  by 
solution  in  the  water. 

3.  The  decrease  of  volume  may  be  produced  from  the  whole  gas  cooling 
down,  owing  to  the  heat  of  combustion  no  longer  being  added  to  it. 

Experiments  undertaken  to  determine  which  of  these  three  suppositions 
was  true,  showed  that  this  contraction  could  be  almost  completely  accounted 
for,  from  the  decrease  of  temperature  of  the  gas,  proving  therefore  that  the 
first  two  assumptions  were  groundless.  This  contraction  is  so  small  that  it 
does  not  in  the  least  degree  interfere  with  the  accuracy  of  the  observation. 

In  order  still  more  fully  to  test  our  apparatus,  an  arrangement  was  made 
by  means  of  which  a  small  jet  of  coal-gas  could  be  brought  within  different 
measured  distances  of  the  sensitive  mixture,  and  the  amount  of  the  decom- 
position effected  measured.  The  results  thus  obtained  showed  most  exactly 
that  the  chemical  action  varied  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  from 
the  source  of  light,  proving  that  the  chemical  rays  obey  the  same  general 
law  as  the  visible  rays,  and  affording  another  evidence  of  the  accuracy  of 
the  ..results  obtained  by  this  instrument.  Observations  made  with  this  ar- 
rangement also  showed  that  exactly  the  same  action  was  effected  by  the 
flame,  placed  at  the  same  distance,  at  different  times  extending  over  a  period 
of  one  month.  The  amounts  of  action  effected  by  the  same  flame  on  various 
days  from  the  12th  toHhe  26th  of  June,  were  13-99,  13-83,  13-76,  13*84. 

Photochemical  Induction. 

Chemical  affinity,  or  the  force  which  causes  different  bodies  to  unite  and 
form  chemical  compounds,  is  in  every  particular  case  a  certain  definitive, 
unalterable  quantity,  which  like  all  other  forces  (and  matter  itself)  can 
neither  be  created  nor  destroyed.  Hence  it  is  incorrect  to  say  that,  under 
certain  circumstances,  a  body  attains  an  affinity  which  under  other  circum- 
stances it  loses.  All  that  can  be  said  in  such  a  case  is,  that  the  body  at  one 
time  follows  the  chemical  attraction,  and  at  another  time  is  retarded  by 
forces  acting  in  an  opposite  direction.  This  opposite  action  may  be  con- 
ceived to  be  a  resistance  similar  to  that  occurring  in  friction,  or  in  the 
passage  of  electricity  through  conductors.  This  resistance  is  overcome 
when  we  facilitate  the  formation  of  a  precipitate  by  agitation,  or  when  che- 
Snical  action  is  brought  about  by  increase  of  temperature,  catalytic  action, 
or  insolation.  The  existence  of  such  a  resistance  presupposes  a  certain  com- 
bining power,  which  may  be  measured  by  the  amount  of  combination  caused 
by  the  unit  of  force  in  the  unit  space  of  time. 

The  act  by  which  this  resistance  is  overcome,  and  the  state  reached  in 
which  combination  takes  place,  we  have  called  Chemical  Induction.  The 
laws  which  regulate  the  action  of  chemical  affinity,  when  this  resistance  is 
fully  eliminated,  are  as  yet  entirely  unknown  to  us ;  and  although  the  solution 
of  this,  the  most  important  problem  in  our  science,  appears  at  present  so  far 
removed,  it  is  at  least  desirable  that  facts  should  be  found  which  may  form 
starting-points  in  this  new  field  of  research.  The  interesting  relations  in 
which  the  phenomena  of  photochemical  induction  stand  to  these  questions, 
have  induced  us  to  examine  this  part  of  the  subject  with  particular  attention. 

1856.  f 


66  REPORT — 1856. 

The  circumstance  that  the  combination  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  does 
not  take  place  immediately  on  exposure  to  the  light,  was  observed  by  Draper 
in  1844.  This  was  explained  by  him  on  the  supposition  that  the  chlorine, 
by  exposure  to  the  light,  was  transformed  into  a  permanent  allotropic  modi- 
fication which  differed  from  ordinary  chlorine  by  possessing  greater  com- 
bining power.  We  have  convinced  ourselves  that  this  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon  is  incorrect,  and  have  proved  that  it  is  connected  with  actions 
of  a  very  peculiar  nature  which  may  be  classed  together  under  the  term  of 
Chemical  Induction. 

A  number  of  experiments  made  with  both  diffuse  solar  and  lamp-light, 
with  different  mixtures  and  various  masses  of  sensitive  gas  for  the  purpose 
of  determining  the  inductive  action,  showed  that  the  times  which  elapse  until 
the  action  begins,  and  until  the  maximum  action  is  attained,  are  very  different 
We  therefore  next  proceeded  to  examine  the  various  causes  which  might 
influence  the  amount  of  the  induction.  First,  the  relation  between  the 
inductive  action  and  the  mass  of  the  gas ;  secondly,  the  effect  produced  on, 
the  inductive  action  by  variation  of  the  amount  of  light,  with  a  constant 
volume  of  gas;  thirdly,  the  effect  produced  on  the  inductive  action  by 
allowing  the  gas  to  remain  in  the  dark ;  and  fourthly,  the  action  of  small 
quantities  of  foreign  gases  upon  the  induction. 

Experiments  carried  on  with  the  view  of  answering  the  first  of  these 
questions,  showed  that  the  inductive  action,  or  the  transition  of  the  gas  from 
the  inactive  to  the  active  state,  was  retarded  by  increase  of  the  mass  of  gas. 
A  larger  volume  of  gas  had  to  be  insolated  for  a  longer  time  than  a  smaller 
volume  before  the  maximum  action  ensued. 

The  influence  of  the  amount  of  light  on  the  rate  of  the  inductive  action 
was  proved  to  be  very  great  The  time  required  for  induction  diminished 
with  increase  of  the  amount  of  light,  and  in  a  quicker  proportion  than  the 
increase  of  light 

On  allowing  a  sensitive  mixture,  which  had  already  been  insolated,  and 
had  attained  its  maximum  action,  to  stand  for  some  time  in  the  dark,  it  was 
found  that  upon  readmission  of  light  the  action  did  not  begin  again  immedi- 
ately, but  a  new  induction  was  necessary  before  the  maximum  action  was 
attained.  Hence  the  change  effected  upon  the  gas  by  the  light  is  not  a  per* 
manent  one,  for  after  the  light  is  withdrawn,  the  gas  returns  to  its  original 
inactive  state,  and  requires  as  long  an  insolation  before  the  maximum  action 
is  again  reached  as  in  the  case  with  the  original  gas.  This  fact  is  of  itself 
sufficient  to  disprove  Draper's  statement  that  this  active  condition  of  the  gas 
when  once  brought  about  by  the  action  of  light  is  permanent  We  have 
also  convinced  ourselves  by  experiment,  that  the  supposition  of  a  non-per- 
manent allotropic  modification  of  either  gas  as  an  explanation  of  this  phav 
nomenon  is  untenable.  The  gases  evolved  by  the  electrolysis  of  hydrochloric 
acid  were  collected  separately,  and  after  each  gas  had  separately  traversed  a 
tube  which  could  be  exposed  to  direct  solar  rays,  the  gases  were  allowed  to 
mix,  and  were  then  passed  into  the  apparatus.  On  examining  the  action  of 
lamp-light  on  the  mixture,  no  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  the  action  could 
be  perceived  between  the  sensitive  gas,  the  constituents  of  which  had  been 
separately  exposed  to  direct  sunlight,  and  that  which  had  not  been  previously 
insolated.  From  these  experiments  it  is  seen  that  the  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon  of  photochemical  induction  is  not  to  be  sought  in  any 
allotropic  modification  of  either  gas. 

The  effect  produced  by  the  presence  of  small  traces  of  foreign  gases  upon 
the  induction  is  very  remarkable.  We  have  found  that  the  sensibility  of 
the  gaseous  mixture  depends  entirely  upon  the  absence  of  every  trace  of 


PHOTOCHEMICAL  RBIBARCHB8.  67 

foreign  gas.  The  retarding  action  of  oxygen  upon  the  mixture  is  the  most 
marked ;  the  addition  of  one  per  cent,  of  this  gas  to  the  chlorine  and  hydro- 
gen mixture  reduced  the  amount  of  action  to  y^tb ;  and  the  presence  of  a 
mere  trace  of  this  gas  (probably  not  more  than  ririWth  Per  cei*t)  diminished 
the  action  to  one  half  of  the  normal  amount  Excess  of  either  chlorine  or 
hydrogen  was  found  to  act  in  the  same  manner,  but  not  to  such  a  remarkable 
extent.  This  retarding  action  of  oxygen  accounts  for  the  very  great  length 
of  time  which  it  is  necessary  to  lead  the  gas  through  the  apparatus  before 
the  maximum  action  is  attained. 

The  diminution  of  the  sensibility  of  the  chlorine  and  hydrogen  mixture 
when  foreign  gases  are  present,  gives  a  very  accurate  measure  of  the  cata- 
lytic action  effected  by  such  gases. 

The  simple  relations  which  exist  between  the  amount  of  hydrochloric  acid 

formed  by  the  action  of  the  light  and  the  time  of  exposure,  and  amount  of 

light,  were  first  observed  by  Draper.     We  have  confirmed  his  results  in  this 

*  respect,  and  have  proved  that  both  laws  hold  good  for  diffuse  solar  as  well 

m  for  lamp-light.    The  relations  are  the  following : — 

1.  The  amount  of  chemical  action  effected  by  a  constant  source  of  light 
»  directly  proportional  to  the  time  of  exposure. 

-  2.  The  amount  of  chemical  action  effected  by  the  light  in  equal  times,  is 
directly  proportional  to  the  amount  of  light 

(These  laws  axe  of  course  only  applicable  when  the  phenomena  of  induction 
have  been  fully  eliminated.)  A  third  relation  which  we  have  established  is, 
that  the  amount  of  chemical  action  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  di- 
stance between  the  source  of  light  and  the  sensitive  mixture. 

The  experimental  difficulties  which  accompany  the  examination  of  the 
relations  existing  between  the  amount  of  action  and  the  mass  of  the  gas,  are 
of  so  peculiar  and  considerable  a  nature,  that  although  we  have  been  occu- 
pied for  more  than  a  month  upon  this  branch  of  the  subject*  we  have  not  as 
yet  succeeded  in  arriving  at  the  law  which  regulates  the  action.  We  have, 
however,  already  proved  that  after  the  light  has  passed  through  a  certain 
depth  of  the  gas,  it  is  no  longer  capable  of  causing  a  combination  to  take 
place ;  and  we  have  further  proved  that  the  depth  at  which  the  light  ceases 
to  act  upon  the  mixture  is  very  different  for  light  from  various  sources. 
Differences  in  this  respect  have  not  only  been  found  in  light  from  different 
sources,  but  the  diffuse  solar  light  reflected  from  a  perfectly  cloudless  sky  is 
found  to  differ,  not  only  in  the  quantity,  but  also  in  the  quality  of  the  chemi- 
cal rays  according  to  the  sun's  altitude.  These  interesting  observations  are 
not  complete,  but  the  results  as  yet  obtained  give  promise  of  further  import- 
ant relations  being  established  between  the  nature  and  amount  of  the 
chemical  rays  falling  upon  the  earth's  surface  at  various  periods  of  the  day. 

Reduction  of  the  Chemical  Action  of  Light  to  an  Absolute  Measure. 

The  difficulty  of  obtaining  any  constant  terrestrial  source  of  light  threw 
great  obstacles  in  the  way  of  reducing  the  chemical  action  of  light  to  an  * 
absolute  measure.  The  normal  source  of  light  which  we  have  chosen  for 
the  calibration  of  our  instrument  (fig.  1),  is  a  flame  of  pure  carbonic  oxide  gas 
streaming  from  a  large  (3  millims  in  diameter)  platinum  burner,  and  issuing 
under  a  constant  pressure  of  half  a  millimetre  of  water.  By  measuring  the 
volumes  of  gas  burned  by  different-sized  flames  and  observing  the  chemical 
action  produced,  it  was  found  that  even  with  the  homogenous  flame  of  carbonic 
oxide,  the  chemical  action  increases  in  a  greater  ratio  than  the  volume  of 
gas  burned.    This  relation  between  the  action  produced  and  the  volume  of 

f2 


68  report — 1856. 

gas  burned,  we  have  determined  by  accurate  experiment,  so  that  between 
certain  limits  we  can  calculate  the  amount  of  action  produced  by  burning 
the  unit  volume  of  gas  issuing  at  a  given  rate.  We  call  the  unit  amount  of 
action  for  any  instrument  that  produced  by  burning  a  cubic  millimetre  of 
carbonic  oxide  at  the  distance  of  one  millimetre  from  the  sensitive  gas,  issuing 
under  the  above-mentioned  circumstances. 

The  interesting  relations  of  the  reflexion,  absorption,  and  polarization  of 
the  chemical  rays,  we  hope  to  have  the  honour  of  laying  before  the  Section 
on  a  future  occasion. 

Heidelberg,  August  5th,  1856. 


On  the  Trigonometry  of  the  Parabola,  and  tlie  Geometrical  Origin  of 
Logarithms.    By  the  Rev.  James  Booth,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.  fyc. 

[A  Communication  ordered  to  be  printed  among  the  Reports.] 

When  engaged,  some  years  ago,  in  researches  on  the  geometrical  properties 
of  elliptic  integrals,  the  results  of  which  appeared  in  two  memoirs  printed  in 
the  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1852  and  1854, 1  was  led  to  discuss  a  par- 
ticular case  of  a  cardinal  theorem  in  the  theory  of  elliptic  integrals.  Cer- 
tainly no  discovery  was  anticipated  in  matters  so  long  known  and  thoroughly 
investigated  as  the  theory  of  logarithms  and  the  properties  of  the  parabola. 
The  propositions  I  now  bring  before  the  Section  are,  I  believe,  entirely  new; 
and  as  they  open  a  field  of  research  in  a  department  of  geometrical  science 
studied  by  every  mathematician  in  the  course  of  his  reading,  I  thought  the 
discussion  of  them  might  not  prove  unacceptable  to  the  Mathematical  Section 
of  the  British  Association. 

Section  I. 

I.  Let  the  angles  w,  <p,  and  x»  which  we  shall  call  conjugate  amplitudes,  be 
connected  by  the  equation 

tanw=tan0secx+ tanxsec^ (1) 

Hence  »  is  such  a  function  of  <f>  and  x  &*  will  render 

tan[^,  x]=tan^secx+tanxsec0. 

We  must  adopt  some  appropriate  notation  to  represent  this  function.  Let 
the  function  [<f>,  x]  be  written  ^ -Lx»  80  th&t 

tan  (^ -*-  x)=  tan  <p  sec  x  + tan  X  sec  ♦■ 
This  equation  must  be  taken  as  the  definition  of  the  function  ^x* 
In  like  manner  we  may  represent  by  tan  (<p-rx)  the  expression 

tan  <f>  sec  \—  tan  x  sec  0. 
From  (1)  we  obtain 

secw=sec(0-Lx)==8ec08ecX"^  tan^>tanX (2) 

If  we  now  differentiate  the  equation 

tan  <*=  tan  <p  sec  x+  tan  x  sec  <py 

we  shall  have 

dut  dtb  d\ 

.  sec  «=  — T— .  sec  6  sec  v+  — <*-  tan  6  tan  v 

cos«  cos<p         r       *     cosx 


+  — £-r  tan  a  tan  v  +  — 2Lsec<6secv 
cos^       Y      *      cosx 


r  •   •   @) 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OP  THE  PARABOLA.  69 

Adding  these  expressions  together,  and  introducing  the  relation'  established 
in  (2),  we  find 

*^  =  JlL  +  J2L (5) 

cos«      CO8  0      coax 

This  is  the  differential  equation  which  connects  the  amplitudes  «,  fa  and  g. 
As  W|  fa  and  x  are  supposed  to  vanish  together,  we  shall  have  by  integration, 

f*L-.f^L.+  fjiL, (5) 

Jcosw      Jcos^^Jcosx 

or  in  the  more  compact  notation, 

fsecwtfosfsec^cfy+fsecxrfx*   •    •    •    •    •    00* 

Hence  if  •#,  fa  and  x  are  connected  by  the  relation'  assumed  in  (1),  we  shall 
have  the  simple  relation  between  the  integrals  expressed  in  (5). 

II.  If  in  (1)  we  make  the  following  imaginary  substitutions,  that  is  to 
•ay,  pat  V— 1  sin  a  for  tan^,  ^—1  sin  /3  for  tan  x>  ^— 1  sin  y  for  tan  w, 
eosa  for  sec 6,  cos/3  for  sec  x>  cos  y  for  sec  w,  and  change  -1-  into  +  and  -r 
into  — ,  we  shall  have  sin  y=  sin  (a  +/3)= sin  a  cos  /3  +  sin  fi  cos  a,  the  well* 
known  expression  for  the  sine  of  the  sum  of  two  arcs  of  a  circle. 

We  shall  show  presently  that  an  arc  of  a  parabola  measured  from  the 

vertex  may  be  expressed  by  the  integral  fsecflrffl,  0  being  the  angle  which  the 

normal  to  the  arc  at  its  other  extremity  makes  with  the  axis,  or  the  angle 
between  the  normals  drawn  to  the  arc  at  its  extremities. 

x  and  -r  may  be  called  logarithmic  plus  and  minus.  As  examples  of  the 
analogy  which  exists  between  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola  and  that  of 
the  circle,  the  following  expressions  in  parallel  columns  are  given ;  premising 
that  the  formulae  marked  by  corresponding  letters  may  be  derived  singly, 
one  from  the 'other,  by  the  help  of  the  preceding  imaginary  transformations* 

In  applying  the  imaginary  transformations,  or  while  tan  0  is  changed  into 
V— 1  sin  fa  sec  f  into  cos  fa  and  cot^  into  —  V— 1  cosec  fa  -»-  must  be 
changed  into  +,  and  -r  into  —  ;  as  also  C sec ^ty  into  0^— If. 

The  reader  who  has  not  proceeded  beyond  the  elements  of  trigonometry 
may  assume  the  fundamental  formula  as  proved.  He  will  find  little  else  that 
requires  more  than  a  knowledge  of  plane  trigonometry. 

*  The  relation  between  the  conjugate  amplitudes  <a,  0,  and  g,  was  originally  obtained  in 
tan  way.  In  the  theory  of  elliptic  integrals,  any  three  conjugate  amplitudes  are  connected 
by  the  equation  _____^__ 

cosw=co8  0co8x—  sinf  sinx^l— i8sin8w 

» a  called  the  modulus.    When  we  make  i-O,  we  get 

cob  w=  cos  ^  cob x—  sin ^  sin  x  or  »«^+x  m  the  trigonometry  of 
the  circle.  When  we  take  the  complement  of  0,  or  make  s'—l,  we  get 

8ectf«sec^secx+tan0tanx  or  w=^-»-x 
in  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola.    Whence,  as  above, 

tan  «  —  tan  ^  sec  x+  tan  %  sec  fa 

1 1  hardly  need  to  remind  the  advanced  reader,  that  this  is  the  imaginary  transformation 
by  which  we  are  enabled,  in  elliptic  functions  of  the  third  order,  to  pass  from  the  circular 
fcnn  to  the  logarithmic  form,  or  to  pass  from  the  properties  of  a  curve  described  on  the  sur- 
ges of  a  sphere  to  its  analogue  described  on  the  surface  of  a  paraboloid  of  revolution.  See 
the  author's  paper  "  On  the  Geometrical  Properties  of  Elliptic  Integrals,"  in  the  Philosphical 

i  for  1852,  pp.  862, 368,  and  for  1854,  p.  53. 


70 


RBFOBT~1856. 


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ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  fl 

Since       Bec(<p^<p)=aec?(l>+tAni<p9  mdtan(f^<p)=2t&n<p&ec<p, 

860  (tJmf)+ taa(^-A-^)=(sec  ^+  tan  <f)\ 
Again,  as 

sec  (f  ^<j>  -*-♦)=  sec  (^  -*-f)  sec  0+  tan  fa -*-«>)  tan  ^, 
and 

tan  (^-^^  J-^)=  tan  (^-«-^)  sec^+ sec  (^^^)  tan  ^, 
it  follows  that 

sec  (^  J-^-i.f)+  tan  faJ-s)  J-^)=(sec  <p+  tan  f)*, 
and  so  on  to  any  number  of  angles.    Hence 

scc(^-i-^-i-^...toii^)+tan(^-*-^-»-^...toii^)==(sec^+taji^)n.    (6) 
Introduce  into  the  last  expression  the  imaginary  transformation 

tan^=vdiain^, 
and  we  get  Demoivre's  imaginary  theorem  for  the  circle, 

coen^+V^Tsinn^fcoe^-f  V^lsin^}". 

This  is  a  particular  case  of  the  more  general  theorem 
sec(a-i-/3J-y-La«A-  &c)+tan(«^-»-y-1-8-1-  &c.) 

=(sec  a-f  tan  a)(sec  0+  tan  /3)(sec  y -f  tan  y)(sec  $+  tan  i)  &c* 

In  the  circle, 

l+tanft_      /i+8in2»  ,    . 

1-tanf      Vl-sin2*' W 

Accordingly,  in  the  parabola, 

l  +  ^,inf  =  V/l+^Ttan(^)  ...(«.) 
1  —  V^sinc*       v    l-V-ltanfa-Lc,)  v 

In  the  circle, 

x    .         2  sin  2d— sin  44  /..x 

tan»6  =  o  ■    2T .    *    TT? 0*) 

r      2sin2^+sinty  v     ' 

hence  in  the  parabola, 

sin»*=  2taD  (f^f)"*"1  ft  ^f  ^f) (BQ) 

r     2tanfa^)+tanfa^-^-»-0)  yHHJ 

In  the  circle, 

cos  2^= cos4  ^— sin4  ^> (co) 

hence  in  the  parabola, 

sec(^-«-0)=sec40— tan4^.      .....    (yy) 

In  the  circle, 

therefore  in  parabolic  trigonometry, 

sin'»-sin»x  =  ^^^tan^-rx) (») 

r  *  sec^sec'x 

In  the  circle, 

tan^=A/IE£S.         (ee) 

_^ Y      V  I-hcos20  K™' 

*  Hence        cos  («+/3+y+*+  &c.)+  ^^  am  («+ /3+r+J+  Ac) 

-(ees  «+  V^Tain  •)(cos/3+  a^II  od  /3)(cob  y+  ^~^l  sin  y)(cc*HV~l  ***)&* 


7$  REPORT— 1856. 

Accordingly,  in  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola, 

.    ,  /sec fa-1-*)— 1  /<k 

8in»=ain(»-x) (kk) 

tani//      sin(x— ^)* 

it  is  easily  shown  that  tan  r,  tan  x>  and  tan  ip  are  in  harmonic  progression. 
Hence  it  follows  in  parabolic  trigonometry,  that  if 

tanft^tan^TX^ («) 

tan\f/     tan(x-r^)' 

sin  f,  sin  x»  and  sin  yp  are  in  harmonic  progression. 

Let  w  be  conjugate  to  ^  and  <*,  while  w,  as  before,  is  conjugate  to  r 
and  x*    Then  we  shall  have 

tan  wstan  (0-LxJ"^)> 
or 

tan(#JLXJ_^):=tail#8ecX8ec^+tanX8ec^8ec^ 

+tani//8ec^8eex+tan^tanxtan^      ......    (w) 

sec  ($ -^x  "*"  ^)= 8ec  r*  8ec  X  8ec  ^+  8ec  ^  tan  x  tan  ip 

4-  sec  x  tan  \j/  tan  ^+ secip  tan  <p  tan  x- (/>) 

and 

8iD(^ya.j/)=8in+8inX+8in^+sip^8inX«"^>     .     .    /,) 
vr     a.     t/      i+gin^sin^+sin^sin^+sin^sinx 


whence  in  the  trigonometry  of  the  circle, 

sin  (0 + x+ 40 == s,n  r*  cos  X  cos  ^  +  8^n  X  cos  ^  cos  ^ 

+  sin  i// cos  ^  cos  x— sin  ^  sin  x  sin  i//. (p) 

cos  (^ + x+  4')==  C09  ^  cos  x  cos  ^—  cos  <f>  sin  x  8'n  ^ 

—  cos  x  sin  \//  sin  0—  cos  ^  sin  r  sin  x- (r) 

tan  (++,,+*)« tan  »  + tan  X+ tan  *-  tan  » tan  x  tan  ^      #    (g) 
vr     a,     r/     i_tanxtan^— tan>//tan0— tan^tanx 

We  have  here  a  remarkable  illustration  of  that  fertile  principle  of  duality 
which  may  be  developed  to  such  an  extent  in  every  department  of  pure  ma- 
thematical science. 

The  angle  $-*-<}>  may  be  called  the  duplicate  of  the  angle  f>  the  angle 
r-J-d>-J-r  the  triplicate,  and  the  angle  (^>-Lr  to  n  terms)  the  n-pUcate  of  the 
angle  r. 

The  reader  will  observe  that  in  this  paper  the  signs  -1-  and  -r  connect  the 
angular  magnitudes  of  the  parabola,  while  numerical  quantities  are  connected 
by  +  and—.  Thus  in  the  circle,  we  have  r  +  x  anc*  #+&  indifferently,  while 
in  the  parabola  we  must  use  the  notation  <p-^x  or  fTx>  bnt  <* +A  or  a— b9 
as  in  the  circle. 


ON  THB  TBIGONOXBTBY  OF  THB  PARABOLA. 


73 


Section  II. 

IV.  An  expression  for  the  length  of  a  curve  in  terms  of  a  perpendicular  p 
let  fall  from  a  fixed  point  on  a  tangent  to  it,  and  making  the  angle  0  with  a  line 
passing  through  the  given  point  or  pole,  is  found  in  most  elementary  works, 
namely  s=§pdd+L    In  the  following  figure, 

/>=ST,    0=VST,    *=PT. 

Fig.  1. 


Let  U(fB ,  0)  denote  the  length  of  the  arc  of  a  parabola  whose  parameter 
is  4m,  measured  from  the  vertex  to  a  point  at  which  the  tangent  to  the  arc 
is  inclined  to  the  ordinate  of  that  point  to  the  axis  by  the  angle  $.  When 
«=1,  the  symbol  becomes  11(0). 

Id  the  parabola  whose  equation  is  jf=4mx,  the  focus  S  is  taken  as  the 
pole,  and  therefore  p=msec  6 :  while  PT,  or  *=m  sec  0  tan  0. 

The  arc  of  a  parabola,  measured  from  the  vertex,  may  therefore  be  ex- 
pressed by  the  formula 

n(m .  0)=m  sec  0  tan  0+m  J  sec  0  dd. 

The  difference  between  the  arc  and  its  subtangent  t  may  be  called  the 
taageatkd  difference. 

For  brevity,  and  for  a  reason  which  will  presently  be  shown,  the  distance 
between  the  focus  and  the  vertex  of  a  parabola  will  be  called  its  modulus* 
Hence  the  parameter  of  a  parabola  is  equal  to  four  times  its  modulus. 

V.  Let  U(m . «),  U(m .  $>),  D(m .  x)  denote  three  parabolic  arcs  VD,  VB 
VC,  measured  from  the  vertex  V  of  the  parabola.  Let,  moreover,  *>,  <fa  and 
X  be  conjugate  amplitudes.    Then 


U(m .  w)=m  tan  «  sec  «+mf  sec  w  d» 
n(n» .  f)  =m  tan  <f>  sec  <f> +*»J  sec  ^  d<p 


(7) 

n(w .  x)=m  ton  x 8ec  x+mJ 8ec  x  ^x 

Whence,  since  fsecwrfwss  fsec^efy  +  f  sec  x<*x»  because  «,  0,  and  \  are 
conjugate  amplitudes,  we  get,  after  some  reductions, 

ll(m.«*)— n(m.^)— n(t».x)=2mtan«trfn^tanx«    •    »    (8) 


?4  BHPOBT— 1856. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  show  that 

tan  «  sec  w— tan  ^  sec  ^— tan  x  Becx8^  tan  m  tan  ^  tan  x* 
Substitute  for  tan«,  sec*>,  their  values  given  in  (1)  and  (2).    Write 
(sec^— tan*^)  and  (sec9x— tan2x)  for  1,  the  coefficient  of  tan  ^  sec  ^  and 
tan  x  sec  x  i^  the  preceding  expression,  and  we  shall  obtain  the  foregoing 
result 

VI.  Let  y,  y,  y"  be  the  ordinates  on  the  axis  of  the  parabola  of  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  arcs  TL(m . »),  U(m  •  ^),  and  U(m .  x)-    Then  y=2m  tan  w, 

y=2mtan^  yf/=2wtanx.   Therefore  2m  tan  *  tan  ^  tan  x  =  2?Ol. 

We  have  therefore  the  following  theorem : — 

The  algebraic  sum  of  the  three  conjugate  arcs  of  a  parabola,  measured 
from  the  vertex,  is  equal  to  the  product  of' the  ordinates  of  their  extremities 
divided  by  the  square  of  the  semiparameter. 

To  exemplify  the  preceding  theorem.    Let 

1  V5 

tanw=2,        tan^=7p        tanx=  -§-* 

then  ,—  */"K  3 

sec«=v5,    sec^=— >    B^X^-g-J 

and  these  values  satisfy  the  fundamental  equation  of  condition, 

tan  w=  tan  ^  sec  x+ tan  xsec  ^. 
Now 

n(m.to)=sm8V^+mlog(2+ V^) 

n(..f)>.^+-^(l^l) 

U(m.^m^m^^±p). 
Hence,  since  log  (2+  V^)=  log(t±^)  +  log  (^y^)>  we  shall  hare 

n(m,«)-n(»^)-n(m.x)=»v1;  ....  (9) 

and  m  V^5=2m  tan  « tan  ^  tan  x* 

VII.  If  we  call  an  arc  measured  from  the  vertex  of  a  parabola  an  apsidal 
arc,  to  distinguish  it  from  an  arc  taken  anywhere  along  the  parabola,  the  pre- 
ceding theorem  will  enable  us  to  express  an  arc  of  a  parabola,  taken  any* 
where  along  the  curve,  as  the  sum  or  difference  of  an  apsidal  arc  and  a  right 
line. 

Thus,  let  VCD  be  a  parabola,  S  its  focus,  and  V  its  vertex.     Left 

VB=n(m.^),  VC=n(m.x).  VD=rII(m.«),  and  let«|^=A.     Then  (8) 

shows  that  the  parabolic  arc  (VC+ VB)=arc  VD— h :  and  the  parabolic  arc 
VD-VB=BD=VC+A. 

VIII.  When  the  arcs  U(m .  0)  and  n  (m .  x)  together  constitute  a  focal  arc, 

or  an  arc  whose  chord  passes  through  the  focus,  ^+x=  2?  an(^  *  **  *°e  OT^Lm 

it 

nate  of  the  arc  VD.    Accordingly  we  derive  the  following  theorem  :— 

Any  focal  arc  of  a  parabola  is  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  conjugate 

J  farc  and  its  ordinate* 


ON  THE  TEIGOkOMlTBY  09  WW  PARABOLA.  75 

Fig- 2. 


The  relation  between  the  amplitudes  ^=/^— x)  **"*  "  *n  this  case  *■ 

given  by  the  equation  Bin  g^g  2.C0St>  .    Thus  when  the  focal  chord  makes 

an  angle  of  30°  with  the  axis,  we  get  cob  *>=£,  or  y  =  10m.  Here,  therefore, 
the' ordinate  of  the  conjugate  arc  is  ten  times  the  modulus. 

IX.  When  ^«X»  (8)  "•  ©hanged  into 

n(m.«)— 2n(m.^)=2mtan*tant^;    ....    (10) 
or  as  tan  «=2  tan  <£  sec  f,  see  (iy)  of  ILL, 

n(m.»)— 2n(m.^)=4mtant^secf.      ....    (11) 

Let  f =45,  then  n(  ».-  )  is  the  arc  of  the  parabola  intercepted  between 

the  vertex  and  the  focal  ordinate;  and  as  sec  w=8ec(0-L-^)=8ecJ^H-tan'^, 
we  shall  have,  since  tan  ^=1  and  sec^=  Vs,  sec  «=S ;  therefore 

H(w  .sec-1, 3)— 2nf  m.M=*m  V£ 

Now  as  sec«=S,  tan  «=s2  V^  and  the  ordinate  Y=4m  v'S^we  may  there- 
fore conclude  that  the  parabolic  arc,  whose  ordinate  is  $m*/%  diminished  by 
His  ordinate^  is  equal  to  the  arcs  of  the  parabola  between  the  focal  ordinate 
produced  both  ways,  and  the  vertex. 

X.  It  is  easy  to  give  an  independent  proof  of  this  particular  case  without 
the  help  of  the  preceding  theory. 

The  length  of  the  parabolic  arc  whose  amplitude  is  45°  will  be  found  by 
the  usual  formula  to  be 


n(».j)=roV^+mlog(l+^2); 


7<f  BBPOBT — 1856. 

and  twice  this  arc  is 

2n(m.£)=»2V'2+mlog(S+2*/2);  since(l+  ^2)»=S+2V^. 

The  parabolic  arc  whose  amplitude  is  sec*1  3,  is  found  in  like  manner  to  be 

H(m .  sec-1  3)=mS  .  2  V¥  +  » log  (3  +  */2). 
Subtracting  the  former  equation  from  the  latter, 

U(m .  sec-i3)-2n^m.|-^  =*»  s/%. 

Now  the  ordinate  Y  of  the  parabolic  arc  whose  amplitude  is  sec1 3  is  equal  to 

2m.2V2=4i»V2, 
therefore  n^.sec-1  3)-2Il(i».|.)=Y. 

It  is  easily  shown  that  4m  V^2  is  the  radius  of  curvature  of  the  extremity  of 
the  arc  whose  amplitude  is  45°. 

XI.  To  find  a  parabolic  arc  which  shall  differ  from  twice  another  parabolic 
arc  by  an  algebraic  quantity,  may  be  thus  exemplified. 

Let  tan  ^=2,        tan  w=4  V^5, 

sec^=V5,    secw=9, 

then  H(m  .sec-1 9)=w36  V^-Hwlog  (9+4  V5) 

2n(mtan-12)=2m  2  </5+m  log  (2+  ^5)\ 

Consequently,  since  (2+  V5)*=9+4  V5, 

H(m .  sec-1 9)— 2II(m.  tan-1 2)=mS2  \^5=2m  tan  <*  tan'^.    .    (12) 

XII.  We  may  in  all  cases  represent  by  a  simple  geometrical  construction  the 
prdinates  of  the  conjugate  parabolic  arcs,  whose  amplitudes  are  ^,  v,  and  «. 

Let  BC  be  a  parabola  whose  focus  is  S  and  whose  vertex  is  V.     Let' 


VS=m;  moreover,  let  VB  be  the  arc  whose  amplitude  is  f,  and  VC  the  arc 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OP  THE  PARABOLA. 


77 


whose  amplitude  is  x-  At  the  points  V,  B,  C  draw  tangents  to  the  parabola; 
they  will  form  a  triangle  circumscribing  the  parabola,  whose  sides  represent 
the  semi-ordinates  of  the  conjugate  arcs  VB,  VC,  VD. 

XIII.  We  know  that  the  circle  circumscribing  this  triangle  passes  through 
the  focus  of  the  parabola.     Now 

VT'=mtanx,    T'A=mtan^secx>    TA=mtanxsec^; 


VT=mtan^, 
hence 

therefore 


T  A+ TA=m(tan  ^  sec  x+ tan  x  bcc  ^), 
mtan«=TA+TA. 


When  VB,  VC  together  constitute  a  focal  arc,  the  angle  TAT'  is  a  right 
angle. 

The  diameter  of  this  circle  is  m  sec  0  sec  x- 

The  demonstration  of  these  properties  follows  obviously  from  the  figure. 

XIV.  It  may  be  convenient,  by  a  simple  geometrical  illustration,  to  show 
the  magnitude  of  the  functions  sec  (<£ -Lx)  an(*  tan  (^-Lx)# 

Let  SV=m,  ASV=X,  BSV=</>,  the  line  AB  being  at  right  angles  to  SV. 
Through  the  three  points  ABS  describe  a  circle.  Draw  the  diameter  SC, 
and  join  the  point  C  with  A  and  B.    Let  fall  the  perpendicular  CT. 


Then  maec(f-J-x)=sc  +  CT>and  *»tan(*-J-x)=AC+CB- 
Moreover  also  it  follows,  since  sec(^J-x)  +  tan(^J~x)=(sec^+ tan^) 
(sec  x  +  tanx)>  as  has  been  established  in  (6)  of  (III.),  that 

*»(SC+CT+AC  +  CB)=(SB+BV)(AS+AV).  .  •  (IS) 
Of  this  theorem  it  is  easy  to  give  an  independent  geometrical  demonstration. 
We  have  manifestly  also 

CT(SC+m+SA+SB)=(AC+AT)(BC+BT).      .    .    (14) 

XV.  Let  <*  be  the  conjugate  amplitude  of  w  and  \p,  while  w  is  the  conjugate 
amplitude,  as  before,  of  <f>  and  x«    Then  as 

f  sec  «*  cfw=f  sec  u  dm  +  f sec  \p  cty>  and  f  sec  w  cUt = f  sec  £  <fy +  f  sec  x  4%, 


78  BHPOBT— 1856. 

we  shall  have 

(VcS^^sec^tfy+fsecx^x+f9^^^;  •  •  •  0^) 
and  if  n(m.w),  n(i».f),  n(m.x)>  and  D(m . \//)  are  four  conjugate  para- 
bolic arcs, 

n(m.£)  -n(m.^)— n(ni.x)— n(m.^)= 

2i»tan(^J-x)tan(^-»-^)tan(x-J-^),  ....    (16) 
which  gives  a  simple  relation  between  four  conjugate  parabolic  arcs*. 

When  there  are  five  parabolic  arcs,  whose  normal  angles  f,  \,  \fs,  v,  Q  are 
related  as  above,  namely 

we  may  proceed  to  obtain  in  like  manner  a  formula  which  will  connect  five 
parabolic  arcs,  whose  amplitudes  are  connected  by  the  given  law. 

XVI.  To  exemplify  the  foregoing  formula.     Let  us  assume  the  following 
arithmetical  values  for  the  angles  u,  <fr  x»  y*  :— 

Urns-™**    *.*.£,       UDX=^,    w=f, 

g^jj—8+SV^       sec*=_^5,    »ecv=i        eec<£=f. 
Hence 
n(m.tan->[l2i^T|^=TO(20+9V^)+i»^I+»log(6+3V'5) 

n(m.tan-«i)=«^+mlog(H^I) 

H^m.tan-1!^  *»?9+mlogS. 

*  This  latter  theorem  may  be  proved  at  follows :— Since  &  is  conjugate  to  w  and  ^f  we 
shall  have  by  (8), 

IT(m .  Q) — n(m .  to) — n(m .  +) — 2  m  tan  &  tan  w  tan  if> ; 
and  since  u>  is  conjugate  to  <f>  and  x» 

n(m .  w) — n(m .  0) — n(m .  x)  —  2  m  tan  w  tan  £  tan  x» 
Hence,  adding  these  equations,  TI(m . «)  will  disappear,  and 

n(m .  w) — n(m .  f) — n(m .  x) — n(m .  if/)  «  2m  tan  w  [tan  £  tan  ^+  tan  ^  tan  x]  • 
Mow  tan  &  « tan  (w-J-^). 

Therefore  tan  &  » tan  w  sec  ^-f-  tan  ^  sec  <*. 

But  tanw—tanf  sec  x+ tan  x  sec  f . 

Substituting  this  value  in  the  preceding  equation,  and  multiplying  by  tan  +, 
tan  £  tan  ^  ■»  tan  £  sec  x  sec  $  tan  ip+  tan  x  sec  <p  sec  ip  tan  ^ 

-H  sec  f  aeo  x  tan9  Y^f- tan  f  tan  %  tan9  ^, 
and 

tan  f  tan  x*  sec9  ^  tan  $  tan  x— tan9  ^  tan  f  tanx* 
Consequently 

tan  <5  tan  $+  tan  f  tan  x  -  (sec  ^  tan  ++  sec  ^  tan  +)(sec  x  tan  y-+  sec +tanx) 
-  tan  (f  J-+)  tan  (x-»-+),  and  #-*+* 


(17) 


ON  THB  TBIGOKOMBTBT  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  ?9 

Now  adding  the  three  latter  equations  together,  and  subtracting  the  sum  from 
the  former,  the  logarithms  disappear,  for 

«<*(^  +  ,og(^)  +  log3=log[3.(i^)(31V5)J 

=  1<«(6  +  3^S);       08) 

consequently 

Q(m  . «)— n(m .  ^)— n(m .  x)— n(m .  «/<) 

=  m/160+73V^\=gwi,9 J5+WSV12+SS3\.      #    (19) 

unee  tan (f -t-x)=2,    tan  (+  J-^)=  £±i^J,  and  tan  (XJ-t/')=  i*±*^*. 

6  6 

XVII.  Let,  in  the  preceding  formula  (16),  ^=x=^,  and  we  shall  have 
n(i» . «)— 3n(m  .^)=2m  tan3(0-*-x)=16m  tan8  ^sec8^>. 

We  are  thus  enabled  to  assign  the  difference  between  an  arc  of  a  parabola 
whose  amplitude  \s  u =(</>-*-$  ■*-<!>)  and  three  times  another  arc 
If  in  («r)  (III.)  we  make  ^=x=^/, 

tan  w=4  tan3  <p+ Stamp (20) 

Introduce  into  this  expression  the  imaginary  transformation 
tan  ^=  V^I  sin  0,  change  -1-  into  +, 

and  we  shall  get  sin  36=—  4  sin'fl-f  3  sin  0,  whioh  is  the  known  formula  for 
the  trisection  of  a  circular  arc.  (20)  may  therefore  be  taken  as  the  formula 
which  gives  the  trisection  of  an  arc  of  a  parabola. 

XVIII.  The  following  illustration  of  the  triplication  of  the  arc  of  a  para- 
bola may  be  given  :— 

_  Take  the  area  whose  ordinates  Y  and  y  are  4wi  and  m  respectively.  Let 
5  and  ^  be  the  amplitudes  which  correspond  to  these  ordinates ;  then  as 

Y=2mtanw=4m,    tanw=2,  sec  w=:  4^5; 
and  as  ,  ,-. 

y=2mtan^=m,        tan^=-±,  sec0=J?L^ 

Now  these  values  of  tan  w  and  tan  <f>  satisfy  the  equation  of  condition  (20), 
namely 

4  tan8  4 + 3  tan  6=  tan  «. 
But  r  r 

U(m .  tan-1 2)=m2  ^5 +*»  log  (2+  Vg), 

n(„.0ul-aj=»|^+„.1<<(ti^)l 

and  three  times  this  arc  is 

<m(m  .  tan-*  |j  =  m|  >/5+i»log(2  +  V5), 

Subtracting  this  latter  equation  from  the  former,  the  logarithms  disappear, 
and  we  get 

n(«.tan-'2)-3n(w.tiui-i^^  .    (21) 


80  REPORT— 1856. 

Now  as  the  radius  of  curvature  R  is  equal  to  the  cube  of  the  normal  divided 

by  the  square  of  the  semiparameter,  R=  m5       ,  siuce  N  =  2m  sec,**.     We 

4 
have  therefore  the  following  theorem : 

The  arc  of  the  parabola  whose  ordinate  is  equal  to  4m,  or  to  the  abscissa, 
diminished  by  the  radius  of  curvature  of  its  extremity,  is  equal  to  three  times 
the  arc  whose  ordinate  is  m,  or  one  fourth  that  of  the  former  arc. 

It  is  evident  that  the  chord  of  the  greater  arc  is  inclined  by  an  angle  of  45 
to  the  axis,  or  the  ordinate  is  equal  to  the  abscissa,  while  in  the  lesser  arc  the 
ordinate  is  four  times  the  abscissa. 

This  is  the  point  on  the  parabola  up  to  which  the  ordinate  is  greater  than 
the  abscissa ;  beyond  this  point  it  is  less  than  the  abscissa. 

XIX.  Another  example  of  the  triplication  of  the  arc  of  a  parabola,  or  of 
finding  an  arc,  which,  diminished  by  an  algebraic  quantity,  shall  be  equal  to 
three  times  another  arc,  may  be  given. 

Let 

3 
tan^=^-,       tan  a>=18, 

VT3  __ 

sec^=  — — ,   sec w=5 V13. 

These  values  satisfy  the  equation  of  condition, 

4  tan8  0+3  tan  0=  tan  «. 

Hence  

n(m.tan-1.18)=m90.  </l3+mlog(\8+5  Vis) 

n(..to.-.|)=-i^+„to8(?±^I)i 

and  three  times  this  arc  is 

3n(m.tan-i|)=2£^+mlog(18+5v^3)> 
since 

(!±^ny=i8+5^i8. 

Therefore  subtracting  the  latter  equation  from  the  former, 
n(m.taD-«18)-3n(m.tan-|)=m?£!^Ii=l6OT(|),(^!).(22) 

XX.  To  find  the  arc  of  a  parabola  which  shall  differ  from  n  times  a  given 
arc  by  an  algebraic  quantity,  may  be  thus  investigated  :— 

Let  <j>  be  the  amplitude  of  the  given  arc,  then 

J1(m .  <f>)=m  sec  $  tan  <f>+m  log  (sec  0+ tan  ^), 
and  n  times  this  arc  is  ^ 

nU(m .  f)=nm  sec  <f>  tan  ^+m  log  (sec  0+tan  <*)\ 
Let  0-i-0-l-0J-0  to  n  terms=$,  then 

JI(*» .  <fc)=ro  sec  $  tan  $+m  log  (sec  fc+ tan  $). 


ON  TM  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  81 

f 

Now  sec#+tan *=(secf +tan  f  )•,  as  shown  in  (6).    Hence 
n(m .  *)— nU(m .  0)=m[sec  $  tan  $— n  sec <p  tan  f]. 
Let  sec^+tan^=\,  then  8ec*+tan$=X%and 


•ec^^.tan^^. 


We  hare  ako  sec  *=  X*  +  V"",  tan*=  X"~X~*.    Hence 

Let  *=Sf  tan ^=  1  sec  6= 1  X=2.    Then 
4  4? 

n(».  *)-3n(»  .*)=  f  (^Y. 

WlJen  «=4, 

n(».*)-4n(*.^)=  mi^?, 

and  so  may  »  he  taken  any  other  integral  number. 

XXI.  The  equation  (20)  affords  a  very  simple  mode  of  expressing  the  real 
root  of  a  cubic  equation. 

Let  the  cubic  equation  under  the  ordinary  form  be  3*+px=q. 

Let  the  parabolic  equation  tan'  «+  —  tan  w=  be  written 

4  4 

X.  tan»«+?2!ltan»=2!!tanft 

4  4 

hence 

/>=!»»,    0=!2-tanO. 
4  4 

Now  since  the  value  of  x  found  by  the  ordinary  methods  is 

2*=sm  ^secQ+tauQ— m  v'secO— tana,     .     .     .    (24) 

When  the  sign  of  p  is  negative,  the  solution  must  be  sought  in  the  trigo- 
nometry of  the  circle. 

Section  III.  On  the  Geometrical  Origin  of  Logarithms. 

XXII.  In  the  trigonometry  of  the  circle  we  find  the  formula 

3=tand-— —  +  — _  +  &c (a) 

1856.  g 


x 
we  shall  have 

and 


Bl  mapoBT— 18504 

And  if  we  develops  by  common  division  the  expression 

cos0      1  — sin'0 
and  integrate,  • 

C dd       C    ^h**^  .    a  .  sin'O  ,    «n*0      sin70  .  -,  ^,  v 

J^=J,efc9d9fcMne+— +  — +— +&c*-  •  (b) 

If  we  now  inquire  what,  in  th*  circle,  is  the  magnitude  of  the  trigonome- 
trical tangent  of  the  arc  which  differs  from  its  subtangent,  by  the  distance 
between  the  vertex  and  its  focus ;  or,  as  the  subtangent  is  0  in  the  circle,  and 
the  focus  \i  the  Centre,  the  question  may  be  changed  into  this  other,  what  is 
the  trigonometrical  tangent  of  the  arc  of  a  circle  which  is  equal  in  length 
to  the  radius  ?  This  question  would  be  answered  by  putting  1  for  &  in  (a), 
and  reverting  the  series 

^(O-^+^-^  +  A'C.     •    •    .     (c) 

By  this  process  we  should  get,  in  functions  of  the  number*  of  Bernoulli,  the 
value  of  tan  (1 ),  as  is  shown  in  most  treatises  on  trigonometry. 

Let  us  now  make  a  like  inquiry  in  the  case  of  the  parabola,  and  ask  what 
is  the  value  of  the  subtangent  of  the  amplitude  which  will  give  the  difference 
between  the  arc  of  the  parabola  and  this  subtangent  equal  to  the  distance 
between  the  focus  and  the  vertex  of  the  parabola.  Now  if  0  be  this  angle, 
we  must  have  D(m  <  0)— ft*  sec  0  tan  0=*m,    But  in  general,  as  shown  in  IV., 

a(m .  0) —m  sec  0  tan  6=m  f  sec  6  dd. 

We  must  therefore  have,  in  this  case,  fsec  Odd=\.     If  we  now  revert  the 

series  (b),  putting  1  for  fsec0rf0,  we  shall  get  from  this  particular  value  of 

the  series,  namely    .       t    Q,  sin30      sih'0      sin70    .    „  ,,* 

J    l=siln0+—T- +  -*y-  +  — ;p  +  &c,       ...(d) 

an  arithmetical  value  for  sin  0*.    This  we  shall  find  to  be  sin  0=e."Mff — ,  & 

being  the  number  called  the  bass  of  the  Napierian  logarithms.  Hence 
sec  0+  tan  0==e ;  or  if  we  write  e  for  this  particular  value  of  0  to  distinguish 
it  from  every  other, 

sec*  +  tant=e»*'718281828,  Ac* (25) 

We  are  thus  (for  the  first  time,  it  Is  believed)  put  in  possession  of  the 
geometrical  origin  of  that  quantity  so  familiarly  known  to  mathematicians— 
the  Napierian  base*    From  the  above  equations  we  may  derive 

teee=e±¥£Zl9    tan€=*!^l1' (98) 

or  tan  «=a  1*175201 192,  whence  e«*8r357606, 

or  e=49°  36'  49". 

#«3&n0,  then 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA. 


83 


The  corresponding  arc  of  the  parabola  will  be  given  by  the  following  series  t 


12345 """  1234567 
■iaee  the  subtaagent  in  this  case  m  equal  to  m  sec  c  tan  e=s  ^  (e*— e~*)» 

XXIII.  If  we  now  extend  this  inquiry,  and  ask  what  is  the  magnitude  of  the 
amplitude  of  the  arc  of  the  parabola  which  shall  render  the  difference  between 
this  parabolic  arc  and  its  subtangent  equal  to  n  times  the  distance  between 
the  focus  and  the  vertex,  we  shall  have,  as  before,  by  the  terms  of  the  question, 

n(m .  0)— tn  sec  0  tan  Q=nm. 
But,  in  general,       fl(m  6)_ m  ^ Q ^  e^m^edS; 

hence  we  must  have 

»=  Jsec  6  dd  s=  log  (sec  0  +  tan  0),  or  sec  0+  tan  8=e». 

Now  we  may  solve  this  equation  in  two  ways ;  either  by  making  n  a  given 
number,  and  then  determine  the  value  of  sec  0+  tan  0,  which  may  be  called 
the  base;  or  we  may  assign  an  arbitrary  value  to  sec 0+  tan 0,  and  then 
derive  the  value  of  ».    Taking  the  latter  course,  let,  for  example, 

sec0+tan0=lO,  then  n=  log  10; 

or  putting  8  for  this  angle,     Bee  8-f  tan  8^  10.       (27) 

Hence  as  every  number  whose  logarithm  is  to  be  exhibited  must  be  put 
under  the  form  sec  0+  tan  0,  which  is  of  the  form  1+*,  since  the  limiting 
value  of  sec  0  is  1,  we  discover  the  reason  why  in  developing  the  logarithm 
of  a  number,  the  number  itself  must  be  put  under  the  rorm  1  +*,  and  not 
simply  under  that  of  *. 

XXIV.  Given  a  number  to  find  its  logarithm,  may  be  exhibited  by  the  fol- 


lowing geometrical  construction : — 

Let  SVP  be  a  parabola.  Through 
the  focus  S  draw  the  perpendicular  SQ 
to  the  axis  VS.  Through  V  let  a  tan- 
gent of  indefinite  length  be  drawn, 
which  may  be  called  the  scalar.  On  this 
tangent  take  the  line  VN  to  represent 
the  given  number.  Join  NS,  and  make 
the  angle  NST  ahoays  equal  to  the 
angle  NSQ.  Draw  TP  at  right  angles 
to  TS.  This  line  will  touch  the  para- 
bola in  the  point  P,  and  the  arc  of  the 
parabola  VP  diminished  by  the  sub- 
tangent  PT,  or  the  tangential  difference 
for  the  arc  VP,  will  be  the  logarithm 
ofVN. 


Fig.  5. 


The  line  SN  makes  the  an 


*(M) 


with  the  axis  of  the  parabola. 

When  SN'=VS=  the  unit  m,  the  angle  N'SQ  is  equal  to  half  a  right 
angle.  Hence  the  point  T  in  this  case  will  coincide  with  V.  The  parabolic 
arc  therefore  vanishes,  or  the  logarithm  of  1  is  0.  When  sec  0+ tan  0=1, 
0=0. 

When  the  number  is  less  than  1,  the  point  N  will  fall  below  Nf  in  the 
position  n.  Hence  nSQ  is  greater  than  half  a  right  angle.  Therefore  T 
will  fall  below  the  axis  in  the  point  T' ;  and  if  we  draw  through  V  a  tangent 

o2 


84  report — 1856. 

Vpt  it  will  give  the  negative  arc  of  the  parabola  Vp,  corresponding  to  the 
number  V».  Fractional  numbers,  or  numbers  between  + 1  and  0,  must 
therefore  be  represented  by  the  expression  m(sec0— tan0),  since  tan  6 
changes  its  sign. 

When  the  number  is  0,  n  coincides  with  V,  and  the  angle  NSQ  in  this 
case  is  a  right  angle.  Therefore  the  point  T*  will  be  the  intersection  of  VT 
and  SQ.  Hence  T'  is  at  an  infinite  distance  below  the  axis,  and  therefore 
the  logarithm  of  +0  is  —  oo . 

Hence  the  tangential  difference  due  to  the  amplitude  0,  is  the  logarithm  of 
the  number  sec  0  +  tan  0. 

Consequently  it  follows  that  negative  numbers  have  no  logarithms,  at  least 
no  real  ones ;  and  imaginary  ones  can  only  be  educed  by  the  transformation 
so  often  referred  to,  and  this  leads  us  to  seek  them  among  the  properties  of 
the  circle.  For  as  0  always  lies  between  0  and  a  right  angle,  or  between  O 
and  the  half  of  +*-,  sec  0  +  tan  0  is  always  positive ;  therefore  negative  num- 
bers can  have  no  real  or  parabolic  logarithms,  but  they  may  have  imaginary 
or  circular  logarithms ;  for  in  the  expression 

log{cos$+  v'^sin$}=&\/^T, (28) 

we  may  make  $=(2»+1)jt,  and  we  shall  get  log(— l)=(2»+l)irV —  1* 
Hence  also,  as  the  length  of  the  parabolic  arc  TP,  without  reference  to 
the  sign,  depends  solely  on  the  amplitude  0,  it  follows  that  the  logarithm  of 
sec  0—  tan  0  is  equal  to  the  logarithm  of  sec  0  +•  tan  0.  We  may  accordingly 
infer  that  the  logarithm  of  any  number  is  equal  to  the  logarithm  of  its  reci- 
procal, with  the  sign' changed,  since  (sec  0+ tan  0)  (sec0— tan  0)=1. 

When  0  is  very  large,  sec  0  +  tan  0=2  tan  0  nearly.     It  follows,  therefore, 
if  we  represent  a  large  number  by  an  ordinate  of  a  parabola  whose  focal 
distance  to  the  vertex  is  1,  the  difference  between  the  corresponding  arc  and 
its  subtangent  will  represent  its  logarithm. 
Since  VT+TP  >  arc  VP,  therefore 

VT  >  arc  VP-TP  >  log  VN. 

Hence  VT  or  tan  0  is  always  greater  than  the  logarithm  of  (sec  0+tan  0)  in 
the  Napierian  system  of  logarithms.  This  may  be  shown  on  other  principles : 
thus 

sin'-+cos8-+2sin-co8~     l  +  tan-2. 
sec0+tan0=L±^g=        *  '«*'«!  - 

C08*  cos**.-sin'°  1-tan* 

2  2  2 

Let  tan —=u.    Then 

log(sec0+Un0)=log(i^)==2^+^  +  y  +  y&c.), 

2tan-| 

and  tan0= 5-=2(K+t*3+«,+  tf7+  &c). 

1-tan'iL 
2 
Hence  tan  0  >  log  (sec  0 + tan  0), 

or  ?T7?,^  is  always  greater  than  the  logarithm  of  ft. 
2 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  85 

XXV.  Let  fsec^<fy=/>,  fsecx^x^*  ^en  M 

Jsec  f*<fo=Jsec  ^  <fy+j*sec  x  <*X>  8ee  (5)> 
f  sec  wt2u  =p+£,  and  «=^J-x# 

Hence  if  ^  be  the  amplitude  which  gives  the  tangential  difference  =p,  and 
X  the  amplitude  which  gives  the  tangential  difference  =£,  ^x  w  the  am- 
plitude which  will  give  the  tangential  difference  =p+g*  In  the  same  way 
we  might  show,  that  if  \p  be  the  angle  which  gives  this  difference  =r, 
(^J-X"1"^)  "»  *ke  an8le  ^hich  will  give  this  difference  =p+£+r. 

Let  a  be  the  amplitude  of  the  number  A,  and  p  its  logarithm ;  /3  the 
amplitude  of  the  number  B,  and  q  its  logarithm ;  r  the  amplitude  of  the 
number  C,  and  c  its  logarithm.    Then 

A=seca+tano,    B=secj3+tanj3,    C=secy+tany, 
and  log  A=/>,  log  B=£,  log  Car,  or 

/»+?+?=:  log  A+log  B+log  C. 
We  have  also 

ABC=(sec  a+  tan  aXsec  0+  tan  /3)(sec  y +  tan  y) 
=sec(a-^/}J-y)  +  tan(aJ-/3-t-y). 

Now  as  p  is  the  logarithm  of  sec  a  +  tan  a,  q  the  logarithm  of  sec  j3+  tan  /3, 
r  the  logarithm  of  sec  y+  tan  y, 

p+^+r  is  the  log  of  sec(a-«-/3-1-y)+  tan(a-^/3-i-y),  or  of  A  B  C, 

as  shown  above.     We  may  therefore  conclude  that 

log  (ABC)sslog  A+log  B+log  C (29) 

XXVI.  If  e  be  the  angle  which  gives  the  difference  between  the  parabolic 
arc  and  its  subtangent  equal  torn,  (e-^e)  is  the  angle  which  will  give  this 
difference  equal  to  2m,  (c-*-c -*-e)  is  the  angle  which  will  give  this  difference 
equal  to  3m,  and  so  on  to  any  number  of  angles.  Hence,  in  the  circle,  if  & 
be  the  angle  which  gives  the  circular  arc  equal  to  the  radius,  2d  is  the  angle 
which  will  give  an  arc  equal  to  twice  the  radius,  and  so  on  for  any  number 
of  angles.  This  is  of  course  self-evident  in  the  case  of  the  circle,  but  it  is 
instructive  to  point  out  the  complete  analogy  which  holds  in  the  trigonome- 
tries of  the  circle  and  of  the  parabola. 

Hence  the  amplitude  which  gives  the  difference  between  the  parabolic  arc 
and  its  subtangent  equal  to  the  semiparameter  is  given  by  the  simple  equation 

8ec€f+tancf=e9. (30) 

And  more  generally,  if  c"  be  the  amplitude  which  gives  the  difference  between 
the  parabolic  arc  and  its  subtangent  equal  to  it  times  the  modulus,  we  shall 

hYe  secer+taner=e». (31) 

In  the  same  way  it  may  be  shown  that  if  ey  be  the  angle  which  gives  the 

difference  between  the  parabolic  arc  and  its  subtangent  equal  to  -th  part  the 

modulus,  we  shall  have  1 

sece^+tane^e5 (32) 

Let  the  difference  be  equal  to  one-half  the  modulus,  then  n^%   and 
ae0Cj+  tane,=e*. 


86  he  port— 1856. 

This  is  easily  shown. 

Let  t$  -1-  et=e.     Then  sec  (e,  -1-  c,)==  sec  c=  sec2  e,  +  tan2  e,,  and 
tan  (€,-*-€,)=  tan  e=2sece,  tan  er 
Therefore        sec  (e,  -1-  e,)  +  tan  (et  -1-  e,)=  sec  e  +  tan  e=e=* 

sec2  e,  +  tan2  s,  +  2  seo  e,  tan  e,  3=  (see  e/  +  tan  e,)2. 
Hence  seQe,+ tane,=  V^e. (S3) 

tan(c^e)g^"Te.,r<>     sec  (e-J-e)s=  ^tSZ!f 
kq(e+f4.,)=s£^£!,     sec(<^«+e)~  €tfll-t 
tan(eJ-e-»-  to  »  terms)  =  ?*~~e  *'    sec(€J-€  to  »  terms)=  £Z£Z?. 

Therefore        2  sec  e  tan  e=  tan  (e + e) 

2sec(e -J-c)  tan  (cJ-€)=tan  (eJ-e^e^e), 
and  generally 

2sec(e-J>.f  a-  to  n  terms)  tanfc-^e-1-  to  ft  terms)  =a 

tan  (eJ-eJ-e ^-e-1-  to  2n  terms). 

Now  2sec(€4,c-4-  to  n  terms)  tan  (e-J-e*1-  to  »  terms)  is  the  portion  of  the 
tangent  to  the  curve  intercepted  between  the  axis  of  the  parabola  and  the 
point  of  contact  whose  amplitude,  or  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  ordinate  is 
(e j-e-L.  to  n  terms;,  while  tan  (e^eJ-eJ-e^  to  2n  terms)  is  half  the  ordi- 
nate of  that  point  of  the  curve  whose  amplitude  is  (eJ-€J-«J-e  to  c2n  terms). 
Hence  we  derive  this  very  general  theorem  s — 

That  if  two  points  be  taken  on  a  parabola  such  that  the  intercept  of  the 
tangent  to  the  one  bettoeen  the  point  of  contact  and  the  axis  shall  be  equal  to 
one-half  the  ordinate  to  the  other,  the  amplitudes  of  the  two  points  ivilloe 
(p j_€ j_  |o  n  terms)  and  (e-^e-^e-^f  to  2»  terms)  respectively* 

This  theorem  suggests  a  simple  method  of  graphically  finding  a  parabolic 
arc  whose  amplitude  shall  be  the  duplicate  of  the  amplitude  of  a  given  aits. 
Let  P  be  the  point  on  the  parabola  whose  amplitude  is  given.  Draw  the 
tangent  PQ  meeting  the  axis  in  Q.  Erect  VT  at  the  vertex  is  PQ.  Through 
T  draw  the  tangent  TF,  the  amplitude  of  the  aro  VP'  will  be  the  duplicate 
pf  the  amplitude  of  the  arc  VP,  or  (0-^-0  -"-  to  n  terms)  and  (0-J-0-*-  to  2* 
terms)  will  be  the  amplitudes  of  VP  and  VP'  respectively.  We  may  there- 
fore conclude  that  in  the  circle 

2  cos  (0+6+  to  n  terms)  sin  (0+0+  to  n  terms)= 

sin(0+ 0+0+0  to  2n  terms). 

XXVII.  In  the  trigonometry  of  the  circle,  the  sine  of  the  aro,  which  is  x 
times  the  radius,  is  given  by  the  formula 

**  x*  J        £ 

SID  X—X 1 — ,  &C*« 

123  +  12345       1234567        ' 
and  the  cosine  of  the  same  arc  by  the  formula 

coe*=l-^+-*L.        ** 


12^1234      123456 


ON  THS  TBIGOHOMWaY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  8f 

This  suggests  the  analogous  theorem,  that  if  {  be  the  angle  or  amplitude 
which  gives  the  difference  between  the  parabolic  are  and  its  subtangent,  or 
the  tangential  difference  equal  to  x  times  the  modulus,  or  the  distance  of  the 
focus  from  the  vertex,  we  shall  have 

and 

sec{=l  +  —  -t-—  4.      *     ,&c (34) 

12  +  1284  +  12S456  V     ' 

But  (LacroU,  '  Traite  du  Calcul  Differentiel  et  du  Calcul  Integral/  vol.  iii. 
p.  442)  the  first  of  these  two  series  is  equivalent  to 


•1 
and  the  latter  to 

Hence 


("pX'+pX'+b-X'-A)-- 
(■♦5X'+£X,+*>te 
— O^X^wX'^X'+w) 

-•-(•♦3X'+sX,+»>~ 

When  a?  is  small,  tan  £=x.  Let  the  angle  £  be  divided  into  an  indefinitely 
large  number  »  of  parts,  so  that  £=  —  -l.  -  j-  -  -1-  ton  terms.    Then 

sec-=l,     tan-  =  -; 
»  n      » 

and  as 
aec^J-a-1-*-1-  ton  terms)  +  tan  (a-1-  a-1-  a-1-  ton  terms) = (sec  a + tana)* 

see <+  tan*=*  ( 1  +  jj j*  bnt  see  {+  tan  {»**. 

Hence  when  n  is  indefinitely  large, 

0+5)w 

In  like  manner, 

(i-£)W*. 

These  theorems,  given  in  Price's  *  Treatise  op  the  Infinitesimal  Calculus,' 
vol.  X.  p.  S2,  are  the  limiting  cases  of  the  very  general  theorem  established 
in  (6). 

XXVIII.  To  represent  the  decimal  or  any  other  system  of  logarithms  by 
parabola. 

The  parabola  which  is  to  give  the  Napierian  system  of  logarithms  being 
drawn,  whose  vertical  focal  distance  m  is  assumed  as  the  arithmetical  unit, 
let  another  confocal  parabola  be  described  having  its  axis  coincident  with  the 
former,  and  auch  that  it*  vertical  focal  distance  shall  be  m'«  The  numbers 
being  set  off,  as  before,  on  the  scalar,  which  is  a  tangent  to  the  Napierian 
parabola  at  its  vertex,  the  differences  between  the  similar  parabolic  ana  and 


88 


BE  PORT— 1856. 


their  subtangents  in  the  two  parabolas  will  give  the  logarithms  in  the  two 
systems,  of  the  same  number  drawn  upon  the  scalar ;  for  as  all  parabolas,  like 
circles,  are  similar  figures,  and  these  are  confocal  and  similarly  placed,  any 
line  drawn  through  their  common  focus  will  cut  the  curves  in  the  same  angle, 
and  cut  off  proportional  segments.  Hence  the  two  triangles  SPT  and  Starr 
are  simitar,  and  the  tangential  differences  PV— PT  and  wv—vtr  are  propor- 
tional to  4m  and  4W,  the  parameters  of  the  parabolas. 

Fig.  6. 

P' 


Let  log  denote  the  Napierian  logarithm,  and  Log  the  decimal  logarithm  of 
the  same  number. 

Draw  the.  line  ST,  making  the  angle  e  with  the  axis  such  that  sece  +  tan  e=e. 
Then  as  PV—  PT:wt'—  tor: : m:m',  and  PV— PT=m=l,  since  e  is  the 
base  of  the  Napierian  system ;  and  tzrv— tJ7r=Log  e  on  the  decimal  parabola, 
therefore 

miLoge iimim1,  or  m'=Loge. 

We  may  therefore  conclude  that  the  modulus  of  the  decimal  system  is  the 
decimal  logarithm  of  the  Napierian  base  e. 

Draw  the  line  ST' making  with  the  axis  an  angle  d,suchthatsec3+tand=10. 
Now 

F V- PT' :  orv-wV : :  m :  ml ; 
but 

P'V— PT'=mloglO,  hence  w'v— wV=»i'log  10. 

Now  in  order  that  10  may  be  a  base,  or  in  other  words,  in  order  that  its  loga- 
rithm may  be  unity,  we  must  have  tcr't?— Tarfr'=f»'  log  10=m ;  or  if  »i=l,  we 

must  have  m'log  10=1,  or  «i'=t — — ;  that  is,  the  parameter  of  the  Deci- 
mal parabola  must  be  reduced  compared  with  that  of  the  Napierian  parabola 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.  89 

in  the  ratio  of  log  10: 1.  Hence,  as  is  well  known,  the  modulus  ml  of  the 
decimal  system  is  the  reciprocal  of  the  Napierian  logarithm  of  10. 

It  is  therefore  obvious,  that  as  any  number  of  systems  of  logarithms  may  be 
represented  by  the  differences  between  the  similar  arcs  and  their  subtangents 
of  as  many  confocal  parabolas,  the  logarithms  of  the  same  number  in  these 
different  systems  will  be  to  one  another  simply  as  the  magnitudes  of  the  para- 
bolas whose  arcs  represent  them,  that  is,  as  the  parameters  of  these  parabolas. 
Accordingly  the  moduli  of  these  several  systems  are  represented  by  the  halves 
of  the  semiparameters  of  the  several  parabolas. 

The  Napierian  parabola  differs  from  the  decimal  and  other  parabolas  in 
this,  that  the  focal  distance  of  its  vertex  is  taken  as  the  arithmetical  unit,  and 
that  the  scalar  line  on  which  the  numbers  are  set  off  is  a  tangent  to  it  at  its 
vertex. 

Hence  if  w,  the  vertical  focal  distance  of  the  Napierian  parabola,  be  taken 
as  1,  the  vertical  focal  distance  ml  of  the  decimal  parabola  is  .  4S42  Arc,  or 
ifm=l,m'=.4S42&c. 

XXIX.  In  every  system  of  logarithms  whatever,  the  logarithm  of  1  is  0. 

For  when  the  point  T  coincides  with  V,  the  corresponding  point  r  will  coin- 
cide with  v,  whatever  be  the  magnitude  of  its  modulus  ml.  It  is  obvious  that 
the  circle  whose  radius  is  unity  is  analogous  to  the  parabola  whose  vertical 
focal  distance  is  unity,  and  that  the  Napierian  logarithms  have  the  same 
analogy  to  trigonometrical  lines  computed  from  a  radius  equal  to  unity,  which 
any  other  system  of  logarithms  has  to  trigonometrical  lines  computed  from  a 
radius  r.  As  we  may  represent  different  systems  of  trigonometry  by  a  series 
of  concentric  circles  whose  radii  are  1,  r,  r1  &c,  so  we  may  in  like  manner 
exhibit  as  many  systems  of  logarithms  by  a  series  of  confocal  parabolas 
whose  focal  distances  or  moduli  are  1,  m',  m"  &c.  The  modulus  in  the 
trigonometry  of  the  parabola  corresponds  with  the  radius  in  the  trigonometry 
of  the  circle.  But  while  the  base  in  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola  is  real, 
in  the  circle  it  is  imaginary.  In  the  parabola,  the  angle  of  the  base  is  given 
by  the  equation  sec0+tan0=e.  In  the  circle,  cos  0  +  V— 1  sin  0=e*^=T; 
and  making  0=1,  we  get 

cob  (1)+ Seisin  (I)  ssie^ (S5) 

Hence,  while  61  is  the  parabolic  base,  e^^1  is  the  circular  base.  Or  as 
[sece-r-tan  e]  is  the  Napierian  base,  [cos(l)+  a/^1  sin(l)]  is  the  circular 
or  imaginary  base.     Thus 

[cos(l)  +  V^sin(l)]3=cos&+  >/=T  sin  ft. 

We  may  therefore  infer,  speaking  more  precisely,  that  imaginary  numbers 
have  real  logarithms,  but  an  imaginary  base.  We  may  always  pass  from  the 
real  logarithms  of  the  parabola  to  the  imaginary  logarithms  of  the  circle  by 
changing  tan  0  into  V— 1  sin  S,  sec  0  into  cos  $,  and  C1  into  e^"^ 

As  in  the  parabola  the  angle  0  is  non-periodic,  its  limit  being  \w,  while  in 
the  circle  $  has  no  limit,  it  follows  that  while  a  number  can  have  only  one 
real  or  parabolic  logarithm,  it  may  have  innumerable  imaginary  or  circular 
logarithms. 

Along  the  scalar,  which  is  a  tangent  to  the  Napierian  parabola  at  its  vertex, 
as  in  the  preceding  figure,  draw,  measured  from  the  vertex,  a  series  of  lines 
in  geometrical  progression, 

«(sec  0  +  tan  0),   m(sec  0  +  tan  0)3,    «t(sec  0  +  tan  0)3 . . . .  «i(sec  0  +  tan  0)\ 

Join  N,  the  general  representative  of  the  extremities  of  these  right  lines,  with 
the  focus  S.    Erect  the  perpendicular  SQ,  and  make  the  angle  NST  always 


J*  ABF0ftT~~1856. 

«4%iJi  to  tfce  angle  NSQ.      The  line  ST  will  be  =»m  sea  (5,  the  line  ST, 
<-*»«*((M»0).  the  line  STW  =t»  »ec  (0-^-0-^0),  &a,  and  we  shall  likewise 

YTvatanO,    VT,«*itan(0^0),    VT„=mtan  (0^0-L.fl),  Ac. 

This  follows  immediately  from  (6)  of  III. ;  for  any  integral  power  of 
fs*e0  +  tan0)  Vay  be  exhibited  as  a  linear  function  of  sec  9+ tan  B, 
writing  0  for  d^-d-*- 6  ...  &c,  since 

§ec(0^0-L0-L0&c.ton0)-ftan(0^^x0-u0^c,tOB0)w(ft0O0-htana)*. 

Hence  the  parabola  enables  us  to  give  a  graphical  construction  for  the  angle 
(0.L0-L0  Sec.)  as  the  circle  does  for  the  angle  (0+0+0  &c). 
»    XXX.  The  analogous  theorem    in  the  circle  may  be  developed  as  fol- 
lows;   Jn  the  circle  SB  A  take  the  arcs 

ABs5BB,-B,B^B„BJI4 ...  &Q.  ^8$. 

Let  the  diameter  be  D ;  then 

SB=sD  coafr,    SB,=D  cos  »,    SB„s=D  cos  8$  ...  &c., 

RPd 

AB;=D sin »,     AB,=D  sin  »,     AB„=D  sin  3» ...  &c. 

Now  as  the  lines  In  the  seoond  group  are  always  at  right  angles  to  these 
in  the  first,  and  as  such  a  ehange  is  denoted  by  the  symbol  aA-1,  we  get 
SB+BA5sD{qo*$+  V^I  sin*}, 

8B,+B/A=D{eosfi&+  v^Tsin2$}=D{cos*+  v^l  sin*}*; 
6B//+B„A^D{oos3$+  V^Tsm3d}^D{cosd+  V^J  sin%}»*c. 

SB^+B^AcsDCeosii^+V-ri  ginn*]=arD[coe*+  V^Tsin*]*. 

Whep  the  poiqts  B',  B"  fall  below  the  liqe  S A,  the  angle  0  becomes  negative, 
and  we  get 

SB'— B'A=cosS-  \/^\  sind 

SB"- B"  A-  cos 2&-  4/ ^l  sin  ?$=  [cos  &-  V^J sin  &]\ 

Therefore  _ 

log  (SB +  BA)=  log  (cos  &+V-1  sin  $)=$•- 1.  .    .    .  (se) 

Let  ^=1,  then  

log[coe(l)+*/-lsin(1)]  =  v'_l. 

Hesee  generally  &  V^T  is  the  logarithm  of  the  bent  lipe  whose  extremities 
are  at  S  and  A,  and  which  meets  the  circle  iq  the  point  B,  ASB=£. 

It  is  singular  that  the  imaginary  formulae  in  trigonometry  have  Ipng  been 
discovered,  while  the  corresponding  real  expressions  have  escaped  notice. 
Indeed  it  was  long  ago  observed  by  Bernoulli,  Lambert,  and  by  others — the 
remark  has  been  repeated  in  almost  every  treatise  on  the  subject  since—* 
that  the  ordipates  of  an  equilateral  hyperbola  might  be  expressed  by  real 
exponentials,  whose  exponents  are  sectors  of  the  hyperbola;  but  the  analogy, 
being  illusory,  never  led  to  any  useful  results.  And  the  analogy  was  illusory 
from  this ;  that  it  so  happens  the  length  and  area  of  a  circle  are  expressed 
by  the  same  function,  while  the  area  of  an  equilateral  hyperbola  is  a  function 
of  an  arc  of  a  parabola,  as  will  be  shown  further  on.  The  true  analogue  of 
the  oircle  is  the  parabola. 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  09  THE  PARABOLA. 

Fig.  7. 


91 


XXXI.  There  are  some  curious  analogies  between  the  parabola  and  the 
circle,  considered  under  this  point  of  view. 

In  the  parabola,  the  points  T,  T,,  T,,,  which  divide  the  lines 

fw(sec  0+  tan  0),    w[sec  (0-»-0)  +  tan  (0-»-0)] 

into  their  component  parts,  are  upon  tangents  to  the  parabola*  The  corre- 
sponding points  B,  B,,  B„  in  the  oirole  are  on  the  circumference  of  the  circle. 

In  the  parabola,  the  extremities  of  the  lines  m(sec  0  +  tan  0)  are  on  a  right 
line  VT ;  in  the  circle,  the  extremities  of  the  bent  lines  are  all  in  the  point  A. 

The  analogy  between  the  expressions  for  parabolic  and  circular  aros  will 
be  seen  by  putting  the  expressions  under  the  following  forms : — 

Parabolic  arc  —  log  (sec  0  +  tan  0) — su  b tangent  =  0, 

Circular  arc  +  log  (cos  0+  */~\  sin  0) ^  —  subtangent  =»0.  •  (87) 

The  locus  of  the  point  T,  the  intersections  of  the  tangents  to  the  parabola 
with  the  perpendiculars  from  the  focus,  is  a  right  line  ;  or  in  other  words, 
while  one  end  of  a  subtangent  rests  on  the  parabola,  the  other  end  rests  on  a 
light  line.  So  in  the  circle ;  while  one  end  of  the  subtangent  rests  on  the 
circle,  the  other  end  rests  on  a  cardioide,  whose  diameter  is  equal  to  that  of 
the  circle,  and  whose  cusp  is  at  S.    SPA  is  the  cardioide. 

The  length  of  the  tangent  VN  to  any  point  N  is  w(»ec  0-f  tan  0)=2o»  tan0, 
when  0  is  very  large.    The  length  of  the  cardioide  is  2D  sin  & 

XXXII.  The  radius  vector  of  a  circle  whose  radius  is  r,  drawn  from  any  point 
on  the  circumference,  and  making  the  angle  0  with  a  diameter  drawn  through 
this  point»  is  given  by  the  equation  p=2r  cos  0,  and  since  the  coinciding  per- 
pendicular from  this  point  as  focus  on  a  tangent  to  a  parabola  \sp=m  sec  0, 
it  follows  that  pp=z2mrt  a  constant  quantity.  Hence  the  curves  are  polar 
reciprocals  one  of  the  other.  The  circumference  of  the  circle  passes  through 
the  focus  of  the  parabola. 

The  centre  of  the  circle  is  the  pole  of  the  directrix  of  the  parabola. 

As  the  extremities  N  of  all  the  numbers  measured  along  the  scalar  are  on 
a  right  line  VN,  the  reciprocals  of  these  points  will  all  pass  through  the 
point  A,  the  pole  of  the  scalar  VN. 


92 


REPORT — 1856. 


The  point  «r  on  the  circle  is  the  pole  of  the  tangent  FT  to  the  parabola, 
and  the  point  P  on  the  parabola  is  the  pole  of  the  tangent  mr  to  the  circle. 

As  the  parabolic  arc  VP— PT  is  the  logarithm  of  the  number  VN,  so  the 
circular  arc  Aw  is  the  logarithm  of  the  bent  line  A«r+«rS. 

Fig.  8. 


The  locus  of  the  point  r,  the  foot  of  the  perpendicular  from  S  on  the  tan- 
gent to  the  circle  at  or,  is  a  cardioide  whose  cusp  is  at  S,  and  whose  diameter 
is  that  of  the  circle. 

While  the  circle  is  the  polar  reciprocal  of  the  parabola,  the  cardioide  is  its 
inverse  curve ;  for  the  cusp  polar  equation  of  the  cardioide  is  p=2r(l  4-  cos0), 

while  the  focal  equation  of  the  parabola  is  0,=   -  ,    — - ;  hence  pp4=4wis. 

Since  the  parabola  and  the  circle  are  reciprocal  polars  one  of  the  other,  the 
circumference  of  the  circle  passing  through  the  focus  of  the  parabola,  we 
have  been  able  by  the  help  of  this  reciprocal  circle  to  give  geometrical  repre- 
sentations, as  in  All.  and  XIV.,  of  the  properties  of  the  trigonometry  of  the 
parabola. 

There  is  this  further  analogy  between  the  properties  of  the  circle  and  those 
of  the  parabola, — that  as  the  arc  which  is  equal  to  the  radius  subtends  no 
exact  submultiple  of  any  number  of  right  angles,  however  large,  so  in  the 
parabola  the  angle  or  amplitude  which  gives  the  tangential  difference  or 
logarithm  equal  to  the  modulus  is  incommensurable  with  any  number  of  right 
angles.  In  the  former  there  are  206265  seconds,  in  the  latter  there  are 
178575  seconds*. 

The  theorem  given  above,  that  a  parabola  is  the  reciprocal  polar  of  a  circle 
whose  circumference  passes  through  its  focus,  suggests  a  transformation 
which  will  exhibit  a  much  closer  analogy  between  the  formulae  for  the  recti- 
fication of  the  parabola  aud  the  circle,  than  when  the  centre  of  the  latter 
curve  is  taken  as  the  origin. 

XXXIII.  Let  SB  A  be  a  semicircle ;  let  the  origin  be  placed  at  S ;  let  the  angle 

*  It  is  worthy  of  investigation  to  ascertain  whether  any  relation  can  he  found  between 
the  angle  or  arc  (1),  and  the  angle  «  which  gives  the  tangential  difference  equal  to  the  mo- 
dulus in  the  parabola. 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OP  THE  PARABOLA.  9S 

ASB=&;  and  let  D,  as  before,  be  the  diameter  of  the  circle.  Through  B 
draw  the  tangent  BP;  let  fall  on  this  tangent  the  perpendicular  SP=n,  and 
let  BP,  the  subtangent,  be  equal  to  U 

Nowas/>=Dcoa'd,  and*=D8indcos&,  asalso  the  angle  ASP=2&,  if 
we  apply  to  the  circle  the  formula  for  rectification  in  IV.,  we  shall  have 
the  arc 

AB=*=2DJcos*&»-Dsin&cos$ (38) 

The  subtangent  to  the  circle,  which  is  exhibited  in  this  formula,  disappears 
in  the  actual  process  of  integration ;  while  in  the  parabola,  the  subtangent 
which  is  involved  in  the  differential  is  evolved  by  the  process  of  integration. 

As  in  the  parabola,  the  perpendicular  from  the  focus  on  the  tangent  bisects 
the  angle  between  the  radius  vector  and  the  axis  of  the  curve ;  so  in  the 
circle,  the  radius  vector  SB  drawn  from  the  extremity  of  the  diameter,  bisects 
the  angle  between  the  perpendicular  SP  and  the  diameter  SA. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  while  the  line  SB  makes  the  angle  0  with  the  axis,  the 
line  SP  makes  the  angle  20,  and  the  perpendicular  SR  on  the  tangent  to  the 
cardioide  makes  the  angle  30  with  the  axis. 

Hence  if  we  take  the  reciprocal  polar  of  the  cardioide,  the  line  drawn  per- 
pendicular to  the  tangent  at  any  point  on  the  curve  trisects  the  angle  between 
the  axis  and  this  radius  vector.  Consequently  the  polar  reciprocal  of  the 
cardioide  is  a  curve,  such  that  if  a  point  be  taken  anywhere  on  the  curve, 
and  a  perpendicular  be  drawn  to  the  tangent  at  this  point,  it  will  trisect 
the  angle  between  the  axis  and  the  radius  vector  drawn  to  the  point  of  con- 
tact Hence  the  reciprocal  polar  of  the  cardioide  enables  us  to  trisect  an 
angle,  in  the  same  way  as  a  parabola  gives  us  the  means  to  bisect  it 

XXXIV.  To  determine  the  tangential  equation*  of  the  reciprocal  polar  of  the 
cardioide.  The  radius  vector  «  of  the  cardioide  being  connected  with  the 
polar  angle  0  by  the  equation  «=r(l  +  cos  0),  and  p  being  the  perpendicular 

on  the  tangent  of  its  polar  reciprocal,  we  shall  have  —  =  —  (1  +  cos0). 

Let  p=  — ,  then  as  cos  0=»{  and  —  =  VP+v\  £  and  v  being  the  tangential 
coordinates  of  the  curve,  we  shall  have 

Consequently  [(P-tv')-p«J,-f*s(P+i^)=0 (39) 

a  the  tangential  equation  of  the  reciprocal  polar  of  the  cardioide.  The 
common  equation  of  the  cardioide,  the  cusp  being  the  pole,  is 

[(^H-^-rsD'-^+^O (40) 

The  reader  will  observe,  that  the  equation  between  the  coordinates  x  and 
y  of  the  cardioide  is  exactly  the  same  as  the  equation  between  the  tangential 
coordinates  £  and  v  of  the  reciprocal  polar  of  the  cardioide. 

XXXV.  The  quadrature  of  the  hyperbola  depends  on  the  rectification  of 
the  parabola. 

Through  a  point  P  on  the  parabola  draw  a  line  PQ  parallel  to  the  axis 
and  terminated  in  the  vertical  tangent  to  the  parabola  at  R.  Take  the  line 
HQ  always  equal  to  the  normal  at  P,  the  locus  of  Q  is  an  equilateral  hyper- 
tola.    For  x=2m  sec  0,  and  as  before  y-=-2m  tan  0,  therefore 

*-tf=*m\       ;    •    (41) 

*  Tangential  coordinates,  p.  70. 


94 


A&Pdius- 1856. 


the  equation  of  an  equilateral  hyperbola  whose  centre  is  at  V,  the  Vertex  dt 
the  parabola,  and  whose  transverse  axis  is  the  parameter  of  the  parabola* 

The  area  of  this  curve,  the  elements  being  taken  parallel  to  the  alls,  or 
the  area  between  the  curve  and  the  vertical  axis  -passing  through  V,  is 
found  by  integrating  the  value  of  xdy* 
Now 

a>**2m  sec  <p>  and  y^im  tan $> 
therefore 

J>«dry=±4jM8Jsec3  ^<fy=2m[flt  sec  +  tan  f+mfao  <p  «fy]. 

But  it  has  been  shown  in  IV.  that 

n(m.0)=tm8eo^tan^-fmj,sec^d^ 

Hence  the  hyperbolic  area    VAQR  «  2m  U(m .  ^) (tf) 

Therefore  as  the  hyperbolic  area  is  equal  to  a  constant  multiplied  into  the 
corresponding  arc  of  the  parabola*  the  evaluation  of  the  hyperbolic  area 
depends  on  the  properties  of  logarithms. 

It  also  follows,  from  what 
has  been  established  in  the  pre* 
ceding  part  of  this  paper,  that 
hyperbolic  areas  may  be  multi* 
plied  and  compared  according 
to  the  laws  which  regulate  pa- 
rabolic arcs* 

'  Let  f  and  0  be  the  angles  in 
which  the  normals  to  the  cor- 
responding points  of  the  para* 
bola  and  the  hyperbola  cut  the 
axis,  then  if  0  and  0  be  these 
angles,  it  is  easily  shown,  since 
VQ  ae  normal  at  Q,  that 


tan  0=  sin  ^. 


(43) 


This  expression  will  enable 
us  to  express  the  hyperbolio 
area  in  terms  of  the  angle  which 
the  normal  to  the  hyperbola 
makes  with  the  axis  instead  of 
the  parabolic  amplitude  j  for  as  the  parabolic  amplitude  f  is  related  to  the 
normal  angle  of  the  hyperbola  0  by  the  equation  tan  0=sin  <j>, 

2tan0 


Itan^sec^s:  — 


tan*0 


tan  20, 


8ec  <p + tab  0±=  V  sec  20 + tan  20. 


and 

Now 

n(m  •  f)=m  sec^  tan^+ro  log  (sec  <f> + tan  ^), 

Or,  substituting  for  the  preceding  values  of  0, 

2H(m  .  <j>)=m  tan  20+ in  log  (see  20+ tan  20); 
but  tajting  the  amplitude  20, 

n(m  .  20)=s»  seoW  tan  90+ to  log  (sec  20+ tan  20). 


(44) 


ON  THE  TBIG0N0M1BTRT  OV  THE  PARABOLA.  95 

Hence,  subtracting  the  former  from  the  latter, 

n(m  .  20)— 2n(m .  f)=m  tan  20  (sec  26—1). 
Accordingly, 

the  hyperbolic  area  =  mU(m  •  20)— «V  tan  20  (see  26—1).    •    (46) 

2tan  20±±2tan  ^  sec^,     , 
we  have 

20=^ (M) 

Hence  the  normal  angles  0  and  ^  of  the  corresponding  points  of  the  para- 
bola and  hyperbola  are  so  related  that 

20-^*, 

whence  We  might  at  once  have  inferred  the  relation  established  in  (44), 
namely 

(sec  f + tan  ^)*=sec  20+ tan  20. 

The  points  P  and  Q  on  the  parabola  and  hyperbola  respectively  may  be 
called  conjugate  points*  They  are  always  found  in  a  line  parallel  to  the 
axis. 

If  through  the  points  P  and  Q  on  the  parabola  and  hyperbola  we  draw 
diameters  to  these  curves,  they  will  make  angles  with  the  normals  to  them  at 
these  pointSy  one  of  which  is  the  duplicate  of  the  other. 

For  these  angles  are  20  and  <f>  respectively, 

but  20^-^. 

XXXVI.  Let  P0,  Pp  Py  P8,  P4  .  .  .  P«_„  P*  be  perpendiculars  let  fall 
from  the  focus  on  the  n  sides  of  a  polygon  circumscribing  a  parabola,  and 
making  with  the  axis  the  angles  0>  0,  0-^0,  0-L0-L0,  0-^0^0-1-0,  .  .  .  to 
n  terms  respectively. 

Let 

sec  0+ tan  0=t*, 
then 

8ec(0^0)+tan(0^0)-tr,f  \ 

sec(0-i-0^0)+tan(0-»-0^0)=ii»/    •    •    •    •    (*0 

sec(0-L0-1-   .    .    .  ton  terms)+tan(0-»-0-A- toHterms)=tt». 
Hence  as  2Po:=fn(t*0+ u~°) 

iP,  *»*(«'  + IT"1) 

2P1=m(«8+tr-») 


(48) 


We  shall  hate 

or 
bat 


SP^Ai^+ti-*),    J 

2.2.P».P1:=rof(ie*+tr*)(*l+t*-i) 

=i»2[(W+»+tt"Cii+i))+(tf«-i  +  M-(«-0)]# 

fiP^.Pj-Mll^PH+l  +  Ps-l); 

Pt«eff»sec0, 


06  ♦  REPORT— 1856. 

therefore-  BecgP.=  P^'tP-,       '•    (*9) 

or  any  perpendicular  multiplied  by  the  secant  of  the  first  amplitude,  is  an 
arithmetical  mean  between  the  perpendiculars  immediately  preceding  and 
following  it.    Thus,  for  example,  P0=m,  P^msecfl,  P,=msec(0-i-0),or 

a           _     m+m  sec  (0-^6) 
sec  0  m  sec  6= ^ ' ; 

but 

sec  (0-»-0)=sec*0+ tana0; 

hence  the  proposition  is  manifest. 

Again,  as  hence 

2P0=m(ti0+tt0),  2 . 2 .  P0  P1=rf(ii1+ir-»+tf+«-iy 

2PI=m(t#+t*-i),  2 . 2 .  Px  PjrwV+r'+^+r'), 

2P,=»i(t«a+u-*),  2 . 2 .  Ps  F^ufdtf+u-t+it+vr1). 

2P3=m(ti»-f  w-»),  2 . 2 .  P,  P4=»ta(u7+i<-7+««l+tr->).- 


2P«=m(t**+«-«),        2.2.Pn-fPn=m\u**-*+u-(**-»+ul+u-1). 
We  have,  therefore,  adding  the  preceding  expressions, 


2[P0Pl  +  PlP,+P,P3+P8P4     ....    P»-  iP»]=1 
m[+P!+P8+P5+P7    ....   P*.-i  +  (n)P,],      J 


(51) 


or  twice  the  sum  of  all  the  products  of  the  perpendiculars  taken  two  by  two  up 
to  the  nth,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  odd  perpendiculars  up  to  the  (2»— l)th 
+ ft  times  the  first  perpendicular. 

Thus,  taking  the  first  three  perpendiculars, 

P0=m,  Pjsrjnsecft,  Pft=flisec(0-l-0)=m(sec,0+ tan0), 

P8=i»  sec  (0-a-0-l^)=to(4  sec8  0— S  sec  0) ; 

then  the  truth  of  the  proposition  may  be  shown  in  this  particular  case  for 

2[PoPl-fPlPs]=4»2sec80=m(Pl  +  Pa+2Pl)/ 
Again,  since  % 

2P2fl:=ro(ti*1 +«-*•), 
and 

4PJ=f»2(**,+ 2 + 1*"2")> 
we  shall  have 

2PJ-m*=roP*» *    .    .     (52? 

Thus,  for  example,  twice  the  square  of  the  perpendicular  on  the  fifth  side  of 
the  polygon  diminished  by  the  square  of  the  modulus,  is  equal  to  the  tenth 
perpendicular  multiplied  by  the  modulus. 

In  the  same  way  we  may  show  that 

iPJ-St^P^m'Pa*. 

Let  n=5  and  m=  1,  then  four  times  the  cube  of  the  fifth  _ 
diminished  by  three  times  the  same  perpendicular,  is  equal  to  the  fifteenth  per- 
pendicular, or  to  the  perpendicular  on  the  fifteenth  side  of  the  polygon. 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OP  THE  PAR  ABO 

XXXVII.  Since 

log  «=w-w-1-i(tt2— *-*)+ £(«*—  t#-8)-±(t*' 


and  as 


while 


u-  «-1»:2  tan  0,  «2~ «-*=2  tan  (0-*- 
o»— t*-*=2tan(0-»-0-»-0-i-to  »  terms), 

tt=sec0+tan0. 


We  have  therefore 

PV— PT 
log«= g =tan0-£tan(0-i-0)+£tan(0-»-0-i-0,  &c).  (53) 

We  may  convert  this  into  an  expression  for  the  arc  of  a  circle  by 
changing-1- into  +,  tan  intoV— 1  sin,  and  the  parabolic  arc  into  the  circular 
arc  multiplied  by  ♦/— 1. 

ijpce,  since  PT-in  the  circle  is  equal  to  0, 

e 

-  =  sin  0—  isin  20+ £sin  30— |  sin  40, 

a  formula  given  in  Lacroix,  '  Traite*  du  Calcul  DifF&rentiel  et  du  Calcul 
^Integral,'  torn.  i.  p.  94.   ♦> 

XXXVIII.  In  the  trigonometry  of  the  circle,  the  sines  and  cosines  of 
multiple  arcs  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  powers  of  the  sines  and  cosines  of 
the  simple  arcs.    Thus 

cos  20=  2  cos2  0—1 
cosS0=  4coss0—  3cos0 
cos  40=  8cos40-  8  cos8 0+1 
cos  50=16  cos*  0—20  cos8  0+5  cos  0 
cos  60=  32  cos8  0-48  cos4  0  + 1 8  cos2  0- 1 


sin20=sin0(2cos0) 

sin  80=sin0 (4cos20^1) 

sin  40=sin  0  (8  cos*  0—4  cos  0) 

sin  50=sin 0(16 cos4 0— 12cos20+l) 

sin60=sin  0(32  008*0—32008*0+6  008  0).  ^ 

Hence  in  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola, 
sec(0-»-0)=2sec20-l 
sec<0-l-0-l-0)=4  sec*  0— 3  sec  0 
sec  (0-a-0-»-0-»-0)=8  sec4  0— 8  sec2  0+ 1 
8ec(0-L0-i-0-i-0-»-0)=16sec50— 2Osec*0+5sec0 
sec(0J-0J-0-»-0-i-0-i-0)=32sec80-48sec40+18sec20-l 

tan  (0-i-  0)=tan  0  (2  sec  0) 
tan  (0-»-0-i-0)=tan  0(4  sec2  0— 1) 
tan  (0-i-0-t-0-i-0)=tan  0  (8  sec*  0—4  sec  0) 
tan  (0  J-0J-0  j-0  J-0)=tan  0  (16  sec4  0-12  sec2  0+ 1 ) 
tan  (0J-0  -J-0  -L0o-0-i-0)=tan  #  (32  sec5  0-32sec'0+6  sec  0) 

The  preceding  formulae  may  easily  be  verified. 
1856.  H 


(54) 


>(55) 


96  REPORT — 1856. 

If  we  add  in  the  above  series  any  two  corresponding  secants  and  tangents, 
the  sum  will  be  an  integral  power  of  sec  0+ tan  0, 

Thus  sec(0+0)+tau(0^0)ss(see0+tau0)*. 

Again,  since  in  the  circle 

CO8  0=COS0 
2  COS*  0=008  20+1 

4  cos*  0=cos  304-3  cos  0 
8  cos*  0?e  cos  46+4  cos  20+1 

and  ^S6) 

sin  0=sin  0 

2sina0=—  cos  20+ 1 

4  sin8  0=  —sin  30+3  sin  0 

8  sin4  0=cos  40—4  cos  20 + 3. 

Hence  in  parabolic  trigonometry, 
sec  0= sec  0 
2sec*0=3*ec(0^0)+l 
4  sec1 0osseo  (0J-0-**0)+  see  80 
8  sec4  0=sec  (0-i-0-»-0-A-0)+4sec(0-i-0)+l 


>(57) 


tan  0=  tan  0 

2tan*0=sec(0-i-0)-l 

4  tan'  0=tan  (0-i>0J-0)-3  tan  0 

8  tan4  0=sec  (0-*-0  J-0 -»-0)— 4  sec  (0 J-0)+3. 

XXXIX.  The  roots  of  the  expression 

**»— 2as»+l=0 (58) 

may  be  represented  under  the  form  cos  A+  */~\  sin  A,  when  a  is  less  than  1. 
This  has  long  been  known.  It  is  not  difficult  to  show  that  when  a  is  greater 
than  1,  the  roots  may  be  exhibited  under  the  form 

seoA  +  tanA (59) 

Since  4  is  greater  than  1,  let  a  =  sec  0,  and  let  0  be  divided  into  n  angles  ^ 
connected  by  the  relation 

0    a.0    a.^    j.0     *c.  =0; (60) 

and  it  has  been  shown  in  (6)  that 

seofa-1-^-1-^-1-^  to  »^)+tanfy-»-0-*-^-i-^  to  fty)=:(sec^+tan^)». 

Let  sec  ^+tan  ^=w,  then  2  see  e^n'+tr-*, 

and  therefore     2  sec 0=2  sec  (>-J-^^to  **))sB**+sr'«. 

Substitute  this  value  of  2  sec  0  in  (58),  and  we  shall  have 

**•-(«•+*-•>• +1=0, 
or  resolving  into  factor*, 


ON  THE  TRIGONOMETRY  OF  THE  PARABOLA.        99 

Now  finding  the  roots  of  these  binomial  factors  by  the  ordinary  methods, 
we  shall  have,  since  ttsssec  ^-f  tan  0, 

zs(sec  f  +  tan  f )  (multiplied  successively  into  the  n  roots  of  unity)    1 
and  (sec  0— tan  f)  (multiplied  successively  into  the  n  roots  of  unity).  J 

We  are  thus  enabled  to  exhibit  the  2n  roots  when  a  >  1. 
Thus,  let  n=S,  then  the  equation  becomes 

»•— 2  sec  0**+ 1=0, 
and 

consequently  the  six  roots  are 


(sec  0+tan  f>)(l,      l±^    3\ 
and 

(sec^-tan^l,-1^^5)- 


(68) 


By  the  same  method  we  may  exhibit  the  roots  when  a  is  less  than  1,  or 
a=cos0. 

XL.  We  might  pursue  this  subject  very  much  further,  but  enough  has 
been  done  to  show  the  analogy  which  exists  between  the  trigonometry  of  the 
circle  and  that  of  the  parabola.  As  the  calculus  of  angular  magnitude  has 
always  been  referred  to  the  circle  as  its  type,  so  the  calculus  of  logarithms 
may  in  precisely  the  same  way  be  referred  to  the  parabola  as  its  type. 

The  obscurities  which  hitherto  have  hung  over  the  geometrical  theory 
of  logarithms  are,  it  is  hoped,  now  removed.  It  is  possible  to  represent 
logarithms,  as  elliptic  integrals  usually  have  been  represented,  by  curves  de- 
vised to  exhibit  some  special  property  only  ;  and  accordingly  such  curves, 
while  they  place  before  us  the  properties  they  have  been  devised  to  represent, 
fail  generally  to  carry  us  any  further.  The  close  analogies  which  connect 
the  theory  of  logarithms  with  the  properties  of  the  circle  will  no  longer  appear 
inexplicable. 

To  devise  a  curve  that  shall  represent  one  condition  of  a  theory,  or  one 
truth  of  many,  is  easy  enough.  Thus,  if  we  had  first  obtained  by  pure  ana- 
lysis all  the  properties  of  the  circle  without  any  previous  conception  of  its 
form,  and  then  proceeded  to  find  a  geometrical  figure  which  should  satisfy 
all  the  conditions  developed  in  the  theory,  we  might  hit  upon  several  geome- 
trical curves  that  would  satisfy  some  of  the  established  conditions,  though 
not  all.  That  all  lines  passing  through  a  fixed  point  and  terminated  both 
ways  by  the  curve  shall  be  bisected  in  that  point,  would  be  satisfied  as  well 
by  an  ellipse  or  an  hyperbola  as  by  a  circle.  That  all  the  lines  passing 
through  this  point  and  terminated  both  ways  by  the  curve  shall  be  equal, 
would  be  satisfied  as  well  by  the  cusp  of  a  cardioide  as  by  the  centre  of  a 
circle ;  but  no  curve  but  the  circle  will  fulfil  all  the  analytical  conditions  of 
the  theory  of  the  circle. 

In  the  same  way,  no  curve  but  the  parabola  will  satisfy  all  the  conditions 
of  the  arithmetical  theory  of  logarithms. 

The  equilateral  hyperbola  gives  a  false  analogy  and  leads  into  error,  because 
to  base  the  properties  of  logarithms  on  those  of  the  equilateral  hyperbola 
leads  to  the  conclusion  that  negative  numbers  have  real  logarithms. 

h2 


100  REPORT — 1856. 

Ttfe  foregoing  theory  decides  a  controversy  long  carried  on  between 
Leibnitz  and  J.  Bernoulli  on  the  subject  of  the  logarithms  of  negative  num- 
bers. Leibnitz  insisted  they  were  imaginary,  while  Bernoulli  argued  they 
were  real,  and  the  same  as  the  logarithms  of  equal  positive  numbers.  Euler 
espoused  the  side  of  the  former,  while  D'Alembert  coincided  with  the  views 
of  Bernoulli.  Indeed,  if  we  derive  the  theory  of  logarithms  from  the  pro- 
perties of  the  hyperbola  (as  geometers  always  have  done),  it  will  not  be  easy 
satisfactorily  to  answer  the  argument  of  Bernoulli— that  as  an  hyperbolic 
area  represents  the  logarithm  of  a  positive  number,  denoted  by  the  positive 
abscissa + a?,  so  a  negative  number,  according  to  conventional  usage,  being 
represented  by  the  negative  abscissa— a;,  the  corresponding  hyperbolic  area 
should  denote  its  logarithm  also.  And  this  is  the  more  remarkable,  because 
by  Van  Huraet's  method  the  quadrature,  of  the  hyperbola  itself  depends  on 
the  rectification  of  the  parabola,  as  shown  in  XXXV.  All  this  obscurity  is 
cleared  up  by  the  theory  developed  in  the  text,  which  completely  establishes 
the  correctness  of  the  views  of  Leibnitz  and  Euler. 

It  is  somewhat  remarkable  in  the  history  of  mathematical  science,  that 
although  the  arithmetical  properties  of  logarithms  have  been  familiarly  known 
to  every  geometer  since  the  time  of  Napier,  their  inventor,  or  rather  dis- 
coverer, no  mathematician  has  hitherto  divined  their  true  geometrical  origin. 
And  this  is  the  more  singular,  because  the  properties  of  the  logarithms  of 
imaginary  numbers  are  intimately  connected  with  those  of  the  circle.  No 
satisfactory  reason  has  been  shown  why  this  should  be  so.  The  logarithmic 
curve  which  has  been  devised  to  represent  one  well-known  property  of  loga- 
rithms, is  a  transcendental  curve,  and  has  no  connexion  with  the  circle. 
Neither  has  any  attempt  been  made  to  show  how  the  Napierian  base  e,  an 
abstract  isolated  incommensurable  number,  may  be  connected  with  our 
known  geometrical  knowledge.  Had  the  circle  never  been  made  a  geome- 
trical conception,  the  same  obscurity  might  probably  have  hung  over  the 
signification  of  w>  which  has  hitherto  concealed  from  us  the  real  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Napierian  base  6. 

This  affords  another  instance,  were  any  needed,  to  show  how  thin  the  veil 
may  be  which  is  sufficient  to  conceal  from  us  the  knowledge  of  apparently 
the  simplest  truths,  the  clue  to  whose  discovery  is  even  already  in  our  hands. 
The  geometrical  origin  of  logarithms  and  the  trigonometry  of  the  parabola 
ought,  in  logical  sequence,  to  have  been  developed  by  Napier,  or  by  one  of 
his  immediate  successors.  They  had  many  indications  to  direct  them  aright 
in  their  investigations.  So  true  it  is  that  men,  in  the  contemplation  of  remote 
truths,  often  overlook  those  that  are  lying  before  their  feet ! 

I  have  shown  in  this  memoir  that  the  theory  of  logarithms  is  a  result  of  the 
solution  of  the  geometrical  problem  to  find  and  compare  the  lengths  of  arcs 
of  a  parabola,  just  as  plane  trigonometry  is  nothing  but  the  development  of 
the  same  problem  for  the  circle.  I  have  shown,  too,  elsewhere*,  that  elliptic 
integrals  of  the  three  orders  do  in  all  cases  represent  the  lengths  of  curves  which 
are  the  symmetrical  intersections  of  the  surfaces  of  a  sphere  or  a  paraboloid 
by  ruled  surfaces.  These  functions  divide  themselves  into  two  distinct  groups, 
representing  spherical  and  paraboloidal  curves,  and  by  no  rational  trans- 
formation can  we  pass  from  the  one  group  to  the  other.  The  transition  is 
always  made  by  the  help  of  imaginary  transformations,  as  when  we  pass  from 
the  real  logarithms  of  the  parabola  to  the  imaginary  logarithms  of  the  circle. 
When  we  take  plane  sections  of  those  surfaces,  that  is  to  say,  a  circle  and  a 

*  "  Researches  on  the   Geometrical  Properties  of  Elliptic   Integrals,"   Philosophical 
Transactions  for  1852,  p.  316. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC*         101 

parabola,  the  theory  of  elliptic  integrals  becomes  simply  common  trigono- 
metry, or  parabolic  trigonometry  with  the  theory  of  logarithms. 

These  views  will  suggest  to  us  the  reflection,  how  very  small  is  the  field 
of  that  vast  region,  the  Integral  Calculus,  which  has  hitherto  been  cultivated 
or  even  explored !  When  we  find  that  the  highest  and  most  abstruse  of 
known  functions,  not  only  circular  functions  and  logarithms,  but  also  elliptic 
integrals  of  the  three  orders,  are  exhausted,  "  used  up,"  in  representing  the 
symmetrical  intersections  of  surfaces  of  the  second  order,  who  shall  exhibit 
and  tabulate  the  integrals  of  those  functions  which  represent  the  u asymme- 
trical sections  of  surfaces  of  the  second  order,  or  generally  those  curves  of 
double  curvature  in  which  surfaces  of  the  third  and  higher  orders  intersect? 
Considerations  such  as  these  but  add  fresh  evidence  to  the  truth,  how  small 
even  in  mathematics  is  the  proportion  which  the  known  bears  to  the 
unknown ! 

Cheltenham,  August  8, 1856. 


In  revising  this  memoir  for  publication  among  the  Reports  of  the  British 
Association,  I  have  supplied  several  numerical  examples  to  illustrate  the  theory. 
I  have  added  some  new  theorems,  such  as  the  curious  properties  of  the 
polygon  of  n  sides  circumscribing  the  parabola,  p.  95;  the  theorem  which 
connects  the  corresponding  points  of  the  parabola  and  the  equilateral  hyper- 
bola, p.  94 ;  a  new  trigonometrical  form  for  the  roots  of  a  cubic  equation, 
p.  81 ;  and  the  geometrical  expressions  for  the  c2n  roots  of  a  trinomial  equa- 
tion, in  the  excepted  case,  by  the  help  of  parabolic  trigonometry,  p.  99. 
I  have  also  made  a  few  other  additions,  and  several  corrections.— J.  B. 

The  Vicarage,  Wandsworth,  Nov.  10, 1856. 


Report  on  the  Marine  Testaceous  Mollusca  of  the  North-east  Atlantic 
and  neighbouring  Seas,  and  the  physical  conditions  affecting  their 
development.    By  Robert  MacAndrew,  F.R.S, 

In  the  following  Report,  prepared  in  compliance  with  a  wisb  expressed  by 
the  Committee  of  the  Natural  History  Section  of  the  British  Association  at 
the  Glasgow  Meeting  last  year,  I  have  endeavoured  to  embody  the  results 
of  personal  research,  obtained  principally  by  means  of  the  dredge,  at  various 
intervals  during  the  past  twelve  years. 

The  field  of  my  labours  has  extended  from  the  Canary  Islands  to  the  North 
Cape  (about  43  degrees  of  latitude),  and  with  reference  to  the  following 
Tables,  it  should  be  explained  that  when  a  species  is  stated  to  extend  north- 
wards to  the  latter,  or  southwards  to  the  former  of  these  limits,  it  is  not  to  be 
inferred  that  it  does  not  range  further ;  and  this  it  is  more  important  to  bear 
in  mind,  because  a  large  proportion  of  the  Mollusca  inhabiting  the  coasts  of 
Finmark  are  known  to  be  widely  distributed  in  the  Arctic  Seas,  while  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  Canary  species  extend  to,  and  in  some  cases  attain 
their  maximum  of  development  in,  the  tropical  region. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that  even  within  the  district  to  which  my 
observations  have  been  confined,  many  species  of  mollusca  are  recorded  to 
have  been  obtained  which  it  has  not  been  my  good  fortune  to  meet  with  or 
identify,  and  that  of  all  such  I  have  taken  no  note. 


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ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         133 


134  report — 1856* 


Additional  Observations  which  could  not  be  conveniently  embodied  in  the 

foregoing  Table. 

Saxicava  arctica,  Lin. — Absent  from  no  district  within  the  range  of  my  re- 
searches, but  is  much  more  frequent  and  larger  in  the  northern  than  in 
the  southern  latitudes.  The  large  solid  variety,  now  living  only  in  the 
Arctic  seas,  is  found  dead  (fossil  ?)  in  deep  water  on  the  coasts  of 
Scotland. 

Gastrochoma  modiolina,  Lam. ;  Gastrochaana  cuneiformis,  Lam. — Not  ha- 
ving been  able  to  detect  any  specific  difference  between  the  British  spe- 
cimens and  those  from  the  south  of  Europe,  I  treat  them  as  identical. 
In  the  Canaries  the  specimens  are  smaller  and  inhabit  greater  depths 
"  than  in  other  localities. 

Ceratisolen  legumen,  Lin. — Is  of  much  smaller  size  in  southern  localities ; 
frequent  at  Malaga,  but  not  eastward  in  the  Mediterranean. 

Donax  anatinus,  Lam. — I  have  dredged  abundantly  from  IS  fathoms  on  the 
Dogger  Bank,  a  remarkable  exception  from  its  ordinary  habitat 

Donax  venustus,  Poli. — Is  closely  allied  to  Donax  anatinus,  of  which  it 
takes  the  place  at  Lisbon,  Mogador  and  in  the  Mediterranean ;  in  latter 
associated  with  D.  trunculvs. 

Tellina  solid  ula,  Pulteney.^-lz  reported  to  be  frequent  in  the  Mediterranean, 
but  I  have  never  met  with  it  south  of  Britain. 

Mactra  subtruncata,  Da  Costa. — There  are  two  distinct  varieties  (?  species), 
the  one  larger,  solid  and  strongly  rudely  striated  concentrically,  is  sub- 
littoral,  and  most  abundant  on  some  of  the  Scottish  shores ;  the  other, 
small,  smooth  and  thin,  is  more  generally  distributed,  both  as  regards 
depth  and  climate. 

Venus  striatula,  Don. — On  the  Mediterranean  coasts  of  Spain  and  to  the 
southward,  it  is  comparatively  rare  and  confined  to  deep  water ;  in  the 
British  seas  it  frequents  all  the  zones  of  depth. 

Astarte  arctica,  Gray. — A  valve  obtained  from  west  of  Zetland,  50  fathoms, 
by  Prof.  E.  Forbes  and  myself,  and  recorded  in  the  '  British  Mollusca,' 
is  in  my  possession,  and  I  have  every  reason  to  believe  it  to  be  fossil. 
The  reasons  which  induce  me  to  believe  that  this  species  is  not  an  actual 
inhabitant  of  the  British  seas  are,  that  it  is  a  shallow-water  species, 
very  gregarious,  and  not  met  with  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  south  of 
the  Arctic  Circle. 

Astarte  compressa,  Mont. — Subject  to  great  variety  in  form,  size,  &c  I  be- 
lieve A.  Banhsii  to  be  only  a  variety  of  this  species. 

Kellia  suborbicularis,  Mont.—\  incline  to  think  that  there  are  two  species  in- 
cluded under  this  name,  if  not,  they  are  well. marked  varieties  \  the  one 
smaller,  more  orbicular  and  more  pellucid ;  the  other  much  larger,  more 
elliptical  and,  when  fully  grown,  less  transparent  It  is  the  last  which 
is  found  imbedded  in  very  fine  mud  contained  in  dead  bivalves* 

Cardium  edule,  Lin. — Varies  greatly  in  size,  form,  number  of  ribs,  &c 
Near  Tunis  a  narrow  neck  of  land  divides  the  bay  from  a  shallow  salt- 
water lake,  at  the  head  of  which  the  city  of  Tunis  is  situated ;  on  the  one 
side  of  this  neck  of  land  (that  facing  the  bay)  all  the  specimens  of  Car- 
dium  edule  were  strong,  triangular,  and  with  few  ribs,  while  on  the  side 
towards  the  lake,  they  were  thinner,  wider  and  much  more  numerously 
ribbed.     The  northern  varieties  attain  the  largest  size. 

Modiola  Pctagnse,  Scacchi. — In  shallow  water  in  the  harbour  of  Carthagena* 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THB  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         135 

free.    In  the  Canary  Islands,  at  12  to  15  fathoms,  small  and  distorted, 
imbedded  in  Nullipore. 

Crenella  discors,  Lin. — The  largest  British  specimens  I  have  obtained  were 
on  the  north  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  10  fathoms.  At  Southampton 
the  pale  green  variety  is  frequent  about  low-water  mark,  adhering  to  the 
leaves  of  Zostera  marina*  Near  Tromsoe  in  Finmark  it  is  most  abundant 
in  beds  covering  the  under  surfaces  of  ledges  of  rock.  Though  reported 
to  be  found  in  the  Mediterranean  I  have  not  met  with  it  south  of  the 
British  Channel,  and  believe  it  to  have  been  confounded  with  C.  costu- 
lata  by  Mediterranean  authors. 

Lithodomus  caudigerus,  Sow. — The  authors  of  the  '  British  Mollusca '  state 
that  this  is  a  South  American  species.  It  is  frequent  on  the  coast  of 
Asturias,  Bay  of  Biscay,  also  at  Faro  in  the  south  of  Portugal,  at  low 
water  burrowed  in  limestone  rocks,  but  not  found  in  the  south  of  Spain 
or  Mediterranean,  where  its  place  is  occupied  by  L.  dactylus.  I  have 
never  obtained  them  together  in  any  locality. 

Pecten  Jacobseus,  Lin. — Notwithstanding  that  this  species  is  named  after  the 
Saint  of  Compostella,  I  have  not  been  able  to  detect  it  on  the  coasts  of 
Galicia,  or  the  north  of  Spain. 

Pecten  Danicus,  Chem. — This  species  would  appear  to  have  been  formerly 
much  more  abundant  on  the  west  coasts  of  Scotland  than  it  is  at  pre- 
sent, as  the  number  of  dead  valves  bears  no  proportion  to  that  of  living 
specimens.  It  is  met  with  throughout  the  Hebrides,  but  is  most  fre- 
quent in  Loch  Fyne,  the  normal  form  in  mud  at  about  70  fathoms,  the 
smaller  and  strongly  striated  variety  upon  hard  ground  at  about  40 
fathoms.  It  is  extremely  rare  in  Finmark,  and  I  only  met  with  small 
dead  specimens  north  of  Drontheim. 

Pecten  Islandicus,  Miiller. — Is  doubtless  extinct  in  the  British  seas,  though 
dead  valves  are  frequent  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  Hebrides,  Zetland, 
Murray  Frith  and  North  Sea.  In  Norway,  north  of  Drontheim,  it  is  by 
far  the  most  abundant  species  of  Pecten. 

Anomia  ephippium,  Lin. — Unlike  most  testaceous  mollusca,  which  only  re- 
quire to  be  better  known  to  be  esteemed  as  delicacies  for  the  table,  the 
Anomia  is  not  to  be  eaten  with  impunity.  On  one  occasion,  having 
sent  my  yacht  round  from  a  neighbouring  port  to  that  of  Villaviciosa  in 
Asturias,  where  I  purposed  joining  her  after  an  excursion  inland,  my 
crew,  having  been  told  that  there  were  oysters  in  the  harbour,  determined 
to  dredge  on  their  own  account  in  my  absence,  and  procured  abundance 
of  the  Anomia  in  large  agglomerated  masses.  Seeing  by  the  complexion 
of  the  animals  that  they  were  not  common  oysters,  only  one  of  the  men 
would  venture  upon  eating  them,  and  he  suffered  in  consequence  severe 
vomiting,  Ac,  with  swelling  of  the  abdomen,  from  which  he  did  not 
entirely  recover  for  two  or  three  days. 

The  most  beautiful  yellow  and  purple  varieties  are  found  in  the  sunny 
seas  of  the  Mediterranean. 

Ostrea  edulis,  //*'».— Subject  to  much  variation,  which  has  occasioned  the 
making  of  one  or  two  questionable  species,  and  rendered  uncertain  the 
limits  of  its  distribution.  The  common  English  or  Welsh  oyster  is,  how- 
ever, certainly  abundant  and  of  excellent  quality  at  Redondela,  situated  at 
the  head  of  Vigo  Bay ;  and  I  have  likewise  dredged  it  off  Cape  Trafalgar 
in  sand,  and  off  Malaga  in  mud,  but  have  not  noticed  it  further  eastward 
in  the  Mediterranean. 

Chiton  fascicularis,  Lin. ;  Chiton  discrepans,  Brown.— I  must  acknowledge 
my  inability  to  discriminate  satisfactorily  between  these  species. 


136  REPORT — 1856. 

Chiton  cancellous,  Sav. — Is  more  nearly  allied  to  C.  RUsoi  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean than  to  C.  asellus,  of  which  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  a  variety. 
Chiton  fulvus,  Wood. — This  fine  species  differs  as  much  in  its  habits  as  in 
4t  appearance  from  its  European  congeners.     It  enjoys  greater  powers  of 

locomotion  than  any  other  Chiton  of  my  acquaintance,  creeping  freely 
in  the  sand  between  tide  marks  in  Vigo  Bay,  where  it  is  very  abundant, 
and  where  several  were  found  adhering  to  the  chain  cable  every  time- 
it  was  raised  from  our  anchorage  abreast  of  the  town  of  Vigo.  It  is, 
nevertheless,  extremely  local,  not  recorded  to  be  obtained  in  any  locality 
but  those  I  have  named,  unless  from  Patagonia,  whence  there  are  spe- 
cimens in  the  British  Museum  under  another  name,  but  in  no  way  to  be 
distinguished  from  the  present  species. 
Chiton  Cajetanus,  Poli. — Inhabits  the  Mediterranean  and  Bay  of  Biscay,  but 
has  not  been  detected  in  any  intermediate  locality,  nor  on  the  south 
coasts  of  Spain. 
Patella  vulgata,  Lin. — Becomes  a  local  species  on  the  northern  coasts  of 

Norway,  and  I  did  not  meet  with  it  in  Finmark. 
Patella  pellucida,  Lin — The  distribution  of  this  species  is  regulated  by  that 
of  the  Laminaria,  on  which  it  feeds.  It  is  not  unfrequent  in  the  north 
of  Spain ;  is  absent  from  the  south  of  Spain  and  Mediterranean,  but 
unexpectedly  appears  again  in  the  harbour  of  Mogador,  where  it  is  of 
small  size.  In  high  northern  latitudes  it  is  much  paler  in  colour. 
Patella  Gussonii,  Phil. — Among  some  hundreds  of  dead  specimens  I  only 

took  one  or  two  living,  and  these  were  upon  a  deep-water  red  fucus. 
Calyptraea  Sinensis,  Lin. — I  have  never  obtained  British  specimens  in  less 
than  8  or  10  fathoms,  whereas  on  the  coasts  of  Spain  it  is  generally 
found  about  the  sea  margin,  and  in  shallow  water. 
Trochus  crenulatus,  Phil. — I  believe  to  be  specifically  distinct  from  T.  «rt- 
•  guusy  is  subject  to  great  variation  in  colour ;  the  grey  variety  is  more 
common  to  the  eastward. 
Trochus  millegranus,  Phil. — Of  this  species  there  are  two  very  distinct 
varieties,  of  which  the  smaller  and  more  conical  inhabits  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  south  coast  of  England  and  Wales,  while  the  larger  is  common 
to  the  north-west  coasts  of  Britain  and  Norway. 
Rissoa  abyssicola,  Forbes. — A   specimen   received  from    Captain   Spratt, 

dredged  by  him  in  350  fathoms,  about  40  miles  from  Malta. 
Turritella  communis,  JRisso. — The  ordinary  British  form  is  wider  in  propor- 
^  tion  and  possesses  fewer  volutions  than  that  of  the  Mediterranean.      A 

large  variety  with  numerous  volutions  is  found  in  Cork  Harbour  and  in 
Bressa  Sound,  always  in  shallow  water,  while  the  ordinary  variety  in- 
habits all  the  zones  of  depth.  I  have  taken  white  specimens  of  both 
the  forms,  consequently  absence  of  colour  is  not  always  the  consequence 
of  great  depth. 
Conus  Mediterraneus,  Brag. — Is  very  frequent  at  Lance rotte,  but  does  not 

extend  westward  to  Teneriffe  or  to  the  Salvage  or  Madeira  Islands. 
Purpura  lapillus,  Lin. — Though  generally  littoral,  inhabits  the  depth  of  8  or 
*J~  10  fathoms  in  certain  localities,  and  in  these  cases  undergoes  consider- 

able modification  of  form ;  from  deep  water  and  mud,  it  is  large  and 
fusiform,  from  8  fathoms  and  rough  ground  the  specimens  are  beauti- 
fully imbricated. 
Ringicula  auriculata,  Menke.—kt  Vigo,  the  northern  limit  of  its  range,  it 
attains  the  greatest  dimensions  and  is  very  abundant,  but  not  striated  as 
in  the  Mediterranean  and  Madeira. 
Nassa  trifasciata,  A.  Adams. — Most  abundant  at  Vigo,  but  smaller  than  in 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         137 


the  Mediterranean  ;  in  latter  district  it  undergoes  considerable  variation 
in  colour.     • 

Fusu8  gracilis,  Da  Costa. — Notwithstanding  the  opinion  of  Middendorf, 
adopted  by  Forbes  and  Hanley,  that  this  is  only  a  variety  of/7.  Islandicus 
of  Chemnitz,  I  am  quite  satisfied  of  the  contrary  after  obtaining  the 
true  Fusus  Islandicus  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  North  Cape.  It 
was  from  about  100  fathoms,  and  measured  finches  in  length,  while 
adult  specimens  of  Fusus  gracilis  from  the  same  locality  did  not  measure 
more  than  2^  inches  in  length. 

Spirula  Peronii,  Lam. — This  shell,  possessing  a  peculiar  aptitude  for  floating 
on  the  surface  of  the  sea  when  dead,  is  liable  to  be  drifted  to  localities 
very  remote  from  its  native  habitat.  A  chance  specimen  has  occasion- 
ally been  picked  up  on  the  shores  of  Britain  ;  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  it  is  still  rare,  is  more  frequent  at  Gibraltar  and  Malaga, 
and  abundant  in  the  Canary  Islands.  I  am  not  aware  of  its  having  been 
found  in  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 


* 


The  following  Table  will  be  of  assistance  in  a  comparison  of  the  Geographi- 
cal range  of  the  species  and  the  number  obtained  in  each  of  the  districts. 


Species  i 


>  - 


1  i 


Acephala. 

Xylophaga,  Tttrtvn* 

florsalis,  Turion .... 

PhoUs,  Lin. 

dactylus,  Zin..„ ... 

parva,  Zdm„, „..,*„>... 

cropaU,  Lin, 

•MiiilMn,  I. in ,.,. 

Paoladidea,  Leach. 

pa]  lyraccfl,  Solander  ... 
Clavagella,  Lam, 

sp,  ineil *,,.. 

GastTDcbicna,  Spongier.  * 

modinlina,  Lam*,. ■■ 

cuneiform  is,  Lamm » 

Pandora!  Lin. 

ro&trata,  Idm 

obtQsa,  Leach, 

Lyansia,  Tnrtm. 

Norvegica,  Ckem.  .,,.., 

artiHjsa.  MoUer 

Thracia,  Leach* 

phaseoliFia,  '-""' 

vi ill uioscula,  Macgill. 
pnbencenfi,  Putfeney  .. 
convexaT  Wood  ..,.„.. 
distort*?  Mont*  


•a 

M 

P 


138 


RBPOBT— 1856. 


Species* 


Aoephala  (continued). 
Periploma,  Sckum. 

prartenuis,  Pulieney 

Saxicava,  F.  fa  Bellevue. 

arctica,£fa 

rngosa,  Lm 

Panopaa,  Menard  fa  la  Qroye. 

Aldrovandi,  Menard 

Poromya,  Forbet. 

granulata,  Nyst  and  Westen- 
dorp    

Korenii  (Embla).  Loven.. 
Neasra.  Gray. 

cuspidata,  OUm 

costellata,  Deeh. 

abbreviate,  Deek.  

obeea,  Looen 

Corbula,  Bruamere. 

nucleus,  Lam.    


Spbanla,  Tmrtmu 

ftagbami,  7Vr4e* 

MyaTlia. 

truncate,  Lm* 

armaria,  Mm** 

Solea,  !«*. 

eltiqua.  lm 

eneU,  tern*  » 

marginatum  tSMemy    ... 

pellucidua*  /Wm/  

OratUolen,  *>*■♦#•» 

Solecurtut,  Bktmtilta* 

coarctatut,  OmtL  

cendidus,  Remieri  » 

•trigilatus,  tin* 

Syndounva,  Red**. 

alba.  Wood 

prismatic*,  Momi 

intermedia,  Tkompeon  ... 

Renieri,  Brown 

tenuis,  Mont.. 

Scrobicularia.  SckmmacAer. 

piperata,  GmtL 

Cottardi,  Payr  

Donax,  Lin. 

anatinut ,  Lam.  

trunculus,  Lin 

venustus,  PoU    

pdtitus.  PoU  

ErviHa,  Turton. 

castanea,  Mont 

nitens  ?,  Mont , 


*£  = 


J 

8  g 


o 

a  i 


-3 

i 


II 


I      I 


* 


a 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-BAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC. 


ISO 


Specie*, 


jl 

E 

!J 

s :  — 


I 


S8 

*   ilia 

I      *    *  e 


■4 


1 


Acephala  (wmfmwitf). 

Mefodc-bmn,  De*h. 

cloaacilla,  AteiA. .,. ,.,* 

Paamroobia,  Actw. 

veipertina,  C'Aent, 

tellinella,  iaw,  „„ 

cost  ul  at  a  p  Tuft  fm  , 

Ferroenain,  Chtm 

costal  a,  Hattfey 

Gab l ran  a,  Schumacher. 

fr-igilis.  Am.   

Tfllini,  Lin. 

crassa,  PfluujiJ ..... 

baJauattna,  Att*. 

danaciria.  Am.    ............ 

pygTusea,  FAft »*»« 

incamata,  Aiil   ...* 

tenuis,  A>a  Cotta    .„..„.„. 

fibula,  GromvitiM  .,...,... 

le-lidu)*,  Puiteney ......... 

]!fi i\ : ii ia.  Br&um ♦ ... 

dUtorta,  Pofl.. „„•». 

sen-ata,  BroccAi., .......... 

rni!.-l.*-lln 

Costaip  PAil 

ptanata.  Am.  ..,.^... .*,... 

puoicei?,  Xiil* ....... 

sp.  : iii  .1. ♦...♦... 

flp.  LlUn'l.  . ........,,,.*♦, 

Lntraria,  Asm. 

elliptic*,  Afltw.    ... .  ....♦.». 

obIotigaT  CAro.  .,..,,*.•.„ 
Mactra,  Am. 

rugDaa,  t'A*m *- 

loLida,  Am • .. 

dliptica,  Brawn     „,,..«. 

subtruncata,  .Do  Ccv/a  ... 

Etultorum,  Aia.  ..... 

belvacea,  CAam.. ,.........* 

Petricoia,  Aam- 

Uthophaga,  Retzius    ...... 

VeaeropUt  Aam. 

mi?,  Znt. 

Tipei,  mhlfeldL 

decuaaata,  Am.  .„•■• 

pull  astro,  fFood , , 

virginea,  6't*«/.  .... 

nurca,  GmcL  ............... 

nitens,  Scacchi  .<-... .„„. 

geographic*,  Am , 

florida,  Lam.  .... 

Beudaiitii,  Fayr 

Luciuopais,  Forbe#. 

undata,P«WHm/,.. *...*,... 


140 


REPORT — 1856. 


Species. 


5*3 


GO 


raj 


■3  « 
IS 


I 


5" 
s 


s 


I 


Acephala  {continued). 
Artemis,  Poti. 

exoleta,  Lin.  

lincta,  Pulteney 

Cytherea,  Lam. 

chione,  Zin.    

Venetiana,  Lam 

8p.  ined. 

sp.  ined. 

Venus,  Lm. 

verrucosa,  Lin. 

casina,  Lm. 

striatula,  Don 

gallina,  Lin 

fasciata,  Da  Cotta 

ovata,  Pennant  

sp.  ined. 

sp.  ined 

Cardita,  Brag. 

calyculata,  Brug 

trapezia,  Lin. 

squamosa,  Lam. 

sulcata,  Brug, 

corbis,  Phil  

Isocardia,  Lam. 

cor,  Lin. 

Astarte,  Sow. 

arctica,  Gray 

sulcata,  Da  Cotta 

compressa,  Mont.  

triangularis,  Mont 

incrassata,  Brocehi    

fusca, Deth.   

crebricostata,  Forbes 

elliptica,  Brown 

bipartita,  Phil.  

sp.  ined 

Circe,  Schumacher. 

minima,  Mont 

Cyprina,  Lam. 

Islandica,  Lin.   

Galeomma,  Turton. 

.  Turtoni,  Sow 

Lepton,  Turton. 

squamosum,  Mont 

convexum,  Alder  

Montacuta,  Turton. 

substriata,  Mont 

ferruginosa,  Mont 

bidentata,  Mont 

Kellia,  Turton. 

suborbicularis,  Mont.    .. 

corbuloides,  Phil 

complanata,  PhiL  


* 
* 
* 

* 


*? 


*? 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-BAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.  141 


Species* 


a 


4 


r 


Acephala  (amimwd). 
Kellia,  Tvrtm. 

rubra,  Mont.  ,. ....... 

Pythina,  I  find*. 

ep.  ined. , ............ 

Ungultna,  Daitdin* 

oblongfl  ?,  Jhtutlin,.. 

Diplodonta,  Brawn* 

rutuiiiljitii,  MtmL    ... 

apicalta,  /'.W. 

Lurina>  MruouieYe. 

borealU,  Ijtl  ...... ......... 

spinifer&r  Afoul.  ........... 

divaricata*  Lin. 

flexuosa,  £fonf« „ 

Irriicuma,  Turton 

Saraii  ?T  PAii. ... 

frrruginosa,  Fweet    ,.♦-.. 

hullata,  Jfwe    * 

colunibdla,  /.4m.  ...,.„,. 

transversa,  PkiL . .. . 

digjtalii,  Lin. ..,„,.. 

pccten,  Lam-  ..♦ 

*p.  ined 

ip.  inert. ....,„... 

■p.  iiiftd.? .... 

Cardinal,  Lift, 

erinaceum, 

aculeatum,  A™. ......... 

echiimtufii,  Lra.. ,,...... 

rnaticuta,  £in.    ......... 

ciliarc,  Pern. 

eduleTZin. 

nodosum  f  TWrlan 

fastiatam,  AfonL 

pvgmseum,  Don.    ,,.,,, 

Suecicum,  Jtotr*    

Norregicum,  Spengbr 

papillosum,  Pvli    .,.,., 

punctatam,  BroccM  ... 

minimum?,  PhU.   , 

degantulum,  Midler  .., 

«P 

Cbama,  Zin. 

grvphai  des  ,  Zin-    . 

Solemya,  Lam* 

Mediternnea,  Zdt».  .,. 
Toldia,  Motor. 

I »v cm aca,  Muntttr  .».,., 

lucida,  Stand „,... ...... 

limatula,  &y 

Ledat  ScAu  nwther, 

candata,  Zkm. 

ptmula,  Afiiflw 


*? 


*  * 

*  * 

*  * 


142 


REPORT*-!  856. 


Speciei. 


it 


! 


i 


s 


Acephala  {continued). 
Led*,  &Ak>m. 

emarginate,  Lam. 

striate,  Zam 

Nucula,  Zam. 

nucleus,  £m. 

nitida,  &w.    

radiate,  Hanky 

decussate,  &ra 

tenuis,  Mont 

corticate,  MbVer    

Limopsis,  Saui. 

pygmsea,  Phil.   

PectunculuSf  Lanu 

glycimeria,  Lin. 

violascens,  Lam 

Siculua,  Reeve    

pilosus,  Lam.     

Arca,ZtM. 

Nose,  Lin.  

tetragona,  Poli  

barbate,  Lin. 

antiquata,  var.  ?,  Poii  .. 

lactea,  Lm. 

nodaloaa,  Latin 

raridenteta,  S.  Wood 

oblique,  PhU. 

navicularis,  Brug. 

imbricate,  Brug.    .* 

dilufii?,  Lam.  

*P-  

Modiola,  Lam. 

modiolus,  Lin 

tulipa,  Lam 

phaseohna,  PhU.    

barbate,  Lin. * 

Petagnse,  Scacchi 

sp.  ined 

Crenelle,  Brown. 

discorstlm.  

marmorata,  Forbes    

nigra,  Gray   

vestite,PAO.  

costulate,  Riuo 

rhombea,  Berkeley 

decussate,  Mont 

Iithodomut,  Outrier. 

dactylus,  Cuvier    

caudigerus,  Sow 

Mytilus,  Lin. 

edulis,  Ztn 

minimus,  Poli    

Afer,  QmeL    


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         143 


Species. 


Aeephala  (continued). 
Pinna,  Li*. 

pectinate,  Liu.   .„ 

muricata,  Poli   .,., 

rndis,  Lbu  , 

AYicula,2fe- 

Tarentina,  Lam-**^ 

Lam*,  Brug 

snbaaricnUta,  Mont,     ... 

•olenitis,  Lot/in 

Loscombii,  tow..,....,,.,., 

hi&ns,  GmeL  .«.,„ „, 

frigilis,  Scscchi  ....,„,„„. 

squamosa,  law*, ,. 

inflate,  £ , 

excavate,  J.  C.  Fa& , 

Pcctcn,  0.  F.  Mailer. 

varius,  A       

niveus,  Macg....  ♦.♦..,...... 

pnsio,  Pennant 

striatals,  MtiUer  ., 

tigrinus,  Af  tiller  .#.,...„„■, 

Danicus,  CAem.  + ,„„., 

similiB,  £  ■•„..,....., 

maximus,  /.w.    , 

Jacobceut,  /,*'« „. 

opercnlara,  Lin „.,...,, 

Islandicua,  Mutter 

polymorph  ut,  Bnmn  .*,»..< 

hyalinns,  Pali    

sulcatas,  Lam t 

glaber,  IM. „, 

testae,  Bwom ., 

pes-felis,  Lin. 

globus  ?,  Lin ♦...,..., 

Greenland  i  eus  &w 

corallinoides,  D'Qrb. 

sp.  ined ^MtM, 

sp.  ined ...*.„ 

sp.  ined......*..*... 

Spondylus,  Lin. 

gSBdaroput,  LU. 

Anoroia,  Lin. 

ephippium,  Lin* 

pateUiformift*  Lin. ......„,. 

striata,  Lore* 

aculeate,  Mulitr    M 

Ostrea,  Lm.  •  »„...„„...»,.„ 

ednlis,  LA 

phcatulai,  Phil.    .„ 

Crania,  Rets  in*. 

anomala,  Mailer 

RhynchonelU,  FUcker. 

psittacea,  Ckern 


t 


144 


BBPORT — 1856. 


Species. 


1 

53 

s 


55  s: 


Acephala  (continued). 
Argiope,!?.  DesUmgehamps. 

decollate,  Ctei* 

Neapolitans,  Scaeehi 

cuneata,  Risso   ...... 

cistellula,  Seartes  Wood 
Megerlia,  King. 

truncate,  Lin.    .. 

Terebratulina,  IT  Orb 

caput-serpentis,  Lm 

Waldheimia,  King. 

cranium,  GmeL 


Pteropoda. 

Spinalis,  Eydoux  Sf  Souleyet. 

Flemingii,  Forbes  

Macandrei,  Forbes  Sf  H.    .. 

„  8P 

Ctmeria,  Rang. 

columnella  ?,  Rang 

Creseis,  Rang. 

recta,  Lesueur   

striata,  Rang 

subulate,  Quoy  Sf  Qaimard 
Hyalea,  Lam. 

tridenteta,  Lam 

trispinosa,  Lesueur    

▼aginella,  Cantrame 

*P 

gibbosa,  Rang    

Atlanta,  Peron. 

Peronii,  Lesueur    

Oxy  gyros. 

Keraudrenii  


Gasteropoda. 

Umbrella,  Chem. 

Mediterranea,  Lam 

Tylodina,  Rqflnesque. 

citrina 

Aplysia,  Gmel 

hybrida,  Sow 

Pattersoni 

ocellata 

Philine,  Aseanius. 

aperta,  Lin.    

quadrate,  Searles  Wood 

scabra,  O.  MiUler 

catena,  Mont. 

punctata,  Clark 

pruinosa,  Clark 

Smaragdinella,  A.  Adams. 

Algira,  Hanley    


I 


1 


I 

I 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLA 


Species. 


"91 

11 

o  a 
ZE 


Qa8teropoda  (continued), 
Scaphander,  Montfbrt. 

tignarius,  Lin 

librarius,  Loven 

Amphisphyra,  Loven. 

hyalina,  Twton 

Cylichna,  Loven. 

cylindracea,  Pen 

trancata,  Mont 

obtusa,  Mont.    

mamillata,  Phil. 

umbilicata,  Mont 

fragilis,  Jeffrey* 

alba,  Loven 

Aker&,O.F.MUUer. 

huWsitA,  MuiL 

Hanleyi,  A.  Ad. 

Bulla,  Lin. 

hydatis,  Lin* 

Cranchii,  Leach 

ovulata,  PhiL 

sp.  nov.?    

ip.  nov.  ?    

sp.  nov.  ?    

striata,  Bruy 

ampulla  ?,  Lin 

Tomatella,  Lam. 

fasciata,  Lam. 

Auricula,  Lam. 

alba,  Jeffreys 

denticulate,  Mont 

Ferminii,  Payr 

Pedipes,  Adanton. 

»P 

Chiton,  Lm. 

faacicularis,  Lm 1 

discrepans,  Brown J 

Hanleyi,  Bean    

ruber,  IAn. 

cinereus,  Lin. 

,    albus,  £m. 

aiellus,  Chem 

cancellatus,  Souk  

lsevis,  Pen. 

marmcreus,  O.  Fab 

fulvus,  Wood 

Cajetanus,  PoU 

Rissoi,  Payr 

siculus,  Gray 

Poli,  J>At/. 

Cauariensis,  Webb  8f  Berth. 

alveolus,  San , 

sp.  ined 


1856. 


146 


BBPOBT— 1856. 


Species. 


'5  a 

*  a 

il 
II 


i 


-3 

2 


Gasteropoda  (con/tuMaf) 

tntalium,  2ts. 

::} 


Dentalium, 

entalis,  Lin. 

tarentinum,  Lam.  ..., 

dentalis,  Lin , 

rubescens,  Desk.    ... 

•p.  ined < 

sp.  ined , , 

Siphonaria,  Poll. 

Algesirs,  Qwoy  

Gadinia,  (Tray. 

Garnoti,  Payr , 

Afer?,  Gray  ,, 

Acmsea,  Btchecholtz. 

testudinalis,  MuUer  , 

virginea,  MuUer..,.. . 
Lepeta,  Gray. 

ancyloides,  Forbet... 

caeca,  Mutter 

Pilidiura,  Forbet. 

fulvum,  Miiller , 

Patella,  Zm, 

vulgata,  Lin 

caerulea,  Lam , 

athletica,  Bean 

crenata,  D'Orb 

guttata,  D'OrA 

aspera,  Lam. 

Lowei,  D'Orb 

scutellaris,  Lam 

Candei,  D'Orb 

tenuis,  Dillwynn    .... 

Gussonii,  Cotta 

nirropuuctata,  Lam. . 

peuucida,  Lin 

Pileopsis,  Lam. 

Hungarica,  Lin. 

Crepidula,  Lam. 

unguifortnis,  Lam..... 

ribbosa,  Defr 

Calyptnea,  Lam. 

Sinensis,  Lin 

Emarginula,  Lam. 

reticulata,  Sow 

rosea,  Bell 

crassa,/.  Sow.  ....... 

elongata,  Cotta v 

pileolus,  Michaud .... 

sp.  ined. 

Puncturella,  Lowe. 

Noachina,  Lin 

Fissurella,  Lam. 

reticulata,  Don% ..,..., 

rosea,  Lam 


i  ? 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THB  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         147 


1 

as 

Si 

Specie*.                 f*  S 

o  c 

*E 

4 

1 

to 

V 

I 

i 

i 

en 

1 

o 

I 

9 

3  a 

M 

ti 

jj 

1 

4 

J3 

i 

1 

Gasteropoda  (eem/mwd). 
Ffesorella,  Lam. 
gibba,  PAtf.    

* 

* 

* 

4i 

* 
* 
m 

*? 

* 
* 
* 

* 
• 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

Ianthina,  Zam. 

prolongata,  Biomtt.    ...,iA.  . 

♦ 

*xigna,  LtOfH, 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
• 
* 

sp.?    

* 

SdwurelU,  l^OrA. 
crispata,  tftan.         ....   .. 

* 

* 

♦ 

BertheJoti,  &Orb 

angulata,  Ixtp^n 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

HaliotU,  Im. 
tuberculata,  JJn.   

lamellosa,  Lam.  ,...»*...»..».. 

ftp,?     ..,.. 

Adeorbts,  Searfe*  JF«w*. 
3uhcariii&tusr  Mont*    * 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

Margarita,  £**wA, 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

undulata,  5bw7,  f«f«fM«f»»M*- 

ftlahaatrain,  ikcA  T.* 

cinerea,  CoidAtfiiy  ..,...,..,.* 

COnuluS*  2-il*      '* ♦..,„,. 

RT^nulatua!  Rout*  ,T,,.mt... 

+ 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

Monlnwiii,  frTtiy     .,.»•■». .  .** 

* 

+    { 

* 

* 

* 

* 

frcnulatus,  Phil. 

lumiduit  Mont.  .... * 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

• 
* 
* 

* 

cinerarium  Z»in *».*,.*.. 

umhilicatus,  AfbnJ.    ,... 

C*Ilftlifltllat\IS1    i"#*7r        i.r 

* 

* 
* 

^Fitiltittij  Gmei       •«i«vij«iiiii 

Sanlcvi    JfVAA  £  iJerM,     ... 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
+ 
* 

* 
*** 

* 

*&■... 

* 

* 

Vieillotti,  Pay  r  „  . . « , 

* 

dubiUH  3  PAi/                 ..*.-* 

viltirtLi    PAii 

Bwtb  eloti      (Mooadouta), 

1,2 

148 


REPORT— 1856. 


Spades. 

if 

B*i 
1  1 

*6 

i 

1 

1 

■c 

1 

%i 

0 

I 

1 

Si 
a  1 

GO    E 

ij 

1 

i 

£3 

M 

la 
| 

s 

1 

* 
* 

+ 
+ 

Gasteropoda  (continued). 

Phaaiandla,  Lam. 

pulhjfl,  Lin.    ...,» ..,..♦ 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

intermedia,  SeaeeAt  ...♦..«., 

Vieuxii,  Payr.    , 

...... 

Turbo,  Litu 
rugosus,  £m.  .,.„*,. ,„„ 



* 

* 

sp«  ined, * „ 

Neritiua,  Lam. 

viri'2i>,  Lin*     t 

* 
# 

Tmncateilft,  Low?. 

truncatiila,  Drop .,.- 

Skenea,  Flern. 

plan  orb  i  a,  0.  /W* < , * »,. 

* 

* 
* 

* 

51) ... 

ep , 

RUaoa,  Frem. 
striatula,  Mont,  ...„»,,. 

• 

* 
• 

* 

* 

l&ctea,  Jl/fcA.  ..... 

* 
+ 

* 

Zetlancliea,  Mont.  ....... 

* 

* 

crcuulata*  JlficA. w t 

Reami,  ffahtey  **„. 

* 
* 

ab  y  b-b-3  coi  a  t  For&e* 

calathus,  i^ri«  ^  Hantey... 
granulata,  Phil. ,„«.. 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

sculpta,  Phil .... „.,....,.,,, . 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
• 

* 

* 

* 
*? 

puactura,  Mouf. M 

costata*  Adam*  ....„»« 

striata,  Mont.. ,*...„ »„.. 

* 

* 

* 
* 

parva,  Carta   «■*►»»  xitMi  *1 

lIltCTTUpta,  Jfiumn.T J 

costulata,  Aider. ...... ,. 

rufilabrum,  ^/&frr  * „,, 

* 
* 

labiosa,  Mont .....«„ 

semLstriata,  J/onl „ 

rubra,  Aider  .„„„„„. 

i      tingiluii,  Af<m/ 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

1     vitrea,  Mont. ......... 

* 

* 
* 

* 

ulvae.  Pennant   „■  JL,M. 

* 

* 

Barlfcei,  J*JFreyt,...,,t4 

violacea,  Desm.  .»♦.„, 

monodontat  /frewi.. 

Urugtueri,  Pat/r*    ..«..,* 

aunscalpmmT  Lin*  ».,*»«!,. »,. 

Morvtagui,  Pffyr*   ... .. 

Dttmarestii,  Fnrhi-x  ,». 

Canarietmi,  JMi  ^  £er*A. 
ap«  ined,.„„...+ .„....■ 

*** 

sp.  ined* ...., ,..—. 

sp.  ined,j»,...tllt 

Lacuna,  Tttrton. 
pallidula,  Ctxfo 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

puteoltis,  Twrtan   „„.„ 

vincta,  Mont,  „, „„ . 

* 

* 

ON  M0LLU8CA  OP  THE  NORTH-EA8T  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         149 


Species. 

if 

5  o 

w  S 
§| 

n 

1 
1 

T3 

I 

H 
1 

3 
M 

■c 
m 

1 
z 

i 

d     . 

■a  a 

B 

i 

1 

4 
| 

i 

B 

o 

1 

■a 
S 

i 
3 

Gasteropoda  [continued). 

Lacuna,  Turiun. 
lahiosa,  Loren    ......„,.,*,... 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

• 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

crasjior,  Mont.  .... ,,.«, 

Solarium,  Lam* 

!  ut  i ■  i  l r r j  ,  Lam* . . ir.ig 

stramineum,  GmeL    ......... 

pseudoperspectLvmn,  Broce. 
Bifrontia,  Deah. 
zanclaca,  PAH.*...*....... 

Possums,  Philippu 

Adansonii  /VuY.     * ...*. 

* 
* 

* 

Litiorina,  Fer, 
iteritoides,  £mi ... 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

iittorea,  Lin »>*..,., 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

tittoralis,  Zm. ..,!.,,, ,.,,,,.*. 

n]dj>,  Don ■,«•«»■■*•**»*» 

tencbro&a*  Mont 

taint  ilist  Johnston* *, 

jiattila,  Jeffreys » * 

Svriaca,  /'Ai£. 

striata.... * *■•■**■••.* 

Scalaria,  Lam. 

Turtonis,  Turton    t 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

communis,  Lam*     .♦«»» , 

1 
* 

clathratula,  Mont  ...... »***.. 

Grronhtudica,  CArni ., 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

+ 

* 

Loveoi,  d.  Ad* 

T  re  ve]  liana,  Leach  ...,..„,... 

crenata,  Lis.  ..... 

pseud  oscal aris ,  Brocchi ...... 

cochlea,  Spw.  i/wt.  *<,-.*...... 

Webbii.  iXQr* 

M  acan  diei ,  Forbes t  MSB. 

sp.  Ined. 1,,,1-M. 

* 

If,  ined. ... ......... 

ap.  ined. , .. 

Vermetus,  Adanson* 
cicna,  Bitwn   .... ..,..«, 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

glomcratna,  Ztia.    .„.,., 

J.j.:. 

comcus,  Forbes 

Ciecum,  Fleming* 
trachea,  Mont.  ,♦,...„, *.,... 

* 
* 

gla brum,  Mont. ....... t„, 

dcgantissimitiiit  Carpenter.*. 

Scarles-Woodii,  Carpenter. . . 

vitro  urn.  Carpenter    .,.....,, 

Aelis,  Loeen, 
ascaria,  IW/on  ............... 

* 

* 

* 



* 
+ 

supranitida,  Sea  rim  Wood... 

sp.  ined.  ,..„...,...,.,„ 

?  Genus  uncertain. 

sp.  ined. ., . ,. 

* 

Bp.  ined. 

150 


BBPOBT— 1856. 


Species. 

ii 

J? 

11 

i 

i 

•3 

1 
1 

I 

! 

is 

si 

I 

3 

«0 

no 

1 

s 

i 

! 

(Gasteropoda  (conti*    / 

Turritella,  Lam. 

communis,  Risso   ,«,,, 

* 

« 

* 

* 

* 
* 

• 
* 

* 

* 
« 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

• 
* 

triplicata,  Brocchi 

Meaalia,  Gray. 
brevialis,  Lam ,„ 

striata,  A.  Ad ... 

Aporrhais,  Aldrovandus. 

pes-pelecani,  Lin. 

pes-carbonis,  Brongnia     ... 
Triforis,  Deshayes. 

adversa,  Mont .„_.. 

* 
* 

1   * 

* 
• 

• 

* 

* 

* 

perversa,  Brug . 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

4 

* 
* 

* 

• 

« 
* 

* 
* 

Macandrei,  A.  Ad. ».., 

* 

* 

* 
i 

* 
* 

Cerithiopsis,  Forbes. 
tabercularis,  Mont .*.*,.. 

Cerkhium,  Brug. 
reticulatam,  Costa 

* 
* 

m 

• 

metula,  Loven    t 

* 

lacteum,  Phil. , 

angustinum,  Forbes  >... 

vulgatum,  Brug. 

* 

ruscatum,  Costa 

Stylina,  Flem. 
sp 

Enlima,  Risso. 
polite,  Lin 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

m 

* 
* 

* 

.*•+.. 

distorts,  Desk 

subulate,  Donovan 

* 

m 

bilineate,  Alder + 

* 

* 

* 

4 

* 

nitida,  Lam *♦... 

sp.  ined „ 

Chemnitzia,  J?  Orb. 
elegantissima,  Mont.  ......>♦♦ 

* 

* 

• 
* 

»*!■•■ 

* 
* 

• 
* 
* 

* 

rufa,  PhiL  

i  * 

formosa,  Jeff. ..,., 

* 
* 
* 

* 

• 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
•? 

fenestrate,  Forbes  $c  Jeff.  .*, 

folvocincta,  Thompson  ...... 

* 

scalaris,  Phil. 

rufescenB,  Forbes 

* 

• 

indistincta,  Mont 

sp.  ined ,„. 

* 

sp.  ined. 

Eulimella,  Forbes. 
acicula,  PhiL ., 

• 
* 

* 

affinis,  Phil 

* 

* 
* 

Sciilse,  Phil 

Odostomia,  Flem. 
conoidea,  Brocchi 

* 
* 
* 
* 

• 

* 

acuta,  Jeff. *..,.., 

spiralis,  Mont f»„. 

* 
* 

■»- 

interstincta,  Mont 

conspicua,  Aider   

* 

plicate,  Mont „.. 

m 

* 

* 

* 

ON  MOLLUS«A  OF  THU  NOBTH-1ABT  ATLANTIC,  ETO.         151 


Special. 


S 


Gasteropoda  {continued), 

Odottomia,  Flem. 

obliqua,  Alder   ... 

glabrata,  Muhlfeldt  

unidentata,  Mont 

tricincta,  Jeff. . 

Velotioa,  Film. 

lserigata,  £»*..,...» 

flexilU,  Mont • .. 

Lamellaria,  Mont. 

tentacolata,  Mont 

perspicua,  Ltn.  ... ~... 

prodita*  Lovfn   •.* i 

sp.  ined. » 

Sigaretufl,  Lam. 

naliotideui,  Lin...  »..i 

Natica,£«m. 

monilifera,  Lain..,..,* 

nitida,  Don 

sordida,  Phil. 

heliooides,  Jokntton 

pusilla,  Gould.,..., 

Montagui,  Forbee  ..a 

clausa,  Sow ...... 

aperta,  Loven *...< •.. 

intricata,  Don.  ..». 

textilia,  Reeve « 

olla,  M*  De  Serrei 

millepunctata,  Lam. 

Guilleminii,  Payr* 

macilenta,  PhiL 

porceUana,  Webb  if  Berth... 

Sagrana,  D'Orb 

sp.  ined. 

gp.  ined. 

OvuJum,  Lam. 

patuluin,  Pen\ *......* 

spelt*,  LM. ,..; 

carneuro,  Lm.., » 

?  acuminated),  Drug 

Erato,  Riseo. 

lajyis,  Don. * i.. 

Cyprsca,  ten. 

Europea,  Mont...*. .a *.. 

pale*,  Sokmder , 

candklula,  Gatkom    

gporea,  Lin... 

pyram,  Mn... 

moneta,  Lin *». ....... 

lurida,  Lin. 

Marginclla,  Lam. 

miHaeea,  Lam 

clandestina,  Brocchi 

guancha,  D'Orb 


REPORT-*-1856. 


Species. 


Gasteropoda  {continued). 

Margin  el  In,  Lam. 

ficraliria?T  Phil.  .............*. 

glabella,  Lin.  „„,..........,*■ 

Sp.  ilM.'ll-  .. ,,.........,, 

Mitrii,  Lai*. 

columbellaria,  Scacchi  ..... 

cbeneus,  Lam.    . .... 

Savignu,  Payr.  .....»...„..,, 

fusca,  Swaim.     .... 

lutescens,  L*m .». 

zebrina,  ZJ'Ork... 

gp.    ilH-;f ■ . .4 

=P*  »- »••■ 

Cyraba,  Brad. 

olla,  Zin 

Lachcsis,  Mmo, 

iir.iiin;;i.  Mont.  ....,...-.»... 
Dcfrancla,  MilkL 

pyramid alis,  Strom.  ........ 

linearis  Mont*  .. * 

purpurea,  Mont.     ........... 

Phi  leberti ,  Michaud. 

Lcfroyii,  Mich,  ...... 

reticulata,  £rotro 

Bela,  Leach. 

turricnla,  Mont.. 

TrevelUana,  Turton  

nutrula,  JjQvfa 

rosea,  Sara. 

rufa,  Mont... ♦ 

septangularis,  Mont 

Mangelia,  Leach. 

?Holbollii,  Mblkr  

?nana,  Loven  

teres,  Forbes 

gracilis,  Mont 

nebula,  Mont 

laevigata,  Phil   

brachystoma,  PhiL    

striolata,  Scacchi  

costata,  Pen. 

attenuate,  Mont 

elegans,  Scacchi 

Vauquelina,  Payr 

secalina,  PhiL    

grana,  PhiL   

rugulosa,  PhiL  

nana,  Scacchi 

crispata,  Crista/.   

rudis,  PhiL 

sp.  ined 

sp.  ined. 

sp.  ined 


c'0 

a  o 

el 

3    J= 


a    . 

CO   t 


4 


■s 

S 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-BAST  ATLANTIC.  ETC. 


153 


Specie?, 

H 

a  2 

e  s 

St* 

_=    03 

XL  £ 
1  e 

%* ■ 

4 

-a 

1 

i 

t 

B 
37 

^4 

w 

a 

I 

P3 

4 

w 
O 

t> 

o 
ft 

1 

f 

9 

A. 

if 

n 

J 

I 

o 

4 

a 

r. 

i 

i 

IS 

■1 

o 

N 

Gasteropoda  {continued). 
Mangelia,  Leach. 

sp.  ined 

*a 

* 
* 

** 

* 

a 

a 
a 

nivalis,  Loven 

a 

* 
* 

4 

+ 
* 

* 

* 

* 

balteata,  Beck   

Conns,  Lin. 

Mediterraneus,  Brug.    

• 

papilionaceus,  Brug 

Columbella,  Lam. 
rustica,  Lin. 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

a 
a 

scripta,  Lin.  

minor,  Scacchi  

cribraria,  Lm.    

' 

Broderipti,  Sow.    

* 

sp.  ined 

sp.  ined 

Dolium,  Lam. 

galea,  Lin. 

* 
* 

a 

* 

* 
* 
* 

a 

* 
a 

* 

* 
* 

* 

a 

a 
* 

* 

a 
* 

Casaidaria,  Lam. 
ecbinophora,  JJn. 

Cassis,  Lam. 
solcosa,  Lam 

saburon,  Lam 

* 
* 

* 

* 

Purpura,  Lam. 
lapilluSi  Lin 

* 

* 

haVmastoma,  Lm.  

▼iveratoidet,  Webb  8f  Berth . 
Ringicula,  Deth. 
auriculata,  Mont 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
a 
* 

* 
* 
a 
a 

a 

a 
a 

* 

a 
a 
* 

Nassa,  Lam. 
reticulata,  JAn 

a 

* 

* 
* 

* 

incrassata,  MiiUer 

variabilis,  Phil. 

prismatica,  Brocchi  ... 

mutabilis,  Lin 

neritea,  Lin. 

grana,  Lam 

trifasciata,  A.  Ad.  

£ 

* 

glaberriroa,  GmeL.. 

corniculum,  OHvi. 

* 

Terebra,  Lam. 

8D • 

°r*   • 

Buccinura,  Lin. 
undatum,  Lin 

* 
* 

* 
a 

* 

* 

* 

Dalei,  /.  Sow 

Hurophreysianum,  Bennet .. 
fusifonne,  Brod 

cyaneum,  MiiUer  .. 

sp.  ined. •••..... 

Fusus,  Lam. 
I&landicus,  Chem 

* 
* 

a 

* 

* 

* 

gracilis,  Cotta    

propinquus.  Aider 

154 


REPORT — 1856. 


Species. 


I* 

09   fc 

CO 


Ga8teropoda  (continued). 
Fusus,  Zam. 

Berniciensis,  JTtna 

antiquus,  Lam 

Norvegicus,  CA*m 

contrarius,  Zam.    » 

Syracusanus,  Lin. 

corneus,  Lin 

pulchellus,  Phil.    

rostratu8,  Oliti 

craticulatus,  PhU. 

moroccanuB    


sp. 


Trophon,  De  MontfbrL 

clathratus,  Lin 

muricatus,  Mont 

Barvicensis,  Johnston    . . 

Gunneri,  Lovtn , 

craticulatus,  Fad 

Trichotropis,  Brod. 

borealis,  Sow , 

Cancellaria,  Lam. 

cancellata,  Lam , 

assimilis,  Sow 

sp.  ined. 

sp.  ined 

Yiridula  (Admete),  (yFab.... 
Triton,  Lam. 

nodiferus,  Lam 

corrugatus,  Lam 

cutaceus,  Lam 

olearius  ?,  Lin 

scrobiculatus,  Lam 

pilearis,  Lam 

tuberosus,  Lam... 

Ranella,  Lam. 

laevigata,  lam 

Pisaaia,  Biron. 

D'Orbignii,  Payr. 

maculosa,  Lam 

Typhis,  Montf. 

Sowerbii,  Brod. 

Blurex,  Lm. 

erinaceus,  Lin.  

trunculus,  Lin 

brandaris,  Lin 

corallinus,  Scacchi 

Edwardsii,  Payr 

cristatus,  Brocchi 

torosus,  Lam 

sp.  ined 


Cephalopoda. 

Spirula,  Lam. 
Peronii,  Lam,    ... 


I 


64 

n 

71 

t» 

=  135 

50 

tt 

43 

t* 

-  93 

37 

tt 

36 

tt 

-  73 

35 

tt 

25 

tt 

=  60 

35 

n 

24 

tt 

-  59 

19 

ff 

15 

n 

»  34 

8 

»? 

8 

tt 

«  16 

6 

n 

4 

tt 

-   10 

60 

t« 

51 

it 

=  111 

45 

tt 

43 

tt 

-  88 

41 

tt 

30 

tt 

-  71 

41 

it 

29 

it 

=»  70 

23 

tt 

18 

it 

=  41 

16 

it 

11 

ti 

=  27 

10 

n 

8 

it 

«  18 

69 

it 

82 

n 

« 151 

ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.         155 

Number  of  species  enumerated : — 

Acephala,  275;  Pteropoda,  14  ;  Gasteropoda,  460:  Total  750. 
Number  of  species  obtained  in  the  most  northern  district  (Finmark  and  Nordland)  :— 

88  Acephala,  100  Gasteropoda ;  total  188  species,  of  which 

72  Acephala,  88  Gasteropoda  =  160,  were  found  as  far  south  as  North  Drontheim. 

„  Scotland. 

„  British  Channel. 

„  North  of  Spain. 

„  Portugal. 

„  S.  of  Spain  &  Mediterranean. 

„  Mogador. 

„  Canary  Islands. 

„  Madeira. 

Of  83  Acephala  and  93  Gasteropoda  =  176  species  from  the  coast  of  North  Drontheim — 

77  Acephala  and  80  Gasteropoda  =  157  found  as  far  south  as  Scotland. 

„  British  Channel. 

„  North  of  Spain. 

„  Portugal. 

„  Mediterranean. 

„  Mogador. 

„  Canary  Islands. 

„  Madeira. 

„  north  as  Nordland  and  Finmark. 

Of  117  Acephala,  1  Pteropod,  and  142  Gasteropoda  =260  species  found  on  the  coasts  of 
Scotland— 

97  Acephala,  103  Gasteropoda*- 200,  extend  south  to  the  British  Channel. 

„  North  of  Spain. 

„  Portugal. 

„  Mediterranean. 

„  Mogador. 

„  Canary  Islands. 

„  Madeira. 

=  153  extend  as  far  north  as  Drontheim. 

„  Nordland  and  Finmark. 

Of  122  Acephala,  136  Gasteropoda  *  258  species  from  the  south  coast  of  England — 

103  Acephala,  114  Gasteropoda  =227,  are  found  as  far  south  as  the  North  of  Spain. 

„  Portugal. 

„  Mediterranean. 

„  Mogador. 

„  Canary  Islands. 

„  Madeira, 

north  as  Scotland. 

„  Drontheim. 

„  Nordland  and  Finmark. 

Of  94  Acephala,  123  Gasteropoda =21 7  from  the  north  coast  of  Spain,  including  Vigo— 

88  Acephala,  95  Gasteropoda  =183,  are  found  as  far  south  as  Portugal. 

„  Mediterranean. 

„  Mogador. 

„  Canary  Islands. 

„  Madeira, 

north  as  South  of  England. 

„  Scotland. 

„  North  Drontheim. 

„  Nordland  and  Finmark. 


81 

it 

86 

it 

=  167 

76 

it 

69 

tt 

=  145 

76 

n 

65 

tt 

=  141 

47 

tt 

46 

tt 

=  93 

36 

ti 

36 

it 

=  72 

26 

tt 

25 

tt 

=  51 

70 

tt 

83 

it 

=  153 

59 

tt 

72 

it 

=  138 

98 

tt 

94 

it 

=  192 

98 

tt 

90 

it 

=  188 

59 

tt 

59 

it 

=  118 

45 

it 

48 

it 

=  93 

30 

tt 

33 

it 

=  63 

91 

tt 

99 

if 

-190 

51 

it 

49 

it 

=  107 

46 

it 

42 

it 

=  88 

86 

it 

89 

it 

=  171 

49 

it 

61 

ti 

=  110 

35 

ii 

46 

it 

=  81 

22 

tt 

34 

it 

-  56 

81 

tt 

91 

ii 

=  172 

62 

n 

66 

ti 

=  128 

38 

tt 

38 

it 

-  76 

30 

ft 

33 

ti 

=  63 

156  report — 1856. 

Of  90  Acephala,  74  Gasteropoda =164  species  of  Mollusca  from  the  coast  of  Portugal — 
88  Acephala,  65  Gasteropoda  =153,  extend  to  the  S.  of  Spain  and  Mediterranean. 


54 

»» 

47 

tt 

=  101 

tt 

as  far  south  as  Mogadon 

37 

tt 

40 

tt 

=  77 

tt 

„          Canary  Islands. 

24 

it 

27 

tt 

=  51 

tt 

„          Madeira. 

75 

»» 

54 

tt 

=  129 

tt 

as  far  north  as  North  of  Spain. 

67 

u 

38 

it 

=  105 

tt 

„          South  of  England. 

45 

it 

27    . 

tt 

=   72 

tt 

„          Scotland. 

28 

tt 

14 

tt 

=  42 

tt 

„          North  Drontheim. 

21 

tt 

11 

tt 

=  32 

n 

„         Nordland  and  Finmark. 

Of  184  Acephala,  7  Pteropoda,  233  Gasteropoda,  1  Cephalopod=425  species  from  south 
of  Spain  and  Mediterranean — 

91  Acephala,  6  Pteropoda,  1 16  Gasteropoda,  1  Cephalopod  =  214,  extend  S.  to  Mogador. 


69        „ 

6 

it 

100 

tt 

1 

-176 

„         Canary  Islands. 

46        „ 

6 

n 

64 

tt 

1 

=  117 

„         Madeira. 

122        „ 

tt 

120 

it 

1 

=243 

„  N.  to  Portugal. 

109        „ 

tt 

103 

tt 

1 

=213 

„         North  of  Spain. 

99        „ 

tt 

82 

tt 

=  181 

„         S.  of  England. 

73        „ 

tt 

57 

tt 

=  130 

„         Scotland. 

42        „ 

tt 

26 

tt 

=  61 

„      North  Drontheim. 

33        „ 

* .    < 

tt 

20 

tt 

•• 

=  53 

„  Nordland&Finmark. 

Of  44  Acephala,  64  Gasteropoda  =  108 

species  obtained  at  Mogador — 

20  Acephala 

38  Gasteropoda 

=58  extend  southward  to  the  Canary  Islands. 

10 

t> 

27 

tt 

=37  are  found  in  Madeira. 

43 

t* 

45 

tt 

=  80  extend  North  to  the  Mediterranean. 

36 

tt 

34 

it 

=  70 

„           Portugal. 

31 

tt 

32 

tt 

=63 

„           North  of 

Spain. 

27 

tt 

24 

tt 

=51 

„           South  of 

England. 

21 

it 

16 

tt 

=  37 

„           Scotland. 

14 

tt 

7 

tt 

=21 

„           North  Drontheim. 

11 

tt 

5 

tt 

=  16 

„           Nordland  and  Finmark. 

Of  78  Acephala,  9  Pteropoda,  179  Gasteropoda,  and  1  Cephalapod=267  species  of  Mol- 
lusca obtained  in  the  Canary  Islands' — 

48  Acephala,  5  Pteropoda,  86  Gasteropoda =139,  were  found  in  Madeira. 


73 

tt 

6 

It 

108 

a  1 

Cephalapod=188  reach  Nwd.  to  Mogador. 

73 

tt 

6 

It 

104 

..  1 

=  184 

it 

.  Mediterranean. 

53 

tt 

tt 

67 

it  1 

„         =121 

tt 

Portugal. 

49 

it 

tt 

60 

u  1 

=  110 

it 

North  of  Spain. 

45 

tt 

It 

46 

n  *  • 

-  91 

it 

South  of  England. 

33 

tt 

tt 

32 

»»  •  • 

„         -  65 

it 

Scotland. 

16 

tt 

tt 

13 

tt  •  • 

„         -  29 

tt 

North  Drontheim. 

10 

tt 

It 

9 

it  •  • 

-   19 

it 

Nordland  &  Finmark 

Of  56  Acephala,  6  Pteropoda,  107  Gasteropoda =169  species  from  Madeira — 

48  Acephala, 

5  Pteropoda,  86  Gasteropoda  =  139,  are 

found  in  the  Canary  Islands. 

10 

tt 

it 

27 

tt 

-  37 

tt 

Mogador. 
Mediterranean. 

46 

tt 

6 

tt 

64 

tt 

=  116 

it 

24 

tt 

tt 

27 

tt 

=  51 

it 

Portugal. 

22 

tt 

.. 

tt 

34 

it 

=  56 

»t 

North  of  Spain. 

30 

»! 

.. 

it 

33 

a 

=  63 

it 

South  of  England. 

26 

ft 

.. 

tt 

25 

tt 

=  51 

a 

Scotland. 

10 

It 

.. 

tt 

8 

tt 

=   18 

n 

North  Drontheim. 

6 

tt 

.. 

it 

4 

tt 

=   10 

tt 

Nordland  and  Finmark. 

To  judge  of  the  marine  Mollusca  of  the  Azores  from  the  %few  species 
received  from  thence,  they  appear  to  be  generally  identical  with  those  of  the 
Mediterranean,  except  a  very  few  species  not  identified,  and  several  littoral 
species,  such  as  Littorina  striata,  Mitrafusca,  Mitra  zebrina,  Pedipes,  which 
are  not  European,  but  common  to  Madeira  and  the  Canary  Islands. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OP  THE  NORTH-EAST  ATLANTIC,  ETC.  157 

Concluding  Observations. 

The  acephalous  or  bivalve  Mollusca  possess  generally  a  capacity  to  exist 
through  a  greater  bathymetrical  range  than  univalves,  several  species  of  the 
former  being  to  be  found  in  all  the  zones  of  depth  from  the  margin  of  the 
sea  to  a  hundred  or  more  fathoms,  and  it  is  these  same  species  which  are  most 
widely  distributed  geographically,  as  might  indeed  be  reasonably  inferred,  it 
being  evident  that  the  depths  of  the  ocean  can  be  comparatively  but  slightly 
affected  by  changes  of  temperature  and  of  climate,  and  that,  consequently,  a 
species  removed  to  a  distance  northward  or  southward  from  its  most  congenial 
habitat,  would  encounter  less  change  in  climatal  conditions  by  seeking  a 
greater  depth. 

Those  species  which  inhabit  a  great  vertical  range,  such  as  Saxicava  arctica, 
Venus  striatula,  Venus  ovata9  Lucina  borealis,  &c.,  have  generally  their  max- 
imum of  development  and  attain  their  greatest  dimensions  in  shallow  water ; 
and  I  call  the  atteution  of  geologists  to  this  fact  as  it  may  occasionally  be  of 
service  in  determining  the  depth  at  which  strata  have  been  deposited.  An- 
other importantpoint,  deserving  attention  on  account  of  its  bearing  on  geology, 
is  the  modifications  of  growth,  incident  to  all  the  individuals  taken  from  a  great 
depth,  as  compared  toith  individuals  of  the  same  species  taken  from  a  moderate 
depth.  Some  of  these  vary  in  different  species,  but  the  general  characteristics 
of  deep-water  specimens  are  deficiency  of  colour  and  of  solidity,  and  small- 
ness  of  size. 

Northern  species  generally  diminish  greatly  in  size  as  they  approach 
southern  latitudes ;  but  the  converse  of  the  rule  cannot  be  so  generally  applied 
to  southern  species,  for  while  some  of  these  are  smaller,  others  increase  in 
dimensions  as  they  approach  the  northern  limit  of  their  range.  As  examples 
of  the  latter,  1  may  mention  Ringicula  auriculata  and  Mactra  rugosa,  which 
attain  their  maximum  size  in  Vigo  Bay,  Haliotis  tuberculata  in  Guernsey,  and 
TeUina  balaustina  in  the  West  of  Ireland  and  the  Hebrides. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of  species  existing  in 
high  northern  latitudes,  I  may  mention  that  I  obtained  50  per  cent,  more  of 
species  in  the  Canary  Islands  than  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Norway, 
although  I  bestowed  at  least  thrice  the  amount  of  time  and  labour  in  dredging 
the  latter,  under  more  favourable  circumstances,  and  through  a  greater  range 
of  latitude. 

The  correct  division  of  the  marine  Mollusca  into  provinces,  or  as  they  are 
called  "  Faunas,"  is  a  subject  deserving  consideration,  as  it  may  be  of  assist- 
ance to  us  in  our  endeavours  to  become  acquainted  with  the  laws  regulating 
the  distribution  of  species. 

The  Arctic  and  Tropical  faunas  are  tolerably  well  defined  by  the  zones 
after  which  they  are  named,  except  that  the  former,  on  the  European  side  of 
the  Atlantic,  recedes  a  few  degrees  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  in  consequence 
of  the  current  which  sets  northward  along  the  coast  of  Norway.  It  is  the 
division  of  the  temperate  zone  into  the  Boreal,  Celtic,  and  Lusitanian  or 
Mediterranean  provinces,  which  offers  some  difficulty,  and  I  take  the  liberty 
of  submitting  the  following  suggestions  with  reference  to  it- 
Two  sets  of  Mollusca  of  very  different  type  advance  from  the  sub-arctic 
and  sub-tropical  regions  towards  each  other.  In  the  course  of  their  progress 
each  loses  by  the  way  many  of  its  most  characteristic  members,  which  one 
after  another  become  extinct,  so  that  when  they  reach  their  point  of  contact, 
the  species  are  comparatively  few  in  number,  and  not  the  most  characteristic 
of  their  northern  or  southern  origin.  In  order  to  remedy  this  state  of  things 
and  to  accomplish  an  equable  distribution  of  Mollusca  throughout  the  tem- 
perate zone,  it  is  necessary  that  there  should  exist  an  intermediate  fauna, 
pervading  more  or  less  the  ground  occupied  by  both  the  others,  and  having 


158  REPORT — 1856, 

its  principal  development  at  their  point  of  meeting,  and  this  I  believe  to  be 
neither  more  nor  less  than  what  actually  occurs.  The  point  at  which  the  north 
temperate  or  boreal,  and  the  south  temperate  faunas  meet,  I  conceive  to  be 
about  lat.  50°,  or  at  the  British  Channel,  which  marks  the  limit  of  some  of 
the  most -characteristic  northern  forms,  viz.  Buccinum  undatum,  Fusus 
antiquus,  Cyprina  Islandica,  &c,  as  well  as  of  the  genera  Haliotis,  La- 
chests,  Calyptrcsa,  Venerupis,  Gastrochama,  Auricula,  and  numerous  species 
of  southern  type.  Supposing  my  view  to  be  correct,  it  is  at  once  seen  why 
there  can  be  no  peculiar  species  in  the  Celtic  (or  as  I  would  rather  call  it), 
the  English  or  intermediate  fauna.  It  is  difficult  to  lay  down  an  exact  line 
of  division  between  one  animal  province  and  another,  the  transition  being 
gradual ;  but  I  would  consider  the  "  intermediate"  fauna  to  be  contained 
between  the  45th  and  55th  parallels  of  latitude,  which  will  include  the  larger 
portion  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  North  Sea.  All 
species  which  attain  their  maximum  of  development  within  these  limits  I 
would  consider  legitimately  to  belong  to  it,  and  among  the  most  characteristic 
of  these  may  be  mentioned  Purpura  TapiUus,  Natica  month/era  and  iV.  nitidOy 
Trochus  zizyphinus,  Lacuna  puteolus,  L.paUidula,  all  the  British  Pholadesy 
Mactra  solida,  TelUna  crassa,  Pecten  opercularis,  P.pusio,  and  Venus  stri* 
atula. 

Although,  as  already  stated,  the  transition  from  one  fauna  to  another  takes 
place  gradually,  the  change  is  much  greater  at  certain  geographical  points 
than  at  others,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  Cape  St.  Vincent  is  remarkable  as 
the  northern  limit  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  about  a  hundred  southern  species, 
including  the  following  genera : — 

Solemya.        Siphonaria.  Ranella.  Conus  and 

Cardita.  Sigaretus.  Mitra.  Cypresa  (except  the 

Chama.  Crepidula.  Columbella,  sub-genus  Trivia). 

Spondylus.      Cancellaria.  Pollia. 

Though  Cardita  and  Mitra  reappear  in  the  Polar  seas  represented  each  by 
a  single  species,  and  CanceUaria  under  the  form  Admete*  Cymba  extends 
to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  rock  of  Lisbon ;  Ringicula  to  Vigo;  Triton, 
Turbo,  Cassis,  and  Lithodomus  to  Asturias ;  Adeorbis,  Haliotis,  Ccdyptrtea, 
Lachesis,  Gastroch&na,  Venerupis,  Galeomma,  and  Avicula  to  the  south 
coast  of  England. 

The  circumstance  of  so  many  characteristic  forms  disappearing  at  Cape  St. 
Vincent,  may  perhaps  be  accounted  for  by  the  change  which  there  takes  place 
in  the  direction  of  the  coast  and  consequent  set  of  the  current*  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  disappearance  of  species  is  all  in  one  direction,  and  that  the 
point  in  question  is  not  known  to  form  the  southern  limit  of  a  single  species ; 
also  that  nearly  all  the  genera  enumerated  as  not  passing  it  are  to  be  found 
six  or  seven  degrees  further  north  in  the  Mediterranean. 

A  circumstance  analogous  to  what  occurs  at  Cape  St.  Vincent  takes  place 
about  the  South  of  Scotland  with  reference  to  northern  forms  of  Mollusca. 
Of  135  Norwegian  species  which  extend  to  Scotland,  no  leas  than  4*2  are 
absent  from  the  South  of  England ;  and  this  fact  is,  I  conceive,  to  be  explained 
by  the  change  in  the  nature  of  the  sea-bottom,  which  may  also  account  for 
the  circumstance  that  many  species,  and  among  them  the  peculiarly  northern 
forms  of  Trichotropis,  Cemaria,  and  Pilidium,  are  common  to  the  coast  of 
Norway  and  the  Hebrides,  and  even  extend  as  far  south  as  the  Clyde, 
while  they  are  altogether  absent  from,  or  but  very  rarely  found  upon  the  east 
coast  of  Scotland. 

The  Mediterranean  fauna  may  be  considered  a  branch  of  the  north  tem- 
perate Atlantic,  agreeing  with  it  in  its  general  character,  though  possessing 
some  peculiarities,  a  natural  result  of  its  isolated  condition* 


OK  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WIST  OOABT  OF  NORTH  AMBRICA.       159 

Report  on  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  with  regard  to  the 
Mollusca  of  the  West  Coast  of  North  America,  By  Philip  P. 
Carpenter. 

1.  The  duty  of  preparing  a  Report  "  On  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge of  the  Mollusca  of  California,"  was  entrusted  to  the  writer  simply  in 
consequence  of  an  opportunity  which  accident  had  thrown  in  his  way,  of 
obtaining  accurate  information  on  the  Mollusca  of  one  spot  only  on  the 
Pacific  shores  of  N.  America.  Almost  entirely  destitute  of  technical  know- 
ledge, and  living  at  a  distance  from  collections  and  libraries,  he  would  not 
have  ventured  to  undertake  it  but  for  the  promised  aid  of  one,  whose  early 
death,  just  as  he  was  entering  on  that  field  which  seemed  of  all  others  most 
adapted  to  develop  his  peculiar  powers,  still  leaves  a  most  deeply-felt  void 
in  Malaoologioal  and  Geological  Science.  This  spot  is  neither  politically 
nor  conchologically  in  California,  strictly  so  called,  but  belongs  in  its  fauna 
to  the  province  which  culminates  iu  the  Bay  of  Panama  and  extends  south- 
wards to  Peru ;  while  many  shells  of  the  real  Californian  fauna  extend  north- 
wards towards  Be h ring's  Straits,  and  are  found  on  the  Asiatic  coasts  in  the 
Okhotsk  Sea.  This  Report  will  therefore  take  cognizance  of  all  that  is  known 
of  the  Mollusca  of  the  West  Coast  of  North  America,  from  the  Boreal  shores 
to  Panama. 

Before  results  can  be  obtained  of  permanent  value,  and  general  deductions 
drawn  from  them  that  shall  bear  on  the  great  questions  of  the  condition  of 
our  globe  in  this  and  previous  ages,  it  is  necessary  that  the  foundations 
should  be  laid  by  patient  and  accurate  examination  of  every  minute  point  in 
our  inquiries  i  else,  as  the  wrong  measurement  of  a  degree  nearly  prevented 
Newton's  elimination  of  the  great  law  of  gravitation,  so  the  deficiency  or 
hasty  examination  of  details  respecting  particular  species  and  their  abodes, 
may  lead  the  great  master-minds  of  science  to  erroneous  conclusions,  which, 
through  their  well-earned  influence,  retard  rather  than  stimulate  the  progress 
of  future  research.  It  is  proposed  therefore — (1)  to  state  the  physical  con- 
ditions, and  the  cautions  to  be  observed  in  the  inquiry  ;  (2)  to  present  the 
different  sources  of  information  in  historical  order ;  and  (3),  after  tabulating 
these  geographically  and  loologically,  to  draw  such  inferences  as  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge  may  warrant*. 

*  On  receiving  the  request  of  the  Association,  I  issued  a  circular  seeking  information  as  to— 
1.  What  species  are  found  on  the  north-east  shores  of  the  Pacific,  especially  at  Vancouver's 
Island. 

3.  What  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river,  and  in  the  Oregon  territory. 

3.  What  near  San  Francisco  and  Monterey. 

4.  What  near  San  Diego. 

5.  What  along  the  Pacijk  shores  of  the  peninsula  to  Cape  St.  Lucas. 

6".  What  at  La  Paz,  Guaymas,  and  other  stations  in  the  Gulf  of  California. 

7.  What  at  Acapulco  and  other  stations  along  the  coast  towards  Panama. 

8.  What  species  of  land  and  freshwater  shells  are  found  in  different  parts  of  Oregon, 
California,  and  West  Mexico. 

And,  in  order  to  compare  with  these,  as  to— 

9.  What  species  are  found  on  the  eastern  (Atlantic)  shores  of  Mexico. 

10.  What  at  the  Galapagos, 

1 1.  What  at  the  Sandwich  Islands  (distinguishing  what  are  brought  there  from  other 
places), 

12.  What  in  Polynesia. 

13.  Yihat  fossil  species  are  found  in  the  Tertiary  deposits  of  the  United  States,  which 
may  throw  light  on  the  existing  Pacific  species. 

This  circular  was  sent  to  every  accessible  station  on  the  West  N,  American  coast,  and  to 
naturalists  in  this  and  foreign  countries.  The  replies  are  on  most  points  extremely  meagre : 
bnt  I  have  pleasure  in  recording  great  obligations  to  Hugh  Cuming,  Esq.,  for  the  most  liberal 


160  REPORT — 1856. 

2.  Perhaps  no  region  in  the  world  is  so  well  adapted  for  the  study  of  the 

feographioal  distribution  of  Moll  us  ca  as  the  W.  coast  of  N.  and  S.  America, 
hut  out  from  the  vast  Indo-Pacific  province  which  reaches  to  the  Sandwich 
and  Marquesas  Islands  by  an  uninterrupted  body  of  water  almost  equal  in 
extent  to  the  whole  Atlantic  Ocean,  on  the  other  side  barred  against  all 
admixture  with  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  the  mighty  bulwark  of  Central  Ame- 
rica and  Darien,  it  presents  the  least  indented  line  of  coast  that  the  world 
can  show,  from  the  frozen  ocean  of  the  north  to  a  southern  promontory  20°^, 
south  of  the  lowest  extremity  of  the  old  world.  Even  the  land  fauna  is  sepa«* 
rated  from  that  of  the  bulk  of  the  continent  by  the  great  chain  of  the  Andes 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  by  the  arid  climate  which  prevails  over  *a 
large  portion  of  its  extent.  Here  then  we  enter  upon  a  new  type  of  marine 
life,  almost  entirely  distinct  from  those  with  which  we  have  been  familiar  in 
the  Atlantic,  Indian  and  Polynesian  waters ;  in  which  we  can  pass,  on  each 
side  of  the  equator,  from  tropical  to  boreal  conditions,  with  the  most  satis- 
factory regularity.  All  that  we  miss  is  the  presence  of  more  oceanic  islands ; 
the  solitary' group  of  the  Galapagos  presenting  data  of  unusual  interest,  Ho 
be  noticed  afterwards. 

3.  The  tropical  region  of  marine  life  extends  much  further  north  than 
south  of  the  equator.  This  is  accounted  for  by  the  direction  of  the  equato- 
rial current,  which,  striking  upon  the  swelling  coast  of  Peru,  sweeps  round 
the  great  Bay  of  Panama  and  Central  America,  and  following  the  north- 
westerly direction  of  the  coast,  is  naturally  driven  up  the  narrow  Gulf  of 
California,  where,  even  at  Guaynaag^  in  lat  27°,  are  found  the  conditions  of 
equatorial  climate  (Gould).  The  long  promontory  of  Lower  California,  from 
lat.  23°-32°,  offers  a  natural  impediment  to  the  further  northward  passage 
of  mollusks;  while  the  current  which  flows  southwards,  parallel  to  the 
shores  of  temperate  Ameiica,  seems  to  convey  many  boreal  species  below 
the  latitude  at  which  we  should  have  expected  them.  The  zoological  tem- 
perate zone  therefore  is  curtailed  in  the  northern  and  extended  in  the 
southern  hemisphere. 

4.  The  following  are  recorded  as  the  physical  conditions  of  places  which 
have  been  made  the  special  seats  of  observation. — Panama.  At  the  head 
of  an  extensive  bay,  with  a  reef  consisting  of  "  ledges  of  trachytic  rocks, 
with  flat  and  concave  surfaces,  and  gently  sloping,  precipitous,  or  shelving 
sides."  Each  has  its  appropriate  species,  as  have  also  the  loose  pieces  of 
rock,  according  to  their  size,  distance  from  each  other,  and  amount  of  inser- 
tion in  the  sand.  On  the  fine  sand  beaches,  Oliva>  TeHina,  Donax  and 
Dosinia  abound.  On  trees  a  little  above  half-tide  level  are  found  Pur- 
puree  and  Littorince ;  with  numerous  VenericUe,  Columbelke,  Neritina  picta 
and  Area  grandis  among  the  sticks  and  moss-like  algae  beneath.  On  ledges 
of  smooth  basaltic  rocks  abound  Littorince,  FissurelLe,  and  Siphonaricc.  In 
a  mangrove  thicket  at  high -water  mark  occur  Cerilhidem,  Cyrena,  Arc&y 
Potamomya,  Melampi,  and  "  over  head,  Littorina  pulchra,  almost  as  rare  as 
beautiful."  The  ordinary  tides  are  16-20  feet,  very  rarely  28  feet,  leaving 
many  square  miles  of  sea-bed  exposed  at  the  ebb.    The  bay  contains  several 

and  unrestricted  use  of  his  unrivalled  collections,  and  the  benefit  of  his  experience  and  judg- 
ment ;  to  Dr.  A.  A.  Gould,  of  Boston,  U.  S.,  for  the  transmission  of  the  whole  of  his  valuable 
materials,  including  lists  and  collections;  to  R.  NT  Andrew,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  for  the  use  of  his 
collections  and  library;  to  R.  D.  Darbishhre,  Esq.,  B.A.,  of  Manchester,  and  Sylvanus  Han- 
ley,  Esq.,  B.A.,  for  aid  in  the  identification  of  species;  to  Dr.  J.  E.  Gray,  Dr.  Baird,  and 
S.  P.  Woodward,  Esq.,  of  the  British  Museum,  for  their  assistance  throughout ;  to  Prof.  Dr. 
Dunker  for  special  help  in  the  Mytilidae,  W.  Clark,  Esq.,  in  the  Caecidcc,  and  L.  Reeve,  Esq., 
in  the  Patellidae ;  and  generally  to  friends  and  naturalists  who  have  freely  contributed  mate- 
rials at  their  disposal. 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.   161' 

steep  islands,  of  which  the  best  known  is  Taboga  (C.  B.  Adams,  Pan.  Shells, 
pp.  19-21). — Mazatlan.  On  the  north  side  of  the  bay  is  a  "long  neck  of 
narrow  hills,  [of  primitive  rock,]  their  sides  exhibiting  projecting  crags  and 
deep  indentations  which  the  ocean  has  been  lashing  for  ages.  On  the  south 
are  rocky  islands,  but  towards  the  south-west  the  harbour  is  open  to  the 
broad  Pacific,  whence  at  times  the  sea  rolls  in  with  great  fury  <  (Bartlett). 
"The  harbour  is  in  some  places  choked  with  shoals  of  large  Pinnce,  whose 
sharp  edges  cut  the  boats  (Belcher^  Station  has  often  much  more  to  do 
with  the  distribution  of  species  than  mere  latitude :  e.g.  Venus  gnidia  is 
found  in  muddy  places  from  Peru  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  but  is  not 
found  on  the  prolific  sandy  floor  of  Acapulco  harbour,  where  it  is  replaced 
by  the  sand-loving  V.  neglecta*  In  some  saudy  situations,  the  dredge  may 
be  used  for  hours  without  the  smallest  success;  while  in  others^ where  the 
floor  is  varied,  a  short  search  will  procure  more  than  fifty  species  (Hinds). 
— California.  Along  the  coast  of  Upper  California  are  primitive  rocks, 
chiefly  granite  and  syenite.  Near  Santa  Barbara  are  cliffs  of  shell  limestone, 
perhaps  200  feet  high  ;  but  their  contents  have  not  been  recorded.  Brooks 
with  hot  springs  issue  from  the  primitive  rocks,  and  there  are  abundant 
traces  of  huge  geological  convulsions  (Nuttall).  The  peninsula  is  of  vol- 
canic rtfbk,  and  exhibits  great  diversity  of  climate.  When,  near  Cape  St. 
Lucas,  the  thermometer  stands  between  60°  and  70°,  it  may  be  found,  near 
the  northern  extremity,  at  the  freezing  point  The  muddy  marshes  near 
San  Diego,  &c,  appear  to  be  very  prolific  in  bivalves ;  as  are  the  rocks  in 
Acmaa,  which  seem  to  culminate  on  this  coast,  whence  they  were  first  de- 
scribed by  Escbscholtz.  "  Observations  on  some  points  in  the  Physical  Geo- 
graphy of  Oregon  and  Upper  California,  by  Jas.  D.  Dana,"  will  be  found  in 
'  Silliman's  American  Journal  of  Science  and  Art,'  series  2,  no.  21 ,  May  1849, 
p.  376. 

5.  The  Gulf  of  California  (often,  even  in  books  of  great  pretension, 
strangely  called  a  bay)  was  discovered  by  a  vessel  detached  from  the  expe- 
dition of  Cortez  in  1533  (Dana),  (1534,  teste  Hibbert).  It  was  the  Sea  of 
Cortez,  and  the  Vermilion  Sea  of  the  early  Spaniards.  It  is  about  700  miles 
long  and  from  40-120  wide.  About  the  year  1697*  it  was  colonized  by  a 
party  of  Spanish*  Jesuits,  who  founded  Loreto,  La  Paz,  and  San  Jose  on  its 
shores.  The  earliest  shell  known  from  its  waters  was  the  pearl  oyster  (Mar- 
garUipkoraJbnbriata,  Dkr.),  to  obtain  which,  about  the  seventeenth  century, 
the  Spaniards  employed  from  600  to  800  divers ;  the  value  of  the  pearls  ob- 
tained annually  being  estimated  at  60,000  dollars.  So  exhausting  was  this 
traffic,  that  the  fishery  is  now  almost  entirely  abandoned.  Occasionally, 
however,  a  ship-load  of  pearl  shell  is  sent  to  Liverpool,  and  sold  for  manu- 
facturing purposes.  Among  the  sweepings  from  one  of  these  loads  was  found 
the  finest  specimen  known  of  Plaeunanomia  pernoides,  remarkable  for  its 
reappearance  on  the  Gambia  coast.  There  appears  to  have  been  a  treaty 
with  Spain  as  far  back  as  1786,  allowing  of  some  trade  between  this  country 
and  the  Mexican  shores ;  but  there  is  no  trace  of  much  intercourse  before 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1821.  In  1826  a  direct  treaty  was, 
formed  between  England  and  Mexico,  and  from  that  time  the  Californian 
and  W.  Mexican  coast  has  ceased  to  be  a  terra  incognita  to  English  natu- 
ralists. Still,  however,  our  knowledge  of  the  shores  and  deep  waters  of  the 
*Gulf  (especially  of  its  northern  extremity),  and  of  the  peninsula  of  Cali- 
fornia, is  most  fragmentary.  The  present  Report  contains  the  first  account 
at  all  verging  towards  accuracy  and  completeness,  of  the  fauna  at  its  mouth* 
The  117  species  collected  on  the  shores  of  Upper  California  by  our  country* 
*  Hibbert :  1642,  Blackie,  Imp.  Gu. 
1856.  m 


162  REPORT— 1856. 

man  Mr.  Nuttall,  incomplete  as  it  it,  remains  the  beat  list  of  that  interesting 
district;  and  in  spite  of  the  old-established  English  settlement  near  the 
Columbia  River,  it  was  left  to  the  United  States'  Exploring  Expedition  to 
make  us  even  moderately  acquainted  with  the  shells  of  the  Oregon  district. 
Of  the  abyssopelagic  species  in  Oregon  and  California,  we  have  only  the 
very  limited  collections  of  Belcher  and  Hinds ;  and  of  the  minuter  forms, 
which  in  the  British  fauna  are  SI  per  cent.,  in  the  Panama  fauna  13  p.&,  and 
in  the  MaEatlan  fauna  no  less  than  39  p.  c.  of  the  whole  number  of  species, 
we  cannot  reckon  more  than  half-a-dozen  names. 

6.  It  might  be  thought  that,  in  order  to  obtain  suitable  lists  of  the  Moi- 
lusca  inhabiting  particular  localities,  all  that  was  necessary  would  be  that 
shells  should  be  brought  from  that  locality,  and  then  described.  But  such 
is  far  from  being  the  case.  A  few  of  the  principal  causes  of  error,  both  aa 
regards  habitat  and  description,  will  be  noticed,  in  order  that  suitable  cau- 
tion may  be  observed  in  judging  of  the  materials  to  be  presented* 

7.  Errors  respecting  habitat — A  large  part  of  the  shells  in  collections  have 
been  brought  from  the  seats  of  trade.  Either  persons  at  home,  in  their  com- 
munications with  friends  at  sea-ports,  request  that  shells  may  be  sent  back ; 
or  sailors  bring  them  as  an  article  of  commerce.  In  both  cases,  the  greatest 
number  of  specimens  is  collected  from  all  sources,  and  no  dependence  what- 
ever can  be  placed  on  the  result*.  Thus,  well-known  East  Indian,  Philip- 
pine, and  Polynesian  shells  have  been  sent  from  Acapuloo  and  Mazatlan ; 
and  coast  shells  from  various  latitudes,  including  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
occur  in  the  Oregon  collection  of  Lady  K.  Douglas.  It  is  well  if  sailors  and 
captains  do  not  add  to  the  confusion  by  mixing  together  shells  picked  up  at 
different  places  on  the  voyage.  Nor  do  the  errors  end  here.  When  they 
pass  into  the  bands  of  dealers,  it  is  rarely  that  the  least  attention  is  paid  to 
their  locality.  They  are  mixed  in  drawers  in  every  possible  confusion,  and 
instances  have  not  been  rare  of  traders  coining  habitats  to  suit  the  supposed 
taste  of  their  customers.  Even  when  they  have  their  eyes  open  to  the  im- 
portance of  accuracy,  such  are  the  circumstances  of  confusion  attendant  on 
the  management  of  their  business,  that  correctness  is  rarely  to  be  ex- 
pected. 

8.  But  even  if  collections  have  been  made  on  a  single  spot  by  a  traveller 
of  ordinary  and  even  of  oonchological  attainments,  errors  may  arise  from 
shells  imported  in  ballast,  &c,  and  dropped  on  the  shore.  Adhering  and 
burrowing  littoral  shells  may  thus  be  found  alive  in  places  foreign  to  their 
native  seas.  This  may  account  for  a  specimen  of  Aemaapeka,  abundant  at 
Oregon,  being  found  with  the  Mazatlan  Limpets ;  and  for  Littorina  aspera 
being  given  by  Prof.  Forbes  in  his  zoological  map  as  the  characteristic  spe- 
cies of  the  Oregon  instead  of  the  Mexican  fauna,  specimens  having  probably 
reached  the  northern  collectors  iu  the  same  way.  As  an  aid  to  detect  these 
errors,  it  is  very  desirable  that  shells  should  be  retained  without  being  sub- 
jected to  the  usual  acid  treatment,  as  the  accretions,  or  the  minute  shells 
among  the  dirt,  will  often  decide  a  point  that  the  -shell  itself  will  not  deter- 
mine. Thus,  a  small  specimen  of  FissureUa  BarbadensU  was  separated  from 
a  boxful  of  F.  virescens  (a  variety  of  which  in  the  young  state  it  closely 
resembles)  by  a  minute  Spiroglyphus  and  coral  which  seem  peculiar  to  the 
Atlantic  Seas.  Thus  also  specimens  of  Ostrsa  iridescent  with  their  Placu- 
nanomuB  were  confirmed  in  their  African  habitat,  from  the  minute  shells 
between  the  laminas,  which  agreed  with  the  African  and  differed  from  the 
Panamio  types.  How  many  of  these  ballast  species  have  found  their  way 
into  the  well-searched  British  shores,  is  patent  to  the  readers  of  Forbes  and 
Hanley's  Hist  Brit.  Moll.    It  is  said  that  even  the  great  Mediterranean 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      163 

Triton  has  been  dredged  with  the  animal  in,  off  the  coast  of  Guernsey4. 
It  is  therefore  very  desirable  that  collectors  should  have  a  general  acquaint- 
ance with  the  shells  of  a  variety  of  distinct  provinces,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  prepared  to  detect  errors  when  they  arise.  For  this  purpose  also 
the  formation  of  local  collections  in  public  museums  is  very  greatly  to  be 
recommended  f. 

9.  It  might  be  thought  that  all  sources  of  error  would  be  avoided,  when 
competent  naturalists  themselves  collect  shells  in  their  original  haunts.  But 
when  different  place*  are  visited,  it  is  not  always  possible,  in  the  confinement 
of  a  ship,  or  amid  the  confusions  of  land  travelling,  to  pack  and  tabulate 
accurately  the  results  of  each  branch  of  inquiry :  or,  supposing  these  errors 
guarded  against,  intermixings  may  still  take  place  in  the  unpacking  and  dis- 
tribution of  specimens.  Moreover,  when  shells  are  left  loose  in  cabinets, 
and  the  information  is  supplied  by  ticket  only,  a  variety  of  interchanges  may 
very  unexpectedly  take  place.  Such  errors  are  most  serious  when  they  take 
place  in  the  collections  of  naturalists  deservedly  noted  for  their  accuracy; 
because  whatever  appears  in  their  cabinets  is  naturally  regarded  as  of  un- 
questionable authority.  Thus,  a  Ceylon  shell  ran  an  imminent  risk  of  being 
described  -as  from  Mazatlan  ;  and  specimens  were  found  bearing  one  locality 
on  the  ticket  affixed  to  them,  and  another  on  a  ticket  within.  Thus,  also, 
Prof.  Adams  notes  J  having  received  a  Pleurotoma  zonulata  from  Mr. 
Cuming,  as  from  the  Philippines.  Indeed,  after  the  vast  collections  made 
by  that  gentleman  in  so  fruitful  a  locality,  it  was  natural  that  shells  should 
be  often  assigned  to  this  habitat,  unless  a  contrary  were  known.  The  "  China 
Seas*'  or  "  Eastern  Seas"  of  Lieut  Belcher  are  also  supposed  to  have  in- 
cluded many  chance  acquirements;  among  others,  Dosinia  Dunkeri  from  the 
Panamic,  and  Semele  rubro-lineata  (=  simplex)  from  the  Californian  fauna. 

10.  All  these  errors,  from  whatever  source  derived,  find  their  way  into 
the  monographs,  sometimes  with  additions  by  the  writers  themselves,  and  so 
become  perpetuated.  Some  authors,  even  in  our  own  country  as  well  as  in 
France,  are  not  strict  in  regard  to  geographical  boundaries.  "  Central 
America'*  and  "  West  Columbia"  are  used  generally  for  the  tropical  portions 
of  the  W.  American  coast,  and  "  California"  for  any  stations  north  of  Aca- 
pulco,  either  in  the  Panamic  or  the  San  Franciscan  province.  Mr.  Reeve, 
indeed  (under  Patella  venosa,  pi.  10.  f.  18),  extends  W.  Columbia  south- 
wards to  include  the  Isle  of  Chiloe,  in  lat  48°,  just  as  Valenciennes  and 
Kiener  extend  Peru  northwards  to  include  Acapulco.  By  mistake,  Mr.  Sow- 
erby,  jun.,  refers  a  Panama  shell  to  Jamaica,  when  he  cites  Prof.  Adams's 
Cerithium  validwn,  and  gives  as  the  habitat  of  Ranella  nana  and  albofasciata, 
P.  Z.  S.  1841,  p.  52,  "ad  insulam  Panama,  Philippinarum" 

11.  Another  class  of  errors  arises  from  confounding  places  which  bear 
the  same  name.  Thus  St.  Vincent's  may  be  either  the  island  in  the  West 
Indies  or  on  the  Guinea  coast,  according  as  it  is  used  by  Guilding  or  Tarns. 
San  Bias  may  be  either  the  near  neighbour  of  Mazatlan  in  the  Gulf  district, 
or  it  may  be  D'Orbigny's  locality  in  Patagonia.  And  San  Juan  may  be 
either  the  bay  on  the  Gulf  side  of  the  Peninsula  of  California,  in  lat.  27  ,  or 
the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  (or  Fuaco),  near  Vancouver's  Island.  It  is 
believed  that  in  Kellett  and  Wood's  collections,  the  words  de  Fuca  have 

*  Some  may  attribute  a  solitary  specimen  of  Trochus  conulus  found  by  Mr.  Bean  at  Scar* 
borough  to  a  like  importation. 

,  f  Prof.  E.  Forbes  bad  been  collecting  materials  for  a  series  of  such  collections  at  the  University 
of  Edinburgh.  It  is  hoped  that  they  may  yet  be  made  available  for  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  designed. 

•    %  P&n.  Shells,  p.  144 ;  so  also  Ompholiu*  CaHfornicus,  ticketed  "  More  ton  Bay,"  Mns.  Cum* 

m2 


164  report — 1856. 

been  added  to  papers  from  the  former  place;  e.g.  in  Cyprcea  arabicula, 

{Bristol  Mu8.)  and  Planaxis  nigriteUa,  both  of  which  belong  to  the  Gulf 
auna.  In  Mr.  Reeve's  account  of  Hinnites  giganteus,  Gray,  the  shell  is 
quoted  from  "  California  and  the  Straits  of  Juan  Fernandez"  pi.  1.  sp.  2. 

12.  The  errors  of  one  collection,  or  of  the  author,  are  not  confined  to 
books,  but  are  continually  repeated  in  public  and  private  collections.  It  is 
important,  therefore,  when  shells  are  named  from  the  monographs,  that  the 
copied  locality  should  be  distinguished,  say  by  marks  of  quotation.  When 
the  locality  of  the  actual  specimen  is  known  on  authority,  this  may  be  under- 
lined ;  and,  where  practicable,  the  authority  should  always  be  added. 

13.  Errors  of  nomenclature. — But  supposing  that  the  original  materials 
have  been  collected  with  perfect  accuracy  (and  for  the  reasons  above  stated, 
those  collections  are  the  most  reliable  which  have  been  made  by  competent 
observers  on  single  spots  or  unmixed  districts),  a  vast  variety  of  errors  will 
probably  arise  before  their  nomenclature  is  suitably  established. 

First,  the  works  in  which  shells  are  described  are  inaccessible  to  ordinary 
students.  This  arises  in  part  from  their  being  so  expensive,  that  even  pub- 
lic museums  are  often  unable  to  procure  them ;  and  in  part  from  species 
being  described  in  local  journals  or  loose  tracts  which  either  do  not  find 
their  way  at  all  into  general  scientific  literature,  or  do  so  with  such  tardiness 
that  their  effect  is  simply  to  introduce  the  confusion  of  synonymy,  and,  by 
appealing  to  an  earlier  date,  to  upset  the  labours  of  those  who  would  most 
thankfully  have  been  spared  the  responsibility  of  description.  This  almost 
limits  the  satisfactory  production  of  original  works  to  those  who  have  frequent 
access  to  the  capital. 

14.  Or,  supposing  the  books  obtained,  the  materials  are  found  in  so  ill* 
assorted  a  state,  that  the  student's  time  is  frittered  away  in  finding  out  where 
to  look.  It  is  customary  with  some  writers  to  describe  new  species  from  any 
genera  or  any  localities,  without  the  least  regard  to  order.  Thus  every  stu- 
dent at  work  on  the  shells  of  any  district  is  obliged  to  wade  through  the 
"centuries"  of  new  shells  described  by  Philippi  in  the  'Zeit  f.  MaV  for 
fear  of  overlooking  an  already  published  species.  Or  even  when  the  genera 
are  monographed,  the  species  are  generally  arranged  either  by  accident  or  to 
suit  the  supposed  elegance  of  the  plate;  iustead  of  either  grouping  them 
zoologically,  so  as  to  exhibit  allied  species  side  by  side,  or  else  geographi- 
cally so  as  to  bring  the  species  from  each  district  together.  For  want  of 
some  such  help,  whole  hours,  which  might  have  been  spent  in  advancing 
science,  may  be  wasted  in  hunting  for  a  single  Conns,  a  Voluta,  a  Helix,  or 
a  Mitra.  As  a  help  to  the  determination  of  species,  the  more  minute  divi- 
sion of  large  genera  is  by  no  means  to  be  opposed ;  the  Lamarckian  genera 
being  to  our  present  knowledge  of  species  and  animals  what  the  Linneean 
groups  were  in  the  times  of  Lamarck.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted  that 
many  of  the  divisions  proposed  of  late  years  have  been  named  in  utter 
defiance  of  the  principles  of  nomenclature  which  the  British  Association 
recommend,  and  which  are  generally  received  by  the  naturalists  of  this  and 
other  countries. 

15.  But  supposing  the  materials  found,  it  then  appears  that  most  of  them 
are  in  so  unsatisfactory  a  state  that  allied  species  cannot  be  discriminated. 
Some  writers  recommend  short  descriptions  to  save  time ;  but  much  more 
time  is  lost  in  the  end  by  the  errors  to  which  they  give  rise.  If  any  one 
will  study  the  synonymy  of  the  Calyptrceida  in  the  British  Museum  Mazatlan 
Catalogue,  they  will  be  able  to  form  some  idea,  though  a  very  partial  one, 
of  the  labour  that  has  been  thus  entailed.  The  consequence  is  that  the 
same  name  is  often  quoted  by  differeut  writers  for  very  different  shells, 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      165 

which  is  a  much  greater  evil  than  the  giving  of  several  names  to  one  species. 
Until,  therefore,  existing  species  are  tabulated  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  recog- 
nizable by  students,  it  would  appear  a  less  evil  in  a  doubtful  case  to  de- 
scribe a  fresh  species,  than  to  run  a  probable  risk  of  affiliating  a  different 
shell  to  a  species  already  constituted. 

16.  Those  identifications  therefore  are  by  far  the  most  satisfactory  which 
are  made  by  a  comparison  of  types.  But  even  here  the  student  must  exer- 
cise caution.  ,  For  if  any  one  had  searched  last  year  for  the  types  of  Brode- 
rip's  CalyptrccicUe  (so  obscure  to  the  many  who  have  not  access  to  the  plates 
in  the  *  Transactions'),  he  would  have  found  not  only  two  of  those  species 
nameless,  and  in  imminent  peril  of  re-description,  and  that  too  as  from  dif- 
ferent localities  from  those  recorded  in  the  'Proceedings' ;  but  he  might  have 
observed  the  same  name  of  Broderip  given  to  two  distinct  species,  neither  of 
which  was  the  shell  figured  in  the  '  Transactions,'  which  still  appears  under 
another  name.  On  searching  also  for  the  types  of  shells  described  in  the 
'  Proceedings,'  within  a  few  weeks  after  they  had  been  communicated,  the 
names  indeed  were  found,  but  fastened  to  very  different  shells  from  what  the 
author  had  intended.  All  these  errors  had  arisen  from  the  number- tickets 
with  the  shells  referring  to  the  catalogues  having  been  misplaced. 

17.  As  human  life  is  so  short,  and  those  who  have  the  inclination  for 
scientific  pursuits  have  generally  so  little  leisure,  it  is  a  serious  evil  when  so 
large  a  proportion  of  that  little  has  to  be  devoted  to  the  labour  of  making 
out  the  errors  of  predecessors.  We  therefore  venture  to  suggest  some  points 
which  may  be  worthy  of  the  consideration  of  the  leaders  in  science.  First, 
whether  the  Government,  which  often  spends  large  sums  in  the  production 
of  important  and  expensive  works,  might  not  spend  a  portion  of  that  sum  in 
presenting  copies,  or  selling  them  at  a  reduced  rate,  to  the  various  free  mu- 
seums and  libraries  in  the  country.  Secondly,  whether  the  British  Associa- 
tion (which  has  already  catalogued  the  stars),  or  some  other  public  body, 
might  not  undertake  the  work  of  cataloguing  the  existing  species  in  different 
departments  of  natural  history*.  And  thirdly,  whether]  a  general  registry 
office  could  be  agreed  upon  by  naturalists  of  all  nations,  which  might  have 
branch  stations  in  the  various  capitals,  and  to  which  Latin  copies  of  all  de- 
scriptions of  new  species  should  be  sent,  by  every  naturalist  who  wished  to 
retain  the  rights  of  priority ;  to  be  accompanied  by  information  where  the 
type  specimen  was  to  be  found. 

18.  But  the  foundation-point  of  all  our  inquiries  must  be  the  discrimi- 
nation of  species  themselves  as  they  exist  in  nature.  And  here  those  labour 
under  great  disadvantage  who  can  only  consult  the  "  especes  de  cabinet,'*  in 
which,  for  the  sake  of  saving  room,  single  or  very  few  specimens  are  exhi- 
bited; since,  in  the  case  of  variable  species,  it  is  quite  easy  to  pick  out 
several  extreme  forms  which  shall  apparently  be  even  more  distinct  than  J 
those  which  all  allow  to  be  separate  species.  Every  description  therefore 
which  is  founded  on  single  or  extremely  few  specimens  must  be  regarded  as 
only  provisional,  till  their  circumstances  of  variation  are  known.  And 
he,  perhaps,  is  doing  more  useful  work,  who  has  obtained  materials  by 
which  a  full  knowledge  of  the  variable  powers  of  moll  us  ks  may  be  attained, 
than  he  who  only  describes  a  number  of  single  independent  forms.    Those 

*  Or  if  this  should  be  regarded  as  too  great  a  work,  the  preparation  of  cheap  digests  of 
species  like  Mr.  Hanley's  admirable  'Recent  Bivalve  Shells,'  and  figures  intermediate 
between  those  of  Wood  and  the  Monographs,  are  greatly  to  be  desired.  Now  that  Mr.  Wood- 
ward's text-book  is  making  the  study  of  Mollusks  so  popular,  the  need  for  such  books  of  species 
is  becoming  extensively  felt.  The  publication  also  of  cheap  abstracts  of  expensive  books,  such 
as  are  given  in  the  *  Zeit  f.  Mai./  would  be  of  great  service  to  students. 


166  report — 1856. 

who  would  study  species  in  a  comprehensive  manner  might  advantageously 
consult  the  canons  given  in  Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter's  Researches  on  Orbitolites, 
*  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.'  1855,  pp.  226-230.  It  must  not  be  expected,  however, 
that  creatures  (comparatively  speaking)  so  highly  organized  as  niollusks, 
should  assume  such  abnormal  forms  as  the  lower  animals  and  plants.  Often 
indeed  one  species  will  greatly  vary,  while  another,  closely  allied,  is  constant 
in  its  characters ;  or  differences  will  be  found  between  the  shells  of  a  single 
species,  which  in  another  tribe  would  justly  entitle  them  to  generic  separa- 
tion. No  general  rules  therefore  can  be  given  to  guide  the  student.  But  it 
is  required  of  him  that  he  should  faithfully  use  all  the  materials  at  his  com- 
mand ;  not  being  satisfied  with  an  examination  of  particular  forms,  but  care- 
fully working  through  those  shells  especially  which  many  would  cast  aside 
simply  because  they  were  puzzling,  or  were  not  fine  specimens.  Those 
whose  work  lies  mainly  among  picked  collectors'  shells  are  recommended  to 
study  the  series  of  fossils  arranged  by  Prof.  £.  Forbes  in  the  Museum  of 
I  Practical  Geology,  and  the  large  suites  illustrating  particular^species  in  the 
*  British  Museum  Mazatlan  Collection.  "* 

19.  It  is,  however,  by  no  means  recommended  that  we  should  abstain 
from  describing  new  forms,  because  it  may  afterwards  be  discovered  that 
they  are  conspeci6c  with  others  previously  found.    The  great  point  is,  that 

!  we  should  be  guided  in  those  matters  that  are  least  known  by  the  experience 
;  gained  by  studying  carefully  ascertained  species  in  their  varied  develop- 
ments ;  and  that  we  should  not  desire  the  maintenance  of  species  simply 
because  they  have  once  been  published,  when  further  light  assigns  to  them 
a  subordinate  place.  Those  writers  are  therefore  not  to  be  blamed  who 
have  multiplied  species  simply  from  a  want  of  sufficient  materials.  Thus 
when  C.  B.  Adams  described  as  five  distinct  species  the  Cacum  pt/gnuBumy 
diminution,  monstrosum,  eburneum,  and  Jirmalum>  which  seem  only  stages  in 
the  development  of  the  same  shell,  he  did  carefully,  according  to  the  then 
state  of  knowledge,  what  a  naturalist  of  less  accuracy  would  have  passed 
over  as  one  shell,  simply  from  not  having  found  out  the  differences.  But 
when  the  further  discovery  of  many  hundreds  of  individuals,  proves  that  they 
are  identical,  a  higher  point  of  knowledge  is  reached,  according  to  which  all 
examinations  in  the  same  group  may  be  henceforth  interpreted  till  some  yet 
higher  generalization  is  attained. 

20.  But  when  species  are  constituted  or  disregarded,  simply  in  obedience 
to  a  theory,  injury  is  done  to  the  progress  of  science.  Thus  a  recent  author 
on  the  British  Fauna  appears  unwilling  to  believe  in  the  existence  of  species 
other  than  what  occur  on  the  South  Devon  coast ;  and  accordingly  unites 
together  many  which  have  been  constituted  by  the  most  accurate  naturalists, 
but  which,  from  their  northern  station,  he  had  not  an  opportunity  of  study- 
ing. And  on  the  other  hand,  the  principal  American  conchologists,  having 
assumed  a  theory  that  no  species  can  be  found  in  two  distinct  provinces 
unless  we  can  see  a  way  by  which  they  may  have  moved  from  one  to  the 
other,  forthwith  proceed  to  describe  as  new  everything  which  makes  its  ap- 
pearance on  an  unexpected  side  of  the  coast.  Undoubtedly  it  is  by  far  the 
most  easy  way  of  studying  a  fauna  merely  to  consult  those  works  which 
apply  to  that  fauna,  and  to  describe  as  new  whatever  is  not  found  therein ; 
but  we  must  beware  lest  we  be  forcing  Nature  into  our  own  form.  Now, 
just  as  we  give  a  species  already  constituted  the  benefit  of  a  doubt,  till  we 
be  fairly  able  to  prove  its  identity  with  another,  so  we  may  suppose  shells 
different  from  opposite  coasts,  till  we  can  prove  them  the  same.  But,  in  the 
language  of  the  late  Dr.  Binney*,  "  until  the  question  of  the  identity  of 

*  Terrestrial  and  Air-breathing  Moihiscs  of  the  United  States,  edited  py  Dr.  Gould,  Beaton, 
1851,  vol.  i.  chap.  3. 


Otf  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WMT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       lisf 

these  closely  allied  species  has  been  decided  by  their  anatomy,  we  believe 
it  to  be  perfectly  safe  to  adopt  this  axiom, — that  species,  whencesoever 
derived,  possessing  the  same  characters,  are  identical.  We  view  this  to  be  a 
more  rational  course  than  to  consider  them  to  be  the  analogies  of  each 
other;  a  convenient  but  very  indefinite  mode  of  expression,  which  may  be 
used  to  cover  every  degree  of  similitude,  from  a  general  analogy  to  a  close 
affinity  hardly  admitting  of  distinction*." 

21.  As  far  as  facts  already  ascertained  justify  us  in  drawing  any  conclu- 
sions, it  would  appear  that  while  the  shells  in  each  of  the  great  provinces 
throughout  the  world  are  in  the  main  remarkably  distinct  from  each  other, 
there  are  in  each  fauna  (1)  many  shells  which"  are  parallel  with  those  from 
other  seas  ;  (2)  some  which  are  nearly  ubiquitous,  and  often  extend  far 
back  in  geological  age ;  and  (3)  others  which,  though  by  no  means  widely 
diffused,  reappear  very  unexpectedly  in  far-distant  seas.  Thus  Philippi  and 
Hanley  quote  shells  common  to  the  Mediterranean  and  Australia;  Mr. 
Cuming  finds  the  British  Lucina  borealis  and  Nassa  incrassata  at  the  Philip- 
pines ;  and  even  Mr.  Hinds  can  trace  no  difference  between  a  Nemra  of  the 
China  Seas  and  the  European  N.  costellata.  As  to  the  line  of  demarcation 
between  species  and  varieties,  that  must  remain  in  many  cases  a  matter  of 
individual  opinion.  Those  who,  with  Prof.  Adams,  can  speak  of  the  different 
species  of  Man  f  Conch.  Contr.  p.  87 ;  a  view  more  congenial  to  the  "  pe- 
culiar institution'  of  the  stripe-flagged  United  States  than  to  the  readers  of 
Pritchard's  Physical  History),  may  be  expected  to  constitute  species  of 
shells  on  characters  which  to  others  will  appear  of  secondary  importance ; 
while  those  who  have  been  in  the  habit  of  examining  large  multitudes  of 
specimens  will  take  a  larger  view  of  the  probable  extent  of  specific  variation. 
These  differences  will  be  taken  into  account  in  comparing  the  works  of  one 
naturalist  with  another. 

22.  Having  thus  shown  the  grounds  of  caution  in  using  the  materials  by 
which  a  knowledge  of  local  faunas  is  to  be  derived,  we  proceed  to  examine, 
one  by  one,  the  sources  of  information  which  have  been  discovered  with 
regard  to  the  Mollusca  of  the  two  great  divisions  of  the  West  N.  American 
fauna.  The  localities  to  which  they  principally  refer  may  be  arranged  as 
follows : — 

L  Bobbal  Fauna,    a.  Circumpolar.  Icy  Cape,  lat.f  70'5°.    Bearing's  Straits,  on 

the  Arctic  circle.     "  Behring  Sea." 
B.  Asiatic*  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  with  the  Sehantar  Is.,  55°.    Kurule  Is.,  from  Japan 

to  Kamtschatka.     Petropaulovski,  62'5°.    Cape  Lopatka,  61°  i  from  which 

the  Aleutian  Is.  extend  to 
c.  American.  Prom.  Aliaska.    Those  most  explored  are,  Is.  Kodiak,  57° ;  Oona- 

lashka,54°;  Atcha,  53°.  Norfolk  Sound  in  King  George's  Archipelago.  Sitcha, 

58°,  in  the  parallel  of  the  Hebrides. 

II.  Temperate  Fauna,  a.  Oregon.  (Parallel  of  France.)  Vancouver's  Is.  49°-61°, 
with  Nootka  Is.  and  Sound ;  separated  on  the  south  from  the  mainland  (of 
which  the  extreme  point  is  Cape  Classet)  by  the  Straits  of  San  Juan  de  Fuaco, 
at  the  S.  end  of  which  is  Ft.  Nisqually,  47°.  At  the  mouth  of  Columbia  River 
are  Townsend  and  Discovery  Harbour,  4&.  Up  the  river  is  Ft.  Walla  Walla. 
R.  Willamette  flows  upwards  into  the  R.  Columbia,  near  Ft.  Vancouver,  46°. 
B.  Upper  California.  (Parallel  of  the  Mediterranean.)  "  Colonie  Russe,"  or  Bo- 
degas, 38°.  San  Francisco  and  R.  Sacramento,  375°.  Monterey,  36*5°.  Sta 
Barbara,  34°.    Is.  Catalina,  34°J. 

•  Ftde  Prof.  Agassis  on  the  "Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,"  in  the '  Christian 
Examiner,'  Boston,  March  and  July  1850. 

J  The  degree*  are  only  given  approximately. 
Another  Is.  Catalina  is  in  the  Gulf. 


168  report — 1856. 

c.  Peninsula  of  Old  or  Lower  California,  23-32°,  Pacific  Shores.  (Parallel  of  the 
Canaries.)  San  Pedro,  near  Is.  Catalina.  San  Diego,  33°*.  Bay  of  Magda- 
lena,  with  Is.  Margarita,  245°.  Cape  St.  Lucas,  23°. 
III.  Tropical  Fauna,  a.  Gulf  District.  (Tropic  — ?  32°).  a.  Californian  Coast. 
Cape  Palmat,  23-6°.  La  Paz,  24°.  Is.  and  Cape  San  Jose,  25°J.  Loretto  and 
Bay  of  San  Juan,  26-5°.§  Gulf  San  Miguel,  29°  ||.  b.  Mexican  Coast.  Guay 
mas,  28°.  Lobos  Is.  27°f .  Mazatlan,  23°  (with  the  Is.  Crestin,  Ciervo,  Per- 
mano,  Venado,  &c).  Is.  Tres  Marias,  22°.  Isabella  Is.,  between  these  and 
San  Bias,  21 -5°. 

b.  Mexican  and  Central  American  District.  (Parallel  of  Senegambia.)  Revillagi- 
gedos  Is.  18°.  not  yet  searched,  perhaps  connected  with  the  Gulf  fauna.  Aca- 
pulco,  17°.  Gulf  Tehuantepec,  16°.  Sonsonati  and  Guacomayo  (or  Guaya- 
moco),  14°.  Gulf  of  Fonscca  or  Conchagua,  14°.  Realejo  or  Real  Llejos,  13°. 
Gulf  of  Papagayo,  11°.  Gulf  of  Nicoya,  10°,  with  Punta  Arenas  within  the 
Gulf,  and  Cape  Blanco  at  the  entrance.  Gulf  of  Dulce**,  or  Bay  of  Costa  Rica, 
with  Is.  of  Cafia  and  Pueblo  Nuovo,  9°.  Bay  of  Montijo  and  Bay  of  Honda,  8°. 
Is.  ofQuibo,  7°. 

c.  Panama  District.  (Parallel  of  Liberia.)  The  town  is  in  lat.  8°  49',  and  in  the 
Bay  are  the  Is.  of  Taboga,  Rey,  Perico,  San  Jose,  and  Sabogatf. 

d.  Ecuador  District.  Atacamas,  with  Cape  San  Francisco  J  J,  1°  N.  Bay  of  Ca- 
raccas,  5°  S.  Is.  Plata,  1°.  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  with  Punta  St.  Elena,  Punta 
Arenas  and  Is.  Puna,  2°.     Payta,  5°. 

b.  Galapagos  or  Tortoise  Is.,  on  the  equator  in  long.  90°,  consisting  of  six  largo 
and  seven  small  islands ;  those  most  quoted  are,  Charles  Is.,  James  Is.,  Albe- 
marle Is.,  Chatham  Is.,  and  Hood's  Is.§§ 

23.  Scarcely  any  mention  is  made  of  W.  American  shells  by  Linnaeus, 
Chemnitz,  and  the  older  conchologiste  generally.  A  very  few  handsome 
species  from  the  Panama  province,  such  as  Oliva  porphyria,  &c,  had  found 
their  way  into  European  collections  and  books,  perhaps  through  the  pearl 
oyster  trade ;  or  even,  it  may  be,  introduced  indirectly  through  East  Indian 
commerce.     But  our  first  direct  acquaintance  with  the  shells  of  the  Panama 

*  The  shells  of  this  place  rank  somewhat  better  with  Lower  than  with  Upper  California, 
with  which  it  is  locally  and  politically  connected.  It  was  the  first  settlement  on  the  coast, 
having  been  founded  by  the  Jesuits  in  1769.  There  is  another  San  Diego  in  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec. 

f  Not  to  be  confounded  with  Cape  Palmar,  on  the  equator,  in  long.  80° ;  nor  with  Cape 
Palmas  on  the  Guinea  coast,  where  are  islands  (St  Thomas  and  St.  Vincent)  liable  to  be 
associated  with  the  Antilles. 

%  There  is  also  a  San  Jose  between  the  two  capes  at  the  end  of  the  promontory,  and 
another  in  the  harbour  of  San  Francisco.  An  island  of  the  same  name  Is  in  the  Bay  of 
Panama. 

§  Besides  this  station  and  the  Straits  of  De  Fuca,  there  is  a  San  Juan  on  the  opposite  shore 
near  Guaymas ;  another  near  San  Bias;  a  Point  on  the  coast  near  Lake  Nicaragua ;  and  a  little 
island  between  Is.  Catalina  and  San  Diego. 

||  There  is  another  San  Miguel  near  the  Bay  of  Fonseca,  in  long.  88"5°;  also  a  port  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama,  lat.  8°  10' ;  and  an  island  outside  Sta  Barbara. 

%  Not  to  be  confounded  with  Lobos  Is.,  Peru. 

**  Another  Gulf  of  Dulce  opens  out  of  the  Bay  of  Honduras. 

ft  This  is  quoted  by  Prof.  Adams  as  a  corruption  of  Taboga.  It  is,  however,  marked  in 
the  charts  as  a  very  small  island,  N.W.  of  San  Jose  and  one-third  of  the  distance  between 
that  and  Taboga.  A  river  Chiriqui  is  also  quoted  as  in  the  Bay  of  Panama.  Perhaps  it  is 
near  the  town  of  the  same  name  i  n  Veragua.  There  is  another  Chiriqui  between  Greytown 
and  Chagrcs. 

Xt  There  is  a  Bay  of  San  Francisco  in  Lower  California  on  the  Pacific  side,  in  lat.  30°,  and 
another  near  San  Miguel  within  the  Gulf.  Also  a  Bar  of  the  same  name  in  the  Gulf  of  Tehu- 
antepec. 

§§  Another  Hood's  Is.  is  in  lat.  21°  S.,  long.  135°  W.  Which  of  these  is  the  "  Lord  Hood's 
Is."  often  quoted  in  Mr.  Cuming's  Coll.,  is  not  known.  It  is  possible  that  some  species  be- 
longing to  the  Galapagos  fauna  have  been  passed  over,  from  their  being  assigned  to  the  Poly- 
nesian station. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WB8T  COA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      169 

province  is  due  to  the  French  botanist,  Joseph  Dombey.  He  arrived  in 
Peru  in  1778,  and  brought  home  several  shells,  of  which  eight  species  are 
described  by  Lamarck*.  (C.  B.  Adams.) 

24.  The  earliest  authentic  collections,  however,  made  on  the  Pacific  shores 
of  N.  America  were  obtained  by  the  celebrated  Baron  Humboldt  and  his 
companion  M.  Bonpland.  In  1803  they  reached  Peru,  whence  they  sailed 
to  Acapulco.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  they  did  not  themselves  describe  the 
shells  they  brought.  They  were  seen,  indeed,  by  Lamarck,  who  described ; 
eleven  species  from  them;  but  the  detailed  account  was  entrusted  to  M.  Va- 
lenciennes, and  was  not  published  till  1833,  the  descriptions  having  been 
written  in  Nov.  1831f.  In  vol.  ii.  of  "  Recueil  d'Observations  de  Zoologie  et 
d'Anatomie  Com  par  ee,  faites  dans  l'Oc6an  Atlantique,  dans  Tlnterieur  du 
Nouveau  Continent,  et  dans  la  Mer  du  Sud  pendant  les  annees  1799-1803, 


*  An  important  aid  in  the  understanding  of  the  Lamarckian  species  was  given  by  M.  De- 
lessert,  who  published  a  magnificent  volume  of  plates  entitled  "  Recueil  de  Coquilles  de^crites 
par  Lamarck  dans  son  Hist.  Nat  des  An.  s.  Vert,  et  non  encore  figurees.  Paris,  1841."  A 
copy  may  be  seen  in  the  library  of  the  Linn.  Soc,  and  a  list  of  species  is  given  by  Menke  in 
his  '  Zeit  f.  Mai.'  June  1844,  pp.  83-05. 

f  The  following  Table  may  aid  the  student  in  deciding  questions  of  priority :  the  lists 
being  given  in  the  approximate  order  of  collection ;  the  order  of  publication  being  very 
different. 


*-: 


Date  of 
Expedition. 


Date  of 
Publication. 


Vessels. 


Collectors. 


1 
2 
9 
3 
5 
4 
11 

12 

18 

8 

6 

7 

10 

21 

13 

16 

J4 

17 

20 
15 
25 
19 
24 
23 
30 
22 
26 
29 
27 
28 


1778 

1 1803 

1822-1825 
1823-1826 

1 1825-28 

1826-1836 

1826-1833 
1827-1830 


1834-1835 
1836-1837 

L 1836-39 
1836-1842 


1839-1842 
1843-1844 

1846^1848 

1848-1849 

184&M850 


1850 

1854 

"1856* 


Lam.  A.S.V. 

J  Do. 

I  Voy.  1833 
1826-1830 
1829-1833 

/ 1829  Z.J. 

\  1839  Voy. 

1839     | 

1847 
1832-56 

1832  Blainv. 

1833  Daclos 
1836,37 
1847-51 

Desh.  1839-40 

Voy.  1846 
JZ.P.  1843 
1  Voy.  1844 

1846-    { 

1847-51 

1846 
1851-56 

1847 
1850-51 

1850 

1856 

1850 

1852 

1856 

1855 

1856 


Coquille 

V  Blossom 

Adventure 
and  Beagle 

}  i 

Bonite 
\  Venus  { 

V  Sulphur 

U.S.ExpL 
Exp. 


Mexic.  war 


Pandora 


Dombey 

Humboldt  and  Bonpland. 

Lesson 

Eschscholtz 

Beechey  and  Belcher 

j-  Capts.  King  and  Darwin 

D'Orbigny   

Cuming 

Botta   


Gal. 


Nuttall 

Eydoux  and  Souleyet 

DuPetitThouars,Chiron,  1 
La  Perouae J 

Belcher  and  Hinds 


Wilkes,  Couthouy 
Middendorff    


ewett,  Green,  and  Rich.. 

Melchers 

Melchers 

Kellett  and  Wood  

Reigen 

Wilson 

C.  B.  Adams 

(Sailor)    

Blake  and  Webb 

Bridges    


170 


REPORT— -1856. 


par  AL  de  Humboldt  et  A.  Bonpland ;  Paris,  1833/'  will  be  found  the 
"  Mollusques,  decrites  par  A.  Valenciennes,"  pp.  217-339.  Several  of  the 
shells  are  from  the  East  Indies ;  and  of  those  assigned  to  Acapulco,  many 
appear  to  have  crossed  the  Pacific  by  the  agency  of  man.  The  list  of  Aca- 
pulco shells,  however,  as  it  appears,  is  as  follows : — 


Tf.  put*. 
222    48 
221    60 


\a,b,c, 


\a,b. 
la,  6. 


TeUina  petahm,  Val.    Acapulco.  Almost  exactly  like  T.  solidula. 
4.  Donax  radiata,  Val.     Pacific  shores  of  equatorial  America. 

This  appears  to  be  either  D.  punctatostriatus,  Hani.  var.,  or 

D.  Conradi,  Desh.,  probably  the  latter;  but  the  description 

is  not  sufficiently  accurate  to  claim  priority. 
Venus  succincta,  Val.     Acapulco.      Probably  =  Anomalocardia 

subimbricata,  Sow.  or  V.  neglecta,  Gray. 
Anodonta  glauca,  Val.    Acapulco.      Appears  exactly  to  accord 

with  Anodon  ciconia,  Gould,  except  that  it  is  said  to  be  white 

within.    Perhaps  described  from  a  single  specimen. 
Bulimus  undatus,  Lam.    Mexico.  =Orthalicus  sebra,  Miill. 
Bulimus  Mexicanus,  Lam.    Mexico.    The  shell  described  in  B.  M. 

Maz.  Cat.  p.  1/7.  no.  234,  may  be  the  young  of  this  species. 
Haliotis  Californiana,  Val.     California. 

7\trbopellis-serpentisAqxi&&i]Va\.  Acapulco.  =Tegula j>.,  Mawe. 
Neritatextilis,Lmn.,LAm.    Acapulco. 
Nerita  jpapilionacea,  Val.    Acapulco.      Differs  from  the  last  in 

having  fewer  ribs,  and  granulations  on  the  lip.     Lat.  '83. 
Turritella  gonostoma,  Val.    Acapulco,  [Jun.]. 
TurriteUa  leucostoma,  Val.    Acapulco. 

Cerithium  musica,  Val.  Acapulco.     Described  from  one  sp.  long. 
-     1  '25 :  said  to  resemble  C.  titeratum,  Brug.  (not  Born  and  GualtJ. 
Cerithium  granosum,  Val.    Acapulco.    Probably  a  Cerithidea. 
Cerithium  stercus-muscarum,  Val.*    Acapulco. 
Cerithium  fragaria,  Val.*    "  One  sp.  fished  at  Acapulco/'  plaited 

like  Fasciolaria,  resembles  C.  lima,  long.  1*  + .  Comp.  Vert  ague 

gemmatus,  Hds.  jun. 
Cerithium  varicosum,  [quasi]  Val.     Probably  Cerithidea  varicose, 

Sow.f 
Paludina  earinata,  Val.    "  Mexico :"  on  which  side  of  the  moun- 
tains is  not  stated. 
Tectarius  ooronatus,  Val*    Acapulco* 
Cyprwa  radians,  Lam.    Acapulco. 
Cypraa  arabicula,  Lam*    Acapulco. 
Cypraa  Lamarckii,  Duel.    Acapulco. 
Strombus  troglodytes,  Lam.     Acapulco. 
Strombus  canceltatus,  Lam.    Acapulco. 
Conus  regius,  Brug.  &  Lam.    Acapulco.  =C.  princeps,  Linn. 
Conus  lineolatus,  Val.    Acapulco.     Like  the  last. 
Conus  ductus,  Val.    Acapulco.    Like  C.  hyema. 
Conus  scalaris,  Val.    Acapulco.    The  recent  analogue  of  C.  cte- 

perditus,  Lam. 
Solarium  granulatum,  Lam.    Acapulco. 
Solarium  granosum,  Val.   Acapulco.   "  The  living  analogue  of  the 

Italian  fossil}  S.  millegranum." 
Solarium  bicanaliculatum.    Val.    Acapulco. 
Natica  Bonplandi,  Val.    Acapulco.  =N.  patula,  Sow.  teste  Val. ; 

but  probably  a  distinct  species,  as  it  is  described  "callo  sub- 

diviso." 

*  Thest  species  are  not  noticed  by  Sow.  Jon.  In  his  recent  Monograph.  His  "  C.  granosum, 
Kien,"  is  an  Australian  species,  like  C.  coratliutn;  and  his  "  C.  mnsicum, nob."  is  like  C.  vuifa- 
tum,  but  from  the  Cape  de  Verd  Islands. 

t  C.  BumboUti,  Val.~  C.  PadficuM,  Sow.  teste  Jay. 


219    48 
236    50 


945  55 

247  56 

267  ... 

273  ...- 

263  ... 

264  ... 

275  ... 

276  ... 

277  ... 

278  ... 

278  ... 

279  ... 


£tj£     • . .        . . . 
252    56    2  a,  b. 


271  ... 

334  ... 

334  ... 

334  ... 

307  — 

308  57 


a,b. 


336  ... 

337  ... 

338  ... 

269  ... 

269  ... 

270  ... 
265  57 


3a,b. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AM  BRIO  A.      171 

Page.  Plate.     Fig. 

332    Mitra  babea,  Val.    Acapulco.    Resembles  M.  Vulpecula,  &c. 

286    Fasciolaria  canaliculata,  Val.    Acapulco.     Resembles  F.  tulipa. 

Long.  233. 

286    Fob ciolaria  rugosa,  Val.   Acapulco.  Long. '42.  Probably  a  young 

Latyrus. 

283  Turbinella  ardeola,  Val.  Acapulco.  =T.  cttstus,  Brod.  Accord- 
ing to  Val.  the  Leucozonia  (Monoceros)  cingulata  was  not 
brought  by  Bonpland,  as  Lam.  supposed. 

334     ...       ...       Oliva  testacea,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

334 Oliva  voluteUa,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

334 Oliva  zonalis,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

310     Cassis  centiquadrata,  Val.    Acapulco. 

811     Cassis  doliata,  Val.    Acapulco. 

312     Cassis  testioulus,  Linn.    Acapulco.   (W.  Indian.) 

313    Cassis  coarctata,  Wood.    "West  shores  of  South  America,  near 

Acapulco."  In  p.  338,  the  author  again  refers  to  Acapulco  as 
in  South  America.    [=  Levenia  c.f  way.] 

323     Harpa  scriba,  Val.    Acapulco. 

325     Malea*  latilabris,  Val.  Acapulco.  "=Buccinum  rtw^eiw,  Wood." 

327     MaUa  crassilabris,  Val.    Acapulco.     Described  from  a  single  sp., 

and  probably  a  var.  of  Malea  ringens. 

328     Buccinum  leiocheilos,  Val.    Acapulco. 

329    Co liumbella,  allied  to  rustica.  Acapulco.  Doubtless  C.fusoata,  8o w. 

330     Columbella  strombiformis,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

331     Columbella  gibbosa,  Val.    Acapulco.  "  =b  C.  strombtformis,  pars, 

Sow.  Gen.  f.  1."  Appears  to  be  a  variety  of  the  last,  ana  not 
C.  major,  as  it  is  described  with  a  yellow  border  to  the  aper- 
ture, and  white  spots  on  the  back. 

331     Columbella  costata,  Val.    Acapulco.      Possibly  *=  Anachis  coro- 

nata,  Sow. 

314     Purpura  patula,  Linn.    Three  individuals  were  labelled  "  South 

Sea"  Dy  Bonpland :  Val.  confesses  that  no  difference  can  be 
traced  between  these  and  the  W.  Indian  shells. 

315     Purpura  undata,  Lam .  Acapulco.  =  P.  bissrialis,  Blainv.  Val.  says 

that  he  has  compared  this  shell  with  the  Lamarckian  type,  but 
confesses  that  his  description  (according  to  him,  by  a  lapsus 
calami)  does  not  agree.  Kiener  figures  the  P.  undata,  Lam. 
for  a  different  W.  Indian  shell,  and  is  probably  right. 

316     Purpura  speciosa,  Val.     Acapulco.   =P.  centiquadra,  Val.  MS. 

=  P.  triserialis,  Blainv. 

316     Purpura  canaliculata,  Val.    Acapulco.    Long.  *66.    •"""* 

317  •••       ...      Ptt rpura  semuimbricata,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

318     Purpura  (Monoceros)  crassUabrum,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

287     Fusus  turrit,  Val.  Acapulco.    Like  F.  colus.    Long.  6*. 

288 Fusus  caneeUatus,  Val*    Acapulco.    Like  Dropkon  fenestratus. 

Long.  1*42. 

290    Fusus  Zlagellanicus,  Gmel.,  Lam.  (Tropkon).  "  =  T.  Junbriatum, 

Mart.    S.  America  and  Acapulco."  [?] 

291     Pyrula  patula,  Brod.  Acapulco. 

292     Pyrula  vespertilio,  Gmel.  (Jlurex).  =  P.  carnaria,  Enc.  Acapulco. 

294     Pyrula  (Hcula)  reticulata,  Lam.    "8.  America." 

295     Pyrula  (Kcula)  ficoides,  Lam.  "  With  the  preceding  at  Acapulco." 

296     Pyrula  spirata,  Lam.    Acapulco  (Bonpland). 

304     Tritonium  kamastoma,  Val.    Acapulco.    Very  like  pileart,  Linn. 

305    Tritonium  macrodon,  Val.    Acapulco.    Like  the  last. 

306  .«.       ...       Tritonium  decussatum,  Val.    Acapulco.     Like  Distortio  anus. 

297     Ranella  crumenoides,  Blainv.  "  =R.  crumena,  Brod.  Zool.  Journ. 

Suppl.  pi.  11.  fig.  2." 

.    *  Although  this  genus  is  properly  defined  in  Latin,  Meat  re.  H.  and  A.  Adams  (Oen.  vol.  i. 
p.  190)  lay  it  aside  in  order  to  introduce  an  unknown  name,  Cadium,  previously  given  by  Link* 


172  REPORT — 1856. 

Page.  Plate.     Fig. 

298    RaneUa  granifera,  Lam.    Acapulco. 

299     Murex  radix,  Gmel.    Acapulco. 

300  ...       ...      Murex  tricolor,  Val.  =  m.  regius ,  Swains,  (recti), 

301     Murex  bicolor,  Val.  =  M.  regius,  Schub.  &  Wagn.  (maU).  "With 

the  last  at  Acapulco." 

302    Murex  erinaceoides,  Val.    Acapulco. 

This  list,  being  the  largest  known  from  Acapulco,  would  have  been  ex- 
tremely valuable,  could  it  have  been  depended  on  for  accuracy.  But  (1)  the 
presence  of  several  well-known  £.  Indian  and  other  foreign  shells  (supposed 
by  Prof.  Adams  to  have  been  obtained  from  the  inhabitants,  the  relics  of 
former  trade  with  the  Philippines)  endangers  the  authenticity  of  others, 
unless  there  be  further  confirmation.  And  (2)  the  description  of  the  species, 
although  set  forth  with  not  a  little  display,  is  performed  in  so  loose  a  man- 
ner, that  it  is  impossible  to  speak  of  them  with  confidence  without  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  types.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  author  adopts  a  course,  too  com- 
mon among  French  naturalists,  of  changing  the  specific  when  he  alters  the 
generic  name,  appending  his  own  authority  for  the  species ;  and  that  when 
two  authors  have  used  the  same  name  for  a  shell,  instead  of  preserving  the 
right  and  re-naming  the  wrong,  he  has  given  his  own  names  to  both  species. 

25.  In  the  "  Voyage  autour  du  Monde  sur  la  Coquille,  pendant  les  annees 
1822-5,  par  L.  I.  Duperrey,  Paris,  1 826"  (plates  only),  the  following  are  the 
only  two  species  connected  with  this  province : — 

"  Moll.  pi.  11.  f.  1,  1',  Natica  glauca,  Humb.    Peru  :"  =  N.  patula,  Sow. 
"Moll.  pi.  15.  f.  2,  2 A,  Calyptraa  Adolphei,  Less.,"  has  the  animal  represented 
in  the  reversed  position  :  =  Crepidula  dilatata,  Lam. 

From  the  text  (not  seen)  are  quoted,  among  others — 

P.  421.  No.  198  (1830),  PateUa  scurra,  Less. 
P.  419,  PateUa  clypeaster,  Less. 

26.  The  earliest  known  collector  on  the  North-west  shores  of  America 
was  the  justly  celebrated  Dr.  Johann  Fried r.  Eschscholtz,  Professor  and 
Director  of  the  Zoological  Museums  in  the  University  of  Dorpat. .  He  ac- 
companied an  expedition  in  the  Russian  ship  Predpriaetie,  commanded  by 
Capt.  Kotzebue,  during  the  years  1823-6,  which,  after  sailing  round  Cape 
Horn,  and  visiting  the  Bay  of  Conception  in  Chili,  proceeded  by  the  Sand- 
wich Islands  to  Kamtschatka,  reaching  Petropaulovski  June  22,  1824. 
Thence  they  proceeded  along  the  north-west  coast  of  America  to  Sitcha,and 
in  October  and  November  to  San  Francisco  and  the  Rio  Sacramento.  In 
the  following  year  they  again  sailed  by  the  Sandwich  Islands  to  Norfolk 
Sound,  Sitcha ;  thence  to  Manilla ;  and  returned  vid  St  Helena.  During 
this  time  Eschscholtz  collected  2400  species  belonging  to  all  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom;  including  10  sp.  of  Cephalopoda,  172  Gasteropoda,  45 
Lamellibranchiata,  and  28  Tunicata*.  The  description  of  the  new  species 
was  commenced  by  Eschscholtz  in  the  "  Zoologischer  Atlas,  enthaltend  Abbil- 
dungen  und  Beschreibungen  neuer  Thierarten,  Berlin,  May  1829 ;"  but  he 
died  of  nervous  fever,  May  7,  1831,  at  the  early  age  of  37  years.  The  work 
was  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  the  year  1833  (from  the  authors  MSS.)  by 
Dr.  Martin  Heinrich  Rathke,  who  appears  to  have  succeeded  him  in  the 
chair  at  Dorpat f.    The  following  is  the  brief  list  of  the  species  bearing  on 

*  The  plants  collected  during  the  expedition  appear  to  have  been  described  by  Eschscholu 
immediately  after  his  return,  in  the  Memoires  de  l'Acad.  de  St.  Peterebourg,  vol.  z.  p.  281- 
292  (1826), "  Descriptiones  plantarum  novae  California,  adjectis  florum  exoticorum  analyaibus." 

f  An  analysis  of  the  Mollusca  in  this  work  is  given  by  Menke  in  the  Zeit  f.  Mai.  May  1844, 
pp.  70-7«. 


2 

10 

9 

2 

11 

9 

2 

11 

9 

3 

16 

15 

3 

17 

15 

3 

18 

15 

4 

14 

19 

4 

15 

19 

4 

15 

.19 

4 

16 

19 

4 

16 

19 

4 

17 

19 

5 

16 

£ 

18 

23 

ON  MOLLUSC  A  OP  THE  WI1T  0OA8T  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      173 

our  present  inquiry.  The  descriptions  are  in  Latin,  the  localities  accurately 
recorded,  and  the  work  illustrated  with  plates  which  are  tolerably  charac- 
teristic 

Pint.  Page.  Plate.  Pig. 

2      10      9    1.  Murem  monodon,  Each.    Sitcha.  =  M.foliatus,  Gmel.  teste  Rve. 
=Af.  tripterus,  Lam.  teste  Sow.=M.  alata,  Chemn.  teste  Sow. 

2.  Murex  ferrugineus,  Esch.     Sitcha.  =  M.  lactuca,  var.  (Midd.). 

3.  Murex  laqtuca,  Esch.    Sitcha. 

4.  Murex  muUicostatus,  Esch.    Sitcha.  =7Vopfcon  clathratus,  Linn, 
teste  Midd. 

1 .  Pleuropus  pellucidus,  Esch.    South  Sea  (Pacific),  near  Eouator. 

5.  Creseis  cornucopia,  Esch.  South  Sea,  near  the  "niedero  Inaeln." 

6.  Creseis  caligula,  Esch.     South  Sea,  near  Equator. 

1.  Bolidia  pinnata,  Esch.    Sitcha. 

2.  Carolina  crassicornis,  Esch.     Sitcha. 

3.  Carolina  subrosacea,  Esch.     Sitcha,  on  Fuci. 

4.  Glaucus  Pacificus,  Esch.    Intertropical  Pacific. 

5.  Glaucus  draco,  Esch.    Equatorial  Pacific. 

6.  Phylliroe  IAchtensteinii,  Esch.   Pacific,  west  of  Sandwich  Islands. 
Acnuea.    Aoimal  and  shell  described. 

4.  Acnuea  mitra,  Esch.  =  Patella  scurra,  Less.  =  Scurria  mitra, 

Gray,  Gen.  =  ?  Lottia  pallida,  Gray,  Zool.  Beech.  Voy.    Sitcha. 

This  shell  is  very  abundant  on  the  coasts  of  Chili  (Cuming), 

and  is  also  common  near  Monterey  (Nut tall),  but  is  not  found 

in  tropical  America. 
5      18     Acnuea  mammiUata,  Esch.    Sitcha.  =  Scurria  mitra,  var.  teste 

Phil.,  Midd. 

5      19     Acnuea  marmorea,  Esch.   Sitcha.  cScurria  mitra,  var.  teste  Midd. 

5      19     24    3.  Acnuea  cassis,  Esch.     Sitcha.     The  northern  analogue  of  P. 

deaurata,  Gmel.,  from  the-  Magellan  Straits.    Probably  =P. 

exarata,  (Nutt.  MS.)  Rve.  Conch.  Ic.  pi.  19.  sp.  47 :  var.  pi.  24. 

f.  62  a,  b.    Oregon,   Lieut,  Baskerville.     ?  =P.  Mazatlandica, 

Gray. 
5      19     Acnuea  pelta,  Esch.    Sitcha.  =  P.  leucopluea,  (Nutt.  MS.)  Rve. 

Cfonch.  Ic.  34. 101.  -h P.  monticola,  Nutt.  MS.  (=  P.  monticolor, 

Jay,  Cat.  2844)+ P.  strigillata,  (Nutt.  MS.)  Jay,  Cat.  2881. 
5      19     23  1-3.  Acnuea  scutum,  Esch.   Sitcha.     (Chili,  Bolivia,  Peru,  ITOrb.), 

=  A,  patina,  var.  teste  Phil.,  Midd. 
5      19    24  7, 8.  Acmaa  patina,  Esch.    Sitcha.    =P.  mammillata  (Nutt.  MS.  non 

Esch.),  Rve.  Conch.  Ic.  42. 140.  +  P.  tesseUata,  (Nutt.  MS.) 

Jay's  Cat.  2885.-f  P.fenestrata,  (Nutt.  MS.)  Rve.  C.  I.  38.  121. 

+ P.  verriculata,  Rve.  C.  I.  31.  87.   California. + P.  cinis,  Rve. 

C.  I.  24.  60.   Monterey,  Hartweg.  ?+P.  Nuttalliana,  Rve.  C.  I. 

30.  81 .   Oregon.  +P.  Cumingii,  Rve.  C.  I.  16.  37.   Valparaiso, 

Cuming,  teste  Rve.:   "never  took  it,"  Cuming,  teste  seipso. 

Monterey,  Hartweg,  teste  Mus.  Cuming.  ?-f  P.  diaphana  (Nutt. 

MS.)  Jay,  Cat.  28.  3,  non  Rye. + Lottia  pintadina,  pars,  Gould, 

Exp.  Sp.  p.  9 :  v.  B.M.  Max.  Cat.  p.  207.  no.  265.* 

*  The  above  extensive  citation  of  synonyms  is  the  result  of  (1)  the  study  of  Eschscholtz's ' 
diagnoses: — (2)  The  judgment  of  them  by  Philippi,  after  seeing  the  types,  as  recorded  in 
Zeit.f.Mal  1 846, p.  106-8 :— (3)  The  fully  recorded  judgment  of  Middendorffin  the  Mai.  Ross. 
And  Sib.  Reise,  in  locis: — (4)  The  careful  and  repeated  examination  of  Mr.  Nuttall's  shells, 
(a)  in  his  own  collection,  aided  by  his  recollection,  and  with  the  fulltoncurrence  of  his  judgment ; 
(6)  in  Dr.  Jay's  catalogue;  (c)  in  Mr.  Cuming's  collection,  as  received  from  Nuttall,  through 
Jay,  and  figured  by  Reeve  : — (5)  The  comparison  with  these  of  Dr.  Gould's  specimens,  col- 
lected on  the  same  coast  by  the  officers  of  the  United  States'  Exploring  Expedition  and  of  the 
Mexican  war : — (6)  The  examination  of  the  types  of  Mr.  Reeve's  species  in  the  Cumingian 
collection : — (7)  The  interpretation  of  all  the  above  by  the  experience  derived  from  the 
repeated  and  most  careful  examination  of  many  thousand  (at  least  15,000)  Limpets  in  the 
.Mazatlan  collection.    It  is  offered  as  an  approximation  to  the  truth.     It  is  a  subject  of  great 


174  REPORT — 1856. 

Fart.  Page.  Plate  Fig. 

5     20    Acmaa  radiata,  Each.  Sitcha.  =A. persona ,jun.  teste  Midd.,  non 

Phil. 
5      20    24  1, 2  Acmasa  persona,  Each.    Sitcha.  =  P.  Oregona,  (Nutt.  MS.)  live. 

Conch.  Ic.  pi.  36.  sp.  112.  +  P.  umbonata,  (Nutt  MS.)  Rye. 

C.  I.  35.  107.  +  P.  />tfca*a,  (Nutt.  MS.)  Jay,  Cat.  2861. 

?=  Lottia  punctata,  Gray  :  teste  Midd.  (non  Quoy  &  Gaim.) 
5     20    24  4, 6  Acnuea  ancylus,  Each.    Sitcha.  =  -4.  persona,  teste  Midd..  non 

Phil.* 
5     20    23  7, 8  Aonuta  digitalis,  Esch.f 
5      21     23      5  Fissuretta  aspera,  Esch.    Sitcha.  ?=  F.  densiclatkrata,  Reeve. 

Besides  these,  Philippi  in  Zeit  f.  Mai.  1847,  p.  US,  describes  Modiola 
Californiensis,  Esch.  from  a  specimen  brought  by  Eschscholtz,  and  by  an 
accident  inscribed  by  him  Pholas  Californiensis  in  the  Dorpat  Museum.  It 
is  intermediate  between  Litftophagus  dactylus,  &c,  and  L*  cinnamomeus. 

27.  The  "  Catalogue  of  the  Shells  contained  in  the  Collection  of  the  late 
Earl  of  Tankerville,  with  Appendix  containing  descriptions  of  many  new 
species,  by  G.  B.  Sowerby,  Lond.  1 825,"  is  a  very  interesting  document,  both 
as  showing  how  few  shells  from  the  West  N.  American  coast  were  then  known, 
and  also  how  early  some  of  the  most  remarkable,  as  Crepidula  adunoa, 
Lucapina  crenulata,  and  others,  bad  found  their  way  to  this  country.  The 
following  shells  belong  to  our  present  subject  of  inquiry ;  those  having  page- 
references  being  properly  described  in  the  appendix. 

Page.  No.  Page.    No. 

iv.     226.  Donax  transversus.  rare  species,  as  we  have  never 

ii.       116.  Mactra  elegans  (figured).  met  with  another  specimen." 

„     208.  Lucina  punctata.  Mart.  iii.  pi.  66.  f.  733. 

„     284.  Cythereaaurantia(SouthSeaa).  xvi.  1786.  Strombus  granulatus. 

vi.     796.  Fissurella  crenulata.  xx.  1792.  Strombus  graciHor. 

„     808.  Sipkonaria  gigas  (Panama).  xxi.  1826.  Cassis coarctata.  "We believe 

„     814.  Calyptrcsa  extinct orium  [non  it  to  be  a  New  Zealand  shell." 

Lam.].  xxi.  1824.  Cassis  ring  ens.  "Forms  a  good 

„     815.  Calyptrcea  spinosa.  genus,  nearer  in  natural  affini- 

vii.    828.  Crepidula  adunca.  ty  to  DoUum,  to  which  D.po- 

„    1213.  Haliotis  Crackerodii.  mum  also  should  be  referred." 

„    1214.  Haliotis   Californiensis,    and  „    1843.  Purpura  columeUaris. 

others.  „    1844.  Purpura  bicostalis. 

xiii.  1418.  Planaxis  planicostatus  (Gala-  „    1888.  Monoceros  cymatum. 

paftos).  „   2002.  ColumbeUa  strombiformis. 

„    1401.  Turbo  bicarinatus  (figured).  „   2253.  Cypraa  pustulata. 

xvi.  1553.  Fasciolaria  princeps.  „   2263.  Cypraea  radians. 

,„    1672.  Murex  brassica.  „   2290.  OUva  porphyria. 

xix.  1703.  Murex  monodon,  Mart.  iii.  pi.  „    2295.  OUva  angulata. 

105.  f.  980,  987.  xxiii.  1984.  Terebra  strigata.    "It  is  ex- 

„    1673.  Murex  regius.  tremely  rare,  only  a  few  spe- 

„    1 675.  Murex  radix.  cimens  having  been  brought 

xvi.  1614.  Pyrula  ventricosa.    "We  he-  from  the  Panama." 
ueve  it  to  be  an  extremely 

regret  that  Mr.  Reeve,  in  describing  the  Limpets  of  the  West  N.  American  coast,  did  not  avail 
himself  of  the  previous  labours  of  Eschscholtz,  Middendorff  and  Menke  in  the  same  direction.. 
If  an  author  professes  that  he  cannot  understand  the  labours  of  his  predecessors,  he  Is  not 
bound  to  add  to  them;  but.if  he  builds  on  their  foundation,  without  making  that  foundation 
his  own,  he  cannot  expect  the  stability  of  his  edifice. 

*  Philippi  regards  A.  r adiat a  +  ancylus  as  forming  quite  a  distinct  species  from  A.  persona. 
He  thinks  that  the  locality-tickers  have  become  misplaced,  and  that  it  is  really  from  Chili. 
He  affiliates,  from  type,  A.  punctata,  D'Orb.,  which  does  not  appear  in  the  B.M.  Cat,  and 
was  not  seen  in  his  collection.  There  is  no  reason  why  the  species  should  not  reappear  on 
the  Chili  coast,  as  A.  patina  and  S.  mitra  seem  to  do.  Middendorff  confirms  the  northern 
localities. 

f  Judging  from  the  figures  and  descriptions  of  this  shell,  I  should  have  regarded  it  at  the 


ON  MOLLUBCA  OF  THE  WEST  COA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      175 

28.  The  next  expedition  furnishing  results  belonging  to  our  present  sub- 
ject of  inquiry  was  the  "  Voyage  to  the  Pacific  and  Behring's  Straits,  per- 
formed in  H.M.S.  Blossom,  under  the  command  of  Capt  F.  W.  Beechey, 
R.N.,  F.R.S.  &c,  in  the  years  1825-28."  Capt  Beechey  was  principally 
assisted  in  the  collection  of  Mollusca  by  Lieut.  Belcher.  Unfortunately  it 
was  not  at  that  time  thought  necessary  to  mark  the  locality  of  specimens ; 
and  for  a  large  proportion  we  have  to  depend  on  general  notes  or  the  me- 
mory of  the  collectors.  Of  several  very  interesting  species,  however,  the 
locality  was  carefully  preserved.  A  series  of  specimens  having  been  pre- 
sented to  the  Zoological  Society,  the  new  species  were  described  at  the 
request  of  the  Society  by  Messrs.  Broderip  and  Sowerby  in  the  Zoological 
Journal,  vol.  iv.  1829,  pp.  859-379,  with  Latin  diagnoses  and  a  plate.  As 
this  list  is  valuable,  both  from  its  not  being  mixed  with  other  collections  and 
from  the  known  accuracy  of  the  writers,  it  is  here  presented  entire. 

F*gt. 

359.  Nucula  arctica;  a  few  sp.  in  Vatcha  Bay,  Kamtsehatka.    PI.  9.  f.  1. 

360.  Mactra  pallida,  San  Bias. 
„     Mactra  subglobosa. 

361.  Corbula  rostrata.  , 

„  Corbula  ffibbosa;  1  sp.    Icy  Cape.  *»««♦   n-  *>*• 

„  Solen  acutidens,  Chinese  Sea  (Loo  Choo) Z.B.Y.  163    43    2 

„  Solen  tenuis,  Northern  Ocean. 

362.  Solen  alius,  Northern  Ocean. 

„    Telku*  Burnett,  Mazatlan.    PI.  9.  f.  2. 

363.  TeUina  edentula,  Behring's  Straits „      154  {**     5 

„  TeUina  alternidentata,  Icy  Cape • lt  153  44  5 

„  TeUina  inconspicua,  Icy  Cape.    2  sp „  153  41  6 

=  T.  Gramlandica,  Beck,  MS. 

„  Tellinides  purpureas,  Pacific.    (Real  Lkjos,  Cuming.). . . .  „  153  42  2 

364.  Cytherea  rosea,  San  Bias M  151  43  7 

„  Venus  gnidia,  San  Bias „  151  41  3 

M  Cyrena  Mexicana,  Mazatlan.    "  In  Mr.  Sowerby's  Coll." 

The  type  appears  to  have  been  lost. 

365.  Astarte  crassiaens,  Icy  Cape.     1  sp. 

„  Astarte  lactea,  Icy  Cape „      152    44  12 

„  Area  grandis. 

„  Area  gradata,  Mazatlan „       152    43    1 

366.  Cardium  Beleheri ;  3  sp.  taken  north  of  Isabella  Is.  in  the 

entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  California,  15  fin.    PI,  9.  f.  3. 
„     Cardium  radula  (resembling  C.  muricatum). 
„     Cardium  punctulatum.     1  sp. 

367.  Cardium  Dwmeum,  Is.  in  S.  Pacific „      152    42    6 

„     Cardium  graniferum,  Mazatlan :  6  inches  in  mud. 

„     Cardium  biangulatum    „      152    42    5 

368.  Cardium  boreale,  Icy  Cape. 

„  Chiton  alboUneatus,  Mazatlan „      149    40    4 

M  Chiton  Loochooanus,  Loo  Choo. 

„  Chiton  vestUus,  Arctic  Ocean „      150    4114 

369.  Vermetuspellucidus.  Probably  the  young  of  V.  ebumeus,  Rve. 
„  Patella  Mexicana,  Mazatlan.     Long.  9  m. 

„    Dentalium  semipolitum.    (Like  D.  nebulosum.) 
„    Bulla  calyculata,  Pitcaim's  Island. 

370.  Crepidula  incurvata,  Kamtsehatka. 
„    FissureUa  hians,  Valparaiso. 

„    Emarginula  crenulata. 

young  of  A.  persona,  which  is  sometimes  deeply  ribbed,  sometimes  nearly  smooth.    Both 
Phitippi  and  Middendorff,  however,  regard  it  as  a  well- distinguished  species. 


176  RBPORT — 1856. 

Pige.  Pige.    PL   Fig. 

3/0.  Littorina  squalida,  Northern  Ocean.    Resembles  L.  littoreus. 
3/1.  Margarita  umbilicalis,  Northern  Ocean. 

„    Margarita  striata,  Northern  Ocean .• Z.B.V.  143    34     11 

„    Sigaretus  coriaceus,  Northern  Ocean :  Cape  Lisbon  Bay. 

„     Neritina  alata,  Taheite. 

372.  Natica  pallida,  Icy  Cape „      136    34     15 

„    Natica  otis,  Mazatlan.    Comp.  N.  Galapagosa „      136 {  .^      3 

„    Natica  clausa,  North  Sea,  Sabine „      136  [^      jj 

„    Mitra  crassidens. 

373.  Harpa  gracilis.  y 

374.  Trichotropis  bicarinata,  10-15  fins.   Between  Cape  Lisbon 

Bay  and  Icy  Cape.    PL  9.  f.  4-8. 

375.  Trichotropis  borealis,  Melville  Is. :  1  sp.  Lieut.  Belcher,  Icy 

Cape. 
„    Buccinum  boreale,  Kamtschatka. 

376.  Columbella  costellata.  "  Panama  and  Coast  of  Africa,"  Gray.    „       129    36    9 

„    Nassa  Juteostoma  =  N.  Xanthostoma;  Gray  „       127    36    3 

„    Ricinula  cleg  arts.    (Very  like  JR.  arachnoidea.) 

„    RaneUa  nana. 

377*  Murex  ducalis,  near  Mazatlan.  =  M.  brassica,  Lam „      108    33    1 

„    Pyrula  patula,  Pacific  (=T.  melongena,  var.  n.  1611,  Tank.  \  , ,  K  /  34  10 

Cat.  62.) , /»      116\351,3 

378.  Fusus  lapillus,  Pacific.  =  Buc&num  subrostratum,  Gray,  " 

Wood  Suppl.  =Pyrula  s.9  Gray,  Z.  B.  V „      115    36  15 

„    Fusus  pallidus,  Mazatlan.    "A  Fusus  from  the  Calcaire 

grossiere  near  Paris  presents  no  observable  marks  of 

mfference." „      117    36  14 

„    Pleurotoma  tubercuHfera,  North  of  Isabella  Is.,  entrance  of 

Gulf  of  California. 

379.  Conns  arcuatusy  near  Mazatlan.  ?  =C.  regutaris,  var „      119    36  22 

„     Conus  interruptus,  near  Mazatlan.     Resembles  C.pnrpu- 

rascens „      119    33    2 

„     Oliva  gracilis „      130    36  21 

In  a  continuation  of  this  paper  (Zool.  Journ.  vol.  v.  pp.  46-51)  are  found 
the  following  species : — 
P«ge# 

46.  Chelvosoma  MacLeayanum.    Arctic  Seas,  on  stones. 
New  genus  (Tunicata),  described. 

48.  Cythereaplanulata.    Near  Mazatlan Z.B.V.  151     43    6 

49.  Venus  decorata.   Hab.?    Mus.  Sow.    Brought  home  in 

the  <  Blossom/    PI.  Suppl.  40.  f.  3.  % 

The  duty  of  describing  the  Mollusca  of  the  '  Blossom'  was  undertaken  by 
Mr.  (now  Dr.)  J.  £.  Gray,  who  considered  it  a  suitable  occasion  not  only 
for  introducing  descriptions  of  Mollusca  collected  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  about 
the  same  time  by  Capt.  Lord  Byron,  Mr.  Fryer,  and  the  Rev.'  —  Hennah, 
and  presented  by  them  to  the  British  Museum ;  but  also  for  giving  a  com- 
plete account  (so  far  as  materials  then  served.)  of  the  animals  of  the  various 
genera.  This  course  delayed  the  completion  of  the  work  for  nine  years ; 
and  it  was  at  last  only  by  entrusting  the  revisal  and  .completion  of  the  MS. 
to  Mr.  Sowerby,  that  Capt.  Beechey  was  enabled  to  publish  the  work  in 
July,  1839.  For  the  reasons  above  stated,  the  "  Zoology  of  Captain  Beechey *s 
Voyage :  Molluscous  Animals  and  their  Shells,  by  J.  £.  Gray,  F.R.S.  &c, 
London  1839,"  is  more  valuable  as  a  contribution  to  general  conchological 
and  malacological  knowledge  than  to  the  furtherance  of  geographical  studies. 


ON  MOLLUSOA  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA,      177 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  additional  species  described,  so  far  as  they  may 
be  supposed  to  belong  to  the  West  N.  American  province ;  the  references  to 
the  species  already  described  by  Brod.  and  Sow.  being  appended  to  the 
former  list  The  diagnoses  are  in  English ;  the  plates  beautiful  and  accu- 
rate, sometimes,  however,  too  highly  coloured. 

Page.  Plate.  Fig. 

108  33  4, 6.  Murex  vituUnus  [?  non  Lam.]= Vitularia  salebrosa,  King,  ZooL  Journ. 

v.347. 

109     Murex  acanthopterus,  "  Lam.  165  =  M.  monodon,  Escb.  =M.  phyllo- 

pterus,  Sow.  Gen.  non  Lam.  =  M.  foliatus,  Wood  =3f.  purpura 
alata,  Chemn.  Pacific,  N.  Zealand,  &c.  [!]  +  M.  trigonularis,  Cab. 
Lam.  (filed  down)." 

109    Murex  monodon,  Sow.  Tank.  Cat.  no.  1703. 

109     Murex  regius,  Panama. 

109     Murex  radix,  Panama. 

109     Murex  radix,  "wide-variced  var.  further  north."=3f.  nigritus,  Phil, 

+M.  ambiguus,  Rve. 
lflft  ^ 
109/ 33       l ' Murex  toassica,  Lam.    "  Further  north  still." 

110     Tritonium  Chemnitzii.  u  =Murex  argus,  var.  Chemn." 

112     Bollia  Juemastoma.  =zPisani a  sanguinolcnt a,  Duel. 

113    TurbineUa  rigida,  Gray  in  Wood  Suppl. 

114     Tutbinella  castanea,  Pacific. 

114  Turbinella  cerata,  Gray  in  Wood  Suppl. 

117  Fusus  angulatus,  North  Sea. 

117  Fusus  Sabini,  North  Sea. 

117  -.     .*- Fusus  ventricosus. 

117  ...     ...  Fusus  glacialis,  Arctic  Ocean. 

117  Fusus  fornicatus,  Gmel.,  Icy  Cape. 

118  36     13.  Fusus  lamellosus,  Icy  Cape. 

118     Fusus  multicostatus,  Each.    Northern  Ocean. 

119     Conus  Ximenes,  Panama. 

122    34      5.  Harpa  rosea  crenata.  =  H.  crenata,  Swains.,  Pacific. 

124     Monoceros  grande,  Pacific.  , 

124     Monoceros  punctatum,  Pacific. 

124 Monoceros  lugubre,  Sow.  Gen.  f.  3.  =  M.  cymatum,  (Soland.)  Sow. 

Tank.  Cat.  =  Buccinum  denticulatum,  +J3.  amatum,  Wood  Suppl, 

Pacific.  (California,  on  rocks,  teste  Reeve.) 

126     Monoceros  maculatum=Buccinum  brevidentatum,  Gray  in  Wood  Suppl. 

si  Purpura  cornigera,  Blainv.  Pacific.  [Mr.  uray  assigns  no 
reason  for  changing  his  own  previous  name.] 

127  36      6.  Buccinum  angulosum,  Icy  Cape. 

128  ...    ,...  Buccinum  polaris,  Icy  Cape. 

128  36    19.  Buccinum  tenue,  Icy  Cape. 

129     Columbella  cribrarta,  Lam.=C.  mitriformis,  Brod.  and  King. 

131     36    25.  Oliva  zonalis,  Lam. 

131  36    23,  27.  Oliva  undateUa,  Lam. 

131  Oliva  lineolata,  Gray.  =Voluta  Dama,  Wood  Suppl.  4;  37.    ?Peru. 

131  Oliva  volutella,  Lam. 

132  Aragonia  kiatula,  [Gray,  not]  Lam.=  Oliva  testacea,  Lam.    S.  Amer. 

136  37      2.  Natica  borealis,  North  Sea,  Sabine. 

136  37      4.  Natica  suturalis,  North  Sea,  Sabine  and  Beechey. 

139  Littorinafasciata,  ?  Pacific. 

143*  34     14.  Trochiscus  Norrisii,  Sow.,  Mag.  Nat.  Hist.  2nd  series. 

147  39      1.  ILottia  pallida,  Bacific.  =  Acmaa  mitra,  Esch.f 

*  From  this  page  to  the  end,  U»e  work  ig>eftited  by  Mr.  G.  B.  Sowerby,  principally  from 
Mr.  Gray's  MS. 

f  As  Mr.  Gray  quoted  the  ZooL  Atl.  in  the  earlier  part  of  this  work,  it  is  remarkable  that 
he  did  not  adopt  Eschscholtz's  genus  Acnuea,  instead  of  Lottia,  which,  with  others  in  the 

cne  work,  appear  only  one  step  removed  from  the  nonsense  names  of  Adanson. 
1856.  n 


151 

41 

8. 

151 

43 

5. 

152 

44 

10, 

152 

44 

9, 

152 

42 

4. 

152 

42 

7. 

178  RBPOBT— 1856.  -    --- 

Page.  Plate.  Fig.  - 

i48    39    12.  Patella  Mazatlandlca,  Mazatlan.    This  species  did  not  occur  among 
the  myriads  of  limpets  lately  sent  from  the  same  place,    tt  closely 
resembles  Acnuea  cassis,  Esch.,  and  may  really  have  come  from  the 
North. 
150    41     15.  Chiton  tunicatus,  Wood.    Sitcha  (teste  Reeve). 
150    41     16.  Chiton  articulatus,  Sow.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1 832.  San  Bias,  under  stones* 
150    41     17.  Chiton  setosus,  Sow.  P.Z.S.  1832.  Guacomayo. 
150    43      9.  Chama  echinata,  Brod.  Trans.  Zool.  Soc.  vol.  i.  p.  306.  pi.  39.  f.  5-7. 
The  specimen  figured  in  these  books,  and  in  Chin.  Gonch.  111.,  as  a 
very  old  individual  of  Ch>  echinata,  is  proved  by  the  series  in  the 
B.M.  Masatlan  Coll.  to  be  a  comparatively  young  shell  of  Chama 
frondosa,  var.  Mexicana.    V.  Gat.  p.  87.  no.  121. 
8.  Venus  neglecta*    Central  America,  in  sandy  mud. 

Venus  biradiata.   Found  abundantly  at  San  Bias  and  Mazatlan.  =  0* 
squalida,  Sow.  =  C.  Chionaa,  Mke. 
10.  Astarte  Banksii,  Northern  Seas. 
*\  Astarte  1  striata,  Northern  Seas. 
.  Cardita  crass  a,  Acapulco. 

.  Cardium  Panamense,  8ow.  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1833,  p.  85.    Sandy  mud 
at  Panama.   The  bpecimen  here  figured  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  the  young  of  C.  procerum. 
152    42      3.  Pectuncutus  inmqualis,  Sow.  Proc.  Zoot.  Soc.  1832,  p.  196.    Sandy 
mud  at  Panama  and  Real  Llejos.    This  is  not  the  shell  usually 
known  by  this  name,  and  is  accordingly  quoted  by  Krauss  for  a 
S.  African  species. 
154    44      4.  Tettina  proximo,  Brown,  MS.    Arctic  Ocean* 
154    44      8.  Mactra  similis,  Gray,  MS.     Northern  Seas. 

The  following  species  are  added  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Reeve,  in  hid 
Conch.  Icon. : — 

Plate.  Spec. 
9      62.  Flssurella  Lincolni,  Gray,  Conch,  til.  p.  7.  no.  62.  f.  40.  Monterey,  Belcher, 
6      27*  TurriteUa  sanguinea,  Rve.     California,  Mus.  Belcher. 

11      42.  Murex  imperialism  Swains.  Zool.  III.  series  2.  vol.  ii.  pi.  67.     Mud  banks* 
Isabella  Is"  Cal.,  Belcher. 

29.  In  the  "Supplement  to  the  Index  Testaceologicus,  by  W.Wood, 
F.R.S.  Ac,  London,  May  18&8,"  are  figured  saveial^hells  (principally  with- 
out habitats)  which  belong  to  the  West  N.  American  fauna,  and  which  were 
probably  collected  by  Capt  Lord  Byron,  Rev.  —  Hernial),  &c.  Those 
which  are  recognized  are  as  follow : — 

Plate.  Fig. 
2      1.  Donax  scalpellum,  B.M. 
2      6.  Venus  subrugosa,  Mawe.    Panama. 

2  11.  Area  pectinifbrmis,  B.M.    Closely  resembling  Pectuncutus  inaquati*. 

3  6.  Conus  gradatus,  Mawe.     California. 

3      7.  Cypraa  arabicula,  (Mawe)  Lam.   South  Seas. 
3      3.  Bulla  decussata,  Mawe.    Panama.    {Ficula.) 

3  26.  Valuta  harpa,  Mawe.  i^ 

4  36.  Volnta  cmrulea,  Mawe.  =  Oliva  volutetta,  Lam. 

4  37.  Valuta  Dama,  Mawe.     S.  Sea.    =  0.  lineolatu.  Gray. 

4       1.  Buccinum  ringens,  B.M.  =  Malea  crassihbris,  Val. 

4      5.  Buccinum  coarctatum,  Mawe.  (Cassis.) 

4      6.  Buccinum  Rudolphi,  Mawe.  =*  Purpura  columella™,  Lam. 

4  10.  Buccinum  brevidentatum,  Mawe.  {Monoceros.) 

4  12.  Buccinum  armatum,  Mawe.  ?=  Monoceros  lugubre. 

4  13.  Buccinum  tectum,  Mawe.  (Cuma.) 

4  16.  Buccinum  Plana**,  Mawe.  ^Planaxis  laticosiata,  Sow. 

4  18.  Buccinum  wtrmibifirme,  B.M.  as  Cotumbetla  strombiformii,  Lift, 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OP  THH  WB1T  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      1/9 

1U*t.Rg+    .  .  . 

4    223.  Bucckium  roseum,  B.M.  =:  Harpa  rosea. 
4    24.  Buccmum  minus,  B.M.  ae  Harpa  minor. 
4      1.  8trombusgraciHor,B.M. 
4    13.  Strvmbus  galea,  B.M. 
*    4  *14.  Strombus  galea>  Jud» 

4  21.  Strombus  granulates,  B.M. 

6      3.  Murex  rigidus,  B.M.  (Lathirus.) 

5  13.  Murex  regius,  Swains.     South  Seas. 
5    15.  Murex  ceratus,  Mawe.  (Latkirus.) 

5  19.  Murex  aculeatus,  Mawe.  s=  Af.  dubius. 

5  L  Trochus  undosus,  Mawe.    California.   (Pomattfaa?.) 

6  8.  2VocAiw  unguis,  Mawe.    California.    (l/wTOi/fa.) 
6  3.  Trochus  olwactus,  Mawe.    8.  Sea.    ( Uvanilla.) 

5  .  4.  jTVoc&ii* peUis-eerpentis,  Mawe.    Panama.   (Tegula.) 

5  17.  Trochus  Byromanus,  BM.    Sandwichls.pl    (Omphalius.) 

5  23.  Trochus filotus,  B.M. 

6  44.  Turbo fiuctuosus,  Mawe.  (Callopoma.) 
6  45.  Tkr6o  saxosus,  Mawe.  {Callopoma.) 

8  2.  iverfta pateto,  B.M.  (No/tea.)   S.America. 

8  4.  Nerita  ornata,  B.M.  S.  America.  ±s  JV.  scabricosta,  Lam. 

8  2.  Patella  poculum,  B.M.  s=  IVodWfa  radto**,  Lam. 

8  3.  Patella  Peziza,  B.M.  =  Crucibulum  spinosum.  Sow. 

8  4.  Patella  scutellata,  B.M.  =  Crucibulum  imbricatum,  Sow. 

30.  In  the  Voyage  of  the  Astrolabe  to  the  Australian  aud  East  Indian 
Seat  daring  the  years  1826-1829,  of  which  the  "  Zoology"  was  published  by 
MM.  Quoy  and  Gaimartl,  Paris,  1830-35,  there  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  a  single  species  collected  identical  with  any  from  N.  America.  A  list 
of  the  Mollusca  is  given  by  Menke  in  the  ZeiL  f.  Mai.  for  March  1944* 
pp.  38-48.  The  same  result  appears  in  East  Indian  and  Polynesian  voyages 
generally ,  which  therefore  have  not  been  collated. 

31.  In  the  "  Description  of  the  Cirrhipeda,  Conchifera,  and  Mollusca  in 
a  Collection  formed  by  the  Officers  of  H.M.S.  Adventure  and  Beagle,  em* 
ployed  between  the  years  1826-1830  in  surveying  the  southern  coasts  of 
S.  America*  including  the  Straits  of  Magalhaens  and  the  coast  of  Tierra  del 
Fuegot  by  Capt  Philip  P.  King,  R.N.f  F.R.S.,  assisted  by  W.  J.  Broderip, 
Esq*,  F.R.St,"  given  in  the  Zool.  Journ.  vol.  v.  1832,  pp.  332-349,  occur 
very  unexpectedly  descriptions  of  the  following  species : — 

No.  44.  AmouUaria  Cumingii.    Is.  Sabago,  Bay  of  Panama,  in  a  small  hill  stream. 

deceived  from  Mr.  Cuming.  Mus.  Brit.,  King,  Brod. 
„    57.  Murex  salebrosus.    Hab.  ?    Mus.  King,  Sow. 
„    60.  Triton  scaber.    Fished  up  with  the  anchor  in  Valparaiso  Bay.    Mus.  King. 

32.  The  most  comprehensive  and  accurate  materials  for  the  knowledge  of 
the  tropical  Pacific  fauna,  are  to  be  found  in  the  collections  made  by  Hugh 
Cuming,  Esq.  In  the  year  1827  that  gentleman  set  out  on  his  first  great 
conchological  voyage,  and  remained  till  1830,  exploring  the  West  coast  of 
America,  at  various  stations  from  Chili  to  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  or  Conchagua, 
in  lat.  about  13°  N.  He  also  visited  various  of  the  Pacific  Islands,  and 
especially  the  Galapagos  group.  Mr.  Cuming  is  the  first  collector  on  record 
who  took  notes,  as  accurate  as  was  thought  necessary,  of  the  results  of  his 
dredgings.  It  is  cause  for  the  greatest  regret  that  a  systematic  account  of 
this  expedition  has  never  been  published.  The  new  shells  brought  home 
have  indeed  been  to  a  great  extent,  described  in  the  Proc,  Zool*  Soc.  and 
figured  in  the  Monographs  of  Sowerby  and  Reeve.  Of  these  the  particulars 
of  station  and  habitat  have  been  recorded.    But  not  only  has  the  student  to 

»2 


180 


REPORT— 1856. 


wade  through  a  number  of  works,  at  the  risk  of  overlooking  what  belongs  to 
his  purpose :  he  has  also  to  find  that  many  of  the  genera  have  never  yet 
been  examined ;  and  that,  while  new  species  are  tabulated,  the  localities  of 
those  before  known  are  not  given.  If  materials  are  yet  accessible  by  which 
lists  could  be  published  of  all  the  shells  found  by  Mr.  Cuming  at  different 
places,  separately,  with  particulars  as  to  their  frequency,  as  well  as  station, 
such  a  work  would  be  among  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  geographic 
zoology  yet  given  to  the  world.  All  notes  of  habitat  recorded  in  the  Proc. 
Zool.  Soc.  1832-1836,  may  be  considered  as  very  authentic4'.  After  the 
interruption  caused  by  the  second  and  great  expedition  of  Mr.  Cuming  to 
the  Philippines,  there  is  of  course  a  possibility  of  error  from  the  accidental 
interchange  of  tickets  belonging  to  different  species.  It  is  right  to  state  that 
the  services  rendered  to  malacological  science  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Cuming 
are  only  equalled  by  the  urbanity  and  readiness  with  which  he  allows  the  use 
of  them  to  scientific  inquirersf)  and  to  which  the  author  is  under  very 
peculiar  obligations. 

The  following  are  the  species  observed  in  the  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  Wherever 
the  localities  or  stations  given  in  the  illustrated  Monographs  differ  from  these, 
the  statements  in  the  Proceedings  must  be  regarded  as  of  most  authority. 


1832. 
Page. 


Pkoc.  Zool.  Soc. — Cuming. 


Station. 


Depth 
in  fin*. 


Locality. 


25 

25 
26 
27 
27 
28 


ChitonJ  Goodallii,  Brod.  V™ 

—  Stokesii,  Brod.    

—  limaciformis,  Sow 

—  Elenensis,  Sow 

—  setosus,  Sow 

—  scahriculus,  Sow. 

—  retusus,  Sow 


u.  s.  &  rock-ledges 
exposed  situations 
on  stones 


under  stones 

exposed  situations 

under  stones 


29 
30 


Placnnanomia  Cumingii,2?ro&  « 

Dentalium  tesseragonum,  Sow... 
Carocolla  quadridentata,  Brod,.. 


in  mud,  on  dead 

bivalves  &  corals 

sandy  mud 

woods 


Lw. 
Lw. 

Lw, 


}» 

10-16 


James  Island,  Gallapagos. 

Ditto  ditto. 

Panama,  St.  Elena. 
Guaoom.,  Inner  Lobos  Is. 
Pan.,  St.  Elen. 
Guacomayo. 
Guac,  Puerto  Portrero. 
Ditto     ditto. 

Gulf  of  Duke. 

G.Nocoiyo,  P.Port.,  Xipix, 
G.  Duke. 


tr* 


*  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  use  even  these  with  caution ;  as,  in  the  papers  purporting  to 
describe  shells  collected  by  Mr.  Cuming,  species  are  introduced  from  places  which  he  never 
visited.  All  shells  quoted  from  the  Gulf  of  California,  Acapulco,  and  stations  north  of  the  Bay 
of  Fonseca,  are  of  this  class.  These  were  obtained,  but  not  collected,  by  Mr.  Cuming,  and  are 
therefore  liable  to  the  errors  of  his  informants.  A  remarkable  instance  of  the  way  in  which 
mistakes  arise  will  be  found  in  P.  Z.  S.  1833,  p.  36,  where  Mr.  Sowerby,  in  describing  "  shells 
collected  by  Mr.. Cuming,"  states  that  "  detached  valves  were  picked  up  on  the  sands  at  Real 
Llejos  and  Mazallan."  In  Mr.  Reeve's  Monograph,  which  is  supposed  to  be  of  perfect  accu- 
racy in  all  matters  relating  to  the  Cumingian  Museum,  we  read  that  "  a  few  odd  valves  of 
this  species  were  found  by  Mr.  Cuming  on  the  sands  at  Real  Llejos  and  Mazatlan." 

f  Mr.  Broderip,  in  commencing  the  description  of  the  shells  collected  by  Mr.  Cuming  in 
his  great  expedition  to  the  Philippines,  1836-40,  deservedly  writes  (Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1840, 
p.  84), — "  Mr.  C,  by  his  accurate  notes,  and  the  open  publication  of  the  places  where  every 
one  of  the  multitudinous  species  and  varieties  collected  by  him  was  found,  has  mainly  assisted 
in  making  a  complete  revolution  in  this  department  of  the  science,  and  has  done  more  towards 
giving  us  data  for  the  geographical  distribution  of  the  testaceous  Mollusca  than  any  person 
who  has  yet  lived." 

X  Perhaps  the  first  notice  of  Mr.  Cuming's  labours  occurs  in  a  "Description  of  several  new 
species  of  Chitones  found  on  the  coast  of  Chili  in  1825,  with  a  few  remarks  on  the  method  of 
taking  and  preserving  them,  by  John  Frembley,  R.N."  (Zool.  Journ.  vol.  iii.  1828,  pp.  193- 
205).  Among  others,  the  author  describes  Chiton  Cumingtii,  "after  his  friend  Mr.  Cumings 
of  Valparaiso,  whose  seal  in  the  pursuit  of  this  interesting  science  will,  he  is  persuaded,  soon 
make  a  large  addition  to  our  present  stock."  In  connexion  with  this  paper  should  be  read 
another,  by  the  Rev.  Lansdown  Guilding,  B.A.,  in  the  Zool.  Journ.  vol.  v.  pp.  25-35,  "  Ob- 
servations on  the  Chitonidse ;  St  Vincent,  May,  1829."  In  this  paper,  the  &enwAc<mthopU*ra 
is  properly  characterised. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WE 81  COA8T  OF  NORTH  A 


1838. 


Peoc.  Zool.  Soc— Cuming. 


Bulinus  translucens,  Brod. 
Pasciolaria  granosa,  Brod, 
Voluta  Cutningii,  Brod. 1  sp. 


31 
32 
33 
50Cancellaria  solida,  Sow. 

51 bullata,  Sow, 

51 mitriformis.  Sow. 1  sp. 

51 goniostoma,  Sow 1  sp. 

52 clavatula,  Sow. 

52 obesa,  Sow. 

53 cassidiformis,  Sow. 

53 acuminata,  Sow. 

54 buccinoides,  Sow.. 

54 indentata,&w..... 

54 hssmastoma,  Sow.. 

54  —  chrysostoma,  Sow. 

55  — —  gemmulata,  Sow. . 

55* decussata,  Sow.... 

55 bulbulus,  Sow.  . .  .2  sp.  jun. 

55  Sealaria  diadema,  Sow. 

55  Cardita  Cuvieri,  Brod. 1  sp. 

56 varia,  Brod. 

58  Chiton  dispar,  Sow. 

Columbiensis,  Sow. 


58 

59 

60 
105 

105 

113 

Hi 

11 

114 

114 

114 

115 

115 

115 

115 

11 

11 

Hi 

11 

116 

116 

117 

117 

117 

118 

118 


118 

118 
118 
119 
119 
119 
119 
125 


-  hirundifonnis,  Sow. 


al- 


Stilifer  Astericola,  Brod. ... 

Bnlinus  vexillum,  Brod.    [ 

ternans,  Beck,  teste  Jay] 

—  Panamensis,  Brod.  ... 
Columbella  pulcherrima,&u>.l8p. 

—  harpiformis,  Sow. 

—  bicanalifera,  Sow., 

—  coronata,  Sow...., 

—  lyrata,  Sow. 

—  elt&xa,  Sow , 

—  turrita,  Sow 

—  fulva,  Sow 

—  rugosa,  Sow , 

—  fluctuata,  Sow.... 

—  lanceolata,  Sow.  , 

—  maculosa,  Sow.... 

—  hsemaatoma,  Sow, 

—  ▼aria,  Sow 

—  acalarina,  Sow 

pyrostoma,  Sow. , 

maura,  Sow 

livida,&w , 

—  fuscata,  Sow.    .... 

—  costellata,  Sow ....1  sp. 

—  guttata,  Sow.  "  Long  veil 
known,  but  not  aware  tbat  hi- 
therto described."  =»  Buccinum 
cribrarinm,  Lam.  ... 

—  varians,Sw.  "First  brought 
by  Capt.  Cook,  in  Endeavour." 

—  angularis,  Sow.... 

—  cutanea,  Sow. ... 

—  major,  Sow. 

—  procera,  Sow ...1  sp. 

—  pygmsea,  Sow. ... 

—  unicolor,  Sow. .%. 
Bulinus  nux,  Brod.  ... 


8tation. 


on  trees 
mud  banks 


sand 

mud 
sandy  mud 

sand 
sandy  mud 


sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 


sand 

sand 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

sand 


sandy  mud 

fine  sand 
under  stones 
under  stones 

under  stones 

in  Aiteriat  tolarii 

{trunks  of  large 
trees 
ditto 
sandy  mud 

on  dead  shells 
sandy  mud 
under  stones 
under  stones 
sandy  mud 
coarse  grav.  &s.m. 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 

fine  coral  sand 
sandy  mud 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 


under  stones 


under  stones 

ondeadsh.,sdym. 

on  bushes 


Depth 
in  nna. 


9 

8-10 

12 

"i 

7 

15 

16 

12 

7-15 

HM6 
8-10 

1<M3 
8-10 

11 

6 

shore 

l.w. 

l.W.i 


};;■ 

io 

10 
10 


10 


6-8 


16 


10 


fs.  King  & 
Pan. 
Gulf  of  Fonseca. 
Real  Llejos,  St  Elena. 
Payta,  G.  Nocoiya. 
Pan. 

Conchagua,  San  Salvador. 
Pan.,  Pay. 
G.  Dnlce,  P.  Port. 
Pan. 

Guacom. 

RLLj.,Iqui.,Callao,P.Port. 
Pan. 
Gal. 

Pan.,  St  Elen. 
G.  Nocoiya,  ^ 

Pan.,  P.  Port. 
Real  Llejos. 
James  Is.,  Gal. 
G.  Fonseca, 
Gal. 

Is.  Saboga. 
Pan. 

Chatham  Is.,  Gal.,  Ancon, 
Lobos  Is.,  Payta,  Peru, 
Ld.  Hood's  Is.,  Gal. 

Is.  King  and  Saboga. 

Ditto  ditto 

G.  Dulce. 

Pan. 

Gal. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Chiriqui. 

Guacom. 

B.  Mont,  St.  El. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Xipix. 

G.  Nocoiyo. 

Gal. 

Guacom. 

Gal.,  Pan. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Chiriqui. 

Pan.,  GaL 

Pan.,  Gal. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  St.  Elen.,  M.Xti. 

Pan. 

Pan. 


"Galapagos  (Hood's Is.).1 

Pan. 

Real  Llej. 

Is.  Mnerte. 

Pan. 

St.  EL 

11  Gal.  (Hood's  Is.)." 

Charles  Is.,  GaL 


189 


BZPOBT-— 1856. 


ins. 


Pnec  Zooi~  Soc.    Cmmimg. 


in  tot. 


173  Caneellaria  mriptieata,  Sow.  2sp. 

173  0vulum  arena,  5oa?. 

173 internal,  &•#. 1  sp. 

174 saquale,  Soto 

174  Murex  recurvirostria,  Brod..., 
174 erosus,  AnodL   . 

175  — —  pumilua,  AW. 

175 nucleus,  Brod. 

175 vibex,  £r«L , 

176 oxyacantha,  BrotL  

176 nitidns,  Brod.  1  sp. 

176 horridua,  Brod.   =M.  Boi 

vinii,  Kit*.    

177 lappa,  Brod. 

179  Ranella  muririfcrnus,  Brod, 

179 cselata,  Brod. 

185Cypraea  Pacifica,  Gray. 

185 rabeseens,  Grmy 

185 Maugeri,  Grmy 

194  Ranella  pyramidalia,  Brod.  1 
=  Murex  ancepa,  P/r. ...  J  " 

Cardita  laticostata,  Sow.  

radiata,  Sow...., 

affinis,  Sow. 

Peetunoulus  iwequalis,  Sow 

aiaimilia,  Sow , 


195 
195 
195 
196 
196 
196 
196 
198 
198 
198 
198 
199 
199 
200 
200 
201 


Capaa  altior,  Sow. , 
,var. 


Nuoula  polita,  Sow.  1  sp. 

—  costellata,  Sow 

—  gibbosa,&w.,., 

1  var. 


Amphideama  rupium,  Sow. 

.var 

punctatum,  «Sewo...,..l}sp. 
Neritina  latissima,  Brod 

—  globosa,  Brod.  =  N,  inter- 
media, ?ar.  tette  J?«.+N.  tri 
tonensis,  Guii.  teste  Sow. 


sandy  mad 
under  stones 
under  stones 
One  coral  sand 
sandy  mod 
sandy  mad 
deft  of  rock 

sandy  mod 
rocky  bed 
loose  gravel 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 
under  stones 

on  reefs 

sand 

muddy  sand 

sandy  mad 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud  Atgrav, 

coarse  gravel 

thip  mud 

sand 
sandy  mud 
toft  mud 
mud 
coarse  gray,  in  co- 
ral reefs,  &in  rocks 


10 


8 

6-12 

8 


8-12 
12 

7 


6-12 

6-12 

6-12 

10 

8-12 

12 

5 

7 

10 

5 

12 


Pan. 


on  rocks  in  river 


201 
201 

201 


intermedia,  Sow  i 


picta,  Sow., 


1833, 


pS.  prin- 


52 


Spondylus  dubius  ? 

caps,  var.  Brod...... 

5  Triton  lignarius,  Brod. .., 

tigrinus,  Brod. 

lineatus,  Brod,,, ,, 

gibbosu8t  Brod 

scalariformis,  Brod. , 

Turbinella  tuberculata,  Brod. 

armata,  Brod.  ., , 

Conus  tiaratus,  Brod.  =>  C,  mi-  "1 
nimus,  Linn.  var.  teste  Rve,  J 

—  nux,  Brod*   

—  Archon,  Brod. 

—  purpurascens,  Brod, 

—  gladiator,  Brod 

—  Orion.,  Bra* 


on  stones  in  moan 

tain  stream 

in  rivulet 

mud  bank  partially 

overflowed  with  fr. 

water i  abundant 

on  shells 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

coral  sand 

coarse  sand 

coarse  sand 

under  stones 

on  coral  reef 

ou  sand  in  small 

ponds  of  sea  water 


sandy  mud 

sandy  mud  in 

clefts  of  rocks. 

soft  sand  in  ditto 


10 

7-12 

11 

6 

7 

10 


12 


G.  Dolce. 

Pan. 

;G.  Nieoiyo. 

Pan. 

Gal. 

Gal. 

St.  Elen.,  Pan. 

Real  Lleijoa. 

RealUeJjoa. 

St.  Elen.,  Pan, 

St.  Blan. 

B.  Mont 

Pan. 

Gal. 

Gal. 

Gal. 

Pan.,  Ulitea. 

Rl.  Llej.,  Pan*,  StBL,Gutj 

Pan.,  Salango. 

B.  Mont.,  G.  Nocoiya. 

Pan.,  Real  Llej. 

B.  Guayaq.,  P.  Port. 

G.  Noooiyo. 

Tumbea. 

Pan. 

Pan. 

Tumbea. 

G.  Noooiyo. 

Ld.  Hood's  la. 

Gal. 

Gal. 

RealUej. 

Chiriqui  (Niooya,  Seta.), 


Is.  Lions,  Bay  Mont 
San  Luoas,  Gulf  Nooojya. 

Pan. 


Gulf  of  Tehuantepec 

Porto  Protraro  &  Panama. 

Guaeomayo. 

Galapagos. 

Panama  and  Monte  Xti. 

Bay  of  Monti)*. 

Galapagos. 

Elisabeth  la. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 
Bay  of  Montya. 

Panama. 


RealJJejoj. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THB  WBiT  COA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      188 


1833. 


5$ 

82 
83 
83 
85 

124 


P*oc.  Iool.  8oc— Cuming. 


18 
19 
19 
20 

20 

20 
21 


Orbicjda  Cnmingil,  Brod.. 

Bysaoarca  illota,  Av.  .... 

truncate,  Sow 

Area  tuberculosa,  S&w 

—  concinna,  Sow 

—  emarglnata,  Sow. .... 

—  formosa,  Sow.  ., 

—  roultieostata,  Sow. . . . 

—  quadrilatera,  Sow.  [= 
difijun.]    

—  labiate,  Sow. 

Cumingia  laroellosa,  Sow.. 


134 
135 
135 
135 
135 
135 
136 
136 
137 
137 

^38 
138 
138 
138 
139 
139 
139 
139 

1834. 

I 


Conns  princept ..., i 

Cardinm  CumingU,  Brod. 

—  procenjm,  Sow 

—  planicoatetum,  Sow ,... 

—  Panamenae,  Sow. 


•oft  mad  in  rocks 
sandy  mud  in  ditto 

sandy  mud 

coarse  sand 
fine  sand 

sandy  mud 
on  lower  sides  of 
stones  in  sandy  m. 

under  stones 
on  st.  &  Avicula 
roots  of  mangroves 

ooarse  sand 


gran, 


Corbula  nuciformis,  Sow. 

bicarinata,  Sow 

biradiata,  Sow 

nasuta,  &u> 

ovulate)  Sow 

tennis,  Sow. . 


35 
35 
36 
36 
37 
37 
71 
72 
72 
72 
73 
74 
134  Pleurotoraa  unimaculata,  Sow.. 


Bulinus  rugiferus,  Sow 

unifaseiatus,  Sow—, 

corneas,  Sow 

Triton  reticulata,  Sow.... 
Bulinus  discrepans,  Sow. . 

calvus,  Sow 

uatulatua,  Sow.., 

qnioolor,  Sow 

Jacobi,  Sow.. 


■  clavulus,  Ana,  , 

•  oxytropis,  Sow.,. 

•  albicostata,  Sow. 

•  bicolor,  Sow 


*  splendidula,  Sow 

-  bicanalifera,  Sow 

-  rugifera,  Sow 

-  aterrima,  Sow,*   

-  nigerrima,  Sow,   

-  corrugate.  Sow 

-  excentrica,  Sow. 

-  iiicrassate,  Sow 

•  duplicate,  fow 

-  unicolor,  Sow 

-  granulosa,  Sow 

-  variculosa,  Sow 

-  nitida,  Sow , 

-  hexagona,  Sow 1  sp. 


Eulima  interrupta,  Sow., 
—  acuta,  Sow 


sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 


in  hard  clay  < 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

mud  and  sand  -j 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

under  scoriae 

under  lava 

und.  decayed  grass 

under  stones 

under  bark 

on  dry  grass-tufts 

on  pieces  of  lava 

on  dead  leaves 

under  scoriae 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

fine  coral  sand 

under  stones 

sand 
fine  ©oral  sand 

sandy  mud 
fine  ©oral  sand 
under  stones 
sandy  mud 
muddy  sand 
coral  sand 
sandy  mnd 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mnd 

sand 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

coarse  sand 
coarse  sand 


l.w. 
12 

i'i 


8 
7 

u. 

deepw, 

•{ 

7-17 

3-6 

7 

10 
7-17 

12 


Depth 
in  fins. 


12 
4-6 
13 
10 


}■ 


6 


Locality. 


fossil 


8-18 

17 
13*80 


a 

6 

10 
6 

wo 

10 

6 
6-lQ 

10 
6-10 

8 

10 

10 

13 

11-13 
13 


Panama. 

St.  Elena  and  Monte  Xti. 

Gulf  of  Dulce. 

Real  Uejos. 

Guacomayo. 

Panama. 

jPayta,  St.  Elena,  Pan, 

Gulf  of  Nocoiyo. 
Galapagos,  Ld.  Hood's  Is. 
Real  Uejos. 
Gulf  of  Noeoiyo. 
Atacamas,  Real  I  Jej.,  Xip  , 
Panama,  and  Gulf  of  Calif. 
Gulf  of  Tehuantepec 
Ditto. 

Real  Uejos. 

Tumbea  and  Real  Llejos. 
Payta, 
Panama. 

Real  Llejos;   also 
near  Guayaquil. 
Pan.,  Rl.Llej.,  Carac,  8t.El. 
Chiriqui. 
flay  of  Caraocas. 
Xipui,   Jvn.  G.  Nooojvo, 
Xip.,B.Mont.,Carao.,lU.Lj. 
Bay  Montijo. 
James  Is.,  Gal. 
Charles  Is.,  Gal. 
Real  Llejos. 
Gal. 

Conchaguq. 
James  Is.,  Gal. 
Charles  Is,,  Gal. 
(a,  Perico,  Pan, 
James  Is,,  Gal, 
Monte  Xtl,  Quae.,  Salango 
U,  Monty* 
Pan.,  Port,  Portrero. 
Gal. 
Pan. 
Gal. 
Gal, 

B,  Motttija, 
Galap, 

Monte  Chrlati, 
Pan, 

15,  Mont.,  Port,  Portrtw, 
Galap, 

Pan,,  Mte  Xti. 
Port.  Port?,,  B,  Mont, 
Pan. 

B,  Mont.,  Pan, 
B.  Mont, 
B.  Mont, 
Guacomayo. 

G.  Noeoiyo. 
B.  Montiji. 


.  *  N.B.  Phrustiea,  £*».*<  thiarella,  V*l  teste  Joy. 


184 


REPORT — 1856. 


1834. 
Page. 


Paoc.  Zool.  Soc— Owning. 


Depth 
infms. 


Locality. 


18  Conus  Luzonicus,  Tar. , 

18 brunneus,  Wood  , 

19 diadema,  Sow. .... 

19 regalitatis,  Sow. 


21 

21 
21 
22 
22 
35 
351 
35 
36 

36 
36' 
36 
37 
37 
39 

40 
40 
40 
40 
47 
47 

69 


Gastrochssna  ovata,  Sow. 

truncata,  Sow 

breyis,  Sow 

rugulosa,  Sow 

hyalina,  Sow.   ...... 

Calyptraea  rudis,  Brod. ... 

corrugata,  Brod. ... 


clefts  of  rocks 

clefts  of  rocks 

clefts  of  rocks 

sandy  mud  in  do. 

on  Spondyli 

on  coral  rocks 

on  Spondyli 

in  pearl  oysters 

in  pearl  oysters 

with  the  last 


under  stones 


varia,  Brod. . 
—  (Calypeopsis)  imbricata," 

Brod.  (Sow.) 

( — —)  b'gnaria,  Brod..... 

var. 


tenuis,  Brod.   

serrata,  Brod.   

(§yphdpateUa)sordida,firorf. 

—  (Crepidula)  unguiformis,  f 

Lam \ 

excavata,  Brod.  ... 

arenata,  Brod 

marginalia,  Brod.... 

squama,  Brod 

Petricola  robusta,  Sow 

amygdalina,  Sow. 


Pholas  cruciger,  Sow., 


69 

70 
70 
71 
72 

68 

125 
125 


125 
125 
125 
126 
126 
127 
128 
148 
148 
149 
150 
150 
150 
150 

1 835. 


on  st.  in  sandy  m 

under  stones 
on  shells  in  s.  m. 
onliv.shellsinm.s, 
ondeadshls.,  mud 

on  stones,  sand 

inside  dead  shells, 

sandy  mud 


•  calva,  Gray,  MS.. 


r  adult 


-  acuminata,  Sow. 

-curta,  Sow 

-cornea,  Sow 


Lyonsia  picta,  Sow « 

Fissurella  obscura,  Sow , 

—  virescens,  Sow.  [non  F.  vi- 
rescens,  Guild.  eBarbadensis, 
var.  teste  Sow.] 

—  nigropunctata,  Sow 

—  macrotrema,  Sow , 

—  microtrema,  Sow , 

inaequalis,  Sow , 

pica,  £010 . 

Panamensis,  Sow , 

creuifera,  Sow , 

Chama  frondosa,  Brod. 

,  var.  b , 

imbricata,  Brod. , 

,  var.  a , 

producta,  Brod , 

corrugata,  Brod. 

echinata,  Brod.* , 


5Hipponyx  radiata,  Gray    (non 
»A.)«H.  Grayanus,  Mke. 


on  sh.  sandy  mud 

stones  &  shls.  s.  m. 

under  stones 

in  rocks 
in  pearl  oysters 
[soft  sandstone 

soft  stone 
I    hard  clay 


hard  stones 
hard  stones 
limestone 
soft  stone 
trunk  of  tree 
attached  to  parti- 
cles of  sand 
under  stones 

I  exposed  situat. 


under  stones 

under  stones 

under  stones 

dead  shells 

dead  shells 

under  stones 

on  coral  rock 

on  pearl  oyst.  s.m 

on  pearl  oysters 

rocks  and  stones 

on  stones,  s.  mud 

stones 

on  rocks 

\    on  rocks 


l.w. 

Lw. 

17 

£V 
3-7 
3-7 

1*4 
6-10 

4 

9 

6-11 

12 

J  4-10 

6^8 
6-10 

6^11 

3-6 

i-tide 

Lw. 

13 

12 
Lw. 
Lw. 
Lw. 
1.  w. 
Lw. 

}•■ 

shore 
Lw. 


Gal. 

Gal.,  Puert.  Portr.,  Pan. 

Gal. 

Real  Llejos. 

Is.  Perico. 

Is.  Plata. 

Is.  Perico. 

Galap.,  Lord  Hood's. 

Galap.,  Lord  Hood's. 

Lord  Hood's  Is. 

Pan.,  Real  Uej. 

Guacom. 

Gal.,Ld.Hd'sIs.,l8.Muerte. 

Pan. 

Real  Llejos. 

Chiloe. 

Samanco  Bay. 

Real  Llejos,  Is.  Muerte. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Chiloe. 

Real  Llejos. 

St.  Elena. 

Pan.,  Is.  Muerte. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Is.  Muerte. 

Gal.,  Lord  Hood's  Is. 

Is.  Phna,  Guayaq. 

Bay  Caraccas. 

G.  Nocoiyo. 

Perico. 


Pan. 

Is.  Lions,  Veragua. 

Chiriqui,  Veragua. 

Is.  Muerte. 

Galap. 


shore 

shore 

6-8 

6-10 

shore 

17 

10 
3-7 
Lw. 

10 
Lw. 
Lw. 


Pan. 


Pan. 

Galap.,  Lobos  Is. 

Gal.,  Lambeyeque,  Lob.  Is. 

Real  Llejos. 

Gal.,  Guacom. 

St.  Elena,  Galap. 

Panama. 

Real  Llejos. 

Is.  Plata. 

G.  Tehuantepec. 

Ld.  Hood's  Is.,  Pearl  Is. 

,Galap. 

jG.  Tehuan. 

.Real  Llej. 

Puert.  Portr. 


Pan.,  Galap. 


*  The  old  sp.  spoken  of  are  the  young  of  Ch.fr  ondoia,  var.  The  young  are  Ch.  coralkid4i,Rrc 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      185 


1835. 
Page. 


Pxoc.  Zool.  Soc—  Cuming. 


Station. 


Depth 
inftna. 


Locality. 


6 

7 
21 
21 
22 
23 
23 
41 
41 
42 
43 
44 
44 

45 
45 
46 
46 
46 
84 
84 
84 


Mouretia  stellata,  Sow.  [comp. 
Gadinia  pentegoniostoma]   ... 

Siphonaria  costata,  Sow i 

maura,  Sow. 

Venus  Columbiensis,  Sow 

subimbricata,  Sow 

multicostata,  Sow 

Cytherea  unicolor,  Sow 

conciima,  Sow 


Venus  hiitrionica,  Sow 

—  fuscolineata,  Sow 

—  discors,  Sow. 

—  crenifera,  Sow 

—  oraatissima,  Brod.  ...  1  sp. 

—  pulicaria,  Brod.   [ = cingu- 
lata,  Lam.  teste  Sow.'] 

Cytherea  tortuoaa,  Brod. 

affinis,  Brod. 

Dione,  var.  /3. = C.  lupinaria 

vulnerata,  Brod.  , 

argentina,£oi0 , 


Pinna  rugosa,  Sow. 

maura,  Sow 

tuberculosa,  Sow , 

93  Pandora  brevifrons,  Sow , 

Buccinum  modestum,  Powis 
Nassa  nodifera,  Pow , 

festiva,  Pow , 

pallida,  Pow 

scabriuscula,  Pow. 


var.y, 


Pecten  subnodosus,  Sow.  \  var<" 
'         \var.y. 

inagnificus,  Sow.l    ^' 

tumidus,  Sow.  , 
Mitra  tristis,  Swains, 
effusa,  Swains. . 
Tiara  foraminata,  Swains.  =Vo- 
luta  lens,  Wood..*......, 

—  muricata,  Swains. ... 


94 
95 
95 
96 
96 

109 

109 

109 
194 
194 
194 

194 

1840. 

139 

1841 

51 
52 

1842. 
49 

197 

184S. 

23 
208 
210 
213 

185 
SO^yclostoma  giganteum,  Sow., 

154,Terebra  aspera,  Hinds 

156| elata,  Hinds 


Mnrex  plicatns,  Sow.Jun.. 


Ranella  nana,  Sow.  Jun.    .... 
—  albofasciata,  Sow.Jun.. 


>     on  rocks 

on  rocks  in  ex- 
posed situations 
on  rocks 
coarse  sand 
fine  sand 
coarse  sand 
coarse  sand 
fine  sand 
muddy  sand 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mnd 

sand 
sandy  mud 

V  sandy  mnd 

sandy  mud 

sandy  mud 

soft  mud 

sandy  mud 

sand-banks 

sand-banks 

muddy  banks 

muddy  banks 

sand 
muddy  gravel 
coral  sand 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mnd 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud  \ 
and  coral  sand  J 

coral  sand   -j 

sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

}  sandy  mud  and 
gravel 
sandy  mud 

coarse  sand 

coarse  sand 
coarse  sand 


Siphonaria  characteristica,  Rve. 
Vermetus  eburneus,  Rve. 


Lima  angulata,  Sow.  jun 

Natica  Panamaensis,  Reel.  

—  uberina,  VaU  m  Humb 

—  Gallapagosa,  Reel.    [?~N, 
otis,  Z.B.V.] 

Pleurotoma  cedo-nulli,  Rve 


160 ornata,  Gray  (P.Z.S.  1834, 


166—  ariculata,Jftfe.  (quasi  Lam.) 


sandy  mud 

fine  sand 

muddy  sand 

coral  sand 

sandy  mud 

woods 

sandy  mud 

coarse  sand 

coral  sand 

(mud 


l.w.  RealLlej. 

V  1.  w.  Guacom. 

...  Pan. 

1.  v«.  St.  Elena. 

13  P.Portr.,Acap.[Calif.,&w.] 

L  w.  G.  Pan.    . 

6  Real  Llej.  [Xipix.,  Sow.] 

10  Pan. 

Lw.  Real  Llej.,  St.  Elena. 

13  Guacom. 

6-9  Guacom.,  St.  Elena. 

1.  w.  Payta,  St.  Elena. 

10  Pan. 

3  Chiriqui  and  Tumaco. 

6  Pan.,  Xipix. 

10  Xipix. 

5  Tumbez. 

6  Real  Llej. 

1.  w.  G.  Nocoiyo. 

...  Is.  Rey,  B.  Pan. 

...  Pan. 

...  Pan. 

10  Pan. 

7-17  B.Mont. 

6-10  GaL,  Pan. 

6-10  Pan.,  St.  Elen. 

6  Pan. 

12  Bay  Mont. 

10-17  J*8-?1*** 

ilw/  IGulfTehuant. 

6  Galap. 

17  Is.  Plata. 

6-10  St.  Elena,  Salango. 

6-10  St.  Elena,  Galap. 

12  Guacom.,  Galap. 

}  6-14  St.  Elena,  Is.  Plata,  Pan. 

6  Galap. 

12  G.  Nocoyo. 

7  Panama.  ["Ins.  Philip."] 
10  Panama.         Ditto. 

...  Pan. 
? 

12-20  Pan. 

10  Pan. 

5  Casma,  Peru. 

...  Albemarle  Is.,  Gal. 

10  Pan. 

...  Panama. 

6-10  Pan.,  Mte  Xti.,  St.  Elen. 

15  Bay  Mont. 

5-7  Gal. 

7  Panama,  Hinds.) 

...  Xipix.   (Acapulco,  Sonso- 
niiti,  Hds.) 


186 


BBPOBT— -1856. 


1844. 
Page. 


Pmoc.  Sool.  Soc— Cuming. 


Station. 


Depth 
innns. 


Locality. 


17 
59 
60 
61 

61 

ea 

70 

71 

142 

144 

144 

147 

147 

148 

121 

121 

12 

51 

51 

52 

1845. 
11 

11 

15 
15 

17 
107 

42 
129 
130 
139 
139 
142 

53 

59 

1840. 

117 

119 

1848. 
41 
97 


Lithodomus  plumule,  HanL., 
Tellina  Cumiugii,  Hani,  

rubescens,  HanL , 

regia,  Hani. . 


•  lacerideni,  HanL j 


prineeps,  Hani , 

insculpt*,  Haul  1  sp. 

felix, /fan*.  

gubernaculum,  HanL  

elongata,  HanL 

Dombej,  HanL 

plebeia,  HanL 

aurora,  Hani,  

hiberna,  Hani. 

Triton  pagodus,  Rve 

pictus,  Rve 

Scalaria  mitrjeformis,  Sow.Jun. 
Columbella  rugulosa.  Sow,  

atramentaria,  Saw 

nigricans,  Sow. 


in  Spondyli 

coral  sand 

sandy  mud 

coarse  sandy  mud 

•oft  sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

soft  sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

sand 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 

soft  sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 


7 
5 
3 
5 
3 
6-10 
7 
3 
12 
7 
10 

e-u 


under  scones 


Artemis  simplex,  Hani.    [»Do- 

sinia  Dunkeri,  PhiL~\ . , . , 

—  subquadrata,  Hani. 

Donax  navicula,  Hani. ,. 


gracilis,  Hani.*,..,  <  var.  b. 
Ivar.  c, 

assimilis,  Hani.    ,.... 

Ostrea  Columbiensis,  Hani. 

Glandina  obtusa,  PJr. 

Helix  spirulata,  Pfr. 

Nystiana,  jyr 

Littorina  aspera,  PhiL ... 

— —  poreata,  Phil.  .... 

? aberrant,  Phil. , 

Mitra  gratiosa,  Rva. , 

gausapata,  Rve.   , ,. 


Cbama  Panameusis,  Rve,, 
—  Janus,  Rve 


rocks 
leaves  of  bushes 
trunks  of  trees 


high  exposed  rocks 

rocks 

coral  sand 


i-tide 


Hide 
7 
10 


49 

1840, 
116 

117 
134 

I860. 

154 

1851 

109 
110 

1855. 

173 
183 


Planorbis  Panamensis,  Dk.  .,. 
Cypnea  pulla,  Go**,  (described 

1846,  p.  24) 

Turbo  saxosus,  Rve ,. 


on  stones 
on  large  Avieula 

iu  streams 


Anomia  fidenas,  Gray  „., 

adamas,  Gray  ,.., 

Tornatellina  Cuminglana,  Pfr, 


on  Pinna 
on  Av,  mart. 


Phos  turritus,  A.  Ad.. 


coral  aand 


Nassa  angullfera,  A.Ad. 

—  nodicincta,  A.Ad... 


Lw. 
9 


6-10 

10 
7 


Scintilla  Cumingii,  De$h., 
Erycina  dubia,  Huh , 


Pan. 

Guaoom. 

Pan.,  Tumbez. 

Real  Llej.. 

Tumbez. 

Cbiriqui. 

Tumbez. 

Cbiriqui. 

Pan. 

Real  Llej.  [7Vs.) 

Chiquiqui    (Cbiriqui,  Saw, 

Pau.,  var.  Tumbez, 

Real  Llej. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  Guayaq. 

Bay  Montya, 

Galap, 

Guaoom. 

Galap. 

Chat  I  mm  Is.,  Galap. 

Galap. 

Pan.,  St.  Elen. 

St  Elena. 

Gulf  Nicoya. 

Bay  Guayaq. 

Cbiriqui. 

Caracoas. 

Pan, 

St.  Elena. 

Real  Llej. 

Ditto. 

Ditto. 

Conchagua. 

Galap. 

Pan. 

Gal. 

GaL 

Pan. 
Gal. 

Pan. 

Gal.,  Guay. 
W.  Columb. 

Pan, 

Gal.,  Lord  Hood's  Is. 

Real  Llej. 

Pan. 

Gal. 
Gal. 

Panama. 

Is.  Muerte,  Guayaq. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WBBT  OOAJT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      187 


The  following  species  occur  in  Reeve**  Conchologia  Iconica,  from  places 
visited  by  Mr.  Cuming,  and  were  probably  collected  by  that  gentleman. 


1 

7 

8 

9 

11 

6 

8 

17 

7 

100 

24 
33 


Sp. 


33 

49 
25 
68 
29 

43 
86 
31 

552 

61 

99 


117 
21 
3 
92 
38 
15 


54 


11 

47 

63 

134 

59 

58 


12 

99 

12 

49 

11 

57 

2 

9 

3 

14 

11 

60 

9 

43 

3 

17 

4 

23 

5 

32 

5 

33 

Lucira*-  punctata . 
-fibula 


Name. 


—  eburnea , 

cornea  [Mysia,  H.  Sf  A.  Ad.]    

—  calculus 

Cardium  biangulatum    [=magnifioum, 

2Mb.] 
graniferum 

—  consort 

Fig.  a,  b.  Pecten  vcntricosu*,  Sow.  Thes. 

=  P.  tumidus,  Sow.  P.  Z.  S.,  non  Turt. 
Helix  uncigera,  Petit,  Guer.  Mag.  Zool. 

1838,  pi.  113. 

fig.  a,  b.  Patella  diaphana,  Jive.   

Fig.  a,  b. striata*  Jive,  [as  of  Quoy 

Sf  Gaim.,  but  quite  distinct  from  their 

species,    which    is  given    afterwards 

under  the  same  name.] 

Pig.  a,  b.  Patella  stipulate  Rve 

Turbo  squaraiger,  Rve 

Strombus  galeatu8=8.  crenatus,  Sow. 

—  granulatus , 

—  gracilior 

Chiton  sulcatus  , 


—  crentdatus 

Chiton  hirundinifbrmis 


Turritella  nodulosa,  King,  2.  J.  v.  347, 
=T.  papulosa,  Kit*. 

—  facialis,  Jive 

—  rubescens,  Jive. 

Cypnea  fusca,  Gray  

nigropuactata,  Gray,  Z.  J.  iv.  11, 

=C.  irina,  Kien. 
Conus  varius,  Linn.  1170  [Rve.  pi.  12, 

non  13,  sp.  58.] 

Var.   j8.  =  C.  pulchellus,  $m.    not 

Swain*.  =  C.    interruptus,    Wood, 

Suppl. 

Pleurotoma  ciocta,  Jfoe\=modesta,  Sow. 

Fig.  a,  b.  Natica  untfasciata,  Rve,  [?  not 

Lam.] 
Purpura  Carolensis,  Jive,  [-triangularis, 

Ekinv.] 

—  columellaris,  Lam 

planospira,  Lam 

alveolata,  Rve.  

undata,  Rve.  [=biserialisf  Biatnv, 

non  Rve.,  var.  Non  undata,  Lam. »  fas- 

ciata,  Rve.  pi.  9.  f.  45.] 
RicinuUbeptagonalis,  Rve.  P.  Z.  S.  1846 

[?ubi]. 

alveolata,  Kien.  [comp.  Purp.  alv.] 

contracta,  Rve.  

— —  wnata,  Rve 


Station. 


Depth 
in  mi*. 


sandy  mud  < 

sandy  mud 
coarse  sand 
coarse  sand 
coral  sand 


l.w 

6 
l.w 

11 
10-13 
10-13 

17 


sandy  mud 


reefs 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
under  stones 

under  stones 


sandy  mud 

coarse  sand 
coarse  sand 


under  stones 


clefts  of  rooks 


sandy  mud 
mud  banks 

under  atones 

exposed  rocks 
exposed  rocks 
under  stones 
under  stones 


under  stones 


6-11 


7 
Lw. 
6-8 
6-12 
below 
l.w. 
ditto 


6-10 

7 
7 


8 
l.w. 

Lw. 

Lw. 


Lw. 
l.w. 


under  stones 


Lw. 


Locality. 


Panama. 

St.  Elena. 

Philippines. 

Pan.,  St.  Elen, 

G.  Nicoya. 

G.  Nicoya. 

Is.  Plata,  St,  Elena, 

G.  Nicoya,  Xipiz. 
St.  Elena,  Guacom. 
St.  Elen.,&c.,Philippine8. 

Panama. 

Cent,  Amer.  ( Cum.  ,KeU.) 
Galapagos. 


Panama. 

Gal. 

G.  Nicoy. 

St.  Helena  and  Gal. 

St,  Elena  and  Pan. 

Ld.  Hood's  &Jaa,I.,Gal. 

Pan. 

Korean  Arch\p.,BehAer\ 
teste  Rve.,  Gal, ;  and 
Peru,  teste.  Own. 

Gulf  Dulce. 

B.  Mont. 

B.  Mont. 

Gal,  (also  B.  Guayaquil, 

Gal.  [teste  Sow.) 

Philippines. 

Gal. 


Real  Llej.  and  Is,  Anna*. 
Pan. 

Charles  Is.,  Gal. 

Gal. 

James  Is.,  Gal. 

Pan, 

St,  Elena, 


Pan. 

Pan. 

Pan.,  St  Elen, 

Charles  la.,  Gal, 


188 


BEPORT — 1856. 


Plate. 

Sp. 

6 

13 

6 

14 

1 

5 

9 

62 

10 

71 

10 

73 

11 

80 

11 

84 

11 

89 

2 

6 

3 

11 

11 

37 

16 

65 

17 

72 

16 

124 

22 

176 

1 

3 

6 

40 

8 

56 

9 

15 

11 

17 

14 

29 

20 

49 

2 

6 

5 

27 

3 

7 

32 

157 

Name. 


Station. 


Depth 
in  fins. 


Locality* 


Cassis  tenuis,  Gray,  in  Woody  pi.  8.  f.  4, 
=C.  Massenae,  Kien. 

coarctata,  Sow.,  Wood,  f .  5  ... 

Ouiscia  tuberculosa,  Sow.  Gen.  p.  2 

Buccinum  Coromandelianum,  Lam. 

biliratum,  Rve 

nigrocostatum,  Rve.  

— »-  pulchrum,  Rve. 

cinis,  Rve. 

pastinaca,  Rve.  

Monoceros  grande,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  124, 
= Purpura  Grayii,  Kien. 

cingulatum,Zom. = Buc  pseudodon, 

Burrows.   "  Quite  inseparable  from  the 
present  group :"  [except  by  the  Lathy- 
roid  plaits,  and  the  Turbinelloid  opercu 
lum,  which  Kien.  had  already  described.] 

Triton   Chemnitzii  =  Cassidaria   setosa, 
Hds.  [?ubi]. 

—  Sowerbii=T.  lineatus,  Sow.... 

—  reticulatus  ?  =  Murex  reticulatus, 
Dilho.=T.  tnrriculatus,  De$h.= Trito 
nium  intertextum,  Pfr.  =T.  reticulatus 
Mediterraneus,  Sow. 

Mitra  attenuate,  Swains 

sulcata,  Swains 

Volute  harpa  

Fis8urella  Mexicana  


sandy  mud 

crev.  of  rocks 
clefts  of  rocks 


under  stones 


6 
Lw. 

Lw. 


under  stones 


crev.  of  rocks 
clefts  of  rocks 


sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 


rocky  bottom 

tine  black  sand 

sandy  mud 


rugosa    

Oliva  Julieta  

splendidula    

polpasta,  Duel. 

kaleontina 

Turbinella  varicosa 

nodata,  Afart.= Murex  rigidus,  Wd. 
Fasciolaria  salmo,  Wood  [Pyrula,  Gray], 

=  F.  Valenciennesii,  Kien. 
Fig.  157,  163.    Murex  alveatus,  Kien. 
p.  24.  pi.  46.  f.  2. 


under  stones 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 
sandy  mud 


crev.  of  rocks 


under  stones 


Lw. 
Lw. 


28 
4 
8 


Lw. 

6 
Lw. 

13 
6-12 


Lw. 


Lw. 


Gal. 

Gal. 

GaL 

Coromandel,  Panama, 

GaL 

Pan. 

Gal. 

GaL 

B.  Mont. 

James  Is.,  Gal. 

Pan. 


Pan. 

Gal. 

Mediterranean,  Gal.  &c 


Is.  Cana,  Centr.  Am. 
Mouth  of  Chiriqui,  Ve- 
st. Elen.  [ragua. 
RealLlej. 
GaL 

Real  Llej. 

Is.  Tobago,  B.  Pan. 
B.  Mont.,  Veragua. 
B.  Guay.,  Gal. 
Gal. 
Pan. 
Real  Llej. 

Pan. 


The  following  species,  to  which  is  appended  the  authority  of  Mr.  Cuming, 
are  figured  in  Sowerby's  Conckohgical  Illustrations. 


No.    Fig. 


Name. 


Locality. 


119 

126 

31 

25 

2 


17 


Flssurella  gibberula,  Lam 

Bulinus  princeps,  Brod.  Z.  P.  1832  [?ubi.  = zebra,  var.]  ... 

— -  escharifeni8,  Sow 

rugukwus,  Sow , 

Jacobi,  Sow. ^ 

ustulatus,  Sow t 

Murex  dubius,  Sow.=M.  aculeatus,  Wood  

Cyprsa  suffusa,  Gray  [=C.  armadina,  Duel  teste  Kien.']... 

Ovulum  aequale,  Sow 

Conus  tornatus,  Brod.  [Xipixapi,  teste  Brod.  P.  Z.  S.  1833, 

P.  53.] 
Amphidesma  pulchrum,  Sow.  [B.  Caraccas,  teste  Sow.  P.  Z.  S. 

1832,  p.  57.] 
Neritina  pulchra,  Sow. 


Panama. 

Conchagua. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 

Panama. 

Galapagos. 

Panama. 

Panama. 

St  Elena:  var.  Panama. 

Panama. 


ON  MOLLUSOA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      189 


The  following  species  occur  in  Sowerby's  Thesaurus  Conchyliorum,  on 
the  authority  of  Mr.  Cuming. 


No. 


Page. 


Plate. 


Pig. 


Name. 


Station. 


D.in 
fins 


Locality, 


12 
15 

51 

38 

118 

36 

38 

76 

48 
52 
53 
21 

69 

71 

70 

85 

169 


86 

86 

129 
163 
284 

479 

529 

576 
577 
577 
618 


869 
887 


22 

22 

37 
44 
57 

77 

99 
/112, 
\115 
123 
123 
123 
127 

179 

179 

178 

182 

186 


39,40 
41,42 

112-13 

71 

42 
153-5 

16-19 
108-9 
217-18 

71 

76 

77 

12 

59,77 

60 

48 

155-6 
280-2 


lima  angulata,  Sow.  

— —  arcuata,  Sow. i 

Columbella  cribraria,  Lam. 

Terebra frigata,  Hds.=1.  gracilis,  Gray. 
Tellina  virgo,  Hard.  P.  Z.  S.  1844,  p.  143 
Marginella  cssrulescens,  Lam.=M.  pru- 

num,  GmeL  [not  M.  sapotiila,  Hdt.] 

Ovulum  gibbosum,  Lam.    

\Neritina  Michaudii,  Reel  Rev.  Zool.l 
J      1841,  p.  315.  J 

Bulla  Quoyii,  Gray,  MS , 

rufoUbria,  A,  Ad. 

punctata,^.  Ad.   

Cytherea  undulata,  Sow.jun.  =  C.  planu- 

lata,  Tar.,  Sow.  gen. 
Cerithium  ocellatam,  Sow.  [not  Brug."] 

-=C.irroratum  [non]  interraptum,  Od. 
nebolosum,  Sow 

=C.  macaloaum,  Kien. 

—  adnstum,  Sow.  non  Kien. 

?=C.  maculosum,  var. 

Oallapaginis,  A.  Ad. ..... 

?=interruptum,  Mke. 

—  varicosum,  Sow 


a.  coral 

sdy.  m. 

u.  s. 

cor.  ad. 


cor.  sd. 
fine  sd. 
sdy.  m. 
sdy.  m. 


6-8 
6 
10 
9 


Panama. 

Ld.  Hood's  Is. 

Panama. 

Pan.,  very  common, 

Galap. 

Chiriqui,  W.  CoL 

Panama. 

Panama. 

Panama. 

Galap. 
Galap. 
Panama. 
Salango. 

Golf  Cal.,  Galap. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 

Galapagos. 

Real  Llejos,  at  roots 
of  mangroves. 


y/S 


S3.  At  the  very  time  that  Mr.  Cuming  was  prosecuting  his  researches  on 
the  West  Coast  of  South  America,  the  Chevalier  Alcide  D'Orbigny  was 
engaged  in  a  similar  exploration  of  the  continent  generally,  from  the  years 
1 826-1 8S3.  In  July  1833,  he  reached  the  Pacific  coast  at  Arica,  whence  he 
proceeded  to  Callao,  stopping  at  Cobijo,  Islay,  and  Arequipa.  Thence  he 
returned  to  Europe  vid  Valparaiso.  The  result  of  his  labours  is  described 
in  the  "  Voyage  dans  FAmSrique  M6ridionale,  le  Br6sil,  la  Republique 
Orientate  d'Uruguay,  la  Republique  Argentine,  la  Patagonic,  la  R6publique 
du  Chili,  la  Republique  de  Bolivia,  la  Republique  de  Perou,  ex6cut6  pen- 
dant les  ann6es  1826-1833,  par  Alcide  D'Orbigny.  Mollusca,  Paris,  1847." 
Among  the  services  rendered  to  malacological  science  by  Dr.  Gray*,  it  is 
not  the  least  that  he  has  obtained  the  type  specimens  described  in  this  work 
for  the  British  Museum,  where  they  may  be  seen  by  students  on  application. 
The  sea-shells  are  frequently  by  no  means  in  good  condition,  in  which  re- 
spect they  contrast  most  unfavourably  with  the  magnificent  specimens  brought 
in  such  abundance  by  Mr.  Cuming ;  nor  is  the  identification  of  species  always 
to  be  relied  on.  In  the  Calyptraeida?  especially,  M.  D'Orbigny  has  added  to 
the  confusion  which  was  before  characteristic  of  the  nomenclature  in  that 
interesting  but  unfortunate  family.  Both  the  specimens  and  the  work,  how- 
ever, are  extremely  valuable,  especially  from  the  materials  afforded  for  a 
comparison  of  the  faunae  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts ;  and  the  publi- 
cation of  a  cheap  catalogue  of  them  by  Dr.  Gray,  Oct.  1854,  enables  ordi- 

*  Perhaps  the  attention  now  given  to  the  animals  of  Mollusca,  and  the  reform  of  systems 
founded  on  the  shells  alone,  are  due  to  the  labours  of  Dr.  Gray  more  than  to  any  other  man 
living.  It  is  a  source  of  unfailing  regret  that  the  benefit  of  his  works  is  very  much  overlooked, 
in  consequence  of  "his  not  conforming  to  the  principles  of  nomenclature  published  under  the 
auspices  of  the  British  Association  (Reports,  1842,  pp.  105-121). 


190  BEPOBT — 1856. 

nary  students  to  make  use  of  the  information  they  afford.  But  in  the  part 
of  South  America  to  which  our  present  inquiries  are  directed,  which  is  mainly 
from  Panama  to  the  Bay  of  Guayaquil,  it  does  not  appear  that  M.  D'Orbigny 
himself  traveled.  The  shells  quoted  from  this  coast  were  principally  col- 
lected by  M.  Fontaine*  or  copied  from  the  descriptions  of  Mr.  Cuming's 
stores.  Those  which  are  connected  with  the  West  North  American  pro- 
vince are  as  follow.  The  numbers  refer  to  the  "  List  of  the  Shells  of  South. 
America  in  the  Collection  of  the  British  Museum.  1854."  Some  notes  are 
added  on  doubtful  species,  from  a  study  of  the  specimens. 

No. 

279.  furritella  Broderipiana,  D'Orb.    Peru,  Payta. 

=  T.  goniostoma,  Val. 
301.  Natioa  glauca,  Val.  «=  N.  patula,  Sow.    Peru,  Payta. 
320.  Cyprsea  nigropunctata,  Gray.    Payta. 
345.  Columbella  lanceolata,  Sow.    Peru,  Payta. 
356.  Purpura  h'emastoma,  Lam.    Brazils. 

These  specimens  are  of  the  P.  Fhridana  type,  punctured  like  the  Mazatlaii 
P.  biseriatis,  but  with  the  tubercles  not  developed.  Some  of  the  shells 
appear  to  be  the  true  P.  undata,  Lam. 

359.  scalariformis,  Blaine.     Guayaquil. 

=  Cuma  kiosquiformis,  var. 

365.  bicostalis,  Lam.    Brazils. 

Very  like  No.  364,  which  is  probably  the  true  P.  undata  of  Lam.,  not  of 
Val.  and  C.  B.  Ad.  Whether  the  Lamarckian  P.  bieostaUs  be  this  shell, 
or  an  £.  Indian  species,  as  supposed  by  Blainv.,  is  not  known.  Reeve 
assigns  the  name  to  the  Masatlan  shell. 

373.  Cerithium  varicosum,  Sow.    Guayaquil. 

374.  •  Montagnei,  D'Orb*    Guayaquil. 

(Quite  distinct  from  Cerithidea  varicosa.) 

407.  Calyptraea  (Calypeopsis)  quiriquina,  D'Orb.    Chili;  Conception. 

ce(Tablet  555)  C*  rugosa,  Deth.,  Tar.    Probably  a  form  of  Crucibulum  *pi- 


408. ( — -)  rugosa,  Deth.    Chili. 

=s  C.  lignaria,  Brod.,  non  C.  rugosa,  Less.    Tablet  558  is  the  extreme  form, 
lignaria ;  557,  intermediate  between  that  and  555. 

409.  ( )  imbricata,  Sow.    Peru;  Payta. 

±=C.  rugosa,  Less.,  not  Desh.    TabletB  559,  560  are  the  true  Cfucibuhtm 
imbricatum  :  661,  ?do.  var.  Broderipii\  556,  ??do.  var.  Cummgii. 

410.  — —  ( )  auriculata,  D'Orb.    Peru;  Payta. 

szCrucibulum  spmosum,  Sow.,  not  P.  awncuktiu,  Chemn. 

411.  —  (Troohatella)  trochiformis,  D'Orb.szT.  radians,  Lam.    Chili  and  Peru. 

412.  —  (— )  mammillaris,  D'Orb.    Peru ;  Payta— Guayaquil. 

=  Galerus  unguis,  Brod.,  not  G.  mammillans,  Brod. 
415*  Crepidula  aculeata,  Gmel.    Brazils;  Patagonia. 

416.  *  Patagonica,  D'Orb.    Patagonia. 

Probably  =  C.  dilatata,  var.    Some  species  are  perhaps  C.  nivea,  var. 

417.  protea,  D'Orb.    East  coast;  Patagonia;  Brazils. 

Tablet  573,  probably  dead  specimens  of  C.  incurva,  or  onyx,  or  both. 
„      574  „  „  C.nivta. 

419.  —  foliacea,  Brod*    Bolivia. 

Possibly  a  var.  of  C.  dilatata,;  like  C.  Lessonii  of  C.  nivea. 

420.  ■— ■ —  arcuata,  Brod.     Peru ;  Payta. 

Probably  =  C.  dilatata,  var. 

440.  Acmsea  scurra,  Less.    Chili,  Arica  (on  Fucus). 

=  Scurria  mitra,  Gray,  from  Less,  and  Esch. 

441.  scutum,  Esch.    Chili;  Bolivia;  Peru. 

ssA.  patina,  var. 

449.  Patella  maxima,  D'Orb.    Peru;  Payta. 
s*P.  Almrican*. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WBflT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       191 

No. 

482.  Pholas  curta,  Sow.    "  Ecuador;  Isle  de  los  Leones." 

This  island  is  in  Veragua,  teste  Cuming.    The  shell  is  probably  copied* 
545.  Donax  radiate,  Val.  [?]     Peru ;  Arica. 
587*  Venus  planulata,  Soto.     Chili ;  Coquimbo. 

607.  — —  Solangensis,  D'Orb.    Ecuador;  Xipixapi. 

=zCytherea  radiata,  Sow. 

608.  Pavtensis,  D'Orb.    Peru;  Payta. 

z=Cytherea  affinis,  Brod. 

610.  - — -  neglecta,  Gray.    Peru ;  Payta. 

611*. Californiensis,  Brod.  (non  Uonr.)    Peru;  Payta  (Fontaine). 

776.  Ostrea  aequatorialis,  D'Orb.    Ecuador;  Guayaquil;  Is.  de  la  Luna. 

/94i  M.  Paul  Emile  Botta,  who  has  since  acquired  such  deserved  reputation 
fbf  his  Assyrian  researches,  appears  to  have  been  a  naval  Burgeon  in  early 
life,  and  is  quoted  by  French  writers  for  several  shells  belonging  to  the  W. 
American  faunas.  The  habitats  assigned  are  in  some  instances  correct,  but 
error  has  evidently  crept  into  others. 

Pytula bezoar,  Lam.  China.    " California,  Botta*9    Blainv.  Ann. Nouv. du Mug. 

p.  234  No.  68 
Purpura  cbocolatta.    [S.America.]     California,  Botta.  n ...240         80 

—  cornigera  [=  Mon.  brevidentatum,  Gray],    Mazatlan,  Botta, 

(fragment) 213         28 

—  fusiformis.    N.  Guinea,  Lesson  «/  Garnot.    Mazatlan,  Botta.  229         61 

M.  Botta's  shell,  if  from  Masatlan,  is  probably  the  allied 
Fusus  pallidas. 
triangularis.     Mazatlan,  1  sp.... 223  466* 

—  triaerialis.     California,  1  sp*   226  53 

spirata.     Sandwich  Islands 252  105 

columellaris.     Chili 220  40  • 

—  costata.    Mazatlan,  1  sp »».•  231  63 

Pleurotoma  maura*    Masatlan    Kientr    59  37 

—  Botta.    Mazatlan,  I  sp Kiener    26  33 

35.  M.  BlainvHle,  in  his  Monograph  of  Purpura, t%  Nouvelles  Annates  dtt 
Museum/1 1832,  vol.  i.  pp.  189-263,  besides  the  species  brought  by  M.  Botta, 
describes  the  two  following,  of  which  one,  probably  both,  are  from  the  West 
N.  American  coast.  This  accurate  work,  which  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
fully  understood  by  recent  English  authors,  or  allowed  priority  by  writers  in 
his  own  country,  contains  a  very  interesting  analysis  of  the  geographical 
distribution  of  the  tribe* 

Page.    tfo.    Ft     Flf. 

238    75    11     11.  Purpura  biserialis  =  bicostalis,  At*.;  not  P.  blcostalis,  Lam. 

teste  Bktkiu. 
232    65    1 1      9.  eostularis,  Lam.  closely  resembles  Murex  nux,  Roe. 

.  86.  In  Gu&rin's  Magasin  de  Zoologie  for  May  1833,  appear  figures  and 
descriptions  of  the  following  Bhells,  by  M.  Duolos. 

n.  *i* 

22    1.  Purpura  sanguinolenta,  Duel.  =Pollia  hremastoma,  Gray* 

22    2.  — —  truncata,  Duel.  =Monoceros  muricatum.    Chili.     [I] 

(Voy.Ven.pl.  9.  f.  2,  2a.) 
fl    3.  — -  nympha.     ptecostata,  Blainv.] 
1     5.  kiosquiformls.     N.  Holland.     [!] 

1  6.  angulifera.    PssCuma  tectum.] 

2  8.  — —  centiquadra,  Val.  Af£.=  speciosa,  Val.  Voy.  Ven.=ttriserialis>  Blainv. 
20         Oliva  polpaster,  Duel.    [T=±Cumingii,  Rve.  var.]    Panama. 

f  This  plate  and  the  next  are  marked  "  Ann.  So.  Nat.  vol.  36/'  The  writer  says  that 
they  are  from  the  vol.  for  May  1832, 


192 


REPORT — 1856, 


37.  In  the  "Journal  of  Researches  into  the  Geology  and  Natural  History 
of  the  various  countries  visited  by  H.M.S.  Beagle,  under  the  command  of . 
Capt.  Fitzroy,  R.N.,  1832-1836:  by  Ch.  Darwin,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  London, 
1839,"  chap.  19,  pp.  453-*78,  is  an  extremely  interesting  account  of  the 
zoology  of  the  Galapagos  (which  were  visited  in  Sept.  1835),  particularly  of 
the  reptiles;  but  no  lists  are  given  of  the  shells  collected.  The  list  of  the 
Galapagos  Mollusca,  drawn  out  by  Mr.  Darwin  with  the  assistance  of  Mr, 
Cuming,  was  unfortunately  not  preserved;  and  the  collections  were  distri- 
buted without  any  catalogue  having  been  made  of  them. 

38.  Perhaps  the  earliest  specimens  of  U.  Californian  shells  seen  in  this 
country  were  those  sent  from  Oregon  by  Lady  Katlierine  Douglas  (now  Lady 
K.  Wigram).  It  would  appear  that  that  lady  procured  shells  wherever  she 
could,  as  some  are  well  known  to  be  from  the  Sandwich  Island*,  and  many 
belong  to  the  Gulf  Fauna.  The  collection  therefore  needs  careful  sifting 
before  it  can  be  regarded  as  of  any  geographical  authority.  It  contains, 
however,  several  .very  interesting  and  new  shells,  which  have  not  even  yet 
been  found  again  by  subsequent  travelers/  The  following  are  the  species 
that  have  been  observed. 


Lutraria  maxima,  Mid.    Calif,  and  Co- 
lumbia R.   =  Tresus  maximus,  Grav. 

z=Mactra  maxima,  Rve.  C.  I.  1 ;  4. 
TeUina  nasuta,  Conr.    R.  Col. 
Tellina  inquinata,  Desh. 
TeUina,  like  Dombeyi.  R.  Col. 
Saxidomus  squalidus,  Desh.   Cal.  and  R. 

Col.  "  Copiapo,  Chili,"  Desh.  in  B. 
'  *    M.  Ven.  Cat.  p.  188.  no.  5. 
Saxidomus  Nuttallt,  R.  Col. 
Chime  neglecta,  Gray.    Cal.  and  R.  Col. 
Ckione  ruder ata,  Desh.    Cal. 
Trigona  mactroides  [? radiata, jun.].  Cal. 
Mactra  similis,  Gray. 
Cardium  Nuttallianum.  Fort  Simpson. 
Mytilusledulis.  Cal.  and  R.  Col. 
Mytilus  Calif ornianus,  Conr.  [?]. 
Pectunculus  Calif ornicus. 
Peetunculus,  like  maculatus. 
Spondylusl 
Placunanomia  cepio,  Gray,  Cat.  Anom. 

B.  M.  p.  11.  no.  6.  "  California,  Lady 

Katherine  Wigram." 
Placunanomia  alope,  Gray,  Cat.  Anom. 

B.  M.  p.  12.  no.  7.  "  California,  Lady 

Katherine  Wigram." 
Anomia  lampe,  Gray,  Cat.  Anom.  B.  M. 

p.  19.  no.  14.    "California,  Lady 

katherine  Wigram." 
Chiton  Sitkensti,  Rve.  (nonMid.  =zStel~ 

leri,  Mid.)  Cal. 
Katherina  Douglasue,  Gray  =  Chiton  tu- 

nicatus,  Sow.  Cal. 
Haliotis  rufescens  (and  others). 


Zizinhinus  filosus. 

Turbo  fluctualus. 

Nerita  ?  scabriuscula. 

Neritina  picta. 

Hipponyx,  sp.  ind. 

Turritella  goniostoma.  ^- 

Cerithium  maculosum. 

Trivia  suffusa.  R.  Col. 

Trivia  Solandri. 

Torinia  areola,  Desh.  [?]  :=zT.variegata, 

Maz.  Cat.  p.  407. 
Natica  bifasciata,  Gray.; 
Natica,  like  maroccana, 
Neverita,  sp.  ind. 
CanceUaria  reticulata,  Lam.  (appears  a 

worn  C.  urceolata). 
Oliva  Ivenulata. 
OliveUa  lineolata. 
Mitra,  like  tristis. 
Columbella,  hkejuscata. 
Columbella  hamastoma,  Sow.  Cal. 
Columbella  strombiformis.  Sandw.  Is.  [?] 
Columbella  castanea. 
Columbella  pygnusa. 
Purpura  crUpata,  resembles  lapillus. 
Purpura  crispata,  varieties.  Cal.  &R.  Col. 
Purpura  Conradi,  Nutt.  R.  Col. 
Purpura,  n.  s.  (smooth,  like  Buccinum). 

Cal.     The  same  species  appears  as 

"  W.  Coast  America,  Hinds.*' 
Nassa  tiarula,  Kien.  =tegula,  Rve, 
Fusus  carinatus.   "  Labrador." 
Fusus  Dupetithouarsii. 
Murex  trialatus,  Sow. 


39.  During  the  years  183*-,5,  Thomas  Nuttall,  Esq.,  for  many  years  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  History  at  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  U.S.,  visited 
the  then  almost  unsearched  shores  of  California,  by  a  journey  across  the 
Rocky  Mountains  under  the  escort  of  a  trading  company.    Although  his 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      193 

object  was  principally  botanical,  his  love  of  natural  science  induced  him  to 
collect  all  the  shells  he  could  meet  with ;  and  with  such  good  success,  that 
many  of  his  species  have  net  to  this  day  been  again  discovered.  The  pecu- 
liar interest  attaching  to  his  researches  is,  that  he  did  not  visit  any  part  of 
the  coast  north  of  Oregon  or  south  of  San  Diego.  There  13  no  danger, 
therefore,  of  any  admixture  with  the  shells  of  the  Gulf  district;  and  his 
collections  may  be  regarded  as  the  type  of  the  Californian  fauna  strictly  so 
called.  Leaving  the  American  shores,  Mr.  Nuttall  visited  the  Sandwich 
Islands,  whence  be  only  brought  one  species  belonging  to  the  American 
fauna,  viz.  Hipponyx  U  ray  anus,  on  a  Pinna.  On  his  return  to  the  United 
States,  vid  Cape  Horn,  the  description  of  the  marine  shells  was  undertaken 
by  Mr.  T.  A.  Conrad,  and  of  the  land  and  freshwater  species  by  Mr.  Lea, 
» The  latter  gentleman  communicated  his  paper  to  the  American  Philosophic 
cal  Society;  where  it  will  be  found  in  the  '  Transactions,'  vol.  vi.;  Mr.  Conrad 
read  his  paper  before  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  in 
Jan.  and  Feb.  1837.  It  is  published  in  the  second  part  of  the  'Journal'  of 
the  Society,  vol.  vii.  pp.  227-268*.  Although  headed  "  Descriptions  of  New 
Marine  Shells,  from  Upper  California,  collected  by  Thomas  Nuttall,  Esq./' 
it  also  contains  not  only  descriptions  of  several  of  Mr.  Nuttall's  Sandwich 
Island  shells  and  Hinnita  NuttaUiy  from  Fayalf,  but  also  shells  from  places 
never  visited  by  him,  as  Lyonsia  inflate,  Guayaquil,  Dr.Burrough ;  Vulsella 
Nuttalliy  from  the  Friendly  Islands ;  and  Telfina  lintea,  a  fossil  from  Mobile 
Point,  Alabama.  The  work  bears  the  appearance  of  undue  haste ;  the  genera 
are  grouped  together  without  the  least  regard  to  arrangement ;  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  species  are  named  either  Californicus  or  NuttaUi ;  the  diffi- 
cult genera,  such  as  Acmaa  and  Chiton,  are  not  touched;  the  localities 
cannot  always  be  depended  on,  as  e.  a.  when  Pertia  CaUfornica  is  said  to 
inhabit  the  Sandwich  Islands ;  and  the  descriptions  being  in  English  would 
not  have  been  entitled  to  claim  precedence  were  it  not  that  they  are  accom- 
panied by  tolerably  recognizable  figures.  The  characteristic  names  and  very 
elegant  and  accurate  descriptions  of  plants  from  the  pen  of  Mr.  Nuttall  hi 
the  same  volume,  make  us  greatly  regret  that  he  performed  his  conchological 
work  by  proxy.  Hut  the  confusion  does  not  end  here.  Mr.  Nuttall,  having 
reserved  a  small  part  of  his  collections  for  his  own  use,  transferred  the  bulk 
of  them  to  Dr.  Jay,  accompanied  by  MS.  names  for  the  shells  passed  over  by 
Conrad.  These  have  been  printed  in  Jay's  Catalogue,  but  without  descrip- 
tions, with  the.  addition  of  some  not  in  the  least  remembered  by  Mr.  Nuttall. 
Under  these  names  they „  were  sent  to  Mr.  Cuming  and  others,  and  have 
taken  their  chance  of  admission  into  the  monographs  J.  Meanwhile  Mr. 
Nuttall  returned  to  England  (where  he  now  resides  on  his  estate,  Nut  Grove, 
Rainhill,  near  Liverpool),  and  continued  to  distribute  the  shells  under  MS. 
names;  but  not  having  access  to  Conrad's  work,  the  names  of  that  author 
were  often  lost,  and  others  substituted  in  their  place.  So  little  is  Conrad's 
paper  known,  that  M.  Deshayes  redescribed  several  of  the  most  character- 
istic species;  Dr.  Dunker  complained  that  he  had  never  been  able  to  see  it ; 

*  Part  i.  of  the  same  volume  bears  date  1834. 

t  It  is  generally  supposed  that  the  Hinnites  Poultoni,  which  is  described  and  figured  by 
Conrad  in  the  same  volume  of  the  Journal,  and  is  the  //.  giganteus,  Gray,  is  assigned  to  Fayal. 
The  tiro  species  have  heen  confounded,  as  the  locality  of  H.  Poulsoni  was  not  known. 

%  Of  the  species  only  existing  in  Dr.  Jay's  Catalogue,  and  which  therefore  have  no  claim 
to  priority,  I  am  unable  to  give  any  information.  I  have  requested  thai  celebrated  concholo- 
gist  (through  Dr.  Gould)  to  furnish  the  public  with  either  figures  or  descriptions  of  them,  but 
have  not  yet  received  a  reply.  From  the  redescription  of  several  of  them  by  Dr.  Gould,  they 
would  appear  not  to  be  well  known  even  by  the  naturalists  of  his  own  country. 
1856.  o 


194 


REPORT— 1856. 


and  Philippi  states  that  it  is  not  to  be  found  even  in  the  Royal  libraries  at 
Berlin  or  Gottingen,  Having  fortunately  obtained  access  to  a  copy  of  the 
paper,  and  compared  it  with  Mr.  Nuttall's  own  shells*,  and  at  the  same  time 
with  those  brought  by  the  officers  of  the  Mexican  war,  I  offer  the  following 
as  the  best  statement  that  present  circumstances  will  permit.  It  should  be 
premised  that  Mr.  Conrad,  in  the  '  Journal '  for  1849,  made  several  emenda- 
tions of  his  paper  which  have  been  here  incorporated.  The  new  species  are 
described  in  the  '  Proc  Zool.  Soo.'  1856,  pp.  209-229. 


No. 


Fig. 


Nome- 


locality. 


236 


237 


236 
4836 


234 


6248 
247 


248 

838 

2*8 


5,6 

7 

2 

1 

11 


ParapuolaSf  California,  Conr.  ............ 

*=Pholw  Cp  Com*,  a  pj.  man,;  Suw,  Thes. 

*•  i'ftotax  J*neltiit  Desh  ■  Rev .  1 8  3  0  T  p.  35  7  j 

Guer.  pL  14-16;  Chen.  pL  3.  f,  &? 

Jay's  Cat,  No,  1 62.— Mm.  Nutt.,  Cum., 

Brit. 

1  pemta,  Conr.   . .... 

&  Photo  p.f  Conr.  1  pr.  man. 
*-  Pholtut  MMcamcrafa,  Deah,  Rev.  1839, 
p.  357;  Guer.pl.  17  i  Chen.  pi.  3*  f.  4; 
Jay'*  Cat.  186.— M us.  Gould. 
PlStjodoat  cancdlata,  Conr.%Jay't  Cat.  265. 
—Mus.  Nutt.,  Brit. 

Cryptodonf  NttttaUii,  Conr 

}=Cyprieia  NuttaWi,  quasi  Conr.— B.M 

Non  Mactra  NutialUi,  Rve.  Conch.  Ic. 

pi.  21.  sp.  125.— Mua.  Nutt)  Brit. 

Sphsenia  Californica,  Conr.    

Oypt&mya  GaHfbrnica,  Conr.  Journ. 
1849,  p.  808 1  Jay's  Cat.  467*—  Mus. 
Nutt. 

Thracia  curta,  Conr. — Mus.  Nutt >.... 

MytilimeriaH   Nuttalli,   Conr.,  Jay's  Cat. 
2221.— Mus.  Brit. 


Lyonsia  California  Cbfsn .»»t »..»».% 

}=L.  hyalma,  Conr.  This  shell,  which 
seems  to  have  been  lost,  probably  re 
appears  as  L.  nituta,  Gould :  v.  infra. 

Pefipioma  argentaHa*  Conr.  .... 

^P.pkmimcmkt  Bow»1634,testeGld.non 
Cum.  j  Jay's CatiSdO.— Mus.Cum.Gld* 
Pandora  punctata,  Conr. — Mus.  Cum.,  Nutt. 


Sta.  Barbara, 

Sta.  Barbara. 

Sta,  Barbara, 
Sta.  Barbara. 

Sta.  Barbara. 


Sta.  Barbara. 
California. 


8t*  Barbara. 

San  Diego. 
Sta.  Barbara. 


clay  rocks. 


clay  rocks. 


muddy  marshes  and 

soft  rocks. 
salt  marshes,  bar*  at 

low*. 


salt  marshes }  rare. 


one  fine  pair. 

in  sponge,  and  thrown 
up  attached  to  roots 
Of  fuel,  in  deep  W. 


muddy  marshes  of 
sea-coast. 

single  valves. 


•  Mr.  NuttaU*S  silvery  locks  bare  not  lessened  his  interest  in  Natural  Science.  His 
memory  Is  singularly  eieaf  on  all  matters  relating  to  his  own  collections ;  and  has  been  allowed 
to  turn  the  scale  on  doubtful  point*,  in  the  few  instances  where  no  MS.  had  remained* 

t  It  is  difficult  to  know  what  Conrad  means  by  this  genus,  which  is  described  in  Journ* 
1849,  p.  214.  He  afterwards  calls  P%  acuminata*  which  is  clearly  congeneric,  Penitella  WiU 
sonii ;  while  he  applies  the  name  Pataptolas  to  Pholadidea  melanura.  It  is  here  used  accord- 
ing to  the  interpretation  of  Woodw.  (Man.  Moll.  p.  329)  for  the  Pholadidem  with  tripartite 
valves,  persistent  cups,  and  large  plates. 

\  Pkttyodon  is  described  as  a  subgenus  of  Myot  with  four  testaceous  valves  on  the  ends  of 
the  tubes. 

%  Cryptodon  is  described  as  a  subgenus  of  Lutraria,  with  two  corneous  valves,  which  close 
the  orifices  of  the  tubes. 

1  Mytilimeria,  as  appears  from  type  valves  in  the  Brit.  Mus.,  received  from  Conrad,  is  a 
subgenus  of  Lyonsia  (not  a  synonym  for  it)  with  spiral  umbos,  regular  rounded  form*  and 
very  slight  ligamental  pit. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OP  THB  WftST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      195 


No. 

1 

1 

** 

Nunc. 

Locality* 

SUtioc 

11 
18 

13 

14 

15 
16 

17 
18 

19 

20 

21 
22 

n 

24 

25 

26 
27 

231 
238 

233 
233 

241 

230 

231 

239 

239 

234 
258 

258 
257 
254 

17 
17 

17 

18 

18 
17 

17 

18 
19 
17 

19 

8 
9 

10 

3 

13 
6 

7 

11 

2 

12 

21 

Solecmrtafi  lucidus,  Conr, 

=  3.  radial  u*t  Gid.  non  Linn,  (teste  Co  or. 

1849), 
=SiHquu  lucuttit  Cotir.  Joum.  Aug.  1849* 
Mtchmr   hteida,  J  ay  ,238 .— M  us.  N  utt. ,  J  \  r. 

SoJecurtus  Nattallii,  Cowr. 

Sta*  Barbara. 
Columbia  R. 

8  to.  Barbara. 

Sta.  Barbara. 

San  Diego. 
San  Diego. 

Columbia  R. 
California. 

San  Diego. 

San  Diego. 

Sta.  Barbara. 
Sta.  Barbara. 

Columbia  R. 

San  Diego* 

San  Diego. 

California. 
8ta.  Barbara. 

rare. 

salt   marshes,   near 
Pt.  Adams. 

muddy  salt  marshes : 
common. 

deepish  water,  sandy 

bottom, 
marshes. 

muddymarshes.brack- 
ish. 

deep  water. . 
deep  Water, 
rare. 

"Growstery  large,  and 
is  eaten  by  theChin* 
hooks."— Mitt. 

muddy  marshes. 

not  uncommon, 
sand. 

=9iMqu*  NnttaUH,  Conr.  Ang.  1849. 
=Solen  splendons,  Chen,  teste  Conr. 
=Macheera  maxima,  Gould,  Jay's  Cat* 
239;  non  Wood,  teste  Conr.— Mm. 
Nott. 
CulteUus8ubteres,Cb»r.  TSubg.  described.] 
Memrftif   wuoteres,  Jay,  236,  — Mus. 
Nott.,  Brit. 
Californianus,  Conr 

Soltcvrtus  CaltfbrtUmui,J*yt  821.— Mus. 
Nutt.,  Brit. 
Psammobia  Pacifies,  Conr.,  Jay,  500  (Co- 
lumbiaR.).  [&m$*mofarM.]^Mns.Br. 
Sangninolaria  Nottallii,  Conr.,  Jay,488,489. 
— Mus.  Nutt.,  Cum. 
= Psammobia  decora,  Hds. 
— ^—  C&liforniana,  Conr*    ,,.,,. tk,,t.t,., 

Var.  A. "  May  prove  distinct."— Mus.  Nutt. 

— -  rubro-fadiata,  Conr.,  A%/f.  Jft— Mus. 
Nutt.  Appears  to  have  been  over- 
looked.   Allied  to  Psammobia, 

Amphirietma  rubrolineata*  Conr. » 

=Semele  simplex,  A.  Ad*   ?ubL  — Mus. 
Old.,  Cuming. 
■  ■■■  doejaa,  Conr. .» 

=A.  roseum,  Gld.  (7  non  Brod.  &  Sow.); 
Jay,  443.— Mus.  Nutt.,  Brit.,  Cum. 
Cumingia  California,  Conr.,  Jay,457.— Mus. 

Cum.,  Brit. 
Telhna  alta,  Cbtr.,  Jay,  520 

? = iScrobicularia  bianonhia,  Cpr.*— Mus. 
Nutt.    P.  Z.S.  1855,  p.  230. 
— -  edentula,  Brod.  <•  &».«- Mus.  Nutt^ 

CUUL&C 

nasuta,  Conr.,  Jay,  592.    Columbia 

River.  Jay's  habitat  is  likely  to  be 
more  correct  than  Conrad's,  as  this  is 
one  of  the  Okotsk  species. 

Tellina  secta,  Conr.f 

=  f.  Ugameniina,  fresh,  in  Goer.  Mag. 

1843,  pi.  81 ;  Jay,  633.— Mus.  Nutt. 

Strigifla  carnaria,  Unn.%    ...»«t..i,..4. ,***,.. 

Donax  Californica,  Conr*,  Jay,  699.— Mas. 
Nutt.,  Brit.,  Cum.  Ac 
=Donax  obesa,  Phil  Zeis.  1  Mai.  1861, 
p.  75.  no.  2.  (non  Desh.) 

*  The  T.  alta  is  lost  in  this  country.  There  is  no  figure  in  Conrad*  In  genera  that  are 
loosely  defined,  there  is  a  danger  of  species  reappearing  under  two  heads,  as  in  the  case  of 
Psammobia  decora,  Hds.,  which  however  was  figured.  The  triangulate  character  assigned  to 
T.  alia  makes  the  tScrobicularia  suspected. 

f  There  is  a  Tellina  Californica,  as  of  Conr.,  in  the  Brit.  Mus.,  which  is  probably  identical 
with  one  of  these  published  species. 

X  This  species  has  been  overlooked  in  the  Monograph,  P.  Z.  S.  Vide  Br.  Mus.  Mat.  Cat 
in  loco, 

o2 


196 


RBPOBT — 1856* 


No. 


I 


Name. 


Locality. 


27 


29 
30 


254 


240 
240 
256 


306255 


Sta.  Barbara.  1 

Sta.  Barbara.  X 

Sta.  Barbara  & 

San  Diego. 


Sta.  Barbara. 


31 

32 
33 

34 


251 


250 


249 


35 


253 


19  21  Donax  Californica  (continued), 
—  D,  obesiu,  GId«,  quasi  nov.  sp. 
Non  D.  Cali/brnicu*%  Deah.  in  Mus,  Cum. 

«=i>.  Omradif  var.  jun. 

18  12  Mactra  Californica,  Conr.— Mus.  Gould 
planulata,  Conr.  (Appears  to  be  lost.) 

20  9  Petricola  Californica,  Conr.  Journ.  Aug.1849 
Des h.  Cat.  Ven.  p.  208.  no.  3. 

Saxicava  G,  Conr.  a  prim.  man. ;  Jay's 

Cat  460.— Mus.  Gould,  Cum. 
^Petricola  arcuata,  Desh.  Rev.  Cut. 

Dec.  1839,  p.  358. 

20     8 carditoides,  Conr.  Journ.  Aug.  1849. 

Saxicava  c,  Conr.  apr.  man. — Mus.  Nutt, 

Gld. 
Non  Venerupis  carditoide$,  Lam.  An.  s. 

Vertvol.vi.p.l64.no.7;  Desh.B.M. 

Cat.  Ven.  p.  192.  no.  7. 
«P.  Californica,  var.  teste  Nutt. 
Comp.  Petricola  cyUndracea,  Desh.  Rev. 

Cut.  1839,  p.  358 ;    B.M.  Cat.  Yen. 

p.  208.  no.  5. 
Comp.  Petricola  gibba,  Mid.  Mat  Rosa. 

p.  57.  pi.  18.  f.  5-7. 

19  19  Venus  lamellifera,  Conr.  [Rupellaria.] 
=  Venerupis  CortUeri,  var.  /3>  Desh.  Cat 

Ven.  p.  191.no.  1. 

= Petricola  Cordieri,  Desh.  Rev.  Cuv. 
1839,  p..  358.— Mus.   Cum.,   Nutt, 
Gld. 
Tapes  tumida,  Conr...... 

Mysia  tumida,  Conr.  teste  Nutt  MS.— 
Mus.  Nutt. 
Venus  staminea,  Conr 

Topee  stratnmea,  Sow.  Thes.  Conch,  p.  699, 
pi.  151.  f.  151. 

=  Venus  dispar,  Gld.  MS.— Mus.  Brit 
Nutt,  Cum. 
Saxidomus  Nuttalli,  Conr.      [Genus  de< 
scribed.]  Desk.  Cat.  Ven.  p.  188.  no.  4. 

*=  Venerupis  gigantca,  Desh.  Rev.  Cuv. 
1839,  p.  359,  teste  Jay. 

=Pullastra  gigantea,  Catl.  Conch.  Nom. 
p.  41. 

^Saxidomus  giganteus,  Desh.  Cat.  Ven. 
p.  187.  no.  2. 

Comp.  Saxidomus  Petiti,  Desh.  Cat.  Ven. 
p.  189.  no.  7;  Jay,  481.— Mus.  Nutt, 
Cum.  [The  species  described  from  the 
Californian  Saxidomi  are  unsatisfac- 
torily made  out;  depending  on  dif- 
ferences in  sculpture  which  appear 
variable.] 
17Trigonella  crassatelloides,  Conr San  Diego  and 

Subgenus  indicated :    described  Journ.     Sta.  Barbara. 
1849,  p.  213. 

Trigona  crassatelloides,  Desh.  Cat  Ven. 
p.  46.  no.  1. 

=  CvM«reawlWw«mfl,PhU.Z.f.M.1851, 
p.  74.  no.  100. 

Cytherea  crassatelloides,  Jay,  847.    Mus, 
Nutt.,  Gld.,  Brit,  Cum. 


muddy  marshes  bare 
at  low  water :  rare. 


one  valve. 


19 


19 


19 


San  Diego. 


Sta.  Barbara. 


Sta.  Barbara  & 
San  Diego. 


"  California  and 
San  Diego. 


one  valve. 


one  sp. 


"  but  rowing  into  toft 
claystone." 


1  foot  deep  in  the 
sand,  common. 


ON  M0LLU80A  OF  TUB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      197 


No. 


* 


Name. 


Locality. 


Station. 


36 


252 


37 


250 


38 


251 


19 


19 


39 

40 
41236 

42256 
43 

44 

45 

46230 

47 
48254 


18 


49 
50 
51 


52 


255  20 


255 


20 


53 

54 

55242 

56243 
57 


58 


242 


15 


Cytherea  callosa,  Conr.    [Dosinia.] Sta.  Barbara. 

Non  CMone  coftua,  Desh.  Cat.  Ven.  p.  135. 

no.  48. 
Non  Venut  Stuehburpi,  Jay's  Cat.  1080. 

—Mot.  Nntt. 
Venus  Nuttalli,  Conr.,  Jay,  1037.— Mus.  Sta.  Barbara  & 

Brit,  Nutt.,  Cam.  San  Diego. 

Chione  NuttaBU,  Desh.  Cat.  Yen.  p.  135. 

no.  47. 
+ Chione  caUota,  Desh.  no.  48,  pars. 

—  Californiana,  Conr.  [quasi  Sow."]  San  Diego. 

«  Venus  Caltfvmieniii,  Brod.  P.Z.S.1838. 

Chione  Cattfomientit,  Desh.  no.  44. 

b  Venn*  leucodon,  Sow.testeDesh. — Mus. 

Brit.,  Cum.,  Nutt. 

simillima,  Sow.,  DetK  Cat.  Fen.  p.  133.      California. 

no.  43.— Mus.  Nutt. 
(Chione)  excavata,  Cpr. — Mas.  Nutt.      San  Diego. 

Cypricardia  Californica,  Conr.* San  Diego  and 

=  C.  Duperryi,  Desh.  Rev.  Cuv.  1839,   Sta.  Barbara, 
p.  359.  teste  Gld.— Mus.  Nutt. 
Chama  exogyra,  Conr.,  Jay  2110.— Mus.  Sta.  Barbara  & 
Nutt.,  Cum.,  Brit.,  Gld.  San  Diego. 

?    frondosa,  var.   Mexicans.  —  Mus.   Sta.  Barbara. 
Nutt* 

—  pellucida Sta.  Barbara. 

3Cardium  Nuttallii,  Conr.,  Jay,  1177.— Mus.  Sp.  San  Juan  di 

Nutt.,  Brit.  Fuea. 

—  Californianum,  Conr...... Sta.  Barbara. 

-  C.  Nuttallii,  var.  teste  Midd.  Mus. ? 

Non  C.  Califbrniente,  Desh.  teste  Midd. 

—  qnadragenarium,  Conr.,  Jay,  1197-98.   Sta.  Barbara. 

(Not  known  in  England.) 
Corap.    C.   xanthocheihtm^tuteolilrum, 

Gld. 

—  8nbstriatum,  Conr.,  Jay,  1222. — Mus.     San  Diego. 
Nutt 

Lucinabella,  Conr. San  Diego. 

L.pecten,  var.  teste  Jay  [?]  Cat.  682. 

•  Californica,  Conr.,  Jay,  662 San  Diego. 

Nuttalli,  Conr.,  Jay,  680.— Mus.  Nutt.     San  Diego. 

Diplodonta  orbella,  Gld.    Sta.  Barbara. 

?*D.    iemkupera,   var.  —  Mus.   Nutt., 

Gld. 
Anodon  NuttaHiana,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Wahlamat  R., 

Soc  vol.  vi.  pi.  20.  f.  62 ;  Jay,  2059.       Oregon. 

—Mus.  Nutt. 
Oregonensis,Zea, Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc  Wahlamat  R., 

vol.  vi  pi.  21.  f.  67 ;  Jay,  2061.  Oregon. 

Wahlamatensis,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Wahlamat  R., 

Soc.  vol  vi.  pi  20.  f.  64 ;  Jay,  2084.        Oregon. 
Modiola  eapax,  Conr.,  Jay,  2153.— Mus.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Cum.,  Gld.,  Brit. 

recta,  Conr.— Mus.  Gld Sta.  Barbara. 

Mytilus  edulis,  Linn.,  {a)  normalis,  (6)  pel-   U.  California. 

lucidus,  (c)  latissimus. — Mus.  Nutt. 
Mytilus  Californianus,  Conr.,  Jay,  2185. —  Sta.  Barbara, 

Mus.  Gld.  Monterey, 

San  Diego. 


15 


common :  broken  by 
gulls. 


muddy  marshes. 


one  sp. 

one  sp. 

soft  clay  rocks,  bare 
at  low  water. 

on  rocks. 

one  young  sp. 

one  very  fine  sp. 
muddy  marshes. 

single  valves,  rare. 


muddy  marshes,  bare 

at  low  water, 
muddy  marshes,  bare 

at  1.  w. :  common, 
ditto:  rare, 
muddy  marshes,  &c 
muddy  sestuary,  1  sp. 


marshes  and  muddy 

shores, 
rare. 


on  rocks. 


*  Mr.  Hanley  thinks  that  this  shell  may  be  the  C.  Qtdniaca  of  Lamarck.  This  is  extremely 
unlikely,  at  there  is  no  evidence  that  Lam,  was  acquainted  with  a  single  strictly  CaUfornian 
•pedes. 


198 


BBPOBT — 1856. 


No. 


*i 


Name. 


Locality. 


59 


241 


18 


14 


60 


246 


61 
61* 

62 
63 
64 

65 

66 

67 
68 

69 

70 

71 

72 
73 
74 
75 
76 

77 


238 
238 


MytiliiB  bifurcatu8,  Conr.%  Jay,  2184.,, 
No  knowledge  of  the  locality  of  this  shell 
exists,  except  the  statement  of  Conrad, 
which  alone  is  not  binding,  and  its 
appearance  among  the  Mexican  War 
shells,  the  collectors  of  which  brought 
home  nothing  from  the  Sandwich 
Islands. 

Perna  costellata,  C<mr„  Jay,  2267.— Mus. 
Nntt.  "  Sta.  Barbara." 
Conrad,  who  rightly  assigns  his  J\  CaU 
fomica  to  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
appears  to  have  made  an  error  in 
assigning  the  Californian  species  to 
the  same  place. 

Pecten  latiauratus,  CSmr.,  Jay,  2364.— Mas. 
Nntt.,  Cam. 

—  Monotimeris,  Conr ,.„ , 

=»P.  latiauratm,  vex,  teste  Nutt.|  Jay, 

2374. 
Ostrea  conchaphila,  B.M.  Max.  Cat.  no,  214, 

— Mus.  Nntt.  Ac, 
Bulla  nebulosa,  Gld. — Mus.  Gould,  Cuming, 

Nutt,  Brit. 
Helix  Califbrniensis,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  Phil. 

Soc  vol.  vi.  p.  99.  pi,  23.  f.  79,  84. 
f  H<  NiekUmana,  Lea,  teste  Jay,  3452. 

—  Columbiana,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  Phil.  Soc 
vol.  vi.  p.  89.  pi  23.  f.  75 ;  Jay,  3552. 

*  Nuttalliana,  Lea>  Trans.  Am.  Phil,  Soc. 

vol.  vi.  p.  89.  pi  23.  f.  74. 
=R.fideUe,  Gray,  P.Z.S.  1834,  p.  67 ; 

Jay,  3668. 

—  Oregonensis,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  Phil. 
Soc.  voL  vL  p.  89,  pi,  23.  f,  85 ;  Jay, 
4095. 

-»  Vancouverensis,  lea,  Trans.  Am,  Phil, 
Soc  vol.  vL  p.  87.  pi.  23.  f.  72 ;  Jay, 
4524.— Mus.  Nutt. 

—  Townsendiana,  Lea,  Trans.  Am.  PhiL 
Soc  vol  vi  p.  99.  pi  23.  f,  80.— Mus, 
Gld.,  Cum. 

Succinea  Oregonensis,  Lea,  Trans.  &c  1841 , 

p.  32 1  Jay,  5734. 
Limnssa  Nuttalliana,  Lea,  Trans.  &c,  1841, 
p.  9;  Jay,  6316. 

Pbysa,  tp.  turf,— Mus.  Nutt  

Planorbis  subcrenatus,  Cpr. — Mus.  Nutt., 
ChitonNuttaUi,  Qpr.*— Mus.Nutt  ,Cum.,?Br, 

acutus,  Qw\* — Mus.  Nutt,  

-~  ornatus,  Nutt.  MS.— Mus.  Nutt. . 
?-  Ch.  armatut,  Nutt.  in  Jay's  Cat.  2678 : 
=  Ck.mu*coeutt  Gld. 
Acmaea  patina,  Etch. — Mus.  Nutt.,Cunv>Br., 
Gld.  &c 
~Patellafenettrata}  Nutt  in  Jay's  Cat 

2815. 
+P,  mamillata,  Nntt.  in  Jay's  Cat.  2839. 


•Sandwich  Is." 


"Sandwich  Is." 


♦♦on  rocks,  bare  at  low 
watejr."-^Cpnr. 


1  under  stones."  Oenr. 


San  Diego  and  below  efflux  of  tide. 

Sta.  Barbara, 
San  Diego  and 

Sta.  Barbara, 


Oreg.,  S.Diego, 

8ta,  Barbara, 

Columbia  River. 


Columbia  Rifer, 
Ft  Vancouver, 
Nootka  Sd. 

Ft  Vancouver, 
Nootka  Sd. 
Oregon, 

Oregon. 


Oregon, 

Oregon. 

Oregon. 

Oregon. 

Oregon. 

Oregon* 

Monterey, 

Sta.  Barbara. 

San  Piego. 

U,  California, 


below  efflux  of  tide. 
Young  attached  to 
Fuci  by  bysius, 


1  sp. 


*  In  the  Brit.  Mus.  appears  an  undescribed  "  Chiton  consimilis,  Nutt." 
one  of  these  species,  which  were  described  from  Mr.  N mull's  own  specimens. 
Chiton  Caltfornicut,  Nuttall,  MS.,  in  Bve.  Conch.  Ic  pi  16.  fig.  89. 


It  is  probably 
There  is  also  a 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WMV  40AM  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      199 


No. 

77 


w§ 


Njuw-. 


Locality. 


78 


79 


80 


81 


82 


84 


85 


87 


89 


Acniiea  patina  ( continued). 

+  A  te*n*Uatat  Nutt.  in  Jay's  Oat.  2885. 
?+  F,  diaphana,  Nutt.  in  Jay's  Cat,  2813 
(?  non  P.  diaphana,  Hve.*). 

pelta,  AArW  Nutt,f  Cum.  Brit., 

Gld.  Ac* 
=  Pat*Ua  ieucoph&a,  Nutt,    MS.?   Rvc 
Couch.  Ic.   pi.   34.   sp.  101  ;   non  P. 
lettcoph&a,  Gruel.,  Jay's  Cat.  2837. 
?+P.  TwentfcoAs,  Nutt,   *MS.  =  P,  vwftJt- 

coJfcr,  Jay's  Cat.  2844. 
+  P.  etripilate,  Nutt.  MS.;  Jay, 2881. 

—  persona,  £*cA. — Mua.  Nutt.,  Cum.,  Br., 

Gld.  &c 
=  Patella  Orcgona,  Nutt.  MS.^P.  Ore> 

pana,  Jay's  Cat.  2852, 
-f  P.  utuMfiafe,  Nutt,  MS.;  Jav,  28S7. 
+  P.j»itofo,  Nutt.  MS.;  Jay,  2861. 

—  icabra,  Nutt.  MS. — Mua.  Nutt.,  Cum., 
Brit.,  Gld.  Ac. 

Latiia  *c*bra,  Jay's  Cat.  2307, 

Patella  tcaora,  Rye.  Couch.  Ic.  pi.  37. 

f,  119  4,4. 
Non  P.  L.  tcabra,  Gld,  Eip,  Sheila,  p.  10- 

spect  rum  tNutt.MS„ — M  us,  N  u  t  t.,C  urn ., 

Brit.,  Gld.  &c 
Patella  tpectrum,  Jay,  287  7  ;  toe.  Couch, 

Ic.  pi.  29.  t  7fi  c.  A, 
=  P.  L.  scabrat  Gld.,  non  Niitt.f 
Scurria  mitra,  Eiak.  Sf  l£*#.^Mua.  Nutt., 
Cum.,  Brit.  Gld..  &c 
=  Patella  mrurra,  Lets*  Voy.  Coq.  1830, 

p.  421.  no,  196, 
— A cmaa  mitra + m  ajn  initial  a  [  non  Nutt*] 

-(-  marmorea,  Each. 
=  1  Lattia  pallida,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  147. 
pi.  39-  f.  1. 
FifimiTella  omata,  Nutt,  A/£.-^Mus.  Nutt., 
Brit.    Jay,  3003  (St.  Helena,  err,) 

Glyphb  aspera,  Each, 

=  Fmuretta  densickithrata,    Rve. 

Cum. — Mus,  Nutt.,  Cum, 

=  F.e.rarata,  Nutt.  MS. 

-P.  cratitia,  Gld, 

Lucapina  crenulata,  Sow.  Couch.  I1L  no.  19. 

i.  31,  38  j  Tank.  Cat.  App.  p.  vi ;  Rve. 

Couch.  Ic  pi.  3,  sp,  18.— Mus,  JayT! 

Nutt*,  Cum. 

Haliotls  Cahfornienais,   Stpam*.  ZooL  III. 

vol.  ii.  pi.  80. 

Cracherodii,  Leach,  Rve. Couch. Ic  pL  7* 

f.  23.— Mus.  Jay,  Nutt. 
=  H.fftahert  Schub.  and  Wagn.  pi.  224. 
f,  3086^7. 
~  aplendeus*  Rm.  Conch.  Ic.  pj.  3*  f.  9.*. 

Pomaulax  undusus,  Wood.... ,*„..,..„*. 

=  Tr&chv*  G^j/fcriiiflawf  rNutt.MS.— ■ Mus 
Nutt.,  Cum.,  Brit. 


U.  California. 


Oregon. 


San  Diego,  &c 


California. 


Monterey. 


U.  California. 

Sta*  Barbara- 

San  Diego. 

San  Diego. 
Sao  Diego. 


Ban  Diego* 
Monterey. 


*  For  other  references  to  this  species,  v.  mpra,  p.  17o. 

f  Of  Patella  laevigata,  Nutt.  MS.  in  Jay's  Cat.  2825,  Mr.  Nuttall  can  give  no  information. 
Jit  is.  probably  we  of  the  many  forms  of  A,  patina.  The  abpve  arrangement  is  satisfactory  to 
Mr.  Nuttall,  after  a  re.examj  nation  pf  his  shell*  in  conutxion  with  the  collections  of  Dr.  Goulii* 


200 


REPORT—- 1856. 


No. 
90 

91 


92 
93 
94 
95 

96 
97 

98 

99 

100 
101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 


Fv> 


Name* 


Trochiscus  ftormii,  Amp....... 

=  Turhtt  roteliifoTTtiitt  Jay. — Mus.  Nutt., 

Brit,,  Cum. 

Trfldins  filosus,   Wtiadf  Suppl.  pi.  5.  f.  23 

(male)* 
=  T,  cmfaneut,  Nutt.  MS,;  Forbes,  P.Z.S 

1S50. 
m  71.  lit/a  tmt  Gould,  Exp.  Sh.  p.  55. 
Var,  =  T.dotiariu8tG\t\.  MS.  ?  nouCherau 
?  Var.  =  T.  Pfr#*n#u*fGld.MS,?nonCheMftn 
=  Ztsiphiwtt  annuiatm,  A,  Act.     ?  tioti 
Mart.inLam.An.s.Vert.ix,l44.no.51, 
-Mm.  Nutt,  Gld.,  Cum.,  Brit. 
Omphalitis  ntcr,  Lea. — Mus,  Nutt.,  Cum, 
Brit  && 
}  Var.  =  Trochus  t/nlfma,  Forbes. 

fusce&cens,  PhiL    . . . , ........ 

=  TrochuM  ftiHifiw.Nmt.MS,— Mus.Nutt.. 
Brit.,  Cum, 
— —  marginatum,  Nmtt*  J/S.f  b  P.  Z.  S. 
3851,  p.  181.  no.  11*.— Mm.  Nutt., 
Brit.,  Cum. 

aurpoiinctus,  Forbes ■< 

?  =  Trochus  pallid^  Nutt.  MS.— -Mus, 

Nutt.,  Brit*,  Cum.,  Gld. 
=  T*  c&tenijhtutj  Potiez,  teate  Gld. 
Crepidula  rugosa,  Nutt.  JfS.;  Jay,  303G. 
— Must.  Nutt.,  Cum. 
=  {.',  GnifFr  var.  teste  Jay  [?]. 
- — ,  */*,  iitd, — Mus.  Nutt.,  Jay.   ........... 

=  Crepirittta  navicelloidettf  Nutt.  MS. 
?  Jan.  =  O.  minn/a,  Mid*  Mai.  Roa.  p.  101 

pi.  11.  f.  fi,  7. 
?  Var.  =  Vr*   nummoria,  Gld.,    Exp,    Su 
p,  15;  Jay,  3035*— Mua.  Cum.,  Gld. 

■ b^Wa,  Gld.  . . .. , i 

=  CYepiiiula  ciwiafn,  Nutt.  In  Jay '4  Cat 

3027. 
=  Cr.  perfbratiM,  Val.— Mui*  Jav,  Cum, 

Gld. 
?  =  Cr.  nQpicelloidet?,  var. 

aculeata,  var. ...... . , 

-=  Crepiduia  €'attfaruiear^i  Mil.  MS.— Mas, 
Nutt.,  Brit.,  Warrington,  &c, 
Crudbulum  spinosuru,  Sow. — Mus.  Nutt 

Hipponyx  Graynnus,  Mke 

—  If.  radiaiu4t  Gray. — Mus,  Nutt. 
Spiroglyphus,  sp.  ind. — Mus.  Nutt ,, 


Locality* 


Monterey, 
Monterey. 


Alelcs   squamigerus,    Cpr.  —  Mus.    Nutt., 

Gld. 
Pctaloconchus  xnacropliragma,  Qm — Mas 

Nutt. 

Ccrithidea  saerata,  Gld, 

=  Pirena  t'altfvrntea,  Nutt,  MS, — Mus, 

Nutt.,  Brit,  Gld. 

Litorina  pliinaxU,  PhiL 

=  Littwifta  tene&rata,  Gld.— Mus. Nutt., 

Brit,  Cum. 


California. 


Sta.  Barbara. 


I  .  California. 


U.  California. 


U.  California, 


U.  California. 


U.  California. 


Sta.  Barbara. 

Monterey. 
California. 

Sta.  Barbara. 

Sta.  Barbara, 

San  Diego. 

Monterey,  Sta. 
Barbara,  && 

California* 


cry  rare, 
very  rare, 

1  young  sp.  On  Crtp 
(tcnlcata. 


on  Euraphia  BembeU. 
in  actuaries. 


*  Mr.  Adams  in  his  Monograph  of  the  family  has  omitted  to  describe  this  species.    It 
may,  however,  be  the  Turbo  marginaius  of  R?e.  Conch.  Ic  pi.  12.  f.  57. 


ON  MOLLUIOA  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      201 


No. 


1 


*fe. 


Nana-. 


Locality. 


Station. 


107 

loe1 


109 
110 

111 


112267 


11326620 
114 


115 


264 


116 


117 


118 


20 


264 


265 


264 


20 


20 


Natica  t  marucca  ua ,  v  a  r .  C  al  i  f o  n  i  ka  *. — M  ut . 

Nutt.,  Brit. 
Randla  trtijuetra,  Rve.  Conch-  Ic  pi.  7,  /,  41 . 
— Mus.  Nutt.,  Cum. 
E  x  trcniel  y  1  ike  i  y  oun  %l  'iiutarta  takbrosa. 
Also  resembles  iff,  mttricifarmiB, 
Mitra  maora,  tnte  Nutt.  MS. — Mus.  Nutt. 
Oli  veil  a  glandinaria.  Null. — Mus.  Nnlt. 
"BuccioumPonlsoni/'AuM.A/S. — Mus.Nutt 
N.B.  The  Purpura  dumata,  Coat.  p.  267. 
pi   20.   f.    20  =p&rphyrQttom&i   Rve, 
teste  Jay,  is  not  from  California,  as 
g\ ve n  by  Jay ,  C  at .  8  7  fl  1 ,  ( C  oi irad  beiti  g 
silent \  but  from  Wanoo,  Sandw.  Is, 
teste  Nun. 

Purpura  macrosto ma,  Gtmr,    ......... 

=  P.  aperta,  Blaiuv.  var,r  teste  Jay's  Cat 
8942  : — Musco  suo. 
25 harpa*  Conr.— Mus.Nutt*  J  ay,  8980,.  < 

—  emarginata,  Desk. ,.,. ,.,... 

*=P.  Conradi,  Nutt.  MS-  teste  Jay's  Cat, 

8972.— Mus,  Brit,,  Cum. 
17Monncaros  engonaium,  Cour , a«. 

=  !£♦  iLiucariiiatani,  Rve.  Couch.  Ic  ip.  1 ; 
no  a  pi.  t.f  1 ,  nee  syn.  plur.;  oon  Sow, 
nee  Dcsh, 

Comp.  Purpura  sp\raiat  Blamv.  Nouv, 
Ann.  Mm.  i.  1332,  pi,  12.  f.  3.  p.  252. 
no,  105;  Kii-H.  Ic.  Conch,  p,  121. 
no.  76.  pi.  38.  t  90.=  M.  unicarina* 
tum%  pars,  Desb,  in  Lam.  An,  b.  Vert, 
x,  p.  124.  no,  10,  syn.  Angl.  excl. — 
Mus.  Kntt.,  Brit*,  Jay,  9067* 

—  brevidem,  QMT>.. ..... . ... 

=  Jf.    unicarinafumj    Sow,    Conch,    111. 

no.  14.  p.  4.  f»  5,  non  Rve.  nee  Dcsh. 
■  ■  MftHttrr rot,  pi.  1.  f,  2  (non  up.  2),  Rve. 
Couch-  Ic,  Non  M.  breuideutatum^ 
Cray  =  Mr  macuiatum  tGr^j  =  Purpura 
cornigtra,  Btainv.  Jay,  904 5.  — Mm*. 
ftutt.,  Cum. 
18 lapilloides,  NuiL    t+, 

—  M*  puuctulafumt  Sow.  Cuncb-  111-  p.  4, 
no.  13,  f,  3. 

=  3L  punctatum.  Gray,  Z.  B,  V.  1839, 
p.  124  i— Rve,  Conch.  Ic,  sp.  2,  oft,  I 
f. 1  '.iimi  i\  2).— Mus.  Jay  90G5,  Ntttt, 
Brit.,  Cum,  Possibly  these  three 
species  are  varieties  of  the  same, 
22  Murex  (Cerostoma)  Nottalli,  lattr*  [s.  g. de- 
scribed]. Jay,  8298. — Mub.  Nutt. 
=  Murex  marutetrott.  Sow,  juu.  P.  Z.  S 
1840,  p.  143;  Rve.  pL  2.  f.  7. 


LT.  California. 
Saa  Diego, 


U.  California, 

California. 

U,  California. 


Si  a.  Barbara. 


Sta.  Barbara. 
California, 


Sta.  Barbara. 


Sta.  Barbara. 


Sta.  Barbara, 


Sta.  Barbara. 


40.  In  the  "Voyage  a u tour  du  Monde,  pendant  les  ann6es  1886-S7,  sur 
la  Bonite :  Zoologie,  par  MM.  Eydoux  et  Souleyet  ;"  published  without  date 
at  Paris  between  the  years  184-7  and  1851,  are  to  be  found  beautiful  illustra- 
tions of  Cephalopoda  and  Pteropoda,  and  various  plates  of  shells  without 

*  Mr.  Reeve  figures  a  "  Natica  plicatula,  Nutt."  pi.  23.  f.  107,  without  locality.  It  closely 
resembles  No.  107,  but  has  a  straight  umbilicus. 


fe03     -  B1POBT— 18B6. 

descriptions.  The  original  types  of  most  of  these  are  deposited  separately  in 
the  British  Museum ;  of  which  the  Trustees  published  a  Catalogue  in  January 
1855.  The  following  are  all  that  have  been  observed  which  enter  the  West 
N.  American  province ;  havipg  been  collected  probably  on  the  W.  coast  of 
S.  America,  as  far  north  ai  Guayaquil,  whenea  the  vessel  sailed  for  the  $and* 
wich  Islands. 

Pbte.     Fig. 

35     1-3.     Natioa  fltuoa,  Humb.  =*N.patula,  Bow. 

35     4,5.     Natica  Ckenmitzii,  lUcl.  (non  N.  GhewnUsU,  Pfr.  «N.  maroQcan*, 
Chemn.  var.) 

37  2M1, }  M°Wus  trochifonm,  fyd.  fc  Soul.  mM.  discuku,  Phil. 

39  17-19.    Purpura  undata,  I<am.  var.    TO*  is  not  the  West  Indian  shell,  which 

is  probably  the  true  J*,  undata,    It  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  a  variety 

of  the  Pacific  species,  P.  biserialis,  Blainv, 

In  the  British  Museum  Collection  there  also  appear— 

Tablet  195.    Sourria  mitra,  Less,  &  Esch. 
„      248.     Cytherea  Jvetichialis,  Touranne. 

„      395.    "  purpura  luemastpma"  punctured  like  the  Pt  biserialis,  and  probably 
identical  with  it.  (?  =P.  undata,  figured  as  above.) 

41.  In  the  year  1836,  the  Venus  sailed  from  France  under  the  command 
of  M.  du  Petit  Thouars,  on  a  voyage  of  discovery  round  the  worlcj.  The 
second  in  command  was  M.  Chiron,  who,  aided  by  his  friend  M.  de  La  Perouse, 
collected  a  large  number  of  shells,  The  ship  visited  CftllaPi  Pay  ta,  the  Gala- 
pagos, the  Bay  pf  Magdalena,  Maaatlan,  San  Bias,  and  various  stations  nortji- 
wards  as  far  as  Kamtschatka, 

After  the  return  of  the  expedition  in  1839,  M?  Chlrpn  furnished  M.  Des- 
hayes  with  a  large  number  of  specimens,  who  makes  thjs  characteristic  an- 
nouncement "  MMi  lea  offlciers  de  marine,  qui  put  le  dfeir  d'etre  utiles  A 
l'histoire  naturelle,  reconnaitront  ou'en  met  tan  t  lea  riches  mat£riaux  qu  us 
rapportent  entre  les  mains  de  naturaflstes  vraimpnt  travailleurs,  ils  en  font  prp- 
fiter  de  suite  la  science;  ce  qui  riaJQtmU  lieu  lor^qu'iJs  les  dopnept,  sans 
disceruement  et  en  totality,  a  dp*  ^tAbussemens  pnfrUot."  In  this  country  we 
should  desire  to  reverse  the  recommendation ;  and  consider  that  collectors 
were  showing  their  discernment  by  giving  the  first  choice  of  their  materials, 
en  totality  to  public  museums  where  they  can  be  consulted  by  students, 

In  the  "  Revue  Zoologique  par  la  SociSte"  Cuvierienne,  Paris,  Decembre 
18S9,"  pp.  356-r361,  appear  Latin  diagnoses  of  30  "  Nouvelles  Especes  de 
Mollusques,  provenant  des  cdtes  de  la  Califbrnie,  du  Mexrque,  du  Kamt- 
schatka, et  de  la  Nouvelle  Z&lapde,  d6crites  par  M.  Deshayes."  As  several 
of  the  species  figured  by  Conrad  are  redescribed,  it  is  to  be  presumed  that 
he  wrote  in  ignorance  of  his  labours*  The  following  are  the  shells  belonging 
to  the  West  N.  American  faunas,  with  the  habitats  when  recorded* 

P.  357.  Chiroma  Laperousii.  [Monterey,  pi.  21 .  Probably  a  deformed  A. 

Hartweg.j  Mag,  Zbol,  1840,  tuberculosa. 

£.  12.  P.  358.  Cytherea  <equilatera,  California. 

las Janellu,  California.  =sP.  ssTrigona  argenHna,  Sow.  M. 

Califomka,  Conr,     M.  Z.  pi.  Z.  pi.  22. 

14—16.  Sasncava  pholadis,  Lam,  An.  a, 

Pkolas  concamerata,  California.  Vert,  iv,  152.  no.  3.     Ramfc- 

=P.penita,  Conr.  M.  Z.  pi.  17.  schatka. 

P.  358.  Arpa  trapesia,    "  6embiaa   au  Bawicava  legumm,  California.  M. 

Mexique."   ?  San  Bias.  M.  Z.  Z.  pL  29.    Probably  the  long 


^MJL  fif /'/"*% j  j* 


J 

ON  M OLLU8CA  OF  THE  WXtffc  OOAsVT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     SOS 


P.  360.  Cardium  Californiense,  Califor- 
nia. M.  Z.  pi.  47.  =  C  Nut- 
tattti,  Conr. :  not  C.  Calif  or- 
nianum,  Conr. 

8ipkonaria  scutellum,  "  Ee  Cha- 
tam.<>  ?  Galapagos. 

Purpura  Freyanetii,  Kamtsehat- 
ka.  M.  Z.  pi.  26.  Much  more 
like  P,  fops/to  than  Midden- 
dorfFs  figures. 

Murex  maoropterus. 

Helix  Dupetithouarsi,  Monterey. 

M.  Z.  pi.  30,  as  " rsii." 

P.  361,  PetWtna  MhM}  Kamtschatka. 

Turbo  digit  atus,  Acapulco. 
tc  Uvanilla  unguis,  Wood.   M. 
Z.pl.36. 

Natica  Reehuianay  California.. 
M.Z.pl.37. 

Natica     ianthostoma,     Kam- 


form  of  the  common  species 

also  found  at  Maiatlan. 
P.  858.  Petricola  Cordieri,    California 

=z  Venus  lamellif era,  Conr.  H 

Z.  pi.  18. 
Petricola  arouat a,  California.  M. 

Z.  pi.  19. 
Petricola  cyhmdraoem,  California. 

(Probably  P.  arcuata,  var.)  M. 

Z.pl.20. 
P.  359.  Veuerupis  gigantea,   California. 

ss8axidofMU  NuttaUi,  Conr. 
Venerupis    Petiti,      California. 

=Tapcs  dwersa,  Sow.  jun. 
Anemia    maeroMtma,     Kami. 

schatka.  M.  Z.  pi.  34.  =Ffo- 

cunanemia  m.,  Gray. 
Cypricardia  Duperreui,  Califor- 
nia. M.Z.pl.27. 
Modiola  euUelku,  Kamtschatka. 
P.  360.  Cardium  Laperousii,  California*. 

M.  Z.  pi.  48.  Natica  sanguinolenta. 

To  the  above  must  probably  be  added  Purpura  emarginata,  p.  360,  M»  Z. 
pi.  25,  described  by  Deshayes  as  from  New  Zealand,  but  quoted  in  Jay's  Cat. 
no.  8972,  =i P.  Cfonradi,  Nutt  MS„  from  California;  and  from  the  same 
locality  in  Mus*  Cuming,  on  the  authority  of  Mr.  Hartweg,  Many  of  these 
shells  were  figured  in  the  following  year  in  Guerin's  Magasfn  de  Zoologie, 
between  plates  14  and  48,  of  which  references  are  given  above.  In  the  same 
works  are  described,  Lucina  cristata,  Reel*  Rev.  Cuv.  1842,  p.  270,  Gue>. 
Mag.  pi.  60,  found  "  cur  le  banc  de  Campeche"  by  M.  J.  Cosmao,  Commander 
•f  the  Naval  Station  of  Mexico,  =  %Mna  Burneti,  Brod.  &  Sow.  i  and  Lucina 
corrugata,  Desh.,  Gue>.  Mag,  pi.  82,  as  from  California,  which  Mr.  Cuming 
found  himself  at  Singapore. 

The  official  description  of  the  shells  of  the  Venui,  however,  was  intrusted 
to  M.  Valenciennes,  under  whose  auspices  was  published  "  Voyage  autour  du 
Monde  sur  la  Venus,  pendant  les  annees  1856-89,  par  M.  du  Petit  Thouars. 
Paris,  1846."  Of  this  work  plates  only  have  been  seen,  of  which  the  following 
are  species  connected  with  the  West  N.  American  coast 


Plate. 

1 

24 


2. 
4,4«, 


Helix  vincta,  Val.  (California,  Rve.) 

Pholas  rostrata,  Val.    Almost  certainly  the  young  of  one  of  the 
following  species. 

24    1,  I  a,  b.      Penitella  Conradi,  Val.    (Pkoladidea,  with  long,  inflated  cup, 
without  divisions.) 

24    2.  Penitella  wilophaga,  Val,    (Pkoladidea,  with  long,  narrow  cup.) 

24    3,3  a,  b,  v,  Penitella  tubtgera,  Val.    Probably  a  variety  of  the  last  i  the  tuba 
being  simply  the  lining  of  the  old  cavity,  as  in  P.  calva, 

24    7  a,  b.  Bomia  luticota,  Val,     (Utosely  approaches  Chironia  Jjapertmsii, 

Desh.) 

24    8,  8a.  Saxicava  clava,  Val.    (Probably  S.  legumen,  Desh.) 

16    2,  2  a.  Venus  perdix,  Val.    ?  =  Chione  neglect  a,  Sow.,  represented  with- 

out paUial  sinus. 

16    3,3  a.  Venus  pectunculoides,  Yd.    x=  Tapes  histrioniea,  Sow. 

2    %  2a.  Troehus  amietue,  Val.  =  Uvanilla  unguis,  Mawe.   =  Turbo  digu 

tatus,  Desk* 

•  Described  from  a  single  shell  which  appears  worn.     1^  hat  much  the  aspect  of  a  Telttna, 
with  tPwentiUt  ridge*  and  no  internal  creaatioas  j  hat  is  figured  without  pallia!  sinus. 


Plate. 

*fc. 

2 

3,  3a-c. 

3 

1,  1  a-c. 

14 

1. 

14 

2. 

15 

2. 

15 

3. 

24 

9, 9a,  b. 

11 

1,1a,  la, 

11 

3,3a. 

11 

2. 

5 

1  a,  5. 

6 

1,  la-e. 

6 

2,2a-c. 

6 

2e,/. 

6 

2a,  0. 

8 

4,4a. 

8 

3,3a. 

9 

3, 3a-c. 

£04  BiPOBT — 1856. 

Trochus  brevispinosus,  Val.  =  UvaniUa  olivacea,  Mawe. 

Trockus  baUenarum,  Val.  lz=Pomaulax  uudosus,  Mawe,  var.  Tide 
B.  M.  Maz.  Cat.  p.  230,  note. 

Calyptraa  rugosa  (?  cujus).  =  Crucibulum  imbrication,  Sow. 

Calyptraa  tubifera,  Less.  =  Cr.  spinosum,  Sow. 

Calyptraa  gemmacea,  Val.    Shell  as  figured,  not  recognized :  it 
may  be  a  worn  and  stunted  Cr.  imbrication. 

Calyptraa  amygdalus,  Val.    =  Crepidula  onyx,  Sow. 

Calyptraa  perforans,  Val.   =Creptdula  expimata,  Gould.   (The 
prior  name  of  Val.  must  be  abandoned,  as  representing  an  un- 
truth.  The  form  of  the  shell  is  due  to  its  inhabiting  the  burrows 
of  Lithophagi,  &c.) 
1 ,  la,  1  ajbis.  Vermetus  centiquadrus,  Val.    (Subg.  Aletes. ) 

Vermetus  Peronii,  on  Strombus galea.  A  variety  of  V.centiquadrus. 

Vermetus  margaritarum,  Val. 

Fusus  Petit-tkouarsii.  =F.  Dupetit-Thouarsti,  Kien. 

Buccinum  Janelii,  Val.  =zPisania  sanguinolenta,  Duel. 

Buccinum  mutabtle,  Val.   =Pisai»ta  insignis,  Rye. 

Buccinum  mutabile,  jun.   =Pisania  gemmata,  Rye. 

Buccinum  mutabile,  operculum.    (Extremely  incorrectly  drawn.) 

Purpura  saxicola,  Val.    Resembles  P.  lapiUus  and  Freycinettii. 

Purpura  hamatura,  Val.  ?  =P.  biserialis,  Blainy.  var. 

Purpura  Grayii,  Kien.  ^Monoceros  grande,  Gray. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  author  has,  in  several  instances,  not  only  over- 
looked the  writings  of  English  naturalists,  but  even  disregarded  the  descriptions 
by  Deshayes  of  the  shells  of  this  very  expedition. 

42.  During  the  period  that  Mr.  Cuming  was  absent  on  his  Philippine 
expedition,  explorations  of  great  value  were  being  made  by  a  gentleman, 
whose  few  published  writings  only  show  how  much  science  has  lost  by  his 
early  death.  In  the  year  1836,  the  *  Sulphur/  under  Lieut.  Com.  Kellett, 
visited  Callao  and  Payta  in  Peru,  and  explored  the  coast  from  the  Bay  of 
Guayaquil  to  Panama.  Here  Commander  (now  Capt.  Sir  E.)  Belcher  took 
the  first  place,  a  gentleman  whose  conchological  labours  during  the  voyage 
of  the  '  Blossom'  have  already  been  recorded.  Mr.  Hinds,  the  surgeon  of 
the  expedition,  not  only  showed  the  greatest  industry  in  dredging  and  other- 
wise collecting  specimens,  but  made  the  products  of  his  labours  tenfold  more 
valuable  by  the  accurate  notes  which  he  took  of  their  localities  and  stations, 
guided  by  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  subjects  which  it  was  his  endeavour 
to  illustrate.  The  west  coast  of  Central  America  and  Mexico  was  searched 
as  far  as  San  Bias,  and  afterwards  explorations  were  made  from  Acapulco  to 
Cerro  AzuL  On  the  return  of  Messrs.  Hinds  and  Cuming  from  their  respect- 
ive expeditions,  they  compared  their  collections  and  notes  together.  Here 
were  abundant  materials  for  geographical  aud  stational  lists  of  the  very 
greatest  value ;  but,  most  unfortunately,  the  usual  plan  was  followed  of  only 
publishing  the  new  species.  This  was  done  by  Mr.  Hinds  in  several  most 
accurate  and  valuable  papers  communicated  to  the  Zool.  Soc  and  to  the 
Annals  of  Nat.  Hist ;  and,  in  a  collective  form,  in  the  "  Zoology  of  the 
^Voyage  of  H.M.S.  Sulphur,  commanded  by  Capt.  Sir  E.  Belcher,  during  the 
years  18S6-1842;  by  Richard  Brinsley  Hinds,  Esq.,  Surgeon  R.N.  London, 
Smith,  Elder  and  Co.,  1844.  Vol.  ii.  Mollusca."  The  preface  to  this  work 
contains  a  masterly  digest  of  the  results  of  his  experience  on  the  distribution 
of  Mollusca,  especially  on  those  of  the  W.  American  coast  as  compared  with 
the  Pacific  Islands;  the  influence  of  station,  depth,  temperature,  and  other 
causes,  both  on  genera  and  on  particular  species;  and  the  comparative  effect 


ON  MOLLTJiOA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      205 

of  similar  differences  on  the  flora  and  distribution  of  land  shells  in  the  same 
latitudes.  The  work  therefore  is  extremely  disappointing  from  its  very  ex- 
cellence, as  it  shows  how  prepared  the  author  was  to  fill  up  the  gaps  which 
are  to  us  the  most  perplexing ;  but  which  his  early  death  has  left  to  be  sup- 
plied by  other,  we  fear  less  trustworthy  hands. 

Several  valuable  donations  of  shells,  with  the  localities  added  by  Mr.  Hinds, 
are  preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  The  new  species  described  are  as 
follow,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  fauna  of  West  N.  America.  The  pages  and 
numbers,  with  the  plates  and  figures,  refer  to  the  Zool.  Sulph. ;  but  the 
references  are  also  added  to  the  Proc  Zool.  Soc.  and  the  Ann.  Nat.  Hist. 


i 

P    t 

1 

£ 

Name. 

Station. 

Depth 

inrnu. 

Locality. 

7     5 

7     6 

7  7 
B     8 

B     9 

8  10 

8  11 

9  12 
9  13 
9  16 
9  17 

0  18 

1  22 

2  28 
2  29 
2  30 

1 

1 
2 

3 
3 
3 

3 
3 
3 
3 
3 
4 
4 
4 
?, 

1,2 

3-5 
1-3 

7,8 

9,10 

11,12 

13,14 

15,16 

21,22 

23,24 

3,4 

1,2 

13,14 

15,16 

4,5 

Conns  Patricias,  Hds. 
ccelebs,  Hds. 

=C.  terebellum,  jan. 

Californicus,  Hds. 

Murex  Belcheri,  Hds. 

~  Pyrula  B.,  Jive. 

centrifuga,  Hds. 

— -  Californicus,  Hds. 
hamatus,  Hds. 

»  Cerastoma,  Conr. 

festivus,  Hds. 

foveolatua,  Hds. 

— -  radicatus,  Hds. 

peritus,  Hds. 

Typhis  quadratus,  Hds. 
Triton  vestitus,  Hds. 

anomalus,  Hds. 

lignarius,  Brod. 

Ranella   California,  R 

255 
— —  pectinata,  Hds. ... 

A.N.H.  xi.  256 

tt         tt     n 

teste  Rvs. 

sandy  mud 

sand 
f  mud-bank  at 
\  head  of  barb'. 

sand 

7 
7 

}■•• 

52 

O.  Nicoya. 

B.  Magdalena. 

San  Diego. 

W.  C.  Veragua. 
California. 
B.  Guayaquil. 

B.  Magdalena. 

B.  Magdalena. 

San  Bias. 

B.  Magdalena. 

G.  Nicoya,  B.  Guayaq. 

Rl.Lj.,G.Nic,  B.Honda 

Is.  Quibo,  Veragua. 

Monte  Christi. 

San  Diego. 

San  Bias. 
Panama. 

San  Bias. 

Gulf  Magdalena. 

Gulf  Magdalena. 

Veragua. 

Magnetic  Is.,  Veragua. 

Panama. 

G.  Nicoya. 

G.Magdal.,B.  Guayaq. 

B.  GuayaquiL 

G.  Papagayo. 

B.  Magdalena. 

Magnetic  Is.,  Veragua* 

W.  C.  Veragua. 

G.  Papagayo. 

G.  Papagayo. 

G.  Nicoya. 

Magnetic  Is.,  Veragoa. 

G.  Nicoya. 

G.  Papagayo. 

G.  Nicoya. 

G.  Fonseca. 

G.  Papagayo. 

Panama. 

G.  Nicoya. 

Panama. 

P.Z.S.  1843, 127 

„    126 
»    128 

„    127 

,.    12? 

„    128 

„    129 

»,          ,t       18 

„       1844,  21 

1,          »»       ft 

„       1833,    5 

rds.    A.N.H.  xi. 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

mud 

sand 

sand 

mud 

sand 

mud 

rocks 
sandy  shore 
sandy  mud 

21 

7 

7 

11 

7 
7-18 
shore 
Lw. 

7 

1 

3  31 

4  36 

5  37 

5  39 

6  42 

6  45 

7  50 
7  52 

7  53 

8  58 

9  59 
9  60 
9  61 
9  62 

9  63 

0  64 
0  65 

0  68 

1  70 

1  73 
•2  77 

2  78 

3  83 

4  92 
.5  95 
17104 

4 

1 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
6 
6 
6 
6 
6 

6 

6 
6 
6 
6 
6 
7 
7 
7 
7 
7 
11 

17,18 
16,17 

1,2 

4 

7 

10 

15 

17 

18 

4 

7,8 

5 

9 

10 

13 

11,12 

14 

18 

20 

23,24 

1 

6 

11 

18 

20 

5,6 

mud 
mud 

mud 
mud 
mud 
mud 
mud 
mud 
mud 

7 
19 

7 

7 

7 
8-30 

26 

7 

18 
5-22 

5 
8-14 

5 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
•1 

Trophon  muricatus,  H 
being  preoccupied  b 
species  may  be  called 

PleuTotoma  nobilis,  Hdt 

gemmata,  Hds. 

inermis,  Hds. 

Clavatula  militaris,  Hds. 

—  ericea,  Hds. 
— —  sculpta,  Hds. 

—  rava,  Hds. 

luctuosa,  Hds. 

-i —  aspera,  Hds . 
quisqualis,  Hds. 

—  plumbea,  Hds. 

—  occata,  Hds. 

bella,  Hds. 

pudica,  Hds. 

neglecta,  Hds. 

Candida,  Hds. 

merita,  Hds. 

impressa,  Hds. 

partialis,  Hds. 

— -  cselata,  Hds. 

mican8,  Hds. 

rigida,  Hds. 

Daphnella  casta,  Hds. 
Cerithram  gemmatum,  i 

ds.    [The  name 

y  Montagu,  this 

Troph.Hindfii.] 

.P.Z.S.1843,37 

it          tt     tt 

tt          tt     tt 

tt          tt    38 

»,          »»    39 

„          tt     tt 

v          it    tt 

tt          tt    40 

tt          tt     tt 

,,  ** 

,,   41 

1 
1 

1 

mud 
mud 

1 

1 

2 

2 
2 

tt                  tt        It 
tt                  tt         tt 

»t           i,    45 
»»           ,»    42 
tt          tt     tt 

tt    44 

,,    42 

i,          »»     tt 

tt    43 
„           tt    45 

/       mud 
\       mud 
mud 
under  stones 

30 
8-14 
8-14 
Lw. 

2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
i 

under  stones 

mud 
under  stones 

mud 

mud 

Lw. 
8-14 
Lw. 

20 

14 

I 

mud 
sandy  mud 

23 

2-7+ 

\ 

Hds 

L 

SOtt 


AaPOK*~>lJNHS. 


y, 


31 
32 

32 
33 
34 


34 


127 
128 

132. 
133. 
139. 


140. 


16 


13,14 


34 141, 


35 
36 
36 
37 
37 

38 
38 
38 
39 

39 

39 
39 

40 
40 
41 

41 
42 

42 


144 
150 
153 
155 
158 

159 
161 
162 
163 

164 

165 
166 

167 
168 
170 

171 
172 

173. 


1ft, 

18,19 

1,2 

lOUft, 14 


7,8 
5,6 

17, 

19,20 

15,16 


—  tuberculosa,  Hdt.    „         „ 

—  specillata,  Hdt.        ,»  n 
The  Pacific  analogue  of  T»  ttxtiiit, 

from  Str.  Macassar,  No.  142. 

—  luctuosa,  Hdt.    P.Z.S.  1 843,  p.  157 
lSlNeesa  perpinguis,  Hdt.  , 

moesta,  Hdt.  ..... 

Phos  crassus,  Hdt.        A.N.H.  xi  p.  257 
— —  Veraguen8is,  Hdt,     „        „ 
Pacific  analogue  of  Ph.»enticotut. 

— —  articulatus,  Hdt 

,  o gaudens,  Hdt 

lBJColumbella  fusiformis,  Hdt. 

—  pavonine,  Hdt.  .»» ..»».. 


21,22 
11,12 

13,14 

1,2 

11,12 

7,8 
9,10 


42174 


42 
43 
45 

46 
48 


175 
176 
18ft 

190 
196 


12 

12 
12 


13 


49  802* 


50 


205 


50206 
53216.. 

53  217. 


53 


54 


218 


219 
56231 
69241 
59 


16 

19 
15 
16 

Ml 


Nam*. 


Buccinum  metula,  Hdt 

Terebra  robusta,  Hdt.  P.Z.S.  1843,p.l49 


•  varicose,  Hdt. 
.  lingualis,  Hdt. 

•  armillata,  Hdt. 


152 
153 
154 


155 


-  carinata,  Hdt. 


lentiginoea,  Hdt.  i 

Triehotropis  canceilate,//*.  P.Z.S.1843, 

p.  17. 

—  inermis,  Hdt.  P.Z.S.  1843,  p.  18 
Mitra  Belcheri,  Hdt.  A.N.H.  xi.  255 
Cancallaria  ventricosa,  Bdt.  P.Z.S.  1843, 

P.  47   


—  urceolata,  Hdt. 
——  albida,  Hdt. 


P.Z.S.1843,p.47 


—  cremata  H<h.  „      „    p.  48 

(«f.  9.  Conch.  E1L,  at  C.  indmtata*) 
1)  2  — -  oorrmgata,  fid*.    P.Z.S.  1843,  p.  4g 
3, 4  —— .  elata,  Hdt.  ,,       ,( 

5i6— —  funicular.  Hdt.        „        „         „ 
15]10, 11  Marginella  sepotilla,  IFds.    t1  1844,  p.  74 
Pacific  analogue  of  M.  pi-mtum* 

22, 23  Erato  vitelline*  Hdt 

Sealant  Diana:,  //<*r.  P.Z.S,  1843,  p.  125 

— —  vulpina,  Hdt*  »»        »,        126 

The  temperature  below  being  58 T,  and 

at  the  surface  H2 : 

5,6|Solarium  placemale,  Hdt.  P.Z.S.1844,22 

7*  6  —»—  quadriceps  //rf*.  „        „   23 

PatalU  incest*,  Hdt.         A.N.IL  a.  p.  82 

Patelloida  dtpictn,  Hdt.        „ 


■■{ 


7,8Crepidula  solkla.  Hdt 

«C  adunca,  Sow. 

1  Chiton  MagdaleniU,  Hdt. * 

6  Melania  occftta,  Hdt.      A.N.IL  xiv.  p.  9 
22  Paludiiia  aem             /          „        a.    I 
•»•  JAnodon  angul&tus  ^u.w ..> 


Depth 
InftU. 


mud 
sandy  mud 

mud 
sandy  mud 


sandy  mud 
coral  sand 


mud 

mud,  solitary 

mud,  gregarious 


sand 


u.  stones  with  C. 
pyfmaa,  own. 

[■       sand 


land 
mud 


V  sandy  mud  -I 


mod 
mud 


sandy  taud 

>;i  1 1 '  I ;.  mud 

sand 

mud 
mud 


few   W.  C.  Veragua. 
4-18  8°57'-21°32'.  Pin. 

8.  Bias,  G.Pspag^GJdc 
2ft    O.  Papagayo. 
10-17  O.  Papagayo,  B.MonttfO. 
5-13  Abundant  in  various  lo- 
calities between  Pan. 
and  B.  Magd.,  also  im- 
bedded in  fosaffifenNis 
cliffs  which 
part  of  the  Bav  of  M* 
4-11  Pan.,SanBlas,Q»Pnpeg. 
f     San  Bias. 


8-U 

3-14 

26 


12    G.  Nicova,  P.  Pottr. 
B.  Magdalena. 
O.  Papagayo. 
Pan.,  G.  Fonseca* 
Pueblo  Nuevfc*  W.   C* 
Veragua* 
Panama* 
G.  Tehuantepec 
Veragua. 
'Most  prob.  America**) 

Bodegas,  San  Diego. 


IS 
24 


7  and 
under 

beach 


sanil 

mud 

on  sea*  weed 

on  surface  of  a 

Zostcra,  common 

on  dead  &  living 

shells  Sc  on  each 

other. 

ourocks,  common 


5-7 

6-7 

17 

7 
60-70 
8-14 

7 
7-48 

4-10 

7 

30 

7 

&-13 

7 

3G 
30 


abundant 


G-10 


LscaUty. 


G.  Nicoya. 

Sitka  Harbour* 

Sitka  Harbour. 
G.  Papagayo,  G.  Nicoya. 
G.  Mag&denaTitfW- 
RLLj.,8anBLJ24°38'. 
G.  Papagayo  1  12°  2/- 
San  Bias  J  21°  32*. 
B.  Guayaq.,  Pan..  Yen*. 
2°47'S.-9°53'?f.  ^ 
Pan. 


B.  Guayaquil, 
Pan.,  1  «p. 
Q.  Magd,,  1  sp. 

Pan. 

13.  Magdalena. 

G.  Nk'iiyit. 

I*.  Quito,  Veragua. 


B.  Magdalena. 

Pan. 

San  Diego. 

Saa  Diego. 

Bodegas. 

11.  M  septal  ena. 

River  Sacramento,  Calif. 

Ditto. 

Ditto, 


ON  MOLLU80A  OF  THB  WfcJBT  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.     907 


Name. 


Station. 


Depth 
la  fine* 


LoeaUtjc 


59 

60245 

60246 

61248 

61249 

61250 

63256 


64263 
64266 
64267 
64  269 

65271 


6527221 


66275 
66276 


6727721 
6727821 
6828320 
68285  20 
6828620 


6928920 
70295  20 
70 
71298)19 


13 
17 
12 
14 

5 

1 

2 
6,7 

4 

2 

11 

12 

7,8 

13 
19 


Paludina  nuclea,  Lea 

Pecten  sericeut,  Hds. « 1  sp 

fl0ridUS9   tfd*..4M.»»ll...»».».,i.li.„|| 

rubidua,  Hds * 4gp, 

digitatus,  Hds 

fasciculatus,  Hds. 

Nucula  castrensis,  Hds.  P.Z.S.  1843,  p.  98 
Resembles  the  fossil  N.  GoMoldU*t  and 
N.  dwatieata,  China  Sea,  84  fins. 

—  celata,  Hds.        P.Z.S.  1843,  p.*9 

—  excavate,  Hds.         „        „      100 

—  lyrata, /Ms.  „        „        „ 
—- •  erispa,  Hds.             „       M       „ 

Venus  Kellettii,  Hds / 

Cytherea  (Trigonella)  craasatelloides, 

Csnr. 

Lucina  fenesirata,  Hds. ..... 

Psatnmobia  decora,  Hds.     A.N.H.  x.  81 
Sanguinolaria  Nuttallii,  Conr. 

Tellina  fucata,  Hds.    ...*... 

— -  Bodegensis,7f<2r. » 

Corbula  fragilia,  Hds.  P.Z.8.  1843,  p.  56 

— »obesa,  Hds.  ,,  „       57 

—  speriosa,  Hds.         „  „ 
(  =  C.rariiala,  Sow.  P.Z.S,  1833,  p,  36, 

non  Dr*h.) 

—  murtnorata,  //J*,      „      1843,  p.  58 
Neicra  didyma,  Hda.         t,  rt        78 

costata,  iMHm,hi,mmhp - 

Liiigula  aibida,  //d*.  «Hiu4ioitMtn 


mud 
mud 


mud 
sandy  mud 
1  sp.,  sand 


mud 


adhesive  mud,  1 
low  temp,    j 

mud-bank  in  the 
harbour. 


53 
6 
33 
23 
17 
7 


6-10 
30 
30 
36 

30-34 


7-14 


mud 
mud 

mud 


mud 

mud 

mud 

sandy  mud 


7 

18 
22-33  Pan., 


"Neigfrbouringldcality." 

B.  Panama. 

San  Diego* 

Alashka,N.W.A. 

B.  OuayaquiL 

W.  Veragua. 

Sitka. 

[Barb.38°18'-a4°24'. 

Bodegas,  Sin  Franc,  Sta 

Pan. 

Pan. 

G.Nicoya. 

Is.  Quibo,  W.  C.  Veragua. 

San  Diego. 

Monte  Christt,  San  Bias. 
San  Diego. 

B,Magdalena.  ^ 

Bodegas. 

W.  Veragua. 

Pan.,  Verag.,  8an  Bias. 

Pan-,  0.  Nicoya- 


26 

26 
2G 
7 


\V.  Ycrague. 
W,  Vcrapua* 
W*  Vcragtia. 

U.  Magdalen  a. 


besides  these,  the  following  are  recorded  in  the  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  aa  haying 
heen  collected  by  Mr.  Hinds : — 


Name. 


Locality. 


p.  32:Pleurotoma  arcuata,  Roe.  *».. ....».».. 

32 pieta,£ec* ...» 

77Neesra  costata  (Ataatina  c,  fra*,  P.Z.S.  1834, 
p.  67),  Hds, 

125  Scalaria  aciculina,  Hds ... 

160  Terebra  strigata,  Sow.  Tank.  Cat 

=T.  elongate,  Wood,  Ind.  St^pL 

=T.  flammea,  Less.  IB.  Zool 

**T.  zebra,  Kien* 

160***— ornata,  Gray... .4....u..i»...AU».  7  An 

lsu.                                                    [Ctom.  5-7  fin. 
181  Mitra  Hindsii,  Rite. Hds.  17  fin. 


Veragua* 

Pan.,  Ban  Bias,  G.  Nieoya 

St.  Blem  6  fin.  sandy  mud 

Magnetic  Is.,  22  fin. 

Veragua,  26  fin.,  mud. 

W.C.  intertropical  Amer. 

Pan.,#&. 


mud 

walsan 

mud 


Pan. 
Galap 
Gulf  Nfcoya. 


coral  sand  Galapagos*] 


In  Mr.  Cuming's  collection  appears  Oorbukt  obeta,  Hinds,  San  Bias. 


208 


BBPORT— 1856. 


The  Mowing  shells  occur  in  Reeve's  Conckologia  Iconica,  as  having  been 
collected  by  Mr.  Hinds. 


Plate, 


Name. 


Station. 


Depth 
in  fins. 


Locality. 


21 

4 

7 
22* 

3 

3 

4 


165 

2 

33 

149 
15 
16 
27 


*Ac- 


Natica  Recluziana  ., 

Fig.  a,  b.   Patella  diaphana,  Roe. 

nuea  mesoleuca,  Mke. 

Cardita  Cuvieri,  Brod.   .. 

Pectunculus  pectenoides,  Deth.,  Cuv. 

R.  A.  pi.  87.  f.  8. 
Area  grandia,  Brod.  Sf  Sow. 


Mitra  Hindsii,  Roe.    .... 

Fissurella  volcano,  Rve. 

Chiton  lineatus,  Wood  

—  insignis,  Rve. -.. 

Pleurotoma  arcuata,  Rve 

->  picta,  Beck. 

—  olivacea,  &w.(comp.  P.funiculata) 


soft  mud 


mud 


17 


-  mllitarii, //mdir ... 

—  stromboides,  Sow. 
Conns  Archon,  Brod* ... 
Oliya  biplicata,  Sow.  ... 


mad 


mad 

mud 

sandy  mud 

sands 


18 

7 
12-18 

Lw, 


California. 
Central  America. 

Acapulco. 
Panama. 

Real  Llej.,  B.  Gnayqu. 
{Cuming  Sf  Hindi)  * 

G.Nicoya. 

Sta.  Barbara. 

Sitka. 

Sitka. 

Veragua. 

Pan.,  San  Bias,  G.Nic 

Pan.,W.Mex.,G.Nic 
(Also  Salango,  and 
St  Elena,  Cum.) 

Veragua. 

B.  Panama. 

G.  Nicoya. 

Monterey.       # 


Specimens  of  the  following  shells  appear  in  the  Brit.  Mas.  as  having  been 
presented  by  Mr.  Hinds ;  and  were  doubtless  collected  by  him  during  the 
Voyage  of  the  Sulphur. 


Teilina  rufescens.    Guayaquil. 

Donax  carinatun.    Tumaco. 

Venus  neglecta  (?  crenifera).  Acapulco. 

Mactra  exoleta.    Guayaquil. 

Kellia  suborbicularis.     Panama. 

Pectunculus  maculatus,  Brod.=giganteust 

Rve.    W.  Columbia. 
Pinna  lanceolata.    Guayaquil. 
Perna  flexuosa.    Conchagua. 
Chama  spinosa.    Acapulco. 
Anomia  lampe.    Guayaquil. 
'  Chiton  Uneatus.    Sitcha  Sound. 
■         Simpsonii,  Gray.    San  Francisco. 
Bulla  nebulas*.    San  Pedro. 
Siphonaria  lecanium.  St.  Elena,  Guayaq. 
Cerithidea  varicosa.  Real  Llejos,  San  Bias. 


Litorina  conspersa.     Real  Llejos. 

Ifasciata.    San  Pedro. 

Helix  levis.    California. 

areolata,  Sow.,  Pfr.  7p  f.  M.  1845, 

p.  154.     California,  near  Columbia  R. 
Neverita  helicoides  (spatula).  Acapulco. 
Natica  (like  canrena).    Acapulco. 
Ranella  nana.    San  Bias. 
Fusus  pallidus.    Callao. 

Dupetithouarni    (with    operc). 

Acapulco. 

Murex  incisus,  Brod.     Acapulco. 

—  oxyacantha,  Brod.    Acapulco. 

humilis,  Brod.     Bay  Guayaquil. 

hamatus,  Brod.    Bay  Guayaquil, 


43.  During  the  years  1838-1842,  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition 
was  engaged  in  its  circumnavigation  of  the  globe.  In  18S9  it  touched  at 
Callao,  where  30  species  of  shells  were  collected ;  but  it  did  not  visit  any 
other  part  of  the  Panama  province.  In  1841,  however,  the  Vincenncs  and 
Porpoise  were  early  on  the  coast  of  Oregon.  The  Peacock  and  Flying  Fish 
arrived  there  in  July ;  but  the  Peacock  was  lost  on  the  bar  of  the  Columbia 
River.  The  Expedition  proceeded  as  far  as  San  Francisco,  and  left  in  No- 
vember of  the  same  year.  The  conchologist  to  the  Expedition  was  Mr.  J.  P. 
Couthouy,  who,  assisted  by  his  companions,  collected  about  2000  species  of 
shells  (of  which  about  250  were  considered  new),  and  made  drawings  of  the 

*  22.  149  (text)  148  (fig.). 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA,     209 


animals  of  about  500.  The  description  of  the  collections  was  entrusted  to 
Dr.  A.  A.  Gould  of  Boston,  the  well-known  author  of  the  •  Report  of  the 
Invertebrata  of  Massachusetts/  In  1846  the  descriptions  of  part  of  the 
species  were  issued  in  a  pamphlet  form,  to  which. additions  have  been  made 
/rom  time  to  time,  as  they  have  appeared  in  the  ■  Proc.  Bosk  Soc.  Nat  Hist.' 
In  this  work  are  the  following  descriptions  of  species  from  the  Califonuan 
and  Oregon  districts. 


3,  Chiton  lignosus,  Gld.,  Puget  Sound. 
r(=  C.  lignarius,  G.  MS.) 

6.  Chiton  dentiens,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
„  Ckiton  muscosus,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

7.  Patella  fimbriata,  G.,  Straits  of  De 

Fuca.  • 

9.  Patella  instabUis,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
„  Patella  conica,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

=  Scurria  mitra,  JE&ch. 
„  Lottia  pintadina,  G.,  Straits  of  De 
Fuca,  Puget  Sound,  and  Columbia 
River  (San  Francisco). 
Max._pars  =  'A.  patina,  var. : 
pars  =  A.  mesoleuca,  var. : 
teste  sp.  typ. 
10.  Patella  (?  Lotha)  textUis,  G.,  Straits 

of  De  Fuca  and  Killimook. 
„    Patella  (?  Lottia)  scabra,  G.,  San 
Francisco.    "  Perhaps  a  variety  of 
P.  textilis."  =P.  spectrum,  Nutt., 
Rve.,  not  P.  scabra,  Nutt.,  live. 
13.  FissureUa  cratitia,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

?  =  F.  aspera,  Esch. 
J4.  Rimula  cucullata,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
m         (?  Puncfurella.) 
„    Rirnula  galeata,  G.  (Classet),  Puget 

Sound.    (?  Puncturella.) 
„    Crepidula  rostriformis,  G.,  Straits  of 
De  Fuca.  =  C.  adunca,  Sow. 

1 5.  Crepidula  lingulata,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

"  Like  C.  Capensis,  Quoy,"  1  sp. 
>5T  Crepidula   nummaria,  G.,   Classet. 
[Probably  a  var.  of  C.  Kn$rct&zfa.] 
„    Calyptraa   fastigiata,    G.,    Puget 
Sound.    [Gaferus.] 

16.  He/tar  labiosa,  G.,  Astoria,  Oregon. 

17.  Heli*  loricata,  G.,  California  (Sa- 

cramento River). 
„    He/to?  cfeeta,  G.,  ?  Oregon. 

1 8.  He&F  strigosa,  G.,  interior  of  Oregon . 
„    He&e  sportella,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

31.  Succinea  rusticana,  G.,  Oregon. 

41.  Limnea  lepida,  G.,  Lake  Vancouver, 

Oregon. 

42.  Planorbis  opercularis,  G.,  Rio  Sa- 

cramento, U.  Cal. 
„    Planorbis  vermicularis,  G.,  interior 
of  Oregon. 

43.  PAy*a  virginea,  G.,  Rio  Sacramento. 
46.  Melania  sUicula,  G.,  Nisqually,  Ore- 
gon. (=  ifcf.  ft/qua,  G.  MS.) 

1856. 


Page 

46.  Melania  bulbo$a,Q.,  Columbia  River. 

49.  Natica  Lewisii,  G.,  Puget  Sound 

and  Columbia  River. 

50.  tfo#ca  caurina,  G.,  Straits  of  De 

Fuca.  "Nearly  the  same  as  N. 
impervia,  Phil.,  from  Cape  Horn." 

52.  Lacuna  carinata,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
„    Littorina  patula,  G.,  San  Francisco. 

=  L.  planaxis,  Phil. 
„    Littorina  lepida,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

53.  Littorina  scutulata,  G.,  PugetSound. 
„    Littorina  plena,  G.,  San  Francisco. 

55.  Trochus  ligatus,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
=  T.  ./Wo«w,  Wood. 

60.  Cerithium  (Potamis)  sacratum,  G., 

Sacramento  River.  =  Pircua  Ca/i- 
fornica,  Nutt.  MS. 

61.  Cerithium  i rroratum,  Gould.    Hab.? 

[It  is  difficult  to  say  how  this  got 
among  the  Expedition  shells,  as  it 
belongs  to  the  Mazatlan,  not  the 
Californian  fauna.  It  may  have 
been  procured  at  Callao,  or  by  the 
accidents  of  ballast.]  ==  C.  stercus- 
muscarum,  Val. 

62.  ^Cerithium  filosum,  G.,  Puget  Sound* 

64.  Fusus  fidicula,  G.,   Puget  Sound. 

Closely  resembles  F.  turricula. 

65.  Fusus  orpheus,  G.,   Puget  Sound. 

Resembles  F.  Bamfius. 
67.  Buccinumfossatum,(dt.,'Puqet  Sound 

and  mouth  of  Columbia   River. 

(San  Diego.)  (=  Nassa  fossata, 

G.,  postea.)  Of  the  same  group  as 

N.  trwittata,  Say. 
70.  Nassa  mendica,  G.,  Puget  Sound, 

Nisqually,  &c.    Pacific  analogue 

of  N.  trivittata,  Say. 

74.  Solen  sicarius,  G.,   btraits   of   De 

Fuca,  Oregon. 

75.  Panopaa  generoscf,  G.,  Puget  Sound, 

Oregon.    Like  P.  Aldrovandi. 
„    My  a  pracisa,   G.,    Puget    Sound. 
Like  M.  truncata, 

76.  Mactrafalcata,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 

„  Lutraria  capax,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
(Afterwards  changed  to  L.  maxima, 
Midd.) 

77.  Osteodesma  bracteata,  G.,  Puget  Sd. 

"  Closely  resembles  O.  hyaHna" 
83.  Cardita  ventricosa,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
P 


810 


JLBPOBT — 1856. 


13!*  < 


Cardium  blandum,  G.,  Paget  Sound. 
86.  Venus   rigida,    G.,    Puget    Sound, 
Straits  of  De  Fuca. 

86.  Cyclas  patella,  G.,  Oregon.     Re- 

sembles C.  cornea. 

87.  AnodonfeminaUs,  G.,  Oregon.  94. 
„    Anodon  cognata,  G.,  Nisqually  and 

Fort  Vancouver. 
„    Alasmodon  falcata,  G.,  Wallawalla,     95. 
Oregon ;  Sacramento  River.  =  J. 
margaritifera,  var.  teste  Lea  and 
others. 

88.  Cfetb   famelicus,    G.,    Wallawalla, 

Oregon. 

The  localities  included  in  the  (  )  are  added  from  the  standard  work,  for 
which  that  above  quoted  was  but  a  preparation,  entitled  "  United  States 
Exploring  Expedition  during  the  years  1835-42,  under  the  command  of 
Charles  Wilks,  U.S.N.  Philadelphia  1 852-  ."  The  plates  have  not  yet  found 
their  way  to  this  country.  Besides  the  species  already  enumerated,  are 
found  the  following : — 


Mytilus  (Modiola)  fiabellatus,  G., 
Puget  Sound,  Oregon  (Townsend 
Harbour,  San  Francisco,  and  spe- 
cies from  G.  Calif.)-  Apparently 
r=  Modiola  Brasiliensis. 

Mytilus  trossulus,  G.,  Killimook, 
Puget  Sound,  Oregon.  Appears 
a  var.  of  M.  edulis. 

Pecten  caurinus,  G.,  Port  Townsend, 
Admiralty  Inlet,  Oregon. 

Pecten  hertceus,  G.,  Straits  of  De 
Fuca,  Oregon. 


2.  Arionfoliolatus,  G.,  Paget  Sound. 

3.  Limax  Columbianus,  G.,  Puget  Sd. 

and  Oregon. 
36.  Helix  Vancouverensis,  Lea,  Oregon. 
66.  Helix  Nuttalliana,  Lea,  Puget  Sd. 

and  Oregon. 
„    HeUx  Townsendiana,  Lea,  Oregon. 
70.  Helix  germana,  G.,  Oregon. 
113.  Planorbis  corpulentus,  G.,  Oregon. 
122.  Lymnaa  apictna,  G.,  Oregon. 
„     Lymntea  umbrosa,  Say  (Astoria), 
Oregon,  and  Sacramento  River. 
143.  Melania  plicifera,  G.,  Oregon. 
363.  Lottia  viridula.      "Mr.    Nuttall 
brought  home  several  specimens, 
which    he    described  under    the 
name  of  monticula "  [monticold]. 
436.  Anodonta  angulata,  G.,  Sacramento 

River. 
206.  Scalaria  laustralis,  Puget  Sound. 
This  species  is  from  the  opposite 


side  of  the  equator  from  8.  am- 
straits.  Dr.  Gould  thinks  it  will 
prove  distinct,  but  cannot  yet  see 
any  differences. 
214.  Nattca  algida,  G.,  Oregon. 
219.  Trichotropis  coiu*itoa,Hinds,Ore- 
gon. 

Triton  Oregonense,  Jay,  Oregon~ 
Fusus  Oregonensis  +  canctllatus, 
Rve. 

Purpura  ostrina,  G.,  Oregon. 

Columbella  gausapata,G.*,  Oregon. 

Chiton  interstinctus,  G.,  Oregon.  • 

Chiton  vespertinus,  G.,  Oregon. 
399.  Saxidomus  NuttalH,  Com*.,  Oregon. 
467.  Terebratula  pulvinata,  G.,  Oregon. 

Terebratula  caurina,  G.,  Oregon. 

And  the  following  Nudibranchs : — 
Chioreera  leonina,  G. ;  310.  ?  Den- 
dronotus;3U.  IQoniodoris;  29. 

?  Doris;  ?  jEolis. 


241. 


244 
247, 
322 
323 


468. 


In  the  Preface  to  this  work,  Dr.  Gould  states  his  views  as  to  the  geogra- 
phical distribution  of  species,  and  gives  the  following  interesting  lists  of 
parallel  species  from  different  seas : — 


Oregon  District. 
Mya  pracisa. 
Osteodesma  bracteatum. 
Cardita  ventricosa. 
Cardium  blandum. 
Venus  calcarea. 


Atlantic  Coast. 
M.  truncata. 
O.  hyatinum. 
C.  borealis. 
C.  Icelandicum. 
V.  mercenaria. 


*  Dr.  Gould  remarks  (p.  270),  that  "there  is  a  minute  operculum  to  Mitra,  while  there  is 
none  to  Columbella.'*  Of  the  shells  called  Cotumbelks,  the  typical  species,  C.  strombtforwus, 
major,  andjuscata,  have  a  broad  oval  operculum,  with  the  apex  at  the  anterior  end  of  the 
outside  margin ;  Nitidella  cribraria  has  a  distinctly  Purpuroid  operculum ;  and  Anaenis 
costelhta,  &c.  have  a  Pisanoid  ungulate  operculum.     Vide  BiM.  Mac.  Oat.  in  foe*. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THIS  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     211 


Obegon  District. 

Alasmodontafalcata. 
Helix  Vancouverensis. 
Helix  loricata. 
Helix  germana. 
Planorbis  verrnicularis. 
Planorbis  opercularis. 
Lacuna  carinata. 
Natica  Lewisii. 
Trichotropis  cancellata. 
Fusus  fidicula. 
Lottia  pintadma. 

To  which  we  may  add  (from  California),- 
Solecurtus  lucidus. 


Atlantic  Coast. 
A.  arcuata. 
H.  concava. 
H.  inflecta. 
H.fraterna. 
PI.  deflectus. 
PL  exacutus. 
L.  vincta. 
N.  hero*. 
Tr.  borealis. 
F.  turricula. 
L.  testudinaUs,  &c. 


S.  radiatus. 


The  following  are  quoted  as  parallel  types  between  the  Gulf  of  California 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea : — 


Gulf  of  California, 

Mactra  nasuta. 

Lutraria  ventricosa  [Mactra  exoleta], 

Cytherea  biradiata. 

Natica  Chenmitzii,  Pfr. 


Caribbean  Ska. 

L.  canaliculata. 

M.  BrasiKana. 

L.  carinata, 

C.  Chime.        \  Mediterranean. 
N.  maroccana.  J  J*"*"1*™1"5"*1- 


Hie  following  species  have  also  been  examined  and  determined  by  Dr. 
Gould,  from  the  same  collection : — 


Helix  tudiculata,  Binney,  Oi 

Acmma  cribraria,  G.,  Columbia  River, 

San  Francisco,  Be  Fuca. 
Modiola  elongata,  G.,  Puget  Sound.        / 
SoUn  nuurinms,  Mouth  of  Columbia  R.  ' 


Tellma  nasuta,  Conr.,  Mouth  of  Colum- 
bia River. 

TeWna  secta,  Conr.,  De  Fuca. 

TeUina  Calif ornica,  Conr.,  De  Fuca. 

TeWna  Bodegensis,  Hinds,  Classet. 

Anodonta  NuttaUiana,  Lea,  Wallawalla, 
San  Francisco. 

Buccinum  corrugatum,  Rve.,  Puget  Sound. 

Purpura  septentrionalis,  Rve.,  Paget  Sd. 


Melania  plicata,  Lea,  Oregon. 

Melania  Wahlamatensis,  Lea,  Sacra- 
mento River. 

(Crypt  amy  a)  Sphania  CaZtforntca,  Conr., 
Sacramento  River. 

Melania  occata,  Hds.,  Sacramento  River. 

Triton  tigrinum,  Brod.,  Puget  Sound. 

Modiola  discrepans,  Mont.,  Puget  8.  [!  I] 

Modiola  ?  vulgaris,  Puget  Sound. 

Pecten  Fabricti,  PhiL,  Fuget  Sound. 

Fusus  cancellinus,  Phil.,  De  Fuca. 

Pholas  (concamerata,  Desh.  «=)  penita, 
Conr.,  San  Francisco. 

Paludina  seminalis,  Hds.,  Sacramento. 


In  the  MS.  list  of  the  shells  collected  in  the  Oregon  and  Californian 
district  during  the  U.S.  Exploring  Expedition,  sent  by  Dr.  Gould,  and  in- 
cluding the  above,  there  appear  70  species  from  Oregon,  a  district  before  so 
little  known,  that  only  23  of  them  have  been  identified  with  previous  names, 
the  rest  having  been  described  by  Dr.  Gould. 

Through  the  great  kindness  of  Dr.  Gould,  who  showed  his  desire  to  make 
the  materials  for  this  Report  as  complete  as  possible,  by  copying  out  all  the 
valuable  information  which  was  in  his  possession,  we  are  enabled  to  present 
the  materials  from  which  the  foregoing  lists  were  drawn  up,  in  the  shape  in 
which  they  first  made  their  appearance.  They  are  the  only  documents 
approaching  the  authority  of  "dredging  papers,"  which  have  been  made 
public,  in  the  whole  history  of  the  coast,  from  Beh ring's  Straits  to  Panama. 
They  are  the  memoranda  made  by  Dr.  Charles  Pickering  of  the  U.S.  ExpL 
Exp. ;  the  specific  names  having  been  for  the  most  part  added  by  Dr.  Gould 
on  identification. 

p2 


212 


REPORT — 1856. 


Box  I.  Oregon  Tour. 

Anodon   cognata/  G.,  Lake  near  Nis- 

qually. 
Alasmodon  falcata,  G.,  Columbia,  Spo- 

kan,  common. 
Anodon  feminalis,  G.,  Wallawalla. 
He&r  strigosa,  G.,  Interior  of  Oregon. 
Lymtuea  (long  spire). 
Succinea  (spreading  mantle). 


Box  IV.  Puget  Sound. 

Fenttf  (perhaps  a  fourth  species),  Classet. 

Tellina  (middle  size,  smooth,  not  po- 
lished, smaller,  and  a  little  deflected), 
common,  sandy  places. 

Tellina  secta,  Conr.  (or  allied:  larger, 
truncate  at  one  end ;  ligament  narrow, 
but  elongate),  common,  sandy  places. 

Mytilus  (size  of  edulis,  with  a  few  large 
costs);  [probably  M.  Californianus, 
Conr. ;]  among  rocks,  low-water  mark, 
Classet. 

Fissurella  cratitia,  G.,  Classet. 

Cardium  blandum,  G.,  dredged  at  Dunge- 
ness. 

Acnuea  ?  mitra,  Esch.,  Classet. 

Acmma  instabilis,  G.,  Classet. 

Acnuea  (costate  and  tuberculate),  com- 
mon. 

Acmaa  (larger,  apex  more  medial), 
Classet. 

Acnuea  (finely  striate),  rocks,  Classet. 

Pecten  hericeus,  G.,  Classet. 

Pecten  (young,  costae  smooth),  Classet. 

Scalaria  ?  borealis,  Classet. 

Scalaria  (large,  much  elongated,  solid), 
Classet. 

Tellina  (elongate,  concentric  striae), 
Classet. 

Oliva,  Classet,  dead. 

Haliotis  (fragment  of  large  species), 
Classet. 

Modlola  (one  valve,  young). 

Triton  tigrinum. 

Crepidula  (Capuloid);  [probably  C. 
adunca.~\ 

Crepidula  nummaria,  G.,  Classet. 

?  Attomia,  Classet,  dead. 

Mytilus  (common,  like  edulis). 

1  Sajwava  (very  short  and  ventricose), 
Classet. 

Natica  algida,  G.,  Classet. 

Nassa  mendica,  G.,  Classet. 

Purpura  lagena,  G.,  Classet. 

Crrithiumfilosum,  G.,  Classet. 

Cftftjptraa  ?  pileiformis. 

Ni/fi  (very  small),  Dungeness. 

Cvrdium,  Dungeness  (dredged). 


Box  V.  Puget  Sound. 

Cardium  (largest,  used  for  food). 
Pecten  hericeus,  G.,  Dungeness. 
Purpura  septentrionalis,  Dungeness. 

Box  VI.  Puget  Sound. 

Solen  skarius,  G.,  Dungeness  (dredged). 
Solen  maximus,  Classet. 
Helix  Vancouver ensis,  Lea. 
Helix  labiosa,  G. 

Box  VIII.  San  Francisco. 

Cardium  ?  CaUfomianum  (same  as  Ore- 
gon). 

Mytilus  (very  large,  a  few  shallow  ribs, 
like  Classet). 

Mytilus  trossulus,  G.  (see  M .  edulis,  De 
Puca). 

Tellina  secta,  Conr. 

Mactra  (a  thin  Jfya-sbaped  species :  per- 
haps Lutraria). 

Mya  (Sphtnia,  %  in. ;  see  Straits  of  De 
Fuca). 

Tellina  (small,  like  balthica). 

Fissurella  ?  cratitia  (like  Classet). 

Acmtea  (nearly  smooth). 

Helix  Nickliniana,  Lea. 

Purpura  emarginata,  Duel. 

Trochus  messtus. 

Littorina  planaxis,  Nutt.  (=  L.  patula). 

Acnusa  (angulated),  Yerba  Buena. 

Box  IX.  San  Francisco. 
Pholas  (small,  enlarged,  rounded  end). 
Pholas  (smaller,  obliquely  truncate). 
Ostrea  (small),  Carquinez. 
Amnicola,  Sacramento. 
Helix  Californiensis,  Lea. 
Planorbis  (form  of  campanulatus),  Sa- 
cramento. 

Box  X.  San  Francisco* 

Anodon  (winged),  Sacramento. 
Alasmodon  falcata,  G.,  Upper  Sacra- 
mento. 
Purpura  emarginata,  Duel. 
Anodon  cognata,  G.,  near  the  Presidio. 

Jar  184.  Sacramento  Trip. 

Tellina  (small,  roundish),  Carquinei. 
Mytilus  alomeratus,  G. 
Helix  Nickliniana,  Lea. 
Cerithium  (Potamis)  Californianum. 
Anodon  angulatum,  Lea. 
Planorbis  (like  campanulatus),  up  Sacra- 
mento. 
Planorbis  (like  trivolvis),  up  Sacramento. 
Acnuta  (smoothish),  mouth  of  harbour. 
Acmma  (smaller,  more  pointed). 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      213 


Jar  185.  San  Francisco. 
Pkysa  virginea,  G. 
Purpura  emarginata. 
Littorina  patula,  G. 
Acnuea  scabra,  G.  (ridged  and  nodulate) 

[=  A.  spectrum,  Nutt.] 
Trochus  (like  Puget  Sound). 
Pkysa  (with  truncate  spire). 
Pkysa  (elongate),  from  behind  Presidio. 
Nassa  (small,  like  Puget  Sound). 
Planorbis  (tat  and  rather  fine). 
Suecmea  (small). 
Littorina  plena,  G. 

Oregon,  by  Drayton. 
Tellina  secta,  Conr.,  below  mouth  of 

Columbia. 
Anodonfeminalis,  G.,  Wallawalla. 
Anodon  Oregonensis,  Lea,  Wallawalla. 
Alasmodonfalcata,  G.,  Wallawalla. 
Melania  pUcifera,  Lea,  mill-dam  above 

Vancouver. 
Tellina,  F.  George,  stomach  of  sturgeon. 
Linuuea  (small),  Lake  at  Vancouver. 
Solen  sicarius,  G. 
Melania,  Chester  River. 
Unto  famelicus,  G.,  Wallawalla. 
Helix  labiosa. 

Pecten,  dredged  at  Baker's  Bay. 
lAmax  Columbian**,  G.,  Nisqually. 
Natica  Lewisii,  G.,  Puget  Sound. 
Modiolafiabellata,  G.,  Port  Discovery. 
Pecten  Townsendi,  Nisqually. 
Panopaa  generosa,  Nisqually. 

Oregon  Tour. 
Helix  strigosa,  G. 

Planorbis  vermiculatus,  G.,  Wallawalla. 
Helix  Toumsendiana,  Lea. 
HeUx  devia,  G. 

Jar  166.  De  Fuca  to  Nisqually. 
Lymtuea  (elongated). 
Pkysa  (decollate). 

Puget  Sound. 
Fususfidicula,  G. 
Pecten  (young). 
Calyptnea  (bis). 

Fusus  (or  Columbella,  small,  smooth). 
Venus  (very  small  and  smooth). 
Chiton  (very  small). 
Modiola  (like  discors). 
Trochus  virgineus,*Wood. 
Cardita  ventricosa,  G. 
Fusus  Orpheus,  G. 
Cardium  Californianum,  Conr. 
Trichotropis  canceUata,  Hds. 
Goaiocfort*. 
ButUeoid  [species]. 


Crepidula  (small,  white,  on  young  Pur- 
pura). 
Doris  (like). 
Terebratula  pulviUa,  G. 
Terebratula  \septentrionalis-\ike), 
Natica  caurina,  G. 
Oliva  (small). 

Brought  up  on  Anchor. 
Chiton  (very  small  and  narrow). 
Simula  cucullata,  G. 
Lacuna  earinata,  G. 
Acnuea  mitra. 
Littorina  scuteUata,  G. 
Acrrujta  textilina,  G. 
Solen  maximus,  (mouth  of  Columbia). 
Helix  Vancouverensis,  Lea. 
Limnea  (much  like  Paludina),  Columbia 

River. 
Physa  (bis). 

Jar,  going  up  to  Puget  Sound. 
Umax  Columbianus,  G. 
Limaxfoliolatus,  G. 

Dredged  at  Port  Townsend. 
Chior<tra  leonina,  G. 
Trochus  (bis). 
Acnuea  (smooth,  with  Balanus). 

Jar  1881.  Oregon. 
Planorbis  corpulentus,  Say,  Fort  George. 
Limnaa  (ventricosa),  near  Fort  George. 
Helix  Vancouverensis,  Lea. 
Helix  Townsendiana,  Lea. 
Unio  famelicus,  Wallawalla. 
Cyclas  egregia,  Vancouver. 
Bulla  (small,  very  thin),  Puget  Sound. 
Littorina  lepida,  Classet. 
Buccinum. 

Discovery  Harbour. 
Helix,  5  or  6  species. 
Cardium  blanaum,  G. 
Lutraria  capax,  G. 
Venus  amphata,  G. 
Mytilus  trossulus. 
Chiton  (shell  not  appearing  externally). 

Townsend  Harbour. 
Solen  sicarius,  G. 
Mytilus  trossulus,  G. 
Modiolafiabellata,  G. 
Cardium  NuttaUH,  Conr. 
Natica  Lewisii,  G. 
Bullaoid  [species]. 
Trochus. 
ColumbeUa. 
Purpura. 
Calyptraa. 


214 


REPORT — 1856. 


44.  All  existing  information  with  regard  to  the  Mollusca  of  the  Boreal 
districts  of  North  America  and  the  corresponding  portion  of  North- Eastern 
Asia,  will  be  found  embodied  in  the  two  following  works : — "  Beitrage  zu 
einer  Malacozoologia  Rossica,  von  Dr.  A.  Th.  von  Middendorff.  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1847:"  and  "Reise  in  den  Aussersten  Norden  und  Osten .Sibiriens, 
wahrend  der  Jahre  1843  und  1844,  von  Dr.  A.  Th.  v.  Middendorff.  Band  II. 
Zoologie.  Theil  I.  Wirbellose  Thiere.  St.  Petersburg,  1851.  Mollusken, 
pp.  16S-464."  The  author  not  only  describes  the  results  of  his  own  travels, 
but  arranges  the  discoveries  of  Eschscholtz  (to  whose  specimens  he  had 
access),  Mertens,  Wosnessenski,  and  others.  The  descriptions  are  very 
minute  and  complex,  the  remarks  extremely  diffuse,  and  the  references 
tabulated  with  consummate  learning.  Unfortunately,  in  his  comparisons 
with  the  British  Fauna,  he  had  no  better  manual  than  Thorpe's  Marine 
Conchology ;  the  invaluable  work  of  Messrs.  Forbes  and  Hanley  not  having 
been  then  completed.  The  first  part  of  the  *  Malacozoologia  Rossica,'  entitled 
"  Beschreibung  und  Anatomie  ganz  neuer,  oder  fur  Russland  neuer  Chi- 
tonkn,"  containing  151  quarto  pages,  with  14  plates,  consists  of  an  account  of 
21  species,  of  which  17  inhabit  the  Pacific  shores.  To  an  account  of  the  prin- 
cipal form,  Chiton  SteUeri>  59  pages  are  devoted.  All  who  study  or  describe 
speoies  in  this  very  interesting  and  difficult  group,  will  do  well  to  consult  as 
much  as  their  time  allows  of  this  comprehensive  treatise.  It  is  to  be  regretted 
that  in  the  principles  which  have  directed  his  classification,  he  has  confined 
his  attention  to  so  limited  a  number  of  types ;  and,  however  burdensome  to 
the  memory  may  be  the  very  numerous  genera  of  modern  writers,  the  sub- 
genera, sections,  subsections  and  divisions  found  necessary  to  accommodate 
only  twenty-one  out  of  the  many  hundreds  of  known  species,  by  no  means 
lessen  the  inconvenience.  Thus  to  descend  from  genus  Chiton  to  specks 
Pallasii,  the  Middendorffian  student  has  to  master  the  following  phraseology : 
'<  Chiton-Phsenochiton-Dichachitou-Symmetrogephyrus  (B.  Apori)  Pallasii." 
The  following  are  the  Pacific  species;  the  synonyms  being  those  of  Midden- 
dorff, unless  enclosed  in  [  ]. 

Part  I. 


p*g«. 

6 

Plate. 

F*f. 

Name. 

Locality. 

371 
93/ 

1 

1-9 

{ 

Chiton  Stelleri,  Midd.  Ball.  Ac.  Se.  St. 

Abundant  near  PetropaoJoiviki 

Petersburg,  vii.  8.  p.  U6. 

and  the  promontory  of  Lo- 

=  C.  amiculatus,  Sow.  Conch.  111.  f,  80, 

patka.    Toe  Kamtschatkians 

=  C.  Sitkensis,  Rvc.  Conch.  Ic.  pi,  10. 

call  it  Kern,  and  eat  it.— 

sp.  55. 

SteUer, 

?=C.  cklamys,  Rye.  Conch.  Ic  pi.  11. 

sp.  60. 

- 

96 

2 



amiculatus,  Pallas,  A'on,  Act.  Acad, 

Peirop.  ii.  235-7.  pi.  7.  f,  26-30. 

Kutule  la. 

98 

3 





Pallaaii,  Midd.  Bull.  Ac.  St.  PeL  ri. 

117. 
aubmarmoreus,  Midd.  .......... t 

Tugurbusen,  Ocbotsk  Sea. 

98 

4 

] 111 (•'.  and  Schantar  U. 

98 
101 

5 
6 

"io" 
n 

"w 

1,2 

tunicatus,  Wood    , ,., 

$  itch  a,  Kndjak,  At  dm, 

N.  California,  Siteha,  Atcba. 

Wosnessenskii,  Midd.  Butt.  Ac.  St, 

Pet.  ?i.  119. 

Com  p.  Ch.  tetiger,  King  [Southern  ana- 

logue].   Comp.  Ch*  tttotua,  Sow, 

109 

8 

12 

8,9 

— — —  lineatus,  Wood 

N.  Calif.,  Sitcha,  Unauacnaa. 

?~C*.  insignia  Rve*  Couch.  Ic.  pi.  22. 

sp.  149.  r.  148. 

112 

9 

13 

1,2 

Sitkensis,  Midd.  Bull  St.  Pet,  vi.  121 

[non  Rve.], 

Sitcha* 

^ 

lit 

1° 

11 

■™   ■     w 

4 

Eschscholtzii,  Midd.  „     „     tl  118 

Sitcha, 

ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  WBBT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      315 


Page. 

o 

as 

Plate. 

** 

Name. 

Locality. 

115 
124 
126 
127 
128 

128 

129 
130 

11 

15 
16 
17 
18 

19 

20 
21 

11 
13 
14 
14 



5,6 
3,4 
1-3 
4,5 

Chiton  Mcrcku, Midd. BuU.St.PetM.  20  Sitcha. 

lhidus,  Midd.             „     „     „  1 20 j  Sitcha. 

Merteniii,  Midd.        „     „     „  118  Colonie  Russ. » Bodejas,  CaL 

scrobiculatus,  Midd.  „     „     „  121  Colonie  Russ. »  Bodejas,  CaL 

Brandtii,  Midd.          „     „     „  117  S.  coast,  Ochotsk;  large  Schan- 
tar h. 
?? gigantens,  TUeaiue,  Mem.  Ac.  St.  ?  Kamtschatka. 

Pet.  vol.  ix.  1824,  p.  473.  pi.  16.  f.  1, 2. 

pi.  17.  f.  3  Mr,  8. 
?? setosus,  Tileaiua,  Mem.  Ac.  St.  Pet.  ?  Kamtschatka. 

toL  ix.  1824,  p.  484. 
>? mnricatus,  Tileetou,  Mem.  Ac.  St.  ?  Kamttchatka  and  Kurule  It. 

Pet.  vol.  ix.  1924,  p.  483.  pL  16.  f.  3. 

The  last  three  are  quoted  cm'  the  authority  of  Tilesius.     The  second  and 
third  Parts  bear  date  1849,  and  contain  the  general  descriptions  of  shells. 
The  following  are  from  the  Pacific 

Part  II. 

32 
32 

33 
34 

35 
36 

37 

38 
38 
39 
39 

40 

46 

46 
47 
48 
54 
57 
64 
64 

4 

5 

6 
7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

1 

2 

1 

2 
3 
4 
3 
3 
6 
7 

...... 

1 

1 

1 
1 

"lb" 

2 

1 

4 
5 

...... 

li-ii 

Patella  (Acmaea)  caeca,  v.  Reiaewerk 

—  —  cassis,  Each.  (Represents  P. 
deourata,  GmeL    Str.  of  Magellan.) 

—  —  patina,  Bach.,  ▼.  Reiae. 

■    ■  — —  acurra,  hue. 

Sitcha. 
Sitcha. 

Sitcha. 

-Acmeta  acurra,  D'Orb. 
=A.  mitra,  Each. 

+A.  mammUlata,  Esch.  [not  Nntt] 
+A.  marmorea,  Each. 
=?  Lottia  pallida,  Gray,  Beech.  Voy. 
-     ■      digitalis,  Each. .» 

— —  — —  persona,  Etch. ». 

Sitcha. 

+A.  rodiala,  Esch. 

+A.  ancyhu,  Esch. 

+A.  acutum,  D'Orb.  (syn.  exeL) 

1 = Lot tia  punctata,  Gray :  non  PateL 

loidea  punctata,  Quoy  and  Gaim. 

Voy.Astr.pl.  71.  f.  40. 42. 
■  ?  ■       personoides,  Midd. 

Kenai  Bay. 

Bodejas. 

Sitcha. 
Sitcha. 
?Sitcha. 

>Sitcha,  Mertent;  Norfolk  Sd., 

Each. 
Ochotsk,  Black  Sea,  Caspian. 
Ochotsk,  Lapland. 
Ochotsk,  Lapland. 
Scbantar  Is. 
Ochotsk,  Sitcha. 
Ochotsk,  Schantar,  Kamtsch. 
Isl.  Urup,  Sea  Ochotsk. 
IsL  Urup,  Schantar,  KenaL 

~A.  ancyloidee,  Midd.  BolL  St.  Peters, 
vi.  20,  non  Forbes. 
■  ■  i  ?  ■  ■■■■  aeruginosa,  Midd.    ••*• 

— —  ?         pileolus,  Midd, 

i ...  i  Asmi,  Midd*.. • 

Fissurella  violacea,  Each.  1829=latimar- 

ginata,  Sow.  1834. 

This  well-known  S.  American  species 

was  found  by  Eschscholtc  in  the 

Bay  of  Conception:  Wosnessenski's 

quotation  from  Sitcha  is  probably 

incorrect. 

■  aspen,  Each. .....•*......». 

Paludinella  stagnalis,  Jtiim.,  y.  Reiae 

■  ■■  aculeus,  Gould  

— —  castanea,  Moll.  .... , 

cingulata,.  Mi dd*,  v.  Reiae... 

Lacuna  glacialis,  M6U. 

Littorina  grandis,  Midd.,  v.  Reiae.    

•        subtenebrosa,  Midd. * 

Kurila,  Midd 

216 


REPORT — 1856. 


Page. 


Plate. 


Fig. 


Name. 


Locality. 


64 
66 
66 
68 
69 


73 
74 


83 

84 

84 

85 
85 
86 
91 
91 


10 

11 
12 
13 


93 


94 


96 
97 


98 
99 
100 
100 
101 
101 
103 

104 
104 


8 
"lT 


13-15 


45-6 


10 


16-18 


11 
11 
11 


3-5 
6,7 
8-10 


106 
106a 


Littorina  Sitchana,  PhiL   

—  modesta,  Phil.   , 

—  aspera,  PhiL  , 

Turritella  Eschrichtii,  Midd. 

Margarita  arctica,  Leach,  var.  major. 

+M.  vulgaris,  Leach. 
?=  Turbo  margarita,  Love. 
=Af.  Gramlandica,  Beck. 
=M.  helicina,  Moll.,  Fabr. 

—  sulcata,  Sow 

—  striata,  Brod.  8f  Sow 

=  Turbo  carneus,  Lowe. 

=  T.  cinereus,  Couth. 

= Margarita  sordida,  Hancock. 

Trochas  ater,  Leu.,  PhiL  Abbild.  p.  188. 

no.  3.  pi.  5,  8.  f.  6. 
ewomphalus,  Jonas,  AbbUd.  p.  15. 

ncC4.  pi.  6.  f.  4. 
mce&tus,  Jon.JbbiId.\>.  15.  no.  5.  pi.  6. 

f.  5;  Mke.  mZeU.f.  Mai  1844, p.  113. 

—  modestus,  Midd. 

—  Schantaricus,  Midd.,  v.  Reise. 

(Turbo)  Fokkesii,  Jonas   

Natica  aperta,  Lot 

clausa,  Brod.  Sf  Sow 

=N.  eonsoUdata,  Couth.  &  Phil. 
=N.  septentrionatis,  Beck,  Moll. 
=  N.  ianthostoma,  Desh.,  Guer.  Mag. 

1841. 

pallida,  Br.  $f  Sow , 

=N.  borealis,  Gray,  Beech,  pi.  37.  f.  2. 
-AT.  GouldU,  PhiL  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  1845, 

p.  77,  from  type. 
= N.  suturaUs,  Gray ,  Beech.  Voy.  p.  1 36 . 

pi.  37.  f.  4. 
flava,  Gld.  Am.  Jl  Se.  Art,  vol.  38. 

1840,  p.  196. 
» JV.  lactea,  Lot.,  Phil. 
=-  N.  (?romtoufiea,Beck,Moll.&Thorpe. 
?=N.suturalis,QTKy. 
=N.pusilla,  Say,  teste  Phil. 

—  hereulaea,  Midd. 

>=N.LewesiitG\d. 

Scalaria  Groenlandica,  Chemn.,  Sow.,  Gld. 
=  S.  planicosta,  Kien. 

—  S.  subulata,  Couth.,  De  Kay. 

—  Ochotensis,  Midd.,  v.  Reise , 

Pilidium  commodum,  Midd.,  v.  Reise. 
Crepidula  solida,  Hds , 

—  Sitchana,  Midd. 

—  minuta,  Midd.  

—  grandis,  Midd. 

Haliotis  Kamtacbatkana,  Jonas,  Z.f.  M. 

1845,  p.  168. 

—  aquatilis,  Rve , 

Velutina  haliotoidea,  O.  Fabr. , 

=  V.  laevigata,  L.,  Gld.,  Rve.,  Donov. 
=  Bulla  velutina,  Mull. 
=  V.  Mulleri,  Desh.,  Guer.  Mag.  1841 
=  }Sigaretus  coriaceus,  Br.  &  Sow. 

—  coriacea,  Pallas 

—  cryptospira,  Midd.,  v.  Reise. 


Sitcha,  New  Albion,  Kenai. 

Sitcha,  New  Albion. 

Sitcha,  [?]  New  Albion,  Barclay. 

Sitcha. 

Sitcha,  Ochotsk,  Schantar. 


Unalaschka. 
Sitcha,  Lapland. 


Sitcha,  Worn. 

Sitcha,  Esch. 

Sitcha,  Worn. 

Sitcha,  Wosn. 

Sitcha,  Wosn. 

Ochotsk,  Schantar. 

Sitcha,  Ochotsk,  Schantar,  Kad- 

jak,  Kamtsch.,  Lapland,  K, 

ZembL 

White  Sea,  Ochotsk. 


N.Zembla,  Is.  Paul  in  Bear.  Sea. 


Bodejas. 
Behring  Straits. 


S.  coast  Ochotsk. 

Schantar  Is. 

Bodegas. 

Sitcha,  Wosn. 

Sitcha,  Wosn. 

Is.  Paul,  Behring  Sea. 

Kamtsch.,  Unalaschka. 


Kurule  Is.,  Rve. 
Lapl.,  Mida\\  Kamtsch.,  Chiron, 
Desh. 


Kurile,  Pallas ;  Kami.,  SteOer. 
Schantar  Is.,  Ochotsk. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THE  WEST  00  AST  OF  NORTH  AMEBIC  A.      217 


P»*e. 


Plate. 


Fig. 


Name. 


Locality. 


107 
107 
108 


109 
110 


112 
113 

116 
117 
117 
118 
119 
119 
120 

125 


128 


138 
140 
140 
141 


145 


146 
147 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
156 
157 


10 


7-9 


1-3 


1.2 


3 

m" 

6 

7,8 

2 

5-8 

4 

4,5 



TrichotropU  bicarinata,  Sow, 

insignis,  Midd.  

borealis,  Br.  Sf  Sow* ... 

=  T.  cottellaiut,  Couth. 

—  T.  Atkmtica,  Beck. 
=  T.  cancellata,  Hds. 
»  r.  umbilicattu,  Macgil. 

—  inermis,  Hdt 

Cancellaria  (Tritonium  [!])  viridula,  0. 

Fabr. 

=  ddmete  crispa,  M'6\L 

=  Cane.  Couthoyi,  Jay. 
:     =  C.  bucdnoidet,  Couth. 

=  C.  cotteUtfera,  Hanc. 

?—  arctica,  Midd.  

'Purpura  lapillus,  Lbm.  

J     +imbric€tfa+bizonali*t  Lam. 

i—  decemcostata,  Midd. 

'—  Freycinetii,  Deth..  v.  Aeise 

! septentrionalis,  Aw. 

PleurotomaSchantaricwn,  Midd.,  v.  Arise. 

— —  simplex,  Midd.  

Murex  monodon,  Rtch, 

—  lactuca,  Etch 

+M.ferruffineus,  Esch. 

Tritonium  (Trophon)  clathratom,  Lam... 
=  T.  (humeri,  Lov.,  Rve. 
~Fu*ut  lameUosvs,  Gray,  Z.B.  V.pL36. 

f.  13. 
=  F.  tcaktri/brmit,  Gld. 
^  Murex  muUicottatut,  Esch. 
=-3/.  clothrotut,  Phil.  Z.  £  M.  1845, 

p.  78. 

=  Trophon  Bamffii,  Fabr. 

—  (Fusus)  antiquum,  linn,  (non  Zam.) 

4-  71.  canaUeulatum,  Pallas. 

+F.fbrnicatut,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  117 ; 

Rve.  f.  63. 

— decemcostatum,  &y,  Gld. 

— contrarium,  Zmn. 

— —  — —  deforme,  Rve.  

— —  —  Ialandicum,  Chem 

~F.pygm*us,  Gld.,  PhiL 
}  =  F.  HotooeUH,  Moll. 
=  Trit.  graeUe,  Da  Cost.,  Lor. 
= Mures  comeut,  Donov. 
=fWw*  Sabmi,  Hanc 

Sabinii,  Gray  (nee  auet.) 


Behring,  Schantar  Is.,  Ochotsk. 

Behring. 

Sitcha,  Worn.,  Hdt. 


Sitcha,  Hdt. 
Lapl.,  Behring  Sea. 


Behr.  Str.,  Worn. 

Sitcha  &  Urup,  Ochot., White  S. 

Behr.  StraiU. 

Sitch.,Och.,Kamt,Behr.yAlent 

Sitcha. 

Ochotsk,  Schantar. 

Ochotsk. 

Sitcha. 

Sitcha,  Kadjak. 

Sitcha,  Lapland. 


Kamt.,  Behr.,  Schan.,  Ochotsk, 
Lap].,  N.  Zembl. 


Kadj.,  Kenai. 
Lapl.,  Ochotsk. 
Behr.  Sea. 
Behr.  Sea,  Lapl. 


= Buccinum  S.,  Gray,  Parry's  Voy  .p.240. 
=F.  Bemicientie,  King,  1846. 
=»F.  Sabinii,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  117. 
—  —  Schantaricum,  Midd.,  v.  Reite. 
Norvegicum,  Chtnm 


Kenai,  Lapl. 


Behringii,  Midd. 

Baerii,  Midd.    .. 
Sitchense,  Midd. 


•  luridum,  Midd. 

•  (Buccinum)  undatum,  Lmn. 


•  tenebrosum,  Hanc. 


=5.  cyaneum,  Moll, 
-f  B.  undulatwn,  Hanc. 


Schant.,  Is.  Paul. 
Tognr  B.,  Ochotsk. 
Behr.  Sea. 
Behr.  Sea, 
Sitcha. 
Sitcha. 
Lapland. 
var.  Schantarica  Schantar  Is. 
Sitcha,  Lapl. 


218 


REPORT— 1856, 


Page. 


Plato. 


Name. 


Locality. 


157 


163 
163 
164 


167 
168 

174 


175 
179 
183 
184 

186 
187 
187 


17 


a 


10 

12 


1-4 


11 
12  \ 


19-22 
1-6 


Tritonium  (Buccinum)  teiiebrosum,  iftmc. 
(continued.) 
-f£.  sericatum,  Hanc.  An.  N.  H.  1846, 

p.  328. 
-\-B.  hydrophanum,  Hanc. 
=  B.  boreale,  Br.  &  Sow.  . 

simplex,  Midd.t  v.  Reise..... 

Ochotense,  Midd.,  v.  Reise.. 

— cancellatum,  Lam.  

=  Triton  c,  A.  s.  V.  ix.  638. 
-\-F.  Oregonensis,  Rve. 

(Pollia)  scabrum,  King* 


PolUa  scabra,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  pi.  36.  f.  16. 
•  glaciale,  Linn. 


»2?.  Grceniandicum,  Hanc. 
}=B.polaris,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  128. 

—  —  ovum,  Turt 

«*£.  venJricosum,  Kr. 

?+&>*#»"»•.  Kr. 
«  TV.  eiiiatum,  O.  Fabr. 

—  —  ooides,  Midd.,  v.  Jfeiat.   ... 

Bullia  ampullacea,  J/wM.  

Limacina  arctica,  Fo6r.,  v.  Reise. 

Tritonia  [Dendronotasjarberesccns,  Mull. 

=  r.  Reynoldsii,  Couth. 
Onychotheutis  Kamtschatica,  Midd.... 

—  Bergii,  ZtcA/ 

?Octopnsf  sp.  ind 


Schant. 

Ochotsk. 

Unalaschka,  Kadjak,  Kamtsch, 


Kadjak,  Wosn.\  [S.Am.,***.] 
LapL,  Ochotsk,  Kamtach. 


Lapl.,  Behr. 


Tugur,  Ochotsk. 

Sitcha,  Schantar. 

Schantar. 

Sitcha,  Ochotsk,  Lapl.,  N.  Zem, 

Kurile. 
Behr.  Sea. 
Behr.  Sea. 


Part  III. 


l 

2 

5 

6 

10 


12 
17 


21 


11 


12 


fl2 
113 


11-17 


7,8 


M01 
1-6/ 


Tercbratula  psittacea,  GmeL Sitcha,  Lapl. 

frontalis,  Midd.,  v.  Reise. Ochotsk. 

[Placun-]Anomia  patelliformis,  Linn.  ...  Sitcha,  Eseh. 

macrochisma,  Desh,,  v.  Reise Aleut.,  Kamt.,  Ochotsk. 


Pecten  Islandicos,  Chemn. 
-P.  Fabrieii,  Phil. 

-  J\  PealH,  Conr. 

—  rnbidns,  Hds 


Modiolaria  nigra,  Gray 

=  M.  Imigata,  Lot.,  Hanc. 

=M.  leans,  Beck. 

= M.  distort,  Beck,  Old.,  Fabr.,  Chemn., 
Phil.,Rve. 

—  vernicosa,  Midd.,  v.  Reise,   .., 
Modiola  modiolus,  Lmn 

+Mytisu*  barbatus,  Linn. 

+ Mod.  papuana,  Lam. 

+M.  Gibbsii,  Leach. 

+Af.^nmdu,  Phil. 


N.  Zemb.,  Lapl.,  ?Behr.,  .'Kami. 


Sitcha,  Wosn. ;  Aljatka,  Hds. 
OchoUk,  Lapl.,  N.  Zem* 


Ochotsk,  Is.  Kadj. 
Sitcha,  Lapl.,  Behr. 


*  This  shell  is  introduced  under  the  title  "  Tritoniun  (Bueeinum,  Subg.  PoUia,  Gray) 
scabrum,  King  et  Broderip,"  which  reminds  us  of  the  pre-Linnasan  times,  and  almost  de- 
stroys the  good  of  binomial  nomenclature.  Dr.  Middendorff  may  show  his  philosophical 
knowledge  by  uniting  Trophon,  Chrytodomus,  Bueeinum,  Pisania  and  Natsa  into  one  genus  i 
but  he  has  scarcely  a  right  to  compel  us  to  use  six  words  (besides  the  authority  for  the 
specific  name)  in  citing  his  shell.  Its  presence  in  the  N.  Boreal  fauna  is  extraordinary.  It 
is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  characteristic  species  of  temperate  or  even  tropical  South 
America.  It  has  occurred,  however,  in  pseudo-rMasatlan  collections,  and  was  brought  by  Kellett 
-and  Wood.    It  has  the  aspect  of  a  deep-water  shell,  and  may  therefore  have  a  wide  range* 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH 


fBBIOA.       219  ,       , 


Page. 


Plate. 


** 


Name. 


25 


28 
28 
29 
39 

40 
44 
46 


51 
52 
56 
56 
57 
58 
61 

61 
62 
62 
62 
62 

66 

67 
68 
69 

70 

78 


{S 


7-101 
1-8   J 


16 
15 

117 


17 
18 

18 
18 


17 

19*' 

21 

"l9* 

20 
21 


1-5 

23-25 

10-12 

1,2 


11-13 
1-3 
..„.. 

5-7 


8-10 
1-3 

i£i"5 

1-3 
4-10 


Mytilus  edulis,  Linn , 

-f  M.  borealis,  abbreviate,  returns,  in- 
curvatus,  Lam. 

+.M.  peUucidus,  Penn. 

+M.  notatus,  De  Kay. 

-j-Jf.  subsasatiUs,  Williamson. 
Nucula  castrensis,  Hds 

—  arctica,  Br.  Sf  Sow 

Cardita  borealis,  Conr 

Cardium  Nuttallii,  Conr. 

4-6*.  Californiwum,  Conr. 
Californiense,  Desk.,  v.  Reise 

Astarte  Scotica,  Jtfa/.  SfRack 

—  corrugate,  Brown 

=A.  semisulcata,  Hanc. 

=A.  borealis,  PhiL,  Forbes. 

=  A.  lactea,  Br.  &  Sow:  Z.  B.  V.  p.  152, 

=  TelUna  atra,  Pallas. 

Venerupis  Petitii,  Desk. 

—  gigantea,  Desk 

Venus  astartoides,  Beck,  v.  Reise 

Petricola  cylindracea,  Desk.  

—  gibba,  AfttW.  '. 

Saxicava  pholadis,  Linn 

Tellina  solidula,  Putt 


Sitcha,  Ochotsl 
Is.  Paul,  Kadj.,  Kenai,  Behr. 


Sitcha,  Hds. 

Kamtsch.,  Beechey. 

OchoUk. 

Sitcha,  Kenai  B.,  la.  Paul. 

Sitcha,  Ochot.,UnaL, Behr.  Sea. 
Ochotsk,  N.  Zem.,  Lapl. 
Alaska,  Behr.,  N.  Zem.,  LapL 


—  nasuta,  Conr. 

—  lata,  Gmel.,  v.  Reise. 

—  lutea,  Gray,  v.  Reise. 

—  edentula,  Br.  Sf  Sow.,  v.  Reise. 

—  Bodegensis,  Hds .*.., 

Mactra  ovaiia,  Gld.,v.  Reise 

Lutraria  maxima,  Midd. 

[?=X.  capax,  Gld.]       . 
Pectunculus  septentrionalis,  Midd.  ...{.. 
Lyonsia  Norwegica,  Chemn.,v.  Reise.  ... 
Mya  truncata,  Linn,  

[}=M.pracisa,  Gld.] 

—  arenaria,  Linn.  

Machaera  costata,  Say,  v.  Reise 


Sitcha,  Behr.  Sea. 

Sitcha,  Kamtsch. 

Ochotsk,  Behr. 

Sitcha. 

Sitcha,  Sseh. 

Sitc.,Och.,Kamt.,  N.Zem.,  Lapl 

Tugurb.,  Ochotsk,  Behr.,Kamt., 

N.  Zem.,  LapL,  Black  Sea. 
Sitcha,  Behr.,  Ochotsk. 
Behr.,  Ochotsk,  Tugurb.,  LapL 
Behr.,  Schant.,  St.  PauL 
Ochotsk,  UnaL,  Behr. 
Bodegas. 

Ochotsk,  Behr.,  Kenai 
Sitcha,  Worn. 

Is.  Ukamok,  N.W.  coast. 

Ochotsk. 

Ochotsk,  LapL,  Kami 

Sitcha,  Ochotsk,  LapL,  N.  Zem. 
Sitcha,  Ochotsk,  Behr.,  Kamt 


In  the  Sibiriens  Reise,  additional  particulars  are  given  with  regard  to  the 
following  species. 


163 
174 
178 
183 


186 

187 


ri3 

114 
15 

16 


16 
16 


1-91 
1-6/ 
1-6 
7-101 
7,8/ 
6a-c 


ia-d\ 
bb,c[ 
lo-d) 
2a-cV 
3       J 


Chiton  Pallasii,  Midd 

Brandtii,  Midd. 

submarmoreus,  Midd.... 

Patella  (Cryptobranchia)  casca,  Mull. 

+P.  eerea,  Moll. 

+C  Candida,  Couth.    Some  varieties 
resemble  Acma>a  testudmaUs. 
(Acmsea)  pelta,  Sseh.    

—  patina,  Sseh 

4-//.  scutum,  Esch. 

+A.scutum,  D'Orb.p.479,  excl.  f.  8-10. 

A  white  var.  from  the  Ochotsk  Sea, 


Tugur. 

Sitcha,  Tugur,  Schantar. 
Sitcha,  Tugur,  Schantar. 
Tugur,  Schantar. 


Sitcha,  Tugur,  Schantar,  Una- 
laschka. 

Sitcha,  Tugur,  Schantar,  Una- 
laschkaj  Aleut.,  Kenai. 


220 


BBPORT — 1856. 


P*e. 

i 

Plate. 

Kg. 

Name. 

Locality. 

192 

7 

Paludioella  stairnalis,  Linn.   .„„„„,..,.. 

S.  coast  Ochotsk  Sea,  on  Algm. 

^ 

= Pahtdma  *tagnalis,Mke.  Z.  f.  M.  Jan. 

1845,  p.  37. 

=P.  mnriatiea+  thermatis,  PhiL  Sic. 

193 

... 

••• 

A.  forma  normalis 

Ochotak  Sea. 

=  Turbo  ttfae,  Pen. 

= Pahtdma  itfae,  Lot. 

= P.  pusilla,  Eichwald. 

=  Cingula  torn,  De  Kay. 

193 

••• 

•»• 

A1,  forma  elation 

— Pahtdma  octone,  Nilsson. 
=P.  stagnaHs,  Tar.  b,  Mke. 
s  Cydostoma  acutum,  Drap. 
=  Turbo  ventrosus,  Mont.  [?] 
=Rissoa  saxatiHs,  Moll. 

194 

7 

25 

3,4 

A*,  forma  ventricosior. 

= Pahtdma  baltkieat  Nilss.,  Lot. 
=  Cydostoma  anatmum,  Drap. 
=  Turbo  muriaticus,  Beudant. 
*=Cingula  mmuta,  Gld.,  De  Kay. 
=Rissoa  glabra,  Alder. 
=  Patudin4?uk>atLjt\L 

195 

8 

Palndinella  acnleus,  Gld.  

S.  coast  Ochotsk. 

=  Cingula  striata,  Thorpe. 

=?Rissoa  arctica,  Lot. 

196 
197 
198 

9 

10 
11 

25 
10 
11 

5-7 
10,11 
4-10 

■        cingolata,  Midd.    

Schan. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk. 

Lacuna  glacialis,  Moll. 

Littorina  grandis,  Midd.  Bull.  Class.  Phys. 

Math.  Ac.  St.  Petersb.  Tii.  no.  16. 

201 

12 

11 

13,14 

KvaU^Midd.BuM.Class.  Phy 8.  Math. 

Ac.  St.  Petersb.  Tii.  no.  16. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk,  Knrile. 

202 

13 

11 

11,12 

- —  KubtenebroM,Midd.BulL  Class.  Phy 8. 
Math.  Ac.  St.  Petersb.  Tii  no.  16. 

S.  Ochotsk  (Is.  Segneka). 

203 

14 

17 

13-16 

Margarita  arctica,2>acA,  var.  major,  Midd. 
Trochns  Schantaricus,  Midd. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk. 

204 

15 

18 

1-7 

Schan.,  8.  Ochotsk. 

206 

16 

11 

1-3 

Natica  aperta,  hov  *  .......... *..... 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk,  Jakshina. 
Schan.,  S.  Ochotak. 

208 

17 

—  clansa,  Br  •  ti[  Sow.    

=N.  consoUdata,  Couth.,  PhiL 

=>N.  stptentrionaUs,  Beck,  Moll. 

210 

18 

pallida,  Br.  Sf  Sow 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk. 

=N.  boreaUs,  Gray,  Z.B.V.  pi.  37.  f.  2. 

= N.  Gouldii,  PhU.  Z.  f.  M.  1845,  p.  77. 

213 

19 

12 

12-14 

Scalaria  Ochotensis,  Midd.    [This  most 
remarkable  shell  has  the  appearance 
of  an  enormous  Ckemnitzia;  and 
reminds  one  of  the  Oolitic  forms 
which  go  by  that  name.] 

Pilidium  cornvflodnm,  Midd.  ......... ...i-- 

S.  Ochotsk  (Bay  Nichta). 

214 
216 

20 
21 

17 
25 

4-11 
8-10 

S.  Ochotsk. 
Schan. 

Velutina  cryptospira,  Midd. 

218 

22 

Trichotropis  bicarinata,  Br.  8f  Sow 

+  T.  Sowerbiensis,  Less. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotsk,  Tugur. 

219 

21-1 

12 

1-9 

Purpura  Freycinettii,  Desh.  

S.  Ochotsk. 

-fP.  attemuita,  Rve. 

222 
223 
223 
224 

24 
25 
26 
27 

12 
12 
12 

"lb" 

10,11 
17-19 
15,16 

— —  lapillus,  Linn.    

S.  Ochotsk. 
Schan.,  S.  Ochotak. 
S.  Ochotsk. 

Behring  Sea. 

S.  Ochotsk,  Tngnr. 

Schan. 

Tngur. 

Pleorotoma  Schantaricum,  Midd. 

—  simplex,  Midd.... .....*.. 

Tritonium  (Fusus^  antiquum,  Linn. 
Var.  1.  Behrmgiana  

?M 

?8 

Var.  2.  communis, -\-fornicatu*,  Rve. 

230 
231 

29 
30 

10 

7-9 

—  Schantaricnm,  Midd....* 

— -  (Fusus)  Norregicnm,  Chemn 

ON  MOLLUSOA  OF  THB  WBST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      221 


Nioil-. 


Locality. 


233    31      10 


32| 

33,  J 

34 

35 
30 


234 

235 

236 
237 

237 

240 

241 

242  39 

244  40 
J245  11 

245  42 

247    44 

i 

24S    45 
25ft  46 


252 
253 


10 
9 

8 
8 
8 


256  ,50 

257  51 


258 


18 
19 


19 
20 


20 
24 


23 
23 


52     21 


m  53 


of-3 


y* 


21 


»W  54     22 


4-6 


5,6 
3,4 


9-14 
1-5 


6-11 
1-4 


5-13 
1-7 


Tritoaium   (Buccinum)   undatum,   var. 

Schantarica, 
*imp\ex,Midd.Bull8[GMnnoM 

Ochotemc,  Mrfif.,*«.,.dt>.,*... 


Schau, 

Schan. 
Tugur. 


0-11 
1-5 


2,3 


1 
3-6 


Tugur. 

Schan,,  Tugur, 

Schan. 

1  Ochotak. 

Schan* 

S*  Ochotik. 

Schan.,  S<  Ochotsk. 

S.  Ochotsk. 

S,  OchoUk. 

Schan.,  S.  Ochotak,  Tugur. 
3,  GcuoUk. 


—  — —  ovoideB,  JlfuZJ. .ti.*....do 

tenebrosum,  f/anc,  [pi.  9,  err.  typ.J 

Bullia  ampullacea,  3/iVM.  [pi.  17.  fig.  l-.'l, 

err.  typ.] 
Limarina  arciica,  .Fa^r. .*,..#.. .**«,,„ 

=  £.  hciidalu,  Lam,,  live. 

Terebratula  frontalis,  J/ifdirf. * *„. 

A  no  mi  a  macroschisma*  Z>»A « 

Modiotarm  verrucosa,  Jfi'drf.  ,*,..,.,. 

-<  nigra,  Gray    (M> , 

MytiLiu  eduHa,  Z-/«*i- ,* 

Cardita  borealis,  Conr , ,Umh 

Cardita  tpurca,  Sow* 
Cardium  CalifornicTisc,  DefA«  (noc  Conr.) 
Agtarte  Scotica,  Maton  iy  JlacJk. *..*.,. 

=  A.  semtiulvatat  Lov„  Phil,,  Moll, 

—  Ar  Garewtti,  ?var*  LyelL 
=  A.  kctta,  Old. 
=  Venus  sulcata,  Mont. 

Venus  Afltartoidea,  Beckt  u,  sp.  ,.,,»*,**.,.  S.  Ochotak,  Tugur, 

Saxicava  pholadis,  Linn.*. S.  Qcbotsk. 

=  5.  ffatticanOi  Lain. 

—  &  rtyotfl,  Lam* 
=  My  Ufa*  rtiffotutf  Penn. 
*=S.  Gramiandica,  Pot.  &  Mich. 
=  5.  dU'jrfa.  Sayt  GLd, 
=5?  3/yfl  iytrifera,  Fabr. 
=  SofeM  ruiritttav.  Wood, 

-\-IIiatefta  obtongat  Tnrt. 

Teliina  nasuta,  Cfoiw „,«,.»„,.„ 

— —  lata*  {Vine/,  (nee  Quoy  ^  <?ffiirt.}. 
=  T,  calcarea,  HanL,  Lyell,  Moll. 
■f ■7'.  jworrma,  Bronn,  Haul.,  Gray. 
=  Jt  /rwn^uforw,  LyclL 
=  T*  sordida.  Couth,  =  San^MWwAiria 
*.,  Gould. 
Mtnwwi  tentra.  Leach. 

—  lutca,  Gray    ,  „ . . ,...,.,. 

m  T.  aUtrni&ntate,  Br,  &  Sow* 
=  f,  Gui24/brdia,  Gray, 

—  edentula,  Ur,  |  &w |s.  Ochotak,  Tugur, 


SP  Ochotak,  Tugur* 
S.  Qchotsk. 


Schan  tar  Is, 


solidula,  PkW,,  Hani.,  Wood,  Lam., 

AVy»i 
*=Loripes  ronem,  Andrj. 
=  71  rfinifiriu,  Peun,,  not  Lilin. 
=  T.  Italtfiica,  PhiLt  LyeU. 
=  JL  pnmAnniietf,  LyeU. 
=  T./itfed,  Say  =  P«flmwio^iat/.  =  Sfl>i- 

f/uintiltiriti  f. 
=  T./rufida,  Uanl. 
=  71.  FffAririi\  Hani. 
=  71.  inroiur/z^a,  J-r.  A  Sow, 
[  C  oqi  ji,  Sanyuinolaria  t'alifornica£onr.] 
Mactm  oval  is,  (?W.  [p,  263r  err.  typ.J 
—  M*  ponder ota,  PhiL 
=  ilf,  itefl^  Gray,  Z,  B.  V,  p.  154. 

pl.44.f.  B- 


S.  Ochotsk. 


S.  Ochotak,  Tugur* 


288 


BBPOBT— 1856. 


Page. 

i 

Plato. 

*fe. 

Name. 

Locality. 

264 

266 

268 
269 
269 

56 

57 

58 
59 
60 

24 
25 

8-11 
11-14 

Lyonsia  Norvegica,  Chemn 

Schant.,  S.  Ochotsk,  Tugnr. 

S.  Ochotsk. 

S.  Ochotsk. 

S.  Ochotsk,  Tngnr. 

S.  Ochotsk  (Lebasbja). 

=Z.  striata,  Tart.  (Mya  sir.,  Mont) 
=L,  gibbosa,  Hano. 
= itfya  hyalina,  Conr.  teste  Couth. 
^Pandorma  aremua,  Moll. 
=Amphidesma  corbutoides,  Lam. 
—  0»teode$ma  corb%4oides,  Deah. 
=  0.  AyaJiita,  Couth.,  Gld.,  De  Kay. 
Mya  truncata,  Ztiut 

+M.  UddevalenHs,  Hanc. 
— —  arenaria,  £*nn. 

Panopaea  Norvegica,  Spengler   ... 

Machsra  costata,  Soy    

=Solecurtus  NuttaUn,  Conr. 

=  Soien  nitidus,  Chen. 

=&  splendent,  Chen. 

=&  Jmericanus,  Chen. 

*=&  iM«Jn»,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.  p.  153. 

pi.  44.  f.  2. 
=•£.  maximus,  Wood  (nee  Chemn.) 

p.  129.  pL31.f.  3. 
?=5.  tomis,  Brod.  &  Sow. 
?=5.  attta,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

The  freshwater  and  land  shells  described  in  this  work,  pp.  278-808,  appear 
to  belong  exclusively,  either  to  the  general  North  temperate  fauna  of  the  old 
world,  or  to  the  local  fauna  of  the  district.  They  are  distributed  by  Mid- 
dendorff  under  three  heads,  pp.  389  etseq.  (1 )  Vircumpolar  Fauna :  Unio 
margaritifera,  Planorbis  alb  us,  Limnseus  stagnalis  and  palustris,  Physa  hyp- 
norum,  Succinea  putris,  Helix  pulchella,  pura  and  fulva,  Achatina  lubrica, 
Vitrina  pellucida.  (2)  Boreal  Fauna:  Unio  pictorum  and  batavus,  Anodonta 
cellensis  and  anatina,  Pisidium  obliquum,  Cyclas  cornea  and  calyculata, 
Planorbis  corneus,  complanatus,  contortus,  leucostoma  and  vortex,  Limnseus 
auricularius,  truncatulus,  leucostomus,  Physa  fontinalis,  Paludina  Kikxii  and 
tentaculata,  Valvata  piscinalis,  Helix  ruderata,  Schrenkii,  carthusiana  and 
hispida,  and  Bulimus  obscurus.  (3)  Central  Asiatic  Fauna :  Unio  Dahuricus 
and  Mongolicus,  Anodonta  herculea,  and  Limnseus  Gebleri. 

The  author  enters  at  considerable  length,  pp.  351-389,  into  the  influence 
of  Zones,  Depths,  Temperature  and  Saltness  on  the  distribution  and  changes 
of  mollusks;  and  gives  full  details  of  the  peculiarities  of  several  specific  and 
generic  forms,  pp.  330-342.  In  pp.  309-463,  the  author  distributes  the 
Russian  shells  into  their  various  Zoological  provinces.  With  the  Aral-Kas- 
pian,  the  Black  Sea*  and  the  very  limited  Baltic  faunas,  we  have  how  no 
concern.  The  Polar  fauna  (p.  318  et  seq.)  is  divided  into  three  sections : — 
A.  The  Atlantic  species,  30  in  number.  B.  Those  of  the  Behring  Sea,  26 ; 
and  C.  the  Circumpolar  species,  54.  To  this  list  are  added  50  species,  which 
have  not  yet  been  found  in  the  Russian  dominions. 

*  Middendorff  gives  the  following  species  «s  common  to  the  temperate  latitudes  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic : — Littorina  rudis,  Fusus  muricatus,  Crepidula  ungutformis,  Dentalium  <ietttalist 
Anomia  ephippium,  Solen  eruit,  Pecten  varius,  Lima  squamosa.  Also  the  following  as  common 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  West  Indies : — Conus  Afediterraneus,  Columbella  mercatoria, 
Nassa  crenulata,  Littorina  muricata  and  neritoides,  Cerithium  lima,  Tellina  camaria,  and 
RoteUa  lineata.  Pp.  346-7. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  0OA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      229 


B.  Polar  Fauna  of  the  Bekring  Sea. 


Chiton  submannoreus,  tunicatus  and 

vestitus. 
Patella  patina,  pelta. 
Palndinella  ?  cingulata. 
Littorina  aubtenebrosa,  Sitchana,  grandis. 
Margarita  sulcata. 
Scalaria  Ochotensis. 
Crepidula  grandis. 
Trichotropis  insignis. 


Cancellaria  arctica. 
Purpura  Freycinetii,  decemeostata. 
Pleurotoma  Schantaricum,  simplex. 
Tritonium  (Fusus)  Behringii,  Baerti. 
Bullia  ampullacea. 

glacun-]Anomia  macrochisma. 
odiola  verrucosa. 
Nucula  arctica. 
Tellina  edentula,  lutea. * 


V 


C.  Cirtumpolar  Species,  p.  319. 


[Placun-]  Anomia  patelliformis. 

Pecten  Islandicus,/ 

Modiola  modiolufTnigra.^> 

Mytilus  edulis. 

Nucula  pygmeea. 

Cardita  Vorealis. 

Cardium  Nuttallii.     [Probably  belongs 
to  B.l 

Astarte  Danmoniensis,  Scotica,  corrugata, 
compressa. 

Venus  Astartoides. 

Saxicava  pholadis. 

Tellina  solidula,  lata. 

Mactra  ovalis. 
T.  (Buccinum)  undatum,  tenebrosum,    Lyonsia  Norvegica. 

ovum.  Mya  truncata,  arenaria. 

Limacina  arctica.  Panopeea  Norvegica. 

Onycbotheutia  Bergii,  Kamtschatica.         Machsera  costata. 
Terebratula  psittacea. 

An  analysis  of  the  species  belonging  to  the  Pacific  waters  is  given  in  pp.  349 
ef  teq.    The  following  are  as  yet  only  known  from  the  Asiatio  coast  :— 

Chiton  Pallasii  and  amiculatus. 
Trochus  Schantaricus. 
Pflidinm  commodum. 


Patellar 

Paludinella  stajgnalis,  aculeus. 

Lacuna  glacialis. 

Margarita  striata,  arctica. 

Natica  pallida,  clausa,  aperta,  flava,  heli- 

coides. 
Scalaria  groenlandica. 
Velutina  naliotoidea. 
Trichotropis  borealis,  bicarinata. 
Purpura  Iapillus. 

Tritonium  (Trophon)  clathratnm. 
T.  (Fusus)   antiquum,  contrarium,  Is- 

laudicum,  Sabinii,  Norvegicum,  10-cos- 


Tritonium  Schantaricum,  simplex,  Ocho- 

tense,  ooides,  cancellatum. 
Terebratula  frontalis. 


The  following  have  been  found  both  on  the  east  and  weat  aides  of  the 
Pacific:— 


Chiton  SteHeri,  Brandtii,  lineatus. 
littorina  Kurila. 
Velutina  coriacea,  spongiosa. 
Haliotis  Kamtschatkana,  tiquatilis. 


Modiola  cultellus. 
Cardium  Nuttallii,  Galiforniense. 
Venerupis  gigantea,  Petitii. 
Tellina  nasuta. 


Of  the  species  (so  far  as  we  yet  know)  peculiar  to  the  American  shores, 
the  following  are  recorded  by  Middendorff  as  not  having  been  found  below 
Siteha;  the  list,  however,  will  have  to  be  materially  modified  :-— 


Chiton  Sitchensis,  lividus,  Eschscholzii, 

Merckii. 
Patella  digitalis,  persona,  personoides, 

pikolus,  AsmL 
Tnrritella  Eschrichtii. 
Trochus  modestus. 
Bentalium  politum. 
Crepidula  Sitchana,  minnta. 


Trichotropis  insignis. 
Purpura  septentrionalis. 
Tritonium  Sitchense,  luridum. 
Murex  lactuca,  monodon. 
Pecten  rubidus. 
Petricola  gibba. 
Nucula  castrensis. 
Pectunculus  septentrionalis. 


224  report— 1856,  ~ 

The  following  list  of  species  common  to  Sitcha  and  California  will  have 
to  be  considerably  extended : — 

Fiasurella  violacea,  aapera.  Tritonium  scabrum. 

Patella  scurra.  Petricola  cylindracea. 

Littorina  modesta  and  aspera.  Lutraria  maxima. 

Trochus  ater,  moestus,  Fokkeaii,  euryom- 

phalus. 

The  following  are  regarded  by  Middendorff  as  peculiar  to  the  California!! 
province : — 

Chiton  Mertensii,  sciobiculatus.  Crepidula  solida. 

Patella  aeruginosa.  Tellma  Bodegensis. 

Natica  hercuhea. 

The  very  abnormal  appearance  of  the  tropical  Litorina  aspera  and  Calh- 
pomajluchcosum,  in  these  Northern  lists,  awaits  confirmation.  The  L.  aspera 
of  Barclay  may  be  founded  on  ballast  specimens ;  or  it  may  be  a  misnomer  for 
the  L.planaxis  of  Nutt,  as  ordinary  coarse  specimens  of  the  two  might  easily 
be  mistaken.'  The  Callopoma,  which  appears  to  extend  along  the  Califor- 
nian  coast,  may  also  have  reached  Sitcha  through  human,  instrumentality. 
Another  circumstance  pointed  out  by  Middendorff  is  remarkable :  that  two 
of  the  largest  species  of  Crepidulce  known,  are  found  on  the  northern  shores 
of  America ;  one  on  the  Pacific,  the  other  on  the  Atlantic  side. 

45.  In  the  years  1 843-46,  H.M.S.  Samarang  sailed  under  the  command  of 
Capt.  Sir  £.  Belcher  to  the  East  Indies.  Although  the  expedition  did  not 
touch  upon  the  western  coast  of  America,  there  appear  in  the  "  Zoology : 
Molluscs,  by  A.  Adams  and  L.  Reeve;  London  1850/'  the  two  following 
species : — 

"  P.  70.  pi.  9.  f.  7  a,  b.  Calyptraa  trigonalis.  China  Sea."  This  scarcely  differs  in 
any  essential  particular  from  Crucibtdum  lignarium,  Brod.,  and  its  varieties  from 
South  America.    The  trigonal  form  may  be  an  accident  of  growth. 

"  P.  78.  pi.  21.  f.  17.  Artemis  Dunkeri,  Phil.  Eastern  Seas."  This  is  the  abundant 
and  characteristic  species  of  the  Mazatlan  district,  extending  along  the  coast  of 
Peru.    The  habitat  is  probably  erroneous. 

In  all  other  respects,  as  might  be  expected,  the  species  described  in  this 
beautiful  and  most  instructive  work  are  entirely  distinct  from  those  of  the 
W.  American  coast. 

46.  In  the  "  Zeitschrift  fur  Malakozoologie,  von  Dr.  Karl  Theodor  Menke 
und  Dr.  Louis  Pfeiffer,  Cassel,  1846,"  pp.  19-21,  51-55,  Dr.  R.  A.  Philippi 
describes  the  following  species  from  Mazatlan,  on  the  authority  of  one  of  his 
own  family  :— 

Pure.    No. 

19      1.  Corbula  alba,  Phil.    Resembles  the  Italian  fossil  C.  carinata.    Perhaps 

it  is  the  C.  bicarinaia,  Sow. 
19      2.  Tellina  cicercula,  Phil.  Perhapa= Sfri^itfa  camaria,  jun.  Vide  B.  M.  Maz. 

Cat.  p.  41.  no.  66. 

19  3.  T.  lenticula,  Phil.  (Strigilla). 

20  4.  T.  dichotoma,  Phil.  (Strigilla). 

20  5.  T.  ervilia,  Phil.  (StrtgUla).  In  his  Abbilcl.  &c.  Aug.  1 846,  p.  24,  he  quotes 
Tellina  (Strigilla)  piriformis  and  Diplodonta  semiaspera,  as  common 
to  Mazatlan  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

20  6.  Diplodonta  obliqva,  Phil. 

21  7.  Lucina  cancellaris,  Phil. 
21      8.  PateUa  pedicuku,  Phil. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      225 

Page.    Mo. 

51     18.  Siphonaria  Lecanhtm,  Phil. 
51     19.  Trochus  disculus,  Phil.  (Modulus). 
62    20.  Buceinum  nucleolus,  Phil.  ?  An  Anackis.  Described  as  a  miniature  edition 

of  B.  prismaticum.    Comp.  B.  Antoni,  Dkr.,  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  1847,  p.  61 . 

no.  6,  M  Mexico,  Hegewisch,"  described  as  resembling  the  same  shell. 
53    23.  Terebrafulgurata,  Phil. 

53  24.  Cohtmbella  pallida,  Phil.     Resembles  Anachis  azora,  Duel. 

54  25.  C.  spadicea,  Phil.    ? Resembles  J.  costulata,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

54  26.  C.  tomato,  Phil. 

55  27.  Dentalium  hyalinum,  Phil. 

47.  The  Mexican  War,  carried  on  by  the  United  States,  1846-1848, 
against  their  sister  republic*,  ending  in  the  extension  of  slavery,  was 
indirectly  the  means  of  adding  to  our  knowledge  of  the  Californian  and 
Mexican  faunas.  Three  of  the  officers,  viz.  Col.  E.  Jewett  (of  Utica,  N.Y.) 
and  Major  William  Rich  (of  Washington)  of  the  army,  and  Lieut.  T.  P.  Green 
of  the  navy,  made  collections  at  different  stations  from  Panama  to  San 
Francisco,  the  whole  of  which  have  passed  through  the  hands  of  Dr.  Gould 
for  examination.  The  number  of  species  collected  by  Col.  Jewett  was  about 
221 ;  by  Major  Rich,  130;  by  Lieut.  Green,  about  172;  in  all,  perhaps  440 
species.  Many  of  them  were  collected  alive,  and  of  a  large  part  the  localities 
were  noted  at  the  time.  It  is  too  much  to  expect  that  gentlemen  engaged 
in  so  fearful  and  exciting  a  trade  should  be  able  to  exercise  the  calm,  patient 
accuracy  needed  for  scientific  pursuit?.  On  doubtful  points,  therefore,  the 
evidence  may  need  confirmation :  still  it  speaks  much  for  the  care  and 
interest  for  science  which  these  gentlemen  manifested,  that  the  supposed 
errors  are  few  and  comparatively' unimportant.  Several  species  thought  to 
be  new  wejre  described  by  Dr.  Gould  in  the  *  Proc.  Bost  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.' 
Nov.  1851 ;  and  have  been  since  reprinted,  with  additional  descriptions  and 
three  plates,  under  the  title  "  Descriptions  of  Shells  from  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia and  the  Pacific  Coasts  of  Mexico  and  California,  by  Augustus  A. 
Gould,  M.D."  There  is  no  date,  but  the  work  was  received  last  year  in  this 
country.  In  order  to  promote  harmony  of  nomenclature  between  the 
writers  in  England  and  America,  Dr.  Gould  ventured  to  entrust  the  whole  of 
his  valuable  collections  from  the  west  coast  of  N.  America  to  the  writer, 
although  unknown  to  him ;  by  whom  they  were  carefully  collated  with  the 
specimens  in  the  British  Museum  and  the  cabinets  of  Mr.  Cuming  and 
Mr.  Nuttallf .  The  result,  so  far  as  the  new  species  are  concerned,  is  em- 
bodied in  a  paper  laid  before  the  Zoological  Society  last  June ;  and,  so  far 
as  relates  to  the  identification  of  previous  species,  in  the  following  lists.  Of 
many,  however,  the  specimens  had  only  been  lent  to  Dr.  Gould  for  examina- 
tion, and  have  therefore  not  been  seen  in  this  country.  When  the  identifica- 
tions of  species  are  erroneous,  according  to  English  interpretations,  the  name 
assigned  by  Dr.  Gould  is  retained  as  his  own,  with  the  supposed  correct  one 
added ;  in  order  that  the  meaning  of  the  species  as  used  by  that  author  may 
be  understood  in  his  other  writings.  The  very  interesting  locality-notes  of 
Messrs.  Jewett  and  Green  contain  several  entirely  unexpected  statements, 
Panama  and  Mazatlan  species  being  quoted  from  Sta.  Barbara,  and  vice  versd. 
Some  few  well-known  W.  Indian  forms  also  appear  from  Acapulco  and 
Panama;  which  it  is  more  natural  to  regard  as  importations  than  as  "repre- 
sentative species."  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  remarkable  appearance  of 
Livona  pica  at  Sta.  Barbara.     When  we  remember  the  errors  that  have 

*  Vide  A.  A.  Livermore's  War  with  Mexico  Reviewed.  Boston,  1850. 
f  A  large  part  of  the  shells  in  the  following  lists,  however,  were  not  sent  to  this  country; 
having  probably  only  passed  through  Dr.  Gould's  hands  for  examination. 

1856.  <* 


936 


REPORT— 1856. 


crept  into  the  works  of  the  most  experienced  writers,  it  is  not  passing  the 
least  reflection  on  the  statements  of  these  scientific  officers,  when  we  claim 
liberty  to  suspend  our  judgment  till  the  unexpected  results  have  been 
verified.  The  principal  value  of  Major  Rich's  collection  (as  of  those  made 
by  Capt  Kellett  and  Lieut  Wood),  appears  to  be  the  accumulation  of  rare 
and  interesting  specimens  :  for  geographical  purposes,  as  most  of  the  habitats 
are  simply  divided  between  Upper  and  Lower  California,  it  cannot  be 
regarded  as  of  much  authority. 

Of  the  following  species,  sent  with  the  others,  the  name  of  the  collector  is 
not  given. 


Sanguinolaria  Nuttallii,  Com*.  =decora, 

lids.    San  Diego. 
Dona*  bella,  Desh.    Lower  California. 
sulcatus,  Phil.  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  1847, 

p.  76.  no.  12.    ?— 
Dtone  chionaa,  Mke.    ? — 
Mytilus  bifurcatus,  Conr.     "  Calif,  coast 

somewhere."   Sandw.  Is.,  teste  Conr. 
Crenella  coarctata,  Dkr. 
Area  llurida  (or  vespertilio).    ?Mazatlan. 

—  solida,  Sow.     California. 

Ostrea  Columbiensis,  Hani.,  on  Area 
grandis.    Lower  California. 

—  rufa.  Of  two  specimens  thus  named, 
the  larger  appears  =  O.  Virginica,  jun. ; 
the  smaller  may  be  the  young  of  the 
elongated  form  of  O.  iridescens.    Calif. 

Helix  Nuttalliana,  Lea,  =fidelis,  Gray. 


Junta,  Lea.    Oregon. 

—  devia9G\d.=Baskervilliit  Pfr.  Oreg. 

—  NickHniana,  Lea,  =zvinctat  Val.  (not 
s=Californica,  Rve.)  Upper  California. 

■  aeruginosa,  Gld.  —Tovmsendiana, 

var.  Pfr.    San  Francisco. 


Helix  sporteUa  (384,  young  shell).    T — 

Haliotis  IKamtschatkana :  dead.     ?— 

Hipponyx  serratus,  Cpr.    ? — 

mitrula,  Lam.    f — 

Modulus  dorsuosus,  Gld.  —duplicatus, 
var.  A.  Ad.  =disculus,  Phil.    ? — 

Modulus  llenticularis,  Chemn.  Acapuleo. 
[Probably  the  W.  Indian  sp.  imported.] 

Cerithium  interruptum,  Mke.    ? — 

Ovulum  secale.    f — 

" ?  avena,  Sow.  =simile,  Rve.  =M- 

riabilis,  C.  B.  Ad."    ?— 

Pleurotomafunieulata,  Sow.  Lower  Calif, 

Drillia  albovallosa,  Cpr.    ? — 

Terebra  albocincta,  Cpr.  (three  dead  sp.). 

MargineUa  imbricata,  B.ds.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Oliva  gracilis,  Brod.  &  Sow.  TPanama. 
[This  appears  exactly  the  W.  I.  species.] 

"  Columbeua  terpsichore  and  pygrruea,  Ja- 
maica." 

Pisania  larticulata,  =P.  pusio,  W.  L 
teste  Cuming.    ?  Panama. 

Trophon  crassxlabrum,  Gray.    TJamaka. 

Murex  armatus  [not  hexagonus],  Ad.   ? — 


The  following  is  a  list  of  the  new  species  described  by  Dr.  Gould  in  the 
"  Mexican  and  Californian  Shells,"  and  by  the  writer  in  the  *  Proceedings  of 
the  Zoological  Society,'  July  8th,  1856 ;  the  numbers  referring  to  the  latter — 
the  page,  plate  and  figure  to  the  former. 


* 


* 


Name. 


Locality* 


Pholas  (Pboladidea)  ovoidea,  Gld.  

Petricola  bulbosa,  Gld 

—P.  robutta,  Sow.«P.  einuoea,  Conr. 
Corbula  polychroma,  Cpr 


17 
619 

24 

26 


16 


16   1 
16   2 


Osteodesma  nitidum,  Gld. 

Probably  =Lyonsia  Cal\fornica,  Conr.  jun. 

Amphidesma  flavescens,  Gld. 

Semele  proximo,  B.  M.  Maz.  Cat.  p.  28.  no.  40, 
non  C.  B.  Ad. 
Tcllina  miniata,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  N.  H.  S.  Nov.  1861... 
=  Sanguinolaria  purpurea,  Desh.  P.  Z.  S.  1864 
p.  346.  no.  137  ;  B.  M.  Max.  Cat.  p.  31.  no.  46. 
—  tersa,  Gld. 


San  Diego,  Green. 
Guaymas,  Green. 

Sta.  Barbara,/™*** ;  Golf 

Calif.,  Lieut.  Shipley. 
Sta.  Barbara,  Lieut.  Green. 

San  Diego,  Lieut.  Green. 
San  Juan,  Lieut.  Green. 
Panama,  CoL  JeweU. 


ON  IffOLIitrflOA  OF  THB  WMT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      227 


Locality* 


825 


16 


Tallin*  pun,  GUI 


92616 


1026 


11 


21 


1221 


1320 


17 


15 


1815 


14 

16 

16 
17 
183315 


19 


24 


15 


2215 


27 


25  29 

2629 
27 


•  gemma,  Gld. ..*••••.••.•• 

.  (StrigHla)  fucata,  Gld.  ProcB.S.N.H.1851,p.  91. 
StrigtUa  carnaria,  B.  M.  Maz.  Cat.  p.  39.  no.  66. 

Donax  nexuosns,  Gld.   ••••••••••»« 

obesus,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  90 

«D.  Caltfbrnicut,  Com.,  non  Dean. 
»2>.  lamgatue,  Desh. 
Mactra  mcndica,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  88. 
-Gnathodontrigona,  Petit,  B.M.Maz.  Cat.  p.  52. 
no.  81. 

Lutraria  ▼entricosa,  Gld.  Proc  B.  S.  N.  H.  1861,  p.  89. 
= Mactra  exoleta,  Gray. 

—  undulate,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  89... 
Probably = Mactra  elegant,  Sow.  Tank.  Cat.  App. 

Tapes  gracilis,  Gld.  MS 

tenerrima,  Cpr. 


Panama,  CoL  Jewell,  teste 
Gld.  Imp.,  San  Diego  & 
Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Green, 
teste  Old.  MS. 

San  Juan,  Lieut.  Green. 

Mazatlan,  CoL  Jewett. 

Sta,  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett* 
San  Diego,  Lieut.  Green. 


Magadan,  Lieut.  Green. 


Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Green. 
La  Pax,  Lieut.  Green. 


16 


16 


283016 


29 

3031 


16 


14 


Venus  tantilla,  Gld.  [Trigonal 

Arthemis  saccate,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  91 

«=  Cychna  eubquadrata,  HanL 
Cardiumluteolabrum,C«.  ProcB.S.N.  H.  1851,  p.  91 

?-  C.  xanthocheilum,  Gld.  MS.  Cat. 

—  cruentatum,  Gld.  MS 

Lucina  Artemidis,  Cpr. 

—  orbella,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.  N.  H.  1861,  p.  90.. 
!=*D%pU>d*mta  eemiaepera,  var. 


Cyrena  altilis,  Gld. , 

■»  Cyrena  Mexicana,  var. 
Anodon  ciconia,  Gld. 

?  ^Anodon  glauca,  Val. 
8  Mytilus  glomeratus,  G«.Proc  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  92 

Modiola  nitens,  Cpr 

Uthodomus  mlcatos,  Gld.  Proc.  B.  S.N.  H.  1851,  p.  92 

=*LUhophague  Gru*eri,Phil  (N.Zeal. Mus.Cum.)* 

Byssoarca  pernoides,  Cpr 

Aricula  sterna,  Gld.  Proc  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  93 
A.  Atlantica,  Mke.  not  Lam. 
32|16|  6  Lima  tetrica,  Gld.  Proc  B.  S.  N.  H.  1851,  p.  93... 
Bulimus  vegetus,  Gld. 

=B.paUtdiory  Sow.  teste  Cum. 

—-  vesicalis,  Gld. 

—  excelsns,  Gld. 

Physaelata,  Gld.    

Bulla  (Akera)  culcitella,  Gld.  [Tornatina]  

(Tomatina)  cerealis,  Gld. 

inculta,  Gld.  MS 

(Haminea)  vesicals,  Gld. 

Acmsa  paleacea,  Gld. , 

-  Nacelle  <Upicta,ndB. 
Trochus  marcidus,  GUL 

-Omphalmt  Pfeiferi,  PhiL  teste  Cum. 

=  Chloroetoma  maeulonun,  A.  Ad. 

Dr.  Gould's  shell  is  perhaps  that  of  Adams;  while 

his  T.  Montereyi,  R?c,  appears  to  be  the  O. 

Pfe{ferit  PhiL 


San  Pedro,  W.  P.  Blake. 
Panama,  CoL  Jewett. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Green. 

San  Diego,  Lieut.  Green. 

San  Pedro,  W.  P.  Blake. 
?  Acapulco*— Mas.  Gld. 
8an  Diego,  Lieut.  Green; 

8ta.  Barbara,CM.S«iMtt, 

and  NuttaU. 
?  Mazatlan,  Col.  Jewett. 


14 
14 
6|14 
14 
14 


314 
14 


11 


?  Mexico,  Lieut.  Green. 

San  Francisco,  Maj.  Rich. 

California. 

Monterey,  Maj.  Rich.  In 
hard  marly  clay. 

San  Diego,  Webb. 

-\nMm*fC.B.Jd.i  ?  Ma- 
zatlan, Lieut.  Green. 

La  Paz,  Maj.  Rich. 

San  Juan,  Lieut.  Green. 

Lower  CahX,  Maj.  Rick. 
California,  Maj .  Rich. 
LowerCalifbrniat3fqf.J2icA 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
San  Diego,  teste  Gld. 
San  Diego,  W.  P.  Blake. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
On  kelp  or  Zoophytes. 
Monterey,  Lieut.  Green. 


•  This  appears  absolutely  identical  with  the  [?]  New  Zealand  •hell.    It  has  no  IneimUllnn 
tnt^tfceatfiermie,    One  of  Mr.  Cuming's  species  has  an  internal  hmgfwj-ima, 


228 


rbpowt— 1856. 


* 


Name. 


Locality. 


45 
46 


Trochus  (Monodonta)  pyriformis,  Old.. 

=  Otihnua  gallina,  Forbes,  var. 

—  picoides,  Gld. 

=Livonapica,  teste  Cuming,  &c. 
Phasianella  compta,  Gld.  MS 


14 


13 


14 


18 


Crucibulum  Jewcttii,  Cpr 

Crepidala  explanata,  Gld. 

=  C.  exuviata,  Nutt.  Jay's  Cat.  3027. 

=  C.  per/oransy  Val. 

Modulus  dorsuosus,  Gld , 

Narica  ovoidea,  Gld.  

This  shell  belongs  to  Isapis,  H.  &  A.  Ad.,  which 
is  a  FotMartu,  with  a  columellar  callosity,  like 
Purpura  columellarit. 

?Lacuna  unifasciata,  Cpr 

Cerithidea  albonodosa,  Cpr 

fuscata,  Gld.  MS 

Probably  =  C.  sacrata,  var. 
Erato  leucophaea,  Gld.  

= (probably)  E.  eolumbella,  Mke. 
Terebra  arguta,  Gld. 

a  T.julgurata,  Phil. 

Conus  ravus,  Gld.  

comptu8,  Gld , 

=  C.  purpuratcena,  jun.,  rubbed,  teste  Cuming. 

=  C.  achatinus,  Mke.  non  Chemn. 

pusillus,  Gld. , 

Odostomia  achates,  Gld.  [Obeliscus]   , 

Comp.  O.  clavulus,  A.  Ad. 
gravida,  Gld 

Closely  resembles  O.  conoidea. 

Chemnitzia  tenuicula,  Gld 

torquata,  Gld.    

Sigaretus  debilis,  Gld 

Fasciolaria  bistriata,  Cpr , 

Olivella  intorta,  Cpr . 

Marginella  Jewettii,  Cpr , 

Columbella  Santa-Barbarensis,  Cpr • , 

?Nitidella  Gouldii,  Cpr. 

Pu8us  arabustus,  Gld. , 

Purpura  pansa,  Gld. , 

= Purpura  patula,  auct. 


San  Diego,  Lieut.  Green, 

Sta.  Barbara,  Col.  Jewett  \ 

5  sp.  (part  living). 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett; 

San  Diego,  Dr.  Webb,  ft 

W.  P.  Blake. 
Mazatlan,  CoL  Jewell,  1  sp. 
Monterey,  Lieut.   Green 

Lower  CaL,  Ma}.  Rich. 

Acapnlco,  CoL  Jewett. 
"  Purchased  at  Mazatlan/' 
CoL  Jewett. 


Sta.  Barbara,  Col.  Jewett. 
San  Diego,  Dr.  Webb. 
San  Diego,  W.  P.Blake. 

Sta.  Barbara,  Col.  Jewett. 

San  Juan,  Lieut.  Green. 

Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 


Mazatlan,  CoL  Jewett. 
Mazatlan,  Col.  Jewett. 

Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 

Sta.  Barbara,  Col.  Jewett. 
"Obtained  at  Sta.  Barb." 
La  Paz,  Lieut.  Green. 
Panama,  teste  Gld. 
San  Juan,  Lieut.  Green. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Sta.  Barbara,  CoL  Jewett. 
Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Green. 
W.  coast  America. 


Collected  by  Col.  Jewett. 


N.B.— The  Numbers  refer  to  Dr.  Gould's  MS.  lists. 

authority. 


The  habitats  in  UaUce  claim  most 


Pholas  concamerata,  Desh.  85.  Mon- 
terey. 

Osteodesma  nitida,  Gld.  (San  Bias :  Mus. 
Cum.)   181.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Corbula  bicarinata,  Sow.  (dead  valves). 
9.    Sta.  Barbara. 

—  polychroma,  Sow.  [Gulf  Calif.  Lieut. 
Shipley.']  8.   Sta.  Barbara. 

•*~-  ovulata,  Gld.  =nasuta,  Sow.  10. 
Sta.  Barbara.    (Bead  valves.) 


Corbula  tenuis,  Sow.  "?=a»a,  Phil."  79. 

Mazatlan. 
Sanguinolaria  grandis,  Gmel.,  lids.  211. 

San  Francisco. 
Amphidesma  roseum,  Gld.  (not  Sow.)  = 

aecisa,  Conr.    3.    Sta.  Barbara. 
TeUina  tersa,  Gld.   71*.  Panama  ("  not 

Maz."). 
"  Strigilla  fucata,  Gld.  =Tellina  felix, 

Ad."  (=5.  camaria.)  194.    Panama. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THB  WE«T  COAST  OV  NORTH  AMERICA. 


<m 


Honour  navicula,  Hani.   74.    Panama. 
rostratus,  C.  B.  Ad.  =  culminates, 

B.M.  Cat.    37.    Sta.  Barbara,  "  very 

plentiful."  p]     Non  Nutt. 

Cfl^onwciw,  Conr.  37*.  Sta.Barb. 

— gracilis,  Hani.    183.  5/fl.  Barbara. 

fiaemsns,  Gld.     Sta.  Barbara. 

Mactra  Catifornica,  Conr.  71*.  P«».  [*] 

angulata,  Gray.    109.    Panama. 

Petricola  kanelljfera,  Conr.  =  Cordieri, 

Desh.   88,  107.   Monterey  (do.  Hart- 

weg).     (Young  shell  has  radiating  ribs 

like  Penitt  gmdia,  &c.) 
lameUifera,  var.  =  Cordieri,  Desh. 

88.    Monterey. 
— : —  carditoides,  Conr.    ?=  cylindracea, 

Desh.    84.    Monterey,  with  Bryozoon. 

?  +  P.  Caltfomica,  Conr,  =  arcuata, 

Desh. 
Venn*  discors,  Sow.   228, 229.   Panama. 
,  Gld.  =grata,  Say.  28.  Gdy- 
nia*. 

amathusia,  Phil.    231.    Panama. 

gnidia,  Sow.    227.    Panama. 

Anomalocardia  subrugosa,  Sow.  230.  Pan. 
Topes  tenerrima,  Cpr.    187.    Panama. 
Cytherealupinaria,Les9.  117.  Mazatlan. 
q#£»w,  Gld.  =  tortuosa,  Brod.  111. 

Panama. 

aitrantia,  Hani.    124.    Mazatlan. 

.     1.     Sta.  Barbara.  [?] 

Trigone,  crassateltoides,  Conr.    2.   Sta. 

Barbara. 
.     113.    Mazatlan.  [?] 

—  Iradiata,  var.  Hindsii,  but  more 
resembles  the  7V.  mactroides.  Dead 
▼aires.    189.    Acapulco. 

—  planulata,  Sow.    94.    Mazatlan. 

tantillus,  Gld.    14.     Sta.  Barbara. 

Dosinia  Dunkeri,  Phil.  112.  Panama. 
Cardita  volucris,  Gld.  =*affinisy  Rye.  ? 
Cardium  biangulatum,  Sow.  78.  Panama. 

—  obovaUy  Sow.    184.    Panama. 

—  graniferum,  Brod.&  Sow.  191.  Maz. 
gemmatum,  66. 

maeu/o«ttm,  KieU.  163.  "  Panama" 

a  prima  manu,  and  probably  correct ; 
afterwards  altered  to  "  San  Francisco." 

Lucme  orbeUa,  Gld.  1=Diplodonta  semi- 
aspera,  var.  83.    Sta.  Barbara. 

Moaiola  recta,  Conr.    87.    Sta.  Barbara. 

IAthopkagus  falcatus,  Gld.  =L.Gruneri, 
Phil    86.    Monterey. 

Area  gradata,  Brod.  &  Sow.  84.  ?  Ma- 
zatlan. 

,  Brod.  &  Sow.  8.    Monterey. 

— —  concinna,  Gld.  =  similis,  C.  B.  Ad. 
=  tuberculosa,  var.  82.    ?  Mazatlan. 

—  tuberculosa,  Sow.  236.  Lower  Cal. 

—  grandis,  Sow.  186.    Panama. 


Area  nux,  Sow.  186  bis.    Panama. 
—  Pacifica,  Sow.     Panama. 

alternata,  Sow.   81.    ?  Mazatlan. 

,  sp.  ind.     Dead  valves.     186.    ? 

Pectunculus  inaqualis,  Gld.  =  assimilis, 

teste  Cum.   4.     Sta.  Barbara.  [?] 
ttessellatus.    (Dead  valves.)    190. 

?  Mazatlan. 

parcipictus,  Sow.   77-    Mazatlan. 

Nucula  polita.    223.     Sta.  Barbara. 
Avicula  sterna,  Gld.   93.    Panama. 
Z*ma  angulata,  Sow.    180.    Acapulco. 
Pecten  monotimeris,  Conr.  +  latxauritus, 

teste  Nutt.    179.   Sta.  Barbara. 
Bulla  cerealis,  Gld.   20.    Sta.  Barbara. 

punctulata,  A.  Ad.  66.  Acapulco. 

culcitella,  Gld.    62.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Siphonaria  gig  ant ea.   206.    Acapulco. 
Chiton  ornatus,  Nutt.  197.  Sta.  Barbara. 

lineatus,  Wood.    198.    Panama. 

"  muscosus,  G.   =  Collei,  Rve."  = 

Hindsii,  Sow.    199.    Panama. 

Stokesii,  Brod.  200.  San  Francisco. 

Calif ornicus,  Gld.  =  scaber,  Rve. 

201.  Sta.  Barbara. 

■ Sitkensis,  Rve.    =  Stelleri,  Midd. 

202.  Monterey  [?]. 

Acnuea  paliacea,  Gld.  —Nacella  depicta, 
Hds.    8.    Sta.  Barbara. 

Nacella  incessa,  Hds.  (from  kelp),  6. 
Sta.  Barbara. 

Acnuea  patina,  var.  Esch.  (=  tessellata, 
Nutt.)     7.     Sta.  Barbara. 

gigantea,     =  JfocAti,    Phil.      98. 

Monterey. 

pvntadina,  Gld.  =  verriculata,  Rve. 

= patina,  var.  Esch.   20/.  -San  Franc. 

scabra,  Gld.     =  spectrum,  Nutt. 

210.    San  Francisco. 

scabra,  Nutt.   209.    Monterey. 

,  Nutt.    211.    Sta.  Barbara. 

—  persona,  Esch.  =  Oregona,  Nutt. 
211 to. 

mesoleuca,  var.   214.   Acapulco. 

Haliotis  Cracherodii,  Leach.  183.  ilfon- 
terey. 

rufescens,  Swains.  182.  Monterey. 

Trochus  picoides,  Gld.  203.  "?  Sta.  Bar- 
bara." 

Buschii,  Phil.    ?  =  *Wrrow,  Gmel. 

116.    Panama. 

— ,  sp.  ind.    216.    Mazatlan. 

(Omphalius  dentatus,  Gmel.)  216  to. 

Acapulco.  This  appears  to  be  the  com- 
mon small  smooth  W.  Indian  species ; 
probably  imported. 

Panamensis,  Phil.    217-    Panama. 

reticulatus,  Gld.  =  Omphalius  viri- 

dulus,  Gmel.  =Byrontontw,  Gray.  219. 
Mazatlan. 


ufort— 1856. 


Trochui  Antomiy  var.    9.    Sta.  Barbara* 

from  kelp. 

mcutus.  129.  Sta.  Barbara. 

ligatusfQ\d.  =sfilosus,  Nutt.  (closely 

resembles  dolarius).   11.    Monterey. 
ooZartnf.    10.   Sta.  Barbara. 

—  Norrisu,  Sow.  120.    Sta.  Barbara. 

—  crfcr,  Less.  =  gallina,  Forbes.   116. 
.  Monterey. 

Tltrfto  saxosus,  Wood.   226.    Panama. 

j»nf  fniatu*,  Gld.  (may  be  tesseUatus 

or  saxosus,  jun.  Cum.)  46.  Acapuleo. 

—  squamigera,  Rye.  (Galapagos,  Cum.) 
218.   Panama. 

PhasianeUa  oompta,  Gld.  12,25.  S.JBarft. 
Nerita  elegaris(x>TobMy$cabricosta,vai.). 

234.   Panama. 
"Neritina  harpqformis -."probably  aiqp- 

#«f  for  Columbella  h.    Taboga. 
Cajmto.    213.    Sta.  Barbara. 
UCpponyx  Gray  emus,  Mke.  =  radiatus, 

Gray.    205.    Panama. 
— ,  gp.  ind.    203.    Tabogn. 
1— -  ?  subrufa,  Sow.     (white,   rubbed). 

213.    ?  Sta.  Barbara. 
Calyptrcta  regularis,  C.B.Ad.  szOalerus 

mammiUaris,  Brod.  148.  Sta.  Barbara. 

—  mammiUaris,  Brod.  215.  Acapuleo. 
,  sp.  ind.    ? — 

Crucibulum  spmosum,  Sow.  (dead).    148 
bis.    Sta.  Barbara. 

—  JeweUii.     150.    MasatLan. 

—  ?  tf?t5r*ca*nm,  Sow.  212.  Acapuleo. 
Crepidula  excavata,Brod.  225.  Sta. Barb, 
——(like  squama;  apex  gone).     151. 

Sta.  Barbara. 
— —  (?  hepatica  =)  onyx,  Sow.  MazatJan 
[teste  bat,  probably  correct  s  Sta.  Bar- 
bara, ticket]. 

—  rostrtformis,  Gld.  ss  adunca,  Sow. 
149.    Sta.  Barbara. 

=  incurva,  Brod.     149.    Sta 

Barbara. 
TurriteUa  goniostomatVel.  235.  Panama. 
Modulus  dorsuosus,  Gld.  szdiscukts,  Phil. 

47*    Acapuleo. 
— —  catenulatus,  Phil.    48.    Acapuleo. 
Narica  ovoidea,  Gld.  =Isapis  o.,  H.  and 

A.  Ad.    17.    Mazatlan. 
£acwia.    47.    Sta.  Barbara. 
Litorina   (7  Lacuna)    unifaseiata,  Cpr. 

23,172.    Sta.  Barbara. 
— puncticulata,  Phil.  =zconspersa,  yar. 

174.    ?  Panama. 

? pusillus,  Phil.   50.   Panama. 

p/anartj,  Nutt.,  Phil.   =  tenebrata, 

Nutt.    100.    &a»  Francwco. 

—  aspera,  Phil.   173.   Panama. 
Jttfttotna  ambiaua,  Gld.     14.    "  Valpai- 

reiso,  Mex.'T 


PlaiMUPit  plamcostata  (calkd 

Lam.).    53,58.    Panama. 
Ferfa^ttf  gemmatus,  Hds.  55.  ? — 
Cerithiwn  maculosmm,  Kien.    153.    Pan. 

(a  pr.  man.  ten*,  postea  San  Francisco). 
Cerithidea  sacrata,  Gld.  =  Pirsna  GaK- 

fomica,  Nutt.    102.    San  Ftanciseo. 

Montagnei,  IFOrb.   13.    Panama. 

fogrfo,  Gld.  =  wdida,  G.  B.  Ad.  — 

varieosa,  Sow.   68.    Panama. 
Bittwm  (rubbed).   31.    Sta.  Barbara. 
Otmfcm  variabile,  C.B.Ad.  =  Ca 

enm,  Mus.Cum.  No.34onkelptb 

up  after  storm.    32-34.   Sta.  J 
Erato  scabriuscula,  Gray.  26.  ?Mi 
leucopfoea,  Gld.  [Matatlan,  Ifev.— 

Steele.']    28.    Sta.  Barbara. 
.     Comp.  E.  columbella,  Mke. 

27*,  30.    ?  Mazatlan. 

? JewettU,  Cpr.    30.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Cypraa  radians,  Lam.   136.   Panama. 

spadicea,  Swains.   118.    Sta.  Barb. 

punctulata,Qrsy.    108.    Panama. 

pustulat a,  Lam.  130.    Panama. 

pediculus,  linn.  (dead).  131.  Aea- 


nlco. 


pulco  [?  imported]. 

Pacifica,  Gray.   131*.  Acapnia 

—  suffusa,  Gray.   132.  Acapuleo. 

Calif ornica,  Gray.   133.  Sta.  Barb. 

sanguinea,  Sow.    134.    Panama. 

Solandri,  Gray.  135.  Panama. 

Cancellaria  brevis,  Sow.    Acapuleo. 

clavatula,  Sow.    4.    Taboga. 

Strombus  granulosus,  Sow.  47, 70.  Pan. 
Terebra,  sp.  ind.    17'    Sta.  Barbara. 

robust  a,  Kd*.    119.   Panama. 

Defrancia  bella,  Hds,  18.    Sta.  Barbara, 

on  zoophytes. 
?  Mangeha.  [Perhaps  this  is  the  DriQi* 

aibovaUosaJ]    223.    Panama. 
Conus  raw*,  Gld.   5.  Sta.  Barbara. 
160.   Acapuleo. 


comptus>Q\d.  =wom  purpurasoens, 

jun.,  teste  Cuming.  121.  8ta.Barbfi] 

pusillus,  Gld.    122.    Masatlan. 

(young,  worn).  29.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Odostomia  achates,  Gld.  =Obeliscus.  17. 
Mfryfltlftn , 

gravida,  Gld.    24.  Sta.  Barbara. 

Chemnitsia  tenuicolayQW.  19.  Sta.  Barb. 

torquata,  Gld.   22.   Sta.  Barbara. 

Scalaria  statuminata,  Sow.  (very  fine). 
240.    Taboga. 

Scalaria  (like  venosa,  W.  1.).    ?  Panama. 

Natica'Souleyet ana,  Reel.  166.  Panama. 

—  maroccano,  jun.    165.    Panama. 

—  unifas data  (=  maroccono,  yar.). 
163.    Panama. 

—  Haneti,  Red.   169.   Panama. 
,  sp.  ind.  (rubbed).  167* 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA,       2S1 


Natiea  eonoria,  Lam.  (Acapulco,  on  the 

sands,  Mus.  Cum.)  167  para.   Panama. 
,  ap.  ind.     164.    ? — 
«6*r,Val.=300+302,C.B.Ad.Pan. 

Sheila,  teste  Gld.    168.    ?— 
Ficula  decussata,  Wood.    178.    Taboga. 
Dolium  ringens,  Swains.   204.    Panama. 
VokUa  karpa,  Barnes.    164.    Magadan. 
MargmeUa  sapoHUa,  Hds.  110.  Panama. 
— ,  sp.  ind.    27.   ?  Masatlan. 
Mitra  tens,  Wood,  =zforaminata,  Swains. 

=Dupontii,  Kien.   61,69.   Panama. 
"  amriculoides  ?  "  Probably  =  pica, 

Rve.    42.    Panama. 
Fasciolaria  bistriat a,  Cpr.  176.  Panama. 
Leucozonia  cingulata,  Lam.  90.  Panama. 
JWfon,  sp.  ind.    Taboga. 

—  oonstrictus,  Gld.  =  Persona  ride**, 
Rve.  (St.  John's,  Hartweg.)  176. 
Acapulco. 

T  Ranella  convoluta,  Brod.    6.    Taboga. 

nitida,  Brod.    89.   Panama. 

aetata,  Brod.   91.  Panama. 

OUvaleburnea.    169.  7  Panama. 

petiolita,  Gld.,  t=rufifasciata,  teste 

Com.    16.  £to.  Barbara  (dead). 
— plumbeasstestacea,  Lam.    99.  Pan. 
angulata,  Wood.    107.    Toioya. 

—  bipHcata,  Sow.   167.  Sta.  Barbara. 

volutella9Lam.  158,161,162.   Pan. 

Nassa  ktteostoma,  Brod.    62.  Panama. 
— versicolor,  C.  B.  Ad.  117.  Acapulco. 

complanata,  Powys.    44.    Panama. 

coUaria,  Gld.    49.  Panama. 

corpulenta,  C.  B.  Ad.  61.  Panama. 

perpinguis ,  Hds.  114.  Sta.  Barbara. 

TWtonidea  oagoaus,  Rve.    96.    Panama. 
Pbqnfra  coinm«aari9,  Lam.  66.  Acapulco. 

—  emarginata,  Desh.= Conradi,  Nutt. 
104.  San  Francisco. 

"  undata  (?  bicostalis)  "=:biseriaUs, 

Blainv.    238.  Panama. 
,  sp.  ind.    104.  ?Maxatlan. 


Purpura  sangumoknta,  Desh.  =  Fwaftia 

hamartoma,  Gray.    224.  Panama. 

kiosquiformis, .Duel.   106.  Panama. 

septentrionalis  (appears  —lapillus, 

var.).    97.  San  Francisco  (also  Nutt.). 

melones,  Dud.    106.  Panama. 

Ricinula  ?  carbonaria.    67.  Panama. 
M onoceros  punctatum,  Sow.=lapilloide$, 

Conr.    101.   San  Francisco. 
brevidentatum,  Brod.  [?].    103.  Son 

Francisco. 

unicarinatum.   101.  San  Francisco. 

Cohtmbella  gibberula,  Sow.  (on  anchor)* 

Sta.  Barbara. 

gibberula,  Sow.    16.    Taboga. 

carinata,  Hds.    36.  Sta.  Barbara. 

Gouldii,  Cpr.    36.  Sta.  Barbara. 

SantarBarbarensis,Cpt.    172.  Sta* 

Barbara. 

bicanaJtfera,  Sow.    38.  Taboga. 

nigricans,  Sow.    39,  40.  Taboga. 

guttata,  Sow.  (apr.man.==cr*&rarta> 

Lam.)    43.  Masatlan. 

{worn).    49*.  Acapulco. 

/estiva,  Rve.    281.  Acapulco* 

major,  Sow.    64.  Panama. 

.    102.  Masatlan. 

heemastoma,  Sow.    67,  166.  ?Pan. 

rugosa,  and  var.    221.  Panama. 

harpmformis,  Sow.    Taboga. 

—  Iparva,  Sow.    96.  ?  Panama. 

maculosa,  Sow.    ? — 

Truncaria  modesta,  Pow.    162.  Panama. 

r— .    72.    Sta.  Barbara  [?]. 

Engina  ferruginosa.     41.     [?  W.  I.  im- 


ported.] 
crocostoma,  Rve. 

[Galap.  Cuming.'] 
Concholepas  Peruviana,  Lam. 

noma  [surely  imported]. 
Fusus,  sp.  ind.  1 76.  Panama. 
Cyrtulus  distortus,  Gray.   76, 


67.     Panama. 


139.  Pa- 


Panama. 


Murets  NuttalU,  Conr.    92.  Panama  [?]. 


Collected  by  Lieut.  Green. 


Pholas  ovoidea,  Gld.    181.  San  Diego. 
Calif ornica,  Conr. =Janellii,  Desh. 

182.  San  Diego. 
- —  penita,  Conr.    184.    San  Diego. 
Platyodon  canceUata,  Conr.     162.  San 

Diego. 
Osteodesma  Calif  ornica,  Conr.    192.  San 

Diego. 
*'  Anatina  argent  aria,  Conr  ~Perwloma 

planiuscula,  Sow."= Periploma  Leana, 

teste  Cuming.    27.    Guaymas. 
Thracia  granulosa,  Qld.~pUcata,  Desh. 

10.  La  Pas. 


Solen  maximus,  VTood=zNuttalli,  Conr* 

21.  San  Francisco. 
Solecurtus  Californianus,  G\d.=subtere$, 

Conr.    188,  189.  San  Diego. 
u  Sanguinolaria  miniata"  Gld.  =  jn*r- 

purea,  Desh.    37.  San  Juan. 
Psammobia  decora,  Hdi.z=  Sanguinolaria 

NuttalU,  Conr.    140.  San  Diego. 
Cumingia  Catifornica,  Conr.    171*  195, 

196.    San  Diego. 
Semele  decisa,  Conr.    134.  San  Diego. 
fiavicans,  Gld. =5.  jprowima,  B.  M. 

Cat.,  not  C.  B.  Ad.    191.  San  Diego* 


232 


REPORT — 1856. 


Semele  rubrolineata,  Conr.  =  S.  simplex, 
A.  Ad.- teste  Cum.*    141.    San  Diego. 

Tellina  [resembling  Suensoni,  Morch, 
Brazil,  and  T.calcared].  142.  San  Diego. 

gemma,  Gld.    198.  San  Juan. 

pura,  Gld.    197.  San  Diego. 

— .    57.    Mazatlan. 

secta,  Conr.    139.  San  Diego. 

nasuta,  Conr.    147-  San  Diego. 

vidua,  C.  B.  Ad.    130.  ?  Mazatlan. 

,  C.  B.  Ad.    188.  Acapulco. 

regia,  Hani.    62.  Mazatlan. 

Donax  punctatostriatus,  Hani.  55.  Ma- 
zatlan. 

carinatus,  Hani.    93.  Mazatlan. 

Californicus,    Conr.  =  Uevigatus, 

Desh.    159.  San  Diego. 

—  abruptus,  Gld.= Californicus,  Conr. 
var.    160.  San  Diego. 

— ^—  Californicus,  Conr.  var.    161.  San 

Diego. 

— ,  var.    199.    San  Juan. 

Mactra  (Lutraria)  nasuta,  Gld.  [?=/aJ- 

catd].    49.  ?  Mazatlan;  San  Pedro. 

California,  Conr.  100.  ? Mazatlan. 

Lutraria  ventricosa,  G\d.z=Mactra  exo- 

leta,  Gray.    50.    ?  Mazatlan. 

undulata,  Gld.    9.  La  Paz. 

Gnathodon  mendicus,  Gld.  =Rangia  tri~ 

gona,  Petit.    95.  ?  Mazatlan. 
"Saxidomus  Nuttalli,  Conr.  =  Venerupis 

Petitii,  Desh."  -=.Tapes  maxima,  Phil. 

156.    Monterey. 
Saxicava  carditoides,  Conr.     110,  HI. 

?  Monterey. 
Cordieri,  Desh.=  Venus  lameUifera, 

Conr.    107.    Monterey. 

,  sp.  ind.    11.    La  Paz. 

pholadis  (Desh.,  GueV.  Mag.  1841, 

pi.  40).    29.    San  Diego. 
Petricola  bulbosa,   G\d.=robusta,  Sow. 

31 .    Guaymas. 
dactylus,  Sow.  (very  rare).    11 .   La 

Paz. 
Venus,  sp.  ind.    124.    ?  Mazatlan. 

amathusia,  Pbil.  83, 59.  Mazatlan. 

.    53.    Mazatlan. 

Columbiensis.    85,  87-    Guaymas. 

—  gnidia,  Sow.    63.  Mazatlan. 

—  straminea,  Conr.    22.    Guaymas. 
reticulata.    17.    La  Paz. 

—  simillima,  Sow.    172.    San  Diego. 

—  Californiensis,  Brod.  (not  Conr.), 
Mus.  Cum.    146.    San  Diego. 


Venus  Petitii,  var.=*rraro*nea,  var.  teste 

Nutt.    185.    San  Dwyo. 
Californicus,  jun.,  Conr  ^compta, 

Mus.  Cum.    171.    San  Diego. 
,  =  compta,  Mus.  Cum.    61. 

Mazatlan. 
fluctifraga,  Gld.   ^Nuttalli,  Conr. 

(non  Desh.)t.    145.   San  Diego. 
Anomalocardia  subrugosa,  Sow.  58.  Maz. 
Dione  circinata  (Mazatlan,  Rev. — Steele). 

73.    ?  Mazatlan. 

rosea.    62.    Mazatlan. 

dione,  G\d.=lupinaria,  Less.    129. 

Is.  3  Marias. 
biradiata,  Gray=D.  Chioneea.    7. 

La  Paz. 
Dosinia  DimAttri,  Phil.    56.    ?  Mazatlan. 

gigantea,  Sow.    19.    La  Paz. 

saccata,G\d.—  Cyclinasubquadrata9 

Hani.    99.     Mazatlan. 
Trigona  crassatelloides,  Conr.   163.   Sim 

Diego. 

.    94.    Mazatlan.    [?] 

corbiculayG\d.  =radiata,Som.  122. 

?  Mazatlan. 
Chama  Padfica,  G\d.=zC.frondosa,  var. 

Mexicana.   On  Vermetus.  24.  Gtutt/m. 

exogyra,  Conr.    San  Pedro. 

,  with  C.  trcnosa.    150.    Sa» 

Diego. 

pellucida.    176.    San  Diego. 

Cardita  affinis,  Gld.  ==Ca2i/ornica,  Desh. 

26.    Guaymas. 
Cardium  Panamense,  Sow.    84.    ?Maz. 
xanthocheilum,  G\d.=.luteolabrum, 

Gld.    132.    San  Diego. 
Nuttalli,    Conr.  =  Ca/t/brnwiwe, 

Desh.    138.    San  Diego. 

substriatum,  Conr.  158.  San  Diego. 

elatum,  Sow.    194.    Son  Diego. 

Diplodonta  orbella,  Gld.  [do.  Nutt]    137, 

138.    San  Diego. 
Lttcina  punctata,  Linn.    16.    .La  Paz. 

,  Linn.    136.    San  Diego. 

Cyrena  altilis,  G\d.=Mexicana,  var.  79. 


?  Mazatlan. 
Anodon  ciconia,  Gld. 
Mytilus,  sp.  ind.    47. 
Modiola,  sp.  ind. 

capax,  jun. 

Conr., 


48.    ?  Mexico. 
San  Francisco. 
20.    San  Francisco. 
173.  San  Diego. 
very  large  valve.   4. 
La  Paz. 
Lithophagus  falcatus,  Gld.  =  Gruneri, 
Phil.    117.    Monterey. 


*  The  locality  given  to  &  simplex  by  Lieut  Belcher  is  "  China  Seas ;  "  but,  as  in  the  case 
of  Dosinia  simplex,  is  almost  certainly  erroneous. 

f  This  is  the  V.  callosa  (quasi  Conr.)  of  Deshayes.  The  specimen  is  marked  " ?  Stntchburyi ;" 
which  is  a  closely  allied  species  from  the  Pacific  Islands,  with  differently  shaped  teeth,  no 
posterior  crenations,  anoV  displaying  a  few  Cardium-hke  intercalations  at  the  margin. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COA6T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA*       233 


Lithophagu8attenuatus,'De*h.  180.  San 

Diego. 

,  sp.  iucl.    183.    San  Diego. 

Pectunculus  giganteus,Kve.  32.  Quay  mas. 

assimilis,  Sow.    86.    ?  Mazatlan. 

Avicula  sterna,  Gld.    60.   ?Mazatlan. 
Meieagrina,  sp.     80.    ?  Mazatlan. 
Perna  flexuosa,  Sow.  =  Chemnitziana, 

D'Orb.    81.    Mazatlan. 

, = Chemnitziana.  1 03.  La  Paz. 

Pecten  ?  purpvratu$=  ventricosvs,  Sow., 

with  Bivonia  indent ata.     144.    ?San 

Diego. 

latiauritus,   Conr.  +  monotimeris, 

teste  Nutt.    131.    San  Diego. 

nodosus.    3.    La  Paz. 

dentatus,  Sow.    6.    La  Paz. 

Hinnites  gigantea,  Gray  =  H.  Poulsoni, 

Conr.  1834.    149.    San  Diego. 
Spondylus" various,  Sow."   1.  La  Paz. 
"pictorum,  Chera.=  crassisquama, 

Lam."    2.    La  Paz. 
Ostrea  Cumingiana,  Dkr.    5.    La  Paz. 

palmula,  Cpr.    147.    San  Diego. 

conchaphila,  Cpr.,  1*5  in.  long ;  very 

thin;  (Oregon,  San  Diego,  Nutt.),  no 

tendency  to  crenations  ;  striped.    174. 

San  Diego, 
Bulla  nebulosa,  Old.    175.  San  Diego. 
BuUmus  vegetus,  G\d.z=pallidior,  Sow. 

San  Juan. 
Helix  tudiculat  a  yB'mney.  151.  San  Diego. 

Kellettii,  Forhes.   152.   San  Diego. 

Melampus  olivaceus,  Cpr.  193.  San  Diego. 
Chiton  articulatus,  Br.    74.    Mazatlan. 

BlainvUlei,  Br.    133.    San  Diego. 

Magdalenensis,H(te.  72.  Mazatlan. 

Patella  Mexicana,  Lam.    67.    Mazatlan. 

discors,  Phil.    125.    Mazatlan. 

Acmmat    125.    ?  Mazatlan. 

—  gigantea=zKochii,  Phil.    166.   San 
Diego. 

pintadina,  G\d.=verriculata,  Rve. 

^patina,  var.    66.    Mazatlan  [?]. 

■         ,=zmesoleuca,  Mke.    65.    Ma- 
zatlan. 

,  =s  leucophaa,  Nutt.=/>efta, 

Each.     75.    Mazatlan  [?]. 

z=fascicularis,  Mke.     164, 


177. 


San  Dupo. 
—  ?    167.    San  Diego. 
-,  =*ca&ra,Nutt.,var.  168,178. 


5fl«  Dt'epo. 

,  =z  Oregon  a,  var.  Nutt.  =per- 

t  *ona,  Each.    169.    San  Dte^o. 

*— 5.*caira,  Gld.  =  g>ecfrw»,  Nutt. 
179.    San  Diego. 

— -  ?  spectrum,  var.  [May  be  an  arat*- 
cana,  D'Orb.,  imported  from  Valpa- 
raiso].   64.    Mazatlan  [?]. 


Acnusa  patina,  var.  cinis,  Rve.  1 16.  Mont. 
,  var.  tessellata,  Nutt.     165. 

San  Diego. 
IPissurella.    163.    San  Diego. 

virescens,  Sow.    70.    Mazatlan. 

volcano,  Sow.    163.    San  Diegq. 

Turbo fluctuosus,\Vood=:Fokkesii,  Jonas. 

148.    San  Diego. 

.    120.    Mazatlan. 

Trochus  unguis,  Wood  =digitatus.    108. 

?  Mazatlan. 

filosus.    157.    San  Diego. 

dolarius.    115.    Monterey. 

virgineus.    114.    Monterey. 

olivaceus,  Wd.  92.  ?  Mazatlan.    (A 

specimen,  no.  388,  marked  "  Sandwich 

Is."  must  have  been  imported  there.) 
Montereyi,  Kien.  =  Pfeifferi,  Phil. 

113.    Monterey. 
(Omphalius)  fuscescens,  Phil.    123. 

?  Mazatlan.     (The  O.  Californicus,  A. 

Ad.,  appears  to  be  only  a  flattened  var. 

of  this  shell.) 
"  aureotinctus,  Fbs.  =  catentferus, 

Pot."    186.    San  Diego. 
striatulus,  Kien.  ^brunneus,  Phil. 

Mus.  Cum.    187.    San  Diego. 
pyriformis,  G\d.=gallina,  var.   M. 

Cum.    155.    San  Diego. 
Nerita  multijugis,  Mke.  =  scabricosta, 

Lam.    1 18.    Panama. 

Bernhardi,  Reel.    Guaymas. 

Neritina  picta,  Sow.    126.    St.  Michael. 
Calyptrcea  regularis,  C.  B.  Ad.= Gafervt 

mamiUaris,  Brod.    51.    Mazatlan. 
Crucibulumspinosum,Sow.  190.  S.Diego. 
Cremdula   explanata,    Gld.  =  exuviata, 

Jsutt.szperforanSjVBl.  112.  Monterey. 
Aletes  squamigerus,  Cpr.     San  Pedro. 
Modulus  "  ?  disculus,  Phil."  (perhaps  ca- 

tenulatus,  Phil.).    82.    Mazatlan. 
Cerithium  irroratum,  Q\d.=stercusmu&- 

carum,  Val.    78.    Mazatlan. 
Cerithidea  fuscata,  Gld.  =  sacrata,  var. 

teste  Nutt.    San  Diego. 
Pptamis  Hegewischii,    Gld.  =  Cerithi- 
dea varicosa,  var.  Mazatlanica.     71. 

Mazatlan. 
Ovulum  variabile,  C.  B.  Ad.  =zCaltforni- 

cum,  Mus.  Cum.    36.    San  Juan. 
Cypreea  radians,  Lam.    68.   Mazatlan. 
Cancellaria  goniostoma,  Sow.    56.    Ma- 

zatlan. 
Strombus  gracilior,  Sow.    8.    La  Pax. 
Terebra  arguta,  Gld.  =fulgurata,  Phil. 

35*.    San  Juan. 
Conw  regularis,  Sow.  23,25.   Guaymas. 

princeps,  Linn.    90.    San  Juan. 

,  sp.  ind.    33.    Guaymas. 

— ,  sp.  ind.    35.    Guaymas. 


884 


RBPORT— 1856. 


Solarium  ?  quadriceps,  Hds.  (dead).  1 06. 
Mazatlan. 

Natica  patula,  Sow.    77.    Mazatlan, 

maroccana=zPritchardi,ForbeB.  96. 

?  Guaymas.  Specimens  exactly  like, 
are  in  Mus.  Cum.  from  Soc.  Is. 

»—  bifasciata.    97.    ?  Guaymas. 

—  Recluziana.    154.    San  Diego. 
Sigaretus  debilis,  Gld.    98.    La  Paz. 
Ficula  ventricosa,  Sow.=decussata.   1 21 . 

?  Mazatlan. 
Cassis  coarctata  (dead).  89.    San  Juan. 
Oniscia  tuberculosa,  Sow.  38.  San  Juan. 
Oliva  porphyria,  Linn.    14.    La  Paz. 

*  ?  ebumea.    34.    San  Juan. 
— ,  sp.  ind.   41.    San  Juan. 

tergina,  Dad.   42,  43.  Sail  Juan. 

—  ffitorta.    44.    San  Juan. 

splendidula,  Sow.    104.    La  Paz. 

Collected  by 

Pkolas  oooidea,  Gld.    Upper  Cal. 

Californica,  Conr.     Upper  Cal. 

Sanguinolaria  Nut  talli,  Cow.  SanPedro. 
Solecurtus  subteres,  Conr.    Monterey. 
Tellina  secta,  Conr.    Monterey. 
nasuta,  Conr.    Lower  Cal. 

—  Cumingii,  Sow.    ? — 

Bodegensis,  Hds.    Monterey. 

Tellidora  Burneti,  Brod.    Lower  Cal. 
Cumingia  Californica,  Conr.    Monterey. 
Lutraria  ?    Lower  Cal. 
Platyodon  canceUata,  Conr.     Upper  Cal. 
Saxidomus  Nuttalli,  Conr.    ? — 
Saxicava  carditoides,  Conr.     Lower  Cal. 

—  lamelltfera,  Conr.    Upper  Cal. 
Petricola  robusta,  Sow.    ? — 
Dosinia  gigantea,  Sow.     Gulf  Calif. 
i>Mm«  cAiofwea,  Mke.     Lower  Cal. 

* rosea,  Brod.=fepu*a,  Chen.  Lower 

California. 
Trigona  planulata,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

—  crass  at  eUoidesy  Conr.    Lower  Cal. 

—  corbicula,  Gld,  =  radiata,  Sow. 
Lower  Calif. 

— —  argrentina,  Sow.  Upper  California[?]. 
Venus  amathusia,  Phil.     Lower  Cal. 

—  gnidia,  Brod.    Lower  Cal. 
•—  straminea,  Conr.     Lower  Cal. 

CaUforniensis,  Brod.,   not  Conr. 

Lower  Cal.  &  San  Pedro. 

Ckama  rugosa.    Lower  Cal. 

echinata.    Lower  Cal. 

Cardita  affinis,  G\d.=zCalifornica,  Desh. 

•  Lower  Cal. 

Cardium  Panamense,  Sow.     Lower  Cal.; 

—  Californiense,  Conr.     Upper  Cal. 

—  consors,  Br.  &  Low.    Lower  Cal. 
Lucina  "IbtUa  (see  tigrina)"  LowerCal. 
— —  Caltfornica.    Lower  Cal. 


Purpura  patula,  Linn.  40.  I#a  Pan  (Bat), 

San  Juan  (ticket). 
— —  emarginata.    12.    La  Pa*. 

biserialis,  Blainv.    101.    La  Pan. 

JKo^tn/ormw,  Duel.    88.    La  Pan. 

,  sp.  md.    13.    La  Pa». 

Monoceros  muricatum,  Brod.    ?  St.  JaaiL 

tuberculatum,Grny.  39,91.  S.Jnan. 

Columbella   (gibbosa  =)   j/romfttforntf, 

Lam.    102.    Mazatlan. 
B*cct7ium?    33*.    Son  Juan, 
fttftu  amfottfttf,  Gld.  [exactly  resembles 

the  Mediterranean  sp.]   128.  ?  MazatL 

pallidas,  Gray.    119.    Guaymas. 

Pyruta  patula,  Br.  &  Sow.  69.  Maiatlau. 

* lignaria,  Gray.    119.    Guaymas. 

Murex  bicolor,  Val.    15.    La  Pan. 

brassica,  Lam.    76.    Mazatlan. 

plicatus,Sow.    109.   ?  San  Juan. 

Major  Rich. 

Alasmodonfalcata,  Gld.    Upper  Cal. 
Mytilus  Calif ornianus,  Conr.  Upper  CaL 

glomeratus,  Gld.    San  Francisco. 

Modiolaflabellum,  Gld.    ?— 

divaricata,  Gld.  ?=Orenefla  coaro- 

fa/a,  Dkr.    Upper  Cal.  p] 
Lithophagusfalcatus,  Gld.    Upper  CaL 

?  cinnamomca.    ? — 

ilrca  grandis,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

formosa.    Lower  Cal. 

tuberculosa,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

multicostata,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

reversa,  Gny=hemicardium,  Koch* 

Lower  Cal. 
(large  rhomboid),  probably  grandis, 

var.    Gulf  Cal. 
Perna  ?  Californica,  Conr.  Lower  Cal.  [?] 
Pecten  ventricosus,  Sow.     Lower  CaL 
latiauritus,  Conr.  ■+•  monotimeris, 

Conr.     Upper  Cal. 

nodosus.    Lower  Cal. 

Lima  tetrica,  Gld.     Lower  Cal. 
Spondylus  "pictorum,  Chem."     Lower 

Cal. 
Placunanomia    macroschisma,  Desh. 

Monterey. 
Bulla  nebulosa,  Gld.     Lower  Cal. 
Bulimus  vesicalis,  Gld.  (probably  young, 

Cuming).    Lower  Cal. 

excelsus,  Gld.    Lower  Cal. 

Helix  CaUforniensis,  Lea.     Upper  Cal. 
Scurria  mitra,  Each.  &  Less.   Upper  Cal. 
Flssurella  virescens,  Sow.   Upper  Cal.  [?] 

crenulata,  Sow.    Monterey. 

Pomaulax  undosus,  Wood.    Upper  CaL  * 
Trochus  maistus.    Lower  Cal. 

filosus.    Upper  Cal. 

— r-  dolarius.     Upper  Cal. 
virgineus.    Upper  Cal. 


ON  MOLLTJSOA  09  THB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       SSI 


Trochusater,  Less.  [?=]  gallina  Up.  Cal. 
7Voc*tfCK«  Norrisii,  Sow.    Upper  Cal. 
IfoamBa  oHvacea,  Wood.    Lower  Cal. 
tfmfma  picto,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 
Crucibukun  spinosum,  Sow.    San  Pedro, 
Lower  CaL 

—  team,  Brod.==jpmo«m,  var.  Lower 
CaL 

—  rude,  Brod.    Lower  CaL 
dentatum,  Mke.    Lower  CaL 

—  imbricatum  [?  cipiw].    ? — 
Catyptr&a  (like  equestris),  probably  c*> 

pacea.     Lower  Cal. 
Gafermw  contcaw,  Brod.    ? — 

nummularis,  Brod.    ?— 

Crepidula  onyx,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

—  excavata,  Brod.    Lower  Cal. 

—  aculeata  (teste  Gld.).    Lower  Cal. 

(like)  dilaiata.    Lower  Cal. 

f  squama.    Lower  Cal. 

Litorina  planaxis,  Nutt.    Upper  Cal. 
Ptauafi*  planicostata.    ? — 

Gyprca  spadicea,  Gray.    Monterey. 

zonata,    Gray  =  Sowerbyi,   Rve. 

Lower  Cal. 

arabicula.    Lower  CaL 

Caucellaria  obesa,  Sow.,   ?  =urotolata, 
Hds.    La  Pax. 

—  sotida,  Sow.    La  Pax. 

cassidiformis,  Sow.    La  Pa». 

Candida,  Sow.    Gulf  Cal. 

—  goniostoma,  Sow.    Gulf  Cal. 
Strombus  graciUor,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

—  granulatus,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 
Jbrebra  variegata,  Gray.  (Guaymas,Mus. 

Cum.)    Lower  Cal. 
Pleurotoma  maculosa,  Sow.    Lower  CaL 


(7ofi«t  trochulus,  Rve.    Upper  Cal. 
tnierrtiptiff,  Brod.  &  Sow.     Lower 

California. 
Solarium  quadriceps,  Hds.    Lower  CaL 
Natica  Chemnitzh,  Phil.    Lower  Cal. 

bifasciata.    Lower  Cal. 

Jftfra  fen*,  Wood.    Lower  Cal. 

»nem&.    ? — 

Ca#w  coarctata,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 
Leucozouia  cingulata,  Sow.    Lower  CaL 
RaneUa  ventricosa.    ? — 
7W/o»  Chemnitzn,  Gld.  (fcpni)  =:  ttpfo- 

»oftt*,  Rve.    Lower  Cal. 
Tritonidea  pagodus,  Rve.    Lower  Cal. 
iSToMa  luteostoma,  Brod.    Lower  Cal. 
O/tra  splendidula,  Sow.    Lower  Cal. 

testacea,  Lam.    Lower  Cal. 

biplicata,  Sow.     Lower  Cal. 

vohUella,  Lam.    Lower  CaL 

—  7  tigrina.    Lower  Cal. 
Columbellafuscata,  Sow.    Lower  CaL 

—  conffomifff.    Lower  Cal. 
Purpura  cohtmellaris,  Lam.    Lower  CaL 

btserialis,  Blainv.     Lower  Cal. 

emarginata,  Desh.    Lower  Cal. 

kiosquiformis,  Duel.    ? — 

muricata,  Gray.    Lower  CaL 

Monoceros  mmctatum.  Sow.    Upper  CaL 

brevidentatum,  Wood.    ?— 

cgmatum,  Sow.    ? — 

crassilabrum,  Sow.    Upper  Cal.  [?] 

unicarinatum.    ? — 

globulus,  pcujus].    ?— 

Vitularia  8aUbrosa,Kmg^wtuUua,Qny* 

Lower  Cal. 
Murex  bicolor,  Val.    Lower  Cal. 
foliatus=pinniger,  Brod.    7— ■ 


48.  The  first  important  contribution  to  the  local  fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  ? 
California  was  made  by  Dr.  Menke ;  who,  having  received  from  his  friend 
M.  Heinrich  Melchers,  of  Bremen,  a  number  of  shells  which  he  had  himself 
collected  at  Mazatlan,  proceeded  to  catalogue  and  describe  them  in  the 
"Zeitschrift  fur  Malacozoologie,"  Dec  1847,  pp.  177-191.  Here,  for  the 
first  time  in  the  history  of  West  N.  American  Mollusca,  we  have  an  attempt 
to  present  a  complete  geographical  list,  of  known  as  well  as  supposed  new 
species,  collected  in  a  particular  district.  For  the  example  thus  set,  and  for 
the  record  of  the  labours  of  M.  Melchers,  Dr.  Menke  deserves  well  of 
science ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  his  identification  of  species  is  always 
sound ;  nor  is  it  in  every  case  easy  to  make  out  his  descriptions  of  new 
forms.  The  paper  is  entitled  "  Verzeichniss  einer  Sendung  von  Conchy  lien 
von  Mazatlan,  mit  einigen  Kritischen  Bemerkungen,"  and  contains  notes  on 
the  following  species : — 


Wo. 


1.  Siphonaria  lecanium,  Phil. 

2.  hUorina  aspera,  Phil. 

3*  lurriteUa  imbricata,  [Mke* 
Lanu=T.  tigrima,  Kien. 


quasi] 


No. 
4. 


Vermetus  glomeratus,  [Mke.  quasi] 
(Rouss.),Linn.  1=Bivoniacontortm. 

Natica  iostoma,  Mke.  "  Resembles 
N.  canrena."  ?=JV.maroocafta,var. 


236 


REPORT — 185& 


No.  No. 

6.  Natica  maroccana,  Chemn.(Koch)=     35. 

N.  Chemnitzii,  Pfr. 

7.  Nerita  multijugis,  Mke.=N.  scabri- 

costa,  Lam.,  teste  Mke.  postea. 

8.  Turbo  fluctuant*,  Wood. 

9.  Solarium  granulation,  [Mke.  quasi]     36. 

Lam.  37. 

10.  Cerithium  ocellatum,   [Mke.  quasi]     38. 

Brug.=C.  stercusmuscarum,  Val. 

11.  Buccinum  sanguinolentum,  Duel.  =     39. 

Pollia  hiemastoma,  Gray.  40. 

12.  gemmulatum,  Rve.  non  Lam. 

nee  Kien. = Pisania  gemmata.  4 1 . 

13.  gilvum,  Mke.  Appears  to  be  an     42. 

Anachis,  possibly  coronata,  43. 

14.  Terebrafulgurata,  Phil.  44. 

15.  Purpura  hamastoma,  [Mke.  quasi] 

Lam.=P.  biserialis,  Blainv.  var.         45. 

16.  —  bicostalis,  Rve.=P.  biserialis, 

Blainv.  46. 

17.  atromarginata,  "Blainv.,  Desh.     47. 

=  P.  cancellata,   Kien."      (New 
Hebrides.) 

18.  Columbella  strombiformis,  Lam.  48. 

19.  —  major,  Sow. 

20.  harpaformis,  Sow.  49. 

21.  Murex  brassica,  Lam.=3f.  duealis, 

Brod.  50. 

22.  Ficula  decussata=Pyrula  ventricosa, 

Sow.  51. 

23.  Conus  achat inus,  [Mke.quaai]  Brag.     52. 

=  C.  purpureas  or  regalitatis. 

24.  OKva  tergina,  Duel.  53. 

25.  zonaUs,  Lam.  54. 

26.  £rato  columbella,  Mke. 

27.  Cypraa  arabicula,  Lam.  55. 

28.  Sowerbyi,  "  Rve.  =  C.  zonata,     56. 

Gray/  not  Chemn." 

29.  —  sanguinea,  Gray.  57. 

30.  Solandri,  Gray. 

31.  pustulata,  Lam. 

32.  Creptdula  costata,  [Mke.  quasi]  Sow.     58. 

=C.  aculeata,  var. 

33.  hepatica,  [Mke.  quasi]  Desh. 

= C.  mcttrva,  Brod.,  not  C  hepatica,     59. 
C.  B.  Ad. 

34.  —  uncata,  Mke.=C.  adunca,  Sow. 


Calyptrtea  dentata,  Mke.  a=C.rK- 
^osa,  Less,  in  Guer.  Mag.  non  Deah. 
=C.  extinctorium,  Sow.  non  Lam." 
=  Crucibulum    imbricatum,    var. 

B.  M.  Maz.  Cat.  p.  287.  no.  343. 
imbricata,  Sow. 

Lamarckii,  Desh.  (Australia). 

Hipponyx   australis,   [Mke.    quasi] 

Lam.=H.  serraius. 
Fissurella  pica,  Sow. 
chlorotrema,  Mke.=F.  rayoso, 

Sow. 

humilis,  Mke.=F.  rugosa,  var. 

gemmata,  Mke.  ?=F.  afta,  jun. 

AcnuBa  mitella,  Mke. 

Pecfen  adspersus,    Sow.    (Tumbes, 

Peru.) 
AmculaAtlantica,  [Mke.  quasi]  Lam. 

=.4.  sterna,  Gld. 
<4rca  ?  otxzf a,  Rve. 
Mytilus=iM.  spatula,  Mke.  in  Zeit. 

f.  Mai.  1848,  p.  2.    Possibly  =  Jfo- 

cfio/a  capax,  jun. 
Modiola=M.  semtUevis,  Mke.  in  Eeifc. 

f.  Mai.  1848,  p.  5. 
Cardita  affinis,  [Mke.  quasi]  Sow.= 

C.  Californica. 

Cardium  muricatum,  [Mke.   quasi] 

Linn.  ?=C.  radula,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

procerum,  Sow. 

Donax  ?  compressus,  [Mke.  quasi] 

Lam.  ?=D.  assimilis,  Hani. 
Tellina  cicercida,  Phil. 
Cytherea  corbicula  [Mke.  quasi]  Lam. 

=Trigona  radiata. 

argentina,  Sow. 

semifulva,  Mke.  ?=  IW^oaa 

radiata,  var. 
cAton«a,Mke.:=Dtofie*giiaZt<fa, 

Sow.  +  biradiata,  Gray.  ?  +  D.  efe- 

yaiw,  Koch. 
Feniw  cancellata,  [Mke.  quasi]  Linn. 

?=CA«0ne  amaf  Aiuuz :  but  v.  B.  M. 

Maz.  Cat.  p.  80.  no.  113. 
Corbula1ustulata,B,ve.   One  rubbed 

valve. 


Of  the  45  species  here  quoted  from  other  authors,  the  following  15  do 
not  belong  to  the  fauna:— Nos.  3,  4,  9,  10,  15,  17,  23,  32,  37,  38,  45,  50, 
52,  54,  58.  It  is  fair  to  suppose,  either  that  the  writer  has  erred  in  his 
diagnoses,  or  that  shells  have  been  imported.  In  most  cases,  as  very  similar 
species  really  are  found  at  Mazatlan,  it  is  natural  to  adopt  the  former 
alternative.  In  other  cases,  as  in  nos.  20  and  44,  the  species  inhabit  the 
coast,  but  their  presence  at  Mazatlan  wants  the  confirmation  of  the  Reigen 
collection.  Of  the  shells  intended  by  nos.  17,  28,  37,  46,  48,  &  59,  no 
information  can  be  given.  Of  the  entire  59  species,  accepting  the  altered 
nomenclature,  which  would  reduce  the  number  to  559  40  are  certainly,  and 


acholo- 

strictly  \ 

itate  ia  J# 
of  col-     P* 

ders  of  / 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      23JT 

fire  probably,  members  of  the  fauna :  of  the  remaining  ten,  it  is  unsafe  to 
hazard  a  conjecture. 

The  above  analysis  has  been  attempted,  partly  in  order  to  show  the  diffi- 
culties attendant  upon  all  inquiries  of  this  kind.  Here  is  a  collection  made 
Ion  a  single  spot  by  a  competent  gentleman*,  and  described  by  a  concholo 
gist  of  acknowledged  superiority,  the  editor  of  one  of  the  very  few  strictly 
Conchological  Journals ;  and  yet  only  32  can  be  accepted  in  the  state 
which  they  are  presented,  the  remaining  27  containing  errors  either 
lection  or  of  description.  If  such  is  the  work  of  a  master,  the  readers 
this  Report  will  accept  with  due  caution  the  labours  of  a  mere  student 

4-9.  But  if  there  is  so  much  doubt  attaching  to  Menke's  first  list,  there  is 
still  more  in  the  principal  list  which  follows.  In  the  Zeit.f.  Mai.  1850,  no.  11, 
Dr.  Menke  informs  us  that  since  his  last  paper,  M.  Melchers  had  again 
visited  Mazatlan,  and  had  investigated  the  shells  of  that  region  with  great 
zeal  and  perseverance,  and  no  little  sacrifice  of  money.  He  returned  to 
Bremen  in  the  summer  of  184*9,  and  generously  presented  Dr.  Menke  with 
a  selection  in  the  autumn  of  1850.  So  far  all  is  extremely  satisfactory;  but 
he  goes  on  to  state  that  he  received  at  the  same  time,  from  the  same  ship, 
a  box  obtained  at  Mazatlan  by  purchase.  This  fact  invalidates  the  soundness 
of  all  that  follows ;  except  in  those  few  instances  in  which  we  are  informed 
that  M.  Melchers  collected  the  shells  himself.  The  following  list  there- 
fore must  be  received  with  great  caution,  except  where  the  shells  are  con- 
firmed by  other  authority.  Occasionally  Dr.  Menke  gives  particulars  as  to 
the  number  of  individuals  from  which  he  describes;  as  when  he  tells  us, 
p.  188,  that,  as  he  has  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  no  fewer  than  eight 
specimens  of  Murex  ambiguus,  Rve.,  he  oan  speak  with  authority  as  to  its 
being  distinct  from  M.  nigritus,  Phil.  If  he  had  examined  the  many 
hundreds  in  the  Reigen  collection,  he  would  probably  have  come  to  a  different 
conclusion.     The  second  (mixed)  list  is  as  follows : — 


1850,  pp.  161-173. 

1.  Bulla  Adamsi,  Mke. 

2.  nebulosa,  Gld. 

3.  (Tornatina)  gracilis,  [Mke. 

quasi]  A.  Ad.  =  ?B.  infrequens, 
C.  B.  Ad. 

4.  Bulimus  zebra,  Desh. 

5.  Planorbis  tenagopkilus,  [Mke.  q.] 

IVOrb.  =P.  tumens,  Cpr. 

6.  Pkysa  Peruviana,  [Mke.  q.]  Gray, 

=Ph.  aurantia,  Cpr. 

7.  Litorinafasciata,  Gray. 

8.  aspera,  Phil. 

9.  modesta,  [Mke.  q.]  Phil.  ?= 

L.  conspsrsa,  Phil.  var. 

10.  Turritella  tigrina,  Kien.  "=No.  3 

of  first  list." 

11.  goniostoma,  Val. 

12.  Hookeri,  [Mke.  qj  Rve. 

13.  Vermetus  Panamensis,  Kouss.  The 

figure  quoted  represents  Le  Ver- 
met  of  Adanson.      The  name 


has  not  been  found.    7=:Bivonia 
contorta,  var. 

14.  Vermetus  glomeratus,  [Mke.q.]Rous. 

?=Bivonia  contorta,  Cpr. 

15.  Natica  Recluziana,  Desh. 

16.  glauca,[?]H.umb.=N.patula, 

Sow. 

17.  maroccana,  (Chemn.)  Koch. 

18.  ovum,  Mke. 

19.  Neritina  cassiculum,  Sow. 

20.  picta,  Sow, 

21.  Nerita  ornata,  Sow.  "  =N.  multi- 

jugis,  Mke."  =2V.  scabriuscula, 
Lam. 

22.  funiculata,  Mke.  =  N.  Bern- 

hardi,  Reel. 

23.  Planaxis  acutus,  Mke.  =P.  nigri- 

tella,  Forbes. 

24.  — *-  obsoletus,  Mke.  =P.  nigri- 

tella,  var. 

25.  Turbo  fluctuosus,  Wood. 

26.  Solarium  granulatum,  [Mke.q.] Lam . 


*  As  M.  Melchers  is  quoted  for  a  shell  from  Vera  Cruz,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Zeit.  f.  Mai. 
1848,  p.  3,  it  speaks  much  for  his  accuracy  as  a  collector  that  no  W.  Indian  species  are 
quoted  in  Menke's  lists,  except  such  as  have  analogues  on  the  Pacific  coast,  for  which  they 
have  probably  bean  mistaken. 


S88 


ftSPOB*— - 1856. 


27.  Buompkahis  radiatus,  Mke.  =7Vo* 

cAiu  oer^ecfsrttmctiJiM  variega- 
tes, Chemn.,?=Tortfw«  v.  Lam. 

28.  Trochus  (Calcar)  olimceus,  Wood. 
29. Melchersi,  Mke. 

30. steUaris,  [Mke.  q.]  Lam. 

31.  Iminutus,  Chemn. 

32. versicolor,  Mke. 

33.  —  (Monodonte)catemdates,'Ph)l. 
34. Ugulatus,  like. 

35.  ?fcm«f,  [like,  q.]  Phil. 

1860,  pp.  177-190. 

36.  Sealaria  crassUabris,  Sow. 

37.  Bissoa  stricta,  Mke. 

38.  Cerithium  (Potamides)  Montagnei, 

IVOrb. 

39.  •—  maewftwtim,  Kien. 

40.  ocellatem,  [Mke.  q.]  Brug.= 

C  stercusmuscarum,  Val. 

41. mterriiprjim,  Mke. 

42.  JBucctfitim  gemmatum,  Rye.  "  =£. 

gemmulatum,  first  list,  No.  12." 

43.  prwta,D^h.=*erra/um,Dufr. 

44. (Nassa)  luteostoma,  Kien. 

45.  Monoceros  murieates,  Brod. 

46.  —  cingulatus,  Lam. 

47.  Pi«rp«ra  patula,  Lam. 

48. cewwtt/,  [Mke.  q.]  Lam.  sP, 

biseriaUs,  var. 
49.  — -  biseriaUs,  Blainv. 
50. bicostalis,  [Mke.  q.?]  Lam.= 

P.  biseriaUs,  var. 
51.  Cancellaria  ovata,  [Mke.  q.]  Sow. 

?=C.  urceolata,  Hds. 
52. cassidiformis,  Sow. 

53.  —  goniostoma,  Lam. 

54.  Dolittm  deniatum,  Barnes,  =  Jfaka 

rtn^reiw,  Swains. 
55. crassilabre,  (Mke.)  Val.  =  Af . 

ringens,  var. 
z=Cassis  ringens,  Swains.,  Bligh 

Cat.  App.  p.  4.  1822. 
=^Do/t«m  dentatem,  Barnes,  An. 

Lye.  N.  Y.  1824. 
szBuccinum  ringens,  Wood,  Snppl. 

1828. 
z^Dolium  personatem,  Mke.  Syn. 

p.  62.  1830. 
=Malea  latilabris,  + crassUabris, 

Val.  1833. 
=Dolium  latUabre,  Kien.  1835. 
=D.  plicosum,  Mke.  Zeit.  f.  M. 

p.  138.  1845. 
=2).  rtn^efw,  Rve.  1848. 
zzCadium  dentatum  +  C.  rtn^e**, 

H.  &  A.  Ad.  Gen.  i.  197. 
56.  Hamcrena/a,Gray,=H.Atooliafia, 

57*  Cawif  coarctata,  Wood, 


58.  C««#  •»/*«,  (Shaw)  Rve,s=C.jrs> 
iiosa,  Lam. 

59. abbreviate,  Lam. 

60.  ColumbeUa  karpaformu,  Sow^=C 

61. fuscata,  Sow. 

62. twuttfa,  Mke. 

63.  ,/Wwi,  Sow. 

64. Terpsichore,  [Mke.  q." 

65.  Mure*  messorms,  [Mke.  q.J 

66.  —  wntcfoitatiiff,  [Mke.  q.J 

67.  —  ternispina,  [Mke.  q.J  . 

68.  —  salebrosus,  King. 

69.  —  brassica,  Lam.  =  If.  dtgoJst, 

Brod. 

70. bicolorfYal.—M.erytkrostoma, 

Swains. 

71.  lappa,  Brod. 

72.  aubius,  Sow.  =  M.  aculeatus, 

Wood,  not  Lam. 

73.  nigrita,  PhiL 

74.  —  ambiguus,  B.ve.=niffrites,J*r. 

75.  Ranella  nana,  Sow. 

76. rounci/orwiw,  Brod. 

77-  anceps,Lem.=R.pyjwmdaKs, 

Brod. 

78.  7Vt*ott*«m  nodosum,  (Chemn.)  Mke. 

=7Wfon  Gtaiifittew,  Gray. 

79.  lignarium,  Brod. 

80. scalartforme,  Brod. 


1851,  pp.  17-25. 

81.  TSirbiheUa  cesstes,  Brod. 

82.  Fa*cto2afTOj»rtncep*,  Sow. 

83.  fictJa  decussata,  Rye. 

84.  Pyrula  patula,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

85.  subrostrata,  Gray,  =  Aw 

laptUus,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

86.  —  anomala,  Rve. 

87.  Asm*  rheuma,  Mart.=F.  fortama, 

Desh. 
86.  Ptofrtoma/wtuiiZatii,  Val. 

89.  maculosa,  Sow. 

90.  vncrassata,  Sow.  =  P.  Botim, 

Val. 

91.  Jfefc*«rsi,  Mke. 

92.  Strombus  galeates,  Swains. 

93.  granulates,  Wood. 

94.  lentiginosus,  Linn. 

95.  gracilior,  Sow. 

96.  Conus  princess,  Linn. 

97.  regulans,  Sow. 

98.  puncHculates,  Hwasa. 

99.  omaria,  Hwass. 

100.  OUoa  porpkyrea,  Lam. 

101.  —  angulata,  Lam. 

102.  Julieta,Duc\.=O.Pa*theri*a, 

Phil. 

103.  venulata,  Lam. 

104. Mclchersi,m*. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WBST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA* 


239 


105.  Olfoa  toufafeOa,  Laid. 

106.  anazore,  Duel. 

107.  tergina,  Dud. 

108. testacea,  Lam. 

1851,  pp.  33-38. 

109.  uvula  emarginata,  Sow. 

110.  deflexa,  Sow. 

111.  Cypraa  Arabica,  linn. 


112. 
113. 
114. 
115. 
116. 
117. 
118. 
119. 
120. 


aralricula,  Lam. 

{Trwia)  pusUtlata,  Lam. 

■         —  sanguined.  Gray. 

fusca,  Gray. 

subrostrata,  Gray. 


123.  Crepidulastriolatay'Mke.=C.nivea, 

var. 
124. Gor£CT*m,De8h.?=C.tttttta,var; 

125.  Calyptraa  (TrochateUa)  Lamarckii, 

[Mke.  q.]  Desh. 

126.  —  —  conica,  Brod. 

127.  (Dyspotea)  smnosa,  Sow. 

128.  —  cepacea,  Brod. 


132. 
133. 

134. 
135. 


129.  Hipponyxfoliaceus,  [Mke.  q.]  Quoy 

&  Gaim.   ?=H.  serratus. 

130.  FUsureUa  virescens,  Sow. 

131.  tnmtnea,  [Mke.  q.]  Rve.  ?=F. 

rugosa,  yar. 

Patella  Mexicana,  Brod.  &  Sow. 
Acrruea  mutabilis,  Mke.  ?  =zfascicu- 

laris+mesoleuca,  pars. 

fascicularis,  Mke. 

mesoleuca,  Mke.=PateUa  dia- 

phana9  Rve.  not  Nutt. 
136.  Siphonaria  denticulata,  [Mke.  q.] 

Quoy  &  Gaim.    Probably  8.  Je* 

cannim,  yar. 


Tpreftro  variegata,  Gray, 

—  armiUata,  JMke.  q.]  Hinds. 

luctuosa,  Hinds. 

Mitra  lens,  Wood,  =  If.  DupontU, 
Kien. 
121.  Crenidula  contorta,  [Mke.  q.]  Quoy 

&  Gaim. 
K2.  cotfate,  [Mke.  q.]  Sow. 

50.  Among  the  many  wasted  opportunities  of  obtaining  very  valuable 
information  on  geographical  distribution,  must  unfortunately  be  recorded  the 
Surveying  Voyages  of  the  *  Herald  *  and  *  Pandora,'  by  Capt.  Kellett,  R.N., 
C.&,  and  Lieut.  Wood,  R.N.  The  former  of  these  gentlemen  commanded 
the  '  Starling'  during  the  Sulphur  Expedition.  Their  zeal  for  science  is 
shown  not  only  by  the  large  number  of  fine  and  valuable  shells  which  they 
brought  back,  but  especially  by  the  extreme  liberality  with  which  they  have 
presented  them  to  public  museums  wherever  they  thought  that  they  could 
be  made  useful.  The  shells  were  deposited  in  the  Museum  of  Practical 
Geology  in  Jermyn  Street,  London,  then  presided  over  by  Prof.  E.  Forbes. 
He  writes  that  "  they  were  chiefly  collected  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia, from  San  Diego  to  Magdalena,  and  the  shores  of  Mazatlan."  This  is 
precisely  the  very  district  of  all  others  on  which  we  are  in  want  of  accurate . 
information.  San  Diego  belongs  mainly  to  the  Californian  Province,  Ma- 
zatlan to  that  of  Panama ;  the  question  yet  to  be  settled  is,  ?  where  and  how 
do  they  separate.  Here  was  an  exploration  in  competent  hands  on  the  very 
terra  incognita  itself;  and  yet,  alas!  Prof.  E.  Forbes  further  states  that 
"  unfortunately  the  precise  locality  of  many  of  the  individual  specimens  had 
not  been  noted  at  the  time ;  and  a  quantity  of  Polynesian  shells  mingled 
with  them,  have  tended  to  render  the  value  of  the  collection,  as  illustrative 
of  distribution,  less  exact  than  it  might  have  been."  Such  information  as 
was  accessible  at  the  time  was  embodied  by  Prof.  E.  Forbes  in  two  com- 
munications to  the  Zoological  Society,  1850;  the  first  on  the  Land  Shells, 
collected  during  the  Expedition,  Proc.  pp.  53-56 ;  the  second  on  the  Marine 
Mollusca,  pp.  270-274.  The  following  abstract  includes  what  may  be  sup- 
posed to  relate  to  our  present  subject  of  inquiry. 

From  Oregon,  Helix  Townsendiana,  H.  Nuttalliana,  and  H.  Columbiana. 

Helix  Pandora,  Forbes,  p.  55.  pi.  9.  f.  3  a,  b.    Sta.  Barbara,  as  per  box  label :  San 

Juan  del  Fuaco,  teste  Forbes. 
Kellettii,  Fbs.  p.  55.  pi.  9.  f.  2  a,  h.    Allied  to  H.  Calif omiensis,  Lea.    Same 

locality. 
— — —  tabyrinthuSy  var.  sipunculata,  p.  53.  pi.  9.  f.  4  a,  b.    Panama. 
— —  vemcata,  Forbes,  p.  55.  pi.  9.  f.  1  a,  b,  e.    "  ?  Panama." 
— -  aspersa,  marked  Sta.  Barbara;  probably  imported,  p.  68. 


£40  report — 1856. 

BuUmus  mi*,  B.  calvus,  B.  eschariferus,  B.  unifasciatus,  and  B.  ruguhsmi,  from 

Chatham  la.,  Gelepagos,  p.  54.    Also,  from  the  same  island, 
■         Chemnitzioides,  Forbes,  p.  65.  pi.  9.  f.  6  a,  b :  and 

Achatinellinusy  Forbes,  p.  56.  pi.  9.  f.  5  a,  b.    (In  text  Achatellinus,  err.  typ.) 

fimbriatus,  Forbes,  p.  5(5.  pi.  9.  f.  7  a,  b.    Box  labeled  Panama. 

alternatus,  Panama,  p.  54. 

Succinea  cingulata,  Forbes,  p.  56.  pi.  9.  f.  8  a,  b,  "  said  to  come  from  Mazatlan." 

"Out  of  S07  species  of  shells  collected  by  the  voyagers,  217  are  marine.. 
Gasteropoda,  1  is  a  Cephalopod,  and  58  marine  bivalves.  The  new  species 
are  all  from  the  American  shores.  There  are  no  products  of  deep-sea 
dredging.  A  few  specimens  of  considerable  interest  were  taken  by  the 
1  Herald'  at  Cape  Krusenstern."  The  following  species  are  described  by 
Prof.  Forbes:— 

Page.  Plate.    Fig. 

271     11       la,  b.    Trochita  spirata,  Forbes.    Massaniello,  Gulf  of  California. 
271     11       9            Trochus  castaneus,  Nutt.  MS.     Sta.  Barbara,  &c.  Nuttall. 
271     11       8  a,  ft.     (Monodonta)  gaUina,  Forbes.     "  Probably  from  the  Ma- 
zatlan coast."     San  Diego,  Lieut.  Green. 

271  11       7M- aureotinctus,  Forbes.    "  With  the  last."     San  Diego, 

Lieut.  Green. =T.  cateniferus,  Potiez,  teste  Gould. 

272  11     11a,  b.    (Margarita)  purpuratus,  Forbes,    "  ?  W.  coast  of  N.  A." 

272    11     10  a,  b. Ht7«tV  Forbes.    «  ?  N.W.  coast  of  N.  A." 

272  11       2a,b,c.NaticaPritchardi,Forbe%.  Mazatlan, abundant. =N.Chemnitzu, 

Pfr.  non  Recl.=N.  maroccana,  var.  teste  Koch. 

273  11       6  Planaxis  nigritella,  Forbes.     "  Straits  of  San  Juan  del  Fuaco." 

=P.  acuta+P.  obsoleta,  Mke.  As  this  species  is  found  in 
extreme  profusion  at  Mazatlan,  and  was  not  found  by  Mr. 
Nuttall,  it  is  in  the  highest  degree  improbable  that  it  should 
occur  in  abundance  so  far  north  in  Oregon.  It  was  probably 
from  San  Juan  in  the  Gulf  of  California. 

273  11     12  Purpura  analoga,  Forbes.     Probably  from  the  Oregon  district. 

274     decemcostata,  Midd.,  var.  approaching  P.  Freycinfitii. 

274     —planospira,  columellaris,  and  Carolensis;  "probably  from 

the  Galapagos."    The  two  latter  occur  also  at  Mazatlan. 
274      9     10  Fusus  Kelletit,  Forbes.     One  sp.  from  the  Californian  coast. 

274     •— — Oregonensis.    Californian  coast. 

274     ...     ...  salebrosus.    Mazatlan. 

The  types,  of  the  described  species,  and  numerous  most  beautiful  and 
interesting  specimens  have  been  presented  to  the  British  Museum.  The 
remainder  may  be  seen  by  students  in  the  drawers  of  the  Mus.  Pract.  Geol. : 
but  the  condition  of  the  labels  is  not  such  that  any  dependence  can  be 
placed  on  them  unless  confirmed  from  other  sources.  In  the  only  list  that 
remains,  it  is  said  that  there  were  the  following  shells  from  the  Galapagos : 
18.  Eight  species  of  small  shells ;  19.  Nerita ;  20-22.  Purpura: ;  23-25. 
Buccina ;  26.  Area ;  27.  BuUmus.  Of  the  bulk  of  the  collection,  95 
species  are  known  from  other  sources  to  occur  at  Mazatlan,  and  35  species 
have  been  taken  in  other  parts  of  the  province  between  Mazatlan  and 
Panama.  Of  the  remainder,  several  are  known  to  belong  to  Ecuador  and 
Peru,  and  some,  as  Pomaulax  undosus  and  Acnuea  Oregona,  to  the  Cali- 
fornian coast.  But  so  large  a  number,  even  of  those  placed  with  the 
Mazatlan  shells,  and  perhaps  obtained  by  commerce  from  that  spot,  are 
known  to  be  inhabitants  of  the  Pacific  Islands  and  the  East  Indies,  that  a 
list  of  them  would  be  entirely  useless  for  our  present  object. 

Among  the  specimens  collected  by  Messrs.  Kellett  and  Wood  during  their 
voyage,  which  have  been  by  them  presented  to  the  British  Museum,  have 
been  observed  the  following  species : — 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  OOAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      241 

Cardium  Nuttalli.    California.  Fissurella  ornata. 

Triyoftia  rtutiata,  w.  Hindsii.  Haliotis  Cracherodii,  Leach. 

Modiola  capax.    "  S.  America/'  [?]  Purpura  Carolensis.    Is.  Plata. 

Pinna  rudis.    Gulf  of  California.  Murex  foliatus.    San  Juan  de  Fuaco. 

51.  But  the  largest  collection  ever  brought  to  Europe  from  one  locality 
(with  the  single  exception  of.  Mr.  Cuming's  stores)  was  made  at  Mazatlan 
during  the  years  1848-50  by  a  Belgian  gentleman  of  the  name  of  Frederick 
Rcpgfen,     He  did  not  live  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  his  almost  unparalleled 

^labours;  and  after  his  death  in  1850,  the  collection  was  sent  for  sale,  partly 
to  Messrs.  F.  de  Lizardi  and  Co.  at  Liverpool,  and  partly  to  Havre.  The 
Liverpool  portion  measured  about  14?  tons  of  40  cubic  feet  each.  It  was 
bought  by  Mr.  G.  Hulse,  wholesale  naturalist  in  Dale  Street ;  but  before  it 
passed  into  his  hands,  it  received  such  an  examination  as  time  allowed  from 
Mr.  F.  Archer,  in  whose  collection,  and  in  that  of  the  Royal  Institution,  the 
first  unmixed  fruits  will  be  found.  Unfortunately  the  geographical  value  of 
these  selections  is  greatly  injured  by  trusting  to  memory  and  loose  tickets ;  and 
.  the  localities  of  the  Institution  specimens  have  simply  been  added  from  the 
monographs,  as ' Galapagos/ '  Panama,' '  St.  Elena,'  &c.  Mr.  Hulse  fortunately 
deposited  the  bulk  of  the  collection  under  lock  and  key  in  a  chamber  by 
itself ;  but  to  save  room,  he  immediately  disposed  of  most  of  the  large  shells, 
such  as  Spondylus  calcifer,  Patella  Mexicanay  Strambus  galea,  and  the 
Pima,  to  a  publican  near  Manchester,  where  they  may  be  seen  in  his 
"  Museum."  Circumstances  enabled  me  to  make  a  searching  examination 
of  Mr.  Hulse's  stores,  and  to  form  a  geographical  collection  from  their  con- 
tents*. Finding  that  in  a  small  manufacturing  town  this  could  not  be  made 
available  for  the  purposes  of  science,  I  acceded  to  the  request  of  Dr.  Gray  that 
it  should  be  deposited  in  the  British  Museum;  it  being  stipulated  (1)  that  I 
should  be  allowed  to  arrange  it  in  its  permanent  abode,  where  it  should  re- 
main intact  as  a  separate  collection ;  and  (2)  that  a  descriptive  catalogue 
should  be  publisjjed  of  its  contents.  The  duty  of  preparing  this  was  en- 
trusted to  me  by  Dr.  Gray.  The  work  is  already  written,  and  most  of  it 
printed.  When  completed,  it  will  be  found  to  contain  descriptions  of  222 
new  species ;  in  addition  to  several  which  had  been  previously  described 
from  the  same  collection  in  the  *  Proc.  Zool.  Soc'  and  other  works.  Numerous 
details  are  added  on  species  already  known,  especially  on  the  variations  of 
growth,  geographical  range,  frequency,  and  synonymy. 

Being  desirous  of  making  the  permanent  collection  of  the  British  Museum 
as  complete  as  possible,  and  finding  that  the  original  stores  were  in  danger 
ofbeing  dispersed,  and  so  rendered  useless  for  science,  I  obtained  possession 
of  the  remainder  of  the  vast  collection,  and  subjected  it  to  a  renewed  and 
more  rigid  scrutiny.  There  will,  therefore,  be  preserved  in  the  B.M.  drawers, 
not  only  the  type  specimens  of  the  described  species ;  but  what  will  perhaps 
be  of  more  service  to  inland  students,  because  less  often  accessible,  large  series 
illustrating  particular  species,  and  displaying  both  their  normal  and  their  abnor- 

jf\  mat  variations.  Thus,  of  Donax  punctatostrialus  will  be  found  192;  of  2>. 
Conradi  [+c«fter,  Hani.  +  cvntusus,  Rve.  +  Calif ornicus,  Desh.],  292  ;  of 
Anomalocardia  8ubrugosa>  130 ;  of  Venus  gnidia,  59 ;  of  Anamia  lampe,  97  i 
of  Neritina  picta,  607 ;  and  of  Acmma  mesoleuca,  301  specimens  ;  every  one 
of  which  exhibits  an  appreciable  difference  from  its  neighbours.     The  latter 

*  Of  this  collection,  amounting  then  to  440  species,  an  account  was  laid  before  the  British 
Association  at  Liverpool :  v.  Reports,  1854,  p.  107.  The  list  was  examined  by  Prof.  Forbes, 
and  much  assistance  obtained  from  his  experience.  That  assistance  was  promised  during  the 
coarse  of  the  present  inquiry,  and  would  have  prevented  many  of  the  errors  attendant  on  it ; 
but  within  a  week  after  he  had  written  to  recommend  the  transfer  of  the  collection  to  the 
British  Museum,  he  had  passed  to  the  scenes  where  human  aid  is  no  longer  needed,  and  where 
human  errors  find  no  place. 

1856.  R 


S43  report— 1856. 

series  was  obtained  by  repeated  processes  of  elimination,  from  the  examina- 
tion of  about  11,000  specimens.  The  whole  number  of  shells  passed  under 
review  probably  exceeded  100,000.  The  following  was  found  to  be  the  most 
satisfactory  plan  for  the  determination  of  specific  limits: — (1)  to  spread  out 
the  entire  mass  in  somewhat  of  order  before  the  view,  in  order  that  the  gene- 
ral idea  of  the  species  (so  to  speak)  might  be.  received  by  the  mind ;  (2)  to 
examine  the  specimens  one  by  one,  in  comparison  with  an  ordinary  shell 
selected  as  a  standard,  putting  to  one  side  all  that  for  any  cause  attracted 
attention ;  (3)  from  the  hundreds  thus  selected  out  of  the  thousands,  or  the 
scores  out  of  the  hundreds,  to  arrange  series  according  to  observed  differences; 
(4)  to  subject  these  to  a  rigid  scrutiny  with  each  other  and  with  neighbour* 
ing^pecies ;  (5)  to  make  a  selection  that  should  exhibit  not  extremes  only, 
butintermediate  grades ;  and  (6)  to  write  the  description  while  the  result 
of  the!  previous  processes  was  fresh  in  the  recollection.  No  observations, 
indeed,  can  compare  for  accuracy  with  those  made  on  living  animals  in  their 
native  haunts ;  but  the  next  best  process  is  the  examination  of  large  num- 
bers of  specimens,  such  as  the  almost  exhaustive  diligence  of  M.  Reigen  has 
placed  at  our  disposal.  The  process  may  require  considerable  time  and  no 
small  amount  of  patience ;  but  results  thus  obtained  are  far  more  satisfactory 
than  the  plan  too  often  followed,  of  picking  out  a  few  specimens  of  leading 
forms,  which  alone  are  available  to  naturalists  for  description.  So  marvelous 
indeed  are  the  variations  of  growth  thus  traced  to  the  same  specific  source, 
that  we  may  well  accept  with  doubt  species  that  are  constituted  from  very 
limited  materials.  This  caution  is  by  no  means  to  be  overlooked  in  using 
the  very  catalogue  in  question ;  as  the  only  materials  for  a  knowledge  of  the 
small  species  (which  amount  to  no  fewer  than  314  out  of  691)  were  the  dirt 
*  obtained  from  the  washings  of  the  shells,  which  had  most  fortunately  been 
sent  "  in  the  rough ;"  and  the  fragments  obtained  in  ransacking  the  backs 
of  a  few  Spondt/Uy  which  were  most  obligingly  placed  at  my  disposal  by 
R.  D.  Darbishire,  Esq.,  of  Manchester,  who  had  succeeded  in  rescuing  them 
from  the  publican's  "  museum."* 

It  would  of  course  have  been  far  more  satisfactory,  for  the  purposes  of 
science,  had  the  collection  never  passed  through  a  dealer's  hands.  The 
fortunate  circumstance,  however,  of  its  size  and  value  requiring  a  room  to 
be  emptied  and  kept  locked  for  its  custody,  has  prevented  the  chances  of 
error  which  would  otherwise  have  crept  in.  No  species  are  inserted  in  the 
catalogue  but  what  were  obtained  from  the  boxes  in  this  room,  and  from  the 
large  shells  about  the  parasites  of  which  there  can  be  no  mistake ;  except 
Ftcula  decunata,  of  which  Mr.  Hanley  distinctly  remembers  the  appearance 
of  a  very  few  specimens  in  the  Havre  collection.  This,  which,  though  com* 
paratively  small,  filled  twenty -eight  boxes,  after  lying  some  time  in  Francs 
without  a  purchaser,  was  in  the  main  sent  to  London,  and  disposed  of  in  lots 
at  the  auctions,  mixed  with  other  shells,  and  without  any  knowledge  being 
communicated  as  to  their  history.  They  have  been  freely  distributed  as 
though  from  Panama ;  and  several  of  them  appear  in  the  British  Museum, 
labelled  "  Australia,  presented  by  —  Metcalf,  Esq."  Several  freshwater 
shells,  Cyretut  and  Ampullaria,  ure  believed  to  have  come  from  this  source; 
but  there  was  no  trace  of  them  in  the  Liverpool  collection.  In  general,  the 
two  sets  so  far  agreed  as  to  make  it  probable  that  the  species  were  divided. 
Messrs.  Lizardi  received  a  list,  in  which  the  exact  localities  of  all  the  shells 

*  I  am  under  the  greatest  obligations  to  Mr.  Darbishire  for  his  valuable  aid  from  the  com- 
mencement of  the  work.  We  alone  were  admitted  by  Mr.  Hulse  into  his  secret  chamber,  filled 
with  the  unmixed  spoils  of  the  Mazatlan  waters ;  nor  should  I  have  ventured  to  pursue  this 
Inquiry,  which  would  have  been  conducted  far  better  under  his  auspices,  had  not  professional 
engagements  entirely  prevented  his  devoting  the  time  necessary  for  such  s  purpose. 


ON  MOLLTJSOA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     243 


were  recorded ;  this  invaluable  document,  however,  was  thrown  to  one  side 
as  useless,  and  has  not  since  been  found. 

The  best  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  the  collection  is  in  the  shells  them- 
selves. These  were,  with  very  few  exceptions,  taken  alive,  and  treated  with 
evident  care.  Every  single  bivalve  was  separately  wrapped  up  and  ticketed ; 
the  mouths  of  the  univalves  were  papered  to  preserve  the  opercula;  and  in 
many  of  the  smaller  species  the  animal  was  not  extracted.  Tie  absence, 
from  so  vast  a  collection,  of  attractive  shells  known  to  be  found  in  neigh- 
bouring places,  such  as  OHva  porphyria,  Terebra  variegata,  Malea  ringens, 
Cassis  coarctata,  Pectens  and  PectuncuHy  generally  seen  in  collections  from 
"  that  coast,"  shows  that  M.  Reigen  made  little  use  even  of  the  facilities  of  the 
coasting  trade  to  extend  his  stores.  Nor  are  there  to  be  seeni  the  Pacific 
Strombs,  Cowries,  Terebra,  &c,  some  of  which  even  Menke  allows  to  appear 
in  his  catalogue.  In  one  respect  a  town  of  limited  trade  is  more  favourably 
situated  for  scientific  purposes  than  a  port  of  extensive  commerce.  Singa- 
pore, the  Sandwich  Is.,  Acapulco,  &c,  to  say  nothing  of  places  on  our  own 
coast,  are  well  known  to  be  "  hotbeds  of  spurious  species/'  But  among  the 
many  myriads  in  the  Liverpool  collection,  not  a  dozen  individual  shells  were 
found  which  can  fairly  be  set  down  as  strangers.  The  principal  of  these  ; 


Arcafusca  (living),  which  is  quoted*  from  the  West  Indies,  and  may  linger  in  the 

Gulf  Seas ;  or  it  may  have  come  from  the  East  Indies  on  a  ship  bottom. 
Cortus  arenatus.    One  very  rubbed  specimen ;  probably  from  ballast. 
Crepidula  Peruviana.    Two  worn  specimens ;  probably  from  ballast. 
Fissurella  Barbadensis.    One  young  fresh  sp. ;  probably  brought' over  on  a  pebble. 

With  regard  to  Lucina  tigerrina  and  Mactra  fragility  of  each  of  which  one 
fresh  specimen  was  sent  papered  and  ticketed  with  nearly  related  shells,  we 
have  no  right  to  deny  their  authenticity  merely  because  they  oppose  our 
theories ;  as  unexpected  facts  are  continually  making  their  appearance,  to 
the  confusion  of  the  mere  systematizer  and  the  corresponding  delight  of 
searchers  after  truth.  All  shells  of  this  class  are  included  in  the  list,  in  order 
that  persons  may  see  the  bad  as  well  as  the  good,  and  judge  of  its  authority 
accordingly.  No  attempt  has  been  made  (except  with  the  small  shells)  to 
state  the  number  of  specimens,  because  of  the  abstractions  which  had  pre- 
viously been  made  by  purchasers ;  but  the  following  notes  will  give  a  tole- 
rably correct  idea  of  their  comparative  frequency,  after  these  abstractions 
had  been  deducted. 

c.  common;  up  to  400  or  500. 

a.  abundant  ;  600  or  700. 
e.  c.  extremely  common ;  1000. 
e.  a.  extremely  abundant;  more  than  1000. 


e.r.  extremely  rare ;  under  a  score. 
v.r,  very  rare;  under  a  hundred. 

r.  rare ;  under  two  hundred. 
«.c.  not  common ;  or  1      ^  m 
n.%.  not  uncommon;  /     w  u    ' 


List  of  the  Reigen  Collection  ofMazatlan  Mollusca. 


No. 

Name. 

Freq. 

Other  Localities 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

Class  BRYOZOA. 
Membraniporid*. 

Membranipora  denticulate,  Bu$Jt,  n.8.  

Gothics,  Rylands,  MS.,  n.s 

Lepralia  atrofusca,  Rylands,  MS,,  n.  s* 

r. 
r. 
r. 

lap. 
r. 
r. 

?  Persian  Gulf. 
Britain. 

— —  trispinosa,  Johnst. .... , 

—  Mazatlanka,  Busk,  n.8. 

■  ■■■■  rostrata,  Butk,  n.  s •• 

a2 


244 


BBPOBT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


7 
8 
9 

10 
677 

11 

ia 

678 

13 
070 


14 


15 

In 
17 
1* 
»0 


83 
24 

85 

26 
27 
28 
29 
680 
220 

681 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

682 

35 

683 

684 


Lepralia  marginipora,  Reuu 

—  hippocrepia,  Buti,  n.  8 

—  humilis,  Butk,  n.  s 

— -adpressa,  Butk 

— ,  sp.  ind 

Celleporiddi. 

Cellepora  papillseformis,  Butk,  n.  s 

—  cyclostoma,  Butk,  n.  8 

Cellepora,  sp.  ind.,  resembling  pumicosa,  Linn. 

Discoporida. 
Defrancla  Intricata,  Busk,  n.s 


Freq. 


r. 

r. 

r. 
n.u, 
▼.r. 

r. 

r. 

v.r. 


Other  Localities. 


Fossil  tertiary,  Vienna. 
Chiloe,  96  £ma.,  Darwin. 


Tubullpora,  sp.  ind 

Claw  TUNICATA. 
Unknown. 

VI  PALLIOimANCHIATA,JBkwi. 

l)U«lnftCumlugll,£f*<Mi. 


CUm  LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

Pholadid*. 

IMiolariltlMi  melanura,  Sow 

f  purta,  Sow 

Paraphilia!  calva,  Oray,  MS, 

•-•  acuminata,  Sow 

Martaiia  Intcrcalata,  n.s 

fragment)  somewhat  resembling  Panopma, 
Perhaps  Corbula  tenuit. 

GcutrochanidcB. 

Gastrochssna  truncata,  Sow 

—  oyata,  Sow 


Saxicavida. 
Saxicava  arctica,  Linn 


e.r. 
2sp. 
n.u. 
n.  u. 
2sp. 
1 


n.  ii. 
v.r. 


Petricolida. 

Petricola  robusta,  Sow 

-P.  bullosa,  Gld.=/\  tinuota,  Conr. 

? «  ChorUtodon  typicum,  Jonas  

—  ventricosa,  Deth 

?=P.  denticulata,  Sow 

-,  sp.  ind 

Rupellaria  lingua-felis,  n.  s 

—  exarata,  n.  s 

—t  sp.  ind 

?Naranio  scobina,  n.  8 

— ,  sp.  ind. 


Myida, 


?Mya,  sp.  ind 

CorbuUda. 
Corbula  bicarinata,  Sow,    ... 

?=C.«0a,  Phil. 

biradiata,  Sow 

pustulosa,  n.8 

?  ovulata,  Sow 

,  sp.  ind.  a.  (allied  to  C.  scaphoidet,  Hds.) 

,  s\>.  ind.  b.  ..... 

Sphsenia  fragilis,  n.  8. 
,  sp.  ind.  , 

— ,  sp.  ind 


e.r. 


2 
v.r. 
e.r. 

1 
e.  r. 

1 


e.r. 

1 
2 
1 
2 

1 
n.u. 

1 
I 


Payta  and  St  Elena ;  Panama. 


Monte  Christi. 
Veragua. 
Panama. 
Panama. 


Panama,  West  Indies. 

Pan.,  Is.  Perico,  West  Indies. 

ubiquitous,  p.  17 ;  Fossil,  Crag. 

Panama,  Island  of  Muerte. 

West  Indies. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Peru. 


Pan.,  R.Llejos,Carac.,St.Elena. 

Panama,  Chiriqui,  Caraccas. 
Panama,  St.  Bias,  33  fms. 
Panama,  Xipix.,  Montijo,  Carac 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      245 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


Pandoridm. 
Tyleria  fragilis,  H.  8f  A.  Ad. . 
Lyonsia  picta,  Sow 


685 
36 

Solecwtid*. 
37   Solecurtus  affinis,  C.  B.  Ad. 


40 

41 

42 

42* 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
►86 
54 


•  politas,  n.  8. 
,  sp.  ind. . 


TelHnida. 


Semele  flavescens,  Old, 

=S.  proximo f  [quasi]  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  ?venusta,  A.  Ad.  

Cumingia  lamellosa,  Sow , 

,  ?var.  coarctata , 

trigonularis,  Sow , 

CaHfornica,  Conr. , 

,  sp.  ind.  (like  C.  striata) , 

Sangninolaria  miniata,  Old.  , 

=S.  purpurea,  Desh. 

Tellina  rufescens,  Chemn , 

T.  operculota,  GmeL 

Broderipii,  Desk,  , 

??Mazatlanica,  Desk. , 

Dombei,  HanL  , 

felix,  Hani 

straminea,  Desh.    

donacilla,  n.  s 

,  sp.  ind.  (c)   , 

—  ponicea,  Born .', 

—Donax  Martmicensis,  Lam.  teste  Gray. 
*=TeUma  alternata,  Sow.  teste  Gray. 
=  T.  angulosa,  Gmel.  teste  Desh. 
«  T.  simulant,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  Cumingii,  Hani. 

—  Feburnea,  Hani. 

— •  regolaris,  n.  8 

f—  lamellata,  n.  s 

—  ??puella,  C.  B.  Ad.   

—  ??  delicatula,  Desh 

—  brevirostris,  Desh. 

?  denticulata,  Desh 


-,  sp.  ind.  (a) 


-,  sp.  ind. 
Tellidora  Burneti,  Brod.  if  Sow. 

=Lucina  cristata,  Reel. 
Strigilla  carnaria,  Linn. 

=Lucma  carnaria,  Lam. 

-  Strigilla  miniata,  Old.  =S.fucata,  Gld. 

—  lenticula,  Phil.  

??Psammabia,  sp.  ind. 


Donaeida. 

Iphigenia  altior,  Sow. 

laevigata,  ? 

Donax  carinatus,  HanL 

—  rostratus,  C.  B.  Ad.  

«D.  carinatus,  var.  Hani. 
bD,  eulminatus,  Cat.  Ptoy. 

—  transversus,  Sow.  ......... 

—  assimilis,  Hank 


1 
e.r. 


n.c. 

4 
1 


c. 

2 

v.r. 
e.r. 
v.  r. 
v.r. 
e.r. 
e.r. 

v.r. 

3 
1 
2 

e.r. 
e.r. 

1 

1 

v.r. 


1 

1 

1 
e.r. 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 
'2 
n.u. 

n.c. 


v.r. 
1 


Is.  Muerte,  Vancouver's  Island. 
Panama. 

San  Diego. 

W.  Colombia. 
.'Panama,  Payta. 
Panama,  Caraccas. 
Panama,  St.  Elena. 
Monterey,  &c. 

San  Juan. 

Tumbez,  West  Indies. 


Panama. 
Panama. 


Pan.,  Guayaquil,  W.  I.,  Xipix. 


Panama,  Guacomayo. 
Tumbez. 


Panama. 
Central  America. 

Salango,  St.  Elena. 

W.  I.,  ?  Medit.,  Sta.  Barbara. 


Gulf  Nicoya,  Tumbez,  Panama. 

San  Bias,  Tumaco. 
Sta.  Barbara,  Panama. 


Panama. 


246 


BflPOBT— 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


75 

75* 

76 


77 


78 


79 


81 


82 
83 


Donax  punctatostriatus,  Hani 

—  founctatostriatus,  var.  cselatus ... 
—  Conradi,  Deeh.  

+2>.  culler,  Hani. 

+D.  Caltfbrnicus,  Desh.  non  Com. 

+D.  contutut,  Rve. 

?+/>.  radiata,  VaL 

—  navicula,  /fimJL 


cc. 

v.r. 

c. 


84 
85 

86 
87 


90 


91 
92 
93 


94 
95 


96 


Madrid*. 

Mactra  exoleta,  Oray 

=Lutraria  ventricoea,  Old. 
=MuUnia  ventricota,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  fragilis,  Ckemn. 

=M.  ovaUna,  Lam.  teste  Gray. 

^M.  Brazilians  Lam.  teste  Desh. 
*=M.oblonga,  Say,  teste  Rye. 

—  (Mulinia)  anguiata,  Oray 

?=M.  donaciformit,  C.  B.  Ad. 

Gnathodon  mendicus,  GUL 

*=Rangia  trigona,  Petit. 

Veneridm. 

.'dementia  pracillima,  n.  s. 

Trigona  radiata,  Sow. 

=  Vemu  Solangentu,  D'Orb. 
=  Trigona  Byronewit,  Gray. 
=  Cytherea  corbicula,  Mke.  (non  Lam.) 
+C.  semtfuka,  Mke. 
+C  graciUor,  Sow. 
+G  £«*»,  Hani. 
?+C.  intermedia,  Sow. 
— -  humiUs,  n.  s . 

—  argentina,  Sow. 

=  Cytherea  ctquilatera,  Desh. 

—  ??  crassatelloides,  inn 

—  planulata,  Brod.  fy  Sow 

+ Cytherea  undulata,  Sow. 

= Donax  Leseoni,  Desh. 

=  Cytherea  mactroidee,  Lam.  teste  Desh. 

Dosinia  ponderosa,  Oray  , 

=  Cytherea  gigantea,  PhO. 
=  Venus  cycloides,  D'Orb. 

—  Annie,  Darb 

—  Dunkeri,  Phil   

= Artemis  simplex,  Hani. 
«=  Cytherea  Pacifica,  Trosch. 

Cyclina  subquadrata,  Hani.   

= Artemis  toccata,  Gld. 
Dione  aurantia,  Hani v..» , 

=  Cytherea  aurantiaca,  Sow. 

—  chionaea,  Mke.    

-{-Cytherea  squaUda,  Sow. 

4-C.  btradiata,  Gray. 
i+Celegafu,Koch. 

—  rosea,  Brod.  Sf  Sow 

=  Cytherea  lepida,  Chen. 

—  lupinaria,  Zest.  

=D.  tupanaria,  Gray. 

=  Cytherea  Dione,  var.  Brod. 
=  C.  eemilameUosa,  Gaud. 

—  Pvulnerata,  Brod. 


e.r. 
r. 


e.r. 
▼.  c. 


Acapulco. 

Gulf  of  Nicoya,  Panama. 
Panama,  GuayaqujL 
West  Indies. 

S.W.  Mexico,  Panama. 


Salango,  Xipix.,  Guayaq.,  Pan. 


r. 
v.r. 

tvalv. 
n.c 


v.r. 
v.c. 


3 

n.a 

c. 

c. 

e.c 


Gulf  of  Nicoya. 

Upper  California. 
Pan.,  Salango:  Chili,  taquimbo, 
D'Orb.  n 


Payta. 


Panama,  St.  Elena,  "Eastern 
Seas,"  Ad.  %  Roe. 

St.  Elena,  Panama. 

S.W.Mex.,GulfNiooya,Taboga. 

San  Bias,  S.W.  Mexico,  La  Pas, 
Taboga,  St.  Elena,  >Phm> 
pines,  Swan  River. 

San  Bias,  Panama. 

San  Bias,  Salango,  Tumbea, 
Payta. 

RealLlejof. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THB  WB8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      24jT 


No* 


Nune. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


97 


99 


100 
101 
102 

103 
104 
105 

106 
107 
108 
109 

110 


111 
112 

113 


114 
115 
116 
117 
118 

119 
120 


Dione  brerispinosa,  Sow.   

—  circinata,  Born. 

=  Venus  Guineensis,  Gmel. 

=  Cytkerta  altemata,  Brod. 

—  condiuia,  Sow.  •• ..... 

}+ Cytherea  qffims,  Brod. 

?+C.  tortuo$a,  Brod. 

Cytherea  petechialis,  Lam. 

Venus  (Chione)  gnidia,  Brod.  2f  Sow. 

amathusia,  PhU.  

=  Chione  gnidia,  Tar.  Desh. 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)  

distan8,PAi/. , 

— crenifera,  Sow. .... ., 

=  V.  Portesiana,  D'Orb. 

?undatella,  Sow , 

Columbiensis,  Sow.  , 

-,  sp.  ind.  (b) 


Tapes  histrionica,  Brod.  if  Sow.    

=*  Chione  histrionica,  Desh. 

—  grata,  Say  

=  Venue  tricolor,  Sow.  teste  Desh. 
=  V.  discors,  Sow.  teste  Jay. 

?=  V.  neyleeta,  Phil,  (non  Gray). 

—  squamosa,  n.  s 

Anomalocardia  subrugosa,  Sow. 

s  Cytherea  subsulcata,  Mice. 

—  subimbricata,  Sow 


AstarHda. 
Circe  margarita,  n.  s 

—  subtrigona,  n.  s 

Gonldia  Pacifies,  C.B.Ad. 

—  yarians.  n.s 

Cardita  Californica,  Desh , 

=  C.  affmis,  Mke.  non  Sow. 

Venericardia,  sp.  ind 

Trapezium,  sp.  ind , 


121 

1216 

122 
123 


Chamidm. 
Chama  rrondota,  var.  Mexicana 
+Chama  echinata,  fig.  pars. 

—  ?frondosa,  var.  fornicata  .. 
?=  C.  Buddiana,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  spinosa,  Sow 

—  exogyra,  Conr.   


124 
125 

126 


127 
128 
129 
130 
131 
132 
133 
687 


Cardiada. 
Cardinm  (Lamcardium)  elatum,  Sow.  ... 

—  procerum,  Sow • 

?+C.  laticottatum,  Sow. 

—  ?  senticosum,  Sow 

=  C.  rostrum,  Tire. 

}—C.  muricatum,  Mke. 

sp.  ind.  (a)  (like  C.  punctulatum) 
'W  (like  C.  triangulatom)  ... 
e)  (like  C.  pseudofossile) ... 


A 

alabastrum,  n.  s. 
rotiindaturo,  n.  s. 


v.r. 

e.c 

c. 

e.r. 

1 
3 

1 
e.c. 

3 
e.c. 


3 

e.  c. 


y.r. 
v.r. 
r.r. 
c. 
e.r. 

1 
1 


n.c 


n.u. 
c. 


3 

1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
e.  r. 
1 


West  Indies,  Monte  ChristL 
Panama. 


Japan. 

Payta,  Panama,  San  Bias. 

S.W.  Mexico,  Panama. 


Panama. 

St.  Elena,  Payta. 

Island  3  Marias,  G.  of  Calif. 
St.  Elena,  S.W.  Mexico. 

Real  Llejos,  St.  Elena. 

S.W.  Mex.,  Pan.,  St.  Elena  and 
Guacomayo,  Puerto  Portrero, 
Guaymas. 


S.W.  Mexico,  Panama,  Pern. 
Acapulco,  Puerto  Portrero. 

Panama. 


Gulf  of  Tehuantepec. 


Lord  Hood's  Island. 
San  Diego. 


Guaymas,  San  Diego. 

W.  Mexico,  Panama,  Payta, 

Real  Llejos. 
Taboga,  St.  Elena. 


248 


BBPOBT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Preq. 


Other  Localities. 


134 
135 


136 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
143 
144 
145 
146 
147 
148 
149 
150 


150* 

151 

152 


153 

154 
155 
156 
688 
157 
158 
159 
160 
161 
162 
163 

164 
165 


Cardium  graniferum,  Brod.  6f  Sow 

,  sp.  ind.  (ff),  (lutinoides,  nom.  prov.)  , 

Lueinida. 

Lucina  (Codakia)  tigerina,  Linn. 

•  ??  punctata,  Linn. 

annulata,  Rve 

?  muricata,  Chemn,    

excavata,  n.  b < 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)    

pectinata,  n.  s 

cancellaris,  Phil.   ....*. 

Mazatlanica,  n.  8 

prolongata,  n.  s 

,  sp.ind.  (b) 

?  eburnea,  Rve 

sp.  ind.  (e) 

.'Fimbria,  sp.  ind 

Diplodonta  semiaspera 

}=Lucina  calata,  Rve. 

?=Z.  semireticulata,  D'Orb. 

Comp.  L.  orbeUa,  Gld 

—  — ,  var.  discrepans 

—  obliqua,  Phil 

? serricata,  Rve,  

KeOiada. 
Kellia  suborbicularis,  Mont 

Lasea  ?  rubra,  Mont 

trigonalis,  n.  s 

•  oblonga,  n.  s 

,  sp.  ind. 

Lepton  Clementinum,  n.s. 

Dionaeum,  n.  s , 

umbonatum,  n.  s 

Pythina  sublaevis,  n.  • 

Montacuta  elliptica,  n.  b 

? subquadrata,  n.s 

— ,  sp.  ind , 


166 


167 
168 
169 
170 
171 


171,5 

172 

173 


CycladidiB. 
Cyrena  olivacea,  n.  b 

=  C.  Fontameij  Desh.  non  D'Orb. 
Mexicans,  Brod.  8f  Sow 

Comp.  C.  Floridana,  Conr. 

Var.  =  C.«Kt&,Gld. 

Unionida. 

Anodon  ciconia,  Old. , 

Comp.  A.  fflauca,  Val. 

Mytilid*. 
Mytilus  paltiopunctatus,  Dkr.   

—  multiformis,  n.  s 

Septifer  Cumingianus,  Reel.  

Modiola  capax,  Conr 

—  Braziliensis,  Chemn 

=3/.  GuyanenHe,  Lam. 

=M.  8enUJu$cat  Sow.  (not  Lam.) 

,  var.  mutabilis 

Crenella  coarctata,  Dkr. 

Lithophagus  attenaatus,  Desh. 


c  r. 

1 


1 

2 

1 

1 
c.  r. 

1 

1 
e.  r. 

c. 
v.  r. 

1 

1 

2 

2 
▼.  r. 


1 

1 
n.  u. 

*{ 

cr. 
e.  r. 

1 
1 
2 
1 
2 
4 
3 


n.  c. 
n.  u. 


n.u. 


a 
c 

c.  r. 
r. 
r. 


n.c. 
e.  r. 
e.  r. 


Pan.,  Gulf  Nicoya  and  Xipiz. 


S.W.  Mexico,  West  Indies. 
Panama. 


Panama,  St.  Elena. 
West  Indies. 
San  Diego. 


Atlantic:  Britain,  —  Canaries: 

Fossil  Crag ;  Panama. 
Atlantic:  ? ubiquitous. 


S.W.  Mexico. 

Panama. 
S.  Diego,LaPaz,  GaL,  S.W.Mex. 
Guiana,  Venezuela,  Bay  Guaya- 
quil, Panama. 

?  New  Zealand. 
Galapagos. 
Peru,  PChilL 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THK  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      249 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


174 
175 
176 


1766 
176c 

177 

178 
179 


Lithophagus  calyculatus,  n.  s.. 

—  plumula,  Hani.  

—  aristatos,  Sol. 

—Modiola  caudigera,  Lam. 
= My  tikis  rqpan,  Desh. 

—  — — ,  "?ar.  gracilior    

—  — ,  var.  tumidior  


cinnamomeus,  Ckemn. 

Leiosolenus  spatiosus,  n.  a.... 
,  sp.  ind 


180 
181 
182 


183 

184 


185 

186 
187 
188 
689 
189 
190 


191 
192 
193 

194 


195 
196 


197 


198 
199 


200 
201 
202 
203 

204 

205 


Arcad*. 
Area  grandis,  Brod,  Sf  Sow.  

—  multicostata,  Sow. 

—  Plabiata,  Sow.    

?=A.  labiosa,  Sow. 
lr*  A.  mcongrtta,  Say. 

—  bifrons,  n.s 

—  tuberculosa,  Sow.  

1+A.  trapezia,  Deah. 

+A.  nmility  C.  B.  Ad. 
—  reverse,  Gray 

**A,  hemicardtum,  Koch. 

—  ?brevifrons,  Sow,  

emargiiiata,  Sow •. 

— ,  sp.  ind.  (a) 

— t (*)  

Byssoarca  Pacifica,  Sow. 

—  mutabilis,  Sow. 

Corny.  Area  Americana,  D'Oib.^tmbricaia, 

Bnig. 

—  fusca,  Brug.  

— •  vespertilio,  n.  a 

—  illota,  Sow 

Comp.  A.  Tabogensit,  C.  B.  Ad, 

—  gradata,  Brod.  Sf  Sow.  

? = A.9quamosa,Lam. »  A.Dommgentis,  Lam. 

=Arca  clathrata,  Defr. 
Comp.  B.  dharieata,  Sow. 
Comp.  B.putilia,  Sow. 
Comp.  A.  donaciformity  Rve. 

—  sofida,  Sow 

Pectanculus  iiuequalis,  Sow.  fnon  Gray)  ... 

^P.pectmtfbrmw,  Wood  (non  Lam.) 
?+P.  atrimUis,  Sow. 
« —  ?multicostatus,  Sow. 

Nucvlid*. 

Nucala  exigua,  Sow.  ... 

Leda  Elenenais,  Sow 


Aviculid*. 
Pinna  maura,  Sow 

—  lanceolate,  Sow 

Prugosa,  Sow •• 

Avicnla  sterna,  Gld.  

—A.  Attaniica,  Mke. 
Margaritiphora  Mazatlanica,  Hard.  . 

=*A,fimbriata,  Dkr. 
Isognomon  Chemnitzianum,  JfOrh. . 

=Per*aJUxuosa,  Sow. 


1 
r. 
c 


▼.  r. 
e.  r. 


e.  r. 
1 


v.  c 

2 
2 


e.  r. 
v.c. 


1 
e.  r. 
2 
1 
r. 
r. 


1 

1 

e.  r. 

▼.  r. 


n.u. 
3 


com. 
n.ii. 
v.r. 
n*ih 

v.r. 

n.u. 


Panama. 

Senegal,  West  Indies. 


Mauritius,  Philippines,  Cuba, 
Venezuela,  Central  America. 


Pan.,  Real  Llejos,  Bay  Guayaq, 

Gulf  Tehuantepec 

Real  Llejos,  Tumbez,  W.  Indies. 


Panama,  Real  Llejos. 


Panama,  Tumbez. 

Tumbez. 

Atacamas,  Rl.  Llej.,Xipix.,  Pan. 


St.  Elena,  Bijooga  Island. 
Island  of  Plata,  Panama. 


East  and  West  Indies. 

GulfNicoya. 

St.  Elena,  Taboga,  West  Indies, 
and  FossiL 


Panama,  Payta. 
Panama,  Real  Llejos,  Puerto 
Portrero,  Guayaquil 

Ecuador,  GuayaquiL 


Panama,  Bay  of  Caraocas. 
Panama,  St  Elena. 


Panama. 
Puerto  Portrero. 
Panama. 
Panama. 


Panama,  W.  Indies,  Conchagua. 


850 


BSPOBT— 1856. 


No. 
206 


207 
690 
691 


206 

209 
210 


211 


212 

213 
214 
2146 

215 


216 
217 


218 
219 


Isognomon  Janus,  n.  s.  ...... 

Pectimd*. 

Pecten  areolaris,  Sow 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)    

— ,  sp.  ind.  (b)   


Spondyhd*, 

Spondylos  calcifer,  n.  s. 

«S.  LamarckU,  Hani.  MS. 

— ,  sp.  ind. • • 

Plicatula  penicillata,  n.  s 

P.  dubia,  yar.  Sow.  MS. 

Ottnadm. 

Ostrea iridescent,  Gray..* 

?—  O.  tpathulata,  Lam. 
?=-  O.  maryaritacea,  Lam. 
?»  O.  aguatorialii,  D'Orb. 
?=0.  rtjfapars,  Gld. 

—  Virginica,  Gme/ 

?= O.  rvfa,  pars,  Gld. 

—  Cotambiensis,  HanL 

— —  conchaphila,  n.  s.  

—  (?? ,  var.)  palmula  ... 

Comp.  O.  Cwmingiana. 

— ,  sp.  ind. • < 


221 
222 

223 


224 
225 
226 
227 
228 
229 


692 


Name. 


AhomuuUb* 
PUcnnanomia  peraoides,  Gray. 
»  Tedinia  pernoide$t  Gray. 

—  fbliata,  Brod. 

+P,peetmata,  teste  Gray. 
-j- J\  echmata,  teste  Gray. 

—  claricnlata,  n.  a. • 

Anomia  lampe,  Gray 


Class  PTEROPODA. 

Unknown. 

Class  GASTEROPODA. 

Subclass  Opisthobranchlata. 

Order  Tectabranchiata. 

CyUchmd*. 

Cylichna  luticola,  C.  B.  Ad. 

Tornatina  infrequens,  C.  B.  Ad.    , 

?- Bulla  yr«ciUsfMkt. 

—  carinata,  n.  s. 


Preq. 


2 

e.r. 

1 


n.tu 


▼.  r. 


▼.  r. 
n.u. 
e.r. 

v.  r. 


e.r. 
2 

2 
c 


BuSida* 
Balla  Adamsi,  Mke.    

—  ?nebnlosa,  Gld. 

—  Quoyii,  Gray, • 

—  exarata,  n.  s • 

— ,  sp.  ind . 

Haminea  cymbiformis,  n.  a.  ...„ 

Philmid*. 
taaragdinella  thecaphora,  (Mitt.)  n.  *. 


2 

y.  r. 


e.r. 

e.r. 

2 

1 
1 


Other  Localities. 

Gnaymaa. 

Panama. 

Bay  of  Fonaeca. 

Senega],  Panama,  Goaoomayo. 


Atlantic  Panama. 

St.  Elena. 
S.Diego,S.W.Mex»,  Pan-,W.Afr. 
Upper  California,  S.W. 

San  Diego,  Panama. 


Senegal,  Panama. 

S.W.  Mexico,  Island  of  Mnerte, 
Guayaquil,  West  Indies, 


Monterey,La  Paz,Pan,Guayaq. 


Panama. 
Panama. 


Sta,Barb.,  SanDiego,  Guaymas. 
Galapagos. 


ON  MOLLUSOA  OF  TH*  WB8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMBRIOA.     251 


230 
231 


232 


234 


235 


237 

238 


No. 


HeUcid*. 

OrttuOicuB  zebra,  MM. , 

=Bukmu»  vndehu,  Lam. 
+A  mdanocheihu,  VaL 
4-  Orthalicut  Hvena,  Beck. 
4-  B.  zigzag,  Lam. 
-f-.fi.  princeps,  Brod. 

—  Ziegleri,  P/r., 

—  ?  Mexicanus,  J 


239 
239* 
240 
241 


Subcla88  PuLMOXATA. 
Order  Geophila. 

Tettacemd*. 
Glandina  Albersi,  P/r.   , 


Order  LimnopllilA. 

AwricuUda. 
Melampua  oliyaceus,  n.  a »..„ 


Ltomldm, 

Phyaa  aurantia,  n.  8 • 

«P.  Peruviana,  Mke.  (non  Gray). 

—  data,  GUL 

Planorbis  tumens,  n.  a.  

P.  tenagophUu$t  Mke.  non  D'Orb. 

Order  Thalftfflophiltt, 

Siphonariada. 

Sipbonaria  Lecanium,  PhiL  

-,  var.  pabnata 


-  sequilirata,  n.  a. . 
-,  ap.  ind. . 


242 

242$ 

243 


244 

245 
246 
247 


Subclass  Prosob&anchiata. 
Order  Heteropoda, 

lanthina  atrralata,  n.  a 

•,  var.  contorts 


Ftoq. 


e.r. 
2 


—  decollata,  nom.  prov. 

Comp.  /.  globota,  Swain*.,  and  /.  prolon- 
gate, D'Orb. 

Order  Lateribranehiata. 

DentaUad*. 
Dentalium  liratum,  n.  a. 

—  nyalinum,  Phil, ; 

—  corrugatum,  n.  a*  ..«. 

—  pretioamn,  Nutt. 


Order  Scutibraiicliiata. 


e.r. 

1 


Y.C 

n.  u. 


c 
n.c. 

1 
1 


Other  Localities. 


Brazils,  Pern,  Columbia,  Weat 
Indiee,  Conchagua. 


San  Diego. 


Y.C. 

cr. 
e.r. 


y.  r. 

1 

1 
e.r. 


CkUonida. 
248  iLopnyrua  articulatna,  Sow.,.. 


St  Siena,  Guayaquil 


Sandwich  Ialanda,  NuttaU. 


c.     San  Bias. 


252 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


249 
250 
251 
252 

253 

254 

2546 

255 

256 

257 

258 


259 

260 

261 
262 

263 


Lophyrus  albolineatus,  Brod.  Sf  Sow., 

striato-squaraosus,  n.  8 , 

Tonicia  Forbesii,  n.  8 

Lepidopleurua  sanguineus,  Jive, , 

Comp.  Ch.  timac\forr*Ut  Sow. 

—  dathratua,  n.  s 

—  bullatus,  n.8 

.  yar.  calciferus 


—  MacAndreae,  n.8. 

—  Beanii,n.s 

Chiton  fiayescens,  n.  8 

Acanthochites  Arragonites,  n.8. 

PateUida. 
Patella  Mexicans,  Brod.  %  Sow. 
-P.  maxima,  D'Orb. 

—  pediculus,  PhiL 

=*P.  corrugata,  Rve. 

—  discors,  PhiL 

Nacella,  ip.  ind. 


264 

265 

266 
267 

268 


270 


Acmaea  mesoleuca,  Mke. 

— Patella  diaphana,  Rve 

-Lottia  1  patina,  C.  B.  Ad.  (non  Each.) 

?+?A.  pertonoide*,  Midd.  

?+?J.  amginota,  Midd 

+P.  striata,  Rye.  non  Qnoy. 

+A.  mmtabUu,  Mice.  para. 

—  fasticularis,  Mke.  

+A.  mutabitit,  Mke.  pan. 

—  patina,  Etch,  (for  syn.  y.  snpra)  

—  persona,  Each 

—  scabra,  Nutt.,  Eve.,  Joy   

Non  P.  tcobra,  Gld. 

—  mitella,  Mke 

—P.  navicula,  Rye. 

Scntellina  navicelloides,  n.  8...... 


Gadmiada*. 
Qadinia  pentegoniostoma,  Sow., 


y.  r. 

1 

2 

t.  r. 

1 
2 
1 
2 
2 
6 
e.r. 


c. 
n.n. 

y.  c 

1 

e.a. 


FUtureliida. 

271   Fissurella  yirescens,  Sow , 

[272 Barbadensis,  Gmel] , 

273   rugosa,  Sow.  ...» , 

-f  P.  chhrotrema,  Mke. 
+P.  humtiis,  Mke. 
-j-P.  viminea,  Mke. 

274  I nigrocincta,  n.  a.    

275   ,  sp.  ind. 

276  | alba,  n.s.  

?+P.  gemmata,  Mke.  (jun.) 

277  Peruviana,  Lam , 

278  spongiosa,  n.  s 

279  Glyphis  inaequalis,  Sow. 

+FmureUapica,  Sow. 
-f  P.  mu,  Rye. 

280  I alta,  C.  B.  Ad.  

281  Rimula  Mazatlanica,  n.  s 


Payta. 
Acapulco. 
S.W.  Mexico. 


Central  America. 
Panama. 
Kenai  Bay. 
Bodegas. 
Galapagos. 


2 

1 
1 

n.  u. 

1 


T.  C 

1 

n.u. 


e.r. 

1 
c 

2 
n.  c. 


e.r. 
e.  r. 


San  Diego. 

N.  &  S.  temperate  America. 
Sitka— San  Diego. 
Monterey  &c,  S.W.  Mexico. 


Panama. 
West  Indies. 
Galapagos. 


Pern,  Lobos,  Iqniqni,  Is.  Mexil- 
lones,  Valparaiso. 

Guacomayo,  Galap.,  St  Elena, 
Monte  Christi. 

Panama. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     &5S 


No. 


Name. 


Ffeq. 


Other  Localities. 


Trochid*. 

282  Callopoma  fluctuosum,  Mawe 
«  Turbo  Fokkeeu,  Jonas. 
=  T.ftuctuatue,  Rye. 

283  Phasianella  perforate,  PhiL   .. 

2834 ,  rar.  strinlata 

284 
285 
286 


287 


290 

325 
291 
292 


293 

294 

295 
296 
297 
298 
299 
300 
301 
302 
303 
304 
305 
306 
307 
308 
309 
310 
311 
312 
313 
314 
315 
316 
317 
318 
319 
320 


compta,  Gld. 

Bankivia  varians,  jun.,  Beck 

Uvanilla  olivacea,  Mawe    

—  Trochue  breviepinoeue,  Val. 
=  T.  erytkrophthakKUt,  PhiL 
?=T.Melckerti,me. 

—  inermis,  Gmel. 

«  Trochue  otivaceus,  PhiL  (not  Wood). 
«=  U.  variegatue,  Gray  in  B.M. 

—  unguis,  Mawe    

«  Turbo  digitatui,  Desh. 

•»  Trochue  amictue,  VaL 
«  71  t/dfarit,  Mke. 

Trochus  versicolor,  Mite 

?=Ziziphimu  Caltfbrnicue,  A.  Ad. 
=  T.  eximiut,  Rve. 

-—  MacAndreae,  n.  s 

?=  7*.  mmvfet,  Mke. 

— ,  sp.  ind 

Omphalitis  ?rngosus9  var.  rufotinctns  .... 

—  Yiridolus,  GmeL 

=Phorcus  variegatue,  A.  Ad. 

»  Trochue  Brazilians,  Mice,  teste  Ad. 
+  7*.  Byronianue,  Wood. 
+  7'.r«toKfetef,Gld.MS. 

—  tigulatus,  Mke.  

}=Phorcue  Caltfonucue,  A.  Ad. 

—  globulus,  n.  s 

?=  Trochue  glomus,  Mke. 

VHrineUa  Panamensis,  C.  B.  Ad. 

parva,  C.  B.  Ad,    

? decussate,  n.  s 

monilef  n.  s. 

monilifera,  n.s , 

lirulata,  n.s 

siibquadrata,  n.s 

bifilata,n.s.  , 

bifrontia,  n.  s.    

perparva,  var.  nodosa    , 

exigua,  C.  B.  Ad. , 

coronata,  n.  s , 

■  annulate,  n.  s , 

cincta,  n.8 , 

carinulata,  n.  8 , 

•  naticoides,  n.s 

* planospirate,  n.s , 

orbis,  n.s , 

Liotia  carinata,  n.  8 , 

-  striulata,  n.  s , 

-  C-B-Adamsii,  n.  s , 

•,  sp.  ind. 

Globulus  tumens,  n.  s , 

Ethalia  pyricallosa,  n.s 

lirulata,  n.  s 

pallklula,  n.  s . 


e.r. 
2 
1 

M 

e.  c. 


cc. 


»»...»». 


e.r. 

1 

t.  r. 

1 


e. 

5 

1 

30 
30 
30 


St.  Elena,  San  Diego,  8itka.[?] 


Payte,  Panama. 

San  Diego,  Sta.  Barbara. 
Australia,  S.  Africa. 
S.W.  Mexico. 


S.W.  Mexico. 

Parana. 
Panama. 


?  China. 
San  Diego. 


Panama. 
Panama. 


Panama. 
Panama. 


254 


REPORT— -1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


321 
322 
323 
324 


326 

327 
328 


330 


331 
332 
333 


334 


335 


336 
337 
338 


339 

j 

340 


Ethalia  carinata,  n.  b , 

amplectans,  ?  n.  s. 

TeinoBtoma  amplectans,  n,  s..< 
—  substriatum,  n.  s , 


Neritid*. 

Nerita  scabricosta,  Lam 

=iV.  ornata,  Sow. 
+N.  Deskayesii,  Reel 
+N.  muUjfugit,  Mke. 

—  Bernhardi,  Reel.    , 

=N.jumculata,  Mke. 

Neritina  cassiculum,  Sow,   . 
—  picta,  Sow 


Is.  Timor,  Real  Llejos,  Panama, 
S.W.  Mexico* 


Pern,  Panama,  S.W.  Mexico. 


c. 
a. 


Order  Pecthiibraiichiata. 

Suborder  Rostufbra. 

Naricidm. 
Vanicoro  cryptophila,  n.  a.  (=Narica  or.).., 

Catyptrarid*. 

Trochita  ventricosa,  n.  s 

Galerue  conicus,  Brod.    

—  mammillaria,  Brod.  

+C.  regular*,  C.  B.  Ad. 
=  C.  Lamarcku,  Mke. 
?+C.  Lichen,  Brod. 

Crepidnla  aculeate,  GmeL 

-f-C.  echinus,  Brod. 
+  C.hy*trix,  Brod. 
+C  costata,  Mke. 
4-C.  CaHJbrniea,  Nutt. 

— -  dilatata,  Lam.    

-f  C.  Peruviana,  Lam. 
-j-C  depresta,  Desh. 
+C./Mifefe,De8h. 
+C.  Adolphei,  Leas. 
-j-C  nautihides,  Less. 
4-C.  t fHprf*'  Brod. 
+C.  arcuata,  D'Orb.  teste  Gray. 
??+C./wrfBcfo,Brod. 
i+C.foHacea,  Brod. 
?4-C.  Patagoniea,  D'Orb.  (pars). 

—  donate,  Brtri.,  var.  bilobata 

— —  excavate,  Brod. 

—  adunca,  Sow, 

=  C.#ottfa,Hda. 
*C,  roitrifbrmu,  Gld. 
=* C.  roitrata, C.B.A.&. 
«=  C.  uncata,  Mke. 
»  Oarnotia  eolida,  Gray. 

—  incurva,  Brod.  •• 

=  C.  hepatica,  Mke.  non  Desh.,  nee  C.  B.  Ad. 

nee  Kranss. 

— —  onyx,  Sow 

«=C.  ?  hepatica,  C.  B.  Ad.  non  Mke. 
=  C,  amggdahu,  Val. 
?«-C.  contorta,  Mke. 
-f  C.  cerithhola,  C.  B.  Ad. 
4-  C.  Patagowca+protea,  D'Orb.  pan. 


1 
e.r. 
n.u. 


e.r. 

3 

e.r. 


San  Miguel. 
Panama. 


Pan.,  S.  W.  Mex.,Xip.&  Salango. 

Is.  Muerte,  Panama,  Acap.,  Sta. 

Barbara,  Payta — GuayaqmX 


W.  I.,  E.  and  W.  S.  Am.,  Africa, 
E.  I.,  Australia,  N.  Zealand. 


W.  Coast  S.  America 
?  Mauritius. 


Real  Llejos,  Panama. 
Bodegas,  Da  Fuca  Str.,  Sta.  Bar- 
bara,  Panama* 


SanBIas.,Pan.,Payta,  StElena, 
Xipixapi. 

Panama,  ?  S.  and  W.  Africa. 


ON  MOLLTJSOA  OF  TH»  WSST  COAiT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      255 


No. 


Preq. 


Other  Localities. 


341 


342 


343 


544 


345 

346 

347 

348 
349 

350 

351 

". 

3524 


Crepidula  nivea,  C.  B.  Ad. „.., 

-f-C.  equama,  Brod. 

+C.  striolata,  Mke. 

+  C.  Lessonii,  Brod. 

-j-  C.  ttnguicuhut  var.  Brod. 

-j-C.protea,  D'Orb.  pan. 

Comp.  C.  explanata,  Gld.  —  C.  perfbraru, 
Val.=C.  eswriata,  Nutt. 

—  unguiformis,  Lam* 

Patella  crepidula,  Linn, 

+C/fo#<»,Defr. 

+<?./>  tow,  Say. 

+P.  ooreentis,  Gmel. 
Cruicibulam  imbricatum,  £bw.  , 

=  C  tcuteUatum,  Gray. 

=  C.  rugotOj  Less,  non  Dean. 

+C.  extinctorium,  Sow.  (non  Lam.)  —  C. 

dentata,  Mke. 
—  spinosom,  iSotp. • ..»...,....••••. 

»  C  pexiza,  Wood. 

+C.  hitpida,  Brod. 

-j-C.  maculata,  Brod. 

4-C.  /aititt,  Brod. 

=  C.  tvBtfera,  Less. 

?+C.  n^oM,  Desh.«  C.  ttpieria,  Brod. -fC. 
ftariftanajyOrb. = C.Byronensu,  Gray. 
Calyptrsea  cepacea,  JHroA 


T.C. 


e.r. 


n.u. 


ILU. 


CapuUd*. 

Hipponyx  serratus,  n.s. 

?=H.JoUaceu$,  Mke. 

—  antiquatus,  Lmn.  

«  Pileoptit  mUndOt  Lam. 

= Hipponyx  PanamentU,  C.  B.  Ad. 

——  planatus,  n.s* •• 

—  barbatus,  Sow,  

}=H.  auttratie,  Mke. 

—  Grayanas,  Mke, , 

—H.  radiata,  Gray  (non  Qnoy  nee  Desh.) 

Cepulus,  sp.  ind.  (like  C.  mUUarie)  

Vermetid*. 

Aletea  centiquadrus,  VaU  , 

+  Vermetus  PeronH.  Val. 

,  rar.  imbricatus  , 


354 

355 


3555 

356 

357 

358 

359 


360 
361 
362 
363 


■  margaritanim,  FaL 

Vermetus  eburneus,  Rve..,», •< 

?Jun.=  V.peUucidtu,  Brod.  &  Sow, 
PBiTonia  contorta,  n.  s 

?  =  Vermetus  glomeratut,  Mke*,C.  B,  Ad.,  non 
PhiL  nee  Linn. 

Comp.  V.  Panameneii,  C.  B.  Ad. 

,  var.  indentata 

—  albida,  n.  a. 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)    

— -f (*)   

Petaloconchus  macrophragma,  n.  a. 


Cacidau 
Caecum  (Elepbantulum)  insculptum,  n.  s„ 

—  subspirale,  n.  a.    

■ abnonnale,  n..s 

obtusum,  n.  s 


r. 
3 

4 

Y.r. 

1 
3 

n.n. 

2 

3 

Y.r. 


Y.r. 
3 
2 

1 
n.u. 


12 
2 
6 


Panama,  Is.  Muerte,  S.  America, 
.'Vancouver^  Strait. 


Atlantic, both  coasts;  Panama, 
Singapore. 


W.Coasft  America,  Panama,  Pern. 


W.  Coast,  Panama,  Pern,  Sta. 
Barbara. 


Is.  Muerte,  Panama. 


West  Indies,  Senegal,  Lobot  Is., 
Panama. 

Panama. 

Society  Islands,  Panama. 

Galapagos,  Sandwich  Islands, 
Panama,  S.W.Mexico,Guinea. 


S.W.  Mexico,  Panama. 


S.  America,  W.  Columbia. 


Panama. 


356 


REPORT— 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities. 


364 


365 
366 

367 
368 


369 
370 

371 

372 
373 
374 
375 
376 
377 
378 

379 


380 


381 


383 

384 
385 
386 

387 


388 

389 
390 
391 
392 
393 
394 


Cecum  (Elephantulutn)  liratocinctum,  n.  ft., 
-fvtr,  tenuiUratum. 
-fvar.  tubobtoletum. 
-f  van  subconicum. 

heptagonum,  n.  a... 


(Anellum)  elongaturo,  n.  s. 

?+Tar.  temilive. 

— subimpressuni,  n.  s. ... 

firmatum,  C.B.Ad..., 


+C.  diminuium,  C.  B.  Ad. 
-j-  C.pygmaum,  C.  B.  Ad. 
-j-C  monstrotum,  C.  B.  Ad. 
+C.Jlrmatum,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  — :-  clathratum,  n.  s 

—  —  quadratum,  n.  6 

-fvar.  compactum. 

—  —  undatum,  n.  8 

?-f  C.  parvum,  C.  B.  AcL    

—  (Fartulum)  lasvc,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  —  farciroen,  d.s 

—  —  glabriforme,  n.  s 

— corrugulatum,  n.  s.  ... 

—  —  dextroversum,  n.  s.  ... 
— reversum,  n.  s 

—  — —  teres,  n.  s 


TwrrUeUidet. 

Turritella  goniostoma,  VdL 

=  T.  Broderipuma,  D'Orb. 
•f  T.  lentiffinosa,  Rve. 
}+T.  Hookeri,  Mke.  (non  Rve.) 
}+T.  Banisii,  Rve. 

—  tigrina,  Kien, 

=  T.  imbricata,  Mke.  (?nou  Lam.) 

?+T.  Cuminffii,Rve. 
}+T.leuco8toma,\il. 

CerUMadm. 

Cerithium  maculosum,  Kien 

=  C.  aduttum,  C.  B.  Ad. 
=  C.  nebuloeum,  Sow. 
?var.  =  C.  aduttum,  Sow.  (non  Kien.) 

—  ?famelieum,  C.  B.  Ad.,  var.  mediolaeve.. 
=  C.  umbonatum,  Sow. — Mus.  Cum. 
Comp.  C.  mutica,  Val. 

—  ?uncinatum,  GmeL    

=  C.famelicum,  C.  B.  Ad.  pan,  teste  Sow. 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)   , 

—  alboliratum,  n.  s 

,  sp.  ind.  (b) , 

— -  stercus-muscarum,  VaL , 

=  C.  irroratwn,  Gld. 

=  C.  oceliatum,  Mke.  (?non  Brug.) 

— —  interrupt um,  Mke , 

?=C.  GaUapaginit,  Sow. 

Vertagua  gemmatus,  Hds. 

1  sp.  ind , 

Triforis  alternatus,  C.B.Ad. , 

—  inconspicuus,  C.  B.  Ad. , 

—  .Mnfrequens,  C.B.Ad. 

Ceritbidea  Montagnei,  jyOrb 

»  Cerithium  Reevumum,  C.  B.  Ad. 
Comp.  C.pulchrum,  C.  B.  Ad. 


50 


1 
15 

8 
14 


12 
43 

320 


170 
8 
5 

1 

20 
1 
5 


e.r. 


1 

10 
1 
c. 


c. 
1 
8 
12 
6 
c. 


Panama. 


Panama. 


Acap.,  S.W.Mex.,  Pan.,  Payta, 
Salango,  Guacomayo. 


Conchagua. 

Acap.,  GaL,  S.W.  Mex.,  Taboga. 

Panama,  S.W.  Mexico. 
Panama,  S.W.  Mexico. 

Acap.,  S.W.  Mex.,Pan.y  Galap. 

Panama,  Galapagos. 

Panama. 

Panama. 
Panama. 
Panama. 
Guayaquil,  Panama. 


ON  MOLLUIOA  OF  THB  WMT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     25? 


No. 

Name. 

Freq. 

Otaar  Localities. 

395 

396 

397 

398 
399 
400 
401 

402 
403 

404 
405 
406 
407 

408 
409 
410 
411 
412 
413 
414 
415 
416 
417 

418 

419 
420 
421 
422 

423 

424 

425 

426 
427 
428 
429 
430 

431  : 

432  ; 

433  < 

434  I 

Cerithidea  ?  varicosa,  Tar.  Mazatlanica 

.    JX.fi. 

C.  c 

n.u. 

c. 

3 
T.r. 
n.u. 

1 
3 

3 

2 

e.r. 

1 

1 
2 

r. 
9 
r. 
1 
2 

1 
4 

1 

90 

3 
13 

2 

2 
e.a. 
50 

Guayaquil,  Panama. 

Real  Llejos,  Panama. 

Sitka,  Mexico,  S.  Salvadorean. 

=  CerUhkm  validmn,  C.  B.  Ad. 

Litorinida. 
Litorina  conapersa,  Phil.  

+L.  puncticulata,  Phil. 
=L.  modetta,  Mke.  non  Phil. 
aspera,  Phil. 

Philippii,  n.  a.    

,sp.  ind 

naciata,  Gray   

Tumbez,  Panama. 
Taboga,  S.  America. 

Modulus  catenulatua,  Phil  

« M.  trochifbrmis,  Eyd.  &  Soul. 
— ,  ap.  ind. 

disculus,  PML  

Acapulco. 

=M.  dttpUcatut,  nar.t  A.  Ad. 
=3f.  dortuotutt  Gld. 
Foaaarua  tuberosus,  n.  s 

angulatua,  n.  s [ 

—  (Isapis)  maculosa,  n.  a 

? ,  sp.  ind 

Ristoida. 
Riasoina  stricta,  Mke 

1    t  ap.  ind. •••... ,.,., 

Woodwardii,  n.a 

Barleeia  lirata,  n.  a.* 

Alvania  excurvata,  n.  s 

—  effuaa,  n.  a 

tumida,  n.8 

— -,  ap.  ind. 

Europe,  Caspian,  United  States, 
Ochotsk  Sea. 

San  Juan. 
Jamaica. 

PCingula,  ap.  ind , 77.. 

Hydrobia  ulva;,  Petm 

=PaludmeUa  stagnate,  Midd. 
? ,  sp.  ind „„. 

Jtfreysiada. 
Jeffineyaia  bifaaciata,  n.a 

■■  ■  ■  Alderi, n. a. 

— —  tomena,  n.  a. 

,  sp.  ind. 

TnmcatelUd*. 
Troncatella,  sp.  ind 

Pkmaxid*. 
Planaxia  nigritella,  Forbes 

=P.  acutus,  Mke. 

+P.  ob$oletu$,  Mke. 
Alaba  aupralirata,  n.  8 

Comp.  Cuufula  tervaricosa,  C.  B.  Ad.  ..*.. 
violacea,  n.  g. 

—  terebrans,  n.  a.  7 

alabaatrites,  n.  8 

scalata,  n.  a.  

>—  conica,  n.  a 

> mutans,  nom.prov 

k laguncula,  nom.prov 

,  sp.  ind.  (a) 

, (A)  7 

*  The  absence  of  typical  Mitto*  among  so  many  species  of  small  shells  is  deserting  of 
notice. 

1856.  . 


258 


RHPOBT— 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


435 


436 


437 
438 

439 
440 
441 
442 


443 
444 


445 
446 


447 


448 
449 


450 

451 
452 
453 
454 
455 

456 


457 

458 
459 

460 
461 


462 
463 

464 
465 
466 
467 


Ovulid*.  ' 

Radios  variabilis,  C.B.Ad.    

=  0.  CaJtfbmica,  Sow. 

Cyprandau 

Cypres  exanthema,  Lmn. 

?+C  eertm*,  Linn.»cert?toiy  Lam. 
+C.  cervinetta,  Eien. 

Luponia  ?spurca,  Linn. 

Aricia  arabicula,  Lam ..... 

?+A.p«nctulota,  Gray. 
Trivia  pustulate,  Lam 

—  radians.  Lam 

—  Solandri,  Gray 

sanguinea,  Gray    

+  T.fktea,  Gray. 
?4-C  lathynu,  Dufresne. 

—  pulla,  Gatk 

—  subrostrata,  Gray, 


CanceUariada. 
Cancellaria  urceolata,  Hinds ... 

—  goniostoma,  Sow 

Strotnbida. 
Strombos  galeatus,.SuHzm*.  ... 

*=S.  galea,  Wood. 

—S.  crenatus,  Sow. 
granulatus,  Swain*.  

—  gracilior,  Sow 


Suborder  Toxjfbaa. 
Terebridm. 
Terebra  (Myurella)  albodncta,  n.  a. .. 
?=  T.  armiUata,  Mke.  (non  Hinds). 

Hiridsii,  ?n.  s 

subnodosa,  ?n.  s 

rufocinerea,  ?n.  s , 


Subula  luctuosa,  Hd$., 

Euryta  fulgurata,  Phil.  

=  Terebra  argruta,  Gld. 
aciculata,  (?Lam.)  Hindi 

PleurotomitUe. 
Plenrotoma  funiculata,  Vol,  

=P.  oUvacea,  var.  Rve.  a  pr.  man. 

—  maculosa,  Sow 

Drillia  incrassata,  Sow 

=Pleurotoma  Bo  it  a,  Kien.  # 

—  rudis,  Sow 

—  aterrima,  var.  Melchersi  

?= Plenrotoma  maura,  "Vl- 
}+P.atrior,  C.B.Ad. 

?+P.  ditcon,  Sow. 

—  ceritboidea,  n.  s 

—  zonulata,  Rve 

=Pleurotoma  cincta,  Sow.  non  Lam. 

—  monilifera,  n.  s 

—  albovallosa,  n.  s 

—  atronodosa,  n.  8 

—  luctuosa,  Hind*  (1843),  non  IT  Orb, 


n.u. 

1 
c.c 

e. 
r. 

v.  r« 
c. 

1 
1 


v.r. 
n.u. 


e.r. 
v.r. 


n.c. 
6 


c. 
c. 


n.u. 

1 

e.r. 
n.c 


3 

1 

1 

1 
8 

D.U. 


Pan.,  San  Juan,  Sta.  Barton. 


West  Indies,  Pacific  Islands* 


Atlantic 
S.W.  Max.,  Pan.,  8t  Blena  and 
Real  Llejos.  [Lat.  1-MT. 
S.W.  Mexico,  Panama,  Is.  Plata. 
St.  Elena,  Panama,  Acapnlco. 

St.  Blena,  Panama. 


Galapagos,  Bay  Guayaqufl. 


Gulf  Papagayo,  San  Bias. 
Conchagua,  San  Salv.,  Taboga. 

Gulf  Nicoya,  Taboga,S.W.  Mex. 


St.  Elena,  GaL,  Pan.,  S.W.  Mex. 
St.  Elena,  Panama,  La  Pax. 


Gulf  Nicoya,  Puerto  Portrero. 
East  Africa. 

Acapuloo,  XipixapL 

San  Bias,  S.W.  Mex.,  G.  Nicoya. 

W.  Columbia. 
Panama,  Monte  Xti. 


Monte  Xti. 
Monte  Xti, 


Monte  Xti,  Xipixapi,  Panama. 


Bay  Guayaq.,  Gulf  Magdalena. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THM  WtiST  OOAIT  OF 


NORTH  ivjCI^Cf^    3&6  Q 


No. 


468 
469 
470 
471 
472 
473 
474 


475 


476 


477 


478 
479 
480 
481 
482 
483 


484 
485 


486 
487 
488 
489 
490 
491 
492 
493 
494 
495 
496 
497 
498 
499 
500 
501 
502 
503 
504 
505 
506 
507 
508 
509 
510 
511 
512 
513 


Drillia  Hanleyi,  n.  8 * » 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)  • 

Claiburella  ra?a,  J%^=De&anda  r.,  Hd*., 

—  aurea,  n.  s. ....» » 

Mangelia  ?  acuticostata,  var.  subangulata 

Cithara,  sp.  ind.  .» » 


Comda. 

Conns  regularis,  Sow, 

Comp.  C.  arcuatvt,  Br.  &  Sow.  in  Z.  B.  Voy. 
non  Rye. 

—  piirpurascens,  Brod. 

+C.  eompftct,  Gld. 

Comp.  C  interruptus,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

—  regalitatis,  £ow> 

? = C.  pttrpurateenty  Tar. 

?=C.  achatixut,  Mke. 

—  arenatus,  i*rt#. 

—  puncticulatus,  Hvxm.  , 

—  gladiator,  Brod. « , 

—  nuz,  Brod. , 

—  Pscalaris,  VaL    , 

?? ,  sp.  ind.  (a) ♦ , 


Name. 


Suborder  PaoBosciDmaA. 

Solariadm. 

Torinia  ?  variegata,  Lam 

—Euomphahu  radiatus,  Mke. 

—  ?  granosa,  Fal.  

?=Sohriumfene*tratum>  Hds. 

PyramideBid*. 

Obeliscus  ?conicus,  C.B.Ad. 

Odostomia  sublirulata,  n.  a>  

— f  sp.  ind »••••.. * 

—  lamellata,  n.  s 

—  subsulcata,  n.  8 

—  vallata,  n.  s 

—  mamillata,  n.  8 

—  tenuis,  n.  8 

—  (Auriculina),  sp.  ind.  (a) 


Partbenia  scalariformis,  n.  a 

—  quinquecincta,  n.  s , 

—  lacunata,  n.  8 

—  armata,  n.s , 

—  exarata,  n.  8 , 

—  ziziphina,  n.  s , 

Chrysallida  oyata,  n.  s 

—  nodosaf  n.s , 

—  rotundata,  n.  s 

—  oblonga,  n.  a. 

—  communis,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  telescopimn,  n.  s.  

—  Reigeni,  n.  b 

—  efiusa,  n.s 

—  fasciata,  n.  8 

—  OYulum,  n.  s 

—  clathratula,  n-a...... 


Preq. 


e.r. 

1 
n.c 

r. 
e.r. 

1 
1 


1 
1 
1 
4 
4 
10 
1 
2 
3 
2 
1 
2 
2 
7 

12 
2 
1 

12 
5 

10 
5 

500 
13 
1 
1 

20 
70 
1 


GulfNicoya. 


Gulf  Nicoya,  Pan.,  Gnaymas. 


Panama,  San  Blas,l8.Annaa[?], 
S.W.  Mexico. 

Real  Llejos,  Pan.,  S.W.  Mexico. 


Bast  Indies. 

Panama,  S.W.  Mexico. 
Galapagos,  Taboga. 


Ofh< 


V 


X-) 


Panama,  West  Indies. 
Acapulco. 


Panama. 


Panama. 


Panama. 


s2 


260 


REPORT— 1856. 


So. 

Name. 

Ait. 

Other  Localities. 

514 
515 
516 
517 
518 
519 
520 
521 
522 
523 
524 
525 
526 
527 
528 
529 
530 
531 
532 
533 
534 
535 
536 
537 
538 
539 
540 
541 
542 
543 
544 
545 
546 
547 
548 
549 
550 
551 
552 
553 
554 
555 
556 

557 

5576 

558 

559 

560 

561 

562 

563 

564 
565 
566 
567 
568 
669 

Chrysatlida  convexa,  n. a.  ............. .,...,,,... 

2 
2 
2 

4 
1 

12 
6 
6 
5 
1 
6 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 
5 
1 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 
6 
2 
3 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
34 

9 
3 
1 
4 
4 
1 
2 
20 

2 
3 
3 

1 
1 
2 

?Panama. 

?Panama. 
Panama. 

.'Panama. 

?Java. 
St.  Elena. 

Panama. 
Panama. 

.'Panama. 

West  Indies,  Atlantic,  Britain. 

Panama. 
Acapnlco,  Panama. 

Panama. 

— —  Photis,  n.  a. 

? indentata,  n.  b. 

?? clausiliformis,  n.  s. 

Chemnitzia  ?  Panamenais,  C.  B.  Ad. 

C-B-Adamsi,  n.  s 

—  Psimilis,  C.B.Ad. , 

aculens,  C.  B.  Ad, 

muricata,  n.  b 

?  affinis,  C.  B.  Ad. 

— ■  prolongate,  n.  8 , 

gibbosa,  n.  s 

— — |  sp.  ind.  (a)    

' rA 

—  gracillima,  n.  s 

undata,  n.  8 

— -  flavescens,  n.  8 

terebralis,  n.  s 

— —  tenuilirata,  n.  s. 

unifastiata,  n.  s 

—  (Dtrokeria)  paucUirata,  n.  s 

—  subangulata,  n.  8 

— cancellata,  n.  a 

?  Bulimella  obsoleta,  n.s 

— .  ap.  ind.  (a)   • 

■  ■.  ■  ■■      (o)    

— ; — \c{ ;..: :::::::::::.:::::::::.::::. 

Aclia  fuaiformis,  n.  s , 

—  tamenB,  n.  s 

Eulima  ? haatata,  Saw.      ,.,.        ...     ... 

^,ap.  ind.  (a) 

, (4) 

Leiostraca  ?  recta,  C.B.Ad. 

?8olitaria,  C.B.Ad.  

— .  sp.  ind.  (a)  

— ;  i_  (ij ;..;. ::;;;;:;:;::.:;:::::::: 

linearis,  n.  8 

?iota,  var.  retexta 

?distorta,  var.  yod 

CerUMcpntUe. 

Cerithiopaia  tubcrculoides,  n.s 

—  ? ,  w.  albonodoaa... 

—  cerea,  n.  s. 

—  pupiformis,  n.  8 

—  Sorex,  n.  8 

convexa,  n.  s 

decassata,  n.  s 

^—  assimilata,  C.  B.  Ad. 

Scaktriada. 
Scalaria  hexagona,  Sow 

8apra8triata,  n.  b 

,  sp.  ind.  (a)   

'  t   •    ••  (o) 

raricostata,  n.  a. 

(Cirsotrema)  faniculata,  ?n.  a. 

ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  00 AST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA* 


No. 


570 


571 
572 
573 
574 
575 
576 


577 
578 

579 


580 


581 

582 
583 
584 

585 

586 

587 
588 
589 

590 

591 
592 
593 

594 


Naticida. 

Natica  maroccana,  Chemn. 

—Nerita  marochienrit,  GmeL  (non  Lam.) 
+Natica  harida,  Phil. 
+N.  vnifatciata,  Lam.  pan  (non  nonnull.), 
+iV.  Chemnitzii,  Pfr.  non  Red.=iV.  PH/- 

ehardi,  Forbes. 
?+  N.  ioetoma,  Mke. 
Comp.  N.  teneUata,  Phil. 

— *,  sp.  ind 

Lnnatia  tenuilirata,  n.  8 

,  sp.  ind.  (a) 

b 


Polinices  uber,  Vol 

+M  alabaster,  Rve. 
?=AT.  ovum,  Mke. 
Comp.  N.  rajmktm,  Rve. 

LameUariadm. 

Lamellaria,  sp.  ind.  (a) 

^ f (*) 


Name. 


Freq. 


FicuUda. 

Ficula  ventricosa,  Sow 

=BuUa  decuuata,  Wood. 

Tritonid\B. 

Triton  (Argobuodnum)  nodosum,  Chemn. 

=  Triton  Chemnitzii,  Gray. 

=Fu*u*  Wiegmami,  Anton. 

=  Ca$*idaria  aetata,  Hinds. 

=  Triton  perforatus,  Conr. 

TurbmeUid*. 

Turbmella  caestus,  Brod.   

«7l  ardeola,  VaL 

Faeciolariada. 

Lathirus  centos,  Gray , 

Lencozonia  cingulata,  Lam , 

Fasciolaria  princeps,  Sow *..., 

»F.  awranHaca,  Sow.  (non  Lam.) 
Mitralens,  Wood  

=  Tkaraforammata,  Swains. 

=Mitra  Dupontu,  Kien. 
StrigateUa  tristis,  Brod. 


FohtHdat. 

Marginella  minor,  C.  B.  Ad. 

—  polita,  n.  s 

—  margaritula,  ?n.  s. 

Comp.  M.  omdiformis,  D'Orb. 

Olivid*. 
Oliva  angulata,  Lam 

—  Vohtta  mcrauata,  Diliw. 

—  Melchersi,  Mke. 

—  intertincta,  ?  n.  s 

—  ?venulata,£om 

+0.  araneoea,  C.  B.  Ad. 

=  0.  reticutarit,  var.t  Rve. 

—  Duclosi,  Roe.., 


1 
2 

1 

5 

2 

n.u. 


n.  u. 


n,u. 


e.  r. 
e.  c 
n.u. 

n.o. 


n.u. 

200 
6 
30 


e.  r. 

v.r. 
20 

n.u. 


Other  Localities. 


Guaymas,  Panama,  S.W.  Mexico, 
Demerara,  Philippines,  Aus- 
tralia, R.  and  W.  Africa,  Red 
Sea,  Pacific  Islands. 


Acapulco,  ?  Panama,  Peru. 


Acapulco,  S.W.  Mexico,  Panama 
(Havre  CoL  only). 

Panama. 


Bay  Caraccas,  Taboga. 

Galapagos,  Panama,  S.W.  Mex. 

W.  Mexico,  Panama. 

Peru. 

Pan.,  St.  Elena,  Is.Plata,  LaPaz. 

St.  Elena,  Galapagos,  Panama. 
Panama. 

West  Indies. 

Pan.,  G.  Nicoya,  B.  Magdalena. 


Pai 


262 


BVPORT— 1856, 


No. 


Name. 


Freq. 


Other  Localities 


595 

596 
597 
598 
599 
600 


=  P.  truncata, 


Olivella  undatella, 

■  VohUa  tenebrosa,  Wood. 

•  tergina,  Duel 

-  anasora,  Duel  , 

-  ?petiolita,  var.  aureocincta  , 

•  inconspicua,  C.B.Ad. :., 

-  daraa,  Mawe , 

O.  Kneolata,  Gray  =  O.  gracilis,  DucL 
0.  purpurata,  Swains. 

-  zonalis,  Lam 

Aragonia  testacea,  Lam 

=  OUva  hiatula,  DucL  pan  (?non  Lam.). 

Purpurid<e.  • 

Purpura  patula,  1km. 

=P.pama,  Gld. 
*—  columellariB,  Lam.    

—  muricata,  Gray .' 

=P.  eamd\formu,  D'Orb. 

DucL 

—  biserialis,  Blamv , 

—P.  bicostaUs,  Rye.  (?  non  Lam.) 
=P.  hamastoma,  Mke.  (?non  Linn.) 
=P.  wufc/a,  VaL,  C.  B.  Ad.  (non  Lam.) 
-f-P.  consul,  Mke.  (non  Lam.) 

?+P.  *«NM/uf«,  VaL 
Comp.  P.  Floridana,  Conr.    

—  triserialis,  Blamv 

=P.  epeeiosa,  VaL 
=*P.  centiquadrm,  VaL _ 

—  triangularis,  /fame , 

=P.  Carolenris,  Rve. 

Cuma  Itiosquifonnis,  2>ucJL 

-f-Pwywra  8cakar\fbrmU. 

—  costata,  IMatRt? 

Comp.  Purpura  diadema,  Rye. 

Rapana  (Rhisocheilus)  nux,  Am. 

}+Rh.  Californicus,  A.  Ad. 

fl2    Vitularia  salebrosa,  King  

—Mures  vitutinus,  Gray  (non  Lam.) 

Nitidella  cribraria,  Lam , 

=  CohanbeUa  mitriformU,  King  ?-  Vohtta 
oeelata,Qme\. = BuecimmpartmiumtJ)ki, 
+C.  guttata,  C.  B.  Ad. 
-!-,  sp.  ind , 


601 
602 


603 

604 
605 


606 


607 


608 
609 
$10 
611 


015 


e.  c 

3 
v.r. 
20 

c. 


e.r. 
c 


n.u. 
e.r. 


v.  c 


614 

615 

616 
617 

618 

618* 

619 

120 

•21 
422 
<23 


Bueemidm. 

Colnmbella  major,  Sow..., 

=  C.  8tromb\fbrmi9,  var.  Kien. 
? = C.  gibbo$a,  VaL  ?  =  C.  paytaUda,  Kien. 

—  strorobiformis,  Lam , 

—  fuscata,  Sow , 

—  C  mekagrii,  Kien. 

cervinetta,  n.  s • , 

,  var.  obsoleta , 


PMetula,  sp.  ind.  (a) 


— > — w 


Nassa  luteostoma,  Bred.  6f  Sow 

=N.  xanthoetoma,  Gray. 

— tegula,  Roe 

^Buccmum  tiarula,  (Kien.)  B.  M. 


r. 
v.r. 

c 
n.  c. 
n.  u. 

r. 


n.  a. 
o. 

1 

2 
2 
7 
2 

1 
e.  c. 

n.c. 


Acapulco,  Panama. 

Conehagna. 
Xipixapi. 
?  West  Indies. 
?  West  Indies. 


Acapulco, 

Acapulco,  Real  Llejos, 


Senegal,  W.  Indies,  Philippines, 

Galapagos. 

Acapulco,  Monte  Xty  Panama, 


West  Indies. 

Acapulco. 

Galapagos,  Taboga. 
Panama,  La  Pas. 


Panama. 

West  Indies,  Panama,  Ascension 
Island,  Africa,  Java. 


Panama,  S.W,  Mex.,  la.  Mqeite. 


Is.  Muerte,  Panama,  Payta, 
Pan.,  San  Bias,  A  cap.,  Mte  Xtif 
St.  Blena. 


Acapulco,  Real  Llejos,  Panama. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WBIT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      863 


No. 


Name. 


Nam  tegula,  var.  nodultfera,  Phil. 

acuta,  a.  a. 

sp.  ind.  (a)    


e:e| 


-  ?gemmulosa,  C.  B.  Ad. , 

•  -Versicolor,  C,  B*  Ad...., 

•  crebristriata,  n.  s. ....... 

,  sp.  ind.  (/)  


6246 

625 

626 

627 

628 

629 

630 

631 

632 

633 

634 

635 

636 

637 

PyruUdm. 

638  Pyrula  patala,  Brod.  Sf  Sow. . 
=P.  meUmgenay  var.,  Sow. 

MuricidiB. 

639  Fosiu  pallidas,  Brod.  &r  Sow. 
=»  Pyrula  tignaria,  Kve, 
var.  =  Ptrru/a  turbineUoidesy  Rve. 
Comp.  A  anomala,  Rve. = Neptwuea  aneept, 

A.  Ad. :  also  P.  foc/ea,  Rve. 

640  tumens,  n.  s. 

641   apertas,  n.  s. 

642  ,  sp,  ind.  («) 

643  , <*) 

644  ?ComineHa,  sp.  ind. 

645  Anachia  scalarina,  Sow, 

646  costellata,  Brod.  fy  Sow. 

646* ?-»■—,  var.  pacbydenna 

646c ? ,  var. 

647  ooronata,  Sow, 

1+CoktmbeBa  costata,  Val. 

}^Cohtmbeila  terpnchore,  Mke.  (non  Sow.) 

Comp.  Buecimtm  oihmm,  Mke. 

648  ?fulva,&w ,.„ 

649  — •  nigrofiuca,  n.  s , 

650  serrata,  n.s 

651   pygmaea,  Sow 

?+  Cohimbella  cottulata,  C.  B.  Ad. 

652  Gaskoignei,  n.  s 

653  — —  rufbtincta,  n.  a. , 

654  ? albonodosa,  n.  s.  .....* 

655  ? «  sp.ind.  («) 

656  ? , (4) 

657  — —  (Strombina)  maculosa,  Sow. 

658   ? ,  sp.  ind , 

659  Pisania  insignis,  Rve. , 

=»  Buccmum  mutabUe,  Val.  pars  (non  Linn.) 

660  sequilirata,  n.  a 

661  gemmata,  Rve, , 

= Buccmum  gemmulatum,  Mke. 
=B.  undotum1fem.t  Kien.  (non  Linn.) 
=B.  mutabile,  pars,  Val. 

662  sanguinolenta,  DucL 

*=*Pollia  famastoma.  Gray. 

=s  Buccmum  Janelii,  Val. 

—  TrUonium  verrucotum,  Mke.  MS. 

663  —  rimrens,  Rve. 

664  Mures  pncatus,  Sow. ,. 


Freq. 


e.r. 

4 
2 
1 
2 
2 
1 
5 
e.r. 
1 
1 
9 
2 
1 


1 

6 

1 

1 

1 

3 
v.r. 
▼.r. 

1 
e.r. 


1 

6 

12 

e.r. 

1 

15 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
v.  c. 

1 
c. 


Other  Localities 


.'Panama. 
.'Panama, 


Acapulco,  Bay  Caraccas,  Pan. 

» 
Callao,  Hd*. 


Panama,  Chiriqui. 
Panama. 


Acap.,  Quibo,  S.W.  Mex.,  Pan. 


S.W.  Mexico,  Panama. 


St.  Elena,  Panama,  ?W.  Indies. 

West  Indies. 

Callao. 


Guacomayo. 

St.  Elena,  Panama. 

Monte  Xti. 
Panama. 


Panama* 
Gulf  Nicoya. 


664 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


665 


666 

667 
668 


670 

671 
672 

673 
674 
675 
676 


Name. 


Freq. 


Morex  ?  recurvirostris,  var.  lividas    

ss  Af.  meuorhu,  Mke.  non  Sow. 
Comp.  M.  nigrescent,  Sow. 

—  (Phyllonotus)  nigritus,  Mensch 

+M.  ambiguus,  Rve. 

—  _.  nitidus,  Brod.  . 

brassica,  Lam 

=  if.  ducatts,  Brod.  &  Sow. 

tricolor,  VaU 

-  M.  erythrostomua,  Swaina. 

« M.  regwM,  Sch.  &  Wagn.  (non  Swains.) 

Var.»Af.  hippocastanum,Vh&. 

regina,  Swains 

if.  tricolor,  Val. 


•  princeps,  Brod.., 


(Muriddea)  ?  lappa,  Brod.    

Comp.  M.  radicatus,  Hds. 

>  dubia,  Swaww 

Perinaceoides,  var.  indentatns . 

—  — — ,  ap.ind 

—  —  pauxillus,  A.  Ad\ 


1 
n.u. 


r. 

1 

3 
3 
2 


Other  Localities. 


Golf  Nicoya,  Panama. 

Real  Llejos,  Gaacomayo. 
Acapulco. 

Acapulco,  S.W.  Mex.,  Panama. 

Puerto  Portrero. 
St.  Elena,  San  Bias. 

Panama. 
Acapulco. 


Analysis  of  Species. 


LAMELLIBRANCHIATA 


12 


BRYOZOA 

PALLIOBRANCHIATA 

'  Freshwater      4 1 
Marine  ...  214 J 

GASTEROPODA:  Opisthobranchiata „ 10 

fLand   5~ 

Pulmonatail  Freshwater...  S 

[Sea 4_ 

Prosobranchiata  iHeteroipoda.    2 

Lateribranchiata   ...       4 

Scutibranchiata 82 

Pectinibranchiata : — 
Rostrifera    ...  120 

Toxifera  34 

Proboscidifera  193 

347 


16 

1 

218 


IF 


435 


457 


Total 


692 


Or  thus :— Bryozoa   16 

Land  Shells 5 

Freshwater  Shells    7 

Sea  Shells   664 


Total. 


692 


52.  Id  January  1850,  Conrad  published  in  the  Journ.  Ac.  Nat  Sc.  Phi* 
ladelphia,  a  list  of  "new  and  interesting  Bhells  from  the  coasts  of  Lower 
California  and  Peru,  presented  to  the  Academy  by  Dr.  B.Wilson."    It  is  not 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       265 


stated  in  which  of  these  two  widely  separated  localities  each  species  was 
found.     They  are  as  follow : — 

Solecardia  [genus  described]  ebumea,  Conr. 

Petricola  sinuosa,  Conr.=P.  robttsta,  Sow. 

Pholadopsis  pectinata.  [The  genus  here  described  is  the  Jouannetia  of  Desm., 
the  Triomphalia  of  Sow.] 

Parapholas  Usulcata,  Cova.=Pkoladidea  melanura,  Sow. 

Penitella  Wilsonii,  Cow.=.Parapholas  acuminata,  Sow. 

Triton  perforatus,  Conr.= Triton  Chemnitzii,  Gray. 

OHva  propatula,  Conr.=0.  testacea,  Lam. 

53.  The  following  are  extracted  from  the  fourth  edition  of  the  Catalogue 
of  the  Collection  of  Dr.  Jay,  New  York,  1850*. 


3737. 


No. 

1421.  PectuncuUu    pectinoides,    Desh. 

Cuv.  Regn.An.pl.  87.  f.  8.    Pa- 
nama. 
2057*  Anodon  Montezuma,  Lea,  Trans. 

Am.  Ph.  Soc.  viii.  pi.  23.  f.  65. 

Central  America. 
2494.  Spondylus  pictorium,  Chenu.   W. 

Mexico. 
2610*  Terebratula  uva,     Brod.    Kiist. 

Conch.  Cab.  pi.  2  b.  f.  8-10. 

Gulf  Tehuantepec. 
3346.  Helix  areolata,  Sow.  Kiist.  Conch. 

Cab.  pi.  36.  f.  10-12.  Pfr.  no. 

393.     Columbia  River. 
Helix  griseola,  Pfr.  Kiist.  Conch. 

Cab.  pi.  60.  f.  17,  18.    Pfr.  no. 

885  =  cicercula,  Fer.=  splendi- 

dula,  Anton.    Mexico. 
4419.  Helix spirulata,Pfr.  KustConch. 

Cab.  pi.  30.  f.  11-14.  Pfr.  no. 

56.     Real  Llejos. 
3437.  Helix  Buffoniana,  Pfr.  Phil.  Icon. 

pi.  9.  f.  2.  Pfr.  no.  507. 
3808.  Helix  imperator,  Montf.  Fir.  pi. 

52.  f .  4  :  52  B.  1-3.  Pfr.  no.  789. 

Central  America. 
3852.  Helix  labyrinth**,  Chemn.  vol.  xi. 

&  208.  f.  2048.  Pfr.  no.  1035. 
ntral  America. 
3919.  Helix  lucubrata,  Say,  Descr.  New 
Sheik,    p.  13.    Pfr.  no.  245. 
Mexico. 


No. 

4204.  Helix  plicata,  Born.  Guer. 

Zool.  1838,  pi.  10.  Pfr.  no.  1036 

■=.Carocolla  labyrinthus,  Lam. 

=C.  Ilaydiana',  Lea.   Panama, 

Porto  Cabello. 
5056.  Bulimusminctalissimus,  Less.  var. 


Voy.  Coq.  p.  329.  pi.  15.  f.  3. 

Pfr.  no.  215.     Mexico. 
5090.  Bulimus  Schiedeanus,  Pfr. =san- 

thostomuSyWiepm.  Pfr. no. 505. 

Phil.  Ic.pl.  l.f.  12.    Mexico. 
5922.  Cyclostoma    Mexicanum,    Mke., 

Thes.  Conch,  pi.  25.  f.  93.  Pfr. 

no.  10.    Mexico. 
6287.  Lymntea  ferruginea,  Hald.  Mon. 

pi.  13.  f.  19,  20.    Oregon. 
6366.  Physa  osculant,  Hald.  Mon.  pi.  2. 

f.  11, 12.    Mexico. 
6454.  Melania  Largillierti,  Phil.  Ic.  pi. 

2.  f.  10.    Central  America. 
6491.  Melania  subnodosa,  Phil.  Ic.  pi.  4. 

f.  18.    Central  America. 
7421.  Trochus  mastus,  Jonas,  Phil.  Ic. 

pi.  6.  f.  5.     California. 
7859.  ConceZfana&ffiuctafa,  Desh.Lam. 

A.  s.  V.  p.  413  =  C.  oblonga, 

Kien.    Panama. 
8816.  Columbella  Boivinii,  Kien.  Ic.  p. 

47.pl.  1  l.f.  1.    GulfNicoya. 
10,078.  Cypraa  eglantina,  Duel.  Guer. 

Mag.  Zool.  1833,pl.28=C.i4r<z- 

bica,  teste  Jay.    California  [?]. 

54.  During  the  winter  of  1850-51,  Prof.  C.  B.  Adams  of  Amherst  College, 
Massachusetts,  visited  Panama  for  the  express  purpose  of  making  collections 
for  the  College  Museum,  and  obtaining  exact  information  on  points  connected 
with  habitat  and  station.  Although  he  only  remained  thirty-eight  days  on 
the  spot,  he  collected — 

Gasteropoda S8,920  specimens  of  376  species. 

LameUibranchiata     ..      2,860  „  139      „ 

PalUobranchiata   ....  50  „  1^      „ 

41,830  516 

*  The  localities  in  this  Catalogue,  unless  confirmed  from  other  sources,  must  be  received 
*|to  great  caution.  The  work  is,  however,  very  useful,  if  only  for  the  list  of  species,  and 
references  to  an  extensive  library. 


>. 


966  bbpobt— 1856. 

Plrof.  Adams  had  before  collected  about  the  same  number  of  marine  species 
at  Jamaica ;  and,  holding  the  theory  that  no  species  could,  be  common  to  the 
two  oceans,  he  was  well  qualified  to  detect  any  sources  of  error  which  might 
have  militated  against  his  own  hypothesis.    The  very  minute  discrimination 
also  to  which  he  had  accustomed  himself  in  his  researches  among  the  land 
shells  of  Jamaica,  would  at  once  prevent  him  from  confounding  similar 
species.     And  as  he  visited  no  other  spot  than  the  shores  of  Panama,  and 
the  neighbouring  island  of  Taboga,  there  is  no  danger  of  the  admixture  of 
specimens  from  different  localities.     The  results  of  the  expedition  were  "  read 
before  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  May  10th,  1852,"  and  published  in 
their  Annals,  vol.  v.     They  also  appear  under  a  separate  form  as  a  "  Cata- 
logue of  Shells  collected  at  Panama,  with  Notes  on  their  Synonymy,  Station, 
and  Geographical  Distribution,  by  C.  B.  Adams,  Professor  of  Zoology,  &c 
New  York,  1858,  pp.  334,  8vo."     The  author  gives  all  his  references  from 
personal  research :  quotes  every  assigned  habitat,  with  authorities  (discri- 
minating original  testimony  by  the  mark !) ;  and,  in  addition  to  his  own 
remarks,  states  the  number  of  specimens  from  which  he  writes.     He  was  not 
able  to  dredge,  nor  to  make  observations  on  the  animals :  but  for  the  shore 
shells,  including  the  minute  species,  there  is  scarcely  anything  left  to  be 
desired.    The  author  describes  157  as  new  species :  of  the  value  of  many  of 
these  there  will  be  two  opinions.     Prof.  Adams  in  his  work  on  Jamaica  shells, 
"Contributions  to  Conchology,"  pp.  84  et  seq.y  gives  up  the  common  opinion 
that  species  are  natural  groups,  while  genera,  &c  are  artificial :  and  as  he 
believes  that  there  are  different  species  as  well  as  varieties  of  mankind,  it  is 
natural  that  he  should  distinguish  as  species  of  shells  what  others  might  con- 
sider varieties,  and  as  varieties  what  may  be  accidents  of  growth.    To  the 
discerning  reader,  however,  this  does  not  interfere  with  the  extreme  value  of 
the  work.     In  a  branch  of  inquiry  so  overburdened  with  carelessly  observed 
or  recorded  facts,  the  freedom  from  the  usual  sources  of  error  is  a  matter  of 
the  first  importance.     Where  a  species  has  originated  in  a  mere  theory,  at 
in  the  case  of  oommon  types  from  the  two  oceans,  the  student  is  at  once  on 
his  guard.    Where  it  arises  from  deficiency  of  materials,  as  in  the  Coca, 
additional  knowledge  will  soon  set  the  error  right     And  in  the  present  state 
of  our  ignorance,  to  designate  forms  as  species  which  will  hereafter  have  to 
be  united,  is  much  more  pardonable  than  to  overlook  differences,  all  of  which  \ 
should  be  carefully  noted  before  we  can  obtain  a  Natural  history  of  any  | 
single  species*.    There  appear  to  be  three  stages  in  our  progress  towards 
truth.    In  the  first,  objects  are  united,  simply  because  their  differences  are 
not  appreciated  :  as  when  Diane  lupinaria  was  considered  a  variety  of  Venus 
<£***  Linn.,  simply  because  they  were  each  spiny.    In  the  second,  minute 
dUfrrences  are  appreciated,  while  their  harmonies  are  overlooked.     Such  is 
the  present  ordinary  condition  of  conchological  science,  as  represented  in 
a*  AcAatinelke,  Cylindrellcsy  Anomiadw,  &c.     In  the  third,  species  are  re- 
^V<K  with  a  full  perception  of  the  differences  among  them,  from  a  greater 
rktltf*1  *>P  *rt*  rani»o  of  variation  of  which  living  creatures  are  susceptible. 
tji  i  ill  it  age,  when  faithfully  performed  on  sufficient  evidence*  should  not 
of  as  "  co ji founding  species,"  and  is  one  of  the  greatest  pieces  of 

•  t*  the  "  tttiftrchw  i'ii  the  Foramlnifera,"  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  1855,  p.  228,  Dr.W.  B.Car- 
._. ,  iillLi  "  wuUttaifrs  of  species'*  will  be  shown  in  the  present  Report  to  "have  been 
\  In  vakffui  Keitn-a  at  Californian  shells  by  the  late  Mr.  C.  B.  Adams,  whose  identity 
Jhed  by  el  more  extended  comparison  of  individuals."     This  sentence  appears  simply 
I  |fci  [mpt«titan  (eft  by  conversation,  and  not  to  do  justice  to  the  Professor.     As  I 
tot  the  impression  I  made,  I  have  to  request  that  those  who  possess  the 
i  alii  ronke  thy  fallowing  corrections: — For  "multitudes  of  species"  read  "several 
>  ft n  "  CaliJbrniiQ  shells"  read  "shells  of  Jamaica  and  Panama." 


ON   M0LLU8GA  OF  THB  WHIT  OOA0T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      267 


service  that  can  be  rendered  to  science :  when  carelessly  wrought,  as  when 
an  author  herds  together  the  species  of  his  neighbour,  simply  because  he  has 
not  been  able  to  examine  them  himself,  it  truly  makes  "  confusion  worse  con- 
founded." For  the  first  great  requirement  in  a  scientific  writer,  patient  and 
laborious  accuracy,  this,  the  last  work  of  Prof.  Adams  (for  he  died  in  1853) 
stands  in  the  very  foremost  rank.  The  following  is  an  analysis  of  its  con- 
tents, for  comparison  with  the  fauna  of  the  Gulf  of  California.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  species  are  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  which  may 
sometimes  prevent  their  affinities  from  being  noted.  The  new  species  are 
described  in  Latin,  with  measurements,  and  with  an  accuracy  which  often 
makes  it  safer  to  identify  shells  from  them  alone,  than  from  the  showy  plates 
and  loose  diagnoses  of  some  works  of  the  greatest  pretensions. 

Prof.  C  B*  Adams's  Panama  List 

N.B.  True  and  falsely  assigned  habitats  are  both  quoted :  the  reader  will  thus  Judge  of 
the  present  state  of  the  science.  Original  authorities  are  cited  in  UaUes.  Added  synonyms 
are  enclosed  in  brackets  [  ]. 


No. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 
Sped- 


Other  Localities. 


1  Onus  avena,  Sow. 

2  —  emarginata,  Sow. . 

3  —  neglects,  n.  s 

4|         variabilis,  n.  s 


on  small  Gorgonia,  l*s.* 


— t  sp- • 

[?  =  O.  variabilis,  var.] 
6  Cypraea  arabicula,  Lam,   . , 


with  0. 
on  Gorgonia):  coloured 
accordingly,  La. 


—  cervinetta,  Kim,  

>=  exanthema,  var.,  Hinds. 
— —  punctulata,  Gray 

P"C  arabicula,  var.] 


u.  stones,  8-20  in.  1.  n, 
u.  stones,  16-20  in.  L  s. 

with  C.  arabicula, 
under  large  stones,  1.  s. 


i0|*-—  ndians,  Lam 

f>  C  oniscus,  Wood,  err,  typ. 


11 rubescens,  Gray 

12 sanguinea,  Gray 

13  Erato  scabriuscula,  Gray . 
=*Marg.  cyprceolm,  8ow. 
=»3f.  granum,  Kien. 

14  MargineUa  minor,  n.  s. . 
15) sapotilla,  Hinds 


under  stones,  1.  w. 


16  Mitra  nmicalata,  Roe.  . 
17 lens,  Wood   

18  —  nucleola,  Lam 

19  —  solitaria,  n.s. 

20 tristis,  Brod. 

21  Terebra  data,  Hinds.... 

—  larvaeformis,  Hds.. 


Moving  quickly  on  li. 
quid  mud,  above  l.w. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 


24 


zobusta,  Hds.   . 
specUlata,  Hds.. 


6 

7 

13 
56 

2 

7 

115 
335 
28 

2 


10 
40+ 

23 
24 
11 

1 
28 

4 


5 
12 


Conchagua,  Cum. ;  Sta.  Barbara,  Jewetl, 
St.  Elena,  Cum. 

St.  Juan,  Green;  Sta.  Barbara,  Jewetl, 


Acapulco,  Humb.\  Brasil,  Ravenelj  St. 

Elena  &  Real  Lie).,  Cum. 
Antilles  &  Senegal,  Kien.;  Ind.  Oc,  Jay. 

Peru  and  N.  Holland*  Kien. 

China,  Humphrey;   Acapulco,  Humb.\ 

Isl.  Plata,  Cum. 
Adriatic,Wood;  Acapulco, /ft*«*. ;  Chili, 

Ravenel;    St.  Elena,  under   stones, 

Galap.,  under  stones,  Cum. 
St.  Elena,  u.  s.,  Cum,  \  Mexico,  Sow, 
Mazatlan,  Jewell ;  Acapulco,  Shall  St. 
Elena,  Cum. 


Is.  Plata,  in  coral  sand,  14  fm.,  Cum. 

Red  Sea,  Kien. ;  La  Pas,  JWcA 

Java,  Kien.  ^ 

Panama,  Bridges. 

St.  Elena  and  Gal.,  Cum. 

Montija,  15  fin.  coarse  sand,  Hds, 

St.  Elena  &  Mte.  Xti,  6-15  fin.  sandy 

mud,  Hds. 
8°  57'— 21°  32',  Hds. 
San  Bias,  Hds. 


*  The  following  abbreviations  are  used;— J.  w.  low  water  j  *.  spring  tides}  n.  neap  tides  j 
aVhigh  water »  ht*  h*Jf-ti4«i  +  above;  «-  below;  «. «.  under  atones,  &c 


268 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


25Terebra  tuberculosa,  Hds 

26 varicosa,  Hds 

27 -,  like  specillata 

28  — ,  slender  brown 

29 f  smallolivaceousywhiteband 

30 ,  small  and  delicate  : 

31 ,sp 

3201iva  angulata,  Lam 

33 araneosa,  Lam 

[?  =  0.  venulata,  var.] 
34 inconspicua,  n.  s 

p-O.ntM^D'Orb.] 

35 pellucida,  Rve 

36 porphyria,  Lmn 

C.  B.  A.  cites  42  references 

for  this  well-known  species. 
semistriata,  Gray 


37 

38 
39 

40 

41 

42 


43 
44 
45 

46 

47 
48 

49 


Name. 


—  testacea,  Lam 

—  undatella,£am 

=  VohUa  tenebrosa,  Wood. 

—  venulata,  Lam, 

=  O.  reticularis,  var.  Rve. 

—  volutella,  Lam 

*■  V.  carulea,  Wood. 

Planaxis  planicostata,  Sow 

^Buccinumplanaxis,  Wood, 
**Plan.  canaUculata,  Duv. 

Nassa  canescens,  n.s 

—  coUaria,  Gould,  MS. 

— -  corpulenta,  n.  s 

?  =f estiva,  Powis. 

gemmulosa,  n.  s 

glauca,  n.s 

luteostoma,  Brod.  Sf  Sow... 


51 

52 

53 
54 
55 
66 
57 

58 


nodifera,  Pwt. 

pagodus,Jftw 

= Bueemum  deeussatum,  Kien. 

(nee  Linn,  nee  Lam.) 
»  Triton  pagodus,  Rve. 

—  Panamensis,  n.  s 

—  proxima,  n.  s 

[? = N.  versicolor,  var.] 

—  scabriuscula,  Pwt.   

—  striata,  n.s 

—  versicolor,  n.s 

—  Wilsoni,  n.s , 

Buccinum  crassum,  Hds. , 

Phos  crassus,  Hds. 

distortum,  Bligh  

=  PolUa  distorta,  Gray. 
asCohtmbella  triumphal**, 
Duel. 

— —  insigne,  Rve. 

mutaoile,  Val.  [pars.] 

—  lugubre,  n.s..... 

pagodus,  Rve 

•  pristis,  Desk 

B.  serratum,  Kien 


Station. 


inva8tnumber8,quickly 

crawling  on  wet  sand. 

under  stones,  h.w. —±t. 


on  sand,  in  run.  water, 
between  tide-marks. 


No.  of 
Speci- 


u.  stones,  above  l.w. 


as  in  N.  luteostoma. 


crevices  of  rocks  be- 
tween l.w.8.  &  l.w.n, 


under  stones  in  sand 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

Lw. 
under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 


1 
1 
2 
5 
1 
1 
1 

17 
1 


175 

20 
15 

1 

4500 

1200 


1 
5 
17 

1 

32 
330 

40 


1500 
1 

380 

2 
500 

5 

1 

95 


140 

175 

18 

6 

275 


Other  Localities 


Papagayo,  San  Bias,  Hds. 
Papagayo,  Hds. 


Nicoya,  Cum. ;  Peru,  Desh. 
Magdalena,  Duel. 


Brazil,  Linn.;  Panama,  Lam.;  La  Pat, 
Green ;  sandy  mud  at  low  water,  Cum. 

Salango,  rapidly  moving  by  hundreds  h 

wet  sand,  Cum. 
Real  Llejos,  sandy  mud,  6  fin.,  Cos. 
Sand  and  mud  banks,  L  w.y  Cum. 

La  Paz,  Green. 

Mexico,  California,  Duel. 

Galapagos,  Cum. 


Senegal,  Kien.;  Real  Llejos  &  Aeapokq, 

Lesson. 
Galapagos,  coral  sand,  6-10  fin.,  Oan» 
B.  Montija,  Cum.;  W.  Africa,  Kiea.; 

Peru,  Petit. 


Panama,  Bridges. 

Montija,  sandy  mud,  12  fm.,  Cum. 


G.  Fonseca,  Hdi. 

N.  Holland,  Kien.;  Chili,  Deah.;  St. 
Elena,  Cum. 


St.  Elena,  Cum. 


San  Bias,  Burtt;   California,  Desh.; 
St.  Elena,  Cum. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WMT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      269 


tfo. 

Nun* 

Station. 

No.  of 
Speci- 
men*. 

Other  Localities 

63 
64 

65 

Bucdnnm  ringens,iew.(not  PhiL) 
—  aanguinolentum,  Duel 

=PoUia  hamattoma,  Gray. 

=B.  JaneMi,  Val. 
«— —  Stirnpsoni&num,  n.  v. ...**.., 

under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 

under&  between  stones 

■extreme  low  water. 

on  and  between  rocks, 

clefts  of  rocks,  1.  w. 
under  stones  and  in 
crevices  of  rock,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  L  w. 

on  rocks  and  trees, 
i-t.  toh.w.n. 

275 
16 

19 

8 

300 

75 

20 

3 

170 
1 

150 

2 
60 

180 

3 

36 
50-f 

1 

25 
19 

1 
400 

3 
6 

7 

7 
150 

1 
9 

10 
19 
30 

9 by  7 in., Barnes.  Adult, 2*3  in.,C.B.Ad\; 
Quito  Is.,  Guayaquil,  Don  Pedro  Abo- 
de* ;  Peru,  Capt.  SJkiddy ;  Payta,  Cum. 

Peru,  Chili,  Kien.-,  Payta,  Fontaine; 
Xipixapi  &  Mte  Xti,  Cum.;  Monte- 
rey, Rich;  San  Frandsco,  Jewett. 

W.  Mexico,  Humboldt. 
Charles  Island,  Galapagos,  Cum. 

N.  Holland,  Duel. ;  La  Paz,  Green. 

Mte  Xti,  under  stones,  low  water,  Cum. 

Chili,  Kien. ;  Real  Llejos,  Less. ;  Pana- 
ma, 10  fin.  sandy  mud,  Cum. 

Mte  Xti,  Cum. ;  Acapuloo,  Humb. 

Chatham  Island,  Galapagos,  Cum. 
sandy  mud,  10  fin.,  Galapagos,  Cum* 
Nicoya,  Hinds. 

Panama  and  Africa,  Gray. 

Is.  Muerte,  Guayaquil,  Cum. 
Nicoya,  Cum. ;  Peru,  Kien. 

Panama,  St.  Elena,  Mte  Xti,  Cum. ;  San 
Bias,  Kien. ;  Acapulco,  Less. 

Bay  Carac.  and  P.  Portr.,  sandy  mud, 
11  fm.,  Cum.;  Chili,  Kien. 

Bast  Indies,  Ascension,  Gorea,  Kien.; 
Java,  Leschenault ;  West  Indies. 

Pan.  &  Gal.,  u.  s.,  Cum. ;  Calif.,  Kien. 
Pan.,  on  dead  shells,  10  fm.,  Cum. ;  Ma- 

zatlan,  Mice. 
St.  Elena,  Cum. 
Panama  &  Chiriqui,  Cum. 
Is.  Muerte,  Cum. 

66 
67 

68 

Dolium  ringens,  Swains.  

*=MaIea  latUabrU  -j-  crauila- 
Mt,Val.v.Syn. 
M onoceros  brevidentatum,  JFoocf. 

*=Purp.  eomigera,  Blainv. 

+  /\  ocellata,  Kien. 

+P.  maculata.  Gray. 
— —  dngulatum,  Woorf   

69 

Purpura  Carolensis,  Jive. 

70 

[«-  P.  triangularis,  Blainv.] 
—  foveolata,  n.  s 

71 
72 

[?=»i\  biserialis.  jun]. 
—  kiosquiformis,  2)«c&    

hf  4*.  ind-, it,. ....... 

73 

[b?.  kiosqutformis,  var. 
«»?.  scalariformis,  Duel.] 
<■  ■  ■ .  mdo,  2te»A , 

sides  and  crevices  of 
rocks,  4— f  tide. 

74 
75 

s?.  crassa,  Blainv. 
«»?.  melones.  Dud. 
■  .  osculaiis,  n.  s.» ••• 

[? = Rhizocheihu  nu* .] 
—  tecta,  JPexwf 

crevices  of  rock, 
Lw.n.— 1.  w.  s. 

under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

76 

77 
78 
79 
80 

«P.  cattosa,  Sow. 

«=P.  angultfera.  Dud. 

=  CVnw  sulcata.  Swains. 

—  Turbtrulla  caliosa,  Leas. 
undata,  [quasi  iam.]  

[«P.  biserialis,  Blainv.] 
Columbella  atramentaria,  Sow.... 
— — •  bicanalifers,  &w.. ........... 

— —  Boiviniif  Kien 

pools  in  rocks,  J— 4 

conspicua,  n.  s.  (?Anachi«). 

costellata,  Brod.  8f  Sow.  ... 

diminuta,  n.  8.  (Anachis)... 

— —  dorsata,  Sow 

81 

,82 

83 

under  stones,  1.  w, 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

!  84 

— — —  fluctuate,  Sow 

under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 

under  stones,  1.  w.-f 
under  stones,  l.w.-j- 

I  85 

=  C.  sutvralis.  Griff. 
— —  f ulva,  Sow 

86 

— —  fuscata,  Sow. 

1 
87 

=  C.  meleagris.  Kien. 
~— ™  gibberula, -Sptp.-t. **..,. ...t.. 

88 

89 

9C 

91 

92 
92 
94 

—  .  i»  tradliSf  n.  s.  (?  Anachis)  ... 

guttata,  Sow.    (prim,  non 

postea.) 

i=NUideUa  cribraria,  Lam. 

=Buccmumparvulum.  Dkr.] 
—  —  hasmastoma,  Sow 

under  stones,  1.  w.-f 

-~— harpiformis,  Sow*...* 

under  stones,  1.  w. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  l.w. 
under  stones,  l.w. 

~C.  citharula.  Dud. 
!— —  labiosa,  Sow.... 

>  —™—  lyrata,  Sow 

[  — —  major,  Sow 

~C.gibbosa,VaL 

»  C.  itrombifbrmit.  var.,  Kien. 

270 


RBPORT— 1856. 


No> 


95 


96 
97 
98 
99 
100 

101 


Columbella  modesta,  Powia ... 
=Buccmum  m.,  Pow. 
=  Truncaria  m,  H.  &  Ad. 

—  moesta,  n.  s.  (?  Anachis) 

—  nigricans,  Saw , 

-  parra,  £010. , 

-  pulchrior,  n.  b.  (?  Nitidella) 

-  pygmaea,  Sow , 


—  rugosa,  Sow. 

=  C.  Sowerbyi,  Duel. 

«  C.  bicolor,  Kien. 

102 strombiformis,  Lam. 

103 tesselata,  n.  s.  (Anachis) 

104 torrita,  Sow 

105—  vana,  Sow.  [non  variant, 
Sow.] 

106 ,  sp 

1 07  Ridnula  ?  carbonaria,  Roe 

108 jugosa,  n.  s.  (Engina)  .... 

109 Reeviana,  C.  B.  Ad. 

Buccinum  pulchrum,  Rye. 

110  Cassis  abbreviate,  Blainv 

C.  lactea,  Kien. 
Ill coarctata,  Sow 


112 

113 
114 
115 

116 
117 


118 
119 
120 

121 
122 

123 
124 

125 
126 

127 

128 
129 
130 

131 

132 


sticks  &  stones,  i-t.  + 
u.  s.,  i-t.—  1.  w. 


Oniscia  tuberculosa,  Roe.. 

Conns  brunneus,  Wood    . 

gladiator,  Brod.  .... 

—  mahogani,  Roe.    .... 


— -nux,  Brod. 

—  princeps,  Linn 

■»  C.  regws,  Chemn.,  Lam. 
=  C.lmeoIatw,Ya\. 

—  purpurascens,  Brod 

-;—  regalitatis,  Sow 

—  regularis,  Sow 


-  vittatus,  Lorn ». 

Strombns  galea,  Wood.... 

=S.galeatust  Gray. 

—  gracilior,  Sow 

—  granulatus,  Swaint. . 


Peruvianus,  Swains.    .... 

Triton  Chemnitzii,  Gray 

= Argot,  nodosum,  Chemn. 

—  constrictus,  Brod , 

?=  T.  decussation,  Val. 

—  fusoides,  n.  s 

—  gibbosus,  Brod.  

Egnarius,  Brod.  


—  vestitus,  Hds 

1  var.  senior. ........ 

Ranella  crclata,  Brad.  ......... 

=  R,  ttmigranosa,  Kien.  non 
Lam. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

u.  stones,  1-t. — l.w  jl 


under  stones,  L  i 
under  stones,  1.  ¥ 


under  stones,  1. 1 
under  stones,  1.  ^ 


clefts  of  rocks,  l.w. 

u.  s.  with  sand,  1.  w 

crawling  on  very  wet  s., 

Lw.— i-tide. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  L  w. 


l.w. 


sandy  beach,  1.  v 
under  stones,  L  \ 


ll  s.,  Lw.  o.—  L  w.  s. 


No.  of 
Speci- 
men*. 


80 


58 
620 

1 

5 
185 

1500 


1 
27 

1 
380 

1 
70 

1 
110 


4 
70 
17 

2 
9 


12 
9,  3  in. 

1 

4 
fragm. 

1 

7 

24 

9 


1 
5 

1 

4 
1 

190 


Other  Localities 


Montija,  muddy  griTel,  7-1 7  fin.,  Cuss, 
Sta.  Barbara,  Jeweit. 


Galapagos,  Cum. 

Mte  Xti,  under  stones,  Cum. 

St.  Elena,  on  dead  shells,  sandy  mud, 

10  fin.,  Cum. 
Pan. &Xipix.,G8wi.  j  Real  Uej., March, 


Is.  Muerte,  Cum.  j  Payta,  Font. . 
Montija  &  St.  El.,  s.  m.,  10  fin., 


Philippines,  Jay. 
Galapagos,  Otm. 
Portugal,  Bonanni ;  Acapuloo,  Rww 

?N.  Zealand,  Sow.;  Shores  of  Peru,  st 
Acapulco,  Kien. ;  Gal.  in  crevices  d 
rocks,  Cum. ;  San  Juan,  Green, 

Gal.,  clefts  of  rocks,  L  w.,  Cum.  »  An- 
stralia,  Jay ;  San  Juan,  Green. 

GaL,  P.  Portr.,  Pan.,  Cum. 

Salango,  Cum. 


Galapagos,  Cum. 

Asia,  Dillw.;  Philippines,  Jay* 
Juan,  Green\  Mte  Xt^&St.EL, 


Annas,  Sow. ;  San  Bias,  Hds. 
Real  Llejos,  Own. ;  Peru,  Kien. 
Nicoya  &  Peru,  soft  mud,  7  at  23  fin. 
Hds. ;  Philippines,  Kien.;  Guaymas,flr. 
Pan.  &  Mont.,coarse  sd.,7-11  fm^Cm\ 
Nicoya,  reefs,  L  w.,  Cum. ;  Peru,Grsy. 

Calif.  &  Tahiti,  Jay ;  La  Pas,  Green. 
India,  Kien.;  St.  EL  &  GaL,  sandy  mud, 

6-8  fin.,  Cunui  La  Pas,  Green, 
Caraccas,  on  reefs,  Cum. ;  Peru  &  ?M 
[Sea,  Dad 

Mte  Xti  &  Xipix.,  sandy  mud,  7-10  fin. 
[Cum.;  Acap^Hds. 

Pan.  &  Mte  Xti,  coarse  sand,  7finnOsa 
P.  Portr.  &  Pan.,  sandy  mud,  7-12  fit, 

Cum. ;  Mte  Xti.,  Hds. 
Real  Llejos,  Nicoya  &  Honda,  an 

[rocks  on  shore,  Bk 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  TH1  WAIT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      271 


Station* 


No.  of 
Sped- 


Othar  Looalitif. 


133 


Raneha  nana,  Brad.  Sf  Sow.. 


139 
140 

141 

142 
L43 
144 


L5i 


155 
166 
157 
168 

159 


161 
162 


173 
174 


175 
176 

177 

178 


134 nitida,  Brod, 

135 plicata,  Roe. 

136  Murex  dubins,  Sow. 

M.  acukatuitWd.7  non  Lam. 
tS7[— — -  ennui,  Brod. 

—  radix,  Schroet. 
=melanomatho9j  Dillw.  pan. 
[Non  M.  ambiguus,  Rvc  J 

—  rectirostris,  Sow. 

—  reciirvirostris,  Brod. 

—  regius,  Swains. 
**M.  tricolor,  Val. 

salebrosus,  King 

? Tiber,  Brod. 

vittatus,  Brod. 

145  Pynda  patula,  Brod.  %  Sow, 
I46ficula  ventricosa,  Sow. 

= Bulla  decussata,  Wood. 
l47FususbeIlus,  n.  s. 

148  Fuciolaria  granosa,  n.  8. 

149  Turbinella  cestus,  Brod. 
160  —  castanea,  Gray 

T.  acuminata,  Rve. 

cerata,  Wood 

rodis,  Roe.  ... 

163 spadicea,  Roe.  ... 

}64|Caiioellaria  affinis,  n.  s. 

clavatula,  5ow. 

—  decnssata,  Sow. 

—  goniostoma,  Aw. 

—  mitriforaiis,  &ia 
+C.  unipUcata,  Sow. 

—  pulchra,  jbv. 
pygnuea,  n.  s. 

solida,  Sow. 

tesselata,  Sow. 

[63  Pleurotoma  aterrima,  Sow. 

— —  atrior,  d.  a.  ..*•• , 

[?  —  PMterrima,Yai.  Melcherti."] 
}w- — bicanalifera,  Sow. 

1W  — .  collaris,  Sow.  

| J7 concinna,  n.  s.  (?Mangelia) 

168  —  corrugata,  Sow.  , 
+P.  turricula,  Sow. 

169 diacors,  5bw. 

[?+P.  aterrima;  Sow.] 

IW duplicata,  Sow. 

I" ?excentrica,  &W. 


under  stones,  L  w. 
under  stones,  L  w. 


under  stones,  L  w. 
about  stones,  with 
sandy  mud,  L  w. 


crevices  of  rocks, 

1.  w.  n.-l.  w.  s. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 

under  stones. 


stones  in  mud,  L  w. 

sand  beach,  1.  w. 

crevices  of  rocks,  1.  w. 

crev.  of  rocks  &  u.  s. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 


172 


exigua,  n.  s. . 


—  gemmulosa,  n.  a. ...» 

—  grandimaculata,  n.  s 

P.  zomUata,  teste  Com. 

— -  incrassata,  Sow 

P.  Bottaj,  Kien. 

—  nigenrima,  Sow 

+P.  comuta,  Sow. 

— -  obeliscus,  Roe. 

—  olivacea,  Sow 

t-     [Comp.  P.jumculaia,  Sow.] 
179- — pallida,  Sow. 


2 

300 

6 

72 

2 

100 
5£  in. 
22  oz. 

1 

1 

18+ 

14 
13 

1 

1+ 
8 

1 
7 
2 
32 


30 
15 
3 
8 
2 
1 
5 

2 
1 
1 
2 

14 

1 

1 

4 
1 
3 


1 
8 

12 


Is.  Panama,  Phil.,  Sow. 
Caraccas,  Cum. 


Caraccas,  Cum.  j  Acapuleo,  Humbt 


Xipix.,  sandy  mud,  11  fin.,  Cum. 
Nicoya,  sandy  mud,  9  fin.,  Cum. 
Peru,  Bligh ;  Acap.,  Humb. 

Southern  coast  of  S.  A.,  Sow. 

St.  Elena,  sandy  mud,  6-12  fin.,  Cum. 

I.  Muerte,  sandy  mud,  11  fin.,  Cum. 

Caraccas,  mud  banks,  Cum. 

San  Bias,  Kien. ;  India  &  China,  Desk 


Peru,  Kien. 

Caraccas,  mud  in  rocks,  Cum. 


Mas.,  Kien. ;  Galapagos^  Gum* 


Pan.  &  Payta,  sandy  mud,  7  fin.,  Cum. 
Pan.,  Puert.  Por.,  s.m.  10-13  fin.,  Cum. 
Conchagua,  8.  Salvador,sd.,8fm.,  Oum. 

1  sp.,  sandy  mud,  Cum. 

2  sp.  sand,  10  fin.,  Cum. 
Sand,  8-10  fin.,  St.  Siena,  Cum. 

R.  Llej.  &  St.  Elena,  8-10  fin.,  sd.,  Cum. 
Carac.,St.El.,Xip.,s.m.  7-10fin.,  Cum. 
Mte  Xti,  Cum. 


Montija,  sandy  mud,  10  fin.,  Cum. 
Caraccas,  muddy  sand,  8  fin.,  Cum* 

Mont.&P.  Portr.,  sdy.md.,  lOfin^Ctaw. 

I.  Plata,  coral  sand,  17  fin.,  Cum. 

P.  Portr.  &  Mont,  sdy.  md.,  10fin.,Cka». 
Coral  sand,  6  fin. ;  Galap.,  Cum. 

Philippines,  Cum.  MS. 

Pan.  &  Mte  Xti,sdy.md.,6-10fin.,CI«i. 

Carac,  sandy  mud,  6-10  fin*,  Cum, 


Salango,  St.  Elena,  sdy.  m<L,  5-12  fin 
Cum. ;  mud,  4-7  fin.,  Nicoya,  Hdt. 
P.  Portr.,  sandy  mud,  13  fin*  Cum* 


272 


REPORT— 1856* 


No. 


Name, 


Station. 


No.  of 
Speci- 


Othsr  Lotalitkt. 


180 
181 
182 

183 
184 

185 
186 
187 
188 
189 
190 
191 
192 

193 

194 

195 
196 


197 
198 


199 
200 


201 

202 

203 
204 

205 

206 

207 
208 
209 
210 

211 

212 

213 
214 
215 
216 


Pleurotoma  rigida,  Hds.  ....... 

•rudis,  Sow 

■  rustics,  Sow.    

P.  thiarella,  Kien. 

■  striosa,  n.  8 

zonulata,  Rve 

P.  cincta,  Sow.,  non  Lam. 

»sp 

t*P 

Mangelia,  sp , 

«P 

*P 

.  sp.  

neglecta,  n.  8 

—  ?sulcosa  , 

?  *=  Cotumbella  sulcosa,  Sow. . 

Cerithium  adustum,  Kien.  (plate) 

=  C.  macuhtum,  Kien.  text 

—  assimilatum,  n.  8 


—  bimarginatum,  n.  e.... 

—  famelicura,  n.  s 

N.B.  The  description  does 

not  agree  with  the  type  sp.  in 
Mus.  Cura.,  and  accords  better 
with  C.  tuncinatum,  Grael., 
also  found  at  Mazatlan. 

—  gemmatum,  Hds. 

—  ?  interruptum,  Mke. 
[  =  C.  Gallapaginif,  Sow.:  non 

C.  interruptum,  Sow.  quasi 
Gould.] 

— ,  sp.  ind 

*■  C.  interruptum,  var. 

—  irroratum,  Gould    

=  C.  ttercutmutcarum,  Val. 

—  neglectum,  n.  8. 


Pacificum,  Sow 

C.  Humboldti,  Val. 

pauperculum,  n.  s 

*—  pulchrum,  n.  s 

Reevianum,  n.  s 

[  s  CerithideaMontagneitD'Orb.] 

—  valid um,  n.  s 

[  —  Cerithidea  varico*at  Sow.] 

Triphoris  alternatus,  n.  s 

inconspicuus,  n.  s 

infrequens,  n.  s 

Turritella  Banksii,  Rve 

[?=/tprma,  Kien.] 

Caecum  diminutura,  n.  s 

[—firmatum,  jun.] 

—  eburneum,  n.  s 

\_=ftrmatum,  var.] 

—  firmatura,  n.  s 

—  laeve,  n.  8 

—  laqueatum,  n.  s 

—  monstrosam,  n.  s 

[^firmatum,  adol.] 


under  stones,  L  w. 


under  stones,  1.  w.  n.  — 
wet  sand,  u.  s.f  £-tide. 


u.  8.,  sponges,  1.  w., 
marine  plants,  &c. 


on  &  under  rks.  &  St., 
i-tide— Lw.  n. 


rock-pools,  £-tide-f 

u.  s.  in  dead  shells  & 
sponges,  1.  w. 


J  buried  in  muddy  sd. 

under  bushes  at  h.  w, 

ditto        ditto 

ditto        ditto 


under  stones,  1.  w. 


among  &  under  st.,  in 
calc.  sd.,l.w.n.— l.w.s. 


20 
2 
10 

13 
2 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 
4 
170 


206 


2 

17 


19 
1100 


30 
820 
33 

1 

2 
125 

190 

250 

5 

16 

2 

350 

1 

22 

85 
2 
2 
7 


Mte  Xti,  under  stones,  Cu 
Xipixapi,  Cum. 


Mte  Xti  &  Xipix.,  sand  and  gruel, 
7  fm.9  Cum. 


Annaa,  &  Ld.  Hood's  Is,,  Cum. 
Indian  Ocean,  Red  Sea,  Kiener. 


Cumana,  Humb. 


Sandy  mod,  10  fm.,  Cum. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       273 


None. 


Caecum  parvnm,  n.  s 

[?=  C.  wmdatum,  Jan.] 

—  pTgmseum,  n.  s.  

[  =  C.Jirmatum,  jun.] 

Chemnitzia  aculeus,  n.  a» 

acmninata,n.8.(?ChrysalUda) 

-  affinia,  n.  s 

-cUthratula,n.*.fChrYsallida 

-  communis,  n.s.(Chrysallida 

-  gracQior,  n.  a. 

-major,  n. 8.  ...'. 

marginata,n  ^.(Chrygallida) 

Panamenais,  n. a......... 

similis,  n.  a, 

-  striosa,  a.  a. 

-  tnrrita,  n. s. 

?Littorina  angioatoma,  n.s.  (?Fos- 

sarus.) 
-aspera,  Phil 


Station. 


under  stones,  l.w. 


(Ttr. 


•  atrata,  n.  s. 


I conspersa,  PJti L  

I? excavata,  n. s.  (Fossarus) . 

SI fasciata,  Gray , 


I  ? fbveata,  n.  s.  (?  Fossarus). 

|  ? megaaoma,  ius.(?Fo8sarus) 

It Pparvula,  PAi/.,var.dubiosa. 

[Comp.  X.  PkiUppiL] 
pulchra,  Saw 


puncticulata,  Phil 

[=«wup#r»a,  var.] 
—  ▼aria , 


SKssoadandestiiia,  n.8.  

firmata,  n.s 

—  fortis,  n«s. 

1 inconspicua,  n.a.  (non  JUL) 

infrequent,  n.  s 

—  Janus,  n.  s , 

—  notabilis,  n.  s. , 

—  scalariformis,  n.  s.  , 

■CroguU  inconspicua,  n.  s.  ... 

—  ptopercula,  n.  a. 

■ — •  terebellum,  n.  s , 

■ tnrrita,  n.  s 

[Iitiopa  saxicola,  n.  s.  (Cingula) 
Wdeorbis  abjecta,  n.s.  (Fossarus) 

VHrineua  concinna,  n.  s 

exigua,n.8 

Janus,  n.  s 

minuta,  n.  s.  (Teinostoma) 

m       modesta,n.8 

■ —  PsaamenBis,  n.  s 

pairs,  n.8 

perparva,  n.  s 

' — Kgularis,  n.  s. 


sand,  $-t.— b.  w. 


ledges  or  large  pieces 
of  rock,  h.w.-f 


in  or  near  cavities  of 

rocks,  i-tide-h.w. 

large  piecesof  rk.,h.  w. 


on  trks.  A  bra.  of  small 
trees,  4-t.—h.w. 


cay.  of  rough  ledge  of 

rocks,  h.  w.+ 
on  mangroves,  grow- 
ing from  mud,  h.  w.  — 
on  pieces  of  rk.,  h.  w. 

on  trunks  &  branches 
of  trees,  i-t.— h.w. 


under  stones,  L  w. 


under  stones,  L  w. 


No.  of 
Speci- 


4 

1 

2 

10 

90 

2 

1 

2 

11 

2 

1 

3 

3 

2400 

33 
3300 

320 

1 
160 

2 

1 
600 

11 

80 

300 


Other  Localities. 


"  Sitcha,  San  Salvador,  Mex.,"  Phil. 


Real  Llejos. 


13 
3 

1 


Real  Llejos. 

"Pan.,  Guay.,  Cusma,  Peru,"  Phil.; 
Chiloe,  Petit. 


1856. 


274 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 
Sped- 


OUwr  Localities. 


267 
268 
269 
270 
271 
272 
273 

274 

275 
276 
277 


278 
279 


280 

281 

282 

283 
284 
285 
286 
287 
288 
289 
290 
291 
292 
293 
294 
295 

296 
297 


Vitrinella  seminuda,  n.  s 

—  tricarinata,  n.  s 

—  valvatoides,  n.  s 

Solarium,  sp.  (like  grawalatum). 

,  sp.  Hike  quadriceps)  

»  >P-  I-  =■  Tormta  variegata) 

Trochus  catenulatus,  Phil.  (Mo- 
dulus*) 

—  coronulatu8,  n.  8.   (?Om 
phalios.) 

—  Leanus,n.s 

—  lima,  Phil 

—  li vidua,  Phil  (Modulus)... 
[ = eitherdUcuhu,  Phil,  or  dor- 

tuonuy  Gld.,  teste  types.] 

—  Panamensis,  Phil , 

—  pellis-serpentis,  Wood , 

=  T.8trigilatu$,FhiL 


under  stones,  1.  w. 
u.s.,1.  w.  n.— 1.  w.  8. 


—  reticulatus    

[?=triridulus,  Gmel.] 
Turbo  Buscbii,  Phil 

[=  Uvanilla  inermit,  Kien.] 
phasianella,  ?  n.s 

}= Litorina  phasianella,  Phil, 

rutilus,  n.  a. 

saxosua,  Wood 

Scalaria  hexagona,  Sow.  

—  obtusa,  Sow 

— »sp 

-»*P : 

-»«P 

Eulima  iota,  n.  s 

—  recta,  n.  s 

—  solitaria,  n.  s „.. 

Pyramidella,  sp 

—  conica  

NaticaChemnitzii,/yr.(non4fAe.) 

[^maroccana,  Chemn.] 

—  ?lurida,  PhiL   , 

—  otis,  Br.  Sf  Sow 

[? = Gallapagota,  Rich] 


under  stones,  i.  w. 
on  or  under  large  st. 
or  rks.,  J -tide.    Most 

active  at  twilight, 
under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 

on  or  under  stones, 

Lw.n.-Lw.i 


rocks,  L  w.  n. 


298 
299 
300 

301 
302 
303 
304 


305 
306 


—  ?  Salangonensis,  He'd. 

—  Souleyetiana,  RtcL  ... 

—  ?virginea,  Reel  (  =  ?  titer, 
VaL  teste  Mus.  Gld.) 

->*P 

— ,  sp.  (= liter,  Val.)    .. 

,  sp.  like  Haneti 

Nerita  scabricosta,  Lam.  (non  De- 
bater/—costata). 

=ornata,  Sow. 

^Dethayesii,  Reel. 

,  sp. «  Bernhardt,  Reel. . . , 

Neritina  Guayaquilensis,  Sow. 

+mtermedia,  Sow.  teste  Reel. 


on  Holothuria. 

soft  mud,  1.  w. 

'sand  beach,  i  buried 
insand.i-t— .  The 
horny  opercula  were 
eaten  by  rata,  off 
^Cape  Horn, 
sdy.  mud,  }-t. — 1.  w. 


wet  sand,  ^-t.— Lw. 
wet  sand. 


rocks,  especially  cre- 
vices, h.w.— f-t. 
young,  above  h.  w. 

rks.&st.,i-t.— l.w.n. 

above  highest  tides, 
among  sticks  and 
leaves,  in  muddy 
places  overflowedb'y 
fresh  water. 


1 
1 
3 
3 
3 
6 
23 


7 

75 
3 


65 
505 


600 
180 
112 

1  + 
160 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

2 

5 

1 

1 

1 
60 

8 
11 


10 
4 
40 

200 
2 

1 
400 


2800 
90 


Sta.  Barbara,  Jewel  L 
Acapulco,  Jewell. 


Acapulco,  H*mb.;  California,  PhiL 


Acap.,  Moffat. 

St.  Elena,  sandy  mod,  6  fin.,  Cam. 


Guaymas,  Green. 


Callao,  Petit. 


I 


Real  Llejos,  Sow. ;  California,  Phi 
Is.  Timor,  Reel  | 

Real  Llejos,  Guayaquil,  Chat. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  OOA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     2*]5 


To. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 
Speci- 


Other  Localities. 


07  Neritinapicta,5o«7.(nonf/a?nifi^.) 
[N.B.  Lieut. Green's  specimens; 
quoted  from  San  Miguel  as 
of  extraordinary  lize,  are  pro- 
bably jVL  oauicukm,  Sow.] 

Pedipes  angulata,  n.  s 

Auricula  acuta,  D'Orb 

=Marinula  Rectuziana,  Cum, 
MS. 


96 


10 

11 
12 

13 

14 

15 

16 
17 

18 

19 
20 
21 

22 
23 


24 
25 
26 
27 


29 


130 

(31 

£2 
133 
(34 


135 


—  trilineata,  n.  a, , 

— .  *P 

Truncatella  Bairdiana,  n.  s. 


strictly  marine :  sticks 
and  stones  in  grove, 
i-t.+ :  dirty  places 
on  rocks,  i-t.  — . 

under  stones,  h.  w. 
under  stones,  h.  w. 


-  concinna,  n.  s. 


— -  infrequens,  n.  s. 
Panamensis,  n.  s. 

atagnalis,  &  Orb. 

+pajnBtfera%  Kiist. 
—  Tabogensis,  n.  s. 


i     short    mangrove 

suckers,  h.w. 

under  stones,  h.  w. 

u.8.,  h.  w.,  or  crawling 

over  wet  stones, 
under  heap  of  stones, 

above  h.  w. 

on  and   under  stones 

and  rocks,  h.  w. 


k 


-  dubiosa,  n.  s.(?Assiminea) 

Bulla  f  Tornatina)  infrequens,  n.s. 

—  (Cylichna)  luticola,  n.  s. 

—  punctulata,  Ad.    

—punctata,  Ad. 

— »»P 

Vermetus    glomeratns,    (quasi) 
Jjam.  pars. 
[ = Aletet  ?  centiquadrut,  YaL] 

—  Panamensis,  Routt 

Stomatella  inflata  (?  Sigaretus)... 
Hipponyx,  sp.  (?  subrufa) 

—  Pbarbata   

Comp.  Piieoptit  pitotut,  Desh. 

Guer.  Mag.  1832,  pL  19. 

—  Panamensis,  nom.  prov.  . . . 
[ssantiguatttt,  Linn.] 

—  radiata,  Sow.  (non 
nee  Lam.) 

[=  Grayanutt  Mke.] 

Calyptnea  aberrans,  n.  s 

[?  =*  Crep.  unoui/brmis,  var.] 

—  (Syphopatella)  aspersa,  n.  s. 
[=Galerut.'] 

—  cepacea,  Brod. '. 

—  conica,  2?ro&    

—  dentata,  Mke.  

=*ruffotat  Rve.  non  Desh. 

[  =»  Cruciouhtm  imbricatum,  var.] 

—  (Calypeopsis)hispida,  Brod. 
[■=  Cruc.  epinosum,  pars.] 

imbricata,  Brod. 


under  stones,  h.  w. 
under  heap  of  stones, 

h.  w.  s. 

under  heap  of  stones, 

h.  w.  s. 


on  liquid  mud,  1.  w. 


rocks  &  stones,  l.w.  n. 

attached  by  end  of 

spiral  portion, 
rocks  &  stones,  l.w.  n. 


Quoy, 


stones  and  shells,  1.  w. 

stones  and  shells,  L  y 
stones,  l.w. 


under  stones,  1.  w. 
dead  shells,  1.  w. 


under  stones,  L  w. 


p7 maculata,Br«J.  (non  Quay) 

.  [  =  Cruc.  spmotum,  pars.] 

538 planulata,  n.  s , 

139 radiata,  Brod.  


on  oyster,  i-t.— 


290 


90 
3 


74 

6 
650 

36 

800 

1 

2 

400 

550 


25 

1 
25+ 


10+ 
1 
2 
12 


14 
16 

1 
3 

4 

12 
8 

20 
2 


1 
10 


Pan.,  on  mud-bank  partially  overflowed 
with  fresh  water,  Cum. 


Guayaq.,  near  brackish  water,  Fontaine. 


Guayaquil,  marsh  and  even  fresh  water, 
Font.;  L  Tumaca,  Cum.  MS. 


Acap.,  Jewett ;  sandy  mud,  10  fin.,  Cum. 

attached  by  one  side  of  all  the  whirls. 
Coral  reefs,  Toubouai,  Soc.  Is.,  Cum. 


Lobos  Is.,  on  stones  in  coarse  sand, 

17  fm.,  Cum. 
Panama,  Galapagos,  on  rocks.  Cum. 


sandy  mud,  1 1  fm.,  Is.  Muerte,  Cum. 
Xipix.,  Sal.,  on  shells,  deep  water,  Cum, 


Is.  Muerte,  on  dead  shells,  sandy  mud, 

12  fm.,  Cum.  [D'Orb. 

on  stM  sdy.  md.,  6-10  fm.,  Cum. ;  Payta, 

Is.  Muerte,  on  dead  shells,  in  sandy 

mud,  11  fm.,  Cum. 

Caraccas,  sdy.  mud  on  dead  shells,  7-14 
fin.,  Cum. 

t2 


276 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


No.  of 


340 


341 

342 
343 

344 

345 

346 

347 

348 

349 
350 


Calyptraea  (Syphopatella)  regu-; 
laris,n.a. 
[ - GaJerut  mammUlarU,  BrwL] 

umbrella,  Deah.    

«-  Crueibuhm  rude,  Brod. 

??unguis,  Brod. 

Crepidnla  cerithicola,  n.  s 

—  echinus,  Brod. 

[=C.  acuieata,  var.] 

—  excaYata,  Brod. 

?  hepatica.  Dak. 

[*C.  onyx,  Sow.] 
incurva,  Brod. 


on  Ceritk.  stercue- 


tmder  stones,  1.  w. 


354 
355 
356 

357 


Lessonii,  Brod. 

[«C*tvea,Tar.3 
squama,  Brod. 

—  unauiformis,  Lam,  .., 
=  C.Itatica,T>efr. 
=  C.  plana,  Sty. 
=  C.  ealceoUna,  Deah. 
[Perhaps  =C.  nwea,  var.:  but 

v.  B.  M.  Maz.  Cat.  p.  284.] 
Fossil  in  Italy,  Sicily,  Bor- 
deaux, Dax,  Touraine. 

—  nivea,n.s. 

[+ C.  squama  +C.  Lettonn  + 

C.  ttriolata.] 

—  osculans,  n.  s 

rostrata,  n.  s. 

C.  adunca,  Sow.=C.  eoUda, 
Hda.  =  C.  rofiriformie,  Old 
»C.  unco/a,  Mke. 

fissurella  axraalis,  Sow 

alta,n.s • 

macrotrema,  Sow 


on  Sirombut,  Coma,  & 

Cumuf&c 

living  shells,  L  w.+ 

under  stones,  1.  w. 

u.  s.,  &  in  shells,  L  w. 

in  dead  shells,  near  f-t. 

lereL 


351 

352 
353 


358 
359 
360 
361 

362 

363 
364 

365 
366 
367 

368 
369 
370 
371 
372 
373 
374 


—  microtrema,  Sow 

[?=F.nyoM,?ar.] 

—  mus,  Roe. 

nigropnnctata,  Sow. , 

ostrina,  Roe. 

Tirescens,  Sow 


Siphonaria  characteristica,  Roe. 
[*S.  gigat,  var.] 

—  costata,  Sow 

—  gigas,  Sow.    

—  maura,  Sow. 

?  pica,  Sow 

Lottia  ?  patina,  Eseh 

[}=Acma>a  metoleuca,  Tar.] 

— »»P 

— ,»P 

— »»P 

?  Patella,  sp 

Chiton  dathratus,  Roe. 

dispar,  Sow 

?  lnridus,  Sow 


under  stones,  1.  w. 


on  rocks,  i-t.— 


ledge  of  smooth,  ex- 
posed rocks,£-t Lw. 

on  rocks,  |-t.+ 


on  rocks,  i-t.  h 
iedges  of  rocks,  i-t.-f 


on&under  stones,l.w.n. 

under  stones,  i-tide 
under  stones,  i-tide 


rocks,  i-t. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 

under  stones,  I.  w.  n. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 


1 
45 

18 

1 
28 

120 

80 

35 


45 


5 

10 

8 

95 

3 

142 

70 

1 

220 

200 

3 

34 

45 
20 
11 
16 
12 
100 
3 


Pan.  and  Real  Llej.,  under  stones,  Cm 
Guayaq.,  Jay. 


Lobos  Is-,  Cum*. 

Real  Llej.,  Cum. ;  Chili,  D«h. 
C.  G.  Hope,  Krausa. 

St.  Elena  and  Xipix.,  on  dead 

10  fin.,  Cum. 
I.  Mnerte,  Cum. 


Mediterranean,  Deah. ;  Tunis  &  Mpm, 
ATJndr.;  Senegal,  Potiez;  Umm 
Migkeie;  Carolina,  &c,  Say;  Jai 
C.B.da\ ;  Is.  Chiloe,  Cum. 
Liverpool  Col 


St.  Elena,  on  dead  sheila,  6-10  foL,  Cm 

Gal.,  Real  Llej.,  Loboa  la.  Lambefeaue, 

under  stones  on  shore,  Cum. 
Real  LlejM  under  stones,  Lw.,  Cam 


Gal.  and  Lobos  Is.,  under  atones,  Cum. 


Guacomayo,on  exposed  rocks,  1.w.,  Cum 
Gal.  Is.,  Jay;  Peru,  Voy.  Venus. 

Acapulco,  Sow.,  on  exposed  rocks. 


Is.  Saboga,  Cum. 

St.  Elena,  on  stones,  5  fm.,  Sow. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THB  WB8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.        277 


No. 


J75 

176 
177 

178 
1791 


Name. 


Chiton  pulchellus,  Gray 


Stokesii,  Brod... 
Anomia  lampe,  Gray.. 

I tenuis,  n.s 

J >« 


Station. 


,8p... 


I800strea,sp.  («) 
181— ,sp.(*) 


S82 


183 
184 

185 

866 

187 


[?=0.  iridetceni,  Gray.] 


— t  *P-  W 
[?not0.f 


Cohtmbietuis,  Hani. 
0.  conehaphUa.] 

[?»  0.  VirgMeal] 

»«P-  W  -•;•;•••• 

•mall,  plicated :  animal  bitter. 

Spondylus  ?Lamarckii(non&w.) 
[-&  calcifer] 

— »«P 

Pecten  inca,  2>'  Orb. 

[~J>.  tumidut,  Sow.,  non  Tort.] 

[=/\  Mufrfoofti*,  Sow.] 
Tumbezensis,  If  Orb 

-P.  atpertwi,  Sow.,  non  Lam, 

Lima  angulata,  &tr 

Pacifica,  2?  Or* 

-Z.  arnuifo,Sow.,  notGdnitz. 

Avicula  ?  margaritifera. 

[? = Margaritipharaftmbriata.'] 
sterna,  Gould 


rocks,  J-t. 
rocks,  i-t. 

rocks,  shells,  &c,  J-t. 

in  clusters, 
rocks  &  stones,} -it. 


(non 


10] 
102 
03 
04 
05 


191 

\ 

Wi 

193  Perna,  sp.(«)(  «  Chemnitzianum) 

)»i ,sp.(*) 

fctt  Pinna  mamra,  Sow 

tuberculosa,  Sow 

l07Mytilus,sp.(fl) 

KfoUthodomus,  sp.  (a) 

89|Modiola  ?semifasca,  Sow. 
Lam.  teste  Hani.). 

■  M.  BraziUemu,  Lam. 

-Mytihu  Quu&uit,  Kust. 
t00Modiola,sp.  (a) 

"S3 

Chama  Buddiana,  n.  s.. 

[The  specimen  in  Dr.  Gould's 
col.,  supposed  to  be  the  above, 
is  C.  }frondosa,  w./omieataJ] 

rf>'— —  ?  corrugata,  Brod.    

0?l echinata,  Brod.    

08:Nucula  Elenensis,  Sow '. 

w exigua,  Sow 

10 polita,5o«; 

11  " 

12 

e 


under  stones,  i  buried 
in  sand,  near  1.  w.  n. 
under  stones,  1.  w.  n. 

l.w. 

Lw. 


No.  of 


on  reef. 


Pectonculus  assimilis,  Sow. . 

— •  maculatus,  Brod. 

Area  alternata,  Sow. 

?  aviculoides,  five 

-A.  auriculata,  Sow. 
1*1 emarginata,  Sow.~ 


on  Gorgonia,  1.  w.  s. 

U.8.,  &  in  crev.rka.,  l.w. 

u.8.,  &  in  crev.rks.,  l.w, 


crevices  of  rocks,  1.  w. 
in  thick  shells,!*. — l.w. 


crev.  of  rks.,.^-t.-l.  w. 
crev.  of  rka.,  |-t.-L 


in  soft  stones,  near  i-t. 
ledges  of  rock,  L  w.-f- 


rocks,  near  L  w. 


u.  a.  in  grav.,  i-t.-l.  w. 


80 

40+ 

1 
3 
1 
6 
3 

15 


35 
330 
com. 

1 

8t. 

2v. 

4 
3 

2 

10 

130 
30 
1 
4 

1 

20 
35 


6 
35 
4 
2 
2 
6 


2  v. 

15 

20v. 

Iv. 

10  v. 

20 

1 

4 

1 


Other  Localities. 


Arica,  Hennah ;  Islay,  30  fin. +,  D'Orb. 

St.  Elena,  Cum. ;  Arica  &  Islay,  IT  Orb. 
La  Paz;  and  Monterey,  60  fm.,  Rich. 


La  Paz,  Green. 


St.  Elena,  Salango,  sandy  mud,  6-10 
fm.,  Cum. ;  Calapan,  Philippines,  Sow, 

soft  mud,  5  fin.,  Tumbez,  Cunt. 

Carac,'  sandy  mud,  12-20  fin.,  Cum. 
Lord  Hood's  Island,  under  coral  rocks ; 

Panama,    sandy    mud;     Guayaquil; 

Guacomayo,  under  stones,  Cum. 


La  Paz,  Green, 

muddy  banks,  Cum. 
muddy  banks,  Cum. 


Guaymas,  Green. 


Real  LJej.,  on  stones,  1.  w.,  Cum. 

Puert.  Port.,  Cum. 

St.  Elena,  sandy  mud,  6fm.,  Cum. 

Caraccas,  sandy  mud,  9  fin.,  Cum. 

Sand,  7  fm.,  Cunu 

Puert.Port.,  sdy.m.&grv.,8-12fin.,CWm. 

Puert.  Port.,  fine  gravel,  11  fm.,  Cum. 

Ecuadoran  St.,  12  fm., Cum. ;  Maz.,  Jew. 

St.  Elena,  10  fm.,  mud,  Cum. 

Real  Llejos,  Atac.,  Xipix.,  sandy  mud, 
6-8  fin.,  Cum. ;  Gulf  Cal.,  Sow. 


278 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 
Speci- 


Otber  Localities. 


416 
417 

418 
419 
420 

421 

422 

423 
424 

425 

426 
427 

428 


Area  gradate,  Brod.  8f  Sow 

grandis,  Brod.  8f  Sow 

One  valve  weighed  2±  lb. 

mutabilis,  Sow. 

— (By88oarca)pholadiformis,n.8. 

Reeveana,  D'Orb 

=A.  Hetbtingii,  Rve.non  Brug. 

reversa,  Sow 

=A.  hemicardium,  Koch. 
similis,  n.  s 

[?=J.  tuberculosa,  var.] 

solida,  Sow , 

(  Byssoarca)  Tabogensis,  n.  s, 

[}~A.  illota,  var.] 
tuberculosa,  Sow 


under  stones,  I.  w. 
i-buried  in  m.  &  small 

algae,  n.  trees,  £-t.-f- 
u.  s.,  &  crev.  rks.,  1.  w. 

in  soft  stones,  I.  w. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 


,  sp.. 


under  stones,  L  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

thin  mud,  under  man- 
groves, near  h.  w. 


Cardita  affinis,  Sow 

= modulosa,  Val. ,  ? = nodulosa, 

Lam.,  not  nodulosa,  Rve. 
—  laticostate,  Sow 


429 radiate,  Sow.    * '. 

430  Cartlium  gnmfenim  f  Brod.  Sf Sow. 

431 obovale,  Brod.  Sf  Sow..... 

432 planicostetum,  Sow. 

[?  =  C.  procerum,  var.] 

433| — —■  procerum,  Sow 

434 senticosum,  Sow. 

=  C.  rostrum,  Rve. 

435  Venus  ?  amathusia,  Phil 

436 ?discors,  Sow 

[?=*  Tapes  grata,  Say.] 

437 gnidia,  Brod.  8f  Sow.  .... 

438 multicostata,  Sow 

«  V.  Thouarri,  Val. 
439 1 pectuncnloides,  Vol.    .... 

[>  Tapes  kistrionica,  Sow.] 
440 subrugosa,  Sow 

=  V.  subsulcataf  Mke. 

4411 ,  sp.  a 

442 ,  sp.  b 

443  Cy tberea  affinis,  Sow 

444] — - —  aurantiaca,  Sow.  

=  C.  aurantia,  Hani. 

445 consanguinea,  n.  s 

446 radiate,  Sow 

447 sqaalida,  Sow 

448  Artemis  Dunkeri,  Phil. 

=A.  Pacijlca,  Trosch. 

[*=A.  simplex,  Hani.] 
saccate,  Gld. 


boring"  in    stones 
and  rocks,  t-t.— 

partly  buried  in  calc. 
sand  and  gravel,  un- 
der stones,  1.  w. ». 

U 


449 

450 
451 


[=Cyclina  subguadrata,  Hani.] 

Gouldia  Pacifica,  n.  s 

Cyrena  maritima,  n.  s 


coarse  sand  among 
stones,  i~$-t. 


coarse  sand,  under 

mangroves,  4-i-t. 

partly  buried  in  coarse 

sd.  amg.  st.  or  u.  tr.,|-t. 


coarse  sand,  ^-t. 


in  impalpable  mud, 
under  bushes,  where 
a  small  stream  emp- 
tied, h.  w.  Baton* 
sometimes  attached. 


3 
13 

70 
2 
9 

4v. 

10 

60 
60 

147 

2 

70 


150 


20 
60. 
3v. 

]p, 

60. 
5 


146 

4 
5 

172 

33 

12  v. 
14 
10 
3 

8 
2 
5 
36 


64 
9 


St.  Elena,  Cum. ;  Ste.  Barbara,  Jem. 
Real  Llej.,  Guayaq.,  Cum. 

Is.  Plata,  Cum. 


1 


St.  Elena,  Monte  Christi,  < 

Philippines,  Reeve. 

Tumbez,  soft  mud,  7  fin*,  Cum. 


Payte,  Cum. 

Real  Llejoa,  1.  w.,  Ctmsv 

B.  MontQ a  &  Nicoya,  sdy.  m^  6-12 
Cum.    Guaymas,  Green  [?]. 


Guacomayo,  St  Elena,  Pan.,  Real  Llrj, 
sand,  6-12  fm.,  Cum.  i.  Sow. 

Ditto,  coarse  sand  &  mud,  10-12  fia, 
Cum.  teste  Rve. 

Salango,  muddy  sand,  6-12  Ail,  Cam 

Gulf  Nicoya,  Xipix.,  Qstm. 

Xipix.,  sandy  mud,  11  fin..  Cum. 

Guacomayor  fine  sand,  13  fm.,  Cam 

Real  Llej.,  coarse  sand,  4-6  fin.,  Cm. 
St.  Elena,  sandy  mud,  6-12  fa,  Cm. 

MazatU  Green. 

St.  Elen.and  Gnac,  sandy  mud, 6-9  fit, 

Cum.  ;  Guaymas,  Green. 
Payte,  Fontaine. 
Pan.,  coarse  sand,  I.  w.,  Cum.\  La  Fit 

Green. 


Xipix.,  10  fm.,  sandy  mod,  Cam 
G.  Nicoya,  Jay. 


Salang.,  Xipix.,  sandy  mud,  9  fin-,Ca* 
St.  Elena,  sandy  mud,  6  fin.,  Cum. 
St.  Elena,  Cum. 


ON  MOLLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COA8T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      279 


ffo. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 
Speci- 
mens. 


Other  Localities 


152 

53 


Lncina  tellinoides,  Rve. 
Capsa  altior,  Sow 


154 

155 
156 
157 
158 
159 


160 
161 


1*4 

165 


Donax  aaaimilis,  Hani. 

gracilis,  Hard. 

navicuU,  Hani    

rostratus,  n.s 

Tellina  ?  aurora,  Hani , 

— —  cognata,  n.  s.  

One  valve,  ''closely  allied  to 
the  Caribbaean  T,  simtfe." 

—  Columbiensis,  HanL    „ 

—  concinna,  n.  s. 

162 crystallina,  Chernn. 

Cumingii,  /fat?.  

Dombei,  Hani 

felix,  HanL[>-] 

[Prof  Adams'  shell  is  said  by 
T)rJG\d.tobe)nsS(riffUlaJvcata!] 

laceridens,  Hani 

prora,  Hani 

paella,  n.  a.  

rubescens,  Hani 

sitiqua,  n.  s 

simulans,  n.  s 

[=T.  punicea,  Hani.    Species 

constituted  from  a  single 

valve  to  include  the  Pacific 

specimens  of  the  W.  Indian 

form.] 

—  dncera,  Hani  

—  vicina,n.s 

1  sp.  a,  like  elongata 

■,sp.5 

— »8P-C 

Petricola  cognata,  n.  s 

l=P.pholadi/brmu,  Gld.  MS.] 

fcricava  ?  tenuis,  Sow 

[?=S.pJioladis,  Linn,  var.] 

47 9  Cumingia  coarctata,  Sow 

*"~! trigonularis,  Sow 

U81 t9*m 

482 |8j>.a 

sp.  c 

» »p.  d 

Prof.  Adams  regards  the  above 
as  u  probably  new  species:  but 
as  their  characters  we  probably 
somewhat  variable,"  prudently 
forebore  from  describing  them 
without  more  specimens.  They 
are  probably  varieties;  as  Cu- 
minpue,  like  other  nestlers,  are 
y*(*t  variable  in  form  and 
sculpture. 

485  Ampbide«ma  bicolor,  n.  s , 

?  ellipticum,  Sow 

proximum,  n.  s 

[  »  &me£eprojrimn,M.Cum.par8 
pars  «  S.  proximo,  B.  M.  Maz. 
Cat.p.28, .  SJtawcant,  Gld.] 


buried  in  sand,  1.  w. 
a  few  inches  in  sd.,f -t. 


467 
468 
469 
470 
17) 


soft  stone,  i»t. 


30 
3 

350 

20 

3 

1 

3 
I  v. 


2 

3 
I  v. 

2 

12 
36v. 


7 

I  v. 
12 1>. 

2 

1 
lc. 


15 
10 
It*. 
Iv. 

5  v. 

1 


4 
3 
4 

1 
1*. 

1 


1*. 
20 
18 


Is.  Muerte,  sandy  mud,  1 1  fm.  Cum. 
G.  Nicoya,  coarse  gravel,  12  fm.,  Cum. 

Var.;  mud,  5  fm.,  Tumbez,  Cum, 
Mazatlan,  Green. 

B.  Garaccas,  Guay.,  Chiriqui,  Cum. 
Nicoya,  Cum. 

Maz.,  Green;  Sta.  Barb.,  Jewett. 
soft  sandy  m.,  10  fm.,  Cum. ;  Rio  Janeiro, 
[Jay. 


Monte  Christi,  sandy  mud,  12  fm.,Cwm. 

St.  Elena,  Hani. 
Guacomayo,  coral  sand,  Cum. 
sandy  mud,  12  fm.,  Cum. 
sandy  mud,  6-10  fm.,  Cum. 

sdy.m.,3-5  fm.,Tumbez&Chiriqui, C«m. 
sdy.m.,6-9  fm.,St.Elen.  &Salango,C«j» 

sandy  mud,  Tumbez,  Cum, 


"  Closely  allied  to  T.  bimaculata." 


Guaymas. 

Pascomayo  and  Lambeyeque,  Cum, 

Caraccas,  sandy  mud,  7  fm.,  Cum. 
St.  Elena,  stones,  deep  water,  Cum. 


Monte  Christi,  9  fm.,  sandy  mud,  Cum. 


280 


REPORT — 1856. 


No. 


Name. 


Station. 


No.  of 


Other  Localities. 


488  Amphidesma  pulchntm,  Sow. 


489 
490 
491 
492 
493 

494 

495 


496 
497 

498 
499 


500 
501 
502 
503 
504 
505 
506 
507 
508 
509 
510 
511 
512 


513 
514 

515 
516 
517 


striosum,  n.  s 

tortuosum,  n.s 

ventricosum,  n.  s.  (?KelUa) 

Crassatella  gibbosa,  Sow 

Mulinia  donaciformis,  /fan/.[?]  . 

[)=M.  angulata,  Gray.] 

—  ventricosa,  Gld.  

[=  Mactra  exoleta,  Gray.] 
Lntraria  elegans,  Sow.  (Mactra) . 

Not    L.  unthUata,  Gld.  teste 
C.  B.  Ad. 

Mactra  velata,  Phil. 

Anatina  alta 

(?  Thracia  or  Periploma.) 

Pandora  cornnta,  n.  s 

Potambmya  asqualis,  n.  s 


inflate,  n.  s 

trigonalis,  n.  s 

Corbula  bicarinata,  Sow 

biradiata,  Sow 

obesa,  Hds , 

ovulate,  Sow 

rubra,  n.s 

tennis,  Sow 

,  sp.  a,  like  Taheitensis 

:»ap.  * ■ 

Solecurtns  affinis,  n.  s , 

Solen  rudis,  n.  s 

Pholas  crucigera,  Sow 

=cruci/*rat  Sow.  =  cruciger, 
MiilL 

tubifera,  Sow , 

xylophaga,  Vol  (non  Deth.) 


soft  mud,  under  man 
groves,  near  h.  w.  & 
outlet  of  small  stream, 
with  Area  tuberculosa. 


u.8.,  deep  in  sd.,l.w.-f- 


.[l.w. 


coarse  sd.  among  st., 


sp.  a,  like  lanceolate 

1  »P-* 

Orbicula  Cumingii,  Brod..., 


filling  the  bottom  of  an 
old  "dug-out,"  h.w. 


underside  of  at.,  L  w, 


1 

1 

1*. 
Iv. 

14 


6*. 


10 

I  v. 

1 
1p. 


3 

2 
260 
21 
6  v. 

7 

1 

1*. 
Iv. 
2*. 
10 
55 

1 


1 
20 

2v. 
I  v. 
50 


Carac,  Cum.  teste  Sow.  in  P.  Z.  S. ;  St. 

Elena  and  Pan.,  Cum.  teste  Sow.  in 

[Conch.  UL 


St.  Elena  &  Xipix.,  sdy.m.,  1 1  fin.,  Ci*m;j 
[Payta,  Fontam. 


The  Atlantic  analogue  is  L. 
culata,  Say." 


I 


[7-17  fin.,  Om.\ 
Rl.  Llej.,  Carac.,  St.  Elen.,  sdy.  modv 
Chiriqui  &  Carac.,s.&m.,  3-7  fm.,  Cnu 
8°57'-21°  32',  22-33  fm.,  £Wa. 
Xipix.,  Mont.,  Carac.,  sdy  m.,7-17fo-i 
[Cam 
Bay  Montijo,  sandy  m.,  12  fm.,  Ooa.; 
[Maz.,  /«* 

"  Like  8.  Caribous."  I 

Is.  Puna,  B.  Carac.,  Niooya,  toft  saad% 
stone,  f-t. ;  sWf  >tone,  1.  w. ;  hard! 
clay,  13  fm.,  Cum.  . 

Carac, in  decayed  wood,  10  fin.,  Cw-'\ 
[Payta,  Fontd*- 


Payta,  St.  Elena,  1.  w.-— 6  fin.,  Cvm.; 
Chili  and  Peru,  Desh. 


If  this  list  of  species  be  estimated  according  to  the  standard  of  judgment 
followed  in  the  Mazatlan  Catalogue,  which  is  necessary  for  a  fair  comparison 
between  the  two,  the  following  numbers  will  not  be  needed : — 

Univalves :  5, 33, 52,  70, 72, 164.,  174,  199,  211,  212,  216,  218,  241,  330, 
334,  337,  343,  348,  349,  362,=20. 

Bivalvesi  422,  432,  482,  483,  484,=5. 

The  names  given  to  459  and  471  are  also  not  required. 

Others  may  be  discovered  on  a  comparison  of  specimens  or  figures  (which 
it  is  to  be  hoped  the  Trustees  of  Amherst  College,  who  possess  the  types, 
will  cause  shortly  to  be  published),  though  they  are  not  recognized  from  the 
descriptions  alone.  The  discovery  of  a  large  number  of  deep-water  species 
was  due  to  the  hermit  crabs.  Certain  observed  differences  of  station  between 
Messrs.  Cuming  and  Adams  are  very  interesting ;  in  a  few  there  may  be 
error ;  from  others  we  learn  what  great  latitude  is  allowed  to  some  of  the 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      281 


species :  e.g*  Corbula  bicarinata  is  quoted  alive  from  low  water  to  17  fm. ; 
while  Anomia  iampe,  quoted  from  low-water  mark,  was  found  by  Major 
Rich  as  far  north  as  Monterey  in  60  fin.  water ! 

Of  the  157  species  described  as  new,  5  had  already  appeared  under  other 
names,  and  15  are  believed  to  be  only  varieties.  Fifteen  are  named  from 
their  doubtful  characters  or  similarity  to  other  forms ;  8  are  designated  from 
their  habitat  or  station ;  23  receive  names  expressive  of  their  small  size ; 
5  are  designated  according  to  the  number  of  specimens  found;  and  6  would 
probably  not  have  been  constituted,  had  the  same  shells  appeared  in  the 
*  Caribbean  waters. 

The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  above  collection  with  that  of  M. 
Reigen  from  Mazatlan,  excluding  from  the  latter  the  land  and  freshwater 
shells  and  the  Bryozoa ;  and  bringing  down  the  number  of  species  in  Prof. 
Adams's  Catalogue  to  the  standard  adopted  in  the  latter. 


Pan. 

Mu. 

Common. 

Bivalves. 
Univalves. 

Total. 

[synonyms. 
Old  species  united:  not  including 
New  species  described. 

Indeterminate  species. 
Minute  species. 

136 

356 

215 
449 

38=28  per  cent. 
77=21o  per  cent. 

492 

664 

115=234  per  cent. 

12 
139 

104 
209 

61 
73 

108 
298 

? 
25=34  per  cent. 

55.  The  following  are  extracted  from  the  British  Museum  Catalogue  of 
the  VeneridcBy  &c.  by  M.  Desbayes.  The  minute  division  of  species  in  this 
and  in  his  recent  articles  in  the  Proc.  Zool.  Soc  contrasts  somewhat  strangely 
with  the  opposite  tendency  displayed  in  his  extremely  valuable  edition  of 
Lamarck's  Animaux  sans  Vertdbres,  a  work  which  has  been  employed 
throughout,  but  not  quoted,  simply  as  not  containing  original  authorities 
on  our  present  inquiry. 

Page.    No. 
13    25    DosifUa  turgida,  Rve.  =  Artemis  tenuis,  Sow.  jun.    Central  America, 
Sale. 
70    DumeWevispinata,TJe*h.=  Cythereabrevispinat  Sow.  jun.  California. 

48  Chione  callosa,  Desh.= Ch.  Nttitallii,  var.  Non  Dosinia  callosa,  Conr. 
California :  not  Sandw.  Is. 

8     Venerupis  foliacea,  Desh.     Mazatlan. 

I     Petricola mirabilis,  Desh.  [Monterey,  Hartwep,  teste  SowJ]  California. 
37     Cyrena  Fontainii,  Desh. =olivacea}  Cpr.    bon  C.  Fontainii,  D'Orb. 

Mazatlan. 
39     Cyrena  solida,  Phil.  Abbild.  Conch,  p.  78.pl.  1.  f.  9.    Nicaragua. 

49  Cyrena  Floridana,  Conr.    Mazatlan  and  Florida. 
The  Mazatlan  specimens  are  C.  Mexicana,jun. 

56.  The  collection  of  which  the  following  is  a  list,  came  into  my  possession 
exactly  as  it  was  received  from  a  sailor,  who  brought  it  from  a  single  port  on 
the  west  coast  of  North  America.  The  purchaser,  judging,  from  the  preva- 
lence of  Mazatlan  shells  in  it,  that  it  came  from  that  place,  did  not  make 
exact  inquiries  at  the  time,  and  the  sailor  could  not  be  traced  afterwards. 
Though  consisting  mainly  of  shore  shells,  the  collection  was  so  remarkably 
free  from  imported  specimens,  that  it  derives  some  value  as  a  geographical 
authority.     The  general  accordance  of  the  species  with  what  we  know  of 


76 
135 

192 
207 
253 

254 

257 


282 


REPORT — 1856* 


the  local-fauna  of  Acapulco,  makes  it 
but  it  is  cited  in  the  B.  M.  Mazatlan 

1.  Solecurtusviolascensyn.9.B.M.*M&z. 

Cat.  p.  27,  note.     1  pair. 

2.  Tellina princeps.    Pine:  1  val....S.* 

3.  Tellina  rubescens.    1  pr P. 

4.  Mactra  elegans.   1  pr P. 

5.  Mactra  angulata.     1  pr P.  M. 

6.  Dosinia  Dunkeri.    1  pr P.  M. 

7.  Dione  aurantiaca.  1  val.,fine...P.  M. 

8.  Dione  chiomea.     1  y P.  M. 

9.  Venus  amathusia.     1  pr P.  M. 

10.  Venus  Columbiensis.     1  val.  ...P.  M. 

11.  Tapes  grata.     1  pr P.  M. 

12.  Anomalocardiasubrugosa.  It.  P.M. 

13.  Anomalocardiasubimbricata.Ytlve*, 

common .S.  M. 

14.  Cardita  affinis.     1  pr P. 

15.  Chama  frondosa.     1  v P. 

16.  Cardium  procerum.    Rare.  ...P.M. 

17.  Cardiumconsors.  1  v.  (Guatemala).  S. 

18.  Cardium  maculatum.     lv S. 

19.  Lucina  tigerrina.     1  fresh  val....M. 

20.  Modiola  capax.     1  v M.  C. 

21.  Mytilus  palliopunctatus.  Rare....M. 

22.  Area  Pacifica.    1  pair   P.M. 

23.  Pinna  trudis.    Extremely  thick  and 

large  valves P.M. 

24.  Margaritiphorajimbriata.  Common. 

P.M. 

25.  Pecten  ventricosus.    (Colouring  ex- 

tremely variable.)    Valves,  com- 
mon   ?  S.  P. 

26.  Pecten  ?  senatorius.     (China  Seas. 

Perhaps  an  allied  sp.)  2  fresh  pairs. 

27.  Ostreaconchaphila.  Valves.  P.M.C. 

28.  Ostrea  palmula.     1  pair   M.  C. 

29.  Placunanomiafoliata.    1  fresh  valve. 

M. 

30.  Bulla  Adamsi.    Rare M. 

31.  Siphonaria  gigas  +  characteristica. 

Common P. 

32.  Patella  discors.    Common    M. 

33.  Actnaa  scabra.     1  sp M.  C. 

34.  Acrrusa  grandis,  Gray.  Common.  C. 

35.  Fissurella  nigropunctata.    Com... P. 

36.  Uvanilla  olivacea.    Rare  M. 

37.  Uvanilla  unguis.    Common M. 

38.  Pomaulaxundosus.  Fresh  opercula.C. 

39.  Callopoma  saxosum.    Rare P. 

40.  Teguta  peUis-serpentis  =  strigilatus, 

Anton.    Not  uncommon   P. 

41.  Nerita   scabriuscula.      Large    and 

common •• ......P.  M. 

42.  Nerita  Bernhardt.  Abundant.  P.M. 

43.  Crepidula  aculeata.    1  sp.    S.  P.  M. 

44.  Crepidula  lunguiformis.  1  8p.   P.M. 


probable  that  it  came  from  that  place ; 
Catalogue  as  "  S.W.  Mexico/' 

45.  Crepidula  arenata.     1  sp S. 

46.  Galerus  conicus.     1  sp S.  P.  M. 

47.  Galerusmammillaris.  lsp....S.P.M. 

48.  Crucibulum  umbrella,   Dcsh.  =  m- 

cfcjBrod.  Common,  fine,  and  very 
variable  P. 

49.  Crucibulum  spinosum.  lap.  S.P.M.C. 

50.  Hipponyx  Gray  anus.     On  Phuut. 

P.M. 

51.  Aletes  PeronU.     1  sp P.  M. 

52.  Turrit ella  goniostoma.    fsp.—.S.  M. 

53.  Cerithium   maculosum.      Common. 

P.M. 

54.  CerUhium  stercus-muscarum.    Rare. 

P.M. 

55.  Cerithium  fameUcum.     I  gp.„.P.  M. 

56.  Cerithium  uncinatum.  Rare.... P.  M. 
57*  Cypreea  exanthema,  var.  cervinetta. 

Common    P.  M. 

58.  Cyprcea  arabicula.     Very  common. 

S.  P.  M. 

59.  Trivia pustulata.  Rare....~S.  P.  M. 

60.  Trivia  radians.     1  sp S.  P.  M. 

61.  Strombus  galea.    1  sp.«- P.  M. 

62.  Strombus  granulatus.  Common.    S. 

P.M. 

63.  Strombus gracilior.    Rare... S.  P.  M. 

64.  Terebra  robusta.    1  sp P. 

65.  Pleurotoma  funiculata.     I  sp.  ...M. 

66.  DriUia  rudis.     1  sp..„ S.  P.  M. 

67.  Conus  regalitatis.  Very  rare.   P.M. 

68.  Conus  Mahogani.    1  sp P. 

69.  Conus  gladiator.     1  sp P.M. 

70.  Natica  maroccana  and  vara.    Abun- 

dant   P.  M. 

71.  Natica  excavata.    Very  rare P. 

72.  Polinices  uber.    Rare  S.P.  M. 

73.  Polinices(Galapagosal=)otis.  Very 

rare  ................................ • it* 

74.  Ficula  decussata.    Rare  P.  M. 

75.  MargineUaprunumf.    Very  rare.  P. 

76.  Oniscia  tuberculata.    Rare P. 

77.  Cassis  coarctata.    Rare P. 

78.  Malea  ring  ens.     1  sp S.P. 

79.  Oliva  porphyria.     1  sp.,  fine P. 

80.  Oliva  cruenta  (Tahiti.  ?  imported). 

1  dead  shell. 

81.  OUvella  volutella.  Very  common.  P. 

82.  Aragonia testacea.  Common.  P.M. 

83.  Latyrus  concentricus,  Rve.  Rare.  P. 

84.  Latyrus  castaneus,  Rve.     Rare.     P.  „ 

85.  Latyrus  tuber culatus j  Brod.  Rare.  P. 

86.  Cuma  tectum.     1  sp P. 

87*  Vitularia    salebrosa     (fresh,     with 

operc.).     1  sp P.M. 


*  S.  South  America.     P.  Panama.    M.  Mazatlan.     C.  California. 

f  Both  this  species  and  M.  tapoiilla,  Hds.,  are  quoted  from  the  West  Coast. 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     283 


S.P. 
S.P, 


94.  Columbella  labiosa.    Rare 

95.  Anaehis  rugosa.     I  sp.  ... 

96.  Anaehis  fulva.     1  sp P.  M. 

97.  Pisania  ring  ens.    Rare P.M. 

98.  Murex  radix.    Rare P. 

99.  Murex  regius.    Common P.M. 


88.  Purpura  patula.    Rare M. 

89.  Purpura  biserialis.     1  sp....S.  P.  M. 

90.  Purpura  triserialis.    I  sp M. 

91.  Purpura  meUmes.    Rare ...S.P. 

92.  Monocerosbr evident atum.Gmy.  1  sp. 

S.  £. 

93.  ColumbeUafuscata.  Rare...S.  P.  M. 

This  collection,  containing  99  species,  of  which  only  one  is  certainly  and 
another  perhaps  imported,  shows  what  a  common  sailor  may  do,  simply  by 
keeping  his  shells  from  being  mixed.  One  species  is  new;  46  are  common 
to  both  Mazatlan  and  Panama ;  29  are  found  at  Panama,  but  not  at  Mazatlan ; 
6,  though  not  yet  quoted  from  Panama,  are  southern  types;  14  are  found  at 
Mazatlan,  and  not  at  Panama ;  6  are  northern  types,  being  found  in  Lower 
California,  and  of  these,  two  (viz.  Acmcea  grandis  and  Pomaulax  undosns 
[opera])  were  not  found  at  Mazatlan. 

57.  In  the  Proceedings  of  the  Boston  Soc  Nat.  Hist  for  Feb.  1855,  Dr. 
A.  A.  Gould  described  the  following  land  and  freshwater  shells  from  the 
western  part  of  N.  America  :-— 


P.  127.  Helix  <eruginosa,  Old.  San 
Francisco,  Dr.  Bigelovo. 

P.  127.  Helix  infirmata,  Gld.  San  Fran- 
cisco, Dr.  Bigelow. 

P.  128.  Physa  bullata,  Gld.  Oregon, 
*  Dr.  J.  G.  Cooper. 

P.  128.  Physa  humerosa,  Gld.  Colorado 
Desert,  Dr.  Th.  H.  Webb;  Pecos  River, 
Mr.  W.  P.  Blake. 

P.  128.  Physa  virgata,  Gld.  River 
Gila  and  near  San  Diego,  Dr.  Th.  H. 


P.  129.  Planorbis  ammon,  Gld.  Colo- 
rado Low  Desert,  Dr.  T.  H.  Webb, 
Mr.  W.  P.  Blake. 

P.  129.  Planorbis  gracUentus,  Gld. 
Great  Colorado  Desert,  low  lands, 
Dr.  T.  H.  Webb. 

P.  129.  Amnicola  protea,  Gld.  Colorado 
Desert,  JDr.  T.  H.  Webb,  Mr.  W.  P. 
Blake.  =  Melania  exigua,  Conr.  (read 
Feb.  13th). 

P.  130.  Amnicola  longinqua9  Gld.  Co- 
lorado Desert,  Mr.  W.  P.  Blake. 

The  same  gentlemen  appear  to  have  made  collections  on  the  coast;  of 
which  the  following  lists  have  been  obligingly  sent  by  Dr.  Gould. 


Collected  by  Dr.  Thomas  H.  Webb. 


At  Guaymas. 

Acnuea  aeruginosa  [=A.  mesoleuca,var.]. 

Neritina  pieta. 

Nerita    "  ?.  pracognita,  C.  B.  Ad."= 

Bernhardi,  Reel. 
Chlorostoma  rugosum,  var. 

At  San  Diboo. 
Tellina  nasuta. 
Donax. 
Venus  dispar. 
Venus,  sp. 

Cardium  Californiense. 
*  Arcapemoides.  1  valve.  "  Lieut. Webb." 
Pectunculus  (dead,  rubbed). 
Pecten  (dead  valve). 


Ostrea. 

Pissurella  crenulata  (very  young). 

Haliotis  ?  Kamtschatkana. 

Trochus  viridulus  (very  red  var.).  "  Lieut. 

Webb." 
Phasianella  compta. 
Calyptraa  hispida,=Cruc.  spinosum.    • 
Cerithium  irroratum,  Gld. 
Potamis  pullatus,  Gld. 
Cerithidea  albonodosa. 
Natica  tuber. 
Ranella  muriciformis. 
Oliva  splendidula. 
Nassa  luteostoma. 
Nassa  tegula,  Rve.,  dead. 
Purpura  emargvnata. 

It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  above  shells,  as  Ranella  muriciformis,  Oliva 
splendidula,  Nassa  luteostoma,  Natica  uber,  had  found  their  way  northwards 
hy  the  accidents  of  commerce.  None  of  them  were  seen  by  Mr.  Nuttall,  who 
spent  some  time  at  the  place. 


284 


REPORT— 1856. 


Collected  by  Dr.  Bigelow  at  San  Francisco. 
Venus  rigida,  Gld.    ?=Tapea  diversa.         Lottia  scabra,  Gld.  (=8pectrum,  Nutt. 
Cardium  Nuttallii.  Natica  Lewisii,  Gld.  (operculum  only). 

Mytilus  Caltfornianus,  Conr.  Purpura  Conradi,  Nutt. 


Collected  by  Mr. 
At  San  Francisco. 
Mytilus  eduUs,  or  allied. 
Lottia  scabra,  Gld.  (==  spectrum,  Ntdf.) 

At  San  Pedro. 
Semele  rubrotincta,  Conr. 
Tellina  secta,  Conr. 
Tapes  gracilis,  Gld. 
Venus  discors,  Sow."  =grata,  Say=sta- 

minea,  Conr." 
Venus  Nuttallii,  Conr. 
Femtf  fiuctifraga. 
Lucina  orbella,  Gld. 
Lottia  patina,  Esch. 
Lottia  scabra,  Gld. 
Scurria  pallida,  Gray=mitra,  Brod. 
TrocAu*  mastus,  Brod. 
Calyptraa  hisptda,  Brod. 
Crepidula  incurva,  Brod. 
O/tva  biplicata. 


William  P.  Blake. 

At  San  Diego. 
SpJuenia  Californica,  Conr. 
7W/i'na  mcnm,  C.  B.  Ad. 
Tellina  secta,  Conr. 
Solecurtus  Caltfornianus,  Conr. 
Petricola  carditoides,Coni.=cy\mdnjct*, 

Desk. 
Venus  fiuctifraga,  Sow. 
Cardium  cruentatum,  Gld.* 
Modiola  capax,  Conr. 
Pecten  Ipurpuratus. 
Pecten  tnonoHmeris,  Conr. 
Butfa  nebulosa,  Gld. 
Bwi/a  virescens,  Gld. 
Btt/to  longinqua,  Gld.* 
B«//a  vesicula,  Gld.* 
Melampus  olivaceus. 
Phasianella  compta,  Gld.* 
Pot  amis  pullatus,  Gld. 

*  "  Not  yet  from  the  press."  Gould  in  titt. 


58.  The  latest  concbological  traveller  who  has  visited  the  West  N.  American 
province  is  Mr.  T.  Bridges  f ;  who,  in  the  spring  of  the  present  year,  has 
brought  a  collection  from  the  Bay  of  Panama.  Although  he  had  no  dredge, 
and  the  district  had  been  well  explored,  he  succeeded  in  finding  24  new 
species,  besides  others  new  to  the  fauna  of  the  place.  The  new  species  are 
described  in  the  '  Proc.  Zool.  Soc'  June  10th,  1856,  pp.  159-166 ;  and,  with 
a  few  others,  interesting  for  their  locality,  are  as  follow : — 


Corbula  ventricosa,  Rve. 

?  Scrobicularia  producta,  Cpr.  "* 

? viridotincta,  n.  a. 

Tellina  rkodora,  Hani. 

fausta. 

Deshayesii,  n.  s. 

Strigilla  disjuncta,  n.  s. 

Semele  obliqua,  Wood. 

planata,  n.  s. 

Cuminaia  trigonularis,  var. 

Lvonsia  diaphana,  Cpr. 

Mactra  (Mactrella)  lacinata,  n.  s. 

elegans,  jun. 

Cyclina  producta,  n.  s. 

Lima  angulata,  Sow. 

Melampus  Bridgesii,  n.  s. 

Umbrella  oralis,  n.  a.  Mouth  of  the  River 
Chiriqui.  Also  found  exactly  in  the 
8ame  place  by  a  French  naturalist. 

Pyrgula  quadrtcostata,  n.  a. 

Erato  ?  Maugerue,  var.  Panamensis. 

Trochus  (Ziziphinus)  Mac  Andrea  [B.  M. 
Maz.  Cat.  no.  290]. 

Hipponyxplanatus[BMMai.CaLt.Tio.348]. 


Cithara  sinuata,  n.  a. 
Mangelia  acuticostata,  n.  a. 

Istriosa,  C.  B.Ad. 

—  ?  rigida,  var.  fuscoligata. 
Clathurella  intercalates,  n.  a. 

serrata,  n.  a. 

Drillia  punctatostriata,  n.  a. 
?  Pleurotoma  gracillima,  n.  a. 
Scalaria  regularis,  n.  a. 

tiara,  n.  a. 

subnodosa,  n.  a. 

Cumingii,  n.  a. 

Hindsii,  n.  8. 

Cirsotremafuniculata  [B.  M.  Maz.  Cat. 

no.  569]. 
Natica  excavata,  n.  s. 
Polinices  Gallapagosa,  Rve.  ?=ovum. 
Mitra  solitaria,  C.  B.  Ad. 
?  Triton  crebristriatus,  n.  8. 
Phos  bipticatus,  n.  a. 
Latyrus  tumens,  n.  a. 
Triton  eximius,  Rve.=parvua,  C.  B.  -dd. 
Anachis  pygmmajrwt.,  exactly  resembling 

the  W.  Indian  Col  costulata,  C.  B.  Ad. 


f  The  Mammals  and  Birds  brought  by  Mr.  Bridges  are  described  in  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.  1856, 
pp.  138-H3. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.       285 

59.  Having  now  presented  the  results  of  all  known  expeditions  on  the  coast, 
we  have  further  to  bring  together  species  collected  from  stray  quarters.  The 
following  are  described  in  the  4  Proc.  Zool.  Soc.'  1832-56.  Most  of  the  Gulf 
shells  were  collected  by  Lieut.  Shipley,  and  of  those  from  California  by 
Mr.  Hartweg. 


Page. 

Pftoc.  Zool.  Soc. 

Locality. 

Station. 

1838. 
57 
59 

1833. 

22 
36 
53 
84 
85 

1834. 

19 
61 

1835. 

6 

22 
22 
43 

43 

46 

50 

1 
50 

109 
110 
200 

1843. 

199 

1843. 

5 

5 

33 

79 

166 

1844. 

27 

29 

76 

139 

1845. 
14 

75 

kfarginella  cypreola,  Sow.  [?  Erato]... 
Chiton  lffrogatnSf  Sow*  ,♦,...,. 

Acapulco,  St.  Elena. 

Guaymas,  Mr.  Ealing  of 

H.M.S. '  Sapphire.' 

San  Bias. 

Acapulco. 

Gulf  of  California. 

Guaymas. 

Is.  3  Marias  (Gulf  Calif.). 

"  Gulf  Calif.  &  It.  Guaym." 
(No  loc.)  but  *.P.Z.S.1843> 
p.  164,no.67,whereHinds 
gives  it,  on  the  authority 
of  Mr.Cuming,a8  "  Guay- 
mas, 10-12  fms.,  sandy 
mud." 

Acapulco. 

Acapulco. 

Is.  3  Marias. 

Guaymas. 

Guaymas. 

San  Bias. 

California. 

(no  locality) 

Gulf  of  California. 
Guaymas. 
"  Mexico." 

California. 

(no  locality} 

(no  locality; 

Guaymas,  Babb,  R.  N. 

Gulf  of  California. 

Acapulco. 

"S.Blas,  Hon.Mr.Harrit." 

Acapulco,  CoL  Moffat. 

Acapulco,  CoL  Moffat. 

San  Diego,  Nutt. 

fvar.a.  "  Matzellan." 
\  var.  b.  Acapulco. 
Mountain  of  Coban,  Vera 
Cruz. — Mus.  Cum. 

under  stones  &  sand, 
under  stones  at  low 
water. 

on  the  sands. 
1  sp.  on  sands, 
on  sands. — Mus.Cum. 
in  sandy  mud,  1.  w. 
on  the  sands. 

on  rocks  in  exp.tituat. 

coarse  sand,  1.  water, 
sandy  mud,  low  water, 
sandy  mud,  7  fins. 

sandy  mud,  7  fins. 

Area  cardiiformiSf  Sow 

Corbula  radiata,  Soto.... 

Couus  concinnus,  Brod. 

Cardium  elatum,  Sow 

■  maculosum,  Sow 

=  C.  maculatum.  Sow.  in  Conch.  111. 
Conus  ferrugatus,  Sow 

Perebra  variegata,  Gray 

=  T.4fricana,Gr&y,  Griff.  Cuv.  pi.  23. 
f.5. 

Siphonaria  pica,  Sow. 

Venus  subimbricata,  var 

■  ■  nndateUa,  Sow*  „„.„„..,„—,„ 

leucodon,  Sow 

=  F.Cfcrig/3>rnieftro,var.testeSow.jun. 

Califbrniensis,  Brod.  (non  V.  Co- 

Itfbmica,  Com.) 
Cytherea  Dione,  var.  y,  Brod.  (=C.lu- 

ptHariaJ) 
Monoceros  cymatum,  Sow 

~M.  tugubrey  Sow. 

■■  unicarinatum,  Sow 

=M.  brevident,  Conr.  • 
Pecten  subnodosus,  Sow.  var.  a 

■        circularis,  Sow.  ... 

Cypnea  candidula,  Qatk 

=  C.  approximates.  Beck. 
=  C.  olorina,  Duel. 
Bnccinnm  elegans,  Rve. 

Donax  punctatostriata,  Hani. 

carinata,  Hani.  ..- 

Pectnnculus  giganteus,  Rvt* .......... .r 

■'    —  bicolor,  Rv€ • 

=P.  inaqualis,  Gray,  non  Sow. 
Terebra  aciculata,  Hdt.  QLam.)   

Scalaria  indistincta,  Sow.Jun 

"-  ■  -  hexagons,  Sowrjun.  ,,„„„„„„, 

MargineUa  imbricata,  Hdt........ ........ 

Ranella  triquetra,  Rve 

Donax  culter,  Hani. 

Achatina  (?Glandina)  fasiformis,  Pfr. 

286 


REPORT — 1856. 


P«ge. 


Psoc.  Zool.  Soc. 


Locality. 


1845. 
75 
75 

131 
132 
139 
140 
141 

1840. 

24 
29 
29 
29 
30 


Glandina  nigricans,  Pfir.. 
—  monilifera,  Pfr..... 


Helix  Yentrosula,  Pfr., 

—  Hindsi,  Pfir.  

Littorina  aspera,  Phil., 

—  Sitkana,  PML 

—  modest*,  Phil   .. 


Cypnea  pulla,  Gaei 

BulimiM  fenestrates,  Pfir 

Darwini,  Pfr 

sculpturatus,  Pfr, , 

Gruneri,  Pfr , 

31  Achatina  cylindracea,  Pfr.    , 

(Glandina)  Sowerbyana,  Pfr. 

)  Isabellina,  Pfr 

•)  Tortillana,  P/h , 

Haliotis  splendens,  Roe , 

aquatilU,  Roe , 

Bulimua  Moricandi,  Pfr.   


32 
32 
32 
54 
58 
113 

1840, 

117 
121 

121 
122 
130 
170 

1850. 

187 
195 
203 


Anomia  lampe,  Gray 

Placananomia  macrochisma,  De$h 

=P.  BroderipUj  Gray,  MS. 

—  cepio,  Gray  , 

alopc,  Gray  , 

Helix  Baskervillei,  Pfr. , 

Sanguinolaria  tellinoides,  A.  Ad.  $L6.f. 6 


Vera  Cruz. — Mus.  Cam, 
Mountain  of  Cohan,  Vera 

Cruz. — Mua.  Cum. 
Mexicof/ftfr.)  Texas(Stw.) 
Mexico(A&.)  TeiA*(Sow.) 
Sitka, Bore.;  Mex.  Hegew, 

Sitka,  Barclay. 
Sitka,  Barclay;  Mauritius, 
Copt.  CaldwelL 
? 
Mexico. 
Galap.,  Darwin. 
Galap.,  Darwm. 
Mexico. 
Tortilla,  Centr.  Am. 
Totontepec[?Tehnantepec] 
Mexico. 
Tortilla. 
California. 
Kurile  Is. 
Mt.  Coban,  C.  A.,  Lattrt. 

California,  Lady  Wigram. 
Kamtschatka,  Dethayee. 

Onolaski,  Mus.  Cum. 
California,  Lady  Wigram. 
California,  Lady  Wigram. 
Vancouver^  I.,  BtukerviUe. 
Gulf  of  California. 


rocks  at  low  water, 
rocks,  A-U 
rocks,  f-t. 


on  bushes, 
on  bushes. 


damp  pit 
decayed  vegct.  matter, 
dec  trunks  of  trees, 
damp  places. 


i 


1851. 
12 
153 
157 
164 

165 


168 

190 
197 


225 
233 
260 


272 


Melania  maxima,  Lea 

polygonata,  Lea , 

"  Modulus  Carchedonicus,  Lam,", 

"=MonodontaSayU,}ivtt."    Atooi 

is  in  the  Sandwich  Is.,  not  in 

California.      Mr.  N.  found  no 

Moduhu  in  California.    M.  car- 

chedonica,  Lam.  is  the  W.  Indian 

species,  teste  D'Orb.  Coll. 

Columbella  Californiana,  Gash... 

Infundibulum  Californicum,  A.  Ad.  ... 

Phorcus  Californicus,  A.  Ad. 

Ziziphinus  annulatus,  Martyn  

=  Trochut  virgineuM,  GmeL 
— —  filosus,  Wood,  Ind.  Suppl.  pi.  5, 
f.  23. 
?=  Trochut  cattaneut,  Nutt. 
=  T.  ligahu,  Gld. 

Californicus,  A.  Ad.  

?=  Trochut  versicolor,  Mke. 

Margarita  calostoma,  A.  Ad. 

Tedinia  pernoides,  Gray   

=P/acuna*omia  pemoidee,  B.  M. 
Maz.  Cat. 

Velutina  Sitkensis,  A.  Ad. 

Natica  intemerata,  PML 

Helix  annulifera,  Pfr. 

«=//.  Idbyrmthut,  Tar.  *frunculala: 

Forbes,  P.  Z.  S.  1850,  p.  53.  pi.  9. 

f.4. 

Lagena  Califbrnica,  A.  Ad. 


Copan,  C.  A. 

Copan,  C.  A. 

"  Atooi,  California,  Nutln" 

tttte  A.  Ad. 


Sandeago. 

California. 

California. 

Monterey,  Hartweg. 

Str.  San  Juan  de  Fuco. 


California. 

Juan  de  Fuco. 
?  California. 


Sitka. 
Gulf  Calif.,  Rev.  —  Steel. 
Panama,  Kellett  Sf  Wood. 


California. — Mus.  Cum. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THE  WE8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


287 


Page, 


185S. 

60 

82 

100 

157 

1'JftS. 

70 
71 
71 
71 
96 
174 


Bulimua  nucula,  PJr. 

Orbicula  Evansii,  Dan.,  pi.  14.  f.  32-34. 

Cardita  California*,  Desk, 

incrassatus,  PJr . 


185 

1854. 

20 
21 


Pboc.  Zool.  Soc. 


Typhis  fimbriaius,  A.  Ad. ~ 

Murex  pauxillus,  A.  Ad* 

fimbriatus,  A,  Ad. 

armatus,  A,  Ad. , 

Semele  Californica,  A.  Ad. , 

Morum  xanthostoma,  A.  Ad. 

Oniscia  tuderculata,  var.  «,  Rvc. 
Pseudoliva  Kellettii,  A.  Ad. 


Cyrena  (Anomala)  insignia,  Deth. . 

subquadrata,  Det h.    

(Anomala)  Cumingii,  Deth. ., 

inflate,  Desk. 

Typhis  grandis,  A.  Ad.  

Mactra  angusta,  Desk.    

i Californica,  Desk. 

70 goniata,  Gray,  MS.   

l37,Rhizochilus  asper,  A.  Ad 

295  Achatina  Albersi  (Glandina),  Pfr.. 

Latyrns  armatus,  A.  Ad. 

Chlorostoma  funebrale,  A.  Ad. .... 


Locality. 


314 
316 


342  Corbicola  convexa,  Desk. 


Donax  bella,  Desk. 

—  Conradi,  Deth 

Jun.=2>.  eulter,  HanL 

-j-D.  contusut,  Rye. 

-fi>.CaiSj/brnica,Desh.MS.nonConr. 

?+D.  radiatus,  Val. 

—  obesula,  Deth 

?=D.  Catybrnica,  Conr.  non  Desh. 

OTalina,  Deth.    

359Tellina  Mjoatlanica,  Deth. 

brevirostria,  Desk. 

delicatula,  Deth 

straminea,  Deth 


352 
352 


362 
363 
363 


Galapagos. 

Bodegas. 

Gulf  of  California. 

Galapagos. 

Golf  of  California. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Galapagos. 

?— Kellett&Wood.  [Pro- 

bably  Lower  California.] 

Bay  of  California. 

California. 
Central  America. 

Panama. 

California. 

Panama. 
Gulf  of  California. 

California. 
Gulf  of  California. 
Gulf  of  California. 

California. 

California. 
Central  America. 

Acapulco. 

California. 


Central  America. 

Central  America. 

Mazatlan. 

.  America  &  California. 

Mazatlan. 

Bar  of  California. 


Station. 


121 

183 
224 

228 


229 
229 
230 
230 


231 
231 
23! 


100  Achatina  (Glandina)  conularis,  PJr. 

116  Bulimus  verrucosus,  PJr.  

Rhizochilus  (Coralliophila)  Californica, 
A.  Ad.[=Murex  mux,  Rve.] 

Erycina  papyracea,  Desk 

Dosinia  simplex,  A.  Ad.  [not  Artemis 
«mpfejr,HauL  «  D.Dunkerifhil.] 

Pandora  claviculata,  Cpr.  

Lyonsia  (Osteodesma)  diaphana,  Cpr. 

Periploma  excurvata,  Cpr. 

papyracea,  Cpr. 

Thracia  squamosa,  Cpr. 

PScrobicularia  producta,  Cpr 

Donax  semistriatus,  Cpr.  [non  PoW]... 

*=(Donax)  Serrmla  Carpenteri,  H.  & 

A.  Ad.  Gen.  ii.  405. 

230  Diplodonta  subquadrata,  Cpr.  

Chiton  Monterey enria,  Cpr 

Hartwegii,  Cpr 

2 •  regularis,  Cpr.  ... 


Mexico,  Satot. 

Galapagos. 

Gulf  of  California. 

West  Columbia. 
Singapore. 

Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Shipley. 
Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Shipley. 
Mazatlan  (Gruner). 
Mazatlan  (Mus.  Cum.). 
Mazatlan,  Lieut.  Shipley. 
Gulf  Calif.,  Lieut.  Shipley, 
Gulf  Calif.  (Mus.  Cum.) 


Mazatlan  (Mus.  Cum.)'. 
Monterey,  Hartweg. 
Monterey,  Hartweg. 
Monterey,  Hartweg. 


on  exposed  rocks, 
on  exposed  rocks, 
under  stones. 


288 


REPORT — 1856. 


Page. 

Peoc.  Zool.  Soc. 

Locality. 

— 1 

Station. 

1866. 

233 
233 

233 
234 

234 

234 

235 

1866. 

4] 
41 
41 
43 
44 
44 
44 
167 

167 
168 

Patella  ?toreuma,  Rve„  var.  tenuilirata 
Galerus  ?  Sinensis,  var.  fuscus 

Monterey,  Hartweg. 
"G.  Calif/  (Mus.  Cum.) 

"G.Calif."  (Mus.  Cum.) 
Mazatlan  (Mus.  Cum.). 

California  (Mus.  Cum.). 

CapeS.Frantisco*,tfds.Str. 
Sunda,  among  small  drift- 
ed canes,  Mus.  Archer. 
San  Bias,  Capt.  DonneU. 

Guaymas. 
Panama. 
Panama. 

Panama. 

Panama. 

Panama. 

California  (Mus.  Cum.). 

Callao,  Valparaiso. 

?  Peru  (Mus.  Cum.). 

Chiriqui,  Bridge*. 

i*. 

(Probably  from  another  source,  by 
error  of  ticket.) 
— •  subreflexus,  Cpr.    . 

Fissurella  nigrocincta,  Cpr 

(The  locality  is  omitted  by  accident 

in  the  Proceedings.) 

Callopoma  ?fluctuatum,  var.  depressum 

(= Turbo  fumculotut,  Kien.  pi.  30. 

f.  1.  Diagn.  postea  vis&.) 

Litiopa  divisa,  Cpr. 

Scalaria  reflexa,  Qir. 

Fnsns  pallidas  (animal  descr.  by  Gray) 
Pisania  elegans             „           „ 
Triumpbi8  distorta        „           „ 
Malea  ringens               „           „ 
rmperator,  ?  n.  s.           „            „ 
Callopoma  saxosom       „           „ 
Tegnla  pellis-serpentis  „            „ 
Crucibulum  spinosum,  var.  compresso- 
conicum. 

??  i  mbricatnm  var.  Cnmingii  ... 

?  imbricatum,  Tar.  Broderipii  ... 

Trichotropis  f  Gouldii,  A.  Ad.   

60.  The  following  species  and  localities  are  extracted  from  the  "  Concho- 
logical  Illustrations,  by  G.  B.  Sowerby,"  a  small  but  exceedingly  valuable 
work,  remarkable  for  the  excellence  of  the  figures,  but  the  disappointing 
brevity  of  its  information. 


No. 

2 
76 


* 


Cardium  Indicum,  Lam.    N.W.  Coast  of  America. 
11,35.  Chiton  fastigiatus,  Gray.     California. 

152.  tunicatus,  Sow.  =  Katherina  Douglasia,  Gray.    California. 

54  Bulinus  unifasciatus  =  Bulinulus  undulatus,  Guild.     St.  Vincent's. 

115        32.  Cypraa  sanguinea,  Gray.    Panama  and  Mexico. 

61.  The  following  are  taken  from  the  "  Thesaurus  Conchyliorum,"  by 
G.  B.  Sowerby,  continued  by  G.  B.  Sowerby,  Jun.  The  illustrations  are 
^excellent;  but  some  of  the  later  numbers  do  not  equal  the  earlier  portions. 
Several  of  the  Monographs  are  very  carefully  drawn  out  by  Messrs.  Hanley, 
Hinds,  and  A.  Adams.  There  are  the  same  geographical  errors  as  in  other 
similar  works. 

No.  Page.    PI.     Fig. 

46    15  101.  Pecten  laqueatus.  N.W.  America,  Capt.  Dixon  (California,  Kae.). 

48    96    25  141.  Scalaria  indistinct  a,  Sow.  jun.    San  Bias,  Hon.  — Harris. 

13  1 15    36  20, 27.  Columbella  f estiva.    "  Brought  from  Acapulco  by  H.  Cuming," 
[who  never  was  there]. 

64  173    43    63.  Terebra  variegata,  Gray =*T.  afiicarta, Gray,  Griff. Cuv.   "Guay- 
mas, 10-12  fm.,  eandy  mud,  Cuming.'' 

*  Probably  in  Ecuador ;  not  in  Upper  California,  as  supposed  when  described. 

f  This  shell,  described  as  "  differing  from  the  typical  genus  in  the  canal  of  the  aperture 
being  almost  obsolete,"  is  regarded  by  several  eminent  conchologists  as  a  dead  Meimrnin.  It 
was  found  near  the  mouth  of  a  river. 


ON  MOLLUSOA  OF  THE  WfiST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.    289 


No.  Pig*.  PL 
18  352    70 

91  534  116 
55  578  123 
12  615  128 
59  628  132 
65  631  132 

71  632  132 
3  656  140 


Fig. 


'Abounds  on  the  coast  of 


50-2.  Terebratula  Calif omica,  Rust. 
California." 
249-51.  Neritina  Listen,  Pfir.    Cuba  and  St.  John's  Riv.,  Nicaragua. 
79, 80.  Bulla  nebulosa,  Gould.    Sand,  12  inch.    Guaymas. 
35.  Cytherea  intermedia,  Sow.  jun.    "  California,  Cumins.'9 

98. chione,  Linn.  "Mr.  Cuming's  specimens  are  fromMazatlan." 

104-6. circinata,  Born.  szVenus  mora,  Gmel.   ?-f-C.  alternata, 

Brod.  Mazatlan,  Capt.  Donnel,  R.N. 

109.  brevispinosa,  Sow.  jun.     1  sp.    California. 

2.  Artemis  ponder osa,  Gray,  Anal.  1838,  p.  309.  =zCytherea  gigantea, 
(Sow.  MS.)  Phil.  Abbild.  pi.  7.  f.  1.     Sandy  mud,  low  water. 
Gulf  of  California. 
41.  Tapes  diversa,  Sow.  jun.    Monterey,  Hartweg. 
17,18.  Venus  simUlima,  Sow.  jun.    California. 

26,27. amatkusia,  Phil.  Abbild.  pi.  1 1 .  f .  4.  =  V.  eneausta,  ?  cujus. 

California. 
Venerupis  paupercnla,  Desh.  P.Z.S.  1853,  p.  5.  [N.  Zealand, 
Mus.  Cum.  et  Brit,  teste  DeshJ]  "Mazatlan,  Cuming"  teste  Sow. 
Obeliscus  clavulus,  A.  Ad.  On  the  sands.  Acapulco,  Col.  Moffat. 
Cerithium  assimilatum,  C.  B.  Ad.  "  Shells  of  Jamaica.  A  darkly 
coloured  Jamaican  shell,  like  C.  trilineatum,"  Phil.  Medit. 
[=C.  a*»mtfa/ttm,C.B.Ad.,Pan.Shells,  no.  194.  C.  terebellum, 
C.  B.  Ad.  Contr.  Conch,  is  the  Jamaican  species.] 

62.  The  following  species*  are  extracted  from  Mr.  Reeve's  *  Conchologi* 
Iconica';  a' work,  the  principal  advantage  of  which  is,  that  it  figures  the 
specimens  in  the  Cumingian  collection.  The  species  are  often  very  minutely 
subdivided :  for  this  indeed  the  author  may  not  always  be  answerable.  It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  there  is  sometimes  a  want  of  precision  in  the  statement 
oflocalitieflf. 


65  697  146 
16  708  153 
18  709  144 


24  769  165    30, 


25  811  171 
143  881  184 


33. 


1 

s> 

IS 

20 

u 

m 

n 

m 

17 
17 

3 
16 

n*. 

Nome. 

Stata. 

Depth 

1:1  1  ins. 

Locality. 

3 

••• 

Ampiiideima  California,  A.  Ad  ■ 

^Stmele  G,  A- Ad-  P.Z.S.  July  1853. 
proxima,  [&vc,  quasi]  C,  B*  Adw  »,, 

[  =  Semele  jt&xieans,  GltL :  v.  antes, 
p.  279.  no.  487.] 
Donax contuaa,  Rvg.  ttHlltlMH ,— 

7 
10 

Uulf  of  California. 
Panama  [?] 

Mazatlan. 

Gulf  of  California* 

Florida,  Mua.  Cum.  [?] 

Panama,  ttom. 

California,  Mua.  Cum, 

?  California. 

"  San  Bias,  Bay  of  Califor- 
nia, (*«•."[!]  Rio  J* 
neiro,  Lam. 

Guaymas,  Babb. 

Bay  Panama,  Real  Llcjos, 
Cum. 

3 
J 

MM  Hti. 

9 

17 

[  =  D.  Ctmradi,  adol  :   v,  B.  M.  Maz. 
Cat,  p.  47.] 

Mactra  angulata,  Gray,  MS. ,,..,. 

— ^  elegans,  Stint.  Tank.  Cat.  Tllltl1T1... 

18 
20 

— *  aagiut*,  Beth.  P.  2.  S.  1854 

Califoruica,  Desh.  „        „    



4 

LuClQSl  ^NUUlatd,  JiP€ t.t. ....... ••!#... 

3 

Area  BrstilianSi  Lam. ..........*...t 

on  the  sands 

sandy  mud 
sandy  mnd 

1 

**A.  carditfbrmis,  Sow. 
Pectunculua  giganteus,  Roe, 

4 

iwequalis,  Sow.  P.  Z.  S.  1832  

«^rca/w^mi/brwwfWd.,S.pl.2.f.ll. 

*  See  also  pp.  187, 208,  where  many  of  the  species  now  quoted  would  have  been  arranged, 
had  I  been  able  to  refer  to  the  Conch.  Ic  whenever  occasion  required. 

f  When  Mr.  Cuming  is  given  as  the  authority  for  depths  and  stations  in  places  which  he 
never  visited,  the  more  correct  phrase  (now  generally  adopted)  would  perhaps  have  been 
M  Museum  Cuming."  The  following  instance  will  show  the  need  of  caution.  Under  Mactra 
carmulata,  Desh.  pi.  10.  sp.  38,  we  read  " Gulf  of  California:  from  the  same  locality  as  M. 
donaeiformis."    On  turning  to  the  latter,  we  find  its  locality  given  as  New  Zealand. 

1856.  U 


890 


RBFOBT-— 1866. 


n. 

*. 

«* 

Name* 

mm. 

DSpth 

Loedlty, 

5 

7 

31 
1 

9 

14 

36 

51 

45 

100 

117 
1 
2 
4 

7 

i 

2 

'    10 

17 

24 

16 

16 

'    10 
t   24 

i 
i 

20 

31 

137 
2 

34 

32 

214 
332 
206 
552 

684 

3 

8 

15 

33 

11 

7 

55 

106 

161 

37 

38 

18 
41 

••• 

ftc 

67 
63 

... 

»•« 

••• 

a,  6 

o,» 

••• 

a,  5 

M 

«,M 

Ml 

62o5J 

0,5,6 

M 
o,5,c 

PectuBcolQB  tricolor,  J&w.  P.  Z.  S,  1843  .. 

«  P.  feg^Udto,  Gr*vt  Z.  B.V.,  no  a  Sow. 

[nee  Krjuw,] 

Pecten  Tentricosus,  Sbw.  in  The*  Conch, 

=  P.  /w«/w,  Sow.  P.Z.S.  1835,11. 109, 

noti  Turt, 

circularise  Sow.       „         „      p.  110 

?=-P.  ftucfeus,  var. 
Hinnites  giganteus,  Gray,  Ann.  PhiL  1826, 
vol.  xii.  p.  103. 
[=//mn*taP<mJ«mi,Coiir.  1834,Jonrn. 
Ac  Nat.  Sc.  PhiL  vol.  vii.  pt.  L 
p.  182.  pi.  14.] 
Iposnfylus  Umbetus,  Sow.  Tlies.  Conch, 
p.  427.  pi.  88.  f.  51. 
[For  the  Mttatlan  specimens,  v.  B.  14. 
Cat.  no.  208.] 
— —  rndula,  Am.  « 

fi-10 
7 

Gulf  of  California, 

St. Elena,  Cum.;  sboPL 
lipping*.  Cum. 

California,  Cum.  [!] 

California  and  Straits  of 
Juan  Fernandez  [!]. 

Panama  and  MaatJaiL 

Tehuantepec,OwtI)«rt 

Mexico  [?nhi]. 

Mexico. 

Mexico  [sp.  216,  err.  typj< 

Panama. 

Yancouver'sIs.^slAoi 
Gakpasjos  and  Pansau. 
Galapagos  and  PsnsDi. 

California. 

Gnaymas. 

San  Bias,  Cuas."! 

Sitka,  Lady  Dougkt. 

Central  America. 

W.C.Cent.  Amer.,Sss1sfi 

«  Valparaiao,  Cunv,"  **• 
"Never  took Jt>"Cse 
Ipse.  "  Monterey,  Birt 
weg,"  teste  Mus.  Csb. 

Monterey,  /ferdscy. 

Ia.Chnoe,W.Col.n^flp 
Onqo*,  Lieut.  B**r& 

Monterey,  #"**•/• 
Panama  and  Gulf  Cstt 
Monterey,  Hartoq* 

landy  mud 
sandy  mud 

rtt.   Jay. 
Bulimus  fenestratus,  jyh   no.  258  4802 

Gruneri,  Pflr.               „  585  4845 

rodis,  Anion,               „  535  5082 

Helix  uncigera,  Pet 

CaraeoUa  *,  Petit,  Guer.  Mag.  Zool. 
1838,  pi.  113. 

Baakervillei,  flfr.P.Z.S.  1849,p.  130 

Stnhonaria  ciaae.  Av. 

characteriatioa,  Aw. 

—  aequilorata,  [AW.  quasi]  cTruy,  Jl & 
March  1856. 
[&  aguilirata,  Cpr.  B.  M.  Cat.  no.  240. 
Apr.  1856.] 

amara,  [Jtoe.  quasi]  JVstff.  AT&  ... 

[?-&  ItMmfKm*,  PhiL  var.] 



■•-*•  artkmlatus,  £bw 

"u.  atones, 

— —  Sitktn8is,  Roe.  (non  MM.) 

— —  tether,  Apc 

■  ■  proptius,  Roe • 

Patella  Cumingii,  Roe. 

[••imMfjM/tNs,  Each.] 

~~elypeaeter,£eaf.  Voy.  Coq 

[}**A.pmtm*t  var.] 
•— '  venoea,  Aw 



■        exarata,  Nutt. ' 

TheP.e*oro7a,Nutt.,of  Jay>sCat.2814, 
and  of  Nuttall's  coll.  is  from  the 
Sandw.  Is.  The  Oregon  shell  may 
he  a  variety  of  the  shell  called  Ma- 
zatUnicm,  probably = ^.ctwm,Bach. 

dnis,  live.  [= J.  patina,  var.] 

— —  vespertina,  Roe 

toreuma,  Roe.    

*  Specimens  of  this  species  (along  with  the  proof-sheet  of  Siphonariadw)  were  stnt,  st 
Mr.  Cuming's  request,  for  the  use  of  the  author  of  the  Conch.  Ic,  but  no  notice  of  it  has  seas 
found  in  the  Monograph.  As  Mr.  Nuttall  found  no  Siphonaria  in  California,  It  is  prssessed 
that  Mr.  Reeve's  species,  if  of  Nuttall,  is  from  the  Sandwich  Islands ;  if  "Califimiiaa,1'*** 
is  the  Magadan  &  fwuufaw.  Phil. 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THB  WIST  0OAM  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     991 


sP. 


7& 

re 

n 

01 

87 
101 
35  107 
*  112 
119 

3S  121 
40  130 
40;i32 

HO 
66 

64 


18 
57 

n 

109 

126 

39 


61 

94 

113 

110 

128 

Ml 


M 

a,  A 

M 
M 

*| 


Nmne< 


«,* 


«,5 
M 


*,* 


Patella  UTescens,   Aw,   [allied    to   P. 

spectrum.  Mitt.  [  —  P*  teetac,  Old. 

non  Nutt.] 

-  diicora,  PAtf,  Abbild-  pi  2.  f,  6  „. 

-  NatUUiftnt,  ^!w.[?  ■■  A  .patina,  tit.] 

-  verriculaU,  /foe.  [  =  ^./ja/i»tftT*rJ 

leucopk«a,  AWf .  [  —  A.ptUa.  Each.] 

-umbonau,  iVttf  t .  [  *  A. persons,  var,] 

Oregon*,  AfoM,  [  m  d*per*Qna,&*zhJ] 

-  scabr*,  AWi.  [non  Gld,= wpectrttm, 
Nutt,] 

fenestrate,  AWI.  [  —  J.  patina,  vol* 

navieala,  Rue*  [  =  /#.  miteUtFt  Mke, 

corrugate,  ftnc*[  «  P./wrfiniA«,PhI].  J 

■ mamiilata,  AWf .  [  =  A.  patina,  Tar.] 

Fiwireila  rugose,  Sow, 

densklathrate,  Jlee.  , ,P„ , 

[?=  Glyphi*  a*perap  Each.] 
Turrit  ell  a  lentiginog*,  five.    .....„„..,.*, 

[^  T.  §onio*tama,  ver.] 

—  Cmningii,  Bve *,,.* „ 

[?  m  T.  tiffrm*t  var.] . 

—  Bankaii,  Gray,  MS. , 

[?=  T.  foniottoma,  jun.] 

—  sanguine  fiw. .,.*., 

AropuHaria  Columbiemjis,  Sow.  MS. 

Cumingii,  King,  Zool.  Journ.  toL  t, 

p.  344, 

oeruumt  Hani  Conch.  Hi*C 

Haliotla  corrugate.  Gray,  In  Wd.p  pi,  8.  f,  5 
Cracherodii ,  Leach,  Zool .  Miae.  1 8 14, 

voLLp.  131. 

—  H„  ylaber,  Schub.  &  Wage. 

—  Californknfiii,  Strata*.  Zool. 
toL  iL  p,  BO. 

Turbo  teseellatus,  [fltw,  quasi]  A'*«.. 
- —  marjrinatui,  Afaff,  MS.*., ........ 

Neritina  Californica,  /Em.  ...„,*.*,„.. 

-  Listen,  IRtf*,  quasi]  PfK. ...! 

-  Michaudi,  R»cL  P.  Z.  S.  IK  41 ,  p.  315 

- Listed,  [^m. quasi]  Pfr.[naTi  eadem] 

^jpnea  ooyi,  I«w,  =  C  adu*taf  Lam-... 

{«-  C.  nympna.  Duel. «  C.puila,  Guiel. 
(non  Geek.)  teste  Jay.] 

puuctuleta,  Gray,  Z,  Journ-  i.  387. 

albuginosa,  A/aw*,  Z.  Joum- 1.  510. 

Solandri,   Gray,  S<m.  Conch.   1)1. 

no.  128.  f.  43. 

-  MftageriM,  Gray,  Sow.  Conch.  Ill* 
no.  111.  f.  30. 

-  California,  Gray,  Z.  Journ.  ui,  365, 

-  rube&cena,    Gray,    P.  Z,  S.    1832, 
p.  IBS. 


Sutton, 


Depth 
in  fm». 


.  Jllnitr. 


underatonw 


mud 

•Andy  mud 


ii ml  pt  *t, 


under  st. 


UmaUIj. 


Lw, 
5 

11-1A 

It 


Payta,Ctwt. 

Pauama,  Cum. 
Conehagua,  Btkhtr. 
Panama,  Cum. 

California,  Mm.  Belcher. 
Chiriqul,  Veragua. 
!•.  Taboga,  Panama, 


California. 

Mazatlan,  Shipley, 

Orwon, 

California, 

Upper  California, 

Upper  California* 

Oregon, 

Upper  California. 

Upper  California' 
Mazatlan,  Shipley. 
Acapulco. 
California. 
OalapagoA,  Cwm. 


California, 
California. 


California. 

Upper  California  [?]. 
Oulf  of  CaliforniA, 
Cuba*  Nicaragua. 
Panama. 
St.  John'a  Rjt*,  Nicartgua, 
i  Diego  [rttact.]. 


California* 
California. 

GelapagoA,  Cum. 

California, 
GalapaffrA,  Cum . 


*  It  if  to  be  regnetted  that  the  author  of  the  Conch.  la,  when  deacHMng  so  many  new 
fptdef  of  Ltmptts  from  the  West  coast  of  America,  did  not  arail  MnutU  of  o>e  previoui 
labours  of  Eschscholtx  and  Menke  in  the  tame  field. 

f  Supposed  to  be  from  the  Reigen  (Havre)  Col.,  as  weti  as  other  aperies  described  front 
Messes t  hm  mo  iff  tstisnes  casi  be  siaeed  on  the  tossitaVts  *4  OSe  shejls  §oU  M  Q»  wstisoj : 
•WSJJASJ,^MC 


292 


REPORT — 1856. 


9p 


J*s- 


Name. 


Station, 


Depth 

3  mi, 


Locality. 


25 

13 
14 

U 

22 

26 


26 
2 


10 
13 
19 

4 


142 

70 
72 

7:. 
126 

143 


146 

153 

9   33 

2 

12 

■10 

;-i 

88 

B 

I 


18 

a 

1 

26 


37 

Hi 


10 


u 

18 

20 
23 


25 

25 
26 


20 

20 
1 

e 


16 


73 

74 

80 

13 
97 

1J4 


a,  ft 


u-i 
M 

a-e 

a,  £ 


Cy  praa  suffusa,  Sow?,  Conch.  111.  n,  1 26X4 1 

=  C  armandina,  Dud.* 
Co  mis  pvriformis,  Rr*?>  ..m.>« 

—  brunneus,  &w.  P,  Z.  5.  1834  , 

—  vittatus,  £Mi»tuH*Hi»ni!tM«i 

Mahogani,  Jw.  P.  Z.  S,  1843  ,.♦♦., 

[?C.  mfrFTHjtfiuf,  var,] 

—  minimus.  Unit.  ., ..,.„., .... 

var.  0. =  C.  ftera/w,  Brod-    , 


sandy  mad 
clefts  of  rks . 
Coarse  sand 
sandy  mod 


Galapagos, 

7-10  Caraccai  tic  Monti)*,  Cm 
Puert,  PL,  Pan.,  GaL,  C« 
Bay  Pan.  &  Monti)*,  C« 
Salango.  Cum. 


7-11 


regularis,  Sow.  Conch.  111.  f.  45 


—  conclnuus,  Brod*  P.  Z.  S.  1833 

Natica  alabaster,  Jfe*.  [?  =  A1  ui*r,  var.] 

—  Cpemmtzii,  RecLMS.  1855,  non  JM*. 
- — ■  pcrspicua,  ifeW,  in  Pet,  Jour.  Couch 

voLi.p-379.pl.  14.  f.  1,2. 

—  bifasciata,  Gray    , 

—  uber.  Val. ... *,.**. 

—  uniniaculata,  Ur^ « *»*... 

Harpa  rosea  ........ **...., 

—  crenata,  Rve.     //,  roiea,  var.  Kien. 
=  //.  Rfooliana,  Less.  [  — /f.  testudi- 

natit-rlL  Meiricana,  teste  Jay.] 
DoLium  ringens,  Sou?.  Tank.  Cat,  App. 

p.  \\L 
=  Maiea  fatilaarU,  Val. 
Cassis  abbreviala,  lam,+  C  fcrrfrtf,  Kien. 

4-C  centiauadra-^-  C.  dottata,  Val. 

Oniscia  tuberculosa!  £mp.  Gen.  p.  2  var. 

Valuta  Curaingii,  i^rorf.  P.  Z.  £  1332  ... 

Turbinella  castanea,  .fftfe.  *.....,,....».»*,. 

m  T.  acuminata,  Rve,  Couch,  Syst. ; 

nou  Gray  in  Wood  SuppL 

—  cerata,  Gray...., ,,.*«...* 

—  tectum,  Gray  [Cuma]  ,. , 

Fasciolaria  princeps,  Sow — .> 

OHva  aiigulaUt  Lam*  =  Votuta  inerauata, 

Dillw. «  O.  azemula,  Dud. 

—  reticularis,  Lam.    ,...♦ .,..,, 

"  vara,  =  O.  aranewa,  Lam,+0.  Timo- 

Tia-^Q.  r&tulata  +  O.  oberina  +  Q. 
pindarina,  Duel.'' 

—  Cumiugii,  Rre *.* ****** 

—  teatacea,  Lam,  ♦ »* 

—  biplicaia,  Sow.  Tank.CaLApp.yAS 

—  lineolata,  "  Grey,  Wood  SuppL = 

0,  rffliHa,  Duel." 
[0.  tineotata.  Gray,  Z.  B.  V,  =  O,  (fema, 
Mawe,  in  Wood  SuppL] 

—  undatclla,  Lam.+  Q.  ncduliua-\-0< 
oxodmat  Duel. 

—  an&zora,  BucL  ...,*..., 

—  tergina,  BucL ..**. 

Triton  clan  dest  In  us,  CA*m«. ,...,.,  4 

—  pagodus,  ifpp.  [Nassa]  ,„. 

pictus!  Rve, 


pools  onsda. 
toft  mud  i 
on  the sands 


23 

7 


Purp^a  patula,  Linn.    ......,,,,„., 


aand 
muddy  sand 


sand 
sandy  mud 


crev.  ofrks. 


under  st. 
sandy  mud 


sandy  mud 


sandy  mud 


sand  &  mud 
banks 

sandy  mud 

sand  banks 

sandy  mud 

under  st. 


under  at. 
on  rocks 


Lw. 
4 


dp.  w. 
d.w. 


U. 
10 


e 

Lw. 


10 


Lvf. 


Ceylon. — Is.  Ann**,  Cm 

Galapagos,  Cum. 

Gulf  Nicoya. 

Bay  Panama.  Hind*. 

"B.  ofCaM./'£*J*,U 

Mazatlan. 

Panama. 

Mouth  of  Oregon,  LiemU 

Itatkerritte. 
Guaymas,  J/r.  Be&&,  £J 
Casma,  Peru,  C«h_ 
Mazatlan,  LumL  Skipief. 
Senegal, 
Acapulco,  Otoe*.  [I] 


Payta,  Cum. 


Acapulco. 

Gulf  California,  Mus,  €«■ 
Gulf  Fun seca, S an  S *1\  wk* 
Panama j  Cum.  [Ca* 


Galapagos,  Cum. 
Bay  Panama,  Can. 
Peril,  Cum, 

Golf  Nicoya,  1 


Is.  Granada,  West  India. 
Gulf  of  California, 


Gulf  Calif.,  Domnti. 

Real  Llejos,  Cum. 
Monterey,  Hindi. 
California* 


Bay  Panama,  Cum. 

Xi jikapi,  Cum. 
Couchagua,  Cum* 
PhilippmeSf  Cum, 
Galapagos,  Cum. 
Bay  Montija,  Crnn. 
Galapagos,  Cum. 
Philippine  Is,,  Cum. 
St.  Elena,  Cum. 


•  Whether  this  and  C.  tubrostrata  (Rve.  pi.  26.  f.  147)  be  the  Pacific  or  the  Caribtaai 
species,  or  whether  they  are  identical,  has  not  yet  been  decided.— Vide  B.  M.  lias.  Git  p.  379« 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THE  WEST  COA8T  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      293 


Sp. 


23 

1 

2 
39 


12 

98 
128 


**g% 


Name. 


M 


Ricinula  alveolata= Pttrpwra  «.,   Kien. 

Icon.  Conch,  p.  42.  pi.  9.  f.  23. 

[Non  Rve.] 

Monooeros  unicarinatum,  Sow.  C.  I.  f.  5. 

"=i>.  qricata,  Blainv.,  Kien. » P.  en- 

ffonata,  Conr."  [v.  ante*,  p.  201.] 

pnnctatom,  Gray, Z.  B.  V.  p.  124... 

"  =  P.  lapiUoifa,  Conr."  [v.  p.  201.] 

Buccinum  pristis,  Deth. , 

=B.  ttrratum,  Dufresne. 
=B.  Northus,  Gray,  MS. 

—  pusio,  Linn.  T.... 

—  pagodus,  Rve.    

Pyrula  subrostrata,  Gray,  Z.  B.  V.pL  36. 

f.  15. 
«  Buccinum  tubro$tratum,  Wood. 
*=Fu*u$  lapilhu,  Brod.  &  Sow. 
Fnsas*  Dupetit-Thouartii,  Kien 

-  Oregonensis,  Say  =  Triton  0.,  Say. 

-  Mexicanns,  five 

Morex  monoceros,  Sow.  P.  Z.  S.  1840  .. 

?=M.  NuttaUi,  Conr. 

—  foliatus,  GmeL  

—  salebrosus,  King 

—  horridus,  Brod.  P.  Z.  S.  1832  , 

=Fustu  A.,  Sow.  Conch.  111.  f.  29. 
=M.  Bohmti,  Kien. 


Station. 


Depth 
innns. 


Locality. 


clefts  of  rks. 
sandy  mud 


rky.  places 
under  at. 
sandy  mud 


12 


8-12 


Panama,  Cum. 
California. 


Is.  Cocoa,  N.W.  Mexico, 

Capt.  Cokiett. 
St.  Elena. 


Honduras,  California.  [?] 
Island  Taboga,  Cum.  v.  r. 
Bay  Montija,  Cum. 


Galapagos,  Cunu 
N.  America  [?ubi]» 
Mexico  [?ubi]. 
California. 

Sitcha,  Eschscholtz. 

Panama,  Cum. 

St.  Elena  and  Panama. 


63.  The  Monographs  of  Kiener,  in  his  "  Coquilles  Vi  van  tea,"  are  generally 
executed  with  great  care,  and  are  extremely  valuable  for  the  identification  of 
species.  The  writer  does  not  fall  into  the  common  error  of  minute  division  of 
species :  on  the  other  hand,  he  sometimes  unites  what  will  be  almost  universally 
considered  as  distinct.  His  judgment  is  not  always  correct  on  small  shells,  as 
when  he  thinks  that  Cerithium  trilineatum  of  Phil,  ought  without  doubt  to 
be  considered  as  a  dextral  variety  of  C.perversum.  For  the  identification 
of  the  Lamarckian  species,  his  work  is  extremely  valuable.  But  on  points 
connected  with  geographical  distribution,  the  following  list  will  show  that, 
unconfirmed,  it  cannot  be  regarded  as  an  authority.  The  "  California  "  of 
French  authors,  as  of  English,  generally  applies  to  the  W.  Mexican  fauna. 
Unfortunately,  there  are  no  dates,  by  which  questions  of  the  priority  of 
nomenclature  may  be  decided. 

Ho.  Page.  Plate.    Kg. 

?     ?     30      1.  Turbo  funiculosut,  Kien.  [=T.  1  jluctuatus,  var.  P.Z.S.  1855, 
p.  234.] 
14  2, 2a.  Trochus  tnermis  [quasi]  Gmel. 
2.  Tuirtiella  tk?rina,  Kien. 

Cerithium  maculosum,  Kien.    [Named  adustum  on  the  plate.] 

S.  Sea,  Acapulco,  Galapagos. 
—  adustum,  Kien.,  non  Sow.  [Named  maculosum  on  the  plate.] 

Indian  Ocean,  Red  Sea.     [Probably  correct.] 
Cyprcea  Sowerhyi,  Kien.  =C.  zonata,  Sow.  non  Chemn.    Calif. 

Lamarckii,  Duel.,  Val.,  Rve.,  p.  334.   Acapulco.     [Not  so 

.  given  in  Val.,  Rve.] 

133  146    22      4. lathyrus,  Dufresne.  =C.  sanguinea,  var.    Pacific. 

*  JWfitf  corrugutut,  Rve.  pL  20.  sp.  84,  a  bt  is  said  to  be=  Tropkon  murictform*,  King, 
4Q0WOVH, 


? 

22 
25 

? 

29 
36 

14  2,2< 

4   2. 

13   3. 

26 

37 

13   2. 

31 
51 

38 
59 

7  3. 

8  2. 

•04  BBPOBT— 1856. 

No.  Ptge.  pute.   Fig 
138  162    45  3,3a.  Ogprma  subrostrata,  Gray.    Isle  of  France. 

136  150    52      1.  candidate,  Gask.    W.  Mexico. 

9     14      7      2.  CanceUaria  gomtostoma,  Sow.  =C.  6reew,  Sow.,  teste  Kien. 

12  18      8      2. chrysostoma,  Bow.    Panama,  Peru,  Galap. 

24  18    16      1.  Pleurvtomafuniculata,  Val.    San  Bias. 

37    59    29      1.  maara,  Val.  [seP.  Jfefcserst,  Mke.]    Masatlan,  Botta. 

26  33    15      2. Bott*,  Val.  [«P.«wr«*la*e,  Sow.]  Masatlan,  Botta.  1  sp. 

115  139    55      I.  Conu$  Loreneianus,  Chemn.    Aoapulco. 

7    10      4  7,7 a-Soktfium  variegahm,  Lam.    N.  Holland!  Manilla,  N.  Ireland. 
"=zS.  cyclostom*m+8.Althiop$,Mkt.+8.  tetfstJfofeesDesh." 
18    27     12      2.  Pyr%4avcntricosa,Yal.    San  Bias. 

10  19      8    15.  "  Cassis  coarctatum,  Sow.,  Les  cotes  dtt  Perou  a  Acapulco." 

7    11      7      1.  RaneUa  bufonia,  Lam.    Aed  Sea,  Seychelles,  N.  Ireland,  Calif. 

13  19    11      2.  semigranosa,  Lam.  "  =  R.  cctlata,  Broil.0    Panama. 

23    31      8      1.  —  argus,  Lam.    "  —Triton  Baneltiformis*  King,  Z.J.  p.  347* 
Var.  =  RanellavexiUum,  Sow.  Conch.  HI.  pi.  I.T.3."  ChilL 

27  36      4      2. anceps,  Lam.  =**. pyramidal**,  Bred.  P.ZJB. 1832,  p.  194. 

22    30    15    1,2. scabra,  Grateloup.    Peru. 

16  05    16      1.  TWbineUaecrata,  Griff.  Masatlan,  common.  Dn  Petit  Tkomart. 

17  26    16      2.  tnbereularis,  Griff.    (A  few  ip.  from  the  royage  of  Dn 

Petit  Thouan.)    Masatlan. 

25  36    20       1  - —  cingnlata.    [Operculum  described.   Yet  Reeve,  after  this, 

places  the  shell  under  Monoceros.'] 
61    98    26    70.  Purpura  chocolatum,  Dud.    Coasts  of  California. 

71114    37    87. HseriaUs,  Blainv.    Shores  of  Masatlan. 

40    64    17    49. bezoar,  Bl.    China  and  California. 

49    78    20    58. columella™ ,  Lam.    IW  Sea  Mid  Pacific,  OuTi.  CaMmua. 

...    81    21    606. tallosa,  Tar.  [=  P.  triserialisA 

68  109    28    74.  Qrayi,  Kien.  «  =  Mon.  grandls,  Gray."    Pacific. 

92  141    44  102.  Monoctrx*  hgubrU,  Sow.  Gen.  no. 5.  f.  3.     "a*  M.  eymsJsM, 

Tank.  Cat.  1888.     **  Bnocimm  denticniatnm  +  arwmtwm. 

Wood  Suppl,"    Peru  and  California, 
M    23      9    28.  Bucokmn  ssrratmn.  t^Northia  pristi*.]    "  Habite  U  Iter  da 

Sud,  sur  les  cotes  de  la  California"  Eydoux. 

4  2    10      2.  ColumbeUa  h*mastomaL$o*r.    California. 

5  3      12.  — -paytalida,  Duel  *=  C.  rnstica,  Sow,  Gen.  f.  3.  non  Lam." 

=  G.jfkscata,  Sow.    California. 

J    10      3      3.  — —  meleagris,  Dud.    San  Bias. 

9  14  2  \,2.  Pvruia  p&hda.  [N.B.  The  operculum  of  P.  mekmgma,  as  flysrsd 
oy  Kiener,  it  broader  in  proportion  than  that  of  P.  safaris.] 
[He  thinks,  howerer,  that  the  species  should  be  reunited/] 

11  16    11    ...   Fusus  Dupttithonarsi,  Kien.  California,  [Galap.,  Cwmmg,  AW] 
5      9    10      2.  3f«re&  messorius,  Sow.  "  =zmotmciUa$  B.,  Lam.  +  rtctirorfnaa, 

Sow.+fitgretcen*,  Sow."    Senegal. 

31    43    19      2.  corrugatus,  Sow.    Red  Sea,  California.  | 

30    65    21      2.  — —  Ofuoantkus,  Sow.    S.  Sea,  CHifofnia.  | 

64.  In  a  paper  by  Dr.  L.  Pfetffer,  "  Ueber  die  geographisohe  Verbreitang 
der  Heliceen,"  in  the  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  1 846,  pp.  74-79,87-46,  occur  the  following      j 
lists  of  land  shells  from  the  western  districts  of  North  America  :— 

Pt(t 

94.  From  Oregon Helix  Vancouverensis,  Columbiana,  fidelis. 

94.  Prom  California    areolata,  leris,  tudiculata,  Sagraiana,  Townsend* 

iana,  Californiensis,  Columbiana,  Dupetithouarsii 
94.  From  Mexico lucubnta,Oajacensis,Buft\>n^ 

Mexicans,  bicincta,  tenuicostata,  Dkr.t  griseola, 

Hindsi,  ventrosula. 
94.     M  „  Daedalochila  implicata. 

94.     „  „  Polygyra  contortuplicata. 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WIST  OOAfl*  OF  NORTH  AMERICA       SBS 

Page. 

94.  From  Central  America . .  Helix   Ghiesbveghti,  griseola,  labyrmthus,  plicata, 

quadridentata,  Euryomphala,  quinquestrigata. 

94.  JFVom  Ileal  LJpof spirulata,  Nystiana. 

94.  i^Vom  Panama   ■  Antoni,  uncigera. 

Many  of  the  species  quoted  from  Mexico  and  Central  America  probably 
belong  to  the  east  side  of  the  mountain  range.  Id  the  same  work,  pp.  158- 
160,  are  described  the  following  land  shells,  brought  from  the  Mexican 
Republic  by  Liebmann.     They  are  probably  from  the  eastern  side  :— 

P*g*  Page 

158.  Helix  eaduca,  Pfr.  I    159.  Achatma  IAebmanni,  Pfr. 

158.  Bulimus  IAebmanni,  Pfr.  159. streptostyla,  Pfr. 

158.  Achatina  coronata,  Pfr.  |    159.  CyttndreUa  TMmvnni,  Pfr, 

In  the  Zeit  f.  Mai.  for  1844,  1845,  occur  the  following : — 

Page.    No. 

1844.  35     ...    Ampullaria  malleata,  Jonas.    Tabasco,  Mexico. 

1845.  152      1    Helix  Buffoniana,  Pfr.    Bio  Frio,  Mexico. 
„       152      2    Utms,  Pfr.    California,  Hinds. 

„       154      7    areolata,  Sow.  MS.     California,  Hinds. 

„       168      7    HaUotis  Kamtschatkana,  Jonas.    Near  Island  of  Oonalaszka. 

In  the  Zeit.  f.  Mai,  1847,  pp.  1,  %  Dr.  Menke  describes  the  two  following 
species,  brought  by  Liebmann  from  Mexico  :— 
Cylindrella  teres,  Mke.  Prov.  of  Puebla.   |     CylindreUaPfe\feriiMke.    Tehuacan. 

In  the  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  1847,  pp.  93-96,  Dr.  Philippi  describes  the  followipg 
freshwater  shells,  brought  from  Mexico  and  Central  America  by  Largilliert 
and  Liebmann : — 

No.  32.  Unio  cyrenoides,  Phil.  Lake  Nicaragua  (Laro.). 

„    34.  —  Aztecorum,  Phil.  Mexico  (IAeoX 

„    35.  Mexieanus,  Phil.  Mexico  (IAeb.). 

„    36.  IAebmanni,  Phil.  Mexico  (IAeb.). 

In  the  mixed  collections  of  shells  described  by  Philippi  in  the  Zeit,  f*  MaJ, 
1848, 1849,  occur  the  following  species : — 

1848. 

Certihium(Potamides)Hegewischii,Ph.  Mexico, Hegewisch.  Ressmbles 

Cerithidea  varicosa,  Sow.  [but  it  is  not  stated  in  which  ocean  it  was 

found.] 
Trochus  (Phorous)  Panamensis,  Phil.    Panama,  E.  B.  Philippi. 
Adeorbis  scaber,  Phil.    Panama.    Found  in  Avioula  margarittferg,  by 

E.  B.  Philippi. 
Anodonta  cornea,  Phil.    Nicaragua,  Largilliert. 

atrovirens,  Phil,  „  „ 

Nicaragua,  Phil.  „  >, 

Bulla  Panamensis,  Phil.    Panama,  E.  B.  Philippi. 
Cerithiumfilosum,  Phil.    California.— Mus.  Largilliert. 
Donax  Panamensis,  Phil.    Panama,  E.  B.  Philippi. 
Kellia  pulckra,  Phil.    West  coast  of  America. 
IAtorina  parvula,  Phil.    Panama,  E.  B.  Philippi. 

phasianeUa,  Phil.  „  „ 

Mactra  velata,  Phil.  „  „  V(KiiMuliniaexaUnda,QTVf.u 

Petricola  robusta,  Phil.         „  „    In  Avicula  margarUifera. 

[This  fortunately  appears  to  be  one  of  the  many  forms  of  Petricola 

robusta,  Sow.] 
PhasianeUa  perforata,  Phil.    Panama  and  Payta,  E,  B.  Philippi, 
Tellina  Panamensis,  Phil.     Panama,  E.  B.  Philippi. 
Unio  nucuUnus,  Phil.    Nicaragua,  bargiltiert. 


Fttt. 

No. 

T& 

81 

127 

53 

129 

55 

130 

57 

,» 

58 

f* 

59 

141 

79 

143 

84 

145 

87 

149 

96 

99 

97 

98 

163 

7 

163 

33 

164 

34 

175 

59 

176 

62 

296  report — 1856. 

Fag*.     No. 
188    67     Trochus  {Calcar)  erythrophthalmus,  Phil.  =T.  olwaeeus,  Wood.    Cali- 
fornia.    [Described  under  the  erroneous  impression  that  the  T.  o£- 
vaceus  of  Wood's  Cat.  was  the  white  mouthed  shell.  «T.  inermis, 

1849.  Gmel.  teste  Kien.] 

148  ...     Trochus  Belcheri,  Phil.    Mus.  Hanley.    Voyage  Belcher. 

149  ...     callichrous,  Phil.        „  „  „  >» 

150  ...    caUicoccus,  Phil.         „  „  „        Venus. 

168     ...    metaformis,  Phil.        „  „  „       Belcher. 

170  ...    —  neritoides,  Phil.  „  „  „  „ 

171  —    nucleus,  Phil.  „  »  »  », 

191     ...     suavis,  Phil.  „  „  „  „ 

1860. 
84    48    Succinea  brevis,  Dunker.    Mexico. 

1851. 

61     73  Buccinum  Panamense,  Phil.    Panama,  Payta,  E.  B.  PhUippi. 

71     94  Cyrena  inflata,  Phil.    Costa  Rica,— Mus.  Busch. 

74  100  CythereasolidissimaJPhR.  CvMoTW&.^Trigonellacra&atelloides,CaBi.] 

75  2    Donax  obesa,  Phil.    California.  [=1).  CaJs/orntciw,  Conr.] 
123    47     Terebra  Belcheri,  Phil.     "  ...  ex  itin.  Belcheri:9 

126    52     Venus  distant,  Phil.     Panama,  JS.  B.  Philippi. 
1852. 
79    13    Avicula  {Meleagrina)  fimbriata,  Dkr.    Central  America. 
[? =Af arflrartrtpfcora  Mazatlanica,  Hani.] 
1853. 
112    40    Lutraria  inflata,  Dkr.    California,  teste  Bernhard. 

In  the  "  Malacozoologische  Blatter  fiir  1854,"  which  is  a  continuation  of 
the  Zeit.  f.  Mai.  by  the  same  editors,  occurs  the  following : — 

1854.  Page  28.  Pyramidella  bicolor,  Mke.  [Obeliscus.']    Calif.,  teste  J.  W.  E.  MiiUcr. 

65.  The  following  are  from  Philippi's  Monographs  in  Kuster's  edition  of 
Martini's  Continuation  of  Chemnitz's  '  Conchilien  Cabinet ' :— r 

Kust.  Mart.,  p.  57.  no.  60.  pi.  9.  f.  4.  Natica  otis,  Brod.  &  Sow.  Mazatlan  and 
Marquesas. 

Kust.  Mart.,  p.  78.  pi.  12.  f.  1-5.  Natica  maroccana,  Chemn.  Morocco,  Chemn., 
W.  Indies,  Cfemn.  Guinea,  LargiUiert.  E.A£ric&,Rodatz.  W.  Mexico,  P/r.  Panama, 
C.B.Adams.  (Var. lurida),  Havanna,  Sandw.  Is.,  Lieukieu Is., LargiUiert.  (Var. uni- 
fasciata),  Peru,  Petit. 

66.  Besides  the  authorities  given  in  published  works,  the  following  have 
been  noted  from  the  British  Museum  Collection : — 

Saxicava  arctica.    N.Zealand.     Capt.  Isl.    C.  Ede,Esq.  (used  by  the  natives 

Stokes.    B.  M.  for  money). 

Tellina  nasuta.    Icy  Cape.  Litorinafasciata.    Sandwich  Is.    Lieut. 

Donax  punctatostriatus.     S.    America.  Strickland. 

Capt.  Ld.  Byron.  Cerithium  ocellatum,  Brug.  Madagascar. 

Donax  scortum.    San  Bias.  [?  ubi.]  (Compare  with  C.  stcrcus-muscarvm.) 

Tellina  rufescens.     St.  Domingo.     Sir  Odostomia.    Monterey.    Capt.  Beeckey. 

R.  Schomburgk.  (Probably  O.  gravida,  Gould.) 

Pinna  ?  rudis.    Panama.    Miss  Saul.  Eulirna  distorta.    St.  Vincent's,  W.  I. 

Chiton,  sp.  ind.     California.  Natica  bifasciata,  Gray.    W.  Columbia. 

Chiton  vestitus,  Sow.     Capt.  Beechey.  MargineUa  curt  a  y  Sow.  jun.    Mazatlan. 

Bulla  ?  nebulosa.  Pedro  Blanco,  Mexico.  Fusus  IDupetithouarsii,  var. 

Mr.  J.  Robertson.  Trophon  labiosa,  Gray.    Callao. 

Physa  elata.    California.    Dr.  Sinclair.  Nitidella  cribraria.    S.  America.     Capt. 

FissurellamutabiUs,  Swains.   Galapagos.  King. 

Dentalium  pretiosum.    Central  America.  Pisania  ?  ringens.  Pernamboco.  J.  P.  6. 

Dr.  Sinclair.  Smith. 
DentaUwn,  like    cntafo,    Vancouver's 


ON  M0LLU80A  OF  THB  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AM1RICA.      297 


67.  The  following  species  and  localities  have  also  been  noticed  in  Mr. 


Cuming's  collection : — 

Petrieola  denticulata. 

Tkracia  plicata,  Desb.    W.  N.  America. 

Periploma  Leana.  Mazatlan.  Capt. 
Keppell  and  Mr.  Ede,  R.N. 

LyonAanitida.  «  China  Seas,  Belcher :" 
probably  an  error. 

TeUidora  Burnett.  Salango  and  St. 
Elena,  Cuming. 

Dona*  assimilis.    Conchagna. 

Mactra  angulata:  plentiful  from  the 
Gulf,  rare  further  south,  teste  Cuming. 

Crassatella  gibbosa  and  undulata.  West 
Columbia. 

Cardium  BelcheH.    Panama,  Cuming. 

Diplodonta  semiaspera.  St. Thomas, W.I. 
Merk. 

Lucinafenestrata.  Monte  Xti,  San  Bias. 

KeUia  suborbicularis.  Is.  Muerte  (Guay- 
aquil), sandy  mud,  11  fms.  Concep- 
tion, Chili. 

68.  Lastly,  the  following  have  been 
y,  Syst.  Ar.  Moll.*  p.  52  (Ianthinida). 
'  ;  RoUandiana.    Mazatlan. 
Chray,  Syst.  Ar.  Moll.  p.  117.    Gamotia 

soUda,  genus  described.    Mazatlan. 
Gray,  Syst.  Ar.  Moll.  Scurria  mitra,  genus 

described.    Mazatlan. 
Phil.  Arch.  1847,  p.  63.  pi.  3.  f.  7.  Am- 

phiehmna    Kinaermanni.    •  Mazatlan. 

(Appears  to  be  a  P$ammobia.) 
TelUaora  Burnett.    W.  Columbia,  Lieut. 

Freer. — Bristol  Mus. 
Dione  htpinaria.    Valparaiso,  H.  Babb, 

A.2V.— Bristol  Mus. 
Cardita  qfinis.    Cubaeo,  Lieut.  Wood. 

—Bristol  Mus. 
Lithophagus  aristatus.  Panama. — Bris- 
tol Mus. 


Modiola  capo*.    Galapagos,  Cuming. 

Helix  vinc/a, Val.;  BaskervilleitPfr.  From 
California  and  the  neighbourhood. 

Acmma  giganteaasgrandts,  Gray.  Mon- 
tery,  exposed  situations. 

Omphalius  Caltfornicus,  A.  Ad.  More* 
ton  Bay. 

Chlorostomafunebrale.    California. 

Ovulum  gibbosum.    Panama,  Cuming. 

Toriniavariegata.  Is.  Annaa,  coral  reefs. 

Lathyrus  armaius.    California. 

Leucozonia  California.  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, Lieut.  Shipley :  appears  a  La- 
thyrus. 

RaneUa,  like  vewiUum.    Mazatlan. 

1  tuber culata,v*i.  Mazatlan  (Havre 

Col.  teste  Powis). 

Nassa  nodocincta,  A.  Ad.    Galapagos. 

Rhizocheilus  asper.    Gulf  of  California. 

Typhis  grandis.    California. 

collected  from  various  sources  :— 

lAthophagus  aristatus.  Algiers,  M* An- 
drew. 

Isognomon  Chemnitzianum.  Panama,  L. 
Wood.— Bristol  Mus. 

Chiton  eonsimilis.    Upper  California. 

Paludinanuclea,Le&.  Sacramento  River. 

Anodon  angulatns,  Lea.        „  „ 

"  Oliva  splendidula.  Mazatlan,  *—Babb, 
Esq.,  A.2V7'— Bristol  Mus.=:0.  MeU 
chersi. 

Conus  concinnus.  Bay  of  California, 
Capt.  Babb. 

Purpura  coronata.    California. 

TurriteUa  sanpuinea.    California. 

Cassis  abbrevtata.    Acapulco. 

Marginella  imbricata.    Acapulco. 

Litorina  coronata.  SanBlas. — Mus.Nutt. 


69.  Having  now  presented  an  abstract  of  all  the  original  sources  of  in- 
formation (so  far  as  known  to  the  writer),  we  proceed  to  embody  them„in  a 
table,  arranged  at  the  same  time  geographically  f  and  zoologically,  so  as  to 
exhibit  in  one  view  as  much  of  the  foregoing  materials  as  may  be  looked 
upon  as  tolerably  satisfactorily  made-out.  Doubtful  species,  or  those  whose 
*ocality  rests  on  insufficient  evidence,  are  not  included.  Where  the  evidence 
u  good,  but  suspected,  the  name,  if  inserted,  is  in  [  ] ;  where  it  is  poor,  but 
&  priori  correct,  it  is  enclosed  in  (  ).  Species  entirely  omitted  can  be  written 
in  by  the  student,  from  the  foregoing  lists,  if  he  is  satisfied  with  the  evidence. 
All  names  printed  in  the  same  horizontal  line  are  regarded  as  probably 
conspeoific;  synonyms  being  distinguished  by  a  single  (• 

*  Of  this  work,  "Systematic  Arrangement  of  Mollusc*"  (with  figures  of  the  teeth  of 
Gasteropoda),  now  passing  through  the  press,  Dr.  Gray  obligingly  allowed  me  the  use  of  the 
proof-sheet*.  The  main  grouping  of  the  Gasteropoda  has  been  followed  to  a  considerable  extent, 
n  d  D  *•  9eco|>a>  column,  A.  signifies  Asia  (chiefly  Kamtschatka  and  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk; 
Zf'S^"^  <&**    In  the  last  column,  E.  signifies  the  coasts  of  feundor  and  Pert* ;  C.  those. 


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70.  Now  let  the  student  of  geographical  distribution  of  Mollusca  begin  by 
observing  the  fauna  of  our  own  seas,  and  learn,  from  the  invaluable  work  of 
Forbes  and  Hanley,  to  discriminate  species  and  eliminate  those  that  are 
spurious.  Let  him  then,  taking  Philippi  and  M4  Andrew  as  his  guides,  compare 
them  with  the  shells  of  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  shores.  Let  him,  with 
Gould  and  DeKay,  note  both  the  similar  and  dissimilar  forms  on  the  shores  of 
the  United  States.  Let  him,  after  studying  the  very  characteristic  fauna  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  again  cross  the  Atlantic,  and  observe  the  reappearance  of  well- 
known  forms,  in  spite  of  the  vast  extent  of  ocean.    Let  him  trace  the  fauna 
of  Senegal  with  Adanson,  of  the  Guinea  coast  with  Dunker,  and  of  the  Cape 
and  Port  Natal  with  Krauss.     Here  let  him  enter  on  the  vast  Indo-  Pacific 
province ;  and,  having  taken-in  the  general  conception  of  the  fauna  from  any 
collection  of  East  Indian  shells,  let  him  examine  its  special  districts,  from 
Akaba,  to  Easter  Island  in  the  latitude  of  the  Gulf  of  California.     Let  him 
learn  from  Cuming  the  vast  variety  of  generic  and  specific  forms  which  cul- 
minate in  the  Philippines.  Let  him  trace  some  of  these  westward  even  to  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  they  associate  with  types  from  the 
Mediterranean  and  even  the  West  Indies ;  and  eastward  from  group  to  group 
of  the  coral  or  volcanic  islands  in  the  vast  expanse  of  the  Pacific.     Let  him 
note  the  reappearance  of  forms  at  the  Cape  and  Australia,  in  spite  of  the 
broad  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean.    Let  him  learn  from  Nuttall  the  species 
which  are  common  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the  Sandwich  Islands ;  and  from 
Stutchbury  those  which  abound  both  in  New  Holland  and  Tahiti.     And, 
having  at  every  step  in  his  inquiry  found  somewhat  in  common  with  the  last; 
having,  when  examining  the  shells  of  the  Marquesas  in  the  center  of  the 
Pacific,  found  several  conspicuous  and  well-known  forms  of  the  Asiatic  Seas, 
in  spite  of  (in  parts)  the  profound  depth  of  ocean  that  lies  between ;  he  will 
naturally  expect,  as  he  reaches  the  American  shores,  to  find  also  not  a  little 
in  common  with  the  opposite  shores.     He  crosses  the  vast  unbroken  expanse 
of  the  West  Pacific ;  one  flank  of  the  hemisphere  of  waters,  which  of  itself 
almost  rivals  the  Atlantic  in  extent.     He  pauses  at  the  solitary  Archipelago 
of  the  Galapagos,  in  the  very  longitude  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  guarding  (as 
it  were)  the  great  bay  of  Central  America,  and  within  600  miles  of  its  shores. 
Even  here  his  eye  rests  with  pleasure  on  a  few  well-known  Cones  and  other 
forms,  which  have  crossed  the  fathomless  depths  and  come  to  claim  kindred 
with  their  molluscan  brotherhood  of  the  New  World.     But  here  they  stop. 
They  could  traverse  half  a  world  of  waters.     The  human  spirit  that  gives 
them  understanding  and  a  voice,  beholds  them  on  the  very  threshold  of  the 
promised  continent,  in  whose  bays  and  harbours,  protected  by  the  chain  of 
everlasting  mountains,  they  shall  find  the  goal  of  their  long  pilgrimage.     But 
the  Word  of  the  unknown  Power  has  gone  forth ;  and  the  last  narrow  channel 
they  attempt  to  cross  in  vain. 

We  speak  now  of  the  first  general  impression,  without  regard  to  excep- 
tional cases  :  and- the  ascertained  facts  fully  bear  us  out  in  saying  that  there 
does  not  exist  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  a  more  separate,  independent 
assemblage  of  mollusks  than  is  to  be  found,  under  three  great  typical  divi- 
sions, from  Oregon  to  Chili.  Mr.  Nuttall,  in  passing  from  California  to  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  found  only  a  Hipponyx  in  common.  Messrs.  Coming  and 
Hinds,  both  of  whom  had  well  explored  the  seas  of  the  E.  and  W.  Pacific, 
and  of  whom  the  former  made  his  great  collections  in  the  two  equatorial 
boundaries,  with  no  inconsiderable  research  among  the  intermediate  groups, 
having  compared  about  2000  species  from  the  two  districts,  came  to  the 


MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WB8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      347 

conclusion  that  only  one  shell  is  common  to  east  and  west,  and  not  even  that 
to  the  intermediate  islands** 

71.  And  if  we  are  thus  struck  with  the  isolation  of  the  W.  American  fauna 
in  general,  so  are  we  with  the  separation  of  its  component  parts.  Let  us 
compare  (as  being  the  most  unmixed  sources  of  information)  the  central 
collection  of  Prof.  Adams  at  Panama,  on  the  one  side  with  the  equatorial 
collections  of  Messrs.  Cuming  and  Fontaine,  and  with  the  Chilian  researches  of 
the  former  and  D'Orbigny ;  and  on  the  other  with  the  Gulf  collection  of 
M.  Reigen,  and  those  in  California  by  Mr.  Nuttall  and  the  U.S.  Exploring 
Expedition.  We  find  that,  while  so  large  a  number  of  species  are  common  to 
Mazatlan,  Panama,  Guayaquil  and  the  Galapagos,  that  they  may  fairly  be 
reckoned  as  one  great  province,  scarcely  any  are  common  to  the  equatorial 
districts  and  Chili,  and  still  fewer  to  the  Gulf  and  San  Francisco ;  insomuch 
that  on  a  comparison  of  known  forms  between  Mr.  Nuttall's  collection,  / 
M.  Reigen's,  and  the  W.  Indian  fauna,  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that  there  isy 
more  in  common  between  the  two  latter  than  the  two  former. 

We  proceed  now  to  the  details  and  the  exceptions ;  merely  premising  that 
the  student  must  bear  in  mind  the  very  unsatisfactory  nature  of  most  of  our 
materials,  and  must  therefore  receive  what  follows  simply  as  the  approxi- 
mation partially  attainable  in  the  present  state  of  the  science,  and  not  as 
absolute  truth. 

72.  In  the  Boreal  Fauna,  we  naturally  look  for  different  conditions  from 
those  which  prevail  in  the  continent  generally.  The  near  connexion  of  Asia 
and  America  at  Beb ring's  Straits  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  leads  us  to  ex- 
pect similar  forms  on  the  two  continents ;  and  as  the  boreal  species  are  known 
to  be  both  widely  distributed  and  extremely  variable,  we  shall  not  be  sur- 
prised to  meet  again  with  a  few  familiar  European  types. 

The  following  Polar  species  are  quoted  from  the  extreme  north  at 
Icy  Cape: — 


Corbula  gibbosa. 
Tellina  alteraidentata. 

inconupicua. 

■         nasuta. 


Natica  pallida. 
Buccinum  angulosum. 

poiare. 

tenue. 

Chrysodomus  fornicatus. 
Trophon  lamellotus. 


•  lactea  J  \  ssemisulcata. 

Trichotropis  borealis. 

Of  these  none  as  yet  appear  in  the  Sitcha  lists  but  Tellina  nasuta,  and  the 
European  Trick,  borealis.  The  latter  probably  reaches  Oregon,  while  the 
former  travels  as  far  south  as  San  Diego. 

73.  From  the  Sitcha  district  are  quoted  102  species  (55  bivalves,  and 
77  univalves);  of  which  16  are  northern  forms,  not  known  south  of  Bearing 
Sea;  18  biv.+26  un.=44  are  fonnd  in  Asia,* principally  in  the  OchoUk  Sea ; 
7  biv.  + 12  un.= 19are  common  to  Oregon ;  about  the  same  number,  but  not  the 
same  shells,  are  found  in  Upper  California,  and  a  few  have  a  wide  range.  Triton 
scaber  is  the  only  Sitcha  Proboscidean  which  reaches  California.  The  Kamts- 
ebatkian  Cryptochiton  Stelleri  and  Placunanomia  macroschisma  reappear  in 
Upper  California,  but  have  not  yet  been  found  in  intermediate  stations.  Mytilus 
eduUs  reaches  from  Kamtschatka  to  Upper,  and  Tellina  nasuta  with  Cardia 
NuttaJh  and  Californiense  to  Lower  California;  while  Acmcea  patina  travels 

*  Vide  Woodward**  «'  Manual  of  MoIIusca,"  pp.  373  et  seq.,  London,  Weale,  1851-56  :  a 
wots;  which  combines  in  a  small  compass,  and  at  a  price  within  the  reach  of  all,  a  larger 
amoont  both  of  accurate  detail  and  philosophical  research  than  Is  anywhere  else  accessible. 
The  cbaptsM  oa  gaogxspbical  and  geological  distribution  art  invaluable. 


548 


BE  PORT— 1856. 


tinder  a  host  of  names  to  the  peninsula,  and  even  straggles  into  the  Golf. 
„j$£unia  mitra,  Osilinus  aier  and  Omphalitis  w&stus  reach  from  Sitcha  to 
Lower  California,  and  Acmcea persona  sparingly  enters  the  Gulf;  while  the 
ubiquitous  Saxicava,  one  species  probably  under  a  variety  of  names  and 
forms,  appears,  like  man  and  dog,  to  adapt  itself  to  every  variety  of  climates 
and  to  reappear  in  every  well-searched  fauna,  boasting  also  of  being  one  of 
the  most  ancient  types  now  living  on  the  surface  of  our  globe.  The 
LUorina  aspera  and  Callopoma  jiuctuatum,  quoted  on  the  authority  of 
Barclay,  are  60  essentially  tropical,  that  we  may  be  allowed  to  suspend  our 
judgment  before  we  receive  them  into  the  fauna. 

74.  The  Oregon  shells  belong,  in  the  main,  to  the  Californian  type,  but 
present,  thus  far,  peculiarities  which  demand  a  separate  study.     The  total 


number  known  are  144= 

Of  these  have,  in  addition,  been  1  .  ~ 

aia/16== 
12= 


found  only  in  Upper  California  J 
also  in  Lower  California 


Bivalves. 

49 
6 
5 


Ordinary  —    .- 


72 
9 

6 


1 

0 
0 


The  following — Crenelia  discrepans,  Trichotropis  borealis  and  Bela  ?Acr- 
ricula,  are  European  forms.  The  following  are  the  principal  sea  shells  as 
yet  peculiar : — 


Terebratula  pulvinata  and  canrena. 

Panopsea  generosa. 

Solen  aicarius. 

Venus  calcarea  and  ampliata. 

Cardium  blandum. 

Pecten  caurinus,  hericeus  and  Town- 

sendi. 
Placunanomia  slope  and  cepio. 
Chitonidae  dentiens  and  lignosus. 
Callochiton  interstinctus. 
Mopalia  vespertina. 
Chiton  muscosus. 


Katherina  Douglasue. 
Puncturella  cucullata  and  galeata. 
Litorina  leuida  and  scutellata. 
Lacuna  cannata. 
Cerithiopsis  filosa. 
Lunatia  caurina,  hercultea,  algida. 
Purpura  ostrina  and  lagena. 
Columbella  gausapata  (the  mostnorth- 

erly  species  of  the  genus.) 
Nassa  mendica. 
Trophon  Orpheus  and  corrugatus. 


75.  A  comparison  of  the  shells  of  the  N.  W.  and  S.  W.  shores  of  America 
offers  certain  remarkable  points  of  identity.  The  standard  limpet  of  the 
northern  seas  is  Acmma  patina.  On  reaching  the  Gulf,  it  is  replaced  by 
A.  mesoleuca,  which  probably  extends  through  the  Panamic  province.  But 
when  we  approach  Chili,  wc  again  find  the  A.  patina  in  D'Orbigny's  collec- 
tions, and  it  is  figured  by  Mr.  Reeve  as  though  brought  by  Cuming.  Indeed 
if  the  Chilian  and  Californian  specimens  were  mixed,  it  would  be  impossible 
to  separate  them  by  the  shells  alone.  It  is  true  that  Philippi,  recognizing 
some  of  Escbscholtz's  Sitchian  species  as  southern  forms,  accuses  the  latter  of 
mixing  the  labels ;  but  probably  they  occur  in  each  fauna.  The  Scurria 
mitra  also,  though  somewhat  more  local,  is  a  very  abundant  shell  on  both 
coasts.  The  Acmcea  cassis  of  Eschscholtz  appears  only  a  northern  reproduc- 
tion of  the  Patagonian  Patella  deaurata,  Gmel.  The  Fissurrella  violascens, 
Each.,  is  assigned  by  him  to  the  south,  to  which  in  type  it  belongs ;  but  it 
has  some  claims  on  the  northern  fauna  for  admission.  The  BulUa  ampuUacea, 
Midd.,  is  essentially  a  southern  type,  especially  abounding  in  peninsulas ;  of 
its  specific  relations  we  are  not  yet  able  to  judge.  The  Natica  caurina  of 
Gould,  appears  a  geographical  creation  for  the  southern  N.  itnpervia  of 
Philippi ;  while  of  the  Oregonian  Scalane^  Dr.  Gould  confesses  that  he  has 


ON  MOLLU80A  OF  THE  WIST  OOA0T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      849 


seen  no  marks  by  which  it  can  be  separated  from  8.  ausfralis,  though  he 
expects  that  some  will  be  eliminated  hereafter. 

76.  The  Upper  Calipornian  district  presents  a  very  peculiar  assemblage 
of  shells ;  essentially  of  a  temperate  cast,  but  including  a  few  forms  of  tropical 
type.  The  leading  species  are  as  follow,  including  several  which  also  make 
their  way  into  Oregon  and  Lower  California : — 


Discina  Evansii.  f 

Pholadidea  penita.  '    '  N 

Parapholas  Californica. 

Petncola  Californica. 

RupeUaria  lamellifera. 

Saxidomus  Petitii  and  Nuttalli. 

Platyodon  cancellatus.   . 

Cryptodon  Nuttalli. 

Sphsenia  Californica. 

Tnracia  curta. 

Mytilimeria  Nuttalli. 

Pandora  punctata. 

Machasra  Nuttalli. 

Solecurtus  subteres  and  Californicus. 

Sanguinolaria  grandis. 

Telhna  Bodegensis,  secta  and  alta. 

Donax  flexuosus  and  Californicus. 

Mactra  Californica  and  planulata. 

Trigona  crassatelloides. 

Dosinia  callosa. 

Venus  Nuttalli. 

Tapes  straminea. 

Trapezium  Californicum. 

Chama  exogyra. 

Diplodonta  orbella. 

Kellia  Laperousii. 

Mytilus  Californianus  and  bifurcatus. 

Modiola  recta  and  nitens. 

Nucula  coelata. 

Leda  polita. 

Isognomon  coatellatus. 

Pecten  latiauratus. 

The  total  number  of  mollusks  known  to  inhabit  this  district,  excluding  most 
of  those  of  which  the  habitat  is  only  loosely  stated  as  "  California,"  &c,  is  as 
follows: — Bryozoa,  1 ;  Palliobranchs,2;  Lamellibranchs,  73 ;  Ordinary  Gaste- 
ropoda, 100;  Toxifera,  2;  Proboscidifera,  24:  Total,  202.  Of  these  there  have 
only  as  yet  been  found  common  also  to  Lower  California  (San  Diego  to  Cape 
St.  Lucas),  Bryozoa,  0 ;  Palliobranchs,  0 ;  Lamellibranchs,  27 ;  Ordinary 
Gasteropoda,  23j  Toxifera,  0;  Proboscidifera,  6 :  Total,  56;  but  as  scarcely 
140  species  are  as  yet  known  from  that  region,  it  is  next  to  certain  that  the 
common  species  will  be  hereafter  found  much  more  numerous.  Of  the  compara- 
tively small  assemblage  known  from  Upper  California,  containing  next  to  no 
pelagic  forms  and  only  about  half-a-dozen  minute  species,  it  will  be  observed 
how  large  a  proportion  are  bivalves,  and  how  few  proboscideans ;  also  how 
much  larger  the  proportion  of  the  widely  extended  species  is  in  the  former 
than  in  the  latter  group.  A  very  few,  as  Cultellus  lucidus  and  Lyonsia 
Californica,  are  perhaps  identical  with  North  Atlantic  shells ;  but  in  general 
there  is  a  wide  disagreement.  Here  are  found  the  largest  species  of  Parapholas 
and  Trigona;  and  the  types  of  Platyodony  Cryptodon,  Mytilimeria  and 


Bulla  nebulosa. 

Tornatina  culcitella  and  cerealis. 

Lepidochiton  Mertensii  and  scrobiculat*. 

Mopalia  Simpsonii. 

Chitonidae  Nuttalli,  ornatus,  Monte- 

reyensis,  Hartwegii. 
Nacella  depicta  and  incessa. 
Acmsea  scabra  and  toreuraa. 
Fissurella  ornata  and  volcano. 
Lucapina  crenulata. 
Haliotis,  5  sp. 
Trochus  niosus. 
Omphalitis  aureotinctus. 
Trochiscus  Norrisii. 
Crepidula  ru^osa. 
Aletes  squamigerus. 
Litorina  planaxis. 
Trivia  Californica. 
Defrancia  bella. 
Conus  ravus. 
Odostomia  gravida. 
Chemnitzia  tenuicula  and  torquata. 
Neverita  Recluziana. 
Mitra  maura. 
Margineila  JewetiL 
Purpura  macrostoma  and  harpa. 
Monoceros  engonata  and  lapilloides. 
Nitidella  Gouldii. 

Columbella  carinataand  StaBarbarensis* 
Nassa  perpingius. 
Cerastoma  Nuttalli. 


S50  REPORT — 1856. 


Saxidomus.  The  tendency  of  the  Muricidce  and  PurpuricUs  to  assume  tht 
acsnthoid  type,  is  well  known,  both  in  these  and  the  West  Southern  thorn. 
he  Lithophagus  Gruneri  rests  on  tolerably  satisfactory  evidence  from  New 
Zealand  as  well  as  from  Monterey.  The  wide-spread  Strigilia  camaria, 
even  more  like  the  usual  Caribbean  type  than  are  the  Mazatian  specimens, 
here  appears  in  tolerable  abundance ;  while  even  the  Livonapica  is  stated  to 
have  been  found  alive.  Of  course  it  may  retain  a  lingering  existence  in  the 
upper  seas,  asLucina  tigerrina  in  the  lower,  while  on  the  coast  bordering  on  the 
Caribbean  it  has  died  out ;  but  it  is  more  natural  at  present  to  suppose  it  an 
error.  For  the  Litiopa  divisa,  an  East  Indian  pelagic  shell,  said  to  have  been 
found  on  "  Cape  San  Francisco,"  a  locality  of  the  same  name  occurs  near  the 
Bay  of  Guayaquil.  The  sudden  appearance  of  Haliotida,  of  great  size  and 
beauty,  in  the  temperate  shores  of  West  N.  America,  is  very  remarkable. 
Not  a  single  specimen  occurred  in  the  vast  Reigen  collection,  nor  have  any 
been  taken  in  Central  America,  or  in  South  America,  the  head-quarters  of 
Chitonidte.  On  crossing  the  Pacific  Ocean,  however,  we  find  that  Japan, 
which  represents  the  same  zone  on  the  Asiatic  coast,  is  equally  rich  io  beau- 
tiful forms.     The  following  species  are  quoted  from 


Japan. 

Haliotis  Japonica,  Rve. 
— —  gigantea,  Chemn. 

discus,  Rve. 

Siebaldii,  Rve. 

aquatilisy  Rve. 


California. 
Haliotis  splendent,  Rve. 

corrugate,  Gray. 

Cracherodii*  Leach 

Calif  orniensis,  Si 

rufescens,  Swains. 


Two  of  the  Asiatic  species,  H.  aquatMsy  Rve.,  and  H.  Kamtschaikana>  Jonas, 
stretch  upwards  within  the  bounds  of  the  Polar  fauna  in  Behring's  Sea; 
while  the  latter  appears  to  have  crossed  the  waters,  and  to  have  found  its 
way  sparingly  down  the  American  coast. 

77.  Of  the  fauna  of  Lower  California,  meaning  the  peninsola  from 
San  Diego  to  Cape  St.  Lucas,  one  of  the  most  interesting  portions  in  the 
.  American  coast,  but  the  least  thoroughly  investigated,  very  little  is  known,  and 
that  little  but  inaccurately.  The  shells  of  San  Diego,  as  collected  by  NuttaJI, 
are  almost  entirely  distinct  from  those  of  the  Gulf.  Most  of  them  belong 
to  the  Upper  Californian  type,  but  several  fresh  species  make  their  appear- 
ance, which  are  still  distinct  from  the  Mazatian  fauna.  This  ground  was 
well  searched  by  Messrs.  Kellett  and  Wood ;  and  it  is  probable,  though  the 
evidence  is  very  slight,  that  many  of  the  peculiar  shells  of  their  expedition, 
such  as  Hinnites  giganteus,  Pseudoliva  Kellettii,  &c,  were  obtained  in  this 
district  The  little  that  is  known  accurately  of  the  peninsula,  shows  that  the 
stations  on  both  shores  of  the  Gulf  belong  essentially  to  the  Panamic  type; 
those  within  the  Gulf  being  even  more  tropical  than  those  at  the  mouth ;  as 
evidenced  by  Oliva  porphyria.  Cassis  coarctata,  Oniscia  tuberculosa,  Terebra 
robustOy  and  other  Panama  species  not  found  in  the  Reigen  collection  :  while 
the  Bay  of  Magdalena  and  other  stations  in  the  Pacific  are  peopled,  prin- 
cipally by  the  Californian  colony  moving  southwards,  and  stopped  at  the 
Cape  by  the  upward  equatorial  current ;  partly  by  Gulf  shells  making  their  way 
round  the  corner ;  and  partly,  it  seems,  by  a  special  little  fauna  of  its  own.  It 
will  be  an  abundant  recompense  for  the  labour  of  this  Report,  if  it  should 
lead  any  careful  naturalist  to  make  a  diligent  search  of  the  district,  both  as  to 
its  shore  shells  and  its  pelagic  species ;  making  accurate  notes  at  the  time 
what  species  are  taken  alive  and  what  dead ;  in  what  circumstances  and 
Quantities;  and  with  such  precautions  as  shall  effectually  guard  against  aB 


ON  MOLM70CA  OP  THE  WMT  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA*     S51 


chances  of  error.  We  shall  then  know,  and  not  satisfactorily  till  then,  where 
and  how  the  two  great  faunas  of  West  N.  America,  both  of  which  go  loosely 
by  the  name  of  "  Californian,"  find  their  separation. 

The  imperfect  data  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  Lower  California  only  furnish 
us  with  Paltiobranchs,  1 ;  Lamellibranchs,  60 ;  ordinary  Gasteropoda,  49 ; 
Toxifera,  7 ;  Proboscidifera,  20 :  total  137  species.  As  the  localities  are  so 
far  from  being  satisfactorily  established,  an  exact  analysis  of  them  will  not 
here  be  attempted  :  but  the  fauna  of  each  spot  will  be  given  entire  so  far  as 
known,  both  on  the  Pacific  shores  and  in  the  Gulf.  The  species  marked  * 
belong  to  the  Californian  type ;  those  marked  f  to  the  Panamic. 


The  following  list  contains  the  known  shells  of  San  Diego  : —   j^ 

Pholadidea  ovoidea. 

Pecten  floridua-  **4 

* penita. 

•Paraphoias  Californics. 

—  purpuratus. 

fOstrea  conchaphila. 

Saxicava  Pholadis. 

t plumula. 

•Petricola  Californica. 

Hinnites  giganteus. 

•Saxidomus  Nuttaili.    ,y 

•Helix  tudiculata. 

•Platyodon  cancellous.  - 

♦ Kellettii. 

*  •Sphasnia  Californica. 

Bulimus  pallidior. 

•Lyonsia  Californica.  •*' 

fMelampus  olivaceui. 

Periploma  argentaria. 
•Solecurtus  subteres. 

Haminea  vesicula. 

•Bulla  nebulosa. 

* Californianus. 

—  rirescens. 

Sanguinolaria  Nuttaili.  <*~ 

longinqum. 

Psammobia  Pacifica. 

Tornatina  inculta. 

•Tellina  nasuta.    "        - ' 

Mopalia  Blainvillei. 

* secta. 

•Acmcea  patina. 

pura. 

• persona. 

—  vicina. 

• grandis. 

Cumingia  Californica. 

• spectrum. 

*Semele  decisa. 

• scabra. 

—  flavescens. 

fascicularis. 

* rubrolineata. 

•Fissurella  volcano. 

*Donax  Californicus. 

•Haliotis  Califomiensis. 

•Venus  Nuttaili. 

* Cracherodii. 

*-—  Californiana. 

• aplendens. 

excavata. 

•Oailinua  ater. 

■         dispar. 

•Trochus  filosus.  ^ 

fluctifiraga. 

•Omphalius  aureotinctus. 

•Tapes  straminea.    ^ 

* brunneus. 

•Trigona  crassatelloides.  f 

•Phasianella  compta. 

•Cardium  Nuttaili.    ^ 

fTurbo  Fokkesii. 

* Califsrniense. 

fPetaloconchus  macrophragmi 

• sub8triatum. 

•Cerithidea  sacrata. 

t elatum. 

albonodoaa. 

—  luteolabram.  - 

pullata. 

Cypricardia  Californica. 
•Chama  exogyra. 

Deilucida.     1/ 

•Diploaonta  orbella. 

tNatica  uber. 

Ranella  triauetra. 

muriciformis. 

Californica.  £  - 

fLucina  punctata. 
beUa. 

trpiiva  splendidula"). 

rurpura  emarginata. 

— —  Californica. 

Columbella  carinata.  ___ 

Nuttaili. 

Californica. 

tlithophagus  attenuatus. 

tNassa  luteostoma. 

•Mytilus  Californianus. 
Modiola  capax.     slS 
Area  pernoides. 

fossata. 

t tegula. 

Murex  Belcheri.          * 

♦Pecten  latiauritus, 

859 


ftBPOBT— 1856, 


The  following  shell*  are  quoted  from  San  P£d*o  *— 


Sanguinolaria  Nuttalli. 
•Semele  rubrotincta. 
•Tellina  sects,  j** 

Mactra  nasuta. 
*Venus  Nuttalli.  > 

—  fiructifraga. 

Califomiensis. 


♦Tapes  straminea. 

— —  gracilis. 
•Diplodonta  orbella. 

Cardium  cruentatum* 
•Chama  exogyra. 
•Bulla  nebulosa. 
fAcmaea  mesoleuca. 


*Acnuea  scabra. 
•Scurria  mitra. 
*Trochus  mcestns. 
f  Crepidula  incurva* 
f  Calyptnea  spinosa* 
f Litorina  ?  fascia  ta. 
Oliva  biplicata. 


The  following  shells  are  quoted  from  Guatmas.  They  ail  belong  to  tie 
Southern  fauna,  except  Buuq  nebulosa  and  Venus  straminea,  which  last  be- 
longs to  that  of  Upper  California.  It  may  be  a  wrong  determination  for  the 
not  dissimilar  Tapes  hisirionica. 

Pectunculus  giganteus. 

Pecten  circulans. 
•Bulla  nebulosa. 

Lophyrus  laevigatas. 

albolineatus. 

fAcmaea  mesoleuca. 
f  Neritina  picta. 
fNerita  Bernhardi. 


Periploma  planiuscula. 
fPetncola  robusta. 
t Venus  Columbiensis. 

Californiensis. 

* straminea. 

fTapes  grata. 

Cardita  Californica. 

Chama  f.  Mexicana. 

Cardium  elatum. 


Ompbalius  rugosus. 

Terebra  variegata. 

Conus  ferrugatns. 

f regulana. 

f  Natica  maroccana. 

— —  bifasciata. 

Fusu8  pallidus. 

—  lignarius. 


The  following  shells  are  quoted  from  San  Juan  ;  many  others  are  pro- 
bably from  the  same  place,  but  are  assigned  by  error  to  the  Straits  of  the 
same  name  in  Oregon. 

fTerebra  fulgurata. 
f  Conus  princeps. 
f  Oniscia  tuberculosa, 
f  Cassis  coarctata. 
Olivella  intorta. 


f  Sanguinolaria  purpurea, 

Telhna  gemma. 
•Donax  Catifornicus. 

Bulimus  pallidior. 
fRadius  variabilis. 


fOlivella  tergina. 

?  eburnea. 

Monoceros  tuberculatum, 
t  Purpura  muricata. 
f  Murex  plicatus. 


The  following  are  quoted  from  La  Paz:- 

Thracia  plicata. 
f  Mactra  elegans. 

Venus  reticulata, 
f  Dione  Chionsea. 
f Artemis  gigantea. 

Petricola  dactylus. 
f  Lucina  punctata. 

Modiola  capax. 
f  Isognomon  Cbemnitzianum. 

Lima  tetrica. 

Pecten  nodosus. 

—  dentatus. 

Spondylus,  sp. 


tOstrea  Cumingiana. 
f  Cancellaria  obesa. 

t solida. 

t cassidiformis. 

Sigaretus  debilis. 
tStrombus  eracilior. 
fOliva  porphyria. 

t splencbdula. 

f  Purpura  patula. 

* emarginata. 

t—  bisenalis. 

t kiosquiformis. 

fMurez  bicolor. 


78.  A  mere  glance  at  the  general  Table,  contrasting  the  species  on  each 
side  of  the  double  central  dividing  line,  especially  leaving  out  of  view  the  un- 
certain column  of  Lower  California,  will  satisfy  the  inquirer  of  the  marked 
and  rapid  separation  between  the  two  faunas  of  California-proper  and  the 
Gulf.  The  actual  difference  is,  however,  much  greater  than  the  apparent, 
since  the  name  of  a  species  occurs  in  a  column  if  only  one  specimen  has  been 
obtained,  whether  or  not  it  were  living  there ;  or  if  living,  whether  it  were 
an  habitual  resident  or  a  straggler.  For  it  will  be  observed  that  our  present 
lists  are  much  in  the  condition  of  those  of  British  shells,  before  the  labours 
of  the  dredging  naturalists  of  our  own  day ;  when  a  W.  Indian  shell  was  duly 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     S53 


entered  on  the  fauna,  if  it  could  be  shown  to  have  been  picked  up  on  British 
sands.  There  are  two  main  sources  of  information  for  the  comparison  of  the 
faunas:— (1.)  The  collections  of  Mr.  Nuttall  and  M.  Reigen  ;  and  (2.) 
those  of  the  Mexican  War  naturalists.  Now  with  every  respect  for  the 
labours  of  the  latter  gentlemen,  who  doubtless  did  the  very  best  that  it  was 
possible  for  them  to  do  under  their  peculiar  circumstances,  we  hesitate 
before  we  receive  from  that  source  alone  results  at  variance  with  the  former. 
And  for  this  simple  reason ;  that  Mr.  Nuttall  did  not  travel  further  south 
than  San  Diego,  nor  did  M.  Reigen  pass  beyond  the  district  of  Mazatlan : 
while  the  officers  were  moving  from  place  to  place,  and  liable  to  the  errors 
that  even  peacable  naturalists  may  make  under  such  circumstances.  As  the 
results  of  their  collections  have  been  carefully  tabulated  above,  those  who 
place  implicit  reliance  upon  them  can  easily  add  to  the  lists  accordingly :  but 
we  think  it  a  sufficient  ground  for  hesitation,  that  no  less  an  authority  than 
Dr.  Gould  had  formed  the  opinion,  judging  from  these  collections  alone,  that 
Mazatlan  belonged  to  the  Californian  rather  than  the  Panamic  type ;  the 
contrary  of  which  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  Reigen  collection.  It  appears 
also  that  Prof.  Adams  entertained  the  same  doubts,  though  lie  does  not  ex- 
press them ;  for  while  he  quotes  the  war-naturalists  for  seven  of  his  fan  am  a 
species  as  inhabiting  Upper  California,  he  says  in  his  introduction  that  none 
of  the  species  of  the  province  inhabit  San  Diego,  which  is  at  the  borders  of 
Lower  California.  The  following  are  the  species  common  to  Mr.  Nuttall's 
and  M.  Reigen's  collections,  the  specimens  quoted  from  the  latter  being  all 
that  were  found  out  of  several  myriads  of  shells. 


Californian  Fauna. 

Not  uncommon 

Typical  

Typical  and  abundant . 

Typical  

One  young  ap 

?Rare 

Not  uncommon 

Typical  

Typical,  very  abundant 
Typical,  very  abundant 

Typical,  focal. 

Very  rare  

Dwarf  Tar.,  common... 

Extremely  rare 

1  sp 

?Var.  California! 


Specie*. 


Gulf  Fauna. 


Strigilla  carnaria 

Cumingia  Californica  .... 
Trigonella  crassatelloides 


4.  Chama  exogyra  * 


Acmsea  patina 

—  persona  

scabra 

Crucibulum  spinosum 
Crepidula  aculeata  ... 
Hipponyx  Grayanua 
Petaloconchus  macro] 
Natica  maroccana 


Not  common. 

Very  rare. 

Two  minute  dead  valves,  possibly 

the  fry  of  this  species. 
One  pair  and  a  valve,  probably  of 

this  species. 
Typical. 
Very  rare, 
ihapbila  &  plumula  Very  common. 

A  very  few,  resembling  B,  nebu- 

logo,  but  possibly =5.  Adamri, 

var. 
2  sp.  (?  ballast). 
1  sp.  (?  ballast). 
1  sp.  (?  ballast). 
Typical,  widely  diffused. 
Typical,  widely  diffused. 
Extremely  rare, 
tphragma  Typical,  common. 
Var.  Pritchardi. 


(frondosa)  Mexicana 

Modiola  capax 
OstreaconcI 
Bulla  nebulosa 


In  this  list  nos.  3,  4,  8  &  16  are  doubtful.  Nos.  9,  10  &  1 1  appear  to  be 
stragglers.  Nos.  1, 2, 6, 7  &  1?  honestly  belong  to  both  faunas,  and  are  forms 
of  wide  geographical  extent;  the  few  remaining  being  creatures  of  sedentary 
habits,  that  are  easily  transported  from  place  to  place.  Out  of  the  694 
species  therefore,  sent  from  Mazatlan,  to  say  nothing  of  the  additional  species 
brought  by  Lieut.  Shipley  and  others,  only  16  are  in  common  with  Mr. 
Nuttall's  Californtans ;  and  even  these,  to  a  very  limited  extent. 

79.  The  following  table  will  give  an  abstract  of  what  is  now  known  of  the 
Mexico-Peruvian  fauna,  grouped  in  families  and  in  columns  according  to  their 
1856.  2  a 


354 


REPORT — 1856. 


distribution.  A.  Species  as  yet  only  known  from  the  Gulf  including  Mu- 
atlan  and  St.  Bias. — B.  Species  found  in  the  Gulf  and  Central  Amenta, 

from  Acapuloo  to  Gulf  Dulce.— C.  Gulf  and  Panama D.   Gulf  and  S. 

America. — E.  Gulf  and  Galapagos. — F.  Total  Gulf. — G.  Central  Ame- 
rica, peculiar. — H.  Central  America  and  Panama. — I.  Central  America  atd 
S.  America. — K.  Panama,  peculiar. — L.  Panama  and  S.  America*-M> 
Total  Panama. — N.  TOTAL  of  N.  American  tropical  fauna. 


FamiKei,  8fc. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

F. 

G. 

H. 

I. 

K. 

L. 

M. 

1 

BRYOZOA    

16 

... 

1 

1 

... 

16 

1 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

16 

1 
!     1 

tunicata 

PALUOBRANCHIATA 

Total    

16 

... 

1 

1 

... 

17 

... 

... 

... 

... 

1 

1 

1    17 

LAMELLIBRANCHIATA. 

Pholadidse 

1 

10 
4 
3 
8 

2 

23 

4 

5 

9 

6 

1 

10 

15 

♦12 

4 

4 
9 

i 

6 

1 
2 

1 

5 

*4 
5 
2 

13 

2 
3 

1 

1 
3 

7 
1 
2 
1 

1 
3 

1 

2 
2 

1 
2 

"i 

i 

"i 

9 
4 
3 
14 
1 
1 
4 
2 
1 

*5 

10 

2 

5 

"i 

3 

2 

1 
2 

1 

3 
1 

"e 
1 

1 

17 

4 

2 

1 

2 
11 

2 
1 

1 

1 
2 

2 

5 

2 

1 

12 

4 

10 

10 

*3 

39 

10 

8 

34 

7 

3 

15 

19 

13 

4 

1 

13 

23 

2 

7 

7 

3 

7 

4 

1 

"i 

1 

"i 

8 
2 

2 
2 

1 
1 
3 

"i 

5 

"2 

1 
1 
1 
3 

"i 

1 

6 

"5 

4 
2 
8 
2 
2 
3 

1 
5 
1 
2 
3 

2 

1 

5 

1 

4 
2 

12 

1 

4 

4 
2 

*3 

"i 

3 

6 
3 

1 

23 

1 
3 
6 

"i 

1 
1 
1 
2 

6 

4 
4 
2 
1 
2 
2 
3 

2 
2 

1 
2 

"i 

11 
2 

1 

10 
3 

1 
4 
1 
1 

"i 

ii 

2 

3 
1 

.     7 
2 
1 
2 

H 

4 
1 
1 
41 
6 
6 

n 

4 
7 
3 
2 
2 

ii 

17! 
6 
V 
6 
3 
5 
5 

xi 

1 
IS 

4 
23 
15 

I 

4 

81 
14 
11 

« 
13 

1 

20 
23 
14 

7 

6 
19 
32 

8 

10 
14 

8 

9 

8 

Gastrochaenidae 

Saxicavidae    

Petricolidae    ............... 

Myadse 

Corbulidae I#. 

Anatinidee 

Solenidae    

Solecnrticbe  

Tellinidas  

DonacicUe 

Mactrids 

Veneridae  

Astartidse  

Chamidse   

CardiadsB  

Lucinidae  &  Diplodontidae 
Kelliadss 

Cycladidse 

UnionidsQ  

Mytilidtt    

Arcada*  

Nuculidae  

Avicnjidift  t-t........  .,  ., 

Pectinidae 

Spondylidae   

Ottreadae  

Anotniadie ..'...  r ...»*., 

Total    

141 

56 

83 

60 

2 

266 

41 

47 

40 

76 

62 

189 

423 

PTEROPODA  

GASTEROPODA. 

Otrfflthohw"*  ftMntn. 

6 

4 
4 

1 

1 
2 
1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

10 

6 
4 
3 

6 

1 
2 
3 

1 

2 

8 
11 

1 

"i 

6 

1 
10 
11, 

15 
22 

Fulmonata. 

Geophila 

Limnophila   ,,..-, 

ThalassophUa    

_jL? 

Total    

15J     A 

3 

2 

2 

23 

6 

6 

l| 

22 

1 

31I  58 

1 

I 

"I 

*  This  figure  includes  Montacuta  chalcedonies  found  in  the  fronds  of  Mvrts  nigrto** 
(Heigen  Col.),  since  the  Table  was  printed. 


ON  MOLLUSC  A  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      355 


tVftHltli*:\.    i(C. 

A. 

!b. 

c. 

D. 

S. 

F. 

G. 

H. 

1. 

K. 

L. 

M. 

N. 

Proflobranchiata, 

HtrrEROi'ODA. 

1 
1 

] 
5 

i 

32 
2 

1    l 
l 

2 
2 
1 

1 

"2 

2 

i 

2 

2 

*7 
3 

1 
1 

1 

1 

1 

"i 

2 

3 

4 

13 
4 
9 

1 
9 

43 
5 

2 
"l 
2 

"i 

3 

1 
1 

3 

"2 
4 

1 
3 

2 
"2 

...    ••• 

6     4 

1  ... 
3   ... 

#4    "2 

14    1 

2  2 

10 
2 
5 

i'6 

27 

7 

3 
5 

27 
5 

13 
1 

18 

64 
12 

Late  r  r  a  b.a  n  chiata, 

DenLaJi&d&s    ........  .*».» 

S  CUTI UH.  A  NC  H 1  ATA » 

Chitoiiidie ............ 

Patellidc ........ 

Acmicidae  , .r.T  ,,,...„. 

Gadiuiadir.........  „...„.. 

Fi.s-surdlida;   ,  „ 

Haliolidic ♦  .„„..♦„. 

Trochidse  , ,,, „.. 

Neritidac    .*..,...*..*.,  .. 

Total    

PKCTIKlB&AtfQ  m  I  ATA. 

N  arid  die    . , » ,. 

65 

12 

15 

4 

5 

91 

10 

11 

8 

30 

9 

61 

148 

] 
4 

2 
5 

16 

4 

i 

n 

4 
11 

2 
1 

6 

1 
1 

2 
5 

3 

5 
5 
2 

12 
4 
3 
3 
2 

11 

"i 

6 

i 

7 
3 
3 

if 

1 

"l 

2 
1 

"i 

2 

1 
3 

3 
1 

1 
17 

6 

8 
19 

2 
15 

1 

"ll 
14| 
11 

*4 

■i! 

10 
7 
3 

"i 
"i 

*3 
2 

"i 

4 

"i 
1 

1 

"2 
5 

3 

"1 
5 
2 
2 

6 

"i 

1 

3 
6 

5 

1 
1 
1 

i 
2 

"1 

1 
1 
9 

14 

2 

1 
7 

is 

1 

3 

1 

1 
1 
5 
8 
1 

20 

4 

2 

13 

2 

1 
1 
2 

15 
14 

5 

10; 

16 

4 

1 
28 

7 
10 
20 

5 
19 

2 

"i 

1 

2 

23 

25 

*4 
12 

6 
16 
26 

4 

UaJy ftt racLdse  ...,,„»,..„.. 

Capiibdrti    ,,.r 

VoniK'  t  iihe. . . .♦«,.. m 

CffiCldffl  .-......,..,.,*,„... 

T 1 1  r  r  i  1  -  ■  I  ]  i  -  3 :  u   ( 

t'erithiadsii. ................ . 

M  elaniada**, , » ...•*.  .  .T  *. .. . 

PaliidinjdiE    **,♦... 

Ampullariadm    »„ .... 

Truncal  chidae    f.  ♦..,...<.. 
J.iturinidic,...,.  b.iTF». ..... 

Rissoidse    -... ,,„.. 

Lacuuidai  itm.Mk.HiM»t. 

Plana\i(]aJt  ,.....,t 

Onilidi,, , 

Cyprseidae  ....... *,..♦,♦,... 

Cancellariada:    , 

Strombittae    IIMM|IIIMH 

Total    

70 

30 

56 

21 

8 

131 

13 

29 

18 

47 

34 

118 

213 

6 
11 

5 

5 
4 
6 

4 

7 
6 

2 
5 

1 

"i 

12 

22 
13 

2 

22 

7 

5 

8 

7 

2 
6 

3 

7 
24 

1 

12 

4 

15 

43 
10 

25 

86 
29 

140 

J'li'JLfifti'K.jLitir 

ConidsB  ,,..i. ....... ........ 

Total 

22 

15 

17 

8 

i 

47 

31 

20 

111 

31 

17 

68 

Probotcidifcra. 

Sakriadai  , , 

Pyraxniddlidas  .*,. 

54 

6 
6 
4 

9 

"i 

2 

1 

i 

4 

i 

2 
6 
3 

1 
4 
2 

i 

i 

3 

2 

3 

61 

10 

7 

8 

13 

"i 

1 

1 
2 

4 

1 

1 

"i 
3 

i 

"3 

3 

8 

3 
7 
9 

i 

3 

5 

14 

3 

4 

12 
13 

"l 

7 
69 
12 
10 
20 
25 

2 
1 

EuMmido?   ......»*-..  *. 

Ceritliiopsitlai    ...*.,,....» 

Scal&riada:, . .  ■■«,.., .. 

Naticida;    .......... ... 

VclutmUlfG u***f»a«*»-f 

Laiiiollariadx    .-■-.. 

RculidJt     .................. 

Carried  forward  ... 

si 

9 

19 

4 

2 

105 

8 

6 

3 

30 

4 

52|  146 

2a2 


356 


REPORT — 1856. 


Families,  c^c. 

A. 

B. 

C. 

D. 

E. 

». 

G. 

H. 

I. 

K. 

L. 

M. 

N. 

{  Probotcidifira,  continued)  „ . . . . 

Doli&dse 

Cusidsc 

81 

"i 
"i 
"i 

5 

4 

17 

28 

9 
2 

"i 

2 

"7 

6 

6 

1 

11 

19 

*2 
2 

I 
2 
2 
1 
9 
7 
7 
1 
14 

4 

"i 

1 
2 
1 
1 
3 
3 
1 
7 

2 
2 

"i 

1 

4 

105 

• 

"2 

5 

1 

5 

2 

5 

18 

15 

24 

1 

50 

8 

... 
5 

2 
5 
2 
3 

9 

"7 

6 
1 
3 

1 
1 
3 

"i 
6 
6 

11 

1 
11 

3 

1 

"i 

"i 

"3 
4 

1 
4 

30 

""i 

6 
2 

1 

4 
14 

16 

4 
1 

4 

1 

3 

1 
6 
6 

1 
14 

52 

1 

3 

16 

ii 

»! 
5 

5 
12 
21 
30 

1 
45 

146 

1 

3 

27 

1 

15 

11 

10 

24 

1     29 

59 

1 

90 

TurbineUidss 

Mitriasc 

Volutidffi       . 

Ltuccrifaidsc 

Pjrnilida; ....,,.... 

Total  Proboscidif^ni  ,,. 

143 
70 
22 

45 
30 
15 

67 
56 
17 

24 
21 

8 

10 

8 

1 

233 
131 

47 

41 
13 
31 

52 
29 
20 

18 
18 
11 

82 
47 
31 

41 
34 
17 

199 

118 

68 

417 

;  213 

140 

Total  Rotitrifera 

Total  Toxifera**. ..,,«,,,»•* 

Total  Pminil] much  in ta 

Total  Scutibrancbiatfl,  &c 

Total    OpUthobranchiata    and 
Pulmouata. 

Total  Gasteropoda  .      ..  ...<••• 

235 
63 
15 

90 

12 

4 

140 

15 

3 

53 
4 
2 

19 
5 
2 

411 
91 
23 

85 

10 

6 

101 

11 

6 

47 
8 

1 

160 
30 
22 

92 
9 

1 

385 
61 
31 

770 

148 

58 

313 

141 

16 

106 
56 

158 

83 
1 

59 

60 

1 

26 
2 

525 

266 
17 

101 
41 

118 
47 

56 

••• 
40 

212 
76 

102477 

62189 
1      1 

976 

i     ... 
!  423 

i" 

1416 

CEPHALOPODA 

Total  Lamellibranchiata 

Total  Palliobranchiata  &  Bryo- 
zoa. 

Total  Fauna,  Golf  to  Panama 

470 

162 

242 

120 

28 

808 

142 

165 

96 

288 

165J667 

80.  Now  let  it  be  carefully  borne  in  mind  that  every  column  of  this  ritumi 
is,  without  doubt,  very  far  from  the  actual  truth.  Whatever  may  be  learnt 
from  it  must  be  estimated  positively,  and  by  no  means  negatively.  E.g.  not- 
withstanding the  scrutinizing  researches  of  Cuming,  C.  B.  Adams,  Hinds, 
Bridges  and  others  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  and  our  almost  complete  ignorance 
of  all  parts  of  the  Gulf  except  its  entrance,  808  species  are  quoted  from  the 
latter  and  only  69?  species  from  the  former,  giving  a  balance  of  111  species 
in  favour  of  the  northern  station.  Now  when  it  is  borne  in  mind  that  Panama 
is  in  the  central  tropical  region,  that  it  receives  both  the  North  American 
species  as  they  travel  southwards,  and  the  South  American  as  they  move 
upwards,  besides  (in  all  probability)  a  little  nest  of  bay  shells  peculiar  to  its 
own  quiet  haunts ;  while  the  Gulf  fauna  receives  scarcely  any  importations 
from  the  north,  and  only  those  southern  forms  of  life  which  are  capable  of 
subsisting  at  the  very  borders  or  beyond  the  tropics ;  it  must  be  evident  that 
much  more  has  to  be  done  before  even  the  central  portion  has  been  brought 
up  to  its  proper  standing.  Then  let  it  be  remembered  how  many  species 
must  be  yet  unknown  in  the  Gulf  district.  Large  as  is  our  acquaintance 
wilh  the  minute  species,  as  the  whole  of  it  has  been  obtained  by  ransacking 
the  worm-eaten  passages  of  a  few  Chamce  and  Spondyli,  and  examining  the 
dirt  on  the  backs  of  other  shells,  what  may  be  expected  when  the  shores  and 
sea-bed  have  been  subjected  to  the  minute  examination  of  a  Barlee,  an  Alder, 
or  a  Beau!  In  the  British  fauna,  170  out  of  511  species  are  minute.  It 
might  have  been  thought  that  degeneration  of  size  was  a  condition  of  high 
latitudes ;  but  wherever  attention  has  been  paid,  the  tropical  seas  are  found 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OF  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMER4C4.      357 

as  rich  in  the  minuter  forms  of  life  as  are  those  that  wash  colder  shores,  or 
even  more  so.  Till  the  time  of  D'Orbigny,  no  one  in  the  tropics  seemed  to 
deign  to  bend  his  attention  to  what  the  amateur  collector  did  not  value ;  but 
Prof.  Adams  has  already  described  many  small  species  from  Jamaica,  and 
80  from  Panama,  the  latter  simply  by  the  examination  of  dead  drift.  In 
these  days  of  microscopic  observation,  most  interesting  results  may  be  anti- 
cipated if  only  dredgers  will  bring  back  labelled  parcels  of  fine  sittings  from 
deep  waters ;  and  ordinary  collectors,  sieved  sand  or  mud  from  the  shores. 
If  shells  were  packed  in  the  sieved  sand  of  the  place ;  if  they  were  always 
sent  home  in  the  rough  ;  if  those  who  decorticate  their  backs  with  acid,  thus 
destroying  the  minute  microscopic  sculpture  which  is  often  the  best  guide  for 
the  discrimination  of  species,  would  only  first  brush  them  without  acid,  and 
send  the  bottoms  of  the  wash  bowl  to  some  microscopical  malacologist,  taking 
care  to  wash  only  the  shells  from  one  spot  at  a  time,  and  not  to  mix  the  dirt ; 
we  should  soon  acquire  a  knowledge  of  molluscan  distribution  which  would 
advance  the  science  by  rapid  strides.  Here  do  not  apply  many  of  the 
sources  of  error  common  to  larger  shells.  Ballast  can  scarcely  mix  its 
anomalous  transportations  with  the  Cceca,  VitrinelLe  and  ChemnilzicB  in  the 
interior  of  an  oyster ;  and  the  facts  of  distribution  are  as  accurately  seen  in 
these  minuter  forms  as  in  the  history  of  Cones  and  Olives.  The  remark 
made  by  one  of  our  very  foremost  naturalists,  when  it  was  first  proposed  to 
investigate  the  Mazatlan  shells,  was  that  it  was  not  likely  that  there  should 
be  anything  new  among  them ;  as  the  large  shells  would  be  all  the  same  as 
Mr.  Cuming's,  and  the  small  ones  as  those  of  Prof.  Adams.  And  yet,  com- 
paring  the  314  small  species  from  Mazatlan  with  the  80  described  from  Pa- 
nama, only  28  appear  identical.  The  Ccecumjirmatum,  which  is  the  abun- 
dant Panama  form,  is  extremely  rare  at  Mazatlan,  where  it  is  replaced  by  the 
beautiful  and  still  more  abundant  C.  undatum,  of  which  only  one  minute 
specimen  was  perhaps  found  at  Panama.  Of  the  principal  Panamic  VitrineUa, 
only  one  individual  was  found  at  Mazatlan ;  where  it  is  replaced  by  the  shell 
first  termed  V.  clathrata,  which  turns  out  to  be  the  same  of  which  an  aberrant 
variety  was  imperfectly  named  and  described  from  Panama  as  V.  parva. 
And  so  in  other  instances,  as  in  the  larger  shells  ;  ChemnitzuB  being  always 
rare  in  individuals,  fruitful  in  species,  with  many  of  a  wide  range ;  OdostomuB 
not  yet  found  at  Panama ;  Chrysallida  communis,  a  coast  shell,  and  very 
abundant  in  both  districts,  while  the  other  species  from  deeper  water  are 
rare  and  local;  Sulfate  and  small  MargineUa,  diffused;  Rissoidce,  local ; 
and  so  on  in  ways  on  which  it  would  be  pleasant  but  not  safe  yet  to  gene- 
ralize. As  the  same  large  Sjxmdylus  which  furnished  the  Mazatlan  minutiae 
is  also  found  in  Panama  Bay,  where  it  is  dived-for  by  the  natives  to  burn 
for  lime,  with  all  its  Parapholades,  GastrocJuence,  LUhophagi  and  other  rich 
treasures,  travellers  in  that  region  would  do  service  to  science  by  bringing 
home  a  few  valves,  that  it  may  be  found  how  far  the  small  nestlers  correspond, 
as  the  boring  bivalves  are  known  to  do. 

But  even  with  regard  to  the  large  shells,  the  distribution  of  many  species 
is  anything  but  satisfactorily  made-out.  The  fauna  of  the  Central  American 
seas  has  never  been  properly  published.  A  variety  of  new  species  are  de- 
scribed from  Messrs.  Cuming's  and  Hinds'  collections,  but  of  the  old  shells 
found  in  the  same  stations  we  are  left  in  ignorance.  The  practice  of  describing 
only  new  species  from  voyages,  instead  of  giving  complete  lists  of  those  found, 
very  unnecessarily  retards  our  geographical  knowledge.  The  quotations 
from  Acapulco  are  like  those  from  Dorsetshire  or  Guernsey  in  the  old 
British  writers.  What  we  yet  know  makes  it  far  from  improbable  that  while 
one  great  type  of  shells  extends  at  least  from  Guaymas  to  the  Bay  of  Guaya- 


358  report — 1856. 

quil,  each  portion  (the  upper  Gulf,  the  Gulf  mouth,  S.  W.  Mexico,  Central 
America  proper,  the  Bay  of  Panama,  the  N.  W.  shores  of  South  America,  and 
the  Galapagos,)  has  its  peculiar  species,  or  at  least  those  which  culminate 
in  that  locality.  A  large  number,  especially  those  which  are  also  common 
to  the  Galapagos,  are  found  on  the  whole  length  of  coast,  wherever  there  » 
a  suitable  station ;  while  others,  perhaps  nearly  related  species,  are  very  local 
Thus  the  beautiful  Venus  gnidia  is  found  wherever  there  is  a  muddy  bottom  to 
protect  its  delicate  frills,  (Hinds);  while  the  V.amathusia,  so  near  that  by  Gray 
and  even  Deshayes  it  is  regarded  as  identical,  has  only  yet  been  found  in  a 
typical  state  at  Mazatlan,  straggling  and  of  modified  form  below.  The  ZHtme 
lupinaria  is  in  extreme  profusion  at  Mazatlan,  and  also  found  far  down  the 
coast  of  South  America ;  but  the  D.  brevispinosa,  which  resembles  it  with 
blunted  spines,  has  not  yet  come  to  light  except  from  the  Gulf.  But  we 
must  check  these  comparisons,  so  interesting  to  those  who  have  made  them 
a  matter  of  study ;  and  which,  if  developed,  even  according  to  our  present 
knowledge,  would  fill  a  volume.  Nor  would  a  history  of  even  the  Atlantic 
waters,  furnish  materials  for  one  more  interesting  and  instructive. 

81.  One  fact  however  is  deserving  of  special  notice.  On  comparing  the 
shells  of  the  Gulf  and  South  America,  we  obtain  the  following  results  >— 
Out  of  143  Gulf  Bivalves,  50  are  found  in  South  America,  or  1  out  of  *86- 

W  Out  of  490  Gulf  Univalves,  only  89  have  been  found  in  South  America,  or 
I  1  out  of  5*5;  while  of  the  151  Gulf  Proboscideans,  only  14  are  yet  known 
\  from  South  America,  or  1,  out  of  10*8.  This  may  be  accounted  for  partly  by 
I  the  fact  that  the  bivalves' e£st  their  spawn  loose  into  the  sea,  while  the  uni- 
valves, which  have  larger  locomotive  powers,  generally  affix  their  eggs  to 
shells  and  stones.  (  Gray.)  »  Accordingly,  the  Lamelli  branchiate  fry  are  borne 
on  in  the  direction  of  the  current,  and  are  found  far  beyond  what  may  fairly 
be  considered  the  limits  of  the  species.  This  further  accounts  for  the  absence 
of  some  South  American  bivalves  from  Panama  which  are  however  found  at 
Mazatlan ;  the  fry,  with  the  current,  not  sweeping  into  the  bay,  but  landing 
on  the  Mexican  coast.  It  is  confirmed  by  finding  the  young  of  many  Sooth 
American  species  in  the  sand  of  Mazatlan,  which  are  not  known  there  is 
the  adult  state.  Only  two  bivalves  are  quoted  from  Mazatlan  and  the  Gala- 
pagos (one  of  these,  Modiola  capax>  a  Gulf  and  Californian  species,  having 
probably  been  added  in  error  from  Kellett's  voyage) ;  that  group  being  out 
of  the  current  which  we  may  suppose  to  convey  species  from  Guayaquil  to 
the  northern  shores. 

How  far  the  Gulf  species,  or  those  of  Panama,  extend  on  the  South  American 
coast,  we  are  not  yet  able  to  state  with  any  confidence.  Most  of  Mr.  Cuming's 
recorded  South  American  species  are  from  Ecuador  and  Columbia;  and 
D'Orbigny's  collections  are  too  scanty,  especially  in  pelagic  species,  for  much 
comparison.  It  seems  probable  that  but  few  reach  Callao,  and  extremely 
few  the  coasts  of  Chili.  A  few  indeed  are  quoted  as  far  south  as  the  Island 
of  Chiloe,  but  (except  in  the  widely  distributed  forms,  such  as  Calyptraaidfe) 
they  need  confirmation ;  as  do  also  the  appearance  of  Crepiduia  nivea  (hn* 
sonii)  and  Lyonsia  picta,  both  southern  forms,  at  Vancouver's  Island. 

82.  A  comparison  with  the  shells  of  the  Galapagos  Islands  offers  points  of 
peculiar  interest.  They  are  known  to  us  by  the  researches  of  Messrs.  Cuming 
and  Darwin,  the  latter  of  whom  has  given  a  most  graphic  picture  of  their 
peculiarities  in  his  *  Journal  of  Researches,'  pp.  145,  162.  Collections  hare 
also  been  made  there  by  Messrs.  Kellett  and  Wood  ;  but  for  reasons  before 
stated,  less  dependence  should  be  placed  on  them.     Uufortunately,  though 


ON  MOLLUSCA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OP  NORTH  AMERICA.      359 


previous  results  have  been  tabulated,  the  materials  have  not  been  made 
public.  Mr.  Cuming  prepared  a  list  of  90  sea  shells  for  Mr.  Darwin's  use, 
but  it  has  been  mislaid ;  nor  can  Mr.  Darwin  furnish  any  additional  infor- 
mation, having  unfortunately  distributed  his  valuable  collections  before  they 
'were  geographically  tabulated.  The  following  list  has  been  constructed  from 
one  most  kindly  drawn  out  for  this  Report  by  Mr.  Cuming,  with  as  much 
completeness  as  his  extremely  limited  time  allowed ;  with  the  addition  of 
species  tabulated  in  the  Monographs,  and  a  few  from  the  Pandora  Voyage. 
It  is  probable  that  some  species  have  been  overlooked  from  "  Hood's  Island," 
-which  appears  both  in  the  Galapagos  group  and  in  the  central  Pacific :  both 
of  them  are  quoted  in  the  Monographs  as  "  Lord  Hood's  Island,"  and  they 
are  very  rarely  distinguished  from  each  other. 

List  of  Galapagos  Shells. 

In  this  table,  stations  in  America  are  marked  in  columns  to  the  left ;  M.  Mazatlan  and 
G.  the  Gulf;  C.  A.  Central  America ;  P.  Panama;  and  S.  A.  South  America;  while  Pacific 
stations  are  recorded  to  the  right. 


American  Locality*. 

No.    1                       Specie*. 

Station. 

Pacific  Localities. 

M. 

?M. 

C.A. 

P. 
P. 

S.A. 
S.A. 

1  JGastrochaena  rugulosa,  Sow. 

2       br#»vi*.  Soto 

Society  Islands. 

Pearl  Island. 
Society  Islands. 

Sandw.I.(Dart9tn). 

3 

— —  hyaiina,  Sow. 

In^rfcitfe,3-7fm. 

reefs  &  rocks. 

fine  sand,  6  fm. 

Aviculte,  1.  w.-7. 
on  Avicvl*. 

stones  &  Avieuim. 
coral  sand,  6-1 7  fin. 

on  Avicul*. 

on  bushes, 
under  lava. 

on  lava. 

dry  grass. 

under  scoriae. 

under  scoriae. 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
10* 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
a 
b 
e 
d 
e 
f 
9 
h 
t 
k 
I 

m 
n 

0 

V 
9 

r 

9 

t 

18 
19 

Petricola  amygdalina,  Sow...  J 
Semele  rupium,  Sow 

punctata,  Sow, 

Cardits  varia,  Brod.   .... 

— —  incrassata. 

Chama  imbricata,  Brod----, 

— ..  Janus,  Rot.*  

Modiola  capax,  Conr.  [?]. 
Crenella  coarctata,  Dkr. 

Byssoarca  truncata,  Sow 

Pecten  masrnificus,  Sow 

Lima  arcuata*. 
Anemia  adaraas,  Gray 

Bulla  Quoyi,  Gray. 

rufoUbris,  A.  Ad. 

Bulimus  nux,  Brod.   

—  verrucosus,  Pfr. 

■  unifasciatus,  Sow 

rugulosus,  Sow. 

Eschariferus,  Sow. 

Darwinii,  Pfr. 

Achatinellinus,  Forbes. 

incrassatus,  Pfr. 

qstnlfttiia,  $aw ..,,. 

.  ■  ■   calvus,  Sow 

Jacobi,  Sow 

Chemnitzioides,  Forbes. 

corneus,  Sow. 

sculpturatus,  Pfr. 

— —  rugi/erus,  Sow .. 

micula,  Pfr. 

Galapaganus,  Pfr. 

Manini,  Pfr. 

Helix,  sp. 

Siphonaria  gigas,  Sow. 
scutellum. 

*  Chama  tpinosa  (M.,  C.  A.)  and  Lima  Pacifica  (C.  A.,  P.,  S.  A.),  are  also  quoted  from 
1  Lord  Hood's  Island/'  and  are  probably  Galapagian  species. 


360 


REPORT — 1856. 


American  Localities. 

No. 

Species. 

Station. 

Pacific  Localities. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 
M. 

M. 
M. 

M. 

G. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

G. 

C.A. 

a  a. 

C.A. 
C.A. 

C.A. 
C.A. 
C.A. 

ai. 

C.A. 
C.A. 

C.A. 
C.A. 
C.A. 

C.A. 

P. 

P. 
P. 

P. 

P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 

P. 

p! 

R 

P. 

P. 
P. 

P. 
P. 

P. 
P. 

S.A. 

s.'a! 

S.A. 

• 

S.A. 
S.A. 

S.A. 
s.'a" 

20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 

V 

38 
39 
40 
41 
42 

43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 
56 
57 
58 
59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 

65 

66 
67 
68 
69 
70 

71 
72 
73 

Lophyrus  Goodallii,  Brad. 

sulcatus,  Wood 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

under  stones,  shore, 
under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  shore, 
stones  &rks.  i-t.— 
u.s.,  shore— 8  fm. 
7fm. 

PChiton  hirundiniformis,  Sow... 
Acmaea  striata,  Rve. 
Pissurella  mutabilis,  Sow. 
obscuxa,  Sow 

— —  rugosa,  Sow .* 

-       macrotrema,  Sow 

nigro punctata,  Sow 

Glyphis  inacqualis  (-fpica), Sow. 
Turbo  souamigera,  Rve 

Society  Islands. 

Nerita  sp.,  KeUett  Sf  Wood. 
Calyptrsca  varia,  Brod 

Hipponyx  Gray  anus,  Mke 

Cerithium  stercus-muscarum... 
niaculosum,  Kien.  . 

on  stones,  1.  w. 
sand  pools,  i-t. 
under  stones,  i-t. 
under  stones,  i-t. 

exposed  rocks. 

— —  interruptum ,  Mte- ,,„ 

Litorina  porcata,  PhiL   

Paludina,  sp 

Tahiti&V.Diemen's 
Land  (Xferspt*). 

Planaxis  planicostata,  Sow 

Luponia  nigropunctata,  Gray... 

Trivia  pulla,  Gatk. 

— — —  Pacifies,  Gray   

U.8.,  i-t  —  b.w. 
under  stones. 

under  stones. 

i 

under  stonea. 

under  stones. 

sand,  8-10  fm. 

sand,  10-16  fm. 

sandy  mod,  6-8  fm. 

coral  sand,  5-7  fm. 

coral  sand,  6  fm. 
sand,  8  fm. 

coral  sand,  6  fm. 

coral  sand,  6  fm. 

coral  sand,  6  fm. 

?  shore,  1.  w. 

clefts  of  rocks,  1.  w. 

sand  pools,  1.  w. 
clefts  of  rocks,  1.  w. 
clefts  of  rocks,  l.w. 
clefts  of  rocks,  1.  w. 
in  Atteriat  eolarit. 

— 7  (sanguinolenta,yar.)fusca, 
Gray. 

suffusa,  Gray. 

rubescen8,  Gray 

i  ■     Maugeriss,  Gray    

Cancellaria  chrysostoma,  Sow. . 
■       hssmastoma,  Sow 

Strombus  granulatus,  Swains... 
Terebra  ornata,  Gray 

Myurella  frigata,  Hindi. 
Drillia  excentrica,  Sow*  —,,.»#. 

i 

■  bicolor,  Sow 

1 

— —  rugifera,  Sow 

1 

I.       albicostata,  Sow 

i 

■  ■     splendidula,  Sow 

1 

Conus  nux,  Brod.  

i 
t 

brunneus,  Wood 

East  Indies. 
Philippines. 

Philippines. 

44  All  over  the  warm 
climate,"  Cwmmy. 

Quoted  from  Meal- 
terraneau. 

tiaratus»  minimus,  linn.. 

variu3= mterruptus,  Wood 

diadema,  «Stw 

P. 
P. 
P. 

P. 



Luzonicus,  var.  Sow 

Stylifer  astericola,  Brod.    

Cireotrema  diadema*,  Sow. 
Natica  maroccana,  Chenrn. 

Lunatia   Galapagosa    (  =  otis, 
ZooL  Beech.  Voy.). 

Oniscia  tuberculosa,  Sow.  

xanthostoma,  A.  Ad. 

Cassis  tenuis,  Wood   

coral  sand. 

clefts  of  rocks,  1.  w. 

sandy  mud,  6  fm. 

crevices  of  rocks. 

6fm. 

sandy  mud,  6  fm. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

coarctata,  Sow 

Triton  reticulata,  DiUw.  =  tur- 
riculatus,  Desk. 

Sowerbyi=lineatus,2?ro</. 

pictus,  Rve 

clandestine,  Chemn. 

*  Closely  resembles  C.funiculata  from  Mazatlan  and  Panama;  at  first  thought  identical  by 
Mr.  Cuming ;  differing  simply  in  the  size  and  obtuseness  of  the  apical  portion. 


ON  MOLLU0CA  OF  THE  WB8T  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      361 


American  Localities. 

No. 

Species. 

Station. 

Pacific  Localities. 

6. 

M. 

M. 
M. 
M. 

If. 

?G. 

C.A. 
C.A. 

C.A. 

C.A. 
C.A. 

C.A. 
C.A. 

P. 
P. 

P. 

P. 

P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
P. 

P. 

P. 

P. 
P. 

P. 

38 

S.A. 
S.A. 

11 

74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 

81 

82 
83 
84 
85 

86 
87 
88 
89 
90 
91 
92 
93 
94 
95 
96 
97 
98 
99 

100 
101 
102 
103 
104 
105 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
111 

Lathyrus  ceratus,  Wood 

tuberculatus,  Brod.   

— — —  varicosus,  Rve 

u.  8.  &  rocks,  1.  w. 

under  stones, 
crevices  of  rocks, 
sandy  mud,  6  fra. 
coral  sand,  7  fm. 

10  fm. 

6-10  fms.,  aandy 

mud :  also  u.  s.  1.  w. 

sandy  mad,  12  fm. 

shore, 
exposed  rocks,  1.  w. 
under  stones,  1.  w. 

exposed  rocks. 

crev.  rocks,  1.  w. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones, 
under  stones. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
under  stones. 

coral  sand,  6-10fra. 

under  stones,  1.  w. 
u.  8.,  |-t.— 1.  w. 

sandy  mud,  10  fms. 
coral  sand,  6-8  fm. 

under  stones. 

under  stones, 
coral  sand,  8  fms. 

Marquesas. 

Mitra  muricata,  Swains. 

gratiosa,  Rve 

— —  gausapata,  Rve, 

Strigatella  tristis,  Strabu 

.        effusa,  Swaim 

Olivella  Kaleontina,  Duel. 
Purpura  patula,  Lam 

— — ■  columellaris,  Lam 

—  triangularis  ( -  Carolensis, 
Rve.)t  Blamv. 

-  —  -  planospira,  Lamm    ...,.*... 

Vitularia  salebrosa,  King. 

M onoceros  grandis,  Gray  

Engina  carbonaria,  Rve... 

Reeviana = pulchrum,  Rve. 

■    ■  pyrostoma,  Sow. 

— —  maura,  Sow 

crocostoma,  Rve. 

— —  zonata,  Rve.   

Columbella  hiemastoma,  Sow... 

varians,  Sow. 

unicolor,  Sow. 

?Buccinum  biliratum,  Rve. 

pulchrum,  Rve.  [?«=En- 

gina  Reeviana.] 
Naasa  nodifera,  Pow 

angulifera,  A.  Ad. 

nodocincta,  A.  Ad. 

Fusus  Dupetithouarsi,  Kien. 

Anachis  atramentaria,  Sow 

■        nigricans,  Sow 

rugulosa,  Sow. 

Strombina  bicanalifera,  Sow. ... 
.        lanceolata,  Sow 

Pisania  cinis,  Rver  „..•».,,, 

25 

22 

■  ■      nucleus,  Brod.   •• 

11  species. 

This  list  (which  is  believed  to  be  very  accurate'  in  all  respects  except 
Modiola  capax.  which  is  not  included  in  the  analysis)  contains  20  land 
and  freshwater  shells,  all  of  which  are  believed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  islands, 
except  a  Helix  found  at  Tahiti,  and  a  small  Paludina,  common  to  Tahiti, 
and  Van  Diemen's  Land  (Dancin).  Of  the  90  marine  shells  analysed  by 
Darwin,  47  were  not  known  elsewhere;  25  inhabited  the  West  coast  of 
America,  8  being  distinguishable  as  varieties;  the  remaining  18  having  been 
found  by  Mr.  Cuming  in  the  Low  Archipelago,  and  some  of  them  also  at 
the  Philippines.  Prof.  Forbes,  speaking  of  the  Galapagos  in  the  'Mem. 
Geol.  Soc.  Gr.  Br.'  vol.  i.  p.  402,  note,  says,  "  We  have  distinct  systems  of 
creatures  related  to  those  of  the  nearest  land  by  representation  or  affinity, 
and  not  by  identity."  The  latter  word  does  not  hold  good  of  the  sea  shells; 
for  there  are  already  known  111  species  at  the  Galapagos,  of  which  55y  or 
nearly  one  half,  are  American  shells;  of  these  25  inhabit  the  Gulf;  22 
have  already  been  taken  in  Central  America ;  88  are  found  at  Panama ;  but 
only  ll  from  the  parallel  latitudes  in  South  America.    Only  4  bivalves  are 


REPORT 1856. 

quoted  from  the  continent ;  two  [?]  from  the  Gulf;  one  from  Panama;  the 
other  (a  distinct  variety),  from  deep  water,  from  Isle  Plata.  On  glancing 
over  the  genera  with  their  stations,  it  will  be  found  that  the  coast  shells 
common  to  -the  two  are  more  numerous  than  those  from  deep  water ;  and 
that  the  general  aspect  of  the  collection  is  essentially  American  *.  The  only 
genus  not  yet  found  on  the  coast  is  Slylifer,  which  may  indeed  afterwards 
receive  species  now  placed  in  kindred  genera,  or  be  discovered  on  due  search 
of  Echinoderms. 

83.  Scarcely  any  generic  forms  are  peculiar  to  the  West  Coast  Fauna ;  except 
indeed  Platyodon,  Cryptodon  and  MytiUmeria,  from  California  ;  LeiasoUmu, 
from  the  Gulf;  Callopoma  and  Teinostoma,  from  the  Central  Province,  and 
Concholepas  from  Peru.  But  many  attain  here  their  greatest  development; 
especially  Calyptrmda,  FissureWda,  Acmcsa,  UvaniUa,  Pomaulax,  Ccscum, 
Chrysallida,  Monoceros,  Leucozonia,  CanceUaria,  Columbellidcc,  Periploma, 
Parapliolas,  Saxidomus,  Trigona,  &c.  The  familiar  genera  of  the  East  are 
often  entirely  absent ;  especially  the  shell-bearing  Cephalopods,  Stornaiellide, 
Dolium,  Melo,Eburna,Ancillaria,  Rastellaria,  Pterosceras,  Phorus,  Placuna, 
Malleus,  Tridacnida,  Glauconome,  Meroe,  Anatina,  Aspergillum,  &c.  Others, 
abundant  in  the  Indo- Pacific  province,  are  here  barely  represented  by  a  few 
species,  or  by  minute  or  aberrant  forms.  Such  are  MargineUa,  Cithara, 
Liotia,  Rimula,  Cypricardia,  dementia,  Circe,  Mesodesma,  Crassaiella, 
Pythina  and  Scintilla ;  and  the  tribes  of  Cassidaz,  Harpidce  and  Volutufa. 
The  genera  Conns,  Oliva,  Cypraa,  Terebra,  &c,  the  staple  commodities  of 
the  East,  are  here  but  poorly  represented ;  no  large  Cowry  living  on  the 
coast  except  Cyprcea  exanthema,  and  not  a  single  species  having  been  yet 
found  in  South  America  below  the  Bay  of  Guayaquil.  (Hinds.)  The  almost 
entire  absence  of  coral,  so  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  Polynesia,  is  to  be 
remembered  in  connexion  with  the  paucity  of  those  tribes  that  usually  feed 
on  its  banks. 

84.  The  point,  however,  which  may  prove  most  interesting  to  the  geologist 
and  the  geographical  student,  is  whether  there  be  any  species  common  to  the 
Pacific  and  the  Atlantic  shores  of  tropical  America ;  and  if  so,  what  are  they? 
It  is  easy  for  man  to  cross  the  narrow  isthmus ;  have  any  Mollusks  done  the 
same?  The  determination  of  this  question  is  a  matter  of  great  difficulty; 
for  while  ordinary  naturalists  treat  shells  as  of  the  same  species,  if  there  be 
no  greater  variation  between  them  than  is  known  to  be  allowable  between 
individuals  under  the  same  name,  it  is  the  present  custom  with  geographical 
conchologists  to  treat  all  similar  shells  as  "analogues"  or  "representative 
species,"  if  they  occur  in  unexpected  places.  In  arranging  the  materials  of 
this  Report,  those  species  have  been  treated  as  absolutely  identical, 
where  no  difference  obtained  between  the  shells  of  different  seas  greater 
than  was  observed  between  individuals  in  one  sea.  Thus  when  the  supposed 
peculiarities  of  the  Pacific  Purpura  pansa,  Gld.,  and  Trochus  picoides,  Gld. 
are  found  in  West  Indian  specimens,  it  is  regarded  as  a  mere  deference  to 
theory  to  keep  them  distinct.  In  other  cases,  where  the  shells  of  the  two 
coasts  have  a  marked  difference  of  aspect,  though  not  greater  than  may 
obtain  in  the  same  species,  if  a  separation  has  been  made,  it  is  temporarily 
allowed,  though  it  is  more  than  probable  that  they  will  hereafter  prove 
identical.  In  other  cases,  the  differences,  though  slight,  appear  permanent 
and  specific ;  and  in  a  fourth  group  they  are  simply  "interesting  analogues," 
but  would  at  once  be  pronounced  distinct,  although  from  the  same  shore* 

*  Dr.  Gray  states  [Dr.  Richardson's  Rep.  Icbth.  Chin,  and  Jap.  1846,  p.  191,  note]  that  the 
reptiles  which  inhabit  the  Galapagos  also  belong  to  American  groups. 


ON  MOLLUSOA  OP  THE  WEST  COAST  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      863 


Now  even  Prof.  Adams  allowed  that  one  shell  was  common,  viz.  CrepU 
dula  unguiformis*  ;  and  Dr.  Gould  himself  inserts  Venus  circinata  and 
Crepiduia  aculeata  in  his  Mexican  War  Lists.  We  therefore  naturally 
argue,  if  one  may  be  common,  why  not  others  also  ?  Because  we  cannot  see 
how  they  should  find  their  way  to  other  seas,  is  only  an  argument  drawn 
from  our  ignorance.  Prof.  Forbes,  on  glancing  over  the  list  of  the  Reigen 
Collection,  allowed  that  there  might  be  species  in  common ;  and  in  the 
'  Quarterly  Journal '  of  the  Geological  Society  will  be  found  a  paper  by 
Mr.  Henniker,  in  which  the  author  gives  geological  reasons  for  the  pro- 
bability of  the  intercommunication.  As  the  level  of  the  Atlantic  is  higher 
than  the  Pacific,  any  such  communication  must  have  poured  the  treasures  of 
the  Atlantic  into  the  Pacific,  and  scarcely  allowed  of  an  exchange  in  the 
other  direction.  Such  is  found  to  be  the  case  ;  no  species  fairly  belonging 
to  the  exclusive  Pacific  fauna  being  found  in  the  West  Indies.  Is  it  possible 
that  some  such  intercommunication  may  have  been  correlative  with  the 
glacial  conditions  of  the  European  seas  ?  Some  of  the  supposed  Caribbean 
shells  in  the  Pacific  appear  to  have  migrated  northwards ;  the  Cyprcea  ex- 
anthema being  poor  and  small  at  Panama,  where  it  is  called  C.  cervinetta, 
but  large,  fine  and  tolerably  abundant  at  Mazatlan ;  the  Strigilla.carnaria 
also,  not  even  noticed  a*  an  analogue  by  Prof.  Adams,  appears  blanched  but 
not  uncommon  at  Mazatlan,  and  having  crossed  the  "  Cape  Codf  "  of  the 
western  shores,  assumes  its  normal  condition  on  the  Californian  coast  The 
ubiquitous  Purpura  patula,  unknown  at  Panama,  is  extremely  fine  at  the 
Gulf.  Other  species,  however,  seem  to  be  dying  out ;  as  Lucina  tigerrina 
and  Mactra  fragili*. 

A.  Species  regarded  as  identical  between  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic. 


Pacific.  West  Indies. 

1.  Gattrochnna  truncata  ...  sp. — BristolMus. 
2. ovata     sp. — BristolMus. 

3.  Petrioola  oognata  pholadiformis. 

4.  Tellina  simulans    punicea. 

5.  —  rofescens  operculata. 

6.  — -vicina bimaculata. 

7.  Strigilla  fucata  carnaria. 

8.  —piriformis,  teste  Phil,  pisiformis. 

9.  Mactra  fragilia  fragilis. 

10.  Dione  ciroinata  (?  + al- circinata. 

ternata, 

11.  Lucina  tigerrina tigerrina. 

12.  Diplodonta  semiaspera...  semiaspera,  teste 

PMU 

13.  Modiola  Braziliensis Braziliensis. 

14.  Lithophagus  aristatus    ...  caudigerus. 
15. cinnamomeus    cinnamomeus, 

16.  Area  labiata  labiata. 

17.  Isognomon  flexuosum   ...  Chemnitzianum. 

18.  Ostrea  Virginica    , Virginica. 

19.  Placunanomia  foliacea  ...  foliacea. 


Pacific.  West  Indict. 

20.  Orthalicus  zebra    nndata. 

21.  Hipponyx  antiquatus mitrula. 

22. Panamensis subrufn. 

23.  Crepiduia  hystrix   lMllieftta. 

echinus  j>«,uw™«. 

24. jinguiformis Goreensis. 

25.  Crucibulnm  Cumingii   ...  sp. 

26.  Ovulunx  gibbosum,  teste    gibbosum. 

Cuming. 

27.  Cypraea  cervinetta exanthema. 

28.  Torinia  variegata  variegata. 

29.  LeioBtraca  ?distorta  .'distorts. 

30.  Olivella  zonalis sp. 

31.  Marginella  eaerulea  prannm. 

[not  sapotilla]. 

32.  Nitidella  guttata   cribraria. 

33.  Purpura  panaa  patula. 

34.  Anachts  pygmsea  costulata. 

35.  Piaania  ringena sp.[Pernambueo, 

Br.  Mus.    Per- 
haps error.]. 


It  will  be  seen  that  more  than  half  the  marine  shells  are  bivalves. 

*  It  is  generally  said  that  this  shell  is  only  a  variety  of  local  types.  Each  local  white  shell 
may  take  the  form  unguiformis ;  but  there  remains  a  distinct  type,  known  by  the  form  of 
the  vertical  whirls,  which  appears  to  be  ubiquitous.  It  is  not  always  recurved,  and  in  its 
natural  state  appears  to  be  the  Patella  Gore  en  sis  of  Gmel. — Vide  Plate. 

•f-  This  Cape  separates  the  two  faunas  in  Massachusetts :  Cochlodesma,  Montacuta,  Cumingia, 
Corbula,  Tornatella,  Vermetus,  Columbella,  Cerithium,  Pyrula,  Ranella,  do  not  pass  north- 
wards; nor  Panoptea,  Glycimeris,  Terebratula,  Puncture  llaf  Trichotropis,  Aporrhais,  nor  Admete 
southwards.  Of  197  marine  species,  83  do  not  pass  to  the  south,  and  50  are  not  found  on  the 
north:  70  are  found  in  Europe*  {Gould,  Rep.-  Inv.  Mass.) 


364 


REPORT — 1856. 


6.  Species  which  may  prove  to  be  identical. 


Pacific.  West  Indies. 

1.  Petricola  robuste Choristodon  typicum. 

2.  Solecurtus  affinis  Caribbaeus. 

3.  Corbula  bicarinate Cubaniana. 

4.  Tellina  cognate similis. 

5.  Donax  rostratus rugosa,CWtftR?in 

Bristol  Mas. 

6.  Venus  ?crenifera  crenifera. 

7. neglecta cancellata. 

8.  Trigona  radiate mactroides. 

9.  Gouldia  Pacifica Crassatella  Gua- 

daloopensis. 

10.  Chama   frondosa    (var.    sp. 

Mexicana). 

11.  Tetania  serricate • LutinaCandeana. 

12.  Byssoarca  mutebihs  Americana. 

13.  —  gradata ?  Domingensis. 

14. fasca ?fusca. 

15.  Ianthina  decollate prolongate. 

16.  Crucibulum  umbrella    ...  extinctorinm. 

17.  Crepidola  onyx sp. 


Pacific. 

18.  Hipponyx  Grayanos 

19.  TurriteUa  tigrina   

20.  Cerithium  ?  uncinatam ... 

21.  Modulus  catenulatus 

22. discolus 

23.  Trivia  suffusa     

24. ?  pediculns 

[?  imported]. 

25.  Erato  ?Maugene  

26.  Lamellaria,  sp 

27.  Marginella  minor 

28. margaritnla  

29.  Oliva  inconspicna 

30. Melcherri 

31. araneosa    

32.  Olivella  p.  anreotincta  ... 

33.  Purpura  triserialis 

|>P.t0ufafo,C.B.Ad.] 


Wetti 
?  Grayanos. 
imbricate, 
uncinatunx. 
CarchedonicDS. 
—  (pars)  IT  O*. 


pediculoa. 

Maugerae. 
sp. 


34.  Pisania  gemmate 


ovulifbrmis. 
?oryza. 
sp. 

reticulata, 
petiolita. 
Ftaridana. 
[not  P. 
Lam.], 
tincta,  Qmr, 


The  Gasteropoda  have  now  gained  a  large  majority. 

C.  Species  really  separated,  but  by  slight  differences. 


Pacific. 

22.  Neritinapicte 

23.  Crepidola  excavate    ... 

24.  Hipponyx  serratus 

25.  TurriteUa  goniostoma 

26.  Cerithidea  varicosa   ... 

27.  Rissoina  Woodwardi .. 


Pacific.  West  Indies. 

1.  Lyonsia  picta plicate. 

2.  Capsa  laevigata Braziliensis. 

3.  Mactra  elegans canaliculate. 

4.  Tapes  hiatrionica  granulate. 

5.Dione  Chionaea,  var maculate. 

6. lupinaria  dione. 

7.  Cyclina  subquadrata sp. 

8.  Gouldia  varians Crassatella,  sp.I/Orb. 

9.  Cardium  consors   muricatum. 

10.  Lucina  pectinate   pecten. 

11.  Byssoarca  solida    sp. 

12.  Avicula  sterna   Atlantica. 

13.  Planorbis  tumens  affinis. 

14.  Physa  aurantia  Maugerae. 

15. elate sp. 

16.  Bulla  Adamsi striate. 

17.  Ianthina  striulate  fragilis. 

18.  Acmaea  fascicularis    Antillarum. 

19.  — — mitella sp. 

20.  Fissurella  virescens,  var. .  Barbadensis. 

21.  Phasianella  compta  sp. 

The  Gasteropoda  maintain  their  majority. 

D.  Analogous  but  quite  distinct  species, 

Pacific.  West  Indies. 

1.  Tcllidora  Burneti  sp. 

2.  Mactra  exolete  carinata. 

3.  Venus  amathusia  dysera. 

4.  Anomalocardia  subrugosa  flexuosa. 

5.  Cardium  elatum serratum. 

6.  — : —  aspersum  bullatum. 

7.  Chiton  sanguineus,  Rve...  sanguineus, Cutt. 

8.  Glyphis  microtrema sp. 

9.  Nerite  Bernhardi  tessellata. 

10.  Petaloconchus  macro-  l?anan8# 

phragma  ....J 

11.  Litorina  Philippii  ziczac. 


28.  Alaba  rapralirata 

29.  Trivia  snbrostrata 

30.  Ovulum  variabilc  

31.  Strombus  gracilior 

.  32.  Terebra  luctuosa   

33.  Drillia  incrassate  

34. aterrima    

35.  Crysallida  communis.... 

36.  Cerithiopsis  assimilate  , 

37.  Lathyras  tuberculatos  . 

38.  Olivella  tergina - 

39.  Purpura  biserialis 

40.  Pyrula  patula 

41.  Murex  recurvirostris .... 


West  Indies. 
.  virginea. 
.  porcellana. 
.  sp. 
.  meta. 
.  Lavalleana. 
.  Catesbyana  (St 

Thomas). 
.  tervaricoaa. 
.  sp. 

.  subroairata. 
.  pugilis. 
•  cinerea. 
,  sp.(?alabastrafcr 
.  sp.      [?gibb08s). 
,  caneeUataa. 
.  terebella. 
,  Knorrii. 
.  conoidaUs. 
.  deltoidea. 
.  melongena. 


12.  Strombus  Peruvianas    ...  gigas. 

13.  Conua  purpuraaceni  MMM  admm 


LOS. 


Pacific. 

14.  Odostomia  vallate... 

15.  Parthenia  annate  ... 

16.  Chemnitziae,  sp 

17.  Polynices  uber  

18.  Ficula  decussata 

19.  Mitra  nucleola  

20.  Cassis  abbreviate  ... 
21. coarcteta  

22.  Oniscia  tuberculosa 

23.  Triton  vestitus  

24.  Nassa  versicolor 

25.  Anachis  costellata ... 

26.  Murex  eroans... 


West  Indies. 
.  sp. 

.  gemmuJosa. 
.  sp. 
.  lactea. 
.  gracilis. 
.  granulosa. 
.  inflata. 
.  testiculus. 
.  oniscus. 
.  pilearU. 
.  ambi^ua. 
.  terpaichore. 
i  intermedius. 
Ac 


ON  M0LLU8CA  OF  THB  WEST  COABT  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.     365 

It  is  probable  that  these  lists  will  hereafter  be  greatly  extended.  The 
shells  will  be  moved  from  one  head  to  another,  according  to  opinion  and 
opportunities  of  judgment.  Unfortunately,  although  the  West  Indian  shells 
were  among  the  first  examined,  they  are  to  this  day  very  little  better  known 
than  by  the  Lamarckian  conchologists.  Most  of  the  shells  in  collections  are 
dead  and  worn,  and  the  dredge  has  been  but  little  used,  especially  in  the 
great  and  doubtless  prolific  Gulf  of  Mexico*.  At  present  our  best  sources 
of  information  are — (1.)  The  Sagra  collection  from  Cuba  (mostly  poor 
shells),  kept  distinct  in  the  British  Museum.  (2.)  The  St.  Vincent  collec- 
tions of  the  late  Rev.  L.  Guilding,  scattered  in  the  general  collections  of 
the  British  Museum.  (3.)  The  very  fine  Barbadoes  collections  of  Dr. 
Cutting  in  the  Bristol  Museum.  (4.)  Prof.  Adams'  sea-shells  from  Ja- 
maica, which  have  not  yet  been  fully  tabulated,  though  several  are  de- 
scribed in  the  '  Contributions  to  Conchology.'  Others  also  appear  scattered 
in  the  '  Zeitschrift  ftir  Malacozoologie,'  and  other  works.  The  Pacific  shells 
having  been  so  little  known  to  the  earlier  writters,  when  there  are  analogous 
species,  it  is  fair  to  suppose  that  the  West  Indian  forms  are  intended.  This 
is  another  reason  for  their  careful  study. 

85.  But  the  analogies  of  the  Mazatlan  shells  extend  further  than  the 
Caribbean  waters.  Not  merely  some  West  Indian  species,  as  NitideUa  cri- 
braria,  found  also  in  the  Pacific,  have  made  their  way  to  the  east  shores  of 
the  Atlantic ;  but  several  Mazatlan  forms,  not  yet  quoted  from  the  West 
Indian  islands,  unexpectedly  reappear  on  the  Senegambian  and  Guinea  coast, 
as  though  they  loved  western  shores. 

Species  9  common  to  the  West  (Pacific)  American  shores  and  Africa. 

W.  A. = West  Africa.    S.  A,  =  South  Africa.    E.  A. «  East  Africa  (Capt.  Owen,  B.M.). 

West  America.  Africa. 

1.  Saxicava  arctica arctica,  S.A. 

2.  Kellia  suborbicularis suborbicularis,  W.  A. 

3.  Isognomon  Chemnitzianum   Chemnitzianum,  W.  A. 

4.  Lithophagus  aristatus caudigerus,  W.  A. 

5.  Ostrea  iridescens gpathulata,  W.  A.f 

6.  conchaphila    . conchaphila,  W.  A. 

7.  Placunanomia  pernoides pernoides,  W.  A. 

8.  Crepidula  unguiformia    Goreensis,  W.  A. 

9.  aculeata  aculeata,  S.  A. 

10.  Hipponyx  antiquatus ». .  antiquatus,  W.  A. 

11.  Bankivia  variansi   varians,  S.A. 

12.  Natica  maroccana  (Pritchardi)  maroccana,  W.  A.§ 

13.  Marginella  cacrulescens  prunum,  W.  A. 

14.  NitideUa  guttata cribraria,  W.  A. 

15.  Purpura  pansa.. patula,  W.  A. 

•  If  the  "Central  American  difficulty "  should  ever  draw  our  Transatlantic  brethren, 
Messrs.  Rich,  Jewett  and  Green,  to  the  Caribbean  seas,  it  is  hoped  that  they  will  explore 
them  well ;  an  occupation  surely  more  worthy  of  a  philosopher  than  killing  his  brothers ;  and 
a  "  difficulty  "  requiring  solution  quite  as  much  as  the  ownership  of  the  Mosquito  territory. 

t  It  is  believed  that  Petricola  robusta  was  found  in  the  African  oysters;  but  this  only 
rests  on  circumstantial  evidence:  v.  B.M.  Mazatlan  Cat.  p.  19. 

X  The  solitary  young  specimen  of  this  characteristic  species  in  the  Reigen  collection,  was 
taken  from  the  debris  of  a  Spondylus,  which  is  a  sea  (not  shore)  shell. 

§  Having  very  carefully  compared  large  numbers  of  the  West  American  shells  (Pritchardi, 
Forbes)  with  a  fine  series  from  Gambia,  sent  by  Chief  Justice  Rankin  to  the  Bristol  Museum, 
I  cannot  but  regard  them  as  identical,  both  as  to  shell,  operculum,  and  similarity  of  variations. 
The  sheila  called  ttnifatciata  may  or  may  not  belong  to  this  species :  several  unquestionably  do. 


366  report— 1856.  " 

The  following  species  might  be  divided  into  groups  answering  to  B,  C,  and 
D  of  the  West  Indian  parallels. 

1.  Discina  Cumingii striata,  W.  A. 

2.  Pholadidea  melamira clausa,W.A. 

3.  Parapholas  acuminata branchiata,  W.  A. 

4.  Tellina  rufescens perna,  Spl.  (Madagascar.) 

5.  Iphigenia  laevigata  sp.,  W.  A.  (Bristol  Mus.) 

6.  Trigona,  var.  Hindsii tripla,  W.  A. 

7.  planulata '. ?  bicolor,  W.  A. 

8.  Diplodonta  semiaspera   circularis,  W.  A. 

9.  Pectunculus  multicostatus inacqualis  ( Krauss  not  Reeve),  S.  A. 

10.  Area  grandis    senilis,  W.  A. 

11.  Gadinia  pentigoniostoma    afra,  W.  and  8.  A. 

12.  Crepidula  onyx* hepatica,  Krauts. 

13.  Centhium  maculosum adustum  (?Red  Sea). 

14.  —  8tercu8-mu8carum ocellatum,  E.  A. 

15.  Terebra  armillata interstincta,  W.  A. 

16.  Euryta  fulgurans sp.,  E.  A. 

17-  aciculata ?Cosentini.    (Mediterranean,  &c.) 

18.  Aragonia  testacea    hiatula  +  Steeriae,  W.  A. 

19.  Harpa  crenata rosea,  W.  A. 

20.  Vitularia  salebroia  vitulina,  W.  A. 

21.  Purpura  biserialis haemaatoma,  W.  A. 

The  comparative  preponderance  of  bivalves  in  these  lists  is  still  apparent 

86.  The  Kellia  suborbicularis,  Lasea  rubra,  Saxicava  arctica,  and  Hydro- 
bia  viva,  of  the  Gulf,  even  belong  to  the  British  fauna.  The  DioneChioncea  is 
so  like  the  2).  Chione  of  our  southern  shores,  that  Mr.  Sowerby  at  first  united 
them,  quoting  under  Cytherea  Chione,  "Mr.  Cuming's  specimens  are  from 
Mazatlan,"  while  the  dull  S.  Pacific  specimens  were  described  as  C.  squalida, 
and  the  banded  ones  of  the  same  species  (by  Dr.  Gray)  as  C.  biradiata. 
The  Ccecutn  glabrum  of  the  British,  and  C.  glabriforme  of  the  Mazatlan  seas 
are  almost  indistinguishable.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  form  Leiostraca 
distorta.  The  Certthiopsis  tubercularis  and  C.  tubercuhides  are  moat  closely 
allied ;  as  are  also  Byssoarca  mutabilis  and  tetragona,  B.  solida  and  lactea, 
Tellina  donacina  and  donacilla,  Modiola  modiolus  and  capax,  Tkracia 
squamosa  and  villosiuscula,  Acmaa  mesoleuca  and  testudinalis,  Galena 
mammillaris  and  Sinensis,  IanUdna  striulata  and  communis,  I.  prolongata 
and  pallida,  Jeffreysia  bifasciata  and  opaUna,  and  Nassa  crebristriata 
and  reticulata.  The  Gouldia  varians  may  compare  with  Astarts  triangu- 
laris and  Tomatina  infrequens  with  CyUchna  mammillata.  The  reappear- 
ance of  the  rare  genera  Montacuta,  Lepton,  and  Barleia,  is  also  worthy  of 
notice. 

87.  Besides  these  analogies  with  the  Atlantic  shells,  there  are  a  few 
singular  exceptions  to  the  general  dissimilarity  with  the  Asiatic  and  Indo- 
Pacifi c  faunas.  Thus  we  have  the  Japanese  Cytherea  petichialis  reappearing 
at  Mazatlan  ;  and  Nassa  acuta  most  closely  resembling  an  Australian  species 
in  Mr.  Cuming's  collection.  The  Oliva  Duclosi  is  quoted  from  the  Pacific 
islands ;  as  are  also  the  ubiquitous  Natica  maroccana  and  NitideUa  cribraria, 
the  pelagic  Ianthina  striulata,  the  sedentary  Hipponices  barbatus  and 
Grayanus  ;  and  a  few  other  species,  concerning  which  there  is  a  fair  chance 
of  inaccuracy,  especially  in  shells  from  "  Lord  Hood's  Island." 

88.  Of  the  land  and  freshwater  shells  little  is  yet  known  except  those 
brought  from  Oregon.     These  are  of  a  different  type  from  those  of  the 

*  Dr.  Danker  also  quotes  Cr.  Peruviana =diUitat a  from  the  Guinea  coast.  His  solitary 
specimen  may  be  from  ballast ;  but  it  has  been  plentifully  received  as  from  Mauritius. 


ON  IfOLLUSOA  OF  THB  WB8T  OOA0T  OF  NORTH  AMERICA.      367 

Atlantic  states,  and  have  more  the  general  appearance  of  old  world  forms. 
The  few  known  from  Mazatlan  are  essentially  tropical  in  type,  and  differ  from 
those  found  on  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

89.  The  Bryozoa  are  included  in  this  Report,  because  it  appears  univer- 
sally acknowledged  that  they  have  more  in  common  with  the  lower  Tunicata 
and  the  Molluscan  type  in  general,  than  with  the  Radiata.  What  few  are 
known  have  been  described  by  Mr.  G.  Busk,  who  regards  one  species  as 
identical  with  a  British  form,  another  with  a  specimen  dredged  by  Mr.Darwin, 
from  96  Cms.  in  Chiloe,  a  third  with  a  tertiary  fossil  from  Vienna,  and  the 
rest  as  new. 

90.  Of  the  Pteropods  nothing  is  known ;  of  the  naked  Gasteropoda  only  a 
few  forms  from  Sitcha  and  Oregon ;  of  the  Palliobranchiata  scarcely  any  ; 
and  of  the  Cephalopods  only  two,  not  characterized,  from  the  Be  bring  Sea. 

91.  It  would  be  extremely  interesting,  after  comparing  the  West  Ameri- 
can shells  with  other  existing  faunas,  to  carry  our  researches  back  in  time, 
and  compare  them  with  the  fossils  known  to  occur  on  the  same  coasts.  For 
such  inquiries,  however,  there  exist  scarcely  any  materials.  All  that  we  know 
is  a  little  concerning  the  fossils  of  Oregon  in  the  tenth  volume  of  the  '  U.  S. 
Exploring  Expedition,1  Geology,  by  Jas.  D.  Dana.  In  Appendix  I.  p.  723, 
the  following  fossil  shells  from  the  sandstone  of  Astoria  are  described. 

Astorian  fossils. 


Teredo  substriat^Ccrnr.l^Dentaliuin*.] 
Mya  abrupta,  Com*.  [?Panop<ra.] 
Thracia  trapezoides,  Coxa. 
Solemya  ventricosa,  Com*. 
TeUma  arctata,  Conr. 

—  emacerata,  Conr. 

—  alb  aria,  Com*. 

—  nasuta,  Conr. 

—  bitruncata,  Conr. 

IDonax  pretext  a,  Conr.  [?cast  of  Solemya .] 
Venus  bisect  a,  Conr. 

augustifrons,  Conr. 

lamellifera,  Com*. 

«—  brevilineata,  Conr. 
Lucina  acutilineata,  Conr. 
Cardita  subtenta,  Conr. 
Nucula  divaricata,  Conr. 
■  impressa,  Conr.  [Leda.'] 


Area  devineta,  Conr. 

,  sp. 

Pecten  propatuhts,  Conr.  [B.M.] 
Terebratula  nitens,  Conr. 
Bulla  netrosa,  Conr. 
Crepiaula  prorupta,  Conr. 

,  sp. 

Turritella,  sp. 

Ceritkium  mediate,  Conr. 

?  Rostellaria  indurata,  Conr.  [resembles 

Strombus  vittatnsJ] 
Sigaretus  scopulosus,  Conr.  [?  Naticina.'] 
Natica  sawea,  Conr. 
?  Dolium  petrosum,  Conr. 
?  Buccinum  devinctum,  Conr. 
Fusus  geniculus,  Conr. 

corpulentuSy  Conr. 

Nautilus  angustatus,  Conr.  [?  =N. 

zigzag.] 


Pectunculus  patulus,  Conr, 

nitens,  Conr.  [resembles  Limopsis.] 

The  "Dolium"  is  interesting  from  its  close  resemblance  to  the  anomalous 
Argobuccinum  ?iodosum=  Cassidaria  setosa,  Hinds. 

Of  the  tertiary  fossils  of  the  United  States,  while  many  Atlantic  species 
occur,  none  have  been  noticed  exclusively  Pacific.  There  are  some  few 
which  are  found  in  both  oceans  ;  and  a  Vermetus,  among  Mr.  Nuttall's  Clai- 
borne fossils,  closely  approaches  V.  ebumeus,  while  it  differs  from  the  West 
Indian  forms.   These  fragments  of  information  are  all  that  are  yet  accessible. 


92.  The  object  of  this  Report  has  been  so  to  condense  and  arrange  the 
existing  materials  that  those  who  consult  it  may  know  what  has  been  done, 
and  may  have  the  means  of  deciding  on  the  value  to  be  attached  to  different 
sources  of  information.   Thus  they  may  be  enabled  to  begin  where  the  writer 

*  The  notes  in  [  ]  are  added  by  Mr.  S.  P.  Woodward,  who  kindly  furnished  the  above  list. 


368  report — 1856. 

leaves  off,  and  not  spend  precious  time  in  working  out  afresh  what  has  already 
been  ascertained*.    He  has  stated  his  opinions  with  some  freedom;  because 
it  was  thought  that  an  expression  of  the  difficulties  encountered  in  the  prosecu- 
tion of  the  subject  and  of  their  causes,  might  (1)  put  other  students  on  their 
guard,  and  (2)  contribute  somewhat  towards  their  removal.   They  will  be  re- 
ceived simply  as  the  judgments  of  a  learner  who  came  fresh  to  the  subject, 
without  previous  acquaintance  with  books  and  naturalists.     His  object  has 
been,  not  himself  to  build,  but  to  clear  away  some  of  the  encumbrances,  lay 
part  of  the  foundations,  and  collect  a  few  of  the  materials,  ready  for  the  great 
architects  of  science  to  erect  the  beautiful  edifice  of  harmonious  knowledge. 
The  first  scientific  explorer  of  these  regions,  the  venerable  Baron  Humboldt, 
still  lives  to  enjoy  the  earthly  rest  after  his  labours :  but  the  early  death  of  so 
many  whose  names  have  been  quoted,  of  Eschscholtz,  of  Hinds,  of  Souleyet, 
of  Reigen,  of  Adams,  and  of  Forbes,  urges  us  to  "work  while  it  is  day**;  that 
we  may  prepare  for  that  state  where  ignorance  shall  have  passed  away,  and 
where  "  we  shall  know  even  as  also  we  are  known." 

Warrington,  Aug.  8M,  1856. 


Abstract  of  First  Report  on  the  Oyster  Beds  and  Oysters  of  the  British 
Shores.    By  T.  C.  Eyton,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 

For  convenience  sake  I  shall  divide  this  Report  into  three  sections : — 1st, 
A  history  of  oysters  and  the  laws  relating  to  them.  2ndly,  An  account 
of  the  different  beds.  Srdly,  The  history  of  the  oyster  from  its  embryo 
state  in  the  parent  shell  until  it  is  seven  years  old  ;  and,  lastly,  a  summary 
of  deductions  from  the  reports  I  have  received.  The  oyster  fisheries  of 
England  are  of  great  antiquity, — the  luxurious  Romans  held  the  British 
oyster  in  high  estimation.  There  have  at  different  times  been  many  Acts  of 
Parliament  passed  for  the  protection  of  oyster-beds;  the  fisheries  are  at 
present,  however,  regulated  by  a  Convention  entered  into  between  Her 
Majesty  the  Queen  and  the  King  of  the  French ;  and  an  Act  passed  to  carry 
the  same  into  effect  (6  &  7  Vict.  c.  79),  which  enacts  that  the  fisheries  shall 
open  on  the  1st  of  September  and  close  on  the  30th  of  April. 

The  oyster-beds  which  I  have  visited  or  received  reports  from  are  the 
following :— Loch  Ryan,  the  whole  of  the  Welsh  beds,  Loch  Fyne  (a  bed  of 
no  commercial  value),  Isle  of  Man  beds,  Jersey,  Guernsey  and  Sark  beds, 
Kentish  and  Essex  beds.     The  oysters,  from  which  the  spawn  I  am  about  to 
mention  was  taken,  were  obtained  from  Loch  Ryan,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Clyde,  on  the  10th  of  July,  and  were  forwarded  to  me  in  a  box  packed  in 
wet  grass;  they  were  thirty- two  in  number,  of  which  only  three  proved  to 
be  in  spawn  :  in  these,  from  a  rough  calculation,  which  I  believe  to  be  much 
under  the  mark,  the  number  of  young  was  about  3,000,000.    The  first  oyster 
I  opened  had  the  spawn  exuded,  so  that  it  lay  on  one  side  between  the  folds 
of  the  mantle.  The  mass  was  of  a  purplish  colour ;  and  on  examining  it  with 
a  hand-glass,  I  could  perceive  some  motion ;  but  on  placing  some  on  a  glass 
plate  under  a  £-inch  power  in  the  microscope,  I  could  clearly  perceive  that 
what  I  had  taken  with  the  naked  eye  for  ova  were  living  animals  varying 
slightly   in   shape.     The   animal  was  semi-transparent,  with  two   reddish 
elongated  dots  placed  on  each  side  behind  the  cilia,  which  were  in  constant 

*  The  Plates  appended  to  this  Report,  at  the  recommendation  of  the  Committee,  are  intended 
to  illustrate  some  of  the  principal  variations  observed  in  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
especially  when  the  forms  have  been  described  as  different  species,  or  represent  the  characters 
of  different  (so  called)  subgenera.  They  are  to  be  regarded  as  portraits,  not  photographs  of 
the  Mazatlan  shells  in  the  British  Museum  Collection. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS.  369 

and  rapid  motion.  They  were  exceedingly  tenacious  of  life,  the  cilia  moving 
until  the  water  was  dryed  upon  the  glass.  Some  that  I  placed  in  a  little 
salt  and  water  were  alive  the  next  day.  The  oysters  on  the  table  have  been, 
through  the  kindness  of  Mr.  Sweeting,  fishmonger,  Cheapside,  sent  to  me, 
and  are  from  one  to  four  years  old.  \ 

It  now,  therefore,  only  remains  to  trace  the  life  of  the  oyster  and  the 
changes  it  undergoes  from  the  state  I  in  which  found  it  in  the  pareriV  until  it 
has  formed  its  shell  and  attached  itself  to  some  substance,  which  I  hope  to  be 
able  to  do  next  year  in  a  continuation  of  this  Report.  From  the  reports  I 
have  received  and  my  own  observations,  I  think  that  the  fence  months  might 
be  advantageously  altered  on  many  beds,  and  that  if  such  alteration  was 
made,  the  markets  might  be  supplied  the  greater  portion  of  the  year.  The 
depth  of  water  appears  to  be  the  chief  cause  of  a  difference  in  the  time  of 
spawning  ;  and  it  is  exceedingly  doubtful  if  on  some  deep  beds  they  spawn 
at  all ;  and  they  are  probably  supplied  by  the  fry  drifting  from  some  neigh* 
bouring  bed  in  shallower  water.  The  commonly  received  opinion  among  the 
fishermen,  that  the  oyster  deposits  its  spawn  in  masses,  is  entirely  erroneous. 
Oysters  are  best  for  the  table  out  of  shallow  water,  and  at  the  entrance  of  a 
river  if  suitable  ground  is  found,  and  feed  quicker  in  such  situations. 

The  author  then  read  a  series  of  questions,  which  it  was  requested  any 
person  connected  with  oyster-beds  would  be  kind  enough  to  answer  and 
forward  to  him: — 1.  Name  of  fishery  ?  2.  Depth  of  water?  3.  Computed 
size  of  beds  ?  4.  At  what  age  do  oysters  spawn  ?  and  do  all  oysters  above 
that  age  spawn  ?  5.  Does  the  time  of  spawning  differ  on  different  beds 
within  your  knowledge?  6.  If  such  difference  exist,  is  it  caused  by  a 
variation  in  the  depth  of  water,  or  any  other  reason?  7.  What  is  the 
ground  ?  8.  Do  the  oysters  differ  on  different  sorts  of  ground  ?  9.  Add 
any  other  information. 


Report  on  Cleavage  and  Foliation  in  Rocks,  and  on  the  Theoretical 
Explanations  of  these  Phenomena. — Part  I.  -By  John  Phillips, 
M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Reader  in  Geology  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Or  the  numerous  structures  existing  in  rocks,  two  more  predominant  than 
the  rest  have  long  been  referred  to  their  appropriate  causes— sedimentary 
deposition — crystalline  aggregation.  The  '  strata,'  formed  by  the  first  pro- 
cess, have  all  the  varieties  of  mineral  substance  and  magnitude  of  grain,  and 
all  the  inequality  of  extent  and  bulk  which  we  observe  to  occur  in  modern 
deposits  from  water ;  the  granite  and  other  quartzo-felspathic  rocks  offer  a 
large  range  of  crystalline  aggregates,  always  analogous  to,  and  sometimes 
undistinguishable  from,  the  products  of  actual  volcanoes. 

But  in  many,  and  especially  in  mountainous  countries,  examples  occur  of 
rocks  which  seem  both  crystalline  in  texture  and  stratified  in  structure,  and 
others  which  are  apparently  formed  by  sediments,  but  are  thoroughly  fis- 
sured to  a  degree  of  tenuity,  and  with  a  regularity  and  continuity  not  observed 
in  ordinary  cases  of  stratification.  The  former  case  is  exemplified  in  gneiss, 
the  latter  in  clay-slate.  Giving  to  the  divisions  of  gneiss  the  name  of 
'  foliation,'  and  to  the  fissures  of  slate  the  title  of  *  cleavage,'  we  may  proceed 
to  trace  the  observations  and  inferences  by  which  some  light  has  been  thrown 
on  these  phenomena.     We  begin  with  cleavage. 

2b 


370 


RBPOR1 


-1856. 


to 


§  1.  Cleavage  distinct  from  Stratification* 

The  drawing  No-  1   it  a  transverse  section  of  the  strata  in  the  Saw- 

donian  chain  from  the  Mess 

through     the     great   lis* 

!  g  quarries  of  Mr.  Pennant  It 

1 1  shows  the  argillaceous  ssd 

•  arenaceous  strata  dipping  ts 

5  the    right     (S.E.)   or  left 

§  (N.W.),    according  to  the 

S  anticlinal  and  synclinal  ua 

^g  of  the  district.  The  fine  bo 

1*3  mark    the    cleavage  wfaiek 

|  ^r-V  'i  *  §  crosses  the  strata,  the  dotted 

>  ^5^  ~  §  l'nes  above  show  the  eon- 

I  V^>^1  ^2  tinued  arcs  of  the  strati,  the 

5  v^f^d   t  £$  deficiencies  being  attributed 

|  -g  to  enormous  waste  of  the  sar- 

yV\,  '    a  J»  face ;  dotted  lines  also  mart 

*?2  the   supposed  extension  of 

»  2  the  cleavage  surfaces.    The 

»eo  section  is  an  extension  of  that 

|3  given     by    Professor  Sedf- 

;£  wick*,  the  spectator  being 

i  £  supposed  to  look  northward 
fg  Professor    Sedgwick  has 

j  g  also  given  another  section  ia 

|  "f|  the  same  line  f,  which  shows 

^2  &  complete  anticlinal  at  a. 

5f2  I  did  not  observe  this  with 

i  .  certainty. 

j£  It  is  remarkable  that  the 

s  |g  investigation  of  *  cleavage'  is 

2,,^  one  almost  entirely  British, 

;  U  — till  within  a  very  few  yean 

*  7  almost  entirely  English ;  for 
^  neither  Saussure,  nor  Wer- 

|  ^  ner,  nor  any  of  their  follow. 

»•  era,  appear  to  have  clearly 

\  *  distinguished  between  strati- 

3  *  fication  and  cleavage.   Saas- 

>w  sure  J  indeed  was  too  good 

f™  an  observer  to  pass  withoat 

*g  record  the  remarkable  hnri- 

1$  nation   of  the   argillaceons 

Jfe  and  calcareous  rocks  on  the 

*  *L  flanks  of  the  great  moontaias 
5 «»  which  he  so  laboriously  as* 
i  -:  cended.  He  recognised  two 
\&  sets  of  fissures,  but  he  attri- 
2*i  buted  to  stratification  the 
3  g  often  vertical  traces  of  dea- 

o  vage,  and  was  surprised  to 


/  / 


*  Geol  Trans.  1835.    f  Gaol.  Proc.  1846.    J  Voyage  dans  les  Alpes,  §§  1049, 1050  (1786). 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  BOCKS.  $7l 

find  these  laminae  crossed  by  repeated  fissures,  nearly  at  right  angles.  The 
m*  repeated  fissures'  are,  however,  often  the  traces  of  strata,  and  the  nearly 
>;  vertical  laminae,  so  common  in  these  parts  of  the  mountains,  are  sometimes 
u. genuine  cleavage*.  In  the  gneissic  axis  of  Mont  Blanc  the  nearly  vertical 
re  divisions  are  '  foliation.'  Even  in  our  own  day  the  true  reading  of  the 
r?  structure  of  the  Alps  is  a  difficult  problem,  aud  laminae  of  cleavage  are  there 
p:  frequently  described  as  layers  of  stratification. 

9-.  The  following  extracts  from  '  Travels  in  the  Tarentaise  in  1 820, 1 821 , 1 822,' 
r  ~  by  Robert  Bakewell,  published  in  1823,  show  that  this  ingenious  author  had 
'  conceived  views  nearly  approaching  those  of  subsequent  writers: — 
:- .  "  On  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley  (Thdnes),.  about  two  miles  from  the 
y  k  town  of  Thdnes,  there  is  a  rock  which  presents  an  appearance  of  double 
3  j  stratification,  not  uncommon  in  the  calcareous  mountains  of  the  Alps,  aud 
^-  which  has  frequently  induced  Saussure  to  suppose  that  the  vertical  strata 
5  ff  were  placed  in  junction  with  other  strata  nearly  horizontal ;  an  error  into 
r  .  which  he  has  been  led  by  mistaking  very  distinct  vertical  cleavages  for  stra- 
ff tification.  On  approaching  that  rock  I  had  little  doubt  that  the  strata  were 
_  vertical,  but  when  I  came  in  front  of  it  I  perceived  the  true  strata-seams 
j;,  forming  curves,  which  were  intersected  at  one  end  by  a  vertical  cleavage. 
0,  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  strata-seams  are  entirely  concealed  in  the 
»Jr  perpendicular  escarpment  of  rock  by  a  calcareous  incrustation  deposited 
^r  over  the  face  of  the  rock,  and  in  such  instances  the  cleavages  often  project 
,  H'.  and  resemble  strata  so  much  that  it  requires  great  care  to  avoid  error  in 
t  ^  tracing  the  true  line  of  dip  in  the  stratification.  This  probable  cause  of 
'  error  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Alps." — Vol.  i.  p.  67. 
\j *  In  the  valley  of  the  Arve — "  The  cleavages  on  a  large  scale  are  often  as 
jaft  regular  as  the  strata  themselves,  and  can  be  scarcely  distinguished  from 
y  them ;  and  as  these  cleavages  intersect  the  strata  nearly  at  right  angles,  this 
.^  has  also  led  to  many  erroneous  conclusions  respecting  the  stratification  of 
La*  *^e  ^dcaraou*  mountains  of  this  part  of  Savoy." — Vol.  i.  p.  887. 

From  the  Appendix,  vol.  ii.  p.  423 : — "  There  are  other  situations  where 

•_j  the  calcareous  mountains  of  the  Alps  present  to  the  hasty  observer  an  ap- 

.  f  pearance  of  the  most  irregular  and  contorted  stratification  imaginable,  which 

0,  is  merely  an  optical  illusion  produced  by  a  variety  of  cleavages  in  the  moun- 

,  tain  limestone ;  some  being  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  dip,  and  others  to 

-    the  line  of  bearing.     There  is  likewise  another  cleavage  in  some  of  these 

1  ■    mountains  which  is  curved,  and  is  produced  by  a  tendency  to  a  globular 

•  u  structure  in  the  mass  of  the  mountain.     [A  mountain  in  the  valley  of 

'  ,  Lauterbrun,  referred  to  as  an  illustration.]     Near  the  end  of  the  mountain 

L  the  true  strata-seams  are  seen,  and  are  nearly  horizontal,  while  farther  up 

is*  ^e  valley  several  curved  perpendicular  cleavages  present  the  appearance  of 

.0    thick  beds  of  strata  very  much  bent    In  this  instance  the  overlapping  of 

^   the  edges  of  the  strata  and  the  direction  of  the  natural  cleavages  have  nearly 

•*    r°n      ec*  ^e  true  *°rm  °^  tne  ■totification.    Such  instances  as  this  are  of 

0    frequent  occurrence  in  the  Alps,  and  have  been  the  source  of  many  erroneous 

*0    conclusions,  for  they  have  hitherto  been  but  imperfectly  understood.     This 

.    tendency  to  a  globular  structure  en  masse  I  observed  very  frequently  in  the 

^    Bernese  Oberland.     It  is  altogether  independent  of  stratification,  though  it 

jj    has  often  been  mistaken  for  it;  but  it  has  not  hitherto  been  noticed,  that  I 

y,    *now  of,  by  any  geologist  that  has  visited  the  Alps.    The  limestone  in  which 

0    1  observed  the  curved  cleavage  most  distinctly  is  dark  coloured,  hard  and 

rf     *i.  Jr^nevier,  BulL  de  la  Soc.  Vandoite,  4  July,  1855 }  Forbes,  Travtls  in  the  Alps ; 

sl»l*,GeoL  Proceedings,  1854. 
,i  2b  2 


372 


REPORT 1856. 


brittle ;  and  it  is  intermixed  with  schist.    This  limestone  seems  to  pass  by 
gradation  into  6inty  slate." 

In  his  *  Introduction  to  Geology1  (published  1813)  the  same  author  ex- 
presses a  positive  opinion.  Speaking  of  slate,  he  observes, — "  This  rock  is 
always  represented  as  stratified ;  but  in  this  respect  it  resembles  gneiss  and 
mica-slate,  and  the  slaty  and  tabular  structure 
are,  I  conceive,  the  effect  of  crystallization, 
depending  on  the  nature  of  its  constituent 
parts."— P.  86. 

The  earliest  notice  of  a  real  and  firm  di- 
stinction between  cleavage  and  stratification, 
derived  from  English  examples,  which  I  have 
met  with,  is  in  Otley's  '  Concise  Description 
of  the  English  Lakes*.'  The  modest  and 
intelligent  author,  speaking  of  the  middle 
division  of  the  slaty  rocks,  notices  their  pre- 
valent though  obscure  stratification  dipping 
to  the  south-east,  speaks  of  the  beds  of  slate 
with  frequently  vertical  cleavage,  and  adds, 
"  but  it  is  found  in  various  dt  greet  of  inclina- 
tion^ both  with  respect  to  the  horizon  and  planes 
of  stratification." 

In  1821 1  made  the  acquaintance  of  this  able 
author,  verified  his  remarks  on  slaty  cleavage, 
and  in  the  same  year  sketched  some  of  the 
more  curious  and  special  phenomena  in  the 
Lake  district,  which  caught  the  attention  of 
W.  Smith,  then  engaged  on  his  geological  map 
of  that  country  +.  In  the  mind  of  that  great 
observer  cleavage  was  separated  from  strati- 
fication, and  regarded  as  a  kind  of  crystalliza- 
tion, running  in  particular  beds. 

Dr.  MacCulloch  was  too  practised  in  obser- 
vations among  primary  rocks  not  to  have  ob- 
served the  peculiarites  of  slate,  and  we  find 
him  distinguishing  cleavage  from  stratification, 
and  referring  it  to  concretionary  action$. 


t  S* «"  are  bands  of  stratifica- 
tion, displaced  by  a  amall  fault/, 
across  which,  and  across  the  stra- 
tification, two  small  spar  veins 
run  quite  straight.  "  The  carted 
lines  are  edges,  more  than  usually 
flexuooa  and  symmetrical,  of  a 
scaly  structure,  lying  obliquely  to 
the  plane  of  cleavage."  (Is  this 
a  case  of  secondary  cleavage?) 


$  2.  Cleavage  continuous  through  large  ranges  of  country. 

Notwithstanding  these  and  probably  many  other  partial  views  which 
recognized  some  difference  between  cleavage  and  stratification,  it  was  re- 
served for  Professor  Sedgwick,  in  the  year  1835$,  to  define  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  the  essential  character  of  slaty  cleavage,  and  to  show  its  exact  place 
in  the  series  of  changes  by  which  soft  argillaceous  deposits  have  been  stra- 
tified and  solidified,  cleft  and  jointed.  Instructed  by  the  repeated  examina- 
tions of  the  schistose  rocks  of  Westmoreland  and  Wales  (begun  in  1822), 
how  to  discover  the  almost  evanescent  traces  of  bedding,  which  in  some 
cases  are  all  that  metamorphic  action  has  left,  and  recognizing  in  these 

*  Keswick,  1823.  There  was  an  earlier  publication  in  the  Kirkby  Lonsdale  Magazine, 
1820.  t  See  Memoir  of  W.  Smith,  p.  99. 

%  Journal  of  the  Roy.  Inst  1825.    System  of  Geology,  1831,  i;  139 ;  ii.  186. 
|  Geol.  Trans.  2nd  series,  vol.  ii. 


ON  CLEAVAQB  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS.  373 

tracts  the  enormous  and  repeated  undulations  of  the  strata, — he  found  these 
seemingly  irregular  structures  crossed  and  cut  through  by  a  series  of 
planes  characterized  by  almost  unvarying  symmetry — parallel  and  con- 
tinuous through  the  heart  of  Snowdonia  and  the  steeps  of  the  Westmore- 
land Alps, — and  so  regular  as  to  appear  like  the  results  of  enormous 
crystallization. 

These  results — confirmed  by  universal  research  among  the  mountainous 
tracts,  of  the  old  and  new  world — by  Studer  and  Forbes  in  the  Alps,  by 
Murchison  in  Siluria,  Darwin  in  the  Andes,  and  Rogers  in  the  Appalachians*, 
— leave  no  doubt  that  cleavage  is  a  peculiar  structure  impressed  on  certain 
rocks  and  in  certain  regions,  by  the  operation  of  some  very  extensive  cause  . 
operating  after  the  stratified  rocks  had  undergone  great  displacement. 
For  this  fundamental  generalization  we  are,  I  believe,  entirely  indebted  to 
Sedgwick. 

$  3.  Cleavage  in  continuous  parallel  planes  across  bent  and  contorted 

Strata. 

Of  this  remarkable  fact,  and  of  its  extensive  bearing  on  the  theory  of 
cleavage,  Professor  Sedgwick's  memoir  gives  the  earliest  notice,  confirmed 
by  abundant  examples  in  Wales :— "  A  rugged  country,  more  than  thirty 
miles  in  length  and  eight  or  ten  in  breadth,  stretching  from  the  gorge  of  the 
Wye  above  Rliaiadr  to  the  upper  gorges  of  the  Elan  and  the  Towy,  exhibits 
on  a  magnificent  scale,  thousands  of  examples  of  much  contorted  strata,  crossed 
by  parallel  cleavage  planes.  Of  the  true  bedding  in  these  cases  there  is  not 
a  shadow  of  a  doubt.  Many  parts  are  of  a  coarse  mechanical  texture ;  but 
subordinate  to  these  are  fine  chloritic  slate.  But  the  coarser  beds  and  the 
finer,  the  twisted  and  the  straight,  have  all  been  subjected  to  one  change. 
Whatevermbe  tfie  contortions  of  the  rocks, 
the  planes  of  cleavage  pass  on,  generally 
without  deviation,  running  in  parallel 
lines  from  one  end  to  the  other,  and  in- 
clining at  a  great  angle  to  a  point  only  a 
few  degrees  west  of  magnetic  north\.n 
The  Diagram  No.  S  shows  the  directions 
here  assigned.  Those  which  follow  (4, 5) 
are  vertical  sections  copied  from  Sedg- 
wick, to  show  the  parallelism  of  cleavage 
planes  across  strata  bent  anticlinally  (4) 
and  contorted  (5). 

Fig.  4. 
River  Wye  above  Rhaiadr. 


Fig.  3. 


Cleavage  dips  to  N/W.,  across  anticlinal. 


*  Proceedings  of  American  Naturalists  and  Geologists,  1845. 
t  Geol.  Trans.  2nd  series,  voL  ii.  p.  477. 


374 


REPORT — 1856. 


Fig.  5. 
On  the  River  Towev. 


Cleavage  dips  N.W.  by  north,  and  is  parallel  across  many  flexures. 


In  Diagram  6,  a  case  of  local  exception  to  the  rule  is  given  by  Sedgwick. 
There  the  cleavage  planes  preserve  their  strike,  but  change  the  direction 
and  amount  of  their  inclination,  in  such  a  way  as  to  pass  vertically  through 
the  anticlinal  axis,  and  to  be  inclined  toward  this  axis  on  each  side  of  it. 
There  is  no  cleavage  observable  in  the  lower  or  more  central  parts  of  tbe 
bent  mass  of  rocks. 

Fig.  6. 
Craig  Gibbon. 


m//// 


On  road  from  Llangollen  to  Ruthin.    Cleavage  convergent  to  an  anticlinal  dipping  N.N.B. 
on  one  side,  and  S.S.W.  on  the  other,  but  vertical  in  the  axis  of  the  strata. 

§  4.  Cleavage  symmetrically  related  to  axes  of  movement  of  (he  Strata. 

In  a  great  number  of  examples  in  Wales,  Westmoreland  and  Yorkshire, 
where  the  cleavage  is  perfect  and  the  strata  are  distinct,  it  is  found  that  the 
edges  of  the  laminae  of  cleavage  show  themselves  very  plainly  in  the  surfaces 
of  stratification,  and  these  edges  are  often  nearly  horizontal.  To  use  the 
expression  of  Sedgwick,  who  first  declared  the  fact,  "  where  the  cleavage  is 
well  developed  in  a  thick  mass  of  slate  rock,  the  strike  of  the  cleavage  is 
nearly  coincident  with  the  strike  of  the  beds9"  This  is  mort  frequently  ob- 
served where  the  strike  of  the  strata  is  most  persistent ;  or  in  other  words, 
where  the  anticlinal  and  synclinal  axes  of  movement  are  most  simple,  con- 
tinuous, and  uniform  in  direction. 

But  where  the  axes  of  movement  are  complicated  by  small  folds  and 
twists,  the  local  coincidence  of  the  strike  of  cleavage  and  the  strike  of  stra- 
tification frequently  fails ;  the  cleavage  maintains,  or  tends  to  maintain,  one 
uniform  direction,  and  thus  crosses  the  folds  of  the  strata  under  various 
circumstances,  more  or  less  suggestive  of  an  influence  more  general  than 
that  which  determined  the  folds. 

If  the  expression  above  quoted  from  Prof.  Sedgwick  be  well  considered, 
and  taken  in  connexion  with  the  exceptions  which  he  mentions,  it  will  appear 
that  in  his  mind  the  direction  of  cleavage  in  a  large  district  was  coincident, 

*  Geol.  Trans.  2nd  series,  vol.  vi.  p.  473.  The  word  "strike"  was,  I  believe,  first  em- 
ployed  in  this  sense  by  Sedgwick. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  BOOKS.  375 

or  nearly  so,  with  the  main  or  mean  directum  of  the  strike  of  the  beds,  though 
it  is  not  actually  so  stated  in  the  paper.  In  1843  I  presented  as  the  result 
of  a  special  study  of  the  geographical  relation  in  question,  among  the 
slaty  rocks  of  Wales,  the  following  explicit  expression, — "  The  cleavage 
planes  of  the  slate  rocks  of  Wales  are  always  parallel  to  the  main  direction 
of  the  great  anticlinal  axes,  but  are  not  affected  by  the  small  undulations 
and  contortions  of  those  lines  +•"  which  may  be  regarded  as  confirming  the 
views  of  Sedgwick.  Prof.  Jukes  finds  the  same  result  in  Newfoundland f. 
Mr.  Darwin  has  an  analogous  expression  for  South  America: — "The  clea- 
vage lamina?  range  over  wide  areas  with  remarkable  uniformity,  being  parallel 
in  strike  to  the  main  axes  of  elevation,  and  generally  to  the  outlines  of  the 
coast  J."  And  since  1837,  Professors  H.  D.  Rogers  and  W.  B.  Rogers  have 
observed  and  recorded,  in  Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  Jersey, "  the  close 
parallelism  of  the  cleavage  planes  of  a  given  district  with  each  other,  and 
with  the  main  axis  of  elevation  of  the  district}/'  And  lastly,  in  1849,  Mr.  D. 
Sharpe,  in  reviewing  these  statements,  adds,  as  from  his  own  conviction,  that 
44  the  direction  of  the  strike  of  the  cleavage  is  parallel  to  the  main  direction 
of  the  axes  of  elevation,  and  has  no  necessary  connexion  with  the  strike  of 
the  beds || ."  This  is  somewhat  enigmatical,  for  it  is  by  the  "strike  of  the 
beds"  that  we  determined  the  axes  of  elevation  and  depression :  Mr.  Sharpe 
had  perhaps  misunderstood  Professor  Sedgwick's  use  of  the  word  strike,  and 
probably  meant  to  say  that  the  cleavage  observed  at  any  one  place  was  not 
necessarily  dependent  on  the  strike  of  the  beds  at  that  place.  Professor 
Harkness  has  found  remarkable  agreements  between  the  strike  of  cleavage 
and  the  axes  of  movements  in  the  S.W.  of  Ireland  ^[.  According  to  these 
authors,  then,  though  cleavage  is  really  or  nearly  independent  at  every 
point  of  the  previously  fixed  position  of  the  strata  there,  crosses  them  with 
little  variation,  whether  they  be  curved  or  plane,  and  preserves  or  nearly 
preserves  its  own  dip  or  its  own  vertically,  in  whatever  direction  and  in 
whatever  degree  they  are  inclined  ;  cleavage  and  stratification  have,  never- 
theless, one  real  geographical  relation,  an  approximate  parallelism  of  strike, 
dependent  on  the  axes  of  movement  of  the  rocks.  To  this  conclusion,  how- 
ever, there  are  many  exceptions ;  one  of  the  most  remarkable  exceptions 
known  to  me  is  found  in  North  Devon,  where  the  general  strike  of  the  beds 
is  nearly  east  and  west ;  but  the  cleavage  strike  is  nearly  E.N.E.  and  W.S.W., 
by  the  observations  of  Sedgwick,  Sharpe  and  myself. 

In  Charnwood  Forest  I  find  the  average  strike  of  the  strata,  exactly 
measured,  to  form  an  angle  of  19°  12*  with  the  average  strike  of  the  cleavage. 

§  5.  Relation  of  Cleavage  Planes  to  the  Inclination  of  the  Strata* 

Almost  every .  observer  in  mountainous  regions  who  has  once  perceived  the 
symmetrical  relation  of  the  strike  of  cleavage  to  the  great  axes  of  movement 
of  the  masses,  seeks  for  some  corresponding  symmetry  between  the  dip  of 
the  strata  and  the  inclination  of  the  cleavage.  But  unless  the  investigation 
be  carried  across  a  whole  district,  so  as  to  furnish  comparisons  on  both 
sides  of  all  the  anticlinals  and  synclinals,  the  result  cannot  be  much  relied 
on.  Mr.  Darwin,  who  has  in  this  respect  the  advantage  of  great  range  of 
observation,  having  observed  the  persistence  of  the  strike  of  cleavage,  and 

*  Reports  of  the  British  Association,  1843,  p.  61. 

f  Geological  Survey  of  Newfoundland,  p.  130. 

X  Geological  Observations  in  South  America,  p.  162. 

$  Ann.  Reports  on  the  Surveys  of  these  States,  1837-40. 

||  Proceedings  of  Geol.  Soc.  1846. 

f  Reports  of  British  Association,  1855,  p.  82. 


376 


REPORT 1856. 


the  frequent  change  of  their  dip  both  in  angular  value  and  direction,  sought 
for  some  order  in  these  changes.  He  observed  that  frequently,  in  Tierrm 
del  Fuego  and  in  other  countries  in  South  America,  cleavage  planes  were 
inclined  in  opposite  directions  on  opposite  sides  of  an  anticlinal,  so  as  to  dip 
in  wards #.  The  Alps,  given  as  an  example  of  this  fan-like  arrangement  of 
strata  by  Studerf,  and  the  corresponding  appearance  previously  recorded 
by  von  Buch  in  Norway,  are  mentioned  by  Darwin  as  possibly  related  to 
this  phenomenon  of  cleavage.  Professor  H.  Rogers  submitted  to  the  Ame- 
rican Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  a  further  statement,  that 
"the  cleavage  dip  is  parallel  to  the  average  dip  of  the  anticlinal  and  syndinal 
axis  planes,  or  those  bisecting  the  flexures  J."  The  Alps  in  this  view  are 
supposed  to  have  on  their  flanks  many  folds  of  strata,  whose  "  axis  planes" 
dip  inwards;  and  parallel  to  these  "axis  planes"  the  cleavage  structure  is 
developed.  The  axis  planes  are  more  highly  inclined  at  greater  distances 
from  the  central  summit  ridge. 

Fig.  7. 

Hypothetical  Sketch  Section  of  Alps. 


/    J 

/ 


7/ 


/    d 


For  the  most  detailed  view  yet  presented  on  this  subject  we  are  indebted 
to  Mr.  D.  Sharpe,  now  unhappily  lost  to  science.  According  to  Mr.  Sharpe, 
if  we  trace  geographically  any  particular  plane  of  cleavage  by  following  its 
strike  5,  10,  20  or  more  miles,  we  shall  find  it  preserve,  within  narrow  limits, 
the  same  angle  of  dip,  and  in  the  same  direction.  On  proceeding  a  few  miles  to 
the  right  or  left,  and  selecting  a  second  plane  of  cleavage,  it  is  probable  that 
this  will  not  dip  at  the  same  angle,  possibly  not  in  the  same  direction  ;  but 
this  angle  and  this  direction  of  dip  are  equally  persistent  along  the  line  of 
strike  to  which  they  belong.  When  by  repeated  trials  of  this  kind  the  struc- 
ture of  a  large  tract  of  country  is  ascertained,  it  is  found  that  along  certain 
lines  of  strike  some  miles  apart,  the  cleavage  is  vertical,  or  nearly  so ;  that 
near  these  lines  the  cleavage  surfaces  are  steeply  inclined  toward  them,  but 
far  from  them  greatly  inclined.  Thus  something  like  anticlinal  and  synclinal 
axes  appear,  and  "  systems  of  cleavage  "  are  traced  through  countries  which 
also  manifest  "  systems  of  movement." 

Thus  Mr.  Sharpe  states,  that  in  North  Wales  a  line  of  vertical  cleavage 
runs  N.E.  and  S.W.  along  the  slate  beds  which  lie  on  the  western  flank  of 
the  Snowdon  chain ;  another  such  line  runs  through  the  great  slate  quarries 
between  Dinas  Mowddy  and  Mallwyd.  These  lines  are  about  35  miles  apart. 
Between  them  the  cleavage  is  inclined, — near  the  north-western  line  the  dips 
are  north-westward, — near  the  south-eastern  line  they  aresouth-eastward, — the 
angle  of  inclination  being  least  towards  the  middle  part  of  the  area  included 

*  Geological  Observation!  in  Sooth  America,  p.  164. 
t  Edinb.  New  Phil.  Journal,  vol.  rxxiii.  p.  144. 
t  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.  Edinb.  1856,  p.  447. 


ON  CLBAVAOB  AND  FOLIATION  IN  BOCKS. 


377 


between  the  lines* 
Fig.  8. 


The  general 
Fig.  9.      Fig 


result  of  that  inquiry, 
10. 


i\ 


regards  this  tract 
of  country,  may  be 
understood  by  refer- 
ence to  the  drawings 
marked  8,  9. 

In  his  description 
of  these  sections,  Mr. 
Sharpe  calls  attention 
to  the  fact,  that  "in 
this  wide  area  we  have 
only  one  axis  of  the 
cleavage,  but  there  are 
several  anticlinal  and 
synclinal  axes  of  the 
stratification  ;  these* 
(with  the  exception 
of  the  central  one  at 
Rhaiadr  Cwm)  have 
no  effect  on  the  clea- 
vage, which  follows  its 
own  direction  indiffer- 
ently through  beds 
dipping  in  opposite  di- 
rections. Still  there  is 
so  much  relation  be- 
tween the  direction  of 
the  cleavage  planes 
and  the  position  of  the 
beds,  that  we  might 
infer  from  this  section 
alone  that  the  cause 
which  produced  the 
cleavage  of  the  rocks 
had  hcjped  to  deter- 
mine the  elevation  of 
the  beds"  This  infer- 
ence is  not  only  ob- 
scure, but  seems  op- 
posed to  those  already 
established,  which  as- 
sign priority  of  date  to 
the  movements  of  the 
strata,  and  more  exten- 
sive symmetry  to  clea- 
vage than  to  inclina- 
tion of  beds. 

The  region  thus 
sketched  by  Mr. 
Sharpe  was  previously 
traversed  by  myself  in 
1836  and  1843  with  a 
view  to  measured  re- 

*  Sharpe,  1846  ;  "  On 
Slaty  Cleavage ,"  Proc.  of 
Geo!.  Soc.  p.  90,  &c. 


378 


REPORT — 1856. 


suits,  but  I  did  not  feel  authorized  by  my  observations  to  draw  the  same  con- 
clusions.    The  section,  as  it  appeared  to  me,  is  given  in  Diagram  No.  10. 

We  are  indebted  to  the  same  observer  for  observations  of  the  same  gene- 
ral character  in  the  Lake  ^     ..  r.     lo 
district  of  England.                           „  Fl*  n'                          *!«" 12- 

The  Diagrams  11  and 
12  represent  sections  from 
north  to  south,  through 
Skiddaw  and  the  region  of 
the  Borrowdale  Fells,  as  far 
as  Watendlath,  drawn  on 
the  same  plan  as  Diagrams 
8  and  9. 

In  these  sections  the  axes 
of  cleavage  and  stratifica- 
tion are  identical  in  place 
and  in  strike ;  the  strata  and 
cleavage  agree  in  the  di- 
rtction  of  their  dip ;  they 
agree  even  in  the  angle  of 
dip  on  the  south  side  of  the 
axis  of  elevation  (4-5°),  but 
from  this  point  southward 
the  dip  of  the  beds  grows 
less  and  less  till  we  reach 
the  synclinal,  where  it  is 
25°,  while  the  dip  of  the 
cleavage  grows  greater  and 
greater  till  at  the  synclinal 
it  is  vertical.  The  strike 
of  the  beds  varies  from  N. 
15°  E.  to  N.  30°  E.  That 
of  the  cleavage  is  generally 
N.  60°  E.,  but  varies  from 
N.  45°  E.  to  N.  75°  E. 

I  have  lately  followed 
this  section  with  attention 
in  Borrowdale,  Watendlath 
and  Skiddaw.  It  appears 
to  correspond  in  the  south- 
ern part  with  the  cleavage 
dips  of  the  region,  but  the 
dips  of  the  strata  are  more 
various  in  direction  and 
angle  than  the  section 
shows.  The  cleavage  dips 
are  vertical  about  Watend- 
lath, and  in  the  parallel 
valley  about  Rosthwaite  on 
lines  N.  67°  E.  (E.N.E.) 
In  descending  Borrowdal 
as  far  as  Bowderstone,  this 
direction  of  cleavage  strike 
is  frequently  observable,  m  ith  a  dip  to  the  southward  growing  lesa  and  le» 
(82°-72°),  while  the  dip  of  the  strata  is  also  southward  (45°-2*°).     Still 


ON  CLBAVAGB  AMD  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS. 


879 


further  northward,  at  a  great  quarry  the  cleavage  dip  is  southward  52°,  the 
dip  of  the  beds  irregular,  but  northerly  about  60°;   and  still  farther  the 


Fig.  IS. 


Fig.  14. 


-^       t: 


>     3 


--     8 


—  &' 


cleavage  dip  is  southerly  50°,  40°, 
38°, — which  last  observation  was 
made  at  Grange. 

These  results  are  all  on  the 
north  side  of  the  line  of  vertical 
cleavage  at  Watendlath,  and  in 
the  middle  slate  series.  In  the 
Watendlath  Valley  and  in  the 
fells  between  it  and  Borrowdale, 
the  phcenomena  are  much  less 
regular.  In  the  Skiddaw  slate 
which  appear  near  Grange,  the 
cleavage  surfaces  are  sometimes 
twisted  so  as  to  be  partly  vertical, 
and  partly  dipping  south,  with  an 
irregular  strike  N.  25°  E.,  which 
differs  from  the  strike  of  Wat* 
end  lath,  Bowderstone,andG  range 
above  40°.  When  the  beds  and 
the  cleavage  dip  in  opposite  di- 
rections, the  angle  included  be- 
tween the  planes  is  in  several 
cases  about  68°;  when  the  dip 
is  in  the  same  direction,  the  clea- 
vage at  the  highest  angle,  the  in- 
cluded angle  is  often  about  32°. 
When  the  beds  are  nearly  verti- 
cal, the  cleavage  is  nearly  coin- 
cident with  the  strata.  I  have 
seen  no  horizontal  cleavage  in 
the  Lake  district*. 

In  the  still  more  interesting 
sections  on  this  page  (Diagrams 
13  and  14),  Mr.  Sharpe  repre- 
sents the  bedding  and  the  clea- 
vage in  a  line  of  country  crossing 
the  strikes  of  both,  from  Helvel- 
lyn  to  Bowness.  In  Diagram  13 
the  strata  are  seen  to  be  bent  an- 
ticlinally  and  synclinally  in  Hel- 
vellyn, — raised  in  a  broad  arch 
north  of  Grasmere,  and  from 
thence  subject  only  to  smaller 
folds,  dipping  generally  south- 
south-eastward.  In  Diagram  14, 
the  cleavage  dips  are  shown  for 
the  same  region,  these  being  per- 

*  Prof.  Sedgwick  has  obliged  me  by 
a  note  confirming  this  statement  in  re- 
gard to  the  Lake  district,  but  he  has 
observed  horizontal  cleavage  in  Corn. 
wall  and  Wales,  and  Mr.  Sharpe  records 
it  in  Devonshire. 


380 


RBPORT — 1856. 


N«wby  Bridge. 


Bowoew. 


pendicular  on  five  lines,  a,  b,c,d,e;  on  each  ride  of  these 
dined,  at  points  farther  removed  less  so; 
the  least  (recorded)  inclination  being  65° 
to  the  N.N.W.  (south  of  Trout  beck),  and 
75°  to  the  S.S.E.  (north  part  of  Helvel- 
lyn).  Thus  the  extreme  difference  of 
dip  in  the  cleavage  of  the  slates  of  this 
tract  is  40° ;  the  most  prevalent  dip  of 
cleavage  is  to  the  N.N.W.,  about  80°. 
The  lines  whose  cleavage  is  vertical  are 
mostly  coincident  with  faults,  or  remark- 
able folds  of  the  strata.  The  dip  of  the 
strata  is  most  regular  and  continuous  be- 
tween Grasmere  and  Troutbeck, — on  an 
average  about  33°  to  the  S.S.E.:  in  the 
same  tract  the  dip  of  the  cleavage  on  an 
average  is  80°  to  the  N.N.  W.  The  angles 
included  between  the  planes  of  cleavage 
and  those  of  stratification  son  an  average 
67°. 

I  have  examined  this  tract  of  country 
many  times,  and  have  recorded  carefully 
the  strikes  and  dips  of  bedding  and  clea- 
vage in  a  great  number  of  cases.  The 
facts  of  my  survey  agree  in  several  fea- 
tures with  Mr.  Sharpe's  data,  but  they 
conduct  to  somewhat  different  inferences. 

There  are  not  so  much  lines -or  axes  as 
several  parallel  bands  in  which  the  clea- 
vage is  vertical  or  deviates  5°  to  10°  on 
either  side,  and  these  bands  are  rather 
suddenly  succeeded  by  others  in  which 
the  cleavage  dips  with  considerable  stea- 
diness about  70°.  Thus  a  band  of  verti- 
cal and  highly  inclined  cleavage  passes 
through  Helvellyn;  a  band  of  cleavage 
inclined  50°  to  70°  northwardly  runs 
through  Grasmere  and  Rydal ;  a  band  of 
vertical  and  highly  inclined  cleavage 
passes  through  the  tract  between  Am- 
bleside and  Low  Wood  Inn,  and  indeed 
extends  as  far  south  as  a  little  north  of 
Bowness ;  then  succeeds  another  band  of 
cleavage  inclined  72°  to  N.N.W. ;  and 
this  is  followed  by  nearly  vertical  bands 
in  the  lower  part  of  Windermere.  North 
of  the  Helvellyn  band  comes  in  the  band 
of  Borrowdale,  inclined  southwardly  72°, 
52°,  40°. 

By  combining  these  observations  as  in 
Diagram  No.  15,  the  succession  of  these 
bands  appears  distinctly ;  and  it  is  evi- 
dent that  the  cleavage  dips  run  into 
systems  of  greater  and  less  inclination, 


highly 


Amblrtde. 


Rydal. 


GrMmere. 


Helm  Crag. 


Watendlatta.   -=q 


Borrowdale. 


«: 


lti\ 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS. 


381 


which  induced  Mr.  Sharpe  to  employ  the  terms  "  anticlinal  and  synclinal,** 
and  to  represent  the  lines  of  cleavage  as  parts  of  elliptical  curves*,  to  which 
however,  they  really  bear  but  slight  resemblance. 

It  is  further  evident,  that  when  the  dips  of  the  strata  are  most  uniform  in 
direction,  the  cleavage  also  mostly  dips  in  one  direction  ;  and  that  where  the 
strata  are  subject  to  much  contortion  and  frequent  changes  of  dip,  the 
cleavage  is  either  vertical,  or  deviates  only  a  few  degrees  (5°  to  10°)  on  either 
aide  of  the  vertical.  For  the  most  part  the  cleavage  planes  are  steeper  than 
the  surfaces  of  the  strata. 

The  most  prevalent  direction  of  the  cleavage  strike  in  Westmoreland  is 
E.N.E.,  varying  however  to  E.  and  N.E.  This  corresponds  nearly  with  the 
strike  of  the  beds.  In  the  couutry  east  of  Kendal,  about  Hougill  Fells,  it  is 
nearly  E.  and  W.  (N.  80°  E.,  N.  85°  E.).  In  the  same  vicinity  the  beds  strike 
E.N.E.  and  N.  85°  E.,  or  on  the  whole  a  little  more  to  the  northward.  Pro- 
ceeding to  the  S.E.,  we  find  cleavage  well- developed  in  the  clearly  bedded 
rocks  of  Ribblesdale,  subjacent  to  the  mountain  limestone,  which  shows  no 
sign  of  cleavage*  The  beds  of  slate  are  marked  by  graptolites  and  shells;  the 
cleavage  is  always  traceable.  The  beds  are  undulated  on  axes  directed 
between  15°  north  of  west,  and  S°  north  of  west.  (In  a  certain  limited  roll, 
the  strikes  vary  37°  (from  22°  north  of  west  to  15°  south  of  west).  The 
cleavage  strike  is  nearly  parallel,  in  a  general  sense,  to  the  strike  of  the  beds ; 
it  varies  only  10°  (from  16°  north  of  west  to  6°  north  of  west).)  There  is 
one  principal  synclinal  roll  of  the  strata  (6),  with  dips  on  the  north  side  (a) 
of  46°  to  S.S.W.;  on  the  south  side  (c)  60°,  73°,  80°  to  N.N.E.;  then  for  a 
narrow  space  the  beds  are  vertical  (d) ;  after  which  is  a  broad  band  of  dips 
(e)  76°,  80°,  76°,  &c  to  N.N.E. 


Fig.  16 


Fig.  17. 


-rrfiiiiifllfi! 


rm~n-rT ''  /  T>fr-<:  :  i  ■'  ■'  '    ■'   ■  i   /  •'    '  •'  ••'  /'  /  •'   •'  /  •' 

ii   ////////////////// /////////// ///// 

\\\l  Hi  Hi!////  //////////////  /;//, 

!j;;;// ///J///////// ///////////  /////// 


At  a.  Strata  dip  46°  S.S.W. 

b.  „     synclinal    „ 

c.  „      dip  N.N.E. 

d.  „     vertical      „ 

«.     „     dip  76°  N.N.E. 


Cleavage  dip  66°-60°  S.S.W. 
„        „    72°S.S.W. 
„        „  S.S.W. 

„      none  or  dip  80°  S.S.W. 
,,     vertical. 


The  cleavage  in  all  this  tract  dips  to  the  S.S.W.,  at  angles  which  upon  the 
*  Geol.  Proceedings,  1846. 


382 


REPORT — 1856. 


whole  grow  greater  and  greater  toward  the  southern  end  ;  so  that  beginning 
in  the  northern  part  at  60°  and  66°,  they  augment  in  the  synclinal  roll  to  72^ 
south  of  it  to  80°,  and  at  length  appear  vertical,  near  the  line  of  the  North 
Craven  Fault,  which  ranges  E.S.E.,  nearly  parallel  to  the  strike  of  the  beds 
and  the  cleavage.  In  Diagrams  16  and  17  these  remarkable  facts  are  ex- 
pressed in  a  section  from  N.  to  S.  in  Ribblesdale,  which  may  be  compared 
with  Diagrams  No.  4,  5,  6. 

As  already  observed,  the  rocks  which  form  the  needles  and  sharp  crests  on 
the  flanks  of  Mont  Blanc,  appeared  to  Studer  and  other  geologists  to  be  com- 
posed of  laminae  which,  viewed  on  a  great  scale,  dip  inward  on  each  side  of 
the  great  chain,  so  as  to  produce  in  the  section  a  fan-shaped  structure ;  and 
this  has  the  more  caught  attention  because  the  lowest  in  the  scale  of  lamina- 
tion contain  organic  remains  and  appear  to  be  covered  by  crystalline  schists, 
—the  gneissic  and  granitic  series  of  Mont  Blanc  It  appears  to  Mr.  Sharpe 
that  these  fan-shaped  laminae  are  due  to  cleavage;  that  an  anticlinal  axis  of 
foliation  shows  itself  between  two  lines  of  vertical  foliation  in  Mont  Blanc, 
and  runs  through  the  whole  chain  ;  and  that  there  is  really  no  superposition 
of  gneiss  above  fossiliferous  strata.  He  traces  across  the  region  of  the  Swiss 
Alps,  nine  of  these  parallel  axes  and  ten  vertical  bands  of  cleavage  and  folia- 
tion. The  following  is  Mr.  Sharpe's  section*  of  the  granitic  or  gneissic 
mass  (protogine)  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  strata  adjoining  which  appear  to 
dip  into  or  under  the  gneissic  rocks. 


The  Section  No.  19  exhibits  the  same  systems  of  cleavage  and  foliation, 
the  same  axes,  and  the  same  verticals ;  the  strata  on  the  flanks  of  the  Mont 
Blanc  are  seen  reposing  against  the  gneiss,  not  dipping  into  or  under  it.  The 
gneiss  is  not  supposed  to  be  stratified,  but  foliated ;  the  foliation  being  in 
planes  parallel  to,  and  even  continuous  with,  those  of  cleavage. 


Fig.  19. 


From  the  Col  de  Balme  to  the  Col  Ferret. 

Aiguille 
de  Tour. 

M m 


Prof.  Forbes  and  Prof.  Rogers  do  not  admit  the  statements  and  conclu- 
sions of  Mr.  Sharpe  in  regard  to  the  Mont  Blanc  range.  They  are  indeed 
much  different  from  the  usual  ideas  of  geologists,  and  well  deserve  a  careful 
revision  and  verification  before  being  implicitly  adopted  in  the  theory  of 

*  Geol.  Proceedings,  Nov.  1854. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS. 


383 


Fig.  20. 


mA 


^1 


X 


1 


cleavage  and  foliation.  It  can,  however,  scarcely  be 
doubted  that  in  this  district  bands  of  nearly  vertical 
cleavage  alternate  with  bands  of  cleavage  inclined 
40°,  50°,  60°,  70°.  The  reference  of  these  dips  to 
certain  anticlinal  and  synclinal*  axes  is  the  part  of 
Mr.  Sharpe's  view  which  specially  requires  the  atten- 
tion of  observers  both  in  Scotland  and  in  Switzerland. 

Mr.  Sharpe  obtained  results  of  the  same  general 
character  in  the  Highlands,  but  with  the  vertical 
bands  (synclinal  axes)  much  further  apart  than  in 
the  Alps,  and  the  anticlinal  arches  very  much  flat- 
tened, so  as  to  be  represented  by  two  ellipses  t 
(Diagram  20). 

By  Lyell  and  most  writers  the  foliation  here  re- 
ferred to  axes,  is  regarded  as  the  stratification,  or 
traces  of  the  stratification,  of  the  metamorphic  rocks 
of  gneiss  and  mica-schist.  The  strike  of  the  verti- 
cal planes  over  Scotland  seems  to  radiate  from  Do- 
negal, and  is  in  general  included  between  N.  25°  E., 
and  N.  50°  £. ;  but  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Isle 
of  Lewis  and  the  western  parts  of  Ross  and  Suther- 
land it  is  about  N.W.,  or  nearly  perpendicular  to 
the  usual  course. 

§  6.  Cleavage  varies  in  Strata  of  unlike  quality. 

In  a  series  of  strata  subjected  to  cleavage  forces, 
the  result  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
strata;  perfect  slaty  structure  being  confined  to 
argillaceous,  and  mostly  to  thick-bedded  argillaceous 
deoosits. 

(a.}  In  a  given  section  some  of  the  strata  are 
completely  traversed  by  cleavage,  others  not  at  all. 

In  this  Diagram,  repre- 
senting a  section  at 
Aberystwyth,  1836,  the 
beds  «,  *'  are  softer  and 
more  argillaceous;  h  is 
harder  and  more  arenace- 
ous. The  cleavage  crosses 
$  and  s\  but  is  inter- 
rupted in  A.  Across  A, 
however,  there  are  gene- 
rally found  a  considerable 
number  of  "joints,"  which 
are  always  more  nearly 
perpendicular  to  the  plane 
of  the  beds  than  the  clea- 
vage planes  are.  These 
joints  have  in  some  cases  the  same  strike  as  the 
cleavage. 

*  Mr.  Sharpe  does  not  mark  these  in  hit  section ;  they  in 
feet  coincide  with  his  vertical  dips, 
f  Phil.  Trans.  Roy.  Soc.,  1852,  p.  445. 


Fig.  21. 


584 


REPORT — 1856. 


Fig.  23. 


Sedgwick  seems  to  refer  to  such  a  case  as  one  of  imperfect  cleavage, 
marked  by  parallel  planes  at  definite  distances,  which  it  might  be  difficult  to 
class  with  joints  or  cleavages* 

(b.)  In  other  examples  all  the  strata  are  traversed  by  cleavage,  bat  not  ad 
at  the  same  angles  of  inclination. 

In  this  Diagram,  taken  by  the  author 
from  Leek  Beck  near  Kirkby  Lonsdale, 
1823*,  the  letters  indicate,  as  before,  soft 
and  hard  beds:  the  inclination  of  the 
cleavage  planes  varies  in  these  beds  in 
such  a  way,  that  in  the  harder  bed  they 
deviate  more  from  planes  of  stratification 
than  in  the  softer  beds. 

Such  cases  were  observed   by  the  au-  ^ 
thor  in  Wales,  1836;  North  Devon,  1839; 
Cove  of  Cork,  1843 ;  by  Sharpe  in  Lang- 
dale,  1849;  by  Townsend  at  Cork,  1854; 
by  Harkness  in  the  S.W.  of  Ireland,  1855. 

(c.)  Not  unfrequently,  when  beds  al- 
ternate whose  mineral  aggregation  is  not 
uniform,  the  cleavage  surfaces  are  curved 
in  the  remarkable  manner  shown  in  Dia- 
gram 23. 

In  this  Diagram  (23)  the  cleavage  edges 
seen  in  the  principal  section  are  bent,  so 
that  at  the  surfaces  of  each  bed  they 
tend  to  coincide  with  the  stratification, 
but  in  the  middle  of  each  bed  they  form  a 
considerable  angle  with  the  stratification. 
The  first  example  I  ever  saw  of  this  was 
at  Sallenche,  in  the  Liassic  slate,  at  the 
base  of  Mont  Blanc,  in  1830.  I  afterward 
observed  it  at  Dolbadarn,  in  North 
Wales,  in  Westmoreland,  and  Devonshire. 
Mr.  Sharpe  has  since  confirmed  this  state- 
ment It  is  sometimes  possible  to  trace 
near  the  bounding  surfaces  of  the  beds 
laminae  (/)  of  deposition,  and  sometimes 
the  original  distinction  of  beds  is  only 
marked  by  such  laminae. 

(d.)  Cleavage  surfaces  are  usually  dis- 
turbed when  traversing  or  passing  near  to 
masses  of  unequal  hardness. 

When,  as  in  Diagram  24,  beds  of  slate 
enclose  nodules  of  greater  hardness, — as 
limestone  or  'calliard,'  or  ironstone, — the 
cleavage,  which  is  perfect  and  continuous 
in  the  mass  of  slate,  becomes  irregular  and 
interrupted  so  as  to  resemble  a  series  of 
cracks  in  the  nodules  ;  these  cracks  follow 
the  law  indicated  in  Diagram  21,  and  tra- 
verse the  nodules  in  directions  more  nearly 

*  Geo].  Trans.  182a 


*tt 


Fig.  24. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCK* 

perpendicular  to  the  planes  of  the  stratification  than  the  cleavage  planes  are 
Carbonate  of  lime,  or  quartz,  may  often  be  found  tilling  tliuse  c narks  ;  bu\?[  T 
phuret  of  iron  also  occurs  in  them.     The 
slaty  laminae  are  somewhat  twisted  about 
the  nodules. 

Mr.  Sorby  has  given  us  an  example 
(Diagram  25)  of  the  deviation  of  cleavage 
planes  in  passing  through  a  thin  bed  of 
indurated  gritstone,  lying  in  fine-grained 
slate  near  Ilfracombe.  The  strata  being 
subject  to  much  pressure,  the  thin  grit- 
stone layer  is  bent  in  parallel  folds,  and  is 
of  greatest  thickness  in  the  vertices  of  the 
folds.  In  this  remarkable  case,  which  is 
on  a  small  scale,  the  cleavage  lamina)  in 
the  slate  are  more  or  less  parallel  to  the 
axial  planes  of  the  folds ;  but  in  the  grit- 
stone, they  deviate  into  fan-shaped  arrange- 
ments, which  on  a  small  scale  resemble  the 
laminar  structure  of  Mont  Blanc  Here 
also,  as  in  Diagram  81,  the  cleavage  fissures, 
-on  passing  through  the  harder  substance, 
deviate  toward  a  direction  perpendicular 
to  its  surface.  When  the  axes  of  the  con- 
tortions of  such  a  bed  as  g  (the  hard  grit- 
stone) pass  in  different  directions,  the  clea- 
vage invariably  passes  through  the  centre 
of  them  in  planes  coincident  with  the  axes. 

This  is  on  a  small  scale  the  same  law  as 
that  already  quoted  from  Professor  Rogers, 
the  cleavage  plane  in  each  case  bisecting 
the  flexures.     The  author  just  named  pro- 
Fig.  26. 


1 


"\ 


wnts  us  with  a  drawing  (Diagram  26)  very  well  suited  to  explain  his  idea  of 
iia-like  cleavage  planes,  in  materials  of  unlike  nature,  and  bent  ■n*s*lin«iu*. 


1856. 


•  Trans,  of  Roy.  Soc.  of  Edinburgh,  1856. 


bent  anticlinally* 


2c 


386 


export — 1856. 


Fig.  27. 


§  7.  Cleavage  accompanied  by  change  of  dimensions  in  Bocks. 

In  rocks  subject  to  cleavage,  the  parts  of  the  mass  have  undergone  mnme 
change  of  place ;  and  the  whole  mass  has  suffered  compression  in  one  di- 
rection.   This  will  be  evident  from  the  following  facts : — 

(a.)  Surfaces  of  stratification  are  frequently  undulated  and  wrinkled  by 
edges  of  cleavage. 

Thus  in  Diagram  27,  let  S  be  a  surface  of  stra- 
tification, K  a  plane  of  cleavage,  and  J  a  vertical 
joint.  The  cleavage  edges  are  often  traced  on  the 
bed  S  by  undulated,  interrupted  ridges  and  hollows, 
which  appear  in  no  other  surfaces,  and  suggested  to 
me  the  idea  of  a  "  creeping  movement  among  the 
particles  of  the  rock,  along  the  plane  of  cleavage,  the 
effect  of  which  was  to  roll  them  forward,  in  a  direc- 
tion always  uniform,  over  the  same  tract  of  country." 
In  this  expression  the  term  *  creep '  is  borrowed  from 
experience  in  collieries,  where  argillaceous  strata  are 
frequently  thrown  into  undulations  which  slowly 
propagate    themselves   under  continued  pressure. 

These  undulations  are  often  formed  on  a  plane  highly  inclined  to  the  axis 
of  pressure,  as  in  the  case  of  slaty  cleavage.  The  interrupted  character  of 
the  ridges  and  furrows  on  the  plane  of  the  strata  arises  sometimes  from  the 
unequatyielding  power  of  the  materials. 

(b.)  These  undulations  are  really  due  to  pressure  of  some  kind,  and  affect 
the  figure  of  shells  and  other  flexible  and  compressible  objects  on  the  tor- 
faces  of  the  strata,  so  that  in  the  direction  of  the  dip  of  the  strata  these  objects 
are  often  much  shortened  in  dimension. 

Thus  a  thin  object  originally  circular,  fig.  28  (as  Orbicula),  becomes  short- 
ened to  an  elliptical  figure,  fig.  29,  on  the  plane,  and  arched,  as  fig.  SO,  in  the 
section.  Thus  it  is  certain  that  the  effect  of  cleavage  is  to  cause  relative 
"  motion  among  the  parts  of  stratified  rocks,"  such  as  would  "be  produced 
by  a  compression  in  the  direction  perpendicular  to  cleavage. 


Fig.  28. 


Fig.  29. 


/" 


Fig.  SO. 


I  am  not  aware  of  any  observations  on  record  regarding  these  curiow 
phenomena  of  change  of  place  in  the  parts  of  a  slaty  mass  prior  to  1845, 
when  I  communicated  them  with  other  facts  to  the  British  Association  at 
Cork*.    One  of  the  points  then  much  insisted  on  was  the  fact  of  the  more* 

•  "On  certain  movement!  in  the  parta  of  Stratified  Rocks,"  Reports  of  Brit  Aaoc. 
1843,  p.  61. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS. 


387 


ment  uniformly  in  the  line  of  the  dip  of  the  strata  of  the  parts  of  symmetrical 
fossils  like  trilobites,  Lingula^  Spirt/era ;  so  that,  when  presented  in  one 
direction,  these  objects  were  shortened, — in  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
former  they  were  relatively  lengthened  (really  narrowed),  and  in  an  inter* 
mediate  direction  distorted,  fig.  31.  And  the  change  of  figure  was  employed 
-as  a  measure  of  the  movement  on  the  plane  of  stratification,  viz.  i  or  i  an 
inch  in  the  common  trilobite  of  Llandeilo  (Ogygia  Bucku),  equals  -^th  or 
-J-th  of  the  whole  space.  The  movement  does  not  seem,  in  the  case  of  Irish 
or  North  Devon  rocks,  to  have  affected  the  thicker  and  harder  shells,  but 
only  those  which  were  thin,  as  also  the  Algae  and  Trilobites;  the  latter 
in  Llandeilo  flags  are  often  covered  with  little  folds,  or  even  thread-like 
striations  parallel  to  the  wave  of  motion,  fig.  32,  which,  when  lying  right 
across  the  axis  of  figure,  may  deceive  an  inexperienced  person  into  the  sup- 
position of  a  real  transverse  striatum.  The  same  thing  occurs  in  North 
Devon,  and  in  the  south  of  Ireland. 

Fig.  31. 


(c.)  By  attending  carefully 
to  the  surfaces  of  stratification 
and  marking  the  phaenomena 
on  these  surfaces  where  they 
are  modified  by  cleavage,  an- 
other curious  and  important 
structure  is  indicated,  which 
appears  to  have  escaped  pub- 
lication, though  I  learn  with 
pleasure  that  it  has  not  been 
unobserved  by  Sedgwick. 

Let  S  be  the  strike  of  a 
bed,  tr  the  strike  of  cleavage 
on  the  surface  of  the  bed, 
and  parallel  to  it  (not  in  this 
instance  coincident  with  S), 
ridges  and  furrows  indicating 
the  internal  movements  of  the 


2c2 


Fig.  32. 


388  report— 1856. 

In  the  remarkable  case  sketched,  the  ridges  and  hollows  assume  a  regu- 
larity of  wavy  interruptions  which  appear  the  effect  of  concretionary  forest 
whose  axes  cross  the  bed,  the  concretions  being  subsequently  pressed  by 
cleavage,  so  that  the  rock  can  sometimes  be  practically  divided  by  art,  and 
in  other  cases  is  found  actually  divided  by  nature  into  irregular  oblong 
solids  whose  axis  is  parallel  to  the  line  of  dip  of  the  cleavage.  Phenomena 
of  this  order  are  observable  among  the  slaty  rocks  of  Westmoreland  (Win- 
dermere Head,  Bowness),  and  in  some  tracts  of  South  Wales  (Llandowror), 
but  they  do  not  yield  good  slate. 

In  some  cases  the  irregular  surface  of  the  beds  is  apparently  due  to  ori- 
ginal ripple  structure,  which  by  the  general  movement  of  the  mass  of  the 
rock  across  the  cleavage  planes,  have  acquired  superposed  wrinkles  parallel 
to  the  cleavage  edges.  Thus  in  several  cases  may  the  planes  of  stratification 
be  clearly  distinguished  from  joints. 

The  steps  thus  placed  for  a  mechanical  theory  of  the  series  of  changes  by 
which  the  structural  characters  and  accidents  of  position  in  slate  rocks  might 
be  determined,  were  relaid  with  care,  and  strengthened  by  new  observation, 
by  Mr.  D.  Sharpe*. 

In  the  quarries  of  South  Petherwin,  where  argillaceous,  ochracaous,  and 
calcareous  beds  occur,  the  former  are  wholly  cleft,  the  latter  partially  so,  or 
rather  cracked,  the  soft  ochreous  beds  not  marked  by  cleavage.  In  the  argil- 
laceous slate  the  thinner  and  more  tender  fossils  ere  much  changed  in  figure, 
the  enorinite  columns  not  so.  The  distortion  is  greatest  where  the  angle 
between  the  planes  of  cleavage  and  stratification  is  least.  The  contraction  of 
dimensions  in  the  plane  of  the  strata  on  the  line  perpendicular  to  the  strike 
of  cleavage,  is  estimated  at  one-fourth,  and  there  is  an  expansion  in  the 
plane  of  cleavage  on  the  line  of  the  dip.  Mr.  Sharpe s  general  result  is 
expressed  in  these  distinct  terms : — "  From  these  and  similar  canes,  we  learn 
that  the  shells  have  been  compressed  by  a  force  acting  in  a  direction  perpen- 
dicular to  the  planes  of  cleavage,  and  that  the  compression  of  the  mass 
between  the  cleavage  planes  has  been  counterbalanced  by  its  expansion  in 
a  direction  corresponding  to  the  dip  of  the  cleavage."  And  again,  "  As 
the  expansion  of  the  rock  in  one  direction  may  have  been  caused  by  its  com- 
pression in  the  contrary  direction,  it  follows  that  all  the  effects  yet  described 
may  have  originated  in  the  compression  of  the  mass  of  the  rock  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  the  cleavage  planes.**  The  oblique  pressures  which  appear 
to  have  affected  many  shells  in  the  planes  of  stratification  and  produced  suck 
extraordinary  distortions  as  that  of  Spirifera  disjuncta  (Diagram  34  a,  com* 
pared  with  34  b),  "  may  always  be  resolved  into  the  same  two  direct  forces; 
one  forwards  along  the  plane  of  cleavage  towards  the  intersection  of  the 
cleavage  and  the  bedding,  the  other  downwards  in  a  direction  perpendicular 
to  the  cleavage.  When  the  bedding  and  cleavage  exactly  coincide  at  Tin- 
tagel,  the  shells  are  flattened  and  drawn  out  considerably,  even  50  per  cent, 
in  one   direction," — the  direction 

being,  doubtless,  that  of  the  line  Fig.S4a.  Fig.  34  6. 

of  dip  of  the  cleavage  planes. 

Mr.  Sharpe  thus  concludes  this 
part  of  his  investigation  : — 

"  It  may  be  asserted  as  probable, 
that  all  rocks  affected  by  that  pe- 
culiar fissile  character  which  we 
call  slaty  cleavage  have  under- 
gone,— 

•  See  Geol.  Proc.  1846  and  1848. 


ON  CLBAVAOH  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROCKS. 


389 


"  1 .  A  compression  of  their  mass  in  a  direction  everywhere  perpendicular 

to  the  planes  of  cleavage. 
"2.  An  expansion  of  their  mass  along  the  planes  of  cleavage  in  the  direc- 
tion of  a  line  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  incidence  of  the  planes  of 
bedding  and  cleavage;  or  in  other  words,  in  the  direction  of  the  dip 
of  the  cleavage. 
"  3.  No  proof  has  been  found  that  the  rock  has  suffered  any  change  in  the 
direction  of  the  strike  of  the  cleavage  planes.  We  must  therefore  pre- 
sume that  the  masses  of  rock  have  not  been  altered  in  that  direction." 
These  conclusions,  presented  in  1846,  on  the  sure  evidence  of  the  changed 
forms  of  shells,  trilobites,  &c,  were  extended  in  1848  to  slates  in  which  no 
traces  of  any  organic  forms  had  been  observed.     The  evidence  in  this  case 
was  found  by  examination  of  the  mechanical  structure  of  the  slates,  especially 
by  certain  apparently  brecciated  slates  including  masses  of  discernible  mag- 
nitude, aud  distinct  colour  and  quality.     Such  are  frequent  in  Westmoreland 
and  Cumberland  about  Rydal,  in  Langdale,  Patterdale  and  Borrowdale. 
"In  all  these  slaty  breccias,  the  included  masses  are  flatter  between  the 
planes  of  cleavage  than  in  any  other  direction.    Their  flattest  sides  are  always 
parallel  to  the  cleavage  planes, — they  are  usually  rather  longer  on  the  line  of 
dip  of  the  cleavage  than  along  the  strike, — thus  confirming  the  opinion  that 
the  rocks  have  expanded  in  the  direction  of  the  dip  of  the  cleavage." 

The  Diagram  No.  86  represents  the 
appearance  of  the  included  masses  on 
the  plane  of  cleavage,  they  being 
somewhat  elongated  in  the  line  of 
dip ;  while  Diagram  36  gives  the  ap- 
pearance of  similar  masses  on  the 
edge  of  the  same  sheet  of  slate,  the 
fragments  being  ail  more  or  less  flat- 
tened between  the  planes  of  cleavage. 
It  is  curious  to  observe  in  some  of 
these  brecciated  slates  which  have 
undergone  much  metamorphosis, 
crystals  which  have  suffered  no 
change  by  compression.  These  cry- 
stals (e.  g.  garnets)  have  probably 
been  generated  in  the  mass  by  the 
metamorphic  actions  consequent  on 
communicated  heat 

It  is  obvious,  that  with  such  a 
structure  the  easy  cleavage  of  slate 
in  parallel  planes  is  completely  pro- 
vided for.  Moreover,  in  each  sheet 
of  slate,  where  the  parts  are  sensibly 
extended  in  the  direction  of  dip, 
there  is  a  somewhat  greater  facility  of  fracture  in  that  direction  than  in  any 
other.  This  comparative  facility  of  fracture  is  called  by  Mr.  Sharpe  "  se- 
condary cleavage*;"  it  is  of  some  importance  in  the  working  of  slate,  and 
gives  rise  to  the  terms  "end"  (e  in  fig.  35),  and  "sideM  (*  in  fig.  S6). 
Slates  are  best  split  by  inserting  the  tool  at  the  end. 
The  labours  of  Mr.  Sorby  f  now  claim  attention.  Accustomed  to  investigate 

*  This  term  is  not  used  in  the  same  sense  by  other  writers, 
f  Edinb.  New  Phil.  Journal,  1853. 


490 


REPORT — 1856. 


the  structure  of  rocks  by  the  microscope,  and  especially  by  the  ue  of  tab 
sections,  he  has  applied  this  method  of  research  to  ascertain  the  origin  of 
slaty  cleavage.  In  the  course  of  a  careful  examination  of  contortions  in  Noita 
Wales  and  Devonshire,  he  was  convinced  that  they  indicate  a  very  eoa- 
siderable  amount  of  lateral  pressure,  the  thickness  of  the  contorted  beds  beiag 
very  different  in  one  part  to  what  it  is  in  another  (see  Diagram  25).  In  the 
case  referred  to,  the  amount  of  compression  inferred  is  so  great,  that  pojnti 
which  appear  to  have  been  38  inches  apart,  are  now  at  the  distance  of  only 
9  inches.  Unyielding  parts  have  been  contorted,  yielding  parts  simply  pressed 
together  in  one  direction  and  extended  in  another.  The  green  spots  so  ofai 
seen  in  purple  slate,  also  indicate  great  change  of  dimensions  in  the  mass.  Is 
rocks  without  cleavage  they  appear  spherical ;  in  cleaved  slates  they  are  fowl 
to  be  compressed  in  the  perpendicular  to  cleavage,  elongated  in  the  line  of  to 
dip ;  so  that,  if  originally  spherical,  they  have  become  ellipsoids  of  three 
dimensions,  the  shortest  axis  lying  across  the  cleavage,  the  longest  in  the 
line  of  cleavage  dip,  while  the  third  axis  of  intermediate  length  coincides 
with  the  strike  of  the  cleavage.  These  three  axes,  in  a  case  not  supposed  to 
be  extreme,  though  doubtless  above  the  average,  in  the  slates  of  Llanbem 
and  Penrhyn,  are  found  as  1 :  3*75 : 6 ;  from  which  it  follows  that  the  sphere 
has  been  compressed  to  less  than  half  the  original  bulk  (as  3-75*  to 
1  x  3-75  x  6*0),  or  as  100  to  43. 

In  a  mass  so  compressed,  the  relative  angular  positions 
of  all  the  particles  not  exactly  perpendicular  to  the  line 
of  pressure  or  exactly  parallel  to  it  would  be  changed. 
Supposing  the  particles,  or  some  of  them,  to  be  unsym- 
metrical  (as  they  mostly  are  in  the  brecciated  slates,  and 
indeed  in  most  kinds  of  slate),  and  that  their  lengths 
were  equally  presented  in  all  directions,  or  inclined  at 
all  angles  to  the  plane  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  pres- 
sure,— we  shall  find  after  compression  their  inclination 

ff  by  the  formula  tan  0*= ,  where  c  is  the  ratio  of 

J  c   ' 

the  longer  to  the  shorter  axis  of  the  ellipse  representing 
the  compression,  0  the  original  angle,  and  0*  the  angle 
to  which  it  has  been  changed  by  compression.  In  the 
case  assumed  above  <?=6,  where  0  and  0'  appear  in  the 
following  Table 


Fig.  37. 


Originally. 
0=  O6 

After 
0'= 

compressio 
=  0*     0' 

10 

1     41 

20 

3     28 

SO 

5    30 

40 

7    58 

50 

11     14 

60 

16      6 

70 

24     36 

80 

43    23 

90 

90      0 

Or  suppose  in  a  small  part  of  the  original  mass  the  particles  to  be  so  dis- 
tributed as  to  occasion  ten  planes  of  equal  fissility,  having  the  same  strike, 
and  surrounding  the  same  axis,  and  inclined  to  one  another  10°, — this  part 
of  the  mass,  after  undergoing  compression  c  (6:1),  would  still  possess  teo 
cleavage  planes,  but  they  would  be  inclined  to  one  another  as  in  Diagram  38, 
which  corresponds  to  the  calculation  just  given. 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  BOCKS. 


391 


By  inspection  of  this  figure,  the  great  tendency  of  a 
mass  so  penetrated  by  secret  fissures  to  split  in  planes  ap- 
proximately parallel  is  evident  This  tendency  may  be 
exhibited  numerically  for  any  particular  angle  of  inclina- 
tion to  the  plane  of  principal  cleavage. 

"  If  we  suppose  (says  Mr.  Sorby)  that  in  a  mass  of 
rock  there  were  600  particles  having  their  longer  axes 
lying  in  the  space  included  within  5°  on  each  side  of 
positions  inclined  at  0°,  10°,  20°,  &c*  to  the  line  of  pressure, 
so  that  they  were  uniformly  distributed,  as  is  nearly  the 
case  in  thick-bedded  uncleaved  rocks,  then,  after  compres- 
sion in  the  ratio  1  : 6,  their  distribution  would  be  changed, 
as  shown  in  the  following  Table*  :— 


Inclination  to  the  direction  Original 

of  the  pressure,  distribution. 

0°   


10 
20 
SO 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 


►600  in  each  case.« 


Subsequent 
distribution. 

.  ..  100 

. . .  103 

...  IIS 

...  134 

. ..  168 

...  2S6 

...  376 

. . .  7SS 

.  ..  1825 

...  S324." 


These  numbers  exhibit  the  relative  tendency  to  cleavage 
in  each  arc  of  10°  in  the  compressed  mass.  If  instead  of 
5°  on  each  side  of  a  given  position  we  had  assumed  a  very 
small  angle  only,  the  tendency  to  fissility  along  the  prin- 
cipal cleavage  plane,  as  compared  to  that  perpendicular  to 
it  in  the  line  of  strike,  would  have  been  as  36 : 1. 

The  structure  here  assigned  by  calculation  does  actu- 
ally occur  in  slaty  rocks,  but  not  in  others.  '*  The  water 
of  Ayr  stone,  which  has  no  cleavage,  consists  of  mica  and  a  very  few  grains 
of  quartz  sand,  imbedded  in  a  large  proportion  of  decomposed  felspar ;  the 
peroxide  of  iron  being  collected  to  certain  centres,  and  having  the  character 
of  peroxidized  pyrites.  The  flakes  of  mica  do  not  lie  in  the  plane  of  the 
bedding,  but  are  inclined  at  all  angles ;  so  that  there  is  no  definite  plane  of 
structural  weakness  independent  of  that  due  to  bedding."  But  in  a  rock  of 
similar  composition  having  cleavage,  a  section  cut  perpendicular  to  cleavage 
in  the  line  of  its  dip,  shows  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  flakes  of  mica  in- 
clined at  low  angles,  so  that  the  majority  lie  within  20°  on  each  side  of  it, 
being  most  numerous  in  and  nearly  in  the  plane  of  cleavage, — twenty  times 
as  many  nearly  in  it  as  nearly  in  the  plane  of  45°  to  it,  and  very  few  at  90°. 
In  a  section  perpendicular  to  cleavage,  and  in  the  line  of  strike,  there  is  still 
a  preponderance  of  flakes  of  mica  in  and  near  the  plane  of  cleavage,  but  in 
a  less  marked  degree.  On  the  plane  of  cleavage  itself,  a  slight  tendency  to 
arrangement  of  the  flakes  parallel  to  the  line  of  dip  is  observable. 

One  of  the  latest  and  most  instructive  of  Mr.  Sorby*s  observations  relates 
to  the  cleavage  of  Devonian  limestones.  In  a  specimen  from  Kings  Kerswell 
near  Torquay,  the  cleavage  pressure  has  affected  the  whole  mass  of  the  rock, 

*  Phil.  Mag.,  January  1856. 


392  report — 1856. 

including  the  encrinites,  which  are  found  with  their  substance  < 
and  crushed  so  as  to  occupy,  in  the  direction  of  the  perpendicular  to  cleavage, 
only  a  quarter  of  the  space  they  fill  in  the  direction  of  cleavage  dip.  Thai 
the  originally  nearly  equiaxed  cells  of  the  encrinital  stem  are  altered  by 
cleavage  to  elongated  fusiform  shapes,  whose  longer  axes  are  parallel,  aad 
four  times  as  great  as  the  shorter  axes.  Even  crystals  of  calcareous  spar  and 
dolomite  are  found  crushed,  bent  and  broken  up,  so  as  to  be  with  difficulty 
recognizable* 

The  instances  thus  collected  of  the  movements  of  the  parts  of  the  rocks 
subject  to  slaty  cleavage,  in  directions  normal  to  the  planes  of  cleavage,  bavt 
been,  if  possible,  made  more  convincing  by  imitative  experiments,  which 
show  that  some  of  the  phenomena  of  cleavage  are  attainable  by  mesas  of 
pressure  in  materials  composed  of  particles  capable  of  change  of  figure,  or 
change  of  position.  Mr.  Sorby,  observing  by  the  microscope  that  in  certain 
uncleaved  stones  (e.g.  water  of  Ayr  stone)  mica  occurred  in  plates  inclined 
evenly  in  all  directions, — while  in  slates  in  which  cleavage  was  manifest  the 
mica  was  found  more  collected  on  the  cleavage  planes  and  inclined  at  low 
angles  to  it, — a  circumstance  directly  deducible  from  the  phenomena  of  com- 
pression already  proved,— made  a  cleavable  mass  in  the  following  manner*: — 
He  mixed  scales  of  oxide  of  iron  with  soft  pipe-clay,  so  that  the  scales  by 
evenly  in  all  direction  as  in  water  of  Ayr  stone,  and  then  pressed  it  so  as 
as  to  alter  the  dimensions  of  the  mass  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  slate  of 
Llanberis  already  referred  to.  Having  then  dried  and  baked  it,  he  examined 
the  interior  state  of  the  substance  by  rubbing  smooth  faces,  one  face  perpen- 
dicular to  pressure  and  in  the  line  of  elongation  or  dip ;  another  in  what 
represented  the  line  of  strike,  and  a  third  face  in  the  plane  of  the  pressure 
corresponding  to  the  cleavage  plane.  The  particles  of  oxide  of  iron  were 
found  distributed  just  as  mica  is  in  well-cleaved  slate;  the  mass  was  capable 
of  easily  splitting  parallel  to  the  pressure  planes,  but  not  across  them. 

Professor  Tyndall  has  more  recently  taken  up  this  part  of  the  subject, 
and  has  produced  a  variety  of  results,  confirming  and  extending  the  inge- 
nious reasonings  and  experiments  of  Mr.  Sorby  f-  Perhaps  his  most  re- 
markable  experiment  is  that  made  with  pure  white  wax,  which  in  the  ordi- 
nary state  admits  of  fracture  in  all  directions  equally,  and  contains  no 
unequiaxed  particles  like  mica  and  scales  of  oxide  of  iron.  This  substance, 
being  subject  to  pressure  J,  is  found  to  have  acquired  true  slaty  structure, 
even  in  a  higher  degree  than  any  known  slate,  for  it  splits  to  much  finer  and 
more  equal  laminae.  "  The  finer  the  slate  the  more  perfect  will  be  the  resem- 
blance of  its  cleavage  to  that  of  the  wax,"  is  the  conclusion  of  the  author  of 
this  instructive  experiment. 

The  experiments  and  reasonings  of  Professor  Tyndall,  Mr.  Sorby,  and 
Mr.  Sharpe,  will  again  come  under  review  in  a  future  Report,  when  the  theory 
of  slaty  cleavage  may  be  examined,  and  the  *  mechanical  pressure'  which 
these  authors  advocate  may  be  placed  in  comparison  with  the  crystalline 
polarity,  formerly  advanced  by  Prof.  Sedgwick.  The  veined  structure  of 
glaciers,  which  reminded  Professor  J.  Forbes  of  the  analogous  lamination  in 
slates, — an  idea  since  expressed  by  Rogers  and  Tyndall, — and  Mr.  Fox's  in- 
genious imitation  of  slaty  cleavage  by  electrical  currents  passing  through 
clay,  will  then  receive  the  attention  which  they  merit 

*  Edinb.  New  Phil.  Journal,  July  1853. 

f  Lecture  to  the  Royal  Institution,  June  6, 1856. 

t  The  wax  is  kneaded  with  the  fingers,  aud  pressed  between  thick  plates  of  glass  pre- 
viously wetted.  In  cold  weather,  or  when  cooled  by  a  freezing  mixture,  it  splits  beau- 
tifully. 


ON  CLRAVAGB  AND  FOLIATION  IN  ROOKS.  393 

§  8.  Secondary  Cleavage  of  Slate. 

It  is  difficult  to  break  slates  of  the  usual  thickness  (about  £th  of  an  inch) 
so  as  to  produce  surfaces  even  rudely  rectangled  to  the  plane  of  cleavage ;  a 
circumstance  which  need  occasion  no  surprise.  But  in  this  respect  two 
lines  may  be  chosen  in  the  slate,  along  one  of  which  the  rudely  perpendi- 
cular fracture  may  occasionally  be  looked  for;  this  is  the  line  of  dip, — on 
the  other  it  can  hardly  be  produced  even  with  the  utmost  care;  this  is 
parallel  to  the  strike.  In  experiments  for  this  purpose,  it  should  be  observed 
whether  the  surfaces  produced  by  fracture  on  lines  parallel  to  the  strike 
tend  to  parallelism.  If  a  sheet  of  slate  be  laid  on  two  supports  parallel  to 
and  equidistant  from  the  strike  edges,  it  may  be  found  that  at  one  of  these 
edges  fracture  will  be  more  easy  than  at  the  other.  Then  turn  over  the 
slate  to  see  if  the  facts  will  be  reversed,  and  the  other  edge  give  the  easiest 
fracture.  [An  observation  in  the  affirmative  is  in  my  note  book,  for  1836, 
at  Llanberis.  I  shall  be  glad  to  know  if  it  has  been  noticed  by  others  in 
this  or  other  localities.] 

Hence  it  appears  probable,  that  besides  the  principal  cleavage,  some  slates 
contain  a  secret  lamination,  or  *  secondary  cleavage,  which  occasions  a  par- 
tial nssility ;  but  in  general  this  kind  of  structure  produces  no  such  distinct 
appearances  in  the  blocks  and  masses  as  to  be  often  recognized  on  a  great 
scale.  Some  cases  in  which  I  had  supposed  such  a  structure  to  be  real  and 
important,  turned  out  on  further  research  to  be  merely  examples  of  symme- 
trical jointing.  Prof.  Sedgwick,  however,  refers  me  for  satisfactory  instances 
to  the  old  black  slates  of  Buttermere,  and  to  the  vicinity  of  Yspytty  Evan,  in 
North  Wales. 

One  of  the  cases  in  which  a  second  set  of  cleavage  planes  was  supposed  to 
cross  the  principal  cleavage  frequently  and  regularly,  is  the  "  pencil  bed  " 
of  Skiddaw  slate  dug  in  Westmoreland,  near  Shap.  Mr.  Sharpe  has  exa- 
mined this  curious  rock,  and  finds  in  one  case  (Thornthwaite  Gill)  the  prin- 
cipal cleavage  parallel  to  the  original  beds  and  dipping  N.W.  60°;  the 
secondary  cleavage  crosses  it  nearly  at  right  angles  and  dips  S.E.  between 
20°  and  30°.  In  another  case  (Rosgill  Moor)  the  beds  dip  N.E.  30° ;  the 
principal  cleavage  N.  by  W.  60°;  the  secondary  cleavage  S,  by  E.  15°.  By 
natural  decomposition,  small  square  prisms  are  produced,  whose  sides  mea- 
sure one-quarter  to  half  an  inch  across,  and  these  may  be  sometimes  split 
again  parallel  to  the  faces.  Mr.  Sorby  has  found  proof  that  this  so-called 
«  secondary  cleavage'  is  due  to  many  small  parallel  joints. 

The  following  case  occurred  to  me  in  North  Wales,  in  1836: — A  sheet  of 
slate  was  excavated  into  a  notch  on  one  dip-edge,  and  the  other  struck  by  a 
heavy  tool  on  the  opposite  point  (the  plane  of  cleavage  being  held  vertical) ; 
it  yielded  along  a  zigzag  line  so  as  to  show  two  sets  of  planes  on  the  fracture 
meeting  each  other  at  90°  +  on  the  plane  of  cleavage,  but  with  a  common 
edge  oblique  to  the  plane  (70°  and  1 10°).  This  I  regard  as  a  case  of  secret 
jointing,  and  wish  to  know  if  any  thing  of  the  kind  has  been  observed  by  others. 

§  9.  Relation  of  Cleavage  to  Joints* 

The  joints  which  traverse  cleavage,  in  well-cleaved  and  massive  slate  rocks, 
show  much  regularity  for  short  spaces,  and  often  present  the  same  or  nearly 
equal  angles  of  intersection.  After  examining  and  measuring  innumerable 
instances,  I  believe  that  this  apparent  symmetry  is  not  delusive,  and  that  by 
a  careful  classification  of  joints  with  reference  to  the  plane  of  stratification 
and  the  plane  of  cleavage,  some  data  of  importance  in  the  theory  of  their 
origin  may  be  obtained.    An  example  of  joints  seen  on  a  plane  of  stratifica- 


394 


REPORT — 1856. 


Fig.  39. 


tion  (sketched  in  18S6)  in  the  quarries  of  Dolbadarn,  will  illustrate  tha 
remark. 

In  this  case,  a  and  o,  which  meet  each  other 
at  a  right  angle  on  the  plane  of  the  strata,  are 
also  perpendicular  to  that  plane,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  depending  on  it, — while  c  and  d, 
on  the  contrary,  seem  to  depend  on  the  plane 
of  cleavage,  for  they  are  perpendicular  to  it 
and  to  each  other,  a  and  b  predominate  in 
coarse  beds  where  cleavage  is  least  developed ; 
c  and  d  in  fine  slate ;  b  is  not  a  joint,  but  a 
'  band,'  or  as  it  is  called,  in  Ribblesdale,  a  *  row ' 
or  small  regular  fold. 

The  joint  here  marked  c  constitutes  what 
in  the  Dolbadarn  quarries  is  sometimes  called 
'  Level  bottom ;'  and  where  the c  split*  or  clea- 
vage dips  from  the  vertical  4  inches  in  a  yard 
to  the  S.E.,  the  'level  bottom*  deviates  as 
much  from  the  horizontal  to  the  N.W.  The  joint  marked  d  makes  the 
' square  ends'  of  the  same  quarries,  from  which  'bevel  ends'  differ  by  the 
want  of  strict  perpendicularity  with  the  'split'  The  joint  marked  a  seems 
to  be  what  is  called  '  Crub,' — said  to  '  steal  away  the  level  bottom ;'  d  marks 
undulated  lines  on  the  bed  formed  by  the  edges  of  the  cleavage,  Green 
veins  in  this  place  follow  the  split-level,. and  dip  here  west  42°;  parallel  to 
these  are  the  variations  of  colour — the  changes  of  texture — the  boundaries  of 
the  workable  slate :  *  wrinkles'  are  also  parallel  to  them,  being,  in  fact,  dis- 
continuous small  strata,  often  useful  in  marking  and  measuring  the  effect  of 
a  fault 

§  10.  Occurrence  of  structures  analogous  to  Cleavage  near  Greenstone  D&es. 

"  A  case  of  this  kind  fell  under  the  author's  notice  in  1834,  at  Coley  HiD 
near  Newcastle*.  In  the  annexed  cut  d  is  a  Greenstone  dyke,  nearly  verti- 
cal, and  between  20  and  30  feet  across, 
ranging  east  and  west,  and  appearing 
at  the  surface. 

"  $  is  the  ordinary  coal  shale,  which 
is,  as  usual,  very  much  laminated  at  a 
moderate  distance  (a  few  yards)  from 
the  dyke,  and  contains  fern  leaves  and 
other  plants  between  the  laminae. 

"  At  the  sides  of  the  dyke  the  hori- 
zontal lamination  is  obscured,  the  slaty 
mass  is  indurated,  and  traversed  by 
numerous  vertical  divisional  planes  parallel  to  the  faces  of  the  dyke,  most 
numerous  near  the  dyke,  so  as  to  occur  in  every  half- inch  of  breadth,  hot 
becoming  less  and  less  abundant  in  the  parts  removed  from  the  dyke  till  they 
entirely  vanish.  On  the  horizontal  section,  the  lines  of  these  vertical  planes 
would,  on  a  minute  scale,  represent  the  cleavage  edges  of  slate." 

Another  remarkable  case  occurred  to  me  while  examining  the  great  green- 
stone dyke,  of  Brockhill,  in  the  Abberley  district,  first  described  by  Murchi* 
son.  This  dyke  measures  30  feet  across ;  its  structure  is  rather  tabular  than 
prismatic ;  it  divides  the  sandstones  and  marls  of  the  old  red  series.    "  For 


Fig.  40. 


*  Treatise  on  Geology,  vol.  ii.  p.  86>fir*t  edition  (1839). 


ON  CLEAVAGE  AND  FOLIATION  IN  BOCKS.  395 

a  space  of  30  feet  on  the  north  and  17  feet  on  the  south  of  the  dyke,  the 
sandstones  and  marls  are  changed  in  hardness,  texture  and  structure,  so  that 
for  these  breadths  they  are  excavated  with  the  trap ;  and  from  their  density, 
hardness,  and  resemblance  to  basalt,  amygdaloid  or  porphyry,  may  be  easily 
mistaken  for  primeval  rocks  of  fusion.  They  have  been  literally  baked  under 
pressure,  not  roasted  with  freedom  of  access  and  escape  for  volatile  matter/' 

"  In  regarding  the  structures  of  the  stratified  rocks,  we  observe  that  on 

approaching  toward  the  dyke  the  stratification  grows  less  distinct  and  sud- 
denly becomes  untraceable ;  that  instead  of  it,  especially  on  the  south  side, 
a  great  abundance  of  angularly  intersecting  divisional  planes  occur,  so  as  to 
produce  prismatic  structures  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  the  dyke.  Further, 
we  observe,  parallel  to  the  dyke,  to  a  distance  of  30  or  more  feet  from  it, 
several  very  long,  very  straight,  nearly  vertical  joints,  continuous  through  all 
the  beds,  without  any  sign  of  vertical  displacement,  or  any  mark  of  lateral 
disturbance,  unless  the  appearance  of  broad  striation  or  narrow  fluting, 
which  horizontally  marks  the  vertical  sandstone  surface,  30  feet  from  the 
dyke  on  the  north  side,  be  of  the  nature  of  slickenside,  and  referrible  to 
lateral  movement*." 

If  these  examples  be  attentively  considered,  it  will  appear  that  under  the 
circumstances  described — heat  being  probably  the  principal  agent,  and  pres- 
sure very  little  if  at  all  evident — the  following  changes  occur,  near  to  and 
parallel  to  the  heating  surfaces : — 

1.  Extinction  of  the  stratified  structure. 

2.  Production  of  a  new  structure. 

3.  Accompanied  iu  one  case  by  great  molecular  and  mineral  changes. 
But  it  must  be  remarked,  that  the  change  indicated  in  the  second  of  these 

sentences  is  really  distinct  from  that  which  slate  has  undergone.  Slate  is 
cleavable  in  all  its  parts,  more  or  less  perfectly ;  because  its  ultimate  mole- 
cular texture  is  altered  to  such  a  condition  ;  near  these  dykes  the  rocks  are 
cleft  indeed,  but  not  further  cleavable ;  split,  but  not  traversed  by  numerous 
planes  of  easy  fissility. 

I  have  seen  phenomena  of  a  somewhat  similar  character,  but  less  marked, 
near  great  faults,  as,  for  example,  in  the  line  of  the  Craven  fault  in 
Yorkshire. 

$11.  The  Cleat  in  Coal 

In  the  northern  coal  districts  of  England,  and  in  other  tracts,  there  exists, 
besides  the  lamination  parallel  to  the  bounding  surfaces  of  the  beds,  a  series 
of  approximate  often  nearly  vertical  divisional  surfaces,  along  which  the 
coal  admits  of  easy  fissility.  This  structure  is  called  cleat,  and  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  coal  working,  since  parallel  to  it  the  *  headways'  are 
driven  in  the  *  post  and  stall '  workings  of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  and 
parallel  to  it  the c banks'  are  wrought  in  the  *  long  wall'  and  *  board  and  end' 
systems  of  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire.  Cleat  is  little  affected  by  fractures, 
or  undulations  of  the  strata.  It  has  usually  one  persistent  course  across  a 
large  district, — the  same  direction  often  obtains  in  neighbouring  districts,  and 
even  prevails  over  the  whole  of  a  great  carboniferous  region.  Thus  in  North- 
umberland and  Durham  the  cleat  runs  most  generally  to  the  north-west  (true); 
its  'strike'  is  in  that  direction.  The  most  general  strike  of  the  beds  is  to 
the  N.N.E.  The  same  direction  of  cleat  is  prevalent  in  Yorkshire  and 
Derbyshire,  and  this  whether  the  beds  strike  eastward,  as  near  Leeds  and 
Sheffield  ;  or  southward,  as  near  Huddersfield  and  Chesterfield.  The  same 
direction  prevails  in  Lancashire. 

*  Memoirs  of  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  vol.  ii.  pt.  1,  p.  156. 


396  report— 1856. 

There  are  some  cases  in  which  the  cleat  varies  in  its  direction  from  the 
normal  strike,  and  degree  or  inclination,  even  (as  I  have  been  informed*)  in 
different  parts  of  one  bed  of  coal.  From  frequent  inspections  of  cleat  in 
its  ordinary  state  and  near  trap  dykes  and  near  faults,  I  conceive  that  no 
doubt  can  exist  of  its  being  a  peculiar  structure,  more  resembling  the  effect 
of  aggregation  under  polar  attractions  than  anything  else.  Coal  affected  by 
it  is  not  properly  'cleavable'  like  slate,  but  actually  cleft  into  numerous 
parallel,  nearly  vertical  tables,  whose  general  direction  is  remarkably  uniform 
amidst  many  variations  of  other  concomitant  conditions. 

Neither  heat  nor  pressure  seem  to  be  specially  indicated  by  the  pheno- 
mena of  cleat,  which  on  the  whole  most  resemble  the  jointed  structure  of 
rocks,  where  that  is  manifested  on  the  smallest  scale  and  in  greatest  regu- 
larity, t.  e.  where  the  dips  of  the  strata  are  most  uniform,  and  all  the  conco- 
mitant conditions  are  the  most  regular.  Joints,  like  cleat,  have  very  preva- 
lent directions  in  given  districts,  and  inclinations  to  the  strata  tending  to  one 
angular  value  in  one  bed.  In  parallel  beds  of  the  same  mineral  nature  and 
in  the  same  series  of  strata,  their  strike  and  dip  are  often  the  same.  In  beds 
of  a  different  mineral  nature  joints  vary  in  character;  and  in  a  given  series 
of  argillaceous,  calcareous  and  coarse  arenaceous  rocks,  we  may  find  many 
plane  close  joints  in  the  argillaceous  beds,  inclined  70°  ±  to  the  strata ;  a 
few  large  continuous  fissures  in  the  limestone  nearly  perpendicular  to  the 
beds;  and  a  varying  number  of  irregular  rents  in  the  sandstone. 

Addendum  (1857)* — Very  lately  Professor  Haughton  has  instituted  accu- 
rate measures  and  calculations  founded  on  the  distortion  of  fossils  in  cleaved 
rocks,  and  has  obtained  numerical  results  which  concur  with  those  of 
Mr.  Sharpe  and  Mr.  Sorby  already  referred  to,  in  regard  to  the  proof  of 
pressure  in  a  direction  perpendicular  to  the  cleavage  plane ;  they,  however, 
for  the  most  part,  do  not  indicate  greater  relative  extension  on  the  line  of 
cleavage  dip  than  on  the  line  of  cleavage  strike  +. 


On  the  Stratigraphical  Distribution  of  the  Oolitic  Echinodermata. 
By  Thomas  Wright,  M.D.,  F.R.S.B. 

[A  communication  ordered  to  be  printed  entire  among  the  Reports.] 

All  the  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom,  when  viewed  in  relation  to  their 
stratigraphical  distribution,  are  not  of  the  same  value  to  the  palaeontologist. 
Some  Mollusca,  as  the  Conchifera  and  Gasteropoda,  have  a  much  greater 
extension  in  time  than  the  Cephalopoda,  and  among  the  Radiata,  Corals  and 
Echinoderms  may  be  adduced  as  examples  of  classes  whose  species  had  a 
limited  life  in  time ;  in  estimating  the  value  of  palseontological  evidence,  it  is 
therefore  necessary  to  take  into  consideration  this  important  fact,  which  has 
not  received  the  attention  it  is  so  justly  entitled  to. 

The  Echinodermata,  although  occupying  a  low  position  in  the  animal 
series,  in  a  zoological  point  of  view,  still  afford  the  palaeontologist  most 
important  data  for  discussing  questions  relative  to  the  distribution  of  species 
in  time  and  space,  for  it  is  well  known  that  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Car- 
boniferous rocks  are  all  characterized  by  distinct  forms  of  Crinoidea,  most  of 

*  Mr.  John  Bnddle  gave  mt  an  instance  of  this  in  the  High  Main  coal  of  Newcastle,  in 
1834. 
f  Phil.  Mag.  December  1856. 


OOLITIC  BCHINODBBMATA.  397 

which  are  limited  in  their  range  to  the  different  stages  of  these  great  groups. 
It  is  the  object  of  this  paper  to  show  that  the  species  of  the  Oolitic  Echino- 
dermata  had  a  limited  range  in  time,  and  that  the  different  stages  of  the 
Oolitic  formations  are  characterized  by  species  which  are  special  to  each. 

Dr.  William  Smith  was  doubtless  aware  of  the  value  of  the  Echinodermata 
in  stratigraphical  geology,  for  he  carefully  noted  the  different  species  known 
to  him  which  characterized  the  secondary  rocks;  and  it  is  a  remarkable 
fact,  that  although  our  knowledge  of  the  species  of  this  class  has  been 
nearly  quadrupled  since  the  publication  of  his  works*,  still  the  outlines 
sketched  by  the  hand  of  our  great  master  remain  nearly  the  same  as  laid  out 
by  bim. 

The  test  of  the  Echinodermata  constitutes  an  internal  and  integral  part  of 
the  body  of  the  animal,  participating  in  its  life,  intimately  connected  with  the 
organs  of  digestion,  respiration,  and  generation,  as  well  as  with  those  of  vision 
and  locomotion,  and  having  consequently  many  of  the  distinctive  characters 
of  the  organism  indelibly  impressed  on  portions  of  its  skeleton.  The  individual 
plates  which  compose  the  columns  of  the  test  of  the  Echikoidea,  and  the 
ossicula  which  form  the  skeletons  of  the  Astbroidea,  Ophiuroidea,  and 
Crinoidea,  are  organized  after  distinct  plans;  they* are  therefore  of  great 
value  in  determining  the  species,  as  the  specific  characters  are  often  well  pre- 
served on  even  fragmentary  portions  of  the  skeleton ;  for  this  reason  the 
remains  of  this  class  are  of  the  highest  value  in  stratigraphical  geology,  and 
second  to  no  other  class  of  the  animal  kingdom  in  importance. 

In  the  Echinoidea  the  body  is  spheroidal,  oval,  depressed  or  discoidal, 
and  enclosed  in  a  calcareous  test  or  shell  composed  of  ten  columns  of  large 
plates  constituting  the  irUer-ambuiacral  areas ;  and  ten  columns  of  small  plates 
constituting  the  ambulacral  area**  which  segments  are  separated  from  each 
other  by  ten  rows  of  holes  constituting  the  poriferous  zones.  The  external 
surface  of  the  plates  is  studded  with  tubercles  of  different  sizes,  in  the  dif- 
ferent families ;  to  these  are  articulated,  by  a  kind- of  ball-and-socket  joint, 
the  spines,  which  are  of  different  sizes,  forms,  and  dimensions  in  the  different 
families,  and  serve  to  characterize  the  genera  and  species. 

At  the  summit  of  the  test  is  the  apical  disc,  composed  of  five  genital  plates 
perforated  for  the  passage  of  the  ovarial  and  seminal  canals;  and  five  ocular 
plates  notched  or  perforated  for  lodging  the  eyes :  in  one  family,  the  Sale- 
miada,  an  additional  or  suranal  plate,  composed  of  one  or  many  pieces,  is  in- 
traduced  within  the  circle  formed  by  the  genital  and  ocular  plates. 

There  are  two  great  apertures  in  the  shell,  one  for  the  mouth,  which  is 
always  at  the  base ;  the  other  for  the  anus,  which  occupies  different  positions 
on  the  test ;  in  one  section  it  is  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  surface,  directly 
opposite  to  the  mouth,  and  surrounded  by  the  genital  and  ocular  plates ;  in  a 
second  section  the  vent  is  external  to  the  circle  of  genital  plates,  and  never 
opposite  to  the  mouth,  but  situated  in  different  positions  in  relation  to  that 
opening,  being  placed  on  the  upper  surface,  on  the  sides,  the  border,  the  infra- 
border  or  the  base,  in  the  different  groups. 

The  mouth  is  sometimes  armed  with  a  complicated  apparatus  of  jaws  and 
teeth,  but  it  is  sometimes  edentulous,  or  provided  with  lobes  formed  of  the 
plates  of  the  test  itself. 

The  Astbroidea  have  a  depressed  stelliform  body  provided  with  five  or 
more  lobes  or  hollow  arms,  which  are  a  continuation  of  the  body,  and  contain 
prolongations  of  the  viscera*  The  mouth  is  always  below  and  central,  and 
rows  of  tubular  retractile  suckers  occupy  the  centre  of  the  rays.    The  com- 

*  Strata  identified  bj  Organized  Fossils,  4to,  1816.  Stratigraphies!  System  of  Organised 
Folds,  4to,  1817. 


398  report — 1856. 

plicated  skeleton  is  composed  of  numerous  solid  calcareous  ossicula,  variable 
as  to  number,  size  and  arrangement  in  the  different  genera  which  they  sene 
to  characterize.  Their  coriaceous  integument  is  studded  with  calcaneus 
spines  of  various  forms,  and  they  have  a  spongy  madreporiform  body  on  the 
upper  surface  of  the  disc  near  the  angle  between  two  rays;  reptation  is  accom- 
plished by  the  retractile  tubular  ambulacra!  suckers. 

The  Ophiuroidea  have  a  distinct  depressed  discoidal  body  provided  with 
long  slender  arms,  in  which  there  is  no  excavation  for  any  prolongation  of 
the  viscera ;  they  are  special  organs  of  locomotion,  independent  of  the  visceral 
cavity,  and  provided  with  spines  which  are  developed  on  their  aides ;  the 
mouth  is  basal  and  central,  and  surrounded  by  membranous  tentacula.  The 
skeleton  is  composed  of  a  series  of  plates  which  form  the  disc  or  centrum, 
and  the  long  slender  rays  are  sustained  by  numerous  elongated  vertebrate- 
like  ossicula,  having  numerous  plates  or  spines  disposed  along  the  borders 
of  the  rays  to  assist  in  reptation.  The  form,  structure  and  arrangement 
of  the  discal  plates,  and  of  the  ossicles  of  the  rays,  afford  good  characters  lor 
distinguishing  the  genera. 

The  Crinoidka  have  a  distinct  bursiform  body  formed  of  a  calyx,  com- 
posed of  a  definite  nuntber  of  plates,  provided  with  five  solid  rays,  which  are 
independent  of  the  visceral  cavity,  and  adapted  for  prehension  ;  they  have  a 
distinct  mouth  and  vent,  no  retractile  suckers,  and  the  ovaries  open  at  the 
base  of  the  arms  into  special  apertures.  The  skeleton  is  extremely  compli- 
cated, being  composed  of  many  thousands  of  ossicula  closely  articulated  to- 
gether, the  number,  form  and  arrangement  of  which  are  determinate  in  the 
different  families,  the  multiples  of  five  being  the  numbers  which  in  general 
predominate ;  the  central  plate  of  the  calyx  is  supported  on  a  long  jointed 
column  composed  of  circular,  pentagonal  or  stelliform  plates,  the  articulating 
surfaces  of  which  are  sculptured  with  crenulations  that  interlock  into  each 
other ;  in  many  genera  the  stem  was  attached  by  a  calcareous  root  to  the  bed 
of  sea,  and  supported  the  calyx  and  arms  upwards  like  a  plant ;  in  others  it 
appears  to  have  been  moveable,  and  was  used  as  a  point  of  suspension  from 
submarine  bodies,  the  calyx  and  arms  having  had  a  pendent  position. 

The  mouth  is  central  and  prominent,  and  the  vent  opens  near  its  side ;  the 
arms  are  mostly  ramose  and  m'ultiarticulate,  and  when  extended  they  formed 
a  net-like  instrument  of  considerable  dimensions. 

The  four  orders  of  the  Echinodermata  thus  briefly  described  are  the  only  ones 
found  fossil  in  the  oolitic  rocks,  and  of  these  by  far  the  largest  number  of 
species  belong  to  the  Echinoidea  ;  for  this  order  I  have  proposed  the  fol- 
lowing classification,  which  differs  in  many  essential  particulars  from  that  of 
previous  authors. 

As  the  mouth  is  always  basal,  central,  subcentral,  or  excentral,  the  excen- 
tricity  being  invariably  towards  the  anterior  border,  this  aperture  does  not 
afford  a  character  of  primary  importance,  although  when  taken  in  connexion 
with  others  it  is  valuable  in  the  definition  of  families. 

The  position  of  the  anal  opening  affords  a  good  primary  character;  in  one 
section  the  vent  opens  within  the  centre  of  the  apical  disc,  surrounded  by 
the  genital  and  ocular  plates ;  in  another  section  the  vent  opens  without  the 
apical  disc,  and  is  external  to,  and  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  from,  the  genital 
and  ocular  plates :  these  two  sections  may  be  thus  defined. 

Echinoidea  endocyclica. 

A.  Test  circular,  spheroidal,  more  or  less  depressed,  rarely  oblong;  mouth 
central  and  basal ;  vent  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  surface  directly  opposite 


OOLITIC  ECBINODEBMATA. 


399 


to  the  month,  and  surrounded  by  the  five  perforated  genital  and  the  fire  ocular 
plates.  Mouth  always  armed  with  five  powerful  calcareous  jaws,  formed 
of  many  elements  disposed  in  a  vertical  direction. 

Echinoidea  exocyclica.  , 

B.  Te8t  sometimes  circular  and  hemispherical,  oftener  oblong,  pentagonal, 
depressed,  clypeiform  or  discoidal ;  mouth  central  or  excentral ;  vent  ex- 
ternal to  the  circle  of  genital  and  ocular  plates,  never  opposite  the  mouth,  but 
situated  in  different  positions  in  relation  to  that  opening :  four  of  the  genital 
plates  are  generally  perforated.  The  mouth  is  sometimes  armed  with  jaws, 
but  is  oftener  edentulous.  The  jaws  are  disposed  in  a  more  or  less  horizontal 
direction. 

The  structure  of  the  ambulacra!  areas  and  poriferous  zones,  the  form, 
number,  and  arrangement  of  the  tubercles  and  their  spines,  the  presence  or 
absence  of  fascioles  or  semitse,  the  size  and  form  of  the  elements  of  the  apical 
disc,  and  the  position  of  the  anus,  afford  collectively  good  characters  for  de- 
lining  the  genera. 

The  minute  details  in  the  structure  of  the  plates;  the  size,  form,  and 
number  of  the  tubercles  on  each  ;  the  form  and  arrangement  of  the  pores  in 
the  zones ;  their  proximity  or  remoteness  from  each  other ;  the  general  out- 
line of  the  body,  which  has  only  certain  limits  of  variation ;  the  character  of 
the  sculpture  on  the  plates ;  the  form  of  the  areolas ;  the  greater  or  less  pro- 
minence of  the  base ;  the  size  of  the  tubercle ;  the  presence  or  absence,  the 
size  and  arrangement  of  the  granules  forming  the  areolar  circle ;  the  com- 
pleteness or  incompleteness  of  the  same  ;  the  width  of  the  miliary  zone,  the 
number  and  size  of  the  rows  of  granules  composing  it ;  the  length  of  the  spines; 
the  form  of  their  stems ;  the  character  of  the  sculpture  on  them ;  the  size  of 
the  head,  and  the  prominence  and  milling  of  the  ring, — are  all  details  of  struc- 
ture which  individually  and  collectively  afford  good  specific  characters,  as 
they  are  persistent  details  which  are  more  or  less  developed  on  every  consider- 
able fragment  of  the  test  and  spines  of  the  Echinoidea. 

Taking  these  characters  for  our  guidance,  I  have  grouped  the  genera,  already 
so  numerous  by  the  discovery  of  extinct  forms,  into  the  following  natural 
families : — 


A  Table,  showing  the  Sections  and  Families  of  the  Echinoidea. 


Order. 


Order  ECHINOIDEA. 


Suctions. 

Section  A. 

Echinoidea  endocycHca. 

Vent  within  the  genital  plates, 

always  opposite  the  month. 


Section  B. 

Echinoidea  exocyclica. 

Vent  withont  the  genital  plates, 

never  opposite  the  month. 


Families. 

ClDAB.ID.fi. 

Hemicidarid^e. 

DlADBMADA. 

echinida. 
Salbniada. 

ECHINOCONIDJt. 
CoLLTRITIDiS. 

echinonida. 
echinanthid*. 
echinolampid*. 
Clypeastbrid^b. 

ECHINOCORIDiE. 

Spatanqidjc. 


400 


REPORT — 1856. 


A  Table,  showing  the  Stratigraphical  distribution  of  the  genera  and  specie*  of 
the  Oolitic  Echtnodermata, 


* 

Oolitic  Group, 

Lower  Division. 

Middle  Dttwod, 

Cp,«»«-« 

i 

! 

■J 

I 

i 

5 
■c 

1 

i 

V 

2 

j 

tr 

T 

1 

£ 

7. 

E 
'J 

1 

B 

i 

i 

J3 

8 

? 

B  — 

1 
1 

if 

1 

3 
1 

£ 

& 

E 

1 

B 

I 

IE 
= 

r 

Fara.  Cidamid^. 
Cidaris  Edwardrii,  Wright  ......... 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
• 

* 

* 

-       Ilminsterensis,  Wright 

— —  MooreiL  Wright  ............... 

—  Fowled,  Wright  ... 

Roiwhirdii,  Wright 

Wrightii,  Desor' 

■  Bradfordensis,  Wright 

— — i  florigemma,  Philips. .,,..,..*** 

—  Smithii,  Wright  ... 

— —  ipinoaa,  Agassis   .... 

— —  Boloniensis,  Wright 

Rabdocidaria  Moraldina,  Cotteau... 
— —  maxima,  MUnster  *.. 

... 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

Piplocidaris  Deftori,  Wright 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

Wrightii,  Desor    

— —  Cotteanana,  Wright 

Fam.  Hemicidaridji. 
Henrfcidftrta  granulosa,  Wright   ... 

— —  pustnloaa,  Wright    

Stokeaii,  Wright 

— —  Lucienaia»  dTOrbigny    ......... 

— —  minor,  Agassiz*, 

Ramsayii,  Wright 

—  Bravenderi,  Wright 

Wrightii,  Desor    

— —  Icannensia,  Cotteau 

* 

—  intermedia,  Fleming 

Davidsoniij  Wright 

Pnrbeckenais,  Forbes 

Fam.  DlADKM  ADJB. 

Piendodiadema  Mooren,  Wright . . . 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

+ 

"  depressum,  Agassiz 

■        Parkinsoni,  Desor    T *- .  r .  t.T . . . 

— —  pentagonum,  M*Cog    

nomottigroa,  Agassis  • 

—  Bailyi,  Wright., 

— *—  vagani,  Phillips  

♦ 

—  versipora,  Phillips    

— —  hemisphcricum,  Agassis 

— —  radiatum,  Wright., 

— —  mamillanmn,  Roe**er  -*---T— 

Hemipedina  Bechii,  Broderip  

—  Bowerbankii,  Wright  

* 
* 

♦ 

|  —  Jardinii,  Wright  

1 

OOLITIC  »«HIMOM»MATA. 


401 


Oolitic  Group. 


I 


Middle  DmuoD,     Upper  Dfciiioii 


4 


i 


Hemipedina  Etheridgii,  Wright 
Bakeri,  Wright 

—  perforata,  Wright 

—  tetragramma,  Wright 

— —  Waterhouaei,  Wright  

—  Bonci,  Wright 

—  Davidsoni,  Wright  

Woodwardi,  Wright    

— —  microgramraa,  Wright 

—  Marchameneis,  Wright   ... 

—  Corallina,  Wright 

—  tuberculosa,  Wright 

Morriaii,  Wright 

—  Cunningtoni,  Wright  

Pedina  rotate,  Wright  

—  Smitbii,  Forbe$ 


Fam.  Ecbiniilb. 
Glypticua  hieroglyphics,  Crolfym, 

Magnolia  Forbeaii,  Wright  

Polycyphua  Normannua,  Dnor    ... 

—  Dealongchampaii,  Wright   ... 
8tomcchinu8  germinana,  Philttp$... 

—  intermediua,  Aganiz    

—  bigranularia,  Lamarck 

—  microcyphua,  Wright  

— —  gyratua,  Aganiz  

— -nudoa,  Wright 


Fam.  Salbntada. 
Acroaalenia  minute,  Buckman . 

—  criuif era,  Quenstedt 

Lycettii,  Wright  

— •  pustulate,  fbrbn 

—  Wiltonii,  Wright 

—  Loweana,  Wright 

— —  apinoaa,  Agastiz  

—  hemicidaroidea,  Wright  . 
—  decorate,  i/atm* 


Fam.  Echikoconidji. 
Holactypoa  depreaaua,  Luke 

—  hendaphasricua,  Dnor 

—  oblongua,  Wright 

Pygaater  aemiaulcatua,  PMUip$ 
— -  conoideua,  Wright  

—  Morriaii,  Wright 

— *  umbrella,  Lamarck 


Fam,  BcHiNOBUtaiDA. 
Ecbmobriaaua  dunicnlaria,  Lhwyd. 

— -  orbicularia,  PhUHp$ 

—  major,  Agauiz , 

— r  WoodwardiL  Wright   

— —  dimidiatua,  >A»fly# 


T8S8T 


2d 


402 


REPORT— 1856. 


Echinobrissus  scutatas,  Lamarck., 

Clypeus  sinuatas,  Leske 

—  Agatsizi,  Wright 

altos,  M'Coy 

Michdmi,  Wright    , 

— —  Hugii,  Agassiz , 

*  Solodurinus,  Aganiz 

— —  emarginatus,  Phillips  , 


Fam.  COLLYRITIDiS. 

Collyrites  ringens,  Desor 

—  bicordatus,  Desor     , 

— -  ovalis,  Parkinson , 

Hyboclypus  agariciformis, Forbes., 
caudatas,  Wright 

—  gibberalus,  Agastiz , 

—  ovalis,  Wright  ... 


Fam.  Ecbinamthidjb. 
Pygurus  depressus 

—  pentagonalis,  Phillip* 

— —  Blumenbachii,  Koch  SfDunker 

—  Phillipsii,  Wright 

—  giganteus,  Wright    


Order  ASTEROIDEA. 

Fam.  UBASTBBIDiB. 

Uratter  Gaveyi,  Forbes , 


Fam.  SOLASTERIDJt. 

Solaster  Moretonis,  Forbes  . 


Fam.  GoKiASTKRibiB. 
Goniaster  Hamptonensis,  Wright.. 
— —  obtusus,  Wright  


Fam.  Asteridjs. 
Tropidaster  pectinatus,  Forbes... 
Astropecten  Hastingsiae,  Forbes 

— *  Orion,  Forbes   

— —  Phillipsii,  Forbes 

— —  Cotteswoldiae,  Buckman  ... 

— *  Wittsii,  Wright 

— -  Forbesii,  Wright  

— -  arenioolas,  Goldfitss 

— -  rectus,  Ml  Cog  

Luidia  Murchisoni,  Williamson 


Order  OPHIUROIDEA. 
Fam.  Ophiubim. 
Opbioderma  Gaveyi,  Wright    , 
— •  Milleri,  PhMps   


Oolitic  Group. 


Lower  DiTaioii, 


Middle  Diririuu  |  Upper  1 


ill 


I 


51 


OOLITIC  BCHINODBftMATA. 


403 


Ophioderma  Erertoni,  Broderip 

—  tenribrachiata,  Forbes 

Griesbacbii,  Wright 

-. Brodei,  Wright 

Opbinra  Morrevii,  Forbes 


Order  CRINOIDBA. 

Fam.  Pentacrinid^. 
Pentacrinus  tuberculatus,  Miller . 

basaltiformis,  Miller 

sealant,  Goid/ust 

Goldfuaaii,  M'Coy    

robuttos,  Wright 

— —  Johnsonii,  Justin 

—  dicbotomus,  M1  Coy 

punctiferus,  Quenstedt 

PhilKpdi,  Wright 

Milleri,  Justin 

subtulcatus,  Gofyuss  

— —  Austenii,  Wright 

subteres,  GoUJfuss    

Extraoinus  briareus,  Miller 

— —  subangularis,  Miller 


Fam.  Apiocbinidji. 
Apiocrinns  Parkiasoni,  Schlotheim., 

elegans,  De/ranee 

— —  exutos,  M'Coy 

Millericrinus  Prattii,  Gray  

—  Koninckii,  Wright   

echinatus,  Schlotheim 


Oolitk  Group, 


Lover  DiniiDD. 


u 

3 


*? 


J  1 


Middle  Division.     Upper  Divfciaa, 


*  5 


17 


43 


26 


17 


20    0 


152  Species. 

Ecbinoidea 110 

Agteroidea 14 

Opbinroidea  7 

Crinoidea  21—152 


From  the  above  Tables,  it  appears  that  the  English  Oolitic  rocks  are  known 
at  present  to  contain  152  species  of  fossil  Echinodermata,  of  which  110 
species  belong  to  the  Order  Echinoidea  ;  14  species  to  the  Order  As- 
tiroidea;  7  species  to  the  Order  Ophiuroidea;  and  21  to  the 
Order  Crinoidea.  All  the  species  belonging  to  the  families  Cidarida, 
Hemicidaridje,  Diademadje,  Echinidje  and  Saleniadje,  have  been 
already  figured  in  my  *  Monograph  on  the  British  Fossil  Echinodermata  of 
the  Oolitic  Formations,'  published  by  the  Palaeontographical  Society,  and  the 

2d2 


404  BBFOET— 18S6. 

remainder  will  appear  in  due  course  in  the  future  volumes  of  that  series ;  an 
analysis  of  the  Table  shows  that  the  species  are  thus  distributed : — 

f  Lower    6  species. 

Lias^Middle 17      „ 

I  Upper. 9      „ 

Inferior  Oolite 43      „ 

Fuller's  Earth 0      „ 

Stonesfield  Slate 6      „ 

Great  Oolite 86      „ 

Bradford  Clay 9      » 

Forest  Marble 5      » 

'Cornbrash 17      » 

Oxford  Clay  and  Keiloway  .  .     0      „ 

Lower  Calcareous  Grit    ....     9      „ 

Coral  Rag SO      „ 

Upper  Calcareous  Grit ?      „ 

Kimmeridge  Clay 4      „ 

Portland  Sand 1      „ 

Marine  Purbecks 1      „ 

The  Lias  species  appear  to  be  special  to  the  three  subdivisions  of  that  for- 
mation, so  well  characterized  by  the  species  of  Ammonites  which  indicate  these 
three  zones  of  Liasaic  life.  The  Inferior  Oolite  contains  forty-three  spe- 
cies, of  which  forty  are  Echinoidba,  one  Asteroidea,  and  two  are  Cai- 
noidea  ;  of  these,  ten  species  extend  into  the  Great  Oolite,  and  seven  species 
pass  into  the  Cornbrash;  the  Inferior  Oolite  has  therefore  twenty-six  species 
which  up  to  this  time  have  not  been  found  in  any  other  formation,  and  all  the 
species  from  the  Lias  to  the  Cornbrash  included  became  extinct  before  the 
deposition  of  the  Keiloway  rock  and  Oxford  clay.  The  Fuller's  earth  has 
yielded  no  remains  of  Echinoderms ;  the  Stonesfield  slate  contains  six  species, 
most  of  which  are  special  to  this  fissile  oolitic  rock.  The  Great  Oolite  has 
.  yielded  twenty- six  species,  of  which  nine  extend  into  the  Cornbrash,but  seven- 
teen are  special  to  the  Great  Oolite  stage.  The  eight  species  of  the  Bradford 
clay  are  mostly  common  to  this  argillaceous  bed,  and  the  Great  Oolite  lime- 
stone on  which  it  rests.  The  Forest  Marble  contains  seven  species,  of  which 
four  are  common  to  this  rock  and  the  Cornbrash,  which  contains  seventeen 
species,  most  of  which  are  found  in  the  older  formations ;  with  the  deposition 
of  the  Cornbrash  the  lower  division  of  the  Oolites  terminate,  and  with  it  ail 
the  species  of  Eehinodermata  found  in  these  rocks  became  extinct. 

The  middle  division  of  the  Oolites  contains  far  fewer  species  than  the  lower. 
The  Keiloway  rock  and  Oxford  clay,  so  rich  in  Cephalopoda,  have  not  in 
England,  as  far  as  I  can  learn,  yielded  any  remains  of  Eehinodermata.  The 
Lower  Calcareous  grit,  the  Coral  rag,  and  Upper  Calcareous  grit,  have 
several  species  in  common  ;  of  the  nine  speoiea  of  the  Lower  Calcareous  grit, 
five  are  common  to  it  and  the  Coral  rag,  which  eontains  twenty  species ;  but 
I  have  not  ascertained  how  many,  if  any,  pass  into  the  Upper  Calcareous  grit; 
in  fact  these  three  stages  in  reality  represent  only  one  stratigrmphicsi  tone  of 
life. 

The  Kimmeridge  clay  up  to  the  present  time  is  known  to  eontsin  only 
four  species,  which  are  all  special  to  it  There  is  one  species  only  In  the 
Portland  sand,  and  one  in  the  Marine  Purbeck  beds.  The  Portland  Oolitic 
limestone  is  said  to  contain  the  remains  of  Echinoderms*  but  I  have  not  beta 
able  to  obtain  any  of  the  specimens  for  examination. 


TENSILE  STBBN0Tfl  OF  BOILER  PLATE*  4M 


On  the  Tensile  Strength  qf  Wrought  Iran  at  various  Temperatures. 
By  William  Fairbairn,  F.R.S.  $c. 

On  a  previous  occasion  I  had  the  honour  of  conducting,  for  the  Association, 
Si  series  of  experiments  to  determine  the  effects  of  temperature  on  the 
strength  of  cast  iron.  In  that  inquiry  I  endeavoured  to  show  to  what  extent 
the  cohesion  of  that  material  was  affected  by  change  of  .temperature,  and 
taking  into  account  the  rapidity  with  which  iron  imbibes  caloric,  and  the 
facility  with  which  it  parts  with  it,  it  is  equally  interesting  to  know  to  what 
extent  wrought  iron  is  improved  or  deteriorated  by  similar  changes.  In  the 
present  inquiry,  as  in  the  former  on  cast  iron,  the  expansion  of  the  metal 
by  heat  is  not  the  question  for  solution.  Rondelet,  Smeaton  and  others  have 
already  investigated  that  subject,  and  it  now  only  remains  for  us  to  deter- 
mine the  effects  produced  on  the  strength  of  malleable  iron  by  changes  of 
temperature,  varying  from  —30°  of  Fahrenheit  to  a  red  heat,  perceptible  In 
daylight. 

The  immense  number  of  purposes  to  which  iron  is  applied,  and  the  changes 
of  temperature  to  which  it  is  exposed,  render  the  present  inquiry  not  only 
interesting,  but  absolutely  essential  to  a  knowledge  of  its  security  under  the 
varied  influences  of  those  changes ;  and  when  it  is  known  that  most  of  our 
iron  constructions  are  exposed  to  a  range  of  temperature  varying  from  the 
extreme  cold  of  winter  to  the  intense  heat  of  summer,  it  is  assuredly  desirable 
to  ascertain  the  effects  produced  by  these  causes  on  a  material  from  which 
we  derive  so  many  advantages,  and  on  the  security  of  which  the  safety  of 
the  public  not  unfrequently  depends. 

Independent  of  atmospheric  influences,  another  consideration  presents 
itself  in  reference  to  the  durability  and  ultimate  stability  of  iron  under 
changes  much  greater  than  those  alluded  to  above,  and  this  is  the  strength 
of  such  vessels  as  pans  and  boilers  subjected  to  the  extreme  temperatures  of 
boiling  liquids  on  one  side,  and  the  intense  heat  of  a  furnace  on  the  other. 
But  even  these  extremes,  however  great,  do  not  seem  seriously  to  affect  the 
cohesive  strength  of  wrought-iron  plates,  nor  do  they  appear  to  cause  any 
disruption  of  the  laminated  structure  which  results  from  the  system  of  piling 
and  rolling  adopted  in  the  manufacture,  excepting  only  where  smallparticles 
of  scoria  happen  to  intervene  between  the  laminated  surfaces.  These  not 
unfrequently  prevent  a  perfect  welding*  as  the  plate  is  compressed  by 
passing  through  the  rolls,  and  the  effects  of  temperature  are  strikingly 
exhibited  in  the  production  of  large  blisters  upon  the  surface  of  the  plate,  as 
shown  in  the  annexed  sketch  at 
a,  a.    Now  the  reason  of  this  is  ffe*  1* 

the  want  of  solidity  and  homo-  ^  * 

geneity  in  the  plate,  and  the  con- 
sequent expansion  of  the  lower 
part  exposed  to  the  greatest  heat.  Let  us  suppose,  for  the  sake  of  illustra- 
tion, the  plate  to  be  fths  of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  surface  b  to  be  the  into* 
rior  of  a  boiler-plate,  and  the  surface  a,  a  to  be  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
Are  in  the  furnace.  In  this  case  it  is  evident  that  the  temperature  of  the  side 
a,  a  may  be  upwards  of  1000°,  while  that  of  b  is  very  little  above  212°,  or 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water ;  and  supposing  there  be  any  imperfection  or 
want  of  soundness  in  the  plate,  the  result  will  be  a  greater  expansion  on  the 
•  surface,  causing  it  to  rise  up  In  Misters  in  the  manner  we  hava4e» 


<*Q6 


KSPOBT — 1856. 


scribed.  These  defects  are  invariably  present  when  the  plates  are  not  sound ; 
but  in  other  respects,  where  the  bars  which  form  the  pile  are  clear  and  free 
.from  rust  or  scoria,  and  are  well-welded  in  the  rolling  process,  the  wide  dif- 
ference between  the  temperature  of  one  side  and  that  of  the  other  produces, 
apparently,  no  injurious  effect  on  the  strength  of  the  plate.  It  is,  however, 
widely  different  when  the  whole  of  the  plates  are  exposed  to  the  same  de- 
gree of  temperature,  as  in  this  position  the  strengths  are  increased  or  dimi- 
nished according  as  the  temperature  approaches  or  recedes  from  the  point 
where  the  strength  is  a  maximum. 

In  order  to  show  how  the  results  were  obtained,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
describe  the  apparatus  and  the  mode  of  conducting  the  experiments. 

The  apparatus  consisted  of  a  powerful  wrought-iron  lever,  Plate  IV.  A, 
figs,  2  and  3,  capable  of  imparting  a  force  of  more  than  100,000  Iba,  or  45  teas 
per  square  inch  to  the  specimen  to  be  broken.  The  lever  is  supported  in  a 
cast-iron  standard  or  frame  B,  arranged  for  the  reception  of  specimens  of  the 
material  to  be  subjected  to  a  crushing  force  or  tensile  strain.  On  the  short 
arm  of  the  lever  the  plates  and  bars  (one  of  which  is  seen  at  «)  were 
suspended  by  a  shackle  c,  and  held  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  cast-iroa 
standard  by  the  rod  and  screw  e ;  on  this  rod  the  box,  b9  was  fixed,  and  pre- 
pared to  hold  a  bath  of  oil  or  water,  in  which  the  iron  to  be  broken  was 
immersed.  Below  this  box  was  a  fire-grate,  d>  for  heating  the  liquid  in  the 
bath  to  the  required  temperature,  and  this  grate  could'  be  drawn  backwards 
from  the  box  b,  when  the  required  temperature  was  attained  or  when  it  be- 
came too  high.  The  fulcrum  of  the  lever  is  shown  at/,  and  the  scale  hi 
which  the  weights  were  placed  at^.  The  cast-iron  standard  was  firmly 
bolted  to  the  heavy  balks  of  timber  upon  which  it  stands,  and  the  pressure  oa 
the  specimen  was  adjusted  by  placing  weights  in  the  scale. 

The  plates  experimented  upon  were  of  the  form  shown  in  fig.  4,  reduced 
at  a,  to  2£  inches  wide,  and  at  b  to  2  inches  wide,  in  order  to  secure  frac- 
ture at  the  part  of  the  plate  immersed  in  the  liquid  in  the  bath.  At  each 
end  two  holes  are  drilled  p. 

to  receive  the  bolt  which  *"   ' 

fixed  them  in  the  shackles. 
The  wrought-iron  bars 
were  formed  in  a  similar 
manner.  They  were  £  inch 
in  diameter,  reduced  to  f 
of  an  inch  at  a,  and  to  -^ 
inch,  or  \  inch  at  b.  The 
shackles  were  made  to  clasp 
the  bars  below  the  shoul- 
ders so  as  to  apply  the  strain 
requisite  to  cause  fracture. 
It  is  evident  that  the  weak- 
est part  of  the  bars  being 
within  the  bath,  breakage 
was  sure  to  occur  at  that 
point  where  the  temperature  was  raised  or  lowered  to  the  required  degree. 
.  With  these  preparations,  the  experiments  proceeded  as  follows : — the  bar 
to  be  broken  was  fixed  between  the  shackles  of  the  lever ;  and,  if  necessary, 
the  bath  was  filled,  and  the  fire  drawn  close  under  it;  as  soon  as  the  intended 
temperature  was  attained,  the  lever  was  let  down  by  the  crab,  and  weights 
carefully  added  to  the  scale  until  the  bar  broke.  During  the  process  the 
temperature  was  observed  from  time  to  time,  and  the  fire  adjusted  accord* 


-£** 


Kg.  5. 


JL*t 


TSN8ILS  STRENGTH  OF  BOILER  PLATE. 


407 


ingly,  and  the  temperature  registered  in  the  Tables  was  observed  imme- 
diately after  the  bar  had  given  way. 

Experiments  to  ascertain  the  Influence  of  Temperature  on  the 
Tensile  Strength  of  Bailer  Plats. 

Table  L— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate;  sectional  area  =2*02 x  *S4=*6868  sq.  in. 


Tmperm- 

tUM, 

**hr. 

No.  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Strain 

Elongation 
hi  inches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  squire  inch 

in  lbs. 

Remarks. 

0° 

1 
2 

8 

4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 

18,540 
86,940 
87,780 
88,680 
89,460 
80,800 
81,140 
31,980 
38,830 
83,660 

•14 

49,009 

For  figures  of  the  specimens  ex- 
perimented on,  see  Plate  V.,the 
numbering  of  the  figures  cor- 
responding with  that  of  the 
tables. 

Broke  with  a  clear  ringing  noise, 
almost  like  cast  iron. 

-81-879  tons. 

The  temperature  in  this  experiment  was  reduced  to  zero  by  a  mixture  of 
pounded  ice  and  salt,  carefully  placed  round  the  plate  in  order  to  secure  the 
same  temperature  in  the  metal  as  in  the  bath. 

Table  II. — Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area=2*5  x  *S1S=°7825  sq.  in. 


60° 

1 
8 
3 
4 
5 

8,190 
10,140 
16,860 
83,580 
30,300 

6 

31,980 

•168 

40,357 

» 18-001  tons. 

The  experiments  in  the  above  and  No.  III.  Table  were  conducted  at  the 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere.  Both  specimens  indicated  a  hard  brittle 
iron,  the  interior  laminations  having  somewhat  the  appearance  of  cast  iron, 
with  a  fracture  widely  different  from  that  exhibited  when  torn  asunder  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibre. 

Table  III.— Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*0  x  *S2=*64  sq.  in. 


60° 

1 

10 
11 
18 
13 

10,140 
(1680  lbs. 
was  added 
at  a  time 
tall  weight 

*8o,860 
86,100 
86,940 
87,780 

•1 

48,406 

Some  steely  spots  in  fracture. 
» 19*377  tons. 

408  rbpobt— 1856. 

Table  IV.— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =er  1-99  X  -S2="6S68  sq.  in. 


Tttnpeia* 
tare, 
Ffehr. 

No.  of 
expon* 
meats. 

Strain 

gi iiton  Bsttkiiifj  weight 

"5T  pw^2inch 

—. 

w 

1 
9 

8 

4 

10,140 
18,540 
20,220 
21,900 

5 

23,580 

A  fiasn  containing  tinder  ex- 

6 

25,260 

tended  one-third  of  the  breadth 

7 

8 

26,100 
26,940 

of  the  plate.    In  some  parts 
the  blade  of  a  penknife  could 

9 

27,780 

be  introduced. 

10 

28,620 

11 

29,460 

12 

30,300 

18 

31,140 

14 

31,980 

•2 

50,219 

-22*414  ton*. 

In  some  former  experiments  on  the  tensile  strength  of  wrought-iron  plates*, 
the  strength  of  the  specimens  was  rather  more  uniform,  and  there  appeared 
to  be  no  difference  between  the  strength  of  the  plates  when  torn  asunder  in 
the  direction  of  the  fibre,  and  the  strength  when  the  strain  was  applied  across 
it.  Comparing  Tables  II.  and  III.  with  IV.,  we  find  the  breaking  weight  in 
the  direction  of  the  fibre  is  to  that  across  it  as  22*41 : 1 8*67,  or  as  5 : 4  nearly; 
but  it  is  possible  that  this  arises  from  inequality  in  the  rolling  of  the  two 
specimens. 

Table  V.— Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =1*99  x  *S3  sq.  inch. 


IW 

1 

25^60 

2 

26,940 

Fracture  very  uneven. 

3 

27,780 

4 

28,620 

5 

29,460 

•13 

44,160 

- 19-714  tons. 

The  last  weight  was  hardly  on: 

29,000  lbs.  was  probably  netnr 

the  breaking  weight. 

Table  VI.— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*0  x  a34=:*68  sq.  inch. 


nr 

i 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

mm 

7 

28,620 

42,068 

« 18-789  tons. 

*  Philosophical  Transactions  for  1850,  p.  677,  the  retultt  of  which  are  also  quoted  St 
faje  340. 


TENSILE  8T&ENCPNI  OF  BOILER  PLATE. 

Table  VII*— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*54  x  *82s*8128  sq.  inch. 


40» 


tun, 

wo.  or 

ttp«ri- 

5S1 

ffififf" 

pcrtqoiniocb 

-^ 

190* 

1 

9 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

19 

18 

95,260 
96,940 
98,690 
30,800 
81,140 
81,980 
89,400 
88,660 
84,500 
85,840 
85,760 
86,180 
86,600 

♦ 

14 

37,090 

•178 

40,695 

-18186  tons. 

The  last  three  experiments,  at  a  mean  temperature  of  1 14°,  indicate  a  near 
approach  to  uniformity  of  strength,  that  broken  across  the  fibre  being  the 
strongest;  the  very  reverse  of  those  fractured  at  60°,  the  numbers  being  as 
197  :  184,  or  as  44  :  41  nearly,  showing  a  loss  of  about  *007  per  cent.  It  is 
difficult  to  account  for  these  changes  and  defects  in  the  strengths  of  the 
plates,  as  most  of  the  specimens  were  cut  from  one  plate,  and  all  of  them 
were  of  the  same  manufacture. 

Table  VILL— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*6  x  *S08=*8008  sq.  inch. 


919° 

1 
9 

80,800 
31,980 

•15 

89,985 

-17*898  tons. 

Broken  in  boiling  water.    This  specimen  did  not  break  at  the  narrowest 
part  of  its  section,  which  shows  a  serious  defect  in  the  plate. 


Table  IX. — Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*01  x  *SS=:*6633  sq.  inch. 


919° 

1 
9 
8 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

18,540 
90,990 
91,900 
98,580 
95,960 
96,940 
97,780 
98,690 
99,460 

Broken  in  boiling  water. 

10 

30*300 

11 

45,680 

-90-399  tons. 

In  Table  VIIL,  where  the  specimen  was  drawn  in  the  direction  of  the 
fibre,  there  appears  to  be  some  defect  in  the  plate,  as  it  gave  way,  not  at  the 
smallest  section,  bat  at  a  wider  part  of  the  plate,  with  a  force  of  0©Jf 


410 


REPORT — 1856. 


39,935  lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  whereas  the  same  plate  torn  asunder  aero* 
the  fibre  sustained  a  force  of  45,680  lbs.  before  breaking.  This  difference 
of  strength  can  only  be  accounted  for  by  some  defect  not  perceptible  when  the 
fracture  was  examined.  The  difference  of  strength,  at  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water,  indicated  by  these  two  specimens,  is  as  178 :  203,  or  in  the  l 
0f-87:l. 

Table  X. — Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate;  sectional  area  =2"0x  '34= *68  sq.  inch. 


Tempera- 

No. of 

Strain 

Elongation, 

Breaking  weight 

—                          1 

ture, 

experi- 

applied 

per  square  inch 

Remarks. 

Fahr. 

ments. 

in  lbs. 

inlba. 

212° 

1 

2 

8 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

18,540 
20,220 
21,900 
23,580 
25,260 
26,940 
27,780 
28,620 
29,460 
30,300 
31,140 
31,980 
32,820 

Broken  in  boiling  water. 

14 

33,660 

•22 

49,500 

-22*098  tons. 

Comparing  this  plate  with  that  in  experiment  VIII.,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  power  of  resistance  of  the  former  is  more  than  one-fifth  greater  than  that 
of  the  latter,  showing  that  there  must  have  been  some  defect  in  the  longer 
section  of  the  specimen,  or  fracture  would  not  have  ensued  at  so  early  a 
period  of  the  experiment  We  cannot  abandon  this  experiment,  as  no  defect 
presented  itself,  if  we  except  the  highly  crystallized  state  of  the  fracture, 
both  specimens  having  been  drawn  asunder  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre.  In 
these  experiments  it  will  be  observed  that  the  infusion  of  heat  into  wrought- 
iron  plates,  from  zero  to  212°,  does  not  injure,  but  rather  improves,  their 
tensile  strength. 

Table  XI.*— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate;  sectional  area  =2*01  x  aS2=*64S2  sq.  inch. 


270° 

1 
2 
3 

18,540 
20,220 
21,900 

Broken  in  hot  ofl. 

4 

23,580 

Broke  before  the  last  weight  was 

5 

;  25,260 

fairly  on ;  28,320  lbs.  probtblj 

6 

26,940 

nearer. 

7 

27,780 

8 

28,620 

•13 

44,020 

=  19-651  tons. 

From  this  experiment  it  appears  that  an  increase  of  58°  of  heat  makes  no 
perceptible  difference  in  the  strength  of  the  plate.  If  we  take  the  mean  of 
the  two  previous  experiments,  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  it  will  be  found 
there  is  no  great  difference  between  them,  the  mean  of  Tables  VIII.  and  X. 
pmg  44*708,  and  Table  XI.  giving  44,020  lbs.  to  the  square  inch. 


\ 


TBN81LB  STRENGTH  OF  BOIL1R  PLATE. 

Table  XII. — Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*0  x  *S2=*64  sq.  inch. 


411 


1       tare, 
\      Fahr. 

No.  of 
cxpcfi> 

Strain 

Elongation 
in  inches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

inlba. 

Bamarka. 

1      340* 

1 
2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

25,260 
26,940 
28,620 
29,460 
30,300 
31,140 
31,980 

•1 

49,968 

a  22307  tons. 

In  this  experiment  the  plate  gave  way  at  the  shackle,  the  holt  which  held 
the  plate  tearing  through  the  eye,  and  forcing  away  a  four-sided  piece  as  the 
plate  was  about  to  yield  to  the  weight  on  the  lever.  We  may  therefore 
safely  assume  31,980  or  32,000  lbs.  as  the  ultimate  strength  or  breaking 
weight  of  the  plate. 

Table  XIII. — Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*0  X  •34=*68  sq*  inch. 


340° 

1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

18,540 
20,220 
21,900 
23,580 
25,260 
26,940 
27,780 

Broken  in  hot  oiL 

8 

28,620 

15 

42,088 

-18*789  tons. 

The  mean  result  of  experiments  XII.  and  XIII.  is  46,014  lbs.,  or  about 

*20}  tons  per  square  inch,  evidently  showing  that  the  iron  is  in  no  degree 

injured  by  a  temperature  ranging  from  zero  up  to  340°,  and  this  temperature 

may  probably  be  increased  as  high  as  500°  or  600°  without  seriously 

impairing  the  strength,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  Table  at  nearly  400  • 

Table  XIV.— Strain  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =2*02  x  '33= "6666  sq.  inch. 


395° 

1 
2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18,540 
20,220 
21,900 
23,580 
24,420 
25,260 
26,100 
26,940 
27,780 
28,620 
29,460 
30,300 

Broken  in  hot  oiL 

13 

30,720 

•18 

46,086 

=20-574  tons. 

The  only  difference  between  this  and  the  last  two  experiments  is  the 
"increased  elongation,  which  in  the  latter  was  1*25,  and  an  the  former  *18 


412 


REPORT— -1656. 


inches.  However,  the  elongation  of  these  short  specimens  cannot  always  be 
depended  on,  as  there  is  considerable  difficulty  in  ascertaining  diem  accu- 
rately. 

Table  XV. — Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 
Boiler  plate ;  sectional  area  =32*0  x  *31  =*62  sq.  inch* 


Tempera- 
ture, Fahr. 

No.  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Strain 

as? 

Elongation 
in  inches. 

— . 

per  •quiure  inch 
in  11». 

A  scarcely 
perceptible 

1 
9 

8,190 
10,140 

red  heat. 

8 
4 

5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

11,890 
13,500 
15,180 
16,880 
18,540 
20,220 
91,900 

10 

23,520 

15 

88,032 

-16-978  tons. 

The  plate  in  this  experiment  was  heated  until  it  became  perceptibly  lumi- 
nous in  the  shade ;  it  was  then  loaded,  as  before,  until  fracture  ensued.  In 
this  experiment  it  will  be  observed  that  a  considerable  diminution  of  strength 
took  place  in  consequence  of  the  increased  temperature,  clearly  showing  that 
above  a  certain  point  the  tensile  strength  of  wrought  iron  is  seriously  injured. 
This  fact  is  more  strikingly  apparent  in  the  next  experiment,  in  which  the 
temperature  was  raised  to  a  dull  red  heat,  just  perceptible  in  daylight. 


Table  XVI. 

In  this  experiment  a  plate  of  the  same  description  as  the  last ' 
to  a  dull  red  heat,  when  the  weight  of  the  lever  was  allowed  to  strain  the 
specimen  with  a  force  of  18,540  lb&,  and  fracture  immediately  ensued.  The 
elongation  was  *23. 

Sectional  area  of  boiler  plates  1«  96  x  '31  ="6076  sq.  inch. 

Strain  applied  across  the  fibre. 

Breaking  weight  per  square  inch  =30,51 3  lbs.  =13*621  tons. 

This  experiment  is  quite  conclusive  as  to  the  effects  produced  on  wrought 
iron  whenever  it  approaches  a  red  heat.  At  that  temperature  nearly  one- 
half  its  strength  is  lost ;  it  becomes  exceedingly  ductile,  and  is  drawn  con- 
siderably in  the  direction  of  the  strain  before  its  cohesive  powers  are 
destroyed. 

The  greatly  increased  ductility  of  wrought-iron  plates,  at  a  dull  red  heat, 
is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  flues  of  boilers,  whenever  the  water  gets  loir, 
or  recedes  below  the  surface  of  the  plates,  and  that  more  particularly  if  tie 
plates  are  immediately  over  the  fire;  in  such  a  position  the  flues  readily  collapie 
with  a  comparatively  low  pressure.  In  the  bending  of  a  plate,  when  red  hot, 
a  very  small  force  is  required ;  but  within  limits  of  temperature  not  exceed- 
ing 400°,  it  requires  nearly  the  same  force  to  produce  collapse  as  it  would 
at  any  temperature  above  32°,  or  the  freezing-point  of  water*. 


*  We  hope  in  a  short  time  to  give  s  series  of  experiments 
m  pistes  and  bars  to  a  transverse  and  compressive  force  at  < 


on  the  resistance  of  wrought 


TENSILE  8TBBN&TH  OF  BOILER  PLATE. 


413 


Collecting  the  results  of  these  experiments,  tabulated  above,  it  wilt  be 
necessary  to  exhibit  them  in  a  more  condensed  form,  so  as  to  facilitate  com- 
parison, and  to  deduce  the  laws  which  regulate  the  tensile  strength  of  wrought 
iron.  We  may  then  apply  the  results  of  these  experiments  to  a  much  greater 
variety  of  plates  produced  in  the  different  districts  of  England.  It  will  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  ordinary  Staffordshire  plates,  such  as  those  experi- 
mented upon  (unless  they  are  double-worked),  are  rather  inferior  in  quality 
to  the  Shropshire  and  Derbyshire  plates,  and  much  more  so  to  those  manu- 
factured at  the  Lowmoor  and  Bowling  Works.  Hence  the  comparison  will 
only  hold  good  between  the  Staffordshire  plates  in  each  < 


General  Summary  of  Res-uks. 


Mo.  of 

Tempera* 
ture,Fahr. 

BfMkbc 

Breaking  weight 

Breaking  weight 

Mean  breaking 

Direction  of 

experi- 
ment. 

might 
inlbe. 

per  equan  inch 
inlbe. 

per  equare  inch 
in  tons. 

fiich  m  1M. 

strain  in  regard 
to  fibre: 

I. 

6 

33,660 

49,009 

91-879 

49,009 

With. 

TL 

60 

31,980 

40,357 

18-001 

1 

Across. 

III. 

60 

97,780 

43,406 

19-877 

I    44,498 

Across*. 

IV. 

SO 

81,980 

50,919 

99-414 

J 

Withf. 

V. 

110 

29,460 

44,160 

19714 

Across  $. 

VL 

119 

88,690 

49,088 

18-789 

l    49,891 

With. 

VIL 

180 

37,080 

40,695 

18136 

With. 

VIII. 

SIS 

31,980 

39,935 

17*898 

Withf. 

IX. 

SIS 

30,300 

45,680 

90-399 

.    45,005 

Across. 

X. 

919 

38,660 

49,500 

99-098 

With. 

XL 

970 

98,690 

44,090 

19-651 

44,090 

With. 

XII. 

340 

31,980 

49,968 

99-307 

|    46,018 

With  ||. 

XIII. 

340 

98,690 

49,088 

18  789 

Across. 

XIV. 

895 

80.790 

46,086 

90-574 

46,066 

With. 

XV. 
XVL 

8eareelyred 
Dull  red 

98,590 
18,540 

38,089 
30,513 

16-978 
18-691 

}   34,979 

Across. 
Aerossf. 

From  the  above  Table  we  may  deduce  the  following :— 


Tamp  Gift 
tare, 
Fehr. 

Drawn  asunder  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre. 

Drawn  asunder  aeroei  the  fibre. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

inlbe. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

intone. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

ulba. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

intone. 

5 

60 
114 
919 
970 
840 
395 
Red. 

91-879 

98-4 14f 

18-469 

19-9634 

19-651 

99-807(1 

90-574 

41,881 
44,160 
45,680 

49,088 

34,979 

18-689* 
19-714J 
90-899 

18-789 

15-9991 

*  Some  steely  spots  in  fracture. 
%  Too  high,  fracture  very  uneten* 
II  Too  low,  tore  through  eye. 


f  Fissure  containing  scoria. 

ft  Did  not  break  at  smallest  section, 

•}  Too  high,  see  Table. 


414 


REPORT— 1856* 


From  the  experimental  inquiry  into  the  strength  of  wroaght-iroo 
as  applied  to  ship-building,  we  have  the  following  results* : — 


Mean  breaking  weight, 

in  the  direction  of  the 

fibre,  in  tons  per 

square  inch. 

Msanhresftmg  ■■iBht, 

across  die  fibre,  in 
tons  per  sqnare  sncfa. 

Yorkshire  pistes* •••• ••••• 

25-770 
22-760 
21-680 
22-826 
19-563 

27-490 
26-037 
18-650 
22-000 
21-010 

Yorkshire  plates .«*..• 

Derbyshire  plates  ,,,.,„ ,."„„.,, 

Shropshire  plates  

Staffordshire  plates   ...,.., t,rlt 

Mean   ...#........•«.... 

22-519 

23-037 

Now  if  we  compare  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  Staffordshire  plates  m 
the  above  Table  with  those  since  experimented  upon,  we  shall  have,  takiag 
those  in  which  the  strain  was  applied  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  for  die 
former  19*563  tons  per  square  inch,  and  for  a  mean  of  nine  experiments  of 
the  latter,  ranging  in  temperature  from  zero  to  395°,  20*408  tons  per  square 
inch.  Taking  those  torn  asunder  across  the  fibre,  we  have  for  StsJforcbJuie 
plates  in  the  above  Table  21*010,  and  for  those  since  experimented  on  1&254 
tonsf  per  square  inch,  which  on  comparison  give  the  following  ratios  of  re- 
sults:— 

Staffordshire  plates,  torn  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  at  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  191°=20*408  tons,  and  those  (in  the  above  Table)  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  atmosphere,  or  about  60°=  19*568  tons,  or  in  the  ratio  of  1*:*96 
nearly,  a  remarkable  coincidence  in  tensile  strength  in  the  two  series  of 
experiments. 

Those  torn  across  the  fibre,  at  a  mean  temperature  of  156°,  gave  a  tensile 
strength  =19*254  tons ;  those  at  the  temperature  of  atmosphere  60°,  as  shown 
in  the  previous  experiments  =21*010  tons,  or  in  the  ratio  of  1 :  1*091. 

The  above  results  indicate  great  uniformity  in  the  ultimate  strength  of 
Staffordshire  plates,  which  may  safely  be  taken  at  20  tons  per  square  inch  at 
all  temperatures,  between  the  extremes  of  zero  and  400°  Fahr.,  that  is,  under 
a  dead  weight  calculated  to  destroy  the  cohesive  powers  of  the  material.  To 
what  extent  these  plates  would  resist  impact,  at  various  degrees  of  tempera- 
ture, we  have  yet  to  determine;  but  assuming  that  iron  is  more  liable  to  frac- 
ture from  an  impactive  foroe  at  a  very  low  temperature ;  it  will  be  safer  to 
calculate  on  a  reduction  of  their  resisting  powers,  at  the  lower  temperatures 
under  82°  Fahr.,  or  the  freezing-point  of  water. 

These  experiments  might  be  multiplied  to  a  great  extent,  in  order  to  de- 
termine the  strength  of  plates  under  the  varied  conditions  of  temperature  in 
regard  to  compression,  extension,  and  the  force  of  impact;  but  we  have 
already  shown  in  former  experiments,  and  those  now  recorded  above,  that 
iron  is  not  seriously  affected  by  those  changes,  and  we  trust  the  foregoing 
results  will  prove  sufficient  to  enable  the  practical  engineer  to  calculate  the 
resisting  powers  of  iron  plates,  under  all  the  changes  of  temperature,  from 
zero  up  to  a  red  heat 


*  Philosophical  Transactions,  Part  II.  1850,  p.  677. 

f  The  mean  temperature  of  nine,  broken  in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  is  191°;  and  the 
mean  temperature  of  five,  broken  across  the  fibre,  excluding  red  heat,  is  156°. 


TENSILE  &TBENGTH  OP  BIVBT  IRON. 


415 


Experiments  on  the  Tensile  Strength  of  Rivet  Iron. 

At  the  time  when  the  preceding  experiments  were  instituted,  it  was  con- 
sidered expedient  to  make  them  on  plates  of  ordinary  quality,  and  of  the  de- 
scription in  general  use.    For  this  purpose  Staffordshire  plates  were  selected, 
as  being  of  medium  quality,  such  as  arc  employed  in  the  construction  of  boilers, 
ship-building,  &c.     Plates  of  a  higher  character,  such  as  the  Lowmoor  and 
double-worked  qualities,  might  have  been  selected ;  but  those  most  in  demand, 
and  which  are  manufactured  in  large  quantities,  were  considered  more  de- 
sirable, although  it  left  untouched  a  question  of  some  importance  in  regard 
to  the  influence  of  heat  upon  the  finer  qualities,  generally  known  as  "  scrap  " 
and  "fagotted99  iron.     This  description  of  iron  is  forged  from  old  iron  scrap, 
and  rolled  into  bars  for  bolts  and  rivets.     It  is  a  fine  ductile  iron  of  great 
tenacity,  and  works  freely  under  the  hammer;  and  it  was  determined  to  apply 
to  it  the  same  experimental  tests  as  had  been  applied  to  the  Staffordshire 
plates. 

From  the  results  of  these  experiments,  it  will  be  seen  that  they  indicate 
precisely  the  same  law  as  was  found  to  influence  the  Staffordshire  plates, 
the  maximum  strength  being  at  a  temperature  of  325°,  rather  higher  than 
that  indicated  by  the  plates.  This  is  irrespective  of  the  superior  strength  of 
the  bar  iron  as  compared  with  that  of  the  plates. 

Having  prepared  the  lever,  as  before,  a  long  bar,  |ths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter,  was  selected  and  cut  into  lengths,  which  were  then  reduced  to  the 
form  shown  in  the  . 
annexed  sketch, 
with  shoulders  to 

receive  the  shackle.    The  specimens,  when  immersed  in  the  bath,  were  drawn 
asunder  by  the  same  process  as  that  described  for  the  plates. 


Experiments  to  ascertain  the  Influence  of  Temperature  on  the 
Tensile  Strength  of  Rivet  Iron. 

Table  XVIL— Area  of  section  =-24850. 


Tempera- 
ture, 
Fahr. 

No.  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Strain 

TSS! 

Elongation 
winches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

in  lbs. 

Remarks. 

-30? 

1 
2 
3 

4 

58 
59 

•80 

63,239 

Broken  in  a  mixture  of  pounded 
ice  and  crystallized  chloride  of 
calcium. 

Figures  of  some  of  the  fractured 
specimens  will  be  found  in 
PI.  IV.  fig.  1,  numbered  to  cor- 
respond with  the  tables. 

=28-231  tons. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  observed  that  the  strength  of  the  best  quality  of 
bar  iron  greatly  exceeds  that  of  the  plates,  being  in  this  experiment  two- 
fifths  more,  and  in  some  experiments,  at  higher  temperatures,  nearly  double 
that  of  the  Staffordshire  plates. 


416 


BBPOR1W1856. 

Table  XVIII.— Sectional  area  =-£4850. 


Tanptm* 
tan, 
Mr. 

No.  of 

cxpen« 

Statist 
fflff 

Eloagation 
iniachw. 

BnaUag  weight 

per  square  inch 

inlba. 

Remarks. 

+00° 

> 

1 

9 

8 

4 

16 
17 

19,565 
13,405 
18,819 
14,035 
**♦* 
15,995 
15,400 

•89 

61,971 

A  large  bright  spot,  like  •ted,  in 
fracture* 

•97*665  tons. 

There  is  a  slight  diminution  in  the  strength  of  this  bar  as  compared  with 
the  previous  experiment  at  —30°,  but  the  discrepancy  is  scarcely  appreciable, 
and  may  easily  be  accounted  for  by  inequalities  in  the  forging  or  rolling  of 
the  bar. 

Table  XIX.— Sectional  area  =^24850. 


60* 

1 
9 
8 

4 

9,415 
10,955 
19,565 
19,985 

Drew  out  at  shoulder. 

30 
81 

**** 
15,715 
15,890 

•56 

68,661 

-98-419  tout. 

The  strength  of  the  bar  in  this  experiment  is  a  trifle  in  excess  of  those 
fractured  at  —30°  and  60°.    It  would  have  been  rather  stronger  had  it  been 
rounded  at  the  shoulder  to  prevent  its  pulling  out  there,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  <, 
However,  there  it  little  difference  in  the  strength  of  the  material  through 
a  range  of  90°  of  temperature. 


Tablb  XX.— Sectional  area  =-24850. 


114° 

1 
9 
3 

4 

41 
49 

10,885 
19,565 
13,405 
13,615 
**** 
17,500 

17,605 

•56 

70,845 

Pulled  out  at  shoulder.  After 
between  13,000  and  14,000  lbs. 
had  been  laid  on,  only  105  lbt. 
were  added  at  a  time,  as  it  gave 
more  correct  indications  of  the 
strength  as  the  bars  approached 
fracture. 

-31-697  tons. 

It  has  already  been  observed  that  the  whole  of  the  specimens  for  experi- 
ment were  cut  from  one  bar,  and  as  each  experiment  was  conducted  with 
great  care,  both  in  preparing  the  specimens  and  laying  on  the  weights,  we 
are  bound  by  the  results  to  believe  that  the  increWed  strength  of  this  de- 
scription of  iron  is  due  entirely  to  the  increase  of  temperature.  In  this  ex- 
periment, it  will  be  seen  that  the  resisting  power  of  the  bar  ruptured  at  114° 
was  to  that  of  the  bar  ruptured  at  60°  (Table  XIX.)  as  1 :  -898. 


TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  BIVET  IRON. 

Table  XXI. — Sectional  area  =-24850. 


417 


T«mp«r»- 
tnre, 
Fahr. 

No.  of 
cxpcn* 
ments. 

Strain 

Elongation 
in  inches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

inlbt. 

Remarks. 

212° 

1 
2 
8 

4 
5 

76 

1 
2 
3 
4 

56 

12,565 
12,985 
13,405 
13,825 
14,245 
**** 
21,805 

12,565 
12,985 
13,405 
13,825 

**** 
19,285 

•64 

. 

At  this  point  it  was  discovered 
that  the  bar  was  cutting  into 
the  shackle;  the  experiment  was 
therefore  discontinued  till  a 
new  shackle  could  be  prepared, 
and  it  was  then  repeated. 

Mean  

20,545 

82,676 

=36-900  tons. 

This  bar  tore  into  the  shackle,  so  that  the  strain  was  not  thrown  properly 
>n  it ;  the  experiment  was  therefore  discontinued,  and  another  shackle  sub- 
stituted with  the  bearing-edges  steeled.  When  the  same  bar  was  tried  again, 
having  been  injured  in  the  previous  experiment,  it  broke  with  19,285  lbs. 
Under  these  circumstances,  we  have  taken  the  mean  of  the  two  experiments 
21,805  + 19,285=20>545  M  tf|e  breaking  weight,  as  recorded  in  the  Table. 

Table  XXII.— Sectional  area  ='19635. 


i     212°    ! 

1 

12,565 

i 

2 

13,405 

Bar  defective :  a  large  longitudinal 

3 

14,245 

! 

fissure,  filled  with  scoria. 

4 

14,350 

5 

14,455 

1 

1               1 

6 

14,560 

•47     | 

74,153 

=33-104  tons. 

There  is  a  progressive  increase  in  the  strength  of  the  bars  as  the  temperature 
ascends,  Table  XX.  exhibiting  an  increase  of  11,831  lbs.,  and  Table  XXII. 
an  increase  of  3,308  lbs.  over  the  breaking  weight  at  114°.  Taking  the 
mean  of  the  two  last  experiments,  we  have  an  increase  of  7,569  lbs.  over  the 
breaking  weight  in  experiment  XX. 


Table  XXIIL— Sectional  area  =-24850. 


212° 

1 
2 
3 
4 

14,245 
15,925 
16,135 
16,845 

39 
40 

*♦♦* 
20420 
20jfe 

m 

80,985 

=  36-154  tons. 

This  experiment  being  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  two  last,  viz.  212°,  it 
1856.  2  £ 


418  »e*ob* — 1856. 

will  be  proper  to  take  the  mean  of  the  last  three  Tables  as  the  breaking 

.  .         i  . .            *       82,676 +  74,1 53 + 80,985_TO  ~,  Xht,  ^  .__ 
weight  at  that  temperature,  — * - 79,271  we.  pervqwR 

inoh= ultimate  breaking  weight  at  212°. 

Table  XXIV.— Sectional  area  ='19635. 


Tampera- 
$ur«, 
Jahr, 

No.  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Strain 
applied 
in  lb.. 

Elongation 
in  inches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

in  lb.. 

Reuiarai. 

150* 

1 
9 

a 

43 
44 

10,045 
10,885 
11,795 

15,9t5 
16,135 

•6 

82,174 

=36-684  tons. 

H*w>  again*  iu  the  above  experiment,  is  a  perceptible  increase  of  strength, 
«•  the  temperature  rises  38°,  from  79,271  to  82,174  lbe.  per  square  inch,  and 
•o  in  the  next  Table,  where  the  increase  is  Btill  greater. 


Table  XXV.— Sectional  area  ="24850. 


970* 


•        I 

19,565 

9 

13,405 

3 

14,245 

4 

15,085 

i 

5 

15,400 

0 

15,925 

| 

7 

16,845  ! 

47 

90,545  ! 

48 

90,650  |      74 

86,056 

-38-417  tans. 

The  increase  of  20°  of  temperature  in  this  ex)>eriment  gives  a  correspond- 
ing increase  of  strength  of  3882  lbs.  per  square  inch,  something  more  than 
the  increase  exhibited  in  the  previous  experiment  There  is,  however,! 
remarkable  coincidence  in  the  ratio  of  the  strengths  as  they  rise  with  the 
increase  of  temperature,  the  only  exceptions  being  those  of  Tables  I.  and 
XXII.,  but  in  both  cases  the  anomaly  is  sufficiently  explained  by  the  state  of 
the  fracture. 

Table  XXVI Sectional  area  =-19635. 


3lflP 


1 

12,565 

2 

14,245 

3 

15,085 

4 

15,295 

5 

15,715 

6 

15,820 

80,570      i=35-968  tons. 


In  this  experiment  it  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  falling  off  in  tenacity 
with  the  increase  of  temperature  from  86,056  to  80,570  lbe.  per  square 
inch.  It  is  difficult  to  account  for  this  discrepancy,  as  the  fracture  in  this, 
as  in  the  previous  and  succeeding  experiments,  appeared  sound  and  free 
from  flaws  of  any  description. 


TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  RIVET  IRON. 

Tablb  XXVII— Sectional  area  =-19635. 


419 


ton, 
Wmbr. 

No.  of 
experi- 
ments. 

Strain 
applied 
inlfaa. 

Eicon  gaoon 
in  inches. 

Breaking  weight 

per  square  inch 

in  lb.. 

Remarki. 

335° 

1 

2 
6 

53 
54 

10,045 
10,885 
11,715 

**** 
17,080 
17,185 

•6 

87,522 

=.39-072  tons. 

The  above  bar,  although  of  the  same  quality  and  appearance  as  that  in  the* 
irevious  experiment,  gives  no  less  than  6952  lbs.,  upwards  of  three  tons* 
greater  tenacity  than  its  predecessor.  The  former  appeared  equally  tough 
tod  fibrous  in  the  fracture,  and  the  elongation  in  the  same  distance  was 
other  more  than  in  the  latter,  and  yet  it  b  about  one-twelfth  weaken 

Tablb  XXVIIL— Sectional  area  ='24850. 


4U° 

1 

! 

4 
5 

19,665 
14,945 
15,085 
15,925 
16,765 

38 

39 

**** 
90,230 
90,335 

•64 

81,830 

-36-581  tons. 

In  this  experiment  there  is  a  decrease  in  the  strength  with  an  increase  of 
temperature  of  90°,  but  in  the  next  experiment,  with  a  further  inereass  of 
20°,  the  strength  again  rises  from  81,830  to  86,056,  or  nearly  two  tons, 
which  shows  that  the  increase  of  100°  of  temperature  has  not  seriously 
affected  the  molecular  constitution  of  the  iron.  This  irregularity,  after  so 
constant  an  increase  of  strength,  indicates  that  we  have  about  reached,  the 
maximum  strength  of  the  material.  We  shall  see  hereafter  that  the  increase 
of  strength  from  —30°  to  825°  has  been  four-tenths,  nearly  one-half. 

Tablb  XXIX.— Sectional  area  ='24850. 


435° 

1 
9 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

65 

19,566 
13,405 
13,819 
14,035 
14,945 
14,665 
15,085 
**** 
21,280 

66 

21,885 

•74 

86,056 

-=38*415  tons. 

The  difference  between  this  and  the  last  experiment  is  about  one-eighteenth 
part  of  the  former  in  favour  of  the  latter.  This  difference  we  cannot  account 
for  by  an  examination  of  the  fractures ;  but  taking  the  mean  of  the  two,  and 
comparing  it  with  Table  XXVII.,  it  appears  that  we  have  passed  the  maxi- 
mum strength,  and  recede  from  it  in  the  ratio  of  87,522 :  83,943,  or  as  1 :  -959. 

2s2 


420 


REPORT — 1856* 


Table  XXX.— Sectional  area  =-24850. 

Temperature  raised  to  red  heat,  visible  by  daylight.  1 

Broke  with  the  weight  of  the  lever  =8,965  lbs.  I 

Elongation  ='55. 
Breaking  weight  per  square  inch  =36,076  lbs.  =16*105  tons. 

In  this  experiment,  as  in  those  on  the  plates,  the  tenacity  of  the  iroa  ■ 
seriously  injured  before  the  temperature  reaches  dull  red  heat ;  and  when  tkt 
point  is  attained,  it  has  lost  more  than  one-half  its  powers  of  resistance  to 
strain.  At  this  high  temperature  it  becomes  exceedingly  ductile  and  vtsk 
when  subjected  to  any  description  of  force,  inasmuch  as  it  becomes  so  pliant? 
that  it  is  immaterial  whether  the  strain  applied  is  compressive,  tensile  or 
torsional.  Under  any  of  these  forces  it  is  not  to  be  depended  upon  at  i 
temperature  bordering  upon  redness. 

Collecting  the  results  of  the  foregoing  experiments  in  their  consecutive 
order  into  a  Table,  we  see  that  the  maximum  strength  of  bars  appears  to  be 
attained  at  a  mean  temperature  of  about  320°.  This  is  above  tbe  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  maximum  strength  of  the  plates  was  attained  ;  but  it  is  to 
be  remembered,  that  little  or  no  change  is  observable  in  the  strength  of  the 
plates,  whilst  that  of  the  bars  is  increased  nearly  one-half. 

This  fact  is  worthy  of  notice,  inasmuch  as  in  countries  where  the  dinMte 
is  hot  and  never  desceuds  below  freezing,  the  best  bar  iron  will  retain  ft 
power  of  resistance  equal  to  29  tons  upon  the  square  inch,  whereas  in  colder 
and  more  northerly  districts  it  would  not  be  safe  to  calculate  upon 
than  28  tons  to  the  square  inch. 


General  Summary  of  Results. 


No.  of 

Breaking 
weight 
in  lb*. 

Elon- 

Breaking 

Breaking 

Mean  break- 

Teinperature, 

experi- 
ment. 

gation 

in 
inches. 

weight  per 

aquareinch 

in  lb*. 

weight  per 

square  inch 

in  tons. 

ing  weight 
per  square 
inch  in  lbs. 

Baa.*. 

-36 

XVII. 

15,715 

•80 

63,239 

28  231 

63,239 

Took*. 

+60 
60 

XVIII. 
XIX. 

15,400 
15,820 

•8S 
•56 

61,971 
63,661 

27665 
28-419 

162,816      (Too  km. 

114 

XX. 

17,605 

•56 

70,845 

31-627 

70,845      'Too  Jo* 

SIS 

XXI. 

20,545 

•64 

$2,676 

36-900 

1                 i 

SIS 

XXII. 

14,560 

•47 

74,153 

33104 

^79^71      ! 

SIS 

XXIII. 

20,125 

•66 

80,985 

36154 

J 

S50 

XXIV. 

16,135 

•  6 

8S,174 

36-684 

}  82,636      | 

S70 

XXV. 

20,650 

•74 

83,098 

38-417 

310 

XXVI. 

15,820 

•63 

80,570 

35-968 

j.84,046      [             1 

3S5 

XXVII. 

17,185 

•  6 

87,522 

39-072 

415 

XXVIII. 

20,335 

•64 

81,830 

36-531 

}83,943      J             ( 

435 

XXIX. 

21,385 

•74 

86,056 

38-415 

Red  heat. 

XXX. 

8,965 

•55 

36,076 

16105 

35,000     J 

roohigk. 

In  the  above  Table  we  perceive  a  steady  improvement  in  the  strength  of 
the  iron  from  60°  up  to  325°,  where  the  maximum  appears  to  be  attained. 
As  already  noticed,  this  improvement  does  not  present  itself  in  the  inferior 
descriptions  of  irons,  such  as  the  plates  tested  in  the  preceding  experiments. 
This  may  arise  from  the  different  processes  pursued  in  the  manufacture)  tbe 
bars  being  rendered  fibrous  and  ductile,  in  the  first  instance,  under  the 
hammer,  and  this  is  further  improved  by  reheating  them  and  passing  tbem 
between  the  rolls.    Bar  iron  will  thus  be  drawn  5y  the  hammer  and  rolfc 


TENSILE  STRENGTH  OF  RIVET  IRON. 


42t 


from  twenty  to  twenty-five  times  its  original  length  ;  whilst  plates,  such 
we  have  selected,  never  come  under  the  hammer,  and  seldom  exceed  six 
eight  times  the  length  of  the  original  shingle  after  passing  through  the 
lis. 

On  comparing  these  results  with  those  of  a  similar  quality  of  iron,  viz. 
C.  ^gr  bar  iron,  experimented  upon  at  Woolwich  Dockyard,  it  will  be  found 
at  a  corresponding  and  progressive  increase  of  strength  is  equally  appa- 
nt  as  in  the  above  experiments;  that  increase,  however,  arising  from  a 
fferent  cause,  namely,  the  repeated  fracture  of  the  bars  as  exhibited  in  the 
Mowing  Table: — 


First  breakage. 

Second  breakage. 

Third  breakage. 

Fourth  breakage. 

Reduced 

from 

1-37 

to 

Mark. 

Tons. 

Stretch 
in  54 
inches. 

Tons. 

Stretch 
in  36 
inches. 

Tons. 

Stretch 
in  34 
inches. 

Tons. 

Stretch 
in  15 
inches. 

A 
C 

£ 

i            F 

i  h, 

J 
L 
M 

3375 

3375 

3*5 

33-25 

32  75 

33-75 

33*50 

33-50 

32-25 

30*25 

in. 
9125 
9*250 
9-250 
10500 
8-500 
10  625 
8375 
9-250 
Defective 
DefectWe 

355 

35-25 

34-75 

35-50 

35-00 

36-25 

34-50 

36-00 

36*50 

36-50 

in. 
200 

•25 
1-25 
112 
1-25 
1-87 

•62 

•25 
1-5 

•62 

37-00 

37-25 
37-5 

36-5 
36-75 
37-75 
3775 

in. 

1-00 

-62 

1-50 
1120 

•06* 

38-75 

40-40 
40-41 

41-75 
4100 
38-50 

in. 

"ai" 

•06 

1-25 

118 
1-25 

125 
1-25 
1-25 

Mean    ......... 

32-92 

35-57 

37-21 

4016 

1-24 

Mean  per     1 
square  inch  J 

2394 

25-86 

2706 j  

29-20 

•90 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  mean  strength  of  the  bars  was 
24  tons,  whilst  that  of  the  rivet  iron  was  28  tons  per  square  inch,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  60°,  and  that  the  former  attained*  its  maximum  strength  of 
29  tons  from  repeated  breakages,  whilst  the  latter  reached  a  strength  of 
37  tons  by  an  increase  of  temperature  up  to  317°.  These  are  curious  and 
interesting  facts,  exhibiting  a  parallel  increase  of  strength,  in  the  one  case 
resulting  from  repeated  strains,  in  the  other  from  increase  of  temperature. 

The  foregoing  Table  indicates  a  progressive  increase  of  strength,  notwith- 
standing the  reduced  sectional  area  of  the  bars.  This  fact  is  of  considerable 
importance,  as  it  shows  that  a  severe  tensile  strain  is  not  injurious  to  the 
bearing  powers  of  wrought  iron,  even  when  repeated  to  the  extent  of  four 
times.  In  practice,  it  may  not  be  prudent  to  test  bars  and  chains  to  their 
utmost  limit  of  resistance ;  it  is  however  satisfactory  to  know,  that  in  cases  of 
emergency  those  limits  may  be  approached  without  incurring  a  serious  risk 
of  injury  to  the  ultimate  strength  of  the  material. 

It  is  further  important  to  observe,  that  the  elongations  are  not  in  propor- 
tion to  the  forces  of  extension ;  thus  in  the  bar  F,  the  elongation  of  a  bar, 
54  inches  long  with  33*25  tons,  is  10*5  inches,  giving  an  elongation  per  unit 
10*5 


of  weight  and  lengthy 


-=•0058,  whereas  an  additional  weight  of 


"33-25x54 

2*25  tons  produces  an  elongation  of  1*25  inches  in  36  inches  of  length  of 

k       .  1*25 

"•*,  giving  an  elongation  per  unit  of  length  and  weight=^-     g6='0154 ; 

that  is,  the  elongation  in  this  case  is  about  three  times  that  in  the  former. 


J 


422 


REPORT — 185& 


From  the  experiments  on  rivet  iron  we  have  a  mean  elongation,  in  fas*- 

*64S 
teen  experiments,  of  -643  inches  in  2\  inches,  or   2wT==-257  per  unit  t£ 

length ;  and  in  those  on  the  S.  C.  —  bars,  we  have  a  mean  elongation  af 
•274,  as  given  in  the  following  Table : — 


Length  of  b«r. 

Elongation. 

wufy  of  length* 

in. 

120 

26 

•216 

42 

9-8 

•233 

36 

8-8 

•244 

24 

6-2 

•268 

10 

4-2 

•420 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  rate  of  elongation  of  bars  of  wrought  iron  is> 
creases  with  the  decrease  of  their  length ;  thus  while  a  bar  of  120  inches  as* 
an  elongation  of  '216  inch  per  unit  of  its  length,  a  bar  of  10  inches  has  an 
elongation  of  "42  per  unit  of  its  length,  or  nearly  double  what  it  is  in  the 
former  case.  The  relation  between  the  length  of  the  bar  and  its  m>"""» 
elongation  per  unit,  may  be  approximately  expressed  by  the  following 
formula,  viz. — 


where  L  represents  the  length  of  the  bar,  and  /  the  elongation  per  unit  ef 
length  of  the  bar. 

It  is  difficult  to  measure  accurately  the  elongations  in  2\  inches,  but  the 
following  Table  shows  the  elongation  per  unit  of  weight  and  length  at 
various  temperatures,  as  exhibited  iu  the  experiments  on  rivet  iron. 


Temperature, 
Fahr.    ' 

.  Elongation  par 
ton  perinea. 

Mean  elongation 

per  unit  of  length 

and  weight. 

-38 

+00 

00 

114 

212 

212 

212 

250 

270 

310 

325 

415 

435 
Had  heat. 

•00284 

•00297 

•00197 

•00177 

00173 " 

•00142 

•00182 

•00164 

•00192 

•00175 

•00153 

•00175 

•00192 

•00841 

•00284 

|      -00247 

•00177 

I      -00102 

■      -00178 

>      -00164 

r      -00183 
•00341 

The  two  first  experiments,  at  low  temperatures,  are  rather  anomalous,  but 
the  rest  are  more  consistent,  showing  that  the  elongation  per  unit  qf  length 
and  weight  is  nearly  the  same  at  all  ordinary  temperatures,  but  is  more  than 
doubled  at  red  heat. 


MERCANTILE  BTBAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.       42$ 

Mercantile  Steam  Transport  Economy.    By  Charles  Athhrton, 
Chief  Engineer  of  Her  Majesty* *  Dockyard,  Woolwich. 

[A  Commuiiicfttipii  directed  to  be  printed  entire  among  the  Reports  of  the  Association.] 

The  construction  of  ships  and  the  administration  of  shipping  affairs,  invol- 
ving a  multiplicity  of  considerations  of  a  scientific  and  of  a  practical  and 
mercantile  character  connected  with  these  arts,  requires  that  shipping  direc- 
tion be  regarded  and  treated  as  the  subject  of  an  exclusive  science ;  and,  of 
late  years,  the  progressively  extended  application  of  steam  to  maritime  pur- 
poses, and  the  prospect  of  its  general  use  as  an  auxiliary  power,  have  still 
further    complicated   the  subject,  and   extended  the  range  of  mercantile 
acquirement  which  is  now  necessary  in  the  prosecution  of  steam-ship  equip- 
ment, direction,  and  management.     It  is  therefore  with  diffidence,  and  with 
the  feeling  of  my  not  possessing  the  combination  of  qualifications  which  is 
necessary  to  ensure  adequate  justice  being  done  in  all  respects  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  the  important  subject,  "  Steam  Transport  Economy/'  that  I  enter 
upon  the  task  of  bringing  that  subject  before  the  notice  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Promotion  of  Science.     I  am,  however,  encouraged  by  the 
assuring  reflection  that  public  utility  is  a  field  in  which  it  is  an  honour  to 
labour,  that  lenient  consideration  for  individual  deficiencies  and  the  helping 
hand  of  others  will  be  extended  to  the  most  humble  delvers  in  that  field,  and 
that  credit  may  be  earned  in  proportion  to  the  roughness  and  obdurate  nature 
of  the  spot  of  ground  which  we  may  have  undertaken  to  break  up,  and  to 
the  perseverance  by  which  one  may  at  least  attempt  the  accomplishment  of 
the  assigned  task.     Permit  me,  therefore,  to  remark,  that  my  present  appeal 
to  the  British  Association  is  but  a  continuation  of  my  previous  efforts  in  the 
cause  of  steam  exposition,  with  a  view  to  bringing  "  Steam  Transport  Eco- 
nomy "  within  the  pale  of  arithmetical  calculation  ;  and  as  I  shall  have  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  the  enunciation  of  principles  and  to  the  details  of  calculation^ 
which  have  thus  preceded  this  essay,  it  may  be  convenient  that  I  briefly 
enumerate  the  various  published  statements  thus  referred  to  as  forming  an 
integral  portion  of  this  paper,  and  which,  accordingly,  I  beg  to  hand  in  to 
the  Association  for  the  purposes  of  reference  and  record. 

1st.  A  brief  essay  on  *  Marine  Engine  Construction  and  Classification/ 
published  by  Weale,  in  1851. 

The  object  of  this  essay  was  to  analyse  the  data  afforded  by  published  and 
authentic  statements  of  the  actual  test-trial  performances  of  various  steam- 
ships, and  ascertain,  by  means  of  such  comparative  analysis,  what  are  the 
peculiarities  or  proportions  of  build,  and  what  are  the  peculiarities  of  engine- 
construction  of  those  vessels  which  have  attained  to  the  highest  degrees  of 
locomotive  efficiency,  thereby  also  scrutinising  how  far  the  popularly  re- 
ceived notions  in  regard  to  steam-ship  type  and  marine  engine  construction, 
supposed  to  be  most  conducive  to  locomotive  efficiency,  may  be  in  accord- 
ance with,  or  in  opposition  to,  the  results  of  actual  experience,  when  mea* 
sured  by  any  definite  and  received  law. 

2nd.  An  essay  on  *  Steam-ship  Capability,'  originally  published  in  1855', 
and  of  which  a  second  edition,  with  supplement,  was  published  by  Weale,  in 
1864. 

This  essay  was  designed  to  demonstrate  the  mutual  relations  which  subsist 
hetween  displacement,  power,  and  speed  in  steam-ships ;  especially  as  respects 
the  increasing  scale  of  engine-power  by  which  progressive  increase  of  speed 
is  attained ;  and  to  show  the  difficulties  which  attend  the  prosecution  of  a 
steam  service  in  which  long  passages  are  required  to  be  performed  at  a  high 


424  report — 1856. 

rate  of  speed ;  also  to  show  the  sacrifice  which  attends  the  employment  of 
vessels  of  an  inferior  type  of  build,  as  compared  with  vessels  of  a  superior 
type.  The  supplement  published  with  the  second  edition  of  this  essay  ex- 
tended the  tabular  calculations  to  embiace  vessels  of  hypothetical  magni- 
tude, and  to  demonstrate  a  system  of  £  $.  d.  arithmetical  calculation  appli- 
cable to  estimating  the  cost  of  goods  conveyance  per  ton  weight  by  steam- 
ships, based  on  the  constructive  type  of  the  ship,  the  speed  to  be  realised, 
and  the  size  of  ship  employed  to  do  the  work.  The  appendix  to  this  esny 
embraces  a  dissertation  on  the  probable  capabilities  of  ships  of  unprece- 
dented magnitude,  showing  the  advantage  of  magnitude  so  far  as  meehaniesl 
principles  are  concerned  irrespective  of  mercantile  considerations,  and  under 
what  combinations  of  speed  and  distance  without  re-coaling,  comparatively 
with  the  more  frequent  coaling  depots  available  to  smaller  vessels,  the  me- 
chanical advantage  of  magnitude  becomes  neutralized ;  also  giving  new  tablet 
for  facilitating  steam-ship  calculations,  by  showing  the  cubes  of  numben 
from  5  to  25,  rising  by  the  decimal  "01,  and  the  cube-roots  of  the  squares  of 
all  numbers  likely  to  be  embraced  in  the  tonnage  displacement  of  ships. 

3rd.  A  paper  on  "  Steam-ship  Capability,"  read  before  the  Society  of 
Arts,  London,  16th  May,  1855. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  expose  the  indefinite  nature  of  the  terms 
"horse- power"  and  "tonnage"  as  respects  their  not  being  what  they  are 
generally  supposed  to  be,  definite  units  of  measurement  of  engine-power  and 
ships'  size  ;  also  to  show  the  uselessness  for  scientific  purposes  of  all  statistical 
data  based  on  nominal  horse-power  and  nominal  tonnage,  and  the  fallacy  of 
all  calculations  based  on  those  indefinite  terms,  thence  showing  the  necessity 
for  some  definite  measure  of  power  being  legalized  as  the  unit  of  power  to 
be  denoted  by  the  term  "  Marine  Horse-power,"  and  used  as  the  base  of 
calculation  and  contract  engagement  in  steam  shipping  affairs. 

4th.  A  paper  on  '*  Tonnage  Registration,"  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts, 
London,  January  16,  1856,  with  the  discussions  thereon. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  show  the  insufficiency  for  scientific  pox- 
poses  of  the  system  of  tonnage  registration  now  in  force,  as  prescribed  by 
the  Merchant  Shipping  Bill  of  1854,  in  so  far  that  under  this  Act  the 
registered  tonnage  of  a  ship  affords  no  certain  indication  of  the  tons  weight 
of  cargo  that  the  ship  will  carry,  nor  does  it  give,  even  approximately,  the 
displacement  with  reference  to  any  given  draught ;  nor  does  the  registration 
afford  any  indication  of  the  power  capable  of  being  worked  up  to  by  the 
engines  of  steam-ships,  or  any  other  data  whereby  the  dynamic  properties  or 
locomotive  duty  of  vessels  may  be  scrutinized  on  scientific  principles.  By 
this  paper,  I  brought  forward  certain  suggestions  for  public  consideration 
and  discussion  with  a  view  to  our  official  registration  of  shipping  being  ren- 
dered more  comprehensive  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  various  useful  purposes 
to  which  statistical  registration,  if  complete,  would  undoubtedly  conduce,  in 
a  scientific  point  of  view,  irrespectively  of  merely  fiscal  objects. 

These  papers,  of  1 6th  May  1855,  and  16th  of  January  1856,  urging  the 
establishment  and  recognition  of  definite  units  as  the  legal  admeasurement  of 
marine  engine-power  and  ships*  tonnage,  I  beg  respectfully  to  submit  to  the 
notice  of  the  Committee  appointed  by  this  Association  for  the  consideration  of 
the  tonnage  question,  of  which  Committee  I  had  the  honour  of  being  named 
a  member,  but  I  was  under  the  necessity  of  declining  to  take  part  on  this 
Committee  in  consequence  of  my  being,  as  above  stated,  committed  to  cer- 
tain views  and  publicly  engaged  in  agitating  the  question  of  Tonnage  Regi- 
stration amendment,  with  a  view  to  supplying  the  deficiencies  of  the  present 
system. 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOAfc./*  .  „     425         -,  " 

Having  thus  shown  that  various  investigations  essentially  connected  with  •*" 
tlie  elucidation  of  the  subject  now  before  us,  "  Steam  Transport  Economy," 
have  constantly  and  publicly  engaged  my  attention  since  1851,  I  may  now, 
in  the  beginning  of  my  paper,  announce  the  proposition  to  which  I  hope  to 
direct  the  attention  of  the  British  Association. 

Now,  what  I  have  undertaken  to  demonstrate  is  this :  that,  in  consequence 
of  there  being  no  legalized  definitions  of  the  terms  power  and  tonnage  as 
standard  units  of  quantity  applied  to  the  prosecution  of  steam  navigation, 
there   is  practically  no  definite  measure  of  quantity  whatever  attached  to 
those  terms,  even  although  they  are  so  generally  made  use  of  as  the  base  of 
pecuniary  contracts,  and  that,  in  addition  to  the  private  evils  as  between 
buyer  and  seller  resulting  from  this  singular  anomaly  in  matters  of  mercan- 
tile  account:  the  public  evils,  resulting  from  nominal  "horse-power"  and  I 
■*  tonnage  "  being  terms  which  cannot  be  scientifically  recognized  as  express-  j 
ing  either  the  working  power  of  marine  machinery  or  the  size  of  a  ship,  are 
monstrous,  inasmuch  as  they  publicly  defeat  science  from  being  brought  to 
bear  on  steam-ship  construction  and  steam-ship  management  as  a  means  of 
investigation  and  proof  whereby  to  confirm  the  existence  and  establish  the 
continued  adoption  of  good  practice  where  good  practice  does  exist,  and  to 
detect  error  either  in  the  construction  of  steamers  or  in  the  management  of 
steamers  in  cases  where  bad  types  of  construction  and  mal-administration 
may  exist  and  be  destructive  of  enterprise,  which  might  otherwise  have  con- 
duced to  public  good.     In  short,  ray  object  is  to  show  that  in  consequence 
of  the  deficiencies  hi  our  national  standard  units  of  power  and  tonnage,  and 
deficiencies  of  our  statistical  registration,  the  public  are  deprived  of  the 
benefits  capable  of  being  derived  from  science  as  a  means  of  discriminating 
between  good  and  bad  practice  in  the  great  matter  of  shipping,  thus  enabling 
as  to  take  advantage  of  the  one  and  explode  the  other.     The  constructive 
merits  of  steam-ships  in  a  dynamic  point  of  view  may  be  comparatively  de- 
termined by  the  ratio  that  subsists  between  the  amount  of  displacement  that 
is  propelled  from  place  to  place,  the  speed  or  time  in  which  the  vessel  per- 
forms the  given  passage,  and  the  engine-power  exerted  or  the  coal  consumed 
in  the  performance  of  the  work ;  yet  every  ship  that  is  launched,  and  goes 
with  flying  colours  upon  the  usual  test-trial,  is  always  for  the  day  pronounced 
to  be  the  most  wonderful  ship  that  ever  was  built ;  and  no  wonder  that  it  is 
so,  considering  that  the  dynamic  merits  of  ships  are  thus  detennined,  not  by 
any  admitted  rule  based  on  the  mutual  relations  of  displacement,  power,  and 
speed,  but  by  acclamation  based  on  the  mutual  interests  of  all  concerned, 
that  a  new  ship  shall  be  of  good  repute.     All  attempts  to  expose  this  mon- 
strous deficiency  in  our  nautical  system  by  urging  the  importance  of  statis- 
tical registration,  have  been  held  up  to  reprobation  as  an  interference  with 
the  shipping  interests,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  public  who  pay  the 
penalty  of  an  enhanced  price  of  goods  transport  consequent  on  whatever 
deficiencies  may  exist  in  connexion  with  the  locomotive  properties  of  our 
shipping. 

In  justification  of  these  remarks  as  to  our  denominations  of  ships'  tonnage 
and  engine-power  being  a  delusion,  subversive  of  all  truth  so  far  as  scientific 
inquiry  and  research  may  be  based  thereon,  I  may  be  permitted  to  adduce 
the  following  statements  : — 

1st  As  to  tonnage  registration.  Although  tonnage  measurement  for  re- 
gistration has  been  subjected  to  legislative  revision  under  the  Merchant 
Shipping  Act  of  1854,  the  term  «' tonnage"  is  still  made  use  of  in  various 
significations.  By  the  present  law,  100  cubic  feet  of  internal  roomage,  or 
available  space  for  cargo,  constitutes  the  unit  of  tonnage,  but  as  respects  all 


426  report— 185&, 

•hips  built  previously  to  the  month  of  May  1855.  when  this  Act  came  ins 
operation,  the  adoption  of  this  law  is  not  compulsory.  Merchants  ka*e  tat 
privilege  of  retaining  the  former  registration  of  some  ships,  and  getting  sack 
others  of  their  ships  measured  and  registered  under  the  new  Act  as  they  met 
think  fit  to  select  for  re-registry,  so  that  the  term  "  tonnage  "  may  now  signify 
"  builders'  tonnage,"  old  measure,  under  the  Act  of  1773,  or  tonnage  under 
the  Act  of  1833,  or  tonnage  under  the  Act  of  1854;  and  these  are  three 
totally  different  systems  of  admeasurement,  having  no  definite  ratio  to  each 
other.  Moreover,  the  unit  of  tonnage  under  the  Act  of  1854  being  based 
on  internal  roomage  measuring  up  to  the  deck,  affords  no  certain  indicates 
of  the  displacement  of  a  ship  when  loaded  fit  for  sea,  nor  does  it  afford  any 
assurance  whatever  as  to  the  tons'  weight  of  cargo  that  a  ship  will  carry ;  for 
example,  by  adopting  the  cellular  principle  of  build  now  introduced  in  the 
construction  of  iron  ships,  a  ship  of  10,000  cubic  feet  of  internal  roomage,  or 
100  tons  register  tonnage,  may  have  such  external  displacement  as  would 
safely  float  with  the  whole  internal,  roomage  filled  with  iron,  and  therefore 
weighing  no  less  than  1000  tons  of  dead  weight,  or  ten  times  the  register 
tonnage,  and  the  registration  of  steam-ships  is  open  to  similar  delusion  as  to 
their  capability  for  weight  of  cargo.  So  much  for  the  mercantile  liberties 
that  may  possibly  be  introduced  and  taken  with  our  statistics  of  exports  sad 
imports  so  far  as  they  may  be  based  on  the  tonnage  registration  of  shipping 
under  the  Act  of  1854. 

The  abortiveness  for  statistical  and  scientific  purposes  which  has  hitherto 
attended  all  legislation  on  tonnage  registration,  appears  to  have  been  occa- 
sioned by  the  attempt  to  embrace  under  the  one  term  "  tonnage,"  two  things 
which  have  no  fixed  ratio  to  each  other,  namely,  tonnage  by  bulk,  and  ton- 
nage by  weight.  The  law  has  not  comprehended  the  double  mercantile  use 
and  application  of  the  term  " ton  "  D7  providing  for  the  separate  and  distinct 
registration  of  each,  namely,  tonnage  by  bulk  and  tonnage  by  weight,  the 
capability  of  ships  for  holding  bulk  tonnage  being  dependent  on  internal  room- 
age  ;  but  tbe  capability  of  ships  for  carrying  weight  tonnage  being  dependent 
on  external  displacement,  a  distinction  which  is  not  noticed  by  the  new  law 
of  tonnage  admeasurement  under  the  Act  of  1854. 

2nd.  As  to  marine  engine-power.     Although  Watt  originally  defined  the 
unit  of  power,  which  he  denominated  horse-power,  as  equivalent  to  33,000  lbs. 
weight  raised  one  foot  high  in  one  minute  of  time,  and  invented  a  mecha- 
nical device  or  instrument  called  a  "  steam-indicator,"  whereby  the  variable 
pressure  of  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  and  consequently  the  working  power 
of  steam-engines  could  be  readily  ascertained  (whence  the  working  power  so 
ascertained  was  denominated  the  "  indicated  horee-power*f),  all  which  ar- 
rangements of  Watt  put  the  working  operation  of  the  steam-engine  originally 
on  a  scientific  base,  defined  by  a  standard  unit  of  power  admeasurement, 
still  this  definite  unit  of  power  was  never  recognized  by  law,  and  conse- 
quently the  8 team- engine  was  no  sooner  applied  to  maritime  purposes,  than 
the  rivalry  of  trade  introduced  a  practice  under  which  the  nominal,  or  contract 
power  of  engines,  did  not  specifically  regulate  the  working  capability  of  the 
engine  delivered.     Engines  were  not  objected  tp  by  the  purchaser  if  their 
working  capabilities  were  in  excess  of  the  nominal  power,  and  engineers 
themselves  voluntarily  supplied  marine  engines  working  up  to  an  "  indicated 
power  far  in  excess  of  the  nominal "  power,  for  the  purpose  of  thereby  dri- 
ving the  new  vessel  at  a  higher  rate  of  speed  than  that  attained  by  some  rival       j 
vessel  with  the  same  nominal  power.     Reputation  for  the  production  of  fast       ' 
steamers  depended  on  beating  the  rival  boat,  not  on  the  mode  of  effecting 
that  object.    The  shipping  interests  and  their  working  craftsmen,  ship- 


MERCANTILE  8TBAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.       427 

wrights  and  engineers,  felt  themselves  constrained  to  meet  their  rivals  in 
trade  with  their  rivals'  weapons ;  numerous  devices  have  been  adopted  with 
a  view  to  the  development  of  power  on  board  of  ship  by  packing  the  greatest 
amount  of  engine-power  into  the  least  space,  and  undoubtedly  great  improve- 
ments have  been  made  by  adapting  the  dimensions  and  proportions  of  vessels 
to  the  service  required,  but  still "  Fame,"  in  regard  to  the  character  of  steam- 
ships based  on  speed,  has  been  too  much  the  result  of  horse-power  delusive 
jockeyship  rather  than  of  truthful  science.     By  the  practice  of  trade,  horse- 
power came  to  be  measured  by  the  diameter  of  the  cylinder,  without  any 
limitation  as  to  the  capabilities  of  the  boiler,  and  gradually  in  time  a  marine- 
engine  contract  was  considered  not  to  be  fulfilled  unless  the  engines  were 
capable  of  working  up  to  an  "indicated  horse-power"  at  least  double  that  of 
the  contract  nominal  power ;  still,  however,  no  specific  limit  was  assigned 
either  by  custom  or  by  law ;  and  at  length  to  such  a  degree  has  competition 
set  truth  at  defiance,  that  the  working,  or  "  indicated  horse-power "  of 
engines  delivered  under  contract,  has  frequently  amounted  to  four  times  the 
nominal  horse-power  actually  stipulated  for  by  the  contract.    These  facts 
are  fully  set  forth  in  the  paper  read  by  me  before  the  Society  of  Arts  on  the 
16th  or  May,  1855. 

Having  thus  pointed  out  the  indefinite  application  in  steam-shipping 
practice  of  the  terms  "  tonnage  "  and  "  horse-power/'  with  reference  to  the 
definite  terms  •'  displacement "  and  "  indicated  horse- power,"  it  may  be  still 
further  edifying  that  we  illustrate  the  anomalies  liable  to  result  when  these 
terms  are  used  in  combination  with  each  other,  as  is  constantly  the  case  in 
expressing  and  recording  the  ratio  of  tonnage  to  power  of  a  steam-ship.  In 
exposition  of  this  matter,  I  may  again  refer  to  the  before-mentioned  paper, 
whereby  it  will  be  seen  that  I  selected  ten  vessels,  in  each  of  which  the  ratio 
of  builders*  tonnage  to  nomiual  power  was  very  nearly  the  same,  namely,  in 
the  ratio  of  100  tons  of  builders'  tonnage  to  40  nominal  horse-power,  or 
2\  tons  of  tonnage  to  one  nominal  horse-power;  but  on  comparing  the 
constructors'  load  displacement  of  these  same  ships,  calculated  in  tons  weight 
at  35  cubic  feet  of  water  to  the  ton,  with  the  effective  working  power,  based  on 
indicator  measurement,  the  ratio  was  found  to  be  100  tons  displacement  to. 
38  horse-power  in  one  case,  and  100  tons  displacement  to  281  horse-power 
in  another. 

The  recorded  statistics  of  these  ten  vessels  would  lead  one  to  infer  that 
they  are  all  powered  in  the  same  proportion  of  engine-power  to  size  of  ship ; 
but,  in  fact,  they  are  all  different,  and  on  comparing  the  two  extremes,  one 
ship  has  no  less  than  seven  times  the  power  of  the  other,  in  proportion  to 
size  of  ship  as  determined  by  displacement.  In  fact,  generally,  the  records 
of  register-tonnage  and  nominal  horse-power  do  not  constitute  statistical  data 
of  any  value  whatever  for  the  scientific  purpose  of  discriminating  between 
the  relative  dynamic  merits  of  steam-ships,  but,  on  the  contrary,  such  records 
and  all  ideas  resulting  therefrom  are  positively  delusive  and  mischievous. 
The  conclusion  at  which  I  would  arrive  from  these  statements  is,  that  the 
very  first  step  in  any  attempts  to  bring  steam  affairs  within  the  range  of 
arithmetical  calculation,  must  necessarily  be  to  establish  the  measure  or  value 
which  we  assign  to  our  units  of  tonnage  and  power.  It  is  only  by  the  moral 
influence  of  such  a  body  as  the  British  Association  that  the  cause  of  science 
can  obtain  a  hearing  in  this  matter  of  statistical  registration  applied  to  ship- 
ping. With  reference  to  our  units,  it  is,  of  course,  desirable  that  the  measure 
of  the  unit,  to  be  legally  recognized  as  the  unit  of  power,  should  be  nearly 
in  accordance  with  the  general  average  of  practice  at  the  time  when  the  unit 
may  be  so  established;  and  as  at  the  present  time  (1856)  the  general  run  of 


428  report— 1856. 

marine  nominal  horse-power  varies  from  two  indicated  hone-power  to  km 
indicated  horse-power,  that  is  from  66,000  lbs.  to  132,000  lbs.  raised  one  font 
high  per  minute,  it  is  submitted  that  the  unit  of  marine  horse-power  woaltf 
now  be  most  conveniently  fixed  at  100,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  high  per 
minute.  Until,  however,  some  definite  measure  of  the  unit  be  legal? 
recognized,  it  is  considered  advisable  in  matters  of  scientific  inquiry  like  the 
present  to  adhere  to  the  measure  of  the  unit  originally  proposed  by  W«^ 
namely,  33,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  high  per  minute,  designating  this  safe 
of  measurement  as  the  "  indicated  horse-power,"  thus : — Ind.  h.p.;  and  toefe 
will  be  the  unit  referred  to  when  horse-power  is  spoken  of  in  the  foUowhf 
pages  of  this  paper. 

Now,  as  to  the  measure  of  the  unit  of  tonnage  by  which  the  sizes  of  skip 
are  to  be  spoken  of  and  compared,  we  have  already  observed  that  under  the 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  passed  in  the  year  1854,  the  unit  of  tonnage  is  band 
on  the  internal  roomage  of  ships  available  for  cargo ;  that  all  ships  built  nnee 
May   1855,  are  registered  under  this  Act;    but  the  re-measurement  and 
re-registration  of  ships  built  previously  to  1855  is  not  made  compulsory. 
Shipowners  have  the  privilege  of  re-registering,  under  the  Act  of  1854*  seek 
vessels  as  they  may  select  for  that  purpose ;  consequently,  our  present  regis- 
tration is  mixed,  and  the  various  units  of  tonnage-measurement  thus  embraced 
under  our  present  tonnage-registration  have  no  definite  ratio  to  each  other, 
or  to  the  tons  weight  of  cargo  that  ships  will  carry.    The  comparative  merits 
or  demerits  of  these  various  systems  of  registration  for  fiscal  purposes  need 
not  be  here  discussed.     Suffice  it  to  say,  that  in  none  of  these  systems  has 
any  notice  whatever  been  taken  of  the  measurements  which  constitute  dis- 
placement ;  and  as  displacement  is  an  essential  element  in  any  scientific  in- 
vestigation as  to  the  locomotive  performance  of  steam-ships  with  reference 
to  the  power  employed  and  speed  attained,  it  follows  that  our  present  regis- 
tration of  shipping,  even  under  the  Act  of  1854,  does  not  afford  statistical 
data  of  such  a  character  as  to  be  available  for  science  in  the  matter  of  com- 
paring the  merits,  in  a  locomotive  or  dynamic  point  of  view,  of  the  various 
models  or  types  of  form  by  which  steam-ships  have  been  constructed.    It  h 
submitted  for  the  consideration  of  the  British  Association,  that  national  ad- 
vancement in  maritime  affairs,  especially  in  regard  to  transport  economy, 
would  be  promoted  by  our  public  registration  of  shipping  in  general,  and  of 
steam  shipping  in  particular,  being  so  systematized  as  to  embrace  not  only 
the  roomage  measurement  required  for  fiscal  purposes,  but  also,  in  addition, 
those  details  of  displacement,  which  in  combination  with  the  data  of  speed 
and  power  derived  from  the  actual  performances  of  ships,  are  necessary  to 
scientific  investigation  in  determining  the  relative  dynamic  merits  of  different 
types  of  form  of  steam-ships.     It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  it  is  the  public, 
the  consumers  of  merchandise,  who  must  ultimately  bear  all  the  expenses 
connected  with  the  transport  and  delivery  of  merchandise,  whether  well  or 
ill  performed.    Bad  ships  individually  enhance  the  average  cost  of  imported 
corn  and  all  other  consumable  merchandise.     Bad  ships  also  enhance  the 
price  of  cotton  and  all  other  similar  raw  material  imported  for  the  production 
of  export  manufactures.   This  enhanced  price  restricts  demand,  thus  curtailing 
the  sources  of  employment;  so  that  every  bad  ship,  whether  employed  io  the 
import  or  export  trade,  is,  of  itself,  a  public  nuisance :  a  prevalent  bad  type 
of  ships  would  be  a  public  calamity,  and  progressive  improvement  would  be 
a  public  benefit.     It  has  been  said  that  the  interests  of  shipowners  is  in 
itself  a  sufficient  guarantee  for  ensuring  the  adoption  of  the  type  of  ships 
best  adapted  for  mercantile  steam  transport  economy.     It  is  scarcely  fair 
to  "base  any  argument  on  interested  motives,  but  as  that  argument  ban 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.        429 

been  raised  it  must  be  noticed.  Undoubtedly,  each  shipowner  has  an 
individual  interest  in  his  own  ships  being  the  best  afloat,  but  if  he  does 
possess  the  best  ships,  it  is  equally  his  interest  to  keep  that  fact  and  the 
means  of  acquiring  them  to  himself,  so  that  the  charges  for  freight  may  con* 
tinue  to  be  ruled  by  the  inferior  dynamic  qualities  of  the  average  ships  em- 
ployed by  the  trade,  not  by  the  superior  dynamic  qualities  of  the  best  ships 
as  possessed  by  himself,  the  difference  being  the  shipowner's  private  advan- 
tage or  the  public's  loss.  It  is  therefore  the  interest  of  the  public  that  all 
bad  types  of  shipping  be  exposed  and  eradicated.  Freight  would  then,  as 
respects  the  quality  of  ships,  be  ruled  by  a  scale  of  charges  derived  from 
the  performance  of  a  generally  improved  type  of  ships  working  in  fair  com- 
petition with  each  other. 

Having  already  defined  the  measurement  of  the  units  by  which  we  propose 
to  designate  the  working  power  of  the  engines  and  the  size  of  the  ship, 
namely,  ind.  h.p.  at  88,000  lbs.  raised  one  foot  high  per  minute,  and  tons 
weight  of  displacement  at  S5  cubic  feet  of  water  to  the  ton,  it  is  now  neces- 
sary that  we  refer  to  the  received  law  or  formula  by  which  the  comparative 
dynamic  duty  of  steam-ships  may  be  numerically  ascertained.  The  formula 
usually  adopted  for  obtaining  the  coefficient  of  dynamic  duty  of  steam- 
ships is  (.    .    .       =C),  in  which  D  is  the  displacement  of  the  ship  at  the 

time  of  trial  expressed  in  tons  weight,  V  the  speed  (usually  expressed  in 
nautical  miles  per  hour),  and  ind.  h.p.  the  working  power  as  ascertained  by 
means  of  the  indicator.  The  resultant  number  (C)  deduced  from  this  formula 
is  termed  the  coefficient  of  dynamic  performance.  This  coefficient  (C)  will 
be  a  constant  number  for  all  vessels  of  perfectly  similar  model  or  type  of 
form,  and  of  which  the  engines  are  equally  effective  in  proportion  to  their  gross 
ind.  h.p. ;  but  if  the  vessels  be  not  of  similar  type,  and  the  engines  not  equally 
effective  in  proportion  to  their  ind.  h.p.,  the  coefficient  (C)  will  vary,  and  thus 
the  dynamic  performance  of  different  vessels  will  be  comparatively  ascertained* 
It  is  not  our  purpose  in  this  paper  to  raise  any  question  as  to  the  scientific 
rationale  or  resultant  accuracy  of  this  formula;  I  will  merely  observe,  that 
though  open  to  criticism  in  several  respects,  the  results  of  experience  have 
demonstrated  that  this  formula,  when  applied  to  any  known  type  of  ship,  ex- 
pounds the  mutual  relations  of  displacement,  power,  and  speed  with  a  degree 
of  precision  that  admits  of  its  being  practically  made  use  of  for  determining 
the  resultant  speed  that  is  to  be  expected  from  any  combination  of  power 
and  displacement,  and  in  like  manner,  any  one  of  the  three  elements  of  the 
formula  may  be  deduced  from  the  other  two  being  given.  Further,  this 
formula  may  be  rendered  available  as  a  counting-house  check  on  the  work- 
ing operation  of  steam-ships,  simply  by  substituting  the  consumption  of  coals, 
expressed  in  cwts.  per  day  of  24  hours  (W),  in  lieu  of  the  ind.  h.p. ;  for  1 
cwt,  or  112  lbs.,  per  day  of  24  hours  is  at  the  rate  of  4*66  lbs.  per  hour, 
which  is  probably  about  the  ordinary  consumption  per  ind.  h.p.  per  hour, 
and  it  ought  not  to  be  exceeded.  If,  therefore,  in  lieu  of  the  ind.  h.p.  we 
substitute  the  consumption  of  coals,  calculated  in  cwts.  per  day  of  24  hours, 
the  resultant  coefficient  (C)  will  afford  an  approximate  indication  of  the 
good  or  bad  performance  of  ships,  as  compared  one  with  another,  and  the 
fact  of  an  inferior  performance  being  thus  detected,  the  cause  to  which  it 
may  be  attributable,  whether  to  inferior  type  of  form,  or  foulness  of  bottom, 
or  inferior  adaptation  of  engine,  or  inferior  construction  of  boiler,  or  inferior 
management  on  board  ship,  will  then  become  the  subject  of  professional  in- 
quiry ;  thus,  the  merchant,  by  aid  of  his  counting-house  statistics  of  displace- 
ment, time  on  passage  of  given  length,  and  coals  consumed,  will  be  enabled 


430  BBfrOB*— 1056, 

to  detect  the  fact  of  inefficiency,  and  it  will  then  be  for  the 
engineer  to  detect  and  remedy  the  cause  thereof.  The  annunciation  of  fat 
formula,  or  the  mercantile  rule  above  referred  to,  is  as  follows :— Multiply 
the  cube  of  the  speed,  expressed  in  knots  or  nautical  miles  pet  hour  (Vy 
by  the  cube  root  of  the  square  of  the  displacement  (D£),  and  divide  by  the 
consumption  of  coals,  expressed  in  cwts.-per  day  of  24-  hours,  the  resultaat 
numeral  coefficient  (C)  will  indicate  the  dynamic  or  locomotive  eAdescj 
of  the  vessel ;  and  such  is  the  variable  condition  of  steam-ships  in  presort 
use,  that  the  coefficient  has  been  found  to  be  as  low  in  some  cases  as  1% 
whilst  in  other  cases  it  has  reached  the  number  250.  The  pecuniary  vahe 
of  gold  is  determined  by  assay ;  and  in  like  manner  the  contract  price  to  k 
paid  for  a  steam-ship  should,  in  some  measure,  be  regulated  by  the  coefficient, 
based  on  the  mutual  relation  of  displacement,  speed,  and  coals,  which  nm 
be  realized  on  trial  of  the  ship ;  for  example,  multiply  the  contract  price  by 
the  numeral  coefficient  that  may  be  actually  realized,  and  divide  by  tk 
coefficient  that  may  be  regarded  as  the  par  measure  of  dynamic  efficieaej, 
according  as  the  vessels  may  be  painted  or  sheathed  with  copper.  Contract 
based  on  this  principle  would  constitute  a  check  upon  the  production  tf 
inefficient  ships,  and  award  a  premium  on  the  construction  of  ships  of  superior 
merit 

The  approximate  trustworthiness  of  the  formula  (.    ■    J — ==W  beiag 

conceded ,  we  now  have  the  means  of  pursuing  our  exposition  of  the  extent 
to  which  any  definite  difference  of  type  or  falling  off  in  the  working  conditio! 
of  a  ship  will  affect  the  amount  of  prime  cost  expenses  incurred  in  the  con- 
veyance of  merchandise  by  steam-ships.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  we 
have  ships  whose  coefficients  of  dynamic  duty  or  index  numbers  (C)  deduced 

from  the  formula  f .    .   J     *=C  j  are  respectively  250  and  166,  which  ass* 

bers  correspond  with  1000  and  664,  if  the  unit  of  marine  engine-power  he 
taken  at  4  ind.  h.p.,  as  is  the  case  in  the  tabular  calculations  given  in  Ather- 
ton's  'Steam-ship  Capability,'  and  are  coefficients  of  dynamic  duty  not 
unusual  as  between  different  steam- ships  in  actual  practice ;  in  evidence  of 
which,  confirmatory  of  the  official  records  whence  these  numbers  are  takes, 
I  may  refer  to  a  tabular  statement  of  steam-ship  trials  recently  supplied  to 
me  by  one  of  our  most  experienced  firms  (engineers  and  shipbuilders),  by 
which  statement  it  appears,  that,  adopting  the  formula  referred  to,  the  index 
numbers  or  coefficients  of  dynamic  duty  of  eight  steam-ships  varied  from  251 
to  149,  thus  showing  that  the  difference  of  constructive  types  now  assumed 
as  the  base  of  calculation  for  this  exposition,  is  not  an  exaggeration,  but  such 
as  is  common  in  practice.  In  the  first  place,  referring  to  *  Steam-ship  Capa- 
bility/ 2nd  edit,  page  78,  we  will  expose  the  difference  of  power  (Ind.  h.p.) 
which  would  be  required  by  two  vessels,  A  and  B,  of  the  respective  types 
or  working  conditions  of  service  indicated  by  the  coefficients  above  referred 
to  (namely  250  and  166),  supposing  the  vessels  to  be  each  of  2500  tons  load 
displacement.  The  vessel  A  will  be  propelled  at  8  knots,  10  knots,  and  IS 
knots  per  hour,  by  976  ind. h.p.,  736  ind.  h.p.,  and  1272  ind.  h.p. ;  but  the  vessel 
B  will  require,  to  attain  the  same  rate  of  speed,  568  ind.  h.p.,  1112  ind.h.p^ 
and  1920  ind.  h.p.  Thus  the  ship  B  requires,  in  consequence  of  her  infe- 
riority of  working  condition,  or  type  of  construction,  an  increase  of  power  of 
no  less  than  50  per  cent,  in  order  to  attain  the  same  rate  of  speed  as  ship  A; 
and,  be  it  observed,  that  these  assumed  coefficients  are  within  the  range  of 
ordinary  difference  between  one  ship  and  another. 
We  will  now  show  the  sacrifice  which  such  a  difference  of  type  produces 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.  4S1 

in  the  weight  of  cargo  which  these  ships  of  (say)  2600  tons  displacement, 
with  mean  quantity  of  coal  on  board,  would  respectively  carry  on  a  given 
passage,  if  powered  for  running  at  the  speed  of  8, 10,  and  12  knots  per  hour. 
For  this  exposition  we  will  assume  the  weight  of  the  ships  themselves,  as 
measured  by  the  light  displacement  of  ships,  when  ready  to  receive  cargo  and 
coal  for  the  voyage,  to  appropriate  1000  tons  displacement,  being  40  per 
cent,  of  the  load  displacement    We  will  also  assume  the  weight  of  the 
engine  department  complete  at  5  cwts.  per  ind.  h.  p.,  and  the  consumption  of 
coal  to  be  at  the  rate  of  4  lbs.  per  ind.  h.p.  per  hour,  and  the  length  of  passage, 
without  re- coaling,  to  be  S250  nautical  miles,  being  about  the  distance  from 
Liverpool  to  New  York,  or  to  Constantinople.    On  these  data,  according  as 
the  Teasels  may  be  powered,  as  before  shown,  for  being  propelled  at  the  speed 
of  8,  10,  and  12  knots  per  hour,  the  displacement  available  for  cargo  in  A 
will  be  1270  tons,  1103  tons,  and  875  tons  weight  of  cargo ;  while  in  B  it  will 
be  1152,  900,  and  556  tons  weight.    The  consumption  of  coal  in  A  will  be 
273  tons  at  8  knots,  427  tons  at  10  knots,  and  615  tons  at  12  knots ;  and  in 
B  it  will  be  412,  645,  and  929  tons  weight    Hence  it  appears  that  purely  in 
consequence  of  the  difference  in  constructive  type,  or  working  condition  of 
the  ships,  the  reduction  of  cargo  in  B,  as  compared  with  A,  will  be  9,  18,  and 
36  per  cent.,  according  as  the  speed  may  be,  8,  10,  or  12  knots  per  hour; 
while  the  increase  of  coal,  being  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  power,  will 
in  each  case  be  50  per  cent    But  the  public  evils  of  an  inferior  type,  or 
neglected  condition  of  ships,  will  be  still  more  fully  exposed,  and  be  more 
definitely  understood  by  the  extra  £  *.  d.  charge  that  must  be  made  for 
freight  per  ton  weight  of  goods  conveyed,  in  order  to  meet  the  prime  cost 
expense  of  conveyance.    In  order  to  work  out  this  calculation,  we  must 
assume  certain  data  of  investment  and  current  expense  as  constituting  the 
prime  cost  charges  of  permanently  establishing  and  upholding  a  commercial 
fleet  of  steam-ships  ;  and  as  this  is  the  vital  point  in  wjiich  the  public,  as  con- 
sumers, have  a  direct  interest,  it  will  be  expected  that  I  enter  upon  it  in  con- 
siderable detail,  as  set  forth  in  Supplement  to  '  Steam-ship  Capability,'  2nd 
edit  page  76. 

In  the  first  place,  I  would  remark  that  it  is  only  during  the  number  of  days 
that  steamers  are  annually  at  sea  conveying  cargoes  of  goods  from  port  to 
port  that  they  earn  the  income  that  is  to  defray  the  whole  annual  expenditure 
incurred.  The  number  of  days  per  annum  during  which  steamers  are  at  sea 
will,  of  course,  depend  materially  on  the  service  in  which  they  may  be 
employed ;  and  as  it  is  proposed  to  work  out  our  calculations  with  reference 
to  a  passage  of  3250  nautical  miles — such,  for  example,  as  the  passage  from 
England  to  New  York  or  to  the  Black  Sea — I  have  assumed  that  the  vessels 
employed  on  such  service  may  be  at  sea  200  days  per  annum.,  In  the  next 
place,  the  cost  of  coal  is  a  very  material  item,  greatly  dependent  on  the 
service  on  which  the  vesseb  may  be  employed.  This  I  have  assumed  at  £2 
per  ton  weight  as  the  average  cost  of  the  yearly  consumption.  Next,  as  to 
the  ship ;  I  have  assumed  that  a  ship  of  2500  to  3000  tons  load  displacement 
would  be  purchased  from  the  builders  as  a  ship  of  about  the  same  amount  of 
tonnage,  builders'  measurement,  and  that  the  cost  of  the  ship,  completely 
fitted,  equipped,  and  furnished  in  all  respects  ready  for  sea,  would  be  £25  per 
ton.  Then,  assuming  the  interest  on  investment  at  £5  per  cent,  per  annum, 
the  upholding  and  replacement  at  10  per  cent,  per  annum,  insurance  at  5  per 
cent  per  annum,  and  wages  and  rations  of  officers  and  crew  all  the  year 
round  at  £3  per  100  tons  per  week  ;  on  these  data  we  shall  have  the  prime 
ooet  expenses  incidental  to  the  hull  amounting  to  £6  11  *.  2d.  per  ton  of 
tonnage  per  annum,  which  is  8d.  per  day  sea-time,  assuming  the  vessel  to  be 


432  report — 1856. 

at  sea  200  day*  per  annum,  exclusive  of  harbour  dues,  lights,  and  pilotage, 
which  are  supposed  to  be  the  same  for  all  ships  of  equal  tonnage. 

Next,  as  to  the  engine  department : — 

The  average  price  of  marine  condensing  engines,  as  now  usually  con- 
structed, may  be  rated  at  £50  per  nominal  horse-power,  and  in  general  each 
horse-power  nominal  may  be  expected  to  work  up  to  2^  ind.  h.pu,  so  that  the 
cost  of  marine  engines  may  be  rated  at  £20  per  ind.  h.p.  Then,  assuming  the 
interest  on  investment  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum  on  the  contract  cost,  the 
upholding  and  replacement  at  10  per  cent,  insurance  5  per  cenk,  wages  sad 
rations  of  engineers  and  stokers  at  £5  per  100  ind.  h.p.  per  week,  conss- 
mable  stores  (coal  excepted)  £2  10*.  per  100  ind.  h.p.  per  week,  on  these  data 
we  shall  have  the  prime  cost  expenses  incidental  to  the  engine  department 
(exclusive  of  coal),  amounting  to  £7  18*.  per  ind.  h.p.  per  annum,  which  h 
9cL  per  day  per  ind.  h.p.  sea-time,  assuming  the  vessel  to  be  at  sea  200  dap 
per  annum. 

These  assumed  data  of  pecuniary  charges  incidental  to  steam-ship  transport 
service,  as  applied  to  mercantile  purposes,  combined  with  the  mutual  relation 
of  displacement,  power,  and  speed,  which  are  derivable  from  the  foregoing 

/  Vs  DS         \ 
formula  I  ..  .    -  =  C  1  according  to  the  constructive  type  or  locomotive 

quality  of  the  ship,  as  shown  by  the  coefficient  or  index  number  C,  enable  m 
to  make  up  the  prime  cost  expenses,  being  the  minimum  at  which  goods  can 
be  conveyed,  and  which  therefore  should  constitute  the  base  of  the  estimate 
by  which  a  minimum  scale  of  freight  charges  should  be  estimated ;  and 
applying  these  data  to  the  ships  A  and  B,  employed  on  a  passage  of  3250 
nautical  miles,  as  exemplified  in  the  Supplement  to  Atherton's  *  Steam-ship 
Capability,'  2nd  edition,  page  78,  the  minimum  scale  of  freight  charges  per 
ton  of  goods,  according  as  the  vessels  may  be  powered  for  a  speed  of  8, 10, 
or  12  knots  per  hour,  will,  on  the  data  referred  to,  require  to  be  "as  follows  :— 

8  knots.  10  knots.       »        12  knots. 

Ship  A £1  15    7        £2     4    6        £346' 

ShipB     272  398  6  16     3 

The  proportions  in  which  goods,  according  to  their  respective  kinds,  may 
be  made  to  bear  freight  charges  so  as  to  yield  the  average  return  per  ton 
weight  on  the  entire  cargo,  is  altogether  a  matter  of  commercial  discretion 
and  management.  The  entire  cargo  must  be  made  to  yield  the  average  return 
per  ton  weight  here  set  forth. 

Hence  it  appears  that  12  miles  speed  involves  about  double  the  freight  cost 
of  the  8  miles  speed  with  the  superior  ship  A,  and  nearly  three  times  the  cost 
of  the  8  miles  speed  with  the  ship  B,  and  12  miles  speed  with  .the  ship  B  is 
about  four  times  as  expensive  as  the  8  miles  speed  with  the  ship  A.  Also, 
the  extra  cost  to  the  public  at  which  freight  charges  are  enhanced  by  the  in- 
ferior type  or  inferior  working  condition  of  ship  B,  as  compared  with  the  ship 
A,  if  continuously  employed  on  the  passage  of  3250  nautical  miles,  and  under 
the  data  referred  to,  assuming  the  consumption  of  coal  to  be  at  the  rate  of 
4  lbs.  per  ind.  h.p.  per  hour,  and  according  as  the  steaming  speed  of  both 
ships  may  be  8,  10,  or  12  knots  per  hour,  is  no  less  than  32  per  cent  at 
8  knots,  56  per  cent  at  10  knots,  and  111  per  cent  at  12  knots.  Undoubt- 
edly, the  details  of  the  data  on  which  the  foregoing  calculations  have  been 
based  are  open  to  correction,  and  will  greatly  depend  on  their  application  to 
special  services  on  considerations  immediately  connected  with  such  special 
service,  and  caunot  be  generalized ;  but,  whatever  alteration  of  these  data 
may  be  applied  to  the  ship  A  must  likewise  be  applied  to  B,  so  that,  although. 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.  433 

the  foregoing  estimate  of  the  actual  cost  expenses  of  freight  may  be  consider- 
ably modified  by  our  altering  the  data  of  the  calculations,  still  the  per- 
centages of  difference  above  set  forth,  showing  the  degree  or  per-centage  in 
which  freight  charges  for  the  passage  of  3250  miles  are  enhanced  in  conse- 
quence of  the  inferiority  in  locomotive  properties  of  the  ship  B,  as  compared 
with  the  ship  A,  will  not  be  much  altered  from  the  per-centages  above  set 
forth,  showing  an  enhanced  cost  of  freight  to  be  paid  by  the  public  on  bring- 
ing cargo,  grain  for  instance,  from  the  States,  or  from  the  Black  Sea,  to  England, 
amounting  to  32  percent,  at  the  8  knots  speed,  56  percent  at  the  1 0  knots  speed, 
and  111  per  cent  at  the  12  knots  speed,  extra  charges  incurred  on  freight  per 
ton  of  goods  conveyed,  and  to  be  paid  by  the  public,  in  consequence  of  the 
dynamic  inferiority  of  ship  B,  as  compared  with  ship  A.  It  is  surely  in  con- 
sequence of  the  public  not  being  generally  aware  of  the  high  scale  of  prime 
cost  charges  necessarily  involved  in  a  12  miles  speed  (steaming  speed  at  sea), 
as  compared  with  an  &  miles  speed,  that  such  high  speed  is  so  universally  de- 
manded by  the  public ;  and  it  must  surely  be  in  consequence  of  an  almost 
similar  want  of  insight  into  the  real  cost  of  high  speed  on  the  part  of  directors, 
that  obligations  as  to  speed  are  so  frequently  incurred  at  a  price  inadequate 
to  such  service.  If  the  public  will  have  a  progressively  increasing  high  rate  of 
speed,  they  must  pay  for  it  about  in  the  ratio  at  which  they  purchase  iron, 
copper,  silver,  gold,  and  diamonds,  either  of  which  may  be  bought  too  dear  for 
common  use. 

The  foregoing  results  have  been  based  on  the  supposition  that  the  consump- 
tion of  fuel  in  both  ships  is  at  the  rate  of  4?  lbs.  per  hour  per  ind.  h.p.    My 
own  experience,  however,  induces  me  to  be  of  opinion  that  this  rate  of  con- 
sumption is  but  very  seldom  realized,  and  that  5  lbs.  of  coal  per  ind.  h.p. 
per  hour  is  much  nearer  in  accordance  with  our  present  actual  steaming  prac- 
tice.   It  is  therefore  important  that  we  show  to  what  extent  the  rate  of  trans- 
port freight  efpenses  will  be  enhanced,  if  the  service  above  referred  to^ 
namely  S250  nautical  miles  direct,  be  performed  with  an  inferior  construc- 
tion of  boiler,  causing  a  consumption  of  5  lbs.  of  coal  per  indicated  horse- 
power per  hour,  instead  of  4  lbs.,  as  above  calculated  on.  In  this  case,  accord- 
ing as  the  speed  for  which  the  vessel  may  be  powered  is  8,  10,  or  12  knots 
an  hour  (see  '  Steam-ship  Capability,1  p.  78),  the  cost  expenses  incurred  by 
vessel  A,  instead  of  being  £1  15*.  7c?.,  £2  4*.  6c?.,  and  £3  4*.  6d.  per  ton-weight 
of  cargo,  will  now  amount  to'  £1  19s.  5d.,  £2  11*.  4k/.,  and  £3  19**  Id.  per 
ton-weight  of  cargo,  this  increase  of  prime  cost  freight  expenses  per  ton  of 
goods  being  1 1  per  cent,  1 5  per  cent.,  and  22  per  cent,  according  as  the 
service  speed  may  be  8, 10,  or  12  knots  per  hour,  solely  in  consequence  of  the 
inferiority  tff  the  boiler,  or  inferiority  of  boiler- management,  causing  this 
extra  consumption  of  fuel ;  and  further,  if  this  greater  consumption  of  coal 
be  combined  with  the  inferior  type  of  vessel  B,  the  prime  cost  expenses  of 
freight  per  ton  of  goods,  instead  of  being  £1 15*.  7c?.,  £2  4*. 6c?.,  and  £3  4*.  6d., 
will  now  be  £2  13*.  Id,,  £4  5*.  5d.>  and  £9  15*.  2c?.,  this  increase  of  freight 
cost  being  18*.  per  ton,  £2  0*.  lie?,  per  ton,  and  £6  10*.  8c?.  per  ton  weight 
of  cargo  conveyed,  or  50  per  cent.,  100  per  cent.,  and  202  per  cent,  extra 
charge  incurred  according  as  the  service  speed  may  be  8,  10,  or  12  knots  per 
hoar.     These  results  show  the  monstrous  extent,  in  a  pecuniary  point  of 
view,  to  which  the  public  are  interested  in  the  general  quality  of  the  type  of 
ships  and  machinery  adaptation  thereto,  and  working  condition  of  ships  by 
which  the  mercantile  transport  service  of  the  country  may  be  prosecuted. 
Bat  let  us  look  a  little  further  into  this  matter,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining 
a   more  definite  appreciation  of  the  total  extent  in  £  *.  d.  to  which  the 
British  public  are  interested  in  haying  their  mercantile  transport  service  per- 
1856.  2r 


484  bbpobt— 1856. 

formed  to  the  be*  advantage.   It  has  been  publicly  stated  ('Tiancs/JuBeli, 
1856)  that  at  the  twelve  principal  porta  of  the  United  Kingdom  during  it 
year  1856,  ahip  tonnage  to  the  extent  of  6,372,301  tons  entered  inward*  mi 
6,496,566  tona  cleared  outwards,  making  altogether  12,798,867,  fjH* 
millions  of  tona  of  tonnage  per  annum ;  and  since  mercantile  shipping  vi 
probably,  on  las  average,  carry  dead  weight  of  cargo  to  the  roll  extent  si 
their  register  tonnage,  it  is  probable  that  the  tons  weight  of  merchandise  can- 
atitnting  the  cargoes  of  ships  arriving  at  and  sailing  from  the  United  Cat* 
dom,  amounts  to  no  less  than  twelve  millions  of  tons  per  annum,  of  whs4 
for  the  purpose  of  illustration,  we  will  suppose  that  one-sixth  part,  or  tss 
millions  of  tons,  is  conveyed  by  steam  power  on  a  passage  of  3250  nasties! 
miles,  under  the  circumstances  of  the  data  that  have  been  assumed  as  the  has 
of  the  foregoing  calculations ;  and  since  we  have  shown  under  these  circs* 
stances  that  the  prime  cost  expenses  of  freight  per  ton  of  goods  msyke 
^k^i^wwrt  by  an  inferior  type  of  ship  and  machinery,  or  inferior  manageaesi 
thereof,  to  the  extent  of  18*,  £2  Of.  ll£,  and  £6  lOf.  Sd.  per  ton  weights' 
goods  conveyed,  it  follows  that  the  extra  charges  for  freight  on  the  asssjaed 
quantity  of  two  millions  of  tons  weight  per  annum,  will  amount  to  the  extn 
annual  cost  or  public  loss  of  £1,800,000  at  8  knots  speed,  £4s91 6,666  at  10 
knots  speed,  and  £13,666,666  at  12  knots  speed,  according  as  the  type  of  sk? 
and  machinery  by  which  the  work  is  performed  may  be  of  the  inferior  type 
B,  as  compared  with  the  superior  type  A ;  seeing  also  that  it  is  the  pabfif 
interest  which  has  to  bear  the  brunt  of  our  national  goods  transport  servk* 
being  either  as  respects  construction  or  working  condition  anything  short  of 
that  degree  of  perfection  which  the  application  of  science  might  achieve, hit 
not,  therefore,  of  importance  that  our  public  system  of  statistical  shipping 
registration  should  be  complete,  especially  in  those  points  which  are  essestal 
for  scrutinising  the  dynamic  properties  of  steam-ships,  thus  leading  to  the 
recognition  of  good  practice  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  exposition  of  bad  practise 
and  consequent  public  loss  on  the  other  ?  Ships  may  be  regarded  as  nanossl 
implements  for  doing  the  work  of  the  nation,  and  should  therefore  be  sub- 
jected, by  the  aid  of  statistical  registration,  to  public  scrutiny,  as  conducive 
to  their  being  upheld  fit  to  do  their  work  in  the  best  manner.    A  shipbuilder 
will  not  allow  his  interests  to  be  trifled  with  by  the  use  of  a  blunt  adae,  m 
the  public  interest  requires  that  its  national  transport  service  in  the  convey- 
ance of  goods  should  not  be  performed  by  bad  ships  if  the  statistical  grind- 
stone will  obviate  the  evil    Nevertheless,  the  public  statistics  of  British  ship- 
ping afford  no  data  available  to  science  for  promoting  or  even  protecting 
from  abuse  the  great  public  interests  which  are  involved  in  the  proper  execs- 
tion  of  its  transport  service,  amounting  probably  to  twelve  millions  of  toat 
per  annum.    It  is  pre-eminently  for  the  British  Association  to  suggest  the 
remedy  for  this  humiliating  fact. 

The  subject  herein  treated  of  admits  of  extended  illustration  beyosd  ike 
limits  of  time  that  I  may  presume  to  occupy  at  a  meeting  of  the  Britosk 
Association.  I  only  profess  to  have  broken  up  new  ground,  in  showing  that 
mercantile  transport  service  by  steam-ships  admits  of  being  brought  v/Kkin 
the  range  of  arithmetical  calculation,  whereby  the  dynamic  quality  of  skips, 
the  sine  of  ships  as  measured  by  displacement,  the  working  quality  of  engine* 
and  engine-power  as  measured  by  the  unit  ind.  h.p^  and  the  speed  to  be 
assigned  as  the  condition  of  any  service,  may  each  of  them  be  treated  as 
functions  of  calculation  involving  definite  pecuniary  considerations,  consti- 
tuting a  system  which  may  be  denominated  the  "  arithmetic  of  steam-skip 
adaptation  to  the  requirements  of  mercantile  service."  By  the  application  of 
then*  ptineiplesof  calculation,  I  submit  that  errors  in  steam-ship  construction, 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.  481 

neglect  of  its  working  condition,  may  be  exposed,  correction  will  follow, 
tlae  directorial  management  of  steam-shipping  affairs,  as  respects  steam-ship 
capability,  will  be  based  upon  arithmetical  calculation,  thereby  prosecuting 
Lto  assigned  service  with  confidence,  and  rejecting  all  Utopian  projects  that 
will  not  pay.  Thus  science  will  produce  its  fruit  in  promoting  publio  in- 
terests, without  detriment  to  the  fair  competitive  pursuits  of  any  class,  by  pro- 
ducing a  sound,  well-understood,  and  healthy  condition  of  steam-ship  manage* 
ent,  and  consequently  of  "  Mercantile  Steam  Transport  Economy." 


M&marks  by  James  R.  Napier,  Glasgow,  on  Mr.  Atherton's  Paper  on  Mer* 
oantile  Steam  Transport  Economy. 

I  quite  agree  with  Mr.  Atherton  in  regard  to  the  indefiniteness  of  the 
term  horse-power  as  at  present  used  in  steam-engine  contracts,  and  in  the 
desirableness  of  having  a  dynamical  unit,  or  standard  of  power  or  work 
legalized,  as  well  for  the  purpose  of  buying  and  selling  machines  produ- 
cing power,  as  for  that  of  scientific  comparison.  The  rule  or  formula 
established  by  James  Watt  for  the  horse-power  of  condensing  engines  was 
PxV       foot  lbs.  per  minute       ,  t         ,  ,_. 

Sis  OOO or     "  '  '33600 ^  norie*Power>  where  the  pressure  (P)  and 

velocity  (V)  had  either  their  actual  values  or  fractional  parts  thereof.  But 
at  the  present  time  the  pressure  (P)  is  continued  at  what  it  was  in  the  days 
of  Watt,  viz.  7  lbs.,  no  matter  what  the  actual  pressure  may  be  now.  And 
For  the  velocity  (V)  almost  every  engineer  has  a  scale  of  his  own,  varying 
according  to  the  length  of  stroke  of  the  steam-piston ;  some  assuming  the 
velocities  to  vary  as  V  (of  the  length  of  stroke),  others  following  the  Admi- 
ralty rule  for  paddle  engines  assuming  the  velocities  to  vary  as  ty  (of  the 
length  of  stroke).  All  these  assumptions,  moreover,  have  no  necessary  con- 
nexion with  the  results  desired,  nor  with  the  actual  results  afterward  obtained ; 
nor  do  they  answer  any  better  the  purpose  either  of  the  buyer  or  seller ;  and 
all  the  use  they  subserve  is  to  fix  the  size  of  the  cylinder  by  the  very  round- 
about method  of  resolving  an  arithmetical  or  algebraical  equation  in  which 
two  of  the  three  quantities,  diameter,  length  of  stroke  or  velocity,  and  horse- 
power required  to  be  known. 

As  the  term  horse-power  applied  to  steam-engines  was  fixed  by  Watt  at 
33,000  lbs.  raised  1  foot  high  per  minute,  and  as  this  same  value  is  used  by 
the  Americans,  the  French,  the  Germans,  and,  I  presume,  by  all  nations 
where  the  history  of  the  steam-engine  is  known,  I  should  be  very  sorry  to 
recommend  any  change  as  to  the  use  of  the  name  in  any  other  sense  than  as 
synonymous  with  33,000  lbs.  per  minute.  I  see  no  objection,  however,  to 
the  entire  abolition  of  the  term  Nominal  Horse-Power,  as  it  is  of  no  use 
whatever  to  the  engineer,  as  little  to  steam-engine  owners,  and  deceitful  to 
the  public 

As  I  adhere  to  33,000  lbs.  per  minute  being  received  as  a  horse-power,  I 
would  object  to  the  33,000  being  altered  into  132,000,  or  into  any  other 
figure,  without  at  the  same  time  changing  the  name  into  something  alto- 
gether different  from  Horse-Power  or  Marine  Horse-power.  I  would  sug- 
gest that  the  power  be  expressed  in  foot  lbs.  alone,  as  this  is  a  term  already 
known  to  all  scientific  nations.  Dividing  by  1,000,000,  the  result  would  be 
simply  stated  in  millions  of  foot  lbs. 

As  to  the  tonnage  question,  I  feel  1  know  very  little  about  it,  except  that 

the  present  law  is  very  complex,  and  certainly  does  not  give  what  Mr* 

Atherton  would  like,  viz.  the  displacement. 

That  part  of  Mr.  Atherton's  paper  concerning  the  comparison  of  ' 

2f2 


436 


REPORT — 1856. 


is  very  important.  What  other  writers  have  called  the  efficiency  or  the  i 
of  the  power  expended  to  the  work  produced,  is  surely  a  subject  which  si 
shipowners  ought  to  be  acquainted  with.  The  formula  adopted  by  Mr. 
Atherton  for  the  efficiency  or  dynamical  duty  of  steam-ships,  is,  I  fear,  too 
rough  an  approximation  to  be  recommended  for  general  adoption,  espedaDy 
when  a  more  exact  and  equally  simple  formula  is  at  hand,  and  the  one  ah» 
from   which    Mr.  Atherton's  adopted   formula  is  no  doubt  deduced,  fix. 

.    ,  *. =C.    The  power  in  similar  vessels,  I  here  take  for  granted, 

at  present  varies  as  the  cube  of  the  velocity.  This,  I  believe,  is  nearly  trw, 
and  ought  to  vary  also  directly  as  the  immersed  midship  section.  For  sni- 
lar  vessels  the  midship  section  no  doubt  varies  as  displacement  raised  to 
the  power  |rds ;  but  scarcely  any  two  vessels  are  similar  (in  the  mathens* 
tical  sense  of  the  term) ;  nor  is  the  same  vessel  similar  to  itself  when  the  draft 
of  water  varies. 

The  following  Table,  deduced  from  published  statements  of  some  of  the 
ships  of  the  Navy,  and  also  from  vessels  built  by  the  firm  with  which  I  as 
connected,  shows  the  difficulty  there  would  be  in  the  use  of  the  format 
Vs  (displacement)  |=C,  from  the  (displacement)  £  having  no  necessary 
connexion  with  the  midship  section : — 


Comparison  between  Midship  Sections,  and 

(DispL)*. 

Mid.  section. 

(Displ)f 

Ratio  of  mid. 
secto(disp.)*. 

Ajax 

807 
546 
580 
738 
522 
570 
820 
537 
920 
567 
587 
385 
233 
207 
122 
330 

47 

56 
244 
2701 
331  J- 
394  J 

212*5 
160- 
181-4 
198-2 
171-2 
179-25 
215- 
142-8 
229-8 
198*18 
179-4 
140-76 
86-89 
77-33 
44-5 
134-51 
25- 

26-962 
dnft.     96-8 
12114  100-2 
ui  14  117.5 

l6'n*  13^-08 

1000:263 
10002  290 
1000:313 
1000:267 
1000:328 
1000:314 
1000:261 
1000:266 
1000:250 
1000:350 
1000:306 
1000:366 
1000:373 
1000:373 
1000:365 
1000:408 
1000:532 
1000:481 
1000:397 
1000:371 
1000:355 
1000:343 

Amphion T  t  * 

Arrogant r 

Blenheim 

Dauntless    

Euphrates    

Hogue « 

Horatio    

San&pareil    . .  •  •  t ,  -  r  -  - 

Simoom  

Termagant 

Black  Swan 

London  * 

Lady  Eglinton 

Queen 

Bogota  (P)  very  deep. . 
Victoria  (P) 

Vulcan  (P) 

Lancefield    

Fiery  Cross 

In  the  '  Fiery  Cross/  at  different  drafts  of  wster,  there  is  a  difference  of 
nearly  3  per  cent  in  the  ratio  of  midship  section  to  (displacement)  f,  which 
might  affect  the  coefficient  C  to  the  same  extent. 

The  *  Victoria '  and  '  Vulcan '  are  two  river  steamers  of  nearly  the  same  sue 
and  power,  yet  there  is  upwards  of  5  per  cent  of  difference  in  the  ratio  of 
midship  section  to  (displacement)  f .  The  formula  used  by  Mr.  Atherton 
is,  notwithstanding  these  remarks,  exceedingly  useful  for  commencing  the 
designs  of  steam- vessels,  and  may  be  an  approximation  sufficiently  near  for 
most  practical  purposes. 


MERCANTILE  STEAM  TRANSPORT  ECONOMY.  437 

In  reference  to  the  Table  of  the  performances  of  steamers,  which  I  recently 
gave  to  Mr.  Atherton,  it  is  necessary  to  remark  that  too  much  confidence  is 
not  to  be  placed  in  it  as  an  exact  document.  Though  I  aimed  at  the  truth, 
it  is  possible  I  may  have  erred  in  the  speed  which  is  generally  on  the  Clyde 
tried  between  the  Clock  and  Cumbrae  lighthouses,  or  1 3f  nautical  miles — 
too  great  a  distance  for  maintaining  a  uniform  speed,  especially  in  new  ves- 
sels with  strange  firemen,  &c.  I  believe  the  statement,  however,  to  be  nearly 
true,  and  the  study  of  it  affords  useful  lessons.  The  last  column  shows  the 
efficiency  of  the  vessels  by  both  formulas ;  1  adhere,  however,  to  the  mid- 
section formula,  as  being  the  more  correct 

The  *  Vulcan's '  speed  and  power  is  deduced  from  a  number  of  trials  at  a 
measured  statute  mile  on  the  Garelock.  The  '  Simoom  s  '  performances  I 
obtained  from  one  of  the  Dockyards. 

The  '  Bogota,'  a  common  paddle-wheel  steamer  employed  by  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Company,  and  loaded  very  deeply  at  her  trial,  shows  a 
very  inferior  result  to  that  of  the  screw-steamer  *  Black  Swan '  (now  *  Ganges'}, 
not  deeply  laden.  Their  displacements  are  nearly  alike,  and  their  speeds 
about  equal ;  yet  the  paddle  vessel  (too  deeply  laden)  requires  about  60  per 
cent  more  power  than  the  screw. 

The  '  London  '  and  '  Lady  Eglinton  '  are  two  screw  vessels  near  enough 
alike  to  be  comparable.  Their  screws  are  the  same  diameter,  but  the  one  is 
more  immersed  than  the  other,  which  I  imagine  is  sufficient  to  account  for 
at  least  part  of  the  difference  in  the  efficiency  of  the  two  vessels. 

The  'Edina'  was  constructed  by  Messrs.  Barclay  and  Curie,  and  her 
engines  by  Inglis ;  but  I  was  kindly  invited  to  the  trial,  and  got  the  particu- 
lars of  displacement,  power,  and  midship  section  from  the  constructors.  The 
trials  of  the  screw-steamer  *  Lancefield '  are  not  so  satisfactory  as  could  be 
desired,  there  being  a  little  uncertainty  as  to  speed.  At  the  first  trial  the 
screw  was  not  immersed :  the  result  shows  a  very  low  coefficient.  The  speed 
at  the  other  trials  is  uncertain,  as  it  was  taken  at  sea,  and  not  in  the  usual 
way  for  such  calculations. 

I  was  unfortunate  in  not  getting  the  particulars  of  the  power  and  speed  of 
the  ( Persia '  before  she  left  the  Clyde,  so  as  to  add  her  performances  to  the 
Table. 

Letter  by  Mr.  Atherton  on  Mr.  J.  R.  Napier's  paper. 

To  the  President  of  Section  6.  on  Mechanical  Science. 

Sir,— .With  reference  to  Mr.  James  R.  Napier's  remarks  on  my  paper, 
"  Mercantile  Steam  Transport  Economy,"  I  beg  to  submit  the  following  ob- 
servations. Mr.  J.  R.  Napier  concurs  with  me  as  to  the  indefiniteness  of  the 
term  "nominal  horse-power,"  as  at  present  applied  in  marine  engineering 
practice,  and  in  the  desirableness  of  having  the  unit  of  power,  denoted  horse- 
power, specifically  defined ;  and  he  prefers  that  the  measure  originally  pro-* 
posed  and  acted  upon  by  Watt,  viz.  33,000  lbs.  weight  raised  1  foot  high 
per  minute,  be  now  adopted  as  the  statute  unit  of  horse-power. 

On  this  point  I  have  merely  to  remark,  that  scientifically  it  is  a  matter  of 
indifference  what  may  be  the  statute  measure  of  the  unit,  provided  it  be 
specific.  In  my  '  Essay  on  Steam-ship  Capability,'  I  based  my  calculations 
and  tables  on  132,000  lbs.  raised  1  foot  high  per  minute,  because  that  was  the 
average  performance,  per  nominal  horse-power,  of  the  ten  mail  packets  then 
employed  in  Her  Majesty's  Service.  In  my  paper  on  "Mercantile  Steam 
Transport  Economy,"  I  have  suggested  that  100,000  lbs.,  raised  1  foot  high 
per  minute,  be  adopted  as  the  statute  unit  of  horse-power,  because  that  is,JI 


488  report— 1856. 

believe,  about  the  average  present  practice  in  the  highest  claw  of  <wr 
chant  steam-shipping,  and  this  measure  of  the  unit  would  facilitate 
tions;  but  whether  33,000,  or  100,000,  or  132,000,  or  any  other  number  ef 
lbs.  weight,  raised  1  foot  high  per  minute,  be  adopted  as  the  statute  uiit  ef 
horse-power,  is  a  mere  matter  of  convenience,  a  question  very  proper  far 
being  submitted  for  the  consideration  and  recommendation  of  a  Comauttaa 

Vs  D-S-  V*x  mid  sec 

As  to  the  question  whether  the  formula  .    .  .  7     or  — .    .  , " — -  wosii 
^  md.  h.p.  ind.  h.p. 

be  the  better  formula  for  determining  the  relative  dynamic  merits  of  ^tr— e- 

ships,  these  formulae  are,  as  respects  similar  types  of  immersed  form,  a  want 

transformation  of  terms,  for  in  similar  types  of  form  the  immersed  midshh 

section  will  vary  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  cube  root  of  the  square  of  tie 

displacement.     These  formulae  would  therefore  give  proportional  results.    1 

have,  however,  preferred  the  formula  based  on  displacement  I   ■  *     I, 

because  this  formula  may,  as  I  believe,  be  made  the  base  of  calculations  s* 
to  the  capability  of  ships  for  mercantile  service,  for  which  purpose  the  for- 
mula, based  on  midship  section,  without  reference  to  displacement,  a 
inadequate. 

The  Table  of  data  now  supplied  by  Mr.  J.  R.  Napier,  is  a  valuable  addition 
to  our  statistical  data,  in  so  far  that,  after  having  determined  the  relative 
dynamic  merits  of  the  ships  referred  to,  and  classified  them  accordingly,  the 
information  afforded  by  this  Table  will  aid  in  the  analysis  of  their  respective 
types  of  form.  I  would,  however,  beg  to  suggest  that  the  position  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  immersed  midship  section  of  each  ship,  expressed  fo 
its  depth  below  the  surface  line,  at  which  the  displacement  has  been  cal- 
culated, would  be  a  very  important  addition  to  this  Table, and  it  is  hoped  thai 
Mr.  James  R.  Napier  will  be  able  to  supply  it. 

In  fact,  it  is  in  consequence  of  the  depth  of  the  centre  of  gravity  not  being 
noticed  in  the  formula  above  referred  to,  that  I  have  spoken  of  it  in  mj 
paper  as  "  open  to  criticism  "  and  probable  amendment,  and  I  shall  be  pre- 
pi[i«d  in  Committee  to  submit  this  view  of  the  case  for  consideration. 
Requesting  that  this  letter  be  read  conjointly  with  Mr.  Napier's  remarks, 
I  have  the  honour  to  be,  Sir,  your  most  obedient  servant, 

Charles  Athkrton. 


On  the  Vital  Potoeraqftke  Sponfiiad*. 
Bp  J.  S.  Bowkbbank,  F.R.S.,  F.GJS.  $c. 

Inhalation  and  Exhalation. 
Sou*  years  since  I  received  from  Dr.  Lister  of  Madeira  two  meases  ot  a 
jlaliobondnaoeous  sponge,  each  about  7  inches  in  diameter,  accompanied 
Dy  the  information  that  they  were  portions  of  the  same  individual,  andl 
*a#  atruek  by  the  remarkable  difference  in  the  external  appearance  of  the 
two,  In  one,  the  oscula  were  nearly  all  widely  expanded,  several  of 
the  orifices  being  nearly  half  an  inch  in  diameter;   white  in  the  otter 

Eiece  aeareely  any  of  them  were  open,  the  greater  part  being  entirely  dosed 
y  a  stout  membranous  veil,  which  in  many  cases  was  pursed  up  in  the 
centre  of  the  area  in  a  oonical  form.  On  writing  to  my  friend  to  inquire 
the  oause  of  this  difference  in  the  appearance  of  the  two  pieces  of  the 
tame  sponge*  he  informed  me  that  the  piece  with  the  olosed  oseula  had  been 


ON  THE  VITAL  POWER*  OP  THE  SPONGIAD4E.  489 

dried  immediately  on  being  taken  from  the  sea,  but  that  the  other  one  had 
been  placed  in  a  vessel  of  sea-water,  about  half  an  hour  after  removal  from 
the  sea,  and  placed  in  the  sun ;  nearly  all  the  orifices  were  then  closed, 
and  it  was  observed  by  Dr.  and  Mrs.  Lister  that  a  gradual  contraction  shortly 
commenced  in  the  membranous  veils  of  the  oscula,  which  continued  until  the 
whole  of  the  orifices  were  opened  to  the  fullest  extent,  and  in  this  condition 
they  remained.  Struck  by  this  explanation  and  by  some  other  circumstances 
of  a  similar  nature  which  I  had  observed  in  other  sponges,  I  felt  a  strong 
conviction  that  the  Spongiadas  possessed  the  power  of  expanding  and  con- 
tracting the  oscula  at  their  pleasure  while  in  a  living  condition,  and  I  deter- 
mined  at  the  first  convenient  opportunity  to  work  out  this  interesting  problem 
in  their  natural  history.  I  accordingly  located  myself  at  Tenby,  South 
Wales,  at  the  latter  end  of  last  May  for  the  purpose. 

The  great  cave  that  runs  completely  through  beneath  St  Catherine's 
Island  at  Tenby,  is  highly  favourable  to  such  observations  as  I  contemplated 
making,  as  it  is  studded  abundantly  in  every  direction  with  speoimens  of 
Halichondria  panicea  and  Grantia  compresses  Johnston,  and  a  deep  orange- 
coloured  sponge,  Hymeniacidon  caruncula^  Bowerbank,  MS.     On  my  first 
-visit  to  the  cave,  June  2nd,  I  carefully  noted  the  appearance  of  Halichondria 
panicea  and  Hymeniacidon  caruncula  in  the  condition  of  repose  during  the 
period  of  low  tide,  while  they  were  without  water  and  fully  exposed  to  the 
influence  of  the  atmosphere.     I  found  that  in  Hal.  panicea  the  greater 
portions  of  the  oscula  were  completely  openf  while  the  tubular  orifices  of 
others  were  either  partially  or  completely  closed.     On  the  contrary,  in  fifty  or 
sixty  specimens  of  Hymeniacidon  caruncula  they  were  so  completely  closed 
that  I  could  scarcely  detect  even  their  position  on  the  surface  of  the  sponge. 
I  carefully  removed  several  specimens  of  each  species  from  the  rocks  to 
which  they  adhered,  taking  care  not  to  injure  the  basal  membranes  of  the 
sponges.    I  placed  them  in  shallow  dishes  of  fresh  salt  water,  and  in  a  short 
time  the  whole  of  them  began  to  pour  forth  streams  of  water  from  their 
oscula  with  considerable  force.     I  supplied  these  specimens  with  indigo 
rubbed  up  into  a  fine  powder  and  infused  in  salt  water ;  the  rush  of  the  par- 
ticles to  the  outer  surface  of  Halichondria  panicea  and  Grantia  compressa 
rendered  them  of  a  deep  blue  colour  in  a  short  time,  and  the  ex-current 
streams  continued  steadily  in  action  for  more  than  an  hour.    I  then  poured 
off  the  water,  that  they  might  remain  for  some  hours  in  the  same  condition  as 
the  specimens  were  in  their  natural  locality ;  at  8  o'clock  in  the  evening 
I  filled  up  the  dishes  with  fresh  salt  water,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the  ex* 
current  action  commenced ;  and  I  left  it  in  full  action  in  two  specimens  of 
Halichondria  panicea  at  1 1  p.m.     On  examining  these  specimens  at  10  a*m. 
on  the  3rd  of  June,  I  found  that  nearly  the  whole  of  the  oscula,  which  were 
fully  distended  on  the  previous  evening,  were  now  nearly  all  closed ;  and 
the  mode  of  closing  was  in  some  cases  rather  peculiar ;  the  greatest  con- 
traction was  at  about  half  a  line  within  the  outer  edge  of  the  osculum,  and 
by  this  constriction  the  closing  was  completely  effected,  leaving  the  outer 
part  of  the  osculum  above  this  constriction  in  the  form  of  a  shallow  cup, 
slightly  elevated  above  the  general  level  of  the  surface  of  the  sponge. 

Of  three  specimens  of  Hymeniacidon  caruncula  placed  by  themselves  in  a 
saucer  of  sea-water,  not  a  single  osculum  was  apparent  at  1 1  p.m.  on  the 
previous  night ;  but  on  the  following  morning,  June  3,  at  9  a.m.,  several  oscula 
in  each  specimen  were  to  be  seen  in  a  full  state  of  expansion,  varying  in  size 
from  one  to  four  lines  in  diameter,  and  the  ex-ouxrent  streams  were  steadily 
poured  forth. 

The  surface  of  the  sponges  exhibited  a  comparatively  smooth  and  dilated 


440  report — 1856. 

appearance,  and  the  inhalant  pores  were  distinctly  visible  by  the  aid  of  a 
2-inch  lens.    I  removed  these  specimens  from  the  water  and  placed  them  in 
a  saucer;  in  the  course  of  a  few  minutes  the  surface  of  the  sponges  lost  tk 
smooth  distended  appearance,  the  pores  were  scarcely  distinguishable  by  tk 
aid  of  the  same  lens,  and  the  surface  became  full  of  corrugations.    Tk 
oscula  gradually  contracted  at  about  a  line  or  half  a  line  within  the  o 
margin,  and  this  slow  contraction  continued  in  action  until  the  openings  were  . 
completely  closed,  and  a  cup-shaped  depression  only  remained  to  indicate 
the  large  orifices  which  but  10  or  15  minutes  previously  were  steadily  pouring  j 
forth  the  ex-current  streams.    The  thin  sharp  membranous  edges  of  tk  ! 
osculum  shrunk  into  a  fleshy  obtuse  margin  to  the  basin-shaped  depresMi 
of  these  organs  in  their  closed  state. 

I  let  them  remain  without  water  from  half- past  9  o'clock  in  the  mow- 
ing until  half-past  1  p.m.,  and  then  replaced  them   in    the    saucer  wkk 
a  few  fronds  of  green  fuci,  and  gave  them  fresh  sea- water.     In  5  or  6 
minutes  there  was  a  manifest  expansion  of  the  oscula,  and   they  continued 
gradually  to  open ;  the  obtuse  margins  became  thin,  sharp,  and  slightly  pro- 
jecting, and  the  currents  were  poured  forth  vigorously  and   continuousy 
from  each  osculum.     1  triturated  a  little  crude  indigo  in  sea- water,  and  let 
.  it  glide  from  the  small  palette  knife  over  those  portions  of  the  sponges  where 
there  were  no  oscula;  the  molecules  of  indigo  were  immediately  dnwn 
forcibly  down  to  the  surface,  and  were  retained  there.     I  then  dropped  in  i 
similar  manner  a  few  drops  of  the  water  laden  with  indigo,   immediately 
over  the  oscula;  a  few  molecules  remained  very  close  to  the  margin  of  the 
osculum,  but  the  remainder  were  driven  off  by  the  powerful  jet  of  wafer 
issuing  from  the  osculum,  and  were  speedily  dispersed  and  mixed  with  the 
surrounding  fluid.   By  these  experiments  the  in-current  and  ex-current  acbVwf 
were  rendered  strikingly  apparent,  and  it  was  evident  that  even  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  oscula  the  in*  current  action  was  in  full  operation.    At 
a  quarter  past  3  o'clock  the  ex-current  action  had  entirely  ceased  in  one 
of  the  four  specimens,  and  was  very  languidly  continued  in  the  others,  bat 
the  oscula  were  still  fully  expanded ;  before  an  hour  had  elapsed,  the  ex- 
current  action  had  apparently  ceased  in  all  the  specimens ;  the  smaller  oscoU 
were  closed,  but  the  larger  ones  were  contracted  to  the  extent  of  about  half 
their  greatest  amount  of  expansion.     1  drained  the  water  from  these  sponge 
at  half-past  1 1  p.m.,  and  at  10  o'clock  the  next  morning,  June  4,  1  filled  up 
the  saucer  with  fresh  sea-water,  but  J  did  not  detect  them  in  action  during 
the  remainder  of  the  day.     At  half-past  1 1  of  the  4-th  the  water  was  again 
drained  from  them. 

June  5th. — At  a  quarter  past  9  a.m.  I  put  fresh  water  to  the  same  group  of 
Hal.  caruncuia ;  about  five  minutes  after  the  oscula  were  slowly  opened,  and 
the  ejection  of  the  water  from  one  of  the  small  oscula  near  the  middle  part 
of  the  largest  sponge,  commenced  at  first  slowly,  and  then,  after  the  lapse 
of  a  few  minutes,  with  such  force  as  to  produce  a  continued  elevation  of  the 
surface  of  the  water  immediately  above  it,  about  a  \  or  f  of  an  inch  above 
the  osculum.  Duriug  this  action  of  the  smaller  and  more  simple  osculum 
near  the  middle  of  the  sponge,  two  large  compound  oscula,  each  consisting 
of  three  or  four  orifices,  situated  in  depressions  near  each  end  of  the  sponge, 
were  languidly  pouring  forth  streams  of  water.  Three  quarters  of  an  hoar 
after  the  commencement  of  the  projection  of  the  ex-current  streams  they 
became  still  more  languid  in  their  action,  and  at  the  end  of  an  hour  the/ 
entirely  ceased ;  the  oscula  in  each  of  the  groups  near  the  ends  of  the  sponge 
were  entirely  closed,  and  the  small  one,  near  the  middle  of  the  sponge  in 
which  the  action  had  been  the  most  forcible,  alone  remained  partly  open. 


ON  THE  VITAL  POWERS  OF  THE  SPONGIAD^.  441 

Finding  that  this  sponge,  which  was  2  inches  in  length,  1  inch  in  breadth, 
And  £  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  was  by  far  the  most  interesting  and  active  in 
its   habits,  I  determined  to  direct  my  observations  more  especially  to  its 
proceedings  for  the  future,  and  I  accordingly  separated  it  from  the  others 
&nd  placed  it  in  a  saucer  full  of  salt  water  fresh  from  the  sea,  and  put  a  few 
small  green  fuci  along  with  it.     In  7  minutes  after  immersion  in  the  cool 
fresh  salt  water,  the  ex-current  action  again  commenced  slowly ;  the  closed 
oscula  gradually  expanded,  but  not  fully  and  completely,  and  the  action  was 
steadily  and  moderately  sustained ;  at  a  quarter  to  12  the  action  was  so  strong 
and  vigorous  as  to  again  cause  a  considerable  elevation  of  the  surface  of  the 
crater  above  the  central  and  most  active  osculum  of  the  largest  sponge.    It 
is  evident,  therefore,  that  temperature  has  much  to  do  with  the  activity  of  its 
action,  and  that  the  animal  is  quickly  cognisant  of  such  changes,  and  is  rapidly 
amenable  to  the  stimulus  of  a  fresh  and  cool  supply  of  the  element  in  whicn 
it  exists ;  and  it  is  equally  evident  that  its  actions  are  not  merely  mechanical  or 
periodical,  but  subject  to  its  own  control,  and  that  it  can  as  readily  avail 
itself  of  favourable  circumstances  for  imbibing  nutrition  or  of  protecting 
itself  from  adverse  circumstances,  as  the  higher  organized  and  more  elabo- 
rately  constructed  classes  of  animals.     At   12  o'clock,   on  returning  to 
examine  the  state  of  affairs,  I  found  the  sponge  perfectly  quiescent,  and  some 
of  the  oscula  again  closed.     I  immediately  changed  the  water  in  this  case, 
pouring  it  full  on  the  sponge  in  a  large  stream,  and  at  4  minutes  after  12  the 
s     currents  were  again  in  full  action ;  at  11  minutes  after  12,  the  stream  from 
'  N  the  central  osculum  was  so  forcible  as  to  elevate  the  water  to  a  considerable 
extent  at  the  surface  immediately  above  it;  at  a  quarter  past  12  one  of  the 
targe  groups  of  oscula  commenced  ejecting  a  stream  so  strong  as  also  to  pro- 
duce an  elevation  of  the  water  immediately  above  it.     It  would  appear 
therefore  that  the  action  of  the  different  oscula  is  not  simultaneous,  but  that 
each  is  independent,  to  a  considerable  extent,  of  the  other.  At  1  o'clock,  when 
I  left  them,  they  were  still  in  action,  although  slowly ;  and  on  my  return  at 
3  o'clock  they  were  all  apparently  quiescent,  and  remained  so  for  the  remainder 
of  the  day.     At  11  p.m.  I  drained  the  water  from  them,  and  left  them  so 
for  the  night. 

June  6th. — At  half-past  9  o'clock  I  put  more  sea-water  to  them.  It  had 
stood  some  time  in  the  sun,  and  was  probably  above  the  ordinary  tempera- 
ture. In  about  5  minutes  the  ex-current  action  commenced,  and  proceeded 
languidly  for  about  half  an  hour,  and  then  ceased.  At  half-past  121  drained 
the  water  from  it,  and  supplied  it  with  water  fresh  from  the  sea,  and  the  ex- 
current  action  almost  immediately  recommenced,  and  at  1  o'clock  was  so 
forcible  that  the  surface  above  the  two  large  groups  of  oscula  was  consider- 
ably elevated  by  the  force  of  the  jets ;  at  a  quarter  to  2  o'clock  the  action 
had  entirely  ceased.  I  drained  off  the  water,  and  poured  fresh  water  over 
the  sponge  by  jerks,  until  I  had  filled  the  saucer;  again,  in  a  few  minutes, 
action  commenced  in  the  large  group  of  oscula  near  the  largest  end  of  the 
sponge,  and  attained  sufficient  force  to  elevate  the  surface  of  the  water  by 
the  force  of  its  jet  at  6  minutes  to  2  o'clock ;  but  this  time  it  was  the  only 
osculum  in  action,  the  smaller  central  one  and  the  other  large  compound 
osculum  remaining  quite  inert,  and  the  central  one  so  completely  closed,  that 
it  was  only  by  minute  inspection  with  a  2-inch  lens,  and  a  complete  familiarity 
with  the  surface  of  the  sponge,  that  I  could  make  certain  of  its  precise  posi- 
tion ;  at  20  minutes  after  2  o'clock  the  central  small  osculum  had  opened, 
and  was  sufficiently  in  action  to  elevate  the  surface  of  the  water  above  it ; 
but  the  third,  the  large  one  at  the  smaller  end  of  the  sponge,  was  still  inert, 
and  the  small  oscula  within  the  large  outer  orifice  were  closely  shut    At 


448  import — 1856. 

37  minutes  past  2  the  third  osculum  had  opened,  and  the  whole  three 
in  strong  action,  each  projecting  a  stream  so  strong  as  to  elevate  the  surface 
of  the  water  above  it.  This  independence  and  inequality  of  action  is  remark- 
ably curious.  I  left  them  in  the  above-described  state  of  full  action  at  15 
minutes  to  3  o'clock.  On  my  return  at  a  quarter  past  3,  action  had  entirely 
ceased,  the  group  of  oscula  at  the  small  end  of  the  central  osoulum  were 
closely  shut  up,  but  in  the  group  at  the  largest  end  of  the  sponge  the  months 
of  the  oscula  were  open,  but  apparently  entirely  inert.    At  half-past  1 1  p-m. 

1  drained  off  the  water  for  the  night 

June  7th. — 1  put  fresh  water  to  the  same  sponge  at  half-past  9.  No  action 
was  observed  until  half-past  10 ;  it  was  then  very  languid,  and  ceased  entirely 
in  a  very  short  time ;  at  a  quarter  past  12  1  again  drained  off  the  water,  and 
poured  fresh  cool  water  on  the  sponge ;  in  about  10  minutes  the  ex-current 
action  commenced  from  the  two  large  groups  of  oscula  near  the  ends  of  the 
sponge,  and  in  a  very  short  period,  about  10  minutes,  the  action  became  so 
strong  as  to  produce  the  elevation  at  the  surface  of  the  water  immediately 
above  them.  During  this  period  the  small  osculum  in  the  middle  of  the 
sponge  was  closed  and  entirely  inert.     1  did  not  examine  it  again  until 

2  o'clock,  when  the  action  had  ceased ;  at  1 1  p.m.  1  poured  off  the  water  as 
usual. 

June  8th. — At  10  o'clock  I  poured  fresh  sea-water  over  it  and  filled  the 
saucer  as  usual ;  within  one  minute  it  commenced  ejecting  granules  of  effete 
matter  from  the  two  large  oscula,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  action  was  strong 
enough  to  produce  the  usual  elevation  at  the  surface  of  the  water.  I  looked 
carefully  with  a  2-inch  lens  for  the  central  osculum,  but  could  not  detect  it, 
and  it  had  all  the  appearance  of  having  been  permanently  closed  by  a  mem- 
brane. When  in  full  action  the  membranous  margins  of  the  oscula  are 
tense  and  very  distinctly  denned ;  but  when  the  action  becomes  languid  or 
ceases,  the  orifices  contract  to  about  half  the  diameter  they  assume  in  aa 
active  state,  the  marginal  membranes  lose  their  tension,  and  the  edge  becomes 
very  indistinct.  Previously  to  a  general  cessation  of  action,  it  will  sometimes 
occur  that  one  or  two  of  the  oscula  of  the  group  will  assume  this  inert  and 
flaccid  appearance,  while  from  one  only  the  stream  will  continue  to  issue  in 
full  force,  and  this  condition  was  assumed  by  the  two  large  compound  oscula 
this  morning  at  12  o'clock. 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  of  eighteen  other  specimens  of  the 
same  species  of  sponge  which  were  treated  in  precisely  the  same  manner  ss 
the  one  whose  history  I  have  just  recorded,  three  only  of  them  had  assumed 
ex-current  action  up  to  12  o'clock  on  the  8th  of  June.  It  is  evident  therefore 
that  the  commencement  or  the  cessation  of  aotion  is  not  a  merely  mechanical 
effect,  arising  from  temperature,  or  the  general  effect  of  particular  circum- 
stances, but  that,  as  in  other  animals,  each  individual  commences  or  ceases 
action  as  may  be  dictated  by  its  especial  necessities. 

At  8  minutes  past  12  o'clock  the  osculum  at  the  large  end  was  still  in  full 
work.  At  a  quarter  to  1  o  clock  the  osculum  at  the  small  end  had  resumed 
aotion,  and  in  the  mean  time  no  cessation  bad  occurred  in  the  action  at  the 
large  end.  At  half- past  1  o'clock  I  left  both  groups  of  oscula  in  steady 
action,  each  producing  its  elevated  spot  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  On  my 
return  at  4  o'clock  they  appeared  perfectly  quiescent  I  immediately  poured 
off  the  water  and  gave  them  fresh  cool  sea-water,  and  on  looking  at  them 
again  at  5  o'clock,  they  were  in  very  powerful  action,  and  the  middle  single 
osculum  that  had  remained  closed  so  long,  had  now  opened  and  poured  forth  a 
stream  that  raised  a  considerable  elevation  on  the  surface  of  the  water, 
and  the  osculum  was  fully  expanded.    At  5  o'clock  the  same  osoulum  had 


OK  THE  YITAL  POWERS  OF  THE  8PONGIAD4K.  443 

«eaaed  to  act  and  was  again  completely  closed,  while  the  other  two  group*  of 
oecala  were  still  in  full  action. 

I  frequently  examined  the  condition  of  the  sponge  until  past  1 1  o'clock 
p.m.,  and  found  the  ex-current  action  of  both  the  large  groups  of  osoula  in 
full  force.  The  action  of  the  ex-current  streams  had  been  more  vigorous 
and  continuous  than  on  any  day  since  the  commencement  of  my  observations 
of  it,  and  the  elevation  of  the  water  at  the  surface  above  the  oscula  had  been 
larger  than  ordinary,  indicating  a  greater  amount  of  force  than  usual.  At 
half-past  11  p.m.,  when  I  poured  off  the  water  for  the  night,  the  two  large 
compound  oscula  were  in  full  play. 

Jane  9.— At  10  o'clock  I  put  fresh  sea-water  to  the  sponge,  and  within  a 
minute  the  ex-current  action  was  apparent  at  both  the  large  groups  of  oscula, 
and  in  a  few  minutes  became  in  full  vigour.  The  central  smaller  single 
osculum  was  perfectly  closed,  and  not  the  slightest  appearance  of  it  was  to 
be  detected  with  a  2-inch  lens.  The  action  in  the  two  groups  of  oscula 
continued  in  full  force  until  half-past  12,  when  the  group  at  the  small 
bend  had  ceased  to  act,  and  the  smaller  oscula  of  the  group  had  contracted 
to  about  half  their  full  diameter.  I  plaoed  a  drop  of  water  charged  with  indigo 
immediately  above  this  osculum,  and  watched  the  effect  with  a  2-inch  lens, 
and  was  surprised  to  find  that  its  action  was  reversed,  and  the  molecules  of 
indigo  passed  into  it  with  a  considerable  degree  of  rapidity.  I  repeated  the 
application  of  the  drop  of  water  charged  with  indigo  several  times,  and  the 
result  was  the  same.  Occasionally  the  ex-current  action  was  resumed  for  an 
instant,  and  a  large  molecule  of  indigo  would  be  expelled,  but  the  next  mo- 
ment the  in-current  aotion  would  be  resumed.  At  half-past  1  I  repeated 
the  application  of  the  drops  of  water  charged  with  indigo  with  the  same 
result,  when  it  suddenly  broke  forth  again  into  strong  ex-current  action,  ele- 
vating the  surface  of  the  water  immediately  above  it  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  continued  thus  to  act.  The  reversal  of  the  action  in  the  osculum  in 
this  instance  was  apparently  effected  by  the  vigour  of  the  action  in  the 
other  group  of  oscula ;  the  whole  of  these  organs  being  more  or  less  con- 
nected, not  only  by  the  intermarginal  canals,  but  also  by  the  general  system 
of  interstitial  canals  of  the  mass  of  the  sponge. 

At  half-past  2  o'clock  the  aotion  of  both  of  the  groups  of  oscula  had 
entirely  ceased.  At  10  minutes  to  S  o'clock  I  drained  off  the  water,  and  put 
fresh  sea-water  to  it,  and  the  ex-current  action  from  both  groups  commenoed 
again  in  less  than  a  minute,  and  were  in  full  aotion  in  about  2  minutes.  The 
aotion  continued  untill  1 1  p.m.,  when  the  water  was  drained  off  for  the  night. 
June  10. — At  10  a.m.  I  put  fresh  water  to  the  sponge.  The  ex-current 
aotion  commenced  immediately  from  the  large  groups  of  oscula,  elevating 
the  surface  of  the  water  as  usual.  The  central  osculum  remained  perfectly 
closed,  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  new  membrane  having  been  formed 
over  its  orifice,  and  be!  w  it  on  the  side  of  the  sponge  1  observed  that  a 
new  osculum  had  been  formed  about  the  same  size  as  the  largest  of  those 
already  existing.  The  stream  poured  from  this  osculum  was  as  powerful  as 
any  of  the  older  ones,  and  it  elevated  the  water  at  the  surface  strongly, 
although  the  line  of  action  was  in  a  diagonal  direction,  and  therefore  passing 
through  a  greater  distance  than  those  that  were  ejected  in  nearly  a  straight 
line  upward.  At  1 1  1  left  the  whole  of  these  oscula  in  full  play.  On 
my  return  at  3  o'clock  all  action  had  apparently  ceased.  On  carefully 
examining  the  state  of  the  oscula  I  had  left  in  full  action,  I  found  that  the 
closing  membrane  of  each  was  contracted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  olose  each 
orifice  all  but  a  central  opening,  so  small  as  to  appear  by  the  aid  of  a  2-inch 
lens  scarcely  capable  of  admitting  the  point  of  a  pin.    I  drained  off  the  water 


444  report — 1856. 

and  poured  fresh  sea-water  slowly  over  the  sponge,  and  positioned  it  agn 
for  observation,  and  found  that  it  was  again  in  full  action,  having  the  thne 
oscula  distended  to  the  fullest  extent  of  their  capability.  At  half-past  *. 
when  I  returned,  they  were  perfectly  quiescent,  and  the  oscula  had  resumed 
the  appearance  I  have  described  above,  with  the  very  minute  orifice  in  the 
centre.  I  left  them  in  that  condition,  and  at  7  o'clock  examined  them  again, 
when  I  found  them  still  quiescent ;  but  one  of  the  two  large  groups  of  osesk 
and  the  new  one  were  entirely  closed,  while  the  other  osculum  at  the  Urges: 
end  of  the  sponge  had  opened  to  the  extent  of  about  one- third  of  its  diamrtfr, 
and  the  membrane  presented  the  appearance  of  a  series  of  lines  or  corragatiosi 
radiating  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference.  I  have  since  freqaestij 
observed  the  same  appearance  when  the  oscula  have  been  in  a  half-closed 
condition. 

J  observed  today  that  three  new  oscula  had  been  opened  about  midwiy 
between  the  large  group  at  the  largest  end  of  the  sponge  and  the  base  of 
the  sponge ;  these  new  organs  entered  upon  their  function  with  as  much  vigosr 
as  the  older  ones,  ejecting  their  streams  with  an  equal  degree  of  force.  TVs 
new  osculum,  formerly  described  as  having  been  opened  beneath  the  cental 
osculum,  was  increased  in  diameter;  and  the  central  one,  formerly  so  energeue 
in  its  action,  remained  completely  closed. 

June  11,  12,  and  13. — I  continued  to  watch  closely  the  actios  of  this 
interesting  and  active  specimen.  It  continued  to  exhibit  results  very  similir 
to  those  already  recorded.  The  three  new  oscula  beneath  the  group  at  the 
large  end  increased  somewhat  in  diameter  and  acted  with  much  force.  The 
central  osculum,  up  to  June  13,  continued  completely  closed,  and  not  the 
slightest  indication  of  its  former  existence  could  be  discerned.  Considerable 
alteration  had  also  taken  place  in  the  two  large  groups  of  oscula.  At  ai 
early  period  of  my  observations  I  sketched  each  of  these  groups  carefully, 
that  I  might  be  under  no  subsequent  mistake  regarding  them ;  and  I  was 
induced  to  do  so  from  having  observed  that  even  during  the  same  day  the 
oscula  in  the  same  group  varied  in  the  relative  degree  of  their  diameter  when 
in  full  action ;  and  I  have  since  frequently  observed  that  sometimes  the  whole 
were  fully  expanded  and  in  vigorous  action,  while  at  other  times  the  largest 
osculum  of  the  group  would  be  very  active,  while  the  lesser  ones  were  par- 
tially closed  and  very  languidly  in  action ;  thus  while  from  the  large  one  the 
molecules  were  ejected  with  great  force  and  rapidity,  those  from  the  minor 
ones  seemed  to  float  gently  from  their  orifices  until  they  came  under  the 
influence  of  the  forcible  stream  flowing  from  the  large  and  active  osculum. 

Some  of  the  smaller  oscula  in  each  group  have  become  apparently  perma- 
nently closed,  while  others  have  assumed  greater  dimensions :  thus  the  confi- 
guration of  each  of  these  large  groups  had  become  greatly  modified,  and  the 
sketch  of  them  in  their  former  condition  was  anything  but  a  faithful  portrait 
of  their  present  appearance. 

These  variations  in  the  position  and  diameter  of  the  oscula  are  very  inter- 
esting, but  are  not  so  surprising  as  they  may  appear  at  the  first  blush.  If  we 
examine  the  surface  of  the  sponge  in  its  most  distended  condition  while  in 
full  action,  we  see  that  immediately  beneath  the  dermal  membrane  there  is 
a  complicated  system  of  large  ex-current  canals,  inosculating  with  each  other 
in  every  possible  direction,  and  forming  a  wide  but  irregular  cloaca!  network. 
At  any  point  therefore  in  the  course  of  these  canals  oscula  may  be  generated 
in  accordance  with  the  necessities  of  the  animal,  and  new  ones  having  been 
thus  generated,  a  portion  of  the  older  organs  becomes  more  or  less  useless, 
aud  during  the  cessation  of  action  their  membranous  lip  becomes  firmly  and 
permanently  closed. 


ON  THH  VITAL  POWERS  OF  THE  8P0NGIADJS.  445 

The  systems  of  large  cloacal  or  ex-current  canals  are  very  visible  by  the 
aid  of  a  2-inch  lens  while  the  sponge  is  distended  and  in  full  action,  but  in 
its  inactive  and  contracted  condition  they  are  not  so  readily  to  be  traced. 
About  1  o'clock  I  perforated  the  dermal  membrane  with  a  needle  in  two  places, 
directly  above  one  of  these  large  canals,  and  immediately  applied  drops  of 
sea-water  charged  with  indigo,  but  no  immediate  result  arose  from  this  expe- 
riment. At  5  o'clock  of  the  same  day,  June  13th,  I  observed  that  the 
punctured  orifices  were  much  smaller,  and  had  become  oval  in  form,  and  at 
11  o'clock  p.m.  they  were  scarcely  visible.  At  10  o'clock  on  the  following 
morning,  June  14th,  previously  to  placing  the  sponge  in  water,  they  were 
not  visible ;  but  after  the  expansion  of  the  sponge  by  the  inhalation  of  water 
they  were  barely  distinguishable,  but  the  orifices  were  entirely  closed  by 
membrane,  apparently  as  thick  and  strong  as  the  adjoining  uninjured  portions 
of  the  dermal  membrane. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  the  formation  of  new  oscula  on  the  lines  of  inter- 
marginal  ex-current  canals  is  not  due  to  accidental  circumstances,  but  that 
they  are  instinctively  formed  or  closed  up  in  accordance  with  the  physiolo- 
'  gical  necessities  of  the  animal.  This  law  is  also  demonstrated  by  the  fact, 
that  when  a  slice  of  considerable  dimensions  was  removed  from  the  upper 
surface  of  a  specimen  of  this  species,  when  three  large  orifices  were  generated 
by  the  sections  at  right  angles  of  as  many  large  canals,  none,  either  of  the 
large  orifices  thus  created,  or  of  the  numerous  smaller  ones,  remained  open 
after  a  lapse  of  twenty-two  hours. 

June  14. — During  the  whole  of  this  day  the  largest  osculum  of  the  group 
at  the  small  end  of  the  sponge  continued  in  strong  and  steady  action ;  all  the 
other  oscula  remaining  inactive  and  closed. 

June  15. — No  traces  of  the  punctured  wounds  above  the  large  intermar- 
ginal  canals  were  visible.  The  sponge  commenced  action  at  10  o'clock  a.m., 
when  water  was  put  to  it  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  recorded  on  the 
14th,  and  the  action  was  confined  to  the  single  large  osculum  at  the  small 
end  of  the  sponge.  At  half-past  11  a.m.  the  whole  of  the  remaining  oscula 
opened,  and  commenced  pouring  forth  streams  of  water  vigorously.  The 
smaller  oscula  of  the  groups  at  the  small  end  of  the  sponge  were  apparently 
permanently  closed,  and  the  single  large  osculum  had  much  increased  in 
diameter. 

I  continued  my  observations  on  this  sponge  from  the  16th  to  the  28th  of 
June,  with  variable  results.  Some  days  it  remained  perfectly  inert,  but  it 
generally  inhaled  and  exhaled  water  with  more  or  less  vigour  for  some 
hours  each  day  ;  and  1  could  usually  induce  action  by  pouring  on  it  a  small 
stream  from  a  few  inches  above  it,  or  by  running  the  water  over  it  for  a  few 
minutes  with  a  spoon. 

On  the  29th  I  poured  the  water  from  it  and  some  other  specimens  of  the 
same  species  at  7  a.m.,  and  placing  it  in  a  pan  on  fresh  fuci,  I  brought  it 
with  me  to  London,  where  I  immersed  it  in  sea-water  which  I  had  brought 
with  me  at  7  o'clock  p.m.  I  continued  to  treat  it  as  heretofore,  and  on  giving 
it  some  fresh  sea- water  on  the  1st  of  July,  it  slowly  commenced  action  from  the 
large  osculum  at  the  small  end  of  the  sponge.  On  weighing  it  after  having 
been  immersed  about  an  hour  in  water,  July  1st,  I  found  it  weighed  128 
grains  after  having  been  immersed  in  water  two  hours.  I  was  induced  to 
weigh  it,  from  observing  that  it  was  paler  in  colour  than  usual,  and  had  a 
more  rugged  or  warted  surface  than  customary.  On  the  10th  of  June,  at 
10  a.m.,  1  had  previously  weighed  this  sponge,  first,  after  having  been  out  of 
the  water  the  whole  night,  when  it  weighed  137  grains,  and  at  12  o'clock  of 
the  same  day,  after  being  in  water  two  hours,  when  it  weighed  144  grains, 


446  bbpobt — 1856. 

having  increased  in  weight  one-nineteenth,  or  rather  more  than  5  per  eat 
The  difference  between  the  first  and  second  weighing,  under  similar  dreas> 
stances,  therefore  amounted  to  16  grains.  It  had  thus  lost  one-ninth  of  is 
original  weight 

I  continued  to  observe  daily  the  condition  of  this  sponge  which  had  previ- 
ously afforded  me  such  satisfactory  results.  It  exhibited  very  little  diffiercstt 
in  appearance  until  the  15th  of  July,  when  1t  became  somewhat  paler  a 
colour;  after  being  an  hour  out  of  the  water  it  weighed  121  grains*  I  con- 
tinued to  examine  it  frequently  from  the  15th  to  the  20th  of  July,  and  I  fond 
that  the  paleness  that  I  had  noticed  on  the  former  date,  was  occasioned  by 
a  gradual  dissolution  or  change  of  the  dermal  membrane,  the  remains  of 
which  hung  about  the  sponge  in  the  form  of  small  flocculent  fragments. 

This  dissolution  or  change  of  the  dermal  membrane  produced  a  remarkable 
alteration  of  its  external  features.  Beneath  the  old  dermal  membrane,  si  I 
before  stated,  there  were  several  large  superficial  canals  which  meandered 
irregularly  over  nearly  every  part  of  the  sponge,  with  which  the  oscula  wen 
always  connected ;  but  after  the  dissolution  of  the  membrane,  the  whole 
of  these  closed  canals  were  uncovered,  and  became  simply  a  series  of  deeply 
indented  channels  on  the  exposed  surface,  and  no  membranous  oscula  wen 
any  longer  apparent ;  but  in  the  places  formerly  occupied  by  these,  there 
remained  a  series  of  large,  irregular  orifices  only,  without  any  membraooas 
veil  whatever  that  was  apparent.  Under  these  circumstances,  the  spoagf 
presented  a  much  more  rugged  and  attenuated  appearance  than  it  had  pre- 
viously exhibited,  and  I  accordingly  weighed  it  again,  under  precisely  tke 
former  circumstances,  and  was  surprised  to  find  that  the  weight  was  131 
grains,  being  precisely  the  same  as  when  weighed  five  days  previously. 

From  the  1st  of  July  to  the  20th  I  examined  this  sponge  frequently,  sod 
often  endeavoured  to  excite  it  to  ex-current  action  by  pouring  water  over  n, 
but  without  success.  On  the  21st  of  July  I  omitted  to  replace  it  in  the  water 
at  night,  and  in  the  morning  1  found  it  was  dead,  giving  forth  a  peculiar 
odour  that  always  accompanies  the  death  of  the  sponge. 

Adhesion  of  Species. 

It  has  long  been  known  to  naturalists,  through  the  valuable  commas- 
cations  of  Dr.  Grant  in  the  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  vol  xiv. 
p.  1 1 5,  that  individuals  of  the  same  species  of  sponge  growing  near  each  other, 
united  and  became  as  one  sponge,  when  by  their  natural  extension  they  came 
in  contact ;  and  that  individuals  of  different  species  under  similar  circum- 
stances, however  closely  they  might  embrace  each  other,  never  became 
organically  united.  I  have  frequently  seen  these  facts  verified  in  their  natural 
localities  at  Tenby,  and  under  other  circumstances.  I  determined  therefore 
to  endeavour  to  ascertain,  if  possible,  the  phenomena  that  were  exhibited 
under  such  occasions  of  coalescence. 

On  the  4th  of  June,  at  S  p.m.,  I  placed  nine  small  specimens  of  Hym* 
niacidon  caruncula  in  a  saucer-full  of  salt-water  with  a  few  green  fuci  in  it, 
and  I  arranged  the  sponges  gently  in  contact  with  each  other.  Ob 
examining  them  at  1 1  o'clock  a.m.  on  the  5th  of  June,  I  found  that  five  of 
these  specimens  in  which  the  contact  had  been  complete,  were  firmly 
cemented  together.  Two  of  them  were  one  and  a  half  inch  in  length,  and 
three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  breadth,  and  the  others  about  half  that  size;  but  j 
so  strong  was  the  adhesion,  that  the  largest  four,  full  of  water,  were  readily  ! 
sustained  out  of  the  water  by  the  smallest  of  the  united  group.  Twenty  houn 
therefore  bad  sufficed  to  unite  them  firmly. 

At  8  o'clock  p.m.  of  the  5th  of  June,  I  placed  several  specimens  of  the 


ON  THB  VITAL  POWBBi  OF  THE  SPONGIADiE.  447 

uoe  sponge  in  contact  in  pain;  at  half-past  11  p.m.,  on  pouring  off 
he  water  carefully,  I  found  some  of  the  pairs  had  slightly  adhered  to  each 
tther. 

I  left  them  in  contact  without  further  disturbance,  and  it  is  evident  that 
idhesion  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  effected  in  eight  or  nine  hours,  an 
unount  of  exertion  of  vital  action  that  was  scarcely  to  have  been  expected* 
At  half-past  9  o'clock  on  the  following  morning,  June  6th,  I  found  the  junc- 
tion of  the  four  pairs  of  sponges  had  been  strongly  and  completely  effected 
daring  the  night,  and  while  deprived  of  water.  The  united  portions  in  two 
of  the  pairs  were  three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length.  No  traces  of  the  lines 
of  separation  that  existed  on  the  previous  day  could  be  detected  with  a  2-inch 
lens,  and  the  uniting  membrane  stretched  from  one  to  the  other,  without  the 
slightest  depression  or  indication  of  the  former  state  of  separation.  Thus  we 
find  a  strong  and  complete  junction  effected  in  each  of  the  four  cases  in  so 
short  a  time  as  eighteen  hours. 

None  of  these  specimens  when  taken  from  the  rock  were  compressed  or 
otherwise  injured,  and  in  none  of  them  were  there  any  oscula  visible.  On 
the  following  morning,  when  supplied  with  sea- water  after  having  been  left  ex- 
posed to  the  air  and  without  water  during  the  night,  the  numerous  oscula 
made  their  appearance,  and  the  ex-current  action  became  general  and  very 
vigorous,  creating  currents  in  every  possible  direction  at  the  surface  of  the 
dish  of  water  in  which  they  were  kept. 

June  7. — 1  examined  them  again  at  half-past  9  o'clock,  and  found  the 
adhesion  between  the  specimens  had  been  strengthened ;  I  gave  them  fresh 
water,  but  not  finding  any  action  taking  place  at  12  o'clock,  I  removed  them 
and  pickled  them  in  bay-salt  and  water. 

I  repeated  this  experiment  on  the  adhesion  of  individuals  of  the  same  spe- 
cies many  times  and  always  with  the  same  results.  Specimens  of  HaL panacea, 
when  placed  in  contact,  also  adhered  to  each  other,  but  theydid  not  appear 
to  adhere  either  so  rapidly  or  with  so  much  force  as  in  Hym.  caruncula. 
When  specimens  of  HaLpanicea  and  Hym.  caruncula  were  placed  in  close 
contact,  no  adhesion  whatever  took  place. 

I  fully  expected  this  result,  as  I  had  often  examined  the  two  species  grow- 
ing closely  pressed  against  each  other  on  the  rock,  and  always  found  that, 
although  the  contact  was  close  and  apparently  forcible,  no  adhesion  could 
ever  be  detected. 

On  several  subsequent  occasions  I  placed  pairs  of  specimens  of  Hymenia- 
cidtm  caruncula  in  contact  at  about  1 1  o'clock  p.m.,  after  draining  the  water 
from  them,  and  in  every  instance  I  found  the  adhesion  took  place  as  readily 
without,  as  with  immersion  in  water. 

Reparative  powers. 

The  remarkable  activity  of  the  vital  power,  as  displayed  in  the  rapidity  and 
strength  with  which  individuals  of  the  same  species  adhered  to  each  other, 
naturally  led  me  to  imagine  that  the  power  of  repairing  injuries  would  be  no 
less  great  than  that  of  simply  coalescing,  and  I  determined  to  investigate 
this  branch  of  their  economy. 

June  8.— At  half-past  1  p.m.  I  wounded  a  specimen  of  Hymeniacidon 
°*r*ncula,  rather  exceeding  2  inches  in  length,  in  two  places.  In  one  case  * 
I  made  a  clean  cut  across  it  nearly  half  an  inch  in  depth ;  in  the  other  I 
cut  a  notch  in  it  about  three- fourths  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  the  eighth 
of  an^  inch  wide  and  deep.  At  5  p.m.  a  manifest  alteration  had  taken 
ptoe  in  the  latter  case.  The  edges  of  the  wound  at  the  dermal  membrane 
were  no  longer  angular,  but  were  rounded  off,  and  a  very  thin  membrane 


448  report— -1856. 

appeared  to  be  in  course  of  production  over  the  whole  of  the  cut  surface. 
The  surfaces  of  the  first  simple  incised  wound  could  not  be  readily  separated, 
and  a  sufficient  amount  of  adhesion  had  evidently  taken  place  within,  to 
prevent  the  wounded  surfaces  from  separating  without  the  application  tf 
some  amount  of  violence.  At  10  a.m.  of  the  9th  of  June,  I  eiaiiawi 
this  specimen  again,  and  found  that  the  deep  incised  wound  had  entirely 
closed,  and  a  firm  and  strong  membrane  had  united  the  previously  separated 
parts  of  the  surface  of  the  sponge  so  completely  that  a  separation  of  the  sida 
of  the  wound  could  not  have  been  effected  without  a  degree  of  violence  that 
would  have  endangered  the  whole  sponge.  The  large  notch  that  had  bea 
cut  on  the  other  end  of  the  sponge. had  also  been  completely  repaired.  The 
edges  of  the  wound  had  lost  all  their  angularity,  and  the  sides  of  the  cut,  n 
which  when  first  made  there  were  numerous  orifices  arising  from  section 
of  the  great  canals,  were  now  covered  by  the  new  membrane,  which  entirety 
closed  all  the  orifices  caused  by  the  wounding  of  the  sponge ;  and  so  com- 
plete was  the  reparation,  that  the  indentation  appeared  to  be  merely  one  of 
the  natural  depressions  of  the  surface  of  the  sponge.  From  11  to  12  o'clock 
the  sponge  exhibited  ex-current  action  from  its  principal  oscula,  and  amosg 
those  in  full  action  was  one  which  had  been  bisected  in  the  act  of  making 
the  deep  simple  incision  across  the  substance  of  the  sponge. 

On  the  8th  of  June,  at  4?  p.m.,  I  also  wounded  several  sponges  of  the  same 
species  in  situ,  on  the  rocks  in  St.  Catherine's  cave,  by  cutting  notches 
about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  breadth  and  depth  in  their  surface,  or  by  cot- 
ting  out  conical  masses  from  near  the  middle  of  the  sponges  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  in  diameter  at  the  surface  of  the  sponge ;  and  in  another  case  I 
cut  a  slice  from  the  surface  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and 
about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  at  the  middle  of  the  sponge.  My 
object  in  this  experiment  was  to  ascertain  whether  any  difference  in  the 
results  would  arise  from  the  very  different  condition  under  which  the  last  and 
the  present  experiments  were  made. 

On  examining  the  wounded  sponges  in  their  natural  localities  twenty-four 
hours  after  the  wounds  had  been  made,  I  found  the  results  to  be  precisely 
the  same  as  in  those  that  1  had  kept  in  a  state  of  perfect  quiescence;  the 
continued  action  of  the  water  upon  them  had  not  retarded  the  reparative  pro- 
cess in  the  slightest  degree,  nor  had  the  quiescent  condition  of  those  which  I 
had  retained  in  the  dishes  apparently  accelerated  the  healing  process. 

June  12. — I  cut  off  a  piece  from  the  small  end  of  a  specimen  of  H.  canm- 
cula,  about  l£  inch  in  length,  at  12  o'clock  at  noon,  and  let  it  remain  sepa- 
rated for  about  an  hour.  1  then  placed  the  two  surfaces  in  contact  in  sea- 
water.  At  half-past  11  p.m.  they  had  already  united,  but  were  evidently 
not  strongly  cemented  together.  I  drained  off  the  water  as  usual  at  that 
period,  and  left  them  without  any  during  the  night;  at  1 1  a.m.,  on  June  13th, 
they  were  completely  and  firmly  united.  On  June  13th,  at  noon,  with 
a  view  to  ascertain  whether  the  healing  process  emanated  from  the  dermal 
membrane,  from  the  interior  substance  of  the  sponge,  or  from  both,  I  cut 
a  notch,  about  the  eighth  of  an  inch  in  width,  entirely  round  the  middle  of 
the  same  sponge,  and  then  cut  it  asunder  through  the  middle  of  the  notch, 
replaced  it  in  sea-water,  and  brought  the  two  sides  of  the  section  io 
» close  contact,  to  ascertain  whether  the  healing  process  would  take  place 
independent  of  the  dermal  membrane.  On  June  the  1 4th,  at  10  a.m.,  I  found 
the  two  pieces  firmly  cemented  together  without  contact  of  the  dermal 
membrane. 

June  1 3 th. — At  noon,  from  a  specimen  of  H.  caruncula,  about  1 J  inch  long 
by  1}  broad,  I  cut  a  slice  from  the  top  of  the  sponge  £  inch  long  by  about 


ON  THE  VITAL  POWERS  OF  THE  SPONGIAD.E.  449 

^  an  inch, broad,  the  greatest  thickness  being  about  TVth  of  an  inch,  laying 
>pen  three  large  ex-current  canals,  and  numerous  other  small  canals  and 
savities,  and  then  replaced  it  in  the  water.  I  also  cut  seven  other  specimens 
in  halves,  and  then  replaced  them  in  the  water,  bringing  the  sections  into  close 
contact.  June  14-th,  at  10  o'clock  a.m.,  I  found  the  two  pieces  firmly 
cemented  without  contact  of  the  dermal  membrane.  On  examining  the  sponge, 
from  the  top  of  which  1  had  cut  off  a  slice  at  12  o'clock,  June  13,  at  5  o'clock 
on  the  same  day,  1  observed  that  the  three  great  orifices  arising  from  sections 
of  great  ex* current  canals  were  each  in  process  of  being  closed.  From  the 
circular  margin  of  each  a  membrane  had  extended  from  the  circumference 
towards  the  centre,  very  nearly  closing  the  smallest  of  the  orifices,  and  in 
the  other  two  cases  leaving  in  one  a  circular  central  orifice,  one-third  of  the 
original  diameter,  and  in  the  other  about  one-fourth  of  the  diameter.  On  the 
following  morning,  June  14,  these  apertures  were  entirely  closed,  and  over 
the  whole  of  the  wounded  surface  a  new  dermal  membrane  had  been  formed, 
which  securely  closed  all  the  numerous  small  orifices  as  well  as  the  larger 
ones. 

The  seven  larger  sponges  which  I  had  separated  by  cutting  into  halve*, 
and  then  replaced  in  water  with  the  divided  parts  again  in  close  contact,  were 
all  found  firmly  united  at  10  o'clock  on  the  following  morning,  June  14th ; 
and  at  June  15th,  10  a.m.,  the  reparation  of  the  subjects  of  the  above 
experiment  were  so  complete  as  to  quite  obliterate  the  traces  of  the  separation 
in  some  of  them.  I  therefore  pickled  the  specimens.  In  other  cases  I  cut 
the  same  species  of  sponges  into  three  pieces  and  reversed  the  position  of  the 
middle  piece  of  each,  so  as  to  render  the  sections  unconformable;  but  tnis 
reversal  of  position,  when  the  surfaces  were  brought  into  close  contact,  did 
not  seem  in  the  slightest  degree  to  retard  the  healing  process,  or  to  render 
the  adhesion  of  the  pieces  less  firm  than  when  placed  together  conformably. 

Disease  and  Death. 
July  1. — At  10  a.m.  I  observed  in  one  of  the  specimens  of  Hym.  carun- 
cula  which  I  had  brought  from  Tenby  to  London,  an  appearance  of 
disease  in  one  of  the  lobes  of  the  sponge  for  about  half  an  inch  from 
the  point  inwards.  There  was  a  tumid  appearance  of  the  surface  tissues 
sod  a  glassy  opalescence  in  the  part  affected.  On  smelling  this  portion  of 
the  sponge,  there  was  a  slightly  foetid  odour  which  did  not  exist  in  the 
healthy  portions  of  it.  I  immediately  cut  off  this  piece  about  half  an  inch 
from  the  diseased  part,  and  placed  it  in  a  basin  by  itself  in  sea- water.  In  six 
hours  the  diseased  appearance  had  become  much  more  evident,  but  the 
healthy  part  attached  to  it  remained  apparently  unaffected.  On  examining  a 
section  from  the  surface  of  the  most  diseased  part,  I  found  the  dermal  mem- 
brane distended  by  an  effusion  of  an  opalescent  lymph-like  fluid ;  the  sarcode 
in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  had  lost  its  red  colour,  and  the  parts  were 
apparently  in  a  decomposing  state,  but  the  adjoining  portions  of  the  same 
tissue  presented  a  healthy  appearance.  The  separation  of  the  diseased  piece 
from  the  parent  sponge,  had  apparently  been  effective  in  preventing  the 
spread  of  the  disease,  as  it  retained  its  usual  appearance  at  the  section  and 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  sponge  during  the  next  twenty-four  hours,  but 
shortly  after  that  time,  it  began  to  exhibit  strong  symptoms  of  disease,  and 
lr»  a  few  hours  it  was  evidently  dead. 

Nutrition. 
( I  cannot  dismiss  the  subject  without  a  few  words  regarding  the  nutri- 
tjon  of  the  Sponsiadee.      That  they   inhaled. and  exhaled   water  abun- 
1856.  &  2g 


450  ripoet — 1856. 

dantly,  has  been  long  well  known,  but  what  the  effects  of  the  exertkm  of 
those  functions  were  has  been  little  noted  by  naturalists;  and  although, 
by  the  almost  universal  consent  of  zoologists,  they  have  been  received  as 
animals,  they  have  been  denied  the  possession  of  stomach,  intestines,  and 
almost  of  every  organ  that  constitutes  animality,  while  in  truth  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  interior  of  the  animal  is  one  large  stomachal  cavity,  furnished 
abundantly  with  mucous  membranes,  if  I  may  so  term  them,  covered  with  s 
coat  of  Barcode,  analogous  in  every  respect  to  the  mucous  lining  of  the 
intestines  of  the  higher  animals,  and  which  performs  for  the  sponge  precisely 
those  functions  that  the  sarcode  exerts,  hom  Actinophrys  Sol  upwards,  through 
every  gradation  of  animal  existence,  to  man,  and  the  rest  of  the  most  elabo- 
rately constructed  animals.  This  extraordinary  substance,  designated,  ia 
AoUnophrys  Sol,  sarcode  by  Kttlliker,  and  in  the  higher  animals  known  by 
anatomists  as  the  mucous  lining  of  the  intestines,  is  apparently  an  orgaa 
of  very  much  more  importance  in  the  process  of  digestion  than  has  bees 
generally  conceived.  It  is  never  deficient  in  any  animal,  from  the  lowed 
to  the  highest  I  have  examined  it  from  living  specimens  microscopically  ~ 
Acalepha,  Actinia,  Radiaria,  Fishes,  and  in  the  Mouse  and  other 
quadrupeds ;  and  in  all,  it  presents  nearly  the  same  appearance*  It  is 
transparent,  has  an  uneven  corrugated  surface,  and  in  every  instance  in  which 
I  have  observed  it,  abounds  with  solid  and  vesicular  molecules  of  extraneosi 
matter  in  a  serai-digested  state.  Generally  speaking,  of  the  vesicular  mole- 
cules, very  few  indeed  are  in  a  fully  distended  condition,  aud  by  far  the 
greater  number  present  every  degree  of  collapse  that  can  well  be  imagined 
during  the  dissolution  of  such  bodies  by  digestion. 

In  the  Spongiadse  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  imbibition  of 
the  molecules  by  this  substance  is  precisely  in  the  manner  described  by 
Kolliker  in  Actinophrys  Solt  and  from  ray  examinations  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes  of  so  many  classes  of  animals,  I  feel  persuaded  that  the  mucous  lining 
of  the  intestines  in  such  animals  is  truly  the  homologue  of  the  sarcode  m 
Actinophry$  Sol  and  in  the  Spongiadee. 

I  will  not  enter  at  the  present  time  fully  into  this  subject,  as  I  trust  I  shall, 
hereafter,  by  further  investigations,  be  enabled  to  do  so  more  completely  sad 
effectively. 

In  conclusion  I  may  observe,  that  I  have  been  thus  particular  in  detailing 
minutely  the  history  of  the  actions  of  the  specimen  of  Hymeniacidon  carm- 
cula  that  has  been  the  subject  of  so  great  a  portion  of  this  communication,  si 
it  leads  us  to  some  very  interesting  conclusions.  We  learn  by  the  daily 
records  of  its  actions,  that  it  is  neither  the  mere  stimulus  of  light  or  even  the 
presence  of  fresh  water,  or  the  abundance  of  its  natural  food,  that  will  at  til 
times  stimulate  these  animals  to  action,  as  in  vegetables ;  but  that,  on  the  coo* 
trary,  they  select  or  reject  their  food  like  other  animals  as  their  necessitieJ 
may  dictate ;  and  not  the  least  curious  part  of  the  history  of  this  sponge,  s 
the  power  it  displayed  to  determine  what  parts  of  its  organs  should  be  called 
into  activity,  and  what  should  be  quiescent 

During  the  course  of  these  observatious  I  have  frequently  observed  other 
specimens  of  the  same  species,  and  have  tested  the  degree  of  their  action  or 
repose  by  the  application  of  a  few  drops  of  sea-water  charged  with  molecules 
of  indigo  ;  and  in  almost  every  case  where  the  oscula  were  in  the  slightest 
degree  open,  I  have  found  that  although  apparently  inert,  there  usually  re* 
mained  a  very  gentle  ex-current  action.  It  will  be  remembered  also,  that  in 
the  course  of  the  records  of  the  action  of  the  sponge  which  has  formed  the 
principal  subject  of  these  observations,  the  general  effect  of  the  removal 
of  the  animal  from  the  water  is  the  entire  closing  of  the  oscula ;  but  that  oa 


ON  THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OP  SALMON.  451 

the  cessation  of  the  fall  and  vigorous  action,  the  oscula  while  still  immersed 
in  the  water  do  not  close  entirely ;  the  orifices  almost  always  remain  more  or 
less  open,  and  during  this  condition  a  comparatively  languid  circulation 
continues. 

These  two  conditions  of  the  animal  action  are  strongly  indicative  of  the 
exertion  of  two  distinct  functions ;  the  vigorous  action  being  that  of  the 
period  of  feeding,  while  the  gentle  one  indicates  the  breathing  one  only. 

If,  during  the  powerful  state  of  action  of  the  sponge,  we  introduce  a  few 
drops  of  water  charged  with  indigo,  the  rush  of  the  molecules  to  its  outer 
surface  is  immediate ;  and  if  the  species  be  Grantia  ciliata  or  compressa,  we 
find  the  sponge  deeply  tinctured  with  blue  in  a  very  few  minutes.  After  a 
brief  period  we  find  a  few  molecules  of  indigo  ejected  from  the  common 
faecal  orifice  of  the  sponge. 

If  the  sponge  be  now  removed  into  fresh  water,  the  ejection  of  molecules 
of  indigo  continues  for  hours  to  be  slowly  effected.  After  having  thus  im- 
bibed indigo,  there  is  no  amount  of  washing  that  will  not  injure  the  sponge 
that  will  remove  the  colouring  matter ;  but  if  the  sponge  be  removed  into 
fresh  water,  it  will  be  found  to  be  free  from  colour  in  a  period  varying  from 
twelve  to  twenty-four  hours,  the  process  of  digestion  and  defecation  having, 
naturally  effected  its  removal ;  and  if  any  molecules  remain  on  the  outer  sur- 
face, a  very  little  water  poured  over  the  sponge  will  now  usually  remove  them. 

The  strongly  adhesive  power  inherent  in  the  dermal  membranes  of  sponges 
and  in  all  parts  of  their  internal  structure,  readily  accounts  for  the  universal 
habit  of  inosculation,  not  only  as  regards  the  large  external  branches,  but 
the  internal  fibres  also,  and  it  is  evident  that  to  this  active  power  of 
adherence  the  reticulated  forms  of  fibrous  structure  is  due* 


Report  of  a  Committee,  consisting  of  Sir  W.  Jardine,  Bart.*  Dr. 
Fleming,  and  Mr.  E.  Ashworth,  upon  the  Experiments  con- 
ducted at  Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  for  the  artificial  propagation 
of  Salmon. 

The  migrations  of  the  Salmon  between  the  seas  and  rivers  have  long  been  a 
subject  of  much  interest  to  the  proprietors  of  salmon  fisheries,  to  sportsmen, 
and  to  naturalists ;  and  the  difficulty  of  making  observations,  or  of  obtaining 
accurate  information,  rendered  the  pursuit  of  the  inquiry  if  possible  more 
exciting.  The  experiments  conducted  by  Mr.  Shaw  at  Drumlanrig,  and 
Mr.  Young  at  Invershin,  produced  many  valuable  and  important  results; 
and  being  conducted  with  great  care  by  practical  men,  entirely  independent  of 
each  other,  and  at  stations  widely  apart,  the  facts  stated  were  entitled  to 
every  reliance.  The  opinions  of  these  two  men,  however,  were  at  variance 
on  a  very  important  point,  viz.  the  age  at  which  the  young  fry  assumed  their 
migratory  dress  and  took  their  departure  from  the  river  to  the  sea — > 
Mr.  Shaw  making  it  two  years,  Mr.  Young  only  twelve  or  thirteen  months. 
These  experiments,  and  the  success  which  had  attended  artificial  propaga- 
tion in  France,  and  the  extent  to  which,  in  that  country,  the  latter  was 
beginning  to  be  practised  economically  and  for  profit ;  the  trials  of  Mr* 
Garnett  at  Clitheroe,  and  of  Mr.  Ashworth  at  Outerard  in  Ireland,  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  fishermen  of  the  Tay;  and  on  the  19th  of  July,  1852,  a 
meeting  of  the  proprietors  of  that  river  was  held  at  Perth  to  consider  the 

2g2 


J 


452  report — 1856* 

subject  generally.  This  meeting  was  numerously  attended,  and  Mr.  Thorns 
Ashworth  of  Poynton  laid  before  it  and  explained  the  operations  which  bad 
been  recently  carried  on  by  himself  and  his  brother,  Mr.  Edmund  Ashwartk, 
at  their  fisheries  in  Ireland,  and  recommended  strongly  that  these  should  nor 
be  attempted  for  the  Tay.  The  recommendation  was  acceded  to,  and  the 
Earl  of  Mansfield,  who  was  chairman  of  the  meeting,  at  once  gave  permis- 
sion to  select  from  his  estates  any  situation  favourable  for  carrying  on  the 
experiments.  This  was  the  origin  of  the  Stormontfield  breeding  ponds,  sat 
an  excellent  account  of  their  construction,  with  a  detail  of  the  operations  con- 
ducted in  them,  was  brought  before  the  Natural  History  Section  of  the 
British  Association  at  their  meeting  in  Glasgow,  which  led  to  the  support  of 
the  Association,  and  the  appointment  of  the  Committee  which  has  reported 
this  year  to  the  meeting  at  Cheltenham*. 

To  bring  the  subject  up  to  the  period  when  the  Committee  appointed  by 
the  British  Association  was  prepared  to  act,  it  will  be  necessary  to  mentkn 
the  principal  points  and  results  of  the  experiments  detailed  by  Mr.  Edmosd 
Ashworth  at  Glasgow.  These  are  extremely  interesting  in  themselves,  and 
are  indispensable  for  the  right  understanding  of  the  operations  which  were 
afterwards  conducted  and  are  now  in  operationf. 

The  situation  for  the  ponds  was  selected  at  Stormontfield  Mill  J,  not  far  from 
the  Palace  of  Scone.  "  A  gentle  slope  from  the  lade  which  supplies  the 
mill  offered  every  facility  for  the  equable  flow  of  water  through  the  boxes 
and  pond.  Three  hundred  boxes  were  laid  down  in  twenty-five  parallel 
rows,  each  box  partly  filled  with  clean  gravel  and  pebbles,  and  protected  at 
both  ends  with  zinc  grating  to  exclude  trout  and  insects.  Filtering  beds 
were  formed  at  the  head  and  foot  of  the  rows,  and  a  pond  for  the  receptkNi 
of  the  fry  was  constructed  immediately  below  the  hatching  ground.  On  tk 
23rd  of  November,  1853,  operations  were  commenced,  and  by  the  23rd  of 
December,  300,000  ova  were  deposited  in  the  boxes.  The  fish  were  takea 
from  spawning  beds  in  the  Tay." 

The  process  of  fecundation  and  of  depositing  the  ova  in  the  boxes  was 
conducted  by  Mr.  Ramsbottom,  who  was  engaged  for  the  purpose,  his  prac- 
tice and  experience  at  Clitheroe  and  elsewhere  giving  confidence  to  his 
manipulations.  "  The  ova  were  placed  in  the  boxes  as  nearly  similar  to 
what  they  would  be  under  the  ordinary  course  of  natural  deposition  as 
possible,  with,  however,  this  important  advantage—in  the  bed  of  the  river 
the  ova  are  liable  to  injury  and  destruction  in  a  variety  of  ways.  The 
alluvial  matter  deposited  in  times  of  flood  will  often  cover  the  ova  too  deep 
to  admit  of  the  extrication  of  the  young  fry,  even  if  hatched.  The  impetuosity 
of  the  streams,  when  flooded,  will  frequently  sweep  away  whole  spawning 
beds  and  their  contents  §.  Whilst  deposited  in  boxes,  the  ova  are  shielded 
from  injury,  and  their  vivification  in  large  numbers  is  thus  rendered  a  matter 
of  certainty,  and  the  young  fish  reared  in  safety.  On  the  31st  of  March, 
1854,  the  first  ovum  was  observed  to  be  hatched,  and  in  April  and  May  the 

*  T^  C??^ttee  "amId  r°J^1  0ver  the  exP«iments  in  progress,  and  those  to  be  com- 
menced in  1856,  consisted  of  Sir  W.  Jardinc,  Bart  ;  the  Rev.  Dr.  Fleming,  Prof.  Nat.  Hist. 
Free  College,  Edinburgh ;  and  Mr.  Edmund  Ashworth,  Egerton  Hall,  Lancashire 

f  Remarks  on  Artificial  Propagation  of  Salmon,  and  some  account  of  the  Experiment  at 
Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  by  Edmund  Ashworth.  Bolton,  1855.  8vo  pp  8 

t  Mr.  Spottiswoode,  the  tenant  of  Stormontfield,  with  much  liberality,  also  agreed  to  give 
the  use  of  the  ground  and  water  from  his  mill  lade,  free  of  all  remuneration;  and  we  may  add, 
that  the  interest  taken  by  all  who  had  any  control  over  the  locality  chosen,  either  in  the  ma- 
nagement  and  conducting  of  the  experiments,  or  in  communicating  information,  could  not  be 
exceeded  ;  this  of  itself  is  a  proof  of  the  importance  attached  to  these  operational 
r  §i  a ™esY?USC8;  ,n  **dltl?n  '?  th*  ^at  destruction  of  ova,  as  well  a*  young  fry,  by  wild 
fowl,  fish  and  insects,  all  tend  to  limit  the  natural  increase  of  the  salmon  "  Y     7 


ON  THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  SALMON.  453 

preater  portion  bad  come  to  life  and  were  at  large  in  the  boxes;  in  June  they 
were  admitted  into  the  pond,  their  average  size  being  about  an  inch  and  a 
lalf  in  length.     From  the  period  of  their  admission  into  the  pond  the  fry 
trere  fed  daily  with  boiled  liver  rubbed  small  by  the  hand.    Notwithstanding 
be  severity  of  the  winter,  they  continued  in  a  healthy  condition,  and  in  the   . 
tpring  of  the  present  year  (1855)  were  found  to  have  increased  in  size  to 
the  average  of  3  and  4  inches  in  length.    On  the  2nd  of  May,  1855,  a 
meeting  of  the  Committee  (appointed  by  the  Tay  proprietors  in  1852)  was 
field  at  the  pond,  to  consider  the  expediency  of  detaining  the  fry  for  another 
fear,  or  allowing  them  to  depart.    A  comparison  with  the  undoubted  smolts 
of  the  river  then  descending  seawards,  with  the  fry  in  the  ponds,  led  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  latter  were  not   yet  smolts,  and  ought  to  be  detained. 
Seventeen  days  afterwards,  viz.  on  the    19th  May,  a  second   meeting  was 
held,  in  consequence  of  the  great  numbers  of  the  fry  having  in  the  interim 
assumed  the  migratory  dress.    On  inspection,  it  was  found  that  a  considerable 
portion  were  actual  smolts,  and  the  Committee  came  to  the  determination  to 
allow  them  to  depart.    Accordingly,  the  sluice  communicating  with  the  Tay 
was  opened,  and  every  facility  for  egress  afforded.    Contrary  to  expecta- 
tion, none  of  the  fry  manifested  any  inclination  to  leave  the    pond  until 
the  24th  of  May,  when  the  larger  and  more  mature  of  the  smolts,  after 
having  held  themselves  detached  from  the  others  for  several  days,  went  off 
in  a  body.    A  series  of  similar  emigrations  took  place,  until  fully  one-half  of 
the  fry  had  left  the  pond  and  descended  the  sluice  to  the  Tay.     It  has  long 
been  a  subject  of  controversy,  whether  the  fry  of  the  salmon  assume  the 
migratory  dress  in  the  second  or  third  year  of  their  existence.    So  favourable 
an  opportunity  of  deciding  the  question  as  that  afforded  by  the  Stormontfield 
experiment  was  not  to  be  overlooked.     In  order  to  test  the  matter  in  the 
fairest  possible  way,  it  was  resolved  to  mark  a  portion  of  the  smolts  in  such 
a  mariner  that  they  might  easily  be  detected  when  returning  as  grilse.     A 
temporary  tank,  into  which  the  fish  must  necessarily  descend,  was  constructed 
at  the  junction  of  the  sluice  with  the  Tay ;  and  as  the  shoals  successively  left 
the  pond,  about  one  in  every  hundred  was  marked  by  the  abscision  of  the 
second  dorsal  fin.    A  greater  number  were  marked  on  the  29th  of  May  than 
on  any  other  day,  in  all  about  1200  or  1300.     The  result  has  proved  highly 
satisfactory.     Within  two  months  of  the  date  of  their  liberation,  viz.  between 
the  29th  of  May  and  31st  of  July,  twenty-two  of  the  young  fish  so  marked  when 
in  the  state  of  smolts,  on  their  way  to  the  sea,  have  been,  in  their  returning  mi- 
gration up  the  river,  recaptured,  and  carefully  examined.     This  fact  may  be 
considered  as  still  further  established,  by  observing  the  increased  weight, 
according  to  date,  of  the  grilse  caught  and  examined  ;  those  taken  first  weigh- 
ing 5  to  9£  lbs.,  then  increasing  progressively  to  7  and  8  lbs.,  whilst  the  one 
captured  31st  July  weighed  no  less  than  9|  pounds.     In  all  these  fish  the 
wound  caused  by  marking  was  covered  with  skin,  and  in  some  a  coating  of 
scales  had  formed  over  the  part.    Although  twenty-two  only  are  mentioned, 
the  taking  of  which  rests  on  indubitable  evidence,  nearly  as  many  more  are 
reported  from  distant  parts ;  the  weights  and  sizes  of  these  have  not  been 
forwarded. 

"The  experiment  at  Stormontfield  has  afforded  satisfactory  proof,  that  a 
portion  at  least  of  the  fry  of  the  salmon  assume  the  migratory  dress,  and 
descend  to  the  sea  shortly  after  the  close  of  the  first  year  of  their  existence  ; 
and  what  is  far  more  important  in  a  practical  point  of  view,  it  has  also 
demonstrated  the  practicability  of  rearing  salmon  of  marketable  value  within 
twenty  months  from  the  deposition  of  the  ova.  A  very  interesting  question 
still  remains  to  be  solved.     At  what  date  will  the  fry   now  in  the  pond 


454  bepobt — 1856. 

become  smolts?  Hitherto  they  have  manifested  no  disposition  to 
and  if  the  silvery  coat  of  the  smolt  be  not  assumed  till  the  spring  of  1856, 
a  curious  anomaly  will  present  itself.  Some  of  the  fry,  as  smolts,  wiQ,  fir 
the  first  time,  be  descending  seawards,  of  the  average  weight  of  2  ax.;  same 
as  grilse  wilL  be  taking  their  second  departure  to  the  sea ;  and  others  sfl 
more  advanced  will  even  have  completed  their  second  migration,  and  retail 
to  the  river  as  salmon  10  or  12  lbs.  in  weight.  It  is  much  to  be  desired,  Ast 
the  experiment  at  Stormontfield  could  be  continued  for  a  year  or  two  longer, 
till  the  links  in  the  chain  of  evidence  now  wanting  to  complete  the  natnil 
history  of  the  salmon  should  be  obtained.  All  praise  is  due  to  Lord  Mast- 
field  for  the  liberal  manner  in  which  he  has  aided  the  carrying  out  the  ope- 
rations to  this  time,  and  from  which  he  can  reap  little  advantage,  beyond 
the  satisfaction  to  an  enlightened  mind,  of  promoting  the  interests  of  sekaet 
and  the  welfare  of  the  community. 

"  Since  arriving  in  Glasgow  I  have  received  a  communication  from  m 
friend  Mr.  Baist,  in  which  he  says, — *  In  my  opinion,  you  have  kept  year 
statements  within  the  truth,  as  I  have  got  satisfactory  evidence  of  twenty- 
two  marked  grilse  being  taken,  besides  others  which  have  been  reported ;  aai 
I  have  no  doubt  many  have  beeu  thrown  in  the  heap  without  being  noticed 
by  the  careless  fishermen.  There  is  at  present  a  mystery  as  regards  the 
progress  of  the  young  salmon ;  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  all  in  our  poo* 
are  really  and  truly  the  offspring  of  salmon ;  no  other  fish,  not  even  the  seed  of 
them,  could  by  any  possibility  get  into  the  ponds ;  now  we  see  that  aboat 
-one-half  have  gone  off  as  smolts  in  their  season  as  grilses.  The  other  half 
remain  as  parrs,  and  the  milt  in  the  males  is  as  much  developed  in  proportioi 
to  the  size  of  the  fish  as  their  brethren  of  the  same  age  7  to  10  lbs.  weight, 
whilst  these  same  parrs  in  the  pond  do  not  exceed  1  oz.  in  weight.  This  n 
an  anomaly  in  nature,  which  I  fear  cannot  be  cleared  up  at  present.  I  hope, 
however,  by  proper  attention,  some  light  may  be  thrown  upon  it  from  oar 
experiments  next  spring.  The  female  parrs  in  the  pond  have  their  ova  to 
undeveloped,  that  the  granulations  can  scarcely  be  discovered  by  a  lens  of 
some  power.  It  is  strange,  that  both  Young  and  Shaw's  theories  are  likely 
to  prove  correct,  though  seemingly  so  contradictory,  and  the  much-disputed 
point  settled,  that  parrs  (such  as  ours  at  least)  are  truly  the  young  of  the 
salmon.' " 

We  may  now  consider  ourselves  at  the  close  of  the  Glasgow  meeting. 
The  Committee  which  is  now  reporting  to  you  prepared  to  act,  and  one-half 
of  the  fish  hatched  in  the  spring  of  1854  are  still  in  the  Stormontfield  pooos, 
and  under  the  charge  of  their  faithful  guardian,  Peter  Marshall.  These  fiss 
are  still  in  the  state  of  parr.  Mr.  Ashworth  had  arranged  that  a  book 
should  be  kept  at  the  ponds,  in  which  every  occurrence  worthy  of  notice 
should  be  entered,  and  we  shall  allow  that  book  to  tell  its  own  story  .-—"These 
parr  continued,  during  the  winter  1855-56,  healthy  and  in  good  condition, 
but  did  not  appear  to  make  much  advance  in  size  until  the  month  of  April 
1856.  They  were  then  in  good  condition,  but  not  much  larger  than  those 
which  had  been  allowed  to  leave  the  ponds  the  previous  year.** 

As  the  migratory  season  approached,  the  fish  were  closely  watched. 
Peter  Marshall  reports,  19th  March,  "that  the  parrs  in  the  pond  continued 
very  healthy."  19th  April : — "  Ponds  again  inspected,  and  some  experiments 
tried  to  mark  with  silver  rings.  They  were  then  also  healthy."  26th 
April : — "  Found  that  a  great  change  had  taken  place  upon  them,  and  that 
they  were  fast  getting  into  their  smolt  state ;  marked  a  few  with  the  silver 
rings  $  found  it  to  answer  very  well,  and  that  the  fish  went  off  very  lively  on 


ON  THB  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OP  SALMON.  455 

being  turned  into  the  river;  fixed  on  a  place  in  the  river  where  the  smelts 
can  be  intercepted  for  the  purpose  of  being  taken  out  and  marked.  They 
showed  a  decided  tendency  to  go  out,  and  from  28th  April  to  the  24th  of 
May,  the  shoals  went  off  daily  from  the  ponds." 

It  is  supposed,  as  a  fair  estimate,  that  about  120,000  fry  in  all  have  left 
the  ponds  in  May  1856,  and  of  those  1435  have  been  marked,  being  300 
with  silver  rings,  and  1 135  by  having  the  lower  lobe  of  the  tail  cut  diagonally 
off.  The  return  of  some  of  those  marked  fish  was  anxiously  watched  for,  and  on, 
the  30th  of  July  Mr.  Buist  writes  to  me, — "  There  has  been  a  very  large  catch. 
of  grilses,  indeed  in  such  numbers,  that  the  people  don't  take  care  to  examine- 
them.  On  12th  July  we  had  a  grilse  of  3£  lbs.  weight,  with  the  lower  fork 
cut  off  the  tail,  such  as  we  marked  in  April  and  May,  and  several  who  were 
present  at  the  marking  of  the  smolts  considered  that  it  was  one  of  them ; 
another  with  the  same  mark  was  reported,  but  not  produced  to  me."  On  the  7th 
of  August  Mr.  Buist  again  writes,-*-"  Several  grilse  with  cut  tails  have  been 
taken  within  the  last  week."  Up  to  the  time  of  the  reading  of  this  Report, 
no  fish  marked  with  rings  had  been  taken,  but  when  the  small  number  marked 
is  considered,  this  is  not  remarkable.  The  experiment  of  the  first  hatching 
may  now  be  said  to  be  completed.  The  results  have  been  satisfactory  in  two 
ways.  In  showing  the  practicability  of  hatching,  rearing,  and  maintaining 
in  health  a  very  large  number  of  young  fish  for  a  period  of  two  years,  and 
not  reckoning  the  original  expense  of  the  ponds  at  a  comparatively  small  cost; 
it  may  be  worthy  of  consideration,  whether  the  "  large  catch  "  mentioned 
by  Mr.  Buist  as  taking  place  this  year,  may  not  have  been,  in  part  at  least, 
due  to  the  numbers  that  have  been  lately  turned  out  It  has  also  been  again 
proved,  we  think  without  dispute,  that  the  young  fish  turned  out  as  smolts 
return  as  grilses  within  a  period  of  from  five  to  ten  weeks.  Not  so  many 
marked  fish  have  been  taken  as  could  have  been  wished ;  at  the  same  time 
there  have  been  sufficient  to  establish  this  fact. 

We  now  come  to  the  experiments  of  the  present  year,  which  have  been 
conducted  as  carefully  as  possible,  and  we  hope  to  be  able  to  report  what 
the  final  results  may  be  at  your  next  meeting ;  and  if  there  is  a  partial 
migration  before  that  time,  or  if  a  certain  number  of  the  fish  now  in  confine- 
ment take  upon  them  the  migratory  dress,  then  we  may  assume  that  a  similar 
process  takes  place  in  the  rivers,  and  that  a  portion  of  the  broods  do  seek  the 
sea,  at  the  age  of  from  twelve  to  fourteen  months  after  they  are  hatched.  In 
conducting  experiments  of  this  kind,  there  are  always  attendant  circumstances 
not  quite  natural  that  we  shall  have  to  contend  with ;  and  it  may  now  be 
urged,  that  the  regular  feeding  during  winter  might  bring  the  young  fish 
sooner  to  maturity,  or  on  the  other  side  of  the  question,  that  the  confinement 
of  so  many  within  a  small  compass  might  retard  their  growth.  But  on  com- 
paring the  fish  of  the  ponds  with  those  in  the  rivers,  we  find  a  remarkable 
similarity  and  agreement  of  the  different  stages,  so  far  as  we  can  judge  of  the 
age  of  those  in  the  rivers.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  we  can  by  care,  with  good 
and  regular  feeding  during  winter,  force  on,  as  it  were,  the  young,  or  some  por- 
tion of  them,  to  be  in  a  fit  state  to  migrate  in  twelve  or  thirteen  months,  it  will 
be  a  very  great  point  gained  in  the  object  we  have  in  view  (the  artificial 
increase  of  the  salmon),  and  it  does  not  appear  to  us  that  this  is  impracti- 
cable. 

In  order  to  try  over  again  the  experiments  we  have  just  described  as  con- 
cluded in  May  last,  arrangements  were  made  at  Stormontfield  to  fill  the  boxes 
with  fresh  impregnated  spawn,  and  to  take  every  care  that  this  should  be  done 
with  exactness.  The  taking  of  the  fish  for  spawning  was  commenced  on  the 
22nd  of  November,  and  continued  until  the  ]  9th  of  December,  1855 ;  in  that  time 


4S6  report — 1856. 

1 88  boxes  were  filled,  each  being  supposed  to  contain  2000  ova.  On  the  164 
December  last,  Mr.  E.  Ashworth,  on  the  part  of  the  British  Associatki 
Committee,  accompanied  by  Mr.  Buist  of  Perth,  and  Mr.  Ramsbottom,  net 
the  fishermen  at  a  ford  near  the  junction  of  the  Almond  and  the  Taj,  for  tie 
purpose  of  obtaining  spawn.  Our  pond  journal  relates, — "  When  we  arrival 
at  the  river  they  had  caught  two  female  fish,  and  at  the  next  cast  of  the  art 
two  other  female  fish  were  taken.  At  the  third  cast  they  captured  a  male 
fish  in  fine  condition,  from  24?  to  28  lbs.  weight.  We  had  now  full  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  the  whole  process  of  spawning  performed.  The  female  fei, 
after  being  relieved  of  their  ova,  swam  away  quite  lively,  and  each  wee 
marked  by  punching  a  hole  in  the  tail  *." 

The  male  fish  proved  to  be  one  of  the  fish  which  had  been  caught  by  Mr. 
Ramsbottom  in  December  1853,  and  marked  at  that  time  by  the  dead  ii 
being  cut  off. 

On  1 8th  February,  1 856,  Peter  Marshall  reports, — "  The  spawn  all  healthy, 
and  have  every  appearance  of  coming  to  life." 

On  3rd  March.  "The  appearance  of  the  spawn  still  continues  wit 
healthy,  but  not  yet  quite  ready  for  hatching." 

These  reports  were  continued,  and  the  ova  that  were  first  deposited, 
viz.  on  the  22nd  of  November,  1855,  came  to  life  on  the  3rd  of  April,  1856L 
The  others  in  succession  and  those  last  deposited,  viz.  I9ik  December,  were 
hatched  on  the  1 1th  of  April,  showing  a  difference  of  only  eight  days  in  the 
hatching,  although  there  was  fourteen  between  the  different  dates  of 
deposition  in  the  boxes. 

Upon  the  dispersion  or  turning  out  the  last  portion  of  the  previous  brood 
in  the  end  of  May,  the  rearing  pond  was  emptied,  thoroughly  cleaned  oit 
and  prepared  for  the  reception  of  the  young  fish  of  this  year,  still  in  the 
spawning  boxes,  but  now  increasing  in  size.  On  the  1st  of  Judy  last,  your 
Committee  visited  Perth,  and  in  company  with  Mr.  Buist  and  Mr.  Walsh 
inspected  the  ponds.  At  this  time  a  large  proportion  of  the  young  fish  hid 
found  their  way  to  the  rearing  ponds.  Some  were  still  in  the'  communicating 
race  through  which  the  water  flowed  gently,  and  a  few  still  continued  in  the 
small  pools  of  the  spawning  boxes.  After  the  ova  are  hatched  or  cotae  to 
life,  the  young  are  allowed  to  find  their  own  way  to  the  rearing  pond ;  this 
they  do  gradually,  and  with  the  exceptions  stated,  had  nearly  all  reached  it. 
They  appeared  quite  healthy,  were  feeding  upon  flies  and  other  insects,  and 
when  a  small  quantity  of  their  artificial  food  (boiled  liver  grated)  was  thrown 
in,  they  would  rush  towards  it  in  shoals.  The  reports  of  the  keeper  since 
the  1  st  of  July  have  been  equally  satisfactory, — "  The  young  are  as  thriving 
as  could  be  wished  in  everyway." 

This,  then,  is  the  state  and  condition  of  the  experiment  which  your  Com- 
mittee consider  they  have  under  charge.  Nothing  further  can  be  done  until 
the  time  arrives  next  year,  when  it  is  supposed  a  part,  or  the  whole  of  the 

*  Ova  deposited  in  Stormontfield  ponds  in  November  and  December  1855. 

Boxes.                                                                       Boies. 
1S55.    November  22 25   '         Brought  forward 87 


November  22  .    . 

Boxes. 
.     ...  25 

23  .     .     . 

.     .     .     .     9 

24  .     .     . 

.     .     .     .     1 

2G  .     .     . 

.     .     .     .     3 

M 

27  .     .     . 

....     0 

" 

28  .     .     . 

.     .     .     .     6 

" 

30  .     .     . 

.     .     .     .     2 

December 

1  .     .     . 

.     ...  32 

Carry  forward  .     . 

.     ...   87 

1855.    December.  3 6 

4 5 

5 17 

8 15 

15 19 

17  : 24 

19 10 

Total  ...     183 


ON  THE  ARTIFICIAL  PROPAGATION  OF  SALMON.  457 

brood,  may  assume  the  migratory  dress,  and  be  ready  to  remove  to  the  sea. 
We  propose  to  take  such  measures  as  will  allow  us  to  watch  this  narrowly, 
and  also  if  the  migratory  dress  be  assumed,  to  mark  a  large  number  before 
turning  out 

Note  to  Report  on  Stormontfield  Ponds. — The  importance  of  arti- 
ficial impregnation,  and  the  general  question  of  changes  and  migration,  is  also 
being  attended  to  elsewhere,  and  we  trust,  that  as  soon  as  the  natural  history, 
the  "  rise  and  progress  "  of  the  Salmon  shall  have  been  completed,  a  similar 
series  of  experiments  will  be  instituted,  to  determine  that  of  other  migratory 
fishes  which  have  not  yet  been  bred  or  kept  in  confinement.  Mr.  Shaw  bred 
and  reared  the  "  Sea  Trout "  of  the  Sol  way,  and  we  have  given  a  series  of 
figures  of  this  fish  from  the  length  of  an  inch  to  a  weight  of  4£  lbs.  *  ;  but 
the  fish  of  the  Tweed,  known  as  the  "  Bull  Trout,"  has  never  been  examined 
through  its  different  stages,  and  except  those  now  in  the  Duke  of  Rox- 
burghes  ponds  at  Floors,  has  never  been  bred  in  confinement. 

Ponds  similar  in  construction  to  those  at  Stormontfield  were  erected 
in  1855  by  the  Duke  of  Roxburghe  near  Floors,  and  upon  writing  to  his 
Grace  regarding  them,  every  information  has  been  kindly  supplied  by 
himself,  and  a  detailed  account,  at  his  desire,  has  been  drawn  up  by  the 
Superintendent  *  of  the  Tweed  River  Police;  and  as  this  bears  so  much 
upon  our  subject,  it  is  thought  that  some  extracts  from  it  will  not  now  be 
out  of  place : — 

"  The  pond  is  situate  on  a  small  rivulet  called  Stodrig  Burn,  and  is  about 
sixty  yards  from  the  Tweed,  within  the  policies  of  Floors  Castle,  near  Kelso. 
The  breeding  boxes  or  troughs  I  caused  to  be  made  similar  to  those  at  Stor- 
montfield, and  they  consist  of  four,  laid  parallel,  18  feet  long,  subdivided 
into  four  compartments,  4£  feet  long,  the  only  division  between  the  troughs 
being  a  1^-inch  deal,  instead  of  the  gravel  walk  as  at  Stormontfield.  The 
water,  which  is  raised  by  a  dam  at  the  upper  end,  is  made  to  fall  into  a  deep 
trough  which  adjoins  the  breeding  troughs,  from  which  it  is  as  equally  dis- 
tributed, and  after  flowing  over  the  gravel,  it  falls  into  an  aqueduct  18  inches 
wide,  and  which  is  carried  round  the  margin  of  the  receiving  pond,  which  is 
oval-shaped,  and  about  30  feet  long  by  15  wide,  in  which  there  is  about 
18  inches  of  water,  and  into  it  the  aqueduct  or  canal  discharges  itself. 

"The  pond  was  constructed  in  the  latter  months  of  1853,  but  owing  to 
circumstances,  it  was  not  stocked  that  season. 

"  On  the  4th  and  5th  of  March,  1855,  the  produce  of  five  fish  (three  of 
them  grilses)  was  impregnated  with  the  milt  procured  from  two  male  fish, 
and  deposited  in  the  hatching  troughs.  The  spring  was  very  cold,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  water  very  low;  however,  the  ova  appeared  to  thrive 
nicely,  and  on  the  27th  of  April  the  young  were  formed  and  moving,  and 
from  their  appearance,  I  expected  they  should  have  been  hatched  in  the 
course  of  another  week  ;  but  when  I  examined  them  on  the  4th  of  May,  I 
found,  to  my  astonishment,  that  not  a  single  ovum  was  in  a  healthy  hatching 
state,  but  thousands  of  them  had  in  the  course  of  the  week  become  opake, 
and  the  backbone  and  eyes  of  the  little  creatures  could  be  easily  seen  upon 
dividing  the  ovum  with  a  penknife.  The  cause  of  this  mishap  it  was  impos- 
sible to  trace,  but  there  is  much  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  caused  by  a 
large  quantitv  of  lime  being  used  as  manure  upon  the  lands  through  which 
the  rivulet  which  supplies  the  ponds  flows. 

"  On  the  17th,  18th,  and  19th  of  March  this  year  (1856),  I  had  a  quantity 
of  spawn  dug  from  a  shallow  bank  in  the  Tweed,  near  Galashiels,  part  of 
*  Illustrations  of  Scottish  Salmonidae. 


458  report— 1856. 

it  being  the  ova  of  the  salmon,  grilse,  and  ball  trout,  in  about  equal  portias* 
and  the  whole  being  not  less  than  50,000.  The  ponds  being  in  readiness,  ■ 
was  conveyed  on  the  19th  of  March  to  Kelso,  in  boxes  filled  with  fiat 
gravel  or  sand  in  a  damp  state,  and  was  deposited  in  the  breeding  boxes  tie 
same  day,  where  it  remained  till  the  11th  of  April,  when  the  young  woe 
first  observed  to  be  bursting  the  shell  or  covering  of  the  ova.  Upon  en- 
mining  the  gravel  in  the  boxes  on  the  2nd  of  May,  I  found  that  all  the  fiah  we* 
hatched,  and  only  those  remained  which  had  become  addled.  Since  tkft 
time  most  of  the  fry  left  the  hatching  boxes,  and  fell  back  into  the  aqnedoet 
from  which  most  of  them  have  passed  into  the  receiving  pond,  where  they 
now  remain.  They  have  as  yet  received  no  artificial  food,  but  they  appear 
quite  healthy,  and  are  growing  as  well  as  could  be  desired.  There  is  a 
great  difference  in  the  size  and  appearance  of  them :  the  largest  are  abort 
1|  inch  long,  while  some  of  them  are  not  over  half  the  size,  and  the  coloar 
of  some  is  much  lighter  than  of  others,  which  no  doubt  arises  from  the  different 
kinds  of  ova  which  were  placed  there." 

The  fishing  season  in  the  Tay  is  now  closed  for  this  year,  and  none  of  tk 
ringed  grilse  have  been  recovered  ;  but  Mr.  Buist  writes  to  me, — «*  Since  1 
last  wrote  (7th  August)  several  grilse  with  the  tail  mark  have  been  takes, 
and  a  number  of  salmon  have  been  taken  during  the  season  with  last  jw# 
grilse  mark  upon  them.  The  two  last  taken  were  13  and  19£  lbs."  Not 
season,  therefore,  our  ringed  fry  may  yet  appear  as  salmon,  although  they  • 
have  not  been  captured  this  year  in  their  grilse  state.  "  Our  young  brood 
are  thriving  well ;  but  as  in  former  cases,  they  are  already  showing  a  great 
disparity  in  size." 


Provisional  Report  on  the  progress  of  a  Committee  appointed  at  tk 
Meeting  in  Glasgow,  September  1855,  to  consider  the  question  */ 
the  Measurement  of  Ships  for  Tonnage,  consisting  of  the  fotiowmf 
Gentlemen: — Mr.  J.  R.  Napier,  Mr.  John  Wood,  Mr.  Allah 
Gilmore,  Mr.  Charles  Atherton,  Mr.  James  Pbakb,  and 
Mr.  Andrew  Henderson  (Reporter). 

As  the  first-named  Member  of  the  Committee  on  Tonnage  Measurement, 
it  becomes  my  duty  to  report  progress  in  the  matters  referred  to  us,  and  in 
so  doing,  I  beg  to  premise  my  report  with  the  remark,  that  I  was  induced  to 
propose  this  Committee  from  having  had  the  honour  of  reading  a  paper  on 
Ocean  Steamers,  Clipper  Ships,  and  their  descriptive  measurement,  to  the 
Association  at  their  meeting  at  Liverpool  (vide  page  152  to  156  of  Report, 
1854),  While  at  Glasgow,  in  1855,  a  new  shipping  bill  having  come  into 
operation,  I  found  that  the  extreme  interest  then  publicly  taken  in  the  general 
question  of  Government  interference  in  shipping  affairs  seemed  to  render 
this  Committee  expedient 

The  serious  and  important  character  of  the  subject  thereby  involved,  and 
the  consequent  responsibility  imposed  on  all  individuals  who  may  take  a 
prominent  part  in  this  matter,  have  operated  as  an  obstacle  to  the  immediate 
establishment  and  working  operation  of  this  Committee.  In  the  first  place, 
I  beg  to  notice  that  the  subject  of  Tonnage  Registration,  as  connected  with 
our  national  statistics  of  shipping,  had  been  brought  to  the  notice  of  the 
public,  both  at  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  by  myself,  in  1853,  and  at 
the  Society  of  Arts,  by  Mr.  Charles  Atherton,  in  a  manner  which  has  fully 


ON  THE  MEASUREMENT' OF  SHIPS  FOB  TONNAGE.  459 

rt  forth  the  importance  of  the  subject,  and  shown  that  legislative  enactment ' 
^nrill  be  necessary  in  order  to  correct  the  deficiencies  of  our  present  tonnage 
registration  of  shipping  :  the  subject,  having  been  thus  brought  before  the 
public  in  ita  most  serious  and  important  aspect,  has  apparently  induced 
several  of  the  gentlemen  proposed  for  this  Committee  to  decline  the  task 
-fcHos  expected  of  them. 

The  absence  from  Glasgow  of  many  interested  in  the  subject  rendering 
previous  communication  impracticable,  the  President  and  officers  of  the 
XVfechanical  Section  deeming  it  desirable  that  the  three  scientific  bodies 
before  whom  the  subject  had  been  brought  should  participate  in  the  inves- 
tigation, Mr.  John  Scott  Russell  was  nominated  to  represent  the  British 
^Association;  and  it  being  also  considered  expedient  to  follow  the  precedent 
of  the  Tonnage  Committee  of  1849,  comprising  shipowners,  shipbuilders, 
officers  of  the  Royal  Navy,  Merchant  Service,  and  Trinity  House,  gentlemen 
connected  with  Lloyd's  Register,  and  their  surveyors,  with  several  naval 
architects  and  engineers,   there  were  proposed  Mr.  Allan  Gilmore,  Mr. 
JFohn  Wood,  and  Mr.  James  R.  Napier,  representing  the  shipowners  and 
shipbuilders  of  Scotland;    Mr.  C.  Atherton  and  Mr.  J.  Peake,  the  latter 
professions,  with  the  understanding  that  they  were  to  seek  the  cooperation 
of  others. 

Accordingly,  application  was  made  to  noblemen,  officers  and  engineers 
connected  with  the  Navy,  the  Society  of  Arts,  and  Institution  of  Civil 
Engineers,  the  shipowners'  societies  of  London  and  Liverpool,  the  Com- 
mittee of  Lloyd's  Register  of  Shipping,  and  to  shipbuilders ;  although  many 
of  these  gentlemen  of  scientific  attainments  and  practical  experience  offered 
to  participate  in  the  investigation,  difficulty  and  delay  occurred  from  some 
of  the  members  of  the  Committee  being  resident  in  distant  parts  of  the 
country,  while  for  the  deposit  of  papers  and  plans  for  references  by  the 
Committee,  no  provision  had  been  made  even  in  the  metropolis ;  the  only 
means  of  bringing  them  under  consideration,  was  the  forwarding  copies  of 
them  to  the  principal  ports,  that  the  members  might  elicit  the  opinion  of  the 
Local  Marine  Boards  and  shipowners. 

With  this  view  application  was  made  to  the  Board  of  Trade  for  copies  of 
Acta  and  Parliamentary  papers  bearing  on  the  question,  to  be  submitted  to 
the  members  of  the  Committee  of  the  British  Association  in  their  investi- 
gation of  Tonnage  Measurement 

The  official  reply  was,  that  the  Board  of  Trade  "  do  not  consider  that  the 
law  of  tonnage  measurement  requires  alteration,  or  that  the  subject  requires 
further  investigation  with  any  view  of  amending  the  law."  "  Most  of  the 
papers  to  which  you  refer  are  published,  and  can  be  purchased.  Those 
which  have  not  been  published,  and  which  are  among  the  records  of  this 
office,  My  Lords  cannot  part  with ;  but  you  are  at  liberty  to  inspect  and  take 
copies  of  the  plans  which  you  have  yourself  submitted  to  the  Board." 

In  addition  to  these  delays  and  the  difficulties  thrown  in  the  way  by  the 
routine  of  *a  public  office,  Mr.  Allan  Gilmore  and  Mr,  John  Wood  of  Glas- 
gow, expressed  a  desire  to  withdraw  from  the  Committee ;  and  Mr.  Scott 
Russell's  engagements,  especially  in  connexion  with  the  construction  of  the 
great  ship  for  the  Eastern  Steam  Navigation  Company,  have  so  engrossed 
his  time  and  attention  as  to  have  put  it  out  of  his  power  to  take  that  interest 
in  this  question  which  has  hitherto  so  laudably  characterized'  his  exertions  in 
the  cause  of  science,  in  connexion  with  the  labours  of  the  British  Association. 
Mr.  Atherton  also  declined  on  the  ground  that  the  public  agitation  of  the 
question  referred  to,  in  which  during  the  past  year  he  was  engaged  before 
the  Society  of  Arts,  disqualified  him  for  the  time  being  from  taking  part  on 


460  report — 1856*.  i 

this  Committee ;  consequently,  Mr.  James  R.  Napier  and  Mr.  James  Feat* 
were  the  only  parties  available  for  cooperation  with  myself  (Mr.  Hade- 
son)  in  this  matter,  and  it  has  therefore  been  considered  most  advisable, 
under  the  circumstances  above  referred  to,  not  to  officiate  in  our  ooUectm 
capacity  as  a  Committee  of  the  British  Association,  but  simply  to  give  oar 
individual  aid  in  promoting  the  discussions  which  have  thus  sprung  up. 

With  this  view,  I  have  myself  taken  a  personal  interest  in  the  discosski 
of  the  tonnage  registration  question  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  as  exem- 
plified by  the  documents  submitted  herewith,  showing  a  large  amount  sf 
statistical  data  on  steam-ship  performances,  which  has  been  collected  by  me 
since  I  originally  brought  it  before  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1SI7» 
with  the  view  of  collecting  in  the  archives  of  that  Institution,  statistics  sf 
the  progress  of  improvement  in  our  mercantile  marine. 

The  papers  comprise  my  view  as  to  tonnage  measurement,  as  laid  before 
the  Board  of  Trade  in  1850  and  in  1852,  and  as  to  steam  navigation  sad 
the  speed  realized  by  mail  steamers  as  laid  before  Parliament  in  1851,  papas 
read  before  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  1853,  the  British  A*socian« 
in  1854,  and  published  by  the  Society  of  Arts  in  1855;  together  with  the 
discussions  that  have  taken  place  in  the  Journal  of  that  Society,  in  1856,  oa 
Mr.  Atherton's  paper  on  Tonnage  Registration.  The  system  of  measurement 
I  proposed  to  the  Board  of  Trade  in  1850,  being  exemplified  by  a  pro  form* 
certificate  of  survey  appended  to  the  paper,  as  well  as  by  a  tabular  analyai 
of  the  proportion  and  displacement  of  different  ships  and  modes  of  measure- 
ment, including  the  paper-  read  before  the  Association  last  year,  sad 
subsequent  information,  as  well  as  proposed  new  rules,  will  be  printed  com- 
plete, before  submitting  them  to  the  consideration  of  any  committee  or 
authority  that  will  investigate  the  whole  question. 

Mr.  James  R.  Napier  has,  I  understand,  during  the  past  twelve  months, 
collected  much  statistical  information  on  the  trial  performances  of  steam 
ships,  and  Mr.  Peake  has  taken  the  opportunity  of  drawing  public  attention 
to  the  question  of  the  mode  of  measurement  most  available  for  shipping 
operations;  by  these  means  I  beg  to  bring  to  the  notice  of  the  General 
Committee,  that  the  individual  labours  of  Mr.  Atherton,  Mr.  Napier,  Mr. 
Peake,  and  myself,  have  now  contributed  materially  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
subject  referred  to,  thereby  facilitating  any  further  effort  that  may  be  decided 
on ;  and  the  favourable  manner  in  which  Mr.  Atherton's  paper  on  the  analo- 
gous subject  of  "  Mercantile  Steam  Transport  Economy  "  has  been  received 
at  the  Mechanical  Section  of  the  Association,  affords  every  prospect  of  the 
labours  of  this  Committee  being  now  prosecuted  under  far  more  encouraging 
prospects  of  public  support  and  cooperation,  on  the  part  of  the  shipping 
interests  themselves,  than  has  hitherto  been  the  case. 

As  an  example  of  the  benefit  to  be  derived  from  public  discussion,  I  may 
refer  to  the  numbers  of  that  popular  work,  the  '  Mechanics'  Magazine,'  pub- 
lished during  the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June  last,  in  which,  after  fully 
investigating  the  subject  of  the  deficiencies  of  our  present  tonnage  regis- 
tration for  scientific  purposes,  the  Editor  has  been  pleased  to  announce 
the  following  admitted  deficiencies  and  proposed  corrections  of  our  present 
system  for  the  consideration  of  its  numerous  readers : — 

"  First.  That  the  tonnage,  measurement,  and  registration  of  vessels  has 
never  been  brought  before  Government  in  any  other  than  a  purely  fiscal 
point  of  view. 

"  Secondly.  That  Government  in  legislating  on  tonnage  registration  has 
not  contemplated  the  scientific  features  of  the  case,  nor  those  which  bear  on 
the  sea  voyage. 


ON  THE  MEASUREMENT  OF  SHIPS  FOR  TONNAGE.  461 

"Thirdly.  That  undoubtedly  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  ships  cannot 
be  safely  loaded. 

"  Fourthly.  That  undoubtedly  it  would  be  desirable,  if  possible,  to  fix 
limit  to  the  degree  to  which  ships  may  be  loaded. 

"  Fifthly.  That  as  respects  the  draft  of  water  at  which  ships  leave  port, 
let  the  Board  of  Trade  have,  if  it  so  please,  properly  authorized  officers  to 
note  and  record  the  facts. 

"  Sixthly.  We  should  see  with  satisfaction  a  competent  committee  appointed 
by  Government,  or  by  the  British  Association,  with  a  view  of  ultimately,  if 
need  be,  acting  on  the  Government,  to  take  into  consideration  the  foregoing 
points." 

Such  being  the  declaration  of  opinions  expressed  by  the  Editor  of  one 
of  our  most  popular  periodicals  devoted  to  science,  in  respect  to  the  deficiencies 
of  our  present  system  of  statistical  registration  of  tonnage,  it  is  respectfully 
submitted  that  good  and  sufficient  cause  is  shown  for  the  re-appointment  and 
further  continued  labours  of  the  Committee  on  this  subject ;  and  that  under 
such  indications  of  the  public  appreciation  of  the  utility  of  such  labours, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  such  amendments  of  the  present  system  being 
desired  as  will  conduce  to  public  good. 

It  may  be  in  the  recollection  of  members,  that  at  the  meeting  of  the 
British  Association  at  Liverpool,  in  1854,  the  recommendations  of  the 
General  Committee  included  one,  "  That  it  was  expedient  for  the  advance- 
ment of  naval  architecture,  that  a  portion  of  the  intended  museum  at  Liver- 
pool should  be  appropriated  to  this  subject.*'  Little  progress  having  been 
yet  made  with  the  museum  at  that  port,  while  the  want  of  such  an  establish- 
ment for  the  record  and  disposal  of  papers  and  models  added  to  the  difficulties 
of  the  Committee  of  1855,  it  is  with  satisfaction  I  have  to  state  that  such 
difficulties  may  be  considered  removed  for  the  future,  by  the  considerate 
offer  of  the  Chairman  of  the  Crystal  Palace  Company,  Mr.  Arthur  Anderson, 
to  lend  the  Naval  Gallery  of  the  Palace  in  any  manner  that  can  aid  the 
objects  of  the  Committee,  or  ventilate  the  subject. 

Considering  that  there  are  already  collected  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Naval 
Gallery  models  of  ships  and  steamers,  fishing- boats  and  life-boats,  both 
English  and  foreign,  ancient  and  modern,  and  that  a  comparison  can  be  there 
made  of  the  rapid  improvement  in  shipping  and  steam-vessels  since  the  old 
tonnage  law  was  abandoned,  the  great  desideratum  being  that  on  the  six 
points  enumerated,  the  question  shall  be  better  understood ;  and  also  the  neces- 
sity for  the  investigation  and  re-examination  of  our  system  of  measurement 
and  registration  ;  and  that  vast  advantages  would  thereby  accrue  to  our  mer- 
cantile marine,  it  is  hoped  that  this  appeal  to  the  British  Association  will  not 
be  in  vain.  Andrew  Henderson. 

Cheltenham,  August  8, 1856. 


On  Typical  Forms  of  Minerals,  Plants  and  Animals  for  Museums. 

Professor  Henslow  gave  the  results  of  the  labours  of  the  Committee 
The  list*  which  had  at  present  been  obtained  had  been  printed  in  the  last 
roluroe  of  the  '  Transactions.'  They  were  still  incomplete,  but  Prof.  Henslow 
hoped  they  would  be  complete  for  every  department  before  the  next  meeting. 
He  exhibited  some  specimens  of  a  new  method  of  mounting  mineral  spe- 
cimens.   This  consisted  in  placing  them  iu  any  required  position  on  a  small 


468  -  report— 1856. 

stand  of  clay,  which  being  at  first  soft,  gradually  hardened  and  became  a  in 
support  to  the  object  The  cement  employed  was  liquid  glue,  t.  e.  shell  he 
dissolved  in  naphtha. 


Interim  Report  to  the  British  Association  on  Progress  in  Researcka 
on  the  Measurement  qf  Water  by  Weir  Boards.  By  Jamb 
Thomson,  C.E. 

Belfast,  August  6,  I85&. 
Having  at  last  year's  meeting  of  the  Association  read  in  the  Mechanics] 
Section  a  short  paper  on  the  Measurement  of  Water  by  Weir  Boards,  tad 
having  been  requested  by  the  General  Committee  to  prepare  a  Report  as 
the  same  subject,  1  beg  now  to  state  that  I  have  in  the  mean  time  bees 
collecting  information  for  the  purposes  of  that  Report  My  profession! 
engagements  have  occupied  me  necessarily  so  much  as  to  oblige  me  to  defer 
for  this  year  the  detailed  prosecution  of  the  subject  and  the  preparation  of 
the  Report  in  full.  1  have,  however,  the  gratification  of  stating,  that,  wki 
special  reference  to  the  researches  entrusted  to  me  by  the  Association,  tat 
President  of  the  Athenaeum  of  Boston,  United  States,  Mr.  Thomas  G.  Can, 
has  generously  sent  to  me,  with  the  request  that  it  be  presented  to  tie 
British  Association  on  his  behalf,  a  valuable  book  containing  accounts  of 
experiments  recently  carried  out  on  a  very  grand  scale  in  America,  on  the 
measurement  of  large  bodies  of  flowing  water  by  means  of  weir  boards  tad 
by  other  methods,  and  on  the  performance  of  Turbine  Water  Wheel*. 

The  work  is  entitled  "Lowell  Hydraulic  Experiments,"  by  James  B.  Francs, 
In  reference  to  the  experiments,  Mr.  Cary,  the  donor  of  the  book,  states  ia 
his  letter  to  me, — "  These  experiments,  made  under  the  direction  and  at  tfee 
expense  of  the  Associated  Companies  of  Lowell  near  Boston,  who  employ 
Mr.  Francis  as  the  engineer  for  their  cotton  and  woollen  factories,  have  cost 
about  £4000  sterling ;  and  they  make  part  in  a  series  of  investigations  which 
have  cost  those  Companies  £15,000." 

In  the  Report  which  I  hope  to  submit  to  the  British  Association,  I  shall 
have  much  occasion  for  reference  to  these  important  experiments,  and,  for 
this  purpose,  I  think  it  right  to  retain  the  book  in  my  hands  at  present 

As  the  expenses  incurred  in  reference  to  the  researches  have  been  bat 
small,  and  chiefly  for  the  procuring  of  books,  I  do  not  desire  to  draw,  for 
them,  on  the  fund  of  £10  placed  at  my  disposal  by  the  Association ;  and  at 
my  intention  is  not  to  conduct. experiments  on  the  subject  myself,  but  chiefly 
to  give  a  review  of  the  most  important  experiments  and  deductions  which 
have  been  made  by  others,  I  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  ask  for  a  renewal 
of  the  grant.  James  Thomson. 


On  Observations  with  the  Seismometer.     By  R.   Mallet,  CJE., 
M.RJ.A. 

A  Provisional  Report  was  presented.     The  author  is  continuing  hit  re- 
searches at  Holyhead.  

On  the  Progress  of  Theoretical  Dynamics.   By  A.  Caylbt,  M.A., 
F.R.8. 

A  Provisional  Report  was  presented.     The  author  proposed  to  deliver  is 
the  complete  Report  in  1857-        __ 


PROVISIONAL  REPORTS.  468 

Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  by  "  The  British  Association  for  the 

Advancement  of  Science/9  to  consider  the  formation  of  a  Catalogue 

of  Philosophical  Memoirs. 
The  Committee  were  appointed — on  the  occasion  of  a  communication  from 
Professor  Henry  of  "Washington,  containing  a  proposal  for  the  publication 
of  Philosophical  Memoirs  scattered  throughout  the  Transactions  of  Societies 
in  Europe  and  America,  with  the  offer  of  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institute,  to  the  extent  of  preparing  and  publishing,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  general  plan  which  might  be  adopted  by  the  British  Associa- 
tion, a  catalogue  of  all  the  American  Memoirs  on  Physical  Science — to  con- 
sider the  best  system  of  arrangement,  and  to  report  thereon  to  the  Council. 

The  Committee  are  desirous  of  expressing  their  sense  of  the  great  im- 
portance and  increasing  need  of  such  a  catalogue. 

They  understand  the  proposal  of  the  Smithsonian  Institute  to  be,  that  a 
separate  catalogue  should  be  prepared  and  published  for  America. 

In  the  opinion  of  the  Committee, — 

The  Catalogue  should  embrace  the  Mathematical  and  Physical  Sciences, 
but  should  exclude  Natural  History  and  Physiology,  Geology,  Mineralogy, 
and  Chemistry,  which  would  properly  form  the  subject-matter  of  a  distinct 
catalogue  or  catalogues.  The  difficulty  of  drawing  the  line  would  perhaps  be 
greatest  with  regard  to  Chemistry  and  Geology ;  but  the  Committee  would 
admit  into  the  Catalogue  memoirs  not  purely  Chemical  or  Geological,  but 
having  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  subjects  of  the  Catalogue. 

The  Catalogue  should  not  be  restricted  to  memoirs  in  Transactions  of 
Societies,  but  should  comprise  also  memoirs  in  the  Proceedings  of  Societies, 
in  Mathematical  and  Scientific  Journals,  in  Ephemerides  and  volumes  of 
Observations,  and  in  other  collections  not  coming  under  any  of  the  preceding 
heads.    The  Catalogue  would  not  comprise  separate  works. 

The  Catalogue  should  begin  from  the  year  1800. 

There  should  be  a  catalogue  according  to  the  names  of  authors,  and  also 
a  catalogue  according  to  subjects ;  the  title  of  the  memoir,  date,  and  other 
particulars  to  be  in  each  case  given  in  full,  so  as  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  a 
reference  from  the  one  catalogue  to  the  other. 

The  Catalogue  should,  in  referring  to  a  memoir,  give  the  number  as  well 
of  the  last  as  of  the  first  page,  so  as  to  show  the  length  of  the  memoir. 

The  Catalogue  should  give  in  every  case  the  date  of  a  memoir  (the  year 
only),  namely,  in  the  case  of  memoirs  published  in  the  Transactions  of  a 
Society,  the  date  of  reading,  and  in  other  cases  the  date  on  the  title-page  of 
the  volume.  Such  date  should  be  inserted  as  a  distinct  fact,  even  in  the  case 
of  a  volume  of  transactions  referred  to  by  its  date. 

The  Catalogue  should  contain  a  list  of  volumes  indexed,  showing  the  com- 
plete title ;  in  the  case  of  transactions,  the  year  to  which  the  volume  belongs, 
and  the  year  of  publication ;  and  in  other  cases,  the  year  of  publication,  and 
the  abbreviated  reference  to  the  work. 

The  references  to  works  should  be  given  in  a  form  sufficiently  full  to  be 
easily  intelligible  without  turning  to  the  explanation  of  such  reference. 

The  author's  name  and  the  date  should  be  printed  in  a  distinctive  type,  so 
as  to  be  conspicuous  at  first  sight ;  and  generally  the  typographical  execution 
should  be  such  as  to  facilitate  as  much  as  possible  the  use  of  the  Catalogue. 

As  to  the  Catalogue  according  to  the  authors'  names,  the  memoirs  of  the 
same  author  should  be  arranged  according  to  their  dates. 

As  to  the  Catalogue  according  to  subjects,  the  question  of  the  arrange- 
ment is  one  of  very  great  difficulty.  It  appears  to  the  Committee  that  the 
scheme  of  arrangement  cannot  be  fixed  upon  according  to  any  d  priori 


464  report — 1856. 

classification  of  subjects,  but  must  be  determined  after  some  progress  ha 
been  made  in  the  preliminary  work  of  collecting  the  titles  of  the  memoirs* 
be  catalogued.  The  value  of  this  part  of  the  catalogue  will  matenur 
depend  upon  the  selection  of  a  proper  principle  of  arrangement,  aod  tk 
care  and  accuracy  with  which  such  principle  is  carried  out-  The  arras^e- 
ment  of  the  memoirs  in  the  ultimate  subdivisions  should  be  according  » 
their  dates. 

The  most  convenient  method  of  making  the  Catalogue  would  appear  to  W, 
that  each  volume  to  be  indexed  should  be  gone  through  separately,  and  a  fit 
formed  of  all  the  memoirs  which  come  within  the  plan  of  the  proposed 
Catalogue.  Such  list  should  be  in  triplicate,  one  copy  for  rvfereDCP.  i 
second  copy  to  be  cut  up  and  arranged  for  the  Catalogue  according  U 
authors'  names,  and  another  copy  to  be  cut  up  and  arranged  for  tk 
Catalogue  according  to  subjects. 

The  Committee  have  endeavoured  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  space  wfcfa 
the  Catalogue  would  occupy.  The  number  of  papers  in  a  volume  of  trie- 
actions  is  in  general  small,  but  there  are  works,  such  as  the  '  Comptes  Rends*,* 
the  'Astronoinische  Nachrichten,'  the  'Philosophical  Magazine,,&c-,contaJciE§ 
a  very  great  number  of  papers,  the  titles  of  which  would  consequently  occspj 
a  considerable  space  in  the  Catalogue.  Upon  the  whole,  the  Committee  con- 
sider, that,  excluding  America,  they  may  estimate  the  number  of  papers  to  be 
entered  at  125,000;  or  since  each  paper  would  be  entered  twice,  tk 
number  of  entries  would  be  250,000.  The  number  of  entries  that  could 
conveniently  be  brought  into  a  page  4to  (double  columns),  would  be  abed 
SO,  so  that,  according  to  the  above  estimate,  the  Catalogue  would  occupy  tea 
quarto  volumes  of  rather  more  than  800  pages  each. 

It  appears  to  the  Committee  that  there  should  be  paid  Editors,  who  should 
be  familiar  with  the  several  great  branches  respectively  of  the  Sciences  to 
which  the  Catalogue  relates ;  but  that  the  general  scheme  of  arrangement  asd 
details  of  the  Catalogue  should  be  agreed  upon  between  all  the  Editors,  aod 
that  they  should  be  jointly  responsible  for  the  execution.  It  would  of  course 
be  necessary  that  the  Editors  should  have  the  assistance  of  an  adequate  staff 
of  clerks. 

The  principal  scientific  transactions  and  works  would  be  accessible  in 
England  at  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum,  and  the  libraries  of  tbe 
Royal  Society  and  other  Philosophical  Societies.  It  would  be  the  duty  of 
the  Editors  to  ascertain  all  the  different  works  which  ought  to  be  catalogued, 
and  to  procure  information  as  to  the  contents  of  such  of  them  as  may  not 
happen  to  be  accessible. 

The  Catalogue  according  to  authors'  names  would  be  the  most  readily 
executed,  and  this  catalogue,  if  it  should  be  found  convenient,  might  be  first 
published.  The  time  of  bringing  out  the  two  catalogues  would  of  course 
depend  upon  the  sufficiency  of  the  assistance  at  the  command  of  the  Editors; 
but  if  the  Catalogue  be  undertaken,  it  is  desirable  that  the  arrangement 
should  be  such,  that  the  ^complete  work  might  be  brought  out  within  a 
period  not  exceeding  three  years. 
13th  June,  1850.  A.  Catley. 

R.  Grant. 
G.  G.  Stokes. 


NOTICES  AND  ABSTRACTS 


MISCELLANEOUS  COMMUNICATIONS  TO  THE  SECTIONS. 


NOTICES  AND  ABSTRACTS 


OF 


MISCELLANEOUS  COMMUNICATIONS  TO  JWf^qTJi$fe. 
MATHEMATICS  AND  PHY^leS^""-^^ 


Mathematics. 

On  the  Polyhedron  of  Forces.    By  J.  T.  Graves,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

If  any  number  of  forces,  represented  in  number  and  magnitude  by  the  faces  of  a 

polyhedron,  and  in  direction  .perpendicular  to  those  faces,  act  upon  a  point,  they 

will  keep  it  in  equilibrium.    The  above  is  the  proposition  which  is  called  by  the 

writer  "  the  Polyhedron  of  Forces/'     It  has  probably  occurred  to  many,  that  the 

well-known  geometrical  representation  in  magnitude  and  direction  of  a  system  of 

balanced  forces  acting  upon  a  point  by  the  sides  of  a  closed  polygon  is  so  simple 

and  complete  that  nothing  needs  to  be  noted  beyond  the  polygon  of  forces.    What 

is  commonly  called  the  parallelopipedon  of  forces — which  is  the  elementary  theorem 

in  solid  space  analogous  to  the  parallelogram  of  forces — represents  by  the  diagonal 

of  a  parallelopipedon  the  resultant  force,  which  balances  the  three  forces  represented 

by  the  areas.    But  there  the  separate  forces  are  represented  by  lines.    The  writer 

was  led  more  than  ten  years  ago  to  the  representation  of  forces  by  areas  in  making 

researches  respecting  complex  numbers  with  a  new  imaginary  symbol.     He  has 

mentioned  the  result  here  enunciated  to  several  mathematicians,  to  whom  it  has 

appeared  familiar,  and  who  have  believed  that  it  must  have  been  already  published ; 

but  the  writer  has  searched  for  it  in  collections  of  memoirs  and  works  on  statics, 

and  has  been  unable  to  find  it  in  print     He  has,  accordingly,  been  advised  by  a 

very  learned  scientific  friend  to  occupy  it,  if  it  has  not  been  already  appropriated. 

With  this  view,  he  takes  this  opportunity  of  publishing  it  to  the  British  Association. 


On  the  Congruence  nx = »+ 1  (mod p).    By  John  T.  Grates,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

As  is  well  known  to  those  who  have  studied  foreign  works  on  the  theory  of  num- 
bers, the  expression  '  

a=b  (mod.  c) 

denotes  that  a— b  divided  by  c  is  a  whole  number.  When  this  relation  has  place, 
a  and  6  are  said  to  be  congruent  with  respect  to  the  modulus  c,  and  the  relation 
itself  is  called  a  congruence.  \    ' 

Mr.  J.  T.  Graves  shows,  from  elementary  principles  of  the  theory  of  numbers, 
that  in  the  congruence 

*±  =  *+l  (mod.  p), 

if  p  be  a  prime  number,  and  if  n  be  made  to  assume,  in  regular  ascending  order,  all 
values  from  1  top— 1  inclusive,  *  will  be  found  to  have>  in  some  order  or  other,  all 
values  from  2  to jp  inclusive. 

1856.  1 


2  REPORT — 1856. 

Taking,  for  example,  the  modulus  7,  the  congruence 
«*=*+l  (mod.p) 
is  a  type  of  the  six  congruences  (mod.  7), 

1.2=2 
2.5  =  3 
3.6=4 

4.3  =  5 

5.4  =  6 

6.7=7. 

in  which,  while  to  «  are  given  successively  the  values  1.2.  3. 4.5. 6,  we  give  tot 
the  corresponding  values  2,  5,  6,  3,  4,  7. 

From  this  simple  theorem  Mr.  J.  T.  Graves  derives  Wilson's  famous  theism 
namely, — 

"  When  p  is  a  prime  number,  we  have 

1.2.3....(p— 1)  =  -1  (mod.p)." 

It  is  easy  to  see  that  the  congruence  (p—  l)*=p  is  solved  by  making  *=p,  isi 
hence,  by  the  preceding  theorem,  it  is  possible  to  find  among  the  quantities  2.3.4.., 
p—l,  distinct  values,  including  all  numbers  from  2  to  p — 1,  for  **,  *,,  «*, . .  *f-% 
such  that 

l.*i=2 

2.«,=3 (4 

3.«*=4 (b) 


(p-2)*,,-s=p-l. 

If,  as  18  allowable,  we  substitute  1  •  *,  for  the  factor  2  in  the  left-hand  member  of 
congruence  (a),  we  get 

1  .*!««s=3 (c) 

Again,  if  we  substitute  1  .  *\ .  *,  for  the  factor  3  in  the  left-hand  member  of  con- 
gruence (b),  we  get 

l.«i.«s.«s=4; 

and  proceeding  similarly, 'we  find 

l.*].4^.*a,..«p-s=p— 1  =  —  1, (d) 

but  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Graves's  theorem, 

1 . «! .  *, .  «, . . . .  xp -s  =  1 . 2  . 3  . . . .  <p—  2)  (p  —  1 ) . 

Hence  we  have  by  (d), 

1.2.3....  (p— 2)(p-l)  =  — i.    Q.E.D. 

For  example,  with  respect  to  modulus  7,  we  obtain  in  this  manner  the  six  con- 
gruences, 

1  =  1 

1.2  =  2 

1.2.5  =  3 

1.2.5.6  =  4 

1.2.5.6.3  =  5 

1.2.5.6.3.4  =  6, 

the  last  congruence  being  equivalent  to 

1.2.3.4.5.6  =— 1  (mod.  7). 
Wilson's  theorem  is  thus  exhibited  as  the  last  of  a  series  of  minor  theorem. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  8ECTIONS.  3 

In  introducing  the  subject  of  his  paper;  Mr.  J.  T.  Graves  took  occasion  to  point 
oat  that  the  late  Mr.  Peter  Barlow's  valuable  work  '  On  the  Theory  of  Numbers/  pub- 
lished in  1811,  which  is  the  only  elemenary  text- book  of  note  in  our  language  spe- 
cially directed  to  that  subject,  is  not  sufficient  for  the  requirements  of  modern  English 
students. 


Two  Memoirs. — I.  On  a  Theorem  in  Combinations.  II.  On  a  particular  Class 
of  Congruences.  By  Henry  M.  Jbffbby,  M.A.,  Second  Master  of  Pate's 
Grammar  School,  Cheltenham. 

I.  A  Theorem  in  Combinations. 

1 .  It  is  proposed  to  determine  the  number  of  combinations  of  n  things 
taken  severally  1,  2,  3, ...  it  together,  where  there  are  p  of  one  sort,  q  of 
another,  r  of  another.  &c. 

We  will  begin  by  examining  a  simple  case,  where  there  are  three  quan- 
tities, a,  b,  c. 

The  product  of  the  factors 

(l+or+aV)(l  +  car), 
or 

1  +  (a+ c)x+  (a*+ac)x*+a*cx*, 

contains  the  combinations  of  the  three  quantities  taken  1,  %  3  severally 
together. 

Their  numbers  in  each  case  are  found  by  equating  a,  c  to  unity ;  or 

aC|=2;     8C2=2;     8C8=1; 
subject  to  the  above  restriction,  that  two  of  the  three  quantities  are  equal. 

The  same  process  of  reasoning  is  easily  extended  to  the  general  case,  as 
proposed. 

The  product  of  the  factors 

(l+or+aV+ +  «*** 

x(l+fcr+*V+ +*'**) 

x(l  +  ar+cV+ +cr*r) 

x 

contains  the  combinations  of  the  n  quantities  taken  severally  1,  2,  3, . .  n 
together,  viz.  in  the  coefficients  of  a\  «r*,  *■  . .  *". 

The  number  of  the  combinations  in  each  case  is  found  by  equating  atb,c. 
to  unity. 

Hence  any  particular  combination  nC*  is  found  by  finding  the  coefficient  of 
that  power  of  x  in  the  expansion  of 

(1  +*+*>+..  +*>)(l+*+*>+  ..  +a*)(l+*+*8+  ..  +*-) (A) 

whose  index  is  k. 

Or  the  rule  may  be  otherwise  conveniently  stated :  nC*=  the  coefficient 
of  x*  in  the  expansion  of 

l-a*+'  l-a*+'  l-af*1 

1-ar   "    1-*   #    1-* 

2.  It  is  important  to  observe  that,  subject  to  these  restrictions, 

as  is  proved  by  the  circumstance,  that  x  and  1  may  be  interchanged  in  the 
above  formula  (A)  without  altering  its  value. 

1* 


4  REPORT — 1856. 

Hence  we  conclude  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  investigating  the  coeffi- 
cients of  powers  of  x  beyond  -  if  »  be  even,  or  beyond    *""    if  *  be  odd. 

This  consideration  vastly  diminishes  the  labour  of  expansion. 

3/  The  total  number  of  possible  combinations  is  found  by  equating  x  to 
unity  in  the  formula  (A),  and  subtracting  1  from  the  result,  since  1  is  the 
first  term  in  the  expansion  involving  no  power  of  xt  and  therefore  cannot 
denote  the  number  of  any  combination. 

Hence  the  number  required  is 

(J>+1)(0+  l)(r+l) -1; 

which  is  a  known  theorem. 

4.  Example :  To  find  the  number  of  combinations  that  can  be  formed  of 
the  letters  of  the  word  "Notation"  taken  severally  1,  2,  3, ...  8  together. 

There  are  two  »'s,  two  o's,  two  r's,  one  a,  one  t. 

The  numbers  required  are  found  by  expanding,  at  least  as  far  as  x\ 

(1"a-x)raV  =(i-*y(*-«v.(i-«)- 

=  (l-3*»+  . .  . .  )(1  -2*>+*4) 
X  (l+5*  +  15*2+35*,+  70*4+ . .  ) 

=  l+5*+l&r,+  22*3+26*4+ 

The  series  can  now  be  completed  by  aid  of  the  theorem 

1  +  5*+ 13**+22*8+26*4+22*5+  IS^+S^+j*. 
The  total  number  of  possible  combinations 

=5  +  13+22  +  26  +  22+13  +  5+1  =  107=3.8.3.2.2—1, 
as  might  have  been  obtained  at  once  by  the  formula 

0»+i)fo+i)(»-+i)...-i. 

This  example  was  selected  to  contrast  the  tentative  method  used  in  '  Land's 
Companion  to  Wood's  Algebra/  pv>  111,  London,  1852,  in  the  particular  case 
of  A=3. 

I  quote  the  author's  words : — 

"  Here  are  five  different  letters :  the  number  of  combinations  of  five  letters, 

5x4 
3  together,  where  no  letter  recurs  =  - — -  =  10. 

"  Also  there  are  two  n's,  two  o's,  and  two  fs,  each  of  which  pairs  may  be 
combined  with  each  of  the  other  four  letters,  and  form  four  combinations  of 
three,  making  altogether  3x4=12  such  combinations  where  the  letters  recur, 
•••  number  required  =10+12=22." 

5.  To  find  the  number  of  permutations  of  n  things  taken  1,  2,  3, ..« 
together,  when  n  consists  of  groups  of  identical  quantities,  p  of  one  sort,} of 
another,  r  of  another,  &c. 

In  the  following  solution  we  shall  denote  XTV  ^P2>  •  •  fPr  by  powers  of  P, 
▼iz.  P,  P*, ...  F',  and  subject  P  to  the  laws  of  indices. 

In  order  to  see  more  clearly  the  method  and  notation  that  will  be  adopted, 
let  us  examine  the  familiar  case  of  four  different  quantities,  a,  b,  e,  d.  The 
permutations  are  contained  in  the  coefficients  of  the  several  powers  of  *  in 
the  expansion  of 

(1  +  Pa*)(l  +  PA*)(1  +  Pc*)(l  +  P<*r), 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  5 

or 

l  +  (a+*+c+eOP*+  (a*+ac+«rf+ftc+M+cd)PV 
+  (afo?+ abd+acd+bcd)F***+abcdPix*. 

The  number  of  the  permutations  in  each  case  is  given  by  the  coefficients 
of  the  several  powers  of  a?  in  the  expansion  of 

(1  +  P*)4  or  1+4P*+ 6FV+ 4PV+PV. 
That  is, 

4P1=4P=4:  4P3=6P»=12:  4P8=4F=24:  4P4=P4=24. 
Next  consider  the  case  of  a,  a,  c,  d. 

The  permutations  are  contained  in  the  coefficients  of  the  powers  of  x  in 
the  expansion  of 

(l+a.Px+  ^.F^Vl  +  c.P*)(l+ef.P*), 

or 

l  +  (a+c+d)?x+(ac+ad+cd+  j^V*8 


+(£^+rt)w+**W. 


The  justice  of  this  conclusion  may  be  seen  by  examining  the  mode  of  for* 
mation  of  each  coefficient 

The  number  is  found  by  equating  a,  c,  d  to  unity : 
1  +3P*+iPV+2PV+iPV. 

Hence 

4P,=3:4P2=7:4P8=12:4P4=12. 

The  general  theorem  may  be  expressed  as  follows : — 

nP*=  the  coefficient  of  a?*  in  the  expansion  of 

(l+P,+  £+..  +  2£) 


x(.+P,+£+..+2g!) 
x(l+r,+  PV+..  +  2£) 


X 

where  P  is  subject  to  the  law  of  indices. 
We  may  observe  that 

A-  ^ *- 


[f.  Lq-  Lr..       L*.  L*.  Lr.. 
a  well-known  theorem. 

6.  The  total  number  of  permutations  of  n  things  taken  1,  2,  3 
together  is 


0 

X(i+P+ £.  +  ..+£) 

x  -1. 


6  REPORT — 1856. 

where  it  must  be  observed  that  P  and  its  various  powers  have  no  i 
until  the  expansion  has  been  effected. 

7.  Ex.  "Notation.*' 

The  number  of  permutations  in  each  case  is  contained  in  the  expansion  of 

(i+p*+£^8.(i+p*)V 

or 

^a+P*)8+3(l^-PJ:)«+3(l^-P*)4-»-(l+P*),} 

=  1+5P*+  H?PV+16P,*+  5£pv+  ?r7PV+  ^PJ+I**7*  ?V. 
2  4  4  8  8 

In  this  case,  therefore,  • 

sP,=5:  8P2=23:  ^=96:  8P4=354  :  ^=1110:  8P„=2790 : 

^=5040:  8P8=5040. 

To  test  these  results,  examine  8Pr 

There  are  five  different  letters,  a,  o,  t,  a,  t,  whose  permutations  taken  time 
together  =  60. 

There  are  twelve  groups  of  the  form  "  nno"  eaeh  of  which  may  be  per- 
muted three  times,  or  there  are  thirty-six  permutations  of  this  form.  In  aQ 
60+36=96. 

8.  It  is  presumed  that  a  general  method  is  preferable  to  the  tentative  pro- 
cess, which  requires  considerable  acuteness  in  detecting  the  several  groups, 
and  leaves  a  liability  to  error  after  all.  Hence  it  is  hoped  that  this  theorem, 
which  supplies  a  desideratum  in  every- day  algebra,  may  be  worthy  of  the 
attention  of  the  Meeting. 

II.  A  particular  Class  of  Congruences. 

1.  If  2»  denote 

r»+2m  +  3m+  ..  +0>-l)"\ 
where  j?  is  a  prime  number, 

2m=o(mod.p.); 
unless  m=r(/>— 1),  when 

2.  If  a,  b,  c,  d  denote  four  of  the  series  1,  2,  3, . .  p—l, 
^a^)=(p^l);l(aP^bP-l)=l  1 

1.  If  p  is  prime,  the  congruence 

*—  1  .*— 2.. ..  jt— j>+1  —  (jr*-1— l)  =  o(mod.j>.) 

has/?— 1  roots  1,  2,  8, . .  . ./?<-  1 :  and  since  this  congruence  is  only  of  the 
(p— 2)th  degree  in  x,  the  coefficients  of  the  several  powers  of  *  are  sepa- 
rately congruous  to  p.    Hence  we  have 

*iHlo,  s2  =  o,  ....«p-jZIo,  »p-i  =  — 1# 
where  sx  denotes  the  sum  of  the  roots, 

*? taken  two  and  two, 


«p-i their  product. 

The  above  paragraph  contains  Serret's  demonstration  of  Wilson's  theorem. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTIONS.  7 

Now  observing  the  meaning  of  2m  9  we  have  from  the  theory  of  equations 
the  following  relations  between  the  symbols  2  and  *  in  the  equation 

2X— *j=0. 

22—*!  21  +  2*3=0. 

23-*!  2,+*,  2^3  #3=0, 

2,-1—*,  V-*+*2  V-s— ••  •  •  +(?— 1)*-i     =°- 
2^     — *!  V-l  +  *2  ^-f +<>-i  2!  =0. 

Hence  we  establish  the  following  congruences  ;— 
2l=sl  =  o  (mod.  p.) 

2j=—  2*2=o 

#    •••• ••••••••• 

3>-i  =  -(p-l>j>-i=J>-l- 
22p-f=—  «p-i  3o-i  =J>— 1. 

2.  To  prove  the  second  proposition,  we  will  premise  the  following  con- 
gruence:—         

f"1ifr.!.Vr/,~r=±i(modj,)' 

if  p  is  prime,  according  as  r  is  even  or  odd. 

For-**        »/>  — 2..../>— r  k  ajwayg  3^  integer; 

1.2 r  * 

and  is  therefore  a  multiple  of  p9  since  p  is  a  prime  greater  than  any  of  the 
motors  of  the  denominator. 

3    2(ar~ !  )  =  p— 1  =  —  1,  as  has  been  proved  above. 

=  1T2T3  —      1.2.3      — 

f&,-,V-6So.-»  •  (S,-.)*+8  •  $.,-»  .  2p-1  +  3(Za>,-,)>-6Z,>-« 

nrrrri  , 

_(p-iy-6(p-i)'+n(j>-i)'-6(y-i)—  J>-i.j»-a.j>-3.j»-4 

= 1.2.3.4  —  1.2.3.4 

=+1. 


8  report— 1856. 

4.  From  observing  the  symmetry  of  formation 

v  /—      1.2 

and  observing  that 

1.2....  r  =±1' 

one  cannot  help  guessing  at  the  general  theorem 

2(0*-'  V~x  c*-1 . . . .  F-1)  =±1  (mod  ?.). 
according  as  the  number  of  factors  a,  b,  c,  . .  it  is  even  or  odd. 

But  the  process  of  determining  the  value  of  2#(a*  Ifl  cr  . . . .  If)  in  terms  of 
the  sums  of  powers  of  the  roots  is  so  laborious,  that  the  law,  which  seems  to 
exist,  has  not  been  verified  beyond  four  factors. 

The  theorems  might  have  been  multiplied  indefinitely  ;  but  two  only  have 
been  selected,  as  being  the  most  striking  in  their  results. 

5.  Numerical  examples  :— 

1  4-2  +3  +4  =   10  =  0  (mod.  5) 
L*+&+3*+4*=  30=0 
l8+2,+38+4,=  100  =  0 
l4+24+34+44=  354  =  4 


l8+28+38+48=72354  =  4 


1524+l434+lf44 
+  2? 34+2M4+3444= 26481  =  1  (mod.  5) 

uaw+i^4 

+  l43444  +  243444=357904  =  4. 


14243444=331776  =  1 


i 


«Q*  a*  44— asi  in a  =r  i  [ 


On  a  New  Method  of  Treating  the  Doctrine  of  Parallel  Limes.  t 

By  Prof.  Stbvellt.  ; 

The  author  stated  that  from  the  days  of  Euclid  to  the  present,  all  geometrician!  : 
admitted  that  Euclid's  twelfth  axiom  was  a  property  to  be  proved,  and  not  an  axiom 

to  be  assumed  as  self-evident ;  but  hitherto  no  satisfactory  and  sufficiently  element-  : 

ary  proof  of  it  had  been  adduced.     He  then  showed  that,  by  defining  parallel  linea  ' 

to  "be  "  when  two  lines  in  the  same  plane  were  both  perpendicular  to  the  same  line,  ' 
they  should  be  called  parallel/'  all  the  properties  of  parallel  lines  as  proved  by 

Euclid  could  be  shown  to  belong  to  these,  by  two  supplementary  propositions.    Tht  < 


TRAN8ACTION8  OP  THE  8BOTION8.  9 

econd  of  these  was,  that  the  line  joining  any  two  points  along  parallel  lines, 
tasumed  at  an  equal  distance  from  the  line  to  which  both  are  perpendicular,  formed 
-ight  angles  with  each  of  the  parallel  lines.  The  author  then  went  through  the 
leriea  of  geometrical  proofs,  which  would,  however,  be  onsuited  to  oar  report,  con- 
cluding with  the  proof  of  the  twelfth  axiom  of  Euclid. 


Models  to  illustrate  a  new  Method  of  teaching  Perspective.    By  H.  R.  Twining. 

The  object  of  this  communication  is  to  explain  the  principles  of  perspective  in 
such  a  manner  as  may  enable  those  who  draw  to  distribute  their  objects  not  only  in 
a  correct  manner,  but  in  one  agreeable  to  the  eye.  The  method  affords  an  intermediary 
step  between  those  rules  which  are  demonstrated  by  diagrams  in  the  usual  treatises, 
and  those  appearances  which  characterize  natural  objects  themselves.    The  chief  dif- 
ficulty in  enabling  an  audience  to  follow  out  the  principles  of  perspective  when  applied 
to  solid  objects  is,  that  every  individual  sees  these  from  a  different  position  ;  so  that 
>uch  an  explanation  of  the  effect  observed  as  is  adapted  to  one  individual  cannot  suit 
another.     Mr.  Twining's  method  aims  at  overcoming  this  difficulty  by  placing  an 
image  (with  which  each  individual  is  supposed  to  identify  himself)  in  the  exact  spot 
which  the  observer  ought  to  occupy,  and  which  serves  to  mark  the  true  focus  of  the 
picture. 


Light,  Heat,  Electricity,  Magnetism. 

On  various  Phenomena  of  Refraction  through  Semi- Lenses  producing  Anomalies 
iu  the  Illusion  of  Stereoscopic  Images,     By  A.  Claudet,  F.RJS. 

The  paper  had  for  its  object  to  explain  the  cause  of  the  illusion  of  curvature  given 
to  pictures  representing  flat  surfaces,  when  examined  in  the  refracting  or  semilen- 
ticular  stereoscope.    The  author  showed  that  all  vertical  lines  seen  through  prisms 
or  semi-lenses  are  bent,  presenting  their  concave  side  to  the  thin  edge  of  the  prism, 
and  as  the  two  photographic  pictures  are  bent  in  the  same  manner  and  by  the  same 
cause,  the  inevitable  result  of  their  coalescence  in  the  stereoscope  is  a  concave  sur- 
face produced  by  the  necessity  of  converging  the  optic  axes  more  to  unite  the  ends  and 
less  to  unite  the  centres  of  the  two  curved  lines ;  more  convergence  giving  the  illusion 
of  nearer  distance,  and  less  convergence  of  further  distance.    The  only  means  to 
avoid  this  defect  is  to  examine  the  two  pictures  in  order  to  employ  the  centre  of 
the  lenses,  which  do  not  bend  straight  lines ;  but  as  the  centre  does  not  refract 
laterally  the  two  images,  their  coincidence  cannot  take  place  without  placing  the 
optical  axis  in  such  a  position  that  they  are  nearly  parallel,  as  if  we  were  looking 
at  the  moon,  or  a  very  distant  object.    This  is  an  operation  not  very  easy  at  the  first 
attempt,  but  which  a  little  practice  will  teach  us  to  perform.     Persons  capable 
of  using  such  a  stereoscope  will  see  the  pictures  more  perfect,  and  all  objects  in 
their  natural  shape. — Mr.  Claudet  presented  to  the  Meeting  a  stereoscope  made 
on  this  principle,  and  many  of  the  members  present  could  see  perfectly  well  with 
it.    The  author  explained  the  cause  of  another  defect  which  is  very  often  noticed 
in  examining  stereoscopic  pictures,  viz.  that  the  subject  seems  in  some  cases  to 
come  out  of  the  openings  of  the  mountings,  and  in  some  others  to  recede  from 
behind, — this  last  effect  being  more  favourable  and  more  artistic.     Mr.  Claudet 
recommended  photographers  when  mounting  their  pictures  to  take  care  that  the 
opening  should  have  their  correspondent  vertical  sides  less  distant  than  any  two 
correspondent  points  of  the  first  plane  of  the  pictures,  which  could  be  easily  done 
by  means  of  a  pair  of  compasses,  measuring  those  respective  distances.      To 
illustrate  the  phenomenon  of  vertical  lines,  bent  by  prisms,  forming  by  coalescence 
concave  surfaces,  Mr.  Claudet  stated  that  if  holding  in  each  hand  one  prism,  the 
two  prisms  having  their  thin  edges  towards  each  other,  we  look  at  the  window  from 
the  opposite  end  of  the  room,  we  see  first  two  windows  with  their  vertical  lines 


10  REPORT — 1856. 

bent  in  contrary  directions ;  bat  by  inclining  gradually  the  optical  axes,  we  can 
converge  them  until  the  two  images  coalesce,  and  we  see  only  one  window;  as  son 
as  they  coincide  the  lateral  curvature  of  the  vertical  lines  ceases,  and  they  are  beat 
projectively  from  back  to  front :  we  have  then  the  illusion  of  a  window  ' 
towards  the  room,  such  as  it  would  appear  reflected  by  a  concave  mirror. 


On  some  Dichromatic  Phamomena  among  Solutions,  and  the  means  ofrepresentmi 
them.  By  J.  H.  Gladstone,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 
This  paper  was  an  extension  of  Sir  John  Herschel's  observations  on  dichroinatin, 
that  property  whereby  certain  bodies  appear  of  a  different  colour  according  to  the 
quantity  seen  through.  It  depends  generally  on  the  less  rapid  absorption  of  the  red 
ray  as  it  penetrates  a  substance.  A  dichromatic  solution  was.  examined  by  placing 
it  in  a  wedge-shaped  glass- trough,  held  in  such  a  position  that  a  slit  in  a  window, 
shutter  was  seen  traversing  the  varying  thicknesses  of  the  liquid.  The  diversely 
coloured  line  of  light  thus  produced  was  analysed  by  a  prism ;  and  the  resulting 
spectrum  was  represented  in  a  diagram  by  means  of  coloured  chalks  on  black  paper, 
the  true  position  of  the  apparent  colours  being  determined  by  the  fixed  lines  of  the 
spectrum.  In  this  way  the  citrate  and  comenamate  of  iron,  sulphate  of  indigo, 
litmus  in  various  conditions,  cochineal,  and  chromium,  and  cobalt  salts  were  examined 
and  represented.  Among  the  more  notable  results  were  the  following : — A  base, 
such  as  chromic  oxide,  produces  very  nearly  the  same  spectral  image  with  whatever 
acid  it  may  be  combined,  although  tne  salts  may  appear  very  different  in  colour  to 
the  unaided  eye.  Citrate  of  iron  appears  green,  brown,  or  red,  according  to  the 
quantity  seen  through.  It  transmits  the  red  ray  most  easily,  then  the  orange,  then 
the  green,  while  it  cuts  off  entirely  the  more  refrangible  half  of  the  spectrum. 
Neutral  litmus  appears  blue  or  red,  according  to  the  strength  or  depth  of  the  solu- 
tion. Alkalies  cause  a  great  development  of  the  blue  ray ;  acids  cause  a  like  increase 
of  the  orange,  while  the  minimum  of  luminosity  is  altered  to  a  position  much  nearer 
the  blue.  Boracic  acid  causes  a  development  of  the  violet.  Alkaline  litmus  was 
exhibited  so  strong  that  it  appeared  red,  and  slightly  acid  litmus  so  dilute  that  it 
looked  bluish  purple ;  indeed,  on  account  of  the  easy  transmissibility  of  the  orange 
ray  through  an  acid  solution,  the  apparent  paradox  was  maintained  that  a  large 
amount  of  alkaline  litmus  is  of  a  purer  red  than  acid  litmus  itself.  Another  kind 
of  dichromatism  was  examined,  dependent  not  on  the  actual  quantity  of  coloured 
material,  but  on  the  relative  proportion  of  the  solvent,  and  diagrams  of  the  changing 
appearances  of  sulphocyanide  of  iron,  of  chloride  of  copper,  and  of  chloride  of  cobalt 
were  exhibited.  ____ 

On  the  Stratified  Appearance  of  the  Electrical  Discharge. 
By  W.  R.  GaovB,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Mr.  Grove  communicated  some  additional  facts  connected  with  a  phaenomenoa 
first  observed  and  published  by  him  in  the  'Philosophical  Transactions'  for  1852, 
viz.  the  striated  or  stratified  appearance  in  the  electric  discharge  in  rarefied  gases 
and  vapours,  particularly  that  of  phosphorus.  M.  Ruhmkorff,  M.  Quet,  and 
Dr.  Robinson  had,  subsequently  to  Mr.  Grove,  experimented  on  the  subject.  No  sa- 
tisfactory rationale  of  it  has  hitherto  been  given.  Mr.  Grove  has,  however,  observed 
that  the  mode  of  breaking  contact  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  phenomenon,  which 
would  lead  to  the  belief  that  it  is  due  to  the  intermittent  character  of  the  discharges. 
If,  for  instance,  the  arm  of  the  contact- breaker  be  made  to  rest  on  a  slight  spring  placed 
underneath  it,  the  bands  become  narrower.  If  a  single  breach  of  contact  be  effected, 
moat  observers  have  remarked  that  the  effect  is  still  perceptible ;  but  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  effect  a  single  breach  of  contact.  The  fusion  of  the  metals  at  the  point  of 
contact,  with  the  vibration  accompanying  the  movement,  occasions  a  doable  or 
triple  disruption.  The  best  mode  is  to  place  two  stout  copper  wires  across  each 
other,  and  with  a  firm  hand  draw  one  over  the  other,  until  the  end  of  the  former 
parts  company  with  the  Jatter ;  when  this  is  well  done  the  striae  are,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  not  observed.  Of  all  the  substances  which  had  been  tried,  the  vapour  of 
phosphorus  succeeds  best,  and  with  this  is  seen  a  remarkable  effect  on  the  powder 
or  smoke  of  allotropic  phosphorus  (which  is  always  formed  when  the  striae  are 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  11 

observed) :  this  smoke  traverses  from  pole  to  pole,  from  the  negative  to  the  positive 
side,  showing,  unless  there  be  some  latent  optical  deception,  a  mechanical  effect  of 
the  discharge  under  the  circumstances. — The  phenomenon  was  exhibited  to  the 
members  of  the  Section  in  the  committee-room,  which  had  been  darkened  for  the 
purpose. 


On  the  Law  of  Electrical  and  Magnetic  Force.    By  Sir  W.  S.  Hakkis,  FJt.8. 

The  author  prefaced  the  exposition  of  the  views  he  himself  had  adopted,  after 
elaborate  experimental  researcn  on  the  subject,  by  stating  that  the  discovery  of  the 
beautiful  and  comprehensive  law  of  universal  gravitation  by  Newton  had  predisposed 
all  physical  inquirers  to  entertain  the  notion  that  every  other  force  associated  with 
ordinary  matter  was  subject  to  a  similar  law.   The  forces  of  electricity  and*  magnetism 
were  especially  considered  as  coming  under  a  like  law,  and  a  great  variety  of  expe- 
rimental inquiries  were  'instituted  to  verify  the  conjecture.    Cavendish,  after  (Epinus, 
was  certainly  the  first  philosopher  who  investigated  experimentally  and  threw  light 
on  this  question.    This  appears  by  his  celebrated  paper  in  the  '  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions' for  1 772,  and  likewise  by  his  unpublished  manuscripts,  which  had  descended 
to  the  Earl  of  Burlington,  and  had  been  placed  by  that  nobleman  in  the  hands  of  the 
author ;  and,  he  might  add  in  passing,  were  open  to  the  inspection  of  any  inquirer 
engaged  in  these  researches,  and  contained  matter  of  the  most  important  kind.    The 
author  then  pointed  out  several  well-known  and  acknowledged  truths  in  these 
sciences  which  were  due  to  the  researches  of  Cavendish.    He  then  pointed  out  the 
influence  which  the  researches  of  Coulomb  had  exercised  on  the  universal  philoso- 
phic world,  particularly  after  the  writings  of  the  celebrated  Poisson,  Laplace,  Biot, 
and  others  had  given  form  and  currency  to  his  views  and  principles.      Such  a 
galaxy  of  eminent  names,  and  so  wide  a  reception  of  Coulomb's  theoretical  views, 
the  author  considered  t<f  be  calculated  to  discountenance  and  discourage  much  critical 
inquiry  as  to  their  soundness,  and  to  immerse  us  in  a  kind  of  philosophical  ortho- 
doxy very  unfavourable  to  a  more  complete  knowledge  of  these  unseen,  yet  astonishing 
powers  of  Nature  which  we  daily  experience.    The  author  then  went  on  to  illustrate 
the  law  of  the  inverse  square  of  the  distance  as  relating  to  forces  emanating  from 
one  central  point  and  to  other  emanations  from  a  centre,  and  to  point  out  how  far 
this  might  safely  be  relied  upon  as  applicable  to  the  electrical  and  magnetic  forces 
of  attraction  and  repulsion \  and  stated  that  the  object  of  the  present  communication, 
which  the  author  submitted  with  all  due  diffidence,  was  to  investigate  the  physical 
condition  under  which  these  forces  manifest  themselves, — what  are  the  general  laws 
of  the  operation  of  such  forces, — how  far  we  may  safely  consider  them  as  central 
forces,  such  as  gravity,  or  whether  they  are  to  be  considered  more  in  the  light  of 
forces,  operating  between  surfaces  distinctive  in  their  character  and  in  their  ordinary 
relations  to  common  matter.     He  then  pointed  out  one  essentially  distinctive  cha- 
racter of  these  forces.     In  gravitation,  the  attracted  body,  as  far  as  we  can  observe, 
remains  in  the  same  physical  condition  before  and  during  all  the  changes  of  distance 
and  force  to  which  the  bodies  are  naturally  subjected.    But  in  the  phenomena  of 
electrical  and  magnetic  attraction  and  of  repulsion,  the  very  first  step  was  that  the 
body  acted  upon  had  its  physical  condition  changed ;  and  this  change  again,  by  a 
kind  of  reflex  influence,  affected  what  had  been  the  instant  before  the  physical 
condition  of  the  body  producing  the  change ;  and  thus,  during  the  action  and  its 
changes,  new  physical  conditions  of  both  had  to  be  investigated  and  taken  into  con* 
sideration,  that  is,  if  we  wish  truly  to  interpret  the  facts.    The  author  then,  with 
well-arranged  apparatus-,  proceeded  to  illostrate,  by  some  striking  experiments,  both 
electrical  and 'magnetic,  the  truth  and  importance  of  these  general  views:  he  endea- 
voured to  explain  the  peculiar  electrical  conditions  under  which  the  forces  of  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism  might  be  expected  to  vary  in  the  inverse  duplicate  ratio  of  the 
distances,  but  which  conditions  being  interfered  with,  other  laws  of  force  might 
become  developed,  as  found  bv  many  eminent  philosophers  of  the  last  century,  dis- 
tinguished by  their  great  skill  in  experimental  physics.    The  author  concluded  by 
some  observations  on  the  use  of  the  proof  plane  and  the  torsion  balance,  and  showed 
with  what  great  caution  the  proof  plane  should  be  applied  as  a  means  of  deducing 
results  to  serve  as  data  for  mathematical  analysis. 


12  REPORT — 1856. 

On  the  Unequal  Sensibility  of  the  Foramen  Centrale  to  Light  of 
different  Colours.     By  J.  C.  Maxwell. 

When  observing  the  spectrum  formed  by  looking  at  a  long  vertical  slit  through  i 
simple  prism,  I  noticed  an  elongated  dark  spot  running  up  and  down  in  the  blue; 
and  following  the  motion  of  the  eye  as  it  moved  tip  and  down  the  spectrum,  bat 
refusing  to  pass  out  of  the  blue  into  the  other  colours.  It  was  plain  that  the  spot 
belonged  both  to  the  eye  and  to  the  blue  part  of  the  spectrum.  The  result  to  whim 
I  have  come  is,  that  the  appearance  is  due  to  the  yellow  spot  on  the  retina,  com- 
monly called  the  Foramen  Centrale  of  Soemmering.  The  most  convenient  method  of 
observing  the  spot  is  by  presenting  to  the  eye  in  not  too  rapid  succession,  blue  aid 
yellow  glasses,  or,  still  better,  allowing  blue  and  yellow  papers  to  revolve  slowly 
before  the  eye.  In  this  way  the  spot  is  seen  in  the  blue.  It  fades  rapidly,  but  is 
renewed  every  time  the  yellow  comes  in  to  relieve  the  effect  of  the  blue.  By  using  t 
Nicol's  prism  along  with  this  apparatus,  the  brushes  of  Haidinger  are  well  seen  is 
connexion  with  the  spot,  and  the  fact  of  the  brushes  being  the  spot  analysed  by  po- 
larized light  becomes  evident.  If  we  look  steadily  at  an  object  behind  a  series 
of  bright  bars  which  move  in  front  of  it,  we  shall  see  a  curious  bending  of  the  ban 
as  they  come  up  to  the  place  of  the  yellow  spot.  The  part  which  comes  over  the 
spot  seems  to  start  in  advance  of  the  rest  of  the  bar,  and  this  would  seem  to  indicate 
a  greater  rapidity  of  sensation  at  the  yellow  spot  than  in  the  surrounding  : 
But  I  find  the  experiment  difficult,  and  I  hope  for  better  results  from  more  i 
observers. 


On  a  Method  of  Drawing  the  Theoretical  Forms  of  Faraday's  Lines  of  Force 

without  Calculation.  By  J.  C.  Maxwell. 
The  method  applies  more  particularly  to  those  cases  in  which  the  lines  are  entirely 
parallel  to  one  plane,  such  as  the  lines  of  electric  currents  ^n  a  thin  plate,  or  those 
round  a  system  of  parallel  electric  currents.  In  such  cases,  if  we  know  the  Jbrsn 
of  the  lines  of  force  in  any  two  cases,  we  may  combine  them  by  simple  addition  of 
the  functions  on  which  the  equations  of  the  lines  depend.  Thus  the  system  of  fines 
in  a  uniform  magnetic  field  is  a  series  of  parallel  straight  lines  at  equal  intervals,  ud 
that  for  an  infinite  straight  electric  current  perpendicular  to  the  paper  is  a  series  of 
concentric  circles  whose  radii  are  in  geometric  progression.  Having  drawn  these  two 
sets  of  lines  on  two  separate  sheets  of  paper,  and  laid  a  third  piece  above,  draw  s 
third  set  of  lines  through  the  intersections  of  the  first  and  second  sets.  This  will 
be  the  system  of  lines  in  a  uniform  field  disturbed  by  an  electric  current.  The  most 
interesting  cases  are  those  of  uniform  fields  disturbed  by  a  small  magnet.  If  we 
draw  a  circle  of  any  diameter  with  the  magnet  for  centre,  and  join  those  points  is 
which  the  circle  cuts  the  lines  of  force,  the  straight  lines  so  drawn  will  be  parallel  sad 
equidistant ;  and  it  is  easily  shown  that  they  represent  the  actual  lines  of  force  in  s 
paramagnetic,  diamagnetic,  or  crystallized  body,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  ori- 
ginal lines,  the  size  of  the  circle,  &c.  No  one  can  study  Faraday's  researches  withost 
wishing  to  see  the  forms  of  the  lines  of  force.  This  method,  therefore,  by  wmck 
they  may  be  easily  drawn,  is  recommended  to  the  notice  of  electrical  students. 

On  the  Theory  of  Compound  Colours  with  reference  to  Mixtures  of  Blue 
and  Yellow  Light.  By  J.  C.  Maxwell. 
When  we  mix  together  blue  and  yellow  paint,  we  obtain  green  paint.  This  fact 
is  well  known  to  all  who  have  ever  handled  colours ;  and  it  is  universally  admitted 
tbat  blue  and  yellow  make  green.  Red,  yellow,  and  blue,  being  the  primary  colours 
among  painters,  green  is  regarded  as  a  secondary  colour,  arising  from  the  mixture  of 
blue  and  yellow.  Newton,  however,  found  that  the  green  of  the  spectrum  was  not 
the  same  thing  as  the  mixture  of  two  colours  of  the  spectrum,  for  such  a  mixtort 
could  be  separated  by  the  prism,  while  the  green  of  the  spectrum  resisted  further  de- 
composition. But  still  it  was  believed  that  yellow  and  blue  would  make  a  green, 
though  not  that  of  the  spectrum  As  far  as  I  am  aware,  the  first  experiment  on  the 
subject  is  that  of  M.  Plateau,  who,  before  1819,  made  a  disc  with  alternate  secton 
of  prussian  blue  and  gamboge,  and  observed  that,  when  spinning,  the  results** 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  13 

tint  was  not  green,  but  a  neutral  gray,  inclining  sometimes  to  yellow  or  blue,  but 
never  to  green.     Prof.  J.  D.  Forbes  of  Edinburgh  made  similar  experiments  in 
1849,  with  the  same  result.     Prof.  Helmholtz  of  Konigsberg,  to  whom  we  owe  the 
most  complete  investigation  on  visible  colour,  has  given  the  true  explanation  of  this 
phsenomenon.    The  result  of  mixing  two  coloured  powders  is  not  by  any  means  the 
same  as  mixing  the  beams  of  light  which  Bow  from  each  separately.     In  the  latter 
case  we  receive  all  the  light  which  comes  either  from  the  one  powder  or  the  other. 
In  the  former,  much  of  the  light  coming  from  one  powder  mils  on  particles  of  the 
other,  and  we  receive  only  that  portion  which  has  escaped  absorption  by  one  or  other. 
Thus  the  light  coming  from  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow  powder,  consists  partly 
of  light  coming  directly  from  blue  particles  or  yellow  particles,  and  partly  of  tight 
acted  on  by  both  blue  and  yellow  particles.    This  latter  light  is  green,  since  the  blue 
stops  the  red,  yellow,  and  orange,  and  the  yellow  stops  the  blue  and  violet.     I  have 
made  experiments  on  the  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow  light— by  rapid  rotation,  by 
combined  reflexion  and  transmission,  by  viewing  them  out  of  focus,  in  stripes,  at 
a  great  distance,  by  throwing  the  colours  of  the  spectrum  on  a  screen,  and  by 
receiving  them  into  the  eye  directly ;  and  I  have  arranged  a  portable  apparatus  by 
which  any  one  may  see  the  result  of  this  or  any  other  mixture  of  the  colours  of  the 
spectrum.    In  all  these  cases  blue  and  yellow  do  mot  make  green.    I  have  also  made 
experiments  on  the  mixture  of  coloured  powders.    Those  which  I  used  principally 
were  "  mineral  blue  "  (from  copper)  and  "  chrome-yellow."    Other  blue  and  yellow 
pigments  gave  curious  results,  but  it  was  more  difficult  to  make  the  mixtures,  and 
the  greens  were  less  uniform  in  tint.    The  mixtures  of  these  colours  were  made 
by  weight,  and  were  painted  on  discs  of  paper,  which  were  afterwards  treated  in 
the  manner  described  in  my  paper  "On  Colour  as  perceived  by  the  Eye,"  in  the 
'  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh/  vol.  xxi.  part  2.     The  visible 
effect  of  the  colour  is  estimated  in  terms  of  the  standard-coloured  papers :— ver- 
milion (V),  ultramarine  (U),  and  emerald-green  (E).    The  accuracy  of  the  results, 
and  their  significance,  can  be  best  understood  by  referring  to  the  paper  before 
mentioned.     I  shall  denote  mineral  blue  by  B,  and  chrome-yellow  by  Y ;  and  Bj  Y, 
means  a  mixture  of  three  parts  blue  and  five  parts  yellow. 

Given  Colour.  Standard  Colours.         Coefficient 

V.     U.  B.          of  brightness. 

B8         ,  100  -      2      36  7  45 

B7    Y,  ,  100  _       1      18  17  37 

B-    Y,  ,  100  -       4      11  34  49 

B5    Ya  ,  100  -      9        5  40  54 

B4    Y]  ,  100  =     15        1  40  56 

B,    Y,  ,  100  =     22  -  2  44 64 

B,    Y,  ,  100  -     35-10  51  76 

Bx    Y7  ,  100  =     64-19  64  109 

Y8  ,  100  =  180  -27  124  277 

The  columns  V,  U,  E  give  the  proportions  of  the  standard  colours  which 
are  equivalent  to  100  of  the  given  colour ;  and  the  sum  of  V,  U,  E  gives  a  co- 
efficient, which  gives  a  general  idea  of  the  brightness;  It  will  be  seen  that  the  first 
admixture  of  yellow  diminishes  the  brightness  of  the  blue.  The  negative  values  of 
U  indicate  that  a  mixture  of  V,  U,  and  E  cannot  be  made  equivalent  to  the  given 
colour.  The  experiments  from  which  these  results  were  taken  had  the  negative 
values  transferred  to  the  other  side  of  the  equation.  They  were  all  made  by  means 
of  the  colour-top,  and  were  verified  by  repetition  at  different  times.  It  may  be 
necessary  to  remark,  in  conclusion,  with  reference  to  the  mode  of  registering  visible 
colours  in  terms  of  three  arbitrary  standard  colours,  that  it  proceeds  upon  that  theory 
of  three  primary  elements  in  the  sensation  of  colour,  which  treats  the  investigation  of 
the  laws  of  visible  colour  as  a  branch  of  human  physiology,  incapable  of  being 
deduced  from  the  laws  of  light  itself,  as  set  forth  in  physical  optics.  It  takes  advan- 
tage of  the  methods  of  optics  to  study  vision  itself ;  and  its  appeal  is  not  to  physical 
principles,  but  to  our  consciousness  of  our  own  sensations. 


14 


REPORT — 1856. 


On  the  Form  of  Lightning.    By  Jambs  Nasmyth,  F.R.A.8. 

Mr.  Nasmyth  said,  that,  observing  that  the  form  usually  attributed  to  lightning  to 
painters  and  in  works  of  art  was  very  different  from  that  which  he  had  obsened  as 
exhibited  in  nature,  he  was  induced  to  call  attention  to  it.  He  believed  the  error  of  the 
artists  originated  in  the  form  given  to  the  thunderbolt  in  the  hand  of  Jupiter  as  sculp- 
tured by  the  early  Greeks. 
The  form  of  lightning  as 
exhibited  in  nature  was 
simply  an  irregular  curved 
line,  most  generally  shoot- 
ing from  the  earth  below  to 
the  cloud  above,  and  often 
continued  from  the  cloud 
downwards  again  to  another 
distant  part  of  the  earth. 
This  appearance,  he  con- 
ceived, was  the  result  of  the 
rapid  passage  of  a  point  of 
light  which  constituted  the 
true  lightning,  leaving  on 
the  eye  the  impression  of 
the  path  it  traced.  In  very 
intense  lightning,  he  had 
also  observed  offshoots  of 
an  arborescent  form  to  pro- 
ceed, at  several  places,  from 
the  primary  track  of  the 
flash.  But  in  no  instance 
among  the  many  thunder- 
storms whose  progress  he 
had  most  attentively  watch- 
ed, had  he  ever  observed 
such  forms  of  lightning  as 
that  usually  represented  in 
work*  of  art ;  in  all  such, 
the  artists  invariably  adopt 
a  conventional  form,  name- 
ly, that  of  a  zigzag  com- 
bination of  straight  lines  as 
indicated  in  fig.  1 ;  whereas 
the  true  natural  form  of  a 
primitive  flash  of  lightning 
appears  to  Mr.  Nasmyth 
to  be  more  correctly  repre- 
sented by  an  intensely 
crooked  line,  as  indicated 
in  fig.  2;  and  on  several 
occasions  he  has  observed 
it  to  assume  the  forked  or 
branched  form  indicated  in 
fig.  3 ;  but,  as  before  said, 
never  in  the  zigzag  dovetail 
of  fig.  1.  Mr.  Nasmyth 
also  remarked,  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases  he  had 
observed  that  the  course  of  the  flash  was  from  the  earth  upward*  towards  the  heaveo*- 
He  used  the  term  "primitive  flash"  to  distinguish  it  from  "  sheet  lightning/' 
which  is  generally  the  reflexion  on  light  diffused  from  a  hidden  primitive  flash. 


TBANSACriONS  OF  THE  8RCT10N8.  15 

Om  Fresnel's  FormuUtfor  Reflected  and  Refracted  Light.    By  the  Rev.  Baden 
Powell,  M. A.,  F.R.8.  8tc,  Savilian  Professor  of  Geometry,  X)xford. 

The  author  having  recently  published  in  the  'Philosophical  Magazine'  (July  and 
August  1856)  a  detailed  review  of  the  various  questions  respecting  the  demonstration 
of  these  well*  known  and  important  formulae,  and  their  applications,  is  anxious  to 
put  before  the  Section  a  short  summary  of  the  whole  case,  and  to  elicit,  if  possible, 
a  more  complete  discussion  of  the  questions  arising  out  of  it,  more  especially  as  some 
▼iews  recently  taken  would  seem  calculated  to  set  aside  the  whole  reasoning  hitherto 
adopted  on  the  subject,  and  to  involve  the  whole  application  and  interpretation  of 
the  formulas  in  doubt. 

The  whole  of  these  investigations  is  founded  on  the  following  principles : — 

(1)  The  law  of  vis  viva  (m  and  mi  being  the  simultaneously  vibrating  masses  of 
aether  without  and  within  the  medium ;  ht  A',  ht  the  amplitudes  of  the  incident,  re- 
flected, and  refracted  rays), 

»(A*— **)•=»,*,*• 

(2)  The  law  of  equivalent  vibrations  as  given  by  Maccullagh  (i  and  r  being  the 
angles  of  incidence  and  refraction,  I  the  plane  of  incidence), 

A-r-A'=A4  vibrations  perpendicular  to  I. 

cosr 

(3)  h+ A'=A,  -££j  vibrations  parallel  to  I. 

(4)  Another  form  of  this  law,  the  second  case  ofrrhich  was  adopted  by  Fresnel 

A— A'=A, perpendicular  to  I. 

(5)  A-A'=:A^ parallel  to  1. 

(6)  Maccullagh's  hypothesis  of  equal  densities,  giving 


mt     sin2r 
(7)  Fresners  hypothesis  of  increased  density  in  the  more  refractive  medium,  giving 


mt      sin  »  cos  r 

(8)  Maccullagh's  hypothesis  of  vibrations  parallel  to  the  plane  of  polarization. 

(9)  Fresners  hypothesis  of  vibrations  perpendicular  to  the  plane  of  polarization. 
From  these  assumptions  are  directly  deduced  formulas  whose  general  types  are 

A'      sin  (i—r) 


(H) 
(K) 


A  ~  sin(i+r)'       

V     tan  (t— r) 

k  ""  tan  (t+r)' 

whence  A,  and  A,  follow  from  (1)  by  (2),  (3),  or  (4),  (5).    Also  V  becomes  s  0,  and 
changes  sign  at  the  incidence  of  polarization. 

The  several  hypotheses  give  these  formulas  with  different  signs,  and  consequently 
with  different  values  of  A,  kr 

(A)  Combining  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  6,  8,  gives 

<•> +*•«*+* pMMtol     \Macci|1|agh. 

03) ±A  and  +A1 perpendicular  J  ^ 

(B)  Combining  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  7,  9,  gives 

(•) +A  and  —A' perpendicular— Fresnel. 

O) HF*and+*f parallel. 

(C)  Combining  Nos.  1,  4,  5,  7,  9*  gives 

(•)••••••  +*  and  +**  ••••••  perpendicular — Fresnel. 

03) ±fcand+*' parallel. 


16  REPORT — 1856. 

Thus,  proceeding  in  alt  cases  on  the  principle  of  vis  viva,  and  that  of  the 
nical  equivalence  of  the  incident,  reflected,  and  refracted  vibrations,— on  the  hypo- 
thesis of  equal  densities,— of  vibrations  parallel  to  the  plane  of  polarization, — and  of 
Maccullagh's  law  of  equivalence,  we  have  Maccullagh'a  formulas  (H)  and  (K).     (A) 

On  the  hypothesis  of  increased  density,— of  vibrations  perpendicular  to  poiariza- 
tion,  and  Maccullagh's  law  of  equivalence,  we  have  Fresnel'B  formula  (H),  but  a  for- 
mula (K)  differing  from  Fresnel's  in  the  signs.     (B.) 

On  the  same  hypotheses,  but  taking  that  form  of  the  law  of  equivalence  which 
Fresnel  adopted  in  one  instance,  we  have  (H)  differing  from  Fresnel's  in  sign,  and 
(K)  the  same  as  Fresnel's.     (C.) 

The  theoretical  principles  seem  as  yet  to  furnish  no  guide  to  a  choice  between 
these  assumptions ;  but  the  results  of  experiment  must  be  appealed  to. 

The  only  known  experimental  resultB  which  bear  upon  the  question  between  these 
several  formulae  and  the  hypotheses  on  which  they  are  deduced,  are— 

I.  Professor  Stokes's  result  of  the  change  of  plane  of  vibration  and  polarizatiooia 
diffraction,  which  sets  aside  absolutely  the  hypothesis  of  vibrations  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  polarization,  and  by  consequence  Maccullagh's  formulas  (A),  and  the  hypo- 
thesis of  equal  densities  on  which  they  are  founded. 

II.  The  result  of  Arago,  Fresnel  and  Brewster,  as  to  the  change  of  plane  of  poliri- 
zation  by  reflexion ;  the  new  plane  being,  at  small  incidences,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  plane  of  incidence  tQ  that  of  original  polarization ;  while  after  passing  the  inci- 
dence of  complete  polarization  it  comes  to  the  same  side.  This  requires  formulas 
which  give  h!  and  k'  of  opposite  figas  at  small  incidences,  and  of  the  same  sign  after 
the  polarizing  incidence,  which  is  only  the  case  with  Fresnel's  original  formulas 
(B,  «)  and  (C,  0),  and  excludes  those  on  the  other  hypotheses,  (R,  /9),  and  (C,  «). 

III.  The  result  of  Dr.  Lloyd  from  his  interference  fringes,  where  at  the  extreme 
oblique  incidence  the  incident  and  reflected  ray  are  in  opposite  phases  ;  this  requires 
both  h'  and  h,  as  also  k  and  £',  to  be  of  opposite  signs  at  great  incidences,  which 
agrees  only  with  Fresnel's  original  formulas  (B,  a)  and  (C,  0). 

But  these  inferences  assume  the  correctness  of  the  reasoning  on  the  symbols** 
hitherto  adopted,  both  by  the  original  investigators  referred  to,  and  also  in  the  ele- 
mentary treatises  of  Mr.  Airy  and  others.  Some  suggestions  lately  made  in  order 
to  bring  the  other  formulas  into  accordance  with  the  facts,  can  only  do  so  by  setting 
aside  the  validity  of  the  entire  reasoning  just  referred  to.  These  suggestions  turn 
on  the  geometrical  change  in  position  which  (in  the  case  of  vibrations  parallel  to  the 
plane  of  incidence)  the  directions  of  the  vibrations  undergo,  with  the  change  of  posi- 
tion of  the  ray,  in  passing  from  small  to  large  incidences,  so  that  if  they  accord  in 
the  first  instance  they  will  (from  this  cause  alone)  be  opposed  in  the  second. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  original  formulas  of  Fresnel  are  still  deficient  in  respect 
to  their  direct  deduction  from  any  one  of  the  above-mentioned  hypotheses ;  they  will 
only  follow  from  partially  adopting  two  of  them,  viz.  (B,  a)  and  (C,  /3). 

A  suggestion  for  deducing  them  on  another  principle  has  been  since  made  by  the 
author  in.  the  '  Philosophical  Magazine,9  October  1856. 


On  a  Modification  of  the  Maynooth  Cast  Iron  Battery.     By  W.  Symoks. 

A  recent  paper  by  Professor  Callan  in  the  '  Philosophical  Magazine  *  on  a  cast  iron 
battery  which  he  states  to  be  equal  in  power  to  Grove's  nitric  acid  battery,  wtH 
probably  induce  many  persons  to  adopt  this  very  cheap  but  cumbrous  metal.  The 
battery  now  exhibited  is  an  improvement  on  one  published  by  the  author  in  the '  Hiar- 
maceutical  Journal '  for  February  1853,  and  its  recommendations  are  compactness,  as 
it  can  be  moved  as  one  mass ;  and  simplicity  and  economy  of  construction,  as  one 
wooden  screw  is  sufficient  for  10  or  12  pairs.  The  construction  was  minutely  de- 
scribed, and  two  arrangements  of  plates  were  shown,  one  adapted  for  a  Wedgewood 
trough  with  cast-iron  plates  on  each  side  of  each  zinc  plate,  and  the  other  fitted  op 
in  a  similar  manner  to  a  battery  described  by  Martyn  Roberts,  in  which  he  proposes  to 
use  both  sides  of  both  plates :  such  an  arrangement  may  perhaps  be  advantageous 
where  the  resistance  is  very  small,  but  from  a  few  experiments  with  the  battery  shown, 
it  appears  to  be  far  from  economical  where  the  resistance  is  equal  to  that  required  for 
the  decomposition  of  water.  She  pairs  oil  each  plan  were  fitted  up  with  similar  plates 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TRB  SECTIONS.  17 

and  with  acid  of  the  same  strength,  but  the  arrangement  in  which  the  pairs  were 
isolated  in  a  Wedgewood  trough,  liberated  three  or  four  times  the  amount  of  gases 
in  the  voltameter,  as  the  arrangement  on  Martyn  Roberts'  plan.  The  battery,  when 
arranged  as  the  author  proposes,  will  be  one  compact  mass,  which  can  be  readily 
moved  in  and  out  of  the  cells ;  this  will  probably  more  than  compensate  for  the  loss 
by  the  action  of  the  acid  on  the  iron  surface  not  exposed  to  the  zinc,  as  the  battery 
need  only  be  kept  in  the  acid  when  actually  at  work ;  and  this  loss  may  perhaps  be 
farther  prevented  by  covering  the  outside  of  the  iron  with  a  resinous  mixture ;  but 
should  die  cast-iron  cell  suggested  by  Callan  be  preferred,  they  can  be  easily  cast  with 
the  addition  required  in  this  arrangement.  As  cast-iron  plates  5  inches  square  can 
he  procured  for  2d.  each  at  any  foundry,  and  no  binding  screws  are  required,  this 
battery  will  probably  be  found  much  cheaper  and  quite  as  efficient  as  any  published, 
and  especially  adapted  for  experimentalists  who  make  their  own  apparatus,  who  will 
know  how  to  appreciate  the  cheap  and  easy  method  for  making  the  connexions.  A 
more  detailed  account,  with  an  engraving  of  this  battery,  may  be  seen  in  the 
*  Chemist '  for  November  1856. 


On  Dellman's  Method  of  observing  Atmospheric  Electricity.    By 
Professor  William  Thomson,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Glasgow* 

Extract  from  letter  addressed  to  General  Sabine  : — "  During  my  recent  visit  to 
Creuznach  I  became  acquainted  with  Mr.  Dellman  of  that  place,  who  makes  meteoro- 
logical, chiefly  electrical,  observations  for  the  Prussian  Government,  and  I  had  oppor- 
tunities of  witnessing  his  method  of  electrical  observation.  It  consists  in  using  a  copper 
ball  about  6  inches  diameter,  to  carry  away  an  electrical  effect  from  a  position  about 
two  yards  above  the  roof  of  his  house,  depending  simply  on  the  atmospheric  '  poten- 
tial '  at  the  point  to  which  the  centre  of  the  ball  is  sent ;  and  it  is  exactly  the  method 
of  the  '  carrier  ball '  by  which  Faraday  investigated  the  atmospheric  potential  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  a  rubbed  stick  of  shell-lac,  and  other  electrified  bodies  ('  Experi- 
mental Researches,'  Series  XI.  1837)  •  The  whole  process  only  differs  from  Faraday's 
in  not  employing  the  carrier  ball  directly,  as  the  repeller  in  a  Coulomb-electrometer, 
but  putting  it  into  communication  with  the  conductor  of  a  separate  electrometer  of 
peculiar  construction.  The  collecting  part  of  the  apparatus  is  so  simple  and  easily 
managed  that  an  amateur  could,  for  a  few  shillings,  set  one  up  on  his  own  house,  if 
at  all  suitable  as  regards  roof  and  windows ;  and,  if  provided  with  a  suitable  electro- 
meter, could  make  observations  in  atmospheric  electricity  with  as  much  ease  as  ther- 
mometric  or  barometric  observations.  The  electrometer  used  by  Mr.  Dellman  is  of 
his  own  construction  (described  in  PoggendorfFs  '  Annalen/  1853,  vol.  lxxxix.,  also 
vol.  lxxxv.),  and  it  appears  to  be  very  satisfactory  in  its  operation.  It  is,  I  believe, 
essentially  more  accurate  and  sensitive  than  Peltier's,  and  it  has  a  great  advantage  in 
affording  a  very  easy  and  exact  method  for  reducing  its  indications  to  absolute  measure. 
I  was  much  struck  with  the  simplicity  and  excellence  of  Mr.  Dellman's  whole  system 
of  observation  on  atmospheric  electricity;  and  it  has  occurred  to  me  that  the  Kew  Com- 
mittee might  be  disposed  to  adopt  it,  if  determined  to  carry  out  electrical  observations. 
When  I  told  Mr.  Dellman  that  I  intended  to  make  a  suggestion  to  this  effect,  he  at  once 
offered  to  have  an  electrometer,  if  desired,  made  under  his  own  care.  I  wish  also  to 
suggest  two  other  modes  of  observing  atmospheric  electricity  which  have  occurred  to 
me,  as  possessing  each  of  them  some  advantages  over  any  of  the  systems  hitherto  fol- 
lowed. In  one  of  these  I  propose  to  have  an  uninsulated  cylindrical  iron  funnel,  about 
7  inches  diameter,  fixed  to  a  height  of  two  or  three  yards  above  the  highest  part  of 
the  building,  and  a  light  moveable  continuation  (like  the  telescope  funnel  of  a 
steamer)  of  a  yard  and  a  half  or  two  yards  more,  which  can  be  let  down  or  pushed 
np  at  pleasure.  Insulated  by  supports  at  the  top  of  the  fixed  part  of  the  funnel,  I 
would  have  a  metal  stem  carrying  a  ball  like  Dellman's,  standing  to  such  a  height 
that  it  can  be  covered  by  a  hinged  lid  on  the  top  of  the  moveable  joint  of  the  funnel, 
when  the  latter  is  pushed  up ;  and  a  fine  wire  fixed  to  the  lower  end  of  the  insulated 
stem,  and  hanging  down,  in  the  axis  of  the  runnel  to  the  electrometer.  When  the 
apparatus  is  not  in  use,  the  moveable  joint  would  be  kept  at  the  highest,  with  its  lid 
down,  and  the  ball  uninsulated.  To  make  an  observation,  the  ball  would  be  insu- 
lated, the  lid  turned  up  rapidly,  and  the  moveable  joint  carrying  it  let  down,  an 
1856.  2 


18  MPOBT— 1856. 

operation  which  could  be  effected  in  a  few  seconds  by  a  suitable  mechanina*  Tat 
electrometer  would  immediately  indicate  an  inductive  electrification  simply  props*- 
tional  to  the  atmospheric  potential  at  the  position  occupied  by  the  centre  of  the  hsfi, 
and  would  continue  to  indicate  at  each  instant  the  actual  atmospheric  potential 
however  variable,  as  long  as  no  sensible  electrification  or  diselectrification  has  tabs 
place  through  imperfect  insolation  or  convection  by  particles  of  dost  or  currents  cf 
air  (probably  for  a  quarter  or  a  half  of  an  hour,  when  care  is  taken  to  keep  fat 
insulation  in  good  order).  This  might  be  the  best  form  of  apparatus  for  making 
observations  in  the  presence  of  thunder-clouds.  But  I  think  the  best  possible  ska 
in  most  respects,  if  it  turns  out  to  be  practicable,  of  which  I  can  have  little  doubt 
will  be  to  use,  instead  of  the  ordinary  fixed  insulated  conductor  with  a  point,  a  find 
conductor  of  similar  form,  but  hollow,  and  containing  within  itself  an  apparatus  far 
making  hydrogen,  and  blowing  small  soap-bubbles  of  that  gas  from  a  fine  tube  ter- 
minating as  nearly  as  may  be  in  a  point,  at  a  height  of  a  few  yards  in  the  air.  Wnk 
this  arrangement  the  insulation  would  only  need  to  be  good  enough  to  make  the  kes 
of  a  charge  by  conduction  very  slow  in  comparison  with  convert! ve  loss  by  the 
bubbles ;  so  that  it  would  be  easy  to  secure  against  any  sensible  error  from  defective 
insulation.  If  100  or  200  bubbles,  each  -nr  inch  in  diameter,  are  blown  from  the 
top  of  the  conductor  per  minute,  the  electrical  potential  in  its  interior  will  very  rapidly 
follow  variations  of  the  atmospheric  potential,  and  would  be  at  any  instant  the  sua? 
as  the  mean  for  the  atmosphere  during  some  period  of  a  few  minutes  preceding. 
The  action  of  a  simple  point  is  (as,  I  suppose,  is  generally  admitted)  essentially 
unsatisfactory,  and  as  nearly  as  possible  nugatory  in  its  results.  I  am  not  awue 
how  flame  has  been  found  to  succeed,  but  I  should  think  not  well  in  the  circumstances 
of  atmospheric  observations,  in  which  it  is  essentially  closed  in  a  lantern ;  and  I 
cannot  see  on  any  theoretical  ground  how  its  action  in  these  circumstances  can  be 
perfect,  like  that  of  the  soap-bubbles.  I  intend  to  make  a  trial  of  the  practicability 
of  blowing  the  bubbles ;  and  if  it  proves  satisfactory,  there  cannot  be  a  doubt  of  the 
availability  of  the  system  for  atmospheric  observations/* 

[Addition,  Feb.  1857.] — The  author  has  now  made  various  trials  on  the  last-men- 
tioned part  of  his  proposal,  and  he  has  not  succeeded  in  finding  any  practicable  setf- 
regulating  apparatus  for  blowing  bubbles  and  detaching  them  one  by  one  from  the 
tube.  He  has  seen  reason  to  doubt  whether  it  will  be  possible  to  get  bubbles  so  small 
as  those  proposed  above,  to  rise  at  all ;  but  he  has  not  been  led  to  believe  that,  if  it  is 
thought  worth  while  to  try,  it  will  be  found  impracticable  to  construct  a  self-acting 
apparatus  which  will  regularly  blow  and  discharge  separately,  bubbles  of  considerably 
larger  diameter,  and  so  to  secure  the  advantages  mentioned,  although  with  a  pro- 
portionately larger  consumption  of  the  gas. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  finds  that,  by  the  aid  of  an  extremely  sensitive  electrometer 
which  he  has  recently  constructed,  he  will  be  able,  in  all  probability  with  great  ease 
and  at  very  small  cost,  to  bring  into  practice  the  first  of  his  two  plans,  constructed 
on  a  considerably  smaller  scale  as  regards  height  than  proposed  in  the  precediog 
statement. 


On  Printing  Photographs,  with  suggestions  for  introducing  Clouds  and  Artistic 
Effects.    By  E.  Viviah,  M~d. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  point  out  the  deficiencies  in  the  chiaroscuro  of 
photographic  pictures,  occasioned  by  the  discrepancy  between  the  actinic  and  the 
visual  ray,  and  also  the  importance  of  introducing  artistic  effects  in  accordance  witk 
the  laws  of  composition. 

The  former  of  these  is  well  known,  yellow  being  the  focus  of  light  in  the  seals  si 
colour,  whilst  it  is  the  darkest  in  the  photographic  image,  the  greatest  intensity  of 
chemical  action  in  the  spectrum  being  in  the  violet,  and  even  beyond  the  range  of  light 
The  defects  of  composition  in  ordinary  nature  are  not  so  generally  admitted,  but.  to 
the  artist's  eye,  few  scenes  are  capable  of  producing  a  good  picture,  without,  at 
least,  the  concentration  and  balance  of  light  and  shadow,  which  are  only  seen  under 
rare  and  peculiarly  favourable  circumstances.  Attention  to  this  latter  point  is  the 
more  necessary  in  most  photographic  pictures  from  their  reduced  size,  which 
requires  them  to  be  viewed  at  a  distance  from  the  eyt>  much  beyond  the  «^^»H 


TRANSACTION*  OF  THM  MOTIONS.  19 

"  distance  of  the  picture/'  the  rays  thus  entering  the  retina  from  all  parts  at  nearly 
Che  same  angle,  instead  of  those  from  the  centre  being  full  and  direct,  and  those 
from  the  extremities  weakened  by  obliquity,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  picture  were 
the  sise  of  life. 

The  remedy  proposed  was  the  employment  of  a  second  artificial  negative,  similar  to 
the  tint  stone  in  double  lithography.  In  preparing  this,  a  sheet  of  transparent  tracing 
paper  is  laid  upon  the  original  photograph,  and  all  those  portions  whioh  are  to  form 
the  high  lights  are  stopped  out  with  opake  colour,  the  clouds  being  formed  with 
washes  by  a  camel-hair  brush,  and  the  fine  tracery  of  architecture,  fee.  with  a  reed 
pen  or  crowquill.  Whilst  the  positive  impression  is  still  sensitive,  this  tint  paper  is 
to  be  accurately  fitted  on,  either  by  the  eye,  or  points  in  the  frame,  and  exposed 
again  to  the  light,  until  flat  tones  of  the  requisite  depth  are  produced.  The  sky  may 
be  graduated  by  moving  a  shade  over  the  surface,  allowing  the  horizon  to  be  least 
exposed,  the  effect  of  which  is  to  produce  the  utmost  delicacy  in  the  force  of  the 
clouds  as  they  recede  in  the  perspective,  however  rudely  drawn.  A  still  more  per- 
fect method  is  to  commence  with  a  good  negative  photograph  of  natural  clouds, 
proceeding  as  before  with  the  details  of  the  picture* 

The  first  object  should  be  to  throw  a  flat  tint  over  all  those  portions  which,  from 
being  blue,  have  printed  too  light,  as  the  sky,  slate  roofs,  and  all  polished  surfaces, 
ae  water,  leaves  of  evergreens,  fee.,  Which  reflect  the  blue  of  the  sky.  This  alone 
will  often  produce  a  pleasing  picture  from  a  very  unsatisfactory  negative,  light  objects 
relieved  by  a  dark  sky,  and  the  deep  tones  of  water,  especially  in  sea  pieces,  being- 
amongst  the  most  effective  objects  in  nature,  but  which  are  quite  lost  in  ordinary 
photography*  The  effect  must  be  left  to  the  skill  of  the  artist,  shadows  of  clouds,  with 
the  toning  down  of  obtrusive  or  offensive  features  being  amongst  the  most  obvious 
means  employed  to  improve  the  composition,  without  interfering  with  the  truth  of 
the  original  outlines.  The  most  powerful  effects  of  moonlight,  sunrise,  or  sunset 
may  thus  be  produced,  with  reflexions  in  still  water,  or  the  gleams  and  ripple  of  a 
breeze ;  the  foam  and  sharp  lines  of  a  cataract  may,  by  stopping  out  high  lights  on 
the  original  negative,  be  also  substituted  for  the  dull  mass  which  ordinarily  repre- 
sents falling  water. 

The  difficulty  of  reversing  the  lights  of  the  clouds  by  using  dark  colour,  may,  if 
preferred,  be  avoided  by  substituting  Chinese  white  tinged  with  yellow,  the  trans- 
parent paper  being  laid  upon  the  dark  sky  of  the  negative. 

A  tint  paper  thus  produced  may  be  used  for  any  number  of  impressions,  and,  if 
the  details  of  the  picture  are  satisfactory,  skies  alone  may  be  adapted  to  many 
different  negatives,  especially  if  drawn  of  more  than  the  requisite  extent,  so  as  to 
apply  such  portion  as  is  suitable  to  the  composition  of  each  Picture. 

Many  other  suggestions  were  offered,  such  as  inverting  the  negative  to  produce 
reflexions,  when  taken  from  the  level  of  the  water,  the  introduction  of  foregrounds, 
cattle,  fcc.,  by  using  both  the  object  and  the  matrix  from  which  it  Was  cut,  so  that 
the  lines  should  exactly  coincide.  Methods  were  also  shown  by  which  the  printing 
of  parts  of  a  photograph  may  be  retarded  so  as  to  bring  up  the  more  opake  portions. 
The  most  effectual  of  these  was  to  attach  a  sheet  of  transparent  tracing  paper  over 
the  back  of  the  negative  and  to  stump  over  the  weaker  parts,  so  as  when  seen  by 
transmitted  light  the  whole  should  be  in  due  gradation.  The  dispersion  of  ray 
through  the  thickness  of  the  glass  is  found  sufficient  to  prevent  any  trace  of  this 
artificial  shading.  With  paper  negatives  the  same  result  may  also  be  produced  by 
partial  waxing. 

■     ■     I     ■!■■     I     1 

On  the  Construction  and  Use  of  an  Instrument  for  determining  the  Value  of 
Intermittent  or  Alternating  Electric  Currents  for  purposes  of  Practical 
Telegraphy.    By  WiLdmaic  Whitshouse. 

In  the  prosecution  of  some  electrical  studies,  requiring  an  estimate  of  the  values 
of  different  magneto-electric  currents,  Mf .  Whitehouse  found  that  the  ordinary  gal' 
vanometer  was  totally  inadequate  to  indicate  the  required  results. 

However  suitable  that  instrument  might  be  for  a  continuous  or  voltaic  current, 
and  within  a  very  limited  range,  yet  the  problem  before  him  involved  the  numerical' 
estimate  of  currents  at  the  widest  range  and  of  the  shortest  duration. 

2* 


20  REPORT— 1856. 

It  therefore  occurred  to  Mr.  Whitehouse  that  the  amount  of  magnetic  force  < 
loped  by  the  current  in  its  passage  through  fine  wire  surrounding  an  electro-msgaet, 
seemed  to  offer  the  most  ready,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  practical  mode  of 
attaining  the  object ; — an  idea  which  received  confirmation  from  the  fact,  that  when- 
ever such  currents  were  used  in  telegraphy,  they  were  always  received  upon  and  safe 
to  actuate  electro-magnets. 

He  therefore  wound  an  electro-magnet  with  fine  wire,  placing  its  poles  very  nor 
to  a  keeper  of  soft  iron,  poised  in  the  manner  of  a  lever  steelyard  and  loaded  to  sav 
given  weight ;  the  current  either  lifted  or  did  not  lift  the  given  weight,  and  thtsm 
the  test  of  what  Mr.  W.  proposed  to  call  its  "value  "  in  telegraphy. 

So  delicate  was  this  test  that  he  had  been  able  to  determine  accurately  the  **  valie," 
as  it  may  be  termed,  of  a  current  too  feeble  in  its  energy,  and  too  brief  in  its  dila- 
tion, to  give  the  slightest  indication  of  its  presence  on  one  of  the  most  sensible 
"detectors  "  usually  employed  in  critical  telegraphic  operations. 

He  had  actually  weighed  with  accuracy  a  current  whose  force  was  represented  fat 
T^ths  of  a  grain ;  and  on  the  other  hand  currents  with  a  wide  range  of  quantity  sad 
intensity,  and  of  varying  amounts  of  force  up  to  no  less  than  600,000  grains. 

Mr.  Whitehouse  then  described  in  detail  the  principle  and  construction  of  the 
instrument.  The  reels  of  fine  wire  were  so  arranged  as  to  be  easily  removeable,  m 
order  to  substitute  others  carrying  wire  of  different  gauges,  or  even  without  tan 
change  any  two  reels  might  be  either  joined  up  in  series  for  intensity  or  in  parallel 
currents,  which  thereby  halved  the  length  while  it  doubled  the  area  of  conducting  wire. 

Mr.  Whitehouse  then  illustrated  its  uses  and  practical  capabilities. 

1st.  It  had  contributed  valuable  aid  in  the  analysis  of  several  forms  of  Siyhmi— 
coils,  varying  in  size  and  construction ;  it  not  only  estimated  in  grains  the  value  d 
each  secondary  current  thus  produced,  but  approximative^  determined  their  reJanw 
amounts  of  quantity  and  intensity,  by  noting  the  arrangement  of  wire  which  gave 
the  best  result. 

2ndly.  It  speedily  indicated  the  advantage  of  using  induction  coils  in  pairs  rather 
than  singly,  under  which  head  some  surprising  results  were  given,  the  near  presence 
of  an  unexcited  iron  bar  augmenting  the  value  of  the  current  in  the  coil  under 
observation. 

3rdly.  It  would  evidently  afford  the  means  of  practically  determining  a  point  cf 
considerable  interest  in  the  comparison  of  voltaic  and  magneto-electric  currents, 
to  the  solution  of  which  Mr.  Whitehouse  had  pledged  himself:  this  was  to  ascer- 
tain the  economico- practical  limits  of  battery  series;  because  the  penetrating 
power  or  intensity  and  value  of  currents  so  produced  might  hereby  be  accurately 
compared  with  the  force  of  coil  currents  educed  from  batteries  of  much  simpler  and 
less  wasteful  construction,  consisting  only  of  one  or  two  elements,  instead  of 
hundreds. 

4thly.  It  had,  conjointly  with  the  use  of  a  pendulum  and  automatic  recording 
arrangements,  led  to  the  production  of  a  series  of  curve  diagrams,  representing  a 
minute  analysis  of  any  given  current,  denoting  its  force,  however  variable,  in  the 
several  fractions  of  a  second  of  time. 

5thly.  It  had  enabled  Mr.  Whitehouse,  with  the  assistance  and  cooperation  of 
Mr.  Bright  of  the  Magnetic  Company,  after  weighing  the  value,  upon  short  circuit, 
of  the  currents  from  many  of  their  magneto-instruments,  so  as  to  determine  their 
average  value,  to  weigh  the  same  currents  after  working  through  various  distances, 
from  40  to  320  miles  of  subterranean  and  submarine  wires ;  thus  showing  with 
certainty  and  minute  accuracy  the  loss  due  to  the  combined  influence  of  resistance, 
induction  and  defective  insulation. 

Lastly.  It  had  done  good  service  in  working  out  the  laws  relating  to  induction  in 
submarine  circuits ;  and  some  striking  illustrations  were  given  in  conclusion. 

Working  upon  a  498  mile  length  of  very  perfectly  insulated  cable-wire,  the  phe- 
nomena of  induction  and  retardation,  of  charge  and  discharge,  as  originally  described 
by  Faraday,  were  exhibited  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

A  current,  lifting  18,000  grains  on  short  circuit,  was  sent  into  the  long  wire,  the 
further  end  of  which  was  insulated ;  but  on  cutting  off  the  battery,  and  instantly 
discharging  the  wire  to  earth  through  the  same  instrument,  it  gave  a  lifting  power 
of  60,000  grains ;  so  strikingly  cumulative  was  the  tendency  of  this  gigantic  Leyden 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  21 

jar.  While,  if  both  ends  of  the  wire  were  discharged  to  earth  simultaneously,  a  lift 
of  96,000  grains  was  obtained,  thus  realizing  as  a  return,  more  than  five  times  the 
amount  which  the  battery  gave  on  short  circuit.  Again :  A  feeble  magneto-current 
of  only  4  grains  was  adequate  to  work  a  telegraphic  receiving  instrument,  a  sensitive ' 
galvanometer  being  placed  in  the  same  circuit ;  but  this  latter  gave  most  uncertain 
indications  of  value ;  its  unsteady  movements  ranged  wider  with  slow  and  feeble 
currents,  and  indicated  a  lesser  value  for  stronger  currents,  which  followed  more 
rapidly  in  succession,  all  which  however  were  accurately  pourtrayed  by  the  new 
instrument.  Again  :  A  pair  of  induction  coils,  excited  by  six  small  Smee  cells,  gave 
27,000  grains ;  the  mere  addition  of  a  soft  iron  armature  at  one  end  augmented 
this  to  43,000,  while  a  similar  one  at  the  other  end  increased  the  current's  value 
up  to  47,500. 

Mr.  Whitehouse  called  it  a  "  Magneto -electrometer  "  from  its  special  adaptation 
to  the  measurement  of  magneto-electric  currents,  while  the  terms  galvanometer, 
voltameter,  and  electrometer  sufficiently  indicated  for  these  instruments  their  con- 
nexion with  other  forms  of  electricity. 

The  desirability  of  a  definite  and  common  standard  of  comparison  was  insisted  on, 
and  Mr.  Whitehouse  promised  to  set  aside  for  this  special  use  the  most  accurately 
finished  and  perfect  instrument  he  could  obtain,  for  the  free  use  of  any  fellow- 
labourers  in  the  same  field. 


The  Law  of  the  Squares — is  it  applicable  or  not  to  the  Transmission  of  Signals 
in  Submarine  Circuits  ?    By  Wildman  Whitehouse. 

Referring  to  the  proceedings  of  this  Section  last  year  at  Glasgow,  the  author 
quoted  Prof. W.Thomson's  paper  on  this  subject,  where  he  stated  "  that  a  part  of  the 
theory  communicated  by  himself  to  the  Royal  Society  last  May,  and  published  in 
the  '  Proceedings,'  shows  that  a  wire  of  six  times  the  length  of  the  Varna  and  Bala- 
klava  wire,  if  of  the  same  lateral  dimensions,  would  give  thirty-six  times  the  retar- 
dation, and  thirty-six  times  the  slowness  of  action.  If  the  distinctness  of  utterance 
and  rapidity  of  action  practicable  with  the  Varna  and  Balaklava  wire  are  only  such 
as  not  to  be  inconvenient,  it  would  be  necessary  to  have  a  wire  of  six  times  the 
diameter ;  or  better,  thirty-six  wires  of  the  same  dimensions ;  or  a  larger  number  of 
small  wires  twisted  together,  under  a  gutta-percha  covering,  to  give  tolerably 
convenient  action  by  a  submarine  cable  of  six  times  the  length."  The  author  then 
stated,  that  circumstances  had  enabled  him  to  make  very  recently  a  long  series  of 
experiments  upon  this  point,  the  results  of  which  he  proposed  to  lay  before  the 
Section ;  adding,  that  an  opportunity  still  existed  for  repeating  these  experiments 
upon  a  portion  of  cable  to  which  he  could  obtain  access,  and  that  he  was  ready  to 
show  them  before  a  committee  of  this  Section  in  London,  if  the  important  nature  of 
the  Bubject  should  seem  to  render  such  a  course  desirable.  Although  the  subject  of 
submarine  telegraphy  had  many  points  of  the  highest  importance  requiring  investi- 
gation, and  to  the  consideration  of  which  he  had  been  devoting  himself  recently, 
Mr.  Whitehouse  proposed  to  confine  his  remarks  on  this  occasion  to  the  one  point 
indicated  in  the  title,  inasmuch  as  the  decision  of  that  one,  either  favourably  or 
otherwise,  would  have,  on  the  one  hand,  the  effect  of  putting  a  very  narrow  limit 
to  our  progress  in  telegraphy,  or,  on  the  other,  of  leaving  it  the  most  ample  scope. 
He  drew  a  distinction  between  the  mere  transmission  of  a  current  across  the 
Atlantic  (the  possibility  of  which  he  supposed  everybody  must  admit)  and  the 
effectual  working  of  a  telegraph  at  a  speed  sufficient  for  "  commercial  success ;  " 
and  we  gathered  from  his  remarks  that  there  were  those  ready  to  embark  in  the 
undertaking  as  soon  as  the  possibility  of  "  commercial  success  "  was  demonstrated. 

The  author  then  gave  a  description  of  the  apparatus  emploved  in  his  researches. 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  experiments  were  conducted,  and,  lastly,  of  the  results 
obtained.  The  wires  upon  which  the  experiments  were  made  were  copper,  of  No. 
16  gauge,  very  perfectly  insulated  with  gutta  percha — spun  into  two  cables,  con- 
taining three  wires  of  equal  length  (83  miles),  covered  with  iron  wires  and  coiled  in 
a  large  tank  in  full  contact  with  moist  earth,  but  not  submerged.  The  two  cables 
were  subsequently  joined  together,  making  a  length  of  166  miles  of  cable,  containing 
three  wires.    In  addition  to  this,  in  some  of  the  latest  experiments  he  had  also  the 


2* 


rkpobtp-~185& 


advantage  of  another  length  of  cable,  giving  with  the  above,  an  aggregate  of  1090  ansa. 
The  instruments,  one  of  which  was  exhibited,  seemed  to  be  of  great  delicacy,  capable  of 
the  utmost  nicety  of  adjustment  and  particularly  free  from  sources  of  error.  TV 
records  were  all  made  automatically,  oy  electro-chemical  decomposition,  on  cheat 
cally  prepared  paper.  The  observations  of  different  distances  recorded  thenuebts 
upon  the  same  slip  of  paper ;  thus,  0, 83,  and 249  miles  were  imprinted  upon  one  paps, 
0,83,  498  miles  upon  another  slip,  0, 249, 498  upon  another,  and  O,  535,  1020  upas 
another.  Thus  by  the  juxtaposition  of  the  several  simultaneous  records  on  cad 
slip,  as  well  as  by  the  comparison  of  one  slip  with  another,  the  author  has  bea 
enabled  to  show  most  convincingly  that  the  law  of  the  squares  is  not  the  law  wkka 
governs  the  transmission  of  signals  in  submarine  circuits.  Mr.  Whjtehouae  shoved 
next,  by  reference  to  published  experiments  of  Faraday's  and  Wheatstone's  (Philo- 
sophical Magazine,  July,  1855),  that  the  effect  of  the  iron  covering  with  which  tk 
cable  was  surrounded  was,  electrically  speaking,  identical  with  that  which  wenM 
have  resulted  from  submerging  the  wire,  and  that  the  results  of  the  experimesn 
could  not  on  that  point  be  deemed  otherwise  than  reliable.  The  author  sett 
addressed  himself  to  the  objections  raised  against  conclusions  drawn  from  experi- 
ments in  "Multiple"  cables.  Faraday  had  experimented,  he  said,  upon  wra 
laid  in  close  juxtaposition,  and  with  reliable  results ;  but  an  appeal  was  made  to 
direct  experiment,  and  the  amount  of  induction  from  wire. to  wire  was  weighed,  sad 
proved  to  be  as  one  to  ten  thousand,  and  it  was  found  impossible  to  vary  the  amoot 
of  retardation  by  any  variation  hi  the  arrangement  of  the  wires.  Testimony  also 
on  this  point  was  not  wanting.  The  Director  of  the  Black  Sea  Telegraph,  IJesL- 
Col.  Biddulph,  was  in  England,  and  present  at  many  of  the  experiments.  He  coo- 
firmed  our  author's  view,  adding,  "  that  there  was  quite  as  much  induction  tad 
embarrassment  of  instruments  in  this  cable  as  he  had  met  with  in  the  Black  Sea 
line/'  The  author  considers  it  therefore  proved,  "that  experiments  upon  sock  a 
cable,  'fairly  and  cautiously  conducted,  may  be  regarded  as  real  practical  tests,  sad 
the  results  obtained  as  a  fair  sample  of  what  will  ultimately  be  found  to  hold  good 
practically  in  lines  laid  out  in  extenao.  At  the  head  of  each  column  in  the  annexed 
Table  is  stated  the  number  of  observations  upon  which  the  result  given  was  cost- 
puted,— every  observation  being  rejected  on  which  there  could  rail  a  suspicion  e/ 
carelessness, "inaccuracy,  or  uncertainty  as  to  the  precise  conditions;  and,  on  tk* 
other  hand,  every  one  which  was  retained  being  carefully  measured  to  the  hundraln 
part  of  a  second.  This  Table  is  subject  to  correction,  for  variation  in  the  stale  e/ 
the  battery  employed,  just  as  the  barometrical  observations  are  subject  to  eorrecttaa 
for  temperature.  Of  this  variation  as  a  source  of  error  I  am  quite  aware,  but  I  aw 
not  yet  in  possession  of  facts  enough  to  supply  me  with  the  exact  amount  of  cor- 
rection required.     I  prefer,  therefore,  to  let  the  results  stand  without  correction. 


Amount  of  Retardation  observed  at  various  distances,    Voltaic  Current. 
Time  stated  in  parts  of  a  Second, 

Mean  of  550 
observations. 

Mean  of  110 
observations. 

Mean  of  1840 
observations. 

Mean  of  1960 
observations. 

Mean  of  120  simultaneous 
observations. 

83  miles. 
08 

166  miles. 
•14 

249  miles. 
•36 

498  miles. 
•79 

535  miles. 
♦74 

1020  miles. 
1-42       | 

''  Now  it  needs  no  long  examination  of  this  Table  to  find  that  we  have  the  retar- 
dation following  an  increasing  ratio,  that  increase  being  very  little  beyond  the  simple 
arithmetical  ratio.  I  am  quite  prepared  to  admit  the  possibility  of  an  amount  of 
error  having  crept  into  these  figures,  in  spite  of  my  precautions  ;  indeed,  I  have  on 
that  account  been  anxious  to  multiply  observations  in  order  to  obtain  most  trust- 
worthy results.  But  I  cannot  admit  the  possibility  of  error  having  accumulated  to 
such  an  extent  as  to  entirely  overlay  and  conceal  the  operation  of  the  law  of  the 
squares,  if  in  reality  that  law  had  any  bearing  on  the  results.  Taking  83  miles  ts 
our  unit  of  distance,  we  have  a  series  of  1,  2,  3,  6,  and  12.  Taking  166  miles  at 
our  unit,  we  have  then  a  series  of  1,  3,  and  6.  Taking  249  miles,  we  have  soil  s 
series  of  1,  2,  and  4,  in  very  long  distances.  Yet  even  under  these  circumstances, 
and  with  these  facilities,  I  cannot  find  a  trace  of  the  operation  of  that  law."   Hk 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTIONS.  3$ 

author  then  examined  the  evidence  of  the  law  of  the  squares,  as  shown  by  the  value 
of  a  current  taken  in  submarine  or  subterranean  wires  at  different  distances  from  the 
generator  thereof,  which  he  showed  were  strongly  corroborative  of  the  previous 
results.     He  next  examined  the  question  of  the  size  of  the  conducting  wire ;  and  he 
had  the  opportunity  of  testing  the  application  of  the  law,  as  enunciated  by  Prof. 
Thomson  last  year.   The  results,  far  from  confirming  the  law,  are  strikingly  opposed 
to  it.     The  fact  of  trebling  the  size  of  the  conductor  augmented  the  amount  of 
retardation  to  nearly  double  that  observed  in  the  single  wire.    The  author,  however, 
looked  for  the  eaeperimentum  crucia  in  the  limit  to  the  rapidity  and  distinctness  of 
utterance  attainable  in  the  relative  distances  of  500  and  1020  miles.     350  and  270 
were  the  actual  number  of  distinct  signals  recorded  in  equal  times  through  these  two 
lengths  respectively.    These  figures  have  no  relation  to  the  squares  of  the  distance* 
"  Now,  if  the  law  of  the  squares  be  held  to  be  good  in  its  application  to  submarine 
circuits,  and  if  the  deductions  as  to  the  necessary  size  of  the  wire,  based  upon  that 
Jaw,  can  be  proved  to  be  valid  also,  we  are  driven  to  the  inevitable  conclusion  that 
submarine  cables  of  certain  length  to  be  successful  must  be  constructed  in  accord- 
ance with  these  principles.    And  what  does  this  involve?    In  the  case  of  the 
Transatlantic  line,  whose  estimated  length  will  be  no  less  than  2500  miles,  it  would 
necessitate  the  use,  for  a  single  conductor  only,  of  a  cable  so  large  and  ponderous, 
aa  that  probably  no  ship  except  Mr.  Scott  Russell's  leviathian  could  carry  it,— so 
unwieldy  in  the  manufacture,  that  its  perfect  insulation  would  be  a  matter  almost  of 
practical  impossibility, — and  so  expensive,  from  the  amount  of  materials  employed, 
and  the  very  laborious  and  critical  nature  of  .the  processes  required  in  making  and 
laying  it  out,  that  the  thing  would  be  abandoned  as  being  practically  and  commer- 
cially impossible.    If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  law  of  the  squares  be  proved  to  be 
inapplicable  to  the  transmission  of  signals  by  submarine  wires,  whether  with  refe- 
rence to  the  amount  of  retardation  observable  in  them,  the  rapidity  of  utterance  to 
be  obtained,  or  the  sise  of  conductor  required  for  the  purpose,  then  we  may  shortly 
expect  to  see  a  cable  not  much  exceeding  one  ton  per  mile,  containing  three,  four  or 
five  conductors,  stretched  from  shore  to  shore,  and  uniting  us  to  our  Transatlantic 
brethren,  at  an  expense  of  less  than  one-fourth  that  of  the  large  one  above  men- 
tioned, able  to  carry  four  or  five  times  the  number  of  messages,  and  therefore  yielding 
about  twenty  times  as  much  return  in  proportion  to  the  outlay.    And  what,  I  may 
be  asked,  is  the  general  conclusion  to  be  drawn  as  the  result  of  this  investigation  of 
the  law  of  the  squares  applied  to  submarine  circuits  ?    In  all  honesty,  I  am  bound 
to  answer,  that  I  believe  nature  knows  no  such  application  of  that  law ;  and  I  can 
only  regard  it  as  a  fiction  of  the  schools,4a  forced  and  violent  adaptation  of  a  prin- 
ciple in  Physics,  good  and  true  under  other  circumstances,  but  misapplied  here. " 


ASTBONOMY,  MbTBOBA,  WaVB8. 


On  the  Tides  of  Nova  Scotia. 
By  the  Rev.  Professor  Chbvallibr,  B.D.,  F.R.A.S. 

The  observations  to  which  reference  is  made  were  taken  by  a  tide-gauge  fixed 
upon  a  wharf  at  the  north  end  of  the  naval  yard  at  Halifax.  The  tides  there  are 
small  in  amount,  the  spring  tides  rising  from  6  J  to  9  feet  at  Halifax,  and  8  feet  at 
Sambro  Isle,  twelve  miles  south  of  that  place.  The  tides  themselves  appear  to  be  quite 
regular ;  but  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  tide-wave  there  occurs  a  series  of  undula- 
tions succeeding  each  other  at  intervals  of  twenty  minutes  or  half  an  hour,  the 
difference  of  elevation  and  depression  rarely  exceeding  6  inches,  and  being  usually 
much  less.  They  are  more  perceptible  near  low  water  ;  but  occur  at  all  times  of 
tide,  and  are  very  distinctly  marked  upon  the  curve  traced  by  the  self-acting  tide- 
gauge.  The  question  to  be  considered  is,  what  is  the  cause  of  these  small  waves  ? 
1.  They  do  not  arise  from  any  influence  which  the  casual  swell  of  the  sea  might 
exercise  upon  the  tide-guage:  for  the  rise  and  fall  of  one  of  these  waves  very 
seldom  takes,  less  time  than  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  and  often  requires  half  an  hour, 


44  report — 1856. 

or  even  three-quarters  of  an  hour.  2.  They  do  not  arise  from  undulatory  i 
the  whole  waters  of  the  harbour.  In  order  to  examine  this  question,  Mr.  Edgcnmfae 
Chevallier,  the  storekeeper  in  Halifax  Dockyard,  went  to  Sambro,  ten  or  twelve  mSei 
south  of  Halifax,  and  entirely  clear  of  the  harbour,  and  erected  upon  Power  Island 
a  temporary  gauge,  with  which  he  took  the  height  of  the  water  every  five  minutes 
for  the  whole  day.  Having  laid  off  the  results  in  a  form  similar  to  that  employed 
with  the  fixed  tide-gauge  at  Halifax,  it  was  found  that  every  irregularity  at  Halifax 
was  preceded  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  by  a  larger  irregularity  at  Sarabro.  These 
observations  show  that  the  irregular  waves  do  not  arise  from  the  peculiar  form  of 
the  harbour  at  Halifax.  3.  At  about  sixty  miles  eastward  from  Halifax,  outside 
Sable  Island,  the  Gulf-stream  runs  in  nearly  a  north-eastern  direction  with  consider- 
able velocity ;  and  between  Sable  Island  and  the  land  a  counter-current  runs  nearly 
in  a  south-western  direction.  One  of  these  currents  would  elevate  the  surface  of  me 
sea  near  the  middle  of  the  currents;  and  such  an  elevation  of  the  surface  over  which 
the  tide-wave  is  propagated  might  give  rise  to  undulations  similar  to  those  observed. 

1  am  informed,  however,  that  the  undulations  in  question  are  observed  on  the 
western  side  of  Nova  Scotia,  to  which  any  effect  of  those  two  currents  could  not  extend. 
4.  Although  the  tides  at  Halifax  and  on  the  neighbouring  coast  are  small,  that 
part  of  the  ocean  is  near  the  indraught  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  coast  and  its  position  with  reference  to  the  great  tide-wave  of  the 
Atlantic  give  rise  to  a  local  tide  of  excessive  magnitude.  Such  a  tide,  espe- 
cially when  reverberated  from  coast  to  coast  in  a  comparatively  narrow  inlet, 
might  not  improbably  give  rise  to  perceptible  undulations  in  a  neighbouring  part 
of  the  sea.  If  this  be  the  cause,  it  might  be  expected  that  a  similar  effect  should  be 
noticed  where  a  tide  of  the  like  nature  takes  place.  The  Bay  of  Avranches  k 
a  locality  of  this  kind,  and  the  bland  of  Jersey  appeared  to  be  a  place  where  any 
undulations  of  the  tide  might  probably  be  noticed.  The  extreme  difference  between 
high  and  low  water  at  St.  Helier's  is  42  feet,  and  the  difference  of  height  of  the 
mean  high  and  low  water  is  36  feet.  On  inquiry,  I  find  that  about  ten  years  since 
a  tide-guage  was  fixed  at  St.  Helier's,  'but  observed  only  at  high  water,  when 
irregularities  were  observed  of  the  same  kind  as  those  noticed  at  Halifax.  This  seems 
to  give  probability  to  the  opinion  that  the  irregularities  observed  in  the  tide  at 
Halifax  may  be  connected  with  the  unusual  tides  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  But 
whether  they  arise  from  this  source,  or  are  to  be  traced  to  some  great  reciprocating 
motion  to  which  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  may  be  subject,  the  phenomenon  deserves 
to  be  studied,  as  likely  to  lead  to  a  more  extended  knowledge  of  the  hydrodynamicti 
conditions  of  our  globe.  « 

Working  Model  of  a  Machine  for  polishing  Specula  for  Reflecting  Telescopes 
and  Lenses.    By  Richard  Greene,  M.D. 

The  polishing  machine,  the  model  of  which  I  have  now  the  honour  of  laying  before 
the  British  Association,  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of  an  invention,  inasmuch  as 
the  public  have  for  some  years  been  in  possession  of  a  very  beautiful  machine, 
invented  by  William  Lassell,  Esq.  of  Liverpool,  and  most  ably  constructed  by  my 
very  talented  friend  James  Nasmyth,  Esq.  of  Patricroft  foundry.  It  will  no  doubt 
occur  to  most  persons  acquainted  with  the  very  superior  specula  produced  by  both 
these  gentlemen  with  that  machine,  why  trouble  the  Association  with  an  imitation 
of  that  invention  ? 

This  question  is  solved  by  the  weighty  argument  of  the  three  letters  £s.i. 
The  polishing  machine  of  Mr.  Lassell  is  constructed  entirely  of  metal,  is  quite  out 
of  the  power  of  any  amateur  to  construct,  requires  to  be  bolted  to  wall,  can  scarcely 
be  turned  by  hand  power,  weighs  at  least  three  or  four  hundredweight,  and  from 
the  great  care  and  accuracy  required  in  its  construction,  costs,  I  think,  £70,  while 
a  light  portable  machine  on  the  principle  of  this  model  can,  without  any  difficulty, 
be  made  by  any  handy  amateur  with  a  common  foot  lathe  for  less  than  70s.,  and 
need  not  weigh  90  pounds.  The  only  machine  I  ever  made  on  this  principle  is 
amply  powerful  to  polish  specula  of  12  or  14  inches  aperture ;  its  fly-wheel  is  only 

2  feet  diameter,  weighing  about  45  lbs.,  and  such  a  fly-wheel  can  always  be*  found 
at  the  old  iron  stands  for  six  or  eight  shillings :  all  the  spindles  are  common  bar  iron 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  25 

with  the  journeys  turned  on  them,  and  all  the  bearings  are  of  box-wood,  which  is 
far  better  than  bell-metal,  as  neither  heating,  wearing,  or  scarcely  ever  requiring  oil. 

In  that  beautiful  machine  of  Mr.  Lassell,  the  axis  of  the  table  which  carries  the 
speculum  is  in  the  same  line  with  the  axis  of  the  slow  crank,  which  by  two  systems 
of  gearing  rotating  round  a  fixed  toothed  wheel,  the  pin  of  the  quick  crank  carries 
the  centre  of  the  polisher  with  an  epicycloidal  motion  over  the  surface  of  the  specu- 
lum. This  machine  effects  the  same  object  simply  by  a  crank  rotating  in  a  circle, 
but  the  centre  of  the  table  which  carries  the  speculum,  can  be  moved  at  pleasure 
more  or  less  distant  from  the  centre  of  that  circle.  This  simple  sliding  of  the  axis 
of  the  table  out  of  the  line  of  the  axis  of  the  crank,  causes  the  centre  of  the  polisher 
to  describe  over  the  face  of  the  speculum  the  exact  figure  the  more  complex  machine 
produces. 

When  first  I  contemplated  the  construction  of  a  polishing  machine  on  this  very 
simple  principle,  I  never  intended  to  do  anything  more  than  to  imitate  exactly  the 
motions  which  produced  such  happy  results  in  the  hands  of  its  talented  inventor. 
In  carrying  out  my  design,  it  became  obvious,  that,  by  adding  three  or  four  more 
pulleys,  at  a  cost  of  less  than  half  so  many  shillings,  the  machine  (in  addition  to  the 
proved  movements  of  Mr.  Lassell's  machine)  was  invested  with  a  power  enabling 
an  experimenter  in  that  most  interesting  branch  of  practical  science,  to  try  the  effect 
of  a  vast  variety  of  motions  for  figuring,  which  the  more  complex  machine  is  not 
capable  of  producing.  A  few  of  these  motions  have  been  transferred  to  paper,  by 
substituting  for  the  iron  sliding  box  (which  by  its  pin  moves  the  polisher)  a  wooden 
sliding  box  carrying  a  pencil,  and  in  place  of  the  speculum  these  pieces  of  paper 
were  laid  on  the  table  and  held  there  with  weights  on  their  corners.  The  figures 
are  extremely  regular  and  of  every  conceivable  variety  of  curve. 

Several  specula  of  4£,  7,  aod  8£  inches  have  been  repeatedly  polished  and  repo- 
ltehed  with  this  machine,  and  in  no  instance  has  a  really  bad  figure  been  the  result. 
Of  course  some  were  better  than  others ;  but  I  believe  it  will  be  admitted  by  all  who 
have  trodden  this  very  difficult  but  interesting  path  of  practical  science,  that  a  very 
fine  figure  is  as  much  entitled  to  be  enrolled  in  the  chapter  of  accidents,  as  a  really 
fine  chronometer,  which  no  care  in  its  construction  can  possibly  ensure.  If  the  cause 
of  the  imperfection  of  a  speculum  be  ascertained,  and  it  is  found  to  be  decidedly  sphe- 
rical or  hyperbolical,  the  former  can  with  certainty  be  removed  by  increasing  the 
excentricity  of  the  table,  and  the  latter  by  diminishing  it.  Very  frequently,  however, 
it  happens  that  the  different  zones  of  a  speculum,  as  tested  by  diaphragms,  have  their 
foci  coincident,  yet  the  speculum  does  not  perform  well,  from  a  want  of  uniformity 
in  the  curvature.  In  these  cases  I  have  derived  great  advantage  from  placing  the 
centre  of  the  speculum  a  little  excentric  as  regards  the  centre  of  the  table,  so  that  in 
working  the  excentricity  (which  is  the  slow  crank  in  LasseU's)  is  continually  vary- 
ing from  the  turn  of  the  two  eccentricities,  to  their  difference,  the  mean  excentricity 
remaining  unchanged.  Latterly,  indeed,  I  have  always  employed  the  double  excen- 
tricity. A  few  remarks  upon  the  formation  of  the  polisher  will  bring  this  descrip- 
tion to  a  close.  Mr.  Lassell  recommends  making  the  polisher  of  two  pieces  of  light 
wood  glued  together,  with  their  grain  at  right  angles ;  in  his  hands  it  has  certainly 
performed  wonders,  but  as  it  is  liable  to  warp  with  hygrometric  changes  in  the 
atmosphere,  it  is  as  well  totally  to  prevent  such  warping  by  employing  three,  instead 
of  two  pieces  of  board,  making  the  two  outside  pieces  at  right  angles  to  the  centre 
piece  as  regards  their  grain.  To  make  the  furrows  in  the  pitch  so  that  they  shall 
not  fill  up  in  polishing,  is  extremely  difficult  by  the  ordinary  process  of  pressing  the 
pitch  while  in  a  soft  state  with  the  edge  of  a  ruler,  as  the  pitch  forced  out  of  the 
furrows  is  heaped  up  on  the  edges  of  the  squares,  leaving  a  hollow  in  the  centre  of 
each  square ;  in  working  it  is  forced  back  again,  and  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that 
the  furrows  should  remain  open  during  the  entire  process  of  polishing.  I  prefer 
covering  the  surface  of  the  polisher  with  squares  of  wood  about  J  inch  in  thickness 
and  J  an  inch  apart,  stuck  on  with  hot  pitch  or  glue,  and  a  nail  in  the  centre.  The 
polisher  being  held  with  the  face  down,  the  squares  are  covered  over  with  a  brush 
dipped  in  the  pitch  (not  very  hot),  and  repeating  the  operation  until  a  proper  thick- 
ness be  obtained ;  when  made  in  this  way  the  furrows  will  never  fill  up  except  the 
pitch  be  much  too  soft. 


96  BIPORT— 1856. 

On  the  Pkygicnl  Structure  of  the  Earth.    By  Professor  Hi 

After  some  preliminary  observations  as  to  the  impossibility  of  accounting  for  At 
earth's  figure,  without  supposing  it  to  have  been  once  a  fused  mass,  the  exterior  of 
which  has  cooled  into  a  solid  crust,  the  process  of  solidification  of  the  fluid  w» 
described.  The  influence  of  the  convection  and  circulation  of  the  particles  m  i 
heterogeneous  fluid  was  shown  to  be  different  from  what  would  take  place  m  t 
homogeneous  fluid  such  as  usually  comes  under  our  notice.  As  the  primitive  flail 
mass  of  the  earth  would  consist  of  strata  increasing  in  density  from  the  surface 
towards  the  centre,  its  refrigeration  would  be  that  of  a  heterogeneous  fluid,  and  die 
process  of  circulation  would  be  less  energetic  in  going  from  its  surface  towards  b 
centre.  Thus  the  earth  would  ultimately  consist  of  a  fluid  nucleus  enclosed  in  • 
spheroidal  shell.  The  increase  in  thickness  of  this  shell  would  take  place  by  tit 
solidification  of  each  of  the  surface  strata  of  the  nucleus  in  succession,  if  the  matter 
composing  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  subjected  to  the  same  physical  laws  as  tit 
material  of  the  solid  crust  coming  under  our  notice,  the  change  of  state  in  the  floi 
must  be  accompanied  by  a  diminution  of  its  volume.  The  contrary  hypothesis  had 
been  hitherto  always  assumed  in  mathematical  investigations  relative  to  the  torn 
and  structure  of  the  earth.  The  erroneous  supposition  that  the  particles  of  the 
primitive  fluid  retained  the  same  positions  after  the  mass  had  advanced  in  the  pro- 
cess of  solidification  as  they  had  before  the  process  commenced,  had  been  tacitly  or 
openly  assumed  in  all  such  inquiries  until  it  was  formally  rejected  by  the  author*, 
who  proposed  to  assume  for  the  fluid  similar  properties  to  those  exhibited  by  flee 
fusion  and  solidification  of  such  portions  of  the  solidified  crust  as  are  accessible  to 
observation.  The  results  to  which  the  improved  hypothesis  has  led,  show  that  it 
fundamentally  affects  the  whole  question,  not  only  of  the  shape  and  internal  struc- 
ture of  the  earth,  but  also  of  the  various  actions  and  reactions  taking  place  between 
the  fluid  nucleus  and  the  solid  shell.  If  the  process  of  solidification  took  place 
without  change  of  volume  in  the  congelation  of  the  fluid,  the  strata  of  the  shell 
would  possess  the  same  forms  as  those  of  the  primitive  fluid,  and  their  oblatenesi 
would  diminish  in  going  from  the  outer  to  the  inner  surface.  If  the  fluid  contract! 
in  volume  on  passing  to  the  solid  state,  the  remaining  fluid  will  tend  to  assume  a 
more  and  more  oblate  figure  after  the  formation  of  each  stratum  of  the  shell.  The 
law  of  density  of  the  nucleus  will  not  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  primitive  fluid,  but 
will  vary  more  slowly,  and  the  mass  will  thus  tend  towards  a  state  of  homogeneity 
as  the  radius  of  the  nucleus  diminishes  by  the  gradual  thickening  of  the  shell.  The 
surface  of  die  nucleus,  and  consequently  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell,  will  thus 
tend  to  become  more  oblate  after  each  successive  stratum  added  to  the  shell  by  coa- 
gelatiou  from  the  nucleus.  This  result,  combined  with  another  obtained  by  Mr. 
Hopkins,  proves  that  so  great  pressure  and  friction  exist  at  the  surface  of  contact  of 
the  shell  and  nucleus  as  to  cause  both  to  rotate  together  nearly  as  one  solid  mass. 
Other  grounds  for  believing  in  the  existence  of  the  great  pressure  exercised  by  the 
nucleus  at  the  surface  of  the  shell  were  adduced.  If  the  density  of  the  fluid  strata 
Were  due  to  the  pressures  they  support,  and  if  the  earth  solidified  without  any  change 
of  state  in  the  solidifying  fluid,  the  pressure  against  the  inner  surface  of  the  shell 
would  be  that  due  to  the  density  of  the  surface  stratum  of  the  nucleus,  and  would 
therefore  rapidly  Increase  with  the  thickness  of  the  shell.  Contraction  in  volume 
of  the  fluid  op  entering  the  solid  state  would  diminish  this  pressure,  but  yet  it  may 
continue  to  be  very  considerable,  as  the  coefficient  of  contraction  would  always 
approach  towards  unity .  The  phenomena  of  the  solidification  of  lava  and  of  volcanic 
bombs  were  referred  to  in  illustration  of  these  views,  and  their  application  was  men 
shown  to  some  of  the  greatest  questions  of  geology.  The  relations  of  symmetry 
which  the  researches  of  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont  seem  to  establish  between  the  great 
lines  of  elevation  which  traverse  the  surface  of  the  earth,  appear  to  Prof.  Hennessy 
fax  more  simply  and  satisfactorily  explained  by  the  expansive  tendency  of  the  nucleus 
which  produces  the  great  pressure  against  the  shell  than  by  the  collapse  and  subsi- 
dences of  the  latter.  The  direction  of  the  forces  which  would  tend  to  produce  a 
rupture  from  the  purely  elevatory  action  of  the  pressure  referred  to  would  be  tar 
more  favourable  to  symmetry  than  if  the  shell  were  undergoing  a  distortion  of  shape 

*  Philosophical  Transactions,  1851,  part  2. 


TRANSACTION*  OF  THJB  fBOTIONS.  97 

rom  collapsing  inward).    The  nearly  spherical  shape  of  the  shell  would  also  greatly 
^crease  its  resistance  to  forces  acting  perpendicularly  to  its  surface*  so  aa^rsDW" 
iarta  to  subside,  while  the  action  of  elevatory  forces  would  not  be  resis^dtnib^  fcame 
manner,  x        ^ 


■   ■     i     i  - 

Q*  the  Eclipse  of  the  Sun  mentioned  in  the  First  Book  ofjlerojiptus.    *~u. 

By  the  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  Hincks.  V   *    *-•■---»  "**  .-  m'S 

The  author  maintained  that  the  eclipse  of  the  18th  of  May,  603  BTc>«aft."UiAEi_--^'' 
which  terminated  the  Lydian  war,  and  that  from  this  celebrated  eclipse  and  hi8 
knowledge  of  the  period  of  223  lunations,  Tbales  had  predicted  the  eclipse  of  the 
28th  of  May,  585  b.c.     Herodotus,  he  thought,  had  confounded  the  two  eclipse3 
with  which  the  name  of  Thales  was  connected. 

Previously  to  the  publication  of  Mr.  Baily's  paper  in  1811,  it  was  generally  believed 
by  astronomers  that  the  eclipse  of  603  b.c,  satisfied  the  conditions  of  that  which 
terminated  the  war,  the  field  of  battle  being  supposed  to  be  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Kars,  Now  that  Mr,  Baily's  arguments  against  this  eclipse  have  been  shown  to  be 
erroneous,  the  author  regretted  that  recent  writers  had  neglected  it ;  the  elements  of 
it  having  never  been  calculated  with  the  improved  lunar  tables  now  in  use. 


On  an  Instrument  to  illustrate  Poins6t*8  Theory  of  Rotation. 
By  J.  C.  Maxwell. 

In  studying  the  rotation  of  a  solid  body  according  to  Foinsdt's  method,  we  have 

to  consider  the  successive  positions  of  the  instantaneous  axis  of  rotation  with  refer* 

enee  both  to  directions  fixed  in  space  and  axes  assumed  in  the  moving  body.    The 

paths  traced  out  by  the  pole  of  this  axis  on  the  invariable  plane  and  on  the  osmtraJ 

ellipsoid  form  interesting  subjects  of  mathematical  investigation.      But  when  we 

attempt  to  follow  with  our  eye  the  motion  of  a  rotating  body,  we  find  it  difficult  to 

determine  through  what  point  of  the  body  the  instantaneous  axil  passes  at  any 

tune,— rand  to  determine  its  path  must  be  still  more  difficult,    I  have  endeavoured  to 

render  visible  the  path  of  the  instantaneous  axis,  and  to  vary  the  circumstance*  of 

motion,  by  means  of  a  top  of  the  same  kind  as  that  used  by  Mr.  Elliot,  to  illustrate 

precession*.    The  body  of  the  instrument  is  a  hollow  cone  of  wood,  rising  from  a 

ring,  7  inches  in  diameter  and  I  inch  thick.    An  iron  axis,  8  inches  long,  screws 

into  the  vertex  of  the  cone.     The  lower  extremity  has  a  point  of  hard  steel,  which 

rests  in  an  agate  cup,  and  forms  the  support  of  the  instrument.    An  iron  nut, 

three  ounces  in  weight,  is  made  to  screw  on  the  axis,  and  to  he  fixed  at  any  point ; 

and  in  the  wooden  ring  are  screwed  four  bolts,  of  three  ounc.es,  working  horizontally, 

and  four  bolts,  of  one  punce,  working  vertically.    On  the  upper  part  of  the  axis  is 

placed  a  disc  of  card,  on  which  are  drawn  four  concentric  rings.     Each  ring  is 

divided  into  four  quadrants,  which  are  coloured  red^  yellow,  jrreeq,  and  blue.    The 

spaces  between  the  rings  are  white.     When  the  tqp  is  in  motion,  it  is  easy  to  see  in 

which  quadrant  the  instantaneous  axis  is  at  any  moment  and  the  distance  between 

it  and  the  axis  of  the  instrument;  and  we  observe, — 1st.  That  the  instantaneous 

axis  travels  in  a  closed  curve,  and  returns  to  its  original  position  in  the  body. 

2ndly.  That  by  working  the  vertical  bolts,  we  can  make  the  axis  of  the  instrument 

the  centre  of  this  closed  curve.     It  will  then  be  ope  of  the  principal  axes  of  "inertia. 

3rdly.  That,  by  working  the  nut  on  the  axis,  we  can  make  the  order  of  colours  either 

red,  yellow,  green,  blue,  or  the  reverse.     When  the  order  of  colours  is  in  the  same 

direction  as  the  rotation,  it  indicates  that  the  axis  of  the  instrument  is  that  of  great- 

etr  moment  of  inertia.    4thly.  That  if  we  screw  the  two  pairs  of  opposite  horizontal 

bolts  to  different  distances  from  the  axis,  the  path  of  the  instantaneous  pole  will  no 

longer  be  equidistant  from  the  axis,  but  will  describe  an  ellipse,  whose  longer  axis  is 

in  the  direction  of  the  mean  axis  of  the  instrument.   5thly.  That  if  we  now  make  one 

of  the  two  horizontal  axes  less  and  the  other  greater  than  the  vertical  axis,  the  instan- 

*  Transsactions  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Society  of  Arts.  1855. 


is 


REPORT — 1856. 


taneous  pole  will  separate  from  the  axis  of  the  instrument,  and  the  axis  will  i 
more  and  more  till  the  spinning  can  no  longer  go  on,  on  account  of  the  obliquity. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that,  by  attending  to  the  laws  of  motion,  we  may  produce  any 
of  the  above  effects  at  pleasure,  and  illustrate  many  different  propositions  by  mesas 
of  the  same  instrument. 

On  the  Constancy  of  Solar  Radiation.   By  Professor  Piazzi  Smyth,  FJiJSJi* 

Having  lately  recomputed  all  our  earth-thermoraetric  observations  from  tie 
year  1838  to  1854  inclusive,  I  am  able  to  offer  to  the  Association  a  few  particular* 
respecting  a  cosmical  question,  on  which  many  speculations  have  been  ventured,  bat 
no  exact  numerical  particulars  ascertained, — I  mean  the  constancy  in  amount  of  heat 
radiated  from  the  sun. 

These  earth-thermometers  have  been  observed  once  a  week  during  the  whole 
period  alluded  to,  and  are  admirably  adapted  to  equalize  temporary  meteorological 
variations,  and  to  give  good  mean  results. 

Their  bulbs  (filled  with  alcohol)  are  buried  in  the  porphyry  rock  of  the  hill  at  the 
several  depths  of  3,  6, 12,  24  French  feet,  and  their  tubes  are  long  enough  to  rise  to 
the  surface  of  the  ground  where  the  scales  are  placed,  and  may  be  read  off  to  "01  of 
a  degree  Fahrenheit.  This  set  of  thermometers  was  one  of  those  which  were  esta- 
blished in  and  about  Edinburgh  in  1837  for  the  British  Association,  under  the  care 
of  Prof.  J.  D.  Forbes,  and  it  is  the  only  one  of  them  which  has  survived  more  thaa 
half  the  period  which  has  elapsed.  The  excellence  and  completeness  of  the  burial 
of  the  bulb  of  every  thermometer  is  vouched  for  by  the  length  of  time  which  the 
wave  of  summer  heat  is  found  to  occupy  in  reaching  each  bulb  in  succession  accord- 
ing to  its  depth.  Thus  the  3-feet  thermometer  has  its  maximum  in  August ;  the 
6-feet  ditto  in  September;  the  1 2 -feet  ditto  in  October ;  and  the  24-  feet  ditto  in  Decem- 
ber or  January.  Again,  from  the  annual  range  decreasing  with  the  depth,  as  the 
3-feet  thermometer,  annual  range  =  15°  ;  the  6-feet  ditto,  annual  range  =  9°"8 ;  the 
12- feet  ditto,  annual  range  =  4°-6 ;  and  the  24-feet  ditto,  annual  range  =  1°*2.  And 
when  it  is  added  that  each  weekly  observation  is  carefully  corrected  for  the  efert 
caused  by  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  bulb,  and  of  the  several 
parts  of  the  stem  and  scale,  it  will  be  seen,  I  trust,  that  the  annual  means  of  such 
observations  must  be  worth  some  attention.    They  are  as  follow :— 

Annual  means  of  Thermometers. 


Year. 

*i. 

** 

'. 

'4. 

1838 

46°'94 

46-16 

45*39 

44°'81 

1839 

46*69 

46-15 

45-67 

45*33 

1840 

4677 

46-44 

46*02 

45*68 

1841 

46-78 

46-48 

46-06 

45*70 

1842 

46'88 

46*81 

46*78 

46-85 

1843 

47'14 

46*92 

46-49 

46*18 

1844 

47*21 

47*11 

46*83 

46-44 

1845 

47*06 

46-56 

45-97 

4557 

1846 

47-29 

47*60 

47*76 

47*78 

1847 

47-59 

47*33 

46*88 

46*60 

1848 

47-38 

46*97 

46*42 

46*02 

1849 

47.25 

46-86 

46*61 

46*52 

1850 

47-24 

47*00 

46*69 

46*49 

1851 

47-40 

47*26 

47*02 

46*80 

1852 

47*55 

47*48 

47*28 

47*05 

1853 

47*48 

47*03 

46-50 

46-10 

1854 

47-41 

47*18 

46*92 

46-75 

On  these  thermometers  two  heating  forces  are  evidently  acting,  one  from  without 
and  residing  in  the  sun,  the  other  from  within  from  the  supposed  molten  centre  of 
the  earth.    Let  us  dispose  of  this  one  first.    From  the  immense  comparative  thick- 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS, 


29 


nest  of  the  tad  conducting  rock  between  the  lowest  of  onr  thermometers  ami  any 
part  of  the  earth  where  its  substance  can  be  fluid  with  heat,  and  be  capable  of 
assuming  more  sadden  changes  of  position  or  temperature  than  a  solid  can,  we  may 
safely  in  a  first  examination  consider  the  internal  or  terrestrial  effect  as  constant  at 
each  depth  for  the  whole  period  from  1838  to  1854.  The  effect  is  small,  but  very 
sensible,  as  thus  :— » 

Mean  of  each  Thermometer  for  the  whole  period,  from  1838  to  1854. 

U    3-feet  thermometer  46*27 
h    6  „  46*55 

h  12  „  46-94 

tx  24  „  47*24 

where  we  find  each  thermometer  to  tell  the  same  story  of,  and  to  point  to,  a  heated 
terrestrial  centre,  even  by  approaching*  so  small  a  space  as  3  feet ;  and  on  the  whole 
they  show  an  increase  of  1  Fahr.,  with  21  feet  of  difference  of  depth  for  the  in- 
ternal influence,  or  the  terrestrial  source  of  surface*  temperature.  Subtracting  the 
differences  between  U  and  the  other  thermometers  from  each  in  turn,  we  obtain  the 
following  Table,  wherein  the  terrestrial  effect  being  eliminated,  the  variations  from 
cosmical  influences  become  more  apparent : — 


Year. 

'l. 

<V 

•V 

U- 

o 

o 

o 

1838 

46*97 

4549 

45*11 

44*81 

1839 

45*72 

45*48 

45*39 

45*38 

1840 

45*80 

45*77 

45-74 

45-68 

1841 

45*81 

45*81 

4578 

45*70 

1842 

45*91 

46-14 

46*50 

46*85 

1843 

46*17 

46*25 

46*21 

46*18 

1844 

46  24 

46-44 

46*55 

46-44 

1845 

4609 

45-89 

45-69 

45-57 

1846 

46-32 

46-93 

47*48 

47*78 

1847 

46*62 

46*66 

46*60 

46*60 

1848 

46*41 

46-30 

46*14 

46*02 

1849 

46-28 

46*19 

46*33 

46*52 

1850 

46*27 

46-33 

46*41 

46-49 

1851 

46*43 

46-59 

46*74 

46*80 

1852 

46*58 

46-81 

46-00 

47*05 

1853 

46*51 

46-36 

46-22 

46-10 

1854 

46*44 

46*51 

46-64 

46-75 

If  these  numbers  be  projected  with  the  times,  the  curves  they  form  are  most  in- 
teresting, for  they  contain  appearances  of  periodical  waves  distributed  over  a  secular 
swell,  with  so  long  a  period,  that  only  a  small  portion  of  it  appears  in  the  seventeen 
years. 

If  then  we  can  depend  on  our  observations  being  strictly  cleared  of  every  instru- 
mental and  terrestrial  cause  of  disturbance  which  can  logically  affect  their  accuracy, 
we  have  at  once  an  indication  of  our  sun  being  amongst  the  number  of  variable 
stars.  Can  we  then  depend  on  them  to  this  extent  ?  The  only  possible  room  that 
I  can  see  for  doubt,  is  the  question  of  the  constancy  of  the  zero-points  of  the  thermo- 
meters ;  and  having  no  means  of  inquiring  into  this  practically,  I  can  only  combine 
with  the  general  experience  of  the  unalterabiiity  of  spirit- thermometers,  with  the 
very  thick  glass  bulbs  and  tubes  here  employed,  after  a  certain  period,  the  particular 
observations  by  Professor  J.  D.  Forbes  on  a  thermometer  made  at  the  same  time  as 
oar  set,  and  in  the  same  manner,  and  filled  with  the  same  spirit.  The  result  of 
examination  was,  that  after  nine  years  no  appreciable  change  (certainly  not  ^th 
of  a  degree)  was  found. 

This  is  very  satisfactory ;  and  if  further  evidence  be  required  that  there  is  some 
natural  and  cosmical  cause  acting  on  our  thermometers,  tending  to  produce  an  effect, 


SO  BHPORT— 1&56. 

certainly  very  similar  to  what  an  alteration  in  the  zero-points  might  do*  we  haw 
such  evidence  in  special  features  of  difference  between  the  curves  of  the  uliiib) 
thermometers.  Thus  while  t4  and  ft,  by  the  rapid  and  uniform  rise  of  their  tains 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period,  lead  one  to  suspect  the  possibility  of  something  in- 
strumental affecting  them,  yet  it  may  be  that  the  observations  were  commenced  at 
the  bottom  of  one  of  the  temperature  waves,  of  which  there  are  evidently  three*  with 
a  nearly  sexennial  period  between  1838  and  1854.  If  this  latter  be  the  true  expla- 
nation, then  inasmuch  as  r*  is  retarded  in  its  indications  on  t4  and  fa  by  two  or  three 
months,  it  ought  to  show  in  1838  by  so  much  the  temperature  of  the  opposite  slope 
of  the  wave,  and  its  curve  should  not  reach  its  maximum  depression  so  pointedly  is 
1838  as  those  of  t4  and  tt .  On  looking  at  it,  we  find  /,  fulfilling  these  expectations 
perfectly,  for  its  curve,  instead  Of  rising  up  steeply  from  1838  to  1839,  is  nearly 
level. 

But  there  it  still  another  proof:  *i  ought  to  exhibit  the  retarded  effects  of  l*  in  a 
still  greater  degree,  if  the  continued  rise  of  U  *nd  t%  in  1838-30  and  1840  be  doe  to  a 
cosmical  cause,  and  not  to  an  instrumental  defect  that  would  ant  on  all  the  therms* 
meters  alike.  Now  t\  does  precisely  what  it  should  do  on  such  a  hypothesis ;  lor 
instead  of  being  only  level  like  tt  for  1838-39,  it  is  even  depressed,  having  its  mmhnmn 
in  the  latter  year* 

Similarly,  it  will  be  found  through  the  whole  of  the  period  of  our  observations, 
that  by  their  regulated  differences  from  each  other  depending  on  the  effect  of  the 
several  depths  of  non-conducting  matter  covering  each  of  them,  the  several  thermo- 
meters serve  to  confirm  each  other,  as  really  indicating  changes  in  the  mean  tempe- 
rature of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  such  as  can  hardly  be  attributed  to  any  cause  bet 
the  variations  in  the  development  of  solar  light  and  heat. 

In  this  case  the  ascertainment  of  the  period  of  the  secular  wave  must  be  of  the 
utmost  importance  \  for  its  summit  may  bring  us  years  warmer  than  any  that  have 
been  felt  in  our  own  day,  and  the  bottom  of  it  seasons  with  cold  in  coirespondiBg 
severity.  ^ 

On  a  Collimator  for  completing  the  Adjustment*  of  Refecting  Telescopes. 
By  Professor  G.  Johnstone  Btonbt,  if. A. 


This  paper  described  an  accessory  to  large  reflecting  telescopes,  designed  to  i 
in  adjusting  their  mirrors  at  night  with  more  ease  and  accuracy  than  hitherto.  la 
general  construction  the  new  collimator  resembles  the  telescopes  made  use  of  by 
engineers ;  it  differs  only  so  far  that  provision  must  be  made  for  sufficiently  illn- 
minating  the  wires  or  an  artificial  star,  and  that  its  large  lens  should  have  a  focal 
length/,  determined  by  the  equation 

I— I_I 
/~d     F* 

where  F  is  the  focal  length  of  the  telescope  to  be  adjusted,  and  ft*  is  the  distance  from 
the  centre  of  the  large  lens  of  the  collimator  to  the  cross  wires.  If  this  lnstrtoueat 
be  placed  in  the  usual  position  of  the  eye-pieces,  the  illuminated  erase  wires,  ana* 
the  image  of  them  which  will  be  formed,  may  be  viewed  in  it,  and  if  these  be  now 
brought  into  coincidence  by  the  adjustment  of  the  mirrors,  the  line  from  the  inter- 
section of  the  cross  wires  to  the  centre  oi  the  large  lens  of  the  collimator  will  be 
the  optic  axis  of  the  telescope  \  i.  «.  this  ray,  after  reflexion  from  the  small  mirror 
will,  if  produced  backward,  pass  through  the  centre  of  curvature  of  the  large  mirror. 
A  slight  addition  to  the  arrangement  would  ensure  that  this  alia  should  also  paw 
approximately  through  the  vertex  of  the  large  mirror  \  but  it  was  supposed  tint 
so  far  as  the  optical  performance  of  the  telescope  is  concerned,  this  would  be  fouad 
a  needless  refinement  if  the  collimator  be  employed  only  to  complete  adjustments 
already  approximately  made  by  the  usual  methods,  and  If  the  small  mirror  be 
properly  supported. 

The  experiments  which  bad  been  made  showed  that  mis  latter  condition  was  one 
of  much  importance  and  required  that  the  support  of  the  small  mirror  should  be  very 
stiff,  and  that  the  small  mirror  should  be  counterpoised  at  the  end  of  it  The  small 
mirror  is  usually  supported  by  a  single  arm  placed  edgewise,  in  order  to  mtotept 
but  little  light}  a  second  bar,  also  placed  edgewise,  and  forming  a  eenafl  tnrk 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THK  SECTIONS.  SI 

with  the  first,  had  been  found  sufficient  to  make  the  arrangement  capable  of  re- 
sisting flexure  and  vibration  in  a  surprising  degree,  and,  as  the  angle  may  be  reduced 
so  far  that  both  bars  can  be  attached  to  a  slide  carrying  the  eye- pieces,  it  is  also 
more  convenient  than  the  steadying  wire  which  has  been  sometimes  employed. 

The  facility  and  accuracy  offered  by  the  use  of  the  new  collimator  are  such,  that  it 
was  suggested  that  in  some  instances  it  might  be  desirable  to  make  arrangements  for 
adjusting  the  telescope  after  every  considerable  change  of  altitude.  If  the  collimator 
were  to  be  thus  frequently  employed,  a  beautiful  contrivance  made  use  of  by  Lord 
Rosse  might  with  much  advantage  be  adapted  to  it,  by  mounting  It  and  one  or  two 
of  the  eye-pieces  in  a  slide  so  that  any  one  of  them  could  in  a  moment  be  brought 
opposite  to  the  cone  of  rays.  A  slide  moving  on  a  centre  was  recommended.  Since 
the  tilt  of  the  large  mirror  will  thus  become  of  less  importance,  we  may  henceforth 
admit  for  its  support  arrangements  which  introduce  more  tilt  than  those  at  present 
in  use,  and  thus  the  solution  of  what  now  remains  the  most  difficult  problem  of 
large  reflecting  telescopes  may  possibly  be  facilitated. 


On  Phenomena  recently  discovered  in  the  Moon.    By  J.  Stmons,  M.A. 


On  the  reasons  for  describing  the  Moon's  Motion  as  a  Motion  about  her  axis. 
By  the  Rev.  W.  Whkwell,  M.A.,  D.D.,  F.R.S. 


Metboaologt. 


On  the  Causes  of  Great  Inundations. 
By  Thomas  Dobson,  B.A.9  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge, 

The  principal  special  causes  which  tend  to  produce  great  inundations  in  a  country 
are,  the  inclination  and  the  lithological  character  of  the  surface  of  the  basins  drained 
by  the  rivers  of  the  country. 

Where  the  subsoil  of  a  river-basin  is  composed  chiefly  of  porous  and  therefore 
permeable  materials,  as  oolite,  loose  gravel,  &c,  the  rain  will  be  absorbed  almost  as 
last  as  it  falls,  and  will  reach  the  river  gradually,  after  returning  to  the  surface 
through  springs. 

But  where  the  subsoil  is  generally  compact  and  impermeable,  as  clay,  granite,  etc., 
the  rain  will  flow  over  the  surface  with  more  or  less  velocity,  according  to  the 
greater  or  less  inclination  of  the  surface  to  the  horizon. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  the  geological  character  of  a  river-basin  is  concerned,  the 
tendency  to  inundation  due  to  that  basin  will  be  measured  by  the  difference  between 
the  areas  of  the  permeable  and  of  the  impermeable  superficial  strata,  and  by  the 
inclination  of  the  sides  of  the  basin  to  the  horizon. 

The  general  cause  of  great  inundations  in  the  countries  forming  the  western  sea-* 
board  of  Europe,  is  the  easterly  progressive  motion  of  the  cyclones,  or  revolving 
storms,  of  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Starting  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  sweeping  during  a 
considerable  portion  of  their  early  course  along  the  warm  surface  of  the  Gulf-stream, 
they  collect  the  vapours  so  copiously  generated  in  southern  latitudes  and  finally  pre- 
cipitate them  on  the  high  lands  and  mountain  chains  of  Europe.  In  general,  several 
cyclones  follow  each  other  in  rapid  succession,  so  that  the  continued  rains  at  length 
saturate  the  earth,  and  floods  and  inundations  ensue. 

1  shall  illustrate  these  remarks  on  the  general  cause  of  European  inundations  by  a 
brief  meteorological  history  of  tbe  great  inundations  in  France  in  October  1844, 
October  1846,  and  in  May  and  June  of  the  present  year. 

1844. — The  tracks  of  the  cyclones  of  October  1844  have  been  determined  by 
Mr.  Redfield.    The  first  passed  over  the  West  Indian  Islands  on  the  1st  and  2nd  of 


39 


BBPOBT— 1856* 


October.  The  second  was  the  "  great  Cuba  hurricane,"  which  destroyed  more  that 
a  hundred  ships  at  Havannah,  Jamaica,  &c.  The  loss  at  Havannah  alone  was 
estimated  at  ,£1,000,000.  Its  diameter  already  exceeded  1000  miles.  Passing  over 
Cuba  on  the  3rd  and  4th  of  October,  it  skirted 'the  coasts  of  the  United  States,  and 
struck  off  eastward  into  the  North  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Newfoundland  on  the  8tk 
of  October.    Smaller  cyclones,  waterspouts,  &c.,  as  usual;  followed  in  its  i 


The  barometer  in  Britain,  as  shown  by  the  annexed  curve,  distinctly  recognizes 
the  arrival  of  each  member  t>f  this  chain  of  aerial  eddies.  Tempests,  rains,  nnasnauy 
heavy  floods,  and  destructive  inundations  marked  their  progress  over  France,  Ger- 
many, Italy,  &c. 

1846.— On  the  10th  of  September,  1846  (Col.  Reid,  'Development  of  the  Law  of 
Storms,'  p.  371),  a  great  cyclone  formed  between  the  islands  of  Trinidad,  Margneiita, 
Grenada,  and  Tobago.  "  As  it  advanced,  its  force  increased,  until  it  became  a  tempest 
of  a  furious  kind.  Passing  to  the  westward  of  Bermuda,  it  blew  there  a  hard  gale 
on  the  17th  and  18th,  with  the  centre  a  little  to  the  eastward  of  Newfoundland, 
where  it  did  great  damage  to  the  town  of  St.  John's,  and  was  felt  as  far  as  19°  W„ 
60°  N.  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Atlantic."  We  have  here  evidence  that  this  cyclone 
came  from  the  West  India  Islands  to  the  mouth  of  the  English  Channel.  The 
barometric  readings  given  by  Col.  Reid  show  that  the  south-eastern  margin  passed 
over  Bermuda  between  the  13th  and  20th  of  September.  The  accompanying  baro- 
metric curves  for  Rouen  and  the  Orkneys  during  September  and  October  1846,  prove 
that  the  front  of  this  cyclone  first  affected  the  barometer  at  Rouen  on  the  17th  of 
September. 

This  was  followed  by  a  series  of  cyclonic  paroxysms,  of  which  the  most  violent 
has  been  examined  in  detail  by  Mr.  Redfield.  It  began  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the 
6th  of  October,  and  passed  over  Havannah  on  the  11th,  wrecking  more  than  100 
ships,  and  sending  the  mercurial  column  down  to  27*70  inches.  On  the  12th  nearly 
the  whole  town  of  Rev  West,  in  Mexico,  was  destroyed,  and  twenty  ships  driven  ashore. 
On  the  13th  it  swept  over  Washington  and  New  York,  and  started  across  the 
Atlantic  from  Newfoundland  on  the  14th  of  October. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


S3 


These  dates  indicate  approximately  the  position  of  the  central  area,  which  may 
ave  a  diameter  of  100  miles,  while  the  whole  cyclone  probably  extends  more  than 
1000  miles,  for  the  barometer  shows  that  the  front  often  strikes  the  British  Islands 
kbont  the  same  time  as  the  rear  is  leaving  Newfoundland. 

Here  then  was  an  uninterrupted  series  of  cyclones,  which,  beginning  among  the 
ropical  heats  of  the  West  Indies,  crossed  the  Atlantic  in  succession  and  maintained 
i  continuous  discharge  of  storms  and  unprecedently  heavy  rains  in  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  and  Italy,  from  the  17th  of  September  to  the  end  of  October. 

On  the  30th  of  September  a  destructive  tempest  passed  over  Sicily  and  Italy.  Seven 
ullages  near  Messina  were  destroyed  by  storms  and  inundations.  At  Portici  many 
louses  fell  and  fifteen  persons  perished.  The  village  of  St.  Firmin  was  engulphed  and 
nany  lives  lost.  From  the  15th  to  the  18th  of  October  a  tempest  raged  over  the 
vhole  Continent.  During  that  period  there  fell  '153  m.  (6  inches)  of  rain  at  Mont- 
irison,  in  France.  On  the  16th,  the  village  of  Schledorf,  three  leagues  from  Munich, 
*as  utterly  destroyed  by  a  storm  of  wind,  rain,  and  lightning.  On  the  18th  the 
great  rivers  of  France  overflowed  ;  the  Loire  rose  6'94  metres  (7i  yards)  above  its 
nean  height,  and  a  general  inundation  ensued,  the  moBt  destructive  since  that  of  the 
13th  of  November,  1790. 

In  the  Tyrol,  it  rained  incessantly  from  the  28th  to  the  31st  of  October,  and  the 
River  Elsch  inundated  the  country. 

On  the  western  coasts  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  rear  of  the  last  cyclone  pro- 
duced a  hurricane  from  N.  W.,  which  occasioned  great  loss  of  life  and  property  on 
the  22nd  and  23rd  of  October. 

1850.— Before  considering  the  inundations  of  1856,  it  wj]J  be  useful  to  show  that 
the  elevated  temperature  which  invariably  accompanies  the  southern  half  of  a  cyclone. 


January 

rlSl 

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094 

lis  as 

c 

to 

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\ 

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/ 

;; 

\J 

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toi 

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'a 

ta 

<£. 

1 

Hblji 

may  sometimes  exert  a  powerful  influence  in  promoting  an  inundation  by  suddenly 
melting  the  snows  accumulated  on  the  mountains  during  the  winter.  On  the  26th 
of  January,  1850,  a  warm  rain  began  to  fall  at  Paris,  and  melted  the  snows  at  the 
sources  of  the  Seine  and  its  affluents  so  rapidly  as  to  produce  an  extraordinary  flood. 
The  annexed  barometrical  curves  for  the  Orkneys,  Versailles,  and  Bordeaux,  show 
the  presence  at  that  time  of  a  cyclone  of  moderate  dimensions,  the  central  track 
passing  between  the  Orkneys  and  Versailles.  The  outer  southern  margin  passes 
1856.  S 


34 


REPORT — 1856. 


Offer  Bordeaux,  where  die  wind  is  light.  At  Versailles  the  thermometric  curvet  sW 
that  the  warm  S.W.  wind  raised  the  temperature  13°  C,  and  die  cold  N.W.sisi 
afterwards  produced  a  corresponding  depression.  These  corves  are  good  type  flf 
the  general  actions  of  the  barometer  and  thermometer  doling  the  transit  of  a  crdoav 


1856. — In  order  to  determine  as  accurately  as  possible  the  various  phases  of  as 
weather  in  Great  Britain  during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  1856, 1  haw  con- 
structed the  curve  of  barometric  pressure,  and  the  curves  of  maximum  and  minaws 
temperature  (the  latter  on  the  scale  of  20°  F.  to  an  inch)  from  the  obserrsttei 
during  these  months,  at  eight  stations  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society;  is. 
Elgin,  Anstruther,  and  Makerstoun,  in  Scotland ;  Stonyhurst,  Wakefield,  Caster* 
bury,  and  Teignmouth,  in  England  ;  and  Lampeter,  in  Wales.  From  these  I  hi* 
selected  to  accompany  this  paper  the  curves  for  Wakefield,  where  observations  a* 
made  night  and  day  at  equal  intervals  of  six  hours,  and  those  for  Elgin  and  Tap* 
mouth,  the  extreme  stations  to  the  North  and  South  respectively. 

These  curves  indicate,  as  in  the  case  of  the  inundations  of  1846,  a  success**  of 
cyclones,  of  storms  of  wind  and  rain,  producing  floods  of  increasing  height  vi 
violence,  until  the  culminating  disastrous  inundations  at  the  end  of  May  and  is  tk 
beginning  of  June. 

Two  cyclones,  either  of  enormous  extent  or  of  slow  progressive  motion,  ocevpf 
the  whole  month  of  April.  The  first  ended  about  the  15th,  and  caused  greet  too* 
in  the  Garonne,  and  other  large  rivers  of  France.  The  second  cyclone  had  passl 
over  by  the  2nd  of  May.  An  abrupt  depression  of  the  mercury,  accompanied  hf 
heavy  easterly  gales,  shows  the  passage  of  a  cyclone  between  the  3rd  and  8th  of 
May ;  the  central  track  lying  to  the  south  of  Britain.  From  the  8th  to  the  90th  of  Mty 
a  deep  cyclonic  depression  occurs.  Physical  phenomena  happen  during  this  period 
which  frequently  characterize  the  passage  of  cyclones  in  tropical  countries.  On  the 
10th  of  May  there  was  a  heavy  earthquake  at  Saint  Rabier,  in  the  canton  of  Tern* 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THS  SECTIONS. 


35 


son,  by  which  a  mountain  was  precipitated  into  a  ravine.  On  the  same  day  great 
•terms  devastated  Rhenish  Bavaria ;  a  destructive  waterspout  fell  in  the  commune  of 
Dembach,  and  the  Garonne  and  other  rivers  of  France  again  overflowed.  On  the  1 2th 
of  May  a  waterspout  fell  at  Givry,  St.  Denis ;  and  another  at  Beaume  on  the  15th. 

In  Britain  the  temperature  rose  20°  F.  on  the  9th,  with  the  S.W.  wind,  and  con- 
tinued high  until  the  end  of  the  month.  Several  accounts  from  the  south  and  west 
of  France  mention  the  powerful  influence  of  the  south  and  south-west  winds  at  this 
time  in  melting  the  snows  on  the  mountains. 

The  barometric  curve  shows  that  the  centre  of  the  cyclone  passed  on  the  18th,  a 
day  signalized  by  great  storms  at  London,  Rouen,  and  m  the  South  of  France.  At 
Nantes  on  that  day,  the  wind  blew  violently  from  the  S.W.  and  then  shifted  sud- 
denly to  the  northward,  a  well-known  indication  of  the  passage  of  the  centre  of  a 
cyclone. 

From  the  20th  to  the  30th  of  May,  the  faithful  barometer  registers  the  passage 
over  Britain  of  the  northern  margins  of  two  closely-allied  cyclones,  whose  centres 
lay  far  to  the  southward.  In  each  case  the  wind  veers  from  S.E.  through  £.  to 
N.E.,  and  the  depressions  increase  in  depth  towards  the  south. 

A  very  heavy  thunder-storm  passed  over  England  on  the  22nd  of  May ;  at  Brad- 
ford Moor  a  man  was  killed  by  lightning ;  the  Midland  Railway  was  flooded  and 
several  villages  inundated.  At  Leeds  the  river  Aire  overflowed,  and  two  lives  were 
lost 

On  the  25th  of  May  two  men  were  killed  by  lightning  during  a  thunder-storm,  at 
Strabane,  in  Scotland. 

On  the  29th  of  May,  Brighton,  Hastings,  Portsmouth,  and  all  the  South  Coast 
of  England,  were  visited  by  a  violent  storm  of  thunder,  lightning,  rain,  and  hail. 

Such  were  the  effects  in  Britain,  which  was  merely  grazed  by  the  northern  margins 
of  the  two  associated  cyclones.  The  effects  were  much  more  disastrous  in  countries 
farther  south,  which  lay  nearer  to  the  centres  of  the  cyclones.  Violent  storms  of 
wind,  hail,  and  rain  traversed  France,  Austria,  Italy,  and  Spain.  The  enormous 
falls  of  rain  deluged  the  countries  already  saturated  by  the  previous  inundations  of  the 
middle  of  May.  At  Lyons  it  rained  continuously  for  forty-six  hours,  from  7  p.m.  of 
the  29th  to  5  p.m.  of  the  3 1st  of  May.  At  Ainay,  the  rain  measured  in  this  interval 
was  *30  m.  (Hi  inches),  and  at  Auz  Brotteaux  it  was  '22  m.  (8i  inches).  These 
rains  were  general  over  the  western  countries  of  Europe.  An  indication  of  the  east- 
erly progress  of  these  cyclones  is' given  by  an  account  of  a  great  storm  which  broke 
over  Ratisbon  on  the  afternoon  of  the  31st  of  May,  accompanied  by  a  waterspout. 
Great  damage  ensued  at  Ratisbon.  Scarcely  one  house  in  Lichtenfels  was  uninjured, 
whole  roofs  were  carried  away,  and  the  strongest  trees  uprooted. 

The  numerous  cyclone-tracks  determined  by  Redfield  and  Reid  all  tend  to  pass  to 
the  northward  of  Great  Britain,  and  this  agrees  with  the  well-known  predominance 
of  south-westerly  and  westerly  gales  here.  But  the  barometric  curves,  and  the 
winds,  prove  that  the  centres  of  the  twin-cyclones  of  May  20  to  30  lay  far  to  the  south 
of  England. 

Now,  as  cyclones  invariably  move,  more  or  less,  from  the  equator  towards  the 
pole,  their  track  must  have  been  through  latitudes  unusually  low,  at  a  season  of  the 
year  when  the  sun  has  a  high  northern  declina-  May  1856,  Bordeaux, 

tion.  This  passage  through  an  atmosphere  of  an 
elevated  temperature,  and  therefore  abounding  in 
vapour,  will  account  for  the  altogether  abnormal 
quantities  of  rain  which  they  precipitated  on  southern 
Europe. 

M.  Abria,  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Sciences  of  Bor- 
deaux, having  most  obligingly  forwarded  to  me  a  copy 
of  his  Meteorological  Observations,  taken  four  times 
daily,  from  May  20th  to  June  6th,  I  am  enabled  to 
determine  approximately,  as  in  the  annexed  sketch,  the  positions  of  the  centres  of 
the  twin-cyclones  of  the  end  of  May. 

The  first  cyclone  declared  its  approach  at  Bordeaux  on  the  21st  by  "a  very  strong" 
S.E.  gale,  with  thunder  and  lightning.  The  centre,  therefore,  lay  to  the  south  qf 
Bordeaux.    Where  the  two  cyclones  impinge  upon  and  interfere  with  each  other, 

3* 


36 


REPORT — 1856. 


the  S.W.  wind  of  the  second  neutralizes  the  N.E.  wind  of  the  first ;  the  wind  is 
feeble  and  the  mercury  rises.  Nevertheless,  the  S.W.  prevails  on  the  25th ;  tin 
changes  to  W.,  and  finally  to  N.W.  on  the  28th  and  29th  with  almost  continual 
rain.  These  winds  show  that  the  centre  of  the  second  cyclone  passed  to  the  north 
of  Bordeaux,  and  therefore  between  Bordeaux  and  Teignmouth. 

In  neither  of  these  cyclones  is  the  central  barometric  depression  so  extreme  ai  b 
usual  in  the  great  winter  storms.  This  may  probably  arise  from  the  confusion  or 
juxtaposition  of  the  central  spaces. 


On  the  Balaklava  Tempest,  and  the  Mode  of  Interpreting  Barometrical  Flu- 
tuations.    By  T.  Dobson,  B.  A.  of  St.  John* 8  College,  Cambridge. 

In  the  month  of  November,  1854,  the  passage  of  a  storm  over  the  British  islands 
caused  a  considerable  depression  of  the  barometric  column,  beginning  on  the  1 1th 
of  November  and  ending  on  the  19th,  as  shown  hy  the  barometric  curves  which 
accompany  this  paper.  During  four  consecutive  days  of  this  period  of  diminished 
atmospheric  pressure,  there  occurred  in  the  coal  mines  of  Britain  six  fatal  explo- 
sions, at  the  following  places : — on  Nov.  13,  at  Old  Park  Colliery,  Dudley,  Worcet- 
tershire;  Nov.  14,  Cramlington  Colliery,  Northumberland;  ISTov.  15,  Bennett's 
Colliery,  Bolton,  Lancashire ;  Birchey  Coppice  Colliery,  Dudley ;  and  Coalbrook 
Vale  Colliery,  Monmouthshire ;  Nov.  16,  Rosehall  Colliery,  Coatbridge,  N.B. 
These  facts  alone  render  this  storm  worthy  of  especial  attention,  independently  of 
the  notoriety  which  it  has  acquired  from  its  disastrous  effects  on  the  allied  fleets 
and  armies  in  the  Crimea.  The  meteorological  circumstances  which  characterized 
the  Balaklava  tempest  have  been  determined  with  unusual  care  and  skill,  from  a  very 
great  number  of  observations  at  stations  spread  oyer  the  whole  surface  of  Europe, 
by  M.  Liais,  of  the  Imperial  Observatory  at  Paris.  In  all  probability,  many  yean 
will  elapse  before  a  great  storm  on  land  is  subjected  to  an  examination  so  rigorous 
and  complete  as  that  undertaken  by  M.  Liais,  in  the  present  instance.  This  storm 
may  therefore  be  adopted  as  the  most  satisfactory  test  that  we  are  likely  to  have 
for  some  time  to  come  of  the  correctness  of  the  principles  of  interpretation  which 
I  have  already  applied  to  barometric  fluctuations  in  my  report  on  the  relation  be- 
tween explosions  in  coal  mines  and  revolving  storms, — principles  which  flow  directly 
from  the  nature  of  cyclones. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


87 


For  the  observations  with  which  I  have  constructed  the  barometrical  curves  for 
November,  1854,  at  Teignmouth  in  Devonshire,  Stonyhurst  in  Lancashire,  Wakefield 
in  Yorkshire,  and  Dunino  in  Scotland,  I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Glaisher,  the  able 


Orkneys 
Dunino 
Wakefield 


Stonyhurst 
Teignmouth 


Secretary  of  the  British  Meteorological  Society.  The  curve  for  the  Orkney  Islands 
is  from  observations  published  in  the  'Philosophical  Magazine.'  At  Wakefield  and 
Stonyhurst  observations  are  made  four  times  a  day,  at  the  other  stations  twice  a  day. 
The  cyclonic  interpretation  in  this  case  would  be — First,  that  the  curves  indicate  the 
passage  of  a  cyclone,  of  which  the  central  track  lay  to  the  southward  of  England. 
This  is  inferred  from  the  gradual  increase  of  the  barometric  depression  from  the 
Orkneys  in  the  north  to  Teignmouth  in  the  south,  and  depends  on  the  fact  that  the 
height  of  the  mercurial  column  decreases  continuously  from  the  circumference  to  the 
centre  of  a  cyclone.  This  inference  is  confirmed  by  the  observation  that  the  wind 
blew  from  the  eastward  at  all  the  above-mentioned  stations.  Secondly,  that  the  cyclone 
was  progressing  to  the  eastward.  This  is  derived  from  observing  that  at  each 
station  the  wind  began  at  S.E.  while  the  mercury  was  failing,  veered  to  E.  when 
the  mercury  was  lowest,  and  then  to  N.E.  as  the  mercury  rose.    If  the  wind  had 


*^X 


\ 


w 


veered  from  S.W.  through  W.  to  N.W.,  as  it  does  most  frequently  in  British  storms, 
and  the  barometric  depressions  had  increased  from  Teignmouth  towards  the  Orkneys, 
the  interpretations  would  have  been,  that  the  depression  was  caused  by  a  cyclone 
travelling  eastward,  of  which  the  central  track  lay  to  the  north  of  Scotland.  In  the 
first  case  (A),  the  explanation  would  be  that  the  chord  (S.E.,  E.,  N.E.)  passed  over 
the  British  islands,  and  the  chord  (S.W.,  W.,  N.W.)  in  the  second  case  (B).  Such 
deductions  are  both  obvious  and  satisfactory  to  persons  whose  knowledge  of  nautical 
technicalities  has  enabled  them  to  appreciate  the  demonstrations  of  the  rotatory 


38  report — 1856. 

and  progressive  motions  of  Atlantic  cyclones,  given  by  RedfieJd,  Reid,  fcc   M.tia 
haying  favoured  me  with  an  opportunity  of  studying  hia  unpublished  charts  sf it 
Balaklava  tempest,  I  have  found  therein  a  distinct  and  impressive  con&rnsnatf' 
the  correctness  of  the  method  of  interpreting  barometric  fluctuations  according  nib 
laws  of  cyclonology.    These  charts  fully  establish  the  truth  of  the  inferences  sbM 
above  from  the  contemporaneous  barometric  curves  in  Britian.     They  prove  tattta 
Balaklava  tempest  was  a  cyclone,  moving  to  the  eastward,  along  a  central  track  van 
lay  to  the  southward  of  Britain.     It  is  known  that  during  their  transit  front 
Golf  of  Mexico  to  the  western  coasts  of  Europe,  across  the  comparatively  vain 
surface  of  the  ocean,  cyclones  preserve  an  approximately  circular  form.    The  eralat 
charts  of  M.  Liaia,  at  the  same  time  that  they  exhibit  the  progress  of  the  stoma? 
by  day,  from  the  shores  of  Britain  across  the  continent  of  Europe,  to  the  Caatsnu 
mountains  and  the  borders  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  show  also  the  remarkable  nwdsnv 
tiona  produced  in  the  normal  condition  of  the  cyclone  by  mountains  and  oto 
irregularities  of  the  surface  of  the  land.   Thus,  for  example,  a  portion  of  the  cvdnv 
is  delayed  nearly  twenty-four  hours  in  passing  the  Alps.     The  consequence  of  tls 
and  similar  obstructions  is,  that  what  was  nearly  a  circular  atmospheric  wave  mtt 
crossing  the  ocean,  takes  the  form  of  a  much  elongated  and  somewhat  distort* 
ellipse  on  land,  enveloping  an  elliptical  central  area  of  maximum  barometric  dejsn> 
sion,  which  extends,  on  one  chart,  from  Dantzic  in  the  Baltic  to  Varna  in  the  flat 
Sea.    Around  this  central  space  the  wind  still  blows  continuously  in  the  dinaiBi 
peculiar  to  the  cyclones  of  the  northern  hemisphere.     In  the  case  therefore  of  tk 
Balaklava  tempest,  whose  nature  has  been  determined  with  much  greater  exacts* 
than  that  of  any  other  tempest  on  land,  we  have  unequivocal  testimony  that  the 
principles  of  cyclonology  may  be  safely  applied  to  interpret  the  fluctuations  of  tk 
barometer  in  Great  Britain. 


On  a  Model  of  a  Self- Registering  Anemometer.     Designed  and  ConstnddM 
R.  Bicklby,  of  Kew  Observatory.    Described  by  Mr.  Welsh. 

In  this  model  Mr.  Beckley  has  adopted  Dr.  Robinson's  method  of  measuring  Ac 
velocity  of  the  wind  by  the  rotation  of  a  system  of  hemispherical  cups,  the  cfiiw- 
tion  being  indicated  by  a  double  wheel-fan  like  the  directing  vane  at  the  back  of  t 
windmill.  A  stout  tubular  support  carries  the  whole  of  the  external  part  of  Ac 
instrument,  including  the  measurer  of  velocity,  the  direction  vane,  and  a  rain-gsaje. 
This  support  is  so  made  that  it  can  be  easily  adapted  to  the  roof  of  any  bowg 
upon  which  it  may  be  necessary  to  mount  it.  All  the  rotatory  parts  of  the  nano- 
meter run  upon  friction  balls.  The  shaft  of  the  apparatus  for  measuring  the  av*- 
ment  of  the  wind,  by  means  of  a  diminishing  train  of  wheels,  is  made  to  tan » 
cylinder  upon  which  is  wrapped  a  sheet  of  paper  of  the  kind  used  for  "metal* 
memorandum  books,"  this  paper  having  the  property  of  receiving  a  trace  fron « 
style  of  brass.  The  sheet  of  paper  is  divided  into  two  sections,  upon  one  of  wkki 
is  recorded  the  motion  of  the  wind  and  upon  the  other  the  direction.  As  fr 
cylinder  is  being  turned  by  the  action  of  the  wind,  a  clock  carries  a  pencil  along  tat 
cylinder  at  a  uniform  rate  of  12  inches  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  To  the  lower  «ad  of 
the  direction  shaft  is  attached  a  spiral  of  such  a  figure  that  equal  angles  correspond* 
equal  increments  of  radius;  the  edge  of  this  spiral  consists  of  a  thin  slip  of  brass,  vkks 
touches  the  paper  and  records  the  direction  of  the  wind  on  a  rectilinear  scale.  Wto 
the  sheet  of  paper  is  unwrapped  from  the  cylinder  after  twenty-four  hours,  the  awn* 
of  the  wind  aud  the  direction  are  both  found  projected  in  rectangular  co-ordfrsft*. 

With  reference  to  anemometric  observations  at  sea,  Mr.  Welsh  read  the  fottowisg 
extract  from  a  letter  which  he  had  addressed  to  the  Chairman  of  the  Kew  Connate, 
describing  a  method  of  making  allowance  for  the  effect  of  the  ship's  motion  mp* 
the  observed  velocity  and  direction  of  the  wind : — "By  means  of  a  portable  Robinaos'i 
anemometer,  provided  with  a  means  of  observing  the  total  number  of  turns  mode  kf 
the  rotating  part  in  any  given  time,  observe  the  apparent  velocity  of  the  wind  aw 
record  it  in  knots  per  hour.  By  an  anemoscope  of  any  kind  register  the  app*Tt*ttia#-  : 
Hon  of  the  wind.  From  the  log-book  take  the  rate  and  direction  of  the  ship's  mot**- 
On  a  slate  or  other  similar  surface  scratch  a  permanent  compass  circle.  Set  of  fa*" 
the  centre  of  the  circle,  on  the  radius  of  the  direction  of  the  ship's  head,  by  icy 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTIONS.  30 

convenient  scale,  the  number  of  knots  per  hour  the  ship  is  going ;  from  this  point 
draw  a  pencil  line  parallel  to  the  direction  of  the  wind  as  observed  by  the  anemo- 
scope (t.  e.  the  apparent  direction  to  which  the  wind  is  going)  ;  set  off  on  this  line 
the  number  of  knots  per  boor  as  shown  by  the  anemometer ;  draw  a  line  from  the 
centre  of  the  circle  to  this  last  point.  The  length  of  this  line  by  the  scale  adopted 
gives  the  true  velocity  of  the  wind,  and  its  direction  (carried  backwards)  shows  the 
point  Jrom  which  the  wind  is  coming.  A  parallel  ruler  divided  on  the  edge  is  all 
that  is  required  besides  the  slate.  It  would  be  easy  enough  to  contrive  some 
mechanism  to  save  the  trouble  of  drawing  lines,  but  it  would  not,  I  believe,  be  any 
real  simplification,  and  would  increase  the  expense*  The  train  of  indicating  wheels 
might  be  so  arranged  that  they  at  once  indicate  knots  per  hour  without  reference 
to  tables,  and  can  be  readily  set  to  zero  for  a  fresh  observation." 


On  a  remarkable  Hail-Storm  in  North  Staffordshire.  With  some  Casts  of  the 
Hailstones.  By  R.  Garner. 
This  storm,  which  came  from  the  N.W.  in  the  afternoon  of  the  22nd  of  July  last, 
between  four  and  five  o'clock,  continued  with  great  violence  for  about  half  an  hour, — 
some  of  the  masses  of  ice  which  fell  being  1}  inch  in  diameter,  and  of  course  doing 
corresponding  injury,  for  instance,  breaking  more  than  twenty  large  squares  of  glass 
in  the  rather  small  house  of  his  (the  writers's)  next-door  neighbour,  and  those  of 
his  own  Wardian  case.  Most  of  the  hailstones  seemed  to  have  nodulated  nuclei, 
containing  numerous  particles  of  air,  and  externally  to  these  were  formed  irregular 
conglomerations  of  ice,  looking  like  a  mass  of  imperfect  but  transparent  crystals. 
The  storm  was  attended  with  gusts  of  wind  and  thunder,  and  was  of  a  very  limited 
and  defined  extent ;  but  to  the  south  of  the  writer's  residence,  about  four  miles 
away,  near  the  Barlaston  Station,  a  violent  wind  from  an  opposite  direction,  S.W. 
or  S.S.W.,  occurred  at  the  same  hour,  without  rain  or  hail,  the  ravages  of  which 
could  afterwards  be  traced  for  a  length  of  two  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  only  from 
50  to  100  yards.  Oaks  were  deprived  by  it  of  their  largest  limbs,  poplars  broken  at 
the  height  of  8  or  12  feet  from  the  ground,  and  an  alder,  50  feet  high,  was  uprooted 
and  carried  some  distance.  The  clouds  were  extremely  dark  for  a  great  extent  of 
country.  An  artist  took  some  casts  of  such  hailstones  as  he  picked  up,  by  no  means 
the  largest.    These  the  writer  exhibited  with  a  drawing. 


On  Isothermal  Lines.  By  Professor  Hennessy,  M.R.I. A. 
After  some  preliminary  remarks  as  to  the  general  influence  of  the  distribution  of 
land  and  water  on  the  forms  of  isothermal  lines,  the  author  proceeded  to  discuss 
the  distribution  of  these  lines  in  islands.  By  considering  an  island  situated  so  as 
to  have  its  shores  bathed  by  a  warm  oceanic  current,  if  the  influence  of  direct  solar 
radiation  be  obstructed,  it  appears  that  the  isothermals  would  be  closed  curves 
surrounding  the  centre  of  the  island  and  having  some  relation  to  its  coast  line.  The 
influence  of  ranges  of  mountains,  and  in  general  of  inequalities  in  the  surface  of  the 
island,  as  well  as  the  modifying  action  of  general  winds,  and  the  resulting  changes 
in  the  shapes  of  the  isothermals,  were  explained.  By  the  introduction  of  solar 
radiation,  it  now  follows  from  the  mathematical  theory  of  heat  that  the  entire  quan- 
tity of  heat  received  by  a  unit  of  surface  of  the  island  will  depend  on  two  principal 
terms :  one,  a  function  of  the  distance  of  the  point  from  the  coast,  and  capable  of 
being  expressed  in  some  cases  as  a  function  of  the  difference  of  latitude  of  that  point 
and  the  nearest  point  on  the  coast ;  and,  secondly,  of  a  term  depending  on  the 
latitude  and  on  an  elliptic  function  of  the  second  order  having  for  its  modulus  the 
nine  of  the  inclination  of  the  equator  to  the  ecliptic.  It  hence  follows  that  the  effect 
of  solar  radiation  will  be  to  transport  the  centres  of  all  the  closed  isothermals 
towards  the  pole  of  the  hemisphere  in  which  the  island  is  situated.  Some  of  the 
lines  may  thus  ultimately  terminate  at  the  coast  with  their  convex  sides  turned 
towards  the  equator,  while  others  may  still  continue  as  closed  curves  in  the  in- 
terior. If  the  influence  of  difference  of  latitude  and  direct  solar  radiation  were 
greatly  predominant  compared  to  other  causes  affecting  the  temperature  of  the 
island,  the  isothermals  might  all  terminate  on  the  coast.  If  the  continents  may 
be  considered  as  immense  islands  so  circumstanced,  they  become  subjects  for  the 


40  REPORT — 1856. 

application  of  these  views. — Prof.  Hennessy  then  proceeded  to  show  that  the 
isothermals  of  Ireland  strictly  conformed  to  his  theory.  On  discussing  die  obser- 
vations collected  and  arranged  by  Dr.  Lloyd  in  his  *  Memoir  on  the  Meteorology  <*" 
Ireland/  it  appears  some  of  its  isothermals  are  actually  closed  curves,  while  others 
terminate  at  points  on  the  coast,  the  shortest  being  closest  to  the  equator.  The 
physical  structure  of  Ireland,  and  the  difference  of  nearly  4°  between  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  seas  bathing  its  shores  and  the  air  above  them,  rendered  it  probable, 
a  priori,  that  Ireland  should  present  a  good  example  for  the  application  of  the 
theory.  From  the  general  nature  of  his  views,  Prof.  Hennessy  anticipated  that  the 
discussion  of  observations  in  other  islands  would  lead  to  their  further  confirma- 
tion ;  and  it  would  ultimately  follow,  that  not  only  are  isothermals  sinuous  in  theii 
shapes  and  not  generally  parallel  to  the  equator,  but  that  many  would  be  found 
which  do  not  at  all  circumscribe  the  axis  which  joins  the  opposite  poles  of  the  earth. 


On  an  Instrument  for  observing  Vertical  Currents  in  the  Atmosphere. 
By  Professor  Hennessy. 
The  author  said  he  had  been  led  to  devise  this  instrument  when  offering  as 
explanation,  printed  in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy/  of  certain 
abnormal  phenomena  sometimes  observed  on  the  surface  of  Lough  Erne.  The 
instrument  is  constructed  like  a  common  wind- vane,  but  instead  of  the  fixed  tail,  a 
circular  disc  is  placed  vertically  on  an  axis  passing  through  the  branches  of  a  fork 
at  the  tail  end.  This  disc  is  pierced  about  half-way  between  its  centre  and  circum- 
ference so  as  to  admit  another  axle,  to  the  ends  of  which  are  firmly  attached  two 
light  rectangular  discs.  These  discs  are  always  in  a  horizontal  position,  whatever 
may  be  the  position  of  the  circular  disc,  for  each  of  them  has  ap  endulum  attached  to  its 
centre  by  which  the  centre  of  gravity  is  kept  considerably  below  the  axle.  These 
discs,  therefore,  cannot  be  acted  on  by  a  wind  which  blows  horizontally.  The  position 
of  the  circular  disc  will  thus  very  clearly  show  whether  any  given  current  has  an 
upward  or  a  downward  tendency.  The  application  of  this  instrument  to  the  study 
of  mountain  winds  was  pointed  out,  as  well  as  to  assist  in  studying  some  of  the  undula- 
tory  movements  of  the  atmosphere.  In  the  trials  which  have  been  already  made 
with  it.  Prof.  Hennessy  stated  that  it  gave  satisfactory  results.  The  instrument  ia 
of  course  not  an  anemometer,  but  simply  a  kind  of  universal  anemoscope,  for  it  shows 
bo  th  the  horizontal  and  vertical  directions  of  a  current. 


On  Negretti  and  Zambra's  Mercurial  Minimum  Thermometer. 
By  John  Lee,  LL.D.,  F.R.8. 
Dr.  Lee  exhibited  the  thermometer  to  the  Section,  and  pointed  out  the  advantages  of 
a  thermometer  of  mercury  in  preference  to  alcohol,  which  is  subject  to  unequal  ex- 
pansion at  different  degrees  of  heat ;  it  is  a  desideratum  that  all  thermometers  in 
a  meteorological  observatory  should  be  constructed  with  one  fluid,  and  that  mercury, 
the  recognized  standard  measurer  of  heat  The  thermometer  has  been  tried  at  the 
Observatory  of  Greenwich ;  by  Mr.  Glaisher,  the  Secretary  of  the  British  Meteoro- 
logical Society  ;  Mr.  E.  J.  Lowe  of  the  Beeston  Observatory,  and  several  other  emi- 
nent meteorologists ;  some  instances  have  occurred  in  which  errors  in  the  alcohol 
minimum  thermometer  have  been  corrected  by  the  observations  made  by  the  mer- 
curial minimum  thermometer.  __ 

Dr.  Lee  made  some  remarks  upon  a  pamphlet  recently  printed  by  Dr.  Herbert 
Barker,  of  Bedford,  on  the  relative  value  of  the  Ozonometers  of  Dr.  Schonbein  and 
Dr.  Moffat,  based  upon  daily  observations  made  for  eighteen  months  at  Bedford,  and 
he  drew  the  attention  of  the  audience  to  the  following  points  : — 1.  Whether  ozone 
observations  have  generally  been  conducted  by  them  in  their  meteorological  ob- 
servations? 2.  Whether  they  use  Schonbein's  or  Moffat's  test  papers,  or  both? 
3.  Whether  they  have  noticed  the  difference  between  those  which  the  Bedford 
observations  those  of  Mr.  GlaiBher  in  various  parts  of  London,  and  those  at  Hart- 
well  House  Observatory  indicate  ?  4.  Whether  they  will  without  delay  add  the 
Ozonometer  to  their  instruments,  as  so  much  interest  and  importance  belongs  to 
the  mysterious  agent.  Ozone,  which  is  carrying  on  its,  at  present,  incomprehensible 
effects  on  the  atmosphere,  in  order  that  they  may  be  recorded  ? 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  SECTIONS.  41 

On  a  New  Method  of  making  Maximum  Self-Registering  Thermometers. 
By  John  Phillips,  M.A.,  F.RJ3.,  Reader  in  Geology  in  the  University  of  Oxford. 

Thermometers  constructed  after  this  plan  were  first  exhibited  by  Prof.  Phillips, 
accompanied  by  a  description,  at  the  Oxford  Meeting  of  the  Association  in  1832. 
In  consequence  of  a  careful  examination  by  Mr.  Welsh,  of  the  principle  on  which 
they  were  arranged,  attention  was  again  called  to  the  subject.  The  principle  of  the 
instrument  is  the  employment  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  column  of  mercury,  detached 
as  a  marker.  The  length  of  this  is  capable  of  a  great  range  of  adaptation,  to  suit 
the  objects  of  experiment ;  when  set  to  work,  the  instrument  is  independent  of 
change,  by  time  or  chemical  action,  and  as  delicate  in  operation  and  as  free  from 
error  as  the  best  ordinary  thermometer  can  be  made.  Mr.  Phillips  constructed 
many  twenty-five  years  since,  some  of  which  remain  in  excellent  state  to  this  day. 
The  length  of  the  marker  was  varied  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  a  second  hollow  ball 
blown  at  the  extremity  opposite  the  ball  containing  mercury.  The  longer  this  marker 
is  left,  the  easier  is  its  flow  :  at  a  certain  small  length,  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the 
tube,  it  will  remain  without  turning  in  any  position,  and  requires  strong  shaking  to 
change  its  place.  Mr.  Welsh  constructed  some  in  a  manner  superior  to  that  for- 
merly employed  by  Prof.  Phillips,  and  reported  in  very  favourable  terms  on  the 
accuracy  and  permanency  of  the  instrument.  Thus  encouraged,  Mr.  Casella  had 
undertaken  to  adapt  the  thermometer  to  different  purposes  in  meteorology  and  philo- 
sophical research,  but  without  changing  in  any  degree  the  essential  character  of  the 
instrument.  Among  the  examples  on  the  table  was  one  which  was  planned  by  Prof. 
Phillips  for  special  researches  on  limited  sources,  or  areas,  of  heat,  with  small  bulb, 
fine  bore,  and  short  detached  marking  column.  Thus  made,  the  thermometer  may  be 
used  in  any  position,  vertical,  inclined,  or  horizontal,  and  the  short  detached  marking 
column  will  retain  its  place  with  such  firmness  that  instruments  may  be  carried  far, 
or  even  agitated  much,  without  losing  the  registration. 

Observations  with  the  Aneroid  Me'tallique  and  Thermometer,  during  a  Tour 
through  Palestine,  and  along  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  October  and 
November  1855.     By  Hsxby  Pools. 
During  a  recent  tour  through  Palestine,  I  carried  an  Aneroid  Me'tallique,  and  though 

I  would  not  presume  to  say  that  the  results  of  observations  made  with  it  are  quite 
correct,  yet  as  the  readings  in  many  instances  are  close  approximations  to  the  cal- 
culations of  Lynch  and  other  travellers,  I  wish  to  draw  attention  to  that  instrument 
as  affording  an  easy  mode  of  obtaining  approximate  levellings  of  heights  in  unsur- 
veyed  countries.  It  is  light,  and  can  be  easily  carried  by  a  strap  over  the  shoulder. 
From  the  rackwork  being  visible,  a  readjustment  can  easily  be  made  when  required 
upon  ascending  high  mountains. 

A  table  of  corrections  is,  however,  required,  and  which  I  found  must  be  additive 
with  an  increase  of  temperature  (being  the  reverse  of  mercurial  barometers  and 
vacuum  aneroids),  as  indicated  by  the  variation  in  the  readings  at  different  tempera- 
tures at  the  same  localities,  as  recorded  in  the  accompanying  Table. 

In  Dent's  tables,  85  feet  are  calculated  for  the  difference  of  each  tenth  of  an 
inch  of  the  barometer;  this,  multiplied  by  39*37  inches,  equal  to  a  metre,  gives  33*46 
feet,  or  33i  feet  in  common  practice,  as  the  multiple  of  each  division  in  the  Aneroid 
Metallique.  In  practice  I  found  it  very  nearly  correct;  for  instance,  there  are  forty- 
seven  steps  with  a  6- inch  rise  going  down  into  the  Tomb  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in  the 
Valley  of  Jehosophat  equals  23*5  feet,  and  by  aneroid  I  read  a  difference  of  7  milli- 
metres x  by  33*5=23*45  feet ;  again,  the  minaret  of  the  Church  of  Ascension  on 
the  top  of  the  Mount  of  Olives  measured  36*5  feet, — by  aneroid  the  difference  was 

II  millims.  x  33 '5=36 '85  feet.  If  the  aneroid  were  mounted  with  a  vernier  scale, 
the  observations  could  be  more  closely  read  off.  I  particularly  mention  these  com- 
parisons of  the  aneroid  with  actual  measurements,  as  they  gave  me  confidence  in  it 
at  the  time,  and  also  because  I  found  on  my  return  to  London  that  I  had  arrived 
very  nearly  to  the  same  results  as  Lieut.  Lynch  up  to  2000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea;  and  also  in  the  depression  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1313*5  feet  by 
aneroid,  while  Lynch  made  it  1316*7  feet  by  level,  and  Capt.  Symonds  calls  it  1312 
feet.    There  is  also  a  variation  in  the  line  of  the  Dead  Sea  level  at  different  seasons 


42 


REPORT — 1856. 


of  the  year,  for  I  found  at  Rob  Em  Barghek  three  distinct  lines  of  drift-wood  oat 
above  the  other ;  opposite  Usdum  the  line  of  salt  incrustations  was  40  yards,  sad 
the  line  of  drift  70  yards  distant  from  the  edge  of  the  sea ;  while  along  the  west  sale 
of  the  peninsula  "  El  Lisan,"  a  reef  of  rocks  was  exposed  about  a  quarter  of  a  nrik 
distant  from  the  shore,  which  does  not  appear  to  have  been  noticed  by  Lieut.  Lynch's 
party ;  I  therefore  think  I  must  have  been  there  when  the  water  was  unusually  low. 
I  found  the  temperature  of  the  Dead  Sea  at  the  north  end  8*2°  Fahr.  at  5  a~h.,  and 
83°  Fahr.  at  the  south  end  at  4  p.m.  River  Jordan,  and  brooks  on  the  Lisan,  and  at 
the  Ghor,  64°  each.  Brine  spring  90°,  where  Lebia  were  caught  near  the  sea-shore. 
Wady  Em  Barghek,  temperature  76°.  Spring  at  Engedi,  83°.  At  Ain  Terabeh  the  sea 
was  80°;  also  a  brine  spring  close  to  the  shore,  and  the  freshwater  spring  was  79°:  in  it 
were  a  number  of  Lebia  swimming  about,  the  largest  appearing  to  be  about  3  inches. 
A  sulphurous  smell  was  observed  on  passing  the  white  hills  south  of  Sebbeh  near 
Wady  El  Mahras,  at  Birket  el  Khalil,  but  not  at  other  places.  It  often  blew  hard 
during  the  day,  but  the  waves  never  appeared  to  be  more  than  two  feet  high,  and  (he 
sea  quickly  went  down  after  the  wind  ceased.  Several  nights  were  quite  calm,  bst 
I  never  observed  any  phosphorescence  on  the  water. 

The  table  of  observations  with  the  dry-  and  wet-bulb  thermometer  were  made  by 
the  same  instrument,  as  unfortunately  I  had  broken  two  others,  and  there  were  not 
any  to  be  bought  in  Jerusalem;  I  therefore  obtained  the  lower  or  wet-bulb  tempera- 
tures by  wetting  the  bulb,  and  waving  the  instrument  about  in  the  shade.  The 
vapour  arising  from  the  Dead  Sea,  when  looked  at  from  the  heights  of  Ain  jidi  sad 
Ghomran,  had  the  same  appearance  as  the  fumes  produced  at  brass  castings. 


Comparative  Readings  of  Aneroid  Me'tallique  at  different  Temperatures  at  i 

Localities. 


1855. 

Time. 

Locality. 

Fhhr. 

Aneroid. 

Oct.  26. 

27. 

30. 

31. 

Nov.    1. 

2. 

3. 
4. 

5. 

6. 
8. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

h  m 

2  05  p.m. 

8  00  p.m. 

4  00  A.M. 

9  15  p.m. 

8  15  A.M. 

4  30  p.m. 

6  00  p.m. 
8  00  p.m. 

8  10  A.M. 

12  35  a.m. 

7  30  p.m. 

6  00  A.M. 

6  45  a.m. 

8  15  A.M. 

8  45  a.m. 

3  00  p.m. 

5  10  p.m. 
8  10  p.m. 

10  00  A.M. 

3  35  p.m. 

8  30  p.m. 

6  00  A.M. 

4  30  p.m. 
12  15  p.m. 
10  25  a.m. 

7  45  p.m. 

6  45  a.m. 

9  15  A.M. 

7  30  p.m. 
10  15  a.m. 

1  30  A.M. 

6  30  a.m. 

Neb!  Mouse  

ditto  

89 

78 

67 

56 

51 

80 

77 

74 

64 

89-5 

76 

75 

76 

79 

79 

90 

86 

85 

90 

99 

61 

60 

72 

66 

81 

73 

72 

86 

83 

83 

81 

78 

7717 
77-47 
77-50 
69-27 
69*38 
73-88 
74-00 
7410 
74-20 
80-06 
80-41 
80-39 
80-40 
80-44 
80-62 
80-10 
80-13 
80-22 
80-44 
79-70 
80-20 
80*24 
79-99 
80-30 
80-31 
80*30 
80-21 
79-94 
79-83 
79-90 
79-96 
80-00 

ditto  

33  milUms.  in  22  degrees. 

Hebron 

ditto  

11  millims.  in  5  degrees. 

Bed  of  Dervish... 
ditto  

ditto  

32  millims.  in  16  degrees. 
35  miliums,  in  135  degrees. 

or  33*938  inches. 

12  millims.  in  5  degrees.    Gsk 
of  wind. 

54  millims.  in  33  degrees. 

ditto  

Usdum 

ditto  ......... 

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

Ghor  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

ElLiesn...  -,- 

ditto  

31  millims.  in  6  degrees.    Gtte 
of  wind  8  pji. 

ditto  

ditto  

27  millims*  in  14  degrees. 
10  millims.  in  5  degrees. 

ditto  

ditto  

Em  Barghek 

ditto  

ditto  

ditto  

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


43 


Thermometrical  Readings 

near! 

the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Date. 

lime. 

Locality. 

Fahr. 

Dew- 
point. 

Centigrade. 

Force 

of 
vapour. 

1 
I 

•70 

•32 
•45 
•35 
•34 
•47 
•25 
•45 
•33 
•55 
•40 

Bemarks. 

£ 

1 

Dry. 

Wet. 

Ins. 

Mill.. 

Oct  27 
Nov.    2. 

h.  m. 
5  30  a.m. 

2  00  p.m. 

1  35  p.m. 
9  30  a.m. 

11  40  A.M. 

5  10  p.m. 

10  00  A.M. 

8  45  a.m. 

2  00  p.m. 

12  42  a.m. 
4  30  p.m. 

North  of  Dead 
Sea. 

Usdnm.... 

7« 

90 
87 
82 
84 
86 
90 
82 
90 
86 
84 

6l 

71 

72 

65 

66 

71-5 

67 

68 

70 

67-5 

51*25 

59-03 
62-40 
53'44 
54-12 
62*08 
0251 
58-48 
57-40 
66-20 
54-95 

21-11 

32-22 
30-55 
27-78 
28-89 
3000 
32-22 
27-78 
32-22 
3000 
28-89 

l?-78 

21-67 
22-22 
18-33 
18-89 
21-94 
19*44 
2000 
2111 
23-33 
19-72 

•5148 

•4732 
•5795 
•3905 
-4023 
■5795 
•3519 
•4960 
•4668 
•6106 
•4677 

1308 

12-03 
14-72 

9-93 
10-22 
14-73 

8*94 
12-60 
11-85 
17-24 
11-87 

Bulb  wetted  with 
Dead  Sea  water. 
114    feet   above 
Dead  Sea. 

281  feet  ditto, 

563  feet  ditto. 

710  feet  ditto. 
|710  feet  ditto. 

3. 
4. 

5. 

ditto 

ditto 

Em  Barghek 
Ghor 

6. 
11. 

ditto 

Sebbeh. ........ 

12. 
13. 

ditto 

Engedi 

AinTerabeh... 

Comparative  Observations  at  AlvastoD,  Derby. 

1856. 
Aug.   3. 
5. 

2  00  p.m. 

11  00  A.M. 

Alvaston  

ditto 

84 
73 

72 
64 

64-08 
5534 

28-89  22-22 
22-78  [17-78 

•6228 
•4768 

15-82 
1211 

•54 
•59 

About  250   feet 
above  sea. 

Leveilinga  by  Aneroid  Mltallique  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  by  Joppa,  to 
Samaria,  through  Jerusalem.    October  1855. 


Distance  in 


0* 

4 

1H 

17 

21 

22* 

21 

2<4 

28* 

31 

36 

40 

42 

45 

46* 

48 

50 

52 

56 

58 

64 

64 

65 

71 

71* 

72 


Names  of  Placet. 


Joppa  Hotel    

Tomb  of  Joseph 

Convent  at  Ramleh  (Arimathea)  

ElKubal 

Bab  Wady  Ain 

Terebith  Tree  (Wady  Beit  Hanina) 

Church  Aboo  Gosh  (Emmaus) 

Aiu  Dilbeh 

Bridge,  Keulonich 

Bottom  of  Hezekiah's  Pool,  Jerusalem. 

Valley  of  Mount  Gibeon , 

Bicrah , 

Bethel 

Khafa  arno ■ 

Ainy  Bruk 

Ain  el  Hara  mich,  M  Robber's  spring  " . 

Ridge  near  Singel  

El  Lubban,  "  Leboneh  "    

Top  of  Hill 

Brook  near  Burin  

Jacob's  Well   

Summit  of  Mount  Gerizim 

Nabloos,  M  Shechem  "   

Wady  Sebastich 

Summit  of  Hill  Samaria 

Village  of  Sebastieh  


Height  by 
Lynch. 


230 
543 
965 

"1989" 
2024 
1954 
2610** 


Height  in 
above  tea. 


67 

93 

244 

445 
857 
1232 
1892 
2047 
1527 
2061 
2231 
2254 
2401 
2200 
1766 
1803 


1424 
1640 
1290 
1347 
2408 
1464 
800 
1233 
1120 


*  The  precise  locality  in  Jerusalem  to  which  Lieut.  Lynch  levelled  is  not  known. 


44 


REPORT — 1856. 


Levelling*  by  Aneroid  Metallique  from  Jerusalem  through   Hebron  to  die  Deri 

Sea,  compared  with  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  at  Joppa. 

November  1855. 


Distance  in 


Name*  of  Place*. 


feetwfck 


0 

2 

3 

6i 

7 

7t 

8 

9 
10 
13 

17 


19 

19* 

20 

22} 

24J 

27 

29* 

30 

31J 

33 

35 

38 

39 

42 

43 

45 

46 

47 

48J 

49 

50 

52 

53^ 

551 

56* 

58 

59 


Jerusalem,  at  Hezekiah's  Pool 

Elijah's  Convent 

Rachel's  Tomb •• 

Vale  of  Artas,  at  junction  of  Wadies 

Ditto,  Meshallum's  house 

Aqueduct  at  Pools  of  Solomon 

Upper  Pool,  ditto 

tviQge  ...  ••»  •••  in  •••  ...  ...  •••  ••■  ••• 

Wady  em  Bir,  or  wells       

Ridge    •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     ••■ 

Khan  Khul ... 

Camp  at  Hebron,  near  Lazaretto      

Tomb,  "  Cave  of  Makpelah  "     

Abraham's  Oak,  valley  of  Eshcol      

Ain  es  i^m  •••  •••  •••  •••  •*•  •••  •••  ■••  ••• 

Temple  ruins  at  Manne      

iviuge  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  •••  ••• 

Valley  ...  .«•  •••  •••  ■••  •••  •••  •*•  •••  ••« 

Kiuge  ...  ■••  •••  •••  •••*  •••  •••  •••  •••  ••• 

Ruins  of  Ziph  on  left  hand  (1  mile  off)     

Ruins  Em  Sirkan 

fiirket  el  Kurmel  (Carmel) 

Ain  Tawaoa  •••     •• ••     •••     •••     

Ridge     •••     •«•     •••     •••     •■•     •••     •••   .  •*•     ■••     ••• 

fudge     ••«     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     ••• 

Tawan,  Camp  of  the  Djahalins 

Bir  Tabaca    •••     •••    •••    •••    •••    •••    •••    •••     ••• 

tviuge     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     ••• 

Wady    •••     •••     •••     •••     *• ••     •••     •••     ••• 

Ridge    •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •••     •■•     ••• 

Wady  el  Mahras,  or  Drippings 

Ridge     ...     ... ...     ...     ...     ... 

Ermeli  (view  of  Dead  Sea) 

waoy    •••     ...     •••     ...     a#a     ...     ...     ...     ...     ass 

Ridge     

Plain      

Bed  of  Dervish  (found  a  coin)    

Wady  of  Bazaar '. 

Passed  near  a  supposed  crater    

Nejeb  (view  of  Dead  Sea) 

Tower,  El  Zuweireh    

Camp  at  Usdum 

Shore  of  Dead  Sea  (Lynch,  — 1316'7;  Symonds,  —1312) 
(Summit  of  "  El  Lisan,"  or  the  Peninsula 


2061 
2207 
2111 
I860 
1896 
2144 
2251 
2361 
2298 
2596 
2716 
2402 
2368 
2502 
2586 
2800 
2438 

2402 

2294 

2304 

2234 

2074 

2227 

1779 

1759 

1501 

1521 

1340 

1424 

1156 

1447 

1702 

986 

1106 

931 

895 

533 

298 

4 

-  968 

-1176 

-1313*5 

•  1063-5 


Levellings  from  Jerusalem  to  Dead  Sea  by  Nebi  Moosa. 


6 

71 
81 
9 


Road  branches  to  Jericho 

Durbez  zuar 

Ridge  with  flints 

Junction  of  Wadies 


705 
708 
607 
209 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


45 


Miles. 


Name*  of  Place*. 


Height  in 
feet  with 
Mediter- 
ranean Sea. 


10 
10* 

Hi 

12 

13 

14 

15i 

17 

l*r 

20 


Vertical  Chalk      

Dry  Wady    

Chalk    

Pointed  rocks       

Ridge  (red-coloured  limestone)  ... 
Nebi  Mousa  (bituminous  limestone) 

Ridge ... 

Base  of  mountain 

t  lain      ...     ...     •••     •••     ...     *•* 

Dead  Sea      


353 
273 
353 
286 

—  156 

—  329J 

—  288 

—  781 

—  1080 

—  1313* 


Levellings  by  Aneroid  Mltallique  along  the  west  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  commen- 
cing at  the  south  end  from  Usdum  to  Jericho.    November  1855. 


Distance 

Height  in  feet 

Height  in  feet 

in 

Ntmea  of  Placet. 

with  Medi- 

above 

Idea. 

terranean  Sea. 

Dead  Sea. 

oj 

Cave  in  middle  of  Mount  Usdum     ... 

—  1200 

114 

2 

Ascent  at  back  of  Usdum 

—  930 

384 

3 

North  end  of  Usdum 

—  1200 

114 

H* 

Brine-spring  (temp.  90°) 

—  1284 

30 

4J 

Fish  in  gully  of  ditto 

Wady  Em  Barghek    

Old  Fort,  ditto 

-1311 

3 

H 

—  1033 

281 

61 

—  932 

382 

7 

Hill  close  to  shore      

—  1065 

249 

8 

Wady  Em  Dun,  or  Wild  Goats 

—  1120 

194 

11 

White  lime-rocks        

-   884 

430 

12 

Wady  Sebbeh     ...     /. 

-   851 

463 

12± 

North  bank  of  ditto    

-   784 

530 

13* 

Ascent  to  Mosada      

-   322 

992 

Top  of  ditto,  by  sextant 

+     98 

1412 

14 

Camp  at  Sebbeh 

-  751 

563 

15 

Wady  El  Mahras,  or  Drippings 

-1006 

308 

17 

Wady  El  Kehabra,  or  Spies      

-1271 

43 

19 

Birket  El  Khalil  (Abraham's  salt)    

-1314 

0 

21 

Plain  of  Ain  jedi  (Engedi) 

-1190 

124 

21* 

Spring  near  Tower  on  ditto  (temp.  83°) 

Camp  in  Wady 

-   604 

710 

22 

-1056 

258 

24 

Ras  Mereed 

-1114 

200 

25 

Wady  Khmeid    

-1314 

0 

26 

Mountain  pass    

-1074 

240 

27 

Ditto,  ditto 

-   805 

509 

28 

WadyTaamri    

-1209 

105 

28* 

Ridge 

-   574 

740 

29 

Upper  ridge 

-   440 

874 

29} 

Ain  Terabeh,  or  "  Morass  "      

-1274 

40 

30 

Springs  with  reeds     

-1314 

0 

32 

Springs  with  reeds  and  fish  (temp.  79°) 

Wady  Kedron,  or  En  Nar 

-1314 

0 

33* 

-1200 

114 

34 

Mountain  ridge 

-   584 

730 

34* 

Ditto,  ditto 

-   088 

1226 

34* 

Table-land 

-     25 

1289 

*  The  Brine-spring  issues  out  of  the  rocks  about  100  yards  distant  from  the  shore  of  the 
Bead  Sea ;  and  the  fish  "  Lebias  "  were  eaught  in  this  spring  at  three  yards'  distance  from  the 
•hore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  to  which  they  had  free  access. 


46 


REPORT— 1856. 


Distance 

in 
Mile* 


■  of  Place*. 


Height  in  feet 
wUhMedi- 


Height 

aba 

Dead 


37 

38 

38} 

39 

39 

39i 

39* 

42 

40 

44 

45J 


ivIQge    .. .       •••       •••       •••       •••       •• 

Heights  above  Ghomran    

Camp  at  ditto     

Edge  of  cliff,  ditto      

Foot  of  ditto,  ruins  and  graves  .. 
Base  of  chalk  hills,  with  graves 

Shore  of  Dead  Sea     

Plain  of  Jordan 

Mouth  of  Jordan  river       

Pilgrim's  bathing-place,  ditto    .. 
Jericho  Tower    


+     26 

-  161 

-  309 

-  363 
-1076 
-1214 
-1314 

-  808 
-1314 
-1210 

-  798 


1340 

1153 

10O5 

951 

238 

10O 

O 

506 

O 

104 

516 


From  Jericho  to  Jerusalem. 


Foot  of  mountains      

Ridge 

Ridge 

Khan  Khatrude 

Plain  of  the  Robbers 

Ridge 

Road  turns  off  to  "  Nebi  Mousa  " 

Apostles'  fountain      

Lazarus's  Tomb,  Bethany 

Church  of  Ascension,  Mount  of  Olives    

Tomb  of  Virgin  Mary,  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat., 
Hezekiah's  Pool,  Jerusalem      , 


590 
86 
303 
682 
471 
755 
705 
+  1254 
+  1803 
+  2138 
+  1834 
+  2061 


+ 
+ 
+ 


724 
1226 
1616 
1995 
1784 
2068 
2018 
2567 
3116 
3451 
3147 
3374 


Note. — Since  the  reading  of  the  above  paper  before  the  British  Association  at 
Cheltenham,  Mr.  Poole  has  been  in  Westmoreland,  and  taken  the  heights  of  several 
mountains  in  the  Lake  District  with  the  Aneroid  Mltallique. 

In  the  Table  below,  the  first  column  shows  the  height  by  calculation,  allowing 
33*5  feet  per  millimetre  as  adopted  by  him  in  Palestine.  The  second  column  is  cal- 
culated by  Delcros's  formula,  giving  corrections  for  temperature  and  latitude.  The 
third  column  shows  the  heights  furnished  by  Colonel  James,  Chief  of  the  Ordnance 
Survey  of  Great  Britain,  and  which  were  obtained  from  him  since  the  aneroid  level- 
lings  were  calculated. 

The  Ordnance  survey  thus  confirms  most  satisfactorily  the  correctness  of  the 
aneroid,  when  corrected  by  Delcros's  formula,  up  to  a  height  of  3000  feet. 

Unfortunately  the  temperatures  at  the  time  of  observation  were  not  kept  io  Pales- 
tine, and  therefore  Delcros's  formula  cannot  be  now  used  for  those  readings,  and 
the  heights  given  in  the  original  paper  are  proportionally  too  low 

Levellings  by  Aneroid  Mltallique  in  the  Lake  District,  taken  from  Iveing  Cottage, 
Ambleside,  which  is  calculated  at  80  feet  above  Windermere  Lake  (128  feet  above 
the  sea  by  Colonel  James),  or  Station  at  208  feet  above  the  sea.   September  1856. 


Lerellings  by  calculation,  83*5  feet  per  millimetre,  with  90S  feet 
added  for  height  of  Station  above  the  aea. 


Defcroc's 
Formula. 


Colonel 

James's 

Ordnance 

Surrey. 


Difteraace. 


Helvellyn  

Fairfield 

Highstreet 

Wansfell  (not  quite  at  top,  30  feet  assumed) 

Kirkstone  pass,  boundary  line 

House  at  ditto  

Loughrigg  Fell,  or  Ewe  Crag 


2734 
2566 
2452 
1524 
1400 
1383 
1032 


3056 
2837 
2693 
1649 
1487 
1470 
1123 


3117 
2861 
2722 
1598 
1466 


1101 


-61 
-24 
-29 
+51 

+21 

+  * 
+22 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  47 

On  a  Meteor  seen  at  Cheltenham  on  Friday,  August  8th. 
By  the  Rev.  C.  Peitchard,  F.RA. 

The  author  stated,  that  on  leaving  the  Meeting  of  the  Association  on  Friday 
evening,  about  8  p.m.,  the  friend  who  was  with  him  suddenly  exclaimed,  "There  is 
lightning  I"  Bat  observing  that  the  light  continued,  he  turned  round,  and  saw  a 
beautiful  meteor  moving,  nearly  in  a  vertical  circle,  nearly  through  *  Lyras,— com- 
mencing about  eight  diameters  of  moon  below  *  Lyra,  and  extending  through  about 
ten  diameters,— commencing,  in  fact,  in  a  line  drawn  through  Jupiter  and  the  lower 
of  the  three  stars  in  Aquila.  It  was  very  decided  and  persistent,  with  rose-coloured 
scintillations,  taking  a  serpentine  course,  and  lasting  for  fully  forty  seconds.  No 
further  meteors  were  observed  that  night ;  but  on  the  following  night  he  observed  six 
others,  about  the  same  hour, — all  having  their  vanishing  points  near,  or  below,  the 
horizon,  and,  in  the  vertical  circle,  through  *  Lyras.  The  former  meteor  was  seen 
by  other  friends,  and  also  at  Tewkesbury,  and  its  decided  persistency  and  violet 
colour  remarked  upon  at  the  time. 

Continuation  of  Meteorological  Observations  for  1855,  at  Hug  gate,  Yorkshire. 
By  the  Rev.  T.  Rankin. 

The  atmospheric  wave  of  November  was  twelve  days  in  passing ;  coldest  day,  1 3°, 
February  18;  hottest  day,  73°,  July  13;  lowest  point  of  the  barometer,  28*160, 
March  3 ;  highest  point,  30*460 ;  rain,  23*570  inches ;  eclipse  of  the  sun  visible  only 
a  few  seconds ;  in  the  evening  a  large  meteor  exploded  and  discharged  coloured  scin- 
tillations like  a  rocket.  On  the  evening  of  October  21,  the  whole  atmosphere  had 
the  appearance  of  the  hull  of  a  ship,  with  the  white  planks  all  distinct  from  stem  to 
stern.  The  ends  were  N.W.  and  S.E.  The  N.W.  end  was  like  pieces  of  amber, 
and  the  S.E.  end  a  beautiful  purple.  The  common  observation  of  the  oldest 
labourers  is,  that  when  the  wind  blows  across  the  ends  of  the  ship,  heavy  rain  will 
soon  come.  In  the  present  case,  the  wind  blew  obliquely  across  the  ends,  and, 
according  to  the  common  prognostic,  there  was  soon  a  heavy  fall  of  rain.  Winds : 
£.,  11  days;  W.,  36  days;  N.,  5  days;  N.E.,  39  days;  N.W.,  30  days;  S.E., 
6  days ;  S.W.,  25  days.  Weather :  clear  days,  117  ;  rain,  51 ;  frost,  28  ;  white 
frost,  29 ;  snow,  18  ;  mist,  7 ;  fog,  4  ;  thunder,  8  days. 


On  a  Thermometer  for  Measuring  Fluctuations  of  Temperature. 
By  B.  Stewart.     Communicated  and  described  by  Mr.  Welsh. 

If  a  bulb  be  blown  between  two  thermometric  glass  tubes  of  unequal  bores,  and 
the  instrument  be  filled  with  mercury  in  the  same  manner  as  an  ordinary  thermo- 
meter, and  laid  horizontal  or  nearly  so,  it  will  be  found  that  contractions  from  cold 
take  place  only  in  the  narrow  bore,  and  expansions  from  heat  only  in  the  wide  one. 
The  reason  of  this  seems  to  be,  that  while  the  temperature  remains  the  same  the 
mercury  is  kept  at  rest,  and  prevented  from  retreating  from  the  small  bore  into  the 
bulb,  by  friction ;  but  when  a  motive  force  is  supplied  by  a  change  of  temperature, 
the  motion  of  the  mercury  takes  place  in  that  direction  in  which  it  is  most  aided 
by  capillary  action.     It  was  suggested  by  Mr.  Welsh  to  the  author  that  such  an 
instrument  might  be  used  to  measure  fluctuations  of  temperature.     And  the  author 
thinks  it  might  be  applied  to  measure  with  exactness  the  power  of  a  source  of 
radiant  heat ;  for,  by  alternately  interposing  a  screen  between  this  instrument  and 
the  source  of  heat,  and  withdrawing  die  same  screen,  the  effect  of  the  source  on  the 
mercury  would  be  multiplied  by  the  number  of  times  this  operation  was  performed. 
In  constructing  such  an  instrument,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  tubes  used  are  quite 
free  from  dirt  or  moisture,  and  that  they  are  not  bent,  but  form  one  straight  line,  the 
bolb  being  in  the  middle,  and  swelling  out  symmetrically  from  both  its  extremities. 
The  best  proportion  between  the  capacities  of  the  bores  is  perhaps  about  1  to  4,  and 
the  best  arrangement  of  bores  seems  to  be  one  suggested  by  Mr.  Welsh,  viz.  a 
round  bore  for  the  wide  tube,  and  a  flat  or  elliptical  bore  for  the  narrow  one,  the 
greatest  diameter  of  which  equals  the  diameter  of  the  wide  bore.     In  graduating,  if, 
when  the  instrument  is  vertical,  the  narrow  bore  being  beneath,  the  mercury  fills 


48 


REPORT — 1856. 


the  bulb  and  rises  in  the  wide  bore,  then  the  wide  bore  may  be  pointed  off  at  differ- 
ent temperatures  like  an  ordinary  thermometer ;  bat  if  under  these  circumstance* 
the  mercury  does  not  rise  in  the  wide  bore,  then,  in  order  to  point  off  the  wide 
bore,  the  instrument  must  be  laid  horizontally  in  a  dish  of  water,  and  compared 
with  a  standard  thermometer  at  different  temperatures;  the  extremity  of  the 
mercury  in  the  narrow  bore  being  always  kept  at  a  fixed  point.  When  the 
wide  bore  has  been  pointed  off,  we  may,  by  running  the  mercury  along,  find 
what  length  of  the  narrow  bore  corresponds  to  a  certain  length  *  of  the  wide 
one,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  point  off  the  narrow  bore.  In  using  the  instrument 
it  should  be  kept  nearly  horizontal,  and  there  is  probably  for  each  instrument  a 
small  range  of  inclination,  for  every  position  within  which  its  peculiar  action  holds, 
but  beyond  which  it  is  interfered  with  by  gravity.  Before  graduating  such  an  instru- 
ment it  should  be  ascertained  whether  it  is  likely  to  answer,  and  the  best  test 
seems  to  be  to  lay  it  horizontal,  exposing  it  to  changes  of  temperature  of  the  same 
nature  with  those  which  it  is  intended  afterwards  to  measure ; — if  its  action  be  per- 
fect, the  mercury  will  eventually  be  found  to  have  retreated  into  the  bulb  from  the 
narrow  bore;  but  should  it  have  stopped  at  any  point,  the  action  will  only  be 
perfect  up  to  that  point.  If  this  demands  too  much  time,  it  may  be  tested  by 
repeatedly  applying  to  the  bulb  of  an  instrument  so  placed  a  few  drops  of  slightly 
warmed  water. 


On  the  Climate  of  Torquay  and  South  Devon.     By  E.  Vivian,  M.A. 

Mr.  £.  Vivian,  of  Torquay,  laid  before  this  Section  the  statistics  of  the  meteoro- 
logy of  Torquay  and  South  Devon  contrasted  with  those  of  the  average  of  England, 
as  given  in  the  Reports  of  the  Registrar- General,  to  which  he  is  a  contributor.  The 
observations  on  which  they  were  based  extended  from  1842  to  1856,  but  the  com- 
parative statement  was  confined  to  the  last  six  years.  The  following  was  the 
general  summary : — 


s| 


H 


& 


SJ5- 


*S 


il 


'.Ml 

III 


tt 


81 

as 


Torquay 
England... 


50-3 
48*3 


7o   i     2$ 


83 


15 


9-9 
14-5 


15 
46 


155 
170 


27-8 
25*5 


3-4 
3*4 


•76 

•82 


He  explained  the  principles  upon  which  the  cool  summers*&nd  mild  winters  of 
South  Devon  and  Cornwall  are  to  be  accounted  for,  namely,  the  equable  tempera- 
ture of  the  sea  with  which  the  peninsula  is  surrounded.  He  had  observed  the 
surface  water  in  Torbay  to  be  as  much  as  21  degrees  above  the  minimum  tempe- 
rature of  the  air  in  winter,  and  13  degrees  below  the  maximum  in  summer.  He 
also  accounted  for  the  equable  hygrometrical  condition  of  the  air  by  the  same 
cause— the  temperature  of  the  sea  being  frequently  above  the  dew-point  in  winter 
and  below  it  in  summer.  He  reviewed  the  inaccuracies  in  several  medical  pub- 
lications, which  had  raised  a  prejudice  against  South  Devon  as  a  summer  residence 
as  being  too  relaxing,  while  the  exact  contrary  is  shown  by  these  observations.  He 
exhibited  a  set  of  his  newly  invented  meteorological  instruments  for  obtaining  all 
the  really  important  elements  of  climate  by  one  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly  obser- 
vation, especially  self-registering  hygrometers ;  one  for  the  maximum  and  minimum 
difference  of  the  wet-  and  dry-bulb  thermometers,  the  other  for  registering  their 
average  difference  during  any  period  of  time. 


TRANSACTION!  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 

Instruction*  for  the  Graduation  of  Boiling-point  Thermometer 
the  Measurement  of  Heights.    By  J.  Welsh. 

Let  the  thermometer  be  in  the  first  instance  filled  with  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
mercury  to  allow  the  point  82°  Fahr.  to  be  where  the  point  212°  is  desired  ulti- 
mately to  be.  Let  a  chamber  be  made  at  the  top  of  the  tube  about  3  inches 
above  the  point  212°  ;  or,  if  the  thermometer  is  required  to  have  a  chamber  at  the 
top  when  finally  completed,  let  there  be  two  chambers  made  with  sufficient  space 
between  them  to  allow  of  the  tube  being  there  sealed  by  a  blowpipe  flame.  By 
comparison  with  a  standard  thermometer,  set  off  the  points  82°,  72°,  62°,  52°, 
42°  (but  not  32°).  The  scale  may  then  be  divided,  adopting  the  mark  82  as 
corresponding  to  212-00;  72  to  201*87  ;  62  to  191*74  ;  fc2  to  181*61 ;  42  to  171*48. 
The  graduation  of  the  scale  should, then  be  verified  by  comparison  with  a  standard 
thermometer  at  different  points  from  37°  to  87°  Fahr.,  and  a  table  of  errors  of 
graduation  thus  obtained.  A  sufficient  quantity  of  mercury  must  now  be  separated 
from  the  main  mass  until  the  top  of  the  column  stands  in  boiling  water  at  the 
proper  reading.  The  superfluous  mercury  having  been  lodged  in  the  upper  chamber, 
may  be  removed  by  sealing  up  the  tube  between  the  two  chambers.  If  it  is  not 
possible  to  detach  exactly  the  proper  quantity  of  mercury  to  make  the  column  stand 
at  the  true  temperature  of  boiling  water,  the  difference  should  be  added  as  a  further 
constant  correction  to  the  table  already  found  by  comparison  with  the  standard.  The 
following  determination  of  the  corrections  to  a  thermometer,  constructed  on  this 
principle  by  Messrs.  Negretti  and  Zambra,  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  accuracy 
which  may  be  attained  by  this  method.— 


Beading 

of 
Standard. 

Reading  of  Boiling- 
point  Thermometer. 

Standard 

reading 

after 

withdrawal 

of  mercury. 

Final 
correc- 
tion. 

Observed. 

Including 
final  error 
at  212°. 

42-00 
4700 
5200 
5700 
62-00 
6700 
72-00 
77-00 
82-00 

171-76 
176-80 
181-85 
186-99 
191-97 
196-98 
20208 
207-19 
212-29 

171-61 
176-65 
181-70 
186-84 
191-82 
196-83 
201-93 
207-04 
21214 

17f-48 
176-54 
181-61 
186-67 
191-74 
196-80 
201-87 
207-94 
21200 

-13° 
-•11 
-•09 
-•17 
-•08 
-•03 
--06 
-•10 
-•14 

On  Barometrical  and  Thermometrical  Observations  at  Scarborough. 
By  Captain  Woodall,  M.A . 


CHEMISTRY. 


On  the  Composition  of  Paraffinefrom  different  sources.  By  TitotfAS Andersok, 
M.D.,  F.RJ3.E.  Regius  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the  University  of  Glasgow. 
Some  seven  years  since  the  author  commenced  the  investigation  of  Rangoon  petro- 
leum, but  being  at  the  time  engaged  in  other  researches,  the  subject  was  abandoned 
after  some  experiments  and  analyses  of  the  paraffine  it  contdlns  had  been  made. 
More  recently  his  attention  had  been  directed  to  this  substance  in  examining  the 
paraffine  obtained  during  the  distillation  of  coal.  He  found  that  Boghead  coal  yields 
two  distinct  kinds  of  paraffine,  one  highly  crystalline  after  fusion,  the  other  a  granular 
1856.  4 


fO  BHMMt~18S6. 

inaasttsembliiig  bleached  wax.  Thefonner  melted  all  14°  Mb*.,  the  latter  at  W. 
That  obtained  from  Rangoon  petroleum  melted  at  142°,  and  from  peat  at  lie1,  il 
these  varieties  gave  on  analysis  the  same  results,  the  numbers  obtained  being— 

CoaL 


Crystalline. 

Grsnnlsr. 

Carbon  85-08 

85-14         8512 
1511 
100-25 

Peat. 

85*09 
15*23 
100-32 

"85-28         8M* 

Hydrogen 15*33 

165-ir 

1538         1WI 
TocFoo      T9F5 

Carbon 

85-23          84-95 

85-15 

Hydrogen   ....... 

15-16          15-05 

15-29 

100-39        100-00  TOF44 

These  analyses  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  all  varieties  of  pexaffine  are  not  est* 
hydrogens  of* the  CnHn  series,  as  is  commonly  supposed,  but  lend  mPP?ri,U)Jf*f\ 
•new,  according  to  which  some  of  them  belong  to  the  CnHn+t  series,  xnis  is  reodoei 
obvious  by  the  comparison  of  the  mean  analytical  result  with  the  calculation  for  tk 
former  series  and  for  the  formula  CMH^,  which  comes  very  close  to  the  snaljQfll 
results. 


Bxpt. 
85-10 

Calculation. 

Carbon 

CH               C40H4S 
85-71              85*10 

Hydrogen    .... 

15-23 

100-33 

14*29              14-90 
100*00            100*00 

The  latter  formula  is  a  purely  empirical  one,  and  is  simply  the  nearest  amasses  to 
the  experimental  numbers,  which,  however,  might  be  equally  well  expressed  by  C€H# 
or  even  C^rl*.    The  author  has  tried  in  vain  to  obtain  soma  means  of  detenninirj  . 
the  rational  formulae  of  the  different  paraffines,  but  without  success.    They  sie  w  1 
acted  upon  by  chlorine  with  the  formation  of  turpentine-like  substitution  compflaafc, 
in  whicn  the  proportion  of  chlorine  differs,  \ 

The  author  leaves  it  an  open  question  whether  these  paraffinea  are  radical!  or  the  i 
hydrurets  of  radicals,  his  object  being  to  show  that  the  term  paraffine  has  a  VCTT  ** 
acceptation,  embracing  not  only  the  cerotene  and  melene  obtained  from  wax,  vbns 
belong  to  the  CnHn  series,  but  also  a  great  variety  of  other  compounds. 


On  a  new  combination  of  Carbon,  Oxygen  and  Hydrogen,  formed  oy  tie 
Oxidation  of  Graphite;  and  on  the  Appearance  of  Carbon  under  tke  Mi- 
croscope.   By  Professor  Brodik,  F.R.S. 


On  the  Incrustations  of  Blast  Furnaces. 
By  Professor  F.  Cbagb  Calvert,  F.C.S. 
During  a  journey  which  t  made  twelve  months  ago  in  Shropshire,  in  which  I  "*•** 
certain  iron-works,  my  attention  was  drawn  to  large  incrustations  which  gradually 
formed  at  the  mouth  of  blast  furnaces,  and  which  had  acquired  such  a  size  si  oesHf 
to  shut  up  the  mouth  of  the  furnaces,  and  as  they  proved  a  great  annoyance,  it  ** 
thought  proper  that  they  should  be  removed. 

To  do  this,  the  mass  in  the  furnace  was  allowed  to  fall  eight  or  ten  feet  ft00*** 
mouth  of  the  furnace,  the  blast  was  then  taken  off  and  the  incrustations  remortd, 
some  of  which  were  placed  in  my  hands  for  analysis,  and  which  I  found  .to  be  com- 
posed as  follows : — 

Oxide  of  zinc 94*33 

Peroxide  of  iron 2-10 

Silica 0-45 

Carbon 2-45 

Sulphur 0*07 

100*00 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  SI 

As  the  presence  of  zinc  was  the  source  of  very  great  injury  to  the  iron-master,  not 
only  in  consequence  of  its  forming  incrustations,  but  also  on  account  of  a  certain 
quantity  of  it  finding  its  way  into  the  cast  iron  and  thereby  rendering  it  very  brittle, 
I  was  requested  by  the  proprietor  of  these  furnaces  to  examine  the  various  mate- 
rials that  were  employed,  and  try  to  find  out  in  which  of  them  existed  the  compound 
of  sine  which  gave  rise  to  these  several  incrustations. 

Having  failed  to  discover  any  blende  or  calamine  in  the  limestone  used,  I  next 
examined  the  iron  ores,  and  found  that  the  '  under  penny-stone '  (a  name  given  in 
Shropshire  to  the  ironstone  nodules  which  are  employed  there  nearly  exclusively)  con- 
tained small  black  crystals,  which  proved,  on  analysis,  to  be  sulphuret  of  zinc  or  blende. 

Since  this  observation  was  made  by  me,  E.  W.  Binnev,  Esq.,  F.R.S.,  has  placed  a 
Tory  interesting  paper  in  my  hands  (published  in  1852),  in  which  he  describes  the 
presence  of  the  sulphurets  of  lead  ana  zinc  "  as  existing  in  the  druses  or  hollows  of 
ironstone  nodules  occurring  in  coal-measures,  which  seem  to  indicate  that  metals 
bad  in  some  instances  been  precipitated  from  aqueous  solutions,  or  segregated  from 
semifluid  masses." 

But  it  would  appear  probable,  from  the  recent  researches  of  Messrs.  Fremy, 
Deville,  and  Senarmont,  that  the  blende  has  formed  itself  in  the  druses  by  the  action 
of  a  volatile  sulphuret  on  the  oxide  of  zinc  which  had  been  deposited  in  those  druses 
alter  they  had  been  formed  in  the  ironstone. 

In  examining  the  coals  employed,  I  found  in  the  lowest  strata  which  bear  the  name 
of  "  Court  Bandies  Coal "  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Coalbrook  Dale,  a  large  quantity 
of  white  metallic  scales  disseminated  through  the  mass  of  coals,  exactly  in  the  same 
manner  as  pyrites  are  observed  in  the  same  substance.  The  presence  of  such  scales 
having  not  yet  been  observed,  I  analysed  them,  and  found  them  to  be  composed  of 
galena  mixed  with  a  little  blende. 

I  think  that  the  presence  of  the  blende  and  galena  in  the  iron  mineral  and  in  the 
coals,  clearly  indicates  that  in  the  neighbourhood  there  must  be  veins  or  lodes  of  the 
sulphurets  of  these  two  metals.  _____ 

On  the  Salts  actually  present  in  the  Cheltenham  and  other  Mineral  Waters. 
ByJ.H.  Gladstone,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 

The  Cheltenham  waters  have  been  analysed  by  many  distinguished  chemists,  and 
the  experiments  of  Messrs.  Abel  and  Rowney  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  in  point  of 
accuracy,  that  is  to  say,  as  far  as  the  amounts  of  chlorine,  carbonic  acid,  soda,  lime, 
Sec.  are  concerned ;  but  the  author  contended  that  the  usual  method  of  arranging  the 
results  of  analysis,  as  so  much  chloride  of  sodium,  so  much  carbonate  of  lime,  &c, 
was  utterly  fallacious.  The  rule  of '  combining  the  strongest  base  with  the  strongest 
acid '  is  purely  empirical,  and  almost  incapable  of  application,  since  our  knowledge  is 
very  vague  as  to  which  is  stronger  and  which  weaker ;  but  the  rule  is  also  false,  if  it 
be  true,  as  the  author  has  found  it  to  be  wherever  proof  was  possible,  that  "  where 
two  or  more  binary  compounds  are  mixed  under  such  circumstances  that  all  the 
resulting  bodies  are  free  to  act  and  react,  each  electro-positive  element  arranges  itself 
in  combination  with  each  electro-negative  element  in  certain  constant  proportions." 

The  method  of  determining  the  salts  actually  present  in  a  water  by  evaporating  it 
down  and  exhausting  the  residue  successively  with  sether,  alcohol  and  water,  is  also 
fallacious,  for  the  state  of  combination  of  the  acids  and  bases  may  materially  alter 
when  crystallization  is  taking  place. 

The  paper  of  Messrs.  Abel  and  Rowney  contains  indications  that  the  salts  are  not 
actually  present  in  the  Chekenham  waters  in  the  manner  in  which  they  are  arranged 
in  their  lists  of  analyses.  Thus  so  carefully  had  these  chemists  experimented,  that 
they  observed  there  was  not  sufficient  free  carbonic  acid  to  retain  in  solution  the  lima 
and  magnesia  which,  according  to  the  usual  principles,  they  supposed  present  in  the 
form  of  carbonates.  Hence  thev  imagined  them  dissolved  by  the  alkaline  salts,  and 
add,  "  We  have  satisfied  ourselves  by  direct  experiment,  that  the  solubility  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  is  much  increased  by  the  presence  of  chloride  of  sodium  and  sulphate 
of  soda."  Now  all  this  Is  the  necessary  consequence  of  the  law  of  reciprocal  affinity, 
as  the  lime,  instead  of  monopolizing  the  carbonic  acid,  will  unite  more  or  less  with  tho 
other  acids  present,  forming  salts  soluble  in  water. 

The  author  was  fully  aware  that  analytical  chemists  themselves  did  not  profess  the 

4* 


59  r*  port— 1856. 

method  complained  of  to  bo  absolutely  correct;  but  he  feared  that  die  eemi-ftde&fifc 
ttnd  the  general  public  were  deceived  by  it,  and  that  chemists  also  often  came  ss 
believe  there  was  some  truth  in  their  own  arbitrary  mode  of  expressing  the  results  ef 
analysis.  

Notes  on  Nitroglycerin*.  By  J.  H.  Gladstone,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S. 
The  author  had  made  several  observations  on  this  remarkable  explosive  liquid, 
Which  bad  been  first  exhibited  by  Dr.  De  Vrij  at  the  Ipswich  meeting  of  the  Associs- 
tion ;  but  the  recent  research  of  Mr.  Railton  had  forestalled  him,  and  left  little  for 
him  to  bring  before  the  public.  However,  he  felt  convinced  that  nitroglycerine  was 
not  always  uniform  in  its  properties,  and  was  perhaps  various  in  its  composhioa. 
Thus  a  liquid  produced  by  immersing  glycerine  (in  the  hydrated  state  in  which  it  ii 
found  in  commerce)  in  a  mixture  of  one  part  of  fuming  nitric  acid  and  three  parts  ef 
sulphuric  acid,  was  found  to  be  easily  exploded  by  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  or  when 
heated  rather  strongly  in  a  test-tube,  giving  rise  to  much  flame  and  noise,  with  the 
evolution  of  much  nitrous  gas ;  while  a  liquid  produced  in  a  precisely  similar  manner 
from  the  same  glycerine,  but  after  it  had  oeen  rendered  anhydrous,  did  not  explode 
by  a  blow  with  a  hammer,  and  burnt  without  noise  when  very  strongly  bested. 
Again,  some  explosive  nitroglycerine  was  allowed  to  decompose  spontaneously  tfll  only 
about  one-half  was  left ;  this  remaining  portion  was  non-explosive.  Each  variety, 
when  exposed  to  a  bath  of  solid  carbonic  acid  iu  alcohol,  froze,  becoming  at  first  .viscous, 
and  then  assuming  an  appearance  similar  to  that  of  the  fatty  acids  at  the  ordinary 
temperature.  This  substance,  like  other  nitrous  acid  substitution  products,  is  liable 
to  slow  spontaneous  decomposition.  This  had  been  several  times  observed  :  one  spe- 
cimen exposed  for  some  weeks  to  the  light  of  the  summer  sun,  gave  off  abundance  of 
red  fumes,  and  separated  into  two  liquids,  between  which  long  crystals  of  oxalic  add 
formed.  The  upper  liquid  contained  the  products  of  decomposition,  being  in  bet 
an  aqueous  solution  of  nitric  and  oxalic  acids,  with  a  large  quantity  of  ammonia,  a 
little  prussic  acid,  and  traces  of  two  or  three  slightly  acid  or  neutral  bodies,  which 
could  not  be  identified.  ___ __ 

On  the  Conversion  of  Tannin  into  Gallic  Acid.    By  John  Horslky. 

It  is  several  years  since  I  first  noticed  the  facts  which  I  now  bring  before  year 
notice.  I  have  never  yet  heard  or  read  of  the  practical  application  of  the  agent  a 
the  manufacture  of  gallic  acid  in  the  manner  I  now  suggest. 

Every  chemist  is  aware  that  the  quantity  of  gallic  acid  naturally  contained  in  the 
gall-nut  is  very  small  compared  with  the  tannin  {alia*  tannic  acid),  and  that  the  gallic 
acid  of  commerce  is  a  manufactured  article,  being  obtained  by  what  is  called  the  fer- 
mentation process,  which  consists  in  the  saturation  of  the  bruised  galls  with  water 
and  exposing  the  mass  to  the  air  for  a  period  of  several  weeks  or  even  months,  when 
decomposition  sets  in,  a  mould  collects,  and  small  yellow  crystals  of  gallic  acid  are 
observable,  evidently  the  result  of  the  oxidation  of  the  tannin.  The  gallic  add  a 
then  dissolved  out  by  boiling  the  mass  in  water,  and  crystallizes  from  the  concentrated 
liquid  on  cooling. 

It  occurred  to  me  to  make  experiments  by  keeping  powdered  galls  in  contact  for 
some  time  with  liquid  acids,  such  as  sulphuric,  sulphurous,  nitric,  and  acetic  acids, 
but  with  diluted  sulphuric  acid  only  did  I  perceive  any  change  produced ;  small 
white  tufts  or  nodules  of  gallic  acid  being  observed  soon  to  protrude  themselves,  so  to 
speak,  to  the  surface  of  the  dried  cake. 

I  have  lately,  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up  this  paper,  made*  further  experiments, 
of  which  these  are  specimens.  I  merely  moistened  the  powdered  galls  with  the  diluted 
acid  and  exposed  the  mixture  in  an  evaporating  dish  to  the  full  action  of  the  sun,  and 
in  a  few  hours  signs  of  intestine  motion  began  to  manifest  themselves  and  crystalline 
white  tufts  were  forming ;  these  white  tufts  gradually  increased  from  day  to  day,  and 
became  more  apparent  as  the  mass  dried.  It  is  necessary  to  renew  the  application 
of  moisture  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to  promote  the  growth  of  gallic  acid. 

In  proof  of  the  above,  I  likewise  treated  pure  tannin  by  triturating  it  with  dilute 
sulphuric  acid,  and  in  a  very  short  time  white  crystalline  tufts  of  gallic  acid  were 
risible. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  53, 

A  New  Method  of  instituting  post-mortem  researches  for  Strychnia. 
By  John  Ho  relet. 

The  following  will  be  found  an  exceedingly  simple  and  successful  method  of 
obtaining  strychnia,  in  cases  where  it  is  practicable,  from  the  tissues  of  the  body. 

The  weather  at  the  time  of  making  these  experiments  being  very  hot,  the  effluvia 
evolved  from  so  much  putrefying  animal  matter,  induced  me  to  adopt  some  means 
for  remedying  the  annoyance.  I  therefore  thought  of  a  solution  of  ordinary  chloride 
of  lime  (bleaching  liquid),  but  fearing  lest  that  agent  should  decompose  or  destroy 
the  strychnia,  I  first  tried  its  effect  on  a  weak  acetic  solution  of  strychnia,  and  was 
surprised  to  find  that  a  mifky  white  precipitate  of  a  chloride,  possibly  a  hypochlorite 
of  strychnia,  ensued,  insoluble  even  on  the  addition  of  a  large  quantity  of  acetic  acid. 
This  precipitate,  when  drained  on  a  filter  and  dried,  is  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  which 
seems  to  be  its  best  spirituous  solvent,  but  did  not  readily  dissolve  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  even  with  the  aid  of  heat.  Its  best  acid  solvent  is  glacial  acetic  acid.  It  is  also 
soluble  in  alkaline  liquors. 

This  result  gave  me  such  confidence,  that  I  at  once  proceeded  to  operate  on  animal 
matter.  I  therefore  took  some  of  the  putrid  liquid  in  which  the  liver  of  a  dog 
poisoned  by  strychnia  had  been  boiled,  wnich  liver  had  not  hitherto  yielded  me  any 
strychnia.  I  purposely  introduced  a  little  of  the  alkaloid,  boiled  the  whole  a  few 
minutes,  and  when  cold,  added  the  liquid  chloride  of  lime  in  excess,  or  till  all  soluble 
matter  (animal  or  otherwise)  was  precipitated,  and  then  filtered  it  through  a  cloth* 
No  trace  of  bitterness  could  be  detected  in  the  liquor. 

The  drained  precipitate  of  fibrine,  gelatine,  caseine,  and  strychnia  was  next  dried 
in  a  water-bath,  then  powdered,  digested  in  alcohol  acidified  with  acetic  acid,  heated, 
filtered,  and  evaporated  to  the  consistency  of  a  syrup :  by  this  time  the  whole  of  the 
smell  of  chlorine  will  have  been  given  off,  and  acetate  of  strychnia  obtained,  which 
can  be  purified  in  the  usual  way,  by  precipitation  with  an  alkali,  &c. 

Testing  for  Strychnia,  Brucia,  SfC.    By  John  Horsley. 

The  author  tried  the  effects  of  a  precipitant  formed  of  one  part  of  bichromate  of 
potash  dissolved  in  fourteen  parts  of  water,  to  which  were  added  afterwards  two 
parts  in  bulk  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  upon  a  solution  of  strychnine,  which  was  entirely 
precipitated  in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  golden-coloured  insoluble  chromate.  The 
decolorization  of  a  solution  of  either  the  chromate  or  bichromate  of  potash  was  effected 
by  gradually  adding  a  solution  of  the  acetate  of  strychnia,  when  chromate  of  strychnia 
wan  precipitated.     Scarcely  a  trace  of  bitterness  was  left  in  the  filtered  liquor. 

The  author  claimed  as  his  own,  this  mode  of  the  application  of  the  chromic  salt 
and  the  acid.  He  diluted  thirty  drops  of  a  solution  containing  half  a  grain  of  strychnia 
with  four  drachms  of  water.  When  six  drops  of  a  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  were 
added,  at  each  drop  crystals  were  at  once  formed,  and  the  decomposition  was  complete 
when  the  whole  .were  mixed  together.  Though  the  half-grain  of  strychnia  was  split 
up  into  millions  of  atomic  crystals,  each  atom  as  effectually  demonstrated  the  chemical 
properties  of  the  poison  as  a  pound  in  weight  could  have  done.  The  chemical  reaction 
with  these  crystals  was  next  shown  by  spreading  out  a  drop  of  the  liquid  chromate  of 
strychnia  upon  an  evaporating  dish,  and  adding  a  drop  or  two  of  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

Amorphous  chromate  of  strychnia  may  be  obtaiued  from  neutral  chromate  of 
potash ;  nacreous  or  crystalline,  from  the  bichromate ;  and,  thirdly,  in  the  regular 
crystalline  state  with  a  weak  chromic  acid  solution  :  fine  spiculae  are  first  formed,  and 
next  (which  is  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  strychnia)  small  cubic  crystals  studding 
the  sides  of  the  glass. 

The  salts  of  brucia  and  of  lead  alone  appear  to  afford  results  in  anywise  similar. 
The  chromates  of  strychnia  and  of  brucia  become  (contrary  to  that  of  lead)  dark 
coloured  by  exposure  to  sunlight. 

Chromate  of  strychnia  is  changed  to  deep  purple,  and  then  to  violet  and  red  on  appli- 
cation of  sulphuric  acid.  But  chromate  of  brucia  shows  only  an  orange-red  colour; 
and  being  more  soluble,  no  crystals  can  be  obtained  by  means  of  the  weak  acid 
solution  mentioned.  Chromate  of  lead  also  is  in  the  amorphous  or  powdery  state,  and 
developes  no  colour  with  sulphuric  acid. 

The  following  new  tests  disprove  the  fallacy  entertained,  that  the  non-detection 
of  strychnia  in  the  body  of  J.  P.  Cooke  was  owing  to  the  presence  of  antimony. 

Mix  one  part  of  a  saturated  solution  of  the  yellow  cyanide  of  potassium  (12  grains 


54  bepout— 1856. 

to  each  drachm  of  water)  with  two  parte  of  solution  of  acetate  of  strychnia ;  or  take 
thirty  drops  of  solution  of  strychnia  diluted  with  sixty  or  ninety  drops  of  water ;  drop  in 
one  minim  only  of  the  ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  and  agitate  the  mixture,  and  an  abun- 
dance of  minute  yellowish-white  crystals  of  the  ferrocyanide  of  strychnia  is  formed. 
Again,  lay  a  little  of  the  dried  ferrocyanide  of  strychnia  upon  a  small  portion  of  pow- 
dered pretosulphate  of  iron ;  drench  both  with  water ;  the  deep  blue  of  the  iron  is  first 
shown :  add  one  or  two  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  stir  in  a  mhrafte 
portion  of  powdered  chromate  of  potash ;  the  purple  and  violet  colour  of  strychnia  at 
once  appears. 

In  the  next  test,  a  solution  of  the  ammonio-  sulphate  of  copper  is  discoloured  bj 
gradually  adding  a*  solution  of  strychnia  and  by  boiling  the  mixture ;  crystals  of 
strychniate  of  copper  with  a  little  ammonia  will  be  formed ;  decolorize  these  wfaea 

S,  by  sulphuric  acid;  add  chromate  of  potash  ground  in  by  a  glass  rod,  and  stryclmis 
I  be  revealed.  ___ 

On  a  New  Method  of  extracting  the  Alkaloids  Strychnia  and  Bruciafrom 
Nux  Vomica  without  Alcohol.    By  John  Hoksxby. 

The  usual  modes  of  obtaining  strychnia  from  nux  vomica  are,  besides  being  mots 
or  less  expensive  owing  to  the  alcohol  used,  far  from  satisfactory.  This,  in  a  toxic*- 
logical  point  of  view,  is  particularly  the  case,  on  account  of  the  small  Quantity  of 
strychnia  naturally  contained  in  the  nut;  and  as  the  production  of  the  alkaloid  lor  its 
characteristic  colour-test  is  a  matter  of  importance,  I  have  been  induced  to  make 
several  experiments  on  the  different  methods  in  use,  and  it  appears  to  me  that  the 
simplest  and  best  is  that  which  I  now  propose,  viz.  to  make  an  acetic  extract  by 
kneading  up,  say  a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  nux  vomica  with  an  equal  quantity  of  com- 
mercial acetic  acid,  and  thinning  the  pulpy  mass  with  two  or  three  pints  of  cold  water, 
allowing  it  to  digest  for  a  few  days.  The  clear  liquor  must  then  be  decanted  off  sad 
an  equal  quantity  of  fresh  water  poured  on  the  mass  to  digest  for  a  day  or  two  longer, 
or  till  all  soluble  matter  is  extracted.  The  clear  liquor  is  then  to  be  decanted,  and 
the  remainder  thrown  on  a  flannel  filter.  The  liquid  which  passes  through  should 
be  mixed  with  the  former  decanted  liquors  and  evaporated  to  a  syrupy  consistence 
(about  three  or  four  ounces).  When  this  is  cold,  dilute  it  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
water,  add  liquor  ammonite  in  excess,  and  set  it  by  for  a  day  or  two  that  the  stryclmis 
may  crystallize  out,  which  is  known  by  the  various  little  white  tufts  which  collect 
within  the  fluid  as  well  as  on  the  sides  of  the  glass  vessel.  When  the  crystallization 
is  complete,  the  dark  green  supernatant  fluid  is  to  be  passed  through  a  calico  filter ; 
and  the  residuum  with  the  crystals  adhering  to  the  vessel  collected  thereon,  must  be 
left  to  drain ;  the  dark  green  mass  consisting  of  strychnia  and  brucia  with  retinoid 
matter  is  next  to  be  scraped  off  and  well  dried  m  a  water-bath,  digested  in  hot  dflnted 
acetic  acid,  and  the  solution  filtered.  The  strychnia  and  brucia  may  be  thrown  down 
by  potassa,  or  the  strychnia  only  by  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  chromate  of  potassa, 
when  a  chromate  of  strychnia  will  he  obtained  free  from  brucia  provided  the  solution 
which  retains  the  brucia  be  tolerably  acid. 

This  chromate  of  strychnia  being  collected  on  a  filter  and  well  drained,  can  easfly 
be  Achromatized  by  digestion  in  liq.  ammonias,  and  the  strychnia  obtained  of  a  more 
or  less  snowy  whiteness. 

The  quantity  of  strychnia  actually  contained  in  the  nux  vomica  has  not,  I  believe, 
been  accurately  ascertained,  at  least  if  I  may  judge  from  Professor  Taylor's  work  on 
Poisons,  where  that  gentleman  represents  it  at  about  <fo  or  J  a  grain  per  cent  I 
cannot  help  thinking  that  the  exhaustion  in  that  case  must  have  been  but  imperfectly 
performed,  as  my  own  experiments  show  that  nearly  twice  that  quantity  is  capable  el 
being  extracted ;  for  in  my  first  concentration  of  the  liquor  from  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  nux  vomica  I  obtained  as  follows : — 

From  the  1st  concentration  11  grains  of  strychnia 
»      2nd  „  4     „  „ 

u      3rd  „  2      „ 

17  grains. 
^  This  difference  in  quantity  is  necessary  to  be  borne  in  mind  by  the  medical  prac- 
titioner when  prescribing  the  extract  and  other  preparations  of  nux  vomica. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS*  •    58 

Experiments  on  Animals  with  Strychnia,  and  probable  reasons  for  the  no** 
detection  of  the  Poison  in  certain  cases.    By  John  Hobslxy. 

The  author  next  related  his  experiments  on  three  white  rats  with  strychnine.  To 
each  rat  was  given  a  quarter  of  a  grain  of  powdered  strychnia.  In  little  more  than 
an  Lour  a  quarter-grain  dose  was  given  to  the  largest  rat,  and  in  about  another  hour 
half  a  grain  more  was  given  to  the  same  animal.  At  4  o'clock  the  next  morning 
they  were  all  alive,  having  eaten  bread  and  milk,  but  shortly  after  7  o'clock  they 
were  all  dead,  one  having  Jived  just  twelve  hours  after  taking  the  quarter-grain  dose. 

In  about  three  hours  afterwards  not  the  least  indication  of  strychnine  could  be 
obtained  by  the  usual  tests,  and  all  traces  of  bitterness  were  lost.  Every  portion  of 
their  bodies  gave  the  same  negative  results.  Was,  then,  the  strychnia  decomposed  in 
the  organism,  and  its  nature  changed,  as  Liebig  intimated? 

The  strychnine  might  have  been  absorbed  into  the  albumen  or  other  solid  animal 
matter,  and  thus  abstracted  from  the  fluid,  forming  perhaps  by  coagulation  in  the 
blood!  a  solid  albuminate  as  in  the  case  of  the  glairy  white  of  egg  with  strychnia,  the 
lull  quantity  of  the  alkaloid  not  being  recoverable. 

In  his  second  experiment  the  author  gave  nill  three-quarters  of  a  grain  to  a  wild 
rat,  which  was  killed  by  a  dog  four  or  five  days  afterwards,  exhibiting  but  little  of 
the  effects  of  the  poison ;  the  palms  of  the  feet  having  cedematoua  swellings,  and  one 
of  the  fore-feet  being  contracted.  In  the  third  experiment,  Mr.  H.  gave  a  pill  of  two 
grains  of  strychnia  wrapped  in  blotting-paper,  to  a  full-sized  terrier  dog.  It  was  ap- 
parently well  for  at  least  five  hours,  but  m  the  morning  was  found  dead,  as  though 
asleep.  When  taken  up,  blood  flowed  freely  from  its  mouth.  The  right  ventricle 
and  auricle  of  the  heart  contained  no  blood ;  the  left  was  full  of  partly  liquid,  partly 
clotted  blood.  The  stomach  was  detached  with  both  orifices  closed.  On  incision, 
the  paper  wrapper,  so  far  from  being  reduced  to  a  pulp  by  the  action  of  the  stomach, 
was  found  in  the  same  state  as  when  the  pill  was  given,  and  contained  nearly  all  the 
strychnine. 

None  of  the  absorbed  strychnia  could  be  detected  in  the  blood  or  elsewhere  after 
the  most  careful  experiments. 

Mr.  H.  subsequently  made  experiments  proving  the  great  probability  that  a  more 
or  less  insoluble  compound  of  organic  or  animal  matter  is  found  in  combination  with 
strychnia. 

On  the  Products  and  Composition  of  Wheat-Grain. 
By  J.  B.  Lawes,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  Gilbert. 


On  the  Detection  of  Strychnine.    By  Stevenson  Macadam,  PhJ). ,  F.R.S.E., 
F.C.S.,  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  in  the  Medical  School,  Surgeons'  Hall;  in  the 
School  of  Arts ;  and  to  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  Edin- 
burgh* 
Four  points  were  sought  to  be  determined  by  the  present  investigation. 

(1)  Can  strychnine  which  has  been  administered  as  a  poison  be  thereafter  detected 
in  the  animal  system  ? 

(2)  Will  antimony,  morphine,  coniine,  or  other  chemical  agent,  conceal  strychnine, 
when  such  has  been  given  to  the  animal  ? 

(3)  Will  time,  with  its  host  of  putrefying  agents,  so  for  destroy  strychnine  as  to 
render  its  detection  unlikely  or  impossible  1    And 

(4)  Can  strychnine  which  has  been  given  to  the  animal  in  minimum  doses  remain 
in  its  organism  in  such  quantity  as  afterwards  to  be  isolated  and  recognized? 

In  examining  animal  matter  for  strychnine,  the  author  has  found  the  following 
process  eminently  serviceable,  and  confidently  commends  it  to  the  notice  of  analysts 
as  a  method  which  can  be  depended  upon.  The  animal  matter,  when  solid,  is  chopped 
into  minute  fragments,  and  treated  with  a  dilute  solution  of  oxalic  acid.  After  stand- 
ing twenty-four  hours,  during  which  time  the  mass  is  repeatedly  agitated,  the  whole 
is  filtered  through  muslin.  The  contents  of  the  filter  are  well  washed  with  water,  and 
the  washings  added  to  the  filtrate.  The  liquid  so  obtained  is  heated  to  ebullition, 
.when  albuminous  matters  separate,  and  whilst  warm,  is  filtered  through  paper.    Ani- 


56   •  KKPOJBT — 1856. 

mal  charcoal  is  added  to  the  filtrate,  and,  after  repeated  agitation  during  twentyte 
hours,  the  supernatant  liquid  is  decanted  off,  and  the  charcoal  received  on  a  paper 
filter,  where  it  is  well  washed  with  cold  water.  The  charcoal  now  retaining  toe 
strychnine  is  allowed  to  dry  spontaneously,  thereafter  placed  in  a  flask,  drenched 
with  alcohol,  and  the  whole  kept  for  two  hours  at  a  temperature  short  of  ehuIHtMBL. 
The  alcoholic  extract  is  separated  by  filtration  from  the  charcoal,  and  is  en 
down  to  dryness  in  a  porcelain  vessel,  at  a  water-bath  heat  The  residue  so  < 
will  generally  be  found  in  a  fit  condition  to  be  at  once  tested  for  strychnine,  by  i 
of  bichromate  of  potash  and  sulphuric  acid ;  but  should  such  not  be  the  case,  a  frv 
drops  of  oxalic  acid  solution  are  again  added,  and  the  process  repeated  from  the  action 
of  charcoal  onwards.  Proceeding  in  this  manner,  the  author  has  many  times  suc- 
ceeded in  detecting  strychnine  in  the  various  organs  of  an  animal  destroyed  by  mesa* 
of  it.  In  a  few  instances,  hydrochloric  acid  and  acetic  acid  were  severally  employed 
instead  of  the  oxalic  acid,  but  were  found  unsuitable.  Tartaric  acid,  however,  giro 
results  equally  successful  with  those  yielded  by  oxalic  acid. 

When  this  investigation  commenced,  it  was  still  an  open  question  as  to  the  possi- 
bility of  strychnine  being  absorbed  and  retained  in  the  animal  system.  Accordingly, 
in  the  first  trials,  large  doses  were  gradually  given,  so  as  to  afford  every  chance  of  die 
strychniue  being  afterwards  found. 

A  Horse  received  24  grains  of  strychnine  in  small  doses  at  repeated  intervals  daring 
one  hour  and  fifty  minutes,  when  a  large  dose  of  12  grains  was  given.  Tetanus 
came  on  in  two  hours  from  the  commencement  of  the  experiment,  and  the  animal 
died  in  one  minute  thereafter.  Strychnine  was  detected  in  (1)  the  contents  of  the 
stomach,  (2 J  the  muscle,  (3)  the  blood,  and  (4)  the  urine. 

A  large  Police  Doc  partook  of  four  bread  pills,  each  containing  y^th  of  a  gram  of 
Strychnine,  at  intervals  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  hour  each.  In  fifteen  minutes  after- 
wards 3  grains  of  strychnine  were  given,  and  in  other  fifteen  minutes  another  aose  ef 
3  grains.  Tetanic  spasms  commenced  in  one  hour  and  forty-five  minutes  after  the 
first  dose  was  administered,  and  the  animal  died  in  thirteen  minutes.  Strychnine  was 
found  in  (1)  the  intestine?,  (2)  the  blood,  (3)  urine,  and  (4)  muscle.  The  other 
parts  of  this  animal  were  not  examined. 

Three  Mice  were  poisoned  with  strychnine  by  the  author *s  assistant,  Mr.  John  J.  J. 
Kyle,  who  afterwards  examined  them  according  to  Stas'process,  substituting  chloroform 
for  ether.  He  detected  the  alkaloid  in  the  stomachs  and  intestines  thrown  together, 
but  not  in  the  muscle  and  other  organs. 

The  suggestion  lately  advanced,  that  antimony  and  other  substances  are  capable  of 
destroying,  retaining,  or  concealing  strychnine,  when  such  has  been  administered  at 
a  poison,  does  not  seem  to  possess  any  foundation.  A  White  Doff  which  bad  been 
under  treatment  with  tartar  emetic  for  four  days,  receiving  four  Jth  of  a  grain  doses 
each  day,  was  poisoned  with  1  grain  of  strychnine,  and  died  in  forty  minutes ;  and, 
when  tested,  the  poison  was  found  in  every  organ.  A  Black  Dog,  similarly  treated  with 
tartar  emetic,  received  1  j  grain  of  strychnine  along  with  12  grains  of  extract  of  best- 
lock,  died  in  one  hour  and  two  minutes,  and  when  examined  yielded  evidence  of  the 
poison  having  passed  into  nearly  every  part  of  its  system.  A  Terrier  Dog,  poisoned 
by  1 J  grain  strychnine  and  3  drops  coniine,  gave  the  same  positive  result  A  Cat, 
to  which  half  a  grain  of  strychnine  and  2  grains  of  muriate  of  morphia  were  given,  died 
in  fifty-six  minutes,  and  afforded  evidence  of  strychnine  in  six  different  parts. 

The  effect  of  time  in  causing  the  destruction  of  the  strychnine  has  also  occupied  the 
attention  of  the  author.  Several  parts  of  the  Horse  which  had  been  buried  for  fbsr 
weeks,  as  also  other  parts  which  had  Iain  above  ground  for  three  weeks,  including  the 
stomach  itself,  and  which  were  in  an  advanced  stage  of  decomposition,  on  being  tested, 
showed  the  presence  of  strychnine.  A  Duck  also  poisoned  by  strychnine,  and  which 
lay  above  ground  for  three  and  a  half  weeks  (by  which  time  maggots  in  abundance 
were  crawling  in  and  through  it),  yielded  strychnine.  Further,  the  remains  of  a  Dog 
destroyed  two  and  a  half  years  ago  by  strychnine,  as  also  those  of  another  Dog  poi- 
soned three  and  a  half  years  ago  by  the  same  substance,  still  yielded  satisfactory  indi- 
cations of  the  agent  by  means  of  which  they  came  by  their  death. 

As  strychnine,  like  other  organic  substances,  is  liable  to  change  in  the  mimfl 
system,  it  is  of  importance  to  know  how  far  minimum  doses  may  be  given  which  in  days 
-may  prove  fatal  and  yet  be  thereafter  discovered.    A  Skye  Terrier  received  $th  of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  5? 

a  grain  of  strychnine,  was  seized  with  tetanus  in  three  hours,  died  in  twelve  hours, 
and  notwithstanding  the  smallness  of  the  dose,  and  the  length  of  time  the  vital  powers 
could  act  upon  it,  yet  strychnine  was  satisfactorily  discovered  in  all  the  more  im- 
portant organs.  Again,  a  Terrier  Dog  was  fed  on  the  flesh  of  the  horse  for  four- 
teen days,  received  each  day  2  lbs.  of  food  undoubtedly  containing  strychnine,  lived 
and  thrived  on  the  poisoned  flesh,  and  when  afterwards  destroyed  by  strychnine  (un- 
fortunately so),  yielded  such  a  comparatively  large  proportion  of  strychnine,  that  the 
author  came  to  the  conclusion  that  this  excess  of  strychnine  must  have  been  stored  up 
in  the  tissues  of  the  animal  whilst  it  was  partaking  of  the  flesh  of  the  horse,  containing 
the  minimum  of  minimum  of  doses  of  strychnine. 

In  summing  up  these  remarks  on  the  detection  of  strychnine,  the  author  deduces 
from  the  results  of  the  experiments,  the  following  conclusions : — 

(1)  That,  when  administered  to  the  animal,  strychnine  is  absorbed  and  retained 
in  its  system. 

(2)  That  strychnine  is  not  sensibly  destroyed  in  the  animal  system  during  life,  nor 
by  the  partial  decomposition  of  the  animal  tissue  consequent  on  death. 

(3)  That  minimum  doses  of  strychnine  may  cause  the  animal  to  exhibit  but  par- 
tially, or  not  at  all,  the  physiological  effects,  but  such  doses  are  the  most  favourable 
for  the  chemist ;  so  that,  as  the  physiological  evidence  decreases,  or  sinks  to  a  mini- 
mum, the  chemical  proof  increases  or  rises  to  a  maximum. 

(4)  That  tartar  emetic,  muriate  of  morphia,  extract  of  hemlock,  and  coniine,  may 
retard  or  relieve  the  spasms,  but  they  do  not  in  the  slightest  degree  hinder  the  chemi- 
cal isolation  and  detection  of  strychnine. 

(5)  That,  by  proper  treatment,  strychnine  can  be  separated  from  organized  tissue 
and  organic  matter  in  general,  as  easily  as  any  other  poison — arsenic  not  excepted— 
and  much  more  easily  than  most  other  poisonous  substances. 

(6)  That,  when  isolated,  strychniue  can  be  distinguished  by  a  special  test,  which 
is  unerring  and  most  delicate,  and  which  will  detect  the  merest  trace. 

(7)  That  the  decomposition  or  natural  decay  of  the  animal  frame  may  in  ages  cause 
the  complete  destruction  of  the  strychnine ;  but  in  this,  time  will  no  more  easily  blot 
out  all  traces  of  strychnine  than  it  will  obliterate  the  mark  of  the  knife  of  the  assassin. 


On  a  Series  of  Descriptive  Labels  for  Mineral  Collections  in  Public  Institu- 
tions.   By  the  Rev.  W.  Mitchell  and  Prof.  J.  Tennant. 


Note  on  the  Alkaline  Emanations  from  Sewers  and  Cesspools.  By  William 
Odling,  M.B.,  F.C.S.,  L.R.C.P.,  Prof essor  of  Practical  Chemistry,  SfC, 
Guy's  Hospital. 

Sewer  and  cesspool  water  was  distilled.  The  powerfully  alkaline  distillate  was 
supersaturated  with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  precipitated  with  bichloride  of  platinum  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  resulting  platinum  salt  was  crystallized,  and  then  burnt  with 
chromate  of  lead.  The  liberation  of  a  large  amount  of  carbonic  acid  proved  the  car- 
boniferous character  of  the  alkali.  The  platinum  salt  yielded  the  same  per-centage 
of  platinum  as  the  platinc-chloride  of  metnylamine. 


On  the  Detection  of  Antimony  for  Medico-Legal  Purposes.  By  William 
Odling,  M.B.,  F.C.S.,  L.R.C.P.,  Professor  of  Practical  Chemistry,  *c, 
Guy's  Hospital. 

a  By  Reinsch's  process,  antimonial  deposits  upon  copper  can  be  obtained  from  solu- 
tions which,  on  account  of  their  dilution,  are  unaffected  by  sulphydric  acid.  The 
'001th  of  a  grain  of  dry  tartar  emetic,  under  a  dilution  of  half  a  million  times,  gives, 
a  complete  metallic  coating  to  one  square  inch  of  copper  surface.  By  the  same  pro- 
cess, other  metals  than  antimony,  arsenic,  and  mercury  can  be  deposited  as  brilliant 
Metallic  coatings  upon  copper.  The  characters  of  the  various  deposits,  and  the  cir- 
cumstances under  which  they  form,  vary  somewhat.  Cadmium  precipitates  copper 
completely  from  cupric  solutions ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  from  cadmic  solutions  cad- 
mium is  readily  precipitable  upon  copper.    The  deposit  of  antimony  upon  copper  is 


3$  BBP09T— 1856. 

best  identified  by  boiling  the  coated  foil  in  a  weak  and  faintly  alkaline  sofotisa  sf 
permanganate  of  potash,  until  the  whole  of  the  liquid  is  destroyed,  altering,  r^ 
tying  the  filtrate,  and  treating  it  with  sulphydric  acid,  when  the  characteristic  < 
coloured  antimonial  sulphide  is  produced.  ' 

On  the  Compounds  of  Chromium  and  Bismuth.     By  W.  R.  Pkarsow. 

On  Engraving  Collodion  Photographs  by  means  of  Fluoric  Acid  Gas. 
By  Charles  Poole y,  Cirencester. 
In  this  paper  the  author  set  forth  the  means  he  had  adopted  in  order  to 
engraved  impressions  of  collodion  photographs  on  glass,     tie  divided  the  process  inst 
four  steps : — 

1st.  The  preparation  of  the  plate. 
2nd.  The  treatment  of  the  picture. 
3rd.    The  application  of  heat  to  the  picture. 

4th.    The  exposure  of  the  picture  to  the  influence  of  fluoric  acid  gat. 
In  the  preparation  of  the  plate,  Mr.  Pooley  found  it  necessary  to  use  new  glass 
and  strong  collodiou  well  iodized,  and  also  to  deposit  as  much  pure  silver  as  possible, 
for  which  purpose  he  developed  with  protosulphate  of  iron  and  acetic  acid,  altbeagt 
he  thought  other  agents  would  answer  the  purpose  equally  well. 

The  author  then  proceeded  to  show  that  the  great  obstacle  he  had  to  contend  vita, 
was  the  presence  of  the  film  of  collodion  covering  the  glass ;  hut  this  was  overcesBt 
by  submitting  the  plate  to  a  high  temperature,  which  gave  to  the  silver  a  white,  frosted 
appearance,  and  attenuated  the  film  of  collodion  so  much  as  to  make  it  permeable  to 
the  action  of  the  gas.  The  picture  was  then  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  dry, 
warm  vapour  of  fluoric  acid,  and  in  20  to  40  seconds  the  operation  was  completed. 

Having  washed  off  the  film,  a  fine  etching  becomes  visible,  so  delicate  in  its  matt- 
ings, and  yet  so  perfect,  that  the  unassisted  eye  is  unable  to  discern  alt  its  beauties. 
It  requires  a  lens  to  make  out  all  the  minutiae  of  detail  correctly. 

The  author  then  adverted  to  a  remarkable  fact  whfch  he  had  observed  in  tat 
character  of  the  engraved  picture,  namely,  that  the  portions  of  the  glass  on  which  the 
silver  had  been  deposited  were  those  on  which  the  action  of  the  gas  first  took  place, 
the  unsilvered  parts  being  unaffected  by  it.  This  circumstance,  which  appears  to  be 
at  variance  with  our  notions  of  the  ancient  claims  of  fluoric  acid  for  silica,  opens  s 
new  field  for  investigation.  The  author  refrained  from  offering  an  explanation  of 
this  interesting  question,  but  left  it  as  a  subjeet  for  future  consideration. 

On  the  Gases  of  the  Grotto  del  Cave. 
By  the  Rev.  C.  Pritchard,  M.A.,  FJUS. 

On  the  Corrosive  Action  of  Smoke  on  Building  Stones. 
By  Professor  A.  Voelckkr,  PJLD.t  F.C.8. 

On  the  Composition  of  American  Phosphate  of  Lime. 
By  Professor  A.  Voelckbr,  PhJ).,  F.CJ3. 

On  Basic  Phosphates  of  Lime.     By  Professor  A.  VoiLcnR,  Ph.D.,  FJC&. 

On  Albuminized  Collodion.  By  W.  Stkrs  Ward,  F.CJS. 
Immediately  after  the  publication  of  M.  Taupenot's  process,  I  proceeded  to  experi- 
ment on  it,  under  the  impression  that  it  possessed  many  advantages  over  the  dry 
photographic  processes  then  known,  and  that  the  further  investigation  of  i  t  was  Uker/ 
to  lead  to  results  of  the  highest  interest,  both  practically  and  theoretically.  In  thest 
respects  I  have  not  been  disappointed,  and  I  can  most  decidedly  recommend  tat 
adoption  of  the  process  to  all  photographers,  as  well  to  those  who  are  not  afraid  of  a 
little  trouble  in  the  manipulation  of  preparing  their  own  materials  and  plates,  u  to 
those  who,  preferring  the  artistic  choice  of  subjects,  would  rather  commit  the  prepars- 
*  tion  andsubsequent  development  of  plates  to  assistants,  or  to  professional  phoiogrspfreo. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  59 

I  have  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  of  several  friends,  Members  of  the  Leeds 
Photographic  Society,  of  whom  some  worked  conjointly  with  me,  and  of  others  who 
freely  communicated  to  me  their  experience  in  working  the  albumen  process. 

The  modification  of  the  original  process  which  I  have  adopted,  consists,  first,  in 
using  only  one  bath  for  both  the  first  and  second  sensitizing  of  the  plate.  This  bath 
is  composed  of  about  35  grains  of  nitrate  of  silver  per  ounce,  with  about  10  per  cent, 
of  the  commercial  acetic  acid  known  as  Beaufoy's  acid.  Secondly,  in  using  a  very 
fluid  collodion  somewhat  highly  iodized  and  not  containing  any  bromide,  and  in  using 
albumen  without  any  other  addition  than  a  bromide  and  sufficient  water  for  its  solu- 
tion. I  use  about  4  grains  of  bromide  of  potassium  for  the  white  of  each  egg,  but 
the  particular  bromide,  or  the  precise  quantity,  does  not  appear  to  be  very  material. 
And,  thirdly,  in  drying  the  coating  of  albumen  by  suspending  the  plate  in  a  wire 
cradle  attached  to  a  long  thread  over  a  heated  iron  plate,  and  Keeping  the  prepared 
glass  plate  in  rapid  rotation  until  dry,  so  as  in  the  first  instance  to  throw  off  the 
superfluous  albumen  by  the  centrifugal  force,  and  then  to  cause  the  plate  to  dry 
equally  from  the  centre. 

I  use  a  similar  method  of  drying  after  the  second  sensitizing,  but  without  heat  if 
the  plates  are  to  be  kept  more  than  a  day  or  two. 

By  adopting  these  manipulations,  I  have  been  able  to  prepare  plates  up  to  17  inches 
by  13  as  free  from  blemishes  and  with  very  little  more  trouble,  than  if  collodion  alone 
had  been  used. 

I  have  always  preferred  to  develope  the  picture  by  gallic  acid,  using  a  cold,  nearly 
saturated  solution,  with  the  addition  of  about  4  minims  per  ounce  of  a  solution  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  30  grains  per  ounce  with  about  30  minims  of  acetic  acid,  i.  e.  rather 
less  acidified  than  the  bath  solution.  This  generally  developes  the  picture  in  about 
an  hour  and  a  half;  but  if  the  picture  be  faint  from  over-exposure,  or  slow  in  developing 
from  under-exposure,  an  addition  of  double  or  treble  the  quantity  of  aceto-nitrate 
solution  should  from  time  to  time  be  added.  A  greater  quantity  of  silver  in  the  first 
instance  appears  to  retard  the  development. 

Small  plates  may  be  more  speedily  developed  by  pyrogallic  acid,  but  with  large 
plates  I  find  gallic  acid  preferable,  both  on  the  score  of  economy,  and  that  with  pyro- 
gallic acid  constant  care  is  required  in  watching  the  development  and  in  preventing 
the  spoiling  the  result  by  a  muddy  deposit. 

The  theoretical  advantages  of  this  process  appear  to  me  to  be,  that,  compared  with 
other  processes,  it  permits  quite  as  great,  and  t  think  a  much  greater  latitude  in  the 
time  of  exposure ;  that  whilst  the  rapidity  is  as  great  as  can  be  desired  (except  for 
the  instantaneous  effects,  which  are  only  practicable  with,  wet  collodion),  an  exposure 
for  many  hours  or  even  days  may  be  given  for  feebly  illumined  objects ;  that  tne  use 
of  an  iodide  in  the  collodion  and  a  bromide  in  albumen,  give  a  great  increase  of  sen- 
sibility, in  like  manner  as  the  accelerating  effect  by  the  alternate  use  of  iodine  and 
bromine  in  the  Daguerreotype ;  that  the  image  is  formed  on  the  plane  on  which  the 
combined  films  of  collodion  and  albumen  coalesce  together,  and  where  alone  there  is 
a  combination  of  iodide  and  bromide  of  silver ;  thus,  although  it  is  necessary  that  the 
plates  should  be  very  carefully  cleaned  to  procure  the  perfect  adherence  of  the  film 
of  collodion,  neither  impurities  on  the  surface  of  the  glass  plate,  nor  on  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  albumen,  are  increased  during  the  development  of  the  image ;  that  the 
drying  the  plates  by  heat  prevents  almost  entirely  the  blistering  of  the  plates,  which 
has  been  found  so  great  a  disadvantage  in  the  process  as  published  by  M.  Taupenot. 

Note, — Subsequent  experiments  have  shown  the  use  of  a  bromide  alone  in  the 
albumen  to  be  fallacious. 


On  a  New  Process  for  Making  and  Melting  Steel.  By  P.  J.  Woeslby. 
This  process,  invented  by  Dr.  Gurlt,  is  interesting  as  an  example  of  the  method  of 
applying  fuel,  known  as  the  gas-fuel  method,  by  which  the  useful  portions  of  the  fuel 
are  brought  to  bear  while  all  impurities  are  left  behind.  This  latter  advantage  is 
peculiarly  applicable  to  iron  and  steel  making,  as  the  chief  impurities  in  these  metals 
are  derived  from  the  fuel.  Dr.  Gurlt  exposes  iron- ore  to  a  current  of  gas,  of  which  a 
small  proportion  is  burnt  to  give  the  necessary  heat.  A  short  exposure  merely  reduces, 
a  longer  carbonizes,  so  that  either  malleable  iron,  steel,  or  cast  iron  can  be  obtained 


60  *  REPORT— 1856. 

at  will.  By  applying  gas-fuel  to  a  rcverberatory  furnace,  and  blowing  in  air  by  jemi 
over  the  bridge,  a  true  blowpipe  flame  is  obtained,  by  which  the  highest  heat  possnlt 
is  attained,  and  also  by  the  regulation  of  the  wind  the  atmosphere  of  the  fame 
may  be  kept  either  neutral,  oxidizing  or  reducing  at  will.  With  such  a  furnace 
Dr.  Gurlt  hopes  to  melt  steel  in  large  quantity  without  injury  to  its  quality.  The  pi 
is  obtained  by  burning  the  fuel  in  a  close  deep  fire-box  by  means  of  a  blast  of  air  si 
the  bottom. 


On  the  Use  of  the  Gramme  in  Chemistry.    By  Henry  Wright. 


GEOLOGY. 
On  Gold  in  India.    By  Lieut.  Ayton,  Bombay  Artillery. 

On  Fossils  from  the  Crimea.    By  William  H.  Baily,  Geological  Survey  •/ 

Great  Britain. 
The  fossils  which  formed  the  subject  of  this  communication  belong,  with  one  ex- 
ception, to  the  Invertebrata,  and  were  principally  collected  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
Crimea,  by  Captain  C.  F.  Cockburn,  of  the  Royal  Artillery.  They  comprise  a  series 
from  the  Monastery  of  St.  George  and  gorge  of  iphigenia,  consisting  of  fossils  from 
the  Jurassic  and  oldest  deposits ;  also  others  from  the  tertiaries  resting  immediately 
upon  them ;  and  from  the  volcanic  or  eruptive  rocks  which  have  disturbed  and  broken 
up  some  of  these  strata,  together  with  a  set  of  well-preserved  newer  tertiary  Molluscs 
from  the  Quarantine  Harbour.  The  Museum  of  Practical  Geology  has  also  received 
from  Major  Cooke,  of  the  Royal  Engineers,  a  suite  of  somewhat  similar  forms  of 
Steppe  limestone  fossils  from  the  Redan,  and  near  the  dockyard  of  Sevastopol,  and 
some  interesting  Jurassic  Brachiopoda  from  Balaklava.  It  possesses  also  from  Lieu- 
tenant-Colonel Munro,  and  Lieutenant-Colonel  Charles  Lygon  Cocks,  of  the  Cold- 
stream  Guards,  other  specimens  of  the  Steppe  limestone  containing  fossils,  obtained 
from  the  ground  before  Sevastopol,  upon  which  the  allied  armies  were  encamped,  and 
volcanic  and  mineral  specimens  from  the  sea- coast. 

These  instructive  collections,  including  a  series  of  fossils  from  the  various  strata  of 
the  Crimea,  formerly  presented  by  the  Imperial  School  of  Mines  at  St.  Petersburgh, 
enable  us  to  add  to  the  published  lists  of  fossils  from  that  country  seventy-four 
species. 

The  geology  of  this  peninsula  having  been  described  in  detail  by  M.  Du  Bois  de 
Montpereux,  M.  Huot  in  the  work  of  DemidofF,  M.  Hommaire  de  Hell,  and  by  Sir 
R.  I.  Murchison  and  M.  de  Verneuil  in  the  '  Geology  of  Russia  and  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains/ a  slight  sketch  of  the  formations  represented  in  that  country  only  is  necessary 
before  proceeding  to  the  remarks  upon  the  fossils. 

The  most  ancient  deposits  of  the  Crimea  are  those  at  the  base  of  the  Jurassic  for* 
mation,  described  as  black  schists,  composed  of  hard,  soft,  and  ferruginous  beds,  which 
are  probably  equivalent  to  the  Trias,  or  New  Red  Sandstone  appearing  in  the  Valley 
of  Baidar  and  other  localities,  and  on  the  coast,  where  they  are  superimposed  by  die 
Lias.  Overlying  the  schists  of  the  Lias  are  the  Jurassic  rocks,  which  extend  alone  the 
southern  sea-coast  from  Balaklava  to  the  vicinity  of  Theodosia  or  Kaffa,  a  length  of 
about  100  miles.  This  mountain-chain  of  hard  and  crystalline  limestones,  pierced 
and  broken  into  by  volcanic  eruptions  of  greenstone,  porphyry,  &c,  is,  with  its  asso- 
ciated strata,  analogous  to  that  of  the  Caucasus,  and  proceeds  in  a  direction  E.N.E.  to 
S.S.W.,  its  highest  point  being  the  Tchatir  Dagh  or  Tent  Mountain,  of  an  elevation 
of  5135  feet.  The  Bay  of  Balaklava  is  enclosed  on  both  sides  by  steep  and  rugged 
rocks  of  the  Jurassic  formation,  composed  of  compact  red  and  grey  limestones,  in 
which  are  clefts  filled  with  a  reddish  clay.  These  limestones  and  clays  contain  nume- 
rous organic  remnins,  the  most  abundant  of  which  are  corals  and  Encrinital  joints. 

At  the  foot  of  the  chain  towards  the  north,  the  lower  division  of  the  Cretaceous 
series,  or  "  Neocomien,"  may  be  well  observed,  its  horizontal  beds  resting  unconform- 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  61 

ably  either  upon  the  Jurassic  limestones,  or  upon  the  shale*  at  their  base,  the  inter- 
mediate subdivisions  being  absent.  Upon  these  beds  repose  the  Upper  Cretaceous, 
composed  of  shales  (probably  equivalent  to  the  Gault),  Upper  greensand,  Chalk  marl, 
and  White  chalk.  .  On  the  eastern  coast  the  Hippuritic  and  Senonian  subdivisions 
rest  immediately  on  the  disturbed  Jurassic  beds,  the  intermediate  subdivisions  being 
absent.  The  Cretaceous  series  does  not  occupy  much  space  in  the  Crimea,  being 
enclosed  between  the  nummulitic  deposits  and  the  Jurassic  limestone,  taking  the  same 
direction,  and  extending  from  Kafla  to  Cape  Chersonese  on  the  south-west  coast.  The 
soft  calcareous  rock  of  Inkermann,  from  which  the  beautiful  white  stone  used  in  con- 
structing most  of  the  public  buildings  of  Sevastopol  was  obtained,  is  very  easily 
worked,  but  becomes  harder  and  more  durable  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  From 
comparison  of  its  fossils,  it  appears  to  be  identical  with  the  Upper  chalk. 

The  Lower  Tertiary  or  Eocene  is  represented  by  the  Nummulitic  formation,  which, 
like  the  cretaceous  peries,  is  elevated  by  the  mountainous  region  of  the  coast,  and  dis- 
posed in  long  bands  following  its  contour.'  This  formation  commences  in  the  environs 
of  Theodosia,  continuing  to  the  north,  near  to  Karas- it  bazar,  Simferopol,  and  Baktchi 
Serai,  terminating  at  the  south-west  coast  near  Sevastopol. 

The  Upper  Tertiary  formation  includes  the  older  and  newer  Caspian  or  Steppe 
limestone,  the  former  of  which  subdivisions,  or  older  Caspian,  occupies  the  northern 
and  greater  portion  of  the  peninsula  at  Eupatoria,  Sevastopol,  &c,  including  the 
chief  limestones  round  Kertch,  and  the  deposits  of  the  cliffs  of  Kamiesch  Boroun 
and  Taman.  These  limestones  and  sands,  associated  in  some  localities  with  volcanic 
ashes,  tufa,  &c,  occur  in  various  conditions  as  shelly  and  oolitic  limestones  of  marine 
and  freshwater  origin,  being  more  or  less  fossiliferous.  The  Heracleotic  Cbcrsonesus 
is,  as  it  were,  a  shred  of  the  Steppe  limestone ;  the  Bay  of  Sevastopol  exhibiting  a 
succession  of  formations  from  the  most  recent  of  these  tertiaries  through  the  nummu- 
litic limestone  and  chalk.  The  newer  Caspian  occupies  the  still  more  northern  extre- 
mity of  the  Crimea,  extending  to  Perekop,  Kherson,  and  the  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Azof. 
The  environs  of  Kertch  and  Taman  are  the  most  favourable  localities  to  observe  its 
characters,  and  here  the  fossils  are  in  good  preservation.  The  existence  of  coal  has 
been  often  rumoured,  but  on  examination  the  supposed  coal  has  proved  to  be  lignite 
of  very  ordinary  quality. 

Deposits  of  hydrate  and  phosphate  of  iron  have  been  met  with  near  to  Kertch, 
Taman,  and  other  parts  of  the  Crimea.  A  foundry  was  formerly  established  near 
Kertch,  and  the  iron  was  worked  by  M.  Gourieff.  From  an  analysis  by  Hussein 
Effendi,  of  the  Government  School  of  Mines,  it  gave  but  19*234  per  cent. 

After  describing  the  new  species,  the  following  summary  of  fossils  collected  from 
each  formation  was  read,  viz. : — 

Lower  Secondary — Jurassic  Group. 

Known  New 

•pedes,  species.  Total. 

Amorphozoa 0  1  1 

Zoophyta 10  0  10 

Echinodermata 4?  ?  9 

Mollusca :  Brachiopoda 7  4  11 

Conchifera , 6  2  8 

Gasteropoda 1  1  2 

Cephalopoda 15  0  15 

43  8        56 

Upper  Secondary — Cretaceous  Group* 

Amorphozoa 5 

Zoophyta 11 

Echinodermata 9 

Polyzoa 8 

Brachiopoda 14 

Conchifera 49 

Gasteropoda 9 

Cephalopoda    . • 19 

r                                                                                     Total  — 


90  RSPORT— 1856, 

Older  Tertiary— Nummulitie* 

Foraminifera    .    \ 2 

Jfchinodermata  • 3 

Conchifera 8 

Gasteropoda 10 

Total  —  a 

Newer  Tertiary—"  Falunian  "  (D'Orbigny). 

Amorphozoa 0  2 

Conchifera 27  30 

Gasteropoda 19  34 

46         66      112 

Species  before  described    .    .    .    236  I      Total    number    of    species    col- 
Mew  species 74  |         lected 381 

Remarks  on  the  Fossils. 

On  referring  to  the  table  of  Jurassic  fossils,  it  was  shown  that  the  moat  numeral 
classes  represented  in  the  Crimea  from  that  formation  are  the  Zoophyta,  Brachioposi, 
and  Cephalopoda— the  Conchifera  and  Gasteropoda  being  the  fewest.  In  the  lowest 
class,  the  Amorphozoa — a  group  of  rare  occurrence  in  this  formation — a  new  form  of 
Sponge  has  been  collected  by  Capt.  Cockburn,  from  the  red  Jurassic  limestone  near 
die  Monastery  of  St.  George.  Of  the  Zoophyta  nearly  all  the  specimens  recent 
have  been  identified  with  species  found  in  the  coralline  and  inferior  oolite  of  thh 
country.  The  Echinodermata  are  principally  spines  belonging  to  the  genus  Cidara; 
with  these  are  joints  of  crinoids  (Apiocrinites)  from  near  Salaklava,  and  portions  of 
stems  of  Pentacrinites  from  the  interior  of  the  Crimea.  Of  the  Brachiopoda,  the  cha- 
racteristic lias  species,  Terebratula  numismaUs,  has  been  obtained  from  Woronioff 
Road.  Four  are  new  species — two  of  these  belonging  to  the  genua  Rhy*ckoneJU\ 
others  of  the  same  genus  have  been  identified  with  inferior  oolite  and  marlstone  sm» 
cies.  In  the  lias  shales  of  the  WoronzofF  Road  were  found  several  specimens  of  s 
bivalve,  identified  with  Astarte  complanata  (Roemer),  together  with  a  new  form  of 
Cardium  allied  to  an  inferior  oolite  species.  The  Gasteropoda  are  represented  only 
by  a  large  species  of  Natica  from  the  red  limestone  near  the  Monastery  of  St  George, 
and  a  fragment  of  Nerinea,  probably  N.  grandis,  from  the  village  DianataL  Toe 
Cephalopoda,  of  which  the  Ammonites  belong  mostly  to  the  fimbriated  group,  hire 
been  described  by  M.  d'Orbigny,  together  with  one  species  of  Belemnites  from  Kobsel 
and  Biasali. 

In  the  list  of  Cretaceous  fossils  are  included  those  mentioned  by  M.  Du  Bon  dc 
Montpereux  in  his  table  of  fossils  from  the  Neocomian  to  the  chalk  found  at  Baktaai 
Serai;  from  the  Neocomian  of  that  locality  he  tabulates  sixty-five  species.  T\» 
Upper  Cretaceous,  including  the  Upper  greensand,  Chalk  marl,  and  Upper  chalk,  ait 
richest  in  Conchifera,  of  which  there  are  thirty-two  species.  Many  of  these  were  col- 
lected by  Capt.  Cockburn  from  the  Upper  chalk  of  Inkermann,  several  of  them  being 
identical  with  characteristic  chalk  fossils.  Associated  with  these  were  found  msny 
specimens  of  a  large  Crania,  identified  with  the  Crania  spinulosa  of  Nilsson,  and  most 
probably  the  same  species  as  that  mentioned  by  Du  Bois  in  his  table  under  the  name 
of  Crania  nummulus  from  Baktchi  Serai. 

From  the  Nummulitic  formation,  belonging  to  the  Older  Tertiary,  only  twenty- 
three  species  are  known,  most  of  these  being  included  by  M.  Du  Bois  in  his  table  of 
cretaceous  fossils.  The  Nummulites  are  referred  by  M.  d'Orbigny  to  two  speciei 
only,  viz.  Nummulites  nummularia  and  N.  mamiUa  from  near  Simferopol,  lines 
species  of  £chinoderms  from  this  formation  are  mentioned  in  M.  d'Orbigny*s '  Pro- 
drome de  Paleontologie/  a  remarkable  form  of  which,  the  Conoclypus  conoideu*fi%m 
this  collection,  from  near  Simferopol ;  it  has  also  been  described  as  from  near  the 
River  Salghir.  Of  Conchifera  eight  species  *re.  tabulated,  the  most  characteristic  of 
which  is  the  Ostrea  glgantica  (Brander).  Ten  species  of  Gasteropoda  are  also  noticed, 
one  of  them  being  the  Cerithium  giganleum,  a  large  cast  of  which,  together  with  the 
last-named  oyster  from  Simferopol,  is  also,  in  this  collection. 

The  list  of  Newer  Tertiary,  or  Steppe  limestone  fossils,  includes  those  described  by 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TH1  SECTIONS.  68 

M.  Deshayes  in  the  third  volume  of  the  '  Memoirs  Geol.  Soc  of  France/  from  Ter- 
tiary deposits  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Kertch ;  the  majority  of  them  are,  however, 
from  near  Sevastopol.  The  classes  represented,  with  the  exception  of  two  new  species 
of  Amorphozoa,  are  entirely  composed  of  species  of  Conchifera  and  Gasteropoda,  in 
nearly  equal  proportions,  more  than  half  of  which  are  new.  Of  the  peculiar  forms  of 
CarJium  resembling  the  present  Aralo-Caspian  types,  thirty-one  species  are  tabulated, 
including  those  described  by  M.  Deshayes,  as  found  associated  with  bands  of  iron-ore 
before  alluded  to.  Several  of  these  are  in  the  collection  of  the  British  Museum  from 
the  same  locality ;  also  twelve  species  of  Trockus,  some  of  them  being  in  beautiful 
preservation,  and  mostly  collected  by  Capt.  Cockburn  from  the  Quarantine  Harbour, 
Sevastopol.  Six  of  these  are  identified  with  species  figured  in  the  fine  work  of  M. . 
Hommaire,  and  described  by  M.  d'Orbigny  from  the  Tertiary  of  Kichinev  in  Bessa- 
rabia, and  contemporaneous  deposits. 

On  the  Origin  of  Siliceous  Deposits  in  the  Chalk  Formation* 
By  J.  8.  Bowbrbank,  F.R.S.,  F.G.8.  *c. 

Some  years  since  the  author  read  at  the  Geological  Society  of  London,  a  paper  on 
me  origin  and  structure  of  the  siliceous  deposits  of  the  chalk  and  greensand  forma- 
tions, and  subsequently  one  on  the  spongeous  origin  of  moss,  agates,  &c,  in  which  he 
advocated  the  doctrine  of  the  derivation  of  nearly  the  whole  of  the  flints  and  cherts 
from  various  species  of  sponges  that  existed  in  the  ancient  oceans. 

The  principal  proofs  adduced  at  that  time  in  favour  of  the  views  then  enunciated, 
were  to  a  great  extent  derived  from  the  microscopical  evidence  afforded  by  sections 
of  such  siliceous  bodies.  The  object  of  the  present  communication  is  to  strengthen 
and  confirm  those  views  by  the  production  of  evidence  derived  from  information 
recently  acquired,  regarding  the  habits  and  manner  of  growth  of  the  recent  Spon- 
giadae. In  tne  opinion  of  the  author,  the  whole  of  the  numerous  strata  of  nodular  and 
tabular  flints  are  derived  from  vast  quantities  of  sponges  that  existed  in  the  seas  of  those 
periods ;  the  attraction  of  the  animal  matter  of  the  sponges  inducing  the  deposit  of 
the  silex,  which  in  the  first  instance  is  always  in  the  form  of  a  thin  rum  surrounding 
the  skeleton  of  the  sponge,  and  from  which  successive  crops  of  chalcedonic  crystals 
proceed  until  the  solidification  of  the  whole  is  effected. 

The  tabular  beds  of  flint  are  accounted  for  on  the  presumption  that  the  sponges 
originating  the  deposit  grew  on  a  more  consolidated  bottom  than  the  tuberous  ones, 
and  that  they  therefore  developed  themselves  laterally  instead  of  perpendicularly,  as 
many  species  of  recent  sponges  are  in  the  habit  of  doing,  and  that  approaching  and 
touching  each  other,  they  united  and  thus  formed  extensive  and  continuous  beds 
instead  of  numerous  isolated  specimens.  The  author  illustrated  this  part  of  his 
subject  by  producing  four  recent  sponges  of  the  same  species,  which  having  been 
placed  in  close  contact  while  in  the  living  state,  became  firmly  united  to  each  other 
within  eighteen  hours,  and  ultimately  formed  but  one  sponge. 

The  occurrence  of  the  shells  of  bivalves  and  of  eclynoderms  filled  with  flint  or  chert, 
was  accounted  for  on  the  principle  of  their  having  been  previously  filled  with  living 
sponges,  and  subsequently  fossilised  by  the  deposit  in  the  spongeous  tissue  of  silex 
held  in  solution  in  the  water ;  in  illustration  of  which  the  author  produced  specimens 
of  recent  bivalve  shells  in  a  closed  condition,  which  were  completely  filled  with  recent 
sponges. 

The  loose  specimens  of  fossil  sponges  contained  in  the  Wiltshire  flints  were  ex- 
plained on  the  same  principle ;  but  their  not  adhering  to  each  other,  the  author  stated, 
was  in  accordance  with  the  law  that  always  obtains  among  the  recent  Spongiadae, 
that  although  individuals  of  the  same  species  of  sponge  always  adhere  on  being 
brought  in  close  contact,  those  of  different  species  never  unite  under  such  circum- 
stances, and  specimens  of  recent  sponges,  one  species  completely  enveloping  the  other, 
but  without  the  slightest  adherence  between  them,  were  exhibited. 

The  author  concluded  his  paper  by  applying  the  same  principles  to  the  siliceous 
deposits  of  the  whole  of  the  geological  formations  of  aqueous  origin,  and  by  expressing 
his  opinion  that  the  geological  ofhce  of  the  Spongiadae  in  creation  is  that  of  inducing 
the  deposit  of  siliceous  matter  held  in  solution  in  the  ocean,  as  the  Corallidse  assist  in 
the  consolidation  of  the  calcareous  matter. 


64  report— 1856. 

On  some  New  Specie*  of  Corals  in  the  Lias  of  Gloucester  shirt,  Worcester**}*, 
and  Warwickshire.   By  the  Rev.  P.  B.  Brodxb,  M.A.,  F.G.S. 

The  object  of  this  communication  is  rather  to  indicate  the  occurrence  of  some  aev 
and  undescribed  species  of  corals  in  the  Lias,  than  to  describe  them  in  detail.  Tier 
are  generally  rare  in  the  Lias,  the  sea  in  which  it  was  deposited  being  unfavourable 
to  the  growth  of  Polyparia.  A  species  of  Cyathopkyllum  and  a  Fhutra  have  bees 
found  by  Mr.  C.  Moore  in  the  Upper  Lias  of  Ilminster,  in  Somersetshire,  in  addi- 
tion to  those  figured  in  the  '  Memoirs  of  the  Palaeontographical  Society.'  Frost 
tlie  Lias  marlstone  of  Northamptonshire  a  form  belonging  probably  to  the  Fimgife 
is  in  the  collection  of  the  late  Hugh  Strickland,  Esq.  1  have  in  my  collection  serai 
specimens  of  the  genus  Montlivaltia,  which  I  discovered  in  the  shales  of  the  Lore 
Lias,  in  Gloucestershire,  and  one  or  two  occur  in  the  same  beds  in  Oxfordshire.  Froa 
the  Lower  Lias  near  Cheltenham,  I  obtained  a  small  coral,  which  appears  to  bet 
species  of  Turbinolia.  I  have  met  with  a  few  species  of  Isastrea  both  in  Worcester- 
shire and  Gloucestershire,  and  in  one  case  in  sufficient  numbers  to  show  theexisteaa 
of  an  ancient  coral  reef:  most  of  them  arc  highly  solidified,  but  in  others  the  «fts 
are  soft  and  crumbly,  a  condition  very  different  to  that  of  most  of  the  liassic /safer*. 
In  the  Isle  of  Skve  there  is  a  group  of  corals  belonging  to  this  genus  nearly  a  foot  is 
thickness  in  the  lower  division  of  the  Lias. 


On  a  New  Species  of  Pollicipes  in  the  Inferior  Oolite  near  Stroud,  in  GUmeth 
tershire.  By  the  Rev.  P.  B.  Brodib,  M.A.,  RG.S. 
The  Lepadidse  are  usually  rare  in  a  fossil  state,  and  the  specimen  which  I  found 
at  Selsley  Hill,  near  Stroud,  appears  to  be  a  distinct  species  from  the  Pollicipet  etfi- 
ticus  in  the  Stonesfield  slate.  On  comparing  the  scutum  two  valves  of  which  tre 
enure,  with  the  same  valve  of  P.  ooliticus,  there  is  a  sufficient  difference  to  warns! 
the  conclusion  that  it  belongs  to  a  different  species.  A  small  valve  of  another,  as4 
probably  a  distinct  species,  has  been  detected  in  the  Lias  at  Campden,  in  Gloucester* 
sbire,  by  Mr.  Gavey,  the  oldest  remains  of  a  Cirripede  yet  discovered. 


On  the  Basement  Beds  of  the  Oolite. 
By  Professor  James  Buckman,  F.L.S.,  F.G.S. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  show  that  the  Pisolite  or  its  equivalents  fonoel 
the  true  base  of  the  Inferior  Oolite  as  established  by  Murchison,  Strickland,  and  the 
Cotteswold  geologists,  but  in  opposition  to  a  theory  recently  started  by  Or.  Wright, 
in  which  he  places  certain  bands  of  ferruginous  stone  resting  on  the  "  Inferior  Oolite 
sands  "  of  the  Ordnance  Surveyors  with  the  Upper  Lias,  a  theory  which  he  attempt! 
to  support  from  the  presence  of  a  number  of  Cephalopoda  therein  contained*  somesf 
which  are  truly  liassic,  but  the  majority  are  peculiar  to  the  so-called  '  Cephalopoda 
bed.' 

The  Professor  contends  that  the  bed  is  oolitic  in  structure,  and  as  regards  the  fbtnb, 
only  a  small  per-centage  belong  to  the  Lias,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  following 

Analysis  of  the  Fossils  of  the  Cephalopoda-bed  of  the  so-called  Upper  Lias. 

Species.  Species. 

Ammonites 15  Common  to  Lias  5 

Belemnites    3  „        „     „  3 

Gasteropoda 1  „        „     „  0 

Lamellibranchiata             21  „        „     „  0 

Brachiopoda 3  „        „     „  3 

Inferior  Oolite        43  11 

Thus  giving  a  total  of  forty-three  species,  only  eleven  of  which  are  liassic,  and  of 
these  several  extend  a  considerable  way  upwards  in  the  oolitic  series. 

The  author  further  contended,  that  as  much  as  from  sixty  to  eighty  feet  below  the 
*  Cephalopoda  bed,'  at  the  very  base  of  the  "  Inferior  Oolite  sands,"  a  band  of  ferro- 

S'nous  oolite  had  been  worked  by  Mr.  John  Lycett,  of  Minchinhampton,  which  was 
11  of  fossils  of  the  Inferior  Oolite  forms,— a  fact  not  adverted  to  by  the  learned  Doc- 
tor, as  he  was  then  unaware  of  the  bed.    This  may  be  summed  up  as  follows :— 


TRANSACTION'S  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  65f 

Analysis  of  Fossils  from  the  bottom  of  the  Inferior  Oolite  Sands  at  NaUsworth.    ' 

Species.  Species. 

Ammonites  ........         2  Common  to  Lias  0 

Belemnites ,         1  „       w     „  1 

Gasteropoda 5  „       „     ,,  0 

LameUibranchiata    ..20  „       „      „  3 

Brachiopoda 2  „       „      „  1 

Inferior  Oolite        30  5 

Here,  then,  if  fossil  evidence  is  to  be  relied  on,  the  sands  far  below  the  Inferior  Oolite) 
should  be  added  to  that  rock  rather  than  a  portion  of  the  Inferior  Oolite  to  be  abs- 
tracted and  added  to  the  Lias,  an  argument  which  was  further  supported  by  reference 
to  the  fauna  of  the  Cornbrash,  in  which  out  of  about  sixty-five  species,  twenty-one, 
including  even  Cephalopoda,  were  identical  with  the  common  species  of  the  Inferior 
Oolite. 

The  author's  general  conclusion  was,  that  as  the  Inferior  Oolite  sands  mark  a  change 
in  the  physical  conditions  under  which  the  unctuous  blue  lias  clays  were  deposited, 
which  was  immediately  followed  by  a  corresponding  change  of  animal  life,  therefore 
the  natural  separation  of  the  Lias  and  Oolite  should  commence  with  these  sands :  by 
so  doing  we  nave  a  boundary-line  which  all  can  recognize  both  lithologically  and 
palaeontologically ;  whereas  by  adopting  Dr.  Wright's  view,  we  separate  a  bed  of  true 
oolitic  structure  into  two  parts  in  obedience  to  the  dictum  of  a  small  minority  of  fossils 
peculiar  to  lower  strata  which  one  must  always  meet  with  at  points  of  oscillation. 


On  the  Oolite  Rocks  of  the  Cotteswold  Hills. 
By  Professor  Buckman,  F.L.S.,  F.G.8* 


On  the  Igneous  Rocks  of  Lundy  and  the  Bristol  District. 
By  R.  Etheridge,  F.G.S. 


On  some  New  Fossils  from  the  ancient  Sedimentary  Rocks  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land.   By  Professor  Harknbss,  F.G.S. 

Hitherto  the  only  fossils  which  have  been  obtained  from  the  oldest  fossiliferous 
strata  of  Ireland,  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  the  county  of  Wicklow,  consist  of  two  forms 
of  Oldhamia,  viz.  0.  radiata  from  the  purple  slates  of  Brayhead,  and  0.  antigua 
from  the  drab  shales  of  Carrick  M'Rielly.  Associated  with  the  former,  last  summer, 
the  author  found  evidences  of  the  existence  of  Annelida;  in  the  form  of  burrows,  and 
also  sinuous  tracks  on  the  surfaces  of  some  of  the  purple  slates.  These  tracks  and 
burrows  appear  to  be  among  the  earliest  we  possess,  which  show  the  occurrence  of 
thia  tribe  of  animals. 

Among  the  black  graptolitic  shales  of  Moffatdale,  at  Dobbs  Lin,  the  author  has 
also  met  with  specimens  of  Beyrichia  complicota,  a  crustacean  which  occurs  in  the 
Lower  Silurian  rocks  of  England  and  the  continent  of  Europe* 


On  the  Jointing  of  Rocks.    By  Professor  Harknbss,  F.G.8. 

In  the  Devonian  strata  of  the  south  of  Ireland  the  rocks  manifest  jointing  in  a  very 
perfect  state.  The  master-joints,  which  are  very  prominent,  have  a  north  and  south, 
direction,  and,  in  the  language  of  Professor  Sedgwick,  might  be  termed  lip-joints ; 
joints  of  a  similar  nature  are  also  seen  intersecting  the  carboniferous  limestone,  where 
they  are  even  more  prominent  than  in  the  Devonians,  having  frequently  the  aspect 
of  stratification,  and  being,  like  the  Devonian  joints,  perpendicular.  Besides  these 
perpendicular  master-joints,  the  carboniferous  limestone  is  also  intersected  by  two 
Other  series  of  jointings,  the  one  nearly»horizontal,  and  the  other  inclined  at  about 
46°,  also  running  north  and  south.  These  two  latter  jointiugs  are  not  so  persistent 
a*  the  master-joints,  and  are,  in  some  cases,  only  local. 

The  great  uniformity  of  the  master-joints  and  their  great  parallelism  over  large 
1856.  S 


1 


BBPOR*-*1650. 


area*,  would  Indue*  the  conclusion  that  they  mult  from  soms  uniform 
over  a  mat  ipaot. 

The  theory  which  attribute*  joints  to  shrinkage  would,  not  bo  sufficient  to 
for  these  master-joints. 

These  seem  rather  to  have  originated  from  the  application  of  a  mechanical  tee 
applied  in  one  direction.  This  force  was  probably  that  which  gave  the  middle  sol 
upper  palaeozoic  strata  of  the  south  of  Ireland  their  east  and  west  strike  of  rolls,— ike 
force  being  applied  either  to  the  north  or  south,  the  rocks  having  a  tendency  to  extent* 
themselves  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  force,  and  consequently  breskut; 
from  their  rigidity,  into  parallel  lines  which  we  recognize  as  joints.  The  origin  S 
the  other  two  forms  of  jointing  is  by  no  means  apparent,  but  this  may  probably  bait 
been  the  same  cause  operating  locally  in  different  directions  at  a  subsequent  period  to 
that  which  produced  the  master-joints. 


On  the  Lignites  of  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  the  Isle  of  Mull. 
By  Professor  Habkkkbs,  F.G.S. 

The  Giants  Causeway  affords,  in  connexion  with  its  basalts,  beds  of  lignite, 
die  Isle  of  Mull  we  have  the  same  circumstances  occurring.  The  lignite  of  the 
locality  retains  its  woody  nature  to  a  great  extent,  and  tnis  exhibits  sufficient  of  is 
original  structure  to  admit  of  the  determination  of  the  forms  of  vegetables  towns* 
this  substance  owes  its  origin.  The  only  changes  which  the  structure  of  this  substance 
has  undergone,  result  from  compression,  which  has  brought  the  sides  of  the  woody 
cells  in  immediate  contact,  and  in  some  instances  so  lacerated  the  tissue  as  to  gne 
this,  in  longitudinal  section,  a  somewhat  spiral  arrangement  Sometimes,  however, 
the  longitudinal  section  gives  this  tissue  in  its  perfect  state,  and  when  this  is  the  esse, 
pitted  vessels,  of  a  coniferous  character,  are  seen  on  the  sides  of  the  cells. 

The  size  of  these  cells,  and  their  relative  distance  from  each  other,  would  lead  to  At 
conclusion  that  the  trees  forming  this  lignite  are  nearly  allied  to  those  which  are  fossa1 
forming  the  mass  of  lignite  mentioned  by  His  Grace  the  Duke  of  Argyll  as  occurring 
associated  with  the  basalts  of  the  Island  of  Mull.    In  the  latter  locality  the  hgsdle 

E resents  itself  in  two  conditions,  the  one  in  a  state  of  nearly  pure  coal,  the  other 
aving  more  of  a  woody  aspect. 

The  vegetable  fibre  of  the  Mull  lignites  is  often  sufficiently  distinct  to  manifest  In 
internal  structure,  and  would  support  the  inference  as  to  the  similarity  in  age  of  these 
deposits,  and  those  of  the  Giants  Causeway.  The  fossil  evidence,  as  this  is  shows 
by  the  nature  of  the  lignites,  supports  the  conclusion  of  His  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Argyll,  adopted  by  Sir  Charles  Lyel),  that  the  traps  of  Mull  and  the  Giant's  C 
way  belong  to  the  same  geological  epoch,  that  epoch  being  the  Miocene. 


On  the  Relative  Distribution  0/  Land  and  Water  as  affecting  CUmate  at 
different  Geological  Epochs.    By  Professor  Hshxbsst,  MJLJ.A. 

The  views  developed  in  this  paper  were  partly  deduced  from  the  princtpL 


by  the  author  in  his  memoir  on  isothermal  lines.    As  all  the  investigations  0 

trial  temperatures  which  he  has  undertaken  will  be  printed  elsewhere,  it  is  mmuusssry 

to  do  more  than  state  some  of  the  conclusions  of  this  paper. 

1.  The  distribution  of  land  and  water  moat  favourable  to  high  general  terrestrial 
temperature  all  over  the  globe  is  that  of  the  existence  of  land,  not  in  great  continents, 
but  in  islands  evenly  distributed  over  the  earths  surface. 

2«  Under  such  conditions  the  isothermal  lines  in  the  islands  would  generally 
approach  the  character  of  closed  curves,  and  the  temperature  in  the  higher  latitudes 
would  decrease  in  advancing  from  the  coasts  to  the  interior  of  an  island. 

3.  If  these  views  are  correct,  some  differences  might  be  expected  between  some  of 
the  fossils  representing  the  organised  beings  of  the  interior  of  such  islands,  and  these 
distributed  about  the  coasts.  ___ 

Notice  of  some  Minerals  frdm  the  Isle  of  St.  Thomas. 
By  Dr.  H.  B.  Hobotbck. 


TRANSACTIONS  Of  TH1  SECTIONS*  67 

Oft  tko  6outh-en$ttrty  Attenuation  of  the  Oolitic,  Liaesic,  Trtaaic,  and 
Permian  Formations.    By  Edward  Hull,  A.B.,  F.Q.S. 

The  tubject  of  this  paper  is  partly  of  a  local,  and  partly  of  a  general  character. 

Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  having  called  the  attention  of  the  Section  to  the  Map  of  the 
Geological  Surrey  (No.  44)  just  completed,  and  embracing  the  region  of  the  Cottes- 
wold  Hills,  together  with  the  liassic  plains  of  Gloucester  and  Moreton,  the  author 
proceeded  to  point  out  the  remarkable  diminution  in  thickness  which  the  rooks  of  the 
Cotteewold  Hills  undergo  in  their  extension  to  the  borders  of  Oxfordshire. 

Taking  as  points  of  comparison  Leckhampton  Hill  near  Cheltenham,  and  Burford 
in  Oxfordshire,  distant  from  each  other  about  twenty  miles,  it  was  shown  that  the 
same  beds,  which  at  the  former  locality  have  an  aggregate  thickness  of  624  feet,  at 
the  latter  have  dwindled  down  to  the  twenty-ninth  part  of  this  amount.  The  for- 
mations  included  in  this  computation  range  from  the  marlstone  to  the  Fuller's  earth, 
end  may  be  tabulated  aa  follows  :— 

Ltekhampfe*  Bill.  Bmfocd, 

Feet,  *eet. 

Fuller's  earth 26  absent 

rnfpr{Ar  f  Ragstones 38  10 

S      Freestones  (including  oolite  marl)  . .  188  absent 

wm  iPeagrit 38  absent 

Ferruginous  sands,  &c 20? •  •         absent 

Upper  lias  shale..  •• 200  ,.......♦.     6 

Marlstone,  or  middle  lias . 116 6 

Total    624  21 

.  From  this  table  it  would  be  observed  that  the  ragstones  of  the  inferior  oolite,  in- 
cluding a  bed  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  Clypeus  sinuatus,  forms  the  most  con- 
stant zone  of  the  inferior  oolite,  and  that  at  the  eastern  limits  of  the  district  it  is  the 
sole  representative  of  the  formation.  This  fact  tends  to  show  that  this  terminating 
■one  was  deposited  in  a  sea  of  greater  depth  and  tranquillity  than  that  of  the  lower 
members  of  the  formation ;  an  hypothesis,  which  is  also  oorne  out  by  differences  In  the 
state  of  the  included  organisms.     For  while  the  freestones  everywhere  present  the 

Shaenomena  of  false  bedding,  and  are  to  a  great  extent  composed  of  organic  debris, 
lie  stratification  of  the  rogatories  is  always  regular,  and  the  organic  remains  In  good 
preservation,  though  frequently  occurring  as  moulds  and  oasts. 

Passing  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  formations  which  underlie  the  marlstone  or 
middle  has,  Mr.  Hull  proceeded  to  show  from  analogy  the  strong  probability  that  the 
lower  lias  forms  no  exception  to  the  law  of  easterly  attenuation,  winch  obtains  in  the 
case  of  the  upper  and  middle  members  of  the  liassic  group ;  and  that  consequently 
under  Burford  the  lower  lias  would  he  found  of  comparatively  small  depth.  From 
these  premises,  he  also  drew  the  conclusion,  that  further  in  the  same  direction,  e.g. 
under  the  city  of  Oxford,  all  the  strata  already  alluded  to  must  be  on  the  point  of  dls- 

It  was  next  shown  that  the  trias  of  Central  England  undergoes  a  similar  south- 
easterly attenuation,  so  that,  while  in  Lancashire,  Cheshire,  and  Shropshire,  the 
Keuper  and  Bunter  attain  their  greatest  development,  in  the  counties  to  the  eastward 
bordering  on  the  Has,  these  formations  are  greatly  reduced  in  thickness.  With  regard 
to  the  Permian  formation,  it  was  not  possible  to  speak  with  equal  certainty,  as  it  has 
been  found,  through  the  researches  of  the  Government  Geological  Surveyors,  to  vary 
rapidly  in  thickness.  Thus  while  it  is  almost  or  altogether  absent  around  the  Leices- 
tershire coal-field,  it  appears  in  considerable  force  on  the  flanks  of  the  coal-field  of 
Warwickshire. 

Attention  was  then  called  to  the  fact,  that  on  the  borders  of  France  and  Belgium, 
and  in  the  "  Bas-Boulounais,"  all  the  secondary  formations  between  the  coal-mea- 
sures and  the  chalk  in  the  former  case,  and  the  great  oolite  in  the  latter,  are  altogether 
absent*.  This  fact  was  shown  to  bear  out  the  hypothesis  of  the  author,  and  to  lead 
to  the  supposition  that  under  some  parts  of  Oxfordshire  and  Northamptonshire  the 
coal-formation  may  lie  at  depths  not  inaccessible  to  human  agency. 

*  Description  Geognostique  da  Baffin  du  Bas-Boulonnais,  par  M.  Roset,  1838. 

5* 


1 


68  BEPORT— 1856- 

Lastly,  in  order  to  obviate  the  objection  that  the  coal-formation  itself  aught  1 
thinned  out  in  the  same  direction  as  the  superincumbent  formations,  Mr.  Hall  en 
voured  to  show  that  the  manner  of  its  formation,  and  that  of  the  secondary  all 
were  altogether  different;  for  while  (as  had  been  shown  by  Mr.  Godwin-Austen)  at 
ancient  coal  basin  included  the  greater  part  of  the  British  Isles,  France  and  1 
forming  one  almost  uninterrupted  coal-growth;  on  the  other  hand,  the  dere 
of  the  new  red  sandstone  and  lias  proved  that  they  are  formed  of  sediment  < 
from  north-westerly  sources,  and  that  consequently,  as  the  distance  from  these  i 
increased,  the  quantity  of  sediment  diminished.  Hence  it  was  argued,  that  while  aade? 
Oxfordshire  the  strata  between  the  great  oolite  and  the  coal-measures  might  be  verj 
thin,  the  thickness  and  quality  of  the  coal-seams  would  not  necessarily  have  f 
rated. 


On  the  Alteration  of  Clay-slate  and  Gritstone  into  Mica-schist  ami,  Gneiss  sy 
the  Granite  of  WicMow,  be.    By  J.  Bsbtb  Jukmb,  M.A.,  FJLS. 

The  granite  of  the  south-east  of  Ireland,  extending  from  Dublin  Bay  into  the  eons*} 
of  Kilkenny,  is  intrusive  as  regards  the  Lower  Silurian  rocks,  and  sends  veins  into  tbeav 
The  Lower  Silurian  rocks  generally  are  composed  of  dull  earthy  slates  mterstmbfiel 
with  fine-grained  gritstones  commonly  not  more  than  an  inch  in  thickness,  Hot  sssse- 
times  two  or  three  feet.  The  main  granite  range  is  not  a  true  geological  axis,  u  s 
does  not  bring  up  the  lowest  beds  of  the  district,  and  forms  only  a  partial  geographies' 
axis  as  it  is  breached  through  by  the  valley  of  the  Slaney. 

Wherever  granite  appears  at  the  surface,  it  metamorphoses  the  surrounding  shtr 
rocks  and  changes  them  into  schistose  rocks  (mica-schist,  &c,  and  gneiss). 

The  dull  earthy  slates  are  found  on  approaching  the  granite  to  acquire  a  ** glass" 
or  silvery  lustre  not  only  externally  but  internally,  as  it  is  as  apparent  in  the  rock  whet 
ground  to  powder  or  triturated  into  mud  or  silt  as  in  the  mass  of  the  rock.  Isa 
micaceous  lustre  increases  as  we  approach  the  granite,  till  within  half  a  mile  (more* 
less)  of  its  general  boundary  nothing  can  be  found  but  schistose  rocks,  often  oontaiaag 
crystals  of  garnet,  andalusite,  staurolite,  schorl,  &c.  Simultaneously  with  this  change 
in  mineral  structure  the  rocksi are  affected  by  a  folding  or  corrugation,  crumpling  bock 
slates  and  grits,  evidently  the  result  of  a  mechanical  force.  The  foliation  of  the  mics- 
schist  is  most  usually  parallel  to  the  original  stratification  of  the  rock,  as  shown  by 
these  grit-bands. 

In  the  cases  observed  where  the  foliation  crossed  the  beds,  and  ran  parallel  to  tfe 
cleavage,  the  plates  of  mica  were  smaller  and  more  interrupted  than  when  j«»r«m  * 
the  bedding,  their  development  being  apparently  interfered  with  by  the  changes  af 
texture  in  the  original  lamination  of  stratification. 

The  surface  boundary  of  the  granite  is  very  undulating  and  irregular,  and  manr 
large  patches  of  schistose  rock  are  found  within  it,  resting  on,  and  apparently  AlTT*~r 
down  into  the  granite.  The  original  surface  of  the  granite  appears  to  nave  t»M  rather  s 
gentle  genera!  slope,  but  to  have  been  very  uneven,  having  many  hollows  and 
protuberances. 

Although  the  lowest  beds  of  the  Silurian  rocks  are  not  brought  up  by  tfie  granite, 
yet  the  beds  near  it  dip  every  way  from  it  at  angles  not  often  exceeding  30°,  and  the 
patches  of  schistose  rock  lying  within  the  general  boundary  of  the  granite  dip  towanfc 
that  boundary.  The  graphite  is  probably  continued  under  the  adjacent  slates  with  a 
similarly  gentle  slope  and  irregular  surface ;  especially  on  the  eastern  side,  where  many 
smaller  bosses  appear  at  the  surface  between  the  main  range  and  the  sea*  These 
smaller  bosses  produce  alteration  in  the  slates  through  which  they  appear,  exacth 
similar  to  that  of  the  main  range,  though  of  proportionately  less  extent. 

At  Polmounty  near  New  Ross,  thick  beds  of  grit  interstratified  with  «hale  were 
observed  converted  into  alternations  of  fine-grained  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  and  near 
Graiguenamanagh  a  dark  gneiss  was  seen,  in  which  crystals  of  common  felspar  as  large 
as  the  thumb  were  imbedded,  forming  a  true  porphyritic  gneiss,  which  is  yet  nothing 
more  than  an  altered  Silurian  gritstone  or  an  arenaceous  slate  rock. 

The  very  general  occurrence  of  mica  in  these  schistose  rocks  results  probably  from 
the  varied  mineral  composition  of  different  weU-characterized  micas,  so  that  true  ^*"* 
(of  some  kind  or  other)  is  more  likely  to  be  produced  than  any  other  mineral.    lade- 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  6$ 

tendency  of  this,  however,  it  was  asked  if  mica,  such  as  it  occurs  in  mica-schist,  might 
lot  often  rather  be  the  result  of  the  physical  condition  of  other  mineral  combinations, 
hail  those  forming  well-characterized  micas ;  whether  those  combinations  were  definite 
ninerals,  or  only  indefinite  mixtures  of  silicates  of  alumina  with  other  silicates? 

Finally,  it  was  stated  as  the  general  result,  that  no  one  could  examine  the  district 
rithout  arriving  at  the  conclusion,  that  as  perfect  mica-schist,  gneiss,  &c.  as  can  be 
bund  in  any  so-called  primitive  district,  has  been  produced  by  the  metamorphosis  of 
tarthy  clay-slate  by  the  granite,  and  without  being  convinced  that  all  schistose  rocks, 
nren  the  most  crystalline  gneiss,  had  a  similar  metamorphic  origin. 


On  some  Fossil  Fishes  from  the  Strata  of  the  Moselle.    By  J.  E.  Lbb. 


Oh  an  Elephanfs  Grinder  from  the  Cerithium  Limestone.    By  J.  £.  Lkb. 


On  the  Time  required  for  the  formation  of  "  Rolled  Stones." 
By  M.  Mogg&idgb. 
The  uncertainty  which  prevails  as  to  the  period  required  for  the  reduction  of  rough 
(tones  to  the  condition  of  "  rolled  "  pebbles,  has  led  me  to  make  the  following  obser- 
rationa  at  a  place  where  the  time  occupied  in  that  process  is  susceptible  of  proof, — at 
least  as  regards  the  maximum. 

Ldmeslade  Bay  is  the  second  inlet  of  the  sea  to  the  west  of  the  Mumble  Point  in 
Glamorganshire.  It  runs  into  the  land  to  the  depth  of  206  yards,  56  of  which  are 
covered  by  shingle.  The  width  at  the  mouth  is  80  yards;  and  in  the  broadest  part, 
a  little  below  the  bottom  of  the  shingle,  103.  Hard  firm  sand  of  an  average  width  of 
20  yards  occurs  from  low  water  to  the  shingle ;  on  each  side  of  which  are  large  and 
rugged  rocks  filling  up  the  rest  of  the  inlet.  It  would  not  appear  therefore  that  the 
action  of  the  sea  can  be  peculiarly  violent  here,  more  especially  when  we  consider 
that  the  general  bearing  of  the  little  fiord  is  N.  10°  E.  and  S.  10°  W.,  the  prevailing 
winds  being  westerly,  and  the  western  promontory  somewhat  overlapping  the 
eastern. 

The  sea  occupies  the  southern  end,  and  at  the  northern  is  the  Mumble  hill  (carboni- 
ferous limestone),  through  which,  nearly  in  continuation  of  the  line  of  the  inlet,  runs 
a  lode  of  dark  peroxide  of  iron,  first  opened  at  this  end  in  1846,  the  refuse  stones 
being  thrown  into  the  little  bay  already  described,  somewhat  below  high-water  mark. 
^  Of  these  stones  the  smaller  are  now  generally  completely  rounded ;  while  some, 
which  from  their  size  or  configuration  remained  stationary,  have  their  under  sides 
unaltered, ».  e.  rough  as  when  quarried,  and  the  exposed  portions  ground  down  and 
rounded,  presenting  in  fact  the  appearance  of  large  "rolled  stones  "  split  through  the 
middle.     I  have  measured  (July,  1856)  two  of  the  latter. 

No.  1  is  of  calcareous  spar;  the  underside  flat  and  rough,  1  ft.  1  in.  by  I  ft.  1  in., 
over  the  rounded  part  2  ft. 

No.  2  is  limestone ;  under  side  1  ft.  2  in.  by  1  ft.  4  in.,  over  2  ft. 

The  effects  produced  by  the  attrition  appear  to  be  irrespective  of  the  toughness  or 
resisting  power  of  the  material ;  calcareous  spar,  carbonaceous  limestone,  and  the  dark 
peroxide  of  iron  being  found  occasionally  in  the  same  stone,  and  equally  worn  down. 

The  general  result  to  be  deduced  from  the  above  may  be  thus  stated ; — that  on  a 
beach  not  more  than  usually  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sea,  ten  years  sufficed  for 
the  formation  of  "rolled  stones.'* 


On  the  Skin  and  Food  of  Ichthyosauri  and  Teleosauri. 
By  Charlbs  Moorb,  F.G.S. 

In  clearing  specimens  of  the  former  genus  dark  patches  of  matter  have  been 
frequently  seen,  in  association  with  which  thousands  of  minute  black  hooks  may  be 
noticed  by  the  aid  of  the  lens.  These  have  been  supposed  to  be  portions  of  the  outer 
skin  of  the  Ichthyosaurus  covered  by  the  hook-shaped  processes  referred  to.  It  was 
stated  by  Mr.  Moore  that  out  of  twenty-three  saunans  in  his  museum  he  had  traced 
these  black  patches  in  not  less  than  sixteen ;  but  that  as  in  every  instance  they  were 


70  R1P0BT~1856. 

connected  with  the  stomach  of  the  saurian,  the  oonelttsiou  wm  forced  1  , 
they  were  not  portions  of  skin,  hut  were  to  he  accounted  for  by  ecppoeing  da*  at 
Ichthyosauri  had  fed  upon  naked  cephalopoda,  allied  to  the  cuttle-fish.    On  l  mi  limit; 
his  investigations  on  the  subject,  Mr.  Moore  proved  that  there  were  many  cophtkei 
existing  with  the  Ichthyosaurus  that  would  supply  these  hooks,  and  that  they  were  fl 
quently  to  be  found  on  the  fleshy  arms  of  the  Qnychoteutkle  and  allied  , 


ii r,  Moore  exhibited  to  the  Meeting  the  body  of  a  small  saurian,  which  at  tab  Asset 
time  had  its  soft  skin  entire ;  and  appealed  to  it  in  confirmation  of  his  opinion,  tat 
the  black  patches  containing  these  nooks  were  no  portion  of  its  outer  covering,  la 
conclusion,  Mr.  Moore  produced  some  of  the  dark  matter  taken  from  the  stomaek** 
(  one  of  his  Ichthyosauri,  and  stated  that  he  could  show  to  the  Meeting,  that  altfceaj* 
'  it  had  through  so  many  ages  been  lying  in  the  stomach  of  this  ancient  creature,  sal 
had  been  mixed  with  other  food,  it  could  be  no  other  than  what  was  once  the  and 
ink  of  a  cuttle-fish ;  a  fact,  which  was  demonstrated  to  the  Meeting,  by  his  shoviaj 
them  that  it  retained  its  colouring  matter  almost  as  perfectly  as  if  it  had  been  takes 
from  a  recent  sepia.  Of  the  genus  Teleosaurus  a  very  beautiful  example  was  shows 
to  the  Meeting,  whioh,  like  the  Gaviet  of  the  present  day,  was  covered  with  amy 
scutes  or  scales.  In  clearing  this  specimen,  Mr,  Moore  was  fortunate  enough  to 
make  an  incision  into  its  stomach,  in  which,  though  so  long  a  period  had  elapsed  ease 
it  had  taken  its  last  meal,  there  was  still  to  be  seen  there,  in  perfect  preservation,  ft 
small  fish  of  the  genus  Leptolepis. 

G»  the  Middle  and  Upper  Lies  of  the  Weet  */ Jftseiamef. 

By  Chabxbs  Moobb,  F.Q.S. 
Sections  were  given  of  these  beds  at  Ilminster,  their  most  westerly  point,  man 
whence  they  were  traced  to  Yeovil,  where  thev  were  shown  to  become  extremely  tarn, 
and  to  be  covered  up  by  the  sands  of  the  Inferior  Oolite,  from  whence  they  were  traced 
to  Bath  and  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Cheltenham,  where  they  were  shown  to  at  af 
considerable  thickness.  In  noticing  the  organic  remains  of  the  Middle  Lias,  Jfe 
Moore  called  attention  to  the  Bracmopoda  in  these  beds,  and  exhibited  many  of  tat 
original  specimens  of  this  class  published  by  the  Palaeontographical  Society.  TV 
attention  of  the  meeting  was  also  directed  to  a  series  of  microscopic  shells  of  the  fisntr 
Foramlnifera,  nearly  150  species  of  which  were  shown  by  Mr.  Moore  to  have  extsad 
during  the  deposition  of  the  Middle  and  Upper  Lias.  From  the  latter  beds  a  macst- 
flcent  series  of  organic  remains  was  exhibited,  chiefly  consisting  of  Saurian*,  Flaw* 
Crustacea,  and  Insects.  Mr,  Moore  amused  the  Section  by  informing  them  wast 
animals  were  contained  in  certain  stones,  whioh,  on  being  broken,  presented  the  ansasli 
indicated,  ,  ____ 

On  the  Bone  Beds  of  the  Upper  Ludlow  Reek,  ant  ha*  o/  the  Old  Red  Ss*t 
#to*e.    by  Sir  IU  It  MuacaisoN,  &R«& 
Sir  Roderick  Murchison  gave  an  account  of  certain  additional  discoveries  sssst 
in  those  strata,  which,  whether  they  pertain  to  the  uppermost  beds  of  the  Stan* 


recks,  or  to  the  lowest  junction  strata  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  have  been  crossei 
under  the  term  of  «  Tuestones."  In  his  original  description  of  the  upper  XaaW 
reeks  he  had  described  a  layer,  near  their  summit,  as  being  characterised  by  nw 
remains  of  bones  of  fishes,  principally  the  defences  of  Oneku»t  with  jaws  and  teeth, 
aad  numerous  small  eopvolitio  bodies.  He  also  ftvnaerlv  noticed,  in  several  lessfi- 
ties,  the  occurrence  of  a  still  higher  bed,  which  seemed  to  form  a  passage  iate  let 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  and  in  which  remains  of  terrestrial  plants  occurred*  He  bad 
further  pointed  out,  that  the  Upper  Ludlow  Rock  was  the  lowest  stratum  in  which 
the  remains  of  Vertebrate  were  discovered,  ~-an  observation  which  has  remained 
uncontroverted  till  the  present  day,— no  remains  of  true  fishes  having  yet  been  detected 
in  more  ancient  strata  m  any  part  of  Europe,  In  an  ascending  order,  on  the  otter 
hand,  it  was  well  known  that  Ichthy  elites  augmented  rapidly;  and  the  object  of  tat 
present  communication  is  to  show  how  the  recent  observations  of  Mr,  Richard  Bank* 
of  Kington,  and  of  Mr.  Lightbody,  of  Ludlow,  have  made  us  acquainted  with  the 
presence  offish  remains  in  thin  layers  a  few  feet  above  the  original  bone-bed  of  tin 
Upper  Ludlow  Rock. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TH  IBCTION0.  ft 

The  lower  of  these  overlying  bode,  which,  according  to  sections  exhibited,  ocean  both 
et  Kington  and  Ludlow,  was  recently  inspected  by  Sir  Roderick,  accompanied  by 
Professor  Ramsey,  Mr.  A  veline,  and  Mr.  Salter.  It  is  a  greyish  or  yellowish  flag-like 
sandstone,  the  lowest  course  of  which,  at  Kington,  eontains  many  spines  of  Onchue, 
with  IAngula  cornea.  This  thin  layer,  and  another  softer  one,  full  of  remains  of 
Pterygotus,  and  with  two  species  of  Pteraspis,  are  there  surmounted  by  bluish-grey 
building-stone,  with  Pterygotus,  IAngula  cornea,  &o.  These  beds  are  covered  by 
others,  less  massive,  which  contain  fragments  of  plants  and  large  PterygoU,  and  gra- 
duate upwards  insensibly  into  more  micaceous  sandstones,  often  splitting  into  tiles. 
The  IAngula  cornea  and  Trochus  helicites,  together  with  species  of  Modiolopsis,  and 
hitherto  the  small  Beyrichia  Klodeni,  all  considered  characteristic  of  the  uppermost 
Ludlow  rock,  prevail  throughout  these  strata,  with  occasional  carbonaceous  matter 
and  traces  or  land  vegetation;  clearly  indicating  a  graduation  towards  the  younger 
formation  of  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  last-mentioned  fish-bed  is  probably  of  similar 
age  to  the  stratum  which  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  described  as  occupying  the  summit  of  the 
Silurian  system  in  Clun  Forest  and  other  places.  A  stratum  of  this  age  has  recently 
been  laid  open  by  the  cutting  of  the  railroad  north-east  of  the  town  of  Ludlow,  and 
exhibits  a  grey  rock  beneath  passing  up  into  an  overlying  micaceous  reddish  sand- 
stone and  red  marl :  large  fragments  at  Pterygotus  are  nere  associated  with  remains 
of  fishes  and  the  IAngula  cornea. 

The  succession  it  more  dearly  traceable  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Teme,  opposite 
Ludlow  and  below  Ludford,  where  the  Ludlow  rocks  with  the  old  bone-bed  are  over- 
laid by  micaceous  brownish-red  sandstones  and  red  marls,  with  true  cornstones,  ex- 
posed in  the  bed  of  the  river,  which  are  again  followed  by  other  marls  and  sandstones, 
surmounted  by  a  band  of  coarse,  greenish-grey  micaceous  sandstone,  containing  re- 
mains both  or  fishes  and  of  Pteryaotus.  The  fish  remains  consist  of  distinct  jaws  and 
teeth  and  fin  defences  of  Onckus,  the  heads  of  a  Cephalatpis,  together  with  the  Lingula 
cornea. 

The  genus  Pterygotus  having  now  been  found  throughout  the  Upper  Silurian  rocks, 
can  no  longer  be  considered  characteristic  of  the  transition  beds  between  the  Silurian 
and  Devonian  j  and  as  the  genera  Cephalaspis  and  Pteraspis  are  now  known  to  extend 
their  downward  range  to  the  very  verge  of  the  true  upper  Ludlow  strata,  our  views 
concerning  the  zoological  characters,  which  separate  the  two  formations,  may  bo 
settled  accordingly.  As  regards  the  frontier  of  the  Silurian  rocks  in  England,  the 
phenomena  present  no  ambiguity;  for  all  the  strata,  from  the  lowest  bone-bed  of  the 
true  Ludlow  rock,  which  contains  so  many  species  of  shells  of  Silurian  age,  to  the 
uppermost  of  the  above-mentioned  fish-beds  with  the  Lingula  cornea,  do  not  exceed 
40  or  50  feet  in  thickness, — the  upper  part  of  the  series  with  the  Cephalatpis  and 
Pteraspis,  constituting  a  true  mineral  and  zoological  passage  into  the  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone. In  conclusion,  the  author  observed,  that  if  applied  either  to  the  top  of  the  Upper 
Ludlow  Rock  or  to  the  base  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  exclusively,  the  word  "tilestones" 
might  mislead ;  but  if  generally  to  the  beds  of  transition  between  the  two  deposits, 
it  is  still  a  convenient  term. 


Description  of  an  ancient  Miner's  Axe  recently  discovered  in  the  Forest  of  Deem. 
In  a  letter  to  Riohahd  Bbaxibh,  FJ1.8.    By  Robbbt  Mushbt. 

The  accompanying  relic  was  found  as  follows.  Some  miners  were  engaged  at  an 
iron-mine,  near  Lambsquay,  in  turning  over  some  of  the  refuse  iron-ore,  which  had 
been  put  aside  centuries  ago  as  not  rich  enough  in  iron  to  be  suited  for  the  Bloomary 
Forges  then  in  use.  At  a  depth  of  upwards  of  sixteen  feet,  and  under  a  very  old  and 
decayed  lime  tree,  which  had  grown  over  the  spot,  the  axe  was  discovered  amongst 
the  refuse  iron-ore.  The  handle  was  broken  to  pieces  and  lost,  before  the  axe  itself 
was  noticed,  a  circumstance  much  to  be  regretted.  The  spot  where  the  axe  was  dis- 
covered was  free  from  moisture,  except  that  incidental  to  rainy  weather,  and  there- 
fore the  axe  itself  must  have  been  wet  and  dry  just  as  the  weather  varied.  On  trying 
the  point  of  the  axe  with  a  file,  it  proved  to  be  iron,  and  not  steel,  so  that  its  date 
must  have  been  earlier  than  that  of  the  use  of  steel  for  mining  purposes. 

The  iron-ore  surrounding  the  axe,  was  a  mixture  of  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  and 
carbonate  of  lime,  mixed  with  common  loam,  and  the  axe  itself  Is  covered  with  oon«  . 


79'  BKPOfeT— 1856. 

cretionary  carbonate  of  lime  and  hydrated  peroxide  of  iron.  But  the  < 
circumstance  connected  with  this  discovery  is  the  fact,  that  the  wooden  handle  orip- 
naJlv  inserted  into  the  eye  of  the  axe,  has  become  converted  into  pure  hydrated  per- 
oxide of  iron,  precisely  similar  to  the  ordinary  brush  iron-ore  peculiar  to  the  Fere* 
of  Dean,  except  that  in  the  centre  of  the  handle,  on  the  underside  of  the  eye,  a  portiai 
of  soft  woody  fibre  remains,  and  on  the  upper  side  there  appear  the  two  ssnau  n 
wedges  by  which  the  helve  was  tightened  to  the  axe.  Thus  a  piece  of  wood  (pcobatlj 
ash)  has  been  replaced  by  hydrous  oxide  of  iron,  composed  of 

Peroxide  of  iron 61*63 

Water 18-37 

Or  more  probably  it  is  the  subhydrate,  containing  only  10-5  per  cent,  of 
which  is  the  proportion  contained  in  the  forest  brush-ore.     Two  reedy  i 
taken  from  the  solid  vein  of  iron-ore,  near  the  spot  where  the  axe  was  four 
pany  the  latter,  and  in  their  appearance  they  present  some  analogy  to  the  converted 
portion  of  the  axe-handle. 

I  believe  that  this  relic  of  antiquity  is  well  worthy  of  the  notice  of  the  British 
Association  about  to  meet  in  Cheltenham,  and  1  have  therefore  enclosed  it,  and  Ike 
reedy  specimens,  in  a  box,  to  be  forwarded  to  you. 


On  the  Dichodon  cuspidatus,  from  the  Upper  Eocene  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  md 
Hordwell,  Hants.    By  Professor  Owen,  F.RJS. 

Prof.  Owen  communicated  the  results  of  examinations  of  additional  specimens  of 
jaws  and  teeth  of  the  Dichodon  cuspidatu*,  which  he  had  received  since  his  original 
Memoirs  on  that  extinct  animal  in  the  *  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Societr,* 
vol.  iv.  (June  1847).  The  first  specimen  described  supplied  the  characters  of  fits 
last  true  molar  tooth  of  the  lower  jaw,  which  had  not  been  previously  known.  Has 
tooth  has  six  lobes,  the  additional  posterior  pair  being  less  than  the  normal  ones,  sad 
more  simple.  The  inner  surface  of  the  inner  lobe  has  an  accessory  cusp  at  die  back 
part  of  its  base,  but  not  at  the  fbre-part  as  in  the  other  lobes.  The  length  of  the  last 
lower  molar  was  nine  lines,  that  of  the  first  and  second  molars  being  each  six  Y 
A  specimen  of  the  Dichodon  cuspidatus  from  the  Hordwell  Sands,  in  the  ~ 

Museum,  supplied  the  characters  of  the  permanent  incisors,  canine,  and  three  a 

premolars  of  the  upper  jasr :  all  these  teeth  closely  correspond  in  form  with  the  < 
responding  deciduous  teeth,  but  are  of  larger  size.  Finally,  a  portion  of  the  lower  jaw 
of  an  aged  specimen  of  Dichodon,  in  the  British  Museum,  showing  the  effects  of 
attrition  on  the  last  molar  tooth,  was  described,  and  the  results  of  this  additional  evi- 
dence confirmed  the  conclusions  of  the  author  as  to  the  generic  distinction  of  the 
Dichodon. 


Additional  Evidence  of  the  Fossil  Musk-Ox  (Bubalus  moschatus)yro»  the 
Wiltshire  Drift.     By  Professor  Owen,  F.1LS. 

This  evidence  consisted  of  mutilated  crania,  but  with  the  horn-cores  complete,  of 
both  male  and  female  Musk-Ox. 

Drawings  of  the  specimens  of  the  natural  size  of  the  fossils  were  exhibited,  and  the 
characters  were  pointed  out  which,  in  the  author's  opinion,  confirmed  his  opinion  of 
the  fossil  being  of  the  same  species  as  the  recent  Musk-Ox  of  Arctic  America  jBrnbrn- 
lut  moschatui). 

The  fossils  were  associated  with  remains  of  the  Elephas  primigenius,  Bhimocerm 
tichorinuty  and  teeth  of  bovine,  cervine,  and  equine  quadrupeds.  They  were  discovered 
by  Charles  Moore  Esq.,  F.G.S.,  of  Path. 


On  a  New  Species  of  Anoplotherioid  Mammal  (Dichobune  Ovinum,  Ow.)fnm 
the  Upper  Eocene  of  Hordwell,  Hants,  with  Remarks  on  the  GfiMraDichoboney 
Xiphodon,  and  Microtherium,    By  Professor  Owen,  F.R.S. 
The  author  exhibited  drawings  of  an  entire  lower  jaw  with  the  dentition  nearly 

complete  of  a  fossil  herbivorous  quadruped,  of  the  size  of  tbe  Xiphodon  prmtUm  ef 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  SECTIONS.  7& 

Gnvier,  from  the  Upper  Eocene  marl  at  Bmstead,  Isle  of  Wight,  Hampshire ;  and 
pointed  out  the  characters  by  which  it  differed  from  the  known  nearest  allied  fossils. 
The  total  length  of  the  lower  jaw  was  5  inches  11  lines ;  the  extent  of  the  molar  series 
of  teeth  2  inches  1 1  lines,  and  that  of  the  three  true  molars  1  inch  3£  lines. 
-  The  near  equality  in  height  of  the  crowns  of  all  the  teeth,  and  their  general  cha- 
racter, show  that  the  animal  belonged  to  that  group  of  the  Anoplotherioid  family  which 
includes  the  genera  Dichobune  and  Xiphodon. 

It  has  the  same  dental  formula  as  the  Anoplotherioid  and  Anthracotherioid  qua* 
drupeds,  vis. 

•S-S  1-1  4-4  3-3  AA 

It  differs  from  the  genus  Dichodon  in  the  absence  of  the  accessory  cusps  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  base  of  the  true  molars,  and  both  from  Dichodon  cuspidatus  and 
Xipkodon  gracilis,  in  the  minor  antero-posterior  extent  of  the  premolar  teeth :  it  corre- 
sponds with  the  Dichobune  leporinum,  Cuv.,  in  the  proportions  of  the  premolars  and  in 
the  separation  of  the  canine  and  anterior  premolar ;  and  to  this  genus,  therefore,  the  new 
fossil  was  referred.  Its  size  and  proportions  indicate  its  specific  distinction  from 
previously  defined  ipecies  of  Dichobune,  The  name  proposed  for  this  species  is 
Dichobune  ovinum.  The  specimen  forms  part  of  the  series  of  fossils  in  the  British 
Museum. 


On  a  Fossil  Mammal  (Stereognathus  Ooliticus)  from  the  Stonesfield  Slate. 
By  Professor  Owen,  F.R.8. 

Prof.  Owen  exhibited,  by  favour  of  the  Rev.  J.  P.  B.  Dennis,  M.A.,  a  portion  of  a 
lower  jaw,  with  three  molar  teeth,  of  a  small  mammal,  from  the  oolitic  slate  of 
Stonesfield,  Oxfordshire,  for  which  the  name  of  Stereognathu$  Ooliticus  had  been 
proposed ;  and  after  a  minute  description  of  the  characters  of  the  bone  and  teeth,  he 
entered  upon  the  question  of  its  probable  affinities.  These  could  only  be  judged 
of  by  the  peculiarities  of  certain  molar  teeth  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  unique  fossil. 
Those  teeth  presented  the  singular  complexity  of  six  cusps  or  cones  upon  the  grind* 
ing  surface,  in  three  longitudinal  pairs,  the  crown  of  the  tooth  being  quadrate,  broad* 
est  transversely,  but  very  short  or  low.  The  jaw-bone  presents  a  corresponding  shal- 
lowness and  thickness.  The  cusps  are  sub-compressed  :  the  outermost  and  innermost 
of  the  three  binder  ones  are  oblique,  and  converge  towards  the  middle  of  the  crown, 
being  overlapped  by  the  outermost  and  innermost  of  the  three  front  cones.  The 
three  molar  teeth  occupy  the  extent  of  4±  lines,  or  1  centimetre ;  each  tooth  being  3 
millimetres  in  fore  and  aft  extent,  and  nearly  four  millimetres  in  transverse  extent. 
After  a  comparison  of  these  molars  with  the  multicuspid  teeth  of  the  Rat,  the  Hedge- 
hoe,  the  Shrews  and  Galeopitheci,  the  author  showed  that  the  proportions,  numbers, 
and  arrangement  of  the  cusps  in  those  Insectivora  forbad  a  reference  of  the  Stereo- 
gnathus,  on  dental  grounds,  -to  that  order.  The  same  negative  result  followed  a  com- 
parison of  the  fossil  oolitic  mammal  with  the  sex-cuspid  teeth  with  the  eocene 
Hyracothere,  Microthere  and  Hyopotamus ;  but  in  these  the  resemblance  was 
presented  only  by  the  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw.  The  lower  molar  teeth  of  the  Chcero- 
potamus,  to  which  the  author  deemed  those  of  the  Hyracotherium  would  most  closely 
approximate,  when  discovered,  showed  a  rudiment  of  the  intermediate  cones  between 
the  normal  pairs  of  cones.  The  proportional  size  and  regularity  of  the  form  of  the 
cones  of  the  grinding  teeth  of  the  Stereognathus  give  a  quite  different  character  of 
the  crown  from  that  of  the  multicuspid  molars  of  the  Insectivora,  and  cause  the  sex- 
cuspid  crown  of  the  oolitic  mammal  to  resemble  the  pente-cuspid  and  quadri-cuspid 
molars  of  the  before-cited  extinct  Artiodactyle  genera.  Prof.  Owen  concluded,  there- 
fore, that  the  Stereognathus  was  most  probably  a  diminutive  form  of  non-ruminant 
Artiodactyle,  of  omnivorous  habits. 

On  the  Scelidotherium  leptocephalum,  a  Megatherioid  Quadruped  from 

La  Plata.    By  Professor  Owen,  F.R.S. 
The  extinct  species  of  large  terrestrial  sloth  indicated  by  the  above  name,  was  first 
made  known  by  portions  of  its  fossil  skeleton  having  been  discovered  by  Charles 


74  B1FORT—1856. 

Darwin,  Esq.,  F.E.8.,  at  Punta  Alia,  Northern  Patagonia.  These  rations  was 
described  by  the  author  in  the  appendix  to  the  *  Natural  History  of  the  Voyage*? 
H.M.S.  Beagle.'  The  subsequent  acquisition  by  the  British  Museum  of  the  eaBec- 
tion  of  Fossil  Mammalia  brought  from  Buenos  Ayres  by  M.  Brevard,  baa  given  i 
evidence  of  the  generic  distinction  of Scelidotktrium,*nA  has  supplied  important  c 
ters  of  the  osseous  system,  and  especially  of  the  skull,  which  the  fragments  from  tat 
hard  consolidated  gravel  of  Punta  Alta  did  not  afford;  The  best  portion  of  the  r~ 
nium  from  that  locality  wanted  the  facial  part  anterior  to  the  orbit,  and  thej 
part  of  the  upper  walls ;  sufficient,  however,  remained  to  indicate  the  peculiar  c 
ter  of  its  slender  proportions,  and  hence  Professor  Owen  has  been  led  to  select  tat 
name  leptocephalum  for  the  species,  which  is  undoubtedly  new.  The  aptness  of  the 
epithet '  slender  headed, '  is  proved  by  the  author's  researches  to  be  greater  than  couU 
have  been  surmised  from  the  original  fossil ;  for  the  entire  skull,  now  in  the  Britea 
Museum,  exhibits  a  remarkable  prolongation  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  a 
slenderness  of  the  parts  produced  anterior  to  the  dental  series,  unique  in  the  leaf-eat- 
ing section  of  the  order  Bruta,  and  offering  a  very  interesting  approximation  to  fat 
peculiar  proportions  of  the  skull  in  the  Ant-eaters.  The  original  fossils  from  Pata- 
gonia indicated  that  they  belonged  to  an  individual  of  immature  ace  :  the  difference  of 
size  between  them  and  the  corresponding  pans  in  the  British  Museum,  depends  ca 
the  latter  having  belonged  to  full-grown  individuals :  the  slight  difference  in  the  shapt 
of  the  anterior  molars  seems  in  like  manner  to  be  due  to  such  an  amount  of  change 
as  might  take  place  in  the  progress  of  growth  of  a  tooth  with  a  constantly  renevsafe 
pulp.  Professor  Owen  finds  at  least  no  good  grounds  for  inferring  a  specific  distiat- 
tion  between  the  fossils  of  the  old  animal  from  Buenos  Ayres,  and  the  younger 
specimen  from  Patagonia.  The  author  then  proceeds  to  give  a  detailed  anatomical 
account  of  the  fossil  nones  in  the  British  Museum,  instituting  a  comparison  betwess 
diem  and  the  bones  of  other  large  extinct  animals,  especially  those  of  the  Edentate 
order.  The  Soelidothere  was  a  quadruped  of  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length,  bat  net 
more  than  four  feet  high,  and  nearly  as  broad  at  the  haunches,  the  thigh-bones  beast 
extraordinarily  broad  in  proportion  to  their  length.  The  trunk  gradually  taperel 
forwards  to  the  long  and  slender  head.  The  fore-limbs  had  complete  clavicles,  ani 
the  rotatory  movements  of  the  fore-arm.  All  the  limbs  were  provided  with  long  ani 
strong  daws.  The  animal  had  a  long  and  muscular  tongue,  and  it  is  probable  tint 
its  rood  might  have  been  of  a  more  mixed  nature  than  that  of  the  Megatberhua. 
But  it  was  more  essentially  related  to  the  Sloths  than  to  the  Ant-eaters.  In  condaaioa, 
the  author  remarks,  that  as  our  knowledge  of  the  great  Megatherioid  animals  increase** 
the  definition  of  their  distinctive  characters  demands  more  extended  comparison  ef 
particulars.  Henee  in  each  successive  attempt  at  a  restoration  of  these  truly  remark* 
able  extinct  South  American  quadrupeds,  there  results  a  description  of  details  whka 
might  seem  prolix  and  uncalled  for,  but  which  are  necessary  for  the  proper  deveke- 
meat  of  the  task  of  reproducing  a  specimen  of  an  extinot  species. 

These  details  of  the  osteology  and  dentition  of  the  Scelidotkerkm  leptoeepkmhm,  it 
is  the  intention  of  the  author  to  communicate,  with  the  requisite  illustrations,  to  the 
Royal  Society  of  London. 

On  the  Beekite*  found  in  the  Bed  Conglomerate*  of  Tbrowy. 
By  W.  Pbngelly,  F.Q.S. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  things  found  in  the  red  Triassic  conglomerate!  of 
Torbay  are  the  Beekites,  so  named  from  the  late  Dr.  Beeke,  Dean  of  Bristol,  If 
whom,  it  is  believed,  they  were  first  noticed.  They  vary  in  size  from  half  an  inn 
to  a  foot,  but  the  more  common  dimensions  are  from  three  to  six  inches  in  mesa 
diameter.  Their  surfaces  are  covered  with  chalcedony,  generally  arranged  in  tuber- 
cles, each  of  which  is  not  unfrequently  surrounded  by  one  or  more  rings,  and  occa- 
sionally the  same  ring  invests  two  or  more  tubercles,  or  sets  of  rings. 

The  interior  of  the  Beekite  is  calcareous.  In  most  instances  the  nucleus  ia  under 
going  decomposition  and  is  only  partially  attached  to  the  shell ;  sometimes  it  ia  entirety 
detached,  and  rolls  about  within  the  cavity  when  shaken ;  not  unfrequently  it  if 
reduced  to  a  dark-brown  or  iron-grey  powder,  which  effervesces  in  acids* 

The  nucleus  appears  to  be  always  a  fossil,  and  if  either  a  sponge,  a  coral,  a  abA 


TRANSACTION!  Of  TBS  MOTIONS.  75 

or  a  group  of  stalk— generally  mural  univalves— all  of  well-known  Devonian  forms. 
The  organic  structure  is  frequently  preserved  on  the  inner  or  concave  surface  of  the 
enveloping  crust,  even  when  the  nucleus  is  reduced  to  powder.  Occasionally  organic 
traces  are  discernible  on  the  exterior  surface  of  the  chalcedony,  but  such  oases  are 
not  frequent.  8ome  of  the  nuclei  are  slightly  siliceous,  but  in  no  case  more  so  than 
ordinary  limestones  are. 

Beekites  which  have  fallen  from  the  cliff,  and  have  been  for  some  time  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  waves,  are  much  abraded,  while  those  taken  at  once  from  the  rock 
above  the  reach  of  the  sea  have  not  the  least  marks  of  friction ;  hence  it  may  be 
inferred  that  the  chalcedony  has  been  deposited  on  the  nuclei  since  they  became 
immoveable,  that  is  since  the  conversion  of  the  ancient  triassio  sea-beach  into  a 
conglomerate  rock. 

Beekites  are  found  in  every  part  of  the  Torbay  conglomerates,  which  extend  along 
the  coast  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  miles,  but  they  are  considerably  more  abun- 
dant at  Livermead  Head,  and  at  and  near  Paignton  harbour,  than  elsewhere  in  the 
district;  but  though  rocks  of  the  same  age  and  character  prevail  throughout  a  great 
part  of  the  south-east  of  Devonshire,  no  Beekites  have  been  found  beyond  the  district 
named ;  indeed,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  they  appear  to  be  peculiar  to  Torbay. 

On  whatever  surface  chalcedony  is  deposited,  it  appears  in  most  cases  to  take  a 
tubercular  arrangement ;  hence  the  tubercles  on  the  surface  of  the  Beekite.  From  a 
careful  examination  of  all  the  facts  of  the  oase,  it  seems  probable  that  after  the  forma- 
tion of  the  triassio  conglomerate  some  of  the  calcareous  pebbles  in  it  underwent 
decomposition ;  that  water  holding  chalcedony  in  solution,  and  passing  through  the 
rock,  deposited  the  chalcedony  on  the  nucleus:  the  nucleus  in  some  cases  continued 
to  decompose,  by  which  it  was  wholly  or  partially  detached  from  its  envelope,  and 
not  unfrequently  reduoed  to  dust.  Suppose  the  decomposition  to  have  commenced 
at  various  points  or  centres  on  the  surface  of  the  pebble,  the  chalcedony  deposited  at 
these  points  would  form  central  tubercles ;  let  the  decaying  process  extend  from  and 
around  these  centres,  the  chalcedony  deposited  around  each  tubercle  would  form  a 
ring;  in  like  manner  a  succession  of  rings  might  be  formed,  until  they  touched,  after 
which  a  more  comprehensive  circle  might  invest  two  or  more  of  the  systems  already 
formed,  until  the  whole  surface  would  be  covered. 


On  the  Correlation  ofttie  North  American  and  British  Palaosoic  Strata. 
By  Professor  H.  D.  Hookas,  Boston,  U.S. 


On  the  Origin  ofSali/erous  Deposits.  By  Professor  H.  D.  Rogues,  Boston,  U.S. 

On  the  Great  Pterygotus  (Seraphim)  of  Scotland  and  other  Specie: 
By  J,  W.  Salter,  F.G.S.,  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain. 

This  paper  was  in  some  measure  a  continuation  of  one  published  in  the  Quarterly 
Geological  Journal  for  1855,  describing  some  new  and  large  crustacean  forms  from 
the  uppermost  Silurian  rocks  of  the  south  of  Scotland. 

^  They  were  described  under  the  name  of  Himanthopterusi  and  were  supposed  to 
differ  from  the  published  fragments  of  the  great  Pterygotus  by  the  lateral  position  of 
the  large  simple  eyes. 

In  the  general  shape  of  the  body,  however,  the  terminal  joints  and  tail,  fn  the  want 
of  appendages  to  the  abdomen,  as  well  as  in  the  form  and  number  of  the  swimming 
feet,  mandibles,  maxillae  and  antennae,  there  was  found  to  be  on  further  examination 
the  closest  resemblance  between  Himanthopterus  and  the  great  Pterygotus.  And  the 
resemblance  has  been  carried  still  further  by  the  favo arable  collocation  of  all  the 
known  specimens  from  the  Scotch  collections,  which  have  furnished  nearly  all  the 
portions;  and  also  the  head.  This  is  now  found  to  be  exactly  like  that  of  Himan- 
thopterus%  and  to  have  lateral*  not  subcentral  eves,  as  represented  by  other  authors. 

The,  two  genera  are  therefore  identical,  and  the  group,  as  now  constituted,  includes 
a  number  both  of  small  and  moderate-sised  Crustacea,  along  with  some  which  were 
far  larger  than  any  living  species,  and  which  certainly  attained  a  length  of  six  or 
eight  feet. 


76  REPORT— 1856. 

•  The  collections  made  by  the  Scottish  geologists, — those  in  Lord  Kinnaird'sc 
and  in  the  Watt  Institution,  Dundee, — in  connexion  with  other  specimens  obtained 
.  by  Mr.  Banks  of  Kington  and  Messrs.  Lightbody  and  Cocking  of  Ludlow,  show  that 
that  Pterygotus  was  an  elongate  crustacean,  with  a  comparatively  small  head  and 
sessile  compound  eyes ;  and  having  but  few  appendages,  of  which  the  large  chelate 
antennae  are  most  remarkable,  beiug  a  foot  long,  and  only  four-jointed, — the  tenniaal 
joints  forming  a  strong  serrated  claw.  The  large  mandibles  were  fully  six  inches 
long :  the  maxillae  were  either  one  or  two  pairs,  with  six-jointed  palpi ;  and  the  mat 
swimming  feet  consisted  of  six  joints,  of  which  the  terminal  ones  were  modified  far 
swimming;  the  basal  joints  are  great  foliaceous  expansions  with  crenulate  edges,  which 
possibly  assisted,  like  the  first  joints  of  the  legs  in  Lunulas,  in  mastication. 

The  singular  piece  called  "  Seraphim  "  by  the  workmen,  is  not,  as  formerly  sop- 
posed,  a  portion  of  the  carapace,  but  in  all  probability  the  hypostome  on  the  under 
side  of  the  front  of  the  head,  the  central  prong  of  which  is  really  free,  being  the  labrum 
itself.  The  plate  would  be  analogous  to  a  similar  piece  on  the  under  surface  of  the 
head  of  the  Trilobite, — of  Apus,  Limulus,  and  many  other  Crustacea.  No  argument 
seems  necessary  to  show  that  it  was  not  a  portion  of  the  upper  surface,  as  indicated 
by  Mr.  Page  in  his  communication  to  the  Section  last  year,  since  we  possess  the  cut* 
pace  entire,  and  it  is  like  that  of  all  the  other  nine  or  ten  species. 

From  the  explanation  given  by  Mr.  Huxley  in  the  memoir  above  referred  to,  mere 
is  a  general  resemblance  both  in  form  and  structure  to  the  small  Stomapod  Crustaceans, 
Mysis  and  Cuma,  minute  forms,  which  are  now  arranged  very  low  down  among  the 
Decapods,  and  which  are  frequently  ornamented  with  a  sculpture  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  fossils.  There  is  even  a  yet  greater  resemblance  in  form  to  the  larvae  of 
the  common  crab.  If  this  be  accepted,  the  coincidence  in  essential  structure  between 
such  minute  and  embryonic  forms  and  these  gigantic  denisens  of  the  old  seas  be- 
comes most  remarkable  and  interesting,  as  bearing  on  the  course  of  development  of 
life  throughout  geological  epochs. 

On  some  New  Paleozoic  Star-fishes,  compared  with  living  Forms. 
By  J.  W.  Saltkb,  F.G.S. 

The  object  of  the  communication  was  chiefly  to  exhibit  some  new  forma  otJtUri- 
dm,  from  the  Upper  Silurian  rocks ;  and  others  which  have  all  the  aspect  of  Ophhtride, 
but  are  essentially  distinguished  by  the  number  of  ossicles  which  go  to  form  a  suds 
segment  of  the  arms— the  lower  surface  showing  a  double  row  of  flat  plates,  and  the 
upper  also  being  composed  of  two  rows  of  plates,  while  the  Opkhurida  have  a  tingle 
plate  above,  and  one  below. 

There  is,  however,  the  closest  similarity  to  the  latter  family  in  the  length  of  the 
arms  and  the  restriction  of  the  disc  (Protester,  Forbes)*. 

The  Star-fish  proper  belong  to  three  and  probably  to  more  genera,  all  remarkable 
for  their  membranous  texture. 

In  the  great  length  of  the  spines  on  the  margin,  Pakeoeoma  resembles  PterasUr, 
Mull.,  while  in  the  pentagonal  form  and  simply  plated  integument  of  another  gennt 
(Palasterina),  there  is  a  much  nearer  approach  made  to  Asteriscus  or  Pahnipes  than  to 
any  other  type  of  living  star-fish.   One  of  the  latter  had  been  described  from  Swedes. 

A  Lower  Silurian  form,  originally  described  by  Forbes  as  Uraster,  has  the  disc 
little  developed  or  quite  absent,  out  better  specimens  show  it  to  have  had  but  two  rows 
of  stickers,  and  the  avenues  bordered  by  very  large  plates.  This  is  also  apparently 
allied  to  Asteriscus,  and  I  find  that  the  name  Pa&aster  has  been  proposed  by  Frof. 
Hall  for  the  genus,  which  is  represented  by  five  or  six  species. 

The  genera  are, — 

1.  Palseaster  (Halt),  without  disc,  avenues  deep.  Upper  and  Lower  Silurian  •    •  6sp* 

2.  Palasterina  (M'Coy),  pentagonal,  disc  moderate,  plated.    Upper  Silurian  .     •  2sp> 

3.  Palaeocoma  (Salter),  disc  loosely  reticular,  avenues  very  shallow.  Upper  Silurian.  5sp> 

4.  Protester  (Forbes),  disc  small,  arms  long,  extended,  with  two  plates  above 

and  two  below.    Upper  and  Lower  Silurian 4sp. 

There  appear  to  be  other  forms  yet  undescribed. 

*  Later  observations  (1857)  have  led  the  author  to  believe  this  genus  to  be  a  tree  OpaJ* 
uridj  but  of  a  new  group. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  77 

Description  of  a  Working  Model  to  illustrate  the  formation  of  "  Drift-bedding  " 
(a  kind  of  false  stratification).    By  H.  G.  Sobby,  F.G.S. 

This  model  was  constructed  to  explain  the  manner  in  which  that  kind  of  false 
stratification,  for  which  the  author  has  proposed  the  term  "  drift-bedding,"  is  produced 
by  the  sandy  material  being  drifted  along  on  the  bottom,  till  the  depth  of  the  water 
becomes  so  much  greater,  that  the  Telocity  of  the  current  is  not  sufficient  to  wash  it 
any  farther.  It  then  accumulates  in  stratula,  inclined  to  the  horizontal  plane  at  angles, 
the  value  of  which  depends  upon  various  circumstances.  In  the  model,  the  drifting 
effect  of  the  current  was  intimated  by  a  kind  of  coarse  screw,  which,  when  turned 
round,  carried  forward  the  sand,  supplied  from  a  bag,  along  a  groove,  from  which  it 
fell  into  a  apace  with  a  glass  front,  where  it  accumulated  at  the  angle  of  rest  Being 
a  mixture  of  heavy  black  fine  grains  of  specular  iron  and  coarser  white  quartz  sand, 
it  became  sorted  by  moving  the  screw  alternately  quickly  and  slowly,  and  thus  accu- 
mulated in  black  and  white  bands ;  whereas,  if  it  was  moved  with  a  uniform  velocity, 
no  such  bands  were  produced,  but  the  coarse  white  particles  collected  at  the  bottom. 
These  effects,  thus  produced  experimentally  by  an  irregular  or  uniform  forward 
moving  action  of  the  screw,  are  precisely  the  same  as  what  the  author  had  previously 
deduced  to  have  been  generated  in  strata  of  various  geological  periods  by  currents  of 
varying  velocity;  and  the  appearance  of  the  structure,  thus  formed  in  the  model,  so 
closely  agrees  with  what  is  so  commonly  met  with  in  sandy  rocks,  that  no  one  can 
doubt  how  it  originated.  Such  models  may  now  be  procured  of  Messrs.  Chadburn 
Brothers,  Sheffield. 


On  the  Magnesian  Limestone  having  been  formed  by  the  alteration  of  an  ordi- 
nary calcareous  deposit.    By  H.  C.  Sobby,  F.G.S. 

It  is  well  known  that  crystals  of  calcareous  spar  are  in  some  cases  found  changed 
into  dolomite,  and  that  corals  and  other  calcareous  organisms  are  often  altered  in  a 
similar  manner,  and  their  organic  structure  obliterated.  It  is  therefore  clearly 
proved  that  .such  a  change  may  take  place  in  calcareous  rocks.  Portions  of  the  car- 
boniferous and  Devonian  limestones  have  also  frequently  experienced  this  change, 
and  it  has  so  taken  place  along  joints  and  veins,  that  no  explanation  appears  probable, 
but  the  long-continued  action  of  some  soluble  magnesian  salt. 

When  thin  sections  of  such  rocks  are  examined  with  the  microscope,  some  trace  of 
the  fragments  of  organic  bodies  of  which  they  were  composed  may  be  seen  in  some 
cases,  but  in  many  the  original  mechanical  structure  has  been  entirely  obliterated  by 
the  change,  and  there  is  now  only  a  peculiar  crystalline  structure,  chiefly  due  to  the 
more  or  less  interfering  action  of  minute  rhombohedrons.  The  same  is  seen  in  thin 
sections  of  the  Permian  dolomite ;  so  that  a  considerable  portion,  if  not  the  whole, 
appears,  like  other  limestones,  to  have  been  derived  from  comminuted  and  decayed 
calcareous  organisms,  and  to  have  been  subsequently  altered  into  dolomite.  If  such  be 
the  case,  the  author  suggested  that  probably  this  alteration  was  effected  by  the  infiltra- 
tion of  the  soluble  magnesian  salts  of  the  sea-water,  under  some  peculiar  conditions  not 
yet  clearly  explained,  during  the  period  when  it  became  so  far  concentrated  that  rock- 
salt  was  frequently  deposited ;  and  that  the  calcareous  salt  removed  during  the  change 
bad,  by  decomposition  with  the  sulphates  of  the  sea- water,  given  rise  to  the  accumula- 
tions of  gypsum.  In  support  of  this,  it  is  an  important  fact,  that  some  very  solid  dolo- 
mite does  even  now  still  contain  about  one-fifth  per  cent,  of  salts  soluble  in  water,  con- 
sisting of  the  chlorides  of  sodium,  magnesium,  potassium  and  calcium,  and  sulphate  of 
lime,  doubtless  retained  in  the  minute  fluid  cavities,  seen  with  the  microscope  to  exist 
in  great  numbers.  These,  like  those  in  most  crystals  formed  from  solution,  must  have 
been  produced  at  the  same  time  as  the  dolomite,  and  caught  in  some  of  the  solution 
then  present,  which  is  thus  indicated  to  have  been  of  a  briny  character. 

A  process  the  very  reverse  of  that  just  described  is  now  taking  place  by  the  action 
of  dissolved  gypsum,  by  which  sulphate  of  magnesia,  frequently  efflorescing  on  the 
rorfaceof  the  rock,  and  carbonate  of  lime  are  produced;  and  this  may  perhaps,  in 
*<>me  cases,  explain  why  the  upper  beds  of  the  Permian  limestone  are  now  more  cal- 
careous than  the  lower.  « 


78  MPORT— 185ft. 

On  the  Microscopic**  Structure  of  Miat-Schist.    By  H.C.  So*bt,  F.Q& 

The  examination  of  thin  transparent  sections  of  mica-schist  and  the  alnedreeb 
shows  that  there  exist  two  very  marked  varieties,  characterized  by  the  manner  m 
which  the  flaky  crystals  of  mica  are  arranged.  In  one  they  lie  more  or  less  desdj 
in  the  plane  of  the  alternating  layers  of  different  mineral  composition,  and,  whea 
these  are  bent  into  complicated  contortions,  they  also  continue  to  coincide  with  them; 
whilst  in  the  other  variety  they  lie  in  one  particular  plane,  and,  instead  of  varying  is 
direction  in  sharp  contortions,  they  still  remain  throughout  more  or  leas  closely  a 
the  same  general  line.  This  structure  then  is  similar  to  cleavage  in  a  contorted 
slate  rock ;  and  its  direction  in  like  manner  coincides  with  the  axis  planes  of  tat 
contortions,  and  varies  from  the  general  direction  in  the  same  particulars.  Oat 
structure  is  as  if  chemical  and  crystalline  changes  had  occurred1  in  a  rock  test 
possessed  no  slaty  cleavage,  the  arrangement  of  the  particles  due  to  atratificahoa 
naving  caused  the  crystals  of  mica  to  be  formed  in  its  plane,  which  may  or  may  ast 
have  been  subsequently  contorted.  For  this  the  author  proposes  the  term  "  stratifica- 
tion foliation,"  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  that  may  be  called  "  cleavage  folia- 
tion," which  is  as  if  the  rock  had  been  compressed  in  such  a  manner  aa  to  alter  the 
ultimate  structure  and  develop©  slaty  cleavage,  before  the  large  crystals  of  mica  were 
formed.  Then,  when  the  subsequent  crystalline  changes  occurred,  the  minute  naka 
of  mica,  placed  more  or  less  closely  in  the  plane  of  cleavage  by  the  change  in  tbt 
dimensions  of  the  rock,  grew  up  into  larger  crystals  in  the  same  general  line  of  clea- 
vage. The  distribution  of  these  two  kinds  of  mica-schist  follows  general  laws  suaSsr 
to  that  of  cleaved  and  uncleaved  slates.  For  instance,  in  the  coast  section  south  of 
Aberdeen,  most  of  the  rocks  possess  cleavage  foliation,  whereas  in  the  Loch  Lomond 
district  there  is  simply  stratification  foliation. 

The  author  particularly  argued  that  the  peculiarities  in  the  rocks  having  cleavage 
foliation  cannot  be  explained  except  by  supposing  that  they  have  been  metamorphosed 
stratified  rocks ;  for  their  structure  so  clearly  shows  the  effects  of  both  stratification 
and  slaty  cleavage,  and  that  the  cause  of  the  separation  into  layers  of  different  anae- 
ral  composition  is  pre-existing  stratification,  and  is  in  no  way  analogous  to  that  whisk 
produced  the  cleavage  of  slates  that  the  cleavage  foliation  is  the  effect  tf  previously 
existing  cleavage,  and  not  that  slaty  cleavage  is  a  partially  developed  foliation. 

Attention  was  also  drawn  to  the  vast  numbers  of  minute  fluid  cavities,  conta 
water,  that  occur  in  the  quartz  layers  in  mica-schist;  being  analogous  to  those  i 
almost  invariably  in  crystals  formed  from  solution,  and  not  in  those  produced  by 
simple  fusion.  These  indicate  that  the  metamorphic  changes  have  been  due  to  sa 
aqueous  process,  or  else  minute  globules  of  water  could  not  thus  have  been  caught 
in  the  solid  crystals  during  their  formation.  Probably  an  elevated  temperature  wss 
also  concerned  in  the  change,  but  not  heat  alone  and  a  simple  partial  fusion. 

In  mica-schist  there  is  often  a  peculiar  structure,  which  in  many  cases  might  easuy 
be  confounded  with  slaty  cleavage.  This  is  when  the  rock  has  been  so  bent  Into  sharp 
crumples  or  small  contortions,  that  planes  of  weakness  or  actual  joint  fractures  havs 
been  produced.  These  may  be  sq  close  as  to  appear  just  like  slaty  cleavage  to  tat 
naked  eye,  but  are  seen  with  the  microscope  to  be  quite  distinct; 'being  finite  dm* 
sions,  and  not  an  ultimate  structure  as  it  is.  Both  occur  occasionally  in  the  suae 
clay-elate,  and  then  give  rise  to  what  has  been  described  as  double-cleaved  slate. 

On  some  Phenomena  in  the  Malvern  District. 
By  the  Rcr.  W.  S.  Bymowds,  M.A.,  F.G.S. 


On  the  Rocks  of  Dean  Forest.    By  the  Rev.  W.  S.  Stmonds,  Mul.9  F.GJ&. 

Researches  in  Kent's  Cavern,  Torquay,  with  the  original  MS.  Memoir  of  its 
first  opening,  by  the  late  Rev.  J.  Mac  Enery  (long  supposed  to  have  beta 
lost),  and  the  Report  of  the  Sub-Committee  of  the  Torquay  Natural  History 
Society.    By  £.  Vivian,  M^i. 
A  communication  was  made  to  this  Section  by  Mr.  Vivian,  in  continuation  of  mat 

which  had  been  given  before  the  Ethnological  Section,  and  extracts  were  read  from 


TBANSAGftOtfB  OF  TH1  BBOTIONb.     ['},*'      9& 

v 

the  Rer.  J.  MacEnery'*  original  memoir,  which  give*  a  most  grapfte  alconai  of  the 

first  discovery  of  fossil  remains  in  the  cavern,  and  which  is  thus  le^fetvea  to  by 

Professor  Owen  in  his  '  Fossil  Mammalia:'— Perhaps  the  richest  depository  of 

bears  hitherto  found  in  England  is  that  called  Kent's  Hole  near  Torquay.    It  is  to 

the  assiduous  researches  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  MacEnery,  that  the  discovery  of  the 

various  and  interesting  fossils  of  this  cave  are  principally  due,  and  some  of  the  rarest 

and  most  valuable  of  this  gentleman's  collection  have  been  recently  acquired  by  the 

British  Museum.     M.  de  Blainville  frequently  cites  '  A  description  of  the  cavern  of 

Kent's  Hole,  Devonshire,'  which  he  supposes  to  have  been  published  by  Mr.  Mac* 

Enery,  bat  which  he  regrets  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  procure.    I  have  been  assured 

by  Dr.  Buckland  that  Mr.  MacEnery  never  published  such  a  work,  and  it  is  most 

probable  that  the  drawing  or  lithographic  impressions,  shown  by  Mr.  MacEnery 

to  Professor  Blainville,  were  Chose  designed  to  illustrate  the  forthcoming  second 

volume  of  the  '  Reliquiae  Diluvianae.'  "    Mr.  Vivian  had  recovered  the  original  rough 

notes  of  this  memoir,  which  had  been  disposed  of  at  the  sale  of  Mr.  MacEnerps 

collection,  and  proposes  shortly  to  edit  it  with  annotations  in  a  connected  form. 

The  following  extract  is  a  specimen  of  the  geological  portion  of  the  work:— 

The  Bear9*  Den. — "  A  curtain  of  stalactite,  with  depending  clusters  of  spar  at 

certain  intervals,  and  corresponding  eminences  on  the  floor,  was  the  picture  this 

chamber  presented  when  we  first  saw  it.    It  was  floored  through  its  entire  extent 

with  a  continuous  sheet  of  stalagmite,  siliceo-calcareous  and  crystalline,  so  difficult 

to  penetrate,  that  after  repeated  attempts  we  abandoned  it  in  despair;  at  length, 

availing  ourselves  of  cracks  that  traversed  it,  like  the  divisions  in  a  pavement,  we 

succeeded  in  ripping  it  up.    All  we  had  hitherto  observed  vanished  in  interest  before 

this  disclosure.    The  first  flag  that  was  turned  over,  exhibited  in  relief  groups  of 

skulls  and  bones  adhering  to  tine  stalagmite.    Each  successive  flag  repeated  the  same 

spectacle.     It  is  to  be  regretted  that  their  size  prevented  us  from  transferring  them 

at  once,  as  they  were  found,  to  our  museums ;  for  while  they  lay  in  the  chamber 

awaiting  their  removal,  some  persons,  who  had  heard  of  the  discovery,  broke  into  the 

cavern,  and  either  tore  away  or  disfigured  the  masses.    Sufficient,  however,  have 

been  preserved  to  give  an  idea  of  the  accumulation  and  character  of  the  remains  in 

this  quarter. 

"  The  remains  of  Bear  prevail  here  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  of  all  ages,  and  of 
all  periods  down  to  their  encasement  in  the  mud;  some  of  the  teeth  have  the 
most  dazzling  enamel,  and  the  bones  retain  their  natural  freshness,  as  if  derived  from 
animals  in  high  health  destroyed  for  the  sake  of  their  skeletons ;  others,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  of  a  darkish  brown,  with  the  texture  of  the  bone  decayed  from  long  expo- 
sure, and  only  kept  together  by  the  calcareous  and  ferruginous  matter  with  which 
they  are  saturated ;  even  the  enamel  is  of  a  greenish  tinge.    Owing  to  the  induration 
of  their  earthy  enclosure  or  their  encrustation  by  stalagmite,  few  were  extracted 
entire.    Two  skulls  were  buried  in  the  stalagmite  as  in  a  mould,  and  were  brought 
away  in  that  state.    The  spar  has  formed  into  a  variety  of  specular  crystals  in  their 
chambers.     The  skulls  were  severed  in  two ;  the  front  separated  from  the  occiput 
and  found  apart,  the  other  parts  of  the  skeletons  lay  about  in  all  directions  without 
any  order;   generally  we  were  able  to  trace  the  natural  relation  of  the  parts 
in  some  instances ;  but  in  no  case  were  they  or  the  skulls  broken  or  gnawed  like 
those  in  other  parts.    The  long  bones  were  found  generally  entire,  and  when  found 
broken,  it  was  only  mechanically,  from  pressure.    In  no  instance  have  they  exhibited 
indications  of  being  broken  or  gnawed  by  the  jaws  of  carnivorous  animals  for  the 
Bake  of  their  flesh  or  marrow.    In  fine,  they  were  precisely  in  the  state  of  bones  that 
belonged  to  animals  that  died  by  a  natural  death  on  the  spot  during  a  succession  of 
ages,  whose  remains  had  long  laid  about  on  the  surface,  subject  to  be  trampled  upon 
by  the  feet  of  their  own  species  that  made  this  branch  their  haunt.    In  this  respect 
mis  section  of  the  cavern  resembles  the  caves  of  Germany,  in  the  predominance  of 
the  Bear,  in  the  identity  of  the  species,  and  in  the  unbroken  condition  of  the  remains. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  remains  of  the  Ursus  cultrideru  do  not  appear  here 
any  more  than  among  the  Bears  in  the  German  caves,  though  they  do,  as  we  shall 
**»  in  the  other  chambers  with  bones  of  Elephants.    To  enhance  the  wonder  of 
mis  anomalous  scene,  there  appeared,  and  there  still  exist  attached  to  the  under  but* 
*»  Qf  one  of  the  pyramidal  mounds  in  this  chamber,  lumps  of  Album  GrtKVmi 


80  BKPORT— 1856. 

but  of  other  traces  of  the  presence  of  the  Hyaena  there  is  not  a  shadow,  nc 
of  any  other  animal,  except  in  its  outskirts,  as  shown  by  the  fractured  jaws  of  Bfcesi 
spelaitu  and  cvZtrideiu.  In  the  German  caves  we  know  that  the  remains  of  tie 
Hyaena  generally  accompany  those  of  the  Bear,  and  under  such  circomstaiices  as  Is 
warrant  the  inference  that  certain  species,  at  least,  if  not  all,  lived  in  good  inteDigeact 
together.  In  the  centre  of  this  chamber  there  was  a  double  floor  of  stalagmite,  be- 
tween which  was  interposed  a  stratum  of  rubble  sparry  pipes,  a  black  flint  knife  ant* 
spots  of  charcoal,  with  shells  of  mussel  and  oyster,  but  no  red  marl  or  its  usual 
contents.  The  rest  of  the  floor  was  regularly  stratified  in  red  and  white  laminar,  ex- 
hibiting no  vestiges  of  adventitious  matter  or  of  interruption.  The  position  of  me 
rubbly  stratum  occurring  half-way  down  the  section  of  the  stalagmite,  inclines  mt 
to  refer  it  to  the  same  cause  and  epoch  as  the  seam  containing  the  Bears*  remans 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Arcade  of  which  we  have  already  spoken." 


On  the  Evidence  of  a  Reef  of  Lower  Lias  Rock,  extending  from  Robin  Hood's 
Bay  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Flamborough  Head.  By  Capt.  Woodall. 
Capt.  Woodall  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  reef  joined  the  land  at  the  peat 
where  the  lower  Has  is  thrown  up  in  contact  with  the  inferior  oolite  of  that  past 
of  Yorkshire.  He  produced  a  specimen,  which  he  had  obtained  twenty  miles  to  the 
south-east  of  Robin  Hood's  Bay,  from  a  depth  of  20  fathoms,  and  attempted  to  peeve, 
from  the  softness  of  the  specimen,  that  the  reef  was  liassic  throughout.  The  very 
straight  inner  margin  of  the  reef,  which  extends  twenty  miles  and  upwards  in  one  straight 
line,  was  another  reason  for  such  argument ;  and,  by  comparing  the  fossils  h  Milliard 
in  the  specimen  exhibited  with  some  from  the  boulders  of  the  Holderness  coast,  he 
thought  that  there  was  a  probability  that  those  fossils  had  originally  been  dented 
from  this  submerged  area. 

On  the  Occurrence  of  Upper  Lias  Ammonites  in  the  (so-called)  Basement 
Beds  of  the  Inferior  Oolite.    By  Thomas  Wright,  MJ>.9  FJLSJR* 

The  brown  sands  which  lie  at  the  base  of  the  Inferior  Oolite  are  capped  in  sobs 
localities,  as  at  Beacon  Hill,  Frocester  Hill,  and  Wotton-under-Edge  in  Gloucester- 
shire, and  in  several  places  in  Somersetshire  and  Dorsetshire,  by  a  remarkable  be! 
containing  a  great  number  of  Ammonites,  Belemnites  and  Nautili,  and  which  the 
author  designates  "  the  Cephalopoda  bed ; "  by  far  the  greater  number  of  the 
ammonites  contained  in  these  deposits,  have  not  been  figured  in  the  'Mineral 
Conchology  of  Great  Britain,'  and  are  for  the  most  part  new  as  English  fossils.  Many 
of  the  same  species  of  Ammonites  as  those  exhibited  are  found  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, in  strata  which  are  regarded  by  the  palaeontologists  of  those  countries  as  the 
uppermost  zone  of  the  Upper  Lias,  and  are  only  found  in  that  particular  horisoa; 
whereas  the  equivalent  strata  in  England  have  been  described  as  the  basement  beds  of 
the  Inferior  Oolite. 

In  the  localities  already  enumerated  the  brown  sands  are  overlaid  by  a  bed  of  cosne 
brown  marly  limestone,  full  of  small,  dark,  ferruginous  grains  of  the  hydrate  of  iron, 
which  impart  an  iron-shot  aspect  to  the  rock :  fossils  are  very  abundant  in  this  bed, 
which  attains  only  a  few  feet  in  thickness ;  the  true  position  of  the  Cephalopoda  bad 
is  shown  in  the  sections  of  Frocester  Hill  and  Wotton-under-Edge,  now  exhibited. 
Beneath  this  fossiliferous  band  or  Ammonite  bed  are  the  so-called  sands  of  the  Infe- 
rior Oolite,  consisting  of  fine  brown  and  yellow  calcareous  sands,  often  micaceous, 
and  attaining  a  thickness  of  from  2  to  150  feet.  The  sands  contain  in  their  upper 
part  inconstant  layers  of  siliceo-calcareous  sandstone,  and  sometimes  in  their  lover 

Eart  inconstant  concretionary  masses  of  coarse  sandstone,  the  lowest  beds  becoming 
lue  and  marly,  and  passing  insensibly  into  the  clays  of  the  Upper  Lias.  The  sands 
themselves  are  not  fossiliferous,  but  sometimes  nodules  lying  near  their  base  are  found 
to  contain  organic  remains. 

When  unquestionable  sections  such  as  those  at  Beacon  Hfll,  Frocester  Hill,  and 
Wotton-under-Edge  exist,  it  becomes  a  matter  of  great  interest  to  study  the  boun- 
dary between  two  such  formations  as  the  Lias  and  Inferior  Oolite,  as  the  general 
principles  developed  in  the  investigation  of  this  question  apply  equally  to  other  frontier 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


81 


stratigraphies)  lines.  The  lithological  characters,  and  other  physical  evidence,  assist 
the  investigation,  but  do  not  enable  the  geologist  to  assign  exact  limits  to  such  con- 
tiguous formations.  It  is  here  that  the  value  of  pal  aeon  tological  evidence  becomes 
10  important ;  for  without  its  aid  it  would  be  impossible  to  say  where  one  rock  group 
terminates  and  another  begins :  this  testimony  of  the  rocks  proves,  that  it  is  by  the 
eones  of  life  alone  that  the  line  of  separation  between  the  Lias  and  the  Inferior  Oolite 
san  be  drawn,  and  that  if  we  accept  this  view  of  the  subject,  we  are  bound  to  admit 
thaKa  considerable  deposit,  which  has  hitherto  been  grouped  with  the  Inferior  Ooiite, 
must  be  transferred  to  the  Upper  Lias,  of  which  it  forms  its  highest  stage. 

The  following  list  contains  all  the  species  which  have  been  collected  from  the 
sands  and  Cephalopoda  bed  of  Beacon  Hill,  Nailsworth,  Frocester  Hill,  and  Wotton- 
ander-Edge  :— 

Reptilia. 

Ichthyosaurus,  up.,  vertebrae  of.     F. 

Pisces* 
Hybodus,  portion  of  a  dorsal  ray.     F. 


Ammonites  opalinus,  Reinecke. 
hifrons,  Brvg.     F. 
insignia,  Schiibl.     F.  W. 
hireinus,  Sckloth.     F. 
Jurensis,  Ziettn.    F.  N. 
striatulus,  Sow.    F. 
Thouarsensis,  d'Orbig.    F; 
radians,  d'Orbig.     F.  B. 

„  Dewalquianus.  F. 
Mooreii,  Lycetl,  n.  sp.  F. 
discoides,  Zieten. 


7; 


Cephalopoda. 

B.  F.      Ammonites  Raquinianus,  <f  Orbig.  F.N.W. 

Levesquei,  <T  Orbig.     F. 

concavus,  Sow. 

Leckenbyi,  Lye,  n.  sp.     F. 

variabilis,  d'Orbig.    F.  N.  W. 
Nautilus  inornatus,  d'Orbig.     F. 
Belemnites  compressus,  Voltg.  F.N.W. 

tripartitus,  Schloht.     F.  N.  W. 

irregularis,  Schloht.     F.  N.  W. 

Nodotianua,  d'Orbig.    F. 


Gasteropoda. 

Pleurotomaria  nearly  allied  to  Amal-       •Turbo  capitaneus,  Miinst.    F.  N. 
thei,  Quenstedt.  Trochus  allied  to  duplicates,  Sow. 

Chemnitzia  lineata  ?,  Sow.    N. 

Conchjfera. 


N. 


•Lima  bellula,  Lye.     F.  N. 
•Pholadomya  fidicula,  Sow.     F.  N.  B. 
•Gervillia  Hartmanni,  Miinst.    F.  N* 
•Trigonia  striata,  Sow.    F.  N. 
•Perna  rugosa,  Gold/     N. 
•Hinnites  abjectus,  Phil.     F.  N. 
•Pecten  articulatus,  Gold/.     F. 
•Gresslya  abducta,  Phil.     F.  N .  B. 
*       conformis  ?,  Agass.    F.  N. 
•Pleuromya  tenuistria,  Agass.    F.  N. 
•Goniomya  angulifera,  Sow.     F. 
•Astarte  excavata>  Sow.    F.  N. 
•Myoconcha  crassa,  Sow.    N. 
•Astarte  modiolaris,  Lamk.    N. 
•Cypricardia  cordiformis,  Desk.     F. 

Pecten  comatus?,  Qoldf.    N. 

Opis  carinata,  Wright.    F. 


Cypricardia  brevis,  Wright.    F.  N. 
Cardium  Hullianmn,  Wright.     F.  N. 

Opeliii,  Wright.     N. 
Cuculleea  allied  to  inaequivalvis,  Gold/.  N. 
Lima  electra,  d'Orbig.     F.  N. 
Unicardium,  nov.  sp.    N. 
Tancredia,  nov.  sp. 
Trigonia  Ramsayii,  Wright.     F. 
Pecten  textorius  ?,  Gold/    F. 
Pholadomya  allied  to  media,  Agass.    F. 
Astarte  complanata?,  Romer.     N. 

lurida,  Sow.     N. 
Lima  ornata,  Lyc.y  n.  sp.    N. 
Gervillia  fornicata.  Lye,  n.  sp.     N. 
Area  allied  to  olivaeformis,  Lye.    N. 
Nucula  ovalis  ?,  Ziet.   N. 
Pholadomya  ovulum,  Agass. 


Brachiopoda. 
Terebratula  subpunctata,  David.  F.  N.  B.  Rhynchonella  cynocephala,  Rich. 


F.B.f 


t  B.  F.  N.  W.  radicate  that  the  species  is  found  at  Beacon,  Frocester,  NaUswonh,  and 
Wotton-under-Edge. 

1856.  6 


82  report — 1856. 

All  the  Cephalopoda  of  the  above  list  are  found  only  in  the  uppermost  tone  rfAe 
Upper  Lias  of  France  and  Germany,  with  the  exception  of  Amm.  bifrons,  wbick 
occupies  always  a  lower  zone,  and  at  Frocester  is  contained  in  the  nodoles  tonris 
the  base  of  the  sands;  one  gasteropod  and  seventeen  species  of  Conchifera,  frmi  ■ 


the  Ammonite  bed,  extend  upwards  into  the  Inferior  Oolite ;  the  species  marked  wvh 
an  asterisk  (*)  form  the  series  which  are  common  to  the  Cephalopoda  bed,  and  to  m 
limestones  of  the  Inferior  Oolite.  All  the  others  are  either  Upper  Lias  forms  or  sr 
special  to  this  bed.  .  . 

One  of  the  Brachiopods,  Rhynchonella  cynocephala,  is  found  only  in  the  Cepha- 
lopoda bed,  whilst  Terebratula  subpunctata  descends  into  the  marlstone. 

The  author  contended  that  all  classes  of  the  Mollusca  are  not  of  the  same  vahie  Is 
the  palaeontologist  in  stratigraphical  geology,  as  some  have  a  much  wider  range  lbs* 
others ;  for  example,  certain  species  of  Conchifera  extend  through  the  Lower  sad 
Middle  Lias,  others  pass  from  the  Inferior  Oolite  into  the  Cornbrash,  and  even  into 
the  Coral  rag,  whilst  the  different  zones  of  the  Lias,  and  the  several  stages  ef  the 
oolitic  rocks,  are  all  characterized  by  distinct  species  of  Ammonites,  which  are  lima*** 
to  these  different  horizons  of  life ;  for  this  reason  Cephalopoda  are  regarded  as  better 
indicators  of  geological  time  than  Conchifera;  as  none  of  the  twenty -one  speciei  s? 
Ammonites,  Belemnites  and  Nautili  passed  from  the  Cephalopoda  bed  into  the  ta- 
ferior  Oolite,  and  were  all  identical  with  Upper  Lias  forms,  it  was  inferred  that  the 
Cephalopoda  bed  represented  the  Jurensis-marl  of  German  authors,  or  the  uppers** 
zone  of  the  Upper  Lias.  m 

The  author  further  showed  that  the  Inferior  Oolite  contains  fourteen  species  sf 
Ammonites,  two  Nautili,  one  Belemnite,  ten  species  of  Gasteropoda,  forty  species  sf 
Conchifera,  ten  species  of  Brachiopoda,  eight  species  of  Annelida,  twenty-two  speciei 
of  Echinodermata,  and  fourteen  species  of  Anthozoa,  not  one  of  which  was  found  is 
the  Cephalopoda  bed  on  which  the  Inferior  Oolite  immediately  rests. 

The  Dorsetshire  sections  confirm  the  same  conclusions,  but  the  lists  of  fossils  frass 
these  rocks  are  not  so  complete  as  those  furnished  by  the  Gloucestershire  seco'osr. 
the  author  had  not  collected  many  of  his  Dorsetshire  fossils  himself,  and  was  rossie 
to  decide  on  the  stratigraphical  position  of  many  of  his  specimens.  Ammonite*  Dorset- 
ensis,  Wright,  has  not  yet  been  found  in  the  Cotteswold  hills,  although  it  is  nsst 
abundant  in  several  localities  in  Dorsetshire. 

The  Cephalopoda  bed  is  regarded  as  the  English  equivalent  of  die  "  Grts  ssprs- 
Uassique  ou  marly  sandstone"  of  M.  Terquem,  as  developed  in  the  department  of  ike 
Moselle. 

"  Schiste  et  Marne  de  Grand  Coiir"  of  MM.  Chapuis  and  Dewalque,  as  it  occurs  m 
the  Province  of  Luxembourg. 

"Graue  Kalkstein-Bank  mit  Ammonites  Jurensis"  of  Quenstedt,  forming  the  bed  £ 
the  uppermost  of  his  Schwarxer  Jura  (Lias).     . 
.  The  Jurensis-marl  of  Dr.  Fraas,  in  his  table  of  the  Jura  formation  of  Snabia. 

The  positive  palssontological  evidence  leads  the  author  to  group  his  Cephalopoda 
bed  with  the  uppermost  zone  of  the  Lias,  specifically  characterized  by  A 


J ur ensis  and  variabilis,  and  RhynchoneUa  cynocephala,  and  the  other  forty  fesr 
species  special  to  this  bed ;  and  negatively  separated  from  the  Inferior  Oolite  wUcft 
rests  upon  it,  by  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  species  which  appear  for  the  first  rase 
in  that  stage. 

Besides  the  forty-seven  species  which  have  hitherto  been  found  only  in  the  Cepat- 
lopoda  bed,  there  are  eighteen  species  which  are  common  to  this  bed  and  the  Infe- 
rior Oolite ;  but  these  are  chiefly  Conchifera,  which  have  a  wide  vertical  range,  wtUst 
the  Cephalopoda,  which  are  special  to  it,  have  a  very  limited  distribution  in  nsie; 
both  positive  and  negative  evidence  therefore  support  the  conclusion  that  the  Cepha- 
lopoda bed  and  sands  belong  to  the  uppermost  part  of  the  Upper  Lias,  and  not  to 
the  Inferior  Oolite  with  which  they  have  hitherto  been  classed. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  83 

BOTANY  AND  ZOOLOGY,  including  PHYSIOLOGY. 
Botany. 

On  a  supposed  Fossil  Fucus  found  at  Aust  Cliff,  Gloucestershire. 
By  C.  C.  Babington,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 

Above  the  well -known  bed  containing  fossils  occupying  the  higher  part  of  Aust 
Cliff,  there  is  a  bed  of  laminated  rock  nearly,  or  quite,  devoid  of  fossil  remains. 
Lately  a  fall  of  the  cliff  brought  down  a  part  of  this  upper  stratum,  when  Mr. 
Brodie,  the  author  of  a  well-known  work  on  fossil  insects,  found  between  some  of 
the  thin  plates  of  stone  a  substance  closely  resembling  a  Focus.  There  being  no 
apparent  mode  of  accounting  for  its  presence  in  that  position,  and  no  reason  except 
its  very  modern  appearance  for  doubting  its  fossil  character,  Mr.  Brodie  and  other 
geologists  and  naturalists  inclined  to  think  it  of  ancient  origin,  and  for  that  reason 
presented  it  to  the  notice  of  the  Section.  Several  naturalists  examined  the  specimen, 
and  thought  it  possible  that  it  might  be  a  recent  product,  a  Rhizomorpha,  which 
had  intruded  itself  between  the  plates  of  stone.  A  careful  microscopic  examination 
alone  can  determipe  if  it  is  of  fungoid  or  algal  structure,  of  recent  or  fossil  date. 


Notes  on  Experiments  in  the  Botanical  Garden  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  College. 
By  Professor  Buckman,  F.G.S.,  of  the  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester. 

In  this  paper  the  author  first  described  the  soil  and  situation  of  the  locale  occupied 
as  his  garden,  which,  from  being  situate  on  Forest  Marble  Clay,  is  of  a  somewhat 
sterile  character.  The  experimental  portion  is  divided  into  200  plots*  most  of  which 
are  2T  yards  square,  some  double  that  size,  and  a  few  still  larger,  now  engaged  for 
experiments  with  various  manures.  The  plots  are  employed  at  the  present  time  with 
crops  mostly  experimental,  in  the  following  classes  : — grasses,  82 ;  papilionaceous 
feeding-plants,  25 ;  crops  for  green  food,  12;  wheat,  6;  garden  vegetables,  5;. turnips, 
experiments  with  manures,  14 ;  economic  plants,  13 ;  flowering  and  ornamental 
plants,  40:  total,  197.  For  the  grasses  many  observations  were  given  tending  to 
show  that  several  so-called  species  prove  in  cultivation  to  be  varieties, — instances  of 
which  were  given  in  the  following  genera : — Bromus,  Festuca,  and  Agrostis.  One 
case  in  particular  of  the  three  following  forms  of  Festuca,  F.  loliacea,  F.  pratensis, 
and  F.  elatior,  were  shown  to  have  been  produced  from  the  same  seed  by  the  gradual 
change  of  the  first  two  into  the  latter.  In  the  Papilionacese  the  author  pointed  out 
the  production  of  the  spring  and  winter  varieties  of  Vetch  from  the  V.  angu8t\folia. 
In  the  genus  Trifolium  he  made  the  following  remarks  on  T.  proteose  and  T.  medium. 
The  T.  pratense  occurs  wild  in  all  good  and  rich  meadows  and  pastures;  its  place, 
however,  in  poor  sandy  soils  is  supplied  by  the  T.  medium,  on  which  account  the 
latter  plant  was  some  few  years  since  introduced  into  agriculture  to  ensure  a  crop 
when  the  former  usually  failed.  The  seedsmen  used  to  supply  it  under  its  botanical 
name  of  T.  medium ;  but  it  is  a  curious  circumstance  that  all  the  samples  of  this  seed 
now  in  the  market  show  it  to  be  but  a  variety  of  T.  pratente,  and  hence,  at  present, 
the  best  informed  seedsmen  no  longer  send  it  out  under  the  original  botanical  desig- 
nation of  T.  medium,  but  under  that  of  T.  pratense  perenne, — the  fact  being  well 
established  that  we  have  two  varieties  of  broad  clover  in  cultivation,  whilst  the  true 
T.  medium  has  been  entirely  lost  to  agriculture ;  and  the  whole  evidence  with  respect 
to  this  subject  showed  that  it  has  not  been  lost  from  neglect,  but  that  it  has  merged 
into  T.  pratense ;  and  if  so,  it  remains  as  a  most  interesting  matter  for  experiment, 
especially  when  it  is  considered  that  no  doubt  bas  been  entertained  by  botanists  of 
their  distinction  as  species.  Many  experiments  of  a  like  kind  were  described,  and 
their  practical  utility  clearly  pointed  out. 

On  New  Forms  of  Diatomace*  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde.   By  Professor  Gregory, 

Edinburgh. 

The  author,  after  referring  to  two  papers  by  himself  on  the  Diatoms  of  the  Glen- 
shira  Sand,  the  marine  forms  in  which  must  have  come  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
proceeded  to  describe  the  material  now  under  investigation.  It  is  remarkable  that 
of  all  the  many  undescribed  marine  forms  found  in  the  Glenshira  Sand,  not  one  has 

6* 


84  report— 1856. 

yet  been  recorded  aa  occurring  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Hie  new  material  was  noting 
more  than  dirt  washed  from  some  nests  of  Lima  hians,  dredged  by  Prof.  Allans  off 
Arsan,  in  four  fathoms  water,  on  the  19th  of  July.  After  washing  with  acids.  Ax, 
a  residue,  rich  in  Diatoms,  was  left.  In  this  the  author  found — 1.  Many  cosnoo 
species,  both  freshwater  and  marine ;  2.  Many  known  but  rare  or  curious  inariae 
forms,  such  as  Navicitla  Hennedyi,  Sm. ;  Lyra,  Chr. ;  granulata,  Brel>. ;  Plemtigm* 
transversale,  Sm.  ;  obscumm,  Sm.  ;  rigidum,  Sm.  ;  delicatuUtm,  Sm.  ;  Siamvmu 
pukhella  /3,  Sm.= Stauroptera  aspera,  Ehr. ;  Eupodiscus  Raff  in,  Sm.;  crossu,  So.; 
Coscinodiscus  concinnus,  Sm. ;  Eupodiscus  sculptus ;  Podosira  Montaauei,  Sm. ;  Csm- 
pylodiscus  Horologium,  Sm. ;  Surirella  fastuosa,  Sm. — 3.  Many  of  the  new  form 
figured  by  the  author  in  his  two  papers  on  the  Glenshira  Sand,  the  third  part  of 
which  will  not  be  published  till  October.  Those  here  found  are  NaviesUa  rhsmUes, 
W.  G. ;  maxima,  W.  G. ;  maxima,  var.  0,  W.  G. ;  quadrata,  W.  G.  (humerosa,  Breh-h 
latissima,  W.  G. ;  angulosa,  W.  G. ;  angulosa,  var.  A,  W.  G.  formosa,  W.  G.; 
Pandura,  Br£b. ;  Crabro,  Ehr. ;  incurvata,  W.  G. ;  splendida,  W.  G. ;  didmrnn  y, 
eostata,  W.  G. ;  didyma,  W.  G. ;  clavata,  W.  G. ;  Amphora  Arc**,  W.  G. ;  Awfi*- 
prora  vitrea  /3,  W.  G. ;  TryblioneUa  constricta,  W.  G. ;  Sunedra  undulata,  W.  G. 
( = Toxarium  undulatum,  Bailey) .  The  above  are  all  correctly  figured  in  the  two  pktei 
*  of  Glenshira  forms  already  published.  The  following  are  figured  in  the  plate  to  be 
published  in  October : — Cocconeis  distant,  W.  G. ;  eostata,  W.  G. ;  Amphora  cram, 
W.  G. ;  elegans,  W.  G. ;  Grevilliana,  W.  G. ;  Amphiprora  minor,  W.  G. ;  Nitxsctis- 
insignis,  W.  G. ;  socialis,  W.  G. ;  distant,  W.  G. ;  Eupodiscus  spams,  W.  G. ; 
Campylodiscus  simulans,  W.  G. ;  and  another  disc  not  yet  named*  It  thus  appears 
that  about  thirty  of  the  new  marine  forms  of  the  Glenshira  Sand  occur  in  this  Ma- 
terial, as  might  be  anticipated  from  the  connexion  between  Glenshira  and  Loch  Froe 
which  is  an  arm  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde.— -4.  Many  forms  which  appear  to  be  entirely 
new.  These  consist  of— a.  Navicular  and  Pinnuiarise,  of  which  there  are  several 
chiefly  small ;  but  there  is  one  very  fine  large  Navicula,  of  very  peculiar  aspect,  whkk 
proves  to  be  N.  pratexta,  Ehr.  It  has  a  marginal  and  two  medial  striated  bands, 
and  the  space  between  these  is  irregularly  powdered  with  round  granules,  the  sane 
as  those  of  which  the  striae  are  made  up.  One  of  the  smaller  forms  exhibit* 
at  one  focal  distance,  a  striated  marginal  band,  at  another  the  whole  valve  is  seea 
to  be  striated.  There  are  several  others,  which  the  author  has  not  had  time  at 
yet  to  study,  b.  Filamentous  forms,  of  which  there  are  several.  One  is  ap- 
parently a  Denticula,  a  fine  large  form,  which,  as  no  marine  species  of  the 
genus  are  known  in  Britain,  the  author  names,  provisionally,  Denticula  atari**. 
Four  appear  to  be  species  of  Zygoceros,  two  of  which  are  rather  large,  and  ran 
smaller.  One  frequent  form  is  that  named  by  Smith,  from  the  front -view  alone* 
Himantidium  Williamsonu  The  side  view  proves  it  to  be  not  a  Htmantidium;  audit 
is  probably  a  Diadesmis.  A  predominant  form  in  the  material  is  a  small  disc,  possi- 
bly =  Coscinodiscus  minor,  Sm.  But  it  is  here  seen  to  be  an  Orthocira.  c.  Cocco- 
neides.  There  appear  to  be  three  or  four  species  of  Cocconeis,  which  are  only 
mentioned,  not  having  been  fully  studied.  Two  of  these  are  allied  to  C.  dutam, 
which  also  occurs  as  above  stated,  and  is  both  frequent  and  fine,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing the  opinion  of  Prof.  Smith,  is  held  by  the  author  to  be  entirely  distinct  from  C. 
ScuteUum.  d.  Discs.  These  are  some  apparently  new  discs,  one  of  which  is  a  large 
Campylodiscus,  allied  to  C.  Ratfsii,  which  the  author  has  also  found  in  the  Glenshin 
Sand,  but  has  not  yet  described,  e.  Amphorae.  Of  this  genus,  of  which  the  Glea- 
shira  Sand  has  yielded  so  many  and  such  remarkable  new  species,  this  material,  be- 
sides several  of  the  Glenshira  forms,  including  two  of  the  finest,  A.  crassa  and  A.  Grt- 
viUiana,  has  yielded  a  large  number  of  new,  and  in  most  cases  very  remarkable  spe- 
cies. One  of  these  is  nearly  square,  one  is  linear  with  an  expansion  in  the  middle, 
and  one  is  linear  with  two  such  expansions.  There  are  probably  about  ten  new  spe- 
cies of  Amphora,  but  it  has  been  impossible  in  so  short  a  time  to  determine  then 
properly.  Almost  all  the  forms  which  have  been  named  above,  whether  known  or 
undescribed,  occur  finely  developed,  and  there  are  also  very  fine  specimens  of  many 
forms  which  have  not  been  named.  On  the  whole,  the  author  trusts  that  this  pre- 
Jiminary  notice  will  show  how  much  remains  to  be  done  among  marine  Diatoms,  and 
how  desirable  it  is  that  marine  deposits  on  mud  should  be  carefully  and  minutely 
searched. 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  SECTIONS.  85 

On  the  Development  of  the  Embryo  of  Flowering  Plants. 
By  Arthur  Hbnfrby,  F.R.8.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  Kings  College,  London. 

All  those  who  have  devoted  attention  to  the  study  of  vegetable  physiology,  are 
aware  that  a  controversy  has  been  carried  on  pretty  actively  of  late  years,  regarding 
the  real  mode  of  origin  of  the  primary  cell,  from  which  the  embryo  becomes  deve- 
loped in  the  seeds  of  the  higher  plants.  On  one  hand,  Prof.  Schleiden  has  asserted 
that  the  "  germ-cell "  is  produced  in  the  end  of  the  pollen-tube,  after  this  organ 
has  penetrated  to  the  nucleus  of  the  ovule.  Until  very  lately,  Schleiden  has  firmly 
adhered  to  this  opinion,  and  it  has  been  most  actively  defended  by  Dr.  Schacht  in 
various  memoirs,  receiving  additional  support  also  in  a  few  other  less  important 
quarters.  On  the  other  hand.  Prof.  Amici,  about  ten  years  ago,  announced  his 
conviction  that  Schleiden  and  the  pollinists  were  mistaken,  and,  moreover,  showed 
that  in  certain  species  of  Orchis  and  other  plants  the  germ-cell  originates  quite  inde- 
pendently in  the  embryo-sac,  and  is  merely  fertilized  by  the  contents  of  the  pollen- 
tube.  Amici's  views  have  been  confirmed,  and  the  illustrations  of  the  doctrine 
extended,  by  Von  Mohl,  Hofmeister,  and  others,  among  whom  the  author  of  this 
paper  may  be  counted.  M.  Tulasne  also  may  be  ranked,  for  his  later  researches,  in 
the  same  company,  although  he  differs  in  his  conclusions  in  a  subordinate  point,  he 
having  been  unable  to  detect  the  germ-cells  in  the  embryo-sac  prior  to  fertilization, 
although  he  finds  them  originating  quite  independently  of  the  pollen-tube  after  this 
has  exerted  its  influence.  This  discrepancy  is  perhaps  explicable,  by  the  perishable 
condition  in  which  the  germinal  body  has  now  been  ascertained  to  exist,  previously 
to  its  impregnation  by  the  pollen-tube. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  twelve  months  the  aspect  of  the  present  question  has 
undergone  a  roost  striking  change,  depending  not  only  on  the  total  surrender  of  one 
of  the  conflicting  parties,  but  on  the  recognition  of  a  totally  new  point,  throwing 
very  considerable  light  on  the  true  nature  of  the  analogies  existing  between  the  pro- 
cesses of  reproduction  in  vegetables  generally.  The  author  is  induced  to  lav  the 
particulars  of  the  recent  occurrences  before  the  British  Association,  not  only  on 
account  of  the  importance  of  certain  of  the  facts,  but  by  the  circumstance  that  his 
long- continued  researches  on  this  subject  have  been  rewarded  by  his  being  the 
first  to  recognize  what  he  believes  to  be  the  essential  point  in  the  process  of  fecun- 
dation. 

In  the  first  place,  to  dismiss  certain  matters  which  now  belong  only  to  the  history 
of  this  question,  it  may  be  stated  that  Schleiden,  the  originator  of  the  pollinic  hypo- 
thesis, has  become  convinced  that  it  is  erroneous.  One  of  his  pupils,  Dr.  Radlkofer 
of  Munich,  published  in  the  early  part  of  this  year,  some  researches  carried  on  under 
the  auspices, of  Prof.  Schleiden ;  and  in  the  relation  of  his  results,  he  makes  the 
statement,  that  he  is  authorized  by  Schleiden  to  publish  that  author's  admission 
that  the  preparations  figured  in  the  memoir  demonstrate  the  existence  of  the  germinal 
vesicles  as  independent  bodies  before  the  pollen-tube  reaches  the  embryo -sac.  So 
far,  therefore,  as  that  point  was  concerned,  Amici's  doctrine  might  be  considered 
substantiated,  although  it  still  remained  to  obtain  the  acknowledgment  of  error  on 
the  part  of  Dr.  Schacht.  That  physiologist  was  in  Madeira  at  the  time  Dr.  Radl- 
kofer's  pamphlet  appeared,  pursuing  his  physiological  researches ;  and  we  have  just 
received  a  report  of  a  communication  sent  by  him  to  Berlin,  containing  not  only 
the  required  admission,  but  a  remarkable  confirmation  of  a  new  and  most  important 
point,  which  had  been  brought  forward  in  the  mean  time  by  the  author  of  this 
notice. 

From  the  time  when  I  carefully  repeated  Amici's  observations  on  Orchis  years 
ago,  I  have  been  convinced  that  he  was  right  in  regard  to  the  independence  and 
pre-existence  of  the  germinal  bodies  in  the  embryo-sac.  Every  summer  I  have 
prosecuted  researches  on  this  subject,  with  a  view  to  overcome  the  obstinate  resist- 
ance of  the  pollinists.  During  last  year,  I  was  led  to  observe  certain  minute  cha- 
racteristics of  the  germinal  vesicles,  and  to  apply  reagents  to  them,  in  order  to 
ascertain  more  accurately  their  conditions  in  various  stages.  In  the  article  "  Ovule  " 
of  the  '  Micrograph ic  Dictionary,'  published  last  autumn,*  I  stated  that  I  had  good 
reason  for  believing  that  the  germinal  bodies  did  not  possess  a  cellulose  coat  until 
after  impregnation.     1  had  not  leisure  until  the  completion  of  that  work  to  bring  my 


Fig.  5. 


Fig.  4. 


Embryogeny  of  Santalum  album.    (All  magnified  400  diameters  ) 

All  the  figures  represent  the  upper  end  of  the  embryo-sac  (after  soaking  in  spirit, 
by  which  the  protoplasmic  contents  are  coagulated) :  figs.  1  and  2,  just  before  the 
pollen- tube  comes  into  contact ;  figs.  3 — 5,  after  it  has  descended  and  become  adhe- 
rent to  the  embryo-sac.  The  letters  have  the  same  significance  in  all  the  figures. 
a.  Hie  protoplasmic  germinal  corpuscle  which  becomes  the  embryonal  cell,    b  and 

c.  Two  protoplasmic  corpuscles,  which  always  occupy  the  apex  of  the  sac  (coapdt). 

d.  Protoplasmic  substance  in  "  primordial  utricle  '*  of  the  embryo-sac  coagulated 
and  contracted,  e.  Membrane  of  the  embryo-sac.  /.  Starch-granules,  p.  Pollen* 
tube.  a1.  The  cellulose  membrane  of  the  fertilized  germinal  corpuscle,  now  become 
a  perfect  embryonal  cell. 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  SECTIONS.  87 

rates  into  a  fit  state  for  publication,  but  in  February  I  forwarded  a  paper  to  the 
Linoean  Society  of  London,  which  was  read  on  the  4th  of  March,  in  which  the 
new  discovery  was  folly  illustrated  and  explained,  as  observed  in  the  ovules  of  San* 
tahtm  album.  That  memoir  contained  many  details  respecting  the  development  of 
the  ovale  in  all  its  stages ;  but  the  point  of  greatest  physiological  importance,  and  of 
absolute  novelty,  was  the  demonstration,  that  previously  to  the  period  when  the 
pollen- tube  reaches  the  embryo-sac,  the  germinal  vesicles,  or  rather  "  corpuscles," 
are  not  perfect  cells  in  the  old  and  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term  in  vegetable 
anatomy,  but  are  merely  definitely -bounded,  spherical  or  ellipsoidal  masses  of  gra- 
nular protoplasm ;  being,  in  fact,  in  the  same  condition  as  the  zoospores  of  the  Con* 
fervoid  Algae,  before  they  are  discharged  from  the  parent-cell  in  swarming.  The 
pollen-tube  reaches  the  summit  of  the  embryo-sac,  and  adheres  very  firmly  to  it. 
It  was  not  decided  whether  the  membranes  gave  way,  so  as  to  allow  the  contents 
of  the  pollen-tube  to  be  discharged  into  the  embryo -sac,  but  this  appeared  probable. 
The  result  of  the  application  of  the  pollen -tube  to  the  end  of  the  embryo-sac  above 
the  germinal  corpuscles,  was  very  quickly  evident  in  the  appearance  of  a  solid  cellu- 
lose membrane  as  a  new  coat  to  that  germinal  corpuscle  which  was  to  give  origin  to 
the  embryo,  converting  it  into  a  perfect  cell.  This  cell  then  became  divided  into 
two  by  a  transverse  septum,  the  upper  half  forming  the  "8uspensor"-cell,  while 
the  lower  increased  in  size,  and  by  cell-division  became  a  cellular  mass,  ultimately 
taking  the  proper  form  of  the  embryo. 

Botanists  who  are  acquainted  with  the  recent  discoveries  of  Thuret,  Pringsheira, 
Cohn  and  others  in  the  reproduction  of  the  Algae,  will  see  the  interesting  connexion 
which  exists  between  the  process  above  described,  and  the  phenomena  of  fecunda- 
tion of  the  species  of  the  lower  plants.  I  have  dwelt  upon  this  in  the  memoir 
presented  to  the  Linnean  Society,  and  stated  my  opinion,  since  confirmed  by  further 
observation,  that  the  germinal  corpuscle  of  the  archegonium  of  the  Ferns  is  likewise 
destitute  of  a  cellulose  coat  until  it  is  fertilized  by  the  contact  of  the  spermatozoids. 
I  send  with  this  notice  some  drawings  illustrating  the  phenomena  presented  in 
the  fertilization  of  the  ovule  of  Santalum. 


Having  arrived  at  the  above  views,  it  was  with  great  pleasure  I  last  week  received 
the  report  of  the  May  sitting  of  the  Berlin  Academy,  containing  a  paper  by  Dr. 
Schacht,  transmitted  from  Madeira,  with  the  date  of  April,  on  the  same  subject, 
and  confirming  my  account  in  all  essential  respects.  His  observations  on  the  ovule 
of  Gladiolus  segetum  have  induced  him  not  only  to  admit  the  error  in  his  long  and 
warm  advocacy  of  the  pollinic  hypothesis,  but  to  assert  that  the  germinal  corpuscles 
are,  as  stated  by  me,  pre- existent  as  protoplasmic  masses  destitute  of  a  membrane, 
and  that  their  conversion  into  true  cells,  with  a  cellulose  wall,  is  the  result,  and  the 
first  evidence  of  the  process  of  fertilization  by  the  arteries  of  the  pollen-tube.  This 
corroboration  of  my  statements  by  an  independent  observer,  is  very  satisfactory, 
seeing  the  delicacy  of  the  observations  on  which  they  rest ;  but  it  may  be  observed, 
that  the  new  views  form  a  natural  development  of  those  previously  entertained  by 
Amici's  school,  resulting  from  a  more  minute  attention  to  the  nature  of  "  cell-con- 
tents" than  was  formerly  paid.  It  is  probable  that  part  of  the  error  of  the  pollinists, 
together  with  Tulasne's  inability  to  find  the  germinal  corpuscles  before  impregnation, 
may  have  arisen  from  the  great  liability  to  destruction  of  the  corpuscles  by  external 
agents,  and  alteration  by  endosmose.  We  have  observed  them  best  either  by  moist* 
ening  the  fresh  preparations  with  solution  of  sugar  instead  of  pure  water,  or  by 
soaking  the  ovules  in  spirit  before  dissection. — August  2,  1856. 


On  the  Trilicoidal  Forms  o/iEgilop8  and  on  the  Specific  Identity  of  Centaurea 
nigra  and  C.  nigreacens.  By  the  Rev.  Professor  Hknslow,  M.A.t  F.R.S. 
In  this  paper  the  Professor  recorded  the  result  of  his  own  experiments,  in  which 
he  had  so  far  succeeded  in  changing  the  character  of  jEgilops  squarrosa  as  to  lead 
him  to  conclude  that  M.  Fabre's  original  statement,  that  jE.  ovata  was  the  origin 
of  the  domestic  wheat,  Triticum  sativum,  was  not  altogether  without  foundation. 
He  exhibited  specimens  in  which  the  form  of  jEgilops  squarrosa  had  undergone 
considerable  change ;  but  he  had  not  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  characters  of  Triti- 


88  report — 1856* 

cum  sativum.  Prof.  Henslow  then  exhibited  Centamrea  mgrescem,  in  which  itw* 
Been  that  cultivated  specimens  of  seedling  plants  had  completely  passed  into  tat 
form  of  C.  nigra.  He  then  referred  to  instances  of  species  of  Bma,  Piimmtu,  sad 
AnagaUis,  passing  one  into  the  other. 


On  the  Movements  of  Oscillatorue.    By  Professor  6.  B.  Knowles,  FJ^S^ 
Queen* 8  College,  Birmingham. 

The  Oscillatoriss  belong  to  a  group  of  plants  which  seem  to  stand  immediately 
between  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  After  very  careful  and  repeated  exa- 
minations, (he  author  has  fully  satisfied  himself  that  the  motions  of  this  family  of 
freshwater  Alga?  are  entirely  independent  of  any  electrical  influence ;  of  any  current 
in  the  fluid  in  which  thev  are  placed ;  or  of  any  effort  to  recover  their  straight  posi- 
tion. The  motions,  in  /act,  have  very  much  the  appearance  of  being  spontaneous; 
an  opinion  in  which  Prof.  Knowles  is  pleased  to  find  that  Captain  Carmichael,  who 
devoted  his  attention  for  many  years  to  the  investigation  of  marine  and  freshwater 
algse,  fully  concurs. 

Many  of  the  larger  Oscillatoriae,  if  carefully  watched,  may  be  seen  to  move  m 
various  directions,  sometimes  to  the  right,  sometimes  to  the  left ;  sometimes  slowly, 
sometimes  briskly.  The  author,  however,  never  perceived  in  them  anything  like  an 
effort  to  recover  the  straight  position  which  is  considered  to  be  natural  to  thca. 
On  the  contrary,  they  may  often  be  observed  to  bend  gradually,  so  as  to  form  a  very 
considerable  curve ;  to  return  again  to  the  straight  position,  and  then  to  bend  io  sa 
opposite  direction.  They  have  also  a  progressive  motion ;  and  two  filaments  lying 
side  by  side,  may  frequently  be  seen  advancing  in  opposite  directions  on  the  field  of 
the  microscope.  This  progressive  motion,  in  all  probability,  is  effected  by  means  of 
cilia,  although  they  have  not  hitherto  been  detected.  Of  the  correctness  of  these 
facts  any  one  may  readily  convince  himself,  by  examining  with  a  little 
fresh  specimens  of  any  of  the  larger  Oscillatorue. 


On  the  genus  Abrothallus,  De  Nrs.     By  W.  Laudkr  Lindsat,  M.D.,  Perth. 

The  genus  Abrothallus  has  long  been  misunderstood  and  little  known  by  botanists. 
Its  species  have  generally  been  regarded  either  as  the  abortive,  monstrous  or  acces- 
sory apothecia  of  various  common  lichens : — as  parasitic  species  of  Endocarpoo  or 
Lecidea ;  or  as  parasitic  Fungi.  They  are  athalline :  hence  the  apothecia,  whick 
are  very  minute,  almost  microscopic,  may  be  said  to  constitute  the  plants.  They 
are  parasitic  on  the  thallus  of  various  common  foliaceous  lichens  belonging  to  the 
genera  Parmelia,  Cetraria  and  Sticta ;  and  are  especially  abundant  on  furforaceoss 
states  of  Parmelia  saxatilie.  Though  comparatively  unknown  to  British  botanists, 
Dr.  L.  has  met  with  them  plentifully  on  old  road-side  walls,  and  more  sparingly  oa 
boulders,  rocks,  and  trees,  both  in  the  Highlands  and  Lowlands  of  Scotland ;  sod 
more  particularly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Perth,  Dunkeld,  Braemar,  Glen  Shee, 
Lochaber,  Skye,  and  Dumfries.  The  genus  is  specially  interesting,  from  possessing 
in  addition  to  the  ordinary  reproductive  organs, — the  spores  and  spermatia,— of 
other  lichens,  accessory,  leproductive  bodies,  stglosports,  contained  in  mioote 
microscopic  conceptacles,  termed  by  Tulasne  Pycniod*$.  The  presence  of  stjlo- 
spores  and  the  absence  of  a  tballus,  tend  to  assimilate  this  genus  closely  to  the 
Fungi,  between  which  and  the  lichens  the  marks  of  differentiation  are  daily  beco- 
ming less  and  less  distinct. 

The  first  approach  to  a  satisfactory  examination  and  description  of  the  genus  wis 
made  by  De  Notaris,  who,  however,  was  led  into  various  errors  regarding  its  struc- 
ture. He  described  it  as  possessing  a  small,  delicate  thallus;  hence  the  name 
which  he  bestowed  on  the  genus.  ThiB  thallus  is  now  ascertained  to  belong  to,  or 
to  be  a  modified  portion  or  anamorphosis  of,  the  thallus  of  Parmelia  saxatili*,  or 
other  lichen,  on  which  the  Abro  thallus  is  parasitic.  His  errors  were  corrected  by 
Tulasne,  in  a  monograph  on  the  genus  Abrot hallos,  and  certain  allied  parasitic 
genera,  included  in  his  elaborate  and  valuable  memoir  on  the  minute  anatomy  of 
the  lichens,  published  in  the  'Annates  des  Sciences  Naturelles'  for  1852.  The 
results  of  Dr.  Lindsay's  examination  of  a  large  number  of  Scotch  apecimens,  have 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  8ECT10N8.  89 

led  nim,  however,  to  take  a  somewhat  different  view  of  the  numbers  aod  characters 
of  the  species ;  and  have  enabled  him  to  supply  certain  important  omissions,  and  to 
correct  various  minor  errors  of  previous  observers.  He  has  been  the  first,  it  is 
believed,  to  observe  and  describe  the  spermogones  and  epermatia  of  the  genus ;  and 
thus  to  give  a  complete  account  of  its  minute  anatomy.  The  structure  of  the  apo- 
thecia  appears  to  entitle  this  genus  to  be  classed  in  the  natural  family  of  the  Leci- 
deacea.     Tulasne  describes  the  five  following  species : — 

1.  Abrothallus  Smithii. 

2.  „  Welwitzsckii. 

3.  „  microspermus, 

4.  „  oxysporus. 

5.  „  inquinans. 

Dr.  L.  includes  the  three  first  species  of  Tulasne  under  his  A.  Smithii,  retaining 
Talasne'a  specific  characters  as  distinctive  of  varieties,  which  he  denominates  re- 
apectively  a.  var.  ater ;  /3.  var.  pulverulentus ;  and  ft.  var.  microspermus.  The  fifth 
species,  which  Tulasne  himself  designates  a  "  species  recedens,"  he  discards  as 
not  properly  pertaining  to  the  genus  Abrothallus  at  all.  The  fourth  he  accepts  as  a 
good  and  well-marked  species.  The  species  described  by  Tulasne  and  Dr.  Lindsay 
contrasted  arc  therefore  as  follows  : — 

1 .  A.  Smithii,  Tul.  1       \XA-  SmUhfi-  Lind»- 

2.  A.  YVtlwituchii,  Tul.     \  =  \  £      ,       ,    . 

3.  ^.mierovemw.Tal.    J       |  * ■  JH*in*rtw. 

r  I  y.  microspermus, 

4.  A.  oxysporus,  Tul.  ==     2.  A.  oxysporus,  Linda. 

5.  A.  inquinans,  Tul.  omitted. 

The   following   are  the  full  characters  of  the  genus  and  its  two  species,  as 
emended  by  Dr.  L. 

Genus.  Abrothallus,  De  Nrs.  emend.  Athalltne:  parasitic  on  the  thallus  of  various 
foliaceous  lichens.  Apothecia  developed  in  medullary  tissue  of  matrix :  burst 
through,  sometimes  Assuring  in  a  radiate  manner,  the  cortical  layer,  which  may 
form  a  raised  border :  finally  seated  on,  or  partially  immersed  in,  the  alien 
thallus:  at  first  flattened  or  discoid,  sometimes  becoming  pulviniform  or  globose: 
immarginate :  circumference  agglutinated  to  matrix  or  free :  smooth  or  pulveru- 
lent: mostly  black.  Theca  8-spored:  clavate,  becoming  obovate:  amyloid 
reaction  with  iodine  often  inconspicuous  or  absent.  Paraphyses  closely  aggre- 
gated :  thickened,  deeply  coloured  and  cohering  at  their  apices.  Spore*  ovate- 
oblong  and  obtuse  at  ends,  or  ellipsoid  and  acute :  2-locular,  the  loculi  being 
unequal  in  size  and  the  larger  one  always  looking  towards  the  apex  of  the  theca, 
or  simple :  of  an  olive- green  or  brownish  colour,  or  pale :  frequently  containing 
two  or  more  globular  nuclei.  Spermogones  immersed,  spherical,  simple,  open- 
ing by  a  point-like  or  stellate-fissured  ostiole :  envelope  of  a  deep  brown  tint. 
Sttrigmata  simple,  slender,  irregular,  generating  from  their  apices  linear,  straight, 
slender  spermatid.  Pycnides  also  immersed,  spherical,  1-locular,  opening  by  a 
simple  or  stellate  ostiole :  generally  larger  and  more  conspicuous  than  the  sper- 
mogones. Sterigmata  short,  simple,  sometimes  inconspicuous  or  absent :  mo- 
nospored :  generating  from  their  apices  the  stylospores,  which  are  pyriform  or 
obovate,  simple,  pale,  obtuse  at  ends,  and  contain  an  oily  protoplasm  or  distinct 
oil*  globules. 
Species  I.  Abrothallus  Smithii,  Tul.  emend,  [including  the  A.  Smithii,  A.  WeU 
witzschii,  and  A.  microspermus  of  Tulasne ;  and  the  A.  Bertianus  and  A.  Buel- 
lianus  of  De  Notaris  and  Massalongo.]  Apothecia  epithalline  :  scattered, 
rarely  confluent:  prominent:  pulviniform  or  globose:  normally  smooth  and 
black,  sometimes  green -pulverulent :  circumference'  agglutinated  or  free :  ulti- 
mately falling  out  and  leaving  distinct,  cyphelloid,  variously  coloured  foveolae, 
which  have  sometimes  raised  and  dark  margins.  Theca  :  amyloid  reaction  with 
iodine  feeble  or  none.  Spores  ovate-oblong  :  2-locular,  upper  segment  broader 
and  shorter  than  lower :  olive-green  or  brownish :  vary  in  size :  loculi  fre- 
quently containing  one  or  two  globular  nuclei, 
a.  var.  ater.  Apothecia  black  and  smooth. 
[A.  Smithii,  Tul.  in  part.] 


90  REPORT — 1856. 

0.  var.  pulverulentus.    Apotbecia  sparingly  or  copiously  green-pvhenriaft. 

[A.  Smithu,  Tul.  in  part,  and  A.  Weheitxschii,  TulJ 
b.  var.  microspermus.    Spores  small  and  pale. 
[A,  microspermus,  Tul.] 

Habitats.  I.  Parasitic  on  furfuraceous  states  of  Parmelia  saxatiUs,  chiefly  on  eli 
roadside  walls,  less  frequently  on  boulders,  rocks,  and  trees.  Craigie  iQl 
and  MoDcrieff  Hill,  Perth :  Craig-y-Barus,  Birnam  Hill,  and  Amolrec  Road, 
Dunkeld :  Caerlaveroch  Road,  Dumfries :  Ben  Lawers :  Gien  Shee  and  Gfcs 
Clunie:  Braemar:  Fort-William  and  Ben  Nevis:  banks  of  Crinan  Canal: 
Glen  Sligachan,  Portree,  Broad  ford  and  Uig,  Skye :  Wrekin  Hill,  Shropshire: 
var.  a.  [Leighton's  Lich.  Brit,  exsicc.  No.  46.  Fasc.  2.  7 :  Barmouth,  Nertk 
Wales,  Rev.  W.  A.  Leighton.] 

II.  On  SHctafuliginosa :  rocks,  New  Cut,  Meadfoot,  Torquay,  Devonshire  [LeigfeL 
Lieh.  Brit,  exsicc.  No.  191.  Fasc.  6.],  var.  0. 

Species  II.  A.  oxysporu*  Tul.  emend.  Apotbecia  not  prominent:  chiefly  im- 
mersed: flattened  or  discoid:  blackish  -  brown :  generally  crowded.  7Vec: 
amyloid  reaction  with  iodine  distinct.  Parapkyses :  tips  light  brown.  Sperm 
ellipsoid,  acute  at  ends,  colourless  or  pale  yellow,  normally  containing  two  yel- 
lowish globular  nuclei,  placed  at  opposite  ends  of  the  spore. 

Habitats.  I.  Parasitic  on  furfuraceous  states  of  Parmelia  saxatilis,  generally asso* 
ciated  with  the  preceding  species  in  most  of  the  stations  already  mentioned. 

II.  On  Parmelia  cotupersa,  Barmouth,  North  Wales,  Leighton. 

HI.  On  Cefraria  glauca,  Barmouth,  Leighton. 

Mr.  M.  Masters  exhibited  a  specimen  of  an  abnormal  growth  in  a  rosewood-tree. 
The  specimen  consisted  of  two  root-like  organs  which  had  been  found  in  the  houov 
of  a  trunk  of  the  rosewood-tree ;  the  root-like  branches  having  descended  from  tac 
upper  part  of  the  cavity  in  the  trunk,  and  descended  and  penetrated  into  the  bottosi 
of  it.  

On  the  Flora  of  the  Crimea.    By  Dr.  Michelsen. 

On  the  Geography  of  Breadstuff 8.     By  Dr.  Michelsen. 

Notice  of  the  Natural  Printing  of  Sea-Weeds  on  the  Rocks  in  the  vicinity  of 
Stromness,  Orkney.     By  Charles  W.  Peach. 

The  author  found,  on  the  rocks  near  Stromness,  by  the  sea-side,  distinct  impres- 
sions of  living  Algse,  Desmarestia  ligulata,  HaUdrys  siliquosa,  Fucus  nodosus,  and 
several  others.  It  appeared  that  in  some  cases  the  stone  (micaceous  Old  Red  Sand- 
stone) had  been  covered  by  a  Leathsia  ?,  that  this  was  corroded  by  the  larger  sea- 
weeds, so  that  their  forms  appeared  slightly  impressed,  and  of  a  yellow  colour.  la 
other  cases  no  preparatory  growth  of  Leathsia  was  observed,  but  the  stone  was 
slightly  excavated,  and  darkened  in  colour.  The  author  showed  the  bearing  of  tab 
observation  in  cases  of  plant- like  forms  in  the  Lower  Palaeozoic  strata  of  Cornwall, 
where  no  trace  of  carbonaceous  matter  appeared. 


Zoology. 

A  Notice  of  some  New  Genera  and  Species  of  British  Zoophytes. 
By  Joshua  Alder. 

The  paper  contained  descriptions  of  thirteen  new  species,  found  by  the  author  on 
the  coasts  of  Northumberland  and  Durham.  They  include  two  new  genera,  and 
another  genus  not  before  recorded  as  European.  They  are  as  follows : — ForHcUva, 
a  new  genus  allied  to  Clavu,  but  differing  in  having  the  tentacles  in  two  regular  cirdet 
round  the  head,  and  dissimilar.  The  species  V.  humilis  has  five  tentacles  in  the 
upper  row,  and  ten  in  the  lower. — Eudendrium  cottfectum,  a  small  species  encrust- 


TRAN8ACHON8  OF  THE  8BCTIONS.  91 

ing  old  an  Waive  shells,  and  having  much  the  habit  of  a  Hydractinia.— E.  capillars, 
a  minute  slender-branched  species,  having  the  polypes  and  reproductive  capsules  on 
different   branches. — Sertularia  tricuspidata,  somewhat  resembling  S,  polyzonias, 
but  more  nearly  allied  to  a  New  Zealand  species  (S.  Johnstoni,  Gray).     It  has  three- 
toothed  apertures  to  the  cells. — Sertularia  tenella,  a  species  supposed  by  Dr.  John- 
ston  to  be  a  variety  of  S,  rugosa  with  the  habit  of  S.  polysome*,  but  it  differs  from  bojh 
in  some  of  its  characters. — Campanularia  volubilis,  C.  Johnstoni,  and  C.  Htncksii. 
The  Linnean  species  is  re-described  for  the  purpose  of  distinguishing  it  from  the 
other  two,  which  have  been  confounded  with  it.    According  to  the  opinion  of  the 
author,  the  C.  volubilis  of  Johnston  differs  from  that  of  Ellis.     The  latter  is  considered 
to  be  the  Linnean  type,  and  the  second  species  is  named  C  Johnstoni*     They  differ 
in  the  form  of  their  ovicapsules,  as  well  as  in  other  particulars.    A  third  species, 
with  the  margin  of  the  cell  sculptured  in  a  castellated  form,  had  been  previously  ob- 
served by  the  Rev.  T.  Hincks,  and  is  here  called  C.  Hincksii. — C.  gracillima,  a 
species  allied  to  C.  dumosa. — Grammaria,  a  genus  lately  described  by  Mr.  Stimpson 
in  'A  Synopsis  of  the  Marine  Invertebrata  of  Grand  Manan,*  published  by  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  of  Washington.    The  British  species,  now  first  noticed,  comes 
very  near  to  the  G.  robusta  of  Stimpson,  but  differs  in  being  much  branched.     It  is 
called  G.  ramosa. — Buskia,  a  new  genus  of  Polyzoa,  belonging  to  the  family  Vesi- 
culariadae.     It  is  parasitical,  and  consists  of  small  cells,  closely  adhering  to  other 
substances,  with  marginal  spines  also  adhering.    They  are  united  by  a  creeping  fibre. 
The  species  B.  nitens  is  minute,  shining,  and  horn-coloured. — FarreUa  pedicellata. 
Found  on  old  shells  from  deep  water.     It  differs  from  the  Laguncuh  {FarreUa)  elon- 
gata  of  Van  Beneden  in  the  great  length  and  slenderness  of  the  pedicle,  and  in  some 
other  respects. — Alcyonidium  mammiUatum,  an  encrusting  species,  found  on  old 
shells,  distinguished  by  the  size  of  the  papillae. — A.  albidwn,  enveloping  the  stem  of 
Phmularia  falcata  with  prominent  whitish  polypides. 


A  skull  of  a  Manatee,  obtained  by  Dr.  Baikie  in  Africa,  was  exhibited  to  the 
Section. 


Di.  Ball,  of  Dublin,  exhibited  a  Dredge  which  he  had  found  of  the  greatest  use 
in  making  dredging  excursions.         ___ __ 

Notice  of  a  new  Crustacean,  Monimia  Whiteana.    By  Spence  Bate,  Plymouth. 

Observations  on  the  AcaUpha,  with  respect  to  Organs  of  Circulation  and  Respi- 
ration. •  By  Professor  J.  H.  Corbbtt,  M.D.,  Queen's  College,  Cork. 

In  this  communication  the  author  claimed  for  the  Acalephae  a  degree  of  organi- 
zation higher  than  that  usually  conceded  to  them,  and  which  might  be  supposed 
consistent  with  so  soft  and  perishable  a  structure.  He  described  two  different  sets  of 
vessels— a  centrifugal  and  centripetal ;  the  former  divide,  subdivide,  and  anastomose, 
is  they  proceed  towards  the  circumference  of  the  disc ;  the  latter  larger,  but  less  in 
number,  commence  towards  the  circumference  and  pass  in  straight  lines  towards 
the  centre,  where,  they  become  connected  with  the  plaited  red  bands  which  are 
disposed  around  the  gastric  cavity.  It  seems  evident  that  the  tubes  which  circulate 
the  nutritive  fluid  are  not  simply  gastro -vascular  canals  as  generally  described,  but 
Rally  vessels  which  assist  in  maintaining  a  complete  circulation.  The  four  bands 
ftitoated  around  the  gastric  cavity  are  considered  by  recent  authors  as  exclusively 
the  organs  of  reproduction,  consisting  of  vesicles  which  contain  sperm- cells  in  the 
male  and  ova  in  the  female.  '  The  contributor  of  this  paper  believes  these  to  be 
compound  parts,  and  states  that  the  vascular  plaited  bands  are  organized  in  an 
appropriate  manner  for  carrying  on  the  respiratory  action,  while  the  contained 
vesicles  are  the  agents  of  the  reproductive  function.  According  to  some  writers, 
respiration  is  accomplished  by  the  agency  of  the  cilia,  which  are  attached  along  the 
margin  of  the  disc ;  but  us  ciliary  appendages  are  frequently  absent  amongst  the 
Medusae,  such  a  view  cannot  be  considered  as  satisfactory. 

The  following  considerations  seem  to  indicate  that  the  membranous  constituents 
of  these  bands  are  branchial  or  respiratory  organs  :— 1st,  by  their  position  around 


92  REPORT — 1856. 

the  gastric  cavity  and  their  continuity  with  the  membrane  which  lines  it ;  xndhr ,  by 
their  connexion  with  the  vessels ;  3rdly,  that  a  rhythmical  action  of  the  entire  osc 
and  of  these  bands  takes  place  both  by  day  and  during  night,  as  carefully  observed 
by  the  author ;  4th ly,  by  an  alteration  in  their  colour  when  respiration  is  retained; 
5thly,  by  the  diminution  which  occurs  in  one  of  these  bands,  if  an  injury  happca 
to  be  inflicted,  on  the  corresponding  portion  of  the  disc,  while  the  others  preserve 
their  condition  unchanged. 

On  the  Pearls  of  the  Conway  River,  North  Wales,  with  some  Observations  m 
the  Natural  Productions  tf  the  Neighbouring  Coast.     By  Robert  Gabjtkb. 

Though  the  Unio  margarittferus,  or  true  British  Pearl- mussel,  is  sufficiently  well 
known  to  naturalists,  yet  some  obscurity  has  been  thrown  on  the  subject,  and  the  repu- 
tation of  its  beautiful  pearls  also  suffered,  from  the  circumstance  that  another  very 
sordid  sort  of  pearl  is  procured  from  the  salt-water  mussel  found  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Conway,  the  inquirer  commonly  resting  satisfied  with  such  as  are  here  procured  and 
offered  him.  With  respect  to  these  inferior  pearls,  undue  mystery  has  been  attached 
to  them  and  their  use.  It  is  true  that  several  families  exist  by  gathering  the  mussels 
at  low  water,  but  it  is  not  for  the  sake  of  the  contained  pearls,  but  as  food  for  swine, 
some  being  also  used  as  baits,  the  pearls,  which  indeed  are  sold  as  cariosities,  being 
a  secondary  object.  We  doubt  whether  any  method  is  known  of  making  them  orna- 
mental. The  true  pearl  mussel  must  be  searched  for  a  good  many  miles  up  the 
river,  and  the  writer  found  it  plentiful  about  a  mile  above  the  ancient  bridge  of 
Llanrwst,  near  the  domain  of  Gwydir,  where  the  water  is  beautifully  dear,  rapid, 
and  deep,  and  it  may  be  bad  hence  up  to  Bettws-y-Coed.  It  was  probably  from 
the  first  spot  that  Sir  Richard  Wynne  obtained  the  pearl  which  he  presented  to  the 
queen  of  Charles  the  Second.  The  writer  procured  a  couple  of  pearls  from  one 
mussel,  one  of  which  he  considers  by  no  means  despicable,  though  inferior  to 
another  which  he  saw  in  the  possession  of  one  of  the  village  maidens.  By  means 
of  the  coracles  still  used  on  this  part  of  the  river,  the  naturalists  might  procure 
plenty  of  these  handsome  shells,  and  it  may  be,  be  fortunate  enough  to  meet  with  a 
pearl. 

The  banks  of  the  Conway  near  its  embouchure  are  singularly  rich  in  maritime  and 
other  plants,  very  interesting  to  a  naturalist  from  an  inland  district  of  EoglanL 
On  the  rocks  of  the  Great  Ormshead,  immediately  over  Llandudno,  we  picked 
Cotoneaster  chryeocoma,  Veronica  sfticata,  HypocheHs  maculata,  an  Orobanche  (pro- 
bably minor),  apparently  springing  from  the  ivy,  and,  in  the  neighbourhood,  about  a 
score  more  plants  nearly  as  rare.  The  madwort  (Asperugo)  is  not  to  be  had 
without  endangering  the  neck,  but  it  grows  at  Llech,  the  extreme  and  exposed  point 
of  the  Great  Ormshead  peninsula.  The  Scrophularia  verna  is  considered  by  some  a 
doubtful  native ;  we  gathered  it  near  Gloddaeth,  where  it  is  plentiful  on  one  spot, 
and  have  it  also  from  Diganeury ;  it  can  hardly  have  been  introduced.  Along  the 
rather  dangerous  path  which  goes  along  the  face  of  the  Great  Ormshead  from  the 
west,  a  variety  of  plants  may  be  got,  as  the  Samphire  (Critkmum),  generally  rare  in 
Wales.  We  here  found  the  CycUtstoma  elegant,  Bulimus  obseurus  and  acutus,  Zws 
lubrica,  Helix  virgaU  and  pulchella,  with  five  or  six  other  common  species  of  Helix, 
and  three  or  four  common  Pupa?  and  Clausilie. 

On  several  places  on  the  Llandudno  mountain  are  large  accumulations  of  shells, 
specimens  of  which  a  geologist  gave  to  the  writer  as  crag  fossils,  and  proofs  of  an 
elevation  of  the  rock  in  comparatively  recent  times.  They  entirely  consist  of  the 
limpet,  mussel,  and  periwinkle,  and  are  mixed  with  bones  of  the  sheep  or  goat 
No  doubt  they  are  the  dtbris  of  ancient  inhabitants,  who  probably  worked  at  the 
mines.  We  obtained  a  rude  stone  hammer  which  was  found  in  the  mines,  similar 
to  some  found  by  Mr.  Bateman  in  British1>arrows ;  and  on  Pen  Ddinas,  hard  by,  we 
noticed  rows  of  the  foundations  of  circular  British  dwellings.  An  intrepid  female 
oologist,  living  by  the  mines,  furnishes  eggs  of  the  Guillemot,  Puffin,  Divers,  and 
two  or  three  species  of  Gull* 

In  the  drift  at  the  entrance  of  the  Conway,  many  minute  shells  abound,  four  or 
five  species  of  Rissoa,  and  some  of  Odostomia,  Mangelia,  Lacuna,  and  Ckewmitzi* : 
Chiton  cinereu*  is  here  abundant  under  the  stones,  the  C.  faicicularis  more  common 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  8ECTIONS.  93 

on  the  Anglesea  side  of  the  Menai.    The  writer  picked  up  also  dead  shells  of  Emar- 
gmula  reticulata,  and  obtained  a  specimen  of  a  rare  fish,  Echiodon.    By  means  of 
the  dredge,  he  got  from  Llandudno  Bay  Tubularia  indivisa,  Bullea  aperta,  Ophiura 
rosula,  Beroe  pileus,  Medina  aurita,  and  a  few  other  species  of  animals.    The  deep 
cavernous  inlets  at  the  foot  of  the  Ormshead,  appear  to  abound  in  other  Meduside, 
which  however  we  cannot  attempt  to  enumerate.     In  a  little  pool  in  the  Bay  we 
captured   two  specimens  of  the  beautiful  little  fish,  the  Argentine.    The  large 
yellowish  Doris  was  common  in  the  crevices  of  the  rocks,  and  we  found  it  also  at 
Beaumaris.     It  appears  to  take  the  place  of  D.  verrucosa,  which  we  have  commonly 
found  on  the  Sussex  coast.    We  picked  living  specimens  of  Sphenia  Binghami,  and, 
amongst  Radiata,  Cribella  oculata,  of  a  very  rich  orange  colour,  Uraster  violacea,  and 
Asterias  papposa ;  also  Actinia  mesembryanthemum  of  distinct  varieties  or  species,  the 
beautiful  A*  diantkus  (finer,  however,  at  Penmon),  and  Anthea  cereus.     Saxicava 
ruaosa  seems  to  take  the  place  of  the  Pholades  as  a  borer  in  the  limestone,  though 
valves  of  P.  Candida  and  crispata  are  to  be  found.    The  Cephalopoda  generally  seem 
rare  on  the  coast  of  North  Wales ;  Sepia,  Loligo  vulgaris  and  media,  all  of  which  we 
have  found   plentiful  on  the  Sussex  coast,  are  uncommon,  particularly  the  first ; 
Sepiola  and  Octopus  are,  we  have  heard,  occasionally  found ;  of  the  ova  of  Cepha- 
lopoda we  found  none.     Trochus  magus,  crassus,  and  zizyphinus  are  very  fine  on  the 
Caernarvonshire  coast ;  the  largest  of  the  first  species  are  carried  up  by  sea-birds  to 
the  summit  of  the  rocks,  the  second  is  the*  most  common  species  of  the  shores. 
Patella  pellucida  in  all  its  forms  is  found  on  the  Laminaria.    We  got  two  fresh 
shells  of  Tumatella  from  the  Menai,  and  one  of  Rostellaria  pes-carbonis.     Fusus 
antiquus  and  islandicus,  Bulla  lignaria  and  the  large  Turritella  are  not  rare  as 
mere  shells.     The  Natica  moniliformis,  as  it  is  now  termed,  abounds  alive  in  Car- 
digan Bay,  but  smaller  than  on  our  southern  coast.     Pecten  maximus  and  Donax 
trunculus  or  anatinus  are  also  often  small.    The  different  species  of  Fenus  seem  to 
abound  in  this  sea,  particularly  if  we  extend  our  search  to  the  Isle  of  Man,  where 
we  found  V.  striatula  and  casina,  Tapes  aurea  and  fasciata,  Artemis  Uncta,  borealis 
and  exoleta,  and  Venerupis  puUastra,  decussata  and  virginea,  often  containing  the 
animals.     Solen  ensis,  Reliaua  marginatus  and  legumen  are  also  common  and  fine  on 
this  coast ;  and  other  not  rare  bivalves  are  Lutraria  elliptica,  Scrobicularia  piperita, 
Mya  truncata,  Psammobia  Ferroensis,  Mactra   solida,  truncata,  subtruncata,  and 
stultorum,  the  latter,  however,  often  as  cinerea ;  also  Pectunculus  glycimeris  in  its 
two  principal  varieties. 

Crustacea  appear  to  abound ;  we  found  species  of  the  hermit  crab  in  shells  of 
Trochus,  Natica,  Turbo,  and  Buccinum.  The  latter  on  the  Sussex  coast,  at  the 
hack  part  of  the  spire,  in  company  with  the  crustacean,  often  contains  great  speci- 
mens of  the  Nereis  bilineata ;  we  have  not  been  able  to  find  it  in  Wales.  The 
Phyllodice  viridis,  a  pretty  green  worm,  is  seen  crawling  on  the  wet  rocks  of  the 
Ormshead  ;  also  a  species  of  Aphrodite  or  Halithea,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
with  blackish  dorsal  laminae,  four  tentacles,  muscular  retractile  proboscis,  two  sets 
of  bright  setae  on  each  side  of  every  joint,  the  latter  being  between  thirty  and  forty 
in  number,  also  a  small  soft  process  above  and  below  the  setae.  The  Aphrodite 
aculeata  I  could  not  meet  with. 

A  specimen  of  Sponge  (S.  pulchella)  accompanied  the  communication,  which  is 
abundantly  thrown  up  on  the  Caernarvonshire  coast;  also  some  specimens  of  pearls, 
and  a  small  shell  of  the  Unio  which  produces  the  fine  variety. 


On  the  Morphological  Constitution  of  Limbs. 
By  Professor  Goodsir,  F.R.S.L.  *  E. 


On  the  Morphological  Constitution  of  the  Skeleton  of  the  Vertebrate  Head. 
By  Professor  Goodsir,  F.RJS.L.  4  J£. 


On  the  Morphological  Relations  of  the  Nervous  System  in  the  Annulose  and 
Vertebrate  Types  of  Organization.     By  Professor  Goodsir,  F.RJS.L.  $  E. 


94  report — 1856. 

Remarks  on  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brackiopoda.     By  Albavy  Hakcock. 

Having  been  engaged  for  some  time  past  in  investigating  the  structure  of  tb 
Brachiopods,  I  propose  laying  before  this  meeting  of  the  British  Association  tfee 
results  attained  up  to  the  present  moment,  especially  on  two  or  three  points,  to  whits 
my  attention  has  been  more  particularly  directed,  and  on  which  there  exists  some 
diversity  of  opinion  among  anatomists. 

So  far  back  as  1852  I  had  dissected  Waldheimia  Australis  and  TWetrratuUma  camrf- 
aerpentis,  and  was  struck  by  the  peculiar  appearance  of  the  organs  commonly  deno- 
minated hearts,  which  seemed  very  unlike  any  molluscan  heart  that  I  had  ever  sees. 
On  attentive  examination,  it  became  evident  that  they  gave  off  no  arteries  as  they 
had  been  described  to  do ;  and,  moreover,  that  their  apices,  from  which  the  arteries 
were  stated  to  pass,  appeared  to  open  externally.  I  was  therefore,  and  for  other 
reasons,  inclined  to  consider  the  so-called  hearts  oviducts. 

At  the  same  time  I  examined,  with  considerable  care,  the  alimentary  tube,  ay 
attention  having  been  particularly  drawn  to  this  part  by  Mr.  Woodward  ;  and  mikd 
to  demonstrate  an  anal  outlet,  though  I  was  disposed  to  believe  in  the  existence  of 
a  minute  anal  puncture ;  and  thought  that  the  refuse  of  digestion  might  make  its 
escape  by  the  foramen  of  the  pedicle.  Howsoever  this  might  be,  it  was  quite  obvious 
that  no  anal  aperture  was  situated  in  the  pallial  chamber  as  described  by  Professor 
Owen.  I  also  examined  the  muscular  apparatus,  and  likewise  the  nervous  system; 
and  the  complicated  structure  of  the  mantle,  I  found,  invited  further  investigation. 

Other  and  more  urgent  matters,  however,  at  that  time  claimed  my  attention,  tod 
all  further  inquiry  into  the  structure  of  the  Brachiopods  was  necessarily  postponed. 
The  results  at  which  I  had  arrived  were,  nevertheless,  partially  made" known,  sad 
have,  to  a  considerable  extent,  been  substantiated  by  the  more  recent  investigations 
of  Mr.  Huxley,  who  in  1854  published  a  very  interesting  paper  on  the  anatomy  of 
the  Brachiopoda  in  the  '  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society/  In  this  paper  the  author 
arrives  at  the  conclusion,  that  in  Waldheimia  and  RhynchoneUa  there  is  no  anas  at  afl, 
but  that  the  intestine  terminates  in  a  blind  sac ;  that  the  so-called  hearts  give  off  at 
arteries,  and  that  they  possibly  open  externally.  Mr.  Huxley  also  describes,  for  the 
first  time,  a  system  of  ramified  peripheral  vessels,  and  two  or  three  pyriform  vesicles, 
one  of  which  is  attached  to  the  stomach,  and  is  in  connexion  with  a  series  of"  ridges  " 
and  "  bands."  Some  of  the  "  ridges  "  are  stated  to  pass  from  the  so-called  hearts 
to  the  genitalia  \  and  the  whole  apparatus  is  supposed  to  be  a  portion  of  the  circula- 
tory organs. 

It  is  then  mainly  in  relation  to  these  points,  respecting  the  vascular  and  alimentary 
systems,  raised  by  Mr.  Huxley  and  myself,  that  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion, 
Professor  Owen  maintaining  the  existence  of  an  anal  aperture  situated  in  the  pallial 
chamber,  and  that  the  so-called  hearts  are  true  vascular  centres  propelling  the  blood 
through  arteries  to  the  various  organs.  The  opinion  of  this  distinguished  anatomist 
demands  the  utmost  deference ;  and  it  is  on  no  slight  grounds  that  I  have  ventured 
to  dissent  from  it  in  this  instance,  doing  so  only  after  the  most  diligent  examination 
that  it  was  possible  to  give  to  the  subject,  and  when  to  doubt  longer  would  have 
been  to  disregard  the  evidence  of  my  senses.  The  greatest  caution  was  forced  upon 
me,  not  only  by  the  respect  due  to  authority,  but  likewise  because  Analogy  strongly 
favoured  the  views  of  the  learned  Professor  respecting  an  anal  aperture.  And  here 
it  must  be  stated  that  I  should  never  have  been  able  to  enter  upon  this  subject  with 
any  chance  of  success,  had  I  not  had  at  my  command  an  ample  supply  of  specimens. 
I  have  therefore  to  express  my  obligations  to  Dr.  Gray,  Mr.  Huxley,  Mr.  Wood- 
ward, Mr.  Davidson,  Mr.  M 'Andrew  and  Mr.  Alder;  as  it  is  to  the  liberality  ot 
these  gentlemen  that  I  am  indebted  for  the  specimens  used  upon  the  present 
occasion. 

First,  with  regard  to  the  so-called  hearts :  these  are  two  in  number  in  the  Terr 
bratulida ;  they  are  composed  of  two  portions,  which  have  been  denominated  respect- 
ively auricle  and  ventricle.  The  former  portion  is  suspended  by  a  membrane  ia 
the  Visceral  chamber,  and  resembles  the  mouth  of  a  trumpet  with  the  inner  surface 
laminated  in  a  radiating  manner.  The  other  portion  is  tubular,  arched  and  tapering, 
and  is  imbedded  in  the  thickness  of  the  anterior  wall  of  the  visceral  chamber,  passing 
diagonally  through  it.  On  reaching  the  surface,  the  apical  extremity  opens  imto  the 
pallial  chamber.    The  whole  organ  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  tube,  constricted  a  little 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTIONS.  95 

near  the  centre,  with  one  extremity  expanded  and  opening  into  the  visceral  chamber, 
the  other  tapering  and  opening  externally.  These  organs  are  placed  one  on  each 
aide  of  the  intestine,  and  the  apertures  by  which  they  communicate  with  the  pallial 
chamber  are  situated  near  the  junction  of  the  two  pallial  lobe*,  one  on  either  side  of 
the  mouth. 

In  Rhynchonella  there  are  four  of  these  organs,  as  first  pointed  out  by  Mr.  Huxley, 
all  of  which  open  externally.  Two  correspond  in  situation  with  those  of  the  Tere- 
bratulidm,  the  other  two  being  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  liver  a  little  above  the  for- 
mer.  IAngula  is  supplied  with  a  pair  of  these  so-called  hearts,  which  do  not  differ 
materially  from  those  already  described. 

The  external  apertures  of  these  organs  I  have  seen  in  every  instance,  and  though 
1  have  searched  with  the  greatest  care,  have  entirely  failed  to  detect  any  arteries  or 
vessels,  or  anything  that  could  be  taken  for  such,  passing  from  their  apices  to  the 
ovaries,  or  to  any  other  part.  When  I  first  detected  the  external  apertures  I  thought 
they  might  possibly  be  ruptures  of  the  tissue ;  but  further  experience  prohibits  any 
such  notion.  They  are  always  placed  symmetrically,  and  are  of  equal  size,  resem- 
bliog  each  other  in  form,  and  in  every  respect  are  similar,  which  would  not  be  the 
case  were  they  formed  accidentally. 

It  is  quite  evident  that  these  organs  are  not  muscular  centres ;  some  other  func- 
tion than  that  of  propelling  blood  must  be  assigned  to  them.  I  was  originally  dis- 
posed to  look  upon  them  as  oviducts,  and  such  I  still  believe  them  to  be.  It  has, 
however,  been  suggested  to  me  by  Mr.  Huxley  that  they  are  possibly  renal  organs, 
and  that  they  may  perhaps  serve  also  as  oviducts.  This  appears  plausible  enough, 
and  may  probably  turn  out  to  be  correct.  Professor  Owen  supposes  that  the  eggs 
escape  by  dehiscence  of  the  pallial  membrane.  Such  a  theory  might  seem  feasible 
in  respect  to  those  Brachiopods  which  have  the  ovaries  situated  between  the  layers 
of  that  organ ;  but  in  IAngula  they  are  developed  in  the  visceral  chamber  attached 
to  membranes  to  which  the  pseudo-hearts  are  appended.  Here  then  the  ovaries 
and  these  peculiar  organs  are  brought  into  intimate  relationship  with  each  other ; 
and  it  would  appear  more  likely  that  the  eggs  should  escape  by  this  conduit  than 
that  they  should  have  to  find  their  way  into  the  pallial  sinuses  and  then  escape  by 
the  rapture  of  the  membranes.  The  walls  of  the  conduit  are  of  a  glandular  nature, 
and  the  lips  of  the  internal  aperture  are  spread  out  like  the  mouth  of  a  funnel,  as  if 
for  the  very  purpose  of  receiving  the  ova  on  their  escape  from  the  ovaries. 

The  alimentary  tube  in  the  Terebratulid*  and  Rhynchoneliidm  is  remarkable  for  the 
firmness  of  its  walls,  which  never  collapse,  though  the  oesophagus  is  generally  a  little 
compressed.  It  is  bent  into  the  form  of  a  siphon,  the  arch  being  turned  towards 
the  dorsal  or  imperforate  valve :  the  oesophagus  represents  the  short,  the  stomach 
and  intestine  the  long  arm.  The  gastric  organ,  though  small,  is  distinctly  marked ; 
it  is  irregularly  oval,  and  suddenly  contracting  *  posteriorly  gives  origin  to  the  intes- 
tine, which  is  short,  and  is  suspended  by  a  membrane  in  the  midst  of  the  visceral 
chamber.  This  portion  of  the  alimentary  tube  passes  downwards  and  terminates 
behind  the  adductor  muscle,  having  a  cardinal  muscle  on  each  side.  In  the  Ten- 
bratulufa  it  gradually  tapera  towards  its  extremity,  which  is  rounded  and  imperforate. 
In  Waldheimia  Australia  it  abuts  against  the  membrane  circumscribing  the  visceral 
chamber,  to  which  it  is  firmly  attached.  But  in  Waldheimia  cranium  and  Terebra- 
tulina  caput-serpentis  there  is  no  such  attachment,  the  rounded  ceecal  extremity  ter- 
minating at  some  little  distance  from  the  neutral  wall  of  the  chamber.  The  intestine 
of  Rhynchonella  on  reaching  this  point  doubles  upon  itself,  and  then  advancing  a  little 
ends  in  an  enlarged  rounded  extremity,  which  inclines  to  the  right,  and  projects  freely 
into  the  centre  of  the  visceral  chamber.  In  this,  as  in  the  Terebratulida,  there  is  no 
anal  outlet,  the  termination  of  the  intestinal  tube  being  cecal.  This  is  perfectly 
obvious  in  Rhynchonella  psittacea,  I  have  nevertheless  made  every  endeavour  to  find 
an  anal  perforation ;  I  have  made  numerous  dissections  under  a  powerful  doublet,— 
have  removed  the  part  and  examiued  it  with  the  microscope ;  I  have  filled  the  tube 
with  fluid  as  the  finger  of  a  glove  with  air,  and  by  pressure  have  attempted  to  force 
a  passage;  I  have  tried  injections;  but  have  equally,  on  all  occasions,  failed  to 
discover  an  outlet ;  and  have  only  succeeded  in  demonstrating  more  and  more  clearly 
the  cecal  nature  of  the  terminal  extremity  of  the  alimentary  tube.  Therefore,  how- 
ever it  may  be  opposed  to  analogy,  the  fact  must  be  recorded, — there  is  no  anal 
orifice  in  Waldheimia,  Terebratulina  and  Rhynchonella. 


96  REPORT — 185  6-. 

The  next  point  that  claims  attention,  is  that  relating  to  the  pyriform 
described  by  Mr.  Huxley,  of  which  there  are  five  in  Wdldhehna  JtutraUa.  In  the 
other  species  that  I  have  examined  they  do  not  appear  to  be  so  numerous;  oat, 
however,  is  always  present.  This  is  attached  to  the  dorsal  surface  of  the  stoawk 
on  the  median  line ;  and  I  have  satisfactorily  ascertained  that  the  " ridges M«ik 
alimentary  tube  mentioned  by  Mr.  Huxley  as  connected  with  it  are  really  vessel); 
likewise  that  these  vessels  pass  along  the  gastro- parietal  and  ilia- parietal  bands  of 
that  gentleman,  and  thus  reaching  the  ovarian  sinuses  run  along  their  inner  «al 
and  become  attached  to  the  border  of  the  membranous  ridge  which  suspends  the 
ovaries.  They  then  course  along  the  entire  length  of  these  organs,  however  ramifei 
forming  the  axis  around  which  the  ova  are  developed.  Two  other  vessels  ire  is 
connexion  with  this  system ;  one,  passing  backwards  from  the  tube  that  runs  aksg' 
the  ilia-parietal  bands,  goes  apparently  to  the  pedicle ;  the  other,  which  is  larger  mm 
the  rest,  extends  along  the  middle  line  of  the  stomach  at  the  base  of  the  membrane 
which  divides  the  liver,  and  which  has  been  denominated  mesentery,  and  enters  the 
vesicle  in  front.  The  other  four  vesicles  are  considerably  smaller  than  that  attaches' 
to  the  stomach,  the  walls  of  which  are  muscular,  and  are  appended  to  the  ovarisB 
vessels  as  they  enter  these  organs. 

From  the  above  facts  it  may  be  safely  concluded  that  in  this  apparatus  we  seethe 
true  vascular  system  of  these  animals ;  and  yet  it  must  be  allowed  to  be  rather  of 
a  peculiar  character.  The  vesicle  suspended  from  the  stomach  is  undoubtedly  tke 
heart,  and  the  vessels  passing  from  it  backwards  are  as  assuredly  arteries.  The 
vessel  which  passes  along  the  stomach  and  approaches  the  vesicle  in  front,  is  appa- 
rently the  channel  by  which  the  blood  is  returned  from  the  aerating  surface ;  bat  I 
have  hitherto  failed  to  ascertain  by  what  path  the  blood  reaches  this  channel.  It 
would  not,  however,  be  difficult  to  conjecture,  were  it  not  better  to  wait  the  remit 
of  further  investigation.  The  central  organ  of  propulsion  is  here  of  a  very  simple 
form, — a  mere  vesicle  scarcely  higher  in  organic  mechanism  than  the  pulsating 
vessel  of  the  Ascidian ;  there  is  no  auricle,  no  pericardium.  Its  powers  most  neces- 
sarily be  feeble ;  hence  probably  the  additional  vesicles  appended  to  the  ovarian  arteries, 
which  are  apparently  accessory  pulsating  organs. 

With  respect  to  the  muscular  system,  I  now  find  that  the  accessory  cardinals  are 
not  always  distinct  from  the  cardinal  muscles ;  but  that  the  two  occasionally  coalesce, 
forming  only  one  muscle.  This  is  the  case  in  Waldheimia  cranium.  It  is  also  worthy 
of  remark,  that  the  dorsal  pedicle  muscles  are  not  invariably  attached  to  the  hinge 
plate.  In  W.  cranium  and  TWebratuIina  caput~8erpenti$  they  have  their  origin  m 
the  valve  itself  between  the  adductors,  extending  nearly  as  far  forward  as  they  do. 

I  have  nothing  very  positive  to  communicate  on  the  reproductive  system ;  it  does 
not,  however,  appear  conclusive  that  the  Brachiopods  are  dioecious ;  but,  on  the 
contrary,  I  find  that  the  so-called  ovaries  or  testes  in  Waldheimia  AustralU  are  really 
composed  of  two  parts,— one  yellow  and  minutely  granular,  the  other  red  sad 
formed  of  large  vesicles.  In  some  specimens  the  former  portion  was  developed  into 
eggs ;  but  I  have  not  yet  observed  spermatozoa  in  the  red  part,  which  is  probably 
the  male  secreting  organ.  This  would  appear  to  be  likely  from  what  I  have  observed 
in  Lingula.  In  this  genus  the  ovary  is  developed  within  the  visceral  chamber,  of  s 
yellow  colour ;  and  on  the  inner  surface*  of  the  dorsal  and  ventral  walls  of  tail 
chamber  there  ramifies  a  red  dentritic  organ  which  is  made  up  for  the  most  part  of 
large  vesicles  like  those  of  the  red  portion  of  the  genitalia  of  WaldknmA*;  and  is 
this  organ  I  have  found  what  I  believe  to  be  spermatophora  filled  with  spermatozoa. 
Thus  it  would  appear  that  Lingula  is  androgynous;  and  if  so,  it  is  probable  that 
the  other  Brachiopods  may  likewise  have  the  sexes  combined  in  the  same  individual 

I  shall  refrain  on  the  present  occasion  from  entering  upon  the  nervous  system, 
which  is  beautifully  developed,  only  remarking  that  it  requires  further  elucidation; 
and  in  conclusion  may  express  a  hope  that  I  shall  be  able,  before  terminating  the 
investigation  on  which  I  am  now  engaged,  to  clear  up  what  still  remains  obscure  is 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  these  interesting  animals,  and  that  at  no  distant 
period  I  shall  be  in  a  position  to  publish  a  detailed  and  illustrated?  account  of  these 
matters.    With  a  view  to  this  I  have  already  made  numerous  drawings. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  97 

Suggestions  for  ascertaining  the  Causes  of  Death  in  Birds  and  Animals. 
By  W.  E.  C.  Noubsb,  F.R.Med.  *  Chirur.S. 


TTke  Medical  Indications  of  Poisoning.    By  William  E.  C.  Nourbs,  Surgeon 
-    So  the  East  and  West  Cowes  Dispensary r and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Medical  and 
Ckirurgical  Society 

The  medical  proofs  of  poisoning  are  to  be  sought  for, — I.  in  the  recognition  qf  the 
physiological  or  vital  effects  of  the  poison ;  and  2.  in  the  detection  qf  the  poison  by  teste  :— 
hy  chemical  tests,  used  in  the  test-tube,  the  subliming  tube,  or  the  blowpipe ;  by 
mtechanical  teats,  powerful  microscopes  being  used  for  the  identification  of  crystals ; 
and  by  vital  tests,  portions  of  the  suspected  matter  being  given  to  animals,  applied 
to  living  tissues,  or  tasted  with  the  tongue. 

The  testing  of  a  poison  thus  seems  in  a  fair  way  of  being  thoroughly  understood ; 
Imt  the  methods  of  its  recognition  by  its  physiological  or  vital  effects  demand  a  few 
farther  remarks. 

1 .  The  author  insists  in  an  especial  manner  on  the  importance  of  recognizing  the 
earliest  symptoms  qf  the  administration  qf  a  poison. 

2.  The  recognition  of  the  severer  and  fully  developed  symptoms  of  poisoning  requires 
no  new  comment ;  yet  we  have  seen  that  life  has  actually  been  allowed  to  pass  away 
without  such  recognition  being  made. 

3.  In  cases  of  recovery,  it  is  important  to  note  the  manner  in  which  the  symptoms 
ass  off,  and  to  observe  the  sequela  of  them,  if  any. 

4.  The  mode  of  dying,  when  death  takes  place,  is  very  indicative.  There  may  be 
death  from  coma,  death  from  suffocation,  or  death  from  exhaustion,  either  of  vital 
power  or  of  the  vital  fluid,  or  both.  It  is  necessary  to  remember  which  sort  of  death 
each  poison  produces,  both  to  aid  in  identifying  the  poison,  and  for  purposes  of  treat- 
ment. 

5.  The  first  thing  sought  for  tit  examination  after  death  should  invariably  be,/? Ay. 
siological  evidence  as  to  the  mode  of  dying.  The  contents  of  the  cavities  of  the  heart 
ought  therefore  to  be  examined  before  any  other  part  is  touched.  It  seems  surprising, 
that  in  the  very  able  and  careful  post-mortem  examinations  now  made,  this  needful 
attention  to  the  order  of  proceedings  should  be  overlooked ;  yet  we  every  day  read 
accounts  of  such  investigations  in  cases  of  the  highest  importance,  in  which  no 
notice  is  taken  of  th3  contents  of  the  heart,  or  if  they  are  examined,  it  is  after  other 
parts  have  been  looked  into,  and  when  the  empty  or  full  condition  of  these  cavities 
can  no  longer  be  ascertained,  owing  to  the  vessels  having  been  cut  across. 

A  proper  examination  of  the  contents  of  the  heart,  which  can  only  be  done  rightly 
if  done  first,  would  show  the  immediate  physiological  state  which  caused  death,  and 
which  points  directly,  through  a  more  or  less  rapid  series  of  effects  of  which  it  forma 
the  closing  one,  to  the  poison  which  originated  them. 

Nor  is  it  in  cases  of  poisoning  alone  that  this  point  should  be  attended  to.  It 
should  be  done  in  all  cases  ;  and  should  invariably  form  the  first  step  in  any  post- 
mortem examination.  The  uses  and  advantages  of  this  proceeding  will  be  obvious 
to  every  medical  man ;  and  for  the  sake  of  the  student,  who  is  generally  called  on 
to  assist  or  to  be  present,  it  ought  to  be  especially  insisted  on. 

6.  The  other  effects  qf  poisons  discovered  in  examinations  post-mortem,  are  well  known, 
and  have  always  received  due  attention. 

In  fact,  these,  with  the  chemical  detection  of  the  poison,  and  the  severer  and  fully 
developed  symptoms  during  life,  are  and  have  been  generally  relied  on  as  the  great 
medical  proofs  of  poisoning.  They  must  continue  to  be  so ;  but  it  is  also  necessary  that 
the  other  points  alluded  to  should  not  be  overlooked,  especially  the  earlier  and  pre- 
monitory symptoms  which  indicate  poisoning,  and  the  information  to  be  gathered 
from  inspection  of  the  contents  of  the  heart. 


Note  on  an  instance  qf  Instinct  in  a  Caterpillar. 
By  Sir  Thomas  Phillipps,  Bart.,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 


1856. 


tO  RfiPORT— 1856. 

Recent  Retire hes  on  the  Cause  of  the  Fluidity  of  the  Blood* 
By  B.  W.  Riohajldson,  M.B. 

The  point  of  Dr.  Richardson's  researches  consisted  in  the  discovery  of  the  volsme 
alkali,  ammonia,  as  a  constituent  of  the  living  blood,  and  its  escape  front  Vast 
abstracted  from  the  body.  The  author  related  a  long  series  of  demonstrative  expe- 
riments, all  proving  not  only  that  ammonia  was  present  in  the  blood,  but  that  upon 
its  presence  the  solubility  of  the  fibrine,  and  therefore  the  fluidity  of  blood,  de- 
pended. Hie  peculiarity  of  this  demonstration  of  the  cause  of  die  fluidity  of  me 
blood  is,  that  it  explains  the  different  hypotheses  which  have  previously  been  ofeei 
on  this  question,  and  shows  how  far  these  hypotheses  have  approached  or  fallen 
short  of  the  truth.  In  concluding  his  paper,  Dr.  Richardson  pointed  oat  list 
ammonia,  in  combination  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  is  a  constaat  constituent  of  the  sir 
expired  in  the  breath.  The  presence  of  ammonia  in  the  animal  economy,  and  iti 
evolution  in  respiration,  was  of  interest,  in  that  it  connected  more  closely  the  link  thst 
exists  between  the  animal  and  vegetable  worlds.  But  the  subject  was  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  relation  to  the  causes,  the  nature  and  the  treatment  of  various  diseases, 
especially  those  of  the  fever  class.      

Experiments  and  Observations  on  the  Development  of  Infusorial  AnimeJcuks. 
By  J.  Samuelson,  Honorary  Secretary  to  the  Royal  Institution  (LUermy 
Society),  Hull. 

The  author  mentioned  that,  in  March  last,  he  had  traced  in  nun*  water  the  growth 
of  an  infusorial  animalcule,  called  Glaucoma  scintilla**,  from  one  of  the  so-catted 
Monads  of  Ehrenberg,  and,  aided  by  a  diagram,  pointed  out  its  gradual  development; 
explaining,  at  the  same  time,  the  action  of  the  internal  organs,  such  as  those  of 

Sestion,  6cc,  and  the  differentiation  in  structure  which  takes  place  as  the  atumtJ- 
e  grows  older.  He  stated  that  he  had  fed  these  invisible  forms  with  vegetable 
cake  m  the  first  instance,  and  under  the  microscope  with  indigo,  so  that  the  proem 
of  digestion  was  rendered  visible  (the  latter  is  a  mode  which  has  for  some  time  bees 
adopted  by  microscopists).  Another  phase  in  the  existence  of  the  animalcule  wag 
then  described  by  the  author,  namely,  the  encysting  process ;  also,  the  subsequent 
appearance  of  numerous  examples  of  Kerona, — a  form  of  a  higher  character  this 
Glaucoma,  which  the  author  believed  to  be  die  result  of  the  process  just  named. 
Having  obtained  this  glance  at  the  life  of  Glaucoma,  Mr.  Samuelson  then  tried  (st 
the  suggestion,  he  said,  of  Mr.  Robert  Hunt)  what  effect  the  rays  of  the  sun  would 
have  when  filtered  through  variously-coloured  glsiwrs  in  accelerating  or  retarding 
animalcular  life.  For  this  purpose,  he  fitted  up  a  box  containing  three  compartments, 
covered  by  a  pane  of  blue,  red,  and  yellow  glass  respectively ;  and  he  found  that  whilst 
under  the  blue  and  red  glass  infusorial  forms  were  rapidly  developed,  under  the  yeUm 
hardly  any  signs  of  life  were  visible.  He  then  transferred  a  portion  of  the  infusion 
from  the  yellow  to  the  blue  compartment,  when  the  infusorial  forms  •very  shortly 
made  their  appearance.  After  this  he  varied  the  experiment,  employing  distilled 
water  and  finely-cut  hay,  when  the  same  results  were  even  more  strikingly  exhibited. 
The  temperature,  he  said,  under  the  three  compartments  varied  on  the  average  about 
three  degrees,  though  frequently  the  variation  was  greater,  the  blue  always  being  the 
lowest.  Alter  mentioning  one  or  two  other  circumstances  connected  with  the  expe- 
riment, Mr.  Samuelson  concluded  with  a  review  of  the  results,  and  observed  that  if 
they  should  be  confirmed,  that  is,  if  the  differently- coloured  rays  could  be  proved  to 
operate  variously  upon  animal  and  vegetable  life  (to  which  he  also  adverted  in  the 
course  of  his  paper),  much  new  light  would  be  thrown  on  the  debateable  ground 
between  the  two  kingdoms.  '    ' 

Description  of  the  Ajuh,  a  kind  of  Whale,  found  by  Dr  Vogel  in  the  River 
BenuS  (Central  Africa)  in  September  1855.  Translated  and  communicated 
by  Dr.  Shaw. 

The  Ajuh  is  a  species  of  whale  found  in  the  River  Benul,  or  Upper  Chldda,  by 
Dr.  Vogel,  and  is  thus  described  by  him  : — It  is  black,  horizontal,  shovel-shaped, 
with  two  fins,  situate  close  behind  the  head,  each  with  three  tbjt^jomted  bono. 


TRANSACTIONS  Of  TM  MOTIONS.  99 

each  ending  in  a  abort  nail.  The  head  is  pointed ;  tipper  lip  cleft;  month  extraordi- 
narily small  (in  one  individual,  of  5  feet  in  length,  the  head  was  18  inches  long,  IS 
inches  high,  and  the  orifice  of  the  mouth  only  3  inches) ;  nostrils  directed  forward 
and  close  over  the  upper  lip— they  are  crescentic ;  eyes  upward  directed,  close 
behind  the  nostrils,  and  (in  the  above  mentioned  case  only  3|  inches  from  the  end 
of  the  muzzle  or  snout)  very  small  (3  lines  in  diameter),  black ;  no  spouting-holes ; 
gullet  hard ;  tongue  immoveable  (grown  fast)  on  each  side,  above  and  below ;  five 
grinders  (with  six  points  and  three  roots  each),  extending  only  a  few  lines  above  the 
gam ;  front  teeth  wanting,  instead  of  which  the  jaw  is  bordered  with  hard,  short 
bristles ;  colour,  dark  grey  j  belly,  whitish ;  the  back  covered  with  isolated,  rough, 
red  hairs.  The  Ajuh  becomes  10  feet  long,  and  lives  in  the  marshes  inundated  by 
the  river.  With  the  subsidence  of  the  waters,  the  animal  retires  down  the  river  to 
the  ocean ;  but  reappears  in  the  commencement  of  the  rainy  season  with  the  rising 
waters,  bringing  with  it  one  or  two  yonng,  at  that  period  from  3  feet  to  4  feet  in 
length.  Its  food  consists  chiefly  of  grass ;  and  in  the  dung,  which  in  colour  and 
form  resembles  that  of  the  horse,  no  trace  of  fish  wss  ever  found.  The  Ajuh  is 
exceedingly  fat ;  the  flesh  and  fat,  similar  to  that  of  the  hog,  is  very  well -tasting. 
The  bones  are  as  hard  as  ivory,  and  rings  are  fabricated  from  them,  and  whips  are 
made  from  the  skin.  The  Ajuh  appears  to  be  rare ;  and  I  do  not  believe  that  during 
the  three  months  it  remains  in  the  Benue*  more  than  twenty  to  thirty  are  taken. 

On  this  paper,  Prof.  Owen  read  the  following  Note  on  the  Ajuh  of  Dr.  Vogel.— 
The  translation  of  Dr.  Vogel's  account  of  the  animal  which  that  enterprising  traveller 
had  seen  in  the  river  Benue*  or  Chadda,  in  Central  Africa,  permits  of  no  doubt  being 
entertained  as  to  the  class,  and  even  genus,  of  animal  to  which  that  brief  and  some- 
what vague  account  refers.    The  combination  of  two  crescentic  nostrils,  with  a 
pair  of  fins  attached  "close  behind  the  head/'  shows  that  it  is  a  cetaceous  animal ; 
whilst  its  food,  "chiefly  of  grass/'  proves  it  to  belong  to  the  herbivorous  section  of 
the  order  Cetacea  of  the  Cuvierian  system,  answering  to  the  order  Sirenia  of  Illiger. 
That  order  now  includes  three  genera,  Manatiu,  Halicore,  and  Rytina ;  the  first  of 
which  is  the  only  one  in  which  the  teeth  are  multicuspid  and  with  two  or  more 
roots.     It  is  therefore  a  species  of  Manatee  that  Dr.  Vogel  makes  known  to  us 
Under  the  name  Of  Ajuh.    One  species  of  Manahu  has  long  been  known  as  inhabit- 
ing certain  rivers  of  Africa,  especially  those  terminating  on  the  west  coast*    This 
species  is  the  Manatu*  Senegaienau  of  Cuvier  and  other  zoologists.  A  stuffed  specimen 
from  that  coast  is  in  the  British  Museum ;  it  was  presented  by  Messrs.  Vorster  and  Co., 
African  merchants.   The  back  and  sides  of  the  body  are  of  a  very  dark  gray,  approach- 
ing to  black ;  the  belly  is  a  light  gray.    The  head  is  small  in  proportion  to  the  body, 
and  tapers  to  an  obtuse  muzzle  j  the  upper  lip  is  cleft,  and  the  mouth  small.    The 
nostrils,  a  pair  of  crescentic  clefts,  with  the  convexity  upward  and  backward,  are 
situated  as  described  in  the  Ajuh :  the  eyes  are,  however,  not  situated  clo&e  behind 
tiie  nostrils,  and  they  are  distant  7£  inches  from  the  end  of  the  muzzle.     This 
admeasurement  is  from  an  individual  about  3  feet  longer  than  the  one  of  which  the 
dimensions  are  given  by  Dr.  Vogel ;  but  the  difference  of  relative  position  seems  still 
too  great  to  be  accidental  or  probable  in  animals  of  the  same  species.  The  hard  short 
bristles  which  fringe  the  mouth,  the  scattered  hairs  along  the  back,  the  nails  termina- 
ting each  of  the  three- jointed  digits  of  the  pectoral  fin,  the  want  of  front  or  incisive  teeth, 
the  hard  ivory-like  texture  of  the  bones,  the  fatness  and  vapid  nature  of  the  flesh, 
are  all  characters  common  to  the  Manatees.    The  number  of  nails  appears  to  vary 
in  individuals  of  the  same  species,  as  might  be  expected  in  parts  almost  rudimental 
in  their  development,  and  of  no  very  great  utility  to  the  animal.     Thus  Cuvier 
notices  in  one  individual  of  the  American  Manatee  (Manatus  American* t  Desm., 
M.  Amatrulii,  Tilesius)  four  flat  rounded  nails  on  the  edge  of  the  fin ;  the  fourth 
being  very  small.    In  a  foetus  of  this  species  there  were  but  three  nails  on  one  fin, 
and  four  on  the  other.    In  a  young  Manatee,  Cuvier  noticed  only  two  nails  on  each 
fin*.    The  three  nails  observed  by  Dr.  Vogel  on  the  fin  of  the  Ajuh,  cannot,  there- 
fore, be  depended  on  as  a  constant  or  specific  character.    The  teeth  of  the  known 
species  of  Manatee  have  the  crown  divided  into  two  transverse  ridges, — each  ridge, 
in  the  upper  molars,  being  at  first  tri-tuberculate ;  but  the  intervals  of  the  tubercles 
are  so  shallow  that  they  are  soon  worn  down,  and  a  transverse  ridge  of  dentine, 

*Os9emensFoalles,ed.  188$,  8 vo,  torn.  viii.  p.  18. 

7* 


100  REPORT— 1856* 

bordered  by  enamel,  is  exposed.  There  is  also  an  anterior  and  posterior  low  bane! 
ridge;  the  posterior  one  being  most  developed  in  the  lower  molars.  The  upper 
molars  have  each  three  diverging  roots,  one  on  the  inner  and  two  on  the  outer  side. 
The  lower  molars  have  two  fangs.  Dr.  Vogel's  description  of  the  grinders,  as 
"  having  six  points  and  three  roots  each/'  would  apply  to  the  upper  molars  of  the 
Jfcf.  Senegalensis  before  they  had  been  much  worn*.  As  to  the  number  "  G*e"  mat 
doubtless  refers  to  the  number  forming  the  series  of  teeth  on  each  side  of  the  jew. 
I  have  not  had  the  opportunity  of  examining  the  dentition  of  the  known  African 
Manatee.  In  the  figure  of  the  skull  of  the  M.  Senegalensis  given  by  Cuviert,  six 
molars  are  shown  on  the  right  side  of  both  upper  and  lower  jaws,  and  the  coiuuuid 

Srocess  of  the  mandible  may  hide  a  greater  number.  In  the  American  Manatee  I 
ave  ascertained  that  at  least  nine  molars  are  developed  on  each  side  of  both  jaws  J. 
but  they  are  never  simultaneously  in  place  or  use.  The  greatest  number  which  1 
have  found  in  that  condition  is  seven,  the  socket  of  a  shed  anterior  molar  being  at 
one  end  of  the  series,  and  that  containing  an  incomplete  ninth  molar  at  the  opposite 
end.  Prof.  Stannius  has  observed  a  small  simple  conical  molar  anterior  to  the  nor- 
mal two-ridged  molars,  and  divided  by  a  narrow  interval  from  them,  in  a  new-bora 
American  Manatee.  The  individual  Ajuh,  5  feet  in  length,  which  appears  to  have 
been  more  especially  the  subject  of  Dr.  Vogel's  account,  was  a  half-grown  arias), 
and  the  number  of  grinders  (five),  as  well  as  their  six-pointed  crowns,  doubtless 
relate  to  that  circumstance.  Fifteen  feet  is  said  to  be  the  length  to  which  adahsof 
the  M.  Senegalensis  attain :  the  Ajuh  becomes  10  feet  long.  It  may  be  a  distinct 
and  somewhat  smaller  species.  The  chief  indication,  however,  of  such  specific  &V» 
stinction  is  the  closer  approximation  of  the  eyes  to  the  nostrils  and  to  the  end  of  the 
snout,  as  shown  by  the  admeasurement  given  by  Dr.  Vogel.  The  easiest  procars- 
ble  and  transportable  evidence  of  the  Ajuh,  and  the  best  calculated  to  deternise 
this  point  would  be  the  skull ;  but  every  part  would  be  most  acceptable ;  and,  in  the 
meanwhile,  the  species  may  be  indicated  and  kept  before  the  notice  of  the  naturalists 
by  entering  the  Ajuh  in  the  Zoological  Catalogue  as  the  Manatus  VogelU,  or  Vogel's 
Manatee.  ____ 

Experimental  Researches  on  the  Eye,  and  Observations  on  the  Circulation  of 
the  Blood  in  the  Vessels  of  the  Conjunctiva,  of  the  Iris,  of  the  Cilmy 
Ligament,  and  of  the  Choroid  Membrane,  during  life,  as  seen  under  the  Cm- 
pound  Microscope.    By  Augustus  Waller,  M.D.,  FJl.S. 

Dr.  A.  Waller  states,  that  his  observations  are  founded  in  great  measure  on  the 
fact  observed  by  him  some  months  since,  that  the  eye  may  be  obtained  sufficiently 
protruded  from  the  cavity  of  the  orbit  to  render  its  deep-seated  parts  accessible  to 
direct  observation. 

Artificial  exophthalmosis  of  this  nature,  he  finds  from  experiment,  may  be  easily 
produced  in  various  animals,  sufficiently  to  expose  the  anterior  two-thirds  of  the 
eyeball  and  to  observe  the  circulation  over  the  greatest  portion  of  the  vessels  of  the 
choroid. 

While  in  this  state  the  iris  may  be  made  to  contract  by  light,  and  there  is  reason 
to  suppose  that  the  organ  of  the  animal  still  possesses  the  powers  of  vision. 

The  eye  is  obtained  in  this  state  by  opening  widely  the  eyelids,  and  by  exercising 
a  slight  lateral  pressure  on  the  eye,  which  causes  the  eyeball  to  escape  through  the 
opening  of  the  eyelids ;  returning  to  its  original  situation  as  soon  as  the  pressure  ■ 
removed. 

For  his  experiments,  Dr.  Waller  employs  the  rabbit,  the  guinea-pig,  and  the  Mum  at- 
eumanus  or  rat,  all  of  them  of  the  albinos  variety,  and  more  especially  the  albinos  rat 

In  these  animals,  by  means  of  the  light  passing  through  the  pupil  and  through  the 
sclerotica,  the  organ  may  be  sufficiently  illuminated  by  transmitted  light  to  enable 
us  to  observe,  under  the  compound  microscope,  the  different  parts  of  the  eye  as  a 
transparent  object. 

The  body  and  the  eye  of  the  animal  are  fixed  by  using  a  roll  of  linen  like  a  swaoV 
tiling  band,  and  then  tied  to  a  piece  of  flat  cork,  the  eye  at  the  same  time  being  pro* 

*  Cuvier  figures  a  similar  molar  of  the  M.  American**  in  pi.  320.  fig.  1L 
f  Loe.  cit.,  fig.  4.  %  Odontography,  vol.  i.  p.  371.  pL  96.  fig.  2. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  10l 

traded  from  the  orbit  by  a  few  turns  of  thread  passed  alternately  behind  and  in  front 
of  the  eyeball  in  close  contact  with  it. 

The  result  iB,  that  the  animal's  eye  is  kept  nearly  immoveable,  and  that  by  direct- 
ing the  microscope  to  any  point  of  the  exposed  surface,  the  circulation  of  the  vessels 
may  be  easily  examined  under  a  magnifying  power  of  200  diameters  and  upwards. 

I)r.  Waller  then  proceeds  to  describe  minutely  the  different  parts  of  the  eye,  and 
the  distribution  of  the  vessels  over  the  cornea,  the  sclerotica/the  iris,  and  other  deep- 
seated  parts  of  the  eye.  ___ 

On  the  Mechanism  of  Respiration  in  the  Family  of  Echinida. 
By  Thomas  Williams,  M.D. 

The  author  stated,  that,  after  a  very  careful  research  upon  the  subject,  he  had 
arrived  at  the  conclusion  that  the  mechanism  of  the  breathing  process  in  the  Echi- 
nidae  differed  in  a  radical  manner  from  that  which  obtained  in  the  Asteridae.  In 
the  latter,  the  entire  integumentary  skeleton  was  perforated  by  minute  orifices, 
through  which  digital,  membranous,  caecal  processes  protruded,  and  in  and  by 
which  the  cavitary  fluid  was  brought  into  contact  with  the  exterior  aerating 
element.  In  the  Echinidae,  on  the  contrary,  the  integumentary  skeleton  was 
perforated  only  by  the  "ambulacral  feet."  The  branchiae  in  this  family  were 
restricted  to  the  membranous  area  which  surrounded  the  mouth,  around  the 
circumference  of  which  they  are  disposed  in  a  row.  They  differed  in  number  and 
structure  in  different  orders,  but  in  all  they  conformed  to  one  type.  They  were 
hollow-branched  membranous  processes,  considerably  larger  in  size  than  the 
corresponding  processes  rising  from  the  ligamentary  surface  of  Asteria$\  and 
communicated  directly  with  the  general  cavity  of  the  body.  They  bore  an  inti- 
mate resemblance  to  the  branchiae  of  the  Sipunculida.  The  Echinidae  differed  from 
the  SipunaUida  in  being  totally  destitute  of  every  provision  along  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  body  which  could  aid  in  the  office  of  respiration.  The  relation  which 
was  thus  established  between  the  branchiae  and  the  cavitary  fluid  in  the  Echinidae, 
was  a  strong  presumptive  ground  for  the  belief  that  a  blood- vascular  system  did 
not  exist  at  all  in  this  family  of  Echinoderms. 

On  the  Fluid  System  of  the  Nematoid  Entozoa.    By  Thomas  Williams,  M.D. 

In  this  communication  the  author  mentioned  the  leading  facts : — 1.  That  espe- 
cially in  the  genus  Ascaris  the  peritoneal  cavity  was  occupied  by  a  peculiar  vesicular 
tissue,  opening  on  the  integumentary  exterior,  which  appeared  to  be  adapted  to 
absorb  fluid  from  without.  2.  That  in  some  species  it  almost  entirely  filled  up  that 
space  which  in  the  Annelids  was  free,  and  occupied  by  an  oscillatory  fluid ;  and,  3. 
That  in  the  Nematoid  Entozoa  there  did  not  exist  any  trace  whatever  either  of  a 
blood-vascular  or  a  water-vascular  system. 


Miscellaneous. 
On  the  Variation  of  Species.    By  the  Rev.  L.  Jenyns,  M«A.9  F.L.S. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  draw  the  attention  of  the  Natural  History  Section 
of  the  British  Association  to  the  importance  of  collecting  all  the  facts  already  known, 
or  which  might  be  obtained  by  further  researches,  connected  with  the  variation  of 
species.  The  subject  was  stated  to  be  one,  which,  more  than  almost  any  other, 
deserved  the  consideration  of  naturalists  at  the  present  day.  Reference  was  made  to 
the  many  complaints  which  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  different  authors,  as  to  the 
difficulty  of  determining  what  is  and  what  is  not  a  species,  as  also  to  the  excessive 
multiplication  of  species  by  some  naturalists,  and  their  too  ready  disposition  to  over- 
rate the  value  of  those  slight  differences,  by  which  many  of  these  so-called  species  are 
distinguished.  It  was  thought  that  a  very  large  number  would  probably  prove  to 
be  merely  local  races,  originally  derived  from  one  stock,  their  differential  characters 


108  BKPORT— 1856. 

bring  due  to  climatal  or  otto  external  canacs  qercwBg  a  permanent  influL«ulhiiWj> 
a  succession  of  generations.  Hence  it  was  recommended,  in  the  case  of  such  i 
as  have  others  closely  allied  to  them  but  supposed  to  be  probably  distinct,  to  em 
to  trace  the  effect  of  such  causes.  Many  facts  bearing  on  this  question  were  1 
to  be  already  on  record,  only  scattered  oyer  various  works  and  periodicals,  whim 
required  to  be  collected  under  one  head ;  while  a  far  larger  number  were  wanted  m 
order  to  arrive  at  any  certain  conclusions  admitting  of  such  generalization, 
last  must  principally  be  sought  for  at  the  hands  of  travellers  or  naturalists  i 
in  different  parts  of  the  world,  whose  comparative  observations  on  the  f 
as  found  in  different  regions  and  latitudes,  would  prove  of  great  value. 

In  this  communication  the  author  restricted  his  remarks  for  the  most  part  to  the 
species  adopted  in  zoology.  It  was  urged  especially  that  we  should  endeavour  to 
work  out  the  history  of  those  exotic  animals  which  either  appear  identical  with,  or 
which  closely  approximate  to,  European  forms,  and  observe  whether,  between  tee 
nearly  allied  species  inhabiting  remote  countries,  there  cannot  be  discovered  inter- 
mediate forms,  or  as  they  have  been  termed  transition  specie*,  serving  to  show  tat 
passage  from  one  species  to  another,  and  so  proving  all  to  be  the  same.  Or,  if  sath 
cannot  be  detected  in  any  of  the  intervening  parts  of  ,the  globe,  inquiry  should  bt 
made  whether  the  exotic  form  is  never  found  in  any  transition  state  in  the  \ 
country  it  inhabits.  It  was  remarked  that  it  does  not  follow,  because  the  J 
race  never  acquires  the  distinguishing  character  of  the  exotic  form,  that  the 
may  never  so  vary  as  to  become  identical  with  the  former. 

But  it  was  added,  that  before  we  can  hope  to  clear  up  the  doubts  which  hang  over 
a  large  number  of  exotic  species,  we  must  be  better  acquainted  with  the  Eurootss 
species  themselves  to  serve  as  a  standard  of  comparison  with  all  others.  Even  in  tat 
case  of  some  of  our  most  common  birds,  and  the  same  is  true  in  every  other  dam  of 
animals,  there  are  several  different  races,  or  sub-species  as  some  call  them,  or  ns) 
species  as  accounted  by  others,  inhabiting  either  the  same  or  different  countries  oi 
the  continent,  each  showing  some  slight  though  constant  peculiarity  of  character, 
but  on  the  whole  so  generally  similar,  that  we  are  at  a  loss,  in  the  present  state  ef 
our  knowledge,  whether  to  refer  them  to  one  or  more  than  one  original  stock.  It 
was  thought  that  the  endeavour  to  remove  some  of  the  difficulties  which  attend  tan 
question  would  prove  more  serviceable  to  zoology  than  adding  to  our  already  over- 
loaded lists  of  names,  one-half  of  which  would  probably  in  the  end  sink  to  mere 
synomyms,  increasing  the  confusion.  We  alone  advance  the  philosophy  of  the 
science,  when  we  are  not  content  with  registering  a  new  species,  or  subdividing  is 
old  one ;  but  when  we  seek  to  ascertain  the  origin  and  nature  of  species  themselves, 
their  geographical  range,  the  influence  they  receive  from  the  particular  circuinstancei 
under  which  they  live,  the  limits  within  which  they  may  vary,  without  having  their 
essential  differences  destroyed, — and  the  degree  of  permanence  stamped  upon  some 
of  these  variations,  through  the  slow  operation  of  local  and  climatat  causes  overt 
long  period  of  time. 

The  author,  in  allusion  to  the  doubts  entertained  by  some  with  respect  to  special 
in  general,  stated  his  opinion  that  there  was  nothing  to  contradict  the  belief 
that  they  had  a  real  existence  in  nature,  and  that  all  the  individuals  belonging  to 
the  same  species  had  emanated  from  a  single  stock,  or  in  other  words,  that  theft 
had  been  for  each  species  but  one  centre  of  creation.  He  considered  that  the  case 
of  hybrids,  so  far  from  proving  anything  to  the  contrary,  only  demonstrated  the 
reality  of  species  the  more  plainly ;  for  he  believed  that  strictly  hybrid  plants  had 
never  been  known  to  reproduce  themselves  beyond  two  or  three  generations  at  most, 
while  there  were  not  more  than  one  or  two  well-authenticated  instances  of  hybrid 
animals  producing  offspring  at  all,  excepting  with  one  of  the  parent  species,  to  which 
in  this  way,  the  hybrid,  making  continually  a  nearer  approach,  was  gradually  brought 
back.  He  regarded  this  as  a  clear  indication  on  the  part  of  nature  that  there  if  a 
barrier  separating  certain  forms,  or  collections  of  forms,  from  certain  others,  which 
shall  not  be  ordinarily  passed,  and  never  passed,  without  those  who  pass  it,  being, 
so  to  speak,  sent  back  in  the  end.  Unless  we  ground  our  notions  of  the  species  oo 
this  law,  we  in  vain  attempt  a  definition  of  it  at  all.  If  we  once  hold  that  species  cat 
intermix  through  an  unlimited  succession  of  generations,  since  no  species  under  toca 
circumstances  could  preserve  its  distinguishing  characters  for  any  length  of  tint* 
it  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  species  have  no  existence  at  all. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THX  SECTIONS.  108 

He  thought  it  probable  that  a  great  deal  of  the  obscurity  in  which  this  subject 
s  involved  arose  from  oar  inadequate  ideas  with  respect  to  the  degree  to  which  car- 
sain  species  may  vary,  without  losing  their  identity,  and  the  unwillingness  of  some 
naturalists  who  have  been  long  accustomed  to  other  ways  of  thinking,  to  receive  the 
facts  as  conclusive,  which  have  been  adduced  in  support  of  this  opinion.  He  then 
idverted  to  certain  facts  and  observations  which  had  been  brought  forward  of  late 
years  by  different  naturalists  to  show  the  variation  to  which  many  species  are  liable 
in  the  classes  of  Insects,  Birds,  and  Shells.  Several  conclusions  arrived  at  by  Mr. 
WoUaston*,  in  reference  more  especially  to  the  coleopterous  insects  of  the  island  of 
Madeira,  were  much  dwelt  upon.  Variations  of  structure,  size  and  colouring  had 
been  found  by  that  gentleman  to  be  often  connected  with  the  insular  or  continental 
stations  in  which  these  insects  lived,  the  temperature  of  the  climate,  the  altitudes  at 
which  they  were  found,  and  their  greater  or  less  proximity  to  the  sea. 

In  the  class  of  Birds,  a  few  cases  were  alluded  to  in  which  the  adult  males  of  cer- 
tain species  in  certain  countries  appeared  never  to  arrive  at  the  same  state  of  plumage 
which  characterized  the  very  old  male  in  others :  also  the  instance  of  the  common 
Ruff  (Machete*  pugnaa),  which,  according  to  Mr.  Blythef,  is  never  met  with  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Calcutta  in  the  breeding  plumage,  by  which  it  is  so  remarkably 
distinguished  in  Europe.    Mention  was  then  made  of  several  common  European 
birds,  of  which  two  or  more  races  existed  in  different  parts  of  the  continent,  each 
characterized  by  certain  constant  peculiarities  of  plumage,  and  which  it  was  very 
desirable  should  be  studied  more  closely,  especially  in  respect  of  habits  and  manner 
of  life,  by  those  who  had  the  opportunity,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  they  have 
any  real  claim  to  be  elevated  to  the  rank  of  species,  the  light  in  which  they  have 
been  considered  by  some  naturalists : — such,  for  example,  as  the  Sylvia  sueciea  of 
Latham,  of  which  one  race  exists  in  the  north  of  Europe  having  the  pectoral  spot 
rufonst  and  another  in  the  central  and  south  parts  having  the  same  spot  white ;  the 
Saxicola  aurita,  and  the  &  stopanina,  found,  at  least  in  the  greatest  plenty,  in  the 
north  and  south  parts  of  Italy  respectively,  and  only  to  be  distinguished  by  the 
colour  of  the  throat ;  the  Common,  Cisalpine,  and  Spanish  Sparrows,  the  differences 
between  which,  and  those  very  slight,  were  almost  confined  to  the  adult  males ;  the 
many  so-called  species  of  White  and  Yellow  Wagtails,  mostly  inhabiting  different 
parts  of  Europe,  though  occurring,  some  of  them,  together  in  some  places.    It  was 
observed,  in  reference  to  these  and  similar  cases,  that  if  two  closely-allied  species 
are  found  living  together  always,  without  any  individuals  occurring  of  an  intermediate 
kind,  it  is  a  strong  argument  for  their  being  really  distinct.    But  if  they  are  mostly 
found  in  two  different  countries  or  districts,  the  same  inference  cannot  be  drawn  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  being  occasionally  met  with  together  in  the  localities  lying 
between  those  two  countries,  or  bordering  on  them  when  contiguous. 

In  the  above-mentioned  instances,  the  differences  between  the  supposed  species 
rest  principally  in  the  plumage ;  but  the  author  went  on  to  speak  of  others,  in  which 
these  are  combined  with  slight  differences  of  form  or  size  of  parts,  but  on  which  it 
was  shown,  from  many  recorded  observations,  no  greater  reliance  could  be  placed, 
ss  a  ground  at  least  in  all  cases,  of  specific  distinctness.  The  differences  between 
the  White-winged  Cross-bills  of  America  and  Europe,  as  indicated  by  De  Selys- 
Longchampst,  were  adduced  as  a  probable  example  of  this  kind  of  variation.  That 
naturalist  observes  that  these  two  Cross-bills  (which  have  been  considered  by  some 
naturalists  as  two  species  to  which  the  names  of  Losia  leucoptera  and  I*.  btfasciatm 
have  been  respectively  given)  differ  slightly,  but  constantly,  in  size,  form  of  the  bill, 
depth  of  the  red  tint  of  the  plumage,  and  proportions  of  the  wings  and  tail.  He 
thinks,  nevertheless,  that  these  are  only  the  distinguishing  marks  of  two  races,  sprung 
originally  from  the  same  stock, — one  race  having  fixed  itself  in  the  North  of  America, 
the  other  in  the  North  of  Asia.  He  suggests,  in  explanation  of  the  modified  form  of 
the  bill  in  the  two  kinds,  that,  in  birds  which  use  the  bill  as  pinchers  for  detaching 
the  seeds  of  fir-cones,  and  tearing  them  violently  away,  the  shape  of  this  organ  may 
to  a  certain  extent  be  affected  by  the  different  forms  of  fructification  in  the  different 

•  In  a  Utile  work  «  On  the  Variation  of  Species/  1855. 

t  Ann.  end  Mag.  of  Nat  Hist.  voL  xii.  p.  170. 

t  "  Notice  tux  lea  Btcroiset  Lencopttre  et  BitaadeV'  Boll,  de  1'Acad.  Boy.  de  Belg., 

tom.xiii. 


104  REPORT— 1856. 

species  of  conifers.    And  he  is  strengthened  in  this  opinion  by  the  < 

the  second  American  species  of  Cross-bill  (Loaeia  Americana,  Wils.) 

the  whole  the  L.  curvirottra  of  the  Old  World,  bat  differs  from  it,  exactly  in  tk 

same  way  as  the  L.  leucoptera  differs  from  L.  bifascuUa,  that  is  to  say,  by  itstsssler 

size,  and  weaker  bill  with  the  points  finer  and  more  elongated. 

Reference  was  also  made  to  a  remark  by  Mr.  Gould  respecting  the  swallows  ssi 
sylvan  birds  in  the  island  of  Malta,  which,  "  though  unquestionably  of  the  mm 
species  as  those  of  Great  Britain,  exhibit  small  local  characteristics  by  which  tkey 
mav  be  immediately  distinguished,  such  as  the  length  of  the  wings,  size  of  the  bOb, 
and"  tints  of  the  plumage*."  Mr.  Gould  was  inclined  to  think  that  the  shortnmg 
of  the  wings  in  these  Maltese  individuals  was  connected  with  the  circumstance  of 
their  having  a  shorter  distance  to  traverse  in  their  migrations  to  and  from  Afro, 
where  they  winter. 

These  and  several  other  observations,  all  tending  to  show  the  occasional  varisnos 
t)f  the  characters  of  birds, — more  especially  some  by  the  same  gentleman  last  shaded 
to  respecting  the  greater  brilliancy  of  the  plumage,  according  as  individuals  of  t 
•given  species  were  found  in  the  interior  of  continents,  or  in  insular  or  mantis*! 
countries f, — led  the  author  to  ask,  whether  there  is  not  enough  on  record  to  make  m 
at  least  hesitate  respecting  the  stability,  not  of  species  in  general,  but  of  many  of  tk 
so-called  species  of  Birds.  When  we  couple  the  facts  above  referred  to,  with  tk 
known  influences  of  season  and  temperature  in  causing  periodic  changes  in  tk 
plumage  of  some  species; — when  we  find  these  changes  hastened  or  retarded 
according  as  the  seasons  are  more  or  less  forward,  prevented,  it  is  probable,  mm 
taking  place  at  all  some  years,  or  in  some  localities,  in  which  the  summers  are  colder 
or  the  winters  milder  than  in  others ; — when  we  further  take  into  consideration  tk 
known  effect  which  particular  kinds  of  food  have  in  altering  the  plumage  of  birdi  m 
captivity,  the  colours  becoming  deeper  or  more  dull,  sometimes  changing  to  a  complete 
black  J ; — when  we  bear  all  this  in  mind,  and  recollect  too  how  generally  the  offspring 
is  marked  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  parents, — might  we  not  almost  a  priori  be  led 
to  expect,  that  if  a  species  had  originally  extended  itself  ages  back,  or  been  accidental!? 
introduced  into  other  countries  than  that  in  which  it  had  been  first  created,  these 
countries  having  a  different  climate,  or  the  bird  finding  there  a  particular  food,  cal- 
culated to  exercise  a  permanent  influence  of  a  like  kind  to  that  which  is  only  juussef 
or  occasional  elsewhere, — it  would  become,  in  the  course  of  generations,  stamped  bv 
some  permanent  variation  of  plumage,  just  as  we  have  the  different  races  of  men, 
each  bearing  so  remarkably  its  own  distinctive  characters,  yet  surely  all  of  one  spedes, 
as  the  best  ethnographers  and  physiologists  of  the  day  seem  disposed  to  admit? 

An  opinion  was  expressed,  that  where  two  species  are  really  distinct,  there  wifl 
generally  be  some  difference  of  song,  nidification,  or  other  habits,  accompanying  any 
slight  differences  of  plumage,  as  in  the  instance  of  Sylvia  trochilus  and  S.  m/o,  which 
no. one  would  mistake  when  heard  in  the  woods,  though  difficult  to  distinguish  in 
hand.  And  though  we  must  for  a  long  time  be  necessarily  ignorant  of  the  habits 
of  a  large  number  of  foreign  birds,  the  author  thought  it  far  better,  in  the  case  of  say 
supposed  new  species,  especially  where  only  one  or  two  specimens  have  been  obtained, 
to  abstain  from  naming  it  for  the  present,  unless  characterized  by  well-marked  and 
unmistakeable  peculiarities  of  form  or  plumage,  rather  than  incur  the  risk  of  increasing 
the  synonyms  of  some  previously  known  species,  from  which  it  may  not  prove  to  be 
distinct.  Until  further  information  respecting  it  were  obtained,  it  would  be  prefer- 
able to  regard  it  as  a  mere  local  race,  to  which  race,  however,  there  would  be  so 
objection  to  append  the  name  of  the  particular  country  or  district  in  which  it  was 
found. 

Before  concluding,  the  author  made  some  remarks  on  the  variation  of  shells, 
noticing  chiefly  some  valuable  communications  to  science  by  Dr.  Gray!  and  Mr. 
M* Andrew  ||,  who  have  shown  that  the  characters  of  many  species  of  shells  greatly 
alter,  according  to  the  depth  of  sea  they  inhabit,  or  the  more  or  less  exposed  situation! 
in  which  they  are  found.    He  then  expressed  a  hope  that  these  variations,  along  with 

*  Mentioned  by  Mr.  Wollaston  in  his  work  'On  the  Variation  of  Spedes.' 

f  Ann.  and  Mag.  of  Nat.  Hist.  vol.  xvii.  p.  510. 

t  See  Bennett's  edition  of '  White's  Selborne,'  p.  165,  note. 

§  Phil.  Trans.  1833.  ||  Edinb.  New  Phil  Journ.  vol.  xlvi.  p.  35*,  *& 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  105 

the  others  he  had  spoken  of  in  the  species  of  different  classes  of  animals,  would 
receive  more  attention  from  naturalists  in  future,  as  tending  to  throw  light  upon  a 
question  which  is  every  day  assuming  more  importance,  and  on  the  solution  of  which 
all  correct  notions  of  classification  must  be  based. 


Dr.  Lankbster  laid  upon  the  table  several  Tables  of  Forms  issued  by  the  Com- 
mittee for  obtaining  Reports  on  Periodic  Phenomena  that  had  been  filled  up  by  various 
observers.  It  was  stated  that  new  forms  could  be  had  by  application  to  Dr.  Lan- 
kester  or  Professor  Phillips. 

Photograph  of  Objects  of  Natural  History  were  exhibited  by  Wm.  Thompson. 


GEOGRAPHY  AND  ETHNOLOGY, 


Report  of  an  Expedition  to  explore  the  Interior  of  Western  Australia. 
By  Robkkt  Austin. 


On  recent  Discovery  in  Central  Africa,  and  the  reasons  which  exist  for 
continued  and  renewed  Research:    By  Dr.  W.  B.  Baikib. 

Let  a  map  constructed  about  the  commencement  of  the  present  century  be  exa- 
mined, and  attention  will  be  at  once  arrested  by  the  immense  tracts  of  country  marked 
unexplored ;  and  even  in  other  directions  names  are  but  sparingly  given,  and  the 
positions  of  cities  and  the  courses  of  rivers  marked  only  by  guess.  The  famous  city 
of  Timbuktu  was  known  merely  by  name — the  marshy  Lake  Tsad  was  then  a  rayth-r 
the  mighty  Niger,  or  Kw6ra,  historical  ever  since  the  days  of  Herodotus,  was  inserted 
without  beginning  and  without  termination,  save  when  some  bold  theoretical  charto- 
grapher  connected  it  with  Gambia,  or  led  it  to  the  Nile  or  the  Congo.  Even  the 
numerous  streams  which  enter  the  Bights  of  Benin  and  Biafra  were  unknown  except 
as  breaks  in  the  coast  line,  which  were  never  visited  but  by  slaves  or  pirates.  The 
tide  of  more  modern  discovery  may  be  held  to  have  commenced  with  the  travels  of 
Bruce  in  Abyssinia,  when  he  discovered  the  sources  of  the  Blue  Nile,  and  in  more 
central  Africa,  with  the  first  expedition  of  the  celebrated  Mungo  Park,  when  he  deter- 
mined the  easterly  course  of  the  Niger.  Many  other  adventurers,  as  Houghton,  Home- 
maim,  Nicholls,  &c,  followed,  and  added  little  by  little  to  our  previous  scanty  know- 
ledge. But  by  far  the  most  important  facts  were  collected  by  Denham  and  Clapper- 
ton,  who  re- discovered  Bornu,  identified  Lake  Tsad,  visited  Bagirmi,  Mandara,  and 
other  unknown  districts,  and  brought  circumstantial  accounts  of  a  wonderful,  do- 
minant race,  the  Pulo  or  Fulata  tribes.  About  the  same  time  Timbuktu  had  been 
reached,  first  by  the  unfortunate  Major  Laing,  and  shortly  afterwards  by  M.  de 
Caillie,  whose  narrative  was  the  first  authentic  one  relating  to  that  wondrous  city. 
The  next  important  journey  was  that  of  the  brothers  Richard  and  John  Lander,  who, 
having  penetrated  from  Badagry,  on  the  coast,  to  the  town  of  Yatiri,  descended  the 
river  in  a  canoe,  and  at  the  expense  of  great  hardship  and  danger,  discovered  its 
embouchure,  and  so  settled  a  controversy  which  had  commenced  long  before  the 
Christian  era.  This  exploit  of  the  Landers  caused  the  beginning  of  a  new  series  of 
efforts,  and  thenceforth  attention  was  especially  directed  to  a  water  communication 
with  Sudan.  The  first  of  these  was  by  Mr.  Macgregor  Laird,  Capt  Allen,  and  Mr. 
Oldfield ;  the  second  by  the  late  Mr.  Consul  Beecroft ;  and,  finally,  one  undertaken 
by  the  Government,  and  which  left  this  country  in  1841.  All  of  these  showed 
clearly  that  the  Niger  was  easily  navigable,  the  only  difficulty  being  from  the  effects 
of  the  climate,  which  proved  so  fatal  to  European  life,  that  Mr.  Laird  lost  44  out  of 
40,  «nd  the  Government  Expedition  in  less  than  two  months  experienced  a  mortality 


106  RKPOBT — 1856* 

of  49  out  of  145  whites,—*  result  which  shook  the  confidence  and 
the  energy  of  the  most  ardent  philanthropists.  In  1845  and  1846  Mr.  J.  Richardson 
travelled  from  Tripoli  to  the  northern  parts  of  the  Great  Desert,  visiting  Ghadaaes, 
Tuat,  and  Murztik,  daring  which  time  he  collected  mach  information,  both  geo- 
graphical and  commercial,  which  may  be  found  in  his  interesting  volumes  entitled 
'  Travels  in  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara.'  On  this  gentleman's  return  to  England  be 
made  proposals  to  Government  for  an  expedition  on  a  more  extended  scale,  for  tbe 
purpose  of  establishing  commercial  relations  with  the  tribes  across  the  Desert,  and, 
by  the  introduction  of  legitimate  trade,  of  striking  a  blow  at  slavery.  Accordingly, 
he  again  set  forth  accompanied  by  Drs.  Barth  and  Overweg,  who  started  frost 
Tripoli  for  Sudan  on  the  30th  of  March,  1849.  Mr.  Richardson's  strength  was  not 
equal  to  the  great  fatigue  and  labour  he  had  to  undergo,  and  he  died  at  Ungurntus, 
in  Bornti,  on  the  4th  of  March,  1851.  His  journal  up  to  that  date,  full  of  instruct- 
ive materials,  has  since  been  published  under  the  care  of  Mr.  Bayle  St.  John.  Hk 
companion,  Dr.  Overweg,  also  unable  to  withstand  the  baneful  effects  of  climate, 
expired  in  Bornti  on  the  27th  of  September,  1852 ;  but  Dr.  Barth,  composed  proba- 
bly of  tougher  materials,  undismayed  by  the  death  of  his  associates,  boldly  continued 
his  solitary  wanderings,  and  after  a  sojourn  in  Central  Africa  of  upwards  of  fin 
years,  happily  returned  in  safety  to  England.  He  is  now  preparing  for  the  press 
an  account  of  his  most  interesting  journeys  and  discoveries ;  and  from  some  conver- 
sations and  correspondence  I  have  had  with  him,  I  am  looking  forward  with  impatience 
for  the  appearance  of  his  work,  as  with  such  a  fund  of  information  and  of  novelties 
as  he  possesses,  he  must  be  able  to  give  the  fullest  and  most  accurate,  as  well  as  the 
latest,  account  of  Central  Africa,  from  Timbuktu  to  Adam&wa.  The  most  recent 
traveller  in  Nigritia  is  Dr.  Vogel,  who,  by  the  last  letters  received  from  him.  wst 
endeavouring  to  penetrate  towards  the  kingdom  of  Wadai,  and  from  whom  numerooi 
important  astronomical  and  other  observations  have  been  already  transmitted. 

in  1852,  Dr.  Barth,  whilst  on  the  route  to  Y6la,  the  capital  of  Adam&wa,  crossed 
a  large  river  called  the  Binue,  just  at  its  junction  with  a  considerable  affluent,  the 
Faro.  This  river  he  conjectured,  from  the  information  he  received,  to  be  the  upper 
portion  of  that  hitherto  known  near  its  termination,  to  Europeans,  as  the  Tsfdda  or 
Tshadda, — a  name  which  seems  to  have  been  given  to  it  by  Lander,  in  consequence 
of  a  report  he  heard  from  a  travelling  Mallam,  that  it  flowed  from  lake  Tsid,— • 
view  now  proved  to  be  erroneous.  Dr.  Barth  described  this  as  a  large  river,  and  ss 
containing  during  the  rainy  season  a  large  body  of  water, — fitted,  therefore,  for  the 
purposes  of  navigation.  On  hearing  these  accounts  from  Dr.  Barth,  Government 
resolved  to  fit  out  a  small  expedition,  to  endeavour  to  ascend  the  so-called  Tsadda, 
and  to  ascertain  its  identity  with  the  Binue.  For  this  purpose  a  small  iron  screw 
schooner  was  built  by  Mr.  John  Laird  at  Birkenhead,  and  fitted  out  and  manned  by 
Mr.  Macgregor  Laird ;  and  as  it  had  been  agreed  to  combine  the  commercial  element 
with  exploration,  a  suitable  cargo  was  also  provided.  Government  appointed  certain 
officers  to  proceed  in  this  vessel  for  geographical,  scientific,  and  other  genera! 
purposes.  Careful  and  copious  instructions  were  drawn  out  under  the  direction  of 
Sir  Francis  Beaufort,  aided  more  especially  by  the  scientific  knowledge  of  Sir 
Roderick  Murchison,  who  took  an  especial  interest  in  the  progress  of  the  expedition, 
was  one  of  its  chief  promoters,  and  who  himself  personally  prepared  a  set  of  hints 
on  geology  and  mineralogy  for  the  guidance  of  the  officers.  This  expedition  entered 
the  mouth  of  the  Kw6ra  or  Niger  on  the  12th  of  July,  1854 ;  and  after  remaining  in 
the  river  120  days,  again  left  without  the  loss  of  a  single  life,  and  without  having 
encountered  any  troublesome  sickness.  This  almost  unlooked-for  exemption  is  to 
be  ascribed,  first,  to  the  employment  of  as  few  Europeans  as  possible ;  secondly,  to 
ascending  the  river  during  the  rainy  season,  and  avoiding  any  delay  in  the  Delta; 
and,  thirdly,  to  the  free  use  of  Quinine  as  a  prophylactic  or  preventive.  Nearly  700 
miles  of  river  were  explored  and  surveyed,  a  chart  was  compiled,  the  capabilities  of 
the  surrounding  countries  examined,  and  friendly  relations  were  established  with  the 
various  tribes. 

The  trade  with  Western  Africa  is  much  greater  than  is  generally  supposed,  and 
has  for  some  years  past  been  steadily  on  the  increase.  From  1846  to  1850,  the 
annual  value  of  exports  from  Britain  to  the  West  Coast  averaged  «£554,000,  and  in 
1654  amounted  to  upwards  of  je?958,000.    The  African  races  are,  almost  without 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THS  SECTIONS.  107 

exception,  born  traders,  buying  and  telling  being  with  them  the  chief  end  of  their 
lives.  Only  give  them  the  chance,  and  they  will  eagerly  grasp  at  it ;  and  being 
also  naturally  friendly  and  well-disposed,  they  only  require  kind  treatment  to  render 
them  confiding  and  quiet.  The  only  well-marked  exceptions  are  among  the  natives 
living  along  the  coasts,  who  have  contracted  from  Europeans  all  possible  vices, 
which  have  been  unfortunately  encouraged  for  selfish  ends  by  white  men,  until 
now ;  the  present  generation,  at  least,  is  almost  beyond  the  reach  of  reform.  In 
the  interior  the  population  is  much  better  conducted,  and  it  is  with  these  people 
that  I  now  propose  to  open  trade  directly,  by  means  of  the  rivers,  instead  of  through 
the  medium  of  the  many  savage  races  with  whom  we  now  deal.  This  would,  more- 
over, open  to  us  vastly  increased  supplies,  which  could  also  be  purchased  at  more 
moderate  rates.  By  opening  new  markets  also  with  these  people,  they  would  have 
other  things  to  occupy  them  instead  of  intestine  wars,  and  above  all  it  would  tend 
directly  to  supplant  by  means  of  legitimate  commerce  that  still  existing  unnatural 
and  horrid  traffic  in  human  flesh,  which,  first  established  and  since  fostered  by  men 
styling  themselves  Christians,  has  been  the  bane  and  the  curse  of  Africa,  but  which 
I  feel  assured,  from  what  I  have  observed,  as  well  as  from  the  experience  of  other 
recent  travellers,  would  be  greatly  lessened,  and  in  time  altogether  stopped,  by  the 
means  I  now  recommend. 

The  population  of  Sierra  Leone  is  composed,  to  a  very  great"extent,  of  recaptured 
and  freed  slaves  and  their  families,  and  among  them  are  to  be  found  representatives 
of  almost  every  tribe  in  Central  Africa.  These  people  have  become  civilized,  are 
Christians,  speak  the  English  language,  have  acquired  English  manners,  and  learnt 
Our  methods  of  trading ;  they  are  usually  most  industrious,  and  many  have  acquired 
wealth.  Still,  among  them  an  intense  love  of  country  exists,  and  the  all  but  uni- 
versal desire  is  to  revisit  their  native  land.  One  very  extensive  race,  the  Y6ruba  or 
AJrti  tribe,  have  already  returned  to  their  original  seats  in  great  numbers;  their 
country  having  a  sea-coast,  and  access  being  easily  attained  by  Lagos  and  Badagry. 
But  others  are  not  so  fortunate,  and  have  not  the  opportunities  of  gratifying  weir 
amor  patrim.  But  in  these  persons  we  have  at  hand  all  that  we  desire,  ready  in- 
struments to  be  employed  alike  in  establishing  commerce,  and  in  civilizing,  by  their 
own  efforts,  their  less  favoured  brethren.  By  opening  to  these  the  navigation 
of  the  Niger,  and  aiding  them  to  settle  along  its  banks,  we  do  good  alike  to  them, 
to  the  country,  and  to  ourselves ;  and  I  have  satisfied  myself,  by  actual  inquiry,  both 
that  these  people  would  eagerly  embrace  any  opening  for  return,  and  likewise  that 
they  would  be  received  with  open  arms.  Such  are  the  commercial  and  philanthropical 
grounds  for  advocating  further  progress ;  but  there  are  equally  strong  scientific  reasons 
for  prosecuting  the  inquiry.  Numerous  tribes  are  yet  unknown,  many  countries 
unexplored,  cities  and  towns  unvisited,  lakes  and  rivers  unsurveyed,  and  mountains 
unmeasured.  The  zoological  and  botanical  novelties  are  unaccountable,  the  geologic 
condition  and  mineral  treasures  have  yet  to  be  examined,  and  the  economical  products 
carefully  inquired  into.  The  climate  is  not  so  deadly  as  has  been  supposed,  and  the 
hitherto  dreaded  diseases  are  more  thoroughly  understood.  The  expense,  too,  of 
exploration,  especially  if  combined  with  commercial  enterprise,  would  be  very 
trifling, — not  one- twentieth  part  of  what  was  lavished  on  the  unfortunate  attempt  in 
1841.  If  the  expedition  is  to  be  renewed,  no  time  should  be  lost ;  as  if  not  at  once 
undertaken,  all  that  has  been  effected  in  1854  will  be  thrown  away,  and  efforts 
would  have  to  be  commenced  de  novo.  During  my  ascent  of  the  river,  I  was  often 
asked  why  white  men  had  been  so  long  in  revisiting  the  place,  and  why  they  had 
not  sooner  kept  the  promises  they  made  in  1841.  My  ingenuity  was  often  taxed  to 
afford  explanations  and  excuses,  and  the  chiefs  said  that  when  they  saw  us  returning 
regularly  they  would  then  believe  white  men,  but  not  before.  Two  years  have 
already  elapsed  since  my  visit ;  and  it  would  be  of  the  utmost  consequence  that 
preparations  should  be  now  made  for  the  season  1857,  for  which  purpose  Govern- 
ment should  be  urged  to  come  to  a  decision,  so  as  to  enable  the  requisite  arrange- 
ments to  be  at  once  entered  upon,  as  those  engaged  should  leave  England  early  in 
the  spring. 


108  RBPORT—1856. 

Notes  on  some  Antiques  found  at  Cirencester  as  Evidence  of  ike  Domntic 
Manners  of  the  Romans.     By  Professor  Buckman. 

In  this  communication  the  evidence  derived  from  the  position  of  most  of  the 
Roman  stations  went  to  show  that  this  people  was  guided  by  a  careful  survey  of 
the  district,  as  they  fixed  some  important  stations,  and  Corinmm  amongst  omen, 
at  a  distance  from  the  direct  road,  making  an  abrupt  turn  in  accordance  with  me 
geological  facts  which  presented  themselves;  and  as  for  some  miles  round  me 
country  does  not  offer  water  supply  for  a  large  community,  but  this  is  ensured  st 
Cirencester  by  a  curious  concatenation  of  geological  conditions.  The  esteem  is 
which  this  people  held  a  good  water  supply,  is  attested  by  the  remains  of  most  care- 
fully executed  wells  still  remaining,  and  indeed  some  of  those  now  in  use,  all  lined 
with  fine  ashlared  stone,  the  rubbish  which  has  been  cleared  from  the  bottom  of 
some  of  them  presenting  traces  of  the  well-moulded  coping  stones  by  which  they 
were  surmounted. 

In  metallurgy  it  was  pointed  out  that  they  greatly  excelled  ;  and  two  most  inter- 
esting crucibles  were  exhibited,  in  order  to  show  that  the  chemical  apparatus  so 
named  is  of  very  ancient  date. 

In  metallic  work  some  beautiful  bronze  personal  ornaments  were  exhibited,  espe- 
cially some  armillee  or  bracelets,  six  of  which  were  stated  as  having  been  takes 
from  a  single  arm ;  and  as  these  possessed  rivets,  it  was  suggested  that  they  were 
never  removed  from  the  person ;  if,  therefore,  these  were  lovers'  gifts,  it  showed 
either  that  the  lover  was  very  lavish  or  that  a  gift  was  not  returnable. 

An  oyster-knife  was  shown,  as  also  some  fictilia  for  domestic  use,  as  a  funnel, 
colander,  infants'  feeding-bottle,  their  form  and  application  so  much  like  our  own  as 
to  lead  to  the  inference  that  comfort  and  convenience  were  sought  in  furniture  which 
we  haye  very  exactly  copied.  Amongst  other  articles,  bone-spoons,  like  those  uacd 
in  country  places,  were  shown  to  be  so  perfect,  as  to  lead  to  the  inference  that  they 
could  scarcely  be  antique  ;  however,  on  comparing  them  with  our  present  forms,  it 
was  observed  that  the  handles  were  pointed,  a  custom  with  all  spoons  of  Roman 
work,  whether  in  bone  or  metal ;  it  is  stated  that  this  was  for  the  piercing  of  egg- 
shells, so  that  they  should  not  swim,  the  legend  that  uncanny  visitors  may  swim  m 
egg-shells,  being,  like  many  articles  of  modern  use,  not  a  modern  invention. 

In  concluding  his  remarks  upon  the  various  relics  which  he  had  collected  at 
Cirencester,  the  Professor  remarked  that  these  were  not  sought  often  by  the  anti- 
quary merely  as  curious  property,  but  because  their  study  was  so  well  calculated  to 
fill  up  those  blanks  in  history  which  acquaint  us  with  the  inner  life  of  the  people, 
instead  of  confining  it  to  a  mere  account  of  the  battles,  murders  and  sudden  death 
pf  potentates  and  rulers. 

On  the  Site  of  Ecbatana.    By  the  Archdeacon  of  Cardigan. 

On  a  more  positive  Knowledge  of  the  Changes,  both  Physical  and  Mental,  in  Ifa, 
with  a  view  to  ascertain  their  Causes,    By  R.  Cull,  FJ5.A. 

On  the  Varanger  Fiord.    By  Dr.  L.  K.  Daa. 

On  the  Torenic  System  of  the  Ugrians  (Finns),  Albanians,  and  other  Populations. 

By  Dr.  L.  K.  Daa. 


On  the  Relation  of  the  Siberian  and  Armenian  Languages.    By  Dr.  L.  K.  Daa. 


On  the  Forms  of  the  Crania  of  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
By  J.  Barnard  Davis,  F.S.A.,  F.E.S. 

The  typical  form  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  skull  is  distinguished  for  its  great  size,  me 
horizontal  development  of  the  brain-case  being  somewhat  expanded  in  all  directioat 
at  its  periphery,  without  being  deficient  in  height ;  by  which  means  is  produced  a  well- 
marked  platy -cephalic  skull .    The  calvarium,  when  viewed  vertically,  does  not  imprest 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THB  SECTIONS.  109 

the  eye  with  its  unusual  length  or  shortness,  although  it  is  not  at  'all  deficient  in 
length ;  but  it  appears  somewhat  broader  than  common.  The  frontal  region  is  fre- 
quently upright,  so  as  to  afford  a  good  Camperian  angle,  broad  and  expanded  at  the 
aides,  in  tikis  respect  greatly  resembling  what  we  regard  as  the  typical  Roman  form* 
Hie  lateral  regions  are  full,  and  sometimes  project  over  the  base  of  the  skull.  The 
posterior  region  is  usually  capacious  and  elevated.  The  outer  surface  of  the  vault  of 
the  calvarium,  which  is  full,  equable,  and  expanded,  gives  the  impression  of  great 
capacity,  and  of  constituting  the  receptacle  of  a  massive  powerful  brain.  The  face 
is  upright,  and  only  occasionally  presents  any  marked  prominence  in  the  region  of 
the  frontal  sinuses.  The  nasal  bones  differ  a  good  deal  in  form,  are  seldom  large, 
and  only  very  rarely  aquiline.  The  face  is  somewhat  broad ;  but  from  die  angles  of 
the  lower  jaw  not  being  so  much  expressed,  does  not  present  the  quadrate  form  of 
the  ancient  Roman. 

liable  of  Measurements  derived  from  the  Crania  exhibited,  and  others  to  show  the 
considerable  size  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  skull. 

Internal  capacity, 
.Largest  skull  in  Mortonian  College  at  Philadelphia,  of  a  Dutchman  of 

noble  family,  114  cub.  in.  (of  sand) 94  oz. 

Largest  skull  author  has  gauged,  of  an  Irishman,  found  10  feet  deep  in 

Dublin 102*  oz. 

Anglo-Saxon  skull  from  Harnham  near  Salisbury 75  oz. 

„       „        „        „         another  example.    • 76*}  oz, 

Anglo-Saxon  skull  from  Linton  Heath,  Cambridgeshire 79  oz. 

„        „        „        „         another  example 90)  oz. 

Skull  of  Merovingian  Frank  from  cemetery  at  Envermeu,  Normandy .    .  80  oz. 

Large  modern  Saxon  skull  from  Leipsic 90  oz. 

Mean  internal  capacity  of  these  six  crania,  99  cubic  inches,  or.    .     .    .     8  If  oz. 

In  Morton's  great  table  the  mean  of  eighteen  German  skulls  was  90  cub.  in.,  that 
of  fife  English  ones  96  cub.  in.,  and  that  of  seven  Anglo-Americans  90  cub.  in.  The 
mean  of  these  three  classes,  92  cub.  in.,  is  7  cub.  in.  less  than  the  mean  of  the  six 
crania  enumerated ;  and  these  three  classes  stand  at  the  head  of  Morton's  table. 
Without  claiming  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  skull  such  a  large  average  capacity  as  that 
deduced  from  the  examples,  we  are  still  justified  in  assuming  that  it  was  not  at  all 
deficient  in  capacity,  and  in  believing  that  the  people  of  Germanic  race  equal,  if  they 
do  not  exceed,  all  others  in  the  size  of  their  heads. 

Besides  the  typical  form,  there  is  a  large  proportion  of  skulls  found  in  Anglo-Saxon 
cemeteries,  which  present  much  of  the  aval  form  that  may  be  regarded  as  distinctive 
of  modern  English  crania. 

Of  the  accounts  of  the  ancient  German  tribes,  that  of  Tacitus  is  most  ethnological. 
He  says, "  I  have  already  acceded  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  think  that  the  Germans 
bore  hitherto  subsisted  without  intermarrying  with  other  nations,  a  pure,  unmixed, 
and  independent  race,  unlike  any  other  people,  all  bearing  the  marks  of  a  distinct 
national  character.  Hence,  what  is  very  remarkable  in  such  prodigious  numbers,  a 
family  likeness  throughout  the  nation ;  the  same  form  and  features,  stern  blue  eyes, 
ruddy  hair,  their  bodies  large  and  robust,  but  powerful  only  in  sudden  efforts."  It 
should  be  recollected  these  accounts  are  derived  from  Italian  writers,  accustomed  to 
a  people  of  somewhat  smaller  stature,  and  to  dark  hair  and  eyes,  and  for  these  reasons 
likely  to  exaggerate  the  more  marked  differences  which  arrested  their  attention  in  the 
ancient  Germans. 

.  That  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  a  large  people  we  have  the  indisputable  evidence  of  their 
skeletons.  Of  three  thigh-bones,  one  is  17  6  in.  long,  another  19*5,  and  the  third 
20*5.  Of  thirty-six,  thigh-bones  of  different  ancient  Britons,  the  range  is  from  17  to 
19*5  in.  The  longest  therefore  is  an  inch  less  than  the  longest  of  these  Anglo-Saxon 
femora.  Faussett,  in  the  '  Inventorium  Sepulcrale,'  remarks  of  a  skeleton  found  at 
Crandale,  "I  think  this  person  must  needs  have  been  about  6i  feet  high."  The  brothers 
Jindeoschmit  found  the  skeletons  in  the  Frankish  cemetery  at  Selzen  to  range  from 
6}  to  7  feet  Rhenish,  including  those  of  women,  or  from  4  ft.  8  in.  to  6¥  feet  English. 
One  woman  actually  measured  this  extreme  length,    Douglas  met  with  Anglo-Saxon 


110  bspobv— 1856. 

hair  in  Greenwich  Park  of  an  auburn  colour ;  and  Air.  Rahman,  net 
Derbyshire,  of  a  decidedly  light  colour. 

Dr.  Prichard  thought  the  Germans  had  last  the  peculiar  features  attributed  to  tarn 
by  classical  writers,  from  a  change  of  climate,  both  which  positions  are  moat  ques- 
tionable, and,  indeed,  are  disproved  by  the  evidence  of  facta.  The  present  Gensam 
natives  are  a  tall  stout  people  with  large  heads,  fair  complexions,  and  gencraUy 
light  or  blond  hair  and  eyes,  probably  all  that  was  intended  by  the  Italian  writers. 
This  view  is  quite  borne  out  by  Dr.  Beddoes's  careful  examination  of  people  of  dif- 
ferent districts  of  our  own  country.  In  the  Lothiaus  and  borders  which  were  subdued 
by  the  Angles  and  Saxons  in  the  sixth  century,  he  says,  "  the  people  seem  generaUv 
tall,  large,  and  muscular ;  their  outlines  of  face  and  figure  are  rounded,  particularly  ia 
the  forehead  and  the  chin ;  the  nose  varies  in  form,  but  as  a  rule  is  short  sad 
8traightish.  The  heavy  overhanging  brow  and  deep  sunk  eye,  which,  with  the  ksjk 
cheek-bones,  are  generally  sufficient  to  mark  out  a  Scotchman  from  among  a  gross 
of  Saxon  Englishmen,  are  in  this  district  comparatively  rare.  The  prevailing  coav> 
plexion  is  fairer  than  in  any  other  district  [of  Scotland]  I  have  visited.  The  eyes 
are  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  blue  or  light  grey,  but  hazel  is  not  an  nncommoa 
colour.  The  hair  varies  from  light  yellowish-red  and  flaxen  yellow,  through  divers 
shades  of  brown." 

The  great  mental  power  of  the  Germanic  races,  with  its  special  manifestations  ia 
different  tribes ;  and  the  probability  that  the  ancient  Germans,  and  perhaps  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  distorted  the  skull  artificially,  were  briefly  alluded  to,  previous  to  the  closing 
remarks  on  the  striking  ethnological  position  of  the  lasting  penmonency  o/ittanaf 
characters  confirmed  by  all  the  evidence  adduced. 


On  some  Volcanic  Islets  to  the  South-East  of  Japan,  including  the  Bemm 
Islands.    By  A.  G.  Findlay,  F.R.G.S. 

The  recent  importance  of  our  commercial  relations  with  Japan,  consequent  upon 
the  opening  of  the  ports  of  Nagasaki  and  Hakodadi  to  our  shipping,  and  the  increasing 
commerce  now  developing  itself  between  Eastern  Asia  and  North* West  America, 
has  rendered  the  great  ocean-highway  between  Nippon  and  the  Bonin  Islands  of 
great  interest.  The  dangers  of  this  region  to  the  seaman  is  much  increased  by  the 
rapid  Japanese  current,  first  shown  by  the  author  in  1850  to  run  from  east  to  west 
across  the  North  Pacific  Ocean,  in  an  analogous  course  to  the  Atlantic  Gulf-stream. 
This  mighty  stream,  running  to -the  E.N.E.,  through  the  space  under  consideration* 
has  given  rise  to  the  very  complicated  nature  of  the  so-believed  new  discoveries; 
above  thirty  of  these  announcements  being,  by  investigation,  reduced  to  five  or  six 
rocky  islets  of  very  singular  character.  The  islands  nearest  to  Japan,  the  Broken 
Ids,  Fatsisyo,  the  Japanese  penal  colony,  and  South  Island,  were  shown  to  be  in 
some  cases  defectively  represented.  The  Redfield  Rocks  are  those  discovered  by 
Broughton,  and  corrected  by  Capt.  Donnel  in  1850,  and  therefore  not  a  discovery  by 
the  United  States  Japan  Expedition  in  1854.  The  islands  south  of  this  are,  p— *»rs 
Tibbit  Island  of  1844,  then  an  island  or  reef  of  pointed  rocks,  discovered  by  Coma 
in  1825,  afterwards  announced  as  new  by  Capt.  Jurien-Lagraviere  in  May  I860} 
again  announced  as  new  by  Capt  Rogers  in  1851 ;  again  in  1852  by  Capt.  Drescher 
of  the  '  Walter/  and  again  in  1856  by  Capt.  Grove,  each  person  believing  that  he  had 
discovered  a  new  island.  Others  similar  were  also  cited.  The  next  group,  perhaps, 
is  about  eight  miles  to  the  south  of  the  last,  or  lat.  81°  58'  N.,  long.  139°  5C/  E* 
was  discovered  in  the  Dutch  corvette,  the  '  Koerier,'  August  24th,  1849,  and  is  of 
a  very  dangerous  character.  Jeannette  Island,  twenty-three  miles  further  south,  m 
doubtful.  Smith  Island,  in  lat  81°  19'  N.,  long.  139°  55'  E.,  discovered  by  Capt 
Smith  of  the  '  Heber/  March  1846,  is  a  most  singular  needle-rock,  springing  frost 
unfathomable  depths  to  a  height  of  300  feet,  and  not  more  than.250  feet  diameter  at 
the  base.  It  has  been  seen  by  others.  Ponafidin  Island  of  the  Russians  lies  next 
to  the  south.  St.  Peter's  or  Black  Rock,  first  seen  in  1821,  and  again  in  1853,  »a 
wonderful  column  of  basalt  200  feet  high,  parallel  and  quite  perpendicular  sides,  not 
more  than  150  feet  in  diameter,  and  like  a  bottle  in  appearance.  It  is  in  1st 
29°427  N.,  long.  140°  15'  E.  The  volcanic  nature  of  these  remarkable  rocks,  lying  i 
the  meridian  of  140°  E.,  indicates  a  continuation  of  those  immense  volcanic  aa 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THS  SECTIONS.  Ill 

which  pass  along  the  Kurile  Islands,  throughout  Nippon,  the  great  Japanese  island, 
and  thence  to  the  well-known  range  of  spiracles  in  the  Ladrone  Islands.  At  the 
northern  end  of  this  range  is  the  well-known  Mount  Fusi,  10,000  or  12,000  feet  in 
height,  now  quiescent.  To  the  south  of  this  volcano  is  Simoda, — a  port  between 
the  two  capitals  of  Japan,  Jedo  and  Miako,  which  has  been  thrown  open  to  the  ships 
of  the  United  States  in  1854.  The  dreadful  earthquake  of  1854  at  this  place  was 
alluded  to.  It  totally  changed  the  character  of  the  harbour  of  Simoda,  destroyed 
the  fine  city  of  Osaca,  and  injured  Jedo.  The  wave  which  was  caused  by  this  up- 
heaval of  the  land  traversed  the  entire  breadth  of  the  North  Pacific  in  twelve  hours 
and  some  few  minutes,  a  distance  of  between  4000  and  5000  miles,  demonstrating 
the  depth  of  that  ocean  to  be  between  two  and  three  miles.  -  The  diagram  illustrating 
the  paper  showed  the  singular  confusion  before  mentioned  in  the  hydrography  of 
these  small  but  important  positions.  The  Bonin  Islands  lie  to  the  southward.  They 
have  recently  been  made  the  subject  of  some  uncourteoos  disputation  by  the  Americans 
as  to  the  right  of  discovery  and  ownership.  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  their  Japanese 
discovery,  and  are  the  Arzbispo  Islands  of  the  early  Spaniards.  Next  follows  Captain 
Coffin  in  1824-25,  who  was  believed  to  be  an  Englishman,  but  which  is  controverted 
by  Commodore  Perry  of  the  United  States  Navy.  The  particulars  of  the  discovery 
were  related.  Next,  Captain  (now  Admiral)  Beechey  saw  them  in  1827,  and  toot 
possession  of  them  before  the  discovery  of  Coffin  was  published.  They  were  colonized 
under  the  direction  of  Her  British  Majesty's  Consul  at  Oahu  in  1830,  the  survivors 
of  those  settlers  still  living  there.  These  islands  have  been  lately  explored  by  the 
United  States  Japan  Expedition,  and  their  volcanic  origin  established.  It  was  hoped 
that  some  authority  to  repel  aggression  would  be  established  there*  as  the  islands  have 
now  become  important,  as  they  are  adapted  for  a  coaling  and  refitting  station  for 
steam-vessels.  The  Volcano  Isles  which  follow  are  tolerably  well  known,  and  from 
these  the  volcanic  submarine  ridges  diverge  to  S.S.E.  and  S.W.,  several  isolated 
shoals  and  volcanic  rocks  having  been  discovered  in  these  directions.  The  paper 
concluded  with  a  hope  that  our  naval  officers  would  endeavour  to  clear  up  the  embar- 
rassing contusion  which  had  arisen  from  the  imperfect  accounts  given  of  this  now 
important  region. 

Vesuvius  and  its  Eruptions ;  illustrated  by  a  Collection  of  Drawings  by 
W.  Baylis.    By  F.  D.  Hartland. 


On  the  most  Ancient  Map  of  the  World,  from  the  Propaganda,  Rome. 
By  F.  D.  Hartland. 


Vesuvius  and  its  Eruptions.    By  Frederick  D.  Hartland,  F.S~d.t  F.R.  G.S. 

The  first  part  of  this  paper  (which  was  illustrated  by  a  series  of  views)  was  de- 
voted to  a  geographical  and  geological  description  of  the  mountain ;  it  then  touched  on 
the  legends  of  the  Phoenicians,  of  its  previous  volcanic  character,  and  finally  gave  an 
outline  of  the  principal  of  its  fifty-four  historically  recorded  eruptions,  selecting  from 
each  the  peculiarities  that  render  it  most  interesting.  The  34th,  which  took  place  on  the 
8th  of  August,  1 779,  and  terminated  in  three  days,  was  thus  described  : — "  A  dense 
smoke  first  issued  from  the  cone,  followed  by  a  shower  of  scoriae  and  large  stones ;  an 
explosion,  of  such  force  as  to  shake  Portici,  Torre  del  Greco,  and  Torre  dell'  Annun- 
nata,  followed,  and  then  in  an  instant  a  fountain  of  liquid  transparent  fire  began  to 
rise,  and  gradually  increasing,  arrived  at  so  amazing  a  height  as  to  strike  every 
beholder  with  the  most  awful  astonishment.  The  height  of  this  stupendous  column 
of  fire  could  not  be  less  than  three  times  that  of  Vesuvius  itself,  which  rises  perpen- 
dicularly near  3700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Puffs  of  smoke,  as  black  as  can 
be  possibly  imagined,  succeeded  each  other  hastily,  and  accompanied  the  red-hot  trans* 
parent  and  liquid  lava,  interrupting  its  splendid  brightness  here  and  there  by  patches 
of  the  darkest  hue.  Within  these  puffs  of  smoke,  at  the  very  moment  of  their  emis- 
sion from  the  crater,  could  be  perceived  a  bright  but  pale  electrical  light,  briskly 
playing  about  in  zigzag  lines/'    This  graphic  description  is  from  the  pen  of  Sir 


U2  REPORT — 1856. 

William  Hamilton ;  bat  Mr.  Morris  also  states  the  light  was  so  strong  at  Sorresto, 
nearly  fourteen  miles  off,  that  he  could  read  large  print  by  it.  The  column  fell  party 
perpendicularly,  filling  up  the  valley  of  the  Atrio  del  Cavallo,  and  partly  around 
Ottajano.  After  its  fall,  the  black  cloud  advanced  towards  Naples,  putting  the  citi- 
zens in  great  fear,  but  it  did  not  fall  on  it.  Next  day  another  vast  column  arose, 
but  there  being  no  wind,  it  fell  back  into  the  crater.  On  the  1 1th  some  lava  was  dis- 
charged, and  Vesuvius  was  covered  with  a  mass  of  white  cotton-like  clouds,  piled  one 
over  another  in  a  colossal  mass,  scarcely  possible  to  describe. 

The  last  eruption  from  its  proximity  was  the  most  interesting. 

The  fifty-fourth  and  last  eruption  of  Vesuvius  took  place  on  the  1  st  of  May,  1&55. 
The  warning  of  its  approach  was  given  early  in  January,  by  the  opening  of  a  new 
crater  at  the  summit  of  the  cone,  between  the  old  one  and  the  city  of  Naples,  sad 
directly  across  the  route  of  ascent.  This  crater  differed  from  the  others,  insomuch 
as  it  was  neither  sulphurous  in  its  character,  nor  was  it  of  the  usual  chimney  form.  It 
was  from  sixty  to  eighty  yards  wide,  and  a  slight  smoke  issued  from  its  blackened  sides. 
After  its  appearance,  the  report  of  an  immediate  eruption  was  spread,  and  was 
kept  up  without  intermission  for  many  months;  but  on  Monday,  the  30th  of  April, 
the  symptoms  were  so  apparent,  that  the  guides  declared  to  a  party  then  making  the 
ascent  the  number  of  hours  it  would  be  before  it  occurred.  On  Tuesday,  the  1st  of 
May,  Vesuvius  was  invisible  at  Naples,  and  it  was  not  till  the  afternoon  that  the 
fact  became  known  that  the  eruption  had  commenced.  A  rush  was  then  made  for 
Santa  Lucia,  the  spot  of  Naples  from  which  the  mountain  can  best  be  seen,  and 
here  the  truth  became  apparent,  as  the  mountain  was  blazing  from  several  points. 
Upon  accomplishing  the  ascent,  and  after  passing  the  Hermitage,  the  intense  heat 
betrayed  the  approach  of  the  burning  element;  and  after  leaving  various  cascades  of 
fire,  down  which  half-melting  blocks  of  lava  were  dashing  at  a  pace  to  overcome  all 
resistance,  the  current  of  the  eruption  was  reached,  and  resembled  a  liquid  fiery  river 
rushing  from  the  side  of  the  cone,  and  apparently  fed  from  an  orifice  about  half- way 
up  it,  which,  amidst  flames  of  fire,  was  throwing  out  stones  to  an  immense  height, 
accompanied  by  volumes  of  dark  smoke ;  whilst  all  below  was  clear,  and  the  lava  at 
times  even  assumed  a  bright  phosphoric  blue.  This  was  the  most  magnificent  part 
of  the  scene,  as  the  ascent  of  the  cone  did  not  repay  the  risk  and  trouble.  During 
this  scene  daylight  dawned,  and  so  earnest  had  been  the  attention  given  to  it  by  the 
thousands  assembled  on  the  mountain,  that  although  a  perfectly  visible  eclipse  of  the 
moon  occurred  during  the  time,  it  passed,  with  few  exceptions,  unobserved.  Tne 
eruption  continued  till  the  end  of  the  month  (27th),  and  before  its  close  eleven  o 
were  in  active  operation,  the  discharge  from  which  was  so  great,  that  at  one  ' 
a  total  falling  in  of  the  mountain  was  dreaded.  This  discharge,  almost  unacc 
panied  by  the  ejection  of  stones  or  ashes,  was  the  peculiarity  of  the  last  eruption. 


On  the  Homolographical  Maps  o/M.  Babinet.    By  Prof.  Hbnnbssy. 

Prof.  Hennessy  explained  the  nature  of  the  new  system  of  maps,  invented  by 
M.  Babinet,  Member  of  the  Institute  of  France,  and  referred  to  a  letter  which  that 
gentleman  had  written  on  the  subject  to  General  Sabine.  In  the  new  projection  all 
the  meridians  are  ellipses,  and  the  parallels  straight  lines ;  whence  it  follows  that 
the  areas  included  between  any  two  pairs  of  equidistant  meridians  are  always  equal. 
It  follows  that  all  areas  lying  between  the  same  parallels  and  having  equal  bases 
on  these  parallels  will  be  also  equal.  This  property  is  not  possessed  by  any  of  the 
ordinary  modes  of  projection,  all  of  which,  more  or  less,  distort  the  actual  configu- 
ration of  the  surface  of  the  globe.  This  new  projection,  designated  by  its  author 
the  Homolographical  Projection,  alone  possesses  the  property  of  making  the  areas 
of  the  different  parts  of  a  map  comparable  among  each  other,  like  corresponding 
areas  on  the  surface  of  a  globe.  Its  value  in  geography  is  thus  obvious,  especially 
in  such  cases  as  those  where  relations  of  surface  are  important,  such  as  the  distribu- 
tion of  vegetable  and  animal  life,  of  population,  of  races,  and,  generally,  in  all  ques- 
tions of  physical  and  statistical  geography. 

On  the  Arctic  Current  around  Greenland.    By  Capt  Irmikgxb,  R.DJf. 


TRANSACTION*  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  113 

Report  on  his  Expedition  up  Smith9*  Sound  in  Search  of  Sir  John  Franklin. 

By  Dr.  E.  K.  Kane. 


An  original  Letter  from  General  Mouravieff.    By  Col.  A.  Lakb, 


Return  Journey  across  Southern  Africa.  By  the  Rev.  Dr.  D.  Livingston. 
Sir  R.  I.  Murchison  communicated  to  the  Section  an  outline  of  the  accounts  of 
the  last  journey  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  D.  Livingston,  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  coast 
of  South  Africa,  as  contained  in  three  long  and  highly  interesting  letters  addressed 
to  him  by  that  eminent  explorer  and)  successful  missionary.  The  .first  of  these  was 
written  at  Linyanti,  on  the  river  Chobe,  from  whence  he  had  been  accompanied 
•cross  the  continent,  to  St.  Paul  di  Laonda,  on  the  west  coast  in  10°  S.  Lat.,  by 
the  Datives,  whose  fidelity  to  him  during  his  perilous  adventures  had  been  rewarded 
by  being  instructed  and  reconducted  to  their  native  place,  and  is  dated  the  16th  of 
October,  1855  ;  the  second  from  the  Hill  Chanyune,  on  the  banks  of  the  Zambesi, 
the  25th  of  January,  1856  \  the  third  from  Tete',  or  Nyungwe,  lower  down  the 
same  river. 

The  map  about  to  be  constructed  bv  Dr.  Livingston,  of  the  vast  unexplored  region, 
has  been  for  some  time  in  preparation  by  Mr.  Arrowsmith  for  publication  in  the 
volumes  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society ;  and  some  of  the  information  contained 
in  the  letters  recently  received  will  occasion  improvements  in  that  map, — the  chief 
points  of  which  have,  for  the  first  time,  been  fixed  by  astronomical  observations, 
which  the  undaunted  traveller  was  enabled  to  accomplish  even  under  all  the  priva- 
tions and  dangers  of  his  two  remarkable  journeys.  These  observations  have  been 
calculated  by  Mr.  M'Clear,  the  astronomer  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Not  endeavouring  to  detail  the  names  of  all  the  African  chiefs  and  places  alluded 
to,  but  pointing  out  generally  the  line  of  route  pursued.  Sir  Roderick  read  those 
passages  of  the  first  letter  which  confirmed,  by  actual  observation,  a  theory  he  had 
himself  formed  in  the  year  1852*,  of  the  probable  physical  condition  of  the  interior 
of  Africa  in  modern  as  well  as  in  ancient  times,  from  the  examination  of  a  geological 
map  of  the  Cape  Colony  by  Mr.  Bain,  and  from  the  earlier  discoveries  of  the 
Lake  Njami  by  Dr.  Livingston  and  his  former  associates,  Oswell  and  Vardon  \  viz. 
that  crests  of  hard  rocks  constitute  both  the  eastern  and  western  flanks  of  the  con- 
tinent, through  which  the  rivers,  escaping  by  deep  fissures,  have  proceeded  from  a 
broad  central  watery  region  of  no  great  altitude.  Of  this  interior  basin,  intersected 
by  a  network  of  rivers.  Dr.  Livingston  gives  a  clear  account, — some  of  the  waters 
even  flowing  northwards  into  the  Zaire  or  Congo,  and  others  south-eastwards  into 
the  Zambesi. 

The  chief  geological  and  mineralogies!  characteristics  of  the  eastern  and  western 
flanking  crest-lands  are  described,  including  coal-fields,  iron  and  other  ores,  and  hot 
springs  issuing  from  igneous  and  metamorphic  rocks.  The  internal  or  watery  basin, 
on  the  contrary,  is  everywhere  occupied  by  calcareous  tufa,  often  of  considerable 
thickness,  in  which  are  enclosed  the  remains  of  existing  shells  and  animals  of 
the  land  and  water  of  the  present  day.  A  collection  of  fossil  bones  found  to 
the  south  of  the  last  explorations,  and  consigned  to  Dr.  Buckland,  has  been 
unfortunately  lost;  with  measurements  of  chief  altitudes  as  determined  by  the 
ebullition  of  water.  The  return  journey  from  St.  Paul  di  Loanda  to  Linyanti  was 
facilitated  for  a  time  by  the  possession  of  two  asses,  given  to  the  author  by  friends 
hi  the  Portuguese  settlement  of  Loanda ;  these  animals  being  insensible  to  the  sting 
of  the  Tsetse,  which  destroys  oxen  and  other  animals. 

In  the  second  letter,  Dr.  Livingston,  then  within  a  few  days'  march  of  the  Portu- 
guese eastern  station  of  Tete,  gives  a  lively  and  graphic  sketch  of  the  remainder  of 
|  the  route  he  pursued  in  proceeding  across  the  eastern  hilly  region ;  and  his  descrip- 
i  tion  of  the  scenery  (as  read  to  the  Section),  where  the  broad  river  Zambesi,  after 
i  forming  great  rapids,  is  compressed  into  a  narrow  gorge  and  cascades  over  a  lofty 
.  precipice,  amidst  the  most  luxuriant  and  extraordinary  vegetation,  afforded  the 
liveliest  gratification.    This  rocky  region  is  very  salubrious,  and  in  passing  through 

!  *  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society. 

i      1856.  8 


114  fcft»Ofct-~lBM. 

it  the  traveller  Is  no  longer  molested  by  the  Tsetse,  or  destructive 
author  speculates,  indeed,  on  the  probability  of  such  hilly  sanitaria  being  < 
vastly  farther  to  the  north,  and  adds,  "At  present  there  is  the  prospect  of  mfcr- 
carriage  right  op  to  the  bottom  of  the  eastern  ridge ;  and  if  a  quick  passage  en  be 
effected  thither  during  a  healthy  part  of  the  season,  there  is,  I  presume,  a  prospect 
of  residence  in  localities  very  superior  to  those  on  the  coast,"  Hie  deltas  betwea 
such  hilly  districts  and  the  shores  of  the  eastern  as  well  as  of  the  weals*  u  octets, 
.are,  on  the  contrary,  described  as  the  most  unhealthy  of  all  the  tracts  examined. 

The  third  letter,  much  of  which  was  read  to  the  Meeting,  gives  a  general  view 
of  the  ethnological  distinctions  and  habits  of  the  various  tribes  among  whom  he  mi 
lived  and  with  whose  languages  he  Is  so  well  acquainted,  assigning  a  msnimt 
Superiority  in  bravery  and  conduct  to  the  hill  people,  and  particularly  to  the  Caflre- 
Zuluh  race.  He  also  explains  that  the  Bible  has  been  nearly  all  translated  iate 
Bechuana,  or  the  dialect  of  the  Bechuanas,  the  most  regularly  developed  of  all  tat 
African  languages.  "  Of  its  capabilities  (he  adds)  you  may  judge,  when  I  mentioa 
that  the  Pentateuch  is  fully  expressed  in  considerably  fewer  words  than  in  the  Greek 
Beptuagint,  and  in  a  very  greatly  less  number  than  our  verbose  English.** 

After  a  sketch  of  the  soology  and  natural  history  of  the  region,  and  a  record  at 
the  prevalent  diseases  of  the  people,  showing  that  certain  maladies  which  csvifiml 
man  cannot  eradicate,  are  often  worn  out  and  disappear  naturally  in  South  Africa, 
Dr.  Livingston,  adverting  to  previous  explorers,  and  returning  his  warmest  thtab 
to  the  Portuguese  authorities  of  Laonda  and  Tete,  modestly  expresses  his  befief  that 
he  Is  the  first  European  who  has  travelled  across  Southern  Africa  in  those  latitudes, 
»-HUid  having  acomplished  thus  much,  he  speaks  of  a  visit  to  his  native  ~ 
only  with  the  intention  of  returning  to  exercise  his  sacred  calling.  He  < 
in  these  Words :—••  I  feel  thankful  to  God  who  has  preserved  my  life  while  so  i 
who  would  have  done  more  good  have  been  cut  off.  But  I  am  not  so  much  \ 
as  might  have  been  expected,  for  the  end  of  the  geographical  feat  is  but  the  f 
of  the  missionary  enterprise.  Geographers  labouring  to  make  men  better  si 
With  each  other,  soldiers  fighting  against  oppression,  and  sailors  rescuing  captives  is 
deadly  climes,  are  all,  as  well  as  missionaries,  aiding  in  hastening  on  a  glorious  con- 
summation to  all  God's  dealings  to  man.  In  the  hope  that  I  may  yet  be  permitted 
to  do  some  good  to  this  poor,  long  trodden-down  Africa,  the  gentlemen  over  whoa 
you  have  the  honour  to  preside,  will,  I  doubt  not,  all  cordially  join.*' 

In  conclusion,  Sir  Roderick  called  attention  to  the  great  merits  of  Dr.  Lrvmgstae, 
who  had  justly  been  honoured  with  the  adjudication  of  a  Gold  Medal  of  the  Rotul 
Geographical  Society,  and  having  also  adverted  to  the  extraordinary  and  etiensm 
travels  of  Berth  in  Central  Africa,  who  had  received  a  similar  honour,  and  to  tat 
prospect  of  fresh  explorations  both  up  the  Niger  and  from  Zanzibar  on  the  east  coast, 
to  the  mountains  from  whence  the  Nile  is  supposed  to  flow,  he  congratulated  the 
assembly  on  the  hope  we  might  now  rationally  entertain  of  spreading  crvilizatioa  sad 
Christianity  throughout  these  benighted  lands. 

In  the  absence  of  detailed  maps,  and  in  the  expectation  of  seeing  Dr.  Iiviagstoa 
boon  In  England,  Sir  Roderick  forbore  to  enter  into  any  specific  account  of  me 
courses  of  die  interior  rivers,  or  to  dwell  upon  data  which  would  in  due  time  be 
brought  before  the  Geographical  Society. 


A  New  Route  to  India — the  Syto- Arabian  Railway.    By  Jobk  Locks. 

This  paper  suggested  a  railway  from  Acre  to  Busrah,  passing  the  Jordan  betwem 
the  32nd  and  33rd  degrees  of  latitude.  The  gain  in  space  of  this  line  over  the  pre* 
jected  Euphratean  route  was  stated  to  be  400  miles,  and  in  time  (making  due  allow- 
ance for  greater  velocity  of  locomotive  than  steamer)  two  days  and  a  half;  and  over 
the  present  overland  route  of  1000  miles,  or  six  days,  which  might  be  increased  est 
day  and  a  half  by  accelerating  the  speed  in  the  long  level  reaches  of  the  Desert 
•where  the  traveller  can  observe  at  the  distance  of  several  miles  any  object  of  a  urn 
likely  to  impede  or  endanger  a  train.  Mr.  Locke's  paper  went  to  demonstrate  tht 
.shortness,  security  and  economy  (both  in  time  and  in  cost  of  construction)  of  nil 
route.  He  also  pointed  out  the  facilities  likely  to  be  afforded  by  the  Of 
government  and  the  Imaamof  Muteat,  and  especially  dwelt  on  the  collateral  i 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TH*  SECTIONS.  115 

tages  of  developing  new  markets  and  commercial  relations,  not  only  in  the  Persian 
Golf,  bat  also  with  the  eleven  millions  of  the  Arabian  peninsula,  hitherto  almost 
isolated  from  the  conditions  of  modern  civilization. 


Researches  in  the  Crimson  Bosphorus,  and  an  the  site  of  the  Ancient  Greek 
City  of  Pa*ticap**m  (Kertch) .    By  Dr.  D.  Macphbbson,  F.R.  G.S. 

Hie  present  town  of  Kertch  is  built  close  to  the  site  where  500  years  B.C.  the 
Milesians  founded  a  colony.  About  fifty  years  before  Christ,  this  colony  became 
subject  to  Rome,  or  rather  a  Satrap  of  the  Roman  Empire,  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  Bosphorean  kings,  who  were  also  rulers  of  Pontus,  having  been  subdued  by 
mis  people  in  Asia.  In  the  year  375  of  our  era,  the  colony  was  utterly  annihilated 
by  the  Huns.  Barbarous  hordes  succeeded  one  upon  another  thereafter  until  a.d. 
1280,  when  the  Genoese  became  possessors  of  the  soil,  and  held  it  until  expelled 
by  the  Turks  in  1473 ;  they  being  in  their  turn  expelled  in  1771  by  the  Russians. 
Tne  characteristic  features  around  Kertch  are  the  immense  tumuli,  or  artificial  mounds, 
that  abound  in  this  locality,  more  especially  within  the  second  vallum.  These 
sepulchres  of  the  ancient  world  are  found  in  many  places.  We  have  them  in  the 
form  of  barrowB  in  England,  and  cairns  in  Scotland.  Calculated  as  they  are  for 
almost  endless  duration,  they  present  the  simplest  and  Bublimest  monument  that 
could  have  been  raised  over  the  dead.  The  size  and  grandeur  of  the  tumuli  found 
in  this  locality  excite  astonishing  ideas  of  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  people  by 
whom  they  were  erected,  for  the  labour  must  have  been  prodigious  and  the  expendi- 
ture enormous.  The  highest  specimens  of  Hellenic  art  have  been  discovered  in  these 
tumuli — such  as  sculpture,  metal,  alabaster  and  Etruscan  vases,  glass  vessels, 
remarkable  for  their  lightness,  carved  ivory,  coins,  peculiarly  pleasing  on  account  of 
their  sharpness  and  finish,  and  trinkets,  executed  with  a  skill  that  would  vie  with 
that  of  our  best  workmen.  All  originals  were  forwarded  to  the  Hermitage,  at 
St.  Petersburg,  duplicates  being  preserved  in  the  Museum  at  Kertch,  and  these 
might  have  been  with  ease  secured  to  England  on  the  investment  of  the  place  by  the 
Allies ;  but  with  the  exception  of  some  bas-reliefs,  which,  in  connexion  with  other 
two  officers,  I  transmitted  to  the  British  Museum,  the  whole  of  these  rare  treasures 
were  barbarously  made -away  with.  The  local  tradition  is,  that  these  tumuli  were 
raised  over  the  remains,  and  to  perpetuate  the  memory,  of  the  kings  or  rulers  who 
held  sway  over  the  colonists,  and  that  the  earth  was  heaped  upon  them  annually  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  decease  of  the  prince,  and  for  a  period  of  years  corresponding 
to  the  rank  or  respect  in  which  its  tenant  was  held  or  had  reigned ;  and  to  this  day 
successive  layers  of  earth,  which  were  laid  on  in  each  succeeding  year,  can  be  traced, 
a  thin  coating  of  sea-shell  or  charcoal  having  been  first  put  down.  I  have  counted 
as  many  as  thirty  layers  in  a  scarp  made  in  one  of  those  mounds,  about  two-thirds 
from  its  base.  They  are  to  be  Been  of  all  sizes,  varying  from  10  to  300  feet  in 
circumference,  and  in  height  from  5  to  150  feet,  and  are  usually  composed  of  surface 
soil  and  rubble  masonry.  Herodotus's  reference  to  these  sepulchres  is  the  earliest 
account  which  history  has  recorded  of  this  mode  of  burial ;  and  I  would  particularly 
draw  attention  to  his  description  of  the  mode  adopted  by  the  Scythians  to  perpetuate 
the  memory  of  their  deceased  princes,  for  it  will  be  hereafter  seen  that  one  of  my 
excavations  corresponds  exactly  with  the  description  given  by  him.  "The  tombs  of 
the  Scythian  kings/'  he  states,  "  are  seen  in  the  land  Gberri,  at  the  extreme  point 
to  which  the  Borysthenes  is  navigable.  Here,  in  the  event  of  a  king's  decease, 
after  embalming  tne  body,  they  convey  it  to  some  neighbouring  Scythian  nation. 
The  people  receive  the  royal  corpse,  and  convey  it  to  another  province  of  his  domi- 
nions ;  and  when  they  have  paraded  it  through  all  the  provinces,  they  dig  a  deep  square 
fosse,  and  place  the  body  in  the  grave  on  a  bed  of  grass.  In  the  vacant  space  around 
the  body  in  the  fosse  they  now  lay  one  of  the  king's  concubines,  whom  they  strangle 
for  the  purpose,  his  cup-bearer,  his  cook,  his  groom,  his  page,  his  messenger,  fifty  of 
his  slaves,  some  horses,  and  samples  of  all  his  things.  Having  so  done,  all  fall  to 
work,  throwing  up  an  immense  mound,  striving  and  vieing  with  one  another  who 
shall  do  the  most."  The  Greeks,  who  always  respected  the  religion  of  the  countries 
they  had  subjugated,  and  who,  in  process  of  time,  imbibed,  to  a  certain  extent,  their 
customs  and  observances,  appear  to  have  adopted  this  Scythian  mode  of  burial. 

8* 


116  REPORT — 1856. 

Instead,  however,  of  placing  their  magistrates  or  rulers  in  a  "  deep  square  fosse"  oag 
in  the  earth,  they  built  tombs,  and  over  these  raised  the  conical  hill.  I  eunoied 
several  without  meeting  with  any  success.  All,  or  nearly  all,  of  these  tumuli  toe 
been  already  explored.  Not  far  from  Mons  Mithridatis  I  came  upon  a  portion  of  a 
aqueduct  which  probably  conveyed  water  to  the  Acropolis.  It  was  formed  of  cot- 
cave  tiles ;  one  of  these,  with  a  Greek  name  thereon,  I  have  brought  with  me.  On 
one  occasion  I  arrived  at  a  place  where  five  stone  tombs  were  found  adjoining,  neither 
of  which  contained  any  relic ;  but  in  a  spot  contiguous  a  large  ornamented  earthea- 
ware  jug  and  five  glass  cups,  one  within  the  other,  were  discovered.  It  was  not 
unusual  thus  to  find  the  remains  in  one  spot  and  the  ornaments  in  another.  Qa 
removing  the  earth  off  the  sides  of  a  rock,  the  apex  of  which  was  only  perceptible  on 
the  summit,  I  struck  upon  a  recess,  three  sides  of  a  square  chiseled  out  of  the  rod 
16  feet  in  length  and  8  in  depth.  Following  this,  I  reached  a  stone  seat ;  hewn  est 
on  each  side  of  this  seat  small  recesses  had  been  made,  apparently  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  lamps.  After  descending  12  feet  I  came  to  human  remains,  and  for  five 
days  the  workmen  turned  nothing  out  of  this  pit  but  human  bones.  How  far  these 
would  have  descended  I  know  not,  for  I  ceased  my  explorations  here,  feeling  satisfied, 
from  the  appearance  of  the  bones,  that  they  must  have  been  placed  there  at  the  same 
period — the  result,  most  probably,  of  some  great  engagement,  for  many  of  the  skulk 
and  long  bones  presented  fractures  and  injuries.  The  marks  on  the  rock  would 
indicate  that  sacrificial  meetings,  possibly  commemorative  of  the  event,  was  held  here. 
Replacing  these  remains,  I  proceeded  to  a  point  indicated  as  the  tombs  of  the  dimi- 
nutive or  pigmy  race,  but  discovered  nothing  that  would  indicate  a  peculiar  diss  of 
people.  Beneath  an  extensive  sloping  artificial  tumulus,  running  at  right  angles 
with  the  ridge  extending  northwards  from  Mons  Mithridatis,  I  came  upon  a  mass 
of  rubble  masonry,  beyond  which  was  a  door  leading  to  an  arched  chamber,  beak 
under  the  side  of  the  mound.  This  led  me  to  a  larger  chamber,  which  was  also  arched. 
The  walls  of  the  larger  chamber  were  marked  off  in  squares,  with  here  and  there 
flowers,  birds,  and  grotesque  figures.  Over  the  entrance  into  this  chamber  were 
painted  two  figures  of  griffins  rampant,  two  horsemen,  a  person  in  authority  sad 
his  attendant — the  latter  carrying  in  his  hand  a  long  spear — being  rudely  sketched 
on  one  of  the  inner  walls.  There  were  no  remains  of  any  sort  in  this  tomb  or  temple. 
A  recess  in  the  walls  on  two  sides  resembled  doors  blocked  up.  On  removing  the 
masonry  to  the  rights  the  skeleton  of  a  horse  was  found.  To  the  left  a  human  she* 
leton  lay  across  the  door.  Tunnelling  on  each  side,  the  work  was  carried  on  beneath 
the  descents  of  former  explorations  from  above.  On  the  right-hand  side  the  tunnel 
extended  seven  yards,  but  nothing  of  interest  was  met  with.  On  the  left,  descending 
as  the  tunnel  was  formed,  arriving  occasionally  at  objects  possessing  much  interest,  I 
came  upon  a  layer  of  natural  slate  rock,  the  sides  and  roof  of  the  tunnel  being  cos- 
posed  of  artificial  soil,  charcoal,  animal  remains,  and,  as  usual,  heaps  of  broken 
pottery.  Thirty  feet  from  the  entrance,  the  rock  suddenly  disappeared  to  the  front 
and  left,  the  mark  of  the  chisel  being  perceptible  on  the  divided  portion.  Tunnelling 
on,  the  rock  was  again  reached  12  feet  from  the  spot  where  it  had  disappeared,  bote 
sand  occupying  the  intervening  space,  into  which  the  exploring  rod,  6  feet  long, 
dropped  without  any  effort  1  worked  down  into  this  shaft  1 2  feet.  But  the  left  side 
of  the  shaft,  which  was  composed  of  the  same  loose  sand  as  far  as  the  steel  rod  could 
reach,  was  continually  falling  in.  Moreover,  the  labour  caried  on  by  candlelight  of 
raising  the  earth  in  baskets,  and  conveying  it  in  wheelbarrows  to  the  outside  throngs 
the  building  was  becoming  very  arduous,  and  I  was  compelled  to  abandon  the  work. 
At  this  period  no  relics  or  remains  of  any  sort  were  discovered,  and  the  steel  rod 
sunk  into  the  loose  sand  as  if  it  had  been  so  much  flour.  I  felt  satisfied  that  tab 
shaft  led  to  rich  treasures  below,  but  regard  for  the  safety  of  my  workmen  prevented 
my  proceeding  deeper.  I  now  sought  out  other  ground,  and  selected  a  place 
removed  about  100  yards  from  that  I  had  just  left.  Descending  some  10  feet,  I 
struck  upon  a  tomb  cut  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Not  far  from  this  my  attention  was 
attracted  to  an  excavation  in  the  rock,  somewhat  similar  to,  but  on  a  much  smaller 
scale,  than  that  large  descent  which  I  had  just  abandoned.  Clearing  the  surface,  I 
found  that  the  rock  was  hewn  out  3  feet  in  width  and  12  in  length,  the  intervening  space 
being  filled  with  sand,  similar  in  all  respects  to  the  other  into  which  the  steel  rod  sank 
with  ease.     Fifteen  feet  of  this  sand  being  removed,  I  came  upon  the  skeleton  of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THIS  8ECTION8.  11/ 

a  hone.  A  few  feet  farther  on,  an  upright  flag,  4  feet  high,  and  the  breadth  of 
the  shaft,  was  placed  over  the  entrance  of  a  tomb  cut  out  of  the  calcareous  clay* 
The  opening  faced  the  east  by  an  arched  door,  24  inches  wide  and  32  high.  The 
tomb  was  of  a  semicircular  form,  arched,  10  feet  by  12  in  diameter,  and  8  feet  high 
in  the  centre.  Above  the  doorway,  a  lintel  stone  was  placed  on  which  the  slab  which 
closed  it  rested.  The  cavity  was  cut  out  of  the  natural  calcareous  clay,  which  was 
firm  and  consistent,  the  form  and  shape  of  the  instrument  by  which  it  had  been  re- 
moved being  very  distinct.  The  candle  burnt  brightly  on  entering.  The  floor  was 
covered  with  beautiful  pebbles  and  shells,  such  as  are  now  found  on  the  shores  of 
the  Sea  of  Azov.  A  niche  was  cut  out  of  the  walls  on  three  sides,  in  which  lay  the 
dost  of  what  once  was  human.  It  was  a  sight  replete  with  interest  to  survey  this 
chamber — to  examine  each  article  as  it  had  been  originally  placed  more  than  2000 
years  ago— to  contemplate  its  use,  and  to  behold  the  effect  or  twenty  centuries  upon  us 
proud  mortals.  There  lay  the  dust  of  the  human  frame,  possessing  still  the  form  of  man. 
The  bones  had  also  crumbled  into  dust ;  the  space  once  occupied  by  the  head  did  not 
exceed  the  size  of  the  palm  of  the  hand,  but  on  the  undisturbed  dust,  the  position  of 
the  features  could  still  be  traced.  The  mode  in  which  the  garments  enveloped  the 
body,  and  the  knots  and  fastenings  by  which  these  were  bound,  were  also  distinct. 
On  each  niche  a  body  had  been  placed,  and  the  coffins,  crumbled  into  powder,  had 
Men  in.  At  the  head  were  glass  bottles — one  of  these  contained  a  little  wine.  A 
cup  and  a  lacrymatory  of  the  same  material  and  a  lamp  were  placed  in  a  small  niche 
above.  A  coin  and  a  few  enamelled  beads  were  in  the  left  hand,  and  in  the  right  a 
number  of  walnuts — the  wine  and  nuts  being  doubtless  placed  there  to  cheer  and 
support  the  soul  in  its  passage  to  Paradise.  Some  fibulae  and  common  ornaments, 
valuable  on  account  of  their  antiquity,  were  also  found.  Continuing  my  researches 
in  the  same  locality,  1  came  upon  other  similar  shafts,  at  the  end  of  which  were 
the  bones  of  a  horse,  and  then  the  large  flagstone  closed  the  mouth  of  tombs  similar 
to  the  last.  I  now  resolved  to  make  another  attempt  to  explore  the  great  shaft ;  the 
only  mode  of  effecting  this  being  to  remove  entirely  that  portion  of  the  hill  above  it, 
I  brought  all  my  labourers  to  the  spot,  although  the  few  days  that  remained  of  our 
sojourn  in  Kertch  would  hardly  enable  me,  I  reared,  to  complete  the  work.  Placing 
my  men  in  two  gangs,  each  were  made  to  work  half  an  hour  without  ceasing.  On 
the  third  day  we  struck  on  two  large  amphorae,  containing  each  the  skeleton  of  a 
child.  Adjoining  these  were  the  tombs  of  two  adults,  and  then  came  the  skeleton 
of  a  horse.  There  was  now  every  indication  that  a  great  feast  or  sacrifice  had  been 
held,  for  a  few  feet  further  on  we  came  upon  immense  heaps  of  broken  amphorae, 
fragments  of  wine  jars,  the  inside  of  which  were  still  encrusted  with  wine  lees,  broken 
drinking  cups,  flat  tiles  which  may  have  served  the  purpose  of  plates,  beef  and  mutton 
hones,  fragments  of  cooking  pots  still  black  from  the  smoke,  and  quantities  of  charcoal, 
Descending  still  further,  we  came  upon  what  appeared  to  have  been  a  workshop—* 
portions  of  crucibles  in  which  copper  had  been  smelted,  corroded  iron,  lumps  of 
vitreous  glass,  broken  glass  vessels,  moulds,  and  other  things  being  found.  Five  feet 
deeper  we  exposed  the  excavation  in  the  rock,  and  a  shaft  exactly  similar  to,  but  on 
amuch  larger  scale  than  the  descent  into  the  arched  tombs.  As  the  hill  was  removed, 
platforms  were  scarped  on  the  sides,  on  which  the  earth  was  thrown  up,  a  man  being 
placed  on  each  platform ;  and  as  I  descended  into  the  shaft,  similar  platforms  of  wood 
were  slung  from  above.  On  the  twelfth  day  we  reached  a  depth  of  16  feet  in  the 
shaft,  the  portion  of  the  hill  removed  being  38  feet  in  length,  20  in  depth,  and  12  in 
breadth.  The  mouth  of  the  shaft  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  3  feet  in  thickness,  was  18  feet 
long  by  1 2  broad.  It  then  took  on  a  bell  shape,  the  diameter  of  which  was  22  feet,  cut 
oat  in  dark  consistent  clay,  a  depth  of  nearly  7  feet.  Beyond  this  the  size  of  the 
shaft  became  a  square  of  7  feet,  cut  out  of  successive  layers  of  sandstone  and  calca- 
reous clay.  When  we  had  attained  a  depth  of  30  feet  in  the  shaft,  the  labour  of 
raising  the  earth  became  very  great ;  but  by  means  of  a  block  and  shears,  which  Capt. 
CommereU,  of  Her  Majesty's  ship  '  Snake/  very  kindly  fixed  over  the  descent,  the 
work  was  much  facilitated,  the  earth  being  slung  up  in  baskets,  and  the  men  ascend- 
ing and  descending  in  the  same  manner.  A  few  feet  beyond  the  bones  of  the  horse, 
and  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  shaft,  the  skeleton  of  an  adult  female  appeared 
enveloped  in  sea-weed.  Under  the  neck  was  a  lacrymatory,  and  on  the  middle 
finger  of  the  right  hand  a  key-ring.  Three  feet  further  we  met  a  layer  of  human 
skeletons,  laid  head  to  feet,  the  bones  being  here  in  excellent  preservation,— as,  indeed* 


118  REPORT — 1856, 

we  found  them  to  be  in  all  places  where  the  calcareous  clay  came  into  in 
contact  with  them.  There  were  ten  adult  male  skeletons  on  thh  spot,  and  separated 
by  a  foot  of  clay  between  each,  five  layers  were  found,  being  fifty  in  ail.  I  may  state 
that  toads  in  large  numbers  were  found  alive  in  this  part  of  the  pit.  We  had  now 
reached  a  depth  of  42  feet  in  the  shaft,  the  bones  of  another  horse  were  turned  out, 
and  then  we  came  on  loose  sand  to  a  depth  of  5  feet.  Six  more  skeletons  were 
here  again  exposed.  The  sides  of  the  shaft  were  regular  and  smooth,  the  mark  of 
the  chisel  on  the  rock  being  as  fresh  as  when  first  formed.  Six  feet  more  of  the 
loose  sand  being  now  taken  away,  hard  bottom  could  be  felt  by  the  steel  rod,  and 
there  lay  two  skeletons,  male  and  female,  enveloped  in  sea- weed ;  and  in  a  large 
amphora  at  the  corner,  which  was  unfortunately  found  crushed,  were  the  hones  of  a 
child.  Some  beautiful  specimens  of  pottery,  lacrymatories,  beads,  and  a  few  coins, 
were  all  that  I  got  to  repay  my  labours  on  this  spot.  I  examined  well  on  every 
side,  and  in  the  rock  below,  for  a  trap-door  or  concealed  passage,  and  an  abrupt 
perpendicular  division  in  the  natural  strata  or  layers  of  calcareous  clay  appeared  to 
indicate  the  existence  of  such,  but  I  found  none.  Everything  during  the  descent 
had  promised  so  very  favourably,  that  I  fully  expected  to  have  found  a  large  chamber 
leading  on  from  the  termination  of  the  shaft ;  but  if  such  does  exist,  the  discovery  of 
the  passage  to  it  utterly  baffled  all  my  researches.  The  deep  fosse,  the  mode  in  which 
the  skeletons  were  found  at  the  bottom,  the  six  discovered  immediately  above  these, 
the  fifty  about  the  centre,  and  the  bones  of  the  horses,  are  exactly  in  harmony  with 
the  description  of  Herodotus  of  the  mode  in  which  the  Scythian  kings  were  buried. 
The  substance  which  I  have  called  sea- weed,  from  its  bearing  a  stronger  resemblance 
to  that  production  than  anything  else  I  can  compare  it  with,  may  possibly  be  the 
"  grass  "  described  by  Herodotus  as  used  to  envelope  the  body.  If  such  be  the  case, 
the  description  is  in  all  respects  exact 

This  wonderful  place  of  sepulture  must  therefore  be  Scythian,  and  date  with  the 
very  earliest  colonization  of  the  Greeks ;  full  500  years  b.c.  That  able  osteologist 
and  comparative  anatomist,  Professor  Owen,  confirms  this  by  pronouncing  the  crania 
brought  with  me  from  the  bottom  of  the  shaft,  as  certainly  not  of  Grecian,  but  rather 
of  Indo-European  characters,  and  of  the  dolichocephalic  variety. 


On  the  Plastic  Origin  of  the  Cuneiform  Characters,  and  its  Relation  to  our  own 
Alphabet.    By  Jambs  Nasmyth. 

Since  Mr.  Nasmyth  first  brought  this  subject  forward  in  a  lecture  which  he  gave 
at  the  Royal  Institution  in  1838,  so  much  additional  interest  has  been  excited  m 
relation  to  the  cuneiform  character  in  consequence  of  the  admirable  discoveries  and 
researches  of  Layard,  Rawlinson  and  others,  that  Mr.  Nasmyth  availed  himself  of 
the  opportunity  afforded  by  the  meeting  of  the  British  Association  at  Cheltenham  to 
recall  attention  to  the  subject. 

'With  this  view  he  gave  a  complete  practical  illustration  of  the  mode  in  which  he 
conceives  the  cuneiform  character  had  originated ;  secondly,  how  it  was  written;  and 
thirdly,  how  far  he  conceives  it  to  have  been  the  parent  of  certain  portions  of  our 
own  alphabetic  characters. 

In  respect  to  the  first  part  of  the  subject,  namely  the  plastic  origin  of  the  cuneiform 
characters,  Mr.  Nasmyth  stated  that  he  considered  it  was  due  to  the  simple  circum- 
stance of  clay  or  plastic  mud,  in  the  form  of  bricks  and  tiles,  having  been  employed  as 
the  chief  building  material  by  the  primitive  founders  of  the  cities  on  the  banks  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  that  the  cuneiform  character  owes  its  origin  and  adoptioa. 
Mr.  Nasmyth  showed,  by  a  practical  demonstration  of  the  most  convincing  kind,  mat 
the  peculiar  triangular  impression  or  indentation  which  is  the  distinguishing  feature 
or  characteristic  element  and  basis  of  all  cuneiform  inscriptions,  is  the  direct  and 
inevitable  result  of  the  contact  of  the  angle  or  corner  of  a  hard  or  dried  brick  with 
the  side  of  a  soft  one. 

That  the  most  perfect  cuneiform  characters  can  thus  be  inscribed  on  soft  clay, 
Mr.  Nasmyth  proved  to  the  meeting  by  rapidly  inscribing  a  vast  variety  of  cuneUbrai 
characters  on  plastic  clay  by  the  means  referred  to.  He  then  proceeded  to  state,  that 
although  he  considered  it  highly  probable  that  the  first  idea  of  the  cuneiform  had 
thus  suggested  itself,  yet  as  a  brick  would  be  found  to  be  rather  an  awkward  stylo* 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  8BOTIONS.  119 

tamanipalate  with,  and  at  it  was  only  the  comer  of  the  brick  that  was  acting  as  the 
stylus,  the  cumbrous  brick  would  toon  be  substituted  by  a  triangular  stylus  at  the 
most  convenient  agent  to  be  employed  in  inscribing  the  cuneiform  on  plastic  clay. 
la  proof  of  thia  Mr.  Naamyth  exhibited  to  the  meeting  an  impression  from  a  Baby- 
lonian brick  which  he  had  access  to  in  the  British  Museum,  in  which  the  absolute 
tbe  at  well  at  the  form  of  the  stylus  employed  in  impressing  it  was  given.  Tnis 
specimen  appeared  to  set  at  rest  all  doubt  as  to  the  nature  of  the  instrument  employed, 
at  well  at  to  illustrate  the  mode  of  using  it.  Mr.  Naamy  th  gave  a  practical  illustration 
of  the  capability  of  such  a  stylus  in  enabling  the  inscriber  to  produce  cuneiform  cha- 
racters of  a  vast  variety  of  size  at  well  at  form,  timply  by  varying  the  depth  to  which  it 
was  impressed  into  the  clay. 

In  conclusion,  Mr.  Naamyth  stated  his  views  as  to  the  probable  connexion  that 
appeared  to  him  to  exist  between  certain  parts  of  our  own  alphabetic  characters  and 
that  of  the  cuneiform,  referring  in  this  respect  to  those  portions  of  our  alphabetic 
ekaraeter8  termed  "  Serife,"  namely,  the  cross  strokes  which  terminate  the  limbs  of 
most  of  our  capital  letters.  In  illustration  of  this  part  of  the  subject  he  referred  to 
several  ancient  Greek  inscriptions,  in  which  he  showed  that  the  characters  of  which 
they  were  formed  were  decomposable  into  absolute  cuneiform  elements ;  in  many 
eases  the  bottom  strokes  terminating  the  limbs  of  the  letters  were  so  identical  with 
the  cuneiform  element,  that  they  were  at  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  limb  of  the 
letter,  and  not  parallel  to  the  line  of  inscription. 


Remarks  on  the  Esquimaux.    By  John  Rai,  M*D.,  F.R.0.8. 


The  Route  between  Kustenjeh  and  the  Danube.    By  Capt  Sp&att,  C.B. 

On  recent  Discoveries  in  Australia.    By  Capt,  Charms  Sturt,  FM.G.S. 

On  the  earliest  traces  of  Human  Remains  in  Kenfs  Cavern* 
By  B.  Vivian,  M.A.,  Torquay. 

The  cavern  is  situated  between  Torquay  and  Babbicombe,  beneath  a  conical 
hill  of  the  Devonian  limestone,  extending  to  a  circuit  of  about  600  feet..  It  appears 
to  have  been  first  occupied  by  the  bear  and  hyena,  the  remains  of  which,  witn  the 
bones  of  elephants,  rhinoceros,  deer,  &c„  upon  which  they  preyed,  were  strewn 
upon  the  rocky  floor.  By  some  violent  and  transitory  convulsion,  a  vast  amount  of 
the  soil  of  the  surrounding  country  was  injected  into  the  cavern,  carrying  with  it  the 
bones,  and  burying  them  in  the  inmost  recesses.  Immediately  upon  its  subsidence 
the  cavern  appears  to  have  been  occupied  by  human  inhabitants,  whose  rude  flint- 
knives  and  arrowheads  are  found  upon  the  mud  beneath  the  stalagmite.  A  period 
then  succeeded,  during  which  the  cavern  was  not  inhabited  until  about  half  of  the 
floor  was  formed,  when  a  streak  containing  burnt  wood  and  the  bones  of  the  wild 
hoar  and  badger  was  deposited,  and  again  the  cave  was  unoccupied,  either  by  men 
or  animals,  the  remaining  portion  of  the  stalagmite  being,  above  as  below,  pure  and 
unstained  by  soil  or  any  foreign  matter.  Above  the  floor  have  been  found  remains 
of  Celtic,  early  British  and  Roman  remains,  together  with  those  of  more  modern 
date.  Among  the  inscriptions  is  one  of  interest  as  connected  with  the  landing  of 
William  III.  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  bay,  "  W.  Hodges,  of  Ireland,  1688." 

The  position  of  the  flint  instruments  beneath  the  stalagmite,  although  contrary  to 
the  generally  received  opinion  of  geologists,  and  carrying  back  the  first  occupation 
of  Devon  to  very  high  antiquity,  was  shown  to  be  not  necessarily  at  variance  with 
Scriptural  chronology,  the  deposit  of  stalagmite  having  apparently  been  much  more 
rapid  at  those  periods  when  the  cavern  was  not  inhabited,  in  consequence  of  a  greater 
discharge  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  Without  attempting  to  affix  with  any  certainty 
more  than  a  relative  date,  Mr.  Vivian  suggested  that  there  was  reason  for  believing 
that  the  introduction  of  the  mud  was  occasioned,  not  by  the  comparatively  tranquil 
Mosaic  Deluge,  which  spared  the  olive  and  allowed  the  ark  to  float  without  miracu- 
looa  interposition,  as  was  once  assumed  by  Dr.  Buckland,  but  by  the  greater 
tt&Yuliion,  alluded  to  in  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  which  destroyed  t£p  pre* 


120  BBPOftT— 1856. 

existing  races  of  animals — most  of  those  in  this  cavern  being  of  extinct  specks,— «d 
prepared  the  earth  for  man  and  his  contemporaries. 

The  original  formation  of  the  cavern  was  attributed  principally  to  the  action  of 
trap  and  the  volcanic  action  which  had  disturbed  the  strata  in  many  parts  of  tab 
district,  causing  deep  fissures,  as  at  Daddy's  Hole  and  Ansty*s  Cove. 

The  sources  from  which  the  statements  in  the  paper  were  obtained  were  princi- 
pally the  original  manuscript  memoir  of  the  late  Rev.  J.  MacEnery,  F.G.S.,  which 
is  deplored  by  Professor  Owen,  in  his  Fossil  Mammalia,  and  by  other  writers,  as  lost 
to  science,  but  which  had  been  recovered  by  Mr.  Vivian  and  was  produced  before 
the  Section ;  also  the  report  of  the  sub-committee  of  the  Torquay  Natural  Enter? 
Society,  and  his  own  researches.  Photographic  representations  were  exhibited  of 
the  fossils,  showing  the  connexion  between  the  teeth  of  elephants,  horns  of  deer,  to, 
found  in  the  cavern,  and  in  the  submerged  forest  in  Torbay. 

The  following  was  read  amongst  other  extracts  from  Mr.  MacEnery*s  maw- 
script  : — 

"  The  floor  we  found  at  our  first  visit  covered,  through  its  whole  extent,  with  a 
darkish  mould,  varying  in  depth  from  a  few  inches  to  a  foot.  It  only  dates  since 
the  cavern  became  a  popular  place  of  resort,  and  the  further  progress  of  the  stalag- 
mite in  open  situations  was  interrupted  by  the  trampling  of  visitors.  In  the  vesti- 
bule were  found,  deep  imbedded  in  it,  those  curiously  shaped  pieces  of  oak  to  which 
the  appellation  of  Druids-sandal  was  given,  as  has  been  remarked, — together  with  a 
quantity  of  decomposed  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  the  remains  of  fires  and  feasts, 
mingled  with  rabbit  bones. 

"  In  the  crevices  of  the  rock,  and  in  the  cavities  occasioned  bytheoverlappingof  fatten 
masses,  were  concealed  the  skeletons  of  such  animals  as  strayed  or  retired  hither  to 
die,  such  as  dog,  hare,  rabbit,  sheep ;  and  the  remains  of  the  bat,  with  its  delicate 
framework  spread  out  on  the  black  mould,  were  particularly  noticed. 

"  But,  for  greater  precision  and  perspicuity,  I  shall  take  the  chambers  in  the  order 
they  are  visited  in.  To  commence  with  the  common  entrance. — Here,  once  for  all,  I 
must  solicit  indulgence  for  entering  into  details  apparently  unimportant.  In  tha 
cavern  are  found  grouped  together,  phenomena  which  have  only  been  obserred 
separately  in  others,  dispersed  over  clivers  countries.  By  closely  examining  the  dis- 
closures of  this,  a  clae  may  be  obtained  to  all.  At  the  hazard  of  unnecessarily  charging 
the  thread  of  my  narrative  with  seemingly  frivolous  particulars,  I  proceed  to  note  down 
the  characters  presented  by  its  general  aspect,  no  less  than  its  contents,  before  it  was 
altered  by  those  operations  which  have  since  left  no  part  of  it  in  its  original  state. 
It  is  only  on  a  just  appreciation  of  all  their  circumstances  that  a  true  estimate  can 
be  founded  of  those  facts  which  should  serve  as  the  basis  of  all  reasoning  on  its 
nature  and  history. 

"The  floor  of  the  entrance,  except  that  it  had  the  appearance  of  being  broken  up, 
offered  nothing  remarkable  to  detain,  us ; — we  shall  have  occasion  to  return  to  it 
presently.  Not  so  the  lateral  branch  by  which  it  communicates  with  the  body  of 
the  cavern  on  the  left ;  at  this  point  so  great  was  the  obstruction,  from  the  accumu- 
lation of  mould  and  a  fallen  ledge  of  rock  lying  across  the  way,  that  those  who  then 
visited  it  will  not  have  forgotten  their  accomplishing  the  passage  on  all  fours.  These 
impediments  have  been  partly  removed.  Under  a  similar  ledge  on  the  left,  suU 
standing,  was  found  the  usual  sprinkling  of  modern  bones;  and,  in  the  mould 
beneath,  which  had  acquired  the  consistence  of  hard  clay,  were  found  fragments  of 
pottery,  calcined  bones,  charcoal,  and  ashes, — in  the  midst  of  all  were  dispersed 
arrow-heads  of  flint  and  schist ;  the  ashes  furnished  a  large  proportion  of  the  mould. 
In  the  same  heap  were  discovered  round  slabs  of  roofing-slate  of  a  plate-like  form, 
some  crushed,  others  entire.  The  pottery  is  of  the  rudest  description,  made  of 
coarse  gritty  earth,  not  turned  on  a  lathe,  and  sun-baked ;  on  its  external  margin  it 
bears  zigzag  indentations,  not  unlike  those  represented  on  the  urns  found  by  Sir 
Richard  Hoare  in  the  barrows  of  Wiltshire.  These  fragments,  there  seems  so 
reason  for  doubting,  are  the  remains  of  cinerary  urns  which  once  contained  the 
substances  scattered  around,  and  to  which  the  slates  served  as  covers.  At  a  short 
distance  nearer  the  entrance  were  found,  in  a  continuation  of  the  same  mould,  articles 
of  bone,  of  three  sorts, — some  of  an  inch  long  and  pointed  at  one  end,  or  arrow- 
heads,—others  about  three  inches  long,  rounded,  slender,  and  likewise  pointed. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  121 

•    Conjecture  was  long  busy  as  to  their  destination  ;  they  were  thought  bynKtine  to  bfp 
bodkins ;  by  others,  for  confining  the  hair,  like  those  ornaments  usedi!j  %hb  Women  '<  A  ^  , 
in  Italy;  lastly,  they  were  supposed,  with  more  probability,  to  be  a  "species  of  pi* 
^fol  fastening  the  skin  in  front  which  served  savages  for  garment/  T„  >s 

The  shaggy  wolfish  skin  he  wore,         ll  ^  Al 
Pinn'd  by  a  polish'd  bone  before. 

"The  third  article  does  not  seem  quite  so  easy  to  explain :  it  is  i 
quite  flat,  broad  at  one  end,  pointed  at  the  other ;  the  broad  part  retains*! 
cated  form  of  a  comb,  the  teeth  of  which  were  broken  off  near  their  root, — whether  , 
it  was  used  as  a  comb  or  for  making  nets  for  fishing,  is  not  clear.    There  was  only 
this  solitary  one  found,  and  two  of  the  former,  but  several  of  the  first,  with  a  quantity 
of  bone  chips.    All  three  bore  marks  of  polish.    Nearer  the  mouth  are  collected  a 
good  number  of  shells  of  the  mussel,  limpet,  and  oyster,  with  a  palate  of  the  Scarus. 
This,  as  well  as  the  nacker  of  oysters,  which  was  thickly  disseminated  through  the 
mould,  served,  as  they  do  at  the  present  day  among  savages,  most  probably  for 
ornament.    The  shell-fish  may  have  furnished  bait  for  fishing.    The  presence  of 
these  rude  articles  render  it  probable  that  they  were  collected  here  by  the  ancient 
aborigines,  who  divided  their  time  between  the  chase  and  fishing  in  the  adjacent  sea. 
"Close  to  the  opposite  wall,  in  the  same  passage,  buried  in  black  mould,  I  found  a 
atone  hatchet,  or  celt,  of  syenite,  the  only  one  found  in  the  cavern.     Another  of  the 
same  material,  but  of  a  different  shape,  I  found  shortly  after,  not  far  from  the 
%cavern  near  Anstis  Cove,  which  the  labourers  engaged  in  making  the  new  cut  had 
just  thrown  up  with  the  mould.    As  we  advanced  towards  the  second  mouth,  on 
the  same  level,  were  found,  though  sparingly,  pieces  of  pottery.    The  most  remark- 
able product  of  this  gallery  were  round  pieces  of  blue  slate,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter  and  a  quarter  thick.*   It  may  have  served,  like  the  Kimmeridge  coal,  for 
money.     In  the  same  quarter  were  likewise  found  several  round  pieces  of  sandstone 
grit,  about  the  form  and  size  of  a  dollar,  but  thicker,  and  rounded  at  the  edge,  and 
in  the  centre  pierced  with  a  hole,  by  means  of  which  they  seem  to  have  been  strung 
together  like  beads.     Clusters  of  small  pipes  or  icicles  of  spar,  such  as  depended 
from  the  roof  at  our  first  visit,  we  saw  collected  here  in  heaps  buried  in  the  mud. 
Similar  collections  we  had  occasion  to  observe  accompanied  by  charcoal,  throughout 
the  entire  range  of  the  cavern,  sometimes  in  pits  excavated  in  the  stalagmite. 
Copper  ore  with  these  various  articles  in  the  same  stuff  was  picked  up ;  a  lump 
much  oxidized,  which  the  late  Mr.  Phillips  analysed,  was  found  to  be  pure  virgin 
ore.    Though  this  branch  of  the  cavern  is  more  spacious  and  the  mouth  more  ample, 
it  by  no  means  furnished  an  equal  proportion  of  antiquities  as  the  other.    Several 
of  these  articles  were  slightly  encrusted  with  a  pellicle  of  stalagmite,  according  as 
they  happened  to  lie  within  the  reach  of  the  drop  when  exposed  on  the  surface. 
Having  taken  a  general  survey  of  the  surface  of  the  floor,  we  returned  to  the  point 
from  which  we  set  out,  viz.  the  common  passage,  for  the  purpose  of  piercing  into 
the  materials  below  the  mould.     Here,  in  sinking  a  foot  into  the  soil  (for  of  sta- 
lagmite there  remained  only  the  broken  edges  adhering  to  the  sides  of  the  passage, 
and  which  appeared  to  be  repeated  at  intervals),  we  came  upon  flints  in  all  forms, — 
confusedly  disseminated  through  the  earth,  and  intermixed  with  fossil  and  human 
bones,  the  whole  slightly  agglutinated  together  by  calcareous  matter  derived  from 
the  roof.    My  collection  possesses  an  example  of  this  aggregation  in  a  mass  consisting 
of  pebbles,  clay,  and  bone,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  imbedded  a  fine  blade  of  flint, 
all  united  together  by  a  sparry  cement.    The  flints  were  in  all  conditions,  from  the 
rounded  pebble,  as  it  came  out  of  the  chalk,  to  the  instruments  fabricated  from  them, 
as  arrow-  and  spear-heads,  and  hatchets.    Some  of  the  flint- blocks  were  chipped  only 
on  one  side,  such  as  had  probably  furnished  the  axes,  others  hajl  been  on  several  faces, 
presenting  planes  corresponding  exactly  to  the  long  blades  found  by  their  side,  and 
from  which  they  had  been  evidently  sliced  off ;   other  pebbles  were  still  more  angu- 
larly chipped  at  all  points,  which  were  no  doubt  those  which  yielded  the  small  arrow- 
heads, which  abounded  in  by  far  the  greatest  number.     Small  irregular  splinters, 
not  referable  to  any  of  the'  above  divisions,  and  which  seem  to  have  been  struck  off 
in  the  operation  of  detaching  the  latter,  not  unlike  the  small  chips  in  a  sculptor's 
shop,  were  thickly  scattered  through  the  stuff,  indicating  that  this  spot  was  the 
workshop  where  the  savage  prepared  his  weapons  of  the  chase,  taking  advantage  of 


\22  mpoot-— 185& 

its  cover  and  the  light  I  have  discovered  in  this  passage  precisely  similar  arrow- 
heads  to  those  which  I  detected  in  an  urn  from  a  barrow  presented  to  me  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Welland.  With  the  exception  of  the  boar-spear  and  a  blade  of  the 
same  metal  found  not  far  from  it  very  much  rusted,  all  the  articles  in  the  mould,  sr 
in  the  disturbed  soil,  consisted  of  flint,  chert,  syenite,  and  bone, — such  primitive 
substances  as  have  been  in  all  countries,  and  down  to  the  present,  need  by  the  savage 
for  the  fabrication  of  his  weapons,  whether  for  the  chase  or  battle.  At  a  still  greater 
depth,  near  the  common  entrance,  in  the  passage,  lay  extended,  lengthwise,  in  the 
ordinary  position  of  burial,  the  remains  of  a  human  skeleton,  much  decayed  ;— -two 
portions  only  of  the  jaw  and  some  single  teeth,  with  the  mouldering  vertebra  and 
ribs,  were  all  that  remained.  As  in  the  case  of  the  flint-knife  mass,  already  described, 
there  adhered  to  the  jaw  portions  of  the  soil  on  which  it  lay,  and  of  the  etslnimilf 
which  partly  covered  it  The  teeth  were  so  worn  down  that  the  flat  crowns  of  the 
incisors  might  be  mistaken  for  molars,— indicating  the  advanced  age  of  the  individual. 
M.  Cuvier,  to  whom  I  submitted  the  fragments,  in  1831,  was  struck  with  the  form  sf 
the  jaw,  He  pronounced  it  to  belong  to  the  Caucasian  race :  he  promised  to  bestow 
particular  notice  on  it,  but  death,  unhappily  for  science,  put  a  stop  to  his  glorious 
labours.  All  the  specimens,  together  with  a  collection  of  fossil  bones, — the  third  I 
had  presented  to  the  museum  of  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, — I  transmitted  to  htsj 
before  I  quitted  the  Continent,  and  may  be  found  among  his  effects.  The  skeleton 
lay  about  a  foot  and  a  half  below  die  surface ;  from  the  tumbled  state  of  the  earth, 
the  admixture  of  flags  of  stalagmite,  added  to  the  presence  of  flint  articles  and  pen* 
of  slate,  it  was  manifest  that  the  floor  had  been  dug  up  for  the  reception  of  the  body,- 
and  that  it  was  again  covered  over  with  the  materials  thrown  up  from  the  excavation. 
The  earthy  covering  consisted  of  the  red  soil,  containing  fossil  bones  mixed  up  with 
recent  mould  ;  the  mound  of  earth  outside  the  mouth,  at  the  right  hand,  was  thrown 
up  from  the  passage  to  render  it  more  accessible.  It  was  precisely  that  which 
covered  the  human  skeleton  aod  contained  the  admixture  of  human  and  fossil  relics. 
Previous  to  the  disturbance  of  the  floor  for  the  admission  of  the  body,  it  would 
appear,  from  the  presence  of  flags  of  stalagmite  in  the  rubble,  that  it  was  uipuud 
by  a  continuous  crust,— the  edsjes  indeed  of  which  still  adhere  to  the  sides.  It 
further  appears  from  the  repetition  of  similar  crusts,  as  indicated  by  the  broken 
edges  at  the  sides,  that  there  were  periods  of  repose  which  allowed  new  floors  to 
form,  marking  clearly  their  repeated  destruction  and  renovation  at  intervals  of  time. 
With  the  exception  of  single  teeth  and  an  occasional  rib  or  vertebra  in  charcoal, 
which  may  have  possibly  belonged  to  the  same  subject,  there  were  no  other  traces 
of  human  remains." 
Further  extracts  from  this  manuscript  will  be  found  in  the  Geological  Section,  p.  fs. 


STATISTICS. 


Opening  Address  by  Lord  Stanley,  M.P.,  President  of  the  Section, 

I  believe  it  will  be  my  duty  to  open  the  proceedings  of  this  Section  by  a  few  words 
relative  to  the  purpose  of  our  meeting ;  and  I  roust  begin  by  observing,  that  the 
remarks  which  follow  were  prepared  before  the  passing  of  that  resolution  of  yester- 
day, which  has  enlarged  the  scope  of  our  duties  so  as  to  include,  in  addition  to 
Statistics,  properly  so  called,  Economic  Science  in  general. 

It  is  needless  in  this  presence  to  define,  at  any  length,  the  nature  or  the  object  of 
statistical  science.  The  axiom  on  which  that  science  is  based  may  be  stated  thus : 
that  the  laws  by  which  nature  is  governed,  and  more  especially  those  laws  which 
operate  on  the  moral  and  physical  condition  of  the  human  race,  are  constant,  and 
are,  in  all  cases,  best  discoverable — in  some  cases  only  discoverable — by  the  invesrj* 
gation  and  comparison  of  phenomena  extending  over  a  very  large  number  of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THJ»  SECTIONS.  125 

individual  instances.    In  dealing  with  the  individual  human  being  every  thing  is 
uncertainty :  in  dealing  with  man  in  the  aggregate,  results  may  be  calculated  with 
the  precision  and  accuracy  of  a  mathematical  problem.    To  take  a  familiar  instance, 
— the  length  of  a  single  life  can  never  be  known  beforehand  ;  but  by  the  accurate 
keeping  of  returns  the  aggregate  length  of  ten  thousand  or  a  hundred  thousand  lives 
is  easily  ascertained.    This  aggregate  length,  the  conditions  of  life  being  generally 
the  same,  approximates  to  a  constant  quantity,  however  often  the  experiment  be 
repeated ;  and  from  that  quantity,  thus  obtained,  we  deduce  an  average,  which,  as 
the  experience  of  every  insurance  office  shows,  is  near  enough  to  the  truth  for  ordi- 
nary purposes  of  calculation.    Accidental  diversities,  whether  of  internal  constitution 
or  of  external  circumstances,  tend  to  neutralize  one  another.     Their  influence 
diminishes  as  the  area  of  investigation  increases,  until,  if  that  area  be  sufficiently 
extended,  we  are  justified  in  disregarding  them  altogether,  and  in  admitting  as 
approximately,  if  not  as  absolutely  true,  the  general  inference  to  which  our  suc- 
cessive trials  point.    I  will  not  lead  you  into  those  strange  and  startling  conclusions 
to  which  Quetelet  has  come,  when  comparing  some  of  the  averages  obtained  with 
one  another,  and  representing  them  in  mathematical  form ;  he  finds  in  the  laws  thus 
discovered  a  close  resemblance  to,  perhaps  an  actual  identity  with,  those  which 
operate  in  physics ;  as,  for  instance,  when  he  lays  it  down  that  the  obstacles  which 
oppose  the  increase  of  population  act  in  a  manner  exactly  the  same  as  does  the 
resistance  of  the  medium  in  which  a  body  moves  to  the  motion  of  that  body.    Wide 
as  is  the  field  of  thought  which  such  a  suggestion  opens,  it  must  probably  be,  for 
many  years,  premature  to  enter  it :  the  laws  as  yet  made  known  to  us  by  statistical 
research  are  too  few  to  allow  of  generalization  relative  to  their  mutual  inter-con* 
nexion.     Enough  to  cite  the  dictum  of  Quetelet,  confirmatory  of  what  was  said 
above,  "  All  observation  tends  to  confirm  the  truth  of  this  proposition,  that  that 
which  concerns  the  human  race,  considered  collectively,  is  of  the  order  of  physical 
facts  t  the  greater  the  number  of  individuals,  the  more  completely  does  the  will  of 
individuals  disappear,  and  allow  the  series  of  general  facts,  which  depend  upon  the 
causes  by  which  society  exists  and  is  preserved,  to  predominate.     ,    .     .     .    We 
must  admit,  that  on  submitting  to  careful  experiment  unorganized  bodies,  and  the 
social  system,  we  are  unable  to  say  on  which  side  causes  act  in  their  effects  with  the 
greatest  regularity." 

This,  then,  is  the  first  characteristic  of  statistics  as  a  science :  that  it  proceeds 
wholly  by  the  accumulation  and  comparison  of  registered  facts; — that  from  these 
facts  alone,  properly  classified,  it  seeks  to  deduce  general  principles  j  and  that  it 
rejects  all  A  priori  reasoning,  employing  hypothesis,  if  at  all,  only  in  a  tentative 
manner,  and  subject  to  future  verification.  It  starts  from  the  assumption,  verified 
by  many  trials,  that  human  action,  fluctuating  as  regards  the  human  unit,  is 
approximately  invariable  as  regards  the  masses  which  make  up  society.  But  there 
is  another  aspect  in  which  it  may  be  considered.  As  a  rule,  the  degree  of  certainty 
which  attends  any  science  is  exactly  proportioned  to  the  extent  to  which  such  science 
admits  of  the  application  of  numbers.  We  know  what  has  been  done  for  chemistry 
by  the  discovery  of  a  single  numerical  law— the  theory  of  definite  proportions- 
turning,  by  one  stroke,  into  a  science,  what  was  before  little  more  than  a  collection 
of  important,  but  detached  observations.  And  what  we  aim  at  in  statistics  is,  to 
substitute  for  vague  phrases,  intended  to  express  certain  qualities,  arithmetical 
formula),  by  which  the  same  idea  may  be  conveyed  with  a  precision  to  which 
language  alone  cannot  attain.  For  instance,  the  uneducated  man,  speaking  of  a 
climate  or  season  of  the  year,  will  say  only  that  it  is  warm,  hot,  or  very  hot ;  the 
statistician  registers  the  temperature  of  each  day,  strikes  an  average,  and  gives  his 
result,  in  numerical  form,  extending,  it  may  be,  over  a  period  of  several  years,  and 
calculated,  accordingly,  with  the  most  absolute  accuracy  of  which  human  investi- 
gation is  capable.  Again,  the  traveller,  in  describing  a  nation  which  he  has  visited, 
writes  that  offences  of  violence  are  exceedingly  common,  probably  more  so  than  in 
any  other  country ;  the  statistician  obtains  returns  of  convictions,  distinguishes  the 
different  classes  of  crime,  ascertains  the  percentage  of  murder,  or  assaults  per  head, 
on  the  total  population,  allows  for  the  probable  amount  of  undetected  criminality, 
and  finally  compares  these  results  with  others  similarly  obtained  in  other  parts  of 
the  world* 


124  report — 1856. 

When,  therefore,  in  discussing  social  questions,  we  apply  the  statistical  test,  we 
are  really  doing  nothing  more  than  appealing  from  imagination  to  fact,-— from  con- 
jecture to  certainty — from  an  imperfect  to  a  perfect  method  of  observation.  In  Ike 
principle,  srrictly  speaking,  there  is  no  novelty :  every  sensible  and  observing  mm 
who  has  lived  in  a  civilized  state  of  society,  has  been  to  some  extent  a  statistician ; 
the  novelty,  consists,  first,  in  the  greater  accuracy  with  which,  and  the  enkre^d 
scale  on  which,  facts  can  be  collected  in  modern  Europe ;  and,  secondly,  m  the 
practical  application  of  that  theory,  which  to  philosophers  must,  from  the  analogy 
of  inanimate  nature,  have  always  appeared  probable — the  theory,  namely,  that 
organized  beings,  taken  in  the  aggregate,  are  governed  in  their  acts  by  detenninsJe 
and  discoverable  laws. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  a  science  of  this  kind,  unlike  many  which  have  occupied  tie 
attention  of  mankind,  little  room  is  left  for  imagination,  and  as  little  for  error.  Ob 
the  first  ground,  the  study  is  unattractive  even  to  many  who  appreciate  its  value ;  on 
the  second,  it  is  eminently  and  necessarily  progressive.  "  Hypotheses  non  fingo,"— 
those  memorable  words  of  Newton's — should  be  written  over  the  door  of  every 
Statistical  Society  in  Europe.  Nor  is  there  any  branch  of  mental  exertion  so 
calculated  to  promote  a  cosmopolitan  habit  of  thought  and  feeling.  Man  is  the 
object  studied ;  and  man,  so  studied,  is  seen  to  vary  in  different  countries  only  is 
consequence  of  discoverable  influencing  causes,  such  as  race,  climate,  food,  laws, 
modes  of  life,  &c.  However  great,  therefore,  the  external  differences  between 
branches  of  the  human  family,  the  tendency  of  sociology  is  to  eliminate  the* 
differences  one  by  one,  to  refer  each  of  them  to  its  several  specific  orgin,  and  mot, 
finally,  to  bring  to  light  the  essential  unity  of  type  which  underlies  them  all. 

I  would  also  observe,  that  as  an  experimental  science,  the  progress  of  statistics  is 
not  liable  to  those  delays  which  impede  the  advance  of  many  other  branches  of  know- 
ledge. Where,  as  in  mathematics,  the  work  to  be  done  is  transacted  necessarily  and 
exclusively  within  the  mind  of  the  discoverer, — where  not  the  quantity,  but  the 
quality  of  intellect  brought  to  bear  is  all-important, — great  advances  are  rare,  for 
the  plain  reason  that  they  can  only  be  made  by  men  of  extraordinary  capacities. 
No  number  of  ordinary  proficients  in  mathematics,  working  jointly,  can  make  op 
for  the  absence,  or  supply  the  place,  of  one  Newton.  But  though  not  one  man  in 
ten  thousand  can  be  distinguished  as  an  analyst  or  a  geometer,  the  number  is  fu 
larger  of  those  who  possess  the  mental  requisites  for  statistical  investigation,  at  least 
in  its  simpler  forms :  and  without  disparaging  the  remarkable  talent  for  arrangement 
and  generalization  evinced  by  such  men  as  Quetelet,  and  by  some  of  our  own  country- 
men whom  I  will  not  here  mention,  it  may  be  safely  affirmed  that  the  extension  of 
statistical  inquiry  depends  less  on  the  appearance  among  us  of  any  one  mind  of 
more  than  common  power,  than  on  the  sustained  and  cooperative  industry,  encouraged 
by  the  State,  of  many  minds  trained  to  this  pursuit,  and  each  taking  a  separate  and 
distinct  department  in  which  to  labour. 

It  is  almost  superfluous  to  point  out  the  sources  of  those  errors  which  most 
beset  statisticians.  They  may  I  think  be  reduced  under  two  heads  :  (1)  Calculation 
of  mean  results  from  an  insufficient  number  of  data ;  a  fault,  from  the  effects  of  which, 
in  finances,  many  provident  societies  are  suffering  grievously :  (2)  Calculation  of 
mean  results  without  sufficient  care  being  taken  to  eliminate  disturbing  causes: 
whether  this  omission  arises  from  the  classing  together  of  phsenomena  essentially 
distinct,  and  referable  to  separate  laws,  or  from  omitting  to  make  allowance  for 
imperfections  in  the  data  supplied,  e.  g.  as  though  one  engaged  on  criminal  statistics 
were  to  assume  that  all  offences  committed  were  actually  brought  to  light,  overlooking 
those  in  which  no  detection  follows,  and,  consequently,  in  which  no  trial  takes  place. 
Neither  of  the  sources  of  error  which  I  have  mentioned  are  difficult  to  avoid.  The 
one  danger  against  which  they  warn  us  is  that  of  premature  conclusions.  In  all 
physical  science,  but  in  no  science  more  than  this  of  which  we  treat,  is  supension  of 
judgement  necessary.  I  mean  by  the  phrase,  that  temper  of  mind  which  says,  "  I 
neither  believe  nor  disbelieve ;  evidence  is  wanting  to  do  either.  I  only  wait  and 
hold  myself  free  from  bias  until  further  facts  are  adduced/'  How  easy  this  is  in 
theory, — how  hard  and  painful  in  practice,  need  not  be  told  to  any  one  who  has 
given  time,  and  thought,  and  toil  to  the  proof  or  disproof  of  a  scientific  hypothesis. 

Time  would  not  allow  me  to  attempt  even  the  most  rapid  and  hasty  suney  of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  125 

what  has  been  done,  and  of  what  yet  needs  doing,  in  the  way  of  statistical  research; 
Generally, — I  think  we  may  say  this  of  the  progress  of  the  science  in  England, — 
that  what  defects  remain  arise  principally  from  causes  beyond  the  control  of  indi- 
viduals. Statistics  are  the  function  of  the  State  in  a  sense  in  which  no  other  science 
is  so.  The  details  of  population,  of  employment,  of  instruction,  of  religious  worahip, 
of  commerce,  and  of  health,  are  already  recorded  in  official  publications ;  those  of 
agricultural  production  we  may  hope  will  shortly  follow.  The  branch  which  I 
principally  note  as  deficient  is  that  which  relates  to  civil  and  criminal  judicature. 
Lord  Brougham  has  brought  this  subject  before  the  House  of  Lords,  and  even 
embodied  in  a  Bill  the  data  on  which  information  is  needed.  We  require  a  regular 
and  uniform  record  to  be  kept  of  every  fact  connected  with  the  administration  of  the 
law.  We  require  to  know,  in  civil  proceedings  especially,  the  number  and  nature  of 
suits  that  go  to  each  court,  the  length  of  time  occupied  in  their  decision,  the  nature 
of  that  decision,  and  the  cost  to  the  parties.  Our  criminal  returns  mi^ht  be  fuller 
than  they  are :  they  give  us  at  present  absolutely  no  information  respecting  that  vast 
class  of  offences  (of  late  much  increased)  which  are  dealt  with  under  summary  juris- 
diction. It  is  not  wise  in  any  country  to  copy  servilely  the  practice  of  another :  local 
differences  may  create  and  necessitate  diversity  of  procedure.  But  I  may  refer  to 
the  annual  reports  (two  yearly  volumes)  of  the  Minister  of  Justice  in  France  as 
examples  of  an  almost  perfect  arrangement  of  complicated  statistical  details.  One 
result  of  that  publication  is  to  show  a  vast  local  difference  between  department  and 
department  in  the  nature  and  amount  of  crime.  It  is  obvious,  that  when  such  a 
difference  is  shown,  by  the  lapse  of  a  sufficient  period,  to  be  chronic  and  not  merely 
casual,  the  Government,  whose  attention  is  thus  invited,  must  feel  itself  bound  to 
investigate  the  source  of  the  evil,  and,  if  possible,  to  provide  a  cure.  In  fact,  an 
executive  regularly  supplied  with  such  knowledge,  may  be  said  to  have  its  finger  on 
the  pulse  of  every  province,  ready,  at  the  first  symptom  of  disease,  to  intervene  with 
the  requisite  remedy. 

There  is  another  suggestion  which  I  may  make,  and  which  indeed  connects  itself 
with  this  last.  I  allude  to  the  advantage,  I  might  almost  say  the  necessity,  of  esta- 
blishing a  Statistical  Department  of  Government,  charged  with  the  annual  publication 
of  such  facts  relative  to  the  management  of  national  affairs,  as  are  reducible  to  nume- 
rical expression.  We  have  statistics  enough  presented  to  Parliament  every  session, 
but  they  are,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  called  for  by  individuals.  They  are  drawn 
out  to  suit  the  particular  purpose  of  those  who  move  for  them  :  they  are,  accordingly, 
deficient  in  unity,  and  often  of  no  use  beyond  the  moment.  Now  1  speak  from  some 
personal  observation  when  I  say,  that  at  a  cost  hardly  greater  than  that  of  these 
desultory,  fragmentary,  isolated  returns,  (which  have  in  addition  the  inconvenience, 
coming  as  they  do,  at  unexpected  times,  and  without  any  regularity,  of  throwing  a 
sudden  increase  of  work  on  particular  offices,)  it  would  be  possible  to  present  to  the 
nation  such  a  yearly  rUwmi  of  administrative  statistics,  as  should,  to  a  very  great 
degree,- supersede  the  present  system  (if  system  it  can  be  called)  of  moving  for  returns 
as,  and  when,  they  are  wanted. 

I  have  said  that  I  think  a  Statistical  Department  desirable,  instead  of  a  Statistical 
Branch  in  every  Department ;  because  the  former  method  gives  better  security  for 
unity  of  plan,  and  because  the  work  will  be  best  done  by  those  whose  sole  and  undi- 
vided business  it  is. 

I  have  not  referred  to  the  meetings  of  the  International  Congress  of  Brussels  and 
Paris,  because  on  such  a  subject  I  could  offer  no  remark  that  would  not  naturally 
occur  to  those  whom  I  address.  Such  meetings  have  a  twofold  value.  First,  they 
extend  the  field  of  statistical  research :  and  we  have  seen  that  accuracy  of  result 
varies  directly  as  the  magnitude  of  the  area  of  investigation.  Secondly,  they  form 
a  new  link  between  nation  and  nation ;  because,  though  speech  differs,  arithmetical 
notation  is  the  same  everywhere.  In  proportion,  therefore,  as  numerical  is  substi- 
tuted for  descriptive  statement,  we  approach  nearer  to  that  otherwise  impracticable 
dream  of  philosophers — a  universal  language. 

There  is,  I  believe  I  may  state,  a  probability  of  the  Congress  of  1857  being  held 
in  London ;  an  expectation  which  seems  both  natural  and  reasonable,  inasmuch  as 
it  has  been  averred  in  public,  and  not  denied,  that  the  first  design  of  holding  such 


196  nM0R*~ 1856. 

international  meetings  was  suggested  by  the  analogy  of  the  Hyde  Pfcric  KiWhitMi 
of  1851. 
Should  the  event  I  allude  to  take  place,  it  will  become  the  duty  of  all 


in  statistical  science  to  see  that  auch  an  opportunity  does  not  pass  unimproved;  so 
that  1858  may  find  us  with  a  thoroughly  organized  system  for  the  annual  collectioa 
and  publication  of  national  facts,  assimilated,  if  possible,  to  the  systems  of  France 
and  Belgium.  For  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  objects  to  be  aimed  at  are 
two :  one,  the  adoption  of  a  method  as  perfect  in  itself  as  possible ;  the  other,  the 
assimilation  of  that  method  to  those  which  prevail  elsewhere,  so  that  nations  nay 
mutually  profit  by  each  other's  experience. 

As  a  proof  how  much  such  comparing  of  notes  is  required,  I  may  remind  you  that 
the  census  of  Ireland  and  Scotland  was  taken  in  a  manner  different  from  that  of 
England,  while  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  to  bring  the  entire  British  empire, 
including  India  and  the  colonies,  under  a  single  statistical  organization. 

The  constitution  of  such  a  statistical  department  as  we  require  is  matter  of  Jur 
discussion  at  the  approaching  Congress.  Probably  the  most  effective  combination 
of  working  talent  would  be  that  obtained  by  the  appointment  of  a  Commission  or 
Board,  to  preside  over  the  issuing  of  official  publications,  partly  composed  of  srientiae 
men,  partly  of  members  of  the  permanent  or  parliamentary  administration  (the  lor* 
mer  preferably,  as  having  more  leisure),  who  would  bring  in  the  necessary  element 
of  a  knowledge  of  official  customs.  This  is,  I  believe,  the  system  actually  existing 
in  Belgium.  In  Prussia  there  is  a  Minister  at  the  head  of  the  Statistical  Department 
Those  who  wish  to  see  the  question  more  fully  discussed,  will  find  information  in  a 
valuable  Report  by  Dr.  Fair  to  the  Registrar-General,  dated  October,  1855,  p,  108 
it  *eq.,  of  the  Registrar* General's  Sixteenth  Annual  Report.  It  was  also  gone  into 
at  the  Paris  Congress  of  1855,  and  a  debate  upon  it  will  be  found  in  the  volume  of 
Proceedings,  s.  360  et  *eq. 

1  wish  also  to  point  out  to  the  Association  the  advantage  of  such  a  communicatkM 
between  the  Home  Government  and  the  leading  British  colonies,  in  reference  to  the 
approaching  Congress,  as  may  enable  such  of  them  as  desire  it  to  represent  tbemsehei 
by  means  of  delegates. 

Before  I  conclude,  let  me  read  two  letters  from  the  Secretary  to  the  London  Sta- 
tistical Society,  giving  an  account  of  an  important  work  in  which  its  members  an 
engaged,  the  only  work  of  the  kind  which  the  Society  has  just  now  on  hand. 

"  Statistical  Society,  12  St.  James's  Square, 
London,  5th  August*  1856. 

"  My  Lord, — A  Committee  was  appointed  by  this  Society  on  the  25th  January 
of  this  year  to  collect  information  relating  to  the  Beneficent  Institutions  of  the  Me- 
tropolis. The  class  of  institutions  to  which  their  attention  was  first  directed  was 
the  Medical  Charities.  They  have  received  reports  from  49  hospitals,  of  which  the 
total  annual  income  is  £352,370,  and  from  58  dispensaries,  with  a  total  annual 
income  of  £28,192 ;  besides  this,  the  Samaritan  and  other  small  funds  connected 
with  hospitals  have  an  income  of  £1656 ;  the  Poor-Law-Board's  expenses  for  medi- 
cal officers  are  £28,000,  and  for  vaccination  £4000,  so  that  the  total  sum  expended 
in  medical  relief  in  the  Metropolis  is  £414,218  per  annum.  The  Committee  will 
shortly  be  able  to  publish  a  detailed  account  of  the  items  of  which  this  income  con- 
sists, deduced  from  the  reports  of  the  institutions  themselves. 

"  I  am,  my  Lord,  your  Lordship's  obedient  Servant, 

"  Edwaad  Tudor  Scaeoill." 
"Lord  Stanley,  M.P." 

"  Statistical  Society,  12  St.  James's  Square, 
London,  August  6th,  1856. 

"  Sin, — I  have  received  from  Mr.  Lumley,  this  morning,  the  Returns  relative  to 
the  expenses  of  the  Poor- Law-Board  in  the  Metropolis. 


TRANSACTIONS  0*  *&B  SECTIONS.  Hf 

••  Hence  I  bate  deduced  the  following  statement,  which  I  beliete  to  be  is  correct 
v  it  ib  possible  to  make  it  from  the  information  in  my  hands. 

£ 

Annual  income  of  49  Hospitals    •    .    . 363,370 

„  68  Dispensaries     .    » 38,19* 

„  1 1  Samaritan  and  other  Funds  (depend- 1        .  - .- 

ent  on  Hospitals  and  Dispensaries)   J  ' 

Annual  cost  of  Medical  Relief  under  Poor-Law    .    •     .     .      28,776 
„        Vaccination  „  ....        4,393 

Total  amount  of  Medical  Expenses  ......    415,387 

„  Poor- Law  Relief,  not  medical    .     .    736,809 


£1,163,196 


"  I  am,  Sir,  your  obedient  Servant, 
"  Dr.  Farr,  F.R.S.  "  Edward  Tudor  Scarcilu 

m  P.S. — I  have  reduced  the  francs  to  £  sterling,  and  am  able  to  give  you,  as  the 
nearest  comparison  that  can  be  made,  the  following : — 
Hospitals  and  Dispensaries. 
London:  .£256,558  J  Paris:  £315,664 

Lunatic  Asylums  and  Medical  Poor-Law  Expenses. 
In  London,  contrasted  with  Hospices  in  Paris*. 
£158,839  |  £184,304 

"  Hie  sum  expended  in  non-medical  relief  under  the  Poor-Law  (£736,809)  would 
have  also  to  be  taken  into  consideration,  as  well  as  the  very  considerable  sums 
expended  in  the  support  of  aged  and  infirm  persons  in  alms-houses.  Against  this, 
in  the  case  of  Paris,  will  have  to  be  set  £160,882,  which  with  the  two  sums  already 
quoted,  appears  to  be  the  sum  devoted  to  the  relief  of  poor,  aged,  infirm,  sick,  and 
lunatic  persons  in  Paris ;  giving,  as  a  grand  total,  supposing  that  I  have  rightly 
understood  Mr.  Legoyt's  letter. 

For  London:  £l,152,  196  |  For  Paris :  £560,853 

"  The  returns  of  the  49  hospitals  include  a  sum  of  £72,402,  paid  from  parish  rates 
to  lunatic  hospitals. 

"In  Paris,  in  1853— 

Francs. 
Expenses  of  the  Hdpitaux,  including  Maisons  de  Santi\  *  -ftl  *w 
and  Maisons  de  Convalescence    .     .   J  *  W,014 

„  Hospices 3,948,323 

„  General  Management 631,168 

„  General  Establishments  for  the  use  of  \      OQ  .-. 

both  Hospitals  and  Hospices   ...  J       a*'101 

9,999,266 
"The  receipts  of  the  Central  Board  (Tadministration  generate  de  t assistance  pub- 
ique)  are  of  various  sorts,  and  are  not  all  applicable  to  medical  charities. 

Francs. 

In  1853  their  amount  was 9,583,148 

„    Annual  Municipal  Grant 4,438,181 

14,021,329 
"  Assuming  that  the  population  of  Paris  is  one -half  that  of  London,  the  sum 

expended,  at  tbe  Paris  rate,  for  a  population  equal  to  that  of  London,  would  be 

£1,121,706 ;  the  total  expenditure  for  London  being,  as  just  stated,  £1,152,196.** 

— E.  T.  S. 
I  have  now  only  to  announce  to  you  the  papers  about  to  be  read,  and  to  request 

attention  to  the  following  rules,  laid  down  for  the  sake  of  brevity  and  clearness  in 

bur  proceedings : — 
"  To  avoid  reading  long  consecutive  lists  of  figures,  and,  as  far  as  possible,  to 

give  only  results. 

•  IndwUng  ttntrali 


128  REPORT — 185& 

"  Where  money  is  in  question,  to  avoid  shillings  and  pence*  staling  only  tk 
number  of  pounds. 
"  Where  large  sums  are  concerned,  to  give  round  numbers,  avoiding  units.9* 
Of  course  there  is  a  medium  in  observing  these  directions ;  and  if  the  choice  lies 
between  the  two,  better  be  obscure  than  inaccurate.    All  I  mean  to  convey,  is  that 
over-minuteness  in  these  matters  is  apt  to  defeat  its  own  ends. 


Statistics  and  Suggestions  connected  with  the  Reformation  of  Juvenile  Ofenim. 
By  T.  Barwick  Lloyd  Bakbr. 

The  author  commenced  by  saying  that  it  was  not  necessary  at  the  present  time  top 
into  the  general  question — whether  Reformatories  were  good  or  bad.  The  voice  of  nw 
country  had  decided  that  point,  and  probably  by  Michaelmas  there  would  be  only  two 
counties  which  would  not  be  provided  for.  But  there  were  three  points  which  be 
thought  had  hardly  received  the  attention  they  deserved :  and  he  would  confine  bis*- 
self  to  these. 

The  first  and  principal  point  was  the  necessity  of  paying  attention,  not  merely  to 
the  individual  boys  who  chanced  to  be  committed  to  the  school,  and  endeavouring  to 
reform  them,  but  the  paying  attention  also  to  the  statistics  of  juvenile  crime  in  the 
district,  with  the  view  of  finding  out  all  those  who  are  extending  the  evil  by  cor- 
rupting and  teaching  others.  The  apprehension  of  one  or  two  leaders  of  a  gang  will 
frequently  restore  the  others  to  at  least  comparative  habits  of  honesty  :  but  what  is 
far  more  important,  the  apprehension  of  one  or  two  instructors  in  crime  will  prevent 
the  temptation  and  fall  of  perbaps  eight  or  ten  others  whom  they  would  have  corrupted. 
He  produced  some  local  statistics  of  juvenile  crime,  showing  that  the  number  of  boys 
under  16  years,  convicted  in  the  Cheltenham  district  of  any  offence  since  die  1st  of 
January,  1852,  was  149.  Of  this  number,  54  may  be  termed  regular  thieves;  39  have 
been,  or  are  at  Hardwicke,  of  whom  two  had  not  been  convicted ;  9,  convicted  once; 
16,  twice ;  6,  three  times ;  4,  four  times ;  and  2,  five  times.  Of  these  youthful  pri- 
soners nearly  all  had  had  a  fair  education4,  and  could  read  and  write  well;  and  the 
statistical  result,  in  that  point  of  view,  did  not  show  that  mere  instruction  prevented 
the  necessity  of  reformatory  schools.  Mr.  Baker  explained  that  the  object  of  the 
reformatory  school  was  to  clear  out  of  the  district  all  who  might  be  termed  regular 
thieves,  and  gradually  to  reduce  to  the  lowest  the  amount  of  criminality  which  might 
be  considered  to  confer  the  title  of  regular  thief.  This,  he  said,  must  vary  in  different 
towns.  In  Liverpool,  from  which  place  he  had  lately  had  several  boys,  there  were 
many  who  lived  entirely  by  plunder  for  years  together;  and  a  boy  who  usually  works, 
and  only  occasionally  steals,  even  though  he  might  be  three  or  four  times  convicted,  was 
comparatively  a  trifling  case.  In  Cheltenham  he  did  not  believe  that  for  the  last 
three  years  there  had  been  a  single  boy  belonging  to  the  place  who  had  gained  one- 
half  of  his  keep  dishonestly  for  a  mouth  together.  The  term,  therefore,  "regular 
thief"  is  applied  to  all  who  had  been  convicted  a  second  time,  even  though  many  of 
the  cases  were  extremely  slight. 

Extracting  from  the  total  number  of  convicted  boys  returned  by  the  Cheltenham 
police  during  the  4§  years  all  those  who  either  were  convicted  a  second  time,  or  whose 
first  offence  was  considered  sufficiently  serious  to  send  them  to  a  reformatory  school 
it  gave  a  total  of  54  regular  thieves,  t .  e.  either  twice  convicted,  or  such  as  were 
thought  worthy  of  being  sent  to  the  Hardwicke  Reformatory  on  a  first  conviction. 
Of  these,  39  had  been,  or  still  were,  at  Hardwicke,  8  were  long  past  age,  and  7  are  still 
in  the  town.  Of  these  seven,  two  have  not  been  convicted  since  May  1854;  and  the 
other  fivef,  though  repeatedly  convicted,  were  merely  very  slight  cases  of  vagrancy. 
Considering  that  in  January  1S52  there  were  20  boys  who  had  been  twice,  thrice, 
or  four  times  convicted,  this  result  he  (Mr.  Baker)  considered  not  unsatisfactory. 
With  regard  to  the  39  boys  who  had  been  or  were  at  Hardwicke,  he  by  no  meant 
pretended  that  all  were  "  reformed,"  past  the  possibility  of  again  falling  into  crime. 

*  Of  39  who  have  been  sent  to  Hardwicke,  15  could  read  and  write  well,  and  were  wen 
up  in  the  four  first  rules  of  arithmetic;  17  could  read  and  write  sufficiently  to  understand  sad 
he  understood,  though  with  incorrect  spelling,  and  were  fairly  up  in  addition  and  subtraction; 
and  7  only  were  below  this  point 

f  Of  these  6,  3  have  been  since  committed  to  Hardwicke. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  129 

He  could  not  predicate  more  of  them  than  he  could  of  himself.  But  all  had  at  least 
been  kept  long  enough  away  from  Cheltenham  to  break  the  course  of  education  which 
had  been  handed  down  from  hoy  to  boy.  Of  fifteen  who  had  left  the  school,  six  were 
doing  well,  one  had  fallen,  but  was  still  hopeful,  three  unsatisfactory,  but  never  con- 
victed, four  had  been  convicted,  and  one  had  not  been  heard  of  lately.  The  other 
twenty-four  were  still  either  in  his  (the  Hardwicke)  school  or  in  others,  where  situa- 
tions would  probably  be  found  for  them  that  would  keep  most  of  them  away  from 
Cheltenham.  He  was  by  no  means  one  of  those  who  abused  the  prison  system.  In 
many  points  it  was  admirable ;  but  it  certainly  had  the  grand  failing,  that  after  a  boy 
or  man  had  undergone  his  punishment  he  was  returned  to  the  world  with  very  little 
capability  of  earning  an  honest  livelihood,  or  doing  anything  but  steal  again.  Now, 
he  thought  they  might  say,-— 1st,  that  they  had  been  able  at  Hardwicke  to  receive 
for  two  years  all  regular  thieves,  and  to  break  off  the  connexion  between  them  and 
the  innocent ;  2ndly,  that  they  had  wiped  off  from  themselves  the  reproach  of  com- 
mitting boys  to  prison,  and  then  turning  them  out  without  enabling  them,  if  they 
pleased,  to  live  honestly ;  3rdly,  that  they  had  reduced  the  degree  of  evil  necessary 
to  confer  the  title  of  regular  thief  as  low  as  they  could  well  hope,  there  being  now  no 
such  tiling  as  a  gang,  or  connexion  between  the  dishonest  boys,  but  all  being  merely 
boys  yielding  to  a  sudden  temptation, — not  premeditately  planning  a  theft. 

The  two  other  points  he  would  touch  upon  very  briefly.  When  a  boy  was  once 
committed  to  the  school  for  two  years,  he  believed  it  was  by  no  means  intended  by  the 
Legislature  that  he  should  necessarily  remain  the  whole  of  those  two  years  at  the 
school.  It  was  extremely  undesirable  that  he  should  do  so,  because  it  would  then  be 
difficult  to  find  a  place  for  him  exactly  at  the  moment  that  his  sentence  chanced  to 
expire.  Power  had  been  given  to  the  Secretary  of  State  to  release  a  boy  at  any  time 
upon  good  grounds  shown  for  it ;  he  always  appeared  willing  to  exercise  this  power. 
But  if  he  could  go  further,  and,  without  granting  a  pardon,  he  could  allow  a  boy  leave 
to  go  on  trial  for  a  time,  it  would  enable  the  managers,  if  the  boy  behaved  ill  or  did 
not  suit  his  place,  to  receive  him  back  again,  and  at  any  rate  to  keep  a  more  thorough 
surveillance  over  him  for  the  first  part  of  his  new  service. 

The  third  point  was  the  allowing  a  parent  or  guardian,  where  good  proof  of  respect* 
ability  could  be  shown,  and  in  such  cases  as  in  the  opinion  of  the  committing  magis- 
trates and  manager  of  the  school  should  be  desirable,  to  bail  a  boy  out  from  the  school, 
on  finding  security  for  his  good  behaviour  for  a  time  longer  than  the  expiration  of  the 
sentence.  Mr.  Baker  then  concluded  by  recapitulating  the  three  points :— -First,  the 
giving  attention  to  clearing  a  district*;  second,  the  giving  leave  on  trial;  third,  the 
permitting  bail. 

Statistics  of  Cheltenham.    By  Richard  Beamish,  F.R.S. 

This  paper  gives  a  short  account  of  the  early  history  of  Cheltenham,  its  connexion 
with  the  Crown,  and  grant  to  the  celebrated  Bohun,  Earl  of  Hereford,  its  present 
government  under  commissioners,  and  its  rapid  increase  in  population  from  3076  in 
1801  to  35,051  in  1851,  being  greater  than  that  of  any  town  in  England,  with  the  ex- 
ception  of  Lemington  Priors,  which  in  1801  numbered  but  315  inhabitants,  and  in  1851 
15,724 ;  Cheltenham  having  increased  1039*5  per  cent,  in  50  years,  while  Leming- 
ton in  the  same  time  increased  4891*74  per  cent. 

The  paper  further  shows  the  salubrity  of  the  climate  of  Cheltenham  in  the  longevity 
of  its  inhabitants,  and  its  immunity  from  epidemic  diseases,  cholera  never  having 
visited  the  town,  which  is  attributed  to  the  high  range  and  great  equality  of  tempera- 

*  The  Gloucestershire  Quarter  Sessions  at  Midsummer  ventured  on  what  will  probably  be 
a  most  important  step  in  recommending  to  the  magistrates  of  the  county,  as  a  general  rule, 
{not  without  exception  nor  interfering  with  the  due  discretion  of  the  magistrates)  to  send  all 
boys  on  a  first  conviction  to  gaol  for  one  week  (thus  securing  the  lowest  diet,  and  not  giving 
them  time  to  overcome  their  dislike  to  a  prison).  If  they  are  convicted  a  second  time,  to 
•end  them  to  the  Reformatory.    If  they  relapse  after  this,  they  fairly  merit  penal  servitude. 

If  this  be  feasible,  as  it  probably  now  is  in  Gloucestershire 'and  will  be  in  all  counties  when 
they  have  had  sufficient  time,  three  important  points  will  be  gained.  1st.  There  will  rarely 
be  any  boys  in  our  gaols.  2nd.  No  boys  can  become  habituated  to  gaol.  3rd.  Unless  the 
police  are  very  careless,  no  boys  can  obtain  sufficient  practice  in  crime  to  enable  them  to 
teach  others. 

1856.  9 


180  REPORT— 1856. 

tore,  cotnbined  with  the  excellent  sanitary  regulations  of  the  place.  The  < 
and  application  of  the  mineral  waters  are  stated ;  their  popularity  as  curative  i  v  . 
and  their  subsequent  decline.  A  considerable  portion  of  the  paper  is  allocated  Is  a* 
statistics  of  secular  and  religious  education,  from  whence  it  would  appear  diss  CaeV 
tenham  has  attained  a  pre-eminence  above  all  the  towns  in  the  kingdom,  and  that  wsne 
secular  education  has  teen  extended  from  1  in  1 7£  of  the  population  in  1818,  to  1  k 
8?  in  1851  throughout  the  kingdom,  Cheltenham  reckons  1  in  6,  whilst  the  seesaws- 
dation  afforded  for  religious  worship  in  its  churches  and  chapels  amounts  to  no  lea 
than  60  per  cent 

Interesting  details  are  given  of  the  rise  and  progress  of  the  various  schools  and  pn> 
prietary  colleges*  and  more  particularly  of  the  resuscitation  of  the  Cheltenham  Gram- 
mar School,  the  amount  of  money  expended  by  these  establishments  in  the  town,  tsat 
of  the  Cheltenham  Proprietary  College  being  upwards  of  £16,000per  amrem;  As 
Grammar  School  and  Training  College  upwards  of  £5000  each.  The  author  dwell 
strongly  upon  the  importance  of  schools  for  the  adult  poor.  "  Father  and  son,"  he  tt» 
serves, "  are  thus  found  learning  the  same  lesson ;  both  drinking  at  the  same  purifntf 
fountain ;  both  being  made  to  feel  that  there  are  higher  pleasures  than  those  of  tat 
senses,  and  that  being  without  well-being  may  be  a  curse  rather  than  a  blessing." 
He  considers  that  it  is  beginning  at  the  right  end,  and  "  that  however  children  as? 
be  instructed  in  their  schools,  their  moral  development  must  still  depend  upon  tsar 
homes."  He  adds,  "  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  conceive  any  antagonism  greater 
than  the  influence  sought  to  be  exercised  upon  the  minds  of  children  in  a  tjeuHJtgssr 
ixed  school,  and  those  to  which  they  are  subjected  in  a  rude  semi-barbarous  hosts; 
but  bring  the  parent  into  sympathy  with  the  intellectual  and  moral  progress  of  lbs 
child,  and  the  whole  atmosphere  is  changed.  Education  then  really  commences,  ani 
•very  subsequent  step  in  the  path  of  knowledge  adds  another  element  to  the  lofty  it- 
ciprocities  of  domestic  and  social  life,  and  affords  another  defence  against  umnora% 
and  crime. 

Pauperism  and  crime  is  brought  into  juxtaposition,  and  some  illustrative  evieemoi 
given  of  the  evils  resulting  from  eleemosynary  institutions,  in  which  Cheltenham,  lib 
Salisbury  and  Newbury,abound8,  and  which  are  found  to  exercise  a  baneful  inflneaee 
upon  the  moral  condition  of  the  people,  and  to  weaken  the  efforts  of  the  local  autho- 
rities. In  Cheltenham,  the  result  seems  to  have  been  to  increase  largely  the  sinwt 
of  larceny  and  of  pauperism,  although  vagrancy  hat  been  repressed  to  the  extent  ef 
70gper  cent,  since  1849. 

The  paper  closes  with  an  account  of  the  Reformatory  at  Hardwicke  Court,  and  tat 
benefit  which  it  has  conferred  on  the  county  generally,  and  on  Cheltenham  in  parti- 
cular ;  and  the  author  infers  that  one-half  at  least  of  those  whom  a  prison  would  have 
consigned  to  a  life  of  infamy,  may  be  rendered  valuable,  if  not  worthy  members  of  the 
community. 

His  conclusions  are, — 1st,  that  opportunity  is  afforded  him  whose  moral  tendencies 
are  favourable,  to  break  his  connexion  with  the  really  vicious. 

2ndly.  That  the  instructed  thief  is  deprived  of  his  opportunity  of  daily  exerdss  m 
his  art,  whereby  his  chance  of  future  success  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  he  is  meet 
to  feel  that  life  has  charms,  and  labour  has  sweets  which  no  amount  of  dishonest  skill 


Srdly.  That  the  heavy  reproach  against  society  is  (so  for  as  boys  are 

why  not  girls?)  thus  removed ;  that  it  punishes  crime  without  providing  any 
by  which  to  change  the  character  of  the  criminal. 


Suggestions  on  the  People's  Education.    By  the  Rev.  C.  H.  Broxby,  MJL 

The  principles  laid  down  in  this  paper  were  as  follow : — 

1.  That  a  rate  shall  not  take  the  place  but  come  in  aid  of  voluntary  benevolent*. 

2.  That  existing  schools  as  well  as  future  schools,  originating  in  denominatkaal 
fleal,  and  claiming  the  rate  m  aid,  shall  contribute  threepence  from  subscription*; 
collections,  endowment,  and*  children's  payments,  in  order  to  secure  for  themsclrsi 
denominational  management 

3.  That  a  local  School  Committee  shall  be  empowered  to  establish  new  schools,  which 
children  in  the  receipt  of  outdoor  parochial  relief  shall  be  compelled  to  attend,  ana 


TBAKBAOTIOK0  09  TH»  BKCTIONS.  181 

for  whom  the  Guardians  of  the  Poor  shall  pay  the  school  premium;  and  the  capita- 
tion fee)  now  made  by  the  Committee  of  Council  shall  take  the  place  of  subscriptions 
and  donations. 

4.  Thai  such  a  school  shall  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  preventive  school,  and 
shall  be  industrial  in  its  character. 

6.  That  in  all  ragged  or  preventive  schools,  in  regard  of  moral  and  religious 
instruction,  the  British  and  Foreign  School  might  be  taken  as  a  type. 

After  briefly  reviewing  the  system  of  public  education  in  present  operation,  and 
which  was  originated  in  1846  by  Sir  J.  K.  Shutdeworth,  the  paper  proceeded  to  point 
out  the  more  prominent  defects  of  the  system. 

The  pupil-teacher  is  apprenticed  at  an  age  too  early  to  know  his  natural  fitness  for 
the  office.  He  is  often  coaxed  into  it  at  13,  and  at  16  he  finds  he  has  no  heart  for 
the  work,  becomes  desultory  in  character,  and  loses  rapidly  in  moral  tone.  2.  There 
is  a  want  of  unity  of  action  in  everything  that  relates  to  school-keeping.  Each  of 
Her  Majesty's  Inspectors  has  his  peculiar  views  of  school-fittings,  school-method,  and 
school-organization.  A  master  is  written  down  by  one,  and  held  up  another  year  as 
a  model.  This  is  a  growing  evil,  and  the  more  so  as  new  regulations  place  the  master 
more  and  more  absolutely  in  the  hands  of  the  Inspector.  The  third  great  defect  is— 
the  present  system  fails  to  carry  help  where  help  is  most  imperatively  wanted.  The 
problem  which  proposes  to  supply  this  defect  has  not  been  solved,  no  measure  can 
succeed  which  ooes  not  distinctly  show  that  the  working  of  the  present  system  will 
not  be  arrested.  And  yet  almost  every  plan  hitherto  proposed  has  failed  in  this 
particular. 

A  Scheme  proposed.— In  order  to  excite  and  not  to  nip  nor  finally  destroy  sub- 
scriptions, let  the  amount  of  support  borne  by  the  rate  hold  a  fixed  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  voluntary  subscriptions.  It  is  found  that  in  towns  the  average  cost  of  each 
child  is  at  the  rate  of  17#.  a-year,  or  of  fivepence  a- week  for  45  weeks  in  the  year. 
Let  grants  be  made  to  existing  schools  from  the  rates  of  twopence  per  child  to  meet 
threepence  raised  by  local  subscriptions  and  children's  pence  conjointly.  The  pro- 
portion in  which  the  latter  sum  shall  be  divided  may  perhaps  be  left  to  be  determined 
by  the  circumstances  of  the  locality,  but  a  minimum  proportion  of  local  subscriptions 
should  be  defined.  Such  a  plan  would  have  the  effect  of  encouraging  private  bene- 
volence up  to  the  extent  required,  and  at  the  same  time  it  would  leave  disengaged 
any  excess  now  found  in  the  more  favoured  districts  of  a  borough,  for  the  benefit  of 
those  neighbouring  localities  which  are  now  neglected.  A  subscriber  who  now  pays 
£\  for  the  school  of  his  own  district,  finding  10*.  sufficient  under  the  operation  of  the 
rate-system,  would  be  likely  to  divide  his  original  donation  with  another  school,  in 
order  to  enable  it  to  claim  the  benefit  of  the  rates,  and  remain  under  Denominational 
control.  A  great  advantage  would  thus  accrue  from  such  diffusion.  This  plan  would 
have  the  direct  effect  of  encouraging  combined  Denominational  action.  Local  School 
Associations  would  take  the  place  of  isolated  Church  or  Chapel  School  Committees, 
and  the  poorer  schools  belonging  to  the  same  religious  society  would  have  an  equal 
claim  with  the  richer  upon  the  central  fund. 

Compulsory  Attendance. — There  is  great  reason  to  fear  that  free  schools  in  destitute 
localities  would  be  comparatively  empty  without  some  inducement  or  compulsion. 
Poverty,  intemperance,  and  improvidence,  are  not  likely  to  beget  any  high  estimation 
of  school  work.  In  Manchester  and  Salford,  from  inquiries  of  17,426  families  visited, 
the  following  results  have  been  published : — 

1.  Children  between  3  and  15  neither  at  school  nor  work,  17,177. 

Once  attended.  Never  attended.  Total. 

Sickness 669         +  238          =  905 

Domestic  Causes 757         +  139          =  896 

Poverty  and  Indifference....      6040         +  9336          as  15,376 

Total 7466         +  9711  as     17,177 

2.  In  spite  of  improved  instruction  and  increased  number  of  schools,  the  census 
returns  show  a  diminished  attendance. 

1        Proportion. 
10-27 
13-30 
9* 


Year. 

Attendance. 

Population. 

1854-5 

24,365 

250,323 

1851 

1    •        29,145 

387,816 

132  REPORT — 1856. 

These  statistics  go  to  show  that  no  system,  however  perfect,  wOl  satisfactorily  meet 
the  educational  wants  of  the  land,  so  long  as  the  improvident  parent  is  under  no  oafi» 
gation  to  send  his  children  to  the  school.  Even  the  Denominational  Schools  ahead? 
supply  more  room  than  is  filled,  and  if  this  be  the  case  in  the  localities  where  tat 
presence  of  the  higher  orders  of  society  must  exercise  a  favourable  influence,  it  ■ 
more  than  possible,  nay,  it  is  sure  that  the  free  and  rate-supported  schools  in  wholly 
destitute  neighbourhoods,  will  miss  their  aim  for  want  of  children.  From  die  ceasos 
►  return  we  find  17,002  children  attending  school  in,  Manchester  and  Satfbrd,  wafts 
private  inquiry  in  connexion  with  Mr.  Entwhistle's  local  scheme,  gives  the  number 
21,925.  Taking  the  larger  figure,  and  comparing  it  with  the  school  accommodate 
which  is  given  on  the  same  authority,  as  74,887  children,  we  find  that  two-thirds  of 
the  school  accommodation  is  entirely  wasted.  How  much  lost  enerjry  therefore  may 
be  expected  in  those  rate-supported  schools  erected  and  set  to  work  in  the  still  poorer 
and  neglected  localities,  without  some  species  of  compulsion  ?  But  for  what  species 
.  of  compulsion  are  we  prepared  ?  Mr.  Horner  remarks,  "  Popular  education  must  be 
in  some  form  obligatory,  and  the  successful  working  of  the  Factory  Act  in  this  respect 
is  a  very  satisfactory  beginning"  Let  the  inhibitory  clauses  of  the  Factory  Act  be  at 
once  applied  to  at  least  similar  fields  of  child  employment ;  and  in  all  other  desul- 
tory and  less  organized  spheres  of  labour,  let  it  be  illegal  to  employ  a  boy  under  14 
who  cannot  produce  the  school  certificate  that  he  has  attended  for  three  years,  172 
days  at  least  during  each  year.  Above  all  we  repeat,  make  it  compulsory  upon  a 
child  who  receives  out-door  parochial  relief,  that  he  attend  a  day-school  at  the  expense 
of  the  parish,  and  ultimately  make  a  certificate  of  school  attendance  a  condition  of 
the  elective  franchise.  Beyond  this  it  is  better  to  foster  than  to  force.  It  is  a  favour- 
able sign  that  the  Government  have  adopted  the  employment  of  educational  tests  ss 
passports  to  clerkships  in  public  offices.  The  example  of  Government  has  been  hap- 
pily followed  by  the  Society  of  Arts,  who  have  established  a  system  of  exanimate 
with  granting  certificates  of  merit.  A  large  number  of  capitalists,  both  rodmdusl 
and  corporate,  have  signed  a  declaration  that  they  will  give  preference  to  candidates 
for  their  more  lucrative  offices  who  hold  these  certificates.  A  great  necessity  presses 
upon  the  Government  for  establishing  institutions  of  secondary  education.  In  Francs 
we  find  icoles  de  dessein  and  schools  of  trade ;  but  in  England,  the  workshop  of  the 
world,  where  there  is  no  law  to  compel  attendance  in  the  primary  school,  there  is  as 
opportunity  of  learning  the  principles  of  trade  in  the  secondary  school.  The  that 
has  gone  by  when  England  can  safely  trust  to  her  coal  and  iron,  when  steam  can 
cheaply  convey  the  raw  material  to  countries  who  are  educating  their  skilled  operatives. 

Another  instrument  of  secondary  education  is  the  establishment  of  Free  Libraries. 
Wherever  the  measure  has  been  tried  the  most  satisfactory  results  have  followed,  la 
the  Parliamentary  Return  asked  for  by  Mr.  Ewart,  we  find  very  interesting  details. 

At  Liverpool,  "  the  number  of  volumes  issued  in  the  first  year  was  35,928,  in  the 
second  99,021,  and  the  circulation  is  now  5000  per  week." 

At  Oxford,  "  during  the  two  years  since  its  establishment  236,000  persons  have 
visited  the  Free  Library.  Here  the  working-man  finds  rest  after  a  day  of  labour, 
which  he  was  wont  to  spend  in  a  far  less  creditable  manner." 

At  Salford  we  find  the  issue  steadily  increasing  at  the  rate  of  10,000  a  year,  while 
a  corresponding  improvement  in  taste  is  observable  in  the  following  comparison  of 
the  character  of  the  hooks  selected.  The  comparison  is  limited  to  3000  < 
issues  of  books:— 


All  Classes  except  fiction. 

Works  of  fiction.                Total. 

1850     ....     1069    .    . 

.     .     1931     ....    3000 

1851     ....     1316     .     . 

.     .     1684    ....    3000 

1852     ....     1816     .     . 

.     .     1184     ....     3000 

1853     ....     1915     .     . 

.     .     1085     ....     3000 

1854     ....     2199     .     . 

801     ...     .    3000 

1855     ...     .     2280     .     . 

720     ...     .     3000 

RUumL — In  the  advocacy  of  a  supplementary  measure,  let  it  be  distinctly  seea 
that  present  schools  will  not  be  thinned  by  proximate  free  schools,  and  that  they  wul 
not  slip  under  the  control  of  the  local  board.  Let  it  be  felt  that  such  supplementary 
measure  looks  simply  at  present  to  the  lowest  and  outcasts  of  our  children.  In  am 
way  the  religious  jealousy  of  denominations  will  be  avoided,  for  they  never  quarrel 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  133 

about  ragged  children.  According  to  the  census  of  1851,  there  were  132  Ragged 
Schools,  with  23,643  scholars.  Only  nine  of  these  schools  were  connected  with  par- 
ticular denominations.  The  politician  and  philanthropist  need  not  fear  religious 
scruples  here.  Those  who,  as  a  rule,  object  to  all  religious  teaching  except  what  is 
formal  and  technical,  are  found  to  merge  their  scruples  in  the  paramount  necessity 
for  converting  the  dangerous  classes  into  new  constituents  of  social  strength.  Here, 
at  least,  is  a  work  in  which  the  attractive  element  of  philanthropy  and  pity  is  stronger 
than  the  repelling  element  of  sectarianism.  Nor  will  the  advocates  of  national  eco- 
nomy object  either.  They  know  that  a  million  spent  upon  moral  and  industrial 
training  will  save  ten  millions  in  county  rates.  The  simple  state  of  the  case  is  that 
two  millions  are  neither  at  work  nor  school.  The  question  is,  how  shall  we  obtain  hold 
of  them?  We  answer,  refuse  to  feed  by  out-door  relief  those  who  attend  no  school. 
This  would  reduce  the  two  millions  by  one-half.  A  fourth  below  those  who  receive 
out-door  relief  might  still  remain  untouched,  and  another  fourth  above.  But  the 
lower  fourth  might  be  thinned  by  the  provisions  of  Reformatories,  and  the  fourth 
above  them,  who  are  the  children  of  parents  able  but  unwilling  to  educate  them, 
would  be  stimulated  by  the  improvement  of  those  who  are  below  them,  and  who  are 
threatening  to  supplant  them  in  the  walks  of  life  and  industry.  In  Cheltenham  there 
is  a  population  of  35,000,  of  which  number  there  are  867  children  under  16  years  of 
age  receiving  out-door  relief.  The  parents  are  either  hopelessly  poor,  or  culpably 
unthrifty,  and  the  majority  of  the  children,  as  might  be  expected,  are  left  to  chance 
and  ignorance.  This  is  the  point  on  which  to  put  the  screw.  More  compulsory 
measures  may  indeed  be  needed,  but  is  the  country  prepared  to  adopt  them  ? 

On  the  Advantages  to  Statistical  Science  of  a  Uniform  Decimal  System  of 

Measures,  Weights,  and  Coins  throughout  the  World.    By  Samuel  Bbown, 

F.S.S.,  and  Vice-President  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries. 

There  are  few  facts  relating  to  material  objects  in  which  weight  and  measure  do 
not  form  principal  points  in  the  comparison ;  and  if  the  comparison  be  made  for 
commercial  purposes,  value  also  becomes  a  prominent  consideration. 

Whoever  nas  undertaken  for  statistical  purposes  to  reduce  a  collection  of  facts  to 
one  measure  for  comparison,  will  recall  the  immense  labour  which  the  system  of 
measures,  weights,  and  coins  prevalent  even  in  this  country  has  caused  him.  If,  in 
addition  to  this,  it  be  desired  to  make  the  comparison  of  the  results  with  similar 
tables  of  other  countries,  how  much  additional  labour  is  thrown  upon  him ! 

This  difficulty  has  of  late  been  felt  so  strongly  since  the  frequent  assemblages  of 
men  interested  in  science  or  commerce,  that  scarcely  any  meeting  of  consequence 
has  been  held  without  an  expression  of  opinion  on  the  incongruities  of  existing 
systems,  and  the  importance  of  preparing  the  way  for  a  change.  At  the  Statistical 
Congress  at  Brussels  in  1853,  a  resolution  was  carried,  recommending  that  in  the 
Statistical  Tables  of  counties  not  possessing  the  metrical  system,  a  column  should 
be  added  indicating  the  metrical  reductions  of  weights  and  measures.  Previous  to 
this,  however,  the  great  difficulty  of  comparing  the  measure,  weight  and  value  of 
articles  from  so  many  different  countries  as  were  represented  in  the  Great  Exhibition 
of  1851,  had  forced  the  subject  on  the  attention  of  the  Jurors.  In  every  year  since 
then  an  addition  has  been  made  to  the  number  and  influential  position  of  those  who 
advocate  some  uniform  system.  The  resolution  above  quoted  only  partially  removes 
the  difficulty.  It  merely  suggests  the  advantages  of  reducing  all  measures  and  weights 
to  the  metrical  system,  which  is  already  extensively  recognized;  but  it  does  not  provide 
the  means  of  dispensing  altogether  with  the  great  labour  required  in  the  reduction. 

The  declaration  signed  by  the  Members  of  the  International  Jury  of  the  Great 
Exhibition  in  Paris,  or  Commissioners  sent  by  their  respective  Governments  to  the 
Exhibition,  takes  a  more  comprehensive  view,  and,  without  pledging  themselves  to 
the  support  of  any  particular  system,  they  urge  fi  upon  the  consideration  of  their 
respective  Governments,  and  of  enlightened  individuals,  friends  of  civilization,  and 
advocates  for  peace  and  harmony  throughout  the  world,  the  adoption  of  a  uniform 
system  of  weights  and  measures  computed  decimally,  both  in  regard  to  its  multiples 
and  divisions,  and  also  in  regard  to  the  elements  of  all  the  different  units." 
At  the  Statistical  Congress  held  in  Paris  last  year,  after  a  discussion  originated  by 

Mr.  Pent,  a  resolution  was  passed  still  further  extending  the  objects  to  be  aimed  at, 

and  applying  it  expressly  to  thejpurposea  of  the  Meeting ;  — "  The  Congress,  considering 


134  RHPOBT— 1856. 

how  much  the  adoption  by  different  nations  of  a  uniform  system  of 

and  coins  would  facilitate  the  comparative  study  of  the  statistics  of  different  countna\ 

resolves  that  it  is  desirable  to  put  such  a  uniform  system  into  energetic  practice.'* 

Of  the  extraordinary  labour  which  attends  the  comparison  of  the  statistics  sf 
different  countries  at  the  present  time,  no  better  idea  could  be  given  than  by  a  luai 
work  containing  only  a  few  pages,  which  was  prepared  and  published  by  Mr.  Wool- 
house  in  1836,  and  which  is  still  used  by  architects  and  contractors  whose  operations 
are  carried  on  in  foreign  countries.  It  is  entitled  "  Tables  of  continental  lineal  sad 
square  measures."  Table  I.  contains  a  list  of  the  principal  lineal  measures  of  the 
various  countries,  states,  and  cities  throughout  Europe,  arranged  in  alphabetkil 
order.  The  columns  exhibit  to  4  places  of  decimals  the  value  of  a  unit  of  etc* 
respective  measure,  when  estimated  m  English  feet,  Florence  bracchi,  French  metro, 
Neapolitan  palmi,  Rhineland  feet,  Roman  palmi,  Venice  feet,  and  Vienna  feet 
Under  each  column  the  number  of  different  places  in  which  the  unit  of  measure  a 
compared  under  Table  I.  amounts  to  143,  nearly  all  forming  different  proportions  sf 
the  English  foot  In  the  second  table  is  shown  the  comparison  of  square  and  super* 
ficial  measures  for  the  same  number  of  places. 

In  the  discussion  which  took  place  at  the  Institution  of  Civil  Engineers  in  Febnsrj 
1854,  Professor  Airy  stated  that  for  every  different  class  of  objects  a  different  aw 
was  adopted :  that  the  multipliers  of  that  unit  were  counted  by  the  decimal  seals  ef 
common  arithmetic,  and  the  subdivisions  of  that  unit  by  the  binary  scale.  Thai  at 
enumerates-*- 

The  Acre  (for  land  measure). 

The  Mile  (for  itinerary  measure). 

The  Yard  (for  measure  of  drapery). 

The  Coomb  (for  capacity  of  corn,  &c). 

The  Gallon  (for  capacity  of  liquids). 

The  Pound  (for  grocer's  ware). 

The  Stone  of  8  pound  (for  butcher's  meat). 

The  Stone  of  14  pounds  (for  flour,  oatmeal,  fcc.). 
And  the  learned  Professor  did  not  consider  that  the  Government  ought  to  enforce  a 
decimal  scale  except  in  coinage. 

Now  it  is  evident  that  if  so  many  units  are  to  be  maintained,  having  no  conntiisB 
with  or  relation  to  each  other,  and  if  they  are  not  even  to  be  divided  decimally,  sad 
if  foreign  nations  may  each  have  as  many  units  equally  unrelated  to  each  other,  as 
great  advantage  would  be  gained  by  any  change  at  all.  If  the  inconvenience  ef  sa 
alteration  of  system  must  be  encountered,  the  one  adopted  should  at  least  be  of  sack 
a  kind,  that  no  further  change  should  be  necessary,  that  the  system  should  be  deems! 
for  the  convenience  of  calculation,  that  it  should  be  distinguished  by  the  utmost  sna- 
plicity,  and  that  both  measures  and  weights  should  be  in  harmony  with  each  other. 
The  author  states  that  at  the  present  time  no  system  so  completely  fulfils  the* 
conditions  as  the  metrical  system,  which,  beginning  in  France,  has  been  saw 
established  in  so  many  countries,  and  from  which,  whatever  prejudices  it  may  have  to 
overcome,  there  seems  no  desire  in  any  country  where  it  nas  been  introduced,  to 
withdraw  or  to  substitute  any  old  system  for  it  Both  in  weights  and  measures  the 
difference  is  so  slight  between  some  denominations  of  the  metrical  system  and  ton* 
used  in  this  country,  that  very  little  inconvenience  would  be  felt  in  the  change. 
Thus  the  ton= 1015*65  kilogrammes  might  easily  be  altered  to  1000  kilogrammes. 
1  pole  or  perch  (5)  yards)  =  5*029  metres  to  5  metres. 
1  furlong  (220  yards)        =     201-164      „  to  200  metres. 

5  furlongs  =10053*22        „  to  1  kilometre. 

1  foot  =        3*048  decimetres  to  3  decimetres. 


On  the  Position  of  Reformatory  Schools  in  reference  to  the  State,  and  the 
General  Principles  of  their  Management,  especially  as  regards  Female  Re- 
formatories.   My  Mary  Carpenter  (of  Bristol), 
Reformatory  schools  have  only  been  brought  prominently  before  the  public  duns* 

the  last  five  years,  and  great  ignorance  still  prevails  respecting  their  real  object  sal 

working. 
The  old  Saxon  law  distinctly  provided  that  all  persons  who  are  by  the  "aet  of  Goi  " 

irresponsible*  should  not  be  punished;  and  that  a  child  "pardonatur,  quia  '  ~ 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  MOTIONS.  185 

Yet,  although  in  the  United  States  for  thirty  years,  and  in  France  and  Germany  for 
a  long  period,  the  school  had  been  considered  a  fitter  place  than  the  gaol  for  juvenile 
delinquents,  our  own  country  had  forgotten  that  a  child  was  a  child,  and  till  August 
1854  had  compelled  magistrates  and  judges  to  punish  them  as  adults.  The  act  17 
and  18  Vict.,  chap.  86,  allows  magistrates  to  sentence  young  persons  under  sixteen 
to  a  reformatory  school  under  legal  detention ;  the  schools  being  private,  but  under 
government  certificate  and  inspection,  and  the  superintendents  receiving  from  Govern* 
ment  Ave  shillings  per  week  for  each  child  so  sent.  Further  aid,  in  the  establishment 
and  working  of  schools,  is  provided  by  recent  minutes  of  the  Committee  of  Council  on 
Education ;  and  acts  have  been  passed  during  the  present  and  the  last  sessions,  to 
facilitate  the  practical  workings  of  the  original  measure.  This  indeed  must  simply  be 
regarded  aa  tentative,  the  establishment  of  Reformatory  Institutions  being  left  to  the 
accidents  of  private  benevolence,  and  the  old  laws  still  remaining  in  force.  Hence  it 
happens  thattn  some  large  dtieeandtoumsnot  a  child  has  been  sent  to  any  such  institution, 
though  schools  exist  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  and  young  delinquents  swarm 
in  their  streets  who  are  receiving  a  gaol  education  in  short  and  repeated  imprison- 
ments. This  painful  fact  shows  the  necessity  of  a  law  making  it  compulsory  on 
magistrates  to  send  to  a  Reformatory  all  children  on  a  second  conviction ;  and  on  a 
first,  all  children  whose  circumstances  prove  that  they  cannot  escape  from  crime  if 
left  to  themselves. 

It  is  also  found  that  great  differences  exist  in  the  length  of  imprisonment  to  which 
a  child  is  subjected  before  transmission  to  a  Reformatory  School,— the  time  being  often 
proportioned  to  the  magnitude  of  the  same  crime  in  the  adult,  and  not  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  child,  who  often,  if  of  tender  years,  suffers  not  a  little  from  the  rigours 
of  the  system.  The  experience  of  four  years  in  the  management  of  Reformatory 
Schools,  and  a  close  observation  of  the  effects  of  different  modes  of  treatment  on  both 
boys  and  girls,  leads  the  writer  to  the  conviction,  that  while  a  lengthened  imprison* 
ment  is  moat  injurious  to  the  physical  and  mental  health  of  the  child,  and  while  his 
conduct  in  prison  is  in  no  way  a  criterion  of  bis  penitence  or  future  course,  yet  the 
influence  of  a  short  seclusion  in  a  separate  cell,  under  the  good  influence  now  happily 
administered  to  such  prisoners,  prepares  the  child  to  receive  in  a  grateful  and  sub* 
missive  spirit  the  advantages  held  out  in  the  school,  and  makes  him  understand  the 
consequences  which  his  past  conduct  would  entail  on  him  in  future  life. 

Government  has  power  to  compel  parents  to  pay  a  larger  or  smaller  proportion  of 
the  weekly  cost  of  the  child's  maintenance ;  a  power  already  enforced  in  Bristol  and 
other  towns.  Thus  all  cause  of  fear  lest  the  advantages  of  the  school  should  be  a 
premium  on  vice  or  a  relief  to  the  natural  guardians,  is  removed. 

Reasons  were  given  for  the  well-ascertained  fact  that  girls  of  the  criminal  class  are 
fiur  worse  than  boys,  and  more  difficult  to  manage.  The  object  is  to  restore  the  young 
girl  to  the  natural  condition  of  childhood,  and  fit  her  for  the  social  duties  of  life.  The 
writer's  experience  as  manager  of  the  Red  Lodge  Girls'  Reformatory  School,  Bristol, 
leads  her  to  give  the  followiug  recommendations. 

1.  A  healthy  physical  state  to  be  attained,  with  a  view  to  moral  reformation.  Venti- 
lation, cleanliness,  temperature*  Out-door  play  and  walks  in  the  country,  to  supply 
the  want  of  boys'  agricultural  labour.  Food  sufficient,  and  of  a  more  nourishing  de- 
scription than  is  allowed  in  most  pauper  schools,  the  girls  having  been  previously 
•ecustomed  to  a  stimulating  diet. 

2.  The  child  must  be  brought  under  steady  regular  restraint,  administered  with  a 
firm,  equal,  but  loving  hand. 

3.  They  must  be  trained  to  feel  themselves  apart  of  society ;  not  to  have  the  dress 
of  a  caste;  and  to  have  intercourse,  as  far  as  possible,  with  persons  of  virtuous  cha- 
racter and  loving  spirit. 

4.  The  healthy  affections  must  be  cultivated ;  the  natural  ties  cherished ;  and  the 
■ebool  made  a  home,  and  a  happy  one. 

6.  The  activity  and  love  of  amusement  natural  to  childhood  should  be  cultivated  in 
a  healthy  and  innocent  manner.  Many  useful  lessons  respecting  social  rights  may 
be  built  upon  it. 

6.  Rewards  and  punishments  should  be  made  the  natural  consequences  o/ actions. 
Bribery  to  do  right  as  well  as  angry  infliction  of  pain  should  be  avoided.  The  child 
should  be  taught  to  surpass  not  others,  but  herself. 

7.  Children  should  be  gradually  brought  into  situations  of  trust.    It  is  only  m  pro- 


136  RHPORT— 1856. 

portion  as  liberty  is  rightly  used,  that  security  eon  be  fell  thai  the  chUd  is  raafljy 
reformed. 

8.  Wholesome  direction  should  be  given  to  the  mental  energies  by  no  i 
amount  of  intellectual  training, 

9.  Every  effort  must  be  made  to  bring  the  tone  of  the  school  and  the  coi 
of  its  inmates  to  the  side  of  virtue,  and  into  harmony  with  the  instructors.  Tat 
religious  element  must  be  the  prevailing  one  iu  the  minds  of  the  teachers ;  and  most 
infuse  itself  into  all  their  intercourse  with  the  children.  This  will  have  a  greater 
direct  influence  than  any  formal  lesson. 

10.  The  will  of  the  child  must  be  enlisted  in  her  own  reformation.  She  mast  be 
led  to  feel  that  obedience  to  the  Divine  Will  is  the  highest  good ;  and  to  desire  to 
obey  that  Will. 

On  the  Tendency  of  European  Races  to  become  extinct  in  the  United  States. 
By  Edwabd  Clibborn,  Corr.  Mem.  Nat.  Inst.  Washington. 

The  object  of  this  paper  was  to  exhibit  the  probability  of  the  extinction  on  the 
continent  of  North  America,  not  only  of  the  Celtic,  or  Irish  race,  but  of  all  other 
European  races,  provided  intercourse  with  Europe  was  entirely  interrupted. 

The  argument  was  based  on  a  fact  admitted  everywhere  in  the  United  States,  that 
the  town  populations  there  are  more  healthy  and  productive  than  those  of  the 
country  districts;  and  that  as  the  law  of  extinction  of  town  populations  exists  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  in  Ireland  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  and  as  the  annual 
loss  of  population  cannot  be  supplied  by  the  country  districts,  which  are,  on  the  eaV 
trary,  in  a  measure  replenished  by  the  towns  in  the  United  States,  it  follows,  that  ia 
the  course  of  a  few  generations,  both  the  towns,  as  well  as  the  country  districts, 
would  be  left  without  inhabitants, — provided  the  annual  deficiencies  in  both  were  net 
supplied  by  the  emigrants  from  Europe. 

It  was  admitted  there  were  some  favoured  localities  in  the  United  States  where 
the  population  of  European  extraction  increases  by  reproduction,  and  which  in  some 
degree  helps  to  replace  the  loss  of  population  in  other  districts,  which  are,  however, 
by  far  the  more  numerous.  It  was  however  argued,  from  the  general  unfitness  of 
the  climate  to  the  European  constitutions,  coupled  with  the  occasional  pestilential 
visitations  which  occur  in  the  healthier  localities,  that  on  the  whole,  or  on  an  average 
of  three  or  four  generations,  extinction  of  the  European  races  in  North  America 
would  be  almost  certain,  if  the  communications  with  Europe  were  entirely  cut  o£ 
And  thus  the  facts  indicated  by  the  extinction  of  the  colony  from  Iceland,  in  Nara- 
ganut  Bay, — the  extinction  of  French  and  German  settlements  in  the  West,— of 
Spanish  settlements  in  the  South, — the  non-increase  of  the  numbers  of  people 
representing  the  old  settlers  in  New  York,  Maryland,  and  especially  the  families 
who  with  Pcnn  colonized  Pennsylvania, — all  told  the  same  sad  story,  and  led  to  the 
inference,  that  the  continent  of  North  America  had  not  been,  and  was  not  likely  to 
become,  a  homestead  to  the  European  races,  and  which  would,  from  the  force  of  cir- 
cumstances not  likely  to  change,  die  out  if  the  intercourse  with  Europe  were  prevented. 

It  was  also  explained,  that  the  probability  of  the  United  States  being  long  a  tem- 
porary homestead  to  the  European  peoples  was  greatly  endangered,  if  not  prospectirely 
barred,  by  the  Chinese  emigration,  entirely  antagonistic  in  its  sympathies,  which  had 
begun  to  flow  in,  and  which,  at  no  very  distant  period,  promises  to  overrun  the 
whole  country  with  an  increasing  population,  whose  constitution  was  perfectly  adapted 
to  the  climate,  it  might  be  said,  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  its  unwholesomeness  to  the 
European  constitution;  thus  giving  the  Chinese  rice  cultivators  and  others  extra- 
ordinary opportunities  of  plantation  not  offered  to  any  Europeans,  except  in  a  very 
few  limited  localities,  the  population  of  which,  in  the  course  of  time,  could  not  stand 
their  ground  against  overwhelming  and  surrounding  populations  perpetually  at  war 
with  them;  so  that  it  was  clear  from  causes  now  in  operation,  that  no  matter  bow 
favourable  the  circumstances  of  the  European  peoples  in  the  United  States  were, 
their  extinction  at  no  distant  period  was  certain,  provided  the  connexion  of  America 
with  Europe  ceased. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  137 

Oft  the  Diversity  of  Measure*  in  the  Corn-Markets  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
By  J.  Towns  Danson,  F.S.S. 

Taking  the  current  circulars  ot  upwards  of  twenty  firms  engaged  as  corn-factors  in 
as  many  of  the  principal  corn-markets  of  the  kingdom,  Mr.  Danson  enumerated  the 
various  measures  upon  which  the  prices  were  quoted,  some  having  reference  to  capa- 
city only,  some  to  weight  only,  and  some  to  both ;  and  the  weights  used  varying  with 
nearly  every  change  of  locality.  In  London  the  bushel  of  wheat  and  all  other  grain 
is  determined  by  the  imperial  measure.  In  Liverpool  a  bushel  of  wheat  means  70  lbs. ; 
in  Birmingham,  62  lbs.;  in  Gloucester,  60  lbs.;  and  in  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  63  lbs. 
Again,  in  Birmingham,  a  bushel  of  barley  means  49  lbs. ;  in  Gloucester,  50  lbs. ;  in 
Leeds,  52£  lbs. ;  and  in  Newcastle,  56  lbs. ;  and  to  extend  the  field  of  comparison  only 
extends  the  variety  of  measures  to  be  dealt  with.  The  following  evils  were  specified, 
as  resulting  from  this  want  of  uniformity  in  these  markets,  where,  since  the  promul- 
gation of  the  Imperial  Measures  Act,  it  is  vulgarly  supposed  that  tolerable  uniformity 
has  existed :—"  1 .  That  in  almost  all  cases  in  which  a  seller  or  buyer  of  agricultural 
produce  has  occasion  to  resort  to  more  than  one  market,  he  is  compelled  to  deal  with 
more  than  one  mode  of  ascertaining  the  quantity  sold ;  and  that,  while  such  differences 
answer  no  good  purpose  whatever,  they  check  the  freedom  of  commercial  intercourse, 
afford  facilities  for  the  commission  of  fraud,  often  cause  mistakes  and  disputes,  and 
always  involve  trouble  and  loss  of  time.  2,  That  the  quotations  by  which  producers, 
dealers,  and  the  public  seek  to  inform  themselves  of  the  variations  of  the  price  of  the 
same  commodity  at  the  same  time  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom  (in  order  to  their 
equalization  by  the  legitimate  action  of  trade),  are  deprived  of  a  great  part  of  their 
proper  utility,  in  consequence  of  the  weights  or  measures  quoted  for  each  locality  being 
very  commonly  unintelligible  in  most  others.  3.  That  the  inconveniences  thus  arising 
are  increased  precisely  in  proportion  as  the  commercial  intercourse  of  each  locality 
with  every  other  in  the  kingdom  is  promoted,  by  the  improvement  of  road  and  postal 
communication ;  and,  hence,  are  now  much  greater  than  they  were  when  reported  on 
by  the  Parliamentary  Committee  of  1833 ;  and  are  growing  greater  year  by  year." 


On  the  Connexion  between  Slavery  in  the  United  States  of  America  and  the 
Cotton  Manufacture  in  the  United  Kingdom.    By  J.  Towns  Danson,  F.S.S. 

Mr.  Danson  argued  in  favour  of  five  propositions,  which  may  be  thus  expressed: — 
1.  That  cotton,  from  the  conditions  of  climate  necessary  to  its  culture,  cannot  be 
grown  in  Europe ;  but  that,  with  the  single  and  not  important  exception  of  the  facto- 
ries in  the  New  England  States  of  America,  it  is,  and  must  long  continue  to  be, 
manufactured  almost  exclusively  in  Europe.  2.  That  the  present  supply  is  chiefly 
raised,  and  for  the  present  must  continue  to  be  raised,  by  slave-labour — seeing  that 
while  for  fifty  years  we  have  sought  over  the  whole  earth  for  cotton,  we  have  during 
that  time  continued  to  obtain  from  the  slave  States  of  the  American  Union  a  continually 
increasing  proportion  of  our  entire  supply.  3.  That  two-thirds  in  number  at  least  of 
the  slave  population  of  the  United  States  have  been  called  into  existence,  and  are  now 
directly  or  indirectly  maintained,  for  the  supply  of  cotton  for  exportation.  4.  That 
of  the  cotton  thus  exported,  three-fourths  at  least  in  value  are  raised  for,  and  sent  to, 
this  country  alone.  And  5.  That  of  the  entire  quantity  we  import,  four-fifths  at  least 
in  value  are  thus  derived  from  the  United  States.  Each  proposition  was  supported  by 
tabular  accounts  extracted  from  the  public  records  of  this  country  and  the  United 
States,  and  the  conclusion  was  expressed  thus : — "  That  hence,  in  the  present  state  of 
the  commercial  relations  of  the  two  countries,  the  cotton-planters  of  the  United  States 
are  interested,  to  the  extent  of  two-thirds  at  least  of  their  entire  exportable  produce, 
in  the  maintenance  of  the  cotton  manufacture  of  the  United  Kingdom ;  and  that, 
reciprocally,  the  cotton  manufacturers  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  through  them  the 
entire  population  of  the  kingdom,  are  interested,  to  the  extent  of  more  than  four-fifths 
of  the  raw  material  of  that  manufacture,  in  the  existing  arrangements  for  maintaining 
the  cotton  culture  of  the  United  States." 


188  BBFOBT— 1866. 

A  TtMt  nf  tk$  Lapp*  and  Finn*  in  Norwty,  meeordi»i  U  At  Ctma 


Parishes  and  Towns. 

In  1845. 

In  the  jar 

Lappa. 

Finns. 

Lappa. 

Finns. 

Infixed 
habita- 
tions. 

No- 
iiadfo- 

Total. 

Infixed 
habita- 

No- 
madic. 

Total. 

LanM 
torn 

Roroa 

2 

8 

12 

9 

8 

6 

28 
253 

47 

25 

59 

4 

240 

119 

53 

60 

9 

54 

140 

522 

80 

28 

202 
112 

655 

207 

329 

600 

3 

844 

1460 

31 

44 

10 

1 

41 
89 

36 

9 

5 
14 

10 

31 

44 

10 

7. 

2 

8 

12 

41 

9 

97 

6 

28 
253 

83 

25 

59 

4 

240 

119 

53 

60 

9 

54 

149 

522 

80 

28 

5 
14 

202 
112 

653 

207 

329 

610 
8 

844 

1460 

22 
82 
29 

436 

16 
10 

12 

14 
17 

46 

45 
31 

16 
10 

12 

14 
17 

— 

"~ 

Trondhyem  Town ... 
Ssalbo 

Stoidal  

Skogn 

Vaadal  

Yttero    

Indero 

Sparbo    

Stod   

— 

Snaaen    

Beitstaden 

5 

1 

97 
14 

39 

5 

2 

97 

14 

1 
39 
36 

.» 

- 

Orerhalden... 

Grong     

Foshm 

Brand 

Bindalen 

Alatadhong 

Veften    .7............. 

Nesne .................. 

2 

38 
29 
26 

230 
94 
49 
69 

1 
52 

570 
84 
34 

231 
118 

734 

235 

380 

109 

708 
1601 

27 

77 

7 

3 
14 

2 

65 

29 

103 

21 

230 

94 

49 

69 

1 

52 

163 

577 

84 

34 

98 

3 

14 

3 

231 

118 

734 

235 

380 

109 
720 

908 
1601 

1 

25 

7 

10 

80 

91 
38 

45 

721 

1 
2 
1 

1 

14 
JL41 

riTtt 
If.  i 

If.  w 

Kemnes 

Rodo  

Mo 

Gildeakaal 

Skydrstad  

Saltdalen    

Bodo  

Foldcn 

Stegen    

Lodingen 

Ofoten    

Hadsel    

Bo  ,... 

Oxnes 

Vaagen  ...... a. ....... 

Borge 

Trondenes  

Ibettad  

Traao ...,. 

Lenrik       1 

Maalsefan  j 

Tromsft  Parish  

KarisS 

Lynsen  

TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTIONS. 
**turns  of  1845  and  1855.    By  Louis  Kr.  Daa,  of  Christiania. 


M* 


ftheC 

«MHtl855. 

odal  Condition.    Heads  of  Families. 

Besides  of  mixed  origin,  and 

included  in  the  Norwegian 
population. 

ners. 

Cotters 
with 
land. 

Cotters 
with- 
out 

New 
Settler* 
in  waste 

Me- 

Cap- 
tains of 

Notes. 

Norwego- 

Norwego- 

Lappo- 

land. 

lands. 

Lapps. 

Flnns. 

Finns. 

Gkravicts  in  prison. 
Return  yet  wanting. 

— 

— 

2 

— 

— 

— 

— 

.r 

_ 

— p 

— 

— 

1 

•— 

^» 

-■- 

— 

~ 

— 

— • 

mmm 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— ^ 

4 

— 

— 

— 

— 

«— 

2 

— 

•— 

— 

Return  yet  wanting. 

— 

— 

1 

— 

— 

— 

mm. 

^» 

1 

— 

— 

— 

20 

1 

2 

10 

Return  jet  wanting. 

s 

4 

27 

19 

•■" 

1 

1 

— 

^ 

mmm 

13 

4 

3 

13 

— 

~~ 

~~ 

31 
10 

6 

1 

2 

"~ 

~" 

— ~ 

87 
8 

Not  stated  whether 
they  are  included 

3 

among  the  Nor- 

6 

8 

8 

™ • 

~* 

"~™ 

mmm 

wegians. 

8 

13 

_ 

_ 

-^ 

— 

19 

3 

2 

,— 

— 

— . 

— 

16 

1 

4 

»— 

_ 

^» 

Among  the  Lappa 
some  are  stated 

— 

— 

4 

— 

— 

— 

to  be  mixed. 

_ 

29 

4 

9 

— 

_ 

62 

4 

1 

7 

3 

— 



32 

17 

1 

1 

1 

mmm 

— 

19 

11 

4 

25 

6 

26 

5 

— 



}» 

43 

— 

, 

4 

6 

8 

2 

h 

21 

5 

1 

2 

8 

8 

3 

127 

42 

22 

66 

2 

•— 

""^ 

140 


RBPOBT— 1856. 


TabU 


Parishes  and  Towns. 


Infixed 
habita- 
tions. 


In  1845. 


Lapps. 


No- 


Total. 


Finns. 


In  die] 


Lappa. 


Infixed 
habita- 
tions. 


No- 
madic 


Total. 


Finns. 


Skysarvo 

Alten  

Loppen  

Hammerfest  Parish. 
Hammetfest  Town.. 

Kistrand        "I 
Koutokeino    J 

Lebesby  1 
NasssebyJ 

Vardo  Parish 

Vardo  Town  

Vadso  Parish 

VadsoTown 


1447 
1069 

550 
1011 

664 

919 

4 
1093 


1026 


116 


93 


1447 
1069 

550 
1011 

1690 

1035 

4 
1186 


426 
863 

50 

118 
154 

205  J 


8 
129 
134 


1620 
1019 

569 
1166 

763 
122 
233 

1303 

5 

564 
3 


405 

705 

20 

85 


110 


1620 
1019 

569 
1166 

1168 
827 
053 

1388 

65 
5 

674 

S 


1107 

26 

160 
195 

253 

23 

40 

83 

14 
14 

259 

353 


SL.16S 
F.  84 
L.  60 
F.  1 


/L.154 

tF_51 

J  1*236 
\F.  14 


[F.  10 

•••••••••a* 


-L 


Remarej. 

1.  In  comparing  the  printed  account  of  the  Census  of  1845  with  this  paper,  it  wiD 
be  seen  that  I  have  omitted  altogether  that  cluster  of  Finns  who  are  living  in  Chris- 
tiania  Stift,  in  the  Glommen  valley  (Sol or).  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  their  dena- 
tionalization and  amalgamation  with  the  Norwegians  has  made  such  progress,  that  it 
has  become  utterly  impossible  to  distinguish  them  ethnologically  by  taat  administra- 
tive machinery  employed  in  taking  a  general  census ;  except  a  few  old  men  and 
women,  they  all  understand  and  speak  Norse,  and  the  young  people  do  not  even  use 
the  language  of  their  ancestors  among  themselves.  What  has  been  enumerated  by 
the  parish  officers,  is  then  rather  the  population  of  that  peculiar  district  (Fintkogen), 
originally  inhabited  by  Finns,  than  a  body  of  true  and  unmixed  Finns.  This  colony, 
that  is  about  250  years  old,  may  now  be  considered  practically  extinct  as  a  peculiar 
nationality,  by  a  transformation  into  a  population  that  could  not  be  distinguished  from 
the  Norwegian  but  by  investigations  into  the  pedigree  and  the  language  of  each  single 
inhabitant 

2.  The  separate  and  recognised  Tshudic  population  of  Norway,  then,  now  com- 
mences to  the  north  of  the  Dovre  range  of  mountains  at  Boros,  and  is  noted  down 
from  south  to  north. 

3.  In  these  districts  of  Trondhyem,  Nordland,  and  Finmark,  will  be  observed 
several  discrepancies  between  the  enumerations  of  1845  and  1855.  These  differences 

.  are  explainable  by  the  greater  accuracy  of  the  last  census ;  the  roaming  and  wander- 
ing hanits  of  the  Lapps,  and  the  continual  immigration  of  Finns  from  the  Russian  ter- 
ritory into  Norway,  tnat  are  going  on  to  the  north  of  Tromso. 

The  census  gives  no  means  of  distinguishing  between  the  increase  of  this  Finnic 
population,  that  is  owing  to  the  new  settlers,  and  to  an  increase  of  births. 

The  Lapps  do  not  change  their  domicile  in  this  way,  but  many  of  them  live  periodi- 
cally on  both  sides  of  the  Kiolen  range  in  Sweden  and  Norway.  This  circumstance 
is  stated  as  the  cause  of  the  census  not  being  completed  in  due  time  in  the  parkhei 
of  Selbo,  Snasen,  and  Vefsen. 


TRANSACTION*  OF  THE  SECTIONS* 


141 


continued. 


of  the  Census  1855. 

Social  Condition.    Heads  of  Families 

Besides  of  mixed  origin,  and 

included  in  the  Norwegian 

population. 

Notes. 

Far- 

men* 

Cotters 
with 
land. 

Cotters 
with- 
out 
land. 

New 

Settlers 

in  waste 

lands. 

Me- 

tfhwiifff 

Cap- 
tains of 
vessels. 

Norwego- 
Lapps. 

Norwego- 
Flnns. 

Lappo- 
Finns. 

16 
2 

2 
2 

~7 
2 

30 
3 

2 
2 

11 

4 
2 

7 

16 

6 

3 

1 

1 

4 

3 

6 

116 
28 

}., 

50 
2 

}- 
}• 

11 

12 

107 

283 

34 

29 
1 

3 
6 

5 

3 

12 

27 

167  1 

63  J 
9 
2 

34 

8 

Whether  the  mixed 
races  are  included 
among  theNorwe- 
gians  is  not  stated. 

— 

26 
1 

19 

113 
31 

— 

4.  The  distinction  of  Lapps  living  in  fixed  habitations  and  nomadic,  is  not  strictly 
but  merely  approximately  correct.  The  account  for  the  parish  of  Grogn  shows  that 
some  of  those  Lapps,  who  are  considered  as  undoubtedly  nomadic,  because  they  wander 
with  their  flocks  of  reindeer,  yet  rent  lands  and  habitations.  This  tendency  to  prefer 
fixed  abodes  will  of  course  be  increasing.  The  classification  given  of  the  social  con- 
dition of  the  Lapps  with  fixed  habitations,  shows  that  their  ways  of  living  are  like  those 
of  the  Norwegian  peasantry ;  that  interesting  portion  of  them  who  are  put  down  as 
settlers  in  waste  lands,  are  proprietors  of  their  cleared  and  claimed  lands. 

5.  Between  the  census  of  1845  and  1855,  the  parish  of  Maulselven  has  been  esta- 
blished. Finmark  proper  was  divided  in  three  parishes,  Kistrand,  Lebesby,  and 
Vadso.  It  now  forms  eight  subdivisions.  To  judge  of  the  fluctuation  of  its  popula- 
tion, these  last  eight  districts  of  the  Table  must  then  be  joined  together,  and  will  give,— 

1845.  1855. 

Lapps  in  fixed  habitations 2683   2985 

Nomadic 1235  1325 

Total 3918   ..; 4383 

Finns   743  1272 

6.  In  the  census  of  1845  no  account  was  taken  of  the  mixed  races.  They  were 
most  probably  by  the  enumerating  officers  included  among  the  Norwegians.  In  the 
census  of  1855,  only  those  are  noted  down  as  mixed  whose  father  or  mother  was  a 
pure  Lapp  or  Finn,  the  further  offspring  being  considered  as  Norwegian. 

When  it  is  observed  that  the  Lapps  and  Finns  keep  up  their  numbers,  or  even  in- 
crease considerably,  in  spite  of  this  loss  by  absorption,  it  will  be  perceived  that  their 
population  is  a  great  deal  progressing. 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  intermixture  is  next  to  nothing  in  the  southern 
districts,  where  the  Lapps  are  few,  and  of  course  looked  upon  with  an  idea  of  strange- 
ness, if  not  contempt ;  but  that  it  is  considerable  where  they  constitute  a  number  in 
the  parish,  almost  equalling  that  of  the  Norwegians.  The  intermixture  is  stated  to 
be  chiefly  owing  to  legitimate  marriages. 


lit 


RBPOB*— 1866, 


i 


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8  lit' 


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■13 

It 

I 

I 


•s. 

I 

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§ 


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o 

,     o  o   . 

o 

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;      i>-  hd    : 

9* 

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Q  1  —  r-1  — *  '  - 


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to  r-Q?ai  Of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  TH»  SECTIONS. 


143 


On  the  Wirral  Peninsula,  and  the  Growth  of  it*  Population  during  the  last 
fifty  years  in  connexion  with  Liverpool  and  the  Manchester  District.  By 
J.  Towns  Danson,  F.8.S. 

The  Wirral  Peninsula  is  that  tract  of  land,  part  of  Cheshire,  lying  between  the 
Mersey  and  the  Dee,  and  about  60,000  acres  in  extent,  on  the  eastern  border  of 
which  has  recently  sprung  up  the  town  of  Birkenhead.  The  following  Table  exhibits 
the  growth  of  the  population,  on  the  assumption  that  Birkenhead  is,  in  fact,  an  off- 
shoot of  the  town  of  Liverpool : — 


Liverpool.    Town  and  Suburbs* 
Population. 

Wirral  alone. 

Years. 

In  Lancashire* 

In  Wirral. 

Total. 

Total  po- 
pulation. 

Decimal 
increase, 
per  cent. 

1801. 
1811. 
1821. 
1831. 
1841. 
1851. 

81,910 
104,740 
141,340 
198,660 
232,770 
299,450 

120 

720 

4,540 

16,060 

40,230 

81,910 
104,860 
142,660 
203,200 
248,830 
339,680 

9,410 
10,013 
12,191 
17,340 
31,784 
57,157 

6-3 
21-7 
42-5 
83-5 
80-0 

The  assumption  that  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  are  substantially  but  one  town,  was 
supported  by  a  return  of  the  number  of  passengers  across  the  Mersey  by  the  two 
ferries  between  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead,  showing  an  increase  from  3,800,000  in 
1850,  to  upwards  of  5,000,000  in  1854 ;  the  passengers  by  the  ferry  attached  to,  and 
principally  serving,  the  Birkenhead  and  Chester  Railway,  forming  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  total  number.  The  comparative  distribution  of  the  entire  population  otWirral 
at  the  beginning  and  end  ot  the  fifty  years — the  additional  population  being  almost 
entirely  concentrated  within  about  12,000  acres  of  tbe  peninsula,  along  the  hank  of 
the  Mersey,— confirmed  the  general  inference,  that  to  the  growth  of  Birkenhead,  or 
rather  to  the  expansion  of  Liverpool  across  tbe  river,  the  whole  or  nearly  the  whole 
of  the  change  was  due.  The  return  of  the  birth-places  of  the  population  of  1851, 
showed  that  of  the  immigrants  of  twenty  years  of  age  and  upwards,  about  equal  propor- 
tions had  come  in  from  the  other  parts  of  Cheshire,  from  Lancashire,  and  from  Ireland. 
Scotland  had  contributed  nearly  as  many  as  Wales,  and  York  and  Cumberland  stood 
together  next  on  the  list.  The  avowed  purpose  of  the  paper  being  simply  to  place 
distinctly  upon  record  a  statistical  outline  of  the  leading  facts  touching  the  growth  of 
Birkenhead,  the  writer  abstained  from  inferences,  and  left  the  materials  to  be  added 
at  a  future  period.  . 

The  Family  Principle  in  London  Banking.   By  Jambs  William  Gilbabt,  F.RJ3. 

The  author  states,  that  the  object  of  his  paper  is  to  inquire  to  what  extent  the  pri- 
vate banks  of  London  are  composed  of  members  of  the  same  family.  Where  we  find 
two  or  more  partners  in  any  bank  bear  the  same  name,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
they  are  members  of  the  same  family.  The  annual  returns  published  in  the  London 
Gasette  give  the  name  of  each  firm,  and  the  individual  name  of  each  member  of  the 
firm.  From  these  returns  the  author  has  constructed  a  table  of  all  the  London  Banks 
classified  according  to  the  number  of  families  they  respectively  represent. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  this  Table : — 

Partners.         Names. 


25 

8 

6 

1 

_1 

Total  01 


20  Banks  are  composed  of  1   family  having  together  52  bearing  20 


2  families 

» 

78 

»        30 

3        >, 

» 

33       , 

,         24 

4         » 

99 

28 

,,         24 

»        » 

n 

« 

s 

«        „ 

» 

« 

6 

203 

129 

144 


REPORT— 1856. 


The  author  observe*  in  conclusion,  that  from  the  official  returns  he  can  trace  <akj 
those  family  connexions  that  are  denoted  by  a  similarity  of  name.  The  relation  of 
fathers-in-law  and  sons-in-law,  of  brothers-in-law,  of  uncles  and  nephews,  and  of 
cousins,  may  exist  in  cases  where  the  parties  have  different  names.  He  professes  only 
to  give  an  analysis  of  the  facts  stated  in  the  returns,  and  he  abstains  from  stating  any 


opinion  as  to  whether  family  relationships  are  beneficial  or  otherwise  as  an  element  in 
:  Banking  Institutions. 


the  composition  of  our  J 


The  Definition  of  Income  in  Economic  Science  compared  with  the 
Taxes  on  Income.    By  W.  Neilson  Hancock,  LL.D. 

On  the  Mortality  among  Officers  of  the  British  Army  in  the  East. 
By  R.  Thompson  Joplino,  F.8.S. 

The  battle  of  the  Alma  was  fought  on  the  20th  of  September,  1854,  and  Sebastopol 
was  taken  on  the  9th  of  September,  1 855, — a  period  of  little  less  than  a  year.  During 
this  interval  three,  or  including  the  battle  of  Sebastopol,  four,  distinct  battles  were 
fought,  besides  several  minor  ones,  such  as  the  attack  on  the  Quarries  on  the  7th  of 
June ;  the  attack  on  the  Redan  on  the  18th  of  June;  and  others. 

It  appears  that  the  total  number  of  officers  killed  in  action  was  162,  and  of  those 
dying  subsequently  from  wounds  62 ;  making  together  224.  Of  these,  4  were  Hajor- 
Generals,  5  Colonels,  21  Lieutenant-Colonels,  16  Majors,  77  Captains,  88  Lieutenants, 
11  Ensigns  and  Cornets,  1  Quartermaster,  and  1  Surgeon.  Among  the  Captains,  62 
were  killed  in  action,  and  15  died  subsequently  from  wounds ;  while  among  the  lieu- 
tenants, 60  were  killed  in  action,  and  28  died  from  wounds,  proving  how  much  mors 
Captains  are  exposed  to  sudden  death  (i.  e.  to  be  killed  in  action  in  proportion  to  dying 
subsequently  from  wounds)  than  Lieutenants,  and,  indeed,  looking  generally  at  Table 
I.,  than  any  class  of  officers. 

The  following  Table  shows  the  number  exposed  to  risk,  the  number  killed  or  dead 
from  wounds,  with  the  rate  of  mortality,  for  each  of  the  four  battles  before  alluded  to. 
Under  the  column  of  Sebastopol,  the  deaths  therein  stated  occurred  from  the  two 
attacks  on  Sebastopol  on  the  18th  of  June  and  the  8th  and  9th  of  September,  1855, 
as  well  as  the  Quarries  on  the  8th  of  June,  and  also  include  officers  killed  in  the 
trenches  by  chance  shots,  &c. 


Battla. 

Number 
ezpoMdto 

Number 
killed. 

Being  one 
in 

Number 
killed  »nd 
diedeubee- 
quentljof 

wounds. 

Being  one 
in 

Alma   

1065 

1146 

1115 

„    3250 

23 
11 
43 

85 

46*3 

104*4 

25-9 

38*8 

29 

13 

54 

128 

36-7 
88-2 
20-7 
25-2 

Balaklava 

Inkennan    ... 
Sebastopol  ... 

Crimea 

3250 

162 

201 

224 

14-5 

The  number  of  officers  exposed  to  risk,  as  shown  in  this  Table,  represent  the  i 
number  present  on  the  field.  On  this  subject  the  author  states,  that  although  it  may  be 
argued  that  these  numbers  will  not  represent  the  numbers  actually  under  fire  in  each 
battle,  yet  upon  consideration  it  will  be  seen,  that  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the  pro- 
portion killed  by  the  casualties  of  each  battle,  the  total  number  in  the  field  should  be 
taken ;  and  that  because  only  a  small  portion  may  happen  to  be  actually  under  fire, 
arising  from  the  fact  that  the  battle  did  not  last  long  enough  to  require  all  the  troops 
to  be  called  into  action. 

By  the  above  Table  it  appears  that  the  estimated  number  of  officers  of  Her  Majesty's 
Army,  exclusive  of  those  attached  to  Foreign  Legions,  the  Artillery,  Engineers,  and 
Land  Transport  Corps  sent  to  the  Crimea  since  the  commencement  of  the  war,  amounts 
to  3250.  Of  these,  5  per  cent,  or  1  in  20,  were  killed  in  action  or  in  die  trenches, 
and  nearly  2  per  cent.  (1*9)  died  subsequently  from  wounds,  making  together  7  per 
cent.  (6*9),  or  1  in  14  (14-5). 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  145 

Of  the  Indian  wan,  the  statistics  of  which  the  author  elaborates  in  his  paper,  the 
greatest  mortality  occurred  at  the  battle  of  Ferozeshah,  where  it  was  I  in  12  (12-4), 
and  the  lowest  at  Alliwal,  at  which  only  4  officers  were  killed,  the  mortality  being  1  in 
58  (58*2).  Of  the  Peninsula  wars,  Waterloo  shows  a  mortality  of  1  in  12  (12'3),  at 
which  186  officers  were  killed  ;  while  at  Vittoria,  where  the  number  of  officers  killed 
amounted  to  44,  the  mortality  was  only  1  in  58  (58*5). 

The  number  of  officers  who  died  of  disease  in  the  Crimea  amounted  to  148,  being 
a  per-centage  on  the  total  number  sent  out  of  4|  (4-5),  or  1  in  22.  This  number  of 
148  consisted  of  28  field  officers,  30  Captains,  and  90  Subalterns.  If  we  add  the 
numbers  of  those  who  were  killed  in  action,  and  died  subsequently  from  wounds,  we 
shall  have  74  field  officers,  107  Captains,  and  191  Subalterns,  making  together  a  total 
of  372. 

The  following  abstract  shows  the  general  result  of  mortality  from  all  causes  :— 

Killed  in  action 5  per  cent. 

Died  of  wounds 2  per  cent. 

Died  of  disease 4  J  per  cent. 

Deaths  from  all  causes 1 1J  per  cent. 

Hence  the  total  number  of  deaths  from  all  causes,  during  the  whole  of  the  Crimean 
campaign,  which  extended  oyer  rather  more  than  twelvemonths,  were  372,  beng  11} 
(11*5)  per  cent,  or  about  1  in  9  (8*7)  of  the  number  sent  out. 

The  author  concluded  by  stating,  that  at  a  subsequent  period  he  purposes  laying 
before  the  public  a  complete  statistical  review  of  the  whole  question,  including  every 
branch  of  Her  Majesty's  service,  and  enlarging  more  particularly  on  the  general  sickness 
of  the  army,  and  on  the  mortality  from  disease.  On  these  latter  points  the  peculiarities 
of  each  disease  will  he  carefully  considered,  with  the  causes  producing  them,  the 
influence  of  seasons,  temperature,  humidity,  the  prevailing  winds,  and  other  incidental 
conditions. 


Vl,600,0 


Distribution  of  the  Albanians,  politically.    By  R.  G.  Latham,  M.D.,  F.R.S. 
In  the  Ottoman  Empire. — Albania  Proper  .     .     . 

Turkish  Servia V  1,600,000. 

Bosnia 

Bulgaria,  Asia  Minor,  &c. 
In  Greece. — Attica  (minus  Athens),  Megara,  Sala- 

.  mis,  the  Piraeus  ......    30,000 

Bceotia 25,000 

Phokis 3,000  (?) 

Valley  of  Sperchius 10,000  (?) 

Eubcea  (South) 25,000 

Andros  (North) 6,000 

Argos 25,000 

Korinth  and  Achaia 15,000 

Arcadia 10,000 

Hydra 12,000 

Spezzia. 10,000 

173,000 

In  Austria. — Clementines  of  Ninketze  and  Herkovtze  in  Svrmia    .    .     (?) 

Erizzo,  a  suburb  of  Zara  in  Dalmatia    .    .    880 

Pervi,  near  Pola  in  Istria 210 

1090 

In  Rossia. — (Bessarabia) 1328 

In   Italy. — Calabria  Ulteriore 4,407 

Calabria  Citeriore 30,812 

Basilicata 10,090 

Capitanata 13,465 

Terra  d'Otranto 6,844 

Abruzzo  Ulteriore 220 

Sicfly 19,713 

85,551 

1856.  10 


146  rbport— 1856. 

To  which  add  a  few  families  in  Venice,  chiefly,  or  exclusively,  in  the  pariah  of  8.  Caa- 
siano.     Add  too,  as  areas  more  or  less  Albanian,  some  villages  of  the  Monte  Gargano 
in  Italy,  and  those  of  Bronte,  Biancavilla,  S.  Michele,  and  S.  Angelo  in  Sicily.     Here, 
however,  fusion  has  taken  place,  and  the  general  character  is  Italian  or  Sicilian. 
Religion. —-Albanians  of  Ottoman  Empirb. 

A.  Mahometan (?) 

B.  Christian (?) 

Greek  Church   ...(?) 

Romanists    ....     96,000  (?) 

Some  of  the  professors  of  Mahometanism  really  Christians  (Crypti  Catkoliei). 

I.  Greece, — A.  Mahometans,  few. 

B.  Christians. 

—      Greek  Church  all,  or  nearly  all. 
— ~-^      Romanists,  few  or  none. 

II.  Austria. — Christians  and  Roman. 

III.  Ru88iA.-r-Mabometan  ?     Greek  Church. 

IV.  Italy. — Christian^  two-thirds  Roman,  one-third  Greek. 


On  the  Former  and  Present  Plans  of  disposing  of  the  Waste  Lands  in  the 
Australian  Colonies.    By  William  Nbwmarch,  F.S.S. 

On  the  Credit  MobUier  and  other  recent  Credit  Institutions  in  Framoe. 
By  William  Newmaroh,  F.S.S. 

Plan  for  Simplifying  and  Improving  the  Measures,  Weights,  and  Money  of  this 
Country,  without  materially  altering  the  present  Standards.  By  Lieut- 
General  Sir  C.  W.  Pasley,  K.C.B.,  R.E.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.  *c. 

I.  Gbnbbal  Table  op  New  Lineal  Mbasueb  proposed. 

10  tenth  parts 1  imperial  inch. 

10  imperial  inches  or  100  parte    .    .     1  foot. 

3  feet 1  yard. 

6  feet 1  fathom. 

1000  fathoms 1  mile. 

60  miles 1  degree  of  the  terrestrial  meridian. 

For  Architectural  and  Mechanical  purposes. 

10  tenth  parte 1  imperial  inch. 

10  imperial  inches  or  100  parts  .    .     1  foot 
For  Itinerary  Measure. 

10  links 1  fathom. 

100  links 1  chain  of  10  fathoms. 

100  chains  or  1000  fathoms.    ...     1  mile. 
For  Cloth  Measure. 

2  half-tenths 1  tenth  of  a  yard. 

2£  tenths    .    •.     * 1  quarter. 

&  tenths.     .     / 1  half. 

•     *7i  tenths 3  quarters. 

10  tenths 1  yard. 

The  new*  standard  of  lineal  measure  to  be  the  fathom  of  6  feet,  marked  on  a  rod  of 
brass  or  other  metal,  and  made  equal  to  6  feet  0-91548  inch  of  our  present  measure, 
at  the  temperature  of  62°a6  of  Fahrenheit,  or  17°  of  Celsius's  thermometer,  when  the 
barometer  stands  at  29  inohes  and  4  tenths  of  an  inch  of  the  new  measure.  This 
proportion  will  make  the  proposed  mile  equal  to  1012*715  fathoms  of  our  present 
measure,  being  the  mean  length  of  the  minute  of  a  degree  of  the  terrestrial  meridian, 
according  to  Mr.  Airy's  treatise  en  the  Figure  of  the  Earth  in  the '  Encyclopaedia  Me* 
tropolitana.'  Should  more  extensive  surveys  of  meridional  arcs,  since  made  or  in 
progress,  lead  to  a  more  accurate  value  of  the  said  minute,  it  is  proposed  that  the 
necessary  correction  shall  be  effected*  net  by  changing  the  standard  rod,  but  by 
altering  the  legal  temperature  to  a  higher  or  lower  temperature  than  the  above. 


TRANSACTION!  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  147 

In  measuring  work*  of  architecture  and  engineering,  the  foot  and  its  decimal  sub- 
divisions will  be  the  unit  without  reference  to  the  fathom;  and  all  workmanship 
measured  by  lineal  measure  must  be  priced  by  the  foot,  the  10  feet,  or  the  100  feet, 
not  by  the  yard  or  rod. 

For  Itinerary  Measure  or  Land  Surveying  the  fathom  will  be  the  unit  without 
reference  to  the  foot.  The  mile  will  be  the  nautical  or  geographical  miles,  the  only 
universal  measure  recognized  by  all  civilized  nations.  The  proposed  new  fathom  and 
foot  will  differ  so  little  from  our  present  standards— only  by  one-eightieth  part  of  the 
latter  in  excess—  that,  supposing  the  two  fathoms  to  be  set  up  at  some  little  distance 

r-t,  no  person  standing  between  them,  and  who  consequently  could  not  see  both  at 
same  time,  would  be  able,  after  having  looked  first  at  one  and  then  at  the  other, 
to  say  which  of  the  two  was  the  shorter. 

II.  New  Square  oa  Superficial  Measure  proposed. 
For  Architectural  and  Mechanical  purposes. 

100  square  inches 1  square  foot 

All  work  now  measured  by  the  superficial  foot  to  be  priced  in  future  by  the  square 
foot,  by  the  10  square  feet,  or  by  the  100  square  feet,  and  not  by  the  square  yard 
or  rod. 

For  Cloth  Measure. 
Cloth  to  be  priced  by  the  new  or  imperial  yard,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  now  done 
by  the  present  standard  yard. 

For  Land  Measure. 

100  square  links 1  square  fathom. 

1000  square  fathoms 1  imperial  acre. 

1000  imperial  aores 1  square  mile. 

III.  New  Measures  of  Solidity  and  Capacity  proposed. 
Of  Solidity  for  Architectural  and  Mechanical  purposes. 
1000  cubic  inches 1  cubic  foot. 

Of  Capacity  for  Dry  Goods. 

100  cubic  inches 1  can. 

10  cans  or  1000  cubic  inches.     ...     1  cubic  foot. 

10  cubic  feet ,     .     1  quarter  of  corn. 

In  measuring  corn  for  wholesale  dealings,  as  well  as  sand,  lime,  &c,  wooden  boxes 
of  1  eubie  foot  and  of  5  cubic  feet  respectively,  open  at  the  top  and  bottom,  and  laid 
upon  a  level  floor,  to  be  used;  two  of  the  latter  to  be  put  together,  one  over  the  other, 
to  measure  a  quarter  of  corn. 

Liquid  Measure  for  Wholesale  Dealings. 
100  oubio  inches  ......     ,    .     1  can. 

]  000  cubic  inches 1  cubic  foot. 

Liquid  Measure  for  Retail  Dealings  exclusively. 

2  gills  or  10  cubic  inches 1  half-pint  or  chopin. 

2  chopin8 1  pint. 

2  pints 1  quart. 

2\  quarts  or  5  pints 1  can. 

Beer,  wine,  and  other  liquors,  sold  wholesale,  to  be  gauged  and  priced,  and  the 
duties  collected  by  the  cubic  foot  and  can. 

In  retail  dealings,  the  cubic  foot,  divided  as  above  into  10  cans,  25  quarts,  50  pints, 
100  chopins  and  200  gills,  if  sold  in  bottles,  should  be  priced  by  the  10  bottles  instead 
of  the  dozen,  and  each  bottle  should  contain  a  quart  or  pint  of  the  new  standard. 
When  not  bottled,  to  be  sold  in  pewter  pots  or  other  measures,  being  respectively  the 
*ame  aliquot  parts  of  the  new  cubic  foot  that  have  been  specified. 
New  Apothecaries1  Liquid  Measure  proposed. 

50  minims 1  tenth  of  an  imperial  cubic  inch. 

500  minims  or  10  tenths    .     .     1  cubic  inch. 

10  cubic  inches 1  half-pint  or  chopin. 

This  will  differ  so  very  little  from  the  present  apothecaries'  liquid  measure,  that  no 
medical  practitioner  can  hesitate  in  adopting  it, 

10* 


148  report — 1856. 

IV.  New  Measures  of  Weight  proposed. 

10  tenth  parts 1  imperial  ounce. 

10  ounces 1  imperial  pound. 

100  pounds 1  hundred  weight. 

1000  pounds 1  thousand  weight. 

2000  pounds 1  imperial  ton. 

For  Retail  Dealings  exclusively. 

2£  tenths 1  quarter  "| 

5  tenths 1  half        >  of  an  imperial  ounce. 

7|  tenths 3  quarters  J 

The  standard  one-pound  weight  to  he  exactly  one-sixtieth  part  of  the  weight  of  the 
new  cubic  foot  for  distilled  water  as  ascertained  by  brass  weights,  at  the  temperature 
and  state  of  air  before  mentioned.  By  this  arrangement  100  lbs.  of  the  new  will  be 
equal  to  about  108  lbs.  of  the  present  avoirdupois  weight. 

All  goods  now  sold  by  avoirdupois  weight  to  be  priced  in  future  by  the  imperial 
pound,  and  its  decimal  multiples  the  10  lbs.,  the  100  lbs.,  and  the  1000  lbs.,  to  the 
exclusion  of  stones,  quarters,  hundred  weights  and  tons  of  our  present  avoirdupois 
weight.     For  retail  purposes  the  new  ounce  and  its  tenth  parts  to  be  used. 

For  Coins,  Bullion,  8fc,  and  for  Apothecaries9  Weight. 

10  hundredth  parts  of  a  grain 1  tenth  part. 

10  tenth  parts 1  train. 

1000  grains 1  imperial  inch. 

The  grain,  being  subdivided  into  tenths  and  hundredths  for  very  delicate  purpose*, 
and  its  decimal  multiples  the  10  grains,  the  100  grains,  and  the  1000  grams  or 
imperial  ounce,  will  be  used  exclusively  for  weighing  and  pricing  all  valuable  articles 
to  which  troy  weight  is  now  applied,  to  the  entire  exclusion  also  of  pearl  weight, 
diamond  weight,  and  all  the  carat  weights. 

For  apothecaries'  weight,  to  which  troy  weight  is  also  applied  in  preparing  medical 
prescriptions,  and  which  requires  the  use  of  the  grain  as  well  as  of  the  ounce,  the 
difference  between  the  present  and  the  proposed  new  grain  and  imperial  ounce  aw 
not  worth  noticing. 

Barrels  and  casks  of  various  denominations,  as  well  as  sieves,  baskets,  sacks,  boxes, 
and  other  packages,  now  designating  special  quantities  or  weights  of  beer,  wine,  fruit, 
corn,  and  ojther  goods,  together  with  the  various  customary  loads,  lasts  and  weys,  all 
differing  from  each  other,  not  to  be  used  as  measures  or  weights  without  specifying 
the  contents  or  the  amounts  of  each  in  cubic  feet  or  pounds  weight,  as  may  be. 

Measures  of  Temperature  and  Air. 

For  determining  the  new  standard  measures  of  length  and  of  weight  proposed,  ffiM 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer,  or  its  equivalent  17°  of  Celsius'*,  were  recommended, 
with  the  barometer  standing  at  29*4  inches  of  the  new  measure.  The  author  suggests, 
that  the  last  mentioned  thermometer,  which  is  established  in  France,  and  which  has 
its  zero  at  the  freezing-point,  the  only  invariable  point  of  temperature  in  nature,  shall 
be  adopted  in  preference  to  Fahrenheit's*. 

If  the  foregoing  suggestions,  or  any  system  on  the  same  principle,  for  simplifying 
our  national  measures  and  weights,  should  be  adopted,  the  fine  idea,  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  intended  in  Magna  Charta,  and  most  clearly  and  unequivocally  expressed, 
in  one  of  our  ancient  laws  of  a  subsequent  date,  but  which  has  never  yet  been  realised 
in  this  country,  will  be  literally  accomplished,  namely,  that  there  shall  be  only  on 

MEASURE  AND  ONE  WEIGHT  THROUGHOUT  ALL  THE  LANDf. 


*  He  is  also  of  opinion,  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  ascertain  the  length  of  the 
pendulum  by  experiments  in  sir,  on  the  first  floor  of  the  new  Houses  of  Parliament,  in  i 
ence  to  the  mean  level  of  the  tides  in  the  Thames,  without  attempting  to  reduce  it  to  the  level 
of  the  sea  in  a  vacuum,  by  theoretical  corrections,  of  which  subsequent  experience  has  rendered 
the  accuracy  doubtful.  The  new  experiments  now  suggested  might  be  carried  on  in  September, 
during  the  recess  of  Parliament,  when  the  above-mentioned  temperature  might  easily  be 
obtained,  and  the  state  of  air  corrected,  by  ascending  or  descending  from  the  given  spot  to  s 
different  level, 
f  See  the  tenth  chapter  of  an  Act  of  the  27th  of  Edward  III.,  Statute  2nd,  entitled  Or*- 
-«4cfo  Stapulamm,  in  the  Statutes  of  the  Realm,  vol.  i.  p.  337. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  14i> 

V.  New  Monetary  System  proposed. 

10  farthings 1  cent. 

10  cents  or  100  farthings 1  florin. 

10  florins,  100  cents,  or  1000  farthings ...     1  pound  sterling. 

Setting  aside  all  the  new  coins,  proposed  by  him  in  his  first  publication  of  1834, 
except  the  tenth  of  the  pound  (since  called  the  florin)  and  the  silver  cent,  and  setting 
aside  also  his  attempt  to  simplify  the  monetary  system  therein  proposed,  in  the  paper 
read  to  the  British  Association  at  Oxford  in  1847,  which  he  admits  was  by  no  means 
an  improvement,  the  author  now  thinks,  that  the  only  new  coin  that  ought  to  he 
issued,  is  the  silver  cent,  and  that  no  silver  coin  greater  than  the  florin  should  be 
coined  in  future,  gradually  withdrawing  all  the  crowns  and  half-crowns  still  in  circu- 
lation, as  soon  as  florins  to  an  equal  amount  can  be  issued  from  the  Mint  to  replace 
them. 

When  any  sum  of  money  of  the  new  coinage  is  written  in  sterling  money,  the  last 
figure  or  unit  of  the  pound  should  always  have  a  point  after  it,  the  three  next  figures 
to  which  will  designate  florins,  cents,  and  farthings,  whether  having  these  denomina- 
tions written  over  them  or  not ;  but  more  than  three  such  figures  must  never  be  used. 

He  is  also  of  the  opinion,  now  adopted  by  the  Council  of  the  Decimal  Association, 
of  which  he  is  a  member,  that  instead  of  coining  new  copper  mils,  or  tithings  as  he 
called  them  at  first,  it  will  be  much  better  to  declare  by  royal  proclamation,  that  the 
farthing  shall  be  the  tenth  part  of  the  cent,  and  the  thousandth  part  of  a  pound,  or  to 
make  it  so  by  Act  of  Parliament ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  him  to  be  necessary  to 
withdraw  any  of  the  smaller  silver  coins,  such  as  the  threepenny  and  fourpenny 
silver  pieces,  which,  though  not  known  when  he  first  published,  have  been  a  very 
great  convenience  to  the  public,  and  which  none  of  the  working  classes  ever  mistake 
for  one  another,  even  in  the  dark,  nor  will  they  confound  any  of  them  with  the  new 
silver  cent  proposed. 

The  silver  cent  should  be  stamped  with  the  words,  one  cent  or  ten  farthings; 
the  present  sixpenny  pieces  need  not  be  called  in ;  but  when  more  are  required,  let 
them  be  stamped  with  the  words  one  half  shilling.  In  like  manner,  wnen  more 
fourpenny  pieces  are  required,  let  them  be  stamped  i  op  a  shilling,  and  when  more 
threepenny  pieces  are  required,  let  them  be  stamped  i  of  a  shilling.  To  add  any- 
thing more  would  be  superfluous. 

The  author  then  treats  of  the  "  difficulties  urged  as  objections  to  the  decimal  coinage 
proposed,"  points  out  the  advantages  of  the  new  system  proposed,  and  urges  objec- 
tions to  the  French  metrical  system. 


Aphoristic  Notes  on  Sanitary  Statistics  of  Workhouses  and  Charitable 
Institutions.    By  M.  Roth,  M.D. 

1.  A  number  of  adult  disabled  persons  are  kept  year  after  year  in  workhouses  or 
charitable  institutions,  and  very  little  or  nothing  is  done  to  improve  or  cure  their 
chronic  ailment*, 

2.  A  number  of  constitutionally  weak  infants  and  children  are  in  the  workhouse 
who  could  be  cured  or  considerably  improved. 

3.  The  expenses  of  the  parish  and  charitable  institutions  would  be,  in  the  course  of 
years,  considerably  diminished  by  a  better  state  of  health  amongst  the  poorer  classes, 

4.  Jt  is  necessary  to  have  detailed  statistics  of  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  work- 
houses and  charitable  institutions,  and,  if  possible,  of  those  who  receive  permanent  or 
periodical  outdoor  relief;  and,  as  such  returns  do  not  exist, 

5.  I  have  proposed  the  following  as  a  specimen  of  a  sanitary  statistic  table,  which, 
by  the  kindness  of  a  poor-law  guardian,  was  returned  with  the  numbers  showing  the, 
actual  sanitary  state  of  one  of  the  metropolitan  suburban  workhouses. 

I  have  proposed  the  classification  of  ages  in  a  different  way ;  but  as  all  the  inmates, 
of  workhouses  are  divided  according  to  the  scale  shown  in  the  Table,  the  actual  work* 
house  classification  has  been  retained. 


160 


napoRT->-1856. 


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TRANSACTION*  OF  THB  SECTIONS.  151 

Such  a  unitary  state,  as  exhibited  by  the  preceding  Tables,  cannot  exist  without  great 
loss  of  life  and  without  considerable  expense  to  the  community  at  large,  and  the  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  suggestions  to  remedy  this  bad  state  of  health  amongst  the  poorer 


6.  All  constitutionally  weak  children  of  several  parishes  should  be  brought  into  a 
union  sanatorium,  where  all  the  available  hygienic  and  medical  means,  according  to  the 
present  state  of  science,  should  be  used,  and  the  education  of  the  children  continued, 
as  far  as  their  weakly  state  permits ;  when  healthy,  these  children  might  be  sent  to  the 
union  or  charity  school. 

7.  The  curable  adult  disabled  paupers  suffering  from  chronic  affections  should  be 
also  visited,  for  the  sake  of  cure  or  improvement. 

8.  The  expenses  for  the  cure  of  such  paupers  would  not  be  much  more  than  the 
expenses  of  the  workhouse,  where  such  paupers  are  frequently  kept  for  years  in  con- 
sequence of  their  having  been  neglected  at  a  time  when  their  health  could  have  been 
restored* 

9.  In  order  to  prevent  the  increase  of  the  number  of  disabled  paupers,  it  is  most 
important  that  the  health  of  the  healthy  inmates  should  be  kept  up  to  the  highest 
standard,  for  which  purpose  the  masters  and  matrons  of  workhouses,  as  well  as  all 
schoolmasters  and  schoolmistresses,  should  have  an  elementary,  popular,  and  practical 
knowledge  of  the  injurious  and  beneficial  influences  affecting  health.  This  sanitary 
knowledge  should  be  imparted  to  the  children,  whose  bodily  faculties  should  be  deve- 
loped simultaneously  with  their  mental  faculties. 

10.  This  sanitary  knowledge  should  form  a  part  of  the  instruction  in  the  training 
schools  of  schoolmasters  and  schoolmistresses,  of  whom  we  cannot  expect  that  they 
should  bestow  more  care  on  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  their  pupils  so  long  as 
they  are  entirely  ignorant  on  the  subject ;  the  preservation  of  individual  health  depends 
upon  the  parents  and  schoolmasters,  but  not  on  the  medical  man,  who  enters  on  his 
duties,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  only  after  those  of  the  educator  have  been 
neglected. 

11.  The  importance  of  a  large  garden  or  play-ground,  as  an  indispensable  part  of  a 
workhouse,  has  been  sufficiently  advocated  and  proved  by  the  condition  of  those  schools 
and  workhouses  which  are  not  sufficiently  provided  in  this  respect. 

12.  The  kitchen  fire  in  workhouses  and  charitable  institutions  can,  by  the  aid  of  hot 
water  or  steam,  provide  the  necessary  warmth  in  the  various  apartments,  and  sufficient 
warm  water  or  steam  for  baths,  which  are  most  important  in  preserving  health,  in  cut- 
ting short  many  diseases  at  the  beginning,  or  in  curing  them  when  developed. 

Cotic/nJKm.— It  is  most  important  not  only  to  diminish  the  amount  of  ill-health  at 
present  existing  among  our  poor  population,  but  we  must  prevent,  as  far  as  it  depends 
upon  ourselves,  all  the  causes  artificially  producing  disease  and  deteriorating  the 
general  health :  the  number  of  inmates  of  our  workhouses  would  thus  considerably 
decrease,  and  a  diminution  of  poorVrate  would  go  hand-in-hand  with  the  improved 
health  of  the  paupers. 


On  the  Territorial  Distribution  of  the  Population,  far  purposes  of  Sanitary 
Inquiry  and  Social  Economy.    By  H.  W.  Rttmsby,  F.R*C.8t 

1.  If  opportunities  are  now  rarely  afforded  to  States  to  group  their  populations  on 
scientific  principles,  to  determine  the  most  salutary  and  beneficial  sites  for  human 
habitation,  and  to  combine  the  sites  so  occupied  in  well-contrived  districts  for  statis- 
tical inquiry  and  local  management, — it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  past  neglect  of 
governments,  and  the  mistakes  of  private  or  associated  enterprise,  in  the  selection  of 
places  for  migration  and  colonization,  have  led  to  most  fatal  results, — to  enormous 
sacrifice  of  lire,  to  immense  national  and  personal  loss,  and  to  sad  degradation  of  race. 

2.  Correct  principles  of  localization  are  not  easily  applied  to  old  communities,  yet 
the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  a  re-adjustment  of  territorial  divisions,  even  in  this  country, 
are  not  insuperable.  The  mobility  of  the  population  of  England  has  undergone  some 
striking  variations  since  the  Conquest.  Many  causes  and  great  facilities  existed  for 
change  of  abode  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Legislation  and  other  circumstances 
tended  to  fix  the  population  in  the  sixteenth,  seventeenth,  and  eighteenth  centuries. 
But  moat  of  those  impediments  to  locomotion  have  been  removed  in  the  present  age; 


150 


BBPORT-»-1856. 


n 


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.     £     /*n  amended  djstrOmtioe 

r/ 
J        .  proportion  of  the  pogulatiea 
.  from  crowded  centres  u  agaa 
singly  increasing  in  a  greater  ratio 


;     .rileges  to  crowded  populations  i 
ue  injurious  condensation  of  the  m 
d  to  treat  the  whole  population  on  ema! 


/,  various  and  conflicting,  are  i 
jd  areas.     Changes  have  ace 


5  to  the 


,i 


^co   :  ^jcipd  boundaries,  which  cannot  therefore  bee 

=r     >  the  country  into  poor-law  Unions  was  based  on  the  pero- 
g  irreconcileable  with  municipal  boundaries.     Unions  were 
//tnd  they  often  manifest,  in  their  form  and  contents,  singular 
•rooojr      ^Jeogrsphy  and  sanitary  considerations. 
— T~     .  ""jtsiricte,  and  (now)  the  census  arrangements,  are  based  on  the 
_        .  \pi  the  returns  of  population,  births,  deaths,  and  marriages,  hate 
~       -  <tb*t  division  more  obvious,  while  an  erroneous  distribution  of  the 
.-•'Jn,  affected  the  compilation  of  vital  and  sanitary  statistics,  so  that 
;.  '  not  afford,  to  the  extent  which  they  might,  the  means  for  correct 
''■  -jcong  the  physical  condition  and  social  progress  of  distinct  communities, 
— *      /-.  s  ^stances,  natural  or  artificial. 

"\.\  j*o°g  otD€r  Taua>  reasons,  it  is  unsafe  to  adopt  the  rate  of  mortality  is 

V*  ^registration  district,  as  a  test  of  the  actual  salubrity,  either  of  its  principal 

^-its  more  scattered  population. 

•  'J  our  national  records  of  vital  statistics  are  more  complete  (including  facts 

'>  *^ed)  and  compiled  from  a  more  scientific  classification  of  the  people,  we  on 

r*  y  no  satisfactory  conclusions  respecting  the  life,  the  health,  the  social  state, 

**j*c«non, tne  mora^s  aQd  tne  babits  of  those  who  inhabit  different  places ;  we  are 

j*^  to  demonstrate  the  causes  of  social  evils,  and  therefore  we  cannot  fairly  call 

**Ytbe  legislature  to  inaugurate  the  required  reforms, 


*T  Another  obstacle  to  a  correct  territorial  division  for  statistical  objects,  is  the  eo- 


frjfermatory ,  ___  r — x 

l^jardians  and  a  Town  Council  or  Local  Board  of  Health)  managing  districts  which 
differ  widely  in  extent ;  the  vital  statistics  being  collected  under  the  authority  of  that 
local  board  which  has  been  the  most  distrusted  as  regards  sanitary  management. 

10.  The  practical  evils  of  limited  and  isolated  jurisdictions,  in  the  execution  of 
measures  of  public  health,  are  many  and  serious, — evils  to  the  inhabitants  included, 
and  evils  to  those  excluded. 

11.  It  is  of  paramount  importance  to  extend  sanitary  inspection  and  regulation  to 
suburban  and  rural  districts.  The  outskirts  of  towns  are  more  and  more  peopled  by 
the  humbler  classes  of  society ;  and  it  is  therefore  increasingly  necessary  to  promote 
a  better  description  of  dwellings  for  working  people  out  of  towns,  either  near  railway 
stations,  or  within  accessible  distance  of  their  places  of  labour. 

12.  Measures  of  public  health  should  be  extended  to  the  whole  population  of  the 
kingdom,  without  reference  to  any  district-rate  of  mortality.  It  is  absurd  to  defer 
the  application  of  preventive  measures,  until  the  fatal  result  of  neglect,  namely,  a  biga 
proportion  of  deaths,— the  precise  ratio  of  which  different  parties  cannot  agree  upon, 
— be  detected  in  any  place. 

13.  No  system  of  territorial  division,  for  statistical  purposes  and  for  local  self-govern- 
ment, deserves  consideration,  which  would  not  secure  for  every  portion  of  the  country, 
whether  town  or  rural  parish,  the  superintendence  of  a  uniform  administrative  ma- 
chinery, competent  to  collect  all  returns  relating  to  the  numbers,  the  vital  force  (ages 
of  the  living),  the  mortality,  the  diseases,  and  the  reproduction  of  he  population,— 
as  well  as  to  carry  into  effect  all  sanitary  precautions. 

14.  A  public  registration  of  diseases  should  have  special  regard  to  their  i 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  155 

"^^  ^tions  with  residence  and  occupation ;  while  observations  of  meteoro- 

♦u  trying  conditions  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  (agricul- 

v         ^a.  M  be  concuirentiy  made  in  each  superior  registration  district.   And 

"  .  TS.  ^tions  and  records  in  each  locality  should  be  published  periodi- 

u.  ,*%"■  *\  -»f  its  inhabitants. 

'".•   T##  ld  no  longer  confer  badly-defined  powers  upon  two  or  more 

'%  •  ■».     If  each  of  the  existing  local  hoards  and  councils  were 

x*~     **  *  *  court,  with  a  larger  jurisdiction  than  now  belongs  to 

\k    .     '■  uistrict  boards  of  London  are  in  its  metropolitan  board,— 

*  b  *  o  a  traneferjof  local  functions  might  be  avoided. 

«  and  form  of  the  proposed  larger  districts  for  collecting  and 

,  *  social  statistics  and  for  local  management  (the  jurisdiction  of 

■       +   *  .  Board  of  Works  being  wholly  excluded  from  present  considerations), 

jntain,  on  the  average,  two  or  more  parochial  unions. 

.  er  a  correction  of  existing  boundaries  might  be  deemed  necessary,  the 

.1  features  of  the  locality  should  be  carefully  borne  in  mind ;  each  parish  or 

..ster  of  population  being  included  in  that  district,  the  principal  town  of  which  would 

be  most  easy  of  access;  and  special  regard  being  had  to  density  of  population. 

17.  Every  sanitary  jurisdiction  should  be  provided  with  a  superintending  officer  of 
health,  debarred  from  private  professional  engagements,  and  performing  a  variety  of 
most  important  public  functions*. 

And  such  sanitary  jurisdictions  should  be  an  exact  aggregate  of  a  sufficient  number 
of  smaller  districts  for  medical  visitation,  which  should  be  either  identical  with  the 
registration  sub-districts  or  subdivisions  of  them. 

18.  Recapitulation  of  practical  suggestions. 

(a.)  The  physical  geography  of  the  district,  and  the  general  character  of  its  popula- 
tion, should  be  the  main  facts  upon  which  any  revision  of  existing  territorial  divisions 
should  be  founded. 

(&.)  Areas  for  statistical  returns  should  invariably  be  co-extensive  with  those  for 
sanitary  management. 

(c.)  The  extent  of  these  areas  should  be  large  enough  to  provide  satisfactorily  for 
the  amalgamation  of  existing  smaller  jurisdictions. 

(d.)  They  should  also  be  large  enough  to  secure,  with  economy,  the  appointment 
of  a  superior  class  of  superintending  Registrars,  as  officers  of  health. 

All  these  changes  might  be  effected  without  any  offensive  sacrifice  of  existing  in- 
terests, or  violation  of  justly  established  rights. 


On  the  Progress,  Extent,  and  Value  of  the  Porcelain,  Earthenware,  and  Glass 
Manufacture  of  Glasgow.     By  John  Strang,  LL.D.,  F.S.S. 

At  the  last  meeting  of  the  British  Association  I  had  the  honour  of  bringing  before 
this  Section  a  paper  on  the  progress,  extent,  and  value  of  the  coal  and  iron  trade  of  the 
west  of  Scotland,  of  which  Glasgow  is  the  central  mart ;  and  I  now  have  the  pleasure 
of  presenting  you  with  the  past  and  present  position  of  certain  other  modern  branches 
of  industry,  which,  although  not  so  great  as  the  former,  have  tended  to  give  an  onward 
impulse  to  that  progressive  city :  I  allude  to  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  earthenware, 
glass,  and  tobacco-pipes.  Although  the  making  of  delft  or  stoneware  in  its  rudest 
style  and  forms,  and  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  in  somewhat  better  taste,  were 
there  early  introduced — the  one  in  1748  and  the  other  in  1766 — the  whole  actual 
value  of  both  these  articles  made  during  the  year  1777  amounted  only  to  £5000;  and 
although  the  manufacture  of  black  bottles  and  flint-glass  was  begun — the  one  in  1730 
and  the  other  in  1777 — the  export  of  the  former  from  the  Clyde  during  the  year  1777 
merely  reached  4760  cwts.,  and  of  the  latter  to  little  more  than  14  cwts.  The  fact  is, 
till  within  these  thirty  years,  there  was  only  one  pottery,  one  flint-glass,  and  one  bottle- 
work  in  the  city  of  Glasgow.  The  trade  in  all  these  articles  may  therefore  be  said  to 
be  but  of  yesterday,  when  it  is  stated  that  there  are  now  eight  large  potteries  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  china,  porcelain,  parian,  and  other  ware,  four  flint- 
glass  manufactories,  and  twelve  bottle-houses,  with  a  considerable  number  of  manu- 

*  See  also  *  Essays  on  State  Medicine/  pp.  50,  302,  &c. 


154 


BEPORT-^1856. 


factories  of  ornamental  vases,  chimney-tops,  gas  retorts,  drain-  and  water-pipes,  firs- 
bricks,  figures  and  fountains  from  fire-clay,  and  several  very  extensive  works,  wholly 
engaged  in  the  production  of  coarse  earthenware,  sugar  moulds,  and  drips  and  chim- 
ney caps  from  toe  red  clay  of  the  district.  For  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  more  palpa- 
bly and  clearly  the  present  extent  and  importance  of  this  almost  new  branch  of  mana- 
facture  in  Glasgow,  the  following  statistical  facts  have  been  obtained,  which  cannot 
fail  to  prove  the  rapid  rise  of  this  important  department.  During  the  year  1 854  the 
eight  manufactories  of  porcelain  and  earthenware  imported  and  used  7805  tons  of  days 
from  Dorset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall,  1240  tons  of  Cornish  stone,  and  2850  tons  of  flints, 
employing  in  all  11,895  tons  of  shipping,  while  in  these  works  were  consumed  abort 
50,000  tons  of  coals.  The  number  of  persons  employed  during  the  same  period, 
consisting  of  men,  boys,  and  girls,  were  2000,  who,  on  an  average,  gained  12#.  per 
week  of  wages  ;  making  an  aggregate  of  £62,400  paid  to  workpeople  in  the  Glasgow 
potteries  during  the  twelvemonth.  The  total  value  of  this  branch  may  be  fairly  esti- 
mated at  £120,000,  while  the  quantity  exported  in  1854  from  the  Clyde  amounted  to 
4,93 1, 166  pieces.  At  first  sight  it  might  be  supposed  that  a  manufacture  which  requires 
to  draw  such  heavy  products  as  clays,  flints,  and  Cornish  stone  from  so  great  a  distance 
would  be  disadvantageous^  placed  as  to  profit.  But  as  respects  this,  Glasgow  is  not 
less  favourably  situated  than  the  great  seat  of  the  porcelain  manufacture  in  England,— 
Staffordshire;  while  in  regard  to  the  price  of  fuel,  and  the  ready  means  of  conveyance  to 
all  parts  of  the  world,  it  is  even  more  advantageously  placed.  In  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain,  however,  there  are  a  vast  variety  of  articles  required,  in  addition  to  clays 
and  flints.  As  a  somewhat  curious  picture  of  the  variety  of  articles  which  enter  into 
the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  we  find  the  following  rather  long  list  used  in  a  Glasgow 
pottery  employing  315  persons : — 


Blue  clay 600  tons. 

China  clay    ....  500     „ 

Cornish  stone    .     .     .  300     „ 

Flints 700     „ 

Fire-clay  used  .     .     .  500     „ 

Borax  used  for  glaze  .  15     „ 

Lead      „             „  16    ,, 

Calcined  bone   ...  25    „ 
Gypsum  used  for  moulds    40    „ 

Paris  whiting     ...  12    „ 

Chromate  of  iron    .     .  1    „ 

Oxide  of  zinc    ...  15  cwt. 
Pink,    green,    black, 

brown,  and  colours  .  1200  lbs. 

Oxide  of  cobalt.     .     .  600  „ 

Paper  used  for  printing  550  reams. 
Cost  of  engraving  and 

copper     ....  .€200 

Linseed  oil  used    .     .  100  galls. 


Tar  used  with  colour    . 
Flannel  used  for  trans- 
ferring prints,  &c.    . 
Gold  used  for  gilding  . 

Straw  used  for  packing  . 

Crates  used  during  year 

Cordage  used      .     .     . 

Fire-bricks  used  for 
keeping  up  kilns  and 
slip  pans     .... 

Covers 

Granite  stone  used  for 
grinding  purposes   . 

Enginepower  for  grind- 
ing materials .     .     . 

Coals  consumed     .    . 


30  galls. 

320  yards. 
30  co, 
[pure. 
17,000  stones. 
3,000 
14  cwt 


40,000 
600 

70  tons. 

60  hone 
[steam-engine. 
5,000  tons. 


In  the  flint-glass  manufactories  of  Glasgow  there  was  produced  during  the  Tear 
1854  about  1,640,000  lbs.  of  finished  goods,  which  employed  323  persons ;  and  there 
were  used  in  these  glass-houses  330  tons  of  white  sand,  220  tons  of  red  lead,  and  115 
tons  of  saltpetre  and  pearl-ashes ;  the  wages  paid  out  of  the  manufactories  being 
£16,000,  and  the  whole  value  of  the  branch  being  about  £40,000,  while  the  quantity 
exported  from  the  Clyde  amounted  to  2262  cwt.  From  the  twelve  bottle-houses  which, 
during  1851,  employed  400  workers,  there  were  produced  bottles  to  the  extent  of 
208,000  cwt.,  or  14,992,667  bottles— the  value  of  the  branch  in  1854  being  about 
£104,000.  The  amount  of  wages  paid  was  £31,200 ;  and  the  export  from  the  Clyde 
90,430  cwt. 

In  the  manufacture  of  tobacco-pipes,  there  has  of  late  years  been  perhaps  a  greater 
proportional  advance  than  in  that  of  porcelain  or  glass.  This  is  a  handicraft  which 
may  be  said  to  belong  peculiarly  to  Glasgow,  being  carried  on  to  a  far  greater  extent 
there  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country.  Within  little  more  than  twenty  yean, 
there  were  not  above  fifty  persons  employed  in  this  manufacture  in  that  city,  and  at 


TRANSACTIONS!  OF  THB  MOTIONS.  156 

this  moment  there  are  no  fewer  than  600  persons,  who  work  up  2740  tons  of  olay,  and 
who  manufacture,  finish,  and  pack  about  2700  gross  of  pipes  per  day,  and  whose  wages 
amount  for  each  person  employed  to  about  20#.  yer  week.  The  whole  value  of  this 
manufacture  may  amount  to  £44,000. 

Assuming,  then,  all  these  statements  to  be  as  correct  as  they  probably  can  be  made, 
let  us  see  what  the  gross  value  of  these  branches  are  in  twelve  months : — 

Value  of  porcelain £  120,000 

Value  of  flint-glass 40,000 

Value  of  bottles 104,000 

Value  of  tobacco-pipes 44,000 

We  find,  also,  from  the  foregoing  statements,  that  the  number  of  persons  employed 

in  these  branches,  and  the  wages  paid,  during  one  year,  were  as  follows : 

Employed  in  porcelain  and  earthenware  manufactories, 

2000,  at  12s.  per  week £62,400 

Employed  in  flint-glass  works,  323 16,000 

Employed  in  bottle  works,  400,  at  30*.  per  week.     .     .     31^200 
Employed  in  tobacco-pipe  manufactories,  600,  at  20*.  .     31,200 
In  short,  the  foregoing  Tables  show  that  the  porcelain,  glass,  bottle,  and  tobacco-pipe 
manufactories  in  Glasgow,  produce  at  present  an  annual  value  of  £288,000,  and  give 
employment  to  3323  persons,  who  receive  for  their  labour  wages  to  the  amount  of 
£140,800. 

The  rapid  progress  which  these  several  manufactures  have  made  in  Glasgow  may 
be  chiefly  attributed  to  the  demand  which  the  foreign  trade  of  the  Clyde  has  created 
for  bulky  freight,  and  which  the  following  Table,  showing  the  number  and  tonnage  of 
the  vessels  employed  in  the  foreign  trade  at  the  harbour  of  Glasgow  alone,  will  best 
illustrate : — 

Number  of  Vessels.  Tonnage. 

1851 716 176,441 

1852 700 195,062 

1853 760 221,139 

1854 878 245,062 

1855 756 212,913 

It  is  well  known  that  Liverpool  has  long  enjoyed,  through  the  manufacturers  of 
Staffordshire,  the  desideratum  of  bulky  freight ;  and  no  sooner  had  Glasgow  become, 
as  it  has  only  done  within  twenty  years,  an  increasing  harbour  for  vessels  trading  to 
every  quarter  of  the  globe,  than  it  was  found,  that  while  she  could  furnish  abundance  of 
heavy  freight  in  the. shape  of  pig,  malleable  iron,  and  coal,  she  was  deficient  in  such 
bulky  articles  as  coarse  earthenware,  common  porcelain,  flint,  and  bottle  glass  and 
china  to  fill  up  the  space  unoccupied  by  finer  goods.  It  is  probable,  therefore,  that 
the  manufactures  whose  progress  we  have  been  attempting  to  illustrate  will  go  on  in- 
creasing with  the  increase  of  foreign  commerce,  and  that  the  increase  of  these  will  in 
future  be  chiefly  excited  and  marked  by  the  increasing  tonnage  employed  in  the 
foreign  trade  from  the  harbour  of  Glasgow  and  the  other  lower  ports  of  the  Clyde. 


On  the  Money-rate  of  Wages  of  Labour  in  Glasgow  and  the  West  of  Scotland. 
By  John  Strang,  LL.D.,  F.S.S. 

A  correct  chronicle  of  wages,  as  applied  to  different  kinds  of  manufactures  and  hand- 
crafts, combined  with  (he  changing  cost  of  the  necessaries  and  even  the  common 
luxuries  of  life,  would  form  one  of  the  most  valuable  contributions  to  economic  science. 
While  the  rate  of  these  would  at  once  mark  the  advance  or  fall  on  the  value  of  labour 
at  particular  epochs,  it  would,  at  the  same  time,  note  the  changes  which  have  taken 
place  in  the  value  of  labour  as  applied  to  particular  distinct  handicrafts;  and  if  the 
money-rate  were  farther  measured  by  the  cost  of  the  great  necessaries  of  existence, 
would  give  a  pretty  clear  insight  into  the  social  condition  of  the  labourer  at  any  period 
of  the  country's  history.  As  a  humble  contribution  to  this  chronicle  of  labour,  I  have 
now  to  present  you  with  a  comparative  statement  of  the  rate  of  wages  in  one  of  the 
most  important  of  the  labour  marts  of  Great  Britain,  I  mean  the  City  of  Glasgow  and 
its  neighbourhood ;  and  for  this  purpose  I  shall  select,  from  the  long  list  of  mechanics, 


156  report— 1856, 

handicraftsmen,  and  labourers,  a  few  of  those  who  are  engaged  on  the  prodnctioa  tf 
the  great  staples  that  belong  to  that  district,  premising  that  the  following  facts  u 
general  are  based  on  returns  made  to  me  by  some  of  the  leading  mannfartmen, 
engineers,  ironmasters,  and  builders  of  the  city  and  surrounding  district,  and  that  they 
are  not  general  estimates,  but  are  founded  on  the  actual  wages-books  of  the  several 
concerns  to  which  they  apply.  Let  us  commence  with  the  cotton-spinners  and  power* 
loom  weavers,  of  whom  in  the  West  of  Scotland,  Glasgow  is  the  central  mart,  sod 
whose  numbers  amount  at  present  to  about  30,000.  It  appears  the  average  wages  of 
those  persons  were  as  follows  at  the  three  different  periods  of  1841, 1851,  and  1866:— 

1841.      1851.         1856. 

Power-loom  weavers — average  per  week 7* .       7*.  3d.       Ss.  3d. 

Cotton-spinners — average  per  week 21*.     2 It.  Od.     20*.  to  35*. 

From  these  figures,  it  appears  that  the  wages  in  this  department  of  manufactures  hare 
been  gradually  rising  since  1841.  While  this  has  been  generally  the  case,  it  may 
however  be  remarked  that  not  more  but  even  less  has  been  paid  for  weaving  for  each, 
piece  of  cloth,  and  for  spinning  each  hank  of  yarn.  In  the  case  of  cotton-spinners  is 
particular,  matters  have  so  changed,  and  mills  and  machines  have  been  so  altered  in 
productive  power,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  correct  average  of  wages 
at  present  paid :  for  while  in  the  older  factories  a  spinner  cannot  gain  more  thai 
20*.  a  week,  in  the  new  mills,  possessing  all  the  advantages  of  improved  machinery, 
his  wages  may  even  reach  35*.  In  the  one  a  man  manages  500  spindles,  whereas  m 
another  he  can  superintend  1500  or  2000.  In  proof  of  this  I  may  mention  that  five 
and  thirty  years  ago  the  spinner  of  the  finest  or  highest  numbers  of  yarn  had  only 
about  150  spindles  to  each  jenny  to  attend  to,  whereas  now  in  the  factories  where  the 
finest  numbers  of  yarns  are  spun,  one  individual  can  easily  manage  880  spindles,  and 
these  two  are  annually  on  the  increase.  In  short,  in  cotton-spinning  and  power-loom 
weaving  the  advance  of  wages  has  arisen  principally  from  increased  production  in  con* 
sequence  of  improvements  in  machinery.  It  must  also  be  kept  in  mind  that  weavers 
and  spinners  worked  69  hours  in  1841  and  only  60  in  1851,  and  hence  received  more 
money  for  less  labour. 

Let  us  next  advert  to  the  wages  of  two  of  the  most  important  manufactures  of  die 
West  of  Scotland,  I  mean  the  rates  obtained  by  the  workmen  employed  in  mines  and 
iron-works,  whose  numbers  in  the  year  1854-55  amounted  to  33,900,  and  whose  united 
wages  during  these  twelve  months  reached  the  large  sum  of  £  1,976,000.  Average 
rate  of  mining  labour  for  the  last  five  years: — 

Per  day. 
From  January,     1852,  till  October,     1852,  inclusive 2s.  6d. 

„      November,  1852,  „  January,    1853,       „  3s.  Od 

„      February,    1853,   „  August,      1853,       „  3s.  6d. 

„      September,  1853,  „  October,     1853,       „  4*.  Od. 

„      November,  1853,  „  December  1853,       4*.  6d. 

„      January,     1854,,,   January,    1855,       , Ss.0d. 

„      February,   1855,  „  September  1855,      4*.  Od. 

„      October,      1855,  „  March,       1856,       , 5*.  OdL 

„      April,  1856,  „  August,       1856,       „  4*.  Od. 

Average  rate  of  wages  paid  to  workmen  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  nig  and 
malleable  iron : — 

„,       .  ,_  ,  1852.       1853.        1854.        1855.       1856. 

Blast  furnace-keepers,  per  day  ..   5s.  Od.     6s.  3d.      6s.  Sd.      6s.  8d.     7*.  9* 

Do.  assistants,  per  day 3*.  2d.      3s.  Id.      As.  2d.      As.  2d.      4*m  9d. 

Do.  fillers        ,,  2s.3d.      3s.  Ad.     3s.  XOd.    3s.  9d.      As.  2d. 

Puddlers,  incldinc  under  hands..    7s.  6d.    10s.  3d.    10s.6d.    10*.  Od.    I0s.0d. 

Rollers  (chief  rollers)     10*.  Od.    14*.  Od.    14s.  6d.    13*.  6d.    13*.  64 

Labourers U.  6d.      1*.  lOrf.    2*.  \d.      2s.0d.      2s.  Od. 

From  the  foregoing  statements,  it  appears  that  there  has  been  a  gradual  but  important 
rise  in  the  wages  of  those  employed  in  the  coal  and  ironstone  mines,  as  well  as  of  those 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  pig  and  malleable  iron ;  in  the  former,  from  2s.  64. 
a  day,  in  October,  1852,  to  5s.  in  March  last ;  and  in  the  latter  of  from  25  to  50  per 
cent,  on  the  wages  paid  to  the  labourers  connected  with  the  working  of  the  blast 
furnaces  and  the  rolling  and  puddling  of  iron  since  1852 :  and  when  the  number  of 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  15 7 

men  connected  with  these  several  departments  is  remembered,  being  nearly  34,000, 
such  a  rise  cannot  fail  to  involve  most  important  consequences.  The  third  point  to 
which  we  would  call  attention,  is  the  wages  of  engineers  and  mechanics — a  very  large 
class  of  workers  in  Glasgow  and  its  neighbourhood.  The  following  is  the  average 
rate  of  engineers'  wages  per  day  (of  ten  hours)  during  the  last  six  years : — 

Shillings. 

1851 3-43 

1852 3-52 

1853 3-82 

1854 3-97 

1855 3*99 

1856 4 

From  the  foregoing  Table  it  is  quite  plain  that  the  wages  paid  to  engineers  and 
mechanics  during  these  last  six  years  have  been  progressively  advancing,  and  shows 
since  1851  to  the  present  time  a  rise  of  about  14  per  cent. 

The  fourth  subject  to  which  we  would  allude  is  that  of  building,  or  house  con- 
struction. In  so  growing  a  city  as  Glasgow,  which,  with  its  suburbs,  has  a  population 
at  present  of  not  less  than  400,000,  and  whose  rate  of  increase  from  births  over  deaths 
ana  immigration  amounts  annually  to  about  3f  per  cent,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  very 
large  the  employment  must  be  of  those  engaged  in  this  business.  Of  the  many 
handicraftsmen  engaged  in  constructing  houses,  warehouses,  and  other  buildings,  we 
shall,  however,  limit  ourselves  to  stone  auarriers,  masons,  carpenters,  and  labourers. 
The  following  is  the  rate  of  wages  paid  to  quarriers  from  1851  to  1856 : — 

1851 16*.  per  week  of  60  hours. 

1852 16*.        „  „ 

1853 17*. 

1854 19*.        „  „ 

1855 20*. 

1856 22*.         „  „ 

Or  a  rise  of  6*.  per  week,  or  about  37  per  cent,  since  1851. 
The  following  is  the  average  rate  paid  to  masons  :— 

Per  week. 

During  summer  of  1850  and  1851 , 21*. 

„       winter    of  1850  and  1851  18*. 

„        summer  of  1852 21*.  and  18*. 

n  »  1853 23*.  9d.,  Tth  less  in  winter. 

1854 25*. 

1855 25*.  „ 

1856 25*. 

For  the  last  three  years  masons  have  restricted  themselves  to  57  hours' work  per  week; 
previous  to  this,  they  worked  60  hours ;  and  there  is  a  prevalent  feeling  among  this 
class)  of  craftsmen  still  further  to  reduce  the  hours  of  labour. 

The  following  is  the  rate  of  the  wages  paid  to  carpenters  and  joiners,  from  1850  to 
1855  inclusive  :— 

1850  (average  during  year) 21*.  6d.  per  week  of  60  hours. 

1851  „  21*.  Od.  „ 

1852  „  22*.  Od. 

1853  „  23*.  Od. 

1854  „  24*.  Od.        57  hours. 

1855  „  24*.0rf. 

or  an  advance  of  2*.  6d.  per  week,  with  a  reduction  during  the  last  two  years  of 
the  series  of  three  hours  on  the  week's  work.  At  the  present  moment  the  rate  of 
wages1  paid  to  carpenters  and  joiners  is  5d.  per  hour  for  whatever  time  they  are 
working,  without  reference  to  weeks ;  but  the  stated  time  is  57  hours  per  week,  or 
23*.  9a.  per  week j  or,  should  they  work  the  day  of  10  hours,  4*.  2d.  per  day.  This 
shows  the  advance  on  the  wages  of  this  handicraft  to  have  been  4*.  6d.  per  week. 

The  following  is  the  rate  of  wages  paid  to  common  labourers,  connected  with  all 
matters  of  house  construction : — 


158  report — 1856. 

1850,  1851,  and  1852 13*.  per  week. 

1853   14*.      „ 

1854    17*.      „ 

1855    17*.      „ 

1856   17*.      „ 

Thus  the  rise  has  been  greater  on  unskilled  than  even  skilled  labour,  being  5*.,  or 
upwards  of  40  per  cent.  These  labourers  are  almost  exclusively  Irish ;  and,  strange  to 
say,  that  while  in  tbe  north  of  Ireland,  within  30  miles  of  Belfast,  labourers  can  be  got 
from  1*.  to  1*.  6d.  per  day,  or  6*.  to  9*.  per  week,  with  the  cost  of  transit  per  steam  to 
Glasgow  of  from  2*.  6d.  to  4*.,  the  flow  of  Irish  immigration  to  Glasgow  has  greatly 
diminished. 

It  would  be  easy  for  me  to  multiply  examples  of  the  advance  which  has  taken 
place  in  tbe  rate  of  wages  from  almost  every  class  of  workmen  during  the  last  five 
years,  an  advance  whicn  has  now  reached  the  long  sinking  employment  of  the  hand- 
loom  weaver.  For  a  long  period  the  position  of  those  connected  with  this  last 
employment  had  been  gradually  lowering,  till  at  length  it  became  pitiful  indeed. 
The  facility  with  which  the  art  can  be  learned,  the  numbers  which  unfortunately 
rushed  to  this  work,  frequently  creating  an  equal  competition  between  the  man  and 
the  child,  coupled  with  the  competition  of  power-loom  labour,  are  assuredly  some 
of  the  causes  which  have  produced  the  great  fall  during  these  thirty  years  past  in  this 
species  of  handicraft.  But  whatever  the  causes  may  have  been  for  sinking  the  value 
of  hand-loom  labour,  it  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  the  average  rate  of  weekly  wages, 
as  furnished  me  by  two  or  three  of  the  leading  manufacturing  houses  in  Glasgow, 
being  at  present  from  6*.  to  7*.  Id,  per  week,  is  indeed  a  miserable  pittance  even 
when  measured  by  the  reduced  prices  which  have  taken  place  in  every  article  of 
consumption  and  clothing  since  1825,  when  the  wages  was  13*.  6d.  per  week.  The 
following  is  a  progressive  statement  of  the  average  wages  earned  by  the 
loom  weavers  from  1825,  marking  the  periods  when  the  reductions  took  place: 


1825 13*.  6d. 

1827 9s.  Od. 

1829 7*.  6d. 

1831 6*.  6d. 

1834 8*.  Od. 

1837 7*.  0<*. 


1848 6*.0rf. 

1851 5s.  Sd. 

1852 6*.  9rf. 

1853 7*.0rf. 

1856 7*.0<*. 


It  will  be  observed  from  the  foregoing  statement,  that  the  late  advance  in  wages  hat 
even  reached  those  miserably  paid  workmen,  the  wages  in  1851  being  5*.  Sd.  per 
week,  whereas,  in  1856,  the  average  is  7*.  Id.  It  is  gratifying  to  state  that  the  hand- 
loom  weavers  are  fast  diminishing  in  Glasgow,  although  in  the  villages  and 
towns  around  they  still  maintain  their  numbers.  That  they  should  do  so,  is 
at  first  sight  surprising,  when  other  branches  of  manufacture  offer  such  high 
wages  for  labour.  There  is,  however,  some  compensation  to  the  hand-loom  weaver 
which  the  factory  workman  and  the  artisan  do  not  enjoy — I  allude  to  the  feeling 
that  they  are  their  own  masters,  can  work  short  or  long,  fate  or  early,  in  the  gardes 
or  in  the  shop,  and  that  without  any  detriment  to  their  web— -that  they  can  employ 
their  wives  and  children  either  as  adjuncts  or  assistants  in  their  own  labour,  and  can 
thus  eke  out  a  tolerable  subsistence  without  the  restraints  imposed  on  many  of  their 
more  money-gaining  brethren. 

The  deduction  which  may  be  gathered  from  the  foregoing  statements  and  figures  is 
simply  this :— That  during  the  last  five  or  six  years  a  gradual  and  permanent  rise  seems 
to  have  been  established  in  all  wages  connected  with  the  leading  manufactures  of  Glasgow, 
and  we  may  almost  add,  throughout  Great  Britain  and  Ireland ;  and  that,  too,  even  in 
the  face  of  the  reduction  which  has  been  made  in  the  hours  of  labour.  And  were  we 
to  carry  the  inquiry  further,  and  place  in  a  comparative  table  the  price  of  the  chief 
articles  of  consumption  which  enter  into  the  domestic  economy  of  the  artisan  and 
labourer,  since  the  period  when  the  policy  of  this  country  was  directed,  to  relieve  net 
only  all  the  great  necessaries  of  life  from  fiscal  burdens,  but  to  reduce,  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, the  duties  exigible  on  those  articles  of  luxury,  such  as  tea,  sugar,  oofiee,  &&, 
which  more  particularly  enter  into  the  consumption  of  the  labouring  classes ;— it  may  be 
fairly  affirmed  that  this  most  important  body  of  the  community  is  at  the  present  mo- 
ment placed  in  a  more  enviable  position  in  the  social  scale  than  they  mete  ever  ssv> 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SB0TION8.  159 

merly  in  this  country,  or  are  perhaps  to  be  found  in  any  quarter  of  the  globe.  From 
the  foregoing  facts,  and  from  the  results  of  the  policy  pursued  by  the  Government,  it 
is  quite  certain  that  the  industrious  man  never  knew  a  period  in  which,  if  he  could  only 
be  temperate  and  frugal,  he  might  more  easily  save  money ;  and  could  he  only  be 
induced  to  eschew  the  whisky  shop,  and  turn  his  footsteps  to  the  Savings '  Bank,  he 
would  speedily  find  himself  more  comfortable,  independent,  and  happy,  than  the  mass 
ef  his  fellow-labourers,  whose  increased  means  are  but  too  frequently  devoted  to  the 
gratification  of  the  grosser  passions  of  humanity. 

On  some  Statistics  bearing  upon  the  Relations  existing  between  Poverty  and 
Crime.  By  W.  M.  Tartt,  M.S. A. 

After  alluding  to  the  crimes  committed  by  those  who  were  in  the  enjoyment  not 
merely  of  competence  but  of  luxury,  Mr.  Tartt  contended,  that,  although  poverty  might 
be  a  predisposing  state,  it  was  rarely  an  immediate  cause  of  crime  till  it  became  allied 
with  drunkenness  and  ignorance.  It  was  proved  by  prison  returns  from  the  manufac- 
turing districts  of  Lancashire,  that  crime  nad  increased  during  periods  of  prosperity, 
and  diminished  (sometimes  to  the  extent  of  40  per  cent.)  in  immediately  succeeding 
periods  of  adversity ;  plenty  leading  to  vicious  indulgence,  while  poverty  was  the  severe 
teacher  of  economy  and  restraint.  In  addition  to  the  more  minute  details  furnished 
by  the  chaplain  of  the  County- House  of  Correction  at  Preston  (the  Rev.  W.  Clay),  and 
quoted  in  the  paper  now  read,  it  was  shown  by  the  reports  of  the  chief  constable  for 
Manchester,  that  the  committals  and  summary  convictions  in  that  borough  for  the 
prosperous  years  1844*45  were  10,436,  and  that  for  the  two  years  of  distress  which 
followed,  they  were  only  7635.  It  seemed  admitted  by  all  who  came  in  contact  with 
the  administration  of  criminal  law,  that  the  two  great  causes  of  crime  amongst  the 
lower  classes  are  drunkenness  and  ignorance ;  and  it  was  shown  by  the  returns  which 
were  now  before  them,  that  the  greater  proportion  of  the  crimes  committed  were  directly 
or  indirectly  to  be  traced  to  drunkenness.  At  the  assizes  for  Lancashire  in  the  year 
ending  March  1 854,  out  of  380  of  the  worst  cases,  250  (including  9  murders)  were 
traceable  to  this  vice.  Much  of  it  is  the  result  of  ignorance,  and  of  the  consequent 
inaptitude  to  find  amusement  in  better  things.  To  show  the  extent  to  which  it  pre- 
vails, it  was  stated  that  of  the  male  prisoners  who  came  under  the  notice  of  Mr.  Clay 
In  1853  and  1854,  1088  (or  41  per  cent,  of  the  whole)  were  incapable  of  reading  at  all ; 
938  (or  36  per  oent)  were  unable  to  repeat  the  Lord's  prayer  with  any  approach  to 
accuracy  in  the  words  or  proper  comprehension  of  their  meaning;  and  1836  (or  72 
par  cent.)  were  unable  to  understand  the  import  of  the  plainest  language  necessary  to 
convey  instruction  in  moral  and  religious  truth.  The  Liverpool  police  returns  showed 
a  similar  result;  and  they  pretty  nearly  confirmed  the  calculations  of  Mr.  Porter  for  an 
average  of  thirteen  years  from  1836-1848.  They  cannot  be  taken  as  evidence  on  the 
general  question  of  education :  they  merely  refer  to  the  connexion  between  ignorance 
and  crime.  The  remedy  was  our  great  difficulty.  One  of  the  judges  (Mr.  Justice 
Wightman)  had  more  than  once  declared  his  helier,  "  that  drunkenness  would  ultimately 
be  eradicated  by  moral  and  religious  instruction.  He  did  not  depend  so  much  upon 
the  knowledge  acquired,  as  upon  the  habit  of  discipline  and  self-restraint  consequent 
upon  better  education  ;  and  the  creation  of  a  tone  of  self-respect  which  might  ope- 
rate as  a  check  upon  disgraceful  or  degrading  conduct."  Something  might  also  be 
effected  by  example.  The  lower  classes  were,  at  times,  encouraged  in  their  vices  by 
ike  conduct  of  those  above  them ;  and  as  temperance  has  now  been  substituted  for 
debasing  excesses  in  the  one,  the  same  change  may,  before  long,  be  witnessed  in  the 
other.  But,  above  all,  we  should  endeavour  to  get  rid  of  the  monstrous  anomaly  of 
raising  revenue  from  the  vices  of  the  people ;  for  whatever  may  be  shown  by  tabulated 
returns,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  the  establishment  of  beer-houses  has  been  the 
greatest  incentive  to  crime  that  was  ever  sanctioned  by  legislative  enactment 

It  is,  under  every  aspect,  one  of  the  most  important  questions  to  which  our  attention 
can  be  directed. 


A  Deduction  from  the  Statistics  of  Crime  for  the  last  Ten  Years. 
By  Professor  R.  H.  Walsh,  LL.D. 
A  theory  has  lately  grown  up,  that  when  the  people  suffer  privation  they  refrain  from 


160  REPORT 1856. 

crime,  but  fall  into  excesses  when  prosperity  returns.  This  notion,  opposed  to  Ike 
malesuada  fatnet  of  the  poet,  is  based  on  some  criminal  statistics,  principally  composed 
of  the  records  of  summary  convictions  in  a  few  localities.  But  it  is  not  fair  to  esti- 
mate the  morality  of  a  nation  by  the  number  of  petty  offences  committed  in  one  or 
two  districts,  or  even  throughout  the  entire  country.  The  returns  of  the  summary 
convictions  before  magistrates  do  not  afford  a  correct  test  either  of  the  number  of 
prohibited  acts  committed,  or  of  the  guilt  of  the  perpetrators.  Most  of  the  offences 
which  swell  these  returns  are  of  a  most  trivial  character ;  and  at  one  time  the  acts 
which  constitute  such  offences  are  committed  with  impunity,  while  at  another  the 
excessive  vigilance  of  the  police  and  over-energy  of  the  public  in  the  assertion  of  their 
rights,  let  nothing  escape.  But  even  if  these  alternate  fits  of  remissness  and  seal  (the 
necessary  consequences  of  the  petty  nature  and  trivial  character  of  the  offences  is 
question)  did  not  occur,  and  the  summary  convictions  afforded  a  true  representatka 
of  the  quantum  of  prohibited  acts  committed,  the  test  they  furnish  must  be  objected 
to.  The  accurate  measure  of  crime  is  to  be  found  in  the  returns  of  offences  sent  fir 
trial  to  assizes  and  quarter  sessions.  These  are  usually  of  a  serious  and  well-defined 
character ;  and  for  that  very  reason,  the  acts  which  constitute  them  are  rarely  committed 
without  being  made  the  subject  of  legal  investigation.  These  are  the  returns  to  be 
employed  in  measuring  the  morality  of  a  nation,  and  they  should  not  be  mixed  up 
with  the  summary  convictions.  To  do  so  is  to  be  guilty  of  the  absurdity  of  confound- 
ing together,  as  if  they  were  on  a  footing  of  equality,  the  most  serious  offences  and 
trifling  misdemeanors,  and  placing  in  the  same  category  with  the  robber  and  the 
murderer  the  man  who  slights  the  dignity  of  a  policeman,  heedlessly  offends  an  irasci- 
ble wayfarer,  or  happens  to  drive  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  road.  The  returns  of  the 
committals  for  trial  at  assizes  and  quarter  sessions  in  England  and  Wales  from  1844  to 
1854  (the  last  year  for  which  they  have  been  published),  show  clearly  that  crime 
increases  when  the  physical  condition  of  the  people  deteriorates,  and  vice  veni. 
In  1844  the  number  of  committals  was  26,542;  in  1845,  24,303;  1846,  25,107; 
1847,28,833;  1848,30,349;  1849,  27,816;  1850,26,813;  1851,27,960;  1852, 
27,510 ;  1853,  27,057 ;  and  in  1854,  29,359.  The  first  year  in  which  the  commhtak 
increased  is  1 847,  a  year  of  distress ;  the  rise  then  being  nearly  4000.  This  rise  was 
maintained  with  an  addition  of  nearly  1500  in  1 848,  likewise  a  year  of  distress,  partly 
owing  to  the  same  causes  as  in  1847,  and  partly  on  account  of  political  disturbances 
and  apprehensions.  In  1849,  the  causes  which  before  had  depressed  the  condition  of 
the  labourer  died  away.  Food  was  cheap  and  employment  abundant.  Emigra- 
tion had  removed  many  of  the  working  classes,  and  those  who  remained  at  home  found 
the  demand  for  their  services  increased ;  and  in  that  year  we  find  the  committals  de- 
cline by  nearly  2500.  The  succeeding  years  were  likewise  seasons  of  prosperity,  and 
during  these  the  criminal  returns  exhibit  no  marked  fluctuation.  In  the  last  year  of 
the  series,  the  number  of  committals  rose  by  a  little  over  2000,  but  at  the  same 
time  the  condition  of  the  people  was  impaired  owing  to  the  enhanced  price  of  food  and 
other  necessaries  of  life,  and  also  to  the  waste  of  the  national  resources  and  partial 
derangement  of  trade  occasioned  by  the  war.  It  may  be  observed  in  conclusion,  that, 
if  the  number  of  committals  in  1844  was  but  26,542  and  in  1854  29,359,  the  popula- 
tion had  increased  in  the  interval  in  a  greater  proportion.  The  criminal  returns  for 
Ireland  tell  a  similar  tale,  when  we  take  into  account  the  changes  experienced  in  the 
physical  condition  of  the  people.  Indeed,  the  lesson  is  the  more  instructive  from  the 
fact  of  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  people  having  been  greater  than  those  ex- 
perienced in  England,  so  that  the  corresponding  fluctuations  in  crime  exhibit  mors 
strongly  the  marked  connexion  between  the  two.  During  the  years  of  distress  the 
committals  rose  to  over  40,000,  and  when  prosperity  visited  the  land  they  fell  to  less 
than  a  fourth  of  that  number.  The  returns  of  the  summary  convictions  (as  might  be 
expected^  do  not  exhibit  in  their  fluctuations  any  constant  relation  to  the  changes  in 
the  physical  condition  of  the  people ;  but,  as  far  as  they  go,  they  more  frequently 
follow  the  same  than  an  opposite  course  to  that  of  the  other  criminal  returns.  So 
much  for  the  results  of  the  statistics  of  summary  convictions,  the  class  of  offences  from 
which  it  had  been  inferred  that  poverty  and  privation  are  conducive  to  popular 
morality.  But,  taking  the  statistics  of  real  and  formidable  offences,  we  arrive  at  the  more 
agreeable  conclusion,  that,  when  the  people  are  comfortable,  they  are  well-conducted; 
while  it  is  only  when  they  suffer  privation,  that  a  general  increase  of  crime  takes  place. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  161 

On  the  Present  Export  of  Silver  to  the  East.  By  Prof.  R.  H.  Walsh,  LL.D. 

So  far  back  as  the  time  when  Pliny  termed  it  the  sink  of  the  precious  metals,  silver 
was  a  favourite  article  of  export  to  the  East.  It  has  continued  so  since ;  but  the  trade 
of  late  has  assumed  an  extraordinary  magnitude.  In  the  five  years  prior  to  the  present 
over  £22,000,000  worth  of  silver  have  been  exported  to  the  East  through  England 
alone,  and  from  other  countries  a  similar  movement  has  been  in  operation.  The 
export  in  1 855  was  £6,400,000 ;  and  this  year  it  is  proceeding  at  the  rate  of  over 
£9,000,000  per  annum,  judging  from  the  returns  that  have  been  published  for  the  first 
four  months.  Unlike  the  old  movemeut,  the  preaent  cannot  be  permanent  The 
former  was  seldom  more  than  might  be  accounted  for  as  the  distribution  of  silver  to 
some  of  its  chief  consumers — the  nations  of  the  East — according  as  new  supplies  were 
raised  elsewhere.  It  was,  in  fact,  the  ordinary  movement  from  the  producer  to  the 
consumer.  But  now  silver  goes  faster  to  the  East  than  it  is  produced  throughout  the 
world.  Hence  the  process  cannot  be  permanent,  but  must  come  to  an  end  as  soon 
as  the  re-distribution  of  the  old  stock  has  been  effected ;  for  the  annual  production  of 
silver  is  only  about  £8,000,000,  and  since  the  export  to  the  East  through  England 
alone  is  at  the  rate  of  over  £9,000,000,  it  follows  that  it  cannot  be  the  new  supplies  of 
silver  which  meet  that  demand  and  all  others  for  the  same  metal,  but  there  must  be 
some  auxiliary  fund  to  be  drawn  upon.  Such  a  fund  is  furnished  by  a  cessation  in 
the  demand  for  silver  in  several  countries  which  before  employed  it  most  largely,  but 
now  use  gold  instead.  In  a  paper  brought  before  this  Association  at  Glasgow  last 
September,  I  had  occasion  to  notice  that  silver,  which  used  to  be  coined  in  France  and 
the  United  States  at  an  average  rate  of  £4,000,000  per  annum,  is  now  little  employed, 
while  much  of  the  old  coin  of  that  metal  is  melted  down  and  exported.  In  France,  it 
is  said,  that  in  one  year,  1853,  so  much  as  j£l 2,000,000  was  disposed  of  in  this  man- 
ner, and  that  the  operation  has  since  been  proceeding  at  a  still  greater  rate.  All  this 
acts  in  the  same  way  as  if  a  silver  California  had  been  discovered.  No  one  thinks  it 
extraordinary  that  gold  is  exported  on  a  large  scale  from  the  auriferous  regions  to  the 
various  nations  which  use  that  metal ;  but  it  is  quite  as  natural  to  suppose  that  when 
large  supplies  of  silver  are  thrown  upon  the  market  (it  matters  not  whether  newly 
extracted  from  the  earth,  or  just  taken  from  the  melting-pot),  they  would  find  their 
way  to  those  places  where  silver  is  generally  employed.  India,  China,  and  other  East- 
ern nations  come  under  this  description,  and  hence  the  late  extraordinary  exportation. 
As  this  cause  is  a  novel  one,  there  is  an  inclination  on  the  part  of  some  who  call  them- 
selves practical  men  to  adopt  any  other  rather  than  it.  Experience  gives  no  instance 
of  any  such,  and  hence  those  who  look  to  their  personal  expenence  alone  are  completely 
at  fault  when  discussing  this  question.  Some  talk  of  the  balance  of  trade;  others  of 
an  increased  importation  of  tea  and  silk  from  China;  and  a  third  set  of  investigators 
enunciate  details  of  the  machinery  of  the  foreign  exchanges  by  which  the  transmission 
is  effected.  But  such  persons  forget  that  the  export  of  silver  is  just  as  likely  in  the 
abstract  to  be  the  cause  as  the  effect  of  the  "  balance,"  or  "  increased  importation,"  in 
which  they  dogmatically  assume  it  originated  ;  and  that,  as  for  the  details  of  the  foreign 
exchanges,  they  merely  tell  us  how  and  not  why  the  export  takes  place.  Yet  all  this 
u  said  while  the  question  presents  no  difficulty  whatsoever,  when  two  facts  are  noticed 
in  juxtaposition, — one,  the  great  cessation  in  the  demand  for  silver  in  countries  which 
employ  a  double  standard ;  the  other,  the  circumstance  that  the  Eastern  nations 
habitually  use  silver  on  a  large  scale,  especially  in  their  currency.  After  that  there 
is  nothing  to  be  said  to  complete  the  explanation,  except  to  call  to  mind  that  when 
the  supply  of  any  article  is  unusually  great  compared  with  the  number  of  consumers, 
it  must  find  its  way  to  these  latter  in  quantities  proportionally  augmented ;  and  that 
such  is  the  case  at  present  with  the  article  silver,  the  principal  consumers  of  which 
are  the  nations  of  the  East 


Concluding  Address.     By  R.  Monckton  Milnes,  M .P. 

In  the  absence  of  Lord  Stanley,  Mr.  Monckton  Milnes,  a  Vice-President  of  the  Section, 
gave  a  summary  of  the  proceedings  of  the  Section.  He  remarked  on  the  small  proportion 
of  papers  that  had  been  read  bearing  on  political  economy  when  compared  with  the 
papers  on  other  subjects.     They  were,  no  doubt,  aware  that  there  were  French  and 

1S56.  11 


162  report — 1856. 

American  economists  who  disputed  the  very  fundamental  principles  of  political  < 
as  laid  down  by  Adam  Smith  and  Ricardo,  and  he  should  be  glad  if  the  memben  of 
the  British  Association  would  make  this  subject  their  study.  In  reviewing  the  papea, 
he  particularly  alluded  to  the  paper  on  the  *  Credit  Mobilier  *  of  France,  and  expressed 
his  fear  that  it  would  lead  to  the  wildest  speculations,  such  as  could  not  occur  in  any 
country  without  creating  the  greatest  social  disorganization.  The  Credit  Mobilier 
had  this  peculiarity,  that  it  was  not  like  the  great  commercial  crises  which  had  fall** 
in  our  own  time,  which  had  arisen  from  over-employment  of  capital  in  public  works 
by  the  authors  and  promoters  of  these  works ;  the  speculators  were  ruined,  but  tk 
works  remained.  This  was  not  the  case  with  the  Credit  Mobilier,  which  encouraged 
speculations  for  the  advantage  of  a  mere  body  of  capitalists,  who,  by  their  very  systea, 
liberate  themselves  from  all  personal  responsibility  and  all  interest  in  the  works  under- 
taken, and  thus  give  encouragement  to  every  extravagance,  without  even  the  pretence 
of  any  permanent  public  utility.  He  believed  the  greatest  political  danger  was  likely 
to  result  from  evils  of  this  kind,  and  hoped  that  British  capitalists  would  take  no  part 
in  so  unsound  a  system.  He  also  commented  on  the  papers  on  social  subjects  which 
had  been  read,  especially  on  those  connected  with  the  reformation  of  young  offender*, 
for  which  object  he  had  brought  a  Bill  into  Parliament  ten  years  ago,  and  which  was 
now  bringing  forth  abundant  fruit.  Crime  might,  under  certain  circumstances,  as  had 
beerf  shown,  be  increased  by  national  prosperity,  but  it  might  be  diminished  by  mors! 
training  and  true  education. 


MECHANICAL  SCIENCE. 
On  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel  without  Fuel.     By  H.  Bessemer. 

On  the  Manufacture  of  the  large-wrought  Iron  Gun,  and  other  Masses  of 
Iron  made  at  the  Mersey  Iron  Works,  Liverpool,     By  W.  Clay. 

On  the  Application  of  Corrugated  Metal  to  Ships,  Boats,  and  other  Floating 
Bodies.     By  Major  V.  Eras. 


On  a  Method  of  uniting  Iron  with  Iron  or  other  Metals  without  welding, 
invented  by  M.  Sisco  of  Paris.    By  Dr.  Greene. 

On  a  New  Railway  Break,  invented  by  M.  Sisco  of  Paris.    By  Dr.  Greene* 

On  the  Inundation  of  Rivers.    By  Professor  Hennessy. 

Explorations  through  the  Valley  of  the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific  in  search  of  a 
Route  for  a  Ship-canal.    By  F.  M.  Kelley,  of  New  York, 

Several  surveying  expeditions  have  been  sent  by  Mr.  Kelley  into  this  region,  sad 
much  valuable  information  has  resulted.  But  the  chief  result  is  a  conviction  of  ths 
feasibility  of  a  ship-canal  through  the  isthmus.  The  most  recent  of  Mr.  Kelley (s  ex- 
plorers, Mr.  Kennish,  proposes  to  enter  the  Atrato  by  the  Cano  Coouito.  The  great- 
est depth  on  the  bar  is  about  4  ft.  at  low  water ;  the  soundings  gradually  deepen,  and 
become  30  ft.  within  2  miles,  when  the  depth  increases  to  47  ft.,  and  is  nowhere  lea 
up  to  the  Truando.  The  width  varies  from  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to  2  miles,  and  the  re- 
moval of  the  bar  would  allow  of  the  transit  of  the  largest  steamers.  The  continence 
of  the  Truando  is  about  63  miles  from  the  Gulf,  and  that  river  forms  the  channel  of 
the  proposed  line  for  36  miles.  The  line  then  follows  the  valley  of  the  Nerqua  through 
rock-cutting,  and  passes  the  summit  by  a  tunnel  of  3 J  miles.  It  reaches  tat 
Pacific  through  the  valley  of  a  small  stream,  and  debouches  at  Kelley 's  Inlet.     In  the 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS. 


163 


valley  of  the  Atrato,  300  miles  long  and  75  broad,  and  lying  between  the  Antiocbian 
mountains  on  the  east  and  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  on  the  west,  rain  fella  alnuftt 
daily,  which  accounts  for  the  immense  supply  of  water  in  that  region.  On  the  Pacific 
side  of  the  Cordillera  there  is  scarcely  any  rain  for  eight  months  of  the  year.  The 
greater  portion  of  the  rain  falling  in  the  Atrato  valley  is  caught  above  the  confluence 
of  the  Truando.  Fifteen  large  tributaries  and  numerous  smaller  streams  fall  into  the 
Atrato  and  contribute  to  the  immense  lagoons,  which  form  natural  reservoirs  and  a 
superabundant  store  of  water  throughout  the  year.  There  are  various  cogent  reasons 
for  selecting  the  confluence  of  the  Truando  as  the  best  point  from  whence  the  passage 
from  the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific  may  be  effected.  In  the  first  place,  there  is  no  point 
of  junction  with  the  Atrato  by  western  tributaries  so  near  the  level  of  high  water  on 
the  Pacific  as  that  of  the  Truando.  It  happens  to  be  9  ft.  above  the  Pacific  at  high 
water,  and  it  is  therefore  of  sufficient  elevation  to  prevent  the  Pacific  at  high  water 
from  flowing  through  the  proposed  cut  into  the  Atrato ;  while  it  is  not  so  high 
as  to  cause  the  current  from  the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific  at  law  water  to  pass  through  the 
cot  too  rapidly.  In  fact,  the  elevation  of  the  Truando  confluence  just  preserves  a  pre- 
ponderating balance  on  the  side  of  the  Atrato.  The  Atrato,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Salaqui,  is  only  1  ft.  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific  at  high  water ;  but  the  dividing 
ridge  is  1063  ft.  high  and  30  miles  wide,  according  to  a  survey  of  that  route  by  Mr. 
Kennish  and  Mr.  Nelson.  Should  any  of  the  rivers  at  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  be 
selected  without  reference  to  the  height  and  width  of  the  dividing  ridge,  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  maximum  tidal  wave  in  the  Pacific  being  25  ft.  and  that  on  the 
Atlantic  only  2  ft.,  the  Pacific  at  high  tide  would  flow  into  the  Atlantic  with  a  current 
equal  to  a  head  of  1 1  Jft ;  and  at  low  water  in  the  Pacific  the  Atlantic  would  flow  into 
it  with  a  similar  current.  In  the  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Micuel  recently  called  Darien 
Harbour,  the  action  of  the  tide  is  so  strong,  that  H  er  Bri  tish  Majesty's  steamship  '  Virago,' 
commanded  by  Capt  Prevoat,  dragged  both  anchors  ahead,  and  was  only  brought  up  by 
paying  out  nearly  all  her  cable.  1  he  heights  of  the  tides  and  the  levels  of  the  two  oceans 
nave  been  well  established  by  the  recent  observations  of  Col.  Tolten  in  Navy  Bay  on  the 
Atlantic,  and  in  a  deep  bend  of  the  Bay  of  Panama  on  the  Pacific.  On  the  Atlantic  a 
consecutive  series  of  thirty-two  observations  were  taken  in  the  months  of  August  and 
September  during  the  season  of  calms.  On  the  Pacific  two  sets  of  observations  were 
made :  the  first  during  May  and  June,  when  fifty-four  consecutive  tides  were  observed 
in  a  season  of  calms ;  and  the  second  in  November  and  December,  when  fifty-two 
consecutive  tides  were  observed  in  a  season  of  light  winds*  The  results  do  not  exactly 
correspond,  and  are  given  in  the  following  Table  : — 


Pacific. 


May  and 
June 


Nov.  and 
Dec. 


Atlantic. 


Aug.  and 
Sept. 


Greatest  rise  of  tide 

Least 

Average 

Mean  tide  of  Pacific  above  mean  tide  of  Atlantic  . . 
High  spring-tide  of  Pacific  above  high  spring-) 

tide  of  Atlantic J 

Low  spring-tide  of  Pacific  below  low  spring-tide  S 

of  Atlantic J 

Mean  high-tide  of  Pacific  above  mean  high-tide  1 

of  Atlantic J 

Mean  low-tide  of  Pacific  below  mean  low-tide  of  1 

Atlantic / 

Average  rise  of  spring-tides 

Average  rise  of  neap-tides 


1772 
7*94 

1208 
0759 

940 
6*55 
625 

473 

1408 
9-60 


21-30 
9-70 

14-10 
0140 

1012 
940 
673 

526 

17-30 
12-40 


1-60 
0-63 
116 


These  observations  make  the  mean  level  of  the  Pacific  from  0*14  to  0*75  higher 
than  the  mean  level  of  the  Atlantic ;  but  this  is  probably  owing  only  to  local  circum- 
stances, and  it  may  be  assumed  that  there  is  no  difference  in  the  mean  levels  of  the 

11* 


164  REPORT — 1856. 

two  oceans.  The  conclusions  arrived  at  by  the  successive  independent  sarveyi 
carried  out  at  the  expense  of  Mr.  Kelley  may  be  summed  up  as  follows  :— first,  that 
the  oceans  can  be  united  through  the  Atrato  and  Truando  by  a  canal  without  a  lock  or 
any  other  impediment ;  second,  that  while  the  distance  between  the  oceans  by  tins  rente 
is*  only  131  miles,  half  that  distance  is  provided  by  nature  with  a  passage  lor  the  largest 
ships ;  third,  the  remaining  distance  requires  the  removal  of  bars,  excavations,  sad 
cuttings  presenting  no  unusual  difficulties ;  fourth,  harbours  requiring  but  little  im- 
provement to  render  them  excellent  exist  at  the  termini. 

On  the  Patent  Laws.    By  W.  A.  Mackfib. 

On  the  Management  of  Mercantile  Vessels.    By  R.  Methubn,  FM.G.S. 

On  a  New  Plan  for  a  Ship  Communicator.     By  Dr.  Sibbaxd,  Liverpool. 

Nothing  is  more  common  than  for  a  ship  in  some  position  of  difficulty  to  require 
to  communicate  readily  with  adjoining  land,  especially  with  a  lee  shore  when  she 
is  in  danger.  Or  it  may  be  that  two  vessels  require  to  communicate  when  they 
cannot  approach  each  other ;  and  various  other  sets  of  circumstances  may  arise  to 
render  such  communication  desirable  or  absolutely  necessary. 

The  following  apparatus  has  been  patented  for  the  purpose ;  and  numerous  ex- 
periments have  shown  that  it  may  be  employed  with  great  success. 

A  series  of  four  parallel  hoops  of  wood,  about  two  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
are  covered  with  patent  oiled  cloth  so  as  to  be  impervious  to  water.  When  not  m 
use,  the  machine  lies  flat,  about  four  inches  in  thickness,  and  is  less  than  six  pounds 
in  weight.  When  required,  the  hoops  are  separated,  and  the  machine  becomes  in- 
flated on  the  system  of  a  pair  of  bellows.  It  forms  two  cylinders  with  a  small  neck 
between,  the  cylinders  serving  to  produce  buoyancy  and  to  be  acted  upon  by  the 
wind ;  and  the  intermediate  neck  having  coiled  round  it  a  cord  of  two  miles,  or  of 
any  required  length.  In  the  centre  of  the  lowest  circle  or  bottom  is  an  orifice  of 
brass,  into  which  a  spindle  of  light  cane  is  inserted  ;  and  this  is  fastened  at  the  top 
by  a  screw  so  as  to  keep  the  machine  inflated  during  pleasure. 

It  is  now  dropped  into  the  water ;  and  a  weight  attached  to  the  bottom  keeps  it 
in  a  uniform  position.  Standing  at  least  two  feet  out  of  the  water,  the  wind  catches 
it,  and  drives  it  on.  It  revolves  on  a  vertical  axis,  and  "  pays  off"  the  cord  with 
which  it  is  surrounded.  When  the  line  has  reached  the  shore,  a  communication  can 
easily  be  effected  with  the  other  ship,  or  the  wreck,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  either 
direction.  It  is  obvious  that  additional  line  can  be  attached,  should  the  original 
quantity  be  found  insufficient. 

To  this  general  outline,  various  modifications  have  been  added.  For  example,  a 
brass  hoop,  the  plane  of  which  is  vertical,  is  screwed  to  the  centre  of  the  top,  and 
inside  this  are  suspended  a  lamp  and  bell.  These  keep  their  position  in  all  circum- 
stances, and  address  themselves  to  two  senses,  the  eye  and  the  ear.  Also,  in  a 
pocket  on  the  top,  suitably  protected  from  the  water,  letters  may  be  inserted  ;  so 
that  the  instrument  acts  as  an  inanimate  postman,  returning  with  replies,  or  con- 
veying the  most  explicit  directions.  Lastly,  to  the  top  are  attached  ropes  by  which 
one  individual,  or  even  more,  can  in  special  circumstances  make  it  serve  the  purpose 
of  a  life-buoy ;  but  this  use  might  interfere  with  its  primary  one,  which  is  simply 
that  of  a  communicator.  Experiments  have  shown  that  it  requires  about  a  ton  to 
effect  its  immersion  ;  and  it  is  hardly  possible  under  any  circumstances  that  such 
an  amount  of  force  could  be  employed. 

There  are  many  circumstances  which  might  arise  in  which  this  instrument  could 
not  be  employed ;  but  the  occasions  are  so  numerous  in  which  it  could  be  put  to 
its  legitimate  use,  that  it  is  surely  most  desirable  tbat  it  should  be  known  and  pos- 
sessed. Its  perfect  portability  is  a  great  recommendation ;  .and  its  inflation  and 
immersion  occupy  only  one  minute. 


On  Improved  Mechanical  Means  for  the  Extraction  of  Oil,  and  the  Econo- 
mical Manufacture  of  Manures  from  Fish  and  Fishy  Matter. 
By  W.  Smith. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  165 

On  ike  Quantity  of  Heat  developed  by  Water  when  violently  agitated. 
By  Oborgb  Rbnnib,  F.R.8.  SfC. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  mechanical  properties  of  heat  was  very  limited  until  the 
year  1798,  when  Count  Rumford  published  his  valuable  paper  "  On  the  Source  of 
Heat  excited  by  Friction."  The  investigations  of  Dr.  Black,  and  subsequently  of 
Watt,  Southern,  Creighton  and  Murdoch  of  Sohft,  and  of  Lavoisier,  Mongolfier, 
Dulong,  Seguin,  Mayer,  &c.  on  the  Continent,  have  been  engaged  in  similar  re- 
searches ;  while  the  chemical  or  mechanical  properties  of  heat  nave  been  largely 
augmented  by  Dalton,  Leslie,  Taylor,  Davy,  Faraday,  Hesse,  and  Thomson.  The 
question  may  be  considered  — 

1st.  Aa  to  the  effects  of  electric  action  in  separating  or  decomposing  compound 
bodies. 

2nd.  The  effects  of  the  compression  and  extension  of  solids  and  fluids. 

3rd.  The  effects  of  the  chemical  affinity  of  acids  on  'metallic  or  saline  bases,  in 
which  may  be  included  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  metals,  fossils,  and  fibrous 
substances. 

4th.  The  condensation  and  expansion  of  fluids  and  gases. 

All  these  have  attracted  the  attention  of  modern  philosophers,  among  whom  may  be 
cited  the  names  of  Andrews,  Graham,  Joule,  Thomson,  Kankine,  and  of  M.  Regnault, 
whose  magnificent  experiments,  under  the  auspices  of  the  French  government,  and 
published  in  the  year  1847,  and  since  continued  in  a  second  part,  have  developed, 
more  fully  than  hitherto,  new  values  of  the  calorific  and  specific  heat  of  water  under 
different  states  of  density,  and  temperature,  and  of  other  elastic  fluids.  He  found 
the  calorific  capacity  of  water  to  be  double  that  of  ice  or  steam,  a  quality  which 
would  tend  to  prove  that  liquid  water  has  a  different  molecular  arrangement  from 
that  of  ice  or  steam. 

But  it  is  owing  to  the  more  recent  experiments  of  Mr.  Joule,  communicated  to  the 
Philosophical  Society  of  Manchester  in  1843,  to  the  British  Association  in  1847  and 
1848,  and  afterwards  to  the  Royal  Society  in  1849,  that  we  became  first  acquainted  with 
the  numerical  value  of  heat  as  a  mechanical  power.  Mr.  Joule's  experiments*  were 
made  on  three  different  fluids,  water,  oil,  and  mercury ;  and  in  all  the  three  cases 
the  remarkable  result  appeared,  vis.  that  the  mechanical  power  represented  by  the 
force  necessary  to  raise  774*88  lbs.  one  foot  high,  produced  a  quantity  of  heat  equal 
to  the  temperature  of  1  lb.  of  water  raised  1°  Fahrenheit.  This  equivalent  was  after- 
wards altered  by  an  improvement  in  the  apparatus  with  which  he  experimented  to 
711  lbs.;  thus  confirming  the  experiments  of  Rumford  and  Davy  on  the  friction  of 
solids,  and  proving  that  the  heat  of  elastic  fluids  consists  simply  in  the  vis  viva  of 
their  particles.  In  the  years  1845  and  1847,  Mr.  Joule  employed  an  agitator  to 
agitate  water,  oil,  and  mercury  in  a  box,  to  produce  fluid  friction  on  the  principle  of 
common  paddle-wheel,  by  which  means  he  obtained  equivalents  of  781*5,  782*  1,  and 
787*6  respectively. 

These  and  other  experiments  left  no  doubt  in  his  mind  as  to  the  existence  of  an 
equivalent  relation  between  force  and  heat.  The  care  bestowed  upon  these  experi- 
ments in  deducting  the  retarding  influences  entitle  them  to  every  credit.  Upon 
examining  the  Table  showing  the  results,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  temperature  of 
the  water  had  been  raised  more  than  0*563209°,  say  half  a  degree  to  97470*2  grains, 
or  as  1  to  7-84229  lbs.  of  water,  and  to  a  higher  temperature,  and  for  mercury,  than 
31*31.     It  is  desirable,  therefore,  that  these  experiments  be  extended. 

Having  long  entertained  the  idea  that  steam,  as  applied  to  the  movement  of  en- 
gines, lost  a  large  portion  of  its  heat  in  the  act  of  transmission,  I  watched  carefully 
the  attempts  which  had  been  hitherto  made  by  inventors  for  improvements  in  the 
application  of  it  through  the  medium  of  atmospherical  air,  such  as  by  Neipce  in 
France  in  1806,  by  Sir  George  Cavley  in  1807  and  1838,  by  Sterling  in  1816,  by 
Erichson  in  1826  and  1830,  by  Brown  with  his  hydrogen  gas-engine  in  1823,  and 
by  Du  Trembley's  combined  steam  and  ether  engine  in  1846;  and  its  subsequent 
realization  on  a  great  scale  in  1849,  and  more  recently  by  Siemens  in  his  combined 
steam-  and  air-engine  now  in  operation  on  the  Continent,  gave  reason  to  expect  that 

*  In  1843,  Mr.  Joule  announced  that  he  had  found  that  heat  was  evolved  by  the  passage 
of  water  through  small  tubes,  and  that  each  degree  required  for  its  evolution  a  mechanical 
force  of  770  lbs. 


166  report— 1856. 

the  loss  of  heat  occasioned  by  the  use  of  steam,  and  which  had  been  variously  esti- 
mated from  ^to^of  the  heat  transmitted,  might  be  avoided,  and  that  we  should 
ultimately  discover  a  more  economical  medium.  All  these  attempts  have  as  jet 
been  arrested  by  practical  difficulties  which  have  been  encountered,  but  which  may 
yet  be  obviated. 

The  dynamical  theory  of  heat  has,  however,  been  more  recently  developed  by 
Mayer  in  1842*,  and  Helmholtz  in  1847,  and  greatly  extended  by  fttessn.  RansJne 
and  Thomson  about  the  same  period.  Mr.  Siemens,  in  his  paper  "  On  the  Converse*, 
of  Heat  into  Mechanical  Effect,"  published  in  the  second  part  of  the  twelfth  volume  of 
the  '  Transactions  of  the  Civil  Engineers/  in  citing  proofs  against  the  material  theory 
of  heat  shown  by  the  experiments  of  Davy  and  Dtuong,  says,  that,  "  inasmuch  as  they 
show  an  intimate  connexion  between  heat  and  the  mechanical  force  by  which  it  was 
produced,  and  according  to  which  heat,  mechanical  force,  electricity,  chemical  affi- 
nity, light  and  sound  are  but  different  manifestations  of  one  great  and  infinite  cause, 
motion  f,  —  the  specific  heat  and  temperature  of  a  body  determine  the  vibrating 
velocity  of  the  material  particles,  the  square  of  which  multiplied  by  the  weights  of 
the  particles  gives  their  inherent  force  or  vis  viva.  In  solids,  the  via  viva  is  least 
remarkable ;  in  fluids  it  is  greater.  In  gaseous  fluids,  it  predominates  so  strangely 
over  gravitation  that  the  latter  force  becomes  inapplicable.' 

Mr.  Siemens  gives  the  following  as  the  results  obtained  in  units  of  power  or  foot- 
pounds for  one  unit  of  heat  by  different  authors :  — 

Centigrade         Fahrenheit's 
Thermometers.    Thermometer*. 

By  Holtzman's  formula 1227  foot  lbs.    682  foot  lbs. 

By  Joule's  experiment   1386  „  770  „ 

By  Rankine's  formula    1 252  „  695  „ 

By  Thomson's      „ 1390  „  772  „ 

By  the  best  Cornish  engine,  according  to 

Bambur  148  „             82  „ 

By  a  perfect  low  pressure  and  condensing  90*8  „             50'4  „ 

By  an  actual  Bolton  and  Watt's  engine. .  46  „             25-5  „ 

The  above  Table  is  further  illustrated  by  a  table  showing  the  theoretical  and  an 
actual  performance  of  steam-  and  air-engines  by  diagrams  showing  the  curves  which 
would  be  indicated  theoretically  by  converting  heat  into  dynamic  effect. 

In  March,  1856,  being  at  Southampton,  it  occurred  to  me  to  make  an  experiment 
on  the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  water  in  the  tidal  basin  of  the  docks 
there,  and  the  water  then  running  through  the  sluices  of  the  iron  gates  of  one  of  the 
dry  docks  which  was  then  filling  for  the  purpose  of  letting  out  a  vessel  into  the  tidal 
basin.  The  result  was  a  difference  of  two  degrees.  In  both  cases  the  same  thermo- 
meter was  suspended  ten  minutes  in  the  water  of  the  tidal,  and  afterwards  in  the 
current  of  water  running  through  the  sluices  into  the  dry  dock.  Observations  on 
the  temperature  of  the  sea  in  stormy  weather,  and  through  water-wheel  races,  always 
indicated  an  increase. 

Being  desirous  of  corroborating  these  statements,  a  box  or  cistern  made  of  deal,  24  by 
22|  inches  square,  and  20  inches  deep,  was  prepared ;  a  quantity  of  Thames  water, 
about  20  inches  in  depth,  was  poured  into  it,  equal  to  437  J  lbs.  Into  the  aide  of  the 
box  was  fitted  a  bent  iron  tube  of  2  in.  diameter ;  and  into  the  upper  part,  above  the 
bend  of  the  pipe,  a  glass  tube  was  inserted ;  so  that,  by  suspending  a  glass  thermo- 
meter in  the  water  contained  in  the  tube,  the  temperature  could  be  easily  seen. 

The  box  was  then  covered  by  a  wooden  lid,  so  closely  fitted  as  to  exclude  the  sur- 
rounding air,  and  to  prevent  the  loss  of  water  by  agitation.  A  wooden  spindle 
having  four  arms,  and  twelve  vertical  agitators,  was  previously  fitted  into  the  lid  of 
the  box,  as  shown  by  the  accompanying  woodcut ;  a  pulley  of  wood  was  fitted  to  the 
top  of  the  spindle;  and  the  apparatus  was  rapidly  revolved  in  the  water  by  being 
connected  with  a  steam-engine. 

*  Mayer  was  the  first  to  observe  an  increase  of  temperature  of  from  12°  Centigrade  to  11° 
Centigrade  by  agitating  water  in  the  year  1842. 

The  remarkable  experiments  of  Beaumont  and  Mayer  in  the  boiling  of  400  litres  of  water 
by  the  friction  of  a  roller  revolving  in  the  interior  of  a  tube,  in  the  middle  of  a  boiler  stir- 
rounded  by  water,  1855,  at  the  Paris  Exhibition,  show  the  effects  of  mechanical  force, 
f  Correlation  of  Forces,  by  Grove. 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  8ECTIONS. 


167 


Fig.  1. 


The  annexed  illustrations  exhibit  views  of  the  apparatus,  and  the  accompanying 
description  will  make  the  whole  understood.    CSee  woodcut.) 


The  experiment  commenced  on  the  19th  of  June  last.  -  1.1**1, 

The  apparatus  was  then  worked  for  an  hour  and  a  half,  and  the  result  was  the 
raising  of  the  temperature  of  the  water  by  agitation  from  58°  to  64°  Fahrenheit. 
The  apparatus,  however,  got  deranged,  and  the  experiments  were  postponed  to  the 


168  report — 1856. 

following  day.  The  Thames  water  was  then  replaced  by  clear  wall-water.  Ik 
apparatus  was  again  adjusted.  The  quantity  of  water  weighed  in  the  box  437 1st. 
The  temperature  of  the  air  was  65°  Fahrenheit  when  the  experiment  commenced, 
and  of  the  water  64°  Fahrenheit. 

The  apparatus  made  270  revolutions  per  minute,  and  in  55  minutes  raised  the 
temperature  of  the  water  from  64°  to  73|°,  or  an  increase  of  9£°  Fahrenheit. 

The  experiments  were  continued  on  the  third  day  with  well-water  at  59°,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  air  60£°.  The  apparatus  was  worked  from  10*  5m  a.m.  to  lk  5" 
p.m.,  when  the  temperature  of  the  water  was  raised  from  59°  to  75£°,  or  16}°  in- 
crease in  three  hours. 

On  the  third  day  the  apparatus  was  defective  from  the  slipping  of  the  strap,  and 
only  made  140  revolutions  instead  of  270  revolutions  per  minute. 

The  apparatus  having  been  repaired  was  again  set  to  work  on  the  24th  of  June, 
being  the  fourth  and  last  day  of  experimenting. 

The  following  were  the  results :  — 

Number  of  revolutions  of  apparatus  240  per  minute. 

Temperature  of  well-water  in  the  box  59£°  Fahrenheit 

Began  at  10  a.m.  Temperature  of  Water. 

100  59£  deg.  Fahr. 

10-5  69|         „ 

110  74 

11  SO  74  „ 

11-34  75    '      „ 

12-0  79 

12-8  80  „ 

1  p.m.  89  „ 

Stopped  at  1  p.m.  for  one  hour,  and  on  starting  again  at  2  p.m.,  found  that  the 
temperature  of  the  water  had  fallen  to  76°,  being  a  loss  of  13o  Fahrenheit. 

Tnis,  however,  was  owing  to  the  tube  which  contained  the  thermometer  beiag 
exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  east  wind :  started  the  engine  and  apparatus  st 
2  p.m. 

%  At  p.m.  Temperature. 

2-0  76  degrees. 

2*5  (increase  10°)  86        „ 

215  88        „ 

30  92        „ 

3-30  95        „ 

40  971      /» 

415  99        „ 

4-45  100        „ 

50  101}      „ 

515  102        „ 

5*30  stopped  103        „ 

The  total  increase  of  temperature  having  been  44£°  in  6\  hours. 

On  examining  the  foregoing  Tables,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  increase  of  tempera- 
ture seems  to  follow  no  regular  laws ;  thus :  — 

From  10  a.m.  to  11  a.m.  the  increase  is 14£°  Fahrenheit 

„     11  a.m.  to  12  a.m.  „  5°  „ 

„     12  a.m.  to    1p.m.  „  16°  „ 

„      2  p.m.  to  3  p.m.  the  temperature  of  the  water 

rose  from  76°  to  92°,  being  an  increase  of  16°  in  1  hour. 

„       3  p.m.  to  4    p.m.    „      92°  to    97J°      „  5±°-|  only 

„      4  p.m.  to  5    p.m.    „      97°  to  101  J°      „  4°    \  per 

„      5  p.m.  to  5£  p.m.   „    101£  to  103J°      „  2°   J  hour. 

So  that,  had  the  experiments  continued  longer,  the  rate  of  increase  per  hour  migat 
have  been  reduced  to  an  equilibrium. 

As  a  proof  that  the  box  radiated  very  little  heat,  on  one  occasion  the  apparatnt 
(after  the  temperature  of  the  water  had  been  raised  from  60°  to  103°  Fahrenheit) 
was  left  all  night  for  14  hours  exposed  to  the  external  air.    The  temperature  of  the 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THB  SECTION 8. 

water  in  the  box  next  morning  was  found  to  be  87°  Fahrenheit,  Ij^m{,^ojsj>Y 
or  little  more  than  one  degree  per  hour.  ^C*  ^It 

The  conclusions  to  be  derived  from  the  foregoing  experiments  are  • 
tain.  That  the  evolution  of  heat  by  fluid  friction  has  been  proved,  cannot  be  doubt- 
ful, as  has  been  shown  by  the  refined  experiment  of  Joule ;  but  by  what  law  re- 
mains to  be  determined  by  future  experiments. 


Experiments  to  determine  the  Resistance  of  a  Screw  when  revolving  in  Water 
at  different  Depths  and  Velocities,    By  George  Rennis,  F.R.S.  #c. 

The  experiments  which  have  hitherto  been  made  upon  screw  propellers,  have  had 
for  their  object,  principally,  to  determine  their  forms  and  proportions,  to  enable 
them  to  act  most  effectively  in  propelling  the  vessels  to  which  they  were  attached, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  impede  by  their  form  as  little  as  possible  the  vessel's  mo- 
tion through  the  water  when  under  steam  or  sail. 

In  every  case  it  has  been  considered  necessary  to  give  as  large  a  diameter  to  the 
screw  as  the  draft  of  the  vessel  would  admit,  in  order  that  the  area  of  its  whole  disc 
should  have  as  large  a  proportion  to  the  midship  section  and  resistance  to  the  on- 
ward motion  of  the  vessel  as  possible.  So  that  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge 
noon  screw  propulsion  is  confined  to  the  best  form  and  area  of  the  propeller  and  of 
the  vessel  to  which  it  is  attached. 

The  experiments  of  Mr.  Barlow  on  several  of  Her  Majesty's  paddle  wheel  vessels, 
and  of  Mr.  Lloyd  on  the  propelling  powers  of  Her  Majesty's  steam  sloop  '  Rattler/ 
and.  the  recent  investigations  of  Mr.  Charles  Atherton,  had  already  established  cer- 
tain relations  between  these  extremes.  But  no  experiments  have  as  yet  been  re- 
corded on  the  action  of  screw  propellers  immersed  at  different  depths  and  driven  at 
high  velocities. 

Last  year  my  attention  was  called  by  Mr.  Joseph  Apsey,  an  engineer  of  Broad- 
wall,  in  the  parish  of  Christ  Church,  Surrey,  to  some  remarkable  properties  which 
he  stated  to  have  discovered  in  a  double  screw  which  he  had  invented,  but  which 
was  similar  in  every  respect  to  the  screw  used  in  the  Archimedes  steamer. 

The  screw  which  he  experimented  upon  was  of  brass  13f  diameter,  28  inches 
pitch,  and  145  square  inches,  or  about  1  foot  area.  The  screw  was  fixed  upon  an 
iron  spindle  resting  in  bearings,  one  being  a  stuffing-box  on  the  outside  of  a  boiler 
in  which  the  experiments  were  made,  so  as  to  prevent  leakage,  and  the  other  end 

Mr.  Apsey 's  Experiments. 


5=£=-»lJ==   I**el. 


loose  in  the  bearing  fixed  at  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  A  pulley  of  iron  was  fixed 
to  the  outer  extremity  of  the  spindle,  so  as  to  allow  of  its  being  driven  by  leather 
bands  at  any  rate  of  speed.  A  bracket  was  bolted  to  the  outside  of  the  boiler  for 
the  purpose  of  serving  as  a  fulcrum  to  a  bent  lever,  the  horizontal  extremity  of 
which  supported  a  scale  and  weight,  and  the  vertical  extremity  was  pushed  by  the 
screw  when  revolved  in  the  water  in  the  boiler,  so  that  the  weights  lifted  by  the 
bent  lever  indicated  the  thrust  of  the  screw. 


170 


REPORT — 1856. 


The  length  of  the  boiler  was    8  feet 

The  breadth  of        do.    was    4  feet 

The  height  of*        do.    was    4  feet 

The  depth  of  the  water  in  the  boiler  was  at  first  regulated  so  as  to  have  its  surface 
level  with  the  surface  of  the  screw.    This  depth  was  subsequently  increased  to 
One  foot  above  the  level  of  the  screw 
Two  feet  do. 

Three  feet  do. 

The  speed  of  the  engine  (which  was  50  revolutions  per  minute)  was  multiplied  by 
different-sized  pulleys  and  bands,  so  as  to  cause  the  screw  to  make  920  revolutions 
per  minute,  and  was  reduced  afterwards  to  460  (one  half)  the  revolutions  per  mi- 
nute.   The  following  were  the  results :  — 

Revolutions     Revolution! 

920  per  min.   460  per  min. 

Pressure.  Pressure. 

lbs.  lbs. 

First  experiment,  water  level  with  top  of  screw    67  63 

Second  do.  water  above  top  of  screw  1  ft.  299  88 

Third  „         „         „         „  2  „  350  112 

Fourth         „         „         „        ,,  3  „  448 126 

So  that  on  reducing  the  results,  they  approximated  to  a  parabolic  curve  with  high 
velocities,  and  a  sharper  curve  with  lower  velocities.  The  conclusions  derived  from 
these  experiments  at  the  meeting  at  Glasgow  in  1855,  were,  that  the  water  being 
confined  in  a  boiler  by  its  reaction  damaged  the  results,  and  were  not  to  be  de- 
pended upon. 

In  order,  however,  to  remove  further  doubts  on  the  subject,  I  had  an  apparatus 
constructed  somewhat  similar,  figure  3,  as  represented  in  the  accompanying  wood- 
cut, with  these  differences,  that  the  diameter  of  the  screw  was  1  ft.  9  in.,  and  its 
disc  area  346$  square  inches,  or  nearly  2\  times  larger  than  Mr.  Apsey's  screw. 
The  screw  worked  on  the  outside  of  the  cistern,  and  the  lever  and  weights  and 
pulley  were  inside  the  cistern,  the  water  having  been  kept  out  by  means  of  a  stuff- 
ing-box let  into  one  of  the  sides  of  the  cistern,  through  which  the  spindle  of  the 
screw  worked.  The  experiments  were  made  in  the  river  Thames ;  so  that  as  the 
tide  rose  or  fell,  the  screw  could  be  driven  at  different  depths  outside  the  cast-iron 
cistern,  while  the  observations  were  taken  within  the  cistern. 

The  greatest  speed  at  which  the  screw  could  be  driven,  was  at  the  rate  of  558  re- 
volutions per  minute,  and  the  following  were  the  results  :-— 

Experiments  made  in  June,  1856,  in  the  river  Thames,  for  the  purpose  of  deternusssf 
the  resistances  experienced  oy  an  ordinary  two-bladed  screw  propeller  when  driven  st 
a  high  rate  of  spied  and  at  different  depths. 


Number 

Weight  lifted 

of 

Rate  of  speed  in  all  cases,  558  revolutions  per  minute. 

t»y 

Experiment 

screw. 

1 

Water  level  with  top  of  screw 

in. 

49 

2 

Above  top  of  screw 

3 

50 

3 

ditto 

6 

196 

4 

ditto 

ft.  in.        9 

224 

5 

ditto 

1     0  or  12 

252 

6 

ditto 

1     6  or  18 

280 

7 

ditto 

2    0  or  24 

343 

8 

ditto 

2     6  or  30 

364 

9 

ditto 

3    0  or  36 

369 

10 

ditto 

3     6  or  42 

371 

11 

ditto 

4     0  or  48 

385 

12 

ditto 

4     6  or  54     - 

399 

13 

ditto 

5    0  or  60 

405 

The  ordinates  of  the  above  thrusts  are  represented  by  a  parabola* 


TRANSACTIONS  Or  TH»  SECTIONS. 


171 


On  comparing  these  experiments,  it  will  be  seen  that,  although  the  propeller  is  of 
larger  dimensions  than  that  of  Mr.  Apsey,  the  tkrnstt  are  not  so  great.  In  the  first 
case,  the  velocity  is  nearly  twice  as  great,  while  the  area,  taken  as  discs,  are  as 
1  :  2*47  ;  but  taking  the  respective  thrusts  of  the  two  propellers,  Mr.  Apsey's  in  the 
boiler,  and  mine  in  the  open  river  Thames,  the  ratios  of  resistance  or  thrusts  of  the 
propellers  at  one,  two,  and  three  feet  immersion  respectively,  are  not  very  dis- 
similar. 

In  both  cases  the  influence  of  velocity  is  much  greater  than  depth,  and  is  such 
as  to  approximate  the  action  of  a  screw  in  a  solid,  like  which  the  water  becomes 
wben  rapidly  acted  upon ;  but  the  joint  influence  of  depth  and  velocity  shows  that 
the  thrust  or  resistance  of  the  screw  is  6j  times  greater  when  immersed  three  feet 


below  the  water  level  than  when  working  at  a  level ;  consequently,  a  screw  whose 
disc  area  is  one-sixth,  three- fourths  of  the  area  of  the  screw,  when  the  level  of  the 
water  is  level  with  its  circumference,  is  equally  effective.  If  this  be  the  fact,  as  the 
often-repeated  experiments  proved,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  very  important  results 
hereafter  in  the  use  of  the  screw ;  and  further,  if  one  small  screw  proportioned  as 
above  shown  be  as  effective  as  one  large  screw  working  in  the  dead  wood,  how  much 
smaller  and  more  effective  will  be  two  screws,  when  applied  to  a  vessel's  quarters  on 
either  side  of  the  dead  wood  and  stern ! 


172 


REPORT — 1856. 


APPENDIX. 

Containing  Abstracts  which  were  not  received  in  time  to  be  included  in  the 
Sections  to  which  they  belong. 

Crystallogenesis,  and  the  Equivalent  in  the  Mineral  Kingdom  coi  rtiponiing  t§ 
Geographical  Distribution  in  the  Animal  and  Vegetable  Kingdom.  By 
Samuel  High  lb  t,  F.G.S.—(Read  in  1854.) 

The  author  pointed  out,  that  in  mineralogy  no  scientific  value  could  be  attached  to 
Locality,  equivalent  to  that  which  it  possessed  in  botany  or  zoology ;  and  althoag} 
the  Leonhards  had  published  works  on  topographical  mineralogy,  no  laws  had  been 
deduced  analogous  to  those  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  plants  and  animal*, 
though  it  was  very  evident  local  conditions  determined  the  association  of  minerals, 
and  the  aspect,  form  or  its  modifications,  isomorphic  constitution,  colour,  &c.  of  the 
same  species ;  and  as  we  know  from  laboratory  experience  that  temperature,  light, 
electricity,  magnetism,  catalytic  action,  &c.  are  determining  influences  in  aystallogenic 
force,  we  must  learn  in  detail  the  physical  as  well  as  the  chemical  conditions  of  geo- 
logical districts  in  various  parts  of  the  globe  before  we  should  have  data  for  founding 
any  general  laws  on  the  mineral- producing  conditions  of  the  earth.  The  following 
form  was  then  proposed  and  described  in  detail  for  tabulating  local  mineralogical 
phenomena,  which  if  distributed  amongst  naturalists,  mine-masters,  &c.  at  home  and 
abroad  and  returns  obtained,  would  furnish  matter  for  deductions,  not  only  of  value 
in  mineralogical,  but  also  .in  physical,  geological,  zoological,  ethnological,  and  agricul- 
tural science. 


Geogra- 
phical. 

Geogno8tic 

Physical. 

Physiogno- 
mical. 

Chemical. 

PhysiofrraphicsJ. 

Dcoac 
twos. 

4 

a 
*• 

3 

Of 

9 

J 

• 

Enumerate  rocks  in  their 
order    of    association — 
gases  and  waters  affecting 
rocks  —  rough  sectional 
sketch. 

Enumerate    species    and 
varieties  of  minerals  in 
their  order  of  association 
and  relation  to  rocks. 

Dip  of  strata  on  particular 
rocks,  and    direction   of 
mineral  veins. 

c 
E 
o 
£ 

9 

e 
g. 

E 

1 
S 

o 

4 
U 

Physiognomy  of  the  mi- 
neral formations  at  the 
surface  described,  and,  if 
possible,    illustrate  by  a 
sketch  or  photograph. 

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.  1 

*  Space  to  be  given  to  these  columns  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  observations  to 
be  made. 


By  J. 


On  some  points  connected  with  Agricultural  Chemistry. 
B.  Lawks,  F.R.S.,  and  Dr.  J.  H.  Gilbert,  F.C.S.—(Read  in  1854.) 


The  authors  thus  express  the  conclusions  to  which  their  inquiries,  mentioned  in 
this  paper,  which  was  read  at  Glasgow,  conducted. 

1.  That  the  manure  indicated  by  the  resultant  requirements  of  British  agriculture, 
has  no  direct  connexion  with  the  composition  of  the  mineral  substances  collectively 
found  in  the  ashes  of  the  produce  grown  on,  or  exported  from  the  farm ;  and  that 
the  direct  mineral  manures  which  are  required,  are  not  advantageously  applied  for 
the  direct  reproduction  of  the  exported  corn,  but  should  be  used  for  the  green  or 
fallow  crops,  an  office  of  which  it  is,  to  collect  from  the  atmosphere,  or  to  conserve 
on  the  farms  available  nitrogen  for  the  increased  growth  of  the  saleable  cereal  grains. 

2.  That  the  nitrogen  required  to  be  provided  within  the  soil  for  this  purpose,  is  far 
greater  than  that  contained  in  the  increase  of  produce  obtained  by  it. 

3.  That  the  effects  of  fallow  in  increasing  the  growth  of  the  saleable  cereal  | 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  17* 

(so  far  as  they  are  chemical),  are  not  measurable  by  the  amount  of  the  additional 
mineral  food  of  plants  liberated  thereby,  these  being  under  ordinary  cultivation  in 
excess  of  the  assimilable  nitrogen  existing  in,  or  condensed  within  the  soil  in  the 
same  period  of  time ;  the  amount  of  which  latter  therefore— the  available  nitrogen— 
is  the  measure  of  the  increased  produce  of  grain  which  will  be  obtained. 

4.  That  the  beneficial  effects  of  rotation,  in  increasing  the  production  of  saleable 
produce  (so  far  as  they  are  chemical),  are  not  explained  by  the  fact  of  one  plant 
taking  from  the  soil  more  of  the  different  mineral  constituents  than  another,  but 
depend  on  the  property  of  the  so-called  green  or  fallow  crops  bringing  on,  or  con- 
serving upon  the  farm,  more  of  substance  rich  in  nitrogen  than  is  yielded  to  them  in 
manure,  whilst  the  crops  to  which  they  are  subservient  are  both  largely  exported 
from  the  farm,  and  yield  in  their  increase  considerably  less  of  nitrogen  than  is  given 
to  them  in  manure. 

5.  In  a  word,  that  in  the  existing  condition  of  British  agriculture,  a  full  pro- 
duction of  the  saleable  cereal  grain*,  with  at  the  same  time  other  exportable  produce, 
is  only  attained — whether  by  manures,  fallow,  or  rotation — by  an  accumulation  of 
available  nitrogen  (normally  an  atmospheric  constituent),  within  the  soil  itself. 

On  the  Composition  of  Wheat- Grain,  and  its  Products. 
By  J.  B.  Law*s,  F.R.8.,  F.C.S.,  and  J.  H.  Gilbbbt,  Ph.D^  F.CJ3. 

The  authors  had  for  a  series  of  years  conducted  experiments  on  the  successive 
growth  of  wheat,  on  the  same  land,  by  different  chemical  manures.  The  geueral 
result  of  these  experiments  had  been  to  show,  that,  although  the  amount  of  the  pro- 
duce had  been  much  increased  by  the  use  of  nitrogenous  manures,  the  per-centage  of 
nitrogen  in  the  grain  had  been,  comparatively  speaking,  but  little  affected  thereby. 
Variation  in  season  had  had  more  influence  on  the  composition  of  the  crop  in  this 
respect.  It  had  further  appeared,  that,  within  the  limits  of  their  own  locality  and 
climate,  there  was,  on  the  average  of  the  seasons,  a  lower  per-centage  both  of  nitrogen 
and  of  mineral  matter  in  the  grain,  the  more  favourably  the  produce  was  developed 
and  matured.  The  varying  composition  of  the  entire  grain  as  affected  by  season  and 
manuring,  the  authors  honed  to  treat  of  more  fully  elsewhere  *  ;  their  object,  in  the 
present  paper,  being  chieny  to  call  attention  to  some  points  in  the  character  and  com- 
position of  the  different  products  obtained  from  wheat-grain  by  means  of  mechanical 
separation. 

With  a  view  to  the  prosecution  of  this  part  of  the  inquiry,  in  selected  cases,  quan- 
tities of  the  experimentally  grown  grains,  namely,  seven  lots  from  the  produce  of  1846, 
nineteen  from  that  of  1847,  and  two  from  that  of  1848,  had  been  carefully  watched 
through  the  milling  process.  In  some  of  the  cases  nine,  and  in  others  seven  different 
products  of  the  dressing  apparatus,  were  separately  taken.  The  proportion  of  each  of 
the  several  products  in  the  respective  grains  was  ascertained  and  recorded,  and  the 
per-centages  of  dry  substance  and  mineral  matter  were  also  in  every  case  determined. 
The  three  first  wires  of  the  dressing  machine  gave  on  the  average  rather  more  than 
70  per  cent,  of  the  grain  nsjine  flour;  but  in  practice  about  10  per  cent,  more  would 
be  obtained  from  the  next  two  products,  yielding  in  all  80  percent,  or  more  of  pretty 
good  bread  flour.  The  average  amount  of  dry  substance  in  the  various  mill  products 
was  about  85  per  cent ;  the  external  or  more  branny  portions  containing  rather  more, 
and  the  finer  flours  rather  less.  The  per-centage  of  mineral  matter  varied  very  much 
in  the  different  products,  it  being  scarcely  f  tns  of  1  per  cent,  in  the  fine  flours,  and 
ten  times  as  much,  or  more  than  7  per  cent.,  in  the  coarsest  bran.  «From  the  much 
larger  proportion  of  flour  than  bran,  however,  it  resulted  that  rather  more  than  |rd 
of  the  total  mineral  matter  of  the  grain  would  be  accumulated  in  its  currently  edible 
portions. 

In  one  series  of  these  mill-products,  from  the  finest  flour  at  the  head  of  the  ma- 
chine down  to  the  coarsest  bran,  the  nitrogen  was  determined,  and  also  some  of 
the  constituents  of  the  respective  ashes.  It  appeared  that  the  per-centage  of  nitrogen 
was  about  once  and  a  half  as  great  in  the  bran  as  in  the  finer  flours.  And  even  in- 
cluding all  the  currently  edible  portions,  still  the  excluded  branny  parts  contained 

*  See  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society,  April,  1857  ;  where  also  is  given,  with 
additions,  the  tabular  matter,  &c.  to  which  this  abstract  relates. 


174  REPORT — 1856, 

considerably  higher  percentages  of  nitrogen.  Turning  to  the  ashes  of  the  usptctin 
mill-products,  there  was  a  much  larger  proportion  of  matter  insoluble  in  acid  in  thorn 
of  the  finer  flours  than  in  those  of  tne  coarser  brans ;  of  the  phosphoric  acid,  on  the 
other  hand,  there  was  considerably  the  higher  per-centage  in  the  ash  of  the  brans. 
The  magnesia  also  was  the  higher  in  the  ash  of  the  brans,  and  the  potash  and  Esse 
the  higher  in  that  of  the  flours.  Looking  to  the  distribution  of  the  various  consti- 
tuents, according  to  the  average  proportion  in  the  grain,  of  each  of  the  several  muV 
products,  it  appeared  that  about  |ths  of  the  total  nitrogen,  and  about  Jrd  or  |ms  of 
the  total  mineral  matter,  were  accumulated  in  the  usually  edible  flours,  and  of  the 
total  phosphoric  acid,  there  was  only  about  £rd  in  the  ashes  of  the  latter.  Notwith- 
standing tne  higher  per-centage  of  nitrogen,  and  the  large  actual  amounts  of  the 
mineral  constituents  of  the  grain  contai 


)  grain  contained  in  the  branny  portions,  the  authors  \ 
of  opinion,  that,  besides  the  information  at  present  at  command  as  to  the  character 
and  condition  of  the  nitrogenous  constituents  of  the  bran,  such  were  the  effects  of  the 
branny  particles  themselves  in  increasing  the  peristaltic  action,  and  thus  clearing  the 
alimentary  canal  more  rapidly  of  its  contents,  that  it  was  questionable  whether  fre- 
quently more  nutriment  would  not  be  lost  to  the  system  by  the  admission  into  the 
rood  of  the  imperfectly  divided  branny  particles,  than  would  be  gained  by  the  in- 
troduction into  the  body  coincidently  with  them  of  the  larger  amount  of  supposed 
nutritious  matters.  The  action  alluded  to  might  indeed  be  conducive  to  health  with 
those  of  a  sluggish  habit  or  who  were  overfed ;  but  with  those  who  were  not  so,  the 
benefits  derivable  from  an  already  perhaps  scanty  diet  would  be  still  further  reduced. 

Experiments  were  also  described,  in  which  several  lots  of  the  experimentally  grown 
wheats  were  ground  in  a  colonist's  steel  hand-mill.  The  results  of  the  examination 
of  the  products  thus  obtained  were  in  the  main  consistent  with  those  from  the  pro- 
ducts of  the  ordinary  mill.  They  showed,  however,  more  strikingly  the  effects  of 
mechanical  means  in  separating  different  chemical  compounds  witnm  the  limits  of 
the  floury  parts  of  the  grain. 

Experiments  were  next  adduced,  in  which  the  different  edible  products,  from  grains 
grown  by  different  manures  or  in  different  seasons,  were  made  into  bread ;  the  several 
products  of  the  dressing  machine  being  employed  sometimes  separately  and  some- 
times collectively.  The  result  obtained  was,  that  comparing  with  each  other  the  three 
separate  products  which  together  yielded  a  fine  flour,  that  at  the  head  of  the  machine, 
which  was  the  least  nitrogenous,  yielded  on  the  average  the  least  weight  of  bread  Jbr 
a  given  amount  of  flour,  that  is  to  say,  it  retained  the  least  amount  of  water.  *  Again, 
when  the  three  products  were  mixed  together,  the  flours  of  the  season  of  1846,  which 
were  the  less  nitrogenous,  gave  the  less  weight  of  bread,  that  is,  retained  less  water 
than  those  of  1847,  which  were  rather  the  more  nitrogenous.  The  effect  of  an  in- 
crease of  nitrogen  in  augmenting  the  weight  of  bread  was,  however,  not  observable 
when  this  increase  was  due  to  including  more  of  the  more  branny  portions  of  the  grain. 
The  average  yield  of  bread  in  twenty-two  experiments  with  the  individual  products 
was  rather  more  than  135  for  every  100  of  flour,— equal  to  about  63  per  cent,  of  dry 
substance  and  37  of  water  in  the  bread.  The  average  of  nineteen  experiments  with  fins 
flour,  composed  of  the  products  of  the  first  three  wires  mixed  together,  gave  a  produce 
of  about  137^  of  bread  for  every  100  of  flour,  and  about  61^  of  dry  substance,  and 
38^  of  water  in  the  bread.  Bakers' loaves  were  next  examined.  Of  these,  four  ob- 
tained from  different  bakers  in  the  country  gave  an  average  of  about  62  per  cent  of 
dry  substance  and  38  of  water  in  the  bread ;  and  three  procured  in  London,  rather 
more  than  64  of  dry  matter  and  rather  less  than  36  of  water.  The  authors  concluded, 
that  from  36  to«38  per  cent  of  water  was  perhaps  the  best  average  that  could  be 
assumed  for  bakers*  bread  within  twelve  hours  or  its  being  withdrawn  from  the  oven. 
They  showed,  by  reference  to  a  Table  of  the  results  of  other  experimenters,  that  this 
agreed  pretty  well  with  the  determinations  of  some  of  the  roost  recent  and  trust- 
worthy. Others,  however,  gave  the  water  in  bread  as  much  higher ;  and  all  seem  to 
agree  that  it  was  generally  higher  in  country  bread  than  in  that  of  towns  and 
cities. 

The  point  next  illustrated  was  the  general  influence  of  locality  and  varying  cli- 
matic circumstance  upon  the  per-centage  of  gluten  in  wheaten-flour.  It  appeared 
by  the  numerous  results  adduced,  that,  other  things  being  equal,  there  was  a  tendency 
to  an  increase  in  the  per-centage  of  gluten,  proceeding  from  the  north  to  the  south— 
a  point  which  was  illustrated  in  specimens  both  from  the  European  and  American 


TRANSACTIONS  OP  THE  SECTION8.  Ij5 


continents.  A  comparatively  high  ripening  temperature  was  indeed,  among  other 
circumstances,  favourable  to  a  high  per-centage  of  gluten.  There  were,  however,  in- 
teresting exceptions  to  this  generalization ;  at  any  rate,  so  far  as  the  percentage  of 
the  nitrogen,  if  not  of  the  gluten  itself,  was  concerned. 

The  foreign  wheats  containing  a  high  per-centage  of  gluten,  which  were  generally 
ripened  under  a  high  temperature,  had  the  undoubted  character  of  yielding  a  flour  of 
ereat  *  strength,'  and  retaining  a  considerable  amount  of  water  in  the  bread.  Owing, 
however,  to  their  freauent  hardness,  and  the  peculiarity  of  their  structural  character 
generally,  which  rendered  them  both  refractory  in  the  mill,  and  less  fitted  to  make 
an  easily  workable  dough,  and  a  bread  of  the  desired  colour,  texture,  and  lightness, 
they  were  less  valued  to  use  alone  for  bread-making  purposes  than  many  grains  of 
less  per-centage  of  gluten,  provided  only  that  they  are  in  an  equal  condition  as  to 
maturation  or  elaboration  of  their  constituents.  Some  of  the  most  approved  foreign 
bread-flour  grains  in  the  market  had  indeed  a  comparatively  low  per-centage  of  nitro- 
gen ;  but  apparently  of  very  high  condition  of  both  their  nitrogenous  and  non-nitro- 
gen ous  compounds,  as  well  as  a  very  favourable  relation  to  each  other  of  these  two 
classes  of  constituents.  Within  the  limits  of  our  own  island,  again,  on  the  average  of 
seasons,  the  better  elaborated  grain  would  probably  be  the  less  nitrogenous ;  though 
the  nitrogenous  matter  it  did  contain  would  be  in  a  high  condition  as  to  elaboration, 
and  as  to  its  mutual  relations,  structural  and  chemical,  with  the  other  constituents  of 
the  flour.  Hence  it  came  to  pass,  that  as  our  home-grown  flours  go,  those  which 
were  the  best  in  the  view  of  the  baker  would  frequently  be  those  having  a  compara- 
tively low  per-centage  of  nitrogenous  compounds,  a  higher  condition  more  than  com- 
pensating for  the  higher  per-centage  of  nitrogen,  generally  associated  as  it  was  in  our 
climate  with  an  inferior  degree  of  development  and  maturation  of  the  grain. 

The  authors  further  maintained,  that  the  high  per-centage  of  nitrogen  or  gluten  in 
wheaten-flour  was  no  more  an  unconditional  measure  of  value  to  the  consumer,  than 
it  was  in  the  view  of  the  baker. 

In  illustration  of  this  latter  point,  a  Table  was  exhibited  showing  the  relation  of 
nitrogen  to  carbon  in  a  number  of  current  articles  of  food.  It  was  submitted,  that 
the  under-fed  or  chiefly  bread-fed  working  man,  would,  as  his  means  increased,  ge- 
nerally first  have  recourse  to  the  addition  of  bacon,  or  other  highly  fatty  matters ; 
which,  though  they  might  increase  the  actual  amount  of  nitrogen  consumed,  would 
seldom  increase,  and  frequently  decrease,  the  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  or  flesh- 
forming  to  the  more  exclusively  respiratory  and  fat-forming  constituents.  Indeed,  so 
large  was  the  amount  of  fat,  and  therefore  of  respirable  hydrogen,  as  well  as  respirable 
carbon,  even  in  fresh  meat  itself,  that  by  its  use  the  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  tn 
the  other  constituents  would  be  much  less  augmented  than  might  be  generally  sup- 
posed. ___^_ 

On  the  Correlation  of  the  North  American  and  British  Paleozoic  Strata.  By 
Hxnby  Darwin  Rogers,  Corresp.  Memb.  of  the  British  Association,  Hon. 
F.R.S.E.,  F.G.S.  8fc. 

The  palaeozoic  system  of  strata  constituting  the  first  term  in  the  great  succession 
of  fossiliferous  deposits  of  the  globe,  surpasses  in  geological  interest  all  other  groups 
of  rocks.  It  is  from  it  that  we  learn  under  what  types  animal  and  vegetable  existence 
appeared  in  the  morning  of  the  great  day  of  life,  which  is  only  now  culminating 
towards  its  noon.  The  classification  of  the  palaeozoic  deposits,  only  another  expres- 
sion for  the  determination  of  their  true  chronology,  assumes  in  this  light  a  high  im- 
portance, since  through  it  alone  can  we  trace  the  physical  history  of  our  earth  through 
the  most  interesting  of  all  its  phases,  that  of  the  infancy  of  its  inhabitants ;  but  a 
sound  classification  and  correct  chronology  are  not  to  be  reached  but  through  a  compa- 
rison of  the  sediments  and  fossils  of  very  wide  areas,  indeed,  not  until  the  contents 
of  several  great  ancient  contemporaneous  basins  have  been  faithfully  coordinated. 
This  consideration  confers  an  especial  interest  at  the  present  time,  upon  the  study  of 
the  palaeozoic  fields  of  North  America,  which  constitute,  apparently,  five-sixths  of 
that  wide  continent,  and  possess,  from  their  very  breadth  of  distribution  and  amazing 
continuity  of  mineral  and  organic  type,  unusual  value  for  such  comparison.  Their  title 
to  the  attention  of  the  philosophical  geologist  will  be  admitted  when  he  reflects, — 
1st,  on  the  remoteness  and  apparently  partial  original  insulation  of  the  North  Ame- 
rican palaeozoic  basin  from  the  European  one ;  2ndly,  on  their  amplitude  and  unbroken 


176  REPORT — 1856. 

continuity,  offering  unusual  facilities  for  the  detection  and  tracing  of  their  nataral 
horizons ;  and  3rdly,  on  the  fullness  of  the  whole  series  of  deposits  as  a  record  of 
the  physical  and  vital  conditions  of  the  ages  which  beheld  their  accumulation.  The 
American  basin  is  not  only  more  replete  in  specific  forms  than  the  palaeozoic  basia 
of  Europe,  but  more  abundant  in  well-defined  palaeontologies!  horizons.  Geographi- 
cally more  continuous,  it  appears  to  be  stratigraphically  more  expanded.  From  the 
lowest  platform  of  ancient  life  to  the  uppermost  layers  crowning  the  coal  series,  its 
latest  formation,  the  aggregate  thickness  of  the  strata  is  between  35,000  and  40,000  feet 

To  coordinate  faithfully  such  distant  affiliated  systems  of  strata,  each  set  of  the  rocks 
to  be  compared  should  be  classified  in  accordance  with  their  own  phenomena,  and 
not  upon  any  preconceived  notions  of  their  equivalency  to  the  deposits  of  independent 
districts  assumed  as  standards ;  nor  should  the  classification  rest  solely  oo  the  rela- 
tions of  their  organic  remains,  but  should  recognize  equally  their  physical  peculiarities 
or  composition,  and  the  nature  of  the  horizons  dividing  them.  From  a  deferential 
feeling  among  American  palaeontologists  towards  their  learned  British  brethren, 
there  has  been,  the  author  conceives,  a  disposition  to  apply  prematurely  a  favourite 
British  nomenclature  to  the  American  strata,  and  this  unphilosophical  procedure  hat 
tended  to  check  that  spirit  of  free  inquiry  which  is  indispensable  to  the  perception  of 
the  wider  relationships  and  grander  laws  of  creation.  To  apply  to  a  large  field  of 
nature  in  North  America  an  interpretation  expressed  in  a  classification  and  nomen- 
clature drawn  from  a  distant  region  across  the  Atlantic,  is  to  make  one  country  a 
standard  for  another ;  whereas  by  the  sanctions  of  inductive  philosophy,  each  great 
tract  of  creation  must  be  its  own  exemplar,  must  itself  furnish  the  measure  of  its  o  wo 
phenomena.  In  the  universal  federation  of  scientific  intellect,  no  community  or 
school  of  thinkers,  however  able  or  authoritative  within  their  own  domain,  can  be- 
come a  supreme  court  of  opinion  in  questions  of  a  world-broad  significance. 

Hitherto  little  has  been  done  by  the  American  and  European  geologists  who  have 
attempted  the  arduous  study  of  the  American  palaeozoic  basin,  to  measure  the  de- 
grees of  relationship  subsisting  between  its  constituent  formations,  while  those 
affinities  which  have  been  examined  have  been  almost  exclusively  palaeontologies!. 
In  this  field  all  honour  is  due  to  the  masterly  labours  of  James'  Hall,  and  the  in- 
vestigations of  M.  De  Verneuil,  and  of  the  lamented  Daniel  Sharpe.  Other  skilful 
naturalists  have  contributed  much  to  the  definition  of  the  American  species  ?  Conrad 
of  Philadelphia,  and  William  Salter  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,  haw 
supplied  many  valuable  determinations.  Still  there  has  been  no  systematic  attempt 
to  explore  the  physical  phaenomena,  which  are  in  beautiful  coordination  with  these  pa- 
!«ontological  discoveries.  While  the  fossils  have  been  appealed  to,  as  they  should  in 
every  attempt  at  classification,  the  strata  themselves  have  scarcely  been  interrogated. 

In  the  present  essay,  the  author's  leading  aim  is  to  indicate  the  principal  natural 
planes  which  intersect  the  North  American  palaeozoic  strata  and  insulate  them  more 
or  less  into  formations,  and  to  point  out  the  relative  magnitudes  of  the  breaks  of  con- 
tinuity, both  as  respects  their  geographical  areas,  and  their  greater  or  less  distinctness 
in  the  vertical  scale.  But  first  it  will  be  expedient  to  sketch  the  general  limits  of  the 
palaeozoic  area  of  North  America  and  of  its  chief  subordinate  basins. 

Paleozoic  Basins  of  North  America. 
We  may  estimate  the  surface  originally  covered  by  palaeozoic  sediments  on  this 
continent  at  about  five-sixths  of  all  the  land  between  the  North  Atlantic,  Pacific,  and 
Arctic  Oceans.  These  deposits  are  embraced  in  two  great  natural  basins,  bounded  by 
zones  of  the  older  crystalline  rocks.  By  far  the  largest  is  a  great  interior  basin, 
spreading  from  the  Appalachian  chain  to  the  Pacific  mountains,  and  from  the  parallel 
of  32°  or  33°  to  the  Arctic  Sea  and  the  Laurentian  water-shed.  This  continental 
palaeozoic  area  includes  three  wide  fields  of  these  rocks,  partially  separated  superficially 
by  overlapping  newer  strata,  but  probably  united  underneath.  These  may  be  desig- 
nated severally  as  the  Appalachian,  the  Saskatchewan,  and  the  Chippewayan  basins. 
The  first  extends  westward  from  the  Appalachian  mountains  to  the  eastern  edge  of 
the  sandy  plains  of  Texas.  Kansas,  and  Nebraska,  and  northward  from  the  low  cre- 
taceous and  tertiary  plane  fringing  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  crystalline  zone  north 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its  lakes.  The  Saskatchewan  basin,  strictly  a  prolongation 
of  the  Appalachian  area,  is  a  long  palaeozoic  belt  stretching  north-westward  from  the 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  177 

sources  of  the  Red  River  of  Winnipeg  to  the  Arctic  Sea,  between  the  crystalline 
lacustrine  zone  on  its  east,  and  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary  prairies  on  its  west. 

The  Chippewayan  basin,  more  vaguely  known,  may  be  defined,  provisionally,  as 
coextensive  with  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Humboldt  Mountains  of  the  Utah 
Desert,  and  as  including  wide  tracts  surrounding  the  sources  of  the  Rio-Colorado 
of  California,  palaeozoic  rocks  being  developed  on  a  stupendous  scale  between  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Salt  Deserts  of  Utah  and  the  Columbia  River.  It  would 
seem  from  palaeontologic  evidence,  that  each  chief  division  of  palaeozoic  time,  except 
the  Permian,  is  represented  within  each  of  these  vast  tracts  or  basins;  and  there  appear 
good  reasons  for  inferring  that  many  of  the  Appalachian  formations,  modified  in  com- 
position and  fossils,  extend  into  both  the  other  areas. 

The  Hudson  Bay  Palmosoie  Basin,  lying  north  of  the  crystalline  plateau,  skirting 
the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  its  lakes,  is  of  much  more  limited  extent  than 
the  main  continental  area.  The  zone  of  metamorphic  rocks  separating  the  two,  after 
running  from  Labrador  to  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  deflects  to  the  north-west  and 
ranges  in  that  direction  1500  miles  to  the  Arctic  Sea.  Hitherto  no  strata  of  Cambrian 
or  Lower  Silurian  age  have  been  detected  within  the  basin  thus  enclosed. 

Appalachian  Formations. — The  palaeozoic  strata  of  the  Appalachian  basin  consti- 
tute fifteen  series  or  natural  groups,  individualized  by  distinctive  organic  species  and 
by  their  mineral  composition.  Some  of  these  blend  together  both  in  their  fossils  and 
their  materials  more  than  others,  and  it  becomes  important  to  ascertain  their  relative 
degrees  of  affinity.  Objecting  to  a  geographical  nomenclature  as  inapplicable  to 
formations  so  very  widely  distributed,  and  on  the  same  ground  of  their  inconstancy,  to 
the  plan  of  naming  them  from  prevailing  local  fossil  or  mineral  features,  titles  have  been 
applied  to  them  based  on  the  consideration  of  their  relative  age,  using  a  series  of  terms 
significant  of  the  different  natural  periods  of  the  day  as  metaphorically  expressing  the 
relative  ages  of  the  formations.  These  Appalachian  rocks  of  North  America  are 
therefore  here  named  Primal,  Auroral,  Matinal,  Levant,  Surgent,  Scalent,  Premeri- 
cUan,  Meridian,  Pomeridian,  Cadent,  Vergent,  Ponent,  Vespertine,  Umbral  and  Serai; 
the  deposits,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  dawn,  daybreak,  morning,  sunrise,  mounting* 
day,  climbing-day,  forenoon,  noon,  afternoon,  declining  day,  sinking  day,  sunset, 
evening,  dusk  and  nightfall. 

[The  communication,  of  which  this  is  an  abstract,  contains  in  this  place  a  tabular 
view  of  these  fifteen  series  of  formations,  with  their  synonyms  and  nearest  equivalents 
among  the  European  strata ;  also  their  lithological  characters,  their  more  character- 
istic organic  remains,  and  the  nature  and  relative  magnitude  of  the  physical  and 
ontological  breaks  which  separate  them ;  but  it  is  too  voluminous  to  be  inserted 
here.J 

This  vast  succession  of  strata  admits  of  a  somewhat  natural  classification  into  four 
assemblages,  partially  representing  the  Cambrian,  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carboni- 
ferous series  of  European  geologists,  but  the  relative  values  of  these  groups  are  by  no 
means  the  same  as  the  European,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  some  of  them  can  be  strictly  coor- 
dinated. One  main  object  of  this  essay  is  to  indicate  the  proportionate  value  of  the 
differential  elements  which  divide  the  fifteen  members  of  the  system,  and  bring  these 
into  relationship  with  the  palaeontologies!  breaks  uppn  the  recognition  of  which  the  • 
palaeozoic  rocks  of  Europe  have  received  their  present  classification.  Attention  will 
be  first  directed  to  the  stratigraphical  phenomena,  and  then  to  the  palaeontological  j 
but  some  preliminary  suggestions  will  be  offered  respecting  the  inferences  to  be  de- 
duced from  the  conditions  of  superposition  of  strata. 

It  must  be  conceded  that  every  over-resting  sheet  qt  current  of  water  has  left  some 
permanent  monument  of  its  presence,  and  therefore  wherever  between  two  strata  or 
ancient  surfaces  known  to  have  been  produced  in  periods  separated  by  some  interval 
of  time  nothing  sedimentary  intervenes,  we  most  assume  the  vacuous  space  to  have 
been  dry  land.  It  is  not  supposable  that  water,  endowed  as  it  is  with  a  power  of 
suspending  and  transporting  sedimentary  matter  into  the  very  middle  of  the  ocean, 
and  there  and  everywhere  teeming  with  animal  and  vegetable  organisms,  could  have 
rested  over  any  surface  without  leaving  an  indelible  record  behind  it.  Until  it  can 
be  proved  that  some  one  formation  has  been  thoroughly  swept  away  from  a  wide 
area  where  it  was  deposited,  we  are  not  entitled  by  rules  of  sound  reasoning  to  infer 
mat  such  have  existed. 

1856.  1« 


178  REPORT — 1856. 

Looking  at  the  conditions  under  which  strata  repose  upon  each  other,  we  may  view 
their  relations  of  superposition  under  the  four  following  categories. 

1st.  Successive  deposits  may  lie  together  in  parallel  arrangement,  and  so  graduate 
into  each  other  as  to  denote  no  pause  in  time  or  interruption  in  the  formative  process ; 
and  even  a  formation  of  one  long  period  may  thus  graduate  into  another  by  their 
sediments  and  their  fossils.  Such  a  close  following  of  strata,  the  author  entitles  a 
conformable  continuous  sequence. 

2nd.  One  set  of  strata  may  rest  immediately  on  another  with  perfect  parallelisB, 
and  yet  their  plane  of  contact  represent  a  long  interval  of  time  and  a  total  change  of 
sedimentary  conditions  and  of  the  physical  geography ;  for  certain  beds  or  even  whole 
formations  interposed  between  them  in  other  districts,  may  be  altogether  absent 
This  relationship  is  entitled  a  conformable  interrupted  sequence. 

It  proves  not  merely  a  lift  of  the  watery  floor  into  dry  land,  and  its  subsequent 
re-immersion,  but  a  movement  unaccompanied  by  any  tilting  or  undulation  of  the 
lower  deposit. 

3rd.  An  upper  group  of  beds  may  repose  on  a  lower  with  an  angle  between  them 
such  as  to  imply  an  uptilting  from  horizontality  in  the  inferior,  before  the  superior 
was  deposited,  while  a  close  sequence  of  type  in  their  organic  remains  shows  them  to 
be  the  products  of  immediately  consecutive  periods,  or  that  no  time  elapsed  for  the 
production  elsewhere  of  a  middle  formation.  This  relationship  is  entitled  an  mm- 
formable  continuous  sequence. 

4th.  Two  sets  of  strata  resting  in  contact,  may  present  not  only  an  absence  of 
parallellism,  but  an  omission  of  one  or  more  intermediate  formations  elsewhere 
existing.  This  state  of  things  implies  not  only  an  inclining  of  the  inferior  beds,  but  a 
lifting  of  them  into  dry  land,  with  a  lapse  of  time  before  their  immersion  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  overlying  deposits.  Such  a  condition,  familiar  as  the  commonest  species  of 
unconformity,  may  fitly  be  entitled  an  unconformable  interrupted  sequence. 

The  fifteen  principal  divisions  of  the  Appalachian  palaeozoic  strata  contain  several 
important  planes  of  discontinuity.  These  are  of  very  unequal  magnitude,  both  geogra- 
phically and  stratigraphically.  Between  them  are  other  lesser  horizons,  but  only  the 
greater  ones  are  discussed  in  this  paper.  The  two  most  conspicuous  of  all,  are  that 
at  the  end  of  the  Matinal  or  Hudson  River  period,  and  that  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Vespertine  or  first  Carboniferous  age.  Another,  though  materially  less  extensive 
one,  divides  the  Premeridian  or  Lower  Helderberg  period  from  the  Meridian  or 
Oriskany  sandstone  age. 

Evidences  of  an  extensive  Paroxysmal  Revolution  in  the  Physical   Geography  ami 
Organic  Inhabitants  of  the  Appalachian  Sea  at  the  end  of  the  Matinal  Period. 

The  break  or  plane  of  discontinuity  terminating  the  Matinal  series  or  Hudson 
River  group,  exceeds  all  the  others  in  the  Appalachian  basin  for  the  abruptness  of 
the  transition  which  it  implies  in  the  organic  remains,  and  in  the  magnitude  of  the 
crust-movement.  From  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  the  Hudson  River,  nearly  800 
miles,  this  break  is  marked  by  an  unconformable  interrupted  sequence ;  the  Matinal 
rocks  highly  inclined  and  folded,  generally  supporting  less  inclined  strata  of  the  Levant 
or  some  other  middle  palaeozoic  formation.  The  Scalent  or  Niagara  group,  next  to 
the  highest  of  the  four  true  Silurian  equivalents,  reposes  discordantly  upon  the  Upper 
Cambrian  or  Matinal,  not  only  in  the  Peninsula  of  Gaspe\  but  in  the  Eastern  Town- 
ships and  in  Vermont.  The  evidence  of  a  great  crust-movement  at  this  epoch  of  the 
close  of  the  Matinal  slates,  was  shown  by  the  author  as  long  ago  as  1838,  in  an 
annual  report  on  the  geological  survey  of  Pennsylvania,  where  he  pointed  out  the 
unconformity  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Hudson  River,  and  drew  the  inference  of  an  up- 
heaval of  the  bed  of  the  ancient  ocean.  It  would  appear  that  throughout  this  north- 
eastern  division  of  the  Appalachian  cbain,  the  movement  at  the  epoch  separating  the 
Cambrian  and  Silurian  or  older  and  newer  Silurian  periods,  was  so  vehement,  as  to 
plicate  and  partially  metamorphose  the  older  strata.  The  condition  of  unconformity, 
with  and  without  interruption  of  sequence  in  the  strata,  extends  to  the  west  side  of 
the  River  Hudson,  and  there  is  good  geological  evidence  that  the  displacement  of  level 
producing  it  reached  westward  as  far  as  Oneida  Lake.  Undulated  Matinal  rocks  j 
support  horizontal  Niagara  or  Scalent  strata,  with  a  lapse  of  two  intermediate  for-  ' 
roations  for  some  distance  from  the  H  udson,  westward  along  the  base  of  the  Helderberg    j 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  8ECTION8.  179 

range.  Ascending  the  Mohawk  valley,  the  undulation  in  the  Cambrian  rocks  disap- 
pears, and  both  series  become  approximately  horizontal  and  parallel,  but  still  with 
omission  of  formations. 

South- westward  from  the  Hudson,  following  the  north-west  margin  of  the  great 
Appalachian  valley,  one  may  trace  this  plane  of  discontinuity  as  far  as  Eastern 
Tennessee,  or  even  into  Alabama ;  for  throughout  this  whole  distance  of  800  or  900 
miles,  though  there  is  no  lapse  of  a  formation  at  the  plane  of  contact,  or  any  physical 
unconformity,  there  is  universally  so  abrupt  and  crisp  an  horizon  dividing  the 
strata,  in  respect  to  composition,  conditions  of  bedding,  and  organic  remains,  and 
such  plain  evidence  that  the  upper  rock  was  formed  from  the  wreck  of  the  lower 
ones,  that  the  conviction  is  inevitable,  that  a  crust-movement  revolutionizing  the 
physical  geography  extended  throughout  this  whole  space.  The  Levant  rocks,  though 
next  in  succession  to  the  Matinal,  and  reposing  conformably  upon  them,  give  evidence 
of  such  a  movement  in  every  feature  of  their  composition.  The  lower  bed  is  usually 
a  conglomerate  composed  of  fragments  of  all  the  underlying  formations  of  the  earlier 
palaeozoic  or  Cambrian  series.  Some  of  its  pebbles  belong  to  the  Primal  sandstone ; 
some  are  of  chert  from  the  Auroral  limestone,  and  much  of  the  grey  sandy  matter 
has  evidently  come  from  the  Matinal  slate  group. 

Turning  attention  to  the  phenomena  connected  with  this  horizon  in  other  parts  of 
the  broad  Appalachian  basin  west  of  the  mountains,  it  can  be  shown,  that,  over  half 
the  width  of  the  continent,  there  exists,  notwithstanding  an  almost  absolute  horizon- 
tality  and  parallelism  of  the  two  sets  of  strata,  or  the  lower  and  middle  palaeozoic 
series,  a  true  discontinuity  in  the  sequence  of  the  formations.  In  New  York  there 
is  a  conformable  interrupted  sequence  from  the  Hudson  to  Oneida  county ;  from 
Oneida  to  Lake  Ontario  the  Levant  conglomerate,  or  Lowest  Silurian  stratum,  enters 
the  gap  and  makes  the  sequence  complete. 

But  this  state  of  things  nowhere  again  prevails  from  Lake  Ontario  westward  to 
Illinois  and  the  Missouri  River,  nor  southward  from  the  Laurentian  Lakes  to  the 
southern  outcrops  of  the  two  systems  on  the  borders  of  Alabama,  Arkansas,  and 
Texas. 

The  Medina  sandstone,  a  higher  Levant  stratum,  partially  fills  the  break  across 
New  York,  and  across  Canada  to  the  Manitoulin  islands  of  Lake  Huron,  where, 
after  constantly  thinning,  it  dies  out.  Thence  to  the  western  boundary  of  Iowa  the 
hiatus  remains  unsupplied  by  any  equivalent  throughout  this  whole  distance.  Tracing 
the  Sargent  or  Clinton  group,  the  second  Silurian  formation  ascending  along  the 
same  plane  of  discontinuity,  it  is  found,  after  entering  the  brake  or  gap  near  Schoharie, 
to  stretch  westward  to  the  Niagara  River,  and  north-westward  to  the  Manitoulins, 
and  possibly  thence  to  Green  Bay.  Beyond  the  Niagara  River  it  is  an  extremely 
thin  bed  of  limestone  and  calcareous  shale.  Thus  from  the  peninsula  of  Michigan  to 
the  cretaceous  plains  of  the  Missouri,  two  entire  formations  are  omitted  above  the 
top  of  the  lower  palaeozoic  or  Cambrian  formations.  The  Scalent  or  Niagara  series, 
the  third  Silurian  group,  ranges  through  a  wider  zone.  Thin  and  obscure  in  the 
eastern  part  of  New  York,  and  almost  gone  in  the  Appalachian  chain  from  the 
Hudson  southward,  it  is  an  important  stratum  from  western  New  York  westward 
to  its  disappearance  beneath  its  cretaceous  covering  in  the  plains  of  Nebraska.  It 
was  the  first  middle  palaeozoic  or  Silurian  deposit,  formed  upon  the  floor  of  the  old 
Appalachian  sea,  upon  its  re- immersion  after  its  upheaval  at  the  close  of  the  Matinal 
period. 

Reviewing  these  statements,  we  arrive  at  this  interesting  general  picture : — 1st,  a 
violent  and  universal  agitation  of  the  whole  bed  of  the  Appalachian  palaeozoic  ocean 
at  the  close  of  the  Matinal  period,  resulting  in  its  upheaval  and  drainage,  from  the 
region  of  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  to  that  of  the  centre  of  the  continent,  and  in  a 
general  shoaling  of  every  other  portion.  2nd,  a  more  local  paroxysmal  movement 
of  depression  accompanied  by  the  formation  of  the  Levant  or  Oneida  conglomerate, 
Mowed  by  a  gradual  and  successive  subsidence,  letting  in  the  ocean  over  a  wider 
space  during  the  Levant  and  Surgent  periods,  until  in  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  period 
the  whole  area  was  reclaimed  again  by  the  ocean.  In  the  first  stage  of  the  subsidence, 
the  sea  filled  only  a  long,  narrow  trough,  parallel  with  the  present  Appalachians ;  in 
the  next  or  Median  age,  it  had  spread  along  its  northern  coast  westward  as  far  as 
Lake  Huron,  but  was  evidently  very  shallow ;  and  in  the  following  or  Surgent  period, 

12* 


180  HBPORT — 1856. 

steadily  deepening  and  supporting  more  living  inhabitants,  it  extended  its  bed  si  Car 
as  the  western  side  of  Lake  Michigan ;  bat  not  till  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  age  dai 
this  second-time  created  palaeozoic  ocean  recover  all  its  old  domain. 

Break  between  the  Middle  and  Lower  PaUsozoic  Formation*  in  the  Anticlinal  Znm  a/ 
Ohio,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee, 

.  The  lower  palaeozoics  rise  to  the  day  upon  this  wide  flat  wave  in  two  districts; 
one  enclosing  Cincinnati,  the  other  occupying  a  central  position  in  the  plain  of 
Middle  Tennessee.  Upon  the  Matinal  strata,  which  are  there  very  calcareous, 
there  rests  not  a  vestige  of  the  Levant  or  Medina  formation,  and  scarcely  a  trace  of 
the  Clinton  or  Surgent.  The  first  Silurian  deposit  lapping  upon  the  uppermost  Caaa- 
hrian,  is  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  limestone.  Still  more  striking  is  the  hiatus,  where 
the  contact  of  the  lower  with  the  middle  palaeozoic  formations  is  exposed  round 
the  margin  of  the  Tennessee  anticlinal,  for  there  we  find  on  its  eastern  aide,  neither 
Levant,  Surgent,  Scalent,  nor  Premeridian  rocks,  that  is  to  say,  no  proper  Sihiriu 
formation  whatsoever,  and  on  its  western  only  a  thin  layer  of  the  Scalent  or  Niagara. 

Break  in  Eastern  Missouri. — From  Lake  Superior,  by  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi, and  by  the  Ozark  and  Washita  Hills,  to  the  igneous  range  of  the  Rio-Colorado 
of  Texas,  there  is  a  chain  of  broad  anticlinals,  exposing  ancient  plutonic  andgneisac 
rocks,  but  chiefly  the  older  palaeozoics  near  their  axes.  Around  every  one  of  these, 
either  the  middle,  that  is  Silurian  and  Devonian,  or  upper,  namely  the  Carboniferous 
deposits,  rest  in  discordant  superposition  with  or  without  parallelism  upon  the  Primal, 
Auroral,  or  Matinal  members  of  the  older  palaeozoic  division.  This  condition  prevails 
in  southern  Wisconsin,  but  to  a  more  marked  degree  around  the  anticlinal  area 
traversed  by  the  Missouri  River  eastward  of  the  Osage*. 

On  the  western  and  northern  borders  of  the  Matinal  area,  someone  of  the  Carbo- 
niferous formations  very  generally  reposes  unconformably  upon  the  strata  of  the 
older  palaeozoic  or  Cambrian  age,  all  the  middle  formations,  Silurian  and  Devonian, 
being  absent.  Here  then  we  have  the  clearest  demonstration,  that  the  anticlinal  zone 
of  the  Lower  Missouri  remained  in  the  condition  of  dry  land  from  the  period  of  the 
general  movement  of  the  bed  of  the  Appalachian  Sea  at  the  close  of  the  Matinal  period 
throughout  all  the  long  ages  of  the  middle  palaeozoic  formations.  Hits  district  gives 
evidence  of  a  similar,  but  less  extensive  paroxysmal  movement,  resulting  in  discordant 
stratification  at  the  beginning  of  the  Carboniferous  period,  but  the  discussion  of  thai 
and  other  subsequent  displacements  of  the  crust  can  only  be  alluded  to  in  this  abstract 
The  physical  break  visible  throughout  this  western  chain  of  anticlinals  implies  a 
wider  interval  of  time,  or  longer  cessation  of  formative  actions,  than  is  discernible 
anywhere  further  east  within  the  Appalachian  area. 

Reasoning  from  the  data  afforded  by  recent  geological  researches,  especially  those 
of  Owen,  Norwood  and  Swallow,  the  author  infers  that  the  Silurian  waters,  even  as 
late  as  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  period,  when  they  had  attained  their  widest  expansion, 
were  by  no  means  co-extensive  with  the  wide  bounds  of  that  earlier  Appalachian 
ocean  which  covered  the  Matinal  and  other  primordial  palaeozoic  sediments.  In  the 
middle  latitudes  of  the  United  States,  this  Silurian  sea  had  crept  no  further  eastward 
than  a  line  joining  the  Tennessee  anticlinal  and  the  Helderberg  Hills  of  New  York, 
prolonged  thence  into  New  England,  Lower  Canada,  and  New  Brunswick.  It  occu- 
pied the  area  of  the  present  Laurentian  Lakes,  but  did  not  reach  the  limit  of  the 
ancient  Matinal  sea  even  in  that  direction,  and  towards  the  west  and  south-west  ft 
did  not  spread  to  the  Lower  Missouri.  It  was  merely  a  wide  Mediterranean,  covering 
the  area  which  is  now  the  northern-middle  and  north-western  Atlantic  States.  [Want 
of  space  compels  the  omission  of  that  part  of  the  memoir  which  relates  to  the  Sas- 
katchewan palaeozoic  basin,  and  to  the  Chippewayan  region,  or  that  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.] 

Palaozoie  Basin  of  Hudson  Bay.— The  north-eastern  palaeozoic  basin  of  North 
America  is  encircled  on  three  sides  by  a  low,  broad  zone  of  gneissic  and  azoic  strata, 
between  200  and  300  miles  broad,  and  of  a  curved  length  of  not  less  than  3000  miles, 
from  Labrador  to  the  Arctic  Sea*  This  belt  is  not,  in  the  proper  sense,  an  axis  of 
crust  elevation,  but  mors  truly,  the  still  uncovered  remnant  of  the  broad  floor  of 
metamorphic  strata  upon  which  the  palaeozoic  deposits  of  the  two  great  basins  which 
*  See  Owen'i  Geological  Survey  and  Map,  of  Wisconsin,  &c 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THK  SECTIONS.  181 

fringe  it  were  accumulated.     It  seems  not  to  have  beeo  sensibly  upheaved  since  the 
date  of  their  deposition. 

Of  the  age  of  the  palaeozoic  basin  of  Hudson  Bay,  recent  research  has  furnished 
some  very  suggestive  information.  According  to  the  statements  of  the  geologists  of  the 
Canadian  government,  and  others,  it  has  hitherto  disclosed  not  a  single  fossil  indi- 
cative of  the  existence  of  either  the  Primal,  Auroral,  or  Matinal  formations  of  the 
older  palaeozoic  series,  but  it  abounds  in  deposits  of  middle  palaeozoic  or  Silurian 
age.  Mr.  Isbister,  in  an  admirable  summary  of  the  results  of  research  in  this  region, 
considers  this  important  general  fact  to  be  well-established  for  all  the  widely  scattered 
localities  hitherto  visited.  It  receives  the  strongest  confirmation  from  the  determi- 
nations of  Mr.  Salter,  who  has  devoted  a  careful  scrutiny  to  the  extensive  collection 
of  fossils  brought  to  England  by  the  recent  Arctic  expeditions.  According  to  Isbister, 
middle  palaeozoic  or  Silurian  rocks  extend  uninterruptedly  from  Lake  Temiscaming, 
a  little  above  47°  latitude,  to  the  shores  of  Wellington  Channel  beyond  77°,  or  through 
more  than  30°.  From  all  the  geological  evidence  collected,  it  would  appear  that  a 
large  portion,  if  not  the  whole  of  this  wide  palaeozoic  area  remained  uncovered  by 
the  sea  throughout  the  three  earlier  or  Cambrian  periods,  and  was  not  submersed 
until  that  stupendous  disturbance  of  the  crust  took  place  which  displaced  so  large  a 
tract  of  the  bed  of  the  Appalachian  ocean.  This  north-eastern  area  was  therefore 
the  nucleus,  of  the  continent,  or,  at  least,  one  island  centre,  from  the  infancy  of  its 
growth  down  to  the  end  of  the  Matinal  ages.  The  stupendous  movement  which 
then  depressed  its  central  districts,  converting  it  into  a  Silurian  basin,  also  lifted  off 
a  large  part  of  the  waters  to  tbe  south  of  the  neutral  axis  of  motion  marked  by  the 
dividing  zone  of  metamorphic  strata.  No  sharp  corrugations  of  the  crust  attended 
this  enormous  displacement  of  the  levels,  analogous  to  the  crust-undulations  of  the 
same  epoch  between  Gaspe*  and  the  Hudson.  Still  the  subsidence  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  region  must  have  been  violent  or  paroxysmal,  if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  con- 
glomerates which  strew  its  immediate  floor,  their  lowest  bed,  according  to  Sir  William 
Logan,  being  composed  of  great  boulders  and  blocks  of  sandstone,  some  of  them  9  feet 
in  diameter,  so  energetic  was  the  disturbance  which  attended  the  letting  on  of  the 
waters.  It  is  not  certain  that  this  subsidence  occurred  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Levant  or  first  Silurian  period,  for  Mr.  Salter  has  shown*  that  all  the  strata  of  the 
southern  border  of  the  Hudson  Bay  area  yet  examined,  are  of  the  age  of  the  Scalent 
or  Niagara  limestone.  It  is  probable  that  after  the  first  tremendous  and  nearly 
universal  disturbance  of  the  levels  at  the  close  of  the  Matinal  period,  there  occurred 
an  interval  of  comparative  repose,  with  a  slow  deposition  of  the  Levant  and  Surgent 
formations  in  the  central  and  southern  tracts  of  the  Appalachian  Sea,  and  also  in  the 
central  parts  of  the  Hudson  Bay  basin ;  and  that  succeeding  this  there  was  a  broad, 
nearly  equalized  subsidence  of  the  whole  northern  basin,  and  the  northern  half  of  the 
southern  one  in  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  period. 

Reviewing  all  the  facts,  it  would  seem  that  the  wide  break  in  the  sequence  of  the 
American  palaeozoic  strata  above  the  Matinal,  or  latest  Cambrian  formation,  is  as 
well  indicated  north  of  the  Laurentian  metamorphic  zone  as  south  of  it,  though  not 
by  a  physical  unconformity  in  the  usual  narrow  sense,  but  by  a  prodigious  hiatus  in 
the  series  of  deposits. 

[The  paper  next  contains  "  Evidences  of  a  physical  break  or  interruption  in  the 
depositions  between  the  Premeridian  or  latest  Silurian,  and  Pomeridian  or  Devonian 
formations,"  and  also  "  Evidences  of  a  similar  physical  break  between  the  Pomeri- 
dian and  Vespertine,  or  earliest  Carboniferous  formations."  These  instances  of  dis- 
cordant sequence  are  shown  to  be  of  less  magnitude  than  that  already  discussed 
between  the  Matinal  and  succeeding  deposits;  and  as  the  physical  breaks  are,  so  are 
the  palaeontologic ;  the  transition  in  the  organic  remains  being  far  more  complete 
end  abrupt  between  the  lower  and  middle  palaeozoics,  than  between  the  middle  and 
upper  or  anywhere  within  the  middle  between  its  Silurian  and  Devonian  equivalents.] 

Paksontological  Break,  or  Amount  of  Change  in  the  Organic  Remains  between  the 
Older  and  Middle  Palaozoic  Strata  of  the  Appalachian  Basin. 

Great  as  the  physical  discordance  is  between  the  lower  and  middle  palaeozoic 
formations,  the  palaeontological  break  or  the  transition  in  the  fossils  is  even  more  re- 
*  Proceedings  of  British  Association,  1851. 


182 


REPORT — 1856* 


markable.  All  the  American  palaeozoic  formations  appear  to  contain  fewer  i, 
in  common  than  do  the  European  ;  and  even  strictly  sequent  formations  divided  by 
no  crisp  physical  plane,  display  decidedly  abrupt  transitions  in  their  organic  typet 
No  doubt  every  such  sharp  palseontological  horizon  coincides  with  a  horizon  of  tiae 
physical  discontinuity,  or  sudden  change  at  least,  somewhere  within  the  smk 
basin.  Indeed,  such  palseontological  planes  may  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  im- 
portant revolutions  in  the  level  of  the  ancient  oceanic  floor.  This  horizon  of  the 
upper  limit  of  the  Matinal  rocks  is  incontestably  the  sharpest  pabeontologicdly 
within  the  whole  paleozoic  system  of  the  Appalachian  basin,  whether  we  messsre 
it  by  the  smallness  in  the  proportion  of  the  species  which  bridge  the  gulf,  or  by  tae 


Palodontological  relations  of  the  American  and  European  PaUeozak  Strut*. 


25? 


100? 


130? 


60 

12 

S10 I 

229  15<^ 

I" 

107 


18 
278 

80 
18 


o?^ 


Coal. 


Umbral. 


Vespertine. 


Ponent. 


Vergent 


Cadent. 


Poet-Meridian. 


Meridian. 
Pre-Meridian. 


Seal  en  t 


Surgent. 


Levant. 


Matinal. 


Auroral. 


Primal. 


Coal. 

Carb.  Limest 

_ 

(4\ 

Old  Red  Sandstone. 

c 

Lower  Devonian. 

3N\ 

Ludlow. 

UL^ 

Wenlock. 

24  

Bala. 

Festiniog. 

Bangor. 

200 


20 


80 


y  mw™ 


364 


MM 


420 


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TRANSACTIONS  OF  TOE  SECTIONS.  183 

alteration  in  their  types  of  structure.  The  following  summary  of  the  results  of  the 
researches  of  Professor  James  Hall,  and  other  skilful  palaeontologists,  will  show  the 
extent  of  this  revolution  in  palaeozoic  life.  Unluckily,  neither  Hall  nor  any  other 
naturalist,  has  yet  advanced  to  an  exhaustive  description  and  enumeration  of  the 
American  species  above  the  Scalent  and  Niagara  series,  though  it  is  possible  to 
glean  valuable  data  from  his  essay  on  the  Palaeozoic  Deposits  of  the  United  States 
and  Europe,  and  from  other  sources  whereby  to  make  the  comparison  between  the 
Cambrian -Silurian  break  and  the  other  later  horizons  of  life  discontinuity. 

The  annexed  Table  presents  in  a  summary  form  the  palaeontological  relations  of 
the  American  and  European  palaeozoic  strata,  indicating  the  numbers  of  the  species 
restricted  to  the  several  groups,  and  the  numbers  which  are  common  to  related  ones. 
It  is  a  striking  fact,  bearing  directly  on  the  present  inquiry,  that  the  proportion 
of  organic  forms  common  to  the  lower  and  middle  palaeozoic  divisions,  scarcely 
exceeds  zero.    According  to  Professor  Hall  *,  the  number  of  species  now  examined 
from  the  lower  palaeozoics  of  the  United  States  surpasses  400,  and  those  from  the 
Levant,  Surgent,  and  Scalent  series,  or  all  but  the  uppermost  Silurian  formation, 
are  about  344.     He  also  states f,  that  already  more  than  200  species  have  been  re- 
cognized in  the  Premeridian  or  Lower  Helderberg  limestone,  from  which  it  would 
appear  that  the  Silurian  or  Upper  Silurian  of  Great  Britain  have  yielded  about  550 
forms.     The  two  sets  together  have  thus  turned  out  about  950  species,  or  nearly  the 
number  catalogued  by  Professor  Morris  as  found  in  the  corresponding  formations 
in  the  British  Islands.    Now  it  is  a  most  instructive  fact,  that,  out  of  these  nearly 
lOOO  lower  and  middle  palaeozoic  fossils,  only  three  or  four,  if  as  mauy,  span  the 
great  break  which  divides  the  two  groups  of  rocks.    This  complete  extinction  of 
the  'earlier  or  Cambrian  races,  is  a  circumstance  so  important  in  the  comparative 
palaeontology  of  the  two  continents,  that  it  deserves  to  be  dwelt  on  sufficiently  to 
show  the  precise  extent  of  the  evidence.     Professor  Hall,  speaking  of  the  Medina, 
Clinton,  and  Niagara  groups,  states,  "  In  these  investigations,  some  new  facts  have 
been  brought  to  light,  which  all  the  previous  examinations  have  not  shown,  the 
discovery  of  several  species  of  fossils  heretofore  known  only  in  the  lower  rocks.     In 
the  western  part  of  the  State  of  New  York,  the  lower  beds  of  the  Clinton  group 
have  furnished  very  dilapidated  specimens  of  Bellerophon  trilobatus  with  Dolthyru* 
Lynx,  and  one  or  two  imperfect  specimens  of  a  Leptana  undistinguishable  from  L. 
alternata.    A  few  other  fragments  and  imperfect  specimens  have  also  been  found, 
which  appear  to  be  forms  belonging  to  Lower  Silurian  strata.    These  facts  are  ex- 
tremely important  and  interesting,  and  I  take  the  present  occasion  of  recording  them, 
from  the  circumstance  that  all  our  investigations  previously  had  only  strengthened 
the  opinion  that  no  fossils  of  the  lower  rocks  had  passed  the  Oneida  conglomerate/9 
When  we  compare  this  remarkable  palaeontological  break,  amounting  to  certainly 
99  per  cent,  of  all  the  discovered  organisms  from  the  two  sets  of  strata,  with  the 
synchronous  break,  separating  the  Cambrian  or  older  Silurian  from  the  Silurian  of 
Great  Britain,  we  find  a  marked  difference  in  the  extent  of  the  discontinuity  in  the 
vital  stream.    Sir  Roderick  Murchison  has  shown  in  an  Appendix  to  his  work 
'  Siluria/  in  a  Table  of  the  vertical  range  of  the  older  palaeozoic  fossils,  compiled 
by  Mr.  Salter,  that  not  less  than  114  species  are  common  to  the  lower  and  upper 
groups.    This  number,  assuming  880  as  the  species  accessible  for  comparison,  is 
nearly  13  per  cent,  of  the  two  entire  faunas  compared.     It  is  obvious,  therefore, 
that  the  life-break,  like  the  mechanical,  was  even  more  complete  in  the  Appalachian 
portion  of  the  American  palaeozoic  basin,  than  it  was  in  the  British  part  of  the 
European.    A  little  more  than  one  half  of  the  880  species  enumerated  by  Professor 
Morris,  belong  to  the  Upper  Caradoc,  Wenlock,  and  Ludlow  formations,  while, 
according  to  Mr.  Salter's  list,  114  species,  that  is  to  say,  about  22  percent.,  range 
from  the  Llandeilo  into  these  upper  rocks. 

We  reach  a  still  clearer  apprehension  of  the  relative  magnitudes  of  the  American 
and  the  British  palaeontological  breaks  at  the  Matinal  or  Caradoc  period,  when  we 
regard  for  a  moment  the  additional  evidence  afforded  by  comparing  the  proportionate 
number  of  genera  which  pass  the  boundary  in  the  two  countries.  According  to 
Professor  Phillips's  condensed  enumeration  framed  from  Professor  Morris's  Cata- 

*  Palaeontology  of  New  York,  vol.  ii.  p.  319. 

t  Foster  and  Whitney'*  *  Geology  of  Lake  Superior/ 


184  riport — 1856. 

logos  of  British  Fossils,  there  are  restricted  to  the  strata  below  the  Irak  136 
genera,  and  to  those  above  it  149,  while  there  are  74  genera  common  to  the  two 
sets.  In  other  words,  the  proportion  of  common  to  restricted  is  nearly  26  per  ceo*. 
Turning  now  to  the  American  older  and  middle  palaeozoic  faunas,  I  find,  on  csre- 
folly  comparing  Hall's  catalogues  of  the  fossils  of  the  two  corresponding  sets  of 
formations  (deficient,  unfortunately,  in  any  enumeration  of  Premeridian  or  latest 
Silurian  species),  that  there  are  restricted  to 

the  Primal     *i 
„   Auroral    I  53  genera, 
„  Matinal  J 

while  there  are  restricted  to 

the  Levant    1 
„  Surgent  >   81  genera; 
„   Scalent  J 

and  that  there  are  37  genera  common  to  the  two  series,  the  whole  number  of  genera 
being  171*  Here  the  proportion  of  common  to  restricted  is  about  25  per  cent  The 
introduction  of  the  Premeridian  fossils,  many  of  which  are  on  the  horizon  of  the 
Wenlock  beds  of  Britain,  would  add  materially  to  the  proportion  of  genera  not  held 
in  common,  and  would  reduce  the  common  to  probably  less  than  20  percent.  Thus 
even  on  this  broadest  basis  of  comparison,  there  would  seem  to  have  been  a  much 
more  complete  extinction  and  replacement  of  organic  types  in  North  America,  than 
occurred  in  Europe,  or  at  least,  in  Britain. 

Parallelism  of  the  North  American  and  European  Paleozoic  Rock*. 

Having  examined  the  reciprocal  relations  of  the  Appalachian  palaeozoic  strata,  and 
also  those  of  the  European  palaeozoics  among  themselves,  as  expressed  by  the  nume- 
rical proportions  of  their  fossils,  and  also  by  the  generic  forms  of  their  organic  re- 
mains, and  learned  where  the  stream  of  life  was  most  continuous,  and  where  most 
interrupted,  it  remains  to  coordinate  the  deposits  of  the  two  basins  with  each 
other.  Thus  may  we  hope  to  learn  what  formations  are  synchronous,  and  what  are 
without  equivalents.  In  attempting  this  correlation,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
Nature  presents  no  true  or  literal  equivalency  of  strata,  nor  anything  closer  than  a 
mere  approximate  relationship  where  the  deposits  compared  belong  to  independent 
basins,  or  even  to  the  remote  sides  of  the  same  great  receptacle.  The  most  we  can 
hope  to  establish,  is  a  general  agreement  in  time  with  possibly  a  stricter  synchronism 
of  the  few  chief  paroxysmal  movements  which  agitated  the  bed  of  the  ancient  ocean. 
Partially  representative  formations  are  discoverable,  but  equivalent  ones  are  not  to 
be  looked  for  upon  any  philosophical  view,  since  the  distribution  of  organic  beings 
is  essentially  partial  or  geographical.  The  life  horizons  of  the  globe  are  no  more 
universal  than  are  its  horizons  of  sedimentation.  With  these  reservations,  we  turn 
to  the  degrees  of  affinity,  linking  the  American  and  European  palaeozoic  groups  of 
fossils. 

Relations  of  the  Primal  Series  (Potsdam  sandstone). — The  Appalachian  Primal  strata 
characterized  by  a  peculiar  group  of  Trilobites,  absent  from  the  higher  formations 
and  by  those  earliest  brachiopodous  genera,  Obolus,  Lingula  and  Orbiculo,  are 
obviously  nearly  on  the  horizon  of  Barrande's  Primordial  zone,  and  of  the  lowest 
rocks  of  Russia  and  Scandinavia.  Notwithstanding  a  general  agreement  of  type, 
there  is  not  a  species  common  to  the  two  continents. 

Auroral  Series  (Calc\ferous,  Chazy  and  Black  River  Groups). — The  Appalachian 
Auroral  strata,  containing  in  New  York  alone  more  than  83  recognized  forms,  possess 
but  a  single  species,  the  Lituites  convolvens,  in  common  with  the  strata  which  repre- 
sent them  in  Europe.  Hall  thinks  that  the  Auroral  limestones  are  not  represented 
by  any  British  rocks,  nor  clearly  by  any  European.  Possibly  they  were  approximately 
contemporaneous  with  the  Swedish  Orthoceratite  limestone. 

Matinal  Series  (Trenton  and  Hudson  River  Groups). — This  group  of  formations, 
Matinal  limestone  (Trenton),  Matinal  black  slate  (Utica),  and  Matinal  shale  (Hudson 
River),  would  seem,  from  the  testimony  of  the  fossils,  to  be  represented  in  Great 
Britain  by  the  Llandeilo  flags  and  Caradoe  sandstone,  or  more  generally  by  Sedg- 
wick's Bala  or  Upper  Cambrian  group.    It  finds  also  a  near  equivalent  in  the  Ortho- 


TRANSACTIONS  OF  THE  SECTIONS.  183 

ceratite  limestone  of  Sweden  and  Russia,  and  in  the  Graptohte  shales.  Mr.  Hall, 
the  beet  American  authority,  states  that  the  Caradoc  sandstone  is  zoologically  an 
equivalent  of  the  Hudson  River  group.  While  the  Matinal  series  in  New  York 
has  afforded  more  than  250  forms,  and  the  Bala  group  122,  there  are,  according  to 
the  late  Mr.  Sharpe's  comparison,  only  12  in  common.  M.  de  Verneuil,  contrasting 
the  American  and  North  Europe  Matinal  fossils,  finds  only  14  in  common.  Still  the 
two  faunas,  though  so  poor  in  cosmopolite  forms,  have  so  many  identical  genera 
that  there  can  be  no  hesitation  in  admitting  them  to  be  the  products  of  the  same  age. 
Of  the  20  species  common  to  the  American  Matinal  limestones  and  Matinal  shales, 
10,  according  to  Mr.  Sharpe,  are  also  European  species.  This  is  one  among  many 
facta  showing  that  the  most  widely  distributed  races  were  those  which  best  withstood 
the  revolutions  between  one  formation  and  another.  Adding  together  the  British  and 
the  North  European  species,  there  are  only  24  or  6}  per  cent,  found  also  in  the  Ame- 
rican basin. 

Levant  Series  (Medina  Group). — Passing  the  important  horizon  which  divides  the 
Matinal  from  the  Levant  strata,  we  find  that  the  latter,  produced  in  an  age  of  much 
crust  disturbance,  contain  a  very  limited  fauna  and  flora,  and  seem  not  to  be  repre- 
sented in  Europe,  but  to  have  been  formed  in  America  just  prior  to  the  Wenlock 
period  of  Great  Britain. 

Surgent  and  Scalent  Series  (or  Clinton  and  Niagara). — While  the  Surgent  series 
contains  more  than  100  well-defined  species,  12  of  them  are  ascertained  to  be  Euro- 
pean, and  are  eminently  distinctive  of  the  British  Wenlock  strata.  But  this  Wen- 
lock  formation  is  equally  a  representative  of  the  Scalent  or  Niagara  of  the  United 
States.  The  two  together  contain  more  than  326  species,  the  Surgent  about  104  ; 
the  Scalent  some  222.  Only  15,  that  is  to  say  about  5  per  cent.,  are  common  to  both  j 
but  according  to  Hall,  the  Wenlock  and  its  European  continental  equivalent  has,  at 
least,  35  Niagara  species.  Thus  we  perceive  that  the  Surgent  and  Scalent  groups 
are  severally  in  closer  affinity  with  the  Wenlock  of  Europe  than  with  each  other.  This 
instructive  fact  suggests,  that,  during  the  quiet  deposition  of  the  Wenlock  beds,  an 
important  crust-movement  may  have  occurred  within  the  Appalachian  basin,  alter- 
ing the  conditions  suitable  to  its  marine  inhabitants.  The  dissimilar  areas  which  the 
Surgent  and  Scalent  deposits  occupy  indicate  such  a  shifting  of  the  Appalachian  sea- 
bed. These  facts  indicate  that  we  cannot  proceed  securely  in  the  classification  of 
formations  until  we  synchronize  them  widely. 

Premeridian  Series  (Lower  Helderberg). — In  the  region  of  New  York,  where  this 
formation  has  been  most  closely  examined,  it  has  furnished  Mr.  Hall  more  than  200 
species,  only  about  9  per  cent,  of  which  are  also  European,  being  fossils  of  the  Wen- 
lock and  Dudley  strata ;  but  Mr.  Hall  thinks  that  this  number  of  identical  forms  will 
be  increased  on  a  more  critical  comparison.  Only  two  or  three  of  the  species,  namely 
the  CaUfmene  BUmenbachii,  Atrypa  reticularis,  &c.,  occur  in  any  higher  or  lower 
stratum.  Though  thus  insulated  by  its  species,  it  is  linked  to  the  adjoining  forma- 
tions by  possessing  with  them  many  common  genera.  While  pataeontologically  it 
has  so  little  in  common  with  the  strata  above  and  beneath  it,  it  curiously  enough 
finds  more  than  a  tenth  part  of  its  organic  remains  in  distant  European  formations, 
in  the  Wenlock  especially.  This  anomaly  disappears,  however,  when  we  reflect  on 
the  superior  magnitude  of  the  crust- movements  or  changes  of  physical  geography 
which  seem  to  have  taken  place  in  the  Appalachian  sea.  Compared  with  those  in 
the  Silurian  basin,  Mr.  Hall,  agreeing  with  Mr.  Sharpe,  regards  the  lower  Helderberg 
strata  as  representing  the  Wenlock  formation  of  England,  while  M.  De  Verneuil 
considers  them  equivalent  to  the  Ludlow.  Hall  admits  the  propriety  of  recognizing 
the  Niagara  on  the  one  side,  and  the  Lower  Helderberg  on  the  other,  as  of  Wenlock 
age. 

Meridian  Series  (Oriskany). — This  formation  is  still  more  completely  insulated 
from  the  formations  above  and  beneath  it,  than  any  of  the  preceding.  Its  fossils, 
not  numerous,  arc  exclusively  its  own,  though  they  possess  features  linking  them 
somewhat  with  those  of  the  next  higher  formations.  Most  American  geologists, 
adopting  the  view  of  their  synchronism,  first  proposed  by  M.  De  Verneuil,  regard 
them  as  the  base  of  the  American  Devonian  deposits.  We  shall  see,  however,  that, 
though  nearly  on  this  horizon,  no  precise  coordination  of  any  of  the  middle  palaeo- 
zoic strata  of  the  two  basins  is  practicable. 


186  REPORT— 1856. 

Pomeridian,  Cadent,  and  Vergent  Series  (Upper  Helderberg,  Hamilton,  ami  Che- 
mung Groups). — These  three  natural,  physical  groups  of  strata,  though  characterized 
by  many  peculiar  fossils,  are  much  less  completely  insulated  from  each  other  by 
their  species,  than  are  the  formations  below  them.  It  is  remarkable  that  they  are 
related  almost  as  intimately  to  the  Silurian- Ludlow  formation  of  England,  and  to 
its  continental  equivalents,  as  to  the  European  Devonian  strata.  Only  two  oat  of 
all  the  Pomeridian  species  seem  to  be  European ;  but  the  general  f octet  of  the 
fauna  is  as  much  Silurian  as  Devonian.  The  number  of  species  common  to  the 
Pomeridian  and  the  Cadent  rocks,  is  even  less  than  the  number  which  in  England 
pass  upward  from  the  Ludlow  into  the  Devonian.  Guided  by  numerical  proportion 
only,  we  might  be  justified  in  drawing  the  Silurian-Devonian  line,  —  if  the  attempt 
at  recognition  of  the  Silurian  and  Devonian,  as  independent  systems,  is  legitimate 
at  all  for  the  Appalachian  basin,  —  at  the  boundary  of  the  Pomeridian  and  the 
Cadent.  Mr.  Hall,  who  was  the  first  to  promulgate  explicitly  this  view  of  the 
joint  Silurian  and  Devonian  affinities  of  the  American  Pomeridian  and  later  strata, 
reminds  us,  that  in  England  there  is  a  fusion  amounting  to  25  percent,  of  Sflarian- 
Ludlow  fossils  with  Devonian  in  the  rocks  of  Devonshire,  or  10  per  cent,  of  all  the 
Devonian  species  described  by  Professor  Phillips.  He  justly  says,  "  there  is  no 
such  mingling  of  species  in  the  American  formations."  The  older  members  of  the 
American  Association  of  geologists  will  recollect,  that,  from  an  early  day,  the  author, 
in  fellowship  with  his  brother  W.  B.  Rogers,  contended,  that  we  should  not  look  for 
a  true  equivalence  between  the  formations  of  the  American  and  European  basins, 
nor  hope  to  discover  either  the  same  physical  or  the  same  palaeontologies!  breaks 
on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic ;  and  that  therefore  we  were  forbidden  by  the  rales  of 
a  sound  philosophy  to  apply  a  European  nomenclature  to  the  American  formations. 

Out  of  more  than  220  or  230  species  from  the  Cadent  and  Vergent  (Hamilton 
and  Chemung)  strata,  about  20  are  recognizable  as  European,  Silurian  and  Devo- 
nian forms,  though  Mr.  Hall  reduces  the  list  to  12.  He  thinks  that  the  organic 
remains  of  the  Cadent  series  are  more  closely  related  to  those  of  the  Ludlow  forma- 
tion of  England,  than  to  the  European  Devonian.  M.  De  Verneuil  recognizes  39 
Bpecies  of  the  Pomeridian,  Cadent,  and  Vergent  series,  as  belonging  to  the  Silurian 
and  Devonian  rocks  of  Continental  Europe.  Mr.  Hall  is  unable  to  appreciate  the 
evidence  which  would  place  all  these  deposits  in  parallelism  with  the  Devonian. 

From  all  the  foregoing  facts  and  statements,  we  arrive  at  this  general  inference, 
that  upon  both  palaeontological  and  physical  evidence,  there  is  no  well-marked  Silu- 
rian-Devonian break  discernible  in  the  North  American  basin,  no  proof  of  an  epoch 
of  general  interruption  in  the  life-stream,  with  wide  crust-disturbance  in  the  middle 
palaeozoic  ages,  such  as  that  which  in  earlier  times,  in  the  morning  of  the  paleozoic 
day,  at  the  Cambro- Silurian  transition,  revolutionized  alike  the  entire  extent  of  the 
American  and  European  areas  both  in  their  inhabitants  and  in  their  physical  geo- 
graphy. 


INDEX  I. 


TO 


REPORTS  ON  THE  STATE  OP  SCIENCE. 


OBJECTS  and  rules  of  the  Association, 
xvii. 

Places  and  times  of  meeting,  with  names 
of  officers  from  commencement,  xx. 

Treasurer's  account,  xxiii. 

Members  of  Council  from  commence- 
ment, xxiv. 

Officers  and  Council,  xxvi. 

Officers  of  Sectional  Committees,  xxvii. 

Corresponding  members,  xxviii. 

Report  of  Council  to  General  Committee 
at  Cheltenham,  xxviii. 

Report  of  Kew  Committee,  xxx. 

Accounts  of  the  Kew  Committee,  xxxvii. 

Report  of  the  Parliamentary  Committee, 
xxxviii. 

Recommendations  adopted  by  General 
Committee  at  Cheltenham ; — involving 
grants  of  money,  xxxix ;  not  involving 
grants  of  money,  t'6. ;  involving  appli- 
cations to  Government  or  public  insti- 
tutions, xli ;  applications  for  reports 
and  researches,  i&. ;  communications 
to  be  printed  entire  among  the  Reports, 
xlii. 

Synopsis  of  grants  of  money  appropriated 
to  scientific  objects,  xlii. 

General  statement  of  sums  paid  on  ac- 
count of  grants  for  scientific  purposes, 
xliii. 

Extracts  from  resolutions  of  the  General 
Committee,  zlvi. 

Arrangement  of  general  meetings,  xlvii. 

Address  by  Charles  Daubeny,  M.D., 
.  F.R.S.,  xlviii. 

America,  North,  on  the  present  state  of 


our  knowledge  with  regard  to  the  mol- 
lusca  of  the  west  coast  of,  159. 

Animals, or  typical  forms  of,  for  museums, 
461. 

Ashworth  (E.)  on  the  experiments  con- 
ducted at  Stormontfield,  near  Perth, 
for  the  artificial  propagation  of  salmon, 
451. 

Atherton  (Charles)  on  mercantile  steam 
transport  economy,  423 ;  remarks  by 
James  R.  Napier  on,  435 ;  letter  by, 
on  Mr.  Napier's  paper,  437 ;  on  the 
measurement  of  ships  for  tonnage,  458. 

Atlantic  and  neighbouring  seas,  on  the 
marine  testaceous  mollusca  of  the 
north-east,  101. 

Balfour  (Prof.),  dredging  report— Frith 
of  Clyde,  1856,47. 

Boiler  plate,  on  the  influence  of  tempera- 
ture on  the  tensile  strength  of,  407. 

Booth  (Rev.  James)  on  the  trigonometry 
of  the  parabola,  and  the  geometrical 
origin  of  logarithms,  68. 

Boult  (Joseph),  Report  on  the  changes 
in  the  sea  channels  of  the  Mersey,  as 
recorded  by  the  surveys  taken  and  pub- 
lished within  the  last  fifty  years,  26. 

Bowerbank  (J.  S.)  on  the  vital  powers  of 
the  Spongiadse,  438. 

British  shores,  on  the  oyster-beds  and 
oysters  of  the,  368. 

Bunsen(Prof.),  photochemical  researches. 
62. 

Carpenter  (Philip  P.)  on  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge  with  regard  to  the 


188 


INDEX  I. 


mollusca  of  the  west  coast  of  North 
America,  159. 

Cayley  (A.)  on  the  progress  of  theoretical 
dynamics, — provisional  report  pre- 
sented, 462 ;  on  the  formation  of  a  ca- 
talogue of  philosophical  memoirs,  464. 

Chapman  (Mr.)  on  the  navigation  and 
conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  9* 

Cleat  in  coal,  on  the,  395. 

Cleavage  of  rocks  distinct  from  stratifi- 
cation, 370 ;  continuous  through  large 
ranges  of  country,  372 ;  in  continuous 
parallel  planes  across  bent  and  con- 
torted strata,  373 ;  symmetrically  re- 
lated to  axes  of  movement  of  the  strata, 
374 ;  relation  of  cleavage  planes  to  the 
inclination  of  the  strata,  375 ;  varies 
in  the  strata  of  unlike  quality,  383 ; 
accompanied  by  change  of  dimensions 
in  rocks,  386;  secondary  cleavage  of 
slate,  393 ;  relation  of,  to  joints,  ib. ; 
occurrence  of  structures  analogous  to, 
near  greenstone  dykes,  394. 

Clyde,  Frith  of,  dredging  report,  1866,47. 

Coal,  on  the  cleat  in,  395. 

Crustacea  dredged  from  the  Frith  of 
Clyde,  test  of,  50. 

Denham  (Captain)  on  the  navigation  and 

conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  11, 

21. 
Dredging  report— Frith  of  Clyde,  1846, 

47. 
Dynamics,  on  the  progress  of  theoretical, 

— provisional  report  presented,  462. 

Echinoidea  endocyclica,  398  ;  exocyclica. 
399 \  table  of  the,  showing  the  sections 
and  families  of  the,  ib. 

Echinodermata,  list  of,  dredged  from  the 
Frith  of  Clyde,  61  j  on  the  stratigra- 
phical  distribution  of  the  oolitic,  396, 
400. 

Eyton  (T.  C),  dredging  report— Frith  of 
Clyde,  1856,  47;  abstract  of  first  re- 
port on  the  oyster-beds  and  oysters  of 
the  British  shores,  368. 

Fairbairn     (William)    on    the    tensile 

.  strength  of  wrought  iron  at  various 
temperatures,  405. 

Fleming  (Dr.)  on  the  experiments  con- 
ducted  at  Stormontfield,  near  Perth, 
for  the  artificial  propagation  of  sal- 
mon, 451. 

Frith  of  Clyde,  dredging  report,  1866, 
47. 

Giles  (Mr.)  on  the  navigation  and  con* 
•errancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  10. 


Gilmore  (Allan)  on  the 

ships  for  tonnage,  458. 
Grant  (R.)  on  the  formation  of  a  catalogue 

of  philosophical  memoirs,  464. 
Greville  (Dr.),  dredging  report — Frith  of 

Clyde,  1854,  47- 

Henderson  (Andrew),  report  on  the  effects 
produced  on  the  channels  of  the  H er- 
sey  during  the  last  fifty  years,  44 ;  on 
the  measurement  of  ships  for  tonnage, 
458. 

Henslow  (Professor)  on  typical  forms  of 
minerals,  plants,  and  animals  for  mu- 
seums, 461. 

Induction,  photochemical,  65. 

Iron,  on  the  tensile  strength  of  wrought, 
at  various  temperatures,  405 ;  on  the 
tensile  strength  of  rivet,  415. 

Jardine  (SirW.,  Bart.)  on  the  experiments 
conducted  at  Stormontfield,  near  Perth, 
for  the  artificial  propagation  of  salmon, 
451. 

Light,  reduction  of  the  chemical  action 
of,  to  an  absolute  measaure,  67. 

Liverpool,  report  of  the  Mersey  Com- 
mittee in,  in  September  1854, 1 ;  rights 
of  the  mayor,  aldermen  and  burgesses 
of,  to  the  lordship  of,  23. 

Logarithms,  on  the  geometrical  origin  of, 
68. 

Lord  (Lieut.  William)  on  the  navigation 
and  conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  2, 
19,  24, 26. 

Lowe  (E.  J.),  luminous  meteors  observed 
by,  in  1855-56,  56. 

MacAndrew  (Robert),  report  on  the  ma- 
rine testaceous  mollusca  of  the  norm- 
east  Atlantic  and  neighbouring  seas, 
and  the  physical  conditions  affecting 
their  development,  101. 

Mallet  (R.)  on  observations  with  the 
seismometer—provisional  report  pre- 
sented, 462. 

Mercantile  steam  transport  economy,  on, 
423. 

Mersey  Committee  in  Liverpool,  in  Sep- 
tember 1864,  report  of  the,  1. 

Mersey,  on  the  changes  in  the  sea  chan- 
nels of  the,  26. 

Meteors,  luminous,  report  on  observa- 
tions of,  58 ;  observed  by  E.  J. 
Lowe,  in  1855-56,  57,  61;  seen 
near  Canterbury,  60;  seen  by  Prof. 
C.  P.  Smyth,  ib. ;  seen  by  Mrs.  Smyth, 


INDEX  I. 


189 


Miles  (Rev.  Dr.),  dredging  report — Frith 
of  Clyde,  1856,47. 

Minerals,  on  typical  forms  of,  for  mu- 
seums, 461. 

Molluscs  dredged  from  the  Frith  of 
Clyde,  list  of,  49 ;  nudibranchiate,  50 ; 
on  the  marine  testaceous,  of  the  north- 
east Atlantic  and  neighbouring  seas, 
101 ;  on  the  present  state  of  our  know- 
ledge with  regard  to  the  west  coast  of 
North  America,  159. 

Museums,  on  typical  forms  of  minerals, 
plants,  and  animals  for,  461. 

Mylne  (Mr.)  on  the  navigation  and  con- 
servancy of  the  river  Mersey,  11,  12. 

Napier  (James  R.),  remarks  by,  on  Mr. 
Atherton's  paper  on  mercantile  steam 
transport  economy,  435;  letter  by 
Mr.  Atherton  on  his  paper,  437 ;  on 
the  measurement  of  ships  for  tonnage, 
458. 

Oyster-beds  and  oysters  of  the  British 
shores,  on  the,  368. 

Parabola,  on  the  trigonometry  of  the,  68. 

Peake  (James)  on  the  measurement  of 
ships  for  tonnage,  458. 

Phillips  (John),  report  on  cleavage  and 
foliation  in  rocks,  and  on  the  theoreti- 
cal explanations  of  these  phamomena, 
part  i.,  369. 

Philosophical  memoirs,  on  the  formation 
of  a  catalogue  of,  463. 

Photochemical  researches,  62  ;  induc- 
tion, 65. 

Plants,  on  typical  forms  of,  for  museums, 
461. 

Powell  (Rev.  Professor  Baden),  report 
on  observations  of  luminous  meteors, 
1855-56,  53. 

Rennie  (George)  on  the  past  and  present 

state  of  the  Mersey  within  the  last 

seventy  years,  4. 
Rennie  (John)  on  the  navigation  and 

conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  9* 
Rocks,  report  on  cleavage  and  foliation 

in,  and  on  the  theoretical  explanations 

of  these  phenomena,  369. 
Roscoe  (Dr.  Henry  E.),  photochemical 

researches,  62. 


Salmon,  on  the  experiments  conducted 
at  Stormonrfield,  near  Perth,  for  the 
artificial  propagation  of,  451. 

Seismometer,  on  observations  with  the— 
provisional  report  presented,  462. 

Ships,  on  the  measurement  of,  for  ton- 
nage, 458. 

Spongiadie,  on  the  vital  powers  of0  the, 
438 ;  inhalation  and  exhalation,  ib. ; 
adhesion  of  species,  446;  reparative 
powers,  447 ;  disease  and  death,  449 ; 
nutrition,  ib. 

Steam  transport  economy,  on  mercantile, 
423. 

Stevenson  (Robert)  on  the  navigation  and 
conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  11. 

Stokes  (6.  6.)  on  the  formation  of  a 
catalogue  of  philosophical  memoirs, 
464. 

Stormontfield,  near  Perth,  on  the  experi- 
ments conducted  at,  for  the  artificial 
propagation  of  salmon,  451. 

Stratification  of  rocks,  cleavage  distinct 
from,  369. 

Thomson  (James),  interim  report  on  pro- 
gress in  researches  on  the  measure- 
ment of  water,  by  weir-boards,  46. 

Tonnage,  on  the  measurement  of  ships 
for,  458. 

Walker  (Mr.)  on  the  navigation  and  con- 
servancy of  the  river  Mersey,  11. 

Water,  on  progress  in  researches  on  the 
measurement  of,  by  weir-boards,  in- 
terim report  on,  46. 

Weir-boards,  on  progress  in  researches 
on  the  measurement  of  water  by,  46. 

Whidbey  (Mr.)  on  the  navigation  and 
conservancy  of  the  river  Mersey,  8. 

Wilkin  (Messrs.),  report  of  the,  relative 
to  the  navigation  and  conservancy  of 
the  river  Mersey,  7. 

Wood  (John)  on  the  measurement  of 
ships  for  tonnage,  458. 

Wright  (Dr.  Thomas)  on  the  stratigra- 
phical  distribution  of  the  oolitic  echi- 
nodermata,  396. 


Zoophyta  dredged    from 
Clyde,  list  of,  51. 


the  Frith  of 


INDEX  II. 


TO 


MISCELLANEOUS  COMMUNICATIONS  TO  THE 
SECTIONS. 


AbROTHALLUS,  on  the  genus,  88* 

Acalephse,  on  the,  with  respect  to  organs 
of  circulation  and  respiration,  91. 

Acid,  on  the  conversion  of  tannic  into 
gallic,  52. 

iEgilops,  on  the  triticoidal  forms  of,  87. 

Africa,  Central,  on  recent  discovery  in, 
and  reasons  for  continued  and  renewed 
research,  105. 

Africa,  Southern,  Dr.  Livingston's  return 
journey  across,  113. 

Ajuh,  a  kind  of  whale,  description  of  the, 
found  hy  Dr.  Vogel  in  the  River  Benul, 
98. 

Albanians,  on  the  torenic  system  of  the, 
108;  distribution  of  the,  politically, 
145. 

Albuminized  collodion,  on,  58. 

Alder  (Joshua),  notice  of  some  new 
genera  and  species  of  British  Zoophytes, 
90. 

America,  on  the  connexion  between 
slavery  in  the  United  States  of,  and  the 
cotton  manufacture  in  the  United  King- 
dom, 137 ;  on  the  correlation  of  the 
palaeozoic  strata  of  Britain  and  North, 
175  ;  palaeozoic  basins  of  North  176. 

American  phosphate  of  lime,  on  the  com- 
position of,  58. 

Ammonites,  on  the  occurrence  of  upper 
lias,  in  the  (so-called)  basement  beds 
of  the  inferior  oolite,  80. 

Anderson  (Dr.  Thomas)  on  the  composi- 
tion of  paraffine  from  different  sources, 
49. 

Anemometer,  on  a  model  of  a  self-register- 
ing, 38. 

Aneroid  me"  tallique,  observations  with  the, 
during  a  tour  through  Palestine  and 
along  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea,  41. 


Anglo-Saxons,  on  the  forms  of  the  craws 
of  the,  108. 

Animalcules,  infusorial,  on  the  develop- 
ment of,  98. 

Animals,  suggestions  for  ascertaining  the 
causes  of  death  in,  97. 

Antimony,  on  the  detection  of,  for  medico- 
legal purposes,  57. 

Arctic  current  around  Greenland,  on  the, 
112. 

Astronomy,  23. 

Atmosphere,  on  an  instrument  for  observ- 
ing vertical  currents  in  the,  40. 

Atrato,  explorations  through  the  valley 
of  the,  to  the  Pacific  in  search  of  a 
route  for  a  ship-canal,  162. 

Aust  Cliff,  on  a  supposed  fossil  Focus 
found  at,  83. 

Austin  (Robert),  report  of  an  expedition 
to  explore  the  interior  of  Western  Au- 
stralia, 105. 

Australia,  report  of  an  expedition  to  ex- 
plore the  interior  of  Western,  105 ;  on 
recent  discoveries  in,  110. 

Australian  colonies,  on  the  former  and 
present  plans  of  disposing  of  the  waste 
lands  in  the,  146. 

Axe,  description  of  an  ancient,  recently 
discovered  in  the  Forest  of  Dean,  71. 

Ay  ton  (Lieut.)  on  gold  in  India,  60. 

Babinet  (M.)  on  the  homolograpbJcal 
maps  of,  112. 

Babington  (C.  C.)  on  a  supposed  fossil 
Fucus  found  at  Aust  Cliff;  Gloucester. 
shire,  83. 

Baikie  (Dr.  W.  B.)  on  a  skull  of  a  Ma- 
natee, 91 ;  on  recent  discovery  in  Cen- 
tral Africa,  and  the  reasons  which  exist 
for  continued  and  renewed  research,  1 05. 


INDEX  II. 


191 


Baily  (William  H.)  on  fossils  from  the 
Crimea,  60. 

Baker  (T.  B.  Lloyd),  statistics  and  sug- 
gestions connected  with  the  reformation 
of  juvenile  offenders,  128. 

Balaklava  tempest,  on  the,  36. 

Ball  (Dr.),  exhibition  of  a  dredge,  91. 

Banking,  on  the  family  principle  in,  Lon- 
don, 143. 

Barometrical  fluctuations,  on  the  mode  of 
interpreting,  36. 

Bate  (Spence)  on  a  new  crustacean  Mo- 
nimia  Whiteana,  91. 

Batter}r,  on  a  modification  of  the  May- 
nooth  cast-iron,  16. 

Beamish  (Richard),  letter  to,  by  Robert 
Mushet,  on  an  ancient  miner's  axe  re- 
cently discovered  in  the  Forest  of  Dean, 
71;  statistics  of  Cheltenham,  129. 

Beckley  (K.)  on  a  model  of  a  self-register- 
ing anemometer,  38. 

Beelutes,  on  the,  found  in  the  red  con- 
glomerates of  Torbay,  74. 

Bessemer  (M.)  on  the  manufacture  of  iron 
and  steel,  162. 

Birds,  suggestions  for  ascertaining  the 
causes  of  death  in,  97. 

Bismuth,  on  the  compounds  of  chromium 
and,  58. 

Blood,  on  the  cause  of  the  fluidity  of  the, 
98. 

Boats,  on  the  application  of  corrugated 
metal  to,  162. 

Bone-beds  of  the  upper  Ludlow  rock,  and 
base  of  the  old  red  sandstone,  on  the, 
70. 

Bosphorus,  researches  in  the  Crimean, 
115. 

Botany,  83. 

Bowerbank  (J.  S.)  on  the  origin  of  sili- 
ceous deposits  in  the  chalk  formations, 
63. 

Bubalus  inoschatus,  additional  evidence 
of  the,  from  the  Wiltshire  drift,  72. 

Buckman  (Professor  James)  on  the  base- 
ment beds  of  the  oolite,  64;  on  the 
oolite  rocks  of  the  Cotteswold  hills,  65 ; 
notes  on  experiments  in  the  Bota- 
nical Garden  of  the  Royal  Agricultu- 
ral College,  83 ;  notes  on  some  antiques 
found  at  Cirencester  as  evidence  of  the 
domestic  manners  of  the  Romans,  108. 

Brachiopoda,  on  the  anatomy  of  the,  94. 

Breadstuff's,  on  the  geography  of,  90. 

Bristol  district,  on  the  igneous  rocks  of 
Lundy  and  the,  65, 

British  army  in  the  East,  on  the  mortality 
among  officers  of  the,  144. 

British  palaeozoic  strata,  on  the  correla- 
tion of  the  North  American  and,  75* 


Brodie  (Prof.)  on  a  new  combination  of 
carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  formed 
by  the  oxidation  of  graphite,  50 ;  on 
some  new  species  of  corals  in  the  lias 
of  Gloucestershire,  Worcestershire,  and 
Warwickshire,  64  ;  on  a  new  species  of 
Pollicipes  in  the  inferior  oolite  near 
Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire,  64. 

Bromby  (the  Rev.  C.  H.),  suggestions  on 
the  people's  education,  130. 

Brown  (Samuel)  on  the  advantages  to 
statistical  science  of  a  uniform  decimal 
system  of  measures,  weights,  and  coins 
throughout  the  world,  133. 

Brucia,  on  testing  for,  53 ;  on  a  new 
method  of  extracting,  from  nux  vomica 
without  alcohol,  54. 

Calvert  (Prof.  F.  C.)  on  the  incrustations 
of  blast  furnaces,  50. 

Carbon,  on  a  new  combination  of  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  formed  by  the  oxidation 
of  graphite,  50 ;  on  the  appearance  of, 
under  the  microscope,  to. 

Cardigan  (Archdeacon  of)  on  the  site  of 
Ecbatana,  108. 

Carpeuter  (Mary)  on  the  position  of  re- 
formatory schools  in  reference  to  the 
state,  and  the  general  principles  of  their 
management,  especially  as  regards  fe- 
male reformatories,  134. 

Caterpillar,  on  an  instance  of  instinct  in 
a,  97. 

Centaurea  nigra  and  C.  nigrescens,  on  the 
specific  identity  of,  87. 

Cesspools,  on  the  alkaline  emanations 
from,  57. 

Chalk  formation,  on  the  origin  of  silice- 
ous deposits  in  the,  63. 

Cheltenham,  on  a  meteor  seen  at,  47 ;  on 
the  salts  in  the,  and  other  mineral 
waters,  50;  on  the  statistics  of,  129. 

Chemistry,  49 ;  on  the  use  of  the  gramme 
in,  60 ;  on  some  points  connected  with 
agricultural,  172. 

Chevollier  (Rev.  Prof.)  on  the  tides  of 
Nova  Scotia,  23. 

Chromium,  on  the  compounds  of,  and 
bismuth,  58. 

Cirencester,  notes  on  some  antiques  found 
at,  as  evidence  of  the  domestic  manners 
of  the  Romans,  108. 

Claudet  (A.)  on  various  phsenomena  of 
refraction  through  semi-lenses  produ- 
cing anomalies  in  the  illusion  of  stereo- 
scopic images,  9. 

Clay  (W.)  on  the  manufacture  of  the 
large- wrought  iron  gun,  and  other 
masses  of  iron  made  at  the  Mersey  iron- 
works, Liverpool,  162. 


192 


INDEX  II. 


Clibborn  (Edward)  on  the  tendency  of 
European  races  to  become  extinct  in 
the  United  States,  136. 
.  Collimator  for  completing  the  adjustment 
of  reflecting  telescopes,  30. 

Collodion,  on  albuminized,  58. 

Collodion  photographs,  on  engraving,  by 
means  of  fluoric  acid  gas,  58. 

Colours,  on  the  theory  of  compound,  with 
reference  to  mixtures  of  blue  and  yel- 
low light,  12. 

Combinations,  on  a  theorem  in,  3. 

Conglomerates  of  Torbay,  on  the  Beekites 
found  in  the  red,  74. 

Congruences,  on  a  particular  class  of,  6. 

Conway  river,  on  the  pearls  of  the,  92. 

Corals,  on  some  new  species  of,  in  the  lias 
of  Gloucestershire,  Worcestershire,  and 
Warwickshire,  64. 

Corbett  (Dr.  J.  H.)  on  the  Acalephce,  with 
respect  to  organs  of  circulation  and 
respiration,  91. 

Corn-markets  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
on  the  diversity  of  measures  in  the,  137. 

Cotteswold  Hills,  on  the  oolite  rocks  of 
the,  65. 

Cotton  manufacture  in  the  United  King- 
dom, on  the  connexion  between  slavery 
in  the  United  States,  and  the,  137. 

Crania  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  on  the  forms 
of  the,  108. 

Credit  M obilier,  on  the,  and  other  recent 
credit  institutions  in  France,  146. 

Crime,  on  the  statistics  of,  for  the  last  ten 
years,  159 ;  on  some  statistics  hearing 
upon  the  relations  existing  between 
poverty  and,  159. 

Crimea,  on  fossils  from  the,  60 ;  on  the 
flora  of  the,  90. 

Crimean  Bosphorus,  researches  in  the, 
115. 

Crystallogenesis,  on,  172. 

Cull  (R.)  on  a  more  positive  knowledge 
of  the  changes,  both  physical  and  men- 
tal, in  man,  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
their  causes,  108. 

Cuneiform  characters,  on  the  plastic  origin 
of  the,  and  its  relation  to  our  own 
alphabet,  118. 

Daa  (Dr.  L.  K.)  on  the  Varanger  Fiord, 
108;  on  the  torenic  system  of  the 
Ugrians  (Finns),  Albanians,  and  other 
populations,  to.;  on  the  relation  of 
the  Siberian  and  American  languages, 
lb.;  census  returns  of  1845  and  1855, 
table  of  the  Lapps  and  Finns  in  Nor-, 
way,  138. 

Danube,  on  the  route  between  Kustenjee 
and  the,  110. 


Davis  (J.  Barnard)  on  the  forms  of  the 

crania  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  108. 

Dawson  (J.  T.)  on  the  connexion  be- 
tween slavery  in  the  United  States  of 
America  and  the  cotton  manufacture  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  137;  on  the  di- 
versity of  measures  in  the  corn-markets 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  &  ;  on  the 
Wirral  peninsula,  and  the  growth  of  hs 
population  during  the  last  fifty  years  in 
connexion  with  Liverpool  and  the  Man- 
chester district,  143. 

Dean  Forest,  on  the  rocks  of,  78. 

Decimal  system  of  measures,  weights,  and 
coins,  on  the  advantages  to  statistical 
science  of  a  uniform,  throughout  the 
world,  133. 

Dellman's  method  of  observing  atmo- 
spheric electricity,  on,  17. 

Devon,  South,  on  the  climate  of,  48. 

Dobson  (Thomas)  on  the  causes  of  great 
inundations,  31 ;  on  the  Balaklava 
tempest,  and  the  mode  of  interpreting 
barometrical  fluctuations,  36. 

Diatomacese,  on  new  forms  of,  from  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  83. 

Dichobune  ovinum,  Ow.,  on  a  new  species 
of,  from  the  upper  eocene  of  HordweD, 
with  remarks  on  the  genus,  72. 

Dichodon  cuspidatus,  from  the  upper 
eocene  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  Hord- 
well,  Hants,  on  the,  72. 

Dredge,  exhibition  of  a,  91. 

"  Drift-bedding/9  description  of  a  work- 
ing model  to  illustrate  the  formation  ot 
77. 

Earth,  on  the  physical  structure  of  the, 
26. 

Earthenware,  on  the  progress,  extent  and 
value  of  the,  manufacture  of  Glasgow, 
153. 

East,  on  the  mortality  among  officers  of 
the  British  army  in  the,  144 ;  on  the 

,   present  export  of  silver  to  the,  161. 

Ecoatana,  on  the  site  of,  108. 

Echinidse,  on  the  mechanism  of  respira- 
tion in  the  family  of,  101. 

Eclipse  of  the  sun,  on  the,  mentioned  in 
the  first  book  of  Herodotus,  27. 

Economic  science,  the  definition  of,  in 
commerce,  144. 

Economy,  social,  on  the  territorial  distri- 
bution of  the  population,  for  purposes 
of  sanitary  inquiry  and,  151. 

Education,  suggestions  on  the  people's, 
136. 

Electrical  discharge,  on  the  stratified  ap- 
pearance of  the,  10. 

Electrical  force,  on  the  law  of,  11. 


INDEX  II. 


193 


ifteetric  currents,  on  the  construction  and 
use  of  an  instrument  for  determining 
the  value  of  intermittent  or  alternating, 
for  purposes  of  practical  telegraphy,  1 9. 

Electricity,  9 ;  on  Dcllman's  method  of 
observing  atmospheric,  17. 

Elephant's  grinder  from  the  cerithium 
limestone,  69. 

Embryo  of  flowering  plants,  on  the  deve- 
lopment of  the,  85. 

England,  on  the  middle  and  upper  lias 
of  the  west  of,  70. 

Entozoa,  on  the  fluid  system  of  the  ne- 
matoid,  101. 

Esquimaux,  remarks  on  the,  119. 

Etheridge  (R.)  on  the  igneous  rocks  of 
Lundy  and  the  Bristol  district,  65. 

Ethnology,  105. 

European  races,  on  the  tendency  of,  to  he- 
come  extinct  in  the  United  States,  136. 

Eye,  experimental  researches  on  the,  100. 

Eyre  (Major  V.)  on  the  application  of 
corrugated  metal  to  ships,  boats,  and 
other  floating  bodies,  162. 

Faraday's  lines  of  force,  on  a  method  of 
drawing  the  theoretical  forms  of,  with- 
out calculation,  12. 
Findlav  (A.  G.)  on  some  volcanic  islets 
to  the  south-east  of  Japan,  including 

-  the  Benin  islands,  110. 
Fiord,  on  the  Varanger,  108. 
Firth  of  Clyde,  on  new  forms  of  Diato- 

macese,  from  the,  83. 
Fish,  on  improved  mechanical  means  for 
the  extraction  of  oil  from,  164. 

Fishes,  on  the  fossil,  from  the  strata  of 
the  Moselle,  69. 

Flaniborough  Head,  on  the  evidence  of  a 
reef  of  lower  lias  rock,  extending  from 
Robin  Hood's  Bay  to,  80. 

Foramen  centrale,  on  the  unequal  sensi- 
bility of  the,  to  light  of  different  co- 
lours, 12. 

Forces,  on  the  polyhedron  of,  1. 

Forest  of  Dean,  description  of  an  ancient 
miner's  axe  recently  discovered  in  the, 
71. 

Fossils  from  the  Crimea,  on,  60 ;  on  new, 
from  the  ancient  sedimentary  rocks  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  65. 

France,  on  the  credit  mobilier,  and  other 
recent  credit  institutions  in,  146. 

Franklin  (Sir  John),  Dr.  Kane's  report  on 
his  expedition  up  Smith's  Sound  in 
search  of,  113. 

Frond's  formulae  for  reflected  and  re- 
fracted light,  on,  15. 

Fucus,  on  a  supposed  fossil,  found  at  Aust 
Cliff,  Gloucestershire,  83. 

1856. 


Furnace,  on  the  incrustations  of  blast,  50. 

Gallic  acid,  on  the  conversion  of  tannin 
into,  52. 

Garner  (R.)  on  a  remarkable  hail-storm  in 
North  Staffordshire,  39 ;  on  the  pearls 
of  the  Conway  River,  N.  Wales,  with 
some  observations  on  the  natural  pro- 
ductions of  the  neighbouring  coast, 
92. 

Gas,  fluoric  acid,  on  engraving  collodion 
photographs  by  means  of,  58. 

Gases  of  the  Grotto  del  Cave,  on  the,  58. 

Geography,  105. 

Geology,  60. 

Gilbart  (J.  W.)  on  the  family  principle 
in  London  banking,  143. 

Gilbert  (Dr.  J.  H.)  on  some  points  con- 
nected with  agricultural  chemistry,  172; 
on  the  composition  of  wheat  grain,  and 
its  products,  173. 

Giant's  Causeway,  on  the  lignites  of  tbe,56. 

Gladstone  (J.  H.)  on  some  dichromatic 
phenomena  among  solutions,  and  the 
means  of  representing  them,  10 ;  on  the 
salts  actually  present  in  the  Cheltenham 
and  other  mineral  waters,  51 ;  on  nitro- 
glycerine, 52. 

Glasgow,  on  the  progress,  extent,  and 
value  of  the  porcelain,  earthenware,  and 
glass  manufacture  of,  153;  on  the  mo- 
ney-rate of  wages  of  labour  in,  155. 

Glass  manufacture  of  Glasgow,  on  the  pre 
gress,  extent,  and  value  of  the,  153. 

Gloucestershire,  on  some  new  species  of 
corals  in  the  lias  of,  64. 

Gold  in  India,  on,  60. 

Goodsir  (Prof.)  on  the  morphological  con- 
stitution of  limbs,  93 ;  on  the  morpho- 
logical constitution  of  the  skeleton  of 
the  vertebrate  head,  ib. ;  on  the  mor- 
phological relations  of  the  nervous  sy- 
stem in  the  annulose  and  vertebrate 
types  of  organization,  ib. 

Gramme  in  chemistry,  on  the  use  of  the,  60. 

Granite  of  Wicklow,  on  the  alternation  of 
clay-slate  and  gritstone  into  mica-schist 
and  gneiss,  by  the,  68. 

Graphite,  on  a  new  combination  of  carbon, 
oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  formed  by  the 
oxidation  of,  50. 

Graves  (J.T.)  on  the  polyhedron  of  forces, 
1 ;  on  the  congruence  nx=n-|-l  (mod. 
p),  ib. 

Greene  (Dr.  Richard),  working  model  of 
a  machine  for  polishing  'specula  for  re- 
flecting telescopes  and  lenses,  24 ;  on  a 
new  railway-break,  invented  by  M. 
Sisco,  of  Paris,  162;  on  a  method  of 
uniting  iron  with  iron  or  other  metali 
13 


194 


LNDH  II. 


without  welding,  invented  by  M.  Sisco, 

of  Paris,  162. 
Greenland,  on  the  arctic  current  around, 

112. 
Gregory  (Prof.)  on  new  forms  of  Diato- 

rnaoe©  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  83. 
Grotto  del  Cave,  on  the  gases  of  the, 

68. 
Grove  (W.  R.)  on  the  stratified  appear- 
ance of  the  electrical  discharge,  10. 
Gun,  on  the  manufacture  of  the  large 

wrought-iron,  162. 

Hail-storm  in  North  Staffordshire,  on  a 
remarkable,  39. 

Hancock  (Albany)  on  the  anatomy  of 
the  Brachiopoda,  94. 

Hancock  (W.  Neilson)  on  the  definition 
of  income  in  economic  science  com- 
pared with  the  existing  taxes  on  in- 
come, 144. 

Harkness  (Prof.)  on  some  new  fossils 
from  the  ancient  sedimentary  rocks  of 
Ireland  and  Scotland,  65 ;  on  the  lignites 
of  the  Giant's  Causeway  and  the  isle  of 
Mull,  66 ;  on  the  jointing  of  rocks,  65. 

Harris  (Sir  W.  S.)  on  the  law  of  electric 
and  magnetic  force,  11. 

Hartland  (F.  D.),  Vesuvius  and  its  erup- 
tions, illustrated  by  a  collection  of  draw- 
ings by  W.  Baylis,  111 ;  on  the  most 
ancient  map  of  die  world,  from  the 
Propaganda,  Rome,  so. 

Head,  on  the  morphological  constitution 
of  the  skeleton  of  the  vertebrate,  93. 

Heat,  9 ;  on  the  quantity  of,  developed  by 
water  when  violently  agitated,  165. 
,  Henfrey  (Arthur),  on  the  development  of 
the  embryo  of  flowering  plants,  85. 

Hennessy  (Prof.)  on  the  physical  struc- 
ture of  the  earth,  26;  on  isothermal 
lines,  39 ;  on  an  instrument  for  obser- 
ving vertical  currents  in  the  atmosphere, 
40 ;  on  the  relative  distribution  of  land 
and -water  as  affecting  climate  at  dif- 
ferent geological  epochs,  66 ;  on  the  ho- 
molographical  mapsof  Mr.  Babinet,  112; 
on  the  inundation  of  rivers,  162. 

Henslow  (the  Rev.  Prof.)  on  the  triticoidal 
forms  of  iEgilops,  and  on  the  specific 
identity  of  Centaurea  nigra  and  C.  ni- 
grescens,  87. 

Herodotus,  on  the  eclipse  of  the  sun  men- 
tioned in  the  first  book  of,  27. 

Higbley  ("Samuel),  crystallogenesis,  and 
the  equivalent  in  the  mineral  kingdom 
corresponding  to  geographical  distribu- 
tion in  the  animal  and  vegetable  king- 
doms, 172. 

Hincks  (Rev.  Dr.  Edward)  on  the  eclipse 


of  the  sun  mentioned  in  the  fiat  best 
of  Herodotus,  27. 

Homolographical  maps  of  M.  Babinet,  m 
the,  112. 

Hordwell,  on  a  new  species  of  smopktht- 
rioidmammalfrotn  tneuppereoesnesun- 
ta,  72;  on  the  Dichodon  cnapidatns,  A. 

Hornbeck  (Dr.  H.  B.)  on  tome  mmenb 
from  the  Isle  of  St.  Thomas,  66. 

Horsley  (John)  on  the  conversion  of  tan- 
nin into  gallic  acid,  52 ;  on  testing  lor 
strycbnia,brucia»&c.,53 ;  new  method ef 
instituting  post-mortem  researches  far 
strychnia,  ib. ;  on  a  new  method  of  ex- 
tracting the  alkaloids  strychnia  and  bre- 
cia  from  mix  vomica  withoutalcohoi,  54 ; 
experiments  on  animals  with  strychnis, 
and  probable  reasons  for  the  non-de- 
tection of  the  poison  in  certain  cases, 
55. 

Huggate,  meteorological  observations  far 
1855,  made  at,  47. 

Hull  (Edward)  on  the  south-easterly  at- 
tenuation of  the  oolitic,  linseic,  trisssk, 
and  permian  formations,  67. 

Hydrogen,  on  a  new  combination  of  car- 
bon, oxygen  and,  formed  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  graphite,  50. 

Ichthyosauri,  on  the  skin  and  food  at,  69. 

Income,  on  the  definition  of,  in  economic 
science,  144. 

India,  on  gold  in,  60 ;  on  a  new  route  Is, 
114. 

Inundations,  on  the  causes  of  great,  31. 

Ireland,  on  some  new  fossils  from  the  an- 
cient sedimentary  rocks  of,  65 ;  table  of 
the  population  of,  at  different  intervals 
from  1603-1856,  142. 

Irminger  (Capt.)  on  the  arctic  current 
around  Greenland,  112. 

Iron,  on  the  manufacture  o£  without  fuel, 
162 ;  on  masses  of,  made  at  the  Mer- 
sey iron-works,  Liverpool,  ft. ;  on  s 
method  of  uniting  iron  with,  without 
welding,  ib. 

Isle  of  Wight,  on  the  Dichodon  enspidataf 
from  the  upper  eocene  of  the,  71. 

Isothermal  lines,  on,  39. 

Japan,  on  some  volcanic  islets  to  the 
south-east  of,  110. 

Jeffery  (  Henry  M.)  on  a  theorem  in  com- 
binations, 3 ;  on  a  particular  class  of 
congruences,  6. 

ienyns  (Rev.  L.)  on  the  variation  of  spe- 
cies, 101. 

Jopling  (R.  Thompson)  on  the  mortatity 
among  officers  of  the  British  army  m 
the  East,  144. 


INDEX  II. 


195 


Juke*  (J.  Beete)  on  the  alteration  of  clay • 
slate  and  gritstone  into  mica-schist  and 
gneiss  by  the  granite  of  Wicklow,  &e. 
68. 

Kane  (Dr.  E.  K.)  on  his  expedition  up 
Smith's  Sound  in  search  of  Sir  John 
Franklin,  113. 

Kelley  (F.  M.),  explorations  through  the 
valley  of  the  Atrato  to  the  Pacific  in 
search  of  a  route  for  a  ship  canal,  162. 

Kent's  Carer n,  Torquay,  researches  in, 
with  the  original  MS.  memoir  of  its 
first  opening,  78 ;  on  the  earliest  traces 
of  human  remains  in,  119. 

Knowles  (Prof.  O.  B.)  on  the  movements 
of  Oacillatoriss,  88. 

Kustenjee  and  the  Danube,  on  the  route 
between,  119. 

Lake  (Col.  A.),  an  original  letter  from 
General  Mouravieff,  1 13. 

Land  and  water,  on  the  relative  distri- 
bution of,  as  affecting  climate  at  dif- 
ferent geological  epochs,  66. 

Languages,  on  the  relation  of  the  Siberian 
and  Armenian,  108. 

La  Plata,  on  the  Scelidotherium  leptoce- 
phalum  from,  73. 

Lapps  and  Finns,  table  of  the,  in  Norway, 
according  to  the  census  of  1845  and 
1855,  138. 

Latham  (R.  6.),  distribution  of  the  Alba- 
nians,  politically,  145. 

Lawes  (J.  B.)  on  some  points  connected 
with  agricultural  chemistry,  172;  on 
the  composition  of  wheat-grain  and  its 
products,  173. 

Lee  (Dr.  John)  on  Negretti  and  Zam- 
bra's  mercurial  minimum  thermometer, 
40 ;  remarks  on  Dr.  H.  Barker's  pam- 
phlet on  the  relative  value  of  the  ozo- 
nometers of  Dr.  Schonbein  and  Dr. 
Moffat,  40. 

Lee  (J.  £.),  on  an  elephant's  grinder 
from  the  cerithium  limestone,  69 ;  on 
some  fossil  fishes  from  the  strata  of 
the  Moselle,  to. 

Lias,  on  the  middle  and  upper,  of  the  west 
of  England,  70;  of  Gloucestershire, 
Worcestershire,  and  Warwickshire,  on 
some  new  species  of  corals  in  the,  64. 

Liassic  formation,  on  the  south-easterly 
attenuation  of  the,  67. 

Light,  9;  on  the  theory  of  compound, 
with  reference  to  mixtures  of  blue  and 
yellow,  12 ;  of  different  colours,  on  the 
unequal  sensibility  of  the  foramen  cen- 
trale  to,  12 :  on  Fresnel's  formulae  for  re- 
flected and  refracted,  15. 


Lightning,  on  the  form  of,  14. 

Lignites,  on  the,  of  the  Giant's  Cause- 
way and  the  Isle  of  Mull,  66. 

Limbs,  on  the  morphological  constitution 
of,  93. 

Lime,  on  the  composition  of  American 
phosphate  of,  58 ;  on  basic  phosphates 

Limestone,  cerithium,  on  an  elephant's 
grinder  from  the,  69 ;  on  the  formation 
of  magnesian,  by  the  alteration  of  an 
ordinary  calcareous  deposit,  77. 

Lindsay  (Dr.  W.  L.)  on  the  genus  Abro- 
thallus,  88. 

Livingston  (Rev.  Dr.  D.),  return  journey 
across  South  Africa,  1 13. 

Locke  (J.),  a  new  route  to  India— the 
Syro-Arabian  railway,  1 14. 

Ludlow  rock,  on  the  bone-beds  of  the 
upper,  70. 

Lundy,  on  the  igneous  rocks  of,  65. 

Macadam  (Stevenson)  on  the  detection  of 
strychnine,  55. 

Macfie  (W,  AJ  on  the  patent  laws,  164. 

Macpherson  (Dr.  D.)f  researches  in  the 
Crimean  Bosphorus,  and  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Greek  city  of  Panticapseum 
(Kertch),  115. 

Magnetism,  9. 

Magnetic  force,  on  the  law  of,  11. 

Malvern  district,  on  some  phenomena  in 
the,  78. 

Mammal  fossil,  from  the  Stonesfield  slate, 
on  a,  73. 

Man,  on  a  more  positive  knowledge  of 
the  changes,  both  physical  and  mental, 
with  a  view  to  ascertain  their  causer, 
108. 

Manatee,  Dr.  Baikie  on  a  skull  of  a,  91. 

Manures,  on  the  economical  manufacture 
of,  from  fish  and  fishy  matter,  164. 

Masters  (M.)  on  an  abnormal  growth  in 
a  rosewood  tree,  90. 

Mathematics,  1. 

Maynooth  cast-iron  battery,  on  a  modifi- 
cation of  the,  16. 

Maxwell  (J.  C.)  on  a  method  of  drawing 
the  theoretical  forms  of  Faraday's  lines 
of  force  without  calculation,  12 ;  on  the 
unequal  sensibility  of  the  foramen 
centrale  to  light  of  different  colours,  to. ; 
on  the  theory  of  compound  colours  with 
reference  to  mixtures  of  blue  and  yel- 
low light,  ib. ;  on  an  instrument  to  il- 
lustrate Ppinsdt's  theory  of  rotation,  27. 

Measures,  on  the  diversity  of,  in  the  corn- 
markets  of  the  United  Kingdom,  137; 
plan    for  simplifying  and  improving 
the,  of  this  country,  146. 
13* 


19& 


INDEX  II. 


Mechanical  Section,  162. 

Mercantile  vessels,  on  the  management 
of,  165. 

Mercurial  minimum  thermometer,  on 
Negretti  and  Zambra's,  40. 

Mersey  iron-works,  on  the  manufacture 
of  the  large  wrought-iron  gun  and 
other  masses  of  iron  made  at  the,  162. 

Meteorology,  31. 

Meteors  seen  at  Cheltenham,  47. 

Methuen  (R.)  on  the  management  of 
mercantile  vessels,  164. 

Mica-schist,  on  the  microscopical  struc- 
ture of,  78. 

Michelsen  (Dr.)  on  the  flora  of  the  Crimea, 
90;  on  the  geography  of  breadstuff's, 
ib. 

Microscope,  on  the  appearance  of  carbon 
under  the,  50. 

Microtherium,  on  the  genus,  72. 

Millies  (R.  Monckton),  concluding  ad- 
dress at  the  Statistical  Section,  161. 

Mineral  collections,  on  a  series  of  de- 
scriptive labels  for,  57. 

Minerals  from  the  isle  of  St.  Thomas,  on 
some,  66. 

Mitchell  (Rev.  W.)  on  a  series  of  descrip- 
tive labels  for  mineral  collections  in 
public  institutions,  57. 

Moggridge  (M.)  on  the  time  required  for 
the  formation  of  "  Rolled  stones,"  69. 

Money  of  this  country,  plan  for  simplify- 
ing and  improving  the,  146. 

Monimia  Whiteana,  on  a  new  crustacean, 
9J. 

Moon,  on  phenomena  recently  discovered 
in  the,  31. 

Moon's  motion,  on  the  reasons  for  de- 
scribing the,  as  a  motion  about  her 
axis,  &. 

Moore  (Charles)  on  the  skin  and  food  of 
Ichthyosauri  and  Teleosauri,  69;  on 
the  middle  and  upper  lias  of  the  West  of 
England,  70. 

Moselle,  on  some  fossil  fishes  from  the 
strata  of  the,  69. 

Mouravieff  (General),  an  original  letter 
from,  113. 

Mull,  on  the  lignites  of  the  isle  of,  66. 

Murchison  (Sir  R.  I.)  on  the  bone- beds  of 
the  upper  Ludlow  rocks  and  base  of  the 
old  red  sandstone,  70. 

Mushet  (Robert)  description  of  an  an- 
cient miner's  axe  recently  discovered 
in  the  Forest  of  Dean,  71. 

Musk-ox,  additional  evidence  of  the,  from 
the  Wiltshire  drift,  72. 

Nasmyth  (James)  on  the  form  of  light- 
ning, 14 ;  on  the  plastic  origin  of  the 


cuneiform  character,  and  its  relatisa 
to  our  own  alphabet,  1 18. 

Negretti  and  Zambra's  mercurial  mini- 
mum thermometer,  on,  40. 

Nervous  system  in  the  annulose  and  ver- 
tebrate types  of  organization,  on  the 
morphological  relations  of  the,  93. 

Newmarch  (William)  on  the  credit  mo- 
bilier  and  other  recent  credit  instil* 
tions  in  France,  146;  on  the  former 
and  present  plans  of  disposing  of  the 
waste  lands  in  the  Australian  colonies, 
146. 

Nitro-glycerine,  on,  52. 

North  American  and  British  Palseosoic 
strata,  on  the  correlation  of  the,  75. 

Norway,  census  of  Lappa  and  Finns  in, 
in  1845  and  1855,  138. 

Nourse  (W.  £.  C.)  on  ascertaining  the 
causes  of  death  in  birds  and  animals, 
97;  on  the  medical  indications  of 
poisoning,  ib. 

Nova  Scotia,  ou  the  tides  of,  23. 

Nux  vomica,  on  a  new  method  of  ex- 
tracting strychnia  and  brucia  from, 
without  alkaloids,  54. 

Odling  (Professor  William)  on  the  alka- 
line emanations  from  sewers  and  cess- 
pools, 57 ;  on  the  detection  of  antimony 
for  medico-legal  purposes,  ib. 

Oil,  on  improved  mechanical  mesas 
for  the  extraction  of,  from  fish,  164. 

Old  Red  Sandstone,  on  the  bone-beds  of 
the,  70. 

Oolite,  on  the  basement  beds  of  the,  64 ; 
on  a  new  species  of  PoUicipes  in  the 
inferior,  near  Stroud,  in  Gloucester- 
shire, ib. ;  on  the  occurrence  of  upper 
lias  ammonites  in  the  (so-called)  base- 
ment beds  of  the,  80. 

Oolitic  formation,  on  the  south-easterly 
attenuation  of  the,  67. 

Organization,  on  the  morphological  rela- 
tions of  the  nervous  system  in  the  an- 
nulose and  vertebrate  types  of,  93. 

Oscillatorise,  on  the  movements  of,  88. 

Owen  (Prof.)  on  a  new  species  of  ano- 
plotherioid  mammal  (Dichobune  ovi- 
num,  Ow.)  from  the  upper  eocene  of 
Hordwell,  with  remarks  on  the  genera 
Dichobune,  Xiphodon,  and  Microthe- 
rium, 72;  additional  evidence  of  the 
fossil  musk-ox  (Bubalus  moachatos) 
from  the  Wiltshire  drift,  i*6. ;  on  the 
Dichodon  cuspidatus,  from  the  upper 
eocene  of  the  isle  of  Wight  and  Hord- 
well, Hants,  ib. ;  on  the  Scelidotheriam 
leptocephalum,  a  megatherioid  quad- 
ruped from  La  Plata,  73 ;  on  a  fossil 


INDEX  II. 


19^ 


mammal  (Stereognathus  ooliticus)  from 

the  Stonesfield  slate,  ib. 
Oxygen,  on  a  new  combination  of  carbon 

and  hydrogen,  formed  by  the  oxidation 

of  graphite,  50. 
Ozonometers  of  Dr.  Schbnbein  and  Dr. 

Moffat,  remarks  on  a  pamphlet  by  Dr. 

Herbert  Barker  on  the,  41 . 

Pacific,  explorations  through  the  valley 
of  the  Atrato  to  the,  in  search  of  a 
route  for  a  ship-canal,  1 62. 
Palaeozoic  basins  of  N.  America,  1 76. 
Panticapseutn  (Kertch),  on  the  site  of  the 

ancient  Greek  city  of,  1 15. 
Paraffiae,  on  the  composition  of,  from 

different  sources,  49. 
Parallel  lines,  on  a  new  method  of  treat- 
ing the  doctrine  of,  8. 
Paslev  (Sir  C.  W.),  plan  for  simplifying 
and  improving  the  measures,  weights, 
and  money  of  this  country,  without 
altering  the  present  standards,  146. 
Patent  Laws,  on  the,  164. 
Peach  (Charles  W.),  notice  of  the  natural 
printing  of  sea-weeds  on  the  rocks  in 
the  vicinity  of  Stromness,  90. 
Pearls  of  the  Conway  river,  on  the,  92. 
Pearson  (W.  R.)  on  the  compounds  of 

chromium  and  bismuth,  58. 
Pengelly  (W.)  on  the  Beekites  found  in 

the  red  conglomerates  of  Torbay,  74. 
Periodic  phenomena,  tables  of  forms  for 

obtaining  reports  on,  105. 
Permian  formation,  on  the  south-easterly 

attenuation  of  the,  67. 
Perspective,  on  a  new  method  of  teach- 
ing, 9. 
Photographs,  on  printing,  18 ;  on  engra- 
ving collodion,  oy  means  of  fluoric  acid 
gas,  58. 
Photographs  of  objects  of  natural  history 

exhibited,  105. 
Phillips  (John)  on  a  new  method  of  ma- 
king maximum  self-registering  thermo- 
meters, 41. 
Phillips  (Sir  Thomas,  Bart)  on  an  in- 
stance of  instinct  in  a  caterpillar,  97. 
Physics,  1. 
Physiology,  83. 
Plants,  on  the  development  of  the  embryo 

of  flowering,  85. 
PoinsoVs  theory  of  rotation,  on  an  instru- 
ment to  illustrate,  27. 
Poisoning,  on  the  medical  indications  of, 

97. 
Pollicipes,  on  a  new  species  of,  in  the  in- 
i       ferior  oolite  near  Stroud,  Gloucester- 
shire, 64. 
1    Poole   (Henry),  observations  with   the 


aneroid  metalliquc  and  thermometer' 

during  a  tour  through  Palestine  and 

along  the  shores  of  the  Dead  Sea  in 

1855,41. 
Pooley  (Charles)  on  engraving  collodion 

photographs  by  means  of  fluoric  acid 

gas,  58. 
Population,  on  the  territorial  distribution 

of  the,  for  purposes  of  sanitary  inquiry 

and  social  economy,  151. 
Porcelain,  on  the  progress,  extent,  and 

value  of  the,  manufacture  at  Glasgow, 

153. 
Poverty  and  crime,  on  some  statistics 

bearing  upon  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween, 159. 
Powell  (Rev.  Baden)  on  Fresnel's  formulae 

for  reflected  and  refracted  light,  15. 
Pritchard  (Rev.  C.)  on  a  meteor  seen  at 

Cheltenham  on  Friday,  August  8,  47 ; 

on  the  gases  of  the  Grotto  del  Cave,  58. 
Pterygotus  of  Scotland,  on  the  great, 

75. 

Rae  (Dr.),  remarks  on  the  Esquimaux, 
119. 

Radiation,  solar,  on  the  constancy  of,  28. 

Railway  break,  on  a  new,  162. 

Rankin  (the  Rev.  T.),  continuation  of 
meteorological  observations  for  1855, 
at  Huggate,  Yorkshire,  47. 

Refraction,  on  various  phenomena  of, 
through  semi-lenses,  9. 

Rennie  (George)  on  the  quantity  of  heat 
developed  by  water  when  violently  agi- 
tated, 165  ;  experiments  to  determine 
the  resistance  of  a  screw  when  revolv- 
ing in  water  at  different  depths  and 
velocities,  169. 

Respiration,  on  the  mechanism  of,  in  the 
family  of  Echinidae,  101. 

Richardson  (Dr.  B.  W.)  on  the  cause  of 
the  fluidity  of  the  blood,  98. 

Rivers,  on  the  inundation  of,  162. 

Robin  Hood's  Bay,  on  the  evidence  of  a 
reef  of  lower  lias  rock,  extending  from, 
to  Flamborough  Head,  80. 

Rocks,  oolite,  of  the  Cotteswold  hills,  65 ; 
on  the  jointing  of,  so. ;  on  the  igneous, 
of  Lundy  and  the  Bristol  district, 
t'6. ;  on  some  new  fossils  from  the  an- 
cient sedimentary,  of  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land, to. ;  On  the  evidence  of  a  reef  of 
lower  lias  extending  from  Robin  Hood'r 
Bay  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  80;  parallelism  of  the 
North  American  ana  European  palae- 
ozoic, 182. 

Rogers  (Prof.  H.  D.)  on  the  origin  of  sa- 
hxerous  deposits,  75 ;  on  the  correlation 


198 


INDEX  II. 


of  the  North  American  and  British  pa- 
laeozoic strata,  175. 

"  Rolled  Stones/'  on  the  time  required 
for  the  formation  of,  69. 

Romans,  on  some  antiques  found  at  Ciren- 
cester as  evidence  of  the  domestic 
manners  of  the,  108. 

Rotation,  on  an  instrument  to  illustrate 
Poinsdt's  theory  of,  27. 

Roth  (Dr.  M.),  aphoristic  notes  on  sanitary 
statistics  of  workhouses  and  charitable 
institutions,  149. 

Rosewood  tree,  on  an  abnormal  growth 
in  a,  90. 

Royal  Agricultural  College,  Cirencester, 
notes  on  experiments  in  the  Botanical 
Garden  of  the,  83. 

Rumsey  (H.  W.),  on  the  territorial  dis- 
tribution of  the  population,  for  purposes 
of  sanitary  inquiry  and  social  economy, 
151. 

Saliferous  deposits,  on  the  origin  of,  75. 

Salter  (J.  W.),  on  the  great  Pterygotus 
(Seraphim)  of  Scotland,  and  other 
species,  75;  on  some  new  palaeozoic 
star-fishes,  compared  with  living  forms, 
76. 

Salts,  on  the,  in  the  Cheltenham  and 
other  mineral  waters.  50. 

Samuelson  (J.)  on  the  development  of  in- 
fusorial animalcules,  98. 

Scarborough,  on  barometrical  and  ther- 
mometries observations  at,  49. 

Scelidotherium  leptocephalum  from  La 
Plata,  on  the,  73. 

Schools,  reformatory,  on  the  position  of, 
in  reference  to  the  state,  134. 

Scotland,  on  some  new  fossils  from  the 
ancient  sedimentary  rocks  of,  65;  on 
the  great  Pterygotus  of,  75;  on  the 
money-rate  of  wages  of  labour  in  the 
west  of,  155. 

Screw,  experiments  to  determine  the  re* 
sis  tan  ce  of  a,  when  revolving  in  water 
at  different  depths  and  velocities,  169. 

Scully  (Vincent)  on  the  population  of 
Ireland  at  different  intervals,  from  1603 
to  1856,  with  causes  for  periodical  in- 
crease or  decrease,  142. 

Sea- weeds,  notice  of  the  natural  printing 
of,  on  tbe  rocks  in  the  vicinity  or  Strom- 
ness,  90.  # 

Sewers,  on  the  alkaline  emanations  from, 
57. 

Ships,  on  the  application  of  corrugated 
metal  to,  162. 

Ship-canal,  explorations  through  the 
valley  of  the  Atrato.to  the  Pacific  in 
searcVof  a  route  for  a,  162* 


Ship-communicator,  on  a  new  plan  far  a, 

164. 
Sibbald  (Dr.)  on  a  new  plan  for  a  amp 

communicator,  164. 
Silver,  on  the  present  export  of,  in  the 

East,  161. 
Sisco  (M.),  on  a  new  railway  break  in- 
vented by,  162. 
Slavery,  on  the  connexion   between,  in 
the  United  States  of  America  and  ths 
cotton  manufacture  in  the  United  King- 
dom, 137. 
Smith  (W.)   on    improved    mechanical 
means  for  the  extraction  of  oil,  and  ins 
economical  manufacture  of  mansM 
from  fish  and  fishy  matter,  164b 
Smith '8  Sound,  Dr.  Kane  on  his  expedi- 
tion up,  in  search  of  Sir  John  Frankha, 
113. 
Smoke,  on  the  corrosive  action  o£  on 

building  stones,  58. 
Smyth  (Prof.  Piaaa)  on  the  constancy 

of  solar  radiation,  28. 
Solar  radiation,  on  the  constancy  of,  28. 
Solutions,  on  some  dichromatic  nhsns* 
mena  among,  and  the  means  or  repre- 
senting them,  10. 
Sorby  (H .  C.)  on  the  magneaian  linustsns 
having  been  formed  by  the  alteration 
of  an  ordinary  calcareous  deposit, 77;  de- 
scription of  a  working  model  tofllostrats 
the  formation  of  "drift  bedding"  (s 
kind  of  false  stratification),  77;  on  nW 
microscopical  structure  of  mica-adust, 
78. 
Species,  on  the  variation  of,  101. 
Specula  for  reflecting  telescopes  andleasss, 
working  model  of  a  machine  for  polish- 
ing, 24. 
Spratt  (Captain)  on  the  route  between 

Kustenjee  and  the  Danube,  119. 
Squares,  on  the  law  of, — is  it  applicable  or 
not  to  the  transmission  of  signals  in 
submarine  circuits?,  21. 
Staffordshire,  North,  on  a  remarkable 

hail-storm  in,  39. 
Stanley  (Lord),  opening  address  by,  pre- 
sident of  the  statistical  section,  122. 
Star-fishes,  on  some  new  pateoaoie,  cost- 
pared  with  living  forms,  76. 
Statistics,  122. 

Steel,  on  a  new  process  for  making  sad 
melting,  59;  on  the  manufacture  d, 
without  fuel,  162. 
Stereognathus  oolitSena  from  the  Stones- 
field  slate,  on,  73. 
Stereoscopic  images,  on  various  nhauni 
mena  of  refraction  through  semi-lensa 
producing  anomalies  in  the  ilksien  *4 
9. 


vivmx  ii. 


199 


Stewart  (B.)  on  a  thermometer  for 
TMMMuring  fluctuations  of  temperature, 
47. 

SteveUy  (Prof.)  on  a  new  method  of 
treating  the  doctrine  of  parallel  lines,  8. 

Stones,  on  the  corrosive  action  of  smoke 
on  building,  68. 

Stonesfield  slate,  on  a  fossil  mammal 
(Stereognathu*  ooliticus)  from  the,  73. 

Stomey  (Prof.  G.  Johnstone)  on  a  colli- 
mator for  completing  the  adjustments 
of  reflecting  telescopes,  80. 

Strang  (John),  on  the  progress,  extent, 
and  value  of  the  porcelain,  earthen- 
ware, and  glass  manufaelureof  Glasgow, 
153 ;  on  the  money-rate  of  wages  of 
labour  in  Glasgow  and  the  west  of 
Scotland,  155. 

Strata,  palaeozoic,  on  the  correlation  of 
the  Worth  American  and  British,  175 ; 
pakeootological  relations  of  the  Ame- 
rican and  European,  182. 

Stromnese,  notice  of  the  natural  printing 
of  sea- weeds  on  the  rocks  in  the  vicinity 
of;  90. 

Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire,  on  a  new  spe- 
cies of  Pollicipes  in  the  inferior  oolite 
near,  64. 

St.  Thomas,  on  some  minerals  from  the 
isle  of,  66. 

Sturt  (Capt  Charles)  on  recent  discoveries 
in  Australia,  119. 

Strychnia,  new  method  of  instituting  post* 
mortem  researches  for,  53 ;  on  testing 
for,  to.  |  on  a  new  method  of  extracting, 
from  nux  vomica  without  alcohol,  54 ; 
experiments  on  animals  with,  and  pro- 
bable reasons  for  the  non-detection  of, 
in  certain  cases,  55. 

Strychnine,  on  the  detection  of,  65, 

Submarine  circuits — is  the  law  of  squares 
applicable  or  not  to  the  transmission 
of  signals  in?,  21. 

Sun,  on  the  eclipse  of  the,  mentioned  in 
the  flrst  book  of  Herodotus,  27. 

Symonds  (Rev.  W.  8.)  on  some  pbsrao- 
mena  in  the  Malvern  district,  78 ;  on 
the  rocks  of  Dean  Forest,  ib. 

Symons  (J.)  on  phenomena  recently 
discovered  in  the  moon,  31. 

Symons  (W.)  on  a  modification  of  the 
Maynooth  cast-iron  battery,  16. 

Syro- Arabian  railway,  a  new  route  to 
India,  114. 

Tannin,  on  the  conversion  of,  into  gallic 

acid,  52. 
Tartt  (W.  M.)  on  some  statistics  bearing 

upon  the  relations  existing  between 

poverty  and  crime,  1-59. 


Telegraphy,  on  the  construction  and  use 
of  an  instrument  for  determining  the 
value  of  intermittent  or  alternating  elec- 
tric currents  for  purposes  of  practical,!  9. 

Teleosauri,  on  the  skin  and  food  of,  69. 

Telescopes,  working  model  of  a  machine 
for  polishing  specula  for  lenses  and  re- 
flecting, 24  j  on  a  collimator  for  com- 
pleting the  adjustment  of  reflecting,  30. 

Temperature,  on  a  thermometer  for  mea- 
suring fluctuations  o£  47. 

Tennant  (Pro£  J.)  on  a  series  of  descrip- 
tive labels  for  mineral  collections  in 
public  institutions,  57. 

Thermometer,  on  Negretti  and  Zambra's 
mercurial  minimum,  40 ;  observations 
with  the,  during  a  tour  through  Pales- 
tine, and  along  the  shores  of  the  Dead 
sea,  41  i  on  a  new  method  of  making 
maximum  self-registering,  ib.;  on  a, 
for  measuring  fluctuations  of  tempera- 
ture, 47 ;  instructions  for  the  graduation 
of  boiling-point,  intended  for  the  mea- 
surement of  heights,  49. 

Thompson  (Wm,),  photographs  of  objects 
of  natural  history,  exhibited,  105. 

Thomson(Prof.  W.)  on  Dellman  s  method 
of  observing  atmospheric  electricity,  17. 

Tides  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  the,  23. 

Torbay,  on  the  Beekites  found  in  the  red 
conglomerates  of,  74. 

Torquay,  on  the  climate  of,  48, 

Triassic  formation,  on  the  south-easterly 
attenuation  of  the,  67. 

Twining  (H.  R.)  on  a  new  method  of 
teaching  perspective,  9. 

Ugrians,  on  the  torenic  system  of  the,  108. 

United  States,  on  the  tendency  of  Euro- 
pean races  to  become  extinct  in  the, 
136;  on  the  connexion  between  slavery 
in  the,  and  the  cotton  manufacture  in 
the  United  Kingdom,  137. 

United  Kingdom,  on  the  diversity  of 
measures  in  the  corn-markets  of  the, 
137;  on  the  connexion  between  slavery 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  cotton 
manufacture  in  the,  137. 

Vesuvius  and  its  eruptions,  on,  111. 

Vivian  (£.)  on  printing  photographs, 
with  suggestions  for  introducing  clouds 
and  artistic  effects,  18 ;  on  the  climate 
of  Torquay  and  South  Devon,  48 ;  re- 
searches in  Kent's  Cavern,  Torquay, 
with  the  original  MS.  memoirs  of  its 
first  opening,  by  the  late  Rev.  J. 
MacEnery,  78;  on  the  earliest  traces 
of  human  remains  in  Kent's  Cavern, 
119. 


200 


INDEX  ir. 


Voelcker  (Prof.)  on  the  composition  of 
American  phosphate  of  lime,  58;  on  the 
corrosive  action  of  smoke  on  building- 
stones,  ib. ;  on  basic  phosphates  of  lime, 
ib. 

Vogel  (Dr.),  description  of  the  Ajuh,  a 
kind  of  whale  found  in  the  river  Benu6 
(Central  Africa),  in  Sept.  1855,  98. 

Wages  of  labour  in  Glasgow,  and  the  west 
of  Scotland,  on  the  money-rate  of,  155. 

Waller  (Dr.  Augustus),  experimental  re- 
searches on  the  eye,  and  observations 
on  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
vessels  of  the  conjunctiva,  of  the  iris, 
of  the  ciliary  ligament,  and  of  the 
choroid  membrane,  during  life,  as  seen 
under  the  compound  microscope,  100. 

Walsh  (Prof.  R.  H.)  on  the  statistics  of 
crime  for  the  last  ten  years,  159 ;  on  the 
present  export  of  stiver  to  the  East,  161. 

Ward  (W.  Sykes)  on  albuminized  collo- 
dion, 58, 

Warwickshire,  on  some  new  species  of 
corals  in  the  Has  of,  64. 

Water,  on  the  relative  distribution  of  land 
and,  as  affecting  climate  at  different 
geological  epochs,  66 ;  on  the  quantity 
of  heat  developed  by,  when  violently 
agitated,  165. 

Waters,  on  the  salts  in  the  Cheltenham 
and  other  mineral,  50. 

Waves,  23. 

Welsh  (Mr.),  description  of  a  self-regis- 
tering anemometer  by  R.  Beckley,  38  ; 
description  of  a  thermometer  for  mea- 
suring fluctuations  of  temperature,  by 
B.  Stewart,  47;  instructions  for  the 
graduation  of  boiling-point  thermome- 
ters, intended  for  the  measurement  of 
heights,  49. 

Weights,  plan  for  simplifying  and  im- 
proving the,  of  this  country,  146. 

Wheat-grain,  on  the  composition  of,  173. 

Whewell  (Rev.  W.)  on  the  reasons  for 
describing  the  moon's  motion  as  a  mo- 
tion about  her  axis,  31. 


Whitehouse  (Wildman)  on  the  i 
tion  and  use  of  an  Instrument  for  deter- 
mining the  value  of  intermittent  or 
alternating  electric  currents  for  pur- 
poses of  practical  telegraphy,  19;  on 
the  law  of  squares — is  it  applicable  or 
not  to  the  transmission  of  signals  in 
submarine  circuits  ?,  2  i . 

Wicklow,  on  the  alteration  of  day-state 
and  gritstone  into  mica-schist  and 
gneiss  by  the  granite  of,  68. 

Williams  (Dr. Thomas)  on  the  mechanism 
of  respiration  in  the  family  of  Echhudss, 
101 ;  on  the  fluid  system  of  the  nema- 
toid  entozoa,  ib. 

Wiltshire  drift,  additional  evidence  of 
the  fossil  musk-ox  from  the,  72. 

Wirral  peninsula,  on  the  growth  of  the 
population  of  the,  143. 

Woodall  (Captain)  on  barometrical  and 
thermometrical  observations  at  Scar- 
borough, 49 ;  on  the  evidence  of  a  reef 
of  lower  lias  rock,  extending  from 
Robin  Hood's  Bay  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Flamborough  Head,  80. 

Worcestershire,  on  some  new  species  of 
corals  in  the  lias  of,  64. 

Workhouses  and  charitable  institotioBS, 
aphoristic  notes  on  sanitary  statistics  d, 
149. 

World,  on  the  most  ancient  map  of  the, 
111. 

Worsley  (P.  J.)  on  a  new  process  for 
making  and  melting  steel,  59. 

Wright  (Henry)  on  the  use  of  the  gramme 
in  chemistry,  60. 

Wright  (Dr.  Thomas)  on  the  occurrence 
of  the  upper  lias  ammonites  in  the 
(so-called)  Wement  beds  of  the  inferior 
oolite,  80. 

Xipfaodon,  on  the  genus,  72. 

Zoology,  90. 

Zoophytes,  notice  of  some  new  genera 
and  species  of  British,  90. 


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as  Members. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  FIRST  and  SECOND  MEETINGS,  at  York 
and  Oxford,  18S1  and  1832,  Published  at  13*.  6d. 

Contents  : — Prof.  Airy,  on  the  Progress  of  Astronomy  ;— J.  W.  Lubbock,  on  the  Tides; 
—Prof.  Forbes,  on  the  Present  State  of  Meteorology ; — Prof.  Powell,  on  the  Present  State 
of  the  Science  of  Radiant  Heat ; — Prof.  Cumming,  on  Thermo-Electricity ; — Sir  D.  Brewster, 
on  the  Progress  of  Optics ; — Rev.  W.  W  he  well,  on  the  Present  State  of  Mineralogy ;— Rev. 
W.  D.  Conybeare,  on  the  Recent  Progress  and  Present  State  of  Geology ; — Dr.  Prichard's 
Review  of  Philological  and  Physical  Researches. 

Together  with  Papers  6n  Mathematics,  Optics,  Acoustics,  Magnetism,  Electricity,  Chemistry, 
Meteorology,  Geography,  Geology,  Zoology,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  Botany,  and  the  Arts ; 
and  an  Exposition  of  the  Objects  and  Plan  of  the  Association,  &c. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  THIRD  MEETING  at  Cambridge,  18S3, 
Published  at  12s. 

Contents  :— Proceedings  of  the  Meeting ;— John  Taylor,  on  Mineral  Veins  j— Dr. 
Lindley,  on  the  Philosophy  of  Botany ; — Dr.  Henry,  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Nervous  Sy- 
stem ; — P.  Barlow,  on  the  Strength  of  Materials  ; — S.  H.  Christie,  on  the  Magnetism  of  the 
Earth; — Rev.  J.  Challis,  on  the  Analytical  Theory  of  Hydrostatics  and  Hydrodynamics;— 
G.  Rennie,  on  Hydraulics  as  a  Branch  of  Engineering,  Part  I. ; — Rev.  G.  Peacock,  on  certain 
Branches  of  Analysis. 

Together  with  papers  on  Mathematics  and  Physics,  Philosophical  Instruments  and  Mecha- 
nical Arts,  Natural  History,  Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  History  of  Science. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  FOURTH  MEETING,  at  Edinburgh,  18S4, 
Published  at  15* 

Contents  : — H.  O.  Rogers,  on  the  Geology  of  North  America ; — Dr.  C.  Henry,  on  the 
Laws  of  Contagion;  Prof.  Clark,  on  Animal  Physiology j— Rev.  L.  Jenyns,  on  Zoology; — 
Rev.  J.  ChalUs,  on  Capillary  Attraction ; — Prof.  Lloyd,  on  Physical  Optics ; — G.  Ronnie,  on 
Hydraulics,  Part  II. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  and  Recommendations  of  the  Assocadon 
and  its  Committees* 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  FIFTH  MEETING,  at  Dublin,  1835,  Aid- 
lished  at  IZs.  6d. 

Contents  : — Rev.  W.  Whewell,  on  the  Recent  Progress  and  Present  Condition  of  at 
Mathematical  Theories  of  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Heat ;  —  A.  Qnetelet,  Aperea  Ac 
l'Etat  actuel  des  Sciences  Mathematiques  chez  les  Beiges ; — Capt.  E.  Sabine,  on  the  Phe- 
nomena of  Terrestrial  Magnetism. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Prof.  Sir  W .  Hamilton's  Address,  and  Re* 
commendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  SIXTH  MEETING,  at  Bristol,  1836,  Pub- 
lished at  12s. 

Contents  : — Prof.  Daubeny,  on  the  Present  State  of  onr  Knowledge  with  respect  to  Mine- 
ral and  Thermal  Waters ; — Major  E.  Sabine,  on  the  Direction  and  Intensity  of  the  Terrestrial 
Magnetic  Force  in  Scotland ;— -J.  Richardson,  on  North  American  Zoology  j — Rev.  J.  Chalks, 
on  the  Mathematical  Theory  of  Fluids; — J.  T.  Mackay,  a  Comparative  View  of  the  more 
remarkable  Plants  which  characterise  the  neighbourhood  of  Dublin  and  Edinburgh,  and  the 
South-west  of  Scotland,  &c ; — J.  T.  Mackay,  Comparative  Geographical  Notices  of  the 
more  remarkable  Plants  which  characterize  Scotland  and  Ireland ; — Report  of  the  London  Sab- 
Committee  of  the  Medical  Section  on  the  Motions  and  Sounds  of  the  Heart ; — Second  Report 
of  the  Dublin  Sub-Committee  on  the  Motions  and  Sounds  of  the  Heart ; — Report  of  the  Dublin 
Committee  on  the  Pathology  of  the  Brain  and  Nervous  System ; — J.  W.  Lubbock*  Account 
of  the  Recent  Discussions  of  Observations  of  the  Tides ;— Rev.  B.  Powell,  on  determining  the 
Refractive  Indices  for  the  Standard  Rays  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  in  various  media; — Dr.  Hodgkin, 
on  the  Communication  between  the  Arteries  and  Absorbents; — Prof.  Phillips,  Report  of  Experi- 
ments on  Subterranean  Temperature ;— ProC  Hamilton,  on  the  Validity  of  a  Method  recently 
proposed  by  G.  B.  Jerrard,  for  Transforming  and  Resolving  Equations  of  Elevated  Degress. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  ProC  Daubeny'i  Address,  and  Recommen- 
dations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  SEVENTH  MEETING,  at  Liverpool,  1837, 
f*tfeA«i  at  16*.  64 

Contents  j— Major  E.  Sabine,  on  the  Variations  of  the  Magnetic  Intensity  observed  at  dif- 
fctont  points  of  the  Earth's  Surface ; — Rev.  W.  Taylor,  on  the  various  modes  of  Printing  far 
the  Use  of  the  Blind; — J.  W.  Lubbock,  on  the  Discussions  of  Observations  of  the  Tides*— 
Prut  T.  Thomson,  on  the  Difference  between  the  Composition  of  Cast  Iron  produced  by  the 
Cold  and  Hot  Blast ;— Rev.  T.  R.  Robinson,  on  the  Determination  of  the  Constant  of  Nutation 
by  the  Greenwich  Observations  ; — R.  W.  Fox,  Experiments  on  the  Electricity  of  Metallic 
Veins,  and  the  Temperature  of  Mines , — Provisional  Report  of  the  Committee  of  the  Medical 
8ection  of  the  British  Association,  appointed  to  investigate  the  Composition  of  Secretions,  and 
the  Organs  producing  them ; — Dr.  O.  O.  Rees,  Report  from  the  Committee  for  inquiring  into 
the  Analysis  of  the  Glands,  &&  of  the  Human  Body ;— Second  Report  of  the  London  Sub-Coss- 
mittee  of  the  British  Association  Medical  Section,  on  the  Motions  and  Sounds  of  the  Heart,— 
Prof.  Johnston,  on  the  Present  State  of  our  Knowledge  in  regard  to  Dimorphous  Bodies;— 
LL-CoL  Sykes,  on  the  Statistics  of  the  Four  CoUectorates  of  Dukhun,  under  the  British  Go* 
vernment; — E.Hodgkinson,  on  the  relative  Strength  and  other  Mechanics!  Properties  of  Iron 
obtained  from  the  Hot  and  Cold  Blast;— W.  Fairbairn,  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties 
of  Iron  obtained  from  the  Hot  and  Cold  Blast ;— Sir  J.  Robison,  and  J.  8.  Russell,  Report  of 
the  Committee  on  Waves ;— Note  by  Major  Sabine,  being  an  Appendix  to  his  Report  on  the 
Variations  of  the  Magnetic  Intensity  observed  at  different  Points  of  the  Earth's  Surmce,— 
J.  Yates,  on  the  Growth  of  Plants  under  Glass,  and  without  any  free  communication  with  the 
outward  Air,  on  the  Plan  of  Mr.  N.  J.  Ward,  of  London. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  ProC  Traill's  Address  and  1 
tions  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  EIGHTH  MEETING,  at  Newcastle,  1838, 
Published  at  15*. 

CONTSNTB  :— Rev.  W.  W  he  well,  Account  of  a  Level  Line,  measured  from  the  Bristol  Chan- 
nel to  the  English  Channel,  by  Mr.  Bunt ; — Report  on  the  Discussions  of  Tides,  prepared 
nnder  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  W.  Whewell ;— W.  8.  Harris,  Account  of  the  Progress  and 
State  of  the  Meteorological  Observations  at  Plymouth  ;— Major  B.  Sabine,  on  the  Magnetic 
Isoclinal  and  Isodynamic  Lines  in  the  British  Islands ;— D.  Lardner,  LL.D.,  on  the  Determi* 
nation  of  the  Mean  Numerical  Values  of  Railway  Constants ,-— R.  Mallet,  First  Report  upon 
Experiments  upon  the  Action  of  Sea  and  River.  Water  upon  Cast  and  Wrought  Iron  r— R. 
Mallet,  on  the  Action  of  a  Heat  of  212°  Fahr.,  when  long  continued,  on  Inorganic  and  Or- 
ganic Substances. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Mr.  Murchison's  Address,  and  Recommen- 
dations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  NINTH  MEETING,  at  BirmiDgham,  18S9, 
Published  at  12s.  6<L 

Cowtints  :— Rev.  B.  Powell,  Report  on  the  Present  State  of  our  Knowledge  of  Refractive 
Indices,  for  the  Standard  Rays  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  in  different  media; — Report  on  the  Ap- 
plication of  the  Sum  assigned  for  Tide  Calculations  to  Rev.  W.  Whewell,  in  a  Letter  from  T.  O. 
Bant,  Eaq.  |— H.  L.  Pattinson,  on  some  galvanic  Eiperiments  to  determine  the  Existence  or 
Non-Existence  of  Electrical  Currents  among  Stratified  Rocks,  particularly  those  of  the  Moun- 
tain Limestone  formation,  constituting  the  Lead  Measures  of  Alston  Moor ; — Sir  D.  Brewster, 
Reports  respecting  the  two  series  of  Hourly  Meteorological  Observations  kept  in  Scotland  ;— 
Report  on  the  subject  of  a  series  of  Resolutions  adopted  by  the  British  Association  at  their 
Meeting  in  August  1838,  at  Newcastle; — R.  Owen,  Report  on  British  Fossil  Reptiles; — E. 
Forbes,  Report  on  the  Distribution  of  pulmoniferous  Mollusca  in  the  British  Isles ; — W.  S. 
Harris,  Third  Report  on  the  Progress  of  the  Hourly  Meteorological  Register  at  the  Plymouth 
Dockyard. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Rev.  W.  Vernon  Harcourt's  Address,  and 
Recommendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TENTH  MEETING,  at  Glasgow,  1840, 
Published  at  \5s. 

Contents  : — Rev.  B.  Powell,  Report  on  the  recent  Progress  of  discovery  relative  to  Radiant 
Heat,  supplementary  to  a  former  Report  on  the  same  subject  inserted  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Reports  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science ;— J.  D.  Forbes,  Supple- 
mentary Report  on  Meteorology ; — W.  S.  Harris,  Report  on  Prof.  Whe well's  Anemometer, 
now  in  operation  at  Plymouth  ; — Report  on  "  The  Motions  and  Sounds  of  the  Heart,"  by  the 
London  Committee  of  the  British  Association,  for  1839-40  ;— Prof.  Schonbein,  an  Account  of 
Researches  in  Electro- Chemistry  ; — R.  Mallet,  Second  Report  upon  the  Action  of  Air  and 
Water,  whether  fresh  or  salt,  dear  or  foul,  and  at  various  temperatures,  upon  Cast  Iron, 
Wrought  Iron  and  8teel ;— R.  W.  Fox,  Report  on  some  Observations  on  Subterranean  Tem- 
perature ;— -A.  F.  Osier,  Report  on  the  Observations  recorded  during  the  years  1 837, 1 838, 1839 
and  1840,  by  the  Self-registering  Anemometer  erected  at  the  Philosophical  Institution,  Bir- 
mingham r—  Sir  D.  Brewster,  Report  respecting  the  two  Series  of  Hourly  Meteorological  Ob- 
servations kept  at  Inverness  and  Kingussie,  from  Nov.  1st,  1838  to  Nov.  1st,  1839 ; — W. 
Thompson,  Report  on  the  Fauna  of  Ireland  :  Div.  Vertebrata ; — C.  J.  B.  Williams,  M.D., 
Report  of  Experiments  on  the  Physiology  of  the  Lungs  and  Air-Tubes ;— Rev.  J.  S.  Henslow, 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Preservation  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Mr.  Murchison  and  Major  E.  Sabine's 
Address,  and  Recommendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  ELEVENTH  MEETING,  at  Plymouth, 
1841,  Published  at  IS*.  6d. 

Contents: — Rev.  P.  Kelland,  on  the  Present  state  of  our  Theoretical  and  Experimental 
Knowledge  of  the  Laws  of  Conduction  of  Heat ; — G.  L.  Roupell,  M.  D.,  Report  on  Poisons  {— 
T.  G.  Bunt,  Report  on  Discussions  of  Bristol  Tides,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  W.  Whewell ; 
— D.  Ross,  Report  on  the  Discussions  of  Leitb  Tide  Observations,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Rev.  W.  Whewell ; — W.  S.  Harris,  upon  the  working  of  Whe  well's  Anemometer  at  Plymouth 
during  the  past  year ; — Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  superintend* 
ing  the  scientific  co-operation  of  the  British  Association  in  the  System  of  Simultaneous  Obser- 
vations in  Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Meteorology ; — Reports  of  Committees  appointed  to  pro* 
vide  Metedrological  Instruments  for  the  use  of  M.  Agassic  and  Mr.  M'Cord ; — Report  of  a  Com- 
mittee to  superintend  the  reduction  of  Meteorological  Observations  .—-Report  of  a  Com* 
mittee  for  revising  the  Nomenclature  of  the  Stars ; — Report  of  a  Committee  for  obtaining  In- 
struments and  registers  to  record  Shocks  and  Earthquakes  in  Scotland  and  Ireland ;— Report  of 


a  Committee  on  the  Preservation  of  Vegetative  Powers  in  Seeds  ;— Dr.  Hodgkio,  on  Inquiries 
into  the  Races  of  Man  ; — Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  report  how  far  the  Desiderata 
in  our  knowledge  of  the  Condition  of  the  Upper  Strata  of  the  Atmosphere  may  be  supplied  by 
means  of  Ascents  in  Balloons  or  otherwise,  to  ascertain  the  probable  expense  of  such  Experi- 
ments, and  to  draw  up  Directions  for  Observers  in  such  circumstances  ; — R.  Owen,  Report 
on  British  Fossil  Reptiles ;  Reports  on  the  Determination  of  the  Mean  Value  of  Railway 
Constants  i— D.  Lardner,  LL.D.,  Second  and  concluding  Report  on  the  Determination  of  the 
Mean  Value  of  Railway  Constants; — E.  Woods,  Report  on  Railway  Constants ; — Report  of  a 
Committee  on  the  Construction  of  a  Constant  Indicator  for  Steam- Engines. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Prof.  Whewell's  Address,  and  Recommen- 
dations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWELFTH  MEETING,  at  Manchester, 
1842,  Published  at  10*.  6d. 

Contents:  — Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  conduct  the  co-operation  of  the  British 
Association  in  the  System  of  Simultaneous  Magnetical  and  Meteorological  Observations; — 
J.  Richardson,  M.D.,  Report  on  the  present  State  of  the  Ichthyology  of  New  Zealand; — 
W.  S.  Harris,  Report  on  the  Progress  of  Meteorological  Observations  at  Plymouth  ; — Second 
Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  to  make  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds; 
— C.  Vignoles,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Railway  Sections ; — Report  of  the  Committee 
for  the  Preservation  of  Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances  ;  — Lyon  Playfiur,  M.D.,  Abstract 
of  Prof.  Liebig's  Report  on  Organic  Chemistry  applied  to  Physiology  and  Pathology  ; — 
R.  Owen,  Report  on  the  British  Fossil  Mammalia,  Part  I. ; — R.  Hunt,  Researches  on  the 
Influence  of  Light  on  the  Germination  of  Seeds  and  the  Growth  of  Plants ; — L.  Agassis,  Report 
on  the  Fossil  Fishes  of  the  Devonian  System  or  Old  Red  Sandstone ; — W.  Fairbaira,  Ap- 
pendix to  a  Report  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties  of  Cast  Iron  obtained  from  the  Hot 
and  Cold  Blast ; — D.  Milne,  Report  of  the  Committee  for  Registering  Shocks  of  Earthquakes 
in  Great  Britain ; — Report  of  a  Committee  on  the  construction  of  a  Constant  Indicator  for 
Steam-Engines,  and  for  the  determination  of  the  Velocity  of  the  Piston  of  the  Self-acting  En- 
gine at  different  periods  of  the  Stroke  ; — J.  S.  Russell,  Report  of  a  Committee  on  the  form  of 
Ships ; — Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  "to  consider  of  the  Rules  by  which  the  Nomencla- 
ture of  Zoology  may  be  established  on  a  uniform  and  permanent  basis." — Report  of  a  Com- 
mittee on  the  Vital  Statistics  of  large  Towns  in  Scotland ;— Provisional  Reports,  and  Notices 
of  Progress  in  special  Researches  entrusted  to  Committees  and  Individuals. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Lord  Francis  Egerton's  Address,  and  Re- 
commendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  THIRTEENTH  MEETING,  at  Cork, 
184S,  Published  at  12s. 

Contents': — Robert  Mallet,  Third  Report  upon  the  Action  of  Air  and  Water,  whether 
fresh  or  salt,  clear  or  foul,  and  of  Various  Temperatures,  upon  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  and 
Steel ; — Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  conduct  the  co-operation  of  the  British  As- 
sociation in  the  System  of  Simultaneous  Magnetical  and  Meteorological  Observations ; — Sir 
J.  F.  W.  Herschel,  Bart.,  Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  for  the  Reduction  of  Meteoro- 
logical Observations  ;  —  Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  for  Experiments  on  Steam- 
Engines  ; — Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  continue  their  Experiments  on  the  Vitality 
of  Seeds; — J.  S.  Russell,  Report  of  a  Series  of  Observations  on  the  Tides  of  the  Frith  of 
Forth  and  the  East  Coast  of  Scotland ;— J.  S.  Russell,  Notice  of  a  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  the  Form  of  Ships; — J.  Blake,  Report  on  the  Physiological  Action  of  Medicines ; — Report 
of  the  Committee  on  Zoological  Nomenclature ; — Report  of  the  Committee  for  Registering 
the  Shocks  of  Earthquakes,  and  making  such  Meteorological  Observations  as  may  appear  to 
them  desirable ; — Report  of  the  Committee  for  conducting  Experiments  with  Captive  Balloons; 
—Prof.  Wheats  tone,  Appendix  to  the  Report; — Report  of  the  Committee  for  the  Translation 
and  Publication  of  Foreign  Scientific  Memoirs ; — C.  W.  Peach  on  the  Habits  of  the  Marine 
Testacea ; — E.  Forbes,  Report  on  the  Mollusca  and  Radiata  of  the  iEgean  Sea,  and  on  their 
distribution,  considered  as  bearing  on  Geology ;— L.  Agassis,  Synoptical  Table  of  British 
Fossil  Fishes,  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  Geological  Formations ;— R.  Owen,  Report  on  the 
British  Fossil  Mammalia,  Part  II. ;— E.  W.  Binney,  Report  on  the  excavation  made  at  the 
junction  of  the  Lower  New  Red  Sandstone  with  the  Coal  Measures  at  Collyhurst  5— W. 
Thompson,  Report  on  the  Fauna  of  Ireland :  Div.  Invertebrate ; — Provisional  Reports,  and 
Notices  of  Progress  in  Special  Researches  entrusted  to  Committees  and  Individuals. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Earl  of  Rosse's  Address,  and  f 
dations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


*  PROCEEDINGS  of  the  FOURTEENTH  MEETING,  at  York,  18**, 
Published  at  £\. 

Contents:— W.  B.  Carpenter,  on  the  Microscopic  Structure  of  Shells ;— J.  Alder  and  A. 
Hancock,  Report  on  the  British  Nudibranchiate  Mollusca ;— R.  Hunt,  Researches  on  the 
*  Influence  of  Light  on  the  Germination  of  Seeds  and  the  Growth  of  Plants; — Report  of  a 
Committee  appointed  by  the  British  Association  in  1840,  for  revising  the  Nomenclature  of  the 
Stars ; — Lt.-Col.  Sabine,  on  the  Meteorology  of  Toronto  in  Canada ; — J.  Black  wall,  Report 
on  some  recent  researches  into  the  Structure,  Functions,  and  (Economy  of  the  Araneidea 
made  in  Great  Britain ; — Earl  of  Rosse,  on  the  Construction  of  large  Reflecting  Telescopes ; 
—Rev.  W.  V.  Harcourt,  Report  on  a  Gas-furnace  for  Experiments  on  Vitrifaction  and  other 
Applications  of  High  Heat  in  the  Laboratory ; — Report  of  the  Committee  for  Registering 
Earthquake  Shocks  in  Scotland; — Report  of  a  Committee  for  Experiments  on  Steam- Engine*; 
—Report  of  the  Committee  to  investigate  the  Varieties  of  the  Human  Race ; — Fourth  Report 
of  a  Committee  appointed  to  continue  their  Experiments  on  the  Vitality  of  Seeds; — W.  Fair- 
bairn,  on  the  Consumption  of  Fuel  and  the  prevention  of  Smoke ;— F.  Ronalds,  Report  con- 
cerning the  Observatory  of  the  British  Association  at  Kew ;— Sixth  Report  of  the  Committee 
appointed  to  conduct  the  Co-operation  of  the  British  Association  in  the  System  of  Simulta- 
neous MagneUcal  and  Meteorological  Observations; — Prof.  Forchhainmer  on  the  influence 
of  Fucoidal  Plants  upon  the  Formations  of  the  Earth,  on  Metamorphism  in  general,  and  par- 
ticularly the  Metamorphosis  of  the  Scandinavian  Alum  Slate ;— H.  E.  Strickland,  Report  on 
the  recent  Progress  and  Piesent  Slate  of  Ornithology ; — T.  Oldham,  Report  of  Committee 
appointed  to  conduct  Observations  on  Subterranean  Temperature  in  Ireland ; — Prof.  Owen, 
Report  on  the  Extinct  Mammals  of  Australia,  with  descriptions  of  certain  Fossils  indicative 
of  the  former  existence  in  that  continent  of  large  Marsupial  Representatives  of  the  Order 
Pachydermata ; — W.  S.  Harris,  Report  on  the  working  of  Whewell  and  Osier's  Anemometers 
at  Plymouth,  for  the  years  1841,  1842,  1843  ; — W.  R.  Birt,  Report  on  Atmospheric  Waves; 
— L.  Agassis,  Report  sur  les  Poissons  Fossiles  de  l'Agile  de  Londres,  with  translation ; — J. 
S.  Russell,  Report  on  Waves  {—Provisional  Reports,  and  Notices  of  Progress  in  Special  Re- 
searches entrusted  to  Committees  and  Individuals. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Dean  of  Ely's  Address,  and  Recommenda- 
tions of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  FIFTEENTH  MEETING,  at  Cambridge, 

1845,  Published  at  12s. 

Contents  :— Seventh  Report  of  a  Committee  appointed  to  conduct  the  Co-operation  of  the 
British  Association  in  the  System  of  Simultaneous  Magnetical  and  Meteorological  Observa- 
tions;— Lt.-Col.  Sabine,  on  some  points  in  the  Meteorology  of  Bombay ; — J.  Blake,  Report 
on  the  Physiological  Actions  of  Medicines  ; — Dr.  Von  Boguslawski,  on  the  Comet  of  1843; 
— R.  Hunt,  Report  on  the  Actinograph; — Prof.  Schonbein,  on  Ozone;— Prof.  Erman,  on 
the  Influence  of  Friction  upon  Thermo- Electricity; — Baron  Sentfenberg,  on  the  Self- 
Registering  Meteorological  Instruments  employed  in  the  Observatory  at  Sentfenberg;— 
W.  R.  Birt,  Second  Report  on  Atmospheric  Waves ; — O.  R.  Porter,  on  the  Progress  and  Pre- 
sent Extent  of  Savings'  Banks  in  the  United  Kingdom ;— Prof.  Bunsen  and  Dr.  PI  ay  fair, 
Report  on  the  Oases  evolved  from  Iron  Furnaces,  with  reference  to  the  Theory  of  Smelting 
of  Iron ; — Dr.  Richardson,  Report  on  the  Ichthyology  of  the  Seas  of  China  and  Japan  ;— 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Registration  of  Periodical  Phaenomena  of  Animals  and  Vege- 
tables ; — Fifth  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Vitality  of  Seeds  ; — Appendix,  &c. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Sir  J.  F.  W.  Herschel's  Address,  and  Re- 
commendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  SIXTEENTH  MEETING,  at  Southampton, 

1846,  Published  at  15*. 

Contents: — O.  G.  Stokes,  Report  on  Recent  Researches  in  Hydrodynamics; — Sixth 
Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Vitality  of  Seeds  ; — Dr.  Schunck  on  the  Colouring  Matters  of 
Madder ; — J.  Blake,  on  the  Physiological  Action  of  Medicines ; — R.  Hunt,  Report  on  the  Ac- 
tinograph ; — R.  Hunt,  Notices  on  the  Influence  of  Light  on  the  Growth  of  Plants ;— R.  L. 
Ellis,  on  the  Recent  Progress  of  Analysis ; — Prof.  Forchhammer,  on  Comparative  Analytical 
Researches  on  Sea  Water ; — A.  Erman,  on  the  Calculation  of  the  Gaussian  Constants  for 
1829; — G.  R.  Porter,  on  the  Progress,  present  Amount,  and  probable  future  Condition  of  the 
Iron  Manufacture  in  Great  Britain  ;— W.  R.  Birt,  Third  Report  on  Atmospheric  Waves  ;— 
Prof.  Owen,  Report  on  the  Archetype  and  Homologies  of  the  Vertebrate  Skeleton ; — 
J.  Phillips,  on  Anemometry; — J.  Percy,  M.D.,  Report  on  the  Crystalline  Flags ;— Addenda 
to  Mr.  Birt's  Report  on  Atmospheric  Waves. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Sir  R.  I.  Murchison's  Address,  and  Re* 
commendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  SEVENTEENTH  MEETING,  at  Oxfcrd, 

\m,  Published  at  18s. 


Contents  :— Prof,  Langberg,  on  the  Specific  Gravity  of  8ulphuric  Add  at  < 
greet  of  dilution,  and  on  the  relation  which  exists  between  the  Development  of  Heat  and  the  , 
coincident  contraction  of  Volume  in  Sulphuric  Add  when  mixed  with  Water  j— R.  Hunt, 
Researches  on  the  Influence  of  the  Solar  Rays  on  the  Growth  of  Planti  5— BL  Mallet,  on 
the  Fact*  of  Earthquake  Phenomena ; — Pro£  Nilsson,  on  the  PriraitiTe  Inhabitants  of  Scan- 
dinavia;-—W.  Hopkins,  Report  on  the  Geological  Theories  of  Elevation  and  Earthquakes; 
—Dr.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  Report  on  the  Microscopic  Structure  of  Shells ;— Rev.  W.  Whewell  and 
Sir  James  C.  Ross,  Report  upon  the  Recommendation  of  an  Expedition  for  the  unipsst  of 
completing  our  knowledge  of  the  Tides ; — Dr.  Schunck,  on  Colouring  Matters ;— Seventh  Re- 
port of  the  Committee  on  the  Vitality  of  Seeds  j— J.  Glynn,  on  the  Turbine  or  Horizontal 
Water- Wheel  of  France  and  Germany; — Dr.  R.  G.  Latham,  on  the  present  state  and  recent 
progress  of  Ethnographical  Philology ;— Dr.  J.  C.  Prichard,  on  the  various  methods  of  Research 
which  contribute  to  the  Advancement  of  Ethnology,  and  of  the  relations  of  that  Science  to 
other  branches  of  Knowledge ;— Dr.  C.  C.  J.  Bunsen,  on  the  results  of  the  recent  Egyptian 
researches  in  reference  to  Asiatic  and  African  Ethnology,  and  the  Classification  of  Languages; 
—-Dr.  C.  Meyer,  on  the  Importance  of  the  Study  of  the  Celtic  Language  as  exhibited  by  the 
Modern  Celtic  Dialects  still  extant ;— Dr.  Max  M tiller,  on  the  Relation  of  the  Bengali  to  the 
Arian  and  Aboriginal  Languages  of  India ;— W.  R.  Birt,  Fourth  Report  on  Atmospheric 
Waves; — Prof.  W.  H.  Dove,  Temperature  Tables;  with  Introductory  Remarka  by  Lieut -Cot. 
B.  Sabine ;— A.  Erman  and  H.  Petersen,  Third  Report  on  the  Calculation  of  the  Gaussian  Con- 
stants for  1889. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Sir  Robert  Harry  Inglia'a  Address,  and 
Recommendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  EIGHTEENTH  MEETING,  at  Swansea, 
1848,  Published  at  9$. 

Contents: — Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  A  Catalogue  of  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors;— 
J.  Glynn,  on  Water -pressure  Engines ; — R.  A.  Smith,  on  the  Air  and  Water  of  Towns ,— Eighth 
Report  of  Committee  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds ; — W.  R.  Birt,  Fifth  Report  on  At- 
mospheric  Waves ; — E.  Schunck,  on  Colouring  Matters ; — J.  P.  Budd,  on  the  advantageous  ase 
made  of  the  gaseous  escape  from  the  Blast  Furnaces  at  the  Ystalyfera  Iron  Works ;— B.  Heat, 
Report  of  progress  in  the  investigation  of  the  Action  of  Carbonic  Add  on  the  Growth  ef 
Plants  allied  to  those  of  the  Coal  Formations ; — Prof.  H.  W.  Dove,  Supplement  to  the  Tem- 
perature Tables  printed  in  the  Report  of  the  British  Association  for  1847 ; — Remarks  by  PreC 
Dove  on  his  recently  constructed  Maps  of  the  Monthly  Isothermal  Lines  of  the  Globe,  and  ea 
some  of  the  principal  Conclusions  in  regard  to  Climatology  dedncible  from  them ;  with  an  in- 
troductory Notice  by  Lu-Col.  E.  Sabine ; — Dr.  Daubeny,  on  the  progress  of  the  inveaagadsa 
on  the  Influence  of  Carbonic  Acid  on  the  Growth  of  Ferns ; — J.  Phillips,  Notice  of  further 
progress  in  Anemometrical  Researches  p—  Mr.  Mallet's  Letter  to  the  Assistant-General  Secre- 
tary;— A.  Erman,  Second  Report  on  the  Gaussian  Constants; — Report  of  a  Committee 
relative  to  the  expediency  of  recommending  the  continuance  of  the  Toronto  Magnetics!  and 
Meteorological  Observatory  until  December  1850. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  the  Marquis  of  Northampton's  Address, 
and  Recommendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS  op  the  NINETEENTH  MEETING,  at  Birmingham, 
1849,  Published  at  10*. 

Contents  : — Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  A  Catalogue  of  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors ;— Earl 
of  Rosse,  Notice  of  Nebulas  lately  observed  in  the  Six-feet  Reflector ; — Prof.  Daubeny,  on  the 
Influence  of  Carbonic  Acid  Gas  on  the  health  of  Plants,  especially  of  those  allied  to  the  Fosnl 
Remains  found  In  the  Coal  Formation ; — Dr.  Andrews,  Report  on  the  Heat  of  Combination ; 
—Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Registration  of  the  Periodic  Phenomena  of  Plants  sad 
Animals ;— Ninth  Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds; 
— P.  Ronalds,  Report  concerning  the  Observatory  of  the  British  Association  at  Kewt  frost 
Aug.  9, 1848  to  Sept.  12, 1849 ; — R.  Mallet,  Report  on  the  Experimental  Inquiry  on  Railway 
Bar  Corrosion ; — W.  R.  Birt,  Report  on  the  Discussion  of  the  Electrical  Observations  at  Kew. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  the  Rev.  T.  R.  Bobinaon's  Address,  and 
lUcommendations  of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  thi  TWENTIETH  MEETING,  at  Edinburgh, 

1850,  Published  at  \5s. 

Cow  tints :— K  Mallet,  Pint  Report  on  the  Facts  of  Earthquake  Phenomena ; — Rev.  Prof. 
Powell,  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors; — Dr.  T.  Williams,  on  the  Structure  and 
History  of  the  British  Annelida;— T.  C.  Hunt,  Results  of  Meteorological  Observations  taken 
at  St.  Michael's  from  the  1st  of  January,  1840,  to  the  31st  of  December,  1849;— R.  Hunt,  on 
the  present  State  of  our  Knowledge  of  the  Chemical  Action  of  the  Solar  Radiations; — Tenth 
Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds; — Major-Gen. 
BriSg»t  Report  on  the  Aboriginal  Tribes  of  India ; — F.  Ronalds,  Report  concerning  the  Ob- 
servatory of  the  British  Association  at  Kew ;—  E.  Forbes,  Report  on  the  Investigation  of  British 
Marine  Zoology  by  means  of  the  Dredge ; — R.  MacAndrew,  Notes  on  the  Distribution  and 
Range  in  depth  of  Mollusca  and  other  Marine  Animals,  observed  on  the  coasts  of  Spain,  Por- 
tugal, Barbery,  Malta,  and  Southern  Italy  in  1849 ; — Pro£  Allman,  on  the  Present  State  of 
our  Knowledge  of  the  Freshwater  Polyzoa; — Registration  of  the  Periodical  Phenomena  of 
Plants  and  Animals ; — Suggestions  to  Astronomers  for  the  Observation  of  the  Total  Eclipse 
of  the  Sun  on  July  28,  1851. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Sir  David  Brewster's  Address,  and  Recom- 
mendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWENTY-FIRST  MEETING,  at  Ipswich, 

1851,  Published  at  16*.  6a\ 

Contents  :— Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors ; — Eleventh  Re- 
port of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds  ; — Dr.  J.  Drew,  on 
the  Climate  of  Southampton  ;— Dr.  R.  A.  Smith,  on  the  Air  and  Water  of  Towns  :  Action  of 
Porous  Strata,  Water  and  Organic  Matter ;— Report  of  the  Committee  appointed  to  consider 
the  probable  Effects  in  an  (Economical  and  Physical  Point  of  View  of  the  Destruction  of  Tro- 
pical Forests  ; — A.  Henfrey,  on  the  Reproduction  and  supposed  Existence  of  Sexual  Organs 
in  the  Higher  Cryptogamous  Plants ; — Dr.  Daubeny,  on  the  Nomenclature  of  Organic  Com- 
pounds;— Rev.  Dr.  Donaldson,  on  two  unsolved  Problems  in  Indo-German  Philology,-— 
Dr.  T.  Williams,  Report  on  the  British  Annelida; — R.  Mallet,  Second  Report  on  the  Facts  of 
Earthquake  Phenomena  ; — Letter  from  Prof.  Henry,  to  Col.  Sabine,  on  the  System  of  Meteoro- 
logical Observations  proposed  to  be  established  in  the  United  States ;— Col.  Sabine,  Report 
on  the  Kew  Magnetographs  ; — J.  Welsh,  Report  on  the  Performance  of  his  three  Magneto- 
graphs  during  the  Experimental  Trial  at  the  Kew  Observatory  ; — F.  Ronalds,  Report  concern- 
ing the  Observatory  of  the  British  Association  at  Kew,  from  September  12, 1850,  to  July  31, 
1851  ; — Ordnance  Survey  of  Scotland. 

'  Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Prof.  Airy's  Address,  and  Recom- 
mendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWENTY-SECOND  MEETING,  at  Belfast, 

1852,  Published  at  15s. 

Contents  : — R.  Mallet,  Third  Report  on  the  Facts  of  Earthquake  Phsenomena ;— Twelfth 
Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds ; — Rev.  Prof. 
Powell,  Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1851-52; — Dr.  Gladstone,  on  the  In- 
fluence of  the  Solar  Radiations  on  the  Vital  Powers  of  Plants ;— A  Manual  of  Ethnological 
Inquiry ;— Col.  Sykes,  Mean  Temperature  of  the  Day,  and  Monthly  Fall  of  Rain  at  127  Sta- 
tions under  the  Bengal  Presidency  ; — Prof.  J.  D.  Forbes,  on  Experiments  on  the  Laws  of  the 
Conduction  of  Heat;— R.  Hunt,  on  the  Chemical  Action  of  the  Solar  Radiations ; — Dr.  Hodges, 
on  the  Composition  and  (Economy  of  the  Flax  Plant ; — W.  Thompson,  on  the  Freshwater 
Fishes  of  Ulster; — W.  Thompson,  Supplementary  Report  on  the  Fauna  of  Ireland; — W  .Wills, 
on  the  Meteorology  of  Birmingham ; — J.  Thomson,  on  the  Vortex- Water- Wheel ; — J.  B.  Lawes 
and  Dr.  Gilbert,  on  the  Composition  of  Foods  in  relation  to  Respiration  and  the  Feeding  of 
Animals. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Colonel  Sabine's  Address,  and  Recom- 
mendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWENTY-THIRD  MEETING,  at  HoD, 
1853,  Published  at  10s.  6a\ 

Contents: — Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1851-53; 
—James  Oldham,  on  the  Physical  Features  of  the  H umber ;— James  Oldham,  on  the  Rase, 
Progress,  and  Present  Position  of  Steam  Navigation  in  Hull; — William  Fairbairn,  Experi- 
mental Researches  to  determine  the  Strength  of  Locomotive  Boilers,  and  the  causes  which 
lead  to  Explosion; — J.  J.  Sylvester,  Provisional  Report  on  the  Theory  of  Determinants;— » 
Professor  Hodges,  M.D.,  Report  on  the  Gases  evolved  in  Steeping  Flax,  and  on  the  Composition 
and  (Economy  of  the  Flax  Plant ; — Thirteenth  Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the 
Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds ; — Robert  Hunt,  on  the  Chemical  Action  of  the  Solar  Radiations; 
— John  P.  Bell,  M.D.,  Observations  on  the  Character  and  Measurements  of  Degradation  of  the 
Yorkshire  Coast;  First  Report  of  Committee  on  the  Physical  Character  of  the  Moon's  Sur- 
face, as  compared  with  that  of  the  Earth ;— R.  Mallet,  Provisional  Keport  on  Earthquake 
Wave-Transits;  and  on  Seismometrical  Instruments; — William  Fairbairn,  on  the  Mechanical 
Properties  of  Metals  as  derived  from  repeated  Meltings,  exhibiting  the  maximum  point  of 
strength  and  the  causes  of  deterioration ; — Robert  Mallet,  Third  Report  on  the  Facts  of  Earth- 
quake Phenomena  (continued). 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  Mr.  Hopkins's  Addresj,  and  Recommenda- 
tions of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWENTY-FOURTH  MEETING,  at  Lirer- 
pool,  1854,  Published  at  18*. 

Contents: — R.  Mallet,  Third  Report  on  the  Facts  of  Earthquake  Phenomena  (continued); 
— Major-Gen  era  1  Chesney,  on  the  Construction  and  General  Use  of  Efficient  Life-Boats; — Rev. 
Prof.  Powell,  Third  Report  on  the  present  State  of  our  Knowledge  of  Radiant  Heat ; — Colonel 
Sabine,  on  some  of  the  results  obtained  at  the  British  Colonial  Magnetic  Observatories;— 
Colonel  Port  lock,  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Earthquakes,  with  their  proceedings  respecting 
Seismometers ; — Dr.  Gladstone,  on  the  influence  of  the  Solar  Radiations  on  the  Vital  Powers 
of  Plants,  Part  2; — Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1853-54; 
—Second  Report  of  the  Committee  on  the  Physical  Character  of  the  Moon's  Surface; — W.  G. 
Armstrong,  on  the  Application  of  Water- Pressure  Machinery  ; — J.  B.  Lawes  and  Dr.  Gilbert, 
on  the  Equivalency  of  Starch  and  Sugar  in  Food ; — Archibald  Smith,  on  the  Deviations  of  the 
Compass  in  Wooden  and  Iron  Ships;  Fourteenth  Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  oo 
the  Growth  and  Vitality  of  Seeds. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  the  Earl  of  Harrow by's  Address,  and  Re- 
commendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 

PROCEEDINGS  of  the  TWENTY-FIFTH  MEETING,  at  Glasgow, 
1855,  Published  at  1 5s. 

Contents  : — T.  Dobson,  Report  on  the  Relation  between  Explosions  in  Coal- Mines  and 
Revolving  Storms; — Dr.  Gladstone,  on  the  Influence  of  the  Solar  Radiations  on  the  Vital  Powen 
of  Plants  growing  under  different  Atmospheric  Conditions,  Part  3 ; — C.  Spence  Bate,  on  the 
British  Edriophthalma ; — J.  F.  Bateman,  on  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  on  the  Supply 
of  Water  to  Towns ; — Fifteenth  Report  of  Committee  on  Experiments  on  the  Growth  and 
Vitality  of  Seeds ;— Rev.  Prof.  Powell,  Report  on  Observations  of  Luminous  Meteors,  1854-55 ; 
•—Report  of  Committee  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  best  means  of  ascertaining  those  pro- 
perties of  Metals  and  effects  of  various  modes  of  treating  them  which  are  of  importance  to  the 
durability  and  efficiency  of  Artillery  j— Rev.  Prof.  Henslow,  Report  on  Typical  Objects  in 
Natural  History;— A.  Follett  Osier,  Account  of  the  Self- Registering  Anemometer  and  Bail- 
Gauge  at  the  Liverpool  Observatory ; — Provisional  Reports. 

Together  with  the  Transactions  of  the  Sections,  the  Duke  of  Argyll's  Address,  and  Recom- 
mendations of  the  Association  and  its  Committees. 


LIST  OF  PLATES. 


PLATE  I. 
Illustrative  of  the  Report  upon  the  Channels  of  the  River  Mersey. 

PLATE  II. 
Illustrative  of  the  Dredging  Report— Frith  of  Clyde.  1856. 

PLATE  III. 

Illustrative  of  Photochemical  Researches,  by  Professor  Bunsen  and  Dr. 
Henry  Roscoe. 

PLATES  IV.  and  V. 

Illustrative  of  Mr.  William  Fairbairn's  Report  on  the  Tensile  Strength  of 
Wrought  Iron. 

PLATES  VI.  to  IX. 

Illustrative  of  Mr.  P.  P.  Carpenter's  Report  on  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge  with  regard  to  the  Mollusca  of  the  West  Coast  of  North 
America. 

Plates  VI.,  VII.,  VIIL,  IX.  are  designed  to  illustrate  variations  of  form 
between  individuals  of  the  same  species,  observed  in  comparing  large 
numbers  of  specimens  from  the  Reigeo  Collection  of  Mazatlan  Shells :  vtde 
Report,  pp.  241-264. 

PLATE  VI. 

Fig.  1 .  Three  adult  specimens  of  Area  grandis,  Brod.  &  Sby.,  laid  on  the  same  hinge- 
line  :  n,  normal  state ;  e,  elongated ;  o,  obese. 

Fig.  2.  The  same  specimens  in  profile. 

Fig.  3.  Two  young  specimens,  showing  that  the  changes  of  form  are  not  merely  the 
result  of  circumstances  of  growth :  e,  elongated;  t,  transverse. 

Fig.  4.  The  same  specimens  in  profile.  The  A.  aqvilatera,  Sby.,  is  probably  the 
young  of  this  species.  It  has  been  selected  from  a  group  usually  constant 
in  its  characters ;  the  nestling  Byssoarks  being  notoriously  irregular. 


REPORT — 1856. 


PLATE  VII. 


Fig.  1  a.  Cyrena  Mewicana,  Brod.  &  Sby.  Two  young  specimens  kid  together  at  the  left 
angle  between  the  dorsal  margin  and  the  umbo :  n,  normal ;  e,  elongated. 
In  this  state  it  forms  part  of  U.  Fhridana,  Desh.  MS.,  non  Conr. 

Fig.  1  b.  Four  specimens,  similarly  placed,  adult :  *,  the  largest  shell,  normal  shape; 
e,  elongated ;  r,  rounded ;  a,  an  extreme  form,  described  by  Dr.  Gould  at 
C.  altilis.    The  Cyrerus  are  generally  very  regular  shells. 

Fig.  2.  Two  specimens  of  Avicula  sterna,  Gould :  the  black  line,  normal ;  the  dotted 
line,  with  the  characteristic  tail  almost  evanescent,  while  the  upper  ean 
are  enormously  developed. 

Fig,  3.  Gadinia  pcntegoniostoma,  Sby. :  a,  normal  state,  round,  margin  deeply 
crenate,  ribs  deeply  grooved  internally ;  these  characters  pass  away  more 
or  less  in  the  other  specimens ;  b,  with  one  corner ;  c,  with  two  corners ;  d, 
with  three  corners ;  e,  with  four  corners ;  /,  with  five  corners ;  g,  with  six 
corners  obscurely  marked. 

Fig.  4.  Glyphis  imequalis,  Sby.,  including  Fissurella  pica,  Sby.,  and  F.  «*#,  Rve.: 
a,  extreme  form,  type  of  F.  inaqualis,  oblong,  with  mint  sculpture,  shown 
at  a,  and  trilobed  hole ;  b,  lobes  of  hole  evanescent ;  c,  form  F.  mat; 
d,  type  of  F.  pica,  oval,  with  rounded  hole  and  strong  sculpture  shown  at 
<T ;  Cyf>  9$  k,  i,  k,  I,  m,  n,  internal  views  of  the  hole  and  callosity,  mag- 
nified, showing  the  great  changes  of  form,  and  the  development  or  absence 
of  the  posterior  truncation  and  pit.  This,  with  an  oval  hole,  are  con- 
sidered generic  characters  by  Messrs.  H.  &  A.  Adams :  vide  Gen.  vol.  L 
p.  447  (as  Lucapina,  but  not  of  Gray,  except  L.  crenvlata). 

Fig.  5.  FissureUa  rugosa,  Sby.,  including  F.  chlorotrema,  Mke.,  F.  hwmUs,  Mke., 
and  F.  viminea,  Mke.  non  Rve. :  a,  finely  grown,  with  mint,  flattened, 
smooth  ribs,  and  trilobed  hole ;  b,  normal  state,  ribs  faint,  hole  suboval ; 

c,  specimen  of  irregular  growth,  normal  outline  when  young,  ribs  stronger; 

d,  specimen  with  ribs  on  the  upper  portion  strongly  developed ;  e,  speci- 
men of  coarse  growth,  ribs  nodulous ;  /,  extreme  form,  from  which  the 
species  was  described,  ribs  very  strong  and  irregular.  The  colour  varies 
from  uniform  green  to  nearly  uniform  red;  the  young  shells  being  sene- 
rally  green  with  a  red  patch,  g,  h,  i,  Jfc,  interior  sketches  of  hole  and  cal- 
losity. The  shape  of  the  hole  is  generally  a  very  constant  character  in 
FissureUida. 

PLATE  VIII. 

Fig.  1.  Development  and  varieties  of  Crepidula  nivea,  C.  B.  Ad.,  including  Calyptre* 
squama,  Brod.,  Calyptreea  Lessonii,  Brod.,  and  Crepidula  striolata,  Mke. 
(zszCrypta  nivea,  Ianacus  squama,  and  Ianacus  Lessonii,  H.  &  A.  Ad.): 
a,  inside  view  of  very  young  specimen,  deck  just  forming ;  b,  ditto, 
a  stage  older ;  c,  ditto,  older,  less  magnified,  anterior  sinus  not  developed 
(Crypta,  H.  &  A.  Ad.);  d,  external  view,  showing  prominent,  ribbed 
apex ;  e,  another  specimen,  rayed  (squama,  Brod.) ;  /,  group  of  deck- 
margins,  the  horizontal  line  representing  the  medial  point;  the  two 
to  the  right  are  young,  magnified ;  the  rounding  of  the  outline  and  de- 
velopment of  the  anterior  sinus,  made  of  subgeneric  importance  by  Messn. 
Adams,  here  appear  extremely  variable;  g,  a  normal  specimen,  margin 
sharp;  h,  the  same  indented  by  attachment  to  a  Strotnbus granulatnt;  t, 
margin  in  layers,  flattened,  abnormally  thickened  near  the  umbo ;  j,  out- 
side view,  form  striolata,  the  layers  beginning  to  appear  separate  outside; 
k,  layers  here  and  there  prominent,  form  Lessontt,  shell  concentrically 
striated,  and  with  colour  rays  as  in  e ;  /,  an  abnormally  bilobed  specimen, 
form  Lessonii ;  m,  a  specimen  abnormally  costated,  by  attachment  to  a 
ribbed  shell ;  n,  inside  view  of  two  specimens,  laid  with  the  deck-margin  to 
correspond,  to  show  the  great  length  of  deck  in  the  lined  specimen,  sad 
its  shortness  in  the  dotted  one ;  o,  two  specimens  similarly  laid,  one  kmt 
and  straight,  the  other  rounded  and  semispiral,  like  CrepipateUa,  H. « 


LIST  OF  PLATES.  8 

A.  Ad. ;  the  long  specimen  has  grown  in  the  burrow  of  a  Lithophagus, 
and  displays  margin-layers  at  the  umbonal  region,  and  one  Lessonioid 
lamina  in  front;  p,  profile  of  the  last-named  specimen,  with  deck  promi- 
nent, and  back  somewhat  indented,  as  in  C.  explanata,  Gld, 

Fig.  2.  Young  state  of  Crepidula  unguiformis,  Lam.  (Ianacus,  H.  &  A.  Ad.),  to  com- 
pare with  the  last  specie*,  which  it  closely  resembles  when  adolescent :  a, 
inside  view,  showing  large  imbedded  spiral  portion ;  b,  outside,  showing 
flattened,  smooth  spire. 

Fig.  3.  Crepidula  aculeata,  GmeL,  including  Calyptnea  echinus,  Brod.,  Calyptraa 
Austria,  Brod.,  Crepidula  Caltfornica,  Nutt.,  and  probably  Crepidula 
costata,  Mke.  (not  Sby.),  subgenus  Crepipatella,  H.  &  A.  Ad. :  a,  young 
state,  like  Neritina,  deck  just  commencing;  b,  ditto,  a  stage  older;  c,  the 
same  in  profile;  d,  ditto,  somewhat  older;  e,  ditto,  a  little  older;  /,  out- 
side view,  older,  showing  spiral  growth,  margin  not  produced,  spines  just 
appearing ;  g,  a  group  of  deck- margins,  arranged  as  in  fig.  If,  the  three 
to  the  right  being  magnified ;  the  second  from  the  left  is  the  normal  state ; 
in  the  first,  not  only  the  characteristic  medial  angle  is  rounded  off,  but  an 
abnormal  angle  appears,  turned  the  wrong  way ;  k,  two  specimens,  out- 
side view,  to  show  straight  and  spiral  growth,  as  in  fig.  1  o ;  t,  two  speci- 
mens, laid  with  the  upper  margins  corresponding,  to  show  dispropor- 
tionate length  of  deck ;  the  short  deck  belongs  to  the  dotted  margin ; 
j%  two  specimens  in  profile;  one  arched,  with  deck  internal;  the  other 
(dotted)  flat,  with  deck  prominent. 

fig.  4.  Lophyrus  articulatus,  Sby. :  a,  front  profile  of  a  specimen  abnormally  tri- 
lobed ;  the  dotted  line  shows  the  same  profile  of  an  elevated  specimen ; 
b,  terminal  valves  of  two  specimens,  one  with  inner  margin  incurved,  the 
other  excurved ;  c,  medial  valves  of  two  specimens,  one  much  waved,  the 
other  nearly  straight.  These  characters  are  much  dwelt  on  by  Midden- 
dorff  in  the  discrimination  of  species. 

Fig.  5.  A  monstrosity  of  FissureUa  virescens,  Sby.,  inside  view,  with  a  circular  hole 
in  addition  to  the  normal  one. 

PLATE  IX. 

Fig.  I.  Crucibulum  imbricatum,  Sby.,  Brod.,  Desh.  ^Patella  scuteUata,  Wood,= 
Calypeopsis  rugosa,  Less,  non  Desh. :  including  the  non-pitted  form,  Dys- 
potea  dentata,  Mke.=Calyptra>a  1  extinctortum,  Sby.  non  Lam.s=Co- 
lyptrea  rugosa,  Val.,  Rve.,  non  Desh. :  showing  development,  a,  fry, 
magnified,  outside  view ;  b,  ditto,  inside,  shell  like  Narica,  with  umbilical 
chink,  slight  columellar  lip,  and  a  thin  film  of  patelliform  margin  sur- 
rounding the  whole ;  c,  young  state,  slightly  magnified,  cup  much  ex- 
panded ;  in  this  state  it  appears  to  belong  to  the  subgenus  Dispotaa  (Say) 
of  H.  &  A.  Ad.;  d,  ditto,  outside  view,  ribs  scarcely  indicated;  e, 
adolescent,  ribs  strongly  developed,  cup-angle  narrower;  /,  a  stage  nearer 
maturity,  cup-margins  nearly  closed ;  g,  adult  state. 

Fig.  2.  Crepidula  7  dor  sat  a,  Brod.,  var.  bilobata,  nearly  adult  {Crepipatella  dorsata, 
H.  &  A.  Ad.),  to  compare  mthfig.  1  c  and  3  a. 

Fig.  3.  Crucibulum  spinosum,  Sby.,=Patella  Peziza,  Wood,=Ca/ji>pfr«a  tubifera, 
Lens.,= Calypeopsis  auriculata,  D'Orb.  non  Chemn. ;  including  Calypeop- 
sis tenuis,  C.  hispida,  and  C.  maculata,  Brod.  The  C.  quinquina,  Less.= 
C.  Byronensis,  Gray,  MS.=C.  rugosa,  D'Orb.  (pars),  is  probably  a  coarse 
variety  of  the  same  species ;  and  the  C.  rugosa,  Desh.,  non  Less,  nee  Val. 
=C.  lignaria,  Brod.,  may  be  a  distorted  growth  of  the  same  variety. 
a,  young  state,  magnified ;  b,  the  same,  a  stage  older,  wrinkles  developed 
crenating  the  margin,  shape  abnormal ;  c,  inside  of  smooth  form,  adult ; 

d,  a  specimen  with  the  cup  diseased,  probably  owing  to  the  decay  of  half 
the  outside,  where  the  commencement  of  the  cup  may  be  seen  exposed ; 
margin  of  the  undecayed  part  thick  and  in  layers,  as  in  C.  quinquina; 

e,  outside  view  of  specimen  without  spines,  wrinkles  very  faint ;  /,  speci- 
men with  a  very  few  rudimentary  spines  in  the  form  of  tubercles,  and 


rA  REPORT — 1856. 

faint,  curved,  radiating  lines  indicating  the  direction  in  which  the  \ 
would  normally  appear ;  a,  another  specimen,  smooth  over  most  of  the 
surface,  but  with  spines  rally  developed  at  the  top ;  h,  a  specimen  with 
wrinkles  almost  evanescent,  yet  with  a  few  well-developed  spines,  in 
straight  radiating  lines;  t,  a  specimen  of  normal  development,  with 
irregular  wrinkles  crossed  by  curved  rows  of  spines ;  j,  portion  of  internal 
margin  of  specimen  h ;  Jfc,  margin  of  specimen  with  spines  partly  formed, 
open ;  I,  ditto  fully  developed,  hollow  throughout ;  m,  profile  of  spechnea 
beginning  with  regular  margin,  smooth,  afterwards  with  irregular  1 
and  a  few  long  spines  at  one  corner;  n,  profile  of  smooth  spt 
beginning  regularly,  then  with  different  amounts  of  irregularity,  < 
with  a  regular  margin ;  o,  three  specimens  in  profile,  laid  tor  the  vertex  to 
coincide;  the  first  is  flattened  throughout,  forming  a  regular,  obtnse* 
«ngled  triangle;  the  second  (shaded)  begins  very  conical,  spinous,  then 
with  two  stages,  flattened,  smooth ;  the  third  begins  like  the  first,  then 
spreads  somewhat,  but  ends  much  compressed ;  p,  an  abnormal  specimen 
found  by  Mr.  Cuming  in  a  hole,  from  deep  water,  and  figured  in  Trans.  ZooL 
Soc.  vol.  i.  pi.  28.  f.  8 ;  the  long  spines  are  curved  backwards  over  the  fist 
shell,  and  the  cup  is  extremely  prominent ;  the  dotted  line  represents  the 
outline  of  a  shell  at  the  opposite  extreme,  var.  compresso-couicvm,  Proc 
Zool.  Soc.  1866,  p.  167. 

Fig.  4.  Cacum  undatum,  magnified,  exhibiting  development  and  variations  in  shape, 
sculpture,  form  of  mouth,  prominence  of  plug,  &c,  observed  among  about 
340  specimens.  Similar  changes  in  the  common  Panama  species  form  the 
Ctecum  diminutum,  C.  pygnutum,  C.  monstrosum,  C.  eburnettm  and  C.jEr- 
matum  of  Prof.  C.  B.  Adams :  (a,  young  Cecum,  with  spiral  part  attached, 
species  not  known ;)  b,  tube  smooth  and  short ;  c,  ditto,  long ;  d,  whs 
faint  indications  of  rings  near  the  margin ;  e,  shell  more  curved ;  marginal 
rings  stronger;/,  shell  passing  at  once  from  smooth  to  fully  ringed  state; 
g,  the  same,  more  bent,  rings  irregular ;  A,  ditto,  curvature  irregular; 
t,  with  more  rings,  outline  very  irregular;  j,  stumpy  form,  rings  dose, 
mouth  immature ;  ft,  adult,  front  view,  with  multigpiral  operculum  m  tit*, 
apical  portion  smooth;  /,  another  specimen,  mouth  contracted,  apical 
portion  ringed;  m,  nonrial  state,  profile;  n,  specimen  with  rings  almost 
evanescent ;  o,  deformed  specimen,  broken,  and  mended  without  rings. 
All  the  irregularities  in  these  figures  are  intended. 

Jfy.J).  Neritina  cassicvlttm,  Sby. :  a,  elevated  state,  corresponding  with  subgenoi 
Vitta  (Klein)  of  Messrs.  Adams;  b,  normal  state,  subgenus  Neritkm 
/(Swains.)  of  Messrs.  Adams ;  c,  depressed  state,  answering  to  restricted 
genus  Neritella  (Humph.)  of  Messrs.  Adams.  The  same  changes  of  form 
are  observable  in  the  very  closely  related  Neritina  picta,  Sby.=Fttfi 
picta  of  Messrs.  Adams. 

P.  P.  Carpkntxx. 


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1 


List  of  those  Members  of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advancement 
qf  Science,  to  whom  Copies  of  this  Volume  [for  1856]  are  supplied 
gratuitously,  in  conformity  with  the  Regulations  adopted  by  the 
General  Committee.  [See  pp.  xvii.  &  xviii.] 


HOHOBA&T  MEMBER. 

HIS  ROYAL  HIGHNESS,  PRINCE  ALBERT  OF  SAXE-COBURG  AND  GOTIIA. 


Adair,  Lt.-Col.  Robert  A.  Shafto,  F.R.S., 

7  Audley  Souare,  London. 
Adam, Walter,  M.D.,  Neasdon,  Middlesex. 
Adams,    John    Couch,  M.A.,    D.C.L., 

F.R.S.,  F.R.A.S.,  Pembroke  College, 
Cambridge. 

Aiiisworth,Thomas,  TheFlosh,Egremont, 
Cumberland. 

Aldam,  William,  Frickley  Hall  near  Don- 
caster. 

AUecock,  Samuel,  Rushulme  Place  near 
Manchester. 

Allen,  William  J.  C,  Secretary  to  the 
Royal  Belfast  Academical  Institution ; 

8  Wellington  Place,  Belfast. 

Allis,  Thomas,  Osbaldwick  Hall,  York. 

Ambler,  Henry,  Watkinson  Hall,  Oven- 
den  near  Halifax. 

Aniery,  John,F.S.A.,  Park  House,  Stour- 
bridge. 

Anderson,  William  (Yr.),  Glentarkie  by 
Strathmiglo,  Fife. 

Andrews,  Thos.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  M.R.I.A., 
Vice-President  of,  and  Professor  of 
Chemistry  in,  Queen's  College,  Belfast. 

Ansted,  David  Thomas,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
17  Manchester  Street,  Manchester 
Square,  London. 

Appold,  John  George,  F.R.S.,  23  Wilson 
Street,  Finsbury  Square,  London. 

Archer,  T.  C.,  Higher  Tranmere,Cheshire. 

Arthur,  Rev.  William,  M.A.,  26  Campden 
Grove,  Kensington,  London. 

Ashton,Thomas,  M.D.,  81  Mosley  Street, 
Manchester. 

Ash  worth,  Edmund,  Egerton  Hall,  Turton 
near  Bolton. 

Atkinson,  Joseph  B.,  Cotham,  Bristol. 

Auldjo,  John,  F.R.S.,  Noel  House,  Ken- 
sington. 

Ayrton,  W.  S.,  F.S.A.,  Harehills,  Leeds. 

Babbage,  Charles,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  1  Dorset 
.  Street,  Manchester  Square,  London. 
Babington,CharlesCardale,  M.A.,F.R.S., 

[It  is  requested  that  any  inaccuracy  in  the  Names  and  Residence!  of  the  Members  may  be  communicated  to 
Messrs.  Taylor  and  Francis,  Printers,  Red  Lion  Court,  Fleet  Street,  London.] 


(Local  Treasurer),  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge. 
Backhouse,  John  Church,  Blackwell,  Dar- 
lington. « 

Baddeley,  Capt.  Fred.  H.,  R.E.,  Ceylon. 

Bain,  Richard,  Gwennap  near  Truro. 

Bainbridge,  Robert  Walton,  Middleton 
House  near  Barnard  Castle,  Durham. 

Baker,  John,  Dodge  Hill,  Stockport. 

Baker,William,63  Gloucester  Place,  Hyde 
Park,  London. 

Baldwin,  the  Hon.  Robert,  H.  M.  Attor- 
ney-General, Spadina,  Co.  York,  Upper 
Canada. 

Balfour,  John  Hutton,  M.D.,  Professor  of 
Botany  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
F.R.S.  L.  &  E.,  F.L.S.;  Edinburgh. 

Ball,  John,  M.R.I.A.,  85  Stephen's 
Green,  Dublin. 

Ball,  William,  Rydall,  Ambleside,  West- 
moreland. 

Barbour,  Robert,  Portland  Street,  Man- 
chester. 

Barclay,  Joseph  Guraey,  Walthamstow, 
Essex. 

Barnes,  Thomas,M.D.,F.R.S.E.,Carlisle. 

Barnett,  Richard,  M.R.C.S.,  11  Victoria 
Square,  Reading. 

Barton,  John,  Bank  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

Bashforth,  Rev.  Francis,  B.D.,  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge. 

Bateman,  Joseph,  LL.D.,  F.R.A.S. 

Bayldon,  John,  Lendal,  York. 

Bayley,  George,  2  Cowper's  Court,  Corn- 
hill,  London. 

Beamish,  Richard,  F.R.S.,  2  Suffolk 
Square,  Cheltenham. 

Beatson,  William,  Rotherham. 

Beaufort,  William  Morris,  11  Gloucester 
Place,  Portman  Square,  London. 

Belcher,  Capt.  Sir  Edw.,  R.N.,  F.R.A.S., 
22  Thurloe  Square,  Brompton,  Lon- 
don. 

Beicombe,  Henry  Stephens, M  .D.,Minster 
Yard,  York. 


MEMBERS  TO  WHOM 


Bell,  Matthew  P.,  245  St.  Vincent  Street, 
Glasgow. 

Beittoch,  Francis,  Blackheath  Park,  Kent. 

Bergin,  Thomas  Francis,  M.R.I.A.,  49 
Westland  Row,  Dublin. 

Berryman,  William  Richard,  6  Tamar 
Terrace,  Stoke,  Devonport. 

Bickerdike,  Rev.  John,  M.A.,  Leeds. 

Binyon,  Thomas,  St.  Ann's  Square,  Man- 
chester. 

Bird,  William,  9  South  Castle  Street,  Li- 
verpool. 

Birks,  Rev.  Thomas  Rawson,  Kelshall 
Rectory,  Royston. 

Birley,  Richard,  Sedgley,  Prestwich, 
Manchester. 

Birt,  W.  R.,  11  Wellington  Street,  Vic- 
toria Park,  London. 

Blackie,  W.  Q.f  Ph.D.,  F.R.G.S.,  lOKew 
Terrace,  Glasgow. 

Blackwall,  John,  F.L.S.,  Oakland, 
Llanrwst,  Denbighshire. 

Blackwell,  Thomas  Evans,  F.G.8.,  The 
Grove,  Clifton,  Bristol. 

Blake,  Henry  Wollaston,  F.R.S.,  8  Devon- 
shire Place,  Portland  Place,  London. 

Blake,  William,  Bishop's  Hull,  Taunton. 

Blakiston,  Peyton,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,St.  Leo- 
nardVon-Bea. 

Bland,  Rev.  Miles,  D.D.,  F.R.S.,  5  Royal 
Crescent,  Ramsgate. 

Boddington,  Benjamin,  Burcher,  King- 
ton, Herefordshire. 

Bodley,  Thomas,  F.G.S.,  Anlaby  House, 
Pittville,  Cheltenham. 

Boileau,  Sir  John  Peter,  Bart.,  F.R.8.,  20 
Upper  Brook  Street,  London;  and 
Ketteringham  Hall,  Norfolk. 

Bond,WalterM.,TheArgory,Mov,Ireland. 

Bossey,  Francis,  M.D.,  Woolwich. 

Bowerbank,  James  Scott,  F.R.S.,  3  High- 
bury Grove,  London. 

Brady,  Antonio,  Maryland  Point,  Esses. 

Brakenridge,  John,  Bretton  Lodge,  Wake- 
field. 

Brammall,  Jonathan,  Sheffield. 

Brett,  John  Watkins,  2  Hanover  Square, 
London. 

Briggs,  Major-General  John,  E.I.C.S., 
F.R.S.,  2  Tenterden  Street,  London. 

Brisbane,  General  SirThos.  Makdougall, 
Bart.,  K.C.B.,  G.C.H.,  D.C.L.,  Fres. 
of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
F.R.S. ;  Brisbane,  Greenock. 

Brooke,  Charles,  M.B.,  F.R.S.,29Keppel 
Street,  Russell  Square,  London. 

Brooks,  Samuel,  Market  Street,  Mtfn- 


Brooks,  Thomas,  (Messrs.  Butterworth 
and  Brooks,)  Manchester. 


Broun,  John  Allan,  F.R.S., 

to  His  Highness  the  Rajah  of  Tram- 
core  j  Observatory,  Trevandruin,  Iafia. 

Brown,  Samuel,  F.S.S.,  The  Efaas, 
Larkhall  Rise,  Clapham,  London. 

Brown,  Thomas,  Ebbw  Vale  Iron  Works, 
Abergavenny. 

Brown,  William,  Docks,  Sunderland. 

Bruce,  Alexander  John,  Kilmarnock. 

Bruce,  Haliday,  M.R.I.A.,  37  Dans 
Street,  Dublin. 

Brunei,  Isambart  Kingdom,  F.R.S.,  18 
Duke  Street,  Westminster. 

Buck,  George  Watson,  Ramsay,  Isle  of 
Man. 

Buckman,  James,  F.G.8.,  Professor  of 
Botany,  Royal  Agricultural  College, 
Cirencester. 

Buckton,G.Bowdler,38  Gloucester  Place, 
Hyde  Park  Gardens,  London. 

Budd,  James  Palmer,  Ystalyfera  Iron 
Works,  Swansea. 

Buller,  Sir  Antony,  Pound  near  Tavistock, 
Devon. 

Bulman,  John,  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Burd,  John,  jun.,  Mount  Sion,  RaddmV, 
Manchester. 

Burlington,Williftm,Earlof,MA.,LLJ)., 
F.R.S.,  10  Belmve  Square,  London  $ 
and  Hardwick  Hall,  Derbyshire. 

Busk,  George,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Com- 
parative Anatomy  and  Physiologytotbe 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England; 
15  Harley  Street,  Cavendish  Square, 
London. 

Butlery,  Alexander  W.,  Monkland  boa 
and  Steel  Company,  Cardarroch  near 
Airdrie. 

Caird,  James  T.,  Greenock. 

Campbell,  Dugald,  7  Quality  Court, 
Chancery  Lane,  London. 

Campbell,  Sir  James,  Glasgow. 

Campbell,  William,  34  Candlerigg  Street, 
Glasgow. 

Carew,  William  Henry  Pole,  Antony 
House  near  Devonport. 

Carne,  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  Pentanee. 

Carpenter,  Philip  PearaaU,  B^.,  Aca- 
demy Place,  Warrington. 

Caw,  William,  Blackheath. 

Cartmell,  Rev.  James,  B.D.,  F.G.8., 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge. 

Cassels,  Rev.  Andrew,  M.A.,  Bailey  Vi- 
carage near  Leeds. 

Cathcart,  Lieut. -General  Charles  Murray, 
Earl  of,  K.C.B.,  F.R.8.E.,  United  Ser- 
.  vice  Clnb,  London. 

Cayley,  Sir  George,  Bart.,  Brampton* 


BOOKS  ARE  8UPPLIED  GRATIS. 


Chillis,  Her.  James,  M.A.,  F.R.8.,  PIu- 

mian  Professor  of  Astronomy  in  the 

Universityof  Cambridge;  Observatory, 

Cambridge. 

Chamber«,Robert,F.R.S.E.,F.G.S.,Edin- 

burgh. 
Champney,  Henry  Nelson,  St.  Paul's 

Square,  York. 
Chanter,  John,  2  Arnold  Terrace,  Bow 

Road,  Bromley. 
Cheetham,  David,  Staleybridge,  Man- 
chester. 
Chesney,  Major-General  Francis  Rawdon, 
R.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.8,  Ballyardle,  Kil- 
keel,  Co.  Down,  Ireland. 
Chevallier,  Rev.  Temple,  B.D.,  F.R.A.S., 
Professor  of  Mathematics  and  Astro- 
nomy in  the  University  of  Durham; 
Durham. 
Chichester,AshhurstTurnerGilbert,D.D., 
Lord  Bishop  of,  43  Queen  Ann  Street, 
Cavendish  Square,  London;  and  the 
Palace,  Chichester. 
Chiswell,  Thomas,  19  Plymouth  Grove, 

Manchester. 
Christie,  Samuel  Hunter,  M.A.,  F.R.S. 
Clark,  Rev.  Charles,  M.A.,  Queen's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 
Clark,  Henry,  M.D.,  74  Marland  Place, 

Southampton. 
Clay,  Joseph  Travis,  F.G.B.,  Rastrick  near 

Huddersfield. 
Clay,  William,  4  Park  Hill  Road,  Liver- 
pool. 
Coathupe,  Charles  Thornton,  3  Park  Row, 

Bristol. 
Coats,  George,  6  Woodlands  Terrace, 

Glasgow. 
Coats,  Peter,  Woodside,  Paisley. 
Coats,  Thomas,  Fergeslie  House,  Paisley. 
Cobbold,  John  Chevallier,  M.P.,  Tower 

Street,  Ipswich. 
Cocker,  Jonathan,  Higher  Broughton, 

Manchester. 
Colfox,  William,  B.  A.,  Bridport,  Dorsetsh. 
Compton,  Lord  Alwyne,  Castle  Ashby, 

Northamptonshire. 
Compton,  Lord  William,  145  Piccadilly, 

London* 
Conway,   Charles,   Pontnwydd  Works, 

Newport,  Monmouthshire. 
Conybeare,  Very  Rev.  William  Daniel, 
Dean  of  Llandaff,  M.A.,  F.R.S. ;  The 
Deanery,  Llandaff. 
Cooke,  Arthur  B.,6  Berkeley  Place,  Oon- 

naught  Square,  London. 
Cooke,  William  Fothergill,  Kidbrooke 

near  Blackheath. 
Corbet,  Richard,  Adderley,  Market  Dray- 
ton, Shropshire. 


Cotton,  Alexander,  Landwade,  Cam- 
bridgeshire. 

Cotton,  Rev.William  Charles,  M.  A.,  New 
Zealand. 

Courtney,  Henry,  M.R.I.A.,  24  Fitrwil- 
liam  Place,  Dublin. 

Cox,  Joseph,  F.G.S.,  Wisbeach,  Cam- 
bridgeshire. 

CramptomTheHonourableJustice,LL.D., 
M.R.I.A.,  3  Kildare  Place,  Dublin. 

Crewdson,  Thomas  D.,  Dacca  Mills,  Man- 
chester. 

Crichton,  William,  1  West  India  Street, 
Glasgow. 

Crompton,  Rev.  JosepC,  Norwich. 

Cropper,  Rev.  John,  Stand  near  Man- 
chester. 

Currer,  Rev.  Danson  Richardson,  Clifton 
House,  York. 

Curtis,  John  Wright,  Alton,  Hants. 

Cuthbert,  J.  R.,  73  Mount  Pleasant, 
Liverpool. 

Dalby,  Rev.  William,  M.A.,  Rector  of 
Compton  Basset  near  Calne,  Wilts. 

Dalton,  Rev.  James  Edward,  B.D.,  Sea- 
grove,  Loughborough. 

Danson,  Joseph,  6  Shaw  St.,  Liverpool. 

Darbisbire,  Samuel  D.,  Pendyffryn  near 
Conway. 

Daubeny,  Charles  Giles  Bridle,  M.D., 
F.R.S.,  Regius  Professor  of  Botany  in 
the  University  of  Oxford;  Oxford. 

Davis,  Sir  John  Francis,  Bart.,  R.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  Hollywood,  Compton  Green- 
field near  Bristol. 

Dawbarn,  William,  Wisbeach. 

Dawes,  Rev.  William  Rutter,  F.R.A.S., 
Wateringbury  near  Maidstone,  Kent. 

Dawson.  Christopher  H.,  Low  Moor, 
Bradford,  Yorkshire. 

Dawson,  Henry,  14  St.  James's  Road, 
Liverpool. 

Deane,  Sir  Thomas,  Dundanion  Castle, 
Cork. 

De  la  Rue,  Warren,  F.R.S.,  Observatory, 
Cranford,  Middlesex;  and  110  Bun- 
hill  Row,  London. 

Dent,  Joseph,  Ribstofl  Hall,  Wetherby, 
York. 

Dickinson,  Joseph,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Great 
George  Square,  Liverpool. 

Dikes,  William  Hey,  F.G.S.,  Wakefield. 

Dilke,  C.  Wentworth,  F.G.S.,  76  Sloane 
Street,  London. 

Dobbin,  LeonardJun.,M.R.I.A.,  27  Gar- 
diner's Place,  Dublin. 

Dodsworth,Benjamm,St.Leonard'&Place, 

York. 
Dodsworth,  George,  Fulford  near  York. 


MEMBERS  TO  WHOM 


Donaldson,  John,  Professor  of  the  Theory 
of  Music  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh; Edinburgh. 

Donkra,  Thomas,  F.R.A.S.,  Westow, 
Whitwell  near  York. 

Dowden,  Richard,  Sunday's  Well,  Cork. 

Ducie,  Henry,  Earl  of,  F.R.S.,  4  Carlton 
Terrace,  London ;  and  Tort  worth  Court, 
Wootton-under-Edge. 

Duncan,  James,  M.D.,  Farnham  House, 
Finglass,  Co.  Dublin. 

Dunlop,  William  Henry,  Annan  Hill, 
Kilmarnock. 

Dunraven,  Edwin,  Earl  of,  F.R.S.,  Adare 
Manor,  Co.  Limerick ;  and  Dunraven 
Castle,  Glamorganshire. 

Earnshaw,  Rev.  Samuel,  M.A.,  Sheffield. 

Edmondston,  Rev.  John,  Selkirk. 

Edwards,  J.  Baker,  Ph.D.,  Royal  Insti- 
tution Laboratory,  Liverpool. 

Egerton,  Sir  Philip  de  MalpasGrey,  Bart., 
M.P.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  Oulton  Park, 
Tarporley,  Cheshire. 

Ellis,  Rev.  Robert,  A.M.,  Grimstone 
House  near  Malton,  Yorkshire. 

Ellis,  Thomas  Flower,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  At- 
torney-General of  the  Duchy  of  Lan- 
caster; 15  Bedford  Place,  London. 

Enys,  John  Samuel,  F.G.S.,  Enys,  Corn- 
wall. 

Erie,  Rev.  Christopher,  M.A.,  F.G.S., 
Hardwick  Rectory  near  Aylesbury. 

Evans,  George  Fabian,  M.D.,  Waterloo 
Street,  Birmingham. 

Ewing,  William,  209  Brandon  Place,  West 
George  Street,  Glasgow. 

Eyre,  Gteorge  Edward,  F.G.S.,  Warrens 
near  Lyndhurst,  Hants. 

Fairbairn,  William,  C.E.,  F.R.S.,  Man- 
chester. 

Faraday,  Michael,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  Ful- 
lerian  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  the 
Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain ;  21 
Albemarle  Street,  London. 

Farren,  Edwin  James,  Hanover  Cham- 
bers, Buckingham  St.,  Strand,  London. 

Fellows,  Sir  Charles,  F.R.G.S.,  4  Mon- 
tagu Place,  Russell  Square,  London. 

Fischer,  William  L.  F.,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  in 
the  University  of  St.  Andrew's,  Scot- 
land. 

Fitzwilliam,CharlesWilliam,Earl,F.R.S., 
President  of  the  Yorkshire  Philosophi- 
cal Society ;  Mortimer  House,  Haikin 
Street,  Grosvenor  Place,  London;  and 
Wentworth  House  near  Rotherham, 
Yorkshire. 


Fleming,  Colonel  James,  Kmlochlaiek, 
Appin,  Argyleshire. 

Fleming,  William,.  M.D.,  Manchester. 

Fletcher,  Samuel,  Ardwick  Place,  Man- 
chester. 

Forbes,  David,  F.G.S.,  F.C.S.,  AXC.E* 
7  Calthorpe  Street,  Birmingham. 

Forbes,  James  David,  LL.D.,  Professor 
of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Edinburgh,  SeclLS.E.,  F  JLS. ; 
Edinburgh. 

Forbes,  Sir  John,  M.D.,  D.C.L.,  F.R&, 
12  Old  Burlington  Street,  London. 

Forrest,  William  Mutton,  Stirling. 

Foster,  Thomas  Emerson,7EUison  Place, 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

Forster,  William,  Ballynure,  Ckmes,  Ire- 
land. 

Fort,  Richard,  Read  Hall,  Whalley,  Lan- 
cashire. 

Fortescue,  Hugh,  Earl,  R.P.,  F.R.S.,  17 
Grosvenor  Square,  London;  and  Castle 
Hill,  Southmolton. 

Foster,  Charles  Finch,  Mill  Lane,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Foster,  H.  S.,  Cambridge. 

Foster,  John,  M.A.,  The  Oaks  Parsonage, 
Loughborough,  Leicestershire. 

Fowler,  Robert,  23  Rutland  Sq.,  Dublin. 

Fox,  Charles,  Trebah,  Falmouth. 

Fox,  Joseph  Hayland,  Wellington,  So- 
merset. 

Fox,  Robert  Barclay,  Falmouth. 

Fox,  Samuel  Lindoe,  Tottenham. 

Frankland,  Rev.  Mannaduke  Charles, 
Chowbent  near  Manchester. 

Freeland,  Humphrey  William,  F.G.S., 
TheAthenffiumClub,PallMall,Londoii. 

Frerichs,  John  Andrew,  1  Keynaham 
Bank,  Cheltenham. 

Fullarton,  Allan,  Greenock. 

Fulton,  Alexander,  %  Woodside  Crescent, 
Glasgow. 

Gadesden,   Augustus  William,  F.SJL, 

Leigh  House,  Lower  Tooting,  Surrey. 
Gaskell,  Samuel,  19  Whitehall  Place, 

London. 
Gething,  George  Barkley,  Springfield, 

Newport,  Monmouthshire. 
Gibson,  George  Stacey,  Saffron  Walden. 
Gilbart,  James  William,  F.R.S.,  London 

and  Westminster  Bank,  Lothbury,Lon- 

don. 
Gladstone,    George,   F.C.&.,    Claphan 

Common,  London. 
Gladstone,  John  Hall,   Ph.D.,  F.R.S^ 

21  Tavistock  Square,  London. 
Goodman,  John,  M.D.,  The  Promenade, 

Southport. 


BOOKS  ARE  SUPPLIED  GRATIS. 


Goodsir,  John,  F.R.S.  L.  &  E.,  Professor 

of  Anatomy  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh. 
Gordon,  James,  46  Park  Street,  Bristol. 
Gordon,  Rev.  James  Crawford,  M.A.,  De- 

Iamont,  Downpatrick,  Downahire. 
Gotch,  Rev.  Frederick  William,  B.A.,  1 

Cave  Street,  Bristol. 
Gotch,  Thomas  Henry,  Kettering. 
Graham,  Thomas,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 

Master  of  the  Royal  Mint,  London. 
Grainger,  John,  Rose  Villa,  Belfast. 
Gratton,  Joseph,  94  Shoreditch,  London. 
Graves,  Rev.  Charles,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Mathematics    in   the    University   of 

Dublin,  M.R.I.A. ;  2  Trinity  College, 

Dublin. 
Graves,  Rev.  Riohard  Hastings,  D.D., 

Brigown  Glebe,  Michelstown,  Co.Cork. 
Gray,  John,  Greenock. 
Gray,  John  Edward,Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,Keep- 

er  of  the  Zoological  Collections  of  the 

British  Museum ;  British  Museum. 
Gray,William,  F.G.S.  (Local  Treasurer), 

Minster  Yard,  York. 
Grazebrook,  Henry,  jun.,  61   Canning 

Street,  Liverpool. 
Greenaway,    Edward,    40    Kensington 

Park  Gardens,  Notting  Hill,  London. 
Greswell,  Rev.  Richard,  B.D.,  F.R.S., 

Beaumont  Street,  Oxford. 
Griffin,  John  Joseph,  119  Bunhill  Row, 

London. 
Griffith,Richard,LL.D.,M.R.LA.,F.G.S., 

Fitzwilliam  Place,  Dublin. 
Griffiths,  S.  Y.,  Oxford. 
Guinness,  Rev.  William  Smyth,  M.A., 

Beaumont,  Drumcondra,  Co.  Dublin. 
Gutch,  John  James,  88  Micklegate,York. 

Hall,  T.  B.,  Coggeshall,  Essex. 

Hallam,  Henry,  M.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S., 
Trust.  Brit.  Mus.,  24  Wilton  Crescent, 
Knightsbridse,  London. 

Hamilton,  Mathie,M.D.,  Warwick  Street, 
Glasgow. 

Hamilton,  Sir  William  Rowan,  LL.D., 
Astronomer  Royal  of  Ireland,  and 
Andrews'  Professor  of  Astronomy  in 
the  University  of  Dublin,  M.R.I.A., 
F.R.A.S. ;  Observatory  near  Dublin. 

Hamilton,  William  John,  F.R.S.,  For. 
Sec.  G.S.,  23  Chesham  Place,  Bel- 
grave  Square,  London. 

Hamlin,  Captain  Thomas,  Greenock. 

Harcourt,  Rev.  William  V.  Vernon,  M.A*> 
F.R.S.,  Bolton  Percy,  Tadcaster. 

Hare,  Charles  John,  M.D.,  41  Brook 
Street,  Grosvenor  Square,  London. 

Harley; John,  Ross  Hall  near  Shrewsbury. 


Harris,  George  William,  17  Park  Street, 
Westminster. 

Harris,Henry,  HeatonHall  near  Bradford. 

Harrison,  William,  Galligreaves  House 
near  Blackburn. 

Harter,  William,  Hope  Hall,  Manchester. 

Hartley,  Jesse,  Trentham  Street,  Liver- 
pool. 

Harvey,  Joseph  Charles,  Youghal,  Co. 
Cork. 

Hatton,  James,  Richmond  House,  Higher 
Broughton,  Manchester. 

Haiiffhton,William,28CityQuay,Dublin. 

Hawkins,  Thomas,  F.G.S.,  Down  Court, 
Isle  of  Wight. 

Hawkshaw,  John,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  43 
Eaton  Place,  London. 

Hawthorn,Robert,C.E.,Newca8tle-upon- 
Tyne. 

Henry,  Alexander,  Portland  Street,  Man- 
chester. 

Henry,  William  Charles,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
Hatfield  near  Ledbury,  Herefordshire. 

Henslow,  Rev.  John  Stevens,  M.A., 
F.L.S.,  Professor  of  Botany  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  and  Examiner  in 
Botany  in  the  University  of  London ; 
Hitcham,  Bildeston,  Suffolk* 

Hepburn,  J.  Gotch,  Clapham  Common, 
Surrey. 

Herbert,  Thomas,  Nottingham. 

Hevwood,  Sir  Benjamin,  Bart.,  F.R.S., 
9  Hyde  Park  Gardens,  London ;  and 
Claremont,  Manchester. 

Hevwood,  James,  F.R.S.,  5  Eaton  Place, 
London. 

Heywood,  Robert,  Bolton. 

Higgin,  Edward,  Liverpool. 

Higson,  Peter,  Irwill  Terrace,  Lower 
Broughton,  Manchester. 

mil,Rev.Edward,M.A.,F.G.S.,Sheering 
Rectory,  Harlow. 

Hill,  Rowland,  F.R.A.S.,  General  Post 
Office,  London. 

Hindmarsh,  Frederick,  F.G.S.,  17  Buck- 
lersbury,  London. 

Hindmarsh,  Luke,  Alnwick. 

Hoare,  Rev.  George  Tooker,  Tandridge, 
Godstone. 

Hoblyn,  Thomas,  F.R.S.,  White  Barnes, 
Buntingford,  Herts. 

Hodgkin,  Thomas,  M.D.,  F.R.G.S.,  35 
Bedford  Square,  London. 

Hodgkinson,  Eaton,  F.R.S.,  M.R.I.A., 
Professor  of  the  Mechanical  Principles 
of  Engineering  in  University  College, 
London;  44DraytonGhrove,brompton, 
London. 

Hodgson,  Adam,  Everton,  Liverpool. 

Holden,  Moses,  13  Jordan  Street,Freston. 


6 


MEMBERS  TO  WHOM 


Holditch,  Rev.  Hamnet,  M.A.,  Caius 
Collie,  Cambridge. 

Holland,  P.  H.,  Poplar  Cottage,  12 
Brixton  Villas,  Brixton,  London. 

Hollingsworth,  John,  10  Burney  Street, 
Greenwich. 

Hone,  Nathaniel,  M.R.I.A.,  Doloughs 
Park,  Co.  Dublin. 

Hopkins,  William,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Horner,  Leonard,  F.R.S.,  V.P.G.8.,  17 
Queen's  Road  West,  Regent's  Park, 
London. 

Horsfield,  George,  Brampton  Grove, 
Smedley  Lane,  Cheetham,  Man- 
cheater. 

Houldsworth,  Henry,  Newton  Street, 
Manchester. 

Houldsworth,  John,  196  Athol  Place, 
Bath  Street,  Glasgow. 

Hoyle,  John,  Brown  Street,  Manchester. 

Hudson,  Henry,  M.D.,  M.R.I.A.,  28 
Stephen's  Green,  Dublin. 

Hull,  William  Darley,  F.G.S.,  49  Milner 
Square.  Islington,  London. 

Hulse,  Edward,  D.C.L.,  All-Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Hunter,  Thomas  C.  Greenock. 

Hutchison,  Graham,  16  Blythswood 
Square,  Glasgow. 

Hutton,  Robert,  M.R.I.A.,  F.G.S.,  Put* 
ney  Park,  Surrey. 

Hutton,  William,  North  Terrace,  West 
Hartlepool. 

Ibbetson,  Captain  Levett  Landen  Bos- 
cawen,  K.R.E.,  F.R.S.,  Clifton  House, 
Old  Brompton,  London. 

Inman,  Thomas,  M.D.,  Rodney  Street, 
Liverpool. 

Jackson,  James  Eyre,  Tullvdory,  Black- 
water  Town,  Co.  Armagh. 
Jacob,  John,  M.D.,  Maryborough. 
Jardine,  Sir  William,  Bart.,  F.R.S.E., 

Jardine  Hall,Applegarth,  by  Locker  by, 

Dumfriesshire. 
Jarratt,  Rev.  John,  M.A.,  North  Cave 

near  Brough,  Yorkshire. 
Jee,  Alfred  S.,  6  John  Street,  Adelphi, 

London. 
Jeflray,  John,  137  Sauchiehall  Street, 

Glasgow. 
Jenkyns,  Rev.  Henry,  D.D.,  Professor  of 

Divinity  and  Ecclesiastical  History  in 

the  University  of  Durham ;  Durham. 
Jenyns,  Rev.  Leonard,  M.A.,  F.L.S., 

Upper  Swainswick  near  Bath. 
Jerram,  Rev.  S.  John,  M.A.,  Witney, 

Oxfordshire. 


Jerrard,  George  Birch,  B.A.,  RrMtrinfr  m 
Mathematics  and  Natural  PROosophy 
in  the  University  of  Loudon;  Long 
8tratton,  Norfolk. 

Johnson,  Thomas. 

Johnstone,  James,  Alva  near  Alloa,  Stir- 
lingshire. 

Johnstone,  Sir  John  Vanden  Bempde, 
Bart:,  M.P.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  27  Gres- 
venor  Square,  London, 

Jones,  Christopher  Hird,  2  Castle  Street, 
Liverpool. 

Jones,  Major  Edward,  5  York  Place, 
Clifton,  Bristol. 

Jones,  Josiah,  2  Castle  Street,  Liverpool. 

Jones,  Robert,  2  Castle  Street,  IiverpooL 

Jones,  R.  L.,  Great  George  Square, 
Liverpool. 

Joule,  Benjamin,  jun.,  New  Bailey  Street, 
Salford,  Manchester, 

Joule,  James  Prescott,  F.R.S.,  Oakneld, 
Mo8s»side  near  Manchester. 

Joy,  Rev.  Charles  Ashfield,  Hopwms,  Tain- 
worth,  Staffordshire. 

Jubb,  Abraham,  Halifax. 

Kay,  John  Robinson,  Boas  Lane  House, 
Bury,  Lancashire. 

Kay,  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  Lincoln  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

Kelsall,  Henry,  Rochdale,  Lancashire. 

Ker,  Robert,  Auchinraith,  Glasgow. 

Kerr,  Archibald,  Glasgow. 

Knowles,  Edward  R.  J., 23 George  Street, 
Ryde,  Isle  of  Wight. 

Knowles,  William,  Newport,  Monmouth- 
shire. 

Knox,  G.  James,  2  Finchley  New  Road, 
St  John's  Wood,  London. 

Laming,  Richard,  Hazelgrave,  Hayward"s 
Heath,  Sussex. 

Langton,  William,  Manchester. 

Lansdowne,  Henry,  Marquis  of,  K.G., 
D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  Trust.  Brit.  Mus.,54 
Berkeley  Square,  London;  and  Bo- 
wood  Park,  Wiltshire. 

Larcom,ColonelThomasA.,  R.E.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.,  M.R.I.A.,  Chief  Secretary's 
Office,  Dublin  Castle,  Dublin. 

La  Touche,  David  Charles,  M.RJJL, 
Castle  Street,  Dublin. 

Laurie,  James,  Langholm  near  Carlisle. 

Leatham,  Charles  Albert,  Wakefield. 

Leatham,  Edward  Aldam,  Wakefield. 

Leather,  John  Towlerton,  Leventhorpe 
Hall  near  Leeds* 

Lee,  John,  LL.D.,  F.R.S.,  6  College, 
Doctors'  Commons,  London;  and 
Hartwell  House  near  Aylesbury. 


BOOK8  ABB  SUPPLIED  GRATIS. 


XjM,  John  Edward,  Caerleon,  Monmouth- 
■hire. 

JLieese,  Josephjun.,GlenfielcUAltriiichim. 

I^eeson,  Henry  B.,  M.A.,  M.D.,  F.R.S., 
The  Maples,  Bonchurch,  Iale  of  Wight 

X^cfroy,  Lt.-Colonel  John  Henry,  R.A., 
F.R.S.,  War  Office. 

l*gb*  George  Cornwall,  M.P.,  F.G.8., 
High  Legh,  Cheahire. 

lieinster,  Augustus  Frederick,  Duke  of, 
M.R.I.A.,  6  Carlton  Houae  Terrace, 
London. 

Ijemon,  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  F.R.8.,  46 
Charles  Street,  Berkeley  Sonare,  Lon- 
don; and  Carclew  near  Falmouth. 

Lemon,  James,  jun.,  Ardville,  Belfast. 

Ldndsay,  Charles,  10f  Addle  Hill,  Up- 
per Thames  Street,  London. 

Lindsay,  John  H.,317  Bath  St.,Glaagow. 

Iingard,  John  R.,  F.O.S.,  Stockport, 
Cheshire. 

Lister,  Joseph  Jackson,  F.R.S.,  Upton, 
Essex. 

Lloyd,  George,  M.D.,  F.G.S.^Stank  Hill 
near  Warwick. 

Lloyd,  Rev.  Humphrey,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
F.R.S.  L.  and  E.,  V.P.R.I.A.,  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

Lloyd,  John  Buck,  Liverpool. 

Lobley,  James  Logan,  87  Brunswick 
Road,  Liverpool. 

Locke,  John,  Rathmines,  Dublin. 

Looker,  Rev.  Francis,  Swainswick  near 
Bath. 

Loftus,  William  Kennett,  F.G.S. 

Logan,  Rev.  Thomas,  M.A.,  Rutherglen, 
Glasgow. 

Logan,  Sir  William  Edmond,  F.R.S., 
F.G.S.,  Director  of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  Canada;  Montreal. 

Londesborough,  Albert  Denison,  Lord, 
K.C.H.,  F.R.S.,  8  Carlton  House  Ter- 
race, London;  and  Grimitone  Park, 
Tadcaster,  Yorkshire. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John  William,  Bart.,  M.  A., 
F.R.S.,Mansion  House  Street,London; 
and  High  Elms,  Farnborough. 

Lubbock,  John,  1 1  Mansion  House  Street, 
City,  London ;  and  High  Elms,  Farn- 
borough. 

Luckcock,  Howard,  Oak  Hill,Edgbaston, 
Birmingham. 

Lundie,  Cornelius,  Tumnahulla,  Head- 
ford,  Ireland. 

LyeU,  Sir  Charles,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  11  Harley  Street, 
Cavendish  Square,  London. 

Macadam,  Stevenson,  Ph.D.,  Surgeons9 
Hall,  Edinburgh. 


MeAll,  Rev.  Edward,  Rector  of  Brigh- 
stone,  Newport,  Isle  of  Wight. 

MeAndrew,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  Isleworth 
House,  Isleworth,  Middlesex. 

MacBrayne,Robtrt£  WoodndeCrescent. 
Glasgow. 

MHsonnel,  James,  Manchester. 

Mackenzie,  James,  Glentore. 

Macrory,  Adam  John,  Duncairn,  Bel- 
fast. 

Macrory,  Edmund,  7  Fig  Tree  Court, 
Temple,  London. 

MKsulloch,  George,  M.D.,  Cincinnati, 
United  States. 

MacDonnell,Rev.Riehard,D.D.,Provost 
of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  M.R.IJL ; 
Dublin. 

MeEwan,  John,  Glasgow. 

Macfie,  R.  A.,  72  Upper  Parliament 
Street,  Liverpool. 

M'Gee,  William,  M.D.,  10  Donegall 
8auare  East,  Belfast. 

Mactver,  Charles,  Abercromby  Square, 
Liverpool. 

Mackinlay,  David,  Pollockshields,  Glas- 
gow. 

Malcolm,  Frederick,  4  Sion  College,Lon- 
don  Wall,  London. 

Mallet,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  M.R.I.A.,  Del- 
ville  near  Dublin. 

Manchester  James  Prince  Lee,  D.D., 
Lord  Bishop  of,  F.R.S.,  Palace,  Man- 
chester. 

Marshall,  James  Garth,  MA.,  F.G.8., 
Headingley  near  Leeds. 

Martin,  Francis  P.  Brouncker,  14  firuton 
Street,  Berkeley  Square,  London. 

Martindale,  Nicholas,  Peter  Lane,  Ha- 
nover Street,  Liverpool. 

Martineau,  Rev.  James,  Liverpool. 

Mason,  Thomas,  York. 

Mather,Daniel,58  Mount  Pleasant,Liver- 
pool. 

Mather,  John,  58  Mount  Pleasant,  Liver- 
pool. 

Maxwell,  James  C,  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy,  Marisohal  College,  Aber- 
deen. 

Maxwell,  Sir  John,  Bart.,  F.R.S.,  Pollok 
House,  Renfrewshire. 

Maxwell,  Robert  Percival,  Finebrogue, 
Downpatrick,  Ireland. 

Mayne,Rev.Charles,  M.R.I.A.,  22  Upper 

Merrion  Street,  Dublin. 
Meadows,  James,  York  Place,  Rusholme 

near  Manchester. 
Meynell,  Thomas,  F.L.S.,  Aiskew  House, 

Bedale,  Yorkshire. 
Michell,  Rev.  Richard,  B.D.,  Praslector 
of  Logic,  Lincoln  College,  Oxford. 


8 


MEMBERS  TO  WHOM 


Miller,  Patrick,  M.D.,  Exeter. 

Miller,  William  Allen,  M.D.,  V.P.R.S., 
Professor  of  Chemistry  in  King's  Col- 
lege, London. 

Mills,  John  Robert,  Bootham,  York. 

Milne,  David,  M.A.,F.R.S.E.,Edinburgh. 

Milner,  William  Ralph,  Wakefield, 
Yorkshire. 

Milner,  William,  Liverpool* 

Moffat,  John,  C.E.,  Ardrossan. 

Moore,  John  Carrick,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
F.G.S.,4  Hyde  Park  Gate,  Kensington 
Gore,  London ;  and  Corswall,  Wigton- 
shire. 

Moore,  John  Schank,  Professor  of  the 
Law  of  Scotland  in  the  University  of 
Edinburgh,  F.R.S.E.,  19  Great  King 
Street,  Edinburgh. 

Morris,.  Rev.  Francis  Orpen,  B.A.,  Naf- 
ferton  Vicarage  near  Driffield,  York- 
shire. 

Morton,  Francis,  James  Street,  Liverpool . 

Moss,  W.  H.,  Kingston  Terrace,  Hull. 

Murchison,SirRoderickImpey,G.C.St.S., 
M.A.,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,V.P.G.S.,  Di- 
rector-General of  the  Geological  Sur- 
vey of  the  United  Kingdom ;  16  Bel- 
grave  Square,  London. 

Murray,  John,  C.E.,  11  Great  Queen 
Street,  Westminster,  London. 

Muspratt,  James  Sheridan,  Ph.D.,  Col- 
lege of  Chemistry,  Liverpool. 

Napier,  Captain  Johnstone  (74th  Regi- 
ment), The  Villa,  Poughill,  Bude, 
Cornwall. 

Nasmyth,  James,  F.R.A.S.,  Patricroft 
near  Manchester. 

Newall,  Robert  Stirling,Gateshead-upon- 
Tyne. 

Newlands,  James,  2  Clare  Terrace,  Liver- 
pool. 

Newman,  Francis  William,  Professor  of 
Latin  in  University  College,  London ; 
7  Park  Village  East,  Regent's  Park, 
London. 

Newman,  William,  Darley  Hall  near 
Barnsley,  Yorkshire. 

Nicholls,  John  Ashton,  F.R.A.S.,  Ard- 
wick  Place,  Manchester. 

Nicholson,  Cornelius,  F.G.S.,  The  Hill, 
Horasey  near  London. 

Nicholson,  John  A.,  M.D.,  M.RI.A., 
Balrath,  Kells,  Co.  Meath. 

O'Reardon,  John,  M.D.,  35  York  Street, 

Dublin. 
Orpen,  Charles  Edward  H.,  M.D.,  Cape 

of  Good  Hope. 
Osier,  A.  Follett,  F.R.S.,  Birmingham. 


Oxford,  Samuel  Wilberfaree,  D.D^Lori 
Bishop  of,  F.R.S.,  61  Eaton  Ptaer, 

London. 

Palmer,  William,  Headington  Hill  near 
Oxford. 

Parker,  Charles  Stewart,  LiverpooL 

Pasley,  Major-General  Sir  Charles  Wfl- 
liam,Royal  Engineers,  K.C.B.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.,  12  Norfolk  Crescent,  Hyde 
Park,  London. 

Patterson,Robert,M.RJ  A.,(Local  Trea- 
surer), College  Square  North,  Belfits*. 

Pattinson,HughLee,P.R.S.,Scots  House, 
Gateshead-upon-Tyne. 

Pearsall,  Thomas  John,  F.C.S.,  little- 
down,  Mendip  Hills  near  WcBs, 
Somerset. 

Peckover,Alexander,F.R.G.S.,Wisbcach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover,  Algernon,  F.L.S.,  Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Peckover,  Daniel,  Woodhall  near  Brad- 
ford, Yorkshire. 

Peckover,  William,  F.S.A.,  Wisbeach, 
Cambridgeshire. 

Pedler,  Lieut-Colonel  Philip  Warren, 
Mutley  House  near  Plymouth. 

Peel,  George,  Soho  Iron  Works,  Ancoats, 
Manchester. 

Perigal,  Frederick,  28  Hereford  Square, 
Brompton,  London. 

Peters,  Edward,  Temple  Row,  Birming- 
ham. 

Petit,  Rev.  John  Louis,  9  New  Square, 
Lincoln's  Inn,  London. 

Philips,  Edward,  35  Church  Street,  Man- 
chester. 

Philips,  Herbert,  35  Church  Street,  Man- 
chester. 

Philips, Mark, ThePark  near  Manchester. 

Phillips,  John,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S, 
Reader  in  Geology  in  the  University 
of  Oxford,  {Assistant  General  Se- 
cretary) ;  Magdalen  Bridge,  Oxford. 

Phillipps,Sir  Thomas,  Bart.,M  .A.,F  .R.S., 
Middle  Hill  near  Broadway,  Worces- 
tershire. 

Philpott,  Rev.  Henry,  D.D.,  Master  of 
St.  Catharine's  Hall,  Cambridge. 

Pike,  Ebenezer,  Besborough,  Cork. 

Pitt,  George,  11  Pembridge  Villas,  Bays- 
water,  Condon. 

Pollexfen,  Rev.  John  Hutton,  MA.,  Rec- 
tor of  St.  Runwald's,  Colchester. 

Pontey,  Alexander,  Plymouth. 

Poppelwell,  Matthew,  Rooella  Place, 
Tynemouth. 

Porter,  Henry  John,  Tandragee  Castle, 
Co.  Armagh. 


BOOKS  ARE  SUPPLIED  GRATIS. 


9 


Portlock,  Lieui-Colonel  Joseph  Ellison, 
Royal  Engineers,  F.R.S.,  Archcliff 
Fort,  DoTer. 

Powell,  Rev.  Baden,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Savi- 
lian  Professor  of  Geometry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford ;  6  Stanhope  Street, 
Hyde  Park  Gardens,  London;  and 
Oxford. 

Poynter,  John  E.,  Clyde  Neuck,  Udding- 
ston. 

Pratt,  Samuel  Peace,  F.R.S.,  F.G.S.,  27 
Coleman  Street,  London. 

Preston,  R.  Berthon,  10  Abererombie 
Square,  Liverpool. 

Prestwich,  Joseph,  F.R.S.,  Treas.G.S., 
2  Suffolk  Lane,  City,  London. 

Pretious,  Thomas,  Royal  Dockyard,  Pem- 
broke. 

Price,  Rev.  Bartholomew,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S.,SedleianProfessorof  Natural 
Philosophy  in  the  University  of  Oxford; 
Pembroke  College,  Oxford. 

Pritchard,  Andrew,  162  Fleet  Street, 
London. 

Prower,  Rev.  J.  M.,  M.A.,  Swindon, 
Wiltshire. 

Pumphrey,  Charles,  Rock  Mill,  Stroud, 
Gloucestershire. 

Radford,  William,  M.D.,  Sidmount, 
Sidmouth. 

Ramsay,  Sir  James,  Bart.,  F.G.S.,  Bamff 
House,  Perthshire. 

Ramsay /William,  M.A.,  F.S.S.,  Professor 
of  Humanity  in  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, (Local  Treasurer) ;  The  College, 
Glasgow. 

Ranee,  Henry,  Cambridge. 

Ransome,  Robert,  Iron  Foundry, Ipswich. 

Rawlins,  John,  Birmingham. 

Rawlinson,  Colonel  Sir  H.  C,  K.C.B., 
F.R.S.,  21  Langham  Place,  London. 

Raw8on,  Thomas  William,  Saville  Lodge, 
Halifax. 

Read,  William  Henry  Rudston,  M.A., 
F.L.S.,  Hayton  near  Pocklington, 
Yorkshire. 

Beade,  Rev.  Joseph  Bancroft,  M.A., 
F.R.S.,  Stone  Vicarage,  Aylesbury. 

Redfern,  Peter,  M.D.,  Lecturer  in  Ana- 
tomy and  Physiology  in  the  University 
of  Aberbeen;  2  Crown  Place  East, 
Aberdeen. 

Richardson,  Sir  John,  M.D.,C.B.,F.R.S., 
Lancrigg,  Grasmere,  Westmoreland. 

Riddell,  Lieut.-Colonel  Charles  J.  B., 
R.A.,  F.R.S.,  1  Clarence  Place,  The 
Common,  Woolwich. 

Roberts,  Richard,  Globe  Works,  Man- 
.  cheater. 


Robinson,  John,  Shamrock  Lodge,  Ath- 
lone,  Ireland. 

Robson,  Rev.  John,  D.D.,  Glasgow. 

Roget,  Peter  Mark,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  18 
Upper  Bedford  Place,  Russell  Square, 
London. 

Ross,  Rear-Admiral  Sir  James  Clark, 
R.N.,  D.C.L.,  V.P.R.S.,  Aston  House, 
Aston  Abbots,  Aylesbury. 

Rowland,  John,30  Terminus  Road,Brigh- 
ton. 

Rowney,  Thomas  H.,  M.D.,  College  La- 
boratory, Glasgow. 

Rowntree,  Joseph,  Pavement,  York. 

Rowntree,  Joseph,  Newtown,  Leeds. 

Rovle,  John  Forbes,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
lessor  of  Materia  Medica  and  Thera- 
peutics in  King's  College,  London; 
Heathfield  Lodge,  Acton,  Middlesex. 

Rushout,  Capt.  the  Hon.  George,  M.P., 
F.G.S.,  10  Bolton  Street,  Piccadilly, 
London. 

Russell,  William  J.,  Ph.D.,  Derwent 
Lodge,  Chad  Road,  Edgbaston,  Bir- 
mingham. 

Ryland,  Arthur,  Birmingham. 

Sabine,  Major-General  Edward,  R.A., 
D.C.L.,  Treas.  andV.P.R.S.,  (General 
Secretary),  13  Ashley  Place,  West- 
minster. 

Salt,  C.  F.,  88  Canning  Street,  Liver- 
pool. 

Salter,  Thomas  Bell,  M.D.,  F.L.S.,  Ryde, 
Isle  of  Wight. 

Sanders,  William,  F.G.S.,  (Local  Trea- 
surer), Park  Villa,  West  Park,  Bris- 
tol. 

Satterthwaite,  Michael,  M.D.,  Lindow 
Grove,  Alderley  near  Wilmslow,  Che- 
shire. 

Schemman,  J.  C,  Hamburgh ;  at  L. 
Thornton's,  Esq.,  the  Elms,  Highgate, 
Birmingham. 

Schofield,  Robert,  1  Gresham  Street,  City, 
London. 

Scholes,  T.  Seddon,  16  Dale  Street,  Lea- 
mington. 

Scholey,  William  Stephenson,M.A.,Clap- 
ham,  London. 

Scholfield,  Edward,  M.D.,  Doncaster. 

Sedgwick,  Rev.  Adam,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 
Woodwardian  Professor  of  Geology  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge,  and 
Canon  of  Norwich ;  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge. 

Shaen,  William,  8  Bedford  Row,  London. 

Sharp,  William,  F.R.S.,  Rugby. 

Shaw,  Charles  Wright,  Russell  Street, 
Liverpool. 


10 


MEMBERS  TO  WHOM 


Sherrard,  David  Hairy,  88  Upper  Dorset 

Street,  Dublin. 
Shortrede,    Captain  Robert,  F.R.A.8., 

H.E.I.C.'s  Service,  Aden. 
Sillar,  Zechariah,  M.D.,  Bainford  near 

Iiyerpool. 
Simpson,  Her.  Samuel,  Douglas,  Isle  of 

Simpson,  Thomas,  M.D.,  Minster  Yard, 

York. 
Sirr,  Rev.  Joseph  D'Arcy,D.D.,M.R.I.A., 

Castle  Hill,  Winchester. 
Slater,  William,  Princess  Street,  Man- 
chester. 
Sleeman,  Philip,  Windsor  Terrace,  Ply- 
mouth. 
Smith,  Rev.  Geo.  Sidney,  D.D.,M.R.LA., 
Professor  of  Biblical  Greek  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin ;  Aughalurcher,  Five- 
mile-Town,  Co.  Tyrone. 
Smith,  James,  Berkeley  House,  Seaforth 

near  Liverpool. 
Smith,  John,  Welton  Garth  near  Hull. 
Smith,  Rev.  Joseph  Denham,  Kingstown 

near  Dublin. 
Smith,  Rev.  Philip,  B.A.,  Head  Master  of 
Mill  HOI  School,  Hendon,  Middlesex. 
Smith,  Robert  Mackay,  Bellevue  Cre- 
scent, Edinburgh. 
Smyth,  C.  Piazsi,  Astronomer  Royal  of 
Scotland,  Professor  of  Practical  Astro- 
nomy in  the  University  of  Edinburgh ; 
1  Hill  Side,  Edinburgh. 
Solly,  Edward,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Che- 
mistry to  the  Horticultural  Society  of 
London ;    Holme  Court,  Isleworth  ; 
and  Parkston  near  Poole. 
Solly,  Samuel  Reynolds,  M.A.,  F.R.S., 

Surge  Hill,  King's  Langley,  Herts. 
Sopwith,  Thomas,  F.R.S.,  Allenheads, 

Haydon  Bridge,  Northumberland. 
Spence,  Joseph,  Pavement,  York. 
Spiers,  Richard  James,  14  St.  Giles's 

Street,  Oxford. 
Spottiswoode,  William,   M.A.,   F.R.S., 
12  James  Street,  Buckingham  Gate, 
London. 
Sprague,  Thomas  Bond,  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Cambridge. 
Squire,  Lovell,  Falmouth. 
Stainton,JamesJoseph,F.L.S.,LewishamJ 

Kent. 
Stanger,  Joshua,  Keswick,  Cumberland. 
Stanley,  Lord,  M.P.,  St.  James's  Square, 

London. 
Stewart,     Henry    Hutchinson,     M.D., 

M.R.I.A.,  71  Ecdes  Street,  Dublin. 
Stokes,  George  Gabriel,  M.A.,  D.C.L., 
Sec.R.S.,  Cucasian  Professor  of  Ma- 
thematics in  the  University  of  Cam- 


bridge;   Pembroke    College, 

bridge. 
Strickland,  Arthur,    Bridlington  Qnay, 

Yorkshire. 
Strickland,  Charles,  Loughglyn,  BaDagb- 

adereen,  Ireland. 
Sykes,  Colonel  William  Henry,  M.P, 

F.R.S.,  Chairman  of  the  East  India 

Company;   47  Albion  Street,  Hyde 

Park,  London. 
Symonds,  Frederick,  F.R.C.S.,  Oxford. 
Symons,  William,  Dunster,  Somerset. 

Tayler,  Rev.  John  James,  BJL,  Principal 
and  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History 
in  Manchester  New  College,  London; 
22  Woburn  Square,  Txmdon. 

Taylor,  James,  Culverlands  near  Read- 
ing. 

Taylor,  John,  F.R.S.,  {General  7Wo- 
wrer),  6  Queen  Street  Place,  Upper 
Thames  Street;  and  Chester  Terrace, 
Regent's  Park,  London. 

Taylor,  John,  jun.,  F.G.S.,  6  Queen 
Street  Place,  Upper  Thames  Street, 
London. 

Taylor,  Richard,  F.G.S.,  6  Queen  Street 
Place,  Upper  Thames  Street,  Lon- 
don. 

Taylor,  Richard,  F.L.S.,  Red  Lion  Court, 
Fleet  Street,  London. 

Tennant,  James,  F.G.S.,  Professor  of 
Mineralogy  and  Geology  in  King's 
College,  London;  149  Strand,  Lon- 
don. 

Thodey,  Winwood,  4  Poultry,  London. 

Thomson,  Corden,  M.D.,  Sheffield. 

Thomson,  Jamea,M.A.,C.E.,  16  Donegal! 
Place,  Belfast. 

Thomson,  James  Gibson,  Edinburgh. 

Thomson,  William,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Pro- 
fessor of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow ;  The  College, 
Glasgow. 

Thornton,  Samuel,  The  Elms,  Highgate, 
Birmingham. 

Thorp,  The  Venerable  Thomas,  DD„ 
Archdeacon  of  Bristol;  Kemertonnesr 
Tewkesbury. 

Tidswell,  Benjamin  K.,  Brown  Street, 
Manchester. 

Tindal,  Captain,  R.N.,  Branch  Bank  of 
England,  Birniingham. 

Tinned  John  A.,  FJLG.S.,  Briarly  Aig- 
burth,  Liverpool. 

Townsend,  Richard  E.,  Springfield,  Nor- 
wood. 

Trevelyan,  Arthur,  Wallington,  Northum- 
berland. 

Tuckett,  Francis  Fox,  Frenchay,  Bristol 


BOOKS  ARE  SUPPLIED  GRATIS. 


11 


Tulloch,  Junes,  F.R.S.,  16  Montagu 
Place,  Russell  Square,  London. 

Turnbull,  Rev.  Thomas  Smith,  M.A., 
F.R.S.,  Blofield,  Norfolk. 

Tweedy,  Win.  Mansell,  Truro,  Cornwall. 

Vallack,  Rev.  Benj.  W.  S.,  St.  Budeaux 

near  Plymouth. 
Vance,  Rev.  Robert,  16  Montpelier  Hill, 

Dublin. 
Vernon,  John,  Havman's  Green,  West 

Derby,  Liverpool. 
Vivian,  fl.  Hussey,  Swansea. 

Waldegrave,  The  Hon.  Granville,  26  Port- 
land Place,  London. 

Walker,  John,  Weaste  House,  Pendleton, 
Manchester. 

Walker,  Joseph  N.,  F.L.S.,  Caldeston 
near  Liverpool. 

Walker,Rev.Robt.,M.A.,  F.R.S.,  Reader 
in  Experimental  Philosophy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford;  Wadham  College, 
Oxford;  and Culham  Vicarage,  Abing- 
don. 

Walker,  Thomas,  10  York  Street,  Man- 
chester. 

Warburton,  Henry,  M.A.,  F.R.S.,  45 
Cadogan  Place,  Sloane  Street,  London. 

Ward,  William  Sykes,  F.C.S.,  Leathley 
Lodge,  Leeds. 

Waterbouse,  John,F.R.S.,  Halifax,  York- 
shire. 

Watson,  Henry  Hough,  Bolton-le~ 
Moon. 

Way,  J.  Thomas,  Professor  of  Chemistry, 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
Hanover  Square,  London. 

Webb,  Rev.  Thomas  William,  M.A., 
Cloisters,  Gloucester. 

Western,  T.  B.,  Felix  Hall,  Kelvedon, 
Essex. 

Westhead,  Joshua  Proctor,  York  House, 
Manchester. 

Whewell,  Rev.  William,  D.D.,  F.R.S., 
Master  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge ; 
Lodge,  Cambridge. 

Whitehouse,  Wildman,  16  Hyde  Vale, 
Blackheath. 

Whiteside,  James,  M.A.,  Q.C.,  M.P.,  2 
Mountjoy  Square,  Dublin. 

Whittey,  John  Irwine,  LL.D.,  Civil  and 
Mining  Engineer,  15  Henrietta  Street, 
Dublin. 

Whitworth,  Joseph,  Manchester. 

Wickenden,  Joseph,  F.G.S.,  Birming- 
ham. 

Willert,  Paul  Ferdinand,  Manchester. 


Williams,  Caleb,  Micklejate,  York. 

Williams,  Rev.  D.,  D.C.L.,  Warden  of 
New  College,  Oxford. 

Williams,  William,  6  Rood  Lane,  Fen- 
church  Street,  London. 

Williamson,  Alex.  W„  Ph.D.,  F.R.S., 
Professor  of  Practical  Chemistry  in 
University  College,  London;  ^Pro- 
vost Road,  Haverstock  Hill,  London. 

Williamson,  Rev.  William,  B.D.,  Datch- 
worth  Rectory  near  Stevenage. 

Wills,  William,  F.G.S.,  Edgbaston  near 
Birmingham. 

Wilson,  Alexander,  F.R.S.,  34  Bryan- 
stone  Square,  London. 

Wilson,  Capt.  F.,  Dallam  Tower,  Miln- 
thorpe,  Westmoreland. 

Wilson,  John,  Bootham,  York. 

Wilson,  John,  jun.,  West  Hurlet  near 
Glasgow. 

Wilson,  Sumner,  Southampton. 

Wilson,  Thomas,  Crimbles  House,  Leeds. 

Wilson, William  Parkinson,  M.A.,  Profes- 
sor of  Pure  and  Applied  Mathematics 
in  the  University  of  Melbourne. 

Winsor,  F.  A.,  57  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields, 
London. 

Wollaston,  Thomas  Vernon,  M.A.,  F.L.S., 
10  Hereford  Street,  Park  Lane,  Lon- 
don. 

Wood,  Rt.  Hon.  Sir  Charles,  Bart.,  M.P., 
Admiralty,  and  Hickleston  Hall,  Don- 
caster. 

Wood,  Rev.  H.  H.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  Queen's 
College,  Oxford. 

Wood,  John,  St.  Saviourgate,  York. 

Wood,  Rev.  William  Spicer,  M.A.,  Oak- 
ham, Rutlandshire. 

Woodd,  Charles  H.  L.,  F.G.S.,  HiUfield, 
Hamp8tead,  London. 

Woodhead,  G.,  Mottram  near  Manchester. 

Worcester,  Henry  Pepys,  D.D.,  Lord  Bi- 
shop of,  24  Grosvenor  Place,  London. 

Wormald,  Richard,  1 2  Little  TowerStreet, 
London. 

Worthington,  Robert,  Cheetbam  Hill  near 
Manchester. 

Worthington,  Rev.  Alfred  William,  B  A., 
Bridgwater. 

Wright,  Robert  Francis,  Hinton  Blewett, 
Somersetshire. 

Yarborough,    George    Cooke,    Camp's 

Mount,  Doncaster. 
Yorke,  Colonel  Philip,  F.R.S.,  89  Eaton 

Place,  Belgrave  Square,  London. 
Younge,  Robert,  M.D.,  Greystones  near 

Sheffield. 

ANNUAL 


12 


ANNUAL  SUBSCRIBERS. 


AMMUAIi   SUMO! 


Abercrombie,  John,  M.D.,  13  Suffolk 
Square,  Cheltenham. 

Addams,  Robert,  Welbeck  Street,  London. 

Alison,  William  P.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.Ed., 
Emeritus  Professor  of  the  Practice  of 
Medicine  in  the  University  of  Edin- 
burgh ;  44  Heriot  Row,  Edinburgh. 

Allman,  George  James,  M.D.,  F.K.S., 
M.R.I.A.,  Professor  of  Natural  History 
in  the  University  of  Edinburgh;  3 
Hope  Park,  Edinburgh. 

Argyll,  George  Douglas,  Duke  of,  F.R.S., 
Campden  Hill,  Kensington,  London, 
and  Inverary  Castle,  Inverary,  Scot- 
land. 

Armstrong,  William  George,  F.R.S.,  Els- 
wick  Engine  Works,  Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 

Armstrong,  William  Jones,  M.A.,  Mount 
Irwin,  Tynan,  Co.  Armagh*. 

Bailey,  William,  Horseley  Fields  Chemi- 
cal Works,  Wolverhampton. 

Baines,  Samuel,  Brighouse  nearHudders- 
field. 

Banks,  Richard  William,  Kington,  Here- 
fordshire. 

Barrington,  Edward,  Fassaroe,  Bray,  Ire- 
land. 

Barrington,  Richard,  Trafalgar  Terrace, 
Kingstown,  Dublin. 

Becker,  Ernest,  Buckingham  Palace, 
London. 

Beke,  Charles  T.,  Ph.D.,  F.S.A.,  Mauri- 
tius. 

Bell,  Captain  Henry,  Chalfont  Lodge, 
Cheltenham. 

Benson,  Starling,  F.G.S.,  Gloucester 
Place,  Swansea. 

Billings,  Robert  William,  3  St.  Mary's 
Road,  Canonbury,  London. 

Blythe,  William,  Church,  Accrington, 
Lancashire. 

Bolton,  Thomas,  Hyde  Iron  Works  near 
Stourbridge. 

Boult,  Joseph,  24  North  John  Street, 
Liverpool. 

Brazier,  James  S.,  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen. 

Brewin,  Robert,  Birstall  Hall,  Leicester. 

Brewster,  Sir  David*  K.H.,  D.C.L., 
F.R.S.,  V.P.R.S.  Ed.,  Principal  of  the 
United  College  of  St.  Salvator  and  St. 
Leonard,  St.  Andrew's. 

Bright,  Charles  T.,  The  Cedars,  Harrow 
Weald. 


Bright,  Edward  B., 2 Exchange  Buildings, 
Liverpool;  and  The  Yale,  Ltseard, 
Cheshire. 

Brodie,  B.  C,  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Che- 
mistry in  the  University  of  Oxford; 
Oxford. 

Brooke,  Edward,  Marsden  House,  Stock- 
port, Cheshire. 

Brooke,  Peter  William,  Marsden  House, 
Stockport,  Cheshire. 

Brown,  John,  3  Newcastle  Place,  Clerk- 
enwell,  London. 

Brownlee,  James,  173  St.  George's  Road, 
Glasgow. 

Calvert,  Professor  F.  Crace,  F.C.S.,  Royal 
Institution,  Manchester. 

Carr,  John,  Queen's  Circus,  Chelten- 
ham. 

Carter,  Richard,  C.E.,  Long  Carr,  Barns- 
ley,  Yorkshire. 

Cator,  John  B.,  Commander  R.N.,  1 
Adelaide  Street,  Hull. 

Cheshire,  Edward,  Conservative  Cmb, 
London. 

Clapham,  Robert  Calvert,  Ardeer  Chemi- 
cal Works,  Stevenston,  Ayrshire. 

Claudet,  A.,  F.R.S.,  107  Regent  Street, 
London. 

Close,  Very  Rev.  Francis,  M.A.,  Dean  of 
Carlisle ;  Deanery,  Carlisle. 

Cooke,  Rev.  William,  MA.,  Gaxeley  Vi- 
carage near  Newmarket. 

Cooper,  Sir  Henry,  M.D.,  Hull. 

Copeland,  George  F.,  5  Bays  Hill  Villas, 
Cheltenham. 

Corbett,  Joseph  Henry,  M.D.,  Professor 
of  Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  Queen's 
College,  Cork. 

CotterilT,  Rev.  Henry,  Brighton  College, 
Brighton. 

Cram,  Walter,  F.R.S.,  Thornliebank  near 
Glasgow. 

Cull,  Richard,  Hon.  Sec.  Ethnological 
Society;  13  Tavistock  Street,  Bedford 
Square,  London. 

Cunningham,  William  A.,  Bank,  94  Mot- 
ley Street,  Manchester. 

Daglish,  Robert,  Sen.,  M.  &  C.E.,  Orrell 

Cottage  near  Wigan. 
Dale,  John  A.,MJL,  11  Holywell  Street, 

Oxford. 
Dashwood,  Charles,  Thomage,  Norfolk. 
Da  Silva,  Johnson,  Percy  Cross  House, 

Fulham  near  London. 


ANNUAL  SUBSCRIBERS. 


13 


X>e«ne,  Henry,  Clapham,  London. 
IVElwart,  Mons.,  LL.D.,  31  North  Place, 

Cheltenham. 
I>ennis,  J.  C.,  F.R.A.8.,  122  Biahopsgate 

Street,  London. 
XHcker,  J.  R.,  29  Exchange  Alley  North, 

Liverpool. 
XMckson,  Peter,  28  Upper  Brook  Street, 

London. 
Domvile,  William  C.,  Thorn  Hill,  Bray, 

Dublin. 
Xtove,  Hector,  71  Hope  Street,  Glasgow. 

Blliot,  Robert,  Wolflee,  Hawick. 
Evans,  Griffith  F.  D.,  M.D.,  St.  Mary's, 

Bedford. 
.  Everest,Colonel  George,  Bengal  Artillery, 

F.R.S.,  10  Weatbourne  Street,  Hyde 

Park,  London. 

Farr,  William,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  General 
Regiatry  Office,  Somerset  House ;  and 
1  Melina  Place,  St.  John's  Wood, 
London. 

Ferguson,  James,  Gas  Coal  Works,  Les- 
mahagow,  Glasgow. 

Fielding,  James,  Sowerby  Bridge  near 
Halifax. 

Forbes,  Colonel  Jonathan,  12  Lansdown 
Terrace,  Cheltenham. 

Fowler,  Rev.  Hugh,  M.A.,  College  Gar- 
dens, Gloucester. 

Fowler,  Richard,  M.D.,F.R.S.,  Salisbury. 

Fraser,  James  P.,  58  Buccleuch  Street, 
Glasgow. 

Frazer,Daniel,9  Mansfield  Place,Glasgow. 

Gardner,  James  Agg,  (Local  Treasurer), 
Hadley  House,  Cheltenham. 

Gassiot,  John  P.,  F.R.S.,  Clapham  Com- 
mon, London. 

Gerard,  Henry,  52  Upper  Canning  Street, 
Liverpool. 

Gibson,  Thomas  F.,  124  Westbourne 
Terrace,  Hyde  Park,  London. 

Grant,  Robert,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.,  Royal 
Astronomical  Society,  Somerset  House, 
Strand,  London. 

Greenhalgh,  Thomas,  Bolton-le-Moors. 

Greenwood,  William,  Stones,  Todmorden, 
Lancashire. 

Greg,  Robert  Philips,  F.G.S.,  Norcliffe 
mil  near  Manchester. 

Guise,  W.  V.,  Elmore  Court,  Gloucester. 

Hall,  Hugh  F.,  40  Everton   Terrace, 

Liverpool. 
Hancock,  John,  Lurgan,  Co.  Armagh. 
Hancock,  W.  Neilson,  LL.D.,  74  Lower 

Gardiner  Street,  Dublin. 


Harcourt,  Rev.  L.  Vernon,  West  Dean 
House,  Chichester. 

Harkness,  Robert,  F.R.S.,F.G.S.,  Profes- 
sor of  Geology  in  Qneen*sCoDege,Cork. 

Harrison,  Lawrence  J.,  11  Lansdown 
Terrace,  Cheltenham. 

Hartland,  Frederick  D.,  F.S.A.,  Ciren- 
cester. 

Hartnup,  John,  F.R.A.S.,  Observatory, 
Liverpool. 

Haville,  Henry,  Montpellier  Spa  Build- 
ings, Cheltenham. 

Hawkes,  William,  Eagle  Foundry,  Bir- 
mingham. 

Hayward,  J.  Curtis,  Quedgeley  near 
Gloucester. 

Hector,  James,  M.D.,  57  Inverleith  Row, 
Edinburgh. 

Hennessy,  Henry,  M.R.I.A.,  Professor 
of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Catholic 
University  of  Ireland,  Dublin. 

Hepburn,  Robert,  8  Davis  Street, 
Berkeley  Square,  London. 

Hepworth,  Rev.  Robert,  2  St.  James's 
Square,  Cheltenham. 

Hervey,  The  Rev.  Lord  Arthur,  Ickworth, 
Suffolk. 

Higgins,  Rev.  Henry  H.,  M. A.,  Rainhill, 
Liverpool. 

Hill,  Laurence,  Port  Glasgow. 

Hill,  William,  F.R.A.S.,  Worcester. 

Hincks,  Rev.  Edward,  D.D.,  Killyleagh, 
Ireland. 

Hitch,  Samuel,  M.D.,  Sandywell  Park, 
Gloucestershire. 

Holland,  Edward,  M.P.,  Dumbleton, 
Evesham. 

Hooton,  Jonathan,  80  Great  Ducie  Street, 
Manchester. 

Horslev,  John  H.,  399  High  Street, 
Cheltenham. 

Hudson,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  Clapham  Com- 
mon, London. 

Humphris,  Daniel  James,  1  Keynsham 
Parade,  Cheltenham. 

Humphreys,  E.  R.,  LL.D.,  Grammar 
School,  Cheltenham. 

Hunt,  Robert,  F.R.S.,  Keeper  of  Mining 
Records,  Museum  of  Practical  Geology, 
Jermyn  Street,  London. 

Huntington,  Frederick,  F.R.C.S.  Engl., 
19  George  Street,  Hull. 

Inverarity,  Jonathan  Duncan,  Bombay. 

Jacobs,  Bethel],  Hull. 

Jefferv,  Henry,  M.A.,  High  Street,  Chel- 
tenham. 

Johnston,  A.  Keith,  4  St.  Andrew  Square, 
Edinburgh. 


14 


ANNUAL  SUBSCRIBERS. 


Jones,  C.  W„  7  Giesvenor  Place,  Chel- 
tenham. 

Jones,  Re?.  Henry  Halford,  Cemetery, 
Manchester. 

Jones,  John,  34  Chapel  Street,  Liver- 
pool. 

Kay,  Alexander,  Atherton  Grange,  Wim- 
bledon Park,  Surrey. 

Kaye,  Robert,  Mill  Brae,  Moodiesburn, 
Glasgow. 

Kay-Shuttleworth,Sir  James,  Bart.,  Gaw- 
"     thorpe,  Burnley. 

Kirkwood,  Anderson,  246  Sauchiehall 
Street,  Glasgow. 

Lankester,  Edwin,  M  J).,  F.R.S.,  8  BavUe 
Row,  London. 

Latham,  R.  G.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  Greenford, 
Middlesex. 

Lister,  John,  M.D.,  F.G.S.,  Shibden  Hall 
near  Halifax. 

Lister,  Rev.  William,  Bushbury,  Wolver- 
hampton. 

Liveing,  G.  D.,  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Low,  David,  F.R.S.E.,  Mayfield  by  Tri- 
nity, Edinburgh. 

Maclaren,  Charles,  Moreland  Cottage, 

Grange  Loan,  Edinburgh. 
McLaren,  John,  Spring  Bank,  Dunoon. 
McClelland,  John,  Calcutta. 
Malahide,  Talbot  de,   Lord,  Malahide 

Castle,  Malahide,  Ireland. 
Marsh,  W.  M„  Wilbury  Park,  WUtshire. 
May,  Charles,  F.R.S.,  3  Great  George 

Street,  Westminster. 
Melly,  Charles  Pierce,  Liverpool. 
Miles,  Rev.  C.  P.,  M.D.,  14  Buckingham 

Terrace,  Glasgow. 
Mirrlees,  J.  Buchanan,  94  West  Street, 

Tradeston,  Glasgow. 
Moffatt,  T.,  M  J).,  F.R.A.S.,  Hawarden, 

Chester. 
Moir,  James  174  Gallowgate,  Glasgow. 
Mould,  Rev.  J.G.,  B.D.,  Corpus  Christi 

College,  Cambridge* 
Muir,  William,  Britannia  Works,  Man- 
chester. 
Murray,  William,  F.R.S.E.,  F.G.S.,  160 

West  George  Street,  Glasgow. 
Murley,  Stephen  Hempsted,  Trowbridge, 

Wiltshire. 

Neale,    Edward  V.,    West    Wiokhatt, 

Kent. 
Neild,  William,  Mayfield,  Manchester. 
Newmarch,  William.  Secretary  to  the 

Globe  Insurance,  Corohill,  London. 


Nicolay,  Rev.  C.  G.,  King's  Coflsts, 

Strand,  London. 
Niven,Rev.  James,  Swannbottrn  Vwarsge, 

Cheltenham. 

Odling,  William,  M.B.  Load.,  F.CA, 
Professor  of  Practical  Chemistry,G«y,i 
Hospital, London;  Kennington Boid, 
London. 

Oldham,  James,  C.B.,  Austrian  Chssv 
bers,  Hull. 

Outran,  Thomas,  Greetland  near  Hsfifto, 


Peach,  Charles  W.,  Custom  House,  Wiek. 

Pengelly,  William,  F.G.8.,  Lemoma, 
Torquay. 

Percy,  John,  M.D.,  F.R.8.,  Museum  of 
Practical  Geology,  Jermyn  Street, 
London. 

Perkins,  A.  M.,  6  Francis  Street,  Regent 
Square,  London. 

Petrie,  William,  Ecclesbourne  Cottage, 
Woolwich. 

Pierson,  Charles,  3  Blenheim  Parade, 
Cheltenham. 

Pochin,  Henry  Davis,  Quay  Street,  Sal- 
ford. 

Potchett,  Rev.  William,  M.A.,  The  Vi- 
carage, Grantham. 

Ramsay,  Andrew  C.,  F.R.S.,  Local  Di- 
rector of  theGeological Survey  of  Great 
Britain,  Museum  of  Practical  Geology, 
Jermyn  Street,  London. 

Rankin,  Rev.  Thomas,  Huggatev  York- 
shire. 

Rankine,  W.  J.  Macquorn,  C.E.,  F.RS. 
L.&E.,  69  fcft.  Vincent  Street,GHasgow. 

Roberton,  James,  Gorbala  Foundry, 
Glasgow. 

Roberts,  John,  101  Upper  Parliament 
Street,  Liverpool. 

Robinson,  C.  B.,  The  Shrubbery,  Lei- 


Ronalds,  Francis,  F.RS. 

Round,  Daniel  George,  Hange  Colliery 

near  Tipton,  Staffordshire. 
Rumsey,  Henry  Wyldbore,   Gloucester 

Lodge,  Cheltenham. 

Salter,  John  W.,  F.G.S.,  Museum, 
Jermyn  Street,  Ix>ndon. 

ScougaH,  James,  14  Clarence  Square, 
Cheltenham. 

Shaw,  Norton,  M.D.,  Secretary  to  the 
Royal  Geographical  Society,  3  Water- 
loo Place,  London. 

Shewell,  John  T.,  Rushmere,  Ipswich. 

Siemens,  C.  William,  1  Kensington  T*r» 
race,  Kensington,  London. 


ANNUAL  SUBSCRIBERS. 


15 


Sleddon,  Francis,  2  Kingiton  Terrace, 
HulL 

Sloper,  George  Elgar,  jun.,  Devizes. 

Smith,  George  Cruickshank,  19  St.  Vin- 
cent Place,  Glasgow. 

Smith,  Robert  Angus,  Ph.D.,  20  Gros- 
renor  Souare,  Manchester. 

Smith,  William,  Eglinton  Engine  Wdflfca, , 
Glasgow. 

Smyth,  John,  jun.,  M.A.,  C.E.,  Milltown, 
fianbridge,  Lrelaud. 

Sorby,HenryClifton,  F.G.S.,Broomfteld, 
Sheffield. 

Southwood,  Rev.  T.  A.,  M.A.,  Chelten- 
ham College,  Cheltenham. 

Spence,  Peter,  Pendleton  Alum  Works, 
Manchester. 

Spence,  William,  F.R.S.,  V.P.L.S.,  18 
Lower  Seymour  Street,  Portman  Sq., 
London. 

Spence,  W.  B.,  18  Lower  Seymour  Street, 
Portman  Square,  London. 

Stevelly,  John,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Na- 
tural Philosophy  in  Queen's  College, 
Belfast. 

Stewart,  Balfour,  13  Rutland  Square, 
Edinburgh. 

Stoney,  G.  Johnstone,  MA.,  Galway. 

Stuart,  William,  1  Rumford  Place,  Liver- 
pool. 

Talbot,  William  Hawkshead,  Wrighting- 
ton  near  Wigan. 

Tartt,  W.  Macdowal,  Sandford  Place, 
Cheltenham. 

Taylor,  John,  Oriental  Association,  Wal- 
brook,  London. 

Taylor,  William  Edward,  Enfield  near 
Accrington. 

Terry,  John,  15  Albion  Street,  Hull. 

Teschemacher,  E.  F.,  1  Highbury  Park 
North,  London. 

Thodev,  Rev.  S.,  Rodborough,  Glouces- 
tershire. 

Thorburn,  Rev.  William  Reid,  M.A., 
Starkies,  Bury,  Lancashire. 

Tibbs,  Somerset,  58  Regent  Street, 
Cheltenham. 

Tomes,  Robert  Fisher,  Welford,  Strat- 
ford-on-Avon. 

Tooke,  Thomas,  F.R.S.,  31  Spring  Gar- 
dens, London. 

Turnbull,  John,  Bonhill  House,  Dum- 
baitonshire. 


Turnbull,  Rev.  J.  C,  8  Bays  Hill  Villas, 

Cheltenham. 
Tuton,  Edward  S.,  lime  Street,  Liverpool. 
Twining,  Richard,  F.R.S.,  13  Bedford 

Place,  Russell  Square,  London. 
Tyndall,  John,  Ph.D.,  F.R.S.,  Professor 

of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the  Royal 

Institution  of  Great  Britain,  London. 

Varley,  Cornelius,  7  York  Place,  High 
Road,  Kentish  Town,  London. 

Vivian,Edward,B.A.,Woodfield,Torquay. 

Voelcker,  J.Ch.  Augustus,  Ph.D.,  F.C.8., 
Professor  of  Agricultural  Chemistry, 
Royal  AgricidturdCoUege,Cirencester. 

Walker,  Charles  V.,  F.R.S.,  Fernside 
Villa,  Red  Hill  near  Reigate. 

Walker,  John  James,  M.A.,  2  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

Walsh,  Richard  Hussey,  LL.D.,  Profes- 
sor of  Political  Economy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin;  27  Summer  Hill, 
Dublin. 

Waller,  Augustus  V.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  28 
Rue  des  Posses,  St.  Bernard,  Paris. 

Warineton,  Robert,  F.C.S.,  Apothecaries' 
Hall,  London. 

Warner,  Thomas  H.  Lee,  Tibet-ton  Court, 
Hereford. 

Wa8hbourne,Buchanan,M.D.,Glouce8ter. 

Watt,  William,  Flax  Works,  Bedford 
Street,  Belfast. 

Watts,  John  King,  F.R.G.S.,  St.  Ives, 
Huntingdonshire. 

Webster,  James,  Hatherley  Court,  Chel- 
tenham. 

Wight,  Robert,  M.D.,  F.R.S.,  F.L.S. 
Grazeley  Lodge,  Reading. 

Witts,  Rev.  E.  F.,  Upper  Slaughter, 
Stow-on-the-Wold. 

Woodall,  Captain  John  Woodall,  St. 
Nicholas  House,  Scarborough. 

Woolley,  Thomas  Smith,  jun.,  South 
Colhngham,  Newark- 

Wornell,  George,  2  Park  Crescent,  Ox- 
ford. 

Worthy,  George  S.,  St.  James9  Barton, 
Bristol. 

Wright,  Thomas,  F.S.A.,  14  Sydney  St., 
Brompton,  London. 

Yeats,  John,  F.R.G.S.,  Leicester  House, 
Peckham,  London. 


s